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THE 


Encyclopedia  britannica 

LATEST   EDITION 

A    DICTIONARY    OF    ARTS,    SCIENCES,    AND 
GENERAL    LITERATURE 


NEIV  MAPS  AND  MANY  ORIGINAL  AMERICAN  ARTICLES  BY  EMINENT  AUTHORS 
FULLY  ILLUSTRATED.  WITH  OVER  TEN  THOUSAND  PORTRAITS.  PLATES,  AND  ENGRAVINGS 


ORIGINAL  NINTH   EDITION   IN   TWENTY-FIVE  VOLUMES   EDITED   BY 

Profs.  SPENCER   BAYNES,  LL.D.,  and  W.  ROBERTSON   SMITH,  LLD. 

ASSISTED    BY    OVER    ONE    THOUSAND    CONTRIBUTORS 


IN   THIRTY   VOLUMES   WITH 

Nkw  American   Supplkment 


EDITED    UNDER  THE    PERSONAL  SUPERVISION    OF 

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Formerly  Professor  of  English  Literature  and  History,  Kansas  Stale  ('niversity,  etc.,  etc. 
ASSISTED  BY  A  CORPS  OF  EXPERIENCED  WRITERS 


TWENTIETH   CENTURY   EDITION 

REVISED.  IVITH  LARGE   ADDITIONS.  TO  JANUARY  i.  igoi 


VOLUME    XXI 


THE   WERNER   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  AKRON,  OHIO  CHICAGO 


iliflyERSlTY  OF  CALIFORMA 
SANTA  BARBARA! 


Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 

Vol.  XXL — (rot-sia). 

Total  number  of  Articles,  779. 
PRINCIPAL    CONTENTS. 


EOTIFEKA.     Prof.  A.  G.  Bourne. 
ROUMAXIA.    George  G.  Uhishoi.m,  M.A..  B.Sc, 

and  A.  J.  Evans,  Author  of 'Through  Bosnia 

on  Foot." 
ROUSSEAU.    George  Saintsbury. 
ROWING.    Edwin  D.  Brrkwood. 
ROYAL  SOCIETY.     Herbert  Rix. 
RUBENS.     Henri   Hyman.'^,  Conservateur  a  la 

Bibliotheque  Royale,  Brussels.  [M.A. 

RUSSI.\.     P.  A.  Kropotkine  and  W.  R.  Morfill, 
SABBATH.     W.  Robertson  Smith,  LL.D. 
SABINES.     Sir  E.  H.  Bunbiry,  Bart. 
SACRIFICE.     W.  Robert.son  Smith,  LL.D.,  and 

Rev.  Edwin  Hatch,  D.D. 
SAIL.    E.  Jewill. 

SAINTE-BEUVE.    Matthew  Arnold,  D.C.L. 
SAINTE-CLAIRE   DEVILLE.     Prof.   A.   Crlm 

Brown,  F.R.S.,  University  of  Edinburgh. 
ST.  JOHN.  KNIGHTS  OF.  A.  M.  Broadley. 
ST.   LAWRENCE.     Sir   Charles   A.   Hartley, 

K.C.M.G. 
ST.  LOUIS.     D.  H.  M'Adam,  St.  Louis. 
ST.  PETERSBURG.     P.  A.  Kropotkine. 
SAINT-SIMON,  COMTE  DE.    Thomas  Kirkup, 

M.A. 
SAINT-SIMON,  DUG  DE.    George  S.untsbuky. 
SALIC  LAW.    J.  H.  Hessels,  M.A. 
SALMONID^.    J.  T.  CrNNiNOHAM,  B.A. 
SALT.     F.  MA.XWELL  Lyte.  F.C.S. 
SALUTATIONS.     E.  B.  Tylor,   D.C.L.,   LL.D., 

K  R  **> 
SAMARITANS.     W.Robertson  Smith,  LL.D. 
SAMOS.     Sir  E.  H.  Bunbi'ry,  Bart. 
SAN  FRANCISCO.     W.  C.  Bartlett,  LL.D. 
SANSKRIT.     Prof.  Julius  Eggeling,  Ph.D. 
SARDINIA.    George  G.  Chisiiolm. 
SARPI.     Richard  Garnett,  LL.D. 
SATIRE.     R.  Garnett,  LL.D. 
SAVIGNY.    John  Macdonell,  Barrister-at-Iaw. 
SAVINGS  BANKS.    E.  W.  Brabrook,  F.S..-V. 
SAVONAROLA.     Madame  Linda  Villahi,  Flor- 
ence. 
SAVOY.     H.  B.  Briggs. 
SAWS.    G.  W.  Hdtciikiss,  Chicago. 

SAXONY.      FiNI.LAY    .MUIKIIEAD,  M.A. 

SAY.  J.  K.  lN(iKAM,  LL.D.,  Librarian,  Trinity 
College,  Dublin. 

SCALIGER.     Richard  C.  Christie. 

SCANDINAVIAN  LANGUAGES.  Dr.  Adolf 
NoRKEN,  University,  Upsala. 

SCARLET  FEVER.    J.  O.  Affleck,  M.D. 

SCEl'TUnSM.  Prof.  Andrew  Skth,  M.A.,  Uni- 
versity College  of  South  Wales. 

SCHFLLING.     Prof.  R.  Adamson,  LL.D. 

SCHILLER.     James  Sime,  M.A. 

SClil/.O.MYCETES.     H.Marshall  Ward,  M.A. 

SCHLEIERMACHER.     Rev.  J.  F.  Smith. 

SCHOLASTICISM.     Prof.  A.  Seth. 

SCHOOLS  OF  PAINTIN(i.  J.  Henry  Middle- 
ton,  F.S.A.,  Slade  Professor  of  Fine  Art, 
Cambridge. 

SCHOPENHAUER.  W.  Wallace,  M.A.,  LL.D., 
Whyte's  Professorof  Moral  Philosophy,  Ox- 
ford. 

SCIPIO.    Rev.  W.  J.  Brodribb,  M.A. 


SCOTLAND— History, Geology, AND  Statistics, 
.Eneas  J.  G.  Mackay,  LL.D.,  Arch.  Geikik, 
F.R.S.,  and  T.  F.  Henderson. 
Church.     Rev.  Allan  Menzies,  B.D. 
Early  Literature.     John  S.mai.l,  LL.D. 
SCOTT,  SIR  WALTER.     Prof.  W.  Minto,  M.A. 
SCREW.     Prof.  Henry  A.  Rowland,  Johns  Hop- 
kins University,  Baltimore. 
SCULPTURE.     Prof.  J.  H.  Middleton. 
SCYTHIA.     Prof.  A.  von  Gutschmid,  Tubingen. 
SEAL.     W.  H.  Flower,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

Fisheries.     Rev.  M.  Harvey,  St.  John's,  N.F. 
SEA-LAWS.     Sir  Travers  Twiss,  Q.C.,  D.C.L  , 

F  R  S 
SEALS.'    Prof.  J.  H.  Middleton. 
SEAMANSHIP.    Capt.  H.  A.  Moriahty,   R.N., 

SEA-SERPENT.  W.  E.  Hoyle,  M.A.,  "Chal- 
lenger" Expedition  Office. 

SEA  WATER.     Prof.  W.  Dittmar,  F.R.S. 

SEISMOMETER.     Prof.  J.  A.  Ewing,  B.Sc. 

SELJUKS.     Prof.  M.  Th.  Houtsma,  Leyden. 

SEMITIC  LANGUAGES.  Prof.  Theodor  N8l- 
DEKE,  University  of  Strasburg. 

SENECA.     R.  D.  Hicks,  M.A. 

SENEGAMBIA.  D.  Kaltbrunner,  Author  of 
"  ilanuel  du  Voyageur." 

SENIOR.    J.  K.  Ingram,  LL.D. 

SEPTUAGINT.  Julius  WELLHAUSEN,Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Semitic  Languages,  University  of 
Marburg. 

SEPULCHRE,  HOLY.    A.  B.  M'Grigor,  LL.D. 

SEQUOIA.     C.  PiERPONT  Johnson. 

SERIES.  A.CAYLEY,M.A.,F.R.S.,Sadlerian  Pro- 
fessor of  Mathematics,  University  of  Cam- 
bridge. 

SERVIA.    G.  G.  Chisholm  and  W.  R.  .Morfill. 

SEVERUS.    J.  S.  Reid,  D.Litt. 

SEVIGN15.     George  Saintsbury. 

SEWERAGE.     Prof.  J.  A.  Ewing. 

SEWING  MACHINES.    James  Paton. 

SEX.     Patrick  (ieddes,  F.R.S.E. 

SEXTANT.    J.  L.  E.  Dreyeu,  Pli.D. 

SHAFTESBURY,  EARLS  OF.  Osmund  Airy 
and  Rev.  Thomas  Fowler,  M.A.,  Oxford. 

SHAKESPEARE.     T.  Spencer  Baynes,  LL.D. 

I'lBLIOGRAPHY.       II.    R.  TkDDEH. 

SHARK.    Albert  Gi^nther,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S. 

SHEEP.     W.  H.  Flower,  LL.D. 

SHELLEY.     W.  M.  Rossetti. 

SHERIDAN.     Prof.  W.  .Minto. 

SHERIFF.     M.  J.  G.  Mackay,  LL.D. 

SHIP.     Rev.  Edmoni)  Warre,  Eton  College. 

SHIPBUILDING.  Sir  Nathaniel  Baknaby. 
K.t'.B..  late  Director  of  Naval  Construction. 
Whitehall. 

SHIPPINCJ.    W.  Cunningham,  B.D. 

SIIOEMAKING.    James  Paton. 

SHOOTINCt.  J.  Dai.ziel  Dougai.l,  Author  of 
"  Shooting,  its  Appliances,  Prnctice,  and  Pur- 
pose." 

SHORTHAND.  The  Hon.  Ion  G.  N.  Keith-Fal- 
coner, M.A. 

SHREW.     Surgeon-Mnjor  G.  E.  DonsoN,  F.R.S. 

SIAM.    Coutts  Trotter. 


ENCYCLOPJIDIA    BRITANNICA. 


R  0  T  H  E 


ROTHE,  Richard  (1799-1867),  theologian,  was  boru 
at  Posen,- January  28,  1799,  of  parents  in  a  good 
Ijosition.  After  passing  through  the  grammar  schools  of 
Stettin  and  Breslau,  he  studied  theology  in  the  universities 
of  Heidelberg  and  Berlin  (1817-20)  under  Daub,  Schleier- 
macher,  and  Neander,  the  philosophers  and  historians 
Hegol,  Crouzer,  and  Schlosser,  exercising  a  considerable 
influence  in  shaping  his  thought.  Froiji  1820  to  1822  he 
was  in  the  clerical  seminary  at  Wittenberg,  and  spent  the 
next  year  in  private  study  under  his  father's  roof  at 
Breslau.  In  the  autumn  of  182.3  he  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  the  Prussian  embassy  in  Rome,  of  which 
Baron  Bunsen  was  the  head.  This  post  he  exchanged 
in  1828  for  a  professorship  in  the  Wittenberg  seminary, 
and  hence  in  1837  he  removed  to  Heidelberg  as  professor 
and  director  of  a  new  clerical  seminary;  in  1819  he 
accepted  an  invitation  to  Bonn  as  professor  and  university 
])reaoher,  but  in.  1854  he  returned  to  Heidelberg  as  pro- 
fessor of  theology  and  member  of  the  Oberkirchenrath, 
a  position  he  hold  until  his  death,  August  20,  18G7. 
Rothe's  mental  and  religiftus  development  was  one  of 
continuous  progress.  As  a  youth  he  was  the  subject  of 
deep  religious  feeling,  with  a  decided  bent  towards  a 
supernatural  mysticism ;  his  chosen  authors  were  those 
of  the  romantic  school,  and  Novalis  remained  his  life 
through  a  special  favourite.  -In  Berlin  and  Wittenberg 
he  came  under,  the  influence  of  Pietism  as  represented  by 
such  men  as  Stier  and  Tholuck,  though  the  latter  pro- 
nounced him  a  "  very  modern  Christian."  He  afterwards 
himself  confessed  that,  though  he  had  been  a  sincere,  he 
was  never  a  happy  Pietist.  In  Rome,  where,  ho  enjoyed 
the  intimate  friendship  of  Bunsen,  and  studied  church 
history  under  the  broadening  influence  of  classical  and 
cccloeiastical  art,  his' mind  broke  loose  from  the  straitened 
life  and  narrow  vie\y3  of  Pietism  and  he  learned  to  look 
at  Christianity  in  its  human  and  universalistic  aspects. 
From  that  tirno  he  began  to  develop  and  work  out  his 
great  idea,  the  inseparable  relation  of  religion  and  morals, 
finding-in  the  latter  the  necessary  sphere  and  the  realiza- 
tion of  the  idea  of  the  former.  Ho  began  then,  and 
particularly  after  the  revolution  of  July  1830,  likewLso 
to  give  a  more  definite  form  to  his  peculiar  view  of  the 
relations  of  church  and  slate.      In   consoquenco  of   this 


enlargement  of  his  ideas  of  tho  v.-orld,  religion,  morals, 
Christianity,  the  church  and  the  state,  Rothe  gradually 
found  himself  out  of  harmony  with  the  Pietistic 
thought  and  life  of  Wittenberg,  and.  his  removal  to 
Heidelberg  in  1837  and  the  publication  of  his  first 
important  work  (Anfdnge  der  christlichen  Kirche) .  in 
that  year  coincide  with  the  attainment  of  the  principal 
theological  positions  yvith  which  his  name  is  associated. 
During  the  middle  period  of  his  career  (1837-61)  he  led 
the  life  of  a  scholastic  recluse,  taking  no  active  public 
part  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  any  way.  Duritig  the  last 
six  years  of  his  life  (1861-67),  partly  owing  to  his 
liberation  from  great  domestic  cares  and  partly  to  the 
special  circumstances  of  the  church  in  Baden,  he  came 
forward  publicly  and  actively  as  the  advocate  of  a  free 
theology  and  of  the  Protestanxenverein  (q.v.).  This 
important  change  in  Rothe's  practice  was  preceded  by 
the  publication  of  a--  valuable  series  of  theological  essays 
(in  the  Studien  und  Krilikm  for  1 860),  afterwards  published 
in  a  separata  volume  (Zur  Dogmalik,  Gotha,  1st  ed. 
1863,  2d  ed.  1869),  on  revelation  and  inspiration  more 
particularly.  These  essays  ^vlere  a  very  searching  examina- 
tion of  tho  relation  of  revelation  to  Scripture,  and  pro- 
voked much-  hostile  criticism  in  quarters  previously 
friendly  to  Rothe,'  where  tho  relation  was  usually  treated 
as  almost  one  of  identity.  In  consequence  of  this  publica- 
tion, and  his  advocacy  of  the  programme  of  the  Jjio- 
testantenverein,  he  was  classed  at  tho  end  erf  his  life 
amongst  the  more  decided  theological  liberals  nother  tlian 
with  tho  moderate  orthodox  party,  amongst  whom  so  many 
of  his  personal  friends  were  to  bo  found. 

Rothe  was  one  of  the  most  if  not  the  most  profound 
and .  influential  of  modern  German  theologians  next  to 
Schleiermacher.  Like  the  latter  ho  combined  with  tho 
keenest  logical  faculty  an  intensely  religious  Bpin't,  while 
his  philosophical  tendencies  were  rather  in  sympathy  with 
Hegel  than  Schleiermacher,  and  thcosophic  mysticism  was 
more  congenial  to  him  than  tho  abstractions  of  Spinoza, 
to  whom  Schleiermacher  owed  so  much.  Ho  classed  him- 
self amongst  the  thco.sophists,  and  energetically  claimed 
to  bo  a  convinced  and  happy  supcrnaturalist  in  a  Scientific 
ago.  .  A  peculiarity  of  his  thought  was  its  systematic 
completeness  and   consistency;  aphoristic,    unsystematic, 


Z\~\ 


R  O  T  —  E  O  T 


timidly  halting  speculation  was  to  bim  intolerable. 
Though  his  own  system  may  seem  to  contain  extremely 
doubtful  or  even  fantastic  elements,  it  is  allowed  by  all' 
that  it  is  in  its  general  outlines  a  noble  massive  whole, 
constructed  by  a  profound,  comprehensive,  fearless,  and 
logical  mind.  Another  "peculiarity  of  his  thought  was 
the  realistic  nature  of  his  spiritualism  :  his  abstractions 
are  all  real  existences;  his  spiritual  entities  are  real  and 
corporeal ;  his  truth  is  actual  being.  Hence  Rothe,  un- 
like Sohleiermacher,  lays  great  stress,  for  instance,  on  the 
personality  of  God,  on  the  reality  of  the  worlds  of  good 
and  evil  spirits,  and  on  the  visible  second  coming  of 
Christ.  Hence  his  religious  feeling  and  theological  specu- 
lation demanded  their  realization  in  a  kingdom  of  God 
coextensive  with  man's  nature,  terrestrial  history,  and 
human  society  ;  and  thus  his  theological  system  became  a 
Theologische  Ethik.  It  is  on  the  work  published  under 
this  title  that  Rothe's  permanent  reputation  as  a  theo- 
logian and  ethical  writer  will  rest.  The  first  edition,  in 
three  volumes,  was  published  in  1845-48,  and  remained 
twelve  years  out  of  print  before  the  second  (1867-71,  in 
five  volumes)  appeared.  It  was  the  author's  purpose  to 
rewrite  the  whole,  but  he  had  completed  the  first  two 
volumes  only  of  the  new  edition  when  death  overtook  him. 
The  remainder  was  reprinted  from  the  first  edition  by 
Prof.  Holtzmann,  with  the  addition  of  some  notes  and 
emendations  left  by  the  author. 

This  work  begins  mth  a  general  sketch  of  the  author's  system 
of  speculative  theology  in  its  two  divisions,  theology  proper  and 
cosmology,  the  latter  falling  into  the  two  subdivisions  of  Physik 
(the  world  of  nature)  and  Ethik  (the  world  of  spirit).  It  is  the  last 
subdivision  with  which  the  body  of  the  work  is  occupied.  After 
an  analysis  of  the  religious  consciousness,  which  yields  the  doctrine 
of  an  absolute  personal  and  spiritual  God,  Eothe  proceeds  to  deduce 
from  his  idea  of  God  the  process  and  history  of  creative  development, 
which  is  eternally  proceeding  and  bringing  forth,  as  its  unenaing 
purpose,  worlds  of  spirits,  partially  self-creative  and  sharing  the 
absolute  personality  of  the  Creator.  As  a  thorough-going  evolu- 
tionist Rothe  regards  the  natural  man  as  the  consummation  of  the 
development  of  physical  nature,  and  obtains  spirit  as  the  personal 
attainment,  .with  divine  help,  of  those  beings  m  whom  the  further 
creative  process  of  moral  development  is  carried  on.  His  theory 
leaves  the  natural  man,  without  hesitation,  to  be  developed  by  the 
natural  processes  of  animal  evolution.  The  attainment  of  tlie 
higher  stage  of  development  is  the  moral  and  religious  vocation  of 
man  ;  this  higher  stage  is  self-determination,  the  performance  of 
every  human  function  as  a  voluntary  and  intelligent  a.Rent  or  as  a 
person,  having  as  its  cosmical  effect  the  subjection  of  all  material  to 
spiritual  existences.  This  personal  process  of  spiritual ization  is  the 
continuation  of  the  eternal  divine  work  of  creation.  Thus  the  moral 
life  and  the  religious  life  coincide,  and  when  normal  are  identical ; 
both  have  the  same  aim  and  are  occupied  with  the  same  task, 
the  accomplisliment  of  the  spiritualization  of  the  world.  "  Piety, 
that  it  may  become  truth  and  reality,  demands  morality  as  its 
fulfilment,  as  the  only  concrete  element  in  which  the  idea  of 
fellowship  with  God  is  realized  ;  morality,  that  it  may  find  its 
perfect  unfolding,  requires  the  aid  of  piety,  in  the  light  of  which 
alone  it  can  comprehend  its  own  idea  in  all  its  breadth  and  deptli," 
Rotha  follows  Schleiermacher  in  dividing  his  ethical  system 
into  the  three  parts  of  the  doctrine  of  moral  ends  (Guterlehre),  or 
the  products  of  moral  action,  the  doctrine  of  virtue  (Tugcndldirc), 
or  of  the  power  producing  moral  good,  and  the  doctrine  of  duty 
{PflicMeiilchre),  or  the  specific  form  and  manner  in  which  that 
power  obtains  its  results.  The  process  of  human  development 
Rothe  regards  as  necessarily  taking  an  abnormal  form  and  passing 
through  the  phase  of  sin.  This  abnormal  condition  necessitates  a 
fresh  creative  act,  that  of  salvation,  which  was,  however,  from  the 
first  part  of  the  divine  plan  of  development.  As  a  preparation 
for  this  salvation  supernatural  revelation  was  required  for  the 
pm-ifying  and  revivification  of  the  religious  consciousness,  and  the 
Saviour  Himself  had  to  appear  in  human  history  as  a  fresh 
miraculous  creation,  born  of  a  womaif  but  not  begotten  by  a  man. 
In  consequence  of  His  supernatural  birth  the  Saviour,  or  the 
eecond  Adam,  was  free  from  original  sin.  By  His  own  moral  and 
religious  development  He  made  possible  a  relation  of  perfect 
fellowship  between  God  and  man,  which  was  the  new  and  highest 
stage  of  the  divine  creation  of  mankind.  This  stage  of  development 
inaugurated  by  the  Saviour  is  attained  by  means  of  His  kingdom  or 
the  community  of  salvation,  which  is  both  moral  and  religious,  and 
jn  the  first  instance  and  temporarily  only  religious — that  is,  a 


church.  As  men  roach  the  full  development  of  tl'sir  natnit,  snd 
appropriate  the  perfection  of  the  Saviour,  tlio  separation  between 
the  religious  and  tlio  mor.al  life  will  vanish,  and  the  Christian  state, 
as  the  highest  sphere  of  human  life  reprcscuting  all  human 
functions,  will  displace  the  church.  "  In  proportion  as  the  Saviour 
Christianizes  the  state  by  means  of  the  church  must  the  progres- 
sive completion  of  the  structure  of  the  church  prove  the  cause  of 
its  abolition."  The  decline  of  the  church  is  therefore  not  to  be 
deplored,  but  recognized  as  the  consequence  of  the  independence 
and  completeness  of  the  Christian  life.  It  is  the  third  section  of 
his  work — the  Pflichtenhhrc — which  is  generally  most  highly  valued,* 
and  where  his  full  strength  as  an  euiical  thinker  is  displayed, 
without  any  mixture  of  theosophio  speculation. 

Since  Rotht's  death  several  volumes  of  his  Beitnons  and  of  hia  lectarcs  (on 
dogmatics.the  liistt.ry  of  liomiletics)  and  a  collection  of  biief  essays  and  leliKiou* 
meditations  under  the  title  of  Stitle  Slunden  (Wiilcnberp,  1872)  have  beca 
publislied.  See  F.  Kippold,  Richard  Rotlie,  ein  ehrisclicfief  Leben&bild  (2  vols., 
Wittenberg,  1873-74) ;  Schenkel,  *'  Zur  Erinnerung  an  Dr  R.  Rothe,"  in  the 
AUgemeine  kircfiliche  Zcit^cfiri/t,  1867-68  ,  Holtzmann,  "  F.lchard  Rotlie,"  in  the 
Jahrbuchdes  Protcstantericereinf,  18fiD;  Schwarz,  Zur  Oe^ehichte  der  neueftm 
T/ieofogie(iih  ed.,  Leipsia,  1869,  pp.  417-444);  rfleiderer,  Reliaionsphiiofopfiic  auf 
gachichllicher  Orundlage  (2d  cd.,  Berlin,  1884,  vol.  i.  pp.  611-C15).       (J,  F.  S.) 

KOTHERHAM,  a  market-town  and  municipal  borough 
in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  is  situated  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Rother  with  the  Don  navigation,  on  several 
railway  lines,  5  miles  north-east  of  Sheffield.  The  parish 
church  of  All  Saints,  occupying  the  site  of  a  building 
dating  from  Anglo-Saxon  times,  was  erected  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  IV.,  and  is  a  good  specimen  of  Perpendicular. 
Among  the  other  principal  public  buildings  are  the  new 
markethaU,  the  post  office,  the  court-house,  the  temper 
ance  hall,  St  George's  Hall,  the  council  hall,  and  the  cor- 
poration offices.  There  are  a  large  number  of  educational 
and  literary  institutions,  including  the  grammar  school 
founded  in  1483,  the  people's  charity  school,  the  Inde- 
pendent college,  the  mechanics'  institute,  the  free  Ubrary, 
and  the  literary  and  scientific  society.  There  is  a  largo 
hospital,  besides  almshouses  and  various  other  charities. 
The  town  possesses  extensive  iron,  steel,  and  brass  works, 
potteries,  glass  works,  breweries,  saw  mills,  and  rope  yards. 
The  population  of  the  municipal  borough  (area  5995  acres) 
in  1881  was  34,782. 

The  town  is  of  Roman  ongm,  and  was  of  some  importance  in 
Anglo-Saxon  times.  In  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor  it 
possessed  a  market  and  a  church.  Mary  queen  of  Scots  stayed  a 
night  at  Rotherham  while  a  prisoner,  as  did  also  Charles  I.  when 
in  the  hands  of  the  Scots.  During  the  Civil  War  it  sided  with 
the  Parliament  It  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Royalists  in 
1643,  but  after  the  victory  of  Marston  Moor  was  yielded  up  to  a 
detachment  of  the  Parliamentary  forces.  The  townships  of  Rother- 
ham and  Kimberworth  were  incorporated  as  a  municipal  borough 
in  August  1871,  the  adjacent  suburbs  being  included  in  1879. 
The  corporation  act  as  the  sanitary  authority,  and  own  the  water- 
works, gasworks,  and  markets.  They  have  introduced  a  system 
of  main  drainage,  and  have  abo  provided  a  public  park  and  a  free 
library. 

ROTHESAY,  a  royal  burgh,  and  the  principal  town  of 
the  county  of  Bute,  Scotland,  is  situated  in  the  island  of 
Bute,  at  the  head  of  a  well-sheltered  and  spacious  bay  in 
the  Firth  of  Clyde,  40  miles  W.  of  Glasgow  and  18  S.W.  of 
Greenock,  with  which  there  is  frequent  communicatioii  by 
steamers.  The  bay  affords  good  anchorage  in  any  wind, 
and  there  are  also  a  good  harbour  and  pier.  The  to\vn  is 
the  headquarters  of  an  extensive  fishing  district,  and  is 
much  frequented  as  a  watering  place.  Besides  two 
hydropathic  establishments,  it  has  several  hotels  _  and 
numerous  lodging  houses.  Facing  the  bay  there  is  an 
extensive  esplanade.  In  the  centre  of  the  town  are  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  castle,  supposed  by  some  to  have  been 
erected  in  1098  by  Magnus  Barefoot,  and  by  others  at 
the  same  date  by  the  Scots  to  defend  themselves  against 
the  Norwegians.  The  village  which  grew  up  round  the 
castle  was  made  a  royal  burgh  by  Robert  IIL,  who  created 
his  eldest  son  David  duke  of  Rothsay.  Daring  the 
Commonwealth  the  castle  was  garrisoned  by  Cromwell's 
troops.  It  was  burned  by  the  followers  of  Argj'll  in 
1685,  and  remained  neglected  till  the  rubbish  was  cleared 
away  by  the   marquis  of  Bute  in  1816.     The  principal 


K  O  T  —  R  O  T 


3 


modern  buildings  are  the  aquarium,  the  town-hall  and 
county  buildings,  the  public  halls,  the  academy,  and 
tbo  Thomson  institute.  The  corporation  consists  of  a 
provost,  throe  bailies,  a  dean  of  guild,  a  treasurer,  and 
twelve  councillors.  The  population  of  the  royal  burgh  in 
1871  was  8027  and  in  1881  it  was  8291. 

ROTHSCHILD,  the  name  of  a  Jewi;,h  family  which 
has  acquired  an  unexampled  position  from  the  magnitude 
of    its    financial   transactions..     The   original    name   was 
jBauer,  the  founder  of  the  house  being   JilA-i-EE   Anselm 
11743-1812),  the  son    of    Anselm  Moses  Bauer,  a  srhall 
Jewish   merchant  of   Frankfort-on-the-Main.      His  father 
fepished  him  to  become  a  rabbi,  but  he  preferred  business, 
and  ultimately  set  up  as  a  money  lender  at  the.  sign  of 
the  "Red  Shield"  {Rothschild)  ia    the  Frankfort  Juden- 
gasse.     Be   bad   already  acquired   some   standing   as  .  a 
banker   when   his    numismatic '  tastes    obtained    for  him 
the    friendship    of    William,   ninth   landgrave   and  after- 
wards elector  of   Hesse-Cassel,  who   in  1801  made   him 
his  agent.     In  the  following  year  Rothschild  negotiated 
his.first  great  Government'loan,  ten  million  thalers  for  the 
Danish  Government.     When  the  landgrave  was  compelled 
to  flee  from  his  capital  on  the  entry  of  the  French,  he 
placed  his  silver  and  other  bulky  treasures  in  .the  hands 
of  Rothschild,    who,  not  without  considerable  risk,  took 
charge  of  them,  and  buried  them,  it  is  said  in  a  corner  of 
Lis  garden,  whence  be  dug  them  up  as  opportunity  arose 
for  disposing  of  them.  •  This  he  did  to  such  advantage  as 
to  be  able  afterwards  to  return  their  value  to  the  elector 
at   5   per   cent,   interest.      He   died   at   Frankfort    19th 
September  1812,  leaving  ten' children,  five  sons  and  five 
daughters;     Branches  of  the.  business  were  established  at 
Vienna,  London,  Paris,  and  Naples,  each  being  in  charge 
of  one  of  tjie  sons,  the  chief  of  the  firm  always  residing  at 
.Frankfort,   where,   in   accordance   with   the  wish  of  the 
founder,  all   important  consultations   are    held.      By    a 
system  of  cooperation  and  joint   counsels,  aided   by  the 
skilful  employment  of-  subordinate  agents,  they  obtained 
nnexampled  opportunities  of  acquiring  an  accurate  know- 
ledge of   the   condition   of    the    financial .  market,    and 
practically  embraced  the  whole  of   Europe  within  ■  their 
iinancial  network.     The   unity   of    the   interests   of   the 
eeveral   members   of    the  firm    has   been   pre,served    by 
the    system'  of    intermaiTiages .  which    has     been    the 
general  practice  of  the  descendants  of  the.,  five  brothers, 
and  the  house  has  thus  grown  in  solidity  and  influence 
with  every  succeeding  generation.     Each  of  the  brothers 
received  in  1815  from  Austria  the  privilege  of"  hereditary, 
landowners,  and  in  1822  they  were  created  barons  by  the 
4Bame  country.     The  charge  of  the  Frankfort  house   do- 
rolved  on  tlio  eldest,  Anselm  Mayer  (1773-1855),  born 
12th  June  1773,  who  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  royal 
Prussian  privy  council  of  commerce,  and,  in  1820,  Bavarian 
consul  and  coutt  banker.     The  Vienna  branch  was  under- 
taken by  Solomon  (1.774-182G),  born  9th  December  1774, 
who  entered  into  intimate  relations  with  Prince  Metter- 
nich,  which  contributed  in  no  sm.all  degree  to  bring  about 
the  connexion  of  the  firm  with  the  allied  powers,   .  The 
third  brother,' Nathan  .Mayer  <1777-1836),  born  IGth 
September  1777,  has,  however,  generally  been  regarded  as 
the  financial  genius  of  the  family,  and  the  chief  originator 
of  the  transactions  which  have  created  for  the  house  its 
unexampled  position  in  the  financial  world.     He  came  to 
Manchester   about  1800   to   act  4s  a  purchaser  for.  his 
father  of   manufactured   goods ;  but  at  the  end  of  five 
years  he  removed  to  London,  where  he  found  full  scope 
for  his  financial  genius.     Tho   boldness   and  skill  of   his 
transactions,  which   caused  him  at  first   to    bo   regarded 
08  jash   and  unsafe   by  the   leading   banking  firms  and 
financial  merchants,  latterly-  awakened   their  admiration 


and  envy.     By  the  employment  of  carrier  pigeons  and  ol 
fast-sailing  boats  of  his  own  for  the  transmission  of  news 
he  was  able  to  utilize  to  the  best  advantage  his  special 
sources    of    information,    while   no   one    was  a   greater 
adept  In  the  art  of  promoting  the   rise  and  fall  of  th« 
stocks.     The  colossal  influence  of   the  house  dates  from 
an  operation  of  his  in  1810.     In  that  year  Wellington 
made  some  drafts  which  the  English  Government  could 
not   meet ;  these   were   purchased  by   Rothschild  at    a 
liberal  discount,  and  renewed  to  the   Government,  which 
finally  redeemed   at   par.      From    this    time   the   house 
became  associated  with  the  allied  powers  in  the  struggle 
against  Napoleon,  it  being  chiefly  through  it  that  they 
were   able    to    negotiate   loans    to    carry    on   the    war. 
Rothschild  never   lost   faith   in  the  ultimate   overthrow 
of  Napoleon,  his  all  being  virtually  staked  on  the  issuo 
of  the  contest.     He  is  said  to  have  been  present  at  tlio 
battle  of   Waterloo,   and   to  have   watched  the  varying 
fortunes  of  the  day  with  feverish  eagerness.     Being  able 
to  transmit  .to  London  private  information  of  the-  allied 
success   several   hours  before'  it  reached  the   public,  he 
efi'ected  an  .immense  profit  by  the  purchase  of  stock,  which 
had  been    greatly  depressed  on   account  of  the  news  of 
Blucher's   defeat   two  •  days  previously.     Rothschild  was 
the  first  to  popularize  foreign  loans  in  Britain  by  fixing 
the  rate  in  sterling  money  and  making  the  dividends  pay- 
able in  London  and  not  in  foreign  capitals.-     Latterly  he 
became  the  financial  agent  of  nearly  every  civilized  Govern- 
ment, although  persistently  declining -contracts  for  Spaia 
or  the  American  States.     He  did  not  confine  himseljf  to 
operations  on  a  large  scale,  but  on  the  contrary  made  it  a 
principle  to  despise  or  neglect  no  feasible  opportunity  of 
transacting  business,  while  at  the  same  time  his  operations 
gradually  extended  to"  every   quarter  of  the  globe.     He 
died  28th  July  1836,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  London  house  by  his  son  Lionel  (1808-^1879), 
born  22d  November.  1808,  whose  name  will  always  be 
associated  with  the  removal  of  the  civil  disabilities  of  tha 
Jews.     He  was  elected  a  member  for  the  Citj'  of  London 
in  1847,  and  again  in  1849  and  1852,  but  it  was  not  till 
1858   that  the  joint  operation  of  an  Act  of  Parliament 
a"nd  a  lesolution  of  the  House  of  .Commons,  allowing  the 
omission  from  the  oath  of  the  words  to  which  as  a  Jew  he 
conscientiously  objected,  rendered  it  possible  for  him  to 
take   his  seat.     He   continued  to   represent  the  city  of 
London  till  1874.    .Jacob  (1792-1868),  the  youngest  of 
the  original  brothers,    was  intrusted  with-  the  important 
mission  of  starting  the  business  in  Paris  after  the  restora- 
.tion  of  the  Bourbons,  for  whom  he.  negotiated  large  loans. 
At  the  Re  olution  of  1848  he  was  a  heavy  loser,  and  had 
also  to  be  protected  for  a  time  by  a  special  guard'.     It 
was  by  his  capital  that  the  earliest  railroads  were  con- 
structed  in  France ;   the   profits  he  obtained  from   tho 
speculation  were  very   large.    JHo  died    15th   November 
1868.     Tho   Naples   branch  was  superintended    by  an- 
other of  the  brothers,  Karl  (1780-1855). .  It  was  always 
the  least  important  of  the  five,  and  after  the  annexation  of 
Naples  to  Italy  in  1860  it  was  discpntinued. 

Sca'Das  ITaus  Rothschild, IS5S ;  Tkciolto,  Sldclws  of  J  nglo- Jewish 
History,  1875  ;  Fmncis,  Chronicles  a7ui  Characters  of  the  Stock 
Exchange,  18S3;  Tre.skow,  Biographische  Notizcn  ilbcrXathan  ifajcr 
Jiot/ischild  ncbst  seimm  TcstameiU,  1837  ;  Ko(iuci)lnn,  L»  2iaTv» 
James  dc  Rothschild,  1863. 

ROTHWELL,  an  urban  sanitary  district  in  tne  Wt'st 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  situated  jn  a  pleasant  valley  four 
miles  Bouth  of  Leeds.  It  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  soon 
after  tho  Conquest  was  granted  as  a  dependency  of  tho 
castle  of  Pontefract  to  tho  Lacys,  who  erected  at  it  a 
baronial  residence  .''f  which  there  ore  still  some  remains. 
The  church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  is  an  old  structure  in 


R  0  T  — R  0  T 


the  Later  English  style  with  embattled  parapet.  There 
are  a  mechanics'  institute  and  a  workii>g  men's  club. 
Coal  and  stone  are  obtained  in  the  neighbourhood,  and 
the  town  possesses  match  works  and  rope  and  twine 
factories.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district 
(area  3302  acres)  in  1871  was  3733,  and  in  1881  it  wa-s 
5105. 

ROTIFERA.  The  Rotifera  (or  Rotatoria)  form  a  small, 
in  many  respects  well-defined,  but  somewhat  isolated  class 
of  the  animal  kingdom.  They  are  here  treated  of  sepa- 
rately, partly  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  placing  them 
in  one  of  the  large  phyla,  partly  on  account  of  their 
special  interest  to  microscopists. 

Now  familiarly  known  as  "  wheel  animalcules "  from 
the  wheel-like  motion  produced  by  the  rings  of  cilia  which 
generally  occur  in  the  head  region,  the  so-called  rotatory 
organs,  they  were  first  discovered  by  Leeuwenhoek  (l),i  to 
whom  we  also  owe  the  discovery  of  Bacteria  and  ciliate 
Infusoria.  Leeuwenhoek  described  the  Rotifer  vulgaris  in 
1702,  and  he  subsequently  described  Melicerta  ringens  and 
other  species.  A  great  variety  of  forms  were  described 
by  other  observers,  but  they  were  not  separated  as  a  class 
from  the  unicellular  organisms  {Protozoa)  with  which 
they  usually  occur  until  the  appearance  of  Ehrenberg's 
great  monograph  (2),  which  contained  a  mass  of  detail 
regarding  their  structure.  The  classification  there  put 
forward  by  Ehrenberg  is  still  widely  adopted,  but  numer- 
ous observers  have  since  added  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
anatomy  of  the  group  (3).  At  the  present  day  few  groups 
of  the  animal  kingdom  are  so  well  known  to  the  micro- 
Bcopist,  few  groups  present  more  interesting  affinities  to 
the  morphologist,  and  few  multicellular  animals  such  a 
low  physiological  condition. 

General  Anatomy. — The  Rotifera  are  multicellular 
animals  of  microscopic  size  which  present  a  coelom.  They 
are  bilaterally  symmetrical  and  present  no  true  metameric ' 
segmentation.  A  head  region  is  generally  well  marked, 
and  most  forms  present  a  definite  tail  region.  This  tail 
region  has  been  termed  the  "  pseudopodium."  It  varies 
very  much  in  the  extent  to  which  it  is  developed.  It 
attains  its  highest  development  in  forms  Kke  Philodina, 
which  affect  a  leech-like  method  of  progression  and  use  it 
as  a  means  of  attachment.  We  may  pass  from  tliis  through 
a  series  of  forms  where  it  becomes  less  and  less  highly 
developed.  In  such  forms  as  Brachionus  it  serves  as  a 
directive  organ  in  swimming,  while  in  a  large  number  of 
other  forms  it  is  only  represented  by  a  pair  of  .terminal 
styles  or  flaps.  In  the  sessile  forms  it  becomes  a  con- 
tractile pedicle  with  a  suctorial  extremity.  A  pseudo- 
podium" is  entirely  absent  in  Asplanchna,  Triarthra, 
Polyarthra,  and  a  few  other  genera.  The  pseudopodium, 
when  well  developed,  is  a  very  muscular  organ,  and  it  may 
contain  a  pair  of  glands  (fig.  2,  a,  gl)  which  secrete  an  ad- 
hesive material. 

The  surface  of  Vne  body  is  covered  by  a  firm  homogeneous 
structureless  cuticle.  This  cuticle  may  become  hardened 
by  a  further  development  of  chitin,  but  no  calcareous 
deposits  ever  take  place  in  it.  The  cuticle  remains  softest 
in  those  forms  which  live  in  tubes.  Among  the  free-living 
forms  the  degree  of  hardening  varies  considerably.  In 
some  cases  contraction  of  the  body  merely  throws  the 
cuticle  into  wrinkles  {Notommata,  AsplancUna) ;  in  others 
definite  ring-like  joints  are  produced  which  telescope  into 
one  ajiother  during  contraction ;  while  in  others  agMn  it 
becomes  quite  firm  and  rigid  and  resembles  the  carapace 
of  one  of  the  Entomoslraca ;  it  is  then  termed  a  "lorioa." 
The  lorioa  may  be  prolonged  at  various  points  into  spinas, 
which  may  attain  a  considerable  length.  The  surface  may 
be  variously  modified,  being  in  some  cases  smooth,  in  others 
'  These  numbers  refer  to  the  bibliography  at  p.  8. 


marked,  dotted,  ridged,  or  sculptured  in  various  ways  (fig. 
1,  k).  Tlie  curved  spines  of  Philodina  acvleata  (fig.  1,  g) 
and  the  long  rigid  spines  of  Tnarthra  are  further  develop- 
ments in  this  direction.  The  so-called  setce  of  Polyarthra  on 
the  other  hand  are  more  complex  in  nature,  and  a,re  moved 
by  muscles,  and  thus  approach  the  "  limbs  "  of  Pedalion. 


"saife'^ite^ 


Fig.  1.— a,  Floscularia,  campanulata,  an  adult  male,  draTm  from  a  dead  fipecimen 
(after  Hudson):  t,  testis;  oe^  eye-spots.  B,  F/oscufaria  appenixiculala,  an 
adult  female  (after  Gegenbaur)  :  a,  the  ciliated  flexible  proboscis.  C,  StephaJKh- 
ceros  eichhomii'.  a,  the  urceol'is.  D,  Microcodon  clavus,  ventral  view  (afler 
Grenacher)  :  m,  mouth;  a,  biistlea  ;  a-,  architioch  ;  s,  lateral  sense-oigans.  E, 
Polyarthra  plaft/ptera:  or,  eye-spot;' ar'  isolated  tufts  representing  a  cephato- 
trocli ;  X,  bi-aiichiotrcch ;  a,  b,  and  c,  three  pairs  of  appendages  which  are 
moved  by  the  muscles  m.  F,  amither  figure  o{  Polyarthra,  to  show  the  position 
which  the  appendages  may  take  up.  G,  Philodina  aculeata  :  oe,  eye-spot ;  s, 
calcaf.  H,  Actinurus  neptunius.  oe,  eye-spot;  s,  calcar.  I,  Asplanchna  sif* 
boldii,  male,  vievVed  from  the  abdominal  surface  :  a,  anterior  short  arms;  b, 
posterior  longer  arms ;  m,  mouth  ;  a:',  cephalotrochic  tufts ;  x,  bran chlot roc h. 
J,  Asplanchna  sieboldii,  female;  letters  as  before.  K,  Noteui  guadncorviSf 
to  show  the  extent  to  whicli  the  lorica  may  become  sculptured.  (All,  except 
where  othenvise  stated,  from  Pritcliaid.) 

Several  genera  present  an  external  casing  or  sheath  or 
tube  which  is  termed  an  "  urceolus."  In  Floscidaria  and 
Stephanoceros  the  urceolus  is  gelatinous  and  perfectly 
hyaline ;  in  Conochihis  numerous  individuals  live  in  such  a 
hyaline  urceolus  arranged  in  a  radiating  manner.  The 
urceolus,'  which  is  secreted  by  the  animal  itself,  may 
become  covered  with  foreign  particles,  and  in  one  species, 
the  'w^W-ktiO'^ii  Melicerta  ringenSj  the  animal  builds  up  its 
urceolus  with  pellets  wliich  it  manufactures  from  foreign 


ROTIFER  A 


particles,  and  deposits  in  a  regular  oblique  or  spiral  series, 
and  which  are  cemented  together  by  a  special  secretion. 
The  urceolus  serves  as  a  defence,  as  the  animal  can  by  con- 
tracting its  stalk  withdraw  itself  entirely  within  the  tube. 
Locomotor  Organs. — While,  as  mentioned  above,  several 
genera  or  individual  species  present  long  spines,  these 
become  movable,  and  may  be  spoken  of  as  appendages,  in 
two  genera  only.  In  Polyarthra  (fig.  1,  E,  f)  there  are 
four  groups  of  processes  or  plumes  placed  at  the  sides  of 


Fia  2. — Floscutaria  appendieuiata,  A  and  B  represent  the  same  animal,  some  of 
tlie  organs  being  shown  In  one  figure  and  some  in  the  other,  oc,  eye-spots  ;  g, 
nerve  ganglion  ;  p,  pharynx  (the  mouth  should  bo  shown  opening  opposite  the 
letter);  ma,  the  mnstax ;  e,  tMophaKus ;  sr,  sromach ;  a,  anus,  opening  the 
cloaca;  ^/.mucous  glands  In  the  pscudopodium ;  n,  nephrldla;  /,  flame-cells; 
W,  coiitracllle  vesicle  ;  m,  ri,  rnusclcs. 

the  body,  each  of  which  groups  can  be  separately  moved 
up  and  down  by  means  of  muscular  fibres  attached  to  their 
bases,  whioh  project  into  the  body.     The  processes  them- 
selves are  unjointed  and  rigid.      In  Pedalion  (fig.   3),  a 
remarkable  form  di.scovered  by  Dr  C.  J.  Hudson  in  1871 
(12,  13,  14,  and  15),  and  found  in  numbers  several,  times 
since,  these  appendages  liave  acquired  a  new  and  quite 
special  development.    They  are  six  in  number.    The  largest 
is  placed  ventrally  at  some  distance  below  the  mouth.    Its 
free  extremity  is  a  plumose   fan-like   expansion  (fig.   3, 
A,  a,  and  h).     It  is  (in  common  with  tho.  others)  a  hollow 
process  into  which  run  two  pairs  of  broad,  coarsely  trans- 
versely striated  muscles.     Each  pair  has  a  single  insertion 
on  the  inner  wall — the  one  pair  near  the  free  extremity  of 
the  limb,  the  other  near  its  attachment;  the  bands  run 
up,  one  of  each  pair  on  each  side  and  run  right  round 
the  body  forming  an  incomplete  muscular  girdle,  tho  ends 
approximating   in    tho    median    dorsal    line.     Below  this 
point  springs  tho  large  median  dorsal  limb,  which  termin- 
ates in  groups  of  long  setae.     It  presents  a  single  pair  of 
muscles  attached  along  its  inner  wall  which  run  up  and 
form  a  muscular  girdle  round  the   b"dy  in  its  posterior 
third.     On  each  side  is  attached  a  superior  dorso-lateral 
and  an  inferior  ventro-lateral  appendage,  each  with  a  fan- 
like plumose  termination  consisting   of  compound  hairs, 
found  elsewhere  only  among  the  Crustacea ;  each  of  these 


is  moved  by  muscles  running  upwards  towards  the  neck 
and  arising  immediately  under  tho  trochal  disk,  the  inferior 
ventro-lateral  pair  also  presenting  muscles  which  form  a 
girdle  in  the  hind  region  of  the  body.  Various  other 
muscles  are  present :  there  are  two  complete  girdles  in  the 
neck  region  immediately  behind  the  mouth;  there  are  also 
muscles  which  move  the  hinder  region  of  the  body.  In 
addition  to  these  the  body  presents  various  processes 
whioh  are  perhaps  some  of  them  unrepresented  in  other 
Rotifers.  In  the  median  dorsal  line  immediately  below 
the  trochal  disk  there  is  a  short  conical  process  presenting 
a  pair  of  muscles  which  render  it  capable  of  slight  move- 
ment. From  a  recess  at  the  extremity  of  this  process 
spring  a  group  of  long  setose  hairs  the  bases  of  which  are 
connected  with  a  filament  probably  nervous  in  nature. 
This  doubtless  represents  a  structure  found  in  many 
Rotifers,  and  variously  known  as  the  "calcar,"  "siphon," 
" tentaculum,"  or  "antenna."  This  calcar  is  double  in 
Tuhicolaria  and  Melicerta.  It  is  very  well  developed  in 
the  genera  Rotifer,  Pkilodina,  and  others,  and  is,  when  so 
developed,  slightly  retractile.  It  appears  to  be  repre- 
sented in  many  forms  by  a  pit  or  depression  set  with  hairs. 
The  calcar  has  been  considered  both  as  an  intromittent 
organ  and  a  respiratory  tube  for  the  admission,  of  water. 
It  is  now,  however,  universally  considered  to  be  sensory 
in  nature.     Various  forms  present  processes  in  other  parts 


Fio  3  —Pedalion  mira.  A,  Lateral  snrraco  view  of  an  adult  female  :  a,  median 
ventral  appendage;  b,  median  d..rs»l  appendage;  c,  Inferior  vcniro-latcriil 
appcndnge  ;  d.  superior  dorso-Iatcml  appendage  ;/,  dorsal  sense-nvgan  (calcar)  , 
/"chin;"  X.  ccphalotroch.  I),  lateral  view,  showing  tho  viscera :  or,  eye- 
apots;  n,  nephrldla:  e,  ciliated  processes,  probably  serving  for  atUjClimcnt 
other  letters  as  above.  C,  ventral  view  :  j-'.  ccphalolaoch;  x  brancl.lolroch, 
other  letters  as  above.  D.  ventral  view,  shoving  Ihe  inusculaluro  iy.  text). 
E,  dorsal  view  of  a  male  :  a,  lalcrul  appcndat-es ;  I:  dorsal  appendage,  t, 
lateral  view  of  a  male.  O,  enlarged  view  of  the  sense-organ  m.rUd/.  II. 
enlarged  view  of  llio  median  ventral  appendage.     (All  alter  Mud»..n.) 

of  the  body  which  have  doubtless  a  similar  function,  (.<j., 
Microcodon  (fig.  1,  D,  s)  with  it.s  pair  of  lateral  ^organs. 
Pedalion  presents  a  .jmir  of  ciliated  processes  in  the 
posterior  region  of  tho  body  (fig.  3,  d,  c,  and  n,  <•),  which 
it  can  apparently  use  as  a  means  of  attachment;  Dr 
Hudson  states  that  he  lias  seen  it  anchored  by  these  and 
swjmraint;  round  and  round  in  a  circle.     They  po.^sibly  re- 


6 


ROTIFEEA 


present  the  flaps  found  on  the  tail  of  otter  forms.  Pedalimi 
also  has  a  small  ciliated  muscular  process  (fig.  3,  A,  g)  placed 
immediately  below  thj  mouth,  and  termed  a  "  chin,"  which 
appears  to  be  merely  a  greater  development  of  a  sort  of 
lower  lip  which  occurs  in  many  Rotifers. 

Muscular  System.— k\\  the  Jtotifera  present  a  muscular  system 
■which  is  generally  very  well  developed.  Transverse  stnation  occurs 
among  the  fibres  to  a  varying  extent,  being  well  marked  in  cases 
•where  the  muscle  is  much  used.  The  muscles  which  move  the 
body  as  a  whole  are  arranged  as  circular  arid  lorgitudinal  series, 
but  they  are  arranged  in  special  groups  and  do  not  form  a  com- 
plete layer  of  the  body-wall  as  iu  the  various  worms.  Some  of  the 
fongitudiual  muscles  are  specially  developed  in  connexion  with  th.e 
tail  or  pedicle.  Other  muscles  are  developed  in  connexion  with 
special  systems  of  organs, — the  trochal  diaka,  the  jaw  apparatus, 
and  the  reproductive  system.  The  muscles  in  coimexion  with  the 
trochal  disk  serve  to  protrude  or  withdraw  it,  and  to  move  it  about, 
when  extruded,  in  various  directions.  The  protrusion  is  probably, 
however,  generally  effected  by  the  elasticity  of  the  integument 
coming  into  play  during  the  relaxs  tion  of  the  retractor  muscles,  and 
liy  a  general  contraction  of  the  body  wall.  The  tentaculiferous 
apparatus  of  Polyzoa  and  Oephyrta  is  protruded  in  the  same  manner. 
Trochal  Disk. — This  structure  is  the  peculiar  characteristic  of 
the  class.  It  is  homologous  with  the  ciliated  bands  of  the  larvse 
of  Echinoderms,  Chsetopods,  llolluscs,  &c.,  and  with  the  tenta- 
culiferous apparatus  of  I'olyzoa  and  Gephyrea,  and  has  been  termed 
in  common  with  these  a  "velum."  This  velum  presents  itself  in 
various  ituges  of  complexity.  It  is  found  as  a  single  circura-oral 
ring  (j>ilidium)',  as  a  single  prse-oral  ring  (Chaetopod  larvte),  or  as 
a  single  prse-oral  ling  coexisting  vrith  one  or  more  post-oral  rings 
(Chtetopod  larvs,  Holothurian  larvae).  We  may  here  assume  that 
the  ancestral  condition  was  a  single  circum-oral  ring  associated 
with  a  terminal  mouth  and  the  absence  of  an  anus,  and  that  the  exist- 
ence of  other  rings  posterior  to  this  is  an  expression  of  metameric 
segmentation,  i.e.,  a  repetition  of  similar  parts.  With  the  develop- 
ment of  a  prostomiate  condition  a  certain  change  necessarily  takes 
place  in  the  position  of  this  band:  a  portion  of  it  comes  to  lif 
longitudinally;  but  it  may  still  remain  a  single  hand,  as  in  the 
larva  of  many  Echinoderms..'  How  have  the  other  above-mentioned 
conditions  of  the  velum  come  about?  How  has  the  prse-oral  band 
been  developed  ?  Two  views  have  been  held  with  regard  to  this 
question.  According  to  the  one  view,  the  fact  whether  the  single 
band  is  a  pra;-oral  or  a  post-oral  one  depends  upon  the  position  in 
which  the  anus  \s  about  to  develop.  If  the  anus  develops  in  such 
a  position  that  mouth  and  anus  lie  on  one  and  the  same  side  of  the 
band,  the  latter  becomes  prse-oral ;  if,  however,  the  anus  develops 
so  that  the- mouth  and  anus  lie  upon  opposite  sides  of  the  band, 
the  band  becomes  post-oral.  If  wo  hold  this  view  we  must  consider 
any  second  band,  whether  pr<e-  or  post-oral,  to  arise  as  a  new 
development.  The  other  view  premises  that  the  anus  always  forma 
50  B9  to  leave  the  primitive  ring  or  "architroch"  post-oral,  i.e., 
between  mouth  and  anus.  Concurrently  with  the  development  of 
a  prostomium  this  architroch  somewhat  changes  its  position  and 
the  two  lateral  portions  come  to  lie  longitudinally  ;  these  may  bo 
supposed  to  have  met  in  the  median  dorsal  line  and  to  have 
coalesced  so  as  to  leave  two  rings — the  one  prse-oral  (a  "cephalo- 
troch"),  the  other  post-oral  (a  "branchiotroch");  this  latter  may 
atrophy,  leaving  the  single  psse-oral  ring,  or  it  may  become  further 
developed  and  thrown  into  more  or  less  elaborate  folds.  The  exist- 
ing condition  of  the  trochal  disk  or  velum  in  the  RoHfera  seems  to 
the  writer  of  this  article  to  bear  out  the  latter  view  as  to  the  way 
in  which  modifications  of  the  velum  may  have  come  about. 

In  its  simplest  condition  it  forms  a  single  circum-oral  ring,  as  in 
MicTocodon  (fig.  ,1,  d).  The  structures  at  the  sides  of  the  mouth 
in  this  form  are  stated  to  be  bristles,  and  have  therefore  nothing 
to  do  with  the  velum  (fig.  4,  A,  p).  This  simple  ring  may  become 
thrown  into  folds,  so  forming  a  series  of  processes  standing  up 
around  the  mouthj  this  is  the  condition  in  Stephanoccros  (fig.  4,  B,p). 
There  are,  however,  but  few  forms  presenting  this  simple  condi- 
tion ;  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  evidence  for  the  assump- 
tion here  made,  that  this  is  a  persistent  architroch  and  not  a  bran- 
chiotroch persisting  where  a  cephalotroch  has  vanished,  is  not  at 
present  conclusive.  This  band,  may,  while  remaining  single  end 
perfectly  continuous,  become  prolonged  around  a  lobe  overhanging 
the  mouth— a  prostomium.  This  condition  occurs  in  Philodina  { 
(fig.  4,  E,  F,  p);  the  two  sides  of  the  post-oral  ring  do  not  meet 
dorsally,  but  are  carried  up  and  are  continuous  with  the  row  of 
cilia  lining  the  "wheels."  There  is  thus  one  continuous  ciliated 
band,  a  portion  of  which  runs  up  in  front  of  the  mouth.  This 
condition  corresponds  to  that  of  the  Auricularian  larva.  The  fold- 
ing of  the  band  has  become  already  somewhat  complicated  ;  a 
hypothetical  intermediate  condition  is  shown  in  fig.  4,  0,  D.  The 
next  stage  in  the  advancing  complexity  is  that  the  prostomial  por- 
tion of  the  band  (fig.  4,  G,  h,  ;; )  becomes  separated  as  a  diitmct 
ring,  a  cephalotroch  ;  we  find  such  a  stage  in  Lacinulana  (fig.  4, 


0,  H),  where  both  cephalotroch  and  bi-anchiotr»ah  reipain  fairly 
simple  in  shape.  In  Melicerta  (fig.  4,  r,  j)  both  ctjihalotroch  and 
branchiotroch  are  thrown  into  folds.  Lastly,  we  find  that  in  such 
forms  as  Brachionus  the  cephalotroch  becomes  first  convoluted  and 


A  J?     7™     B 


'm, 

Flfl.  4. — Diagrams  of  the  Troclial  Disk.  A,  Mtcrocodon.  B,  Stephanoceros ;  the 
mouth  lies  in  the  ceiitie  of  a  group  of  ten  acles.  C,  h>*potheticaI  intermediate 
form  between  ificroccdon  and  Philodvia,  showing  tlie  development  of  a  pro- 
stomial portion  of  the  velum.  D,  dorsal  view  of  the  same.  E,  Philodina.  F, 
doisdlviewof  the  same.  G,  Zacijiufaria;  the  dotted  line  represents  the  por- 
tion of  the  velum  which  has  h.ecome  separated  as  a  special  ring — a  cephalotroch. 
H,  dorsal  view  of  the  same.  I.  MeHcerta ;  the  dotted  line  repiesenta  the 
cephalotroch;  buth  this  and  the  branchiotroch  have  become  thrown  into  folds. 
J,  dorsal  view  of  the  same.  '^,*  Brachionus ',  there  Is  a  large  prie-uial  lobe 
with  three  ciliated  regions,  shown  by  tlie  dotted  lines  c,  c,  a  dlsconUnao>i9 
cephalotroch.    L,  do.-sal  view  of  the  same. 

m,  mouth  ;  p,  p',  velum  ;  p,  arthilroch  ;  p',  portion  of  the  architroch  which 
becomes  caiTied  forward  to  line  the  piostouii&l  region,  but  does  not  becouie 
separated  ;  c,  cephalotroch.    (Original.) 

then  discontinuous  (fig.  4,  K,  L,  c),  and  further  it  may  become  so 
reduced  as  to  be  represented  only  by  a  few  isolated  tufts,  as  in 
Asplanchna  (fig.  1,  r,  x  and  x!)\  in  such  a  form  as  Lindia  (fig.  6,  c) 
the  branchiotroch  has  vanished  and  the  cephalotroch  has  become 
reduced  to  the  two  small  patches  at  the  sides  of  the  head. 

The  trochal  apparatus  serves  the  Eotifera  as  a  locomotive  organ 
and  to  bring  the  food  particles  to  the  mouth  ;  the  cilia  Work  so  as 
to  produce  currents  towards  the  mouth. 

t>igestive  System. — This  consists  of  the  following  regions: — (1) 
the  oral  cavity ;  (2)  tha  pharynx  ;  (3)  the  cesophagus  ;  (4)  the 
stomach  ;  (5)  the  intestine,  which  terminates  in  an  anas.  The 
anus  is  absent  in  one  group. 

The  pharynx  contains  the  mastax  with  its  teeth ;  these  are 
calcareous  structures,  and  are  known  as  the  trophi.  In  a  typical 
mastax  (8,  9)  (Bra- 
chionus,  fig.  5,  a) 
there  are  a  median 
anvil  or  innts  and 
two  hammer-like 
portions,  mallei. 
The  incus  consists 
of  two  rami  (c) 
resting  upon  a  cen- 
tral fulcrum  (/) ; 
each  malleus  con- 
sists of  a  handle  or 
manubrium  (c)  and 
a  head  or  uncti3 
(rf),  which  often 
presents  a  comb, 
like  structure.  Fig. 
5   show?    6ome   of  _ 

the  most  important  j,,„  5._Trophl  of  various  forms:  A,  Brarhimus 
modHlcatlonswhlCtl  jUgJena  /oicipala  ;  C,  Asplanchna  ;  D,  Philodina. 
the  apparatus  may 
exhibit.  The  parts 
may  become  very  slender,  as  in  Diglena  forcipala  (fig.  5,  e)  ;  the 
mallei  may  bo  absent,  as  in  Asplanchna  (fig.  6,  c),  the  rami  being 
highly  developed  into  curved  forceps  and  movable  one  on  the  other  ; 
or,  the  manubria  being  absent  and  the  fulcrum  rudimentary,  the 
rami  may  become  massive  and  subquadratic,  as  in  Philodina  (fie. 
6,  d).  All  the  true  Rotifers  possess  a  mastax.  Ehrenberg's  group 
of  the  Agomphia  consisted  of  a  heterogeneous  collection  of  forms, 
— Ichthydium  and  Chmtonotus  being  Gaslroiricha,  and  Cyphonaulta 


B. 

DigfcTia  /otcipala  ;  C,  Asp/anchna  ;  D,  Philodina.  /, 
fulcrum,  and  e,€,  rami,  forming  the  Incus;  c,  manubrlara, 
and  d,  uncus,  forming  the  malleus.    (After  Hudson.) 


KOTIFEKA 


a  Polyzoan  laiva,  wliilo  Entcropica  ii  proliaUy  a  malo  Rotifer,  and, 
like  the  other  males,  in  a  reduced  condition.  There  is  no  reason  for 
considci-ing  this  mastax  as  the  homologuc  of  cither  the  gastric  mill  of 
Cjustuccans  on  the  one  hand  or  the  teeth  in  the  Chretopods'  pharynx 
on  the  other ;  it  is  merely  homoplastic  with  these  structnres,  but  has 
attained  a  specialized  defjrco  of  development.  Both  the  pharynx 
and  the  oesophagus  Avljii:h  follow;  it  are  lined  with  chitin.  The 
oesophagus  varies  in  lejigth  and  in  some  genera  is  abieit  iiuilo- 
dincula:),  the  stomach  following  immediately  upon  the  pharynx. 
The  stomach  is  generally  large  ;  its  wall  consists  of  a  layer  of  very 
large  ciliated  cells,  which  often  contain  fat  globules  and  yello'.vii,h- 
green  or  brown  partiefcw,  and  outside  these  a  connective  tissue 
membrane ;  muscular  iibrillae  have  also  been  described.  Very 
constantly  a  pair  of  glands  open  into  the  stomach,  and  probably 
represent  the  hepato-pancreatic  glands  of  other  Invertebrates. 

Following  npon  the  stomach  there  is  a  longer  or  shorter  intestine, 
which  ends  in  the  cloaca.  The  intestine  is  lined  by  ciliated  cells. 
In  forms  living  in  an  urceolus  the  intestine  turns  round  and  runs 
forward,  the  cloaca  being  placed  so  as  to  debouch  over  the  margin 
of  the  urceolus.  'The  cloaca  is  often  very  large  ;  the  nephridia  and 
oviducts  may  open  into  it,  and  the  eggs  lodge  there  on  their  way 
outwards  ;  they  are  thrown  out,  as  are  the  faecal  masses,  by  an 
cvcrsion  of  the  cloaca.  Asplanchna^  Kotommata  sieboldii^  and  cer- 
tiiin  species  of  Ascomorpha  arc  said  to  be  devoid  of  intestine  or 
anus,  excrementitious  matters  being  ejected  through  the  mouth  (11). 

Nephridia. — The  ccelom  contains  a  fluid  in  wnich  very  minute 
corpuscles  have  been  detected.  There  is  no  trace  of  a  true  vascular 
system.  The  nepliridia  (tig.  2,  b,  n)  present  a  very  interesting 
stage  of  development.  They  consist  of  a  pair  of  tubules  with  an 
intracellular  lumen  running  up  the  sides  of  the  body,  at  times 
merely  sinuous,  at  others  considerably  convoluted.  From  these 
are  given  off  at  irregular  intervals  short  lateral  branches,  each  of 
which  terminates  in  a  flame-cell  precisely  similar  in  structure  to 
the  flame-cells  found  in  I'lanarians,  Treniatodes,  and  Ccstodes  ; 
here  as  there  the  question  whether  they  are  open  to  the  ca;lom  or 
not  mast  remain  at  present  undecided.  At  the  base  these  tubes 
open  either  into  a  permanent  bladder  which  communicates  with  the 
cloaca  or  into  a  structure  presenting  apparently  no  advance  in  its 
development  upon  the  contractile  vacuole  of  a  ciliato  Infusorian. 
I  Kcrvmis  System  and  Scii.se- Organs. — Various  structures  have  been 
spoken  of  as  nervous  which  are  now  acknowledged  to  have  been 
erroneously  so  described  (18).  There  is  a  supra-cesophageal  gang- 
lion which  often  attains  considerable  dimensions,  and  piescnts  a 
lobed  appearance  (fig.  2,  A  and  B,  g).  Connected  with  this  are  the 
eye-spots,  which  arc  seldom  absent,  AVhere  these  are  most  highly 
developed  a  lens-like  structure  is  present,  produced  by  a  thicken- 
ing of  the  cuticle.  In  the  genus  Jloli/cr  and  other  forms  these  are 
E laced  upon  the  protrusible  portion  of  the  head,  and  so  appear  to 
avc  diH'erent  jKJsitions  at  dill'ercnt  moments.  The  number  of  eye- 
8pots  varies  from  one  to  twelve  or  more.  They  are  usually  red,  red- 
dish-brown, violet,  or  black  in  colour.  Other  structures  are  found 
which  doubtless  act  as  sense-organs.  The  calcar  above-mentioned 
generally  bears  at  its  extremity  stiff  hairs  which  have  been  demon- 
strated to  be  in  connexion  with  a  nerve  fibril.  On  the  ventral  sur- 
face of  the  body  just  below  the  mouth  a  somewhat  similar  structure 
is  often  developed— the  chin.  There  are  besides  at  times  special 
organs,  like  the  two  lateral  organs  in  Microeodon  (fig.  1,  d,  s),  which 
no  doubt  in  common  with  the  calcar  and  chin  have  a  tactile  function. 

Xeprodudivo  Organs  and  Development. — Tlie  Jioti/era  were 
formerly  considered  to  be  hermaphrodite,  but,  while  the  ovary  was 
always  clear  and  distinct,  there  was  always  some  difficulty  about 
the  testis,  and  various  structures  were  put  forward  as  representing 
that  organ.  One  by  one,  however,  small  organisms  have  been  dis- 
covered and  described  as  the  males  of  certain  species  of  Kotifers, 
nntil  at  the  present  time  degenerated  males  are  Icnown  to  occur  in 
all  the  families  except  that  of  the  Philodiiiadse.  The  male  Rotifers 
are  provided  with  a  single  circlet  of  cilia  (a  peritroch),  a  nerve 
ganglion,  eye-spots,  muscles,  and  nephridial  tubules  all  in  a^ome- 
what  reduced  condition,  but  there  is  usu.ally  no  trace  of  mouth  or 
stomach,  the  main  portion  of  the  body  being  occupied  by  the  testi- 
cular sac.  There  is  an  aperture  corresponding  with  the  cloaca  of  the 
female,  wKero  the  testis  opens  into  the  base  of  an  eversiblo  penis. 
The  malea  of  Floscularia  are  shown  in  fig.  1.  The  male  of  Pedalion 
mira  possesses  rudimentary  appendages.  The  ovary  is  usually  a 
Inr^c  gland  lying  beside  the  stomach  connected  with  a  short  oviduct 
which  opens  into  the  cloaca.  The  ova  often  present  a  rcddisli  hue 
(Philodina  roseola,  Braehionus  rubeiis),  duo  cloubtless,  like  the  rod 
colour  of  many  Crustacean  ova,  to  the  presence  of  tctronerythrin. 

Up  to  the  present  our  cmbrjologieal  knowledge  of  the  group  is 
very  incomplete.  Many  Rotifers  are  known  to  lay  winter  and 
summer  eggs  of  different  character.  The  winter  eggs  are  provided 
with  a  thick  shell  and  probably  require  fertilization.  Two  or  tlirco 
of  them  are  often  carried  about  attached  to  tlio  parent  (Ilrachionus, 
A'otommata),  but  tliey  are  usually  laid  and  fall  into  the  nuul,  there 
to  remain  till  the  following  spring.  Tlio  Runimcr  eggs  are  of  two 
kinds,  the  so-called  male  and  female  ova,  buth  of  which  aro  stated 
to  develop  partlicnogcnetically.     Tlioy  may  bo  carriud  about  in 


large  numbers  in  the  cloaca  or  oviduct  or  attached  to  *he  Ijody  nf 
the  parent.  The  female  ova  give  rise  to  female  and  the  male  cv* 
to  m.ile  individuals.  Male  individuals  are  only  formed  in  th» 
autumn  in  time  to  fertilize  the  winter  ova. 

Habitat  and  Mode  of  Life. — The  Rotifera  are  distri- 
buted all  over  the  earth's  surface,  inhabiting  both  fresh 
and  salt  water.  The  greater  number  of  species  inhabit 
fresh  water,  occurring  in  pools,  ditches,  and  streams."*  A 
few  species  will  appear  in  countless  numbers  in  infusions 
of  leaves,  &c.,  but  their  appearance  is  generally  .delayed 
until  the  putrefaction  is  nearly  over.  Species  of  Rotifer 
and  Philodina  appear  in  this  way.  A  few  marine  forms 
only  have  been  described — Brachionua  mUlleri,  B.  Itepla- 
tonus,  Synchxta  baltica,  and  others. 

A  few  forms  are  parasitic.  Albertia  lives  in' the  intestine 
of  the  earthworm ;  a  form  has  been  described  as  occurring 
in  the  body-cavity  of  Synapta  ;  a  small  form  was  also 
observed  to  constantly  occur  in  the  velar  and  radial  canals 
of  the  freshwater  jelly-fish,  Limnocodivm.  Notommata 
parasitica  leads  a  parasitic  existence  within  the  hollow 
spheres  of  Volvox  yiolator,  sufEcicnt  oxygen  being  giren 
off  by  the  Volvox  for  its  respiration. 

Many  Rotifers  exhibit  an  extraordinary  power  of  resist- 
ing drought.  Various  observers  have  dried  certain  species 
upon  the  slide,  kept  them  dry  for  a  certain  length  of  time, 
and  then  watched  them  come  to  life  very  shortly  after  the 
addition  of  a  drop  of  water.  The  animal  draws  itself  to- 
gether, so  that  the  cuticle  completely  protects  all  the  softer 
parts  and  prevents  the  animal  itself  from  being  thoroughly 
dried.  This  process  is  not  without  parallel  in  higher 
groups  ;  e.g.,  many  land  snails  will  draw  themselves  far  into 
the  shell,  and  secrete  a  complete  operculum,  and  can  remain 
in  this  condition  for  an  almost  indefinite  amount  of  time. 
The  eggs  are  also  able  to  withstand  drying,  and  are  pro- 
bably blown  about  from  place  to  place.  The  Rotifera  can 
bear  great  variations  cf  temperature  without  injury. 

Since  their  removal  from  among  the  Protozoa  various 
attempts  have  beea  made  to  associate  the  Rotifera  with 
one  or  other  large  phylum  of  the  animal  kingdom. 
Huxley,  insisting  upon  the  importance  of  the  trochal  disk, 
put  forward  the  vie  v.'  that  they  were  "  permanent  Echino- 
derm  larvse,"  and  formed  the  connecting  link  between 
the  Nemertidx  and  the  Nematoid  worms.  Kay  Lankester 
proposed  to  associate  them  with  the  Ckxtopoda  and 
Arthropoda  in  a  group  Appendicxdata,  the  pecidiaritics  in 
the  structure  of  Pedalion  forming  the  chief  reason  for 
such  a  classification.  There  is,  however,  no  proof  tliat  we 
thus  express  any  genetic  relationship.  The  well-developed 
coelom,  absence  of  metamcric  segmentation,  persistence  of 
the  trochal  disk  in  varying  stages  of  development,  and  the 
structure  of  the  nephridia  are  all  characters  which  point  to 
the  Rotifera  as  very  near  representatives  of  the  common 
ancestors  of  at  any  rate  the  Ifclliuica,  Arthropoda,  and 
Cluetopoda.  But  the  high  development  of  the  mastax, 
the  specialized  character  of  the  lorica  in  many  forms,  the 
movable  spines  of  Polyartkra,  the  limbs  of  Pedalion,  and 
the  lateral  appendages  of  Asplanchna,  the  existence  of  a 
diminutive  male,  the  formation  of  two  varieties  of  ova,  all 
point  to  a  specialization  in  the  direction  of  one  or  other  of 
the  above  mentioned  groups.  Such  specialization  is  at 
most  a  slight  one,  and  docs  not  justify  the  dofinito  associa- 
tion of  the  Rotifera  in  a  single  phylum  with  any  of  them. 

Cliijuiiji'-alioii. — The  following  classification  has  boon 
recently  put  forward  by  Dr  C.  T.  Hudson  (19). 

Class  ROTIFERA. 

Order  I.— Ehizota. 

Fixed  forms  ;  foot  attached,  transversely  wrinkled,  noD-ntroctile. 
truncate. 

Fam.  1.   Floscdlatiiada     Floscularia,  Slephanoarrot. 
Fam.  2.   Mkliceiitad*.       ilcliurta,    Cephalotiyhan,    Uegah 
trocha,  Limniaa,  .jEcisUa,  Lacinularia,  Conochilus. 


R  0  T  —  R  0  T 


Order  1 1.  — Bdelloida. 

Forms  which  swim    and  creep  like  a  leech  ;  foot  retractile, 
jointed,  telescopic,  termination  furcate. 

"am.  3.  ''hilodinad^.     Philodiiia,  Rotifer,  Callidina. 

Order  III. — Floima. 
Forms  which  swim  only. 

Grade  A.  Illoricata. 
Fam.   4.   HTDAiiNADiE.     Eydalvia,  Rhinops. 
Fam.   5.  Synch^tadj;.     Synckmta,  Polyarthra. 
Fam.  6.  N 'ITOMMAtad^e.     Nolommala,  IHgkna,  Ftcrcularia, 

Scandium,  Pleurotrocha,  Dislemma. 
Fam.  7.  Tuiarthrau.e.     Triarthra. 
Fam.  8.  Asplanchnad*.     Asplanchna. 

Grade  B.  Loricata. 
Fam.  9.   Bkachionidj;.     Brachionus,  Noteus,  Anurssa,  Sac- 

cuius. 
Fam.   10.  Pterodinad^.     Pterodina,  Pompho'yx. 
Fam.   11.   EucHLANiDiL    Euchlanis,  Salpi'ia,  ZHplax,  Mono- 

slyla,  Colurus,  Monura,  Melopodia,  Siephaivops,  Monoccrca, 

Mastigocerca,  Dinocho,ris. 

Order  IV.-  Scirtopoda. 
forms  whioh  swim  with  their  ciliary  wreath,  and  skip  by  means 
of  hollow  limbs  with  internal  locomotor  muscles. 
Fam.   12.   Pedalionid^.     Pedalion. 
The  above  list  includes  only  the  principal  genera.     There  are, 
however,  a  number  of  forms  which  could  not  be  nlaced  in  any  of 
the  above  families. 

Aberrant  Form.". 
Trochosphara  seqtuitorialis  (fig.  6,  o),  found  by  Semper  in  the 
Philippine  Islands,  closely  resembles  a  moDotrochal  polychsetous 


Fio.  6.— Vnilons  aberrant  forms.  A,  Bafatro  ealvus  (after  Claparfede) :  a,  mastax. 
B,  Seison  nebatiie  (after  Claus)  :  m.  mouth  ;  vd,  position  of  the  apefture  of  the 
Taa  deferens.  C,  Lindia  torufoia  :  a,  ciliated  processes  at  the  aides  of  tlie  head 
representiriK  ceplialutroch ;  oc,  eye-spots.  D,  E,  and  F,  Apsitvs  tenti/omtU 
(after  Mecznikow).  D,  adult  female  with  expanded  proboscis  :  m.  position  of 
the  mouth  ;  s,  lateral  sense-organs.  E,  young  free-swimminK  female.  F,  adult 
male.  G,  7'rocAojpAisra  «^uat(jria/fs  (after  Semper)  :  m,  mouth;  p,  ganglion  ; 
a,  anus;  b,  velum;  oc^  eye-spot;  c,  muscles. 

larva  while  possessing  undoubtedly  Rotifeial  characters.  Mecznikow 
has  described  a  remarkable  form,  Apsihis  lenii/crmis  (fig.  6,  D,  E, 
and  P),  the  adult  female  of  which  is  entirely  devoid  of  cilia  but 
possesses  a  sort  of  retractile  hood  ;  the  young  female  and  the  males 
are  not  thus  modified.  Claparide  discovered  fixed  to  the  bodies  of 
small  Oligochaetes  a  curious  non-cUiated  form,  Balatro  cahnis  (fig. 
6,  a),  which  has  a  worm-like  very  contractile  body  and  a  well- 
developed  mastax.  As  mentioned  above,  the  ciliation  is  reduced  to 
a  minimum  in  the  cujions  worm-like  form  Lindia  (fig.  6,  c).  Seison 
tiebalite  (fig.  6,  B),  living  on  the  surface  of  Nehalix,  which  was 
described  originally  by  Gnibe,  is  the  same  form  as  the  Saccobdclla 
nebalias,  which  was  supposed  by  Van  Beneden  and  Hesse  to  be  a 
leech.  It  has  been  shown  by  Glaus  to  be  merely  an  aberrant  Rotifer. 
.  Of  the  curious  aquatic  forms  Icthydium,  Clixlonotus,  Turianella, 
Dasyditis,  Cephalidium,  Chselura,  and  Bemidasys,  which  Jlecznikow 
and  Claparede  included  under  the  name  Oastrolricha,  no  further 
account  can  be  given  here.  They  are  possibly  allied  to  the  Roti/era 
but  are  devoid  of  mastax  and  trochal  disk. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  more  important  memoli-s  Ac,  on  the  Roti/era. 
(1)  Leeuwenhoek,  PMl.  Trans.,  1701-1704.  (S)  Ehrcnberg.  Die  lnfiiticms(hierchen 
all  voUkomnene  Organilmen,  1838.  (3)  M.  F.  Dujardin,  Hist.  Nat.  deaZoofktites: 
Jnfiuoires,\M\.  (4)  W.  C.  Williamson,  "On  Mel\eerla  ringens,"  Quart,  jour. 
Mier.  Scl.,  1953.  (5)  Ph.  H.  (Josse,  "  On  ifelleeria  ringem,"  Quart.  Jour,  t/ier. 
Sei.,  1853.  (6)T.  H.  Huxley  "On  LactnulaHa  loaalii,"  Tram.  iticr.Soc,  1853. 
(7)  Fr.  Leydig,  "  Ueber  den  Bau  unddtesystematische  Stellung'der  Riiderthlere," 
ZeU.f.  a.  Zoo!.,  vi.,  1854.  (8)  Ph.  H.  Gosse,  PMl.  Trans.,  1856.  (9)  F.  Cohn,  Zeit. 
/.  w.  Zool.,  Til.,  Ix,  and  xii.  (10)  Ph.  H.  Gosse,  Phil.  Trans.,  1858.  (11)  Pritchard, 
Jti/taoria,  1861.  (12,  13.  14)  C.  T.  Hudson,  "On  Pedalion,"  Quart.  Jour.  Uicr. 
Sci.,  1872.  and  Monthly  Uicr.  Jour.,  1871  and  1872.  (IB)  E.  Ray  Lankester,  "On 
fedalttn,"  Quart.  Jour.  Uicr.  Set.,  1673.    (16)  Ei.  Mecmiiow,  '•  On  Apsilui  Unit- 


formtt"  Beit.  f.  v.  Zool.,  1872.  (17)  C.  Semper,  "  On  Trnehospluera,"  Zeit.  /.  w. 
Zool.,xiU.  1872.  (18)  K.  Eckstein,  "Die  RotatorienderDmgegend von Gieasen," 
Zeit./.  to.  Zool.,  1883.  (19)  C.  T.  Hudson,  "  On  an  Attempt  to  leclaaslfy  RoiKer*," 
Quart.  Jour.  Mier.  Sci.,  1884.  (A.  G.  B.) 

ROTROU,-  Jean  de  (1609-1650),  the  greatest  tragic 
poet  of  France  before  Corneille,  was  born  on  August  21, 
1609  at  Dreux  in  Normandy,  and  died  of  the  plague  at 
the  same  place  on  the  28th  June  1650.  His  family  was 
of  small  means  but  of.  not  inconsiderable  station,  and 
seems  to  have  had  a  kind  of  hereditary  connexion  with 
the  magistracy  of  the  town  of  Dreux.  He  himself  was 
"lieutenant  particulier  et  civil,"  a  post  not- easy  to  trans- 
late, but  apparently  possessing  some  affinity  to.  a  Scotch 
sheriffship  substitute.  Rotrou,  however,  went  very  early 
to  Paris,  and,  though  three  years  younger  than  Corneille, 
with  whom  he  was  intimately  acquainted,  began  play-writing 
before  him.  With  few  exceptions  the  only  events  recorded 
of  his  life  are  the  successive  appearances  of  his  plays  and 
his  enrolment  in  the  band  of  five  poets  who  had  the  not 
very  honourable  or  congenial  duty  of  turning  Richelieu'8 
dramatic  ideas  into  shape.  Rotrou's  own  first  piece,' 
L'Hypocotidriaque,  appeared  when  he  was  only  seventeen.' 
His  second.  La  Bague  de  I'Ouhli,  an  adaptation  in  part 
from  Lope  de  Vega,  was  much  better,  much  more  sugges-' 
tive,  and  much  more  characteristic.  It  is  the  first  of 
several  plays  in  which  Rotrou,  following  or  striking  out 
for  himself  a  way  which  did  not  lead  to  much  for  the  time 
but  which  was  again  entered  at  the  Romantic  revival, 
endeavoured  to  naturalize  in  France  the  romantic  comedy 
which  had  flourished  in  Spain  and  England  instead  of  the 
classical  tragedy  of  Seneca  and  the  classical  comedy  of 
Terence.  Corneille,  as  is  known  to  readers  of  his  early 
work,  had  considerable  leanings  in  the  same  diiection, 
and  yielded  but  slowly  and  unwillingly  to  the  pressure  of 
critical  opinion  and  the  public  taste.  Rotrou's  brilliant 
but  hasty  and  unequal  work  showed  throughout  marks  of 
a  stronger  adhesion  to  the  Spanish  (it  is  needless  to  say 
that  neither  writer  is  likely  to  have  known  the  English) 
model.  Cleagenor  et  Dorisiee,  Diane,  Les  Occasions  Ter- 
diies,  L'Heureuse  Constance,  pieces  which  succeeded  each 
other  very  rapidly,  were  all  in  the  Spanish  style.  Then 
the  author  changed  his  school,  and,  in  1632,  imitated  very 
closely  the  Menxchmi  of  Plautus  and  the  Hercules  (Etesus 
of  Seneca.  A  crowd  of  comedies  and  tragi-comedies 
followed,  and  by  the  time  he  was  twenty-eight  (when 
documents  exist  showing  the  sale  of  two  batches  of  them 
to  the  bookseller  Quinet  for  the  sum  of  220  livres  tour- 
nois)  Rotrou  had  written  nearly  a  score  of  plays.  He 
was  married  in  1640,  and  had  three  children,  a  son  and 
two  daughters  (none  of  whom,  however,  continued  the 
name),  and  it  seems  that  he  went  to  live  at  Dreux.  Pre- 
viously, vague  and  anecdotic  tradition  describes  him  as 
having  led  rather  a  wild  life  in  Paris,  and  especially  as 
having  been  much  addicted  to  gambling.  Among  his 
pieces  written  before  his  marriage  were  a  translation  of 
the  Amphitryon  under  the  title  of  Les  Deux  Sosies,  which 
was  not  useless  to  Molifere,  Antigone,  which  was  not  useless, 
to  Racine,  and  Laure  Persecutee  (in  the  opposite  style  to 
these  classical  pieces),  which  has  much  merit.  These  were 
followed  by  others  until,  in  1646  and  1647,  Rotrou  pro- 
duced his  three  masterpieces,  Saint  Genest,  a  story  of 
Christian  martyrdom  containing  some  amusing  by-play, 
one  noble  speech,  and  a  good  deal  of  dignified  action ; 
Don  Bertrayid  de  Cabrere,  a  comedy  of  merit ;  and  Ven- 
ceslas,  which  is  considered  in  France  his  masterpiece,  and 
which  in  a  manner  kept  the  stage  till  our  own  times.  The 
subject  (in  which  a  father,  being  constrained  to  choose 
between  his  duty  as  king  and  his  parental  aff'ection, 
pardons  his  son  for  a  murder  he  has  committed,  but 
immediately  abdicates  as  feeling  himself  unworthy  to 
reign)  was  taken  from  Francisco  de  Jlojas ;  the  executioB 


R  O  T  —  R  0  T 


9. 


though  unequal,  is  in  parts  very  fine.  Rotrou's  death 
and  its  circumstances  are  known  to  many  who  never  read 
a  line  of  his  plays.  He  was  in  Paris  when  the  plague 
broke  out  at  Dreux;  the  mayor  fled,  and  all  was  con- 
fusion.- Rotrou,  reversing  the  conduct  of  Montaigne  in 
somewhat  similar  circumstances,  at  once  went  to  his  post, 
caught  the  disease,  and  died  in  a  few  hours. 

Rotrou's  great  fertility  (he  has  left  thirty-five  collected 
plays  besides  others  lost,  strayed,  or  uncollected),  and 
perhaps  the  uncertainty  of  dramatic  plan  shown  by  his 
hesitation  almost  to  the  last  between  the  classical  and 
the  romantic  style,  have  injured  his  work.  He  has  no 
thoroughly  good  play,  hardly  one  thoroughly  good  act. 
But  his  situations  are  often  pathetic  and  lioble,  and  as  a 
tragic  poet  properly  so  called  he  is  at  his  best  almost  the 
equal  of  Corneille  and  perhaps  the  superior  of  Racine. 
His  single  lines  and  single  phrases  have  a  brilliancy  and 
force  not  to  be  found  in  French  drama  between  Corneille 
and  Hugo. 

A  complete  edition  of  Rotrou  was  edited  in  five  volumes  by 
Viollet  le  Due  in  1820.  In  18S2  M.  de  Ronchaud  published  a 
haudsome  edition  of  six  plays — Saint  Gcncst,  Venccslas,Lon  Bcrtrand 
dc  Cabrire,  Anti'jonc,  Hercule  Mourant,  and  Cosrocs, — the  latter 
Rotrou's  last  play  and  a  remarkable  one.  Voiccslas  and  Saiiit 
Gcnest  are  also  to  bo  found  in  the  Chefs-d'oeuvre  Tragiques  of  the 
Collection  Didot. 

ROTTERDAM,  a  city  of  the  Netherlands  in  thT  pro- 
vince of  South  Holland,  situated  in  51°  55'  19"  N.  lat. 
and  4°  29'  7"  E.  long.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  -Nieuwe 
Maas  at  the  point  whore  it  is  joined  by  the  Rotte,  a  small 


Plan  of  Rotterdam. 


•t.  Oroote  Markt  and  St«lue  of  Erasmua. 
3.  Bourse, 


3.  Post  Offlc. 

4.  Itoyriiuns  JlU-'-CUm. 


stream  rising  near  Moerkapelle.  By  rail  it  is  Hi  miles 
Bonth-east  of  The  Hague  and  44i  south  of  Amsterdam. 
Afl  defined  by  its  17th-century  fortifications  the  town  was 
an  isosceles  triangle  with  a  base  of  1,^  miles  along  the 
river,  but  in  modern  times  it  has  spread  out  in  all  direc- 
tions beyond  the  limits  of  its  own  commune  (which  was 
increased  in  18G9  by  the  island  of  Fijenoord  and  part  of 


the  south  bank  of  the  river)  into  those  of  Delfshaven,' 
Kralingen,  and  Hillegersberg.  A  huge  dyke  on  which 
stands  Hoog  Straat  or  High  Street  divides  the  triangular 
portion  into  nearly  equal  parts — the  inner  and  the  outer 
town ;  and  the  latter  is  cut  up  into  a  series  of  peninsulas 
and  islands  by  the  admirable  system  of  harbours  to  which 
Rotterdam  owes  so  much  of  its  prosperity.  The  central 
part  of  the  river  frontage  is  lined  by  a  broad  quay  called  the 
Boompjes  from  the  trees  with  which  it  is  planted.  From 
the  apex  of  the  triangle  the  town  is  bisected  by  a  great 
railway  viaduct  (erected  about  1S70,  and  mainly  con- 
structed of  iron),  which  is  continued  across  the  river  to 
Fijenoord  and  the  south  bank  by  a  bridge  on  a  similarly 
grand  scale,  the  line  being  the  Great  Southern  Railway 
which  connects  Belgium  and  Holland  and  crosses  the 
HoUandsch  Diep  by  the  Moerdijk  bridge.     Parallel  with 


jjKrtJiolaci..i»Al\-r 


Environs  of  Rotterdam, 
the  railway  bridge  the  municipality,  in  1873,  built  a  road- 
bridge,  and  apart  from  their  ordinary  function  these  con- 
structions have  proved  a  sufficient  barrier  to  prevent  the 
ice-blocks  of  the  upper  part  of  the  river  from  descending 
so  as  to  interfere  with  the  seaward  navigation.  Tram- 
ways, introduced  in  1880,  are  being  gradually  extended 
to  various  suburbs.  While  some  nine  or  ten  Protestant 
sects,  the  Roman  Catholics,  the  Old  Roman  Catholics, 
and  the  Jews  are  all  represented  in  Rotterdam,  none  of 
the  ecclesiastical  buildings  arc  of  primary  architectural 
interest.  The  Groote  Kerk  or  Laurenskerk  is  a  Gothic 
brick  structure  of  the  fifteenth  century  with  a  tower  297 
feet  high ;  it  has  a  fine  rood  screen  and  an  excellent 
organ,  and  contains  the  monuments  of  Lambert  Hendriks- 
zoon,  Egbert  Meeuweszoon  Kortenaar,  Witte  Corncliszoon 
de  Witt,  Johan  van  Brakel,  Johan  van  Liefde,  and  other 
Dutch  naval  heroes.  Among  the  more  conspicuous  secular 
buildings  are  the  Boymans  Museum,  the  town-house 
(restored  in  1823-1827),  the  e.xchango  (1723),  the  Delft 
Gate  (17G6),  the  court-house,  the  post  and  telegraph  office 
(1875),  the  corn  exchange,  the  seamen's  homo  (18.^)5),  the 
hospital  (1846),  and  the  theatres.  The  Boymans  Museum 
is  mainly  a  picture  gallery,  which  became  the  ]>roperty  of 
tho  town  in  1847.  When  the  building,  originally  erected 
in  1G62-63  as  tho  assembly  house  of  Schieland,  was 
burned  down  in  18G4,  most  of  tho  pictures  perished,  but 
the  museum  was  restored  by  18G7,  and  the  collection, 
steadily  recruited,  is  again  rich  in  tho  works  of  Dutch 
artists.  Tho  ground  floor  also  contains  tho  city  archives 
and  the  city  library.  The  maritime  museum,  established 
in  1874  by  the  Yacht  Club,  is  a  remarkable  collection  of 
ship  models,  and  the  Society  of  Experimental  Philosophy 
has  a  considerable  collection  of  instriHnents,  books,  and 
specimens.  At  tho  north-west  corner  of  tho  town  an  area 
of  several  acres  is  occupied  by  tho  zoological  garden,  which 
dates  from  1857.     Besides  the  Erasmus  Gymnasium  the 

XXI.   —  2 


10 


R  0  U  — R  O  U 


educational  institutions  comprise  an  academy  of  art  and 
teclmical  science,  a  naval  school,  an  industrial  school,  a 
deaf  and  dumb  asylum,  &c.  In  the  Groote  Markt  (to 
the  south  of  the  Hoog  Straat)  stands  the  bronze  statue  of 
Erasmus  (Gerrit  Gerrits),  erected  by  his  fellow-citizens  in 
16132  ;  and  his  birth-house,  now  a  tavern  in  Wijde  Kerk- 
straat,  is  distinguished  by  a  Latin  inscription.  The 
statue  by  Grefs  of  Gijsbert  Karel  van  Hogeodorp  (1762- 
1834),  a  great  Dutch  statesman,  gives  his  name  to  the 
Hogendorpsplein,  formerly  Boymansplein,  behind  the 
museum;  in  the  "Park,"  which  extends  west  along  the 
bank  of  the  Maas,  is  a  marble  statue  by  Strackee  of  Hen- 
drik  Tollens,  the  Dutch  poet ;  and  the  Nieuwmarkt  is 
adorned  with  a  fountain  in  memory  of  the  jubilee  (1863) 
of  the  restoration  of  Dutch  independence  (1813).  Exten- 
sive works  for  supplying  the  town  with  filtered  water  were 
constructed  between  1870  and  1875,  the  water  in  the 
river  and  canals  being  rendered  unwholesome  by  the 
sewerage,  the  treatment  of  which  naturally  presents  great 
difficulties  in  a  city  lying  in  great  part  below  high-water 
level.  The  most  important  industrial  establishment  is 
that  of  the  Netherlands  Steamboat  Company,  who  are  ship- 
owners, shipbuilders,  and  engineers;  there  are  also  exten- 
sive sugar-refineries  and  a  great  variety  of  smaller  factories 
for  the  production  of  lead,  iron,  and  copper  wares,  white 
lead,  varnishes,  tobacco  and  cigars,  beer  and  vinegar, 
chocolate  and  confectionery,  &c.  Hotterdam  is,  however, 
not  so  much  a  manufacturing  as  a  commercial  city,  and 
its  commercial  progress  has  been  very  striking  since  the 
middle  of  the  century.  While  in  1846  it  had  only 
321,764  tons  out  of  the  total  of  1,024,705  tons  which 
then  represented  the  export  trade  of  the  Netherlands,  in 
1883  it  had  1,940,026  tons  out  of  a  total  of  3,953,009 
tons.  In  1850  it  had  only  27-9  per  cent,  of  the  outgoing 
vessels,  and  35-77  per  cent,  of  the  tonnage;  by  1870 
it  had  3560  per  cent,  of  the  vessels  and  50-37  of  the 
tonnage,  and  by  1883  4375  per  cent,  of  the  vessels, 
and  49-08  of  the  tonnage.  Rotterdam  has  thus  become 
what  Amsterdam  formerly  was— the  principal  port  in 
the  country.  For  steamers  it  is  now,  since  the  opening 
of  the  new  waterway  through  the  Hoek  van  Holland  in 
1872,  only  two  hours  distant  from  the  sea,  and  the  channel 
is  deep  enough  for  vessels  drawing  22  feet  of  water.* 
From_  4471  vessels  with  a  register  tonnage  of  1,688,700 
tons  in  1873,  the  shipping  clearing  from  the  Netherlands 
by  the  new  waterway  had  increased  by  1884  to  8177 
vessels  with  register  tonnage  of  4,382,100  tons.  \]\>- 
wards  of  18,000  emigrants  left  Europe  by  Rotterdam  in 
1881.  Besides  its  maritime  trade  Rotterdam  commands 
a  most  extensive  river  traffic,  not  only  with  the  towns 
of  the  Netherlands,  but  with  those  of  Belgium  and  Ger- 
many. With  Germany  alone  its  Rhine  traffic  amounted 
in  1883  to  1,706,587  tons,  against  2,021,644  for  all  the 
other  ports  of  the  Netherlands.  On  January  1,  1885, 
Rotterdam  owned  43  sailing  vessels  and  50  steam-ships 
with  a  united  aggregate  burden  of  99,018  tons.     Owing 

'  Previously  tlie  only  direct  way  to  tlie  sea  was  by  the  BrieUe 
(Biill)  Channel,  where  in  1856  the  fairway  had  gradually  diminished 
in  depth  to  5  feet  at  low  w.-vter  and  1]  or  12  feet  at  high  water.  In 
1866  the  works  for  the  new  waterway  were  commenced,  and  by 
November  1863  the  canal  from  the  Scheur  (or  northern  arm  of  the 
Maas)  across  the  Hoek  had  been  dug.  The  seaward  piers  were  com- 
pleted to  the  originally  proposed  length  of  (together)  2800  metres, 
but  in  1874  tliey  were  prolonged  to  a  total  of  4300  meti'es,  thus 
jutting  out  into  the  sea  for  more  than  a  mile.  Contrary  to  erpecta- 
tions  the  scour  waa  not  strong  enough  to  widen  the  fairway;  and 
works  for  this  purpose  were  commenced  in  1877,  and  at  a  later  period 
the  width  of  900  metres  between  the  piers  was  reduced  to  700  metres 
by  constructing  an  inner  piev  north  of  the  south  pier.  The  whole 
work  has  cost  upwards  of  23,000,000  guilders  (£1,750,000)— 15* 
millions  expended  up  to  1879,  and  7|  between  1881  and  1884.  Willi 
the  exception  of  a  contribution  of  not  more  than  3,000,000  from  the 
city  of  Rottferdain,  the  entire  sum  has  been  paid  by  the  state. 


to  the  great  increase  of  navigation  and  commerce  the 
berthing  accommodation  of  the  port  frequently  proves  too 
small,  tliough  by  the  works  at  Fijenoord  the  length  of  the 
quays  has  of  late  years  been  extended  by  about  8000 
metres.  This  island,  two-thirds  of  which  was  purchased 
by  the  town  in  1591  and  the  remaining  third  in  1658, 
was  dyked  in  1795,  and  became  the  seat  of  a  building 
which  has  been  in  succession  a  pest-house,  a  military 
hospital,  a  naval  college,  and  a  private  industrial  school. 
The  Netherlands  Steamboat  Company  established  its  work-' 
shops  there  in  1825  ;  and  in  1873  the  Rotterdam  Trading 
Company  began  to  construct  the  harbours  and  warehouses 
which  have  been  purchased  by  the  city.  The  popidation 
of  the  commune  of  Rotterdam,  which  did  not  much  exceed 
20,000  in  1632,  was  53,212  in  1796,  72,294  in  1830, 
88,812  in  1850,  105,858  in  1860,  132,054  in  1876,  and 
148,102  in  1879-80.  In  1870  the  city  contained 
111,256  inhabitants,  the  suburbs  3341,  and  the  ships 
2478,  and  in  1884  the  total,  exclusive  of  the  shipping, 
was  169,477. 

EotterJam  probably  owes  its  ongin  to  the  caetles  of  Wena  and 
Bnlgerstein,  of  which  the  former  was  laid  in  ruins  by  the  Hoek 
party  in  14-26.  In  1299  Count  John  I.  granted  the  "  good  people 
of  Rotterdam  "  the  same  rights  as  the  burghers  of  Beverwijk,  and 
freedom  from  toll  in  all  bis  lands.  In  1597  a  sixth  extension  of  tlie 
town's  area  took  i>!ace,  and  a  seventh  followed  in  1609.  Fraiicin 
of  Bredeiode  seized  the  place  in  1488,  but  had  to  surrender  it  to  the 
emperor  Jlaximilian  in  1489.  The  Spaniards  were  in  possession 
from  April  9th  to  July  31st  1572,  having  gained  entrance  partly  by 
treachery  and  partly  by  force  (see  Motley,  Dutch  Hfpublic,  ii. ).  ft 
was  at  a  meeting  of  the  states  held  at  Rotterdam  in  June  1574 
that  the  relief  of  Leyden  was  determined  on,  though  it  was  not 
till  1580  that  the  town  obtained  a  vote  in  the  assembly. 

ROUBAIX,  a  manufacturing  town  of  France,  the 
second  in  population  in  the  department  of  Nord,  lies  to  the 
north-east  of  Lille  on  the  Ghent  Railway  and  on  the 
canal  connecting  the  lower  Deule  with  Scheldt  by  the 
Marq  and  Espierre.  SeveraL  tramway  lines  traverse  the 
town  and  connect  it  with  various  manufacturing^  centres  in 
the  neighbourhood.  The  population  of  Roubaix,  which  in 
1881  was  79,700  (the  commune  91,757),  is  almost  entirely 
manufacturing,  and  the  trading  firms  of  the  town  gave 
employment  besides  to  an  equally  large  number  of  hands 
in  the  vicinity.  The  weaving  establishments  number  300 
(250  for  woollen  or  woollen  and  cotton  goods),  the  leading 
products  being  fancy  and  figured  stuffs  for  waistcoats, 
trousers,  overcoats,  and  dresses,  velvet,  barege,  Orleans, 
furniture  coverings,  and  the  like.  The  yearly  production 
is  estimated  at  £6,000,000,  but  the  annual  turnover  ex- 
ceeds £8,000,000,  if  all  the  industries  of  the  place  are 
taken  into  account.  These  include  70  wool-spinning  mills, 
12  cotton  mills,  silk--ivorks,  wool-combing  establishments, 
carpet  manufactories,  dye-houses,  soap-works,  machine- 
works,  and  foundries.  Roubaix  possesses  several  interest- 
ing churches,  a  library  and  art  museum,  a  most  interesting 
museum  of  local  industries,  communal  schools  of  art  and 
music,  an  industrial  school  for  weaving,  founded  in  1857, 
a  chamber  of  commerce  dating  from  1871,  a  chamber  of 
arts  and  manufactures,  a  board  of  prud'homraes,  and  ao 
agricultural  and  horticultural  society. 

The  prosperity  of  Roubaix  has  its  origin  in  the  first  factory 
franchise,  granted  in  1469  by  Charles  the  Bold  to  Peter  of  Rou- 
baix, a  descendant  of  the  royal  house  of  Britamiy ;  but  the  great 
development  of  the  manufacturing  industries  of  the  town  and  the 
growth  of  its  population  date  from  the  French  Pievolntion.  The 
population,  which  in  1804  was  only  8700,  had  risen  in  1861  to 
40,274,  in  1866  to  65,091,  and  in  1876  to  83,000. 

ROUBILIAC,  Louis  Francois  (1695-1762),  an  able 
French  sculptor.  Born  at  Lyons  in  1695,  he  became  a 
pupil  of  Balthasar  of  Dresden  and  of  N.  Coustou.  About 
the  year  1720  he  settled  in  London,  and  soon  became  the 
most  popular  sculptor  of  the  time  in  England,  quite  super- 
seding the  established  success  of  the  Flemish  Rysbraeck. 


K  O  U  —  K  0  U 


II 


He  died  on  January  11, 1762,  abd  was  buried  in  the  church 
of  St  Martin-in-the-Fields.  Roubiliac  was  very  largely 
employed  for  portrait  statues  and  busts,  and  especially  for. 
sepulchral  monuments  in  Westminster  Abbey  and  else- 
where. His  chief  works  in  the  abbey  are  the  monuments 
of  Handel,  Admiral  Warren,  Marshal  Wade,  Mrs  Night- 
ingale, and  the  duke  of  Argyll,  the  last  of  these  being  the 
first  work  which  established  Koubiliac's  fame  as  a  sculptor. 
The  statues  of  George  I.,  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  and  the  duke 
of  Somerset  at  Cambridge,  and  of  George  II.  in  Golden 
Square,  London,  were  also  his  work,  as  well  as  many  other 
important  pieces  of  portrait  sculpture.  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  possesses  a  series  of  busts  of  distinguished 
members  of  the  college  by  him. 

Roubiliac  possessed  much  skill  in  portraiture,  and  was 
technically  a  real  master  of  his  art,  but  unhappily  he  lived 
at  a  time  when  it  had  reached  a  very  low  ebb.  His 
figures  are  uneasy,  devoid  of  dignity  and  sculpturesque 
breadth,  and  his  draperies  are  treated  in  a  manner  more 
suited  to  painting  than  sculpture.  His  excessive  striving 
after  dramatic  effect  takes  away  from  that  repose  of  atti- 
tude which  is  so  necessary  for  a  portrait  in  marble.  His 
most  celebrated  work,  the  Nightingale  monument,  in  the 
north  transept  of  Westminster  Abbey,  a  marvel  of 
technical  .skill,  is  only  saved  from  being  ludicrous  by  its 
ghastly  hideousness.  On  this  the  dying  wife  is  represented 
as  sinking  in  the  arms  of  her  husband,  who  in  vain  strives 
to  ward  oS  a  dart  which  Death  is  aiming  at  her.  The 
lower  part  of  the  monument,  on  which  the  two  portrait 
figures  stand,  is  shaped  like  a  tomb,  out  of  the  opening 
door  of  which  Death,  as  a  half-veiled  skeleton,  is  bursting 
forth.  Wonderful  patience  and  anatomical  realism  are 
lavished  on  the  marble  bones  of  this  hideous  figure,  and 
the  whole  of  the  grim  conception  is  carried  out  with  much 
skill,  but  in  the  worst  possible  taste.  The  statue  of 
Handel  in  the  south  transept  is  well  modelled,  but  the 
altitude  is  affected  and  the  face  void  of  any  real  expres- 
sion. It  is  a  striking  proof  of  the  degraded  taste  of  the  age 
that  these  painful  works  when  first  set  up  were  enthusi- 
astically admired. 

ROUGHER,  Jean  Antoine  (1745-1794),  a  French 
poet,  to  whom  a  melancholy  fate  and  some  descriptive 
verse  equal  to  anything  written  during  at  least  three- 
quarters  of  a  century  by  any  of  his  countrymen  except 
Andr6  Ch6nier,  gave  some  reputation,  was  born  on 
February  17,  1745  at  Montpellier,  and  perished  by  the 
guillotine  at  Paris  on  July  25,  1794.  He  wrote  an 
epithalamiura  on  Louis  XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette,  gained 
the  favour  of  Turgot,  and  obtained  a  salt-tax  coUector- 
ship.  His  main  poem  was  entitled  Les  Mois ;  it  appeared 
in  1779,  was  praised  in  MS.,  damned  in  print,  and  restored 
to  a  just  appreciation  by  the  students  of  literature  of  the 
present  century.  It  has  the  drawbacks  of  merely  didactic- 
descriptive  poetry  on  the  great  scale,  but  much  grace 
and  spirit  in  parts.  Roucher  was  by  no  means  anti- 
revolutionary,  but  ill-luck  and  perhaps  his  unpopular  em- 
ployment made  him  a  victim  of  the  Revolution.  He  lay 
in  prison  for  nearly  a  year  before  his  death,  and  wont  to 
it  on  the  same  tumbril  with  Chenier.  The  malicious  wit 
of  Rivarol's  mot  on  the  ill-success  of  Les  Mois,  "  C'est  le 
plus  beau  naufrago  du  siicle,"  is  not  intelligible  unless  it 
is  said  that  one  of  the  most  elaborate  passages  describes  a 
shipwreck. 

ROUEN,  a 'city  of  Franco,  the  ancient  capital  of 
Normandy,  and  now  the  administrative  centre  of  tlie 
department  of  Seine  Inferieure,  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishopric and  a  court  of  appeal,  and  the  headquarters  of 
the  third  corps  d'armde,  stands  on  a  level  site  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Seine  in  49°  26'  N.  lat.  and  1°  6'  E. 
long,  at  the  point  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Aubotto  and 


the  small  Rjviere  de  Robec ;  it  has  also  crept  some  dis- 
tance up  the  hills  which  enclose  the  valley  on  the  right, 
and  has  an  extension  on  the  plain  on  the  left  baijk.  The 
faubourgs  by  which  it  is  surrounded  are,  reckoning  from 
the  east,  MartainviUo  (on  the  left  bank  of  the  Robec),  St 
Hilaire,  Beauvoisine,  Bouvreuil,  and  Cauchoise ;  and  the 
portion  which  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine  is  known 
as  the  Faubourg  St  Sever.  Between  the  old  town  and 
the  faubourgs  runs  a  lino  of  boulevards.  Communication 
between  the  two  banks  of  the  river  is  maintained  by  ferry- 
boats and  by  two  bridges ;  the  ujjper  bridge,  a  stone  struc- 
ture, is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Lacroix  island  and 
decorated  by  a  statue  of  Corneille ;  the  lower  is  an  iron 
suspension  bridge  which  opens  in  the  middle  to  let  masted 
vessels  pass.  The  railway  from  Havre  to  Paris  crosses 
the  Seine  a  little  above  Rouen,  and  having  passed  by  a 
tunnel  under  the  higher  quarters  of  the  city  reaches  a 
station  on  tht  north  at  a  distance  of  87  miles  from  Paris 
and  55  from  Havre.  Another  station  at  Martainville  is  the 
terminus  of  the  line  from  Rouen  to  Amiens ;  and  at  St 
Sever  are  those  of  the  lines  to  Paris  and  to  Orleans  by 
Elbeuf.  Since  about  1860  wide  streets  have  been  driven 
through  the  old  town,  and  tramway  lines  now  traverse  the 
whole  city  and  its  environs.  Rouen,  which  is  78  miles 
from  the  sea,  stands  fourth  in  the  list  of  French  ports, 
coining  next  to  Marseilles,  Havre,  and  Bordeaux.  Em- 
bankments constructed  along  the  lower  Seine  have  forced 
the  river  to  deepen  its  own  channel,  and  the  land  thus 
reclaimed  has  more  than  repaid  the  expenses  incurred.  The 
port  is  now  accessible  to  vessels  drawing  21  feet  of  water, 
and  by  means  of  easy  dredgings  this  will  be  increased  to  from 
25  feet  to  28  according  to  the  tide.  The  expansion  of  thti 
traffic  as  the  improvements  have  advanced  is  shown  by  the 
following  returns:  whereas  in  1856  the  number  of  vess^hj 
entered  and  cleared  was  6220,  with  an  aggregate  burden 
of  570,314  tons,  the  correspCnding  figures  were  4511  aiid 
748,076  in  1876,  and  5189  and  1,438,055  in  1880-  What 
is  now  wanted  is  an  increased  amount  of  quay  accom- 
modation, the  old  liae  of  quays  scarcely  exceeding  1  mile 
in  length.  The  building  of  new  quays  and  repairing-docks 
for  large  vessels  is  in  active  progress;  the  port  is  being 
dredged  and  deepened,  and  schemes  are  under  considera- 
tion for  a  slip,  a  petroleum  dock,  and  corn  elevators.' 
Rouen  has  regular  steamboat  communication  with  Bor- 
deaux, Spain,  Algeria,  London,  Hull,  Goole,  Plymouth, 
Bristol,  and  Canada.  A  sunken  chain  allows  boats  to  be 
towed  up  to  Paris  and  beyond. 

The  population  of  the  six  cantons  of  Rouen  in  1881 
was  105,906,  but  if  the  suburbs  are  included  the  figure 
may  be  stated  at  about  150,000. 

The  imports  landed  at  Rouen  include  cottons,  wheat, 
maize,  and  petroleum  from  America ;  coal  and  iron  from 
England;  marble,  oils,  wines,  and  dried  fruits  from  Italy; 
wines,  wools,  ores,  and  metals  from  Spain ;  grain  and 
wool  from  the  Black  Sea ;  grajies  from  the  Levant ;  rice 
from  India ;  coffee  from  the  French  colonics ;  oil  seeds, 
timber,  dyewoods,  foreign  textile  fabrics,  Dutch  cheese, 
&c.  The  articles  of  export  comprise  grain,  table  fruits^ 
oil-seeds  and  oilcake,  sugar,  olive  oil,  palm  oil,  timber, 
hemp,  linen,  and  wool,  marble,  granite,  hewn  stonft 
plaster  and  building  materials,  sulphur,  coal,  pig-iron, 
steel,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  salt,  dyestulls  and  other  chemical 
products,  wines,  brandy,  ciders,  earthenware  and  gleiss- 
ware,  machinery,  packing-paper,  itc. 

Cotton  spinniiif;  and  weaving  nro  carried  on  in  tlio  towi^  and 
especially  the  iiiainifacturo  of  roucnncrks  (cotton  fabrics  woven  with 
dyoil  yarn).  In  this  connexion  tlio  di])artinent  of  Seino  Infcriour* 
gives  employnicut  to  200,000  worlcmcn,  must  of  tlicin  iu  Rouen  and 

'  See  Do  Coone,  Cnngris  de'V A—ocialion  Franfaite  fovr  I'avanct- 
malt  da  ecicnccsi  Uoueu,  1883. 


12 


R  o  u  E  :n 


its  neighbourhood,  and  makes  use  of  30,000  tons  of  cotton  annnally. 
In  1876  there  were  in  the  Rouen  district  1,099,261  spindles 
engaged  in  cotton-spinning,  and  9251  power-looms.  Hand-loom 
weaving  is  prosecuted  (mainly  in  the  country  districts)  by  13,000 
workmen.  In  the  roiwniierie  department  190  manufacturers  were 
engaged,  producing  annually  to  the  value  of  £2, 400,000.  In  the 
manufacture  of  printed  cotton  and  woollen  goods  22. establishments 
and  5000  workmen  are  employed.  The  annual  production  of 
printed  calico  amounts  to  1,000,000  pieces,  each  105  metres  (about 
115  yards)  long  ;  22  establishmeuts  with  700  workmen  are  devoted 
to  the  dyeing  of  cotton  cloth,  and  32  establishments  with  1200 
workmen  to  the  dyeing  of  cotton  thread,  the  industry  being  specially 
favoured  by  the  quality  of  the  water  of  Rouen.  There  are  also  3 
soap  works,  7  chemical  works,  manufacturing  soda,  vitriol,  and 
dyestufls,  an'*  10  iron  foundries.  Engineering  works  manufacture 
steam-engines,  spinning-machines,  and  weaving-looms,  agricultural 
machines,  sewing-machines,  &c. ,  which  are  sold  throughout  France 
and  exported  to  other  countries  to  a  total  value  of  £360,000. 
There  is  an  establishment  at  Deville  for  refining  copper  and  manu- 
facturing copper  pipes.  Other  works  at  Rouen  are  distilleries,  oil 
mills,  bleacheries  and  cloth-dressing  establishments,  tanneries,  ^nd 
ship-building  yards.  The  town  is  also  famous  for  its  confectionery^ 
especially  sucrcs^de  pomme.  Among  the  public  institutions  are 
extensive  poorhouses  (1800  beds  in  the  hospice  general),  several 
theatres,  a  public  library  (118,000  volumes  and  2500  MSS.),  a  theo- 
logical faculty,  a  preparatory 
school  of  medicine  and  phar- 
macy, a  preparatory  school 
for  higher  instruction  in 
science  and  literature,  and 
schools  of  agriculture,  botany, 
and  forestry,  painting  and 
drawing  schools,  &c.  Besides 
the  Grand  Cours,  which  runs 
along  the  bank  of  the  Seine 
above  the  town  and  is  lined 
with  magnificent  elms,  the 
public  promenades  comprise 
the  Cours  Boieldieii,  with  the 
eomposer's  statue,  the  Solfer- 
ino  garden  in  the  heart  of  the 
town,  and  the  botanical  gar- 
dens at  St  Sever.     {G.  ME. ) 

History. — Ratuma  or  Ratu- 
macos,  the  original  name  of 
Rouen,  was  modified  by  the 
Romans  into  Rotomagus,  and 
by  the  writers  of  mediaeval 
Latin  into  Rodomum,  of  which 
the  present  name  is  a  corrup- 
tion. Under  Csesar  and  the 
early  emperors  the  town  was 
the  capital  of  the  Veliocas- 
sians,  a  people  of  secondary 
lank,  and  it  did  not  attain  to 
any  eminence  till  it  was  made 
the  centre  of  Lugdunensis 
SecunJa  at  the  close  of  the 
3d  century,  and  a  little 
later  the  see  of  an  arch- 
bishop. Rouen  was  largely- 
indebted  to  its  first  bishops — 
from  St  Mello,  the  apostle  of  the  region,  who  flourished  about 
260,  to  St  Remigius,  who  died  in  772.  Ten  or  twelve  of 
those  prelates  have  the  title  of  saints  ;  they  built  in  their  city 
many  churches,  and  their  tombs  became  in  turn  the  origin  of  new 
sanctuaries,  so  that  Rouen  was  already,  at  that  early  period,  what 
it  has  remained  to  the  present  time,  and  in  spite  of  its  political 
character — a  religious  city  full  of  ecclesiastical  monuments.  From 
this  period  there  has  been  preserved  the  precious  crypt  of  St 
Gervais;  which  contains  the  tomb  of  the  second  bishop  of  Rouen, 
St  Avitian.  Under  Louis  "  le  Debonnaire "  and  his  successors 
Normans  several  times  sacked  the  city,  but  the  conversion  of 
Bollo  in  912  made  Rouen  the  capital  of  Normandy,  and  raised 
it  to  a  greater  degree  of  prosperity  than  ever.  The  first  Norman 
kings  of  England  rather  neglected  Rouen  in  favour  first  of  Caen 
and  afterwards  of  Poitiers,  Le  Mans,  or  Angers  ;  but  the  monas- 
teries, the  local  trade  and  manufactures,  and  the  communal 
organization,  which  the  people  of  Rouen  had  exacted  from  their 
sovereigns  in  1145,  maintained  a  most  flourishing  state  of  aflaire, 
indicated  by  the  rebuilding  of  several  sumptuous  churches,  and 
notably  of  the  great  abbey  which  had  been  erected  in  the  5th 
century  by  St  Victrix,  and  afterwards  took  the  name  of  St  Ouen 
from  the  bishop  whose  tomb  it  contained.  Of  this  restora- 
tion there  remains  in  the  present  building  a  small  apse  of  two 
stories,  the  only  Norman  fragment  of  any  importance  preserved  by 
the  ancient  capital  of  Normau'ly.     The  union  of  this  province  ti 


France  by  Philip  Augustus  in  1204  did  no  damage  to  the  prosperity 
of  Rouen,  although  its  inhabitants  submitted  to  their  new  master 
only  alter  a  siege  of  nearly  three  months.  To  this  period  belong, 
if  not  the  commencement,  at  least  the  rapid  erection  of  the  most 
important  building  in  the  town,  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame, 
whose  vast  pile,  erected  between  1200  and  1220  by  an  architect 
called  Ingelram  or  Enguerrand,  underwent  so  many  alterations, 
restorations,  and  extensions  that  it  took  its  final  form  only  in 
the  16th  century.  It  is  in  plan  a  Latin  cross  427  feet  iu  length, 
with  aisles  completely  surrounduig  it  and  giving  access  to  the 
three  great  chapels  of  the  choir.  The  west  facade  and  those  of  the 
transept  are  of  extreme  richness.  Each  was  surmounted  by  two 
towers,  of  which  only  one — the  Butter  Tower  (Tour  de  Beurre) — 
was  completed.  The  western  facade,  frequently  enlarged,  embel- 
lished, or  restored  from  its  first  construction  to  the  present  time,  has 
two  charming  side  doorways  of  the  close  of  the  12th  century,  a  great 
central  doorway,  a  rose  window,  and  countless  arcades  and  Gothic 
pinnacles  and  turrets  of  the  close  of  the  15th  and  the  beginning  of 
the  16th  century.  The  width  of  the  front  is  increased  by  the  pro- 
jection of  the  two  towers  :  that  on  the  left  hand,  the  Tour  Saint- 
Romain,  was  commenced  about  1200,  and  raised  to  a  greater  height 
in  1465-1477  ;  that  on  the  right  hand,  the  finer,  has  a  height  of  260 
feet,  and  takes  its  name  of  Butter  Tower  from  the  fact  that  it  wai 
erected  between  1485  and  1507  by  means  of  the  moneys  paid  by 
the  faithful  for  permission  to  eat  buttL-r  in  Lent.     On  the  north 


Plan  of  Kouen.- 

side  of  the  cathedral  are  various  accessory  buildings  dating  from 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  Booksellei^'  Portal,  corresponding  to  the 
Portail  de  la  Calende  in  the  south  transept  Both  portals  are 
adorned  \vith  statues,  and  both,  as  well  as  the  towers  which  flank 
them,  date  from  the  reigns  of  St  Louis  and  Philip  the  Fair.  Above 
the  transept  rises  the  central  tower,  which  was  rebuilt  in  tlio 
15th  and  16th  centuries,  and  had  before  its  destruction  by  hre  in 
1822  a  height  of  430  feet,  ,The  iron  spire  added  in  1876,  though 
unfortunately  much  too  slender,  has  raised  it  to  a  height  of  485 
feet,  and  thus  made  it  the  highest  erection  in  Europe  after  the 
spires  of  Cologne  cathedral.  While  more  harmonious  in  its  style 
than  the  exterior,  the  interior  of  Notre  Dame  de  Fouen  presents 
nothing  peculiar  in  its  architecture,  with  the  exception  of  the  false 
gallery  along  the  nave  with  passages  running  round  the  pillars ; 
but  the  artistic  curiosities  are  numerous  and  varied.  In  the  choir 
may  be  noted  a  fine  series  of  ISth-century  stained-glass  window.*, 
carved  stalls  of  the  15th  century,  the  tombs  of  the  English  kings 
Henry  II.  and  Richard  I.,  th.it  of  Bishop  Maurille,  who  built  the 
larger  part  of  the  present  structure,  an  elegant  Gothic  staircase, 
and  various  tombs  of  archbishops  and  nobles. 

Philip  Augustus  built  a  ca>tlQ  at  Rouen,  but  it  was  rather  a 
fortress  than  a  palace,  and  the  kings  of  France  never  treated  it  as  a 
residence ;  a  round  keep  called  Joan  of  Arc's  Tower  still  stands-  On 
the  other  hand,  nothing  remains  of  the  castle  erected  by  Henry  T". 
of  England  when  ho  took  possession  of  Rouen  in  1418  after  a  sau; 


R  O  U  — R  O  U 


13 


cuinary  sicgo  ;  he  proposed  making  it  one  of  his  Continental  resi- 
dences, but  it  was  never  completeu.  It  was  in  Philip  Augustus's 
castle  that  Joan  of  Arc  was  imprisoned  and  tried,  and  one  of  the 
public  squares  was  the  place  where  she  was  burned  alive  in  1431, 
From  that  ye«r  began  a  series  of  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  French 
to  recapture  the  town.  Ricardville  in  1432  and  Xaintrailles  in  1436 
failed  in  spite  of  the  secret  connivance  of  the  inhabitants.  In  1449 
a  stronger  and  better-planned  expedition  was  successful,  and  Somer- 
set, the  English  commander,  was  obliged,  in  order  to  secure  an 
honourable  capitulation,  to  surrender  the  principal  fortified  places 
in  Normandy.  The  English  rule,  though  badly  supported  by  the 
citizens,  had  not  been  without  its  influence  on  the  prosperity  pf 
Rouen.  It  was  then  that  the  present  church  of  St  Ouen  was  con- 
tinued and  almost  completed;  the  foundation  was  laid  in  1311, 
but  the  choir  alone  had  been  constructed  in  the  14th  century.  In 
spite  of  the  juxtaposition  of  the  second  and  third  or  "  radiant "  and 
"  flamboyant "  styles  of  Gothic,  the  building  taken  altogether  pre- 
sents in  its  general  lines  the  most  perfect  unity — a  unity  which  even 
the  modern  addition  of  a  fa9ade  with  two  bell  towers  has  failed  to 
mar,  though  no  regard  was  had  to  the  original  plans.  St  Ouen  is 
the  largest  church  erected  in  France  during  the  War  of  the  Hundred 
Years  ;  in  length  (450  feet)  it  exceeds  the  cathedral.  The  central 
tower,  not  unlike  the  Butter  Tower,  with  which  it  is  contemporary, 
is  265  feet  high  ;  the  two  new  towers  with  their  spires  are  some- 
what lower.  Apart  from  its  enormous  dimensions  and  the  richness 
of  its  southern  portal,  St  Ouen  has  nothing  that  need  lone  de- 
tain the  visitor;  its  style  is  cold  and  formal;  the  interior,  oare 
and  stripped  of  its  ancient  stained  glass,  was  further  despoiled  in 
1562  and  iu  1791  of  its  artistic  treasures  and  of  almost  all  its  old 
church-furniture.  The  organ  dates  from  1630,  and  the  rather 
handsome  roodscreen  from  the  18th  century.  The  close  of  the  15th 
century  and  the  first  halt  of  the  16th — the  reigns  of  Charles 
VIII.,  Louis  Xll.,  Francis  I.,  and  Henry  II.,  and  the  episcopates 
of  Cardinal  Estoutteville  (1453-1483),  Cardinal  Georges  d'Amboise 

i  1494-1510),  and  his  nephew  of  the  same  name  (1611-50) — rendered 
louen  for  nearly  a  hundred  years  the  metropolis  of  art  and  taste 
in  Franco  ;  and  it  was  one  of  the  first  towns  where  the  splendours 
of  the  Renaissance  burst  forth.  At  this  time  the  church  of  St 
Maclou  was  erected,  a  buildihg  that  can  hardly  be  brought  into 
comparison  with  the  cathedral  and  St  Ouen,  but  is  justly  cele- 
brated for  the  value  and  variety  of  its  artistic  treasures,  such  as 
the  carved  work  of  the  principal  doors,  partly  executed  by  Jean 
Goujon,  the  beautiful  stained  glass,  and  an  crgan-loft  reached  bj 
an  open-work  staircase.  The  spire,  285  feet  high,  is  a  structure 
of  the  present  century.  Beside  the  church  is  the  old  parish 
cemetery,  called  the  Aitre  of  Saint  Maclou,  surrounded  by  charming 
Renaissance  galleries  and  famous  for  its  danse  macabre  formed  by  a 
series  of  sculptured  groups.  Other  churches  of  the  same  period — 3t 
Godard,  St  Patrice,  St  Vincent — are  no  less  interesting  from  the  pro- 
fusionof  their  architectural  details  than  from  their  magnificent  16th- 
century  stained-glass  windows.  There  are  two  glass  wimlows  in  St 
Godard,  and  a  rept'ilar  collection  in  St  Patrice ;  but  the  latter,  though 
the  most  famous,  ar?  in  the  eyes  of  connoisseurs  of  less  worth  than 
the  stained  gkiss  in  St  Vincent,  due  to  two  incomparable  artists  of 
Beauvais,  Engrand  and  Jean  Le  Prince, — the  two  principal  subjects 
treated  by  them  being  the  Gifts  of  Mercy  and  the  Glorification  of 
the  Virgin.  St  Godard  contains,  besides,  old  frescos  Worthy  of 
note.  The  church  of  St  Laurent,  no  longer  used  for  worship,  and 
the  tower  of  St  Andr6  are  both  of  16th-century  origin.  At  the  same 
period  the  cathedral  received  great  embellishments,  the  central  flfeche 
was  erected,  and  the  portals  were  decorated  with  new  sculptures, 
Georges  d'Amboise,  the  virtuous  minister  of  Louis  XII.,  chose  the 
chapel  of  the  Virgin  for  his  place  of  burial ;  he  caused  his  mausoleum, 
constructed  after  the  plans  of  the  architect  Roland  le  Roux,  to  be 
composed  entirely  of  marble,  as  well  as  his  statue,  which  ho  ordered 
from  Jean  Goujpn.  Georges  d'Amboise  the  second  was,  according 
to  his  desire,  interred  in  his  uncle's  tomb,  but  his  statue  is  of  much 
less  value.  Near  thi^  tomb  are  two  others  erected  for  tho  lords  of 
Breze  ;  both  are  very  remarkable  ;  the  oldest  belongs  to  the  Gothic 
style  ;  tho  other,  tho  tomb  of  Diana  of  Poitiers's  husband,  is  a 
Renaissance  structure  of  the  time  of  Henry  il.,  but,  contrary  to 
what  was  long  believed,  contains  nothing  from  tha  hand  of  Jx?an 
Goujoh.  Under  J-ouis  XII.  tho  archbishops  of  Rouen  also  rebuilt 
their  palace  at  the  suiu  uf  th"  cathedral  ;  but  in  spite  of  tho  rich- 
ness of  its  architecture  this  loroiy  macsion  cannot  compete  with 
tho  "palace  of  justice"  begun  in  tho  same  yar,  1499,  when  thi 
exchequer  of  Normandy,  which  had  been  established  nt  Rouen  in 
1302,  was  erected  into  a  parlcmcnl,  though  the  title  was  not  adopted 
till  1515.  This  sumptuous  building  is  in  the  Gothic  stylo;  but 
the  Hotel  do  Bourgtherouldo,  which  dates  from  tho  time  of  Franc's 
I.,  is  undisgdiscdly  of  tho  Renaissance,  and  is  justly  celebrated 
for  its  bas-reliefs,  tho  subjects  of  which  are  borrowed  from  two 
quite  dillerent  orders  of  things — the  allegories  from  Petrarch's 
Triumplts,  and  the  interview  of  tho  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold 
between  Henry  VIII.  and  Francis  I.  Many  other  secular  Renais- 
sance buildings  iif  Rouen  bear  witness  to  tho  great  commercial 
prosperity  of  its  citizens  and  to  their  Uocu  approe-Atiou  sf  <4o 


arts  :  — numerons  private  houses  in  stone  and  especially  in  wood : 
the  gate  of  the  great  clock  ;  and  a  unique  structure,  the  "  fievte 
of  St  Remain,  a  sort  of  pulpit  from  which   every  year  a  pfijon 
condemned  to  death  raised  before  the  people  the  shrine  or  fierto 
(feretrum)  of  St  Romaiuj  and  then  received  pardon  and  liberty. 

This  splendour  of  the  arts  began  to  decline  during  the  wars  oi 
religion  ;  in  1562  the  town  was  sacked  by  the  Protestants,  which 
did  not  prevent  the  League  from  obtaining  bo  firm  a  footing  therS 
that  Henry  IV.,  after  having  vainly  besieged  it,  did  not  jsbtain 
entrance  till  long  after  his  abjuration.  To  the  18th  century  belong 
the  exchange  and  the  claustral  buildings  of  the  abbey  of  St  Ouen, 
transformed  into  an  hOtel  de  ville.  Much  more  important  works 
have  been  executed  in  recent  times,  but  in  great  part  at  the  expense 
of  the  historic  and  picturesque  features  of  the  town.  On  the  other 
hand,  handsome  structures  of  various  kinds  have  been  erected  in 
the  interests  of  public  utility  or  embellishment — churches,  civil 
and  military  establishments,  fountains,  statues,  &c. ;  and  many,old 
buildings  have  been  carefully  restored  or  completed.  Rouen,  more- 
over, has  recently  been  provided  with  museums  of  antiquities,  of 
fine  arts,  of  ceramic  art,  of  natural  history,  and  of  industry, — tho 
first  two  being  very  important.  During  the  Franco-German  War 
the  city  was  occupied  by  the  invaders  from  6th  December  1870  to 
22d  July  1871,  and  had  to  submit  to  heavy  requisitions.  Among 
the  famous  men  bom  at  Rouen  are  the  brothers  Comeille,  Fon- 
tenelle,  the  journalists  Armand  Carrel  and  De  Villemessant,  the 
composer  Boieldieu,  the  painters  Jouvenet,  Restout,  and  Gericault, 
the  architect  Blondel,  Dulong  tho  physicist,  and  hi  Salle  the 
American  explorer.  (A.  S.-P.) 

ROUGE.  This  name  is  a'pplied  to  various  colouring 
substances  of  a  brilliant  carmine  tint,  especially  when  used 
as  cosmetics.  The  least  harmful  of  these  preparations  are 
such  as  have  for  their  basis  carthamine,  obtained  from  the 
safflower  {Carthamus  tinctorius).  The  Chinese  prepare  a 
rouge,  said  to  be  from  safflower,  which,  spread  on  the  cards 
on  whijch  it  is  sold,  has  a  brilliant  metallic  green  lustre,  but 
when  moistei).€d  and  applied  to  the  skin  assumes  a  deUcate 
carmine  tint.  Jeweller's  rouge  for  polishing  gold  and  silver 
plate  is  a  fine  red  oxide  of  iron  prepared  by  calcination 
from  sulphate  of  irop  (green  vitriol). 

ROUGET  DE  LISLE,  Claude  Joseph  (1760-1836), 
one  of  the  most  noteworthy  of  those  authors  whom  a 
single  short  piece  of  work  has  made  famous,  was  born  on 
10th  May  1760,  at  Lons-le-Saunier.  He  entered  the 
army  as  an  engineer  and  attained  the  rank  of  captain. 
He  wrote  complimentary  verses  pretty  early,  and  appears 
to  have  been  a  good  musician.  The  song  which  has  immor. 
talized  him,  the  Marseillaise,  was  composed  at  Strasburg, 
where  Eouget  de  Lisle  was  quartered  in  April  1792,  and 
he  is  said  to  have  composed  both  the  words  and  the  music 
in  a  fit  of  patriotic  excitement  after  a  public  dinner.  Tha 
piece  was  at  first  called  Chant  de  I'armee  du  Rkin,  and  only 
received  its  name  of  Marseillaise  from  its  adoption  by  the 
ProvenQal  volunteers  whom  Barbarous  introduced  into 
Paris,  and  who  were  prominent  in  the  storming  of  the 
Tuilories.  The  author  himself  was  unfavourably  affected 
by  that  very  event.  He  was  a  piodorate  republican,  and 
was  cashiered  and  thrown  into  prison;  but  the  counter- 
revolution set  him  at  liberty.  Little  is  recorded  of  his 
later  years,  and  he  received  no  pension  or  other  mark  of 
favour  till  tho  accession  of  Louis  Philippe.  He  died  at 
Choisy  on  the  26th  June  1836. 

Tho  ,Marsdllaisc  (of  which  as  usually  given  six-sevenths  only 
jare  Rouget's)  is  so  well  known  that  no  elaborate  criticism  of  it  is 
necessary.  The  extraordinarily  stirring  character  of  the  air  and 
its  ingeniojis  adaptation  to  the  words  servo  to  disguise  tho  alternate 
poverty  and  bombast  of  the  words  themselves.  As  poetry  the 
sixth  stanza  nlor.e  has  aiuch  merit.  Rongct  do  Lisle  wrote  a  few 
other  songs  of  tho  same  kind,  and  set  o  good  many  of  others'  Minting 
to  music.  He  also  produced  a  play  or  two  and  some  translations. 
But  his  chief  literary  monument  is  a  slender  and  rather  rare  little 
volume  entitled  Essais  en  Vers  ct  en  Prose  (Paris,  1796).  This 
contains  tho  ilarscillaisc,  a  prose  fale  of  tho  sentimcntnl  kind 
called  Adelaide  ct  Monville,  and  a  collection  of  iiccasional  poems 
of  various  styles  and  dates,  from  which  tho  author's  poetic  faculty 
can  bo  fairiy  judged.  It  is  humble  enough.  Rougct  was  a  mere 
follower  ol  standard  models,  imitating  by  turns  J.  B.  Koussean, 
La  Fontaine,  and  Voltaire,  and  exaggerating  the  artificial  language 
of  ^  timo.     'a  Tom  ci  Lucy,  'Tfaich  turns  on  a  romantic  stoiai  of 


14 


R  0  U  —  E  O  U 


the  Engliah  army  in  America,  ho  lias  contrived  without  in  the 
least  knowing  it  to  make  a  pathetic  subject  supremely  ludicrous. 
But  he  seems  to  have  been  a  very  well  meaning  and  harmless 
person,  and  he  had  one  moment  of  remarkable  inspiration. 

ROULERS,  or  Rousselaere,  a  town  of  Belgium,  in 
tte  province  of  West  Flanders,  on  the  Mandelbeke,  a 
tributary  of  the  Lys,  22|  miles  south  of  Ostend  on  the 
railway  to  CourtraL  From  time  immemorial  it  has  been 
the  seat  of  a  great  weaving  industry,  which  now  produces 
both  cotton,  union,  and  linen  goods ;  and  it  also  manufac- 
tures in- various  other  departments.  The  pcincipal  build- 
ings are  the  town-house,  the  college,  and  the  church  of  St 
Michel  with  its  conspicuous  Gothic  tower.  The  popula- 
tion was  16,345  in  1874,  and  17,219  ia  1884. 

Roulers  is  mentioned  in  822  as  Eoslar  and  in  847  as  Eollare., 
Baldwin  VIII.,  count  of  Flanders,  died  in  a  house  in  the  piincipal 
square  of  the  town  in  ]  120  on  his  return  from  the  battle  of  Angers. 
In  1794  Roulers  was  the  scene  of  a  conflict  between  the  Austrians 
and  the  French. 

ROUM  (RiJm)  is  the  name  by  which  the  Arabs  call  the 
Romans,  i.e.,  all  subjects  of  the  Roman  power.  Bildd  al- 
Jiiim,  "the  lands  of  the  Romans,"  accordingly  means  the 
Roman  empire.  The  parts  of  the  old  empire  conquered  by 
the  Arabs  were  regarded  as  having  ceased  to  be  Roman, 
but  the  Western  Christian  lands  were  still  called  lands  of. 
the  Riim,  without  reference  to  the  fact  that  they  had  in 
great  part  ceased  to  pay  any  allegiance  to  the  "  king  of 
the  Riira,"  i.e.,  the  Byzantine  emperor.  When  Ibn  Jobair 
takes  a  passage  in  a  Genoese  vessel  he  speaks  of  the  crew 
fM  Romans;  and  in  Spain  a  "Riimlya"  meant  a  "Christian 
slave-girl."  Sometimes  all  Europe  is  included  in  the  lands 
of  the  Riim ;  at  other  times  the  northern  nations  are 
excluded ;  soQietiraes  again  the  word  means  the  Byzantine 
empire ;  and,  finally,  the  kingdom  founded  by  tho  Seljii^s, 
in  lands  won  by  them  from  Byzantium,  is  the  kingdom  of 
the  Seljiiks  of  Riim,  so  that  Rum  comes  to  take  the 
restricted  sense  of  Asia  Minor.  So  Abulfeda  uses  the 
term.  Roumelia  and  Roumania  in  like  mauner  mean  no 
more  than  the  "Roman  country"  in  a  special  limitation, 
plate  I.  ROUMANIA,  a  kingdom  in  the  south-ewt  of  Europe 
between  the  Carpathians,  the  Pruth,  the  Black  Sea,  and  the 
Danube.  Tho  Pruth  and  the  Kilia  mouth  of  the  Danube 
now  form  the  frontier  with  Russia.  West  of  Silistria  the 
Danube  is  the  boundary  between  Roumania  and  Bulgaria, 
while  to  the  east  of  that  point  the  boundary  is  formed  by 
an  irregular  line  passing  east  by  south  to  the  coast  about 
ten  miles  to  the  south  of  Mangalia.  The  territory  thus 
shut  off  between  the  Danube  and  the  Black  Sea  is  known 
as  the  DoBKUDJA  (q.v.),  and  differs  in  its  physical  features 
and  products  from  the  rest  of  the  kingdom.  It  was 
given  to  Roumania  at  the  close  of  the  last  Russo-Turkish 
War  as  a  compensation  for  the  territory  of  Bessarabia,  east 
of  the  Pruth,  which  was  then  restored  to  Russia.  The 
area  of  the  kingdom  is  estimated  at  about  49,250  square 
imiles,  which  ia  rather  less  than  that  of  England  without 
Wales.  The  greatest  length  of  the  kingdom  is  from  east 
to  west  near  the  parallel  of  45°,  along  which  the  length  is 
about  350  miles.  The  line  stretching  from  north-west  to 
south-east  between  the  extreme  points  of  the  kingdom  is 
about  fifteen  miles  shorter. 

The  crescent-shaped  portion  of  the  kingdom  lying 
between  the  Danube  and  Pruth  and  the  Carpathians  is 
•tolerably  uniform  in  its  physical  features.  The  southern 
part  of  the  area  is  a  plain  continuous  with  that  of 
southern  Russia.  Towards  the  interior  the  surface  rises 
gradually  but  slowly  until  we  come  to  the  spurs  of  the 
Carpathians.  The  Roumanian  frontier  on  this  side  runs 
for  the  most  part  along  the  very  crest  of  the  mountains, 
which  have  peaks  rising  to  from  6000  to  8000  feet  and 
upwards.  The  lowest  part  of  this  plain  is  that  which 
stretches  along  tho  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  and  this  also 


is  the  dreariest  and  least  productive.  Large  tracts  of  it 
are  marshy  and  subject  to  inundation,  and  even  beyond 
the  marshy  districts  the  aspect  of  the  country  remains 
extremely  uninviting.  Agriculture  is  neglected ;  coarse 
grasses  occupy  large  areas ;  and  the  most .'  conspicuous 
feature  in  the  landscape  is  probably  a  rude  well,  such  as 
is  seen  in  the  pusstas  of  Hungary  and  some  parts  of 
southern  Russia,  where  the  general  aspect  of  the  country 
is  so  like  what  we  find  here.  Farther  inland  however, 
the  appearance  of  the  surface  improves :  agriculture 
becomes  more  general,  trees  (willows,  alders,  and  poplars) 
more  abundant ;  on  the  still  higher  ground  nearer  the 
Carpathians  the  outward  signs  of  comfort  and  prosperity 
become  more  and  more  apparent ;  the  vine  clothes  the 
hill  slopes ;  plums,  peaches,  and  southern  fruits  are  grown 
in  profusion ;  large  forests  of  oak,  beech,  and  elm  reach 
to  the  hill  tops,  and  various  minerals  form  an  important 
addition  to  the  present  and  prospective  resources  of  the 
country.  At  elevations  too  high  for  the  foliage  trees  just 
mentioned  these  are  succeeded  by  pines  and  firs,  birches 
and  larches,  which  crown  the  mountains  to  a  height  of 
5000  or  6000  feet.  E.\-tensive  as  the  plains  of  Roumania 
are,  40  per  cent,  of  the  entire  surface  is  more  than  a 
thousand  feet  above  sea-level,  while  the  greater  part  of  the 
northern  (or  Moldavian)  half  of  the  crescent  varies  from 
30*.  to  1000  feet,  almost  all  the  rest  of  Moldavia  being 
still  more  elevated. 

The  superficial  geology  of  Roumania,  so  far  as  it  is 
known,  is  extren.ely  simple,  at  least  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Danube.  Quaternary  deposits  are  spread  over  all  the 
plains.  Among  these  thd  most  important  is  the  yellow 
loess,  which  covers  such  large  areas  in  Hungary  also,  and 
which  in  Roumania  attains  in  places  a  depth  of  150  to  300 
feet.  In  certain  parts  the  black  soil  of  southern  Russia 
extends  into  Roumania,  and  is  important  on  account  of 
its  richness,  though  its  depth  is  nowhere  above  3  feet. 
Advancing  inland  one  meets  next  with  Midcene  and 
Eocene  deposits,  until,  in  ascending  the  slopes  of  the 
Carpathians,  Secondary,  Primary,  and  crystalline  rocks  are 
seen  to  crop  out  in  succession.  The  desolate  plateau 
of  the  Dobrudja  contrasts  with  the  region  on  the  left 
of  the  Danube  in  its  geology  as  in  other  respects. 
Its  basis  consists  of  crystalline  rocks,  but  these  are 
covered  vrith  sedimentary  formations  of  various  ages. 
On  the  north  this  plateau,  which  is  hilly  and  even 
mountainous,  sinks  down  rather  abruptly  to  the  delta  of 
the  Danube,  a  congeries  of  alluvial  marshes  occupied 
chiefly  by  aquatic  and  marsh-loving  birds. 

Of  the  rivers  of  Roumania  by  far  the  most  important  Rircw 
is  the  Danube,  which  is  navigable  for  large  vessels 
throughout  its  Roumanian  reach,  the  first  obstruction  to 
navigation,  the  celebrated  Iron  Gates,  occurring  just  where 
it  enters  Roumanian  territory.  The  breadth  of  the  river 
is  of  some  consequence  in  view  of  the  fact  that  it  is  a 
frontier  stream,  and  the  marshes  on  the  left  bank  have  at 
least  this  advantage  that  they  enable  it  to  serve  all  the 
more  effectually  as  a  natural  boundary.  The  plains  on 
the  left  are  traversed  by  numerous  winding  tributaries  of 
the  Danube,  but  of  these  the  only  one  of  importance  as  a 
means  of  communication  is  the  Pruth,  which  is  navigable 
for  small  grain-carrying  vessels.  The  others — the  Sereth, 
Jalomitza,  Dambovitza,  Olta — are  sluggish  streams,  often 
half-dry,  but  yet  at  certain  seasons  subject  to  inundations, 
which  unfortunately  occur  at  a  time  when  the  crops  are 
so  far  advanced  as  to  be  liable  to  be  much  damaged. 
In  consequence  of  this  the  Government  has  bestowed  much 
pains  on  the  regulation  of  these  ctreams,  and  the  works 
for  this  purpose  are  rendered  further  serviceable  by  the 
fact  that  the  Roumanian  rivers  can  be  turned  to  account 
(or  irrigation. 


K  O  II  M  A  N  I  A 


15 


The  climate  of  Eoumania  is  one  of  extremes  as  regards 
temperature.  Winter  and  summer  are  almost  equally 
iryin".  In  the  former  season  the  thermometer  may  sink  to 
- 15  ^Fahr,,  -while  in  the  latter  it  may  rise  to  from  90°  to 
95°.  The  mean  temperature  of  spring  at  Bucharest  is  53°, 
summer  72^°,  autumn  05°,  winter  27J°.  Spring,  how- 
ever scarcely  exists  except  in  name,  the  interval  between 
the  cold  winter  and  hot  summer  being  very  short.  The 
autumn,  on  the  other  hand,  is  long  and  is  the  most  genial 
season  of  the  year.  It  lasts  to  the  end  of  November. 
Being  continuous  with  the  Russian  plain,  Eoumania  is 
exposed  to  the  bitterly  cold  wind  from  the  north-east  by 
j»bich  southern  Russia  is  also  scourged.  In  Roumania 
this  wind,  known  as  criveis,  blows  on  an  average  155  days 
in  the  year,  while  a  west  or  south-west  wind,  called  the 
a"stru,  equally  disagreeable  for  its  scorching  teat,  blows  on 
an  average  126  days.  The  rainfall  is  not  excessive.  The 
number  of  rainy  days  in  the  year  is  about  74,  or  Only  about 
two-fifths  of  the-  number  round  London.  The  summer 
months  are  those  in  which  the  rains  are  most  abundant. 
Snow  is  unfrequent  (12  days  in  the  year).  As  regards 
salubrity  the  low-lying  plains  near  the  Danube  are  the 
worst  part  of  the  kingdom.  Marsh  fever  is  there  prevalent, 
and  the  tendency  to  suffer  from  disease  is  increased  by 
the  miserable  character  of  the  dwellings  occupied  by  the 
peasantry  of  that  district.  The  houses  are  mere  pits  dug 
out  in  the  ground  and  covered  over  -with  sloping  roofs 
formed  of  branches  and  twigs. 

Three-fourths  of  the  population  are  dependent  upon  agriculture. 
The  plains  covered  by  loess  and  black  soil  are  admirably  adapted 
tfor  the  growth  of  cereals,  and  of  these  the  most  important  nre 
maize,  wheat,  and  barley.  The  methods  of  cultivation  are  to  a 
large  extent  primitive  and  im])erfect,  but  great  improvements  are 
taking  place  through  the  application  of  foreign  capital  to  the 
development  of  the  native  resources.  Improved  agricultural  im- 
plements of  all  kinds  have  been  introduced  of  late  years  in  gi-eat 
numbers;  The  old  plough,  which  has  a  share  resembliug  a  lance 
bead,  which  enters  the  ground  horizontally  and  thus  merely 
scratches  the  surface,  is  being  rapidly  superseded  by  ploughs  of 
English  and  Austrian  manufacture.  These  improvements,  which 
have  been  greatly  stimulated  by  the  alteration  in  the  status  of  the 
Eoumanian  peasantry  brought  about  by  the  law  of  1864,  and  likc- 
iwise  by  the  introduction  of  railways,  have  resulted  in  an  enormous 
{increase  in  the  amount  of  the  production  of  cereals.  Roumania  is 
•ne  of  the  principal  gi-ain-exporting  countries  in  Europe,  and  the 
.increase  in  the  production  just  alluded  to  is  sufficiently  well  indi- 
Icated  by  tiie  figures  given  below  relative  to  tlie  exports  of  grain  to 
{the  United  Kingdom.  The  great  variations  in  tliese  figures,  though 
iobviously  due  in  pr-.rt  to  political  causes,  likewise  serve  to  illustrate 
|tl>e  chief  drawback  under  which  Roumanian  agriculture  labours — 
-aamely,  the  liability  to  drought. 

I  Besides  forming  a  valuable  article  of  export  maize  furnishes  the 
thief  food  of  tlie  people.  The  great  body  of  Roumanians  seldom 
eat  meat  except  on  Tcast  days,  and  the  favourite  food  is  a  disli 
called  mamaliga,  made  by  boiling  maize-meal  and  flavouring  it 
with  a  little  salt.  It  thus  resembles  the  hominy  of  the  Americans. 
In  adilition  to  cereals  many  kinds  of  vegetables,  including  garlic, 
melons,  and  cucumbers,  are  grown.  Hemp  and  colza  are  also 
important  products,  and  tobacco  furnished  a  considerable  article  of 
export  until  it  was  made  a  monopoly  of  the  state  in  1872.  As 
already  mentioned,  wine  and  numerous  fruits  are  produced  on  the 
foot-hills  of  the  Carpathians,  but  owing  to  neglect  the  products  are 
greatly  inferior  to  what  they  ought  to  ho.  Nothing,  it  is  said,  but 
earo  in  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  tho  preparation  and  prc- 
•ervation  of  the  wine  i?  necessary  to  make  Roumania  a  wine- 
growing country  of  the  first  rank.  As  it  is,  vines  are  estimated  to 
cover  only  about  2^0,000  acres,  or  about  rjj  of  the  entire  surface. 
From  plums  the  Roumanians  extract  a  strong  spirit  known  as 
Ui'iea,  iind  it  is  chielly  for  this  that  tho  plum-tree  is  cultivated. 

The  rearing  of  domestic  animals  is  likcwi.se  an  important 
industry,  but  it  has  not  advanced  so  much  of  late  years  as  tlio 
growth  of  cereals.  Tho  exports  of  cattle  are  almost  stationary. 
Oxen  are  of  much  more  importance  than  horses,  being  chielly  used 
in  field  labours,  llutraloes  also  are  reared  for  the  purpose,  and  are 
much  valued  for  their  .strength.  Sheep  and  cattle  rearing  forms 
the  chief  occupation  of  the  sparse  population  of  tlio  Dobruclja. 

About  one-sixth  of  the^ total  surface'  of  Roumania  is  estimated  to 

he   covered  with  forests'producing  valuable  timber  trees.     -Oaks, 

firs,  and  beeches  are  .said  to  be  met  with  having  a  diameter  of  nicro 

.  t.lian  8  feot  at  tho  height  of  33  feet  above  the  ground.     Tho  warm 


summers  and  cold  winters  are  favourable  to  the  quality  of  the 
wood,  which  is  h,ird  end  lasting.  Unfortunately  thtre  is  a  good 
deal  of  recklcssniss  in  tho  way  in  which  the  forests  are  utilized, 
and  they  are  said  to  be  fast  disappearing ;  but  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  the  influence  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  Sylviculture  at 
Ferestreu,  2  miles  from  Bucharest,  will  help  to  put  a  check  upon 
this  improvidence,  as  it  is  without  doubt  contributing  greatly  to 
the  proniotion  of  Roumanian  agricultnrc. 

The  mineral  wealth  on  the  Roumanian  side  of  tho  Carpathians 
is  considerable,  but  at  present  there  are  only  three  minerals  that 
have  any  great  industrial  importance.  These  are  rock-salt, 
petroleum,  and  lignite.  The  salt  mines  are  a  state  monopoly,  and 
two  of  them,  at  Ocna-Mare  and  Telega,  are  partly  worked  by 
convicts.  The  depth  from  which  the  salt  is  extracted  nowhei-e 
exceeds  300  feet.  The  average  quantity  of  salt  sold  annually  is 
about  62,000  tons.  Liguite  is  important  inasmuch  as  it  is  used 
along  with  wood  on  the  railways,  as  well  as  in  brick  and  lime 
kilns.  Coal  is  also  found,  in  sonie  places  even  at  the  surface,  but, 
though  one  or  two  mines  have  been  opened,  the  totiil  production  is 
insignificant.  Ozocerite,  or  fossil  wax,  is  frequently  fouud  in 
association  with  lignite,  but  is  used  only  in  small  quantity  by 
the  peasantry.  Among  other  minerals  are  anthracite,  iron,  gold, 
copper,  lead,  sulphur,  cobalt,,  and  arsenic  ;  and  there  is  little  doubt 
tl>at  some  of  these  at  least  might  bo  made  economically  valuable  if 
the  resources  of  the  country  were  adequately  developed. 

So   far  the  manufacturing  industries  of  Roumania  are  hardly  Manu- 
worthy  of  mention.     There  are  petroleum  refineries,  one  or  two  factures. 
sugar  refineries,  numerous  steam-mills  for  grinding  flour,  besides 
large   numbers  of  floating  maize-mills  on   the   Danube  ;  but  in 
addition  to  these  there  are  only  a  few  manufactories  at  Galatz. 

From  the  account  just  given  of  the  products  of  Roumania  it  Trade, 
follows  that  the  exports  of  the  kingdom  consist  chiefly  of  raw 
produce,  and  above  all  of  cereals,  while  the  imports  are  mainly 
composed  of  manufactured  articles.  The  countries  with  which  the 
trade  is  chiefly  carried  on  are  Austria  (with  about  40  per  cent,  of 
the  whole  trade  in  1883),  Great  Britain  (about  30  per  cent), 
France  (about  10  per  cent),  Germany  (about  8  per  cent),  Turkey, 
and  Russia.  The  foreign  commerce  of  Roumania  is  centred  in 
Galatz,  which  is  situated  at  the  bend  of  the  Danube  where  the  river 
once  more  turns  eastward  on  reaching  the  northern  extremity  of 
the  Dobrudja  plateau.  From  this  centre  there  is  one  line  of  rail- 
way leading  into  Russia,  while  others  pass  through  the  interior  of 
Roumania  and  connect  with  tho  Austrian  lines  in  the  north  and 
soutli  of  Hungary.  The  first  Roumanian  railway  was  that  from 
Giurgevo  to  Bucharest,  opened  in  1869.  In  1884  there  were  about 
1000  miles  of  railway  in  the  kingdom.  The  internal  trade  of 
Roumania  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews.  It  is 
greatly  hampered  by  the  existence  of  the  octroi  in  all  the  large 
towns,  almost  all  the  necessaries  of  life  as  well  as  luxuries  being 
taxed  when  introduced  -B'ithin  the  municipal  boundaries. 

See  Samiiclson.  Roujnania,  Past  and  /'resent  (London,  1PS2);  Ozannc,  Thret 
y'fars  in  Koummiia  ([.ondon,  187S);  Kanilz,  Monau-Jiutgarien  und  der  Balkan 
(IS75) ;  and  R.  Roesler,  Roindnisclie  Stt/dien.  (G.  G.  C.) 

Slalistics. 
The  approximate  proportion  of  cultivated  and  uncultivated  land  Product' 
in  Roumania  is  given  in  pogones  (  =  li  acres)  as  follows  : — 

Cereals,  gardens,  vines ^ 4,945,708 

.Pasture  and  hay 7,693,910 

Forests 4,029,947 

Uncultivated .7,574,336 

Tho  annual  yield  of  cereals  of  all  kinds  is  roughly  estimated  at 
15,000,000  quarters.  The  number  of  horned  cattle  in  the  country 
is  about  3,000,000. 

In  1883  tho  following  were  the  values  of  the  principal  articles  Imports 
of  import  and  export : —  and 

exports. 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Imports 

Exports. 

£ 
4,70i;.003 
2,926,570 
1,719,074 

7.14,754 
713.000 

£ 

24«,504 

73,100 

257,130 

353,372 
24,0S0 

Minerals,  pottery.. 

Olh,  fat,  &c 

CinaK 

Animals 

Fnills,  vccctatjiu&. 

£ 

455,510 

3r4,;or 

2-^l,3:7 
l.W,420 
62,840 

£ 
12.760 

6,!)02,2.'<0 
4U.'.,I19J 
171,381 

Metals 

Skins,  Icullier 

Wood  and  maiiu- 

Exotic  productR... 

The  total  imports  of  British  home  produce,  mostlj  cotton  goods, 
&e.,  and  iron,  into  Roumania  in  1883  amounted  to  ill, 344,619,  and 
the  total  exports,  mostly  barley  Jtnd.  maize,  of  lloumania  to  Croat 
Britain  to  £3,516,442. 

There  were  in  1SS4  about  1000  miles  of  railway  complete  in 
tho  kingdom,  ami  3000  miles  of  telegraph  lines. 

The  estimated  population  of  the  euuiitry  is  5,376,000,  including 
about  400,000  Jews  nnd  200,000  Gipsies.  About  fonr  and  a  h.ilf 
millions  of  the  population  belong  to  the  Roumanii-  i  branch  of  tho 
Orthodox  Greek  Church,  and  there  aro  114,000  Roman  Catholic* 
and  13,800  Protestaiita. 


16 


R  O  U  M  A  N  I  A 


An  ofEcial  analysis  of  tLe  occupations  of  the  people  gives  the 
following  results  (the  figures  representing  heads  of  families) : — 

Agriculturists 684,168 

Artisans  and  labourers 83,061 

Traders 30,417 

Officials 22,811 

Professors  and  teachers 6,066 

Medical  and  legal  professions  and  druggists..  995 

Artists,  musicians,  and  publicists 2,156 

Priests,  monks,  and  nuns 18,452 

Various 125,815 

Total 973,941 

Of  the  larger  cities  Bucharest  (Bucurest)  numbered  in  1876 
221,805  inhabitants,  Jassy  90,125,  and  Galatz  80,763. 

In  1883  there  were  2742  primary  schools  with  124,130  pupils, 
8  normal  schools  with  830  pupils,  and  54  high  schools  with  7993 
pupils,  besides  the  two  universities  of  Bucharest  and  Jassy,  con- 
taining 97  professors  and  readers  and  705  students.  It  is  estimated 
that  about  1000  young  men  receive  their  university  education 
abroad,  mostly  at  Paris.  There  is  also  a  ladies'  college,  called  the 
Asyle  HeRne  from  its  founder  in  its  present  form,  the  Princess 
Helena  Cuza,  and  accommodating  230  girls,  many  of  whom, 'are 
orphans.  Amongst  learned  institutions  the  Roumanian  Academy 
claims  the  first  place,  and  excellent  contributions  on  subjects  of 
national  and  scientific  interest  will  be  found  amongst  its  proceed- 
ings (Analcle  Academki  Homanc,  1878  sq.).  The  academy  building 
at  Bucharest  contains  the  national  library  of  over  30,000  volumes 
and  a  fine  archaeological  museum  containing  many  Old  Dacian 
antiquities. 

The  peace  strength  of  the  permanent  army  consists  of  1200 
officers  and  18,532  men,  with  180  guns.  Besides  this,  there  are 
the  territorial  army,  consisting  of  120,000  men  and  84  guns  ;  the 
militia,  consisting  of  thirty-two  regiments  of  infantry;  and  finally 
the  levee  en  masse.  Every  Roumanian,  from  his  twenty-first  to  his 
forty-sixth  year,  is  obliged  to  serve  his  time  in  one  of  the  above 
categories.  The  total  of  the  Roumanian  forces,  exclusive  of  the 
levee  en  masse,  amounts  to  about  150,000  men  and  288  guns. 

Mediseval  and  Modern  History  of  WalacTiia  and  Moldavia, 
Ronmania  is  the  name  officially  adopted  by  the  united  kingdom 
that  comprises  the  former  principalities  of  Walachia  and  Moldavia. 
In  its  native  form  it  appears  simply  as  "Romania,"  representing 
the  claim  to  Roman  descent  put  forward  by  its  inhabitants.  These 
call  themselves  "  Romani "  or  "  Rumeni,  "  but  by  their  neighbours, 
Slavonic,  Greek,  Magyar,  and  German,  they  are  universally  known 
by  one  or  other  form  of  the  word  "Tlach."  As,  however,  this 
Vlach  or  Rouman  race  occupies  a  far  wider  area  than  that  included 
in  the  present  Roumanian  kingdom,  it  may  be  convenient  to  post- 
pone the  vexed  questions  connected  with  its  origin,  migrations, 
and  distribution  for  more  general  treatment  under  the  heading 
Vlaohs,  and  to  confine  ourselves  on  this  occasion  to  Roumania 
proper — the  country  between  the  Carpathians,  the  Lower  Danube, 
and  the  Black  Sea.  It  may  be  suthcient  here  to  observe  that, 
according  to  the  concurrent  accounts  from  various  sources,  the 
great  plains  of  the  later  Walachian  and  Moldavian  principalities 
were  first  occupied  by  an  immigrant  Rouman  population  coming 
from  the  Carpathian  lands  and  the  present  Transylvania  in  the 
early  Middle  Ages.  According  to  the  Russian  Nestor  and  the 
earliest  Hungarian  chroniclers,  the  Carpathian  region,  including 
■tracts  of  eastern  Hungary,  were  occupied  by  a  Rouman  ("  Roman") 
population  at  the  time  of  the  Magyar  invasion  in  the  9th  century. 
3n  the  other  hand,  the  meagre  annals  of  the  plains  that  lie  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Lower  Danube  are  exclusively  occupied  till  at 
least  the  11th  century  with  Slovenes,  Petchenegs,  Cumans,  and 
Bulgarians.  Whatever  title  the  Carpathian  Roumans  may  have 
to  be  considered  the  descendants  in  situ  of  the  Romanized  pro- 
vincials of  Trajan's  Dacia,  it  seems  fairly  asce^-tained  that  the 
present  extension  of  this  easternmost  branch  of  the  Latin  peoples 
^ver  the  Walachian  ani  Moldavian  plains  is  due  to  a  colonizing 
rflovement  from  the  Alpine  regions  to  the  west,  effected  for  the 
most  part  in  the  12th  and  succeeding  centuries. 

Walaeliia. — For  the  early  history  of  the  Walachian  (Valachian, 
or  Wallachian)  principality  the  native  sources  are  late  and  untrust- 
worthy. These  sources  really  reduce  themselves  to  a  single  chron- 
icle, a  pJrt  of  which  appears  to  have  been  drawn  up  in  the  16th 
century  in  Bulgaro-Slovene,  and  of  which  two  Rouman  translations 
have  seen  the  light.  This  "History  of  the  Rouman  land  since 
tue  arrival  of  the  Roumans  "  (Istoria  tierei  Romancsci  de  cdndS  au 
dejcalicata  Romanii)  gives  a  precise  account  of  the  founding  of  the 
Walachian  state  by  Radul  Negru,  voivode  of  the  Roumans  of 
Fogaras  in  Transylvania,  who  in  129t)  descended  with  a  numerous 
people  into  the  Transalpine  plain  and  established  his  capital  first 
at  Cimpulungu  and  then  at  Argish.  Radul  dies  in  1314  and  is 
succeeded  by  a  series  of  voivodes  whose  names  and  dates  are  duly 
^Tfln;   but  this  early  chapter  of  Wakchian  history  has  been 


rudely  handled  by  Roesler  in  his  essay  on  the  oldest  history  of  Oie 
Walachian  voivodeship  {Romanisehe  Stiidien,  p.  261  sq. ).  The  so- 
called  "  Chronicle  of  Hurul "  is  a  modern  forgery,  and  our  only  real 
authorities  for  the  beginnings  of  Roumanian  history  are  Hungarian, 
Polish,  and  Byzantine. 

In  1330  the  voivode  Alexander  Bazarad  or  Bassaraba  succeeded 
in  inflicting  a  crushing  defeat  ot  his  suzerain  King  Charles  of 
Hungary,  and  for  fourteen  years  Wallachia  enjoyed  complete  inde- 
pendence. Louis  the  Great  succeeded  for  a  while  in  restoring  the 
Hungarian  supremacy,  but  in  1367  the  voivode  Vlad  or  Vladislav 
inflicted  another  severe  defeat  on  the  Hungarians,  and  succeeded 
for  a  time  in  ousting  the  Magyar  ban  of  Severiu  and  thus  incor« 
porating  Little  Walachia,  the  countiy  west  of  the  Aluta,  in  hia 
dominions.  Subsequently,  in  order  to  retain  a  hold  on  the  loyalty 
of  the  Walachian  voivode,  the  king  of  Hungary  invested  him  wit» 
the  title  of  duke  of  Fogaras  and  Omlas,  Rouman  districts  situate 
in  Transylvania,  and  this  investiture  seems  to  have  left  its  impress 
on  the  traditional  account  of  Radul  Negru. 

Pnder  the  voivode  Mircea  (1383-1419),  whose  prowess  is  still 
celebrated  in  the  national  folk-songs,  Walachia  played  for  a  while 
a  more  ambitious  part.  This  prince,  during  the  earlier  part  of  his 
reign,  sought  a  counterpoise  to  Hungarian  influence  in  the  close 
alliance  with  King  Vladislav  Jagiello  of  Poland.  He  added  to  his 
other  titles  that  of  "  comt  of  Severin,  despot  of  the  Dobrudja,  and 
lord  of  Silistria,"  and  both  Widin  and  Sistov  appear  in  his  pos- 
session. A  Walachian  contingent,  apparently  Mircea's,  aided  the 
Servian  Kniaz  Lazar  on  the  fatal  field  of  Kosovo  ;  later  he  was  led 
by  the  force  of  circumstances  to  ally  himself  with  his  former 
enemy  Sigismund  of  Hungary  against  Bajazet,  and  in  1396  shared 
with  him  the  disaster  of  Nikopolis.  Bajazet  subsequently  invaded 
and  laid  waste  a  large  part  of  Walachia,  but  the  voivode  succeeded 
in  inflicting  considerable  loss  on  the  retiring  Turks,  and  the  capture 
of  Bajazet  by  Timur  in  14C2  gave  the  country  a  reprieve.  In  the 
internecine  struggle  that  followed  amongst  the  sons  of  Bajazet, 
Mircea  espoused  the  cause  of  Musa  ;  but,  though  he  thus  obtained 
for  a  while  considerable  influence  in  the  Turkish  councils,  this 
policy  eventually  drew  on  him  the  vengeance  of  Sultan  Mahomet  I., 
who  succeeded  in  reducing  him  to  a  tributary  position. 

During  the  succeeding  period  the  Walachian  princes  appear 
alternately  as  the  allies  of  Hungary  or  the  creatures  of  the  'Turk. 
In  the  later  battle  of  Kosovo  of  1448,  between  Hunyadiand  Sultaa 
JIurad,  the  Walachian  contingent  treacherously  surrendered  to  the 
Turks,  but  this  did  not  hinder  the  victorious  sultan  from  massacring 
the  prisoners  and  adding  to  the  tribute  a  yearly  contribution  of 
3000  javelins  and  4000  shields.  In  1453  Constantinople  fell ;  in 
1454  Hunyadi  died ;  and  two  years  later  the  sultan  invaded 
Walachia  to  set  up  Vlad  IV.,  the  son  of  a  former  voivode.  The  Vlad  ti>. 
father  of  this  Vlad  had  himself  been  notorious  for  his  ferocity,  Impalet 
but  his  son,  during  his  Turkish  sojourn,  had  improved  on  Jiis 
father's  example.  He  was  known  in  Walachia  as  "  Dracul,"  or  the 
Devil,  and  has  left  a  name  in  history  as  Vlad  the  Impaler.  The 
stories  of  his  ferocious  savagery  exceed  belief.  He  is  saic"  to  have 
feasted  amongst  his  impaled  victims.  When  the  sultan  Mahomet, 
infuriated  at  the  impalement  of  his  envoy,  the  pasha  of  Widin,  who 
had  been  charged  mth  Vlad's  deposirion,  invaded  Walachia  in 
person  with  an  immense  host,  he  is  said  to  have  found  at  one  spot 
a-  forest  of  pales  on  which  were  the  bodies  of  men,  women,  and 
children.  The  voivode  Radul,  who  was  now  substituted  for 
this  monster  by  Turkish  influence,  was  constrained  to  pay  a  tribute 
of  12,000  ducats. 

The  shifting  policy  of  the  Walachian  princes  at  this  time  is  State  oi 
well  described  in  a  "letter  of  the  Hungarian  king  Matthias  to^Ya'acbi 
Casimir  of  Poland.  "  The  voivodes,"  he  wTites,  "  of  Walachia  and  J^- 
Moldavia  fawn  alternately  upon  the  Turks,  the  Tatars,  the  Poles, 
and  the  Hungarians,  that  among  so  many  masters  their  peTfidy 
may  remain  unpunished."  The  prevalent  laxity  of  marriage,  the 
frequency  of  divorce,  and  the  fact  that  illegitimate  children  could 
succeed  as  well  as  those  born  in  lawful  wedlock,  by  multiplying 
the  candidates  for  the  voivodeship  and  preventing  any  regular 
system  of  succession,  contributed  much  to  the  internal  confusion  of 
the  country.  The  elections,  though  often  controlled  by  the  Divan, 
were  still  constitutionally  in  the  hands  of  the  boiars,  who  were 
split  up  into  various  factions,  each  with  its  own  pretender  to  the 
throne.  The  princes  followed  one  another  in  rapid  succession, 
and  a  large  proportion  met  with  violent  ends.  A  large  part  of 
the  population  led  a  pastoral  life,  and  at  the  time  of  Verantius's  visit 
to  Walachia  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century  the  towns  and 
villages  were  built  of  wood  and  wattle  and  daub.  Tirgovist  alone, 
at  this  time  the  capital  of  the  country,  was  a  considerable  town, 
with  two  stone  castles.  Nagul  Bassaraba,  who  succeeded  in  1512, 
was  a  great  builder  of  monasteries,  and,  besides  erecting  a  monastii 
church  at  Argish,  which  he  coated  with  white  marble,  and  a  new 
cathedral  at  Tirgovist,  adorned  Mount  Atho^  with,  his  pious  works, 
He  transferred  the  direct  allegiance  of  the  Walachian  Church 
to  Constantinople.  On  Nagul's  death,  hcwe-rar,  in  1521,  the 
brief  period  of  comparative  prosperity  which  his  ai-chitecturai 
works  attest  was  tragically  interrupted,  and  it  s«>em8d  fo^  \  tiD»B 


ROTJMAjS"LA  &  SERVIA. 


K 


o 


ROU  MANIA 


17 


that  Walacliia  was  doonicJ  to  siuk  into  a  Turkish  pashalic.  Tlie 
Turkish  commander  JIahmoud  Bey  became  treacherously  possessed 
of  Nagul's  young  sou  and  successor,  and,  sending  him  a  prisoner  to 
Stamboul,  proceeded  to  nominate  Turkisli  governors  in  tlio  towns 
and  villages  of  Walachia.  Tlic  Walachians  resisted  desperately, 
elected  lladul,  a  kinsman  of  Nagul,  voivode,  and  succeeded  with 
Hungarian  lielp  in  defeating  Mahmoud  Bey  at  Grumatz  in  1522. 
The  conflict  was  prolonged  with  varying  fortunes,  but  in  1524  the 
dogged  opposition  of  the  Walachians  finally  triumphed  in  the 
sultan's  recognition  of  Radul. 

But,  though  Walachia  tlius  escaped  conversion  into  a  Turkish 
pashalic,  the  battle  of  Mohacs  in  1526  decided  the  long  pre- 
ponderance of  Turkish  control.  The  unfortunate  province  served 
as  a  transit  route  for  Turkish  expeditions  against  Hungary 
and  Transylvania,  and  was  exhausted  by  continual  requisitions. 
Turkish  settlers  were  gradually  making  good  their  footing  on 
Walachian  soil,  and  mosques  were  rising  in  the  towns  and  villages. 
The  voivode  Alexander,  who  succeeded  in  1591,  and  who  like  his 
predecessors  had  bought  his  post  of  the  Divan,  carried  the  oppres- 
sion still  further  by  introducing  against  the  cajiitulations  a  janizary 
fuard,  and  farming  out  his  possessions  to  his  Turkish  supporters, 
[eanwhile  the  Turkish  governors  on  the  Bulgarian  bank  never 
ceased  to  ravage  the  country,  and  again  it  seemed  as  if  Walachia 
must  share  the  fate  of  the  Balkan  states  and  succumb  to  the  direct 
/;overnment  of  the  Ottoman.  In  the  depth  of  the  national  distress 
the  choice  of  the  people  fell  on  Michael,  the  son  of  Petrushko,  ban 
of  Krajova,  the  first  dignitary  of  the  realm,  who  had  fled  to 
Transylvania  to  escape  Alexander's  machinations.  Supported  at 
Constantinople  by  two  at  that  time  influential  personages,  Sigmund 
Biithori  and  the  English  ambassador,  Edward  Barton,  and  aided  by 
a  loan  of  200,000  florins,  Michael  succeeded  in  procuring  from  the 
'  Divnn  the  deposition  of  his  enemy  and  his  own  nomination. 
id  The  genius  of  Michael  "the  Brave  "(1593-1601)  secured  Walachia 
for  a  time  a  place  in  universal  history.  The  moment  for  action 
I.  was  favourable.  The  emperor  Kudolph  11.  had  gained  some 
successes  over  the  Turks,  and  Sigmund  Bathori,  prince  of 
Transylvania,  had  been  driven  by  Turkish  extortions  to  throw  off 
the  allegiance  to  the  sultan.  But  the  first  obstacle  to  be  dealt 
with  was  the  presence  of  the  enemy  within  the  walls,  and  Michael 
had  recourse  to  the  same  desperate  expedient  as  the  Montenegrins 
at  a  later  date.  By  previous  concert  with  the  Moldavian  voivode 
Aaron,  on  November  13,  1594,  the  Turkish  guards  and  settlers  in 
the  two  principalities  were  massacred  at  a  given  signal,  Michael 
followed  up  these  "  Walachian  Vespers  "  by  an  actual  invasion  of 
Turkish  territory,  and,  aided  by  Sigmund  Bathori,  succeeded  in 
carr}'ing  by  assault  Rustchuk,  Silistria,  and  other  places  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  lower  Danube.  A  simultaneous  invasion  of 
Walachia  by  a  largo  Turkish  and  Crim-Tatar  host  was  successfully 
defeated  ;  the  Tatar  khan  withdrew  with  the  loss  of  his  bravest 
followers,  and,  in  the  great  victory  of  Mantin  on  the  Danube 
(1595),  the  Turkish  army  was  annihilated,  and  its  leader  Mustafa 
slain.  The  sultan  now  sent  Sinan  Pasha  "the  Renegade"  to  invade 
Walachia  with  100,000  men.  Michael  withdrew  to  tlie  mountains 
before  this  overwhelming  force,  but,  being  joined  by  B.ithori  with 
a  Transylvanian  contingent,  the  voivode  resumed  the  offensive, 
stormed  Bucharest,  where  Sinan  had  entrenched  a  Turkish  detach- 
ment, and.  pursuing  the  main  body  of  his  forces  to  the  Danube, 
overtook  the  rearguard  and  cut  it  to  pieces,  capturing  enormous 
booty.  Sinan  Pasha  returned  to  Constantinople  to  die,  it  is  said, 
of  vexation,  and  in  1597  the  sultan,  weary  of  a  disastrous  contest, 
sent  Michael  a  red  flag  in  token  of  reconciliation;  reinvested  him 
for  life  in  an  office  of  which  ho  had  been  unable  to  deprive  him, 
and  granted  the  succession  to  his  son, 
lest  In  1599,  on  the  definitive  abdication  of  Sigmund  Bathori  in 
,n-  Transylvania,  Michael,  in  league  with  the  imperialist  forces  under 
ia.  General  Basta,  and  in  connivance  with  the  Saxon  burghers,  attacked 
and  defeated  his  successor  Andreas  Bathori  near  Hermannstadt, 
and,  seizing  himself  the  reins  of  government,  secured  his  proclama- 
tion as  prince  of  Transylvania.  The  emperor  consented  to  appoint 
him  his  "  locum  tenens  per  Transylvaniam,"  and  the  sultan  ratified 
liis  election.  As  prince  of  Transylvania  he  summoned  diets  in 
1599  and  1600,  and,  having  expelled  the  voivode  of  Moldavia, 
united  under  his  sceptre  tlirco  principalities.  The  partiality  that 
he  showed  for  the  Rouman  and  Szekler  parts  of  the  population 
alienated,  however,  the  Transylvanian  Saxons,  who  preferred  the 
direct  government  of  the  emperor.  The  imperial  commissioner 
General  Basta  lent  his  support  to  the  disaffeutod  party,  ami 
Michael  was  driven  out  of  I'ransylvania  by  a  successful  revolt, 
■while  a  Polish  army  under  Zamoyski  invaded  Walachia  from  the 
Moldavian  side.  Michncl's  coolness  and  resource,  however,  never 
for  a  moment  deserted  him.  He  resolved  to  throw  himself  on 
the  emperor,  rode  to  Prague,  won  over  R\idol()h  by  his  singular 
address,  and,  richly  supplied  with  funds,  reappeared  in  Transylvania 
Hi  imperial  governor.  In  conjunction  with  Basta  ho  dcfcnlcd  the 
superior  Transylvanian  forces  at  GorosIA,  expelliiig  Sigmund 
Piathori,  who  had  again  aspired  to  the  crown,  and  taking  one 
hundred  and  fifty  flags  and  forty-five  cannon.  But  at  the  moment 
•)1  _• 


of  his  returning  prosperity  Basta,  who  hiid  quarrelled  with  hira 
about  the  supremo  command  of  the  imperial  forces,  procured  his 
murder  (August  19,  1601).  Thus  perished  Michael  tlie  Brave  iU 
tlie  forty-third  year  of  his  age,  after  performing  in  the  course  of 
his  short  reign  achievements  which,  considering  thesmall  resources 
at  his  disposal,  must  place  his  name  beside  those  of  Hunyadi  and 
Sobieski  in  the  annals  of  eastern  Europe.  Not  only  did  he  succeed 
in  rolling  back  for  a  time  the  tide  of  Turkish  conquest,  but  for 
tlie  first  and  last  time  in  modern  history  he  united  what  once  had 
been  Trajan's  Dacia,  in  its  widest  extent,  and  with  it  the  whole 
Rouman  race  north  of  the  Danube,  under  a  single  sceptre. 

Michael's  wife  Florika  and  his  son  Petrushko  were  carried  off 
into  Tatar  captivity,  and  Serban,  of  the  Bas'saiaba  family,  vas 
raised  to  the  voivodeship  of  Walachia  by  imperialist  influences. 
On  his  deposition  by  the  Porte  in  1610,  there  followed  a  .succession 
of  princes  who,  though  still  for  the  most  part  of  Rouman  origin, 
bought  their  appointment  at  Stamboul.  Walachian  contingent? 
were  continually  employed  by  the  Turks  in  tiieir  Polish  wars,  and 
the  settlement  of  Greeks  in  an  official  or  mercantile  capacity  in 
the  principality  provoked  grave  discontent,  which  on  one  occasion 
took  the  form  of  a  massacre.  The  reign  of  the  voivode  Matthias 
Bassaraba,  who  succeeded  in  1633,  was  an  interval  of  comparative 
prosperity,  and  its  length,  twenty-one  years,  forms  itself  a  panegyric.  . 
He  defended  himself  successfully  against  his  powerful  rival  Vasiljo 
Lupul,  the  voivode  of  Moldavia,  and  his  Tatar  and  Cossack  allies, 
and  found  a  golden  key  to  Turkish  tolerance.  He  appears  as  a 
lawgiver,  translating  the  Basilica  of  Jo.  Comnenus,  and  founded 
many  churches  and  monasteries.  His  last  days  were  embittered, 
however,  by  an  outbreak  of  military  anarchy.  On  his  death  the 
Turkish  yoke  again  weighed  heavier  on  Walachia.  The  old  capital 
Tirgovist  was  considered  by  the  Divan  to  be  too  near  the  Transyl- 
vanian frontier,  and  the  voivodes  were  accordingly  compelled  to 
transfer  their  residence  to  Bucharest.  The  mechanical  skill  of  the 
Walachians  was  found  useful  by  the  Turks,  who  employed  them  as 
carpenters  and  pontonniers  ;  aifd  during  the  siege  of  Vienna  by 
Kara  Mustafa  in  1683  the  Walachian  contingent,  which,  under  the 
voivode  Serban  Cantacuzene,  had  been  forced  to  co-operate  with  Serban 
the  Turks,  was  entrusted  with  the  construction  of  the  two  bridges  Canta- 
over  the  Danube  above  and  below  Vienna.  The  Walachian  as  cuzene. 
well  as  the  Jloldavian  prince,  who  had  been  also  forced  to  bring 
his  contingent,  maintained  a  secret  intelligence  with  the  besieged, 
an  intelligence  continued  by  the  voivode  Serban  after  his  return 
to  Walachia.  The  emperor  granted  him  a  diploma  creating  him 
count  of  the  empire  and  recognizing  his  descent  from  the  imperial 
house  of  Cantacuzene,  Serban  meanwhile  collecting  his  forces  for 
an  open  breach  with  the  Porte.  His  prudence,  however,  per- 
petually postponed  the  occasion,  and  Walachia  enjoyed  peace  to  his 
death  in  1688.  This  peaceful  state  of  the  country  gave  the  voivode 
leisure  to  promote  its  internal  culture;  and  in  the  year  of  his  death 
he  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  first  part  of  a  Walachian  Bible 
issue  from  the  first  printing-press  of  the  country,  which  he  had 
established  at  Bucharest.  He  had  also  caused  to  be  compiled  a 
history  of  Walachia,  and  had  called  to  the  country  many  teachers 
of  the  Greek  language,  whose  business  it  was  to  instruct  the  sons  of 
the  hoiars  in  "grammar,  rhetoric,  and  philosophy." 

Immediately  on  Serban's  death  the  boiars,  to  prevent  the  Porte  Constan- 
from  handing  over  the  office  to  the  Greek  adventurer  who  bid  the  tine  , 
highest,  proceeded  to  elect  his  sister's  son  Constantino  Brancovan.  Bran- 
The  Turkish  capidji  pasha,  then  in  Bucharest,  was  persuaded  to  put  covan. 
the  caftan  on  his  head  in  token  of  Turkish  approval,  and  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  who  was  also  present,  and  the  arch- 
bishop of  Walachia,  Theodosius,  consecrated  him  together  at  the 
high  altar  of  the  cathedral,  where  he  took  the  coronation  oath  to 
devote  his  whole  strength  to  tho  good  of  his  country  and  received 
the  boiars'  oath  of  submission.  Brancovan,  it  is.  true,  found  it 
expedient  to  devote  his  predecessor's  treasure  to  purchasing  the 
confirmation  of  his  title  from  the  Divan,  but  the  account  of  his 
coronation  ceremony  remains  an  interesting  landmark  in  the 
constitutional  history  of  the  country.  In  his  foreign  relations 
with  the  Hapsburg  power  he  displayed  the  same  caution  as  tho 
voivode  Serban.  In  spite  of  the  victories  of  the  margrave  of  Badon 
at  Pojarevatz,  Nish,  and  Widin  in  1689,  it  was  only  by  an  exercise  of 
force  that  the  imperial  troops  secured  winter  quarters  in  Walachia, 
and,  though  after  tho  battle  of  Pultava  in  1709  Brancovan  con- 
cluded a  secret  treaty  with  Czar  Peter,  he  avoided  giving  open  effect 
to  it.  The  tranquillity  which  ho  thus  obtained  was  employed  by 
Brancovan  as  by  his  predecessor  in  furthering  tho  internal  well- 
being  of  tho  country,  with  what  success  is  best  apparent  from  the 
description  of  Walachia  left  by  the  Florentine  Del  Chiaro,  who 
visited  tho  country  in  1709  and  spent  seven  years  there.  He 
describes  the  stonolcss  Walachian  jihiin,  with  its  rich  jiastures,  its 
crops  of  maize  and  millet,  and  wooils  so  symmetrically  planted 
and  carefully  kept  by  Brancovan's  orders  that  hiding  in  thoin  was 
out  of  tho  question.  Butter  and  liniiey  were  exported  to  supply 
the  Grand  Sijjnor's  kitchen  at  Stamboul  ;  wax  and  cattle  to  Venice  ; 
and  the  red  and  white  wine  of  Walachia,  notably  that  of  Pitcsti, 
to  Transylvania.     Tho  Walachian  horses  were  in  demand  amongst 


18 


KOUMANIA 


the  Tiirl5s  and  Poles.  Ke.ir  r.ibnik  and  elsewlicre  were  salt-mines 
which  supplied  all  the  wants  of  the  Transdanubian  provinces ;  there 
were  considerable  copper  mines  at  Maidan  ;  and  iron  was  worked 
near  Tirgovist.  The  Gipsy  community  was  boimd  to  bring  fifteen 
pounds  weight  of  gold  from  the  washings  of  the  Argish.  The  boiars 
were  many  of  them  wealthy,  but  the  common  people  wero  so  ground 
down  with  taxation  that  "  of  their  ancient  Koman  valour  only  the 
pame  remained."  To  avoid  the  extortion  of  their  rulers  numbers 
had  emigrated  to  Transylvania  and  even  to  the  Turkish  provinces. 
The  principal  Walachian  city  was  Bucharest  (Bucurest),  containing 
a  population  of  about  50,000 ;  but,  except  for  two  large  "  hans  or 
merchants'  halls  built  by  Brancovan  and  his  predecessor,  and  the 
recently-erected  palace,  which  had  a  marble  staircase  and  a  fine 
garden,  the  houses  were  of  wood.  The  other  principal  towns  were 
Tirgovist,  the  old  capital,  Ceruetz,  Fokshani,  supplied  by  Brancovan 
with  an  aqueduct,  Ploiesti,  Ghierghitza,  Rusi  di  Vede,  and  Krajova, 
the  capitid  of  the  banat  of  that  name,  where  a  fine  han  had  also  been 
■  built.  At  Cimpulungu  was  a  great  annual  fair.  Tlie  dress  of  the 
men  was  thoroughly  Turkish  exce|)t  for  their  lambskin  caps,  that  of 
the  women  half-Greek  half-Turkish.  The  houses  were  scrupulously 
clean  and  strewn  with  sweet  herbs.  Del  Chiaro  notices  the  great 
imitative  capacitv  of  the  race,  both  artistic  and  mechanical.  A 
Walachian  in  Venice  had  copied  several  of  the  pictures  there  with 
great  skill ;  the  copper-plates  and  wood  engraxnngs  for  the  new 
press  were  executed  by  native  hands.  The  Walachians  imitated 
every  kind  of  Turkish  and  European  manufacture  ;  and,  though  the 
boiars  imported  finer  glass  from  Venice  and  Bohemia,  a  glass 
manufactory  had  been  established  near  Tirgovist  which  produced 
a  better  quality  than  the  Polish.  From  the  Buchares-t.  press,  besides 
a  variety  of  ecclesiastical  books,  there  \vere  issued  in  the  Ronman 
tongue  a  translation  of  a  French  work  entitled  "  Tlie  Maxims  of 
thc'bric'ntals"  and  "The  Romance  of  Alexander  the  Great."  In 
1700  Brancovan  had  a  map  of  the  country  made  and  a  copper- 
plate engraving  of  it  executed  at  Padua.  ^ 
Fall  of  The  prosperity  of  Walachia,  however,  under  its  "  Golden  Bey, 
Bran-  as  Brancovan  was  known  at  Stamboul,  only  increased  the  Turkish 
eovan.  exactions.  In  1701  the  tribute  was  increased  to  80,500  purses  of 
500  florins  each.  In  1 703  the  voivode  was  summoned  in  person  to 
Adrianople,  and  again  must  resort  f  extraordinary  means  to 
mollify  the  Divan.  Shortly  after,  the  Walachians  were  called  on  to 
supply  masons,  carpenters,  and  other  worinuen  for  the  fortification 
of  Bender,  and,  though  these  and  other  demands  were  punctually 
met  and  the  increased  tribute  regulariy  paid,  the  sultan  finally 
resolved  on  the  removal  of  his  too  prosperous  vassal.  Brancovan 
was  accused  of  secret  correspondence  with  the  emperor,  the  czar, 
the  king  of  Poland,  and  the  Venetian  republic,  of  betraying  the 
Porte's  secrets,  of  preferring  Tirgovist  to  Buchaiest  as  a  residence,  of 
acquiring  lands  and  palaces  in  Transylvania,  of  keeping  agents  at 
Venice  and  Vienna,  in  both  of  whicli  cities  he  bad  invested  large 
sums,  and  of  striking  gold  coins  with  his  efhgy,  one  of  which,  with 
the  legend  constantin  vs  dass.\raba  de  erancovan  d.  g.  voevoda 
ET  i-niNCEPS  VALACHii;  TKANSALPIN^,  and  having  on  the  reverse 
the  crowned  sliield  of  Walachia.  containing  a  raven  holding  a  cross 
in  its  beak  between  a  moon  and  a  star,  is  engraved  by  Del  Chiai-o. 
They  were  of  2,  3,  and  10  ducats  Aveight.  A  capidji  pasha  arrived 
at  Bucharest  on  April  4,  1714,  and  proclaimed  Brancovan  "mazil," 
i.e.,  deposed.  He  was  conducted  to  Constantinople  and  beheaded, 
together  with  his  four  sons.  A  scion  of  the  rival  Cantacuzcnian 
family  was  elected  by  the  pasha's  orders,  and  he,  after  exhausting 
the  principality  for  the  benefit  of  the  Divan,  was  in  tui-a  deposed 
and  executed  in  1716. 
The  From  this  period  onwards  the  Porte  introduced  a  new  system  with 
Fan-  regard  to  its  Walachian  vassals.  The  line  of  national  princes  ceases. 
Briote  The  office  of  voivode  or  hospodar  was  sold  to  the  highest  bidder  at 
»egime.  Stamboul,  to  be  farmed  out  from  a  purely  mercenary  point  of  view. 
The  princes  who  now  succeeded  one  another  in  rapid  succession  were 
mostly  Greeks  from  the  Fanar  quarter  of  Constantinople  who  had 
served  the  palace  in  the  quality  of  dragoman,  or  held  some  other 
court  appointment.  They  were  nominated  by  imperial  firman 
without  a  shadow  of  free  election,  and  were  deposed  and  h-ansferred 
from  one  principality  to  another,  executed  or  reappointed,  like  so 
many  pashas.  Like  pashas  they  rarely  held  their  office  more  than 
three  years,  it  being  the  natural  policy  of  the  Porte  to  multiply 
such  lucrative  nominations.  The  same  hospodar  was  often 
reappointed  again  and  again  as  he  succeeded  in  raising  ths  sum 
necessary  to  buy  back  his  title.  Constantino  Ma\Tocordato  was  in 
this  way  hospodar  of  Walachia  at  six  different  times,  and  paid  on 
one  occasion  as  much  as  a  million  lion-dollars  for  the  office.  The 
princes  thus  imposed  on  the  country  were  generally  men  of  intelli- 
gence and  culture.  Nicholas  Mavrocordato,  the  first  of  the  series, 
was  himself  the  author  of  a  Greek  work  on  duties,  and  main- 
tained at  his  court  Demeter  Prokopios  of  Mosehopolis,  who  wrote  a 
review  of  Greet  literature  during  the  17th  and  beginning  of  the  18th 
centuries.  Coustantine  Mavrocordato  was  the  aiithor  of  really 
liberal  reforms.  He  introduced  an  "urbarium"  for  the  peasants, 
limiting  the  days  of  "  angaria,"  or  forced  labour  for  tho  landlord,  to 
twenty- four,  and  in  1747  decreed  tho  abolition  of  serfdom.     But 


the  new  system  conld  not  but  be  productive  of  grinding  oppression, 
and  the  swarms  of  "hungry  Greeklings"  who  accompanied  tic 
Fanariote  rulers  from  Stamboul  made  their  rule  doubly  luteful. 
Numbers  of  the  peasantry  emigrated,  arjd  the  population  rapidly 
diminished.  In  1745  the  number  of  ta.^-paying  families,  which  a 
few  years  before  had  amounted  to  147,000,  had  sunk  to  70,000. 
Yet  the  taxes  were  continually  on  the  increase,  and  the  hospodar 
Scarlatti  Ghika  (1758-61),  though  he  tried  to  mn  some  popularity 
by  the  removal  of  Turkish  -settlers  and  the  aboliHon  of  the 
"  vakarit,"  or  tax  on  cattle  and  horses,  which  was  peculiarly  hateful 
to  the  peasantry,  raised  the  total  amount  of  taxation  to  25,000,000 
lion-dolLars.  The  Turks  meantime  maintained  their  iron  grip  on 
the  countrj-  by  holding  on  the  Walachian  bank  of  the  Danube  the 
fortresses  of  Giurgevo,  Turnul,  and  Orsova,  with  the  surrounding 
districts. 

But  the  tide  of  Ottoman  dominion  was  ebbing  fast.  Already,  bj 
tho  peace  of  Passarovitz  (Pojarevatz)  in  1718,  the  Vianat  of  Krajova 
had  been  ceded  to  the  emperor,  though  by  the  jieace  of  Belgrade 
in  1739  it  was  recovered  by  the  Porte  for  its  Walachian  vassal.  In 
1769  the  Russian  general  Romanzoff  occupied  the  principality,  the 
bishops  and  clergy  took  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  empress  Catherine, 
and  a  deputation  of  boiars  followed.  The  liberties  of  the  country 
were  guaranteed,  taxarion  reformed,  and  in  1772  the  negotiations  at 
Fokshani  between  Russia  and  the  Porte  broke  down  because  the 
czarina's  representatives  insisted  on  the  sultan's  recognition  of 
the  independence  of  Walachia  and  Moldavia  under  an  European 
gnaranteo.  By  the  treaty  of  Kutshuk  Kaimardji,  concluded  in  Treaty 
1774.  Russia  consented  to  hand  back  the  principalities  to  the  Kutshu 
sultan,  but  by  Art.  xvi.  several  sripularions  were  made  in  favour  Kaim- 
of  the  Walacbians  and  Moldavians.  The  people  of  the  princi-  ardjl. 
palities  were  to  enjoy  all  the  privileges  that  they  had  possessed 
under  Mahomet  IV. ;  they  were  to  be  freed  from  tribute  for  two 
years,  as  some  compensation  for  the  ruinous  effects  of  the  last  war  ; 
they  were  to  pay  a  moderate  tribute  ;  the  agents  of  Walachia  and 
Moldavia  at  Constantinonle  were  to  enjoy  the  rights  of  nations,  and 
the  Russian  minister  at  the  Portfi  should  on  occasion  watch  over  the 
interests  of  tlie  principalities.  The  stipulations  of  the  treaty  of 
Kutshuk  Kaimardji,  though  deficient  in  precision  (the  AValachians, 
for  instaneei  had  no  authentic  record  of  the  privileges  enjoyed  under 
Mahomet  IV.),  formed  the  basis  of  the  future  liberties  in  both  prin- 
cipalities ;  and,  as  from  this  period  onwards  Waladiian  history  is 
closely  connected  with  that  of  Moldavia,  it  may  be  convenient 
before  continuing  this  review  to  turn  to  the  eailier  history  of  tho 
sister  principality.  ■     ,-    , 

Moldavia. — Tho  mention  of  Vkchs  on  the  bordei-s  of  Galicia  m  Earty 
1160  (Nic  Chon.,  p.  171)  gives  just  ground  for  believing  that  a  Moi- 
Rounian  population  existed  in  Moldavia  at  least  as  early  as  the  first  davian 
half  of  the  12th  century.     Under  the  successive  domination,  how-  history 
ever,  of  Petchenegs,  Cumans,  and  Tatars,  it  occupied  as  yet  a  sub- 
ordinate position.     It  was  not  till  1352  that  the  Tatars,  already 
weakened  by  Polish  assaults  on  the  Podoliau  side,  were  excelled  from 
this   Curaanian    region   by   the    Transylvanian    Toivodo   Andreas 
Laszkovich.     It  is  in  fact  to  the  period  immediately  succeeding  this 
event  that  tlie  first  establishment  of  an  independent  Rouman  state 
in  Moldavia  is  referred  by  the  concurrent  testimony  of  Moldavian, 
Russian,  and  Hungarian  sources. 

According  to  the  native  traditional  account,  as  first  given  by  the 
Moldavian  chroniclers  of  the  I7th  and  18th  centuries  (Grigorie 
Urcchie  and  Miron  Costin),  Dragosh  the  son  of  Bogdan,  the  founder 
of  the  new  principality,  emigrated  with  his  followers  towards  the 
end  of  the  Mth  centurr  from  the  Hungarian  district  of  Marmaros 
in  th6  North  Carpathians.  The  story  is  related  with  various 
fabulous  accompaniments.  From  the  aurochs  {:vnhru),  in  pursuit 
of  which  Dragosh  first  arrived  on  the  banks  of  the  Molda,  is  derived 
the  ox-head  of  the  Moldavian  national  arms,  and  from  his  favourite 
houud  who  perished  in  the  waters  the  name  of  the  river.  From 
thf  Hungarian  and  Russian  sources,  which  are  somewhat  more 
precise,  tho  date  of  the  arrival  of  Dragosh,  who  otherwise  appears 
as  Bogdan,  in  Moldavia  appears  to  have  been  1359,  and  his  de- 
parture from  Marmaros  was  earned  out  in  defiance  of  his  Hungarian 
suzerain. 

In  the  agreement  arrived  at  between  King  Louis  of  Hungary  and 
the  emperor  Charles  IV.  in  1372,  the  voivodate  of  Moldavia  was 
recognized  as  a  dependency  of  the  crown  of  St  Stephen.  The  over- 
lordship  over  the  coimtry  was,  however,  contested  by  the  king  of 
Poland,  and  their  rival  claims  were  a  continual  source  of  dispute 
between  the  two  kingdoms.  In  1412  a  remarkable  agreement  was 
arrived  at  between  Sigisinund,  in  his  quality  of  king  of  Hungary,  and 
King  Jagieito  of  Poland,  by  which  both  parties  consented  to  postpone 
the  question  of  suzerainship  in  Moldavia.  Should,  however,  the 
Turks  invade  the  country,  the  Polish  and  Hungarian  forces  were  to 
unite  in  ex-pelling  them,  the  voivode  was  to  bo  deposed,  and  the 
Moldavian  territories  divided  between  the  allies.  During  the  first 
half  of  tho  15th  century  Polish  influence  w-as  preponderant,  and  it 
was  cTistnmary  for  the  voivodes  of  Moldavia  to  do  homage  to  tho 
king  of  Poland  at  Kanienieo  or  Snyatin. 

In  1456  the  voivode  Peter,  alarmed  at  the  progress  of  the  Turks. 


K  O   U  M  A  N  I  A 


IW 


"vrho  were  now  dominnnt  in  Servia  and  Walachia,  offered  Sultan 
ilahomet  a  yearly  tributo  of  2000  ducats.  On  his  deposition,  how- 
ever, iu  1-158  by  Stephen,  known  as  "the Great,"  Moldavia  became 
a  power  formidable  alike  to  Turk,  Pole,  and  Hungariiin.  Through- 
out tho  long  reign  of  this  voivodo,  which  lasted  forty-six  years,  liom 
1458  to  1504,  his  conrage  and  resources  never  failed  him.  In  the 
early  part  of  his  reign  lie  appears,  in  agreement  with  the  Turkish 
sultau  and  tho  king  of  Poland,  turning  out  the  Hungarian  va-saal, 
the  ferocious  Vlad,  from  the  Walachian  throne,  ahd  annexing  the 
coast  cities  of  Kilia  and  Cetatea  Alba- or  Bielogorod,  the  Turkish 
Akicrman.  In  the  autumn  of  1-174  the  sultan  Mahomet  entered 
Moldavia  at  the  head  of  an  army  estimated  by  th»  Polish  historian 
Dlugoss  at  120,000  men.  Voivode  Stephen  withdrew  into  the 
interior  at  the  approach  of  this  overwhelming  liost,  but  on  January 
17,  1475,  turned  i-t  bay  on  the  banks  of  Lake  Rakovietz  and  gained 
a  complete  victory  over  the  Turks,  Four  pashas  were  among  the 
elain  ;  over  a  hundred  banners  fell  into  the  Moldavian  hands  ;  and 
only  a  few  survivors  succeeded  in  .reaching  the  Danube.  In  1476 
Mahomet  again  entered  Moldavia,  thirsting  for  vengeance,  but, 
though  successful  in  the  open  field,  the  Turks  were  sorely  harassed 
by  Stephen's  guerilla  onslaughts,  and,  being  thinneiby  pestilence, 
were  again  constrained  tO' retire.  In  1484  the  same  tactics  proved 
puccessful  against  an  invasion  of  Bajazct.  Three  years  later  a  Polish 
invasion  of  Moldavia  under  John  Albert  with  80,000  men  ended  in 
disaster,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  voivode  Stephen,  aided  by  a 
Turkish  and  Tatar  contingent,  laid  waste  the  Polish  territories  to 
the  upper  waters  of  the  Vistula,  and  succeeded  in  annexing  for  a 
time  the  Polish  province  of  Pokutia  that  lay  between  the  Car- 
pathians and  the  Dniester, 

Exclusive  of  this  temporary  acquisition,  the  Moldavian  territory 
at  this  period  extended  from  the  river  Milcov,  which  formed  the 
boundary  of  Walaohia,  to  the  Dniester.  It  included  the  Carpathian 
region  of  the  Bukovina,  literally  "  the  beeehwood,"  where  lay  Sereth 
and  Suciava,  the  earliest  residences  of  the  voivodes,  the  maritime 
district  of  Budzak  (the  later  Bessarabia),  with  KiUa  and  Bielogorod, 
and  the  left  bank  of  tho  lower  Danube  from  Galatz  to  the  Suliiia 
mouth.  The  government,  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  was  practically 
tho  same  as  that  described  in  the  case  of  Walachia,  the  officials 
bearing  for  the.  most  part  Slavonic  titles  derived  from  the  practice 
of.  the  Bulgaro-Vlachian  czardom.  The  church  was  Orthodox 
Oriental,  and  depended  from  the  pati'iarch  of  Ohrida.  In  official 
documents  the  language  used  was  the  old  Slovene,  the  style  of  a 
Moldavian  ruler  being  Natchalnik  i  Voievoda  Moldovlasi,  prince 
and  duke  (■=  Germ.  "Fiirst"  and  "Herzog")  of  the  Moldovlachs. 
The  election  of  the  voivodes,  though  in  the  hands  of  the  boiars, 
was  strictly  regulated  by  hereditary  principles,  and  Cantemir  de- 
scribes the  extinction  of  the  house  of  Dragosh  in  the  16th  century 
as  one  of  the  unsettling  causes  that  most  contributed  to  the  ruin 
of  the  country.  Tho  Moldavian  army  was  reckoned  40,000  strong, 
and  the  cavalry  arm  was  especially  formidable.  Verantius  of 
Sebenico,  an  eye-witness  of  the  state  of  Moldavia  at  the  bcgiDning 
of  the  16th  century,  mentions  three  towns  of  tho  interior  ])rovided 
with  stone  walls — Suciava,  Chotim,  and  Njamtz  ;  tho  people  were 
barbarous,  but  more  warlike  than  the  Walachians  and  more  tena- 
cious of  their  national  costume,  punishing  with  death  any  who 
adopted  the  Turkish. 

In  1504  Stephen  tho  Great  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Bogdan  "the  One-eyed."  At  feud  with  Poland  about  Pokutia, 
despairing  of  efficacious  snpport  from  hard-pressed  Hungary,  th# 
new  voivode  saw  no  hope  of  safety  except  in  a  dependent  alliance 
with  the  advancing  Ottoman  Power,  which  already  hemmed 
Moldavia  in  on  the  Walachian  and  Crimean  sides.  In  1513  ho 
agreed  to  pay  an  annual  tribute  to  Sultan  Selim  in  return  for  the 
sultan's  guarantee  to  preserve  tho  national  cdhstitutiou  and  religion 
of  Moldavia,  to  which  country  tho  Turks  now  gave  the  name  of 
Kara  Bogdan,  from  their  first  vassal.  The  terms' of  Moldavian  sub- 
mission were  further  regulated  by  a  firman  signed  by  Sultan 
Suleiman  at  Buda  in  1529  by.  which  tho  yearly  present  or  "baok- 
Blush,"as  tho  tnbuto  was  euphoniou.sly  called,  was  fixed  at  4000 
ducats,  40  horses,  and  25  falcons,  and  the  voivode  was  bound  at 
need  to  supply  tho  Turkish  army  with  a  contingent  of  a  thousand 
men.  Tho  Turks  pursued  much  the  same  policy  as  in  Walachia, 
Tho  tribute  was  gradually  increased,  A  hold  was  obtained  on  tho 
country  by  the  occupation  of  various  strongholds  on  Moldavian  soil 
with  the  surrounding  territory,— in  1538  Cetatea  Alba  (Akicrman), 
in  1592  Bender,  in  1702  Chotim  (Khotin).  Already  by  the  middle 
of  tho  16th  century  tho  yoke  was  so  heavy  that  the  voivode  Eliaa 
(1546-1551)  became  Mohammedan  to  avoid  the  sultan's  anger. 
At  this  period  occurs  a  curious  interlude  in  Moldavian  history. 
JStor  In  1561  the  adventurer  and  impostor  Jacob  Basilicua  succeeded 
lb  with  Hungarian  help  in  turning  out  tho  voivodo  Alexander  and 
licus.  seizing  on  the  reins  of  govomnient,  A  Crock  by  birth,  adopted 
oon  of  Jacob  Heraklides,  despot  of  Pares,  .Samos,  and  otlicr  iEgcan 
islands,  acquainted  with  Greek  and  Latin  litcraturo,  and  master 
of  most  European  languages,  appearing  alternately  as  a  student  of 
astronomy  at  Wittenberg,  whither  ho  had  been  invited  by  Count 
Manafcld.  as  a  correspondent  of  Melanchthon   and  as  a  «Titcr  of 


historical  works  which  he  dedicated  to  Philip  II.  of  S|iain,  Basilicua, 
finding  that  his  yEgean  sovereignty  tn  parli'ms  was  of  little  practical 
value  beyond  the  crowning  of  poet  laureates,  fixed  his  roving  ambi- 
tion on  a  more  substantial  dominion.  He  published  an  astounding 
pedigree,  in  which,  starting  from  "  Hercules  Triptolemus "  he 
wound  his  way  through  the  royal  Servian  line  to  the  kinship  of 
Moldavian  voivodes,  and,  having  won  the  emperor  Ferdinand  and 
Albert  Lasky  to  his  financial  and  military  support,  succeeded, 
though  at  the  head  of  only  1600  cavalry,  in  routing  by  a  bold  dash 
the  vastly  superior  forces  of  the  voivode,  and  even  in  purchasing 
the  Turkisli  confii-mation  of  his  usurped  title.  He  assumed  the 
style  of  BacuAevs  MoX5o/3(ai,  and  eluded  tho  Turkish  stipulation 
that  he  should  dismiss  his  foreign  guards.  In  Moldavia  he 
appeared  as  a  moral  reformer,  endeavouring  to  put  down  the  preva- 
lent vices  of  bigamy  and  divorce.  He  erected  a  school,  placed  it 
under  a  German  master,  and  collected  children  from  every  part  of 
the  country  to  be  maintained  and  educated  at  his  expense.  Ha 
also  busied  himself  with  the  collection  of  a  library.  But  his  taxes 
— a  ducat  for  each  family — were  considered  heavy;  his  orthodoxy 
was  suspected,  his  foreign  counsellors  detested.  In  1B63  the 
people  rose,  massacred  the  Hungarian  guards,  the  foreign  settlers, 
and  finally  Jacob  himself. 

The  expelled  voivode  Alexander  was  now  restored  by  the  Porte, 
the  schools  were  destroyed,  and  the  country  relapsed  into  its 
normal  state  of  barbarism.  His  successor  Ironia  was  provoked 
by  tho  Porte's  demand  for  120,000  ducats  as  tribute  iustead  of 
60,000  as  heretofore  to  rise  against  the  oppressor,  hot  after  gaining 
three  victories  ho  was  finally  defeated  and  slain  (1574),  and  tho 
country  was  left  more  than  ever  at  the  mercy  of  the  Ottoman. 
Voivodes  were  now  created  and  deposed  in  rapid  succession  by  the 
Divan,  but  the  victories  of  ilichacl  the  Brave  in  Walachia  infused 
a  more  independent  spirit  into  the  Moldavians.  The  Moldavian 
dominion  was  now  disputed  by  the  Transylvanians  and  Poles,  and 
in  1600  Michael  succeeded  in  annexing  it  to  his  "Great  Dacian  " 
realm.  On  Michael's  murder  the  Poles  under  Zamoyski  again 
asserted  their  supremacy,  but  in  1618  the  Porto  onco  more  recovered 
its  dominion  and  set  up  successively  two  creaiures  of  ita  own  as 
voivodes — Gratiani,  an  Italian  who  had  been  court  jeweller,  eind  a 
Greek  custom-house  official,  Alexander. 

As  in  Walachia  at  a  somewhat  later  dato  the  Fanariote  regime  The 
seemed  now  thoroughly  established  in  Moldavia,  and  it  became  the  Knniirt»t« 
rule  that  every  three  years  the  voivode  should  procure  his  confirm'a-'''^''""^ 
tion  by  a  large  backshish,  and  every  year  by  a  smaller  one.     Tho 
prince   Vasilje   Lupul,   however,  an  Albanian,  who  succeeded   in 
1634,  showed  great  abilities,  and  for  twenty  years   succeeded, in 
maintaining  his  position  on  the  Moldavian  throne.     He  introduced 
several  internal  reforms,  codified  the  ^vritten  and  unwritten  laws 
of  the  country,  established  a  printing  press,  Greek  monastic  schools, 
and  also  a  Latin  school.     He  brought  the  Moldavian  Churchinto 
more  direct  relation  with  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  but  alBo 
showed  considerable  favour  to  tho  Latins,  allowing  tnem  to  erect 
churches  at  Suciava,  Jassy,  and  Galatz. 

During  the  wars  between  Sobieski  and  tho  Turks  Moldavia  found 
itself  between  hammer  and  anvil,  and  suffered  frightfully  moreover 
from  Tatar  devastations.  The  voivode  Duka  was  forced  like  hia 
Walachian  contemporary  to  supply  a  contingent  for  tho  siege  of 
Vienna  in  1683.  After  Sobieski's.  death  in  1696,  tho  hopes  of 
Moldavia  turned  to  tho  advancing  Muscovite  power.  In  1711  tho 
voivode  Demetriu  Cantemir,  rendered  desperate  by  tho  Turkiih  Demetria 
exactions,  concluded  an  agreement  with  the  czar  Peter  by  which  Cantemir 
Moldavia  was  to  become  a  protected  and  vassal  state  of  Russia,  with 
tho  enjoyment  of  its  traditional  liberties,  the  voivodoship  to  bo 
hereditary  in  the  family  of  Cantemir.  On  the  tip])roach  of  the 
Russian  army  the  prince  issued  a  proclamation  oontaining  tho  terma 
of  tho  Russian  protectorate  and  calling  on  tho  boiars  and  people  to 
aid  their  Orthodox  deliverers.  But  the  iron  had  entered  into  tho 
people's  Boul.  Tho  long  Turkish  terrorism  had  done  its  work,  and 
at  tlio  approach  of  a  Turkish  and  Tatar  host  the  greater  part  of  tho 
Moldivians  deserted  their  voivode.  Tho  Russian  campaign  wa» 
unsuccessful,  and  all  that  Czar  Peter  could  offer  Cantemir  and  tbs 
boiars  who  had  stood  by  him  was  an  asylum  on  Russian  soil. 

In  his  Russian  exile  Cantemir  composed  in  a  fair  Ijitin  stylo 
his  Dcwriptio  Moldavim,  the  conntcrpa.t  so  far  aa  Moldavia  is 
concerned  to  Del  Chiaro's  contemporary  description  of  Walachia. 
The  capital  of  the  country  was  now  Ja.ssy,  to  which  city  Stephen  tho 
Great  had  transferred  his  court  from  Suciava,  tho  earlier  rcsidonco 
of  tho  voivodes.  It  had  at  this  time  forty  churches — some  of  stone, 
some  of  wood.  Fifty  years  boforo  it  hail  contained  12,000  housco, 
but  Tatar  devastations  had  reduced  it  to  a  third  of  ita  formor 
size.  The  most  important  commercial  emporium  was  tho  Danubian 
port  of  Galatz,  which  was  frcijucntcd  by  vessels  from  tho  wholo  oi 
the  Levant  from  Trebizond  to  Burbary.  Tho  cargoes  which  they 
hero  took  in  consisted  of  Moldavian  timber  (oak,  deal,  and  cornel), 
grain,  butter,  honey  and  wax,  salt,  and  nitre  ;  Kilia  at  tho  north 
mouth  of  tho  Danube  was  also  frequented  by  trading  vesscLi, 
including  Venetian  and  lingusan.  Moldavian  wino  wm  exported 
to  Poland,  Russia,  Transylvania,  and  Hungary  ;  thatof  Cotmr  v.i» 


20 


ROU  MANIA 


Continua- 
tion of 
Fanarlote 
regime. 


in  Cautemir's  opinion  superior  to  Tokay.    The  excellence  of  the 
Moldavian  horses  is  attested  by  a  Turkish  proverb ;  and  annual 
di-oves   of  as  many  as  40,000  Moldavian  oxen   were  sent  across 
Poland  to  Dantzic.     Moldavia  proper  was  dwidid  into  the  upper 
country  or  Terra  de  sus,  and  the  lower  country,  or  Terra  dejosit. 
Bessarabia  had  been  detached  from  the  rest  of  the  principality  and 
placed  under  the  direct  control  of  the  seraskier.    It  was  divided  into 
four  provinces  :— that  of  Budzak,  inhabited  by  the  Nogai  Tatars ; 
that  of  Akierman  or  Cetatea  Alba,  the  Greek  Monkastron,  a  strongly 
fortified  place;  and   those  of  Ismaila   and  Kilia.     The  yoivodes 
owed  their  nomination  entirely  to  the  Porte,  and  the  great  officers 
of  the  realm  were  appointed  at  theif  discretion.-    Ihese  were  the 
Great  Logothete  (Marele  Logofdu)  "or  chancellor  ;  the  governor  ot 
Lower  Moldavia- ToraicwZu  de  t'erra  de  ]Osu;  the   governor  of 
Upper   Moldavia- FbmMMitt  de  ferra  rf«  ms;   the  Natman  or 
cor^mander  in  chief;  the  high  chamberlain-i)/a«Z.  Post^ln^, 
the  great  Spathar,  or  swordbearer;  the  great  cupbcarer-J!/a«Zc 
PaUrnicu  ;  and  the  treasurer,  or  Vist{ernku,  who  together  fornied 
the  prince's  council  and  were  known  as  Boian  de  Smtii.     Below 
these  were  a  number  of  subordinate  officers  who  acted  as  their 
assessors  and  were  known  as  boiars  of  the  Divan  [Bman  de  Dimnu). 
The  high  court  of  justice  was  formed  by  the  prince,  metropolitan, 
and  boiar's :  the  Boiari  de  Svatu  decided  on  the  verdict ;  the  metro- 
■  politan  declared  the  law ;  and  the  prince  pronounced  sentence,     the 
Liars  were  able  to  tiy  minor  cases  in  their  own  residences   but 
subject  to  the  right  cf  appeal  to  the  prince  s  tribunal.     Of  the 
character  of  the  Moldavian  people  Cantemir  dose  not  give  a  very 
favourable  account.     Their  best  points  were  their  hospitaity  and 
in  Lower  Moldavia,  their  valour.     They  cared  little  for  letters  and 
were  generally  indolent,  and   their  prejudice  against  inercant.le 
pursuits  left  the   commerce  of    the  country    in    the    hands    of 
Armenians,  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Turks.  .  The  pure-blood    Rouman 
population,  noble  and  plebeian,  inhabited  the  cities  and  towns  or 
larger  villages  ;  the  peasantry  were  mostly  of  Little  Russian  and 
Hungarian   race  and   were  in  a  servile  condition.     There   was  a 
considerable  Gipsy  population,  almost  every  boiar  having  several 
Zingar  families  in  his  possession  ;  these  were  mostly  smiths.      _ 

From  this  period  onwards  the  character  of  the  Ottoman  domina- 
;ion  in  Moldavia  is  in  every  respect  analogous  to  that  of  Wala-hia. 
'^he  office  of  voivode  or  hospodar  was  farmed  out  by  the  Porte  to 
a  succession  of  wealthy  Greeks  from  the  Fanar  quarter  of  Con- 
eiantinople.  AH  formality  of  election  by  the  boiars  was  now 
dispensed  with,  and  the  princes  received  their  caftan  of  oBice  at 
Constanrinople,  where  they  were  consecrated  by  the  Greek  patriarch. 
The  system  favoured  Turkish  extortion  in  two  ways  ;  the  presence 
of  the  voivode's  family  connexions  at  Staniboul  gave  the  Porte  so 
many  hostages  for  his  obedience  ;  on  the  other  hand  the  princes 
themselves  could  not  rely  on  any  support  due  to  family  influence 
in  Moldavia  itself.  They  were  thus  mere  pnppets  of  the  Uivan, 
and  could  be  deposed  and  shifted  with  the  same  facility  as  so  many 
pashas— an  object  of  Turkish  policy,  as  each  change  was  a  pretext 
For  a  new  levy  of  "  backshish.  "•  The  chief  families  that  shared 
the  office  during  this  period  were  those  of  Mavrocordato  Ghika, 
Callimachi,  Ypsilanti,  and  Murusi.  Although  from  the  very 
conditions  of  their  creation  they  regarded  the  country  as  a  held 
'for  exploitations,  they  were  themselves  often  men  of  education 
and  ability,  and  umiuesrionably  made  some  praiseworthy  attempts 
to  promote  the  general  culture  and  wellbeing  of  their  subjects. 
In  this  respect,  even  the  Fanarioto  regime  was  preferable  to  mere 
pasha  rule,  while  it  had  the  further  consequence  of  preserving 
intact  the  national  form  of  administration  and  the  historic  offices 
of  Moldavia.  Gregory  Ghika  (1774-1777),  who  himself  spoko 
(French  and  Italian,  founded  a  school  or  "  gymnasium  at  Jassy, 
[where  Greek,  Latin,  and  theology  were  taught  m  a  fashion.  He 
encouraged  the  settlement  of  German  protestant  colonists  in  the 
country,  some  of  whom  set  up  as  watchmakers  in  Jassy,  where  they 
•were  further  allowed  to  build  an  evangelical  church.  Carra,  a  Swiss 
who  had  been  tutor  to  Prince  Ghika's  children,  and  who  published 
in  1781  an  account  of  the  actual  state  of  the  principalities,  speaks 
of  some  of  the  boiars  as  possessing  a  taste  for  French  literature  and 
even  for  the  works  of  Voltaire,  a  tendency  actively  combated  by 
the  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  r  it  l  \.  ^ 

The  Russo-Turkish  War,  which  ended  in  tlie  peace  of  Kutshuk 
Kaimardji,  was  fatal  to  the  integrity  of  Moldavian  territory.  The 
house  of  Austria,  which  had  already  annexed  Galicia  m  1772,  pro- 
fited by  the  situation  to  arrange  with  both  contending  parties  for 
the  peaceful  cession  of  the  Bukovina  to  the  Hapsburg  monarchy. 
This  richly-wooded  Moldavian  province,  containing  Suciava,  the 
eariiest  seat  of  the  voivodes,  and  Cernautii  or  Czemovitz,  was  m 
1774  occiipied  by  Hapsburg  troops  with  Russian  connivance,  and 
in  1777  Baron  Thugut  procured  its  formal  cession  from  the  sultan. 
The  Bukovina  is  still  an  Austrian  province. 

Walachianand  Moldaviun  History  from  the  Treaty  of  Kutshuk 
Kaimardji  in.  1774  to  the  Establishviait  of  the  Roumanian  Kingdom. 
—The  treaty  of  Kutshuk  Kaimardji  was  ha.rdly  concluded  when 
it  was  violated  by  the  Porte,  which  refused  to  recognize  the  right 
of  the   Walnchiau  boiars  to  elect   their  voivode,  and   nominated 


Alexander  Ypsilanti,  a  creature  of  its  own.     In  1777  Constantine 
Murusi  was  made  voivode  of  Moldavia  in  the  same  high-handed 
fashion      The  Divan  seemed  intent  on  restoring  the  old  system  ol 
eovernment  in  its  enrirety,  but  in  1783  the  Russian  representative 
extracted  from  the  sultan  a  hattisherif  defining  more  precisely  the 
liberties  of  the  principalities  and  fixing  the  amount  of  the  annual 
tribute— for  Walachia  619  purses  exclusive  of  the  bairam  and  other 
presents  amounting  to  130,000  piasters,  and  for  Moldavia  135  purses 
and  further  gifts  t»  the  extent  of  115,000  piasters.    By  the  peace  of 
Jassy  in  1792  the  Dniester  was  recognized  as  tlie  Kussian  frontier 
and  the  privileges  of  the  principalities  as  specified  in  the  hattisherit 
confirmed.     In  defiance  of  treaties,  however,  the  Porte  continued 
to  change  the  hospodars  almost  yearly  and  to  exact  extraordinary 
installation  presents.     The  revolt  of  Pasvan  Oglu  m  Bulgaria  was 
the  cause  of  great  injury  to  Walachia.     The  rebels  ravaged  Little 
Walachia  in  1801-2,  and  their  ravages  were  succeeded  by  those  ot 
the  Turkish  troops,  who  now  swarmed  over  the  country,    txaction 
followed  exaction,  and  in  1802  Russia  resolved  to  assert  her  treaty 
rights  in  favour  of  the  oppressed  inhabitants  of  the  principalities 
On  the  accession  of  Constantine  Ypsilanti  the  Porte  was  constrained 
to  issue  a  new  hattisherif  by  which  every  prince  was  to  hold  his 
office  for  at  least  seven  years,  unless  the  Porte  satisfied  the  Russian 
minister  that  there  were  good  and  sufficient  grounds  for  his  deposi- 
tion      All  irregular  contributions  were  to  cease,  and  all  citizens, 
with  the  exception  of  the  boiars  and  clergy,  were  to  pay  their  share 
of  the  tribute.    The  Turkish  troops  then  employed  in  the  pniici- 
palities  were  to  be  paid  ofl;  and  one  year's  tntute  remitted   or  the 
purpose.     The  boiars  were  to  be  responsible  for  the  maintenance  of 
schools,  hospitals,  and  roads  ;  they  and  the  prince  together  for  the 
militia     The  number  of  Turkish  merchants  resident  in  the  country 
was  limited.     Finally,  the  hospodars  were  to  be  amenab  e  to  repre- 
sentations made  to  them  by  the  Russian  envoy  at  Constantinoijle 
to  whom  was  entrusted  the  task  of  watching  over  the  Walachian 
and  Moldavian  liberties.    This,  it  will  be  seen,  was  a  veiled  Kussian 

^™n*'l8of ^the  Serbs  under  Karageorge  rose  against  the  Turkish 
dominion,  and  were  secretly  aided  by  the  Walachian  voivode 
Ypsilanti  The  Porte,  instigated  by  Napoleon  s  ambassador 
Seba  tiani,  resolved  on  Ypsilanti's  deposition,  but  the  hospodar 
succeeded  n  esc-.ping  to  St  Petersburg.  In  the  war  that  now  ensued 
te  ween  the  Russians  and  the  Turks,  the  former  were  for  a  time 
successful,  and  even  demanded  that  the  Russ.an  territory  should 
extend  to  the  Danube.  In  1808  the  Russians,  then  m  occupation 
of  the  principalities,  formed  a  governing  committee  consisting  of 
the  metropolitan;  another  bishop,  and  four  or  five  boiars  under 
he  presidency  of  General  Kusnikoff.  The  seat  of  the  preside., 
was  at  Jassy,  and  General  Engelhart  w-as  appointed  as  vice-president 
at  Bucharest.  By  the  peace  of  Bucharest,  howeverrin  1812.  *'« 
principalities  were  restored  to  the  sultan  under  the. former  condi- 
tions, with  the  exception  of  Bessarabia,  whi.h  was  ceded  to  the 
czar      The  Pruth  thus  became  the  Russian  boundary.  .,n.„. 

The  growing  solidarity  between  the  two  Kouman  principalities     Het«r 
received  a  striking  illustration  in  1816,  when  the  \\alachmn  and  ^t 
Moldavian  hospodars  published  together  a  code  applicable  to  both  move- 
countries,  and  which  had  been  elaborated  by  a., omt  commission,  ment. 
The  Greek  movement  was  now  beginning,  and  in  1821  Alexander 
YpsilanU  entered  Moldavia  at  the  head  of  the  Hetierists,  and  pre- 
vailed on  the  hospodar  Michael  Sutzu  to  aid  him  m  invading  the 
Ottoman  dominions.    To  secure  Walachian  help,  Ypsilanti  advanced 
o?i  Bucharest,  but  the  prince,  Theodore  VlaJii^urescu,  who  repre- 
sented  the   national   Rouman   reaction    against  the    Fanariotes, 
repulsed  his  overtures  with  the  remark  "that  hi.  ^^'l^^H^;?'.^;}, 
to  march  against  the  Turks,  but  to  clear  the  conn  cry  of  Fa""iotes 
Vladimires°cu   was   slai^    by  «   Greek    revolutionary   ^ge"t, Jm' 
Ypsilanti's  legion  was  totally  routed  by  the  Turks  at  Dragashan 
and  the  result  of  his  enterprise  was  a  Turkish  occupation  o    the 
principalities.     In  1822  the  Turkish  troops,  wj,o  had  committed 
great  ixcesses,  were  withdrawn  on  the  combined  representations  o£ 
lussia,  Austria,  and  Great  Britain.      The  country,  however  w 
again  ravaged  by  the  retiring  troops,  quartersofo  assy  and  Buchare  t 
burnt,  and  the  complete  evacuation  delayed  til  1824.  ^^h^n  the 
British  Government  again  remonstrated  with  the  P"/'^-     »}'  Ao 
convention  of  Akierman  between  the  Russians  and  the  Ju^rks  in. 
1826  the  privileges  of  the  principalities  were  once  moie  conhrmed 
Ind  they  lere  a°sain  ratifie'd  in  1829,  under  Russian  gu^jantee   by 
the  peace  of  Adrianople.    By  this  peace  all  the  to.vrs  «"  'he  1""  bank 
of  tL  Danube  were  restored  to  the  principalities,  and  the  Poite 
undertook  to  refrain  from  fortifying  any  position  on  the  Walachian 
side  of  the  river.    The  principalities  were  to  enjoy  commercial  free- 
dom, and  the  right  ot  establisliing  a  quarantine  cordon  a  ong  the 
Danube  or  elsewhere.    The  internal  constitution  of  the  countries  was 
to  be  regulated  by  an  "Organic  Law,"which  was  drawn  up  by  assem- 
blies of  bishops  and  boiars  at  Jassy  and  Bucharest  acting,  how_ever 
under  Russian  control.    The  Organic  Law  thus  elaborated  w?s  by  no 
means  of  a  liberal  character,  and  amongst  other  abuses  main taned 
the  feudal  privileges  of  the  boiars.     It  was  ratified  by  the  Porte  in 
1834   and  the  Russian  army  of  occupation  thereupon  withdrew. 


K  U  IJ  —  K  O   U 


21 


nion  of 
le  two 
rinri- 

ro- 
aimed. 

ttenipt 
I  dis- 

lem. 


rails. 


rince 

uza. 


Thei-evolutionarymovemcnt  of  1848  extended  from  theRoumana 
Df  Hungary  and  Transylvania  to  their  kinsmen  of  the  Transalpine 
regions.  In  Moldavia  the  agitation  was  mostly  confined  to  the 
boiars,  and  the  hospodar  Michael  Sturdza  succeeded  in  arresting 
the  ringleaders.  In  Walachia,  however,  the  outbreak  took  a  more 
violcutlform.  The  people  assembled  at  Bucharest,  and  demanded 
a  constitution.  The  prince  Bibescu,  after  setting  his  signature  to 
the  constitution  submitted  to  him,  fled  to  Transylvania,  and  a 
provisional  government  was  formed.  The  Turks,  however,  urged 
thereto  by  Russian  diplomacy,  crossed  the  Danube,  and  a  joint 
Russo-Torkish  dictatorship  restored  the  "Organic  Law."  By  the 
Balta-Liraau  convention  of  1849  the  two  Governments  agreed  to  the 
appointment  of  Barbii  StirbeiiS  as  prince  of  Walachia,  and  Grcgoria 
Ghika  for  Moldavia. 

On  the  entry  of  the  Russian  troops  into  the  principalities  in 
1853,  the  hospodars  fled  to  Vienna,  leaving  the  government  in 
the  hands  of  their  ministers.  During  the  Danubian  campaign  that 
now  ensued  great  suffering  was  inflicted  on  the  inhabitants,  but 
in  1854  the  cabinet  of  Vienna  induced  the  Russians  to  withdraw. 
Austrian  troops  occupied  the  principalities,  and  the  hospodars 
returned  to  their  posts. 

By  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1856  the  principalities  with  their  exist- 
ing privileges  were  placed  under  the  collective  guarantee  of  the 
contracting  powers,  while  remaining  under  the  suzerainty  of  the 
Porte, — the  Porte  on  its  part  engaaing  to  respect  the  complete  in- 
dependence of  their  internal  administration.  A  strip  of  southern 
Bessarabia  was  restored  to  Moldavia,  so  as  to  push  back  the  Russian 
frontier  from  the  Danube  mouth.  The  existing  laws  and  statutes 
of  both  principalities  were  to  be  revised  by  a  European  commission 
sitting  at  Bucnarest,  and  their  work  was  to  be  assisted  by  a  Divan 
or  national  council  which  the  Porte  was  to  convoke  ad  hoe  in  each 
of  the  two  provinces,  and  in  which  all  classes  of  Walachian  and 
Moldavian  society  were  to  be  represented.  The  European  com- 
mission, in  arriving  at  its  conclusions,  was  to  take  into  considera- 
tion the  opinion  expressed  by  the  representative  councils ;  the 
Powsrs  were  to  come  to  terms  with  the  Porte  as  to  the  recommen- 
dations of  the  commission  ;  and  the  final  result  was  to  be  embodied 
in  a  hattisherif  of  the  sultan,  which  was  to  lay  down  the  definitive 
organization  of  the  two  principalities.  In  1857  the  commission 
arrived,  and  the  representative  councils  of  the  two  peoples  were  con- 
voked. 'On  their  meeting  in  September  they  at  once  proceeded  \o 
vote  with  unanimity  the  union  of  the  two  principalities  into  a 
.single  state  under  the  name  of  Romania  (Roumania),  to  be  governed 
by  a  foreign  prince  elected  from  one  of  the  reigning  dynasties  of 
Europe,  and  having  a  single  representative  assembly.  The  Powers 
decided  to  undo  the  work  of  national  union.  By  the  convention 
concluded  by  the  European  congress  at  Paris  in  1858,  it  was 
decided  that  the  principalities  should  continue  as  heretofore  to  bo 
governed  each  by  its  own  prince.  Walachia  and  Moldavia  were  to 
have  separate  assemblies,  but  a  central  commission  was  to  be 
established  at  Fokshani  for  the  preparation  of  laws  of  common 
iuterest,  which  were  afterwards  to  be  submitted  to  the  respective 
assemblies.  In  accordance  with  this  convention  the  deputies  of 
Moldavia  and  Walachia  met  in  separate  assemblies  at  Bucharest  and 
Jassy,  but  the  choice  of  both  fell  unanimously  on  Prince  Alexander 
John  CuEa,  thus  ensuring  the  personal  union  of  the  two  principali- 
ties (January  1859).  A  new  conference  was  now  summoned  to 
Paris  to  discuss  the  affairs  of  the  principalities,  and  the  election  of 
Prince  Cuza  finally  ratified  by  the  Powers  and  the  Porte.  The  two 
assemblies  and  the  central  commission  were  preserved  till  1862, 
when  a  single  assembly  mot  at  Bucharest  and  a  single  ministry  was 
formed  for  the  two  countries.  The  central  commission  was  at  the 
same  time  abolished,  and  a  council  of  stale  charged  with  preparing 
bills  substituted  for  it.  In  May  1864,  owing  to  difficulties  between 
the  Government  and  the  general  assembly,  tlie  latter  was  dissolved, 
and  a  statute  was  submitted  to  universal  sufl"r.igo  giving  greater 
authority  to  the  prince,  and  creating  two  chambers  (of  scnatora 
and  of  deputies).  The  franchise  was  now  extended  to  all  citiiena, 
a  cumulative  voting  power  being  reserved,  however,  for  property, 
and  the  peasantry  were  emancipated  from  forced  labour. 

In  1865  a  conflict  broke  out  between  the  Government  and  the 
people  in  Bucharest,  and  in  February  1866  Prince  Cuza,  whose 
personal  vices  had  rendered  him  detestable,  was  forced  to  abdicate. 
The  chambers  chose  first  as  his  successor  the  count  of  Flanders, 
but  on  his  declining  the  office  proceeded  to  elect  Prince  Charles 
of  Hohenzollem-Signiaringon,  who  was  proclaimed  hospodar  or 
Domnu  of  Roumania  April  29,  1866.  A  new  constitution  was  at 
the  same  time  introduced.  Its  provisions  secure  the  universal 
snlfrnge  of  tax-paying  citizens,  ministerial  responsibility,  trial 
''y  jufy.  freedom  of  meeting  and  petition,  of  speech  and  of  the 
press  (except  as  regards  breaches  of  the  criminal  code),  gratuitous 
and  compulsory  primary  education,  and  the  right  of  asylum  for 
political  exiles.  Legislative  power  is  shared  between  the  prince 
and  chambers,  but  bills  relating  to  the  budget  and  army  must 
originate  with  the  chamber  of  deputies.  There  are  two  chambers— 
the  senate  and  tho  chamber  of  deputies.  Both  houses  are  elective, 
and  the  election  is  carried  out  by  means  of  electoral  colleges  classified 


according  to  property  and  professional  qualifications.  For  tho 
house  of  deputiis  each  constituency  is  divided  in  this  way  into  four 
colleges,  each  of  which  elects  a  member.  The  two  highest  of  thesa 
colleges  also  elect  the  senators,  each  senator  being  elected  for  a 
term  of  eight  years.  Tho  senate  also  includes  ex  officio  certain 
high  officials  and  ecclesiastics,  and  members  for  the  universities. 
The  senate  consists  at  present  of  120  members,  the  chamber  of 
deputies  of  178.  The  sovereign  has  a  right  of  veto  reserved  to  him 
on  all  measures.  The  judicial  system  is  based  on  the  Code  Napoleon, 
with  some  modifications. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  Rus-so-Turkish  war  in  1877  Roumania 
found  herself  once  more  between  hammer  and  anvil.  Yielding  to 
force  majeure  the  Government  of  Prince  Charles  consented  to  thk 
passage  of  Russian  troops  across  Roumanian  territory,  on  the  under- 
standing that  the  scene  of  hostilities  was  as  far  as  possible  to  h« 
removed  outside  the  limits  of  tho  principality.  The  Porte,  how- 
ever,  refusing  to  recognize  that  Roumania  had  acted  under 
constraint,  proclaimed  the  Roumanians  rebels,  and  the  prince's 
Government  accordingly  resolved  to  offer  active  assistance  to  the 
Russians.  A  Roumanian  division  of  32,000  men  under  General 
Cernat,  took  part  in- the  siege  of  Plevna,  and  the  Roumanian 
soldiers. distinguished  themselves  in  the  opinion  of  the  most  com- 
petent judges  alike  for  their  heroism  and  endurance.  The  successful 
assault  by  the  Roumanian  troops  on  the  "indomitable  redoubt "  of 
Grivitza  formed  in  fact  the  turning  point  of  the  siege  and  of  the  war. 
In  the  peace  of  St.Stefano,  however,  Russia  insisted  on  the  retroces- 
sion of  the  strip  of  Bessarabia  that  had  been  restored  to  Moldavia 
by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  giving  Roumania  "  in  exchange  "  the  islands 
of  the  Danubian  delta,  and  the  Dobrudja,  which  had  been  ceded  by 
the  sultan.  This  territorial  readjustment  was  ratified  by  the  treaty  Berlia 
of  Berlin  (1878).  The  high  contracting  powers  at  tho  same  time  treaty^ 
consented  by  Art.  xliii.  to  recognize  the  independence  of  the  prin- 
cipality subject  to  the  provision  (Art.  xHv.)  that  all  the  inhabitants 
should  enjoy  complete  religious  freedom,  a  clause  inserted  on 
account  of  the  Jewish  persecutions  that  had  previously  taken  place, 
and  that  foreigners  in  the  country  should  bo  treated  on  a  footing 
of  perfect  equality.  All  Danubian  fortresses  were  to  be  razed,  and  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  European  commission  to  regulate  the  Danubian 
navigation,  on  which  Roumania  now  acquired  tho  right  of  repre- 
sentation, was  extended  from  the  mouth  to  the  Iron  Gates.  The 
coping-stone  to  Roumanian  independence  was  set  by  the  proclaina-  Prinee 
tion  on  March  26,  1881,  of  Prince  Charles  as  king  of  Roumania,  Charles 
and  on  May  22  of  the  same  year  his  coronation  took  place  with  Uu  ^[JJ"'"®"* 
European  sanction.  The  crown  plnced  on  King  Carol's  head  was.  ^" 
made  from  the  captured  cannon  of  the  Plevna  redoubts. 

Authorities. — As  the  questions  regarding  ttie  first  appearance  of  the  Honirana 
nortli  of  the  Danube  are  rcserveii  for  tlie  aOlile  Vuciis,  It  n^ay  be  sutllrtcnc 
tiere  to  refer  ttie  reader  to  tlie  works  uf  Itocfiler,  espeelully  JiontUnitcfie  Studitm; 
J.  Jung,  Anfange  der  Rowdnen;  and  Rocmer  und  Romdnen;  Lad.  PiC,  v4ftsfam- 
mung  der  Rnmdnen  ;  A.  D.  XcnopoJ,  Lei  Roumains  au  Moven  Age.  For  tbe 
histoid  of  tlie  piincipalitlca  down  lo  llic  end  of  the  last  century  J.  C.  Engel's 
woiks,  Die  Oesehichte  der  Walachci  and  Oeshiehle  der  Moldau,  are  still  tli< 
most  tnistworttiy  aathoiities.  J.  A.  VaiUant,  La  Romainie;  Jliitoire,  Langiie,  iic.^ 
and  A.  T.  Laurianu,  fstoria  Ronwni'oru,  Ac,  may  be  consuUod  for  the  later  his- 
tory, but  a  really  critical  history  of  the  principalities  has  yet  to  be  written.  The 
materials  for  it  are,  however,  being  rapidly  amasved— thanks  to  Hie  publica. 
tions  of  tho  Roumanian  Academy  and  the  docuinenta  collected  by  native 
scholars ;  r/.  especially  llurmuz^iki,  Documente  privilore  la  Istoria  Romanitor, 
and  Hasdeu,  PuOlicatiojii  istorico-filo!ogiee,  *c.  Fur  a  nseful  account  of  Ills 
present  stale  of  Roumania,  seo  James  Samuclson,  Roumania  Fait  and  Present^ 
1882.  For  views  of  Walachia  and  Moldavia,  as  tliey  cii-lcd  from  the  ISth  century 
onwards,  reference  has  already  been  matio  to  the  works  of  VeraDtius  »'.d  PttJ 
ClUaro,  and  Cantemir'a  Descriptio  MoMavix.  (A.  J.  f..y 

ROUMANIAN  LITERATURE.     Seo  Vlachs. 

ROUMELIA.  Tho  name  of  Roumili,  "  the  land  of  tbe 
Romans,"  was  applied  from  the  15th  century  downwards 
to  all  that  portion  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  westwards 
from  tho  Black  Sea  which  was  subject  to  Turkey.  Moro 
precisely  it  was  the  country  bounded  N.  by  Bulgaria,  "W. 
by  Albania,  and  S.  by  tho  Morea,  or  in  other  words  the 
ancient  provinces,  including  Constantinoiilo  and  Salonica, 
of  Thrace,  Thessaly,  and  Macedonia.  Tho  name  was  ulti- 
mately applied  more  especially  to  an  eyalet..  or  province 
composed  of  Central  Albania  'and  Western  Macedonia, 
having  Monastir  for  its  chief  town  and  including  Kesrie 
(Castoria),  Ocri  (Ochrida),  and  Scodia  (Scutari);  and  at 
length  it  disappeared  altogether  in  tho  administrative 
alterations  effected  between  1870  and  1875.  Eastern 
Roumelia  was  constituted  an  autonomous  piovinco  of  tho 
Turkish  cin|_)ire  by  t1io  Berlin  treaty  of  1878,  to  be 
governed  by  a  Christian  governor-general  appointed  by  the 
Bultan  for  a  term  of  five  years.  In  1879,  in  obedience 
to  an  international  commission,  it  was  divided  into  six 
departments  and  twenty-eight  cantons,  tho  departments 
being   Philippopolis   (187,095),  Tatarbazarjik   (117,063), 


22 


R.  O  U  -^  ii  O  U 


Hasskiii  (134,268),  Esld-Zagra  (158,905)  Kazanlik,  Slivno 
or  Sliven  (130,130),  and  Uurgas  (88,046).  On  the  N. 
and  N.W.  East  Rouinelia  was  bounded  by  Bulgaria,  the 
frontier  running  along  the  line  of  the  Balkans  though  not 
keeping  to  the  -watershed  ;  on  the  S.W.  and  S.  lay  the 
TJlayets  of  Salonika  and  Adrianople,  the  borderlands  form- 
ing part  of  the  Khodope  or  Despoto  mountain  system. 
The  direct  distance  between  the  northmost  and  southmost 
point  on  the  Black  Sea  is  only  40  miles,  but  the  actual 
coast-line  is  lengthened  by  the  ramifications  of  the  Bay  of 
Burgas,  which  is  the  only  part  of  the  Black  Sea  affording 
several  good  anchorages.  The  great  bulk  of  the  country 
belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Maritza  and  its  tributary  tlie 
Tunja  (confluence  at  Adrianople,  to  the  south  of  Kouraelia), 
though  a  certain  part  di-ains  north-eastwards  by  several 
small  streams.  The  whole  area  is  estimated  at  14,858 
square  miles,  and  the  population  in  1880  was  815,513,  of 
whom  573,231  were  Bulgarians,  176,759  Turks,  42,526 
Greeks,  19,524  Gipsies,  4177  Jews,  and  1306  Armenians. 
This  preponderance  of  Bulgarians  led  in  September  1885  to 
the  Philippopolis  revolution,  which  resulted  in  the  princi- 
pality of  Bulgaria  declaring  East  Eoumelia  part  and  parcel 
of  United  Bulgaria  ;  and  the  United  Bulgarians  have  since 
been  successful  in  a  war  with  tlie  Servians,  who  invaded 
their  territory. 

EOUND  TOWERS.  A  peculiar  class  of  round  tower 
exists  scattered  throughout  Ireland;  abput  one  hundred 
and  twenty  examples  still  remain,  mostly  in  a  ruined 
state,  but  eighteen  or  twenty  are  almost  perfect.  These 
towers  were  built  either  near  or  adjoining  a  church  ;  they 
are  .of  various  dates  from  perhaps  the  8th  to  the  13th 
century ;  though  varying  in  size  and  detail,  they  have 
many  characteristics  which  are  common  to  all.  Tliey  are 
built  with  walls  slightly  battering  inwards,  so  that  the 
tower  tapers  towards  the  top.  The  lower  part  is  formed 
of  solid  masonry,  the  one  doorway  being  raised  from  6  to 
20  feet  above  the  ground,  and  so  only  accessible  by  means 
of  a  ladder.  The  towers  within  are  divided  into  several 
stories  by  two  or  more  floors,  usually  of  wood,  but  in 
some  cases,  as  at  Keneith,  of  stone  slightly  arched.  The 
access  from  floor  to  floor  was  by  ladders,  no  stone  staircase 
being  provided.  The  windows,  which  are  always  high  up, 
are  single  lights,  mostly  arched  or  with  a  flat  stone  lintel. 
In  some  of  the  oldest  towers  they  have  triangular  tops, 
formed  by  two  stones  leaning  together,  like  the  windows 
at  Deerhurst  and  other  pre-Norman  buildings  in  England. 
One  peculiarity  of  the  door  and  window  openings  in  the 
Irish  round  towers  is  that  the  jambs  are  frequently  set 
sloping,  so  that  the  opening  grows  narrower  towards  the 
top,  as  in  the  temples  of  ancient  Egypt.  The  later 
examples  of  these  towers,  dating  from  the  12th  and  13th 
centuries  are  often  decorated  with  chevron,  billet,  and  other 
Norman  enrichments  round  the  jambs  and  arches.  The 
roof  is  of  stone,  usually  conical  in  shape,  and  some  of  the 
later  towers  are  crowned  by  a  circle  of  battlements.  The 
height  of  the  round  towers  varies  from  about  60  feet  to 
132;  that  at  Kilcullen  is  the  highest.  The  masonry 
differs  according  to  its  date, — the  oldest  examples  being 
built  of  almost  uncut  rubble  work,  and  the  later  ones  of 
neatly-jointed  ashlar. 

Much  has  been  written  as  to  the  use  of  these  towers, 
and  the  most  conflicting  theories  as  to  their  origin  have 
been  propounded.  It  is,  however,  fairly  certain  that  they 
were  constructed  by  Christian  builders,  both  from  the  fact 
that  they  always  are  or  once  were  near  to  a  church,  and 
also  because  crosses  and  other  Christian  emblems  frequently 
occur  among  the  sculptured  decorations  of  their  doors  and 
windows.  The  original  purpose  of  these  towers  was  pro- 
bably for  places  of  refuge,  for  which  the  solid  base  and  the 
door  high  above  the  ground  seem  specially  adapted.     They 


may  also  have  been  watch-towers,  and  in  later  times  often 
contained  bells.  Their  circular  form  was  probably  for  the 
sake  of  strength,  angles  which  could  be  attacked  by  a 
battering  ram  being  thus  avoided,  and  also  because  no 
quoins  or  dressed  stones  were  needed,  except  for  the  opoi- 
ings — an  important  point  at  a  time  when  tools  for  working 
stone  were  scarce  and  imperfect.  Both  these  leasons  may 
also  account  for  the  Norman  round  towers  which  are  so 
common  at  the  west  end  of  churches  in  Norfolk,  Suffolk, 
and  Essex,  though  these  have  little  resemblance  to  those  of 
Ireland  except  in  the  use  of  a  circular  plan.  One  example 
exactly  like  those  of  Ireland  still  exists  in  the  Isle  of  Jlan,i 
within  the  precincts  of  Peel  Castle  adjacent  to  the  cathedral 
of  St  German  ;  it  was  probably  the  work  of  Irish  builders. 
There  are  also  three  in  Scotland,  viz.  at  Egilshay  in  Ork- 
ney, and  at  Abernethy  and  Brechin. 

Round  towers  wider  and  lower  in  proportion  than  those 
of  Ireland  appear  to  have  been  built  by  many  prehistoric 
races  at  different  parts  of  Europe.  Many  examples  exist 
in  Scotland,  and  in  the  islands  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia. 
The  towers  of  this  class  in  Scotland  are  called  "  brochs"  ; 
they  average  about  50  feet  high  and  30  feet  in  internal 
diameter.  Their  walls,  \vhich  are  usually  about  15  feet 
thick  at  the  bottom,  are  built  hollow,  of  rubble  masonry, 
with  series  of  passages  one  over  the  other  running  all 
round  the  tower.  As  in  the  Irish  towers,  the  entrance  is 
placed  at  some  distance  from  the  ground  ;  and  the  whole 
structure  is  designed  as  a  stronghold.  The  brochs  appear 
to  have  been  the  work  of  a  pre-Christian  Celtic  race. 
Many  objects  in  bronze  and  iron  and  fragments  of  hand- 
made pottery  have  been  found  in  and  near  these  towers, 
all  bearing  witness  of  a  very  early  date.  See  Anderson, 
Scotland  in  Pagan  Times,  1883,  and  Scotland  in  Early 
C/uisticfn  Times,  1881.  During  the  0th  century  church 
towers  at  and  near  Ravenna  were  usually  built  round  in 
plan,  and  not  unlike  those  of  Ireland  in  their  proportions. 
The  finest  existing  example  is  that  which  stands  by  the 
tShurch  of  S.  Apollinare  in  Classe,  the  old  port  of  the  city 
of  Ravenna  (see  Basilica,  vol.  iii.  p.  415,  fig.  5).  It  is  of 
brick,  divided  into  nine  stories,  w'ith  single-light  windows 
below,  three-light  windows  in  the  upper  stories,  and  two- 
lights  in  the  intermediate  ones.  The  most  magnificent 
example  of  a  round  tower  is  the  well-known  leaning  tower 
of  Pisa,  begun  in  the  year  1174.  It  is  richly  decorated 
with  tiers  of  open  marble  arcades,  sup})orted  on  free 
columns.  The  circular  plan  was  much  v.sed  by  !Moslem 
races  for  their  minarets.  The  finest  of  these  is  the  13th- 
century  minar  of  Kootub  at  Old  Delhi,  built  of  limestone 
with  bands  of  marble.  It  is  richly  fluted  on  plan,  and 
when  complete  was  at  least  250  feet  high. 

The  best  account  of  the  Irish  round  towtrs  is  thaf  given  ly 
Petrie,  iu  his  Ecclesiastical  Architecture  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1845). 
See  also  Keane,  Towers  and  Temples  of  Ancient  Ireland  (Dublin, 
1850) ;  Brash,  Ecclesiastical  ArchitcctKrc  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1876); 
and  Stokes,  Early  Architecture  in  Ireland  (Dublin,  1878). 

ROUNDEL.     See  Rondeau. 

ROUS,  or  Rouse,  Francis  (1579-1659),  known  by 
his  translation  of  the  Psalms ;  see  vol.  xii.  p.  590.  His 
works  appeared  at  London  in  1657. 

ROUSSEAU,  Jacques  (1630-1693),  painter,  a  memocr 
of  a  Huguenot  family,  was  born  at  Paris  .in  1630.  He 
was  remarkable  as  a  painter  of  decorative  landscapes  and 
classic  ruins,  somewhat  in  the  style  of  Canaletto,  but 
without  his  delicacy  of  touch ;  he  appears  also  to  have 
been  influenced  by  Nicolas  Poussin.  While  quite  young 
Rousseau  went  to  Rome,  where  he  was  fascinated  by  the 
noble  picturesqueness  of  the  ancient  ruins,  and  spent  some 
years  in  painting  them,  together  with  the  surrounding 
landscapes.  He  thus  formed  his  style,  which  was  highly 
artificial  and  conventionally  decorative.  His  colouring 
for  the  'most  part  is  unpleasing,  partly  owing  to  his  violent 


ROUSSEAU 


20 
o 


treatment  of  skies  with  crude  blues  and  orange,  and  his 
cbiaroscuro  usually  is  much  exaggerated.  On  his  return 
to  Paris  be  soon  became  distinguished  as  a  painter,  and 
was  employed  by  Louis  XIV.  to  decorate  the  walls  of  his 
palaces  at  St  Germain  and  Marly.  He  was  soon  admitted 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts,  but 
on  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  he  was  obliged  | 
to  take  refuge  in  Holland,  and  his  name  was  struck  off 
the  Academy  roll.  From  Holland  he  was  invited  to  Eng- 
land by  the  duke  of  Montague,  who  employed  him, 
together  witli  other  French  painters,  to  paint  the  walls  of 
his  jmlaco,  Montague  House.i  Rousseau  was  also  employed 
to  paint  architectural  subjects  and  landscapes  in  the  palace 
of  Hampton  Court,  where  many  of  his  decorative  panels 
Btill  e.xist.  He  spent  the  latter  part  of  his  life  in  London, 
where  he  died  in  1693. 

Besides  being  a  painter  in  oil  and  fte.sco  Rousseau  was  an  etcher 
of  some  obility  ;  many  etchings  by  hS  hand  from  the  works  of  the 
Caracci  and  Irom  his  own  designs  still  exist ;  they  are  vigorous, 
though  too  coarse  in  execution. 

IIOUSSEAU,  Jean  Baptiste  (1670-1741),  a  poet  of 
some  merit  and  a  wit  of  considerable  dexterity,  was  born 
at  Paris  on  the  10th  April  1670;  he  died  at  Brussels 
on  the  17th  March  17-11.  The  son  of  a  shoemaker,  he  is 
said  to  have  been  ashamed  of  his  parentage  and  relations 
when  he  acquired  a  certain  popularity,  but  the  abundance 
of  literary  quarrels  in  which  he  spent  his  life,  and  the 
malicious  inventiveness  of  his  chief  enemy,  Voltaire,  make 
any  such  stories  of  small  account.  He  was  certainly  well 
educated  and  early  gained  favour  with  Boileau,  who  did 
not  regard  many  people  favourably ;  but  authentic  intelli- 
gence as  to  his  youth  is  very  scarce.  He  does  not  seem  to 
have  attempted  literature  very  young,  and  when  he  began 
he  began  with  the  theatre,  for  which  at  no  part  of  his  life 
does  he  seem  to  have  had  any  aptitude.  A  one-act 
comedy,  Le  Cafe,  failed  in  1694,  and  he  was  not  much 
happier  with  a  more  ambitious  play,  Les  Flatteurs,  or 
with  the  opera  of  Yemis  and  Adunis.  He  would  not  take 
these  warnings,  and  tried  in  1700  another  comedy,  Le 
Capricmtx,  which  had  the  same  fate.  By  this  time  ho 
had  already  (it  is  not  quite  clear  how)  obtained  influential 
patrons,  such  as  Breteuil  and  Tallard,  had  gone  with 
Tallard  as  an  attache  to  London,  and,  in  days  when  litera- 
ture still  led  to  high  position,  seemed  likely  to  achieve 
success.  To  tell  the  whole  story  of  his  misfortunes  would 
take  far  more  space  than  can  be  spared  him  here.  They 
began  with  what  may  be  called  a  club  squabble  at  a 
certain  Cafo  Laurent,  which  was  much  frequented  by 
literary  men,  and  where  Rousseau  indulged  in  lampoons 
on  his  companions.  A  shower  of  libellous  and  sometimes 
obscene  verses  was  written  by  or  attributed  to  him,  and 
at  last  ho  was  practically  turned  out  of  the  cafe.  At  the 
same  time  his  poems,  as  yet  only  singly  printed  or  in 
manuscript,  acquired^  him  a  great  reputation,  and  not 
Tiiijustly,  for  Rousseau  is  certainly  the  best  French  writer 
of  serious  lyrics  between  Racine  and  Chenier.  He  had  in 
1701  been  made  a  member  of  the  Acadc'mie  des  Inscrip- 
tions ;  ho  had  been  offered,  though  he  had  not  accepted, 
profitable  places  in  the  revenue  department ;  he  had 
become  a  favourite  of  the  libertine  but  not  uninfluential 
coterie  of  the  Temple;  and  in  1710  he  presented  himself 
as  a  candidate  for  the  Academic  Fran^aise.  Then  began 
the  second  chapter  (the  first  had  lasted  ten  years)  of  a 
history  of  the  animosities  of  authors  which  is  almost  the 
strangest  though  not  the  most  imiiortant  on  record.  A 
copy  of  verses,  more  ofTensive  than  ever,  was  handed  to  the 
original  object  of  Rousseau's  jealousy,  and,  getting  wind, 
occasioned  the  bastinadoing  of  the  reputed  outhor  by  a 
certain  La  Fayo  or  La  Faille,  a  soldier  who  was  reflected 

'  Alontaguc  Ilouse  stood  ou  the  site  of  the  British  Museum. 


on.  Legal  proceedings  of  various  kinds  followed,  and 
Rousseau  either  had  or  thought  he  had  ground  for  ascrib- 
ing the  lampoon  to  Joseph  Saurin.  More  law  ensued, 
and  the  end  of  it  was  that  in  1712  Rousseau,  not  appear- 
ing, was  condemned  par  contumace  to  perpetual  exile.  He 
actually  suffered  it,  remaining  for  the  rest  of  his  life  in 
foreign  countries  except  for  a  short  time  in  1738,  when  he 
returned  clandestinely  to  Paris,  to  try  for  a  recall.  It 
should  be  said  that  he  might  have  had  this  if  he  had  not 
steadfastly  protested  his  innocence  and  refused  to  accept  a 
mere  pardon.  No  one  has  ever  completely  cleared  up  the 
story,  and  it  must  be  admitted  that,  except  as  exhibiting 
very  strikingly  the  strange  idiosyncrasies  of  the  18th 
century  in  France,  and  as  having  affected  the  fortunes  of 
a  man  of  letters  of  some  eminence,  it  is  not  worth  much 
attention. 

Rousseau's  good  and  ill  luck  did  not  cease  with  his 
exile.  First  Prince  Eugene  and  then  other  persons  of  dis- 
tinction took  him  under  their  protection,  and  he  printed 
at  Soleure  the  first  edition  of  his  poetical  works.  But  by 
fault  or  misfortune  he  still  continued  to  quarrel.  Voltaire 
and  he  met  at  Brussels  in  1722,  and,  though  Voltaire  had 
hitherto  pretended  or  felt  a  great  admiration  for  him, 
something  happened  which  turned  this  admiration  into 
hatred.  Voltaire's  Le  Pour  et  Le  Conire  is  said  to  have 
shocked  Rousseau,  who  expressed  his  sentiments  freely. 
At  any  rate  the  latter  had  thenceforward  no  fiercer  enemy 
than  Voltaire.  Rousseau,  however,  was  not  much  affected 
by  Voltaire's  enmity,  and  pursued  for  nearly  twenty  years 
a  life  of  literary  work,  of  courtiership,  and  of  rather 
obscure  speculation  and  business.  Although  he  never 
made  his  fortune,  it  does  not  seem  that  he  was  ever  in 
want.  When  he  died  his  death  had  the  singular  result  of 
eliciting  from  a  poetaster,  Lefranc  do  Pompignan,  an  ode 
of  real  excellence  and  perhaps  better  than  anything  of 
Rousseau's  own  work.  That  work,  however,  has  high 
merits,  and  is  divided,  roughly  speaking,  into  two  strangely 
contrasted  divisions.  One  consists  of  formal  and  partly 
sacred  odes  and  canlates  of  the  stiffest  character,  the  other 
of  brief  .epigrams,  sometimes  licentious  and  always  or 
almost  always  ill-natured.  In  the  ktter  class  of  work 
Rousseau  is  only  inferior  to  his  friend  P'.ron.  In  the 
former  he  stands  almost  alone.  The  frigidity  of  conven- 
tional diction  and  the  disuse  of  all  really  lyrical  rhythm 
which  characterize  his  period  do  not  pre-ent  his  odes  and 
cantates  from  showing  true  poetical  faculty,  grievovisly 
cramped  no  doubt,  but  still  existing. 

Besides  the  Soleure  edition  mentioned  above,  Eousseau  published 
(visiting  England  for  the  purpose)  nuother  issue  of  his  work  at 
London  in  1723.  The  chief  edition  since  is  that  of  Amar  in  1820. 
M.  A.  de  Latonr  has  published  (Paris,  Garnier,  18C9)  a  useful 
though  not  comi'lete  edition,  with  notes  of  merit  and  a  biographical 
introduction  wliich  would  have  been  better  if  the  facts  had  been 
more  punctually  and  precisely  stated. 

ROUSSEAU,  Jean  Jacqoes  (1712-1778),  was  born  at 
Geneva  on  the  28th  June  1712.  His  family  had  estab- 
lished themselves  in  that  city  at  the  time  of  the  religious 
wars,  but  they  were  of  pure  French  origin.  Rousseau's 
father  Isaac  was  a  watchmaker ;  his  mother,  Suzanne 
Bernard,  was  the  daughter  of  a  minister,  she  died  in 
childbirth,  and  Rousseau,  who  was  the  second  son,  was 
brought  up  in  a  very  haphazard  fashion,  his  father  being 
a  dissipated,  violent-tempered,  and  foolish  person.  He, 
however,  taught  him  to  road  early,  and  seems  to  liavo  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  flighty  scntiu.cntalism  in  morals  and 
politics  which  Eousseau  afterwards  illustrated  with  his 
genius.  When  the  boy  was  ten  years  old  his  father  got 
entangled  in  a  disgraceful  brawl  and  fled  from  Geneva, 
apparently  without  troubling  himself  obout  Jean  Jacques. 
The  father  and  son  had  little  more  to  do  with  each  other 
and  rarclv  met.     Rousseau  was.  however,  taken  charge  of 


24 


KOUSSEAU 


by  his  mother's  relations  and  was  in  the  first  place  com- 
mitted by  them  to  ^he  tutorship  of  a  M.  Lambercier, 
pastor  at  Bossey.  Of  these  times  as  of  the  greater  part 
of  his  life  there  are  ample  details  in  the  Confessions,  but 
it  may  be  as  well  to  remark  at  once  that  this  famous  book, 
however  charming  as  literature,  is  to  be  used  as  docu- 
mentary fevidence  only  with  great  reserve.  In  1724  he 
was  removed  from  this  school  and  taken  into  the  house  of 
his  uncle  Bernard,  by  whom  he  was  shortly  afterwards 
apprenticed  to  a  notary.  His  master,  however,  found  or 
thought  him  quite  incapable  and  sent  him  back.  After  a 
short  time  (April  25,  1725)  he  was  apprenticed  afresh, 
this  time  to  an  engraver.  He  did  not  dislike  the  work, 
but  was  or  thought  himself  cruelly  treated  by  his  master. 
At  last  in  1728,  when  he  was  sixteen,  he  ran  away,  the 
truancy  being  by  his  own  account  unintentional  in  the 
first  instance,  and  due  to  the  fact  of  the  city  gates  being 
shut  earlier  than  usual.  Then  began  a  very  extraordinary 
series  of  wanderings  and  adventures,  for  much  of  which, 
there  is  no  authority  but  his  own.  He  first  fell  in  with 
some  proselytizers  of  the  Roman  faith  at  Confignon  in 
Savoy,  and  by  them  he  was  sent  to  Madame  de  Warens 
at  Annecy,  a  young  and  pretty  widow  who  was  herself  a 
convert.  Her  influence,  however,  which  was  to  be  so 
great,  was  not  immediately  exercised,  and  he  was,  so  to 
speak,  passed  on  to  Turin,  where  there  was  an  institution 
specially  devoted  to  the  reception  of  neophytes.  His 
experiences  here  were  (according  to  his  own  account,  it 
must  always  be  understood)  sufliciently  unsatisfactory, 
but  he  abjured  duly  and  was  rewarded  by  being  presented 
with  twenty  francs  and  sent  about  his  business.  He 
wandered  about  in  Turin  for  some  time,  and  at  last  estab- 
lished himself  as  footman  to  a  iladame  de  Vercellis. 
Here  occurred  the  famous  incident  of  the  theft  of  a  ribbon, 
of  which  he  accused  a  fellow  servant — a  girl  too.  But, 
though  he  kept  his  place  by  this  piece  of  cowardice, 
Madame  de  Vercellis  died  not  long  afterwards  and  he  was 
turned  off.  He  found,  however,  another  place  with  the 
Comte  de  Gouvon,  but  lost  this  also  through  coxcombry. 
Then  he  resolved  to  return  to  Madame  de  Warens  at 
Annecy.  The  chronology  of  all  these  events  is  somewhat 
obscure,  but  they  seem  to  have  occupied  about  three 
years. 

Even  then  Rousseau  did  not  settle  at  once  in  the 
anomalous  but  to  him  charming  position  of  domestic  lover 
to  this  lady,  who,  nominally  a  converted  Protestant,  was 
in  reality,  as  many  women  of  her  time  were,  a  kind  of 
deist,  with  a  theory  of  noble  sentiment  and  a  practice 
of  libertinism  temoered  bv  good  nature.  It  used  to  be 
held  *|jat  '.n  ner  conjugal  relations  she  was  even  more 
sinned  against  than  sinning.  But  recent  investigations 
seem  to  show  that  il.  de  Vuarrens  (which  is  said  to  be  the 
correct  spelling  of  the  name)  was  a  very  unfortunate  hus- 
band, and  was  de:erted  and  robbed  by  his  wife.  However, 
she  welcomed  Rousseau  kindly,  thought  it  necessary  to 
complete  his  education,  and  he  was  sent  to  the  semin- 
arists of  St  Lazare  to  be  improved  in  classics,  and  also  to 
a  music  master.  In  one  of  his  incomprehensible  freaks  he 
set  off  for  Lyons,  and,  after  abandoning  his  companion  in  an 
epileptic  fit,  returned  to  Annecy  to  find  Madame  deAVarens 
gone  no  one  knew  whither.  Then  for  some  months  he 
relapsed  into  the  life  of  vagabondage,  varied  by  improbable 
adventures,  which  (according  to  his  own  statement)  he 
so  often  pursued.  Hardly  knowing  anything  of  music,  he 
attempted  to  give  lessons  and  a  concert  at  Lausanne ; 
and  he  actually  taught  at  Neuchatel.  Then  he  became 
or  says  he  became  secretary  to  a  Greek  archimandrite  who 
■was  travelling  in  Switzerland  to  collect  subscriptions. for 
the  rebuilding  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre ;  then  he  went  to 
I'arjs,  and,  with  recommendations  from  the  French  ambas- 


sador at  Soleure,  saw  something  of  good  society ;  then  he 
returned  on  foot  through  Lyons  to  Savoy,  hearing  that 
JIadame  de  Warens  was  at  Chamb(5ry.  This  was  in  1732, 
and  Rousseau,  who  for  a  time  had  unimportant  employ- 
ments in  the  service  of  the  Sardinian  crown,  was  shortly 
installed  by  Madame  de  Warens,  whom  he  still  called 
Manian,  as  amant  en  litre  in  her  singular  household, 
wherein  she  diverted  herself  with  him,  with  music,  and 
with  chemistry.  In  1736  Madame  de  Warens,  partly  for 
Rousseau's  health,  took  a  country  house,  Les  Charmettes, 
a  short  distance  from  Chamb^ry.  Here  in  summer,  and 
in  the  town  during  winter,  Rousseau  led  a  delightful  life, 
which  he  has  delightfully  described.  In  a  desultory  way 
he  did  a  good  deal  of  reading,  but  in  1738  his  health 
again  became  bad,  and  he  was  recommended  to  go  to 
Montpellier.  By  his  own  account  this  journey  to  Montpel- 
lier  was  in  reality  a  voyage  h  CytMre  in  company  with  a 
certain  Jfadame  de  Lcffnage.  This  being  so,  he  could 
hardly  complain  when  on  returning  he  found  that  his 
official  position  in  Madame  de  Warens's  household  had 
been  taken  by  a  person  named  Vintzenried.  He  was, 
however,  less  likely  than  most  men  to  endure  the  position 
of  second  in  command,  and  in  1740  he  became  tutor  at 
Lyons  to  the  children  of  M.  de  Mably,  not  the  weU-known 
writer  of  that  name,  but  his  and  Condillac's  elder  brother. 
But  Rousseau  did  not  like  teaching  and  was  a  bad  teacher, 
and  after  a  visit  to  Les  Charmettes,  finding  that  his  place 
there  was  finally  occupied,  he  once  more  went  to  Paris  in 
1741.  He  was  not  without  recommendations.  But  a 
new  system  of  musical  notation  which  he  thought  he  had 
discovered  was  unfavourably  received  by  the  Acad^mie  des 
Sciences,  where  it  was  read  in  August  1742,  and  he  was 
unable  to  obtain  pupils.  Madame  Dupin,  however,  to 
whose  house  he  had  obtained  the  entry,  procured  him  the 
honourable  if  not  very  lucrative  post  of  secretary  to  M.  de 
Montaigu,  ambassador  at  Venice.  With  him  he  stayed  for 
about  eighteen  months,  and  has  as  usual  infinite  complaints 
to  make  of  his  employer  and  some  strange  stories  to  telL 
At  length  he  threw  up  his  situation  and  returned  to  Paris 
(1745). 

Up  to  this  time — that  is  to  say,  till  his  thirty-third  year — 
Rousseau's  life,  though  continuously  described  by  himself, 
was  of  the  kind  called  subterranean,  and  the  account  of  it 
must  be  taken  with  considerable  allowances.  There  are, 
to  say  the  least,  grave  improbabilities  in  it ;  there  are  some 
chronological  difficulties  ;  and  in  one  or  two  instances  his 
accounts  have  been  flatly  denied  by  persons  more  or  les3 
entitled  to  be  heard.  He  had  written  nothing,  and  if  he 
was  known  at  all  it  was  as  an  eccentric  vagabond.  From 
this  time,  however,  he  is  more  or  less  in  view;  and,  though 
at  least  two  events  of  his  life — his  quarrel  with  Diderot 
and  his  death — are  and  are  likely  long  to  be  subjects  oi 
dispute,  its  general  history  can  be  checked  and  followed 
with  reasonable  confidence.  On  his  return  to  Paris  he 
renewed  his  relations  with  the  Dupin  family  and  with  the 
literary  group  of  Diderot,  to  which  he  had  already  been 
introduced  by  M.  de  JIably's  letters.  He  had  an  opera, 
Les  Muses  Galantes,  privately  represented  ;  he  copied  music 
for  money,  and  received  from  iladame  Dupin  and  her  son- 
in-law  M.  de  Francueil  a  small  but  regular  salary  as 
secretary.  He  lived  at  the  Hotel  St  Quentin  for  a  time, 
and  once  more  arranged  for  himself  an  equivocal  domestic 
establishment.  His  mistress,  whom  towards  the  close  of 
his  life  he  married  after  a  fashion,  was  Th^rfese  le  Vasseor, 
a  servant  at  the  inn.  She  had  little  beauty,  no  education 
or  understanding,  and  few  charms  of  any  kind  that  his 
friends  could  discover,  besides  which  she  had  a  detestable 
mother,  who  was  the  bane  of  Rousseau's  hie.  But  he 
made  himself  at  any  rate  for  a  time  quite  happy  \vith  her, 
and    (according   to   Rousseau's  account,  the   accuracy  of 


ROUSSEAU 


25 


which  has  been  questioned)  five  children  were  born  to  them, 
who  were  all  consigned  to  the  foundling  hospital.  This  dis- 
regard of  responsibility  was  partly  punished  by  the  use  his 
critics  made  of  it  when  he  became  celebrated  as  a  writer 
on  education  and  a  preacher  of  the  domestic  affections. 
Diderot,  with  whom  he  became  more  and  more  familiar, 
admitted  him  as  a  contributor  to  the  Encyclopklie.  He 
formed  new  musical  projects,  and  he  was  introduced  by 
degrees  to  many  people  of  rank  and  influence,  among 
whom  his  warmest  patron  for  a  time  was  Madame 
d'Jipinay.  It  was  not,  however,  till  1749  that  Rousseau 
made  his  mark.  The  academy  of  Dijon  offered  a  prize  for 
an  essay  on  the  effect  of  the  progress  of  civilization  on 
morals.  Rousseau  took  up  the  subject,  developed  his 
famous  paradox  of  the  superiority  of  the  savage  state,  won 
Ihe  prize,  and,  publishing  his  essay  next  year,  became 
famous.  The  anecdotage  as  to  the  origin  of  this  famous 
essay  is  voluminous. .  It  is  agreed  that  the  idea  was 
suggested  when  Rousseau  went  to  pay  a  visit  to  Diderot, 
who  was  in  prison  at  Vincennes  for  his  Lettre  sur  lea 
Aveughs.  Rousseau  says  he  thought  of  the  paradox  on  his 
way  down ;  Morellet  and  others  say  that  ho  thought  of 
treating  the  subject  in  the  ordinary  fashion  and  was 
laughed  at  by  Diderot,  who  showed  him  the  advantages  of 
the  less  obvious  treatment.  Diderot  himself,  who  in  such 
matters  is  almost  absolutely  trustworthy,  does  not  claim 
the  suggestion,  but  uses  words  which  imply  that  it  was  at 
least  partly  his.  It  is  very  like  him.  The  essay,  however, 
took  the  artificial  and  crotchety  society  of  the  day  by 
storm.  Francueil  gave  Rousseau  a  valuable  post  as  cashier 
in  the  receiver  general's  office.  But  he  resigned  it  either 
from  conscientiousness,  or  crotchet,  or  nervousness  at 
responsibility,  or  indolence,  or  more  probably  from  a 
mixture  of  all  four.  He  went  back  to  his  music  copying, 
but  the  salons  of  the  day  were  determined  to  have  his 
society,  and  for  a  time  they  had  it.  In  1752  he  brought 
out  at  Fontainebleau  an  operetta,  \\iQDevindu  Village,  which 
was  very  successful.  He  received  a  hundred  louis  for  it, 
and  he  was  ordered  to  come  to  court  next  day.  This 
meant  the  certainty  of  a  pension.  But  Rousseau's  shyness 
or  his  perversity  (as  before,  probably  both)  made  him 
disobey  the  command.  His  comedy  Narcisse,  written  long 
before,  was  also  acted,  but  unsuccessfully.  In  the  same 
year,  however,  a  letter  Sur  la  Blusique  Franchise  again 
had  a  great  vogue.^     Finally,  for  this  was  an  important 

*  Rousseau's  influence  on  French  music  was  greater  than  might  have 
lieea  expected  from  his  very  imperfect  education  ;  in  truth,  Jie  was  a 
musician  by  natural  instinct  only,  but  his  feeling  for  art  was  very 
strong,  and,  though  capricious,  baaed  upon  true  perceptions  of  tlie 
good  and  beautiful.  The  system  of  notation  (by  figures)  concerning 
wliich  he  read  a  paper  before  tlie  Acadimie  des  Sciences,  August  22, 
1742,  was  ingenious,  but  practically  worse  than  useless,  and  failed 
to  attract  attention,  though  the  paper  wa.s  published  in  1743  under  the 
title  of  Dissertation  sur  la  musique  mothrne.  In  the  famous  **guerre 
des  buffons,"  he  took  the  part  of  the  "buffonists,"  so  named  in  conse- 
qucDCd  of  their  attachment  to  the  Italian  "  opera  buffa,"  as  opposed  to 
the  true  French  opera  ;  and,  in  his  Lettre  sur  la  musique  Fran<;aisc, 
published  in  1753,  ho 'indulged  in  a  violent  tirade  against  French 
music,  which  ho  declared  to  be  so  contemptible  as  to  lead  to  tlie  con- 
clusion "that  the  French  neither  have,  nor  ever  will  have,  any  music 
of  their  own,  or  at  least  that,  if  they  ever  do  have  any,  it  will  be  so 
much  the  worse  for  them."  This  silly  libel  so  enraged  the  performers 
nt  the  Opera  that  they  hanged  and  burned  its  author  in  effigy. 
Rousseau  revenged  himself  by  printing  his  clever  satire  entitled 
Lettre  rf'un  symphoniste  de  VA  cadlmie  Royate  de  Ahisique  d  ses  catna- 
mdcs  de  Vorchf-stre.  His  Lettre  d  Af.  Barney  is  of  a  very  din"erent 
type,  and  does  full  justice  to  the  genius  of  Gluck.  His  articles  on 
music  in  the  Encyclopldie  deal  very  superficially  with  tlio  subject ; 
and  bia  Dictionnaire  de  Musique  (Geneva,  1707),  though  admirably 
written,  isinot  trustworthy,  cither  as  a  record  of  factf  or  as  a  col- 
lection of  critical  essays.  In  nil  these  works  tlio  imperfection  of 
his  musical  education  is  painfully  apparent,  and  his  compositions 
betray  an  equal  lack  of  knowledge,  though  his  refined  toste  is  a.s 
ulearly  displayed  there  as  is  his  literary  power  in  the  Letters  and  Uie- 
titmary.      His  fint  onera    Les  Muses  (Jalantea,  privately  i>repared  at 


year  with  him,  the  Dijon  academy,  which  had  founded  his 
fam§,  announced  the  subject  of  "The  Origin  of  In- 
equality," on  which  he  wrote  a  discourse  which  was  un- 
successful, but  at  least  equal  to  the  former  in  merit. 
During  a  visit  to  Geneva  in  1754  Rousseau  saw  his  old 
friend  and  love  Madame  de  Warens  (now  reduced  in  cir- 
cumstances and  having  lost  all  her  charms),  while  after 
abjuring  his  abjuration  of  Protestantism  he  was  enabled 
to  take  up  his  freedom  as  citizen  of  Geneva,  to  which  his 
birth  entitled  him  and  of  which  he  was  proud.  Some  time 
afterwards,  returning  to  Paris,  he  accepted  a  cottage  near 
Montmorency  (the  celebrated  Hermitage)  which  Madame 
d'Epinay  had  fitted  up  for  him,  and  established  him- 
self there  in  April  1756.  He  spent  little  more  than  a 
year  there,  but  it  was  a  very  important  year.  Here 
he  wrote  La  Nouvelle  Heldise ;  here  he  indulged  in  the 
passion  which  that  novel  partly  represents,  his  love  for 
Madame  d'Houdetot,  sister-in-law  of  Madame  d'Epinay,  a 
lady  still  young  and  extre6iely  amiable  but  very  plain, 
who  had  a  husband  and  a  lover  (St  Lambert),  and  whom 
Rousseau's  burning  devotion  seems  to  have  partly  pleased 
and  partly  annoyed.  Here  too  arose  the  incomprehensible 
triangular  quarrel  between  Diderot,  Rousseau,  and  Grimm 
which  ended  Rousseau's  sojourn  at  the  Hermitage.  It  is 
impossible  to  discuss  this  at  length  here.  The  supposition 
least  favourable  to  Rousseau  is  that  it  was  due  to  one  of 
his  numerous  fits  of  half-insane  petulance  and  indignation 
at  the  obligations  which  he  was  nevertheless  always  ready 
to  incur.  That  most  favourable  to  him  is  that  he  was 
expected  to  lend  himself  in  a  more  or  less  complaisant 
manner  to  assist  and  cover  Madame  d'fipinay's  adulterous 
affection  for  Grimm.  It  need  only  be  said  that  Madame 
d'fipinay's  morals  and  Rousseau's  temper  are  equally 
indefensible  by  anyone  who  knows  anything  about  either, 
but  that  the  evidence  as  to  the  exact  influence  of  both 
on  this  particular  transaction  is  hopelessly  inconclusive. 
Diderot  seems  to  have  been  guilty  of  nothing  but  thought- 
lessness (if  of  that)  in  lending  himself  to  a  scheme  of  the 
Le  Vasseurs,  mother  and  daughter,  for  getting  Rousseau 
out  of  the  solitude  of  the  Hermitage.  At  any  rate  Rous- 
seau quitted  the  Hermitage  in  the  winter,  and  established 
himself  at  Montlouis  in  the  neighbourhood. 

Hitherto  Rousseau's  behaviour  had  frequently  ~ade  him 
enemies,  but  his  writings  had  for  the  most  part  made  him 
friends.  The  quarrel  wUli  Madaiuc  d'Epinay,  with  Diderot, 
and  through  them  with  the  philosophe  party  reversed  this. 
In  1 7  58  appeared  his  Letti-e  h  d'A  lemberl  conire  les  Spectacles, 
written  in  the  winter  of  the  previous  year  at  Montlouis. 
This  was  at  once  an  attack  on  Voltaire,  who  was  giving 
theatrical  representations  at  Les  Dtilices,  on  D'Alembert, 
who  had  condemned  the  prejudice  against  the  stage  in 
the  Uncj/clopedie,  and  on  one  of  the  favourite  amuse- 
ments of  the  society  of  the  day.  Diderot  personally 
would  have  been  forgiving  enough.  But  Voltaire's  strong 
point  was  not  forgiveness,  and,  though  Rousseau  no 
doubt  exaggerated  the  efforts  of  his  "enemies,"  he 
was  certainly   henceforward   as  obnoxious  to  the  philo- 

the  house  of  La  Popelinitire,  attracted  very  little  attention  ;  but  Le 
Devin  du  Village,  given  ut  Fontainebleau  in  1752,  and  at  tho 
Acadtmie  in  1753,  achieved  a  great  and  wcU-descPi'ed  success. 
Though  very  unequal,  and  eiccedingly  simple  botli  in  stylo  and  con- 
struction, it  contains  some  charming  melodies,  and  is  written  through- 
out in  tho  most  rofmcd  taste.  His  Pygmalion  (1775)  is  o  melodrama 
without  singing.  Some  posthumous  fragments  of  another  opera, 
DapknU  et  Chlof,  were  printed  in  1780  ;  and  in  1781  appeared  Les 
Consolation)  des  Misires  de  ma  Vie,  a  collection  of  about  one  hundred 
songs  and  other  fugitive  pieces  of  verj'  unequal  merit.  Tho  popular 
air  known  as  Rousseau's  Dream  is  not  contained  in  this  collection, 
and  cannot  bo  traced  back  further  than  J.  B.  Cramor'a  celebrated 
"  Variations."  M.  Castil-Blazo  has  accused  Rousseau  of  extensive 
I^aginrisms  (or  worse)  in  Le  Devin  du  Village  and  Pyi/malion,  but 
apiiarently  without  sufficient  cause.  (W.  S.  R) 

XXL  —  i 


2(5 


ROUSSEAU 


sophe  coterie  as  to  the  orthodox  party.  He  still,  how- 
ever, had  no  lack  of  patrons — he  never  had — though 
his  unsurpassable  perversity  made  him  quarrel  with 
all  in  turn.  The  amiable  duke  and  duchess  of  Luxem- 
bourg, who  were  his  neighbours  at  Montlouis,  made 
his  acquaintance,  or  rather  forced  theirs  upon  him,  and 
he  ■  was  eagerly  industrious  in  his  literary  w-ork — indeed 
most  of  his  best  books  were  produced  during  his  stay  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Montmorency.  A  letter  to  Voltaire 
on  his  poem  about  the  Lisbon  earthquake  embittered  the 
dislike  between  the  two,  being  surreptitiously  published. 
La  Noitvelle  Heloise  appeared  in  the  same  year  (1760), 
and  it  was  immensely  popular.  In  1662  appeared  the 
Contrat  Social  at  Amsterdam,  and  Emile,  which  was  pub- 
lished both  in  the  Lov/  Countries  and  at  Paris.  For  the 
latter  the  author  received  6000  livres,  for  the  Contrat 
1000. 

,  Julie,  ou  La  NouveUe  Heloise,  is  a  novel  written  in  letters 
describing  the  loves  of  a  man  of  low  position  and  a  girl  of 
rank,  her  subsequent  marriage  to  a  respectable  freethinker 
of  her  own  station,  the  mental  agonies  of  her  lover,  and 
the  partial  appeasing  of  the  distresses  of  the  lovers  by  the 
influence  of   noble  sentiment   and  the   good  offices  of   a 
philanthropic  Englishman.     It  is  too  long,  the  sentiment 
is  overstrained,  and  severe  moralists  have  accused  it  of  a 
certain  complaisance  in  dealing  with  amatory  errors  ;  but  it 
is  full  of  pathos  and  knowledge  of  the  human  heart.     The 
Contrat  Social,  as  its  title  implies,  endeavours  to  base  a'l 
government  on   the   consent,   direct   or  implied,  of   the 
governed,  and  indulges  in  much  ingenious  argument  to 
get  rid  of  the  practical  inconveniences  of  such  a  suggestion. 
£mile,  the  second   title   of   which  is   Be  V£ducation,  is 
much  more  of  a  treatise  than  of  a  novel,  though  a  certain 
amount  of  narrative  interest  is  kept  up  throughout. 
,  Rousseau's  reputation  was  now  higher  than  ever,  but  the 
term  of  the  comparative  prosperity  which  he  had  enjoyed 
for  nearly   ten   years   was  at  hand.     The  Contrat  Social 
was  obviously  anti-monarchic ;  the  NouveUe  HeldUe  was 
said  to  be  immoral ;  the  sentimental  deism  of  the  "  Profes- 
sion du  vicaire  Savoyard "  in  £mile  irritated  equally  the 
philosophe  party  and  the   church,     On  June  11,   1662, 
Jlimile   was   condemned   by  the  parlement  of   Paris,  and 
two   days  previously  Madame  de   Luxembourg  and   the 
Prince   de   Conti  gave   the   author  information   that  he 
would  be  arrested  if  he  did  not  fly.     They  also  furnished 
him  with   means  of  flight,  and  he  made  for  Yverdun  in 
the   territory  of    Bern,  whence  he  transferred  himself  to 
Motiers   in   Neuchatel,   which  then  belonged  to  Prussia. 
Frederick  II.  was  not  indisposed  to  protect  the  persecuted 
when  it  cost  him  nothing  and  might  bring  him  fame,  and 
in  Marshal  Keith,   the  governor  of  Neuchatel,  Eousseau 
found  a  true  and  firm  friend.     He  was,  however,  unable 
to  be  quiet  or  to  practise  any  of  those  more  or  less  pious 
frauds  which  were  customary  at  the  time  with  the  unor- 
thodox, V  The  archbishop  of  Paris  had  published  a  pastoral 
against  him,  and  Eousseau  did   not  let  the  year  pass 
without   a   Lettre   d,   M.    de  Beaumont.     The  council  of 
Geneva  had  joined  in   the  condemnation  of  Emile,  and 
Rousseaii  first  solenanly  renounced  his  citizenship,  and  then, 
in  the  Lettres  de  la  Montagne  (1763),  attacked  the  council 
and    the   Genevan    constitution    unsparingly.       All    this 
excited  public  opinion  against  him,  and  gradually  he  grew 
unpopular  in  his  own  neighbourhood.     This  unpopularity 
is  said  on  very  uncertain  authority  to  have  culminated  in 
a  nocturual  attack  on  his  house,  which  reminds  the  reader 
remarkably  of  an  incident  in  the  life  of  the  greatest  French 
man  of  letters  of   the  present  century.     At  any  rate  he 
thought  he  was  menaced  if  he  was  not,  and  migrated  to  the 
lie  Bt  Pierre  in  the  Lake  of  Bienne,  where  he  once  more  for 
a  short,  and  the  last,  time  enjoyed  that  idyllic  existence 


which  he  loved.  But  the  Bernese  Gfovernment  ordered  him 
to  quit  its  territory.  He  was  for  some  time  uncertain  where 
to  go,  and  thought  of  Corsica  (to  join  Paoli)  and  Berlin. 
But  finally  David  Hume  offered  him,  late  in  1765,  an 
asylum  in  England,  and  he  accepted.  He  passed  through 
Paris,  where  his  presence  was  tolerated  for  a  time,  and 
landed  in  England  on  January  13,  1766.  Therese  travelled 
separately,  and  was  entrusted  to  the  charge  of  James 
Boswell,  who  had  already  made  Rousseau's  acquaintance. 
Here  he  had  once  more  a  chance  of  settling  peaceably. 
Severe  English  moralists  like  Johnson  thought  but  ill  of 
him,  but  the  public  generally  was  not  unwilling  to  testify 
against  French  intolerance,  and  regarded  his  sentimental- 
ism  with  favour.  He  was  lionized  in  London  to  his 
heart's  content  and  discontent,  for  it  may  truly  be  said 
of  Rousseau  that  he  was  equally  indignant  at  neglect  and 
intolerant  of  attention.  When,  after  not  a  few  displays 
of  his  strange  humour,  he  professed  himself  tired  of  the 
capital,  Hume  procured  him  a  country  abode  in  the  house 
of  Mr  Davenport  at  Wootton  in  Derbyshire.  Here, 
though  the  place  was  bleak  and  lonely,  he  might  have 
been  happy  enough,  and  he  actually  employed  himself  in 
writing  the  greater  part  of  his  Confessions.  But  his 
habit  of  self-tormenting  and  tormenting  others  never  left 
him.  His  own  caprices  interposed  some  delay  in  the  con- 
ferring of  a  pension  which  George  III.  was  induced  to 
grant  him,  and  he  took  this  as  a  crime  of  Hume's.  The 
publication  of  a  spiteful  letter  (really-  by  Horace  Walpole, 
one  of  whose  worst  deeds  it  Was)  in  the  name  of  the  king 
of  Prussia  made  Eousseau  believe  that  plots  of  the  most 
terrible  kind  were  on  foot  against  him.  Finally  he 
quarrelled  with  Hume  because  the  latter  would  not 
acknowledge  all  his  own  friends  and  Rousseau's  supposed 
enemies  of  the  philosophe  circle  to  be  rascals.  He  re- 
mained, however,  at  Wootton  during  the  year  and  through 
the  winter.  In  May  1767  he  fled  to  France,  addressing 
letters  to  the  lord  chanceUor  and  to  General  Conway, 
which  can  only  be  described  as  the  letters  of  a  lunatic. 
He  was  received  in  France  by  the  Marquis  de  Mirabeau 
(father  of  the  great  Jlirabeau),  of  whom  he  soon  had 
enough,  then  by  the  Prince  de  Conti  at  Trye.  From  this 
place  he  again  fled  and  wandered  about  for  some  time  in 
a  wretched  fashion,  stiU  writing  the  Confessions,  constantly 
receiving  generous  help,  and  always  quarrelling  with,  or  at 
least  suspecting,  the  helpers.  In  the  summer  of  1770  he 
returned  to  Paris,  resumed  music  copying,  and  was  on  the 
whole  happier  than  he  had  been  since  he  had  to  leave 
Montlouis.  He  had  by  this  time  married  Therese  le 
Vasseur,  or  had  at  least  gone  through  some  form  of  marriage 
with  her. 

Many  of  the  best-known  stories  of  Rousseau's  life  date 
from  this  last  time,  when  he  was  tolerably  accessible  to 
visitors,  though  clearly  half-insane.  He  finished  his  Con- 
fessions, wrote  his  Dialogues  (the  interest  of  which  is  not 
quite  equal  to  the  promise  of  their  curious  sub-title 
Jiousseau  Juge  de  Jean.  Jacques),  and  began  his  Reveries  du 
Promeneur  Solitaire,  intended  as  a  sequel  and  complement 
to  the  Confessions,  and  one  of  the  best  of  all  his  books. 
It  should  be  said  that  besides  these,  which  complete  the 
list  of  his  principal  works,  he  has  left  a  very  large  number 
of  minor  works  and  a  considerable  correspondence.  During 
this  time  he  lived  in  the  Eue  Platiere,  which  is  now 
named  after  him.  But  his  suspicions  of  secret  enemies 
grew  stronger  rather  than  weaker,  and  at  the  beginning  of 
1778  he  was  glad  to  accept  th&  offer  of  M.  de  Girardin,  a 
rich  financier,  and  occupy  a  cottage  at  Ermenonville.  The 
country  was  beautiful ;  but  his  old  terrors  revived,  and  his 
woes  were  complicated  by  the  alleged  inclination  of  Theres* 
for  one  of  M.  de  Girardin's  stable  boys.  On  July  2d  he 
died  in  a  manner  which   has  been  much  discussed,  sua- 


ROUSSEAU 


2? 


picions  ot  suicide  having  at  the  time  and  since  been  fre- 
quent. On  the  whole  the  theory  of  a  natural  death  due  to 
a  fit  of  apoplexy  and  perhaps  to  injuries  intlicted  accident- 
ally during  that  fit  seems  most  probable.  He  had  always 
suffered  from  internal  and  constitutional  ailments  not 
unlikely  to  bring  about  such  an  end. 

Konsseau's  cliaracter,  the  history  of  his  reputation,  and  the 
intrinsic  value  of  Iiis  literary  work  are  all  subjects  of  much 
iiitori'st.  Tlierc  is  little  doubt  tliat  for  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years 
of  his  life,  if  not  from  the  time  of  his  quarrel  with  iDiderot  and 
-Madame  d'fipinay,  lie  was  not  wholly  sane — the  combined  influence 
of  late  and  unexpected  literary  fame  and  of  constant  solitude  and 
discomfort  acting  upon  his  excitable  temperament  so  as  to  overthrow 
the  balance,  never  very  stable,  of  his  fine  and  acute  bnt  unrobust 
intellect.  He  was  by  no  means  the  only  man  of  letters  of  his  time 
who  had  to  submit  to  something  like  persecution.  Frcroii  on  the 
orthodox  side  had  his  share  of  it,  as  well  as  Voltaire,  Helvetius, 
Diderot,  and  Montesquieu  on  that  of  the  innovators.  But 
Kou-^jeau  had  not,  like  Montesquieu,  a  position  which  guaranteed 
him  from  serious  danger ;  he  was  not  wealthy  like  Helvetius ;  he  had 
not  the  wonderful  suppleness  and  trickino?s  which  even  without 
his  wealth  would  probably  have  defended  Voltaire  himself;  and  ho 
lacked  entirely  the  "boitom"  of  Freron  and  Diderot.  When  he 
was  molested  l-e  could  only  shriek  at  his  enemies  and  suspect  his 
friends,  and,  being  more  given  than  any  man  whom  history  mentions 
to  this  latter  weakness,  he  suft'ered  intensely  from  it.  His  moral 
character  was  undoubtedly  weak  in  other  ways  than  this,  but  it  is 
fair  to  remember  that  but  for  his  astonnding  Confessions  the  more 
dis^sting  parts  of  it  would  not  have  been  known,  and  that  these 
Con/issions  were  written,  if  not  under  hallucination,  at  any  rate  in 
circumstances  entitling  the  self-condemned  criminal  to  the  benefit 
of  very  considerable  doubt.  If  Kousseau  had  held  his  tongue,  he 
might  Lave  stood  lower  as  a  man  of  letters;  he  would  pretty 
certainly  have  stood  higher  as  a  man.  He  was,  moreover,  really 
sinned  against,  if  still  more  sinning.  The  conduct  of  Grimm  to 
him  was  certainly  very  bad  ;  and,  though  Walpole  was  not  his 
jiersonal  friend,  a  worse  action  than  his  famous  letter,  considering 
the  well-known  idiosyncrasy  of  the  subject,  would  be  difficult  to 
find.  It  was  his  own  fault  that  he  saddled  himself  with  the  Le 
Vasseurs,  but  their  conduct  was  probably  if  not  certainly  ungrateful 
in  the  extreme.  Only  excuses  can  be  made  for  him ;  but  the  excuses 
for  a  man  born,  as  Hume  after  the  quarrel  said  of  him,  "without 
a  skin  "  are  numerous  and  strong. 

It  was  to  bo  expected  that  his  peculiar  reputation  would  increase 
rather  thau  dimiQish  after  his  death ;  and  it  did  so.  During  his 
life  his  personal  peculiarities  and  the  fact  that  his  opinions  were 
nearly  as  obnoxious  to  the  one  party  as  to  the  other  worked  against 
him,  but  it  was  not  so  after  his  death.  The  men  of  the  Revolution 
regarded  him  \vith  something  like  idolatry,  and  his  literary  merits 
couciliated  many  who  were  very  far  from  idolizing  him  as  a 
revolutionist.  His  stylo  was  taken  up  by  Bernardiu  de  Saint 
VicTTB  and  by  Chateaubriand.  It  was  employed  for  purposes  quite 
different  from  those  to  which  he  had  himself  applied  it,  and  the 
reaction  triumphed  by  the  very  arms  which  had  been  most  powerful 
in  the  hands  of  the  Revolution.  Byron's  fervid  panegyric  en- 
listed on  his  side  all  who  ailiuired  Byron — that  is  to  say,  the 
majority  of  the  younger  men  and  women  of  Europe  between  1820 
and  1850 — and  thus  different  sides  of  his  tradition  were  continued 
for  a  full  century  after  the  publication  of  his  chief  books.  His 
religious  uuorthodoxy  was  condoned  because  he  never  scollcd ;  his 
political  heresies,  after  their  first  effect  was  over,  seemed  harmless 
irom  the  very  want  of  logic  and  practical  spirit  in  them,  while  part 
at  least  of  his  literary  secret  was  the  common  property  of  almost 
everyone  who  attempted  literature.  At  the  present  day  persons  as 
different  as  M.  Kenan  and  Mr  Ruskin  are  children  of  Kousseau. 

It  is  therefore  important  to  characterize  this  inSueneo  which  was 
and  is  so  powerful,  and  there  are  three  points  of  view — thoso  of 
religion,  politics,  and  literature — which  it  is  necessary  to  take  in 
doing  this.  In  religion  Rousseau  was  undoubtedly  what  ho  has 
been  called  above — a  sentimental  deist ;  but  no  one  who  reads  him 
with  the  smallest  attention  can  fail  to  see  that  Bcntimcntalism  was 
the  essence,  deism  the  acciiknt  of  his  creed.  In  his  time  ortho- 
doxy at  once  generous  and  intelligent  hardly  existed  in  France. 
There  wore  ignorant  persons  who  vikre  sincerely  orthodox;  there  were 
intelligent  persons  who  pretended  to  be  so.  Hnt  between  the  time 
of  Massillonaml  D'Aguesseau  and  the  time  of  Lamennnis  and  Joseph 
do  Maistro  the  class  of  men  of  whom  in  Kngland  lierkeley,  Buthr, 
and  Johnson  were  representatives  simply  did  not  exist  in  France. 
Littlo  inclined  by  nature  to  any  but  the  emotional  side  of  religion, 
and  utterly  undisciplined  in  any  other  by  education,  course  of  life, 
or  the  geu'^ral  tendency  of  public  opinion,  Rousseau  naturally  took 
refuipi  in  the  nebulous  kind  of  natural  religion  which  was  nt  once 
fashionable  and  convenient. '  If  his  practice  fell  very  far  short  even 
of  'lis  own  very  arbitrary  standnrd  of  morality  usmuch  may  bo  s&id 
of  I'orsons  far  mere  dogmatically  orthodox. 


In  politics,  on  the  other  hand,  there  Is  no  douht  that  Boosscaii 
was  a  sincere  and,  as  far  as  in  him  lay,  a  convinced  republicaii.  He 
had  no  great  tincture  of  learning,  he  was  by  no  means  a  profouud 
logician,  and  ho  was  impulsive  and  emotional  in  the  extreme — 
characteristics  which  in  political  matters  undoubtedly  predispose 
the  subject  to  the  preference  of  equality  above  all  political 
requisites.  He  saw  that  under  the  French  monarchy  the  acuial 
result  was  the  greatest  misery  of  the  greatest  number,  and  he  did 
not  look  much  fm-ther.  The  Control  Social  is  for  the  political 
stiulent  one  of  the  most  curious  and  interesting  books  existing. 
Historically  it  is  null :  logically  it  is  full  of  gaping  flaws ;  practically 
its  manipulations  of  the  volonU  de  Urns  and  the  vohnii  giniraie 
are  clearly  insuflicient  to  obviate  anarcJiy.  But  its  mLxturo  of  real 
eloquence  and  ajjparent  cogency  is  exactly  such  as  always  carries  a 
multitude  with  it,  if  only  for  a  time.  Moreover,  in  some  minor 
branches  of  politics  and  economics  Rousseau  was  a  real  reformer. 
Visionary  as  his  edncational  schemes  (chiefly  promulgated  in 
L'milc)  are  in  p.arts,  they  are  admirable  in  others,  and  his  protest 
against  mothers  refusing  to  nurse  their  cliildren  hit  a  blot  in 
French  life  which  is  not  removed  yet,  and  lias  always  been  a  source 
of  weakness  to  the  nation. 

But  it  is  as  a  literary  man  pure  and  simple — that  is  to  say,  as  an 
exponent  rather  than  as  an  originator  of  ideas — that  Rousseau  is 
most  noteworthy,  and  that  he  has  exercised  most  influence.  The 
first  thing  noticeable  about  him  is  that  he  defies  all  customary  and 
mechanical  classification.  He  is  not  a  dramatist — his  work  as  such 
is  insignificant — nor  a  novelist,  for,  though  his  two  chief  works 
except  the  Confessions  are  called  novels,  £inile  is  one  only  in  name, 
and  La  Nauvclle  UeloUc  is  as  a  story  difluse,  prosy,  and  awkwarJ  to 
a  degree.  He  was  perfectly  without  command  of  poetic  form,  and 
he  could  only  be  called  a  philosopher  in  an  age  when  the  term  was 
used  with  such  meaningless  laxity  as  was  customaiy  in  the  IStli 
century.  If  he  must  be  classed,  he  was  before  all  things  a  descrilier 
— a  dcscriber  of  the  passions  of  the  human  heart  and  of  the  beauties 
of  nature.  In  the  first  part  of  his  vocation  the  uovelists  of  his  own 
youth,  such  as  Marivaux,  Richardson,  and  Frevost,  may  be  said  to 
have  shown  him  the  way,  though  he  improved  greatly  upon  them  ; 
in  the  second  he  was  almost  a  creator.  In  combining  the  t\vo  and 
expressing  the  effect  of  nature  on  the  feelings  and  of  the  feelings 
on  the  aspect  of  nature  he  was  absolutely  without  a  forerunner  or 
a  model.  And,  as  literature  since  his  time  has  been,  chiefly 
differentiated  from  literature  before  it  by  the  colour  and  tone 
resulting  from  this  combination,  Rousseau  may  be  said  to  hold,  as 
an  influence,  a  place  almost  unrivalled  in  literary  history.  The 
defects  of  all  sentimental  writing — occaFioual  tiiviality  and  exag- 
geration of  trivial  things,  diffuseness,  overstrained  emotion,  false 
sentiment,  disregard  of  the  intellectual  and  the  practical — are  of 
course  noticeable  in  him,  but  they  are  excused  and  palliated  by 
his  wonderful  feeling,  and  by  what  may  be  called  the  passionate 
sincerity  even  of  his  insincere  passages.  Some  cavils  have  been 
made  against  his  French,  but  none  of  much  weight  or  importance. 
And  in  such  passages  as  the  famous  "  Voila  de  la  pervencho "  of 
the  Confessions,  as  the  description  of  the  isle  of  St  Pierre  in  the 
Reveries,  as  some  of  the  letters  in  the  Nouvclle  ff6!o7se  aud  others, 
he  has  achieved  the  greatest  success  possible — that  of  absolnto 
perfecrion  in  doing  what  be  intended  to  do.  The  reader,  as  it  has 
been  said,  may  think  he  might  have  done  something  else  with 
advantage,  but  he  can  hardly  think  that  ho  couhl  hava  done  this 
thing  better. 

The  dotes  of  most  of  Roussoiu'b  works  pnbUslied  during:  Iifs lifetime  hRTc  been 
given  above.  Tin;  Coii/tssioni  und  Reveries.  wliU-li,  read  In  privntc,  Iiiul  civcn  much 
unibr.ige  to  persons  concemed,  and  which  the  author  did  not  intend  to  b« 
published  until  the  end  of  the  ccntnry,  appeared  at  Geneva  in  1782.  In  die  aania 
year  and  the  following  appeared  a  complete  edition  in  foity-sevcn  small  volumes. 
There  have  been  many  since,  the  most  important  of  them  belnfj  tiiat  of  Jlusael- 
I'allioy  (I'arls,  1823).  Some  unpublished  works,  cliIcHy  letters,  wci-o  added  by 
Bossclia  (I'arls,  1858)  and  Streckelsen  Moultou  (Paris,  18C1).  The  most  con- 
venient edition  Is  perhaps  that  of  I>idot  In  4  vols.  birRe  8vo,  bnt  a  luindsome  and 
well-edited  collection  is  still  something  of  a  desideratum.  Works  on  Kons.seau 
are  Innumerable.  The  chief  aic— in  Frcncli  that  of  Saint.  Marc  Girardln  (ls-4), 
In  English  the  excellent  book  ot  Mr  John  Morley.  (O.  SA.) 

KOUSSEAU,  Theodore  (1812-1867),  a  distinguished 
landscape  painter,  was  born  at  Paris,  and  studied  In  tho 
Ecolo  des  Beaux-Arts,  after  which  ho  spent  some  time  in 
travelling  ■»4id  "naking  studies  of  landscape  and  sky  effects. 
Ho  first  ixhibitea  o,S  tho  Salon  in  1834,  obtained  gold 
medals  in  1849  and  iBo-i,  and  in  1852  received  the 
Legion  of  Honour.  His  paintings  became  very  popular  in 
France,  and  Rousseau  grow  to  be  >he  acknowledged 
founder  of  the  modern  realistic  school  ot  landscape.  Ho 
was  largely  influenced  in  style  by  Constable  and  Turner, 
the  former  of  whom  was  perhaps  more  thoroughly  apiiroci- 
ated  in  Franco  than  in  England.  Tho  influence  of  Turner 
is  clearly  seen  in  some  of  Ronsscan's  jiicture.-i,  ^vith  striking 
effecta  of  <:loud  or  storm, — as,  for  example,  in  hi.s  V.^t\ 
do  Solcil   and  Apres  la  riuio  (185-.'J,  iu    tho   Matimio 


28 


R  0  U  — R  0  V 


Orageuse  (1857),  the  CoucLer  de  Soleil  (186G),  and 
one  of  his  last  works,  the  Soleil  par  uu  Temps  Orage.ux, 
which  appeared  in  the  exhibition  of  1867.  Rousseau's 
Study  of  Constable  is  more  especially  apparent  in  some  of 
his  fine  forest  scenes  near  Fontainebleau,  and  in  some 
magnificently  painted  views  on  the  banks  of  the  Loire  and 
other  French  rivers.  His  execution  was  of  extraordinary 
brilliance,  and  he  was  a  thorough  master  of  atmospheric 
effect  and  glowing  sunset  colours.  Though  in  some  re- 
spects a  realistic  painter,  he  treated  nature  in  a  strongly 
dramatic  way  and  showed  great  ii.naginative  power.  His 
style  is  broad  and  dashing,  vith  rapid  and  at  times  appa- 
rently careless  handling.  His  fame  has  increased  rather 
than  diminished  since  his  death  in  1867;  and  one  of  his 
paintings  has  recently  received  the  high  distinction  of  being 
transferred  from  the  Luxembourg  Palace  to  the  Louvre,  an 
honour  which  is  but  rarely  conferred.  It  is  not,  however, 
one  of  the  best  spscimens  of  his  work.  Most  of  Theodore 
Rousseau's  pictures- are  in  private  collections  in  Paris  and 
elsewhere  in  France. 

ROUSSILLON,  a  province  of  France,  which  now  forms 
the  greater  part  of  the  department  of  PYEENfes 
Orientales  (q.v.).  It  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  the 
Pyrenees,  on  the  west  by  the  county  of  Foix,  on  the  north 
by  Languedoc,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Mediterranean.  The 
province  derived  its  name  from  a  small  bourg  near 
Perpignan,  the  capital,  called  Euscino  (Rosceliona,  Castel 
Rossello),  where  the  Gallic  chieftains  met  to  consider 
Hannibal's  request  for  a  conference.  The  district  farmed 
part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Gallia  Narbonensis  from 
121  B.C.  to  462  A.D.,  when  it  was  ceded  with  the  rest  of 
Septiraania  to  Theodoric  II.,  king  of  the  Visigoths.  His 
successor,  Amalarlc,  on  his  defeat  by  Clovis  in  531  retired 
to  Spain,  leaving  a  governor  in  Septimania.  In  719  the 
Saracens  crossed  the  Pyrenees,  and  Septimania  was  held 
by  them  until  their  defeat  by  Pippin  in  756.  On  the 
invasion  of  Spain  by  Charlemagne  in  778  he  found  the 
borderlands  wasted  by  the  Saracenic  wars,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants hiding  among  the  mountains.  He  accordingly  made 
grants  of  land  to  Visigothic  refugees  from  Spain,  and 
founded  several  monasteries,  round  which  the  people 
gathered  for  protection.  In  792  the  Saracens  again 
invaded  France,  but  were  repulsed  by  Louis,  king  of 
Aquitaine,  whoso  rule  extended  over  all  Catalonia  as  far 
as  Barcelona.  The  different  portions  of  his  kingdom  in 
time  grew  into  allodial  fiefs,  and  in  893  Suniaire  II. 
became  the  first  hereditary  count  of  Roussillon.  But  his 
rule  only  extended  over  the  eastern  part  of  what  became 
the  later  province.  The  western  part,  or  Cerdagne,  was 
ruled  in  900  by  Miron  as  first  count,  and  one  of  his 
grandsons,  Bernard,  was  the  first  hereditary  count  of  the 
middle  portion,  or  BiSsalu.  In  1111  Raymond-BiJrenger 
in.,  count  of  Barcelona,  inherited  the  fief  of  Bi5salu,  to 
which  was  added  in  1117  that  of  Cerdagne;  and  in  1172 
his  grandson,  Alphonso  II.,  king  of  Aragon,  united  Rous- 
sillon to  his  other  states  on  the  death  of  the  last  count, 
Gerard  II.  ■  ..The  counts  of  Roussillon,  Cerdagne,  and 
Besalu  were  not  sufliciently  powerful  to  indulge  in  any 
wars  of  ambition.  Their  energies  had  been  accordingly 
devoted  to  furthering  the  welfare  of  their  people,  who 
enjoyed  both  peace  and  prosperity  under  their  rule. 
Under  the  Aragonese  monarchs  the  progress  of  the  united 
province  still  continued,  and  Colliourej  the  port  of 
Perpignan,  became  a  centre  of  Mediterranean  trade.  But 
the  country  was  in  time  destined  to  pay  the  penalty  of  its 
position  on  the  frontiers  of  France  and  Spain  in  the  long 
struggle  for  ascendency  between  these  two  powers.  James 
I.  of  Aragon  had  wrested  the  Balearic  Isles  from  the 
Moors  and  lefc  them  with  Roussillon  to  his  son  James 
0276),  with  the  title  of  king  of  Majorca.     The  consequent 


disputes  of  this  monarch  with  his  brother  Pedro  III.  of 
Aragon  were  not  lost  sight  of  by  Philip  III.  of  France  in 
his  quarrel  with  the  latter  about  the  crown  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.  Philip  espoused  James's  cause  and  led  his  army 
into  Spain,  but  retreating  died  at  Perpignan  in  1285. 
James  then  became  reconciled  to  his  brother,  and  in  1311 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sancho,  who  founded  the 
cathedral  of  Perpignan  shortly  before  his  death  in  1324. 
His  successor  James  II.  refused  to  do. homage  to  Philip 
VI.  of  France  for  the  seigniory  of  Montpellier,  and  applied 
to  Pedro  IV.  of  Aragon  for  aid.  Pedro  not  only  refused 
it,  but  on  various  pretexts  declared  war  against  him,  and 
seized  Majorca  and  Roussillon  in  1344.  The  province  was 
now  again  united  to  Aragon,  and  enjoyed  peace  until 
1462.  In  this  year  the  disputes  between  John  II.  and 
his  son  about  the  crown  of  Navarre  gave  Louis  XI.  of 
France  an  excuse  to  support  John  against  his  subjects, 
who  had  risen  in  revolt.  Louis  at  the  fitting  time  turned 
traitor,  and  the'provlnce  having  been  pawned  to  him  for 
300,000  crowns  was  occupied  by  the  French  troops  until 
1493,  when  Charles  VIII.  restored  it  to  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella.  During  the  war  between  France  and  Spain 
(1496-98)  the  people  suffered  equally  from  the  Spanish 
garrisons  and  tBe  French  invaders.  But  dislike  of  the 
Spaniards  was  soon  effaced  in  the  pride  of  sharing  in  the 
glory  of  Charles  V.,  and  in  1542,  when  Perpignan  was 
besieged  by  the  dauphin,  the  Roussillonnais  remained  true 
to  their  allegiance.  Afterwards  the  decay  of  Spain  was 
France's  opportunity,  and,  on  the  revolt  of  the  Catalans 
against  the  Castilians  in  1641,  Louis  XIII.  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  former,  and  by  the  treaty  of  1659  secured 
Roussillon  to  the  French  crown. 

ROVEREDO  (in  German  sometimes  Rofreit),  one  of 
the  chief  industrial  cities  in  South  Tyrol,  and,  after  Trent, 
the  chief  seat  of  the  Tyrolese  silk  industry,  is  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Adige  (Etsch),  in  the  fertile  Val 
Lagarina,  35  miles  north  of  Verona  and  100  miles  south 
of  Innsbruck.  Though  there  are  several  open  places 
within  the  town,  the  streets,  except  in  the  newer  quarters, 
are  narrow,  crooked,  and  uneven.  Of  the  two  parish 
churches,  S.  Marco  dates  from  the  15th  century  and 
Sta  Maria  del  Carmine  from  1678.  The  ohly  other 
interesting  building  is  the  quaint  old  castle  known  as 
CasteU  Junk.  As  an  active  trading  town  and  administra- 
tive centre  Roveredo  is  well  equipped  with  commercial, 
judicial,  educational,  and  benevolent  institutions.  Though 
the  district  between  Trent  and  Verona  yields  about 
120,000  lb  of  silk  annually,  the  silk  industry  of  Roveredo, 
introduced  in  the-  16th  century,  has  declined  during  the 
last  fifty  years.  The  establishments  in  which  the  cocoons 
are  unwound  (Jilaude)  are  distinct  from  those  in  which 
the  silk  is  spun  (jilatoje).  The  silk  is  not  woven  at 
Roveredo.  Paper  and  leather  are  the  other  chief  manu- 
factures of  the  place ;  and  a  brisk  trade  in  southern  fruits 
and  red  wine  is  carried  on.     The  population  is  8864. 

The  origin  of  Koveredo  i3  probably  to  be  traced  to  the  foun'Jiii^ 
of  the  castle  by  William  of  Castelbarco-Lizzaua  about  1300.  Later 
it  passed  to  the  emperor  Frederick  of  the  Empty  Pockets,  who 
sold  it  to  Venice  in  1413.  The  treaty  of  Cambray  transferred  it 
from  Venice  to  the  emperor  Maximilian  in  1510,  since  which  time 
it  lias  shared  the  fate  of  soutliern  Tyrol,  finally  passing  to 
Austria  in  1814.  In  September  1709  the  French  under  Masscna 
won  a  victory  over  the  Austrians  near  Roveredo.  Near  tlio 
neighbouring  village  of  St  JIarco  are  the  traces  of  a  destructive 
landslip  in  883,  described  in  the  Inferno  (xii.  4-9)  by  Dante.  wli» 
spent  part  of  his  exile  in  1302  in  a  castle  near  Lizzana. 

ROVIGNO,  a  city  of  Austria,  in  the  province  of  Istria, 
is  picturesquely  situated  on  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic, 
about  12  miles  south  of  Parenzo,  and  10  miles  by  rail  from 
Canfanaro,  a  junction  on  the  railway  between  Divazza 
(Trieste)  and  Pola.  It  has  two  harbours,  with  ship- 
building yards ;  and  it  carries  on  several  industries  and  a 


R  0  V  — R  0  W 


29 


good  export  trade,  especially  ia  olive-oil  and  a  cemeut 
tnaDufactured  in  the  little  island  of  Saut'  Andrea.  The 
population  was  9564  in  1869  and  9522  in  18s0. 

According  to  tradition  Kovigno  was  originally  built  on  an 
island,  Cissa  by  name,  which  disappeared  during  the  earthquakes 
about  737.  In  the  6th  century,  as  the  local  legend  has  it,  the  body 
of  St  Euphemia  of  Chalccdon  was  miraculously  conveyed  to  the 
island  ;  and  at  a  later  date  it  was  transported  to  the  summit  of  the 
promontory,  Monte  di  Sant'  Eufemia,  whither  it  was  restored  by 
the  Venetians  in  1410  after  being  in  the  possession  of  the  Genoese 
from  1380.  The  diocese  of  Rovigno  was  merged  in  1008  in  the 
bishopric  of  Parenzo ;  but  its  church  continued  to  have  the  title 
of  cathedral.  Rovigno  passed  definitively  into  the  hands  of  the 
Venetians  in  1330,  and  it  remained  true  totho  republic  till  the 
treaty  of  Campo  f  ormio  (1797). 

ROVIGO,  a  city  of  Italy,  the  chief  town  of  a  province, 
and  the  seat  of  the  bishop  cf  Adria,  lies  between  the  Po 
and  the  Adige,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Adigetto,  a  navig- 
able branch. of  the  Adige.  By  rail  it  is  27  miles  south- 
south-west  of  Padua.  The  architecture  bears  the  stamp 
both  of  Venetian  and  Ferrarese  influence.  The  cathedral 
church  of  Santo  Stefano  (1696)  is  of  less  interest  than 
La  Madonna  del  Soccorso,  an  octagon  (with  a  fine  campa- 
nile), begun  in  1594.  The  town-hall  contains  a  library  of 
80,000  volumes  belonging  to  the  Accademia  de'  Concordi, 
founded  in  1580,  and  a  picture  gallery  enriched  with  the 
spoils  of  the  monasteries.  Wool,  silk,  linen,  ^nd  leather 
are  among  the  local  manufactures.  The  population  of  the 
city  proper  was  7452  in  1871  and  7272  in  1881 ;  the 
commune  in  1881  had  11,460  inhab'itants. 

Rovigo  (Neo-Latin  Rhodigium)  appears  to  be  mentioned  as 
Eudigo  in  838.  It  was  selected  a'  his  residence  by  the  bishop  of 
Adria  on  the  destruction  of  his  city  by  the  Huns.  From  the  11th 
to  the  14th  century  the  Este  family  was  usually  in  authority  ;  but 
the  Venetians  who  obtained  the  town  and  castle  in  pledge  between 
1S90  and  1400  took  the  place  by  siege  in  1482,  and,  though  the 
Este  more  than  once  recovered  it,  the  Venetians,  returning  in  1514, 
retained  possession  till  the  French  Revolution.  In  1806  the  city 
was  made  a  duchy  in  favour  of  General  Savary.  The  Austrians 
in  1815  created  it  a  royal  city. 

ROVIGO,  DoKE  OF.     See  Savaky. 

ROWE,  Nicholas  (1674-1718),  the  descendant  of  a 
family  long  resident  at  Lamerton  in  Devon,  was  born  at 
Little  Barford  in  Bedfordshire,  June  30,  1674.  The  house 
in  which  he  was  born  is  close  to  the  Great  North  Road, 
and  a  small  stone  to  his  memory  has  been  erected  in  the 
centre  of  the  garden.  His  father,  John  Rowe,  took  to 
the  law  as  his  profession,  and  at  his  death  in  1092  (by 
which  time  he  had  attained  to  the  dignity  of  being  a 
Serjeant  at  law)  had  amassed  sufficient  property  to  leave 
to  his  eon  an  income  of  £300  a  year.  Nicholas  Rowe 
passed  some  time  in  a  private  school  at  Highgate,  and 
then  proceeded  to  Westminster  School,  at  that  time  under 
the  charge  of  the  celebrated  master  Dr  Busby.  In  1688 
he  became  a  king's  scholar  in  this  foundation,  but  three 
years  later  he  was  called  away  from  school  and  entered  as 
a  student  at  the  Middle  Temple.  The  study  of  the  law 
had  little  attraction  for  a  young  man  of  good  person  and 
lively  manners,  and  at  his  father's  death  in  the  following 
year  he  devoted  himself  to  society  and  to  literature.  His 
first  play.  The  Ambitious  Stepmother,  was  produced  when 
he  was  twenty-five  years  old.  It  was  followed  by 
Tamerlane,  a  patriotic  composition  in  which  the  virtues  of 
William  III.  were  lauded  under  the  disguise  of  Tamerlane 
and  the  vices  of  the  French  king,  Louis  XIV.,  were 
denounced  in  the  person  of  Bajazet.  The  popularity  of 
this  prodiiction  soon  declined,  but  for  many  years  it  was 
acted  once  every  year,  on  the  anniversary  of  the  landing 
at  Torbay  of  the  Dutch  prince..  His  next  play.  The  Fair 
Penil'Tnt,  long  retained  the  favourable  reception  which 
marked  its  first  appearance,  and  was  pronounced  by  the 
great  critic  of  the  18th  century  one  of  the  most  pleasing 
tragedies  which  had  ever  "been  written.     Through  its  suc- 


cess the  name  of  the  principal  male  character  Lothario 
became  identified  in  popular  language  as  the  embodiment 
of  the  manners  and  habits  of  a  fashionable  rake.  After 
the  production  of  two  more  tragedies,  Ulysses  and  The 
Royal  Convert,  of  slight  account  at  the  time  and  long 
since  forgotten,  Rowe  tried,  his  hand  on  a  comedy.  The 
Biter.  Much  to  the  author's  surprise  his  attempt  in  this 
new  direction  proved  a  failure,  but  Rowe  recognized  the 
justice  of  the  verdict  of  the  audience  sufficiently  to  abstain 
from  risking  a  second  disappointment.  His  two  last 
dramatic  wofks  were  entitled  Jane  Shore  and  Lady  Jane 
Grey,  and  the  former  of  them,  from  the  popularity  of  its 
subject  and  the  elegance  of  its  language,  kept  its  position 
on  the  stage  longer  than  any  other  of  his  works. 

Rowe  excelled  most  of  his  contemporaries  in  the 
knowledge  of  languages.  He  was  acquainted  iuore  or  less 
thoroughly  with  Greek,  Latin,  French,  Italian,  and 
Spanish.  The  latter  tongue  he  is  said  to  have  acquired 
on  the  recommendation  of  Harley  and  with  the  expecta- 
tion that  he  would  afterwards  be  rewarded  by  some  high 
office.  When,  however,  he  reported  his  new  acquisition 
to  the  new  minister  he  was  met  with  the  dry  remark  from 
Harley—"  How  I  envy  you  the  pleasure  of  reading  Don 
Quixote  in  the  original ! "  Notwithstaading  this  dis- 
appointment, Rowe  enjoyed  many  lucrative  posts  during 
his  short  Ufe.  When  the  duke  of  Queensberry  was 
principal  secretary  of  state  for  Scotland  (1708-10),  Rowe 
acted  as  his  under-secretary.  On  the  accession  of  George 
I.  he  was  made  a  surveyor  of  customs,  and  on  the  death  of 
Tate  he  became  poet  laureate.  He  was  also  appointed 
clerk  of  the  council  to  the  prince  of  Wales,  and  the  list 
of  preferments  was  closed  by  his  nomination  by  Lord- 
Chancellor  Parker  (5th  May  1718)  as  secretary  of  presenta- 
tions in  Chancery.  He  died  6th  December  1718,  and  was 
buried  in  the  south  cross  of  Westminster  Abbey.  By 
his  first  wife,  a  daughter  of  Mr  Parsons,  one  of  the  auditors 
of  the  revenue,  he  left  a  son  John ;  and  by  his  second  wife, 
Anne,  the  daughter  of  Joseph  Devenish  of  a  Dorsetshire 
family,  he  had  an  only  daughter,  Charlotte,  born  in  1718, 
who  married  Henry  Fane,  a  younger  brother  of  Thomas, 
eighth  earl  of  Westmoreland.  The  burials  of  mother  and 
daughter  are  recorded  in  Colonel  Chester's  Registers  of 
Westminster  Abbey. 

Rowc's  tragedies  were  marked  by  passionate  feeling  set  off  by  a 
graceful  diction,  and  were  well  adapted  for  stage  effect.  If  The 
Fair  Penitent  and  JaJie  Shore  have  been  expelled  from  the  stage, 
their  historic  reputation  and  their  style  will  repay  perusal. 

Among  Rowe  3  other  literary  efforts  may  be  mentioned  an  edition 
of  the  works  of  Shakespeare  (1709),  for  which  he  received  from 
Lintot  the  bookseller  the  sum  of  £36,  10s.,  a  rate  of  pay  not  out  of 
proportion  to  the  labour  which  was  bestowed  upon  the  task.  At 
the  time  of  his  death  ho  had  also  finished  a  translation  of  Lucon's 
Pharsalia,  a  work  then  much  praised  and  not  yet  superseded  by 
any  competitor.  Eowe's  minor  poems  were  beneath  the  level  of 
his  age.  An  edition  of  his  works  was  published  in  1720  under  the 
care  of  Mr  (afterwards  Bishop)  Newton.  His  translation  of  Lucan 
was  edited  by  Dr  Welwood. 

ROWING  is  the  act  of  driving  forward  or  propelling  a 
boat  along  the  surface  of  the  water  by  means  of  oars.  It 
is  remarkable  how  scanty,  until  quite  recent  times,  are  the 
records  of  this  art,  which  at  certain  epochs  has  played  no 
insignificant  part  in  the  world's  history.  It  was  the  oar 
that  brought  Phoenician  letters  and  civilization  to  Greece; 
it  was  the  oar  that  propelled  the  Hellenic  fleet  to  Troy  ;  it 
was  the  oar  that  saved  Europe  from  Persian  despotism  ;  it 
was  the  skilful  use  of  the  oar  by  free  citizens  which  was 
the  glory  of  Athens  in  hei"  prime.  .  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  so  little  is  known  of  the  dctail.s  connected  with  it,  or 
of  the  dj.sposal  of  the  rowers  on  board  the  splendid  fleet 
which  started  in  its  pride  for  Sicily,  when  17,000  oars  at 
a  given  signal  smote  the  brine,  and  100  long  ships  raced 
as  far  as  /ICgina.     The  vessels  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and 


30 


ROWING 


Romans — tho  biremes,  quadriremes,  quiiiquiremes,  and 
hexiremes — owed  their  pace  to  the  exertions  of  men  who 
plied  the  oar  rather  than  to  the  sails  with  which  they  were 
■fitted,  and  which  were  only  used  when  the  wind  was 
favourable.  Professor  Gardner  has  shown  that  boat  racing 
was  not  uncommon  among  the  Greeks ; '  and  that  it  was 
practised  among  the  Romans  Virgil  testifies  in  the  well- 
known  passage  in  the  fifth  book  of  the  ^neid.  And  the 
Venetian  galleys  which,  were  subsequently  used  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  in  mediteval  times  were  only 
a  modified  form  of  the  older  kind  of  craft.  These  were 
for  the  most  part  manned  by  slaves  and  criminals,  and 
were  in  constant  employment  in  most  European  countries. 

Rowing  was  understood  by  the  ancient  Britons,  as  they 
trusted  themselves  to  the  mercy  of  the  waves  in  coracles 
composed  of  wicker-work  covered  with  leather,  similar  no 
doubt  in  many  respects  to  those  now  used  in  Wales ;  but 
these  frail  vessels  were  propelled  by  paddles  and  not  by 
oars.  The  Saxons  seem  to  have  been  expert  in  the 
majiagement  of  the  oar,  as  well  as  the  Danes  and  Norwe- 
gians,, as  it  is  recorded  that  the  highest  nobles  in  the  land 
devoted  themselves  to  it.  Alfred  the  Great  introduced 
long  galleys  from  the  Mediterranean,  which  were  propelled 
by  forty  or  sixty  oars  on  each  side,  and  for  some  time 
these  vessels  were  used  for  war  purposes.  It  is  stated  by 
William  of  Malmesbury  that  Edgar  the  Peaceable  was 
rowed  in  state  on  the  river  Dee  from  his  palace,  in  the 
city  of  West  Chester,  to  the  church  of  St  John  and  back 
again,  by  eight  tributary  kings,  himself  acting  as 
coxswain. 

Boat  quintain,  or  tilting  at  one  another  on  the  water, 
was  first  brought  into  England  by  the  Normans  as  an 
amusement  for  the  spring  and  summer  season,  and  prob- 
ably much  of  the  success  of  the  champions  depended 
upon  the  skill  of  those  who  managed  the  boats.  Before 
the  beginning  of  the  12th  century  tha  rivers  were 
commonly  used  for  conveying  passengers  and  merchandise 
on  board  barges  and  boats,  and  untU  the  introduction  of 
coaches  they  were  almost  the  only  means  -of  transit  for 
royalty,  and  for  the  nobility  and  gentry  who  had  mansions 
and  watergates  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames.  It  is,  how- 
ever, impossible  to  trace  the  first  employment  of  bargemen, 
wherrymen,  or  watermen,  but  they  seem  to  have  been  well 
established  by  that  time,  and  were  engaged  in  ferrying  and 
other  waterside  duties.  During  the  long  frosts  of  the  early 
part  of  the  13th  century,  frequent  mention  is  made  in  the 
chroaiclea  of  the  distress  among  the  watermen,  from  which 
we  may  assume  that  their  numbers  were  larga  They  were 
employed  in  conveyieg  the  nobles  and  their  retinues  to 
Runnymede,  where  they  met  King  John  and  where  Magna 
Charta  was  signed.  Towards  the  close  of  this  century  the 
watermen  of  Greenwich,  were  frequently  fined  for  over- 
charging at  the  established  ferries,  and  about  the  same 
time,  some  of  the  city  companies  estab^shed  barges  for 
water  processions.  We  learn  from  Fabian  and  Jliddleton 
that  in  1454  "Sir  Jotn  Norman,  then  lord  mayor  of 
London,  built  a  noble  barge  at  his  own  expense,  and  was 
rowed  by  watermen  with  silver  oars,  attended  by  such  of 
the  city  companies  as  possessed  barges,  in  a  splendid 
manner,"  and  further  "  that  he  made  the  barge  he  sat  in 
burn  on  the  water";  but  there  is  no  explanation  of  this 
statement.  Sir  John  Norman  was  highly  commended  for 
this  action  by  the  members  of  the  craft,  as  no  doubt  it 
helped  to  popularize  the  fashion  then  coming  into  vogue  of 
being  rowed  on  the  Thames  by  the  watermen  who  plied 
for  hire  in  their  wherries.  The  lord  mayor's  procession 
by  water  to  Westminster,  which  figures  on  the  front  page 
of  the  Ilhistrated  London  News,  was  made  annually  until 
the  year  1856,  when  it  was  discontinned.  The  lord 
'  Journal  0/ Hellenic  Studies,  1881. 


mayor's  state  barg«  was  a  magnificent  species  of  shallop 
rowed  by  watermen  ;  and  the  city  companies  had  for  the 
most  part  barges  of  their  own,  all  rowed  double-banked 
with  oars  in  the  fore  half,  the  after  part  consisting  of  a 
cabin  something  like  that  of  a  gondola.  The  watermen 
became  by  degrees  so  large  and  numerous  a  body,  that  in 
the  SLXth  year  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIIL  (1514)  an 
Act  was  passed  making  regulations  for  them.  This  Act 
has  from  time  to  time  been  amended  by  various  statutes, 
and  the  last  w?:,  passed  in  1858.  Much  time  seems  to 
have  been  spent  in  pleasuring  on  the  water  in  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries,  and  no  doubt  competitions  among 
the  watermen  were  not  uncommon,  though  there  is  no 
record  of  them.  The  principal  occupation  of  watermen, 
who  were  obliged  to  serve  an  apprenticeship,  used  to  be 
ferrying  and  rowing  fares  on  the  Thames,  but  in  process 
of  time  the  introduction  of  bridges  and  steamers  drove 
them  from  this  employment,  and  the  majority  of  them 
now  work  as  bargemen,  lightermen,  and  steamboat  hands, 
having  still  to  serve  an  apprenticeship.  For  many  years 
matches  for  money  stakes  were  frequent  (1831  to  1880), 
but  the  old  race  of  watermen,  of  which  Phelps,  the  senior 
Kelley,  Campbell,  Coombes,  Newell,  the  MacKinney.s, 
Messenger,  Pocock,  and  Henry  Kelley  were  prominent 
members,  has  almost  died  out,  and  some  of  the  best  English 
scullers  during  the  last  fifteen  years  have  been  landsmen. 

Apart  from  the  reference  already  made  to  the  ancients, 
we  do  not  find  any  records  of  boat-racing  before  the 
establishment  in  England  of  the  coat  and  badge,  insti- 
tuted by  the  celebrated  comedian  Thomas  Doggett  iu 
1715,  in  honour  of  the  house  of  Hanover,,  to  commemo- 
rate the  anniversary  of  "  King  George  l.'s  happy  accession 
to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain."  The  prize  was  a  red  coat 
with  a  large  silver  badge  on  the  arm,  bearing  the  white 
horse  of  Hanover,  and  the  race  had  to  be  rowed  on  the  1st 
of  August  annually  on  the  Thames,  by  six  young  watermen 
who  were  not  to  have  exceeded  the  time  of  their  apprentice.- 
ship  by  twelve  months.  Although  the  first  contest  took 
place  in  the  year  above  mentioned,  the  names  of  th« 
.winners  have  only  been  preserved  since  1791.  The  race 
continues  at  the  present  day,  but  under  sligiit  modifica- 
tions. The  first  regatta  appears  to  have  occurred  about 
sixty  years  later,  for  we  learn  from  the  Annval  Register  of 
the  year  1775  that  an  entertainment  called  by  that  name 
(Ita!.,  regata),  introduced  from  Venice  into  England,  was 
exhibited  on  the  Thames  off  Eanelagh  Gardens,  and  a 
lengthy  account  of  it  is  given  at  the  end  of  the  work.  The 
lord  mayor's  and  several  of  the  city  companies'  pleasure 
barges  were  conspicuous,  and,  although  we  learn  very  little 
indeed  of  the  competing  wager  boats,  it  seems  clear  they 
were  rowed  by  watermen.  We  find  from  Strutt's  Sports 
and  Pastimes  (first  published  in  1801)  that  the  proprietor  of 
Vauxhall  Gardens  had  for  some  years  given  a  new  wherry 
to  be  rowed  for  by  watermen,  two  in  .a  boat,  which  is 
perhaps  the  first  pair-oared  race  on  record.  Similar  prizes 
were  also  given  by  Astley,  the  celebrated  horseman  and 
circus  proprietor  of  the  Westminster  Bridge.  Road,  about  the 
same  period  ;  but  thus  far  rowing  was  apparently  viewed 
as  a  laborious  exercise,  and  the  rowers  were  paid.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century,  however,  rowing  as- 
sociations were  formed,  and  the  "  Star,"  "Arrow,"  "  Shark,'' 
and  "  Siren  "  Clubs  had  races  amongst  themselves,  gene- 
rally over  long  courses  and  in  heavy  si.x-oared  boats.  The 
Star  and  Arrow  Clubs  ceased  to  exist  in  the  early  years 
of  this  century,  and  were  merged  in  the  newly  formed 
Leander  Club.  The  date  of  its  establishment  cannot  be 
fixed  exactly,  but  it  was  probably  about  1818  or  1819. 
It  ranked  high,  because  ^the  majority  of  its  members  had 
frequently  distinguished  themselves  in  matches  with  the 
oar  and  sculls.     They  were  the  first  to  patronize  and  lend 


BOWING 


31 


a 'helping  liand  to  young  watermen  who  showed  promise  of 
aquatic  famo,  and  they  likewise  instituted  a  coat  and 
Ibadgo  for  scullers. 

The  first  record  of  public-school  racing  which  can  now  be  scon 
IB  tlic  Water  Ledger  of  Westminster  School,  which  commences  in  the 
year  1813  with  a  list  of  the  crew  of  the  six-oareJ  Fly.  This  craft 
continued  for  some  time  to  be  the  only  boat  of  the  school,  and  in 
1818  beat  the  Temple  six-oar  in  a  race  from  Johnsou's  Dock  to 
Westminster  Bridge  by  half  a  length.  Eton  possessed  ii  fleet  of 
boats  in  1811,  if  not  at  an  earlier  date,  consisting  of  a  ten-oar  and 
three  boats  with  eight  oars.  In  those  days  some  of  the  crews  had 
a  waterman  to  pull  stroke  and  drill  the  crew,  but  this  practice  was 
abolished  in  1828,  as  the  waterman  frequently  rowed  a  bad  stroke 
and  the  cre\y  were  obliged  to  subscribe  lor  his  day's  pay,  beer,  and 
clothes  ;  thenceforward  the  captain  of  each  crew  rowed  the  stroke- 
oar.  Tlic  earliest  record  of  a  race  at  Eton  is  when  Mr  Carter's  four 
rowed  against  the  watermen  and  lieat  them  in  1817  ;  but  the  pro- 
fessionals had  a  boat  too  small  for  them.  In  1818  Eton  challenged 
Westminster  School  to  row  from  Westminster  to  Kew  Bridge  against 
the  tide,  but  the  match  was  stopped  by  the  authorities  ;  and  it  was 
not  until  1829  that  tho  first  contest  between  the  two  schools  was 
brought  to  an  issue. 

Rowing  appears  to  hare  commencea  at  the  universities  soon  after 
the  beginiiiug  of  the  century,  but  earlier  at  Oxford  than  at  Cam- 
bridge. There  were  college  boats  on  the  river  for  some  time  before 
there  were  any  races.  Those  first  recorded  at  Oxford  were  in  1815, 
said  to  be  college  eights,  but  tlie  boats  used  are  more  likely  to  have 
been  fours,  when  Brasenose  was  "head  of  the  river"  and  Jesus  their 
chief  opponent.  These  two  clubs  were  constantly  rowing  races,  but 
they  were  not  very  particular  about  the  oarsmen  in  t^-e  boats,  as  the 
iSrasenose  crew  in  1824  was  composed  of  two  members  of  tho 
college,  a  Worcester  man,  and  a  waterman.  The  first  authentic 
records  commcnco  in  1836,  and  tho  Oxibrd  University  Boat  Club 
was  established  in  1839.  At  Cambridge  eight-oared  rowing  was 
not  in  fashion  so  soon  as  at  Oxford,  the  first  eight  (belonging  to  St 
John's  College)  not  having  been  launched  until  1826  ;  and  between 
that  year  and  1829  the  Cambridge  University  Boat  Club  was  formed. 
Eight-oared  races  were  establislied  on  the  Cam  in  1827,  when  First 
Trinity  was  "head  of  the  river,"  and  in  1828  the  first  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  University  boat  race  was  proposed  and  fixed  for  June 
10,  1829,  on  the  Thames,  from  Hanibledon  Lock  to  Henley  Brid^. 
The  race  was  rowed  at  intermittent  periods  up  to  1856,  since  which 
year  it  has  been  annual.  In  1830  the  amateur  championship  of 
theThames  wasinstituted  by  Mr  Henry  C.  Wingfield,  who  presented 
a  pair  of  silver  sculls  to  bo  rowed  for  annually  by  the  amateur 
scullers  of  the  Th:'nic3  on  the  10th  August  from  Westminster  to 
Putney  at  half  flood,  but  tiie  course  and  date  of  the  race  have  been 
changed  since  then.  The  first  scullers'  race  for  the  professional 
ehampionship  of  the  Thames  was  rowed,  from  Westminster  to 
Putney  on  the  8th  September  1831,  Charles  Campbell  of  West- 
minster defeating  John  Williams  of  Waterloo  Bridge.  During 
the  next  eight  years  rowing  increased  in  favour  among  amateurs, 
and,  as  it  had  taken  its  proper  place  among  the  national  pastimes, 
and  the  want  of  a  central  spot  for  a  regatta  was  much  felt,  Henley- 
OD-Thames  was  chosen,  and  it  was  decided  that  a  regatta  should 
be  held  there  in  1S39,  and  the  Grand  Challenge  cup  for  eight  oars 
was  established.  This  has  been  an  aiinual  fixture  ever  since, 
prizes  being  given  for  four  oars,  pair  oars,  and  scullers,  as  well  as 
for  eight  oars.  In  1843  the  Royal  Thames  Regatta  was  started  at 
Putney,  and  it  gave  a  gold  challenge  cup  for  eiglit  oar3*and  a  silver 
challenge  cup  for  four  oars,  to  be  rowed  by  amateurs.  In  1844 
Oxford  uent  Cambridge  at  this  regatta,  and  in  tho  sams  year  the 
committee  added  a  champion  prize  for  watermen.  About  this  time 
the  Old  Thames  Clubwas  established,  and  they  carried  off  tho  gold 
challenge  cup  by  winning  it  for  three  yeare  in  succession,  viz., 
1846  to  1848.'  In  1852  tho  Argonauts  Cliil)  first  appeared  at  Henley 
'ond  won  the  Visitors'  cup,  and  in  1853  the  Royal  Chester  Rowing 
Club  were  successful  in  the  Stewards'  cup  for  four  oars,  and  won  the 
Grand  Challenge  cup  for  eight  oars  the  next  year.  In  1866  tho 
London  Rowing  Club  was  established,  but  those  members  of  it  who 
rowed  at  llenlcy  were  obliged  to  enter  under  the  name  of  the 
Argonauta  Club,  as,  not  having  been  in  existence  a  year,  its  crew 
could  not  compete  un<lor  its  name.  The  next  year,  however,  they 
carried  ofT  the  Grand  Challenge  cup  from  Oxford  University,  and 
were  succcfi'sful  in  tho  Stewards'  ciip  as  well.  Many  more  clubs, 
such  as  the  Kingston,  Radley,  West  London,  Twickenham,  Tliamea, 
Moulscy,  and  other  metropolitan  and  provincial  clubs  were  subse- 
quently established,  and  have  met  with -varied  success. 

Boats. — Tho  boats  of  the  present  day  differ  very  much  from  those 
formerly  used,  and  the  heavy  lumbering  craft  which  alone  were 
known  to  our  forefathers  have  been  superseded  by  a  ligliterdcscrip- 
tion, — .skill's,  gigs,  and  racing  outriggers.  Tlio  old  Tlinm&s  wherry 
with  its  long  projecting  bow  is  now  seldom  seen,  and  a  roomy  skiff, 
often  usj'd  with  a  sail  when  the  wind  is  favourablr,  has  taken  ila 

Iilace.    The  gig  isnu  open  boat  with  several  strakes,  having  the  row. 
ocks,  or  pieces  of  wood  between  which  tho  oar  wftrks,  iixoa  upon  tho 


gunwale,  which  is  level  all  round.  The  sVifTis  wider  and  longer 
than  the  gig  and  of  greater  depth,  and,  ribiiig  higher  fore  and  aft, 
with  rowlocks  placed  on  a  curved  and  elevated  gunwale,  has  greater 
carrying  power  and  rows  lighter  than  the  gig.  The  wherry  rises 
high  at  the  bows  with  a  long  nose  pointed  upwards  and  a  very. low 
stern,  being  consequently  uiisuitftd  for  rough  water.  The  modem 
racing  boat  differs  much  from  the  foregoing,  as  its  width  ha»bee» 
decreased  so  as  to  offer  as  little  resistance  to  the  water  as  possible, 
while  it  is  propelled  by  oars  working  between  rowlocks  fixed  ou 
projecting  iron  rods  and  cross  pieces  which  are  made  fast  to  tho 
timbers.  These  rods  and  cross  pieces  aje  rigged  out  from  the  side 
of  the  boats,  and  hence  the  term  outtiggei  s.  These  boats  are 
constructed  for  single  scullers,  for  pairs,  lor  fours,  for  eights,  and 
occasionally  for  twelve  oars.  The  outrigger  was  first  brought  to 
perfection  by  the  late  Henry  Clasper  of  Newcastle-on-'Tyne,  who  is 
generally  believed  to  have  been  its  inventor;  but  the  first  outriggers, 
which  were  only  rude  pieces  of  wood  fastened  on  the  boat's  sides, 
were  used  in  1828,  and  were  fixed  to  a  boat  at  Ousebum-on-Tyne. 
The  first  iron  outriggers  were  affixed  to  a  boat  in  1830  at  Dents' 
Hole  on  Tyuc.  In  1844  Clasper,  who  had  been  improving  upon 
these  inventions,  made  his  first  boat  of  the  kind  and  brought  her 
to  London ;  but  her  outriggers  were  only  8  inches  in  length,  and 
she  was  built  of  several  strakes,  with  a  small  keel.  In  process  of 
time  keels  were  dispensed  with,  the  outriggers  were  lengthened, 
and  the  skin  of  the  boat  is  now  composed  of  a  single  strakc  of 
cedar  planed  very  thin  and  bent  by  means  of  hot  water  to  take  the 
form  of  the  timbers  of  the  boat.  It  is  fastened  by  copper  nails  to 
curved  timbers  of  ash,  one  extremity  of  which  is  fixed  into  the 
keelson  while  the  other  is  made  fast  to  long  pieces  of  deal  that  run 
from  end  to  end  of  the  boat  and  are  called  inwales.  The  timbers 
in  the  middle  are  thicker  than  the  rest,  so  as  to  support  tha  iron 
outriggers  which  are  fastened  to  them,  and  the  thwart,  which  is 
wider  than  it  used  to  be  in  order  to  carry  the  sliding  seat,  which 
works  backward  and  forward  with  the  oareman,  is  screwed  to  the 
inwales.  This  seat  moves  to  and  fro  on  rollers  made  of  steel,  wood, 
or  brass,  and  travels  over  a  distance  varying  from  12  to  6  inches 
according  to  the  judgment  of  the  instructor.  The  sliding  seat 
seems  to  have  been  the  invention  of  an  American  oarsman,  who  fixed 
one  to  a  sculling  boat  in  1857,  but  it  was  not  until  1870  that  he 
had  mastered  the  principles  sufficiently  to  discover  how  much  was 
gained  mechanically  and  physically.  The  value  of  the  improve- 
ment is  now  universally  lecognized,  but  it  was  some  little  time 
before  it  was  understood  and  came  into  general  use.  The  members 
of  the  London  Rowing  Club,  who  defeated  the  representatives  of 
the  New  York  Atalanta  Club  at  Putney  in  June  1872,  used  sliding 
seats,  and  the  club  also  had  them  fitted  to  their  eight,  which  easily 
carried  off  the  Grand  Challenge  cup  at  Henley  a  few  days  after- 
wards. In  1873  the  sliding  seat  was  adopted  by  the  crews  rowing 
in  the  University  boat  race.  The  Americans  have  also  the  credit 
of  two  other  inventions,  vijz. ,  the  steering  apparatus,  which  enables 
a  crew  to  dispense  with  a  coxswain,  and  the  swivel  rowlock  ;  but, 
though  tho  former  is  now-fitted  to  the  majority  of  n(in-coxs\vain 
pairs  and  fours,  the  use  of  the  latter  is  confined  for  the  most  part 
to  sculling  boats.  In  outrigged  eights,  fours,  and  pairs  tho 
outriggers  are  placed,  one  for  each  thwart,  at  each  side  alternately, 
but  in  gigs,  skiffs,  wherries,  and  funnies  they  are  placed  opposite 
one  another,  so  as  to  be  used  on  cither  side  at  discretion.  The 
oars  generally  used  are  about  12  feet  long,  varying  with  the  width 
of  tho  boat,-  and  sculls  are  as  much  as  10  feet  long. 

Directions  for  Rowing. — In  modern  rowing  the  oarsman,  grasping 
tho  handle  of  the  oar  with  both  hands,  sits  forward  on  the  edge  of 
his  seat,  stretches  out  his  arms  until  they  are  fully  extended — tho 
blade  of  the  oar  being,  just  previous  to  entering  the  water,  at  right 
angles  to  its  surface.  It  is  then  dipped  into  the  ^vater  just  so  far 
as  to  cover  it,  and  the  handle  puUeil  towards  the  oarsman's  body, 
the  weight  lof  the  latter  being  thrown  backward  a"t  the  sdme  time, 
so  as  to  make  one  movement,  and  tho  legs  pressed  hard  against  tho 
stretcher,  and  the  handle  finally  pulled  homo  to  the  chest  with  the 
arms,  the  elbows  being  allowed  to  pass  the  sides  until  the  handle  of 
the  oar  just  touches  the  lower  extremity  of  tho  breast.'  The  blade  of 
the  oar  thus  appears  to  be  forced  through  the  water  out  in  reality 
this  i*  very  slightly  the  case,  as  tho  water,  which  is  tho  fulcrura, 
remains  almost  immovable.  In  sculling,  the  operation  is  the  same 
except  that  the  sculler  has  a  scull  in  each  hand  and  drives  tho  boat 
himself,  whereas  a  man  rowifig  an  oar  must  have  one  or  more  com- 
r.ades  to  assist  him.  Rowing  is  made  up  of  two  parts,  tho  stroke 
and  the  feather.  Feathering  is  tnrning  tho  oar  at  tho  end  of  tho 
stroke  by  lowering  the  hands  and  droiiping  the  wrists,  thus  bringiUK 
■     '  '         '   '  ■    •,  and 


the  flat  blade  of  the  oar  parallel  with  tho  surface  of  the  water, 

ward  of  the  ha 
of  the  oar  and  tho  consequent  carrying  back  of  the  blade  pruWoua 


is  generally  considererl  to  include  tho  driving  forward  of  the  handle 

icK  of    ■     " "    " 
to  tho  beginniiij.  of  a  in'w  stroke. 


When  prepared  to  embark,  the  pupil  should  lay  his  oar  on  tho 
water  if  an  outside  or  upon  the  land  il^a  slioreside  oar,  and  step  into 
tho  boat  with  his  face  to  the  stern,  when  ho  should  at  once  «oat 
himself  and  ship  his  oar,  and  then  try  the  length  of  hi.i  stretcher 
to  SCO  that  it  suila  bis  length  of  leg.    This  arranged,  ho  ohualcl 


3'4 


R  O  W  — R  O  W 


proceed  to  settle  liimself  firmly  upon  his  thwart,  sitting  quite 
sduare  and  upright  but  Jiot  too  near  the  edge  of  it,  because  if  bo 
the  chances  are  that  the  lower  part  of  the  back  will  not  be  straight, 
and  if  his  seat  is  not  firm  he  cannot  aid  in  balancing  the  boat.     He 
should  sit  about  three  quarters  of  the  thwart  aft  in  an  ordinary  racing 
boat    abjut  an  inch  and  a  half  from  the  edge,  and  ho  must  be 
exartlv  opposite  the  handle  of  his  oar.     His  feet  must  be  planted 
firmlv  against  the  stretcher  and  immediately  opposite  his  body  and 
oar  —the  heel  as  well  as  the  ball  of  the  foot  pressing  against  the 
stretcher  and  the  two  heels  close  together  with  the  toes  wide  apart, 
80  as  to  keep  the  knees  open  and  separate.     Of  coursa  if  the  pupil 
sits  fair  and  square,  and  immediately  opposite  the  handle  of  his 
oar  he  will  be  at  one  side  and  not  in  the  centre  of  the  boat     The 
stretcher    it  may  be  add^d,  should  be  as  short  as  possible  con- 
venientlv  for  clearing  the  knees  and  for  exercising  complete  control 
over  the  oar.     The  body  should  be  upright,  not  bent  forward  and 
sunk  down  upon  the  trunk  ;  the  shoulders  should  be  thrown  back, 
the  chest  out,  and  the  elbows  down  close  alongside  the  flanks. 
The  oar  should  be  held  firmly,  but  withal  lightly,  m  both  hands, 
not  clutched  and  cramped  as  in  a  nce-the  outside  hand  close  to  the 
end  of  the  handle,  with  the  fingers  above  and  the  th  umh  underneath 
it  and  the  inside  hand,  or  that  nearest  the  bodr  of  tne  oar,  from 
an  inch  and  a  half  to  2  inches  away  from  its  fellow,  bat  grasping 
the  oar  more  convexly  than  the  latter,  the  thumb  being  kept  under, 
neath      The  forearms  should  be  below  the  level  of  tus  handle,  anrt 
the  wrists  dropped  and  relaxed,  the  oar  lying  flat  and  feathered 
upon  the  surface  of  the  water.    The  diverse  positions  of  Uio  two 
hands  and  wrists  enable  the  oar  to  be  wielded  with  greater  facility 
than  if  they  were  alike,  and  allow  both  arms  to  be  stretched  ojit 
narfectly  straight,  a  crooked  arm  being  perhaps  the  least  riardonab.e 
fault  in  romng.     In  taking  the  stroke  the  body  should  be  inchned 
forwards  with  the  backbone  straight,  the  stomach  well  out  and 
down  between  the  legs,  the  chest  forward  and  elevated  as  much  as 
possible.      The  knees  must  be  pressed  slightly  outwards;  acd  the 
shoulders  should  come  moderately  forward,  but  perfectly  level,  and 
at  an  equal  height     The  arms  should  play  freely  in  the  shoulder 
joints,  and  should  be  perfectly  straight  from  the  shoulders  U>  the 
wrists ;   the"  action  of  the  hips  also  should  be  free.     The  inside 
wrist,  however,  must  be  somewhat  raised,  and  the  outside  one  be 
bent  slightly  round,  in  order  that  the  knuckles  may  be  parallel  to 
the  oar,  and  the  oar.  itself  be  firmly  grasped  with  both  hands,  not 
with  the  tips  of  the  fingers  but  with  the  whole  of  the  fingers  well 
round  it,  and  each  one  feeling  the  handle  distinctly ;  the  knuckles 
of  the  thumbs  should  be  about  an  inch  and  a  half  or  2  inches  apart 
In  reaching  forward  the  hands  should  be  shot  out  straight  from  the 
body  without  the  least  pause,  and  as  soon  as  the  oar  has  passed  the 
knees  the  wrists  should  be  raised  to  bring  the  blade  at  right  angles 
to  the  wat^r  preparatory  to  dipping  it,  and  when  the  arms  are  at  their 
extreme  limit,  which  will  be  just  over  the  stretcher,  the  oar  should 
be  struck  down  firmly  and  decisively  into  the  water  until  covered 
up  to  the  shoulder,  and  the  weight  of  the  body  be  thrown  entirely 
upon  it,  by  which  the  beginning  of  the  stroke  is  caught,  and  -the 
stroke  itself  nulled  through ;  in  a  word,  the  pupil  should,  as  it  *ere, 
knit  himself  np,  and  then  spring  back  like  a  bow  when  the  string 
is  looseped,  hnnging  the  muscles  of  his  back  and  legs  into  play. 
The  stroke  should  be  finished  with  the  arms  and  shoulders,  the 
elbows  being  kept  close  to  the  sides,  and  the  shoulders  down  and 
back,  the  head  still  up,  and  the  chest  out  and  the  oar  itself  be 
brought  straight  home  to  tho  chest,  the  knuckles  touching  the 
body  about  an  inch  or  less  below  the  bottom  of  the  breast  bone 
where  the  ribs  branch  off ;  when  there  the  hands  should  be  dropped 
down  and  then  turned  over,  and  shot  out  again  close  along  the  legs, 
the  body  following  at  once.     Care  should  likewise  be  taken  not  to 
lessen  the  force  applied  to  the  oar  as  the  stroke  draws  to  a  conclu- 
sion, but  to  put  the  whole  strength  of  the  arms  and  «houlders  into 
the  finish  of  the  stroke,  where  it  will  naturally  diminish  quite  fast 
enough,  as  tho  oar  forms  an  obtuse  angle  with  that  portion  of  the  boat 
before  the  rowlock.    To  effect  a  quick  recovery  the  back  must  be  kept 
straight  the  kneesmust  not  be  dropped  too  low,  and  the  muscles  of 
the  body,  especially  of  the  stomach,  must  be  used  to  enable  the  pupil 
to  get  forward  for  the  next  stroke.     At  the  same  time,  no  matter 
how  minute  and  precise  written  -instructions  may  be,  they  can  never 
impart  the  knowledge  that  can  be  picked  up  by  watching  the  actions 
of  an  accomplished  oarsman  for  the  space  of  five  minutes  ;  hence 
the  imperative  necessity  of  a  practical  exponent  of  the  principles  of 
the  art  in  contradistinction  to  a  merely  theoretical  "coach." 

The  foregoing  are  the  essentials  of  rowing,  and  have  been  given  at 
some  length  and  in  detail  as  'ie  motions  are  necessarily  very  com- 
plicated. The  operation?  are  much  the  same  whether  a  person 
be  rowing  on  a  fixed  or  si  iing  seat,  but  a  novice  should  be  taught 
to  row  on  a  fixed  sea*  ^iia  he  will  afterwards  be  easily  able  to 
acquire  the  art  of  sliaing,  which  may  soon  be  done  from  following 
the  accompanying  directions.  The  oarsman,  in  getting  forward, 
should  extend -his  arms  to  their  full  lengtli,  and  with  the  assistance 
of  the  straps  on  the  stretcher,  simultaneously  draw  himself  as  close 
np  to  the  latter  as  he  can,  his  knees  being  slightly  and  syninietri* 
«aUy  opened,  and  the  body  reached  forward  as  much  as  possible,  the 


back  being  kept  quite  straight  On  catching  hold  of  the  water, 
the  knees  must  be  gradually  straightened  and  the  body  thrown 
back,  the  two  actions  going  on  simultaneously,  so  that  the  legs  are 
straight  out  by  the  time  the  stroke  is  finished  and  not  before,  the 
body  and  shoulders  at  the  end  of  the  stroke  being  thrown  well 
back.  The  body  is  then  recovered  to  the  upright  position  from  the 
hips,  the  hands  thrown  forward,  and  by  the  time  they  are  just  past 
the  knees  the  body  is  being  drawn  forward,  and  the  tnees  bent 
The  motion  then  begins  the  same  as  before.  (E.  D.  B.) 

Bool-Racing  in  America.— Ttiis  pastime  can  be  traced  back  to 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  The  earliest  important 
affair  was  in  1811,— a  ssctional  match.  New  York  City  against  ali 
Long  Island,  four-o.ired  barges,  with  coxswains,  from  Harsimus, 
New  Jersey,  to  the  flag-stafi'on  the  Battery.  New  York  won  easilj-, 
and  such  was  the  popular  enthusiasm  over  the  race  that  its  boat, 
the  "  Knickerbocker,  was  suspended  in  a  public  museum,  where  it 
remained  for  fifty-four  years,  a  constant  recipient  of  public  admira- 
tion until  destroyed  by  fire  in  July  1865.  Since  this  historic  con- 
test no  year  has  been  without  boat  races.  At  that  time  the  words 
amateur  and  professional  were  unknown  on  the  water  ;  the  Castle 
Garden  Amateur  Boat  Club  Association — America's  first  avowedly 
amateur  club — was  founded  in  1834. 

There  had  been  informal  clubs  and  desultory  racing  at  Yale 
College  as  earlv  as  1833,  but  the  first  regular  organization  was 
in  March  1843."  Harvard  followed  in  September  1844,  and  Yale 
and  Harvard  first  met  on  the  water  at  Lake  Winnepiseogee,  New 
Hampshire,  August  3,  1852  ;  since  1878  they  have  met  annually  at 
New  London,  Conn.  In  1865  Harvard,  Yale,  Trinity,  and  Brown 
formed  the  IJnion  College  Regatta  Association,  which  lasted  three 
years.  The  Racing  Association  of  American  Colleges,  which  at 
one  time  included  sixteen  colleges,  died  in  1876.  In  1883  Bowdoin, 
Columbia,  Cornell,  Princeton,  Rutgers,  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  Wesleyan  formed  the  Intercollegiate  Racing  Association,  which 
still  flourishes  and  gives  annual  regattas. 

The  control  of  amateur  racing  in  America  belongs  to  the  National 
Association  of  Amateur  Oarsmen,  founded  in  1873,  whose  member- 
.ship  includes  all  the  better  class  of  amateur  boat  clubs.     Its 
management  is  vested  in  an  Executive  Committee  of  nine  members, 
three  of  whom  are  elected  at  each- annual  meeting  of  the  association. 
The  rulings  of  this  committee  are  subject  to  review,  approval,  or 
reversal,  at  each  annual  meeting  of  the  full  association.      This 
association  gives  an  annual  open  amateur  regatta,  similar  to  the 
Royal  Henley  Regatta  w,  being  the  chief  aquatic  event  of  the  year, 
but  unlike  it  in  not  being  rowed  always  on  the  same  course,  but 
moving  about  from  year  to  year— having,  since  1873,  been  rowed 
at   Philadelphia,    Newark.  Troy,   aud   Watkins   (N.Y.),  Detroit 
Washington,  and  Boston.     There  are  in  the  United  States  eleven 
re<mlarly  organized   amateur  rowing  associations,  formed  by  the 
union  of  amateur  rowing  clubs  and  giving  each  year  one  or  mora 
regattas.      These   associations    are    the  National    Association  ot 
Amateur  Oarsmen,  the  North- Western  Amateur  Rowing  Association, 
the  Mississippi  Valley  Amateur  Rowing  Association,  the  Passaic 
River  Amateur   Rowing  Association,  the   Intercollegiate  Bowing 
Association,  the  Harlem  Regatta  Association,  the  Louisiana  State 
Amateur  Rowing  Association,  the  Virginia  State  Rowing  Associa- 
tion, the  Schuylkill  Navy,  the  Upper  Hudson  Navy,  and  the  KiU 
von  KuU  Regatta  Association.     At  English  regattas  it  is  usual  to 
start  three  boats  in  a  heat  sometimes  four,  five  being  the  utmost 
limit  whereas  at  Saratoga,  in  the  great  regattas  of  1874  and  187„, 
there  were  started  abreast  in  four  separate  races,  eleven  singles 
(twicel  thirteen  coxswainless  fours,  and  thirteen  coxswamless  sixes. 
The'  primarv  division  of  American  racing  craft  is  into  (o)  lap- 
streaks  or  clinkers,  built  of  wood  in  narrow  streaks  with  overlapping 
edges  at  each  joint,  and  (6)  smooth  bottoms,  made  of  wood  or  paper, 
and  having  a  fair  surface,  without  projecting  joint  or  seam.     Lap- 
streak  boats  are,  however,  now  rarely  used  save  in  barge  races. 
Then  follows  the  subdivision  into  barges,  which  are  open  mngged 
boats,  gigs,  which  are  open  outrigged  boats,  and  shells,  which  are 
covered  outrigged  boats.     These  three  classes  of  boats  are  further 
'  subdivided,  in  accordance  with  the  means  of  propulsion,  into  single, 
double,  and  quadruple  scuUing  boats,  and  pair-,  four-,  six-,  and  eignt- 
oared  boats.     In  America  the  double-scull  is  more  frequent  than 
the  pair  and  the  six-oar  much  more  common  than  the  ei"ht-oar. 

The  sliding  seat  is  now  being  gradually  superseded  bv  varione 
styles  of  rolUng  seats,  in  which  the  actual  seat  travels  backward 
and  forward  ou  frictionless  wheels  or  balls.  The  best  of  these  de- 
vices  run  more  easily,  are  cleaner,  and  less  liable  to  accident  than 
the  ordinary  sliding  seat.  English  oarsmen  use  the  sliding  seat  as 
a  means  of  makin|  their  old  accustomed  stroke  longer  and  more 
powerful.  American  oarsmen  hold  that  what  is  needed  by  an  oars- 
man is  not  the  addition  of  the  long  slide  to  the  old-fashioned  long 
swintr  but  the  almost  total  substitution  of  slide  for  swing,  the 
transfer  of  the  labour  from  back  to  legs-in.  fact,  a  totally  m-w  style. 
ROWLANDSON,  Thomas  (1756-1827),  caricatunst, 
was  born  in  Old' Jewry,  London,  in  July  1756,  the  son  of  a 
tradesman  or  city  merchant.    It  is  recorded  that  "  he  could 


R  O  W  —  R  O  X 


33 


ihake  sketches  before  he  learned  to  write,"  and  that  he 
covered  his  lesson-books  with  caricatures  of  his  masters 
and  fellow-pupils.  On  leaving  school  he  became  a  student 
in  the  Royal  Academy.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  resided 
and  studied  for  a  time  in  Paris,  and  he  afterwards  made 
frequent  tours  on  the  Continent,  enriching  his  portfolios 
with  numerous  jottings  of  life  and  character.  In  1775 
he  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy  a  drawing  of  Delilah 
visiting  Samson  in  Prison,  and  in  the  following  years 
he  was  represented  by  various  portraits  and  landscapes. 
Possessed  of  much  facility  of  execution  and  a  ready  com- 
mand of  the  figure,  he  was  spoken  of  as  a  promising 
student;  and  had  he  continued  his  early  application  ho 
would  have  made  his  mark  as  a  painter.  But  he  was  the 
Tictinrof  a  disastrous  piece  of  good  fortune.  By  the  death 
of  his  aunt,  a  French  lady,  he  fell  heir  to  a  sum  of 
X7000,  and  presently  he  plunged  into  the  dissipations  of 
the  town.  Gambling  became  a  passion  with  him,  and 
he  has  been  known  to  sit  at  the  gaming-table  for  thirty- 
six  hours  at  a  stretch.  In  time  poverty  overtook  him ; 
and  the  friendship  and  example  of  Gillrg,y  and  Bunbury 
seem  to  have  suggested  that  his  early  aptitude  for  carica- 
ture might  furnish  a  ready  means  of  filling  an  empty  purse. 
His  drawing  of  Vauxhall,  shown  in  the  Royal  Academy 
exhibition  of  1784,  had  been  engraved  by  Pollard,  and  the 
print  was  a  success.  Rowlandson  was  largely  employed 
by  Rudolph  Ackermann,  the  art  publisher,  who  in  1809- 
1811  issued  in  his  Poetical  Magazine  "The  Schoolmaster's 
Tour" — a  series  of  plates  with  illustrative  verses  by  Dr 
William  Coombe.  They  were  the  most  popular  of  the 
artist's  works.  Again  engraved  by  Rowlandson  himself  in 
1812,  and  issued  under  the  title  of  the  Tour  of  Dr  Syntax 
in  Search  of  the  Picturesque,  they  had  attained  a  fifth 
edition  by  1813,  and  were  followed  in  1820  by  Dr  Syntax 
in  Search  of  Consolation,  and  in  1821  by  the  Third  Tour  of 
Dr  Syntax,  in  Search  of  a  Wife.  The  same  collaboration 
of  designer,  author,  and  publisher  appeared  in  the  English 
Dance  of  Death,  issued  in  1814-16,  one  of  the  most 
admirable  of  Rowlandson's  series,  and  in  the  Dance  of  Life, 
1822.  Rowlandson  also  illustrated  Smollett,  Goldsmith, 
and  Sterne,  and  his  designs  will  be  found  in  The  Spirit 
•/  he  Public  Journals  (1825),  TIm  English  Spij  (1825),  and 
The  Humourist  (1831).  He  died  in  London,  after  a  pro- 
longed illness,  on  the  22d  April  1827. 

Rowlandson's  designs  were  usually  executed  in  outline  with  the 
reed-pen,  and  delicately  washed  with  colour.  Tlicy  were  then 
•tched  by  the  artist  on  the  copper,  and  afterwards  aqua-tinted — 
usually  by  a  professional  engraver,  the  impressions  being  finally 
coloured  by  band.  As  a  designer  he  was  characterized  by  the 
utmost  facility  and  case  of  diauglitsmanship.  He  poured  forth  his 
designs  in  ill-considered  profusion,  and  the  quality  of  his  art 
suffered  from  tliis  Imsto  and  over-production.  Ho  was  a  true  if 
not  a  very  refined  humorist,  dealing  less  frequently  than  his  fierce 
contemporary  Gillray  with  politics,  but  commonly  touching,  in  a 
, rather  gentle  spirit,  the  various  aspects  and  incidents  of  social  life. 
His  most  artistic  work  is  to  bo  found  among  the  more  careful 
drawings  of  bis  earlier  period  ;  but  even  among  the  gross  forms  and 
exaggerated  caricature  of  bis  later  time  we  find,  hero  and  there,  in 
the  graceful  lines  of  a  figure  or  the  sweet  features  of  some  mnidon'a 
face,  euflicicnt  hints  that  this  master  of  the  humorous  might  have 
attained  to  the  beautiful  had  bo  so  willed. 

See  J.  Giego,  BoalanJton  the  Carlcaltirlil,  a  Seleclton  from  hit  Work).  &c 
(J  TOl».,  1880).  ' 

ROWLEY,  William,  actor  and  dramatist,  collaborated 
with  several  of  the  celebrated  dramatists  of  the  Elizabethan 
period— Dekker,  Middleton,  Heywood,  Fletcher,  Webster, 
Massinger,  and  Ford.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life 
except  that  he  was  an  actor  in  various  companies,  anj 
married  in  1637.  There  was  another  Rowley,  an  actor  and 
playright  in  the  same  ftWieration,  Samuel,  and  probably  a 
third,  Ralph.  Four  jilays  by  W.  Rowley  are  extant, — A 
Woman  never  Vext  (printed  1632),  A  Match  at  Midnig/U 
(1633),  All  'a  Losi  by  Lust  (1633),  and  A  Shoemaker  a 


Gentleman  (1C38).  From  these  an  opinion  may  be  formed 
of  his  individual  style.  Effectiveness  v.f  situation  and  in- 
genuity of  plot  are  more  marked  in  them  than  any  special 
literary  faculty,  from  which  we  may  conjecture  why  he  was 
in  such  request  as  an  associate  in  play-making.  There  are 
significant  quotations  from  two  of  his  plays  in  Lamb's 
Specimens.  It  is  recorded  by  Langbaine  that  he  "  was 
beloved  of  those  great  men  Shakespeare,  Fletcher,  and 
Jonson " ;  and  the  tradition  of  his  personal  amiability  is 
supported  by  the  fact  of  his  partnershios  with  so  many 
different  writers. 

ROWLEY  REGIS,  an  urban  sanitary  district  of  Staf- 
fordshire, is  situated  on  the  Birmingham  Canal,  and  on  the 
Stourbridge  branch  of  the  Great  Western  Railway,  6  miles 
west  of  Birmingham.  The  original  village  surrounds  the 
parish  church,  dating  from  the  13th  century,  but  rebuUt  in 
1840  with  the  exception  of  the  tower,  which  was  also  rebuilt 
in  1858.  The  village  is  situated  in  a  rich  coal  and  iron- 
stone district,  and  round  it  numerous  hamlets  have  grown 
up  within  recent  years.  Lately  the  parish  has  been  erected 
into  an  urban  sanitary  district,  governed  by  a  local  board 
of  fifteen  members.  Besides  collieries,  iron  works,  and  ex- 
tensive quarries  for  "  Rowley  rag "  (a  basaltic  intrusion), 
there  are  potteries,  rivet,  chain,  and  anchor  works,  breweries, 
and  agricultural  implement  works,  the  district  being  one  of 
the  most  important  manufacturing  centres  of  Staffordshire. 
The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  3670 
acres)  in  1871  was  23,534  and  in  1881  it  was  27,385. 

ROXANA,  or  Roxane,  daughter  of  the  Bactrian  Oxy- 
artes  and  wife  of  Alexander  the  Great  (see  Alexandee, 
vol.  i.  p.  484,  and  Macedonian  Empire,  vol.  xv.  p.  142). 

ROXBURGH,  a  border  county  of  Scotland,  occupying 
the  greater  part  of  the  border  line  with  England,  is  bounded 
E.  and  S.E.  by  Northumberland,  S.E.  by  Cumberland, 
S.W.  by  Dumfriesshire,  W.  by  Selkirkshire,  N.W.  by 
Midlothian,  and  N.E.  by  Berwickshire.  It  lies  between 
55°  6'  30"  and  55°  42'  30"  N.  lat.,  and  between  2°  10'  and 
3°  7'  W.  long.  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south  is 
43  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  about  30  miles.  Tho 
area  is  428,464  acres,  or  about  670  square  miles. 

Surface  and  Geology. — The  greater  part  of  Roxburgh  is 
included  in  Teviotdale.  The  whole  course  of  the  Teviot, 
40  miles  in  length,  is  included  within  the  county.  It  rises 
in  the  ranges  of  greywacke  hills  which  separate  the  county 
from  Dumfriesshire  and  Selkirk,  and  runs  north-eastwards, 
following  the  deposition  of  the  greywacke  rocks  to  the 
Tweed  at  Kelso,  and  dividing  the  county  into  two  unequal 
parts.  On  the  north  a  high  range  of  land  runs  parallel 
with  its  banks  and  slopes  to  its  margin.  South-west  be- 
tween Dumfries  and  Cumberland  the  greywacke  formation 
constitutes  an  almost  continuous  succession  of  eminences, 
through  which  the  Liddel  finds  its  way  southwards.  The 
highest  summits  of  the  greywacke  ranges  exceed  1800  feet. 
Although  occasionally  rocky  and  rugged,  tho  hills  are  for 
the  most  part  rounded  in  outline  and  clothed  with  grass  to 
their  summits.  This  Silurian  formation  occupies  nearly 
tho  whole  of  the  western  half  of  tho  county,  but  along  with 
the  greywacke  rocks  is  associated  clay  slate  of  a  bluish 
colour,  glimmering  with  minute  scales  of  mica  and  fre- 
quently traversed  by  veins  of  calcareous  spar.  The  forma- 
tion is  succeeded  to  tho  eastward  by  an  extensive  deposit 
of  Old  Red  Sandstone,  forming  an  irregular  quadrangular 
area  towards  the  centre  of  the  county,  emitting  two  irregu- 
lar projections  from  its  southern  extremity,  and  interrupted 
towards  tho  north  by  an  intrusion  of  trap  rocks.  Owing 
to  tho  sandstone  formation  the  transverse  valleys  formed 
by  various  affluents  of  tho  '''oviot  present  features  of  great 
interest.  Tho  action  of  tho  water  has'  scooped  deep 
channels  in  tho  rock,  and  thus  formed  picturesque  narrow 
deHles,  of   which  tho   high  sandstone   scaura   ore  a  pro- 


34 


R  O  X  — R  0  Y 


minent  characteristic,  their  dark  red  colour  blending  finely 
with  the  bright  green  woods  and  sparkling  streams.  The 
best  example  of  this  species  of  scenery  is  on  the  Jed  near 
Jedburgh.  From  the  left  the  Teviot  receives  the  Borth- 
wick  and  the  Ale,  both  rising  in  Selkirkshire,  and  from  the 
right  the  Allan,  the  Slitrig,  the  Eule,  the  Jed,  the  Oxnam, 
and  th«  Kale,  which  rise  in  the  high  grounds  towards  the 
English  border.  As  the  Teviot  approaches  Hawick  the 
county  becomes  more  cultivated,  although  frequent  irrup- 
tions of  igneous  rocks  in  the  shape  of  isolated  hills  lend  to 
it  picturesqueness  and  variety.  Towards  the  Tweed,  where 
the  lower  division  of  the  coal  formation  prevails,  it  expands 
into  a  fine  champaign  country,  richly  cultivated  and  finely 
wooded.  The  Tweed,  which  enters  the  county  about  two 
mUes  north  of  Selkirk,  crosses  its  northern  corner,  east- 
wards by  Abbotsford,  Melrose,  and  Kelso  to  Coldstream. 
Its  tributaries  within  the  county  are,  besides  the  Teviot, 
the  Gfala,  the  Leader,  and  the  Eden.  One  of  the  principal 
features  of  the  Tweed  district  is  the  beautiful  group  of  the 
Eildon  HiDs  near  Melrose,  consisting  of  felspathic  porphyry, 
the  highest  of  the  three  peaks  reaching  1385  feet.  The  ex- 
tensive range  of  the  Cheviots  running  along  the  Northum- 
berland border  is  of  similar  formation.  Within  Roxburgh- 
shire they  reach  a  height  of  over  2400  feet.  The  lochs  are 
comparatively  few,  the  principal  being  Yetholm  or  Primside 
Loch,  and  Hoselaw  in  Linton  parish. 

The  principal  minerals  are  calcareous  spar  and  quartz. 
The  spar  is  frequently  of  a  red  or  rose  character  indicating 
the  presence  of  hematite.  In  the  greywacke  strata  fossils 
are  very  rare,  but  in  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  fossil  fishes 
of  the  genus  Pterichihys  and  Ho'.optyckiiis  are  very  numer- 
ous, and  k  great  variety  of  plant  impressions  have  been 
found,  especially  fucoids,  but  also  vegetables  of  a  higher 
origin,  including  distinct  petrifactions  of  Calamites. 

Climaie  and  Agriculture. — The  mean  annual  temperature  ap- 
pro-ximatea  to  that  of  Scotland  generally,  "but  it  is  much  warmer 
in  the  low  and  arable  portiona,  where  also  the  rainfall  is  much  less 
than  in  the  hiUy  regions.  The  soil  varies  much  in  different  dis- 
tricts, being  chiefly  loam  in  the  low  and  level  tracts  along  the  banks 
of  the  river,  where  it  is  also  very  fertile.  In  other  parts  a  mixture 
of  clay  and  gravel  prevails,  but  there  is  also  a  considerable  extent 
of  mossy  land. '  The  hilly  district  is  everywhere  covered  by  a  thick 
green  pasturage  admirably  suited  for  sheep.  Both  in  the  pastoral 
and  in  the  arable  districts  agriculture  is  in  a  very  advanced  con- 
dition. The  chief  attention  is  devoted  to  cattle  and  sheep 
rearing. 

Of  the  total  area  of  428,464  acres,  184,196  were  in  crops  in  1885, 
48,506  being  under  corn  crops,  28,385  green  crops,  59,937  clover, 
47,058  permanent  pasture,  and  310  fallow.  Of  the  area  under  corn 
crops;  32,624  acres,  or  fully  two-thirds,  were  occupied  by  oats,  and 
13,355  acres  by  barley.  Turnips  and  swedes  were  the  principal 
green  crops,  occupying  25,143  acres,  while  potatoes  occupied  only 
2118.  The  total  number  of  horses  was  4420,  of  which  3697  were 
used  solely  for  purposes  of  agriculture ;  of  cattle  17,831,  of  which 
6154  were  cows  and  heifers  in  milk  or  in  calf ;  of  sheep  502j  721 ;  and 
of  pigs  4783.  The  valued  rental  in  1674  was  £314,633  Scots,  or 
£26,219  sterling,  whilo  that  in  1883-84  was  £420,403  including 
railways.  According  to  the  parliamentary  return  of  lands  and 
heritages,  the  total  number  of  owners  was  2455,  of  whom  1880 
possessed  less  that  one  acre.  The  duke  of  Buccleuch  possessed 
104,461  acres,  or  nearly  a  fourth  of  the  wliole  ;  the  duke  of  Rox- 
burghe,  60,459;  the  countess  of  Home,  25,380;  marquis  of  Lothian, 
19,740  ;  and  Sir  William  F.  Elliot  of  Stobs,  16,475. 

Manufactures. — Though  essentially  an  agricultural  county, 
Roxburghshire  possesses  woollen  manufactures  of  some  importance, 
including  tweeds,  blankets,  shawls,  and  hosiery,  the  principal  seat^ 
being  Hawick,  Jedburgh,  and  Kelso. 

Railways.— Tha  county  is  intersected  by  one  of  the  lines  of  rail- 
way from  Edinburgh  to  London  (the  "  Waverley "  route),  which 
passes  Melrose  and  Hawick.  At  Kiccarton  a  branch  passes  south- 
eastwards  to  Newcastle.  The  northern  district  is  crossed  by  the 
border  railway  from  St  BosweUs  to  Kelso,  Coldstream,  and  Berwick, 
a  branch  passing  south  from  near  Kelso  to  Jedburgh. 

Papulation,. — Between  1831  and  1881  the  population  increased 
from  43,663  to  63,442  (25,436  males,  28,006  females),  but  from 
1861  to  1871  there  was  a  decrease  from  54,7.19  to  49,407.  The 
town  popniation  numbered  24,273  in  1881,  the  village  6627,  and 
the  rural  22.542.  Jedburgh  (population  2432)  is  a  royal  burgh  ; 
it  is  also  a  police  and  parliamentary  burgh,  as  is  likewise  Hawick 


(16,184) ;  Kelso  (4687)  ia  a  police  burgh.      The  most  important 
villages  are  Melrose  (1550),  Newcastleton  (924),  and  Yetholm  (746). 

History  and  Antiquities. — Among  the  more  important  relics  of 
the  early  inhabitants  of  the  county  are  the  so-called  Druidical  re- 
mains at  Tinnishill  between  the  parishes  of  Castleton  and  Canonbie, 
at  Ninestanerigg  near  Hermitage  Castle,  and  at  Plenderleath  between 
the  Oxnara  and  the  Kale.  Of  old  forts  there  are  two  of  great  size  on 
the  summits  of  Caerby  and  Tinnishill  in  Liddesdale,  and  a  number 
of  smaller  ones  in  different  parts  of  the  county.  On  the  north- 
west of  the  Eildon  Hills  are  two  fosste  or  ramparts  forming  a 
circuit  of  more  than  a  mile.  On  Caldshiels  Hill  there  was  anoUier 
British  fort,  and  between  them  a  ditch  with  rampart  of  earth  defend- 
ing the  country  from  the  east.  The  famous  Catrail,  "partition  of 
the  fence,"  the  most  important  of  the  British  remains  in  the  king- 
dom, extended  a  distance  of  45  miles  from  near  Galashiels  in  Sel- 
kirkshire through  Roxburgh  to  Peel  Fell  on  the  border.  The  Roman 
Watling  Street  touched  on  Roxburgh  at  Broomhartlaw,  whence  pass- 
ing along  the  mountains  now  forming  the  boundary  of  the  county 
for  a  mile  and  a  half,  until  it  entered  Scotland  at  Blackball,  it 
turned  northward  by  Bonjedward,  Mount  Teviot,  Newton,  Eildon, 
and  Newstead  to  Channelkirk  ia  the  Lammermuirs.  On  its  line 
there  were  important  stations  at  Chewgreen  in  the  Cheviots  {i  Ad 
Fines),  Bonjedward  (Gadanica),  and  Eildon  Hill  (?  Trimontium). 
Another  Roman  road  called  the  Maidenway  from  Maiden  Castle 
in  Westmoreland  entered  Roxburgh  at  Deadwater,  and  under  the 
name  of  the  Wheeleauseway  traversed  the  north-east  corner  of 
Liddesdale  into  Teviotdale.  From  Watling  Street  a  branch  called 
the  Devil's  Causeway  passed  to  the  Tweed.  After  forming  part  of 
the  kingdom  of  Northumberland  for  several  centuries,  Roxburgh  was 
relinquished  along  with  Lothian  to  the  Scottish  king  about  102O 
(see  LoTuiAN,  vol.  xv.  p.  10).  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  formed 
into  a  shire  in  the  reign  of  David  I.,  its  ancient  county  town  of 
Roxburgh  forming,  along  with  Edinburgh,  Berwick,  and  Stirling, 
the  court  of  the  four  burghs  of  Scotland,  whose  laws  were  collected  by 
that  king.  Roxburgh  Castle,  between  the  Tweed  and  Teviot  near 
Kelso,  was  a  royal  residence  of  the  Saxon  kings  of  Northumbtia 
and  afterwards  of  the  Scottish  monarchs.  It  was  frequently  taken 
by  the  English,  and  James  II.  was  killed  there  by  the  bursting 
of  a  cannon.  After  this  it  remained  in  ruins  till  it  was  repaired, 
by  Protector  Somerset,  shortly  after  which  it  was  demolished. 
Hermitage,  in  Liddesdale,  the  scene  of  Leyden's  ballad  of  Lord 
Soulis,  was  probably  built  by  Nicholas  de  Snlos  in  the  beginning 
of  the  13th  century.  On  the  forfeiture  of  the  Soulis  family  in  1320, 
it  was  granted  by  Robert  the  Bruce  to  Sir  John  Graham  of  Aber- 
corn,  and  passed  by  the  marriage  of  his  heiress  Mary  to  her 
husband  William  Douglas,  knight  of  Liddesdale,  who  starved  Sir 
Alexander  Ramsay  of  Dalhousie  to  death  in  it  in  1342  in  revenge 
for  Ramsay's  appointment  as  sheriff  of  Roxburgh  by  David  II. 
In  1492  Archibald  Douglas,  fifth  tarl  of  Angus,  exchanged  the 
Hermitage  for  Bothwell  Castle,  on  the  Clyde,  with  Pa.trick  Hep- 
burn, first  earl  of  Bothwell ;  and  it  was  there  that  his  descendant, 
the  fourth  earl,  was  visited  in  1566  by  Mary  queen  of  Scots.  The 
principal  of  the  other  old  castles  are  Brauxholm  on  the  Teviot,  long 
the  residence  of  the  Buccleuchs  and  the  scene-of  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel ;  Cessford,  on  a  ridge  inclining  towards  the 
Kale,  formerly  of  great  strength,  besieged  in  1520  by  Surrey,  towhom 
it  surrendered;  and  Ferniehirst,  the  mansion  of  the  Kers,  on  the  Jed, 
occupying  the  site  of  a  baronial  fortress  erected  in  1410,  and  tlie 
sceue  of  many  a  fray.  The  district  was  for  a  long  time  the  scene  of 
continual  border  conflicts,  the  leaders  in  which  were  the  Armstrongs 
and  other  chiefs  occupying  the  fortresses  or  peels,  chiefly  in 
Liddesdale,  as  at  Gilkiiockie,  Castleton,  Whitehaugh,  Copshaw, 
Syde,  Mangerton,  Goranberry,  Hartsgarth,  and  Newcastieton. 
Among  many  fine  modern  mansions  mention  may  be  made  of 
Floors  Castle,  the  seat  of  the  duke  of  Roxburghe  ;  Minto  House, 
the  seat  of  the  earl  of  Minto ;  and  Abbotsford,  built  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott.  Few  counties  can  boast  oi  such  important  ecclesiastical 
remains  as  those  of  the  abbeys  of  Melrose,  Jedburgh,  and  Kelso. 
There  are  several  ancient  crosses  in  the  county,  the  principal  being 
those  at  Ancrum,  Bowden,  Maxton,  and  Melrose.  Among  numer- 
ous eminent  men  connected  with  Roxburgh  mention  may  be  made 
of  Samuel  Rutherfnrd  the  theologian,  James  Thomson,  author  of  The 
Seasons,  John  Leyden  the  poet,  and  Sir  Gilbert  Elliot  of  Minto. 

See  Jeffrey,  HiUory  of  Roxburghshire,  4  vols.,  1837-^4;  Armstrong's  Hitlory 
of  Liddesda'.t,  18St.  (T.  F.  H.) 

EOXBURY,  formerly  a  city  of  Norfolk  county,  ilassa- 
chusetts,  U.S.,  now  incorporated  in  Boston  {q.v.). 

ROY,  RAmmohun  (1772-1833).  RijA  Rdmmohun  Roy 
(or  Eiy),  the  founder  of  the  BrAhma  Samdj  or  Theistic 
Church  of  India,  was  born  at  Rddhdnagar,  Bengal,  in  May 
1772,  of  an  ancient  and  honourable  Brahman  family. 
His  father  gave  him  a  good  education ;  he  learnt  Persian 
at  home,  Arabic  at  Patna  (where  he  studied  Euclid,  Aris- 
totle, and  the  Koran),  and  Sanskrit  at  Benares.  Althoiigh 
a  devout  idolater  in  boyhood,  he  early  began  te  doubt  and 


R  0  Y  -  R  O  Y 


3a 


speculate,  and  at  fifteen  left  home  to  study  Buddhism  in 
Tibet,  where  his  criticisms  on  the  Lama- worship  gave  much 
offence.  After  some  years'  travel  he  returned,  but,  his  anti- 
idolatrous  sentiments  obliging  him  to  leave  home,  he  lived 
at  Benares  until  his  father's  death  in  1803.  After  this, 
he  spent  about  ten  years  in  the  East  India  Company's 
service,  latterly  as  dewdn  or  head  officer  in  the  collection 
of  revenues. 

During  this  period  he  first  began  to  assemble  his  fnenas 
together  for  evening  discussions  on  the  absurdities  of 
idolatry,  and  he  also  issued  his  first  work,  Tuhfat-al 
Muwahhiddin  ("  A  Gift  to  Blonotheists  ").  This  treatise 
was  in  Persian,  with  an  Arabic  preface,  and  was  a  bold 
protest  against  superstition  and  priestcraft.  These  pro- 
ceedings brought  on  him  much  hostility,  and  even  perse- 
cution, and  in  181-i  he  retired  to  Calcutta  for  greater 
safety.  Here  he  soon  established  a  little  Friendly  Society 
(Xtmiya  iSahhd),  which  met  weekly  to  read  the  Hindu 
Scriptures  and  to  chant  monotheistic  hymns.  In  1816  he 
translated  the  Vedinta  into  Bengali  and  Hindustani, 
following  this  by  a  series  of  translations  from  the  Upani- 
sbads  into  Bengali,  Hindustani,  and  English,  with  intro- 
ductions and  comments  of  his  own.  These  works  he  pub- 
lished at  his  own  expense  and  disseminated  widely  among 
tis  counti7men.  His  writings  excited  much  opposition 
and  -gave  rise  to  numerous  controversies,  in  which  his 
ability,  tact,  and  learning  rendered  him  fully  a  match  for 
his  antagonists.  But  the  deadliest  blow  which  he  inflicted 
upon  Hindu  superstition  was  his  effective  agitation  against 
the  rite  of  suttee,  the  burning  of  living  widows  on  the 
funeral  piles  of  their  deceased  husbajids.  In  1811  he  had 
been  a  horrified  witness  of  this  sacrifice  in  his  elder 
brother's  family,  and  had  vowed  never  to  rest  until  he 
had  uprooted  the  custom.  He  exposed  the  hollow  pre- 
tences of  its  advocates  in  elaborate  pamphlets,  both  in 
Bengali  a"nd  English,  and  pressed  the  matter  in  every 
possible  way,  till  at  last  the  tide  of  public  feeling  turned, 
and  on  December  4,  1829,  Lord  William  Bentinck  issued 
a  regulation  abolishing  suttee  throughout  all  the  terri- 
tories subject  to  Fort  William.  RAmmohun  was  an  active 
politician  and  philanthropist.  He  built  schoolhouses  and 
established  schools  in  which  useful  knowledge  was  gratu- 
itously taught  through  the  medium  both  of  the  Engfish  and 
the  native  languages.  He  wrote  a  suggestive  Bengali  gramr 
mar,  of  which  he  published  one  version  in  English  (1826) 
and  one  in  Bengali  (1833).  He  wrote  valuable  pamphlets 
on  Hindu  law,  and  made  strenuous  exertions  for  the 
freedom  of  the  native  press;  he  also  established  (1822)  and 
mainly  conducted  two  native  newspapers,  the  Sanildd 
Kaumudl  in  Bengali,  and  (if  rightly  identified)  the  Mirdt- 
al-Akhhdr  in  Persian,  and  made  them  the  moans  of  diffusing 
much  useful  political  information.  Becoming  interested  in 
Christianity,  he  learned  Hebrew  and  Greek  in  order  to  read 
the  Bible  in  the  original  languages;  and  in  1820  he  issued 
a  selection  from  the  four  Gospels  entitled  The  Precepts  of 
Jesus,  (he  Guide  to  Peace  and  Happiness.  This  was 
attacked  by  the  Baptist  missionaries  of  Serampur,  and  a 
long  controversy  ensued,  in  which  he  published  three 
remarkable  Appeals  to  the  Christian  Public  in  Defence  of 
tlie  "  Precepts  of  Jesus."  He  also  wrote  other  theological 
tracts  (sometimes  under  assumed  names)  in  which  he 
attacked  both  Hindu  and  Christian  orthodoxy  with  a 
strong  hand.  But  his  personal  relations  with  orthodox 
Christians  were  never  unfriendly,  and  he  rendered  valuable 
assistance  to  Dr  Duff  in  the  latter's  educational  schemes. 
He  also  warmly  befriended  a  Unitarian  Christian  Mission 
which  was  started  in  Calcutta  (1821)  by  Mr  William 
Adam,  formerly  a  Baptist  missionary,  who,  in  attempting 
to  convert  RAmmohun  to  Trinitarian  ism,  hn(J[  himself  been 
converted  to  the  opposite  view.     This  Unitarian  Mission, 


though  not  a  theological  success,  attracted  considerable 
sympathy  among  the  Hindu  monotheists,  whose  Atmiya 
Sabhd  had  then  become  extinct.  At  !a.st  RAmmohun  felt 
able  to  re-embody  his  cherished  ideal,  and  on  August  20, 
1828,  he  opened  the  first  "Brahmya  Association"  {Bralima 
Sabhd)  at  a  hired  house.  A  suitable  church  building  was 
then  erected  and  placed  in  the  liands  of  trustees,  with  a 
small  endowment  and  a  remarkable  trust-deed  by  which 
the  building  was  set  apart  "for  the  worship  and  adotatioa 
of  the  Eternal,  Unsearchable,  and  Immutable  Being  who 
is  the  Author  and  Preserver  of  the  universe."  The  now 
church  was  formally  opened  on  the  11th  Migh  (January 23) 
1830,  from  which  day  the  Brdhma  Samij  dates  its 
existence.  Having  now  succeeded  in  his  chief  projects, 
Rimmohun  resolved  to  visit  England,  and  the  king  of 
Delhi  appointed  him  his  envoy  thither  on  special  business, 
and  gave  him  the  title  of  rdjA.  He  arrived  in  England  oa 
April  8,  1831,  and  was  received  with  universal  cordiality 
and  respect.  He  watched  with  special  anxiety  the  parlia- 
mentary discussions  on  the  renewal  of  the  East  India 
Company's  charter,  and  gave  much  valuable  evidence  before 
the  Board  of  Control  on  the  condition  of  India.  This  is 
republished  with  additional  suggestions  {Exposition  of  the 
Practical  Operation  of  the  Judicial  and  Pevenue  Sz/stems  of 
India),  and  also  reissued  his  important  Pssay  on  the  Sight 
of  Hindus  over  Ancestral  Property  (1832).  He  visited 
France,  and  wished  to  visit  America,  but  died  unexpectedly 
of  brain  fever  at  Bristol,  September  27,  1833.' 

His  Bengali  and  Sanskrit  worVs  were  lately  reissued  in  0B» 
volume,  by  Kajndrain  Bose  and  A.  C.  Vcdantabagish  (Calcutti,! 
ISSO),  and  his  Knglish  works  will  shortly  be  published  in  two- 
volumes  by  Eshanchandra  Bose.  Nagendranath  Cliattopadhaya's 
Bengali  memoir  of  liim  (1881)  is  the  lullest  yet  published. 

ROY,  William  (c.  1726-1790),  a  famous 'geodesist, -was: 
employed  in  some  of  the  great  national  trigonometrical 
measurements  which  were  made  during  last  century.  la 
1746,  at  the  age  of  twenty,  when  an  assistant  in  the  offica 
of  Colonel  Watson,  deputy  quartermaster-general  in  North 
Britain,  he  began  the  survey  of  the  mainland  of  Scotland, 
the  results  of  which  were  embodied  in  what  is  known  as 
the  "duke  of  Cumberland's  map."  In  1756  he  obtained 
a  lieutenancy  in  the  51st  regiment,  and  proceeded  with  it 
to  Germany,  where  his  talents  as  a  military  draughtsman 
brought  him  to  notice,  and  procured  him  rapid  promotion. 
He  ultimately  reached  the  rank  of  major-general.  In  1784, 
while  deputy  quartermaster-general  at  the  Horse  Guards, 
his  seryices  were  called  into  request  for  conducting  the 
observations  for  determining  the  relative  positions  of  tha 
French  and  English  royal  observatories.  His  measure- 
ment of  a  base  line  for  that  purpose  on  Hounslow  Heath 
in  1784,  which  was  destined  to  be  the  germ  of  all  subse- 
quent surveys  of  the  United  Kingdom,  gained  him  the  gold 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  Owing  to  unfore- 
seen delays,  the  triangulation  for  connecting  the  meridians 
of  the  two  observatories  was  not  carried  out  until  1787. 
He  had  completed  his  undertaking,  and  was  finishing  an 
account  of  it  for  the  Phil.  Trans,  when  ho  died  in  1790. 

Besides  several  papers  in  Phil.  Trans.,  Roy  was  autlior  of  tbo 
work  entitled  Military  AiUiguiiics  of  the  liomans  in  Korlh  Uritaai, 
published  in  1793. 

ROYAL  HOUSEHOLD.  In  all  the  medieval  mon- 
archies of  western  Europe  the  general  system  of  govern- 
ment sprang  from,  and  centred  in,  the  royal  household. 
The  sovereign's  domestics  were  his  ofTicers  of  state,  and  tho 
leading  dignitaries  of  tho  palace  wore  the  principal  admin- 
istrators of  the  kingdom.  Tho  royal  household  itself  had, 
in  its  turn,  grown  out  of  an  earlier  and  more  primitive 
institution.  It  took  its  rise  in  tho  condtalus  described  by 
Tacitus,  tho  chosen  band  of  comilcs  or  companions  whii, 
when  the  Roman  historian  wrote,  con.stitulcd  tho  personal 
following,   in  peace  as  well  as  in  war,  of   the  "Teutonic 


or* 


ROYAL      HOUSEHOLD 


princeps  or  chieftain.  In  Englana  before  the  Conquest 
the  comitatiis  had  developed  or  degenerated  into  the 
thegnhood,  and  among  the  most  eminent  and  powerful  of 
the  king's  thegns,  were  his  dishthegn,  his  bowerthegn,  and 
his  horsethegn  or  staller.  In  Normandy  at,  the  time  of 
the  Conquest  a  similar  arrangement,  imitated  from  the 
French  court,  had  long  been  established,  and  the  Norman 
dukes,  like  their  overlords  the  kings  of  France,  had  their 
seneschal  or  steward,  their  chamberlain,  and  their  con- 
stable. After  the  Conquest  the  ducal  household  of 
Normandy  was  reproduced  in  the  royal  household  of 
England  ;  and  since,  in  obedience  to  the  spirit  of  feudalism, 
the  great  offices  of  the  first  had  been  made  hereditary,  the 
great  offices  of  the  second  were  made  hereditary  also,  and 
were  thenceforth  held  by  the  grantees  and  their  descend- 
ants as  grand-serjeanties  of  the  crown.  The  consequence 
was  that  they  passed  out  of  immediate  relation  to  the 
practical  conduct  of  affairs  either  in  both  state  and  court 
or  in  the  one  or  the  other  of  them.  The  steward  and 
chamberlain  of  England  were  superseded  in  their  political 
functions  by  the  justiciar  and  treasurer  of  England,  and 
in  their  domestic  functions  by  the  steward  and  chamber- 
lain of  the  household.  The  marshal  of  England  took  the 
place  of  the  constable  of  England  in  the  royal  palace,  and 
was  associated  with  him  in  the  command  of  the  royal 
armies.  In  due  course,  however,  the  marshalship  as  well 
as  the  constableship  became  hereditary,  and,  although  the 
constable  and  marshal  of  England  retained  their  military 
authority  until  a  comparatively  late  period,  the  duties 
they  had  successively  performed  about  the  palace  had 
been  long  before  transferred  to  the  master  of  the  horse. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  holders  of  the  original 
great  offices  of  state  and  the  household  ceased  to  attend 
the  court,  except  on  occasions  of  extraordinary  ceremony, 
and  their  representatives  either  by  inheritance  or  by  special 
appointment  have  ever  since  continued  to  appear  at  corona- 
tions and  some  other  public  solemnities,  such  as  the  open- 
ing of  the  parliament  or  trials  by  the  House  of  Lords.^ 

The  materials  available  for  a  history  of  the  royal  house- 
hold are  somewhat  scanty  and  obscure.  The  earliest 
record  relating  to  it  is  of  the  reign  of  Henry  II.-,  and  is 
contained  in  the  Black  Book  of  the  Exchequer.  It  enumer- 
ates the  various  inmates  of  the  king's  palace  and  the 
daily  allowances  made  to  them  at  the  period  at  which 
it  was  compiled.  Hence  it  affords  valuable  evidence  of 
the  antiquity  and  relative  importance  of  the  court  offices 
to  which  it  refers,  notwithstanding  that  it  is  silent  as  to 
the  functions  and  formal  subordination  of  the  persons  who 
filled  them.2  In  addition  to  this  record  we  have  a  series 
of  far  later,  but  for  the  most  part  equally  meagre,  docu- 
ments bearing  more  or  less  directly  on  the  constitution  of 
the  royal  household,  and  extenHing,  with  long  intervals, 
from  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  to  the  reign  of  William  and 
Mary.^   Among  them,  however,  are  what  are  known  as  the 

'  The  great  officers  of  state  and  the  household  whom  we  have 
pailicolarly  mentioned  do  not  of  course  exhaust ,  the  catalogue  of 
them.  We  have  named  those  only  whose  representatives  are  still 
dignitaries  of  the  court  and  functionaries  of  the  palace.  If  the 
reader  consults  Hallam  {Middle  Ages,  vol.  i.  p.  ISl  sq.),  Freeman 
(Norman  Conquest,  vol.  i.  p.  91  sq.,  and  vol.  v.  p.  426  sq.),  and 
Stubbs  (Const.  Mist.,  vol.  i.  p.  343,  sq.),  he  will  be  able  himself  to  fill 
in  the  details  of  the  outline  wo  have  given  above. 

"  The  record  in  question  is  entitled  Constilutio  Domus  Regis  de 
Procuralionibus,  and  is  printed  by  Heame  (Liber  Niger  Scaccarii,  vol. 
i.  p.  341  sq.).  It  is  analysed  by  Stubbs  (Const.  Hist.,  vol.  i.  note  2, 
p.  345). 

'  A  Collection  of  Ordinances  and  Regulations  for  the  Government  of 
the  Roi/al  Household,  made  in  Divers  Reigns  from  King  Edward  III.  to 
King  William  and  Queen  Man/,  printed  for  the  Society  of  Antiquaries, 
London,  1790.  See  also  Pegge's  Curialia,  published  partly  before 
and  partly  after  this  volume;  and  Carlisle's  Gentlemen  of  the  Privy 
Chamber,  published  in  1829.  Pcgge  and  Carlisle,  however,  deal  \\\Xh 
small  and  insignificant  portions  of  the  royal  establishment. 


Black  Boole  of  the  Household  and  the  Staljtes  of  Eltham, 
compiled  the  first  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  and  the  second 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  from  which  a  good  deal  of 
detailed  information  may  be  gathered  concerning  the 
arrangements  of  the  court  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries. 
The  Statutes  of  Eltham  were  meant  for  the  practical  guid- 
ance merely  of  those  who  were  responsible  for  the  good 
order  and  the  sufficient  supply  of  the  sovereign's  household 
at  the  time  they  were  issued.  But  the  Black  Book  of  the 
Household,  besides  being  a  sort  of  treatise  on  princely  mag- 
nificence generally,  professes  to  be  based  on  the  regulations 
established  for  the  governance  of  the  court  by  Edward  III., 
who,  it  affirms,  was  "  the  first  setter  of  certeynties  among 
his  domesticall  meyne,  upon  a  grounded  rule  "  and  whose 
palace  it  describes  as  "  the  house  of  very  policie  and  flowre 
of  England ; "  and  it  may  therefore  possibly,  and  even 
probably,  take  us  back  to  a  period  much  more  remote  thap 
that  at  which  it  was  actually  put  together.'*  Various  orders, 
returns,  and  accounts  of  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth,  James  I., 
Charles  I.,  Charles  II.,  and  William  and  Mary  throw  con- 
siderable light  on  the  organization  of  particular  sections 
of  the  royal  household  in  times  nearer  to  our  own.' 
Moreover,  there  were  several  parliamentary  inquiries  into 
the  expenses  of  the  royal  household  in  connexion  witTi  the 
settlement  or  reform  of  the  civil  list  during  the  reigns  of 
George  III.,  George  IV.,  and  William TV.^  But  they  add 
little  or  nothing  to  our  knowledge  of  the  subject  in  what 
was  then  its  historfcal  as  distinguished  from  its  contem- 
porary aspects.  So  much,  indeed,  is  this  the  case  that,  on 
the  accession  of  Queen  Victoria,  Chamberlayne's  Present 
State  of  England,  which  contains  a  catalogue  of  the  officials 
at  the  court  of  Queen  Anne,  was  described  by  Lord 
Melbourne  the  prime  minister  as  the  "  only  authority  * 
which  the  advisers  of  the  crown  could  find  for  their 
assistance  in  determining  the  appropriate  constitution  and 
dimensions  of  the  domestic  establishment  of  a  queen 
regnant.^ 

In  its  main  outlines  the  existing  organization  of  the 
royal  household  is  essentially  the  same  as  it  was  under 
the  Tudors  or  the  Plantagenets.  It  is  now,  as  it  was  then, 
divided  into  three  principal  departments,  at  the  head  of 
which  are  severally  the  lord  steward,  the  lord  chamber- 
lain, and  the  master  of  the  horse,  and  the  respective  pro- 
vinces of  which  may  be  generally  described  as  "below 
stairs,'''  "above  stairs,"  and  "out  of  doors."  But  at 
present,  the  sovereign  being  a  queen,  the  royal  household 
is  in  some  other  respects  rather  differently  arranged  from 
what  it  would  be  if  there  were  a  king  and  a  queen  consort. 
When  there  is  a  king  and   a  queen  consort   there  is  a 

*  Liber  Niger  Domus  Regis  Edward  IV.  and  Ordinances  for  the 
Household  made  at  Eltham  in  the  seventeenth  year  of  King  Henry 
VIII. ,  A.D.  1526,  are  the  titles  of  these  two  documents.  The  earlier 
documents  printed  in  the  same  collection  are  Household  of  King 
Edward  III.  in  Peaceand  War  from  the  eighteenth  to  the  twenty-first 
year  of  his  reign  ;  Ordinances  of  the  Household  of  King  Henry  IV, 
in  the  thirty-third  year  of  his  reign,  A.D.  1455,  and  Articles  ordained 
by  King  Henry  VK.  for  the  Regulation  of  his  Household,  A.D.  1494- 

'  Tlie  Book  of  the  Household  of  Queen  Elizabeth  as  it  was  ordained 
in  the  forty-third  year  of  her  Reign  delivered  to  our  Sovereign  Lord 
King  James,  ttc,  is  simply  a  list  of  officers'  names  and  allowances.  It 
seems  to  have  been  drawn  up  under  the  curious  circumstances  referred 
to  in  Archmologia  (vol.  xii.  pp.  80-85).  For  the  rest  of  these  docu- 
ments see  Ordinances  and  Regulations,  <tc.,  pp.  299,  340,  347,  352, 
368,  and  380. 

*  Burke's  celebrated  Act  "for  enabling  His  Majesty  to  discharge  the 
debt  contracted  upon  the  civil  list,  and  for  preventing  the  same  from 
being  in  arrear  for  the  future,  &c.,"  22  Geo.  III.  c.  82,  was  passed 
inl782.  But  it  was  foreshadowed  in  his  great  speech  on  "Economical. 
Reform"  delivered  two  years  before.  Since  the  beginning  of  the 
current  century  select  committees  of  the  House  of  Commons  have 
reported  on  the  civil  list  and  royal  household  in  1S03,  1804,  1815, 
and  1831. 

'  Torrens's  Memoirs  of  William,  second  Viscount  Melbourne,'  vol.  •; 
ii.  p.  303. 


ROYAL      HOUSEHOLD 


37 


separate  establishment  "  above  stairs  "  and  "  out  of  doors  " 
for  the  queen  consort.  She  has  a  lord  chamberlain's 
department  and  a  department  of  the  master  of  the  horse 
of  her  own,  and  all  the  ladies  of  the  court  from  the 
roistreas  of  the  robes  to  the  maids  of  honour  are  in  her 
service.  At  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  Queen 
Victoria  the  two  establishments  were  combined,  and  on 
the  whole  considerably  reduced.  Hence  the  royal  house- 
hold, although  it  is  of  course  much  larger  than  that  of  a 
queen  consort  would  be,  is  also  appreciably  smaller  than 
tliat  of  a  king  and  queen  consort  together  has  been  since 
the  reigning  family  acceded  to  the  throne.^ 

I.  Department  of  the  Lord  Steward  of  tlv.  Household.— The  liall ; 
the  kitchen,  ewTy,  and  pantiy  ;  the  wine,  beer,  and  coal  cellars ; 
and  the  almonry  are  in  the  lord  steward's  department.  The 
lord  steward-is  the  first  dignitary  of  the  court,  and  firesides  at'the 
Ikiard  of  Green  Cloth,  where  all  the  accounts  of  the  household  are 
examined  and  passed.^  He  is  always  a  member  of  the  Govern- 
Bent  of  the  flay,  -a  peer,  and,a  privy  councillor.  He  receives  his 
appointment  from  the  sovere'ign  in  person,  and  bears  a  wl  ite  staff, 
as  the  emblem  and  warrant  of  his  authority.^  In  his  department 
the  treasurer  and  comptroller  of  the  household  are  the  officers 
next  in  rank  to  him.  They  also  sit  at  the  Board  of  Green  Cloth, 
carry  white  staves,  and  belong  to  the  ministry.  They  are  always 
peers  or  the  sons  of  peers,  and  privy  councillors.  But  the  duties 
which  in  theory  belong  to  the  lord  steward,  treasurer,  and  comp- 
troller of  the  household  are  in  practice  performed  by  the  master 
of  the'  household,  who  is  a  permanent  officer  and  resides  iii_  the 
lialacc.  It  is  he  who  really  investigates  the  accounts  and  niain- 
tains  discipline  among  the  ordinary  servants  of  the  royal  establish- 
ment. He  is  a  white-staff  ofScer  and  a  member  of  the  Board 
of  Green  Cloth  but  not  of  the  ministry,  and  among  other  things 
he  presides  at  the  daily  dinners  of  the  suite  in  waiting  on  the 
sovereign.*  In  the  lord  steward's  department  are  the  secretary 
and  three  clerks  of  the  Board  of  Green  Cloth  ;  the  coroner  and 
paymaster  of  the  household  ;  and  the  officers  of  the  almonry, 
namely,  the  hereditary  grand  almoner,^  the  lord  high  almoner,  the 
sub-almoner,  the  groom  of  the  almonry,  and  the  secretary  to  the 
lord  high  almoner. *' 

II.  Dcparlinenl  of  the  Lord  Chamberlain  of  the  Household. — The 
bedchamber,  privy  chamber,  and  presence  chamber,  the  wardrobe, 
the'  housekeeper's  room,  and  the  guardroom,  the  metropolitau 
theatres,  and  the  chapels  royal  are  in  the  lord  chamberlain's  depart- 
ment. The  lord  chamberlain  is  the  second  dignitary  of  the  court, 
and  i.s  always  a  member  of  the  Government  of  the  day,  a  peer,  and  a 
privy  councillor.  Ho  carries  a  white  staff,  and  wears  a  golden  or 
icwelled  key,  tyjrtcal  of  the  key  of  the  palace,  which  is  supposed  to 
DO  in  his  charge,  as  the  ensigns  of  his  office.  He  is  responsible  for 
the  necessary  arrangements  connected  with  state  ceremonies,  such 
dfi  coronations  and  royal  marriages,  christenings,  and  funerals.  All 
fcvitations  to  court  are  sent  out  in  his  name  by  command  of  the 
Sovereign,  and  at  drawing  rooms  and  levees  he  stands  next  to  the 
aivcrcign  and  announces  the  persons  who  are"  approaching  the 
tSii-one.  It  is  also  part  of  his  duty  to  conduct  the  sovereign  to  and 
from  his  or  her  carriage.' .  The  vice-chamberlain  of  the  household 
la  the  lord  chamberlain's  assistant  and  deputy.  He  also  is  one  of 
tlio  ministry,  a  white-staff  officer,  and  the  bearer  of  a  key;  and  ho  is 
always  a  peer  or  the  son  of  a  peer  as  well  as  a  privy  councillor. 


<  llansartl,  Part.  DcbntfS.  vol.  xxxix.  pp.  \\G  sq..  1342  (7. 

*  In  the  Slatulex  of  EUlimu  lie  is  caUcd  "  the  lord  great  master,"  but  In  the 
Uoii^ehotd  Book  (it  Queen  Elizabeth  "the  lord  steward,"  as  before  ond  since.  In 
31  Ilett.  VIII.  c.  10,  ''for  placing  of  the  lords,"  he  Is  described  as  "the  Ri'.-ind 
mnstcv  or  loi'd  steward  of  the  king's  most  honourable  household."  Tlie  \vhoIo 
business  of  purveyance  and  pre-emption  was  anciently  managed  by  the  noard 
flf  Green  Cloth.  Seo  under  heading  "The  counting  house  of  tlie  king's 
liouscliold,  lionma  Coitipolus  IlofjuCii  Regis,"  ly  Coke,  Institutes,  Iv.  cap.  19.  Jt 
la  designated  '-I lie  court  of  tlio  vii-ge  or  xreen  cloth  "in  22  Geo.  III.  :.  82,  S  J5. 

*  In  tlie  old  time  the  lord  steward  had  three  eoufls  besides  the  board  of  green 
«lolli  under  iiln.,  namely,  the  lord  steward's  court,  (I10  court  of  the  Marshats''y, 
■nd  the  pulaeo  coiu-t  (Coke,  /lut.,  Iv.  cap*  20  and  21;  Kccvcs,  /list,  of  tlie 
Itiw  0/  £tn/lan>l,  \o\.  II.  pp.  I:i8  ami  207;  Stephen,  Commentaries  on  l/ie  Law  0/ 
Sugld'td,  vol.  iv.  p.  222).  Tlie  lord  steward  or  His  deputies  formerly  administer)  ti 
file  oaths  to  the  members  of  tlic  House  ot  Commons,  antl  frequent  inconveniences 
were  the  cousequLiiee  (seo  llatseli,  Prece<lenls  of  Procetdiiigs  in  tlie  House  of 
Cota*itons,  London,  1RJ8,  vol,  li.  pp.  81-!il).  In  ccrtuin  cases  now  "the  lords 
wHn  white  staves"  art  the  lu-oper  persons  to  boar  communications  between 
llto  sovereign  and  the  Houses  01  I'uriiamciit,  "^  ■ 

*  In  liie  caso  01  tho  muster  of  the  huusehoUl  we  s^  liistory  repeating  itself. 
Ho  Is  not  named  in  tiic  /ilack  Hook  of  Edward  IV.  or  in  tlic  Htntates  of  Henry 
▼  III.,  and  Is  entered  os  "master  of  the  household  and  clerk  of  tile  green  cloth  " 
In  tlio  IJouteltold  fiookot  Queen  Eli7.abi-tli.  But  prnctlcally  ho  hossupcrseded  tlio' 
hjid  steward  of  the  hou^eliolil,  us  the  lord  steward  of  tho  lionscliold  ut  ono  timo 
BUIici  HCdcil  tho  lord  high  steward  of  England,  / 

*  Tho  marquess  of  Kxotcr.     . 

-  •  In  tho  lord  Btewaiifs  department  tl.o  ofUcea  of  cofferer  "of  tho  household 
treasurer  of  tlio  chamber,  pa.vma.stcr  of  pensions,  and  six  clerks  of  tho  Board  of 
Green  Ciotli  were  abollslied  by  22  Geo.  III.  c.  82. 

'  The  loid  cliamberhiiii  of  tho  houseliold  ot  one  tinio  dlsrlinrgcd  snmo  Import- 
ant political  functions,  wliicii  nie  described  liy  Sir  llurilB  Nicolaa  U^Oietdinut  0/ 
the  frtrs  Council,  vol.  vl.,  Pretacc,  ji.  »xlll). 


AVheu  there  is  a  king  the  groom  of  the  stole  comes  next  to  the 
vice-chambcilain  in  rank  and  authority.  At  present,  however,  tho 
mistress  of  the  robes  in  some  measure  occuiiics  tho  position  of  the 
groom  of  the  stole.*  She  is  tho  only  lady  of  the  court  who  conies 
into  office  and  goes  out  with  tho  administration,  and  the  duties 
she  performs  are  mcicly  occasional  and  formal.  She  is  always 
a  duchess,  and  attends  tho  queen  at  allstate  ceremonies  and  enter- 
tainments, but  is  never  in  permanent  residence  at  the  palace."  On 
the  contrary  the  ladies  of  the  bedchamber  share  tho  function  of 
personal  attendance  on  the  sovereign  throughout  the  year.  0( 
these  there  are  eight,  always  peeresses,  and  each  is  in  wailing  for 
about  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks  at  a  time;  But  the  women  of  the 
bedchamber,  of  whom  there  are  also  eight,  appear  pnly  at  court 
ceremonies  and  entertainments  according  to  a  roster  annually 
issued  under  the  authority  of  the  lord  chamberlain.  They  are 
usually  the  daughters  of  peers  or  the  wives  of  the  sons  of  peers,  and 
in  the  old  time,  like  the  mistress  of  the  robes  and  the  ladies  of  the 
bedchamber,  habitually  assisted  tho  queen  at  her  daily  toilette. 
But  this  has  long  ceased  to  be  done  by  any  of  them.  The  maids 
of  honour,  whose  situations  aro  by  no  means  sinecures,  are  like- 
wise eight  in  number  and  have  the  same  terms  of  waiting  as  the 
ladies  of  tlie  bedchamber.  Tliey  are  commonly  if  not  always  the 
daughters  or  granddaughtcrsof  peers,  and  when  tliey  have  no  superior 
title  and  precedence  by  birth  aro  called  "  honourable  "  and  placed 
next  after  the  daughters  of  barons.  The  queen  as  a  special  mark  of 
her  favour  nominates  "extra"  ladies  and  women  of  the  bed-chamber 
and  maids  of  honour.  But  their  position  is  altogether  honorary 
and  involves  no  charge  on  the  civil  list.  There  are  eight  lords 
and  eight  grooms,  who  are  properly  described  as  "of  the  bed- 
chamber" or  "in  waiting,"  accoruing  as  the  reigning  sovereign  is 
a  king  or  a  queen,  and  whose  terms  of  attendance  are  of  similar 
duration  to  those  of  the  ladies  of  the  bedchamber  and  the  m-aids 
of  honour.  Occasionally  "extra"  lords  and  glooms  in  waiting 
aro  nominated  by  the  queen,  who,  however,  are  unpaid  and  have 
no  regular  duties.  The  master,  assistant  master,  and  marshal  of 
the  ceremonies  are  the  officers  whose  special  function  it  is  to 
enforce  the  observance  of  the  etiquette  of  the  court.  The  reception 
of  foreign  potentates  and  ambassadors  is  nnder  their  particular 
care,  and  they,  assist  in  the  ordering  of  all  entertainments  and 
festivities  at  the  palace."'  Tho  gentleman  usher  of  the  black 
rod — the  black  rod  which  he  carries  being  the  ensign  of  his 
office — is  the  jirincipal  usher  of  the  court  and  kingdom.  He  is 
one  of  the  original  functionaries  of  the  order  of  the  Garter,  and 
is  in  constant  attendance  on  the  House  of  Lords,  from  whom, 
either  personally  or  by  his  deputy  the  yeoman  usher  of  the  black 
rod,  it  is  part  of  his  duty  to  carry  messages  and  summonses  to  tho 
House  of  Commons.  The  gentlemen  usiicrs  of  the  privy  chamber 
and  the  gentlemen  ushers  daily  waiters,  of  whom  there  are  four  each, 
and  the  gentlemen  ushers  quarterly-^vaiters  and  the  sergeants-at- 
arins,  of  whom  there  are  eight  each,  are  in  waiting  only  at  drawing 
rooms  and  levees  and  state  balls  and  concerts.  But  of  i  the 
sovereign's  sergeants-at-arms  there  are  two  others  to  whom  sjiecial 
duties  are  assigned,  the  one  attending  the  speaker  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  the  other  attending  tho  lord  chancellor  in  the  House 
of  Lords,  canying  their  maces  and  executing  their  orders."  The 
yeomen  of  the  guard  d.lte  from  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  and  the 
gentlemen-at-arins  from  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  The  captain  of 
each  corps  is  always  a  member  of  the  ministry  and  a  peer.  Besides 
tlie  captains,  the  former,  now  called  the  queen's  bodyguard,  consists 
of  a  lieutenant,  ensign,  clerk  of  the  cheque  and  adjutant,  four 
exons,  and  a  hundred  yeomen ;  and  the  latter,  once  called  tho 
gentlemen  pensioners,  consists  of  a  lieutenant,  standard-bearer, 
clerk  of  the  cheque  and  adjutant,  a  sub.officer,  and  forty  gentlemen. 
The  comptrollet  and  examiner  of  accounts,  tho  licenser  of  plays, 
tho  dean  and  subdean  of  the  chapel  royal,  the  clerk  of  the  closet, 
the  groom  of  the  robes,  the  pages  of  tho  backstairs,  of  the  chamber, 
and  of  the  presence,  the  poet  laureate,  tho  roynl  physicians  and 
surgeons,  chaplains,  painters  and  sculptors,  librarians  and  musicians, 
kc,  are  all  under  tho  enporintendenco  of  tho  lord  chamberlain  of 
the  household.'-  * 

III.  Department  of  the  Master  of  the  Horse.— Tha  slables  and 
cotichhouses,  tho  stud,  mews,  and  kennels,  are  in  the  master  of 
tho  horse's   department.      Tho  master  of  tho  horse  is  the  thiid 

"  In  tho  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  Sarah  duchess  of  Marlborough  from  1704,  and 
Elizabeth  dueiiess  of  Soiiielset  (rem  1710,  held  tho  combined  offlcen  of  mistress 
of  the  robes  anil  groom  of  tho  stolu. 

•  SInco  tho  great  "bedehoniber  (lucsllon"  of  1839  the  »etllecl  pracllro  Iisi 
been  for  all  tlio  ladles  of  tho  court  cxcei't  the  mistress  of  the  robes  to  receive  and 
continue  In  their  niijiolnlmcnts  Independencly  of  the  tioilllcal  connexions  i.f 
their  husbands,  fatheis,  and  brolheis  (see  Mr  filadslone's  aicaniwjs  of  Past  Years, 
vol  I.  p.  -10  ;  and  forreiis's  Mrmoirs  of  Lord  SWhoarne,  vol.  II.  p.  3i)(). 

10  Iho  ofltco  of  mnster  of  tho  ceieninnics  was  ei>:Bt.*d  by  Jumes  I.  The  master 
of  tho  ceiemonies  wears  n  medul  nttoched  to  a  gold  choln  round  his  neck,  on  0110 
ride  being  an  emblem  of  peace  with  tho  motto  "llcall  paclllcl,"  and  on  Hiu 
oilier  an  emblem  of  war  with  tho  motto  "Dicu  ct  mou  dioil"  (sen  Fin-Ui 
Pliiloxeiisis,  by  Sir  John  FInelt.  master  ot  tlio  cciTnloniel  to  James  1.  and 
Cliorles  I.,  lC.<(i ;  and  Dlslaehs  Ciirlosilirs  of  l.iltralurt,  lOih  cd.,  |i.  212  19.). 

"  Seo  Slay, /"ar/(iim.-ii(.7>i,/'r(if(ifi-.  pp. '^-Iil,  2H. 

"  Tho  olTlces  of  muster  of  the  greol  wardrobe  nnd  master  of  Iho  jewel  hoalt  In 
tho  lord  chuniberlaln'i  department  wcro  abolished  by  22  Geo.  III.  c.  8'i 


38 


R  0  Y  — R  0  Y 


Oii^nitary  of  the  court,  and  is  always  a  member  of  the  Govern- 
inont  of  the  day,  a  peer,  and  a  privy  councillor.  All  matters 
connected  with  the  horses  and  hounds  of  the  sovereign  are  within 
Ibs  jurisdiction.  The  master  of  the  buckhounds,  who  is  also  one 
of  the  ministry,  ranks  next  to  him,  and  it  is  his  duty  to  attend  the 
Toyal  hunt  andto  head  the  procession  of  royal  equipages  on  the 
racecourse  at  Ascot,  where  he  presents  himself  on  horseback  in  a 
green  and  gold  uniform  wearing  the  couples  of  a  hound  as  the 
badge  of  hTs  office.  The  hereditary  grand  falconer'  is  also  sub- 
ordinated to  the  master  of  the  horse.  But  the  practical  manage- 
ment of  the  royal  stables  and  stud  in  fact  devolves  on  the  chief  or 
crown  equerry,  formerly  called  the  gentleman  of  the  horse,  who  is 
never  in  personal  attendance  on  the  sovereign,  and  whose  appoint- 
ment is  permanent.  The  clerk  marshal  has  the  supervision  of  the 
accounts  of  the  department  before  they  are  submitted  to  the  Board 
of  Green  Cloth,  and  is  in  waiting  on  the  sovereign  on  state  occasions 
■only.  Exclusive-  of  the  crown  equerry  there  are  seven  regular 
equerries,  besides  extra  and  honorary  equerries,  one  of  whom  is 
ahvays  in  attendance  on  the  sovereign  and  rides  at  the  side  of 
the  royal  can-iage.  They  are  always  officers  of  the  army,  and  each 
tof  them  is  "on  duty"  for  about  the  same  time  as  the  lords  and 
grooms  in  waiting.  There  are  also  three  pages  of  honour  in  the 
master  of  the  horse's  department,  who  must  not  be  confounded 
•with  the  pages  of  various  kinds  who  are  in  the  department  of  the 
lord  chamberlain.  They  are  youths  aged  from  twelve  to  sixteen, 
selected  by  the  sovereign  in  person,  to  attend  on  her  at  state 
ceremonies,  when  two  of  them  arrayed  in  an  antique  costnme  assist 
the  groom  of  the  robes  in  carrying  the  royal  train. 

It  remains  to  b6_said  that  to  the  three  ancient  departments  of 
the  royal  household  which  we  have  already  noticed  two  others  have 
been  added  in  comparatively  recent  times.  The  departments  of  the 
private  secretary  and  the  keeper  of  the  privy  purse  to  the  sovereign, 
■which  are  for  the  present  combined,  originated  no  longer  ago  than 
the  earlier  part  of  the  current  century.  Very  great  doubts  were  at 
•  onfi  time  entertained  as  to  whether  such  an  office  as  that  of  private 
secretary  to  tho  sovereign  could  constitutionally  exist,  and  the 
privy  purse  itself  was  unknown  until  after  the  passing  of  Burl^e's 
.  Act  of  1782.  As  at  present  organized  these  branches  of  the  royal 
(household  consist  of  the  private  secretary  and  keeper  of  the  privy 
purse,  two  assistant  private  secretaries  and  keepers  of  the  privy 
purse,  and  a  secretary  and  two  clerks  of  the  privy  purse.  By  the 
statute  which  settled  the  civil  list  at  the  beginning  of  tho  current 
reign  (1  &  2  Vict.  c.  2)  the  privy  purse  was  fixed  at  £60,000  a  year, 
and  the  salaries,  allowances,  and  other  expenses  of  the  royal  house- 
iiold  were  fixed  at  £303,760  a  year.     '  (F.  DR.) 

EOYAL  SOCIETY,  The,  or,  more  fuUy,  The  Royal 
'Society  of  London  for  Improving  Natural  Knowledge,  is 
an  association  of  men  interested  in  the  advancement  of 
mathematical  and  physical  science.  It  is  the  oldest  scien- 
tific society  in.  Great  Britain,  and  one  of  the  oldest  in 
Europe. 

The  Eoyal'  Society  is  usually  considered  to  nave  been 
founded  in  the  year  1660,  but  a  nucleus  had  in  fact  been 
in  existence  for  some  years  before  that  date.  Walhs 
informs  us  that  as  early  as  the  year  161:6  weekly  meetings 
-were  held  of  "  divers  worthy  persons,  inquisitive  into 
natural  philosophy,  and  other  parts  of  human  learning, 
and  particularly  of  what  hath  been  called  the  Nezv  Pkilo- 
avphy  or  Experimental  Philosophy,"  and  there  can  be  little 
doabt  that  this  gathering  of  philosophers  is  identical  with 
ithe  "  Invisible  College  "  of  which  Boyle  speaks  in  sundry 
letters  written  in  1646  and  1647.  These  weekly  meet- 
ings, according  to  Wallis,  were  first  suggested  by  Theodore 
Wnnlf;  "a  German  of  the  Palatinate  then  resident  in 
liondon,"  and  they  were  held  sometimes  in  Dr  Goddard's 
lodgings  in  Wood  Street,  sometimes  at  the  Bull-Head 
Tavern  in  Cheapside,  but  more  often  at  Gresham  College. 

On  November  2S,  1660,  the  first  journal  book  of  the 
society  was  opened  with  a  "  memorandum,"  from  which  the 
following  is  an  extract: — "Memorandum  that  Novemb. 
28;  1660,  These  persons  following,  according  to  the  usuall 
custom  of  most  of  them,  mett  together  at  Gresham  Colledge 
to  heare  Jlr  Wren's  lecture,  viz.,  The  Lord  Brouncker,  Mr 
Uoyle,  Mr  Bruce,  Sir  Robert  Moray,  Sir  Paul  Neile,  Dr 
"Wilkins,  Dr  Goddard,  Dr  Petty,  Mr  Ball,  m  Rooke,  Mr 
"Wren,  Mr  Hill.  And  after  the  lecture  was  ended,  they 
•did,  according  to  the  usuall  manner  witbdrawe  for  mutuall 


»,The  diie  of  St  .lUbans. 


converse.  Where  amongst  other  matters  that  were  dis- 
coursed of,  something  was  ofiered  about  a  designe  of 
founding  a  Colledge  for  the  promoting  of  Physico-Mathe- 
maticaU  Experimentall  Learning."  It  was  agreed  at  this 
meeting  that  the  company  should  continue  to  assemble  on 
Wednesdaj-s  at  3  o'clock ;  an  admission  fee  of  ten  shillings 
with  a  subscription  of  one  shilling  a  week  was  instituted; 
Dr  Wilkins  was  appointed  chairman ;  and  a  list  of  forty -one 
persons  judged  likely  and  fit  to  join  the  design  was  drawn 
up.  On  the  following  Wednesday  Sir  Robert  Moray  brought 
word  that  the  king  (Charles  II.)  approved  the  design  of 
tho  meetings;  a  form  of  obligation  was  framed,  and  wae 
signed  by  all  the  persons  enumerated  in  the  memorandum 
of  November  28,  and  by  seventy-three  others.  On 
December  12  another  meeting  was  held  at  which  fifty-five 
was  fixed  as  the  number  of  the  society, — persi^ns  of  the 
degree  of  baron,  fellows  of  the  College  of  Physicians,  and 
public  professors  of  mathematics,  physic,  and  natural 
philosophy  of  both  universities  being  supernumeraries. 

Gresham  College  was  now  appointed  to  be  the  regular 
meeting-place  of  the  society.  Sir  Robert  Moray  was  chosen 
president  (March  6,  1661),  and  continued  in  that  office 
until  the  incorporation  of  the  society,  when  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Lord  Brouncker.  In  October  1661  the  king 
offered  to  be  entered  one  of  the  society,  and  next  year  the 
society  was  incorporated  under  the  name  of  "  The  Royal 
Society,"  the  charter  of  incorporation  passing  the  great 
seal  on  the  15th  July  1662,  to  be  modified,  however,  by 
a  second  charter  in  the  following  year.  The  council  of 
the  Royal  Society  met  for  the  first  time  on  May  13,  1663, 
when  resolutions  were  passed  that  debate  concerning  those 
to  be  admitted  should  be  secret,  and  that  fellows  should 
pay  Is.  a  week  to  defray  expenses. 

At  this  early  stage  of  the  society's  history  one  main 
part  of  their  labours  was  the  "correspondence"  which 
was  actively  maintained  with  Continental  philosophers, 
and  it  was  from  this  that  the  Philosophical  Transaction 
(a  publication  now  of  world-wide  celebrity)  took  its  rise. 
At  first  the  Transactions  was  entirely  the  work  of  the 
secretary,  except  that  it  was  ordered  (March  1,  1664-5) 
"  that  the  tract  be  licensed  by  the  Council  of  the  Society, 
being  first  reviewed  by  some  of  the  members  of  the  same." 
The  first  number,  consisting  of  sixteen  quarto  pages, 
appeared  on  Monday  6th  March  1664-5.  In  1750  four 
hundred  and  ninety-six  numbers  or  forty-six  volumes  bad 
been  published  by  the  secretaries.  After  this  date  the 
work  was  issued  under  the  superintendence  of  a  committee, 
and  the  division  into  numbers  disappeared.  At  present 
(1885)  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  volumes  have  been 
completed. 

Another  matter  to  which  the  society  turned  their  atten- 
tion was  the  formation  of  a  museum,  the  nucleus  being 
"the  collection  of  rarities  formerly  belonging  to  Mr 
Hubbard,"  which,  by  a  resolution  of  council  passed 
February  21,  1666,  was  purchased  for  the  sum  of  £100. 
This  museum,  at  one  time  the  most  famous  in  London, 
was  presented  to  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum  in 
1781,  upon  tho  removal  of  the  society  to  Somerset  House. 

After  the  Great  Fire  of  London  in  September  1666  the 
apartments  of  the  Royal  Society  in  Gresham  College  were 
required  for  the  use  of  the  city  authorities,  and  the  society 
were  thu-'ore  invited  by  Henry  Howard  of  Norfolk  to 
meet  in  ArubJel  House.  At  the  same  time  he  presented 
them  with  the  library  purchased  by  his  grandfather 
Thomas,  earl  of  Arundel,  and  thus  the  foundation  was 
laid  of  the  magnificent  collection  of  scientific  works,  pro- 
bably not  far  short  of  45,000  volumes,  which  the  society 
at  t>.o  present  time  possesses.  Of  the  Aruhdel  ]\ISS.  the 
bulk  was  sold  to  the  trustees  of  tho  British  Museum  in 
1830  for  the  sum  of  £3559,  the  proceeds  being  devctod 


ROYAL      SOCIETY 


89 


0  the  purchase  of  scientific  books.  These  MSS.  are  still 
icpt  in  the  museum  as  a  separate  collection. 

Under  date  December  21,  1671,  the  journal-book  records 
that  "the  lord  bishop  of  Sarum  proposed  for  candidate 
Mr  Isaac  JsTewton,  professor  of  the  mathematicks  at  Cam- 
bridge." I^wton  was  elected  a  follow  January  11, 
1671-2,  and  in  1703  he  was  appointed  president,  a  post 
which  he  held  till  his  death  in  1727.  During  his  pre- 
sidency the  society  moved  tp  Crane  Court,  their  first 
meeting  in  the  new  quarters  being  held  November  8, 
1710.  In  the  same  year  they  were  appointed  visitors  and 
directors  of  the  Koyal  Observatory  at  Greenwich,  a  func- 
tion which  they  continued  to  perform  until  the  accession 
of  William  IV.,  when  by  the  new  warrant  then  isrued 
the  president  and  six  of  the  fellows  of  the  Royal  Astrono- 
mical Society  were  added  to  the  list  of  visitors. 

In  1780,  under  the  presidency  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  the 
Royal  Scftiety  removed  from  Crane  Court  to  the  apart- 
ments assigned  to  them  by  the  Government  in  the  new 
Somerset  House,  where  they  remained  until  they  removed 
to  Burlington  House  in  1857.  The  policy  of  Sir  Joseph 
Banks  was  to  render  the  fellowship  more  difficult  of 
attainment  than  it  had  been,  and  the  measures  which 
he  took  for  this  purpose,  combined  with  other  circum- 
stances, led  to  the  rise  of  a  faction  headed  by  Dr  Horsley. 
Throughout  the  years  1783  and  1784  feeling  ran  exceed- 
ingly high,  but  in  the  end  the  president  was  supported  by 
the  majority  of  the  society.  An  account  of  the  contro- 
versy will  be  found  in  a  tract  entitled  An  AuthentK  ^arr<v- 
tive  of  the  Disse7isions  and  Debates  in  the  Royal  Society. 
In  connexion  with  this  policy  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks  may 
be  mentioned  a  further  step  in  the  same  direction  taken 
in  the  year  1847,  when  the  number  of  candidates  recom- 
mended for  election  by  the  council  was  limited  to  fifteen, 
and  the  election  was  made  annual.  Concurrently,  how- 
ever, with  this  gradual  narrowing  of  the  Royal  Society's 
boundaries  was  the  successive  establishment  of  other 
scientific  bodies.  The  founding  of  the  Liunean  Society 
in  1788  under  the  auspices  of  several  feUows  of  the 
Royal  Society  was  the  first  instance  of  the  establishment 
of  a  distinct  scientific  association  under  royal  charter. 
The  Geological  Society  followed  in  1807,  and  the  Royal 
Astronomical  Society  in  1820.  The  Chemical,  the  Royal 
Geographical,  and  the  Entomological  are  the  remaining 
chartered  scientific  societies  existing  in  London  at  the 
present  time.  The  Royal  Society  continues,  however,  to 
hold  the  foremost  place  among  the  scientific  bodies  of 
England,  not  only  from  the  number  of  eminent  men  in- 
clttded  in  its  fellowship,  but  also  from  its  close  official  con- 
nexion with  the  Government. 

Tho  following  will  serve  as  some  indication  of  the  variety  and 
importance  of  the  scientiCc  matters  upon  which  they  have  been 
consulted  by  or  have  memorialized  the  Government  during  the 
last' seventy  years  : — 1816,  standard  measures  of  length;  1817, 
expedition  in  search  of  North-West  Passage  ;  1822,  use  of  coal-tar 
in  vessels  of  war  ;  best  manner  of  measuring  tonnage  of  ships  ; 
1823,  corrosion  of  copper  sheathing  by  sea-water  ;  Dabbago's  cal- 
culating-machine ;  bghtning-conductors  for  vessels  of  war  ;  1825, 
supervision  of  gas-works  ;  1826,  Parry's  North  Polar  expedition  ; 
1882,  tidal  observations  ;  1835,  instruments  and  tables  for  testing 
the  strength  of  spirits ;  1839,  Antarctic  expedition ;  magnetic 
observatories  in  the  colonies  ;  1846,  Franklin's  Arctic  expedition; 
1849-66,  Government  grant  for  scientific  research  ;  1862,  the  gtcat 
Melbourne  telescope  ;  1865,  pendulum  observations  in  India  ;  1866, 
reorganization  of  the  meteorological  department;  1888,  deep  sea 
research;  1872,  "Challenger"  expedition;  1874,  Arctic  expedi- 
tion ;  1875,  eclipse  expedition ;  1876,  Vivisoctioa  Bill  ;  1877, 
transit  of  Venng  expedition  ;  1879,  prevention  of  accidents  in 
mines;  1881, jMndulum  observations;  1882,  transit  of  Venus; 
cmise  of  tho  "Triton"  in  FaroB  Channel ;  1883,  borings  in  delta  of 
Nile  ;  1884,  Bureau  des  Poids  et  Mesures  ;  prime  meridian  confer- 
once,  &c.  One  of  the  most  important  duties  which  the  Royal 
Society  performs  on  behalf  of  tho  Government  is  the  admini-stra- 
tion  of  the  annual  grant  of  £4000  for  the  promotion  of  Bcicntifio 
ressatcb.      This  grant  originated  in  a  proposal  by  Lord  John 


Russell  in  1849  that  at  the  close  of  the  year  the  prnsident  and 
council  sho\ild  point  out  to  tho  first  lord  of  the  treasury  a  limited 
number  of  persons  to  wliom  the  grant  of  a  reward  or  of  a  sum  to 
defray  the  cost  of  experiments  might  be  of  essential  service.  This 
giant  of  £1000  afterwards  became  annual,  and  was  continued  until 
1876.  In  that  year  an  additional  sum  of  £4000  for  similar  pur- 
poses was  granted,  and  the  two  funds  of  £1000  and  £4000  wero 
administered  concurrently  until  18S1,  in  which  year  the  two  were 
combined  in  a  single  annual  grant  of  £4000  under  new  regulations. 
One  of  the  most  useful  of  the  society's  undertakings  of  late  years 
is  the  great  catalogue  of  scientific  papers, ^an  index,  in  eight  quarto 
volumes,  under  authors'  names,  of  all  the  memoirs  of  importance 
in  tho  chief  English  aud  foreign  scientific  serials  from  the  year 
ISOO  to  the  year  1873.  The  work  was  prepared  under  tho  direc- 
tion and  at  the  expense  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  was  printed  by 
H.  M.  Stationery  Office. 

A  statement  of  the  trust  funds  administered  by  tne  Koyal 
Society  will  be  found  in  their  published  Proceedings  under  data 
November  30th  of  each  year,  and  the  origin  and  history  of  these 
funds  will  be  found  in  Weld's  History  of  the  Hoi/al  Society,  aiid  in 
the  late  William  Spottiswoode's  "Anniversary  Address  for  1874" 
{Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  xxiii.  p.  4*^).  The  income  of  the  society  ia 
derived  from  tho  annual  contributions  and  composition  fees  of  the 
fellows,  from  rents,  and  from  interest  on  various  investments.  The 
balance-sheet  and  an  account  of  tho  estates  and  property  are  pub- 
lislied  in  the  Proceedings  at  each  anniversary.  Four  medals  (a 
Copley,  two  Royal,  and  a  Davy)  are  awarded  by  the  society  every 
year,  and  the  Rumford  medal  in  alternate  years.  The  first  of  these 
originated  in  a  bequest  by  Sir  Godfrey  Copley  (1709),  aud  is  awarded 
"to  the  living  author  of  such  philosophical  research,  either  pub- 
lished or  communicated  to  the  society,  as  may  appear  to  the  council 
to  be  deserving  of  that  honour" ;  the  author  may  be  an  Englishman 
or  a  foreigner.  The  Rumford  medal  originated  in  a  gift  from  Count 
Rumford  in  1796  of  £1000  3  per  cent,  consols,  for  the  most 
important  discoveries  in  heat  or  light  made  during  the  preceding 
two  years.  The  Royal  medals  were  instituted  by  George  IV.,  and 
are  awarded  annually  for  the  two  most  important  contributions  to 
science  published  in  the  British  dominions  not  more  than  ten  years 
nor  less  than  one  year  from  the  date  of  the  award.  The  Davy 
medal  was  founded  by  the  will  of  Dr  John  Davy,  F.R.S.,  the 
brother  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  and  is  given  annually  for  the  most 
important  discovery  in  chemistry  made  in  Europe  or  Anglo-America. 
An  enumeration  of  the  awards  of  each  of  tho  medals  will  bo  found 
at  the  end  of  the  list  of  feUows  which  is  published  annually  by  the 
society. 

Under  the  existing  statutes  of  tho  Royal  .Society  every  candidate 
for  election  must  bo  recommended  by  a  certificate  in  writing  sif;ned 
by  six  or  more  fellows,  of  whom  three  at  least  must  sign  from 
personal  knowledge.  From  the  candidates  so  recommended  the 
council  annually  select  fifteen  by  ballot,  and  on  the  first  Thursilay 
in  June  the  names  so  selected  are  submitted  to  the  society  in  the 
form  of  a  printed  balloting-sheet  with  space  left  for  erasure  and 
substitution  of  names.     Princes  of  the  blood  may,  however,  be 

S reposed  at  any  ordinary  meeting  and  put  to  tho  vote  on  the  same 
ay,  and  any  member  of  H.  M.  privy  council  may  be  balloted  for 
on  the  third  ordinary  meeting  from  the  d-iy  upon  which  his 
certificate  is  read.  Foreign  members,  not  exceeding  fifty,  may  bo 
selected  by  the  council  from  among  men  of  the  greatest  scientific 
eminence,  and  proposed  to  tho  society  for  election.  Every  member 
of  tho  privileged  class  is  liable  to  an  admission  fee  of  £10  and  au 
annual  payment  of  £4  ;  other  feUow3  pay  £3  per  annum.  The 
composition  for  annual  payments  is  £60. 

The  anniversary  meeting  for  the  election  of  the  council  and 
officers  is  held  on  St  Andrew's  Day.  Tho  council  for  tho  ensuing 
year,  oui;  of  which  are  chosen  the  president,  treasurer,  principal 
secretaries,  and  foreign  secretary,  must  consist  of  eleven  members 
of  the  existing  council  and  ten  fellows  who  are  not  mcfnbers  o( 
the  existing  council.  These  are  nominated  by  the  president  and 
council  previously  to  the  anniversary  inectinp.  Tne  session  of 
tho  society  is  from  November  to  Juno  ;  tho  ordinary  meetings  are 
held  ©very  Thursday  during  tho  session,  at  4.30  P.M.  The 
selection  for  publication  from  tlic  papers  road  before  tho  society  is 
mado  by  tho  "Committee  of  Papers,"  which  consists  of  Iho 
members  of  the  council  for  the  time  being  aided  by  referees.  The 
papers  so  selected  are  published  either  in  the  }'/iiloKiphic(U 
Transactions  (4to)  or  the  Proceedings  of  Ou  Jlot/al  Sn-ycry  (8vo), 
and  one  copy  of  each  of  these  publications  is  juusont.d  gratis  to 
every  fellow  of  tho  society  and  to  tho  chief  scientific  societies 
throughout  the  world. 

The  makmg  and  repealing  of  laws  is  vested  in  tho  counoil,  and 
in  every  case  tho  iiuestion  must  be  put  to  the  vote  on  two  several 
days  of  their  meeting. 

Tho  toit  of  tho  ch«rtcr«  of  tti«  Roy«l  •-  '  .  ri  In  lh»  •rpondU  to  WoM't 

Iliitoni  i''""  ''»►"'  lto<u!)i,  nnJ  In  lli.  '  he  found  U«Hi>f  Iho  hit. 

«l.lonl>,  irciHUrtni.  »ccrrtnrlr»,  nii.l  ii«m  ""  'mm  H"  founiliUon  to 

tho  TC«r  184.'>.  Aprrmlli  IV.  I..  Tliom-uii  .  lUU.  ry  ,./  Ihe  l!o)al  HoriHi,  (ISUl 
Klvr«  «  chninolngK'nl  Hit  of  nil  the  fellow,  down  to  ttii-  yi«r  ISIS  with  Amu»  of 
birth,  election,  •OmlMlou,  uid  dc«Ui,  and  »b  •lpli«boUc»l  Index  lo  tio  Mine, 


40 


R  O  y  — R  0  Y 


other  histories  are  Bishop  Sprat's  fl667),  whjch  consists  largely  of  a  defence 
of  the  society  apainst  the  attacks  of  a  prion  philosophers,  and  Dr  Birch's  (1766), 
wtllch  treats  mainiy  of  the  society's  scientific  work  (H.  R.») 

ROYAN,  a  towa  of  France,  iu  the  department  of 
Charente  Inf^rieure,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Gironde,  -where  it  joins  the  ocean ;  a  branch  line  of  5 J 
miles  connects  it  -with  Saujon,  on  the  Seudre  Railway, 
which  joins  the  Bordeaux-Nantea  line  at  Pons.  Royan, 
■which  in  1881  had  a  popula^'on  of  only  4573  (5445  as  a 
commune),  is  one  of  the  most  frequented  bathing  resorts 
on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  the  'visitors  nombering  about 
80,000  annually.  Royan  owes  this  popularity  to  its 
charming  neighbourhood,  pleasantly  watered  by  brooks 
and  shaded  by  fine  trees  down  to  the  steep  rocky  shore. 
The  coast  is  divided  into  a  number  of  small  bays  or 
"  conches,"  forming  so  many  distinct  beaches  :  to  the  east 
of  the  town  is  the  "Grande  Conche";  to  the  south  the 
"Conche  de  Foncillon,"  separated  from  the  first-named 
by  a  quay  which  fwms  a  fine  terraced  esplanade;  beyond 
the  fort  of  Royan,  which  protects  the  entrance  of  the  river, 
follow  in  succession  the  conches  "  du  Chay"  and  "  de  Grand 
Robinson,"  and  the  most  fashionable  of  all,  that  of 
Pontaillac.  In  the  Avenue  de  Pontaillac  stand  a  large 
new  casino,  a  theatre,  and  a  hydropathic  establishment. 
Royan  also  has  a  race-course  and  a  museum  of  natural 
history. 

Royan,  whoso  inhabitants  were  Protestants,  had  to  sustain  in 
1622  an  eight  days'  siege  by  the  troops  of  Louis  XIII.  As  late  as 
the  end  of  last  century  it  tvas  but  a  "  Dourg"  of  about  one  thousand 
inhabitants,  noticeable  only  for  its  priory,  where  Brantome  wrote 
B  portion  of  his  Chronicles.  The  prosperity  of  the  place  dates  from 
the  Restoration,  when  steamboat  communication  was  established 
with  Bordeaux.  The  question  of  -making  of  Royan  the  seaport 
for  Bordeaux  has  often  been  mooted,  but  as  yet  the  harbour  is  still 
a  merely  tidal  one  and  is  dry  at  low  water.  The  sardine,  here 
known  by  the  name  of  royan,  is  caught  by  the  local  fishermen. 

ROYER-COLLARD,PiEEEE  Paul  (1763-1845),French 
btatesman  and  philosopher,  was  born  on  the  21st  June 
1763  at  Sompuis  near  Vitry-le-Fran^ais.  At  an  early  age 
he  became  a  member  of  the  bar,  and  pleaded  several 
times  in  the  old  parlement  of  Paris.  On  the  breaking  out 
of  the- Revolution  he  took  the  popular  side,  and  was  elected 
to  a  seat  in  the  municipal  council  of  Paris.  He  was 
secretary  to  this  body  from  1790  to  1792,  but  separated 
Lim'seLf  from  the  later  excesses  of  the  Revolution.  During 
the  Reign  of  Terror  he  Lved  in  retirement  at  Sompuis, 
and  after  vainly  endeavouring  in  1797,  as  member  of  the 
CouncU  of  Five  Hundred,  to  bring  about  the  restoration  of 
the  monarchy,  he  retired  altogether  from  public  life  till 
the  fall  of  Napoleon  in  1814.  During  the  interval  he 
devoted  himself  mainly  to  philosophical  studies.  Animated 
by  a  profound  distrust  of  the  negative  sensationalism  and 
materialism  which  had  characterized  the  French  philo- 
Bophy  of  the  18th  century,  he  found  a  master  whom  he 
could  follow  in  Thomas  Reid.  The  study  of  Reid's 
Inquiry,  which  he  picked  up  on  a  book-stall,  first  gave  a 
definite  form  and  direction  to  his  thinking.  Royer-Collard 
pjay  be  said  to  have  introduced  Reid  to  France,  and  the 
works  of  the  Scottish  philosopher  were  translated  not  long 
afterwards  by  his  pupil  JouSroy.  In  1810  Royer-Collara 
became  professor  of  philosophy,  and  taught  with  success  in 
Paris,  till  the  Restoration  recalled  him  to  political  life. 
In  1815  he  was  elected  to  represent  his  native  department 
of  the  Marne  in  the  chamber  of  deputies ;  he  was  also 
made  councillor  of  state  and  appointed  president  of  the 
commission  of  public  instruction.  A  royalist  of  moderate 
views,  he  helped  to  restrain  the  extreme  members  of  his 
own  party,  opposing  alike  the  reactionary  laws  against  the 
press  and  the  proposal  to  give  the  clergy  control  of  public 
instruction.  In  1827  he  was  so  popular  as  to  be  elected 
in  seven  departments,  and  shortly  afterwards  he  became  a 
member  of  Ihe  French  Academy ;  in  the  following  year  he 


was  made  president  of  the  chamber.  In  this  capacity  he 
had  the  unpleasant  duty  of  presenting  to  Charles  X.  the 
address  in  which  the  majority  of  the  chamber  refused 
their  further  support  to  the  Government  (March  1830). 
Royer-Collard  retained  his  position  as  deputy  under  the 
new  regime  of  Louis  Philippe,  but  no  longer  took  a  pro- 
minent part  in  public  affairs.  In  1842  he  withdrew  com- 
pletely fron  active  life  and  spent  most  of  his  remaining 
time  at  his,  country  seat  of  Chftteauvieux  near  Sainte- 
Aignan.     He  died  there  on  the  2d  September  1845. 

As  a  philosopher,  Royer-Collard  is  not  distinguished  either  by 
originality  or  profundity  ;  but  he  possesses  a  certain  importance 
as  having  transplanted  to  France  the  philosophy  of  common  sense. 
He  has  himself  left  no  pbilosophical  writings  except  some  frag- 
ments which  appear  in  Jouffroy's  edition  of  Reid  ;  but  by  his 
exaiiiple  and  teaching  he  founded  the  school  which  ^  has  been 
variously  named  the  Scoto-French,  the  eclectic,  the  spiritualistic, 
or  the  psychological.  Maine  de  Biran,  Cousin  to  some  extent, 
and  Jouffroy  in  a  closer  way,  as  well  as  Janet  and  others  at  the 
present  day,  are  the  chief  representatives  of  the  schooL  The  name 
"  SpirituaJisme,"  which  is  perhaps  the  commonest  designation, 
expresses  the  tenacity  with  which,  in  opposition  to  the  dominant 
sensationalistac  materialism  of  France,  it  upholds  the  doctrine  of  a 
spiritual  Ego  as  a  fact  of  consciousness.  The.  title  psychological, 
however,  would  be  preferred  by  the  philosophers  themselves  as 
describing  their  method,  and  the  basis  on  which  they  claim  to 
have  erected  their  philosophy.  Philosophy  tends  for  them,  as  for 
Reid  and  Stewart,  to  become  a  classification  of  isolated  facts  of 
consciousness. 

Several  biographies  of  F.oyer-Coilard  have  been  published.  Barante,  Vie 
politique  de  M.  Royer-CoUard,  tea  ditcours,  et  tei  Merits,  1861,  is  the  fullest. 
Others  are  by  Philippe  and  Lacombe.  In  addition  nay  be  meutioned  Memoiref 
aur  Rvjfer^Coltard^  by  his  nephew  Genty  de  Bussy. 

ROYLE,  John  Fosbes  (1800-1858),  a  distinguished 
botanist  and  teacher  of  materia  medica.  "His  reputation 
is  especially  founded  upon  the  r-3sults  of  personal  investi- 
gations in  the  Himalaya  Mountains  and  in  other  parts  of 
Hindustan.  He  was  bom  in  Cawnpore  in  1800.  His 
medical  education  was  obtained  in  London,  and  on  ita 
completion  he  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, and  was  sent  to  India  in  1822  in  the  grade  of 
assistant  surgeon.  In  this  ser-vice  he  devoted  himself  to 
studying  in  the  field  the  botany  and  geology  of  the  regions 
within  his  reach,  and  made  large  collections  among  the 
Himalaya  Mountains.  He  also  made  special  investiga- 
tions of  the  medical  properties  of  the  plants  of  Hindustan 
and  of  the  history  of  their  uses  among  the  native  races. 
The  results  of  these  investigations  appeared  in  1837  in 
the  form  of  a  valuable  work  On  the  Antiquity  of  Hiiidoo 
Medicine.  For  nearly  ten  years  he  held  the  post  of  super- 
intendent of  the  East  India  Company's  botanic  garden  in 
the  Himalayas  at  Saharanpur.  He  retpomed  to  London 
on  furlough  in  1831,  and  in  1837  he  was  appointed  to  th? 
professorship  of  materia  medica  in  King's  College,  London, 
a  position  which  he  held  till  1856.  From  1838  onwards  he 
conducted  a  special  department  of  correspondence,  relating 
to  vegetable  products,  at  the  East  India  House,  and  at  the 
time  of  his  death  he  had  just  completed  there  the  forma- 
tion and  arrangement  of  an  extensive  and  valuable  museum 
of  technical  products  from  the  East  Indies.  In  1851  he 
superintended  the'Indian  department  of  the  Great  Ex- 
hibition. •  He  died  at  Acton  near  London  on  2d  January 
1858. 

TheworK  on  which  his  reputation  chiefly  rests  is  the  Illustralims 
of  (he  Botany  and  other  branches  of  Natural  History  of  the  Himalaya 
MovLTdains,  and  of  the  Flora  of  Cashmere,  iu  2  vols.  4to,  begun  in 
1839.  It  contains  much  information  on  the  natural  products  of 
India,  especially  on  such  as  are  usefal  in  the  arts  or  as  drugs.-  In 
addition  to  this  w.ork,  however,  he  wrote  several  others  of  repute, 
viz..  An  Essay  on  the  Productive  Reso^Lrees  of  India  (1840),  A  Manual 
of  Materia  Medica  (1846),  An  Essay  on  the  CuUivalion  of  CoUon 
(1857),  and  on  The  Cordage  Plants  and  Vegetable  Fibres  of  India 
(1855).  He  also  published  a  number  of  papers,  between  1832  and 
1865,  upon  subjects  akin  to  those  of  his  larger  works,  in  scientific 
journals,  for  the  most  part  published  in  India.  Among  these  papers 
are  included  three  on  geological  snbjecta.  A  list  of  the  whole  will 
be  found  in  the  £oyal  Society's  Catalogue  vfScientiJic  Paperi. 


R  S  H  — R  U  B 


41 


RSHEFF.     See  Rzhetf. 

RUBBER.     See  Lndia-Rubbee. 

RUBENS,  Peter  Paul  (1577-1640),  the  most  eminent 
representative  of  Flemish  art,  and  one  of  the  greatest 
painters  of  any  schoo),  was  born  very  probably  at  Siegen, 
in  Westphalia,  on  the  29th  of  Juno  1577.  Till  some 
uiirty  yean  ftgo  Cologne  might  still  claim  the  honour  of 
having  been  the  master's  birthplace ;  the  Rhenish  city  is 
mentioned  by  Rubens  himself,  in  one  of  his  letters,  as 
closely  connected  with  his  childhood,  and  through  his 
father's  epitaph  we  learn  that  for  more  than  nineteen 
years  Cologne  was  the  family's  place  of  refuge  amid  the 
disturbances  prevailing  in  the  Low  Countries.  This, 
however,  has  been  proved  to  be  but  part  of  the  truth,  and, 
if  Rubens's  parents  certainly  during  several  years  did  live 
Kt  Cologne,  they  also  resided  elsewhere,  and  that  for 
reasons  so  strong  that  both  wife  and  husband  might  well 
desire  to  see  them  for  ever  buried  in  secrecy. 

Although  of  humble  descent, — his  father  was  a  druggist, 
— John  Rubens  was  a  man  of  learning. .  He  had  studied 
law  at  home  and  abroad,  and  became  councillor  and  alder- 
man in  his  native  town  (1562).  A  Catholic  by  birth,  it  was 
not  long  before  he  became,  like  many  of  his  countrymen,  a, 
zealous  upholder  of  the  Reformation,  and  we  even  find  him 
spoken  of  by  a  contemporary  as  "  le  plus  docte  Calviniste 
qui  fust  pour  lors  au  Bas  Pays."  After  the  plundering  of 
the  Antwerp  churches  in  1566,  the  magistrates  were  called 
upon  for  a  justification.  While  openly  they  declared 
themselves  devoted  sons  of  the  church,  a  list  of  the 
followers  of  the  Reformed  creed,  headed  by  the  name  of 
Anthony  Van  Stralen,  the  burgomaster,  got  into  the  bands 
of  the  duke  of  Alva.  This  was  a  sentenca  of  death  for  the 
magistrates,  and  John  Rubens  lost  no  time  in  quitting 
Spanish  soil,  ultimately  settling  at  Cologne  (October 
1568),  with  his  wife  and  four  children. 

In  his  new  residence  he  became  legal  adviser  to  Anne 
6f  Saxony,  the  second  wife  of  the  prince  of  Orange, 
William  the  Silent.  Before  long  it  was  discovered  that 
their  relations  were  not  purely  of  a,  business  kind.  Thrown 
into  the  dungeons  of  DUlenburg,  Rubens  lingered  there  for 
many  months,  hio  wife,  Maria  Pypelincx,  never  relaxing 
her  endeavours  to  get  the  undutiful  husband  restored  to 
freedom.  Two  years  elapsed  before  the  prisoner  was 
released,  and  then  only  to  be  confined  to  the  small  town 
of  Siegen.  Here  he  lived  with  his  family,  from  1573  to 
1578,  and  here  most  probably  Maria  Pypelincx  gave  birth 
to  Philip,  afterwards  town-clerk  of  Antwerp,  and  Peter 
PauL  A  year  after  (May  1578)  the  Antwerp  lawyer  got 
leave  to  return  to  Cologne,  where  he  died  on  the  ISth  of 
March  1587,  after  having,  it  is  said,  returned  to  Catho- 
licism. As  there  are  at  Siegen  no  records  going  back  to 
the  16th  century,  the  facts  relating  to  the  birth  of  Peter 
Paul  Rubens  must,  of  course,  reniain  conjectural,  but  his 
mother  certainly  was  at  Siegen  a  few  days  before  his  birth, 
for  we  find  her  there,  petitioning  in  favour  of  John  Rubens, 
on  June  14,  1577. 

Rubens  went  to  Antwerp  with  his  mother  when  he  was 
scarcely  ten  years  of  age,  and  made  good  progress  in  his 
classical  stadies,  which  he  had  begun  with  the  Jesuits  at 
Cologne.  An  excellent  Latin  scholar,  he  was  also  pro- 
ficient in  French,  Italian,  English,  German,  and  Dutch. 
Part  of  his  boyhood  ho  spent  as  a  page  in  the  household  of 
the  countess  of  Lalaing,  in  Brussels ;  but,  tradition  adds, 
and  we  may  well  believe,  the  youth's  disposition  was  such 
{IS -to  induce  his  mother  to  allow  him  to  fol'.ow  his  proper 
vocation,  choosing  as  his  master  Tobias  Verhaccht,  who 
was  in  some  way  connected  with  tho  family.  Not  the 
slightest  trace  of  this  first  master's  influence  can  bo  detected 
in  Rubens's  workn.  Not  so  with  Adam  Van  Noort,  to 
whom  tho  younu  man  was  next  apprenticed.     Van  Noort, 


wnose  aspect  of  energy  is  we!',  kno^wn  through  Van  Dyck'a 
beautiful  etching,  was  the  highly  esteemed  master  of  num- 
erous painters, — among  them  Van  Balen,  Sebastian  Vrancx, 
and  Jordaens,  later  his  son-in-law.  His  pictures  are  almost 
exclusively  to  be  found  in  Aqtwerp  churches. 

Rubens  remained  with  Van  Noort  for  the  usual  period 
of  four  years,  thereafter '  studying  under  Otto  Vqsnius  or 
Van  Veen,  a  gentleman  by  birth,  a  most  distinguished 
Latin  scholar,  and  a  painter  of  very  high  repute.  He  was 
a  native  of  Leyden,  and  only  recently  settled  in  Antwerp, 
but  the  town  gave  him  numerous  commissions  of  import- 
ance. Though  Rubens  never  adopted  his  style  of  painting, 
the  tastes  of  master  and  pupil  had  much  in  common,  and 
some  pictures  by  Otto  Vcenius  can  be  pointed  out  as  having 
inspired  Rubens  at  a  more  advanced  period.  For  example, 
the  Magdalene  anointing  Christ's  Feet,  painted  for  the 
cathedral  at  Malaga,  and  now  at  the  Hermitage  in  St 
Petersburg,  closely  resembles  in  composition  the  very  im- 
portant work  of  Otto  Vcenius  in  the  church  at  Bergues  near 
Dunkirk. 

In  1598,  Adam  Van  Noort  act?ng  as  dean  of  the  Ant- 
werp guild  of  painters,  Rubens  was  officially  recognized  as 
"  master," — that  is,  was  allowed  to  work  independently 
and  receive  pupils.  We  have  no  means  of  forming  an 
idea  of  his  style  at  this  early  period,  two  years  before  hie 
journey  to  Italy,  but  even  the  somewhat  later  works  found 
at  Genoa,  Mantuaj  and  Rome  difl'er  considerably  from 
what  may  be  termed  the  Rubenesque. 

From  1600  to  the  latter  part  of  1608  Rubens  belonged 
to  the  household  of  Vincenzo  Gonzaga,  duke  of  Mantua. 
Few  princes  in  Italy  surpassed  the  Gonzagas  in  splendour. 
For  them  Mantegna,  Giulio  Romano,  Titian,  and  Prima- 
ticcio  had  produced  some  of  their  most  admired  works, 
and  their  now  deserted  palaces  still  bear  traces  of  the 
richest  decoration.  To  the  Mantuan  collection  the  Pitti 
palace,  the  Louvre,  and  the  royal  galleries  of  England  owe 
some  of  their  noblest  specimens  of  Italian  art.  How 
Rubens  came  to  Jae  engaged  at  Mantua  has  not  been 
explained.  The  duke,  it  is  ktown,  spent  some  time  at 
Venice  in  July  1600,  and  is  supposed  there  to  have  met  his 
future  painter,  but  it  is  also  to  be  remembered  that  another 
Fleming,  Francis  Pourbus  the  younger,  was  at  tho  time 
employed  by  him  in  taking  the  likeness  of  the  prettiest 
women  of  the  day ;  and  Rubens,  much  against  his  will, 
was  also,  at  first,  it  seems,  intrusted  with  a  similar  task. 
The  influence  of  the  mastel-'s  stay  at  Mantua  was  of 
extreme  importance,  and  cannot  be  too  constantly  kept  in 
view  in  the  study  of  his  later  works. 

Sent  to  Rome  in  1601,  to  take  copies  from  Raphael  for 
his  master,  he  was  also  commissioned  to  paint  several 
pictures  for  the  church  of  Santa  Croce,  by  the  archduke 
Albert  of  Austria,  sovereign  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands, 
and  once,  when  he  was  a  cardinal,  the  titular  of  that  see. 
A  copy  of  Mercury  and  Psyche  after  Raphael  is  preserved 
in  the  museum  at  Pesth.  The  religious  paintings— the 
Invention  of  tho  Cross,  the  Crowning  with  Thorns,  and 
the  Crucifixion — are  to  be  found  in  the  hospital  at  Grasse 
in  Provence. 

At  the  beginning  of  1603  "The  Fleming,"  aa  he  was 
termed  at  Mantua,  was  sent  to  Spain  mth  a  variety  of 
])rcscnts  for  Philip  III.  and  his  minister  the  duke  of 
Lerma,  and  thus  had  opportunity  to  spend  a  whole  year 
at  Madrid  and  become  acquainted  with  some  of  Titian's 
masterpieces.  Two  of  his  own  works,  known  to  belong  to 
the  same  period,  are  in  tho  Madrid  Gallery,  Heraclitus 
and  Dcmocritus.  Of  Rubens's  abilities  so  far  back  as 
1604  we  get  a  more  comploto  idea  from  an  immense 
picture  now  in  the  Antwerp  Gallery,  tho  Baptism  of  Our 
Lord,  originally  painted  for  tho  Jesuits  at  Mantua.  Hero 
it  may  bo  seen  to  what  dcgrco  Italian  t^urroundinga  bod 

XXI.  —6 


42 


RUBENS 


influenced  the  painter  of  Vincenzo  Gonzaga.  Vigorous  to 
the  extreme  in  design,  he  reminds  us  of  Michelangelo  as 
much  as  any  of  the  degenerate  masters  of  the  Eoman 
school,  while  in  decorative  skill  he  seems  to  be  descended 
from  Titian  and  in  colouring  from  Giulio  Romano. 
^Equally  with  this  picture  the  Transfiguration,  now  in 
the  museum  at  Nancy,'  and  the  portraits  of  Vincenzo  and 
Lis  consort,  kneeling  before  the  Trinity,  in  the  library  at 
Mantua,  claim  a-  large  share  of  attention,  apart  from  the 
interest  awakened  by  the  name  of  their  author. 

Two  years  later  we  meet  a  very  large  altarpiece  of  the 
Circumcision  at  St  Ambrogio^at  Genoa,  the  Virgin  in  a 
glory  of  Angels,  and  two  groups  of  Saints,  painted  on  the 
^all,  at  both  sides  of  the  high  altar  in  the  church  of 
iSanta  Maria  in  Valicella,  in  Eome.  Undoubtedly  these 
works  give  an  impression  of  grandeur  and-  eflfectiveness, 
but,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  finest  productions  of 
the  Italian  school,  they  rank  higher  as  documentary  evi- 
dence than  in  intrinsic  value,  and  remind  us  of  a  saying 
of  Baglione,  who  was  acquainted  with  Rubens  in  Italy, 
"Apprese  egU  buon  gusto,  .e  diede  in  una  maniera  buona 
Italiana." 

While  employed  at  Rome  in  1608,  Rubens  received 
most  alarming  news  as  to  the  state  of  his  mother's  health. 
The  duke  of  Gonzaga  was  then  absent  from  Italy,  but  the 
dutiful  son,  without  awaiting  his  return,  at  once  set  out 
for  the  Netherlands,  though  with  the  full  intention  of 
shortly  resuming  his  post  at  court,  as  we  gather  from  a 
letter  to  Annibale  Chieppio,  the  Jlantuan  minister. 
When  he  arrived  in  Antsverp,  Maria  Pypelincx  was  no 
more.  However  strong  his  wish  might  now  be  to  return 
to  Italy,  his  purpose  was  overruled  by  the  ex[)ress  desire 
of  his  sovereigns,  Albert  and  Isabella,  to  see  him  take  up 
a  permanent  residence  in  the  Belgian  provinces.  Scarcely 
a  year  before,  the  archduke  had  unsuccessfully  attempted 
to  free  the  painter  from  his  engagement  at  Mantua,  and 
he  could  not  fail  to  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity  now 
presented  for  the  fulfilment  of  his  wishas.  On  August  3, 
1609,  Rubens  was  named  painter  in  ordinary  to  their  High- 
nesses, with  a  salary  of  500  livres,  and  "  the  rights,  honours, 
privileges,  exemptions,"  ic,  belonging  to  persons  of  the 
royal  household,  not  to  speak  of  the  gift  of  a  gold  chain. 
Not  least  in  importance  for  the  painter  was  his  complete 
exemption  from  all  the  regulations  of  the  guild  of  St 
Luke,  entitling  him  to  engage  any  scholars  or  fellow- 
workers,  without  being  obliged  to  have  them  enrolled, — a 
favour,  it  must  be  added,  which  has  been  the  source  of 
considerable  trouble  to  the  historians  of  Flemish  art. 

Although  so  recently  retiu-ned  to  his  native  land, 
Rubens  seems  to  have  been,  with  one  accord,  accepted  by 
his  countrymen  as  the  head  of  their  school,  and  the 
municipality  was  foremost  in  giving  him  the  means  of 
proving  his  acquirements.  The  first  in  date  among  the 
numerous  repetitions  of  the  Adorat-on  of  the  Magi  is  a 
picture  in  the  Madrid  Gallery,  measurinc;  12  feet  by  17, 
and  containing  no  fewer  than  eiglit-and  twenty  hfe  size 
figures,  many  in  gorgeous  att're,  warriors  in  steel  armour, 
Norsemen,  slaves,  camels,  ic  Thi-i  pKtnre,  pa'uted  in 
Antwerp,  at  the  town's  expense  in  1609,  had  scarcely  re- 
mained three  years  ir  the  towp-hal'  when  it  went  Ic  Spain 
B3  a  present  to  Bon  Rodrigo  Calderon,  count  of  Oliva. 
The  painter  has  represented  himself  among  the  horsemen, 
bareheaded,  and  wearing  his  gold  chain.  Cumberland 
epeaks  of  this  picture  as  the  standard  work  of  its  author. 
and  certainly  it  was  well  calculated  to  bring  Rubens  t. 
the  front  rank  in  his  profession.  From  a  letter  written  in 
May  1611  we  know  that  more  than  a  hniMlred  young  men 
were  desirous  to  become  his  pujuls,  a-id  that  many  had, 
"  for  several  years,"  been  waiting  with  other  masters,  until 
he  could  admit  them  to  his  stivdio.     It  was  thus  from  the 


beginning  regarded  as  a  great  favour  to  be  admitt«d  a 
pupil  of  Rubens. 

Apart  from  the  success  of  his  works,  another  powerful 
motive  had  helped  to  detain  the  master  iu  Antwerp, — his 
marriage  with  Isabella  Brant  (October  1609).  Many 
pictures  have  made  us  familiar  with  the  graceful  young 
woman  who  was  for  seventeen  years  to  share  the  master's 
destinies.  We  meet  her  at  The  Hague,  St  Petersburg, 
Florence,  at  Grosvenor  House,  but  more  especially  at 
Munich,  where  Rubens  and  his  wife  are  depicted  at  full 
length  on  the  same  canvass.  "  His  wife  is  very  hand- 
some," observes  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  "  and  has  an  agree- 
able countenance ;  "  but  the  picture,  he  adds,  "  is  rather 
hard  in  manner."  This,  it  must  be  noted,  is  the  case 
with  all  those  pictures  known  to  have  immediately 
followed  Rubens's  return,  when  he  was  still  dependent 
on  the  assistance  of  painters  trained  by  others  than  him- 
self. Even  in  the  Raising  of  the  Cross,  now  in  the 
.Antwerp  cathedral,  and  painted  for  the  church  of  St 
Walburg  in  1610,  the  dryness  in  outline  is  very  striking. 

According  to  the  taste  still  at  that  time  prevailing,  the 
picture  is  tripartite,  but  the  wings  only  serve  to  develop 
the  central  composition,  and  add  to  the  general  effect. 
In  Witdoeck's  beautiful  engraving  the  partitions  even 
disappear.  Thus,  from  the  fiirst,  we  see  Rubens  quite 
determined  upon  having  his  own  way,  and  it  is  recorded 
that,  when  he  painted  the  Descent  from  the  Cross.  Bt 
Christopher,  the  subject  chosen  by  the  Arquebusiers,  was 
altered  so  as  to  bring  the  artistic  expressions  into  better 
accordance  with  his  views.  Although  the  subject  was 
frequently  repeated  by  the  great  painter,  this  first  Descent 
from  the  Cross  has  not  ceased  to  be  looked  upon  as  his 
masterpiece.  Begun  in  1611,  the  celebrated  work  was 
placed  in  1614,  and  certainly  no  more  striking  evidence 
could  be  given  of  the  rapid  growth  of  the  author's  abili- 
ties.    Rubens  received  2-iOO  florins  for  this  picture. 

Although  it  is  chance  that  has  brought  the  Raising  of 
the  Cross  and  the  Descent  from  the  Cross  into  their 
present  close  juxtaposition,  it  is  not  improbable  that  their 
uniformity  in  size  may  huve  been  designed.  In  many 
respects,  Italian  influence  remains  conspicuous  in  the 
Descent.  Rubens  had  seen  Ricciarelli's  fresco  -at  the 
Trinita  de'  Monti,  and  was  also  acquainted  with  the 
grandiose  picture  of-  Baroccio  in  the  cathedral  of  Perugia, 
and  no  one  conversant  with  these  works  cari  mistake  their 
influence  But  in  Rubens  strength  of  personality  could 
not  be  overpowered  by  reminiscence ;  and  in  type,  as  well 
as  in  colouring,  the  Descent  from  the  Cross  may  be  termed 
tlioroughly  Flemish  and  Rubenesque.  As  Waagen  justly 
observes  :  "  the  boldness  of  the  composition,  the  energy  in 
the  characters,  the  striking  attitudes,  and  the  effects  of  the 
grouping,  together  with  the  glowing  vigorous  colouring, 
beloDg  to  his  later  style,  whereas  a  few  of  the  heads,  par- 
ticularly that  of  the  Virgin,  display  the  careful  execution 
of  his  earlier  period.  The  interior  of  the  wings,  on  which 
are  painted  the  Visitation  tind  the  Presentation  in  the 
Temple,  exhibit,  on  the  other  hand,  a  greater  resemblance 
to  the  conjugal  picture  already  alluded  to,  owing  to  a 
certain  repose  in  action,  a  more  elevated  expression  of 
delicacy  and  feeling  in  the  charact'jrs,  and  a  less  glowing 
though  still  admirable  colouring." 

Legend,  in  some  way,  connects  Van  Dyck  with  the 
Descent  from  the  Cross,  and  ascribes  to  the  great  portrait 
painter  an  arm  and  shoulder  of  Mary  Magdalene,  which 
had  been  damaged  by  a  pupil's  carek'isnfiss.  Plain  truth 
he'e,  once  more,  seems  to  contradict  nmance.  Van  Dyck 
was  a  pupil  of  Van  Balen's  in  1609,  and  most  probably 
remained  with  him  several  years  before  coming  to  Rubens. 

If  Sir  Dudley  Carleton  could  speak  of  Antwerp  iii,161_6 
as  "  Magna  civitas,  magna  solitudo,"  there  was  no  place 


RUBENS 


43 


nevertheless  which  couKl  give  a  wider  scopo'to  artistic 
outerpriso.  iSpain  and  the  United  Provinces  were  for  a 
tinio  at  peace ;  almost  all  the  churches  had  been  stripped 
of  their  adornments  ;  monastic  orders  wero  powerful  and 
richly  endowed,  jruilds  and  coriiorations  eager  to,  show  the 
I'orvour  of  their  Catholic  faith,  now  that  the  "  monster  of 
lieresy  "  seemed  for  ever  quelled.  Here  were  opportunities 
without  number  fpr  painters  as  ivell  as  sculjitors  and 
architects.  Gothic  churches  began  to  bo  decorated  occord- 
ing  to  the  new  fashion  adopted  in  Italy.  Altars  magnified 
to  monuments,  sometimes  reaching  the  full  height  of  the 
vaulted  roof,  displayed,  between  their  twisted  colunuis, 
liicturcs  of  a  size  hitherto  unknown.  No  master  seemed 
bottcr  fitted  to  be  associated  with  this  kind  of  painting 
than  Kubuns,  whose  works  we  have  already  met  with  in 
churches  newly  erected  at  Rome,  Oenoa,  and  JIantua,  by 
tho  Jesuits,  in  the  gorgeous  style  which  bears  their  name, 
and  which  Rubens  commends  in  the  preface  to  his  l'id(i~.xi 
<li  (Jtuiiva  (Antwerp,  1G22).  Tho  temple  erected  by  the 
reverend  fathers  in  Antworji  was  almost  entirely  the 
painter's  work,  and  if  he  did  not,  as  we  often  find  asserte«l, 
design  the  front,  he  certainly  was  the  inspirer  of  the  whole 
building,  which,  after  all,  was  but  a  reminiscence  of  tha 
churches  in  Genoa.  And  the  temple  of  the  Jesuits  in 
Antwerp  remained  for  a  century  the  only  example 'of  its 
kind  in  Belgium.  Hitherto  no  Fleming  had  undertaken 
to  paint  ceilings  with  foreshortened  iigures,  and  blend  the 
religious  with  the  decorative  art  after  the.style  of  those 
buildings  which.are  met  with  in  Italy,  and  owe  their  decora- 
tions to  masters  like  Titian,  Veronese,  and  Tintoretto.  No 
less  than  forty  ceilings  were  composed  by  Ri;bens,  and 
l>ainted  under  his  direction  in  the  space ^ of  two  years. 
All  were  destroyed  by  fire  in  1718.  Sketches. in  water- 
colour  were  taken  some  time  before  tho  disaster  by  Pe 
Wit,  end  from  these  were  made  the  etchings  by  Punt  which 
alone  enable  us.  to  form  a  judgment  of  the  grandiose  under- 
taking. In  the  Madrid  Gallery  we  (ind  a  general  view  of 
the  church  in  all  its  splendour.  The  present  cburali  of 
St  Charles  in  Antwerp  is,  externally,  with  some  alteration, 
the  building  here  alluded  to. 

Rubens  delighted  in  undertakings  of  the  vastest  kind. 
"The  large  size  of  a  picture,"  he  writes  to  W.  Trumbull  in 
1621,  "gives  us  painters  more  courage  to  represent  our 
ideas  with  the  utmost  freedom  and  semblance  of  reality. 
.  r  .  ;.  i  confess  myself  to  be,  by  a  natural  instinct, 
better  fitted  to  execute  works"  of  the  largest  size."  Tho 
correctness  of  this  appreciation  ho  was  very  soon  called 
upon  to  demonstrate  most  strikingly  by  a  series  of  twenty- 
four  pictures,  illustrating  the  life  of  iMary  do'  Alcdici, 
queen-mother  of  France.  The  gallery  at  the  Luxembourg 
Palace,  which  these  paintings  oncu  adorned,  has  long  since 
disappeared,  and  tho  complete  work  is  now  c.AiWted  in 
thq  Louvre.  Drawings,  it  seems^  had  been  asked  from 
Queutin  Varin,  the  French  master  who  incited  Poussin  to 
bcconio  a  painter,  but  Rubens  was  ultimately  preferred. 
This  preference  may  in  some  degree  be  ascribed  to  his 
f6riner  connexion  with  the  court  at  Mantua,  Mary  do' 
Medici  and  tho  duchess  of  Gonzaga  being  sisters.  Tho 
story  of  Mary  dc'  Alcdici  may  bo  regarded  as  a  poem  in 
painting,  and  no  person  conversant  with  the  liteiaturo  of 
the  time  can  fail  to  recognize  that  .st.ango  mixture  of  the 
sacred  and  tho  mythological  in  which  tho  most  admired 
authors  of  tho  17th  century,  beginning  with  Mnlherbe, 
delight.  Absoli\tely  speaking,  Mrs  .lamcson  may  bo  right 
in  criticizing  Ilubens's  "coarse  allegories,  historical  impro- 
prieties, Ac";  but  a  man  belongs  to  his  time,  and  uses  its 
language  in  order  to  make  himself  understood.  From  the 
cradio  to  the  day  of  her  reconciliation  with.  Louis  XIIL, 
we  follow  Mary  do'  Medici  after  tho  manner  m  which  it 
■vas  customary  in  those  days  to  consider  personages  of 


superior  rank.  The  Fates  for  her  have  sjiun  the  silken  and 
golden  thread ;  Juno  watches  over  her  birth  and  intrusts 
her  to  the  town  of  Florence ;  Minerva,  the  Graces,  and 
Apollo  take  charge  of  her  education ;  Love  exhibits  her 
image  to  the  king,  and  Neptune  conveyB  her  across  the  seas; 
Justice,  Health,  and  Plenty  endow  her  son  ;  Prudence  and 
Generosity  are  at  her  sides  during  the  regency;  and,  when 
she  resigaa  the  helm  of  the  state  to .  the  prince,  Justice, 
Strength,  Religion,  .and  Fidelity  hold  the  oars.  The 
sketches  of  all  these  paintings — now  in  the  ^lunich. 
Gallery — Tvere  painted  in  Antwerp,  a  numerous  staff  of 
distinguished  collaborators  being  intrusted  with  the  final 
execution.  But  the  master  himself  spent  much  time  ia 
Paris,  retouching  the  whole  work,  which  was  completed 
v/ithin  leas  than  four  years.  On  May  13,  1625,  Rubens 
writes  from  Paris  to  his  friend  Peiresc  that  both  the  queen 
and  her  son  are  highly  satisfied  with  his  paintings, -and 
that  Louis  XIIL  came  on  purpose  to  the  Luxembourg, 
"•  where  he  never  has  set  foot  since  the  palace  was  begun 
sixteen  or  eighteen  years  ago."  We  also  gati  -^r  from  this 
letter  that  the  picture  representing  the  Felicity  of  the 
Regency  was  painted  to  replace  another,  the  Departure  of 
the  Queen,  which  had  caused  some  offence.  "  If  I  had 
been  let  alone,"  he  says,  "  the  other  subjects  would  have 
been  better  accepted  by  tho  court,  and  withotit  scandal  or 
murmur."  '  "  And  I  fear,"  he  adds,  "  far  greater  difficulties 
will  be  found  with  the  subjects  of  tho  next  gallery." 
Richelieu  gave  himself  some  trouble  to  get  this  part  of  the 
■work,  intended  to  rejwesent  the  life  of  Henry  FV'.,  bestowed 
upon  Cavalier  d'Arpina,  but  did  not  succeed  in  his  endea- 
vours. The  queeu's  exile,,  however,  prevented  the  under- 
taking from  going  beyond  a  few  sketches,  and  two  or  three 
panels,  oue  of  which,  the  Triumph  of  Henry  IV.,  now  in 
the  Palazzo  Pitti,  is  one  of  the  noblest  works  of  Rubens 
or  of  any  master.  Jlost  undoubtedly  the  painter  here 
calls  to  his  aid  his  vivid  recollections  of  the  Triumph  of 
Ca;sar  by  Mantegna,  noW  at  Hampton  Court,  but  in  his 
day  adorning  the  palace  at  JIantua ;  of  this  he  made  a 
copy,  inscribed  No.  315  in  the  catalogue  of  his  effects 
sold  in  1640,  and  now  in  the  National  Gallery. 

On  the  11th  of  May  1625  Rubens  was  present  at  the 
nuptials  of  Henrietta  Maria  at  Notre  Dame  in  Paris,  when 
the  scaffolding  on  which  ho  stood  gave  way,  and  he  tells 
us  he  was  just  able  to  catch  an  adjoining  tribune. 

No  painter  in  Europe  could  now  pretend  to  equal 
Rubens  either  in'  talent  or  in  renown.  Month  after 
month  productions  of  amazing  size  left  the  Antwerp  studio; 
and  to  those  unacquainted  with  the  master's  pictures  mag- 
nificent engravings  by  Vorsterman,  Pontius,  and  others 
had  conveyed  singularly  striking  interpretations.  "What- 
ever work  of  his  I  may  require,"  writes  Moretus,  tho  cele-- 
brated  Antwerp  printer,  "  I  have  to  ask  him  six  months 
before,  so  as  that  he  may  think  of  it  at  leisure,  and  do  the 
work  on  Sundays  or  holidays  ;■  no  week  days  of  his  rnuld 
I  pretend  to  get  under  a  hundred  florins." 

Of  the  numerous  creations  of  his  pencil,  none,  perhaps, 
will  more  thoroughly  disclose  to  us  his  comprehension  of 
roKgious  decorative  art  than  the  Assunqition  of  tho  Virgin 
at  the  high  altar  of  tho  Antwerp  cathedral,  (ini.slicd  in 
1625.  It  is,  of  twenty  repetitions  of  this  subject,  tho  only 
cxain[)lo  still  preserved  at  the  placo  it  was  intended  by  the 
painter  to  occupy.  In  spirit  wo  are  hero  reminded  of 
Titian's  Assunta  in  tho  cathedral  at  Vcronn,  but  Rubcns'a 
proves  perhaps  a  higher  conception  of  Iho  subject.  Tbo 
work  is  seen. a  considerable  way  off,  and  every  outline  is 
bathed  in  light,  so  that  tho  Virgin  is  elevated  to  dazrling 
glory  with  a  power  of  ascension,  scarcely,  if  ever,  attained 
by  any  master. 

Able  to  rely  so  greatly  on  nn  power  as  a  colourist, 
Riiliuiiii  is  not  0.  more  dccoratur,     Ilu  penetrates  into  tho 


44 


RUBENS 


spirit  of  his  subjects  more  deeply  than,  at  first  siglit,  seems 
consistent  with  his  prodigious  facility  in  execution.  The 
Massacre  of  the  Innocents,  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  is  a 
composition  that  can  leave  no  person  unmoved, — mothers 
defending  their  children  with  nails  and  teeth.  If  Mrs 
Jameson  terms  this  picture  atrocious,  it  ought  to  be  recol- 
lected how  atrocious  is  the  subject.  When  St  Francis 
attempts  to  shelter  the  universe  from  the  Saviour's  wrath 
(Brussels  Gallery),  Rubens,  drawing  his  inspiration  from 
a  passage  of  St  Germain,  "  Ostendit  mater  filio  pectus  et 
ubera,"  recalls  to  our  memory  that  most  dramatic  passage 
of  the  Iliad  when  Hecuba,  from  the  walls  of  Troy, 
entreats  her  son  Hector  to  spare  his  life.  The  subject  is 
inconsistent  with  the  spirit  of  Christianity,  says  AVaagen, 
evidently  forgetting  that  to  Catholic  eyes  nothing  could 
be  more  impressive  than  the  Virgin's  intervention  at  this 
supreme  moment,  when  Christ,  like  another  Jupiter, 
brandishes  his  thunderbolt  against  mankind.  Eubens 
was  a  man  of  his  time ;  his  studif  3  of  Italian  art  in  no 
■way  led  him  back  to  the  Quattrocentisti  nor  the  Raffae- 
leschi ;  their  power  was  at  ar^  end.  The  influence  of 
Michelangelo,  Titian,  Tintoret',0,  more  especially  Baroccio, 
Polydoro,  and  even  Parmigiano,  is  no  less  visible  with 
him  than  with  those  masters  who,  like  Spranger,  Chr. 
Schwartz,  and  Goltzius,  stood  high  in  public  estimation 
immediately  before  his  advent. 

In  the  midst  of  the  rarest  activity  as  a  painter,  Rubens 
was  now  called  upon  to  give  proofs  of  a  very  different 
kind  of  ability.  The  truce  concluded  between  Spain  and 
the  Netherlands  in  1609  ended  in  1621  ;  archduke  Albert 
died  the  same  year.  His  widow  sincerely  wished  to 
prolong  the  arrangement,  still  hoping  to  see  the  United 
Provinces  return  to  the  Spanish  dominion,  and  in  her 
eyes  Rubens  was  the  fittest  person  to  bring  about  this 
conclusion.  The  painter's  comings  and  goings,  however, 
did  not  remain  unheeded,  for  the  French  ambassador 
writes  from  Brussels  in  1624, — "Rubens  is  here  to  take 
the  likeness  of  the  prince  of  Poland,  by  order  of  the 
infanta.  I  am  persuaded  he  will  succeed  better  in  this 
than  in  his  negotiations  for  the  truce."  But,  if  Rubens 
was  to  fail  in  his  efforts  to  bring  about  an  arrangement 
with  the  Netherlands,  other  events  enabled  him  to  render 
great  service  to  the  state. 

Rubens  and  Buckingham  met  in  Paris  in  1625;  a  corre- 
spondence of  some  importance  had  been  going  on  between 
the  painter  and  the  Brussels  court,  and  before  long  it  was 
proposed  that  he  should  endeavour  to  bring  about  a  final 
,  arrangement  between  the  crowns  of  England  and  Spain. 
The  infanta  willingly  consented,  and  King  Philip,  who 
much  objected  to  the  interference  of  an  artist,  gave  way 
on  hearing,  through  his  aunt,  that  the  negotiator  on  the 
English  side,  B.  Gerbier^ — a  Fleming  by  birth — was  like- 
■wise  a  painter.  Rubens  and  Gerbier  very  soon  met  in 
Holland.  "  Rilbena  is  come  hither  to  Holland,  where  he 
now  is,  and  Gerbier  in  his  company,  walking  from  town 
to  town,  upon  their  pretence  of  pictures,"  writes  Sir 
Dudley  Carleton  to  Lord  Conway  in  July  1627,  "which 
may  serve  him  for  a  few  days  if  he  dispatch  and  be  gone ; 
but  yf  he  entertayne  tyme  here  long,  he  will  infallibly 
be  layd  hold  of,  or  sent  with  disgrace  out  of  the  country 
....  This  I  have  made  known  to  Rubens  least  he 
should  meet  with  a  skorne  what  may  in  some  sort  reflect 
upon  others."  Matters,  however,  went  on  very  well,  and 
Rubens  volunteered  to  go  to  Spain  and  lay  before  the 
council  the  result  of  his  negotiations  (1628).  Nine 
months  were  thus  spent  at  Madrid ;  they  rank  among  the 
most  important  in  Eiibens's  career.  He  had  brought  with 
him  eight  pictures  of  various  sizes  and  subjects  as  presents 
from  the  infanta,  and  he  was  also  commissioned  to  take 
Mveral   portraits   of    the  "klmg  and   royal  family.      An 


equestrian  picture  of  Philip  IV.,  destroyed  by  fire  in  last 
century,  became  the  subject  of  a  poem  by  Lope  de  Vega, 
and  the  description  enables  us  to  identify  the  composition 
with  that  of  a  painting  now  in  the  Palazzo  Pitti,  ascribed 
to  Velazquez. 

Through  a  letter  to  Peiresc  we  hear  of  ttie  famUiar 
intercourse  kept  up  between  the  painter  and  the  king. 
Philip  delighted  to  see  Rubens  at  wt^'k  in  the  studio  pre- 
pared for  him  in  the  palace,  where  he  net  only  left  many 
original  pictures,  but  copied  for  his  own  pleasure  and  pro- 
fit the  best  of  Titian's.  No  less  than  forty  works  were 
thus  produced,  and,  says  the  author  of  the  Annals  of  tlie 
Artists  of  Spain,  "  the  unwearied  activity  of  his  well-stored 
mind  is  exemplified  by  the  fact  that  amid  his  many 
occupations  he  was  seeking  iu  the  libraries  materials  for 
an  edition  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  on  which  his  friend  Gaspard 
Gevaerts  was  then  engaged."  An  artistic  event  of  some 
importance  connected  with  the  sojourn  in  Spain  is  the 
meeting  of  Rubens  and  Velazquez,  to  the  delight,  and  we 
venture  to  add,  advantage  of  both. 

Great  as  was  the  king's  admiration  of  Rubens  as  a 
painter,  it  seems  to  have  been  scarcely  above  the  value 
attached  to  his  political  services.  Far  from  lopking  upon 
Rubens  as  a  man  of  inferior  calling,  unworthy  to  meddle 
with  matters  of  state,  he  now  commissioned  the  painter 
to  go  to  London  as  bearer  of  his  views  to  Charles  I. 
Giving  up  his  long  cherished  hope  of  revisiting  Italy  on 
his  return  from  Spain,  Rubens,  honoured  with  the  title  of 
secretary  of  the  king's  privy  council  in  the  Netherlands, 
started  at  once  on  his  new  mission.  Although  he  stopped 
but  four  days  in  Antwerp,  he  arrived  in  London  just  as 
peace  had  been  concluded  with  France.  In  this  conjunc-. 
ture  of  affairs,  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  the  eminent 
position  of  Rubens  as  a  painter  greatly  contributed  to  his 
ultimate  success  as  an  envoy.  Received  by  Charles  with 
genuine  pleasure,  he  very  soon  was  able  to  ingratiate 
himself  so  far  as  to  induce  the  king  to  pledge  his  royal 
word  to  take  part  in  no  undertakings  against  Spain  so 
long  as  the  negotiations  remained  unconcluded,  and  all  the 
subsequent  endeavours  of  France,  Venice,  and  the  States 
found  him  immovable  in  this  resolution.  Although  the 
privy  council  in  Madrid,  as  well  they  might,  passed 
several  votes  of  thanks  to  Eubens,  the  tardiness  of  the 
Spanish  court  in  sending  a  regular  ambassador  involved 
the  unfortunate  painter  in  distressing  anxieties,  and  the 
tone  of  his  dispatches  is  very  bitter.  But  he  speaks  with 
the  greatest  admiration  of  England  and  the  English, 
regretting  that  he  should'  only  have  come  to  know  the 
country  so  late.  His  popularity  must  have  been  very 
great,  for  on  September  23,  1629,  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge conferred  upon  him  the  honorary  degree  of  master 
of  arts,  and  on  February  21,  1630,  he  was  knighted,  the  ^ 
king  presenting  him  with  the  sword  used  at  the  ceremony, 
which  is  still  preserved  by  the  descendants  of  the  artist. 

When  the  council  at  Madrid  had  to  deliberate  as  to 
recognition  of  the  title  conferred  upon  Rubens  in  England, 
they  remembered  that  Titian  had  been  made  a  knight  by 
the  emperor  Charles  V.,  and  the  matter  was  settled  without 
difficulty;  but,  the  painter's  name  having  been  mentioned 
as  a  possible  envoy  to  the  British  court,  OUvares  objected 
that  it  was  quite  out  of  the  question  to  make  an  ambas- 
sador of  one  who  lived  by  the  work  of  his  hands. 

Although,  it  seems,  less  actively  employed  as  an  artist 
in  England  than  in  Spain,  Rubens,  besides  his  sketches  for 
the  decoration  of  the  Banqueting  House  at  Whitehall, 
painted  the  admirable  picture  of  the  Blessings  of  Peace, 
now  in  the  National  Gallery.  There  is  no  reason  to 
doubt,  with  Smith,  that  "  His  Majesty  sat  to  him  for  his 
portrait,  yet  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  no  notice 
occurs  in  any  of  the  royal  catalogues,  or  the  writers  of  the 


K  U  B  E  N  S 


45 


period,  of  the  existence  of  such  a  poitfait."  While  in 
Kiiglaud,  Kuboiis  very  narrowly  escaped  drowning  while 
{,'oing  to  Greenwich  in  a  boat.  Tlie  fact  is  reported  by 
Lord  Dor-Chester  in  a  letter  to  Sir  Isaac  Wake  (Sainsbury, 
cxvi.).  At  the  beginning  of  March  the  painter's  mission 
came  to  a  close. 

Rubens  was  now  fifty-three  years  of  age  ;  he  had  been 
four  years  a  widower,  and  before  the  end  of  the  year 
(December  1C30)  he  entered  into  a  second. marriage  with 
the  beautiful  girl  of  sixteen,  named  Helena  Fourment, 
with  whom  his  pictures  have  made  the  world  so  well  ac- 
quainted. More  than  twenty  portraits  of  her  are  described 
by  Smith,  and  she  also  figures  in  perhaps  twice  as  many 
of  the  master's  creations.  Whether  Eubens  was  more 
powerfully  led  in  the  choice  of  his  second  wife  by  her  per- 
sonal beauty  or  by  the  strength  of  a  certain  resemblance 
to  Lis  feminine  ideal  is  questionable.  Anyhow,  she  was 
an  admirable  model,  and  none  of  her  husband's  works  may 
be  more  justly  termed  masterpieces  than  those  in  which 
she  is  represented  (Munich,  St  Petersburg,  Blenheim, 
Liechtenstein,  the  Louvre,  etc.). 

Although  the  long  months  of  absence  could  not  be 
termed  blanks  in  Eubens's  artistic  career,  his  return  was 
followed  by  an  almost  incredible  activity.  Inspired  more 
than  ever  by  the  glorious  works  of  Titian,  he  now  pro- 
duced some  of  his  best  creations.  Brightness  in  colouring, 
breadth  of  touch  and  pictorial  conception,  are  specially 
striking  in  those  works  we  know  to  have  been  painted  in 
the  latter  part  of  his  lifetime.  Could  anything  give  a 
higher  degree  of  Kubens's  genius  than,  for  example,  the 
Feast  of  Venus,  the  portrait  of  Helena  Fourment  ready  to 
enter  the  bath,  or  the  St  Ildefonso.  This  last  picture — 
now,  as  well  as  the  two  others  just  alluded  to,  in  the  Vienna 
Gallery — was  painted  for  the  church  of  the  convent  of  St 
Jacques,  in  Brussels.  On  the  wings  are  represented  the 
archdukes  in  royal  attire,  under  the  protection  of  their 
patron  saints.  The  presence  of  these  figures  has  led  to 
some  mistake  regarding  the  date  of  the  production,  but  it 
has  been  proved  beyond  doubt,  through  a  document  pub- 
lished by  Mr  Castan  (1884),  that  the  St  Ildefonso  belongs 
to  the  series  of  works  executed  after  the  journeys  to 
Spain  and  England.  Archduke  Albert  had  been  dead  ten 
years.     The  picture  was  engraved  by  Witdoeck  in  1C38. 

.Isabella  died  in  1G33,  and  we  know  that  to  the  end 
Rubens  remained  in  high  favour  with  her,  alike  as' an 
artist  and  as  a  political  agent.  The  painter  was  even  one 
of  the  gentlemen  she  deputed  to  meet  Mary  de'  Medici  at 
the  frontier  in  1631,  after  her  escape  from  France. 

Spain  and  the  Netherlands  went  to  war  again,  the  king 
never  ceasing  to  look  upon  the  Dutch  as  rebels.  The  sub- 
ject need  not  be  dwelt  upon ;  sutiico  it  to  say  that  much 
useless  trouble  and  suspicion  came  upon  the  great  artist. 
As  to  the  real  nature  of  his  communings  with  Frederick 
Henry  of  Orange,  whom  ho  is  known  to  have  interviewed, 
nothing  as  yet  has  been  discovered. 

Ferdinand  of  Austria,  the  cardinal-infant  of  Spain,  was 
called  to  the  government  of  the  Netherlands  on  the  death 
of  his  aunt.  He  was  the  king's  younger  brother,  and 
arrived  at  Antwerp  in  May  1G35.  The  streets  had  been 
decorated  with  triumphal  arches  and  "  spectacula,"  arranged 
by  Rubens,  and  certainly  never  equalled  by  any  other 
works  of  the  kind.^  Several  of  the  paintings  detached 
from  the  arches  were  ofTcrcd  as  presents  to  the  new 
governor-general,  a  scarcely  known  fact,  which  accounts 
for  the  presence  of  many  of  these  works  in  pul)lic  galleries 

*  Mnny  aketcbes  of  tbo  arches  nro  still  prcscn-ed  in  tlio  museums 
ill  Antwerp,  St  Petcisljurg,  Camluidgc,  Windsor,  &c.  All  tlio 
coiupositicns  were  ctcliuil  under  the  direction  of  Uul>cns  by  Ills  pupil 
J.  V,'\n  Tliuldcn  nnd  puWishoil  under  the  title  of  Pompa  introitus 
lumori  serenissimi  J'rinci'iiis  Fcrdinandi  Austriaci  S.  A  JS.  card,  a 
S,  P.  Q.  Aniierj).  dcceta  et  ordinata 


(Vienna,  Dresden,  Brusscl.s,  Ac).  Rubens  was  at  the  tiraa 
laid  up  with  gout,  but  Prince  Ferdinand  was  desirous  of 
expressing  liis  satisfai-tion,  and  called  U))on  the  painter, 
remaining  a  long  time  at  his  house.  Rubens  and  Ferdinand 
had  met  at  Madrid,  and  only  a  short  time  elapsed  before 
the  painter  was  confirmed  in  his  official  standing, — a  matter 
of  sinall  im[)ortance,  if  we  consider  that  the  last  years  of 
his  life  w-ere  almost  exclusively  employed  in  working 
much  more  for  the  king  than  for  his  brother.  About  a 
hundred  and  twenty  paintings  of  considerable  size  left 
Antwerp  for  Madrid  in  1G37,  1638,  and  1639;  they  were 
intended  to  decorate  the  pavilion  erected  at  the  Pardo, 
and  known  under  the  name  of  Torre  de  la  Parada. 
Another  series  had  been  begun,  when  Ferdinand  wrote  to 
^fadrid  that  the  painter  was  no  more,  and  Jordaens  would 
finish  the  work.  Rubens  breathed  his  last  on  the  30th  of 
May  1640. 

ilore  fortunate  than  many  artists,  Kubens  left  tlie  world  in 
the  midst  of  his  glory.  Not  the  remotest  trace  of  approaching  olj. 
age,  not  the  slighcst  failing  of  mind  or  skill,  can  be  detected  eveu 
in  liis  l.ttest  works,  such  as  the  Martyrdom  of  St  Peter  at  ColognoJ 
the  IMartyidom  of  St  Thomas  at  Prague,  or  the  Judgment  of  Paris 
at  Jladiid,  where  his  young  wife  appears  for  the  hist  time.  "Sho 
is  the  handsomest  person  in  Antwerp,"  writes  Ferdinand  to  his 
brother,  in  announcing  the  completion  of  what  he  terms  "  tho 
best  painting  Rubens  has  done." 

IfRuhenswas  something  of  a  diplomatist,  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  alike  in  body  as  in  mind  he  is  portrayed  in  his  own  works  with 
the  utmost  straightforwardness.  His  productions  are  what  they 
are,  as  if  they  could  not  have  been  otherwise,  and  the  fact  is  that, 
in  rejily  to  any  observations  he  may  happen  to  receive,  we  con- 
stantly find  him  asserting  the  necessities  of  his  subjects,  thus 
confirming  a  remark  mtide  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  that  his  subjects 
always  seem  to  suit  his  style. 

Rubens  is  so  well  known  that  it  hardly  seeraa  necessary  to  dwell 
upon  his  outward  apjiearance.  From  his  own  letters  and  those 
ir.  wliich  he  is  referred  to  we  become  actiuainted  with  a  man  of 
vast  erudition,  great  good  sense,  dignity,  and  kindness,  none  more' 
worthy  of  being  calleil  a'gentleman  ;  and  Sir  Dudley  Carleton,  we 
know,  termed  him  not  only  tho  nrince  of  painters  but  of  gentle- 
men. 

Those  with  whom  he  dealt  in  questions  of  learning  proclaim 
his  artistic  excellence  to  be  second  only  to  his  other  qualifications, 
and  even  such  ciitics  as  Winckelmann,  who  are  least  likely  to 
sympathize  with  his  style,  do  homage  to  his  superior  genius. 
"  Rubens,"  he  writes  to  Count  Cobenzl,  "is  the  glory  of  art,  of  his 
school,  of  his  country,  and  of  all  coming  centuries;  the  fertility  of 
his  im.iginatiuu  cannot  be  overrated  ;  he  is  correct  in  his  design, 
magnificent  in  his  drapery ;  and  he  must  be  looked  upon  as  tho 
great  model  for  chiaroscuro,  although  in  this  branch  he  may  bo 
termed  fanciful,  but  ho  has  not  sacrificed  to  the  goddesses  of 
beauty  {Hots:)  and  the  Graces." 

Rubens,  indeed,  although  his  type  of  feminine  beauty  is  generally 
most  pleasing,  has  little  of  the  Italian  grace  and  refinement,  but 
then  ho  was  a  Fleming  throughout,  notwithstanding  his  frequent 
recollections  of  those  Italian  masters  whom  ho  most  admired,  and 
who  themselves  have  little,  if  anything,  in  common  with  Raphael. 
But  it  must  bo  borne  in  mind  how  completely  his  predecessors  were 
frozen  into  stiffness  through  Ilalianization,  and  how  necessary  it  was 
to  bring  back  the  Flemisli  school  to  life  and  nature.  Critics  havo 
spoken  of  Rubens's  historical  improprieties.  Of  course  nobody  could 
suppose  that  his  classical  learning  did  not  go  far  enou-jh  to  know 
that  the  heroines  of  tho  Old  Testament  or  of  Roman  history  wcro 
not  dressed  out  as  ladies  of  his  time;  but  in  this  respect  ho  only 
follows  the  examplo  of  Titian,  Paul  Veronese,  and  many  others.  In 
no  other  school  do  we  find  these  animated  hunts  of  lions,  tigers,  nnd 
even  the  hippopotamus  and  tho  crocodile,  which  may  bo  reckoned 
among  the  finest  specimens  of  art,  and  here  again  oro  life  and 
nature  disi)laved  with  tho  utmost  power.  "His  horses  arc  perfect 
in  their  kind","  says  Reynolds  ;  his  dogs  are  of  tho  strong  Flemish 
breed,  and  his  landscapes  tho  most  charming  pictures  of  Braban- 
tine  scenery,  in  tho  midst  of  which  lay  his  seat  of  Stcen.  As* 
portrait  painter,  although  less  refined  than  Van  Dyck,  he  showa 
that  eminent  master  the  way,  nnd  his  jiurc  fancy  subiects,  as  tho 
Garden  of  Lovo  (Madrid  and  Dresden)  and  tho  Villsge  Feast 
(Louvre),  havo  never  been  equalled.  As  Mrs  JimcsoD  so  justly 
remarks, "  Rubens  is  tho  most  popular  because  tho  most  intelligible 
of  painters." 

For  nearly  one  hundrca  years  the  Flemush  school  may  be  said  to 
have  been  )iut  arefic.rion  of  the  I!ubenes(iuu  principles.  AlthouRh 
Jordaens  nnd  Erasmus  QueUin  lived  till  1078,  tho  school  might  b« 
termed  a  body  without  soul. 

Somo  etchings  havo  been  ascribed  to  Bubent.  but  eicepta  head. 


4G 


R  IT  B  —  Pt  U  B 


of  Seneca,"  the  only  copy  of  which  is  in  the  Print  Eoom  at  the 
Biitish  iliiseum,  and  a  beautiful  figure  of  St  Catlierino,  we  can 
aiiniit  none  of  the  other  i>lfites,  said  to  proceed  from  Rubens,  as 
authentic.  Eubens  ncvertlieless  exercised  an  immense  influence 
on  the  art  of  engraviuj;.  Under  Iiis  direct  guiilance  Soutnian, 
Vorsterman,  Pontius,  Witdoeck,  tlie  two  Eolswerts,  Peter  de  Jode, 
N.  Lauwers,  and  many  otliers  of  less  note  left  an  immense  number 
of  beautiful  plates,  reproducing  the  most  celebrated  of  his  paint- 
inpfs.  To  give  an  idea  of  what  his  inlluence  was  capable  of  acconi- 
{dishing,  pictorially  speaking,  it  might  be  sulficient  to  notice  the 
transformation  undergone  by  the  Antwerp  school  of  engraving 
under  Rubens:  even  the  modern  school  of  engraving,  in  more  than 
one  respect,  is  a  coutinuation  of  the  Style  first  practised  in 
Antwerp.  His  influence  is  scarcely  less  apparent  in  sculpture, 
and  the  celebrated  Luke  Fayd'herbe  was  his  pupil. 

Neither  in  name  nor  in  fact  did  the  Flemish  school  ever  find  a 
second  Rubens.  None  of  his  four  sons  became  a  ]iaiuter,  nor  did 
any  of  his  three  daughters  marry  an  artist.  According  to  Rubens's 
will,  his  drawings  were  to  belong  to  that  one  of  his  sons  who  ndglit 
become  a  painter,  or  in  the  event  of  one  of  his  daughters  marrying 
a  celebrated  artist  they  were  to  be  her  portion.  The  valuable 
collection  was  dispersed  only  in  1659,  and  of  the  pictures  sold  in 
1640  thirty-two  became  the  property  of  the  king  of  Spain.  The 
Madrid  Gallery  alone  possesses  a  hundred  of  his  works.  Four  years 
after  her  husband's  death  Helena  Fourment  married  J.  B.  Van 
Brouckhoven  de  Bergheyck,  knight  of  St  James,  member  of  the 
(irivy  council,  &c.  She  died  in  1673.  In  1746  the  male  line  of 
Eubens's  descendants  was  completely  extinct.  In  the  female  line 
more  than  a  hundred  families  of  name  in  Europe  trace  their  descent 
from  him. 

The  paintings  of  Kubens  are  found  in  all  the  principal  £;allerie3 
in  Europe  :  Antwerp  and  Brussels,  Madrid,  Paris,  Lille,  Dresden, 
Berlin,  Munich,  Vienna,  St  Petersburg,  Loudon,  Florence,  Milan, 
Turin  exhibit  several  hundreds  of  his  works.  J.  Smith's  Catalogue 
gives  descriptions  of  more  than  thirteen  hundred  compositions. 

Literature. — A.  van  Hasselt,  Histoire  de  P.  P.  Jiiibms,  Brussels,  1840 ;  K. 
Gacbet,  Letlres  inidites  de  P.  P.  liubenSy  Brussels,  1840;  W.  Noel  Sainsbury, 
Original  unpubtis/ifd  Papers  illustrative  of  the  Li/e  of  Sir  Peter  Paul  Rubens, 
Lonilon,  1859  ;  C.  Ruelens,  Pierre  Paul  Rubens,  Documer.tt  ft  Zettres.  Brussels, 
lfi77 ;  Armand  Baschet  "Rubens  en  Italie  et  en  Espagne,"  in  the  Qazetle  dfs 
Beaux  A'^ts,  vols.  xiii.  to  xsiv.,  Paris,  1867-68;  A.  Michiels,  Rubens  et  V£cole 
tfAnvers,  Paris,  1S77;  Ci'uzada  Villaamil,  iiu&cns  dipiomatlco  cjfaJio/,  Madiid, 
1874;  Gachard,  Uistoire  politique  et  diplomatique  de  P.  P.  Ruben's,  Brussels, 
1877;  P.  Genard,  P.  /*.  Rubens,  Aanteekeningen  over  den  GrooCen  Meester, 
Antwerp,  1877  ;  Alax  Rooses,  Titres  et  Portraits  grapes  tfapres  P.  P.  Rubens, 
pour  t'imprimerie  plantinienne,  Antw.,  1S77;  J.  Smith,  Cataloffue  Raisonne  of 
the  ^yorks  of  the  most  eminent  Dutch  and  Flemish  Painters,  part  li.,  London,  1830; 
Waagen,  Peter  Paul  Rubens  (translated  from  the  German  by  li.  Noel,  edited  by 
Mrs  Jameson,  London.  1840)  ;  H.  Hymans,  Histoire  de  la  gravure  dans  t'Ecole  de 
Rubens,  Brussels,  1879;  C.  G.  Voorlrehu  Schneevoogt,  Catalogue  des  Estampes 
gravees  d'apres  Rubens,  Haarlcro,  1S73.  (H.  H.) 

RUBIDIUM.     See  Potassium  Metais. 

RUBRUQUIS,  the  name  which  has  most  commonly 
been  given  to  William  of  Eubruk,  a  Franciscan  friar  and 
the  author  of  a  reraarlcable  narrative  of  Asiatic  travel  in 
tlie  13th  century.  Nothing  is  known  of  him  save  what 
can  be  gathered  from  his  own  narrative,  with  the  exception 
of  a  word  from  the  pen  of  Roger  Bacon,  his  contemporary 
and  brother  Franciscan,  indicating  personal  acquaintance. 
The  name  of  Rubruquis  has  adhered  to  him,  owing  to  this 
form  ("  Willielmus  do  Rubruquis ")  being  found  in  the 
imperfect  copy  of  the  Latin  original  printed  by  Hakluyt 
in  his  collection,  and  followed  in  his  English  translation, 
as  well  as  in  the  completer  issue  of  the  English  by 
Purchas.  Writers,  again,  of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries 
have  called  the  traveller  Risbroucke  and  Rysbrokius,  for 
which  there  is  no  authority, — an  error  founded  on 
the  too  hasty  identification  of  his  name  of  'origin  with 
Ruysbroeck  in  Brabant  (a  few  miles  south  of  Brussels). 
This  error  was  probably  promoted  by  the  fame  of  John 
of  Ruysbroeck  or  Rysbroeck  (1294-1381),  a  Belgian 
mystic  theologian,  v?hose  treatises  have  been  reprinted 
as  late  as  1848  (see  vol.  xvii.  p.  133).  Our  traveller 
is  styled  "  Guillaume  de  Rysbroeck  "  and  "  Ruysbroek  " 
in  the  Biograplde  Universelle  and  in  the  Nouv.  Biog. 
Generale.  It  is  only  mthin  the  last  twenty  years  that 
attention  has  been  called  to  the  fact  that  Rubrouck 
is  the  name  of  a  village  and  commune  in  what  was 
formerly  called  French  Flanders,  belonging  to  the  canton  of 
Cassel  in  the  department  du  Nord,  and  lying  some  8|-  miles 
north-east  of  St  Omer.  In  the  library  of  the  latter  city 
laany  mediaeval  documents  exist   referring   expressly  to 


Rubroucic,  and  to  persons  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries 
styled  as  "de  Rubrouck."'  It  may  be  fairly  assumed  that 
Friar  William  came  from  this  place  ;  indeed,  if  attention 
had  been  paid  to  the  title  of  tiio  ^IS.  belonging  to  Lord 
Lumley,  whicli  was  published  by  Hakluyt  {Ilineranum 
fratris  Willielmi  de  Jiiibruquis  de  Ordiiie/ratinem  Minonim, 
Gain,  ^jiTio  Gratix  1253,  ad  parh's  Orientales),  there  need 
have  been  no  question  as  to  the  traveller's  quasi-French 
nationality;  -  but  this  (erroneously)  has  always  been  treated 
as  if  it  were  an  arbitrary  gloss  of  Hakluyt'i,  ovra. 

Friar  William  went  to  Tartary  under  orders  from  Louis 
IX.  (St  Louis).  That  king,  at  an  earlier,  date,  viz., 
December  1248,  when  in  Cyprus,  had  been  visited  by 
certain  persons  representing  themselves  to  be  envoys  from 
a  great  Tartar  chief  Elchigauay  (llchikadai),  who  com- 
manded the  Mongol  hosts  in  Armenia  and  Persia.  The 
king  then  despatched  a  return  mission  consisting  of  Friar 
Andrew  of  Lonjumel  and  other  ecclesiastics,  who  carried 
presents  and  letters  for  both  llchikadai  and  the  Great 
Khan.  They  reached  the  court  of  the  latter  in  the  winter 
of  1249-50,  when  there  was  in  fact  no  actual  khan  on  the 
throne  ;  but  in  any  case  they  returned,  along  with  Tartar 
envoysj  bearing  a  letter  to  Louis,  which  was  couched  in 
terms  so  arrogant  and  offensive  that  the  king  repented 
sorely  of  having  sent  such  a  mission  (li  rois  se  repenli  fort 
quant  ily  envoia,  Joinville,  §  492).  These  returned  envoys 
reached  the  king  when  he  was  at  Caesarea,  therefore  be- 
tween March  12.51  and  May  1252.  It  was,  however,  not 
very  long  after  that  the  zealous  king,  hearing  that  a  great 
Tartar  prince  called  S^artak  was  a  baptized  Christian,  felt 
strongly  moved  to  open  communication  with  him,  and  for 
this  purpose  deputed  Friar  William  of  Rubruk  with  com- 
panions. But  it  Ls  evident  that  the  former  rebuff  had 
made  the  king  chary  as  to  giving  these  emissaries  the 
character  of  his  royal  envoys,  and  Friar  William  on  every 
occasion,  beginning  with  a  sermon  delivered  in  St  Sophia's 
(on  Palm  Sunday,  i.e.,  April  13, 1253),  formally  disclaimed 
that  character,  alleging  that,  tliough  he  was  the  bearer  of 
the  king's  letters  and  presents,  he  went  simply  in  fulfilment 
of  his  duty  as  a  Franciscan  and  preacher  of  the  gospel. 

Various  histories  of  St  Louis,  and  other  documents 
which  have  come  down  to  us,  give  particulars  of  the 
despatch  of  the  mission  of  Friar  Andrew  from  C^'prus,  but 
none  mention  that  of  Friar  William ;  and  the  first  dates 
given  by  the  latter  are  those  of  his  sermon  at  Constanti- 
nople, and  of  his  embarkation  from  Sinope  (May  7,  1253). 
He  must  therefore  have  received  his  commission  at  Acre, 
where  the  king  w-as  residing  from  May  1252  to  June  29, 
1253  J  but  he  had  travelled  by  way  of  Constantinople,  as 
has  just  been  indicated,  and  there  received  letters  to  some 
of  the  Tartar  chiefs  from  the  emperor,  who  was  at  this  time 
Baldwin  de  Courtenay,  the  last  of  the  Latin  dynasty. 

The  narrative  of  the  journey  is  every  where  •  full  of  life  and 
interest,  but  we  cannot  follow  its  details.  The  vast  conquests  of 
Jenghiz  Khan  were  still  in  nominal  dependence  on  his  successors, 
at  this  time  represented  by  Mangu  Khan,  reigning  on  the  Mongo- 
lian steppes,  but  practically  those  conquests  were  splitting  up  into 
several  great  "monarchies.  Of  these  the  Ulfis  of  Juji,  the  eldest 
son  of  Jenghiz,  formed  the  most  westerly,  and  its  ruler  was  Batti 
Khan,  established  on  the  Volga.  Sartak  is  known  in  the  history 
of  the  Mongols  as  Batu's  eldest  son,  and  was  appointed  his  suc- 
cessor, though  he  died  immediately  after  his  father  (1255).  .The 
story  of  Sartak's  profession  of  Christianity  may  have  had  some 
kind  of  foundation  ;  it  was  currently  believed  among  the  Asiatic 

'  A  detailed  notice  of  such  documents  was  published  by  M.  £diD. 
Coussemaker  of  Lille.  See  remarks  by  M.  D'Avezac  in  Bull,  de  la 
Soc.  de  (Jeog.,  2d  vol.  for  1868,  pp.  569-570. 

'  The  country  of  Flanders  was  at  this  time  a  fief  of  the  French 
crown  (see  Natalis  de  A^ailly,  'Notes  on  Joinville,  p.  576).  William's 
niother^tongue  may  probably  have  been  Flemish.  But  this  cannot  be 
proved  by  his  representation  to  Mangu  Khan  (p.  361)  that  certain 
Teutonici  who  had  been  carried  away  as  slaves  by  a  Tartar  chief  were 
noslrae  linguae,  as  Dt  Franz  Schmidt  incliuas  to  think. 


R  U  B  —  K  U  B 


47 


Christliiu,  and  it  Is  alleged  by  Ai-menian  writers  that  he  had  oeen 
brought  up  and  bL.ptized  among  the  Kussiaas. 

Eub.uk  and  his  party  landed  at  Soldaia,  or  Suddk,  on  the 
Crimean  coast,  a  port  wh'ich  was  then  the  chief  seat  of  the  com- 
munication between  the  Mediterranean  states  and'  what  is  now 
Bonthern  liussia.  Equipped  witli  horses  and  carts  lor  the  steppe, 
they  travelled  successively  to  the  courts  of  Sartak  and  of  Catu 
respectively  on  the  hither  and  further  banks  of  the  Volga  bandied 
from  one  to  the  other,  and  then  referred  to  the  Great  Khan  him- 
self an  order  involving  tho  enormous  journey  to  Mongolia,  ibe 
actual  travelling  of  the  party  from  tho  Crimea  to  the  klians  cou.t 
near  Karakorum  cannot  have  been,  on  a  rough  calculation,  less 
than  6000  miles,  and  the  return  journey  to  Ayu  in -Cilieia  would 
be  longer  by  600  to  700  miles.  The  chief  dates  to  be  gaihercd  trom 
the  narrative  are  as  follows  -.—embark  on  the  Eu.xine,  May  7,  1253  ; 
reach  Soldaia,  21 ;  set  out  thence,  June  1  ;  reach  camp  of  Sartak, 
July  31  •  bef'in  journey  from  camp  Of  Batii  eastward  across  sleppe, 
September  10  ;  turn  south-east,  November  1  ;  reach  Talas  nver 
8-  leave  CaUaoi  (south  of  Lake  Balkash),  30;  reach  camp  of 
Great  Khan,  December  27  ;  leave  ramp  of  Great  Khan  on  or 
about  July  10,  1254  ;  reach  camp  of  Batft  again,  September  16  ; 
leave  Sartak's  camp,  November  1  :  at  the  Iron  Gate  (Derbend) 
13  •  Christmas  spent  at  Nakhshivftn  (under  Arsrst; ;  reach  An- 
tioch  (from  Ayas,   via  Cyprus),  June   29,   1255 ;   reach    rnpoU, 

The  camp  of  Bata  was  reached  near  the  northernmost  point  of 
his  summer  marches,  therefore  about  Ukek  near  Saratoff  (see 
Uarco  Polo,  Prol.,  chap.  iii.  note  4).  Before  the  camp  was  lelt 
they  had  marched  with  it  five  weeks  down  the  Volga.  The  point 
of  departure  would  lie  on  that  river  somewJiere  between  48°  and  50° 
N".  lat.  Tho  jouto  taken  lay  eastward  by  a  line  running  north  of 
the  Caspian  and  Aral  basins ;  then  from  about  70°  E.  long,  south 
Jwith  some  casting)  to  the  basin  of  the  Talas  river  ;  thence  across 
the  passes  of  the  Kirghiz  Ala-tau  and  south  of  the  Balkash  Lake 
to  the  Ala-kul  and  the  Baratula  Lake  (Ebi-nur).  From  this  the 
travellers  struck  north  across  the  Barhik,  or  the  Orkochuk 
Mountains,  and  thence,  passing  south  of  tho  modern  Kobdo,'  to 
the  valley  of  the  Jabkan  river,  whence  thejr  emerged  on  the  plain 
of  4Iongolia,  coming  upon  the  Great  Khan's  camp  at  a  spot  ten 
days'  journey  from  Karakorum  and  bearing  in  the  main  south  from 
that  place,  with  the  Khangai  Mountains  between. 

This  route  is  of  course  not  thus  defined  iu  the  narrative,  but  is 
a  laborious  deduction  from  the  facts  stated  therein.  Tlie  key  to 
the  wliole  is  the  description  given  of  that  central  portion  inter- 
vening between  the  basin  of  the  Talas  and  the  Lake  Ala-kul, 
which''enables  the  topography  of  that  region,  including  the  passage 
of  the  Hi,  the  plain  south  of  tho  Balkash,  and  the  Ala-kul  itself, 
to  be  identified  past  question.' 

The  return  journey,  being  made  in  summer,  after  rctraversing 
the  Jabkan  valley,^"lay  much  farther  to  the  nortli,  and  passed 
north  of  the  Balkash,  With  a  tolerably  straight  course  probably, 
to  the  mouths  of  the  Volga.  Thence  the  party  travelled  south  by 
Derbend,  and  so  by  Shamakhi  to  the  Araxes,  Nakhshivan,  Erzingan, 
Sivas,  and  Iconium,  to  the  coast  of  Cilieia,  and  eventually  to  tlis 
■wort  of  Ayas,  where  they  embarked  for  Cyprus  aud  Syria.  St 
Louis  had  returned  to  France  a  year  before. 

We  have  alluded  to  Roger  Bacon's  mention  of  Friar  William  of 
Eubruk.  Indeed,  in  the  geographical  section  of  the  Opus  Mnjus 
'  (e.  1202)  he  cites  the  traveller  repeatedly  and  copiously,  describing 
him  as  "frater  Wilhelmus  quem  domiuua  Tex  Franciae  misit  ad 
Tarlaros,  Anno  Domini  1253  ....  qui  perlustravit  regioncs 
orisntis  ct  aquilonis  ct  loca  in  medio  his  annexa,  et  scripsit  haec 
pracdicta  illustri  rogi ;  quem  liVum  diligonter  vidi  et  cum  ejus 
auctore  contuli"  {Opiis  ilajus,  ed.  Jebb,  1733,  pp.  190-191).  Add 
to  this  William's  own  incidentol  particular  as  to  his  being  (like 
his  precursor,  Friar  John  of  Pian  Carpiiie,  see  vol.  v.  p.  132)  a 
very  heavy  man  (ponderostis  vnlde),  and  wo  know  no  more  of  liis 
personality  except  the  abundant  indications  of  character  affoidcd 
by  the  story  itself  These  paint  for  us  an  honest,  pious,  stout- 
hearted, acute,  and  most  intelligent  observer,  keen  in  the  acquisi- 
tion of  knowleflge,  the  author  in  fact  of  one  of  the  best  narratives 
of  travel  in  existence.  His  language  indeed  is  Latin  of  the  most 
un-Ciceronian  quality, — dog-Latin  we  fear  it  must  be  called  ;  but, 
coll  it  wliat  we  may,  it  is  in  his  hands  a  pithy  and  transparent 
medium  of  expression.     In  spito  of  all  the  dillicjlties  of  communi- 

'  C»llac,  whoro  Rubruk  lulled  twelve  days.  I.i  undoubtedly  the  Kovullk  of  I  ho 
Mstxrlnns  o(  tho  HonKOls,  tho  position  of  which  N  Bomowlmt  Indc-flnlle.  Tho 
narrntlvo  of  Rubruk  shows  thrtt  It  must  hivo  been  no<ir  tho  modern  Kopal. 

•  Soe  dotolU  In  Cathay  and  the  Waf  T/iitlitr,  pp.  ccxl.-co.tlv.,  and  Schuyler's 
TurkUlan,  I.  40i-4(ij.  Mr  Schuyler  polnn  out  tho  tiuo  Idcnilflullon  of 
Itubruk'n  river  with  tho  111,  Instood  of  tho  Chu,  which  Is  a  much  umallcr  atream ; 
and  nthor  ainundmcnla  have  been  derived  from  Dr  V.  M.  Schmidt  (*co  below). 

•  Sti  the  pioKcnt  writer  Inlorprcts  what  Rtibruk  jnys:— "Our  (j.ilnK  was  In 
wlnltT,  our  return  In  «nmmcr,  and  that  by  a  way  lyluB  viry  much  lai  thcr  north, 
only  that  lor  a  upace  of  lllteen  days'  journey  In  (-olnR  and  coinliK  wo  followed  a 
oertaln  rlv«r  between  mountolns.  and  on  ilic^o  there  was  no  crass  to  be  found 
except  close  to  thu  river."  The  ].o*ltlon  of  tho  Ctiafian  Tnkol  or  upper  Jabkan 
iccms  to  suit  these  facts  best ;  but  Mr  Sdiuylor  refers  llicia  tc  tic  upper  IrtUh, 
.aud  Ut  F.  Schmidt  to  thu  Ullunuur. 


cation,  and  of  the  badness  of  his  licrgemanmis  or  dragoman,'  h« 
gathered  a  moss  of  particulars,  wonderfully  true  or  near  the  truth, 
not  only  as  to  Asiatic  nature,  geography;  ethnography,  aud 
manners,  bat  as  to  i-oligiou  and  language.  Of  liis  geography  a 
good  example  occurs  in  his  account  of  the  Caspian  (eagerly  caught 
up  by  Roger  Bacon),  whicli  is  perfectly  accurate,  except  that  lit 
)ilaees  the  hill  country  occupied  liy  the  Mulahids,  or  Assassins,  oir 
the  eastern  instead  of  tho  southern  shore.  He  cxpliciUy  corrects 
the  allegation  of  Isidore  that  it  is  a  gulf  of  tho  ocean  :  "non  est 

vcrumquoddi'-'tYsidorua iiusquam  enim  tangitoceanum, 

sed  undiqiio  circumdatur  terra  "  (-265). i*  Of  liis  interest  and  acumen 
iu  matters  of  language  we  may  cit'r  examples.  The  language  ol 
the  Paocatir  (or  Bashkirds)  and  of  tho  Hungarians  is  the  same,  as 
he  had  learned  from  Dominicans  who  had  been  among  them  (274).» 
Tl'e  lantTiage  of  the  Ruthenians,  Poles,  Bolictnians,  and  Sl.avotiiaiis 
is  one,  alid  is  the  same  with  that  of  the  Wandals,  or  Wends  (275). 
In  the  town  of  Equius  (immediately  beyond  the  Hi,  perlia)* 
Aspara)'  tlie  jieople  were  ^iollammedaus  speaking  Pei-sian,  tliougb 
so  far  remote  from  Persia  (281).  Tlio  Yugurs  (or  Uigurs)  of  the 
country  about  Cailac  (see  note  above)  had  formed  a  language  anti 
character  of  their  own,  and  in  that  language  and  character  the 
Nestorians  of  that  tract  nsed-to  pcifu.rm  their  office  and  write  theif 
books  (2S1-2).  The  Yugurs  are  those  among  whom  are  found  the 
fountain  and  root  of  the  Turkish  aud  Coiuanian  tongue  (289). 
Their  character  has  been  adopted  by  tho  Moghals.  In  using  it 
they  begin  writing  from  the  top  and  write  downwards;  whilst  Una 
follows  line  from  left  to  right  (286).  The  Nestorians  say  their 
service,  and  have  their  holy  books,  in.Syriac,  but  know  nothing  at 
the  langu.ige,  just  as  some  of  our  monks  sing  the  mass  without 
knowing  Latin  (293).  The  Tibet  people  write  as  we  do,  aiiil 
their  letters  have  a  strong  resemblance  to  ours.  The  Tangut 
people  write  from  right  to  left  like  the  Arabs,  and  tlicii-  lines 
advance  upwards  (329).  The  current  money  of  Cathay  is  of  cotton 
paper,  a  palm  in  length  and  breadth,  and  on  this  tiiey  print  lines- 
like  those  of  Mangu  Khan's  seal:— "iHij^n'mim^  linma  sicut  est 
eigillum  Mangu  "—a  remarkable  cxjiressidn.  They  write  with  a 
painter's  pencil  oad  combine  in  one  character  several  letters,  foi-m- 
ing  one  expression  :— "  faciunt  in  una  figura  plures  literas  compre- 
hendcntes  unam  dictionem,"— a  still  more  remarkable  iitteiance, 
showing  an  approximate  apprehension  of  the  nature  of  Chinese 
writing  (329).  . 

Yet  this  sagacious  and  honest  observer  is  denounced-  as  aa 
ignorant  and  untruthful  blunderer  by  Isaac  Jacob  Schmidt  (a  man 
uo  doubt  of  useful  learning,  of  a  kind  rare  in  his  day,  but  narrow 
and  wrong-headed,  and  in  natural  acumen  and  candour  lar  inferior 
to  the  islh-century  friar  whom  he  maligns),  simply  because  the 
evidence  of  the  latter  as  to  the  Turkish  dialect  of  the  Uigurs 
traversed  a' pet  heresy,  long  since  exploded,  which  Schmidt  enter- 
tained, viz.,  that  the  Uigurs  were  by  race  and  language  Tibetan.' 

.The  narrative  of  Rubruk,  after  Roger  Bacon's  copious  use  of  It,  sccras  to  Imvc 
dropped  out  of  sight.  It  haano  place  In  the  famous  collections  of  tlio  Hth 
cc.tury  nor  In  the  earlier  Specu/um  Jlisloriale  o!  Vincent  of  Beauvcls,  whloh 
elves  so'many  ollicis  of  tiMj  Tartarian  ccclcsiustlcal  Itineraries.  It  first  «m>oaKd 
Impoilectly  In  Hukluyt  (1600),  as  we  have  mentioned.  But  It  was  not  till  1859 
that  any  proper  edition  ol  tl.c  text  wa-  published.  In  that  year  the  /'«"<•■'<'« 
Vo«aga  of  tlie  Paris  Geographical  Society,  vol.  Iv.,  contained  a  thorout-h  tdltloo 
of  the  Latin  text,  and  m  collation  of  tlie  tew  existing  Mi>s..  put  luilh  by  M. 
D'.Avezac  witli  the  asslstanco  of  two  young  scholars,  since  of  hlRh  distinction, 
viz.,  Fian'cisqiie-Michel  and  Thoma»  WrlRht.  But  there  Is  no  commenrary,  euth 
08  M  DA>eiac  attached,  In  his  own  Incomparable  fashion,  to  the  edition  of  Friar 
John  of  Plan  Caipino  In  the  same  volume  ;  nor  has  there  ever  been  any  properly 
annolatjd  edition  of  s  traveller  so  worthy  of  honour.  liichthofen  n  hl»  CAliu 
I  i;02-Cli4,  hns  briefly  but  justly  notlc.d  the  narrative  of  Rubiuk.  A  fre,rn 
ver-ion  with  some  notes,  Issued  at  Palis  In  1877,  In  tho  BMwIktqus  '''7"^n,t 
Elteohinme.  If  named  at  all,  can  only  be  mentioned  as  beneath  contempt  Tim 
task  Is  one  which  the  present  writer  has  long  contemplated,  bat  now  srith  hivt 
slender  hope  of  accomplishment.  (Since  this  was  In  type  the  wnter  has  veeelTtJ 
from  Ur.  Franz  Max  Schmidt  on  admirable  monograph  by  him.  Lfb,:rRMrut', 
neat  (Berlin,  p.  Ua),  extracted  from  vol;  xx.  of  the  Zlulir.  Geog.  Soc.  £erl.,aB'i 
bus  greatly  prQfltcd  by  It  In  tl.c  revision  of  the  article  in  proof.)  (U.  1.) 

RUBY.  This  name  is  applied  by  lapidaries  and  je wellors 
to  two  distinct  minerals,  which  may  be  distinguished  as 
tho  true  or  Oriental  ruby  and  the  spinel  rnby.  Tuo 
former  is  a  red  variety  of  corundum  or  native  alumina,  of 


»  "Ego  enIm  percept  pos'ca,  quando  Incepl  allquantulum  Intel  Igoreldlome. 
quod  quando  dlcebum  unum  Ipso  totum  aliud.  diccbat,  f ''""'i';™  TJ^ '' 
occurrebat.  Tum,  videns  perlculum  louuendl  per  Ipsum.  elect  magU  taccre 

''TTh'o'pago  references  In  tno  text  are  to  U  Avczac's  edition  of  tho  Litln  (ico 

''"J^The  Bashkirds  now  .peak  a  Turkish  dialect ;  bat  they  .ro  of  rinnlsh  iw.. 
and  It  13  quite  possible  that  they  then  spoke  a  lanpiage  skin  to  >  "P)"-  TJ"» 
I,  no  doubt  that  the  Mu-sulma-l  historians  of  that  iifi.-  'f  ?."",'ih,  l„  inTn^,! 
and  the  Bashkirds  (e.g.,  SCO  extracts  from  Juvolid  and  l'o.hldua.lln  lo  AP1>-  '« 
"oi  son's  //a™<f«A/<'"<.->''.  "■  "-'O-Cn).  The  UasliKsd.  "™  «  »^ '""•■"nil)' 
couple-1  with  the  J/tyur  by  AbuIghuJl.    See  Fr.  ir.  by  Hcsmalsous,  rp-  l.*,  •«». 

"?•  i^p'=  Br'<"-  A'P«™  1»  ■»'""  mentioned  bv  ttie  htstorlan.  of  'Tlraur  and  hi. 
suoc'«.or.  ;  lis  exact  place  Is  uncerlal,,.  but  It  lay  somewhero  on  Uio  III  frontier. 
;"r  F  Schuil-it  thliiki  tins  Identllkallou  iinpos.lblo ;  but  onu  of  hi.  reasonj- 
vl/.,  that  l",uius  wiu  only  one  day  from  C.lac  ^«p|«u.r.  lo  bo  a  nilsaonrvhenaton 

'"."sei"ror.««„,en  im   GM.I. -""  .'»".''  i'"!"-^"^.  »>- 

'  ""tersburg,  ibii,  pp  t'U-ua. 


48 


RUBY 


great  rarity  and  value,  while  the  latter  is  an  aluminate  of 
magnesium,  inferior  to  the  true  ruby  in  hardness  and 
much  less  esteemed  as  a  gem  stone.  With  ancient  writers 
the  confusion  was  even  greater,  for  they  appear  to  have 
classed  together  under  a  common  name,  such  as  the  car- 
bxmculus  of  Pliny  or  the  avOpa^  of  Greek  writers,  not  only 
our  two  kinds  of  ruby  but  also  garnets  and  other  inferior  . 
stones  of  a  brilliant  fiery  colour.  By  modern  mineral- 
ogists it  has  come  to  be  understood  that  when  the  word 
ruby  is  used  without  any  qualifying  prefix  the  true  or 
Oriental  stone  is  invariably  indicated. 

The  Oriental  ruby,  like  all  other  varieties  of  corundam, 
crystallizes  in  the  rhombohedral  system;  but,  as  it  usually 
occurs  as  small  pebbles  or  rounded  fragments,  the  crystal- 
line form  can  rarely  be  traced.  Its  colour  varies  from 
deep  cochineal  to  pale  rose  red,  in  some  cases  inclining  to 
purple,  the  most  valued  tint  being  that  known  to  experts 
as  pigeon's  blood  colour.  On  exposure  to  a  high  tempera- 
ture the  ruby  becomes  green,  but  regains  its  original  colour 
on  cooling — a  behaviour  which  is  consistent  with  the  sup- 
position that  the  stone  owes  its  colour  to  the  presence  of 
oxide  of  chromium,  and  indeed  in  artificial  rubies  the 
required  tint  is  always  obtained  by  the  use  of  some  com- 
pound of  chromium.  When  a  ruby  of  the  most  esteemed 
colour  is  properly  viewed  through  a  dichroiscope,  the 
colour  is  resolved  into  a  carmine  and  an  aurora  red,  or  red 
inclining  to  orange.  By  this  test  the  true  ruby  may  be 
distinguished  from  spinel  and  garnet,  since  these  mmerals 
crystallize  in  the  cubic  system  and  therefore  are  not  di- 
chroic.  Another  mode  of  distinction  is  suggested  by  the 
high  density  of  corundum  :  the  specific  gravity  of  the  true 
ruby  reaches  or  even  rises  slightly  above  4,  and  thus 
greatly  exceeds  that  of  either  spinel  or  garnet.  But 
perhaps  the  simplest  test  is  afforded  by  its  great  hard- 
ness (H  =  9):  the  sharp  edge  of  a  corundum  crystal  will 
readily  scratch  either  a  spinel  or  a  garnet,  but  has  no 
effect  on  a  ruby.  The  true  ruby  has  a  very  high  index 
of  refraction  (/i=r78),  and  to  this  character  is  due 
the  remarkable  lustre  of  the  polished  stone.  •  Mr  Crookes 
lias  shown  that  the  ruby  is  brilliantly  phosphorescent 
when  subjected  to  raiiiant  discharge  in  a  properly  ex- 
hausted vessel,  and  curiously  enough  the  red  light  emitted 
is  equally  vivid  whatever  be  the  colour  of  the  corundum 
under  experiment.  The  microscopic  structure  of  the 
ruby  has  been  studied  by  Mr  Sorby,  who  finds  that  the 
stone  contains  fluid  cavities  and  numerous  crystallized 
enclosures  of  other  minerals  (Proc.  Roy.  Soc,  xvii..  1869, 

r-  291). 

fhc  Oriental  ruby  is  a  mineral  of  very  limited  distribution,  its 
principal  localities  being  confined  to  the  kingdom  of  Burmab.  The 
nrost  important  ruby  mines  are  situated  .it  Kyat  Pyen,  about  70 
iMiles  to  tlie  noitli-east  of  JIandalay  ;  there  are  also  mines  at 
Mookop,  a  little  farther  north,  and  others  in  the  Sagyin  Hills, 
within  16  miles  of  Mandalay.  In  all  these  localities  the  rubies 
occur  in  association  with  s:ipphires  and  other  precious  stones, 
forming  a  gem-bearing  gravel  which  is  dug  up  and  washed  in  very 
primitive  fashion.  By  far  the  larger  number  of  the  rubies  are  of 
small  size,  and  the  larger  stones  are  generally  flawed.  All  rubies 
exceeding  a  certain  weight  were  the  property  of  the  king  of  Burmah. 
The  mines  were  jealously  watched,  and  it  was  difficult  for  Europeans 
to  obtain  access  to  them  ;'but  some  of  tho  Ava  workings  were 
visited  and  described  many  years  ago  by  Pfere  Giuseppe  d'Amato, 
and  more  recently  those  near  Mandalay  have  been  described  by  Mr 
Bredmeyer,  who  was  olficially  counectcd  with  them  (Ball).  It  is 
stated  in  the  older  works  on  mineralogy  that  rubies  occur  in  tho 
Capelan  Mountains  near  Syrian,  in  Pegu.  In  peninsular  India 
there  are  but  few  localities  that  yield  rubies,  but  they  liave  been 
reported  from  the  corundum  mines  of  the  Salem  district  in  Madras 
and  from  Mysore.  In  Ceylon  they  occur  with  sapphires,  but  are 
rarer  than  those  gems,  and  the  Ceylon  rubies  are  not  usually  of 
good  colour.  Rubies  have  been  brought  from  Gandamak,  in 
;Afghanistan,  but  most  of  the  stones  reputed  to  be  Afghan  rubies 
are  merely  spinels. 

In  1871  some  remarkable  deposits  of  conitidum  were  discovered 
bv  Col.    C.    W.    .Tcnks   in  Macon  co.,  NorLl>   Carolina.     R  ibics. 


sapphires,  and  large  pebbles  of  coarse  corundnm  were  found  in  tile 
bed  of  a  river  near  a  large  maas  of  serpentine  which  afterwards 
became  known  as  Corundum  Hill,  and  these  pebbles  were 
eventually  traced  to  certain  veins  in  the  serpentine.  The  conmdum 
occurred  crystallized  hi  sitit,  but  was  rarely  of  such  a  colour  aa 
would  entitle  it  to  be  called  ruby.  Mr  G.  F.  Kunz,  who  has 
lately  written  au  article  on  American  precious  stones,  states  that 
rubies  and  sapphires  have  also  been  found  at  Vernon,  New  Jersey  ; 
near  Helena,  Montana  ;  at  Santa  Fe,  New  Mexico  ;  in  southern 
Colorado  ;  and  in  Arizona. 

Aiistralia  has  occasionally  yielded  true  rubies,  but  mostly  of 
small  size  and  inferior  quality.  In  Victoria  they  have  been  found 
in  the  drifts  of  the  Beech  worth  gold  fields  and  at  the  Berwick  tin 
mine,  Wallace's  Creek  ;  while  in  New  South  Wales  they  occur  at) 
Modgee,  is  .tbs  Cod^etnutf  and  aonsa  of  its  ttibataiies^and  at 
Tumberumba,  co.  WynyarJ.  A  magenta-coloured  tnrbld^Tli^ 
frorri  Victoria  is  known  under  the  name  of  *'  barklyite." 

The  "  star  ruby  "  is  a  rather  cloudy  variety  from  Ceylon,  exhibit- 
ing when  cut  en  cabochon  a  luminous  star  of  six  rays,  reflected 
from  the  convex  surface  of  the  stone. 

The  largest  ruby  known  in  Europe  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  size  of 
a  small  hen's  egg,  which  was  presented  by  Gustavus  III.  of 
Sweden  to  the  empress  of  Eussia  on  the  occasion'  of  his  visit  to  St 
Petersburg.  Rubies  of  larger  size  have  been  described  by 
Tavernier  and  other  Oriental  travellers,  but  it  is  probable  tUat  in 
many  cases  spinels  have  been  mistaken  for  true  rubies.  There 
seems  no  doubt  that  the  gieat  historic  ruby  set  in  the  Maltese 
cross  in  front  of  the  imperial  state  crown  of  England  is  a  spineU 
This  stone  was  given  to  Edward  the  Black  Prince  by  Pedro  th'e 
Cruel,  king  of  Castile,  on  the  victory  of  Najera'_in  1367,  and  it  was 
afterwards  worn  by  Henry  V.  at  the  battle  of  Agincourt.  when  it 
narrowly  escaped  destruction. 

Tlie  spinel  ruby  has  been  described  in  the  article  Mineraeooy 
(vol.  xvi.  p.  386,  sp.  93).  The  spinels  used  for  jewellery  are  mostly 
obtained  in  Burmah,  where  they  occur  as  octahedral  crystals  or  as 
water-worn  pebbles  in  association  with  the  true  ruby,  for  which 
they  are  often  mistaken.  They  are  also  found  in  the  gem-bearing 
gravels  of  Ceylon,  Victoria,  and  New  South  Wales.  'The  delicatie 
rose-pink  variety  known  as  balas  ruby  was  worked  for  centuries  in 
Badakhshan,  but  the  operations  appear  toluave'been  suspended  of 
late  years.  Tlia  mines  are  situated  on  the  river  Shighnan,  a 
tributary  of  the  Oxus.  It  is  commonly  said  that  the  name 
"balas  "or  "  balash  "  is  a  corruption  of  Badakhshan,  whOe  others 
derive  it  from  Balkh. 

The  Oriental  ruby  has  always  been  esteemed  of  far  higher  vaTne 
than  any  other  precious  stone.  A  ruby  of  perfect  colour,  weighing 
five  carats,  is  worth  at  the  present  day  ten  times  as  much  as  a 
diamond  of  equal  weight  (Streeter).  As  the  weight  of  the  stone 
increases,  its  value  rapidly  rises,  so  that  rubies  of  exceptional  size 
command  enormous  prices.  There  is  consequently  much  tempta- 
tion to  replace  the  true  stone  by  spinel  or  garnet  or  even  paste. 
By  means  of  oxide  of  chromium  an  excellent  imitation  of  the  colour 
of  the  ruby  is  obtained  ;  and,  though  the  ordinary  "strass,"  or  fine 
lead-glass,  is  very  soft,  and  therefore  soon  loses  its  lustre,  it  is  yet 
possible  to  produce  a  pasie  consisting  of  silicate  of  alumina  which 
is  almost  as  hard  as  rock  crystal. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  chemist  has  frequently  suc- 
ceeded in  causing  alumina  to  assume  artificially  many  of  the 
physical  characteristics  of  the  native  ruby.  As  far  back  as  1837 
M.  Gaudin  reproduced  the  ruby  en  a  small  scale  by  exposing 
ammonia-alum  to  the  heat  of  the  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe,  whereby 
he  obtained  fused  .alumina  which  was  readily  coloured  by  the 
addition  of  oxide  of  chiomium.  A  different  method  was  followed 
by  Ebelmen.  He  dissolved  alumina  in  boric  acid  at  a  high 
temperature,  and' on  the  cooling  of  the  mass  obtained  the  alumina 
in  a  crystallized  form  ;  while  if  chromate  of  ammonium  was 
present  the  crystals  became  veritable  ruby.  MM.  Sainte-Claire 
Deville  and  Caron  heated  a  mixture  of  fluoride  of  aluminium, 
fluoride  of  chromium,  and  boric  acid,  and  thus  obtained  a  fluoride 
of  boro",  which,  being  volatile,  readily  escaped,  and  left  a  solid 
residue  of  alumina  coloured  by  the  chrome.  'These,  however,  were 
only  laboratory  experiments,  and  it  was  reserved  for  itfil.  Fremy 
and  Fell,  in  1878,  to  reproduce  the  ruby  and  sapphire  on  a  scale  sug- 
gestive of  some  commercial  importance.  By  heating  a  mixture  of 
artificial  alumina  and  red  lead  in  a  fireclay  crucible,  tliey  obtained  a 
vitreous  silic.ite  of  lead  (the  silica  being  derived  from  the  crucible) 
and  crystallized  alumina,  while  the  addition  of  bichromate  of  potas- 
sium caused  this  aluuiiua  to  assume  the  coveted  tint  of  the  ruby. 

For  a  gcnnnl  dcscriptinn  of  the  ruby  see  E.  Jannettaz,  Diamant  et  Pierret 
Prnievsis  (16S1) ;  Kliigi',  Hatidbnch  der  Edehleiitkur.de  (ISGO);  Scliraiif, 
Eil'htciukiiu>le  (18G3);  Church,  Precious  Stones  (1883);  Streeter,  Precious 
Stuucs  and  Gems  (4th  eil.,  1884).  For  Indian  localities  see  BaU's  Economic  Geolofjtf, 
beioK  vol.  ili.  of  the  Manual  of  the  Cology  of  India  (1S8I);  for  Australian 
loc.ilitics,  Liversidgc's  M<:ierals  of  Keic  South  Vi'ales  (IM  ed.,  1882);  for  United 
St.ites  rubies,  <2u<ir/.  Jour.  Geo!.  Soc.  Lond.,  vi.I.  xxx^  1874.  p.  303.  and 
American  Jour.  Science,  ser.  iii,  vol.  iv.  1871*,  pp.  100,  175,  hnd  Kunz's ulticlc  in 
M.neriil  Hesources  of  the  Umlid  St'itts,  by  A.  WilJiams,  jun.  (18S3).  For  tlio 
history  <if  tlte  stone  consult  King's  Natural  Hist,  of  Prtdous  Stones  (18S5),  and 
foi-  onifieial  rubies,  t'sniples  Rendus,  vol.  Ixlixv.  1S77,  p.  1029.  (F.  W.  gj 


R  U  (J  —  U  IJ   D 


49 


riiJCKERT,    FniEDRicn     (1788.-jSGr)),    an    eminent 
Otriuan  poet,  was  .born  at  Sclnveinfurt  on  tlic  IGtb  May 
1788.   .  He  Avas  cducaterl  at  t!ic  fryuina.^iuni  of  liis  native 
place  and  at  the  universities  of  Wiirzburp:  and  Heidelberg, 
(vhere  ho  sti\dicd  law  and  philology.  •  Having  taken  his 
degree,  he  went  to  the  university  of  Jena  as  a  "  privat- 
docent "  ;  but  this  position  he  soon  abandoned.     For  some 
time  he    worked    in  connexion  vith    the  iforfienlilalt  at 
Stuttgart.,    Nearly  the  whole  of  the  year  IS  16  he  spent 
in  Koine,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  study,  especially  to 
the  study  of  the  popular  poetry  of  Italy  ;  and  afterwards 
lie  lived- for  several  years  at  Coburg.     He  was  appointed 
a  professor  of    Oriental    languages   at    the  "university  of 
Erlangen  in   1S26,  and  in  1841  he  was  called  to  a  similar 
^wsition  in  Berlin,  where  he  was  also  made  a  privy  councillor. 
In  1849  he  .resigned  his  professorship  at  Berlin,  and  went 
to  live  on  his  estate  near  Coburg.     He  died  on  the  31st 
January  1866.     When  Riickert  began  his  literary  career, 
Germany  was  engaged  in  her  life-anddeath  struggle  with 
Napoleon ;  and    in    his    first    volume,    Deutsche:  Gedkhte, 
published  in  1814  under  the  name  of  Freimund  Raimar, 
he  gave  vigorous  expression  to  the  prevailing  sentiment  of 
his  countrymen.   In  181G  appeared  Napoleon,  eine  politische 
Komudie  in  drei  Stiicken,  and  in  1817  the  Kram  der  Zeit. 
He  issued  a  collection  of  poems,  OestUcIie  Rosen,  in  1822 ; 
and  in  1834-38  his  Gesammelle  GediclUe  were  published  in 
six  volume.s,  a,  selection  from  which  has  passed  through 
many  editions. "  Riickert,  who  was  master  of  thirty  lan- 
guages, made  his  mark  chiefly  as  a  translator  of  Oriental 
poetry,  and  as  a  writer  of  poems  conceived  in  the  spirit  of 
Oriental  masters.     Sluch  attention  was  attracted  by  Die 
Vcrivandlungen  des  Abu  Seid,   a  translation   of   Hariri's 
Makamen  (1826),   Kal  und  Damajanti,   an   Indian   tale 
(1828),   Amrilkais,  der  Didder'  wid  Konig  (1843),  and 
llamaM,   oder  die  (iltesten  arahischen    Volkslied-'r  (1846). 
Among  his  original  poems  dealing  with  Oriental  subjects 
are  Morgenlandiscke  Sagen  und  Geschichlen  (1837),  Erhan- 
liches  und  Beschaulidics  aus  derii  Morgenland  (1836-38), 
Bos/eiii   und   Suhrnb,    eine   Heldengeschichte  (1838),   and 
Brahmdnische  Erzfihlungen  (1839).     The  most  elaborate 
of  his  works  is  Die  Wtis/ieit  des  Bi-ahmaucn,  published  in 
six  volumes  in  1836-39.     In  1843-45  he  issued  several 
dramas,  all  of  which  aro  greatly  inferior  to  the  work  to 
which  he  owes  his  distinctive  place  in  German  literature. 
At  the  time  of  the  Danish  war  in    1864  ho  wrote  Eiti 
Dutzend  Knmpf- Lieder  J'ilr  Sehlesn'ig-IInhtein,  which,  al- 
though published  anonymously,  produced  a  considerable 
impression.     After   his  death  many  poetical  translations 
and   original  poems  were    found    among  his  papers,  and 
several    collections    of    them    were    published.      Riickert 
lacked  the  simple  and  natural  feeling  which  is  character- 
istic of  all  the  greatest  lyrical  poets  of  Germany.     But 
he  had  a  certain  splendour  of  imagination  which  made 
Oriental  poetry  congenial  to  him,  and  he  has  seldom  been 
surpassed  in  his  power  of  giving  rhythmic  expression  to 
ideas   on   the  conduct  of    life.     As  a  master  of  poetical 
style  he  ranks  with  German  writLrs  of  the  highest  class. 
There  are  hardly  any  lyrical  forms  which  are  not  represented 
among  his  works,  and  in  all  of  them,  the  simplest  and  the 
most  complex,  he  wrote  with  equal  ease  and  grace. 

A  conii>Uto'cilitton  of  Kiickcrt's  poetical  works  ap|>cnrc(l  in 
Fr.inkrort  in  1868-69.  Sco  Fortlago,  Riickert  nnd  seine  Wake 
0867) ;  Beyer,  f'licdn'eh  Riickert,  cin  biojniphisches  Dcnkmnl 
(1868);  h'oie  Hitlheihincicn  iiber  Riickert  (Mli);  and  Nachqelasscne 
Oediehle  Riickala  und  ni'ne  Beilriige  zu  deasen  Lelen  und  Sc/iri/ten 
(1877)  ;  Boxbcrgor,  RiickcrlSliidien  (1878). 

RUlXVOl  (d.  954).  Hakim  Mohammed  Far(d-edd(n 
Abdalliih,  the  first  great  genius  of  modern  Persia,  was 
born  in  Riidag,  a  village  in  Transoxiana.  about  870-900, 
—  totally  blind,  as  most  of  his  biographers  assert,  although 
tlic  fiuo  distinction  of  colours  und  the  minute  description 
21-i 


of  the  various  tints  aniT  sliuJes  of  Hewers'  in  Els  pberai 

flatly  contradict  the  customary  legend  of  the  "blind  min-. 
strcl."     In  his  eighth  year  he  knew  the  whole  Kordn  by 
heart  and  Jiad  begun  to  write  ver.ses. , '  He  had  besides  » 
wonderful  voice  which  enraptured  all  hearers,  and  he  played 
in  a  masterly  way  on  the  lute.     The  fame  of  the.«e  accom- 
plishments at  last  reached  the  ear  of  the  SAm.'tnid  Nasr  IL 
bin  Ahmad,  the  ruler  of  KhorAsAn  and  Transoxiana  (913-( 
942),  who  drew  the  poet  to  his  court  and  distinguished 
him  by  his  personal  favour.     Rudagi  became  his  dailyj 
companion,  rose  to  the  highest  honoursj  and  grew  rich  ia 
worldly  wealth.     He  received  so  "many  costly  presents  tiiat' 
he  could  allow  himself  .the''-extravagance  of  keeping  two 
hundred  pages,  and  that  four  hundred  camels  were  neces- 
sary to  carry  all  his  property.     In  spite  of  various  pre- 
decessors ho   well  deserves  the  title  of  "  father  of  Persian 
literature,"  since  ho  was  the  first  who  impressed  upon  every 
form  of  epic,  lyric,  and  didactic  poetry  its  peculiar  stamp 
and  its  individual  charaeter.     He  ia  also  said  to  have  been 
the  founder  of  the  "  diwdn,"  that  is,  the  typical  form  of 
the  cotuplete  collection  of  a  poet's  lyrical  compositions  in 
a  more  or  less  alphabetical  order  which  prevails  to  the 
present  day  among  all  Mohammedan  writers.     His  poems 
filled,  according  to  all  statements,  one  hundred  volumes  and 
consisted  of  one  million  three  hundred  thousand  verses  : 
but  of  this  there  remain  only  fifty^twQ  kasidas,  ghazals, 
and  rubA'is ;    of  his  epic  masterpieces  we  have  nothing 
beyond  a  few  stray  lines  found  here  'Jand  there  as  illus- 
trations of  ancient  Persian'  words  and  phrases  in  native 
dictionaries.      But  the  most  serious  loss  is  that  of  his 
translation  of  Ibn  JIukaffa's  Arabic  version  of  the  old 
Indian  fable  book  KaliUdi  and  Dimnak^  which  he  put 
into  Persian  verso  at  the  request  of  his  royal  patron,  and 
for  which  he   received  the   handsome  reward   of  40,000 
dirhems.     In  his  kasidas,  whiih  are  all  devoted  to  the 
praise  of   his  sovereign  and    friend,   Riidagl  has  left  us 
unequalled  models  of  a  refined  and  delicate  taste,  very 
different  from  the  often  bombastic  compositions  of  later 
Persian  encomiasts,  and  these  alone  would  entitle  him  to 
a  foremost  rank  among  the  poets  of  his  country ;  but  his 
renown  is  considerably  enhanced  by   his   odes   and   epi- 
grams.    Those  of   a   didactic  tendency  express  in   well- 
measured  lines  a  sort  of  Epicurean  philosophy — in  the 
loftiest  sense  of  the  word — on    human   life  and    human 
haj)piness;  more  charming  still  arc  the  purely  Ij'rical  jiiecos, 
sweet  and  fascinating  songs,  which  glorify  the  two  everlast- 
ing delights  of  glowing  hearts  and  cheerful  minds — love 
and  wine.     Riidagi  survived   his  royal   friend,   and  died 
long  after  the  splendid  days  of  Nasr's  patronage,  the  time 
of  wealth  and  luxury,  had  passed  away — poor  and  forgotten 
by  the   world,  as  one  of  his  poems,    a^beautiful    elegy, 
seems  to  indicate — in  954. 

A  conqiletc  edition  of  all  the  extant  poems  cfFudagi,  in  Persian 
text  and  inotriral  German  translation,  toRotlior  with  a  biograplii- 
cal  acconnt,  based  on  forty-six  Persian  MSS.,  is  found  in  Dr  Etiic'j 
"  Rudagi  der  Siinianidcndichter  '^{GoUingcr  Aac/iric/iUn^  1873,  pp. 
663-742).  ■'  •    f  *■ 

RUDD,  or  Red-Eve  (Leiiciscus  er!/tftr6phllialmvs)^a  fish, 
of  tho  family  of  Carps,  generally  spread  over  vEurope, 
north  and  south  of  the  Alps,  also  found  iu  Asia  'Minor, 
and  extremely  common  in  suitable  localities,  viz.,  still  and 
deep  waters  with  mudd'y  bottom.  AVhcn  adult,  it  is 
readily  recognized  by  its  deep,  short  body,  golden-coppery 
tinrt  of  thi;  whole  surface,  red  cye.'<,  and  scarlet  lower  tins  ; 
the  young  are  often  confounded  with  thoec  of  the  roach, 
but  the  pharyngeal  teeth  of  the  rudd  stand  in  a  (fcublo 
row,  and  not  in  a  single  one,  as  in  tho  roach  ;  also  the 
first  dorsal  rays  are  in.serted  distinctly  behind  tho  vertical 
lino  from  tho  root  of  tho  ventral  fin.  T!ie  anal  rays  ap 
from  lliirtecn  to  fifteen  in  number,  and  the  scales  in  ihi 
lateral  line  from  thirty-nine  to  forty-two      Tho  rudd  it  i 


50 


B  U  D  — li   U   D 


fine  fish,  but  little  esteemed  for  food,  and  very  rarely  ex- 
ceeds a  length  of  12  inches  qr  a  weight  of  2  ft.  It  feeds 
on  small  freshwater  animals  and  soft  vegetable  matter,  and 
Spawns  in  April  or  May.  It  readily  crosses  with  the  white 
bream,  more  rarely  with  the  roach  and  bleak. 

EUDDIMAN,  Thomas  (1674-1758),  an  eminent  Scot^ 
tish  scholar,  was  born  in  October  1674,  at  Eaggal,  in  the 
parish  of  Boyndie,  Banffshire,  where  his  father  was  a 
farmer.  He  studied  Latin  eagerly  at  the  school  of  his 
native  parish,  and  when  sixteen  started  off  to  walk  to 
Aberdeen,  there  to  compete  for  a  college  bursary.  On  the 
way  he  was  attacked  by  Gipsies,  robbed  of  a  guinea,  which 
was  all  he  had,  and  otherwise  very  cruelly  treated ;  but  he 
jiersevered'in  his  journey,  reached  Aberdeen,  and  competed 
for  and  won  the  bursary.  He  then  entered  the  university, 
and  four  years  afterwards — on  21st  June  1694 — received 
the  degree  of  M.A.  For  some  time  he  acted  as  school- 
m^ter  at  Laurencekirk  in  Kincardine.  There  he  chanced 
to  make  the  acquaintance  of  Dr  Pitcairne,  of  Edinburgh, 
who  persuaded  him  to  remove  to  the  Scottish  capital, 
where  he  obtained  the  post  of  assistant  in  the  Advocates' 
Library.  As  his  Salary  was  only  £8,  6s.  8d.  per  annum, 
he  was  forced  to  undertake  additional  employment.  He 
engaged  in  miscellaneous  literary  work,  took  pnpib,  and 
for  some  time  acted  as  an  auctioneer.  His  chief  writings 
at  thia  period  were  editions  of  Wilson's  De  Animi  TroDr 
quUlitale  Dialogus  (1707),  and  the  Canlici  Solomouis  Para- 
pkrasis  Poetica  (1709)  of  Arthur  Johnstone  {ob.  1641), 
editor  of  the  Delicix  Poelarum  Scotonim. 

In  1714  he  published  .£i/c?jmen<s  of  the  Latin  Tongue, 
which  is  even  yet  his  best  known  work.  This  wais  intended 
to  be  an  easy  introduction  to  Latin  grammar,  and  was  so 
successful  that  it  at  once  superseded  all  others.  Under 
various  forms  it  has  been  in  use,  down  to  our  own  day,  in 
the  schools  of  Scotland.  In  1715  he  edited,  with  notes 
and  annotations,  the  works  of  George  Buchanan  in  two 
volumes  folio.  As  Ruddiman  was  a  Jacobite,  the  liberal 
views  of  Buchanan  seemed  to  him  to  call  for  frequent 
censure.  That  censure  is  often  rather  implied  than  openly 
expressed  ;  but  it  excited  much  opposition.  A  society  of 
scholars  was  formed  in  Edinburgh  to  "  vindicate  that  in- 
comparably learned  and  pious  author  from  the  calumnies 
of  Mr  Thomas  Ruddiman"  by  publishing  a  correct  edition 
of  his  works.  This  they  never  did ;  but  a  number  of  ob- 
scure writers  from  this  time  attacked  Ruddiman  with  great 
vehemence.  He  replied ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  year 
before  his  death  that  he  said  his  "  last  word  "  in  the  con- 
troversy. 

His  worldly  affairs,  meanwhile,  grew  more  and  more 
prosperous.  He  founded  (1715)  a  successful  printing 
business,  and  after  some  time  was  appointed  printer  to  the 
university.  He  Required  the  Caledonian  Mercury  in  1729, 
and  in  1730  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  Advocates' 
Library,  which  post,  owing  to  failing  health,  he  resigned 
in  1752.  He  died  at  Edinburgh,  19th  January  1758,  and 
was  interred  in  Greyfriars  churchyard,  where  in  1806  a 
tablet  was  erected  to  his  memory. 

Besides  the  works  mentioned,  the  following  writings  of  Euddinran 
deserve  notice  : — an  edition  of  Gavin  Douglas's  ^Eiteid  of  Virgil 
(1710) ;  the  editing  and  completion  of  Anderson's  Selectiis  Diplo- 
tiiatiim  et  Numismatum  Scotim  thesaurus  (1739) ;  Catalogue  of  Oui 
Advocated  Library  (1733-42) ;  an  edition  of  Livy,  famed  for  its 
"immaculate  purity,"  in  4  vols.  (1751).     Ruddiman  was  for  many 

J  ears  the  representative  scholar  of  Scotland.  Writing  in  1766,  Dr 
ohnson,  after  reproving  Boswell  for  some  bad  Latin,  significantly 
adds— " Ruddiman  is  dead."  When  Boswell  proposed  to  write 
Ruddiman's  life,  "I  should  take  plcasare  in  helping  you  to  do 
honour  to  him,"  said  Johnson 

See  Chalmers's  Life  of  Ruddiman  (1794);  Scoti  Magazine,  J«navy  7, 1757; 
Bo«well'3  life  of  Johnson. 

RUDE,  Francois  (1784-1 355),  a  French  sculptor  of  great 
natural  talent  and  force  of  character,  but  of  an  ignorance 


as  to  all  that  did  not  immediately  concern  his  art  wlv'eb 
can  best  be  described  as  out  of  date.     He  was  born  at 
Dijon,  4th  January  1784,  and  came  therefore  in  his  youth 
under   the   influence   of  the   democratic  and  Napoleonic 
ideals  in  their  full   force.      Till  the  age   of  sixteen  he 
worked  at  his  father's  trade  as  a  stovemaker,  amusing 
himself  with   modelling  in  his  free  hours  only ;   but  in 
1809  he  went  up  to  Paris  from  the  Dijon  school  of  art, 
and  became  a  pupil  of  Casteliier,  obtaining  the  Great  Prize 
in  1812.     After  the  second  restoration  of  the  Bourbons 
he  retired  to  Brussels,  where  he  got  some  work  under  the 
architect  Van  der  Straeten,  who  employed  him  to  execute 
nine  has  reliefs  in  the  palace  of  Tervueren,  which  he  was 
then   engaged  in  building.      At  Brussels   Rude  married 
Sophie  Fremiet,  the  daughter  of  a  Bonapartist  compatriot, 
to  whom  he  had  many  obligations;  but,  obtaining  with 
difficulty  work  so  ill-paid  that  it  but  just  enabled  him  to 
live,   he   gladly   availed  himself   of   the   opportunity  of 
return  to  Paris,  where  in  1827  a  statue  of  the  Virgin  fo^ 
St  Gervais  and  a  Mercury  Fastening  his  Sandals  obtained 
much  attention.     His  great  success  dates,  however,  from 
1833,  when  he  received  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour         , 
for  his  statue  of  a  Neapolitan  Fisher  Boy  playing  with  a 
Tortoise,  which  also  procured  for  him  the  important  com- 
■  "mission  for  all  the  ornament  and  one  bas  relief  of  the  Arc 
de  rfitoile.     This  relief,  a  work  full  of  energy  and  fire, 
immortalizes  the  name  of  Rude.'    Amongst  other  produc 
tions,  we  may  mention  the  statue  ot  Monge,  1848,  Jeanne 
d'Arc    (in  garden  of  Luxembourg),    1852,    a  Calvary  in 
bronze  for  the  high  altar  of  St  Vincent  de  Paul,  1855,  as 
well  as  Hebe  and  the  Eagle  of  Jupiter,  Love  Triumphant, 
and  Christ  on  the  Cross,  all  of  which  appeared  at  the  Salon 
of  1857  after  his  death.     He  had  worked  all  his  life  long 
with  the  most  extraordinary  energy  and  given  himself  no 
rest  in  spite  of  the  signs  of  failing  health,  and  at  last,  on 
the  3d  November  1855,  he  died  suddenly  with  scarcely 
time  to  cry  out.     One  of  his  noblest  works,  and  easily 
accessible,  is  the  tomb  of  Cavaignac,  on  which  he  placed 
beside  his  own  the  name  of  his  favourite  pupil  Christoplie. 
Although  executed  in  1840,  this  was  not  erected  at  Mont- 
martre  till  the  year  after  Rude's  own  death.     His  Louis 
XIII.,  a  life  size  statue,  cast  in  silver,  is  to  be  seen  at  the 
Due  de  Luynes's  chateau  at  Dampierre.     Cato  of  Utica 
stands  in  the  gardens  of  the  TuUeries,  and  his  Baptism  of 
Christ  decorates  a  chapelof  the  Madeleine. 

RUDE  STONE  MONUMENTS.     The  raising  of  com- 
memorative monuments  of  such  an  enduring  material  as 
stone  is  a  practice  that  may  be  traced  in  all  countries 
to  the  remotest  times.     The   highly  sculptured  statues, 
obelisks,  and  other  monumental  erections  of  modern  civi- 
lization are  but  the  lineal  representatives  of  the  unhewn 
monoliths,  dolmens,  cromleclis,  <fcc.,  of  prehistoric  times. 
Judging  from  the  large  number  of  the  latter  that  have       J 
still  survived  the  destructive  agencies  (notably  those  of       1 
man  himself)  to  which  they  have  been  exposed  during  so 
many  ages,  it  would  seem  that  the  ideas  which  led  to  their 
erection  had  as  great  a  hold  on  humanity  in  its  earlier        | 
stages 'of  development  as  at  the  present  time.    In  giving        * 
some  idea  of  these  rude  monuments  "in  Britain  and  else- 
where, it  ■will  be  convenient  to  classify  them  as  follows 
(see  voL  ii.  p.  383,  figs.  1-4).    (1)  Isolated  pillars  or  mono- 
liths of  unhewn  stones  raised  on  end  are  called  Menhirs        - 
{maen,  a  stone,  and  Mr,  long).     (2)  "UTien  these  monoliths       fl 
are  arranged  in  lines  they  become  Alignments.     (3)  But        ■ 
if  their  linear  arrangement  is  snch  as  to  form  an  enclosure 
(enceinte),  whether  circular,  oval,  or  irregular,  the  group  is 
designated  by  the  name  of  Cromlech  (see  Ceomlech).    (4) 
Instead  of  the  •  monoUths  remaining  separate,  they  are 
sometimes  placed  together  and  covered  over  by  one  or 
more  capstones  so  as  to  form  a  rude  chamber ;  in  this  cos© 


iiu  D  f:     stone     M  O  N  U  M  E  N  T  iS 


5t 


the  monument  is  called  a  Dolmen  (daul,  a  table,  and  rnnfn, 
a  stone).  This  megalithic  chamber  is  sometimes  partially 
or  wholly  imbedded  in  a  mound  of  earth  or  stones  so  as  to 
form  a  tumulus  or  cairn.  As,  Iiowever,  there  are  many 
tumuli  and  cairns  \vjiich  do  not  contain  megalithic  cham- 
bers, we  have  only  partially  to  deal  \yitb  them  under  the 
category  of  rude  stone  monuments. 

.1A-hA/;s.— Riulc  monoliths  fixed  on  end  (soe  vol.  ii.  p.  383, 
f\'^.  1 )  liavc  liciMi  used  in  rtll  ages  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  coramem- 
omtivc  anil  religious.  Stone  pillars  were  also  used  ceremonially 
on  tlio  accession  of  kings  aud  chiefs.  In  Scotlaiul,  when  stones 
were  thus  used,  they  were  called  Tanist  Stones,  the  most  celebrated 
of  which  was  the  Lia  Fail,  formerly  at  Scone  (now  at  Westminster 
Abbey),  on  which  tlic  kings  of  Scotland  used  to  be  crowned.  We 
read  also  of  Hare  or  Hoer  Stones,  Cambus  or  Camus  Stones,  Cat 
{cnlh,  battle)  Stones,  "  Witch  Stanes,  "  "  Druid  Stanes,"  &o.  Tlie 
ilawk's  Stane,  or  Siixiim  Fnkonis,  at  St  Madoes,  Perthshire,  was 
erected  in  memory  of  the  defeat  of  the  Danes  at  Luncarty,  and  a 
inonolitli  now  standing  on  the  field  of  Flodden  is  said  to  mark  the 
place  where  King  James  fell.  AVlien  menhirs  were  grouped  togetlier 
their  number  was  often  significant,  e.g.,  twelve  (Josh.  iv.  0)  or 
seven  (Herod.,  iii.  8).  Some  standing  stones  are  found  to  have 
been  artificially  perforated,  and  these  superstition  lias  invested  with 
soma  enrious  functions.  As  examples  of  tliis  class  may  be 
mentioned  the  famous  Stone  of  Odin,  near  the  circle  of  Steiniis, 
the  Clach-Charia,  or  Stone  of  Vengeance,  at  Onich  near  Balachu- 
lish  in  Argyllshire,  and  Jlen-en-tol  in  ConixTall.  Two  rude  mono- 
liths in  Scotland  bear  inscriptions, — the  famous  Newton  Stone  in 
the  district  of  Garioch,  and  the  Cat  Stane  near  Edinburgh.  Slany 
ftthers  have  cup-marks  and  spirals  or  concentinc  circles.  In  Ireland, 
"Wales,  and  the  north  of  Scotland,  they  are  occasionally  found  with 
ogara  inscri|)tions,  and  in  the  north-east  of  Scotland  (Tictland) 
with  svmbolical  figures,  which  were  subsequently  continued  on  the 
beautifully  sculptured  stones  of  early  Christian  date  which  are 
(jccnliar  to  that  locality. 

iMciihirs  are  found  in  all  megalithic  countries.  In  the  British 
(slos  they  are  very  abundant,  more  especially  in  the  less  cultivated 
districts.  In  Franco  over  1(300  isolated  e.\ample3  have  been 
recorded,  of  whicli  about  the  half,  and  by  far  the  most  remarkable, 
are  within  the  five  departments  which  constitute  Brittany.  In  the 
rest  of  France  they  are  generally  small,  and  not  to  bo  comparxid  in 
grandeur  to  those  of  Brittany.  At  Locmariaquer  (Morbihan)  is 
the  largest  menhir  in  the  world.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  rude  but 
smooth-sided  obelisk,  and  lies  on  the  ground  broken  into  four 
portions,  the  aggregate  length  of  which  amounts  to  20'50  metres 
(about  67  feet).  It  was  made  of  granite,  foreign  to  the  ncighbour- 
liood,  and  its  weight,  according  to  the  most  recent  calculations, 
nmounted  to  347,531  kilogrammes  or  342  tons  (L'Homme,  1885, 
p.  193).  The  next  largest  menhir  is  at  Plcsidy  (C6tes.du-Nord), 
measuring  about  37  feet  in  height.  Then  follows  a  list  of  si.xty- 
seven  gradually  diminishing  to  16  feet  in  height,  of  which  the  first 
ten  (all  above  2(5  feet)  are  in  Brittany.  As  regards  form,  these 
menhirs  vary  greatly.  Some  are  cylindrical,  as  the  well-known 
"pierre  du  champ  Dolent"  at  Dol  (height  30  feet),  and  that  of 
Cadiou  in  Finistere  (23  feet) ;  while  that  of  Penmarch  (26  feet) 
takes  the  shape  of  a  partially  expanded  fan.  On  the  introduction 
of  Christianity  into  Fr.ince  its  adherents  appear  to  have"  made  use 
of  these  menhirs  at  an  early  period  ;  many  of  them  at  present 
support  a  cross,  and  some  a  Madonna.  The  scattered  positions 
of  some  monoliths  and  the  no  less  singul.ir  grouping  of  others  show 
that,  although  they  were  sometimes  used  as  landmarks,  this  was 
only  a  secondary  function.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  a  monolith 
overtopping  a  tumulus,  thus  simulating  the  Bauta(gravo  or  battle) 
Stones  of  Scandinavia.  In  England,  monoliths  are  often  associated 
with  the  stono  circles,  as  the  King's  Stone  at  Stanton  Drew,  Long 
Heg  at  Little  Salkeld,  the  Ring  Stone  at  Avehury,  &c.  One  of 
the  finest  British  monoliths  stands  in  the  churchyard  of  Rudston, 
Yorkshire.  Examples  of  a  largo  size  aro  met  with  in  Algeria, 
Morocco,  India,  Central  Asia,  &e. 

Alignmenti. — The  most  celebrated  monuments  of  this  class  are 
in  the  vicinity  of  Carnac  in  Brittany.  They  arc  situated  in  groups 
at  Mi!nec,  Kcrmario,  Kcrlescant,  Erdeven,  and  St  Barbo — all 
within  a  few  miles  of  each  other,  and  in  the  centre  of  a  district 
containing  the  most  remarkable  megalithic  remains  in  the  world. 
'Tlie  first  three  groups  aro  supposed  by  some  archnenlogists  to  be 
merely  portions  of  one  original  and  continuous  series  of  alignments, 
which  extended  nearly  2  miles  in  length  in  a  uniform  direction 
from  south-west  to  north-east.  Commencing  at  the  village  of 
M(5ncc,  the  menhira  are  aiTanged  in  eleven  rows.  At  first  they 
stand  from  10  to  13  feet  above  the  ground,  but,  as  wo  advance, 
they  Viecome  gradually  smaller  till  they  attain  only  3  or  4  feet, 
when  they  cease  altogether.     After  a  vacant  space  of  about  350 

?ard3  we  come  to  tho  Kormario  group,  which  contains  only  ten 
ines,  but  they  are  nearly  of  tho  same  magnitude  as  at  the  begin- 
ningof  the  former  group.     After  a  still  grwitcr  interval  the  menhirs 


again  appear,  but  this  time  in  thirlecn  row»,  nt  the  Tillage  of 
Kcrlescant  In  1881  M.  Felix  Caillard,  Plouharnel,  made  a  plan 
of  the  alignments  at  Erdcvcn,  which  .shows  that,  out  of  a  total  of 
1120  menhirs  which  originally  constituted  the  giwip,  290>aro  still 
standing,  740  fallen,  ami  90  removed.  The  mcnhii^  hero  may  b» 
traced  for  nearly  a  mile,  but  their  linear  arrwigenicnt  is  not  soj 
distinct,  nor  aro  the  stones  so  large  as  those  at  Carnac.  Ahou'C 
fifty  alignments  are  known  in  France.  At  Penmarch  thero  is  onoi 
containing  over  two  hundred  menhirs  arranged  in  Ibtir  rows.l 
Othci-s,  however,  are  formed  of  only  a  single  row  of  stones,  ns  nt 
Kerdouadec,  Leure,  and  C'amaret.  The  first  is  480  m.  in  length,] 
and  terminates  at  its  southern  extremity  in  a  kind  of  croi:q 
gammce.  At  Leure  three  short  lines  meet  at  right  angles.  ■  Th* 
third  is  situated  oi;  the  rising  ground  between  the  town  of  Camaret) 
and  the  point  of  Toulinguet.  It  consists  of  a  base  line,  some  600 
yards  long,  with  forty-one  stones  (others  have  a])i)arently  been: 
removed),  and  two  perpendicular  lines  as  short  olt'sets.  Close  to' 
it  arc  a  dolmen  and  a  prostrate  menhir.  These  monoliths  aro  all 
of  coai-se  qnartz  and  of  small  size,  onl}'  one,  at  Leure,  rcadiing  a 
height  of  9  feet.  Alignments  aro  also  found  in  other  countries.' 
In  tho  Pyrenees  they  are  generally  in  single  file, — mostly  straight, 
but  sometimes  reptiliform.  One  at  Peyrelade  (Billiere)  runs  in  a 
sti'aight  line  from  north  to  south  for  nearly  300  yards,  and  contains 
ninety-three  stones,  some  of  which  are  of  great  size.  At  St  Colunib' 
in  Cornwall,  thero  is  one  called  the  Nine  Maidens,  which  is  formed 
of  eight  quartz  stones,  extending  in  a  perfectly  straight  line  for  26^ 
feet.  In  Britain  they  are  more  frequently  arranged  in  double  file, 
or  in  avenues,  leading  to  or  from  otlier  megalithic  nionuiuoiUtB, 
sucfl  as  still  exist,  or  formerly  existed,  at  the  circles  of  Avcbury, 
Stonehenge,  Shap,  Callernish,  &e.  The  only  examido  in  England 
comparable  to  tho  great  alignments  of  Carnac  is  in  the  V.alo  of  thcij 
Wliito  Horse  in  Berkshire.  Hero  the  stones,  numbcriitg  about 
eight  hundred,  are  grouped  in  three  divisions,  nnd  extend  over  aiy 
irregular  parallelogram  which  measures  from  500  to  600  yards  ii^ 
length  and  from  250  to  300  yards  in  breadth.  Sir  Henry  Drydeii 
describes  groups  of  a  similar  character  in  Caithness,  as  at  Oarry-J 
Whin,  Camster,  Yarhouse,  and  tho  "many  stones"  at  Clyth^ 
Alignments  in  single  and  multiple  rows  have  also  been  observed  iu! 
Shetland,  India,  Algerin,  &c. 

Cromlechs. — Enclosures    (enceintes)  formed  of  rude  nionolith3,N 
placed  at  intervals  of  afew  yards,  have  generally  a  circul.'r  or 
oval,  shape.     Rectangular  forms    aro,    however,    not    unknown,' 
examples  of  which  may  be  seen  at  Curcunno  (Morbihan),  near 
the  celebrated  dolmen  of  that  name,  and  at  Saint  Just  (Ille-ot4 
Vilaine).     The  former  measures  37  by  27  yards,  and  is  now  coin-' 
posed  of  twenty-two  menhirs,  all  of  which  aro  standing  (some' 
fallen  ones  having  been  recently  restored  by  tho  Govcirinu-nt).' 
About  a  dozen  menhirs  would  appear  to  be  wanting.     A  donkoy- 
shoe-shaped  enclosure  has  been  described  by  Sir  Ileniy  Drydcn,  iii 
the  parish  of  Latheron,  Caithness.    It  is  226  feet  long  and  110  iVc^ 
wide  in  the  middle,  and  the  two  extremities  are  85  feet  apart' 
Stone   circles   are  frequently  arranged   concentricilly,  as  may  ho 
seen  in  the  circle  at  Kenmore,  near  Aberfcldy,  I'crthshiro,  ns  well 
as   in   many   other  Scotch,    Irish,    aud   Scandinavian    examples. 
More  rarely  one  largo  circle  surrounds  secondary  groups,  without 
having  a  common  centre,  as  was  the  caso  at  Avcbuiy,  wheix;  tho 
outer  circle,   1200  feet  in  diameter,  included  two  othei's,  each  of 
■which   contained   an   inner  concentric   circle.     At   Boscawcn,    iu 
Cornwall,  thero  is  a  group  of  circles  confusedly  attached,  and,  as 
it  were,  partially  overla[)ping  each   other.     Circles   may  also   bo 
connected  by  an  alignment  or  avenue,  as  at  Stanton  Drew,  Dnrt-I 
moor,  &c.     Cromlechs  aro  often  associated  with  other  megalilhio 
monuments  ;  thus  at  tho  head  of  the  great  Carnac  alignments  am 
tho  remains  of  a  large  circle  which  can  bo  readily  traced,  notwilh-, 
standing  that  soino  houses  are  constructed  within  its  area.     In  tho 
British    Isles    and    the    north   of  Europo    cromlechs  fi-eqiientty 
surround   tho  dolmens,  tumuli,  or  cairns.     A  few  cxomiilus  of  a 
dolmen   surrounded   by  one   or  moie  concentric  cIitIcs  liavo  also 
been  recorded  by  M.  Cartailhac,  in  tho  department  of  Avcyion  in 
France.     Outside   the   cromlech   thero   i^    also   frequently   to   bo 
found   .1  circular   ditch    or  valhtm,    as  at  Avehury,  Stonehcngr, 
Arbor  Low,  Brogar,  &c.     The  most  remarkable  n^egalilliic  monu- 
ment of  this  class  now  extant  is  Stonehenge,  whicli  dilfcrs,  lio\y- 
ever,  from  its  congeners  in  having  tho  stones  of  its  second  inner 
circle   partially  hewn   and    attached  by  Inrgo   transverse  lintels^ 
Tho   largest  cromlech   in    I'mnce   stands   on   tho   ilc-aux-Moin*k 
(Morbihan),    in   tho  ^-illago   of  Kergonan.     About   half   of  it   ia 
destroyed   by   the   encroachment  of  tho  houses.     The  remaining 
semi-eircumfcrence  (slightly  elliptical)  contains  thirty-.six  mruhlin 
from  0  to  10  feet  high,  and  its  diameter  is  about  100  metres  (32* 
feet).     Only  a  few  of  tho  British  cromlechs  cMcecd  the«o  ilinjcn- 
sions,  among  which    may  bo  mentioned  Avehury  (12C0  by  U70 
feet),   Stonehenge  (outer  rirclc  300  feet,  inner  108  feet),  Staiilnri 
Drew  (360  feet),  Brogar  (.'MS  feet).  Long  Meg  and  her  DauKhleis 
(.ISO  feet).     One  near  Dumfries,  called  the  'i'welve  ApuslluH,  also 
closely  approaches  the   lOO-metrc  size  ;   but,  generally  speaking, 
the  Scotch  and  Irish  examples  are  of  smaller  proportiuiia,  rarely 


52 


KUDE     iSTONE     MONUMENTS 


fexceeaing  100  feet  in  diameter.  That  most  of  the  smaller  circles 
jhave'  been  "used  as  sepulchres  has  been  repeatedly  proved  by  a:tual 
excavations,  whiol.  showed  that  interments  had  taken  place 
within  their  area.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  believe  that  this 
could  have  been  the  main  object  of  tlie  larger  ones.  At  May- 
boroagh,  near  Penrith,  there  is  a  circle  entirely  composed  of  au 
immense  aggregation  of  small  stones  in  the  form  of  a  gigantic  ring 
enclosing  a  flat  area,  about  300  feet  in  diameter.  Near  the  centre 
there  is  a  fine  monolith,  one  of  several  known  to  have  formerly 
etood  there.  Of  the  same  type  is  the  Giant's  Ring  near  Belfast, 
tmly  the  ring  in  this  instance  is  made  of  earth,  and  it  is  consider- 
»bly  larger  in  diameter  (580  feet) ;  the  central  object  is  a  fine 
dolmen.  It  is  more  probable  that  such  enclosures  were  used,  like 
many  of  our  modern  churches,  for  the  double  purpose  of  burying 
the  dead  and  addressing  the  living. 

'  Dolmens. — In  its  simplest  form  a  dolmen  consists  of  three,  four, 
or  five  stone  supports,  covered  over  with  one  selected  megalith 
tailed  a  capstone  or  table.  A  well-known  example  of  this  kind 
in  England  is  Kit's  Cotty  House,  between  Rochester  and  Maidstone, 
, which  is  formed  of  three  large  supports,  with  a  capstone  measuring 
111  by  8  feet.  From  this  simple  form  there  is  an  endless  variety  cf 
;npward  gradations  till  we  reach  the  so-called  Gaint  Graves  and 
^Grottes  aux  Fees,  which  are  constructed  of  numerous  supports  and 
several  capstones.-  A  dolmen  (allee  couverle)  situated  in  a  plant-. 
Btion  at  the  outskirts  of  the  town  of  Saumur  is  composed  of  four 
flat  supports  on  each  side,  with  one  at  the  end,  and  four  capstones. 
The  largest  capstone  measures  7 '5  metres  in  length,  7  in  breadth, 
and  1  in  thickness.  The  chamber  is  18  metres  long,  6 '5  broad, 
and  3  high.  Another  near  Ess^,  called  "la  Roche  aux  Fees,"  is 
equally  long,  and  is  constructed  of  thirty  supports,  with  eight 
capstones,  including  the  vestibule.  Dolmens  of  this  kind  are 
extremely  rve  in  the  Biitish  Isle.s  the  only  one  approaching  thein 
iteing  Calliagh  Birra's  House  inJreland.  These  (generally  Known 
as  allees  couvertes)  and  many  other  examples  of  the  simple  dolmen 
show  no  evidence  of  having  been  covered  over  with  a  n\ound.  When 
.there  was  a  mound  it  necessitated,  in  the  larger  ones,  an  entrance 
[passage,  which  was  constructed,  like  the  chamber,  of  a  series  of 
|8ide  stones  or  supports  and  capstones.  Some  archseologists  maintain 
[that  all  dolmens  were  formerly  covered  with  a  cairn  or  tumulus, 
. — a  theory  which  undoubtedly  derives  some  favour  from  the 
condition  of  many  examples  still  extant,  especially  in  France, 
where  all  stages  of  degradation  are  seen,  from  a  partial  to  a  com- 
plete state  of  denudation.  The  allees  couvertes  of  France,  Ger- 
'many,  and  the  Channel  Islands  had  their  entrance  at  the  end  ;  but, 
'on  the  other  hand,  the  Hunnebedden  of  Holland  had  both  ends 
closed  and  the  entrance  was  on  the  side  facing  the  sun.  The 
(covered  dolmens  are  extremely  variable  in  shape, — circular,  oval, 
■  quadrangular,  or  irregular.  The  entrance  gallery  may  be  attached 
to  the  end,  as  in  the  Grotte  de  Gavr'inis,  or  to  the  side,  as  in  the 
'Oaint's  Grave  (Jettestuer)  at  Oem  near  Eoskilde.  In  other 
.Instances  there  is  no  distinct  chamber,  but  a  long  passage  gradually 
[widening  from  the  entrance  ;  and  this  may  be  bent  at  an  angle,  as 
In  the  dolmen  du  Rocher(Morbihan).  Again,  there  may  be  several 
chambers  cummunicating  with  one  entrance,  or  two  or  three 
separate  chambers  having  separate  entrances,  and  all  imbedded  in 
the  same  tumulus.  An  excellent  example  of  this  kind  is  the 
partially  destroyed  tumulus  of  Rondosec,  near  Plonharnal  railway 
station,  which  contains  three  separate  dolmens.'  That  such  varia- 
tions are  not  due  to  altered  customs,  in  consequence  of  wideness  of 
geographical  range,  is  shown  by  M.  de  Mortillet,  who  gives  plans 
of  no  less  than  sixteen  differently  shaped  dolmens  {Musee  jirMs- 
torique,  pi.  68),  all  within  a  confined  district  in  Morbihan. 

No  dolmens  exist  in  eastern  Europe  beyond  Saxony.  They 
reappear,  however,  in  the  Crimea  and  Circassia,  whence  they  have 
teen  traced  through  Central  Asia  to  India,  where  they  are  widely 
distributed.  Similar  megalithic  structures  have  also  been  recog- 
nized and  described  by  travellers  in  Palestine,  Arabia,  Persia, 
>Vustralia,  the  Penrhyn  Island*,  Madagascar,  Peru,  &c..  The 
jiTegular  manner  in  which  dolmens  are  distributed  along  the 
western  parts  of  Europe  has  led  to  the.  theory  that  all  thes§ 
megalithic  structures  were  erected  by  a  special  people,  but  as  to 
the  when,  whence,  and  whither  of  this  singular  race  there  is  no 
knowledge  whatever.  Though  the  European  dolmens  have  a 
strong  family  likeness,  however  widely  apart,  thejr  present  some 
characteristic  differences  in  the  various  countries  in  which  they  are 
^ound.  In  Scandinavia  they  are  confined  to  the  Danish  lands  and 
»  few  provinces  in  the  south  of  Sweden.  Here  the  exposed  dolmens 
»re  often  on  artificial  mounds,  and  surrounded  by  cromlechs  which 
»re  either  circular  [runddysser)  or  oval  {langdysser).  In  Sweden 
the  sepulture,  d  galerie  is  very  rarely  entirely  covered  up  as  in  the 
giant  graves  of  Denmark. 

Hanover,  Oldenburg,  and  Mecklenburg  are  very  rich  in  the 
temains  of  these  monuments.  At  Riestedt,  near  Uelzen  in  Hanover, 
ttiere  is,  on  the  summit  of  a  tumulus,  a  Very  singular  dolmen  of 
pblbng  form,  which  measures  about  40  feet  long  and  over  6 
tut  in  breadth.  Another  at  Naschendorf,  near  Wismar,  consists 
«(  a  mofund   aurrouuded  by  a  large   circle  of  stones    and    a 


covered  chamber  on  its  summit.  Remains  of  a  megalithio 
structure  at  Rudenbeck,  in  Mecklenburg,  though  now  imperfect, 
show  that  originally  it  was  constructed  like  an  allee  couverte. 
It  had  four  supports  on  each  side,  two  at  one  end  (the  other 
end  forming  the  entrance),  and  two  large  capstones.  The  length 
had  been  about  20  feet,  breadth  7J  feet,  and  height  from  the 
floor  to  the  urider-surface  of  roof  about  3  feet.  According  to 
Bonstetten,  no  less  than  two  hundred  of  these  monuments  are 
found  distributed  over  the  three  provinces  of  Liinebnrg,  Osnabriick, 
and  Stade  ;  and  the  most  gigantic  examples  in  Germany  are  in  the 
duchy  of  Oldenburg. 

In  Holland,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  they  are  confined  to 
the  province  of  Drenthe,  where  between  fifty  and  sixty  still  exist 
Here  they  get  the  name  of  Hunufibedden  (Huns'  beds).  The  Borger 
Hunnebed,  the  largest  of  this  jCroup,  is  70  feet  long  and  14  feet' 
wide.  In  its  original  condition  it  contained  forty-five  stones,  ten. 
of  which  were  capstones.  They  are  all  now  denuded,  but  some' 
show  evidence  of  having  been  surrounded  with  a  mound  containing 
an  entrance  passage.  Only  one  dolmen  has  been  recorded  in 
Belgium;  but  in  France  their  number  amounts  to  3410.  They  are 
irregularly  distributed  over  seventy-eight  departments,  six  hundred 
and  eighteen  being  in  Brittany.  In  the  centre  of  the  country 
they  are  also  tinmerous,  no  less  than  four  hundred  and  thirty-five 
being  recorded  in  Aveyron,  but  they  are  of  much  smaller  proportions 
than  in  the  former  locality.  From  the  Pyrenees  the  dolmens  are 
sparsely  traced  along  the  north  coast  of  Spain  and  through  Portugal 
to  Andalusia,  where  they  occur  iu  considerable  numbers.  Crossing 
into  Africa  they  are  found  in  large  groups  in  Morocco,  Algeria,  and 
Tunis.  General  Faidherbe  writes  of  having  examined  five  or  six 
thousand  at  the  cemeteries  of  Bon  Merzoug,  Wady  Berda,  Tebessa,' 
Gastal,  &c.'  In  the  Channel  Islands  every  species  of  megalithic 
monument  is  met  with.  At  Mont  Cochon,  near  St  Holier,  there 
was  lately  discovered  in  a  mound  of  blown  sand  an  allee  couverte, 
and  close  to  it  a  stone  circle  surrounding  a  dolmen.''  In  the 
British  Isles  they  are  met  with  in  many  localities,  particularly  in 
the  west  of  England,  Anglesey,  the  Isle  of  Man,  Ireland,  and  Scot- 
land. In  the  country  last  named,  however,  they  are  not  the  most 
striking  feature  among  its  rude  stone  monuments — the  stone  circles 
and  cisted  cairns  having  largely  superseded  them. 

In  the-  absence  of  historical  knowledge  all  these  inegalithie 
structures  were  formerly  regarded  as  of  Celtic  origin.  By  some 
they  were  supposed  to  have  been  constructed  by  the  Druids,  the 
so-called  priests  of  the  Celts  ;  and  hence  they  were  often  described, 
especially  since  the  time  of  Aubrey  and  Stukely,  under  the  name  of 
Celtic  or  Dniidical  monuments.  But  thiis  theory  is  disproved  by 
the  fact  that  the  ethnographical  range  of  the  Celtic  rac^s  does  not 
correspond  with  the  geographical  distribution  of  these  rude  stone 
monuments.  Thus,  for  example,  in  Europe,  not  to  speak  of  their 
localization  in  non-Celtic  countries,  the  megaliths  occupy  an  elon- 

fated  stretch  of  territory  on  its  western  seaboard  extending  from 
'omerania  to  North  Africa.  This  area  crosses  at  right  angles  the 
lands  supposed  to  have  been  ocenpied  by  the  Celtic  or  Aryan 
races  on  their  westward  waves  of  migration.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  from  investigations  of  the  contents  of  dolmens  that  their 
primary  object  was  sepulchral,  and  that  the  megalithic  chambers, 
wHth  entrance  passages,  were  used  as  family  vaults.  Against  the 
theory  fhat  any  of  them  were  ever  used  as  altars  there  is  prima 
facie  evidence  in  the  care  taken  to  have  the  smoothest  and  flattest 
surface  of  the  stones  composing  the  chamber  always  turned 
inwards.  Moreover,  cup  marks,  and  other  primitive  markings 
when  found  on  the  capstones  or  supports,  are  alnjost  invariably 
on  their  inside,  as,  for  example,  at  the  dolmens  of  Kenaval,  Kercado, 
Do!  au  Marchant,  Gavr'inis  (Morbihan),  and  the  great;  tumulus  at 
New  Grange  (Ireland).  From  its  position  in  the  centre  of  a  large 
circular  enclosure  no  dolmen  could  be  more  suggestive  of  public 
sacrifices  than  that  within  the  Giant's- Ring  near  Belfast;  yet 
nothing  could  be  more  inappropriate  for  such  a  purpose  than  its 
capstone,  which  is  in  fact  a  large  granite  boulder  presenting  on 
its  upp;r  side  an  unusually  rounded  surface. 

No  chronological  sequence  can  be  detected  in  the  evolution  o' 
the  rude  stone  monuments,  with  perhaps  the  exception  of  the 
primitive  cist  which  gave  prigin  to  the  allees  couvertes,  giant 
graves,  &c.,  and  these  again  to  the  tumuli  with  microlithic  bu 
chambers.  Much  less  can  their  appearance  in  different  countries 
be  said  to  indicate  contemporaneity.  The  dolmens  jjf  Africa  are 
often  found  to  contain  objects  peculiar  to  the  Iron  Age,  and  it  is 
said  that  in  some  parts  of  India  the  people  are  still  in  the  habit  of 
erecting  dolmens  and  other  megalithic  monuments.  Scandinavian 
archseologists  assign  their  dolmens  exclusively  to  the  Stone.  Age. 
It  would  therefore  appear  as  if  a  subsequent  stage  of.  degradation 
occurred,  when  a  tamer  style  of  interment  ensued,  and  the  Bronze 
Age  barrows  replaced  the  dolmens,  and  these  again  gave  way  to  tnel 
Iron  Age  burials — the  ship-barrows  and  large  tumuli  of  the  vikiL,si 
as  manifested  in  the  three  tumuli  of  Thor,  Qdin,  and  Freya  at 

»  Campte  Rendu  du  Congi-es  IntetittUionatd'Anih.  et  "i'Anh.^  BruxeUe»{^* 408. 
2  Sociele  Jers<'aiK,  9«  Bulletin,  1884. 


K  U  D  —  R  13  D 


63 


■♦lamla  TTpsala,  and  tho  Gokstad  monnd  on  the  Sandcfiord,  the 
s«ene  of  tne  recent  discovery  of  the  viking  sliip. 

ii<era(ur<;.— Forgosson,  Rude  Stone  Monuments;  Comple  Itendu  du  Congrrs 
International  i' Anthropologic  et  d' Arctieologie  Pre/iistoriqaes-.by  G.  de  Moitillct, 
Us  iludet  Preliistorigues ;  Lubbock,  Prehistoric  Times;  Inventaire  des  ifonu- 
uients  Ufgalithigues  de  France  ;  Uoiistetten,  F.ssai  sur  let  Dolmens  ;  Proceedings, 
&C.,  of  the  various  antiquarian  societies.  (R.  ilU.) 

RUDOLPH  I.  (1218-1291),  German  king,  eldest  son  of 
Albert  tV.,  count  of  Hapsburg,  was  born  on  the  1st  May 
1218.  By  marriage  and  in  other  ways  he  greatly  ex- 
tended his  hereditary  dominions,  so  that  when  he  became 
king  he  was  lord  not  only  of  Hapsburg  but  of  the  counties 
of  Kyburg  and  Lenzburg  and  of  the  landgraviate  of  Alsace. 
At  different  times  he  carried  on  war  with  the  bishop  of 
Strasburg,  the  abbot  of  St  Gall,  and  the  city  of  Ba.sel. 
He  was  engaged  in  his  second  struggle  with  Basel  in  1273 
when  Frederick,  burgrave  of  Nuremberg,  brought  the  in- 
telligence that  he  had  been  elected  to  the  German  crown. 
Basel  at  once  submitted,  and  Rudolph  went  to  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  where  he  was  crowned  on  the  28th  October  1273. 
Tho  princes  had  become  so  independent  during  the  Great 
Interregnum  that  they  would  have  preferred  to  have  no 
supreme  ruler ;  but  Pope  Gregory  X.  had  threatened  that 
if  they  did  not  elect  a  king  he  would  himself  appoint  one. 
The  pope  now  cordially  supported  Rudolph,  who  proved 
to  be  much  more  energetic  than  the  electors  had  antici- 
pated. Having  secured  the  friendship  of  the  palsgrave 
Louis  and  Duke  Albert  of  Saxony  by  allowing  them  to 
marry  his  daughters,  he  advanced  against  Ottocar,  king 
of  Bohemia,  and  Henry,  duke  of  Bavaria,  both  of  whom 
had  refused  to  do  him  homage.  Henry  was  soon  won 
over  to  the  new  king's  side,  and  then  Ottocar  had  to  sue 
for  peace.  His  request  was  granted  only  on  condition 
that  he  should  cede  Austria,  Styria,  Carinthia,  and 
Carniola.  By  and  by  Ottocar  again  rebelled,  and  was 
slain  in  1278  in  a  battle  fought  on  the  Marchfield. 
Rudolph  gave  Bohemia  and  Moravia  to  Wenceslaus, 
Ottocar's  son ;  but  Austria,  Styria,  and  Carniola  he 
granted  to  his  own  son.s,  Albert  and  Rudolph.  Carinthia 
was  given  to  Meinhard,  count  of  Tyrol,  who  agreed  that 
if  his  descendants  in  the  male  line  died  out  the  land  should 
I  pass  to  Rudolph's  family.  Rudolph  compelled  Otho, 
count  of  Upper  Burgundy,  and  other  nobles,  who  tried 
to  make  themselves  independent  of  the  German  crown,  to 
acknowledge  his  supremacy  ;  and  he  recovered  certain  fiefs  • 
in  what  is  now  Switzerland,  which  had  been  seized  by  the 
count  of  Savoy.  He  also  restored  peace  in  Bohemia,  and 
gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  the  young  king,  Wences- 
laus. He  often  visited  troubled  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
settling  local  disputes,  and  destroying  the  towers  of  robber 
barons.  On  the  whole,  his  rule  was  a  beneficent  one, 
but  he  did  not  succeed  in  re-establishing  the  authority  of 
the  crown,  nor  did  ho  see  how  great  an  element  of  strength 
ho  might  have  found  in  an  alliance  with  the  cities.  The 
electors  ho  was  forced  to  confirm  in  the  possession  of 
■important  rights,  which  were  maintained  under  his  suc- 
cessors. His  reign  is  memorable  chiefly  because  he  was 
the  founder  of  the  greatness  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg. 
In  1281  his  fir.st  wife  died,  and  in  128-1  he  married 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Hugo  IV.,  duke  of  Burgundy. 
He  died  at  Germershoini  on  the  15th  July  1291. 

See  Lorenz,  Deutsche  Gcschichlc  im  13  und  1/f  Jnlirli.  (1867) ; 
ilnber,  Rudolf  vor  seiner  Thronbcstcigung  (in  tho  Alnianach  der 
kaiserlichen  Alcadcmic,  1873) ;  Hini,  Rudotfvon  Uabsburg  (1874). 

RUDOLPH  II.  (1552-1612),  Holy  Roman  emperor, 
was  tho  son  of  the  emperor  Maximilian  II.,  and  was  born 
on  the  18th  July  1552.  In  1572  he  obtained  tho  crown 
of  Hungary,  in  1575  that  of  Bohemia,  with  the  title  "  King 
of  tho  Romans  ";  and  in  1570,  after  his  father's  death, 
be  became  emperor.  Ho  was  of  an  indolent  and  melan- 
choly disposition,  and  preferred  tho  study  of  astrology 
and  alchemy  to  thn  ycsjionsibiiities  of  government.     Ho 


surrendered  himself  absolutely  to  the  control  of  the  Jesuits, 
under  whose  influence  he  had  been  brought  up  at  ths 
gloomy  court  of  Spain ;  and  in  his  hereditary  lands  thoy 
laboured  assiduously  to  destroy  Protestantism.  The 
Protestants  were  deprived  of  tho  right  of  public  worship 
in  Vienna  and  other  towns ;  their  schools  were  closed, 
and  many  of  their  preachers  banished.  Almost  all  public 
offices,  too,  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  Roman  Catholics. 
In  tho  lands  which  Rudolph  ruled,  not  by  hereditary 
right,  but  as  emperor,  his  advisers  could  exercise  lesa 
authority ;  but  there  also  they  did  what  they  could  to 
foster  the  Catholic  reaction.  In  1G07  Maximilian,  duka 
of  Bavaria,  was  allowed  to  seize  the  imperial  city  Donau. 
worth,  the  Protestant  inhabitants  of  which  had  quarrelled 
with  the  abbot.  This  and  other  high-handed  proceedings 
alarmed  the  Protestants  of  Germany,  and  in  1608,  undef 
the  leadership  of  Frederick  IV.,  elector  of  the  Palatinate, 
they  formed  a  confederation  called  the  Union  for  the  pro* 
teotion  of  their  interests.  The  Catholic  princes,  guided 
by  Duke  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  responded  by  forming 
the  League. '  Civil  war  seemed  inevitable,  but  it  was 
postponed  by  the  murder  of  Henry  TV.  of  France,  who 
had  promised  to  support  the  Union,  and  by  the  death  of 
the  elector  Frederick  IV.  Meanwhile,  the  greatest  con- 
fusion prevailed  in  Hungary,  due  in  part  to  religious 
oppression,  in  part  to  a  war  with  the  Turks.  In  1601 
the  Hungarians  rebelled,  and  peace  Was  not  restored 
until  1606,  when  Matthias,  the  emperor's  brother,  with 
the  sanction  of  his  younger  brothers,  who  acknowledged 
him  as  head  of  the  family,  came  to  terms  both  with  the 
Hungarians  and  with  the  sultan.  Matthias  allied  him- 
self mth  the  Protestants,  and  compelled  Rudolph  to  give 
up  to  him  Hungary,  Moravia,  and  the  greater  pact  of 
Austria.  The  emperor  then  tried  to  strengthen  his 
position  by  granting  to  the  nobles,  knights,  and  towns  of 
Bohemia  perfect  religious  freedom,  -yvith  the  right  to  build 
Protestant  churches  and  schools  on  tlfeir  own  and  on  the 
royal  lands.  Even  after  they  had  obtained  the  letter  of 
majbsty  in  which  these  concessions  were  embodied,  tha 
Bohemians  did  not  trust  Rudolph ;  and,  when  at  his 
request  the  archduke  Leopold  appeared  in  their  country 
with  an  army,  they  invited  Matthias  to  come  to  their  aid, 
Matthias  went,  and  the  emperor  had  no  alternative  but  to 
resign  to  him  in  1611  tho  remainder  of  his  hereditary] 
territories.     Rudolph  died  on  the  20th  January  1612. 

See  Kurz,  Geschichte  OcstcmicJis  vnter  Kaiser  Rudolf  (1821) ; 
Gindcly,  Rudolf  II.  und  seine  Zcil  (18C3-65). 

RUDOLSTADT,  capital  of  the  German  principality  o{ 
Schwarzburg-RudSlstadt,  and  chief  residence  of  the  prince,' 
is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  tho  Saale,  18  miles  due 
south  of  Weimar,  in  one  of  the  most  beautiful  districta 
of  Thuringia.  The  picturesque  little  town  is  a  favourite 
summer  watering-place,  with  pine  baths,  as  well  as  a  fre- 
quented tourist  resort.  Besides  containing  tho  Govern- 
ment buildings  of  the  little  principality,  Rudolstadt  is 
fairly  well  provided  with  schools  and  other  institutions, 
including  a  library  of  60,000  volumes.  Tho  residenc* 
of  tho  princo  is  in  the  Heidccksburg,  a  palace  on  aa 
eminence  200  feet  above  the  Saale,  rebuilt  after  a  fire  in 
1735,  and  containing  various  show  apartments.  The 
Ludwigsburg,  another  palace  within  tho  town  built  in' 
1742,  accommodates  tho  natural  history  collections  be- 
longing to  the  prince.  The  principal  church  dates  from 
the  end  of  the  15lh  century.  In  tho  Anger,  a  tree-shaded 
imblic  park  between  the  town  and  tho  river,  is  tho  theatre.' 
Various  memorials  in  and  near  tho  town  commemorate  tho 
visits  of  Schiller  to  the  neighbourhood  in  1787  and  1788. 
Tho  industries  of  the  district  include  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain  and  of  dyestufl-s  wool-spinning,  and  bell-found- 
ing.     The  i.opulation  (1100  in  1817)  was  8747  in  1880. 


54 


K  U  E  —  ii  U  iv 


The  name  of  RiidoIstaJt  occurs  in  an  inventory  of  tlic  poEsessions 
of  the  abbey  of  Hcrsfelil  in  the  year  SO'O.  Aficr  fassiiig 
through  the  possession  of  the  German  empcior  and  of  the  rulers  of 
Orlamiinde  and  Weimar,  it  came  into  the  hands  of  tlie  dukes  of 
Schwarzburg  in  1355.  Its  town  riglits  were  conliinied  in  1401 ;  and 
since  1699  it  lias  been  the  residence  of  the  ruling  house. 

KUEDA,  Lope  de.     See  Dr.vma,  vol.  vii.  p.  420. 

RUFF,  a  bird  so  called  from  the  very  beautiful  and 
remarkable  frill  of  elongated  feathers  that,  just  before  the 
breeding-season,  grow  thickly  round  the  neck  of  the  male, 
who  is  considerably  larger  than  the  female,  known  as  the 
Reeve.  In  many  respects  this  species,  the  Trinrja 
TftugTMX  of  LiunKus  and  the  Machetes  pugnax  of  the 
majority  of  modern  ornithologists,  is  one  of  the  roost 
singular  in  existence,  and  yet  its  singularities  have  been 
very  ill  appreciated  by  zoological  writers  in  general.* 
These  singularities   would   require  almost  a   volume  to 


^>^--- 


'  H/^^t^M^^^  ^ 


Rulf. 


(iescribe  properly.  '  The  best  account  of  them  is  unques- 
tionably that  given  in  1813  by  Montagu  {Suppl.  Orn. 
ZHdionary),  who  seems  to  have  been  particularly  struck  by 
the  extraordinary  peculiarities  of  the  species,  and,  to 
investigate  them,  expressly  visited  the  fens  of  Lincolnshire, 
possibly  excited  thereto  by  the  example  of  Pennant,  whose 
Information,  personally  collected  there  in  1769,  w^as  of  a 
kind  to  provoke  further  inquiry,  while  Daniel  {Rmxil 
Sports,  iii.  p.  234)  had  added  some  other  particulars,  and 
subsequently  Graves  in  1816  repeated  in  the  same  district 
the  experience  of  hk  predecessors.  Since  that  time  the 
great  changes  produced  by  the  drafnage  of  the  fen-country 
have  banished  this  species  from  nearly  the  whole  of  it,  so 
that  Lubbock  {Ops.  Fauna  of  Norfolk,  pp.  68-73)  and  Mr 
Stevenson  {Birds  of  Nmfulk,  ii.  pp.  261 — 271)  can  alone 
be  cited  as   modern  -witnesses  of  its  habits  -in  England, 

I  '  Mr  Darwin,  though  frequently  citing  (Descent  of  Man  and  Sexual 
Selection,  i.  pp.  270,  306  ;  ii.  pp.  41,  42,  48,  81,  84,  100,  111)  the 
Kuff  as  a  -witness  in- various  capacities,  most  unfortunately  seems 
never  to  have  had  its  peculiarities  presented  to  him  in  such  a  form 
that  ie  could  fully  perceive  theii-  bearings.  However,  the  sip^ificence 
of.  the  lesson  that  the  Eutf  may  teach  was  hardly  conceivable  before 
he  began  to  write  ;  but  the  fact  is  not  the  less  to  be  regretted  that 
he  never  elucidated  its  importance,  not  only  in  regard  to  "  Sexual 
§election,"'but  more  especially  -nith  respect  to  "Polymorphism." 
He  appears  not  to  have  consulted  Montagu's  original  account  of  this 
bird,  and  seems  to  have  kno-nm  it  only  by  the  excerpt  given  by 
Macgilliway,  in  which  were  not  included  the  important  passages  on 
the  extreme  diversity  of  plumage  exhibited  by  the  males — that  author 
passing  over  this  wonderful  peculiarity  in  a  paragraph  of  less  than  a 
scoie  of  lines. 


while  t!.2  trade  of  netting  or  snaring  Faiffs,  and  fattentug 
them  for  the  table  has  for  many  years  practically  ceased. 

The  cock-bird,  when  out  of  his  nuptial  attire,  or,  to  use 
the  fenman's  expression,  when  he  has  not  "  his  show  on," 
and  the  hen  at  all  seasons,  offer  no  very  remarkable 
deviation  from  ordinary  Sandpipers,  and  outwardly-  there 
is  nothing,  except  the  unequal  size  of  the  two  sexes,  to 
I  rouse  suspicion  of  any  abnormal  peouliaritJ^  But  -svhen 
[■spring  conies  all  is  changed.  In  a  surprisingly  short  time 
i  the  feathers  clothing  the  face  of  the  male  are  shed,  and 
their  place  is  taken  by  papilla:  or  small  caruncles  of  bright 
yellow  or  pale  pink.  From  each  side  of  his  head  sprouts 
a  tuft  of  stiff  curled  feathers,  giving  the  appearance  of 
long  ears,  while  the  feathers  of  the  throat  change  colour, 
and  beneath  and  around  it  sjirouts  the  frill  or  ruff  already 
mentioned  as  giving  the  bird  his  name.  The  feathers 
which  form  this  remarkable  adornment,  quite  unique 
among  birds,  are,  like  those  of  the  "ear-tufts,"  stiff  and 
incurved  at  the  end,  but  much  longer — measuring  more 
than  two  inches.  They  are  closely  arrayed,  capable  of 
depression  or  elevation,  and  form  a  shield  to  the  front  of 
the  breast  impenetrable  by  the  bill  of  a  rival.'  More 
extraordinary  than  this,  from  one  point  of  view,  is  the 
great  variety  of  coloration  that  obtains  in  these  temporary 
outgrowths.  It  has  often  been  said  that  no  one  ever  saw 
two  Ruffs  alike.  That  is  perhaps  an  over-statement ;  but, 
considering  the  really  few  colours  that  the  birds  exhibit, 
the  variation  is  something  marvellous,  so  that  fifty 
examples  or  more  may  be  compared  without  finding  a 
very  close  resemblance  between  any  two  of  them,  while 
the  individual  variation  is  increased  by  the  "ear-tufts," 
which  generally  differ  in  colour  -from  the  frill,  and  thus 
produce  a  combination  of  diversity.  The  colours  range 
from  deep  black  to  pure  white,  passing  through  chestnut 
or  bay,  and  many  tints  of  brown  or  ashy-grey,  while 
often  the  feathers  are  more  or  less  closely  barred  with  some 
darker  shade,  and  the  black  is  very  frequently  glossed  -with 
violet,  blue,  or  green — or,  in  addition,  spangled  with  -white, 
grey,  or  gold-colour.  The  white,  on  the  other  hand,  is  not 
rarely  freckled,  streaked,  or  barred  with  grey,  rufous- 
brown,  or  black.  In  somo  examples  the  barring  is  most 
regularly  concentric,  in  others  more  or  less  broken-up  or 
undulating,  and  the  latter  may  be  said  of  the  streaks.  It 
was  ascertained  by  Montagu,  and  has  since  been  confirmed 
by  the  still  wider  experience  and  if  possible  more  carefully 
conducted  observation  of  Mr  Bartlott,  that  every  Ruff  iu 
each  successive  year  assumes  tufts  and  frill  exactly  the  same 
in  colotu-  and  markings  as  those  he  wore  in  the  preceding 
season  ;  and  thus,  polymorphic  as  is  the  male  as  a  species, 
as  an  individual  he  is  unchangeable  in  his  wedding-garment 
— a  lesson  that  might  possibly  be  applied  to  many  other 
birds.     The  white  frill  is  said  to  be  the  rarest. 

That  all  this  wonderful  "  show  "  is  the  consequence  of 
the  polygamous  habit  of  the  Rufl"  can  scarcely  be  doubted. 
No  other  species  of  Limicohne  bird  has,  so  far  as  is  known, 
any  tendency  to  it.  Indeed,  in  many  species  of  Limicolse, 
as  the  Dotterel,  the  Godwits  (vol.  x.  p.  720),  Phalaropes, 
and  perhaps  some  others,  the  female  is  larger  and  more 
brightly  coloured  tlfan  the  male,  who  in  such  cases  seems 
to  take  upon  himself  some  at  least  of  the  domestic  duties. 
Both  Montagu  and  Graves,  to  say  nothing  of  other  -(vriters, 
state  that  the  Ruffs,  in  England,  -were  far  more  numerous 
than  the  Reeves;  and  their  testimony  can  hardly  be  doubted; 
though  in  Germany  Naumar.n  ( VSg.  DeutschlancPs,  vii.  p. 

'  Internally  there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  form  of  the  posterior 
margin  of  the  sternum,  as  long  ago  remarked  J)y  Nitzsch. 

'  This  "mff"  has  been  compared  to -that  of  Elizabethan  or 
Jacobean  costume,  but  it  is  essentially  different,  since  that  was  open 
in  front  and  widest  and  most  projecting  behind,  whereas  the  bird's 
decorative  apparel  is  most  developeil  iu  front  and  at  the  aides  and 
scarcely  exists  behind. 


R  U  F  — R  U  G 


65 


iH)  considers  that  tliis  is  only  tlio  caso  in  tlio  earlier 
l)art  of  the  season,  and  that  later  the  females  greatly  out- 
number the  males.  It  remains  to  say  that  the  moral 
characteristics  of  the  Ruff  exceed  even  anything  that 
might  bo  inferred  from  what-  has  been  already  stated. 
l>y  no  ono  have  they  been  more  happily  described  than  by 
WoUey,  in  a  communication  to  llewitson  (Effffs  of  Brit. 
Birds,  3d  ed.,  p.  34C),  as  follows  :  — 

^  "The  RiilT,  like  other  Ciio  gentlemen,  takes  much  more  trouble 
with  his  courtship  than  with  his  duties  as  a  husband.  'Whilst  the 
Reeves  ore  sitting  on  their  eggs,  scattered  about  tlio  swamps,  ho 
is  to  bo  seen  lar  away  flitting  about  in  flocks,  and  on  the  ground 
<lancing  and  sparring  with  his  companions.  Beforo  they  are  con- 
fined to  their  nests,  it  is  wonJerl'iil  with  what  devotion  the 
females  are  attended  by  their  gay  followers,  who  seem  to  be  each 
trying  to  bo  more  attentive  than  the  rest  Nothing  can  lie  more 
expressive  of  humility  and  ardent  love  than  some  of  the  actions  of 
the  Ruff.  He  throws  himself  prostrate  on  the  ground,  with  eveiy 
feather  on  his  body  standing  up  and  quivernig ;  but  ho  seems  as 
if  he  were  afraid  of  coming  too  near  his  mistress.  ]f  she  flies  olf, 
he  starts  up  in  an  instant  to  arrive  before  her  at  the  next  place  of 
alighting,  and  all  his  actions  are  full  of  life  and  spirit.  But  no.nc 
of  his  spirit  is  expended  in  care  for  his  family,  lie  never  comes  to 
see  after  an  enemy.  In  the  [Lapland]  marslies,  a  Reeve  now  and 
then  Hies  near  with  a  scarcely  audible  ka-ka-kuk  ;  but  she  seems  a 
dull  bird,  and  makes  no  noisy  attack  on  an  invader." 

Want  of  space  forbids  a  fuller  account  of  this  extremely 
interesting  species.  Its  breeding-grounds  extend  from 
Great  Britain'  across  northern  Europe  and  Asia  ;  but  the 
birds  become  less  -numerous  towards  the  east.  They 
■winter  in  India,  reaching  even  Ceylon,  and  Africa  as  far 
as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  Euff  also  occasionally 
visits  Iceland,  and  there  are  several  well-authenticated 
records  of  its  occurrence  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
United  States,  while  an  example  is  stated  {Ibis,  1875,  p. 
332)  to  have  been  received  from  the  northern  part  of 
South  America.  (a.  n.) 

RUFIXUS,  Tyrannius  (Tctrrantds,  Toeanus),  the 
well-known  contemporary  of  Jerome,  was  born  at  or  near 
Aquileia  about  the  year  345.  In  early  life  he  studied 
rhetoric,  and  while  still  comparati\ely  young  be  entered 
,  the  cloister  as  a  catechumen,  receiving  baptism  about  370. 
About  the  same  time  a  casual  visit  of  Jerome  to  Aquileia 
led  to  the  forn)ation  of  a  close  and  intimate  friendship 
between  the  two  students,  and  shortly  after  Jerome's 
departure  for  the  East  Rufinus  also  was  drawn  thither  (in 
372  or  373)  by  his  interest  in  its  theology'  and  monasticism. 
He  first  settled  in  Egypt,  hearing  the  lectures  of  Didyniua, 
the  Origenistic  teacher  at  Alexandria,  and  also  cultivating 
friendly  relations  with  Jlacarius  and  other  ascetics  in  the 
■desert.  In  Egypt,  if  not  even  before  leaving  Italy,  he  had 
become  intimately  acquainted  M-ith  Melania,  a  wealthy  and 
devout  Roman  matron,  who  since  the  death  of  her  husband 
had  devoted  all  her  means  to  religious  and  charitable 
works;  and  when  she  removed  to  Palestine,  taking  with 
her  a  number  of  clergj'  and  monks  on  whom  the  persecu- 
tions of  Valens  had  borne  heavily,  Rufinus  ultimately 
(about  378)  followed  her.  \Yhile  his  patroness  lived  in  a 
convent  of  her  own  in  Jerusalem,  Rufinus,  in  close  co- 
operation with  her  and  at  her  expense,  gathered  together  a 
number  of  monks  in  a  monastery  on  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
devoting  himself  at  the  same  time  with  much  ardour  to 
the  stiidy  of  Greek  theology.  When  Jerome  came  to  reside 
at  Bethlehem  in  386  the  friendship  formed  at  Aquileia  wi's 
renewed.  Another  of  the  intimates  of  Rufinus  was  John, 
bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  formerly  a  Nitrian  monk,  by 
•whom  he  was  ordained  to  the  prie.-ithood  in  390.  In  394, 
in  consequence  of  the  attack  upon  the  doctrines  of  Origen 
made  by  Epiphanius  of  Salamis  during  a  visit  to 
Jerusalem,  a  fierce  quarrel  broke  out,  which  found  Rufinus 
and  Jerome  ranged  on  different  aides ;  and,  though  three 

'.Jn  England  of  late  years  it  has  been  known  to  breed  only  in  ono 
locality,  tho  namo  or  uituatiou  af  wbieli  it  la  not  duslrablo  to  publbh. 


years  afterwards  a  formal  reconciliation  was  brought  about 
between  Jerome  and  John  through  the  intervention  of 
third  parties,  the  breach  between  Jerome  and  Rufinua  re- 
mained unhealed. 

In  the  autumn  of  397  Rufinus  embarked  for  Rome; 
where,  finding  that. the  theological  controversies  of  the  East 
were  exciting  much  interest  and  curiosity,  ho  published  a 
Latin  translation  of  the  Apology  of  Painphilus  for  Origen, 
and  also  (398-399)  a  somewhat  free  rendering  of  the 
ircpl  apx^v  of  that  author  himself.  In  the  preface  to  the 
latter  work  he  had  referred  to  Jerome  as  an  admirer  of 
Origen,  and  as  having  already  translated  some  of  his  works ; 
this  allusion  proved  very  annoying  to  the  subject  of  it, 
who  was  now  exceedingly  sensitive  as  to  his  reputation 
for  orthodox^',  and  the  consequence  was  a  bitter  pamphlet 
^'ar,  very  wonderful  to  the  modern  onlooker,  who  finds  it 
difficult  to  see  anything  discreditable  in  the  accusation 
against  a  Biblical  scholar  that  ho  had  once  thought  well  of 
Origen,  or  in  the  countercharge  against  a  translator  that 
he  had  avowedly  exercised  editorial  functions  as  well 
Some  time  during  tho  pontificate  of  Anastasius  (398-402) 
Rufinus  was  summoned  from  Aquileia  to  Rome  to  vindicate 
his  orthodoxy,  but  he  excused  himself  from  personal 
attendance  in  a  written  Apologia  pro  fide  sua  ;  the  pope  in 
his  reply  expressly  condemned  Origen,  but  leniently  left 
the  question  of  Rufinus's  orthodoxy  to  his  own  conscience. 
In  408  we  find  Rufinus  at  the  monastery  of  Pinetum  (in' 
the  Campagna?);  thence  he  was  driven  by  tho  arrival  of 
Alaric  to  Sicily,  being  accompanied  by  Melania  in  his 
flight.  In  Sicily  he  was  engaged  in  translating  the 
Homilies  of  Origen  when  he  died  in  410. 

The  original  works  of  Rufinus  are — (1)  Dc  Adultcratione 
Librorum  Ovigcnis — an  appendi.-c  to  his  translation  of  tho  jtpoloffy 
of  Pamphilns,  and  intended  to  show  tliat  many  of  tho  features  in 
Origen'a  teaching  which  were  then  held  to  be  objectionable  ariso 
from  interpolations  and  falsifications  of  tho  genuine  text ;  (2) 
Dc  Benediction ibus  XII  Fatriarcharum  Libri  II, — an  exposition 
of  Gen.  xlix. ;  (3)  Apologias.  Invcclivarum  in  Bicrontjmum  Libri 
II ;  (4)  Apologia  pro  Fide  Sua  ad  Anaslasium  Ponlificem  ;  (B) 
Bistoria  frcnu'^icn— consisting  of  tho  lives  of  thirty-three  monks 
of  the  Nitrian  desert ;  (6)  Exposilio  Symboli.  The  Bisloris 
Ecelcsiasticm  Libri  XI  of  Rufinus  consist  partly  of  a  free  translation 
of  Euscbius  (10  books  in  9)  and  partly  of  a'continuation  (bks. 
X.  and  xi. )  down  to  tho  time  of  Thcodosius  the  Great.  Tho  other 
translations  of  Rufinus  are — (1)  the  Institula  Monachorum and  some 
of  the  Homilies  of  Basil ;  (2)  the  Apology  of  Pampliilus,  referre_d  to 
above  ;  (3)  Origen's  Principia  ;  (4)  Origen's  Homilies {Oen.-Kxnga,' 
also  Cant,  and  Rom.)  ;  (5)  Opuscula  of  Gregory  of  Nazi.anzus  ;  (6) 
the  Scnlenliie  of  Sixtus,  an  unknown  Greek  philosopher ;  (7)  the 
SentcHlim  of  Evagrius ;  (8)  the  Ctcnunlinc  liccognitions  (the  onlj 
form  in  wliicli  that  work  is  now  extant) ;  (9)  tho  Canon  Paselialis 
of  Anatolius  Alexandrinus.  ' 

■\'allnrsi'!)  uncompleted  edition  of  Ruflnu5(T0l.  I.,  fol.,  Veronn,  1741)  contain! 
the*  De  Bcvedictionibus,  tho  Apologies,  tho  Exposilio  5j7n&o/f.  tho  'Uittorla 
Ei-emitica,  and  (ho  two  original  books  of  tho  Hi^i.  Ecct.  See  also  Kllgnc,  I'alrat. 
(vol.  xxl.  of  the  LaMn  scrlos).  For  tho  translations,  see  tho  various  cUUIoos  o( 
Origen,  Euscbius,  &c. 

RUGBY,  a  market-town  of  Warwickshire,  is  finely' 
situated  on  a  table-land  rising  from  the  southern  bank  of 
the  Avon,  at  the  junction  of  several  railway  lines,  and 
near  the  Grand  Junction  Canal,  30  miles  E.S.E.  of 
Birmingham,  and  20  S.S.W.  of  Leicester.  It  is  a  well- 
built  town,  with  a  large  number  of  modern  houses  erected 
for  private  residences.  It  occupies  a  gravel  site,  is  well 
drained,  and  has  a  good  •  supply  of  water.  It  owes  its 
importance  to  the  grammar  school,  built  and  endowed  bj* 
Laurence  Sheriff,  a  merchant  grocer  and  servant  to  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  a  native  of  the  neighbouring  village  of 
Brownsover.  The  endowment  consisted  of  the  parsonage  of 
Brownsover,  Sheriff's  mansion  house  in  Rugby,  and  on# 
third  (8  acres)  of  his  estate  in  Middlesex,  near  tho  Found- 
ling Hospital,  London,  which,  being  lot  on  building  least;?; 
gradually  increased  to  about  .t'r)000  a  year.  Tlir  fiilj 
endowment  was  obtained  in  IG-OS.  The  school  originally 
stood  opposite  thu  parish  church,  and  was  removed  to  i)- 


5tx 


11  U  G  — 11  U  G 


present  site  on  the  south  side  of  the  town  between  17-10 
and  1750.  In  1809  it  was  rebuilt  from  designs  by  Hake- 
will  ;  the  chapel,  dedicated  to  St  Lawrence,  was  added  in 
1820.  At  the  tercentenary  of  the  school  in  1867  subscrip- 
tions were  set  on  foot  for  founding  scholarships,  building 
additional  schoolrooms,  rebuilding  or  enlarging  the  chapel, 
and  other  objects.  The  chapel  was  rebuilt  and  recon- 
Becrated  in  1872.  A  swimming  bath  was  erected  in  1876; 
the  Temple  observatory,  containing  a  fine  equatorial  refrac- 
tor by  Alvan  Clark,  was  built  in  1877,  and  the  Temple  read- 
ing room  with  the  art  museum  in  1878.  The  workshops 
underneath  the  gymnasium  were  opened  in  1880,  and  ^  new 
big  school  and  class  rooms  were  erected  in  1885.  There 
are  three  major  and  four  minor  exhibitions  for  students  to 
any  university  in  the  United  Kingdom.  From  about  70 
in  1777  the  numbers  attending  the  school  have  increased 
to  over  400.  A  great  impulse  was  given  to  the  progress 
of  the  school  during  the  headmastership  of  Dr  Arnold, 
1827-1842.  The  best  known  of  Arnold's  successors  are 
Tait,  afterwards  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  Temple, 
the  present  bishop  of  London.  The  parish  church  of 
St  Andrew's  is,  with  the  exception  of  the  tower  and  the 
north  arcade  in  the  nave,  entirely  modern,  having  been 
built  from  designs  by  Mr  Butterfield  at  a  cost  of  £22,000, 
and  reconsecrated  in  1879.  The  daughter  church  of  the 
Holy  Trinity,  a  handsome  building  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott, 
in  close  proximity  to  St  Andrew's,  was  erected  in  1853. 
St  Marie's  Catholic  Church  is  in  the  Early  English 
style.  A  town-hall  was  erected  in  1858,  at  a  cost  of 
£7000.  There  are  a  number  of  charities,  including 
Laurence  Sheriff's  almshouses  (founded  1567),  glborow's 
almshouses  (1707),  Miss  Butlin's  almshouses  (1851),  and  the 
hospital  of  St  Cross,  opened  in  1884,  at  a  cost  of  JE20,000. 
'A  public  recreation  ground  was  provided  by  the  local 
government  board  in  1877.  The  town  has  an  import- 
ant cattle  market.  The  population  of  the  "urban  sanitary 
district  (area  1617  acres')  in  1871  was  8385,  and  in  1881 
it  was  9891. 

Eugby  was  originally  a  hamlet  of  the  adjoining  parish  of  Clifton- 
op-Dunsmore,  and  is  separately  treated  of  as  such  in  Domesday 
Book.  Ernaldus  de  Bosco  (Ernald  de  Bois),  lord  of  the  manor  of 
Clifton,  seems  to  have  erected  the  first  chapel  in  Kugby,  in  the 
reign  of  Stephen,  about  1140.  It  was  afterwards  granted  by  him, 
with  certain  lands,  to  endow  the  abbey  of  St  Mary,  Leicester, 
which  grant  was  confirmed  by  his  successors  and  by  royal  charter 
of  Henry  II.  In  the  second  year  of  King  John  (1200)  a  suit  took 
place  between  Henry  de  Rokeby,  lord  of  the  manor  of  Kugby,  and 
Paul,  abbot  of  St  Mary,  Leicester,  which  resulted  in  the  former 
chaining  possession  Of  the  advowson  of  Eugby,  on  condition  of 
homage  and  service  to  the  abbot  of  Leicester.  By  virtue  of  this 
agreement  the  chapel  was  converted  into  a  parisli  church,  and  the 
vicarage  into  a  rectory.  In  1350  KaJph,  Lord  Stafford,  became 
possessed  of  the  manor  and  advowson  of  Rugby,  and  considerably 
enlarged  the  parish  church.  Subsequent  alterations,  notably  in 
1814  and  1831,  left  little  of  this  structure  remaining  except  the 
tower  and  north  arcade  in  the  nave.  The  advowson  of  Eugby  is 
now  the  property  of  the  earl  of  Craven  ;  and  the  late  rector  was 
widely  known  and  honoured  as  "  the  poet  pastor,"  John  Moultrie. 

EUGE,  Arnold  (1803-1880),  German  philo.sophical 
and  political  writer,  was  born  at  Bergen,  in  the  island  of 
Rugen,  on  the  13th  September  1803.  He  studied  at 
Halle,  Jena,  and  Heidelberg,  and  became  an  enthusiastic 
adherent  of  the  party  which  sought  to  create  a  free  and 
united  Germany.  For  his  zeal  in  this  cause  he  had  to 
spend  five  years  in  the  fortress  of  Kolberg,  where  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  classical  writers,  especially 
Plato  and  the  Greek  poets.  On  his  releasp  in  1830,  he 
published  SchiU  und  die  Seinen,  a  tragedy,  and  a  transla- 
tion of  (Edipifs  in  Colonvs.  Euge  settled  in  Halle,  where 
in  1838,  in  association  with  his  friend  Echtermayer,  he 
{founded  the  Hallesche  JahrhiXcher  fur  deutsche  Ktmst  und 
Wissenschaft .  In  this  periodical,  which  soon  took  a  very 
high  place,  he  discussed  all  the  great  questions  which 
were  then  agitating  the  best  minds  in  Europe,  dealing 


with  them  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Hegelian  philo- 
sophy, interpreted  in  the  most  liberal  sense.  The  Jahr- 
biichcr  was  detested  by  the  orthodox  party  in  Prussia  ;  but, 
as  it  was  published  in  Lsipsic,  the  editors  fancied  that  it 
was  beyond  the  reach  of  the  Prussian  Government.  In 
1840,  however,  soon  after  the  accession  of  King  Frederick 
William  IV.,  they  werd  ordered,  on  account  of  the  name 
of  the  periodical,  to  have  it  printed  in  Halle,  subject  to  the 
censorship  there.  Thereupon  Euge  went  to  Dresden,  and 
the  Jahrbiicher  (with  which  Echtermayer  was  no  longer 
connected)  continued  to  appear  in  Leipsic,  but  with  the 
title  Deutsche  Jahrbiicher,  and  without  the  names  of  the 
editors.  It  now  became  more  liberal  than  ever,  and  in 
1843  was  suppressed  by  the  Saxon  Government.  In  Paris 
Euge  tried  to  act  with  Karl  Marx  as  co-editor  of  the 
Deutsch-Franzosische  Jahrbiicher,  but  the  two  friends  soon 
parted,  Euge  having  little  sympathy  with  Marx's  socialist 
theories.  Euge  next  associated  himself  with  a  publishing 
firm  in  Ziirich,  and  when  it  was  put  down  he  attempted 
to  establish  a  firm  of  his  own  in  Leipsic,  but  his  scheme 
was  thwarted  by  the  Saxon  Government.  In  the  revolu- 
tionary movement  of  1848  Euge  played  a  prominent  part. 
He  organized  the  Extreme  Left  in  the  Frankfort  parlia- 
ment, and  for  some  time  he  lived  in  Berlin  as  the  editor 
of  the  Reform,  in  which  he  advocated  the  opinions  of  the 
Left  in  the  Prussian  National  Assembly.  The  career  of 
the  Reform  being  cut  short  by  the  Prussian  Government, 
Euge  soon  afterwards  visited  Paris,  hoping  to  establish, 
through  his  friend  Ledru-Eollin,  some  relations  between 
German  and  French  republicans;  but  in  1845  both 
Ledru-Eollin  and  Euge  had  to  take  refuge  in  London. 
Here,  in  company  with  Mazzini  and  other  advaaced  poli- 
ticians, they  formed  a  "  European  Democratic  Committee." 
From  this  committee  Euge  soon  withdrew,  and  in  18501 
he  went  to  Brighton,  where  he  supported  himself  by 
working  both  as  a  teacher  in  schools  and  as  a  writer. 
He  took  a  passionate  interest  in  the  events  of  1866 
and  1870,  and  as  a  publicist  vigorously  supported  the 
cause  of  Prussia  against  Austria,  and  that  of  Germany 
against  France.  In  his  last  years  he  received  from  the 
German  Government  a  pension  of  3000  marks.  He  died 
on  the  31st  December  1880. 

Ruge  was  a  man  of  generous  sympathies  and  an  able  writer,  but 
he  did  not  produce  any  work  of  enduring  importance.  In  1846-48 
his  Gesammclte  Schriflcn  were  published  in  ten  volumes.  After  this 
time  he  wrote,  among  other  books,  Unser  System,  Bevolutiims- 
novcllcn,  Die  Loge  des  ffumanismus,  and  Aus  friilierer  Zeit  (his 
memoirs).  He  also  wrote  many  poems,  and  several  dramas  and 
romances,  and  translated  into  German  various  English  works,  in- 
cluding the  Letters  of  Junius  and  Buckle's  History  of  Civilization. 

EUGEN,  the  largest  island  belonging  to  Gerfnany,  is 
situated  in  the  Baltic  Sea,  immediately  opposite  the  town 
of  Stralsund,  IJ  miles  off  the  north-west  coast  of 
Pomerania  in  Prussia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
narrow  Strelsasund.  Its  shape  is  exceedingly  irregular, 
and  its  coast-line  is  broken  by  very  numerous  bays  and 
peninsulas,  sometimes  of  considerable  size.  The  general 
name  is  applied  by  the  natives  only  to  the  roughly  trian- 
gular main  trunk  of  the  island,  while  the  larger  penin-suLis, 
the  landward  extremities  ot  which  taper  to  very  narrow 
necks  of  land,  are  considered  to  be  as  distinct  from  Eiigen 
as  the  various  adjacent  smaller  islands  which  are  also 
statistically  included  under  the  nauiu.  The  chief  perun- 
sulas  are  those  of  Jasmund  and  TVittow  on  the  north,  and 
Monchgut,  at  one  time  the  property  of  the  monastery  of 
Eldena,  on  the  south-east ;  and  the  chief  neighbouring 
islands  are  Unmanz  and  Hiddensoe,  both  oS  the  north- 
west coast.  The  greatest  length  of  Eiigen  from  north  to 
south  is  32  miles  ;  its  greatest  breadth  is  25-|^  miles ;  and 
its  area  is  377  square  miles.  The  surface  gradually  rises 
towards   the   west   to  Eugard    (335  feet),    the    "eye   of 


R  U  H  — R  U  H 


57 


Riigen,"  near  Bergen,  but  the  higliest  point  is  tho  Hertha- 
burg  (505  feet)  in  Jasmund.  Erratic  blocks  are  scattered 
throughout  the  island,  and  the  roads  are  made  with 
granite.  Though  much  of  Riigca  is  flat  and  sandy,  the 
fine  beech-woods  which  cover  great  part  of  it  and  the 
northern  coast  scenery  combine  with  the  convenient  sea- 
bathing offered  by  the  various  villages  round  the  coast  to 
attract  large  numbers  of  visitors  annually.  The  most 
beautiful  and  attractive  part  of  the  island  is  the  peninsula 
of  Jasmund,  which  terminates  to  the  north  in  the  Stuben- 
kammer  (from  two  Slavonic  words  meaning  "  rock  steps"),  a 
sheer  chalk  clifE  by  the  sea,  the  summit  of  which,  known 
as  the  Konigsstuhl,  is  420  feet  above  sea-level.  The  east 
of  Jasmund  is  clothed  with  an  extensive  beech-wood  called 
the  Stubbenitz,  in  which  lies  the  Burg  or  Hertha  Lake. 
Connected  with  Jasmund  only  by  the  narrow  isthmus  of 
Schabe  to  the  west  is  the  peninsula  of  Wittow,  the  most 
fertile  part  of  the  island.  At  its  north-we,st  extremity 
rises  the  height  of  Arcona,  with  a  lighthouse. 

The  official  capital  of  the  island  is  Bergen  (3662 
inhabitants),  connected  since  1883  with  Stralsund  by  a 
railway  and  ferry.  The  other  chief  places  are  Garz 
(2014),  Sagard  (1447),  Gingst  (1285),  and  Putbus 
(1752).  The  last  is  the  old  capital  of  a  barony  of  the 
princes  of  Putbus.  Sassnitz,  Gohren,  and  Putbus  are 
among  the  favourite  bathing  resorts.  Schoritz  was  the 
birthplace  of  the  patriot  and  poet,  Arndt  (1769-1860). 
Ecclesiastically,  Rugen  is  divided  into  27  parishes,  in  which 
the  pastoral  succession  is  said  to  be  almost  hereditary. 
The  inhabitants  are  distinguished  from  those  of  the  main- 
land by  peculiarities  of  dialect,  costume,  and  habits ;  and 
even  tho  various  peninsulas  differ  from  each  other  in  these 
particulars.  The  peninsula  of  Monchgut  has  best  preserved 
its  peculiarities  ;  but  there  too  primitive  simplicity  is  yield- 
ing to  the  influence  of  the  annual  stream  of  summer 
visitors.  The  inhabitants  rear  some  cattle,  and  Riigen  has 
long  been  famous  for  its  geese ;  but  the  only  really  con- 
siderable industry  is  fishing, — the  herring-fishery  being 
especially  important.  Riigen,  with  the  neighbouring 
islands,  forms  a  governmental  department,  with  a  popula- 
tion (1880)  of  46,115. 

The  original  Qermanic  inhabitants  of  Riigen  were  dispossessed  by 
Slavs  ;  and  there  are  still  various  relics  of  tho  long  reign  of  paganism 
that  ensued.  In  tho  Stubbenitz  and  elsewhere  Huns'  or  giants' 
graves  (see  p.  52,  supra)  are  common ;  and  near  tho  Hertha  Lake 
are  the  njins  of  an  ancient  edifice  which  some  bave  sought  (though 
perhaps  erroneously)  to  identify  with  the  shrine  of  the  heathen 
deity  Hertha  or  Nerthus,  referred  to  by  Tacitus.  On  Arcona  in 
Wittow  are  tho  remains  of  an  ancient  fortress,  enclosing  a  temple 
of  tho  four-headed  goil  Svantevit,  which  was  destroyed  in  1168  by 
the  Danish  king  Waldemar  I.,  when  he  made  himself  master  of 
tho  island.  From  tliat  date  until  1325  Riigen  was  ruled  by  a  suc- 
cession of  native  princes,  at  first  under  Danish  supremacy ;  and, 
after  being  for  a  century  and  a  half  the  possession  of  a  branch  of 
the  ruling  family  in  Pomerania,  it  was  finally  united  with  that 
province  in  1478,  and  passed  with  it  into  tho  possession  of  Sweden 
in  1648.  With  tho  rest  of  Western  Pomerania  Riigen  has  belonged 
to  Prussia  since  1815. 

RUHNKEN,  David  (1723-1798),  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  scholars  of  the  Netherlands,  was  of  German 
origin,  having  been  born  in  Pomerania  in  1723.  His 
parents  had  him  educated  for  the  church,  but  after  a 
residence  of  two  years  at  the  university  of  Wittenberg,  he 
determined  to  live  tho  life  of  a  scholar.  His  biographer 
(Wyttenbach)  somewhat  quaintly  exhorts  all  studious 
youths  who  feel  tho  inner  call  as  Ruhnkcn  did  to  show 
the  same  boldness  in  crossing  the  wishes  of  their  parents. 
At  Wittenberg,  Ruhnkon  lived  in  close  intimacy  with  tho 
two  most  distinguished  professors,  Ritter  and  Berger,  who 
fired  his  passion  for  things  ancient,  and  guided  his  studies. 
To  them  he  owed  a  thorough  grounding  in  ancient  history 
and  Roman  antiquities  and  literature ;  and  from  them  he 
Sjarned  what  distinguished  hira  among  tho  scholars  of  his 

7.1  -i* 


time,  a  pure  and  at  the  same  time  a  vivid  Latin  style. 
At  Wittenberg,  too,  Ruhnkcn  derived  valuable  mental 
training  from  study  in  mathematics  and  Roman  law. 
Probably  nothing  would  have  severed  him  from  his  sur- 
roundings there  but  a  desire  which  daily  grew  upon  him 
to  explore  the  inmost  recesses  of  Greek  literature.  Neither 
at  Wittenberg  nor  at  any  other  German  university  was 
Greek  in  that  age  seriously  studied.  It  was  taught  in  the 
main  to  students  in  divinity  for  the  sake  of  the  Greek 
Testament  and  the  early  fathers  of  the  church, — taught  as  a 
necessary  appendage  to  Hebrew  and  Syriac,  and  grtnsrally 
by  the  same  professors.  F.  A.  Wolf  is  the  real  creator  of 
Greek  scholarship  in  modern  Germany,  and  Porson's  gibe 
that  "the  Germans  in  Greek  are  sadly  to  seek"  was 
barbed  with  truth.  It  is  significant  of  the  state  of 
Hellenic  studies  in  Germany  in  1743  that  their  leading 
exponents  were  Gesner  and  Ernesti.  Ruhnken  was  well 
advised  by  his  friends  at  Wittenberg  to  seek  the  university 
of  Leyden,  where,  stimulated  by  the  influence  of  Bentley, 
the  great  scholar  Tiberius  Hemsterhuis  had  founded  the 
only  real  school  of  Greek  learning  which  had  existed  on 
the  Continent  since  the  days  of  Joseph  Scaliger  and  Isaac 
Casaubon. 

Perhaps  no  two  men  of  letters  ever  lived  in  closer 
Iriendship  than  Hemsterhuis  and  Ruhnken  during  the 
twenty-three  years  which  passed  from  Ruhnken's  arrival 
in  the  Netherlands  in  1743  to  the  death  of  Hemsterhuis 
in  1766.  A  few  years  made  it  clear  that  Ruhnken  and 
Valckenaer  were  the  two  pujiils  of  the  great  master  on 
whom  his  inheritance  must  devolve.  As  his  reputation 
spread,  many  efforts  were  made  to  attract  Ruhnken  back 
to  Germany,  but  the  air  of  freedom  which  he  drew  in  the 
Netherlands  was  more  to  him  than  all  the  flesh-pots  his 
native  land  could  offer.  Indeed,  after  settling  in  Leyden, 
he  only  left  the  country  once,  when  he  spent  a  year  in 
Paris,  ransacking  the  public  libraries  (1755).  For  work 
achieved,  this  year  of  Ruhnken  may  compare  even  with 
the  famous  year  which  Ritschl  spent  in  Italy.  In  1757 
Ruhnken  was  appointed  lecturer  in  Greek,  to  assist 
Hemsterhuis,  and  in  1761  he  succeeded  Oudendorp,  with 
the  title  of  "  ordinary  professor  of  history  and  eloquence," 
but  practically  as  Latin  professor.  This  promotion  drew 
on  him  the  enmity  X)f  some  native  Netherlanders,  who 
deemed  themselves  (not  without  some  show  of  reason)  to 
possess  stronger  claims  for  a  chair  of  Latin.  The  only 
defence  made  by  Ruhnken  was  to  publish  works  on  Latin 
literature  which  eclipsed  and  silenced  his  rivals.  In  1766 
Valckenaer  succeeded  Hemsterhuis  in  the  Greek  chair. 
The  intimacy  between  tho  two  colleagues  was  only  broken 
by  Valckenaer's  death  in  1785,  and  stood  without  strain 
the  test  of  common  candidature  for  the  office  (an  import- 
ant one  at  Leyden)  of  university  librarian,  in  which 
Ruhnken  was  successful.  Ruhnken's  later  years  were 
clouded  by  severe  domestic  misfortune,  and  by  the  poli- 
tical commotions  which,  after  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
with  England  in  1780,  troubled  tho  Netherlands  without 
ceasing,  and  threatened  to  extinguish  the  university  of 
Leyden.     Tho  year  of  Ruhnken's  death  was  1798. 

Personally,  he  was  as  far  as  possible  removed  from 
being  a  recluse  or  a  pedant.  Ho  had  a  well-knit  and 
oven  handsome  frame,  attractive  manners  (though  some- 
times tinged  with  irony),  and  a  nature  simple  and  healthy, 
and  open  to  impressions  from  all  sides.  Fond,  of  society, 
ho  cared  little  to  what  rank  his  associates  belonged,  if 
they  were  genuine  men  in  whom  he  might  find  something 
to  learn.  His  biographer  even  says  of  him  in  his  early 
days  that  ho  knew  how  to  .sacrifice  to  tho  Sirens  without 
proving  traitor  to  the  Mu.ses.  Lifu  in  the  open  air  had  & 
great  attraction  for  him  ;  ho  wa.s  fond  of  sport,  and  would 
somntimca  devote  to  it  two  or  three  days  in  tho  weeL     In 


68 


R  U  H  — R  U  M 


his  bearing  towards  other  scholars  Euhnkca  was  generous 
and  dignitied,  distributing  literary  aid  with  a  free  hand, 
and  mteting  onslaughts  for  the  most  part  with  a  smile.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  point  out  in  the  history  of  scholarship 
the  name  of  another  maa  who  so  thoroughly  possessed  the 
savoir  vivre. 

In  the  records  of  learning  Euhnken  occupies  an  im- 
portant position.  He  forms  a  principal  link  in  the  chain 
which  connects  Bentley  with  the  modern  scholarship  of 
the  Continent.  The  spirit  and  the  aims  of  Herasterhuis, 
the  great  reviver  of  Continental  learning,  were  couiniitted 
to  his  trust,  and  were  faithfully  maintained  He  greatly 
widened  the  circle  of  those  who  valued  taste  arid  precision 
in  classical  scholarship.  He  powerfully  aided  the  eman- 
cipation of  Greek  studies  from  theology ;  nor  must  it  be 
forgotten  that  he  first  in  modern  times  dared  to  think  of 
rescuing  Plato  from  the  hands  of  the  professed  philo- 
sophers— men  presumptuous  enough  to  interpret  the 
ancient  sage  with  little  or  no  knowledge  of  the  language 
in  which  he  wrote. 

Euhiiken's  principal  worlcs  are  ettitions  of  (1)  Tim.ieus's  Lexicon  of 
Plalunic  Words,  (2)  Thalelteiis  and  other  Greek  conimeutators 
on  Roman  law,  (3)  RutUiua  Lupus  ami  other  granmiariaiis,  (4) 
Velleius  Paterciilus,  (5)  the  works  of  Wuretus.  He  also  occupied 
liimsclf  much  with  the  liistory  of  Greek  literature,  particularly  the 
oratorical  literature,  with  tile  Homeric  hymns,  the  scholia  on  Plati, 
anil  the  Greek  and  Roman  grammarians  and  rhetoricians.  A  dis- 
covery famous  in  its  time  was  that  in  the  text  of  the  work  of 
Apsiuos  on.  rhetoric  a  large  piece  of  a  work  by  Longinus  was 
embedded.  Recent  views  of  the  writings  attributed  to  Longinus 
have  lessened  the  interest  of  this  disoovery  without  lessening  its 
merit.  The  biography  of  Riihnken  was  written  by  his  great  pupil 
Wyttenbach,  soon  after  his  death.  (J.  S.  R ) 

RUHRORT,  a  busy  trading  town  in  Prussia,  is  situated 
at  the  junction  of  the  Ruhr  and  Rhine,  in  the  midst  of  a 
productive  coal  district,  15  miles  north  of  Diisseldorf. 
Euhrort  has  the  largest  river  harbour  in  Germany,  with 
Tery  extensive  quays;  and  most  of  the  H  million  tons  of 
coal  which  are  annually  exported  from  the  neighbourhood 
are  despatched  in  the  fleet  of  steam-tugs  and  barges  which 
belong  to  the  port.  About  one  half  of  the  coal  goes  to 
Holland,  and  the  rest  to  towns  on  the  upper  Rhine. 
Grain  and  timber  are  also  exported.  In  1881  11,282 
eraft,  carrying  1,791,213  tons,  left  the  harbour.  The 
goods  traffic  between  Ruhrort  and  Homberg  on  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  Rhine  is  carried  on  by  large  steam 
ferry  boats,  in  which  the  railway  waggons  are  placed  with 
the  help  of  towefs,  128  feet  high,  on  each  side  of  the  river. 
The  industries  of  the  town  include  active  shipbuilding, 
iron  and  tin  working,  and  the  making  of  cordage  and 
machinery.  The  inhabitants  numbered  1443  in  1816,  and 
9130  in  1880.  Ruhrort  formerly  belonged  to  Cleves : 
it  received  town  rights  in  1587. 

RULHIERE,  or  Rulhiekes,  Clatjde  Caelomatt  de 
(1735-1791),  poet  and  historian,  was  born  at  Bondy  in 
1735,  and  died  at  Paris  in  1791.  He  was  for  a  time 
a  soldier,  and  served  under  Richelieu  in  Germany.  But  at 
twenty-five  he  accompanied  Breteuil  to  St  Petersburg  as 
secretary  of  legation.  Here  he  actually  saw  the  revolu- 
tion which  seated  Catherine  IL  on  the  throne,  and  thus 
obtained  the  facts  of  his  best-known  and  best  work,  the 
short  sketch  called  Anecdotes  stir  la  Hevoltdion.  de  Eussie 
en  176'2.  It  was  not  published  till  after  the  empress's 
death.  The  later  years  of  Rulhifere's  life  were  spent  either 
in  Paris,  where  he  held  an  appointment  in  the  foreign 
office  and  went  much  into  society,  or  else  in  travelling 
over  Germany  and  Poland.  The  distracted  affairs  of  this 
latter  country  gave  him  the  subject  of  his  longest  work, 
Histoire  de  V Anarchic  de  Polofjne  (1807),  which  was  never 
finished,  and  which  tho  patriotism  of  its  latest  editor,  M. 
Ostrowski,  has  rather  unjustifiably  rebaptized  Eevolidlons 
di  PdIooiui.     Kaihiura  was  JoadB  ac  Academician  in  1787. 


Besides  the  historical  works  mentioned,  he  wrote  one  oi» 
the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1788). 

KulhifT!  as  an  historian  has  much  merit  of  style  and  arrangement, 
and  the  .'diort  sketch  of  the  Russian  revolution  is  justly  ranke* 
among  tlic  masterpieces  of  the  kind  in  French.  Of  Uio  larger 
Poland  Carlyle,-  as  justly,  complains  that  its  allowance  of  fact  is 
too  small  in  proj  jrtion  to  its  bulk.  The  author  was  also  a  fertile- 
writer  of  vers  do  societe,  sliort  satires,  epigrams,  Inc.,  which  show- 
much  point  and  polish,  and  ho  had  a  considerable  reputation  among 
the  witty  and  ill-natured  group  also  containing  Chamfort,  Rivarol, 
Champcenetz,  ka.  On  the  other  hand  he  has  the  credit  of  being 
long  and  disinterestedly  assiduous  in  caring  for  J.  J.  Rousseau  in 
his  morose  old  age,  until  Rousseau  as  usual  quarrelled  witli  hiin. 

Rulliibre's  works  were  pulilishcil  by  Anpnis  in  1810  (Palis,  6  vols.  Svu).  Tho 
Iliitsian  nevolulim  may  be  found  in  tllc  C/ie/s-dirmre  Uistoriqms  of  tho  Collco- 
lion  Pidot,  and  tlie  Poland,  with  title  altered  as  above,  in  the  same  Collection. 

RUM  is  a  spirituous  liquor,  prepared  from  molasses, 
skimmings  of  the  boiUng  house,  and  other  saccharine  bye- 
products,  and  the  refuse  juice  of  the  cane-sugar  manufac- 
ture. Its  distillation,  which  is  a  simple  process,  may  be- 
conducted  in  connexion  with  any  cane-sugar  establish- 
ment, but  the  rum  which  comes  to  the  American  and 
European  markets  is  chiefly  the  produce  of  the  West 
India  Islands  and  Guiana.  The  ordinary,  method  of 
working  in  the  West  Indies  is  the  following.  A  wash  is 
prepared  consisting  of  sugar  skimmings  4  parts,  lees  of 
still  or  d  under  5  parts,  and  molasses  1  part,  the  quantity 
prepared  being  equal  to  the  capacity  of  the  still  in  use. 
Dunder  consists  of  the  residue  of  the  still  from  previous 
distillations,  and  it  takes  the  place  of  a  ferment,  besides 
which  the  acetic  acid  it  contains,  derived  from  the  fer- 
menting wash  of  previous  operations,  has  a  favourable 
influence  on  the  progress  of  attenuation.  The  wash  pre- 
pared as  above  is  placed  in  the  fermenting  vat,  where,, 
according  to  weather  and  other  conditions,  the  fermenta- 
tion proceeds  more  or  less  briskly;  but  usually. a  week  or 
ten  days  is  the  period"  required  for  attenuation,  during 
which  time  the  scum  formed  is  removed  from  the  surface 
of  the  vat  twice  daily.  When  sufficiently  attenuated,  the 
wash  is  run  into  the  still,  which  is  generally  of  a  simple 
construction,  and  distilled  off,  tho  first  product  being; 
"low  wines,"  which  on  redistillation  come  over  as  "high 
•wines"  or  strong  rum.  'When  a  Pontefex  still  is  used, 
which  contains  two  intermediate  "retorts"  between  th& 
still  and  the  worm,  a  strong  spirit  is  obtained  at  the  first 
distillation.  The  charge  of  wash  yields  from  10  to  12 
per  cent,  of  rum,  of  an  average  strength  of  25°  over 
proof.  Pure  distilled  rum  is  an  entirely  colourless  liquid,, 
but  as  imported  and  sold  it  generally  has  a  deep  brown 
colour  imparted  by  caramel  or  by  storage  in  sherry  cai>ks. 
It  has  a  peculiar  aroma,  derived  principally  from  the  pre- 
sence of  a  minute  proportion  of  butyric  ether.  Rum  varias 
very  considerably  in  quality,  the  finest  being  known  as 
Jamaica  rum,  whether  it  is  the  product  of  that  island  or 
not.  An  inferior  quality  of  rum  is  known  among  the 
French  as  tajia  ;  and  the  lowest  quality,  into  the  wash  for 
which  debris  of  sugar  cane  enters,  is  called  negro  rum,  and 
is  mostly  consumed  by  the  coloured  workers  in  the  sugar 
houses  and  distilleries.  The  planters  sometimes  put  rind.s 
and  slices  of  pine-apple  into  the  barrels  in  which  rum  i.< 
matured,  to  improve  and  add  to  its  flavour,  and  occasion- 
ally anise  and  other  flavouring  ingredients  are  also  used. 
The  spirit  prepared  from  molasses  of  beet-sugar  factories 
cannot  be  classed  with  rum.  The  product  has  a  highly 
disagreeable  odour  and  taste,  and  it  can  only  be  rendered 
fit  for  consumption  by  repeated  distillation  and  concentrai 
tion  to  a  high  degree  of  strength,  whereby  the  spirit  is 
rendered  "sUent,"  or  has  only  a  faint  rum  flavour.  In 
this  condition  it  is  used  for  mixing  -with  strongly  flavoured 
rum,  and  for  the  preparation  of  a  fictitious  rum,  the 
flavour  of  which  is  due  to  "rum  essence,'* — a  mixture  of 
artificial  ether,  birch  bark  oil,  and  other  substances.  Cane- 
sugar  molasses  enters  largely  into  the  mat^c-ials  from  which 


R  U  M  — R  U  M 


59 


Abback  (q.v.),  the  spirit  of  Java  and  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, ia  prepared,  but  ita  flavour  depends  more  on  pahn- 
tree  toddy,  which  also  is  a  constituent  of  the  wash.  The 
imports  of  rum  into  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  home 
consumption  liavo  been  decreasing  for  a  number  of  yeara.^ 

KUMFORD,  CotTNT.     See  Thompson,  Sib  Benjamin'. 

RtlilJ.  Mohammed  b.  ^Mohammed  b.  Husain  albalkhi, 
better  known  as  MauliiuA  Jaldl-uddin  Ki'imf,  the  greatest 
Sufic  poet  of  Persia,  was  born  on  the  30th  of  September 
1207  (604  A.n.  6th  of  Rabi'  I.)  at-  Balkh,  in  KhorasAn, 
■where  liis  family  had  resided  from  time  immemorial,  rich 
in  property  and  public  renown.  He  claimed  descent  fi'Ora 
the  caliph  Abiibekr,  and  from  the  Khwdrism  shdh  Sultdn 
AJd-uddin  b.  Tukush  (1199-1220),  whose  only  daughter, 
Malikari-Jahdn,  had  been  married  to  Jaldl-uddin's  grand- 
father. Her  son,  Mohammed,  commonly  called  Bahd- 
nddfn  Walad,  was  a  famous  doctor  of  Balkh,  who,  to  escape 
the  jealousy  with  which  the  sultan  viewed  his  influence, 
emigrated  to  Asia  Minor  in  1212.  Young  Jaldl-uddln 
was  only  five  years  old  at  that  time,  but  the  signs  of  his 
future  greatness  in. spiritual  matters  began  already  to  mani-. 
fest  themselves  in  precocious  knowledge  and  in  ecstasies 
and  visions.  After  residing  for  some  time  at  Malatlyah 
and  afterwards  at  Erzinjdn  in  Armenia,  Bahd-uddln  was 
called  to  Ldrindah  in  Asia  Minor,  as  principal  of  the  local 
college,  and  there  young  Jaldl-uddin,  who  had  meanwhile 
grown  under  the  careful  tuition  of  his  father  in  wisdom  and 
holiness,  attained  his  maturity,  and  married  in  1226  Jauhar 
Khdtiin,  the  daughter  of  Ldld  Sharaf-uddin  of  Samarkand. 
Finally,  Bahd-uddln  was  invited  to  Iconium  by  "Ald-uddtn 
Kaikubdd  (1219-1236),  the  sultdn  of  Asia  Minor,  or,  as  it  is 
commonly  called  in  the  East,  Kiim, — whence  Jaldl-uddln's 
surname  (tak/iallus)  EiimL 

After  Bahd-uddln's  death  in  1231,  JalAl-uddln  went  to 
Aleppo  and  Damascus  for  a  short  time  to  study,  but,  as 
the  mere  positive  sciences  in  which  he  had  been  particu- 
larly trained  failed  to  satisfy  him,  on  his  return  to  Iconium, 
where  he  became  by  and  by  professor  of  four  separate 
colleges,  he  took  for  nine  years  as  his  spiritual  guide 
Sayyid  Burhdn-uddin  Husainl  of  Tirniidh,  one  of  his 
father's  disciples,  and  later  on  the  wandering  Stifl  Shams- 
nddfn  of  Tabriz,  who  arrived  in  Iconium  on  the  29th  of 
November  12-14,  and  soon  acquired  the  most  powerful 
influence  over  Jaldl-uddin,  who  even  adopted  his  name 
as  takhallus  in  his  ghazals  or  mystic  odes.  Shams- 
nddin's  rather  aggressive  character,  however,  roused  the 
indignation  of  the  people  of  Iconium  against  him,  and 
during  a  riot  in  which  Jaldl-uddin's  eldest  son,  'Ald-uddln, 
was  killed,  he  was  arrested  and  probably  executed ;  at 
least  he  was  no  more  seen.  This  fate  of  his  teacher  and 
friend,  together  with  the  untimely  death  of  his  son,  throw 
Jaldl-uddin  into  deep  melancholy,  and  in  remembrance  of 
these  victims  of  popular  wrath  he  founded  the  order  of 
the  Maulawi  or  (in  Turkish  pronunciation)  Mewlevvl  der- 
vishes, famous  for  their  piety  as  well  as  for  their  peculiar 
garb  of  mourning,  their  musiq  and  their  mystic  dance 
(samd),  which  is  the  outward  representation  of  the  circling 
movement  of  the  spheres,  and  the  inward  symbol  of  the 
iCircling  movement  of  the  soul  caused  by  the  vibrations  of 


'  Rum  SImib  ia  a  kind. of  Uciuoiir,  or  cold  punch,  tlie  basis  of  which  ia 
rum,  lemon  juice,  and  sugar.  It  is  prepared  by  adding  to  34  gallons 
of  proof  rum  2  oz.  of  the  essential  oil  of  orange  and  an  equal  quantity 
of  essential  oil  of  lemon  dissolved  in  ono  quart  of  spirit,  and  300  lb  of 
rellncd  sugar  disoolved  in  20  gallons  of  water.  This  combination  is 
thorouglily  mixed  together,  after  which  there  is  added  Riiiricient  orango 
,luico  or  solution  of  tartaric  acid  to  produce  a  sliglit  pli-usant  acidity. 
After  ogitating  tho  mixture  again  for  some  time,  20  gallons  of  water 
ore  added,  bringing  tho  quantity  up  to  100  gallons,  and  the  agitation  of 
the  whole  is  continued  for  half  an  hour.  In  about  a  fortnight's  time 
the  shrub  should  bo  brilliant  and  ready  for  bottling.  Other  llavouring 
Ingredients  are  occasionally  added,  and  the  compound  may  be  varied 
accordip^  to  U^*f 


a  Siifl's  fervent  love  to  God.  The  establishment  of  this 
order,  which  still  possesses  numerous  'cloisters  throughout 
the  Turkish  empire,  and  tho  leadership  of  which  has  been 
kept  in  Jaldl-uddln's  family  in  Iconium  uninterruptedly  for 
the  last  six  hundred  years,  gave  a  new  stimulus  both  to 
the  zeal  and'  energy  and  the  poetical  inspiration  of  the 
great  shaikh.  Most  of  his  matchless  odea,  in  which  he 
soars  on  tho  wings  of  a  genuine  enthusiasm,  high  over 
eafth  and  heaven  up  to  tho  throne  of  Almighty  God,  were 
composed  in  honour  of  the  Slaulavri  dervishes,  and  even  hia 
opus  magnum,  tho  Mathnawl  or,  as  it  is  usually  called,  Th* 
Spiritual  Mathnatvi  (mathnawl-i-ma'nawl),  a  production  of 
the  highest  poetical  and  religious  intuition  in  six  books  or 
daftars,  with  30,000  to  40,000  double-rhymed  verses,  can 
be  traced  to  tho  same  source.  The  idea  of  this  immense 
collection  of  ethical  and  moral  precepts,  interwoven  ■odth 
numerous  anecdotes  and  comments  on  verses  of  the  Korda 
and  sayings  of  the  Prophet,  which  the  Eastern  world  reveres 
as  the  greatest  devotional  work,  the  study  of  which  secures 
eternal  bliss,  was  first  suggested  to  the  poet  by  his  favourite 
disciple  Hasan,  better  known  as  Husdm-iiddln,  who  became 
in  1258  Jaldl-uddln's  chief  assistant.  He  had  frequently 
observed  that  the  members  of  the  Maulawi  fraternity  read 
with  great  delight  the  mystic  mathnawls  of  Sand'l  and 
Farld-uddln  'Attdr,  and  induced  his  master  to  compose  a 
similar  poem  on  a  larger  scale.  Jaldl-uddin  readily  fell  in 
with  this  suggestion  and  dictated  to- him,  with  a  short 
interruption,  the  whole  work  during  the  remaining  years 
of  his  life.  Soon  after  the  completion  of  this  masterpiece 
Jaldl-uddia  died  on  the  17th  of  December  1273  (672  A.g. 
5th  of  Jumddd  11.),  worshipped  as  a  saint  by  high  and  low. 
His  first  successor  in  the  rectorship  of  the  Maulawi 
fraternity  was  Husdm-uddln  himself,  after  whose  death  in 
1284  Jaldl-uddln's  younger  and  only  surviving  soij.  Shaikh 
Bahdudd-(a  Ahmed,  commonly  called  Sultan  Walad,  and 
favourably  known  as  author  of  the  mystical  mathnawl, 
Rabdbndma,  or  the  Book  of  the  Guitar  (died  1312),  wae 
duly  installed  as  grand-master  of  the  order. 

Jaldl-udJtn's  life  is  fully  described  in  Shams-irfdln  Ahmed 
kf[iki'aMaiidkib-td'drifin  (written  between  718  and  754  A.n.),  the 
most  important  portions  of  which  have  been  translated  by  J.  W. 
Eedliousa  in  the  preface  to  liis  English  metrical  version  of  Tht 
Memevi,  Book  the  First  (London,  1881  ;  Triibner'a  Oriental  sorioa). 
Complete  editions  have  been  printed  in  Bombay,  Lucknow, 
Tabriz,  Constantinople,  and  in  Bulak  (with  a  Turkish  transla- 
tion, 1268  A.H.),  at  the  end  of  which  a  seventh  daftar  is  added, 
the  genuineness  of  which  is  refuted  by  a  remark  of  Jaldl-uddin 
liimself  in  one  of  the  Bodleian  copies  of  the  poom,  Ouseley,  294 
(f.  328a  sq.).  Tho  revised  edition  by 'Ahd-ulfatif  (m.ido  between 
102-t  and  1032  A.n.)  is  still  unpublished,  but  the  same  author'i 
commentary  on  t\ia  Ualhiawi,  LaiOHf-idmdnawi,  and  hii  glossary, 
Latd'if-ailaghdl,  have  been  lithographed  in  Cawnpore  (1870)  and 
Lucknow  (1877)  respectively,  the  latter  under  the  title  Farhang- 
i-iiuUhnauL  For  the  other  numerous  commcutaries  and  for  further 
biographical  and  literary  particulars  of  Jalil-uddin  see  Ricu's  Cat 
of  the  Persian  MSS.  of  the  Brit.  Mils.,  vol.  ii.  p.  CS4  sq.;  A. 
Sprcnger's  Oudh  Cat.,  p.  489  ;  Sir  Gore  Ouseley,  Nolius  of  Persian 
Poets,  p.  112  sq.;  and  II.  Ethci,  in  Morgenliindischc Studien,  Leipsic, 
1870,  p.  95  sq.  Select  poems  from  Jalal-uddin's  dlwAu  (often 
styled  Dlwdn-i-Shams-i- Tabriz)  have  been  translated  in  German 
verso  by  V.  von  Kosenzweig,  Vienna,  1838.  (H.  E.) 

RUMINANTS.     See  M.vmmai,ia,  vol.  xv.  p.  431. 

RUMKER,  Carl  Ltowig  Christian  (1788-1862), 
German  astronomer,  was  born  in  Mecklenburg  on  May  28, 
1788.  Ho  served  in  the  British  navy  for  some  yoars  until 
1817  ;  in  1821  he  went  to  New  South  Wales  as  astronomer 
at  the  observatory  built  at  Porramatta  by  Sir  Thomas 
Brisbane  (see  Ouservatobv,  vol.  xvii.  p.  716).  Ha  re- 
turned to  Europe  in  1831,  and  took  charge  of  tho  school 
of  navigation  at  Hamburg  and  tho  observatory  attached 
to  it.  His  principal  work  is  a  Catalogiia  of  12,000  fixed 
stars  from  meridian  observations  mode  ot  Hamburg, 
published  in  1843.  In  18.'>7  ho  retiica  and  wont  to  reside 
in  Lisbon,  where  ho  died  on  December  21,  1862. 


60 


K  U  N  —  R  U  N 


EUNCIMAN,  Alexandeu  (1736-1785),  historical 
painter,  was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1736.  He  studied  at 
tne  Foulis's  Academy,  Glasgow,  and  at  the  age  of  thirty 
proceeded  to  Rome  where  he  spent  five  years.  It  was  at 
this  time  that  he  became  acquainted  with  Fuseli,  a  kindred 
spirit,  between  whose  productions  and  those  of  Runciman 
there  is  a  marked  similarity.  The  painter's  earliest  efforts 
had  been  in  landscape;  "other  artists,"  it  was  said  of 
tim,  "talked  meat  and  drink,  but  he  talked  landscape." 
He  soon,  however,  turned  to  historical  and  imaginative 
subjects,  exhibiting  his  Nausicaa  at  Play  with  her 
Maidens  in  1767  at  the  Free  Society  of  British  Artists, 
Edinburgh.  On  his  return  from  Italy,  after  a  brief 
residence  in  London,  where  in  1772  he  exhibited  in  the 
Koyal  Academy,  he  settled  in  Edinburgh,  and  was  appointed 
master  of  the  Trustees'  Academy.  He  was  patronized  by 
Sir  James  Clerk,  whose  hall  at  Penicuik  House  he  decorated 
•with  a  series  of  subjects  from  Ossian.  He  also  executed 
various  religious  paintings  and  an  altarpiece  in  the 
Cowgate  Episcopal  Church,  Edinburgh,  and  easel  pictures 
of  Cymon  and  Iphigenia,  Sigismunda  Weeping  over  the 
Heart  of  Tancred,  and  Agrippina  Landing  with  the  Ashes 
of  Germanicus.  He  died  in  Edinburgh  on  October  4, 
1785.  His  works,  while  they  show  high  intention  and 
considerable  imagination,  are  frequently  defective  in  form 
and  extravagant  in  gesture. 

RUNCIMAN,  John  (1744-1766),  historical  painter,  a 
younger  brother  •^f  the  above,  accompanied  him  to  Rome, 
and  died  at  Naples  in  1766.  He  was  an  artist  of  great 
promise.  His  Flight  into  Egypt,  in  the  National  Gallery 
of  Scotland,  is  remarkable  for  the  precision  of  its  execution 
and  the  mellow  richness  of  its  colouring. 

EUNCORN,  a  market-town  and  seaporl  oT  Cheshire,  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  the  south  side  of  the  Mersey  and 
near  the  terminus  in  that  river  of  the  Bridgewater,  the 
Mersey  and  Irwell,  and  the  Trent  and  Mersey  Canals,  15 
miles  S.E.  of  Liverpool  and  15  N.E.  of  Chester.  The 
Mersey,  which  here  contracts  to  400  yards  at  high  water, 
is  crossed  by  a  wrought-iron  railway  bridge  1 500  feet  in 
length.  The  modern  prosperity  of  the  town  dates  from 
the  completion  in  1773  of  the  Bridgewater  Canal,  which 
here  descends  into  the  Mersey  by  a  succession  of  locks. 
The  town  was  made  an  independent  landing  port  in  1847, 
and  within  recent  years  large  additions  have  been  made 
to  the  docks  and  warehouses.  .  The  town  possesses  ship- 
Tbuilding  yards,  iron  foundries,  rope  works,  tanneries,  and 
Boap  and  alkali  works.  The  population  of  the  urban  .sani- 
tary district  (area  1490  acres)  in  1871  was  12,443,  and  in 
1881  it  was  15,126'. 

Owing  to  the  Mersey  being  here  fordable  at  low  water,  the  place 
Ws  in  early  times  of  considerable  military  importance.  On  a  rock 
Which  formerly  jutted  some  distance  farther  into  the  Mersey 
EtheUleda  erected  a  cattle  in  916,  but  of  the  building  there  are 
now  no  remains.  She  is  also  said  to  have  founded  a  town,  but 
probably  it  soon  afterwards  fell  into  decay,  as  it  is  not  noticed  in 
Domesday.     The  ferry  is  noticed  in  a  charter  in  the  12th  century. 

RUNE.  See  Alphabet,  vol.  i.  pp.  607,  612,  and 
Scandinavian  Languages. 

RUNEBERG,  Johan  Litdwig  (1804-1877),  Swedish 
poet,  was  born  at  Jakobstad,  in  Finland,  on  the  6th  of 
February  1804.  Brought  up  by  an  uncle  at  Ule&borg,  he 
entered  the  university  of  Abo  in  the  autumn  term  of  1822, 
and  in  1826  began  to  contribute  verses  to  the  local  news- 
papers. In  the  spring  of  1827  he  received  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  philosophy,  and  shared  in  the  calamity  which,  in 
September  of  the.  same  year,  destroyed  the  city  and  uni- 
versity of  Abo  with  fire.  Runeberg  accepted  a  tutorship 
at  Saarijarvi,  in  the  interior  of  Finland,  where  he  remained 
for  three  years,  studying  hard  and  writing  actively.  The 
usiversity  had  been  renioved  after  the  great  5re  to  Rel- 
eia}?;fora,  and  in  1830  the  young  -[if^i  returned  thither,  as 


amanuensis  to  the  council  of  the  university.  In  the  samel 
year  he  published  his  first  volume  of  Dikter  (Vosm&),  and  a' 
collection  of  Servian  folksongs  translated  into  Swedish. 
In  1831  his  verse  romance  Grafven  i  Perrho  (The  Grave 
in  Perrho)  received  the  small  gold  medal  of  the  Swedish 
Academy,  and  the  poet  married  the  daughter  of  Dr  Teng- 
strom,  archbishop  of  Finland.  For  a  tractate  on  the  Medea 
of  Euripides  he  was  in  the  same  year  appointed  university 
lecturer  on  Roman  literature.  In  1832  he  l&aped  at  one 
bound  to  the  foremost  place  among  Swedish  poets  with 
his  beautiful  little  epic  Elgshyttarne  (The  Elk-Hunters)  ; 
and  in  1833  he'  published  a  second  collection  of  lyrical 
poems.  His  comedy  Friaren  fran  Landet  (The  Country 
Lover)  was  not  a  success  in  1834.  He  returned  to  more 
characteristic  fields  in  1836,  when  he  published  the 
charming  idyl  in  hexameters  called  Hanna.  In  1837 
Runeberg  accepted  the  chair  of  Latin  at  BorgS,  College, 
and  resided  in  that  little  town  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 

From  BorgS,  he  continued  to  pour  forth  volumes  of 
verse,  and  he  was  now  recognized  in  his  remote  Finland, 
retirement  as  second  only  to  Tegner  among  the  poets  of 
Sweden.  In  1841  he  published  KadescMa,  a  romance  of 
Russian  life,  and  Jidqualhn  (Christmas  Eve),  an  idyl. 
The  third  volume  of  his  lyrical  pieces  bears  the  date  1843, 
and  the  noble  cycle  of  unrhymed  verse  romances  called 
Kung  Fjalar  was  published  in  1844.  Finally,  in  1848, 
he  achieved  a  great  popular  success  by  his  splendid  series 
of  poems  about  the  war  of  independence  in  1S08,  a  series 
which  bears  the  name  of  Fcmrik  Stals  Sa'jner  (Ensign 
Steel's  Stories) ;  a  second  series  of  these  appeared  in 
1860.  From  1847  to  1850  the  poet  was  rector  of  Borgd 
College,  a  post  which  he  laid  down  to  take  the  only 
journey  out  of  Finland  which  he  ever  accomplished,  a  visit 
to  Sweden  in  1851.  His  later  writings  may  be  briefly 
mentioned.  In  1853  he  collected  his  prose  essays  into  a 
volume  entitled  Smarre  Beratteher.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  made  president  of  a  committee  for  the  preparation  of 
a  national  Psalter,  which  issued,  in  1857,  a  Psalm-Book 
largely  contributed  by  Runeberg  for  public  use.  He  once 
more  attempted  comedy  in  his  Kan  ej  (Can't)  in  1862, 
and  tragedy,  with  infinitely  more  success,  in  his  stately 
Kungarne  pa  Salamis  (The  Kings  at  Salamis)  in  1803. 
He  collected  his  writings  in  six  volumes  in  1873-74. 
Runeberg  died  at  Borgc^  on  the  6th  of  May  1877. 

The  poems  of  Euneberg  show  the  influence  of  the  Greeks  and  of 
Goethe  upou  his  mind  ;  but  he  possesses  a  great  originality.  In 
an  age  of  conventionality  he  was  boldly  realistic,  yet  never  to  the 
sacrifice  of  artistic  beauty.  Less  known  to  the  rest  of  Europe 
than  Tegner,  he  yet  is  now  generally  considered  to  excel  him  as  a 
poet,  and  to  mark  the  highest  attainment  hitherto  ■.cached  by 
imaginative  literature  in  Sweden. 

The  life  of  Jolian  LmlviR  Hunebcrp  lins  nftt  yet  been  in  ittcn  in  detail,  although 
it  is  saitl  to  be  in  preparation.  TJio  fullest  aecoiint  of  liis  life  and  works  is  timt 
which  forms  the  introduction  to  the  Samfade  ^Iri/Crr  of  1S73.  It  was  written 
by  Pi'of.  Nyblom.  A  minute  criticism  of  Runeberp's  piineipal  poems,  with 
translations,  occupies  pp.  9S-133  of  Gossc's  Stvdies  in  the  Literature  o/  Nortltrrn 
Etfrope,  1879.  A  selection  of  his  lyrical  pieces  was  pubUshed  in  an  English 
translation  by  Messrs  Magnusson  and  Palmer  in  1878. 

RUNNING.  In  this  mode  of  progression  the  step  i.i 
lighter  and  gait  more  rapid  than  in  walking,  from  which 
it  difi'ers  in  consisting  of  a  succession  of  springs  from  toe 
to  toe,  instead  of  a  series  of  steps  from  toe  to  heel.  Aa 
an  athletic  exercise,  it  has  been  in  vogue  from  the  earliest 
times,  and  the  simple  foot  race,  8pd/no9,  run  straight  from 
starting  point  to  goal,  was  a  game  of  the  Greek  pent- 
athlon. It  was  diversified  with  the  SiauXoSpo'/tos,  in  which 
a  distance  mark  was  rounded  and  the  starting  and  winning 
points  were  the  same,  and  also  by  the  8pd/uos  ottXituiv, 
which  might  be  compared  to  the  modern  heavy  marching 
order  race.  In  ancient  Italy  running  was  practised  in 
circus  exhibitions,  as  described  by  Virgil  (J^n.  v.  286  sj.). 
In  modern  times  it  has  been  developed  almost  into  a  .science 
by  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  in  Great  Britain  and  North 
America,  tiU  the  distances  recently  covered  appear  ahnost 


R  U  P  — R  U  P 


(51 


fabulous  compared  with  the  performances  up  to  the  end 
pf  the  first  half  of  the  century.  In  all  kinds  of  run- 
ning the  entire  weight  of  the  body  is  thrown  on  the  toes, 
from  which  light  strides  are  taken  with  all  possible  free- 
'dom  of  action  from  the  hips.  At  starting  the  feet  are 
placed  about  a  foot  apart,  the  body  being  inclined  slightly 
forward,  with  the  weight  of  it  on  the  right  or  hindermost 
foot.  A  bent  double  position  with  the  feet  wide  apart  is 
on  no  account  advisable.  The  start  cannot  be  made  too 
quickly  on  the  signal  being  given.  Two  or  three  short  steps 
are  taken  to  get  fairly  into  stride,  after  which  the  runner 
should  look  straight  before  him,  set  his  eyes  steadfastly  on 
the  goal,  and  run  towards  it  at  his  longest  and  quickest 
stride,  care_  being  taken  not  to  swerve  or  get  out  of  stride. 

Running  is  usually  thus  classified  :— (1)  sprinting  includes  all 
distances  up  to  400  yards  ;  (2)  medium  distances  range  from  one 
quarter  to  three  quarters  of  a  mile  ;  (3)  long  distances  are  tliose 
of  one  milo  and  upwards.  The  first-named  is  the  most  popular, 
and  is  rtilich  practised  in  the  north  of  England,  especially  at 
ShoffielB,  wliicn  may  bo  termed  the  home  o£  sprint  running.  It  is 
less  faii<juing  than  long  distances  and  requires  less  arduous  training, 
while  streng^.h  to  a  certain  extent  replaces  wind.  A  great  point  in 
sprinting  is  to  obtain  a  good  start,  for  which  purpose  incessant 
practice  is  required.  A  first-class  sprinter  when  at  full  speed  will 
clear  from  8  to  9  feet  in  each  stride,  and  liis  toes  leave  the  ground 
with  inconceivable  rapidity.  When  in  good  condition  he  will  run 
lOOyirds  attop  speed  ill  one  breath,  and  probably  150  yards  with- 
out drawing  a  second  one.  The  quickest  authenticated  times  in 
which  short  distances  have  been  run  on  perfectly  level  ground 
are  as  follows  : — 120  yards,  11^  sec. ;  150  yards,  15  sec. ;  200  yards, 
19i  sec;-5,S00  yards,  30  see;  and  400  yards,  43|  sec. 

Of  medium  distances  the  quarter  mile  race  is  by  far  the  most 
difficult  to  run,  as  a  combination  of  speed  and  endurance  is  requi- 
site. Ill  fact  a  runner  should  be  able  to  sprint  the  whole  way.  Six 
hundred  yards  and  half  a  mile  are  the  other  chief  distances  in  this 
class  of  running.  The  stride  is  slower  than  in  sprinting,  and  a 
man  cannot  maintain  the  same  speed  throughout  as  is  possible  up 
to  300  yards.  The  best  authenticated  times  are — quarter  mile, 
48i  sec. ;  600  yards,  1  min.  llj  sec.  ;  half  mile,  1  min.  534  sec; 
ilOOO  yards,  2  min.  13  sec.  ;  three  quarter  mile,  3  min.  7  sec. 

Light  wiry  men  are  best  fitted  for  long-distance  running,  where 
stamina  and  wind  are  more  useful  than  speed.  The  strides  must 
bo  long  and  light.  After  some  miles  a  runner  is  unable  to  keep 
the  weight  of  the  body  on  his  toes  any  longer  owing  to  fatigue, 
puts  his  heels  down,  and  runs  flat-footed.  The  times  accomplished 
of  late  years  by  long-distance  runners  are  most  remarkable.  Those 
for  the  chief  distances  are  as  follows: — 1  mile,  4  min.  16^  sec.  ; 
2  miles,  9  min.  llj  sec.  ;  3  miles,  14  min.  36  sec.  ;  4  miles,  19 
inin.  36  sec. ;  5  miles,  24  min.  40  sec.  ;  10  miles,  61  min.  CJ  sec.  ; 
120  miles,  1  h.  56  min.  38  sec.;  30  miles,  3  h.  15  min.  9  sec; 
|40  miles,  i  h.  34  min.  27  sec. ;  50  miles,  6  h.  8  min. ;  100  miles, 
jl8h.  26  min.  30  sec.  ;  200  miles,  35  h.  9  min.  28  sec. ;  300  miles, 
168  h.  17  min.  6  sec. ;  400  miles,  85  h.  52  min.;  500  miles,  109  h. 
118  min.  20  sec. ;  600  miles,  137  h.  25  min.  10  sec. ;  CKTmiles,  HO  h. 
S4  min.  10  sec. 

Nearly  all  running  contests  now  tako  place  on  prepared  cinder 
|iaths,  which  from  their  springiness  assist  .speed  considerably.  A 
runner's  dress  should  bo  as  light  as  possible,  and  consist  merely  of 
a  thin  jersey,  a  pair  of  drawers  covering  the  waist  and  loins  and 
extending  downwards  to  the  ton  of  the  kuoo  caps,  and  heelless  run- 
ning shoes  with  a  few  short  s)>ikes  in  the  soles  just  under  the  tread 
of  the  foot.  The  spikes  arc  longer  for  sprinting.  Chafnois  leather 
socks  for  the  toes  and  ball  of  the  foot  may  bo  added,  since  they 
diminish  concussion  as  each  foot  reaches  the  ground.  Since  the 
introduction  of  Atuletio  Si'Okt.s  (seo  vol.  iii.  p.  12)  into  England 
and  America  commenced  in  1869  the  popularity  of  amateur  run- 
ning races  has  vastly  increased.  These  contests  are  governed  by 
the  rules  of  the  Amateur  Athletic  Association.  At  Shelficld  a 
code  of  rules  has  been  drawn  up  for  the  regulation  of  the  moro 
important  professional  liandicaps. 

^  RUPERT  (IIeodbeut),  St,  a  kinsman  of  the  Merovingian 
mouse,  and  bishop  of  Worms,  was  invited  (G96)  to  Regens- 
burg  (Uatisbon)  by  Thcodo  of  Bavaria,  but  finally  settkd 
in  Salzburg,  the  bishopric  of  which  was  liis  foundation. 
Ho  is  regarded  as  the  apostle  of  the  Bavarians,  not  that 
the  land  was  up  to  that  tin^o  altogother  lipathon,  but 
because  of  liis  services  in  the  promotion  and  con.iolidation 
of  its  Christianity. 

Tlio  Oesta  Sancti  Ilrodhcrli  Con/csons  have  been  printed  in  the 
AnhivfUr  Ocsterrckh.  Oeschichlr.  1882.  froip  n  I'Vlj-centiiry  AtS.    . 


RUPERT  (1619-1682),  prince  of  Bavaria,  the  third 
son  of  Frederick  V.,  elector  palatine  and  king  of  Bohemia, 
and  of  Elizabeth,  sister  of  Charles  I.  of  England,  was  born 
at  Prague  on  December  18,  1619.  In  1630  he  was  placed 
at  the  university  of  Leyden,  where  he  showed  particulaf 
readiness  in  languages  and  in  military  discipline.  In  1633 
ho  was  with  the  prince  of  Orange  at  the  siege  of  Rhyn- 
berg,  and  served  against  the  Spaniards  as  a  volunteer  in 
the  prince's  life-guard.  In  December  1635  ho  was  at  the 
English  court,  and  was  named  as  leader  of  the  proposed 
expedition  to  Madagascar.  In  1636  he  visited  Oxford, 
when  he  was  made  master  of  arts.  Returning  to  The 
Hague  in  1638,  he  made  the  first  display  of  Iiis  reckless 
bravery  at  the  siege  of  Breda,  and  shortly  afterwards  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Austrians  in  th6  battle  before 
Lemgo.  For  three  years  he  was  confined  at  Linz,  whers 
he  withstood  the  endeavours  made  to  induce  him  to 
change  his  religion  and  to  take  service  with  the  emperor. 
Upon  his  release  in  1642  he  returned  to  The  Hague,  and 
from  thence  went  to  Dover,  but,  the  Civil  War  not  having 
yet  begun,  he  returned  immediately  to  Holland.  Chariea 
now  named  Rupert  general  of  the  horse,  and  he  joined 
the  king  at  Leicester  in  August  1642,  being  present  at 
the  raising  of  the  standard  at  Nottingham.  He  waa  also 
made  a  knight  of  the  Garter.  It  is  particularly  to  be 
noticed  that  he  brought  with  him  several  military  inven- 
tions, and,  especially,  introduced  the  "German  discipline" 
in  his  cavalry  operations.  He  at  once  displayed  the  most 
astonishing  activity,  fought  his  first  action  with  success  at 
Worcester  in  September,  and  was  at  Edgehill  on  Octobei 
23.  At  Aylesbury  and  Windsor,  on  the  march  to 
London,  he  received  severe  checks,  but  after  desperata 
fighting  took  Brentford.  In  1643  he  captured  Ciren. 
cester,  but  failed  before  Gloucester,  and  in  Februarj 
issued  his  declaration  denying  the  various  charges  oJ 
inhumanity  which  had  been  brought  against  him-  At  the 
end  of  March  he  set  out  from  Oxford  to  join  the  queen  at 
York,  took  Birmingham,  and,  after  a  desperate  resistance, 
Lichfield,  but  was  there  suddenly  recalled  to  the  court  at 
Oxford  to  meet  Essex's  expected  attack.  Chalgrove  fight, 
at  which  during  one  of  his  incessant  raids  he  met  Hampden, 
was  fought  on  June  18.  On  July  11  he  joined  the'queed 
at  Stratford-on-Avon,  and  escorted  her  to  the  king  at 
Edgehill.  He  then  began  the  siege  of  Bristol,  which  he 
took  on  July  26,  and  he  took  part  in  the  futile  attempt 
on  Gloucester,  where  he  failed  to  repulse  Essex's  relieving 
force.  In  the  skirmish  previous'  to  the  first  battle  of 
Newbury  ho  checked  the  enemy's  advance,  and  in  the 
battle  itself  displayed  desperate  courage,  following  up  the 
day's  work  by  a  night  attack  on  the  retiring  army.  In 
the  beginning  of  1644  he  was  rewarded  by  being  made 
earl  of  Holderno.ss,  duke  of  Cumberland,  and  president 
of  Wales.  In  February  he  was  at  Shrewsbury,  from 
whence  he  administered  the  affairs  of  Wales ;  in  March 
he  went  to  relievo  Newark,  and  was  back  at  Shrewsbury 
by  the  end  of  the  month.  He  then  marched  ijorth,' 
relieving  Lathom  and  taking  Bolton,  and  finally  relieving 
York  in  July.  At  Marston  Moor  ho  charged  and  routed 
the  Scots,  but  was  in  turn  completely  beaten  by  Crom< 
well's  Ironsides.  He  escaped  to  York  and  thence  to 
Richmond,  and  finally  by  great  skill  reached  Shrewsbury 
on  July  20.  On  November  21  he  was  repulsed  at  Abing- 
don, and  on  23d  ho  entered  Oxford  with  Charles.  lie  had 
meanwhile  been  made  generalissimo  of  the  armies  and 
master  of  the  horse.  Against  him,  however,  was  a  large 
party  of  courtier.s,  with  Digby  at  tlicir  head.  Tho  ia\ 
iluenco  of  tho  queen,  too,  was  uniformly  exerted  agaiusl 
him.  In  May  164.')  ho  took  Newark  by  storm.  Hi* 
advice  to  march  northwards  was  overruled,  and  on  Junr 
14-  tlip  oxj»erience3  of  Marston   Moor  were  repeated  tl 


62 


R  U  P  — R  U  S 


Naseby.  Eupert  fled  to  Bristol,  whence  he  connselled  the 
king  to  come  to  terms  with  the  parliament.  In  his  con- 
duct of  the  defence  of  the  town,  this  "  boldest  attaqucr  in 
the  world  for  personal  ■ourage"  showed  how  much  he 
"wanted  the  patience, aud  seasoned  head  to  consult  and 
udvise  for  defence  "  (Pepys).  His  surrender  of  the  town 
after  only  a  three  weeks'  siege,  though  he  had  promised 
Charlas  to  teep  it  four  months,  caused  his  disgrace  with 
the  king,  who  revoked  all  his  commissions  by  an  order 
dated  September  14,  and  in  a  cold  letter  ordered  him  to 
seek  his  subsistence  beyond  seas,  for  which  purpose  a  pass 
was  sent  him.  Eupert,  however,  broke  through  the  enemy, 
reached  the  king  at  Oxford,  and  was  there  reconciled  to 
him.  He  challenged  an  investigation  of  his  conduct,  and 
was  triumphantly  acquitted  by  the  council  of  war.  He 
appears,  too,  to  have  remonstrated  personally  .with  Charles 
in  terms  of  indecent  violence.  He  then  applied  to  the 
parliament  for  a  pass.  This,  however,  was  oiiered  only  on 
unacceptable  conditions.  On  June  24  Eupert  was  taken 
prisoner  by  Fairfax  at  Oxford,  and  on  July  5,  at  the 
demand  of  the  parliament,  sailed  from  Dover  for  France. 
Ee  was  immediately  made  a  marshal  in  the  French 
service,  with,  the  command  of  the  English  there.  He 
received  a  wound  in  the  head  at  Armeutieres  during  1647. 
The  greater  part  of  the  English  fleet  having  adhered  to 
Charles,  and  having  sailed  to  Holland,  Eupert  went  with 
the  prince  of  Wales  to  The  Hague,  where  the  charge  of  it 
was  pvrt  into  his  hand.  He  immediately  set  out  in 
January  1649  upon  an  expedition  of  organized  piracy. 
In  February,  after  passing  without  molestation  through 
the  Parliamentary  ships,  he  was  at  Kinsale,  of  which  he 
took  the  fort.  He  relieved  John  Grenville  at  the  Scilly 
Isles,  and  practically  crippled  the  English  trade. 
Attacked  by  Blake,  he  sailed  to  Portugal,  and  was  received 
with  kindness  by  the  king;  Blake,  however,  blockaded 
him  in  the  Tagus,  and  demanded  his  surrender.  Eupert 
broke  through  the  blockade  and  sailed  to  ;he  Mediter- 
ranean, landing  at  Barbary,  and  refitting  at  Toulon;  thence 
he  proceeded  to  Madeira,  the  Canaries  (in  1652),  the 
Azores,  Cape  de  Verd,  and  the  West  Indies,  sweeping  the 
ocean  ietween  the  latter  places  for  a  considerable  time. 
Finding  it  impossible,  however,  to  escape  the  indefatigable 
pursuit  of  Blake,  he  returned  to  France  in  1653.  He  was 
now  invited  to  Paris  by  Louis  XIV.,  who  made  him  master 
of  the  horse ;  he  had  also  an  offer  from  the  emperor  to 
command  his  forces.  He  travelled  for  some  while,  and 
was  again  in  Paris  in  1655.  His  movements,  hbwever,  at 
this  time  are  very  uncertain,  but-  he  appears  to  have 
devoted  his  enforced  leisure  to  engraving,  chemistry,  the 
perfection  of  gunpowder,  and  other  arts,  especially  those 
of  military  science.  Whether  he  was  the  actual  discoverer 
of  mezzotinto  eagraving,-  in  which  he  was  skUful,  is  un- 
certain, but  this  seems  probable. 

At  the  end  of  September  1660  Eupert  returned  to 
England;  he  was  abroad  during  1661,  was  placed  on  the 
privy  council  in  April  1662,  and  in  October  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  for  Tangiers ;  in  December  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Eoyal  Society/  In  Augvist  1664  he  was 
appointed  to  command  the  Guinea  fleet  against  the  Dutch, 
and  set  saU  in  October.  On  June  5,  1665,  he  gained 
with  Monk  a  great  victory  over  the  Dutch,  and  on  his 
return  had  his  portrait  painted  by  Lely  along  with  the 
other  admirals  present  at  the  battle.  He  again  put  to 
Bea  in  May  1666,  to  hinder  the  junction  of  the  Dutch  and 
French,  and  returned  in  the  beginning  of  June  after  a 
heavy  defeat,  his  ship  having  stuck  on  the  Galloper  Sands 
during  the  fight.  He  was  obliged  to  justify  himself 
before  the  council.  In  January  16G7  he  was  very  iO,  but 
recovered  after  the  operation  of  trepanning.  At  this  time 
he  is  mentioned  as  oue  of  the  best  tennis  players  in  the 


nation.  On  October  22,  1667,  he  received  with  Monk 
the  thanks  of  the  House  of  Commons  for  his  exertions 
against  the  Dutch  at  Chatham,  and  he  was  again  at 
sea  in  April  1668.  He  was  always  staunch  in  his  Pro- 
testant principles,  and  was  carefully  kept  in  ignorance  of 
Charles's  Catholic  plot  in  1670.  In  August  of  that  yeai- 
he  was  constable  of  Windsor,  and  busied  himself  with  the 
fitting  up  of  the  Eound  Tower,  a  turret  of  which  ho 
converted  into  a  workshop.  He  shared  in  the  prevail- 
ing immorality  of  the  time,  his  favourite  mistress  being 
the  celebrated  actress,  Mrs  Hughes.  In  1673  ho  was 
appointed  lord  high  admiral,  and  fought  two  battles  with 
the  Dutch  Fleet  on  Jlay  28  and  August  11,  but  coulll  do 
little  through  the  backwardness  of  the  French  in  coming 
to  his  assistance.  .This  appears  to  have  so  annoyed  him 
that  he  henceforward  eagerly  helped  the  anti-French  party. 
He  was  an  active  member  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and 
governor  of  the  Hudsou's  Bay  Company.  Till  his  death, 
on  November  29,  1682,  he  lived  in  complete  retirement  at 
Windsor.  (o.  a.) 

EUPEET'S  LAND.  See  Hudson's  Bat  Company  and 
Noeth-West  Teemtoey. 

EUPTUEE.     See  Heenia. 

EUSH.  Under  the  name  of  rush  or  rustes;  tlie  stalks 
or  fistular  stem-like  leaves  of  several  i^lants  have  minor 
industrial  applications.  The  common  rushes  (species  of 
Jnnciis)  are  used  in  many  parts  of  tlie  world  for  chair- 
bottoms,  mats,  and  basket  work,  and  the  pith  they 
contain  serves  as  wicks  in  open  oil-lamps  and  for  tallow- 
candles, — whence  rushlight.  The  bulrush,  Typlia  elepTian- 
tina,  is  used  in  Sindh  for  mats  and  baskets.  .  Under  the 
name  of  rushes,  species  of  Scirpus  and  other  Cypcracex  are 
used  for  chair-bottoms,  mats,  and  thatch.  The  elegant 
rush  mats  of  Madras  are  made  from  Fapi/nts  pcuifforei. 
The  sweet  rush,  yioldirig  essential  oil,  is  Aivlropogxm 
Sc/ioenanthns,  known  also  as  lemon  grass.  Large  quantities 
of  the  "horse  tail,"  Equisetum  hiemale,  are  used  under  the 
name  of  the  Dutch  or  scouring  rush,  for  scorning  metal 
and  other  hard  surfaces  on  account  of  the  large  proportion 
of  silica  the  plant  contains. 

EUSH,  Benjamin  (1745-1813),  the  Sydenham  of 
America,  was  born  near  Bristol  (12  miles  from  Phila- 
delphia), on  a  homestead  founded  by  his  grandfather, 
who  liad  followed  Penn  from  England  in  1683,  being  of 
the  Quaker  persuasion,  and  a  gunsmith  by  trade.  After 
a  careful  education  at  school  and  college,  and  an  apprea- 
ticeship  of  six  years  with  a  doctor  in  Philadelphia,  Eush 
went  for  two  j-ears  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  attached 
himself  chiefly  to  Cullen.  He  took  his  M.D.  degree 
there  in  1768,  spent  a  year  more  in  the  hospitals  of 
London  and  Paris,  and  began  practice  in  Philadelphia  at 
the  age  of  twenty-four,  undertaking  at  the  same  time 
the  chemistry  class  at  the  new  medical  school.  He  at 
once  became  a  leading  spirit  in  the  political  and; social 
movements  of  the  day.  He  was  a  friend  of  Franklin's, 
a  member  of  Congress  for  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1776,  and  one  of  those  who  signed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  the  same  year.  He  had  already  written  on 
the  Test  Laws,  "Sermons  to  the  Eich,"  and  on  Negro 
Slavery,  having  taken  up  the  last-named  subject  at  the 
instance  of  Anthony  Benezet,  whose  Historical  Account  of 
Guinea  was  the  inspiration  of  Clarkson's  celebrated  college 
essay  twelve  years  after.  In  1774  he  started  along  with 
James  Pemberton  the  first  anti-slavery  society  in  America, 
and  was  its  secretary  for  many  years.  When  the  political 
crisis  ended  in  1787  with  the  convention  for  drawing  up 
a  federal  constitution,'  of  which  he  was  a  member,  he 
retired  from  public  life,  and  gave  himself  up  wholly  to 
medical  practice.  In  1789  he  exchanged  his  chemistry 
lectureship  for  that  of  the  theor;'  and   jiractice  of  physic; 


R  U  S  — R  l)  S 


63 


and  when  the  medical  college,  which  he  had  helped  to 
found,  was  absorbed  by  the  university  of  Pennsylvania;  in 
1791  he  became  professor  of' the  institutes  of  medicine 
and  of  clinical  practice,  succeeding  in  1805  to  the  chair  of 
the  theory  and  practice  of  physic.  He  was  the  central 
figure  in  the  medical  world  of  Philadelphia,  as  Cullen  was 
at  Edinburgh  and  Boerhnave  at  Leyden.  Much  of  his 
influence  and  success  was  duo  to  his  method  and  regularity 
of  life  on  the  Franklin  model.  During  the  thirty  years 
that  he  attended  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  as  physician, 
he  is  said  to  have  never  missed  his  daily  visit  and  never  to 
have  been  more  than  ten  minutes  late.  Notwithstanding 
a  weak  chest,  which  troubled  him  the  greater  part  of  his 
life,  he  got  through  an  enormous  amount  of  work,  literary 
and  other ;  ho  was  a  systematic  early  riser,  and  his  leisure 
at  the  end  of  the  day  was  s])ent  in  reading  poetry,  history, 
the  moral  sciences,  and  the  like,  with  his  pen  always  in  his 
hand.  His  temperament  was  of  the  gentle  sort,  and  his 
conversation  and  correspondence  abounding  in  ideas.  It 
is  stated  by  his  friend  Dr  Hosack  of  New  York,  that  Rush 
was  successively  a  Quaker,  an  Anabaptist,  a  Presbyterian, 
and  an  Anglican.  He  gained  great  credit  when  tlie 
yellow  fever  devastated  Philadelphia,  in  1793,  by  his 
assiduity  in  visiting  the  sick  (as  many  as  one  hundred  and 
twenty  in  a  day),  and  by  his  bold  and  apparently  success- 
ful treatment  of  the  disease  by  bloodletting.  When  he 
began  to  prosper  in  practice,  he  gave  a  seventh  part  of 
his  income  in  charity.  He  died  in  181.3,  after  a  five  days' 
illness  from  typhus  fever.  Nine  out  of  a  family  of  thirteen 
children  survived  him,  all  prosperously  settled. 

'  EhbU's  writings  cover  an  immense  range  of  aubjeots,  including 
language,  tho  study  of  Latin  and  Greek,  the  moral  faculty, 
capital  punishment,  medicine  among  the  American  Indians, 
maple  sugar,  tho  blackness  of  the  negro,  the  cause  of  animal  life, 
tobacco  smoking,,  spirit  drinking,  as  well  as  a  long  list  of  more 
Btrictly  professional  topics.  His  last  work  was  an  elaborate  treatise 
on  the  Diseases  of  the  Mind  (1812).  He  is  best  known  now  by  the 
fivo  volumes  of  Medical  Inquiries  and  Observations,  which  ho 
brought  out  at  intervals  from  1789  to  1798  (two  later  editions 
revised  by  the  author).  Epidemiology,  and  yellow  fever  in  parti- 
cular, was  the  subject  on  which  he  wrote  to  most  purpose.  His 
treatment  of  yellow  fever  by  bloodletting  helped  more  than  any- 
thing else  to  make  him  famous,  although  the  practice  would  now 
be  condcmnod.  His  views  as  to  the  origin  and  dilfusion  of  yellow 
Xever  have  a  more,  permanent  interest.  He  stoutly  maintained,  as 
afjoisst  the  doctrine  of  importation  from  the  West  Indies,  that  tho 
yellow  fever  of  Philadelphia  was  generated  on  the  spot  by  noxious 
CTchalations,  although  he  docs  not  appear  to  have  suspected  that 
there  was  something  special  or  specific  in  the  filthy  conditions  of 
soil  or  harbour  mud  which  gave  rise  to  the  miasmata.  For  a 
number  of  ye.ars  he  expressed  tho  opinion  that  yellow  fever  might 
become  catching  from  person  to  person,  under  certain  aggravated 
circnmstances  ;  but  in  the  end  he  professed  the  doctrine  of  absolute 
Don-contatgionsmoss.  Ho  became  well  Icnown  in  Europe  as  an 
authority  on  the  epidemics  of  fever,  and  was  elected  an  honorary 
member  of  several  foreign  societies. 

Sec  eulogy  by  ITosack  (Efsatt',  1.,  New  York,  1824),  with  blo^aphical  fletnllft 
token  from  a  letter  of  Kush  to  President  Jotin  Adiinis ;  alao  referonces  In  tlio 
works  of  Thacker,  Gross,  und  Bowditch  on  ttie  limtory  of  medicine  In  America. 
His  part  In  tlie  yellow  fever  controversies  1h  fndlentcd  by  La  Roclio  {Yellow 
Pettr  in  rhiladelptiia  from  ICUO  lo  WW,,  2  vols.,  riilladclphia,  18.'.6)  and  by 
Hancroft  f£'jt.t(i)/  on  the  Vellow  Fever,  London.  Iftll).  Ills  serrlces  us  an  nboli- 
/  lonlst  pioneer  arc  recorded  In  Claikson'g  HUlory  of  the  AM/Hon  of  the  African 
.Slave  Irade. 

RUSHWORTH,  John  (c.  1607-1690),  the  compiler  of 
the  Historical  Collections  commonly  described  by  his  name, 
■was  born  in  Northumberland  about  the  year  1607.  After 
A  period  of  study  at  Oxford,  but  not,  it  appears,  as  a 
member  of  tho  university,  he  came  to  London,  was  entered 
at  Lincoln's  'nn,  and  was  in  duo  course  called  to  the  bar. 
As  early  as  j30  he  seems  to  have  commenced  attendance 
at  tho  courts,  especially  tho  Star  Chamber  and  the 
Exchequer  Cljamber,  not  for  the  purpose  of  practi.'dng  his 
profession,  but  in  order  that  he  might  observe  and  record 
the  more  remarkable  of  their  proceedings.  On  the  meeting 
of  the  Long  Parliament  in  1640  he  was  appointed  assi.stant 
clerk  to  the  Hooso  of  Commons,  and  was  in  the  habit  of 


makijg  short-hand  notes  of  the  speeches  he  heard  de- 
livered in  debate.  He  himself  states  that  it  was  from 
his  report  that  the  words  used  by  Charles  L  during  his 
memorable  attempt  to  seize  the  "five  members"  were  printed 
for  public  distribution  under  the  king's  orders.  Being  an 
expert  horseman,  it  seems  that  Rush  worth  was  frequently 
employed  by  the  House  as  their  messenger  as  well  as  in 
the  capacity  of  clerk.  'WTien  the  king  left  London,  and 
while  the  earl  of  Essex  was  general,  he  was  often  the 
bearer  of  communications  from  the  parliament,  to  one  or  the 
other  of  them.  In  1645  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax,  to  whom  he 
was  distantly  related,  and  who  was  then  in  command  of 
the  Parliamentary  forces,  made  him  his  secretary,  and  ho 
remained  with  the  army  almost  continuously  until  1650. 
In  1G49  he  was  at  Oxford,  and  the  degree  of  master  of 
arts  was  conferred  on  him  by  the  university.  In  1 652  ho 
was  nominated  one  of  the  commissioners  for  the  reform  of 
the  common  law,  and  in  1658  he  was  elected  member  for 
Berwick  in  the  parliament  of  the  commonwealth.  Almost 
immediately  before  the  Restoration  he  published  tho  first 
volume  of  his  Ilktoiical  Collecliims,  which  had  been  sub- 
mitted in  manuscript  to  Oliver  Cromwell,  with  a  very 
laudatory  dedication  to  Richard'  Cromwell,  then  Lord 
Protector.  But  the  turn  of  events  induced  him  to  with- 
draw this  dedication,  and  ho  subsequently  endeavoured 
without  success  to  conciliate  Charles  11.  by  presenting  him 
with  some  of  the  registers  of  the  privy  council  which  had 
come  into  his  possession.  In  the  convention  of  1660, 
which  recalled  the  king,  he  sat  again  as  member  for 
Berwick.  In  1677  he  was  made  secretary  to  Sir  Orlando 
Bridgeman,  then  lord  keeper,  and  he  was  returned  for 
Berwick  a  third  and  a  fourth  time  to  the  parliaments  of 
1679  and  1681.  Soon  after  this  he  appears  to  have  fallen 
into  straitened  circumstances.  In  1684  he  was  arrested 
for  debt,  and  cast  into  the  King's  Bench  prison,  where  he 
died,  after  lingering  for  some  time  in  a  condition  of  mental 
infirmity,  the  result  of  excessive  drinking,  in  1690. 

Eushworth's  Historical  Collections  of  Private  Passages  of  Slaie, 
Weighty  Matters  in  Law,  and  Mcmarkahlc  Proecedinejs  in  Parlio', 
mcnl  was  rejirintcd  in  eight  folio  volumes  in  1721.  The  eighth 
volume  of  this  edition  is  an  account  of  tho  trial  of  the  earl  ot 
Strafford,  the  other  seven  volumes  being  concerned  with  th» 
miscellaneous  tran,sactions  of  the  period  from  1618  to  1648.  Only 
the  first  three  volumes  and  the  trial  of  Strafford  were  originally 
published  in  Kushworth's  lifetime  ;  but  the  manuscript  of  tho 
other  volumes  was  left  hy  him  ready  for  the  press.  The  extreni* 
value  of  the  work  is  well  known  to  all  inquirers  into  tho  history  of 
the  Civil  War,  and  much  of  the  information  it  contains  is  to  b« 
found  nowhere  else.  Its  impartiality,  however,  can  hardly  be 
seriously  maintained,  and  hence  it  is  necessary  to  consult  it  with 
some  caution, 

RUSSELL,  John  Russell,  Eael  (1792-1878;,  a 
statesman  who  for  nearly  half  a  century  faithfully  repro^ 
sented  the  traditions  of  Whig  politics,  was  tho  third  son  of 
John,  sixth  duke  of  Bedford,  and  was  born  in  Hertford 
Street,  Mayfair,  London,  ISth  August  1792,  one  of  the 
most  terrible  months  in  tho  annals'  of  tho  French  Revolu- 
tion. Whilst  still  a  child  ho  was  gent  to  a  i:irivate  school 
at  Sunbury,  and  for  a  short  time  ho  was  at  Westminster 
School.  Long  and  severe  illness  led  to  his  being  placed^  with 
many  other  young  men  sprung  from  Whig-  parents,  with 
a  private  tutor  at  Woodnesborongh  in  Kent.  Following 
in  the  footsteps  of  Lord  Henry  Petty,  Brougliani,  and 
Horner,  he  went  to  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  then  the 
academic  centre  of  Liberalism,  and  dwelt  in  tho  house  of 
Prof.  Playfair,  whom  he  afterwards  described  as  "one  of 
the  best  and  noblest,  the  most  uj)right,  tho  most  bene- 
volent, ond  the  most  liberal  of  nil  philo.sophers."  On 
leaving  tho  university,  ho  determined  n|)on  taking  a  foreign 
tour,  and,  as  the  greater  pari  of  Europe  was  overrun  by 
French  troops,  he  landed  at  Lisbon  vith  the  intention  of 
exploring  tho  countrieii  of  Portugal  and  Spain.  '  ^ord  John 


64 


RUSSELL 


Russell  had  previously  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the 
continuance  of  the  war  with  France  was  necessary  for  the 
restoration   of  the  peace  of  Europe,  and   his  convictions 
were  deepened  by  the  experience  of  travel.     On  the  4th 
May  1813,  ere  he  was  of  age,  he  was  returned  for  the 
ducal  borough  of  Tavistock,  and  in  this  he  resembled  Lord 
Chesterfield  and  other  aristocratic  legislators,  who   were 
entrusted  with  the  duty  of  law-making  before  they  had 
arrived  at  years  of  discretion.     After  the  battle  of  Water- 
loo the  Whig  representatives  in  parliament  concentrated 
their  efforts  in  promoting  financial  reform,  and  in  resisting 
those  arbitrary  settlements  of  the  Continental  countries 
which  found  favour  in  the  eyes  of  Metternich  and  Castle- 
rcagh.     In  foreign  politics  Lord  John  Russell's  oratorical 
talents  wore  especially  shown  in  his  struggles  to  prevent 
the  union  of  Norway  and  Sweden,     In  domestic  questions 
he  cast  in  his  lot  with  those  who  opposed  the  repressive 
measures  of  1817,  and  protested  that  the  causes  of  the 
discontent  at  home  should  bo  removed  by  remedial  legisla- 
tion.    When  failure  attended  all  his  efforts  he  resigned  his 
seat  for  Tavistock,  and  meditated  permanent  withdrawal 
from  public  life,  but  was  dissuaded  from  this  step  by  the 
arguments  of  his  friends,  and  especially  by  a  poetic  appeal 
from   Tom   Moore.      In   the  parliament  of  1818-20  he 
again  represented  the  family  borough  in  Devon,  and  in  ]\Iay 
1819  began  his  long  advocacy  of  parliamentary  reform  by 
moving  for  an  inquiry  into  the  corruption  which  prevailed 
in  the  Cornish  constituency  of  Grampound.     During  the 
first  ])arliament  (1820-26)  of  George  IV.  the  county  of 
Huntingdon  accepted  Lord  John  Russell's  services  as  its 
representative,  and  it  was  his  good  fortune  to  secure  in 
1821  the  disfranchisement  of  Grampound,  but  his  satis- 
faction at  this  triumph  was  diminished  by  the  fact  that 
the  seats  were  not  transferred  to  the  constituency  which 
ho   desired.      This   was  ,the  sole   parliamentary   victory 
which   the   advocates    of    a   reform    of  the   representa- 
tion obtained   before   1832,   but   they   found   cause   for 
congratulation  in  other  triumphs.     Lord  John  Russell  paid 
the  penalty  for  his  advocacy  of  Catholic  emancipation  with 
the  loss  in  1826  of  his  seat  for  Huntingdon  county,  but  he 
found  a  shelter  in  the  Irish  borough  of  Bandon  Bridge. 
He  led  the  attack  against  the  Test  Acts  by  carrying  in 
February  1828  with  a  majority  of  forty-four  a  motion  for 
a  committee  to  inquire  into  their  operations,  and  after 
this   decisive   victory   they   were   repealed.     He  warmly 
supported  the  Wellington  ministry  when  it  realized  that 
the  king's  government  could  only  be  carried  on  by  the 
passing  of  a  Catholic  Relief  Act.     For  the  greater  part  of 
the  short-lived  parliament  of  1830-31  he  served  his  old 
constituency  of  Tavistock,  having  been  beaten  in  a  contest 
for  Bedford  county  at  the  general  election  by  one  vote  ; 
and,  when  Lord  Grey's  Reform  ministry  was  formed.  Lord 
John   Russell  accepted   the   office  of   paymaster-general, 
though,  strange  to  say,  he  was  not  admitted  into  the  sacred 
precincts  of  the  cabinet.     This  exclusion  from  the  official 
hierarchy   was   rendered    the    more  remarkable   by   the 
circumstance  that  he   was  selected  (1st  March  1831)  to 
explain  the  provisions  of  the  Reform  Bill,  to  which  the 
cabinet  had  given  its  formal  sanction.     The  Whig  ministry 
were  soon  met  by  defeat,  but  an  appeal  to  the  country 
increased  the  number  of  their  adherents,  and  Lord  John 
Russell  himself  had  the  satisfaction  of  being  chosen  by  the 
freeholders   of   Devon  as  their  member.     After  nrany  a 
period  of  doubt  and  defeat,  "  the  bill,  the  whole  bill,  and 
nothing  but  the  bill "  passed  into  law,  and  Lord  John  stood 
forth  in  the  mind  of  the  people  as  its  champion.     Although 
it  was  not  till  some  years  later  that  he  became  the  leader 
of  the  Liberal  party,  the  height  of  his  fame  was  attained 
in  1832.     After  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  he  sat  for 
the  southern  division  of  Devon,  and  continued  to  retain 


the  place  of  paymaster-general  in  the  ministries  of  Lord 
Grey  and  Lord  Melbourne.  The  former  of  these  cabinets 
was  broken  up  by  the  withdrawal  of  Mr  Stanley,  after- 
wards Lord  Derby,  on  the  proposal  for  reforming  the  Irish 
Church,  when  he  emphasized  Lord  John  Russell's  part  in 
the  movements  by  the  saying  "  Johnny  's  upset  the  coach ;", 
the  latter  was  abruptly,  if  not  rudely,  dismissed  by  William 
IV.  when  the  death  of  Lord  Spencer  promoted  the  leader 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  Lord  Althorp,  to  the  peerage, 
and  Lord  John  Russell  was  proposed  as  the  spokesman  of 
the  ministry  in  the  Commons.  At  the  general  election 
which  ensued  the  Tories  received  a  considerable  accession 
of  strength,  but  not  sufficient  to  ensure  their  continuance 
in  office,  and  the  adoption  by  the  House  of  Commons  of 
the  proposition  of  the  Whig  leader,  that  the  surplus  funds 
of  the  Irish  Church  should  be  applied  to  general  education, 
necessitated  the  resignation  of  Sir  Robert  Peel's  ministry. 
In  Lord  Melbourne's  new  administration  Lord  John 
Russell  became  home  secretary  and  leader  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  but  on  his  seeking  a  renewal  of  confidence  from 
the  electors  of  South  Devon,  he  was  defeated  and  driven 
to  Stroud.  Although  the  course  of  the  ^Vhig  ministry 
was  not  attended  by  uniform  prosperity,  it  succeeded  in 
passing  a  ^Municipal  Reform  Bill,  and  in  carrying  a  settle- 
ment of  the  tithe  question  in  England  and  Ireland.  At 
the  close  of  its  career  the  troubles  in  Canada  threatened  a 
severance  of  that  dependency  from  the  home  country, 
whereupon  Lord  John  Russell,  with  a  courage  which  never 
deserted  him,  took  charge  of  the  department,  at  that  time 
a  dual  department,  of  war  and  the  colonies.  In  May 
1 839,  on  an  adverse  motion  concerning  the  administration 
of  Jamaica,  the  ministry  was  left  with  a  majority  of  five 
only,  and  promptly  resigned  the  seals  of  office.  Sir  Robert 
Peel's  attempt  to  form  a  ministry  was,  however,  frustrated 
by  the  refusal  of  the  queen  to  dismiss  the  ladies  of  the 
bedchamber,  and  the  Whigs  resumed  their  places.  Their 
prospects  brightened  when  Sir  John  Yarde  BuUer's  motion 
of  "  no  confidence  "  was  defeated  by  twenty-one,  but  the 
glimpse  of  sunlight  soon  faded,  and  a  similar  vote  was 
some  months  later  carried  by  a  majority  of  one,  whereupon 
the  Whig  leader  announced  a  dissolution  of  parliament 
(1841).  At  the  polling  booth  his  friends  were  smitten  hip 
and  thigh  ;  the  return  of  Lord  John  Russell  for  the  City  of 
London  was  almost  their  solitary  triumph.  On  Sir  Robert 
Peel's  resignation  (1846)  the  task  of  forming  an  administra- 
tion was  entrusted  to  Lord  John  Russell,  and  he  remained 
at  the  head  of  affairs  from  1846  to  1852,  but  his  tenure  of 
office  was  not  marked  by  any  great  legislative  enactments. 
His  celebrated  Durham  letter  on  the  threatened  assump- 
tion of  ecclesiastical  titles  by  the  Roman  Catholic  bishops 
weakened  the  attachment  of  the  "Peelites"  and  alienated 
his  Irish  supporters.  The  impotence  of  their  opponents, 
rather  than  the  strength  of  their  friends,  kept  the  Whig 
ministry  in  power,  and,  although  beaten  by  a  majority  of 
nearly  two  to  one  on  Mr  Locke  King's  County  Franchise 
Bill  in  February  1851,  it  could  not  divest  itself  of  office. 
Lord  Palmerston's  unauthorized  recognition  of  the  French 
coup  d'etat  was  followed  by  his  dismissal,  but  he  had 
his  revenge  in  the  ejectment  of  his  old  colleagues  a  few 
months  later.  During  Lord  Aberdeen's  administration 
Lord  John  Russell  led  the  Lower  House,  at  first  as  foreign 
secretary,  then  without  portfolio,  and  lastly  as  presi- 
dent of  the  council.  In  1854  he  brought  in  a  Reform 
Bill,  but  in  consequence  of  the  war  with  Russia  the  bill 
was  allowed,  much  to  its  author's  mortification,  to  drop. 
His  popularity  was  diminished  by  this  failure,  and  although 
he  resigned  in  January  1855,  on  Mr  Roebuck's  Crimea 
motion,  he  ^d  not  regain  his  old  position  in  the  country. 
At  the  Vienna  conference  (1855)  Lord  John  Russell  waa 
England's  representative,  and  immediately  on  his  return 


RUSSELL 


65 


he  became-  secretary  of  the  colonies;  but  the  errors  in 
his  negotiations  at  the  Austrian  capital  followed  him  and 
forced  him  to  retire.  For  some  years  after  this  he  was  the 
"  stormy  petrel "  of  politics.  He  was  the  chief  instrument 
in  defeating  Lord  Palmerston  in  1857.  He  led  the  attack 
on  the  Tory  Eeform  Bill  of  1859.  A  reconciliation  was 
then  effected  between  the  rival  Whig  leaders,  and  Lord 
John  Russell  consented  to  become  foreign  secretary  in 
Lord  Palmerston's  ministry,  and  to  accept  an  earldom. 
During  the  American  War  Earl  Kussell's  sympathies  with 
the  North  restrained  his  country  from  embarking  in  the 
contest,  but  he  was  not  equally  successful  in  his  desire  to 
prevent  the  spoliation  of  Denmark.  On  Lord  Palmerston's 
death  (October  1865)  Earl  Russell  was  once  more  sum- 
moned to  form  a  cabinet,  but  the  defeat  of  his  ministry 
in  the  following  June  on  the  Reform  Bill  which  they  had 
introduced  was  followed  by  his  retirement  from  public 
life.  His  leisure  hours  were  spent  after  this  event  in  the 
preparation  of  numberless  letters  and  speeches,  and  in  the 
composition  of  his  Recollections  and  Suggestions,  but  every- 
thing he  wrote  was  marked  by  the  belief  that  all  philo- 
sophy, political  or  social,  was  summed  up  in  the^Wliig  creed 
of  fifty  years  previously.  Earl  Russell  died  at  Pembroke 
Lodge,  Richmond  Park,  28th  May  1878. 

For  more  than  half  a  century  Earl  EusseU  lived  in  the  excitement 
of  political  life.  He  participated  in  the  troubles  of  Whiggism  before 
1832,  and  shared  in  its  triumph  after  that  event.  He  expounded 
the  principles  of  the  first  Reform  Bill  and  lived  to  see  a  second 
carried  into  law  by  the  Conservative  ministry  of  Lord  Derby.  Un- 
limited confidence  In  his  own  resources  exposed  him  to  many  jests 
from  both  friend  and  foe,  but  he  rightly  estimated  his  powers,  and 
they  carried  him  to  the  highest  places  in  the  state.  His  tragedies 
and  his  essays  are  forgotten,  but  his  works  on  Fox  are  among  the 
chief  authorities  on  Whig  politics.  Earl  Russell  was  twice  married, 
— first,  in  1835,  to  Adelaide,  daughter  of  Mr  Thomas  Lister,  and 
widow  of  Thomas,  second  Lord  Ribblesdale,  and  secondly,  in  1841, 
to  Lady  Frances  Ann  Maria,  daughter  of  the  second  earl  of  Jlinto. 
By  the  former  he  had  two  daughters,  by  the  latter  three  sons  and 
one  daughter.  His  eldest  son,  Lord  Amberloy,  predeceased  him 
9th  January  1876.  (W.  P.  C.) 

RUSSELL,  William  Rxtssell,  Lord  (1639-1683),  the 
third  son  of  Lord  Russell,  afterwards  fifth  earl  and  still 
later  first  duke  of  Bedford,  and  Lady  Anne  Carr,  daughter 
of  the  infamous  countess  of  Somerset,  was  born  September 
29,  1639.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  early  youth,  except 
that  about  1654  he  was  sent  to  Cambridge  with  his  elder 
brother  Francis.  On  leaving  the  university,  the  two 
brothers  travelled  abroad,  visiting  Lyons  and  Geneva,  and 
residing  for  some  while  at  Augsburg.  His  account  of  his 
impressions  is  spirited  and  interesting.  Ho  was  at  Paris 
in  1658,  but  had  returned  to  Woburn  in  December  1659. 
At  the  Restoration  he  was  elected  for  the  family  borough 
of  Tavistock.  For  a  long  while  he  appears  to  have  taken 
no  part  in  public  affairs,  but  rather  to  have  indulged  in 
the  follies  of  court  life  and  intrigue ;  for  both  in  1663  and 
1664  ho  was  engaged  in  duels,  in  the  latter  of  which  he 
was  wounded.  In  1669  ho  married  the  second  daughter 
of  the  earl  of  Southampton,  the  widow  of  Lord  Vaughan, 
thus  becoming  connected  with  Shaftesbury,  who  had  mar- 
ried Southampton's  niece.  With  his  wife  Russell  always 
lived  on  tsrms  of  the  greatest  affection  and  confidence. 

It  was  not  until  the  formation  of  the  "  country  party," 
in  opposition  to  the  policy  of  the  Cabal  and  Charles's 
French-Catholic  plots,  that  Russell  began  to  take  an  active 
part  in  affairs.  He  then  joined  Cavendi.sli,  Birch,  Hamp- 
den, Powell,  Lyttleton,-  and  others  in  vehement  antagonism 
to  the  court.  With  a  passionate  hatred  and  distrust  of 
the  Catholics,  and  an  intense  love  of  political  liberty,  he 
united  the  desire  for  ease  to  Protestant  Dissenters.  His 
first  speech  appears  to  have  been  on  January  22,  1673,  in 
which  ho  inveighed  against  the  stop  of  the  exchequer,  the 
tttack  on  the  Smyrna  fleet,  the  corruption  of  courtiers  with 
French  money,  and  "the  ill  ministers  about  the  king." 


He  also  supported  the  proceedings  against  the  duke  of 
Buckingham.  In  1675  he  moved  an  address  to  the  king 
for  the  removal  of  Danby  from  the  royal  councils,  and  for 
his  impeachment.  On  Felruary  15,  1677,  in  the  debate 
on  the  fifteen  months'  prorogation,  ho  moved  the  dissolu- 
tion of  parliament;  and  in  March  1678  he  seconded  the 
address  praying  the  king  to  declare  war  against  Franca. 
The  enmity  of  the  country  party  against  Danby  and 
James,  and  their  desire  for  a  dissolution  and  the  disbanding 
of  .the  army,  were  greater  than  their  enmity  to  Louis.  The 
French  king  therefore  found  it  easy  to  form  a  temporary 
alliance  with  Russell,  Holiis,  and  the  opposition  leader8,*by 
which  they  engaged  to  cripple  the  king's  power  of  hurting 
France,  and  to  compel  him  to  seek  Louis's  friendship, — 
that  friendship,  however,  to  be  given  only  on  the  condition 
that  they  in  their  turn  should  have  Louis's  support  for  their 
cherished  objects.  Russell  in  particular  entered  into  close 
communication  with  Rouvigny,  who  came  over  with  money 
for  distribution  among  members  of  parliament.  By  the  tes- 
timony of  Barillon,  however,  it  is  clear  that  Russell  himself 
utterly  refused  to  take  any  part  in  the  intended  corruption. 

By  the  wild  alarms  which  culminated  in  the  Popish 
Terror  Russell  appears  to  have  been  affected  more  com- 
pletely than  his  otherwise  sober  character  would  have  led 
people  to  expect.  He  threw  himself  into  the  party  which 
looked  to  Monmouth  as  the  representative  of  Protestant 
interests,  a  grave  political  blunder,  though  he  afterwards 
was  in  confidential  communication  with  Orange.  Oc 
November  4,  1678,  he  moved  an  address  to  the  king  to  re- 
move the  duke  of  York  from  his  person  and  councils.  At 
the  dissolution  of  the  pensionary  parliament,  he  was,  ia 
the  new  elections,  returned  for  Bedfordshire.  Danby  was  at 
once  overthrown,  and  in  April  1679  Russell  was  one  of  the 
new  privy  council  formed  by  Charles  on  the  advice  ot 
Temple.  Only  six  days  after  this  we  find  him  moving  for 
a  committee  to  draw  up  a  bill  to  secure  religion  and  pro- 
perty in  case  of  a  Popish  successor.  He  does  not,  how- 
ever, appear  to  have  taken  part  in  the  exclusion  debates  at 
this  time.  In  June,  on  the  occasion  of  the  Covenanters' 
rising  in  Scotland,  he  attacked  Lauderdale  personally  in 
full  council. 

In  January  1680  Russell,  along  with  Cavendish,  Capell, 
Powell,  Essex,  and  Lyttleton,  tendered  his  resignation  to 
the  king,  which  was  received  by  Charles  "  with  all  my 
heart."  On  June  16  he  accompanied  Shaftesbury,  when 
the  latter  indicted  James  at  Westminster  as  a  Popish  re- 
cusant ;  and  on  October  26  he  took  the  extreme  step  of 
moving  "  how  to  suppress  Popery,  and  prevent  a  Popish 
successor";  while  on  November  2,  now  at  the  height  of  his 
influence,  he  went  still  further  by  seconding  the  motion 
for  exclusion  in  its  most  emphatic  shape,  and  on  the  19th 
carried  the  bill  to  the  House  of  Lords  for  their  concurrence. 
Tho  limitation  scheme  he  opposed,  on  the  ground  that 
monarchy  under  the  conditions  expressed  in  it  would  be 
an  absurdity.  The'statement,  made  by  Echard  alone,  that 
he  joined  in  opposing  the  indulgence  shown  to  Lord  Straf- 
ford by  Charles  in  dispensing  with  tho  more  horrible  parts 
of  the  sentence  of  death — an  indulgence  afterwards  shown 
to  Russell  himself— is  entirely  unworthy  of  credence.  On 
December  18  he  moved  to  refuse  supplies  until  the  king 
passed  tho  Exclusion  Bill.  Tho  Prince  of  Orange  having 
come  over  at  this  time,  there  waa  a  tendency  on  tho  part 
of  the  opposition  leaders  to  accept  his  endeavours  to  secure 
a  compromise  on  the  exclusion  question.  Russell,  however, 
refused  to  give  way  a  hair's' breadth. 

On  March  26,  1681,  in  the  parliament  held  at  Oxfoad, 
Russell  again  seconded  the  ICxclus'ion  Bill.  Upon  the 
dissolution  he  retired  into  privacy  at  his  country  seat  of 
Stratton  in  llampaliire.  It  was,  however,  no  doubt  at  his 
wish  that  his  chaplain  wrote  tho  Life  of  Julian  the  Apot- 

XXL  -  9 


66 


'E  U  S  S  E  L  L 


tate,  in  reply  to  Dr  Hickes's  sermons,  in  which  the  lawful- 
ness of  resistance  in  extreme  cases  was  defended.  In  the 
wild  schemes  of  Shaftesbury  after  the  election  of  Tory 
sheriffs  for  London  in  1G82  he  had  no  share ;  upon  the  viola- 
tion of  the  charters,  hoNvevcr,  in  10^3,  he  began  seriously  to 
consider  as  to  the  best  means  of  resisting  the  Government, 
and  on  one  occasion  attended  a  meeting  at  which  treason, 
or  what  might  be  construed  as  treason,  was  talked.  Mon- 
mouth, Essex,  Hampden,  Sidney,  and  Howard  of  Escrick 
were  the  principal  of  those  who  met  to  consult.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  I?ye  Plot,  of  which  neither  he,  Essex, 
nor  Sidney  had  the  slightest  knowledge,  he  was  accused  by 
informers  of  promising  his  assistance  to  raise  an  insurrection 
and  compass  the  death  of  the  king.  Refusing  to  attempt 
to  escape,  he  was  brought  before  the  council,  when  his 
attendance  at  the  meeting  referred  to  was  charged  against 
him.  He  was  sent  on  June  26,  1683,  to  the  Tower,  and, 
looking  upon  himself  as  a  dying  man,  betook  himself 
wholly  to  preparation  for  death.  Monmouth  offered  to 
appear  to  take  his  trial,  if  thereby  he  could  help  Kussell, 
and  Essex  refused  to  abscond  for  fear  of  injuring  his 
friend's  chance  of  escape.  Before  a  committee  of  the 
council  Eussell,  on  June  28,  acknowledged  his  presence  at 
the  meeting,  but  denied  all  knowledge  of  the  proposed 
insurrection.  He  reserved  his  defence,  however,  until  his 
trial.  He  woidd  probably  have  saved  his  life  but  for  the 
perjury  of  Lord  Howard.  The  .suicide  of  Essex,  the  news  of 
which  was  brought  into  court  during  the  trial,  was  quoted 
as  additional  evidence  against  him,  as  pointing  to  the  -cer- 
tainty of  Essex's  guilt.  On  July  19  he  was  tried  at  the 
Old  Bailey,  his  wife  assisting  him  in  his  defence.  Evidence 
was  given  by  an  informer  that,  while  at  Shaftesbury's 
hiding-place  in  Wapping,  Eussell  had  joined  in  the  pro- 
posal to  seize  the  king's  guard,  a  charge  indignantly  denied 
by  him  in  his  farewell  paper,  and  that  he  was  one  of  a 
committee  of  six  appointed  to  prepare  the  scheme  for  an 
insurrection.  Howard,  too,  expressly  declared  that  Eussell 
had  urged  the  entering  into  communications  with  Argyll 
in  Scotland.  Howard's  perjury  is  clear  from  other  wit- 
nesses, but  the  evidence  was  accepted.  Kussell  spoke  ■«nth 
spirit  and  dignity  in  his  own  defence,  and,  in  especial, 
vehemently  denied  that  he  had  ever  been  party  to  a  design 
so  wicked  and  so  foolish  as  those  of  the  murder  of  the  king 
and  of  rebellion.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  legality  of 
the  trial,  in  so  fat  as  the  jurors  v^'ere  not  properly  quali- 
fied and  the  law  of  ti'eason  was  shamefully  strained,  was 
denied  in  the  Act  of  1  William  and  Mary  which  annulled 
the  attainder.  Hallam  maintains  that  the  only  overt  act 
of  treason  proved  against  Russell  was  his  concurrence  in 
the  project  of  a  rising  at  Taunton,  which  he  denied,  and 
which,  Ramsay  being  the  only  witness,  was  not  sitfficient 
to  warrant  a  conviction. 

Eussell  was  sentenced  to  die.  Many  attempts  were 
made  to  save  his  life.  The  old  earl  of  Bedford  offered 
£50,000  or  £100,000,  and  Monmouth,  Legge,  Lady 
Eanelagh,  and  Rochester  added  their  intercessions.  Eussell 
himself,  in  petitions  to  Charles  and  James,  offered  to  live 
abroad  if  his  life  were  spared,  and  never  again  to  meddle 
in  the  affairs  of  England.  He  refused,  however,  to  yield 
to  the  influence  of  Burnet  and  TLUotson,  who  endeavoured 
to  make  him  grant  the  unlawfulness  of  resistance,  although 
it  is  more  than  probable  that  compliance  in  this  would 
have  saved  his  Ufe.  He  drew  up,  with  Burnet's  assist- 
ance, a  paper  containing  his  apology,  and  he  wrote  to  the 
king  a  letter,  to  be  delivered  after  his  death,  in  which  he 
asked  Charles's  pardon  for  any  wrong  he  had  done  him.  A 
suggestion  of  escape  from  Lord  Cavendish  he  refused.  He 
behaved  with  his  usual  quiet  cheerfulness  during  his  stay  in 
the  Tower,  spending  his  last  day  on  earth  as  he  had  intended 
to  spend  the  following  Sunday  if  he  had  reached  it.     He 


received  the  sacrament  from  Tillotson,  and  Burnet  twice 
preached  to  him.  Having  supped  with  his  w'lic,  the  parting 
from  whom  was  his  only  great  trial,  he  slept  peacefully, 
and  spent  the  last  morning  in  devotion  with  Burnet.  Ho 
went  to  the  place  of  execution  in  Lincoln's  Inn  Field*  with 
perfect  calmness,  which  was  preserved  to  the  last.  Ho 
died  on  July  21,  1683,  in  the  fort^Mourth  year  of  his  age. 
A  true  ami  iiioilurati'  stuiniiiii^c;  up  of  his  cliaracttr  will  Ijo  found 
in  his  Li/c,  by  Lord  Joliu  Kusboll.  (0.  A.) 

RUSSELL,  Joux  Scott  (lSOS-1882),  was  born  in 
1808  near  Glasgow,  a  "sou  of  the  manse,"  and  was  at  first 
destined  for  the  ministry.  But  this  intention  on  his  father's 
part  was  changed  in  consequence  of  the  boy's  earlj'  lean- 
ings towards  practical  science.  He  attended  in  succession 
the  universities  of  St  Andrews,  Edinburgh,  and  Glasgow, — 
taking  his  degree  in  the  last-named  at  the  age  of  sixteen. 
After  spending  a  couple  of  years  in  workshops,  he  settled 
in  Edinburgh  as  a  lecturer  on  science,  and  soon  collected 
large  classes.  In  1832-33  he  was  engaged  to  give  the 
natural  philosophy  course  at  the  universitj-,  the  chair 
having"  become  vacant  by  the  death  of  Leslie.  In  the 
following  year  he  began  that  remarkable  series  of  obser- 
vations on  waves  whose  results,  besides  being  of  very 
great  scientific  importance,  were  the  chief  determining 
factor  of  his  subsequent  practical  career.  Having  been 
consulted  as  to  the  possibility  of  applying  steam-naviga- 
tion to  the  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Canal,  he  replied 
that  the  question  could  not  be  answered  without  experi- 
ments, and  that  he  was  willing  to  undertake  such  if  a 
portion  of  the  canal  were  placed  at  his  disposal.  The 
results  of  this  inquiry  are  to  be  found  in  the  Transuctioni 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinlnirgh  (vol.  xiv.),  and  in  the 
Btitisk  Association  Bcpoi-ts  (seventh  meeting).  We  need 
not  say  more  than  that  the  existence  of  the  long  wave,  ol 
ivave  of  translation,  as  well  as  many  of  its  most  important 
features,  were  here  first  recognized,  and  (to  give  one  very 
simple  idea  of  the  value  of  the  investigation)  that  it  was 
clearly  pointed  out  u'hy  there  is  a  special  rate,  depending 
on  the  depth  of  the  water,  at  which  a  canal-boat  can  be 
towed  at  the  least  expenditure  of  effort  by  the  horse.  The 
elementary  mathematical  theory  of  the  long  wave  is  very 
simple,  and  was  soon  supplied  by  commentators  on  Scott 
Eussell's  work ;  a  more  complete  investigation  has  been 
since  given  by  Stokes;  and  the  subject  may  be  considered 
as  certainly  devoid  of  any  special  mystery.  Eussell  held 
an  opposite  opinion,  and  it  led  him  to  many  extraordinary 
and  groundless  speculations,  some  of  which  have  been  pub- 
lished in  a  posthumous  volume,  Th".  Wave  of  Translation 
(18S5).  His  observations  led  him  to  propose  and  experi- 
ment on  a  new  system  of  shaping  vessels,  which  is  known 
as  the  leave  system.  This  culminated  in  the  building  of  the 
enormous  and  unique  "Great  Eastern,"  of  which  it  has 
been  recently  remarked  by  a  competent  authority  that  "it 
is  probable  that,  if  a  new  '  Great  Eastern '  were  now  to 
be  built,  the  system  of  construction  employed  by  Mr  Scott 
Eussell  woidd  be  followed  exactly." 

Though  his  fame  will  rest  chiefly  on  th6  two  greSt' 
steps  we  have  just  mentioned,  Scott  Eussell's  activity 
and  ingenuity  displayed  themselves  in  many  other  fields, — 
steam-coaches  for  roads,  improvements  in  boilers  and  in 
marine  engines,  the  immense  iron  dome  of  the  Vienna  exhi- 
bition, cellular  double  bottoms  for  iron  ships,  «fcc.  Along 
with  Mr  Stafford  Northcote  (now  Lord  Iddesleigh),  he  was 
joint  secretary  of  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851 ;  and  he 
was  one  of  the  chief  founders  of  the  Institution  of  Naval 
Architects,  from  the  twenty-third  volume  of  whose  Trans- 
actions we  have  extracted  much  of  what  is  stated  above. 
Eussell  contributed  the  articles  Steam,  Steam-Engine, 
Steam  Navigation,  &c.,  to  the  7th  edition  of  the  Ency- 
clopedia Briiannica.     He  died  at  Ventnor.  June  8,  1882.J 


1^ 


c 


m 


KU  SSI  A 


Pakt  I. — Geneeal  Stirvey  of  the  Russian  Empire. 

THE  Eiissian  empire  is  a  very  extensive  territory  in 
eastern  Europe  and  nortlieru  Asia,  witli  an  area 
exceeding  6,500,000  square  miles,  or  onesixtli  of  the  land 
surface  of  the  globe  (one  twenty-third  of  its  whole  super- 
ficies). It  is,  however,  but  thinlj'  peopled  on  the  average, 
including  only  one-fourteenth  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth.  It  is  almost  cntirclj'  confined  to  the  cold  and  tem- 
perate zones.  In  Nova  Zembla  (Novaya  Zenilya)  and  the 
Taimyr  peninsula,  it  projects  within  the  Arctic  Circle  as 
far  as  77°  2'  and  77°  40'  N.  lat. ;  while  its  southern  ex- 
tremities reach  38°  50'  in  Armenia,  about  35°  on  the  Afghan 
frontier,  and  42'  30'  on  the  coasts  of  the  Pacific.  To  the 
west  it  advances  as  far  as  20°  40'  E.  long,  in  Lapland, 
18°  32'  in  Poland,  and  29°  42'  on  the  Black  Sea;  and  its 
eastern  limit — East  Cape  in  the  Behring  Strait — extends 
to  191°  E.  longitude. 

The  Arctic  Ocean — comprising  the  'V\lute,  Barents,  and 
Kara  Seas — and  the  northern  Pacific,  that  is,  the  Seas  of 
Betring,  Okhotsk,  and  Japan,  bound  it  in  the  north  and 
east.    The  Baltic,  with  its  two  deep  indentations,  the  Gulfs 

.  of  Bothnia  and  Finland,  limits  it  on  the  north-west ;  and 
two  sinuous  lines  of  frontier  separate  it  respectively  from 
Sweden  and  Norway  on  the  north-west  and  from  Prussia, 
Austria,  and  Roumania  on  the  west.  The  southern  frontier 
is  still  unsettled,  and  has  ne\'er  remained  unaltered  for  so 
many  as  twenty  consecutive  years.  Quite  recently  it  has 
been  pushed  southwards,  on  both  the  western  and  the 
eastern  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  parts  of  Houmania  and 
Asia  Minor  having  been  annexed  in  1878.  In  Asia, 
beyond  the  Caspian,  the  southern  boundary  of  the  empire 
remains  vague ;  the  advance  into  the  Turcoman  Stejipes 
and  Afghan  Turkestan  and  on  the  Pamir  plateau  is  still 
in  progress.  Bokhara  and  Khiva,  though  represented  as 
vassal  khanates,  are  in  reality  mere  dependencies  of  Russia. 
An  approximately  settled  frontier-line  begins  only  farther 
east,  where  the  Russian  and  the  Chinese  empires  meet  on 

■  the  borders  of  Eastern  Turkestan,  Mongolia, and  Manchuria. 
But  even  there,  the  province  of  Kuldja  has  recently  been 
occupied  by  Russia,  and  again  restored  to  China ;  while  in 
eastern  Mongolia,  the  great  overland  route  from  Kiakhta 
to  Peking,  via  Urga,  is  in  fact  in  the  Jiands  of  Russia,  and 
it  is  diihcult  to  predict  how  far  Russian  influence  may 
extend  should  circumstances  lead  it  to  seek  a  footing  on 

,  the  thinly -peopled  plateaus  of  Central  Asia. 

Russia  has  no  oceanic  possessions,  and  has  abandoned 
those  she  owned  in  last  century;  her  islands  are  mere 
appendages  of  the  mainland  to  which  thcy.belong.  Such 
are  the  Aland  archipelago,  Hochland,  Tiitters,  Dago,  and 

;  Osel  in  the  Baltic  Sea ;  Nova  Zembla,  with  Kolguell  and 
Vaigatch,  in  the  Barents  Sea ;  the  Sotovetsky  Islands  in  the 
"White  Sea;  the  New  Siberian  archipelago,  and  the  small 

group  of  the  Mcdvyexhii  Islands  olf  the  Siberian  coast;  the 
Commander  Islands  off  Kamchatka ;  the  Shantar  Islands 
and  Saghalin  in  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  The  Aleutian  archi- 
pelago was  sold  to  the  United  States  in  18G7,  together  with 
Alaska,  and  in  1 874  the  Kurile  Islands  were  ceded  to  Japan. 
A  vast  variety  of  physical  features  is  obviously  to  be 
expected  in  a  territory  like  this,  which  comprises  on  the 
one  side  the.  cotton  and  silk  regions  of  Turkestan  and 
Transcaucasia,  and  on  the  other  the  moss  and  lichen-clothed 
Arctic  lundras  and  the  Verkhoyansk  Siberian  pole  of  cold 
— tlie  dry  Transcaspian  deserts  and  the  regions  watered  by 
the  monsoons  on  the  coasts  of  the  Sea  of  Japan.  Still,  if 
the  border  regions,  that  is,  two  narrow  belts  in  the  north 


and  south,  be  left  out  of  account,  a  striking  nniformity  o\ 
physical  feature  prevails.  High  platean.s,  like  those  of 
Pamir  (the  "Koof  of  the  AVorld")  or  of  Armenia,  and 
high  mountain  chains  like  the  snow-clad  summits  of  tho 
Caucasus,  the  Alay,  the  Tliiaii-Shan,  (he  Sayan,  are  met 
with  only  on  the  outskirts  of  the  empire. 

Viewed  broadly  by  the  physical  geographer,  it  a]ipea« 
as  occupying  the  territories  to  the  nor(h-wcst  of  that  great 
plateau-belt  of  tho  old  continent — the  backbone  of  Asia 
— which  spreads  with  decreasing  height  and  width  from  the 
high  tableland  of  Tibet  and  Pami)-  to  the  lower  plateaus  ol 
Jlongolia,  and  thence  north-eastwards  through  the  A'itini 
region  to  the  furthest  extremity  of  Asia.  It  may  be  s^aid  to 
consist  of  the  immense  plains  and  flat  lands  which  extend 
between  the  plateau-belt  and  the  Arctic  Ocean,  including 
also  the  series  of  parallel  chains  and  hiilj'  sjiurs  wliich  skill 
the  plateau-belt  on  the  north-west.  It  extends  over  the 
plateau  itself,  and  crosses  it,  beyond  Lake  Baikal  only. 

Tills  belt — the  oldest  geological  continent  of  A.sia — ; 
being  unfit  for  agriculture  and  for  the  most  part  unsuitctl 
for  permanent  settlement,  while  the  oceanic  slopes  of  it 
have  from  the  dawn  of  history  been  occupied  b}'  a  den.se 
population,  has  long  prevented  Slavonian  coloiiiration  Uov\ 
reaching  the  Pacific.  Bussians  liappened  to  cioss  it  in  the 
17th  century,  only  in  its  narrowest  and  mo.st  northerly 
part,  thus  reacliing  the  Pacific  on  the  foggy  and  fjo-ion 
coasts  of  the  Sea  of  Olchotsk ;  and  two  centuries  elapsed 
ere,  after  colonizing  the  depressions  of  the  ))latcau  around 
Lake  Baikal,  the  Russians  crossed  the  plateau  in  a  more- 
genial  zone  and  descended  to  the  Pacific  by  the  Amur, 
rapidly  spreading  farther  south,  up  the  nearly  uninhabited 
Usuri,  to  what  is  now  the  Gulf  of  Peter  tho  Great.  In 
the  south-western  higher  portions  of  the  plateau-belt  tbe 
empire  has  only  recently  planted  its  foot  on  the  Pamir;  as 
we  write,  it  is  endeavouring  to  get  command  of  the  lower 
passages  which  give  an  easy  access  to  the  Afghan  portion 
of  the  plateau ;  while  aheadj',  within  the  present  century 
it  has  established  itself  firmly  on  the  plateaus  of  Armenia. 

A  broad  bolt  of  hilly  tracts— in  every  respect  alpine  in 
character,  and  displaying  the  same  variety  of  climate  and 
organic  life  as  alpine  tracts  usually  do— skirts  the  plateau- 
belt  throughout  its  length  on  the  north  and  north-west, 
forniin"-  an  intermediate  region  between  the  plateaus  and 
the  plains.  The  Caucasus,  the  Elburz,  tho  Kopct-dagh, 
and  Paropamisus,  the  intricate  and  imperfectly  known  net- 
work of  mountains  west  of  tho  Pamir,  the  Tliian-Shan  and 
Ala-tau  mountain  regions,  and  farther  north-east  the  Altai, 
the  still  unnamed  complex  of  Jlinusinsk  mountains,  the 
intricate  mountain-chains  of  Sayan,  with  those  of  the 
Olekma,  Vitim,  and  Aldan,  all  of  which  are  ranged  ai 
^■chehn— the  former  from  nortli-wcst  to  south-east,  and  the 
others  from  south-west  to  north-east— all  of  these  belong 
to  one  immense  alpine  belt  bordering  that  of  the  plateaus. 
Those  have  long  been  known  to  Bussian  colonists,  who, 
seeking  to  escape  religious  prosecutions  and  exactions  by 
the  state,  early  penetrated  into  and  rapidly  pushed  then 
small  settlements  up  tho  better  valleys  of  these  tracts,  and 
continued  to  spread  everywhere  as  long  ns  they  found  no 
obstacles  in  the  shape  of  a  former  population  or  in  unfavour, 
able  climatic  conditions. 

As  for  the  flat-lands  which  extend  from  tho  Alpino  hill- 
foots  to  the  shores  of  tho  Arctic  Ocean,  and  a.ssumo  the 
character  cither  of  dry  deserts  in  tho  Aral-Caspian  de. 
prossion,  or  of  low  table-land?  in  central  Russia  and 
eastern  Siberia,  of  lake-regions  in  north-west  Russia  and 
Finland,  or  of  marshy  prairies  in  western  Siberia,  and  oj 


P8 


RUSSIA 


[POPULATTON    OV 


tundras  in  tne  far  noru», — their  monoionous  surfaces  arc 
diversified  by  only  a  fe-v,  and  these  for  most  part  low, 
hilly  tracts.  Recently  emerged  from  the  Post-Pliocene 
sea,  or  cleared  of  their  ice-sheet  coverings,  they  preserve 
the  very  same  features  over  immense  stretches ;  and  the 
few  portions  that  rise  above  the  general  .elevation  have 
faiore  the  character,  of  broad  and  gentle  swellings  than 
of  mountain-chains';  .Of  this  class  are  the  swampy  plateaus 
of  the  Kola  peninsula,-  gently  sloping  southwards  to 
the  lake-regions  of 'Finland  and.  north-west  Russia;  the 
Valdai  table-lands,  where  all  the  great  rivers  of  Russia 
take  their  rise ;  the  broad  and  gently-sloping  meridional 
belt  of  the  f  Ural  Jlountains ;  and  lastly,  the  Taimyr, 
Tunguska,  and  ^Verkhoyansk  ridges  in  Siberia,  which  do 
not  reach  the  snow-line,  notwithstanding  their  sub-Arctic 
position.  As  to  the  picturesque  Burej^a  mountains  on  the 
Amur,  the  forest-clothed  Sikhota-alin  on  the  Pacific,  and 
the  volcanic  chains  of  Kamchatka,  they  belong  to  quite 
another  orographical  world;  they  are  the  border-ridges  of 
the  terraces  by  which  the  great  plateau-belt  descends  to 
the  depths  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

It  is  owing  to  these  leading  orographical  features — • 
divined  by  Carl  Eitter,  but.  only  within  the  present  day 
revealed  by  geographical  research — that  so  many  of  the 
great  rivers  of  the  old  continent  are  comprised  within  the 
limits  of  the  Russian  empire.  Taking  rise  on  the  plateau- 
belt,  or  in  its  Alpine  outskirts,  they  flow  first,  like  the 
upper  Rhone  and  Rhine,  along  high  longitudinal  valleys 
formerly  filled  up  with  great  lakes;  next  they  find  their 
way  through  the  rocky  walls ;  and  finally  they  enter  the 
lowlands,  where  they  become  navigable,  and,,  describing 
great  curves  to  avoid  here  and  there  the  minor  plateaus 
and  hilly  tracts,  they  bring  into  water-communication 
with  one  another  places  thousands  of  miles  apart.  The 
double  river-systems  of  the  Volga  and  Kama,  the  Obi  and 
Irtish,  the  Angara  and  Yenisei,  the  Lena  and  Vitim  on 
the  Arctic  slope,  the  Amur  and  Sungari  on  the  Pacific 
slope,  are  instances.  They  were  the  true  channels  of 
Russian  colonization. 

A  broad  depression, — the  Aral-Caspian  desert — has 
arisen  where  the  plateau-belt  has  reached  its  greatest 
height  and  suddenly  changes  its  direction  from  a  north- 
western into  a  north-eastern  one;  this  desert  is  now  filled 
only  to  a  small  extent  by  the  salt  waters  of  the  Caspian, 
Aral,  and  BaLkash  inland  seas ;  but  it  bears  unmistakable 
traces  of  having  been  during  Post-Pliocene  times  an  im- 
mense inland  basin.  There  the  Volga,  the  Ural,  the  Sir 
Daria,  and  the  Oxus  discharge  their  waters  without  reaching 
the  ocean,  but  continue  to  bring  life  to  the  rapidly  drying 
Transcaspian  Steppes,  or  connect  by  their  river  network,  as 
the  Volga  does,  the  most  remote  parts  of  European  Russia. 

The  above-described  features  of  the  physical  geography 
of  the  empire  explain  the  relative  uniformity  of  this  wide 
territory,  in  conjunction  with  the  variety  of  physical 
features  on  its  outskirts.  They  explain  also  the  rapidity 
of  the  expansion  of  Slavonic  colonization  over  these  thinly 
peopled  regions ;  and  they  also  throw  light  upon  the 
internal  cohesion  of  the  empire,  which  cannot  fail  to  strike 
the  traveller  as  he  crosses  this  immense  territory,  and  finds 
everywhere  the  same  dominating  race,  the  same  features 
of  life.  In  fact,  in  their  advance  from  the  basins  of  the 
VolkhofI  and  Dnieper  to  the  foot  of  the  Altai  and  Sayan 
Mountains,  that  is,  along  nearly  a  quarter  of  the  earth's 
circumference,  the  Russian  colonizers  could  always  find  the 
same  physical  conditions,  the  same  forests  and  prairies  as 
they  had  left  at  home,  the  same  facilities  for  agriculture, 
only  modified  somewhat  by  minor  topographical  features. 
New  conditions  of  climate  and  soil,  and  consequently  new 
cultures  and  civilizations,  the  Russians  met  with,  in  their 
expansion  towards  the  south  and  east,  only  beyond  the 


Caucasus,  in  the  Arai-Caspian  region,  and  in  the  basin  oi 
the  Usuri  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Favoured  by  these  con- 
ditions, the  Russians  not  only  conquered  northern  Asia — 
they  colonized  it. 

The  total  population  of  the  Russian  empire  was  stated 
at  102,000,000  by  estimates  made  in  1878-82  ;  but  it  is 
multiplying  rapidly,  and,  as  the  surplus  of  births  over 
deaths  reaches  nearly  1,250,000  every  year,  it  must  now 
be  somewhat  more  than  106  millions. 

Within  the  empire  a  very  great  divcrtity  of  nationalities 
is  comprised,  due  to  the  amalgamation  or  absorption  by 
the  Slavonian  race  of  a  variety  of  Ural-Altaic  stems,  of 
Turco-Tartars,  Turco-JIongolians,  and  various  Caucasiau 
stems.  Statistics  as  to  their  relative  strength  are  still 
very  imperfect,  and  their  ethnical  relations  have  not  as  yet 
been  completely  determined ;  but,  considered  broadly,  they 
may  be  classified  as  follows: — 

A.  The  Letto-Slavonians  comprise  (n)  the  Lithuanians 
and  Letts  on  the  lower  Niemen  and  Diina,  and  (b)  the 
Slavonians,  that  is,  the  Poles  on  the  Vistula  and  Niemen 
and  the  Russians — Great,  Little,  and  White — whose 
proper  abodes  are  in  European  Russia,  south  of  a  line 
drawn  from  the  Gulf  of  Finland  to  the  middle  Volga. 
Spreading  from  this  region  towards  the  north-east,  east, 
and  south-east,  they  have  colonized  north-east  Russia,  the 
Ural  region,  Caucasus,  Siberia,  and  large  parts  of  the 
Kirghiz  Steppe,^the  leading  feature  of  their  colonization 
having  always  been  penetration  in  compact  mas.ses  among 
the  original  inhabitants.  Thus,  on  northern  Caucasus 
the  Russians  (chiefly  Little  Russians)  already  constitute  a 
compact  rural  population  of  nearly  1,500,000,  that  is, 
about  a  quarter  of  the  total  population  of  Caucasia.  In 
Western  Siberia  the  Great  Russians  already  nuoiber 
more  than  2,300,000  agriculturists,  constituting  four- 
fifths  of  the  entire  population ;  in  Eastern  Siberia  they 
number  more  than  1,000,000,  that  is,  probably  more  than 
the  original  inhabitants;  and  the  Kirghiz  Steppe  has  also 
begun  rapidly  to  be  colonized  within  the  last  twenty  years. 
It  is  only  in  the  more  densely  peopled  Turkestan,  and  in 
the  recently  annexed  Transcaspian  region,  that  Russian 
settlers  continue  to  bear  but  a  small  proportion  to  the 
natives  (who  are  more  than  4,600,000  strong).  The 
Slavonians  altogether  number  more  than  75,000,000,  of 
which  number  5,600,000  are  Poles. 

Swedes  (310,000),  Germans  (1,240,000),  Roumanians, 
Serbs,  i'c,  may  number  altogether  about  2,500,000. 

B.  A  great  variety  of  populations  belonging  to  the 
Caucasian  race,  but  not  yet  well  classified,  some  of  which 
are  considered  to  be  remainders  of  formerly  larger  nation- 
alities pushed  aside  into  the  mountain  tracts  during  their 
migrations,  are  met  with  on  Caucasus.  Such  are  the 
Georgians,  Ossetes,  Lesghians,  who  fall  little  short  of 
2,500,000,  and  the  Armenians,  about  1,000,000, 

C.  The  Iranian  branch  is  represented  by  some  130,000 
Persians  and  Kurds  in  Caucasia  and  Transcaucasia,  and  by 
Tajiks  in  Turkestan,  mixed  with  Turco-Tartar  Sarts.  The 
nomad  Tsigans,  or  Gipsies,  numbering  nearly  12,000,  may 
be  mentioned  under  this  head. 

D.  The  Semitic  branch  consists  of  upwards  of  3,000,000 
Jews  in  Poland,  in  west  and  south-west  Russia,  and  ot 
Caucasus  and  in  the  towna_o£  Central  Asia,  and  of  a  few 
thousand  Karaite  Jews. '  "1 

E.  The  Ural-Altaic  branch  comprises  two  great  sub- 
divisions— the  Finnish  and  the  Turco-Tartarian  stems, 
mixed  to  some  extent  with  Mongolians.  >  The  former  (see 
below)  occupy,  broadly  speaking,  a  wide  stretch  of  territory 
to  the  north  of  the  Slavonians,  from  the  Baltic  to  the 
Yenisei,  and  include  the  Baltic  Finns,  the  Northern  Finns, 
the  Volga  Finns,  and  the  Ugrians.  The  Russians  have 
already  spread  among  the  last  two   in  compact  masse* 


BnsaiAN  EMPIRE.] 


RUSSIA 


6S 


and,  while  some  stems,  like  the  Ostiaks,  are  rapidly 
disappearing,  ethers,  like  the  Mordvinians,  Permians,  ifcc, 
are  losing  their  national  character,  and  becoming  assimi- 
lated to  the  Russians.  The  West  Finns  alone  have  fully 
maintained  their  national  features,  and  happen  to  have 
constituted  a  nationality  developing  into  a  separate  state. 
The  Turco-Tartars  (nearly  10,000,000)  comprise  the 
Tartars,  the  Bashkirs,  the  Kirghizes,  the  Uzbegs,  and  the 
Turcomans  of  the  Aral-Caspian  region,  the  Yakuts  on 
the  Lena,  and  a  variety  of  smaller  stems  in  East  llussia 
and  Caucasia.  They  occupy  another  broad  belt  which 
extends  from  the  Aral-Caspian  depression  to  tho  eastern 
parts  of  the  Arctic  coast. 

F.  The  Mongol-Manchurian  stems  of  the  Tunguses,  and 
the  Golds,  and  the  Manchus  proper,  come  next,  occupying 
the  eastern  parts  of  the  mountain-belt  and  the  plateau 
itself  in  Siberia,  the  Tunguses  also  projecting  north-west- 
■wards,  so  as  to  separate  the  Yakuts  from  their  southern 
Turkish  brethren.  Small  stems  of  the  same  family  also 
pass  a  nomad  existence  in  the  basin  of  the  Amur.  They 
are  rapidly  diminishing  in  number,  and  can  hardly  be 
estimated  at  more  than  50,000. 

G.  Tho  Mongolian  branch  is  represented  by  nearly  half  a 
million  of  Kalmucks  on  the  Altai  outskirts  of  the  great 
plateau  and  ftround  the  Caspian,  and  by  nearly  250,000, 
Boriats  in  and  around  the  Baikal  depression. 

H.  A  variety  of  stems,  not  yet  well  classified,  are  met 
with  on  the  Pacific  coasts.  Such  are  the  Tchuktchies,  the 
Kamchadales,  the  Koryaks  in  the  north-east,  the  Ghilyaks 
on  the  Amur,  and  the  Ainos  in  Saghalin. 

Statistics  of  the  relative  strength  of  different  nationalities 
in  the  Russian  empire,  which,  however,  must  be  con- 
sidered only  as  rough  estimates,  are  given  (in  millions)  in 
the  following  table  (I.)  : — 


1 

i 

o 
u 

■a 
1 

a 

1 

'  3 

6S'316 
1-020 
0118 

0-790 
4-5o0 

0-017 

1-630 

0-640? 

)  3-380 

69-673 
6-570 
0118 

Pole* 

Other  SlavoQiana,... 
Litis 

1-254 
1-380 

0-870 

..'. 

... 

;;; 

^ 

1-254 
1-760 

■Swedes^ 

0-017 
0-780 
0910 

0460 

0-293 

|o-ooi 

z 

... 

o'oos 

0-310 
1-243 
0911 

Other  £uropeaQ().... 
Persians  and  Kurds. 

o'-oso 

0-015 

0-130 
0-905 

... 

1 

0-130 
0-966 

0-016 

TslKans  and  other 

2-460 

2-450 

2-203 

0-913 

? 

... 

0  007 

3-123 

Finns,  Karcllans..... 
£8thonlan.<4,  Ltvos... 
Other  West  Finns... 

Lapps,  Samoyedes.. 

Volf^a   Finns    and 

0-316 
0-003 
0-101 

1-760 

'.:: 

... 

2-066 
0-903 
0-101 

0-014 

0-025 

0-039 

1-731 

... 

0-047 

1-778 

l-.'il(» 
0-900 
0-191 
0-002 

r-020 

::: 

... 

1-6-JO 

4-298? 

0-100 
0-200 

9-760? 

Bashkirs. 

Ktrghizes 

Yakut* 

Other  Turco-Tartars 

Kalmncks 

0-118 

... 

0-300? 

0020 
0-260 

0-438 
0  250 

Boriats... 

Tiuignsc.4  and  other 
Mongol-Manchu- 
Hans 

Tchnktchics,    Kor- 
yaks, Kamchudoles 

... 

0-050 

0-060 

... 

... 

0-013 

0012 

Total 

77-878 

7-088 

2001 

6-636 

6-338? 

4-004 

102-889 

The  area  and  population  of  the  various  divisions  of  the 
Russian  empire  are  given  in  tho  following  table  : — 

Table  W.—Area  and  Population  of  the  Russian  Empire.^ 


Provinces. 


X.European  Russia 

.\rchiiiip(.-l 

Astrakhan 

Bcssitiiibin 

Courluiul 

Don  Cossacks , 
F.katci  Inoalair. 

Estlionla 

Gtodnu 

Kaluga 

Kazan 

Kllarkoff 

Kherson 

Kieff 

Kostionin 

Kovno 

Kuisk 

Livonia 

Minsk 

Jlogliileff 

Moscow 

Nijni-Novgorod... 

Novgorod 

Olonetz 

Orel 

Ol-enburg 

Penza 

Perm 

Podolia 

Poltava 

Pskoff 

ItyazaQ 

St  Petersbui-g. 

Samai-a 

SnratoB 

Simbli'sk 

Smolensk 

Tamboff 

Taurida 

Tchernigoff„... 

Tula 

Tver 

Ufa 

Vilna 

Vitebsk 

Vladimir 

Volhynia 

Vologda 

Voronezh 

Vyatka 

Yaroslavl 

Sea  of  Azoff.... 


Total,      Russian 
provinces,  1882, 

2.  Poland. 

Kallsz 

Kielce , 

Loniza , 

Lublin 

I'iotrk(5w 

Ptock 

Hadoin 

Siedlco , 

Suwatkl , 

Warsaw 


Total,  Poland 

3.  Finland. 
Abo-Iijorneborg. 

Kuopio 

Nyland 

St  Michel 

Tavastehus 

Uleaborg 

Wusa 

Wiborg 


Total,  Finland- 


Total,  European 
KusBia 


Area, 
Square 
Miles. 


331.505 
91.3-i7 
17,019 
10.635 
61,886 
26. 148 
7, SIS 
]4,9.-il 
11.912 
24,001 
21,041 
27,5-.>1 
19,691 
32,702 
15,692 
17,937 
18,153 
35,293 
18,5.-.l 
12,859 
19,797 
47,236 
67,439 
18,042 
73,816 
14,997 

123,210 
16,224 
19,205 
17,069 
16,-255 
20,760 
68,321 
32,624 
19,110 
21,638 
25,710 
24,539 
20,233 
11,954 
25,225 
47,112 
16,421 
17,440 
18,864 
27,743 

166,498 
25,443 
69,117 
13,751 
14,478 


1,902,092 


4,392 
8,897 
4,667 
6.499 
4.729 
4,200 
4,769 
6,635 
4,846 
6,623 


49,157 

9,335 
16,499 
4,586 
8,819 
8,334 
63,971 
16,627 
16,084 


144,255 


2,095,604 


Popula- 
tion. 


315,r!C7 

"90,;i;is 

1,419,7(;2 

642.570 
1,474.133 
1,697,061 

379,875 
1,226.916 
1,140,337 
1.955,590 
2,160,-263 
1,605,164 
2,507,231 
1,278,856 
1,444,614 
2,314,300 
1,173,951 
1.5C9,.342 
1,146,470 
2,137,179 
1,427,893 
1,127,881 

327,323 
1,892,932 
1,196,133 
1,382,732 
2,.539,S74 
2,270,518 
2,473,958 

894,712 
1,713,581 
1,622,763 
2,224,093 
2,113,077 
1,471,164 
1,191,172 
2,490,313 

964.329 
1,970,094 
1,340,866 
1,617,685 
1,771,988 
1,204,746 
1,170.987 
1,352,140 
2,062,270 
1,161,551 
2,433,657 
2,740,953 
1,082,782 


77,879,521 


774,7-^9 
643,629 
659,310 
882,610 
865,777 
638,141 
644,827 
630,-238 
603,174 
940,998 


344.649 

256,420 
202,800 
167,310 
221,.360 
207,782 
358,480 
301,976 


2,060,782 


87,023,778 


Provinces. 


4.  RvssiainAtia. 

Kubafl^ 

Stavropol 

Tclck--' 


Nortlicm     Cau- 
casia  


Baku 

Daglicstiin'..., 
Ktizabctlipol... 

Krivnn , 

Kais- , 

Kutuls* 

Tcliernomorak*... 

TIlii' 

ZakatalyS. 


Transcaucasia.... 
Caucasus,  1383-83 


Akhal-TekkoS.. 
KrasnovodskS..., 
Manghistilak^... 

Merv3 _ 

Tedjell^ 

lol-otan 

Serakhs 

Caspian  Sea 


Transcaspian 
regioQ,^  about.. 


Akmollnsk' 

Semli»alatinsk2... 
Turgai.witliLake 

Aral' 

Uralsk' 


Eli-ghlz  Steppes. 


Amu-daria' 

Ferganah' 

Semiiyetchensk'. 

Sir-darla- 

Zeraisban^ 


Turkestan 

Centi-alAsia  .about 


Tobolsk.. 
Tomsk... 


Western  Sibei-Ia. 


Irkutsk 

Transbaikalia'... 

Yakutsk' 

Yeniseisk 


Eastern  Sibeila.. 


Amur' 

Mailtime,  or  Pi-1- 
morskayft' 


Amur  region.... 
Total,  Siberia... 


Total,        Asiatic 
Russia,  about.. 


Grand  total, 
Russian  cnipIl-0, 
about 8,64-1,100 


Area, 
Squnio 
Miles. 


36,497 
20,531 
23,548 


80,676 


15,510 
17, M8 
11,409 
10,705 

7,176 
14,006 

2,924 
15,578 

1,009 


95,929 


1,640 
40,790 
80,200 

about 
■  97,000 


210,664 
188,299 

202,192 
141,474 


742,629 


39,976 
28,045 
155,297 
166,003 
19,665 


408,986 


631,982 
829,039 


861,021 


309,190 

240,781 

1,617,127 

992,870 


3,059,968 


173,669 
730,022 


903,681 


4,824,670 


Popula- 
tloo. 


1,107,922 
0^7.893 
015,000 


669,992 
629,271 
636,316 
683,9.57 
162.979 
863.106 

25,983 
726,686 

76,000 


4,173,378- 


6,534,858 


89,200 
15,700 
34,.500 
(90,000 
)  5.000 
^10,000 
( 12,000 


469,347 
638,386 


326.706 
626,332 


1,853,770 


222,200 
808,000 
685.946 
1,109,6-12 
351,897 


3,177,684 


1,283,168 
1,134,748 


2,417,916 


398,873 
497,760 
243,443 
421,010 


1,561,086 


40,633 
74,000 


114,633 


4,093,&3» 


16,863.74* 


102,889,620 


1  Tho  figures  aro  taken,  for  the  oreas,  from  Strelbltiky'BSu;>«:*-iM* /'iViroiw, 
and,  for  the  pnpulotlon,  from  the  Sbomik  SreJaiiv  o  Ktropriskoi  lloiiH  for  I88J, 
Iho  Itvttlia  of  the  Caucasus  Ooographlcal  Society,  Ilie  Kiuiiiy  K,ittndor,  Ac.  The 
orcss  have  been  reduced,  taking  tho  squara  kllomoti-o  oa  equal  to  0-3861MT 
English  KQuaro  mile. 

»  Otiasli,  or  provinces. 

•  Okrugs,  or  oidt/tli  (territories)  uuder  military  gorcnunoai.  tba  moiilnaer 
being  governments  ((;u5rmO)  under  civil  governors. 

*  Including  Batiim  and  Snkluim. 

»  According  to  Ge-u-ral  Mi-ycr.  In  Izvfitia  o/  tho  Russian  Qcogr.  Society,  1885, 
4.  The  areas  for  the  tlrat  three  districts  are  given  according  to  M.  SeidlltE  In 
Russisclte  Rnue,  1H85,  4;  for  tho  remainder,  areording  to  General  Meyer.  Tho 
onsls  of  Merv  proper  extends  to  about  2100  souaru  mllto.  Tho  populations  ara 
given  without  the  Russian  military.  M.  Seldlili  estimates  them  as  tpllows  : — 
Akhal  Tc-kke,  42.000;  Krasnov.idsk,  I5,30il;  Manghlshlak,  34..500;  Merv, 
IC0,00n;  Teiljen,  7,'.00-,  tolnl,  200,000.  Tho  total  population,  cicludliu  mlUlary, 
Is  estimated  by  mlliury  aulhorlUcs  at  314.UO0. 


70 


RUSSIA 


[administeation  or 


Of  the  areas  given  in  the  table,  the  following  (298,636  square 
miles)  are  occupied  by  internal  waters  (larger  lakes  and  estuaries) : — 

Europcnn  Russia 20.S04  square  miles. 

Polanil HI 

Finland 1S.471  „ 

Caucasus 1.123 

Siberia LViU  „ 

Tlirkcslan 4,;U  „ 

KiiRliiz  Steppes Itsss  „ 

Transcftspian  region 40-5  „ 

Seti  of  AEoff,  Caspian  Sea.  Lake  Aral 51".S74         „ 

The  islands  included  in  the  above  statement  have  the  following 
nreas  (total  91,1S2  square  miles) : — 

p  *lie  AMiitc  Sea Ifll  square  miles. 

„      liiuTuts  Sea 3S,540  „ 

„      Baltic  Sea  (Ru>;sian) 1,")T9  „ 

„  .,        (Finnisli) 2,000  „ 

„      Blaclt  Sea 21  „ 

„      ScaofAzoff 41  „ 

„      Caspian  Sea 551  „ 

,,      Sibeiian  Arctic  Ocean lC.4n6  „ 

„      Pacific 31.703  „ 

The  Eussian  empire  falls  into  two  great  subdivisions, 
the  European  and  the  Asiatic,  the  latter  of  which, 
representing  an  aggregate  of  nearly  6,500,000  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  only  16  million  inhabitants, 
may  be  considered  as  held  by  colonies.  The  European 
dominions  comprJBe  European  Russia,  Finland,  which  is 
in  fact  a  separate  nationality  treated  to  some  extent  as  an 
allied  state,  and  Poland,  whose  very  name  has  been  erased 
from  oflicial  documents,  but  which  nevertheless  continues 
to  pursue  its  own  development.  The  Asiatic  dominions 
comprise  the  following  great  subdivisions : — Caucasia 
[q.v.),  under  a  separate  governor-general;  the  Transcaspian 
legion,  which  is  under  the  governor-general  of  Caucasus ; 
the  Kirghiz  Steppes ;  Tup.kestan  (q.v.),  under  separate 
governors-general ;  Western  Siberia  and  Eastern  Siberia  (see 
Bibeeia)  ;  and  the  Amur  region,  which  last  comprises  also 
the  Pacific  coast  region  and  Kamchatka  (see  Ka3ICHatk.\ 
and  JIabitijie  Peoviucb).  The  administrative  sub- 
divisions, with  their  populations,  as  estimated  for  1882  for 
European  Russia,  Poland,  and  Caucasus,  ISSl  for  Finland, 
md  1878-82  for  the  remainder  (no  regular  census  having 
been  taken  since  1858),  are  shown  above  in  Table  II. 

The  empire  contains  only  twelve  cities  with  a  population 
exceeding  100,000:— St  Petersburg,  929,090  (1881);  Mos- 
cow, 753,469  (1884) ;  "Warsaw,  406,200  (1882);  Odessa, 
217,000  (1882);  Riga,  169,330  (1881);  Kharkoff,  159,660 
(1883);  Kazaii,  140,730  (1883);  ICishineff,  130,000; 
KiefF,  127,250  (1874);  £odz,  113,146,  in  Poland  (1884); 
Saratoff,  ^12,428  (1882);  Tiflis,  104,020  (1883);  and 
Tashkend,  100,000.  According  to  the  most  recent  returns 
yilna,  Orel,  Eostoff,  Astrakhan,  !Mikolaieff,Diinaburg.Tula, 
Samara,  Taganrog,  Kherson,  Nijui-Novgorod,  Berditchefi, 
Bobruisk,  Zhitomir,  Minsk,  Vitsbsk,  Elisabetgrad,  Eeval, 
ind  Voronezh  had  from  94,000  to  50,000  inhabitants,  while 
SI  towns  more  in  European  Russia,  Finland,  and  Poland, 
ind  20  in  the  Asiatic  dominions,  had  from  50,000  to  20,000 
inhabitants.  The  number  of  towns  above  10,000  is  con- 
siderable, but  they  are  mostly  mere  administrative  centres ; 
jaany  villages  have  greater  importance. 

Only  9,263,000  (or  9  per  cent.)  of  the  aggregate  popu- 
lation of  Russia  inhabit  towns,  the  number  of  which  is 
601  in  the  50  Eussian  governments.  The  great  number 
of  the  Eussian  towns  are  mere  villages ;  their  inhabitants 
depend  on  agriculture,  and  the  houses  are  mostly  built  of 
■wood,  only  127,000  out  of  about  787,000  houses  in 
towns  being  built  of  stone.  Of  the  68,600,000  who  in 
1882  formed  the  rural  population  of  European  Russia 
the  greater  part  were  settled  in  555,278  villages,  almost 
entirely  built  of  wood  ;  nearly  one^seventieth  of  the  houses 
are  destroyed  by  fire  yearly  (164,400  out  of  10,649,000 
in  1882). 

Eussia  is  an  absolute  and  strongly  centralized  monarchy. 
The  primary  unit  of  state  organization  is  the  village  com- 
munity, or  7ni):    A  number  of  such  communities  are  united 


irtto  volosts,  whose  peasant  inhabitants  elect  an  elder  {volott- 
noi/  ftarshinci)  and  a  peasants'  tribunal  {volostnoy  su.d) 
Placed,  however,  under  the  uncontrolled  rule  of  a  state 
official — the  viirovoy  posrednik — and  of  the  police,  the  eldei 
of  the  volost  and  his  clerk  have  become  mere  organ.sof 
the  local  police  and  tax-gatherers,  while  the  tribunal  of  the 
volost  is  at  the  mercy  both  of  influential  land-propricton 
and  of  the  wealthier  peasants  or  merchants.  The  system 
of  local  self-government  is  continued  in  the  elective  district 
and  provincial  assemblies — the  zemstvo — on  the  one  hand 
and  on  the  other  in  the  elective  justices  of  the  peace  (nn'ro- 
voy  siidia),  whose  periodical  gatherings  (mirovoy  syezd)  are 
courts  of  appeal  against  the  decisions  of  the  individual 
justices.  But  neither  of  these  institutions — and  least  of  all 
the  zemstvo — is  capable  of  acquiring  the  necessaiy  inde- 
pendence. The  zemstvos — one  for  each  district,  and  an- 
other for  the  province — consist  of  a  representative  assembly 
(zemskoye  sohrainiye)  and  an  executive  (zeiiiskaya  tiprava) 
nominated  by  the  former.  The  sobraniye  consists  of  three 
classes  of  delegates : — the  landed  proprietors  (all  nobles 
possessing  more  than  590  acres,  and  delegates  from  the 
remainder,  along  with  delegates  from  the  clergy  in  their 
capacity  of  landed  proiirietors) ;  representatives  of  the  mer- 
chants, artisans,  and  urban  population;  and  representatives 
of  the  peasants,  indirectly  elected, — matters  being-  usually 
so  adjusted  that  this  class  is  less  numerous  than  the  aggre 
gate  of  the  other  two.  In  theory  the  zemstvos  have  larg^ 
powers  in  relation  to  the  incidence  of  taxation,  as  well  as 
in  matters  affecting  education,  public  health,  roads,  &c. 
But  in  reality  they  are  for  the  most  part  compelled  to 
limit  themselves  to  the  adjustment  of  the  state  taxation, 
which  is  so  high  that  new  taxes  for  education,  sanitary 
purposes,  and  so  on,  must  necessarily  be  very  limited. 
Moreover,  the  decisious  of  the  zemstvos  are  jealously  con- 
trolled by  the  representative  of  the  central  Government, — 
the  governor, — and  promptly  annulled  -whenever  they 
manifest  a  different  spirit  from  that  prevailing  for  the  time 
at  the  court.  Disobedience  is  punished  by  dissolution, 
sometimes  by  administrative  exile.  These  circumstances 
have  helped  to  eliminate  from  the  zemstvos  the  better 
elements  which  at  first  entered  into  their  composition.  The 
greater  number  of  them  are  inspired  now  with  the  same 
red-tapeism  as  the  ministerial  chancelleries,  or  are  refuges 
for  proprietors  in  search  of  a  salary.  Still,  in  several 
provinces  a  good  deal  of  most  useful  work  has  been  done, 
especially  educational,  by  those  zemstvos  in  which  the 
peasants  are  in  a  majority  or  the  proprietors  are  inspired 
■vith  a  more  liberal  spirit ;  while  several  other  zemstvos 
have  recently  made  extensive  and  most  valuable  inquiries 
into  the  condition  of  agriculture,  industry,  &c. 

Since  1870  the  municipalities  have  had  ir.stitulions 
like  those  of  the  zemstvos.  All  owners  of  hcuses,  and 
tax-paying  merchants,  artisans,  and  workmen,  are  enrolled 
on  lists  in  a  descending  order  according  to  their  assessed 
wealth.  The  total  valuation  is  then  divided  into  three 
equal  parts,  each  of  which  elects  an  equal  number  of  repre- 
sentatives to  the  dmna.  The  executive  is  in  the  hands  of 
an  elective  mayor  and  an  vprava  which  consists  of  several 
members  elected  by  the  diima.  Both  are,  in  fact,  function- 
aries under  the  governor,  and  the  municipal  institutions 
have  no.  real  independent  life.^ 

The  organs  of  the  central  government  in  the  provinces 
are  the  ui-yadniks  (a  kind  of  gard€s-champ>eires)  in  the 
villages,  the  stanovoT/s  and  ispravnth  (chiefs  of  the  police) 
in  the  districts,  and  the  governors  (a  kind  of  Napoleonic 
prefect)  in  each  government — all  invested,  the  uryadaiks 

1  See'  Golovatchoff.  Ten  Tears  of  Reforms  in  Russia ;  Tht  Finances  of  Ute 
Ztm^lvos  (official  publication);  Dityatin,  Mutiicipat  Seff-Govemmmt  in  Russia, 
2  vols. ;  and  very  numerous  and  valuable  papers  in  the  reviews  Yifestnii  Evrtrpi/^ 
0!€ti^eslvenn>jya  Zapiski,  Russka'ja  Mys^  ifcc. 


IIDSSIAN  EMPIKE.] 


B  d  S  S  I  A 


71 


included,  with  powers  which  are  the  more  extensive  as  they 
are  totally  undefined.  There  is  also  in  each  government 
a  special  gendarmerie  under  the  "chief  of  gendarmes," 
who  usually  is  also  the  head  of  the  "third  section "  of  the 
Imperial  Chancery.  The  name  of  the  thud  section  has 
been  recently  abolished,  but  the  institution  still  continues. 
It  has  charge  of  the  secret  police  of  the  state,  and  has 
most  varied  functions,  such  as  the  arrest  of  supposed 
political  offenders,  their  exile  to  Siberia,  the  delivery  of 
separation  papers  to  spouses  desiring  divorce,  and  so  ou. 
Several  governments  are  placed  under  special  governors- 
general,  whom  the  recent  law  on  the  "state  of  siege" 
invests  with  almost  dictatorial  powers. 

The  higher  administration  is  represented  by  the  emperor, 
who  unites  the  supreme  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial 
powers,  and  is  sunounded  by  four  distinct  councils — the 
committeo  of  ministers,  the  council  of  the  empire,  the 
senate,  and  the  Holy  Synod.  The  ministers,  who  are  con- 
sidered as  executing  the  will  of  the  czar,  and  are  nominated 
by  him,  are  invested  with  very  extensive  powers ;  their 
circulars  for  the  interpretation  of  laws  have  greater  weight 
than  the  laws  themselves.  The  council  of  the  empire, 
which  consisted  in  1884  of  64  members,  nominated  by  the 
emperor,  besides  the  ministers  and  several  members  of  the 
imperial  family,  is  a  consultative  body  for  matters  of  legis- 
lation. The  senate,  also  nominated  by  the  emperor,  has 
two  distinct  functions.  Seven  "departments"  of  it  are 
administrative ;  they  promulgate  the  laws,  examine  the  acts 
of  governors,  adjudicate  in^  their  conflicts  with  zemstvos, 
and,  in  theory,  can  make  remonstrances  to  the  emperor, — 
in  fact  they  merely  register  and  promulgate  laws.  Two 
other  "  departments "  are  courts  of  cassation.  A  special 
department,  reinforced  by  representatives  of  nobility,  pro- 
nounces judgment  in  poUtical  cases.  The  Holy  Synod, 
consisting  of  metropolitans  and  bishops  who  sit  there  in 
turn,  has  the  superintendence  of  reUgious  affairs. 

The  judicial  system  iutroduced  in  1S64  was  conceivad  in  a 
very  liberal  spirit,  which,  unfortunately,  has  not  been  main- 
tained. Thus  a  "preliminary  instruction,"  made  by  the  "third 
seetion"  in  political  cases,  :or  by  the  poUce,  has  been  subse- 
quently introduced.  The  '.'judges  of  iustruction,"  irremovable  by 
law,  have  not  yet  been  nominated,  their  functions  being  discharged 
by  substitutes  entirely  dependent  upon  the  ministry.  Elective 
justices  of  the  peace  decide  in  all  cases  involving  less  than  500 
roubles,  or  less  than  six  months'  imprisonment.  Their  decisions 
can  bo  brought  by  appeal  before  tbo  district  gathering  of  the  jus- 
tices of  the  peace,  and  thence  before  the  senate.  All  criminal 
taaes  involving  severer  penalties  are  tried  by  juries,  whose  verdicts 
can  be  sot  aside  only  by  a  court  of  cassation,  but  are  not  respected 
incases  having  a  so-callod  "political"  aspect.  Political  ouences 
are  tried  by  tribunals  composed  ad  hoc.  Civil  cases  in  which  more 
thaa  600  roubles  are  involved  are  tried  by  courts  of  justice,  with 
appeal  to  chambers  of  justico. 

In  1879  in  liuropean  Ivjjssia, — exclusive  of  six  Lithuanian  and 
White  Russian  goverimients, — 42,530  persons  were  tried  before  the 
courts,  .and  59,600  before  the  justices  of  the  peace,  the  convictions 
being  respectively  27,397  and  36,742.  The  aggregate  number  of 
condemnations  pronounced  in  18S2  was  46,018  in  European  Russia, 
tliat  is,  5 '9  condemned  in  each  10,000;  only  4836  of  them  were 
women.  Ou  January  1,  18S2,  98,108  persons  were  in  jail ;  530,307 
men  and  66,073  women  (the  latter  with  30,769  children)  wero 
iinpiiboned  during  the  year,  while  625,280  prisoners  were  liberated 
or  exiled,  and  on  January  1,  1883,  the  number  of  prisoners  in 
jail  (i-Xchuliug  those  of  Saghaliu  and  Caucsus)  was  97,337.  More 
tliau  20,000  are  annually  trau-sported  to  Siberia. 

The  empire  is  divided  for  administrative  purposes  into  govern- 
ments (ijdberniya)  or  territories  {oblust),  of  which  tlioro  are  60  in 
Em-opuau  Russia  and  10  in  I'olau.d.  Each  government,  or  territory, 
is  divided  into  eight  to  filtceu  districts  {uyc.d).  The  Asiatic 
doiuijiions  aro  divided'  into  one  lieutenancy  {namyeslnUcheslvo), 
that  of  Caucasia,  and  four  general  govern  men ts — Turhestau, 
Stepnoyo  (Kirghiz  Steppes),  Eaist  Siberia,  and  Amur.  They  com- 
prise tlihtj'-throo  r;ovetument3  and  territories,  besides  a  few  dis- 
tricts (ol-ni'j,  uldyd)  in  Transcaucasia  and  tha  Transcaspian 
region,  regaided  almost  as  separate  govonimcnts.  In  Siberia  the 
governors  and  governors-general  are  assisted  by  councils  which 
Save  a  consultative  voice.  Tho  Baltic  provinces  have  some 
peculiar  institutions.     Finland  ?a  a  separate  state,  having  its  own 


finances,  army,  and  representative  institutions,  with  limited  rights, 
but  its  mmistcrs  of  war  and  the  exterior  are  those  of  the  empire, 
and  its  iuslitutious  are  not  always  respected  by  the  emperor. 

Tho  emperor  is  not  tbo  head  o"f  tbe  ehuroli,  all  decisions  in  theo- 
logical matters  having  to  be  given  by  tbo  Synod.  His  influence, 
however,  is  very  great,  as  tbo  nomination  of  the  bishops  rests  with 
him.  In  13S2  there  wore  in  Russia  40,569  Orthodox  churches 
and  about  li.OCO  ehapels,  with  37,318  priests,  7069  deacons,  and 
45,395  singers.  There  wero  also  67S2  monks  and  8957  aspirants, 
4945  nuns  and  13,803  female  aspirants.  Tbo  church  budget  was 
13,974,337  roubles  iu  1884.  Tho  monasteries  and  churches  aro 
possessed  of  great  wealtli,  including  2950  square  miles  of  land  (a 
territory  greater  than  that  of  Oldenburg),  an  invested  capital  of 
22,634,000  roubles,  an  annual  subsiily  of  403,000  roublea  from 
Government,  and  a  very  great  number  of  inns,  shops,  printing 
establishments,  burial  grounds,  &o.,  with  wiiolo  towns  covering  an 
aggregate  area  of  lOi  square  miles.  Their  total  annual  revenue  is 
estimated  at  9,000,000  roubles. 

Much  still  remains  to  be  done  for  the  diffusion  of  tho  fii«t 
elements  of  a  sound  education  throughout  the  empire  ;  unhappily 
tho  endeavours  of  private  persons  in  this  field  and  of  the  zemstvos 
are  for  political  reasons  discouraged  by  the  Government.  Thers 
are  seven  universities — Dorpat,  Kazan,  Kharkoff,  Kielf,  Moscow, 
Odessa,  and  St  Petersburg — to  which  may  be  added  those  of 
Warsaw  and  Helsingfors.  In  1883  the  seven  Russian  universities 
had  605  professors  and  10,528  students,  and  there  were  81  pro- 
fessors and  1228  students  at  Warsaw.  The  standard  of  teaching 
on  tbe  whola  is  high,  and  may  be  compared  to  that  of  the  German 
universities.  The  students  axe  hardworking,  and  generally  very 
intelligent.  Mostly  sons  of  poor  parents,  they  live  in  oxiremo 
poverty,  supportuig  themselves  chiefly  by  translating  and  by  tutorial 
work.  Severe  measures  have  been  taken  in  1885  in  regard  to  the 
universities.  Explicit  regulations  for  the  interpretation  of  science 
have  been  issued,  and  restrictions  laid  upon  the  teaching  of  philo- 
sophy and  natural  science  generally  ;  compaiative  legislation  hat 
been  excluded  from  the  programmes  ;  teaching  in  Russian  (instead 
of  German)  has  been  ordered  at  Dorpat.  Tho  students  are  placed 
nnder  rigorous  regulation.s  iu  regard  to  their  hfe  outside  the  uni- 
versity. About  950  students  in  theological  academies  and  250C 
in  higher  technical  schools  nmst  bo  added  to  the  above. 

Tho  state  of  secondary  education  still  leaves  very  much  to  be 
desired.  There  were  in  1883  180  gynmasiuras  and  progymnasiums 
for  boys  in  European  Russia,  and  24  in  the  Asiatic  dominions,  and 
27  and  10  respectively  for  girls;  thero  were  also  73  "real" 
schools  in  European  Russia  and  8  in  the  Asiati'!  dominions,  and  48 
normal  schools  in  Russia  and  10  in  tho  Asiatic  dominions.  ■  To 
these  must  be  added  the  14,800  pupils  in  53  theological  seminaries, 
and  about  3000  in  various  secondary  schools,  Tho  steady  tendency 
of  Russian  society  towards  increasing  tha  number  of  secondary 
schools,  where  instruction  would  be  based  oa  the  study  of  tho 
natural  sciences,  is  checked  by  Government  in  favour  of  the 
classical  gymnasiums.  The  aggregate  number  of  schools  for  second- 
ary instruction  in  European  R'lssia  in  1882  was  456  for  boys  and 
384  for  ghls,  with  107,930  male  and  79,625  female  scholars.  Of 
these,  355  schools  (45,303  boys  and  3199  ghls)  give  professional 
education. 

For  primary  instruction  there  wero  in.-1882  in  European  Russia 
proper  28,329  scliools,  with  1,177,504  male  and  302,471  female 
pupils.  Of  tho  6,231,160  roubles  expended  on  primary  schools 
only  747,772  roubles  were  contributed  by  Government,  the 
remainder  being  supplied  by  the  zemstvos  (2,512,113  roubles),  by 
municipalities,  or  by  private  persons.  Sunday  schools  and  public 
lectures  aro  virtually  prohibited. 

A  characteristic  feature  of  the  intellectual  movement  in  Russia 
is  its  tendency  to  extend  to  won\en  tho  means  of  receiving  higher 
instruction.  Tho  gymnasiums  for  girls  aro  both  numerous  and 
good.  In  addition  to  these,  notwithstanding  Government  opposi- 
tion, a  series  of  higher  schools,  where  careful  instruction  in  natural 
and  social  sciences  is  given,  have  been  opened  in  tho  chief  cities 
under  tho  name  of  "Pedagogical  Courses."  At  St  Petersburg  a 
women's  medical  academy,  the  examinations  of  which  were  cvca 
more  searching  than  thoso  of  tho  ordinary  academy  (especially  as 
regards  diseases  of  women  and  children),  was  opened,  but  alter 
about  one  hundred  women  had  received  tho  degree  of  M.P.,  it  has 
been  suppressed  by  Governmenr,  In  several  university  towns 
thero  ore  also  fi-ee  teaching  establishments  for  wonior\,  supported 
by  subscription,  with  programmes  and  examinations  eiiual  to  those 
of  the  universitioe.  In  1882  the  students  nuinbo-ed  914  at  6b 
Petersburg,  about  500  at  Moscow,  and  389  at  Ka/ail. 

The  natural  sciences  aro  much  cultivated  iu  Russia,  especially 

during  the  last  twenty  years.     bcsid.'S  tli '   '      ' -^f  Science,  the 

Moscow   Society   of  yaturaHsls,   tho    W  Society,    Uic 

Geographical  Society,  with  its  Caucasian  n  i  lirnnuhes,  tho 

archojological  societies  and  tho  scientific  sociitits  uf  tho  Baltic  pro- 
vinces, aU  of  which  are  of  old  and  recojjiiized  standing,  there  have 
lately  sprung  up  a  series  of  new  societies  in  connexion  Avith  each 
onivenuty,  and  .their  serials  are  yearly  grdwiag  in  importar.ci<   ^o 


72 


RUSSIA 


[EUROPEAN   RUSSIA. 


also  are  those  of  the  recently  founded  Moscow  Society  of  Friends  of 
Natural  Science,  the  Chcmico-Physical  Society,  and  various  medical, 
educational,  and  other  societies.  The  work  achieved  by  Russian 
savants,  especially  in  biology,  physiology,  and  chemistry,  and  in 
the  sciences  descriptive  of  the  vast  territory  of  Kussia,  are  well 
known  to  Europe. 

The  finances  of  the  empire  are  in  a  most  unsatisfactory  condition. 
Although  the  revenue  has  doubled  since  1856,  and  had  reached 
697,980,983  roubles  (£69,798,098)' in  1883,  the  e.i:penditurc,  which 
was  estimated  at  721,337,344  roubles  the  same  year,  is  always  in 
excess  of  the  income.  The  national  debt  is  rapidly  augmented  both 
by  loans  and  by  issues  of  paper  money  so  depreciated  as  to  be  worth 
only  about  60  to  63  per  cent,  of  its  nominal  value.  On  January  1, 
1884,  no  less  than  1,085,000,000  paper  roubles  were  in  circulation  ; 
and  the  national  debt,  the  paper-money  included,  reached  about 
£578,000,000,  inclusive  of  the  railway  debt.  The  great  defect  of 
Russian  finance  is  that  its  direct  taxes  are  chiefly  paid  by  the 
peasantry  (91  per  cent,  of  the  whole),  and  the  revenue  is  chiefly  based 
on  excise  duties  (direct  taxes,  136,105,320  roubles  ;  excise  duties  on 
spirits,  250,291,380;  duties  on  tobacco  and  sugar,  28,569,500; 
import  duties,  101,053,000).  Of  the  yearly  revenue  no  less  than 
436,000,000  roubles  are  spent  in  interest  and  sinking  fund  on  the 
debt,  and  for  war  purposes.- 

The  zemstvos,  which  have  an  aggregate  yearly  income  of  about 
tairty  million  roubles,  have  also  a  yearly  deficit  of  from  three  to 
five'million  roubles.  The  municipalities  had  in  1882  an  income  of 
only  40,076,748  roubles,  there  being  only  nine  cities  which  had  a 
budget  of  more  than  500,000  roubles,  and  five  above  one  million. 
Anny.  The  Russian   army  has   been   completely  reorganized  since  the 

Crimean  War,  and  compulsory  military  service  was  introduced  in 
1874.  In  1884  the  strength  of  the  army  on  a  peace  footing  was 
532,764  men  serving  with  the  colours,  68,786  reserve  troops, 
55,599  Cossacks  and  irregulars,  72,626  local,  depot,  and  instruction 
troops,  27,468  officers,  129,736  horses,  and  1844  guns.  On  a  war 
footing  there  were  986,000  in  the  active  army,  563,373  in  the 
reserve,  148,057  Cossacks  and  irregulars,  178,450  local,  depot,  and 
instruction  troops,  41,551  officers,  366,354  horses,  and  3778  guns  ; 
that  is,  about  1,300,000  men  in  field,  to  which  number  1,000,000 
nntvained  militia  could  be  added  in  case  of  need.  These  high 
figures,  ought,  however,  to  be  much  reduced  on  account  of  the 
deficiencies  of  mobilization. 

The  irregular  troops  consist  of  ten  voiskos — Don,  Kuban,  Terek, 
Astrakhan,  Orenburg,  Ural,  West  Siberia,  Semiryetchensk,  Trans- 
baikalia, and  Amur.  All  the  men  of  these  voiskos  between  sixteen 
and  forty-ono  years  of  age  are  bound  to  be  ready  for  service  in  turn 
in  time  of  peace,  and  to  equip  themselves  at  their  own  expense, 
train  and  artillery  being  provided  by  Government.  In  their  twofold 
capacity  as  peasant  settlers  and  a  military  force,  these  men  have 
contributed  much  to  the  conquest  of  Asia. 

Since  187S  compulsory  military  service  has  been  introduced  in 
Finland.     The  Finnish  troops  (nine   battalions  of  4833  riflemen) 
.    must  be  employed,  as  a  rule,  for  the  defence  of  their  own  country. 
N^T-  Notwithstanding  large  recent  outlays,  the  Russian  navy  is  by  no 

means  adapted  to  the  exigencies  of  modern  warfare  ;  much  stress  is 
therefore  laid  on  the  good  organization  of  the  torpedo  flotilla.  The 
navy  consists  of  358  vessels,  of  196,575  tons,  carrying  24,500  men 
and  671  guns.  Only  40  of  these  are  armoured  ships,  the  remainder 
being  unarmoured  frigates,  corvettes,  and  cruisers,  or  torpedo  boats 
(119),  while  a  great  number  are  mere  transports  and  small  craft. 

The  extensive  frontier  is  defended  by  many  fortresses,  chiefly  on 
the  west.  Poland  to  the  west  of  the  Vistula  remains  quite  unpro- 
tected, fortifications  being  only  now  in  course  of  construction  in  the 
south-west ;  but  the  Vistula  is  defended  by  the  first-class  fortresses 
of  Modlin  (Novogeorgievsk),  AVarsaw,  and  Ivangorod,  with  Brest- 
Litovsk  in  the  rear.  For  protecting  this  line  in  rear  new  fortifica- 
tions are  being  erected.  The  space  between  Poland  and  the  Duna 
is  protected  only  by  the  citadel  of  Vilna  and  the  marshes  of  the 
Pripet.  The  second  line  of  fortresses  has  been  erected  on  the  Diina 
and  Dnieper, — Riga,  Diinaburg,  Vitebsk,  Bobruisk,  and  Kieff. 
The  south-western  frontier  is  under  the  protection  of  the  advanced 
works  of  Bendery  and  Akerman,  while  the  Black  Sea  coast  is 
defended  by  Kinburn  and  Otchakoff  at  the  entrances  of  the  Dnieper 
and  the  Bug,  Sebastopol  in  the  Crimea,  batteries  at  Odessa  and 
Nikolaieff,  and  a  series  of  minor  fortifications.  Formidable  defen- 
sive works  have  been  erected  on  the  Baltic  at  Dunamunde,  Eeval, 
Karva,  Cronstadt,  Wibqrg,  Frederikshamn,  Eohtensalm,  Sveaborg, 
Hangbudd,  and  in  the  Aland  Islands.  A  great  number  of  minor 
forts  are  scattered  throughout  Caucasia,  Transcaucasia,  and 
Turkestan  ;  but  the  Pacific  coast  has  only  earth-works  at  Vladi- 
vostok and  Nikolaievsk. 

1  Unless  metallic  or  silver  roubles  are  expressly  mentioned,  tjie  rouble  is  to  be 
taken  throughoat  the  present  article  as  the  paper  rouble,  the-recent  average  value 
of  which  has  been  23.  sterling.  The  metallic  rouble  (277*71  grains  of  pure  silver) 
Is  equivalent  to  S8  046  pence  sterling;  but  the  paper  rouble  has  gradually 
declined  from  94-5  per  cent,  of  its  nominal  value  in  1861-65  to  60  per  cent,  in 
1882  (see  below,  p.  86). 

-  Sbornti  Svedeniy  on  European  Russia;  Brzeslil,  Slate  Deitt  of  Suuia, 
1884. 


Part  II.— European  Russia — Geography. 

The  administrative  boundaries  of  European  Russia,  apart  from 
Finland  and  Poland,  broadly  coincide  on  the  whole  with  the 
natural  limits  of  the  East-European  plains,  where  they  suddenly 
take,  eastward  of  tlie  Baltic  Sea,  a  great  extension  towards  tho 
north.  In  the  north  it  is  bounded  by  the  Arctic  Ocean  ;  tha 
islands  of  Nova  Zembla,  Kolgueff,  and  Vaigatch  also  belong  to  it, 
l^ut  the  Kara  Sea  is  reckoned  to  Siberia.  To  the  east  it  has  th« 
Asiatic  dominions  of  the  empire,  Siberia  and  the  Kirghiz  Steppe, 
from  both  of  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Uial  Jlcuntains,  the 
Ural  river,  and  the  Caspian — the  administrative  boundary,  how- 
ever, partly  extending  into  Asia  on  the  Siberian  slope  of  the  Urals. 
To  the  south  it  has  the  Black  Sea  and  Caucasia,  being  separated 
from  the  latter  by  the  double  valley  of  the  two  Manytches— a 
channel  which  in  Post-Pliocene  times  connected  the  Sea  of  Azolf 
with  the  Caspian.  The  western  boundary  is  purely  conventional: 
it  crosses  first  the  peninsula  of  Kola  from  the  Varanger  Fiord  to 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  making  an  arbitrary 
deflexion  towards  the  west ;  thence  it  runs  to  the  Kurisclie  Half 
in  the  southern  Baltic,  and  thence  to  the  mouth  of  the  Danube, 
taking  a  great  circular  sweep  to  the  west  to  embrace  Poland,  and 
separating  Kussia  from  Prussia,  Austrian  Galicia,  and  Roumania. 

Of  this  immense  frontier  line  less  than  one-half  is  bordered  by 
seas — nearly  all  of  them  inland  seas.  For  it  is  a  special  feature  of 
Russia— a  feature  which  has  impressed  a  special  character  on  its 
history — that  she  has  no  free  outlet  to  tho  high  seas  except  on  the 
ice-bound  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Even  the  White  Sea  is 
merely  a  ramified  gulf  of  that  ocean.  Another  warmer  gulf  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean — the  Varanger  Fiord— separated  from  Russia  by 
the  uninhabitable  plateaus  of  the  peninsula  of  Kola,  has  been 
abandoned  to  Norway.  The  deep  indentations  of  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia  and  Finland  wash  the  shores  of  Finnish  territory,  and  it 
is  only  at  the  very  head  of  the  latter  gulf  that  the  Russians  happen 
to  have  taken  a  firm  foothold  by  erecting  their  capital  on  the 
marshes  at  the  mouth  of  the  Neva.  The  Gulf  of  Riga  and  the 
south-eastern  Baltic  belong  also  to  territory  which  is  not  inhabited 
by  Slavonians,  but  by  Finnish  stems,  and  by  Germans.  It  is  only 
very  recectly,  within  the  last  hundred  years,  that  the  Russians 
definitively  took  possession  of  the  northern  shores  of  tho  Black  Sea 
and  the  Sea  of  Azoff  The  eastern  coast  of  the  Black  Sea  belongs 
properly  to  Transcaucasia,  a  great  chain  of  mountains  separating 
it  from  Russia.  But  even  this  sea  is  an  inland  one,  the  only  outlet 
of  which,  the  Bosphorus,  is  in  foreign  hands,  while  the  Caspian  is 
but  an  immense  shallow  lake,  bordered  mostly  by  deserts,  and 
possessing  more  importance  as  a  link  between  Russia  and  her 
colonies  than  as  a  channel  for  intercourse  with  other  countries. 

The  great  territory  occupied  by  European  Russia — 1600  miles  inConflgiv 
length  (rom  north  to  south,  and  nearly  as  much  from  west  to  east '*"<"'• 
— is  on  the  whole  a  broad  elevated  plain,  ranging  between  500  and 
900  feet  above  sea-level,  deeply  cut  into  by  river-valleys,  and 
bounded  on  all  sides  by  broad  hilly  swellings  or  mountains  : — the 
lake  plateaus  of  FinUnd  and  the  Maaaselka  heights  in  the  north- 
west ;  the  Baltic  coast-ridge  and  spurs  of  the  Carpathians  in  the 
west,  with  a  broad  depression  between  the  two,  occupied  by  Poland ; 
the  Crimean  and  Caucasian  mountains  in  the  south  ;  and  the  broad 
but  moderately  high  swelling  of  the  Ural  Mountains  in  the  east. 

From  a  central  plateau  which  comprises  Tver,  Moscow,  Smolensk, 
and  Kursk,  and  projects  eastwards  towards  Samara,  attaining  an 
average  height  of  800  to  900  feet  above  the  sea,  the  surface  gently 
slopes  in  all  directions  to  a  level  of  from  300  to  500  feet.  Then  it 
again  gently  rises  as  it  approaches  the  hilly  tracts  enclosing  the 
great  plain.  This  central  swelling  may  be  considered  a  continua- 
tion towards  the  east-north-east  of  the  great  line  of  upheavals  of 
western  Europe  ;  the  heights  of  Finland  would  then  appear  as 
continuations  of  the  Scanian  plateaus,  and  the  northern  mountains 
of  Finland  as  continuations  of  the  Kjblen,  while  the  other  great 
line  of  upheaval  of  the  old  continent,  which  runs  north-west  and 
south-east,  would  be  represented  in  Russia  by  the  Caucasus  in  th», 
south  and  the  Timan  ridge  of  the  Petchora  basin  in  the  north. 

The  hilly  aspects  of  several  parts  of  the  central  plateau  are  not 
due  to  foldings  of  the  strata,  which  <'or  the  most  part  appear  to  be 
horizontal,  but  chiefly  to  ;he  excavating  action  of  rivers,  whose 
valleys  are  deeply  dug  out  in  the  plateau,  especially  on  its 
borders.  The  round  flattened  summits  of  the  Valdai  plateau  do 
not  rise  above  1100  feet,  and  they  present  the  appearance  of 
mountains  only  in  consequence  of  the  depth  of  the  valleys — the 
levels  of  the  rivers  which  flow  towards  the  depression  of  Lake 
Peipus  being  only  from  200  to  250  feet  above  the  sea.  The  case  is 
similar  with  the  plateaus  of  Livonia,  "  Wendish  Switzerland," 
and  Kovno,  which  do  not  exceed  1000  feet  at  their  highest  points  ; 
so  also  with  the  eastern  spurs  of  tho  Baltic  coast-ridge  between 
Grodno  and  Minsk.  The  same  elevation  is  reached  by  a  very  few 
flat  summits  of  the  plateau  about  Kursk,  and  farther  east  on  the 
Volga  about  Kamyshin,  where  the  valleys  are  excavated  in  tho 
plateau  to  a  depth  of  from  800  to  900  feet,  giving  quite  a  hUly 
•aspect  to  the  country.     U  is. only  irv  the  south-weit,  where  spuia 


BIVEBS.] 


RUSSIA 


73 


of  the  Carpathians  enter  Volhynia,  Podolia,  aitd  Bessarabia,  that 
iidges  reachinf;  1100  feet  are  met  with,  intersected  by  deep  ravines. 
The  depressions  on  the  borders  of  the  central  plateau  tlius  ac- 
hoiTQ  a  greater  importance  than  the  small  dilFercnccs  in  its  licij;ht. 
ouch  is  the  broad  depression  of  the  middle  Volga  and  lower  Kama, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  faint  swelling  of  tlio  Uvaty,  which  is 
the  watershed  between  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the  Volga  basin. 
Another  broad  depression,  from  250  to  500  feet  above  the  sea,  still 
filled  by  Lakes  Peipoi,  Ladoga,  Onega,  Bieto-ozero,  Latche,  Vozhe, 
and  many  thousands  of  smaller  ones,  bordera  the  central  plateau  on 
the  north,  and  follows  the  same  east-north-east  direction.  Only  a 
few  low  swellings  jienetrate  into  it  from  the  north-west,  about  Lake 
Onega,  and  reach  900  feet,  while  in  the  north-east  it  is  enclosed  by 
Ihe  high  Timanskiy  ridge  (1000  feet).  A  third  depression  of  a  similar 
character,  occupied  by  the  Pripet  and  the  middle  Dnieper,  extends  to 
the  west  of  the  central  plateau  of  Russia,  and  penetrates  into  Poland. 
The  immense  lacustrine  basin  is  now  broken  up  into  numberless 
jKiuds,  lakes,  and  extensive  marshes  (see  Minsk).  It  is  bounded  ou 
the  south  by  the  broad  plateaus  spreading  east  of  the  Carpathians. 
South  of  50°  N.  lat  the  central  plateau  geutly  slopes  towards  the 
Bouth,  and  wo  find  there  a  fourth  depression  spreading  west  and  east 
through  Poltava  and  KharkofT,  but  still  reaching  in  its  higher  parts 
600  to. 700  feet.  It  is  separated  from  the  Black  Sea  by  a  gentle 
ewclling  which  may  be  traced  from  Kremenetz  to  tlie  lower  Don, 
Bnd  perhaps  farther  south-«ast.  This  low  swelling  includes  the 
Uonetz  coal-measures  and  the  middle  granitic  ridges  which  cause  the 
lapids  of  the  Dnieper.  Finally  a  fiftli  immense  depression,  which 
descends  below  the  level  of  the  ocean,  extends  for  more  than  200 
miles  to  the  north  of  the  Caspian,  comprising  the  lower  Volga  and 
the  Ural  and  Emba  rivers,  and  establishing  a  link  between  Kussia 
and  the  Aral-Caspian  region.  The  depression  is  continued  farther 
north  by  plains  below  300  feet  which  join  the  depression  of  the 
middle  Volga,  and  extend  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Oka. 
■  The  Ural  Mountains  present  the  aspect  of  a  broad  swelling  whose 
strata  no  longer  exhibit  the  horizontality  we  see  in  Russia,  and 
moreover  are  deeply  cut  into  by  rivers.  It  is  connected  in  the 
west  with  broad  plateaus  joining  those  of  central  Russia,  but  its 
orographical  relations  to  other  upheavals  must  be  more  closely 
studied  before  theT  can  b«  definitely  pronounced  on. 

The  rhomboidal  peninsula  of  the  Crimea,  connected  by  only  a 
narrow  isthmus  with  the  continent,  is  occupied  by  a  dry  plateau 
gently  sloping  north, and  east,  and  bordered  in  the  south-east  by 
the  Yalta  Mountains,  the  summits  of  which  range  between  4000 
and  5113  feet  (see  Ckimea  and  Taurida). 

Owing  to  the  orographical  structure  of  the  East-European  plains, 
which  has  just  been  described,  the  river-system  has  attained  a  very 
liigh  development.  Taking  their  origin  from  a  series  of  great 
lacustrine  basins  scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  plateaus  and 
differing  tlightly  in  elevation,  the  Russian  rivers  describe  im- 
mense curves  before  reaching  the  sea,  and  flow  with  a  very  gentle 
gradient,  receiving  numerous  large  tributaries,  which  collect  their 
waters  from  vast  areas.  Thus  tlie  Volga,  the  Dnieper,  and  the 
Don  attain  respectively  a  length  of  2110,  1330,  and  1125  miles, 
and  their  basins  cover  645,000,  244,600,  and  abont  116,000  square 
miles  respectively.  Moreover  the  chief  rivers  of  Kussia— the  Volga, 
the  Diina,  the  Dnieper,  and  even  tlie  lovat  and  the  Oka— take 
their  rise  in  tlie  north-western  part  of  the  central  plateau,  so  close 
to  one  another  that  they  may  be  said  to  radiate  from  the  same 
marshes.  The  sources  of  the  Don  are  ramified  among  the  tribu- 
taries of  the  Oka,  while  the  upper  tribntancs  of  the  Kama  join 
those  of  the  Dwina  and  Petchora.  In  consequence  of  tliis,  tlie 
livers  of  Russia  have  been  from  remote  antiijuity  the  true  channels 
of  trade  and  migration,  and  have  contributed  much  more  to  the 
elaboration  of  the  national  unity  than  any  jiolitical  institutions. 
Boats  could  be  conveyed  over  llat  and  easy  portages,  from  one  rivcr- 
lasin  to  anotlier,  and  these  portages  were  subsequently  transfurmed 
n-ith  a  relatively  small  amount  of  labour  into  navigable  canals,  and 
!ven  at  the  present  day  these  canals  have  more  importance  for  the 
tratlic  of  tlie  country  than  most  railways.  By  their  means  the  plains 
of  the  central  plateau — the  very  heart  of  Russia,  whose  natural 
outlet  was  the  Caspian — were  brought  into  water-communication 
with  the  Baltic,  and  tho  Volga  basin  connected  with  the  Cull  of 
Finland.  Tlie  White  Sea  lias  also  been  brought  into  connexion 
with  the  central  Volga  basin,  while  the  sistcr-iivcr  of  the  Volga 
— tho  Kama — bccaino  the  main  artery  of  communication  with 
Siberia. 

It  must  bo  observed,  however,  that,  though  ranking  before  tho 
rivers  of  western  Europe  in  respect  of  length,  the  rivers  of  Russia  are 
far  behind  as  regards  the  amount  of  vatcr  discharged.  They  freezo 
in  winter  and  dry  up  in  summer,  and  most  of  them  are  navigable  only 
during  the  spring-Hoods  ;  even  the  great  Volga  becomes  so  shallow 
during  the  hut  season  that  only  light  boats  can  )>ass  Its  shoals. 

Russia  lias  a  very  largo  number  of  lakes.  The  aggregate  area  of 
the  largest  ones  is  stated  at  25,800  square  miles. 

The  Ibllowing  is  a  descriptive  list  of  the  principal  rivers  of  Euro- 
pean Russia. 

A.  Arctic  Ocean  JBasin.—('l)The  Petchora  (1025  miles)  rises  in  tho 


nortliern  Urals,  and  enters  the  occ.in  by  a  large  cstnary  at  the  Gulf 
of  Pntcliora.  Its  basin,  thinly  peopled  and  available  only  for  cattle- 
breeding  and  for  hunting,  is  quite  isolated  from  Russia  by  the 
Timan  ridge.  The  river  's  navigable  for  770  miles;  grain  and 
a  variety  of  goods  conveyed  from  tlie  upper  Kama  arc  lloatcd 
down,  while  furs,  fish,  and  other  prod'icts  of  the  sea  are  (-hiiqied 
up  the  river  to  be  transported  to  Tcherdyn  on  the  Kama.  (2)  Tlie 
Kara  (139  miles)  enters  the  Kara  Sea.  (3)  The  Mezen  (510  miles) 
enters  the  Bay  of  Mezeii  ;  it  is  navigable  for  450  miles,  and  is 
the  channel  of  a  considerable  export  of  timber.  (4)  The  northern 
Dwina,  or  Dvina  (950  miles),  with  a  basin  of  about  150,000  square 
miles,  is  formed  by  tho  union  of  two  great  livers,  the  Vug  (270 
miles)  and  the  Sukhona  (330  miles).  Tlie  Sukliona  has  its  origin 
in  Lake  Kubenskoye,  in  north-west  Vologila,  and  flows  rapidly 
southwards  and  eastwards,  having  a  great  number  of  rapids.  It  is 
navigable  tliroughout  its  length,  and,  as  Lake  Kubenskoye  commu- 
nicates by  the  Alexander  of  Wiirtembcrg  Canal  witli  Lai<e  Bietoye, 
it  is  connected  with  the  Caspian  and  Baltic.  Tlie  Vytch.^da  (085 
miles),  which  flows  west-south-west  to  join  the  Sukhona,  through 
a  woody  region,  thinly  peopled,  is  navigable  for  500  miles  and  in 
its  upper  portion  is  connected  by  a  canal  with  the  upper  Kama. 
The  Dwina  flows  with  a  very  slight  gradient  through  a  broad  valley, 
receiving  many  tributaries,  and  reaches  the  White  Sea  at  Arch- 
angel by  a  number  of  branches.  Notwithstanding  serious  obstacles 
offered  by  shallows,  corn,  fish,  salt,  and  timber  are  largely  shipped 
to  and  from  Archangel.  (5)  The  Onega  (215  miles)  rises  in  Lake 
latche  in  the  south  of  Olonetz,  and  flows  into  Onega  Bay  ;  it  has 
rajiids  ;  timber  is  floated  down  in  spring,  and  fishins  and  somp 
navigation  are  carried  on  in  the  lower  portion. 

B.  Baltic  Basin. — (6)  The  Neva  (46  miles)  flows  from  Lake 
ladoga  into  the  Gulf  of  Finland  (see  St  Petersburg).  (7)  The 
A'olkhoft'(135  miles>,  discharging  into  Lake  Ladoga  (see  Ladoga), 
and  forming  part  of  the  Vyshnevolotsk  system  of  canals,  is  an 
important  channel  for  navigation  ;  it  flows  from  Lake  llnien  (367 
square  miles),  which  receives  the  Msta  (250  miles),  conuected  with 
the  Volga,  the  Lovat  (310  miles),  and  many  smaller  tributaries.' 
(8)  The  Svir  (135  miles),  also  discharging  into  Lake  Ladoga,  flows 
from  Lake  Onega  (4925  square  miles),  and,  being  part  of  the 
Mariinsk  canal  system,  is  of  great  importance  for  navigation  (sea 
Volga).  (9)  The  Narova  (46  miles)  flows  out  of  Lake  Peipus  into 
the  Gulf  of  Finland  at  Naiva  ;  it  has  remarkable  rajiids,  notwith- 
standing which  an  active  navigation  is  carried  on  by  means  of  its 
waters.  Lake  Peipus,  or  Tchudskoye  (136  square  miles),  receives 
— (10)  the  Velikaya  (210  miles),  a  channel  of  traflio  with  southern 
Russia  from  a  remote  antiquitv,  but  now  navigable  only  in  its  lower 
portion,  and  (11)  the  Enibach  (83  miles),  navigated  by  steamers  to 
Dorpat.  (12)  The  Diina,  or  West  Dwina  (577  miles),  with  a  basin 
area  of  about  75,000  square  miles,  rises  in  the  Ostashkoff  district 
of  Tver,  and  falls  into  the  sea  below  Riga,  after  having  described  a 
great  curve  to  the  south.  It  is  shallow  above  the  rapids  of  Jacob- 
Btadt,  but  navigation  is  carried  on  as  far  as  Vitebsk, — corn,  timhw 
for  shipbuilding,  potash,  flax,  &c.,  being  tho  principal  shipments  of 
its  navigable  tributaries  (the  Obslia,  Ulla,  and  Kasplya) ;  the  UUa 
is  connected  by  the  Berezina  cannls  with  the  Dnieper.  (13)  The 
Nienien  (Memel),  '..itli  a  course  of  470  miles  in  Russia,  rises  in  tho 
north  of  Minsk,  leaves  Russia  at  Yurburg,  and  enters  the  Kurische 
Hair ;  rafts  are  floated  ujion  it  almost  froin  its  sources,  and  steamers 
ply  as  far  ns  to  Kovno  ;  the  export  of  corn  and  timber  to  Prussia, 
and  import  of  fish,  grocery,  and  manufactured  ware  are  consider- 
able ;  it  is  connected  by  the  Oginski  Canal  with  tho  Dnieper.  The 
chief  tributaries  are  the  Viliya  and  the  Shara.  For  (14)  the 
Vistula,  with  the  Bug  nod  Narew,  see  Poland. 

J.  iJlach  Sea  Basin.— {15)  The  Pruth  (505  miles)  rises  iu 
Austrian  Bukovina,  and  separates  Russia  from  Roumania  ;  it 
enters  (16)  the  Danube,  which  Hows  along  the  Russian  frontier  for 
100  miles  below  Rcni,  touching  it  with  its  Kilia  branch.  (17)  The 
Dniester  (530  miles  within  Russia  and  about  330  miles  in  Austria) 
rises  in  Galicia.  Light  boats  and  rafts  are  floated  at  all  points, 
and  steamers  ply  on  its  lower  portion  ;  its  estuary  has  important 
fisheries.  (18)  Tho  Dnieper  (1330  miles),  with  a  basin  ot  about 
245,000  square  miles,  with  tributaries,  watem  tbirt»cu  goveruinents, 
of  which  the  aggregate  population  numbers  about  15,000,000.  It 
also  originates  in  the  north-western  parts  of  tho  central  plateau, 
in  tho  same  marshy  lakes  which  give  rise  to  the  Volga  and 
Diina.  It  flows  west,  south,  southeast,  and  south-west,  and 
enters  a  bay  in  the  north-western  part  of  the  Black  Sea.  In  the 
middle  navigable  part  of  its  course,  from  Dorogohuzh  to  Ekato- 
rinoslair,  it  is  an  active  channel  fur  traflic.  It  receives  several 
large  tributaries  : — on  the  right,  lJi«  Berezina  (285  miles),  con- 
nected with  tho  Duna,  and  the  Pripet  (400  miles),  both  most 
important  for  navigation, — as  well  as  several  smaller  tributaries  on 
which  rafts  are  floated  ;  on  the  left  the  Sozli  (330  miles),  the 
Desna  (590  miles),  one  of  tho  most  important  rivers  of  RuisiaJ 
navigiitid  by  steunuis  ns  far  as  Biyansk,  the  Suta  (252  mile*)) 
tho  I'siot  (416  miles),  and  the  Voiskta  (268  miles).  Below 
EkaterinoslalT  the  Dnieper  Hows  for  46  miles  through  a  scries  of 
thirteen    lapids.     At   Kherson   it  eiilem  its  long  (40   miles)   but 

VXI.  —  i» 


K  U  S  S  I  A 


74 

shallow  esluary,  -whicli  receives  the  West  Bug  (450  niiks)  aud  the 
iBSut  (220  miles).  The  traffic  of  the  Dnieper  and  its  tnt-itanes 
reTcked  in  1S82  an  aggregate  of  12-9  million  cwts.  shipi-ed  and 
6-7  discharged,  the  principal  items  being  corn,  salt,  and  tun lier. 
'191  The  dSu  (1125  miles),  with  a  basin  of  about  120,000  sqtiare 
miles  and  na\-isable  for  8S0  miles,  rises  in  south-eastern  lula 
and  enters  the  Sea  of  Azoff  at  Rostotf  by  thirty  mouths,  after 
des-cribiiig  a  great  curve  to  the  east  at  Tsaritsyn,  approaching  the 
Vol-'a  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  railway  (40  miles).  Its 
navStation  is  of  great  importance  (5-4  million  cwts.  shipped,  and 
6-1  discharged),  es  .cially  for  goods  brought  from  the  \  olga,  and 
its  fisheries  are  extensive.  The  chief  tributaries  are  the  Sosna 
(175  miles)  and  North  Donetz  (615  miles)  on  the  nght  and  the 
Voronezh  (305  miles),  Khoper  (565  miles),  Medvyeditsa  (410  mi  es  , 
and  Manytch  (295  mUes),  on  the  left.  (20)  The  Ylya  (192  miles), 
(21)  the  Kubaii  (510  miles),  and  (22)  the  Rion  belong  to  Caucasia. 

D.  The  Caspian  £asm.-C23)  The  Volga,  the  chief  nvcv  of 
Hussia,  has  a  length  of  2110  miles,  and  its  I'^^m  about  648  000 
square  miles  in  area,  contains  a  population  of  more  than  40,000,000. 
It  is  connected  with  the  Baltic  by  three  systems  of  canals  (see 
VoLOA).  (24)  The  Creat  and 'the  Little  Uzeil  no  longer  reaeh 
the  Caspian  but  lose  themselves  in  the  Babinskoyo  Lakes.  (25) 
The  Ural  (1475  miles),  in  its  lower  part,  constitutes  the  frontier 
between  European  Russia  and  the  Kirghiz  Steppe  ;  it  receives  tlie 
Sakmara  on  the  right  and  the  llek  on  the  left.  (26)  The  East 
Manytch  (175  miles)  is  on  the  Caucasian  boundary.  (2/)  Ihe 
Kuma  (405  miles),  (28)  the  Terek  (360  miles),  and  (29)  the  Kura 
(about  650  miles),  with  the  Arax  (about  650  miles),  which  receives 
the  waters  of  Lake  Goktcha,  belong  to  Caucasia.^ 

Almost  every  geological  formation,  from  the  oldest  up  to  the 
most  recent,  is  met  with  in  Russia;  but,  as  they  are  almost 
horizontal,  they  for  the  most  part  cover  one  another  over  immense 
spaces,  so  that  the  lower  ones  appear  only  at  the  bottom  of  the 
deeper  vaUeys,  and  the  oldest  are  seen  only  on  the  borders  of  the 
great  Russian  plain.  ,  .• 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Palaeozoic  period  only  a  very  few  portrons 
of  what  is  now  Russia— Finland,  namely,  and  p.irts  of  Olonetz— 
rose  above  the  surface  of  the  sea  ;  but,  as  the  result  ol  a  gradual 
upheaval  continued  through  Pateozoic  times,  it  is  supposed  that 
at  the  end  of  this  epoch  Russia  was  a  continent  not  greatly  differ- 
ing from  the  present  one.  In  Mesozoic.  times  the  sea  began  again 
to  invade  it,  but,  while  in  the  preceding  period  the  oscillations 
resolved  themselves  into  a  gradual  upheaval  extending  froni  west 
to  east,  in  Masozoic  times  the  upheaval  went  on  from  north-west 
to  south-east.  The  Mesozoic  sea,  however,  did  not  extend  beyond 
■what  is  now  central  Russia,  and  did  not  oover  tha  Devonian 
plateau"  of  western  Russia,  which  remained  a  continent  from  the 
Carboniferous  epoch.  A  gradual  rising  of  the  continent  followed, 
and  was  continued  through  Neozoic  times,  with  perhaps  a  limited 
subsidence  in  tlie  Post-Glacial  period,  when  the  actual  seas  extended 
their  narrow  gulfs  up  the  valleys  now  occupied  by  the  great  rivers. 
Durin"  the  first  part  of  the  Glacial  period,  Russia  se,  rns  to  have 
been  covered  by  an  immense  ice^sheet,  which  extended  also  over 
central  Germany,  and  of  which  the  eastern  limits  cannot  yet  bo 

determined.  •        •      t-  i      i 

The  Arehioan  gneisses  have  a  broad  extension  in  i^inlana, 
northern  Russia,  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  the  Caucasus ;  they  form 
also  the  back-bone  of  the  ridge  which  extends  from  the  Carpathians 
through  southern  Russia.  They  consist  for  the  most  pnrt  of  rbd 
and  gi-ey  gneisses  and  gianulites,  with  subordinate  layers  of  granite 
and  gianltite.  The  Finland  rappa-kivi,  the  Serdobol  gneiss,  and 
the  Pargas  and  Rusti.ila  marble  (with  the  so-called  Eu-,ooii  cana- 
dense)  yield  good  building  stone  ;  while  iron,  copper,  and  ziiic-ore 
are  common  in  Finland  and  i«  the  Urals.  Rocks  regarded  as 
icpresenting  theHuronian  system  appear  also  in  Finland,  in  north- 
western Russia,  as  a  narrow  strip  on  the  Urals,  an^  in  the  Dnieper 
ridtre.  Tliey  consist  of  a  scries  of  unfossiliferous  crystalline  slates. 
The  Cambrian  is  represented  by  blue  clays,  nngulite  sandstones, 
and  bituminous  slates  in  l''.sthoiiia  and  St  Petersburg.  ■ 

The  Silurian  system  is  widely  developed,  and  it  is  most  probable 
that,  with  the  exception  of  the  Archwan  continents  of  Finland  and 
the  Urals,  the  Silurian  sea  covered  the  whole  of  Russia.  Being  con- 
cealed by  more  recent  deposits,  Silurian  rocks  appear  on  the  surface 

1  BiWourai'liii.—The  Icngtlis  of  tlie  rivers  of  Europc-vn  Rnssia  as  ascertntncil 
^y  occnrate  mcnsurempnts  are  RiJCn  by  Tillo,  In  hrcslia  of  Ocnpr.  Sue,  18.S3. 
See  also  Slnclccnbcix,  Ifudr.  rf«  /C.  flcicfe  ;  Scmcnofr,  Geogr.  Slalul.  Dicnmaiy 
(ttie  most  reliable  source  for  all  llic  ceofiiaphy  of  Itiissia).  -Strclbitzky,  5i/per- 
<SciV-s  de  r Europe;  H.  Wnener,  "Slmlicn  im  Gel),  i.  Arcal-statistik,  in  the  5(<i(. 
Monalssclirifl,  viil.;  offitial  Si'oJ  MaUriatoir,  with  reEaid  to  Kusslan  rivers 
1870 •  Statis'licnl  Bbornik  of  the  ilin.  of  Commimications,  vol.  x.  (frcezinc  ol 
Ilussian  rivers,  and  nnvication).  Desiilcs  the  military  ktatistical  dcsciiplions  of 
Mparatc  Kovcrnments,  u  Rrcat  variety  of  monngraphs  dcaUnp:  witli  scparaie 
rivers  and  basins  ore  also  available;  e.y.,  Sidoroff,  The  Pclehfra  Region,  and 
A'orti  Itiissia;  Hi-lmcrscn,  Olomlur  Bcrgmicr;  Turbin,  The  /""ifer-  Ivjiso- 
IcnUo,  "The  Dniester."  in  Eniin.  Journ.,  ISSI ;  Danilcvsky,  "  Kubaii.  ir>  SIrm. 
Otonr  Soc.,  i.;  Ilacl,  CaspiscUi  SI Mlirn;  KoRozIn,  Pu/i/n  ;  Perclyatkovitcli,  lo/ffa; 
Mikhallotf,  Kama;  Ac.  An  oro  hvdi<.ciapl,i<-nl  map  ..f  liusaia  In  four  .-.liccts 
was  piiblislied  in  1»TS;  sec  alsn  lilin,  Orogr.  Hop  <■/  Um^m  ;  the  ordmaiice  maps 
of  Ku««iai  and  Tillo,  "  llaEnelical  Maps  of  liussia,"  in  Izv.  of  Geogr.  boc,  18W 

and  laee. 


[geology. 


only  in  north-western  Russia  (Esthonia,  Livonia,  St  Petersburg, 
and  on  the  Volkhotf),  where  all  European  subdivisions  of  the 
system  have  been  found,  in  the  Timan  ridge,  on  the  western  slope 
of  the  Urals,  in  the  Fai-kho  ridge,  and  in  tlie  islands  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  In  Poland  it  is  met  with  in  the  Kielce  mountains,  and  in 
Podolia  in  the  deeper  ravines. 

The  Devonian  dolomites,  limestones,  and  red  sandstones  cover 
immense  tracts  and  appear  on  the  surface  over  a  much  wider  area. 
From  Esthonia  these  rocks  extend  north-east  to  Lake  Onega,  and 
south-east  to  Moghiletf;  they  form  the  central  plateau,  as  also  the 
slopes  bf  the  Urals  and  the  Petchora  region.  In  north-western  and 
middle  Russia  they  contain  a  special  fauna,  and  it  appears  that  the 
I,ower  Devonian  series  of  western  Europe,  represented  in  Poland 
and  in  the  Urals,  is  missing  in  north-western  and  central  Russia, 
where  only  the  Middle  and  Upper  Devonian  divisions  are  found. 

Carboniferous  deposits  cover  nearly  all  eastern  Russia,  their 
west  boundary  being  a  line  drawn  from  Archangel  to  the  upper 
Dnieper,  thence  to  the  upper  Don,  and  soifth  to  the  mouth  of  the 
last-named  river,  with  a  long  narrow  gulf  extending  west  to 
encircle  the  plateau  of  the  Donetz.  They  are  visible,  however, 
only  on  the  western  borders  of  this  region,  being  covered  towards 
the  east  by  thick  Permian  and  Triassic  strata.  Russia  has  three 
lartre  coal-bearing  regions — the  JIoscow  basin,  the  Donetz  region, 
and  the  Urals.  In  the  Valdai  plateau  there  are  only  a  few  beds  of 
mediocre  coal.  In  the  JIoscow  basin,  which  was  a  broad  gulf  of  the 
Carboniferous  sea.  coal  appears  as  isolated  inconstant  seams  amidst 
littoral  deposits,  the  formation  of  which  was  favoured  by  frequent 
minor  subsidences  of  the  sea-coast.  The  Donetz  coal-ineasures, 
containing  abundant  remains  of  a  rich  land-flora,  cover  nearly 
16,000  square  miles,  and  comprise  a  valuable  stock  of  exeellcut 
anthracite  and  coal,  together  with  iron-mines.  Several  smaller 
coal-tields  on  the  slopes  of  the  Urals  and  on  the  Timan  ridge  may 
be  added  to  the  above.  The  Polish  coal-fields  belong  to  another 
Carboniferous  area  of  deposit,  which  extended  over  Silesia.  ., 

The  Permian  limestones  and  mails  occupy  a  strip  in  eastern 
Russia  of  much  less  extent  than  that  assigned  to  them  on  geological 
maps  a  few  years  ago.  The  variegated  marls  of  eastern  Russia,' 
rich  in  salt-s'prings,  but  very  poor  in  fossils,  are  now  held  by  most 
Russian  geologists  to  be  Triassic.  Indisputably  Triassic  deposits 
have  been  found  only  in  the  two  Bogdo  mountains  iu  the  Kirghiz 
Steppe  (Campikr-ScliieMcn)  and  in  south-western  Poland. 

During  the  Jurassic  period  the  sea  began  again  to  invade  Russia 
from  south-east  .tnd  north-west.  The  limits  of  the  Russian  Jurassic 
system  may  be  represented  by  a  line  drawn  from  the  double  valley 
of  the  Sukhona  and  Vytchegda  to  that  of  the  upper  Volga,  and 
thence  to  Kieff,  with  a  wide  gulf  penetrating  towards  the  north- 
west. AVithin  this  space  three  depression.?,  all  running  south-w«st 
to  liorth-east,  are  filled  up  with  Upper  Jurassic  deposits.  They 
are  much  denuded  in  the  higher  parts  of  this  region,  and  appear 
but  as  isolated  islauds  in  central  Russia.  In  the  south-east  all 
the  older  subdivisions  are  represented,  the  deposits  having  the 
characters  of  a  deep-sea  deposit  in  the  Aral-Caspian  legiou  and  on 
the  Caucasus. 

The  Cretaceous  deposits— sands,  loose  sandstones,  marls,  and 
white  chalk— cover  the  region  south  of  a  line  diawn  from  the 
Niemen  to  the  upper  Oka  and  Don,  and  thence  north-east  to 
Simbirsk,  with  the  exception  of  the  Dnieper  and  Don  ridge,  the 
Yalta  Mountains,  and  the  upper  Caucasus.  They  aie  rich  in  grind- 
ing stone,  and  especially  in  secondary  layers  of  phosphorites.  ■ 

The  Tertiary  formations  occupy  large  areas  in  southern  Russia: 
Tlie  Eocene  covers  wide  tracts  from  Lithuania  to  Tsaritsyn,  and  ii 
represented  iu  the  Crimea  and  Caucasus  by  thick  deposits  belong- 
ing to  the  same  ocean,  which  left  its  deposits  on  the  Alps  and  the 
Hfmalayas.  Oligocene,  quite  .similar  to  that  of  North  Germany, 
and  containing  brown  coal  and  amber,  has  been  met  with  only  in 
Poland,  Courland.  and  Lithuania.  The  Miocene  (Sarmatian 
sta^e)  occupies  extensive  tracts  in  southern  Russia,  south  of  a 
line  drawn  through  Lublin  to  Ekatcrinoslatf  and  Saiatolf.  Not, 
only  the  higher  chains  of  Caucasus  and  Yaiia,  but  also  the  Donetz 
rid"e  rose  above  the  level  of  the  Miocene  sea,  which  was  very 
sha'ilow  to  the  north  of  this  last  ridge,  while  farther  south  it  was 
connected  both  with  the  Vienna  basin  and  with  the  Aral-Caspian. 
The  Pliocene  appears  only  in  the  coast  region  of  the  Black  antl^ 
Azoff  Seas,  but  it  is  widely  developed  in  the  Aral-Caspian  region, 
where,  however,  the  Ust-Urt  and  tlie  Obshchiy  Syrt  rose  above  the 

The  thick  Quaternary,  or  Post-Pliocene,  deposits  which  cover 
ncariv  all  Russia  were  for  a  lo»g  time  a  puzzle  to  geologists.  They 
e'ouMst  of  a  boulder  clay  in  the  north  and  of  loess  in  the  south. 
The  former  presents  an  intimate  mixture  of  boulders  brought  from 
Finland  and  Olonetz  (with  an  addition  of  local  boulders)  with  small 
giavel,  coarse  sand,  and  the  finest  glacial  mud, -the  whole  bearing 
So  trace  of  ever  having  been  washed  up  and  sorted  by  water  m 
motion,  except  in  subordinate  layers  of  glacial  sand  and  gravel; 
the  sizo  of  the  boulders  decreases  on  the  whole  from  north  to  sontb, 
and  the  boulder  clay,  especially  in  northern  and  central  Russia, 
oft«n  takes  the  sh.ipe  of    ridges  parallel  to  the  direction  ol  tli 


eOXL  AND  CLIMATE.] 


RUSSIA 


<o 


Tiioti.in  of  the  bonlders.  Its  sonthorn  limits,  roughly  corresponJ- 
ing  with  those  established  by  Murchison,  but  iiot  yot  settled  in  the 
south-east  and  east,  are,  aceordinR  to  Jl.  Nildtin,  the  following  : — 
liom  the  southern  frontier  of  Poland  to  Ovrutch,  Umaii,  Kremen- 
tchuft,  Poitava,  and  Razdornaya  (50°  N.  latitude),  with  a  curve 
jiorthw.-irds  to  Kozelsk  (?) ;  thence  due  north  to  Vctluga  (58°  north 
latitude),  east  to  Glazova  in  Vyatka,  and  from  this  place  towards  the 
north  and  west  along  the  watershed  of  the  Volga  and  Potchora  (?). 
South  of  the  50th  parallel  appears  the  loess,  with  all  its  usual 
characters  (land  fossils,  want  of  stratification,  fee),  showing  a  re- 
markable uniformity  of  composition  over  very  large  surfaces;  it 
covers  both  watersheds  and  valleys,  but  chiefly  the  former.  Such 
i>eing  the  characters  of  the  Quaternary  deposits  in  Russia,  the 
majority  of  Russian  geologists  now  adopt  the  opinion  that  Russia 
was  covered,  as  far  as  the  above  limits,  with  an  immense  ice-sheet 
which  crept  over  central  Russia  and  central  Germany  from  Scandi- 
navia and  north  Russia.  Another  ice-covering  was  probably  ad- 
vancing at  the  same  time  from  the  north-east,  that  is,  from  the 
northern  part  of  the  Urals,  but  the  question  as  to  the  glaciation 
of  tlie  Urals  still  remains  open.  As  to  the  loess,  the  view  is  more 
and  more  gaining  ground  which  considers  it  as  a  steppe-deposit 
duo  to  the  drifting  of  fine  sand  and  dust  during  a  dry  episode  in  the 
Pleistocene  period. 

The  deposits  of  the  Post-Glacial  period  are  represented  through- 
out Russia,  Poland,  and  Fiuland,  as  also  tliroughout  Sil)eria  and 
central  Asia,  by  very  thick  lacustrine  deposits,  which  show  that, 
after  the  melting  of  the  ice-sheet,  the  country  was  covered  with 
immense  lakes,  connected  by  broad  channels  (the  fjdrden  of  the 
Swedes),  which  later  on  gave  rise  to  the  actual  rivers.  On  the 
outskirts  of  the  lacustrine  region,  closely  resembling  the  area  of 
the  actual  continent,  traces  of  marine  deposits,  not  higher  than  200 
or  perhaps  even  150  feet  above  pjresent  sea-level,  are  found  alike 
on  the  Arctic  Sea  and  on  the  Baltic  and  Black  Sea  coasts.  A  deep 
gulf  of  the  Arctic  Sea  advanced  up  the  valley  of  the  Dwina  ;  and 
the  Caspian,  connected  by  the  Manytch  with  the  Black  Sea,  aiid 
by  the  Uzboy  valley  with  Lake  Aral,  penetrated  north  up  the  Volga 
valley,  as  far  as  its  Samara  bend.  Unmistakable  ti'aces  show  that, 
while  during  the  Glacial  period  Russia  had  an  arctic  flora  and 
fauna,  the  climate  of  the  Lacustrine  period  was  more  genial  than 
it  is  now,  and  a  dense  human  population  at  that  time  peopled  the 
shores  of  the  numberless  lakes. 

The  Lacustrine  period  has  not  yet  reached  its  clor.e  in  Russia. 
Finland  and  the  north-west  hilly  plateaus  are  still  in  the  same 
geological  phase,  and  are  dotted  -with  numberless  lakes  and  ponds, 
while  the  rivers  continue  to  dig  out  their  j'et  undetermined  chan- 
nels. But  the  great  lakes  which  covered  the  country  during  the 
Lacustrine  period  have  disappeared,  leaving  behind  them  immense 
marshes  like  those  of  the  Pripct  and  in  the  north-east.  The 
<lis;ippcaiance  of  what  still  remains  of  them  is  accelerated  not  only 
by  tlie  general  decrease  of  moisture,  but  also  by  the  gradual  up- 
licaval  of  northern  Russia,  which  is  going  on  from  Esthonia  and 
Finland  to  the  Kola  peninsula  and  Nova  Zembla,  at  an  average  rate 
of  about  two  feet  per  century.  This  upheaval, — the  consequences  of 
which  have  been  felt  even  within  the  historic  period,  by  tlie  drain- 
age of  the  formerly  impracticable  marshes  of  Novgorod  and  at  the 
head  of  the  Gulf  of  i'inland, — together  with  the  destruction  of 
fore.Hts,  which  must  bo  considered,  however,  as  a  quite  secondary 
and  subordinate  cause,  contributes  towards  a  decrease  of  precipi- 
tation over  Russia  and  towards  increased  shallowness  of  her  rivers. 
At  the  same  time,  as  the  gradients  of  the  rivers  are  gradually  in- 
<;rea3ing  on  account  of  the  U(>he.ival  of  the  continent,  the  rivers 
dig  their  channels  deeper  and  deeper.  Consequently  central  and 
especially  southern  Russia .  witness  tho  formation  of  numerous 
miniature  caiion"!,  or  ovraghi  (deep  ravines),  the  summits  of  which 
rapidly  advance  and  ramify  in  the  loose  surface  deposits.  As  for 
tho  southern  steppes,  .their  desiccation,  the  consequence  of  the 
above  causes,  is  in  rapid  progress.  ^ 

Tho  soil  of  Russia  depends  chiefly  on  tho  distribution  of  tho 
boulder-clay  and  loess  coverings  described  above,  on  the  progress 
made  by  the  ri'"jrs  in  the  excavation  of  their  valleys,  and  on  tho 
moistness  of  climate.  Vast  areas  in  Russia  are  quite  unfit  for 
cultivation,  27  per  cent,  of  the  nggixgato  surface  of  European 
Russia  (apart  from  Poland  and  Finland)  being  occupied  by  lakes, 
marshes,  sands,  &c.,  38  per  cent,  by  forests,  14  per  cent,  by 
prairies,  and  only  21  per  cent,  being  under  culture.  Tho  distri- 
bution of  all  these  is,  however,  very  unequal,  and  the  five  follow- 
ing subdivisions  may  be  established  :—.(l)  tho  tundras;  (2)  the 
forest  region  ;  (3)  tho  middle  region,  comprising  tho  surface  avail- 
able for  agriculture  and  partly  covered  with  forests  ;  (4)  tho  black- 
earth  {tchcmoziom)  region;  and  (5)  tho  Steppes.  Of  these  tho 
black-earth  region, — about  150,000,000  acres, — which  reaches  from 
tho  Carpathians  to  tho  Urals,  extending  to  tho  I'insk  ijiarshes  and 

*  BiMityrtraphy. — Afemoirs,  Izuestta,  iind  Geotof;lcal  Mops  of  tho  ConimlltRo  for 
the  <)col()«icul  Survey  of  ^ta^RUl ;  Atemoirs  ami  Hbomiki  of  tho  AlhifTnitoRlral 
Society,  of  tho  Academy  of  Sclrncc.  anil  of  tho  SucIpUcs  of  NntumlKls  at  tho 
Universities:  Mtninij  Journal;  Murchison's  Ofotooy  of  Ruitin;  lI'-lmcrNcn's  anil 
MiilkT'A  Ocolookal  ifap^  rtt  I'unsi;*  anil  tho  'J^.ii8:  Inostmntncff  In  Appi'ndlx  to 
£uuian  trau.statioa  of  Ucc>*u'b  fhoffr.  '/>iiv.,  and  iffwjc!  v/  3c<ihjy  (Kusslan). 


the  upper  Oka  in  the  north,  is  the  most  important.  It  is  covered 
with  a  tliick  sheet  of  black  earth,  a  kind  of  loess,  mixed  with  6 
to  15  per  cent,  of  humus,  due  to  tho  decomposition  of  nn  herba- 
ceous vegetation,  which,  developed  richly  during  the  Lacustrine 
period  on  a  continent  relatively  dry  even  at  that  epoch.  On  the 
ihree.riclds  system  corn  has  been  giown  upon  it  for  fifty  to  seventy 
consecutive  years  without  manure.  Isolated  black-earth  islands, 
less  fertile  of  course,  occur  also  in  Comiand  and  Kovno,  in  tlie 
Oka,  Volga,  and  Kama  depression,  on  the  slopes  of  the  Urals,  and 
in  a  few  patches  in  tho  north.  Towards  the  Black  Sea  coast  its 
thickness  diminishes,  and  it  disappears  in  the  valleys.  In  tlio 
extensive  region  covered  with  boulder-clay  the  black  earth  appears 
only  in  isolated  places,  and  the  soil  consists  for  tlie  most  part  of  a 
.sandy  clay,  containing  a  much  smaller  admixture  of  liunius.  There 
culture  is  possible  only  with  the  aid  of  a  considerable  quantity  of 
manure.  Drainage  finding  no  outlet  through  the  thick  clay  cover- 
ing, the  soil  of  tho  forest  region  is  often  covered  with  extensivo 
marshes,  and  the  forests  themselves  are  often  mere  thickets  spread- 
ing over  marshy  ground  ;  largo  tracts  covered  with  sand  appear  iu 
the  west,  and  the  admixture  of  boulders  with  the  clay  in  the 
north-west  renders  agriculture  increasingly  difficult.  On  the 
Arctic  coast  the  forests  disappear,  giving  place  to  the  tundras. 
Finally,  in  the  south-east,  towards  the  Caspian,  on  the  slopes  of 
tho  southern  Urals  and  the  Obshchiy  .Syrt,  as  also  in  the  iiiteiiorof 
the  Crimea,  and  in  several  parts  of  Bessarabia,  there  are  large  tracts 
of  real  desert,  covered  with  coarse  sand  and  devoid  of  vegetation." 

Notwithstanding  tlie  fact  that  Russia  extends  from  north  to 
south  through  26  degrees  of  latitude,  the  climate  of  its  different 
portions,  ajjart  from  the  Crimea  and  the  Caucasus,  presents  a 
striking  uniformity.  The  aerial  currents — cyclones,  anti-cycloiics, 
and  dry  south-east  winds  — extend  over  wide  surfaces  and  cross 
tho  flat  plains  freely.  Everywdiero  wo  find  a  cold  winter  and  a 
hot  summer,  both  varying  in  their  duration,  but  difieriiig  rela- 
tively little  in  the  extremes  of  temperature  recorded.  From  Table 
111.  (page  76)  it  will  be  seen  that  theio  is  no  place  in  Russia, 
Archangel  and  Astrakhan  included,  where  the  thennometer  does 
not  rise  in  summer  nearly  to  8(3°  Fahr.  and  descend  in  winter  to 
-13°  and -22°.  It  is  only  on  tjio  Black  Sea  coast  that  wo  find 
the  absolute  range  of  temperature  reduced  to  108°,  while  in  tho 
remainder  of  Russia  it  reaches  126°  to  144°,  the  oscillations  being 
between  -  22°  to  -  31°,  occasionally  -  54°,  and  80°  to  104°,  occasion- 
ally, 109°.  Everywhere  tlie  rainfall  is  small :  if  Fiuland  and  Poland 
on  tho  one  hand  and  Caucasus  with  the  Caspian  depression  on  the 
other  be  excluded,  the  average  yearly  rainfall  varies  between  the 
limits  of  16  and  28  inches.  Everywhere,  too,  we  find  that  the 
maximum  rainfall  does  not  take  place  in  winter  (as  in  western 
Europe)  but  in  summer,  and  tliat  tne  months  of  advanced  spring 
are  wanner  than  the  corresponding  months  of  autumn. 

Though  thus  exhibiting  all  the  distiuctive  features  of  a  con- 
tinental climate,  Russia  is  not  altogether  exempt  from  the  moder- 
ating influence  of  the  ocean.  The  Atlantic  cyclones  also  reacli, 
the  Russian  plains,  mitigating  to  some  extent  tho  cold  of  the 
winter,  and  in  summer  br'nging  with  them  their  moist  winds  on<? 
thundoistoi-ms ;  their  influence  is  chiefly  felt  in  western  Russia 
but  extends  also  towards  and  beyond  tho  Urals.  They  thus  chccl 
the  extension  and  limit  the  duration  of  tho  cold  anticyclones. 

Tliroughout  Russia  tho  winter  is  of  long  continuance.  The 
la.st  days  of  frost  are  experienced  for  the  most  part  in  A]>ril,  but 
also  in  May  to  tho  north  of  55°.  Tho  sprint;  is  exceptionally 
beautiful  in  central  Russia  ;  late  as  it  usually  is,  it  sets  in  with 
vigour,  and  vegetation  develops  with  a  rapidity  which  gives  to 
this  season  in  Russia  a  special  charm,  unltnown  in  warmer 
climates ;  tho  rapid  melting  of  snow  at  the  same  timo  raises  tlio 
rivers,  and  renders  a  great  many  minor  streams  navigable  for  a 
few  weeks.  But  a  return  of  cold  weather,  injurious  to  vegetation, 
is  observed  througliout  central  and  eastern  Russia  between  Slay  18 
and  24,  so  that  it  is  only  iu  Juno  that  warm  wcjither  sets  in 
definitely,  reaching  its  maximum  in  tho  first  half  of  .Inly  (or  of 
August  on  tho  Black  Sea  coast).  Tho  summer  is  much  warmer 
than  might  be  supposed ;  in  south-eastern  Russia  it  is  much 
warmer  than  iu  tho  corresponding  latitudes  of  France,  and  really 
hot  weather  is  experienced  everywhere.  It  dues  not,  however, 
prevail  for  long,  and  in  the  first  half  of  September  the  first  frosts 
begin  to  bo  experienced  on  tho  middle  Urals  ;  ^Jioy  reach  western 
and  southern  Russia  in  tho  first  days  of  October,  and  aro  felt  on 
the  Caucasus  about  the  middle  of  November.  The  temperature 
descends  so  rapidly  that  a  month  later,  about  October  10  on 
tho  middle  Urals  and  November  15  throughout  Russia,  the 
thermometer  ceases  to  rise  alwvo  the  free;ing-point.  'The  rivere 
rapidly  freeze  ;  towards  November  20  all  the  plreams  of  the  Wliitt 
.Sea  basin  nro  covered  with  ice,  and  so  trniuin  for  an  Bvenigo  ol 
167  days;  those  of  the  Baltic,  Black  Sea,  and  Caspian  basins 
freeze  later,  but  about  December  20  nearly  all  tho  rivers  of  flic 

«  /;i7*/ioi7»-<i;>Ay,— Ituprcclit,  OfQ.-ltelauiral  Rrifarfhft  on  f/j<t  Ti-hrrnottmni 
Dokntcliacff,  limiian  Tcfi'Ttio:lom,  IHl'');  M,.  /V(((i.  Cfirm.  Hettarehfi :  Mnlrr/atH 
/or  >Staliilics  of  ItiiftM,  iwtUlMiffi  liy  the  Minister  of  l>oinalni,  v.,  1ft7J ;  Wftttl- 
tclilkofr,  "  Tclicrnoiloni  and  ita  Ifuturo,"  In  M<m.  J/oiccir  Soc.  of  Agr.,  1977. 


76 


K  U  S  S  I  A 


[floba. 


country  are  lii;5hways  for  sledges.  The  "Volga  remains  frozen  for 
a  period  varying  between  150  days  in  the  north  and  90  days  at 
Astrakhan,  the  Don  for  100  to  110  days,  and  the  Dnieper  for  83  to 
122  days.  On  the  DUna  ice  prevents  navigation  for  125  days,  and 
even  the  Vistula  at  Warsaw  remains  frozen  for  77  days.  The 
lowest  temperatures  are  experienced  in  January,  in  which  month 
the  average  is  as  low  as  20°  to  5°  Fahr.  throughout  Russia  ;  in  the 
west  only  does  it  rise  above  22°.  On  the  whole,  February  and 
March  continue  to  be  cold,  and  their  average  temperatures  rise 
above  zero  only  on  the  Black  Sea  coast.  Even  at  Kieif  and  Lugarl 
the  average  of  March  is  below  30°,  while  in  central  Russia  it  is  25° 
to  22°,  and  as  low  as  20°  and  16°  at  Samara  and  Orenburg. 

Isotlicrms. — All  Russia  is  comprised  between  the  isotherms  of  32° 
and  64°.  On  the  whole,  they  are  more  remote  from  one  another 
than  even  on  the  plains  of  North  America,  those  of  46°  to  32°  being 
distributed  over  20  degrees  of  latitude.  They  are,  on  the  whole, 
inclined  towards  Jhe  south  in  eastern  Russia  ;  thus  the  isotherm  of 
39°  runs  from  St  Petersburg  to  Orenburg,  and  that  of  35°  from 
Tornea  to  Uralsk.  The  inflexion  is  still  greater  for  the  winter 
isotherms.  Closely  following  one  another,  they  run  almost  north 
and  south  ;  thus  Odessa  and  Kiinigsberg  are  situated  on  the  same 
winter  isotherm  of  28°  ■;  so  also  St  Petersburg,  Orel,  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Ural  river  (about  20°)  ;  Mezen  and  Ufa  (9°).  The 
summer  isotherms  cross  the  above  nearly  at  right  angles,  so  that 
Kieff  and  Ufa,  ATarsaw  and  Tobolsk,  Riga  and  the  upper  Kama 
have  the  same  average  summer  temperatures  of  64°,  62J°,  and  61°. 


Winds,  Moisture,  Rainfall. — The. investigation  of  the  cyclone* 
and  anticyclones  in  Russia  cannot  as  yet  be  regarded  as  completed. 
It  appears,  however,  that  in  January  the  cyclones  mostly  cross 
north-west  Russia  (north  of  55°  and  west  of  40°  E.  long.),  following 
directions  which  vary  between  north-east  and  south-east.  In  July 
they  are  displaced  towards  the  north,  and  cross  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia, 
while  another  series  of  cyclones  crosses  middle  Russia,  between  50* 
and  55°  N.  lat.  The  laws  of  the  anticyclones  are  not  yet  estab- 
lished. The  winds  closely  depend  on  the  routes  followed  by  both- 
Generally,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  alike  in  January  and  in 
July  west  and  south-west  winds  prevail  in  western  Russia,  while 
eastern  ones  are  most  common  in  south-eastern  Russia  ;  northern 
winds  are  most  common  on  the  Black  Sea  coast.  The  strength  of 
the  wind  is  greater,  on  the  whole,  than  in  the  continental  parts  of 
western  Europe,  and  it  attains  its  maximum  in  winter.  Terrible 
gales  blow  from  October  to  March,  especially  on  the  southern 
steppes  and  on  the  tundras.  Gales  with  snow  (bitrans,  myatels), 
lasting  from  two  to  three  days,  or  northerly  gales  without  snow, 
are  especially  dangerous  to  man  and  beast.  The  average  relatdvo 
moisture  reaches  80  to  85  per  cent,  in  the  north,  and  only  70  to  81 
per  cent,  in  southern  and  eastern  Russia.  In  the  steppes  it  is  only 
60  per  cent,  during  summer,  and  still  less  (57)  at  Astrakhan.  Tho 
average  amount  of  cloud  reaches  73  to  75  per  cent,  on  the  White 
Sea  and  in  Lithuania,  68  to  64  in  central  Russia,  and  only  59  to  53 
in  the  south  and  south-east.  The  amount  of  rainfall  is  shown  in 
the  subjoined  table  (III.): — ' 


Korth 
Latitude. 

Height 
above 
Sea  in 
Keet. 

Average  Tcmperatm'es. 

Average 

FlUl 
Range  of 

Tlier- 
mometer. 

first 
Frosts. 

Last 
Frosts. 

Number  of  Days 
per  Year. 

Average  Rainrall 
in  Inches. 

Year. 

Januarj-. 

July. 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

Bright. 

Cloudy. 

Year. 

November 
to  Jlarch. 

Archangel 

Petrozavodsk  .. 

Helsingfors 

St  Petersburg.. 
Bogoslovsk 

64  31 
61  47 
60  10 
59  67 
59  45 

56  22 

57  46 
56  49 
55  47 
55  45 
64  41 
52  14 
51  45 
51  44 
50  27 
48  42 
48  27 
46  29 
46  21 
44  37 
42     9 

30 
160 
40 
20 
630? 
220 
360 
890 
260 
620 
390 
360 
360 
690 
590 
100 
200 
270 
-70 
1-30 
0 
1440 

32-7 
36-4 
39-0 
38-4 
29-4 
39-5 
37-3 
32-8 
37-2 
39-0 
43-8 
44-9 
37-9 
41-0 
44-2 
44-4 
45-6 
49-0 
49-0 
63-7 
68-4 
54-5 

7-6 
11-8 
19-5 
15-0 
-3-8 
17-6 
9-4 
2-2 
7-0 
12-1 
22-1 
23-8 
4-7 
13-7 
21-0 
13-4 
17-0 
24-8 
19-2 
35-2 
39-0 
33-0 

60-6 
62-1 
61-5 
64-0 
62-5 
63-1 
66-3 
63-5 
67-3 
66-0 
65l-6 
65-4 
70-9 
57-2 
66-3 
74-6 
730 
72-3 
77-9 
73  8 
73-3 
75-7 

-33 
-24 
-17 
-20 
-47 
-14 
-27 
-33 
-25 
-22 
-10 

-  2 
-23 
-19 
-13 

-is 

-  3 

-14 
■f-lO 
■t-25 
■HO 

o 

u 

86 
80 
83 
87 
85 
88 
87 
89 
88 
85 
86 
96 
91 
89 

95 
89 
97 
93 
93 
96 

147 
135 
112 
135 
150 
124 
140 
142 
129 
144 
110 
123 
147 
139 
122 

146 
108 
135 
105 
88 
100 

26  Sept. 

16'6ct. 

20  Sejit. 
7  Oct. 

21  Oct. 
lOct. 
7  Oct. 

17  Oct. 

18  Oct. 

19'Oct 

... 
11  Oct. 
10  Nov. 

27  Oct. 

12'jan. 
18  Nov. 

20  May 

8  May 

14  May 
3  May 

14 'Jiay 
27  April 

26  April 

27  April 
7  April 

17  April 

11  April 
31  Mar. 
5  April 

1  Mar. 

15  Mar. 

23 

35 
43 
40 

46 

85 
23 
40 

34 

... 
64 
67 
69 

199 

148 

94 

145 

138 

142 
175 
154 

132 

124 
112 

114 

... 

16-2 

19-6 
18-3 
15-8 
24-9 
19-4 
14  1 
180 
23  0 

22'8 
17-1 
19-9 
20-1 

14-3 
15-6 
5-7 
15-4 
64-9 
19-3 

4-3 

7-3 
£•3 
3  1 
7-3 
5-2 
1-6 
5-4 
7-3 

6-7 
5-8 
5-6 
6-0 

4-3 

5-4 
1-5 
7-2 
23-4     I 
4-3     ' 

Kostroma 

Ekaterinburg.. 
Kazan  

Vilna 

Orenburg 

Kieff 

Tsaritsyn 

Odessa 

Astrakhan 

Sebastopol 

Poti 

Tiflis 1 

41  42 

The  flora  «f  Russia,  which  represents  an  intermediate  link 
between  these  of  Germany  and  Siberia,  is  strikingly  uniform  over 
a  very  large  area.  Though  not  poor  at  any  given  place,  it  appears 
80  if  the  space  occupied  by  Russia  be  taken  into  account,  only 
3300  species  of  phanerogams  and  ferns  being  known.  Four  great 
regions  may  be  distinguished  : — tho  Arctic,  uie  Forest,  the  Steppe, 
and  the  Circum-Mediterranean. 

The  Arctic  Region  comprises  the  tundras  of  the  Arctic  littoral 
beyond  the  northern  limit  of  forests,  whicli  last  closely  follows  the 
coast-line,  with  bends  towards  the  north  in  the  river  valleys  (70° 
N.  lat.  in  Finland,  on  the  Arctic  Circle  about  Archangel,  68°  N. 
lat.  on  the  Urals,  71°  on  West  Siberia).  The  shortness  of  the 
summer,  the  deficiency  of  drainage,  and  the  thickness  of  the  layer 
of  soil  which  is  frozen  through  in  winter  are  the  elements  which  go 
to  the  making  of  the  characteristic  features  of  the  tundras.  Their 
flora  is  far  nearer  those  of  northern  Siberia  and  North  America 
than  that  of  central  Europe.  Mosses  and  lichens  cover  them,  as 
also  the  birch,  the  dwarf  willow,  and  a  variety  of  shrubs  ;  but 
where  the  soil  is  drier,  and  humus  has  been  able  to  accumulate,  a 
variety  of  herbaceous  flowering  plants,  some  of  which  are  familiar 
also  in  western  Europe,  make  their  appearance.  Only  from  275 
to  2S0  phanerogams  are  found  within  this  region. 

The  Forest  Region  of  the  Russian  botanists  occupies  the  greater 
part  of  the  country,  from  the  Arctic  tundras  to  the  Steppes,  and 
it  maintains  over  this  immense  surface  a  remarkable  uniformity 
of  character.  M.  Beketoff  subdivides  it  into  two  portions — the 
forest  region  proper,  and  the  "Ante-Steppe"  (predstepie).  The 
northern  limit  of  the  Ante-Steppe  would  be  represented  by  a  line 
drawn  from  the  South  Pruth  through  Zhitomir,  Kursk,  Tamboff', 
»ud  StavroDol  on  Volea  to  *h£  r  iu;t.c!,  of  the  Ural.     But    the 


forest  region  proper  itself  presents  a  certain  variety  of  aspect  iji 
its  northern  and  southern  parts,  and  must  in  turn  be  again  sub- 
divided into  two  parts — the  coniferous  region  and  that  of  the  oaj 
forests, — these  being  separated  by  a  line  drawn  through  Pskofll 
Kostroma,  Kazan,  and  Ufa.  Of  course,  the  oak  occurs  farthct 
north  than  this,  and  conifer  forests  extend  fartht.' south,  advancing" 
even  to  the  border-region  of  the  Steppes  ;  but  this  line  must  still 
be  considered  as  important.  To  the  north  of  it  we  have  dense 
forests,  covering  very  large  areas,  and  interrupted  oftcner  by 
marshes  than  by  meadows  or  cultivated  fields.  Vast  and  impene- 
trable forests,  impassable  marshes  and  thickets,  frequent  lakes, 
swampy  meadows,  with  cleared  and  dry  spaces  here  and  there  occu- 
pied by  villages,  are  the  leading  features  of  the  region.  Fishing 
and  hunting  are  the  important  sources  of  livelihood.  The 
characteristics  of  what  may  be  described  as  the  oak  region,  which 
comprises  all  central  Russia,  are  totally  different.  The  surface  is 
undulatory ;  marshy  meadow  lands  no  longer  exist  on  the  flat 
watersheds,  and  only  a  few  shelter  themselves  in  tlie  much  deeper 
and  broader  river  valleys.  Forests  are  still  numerous  where  not 
destroyed  by  man,  but  their  character  has  changed.  Conifers  are 
rare,  and  the  Scotch  pine,  which  Rovers  the  sandy  plains,  has 
taken  the  place  of  the  Abies  ;  birch,  oak,  and  other  deciduous  trees 
^  Bibliography. — Memoirs  of  the  Central  Pliysical  Observatory  ;  Repfrtorivm 
fiir  Mfleorologu  and  MeCeorohgirat  Sbornik,  published  by  the  same  body  ;  Ves- 
se]0V5liy,  C/!'7nfl.'(?  o/iiu55ia  (Russian);  Wild,  Tempcratyr-VerfiaFtni.^se  iles  Russ, 
H.,  ISSi  ;  Woycikoff,  T/ie  Climates  of  the  Globe,  1SS4  (i{uss.),  containing  the  best 
general  information  about  the  climate  of  Russia;  Klossovsky,  Thuniieistorms  in 
Russia,  1885  (Russ.);  Memoirs  and  hvestia  of  the  Geograpliical  Society;  many 
papers  in  the  Memoirs  and  Bulletin  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  in  the  TniJy 
of  the  Scientific  Societies  at  the  Universities,  in  the  SIo«cow  Bulletin,  .fcc. ;, 
Woyeikoff  and  Loist  in  Appendix  to  Russian  translation  of  Elise  RccIus'k  Ce*>gr* 
Univ.;  Woyeilioff,  in  F.ussiiij  Kalendar  and  in  Mem.  Russ.  Geogr.  Soc.,  ISSj. 


FAUNA.] 


K  U  S  S  I  A 


77 


compose  the  forests,  the  soil  of  which  is  dry,  and  the  extension 
of  which  is  interrupted  by  green  prairies.  Viewed  from  a  rising 
ground,  the  landscape  presents  a  pleasing  variety  of  corn-field  and 
forest,  while  the  horizon  is  broken  by  the  bell-towers  of  numerous 
■villages  along  the  banks  of  the  streams. 

Viewed  as  a  whole,  the  flora  of  the  forest  region  must  be  regarded 
as  European-Siberian ;  and,  though  certain  species  disappear  towards 
the  cast,  while  new  ones  make  their  appearance,  it  maintains,  on 
the  whole,  the  same  characters  tlirougliout  from  Poland  to  Kam- 
chatka. Thus  the  beech  (Fagus  sylcalica),  a  characteristic  tree 
cf  western  Europe,  is  unable  to  face  tlie  continental  climate  of 
Russia,  and  docs  not  penetrate  beyond  Poland  and  the  south- 
western provinces,  reappearing  again  in  the  Crimea.  The  silver  fir 
ipichta)  does  not  extend  over  Russia,  and  the  oak  does  not  cross  the 
Urals.  On  the  other  hand,  several  Asiatic  species  (Siberian  pine, 
larch,  cedar)  grow  freely  in  the  north-east,  while  several  shrubs 
and  herbaceous  plants,  originally  from  the  Asiatic  steppes,  have 
spread  into  the  soutli-east.  But  all  these  do  not  greatly  alter  the 
general  characters  of  the  vegetation.  The  coniferous  forests  of 
the  north  contain,  besides  conifers,  the  birch  (BelxUa  alba,  B.  fnib- 
esceiu,  B.  fi-uticosa,  and  B.  verrucosa,  which  extend  from  the 
Petchora  to  the  Caucasus),  the  aspen,  two  species  of  alder,  the 
•  mountain-ash  {Sorbus  auctiparia),  the  wild  cherry-tree,  and  three 
species  of  willow.  South  of- 63° -64°  north  latitude  appears  the 
lime-tree,  which  multiplies  rapidly  and,  notwithstanding  the 
rapidity  with  which  it  is  being  exterminated,  constitutes  entire 
forests  in  the  east  (central  Volga,  Ufa).  Farther  south  the  ash 
{Fraximis  excelsior)  and  the  oak  make  their  appearance,  the  latter 
{Qxicrcus  pcdunculata)KZchma  in  isolated  groups  and  trees  as  far  as 
to  St  Petersburg  and  South  Finland  [Q.  Eobur  appears  only  in  the 
soutVwcst).  The  hornbeam  is  prevalent  in  the  Ukraine,  and  the 
maple  begins  to  appear  in  the  soutli  part  of  the  coniferous  region. 
In  the  forest  region  no  fewer  than  772  flowering  species  are  found, 
of  which  6C8  dicotyledons  occur  in  the  Archangel  government  (only 
436  to  the  cast  of  the  White  Sea,  which  is  a  botanical  limit  for  many 
species).  In  central  Russia  the  species  become  still  more  numerous, 
and,  though  the  local  floras  cannot  yet  be  considered  complete,  they 
numbef  from  850  to  1050  species  in  the  separate  governments,  and 
about  1600  in  the  best  explored  parts  of  the  south-west.  Corn  is 
cultivated  throughout  this  region.  Its  northern  limits — which  are 
sore  to  advance  still  farther  as  the  population  increases — almost 
reach  the  Arctic  coast  at  the  Varanger  Fiord;  farther  east  they 
hardly  extend  to  the  north  oF  Archangel,  and  the  limit  is  still 
lower  towards  the  Urals.  The  northern  frontier  of  rye  closely  corre- 
sponds to  that  of  barley.  Wheat  Is  cultivated  in  South  Finland, 
but  in  western  Russia  it  hardly  passes  58°  N,  lat.  Its  true  domains 
ore  the  oak  regl  m  and  the  Steppes.  Fruit-trees  are  cultivated  as 
far  as  62°  N.  in  Finl  ind,  and  as  far  as  58°  in  the  east.  Apricots 
and  walnuts  flourish  at  Warsaw,  but  in  Russia  they  do  not  extend 
beyond  50°.  Apples,  pears,  and  cherries  are  grown  throughout  the 
oak  region. 

The  Region  of  the  Steppes,  which  covers  all  southern  Russia,  may 
l>e  subdivided  into  two  zones— an  intermediate  zone  and  that  of 
the  Steppes  proper.  The  Ante-Steppe  of  the  preceding  region  and 
the  intermediate  zone  of  the  Steppes  include  those  tracts  where 
the  West-Europeaij.  climate  struggles  with  the  Asiatic,  and  where 
a  struggle  is  being  carried  on  between  the  forest  and  the  Steppe. 
It  is  comprised  between  the  summer  isotherms  of  59°  and  63°,  being 
bounded  on  the  south  by  a  line  which  runs  through  Ekaterinoslalf 
and  Lugafi.  South  of  this  line  begin  the  Steppes  proper,  which 
extend  to  the  sea  and  penetrate  to  the  foot  of  Mount  Caucasus. 

The  Steppes  proper  are  very  fertile  elevated  plains,  slightly 
ondulated,  and  intersected  by  numerous  ravines  which  are  dry  in 
summer.  The  undulations  are  scarcely  apparent  to  the  eye  as  it 
lakes  in  a  wide  prospect  under  a  blazing  sun  and  with  a  deep-blue 
sky  'overhead.  Not  a  tree  is  to  be  seen,  the  few  woods  and 
thickets  being  hidden  in  the  depressions  and  deep  valleys  of  the 
rivers.  On  the  thick  sheet  of  black  earth  by  which  the  Steppe  is 
covered  a  luxuriant  vegetation  develops  in  spring  ;  after  the  old 
grass  has  .been  burned  a  bright  green  covers  immense  stretches, 
l)ut  this  rapidly  disappears  under  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun  and 
the  hot  easterly  winds.  The  colouring  of  the  Steppe  changes  as 
if  by  magic,  and  only  the  silvery  plumes  of  the  ko\>yl  (Stipa 
pennala)  wave  under  the  wind,  giving  the  Steppe  the  aspect  of  a 
bright  yellow  sea.  For  days  togetlier  the  traveller  sees  no  other 
vegetation  ;  oven  this,  however,  disappears  as  he  nears  the  regions 
recently  left  dry  from  the  Caspian,  wliero  saltcil  clays  covered  with 
a  few  Salsolaccm,  or  more  sands,  take  the  place  of  the  black-earth. 
Here  begins  the  Aral-Caspian  desert.  The  Steppe,  however,  is  not 
80  devoid  of  trees  as  at  first  sight  appears.  Innumerable  cluster* 
of  wild  cherries  (Pruniis  C'liameeccrasus),  wild  apricots  (Amygdalus 
nwna),  tchilizhnik  (Caragana  friUescrns),  and  other  (leep-root«l 
shrubs  grow  in  the  depressions  of  the  surfoco  and  on  the  slopes  of 
the  ravines,  giving  the  Steppe  Uiat  charm  which  manifests  itself  in 
the  popular  poetry.  Unfortunately  the  spread  of  cultivation  is  fatal 
to  these  oa-scs  (they  are  often  called  "islaiidB"  by  the  inhabitants); 
tlie  axe  and  the  plough  ruthlessly  destroy  them. 


The  vegetation  of  the  poimy  and  zaimischas  in  the  marshy 
bottoms  of  the  ravines,  and  in  the  valleys  of  streams  and  rivers,  is 
totally  dilferent.  The  moist  soil  gives  free  development  to  thickets 
of  yarious  willows  (Salicincas),  bordered  with  dense  walls  of  worm- 
wood and  needle-bearing  Composila,  and  interspersed  with  rich  but 
not  extensive  prairies  harbouring  a  great  variety  of  herbareons 
plants  ;  while  in  the  deltas  of  the  Black  Ser.  rivers  impenetrable 
masses  of  rush  (Arundo  Phragmitcs)  shelter  a  forest  fauna.  But 
cultivation  rapidly  changes,  the  physiognomy  of  the  Steppe.  The 
prairies  are  superseded  by  wheat-fields,  and  flocks  of  sheep  destroy 
the  true  steppe-grass  {Stipa  pennata),  which  retires  farther  east  ' 

A  great  many  species  unknown  in  the  forest  region  make  their 
appeatauce  in  the  Steppes.  The  Scotch  pine  still  covers  sandy 
spaces,  and  maple  {Acer  tatarica  and  A.  campcslre),  the  hornbeam, 
and  the  white  and  black  poplar  become  rjuite  common.  Tlio  number 
of  species  of  herbaceous  plants  rapidly  increases,  while  beyond  the 
Volga  a  variety  of  Asiatic  species  join  the  West-European  flora. 

The  Circum-McditerTanean  Region  is  represented  by  a  narrow 
strip  of  land  on  the  south  coast  of  the  Crimea,  where  a  climate 
similar  to  that  of  the  Mediterranean  coast  has  permitted  the 
development  of  a  flora  closely  resembling  that  of  the  valley  of  the 
Arno.  Of  course,  human  cultivation  has  not  yet  acclimatized 
there  the  same  variety  of  plants  as  that  imported  into  Italy  since 
the  Romans.  It  has  even  destroyed  the  rich  forests  which  sixty 
years  ago  made  deer-hunting  possible  at  Khersones.  The  olive 
and  the  chestnut  are  rare ;  but  the  beach  reappears,  and  the 
Pimis  Pinaster  rec.ills  the  Italian  pines.  At  a  few  points,  such  as 
the  Nikitsky  garden  and  Aliipka,  where  plants  have  been  accli- 
matized by  human  agency,  the  Californian  Wellinglonia,  the 
Lebanon  cedar,  many  evergreen  trees,  the  laurel,  the  cypress,  and 
even  the  Anatolian  palm  {Chamxrops  excclsa)  flourish.  The 
grass  vegetation  is  very  rich,  and,  according  to  lists  still  incom- 
plete, no  fewer  than  1654  flowering  plants  are  known.  On  the 
whole,  the  Crimean  flora  has  little  in  common  with  that  of  th« 
Caucasus,  where  only  244  Crimean  species  have  as  yet  been  found.' 

The  fauna  of  European  Russia  does  not  very  materially  difler 
from  that  of  western  Europe.  In  the  forests  not  many  animals 
which  have^disappeared  from  western  Europe  have  hold  their 
ground  ;  while  in  theUralsonly  a  few— now  Siberian,  but  formerly 
also  European — are  met  with.  On  the  whole,  Russia  belongs  to 
the  same  zoo-geographical  region  as  central  Europe  and  northern 
Asia,  the  same  fauna  extending  in  Siberia  as  far  as  the  Yenisei 
and  Lena.  In  south-eastern  Russia,  however,  towards  the  Caspian, 
we  find  a  notable  admixture  of  Asiatic  species,  the  deserts  of  that 
part  of  Russia  belonging  in  reality  rather  to  the  Aral-Caspian 
depression  tlian  to  Europe. 

For  the  zoo-geographer  only  three  separate  sub-regions  appear 
on  the  East-European  plains — the  tundras,  including  the  Arctic 
islands,  the  forest  region,  especially  the  coniferous  part  of  it,  and 
the  AnteSteppe  and  Steppes  of  the  black-earth  region.  The  Ural 
mountains  might  bo  distinguished  as  a  fourth  sub-region,  while 
the  south  coast  of  the  Crimea  and  Caucasus,  as  well  as  the  Caspian 
deserts,  have  their  own  individuality. 

As  for  the  adjoining  seas,  the  fauna  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  off  the 
Norwegian  coast  corresponds,  in  its  western  parts  at  least,  to  that 
of  the  North  Atlantic  Gulf  Stream.  The  White  Sea  and  the  Arctic 
Ocean  to  the  east  of  Svyatoi  Nos  belong  to  a  separate  zooloeicaj 
region  connected  with,  and  hardly  separable  from,  that  part  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean  which  extends  along  the  Siberian  coast  as  far  as  to 
about  the  Lena.  The  Black  Sea,  of  which  the  fauna  was  formerly 
little  known  but  now  appears  to  bo  very  rich,  belongs  to  the  Medi- 
terranean region,  slightly  modified,  while  the  Caspian  partakes  of 
the  characteristic  fauna  inhabiting  the  lakes  and  seas  of  the  Aral- 
Caspian  depression. 

In  the  region  of  the  tundras  life  has  to  contend  witlf  snch  nn- 
favourable  conditions  that  it  cannot  be  abundant.  Still,  the  rein- 
deer frequents  it  for  its  lichens,  and  on  the  drier  slopes  of  the 
moraine  deposits  four  species  of  lemming,  hunted  by  the  Canii 
lagopus,  fina  quarters.  Two  species  of  the  white  partridge  {Lagopiu 
alljiis,  L,  alptnus),  the  lark,  one  Plcctrophanes,  two  or  three  species 
of  Si/lria,  one  Pln/lloscopKS,  and  the  MotaciUa  must  bo  added. 
Numberless  aquatic  birds,  however,  visit  it  for  breeding  purposes. 
Ducks,  divers,  geese,  gulls,  all  the  Russian  species  of  snipes  and 
sandpipers  {Limiciila,  Tringa),  ic,  cover  the  marshes  of  the 
tundras,  or  the  crags  of  the  Lapland  coast. 

The  forest  region,  and  especially  its  coniferous  portion,  though  it 
has  lost  some  of  its  representatives  within  historic  times,  is  stiU 
rich.  Tho  reindeer,  rapidly  disappearing,  is  now  met  with  only  in 
Olonetz  and  Vologda  ;  tho  Ccrvus  jrygargus  i.s  found  everywhere, 
and  reaches  Novgorod.    The  weasel,  tho  fox,  and  tho  hare  oro  exceed- 

1  /itUta^tiprii/.~^cyctot1,  Appendix  to  Ruvilan  traniUtlon  of  GrlcaclMch  and 
Hoclus's  Oe'ogr.  t/niv.;  Lcilobour,  f'fora  Itottiea;  Trflulvcttor,  /ioinir  Arcliem 
I'lanix,  1»80;  111.,  Florx  Rotilcm  nmrt;  lor  floru  of  tho  tundru,  UckctntTa 
"  Flora  of  Archangel,"  Id  Stem.  Hot.  Salur.ht  Si  rclonburff  unlvcnily,  xr..  \*^M  ; 
FlcRfl,  Ftora  Hotiiea,  1B>*1;  flords  of  ncpnra'o  Rorenimrnts  In  Krvrriil  Hclinllflc 
pcilodlcnlH;  Ilrown,  tWfttry  in  the  Uininy  IHUri(tl  of  tht  Crtili,  IKMl;   liffortt 

bv  Coinnilsaloncn  of  Woods  and  Forcsu  lu  ItuaaU,  1694 ;  Forcuj'v  AlmaoAC 
(Lttuiti  Kalmdar)  tot  18M. 


78 


il  U  S  S  I  A 


[fa  U.N"  A. 


iH.ly  common,  as  also  the  wolf  and  tl.c  boar  i"  "'«  "^^*  ^ /™' 
lic.'lutton  {balo  horcalis).  tlio  lynx,  and  even  the  elk  (6.  p^KS) 
r „i,n V  disii.i.c uin-.     The  wild  boar  is  confined  to  the  basin 
7t ;  '     Una    a  r  the->/.o.  curopc.  to  the  Bielovyezha  forest  . 
ThTUlo  has  .,«itc  disavpeared,  being  found  only  on  the  Urals 
the   beaver  is  found  at   a   fo^v   places    in   M^"^'^'    ="' ^  '''f  °",^^ 
is  very  rare.     On  the  other  hand,  the  hare  {roussak),  and  also  tho 
erey  ™>t.i.l3e  {Pcnlix  cincrca),  the  hedgehoj,  the  tiuail,  the  lark 
the  rouk  {Tryvanocnrax  fmgiUoa),  and  the  stork  l;nd  their  way 
i   to  the  eonilbrous  re^jion  as  the  forests  are  cleared    ROo<l»"off); 
Tt  av  fauna  of  this  ixgion  is  very  rich;  it  includes  all  the  fores 
and  "arden  l.ir.ts  which  are  known  in  western  Europe,  as  «ell  as 
ave'ry  "reat  variety  of  a.iuatic  birds.     A  list,  still  incomplete,  of 
?he  iSds  of  St  Petersburg  shows  251  species.     Hunting  and  shoot- 
in-  give  occupation  to  a  great  number  of  persons.     The  reptiles 
arc  few      As  lor  fishes,  all  those  of    western  Europe,  except  the 
carp   are  met  with  in  the  lakes  and  rivers  in  immense  quantities,_ 
the  ^haiLteristic  feature  of  the  region  being  its  wealth  m  Corcgom 
'and  in  Sahmmidx  generally. 

n  the  Ante-Steppe  the  forest  species  proper,  such  as  Ptcromys 
■ooUns  and  Tamias  striat.^s,  disappear    but  the  =™:7"j;i""™ 
{Scinrns  vulgaris),    the  weasel,  and  the  bear  are  still  met  with 
n  the  forests.     The  hare  is  increasing  rapidly,  as  well  as  the  fox. 
The  avifauna,  of  course,  becomes  poorer;   nevertheless    he  woods 
of  the  Steppe,   and  still  more  the  forests  of  tha  Ante-Steppe 
^ve  refu-e  to  many  birds,  even  to  the  hazel-hen  (Tctrao  bonasm), 
tf.o  woodcock,  and  the  black  grouse  (Tctrao  tctrix.T.  urocjM 
The  fauna  of  the  thickets  at  the  bottom  of  the  river  valleys  is 
dccideTly   rich,  and  includes  aquatic  birds.      The  destruction  of 
the  forests  and  tl.c  advance  of  wheat  into  the  prairies  are  rapidly 
impoverishing  the  Steppe  fauna.     The  various  species  of  rapacious 
animals  are  disappearing,  together  with  the  colonies  of  mannots 
the  insectivoies  arc  also  becoming  scarce  in  ^°»^'-'l"<;f «    °f  ^ '^ 
.U-struction  of  insects,  while  vermin,  such  as  the  suslik  {Spcrmo- 
S'  Bee  Maumot),  become  a  real  plague,  as  ako  the  destructive 
insects  which  have  been  a  scourge   to  agriculture   during  recent 
Tears  '     The  absence  of  Core(,o:u  is  a  characteristic  feature  of  the 
ih-fauna  of  the  Steppes;    the  carp    on  the  ^""'''"y'  '^^^H'Pears 
and  the  rivers  are  rich  in  sturgeons  {Acipcnscridcs).     On  the  V  olga 
below  Nijni   Novgorod   the  sturgeon   (Aclpciscr  ruthemis),   and 
others  oE  the  same  family,  as  also  a  very  groat  variety  of  ganoids 
and  Tckostci,  appear  in  such  quantities  that  they  give  occupation 
to  nearly  100,000  iioople.     The  mouths  of  the  Caspian  nvers  arc 
.especially  celebrated  for  their  wealth  of  fish.= 

Prehistoric  anthropology  is  a  science  of  very  recent  gi'owth  in 
Russia  •  and,  notwithstanding  the  energy  displayed  witliiu  tlial 
■field  di'irin"  the  last  twonty  year.s  the  task  of  reconstructing  ti.e 
cailv  histoiT  of  man  on  the  plains  of  eastern  Europe  is  daily  beeom- 
in"inore  complicated  as  new  data  are  brought  to  light.  Eemams 
of" Paleolithic  man,  contemporary  with  the  large  Quaternary 
mammals,  are  few  in  Russia;  they  are  known  only  m  1  oland, 
Poltava  and  Voronezh,  and  perhaps  also  on  the  Oka.  Those  of  the 
later  po'rtions  of  the  Lacustrine  period,  on  the  contrary,  are  so 
numerous  that  scarcely  one  old  lacustrine  basin  in  the  regions  ot  the 
Oka  the  Kama,  the  Dnieper,  not  to  speak  of  the  lake-region  itsell, 
and' even  the  White  Sea  coasts,  can  bo  mentioned  where  remains 
of  Neolithic  n  an  have  not  been  discovered,  showing  an  unexpectc'd 
variety  of  minor  anthropological  features,  even  at  that  reniote 
neriod  The  Russian  plains  have  been,  however,  the  scene  ot  so 
niauv  mi"rations  of  various  races  of  mankind,  the  dwelling-places 
of  prehistoric  man  and  the  routes  followed  during  his  migrations 
were  so  clearly  indicated  by  natural  couditions,  and  so  olteu  re- 
occupied,  or  again  covered  by  new  waves  of  colonization  and  mi|ra- 
tion  that  at  many  places  a  series  of  deposits  belonging  to  widely 
Idistant  epochs  are  found  superposed.  Settlements  belonging  to  the 
•Stone  a^e,  and  manufactories  of  stone  implements,  buna!  grounds 
^•JikosUshclias)  of  tUo  Bionzo  epoch,  earthen  forts  (gorodishcJias),  and 


1  Tlie  rear  18S*  vilh  regard  lo  Agricutlure,  St  Petcrsbuig,  1SS5,  gives  nearly 

"TflrtHoa'vnp'/ij/.-^Tliovo  Dcing  no  cmcral  recent  work  published  on  tlio  fauna 
of  Uussia,  beyond  a  viiluablo  sUctcli  (for  tho  Rencral  reader)  by  M.  Bondanotf  m 
the  \DDCiiclix  to  the  Russian  translation  of  Itcdus's  Geogr.  Umv.,  v..  tho  classical 
wovk  of  Pallas  Zoogrnphia  nosso-Asialica,  and  the  works  dealing  with  different 
doDartments  of  the  fauna  in  different  parts  of  Russia,  must  bercsorted  to.  These 
Include  the  following:— SyevertsolT,  for  the  birds  of  soutli-easlera  Russia;  Dog- 
danotf  Birds  nnd  Mammals  of  the  Black-Earlh  Region  ofthe  Volga  Dasmx  Kare- 
lin for  the  southern  Urals ;  Kessler  for  fishes ;  Strauch.  Die  SMangen  des  Riiss.R., 
for  reptiles  geneially,  liodoszkow.-ki  and  tho  publications  ot  the  Entomological 
Society  generally  fur  insects;  Czerniavsky  for  the  marine  taunaof  the  Black  Sea; 
Kessler  for  that  of  Lakes  Onega  and  tadoga;  Grimm  for  the  Caspian;  and  the 
Iiublications  of  the  acientiflc  aociclics  for  a  very  great  number  of  mouorraphs 
dealing  witli  departments  of  the  fauna  of  separate  gov-pi-nnients,  seas,  and  lakes. 
Tho  fauna  of  tho  llaltic  provinces  is  described  in  full  in  the  Memoirs  of  the 
scicntilio  bodies  of  thcso  provinces.  Jliddondoi-ffs  Sibinsclie  Retse,  vol.  iv 
Zoologij,  thoiigli  dealing  more  especially  «ith  Siberia,  is  an  inTaluahle  source  of 
Information  for  tho  Russian  fauna  generally.  Vega-eipfdiUonens  Vetenskaplvja 
Jakltagelscr  may  he  consulted  for  tho  mammals  of  the  tunJra  region  and  marine 
faun.T.  For  more  detailed  bibliograplilcal  information  see  Apertades  Irayaux 
zoo^eograpMnues.  published  at  St  I'ctersburg  in  connexion  with  the  Exhibition  of 
1878-  and  the  index  U/c^izalel  llussksi  Z.i(iTn(i/;7  for  natural  science,  mathema- 
llcs  and  medicine,  publislicd  since  1872  by  the  Society  of  tlie  Kietf  university. 


"rave  mounds  {kurgans)—o{  which  last  four  different  types  n/s 
known,  the  earliest  belonging  to  the  Bronze  period— are  superpose.! 
upon  and  obliterate  one  another,  so  that  a  long  series  of  researches 
is  necessary  in  order  that  sound  generalizations  may  be  reached. 

Two  dilferent  races— a  brachvcephalic  and  a  dolichocephalic— can 
be  distinguished  among  tha  remains  of  the  earlier  Stone  pervod 
(Lacustrine  period)  as  having  inhabited  tV.e  plains  of  eastern  Europe 
But  they  are  separated  by  so  many  generations  from  the  earliest 
historic  times  that  sure  conclusions  regarding  them  are  impossible; 
at  all  events,  as  vet  Russian  archaologists  are  not  agreed -as  to 
whether  the  ancestors  of  the  Slavonians  were  Sarmatians  only  or 
Scvthians  also  (Samokvasoff,  Lemiere),  whose  skull?  have  nothing 
in"common  with  those  of  the  Mongolian  race  The  earliest  points 
that  can,  coinpara'tively  speaking,  be  regarded  as  settled  must  thus 
be  taken  from  tho  1st  century,  when  the  Northern  Finns  migrated 
from  the  North  Dwina  region  towards  the  west,  and  the  Sarmatjan? 
were  compelled  to  leave  the  region  of  the  Don,  and  to  cross  the 
Russian  steppes  from  east  to  west,  under  the  pressure  of  the  Ao/ze& 
(the  Jlordvinian  Erzya?)  and  Siraks,  who  in  their  turn  were  soon 
followed  by  the  Huns  and  the  Ugur-Turkish  stem  of  Avars. 

It  appears  certain,  moreover,  that  in  the  7th  century  southern 
Russia  was  occupied  by  the  empire  of  the  Khazars  (j.v.),  who 
drove  the  15ulgarians,  descendants  of  the  Huns,  from  the  Don,  one 
section  of  them  migrating  up  the  Volga  to  found  there  the  Bul- 
.rarian  empire,  and  the  remainder  migrating  towards  the  Danube. 
This  migration  compelled  the  Northern  Finns  to  advance  farther 
west,  and  a  mixture  of  Tavasts  and  Karelians  penetrated  to  th» 
soutii  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland. 

Finally    it  is  certain  that  as  early  as  the  8th  century,   and 
probably  still  earlier,  a  stream  of  Slavonian  colonization,  advancing 
eastward  from  the  Danube,  was  thrown  on  the  plains  of  south- 
western Russia.     It   is  also  most   probable  that   another   similar 
strcani-the  northern,  coming  from  the  Elbe,  throijg  i  the  basm  of 
the  Vistula— ought  to  be  distinguished.     In  the  9tli  century  the 
Slavonians  already  occupied  the  Upper  Vistula,  the  southern  part 
'of  the  lake  region,  and  the  central  plateau  m  its  western  parts 
Thevhad  Lithuanians  to  the  west ;  various  Finnish  st«ms  mixed 
towards  the  south-east  with  Turkish  stems  (the  present  Bashkirs) ; 
Mie  Bulgars,  whose  origin  still  remains  doubtful,  on  the  miuaie 
Volga  and  Kama :  and  to  the  south-east  the  Turkish-Mongolian 
world  of  the  Petohenegs,  Potovtsi,  Uzes,  &c.  ;  while  in  the  south 
alon-r  the  Black  Sea,  extended  the  empire  of  the  Khazars,  who  kept 
undel'  their  rule  several  Slavonian  stems,  and  perhaps  also  some  of 
Finnish  origin.     In  the  9th  centuiy  also  the  Ugrians  are  supposed 
to  have  left  their  Ural  abodes  and  to  have  crossed  south-eastern  and 
southern  Russia  on  their  way  to  the  basin  of  the  Danube. 

If  these  numerous  migrations  on  the  plains  of  Russia  be  taken 
into  account,  and  if  we  add  to  them  the  Mongolian  evasion  the 
mitrntion  of  South  Slavonians  towards  the  Oka,  the  North 
Slavonian  colonization  extending  north-east  towards  the  Urals  anil 
thence  to  Siberia,  the  slow  advance  ot  Slavonians  into  Finnish 
territory  on  the  Volga,  and  at  a  later  period  their  advance  into  the 
prairies  on  the  Black  Sea,  driving  back  the  Turkish  stems  winch 
occupied  them,— if  we  consider  the  manifold  mutual  influences  of 
these  three  races  on  one  another,  we  shaU  be  able  to  form  a  faint 
idea  of  the  present  population  of  European  Russia. 

If  the  Slavonians  be  subdivided  into  three  branehes— the  western 
(Poles,  Czechs,  and  Wends),  the  southern  (Serbs,  Bulgarians,  Croa- 
tians,  &c.),  and  the  eastern  (Great,  Little,  and  White  Russians) 
it  will  be  seen  that,  with  the  exception  of  some  3,000,000 
Ukrainians  or  Little  Russians,  in  East  Galicia  and  in  Poland  and 
a  few  on  the  south  slope  of  the  Carpathians,  the  whole  of  the 
East  Slavonians  occupy,  as  a  compact  body,  western,  central,  and 
southerr.  Russia.  .     .     „      .  ... 

Like  other  races  of  mankind,  the  Russian  race  is  not  a  pure  one. 
The  Russians  have  taken  in  and  assimilated  in  the  couise  of  their 
history  a  variety  of  Finnish  and  Turco- Finnish  elements,     bti  1, 
craniolo^ical  researches  show  that,  notwithstanding  this  fact,  the 
Slavonia°n  type  has  maintained  itself  with  remarkable  persistency- 
Slavonian  skulls  ten  and  thirteen  centuries  old  exhibiting  the  same 
anthropologicel  features  as  aie  seen  in  those  of  our  own  day.  _  1  his 
may  be  explained  by  a  variety  of  causes,  of  which  the  chief  is  the 
maintenance  by  the  Slavonians  down  to  a  very  late  period  of  gentile 
organization  and  gentile  marriages,  a  fact  vouched  for,  not  only  in 
the  pa'-es  of  Nestor,  but  still  more  by  deep  traces  still  visible  in  the 
face  of^ociety,  the  gens  later  on  passing  into  the  village  community, 
and  the   colonization   being  carried  on  by  great  compact  bodies. 
This  has  all  along  maintained  the  same  characters.      Iho  Russians 
do   not  emigrate  as  isolated   individuals  ;  they  migrate   IB  whtdo 
villa^'S     The  overwhehning  numbers  of  the  Slavonians,  and  tho 
very  "great  differences  in  ethnical  type,  belief,  mythology,  between 
the  Aryans   and  Turanians,  may  have   contributed   in   the   same 
direction,  and  throughout  the  written  history  of  the  Slavonians  wo 
see  that,  while   a  Russian  man,  far  away  from  his  borne  among 
Siberians,  readily  marries  a  native,  the  Russian  woman  seldom  ttocs 
the  like.     All  these  causes,  and  especially  the  first-mentioned,  have 
enabled  the  Slavonians  to  maintain   thnr  ethnical  features  in  al 


ETHX0GEAPHY.1 


B  U  S  S  T  A 


79 


relatively  high  degreo  of  purity,  so  as  to  assimilate  foreign  elements 
and  make  them  reinforce  or  improve  the  ethnical  type,  without 
civing  ris?  to  half-breed  races.  The  maintenance  of  tlio  very  same 
North-Russian  tj'pe  from  Novgorod  to  the  Pacific,  with  but  minor 
differentiations  on  the  outskirts— and  this  notwithstanding  the 
great  variety  of  races  with  which  the  Russians  came  in  contact — 
cannot  but  strike  tlie  observer.  But  a  closer  observation  of  what  is 
going  on  even  now  on  the  recently  colonized  confines  of  the  empire 
—where  whole  villages  live,  and  will  continue  t9»live,  without 
ini.vtng  with  natives,  but  very  slowly  bringing  them  over  to  tlie 
Kussian  manner  of  life,  and  then  very  slowly  tiiking  in  a  few  female 
elements  from  them — gives  the  key  to  this  prominent  feature  of 
Kussian  life,  which  is  a  colonization  on  an  immense  scale,  and 
assimilation  of  foreigners,  without  in  turn  losing  the  primary 
ethnical  features. 

Not  so  with  tlic  national  customs.  There  are  features — the 
■wooden  house,  tho  oven,  the  bath — which  the  Russian  never 
abandons  tbougli  lost  amidst  alien  populations.  But  when  settleil 
among  the.  he  Russian — the  Nortli-Kussiau— readily  adapts  him- 
self to  many  other  differences.  He  speaks  Finnish  with  Finns, 
Mongolian  with  Buriats,  Ostiak  with  Ostiaks  ;  he  shows  remarkable 
facility  in  adapting  his  agricultural  practices  to  new  conditions, 
without,  however,  abandoning  the  village  community  ;  he  becomes 
hunter,  cattle-breeder,  or  fisherman,  and  carries  on  these  occuna- 
tions  according  to  local  usage  ;  he  modifies  his  dress  and  adapts  liis 
religious  beliefs  to  the  locality  ho  inhabits.  In  consequence  of  all 
this,  the  Russian  peasant  (not,  be  it  noted,  the  trader)  must  bo 
recognized  as  the  best  colonizer  among  the  Aryans  ;  he  lives  on  tho 
best  terms  with  Ostiaks,  Tartars,  Buriats,  and  even  with  Red 
Indians  when  lost  in  the  prairies  of  the  American  Far- West. 

Three  different  branches,  which  may  become  three  separate 
nationalities,  can  be  distinguished  among  the  Russians  since  tho 
dawn  of  their  history  : — the  Great  Russians,  the  Little  Russians 
(Malorusses  or  Ukrainians),  and  the  White  Russians  (the  Bielo- 
russes).  These  correspond  to  the  two  currents  of  immigration 
mentioned  above,  tho  northern  and  southern,  with  perhaps  an  inter- 
mediate one,  the  proper  place  of  the  White  Russians  not  having 
as  yet  been  exactly  determined.  The  primary  distinctions  between 
these  branches  have  been  increased  during  the  last  nine  centuries 
by  their  contact  with  different  nationalities, — the  Great  Russians 
taking  in  Finnish  elements,  the  Little  Russians  undergoing  an 
admixture  of  Turkish  blood,  and  the  White  Russians  submitting  to 
Lithuanian  influence.  Moreover,  notwitlislanding  the  unity  of  lan- 
guage, it  is  easy  to  detect  among  the  Great  Russians  themselves  two 
separate  branches,  differing  from  one  anotlier  by  slight  divergences 
of  language  and  type  and  deep  diversities  of  national  character, — 
the  Central  Russians  and  the  Novgorodians  ;  the  latter  extend 
throughout  northern  Russia  into  Siberia.  They  correspond,  perhaps, 
to  subdivisions  mentioned  by  Nestor.  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  move- 
over,  that  many  minor  anthropological  features  can  be  distingnished 
both  among  the  Great  and  Liltle  Russians,  depending  probably  on 
the  assimilation  of  various  minor  subdivisions  of  the  Ural-Altaians. 
The  Great  Russians  number  about  42,000,000,  and  occupy  in  one 
block  the  space  enclosed  by  a  line  drawn  from  the  White  Sea  to 
tlie  sources  of  tho  western  Diina,  the  Dneiper,  and  the  Donetz, 
and  thence,  through  the  mouth  of  the  Sura,  by  the  Vettugn,  to 
Mezeri.  To  the  east  of  this  boundary  they  are  mixed  with  Turco- 
Finns,  but  in  the  Ural  Mountains  they  rea|>pearin  a  compact  body, 
and  extend  thonce  through  southern  Siberia  and  along  the  courses 
of  the  Lena  and  Amur.  Great  Russian  nonconformists  are  dissemi- 
nated among  Little  Russians  in  Tchernigoff  and  Moghileff,  and 
they  reappear  in  greater  masses  in  Novorossia,  as  also  in  northern 
Ca\ioasia. 

The  Little  Russians,  who  number  about  17,000,000,  occupy  the 
Steppes  of  southern  Russia,  the  south-western  slopes  of  the  central 
plateau  and  those  of  the  Carpathian  and  Lublin  mountains,  and  tlie 
Carpathian  plateau.  The  Sitch  of  the  Zaporog  Cossacks  colonized 
the  Steppes  farther  east,  towards  tho  Don,  where  they  met  with  a 
largo  ])oj)ulation  of  Great  Russian  runaways,  constituting  the 
present  Don  Cossacks.  Tho  Zaiiorog  Cossacks,  sent  by  Catherine 
JI.  to  colonize  tho  east  coast  of  tno  Sea  of  Azoff,  constituted  th"ro 
the  Black  Sea  and  later  the  Kubaii  Cossacks  (part  of  whom,  tlie 
Nekrasovtsy,  migrated  to  Turkey).  They  have  also  peopled  large 
parts  of  Stavropol  and  northern  Caucasia. 

The  White  Russians,mixed  to  some  extent  with  Great  and  Little 
Russians,  I'oles,  and  Lithuanians,  now  occupy  the  upper  parts  of  tho 
western  slopo  of  tue  central  plateau.  They  number  about  4, 300,000. 
T(io  Finnish  stems,  which  in  prehistoric  times  extended  from  the 
Obi  all  over  northern  Russia,  even  then  were  subdivided  into 
Ugrians,  Permians,  Bulgarians,  and  Finns  proper,  who  drove  back 
the  previous  Lapp  population  from  what  is  now  Finland,  and  about 
tho  /  th  century  penetrated  to  the  south  of  tho  Gulf  of  Finland,  in 
tho  region  of  the  Lives  and  Kurs,  where  they  mi.xcd  to  some  cxtout 
with  Litbuniiians  and  Letts. 

At  present  tho  stems  of  Finnish  origin  are  represented  in  Russia 
by  tho  following;— (a)  tho  Western  Finns;  tho  Tavastsin  central 
Finland;  the  Kviines,  in  north-western  Finland;  the  Karehaus, 


in  the  east,  who  also  occupy  the  lake-regions  of  Olonetz  and 
Archangel,  and  have  settlomeii  ts  in  separate  villages  in  Novgorod 
and  Tver  ;  the  Izhora  and  Vod,  which  are  local  names  for  the 
Finns  ou  tho  Neva  and  tho  south-eastern  coast  of  the  Gulf  of 
Finland  ;  the  Esthes  in  Esthonia  and  northern  portion  of  Livonia; 
the  Lives  on  the  Gulf  of  Riga;  and  tho  Kors,  mixed  with  the  Letts ; 
(6)  the  Northern  Finns,  or  Lapps,  in  northern  Finland  and  on 
tho  Kola  peninsula,  and  tho  Siinioycdes  in  Arehangel  ;  (c)  the 
Volga  Finns,  or  ratlier  tho  old  Bulgarian  branch,  to  which  belong 
tlie  Mor.DviNiANS  (q.v.)  and  perhaps  the  Tcheremisscs  in  Kazan, 
Kostroma,  and  Vyatka,  who  arc  also  classified  by  some  authors 
with  tlie  following;  (d)  the  Pciniians,  or  Cis-Uraliau  Finns,  in- 
cluding the  Votiaks  on  tlie  east  of  Vjatka,  the  Permians  in  Perm, 
the  Zyrians  in  Vologda,  Archangel,  Vyatka,  and  Perm,  and  the 
Tcheremisses  ;  (c)  the  Ugrians,  or  Trans-Uialian  Finns,  including 
the  Voguls  on  both  slopes  of  the  Urals,  the  Ostiaks  in  Tobolsk 
and  partly  in  Tomsk,  and  the  llad.jarcs,  or  Ugrians. 

The  Turco-Tartars  in  Eurojican  Russia  number  about  3,600,000. 
The  following  are  their  chief  suljdivisions.  (1)  The  Tartars,  of  whom 
three  different  stems  must  be  distinguished  :— (n)  the  Kazail  Tartars 
on  both  banks  of  the  Volga,  below  the  mouth  of  the  Oka,  and  on 
the  lower  Kama,  penetrating  also  farther  soutli  in  Ryazan,  Tamboff, 
Samara,  Simbirsk,  and  Penza  ;  (i)  tliu  Tartars  of  Astrakhan  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Volga;  and  (c)  those  of  the  Crimea,  a  great  many  of 
whom  have  recently  emigrated  to  Turkey.  There  are,  besides,  a 
certain  number  of  Tartars  from  the  southeast  in  Minsk,  Groduo, 
and  Vilua.  (2)  The  Bashkirs,  who  inhabit  tlieslopes  of  the  southern 
Urals,  that  is,  the  Steppes  of  Ufa  and  Orcnbur"  extending  also  into 
Perm  and  Samara.  (3)  The  Tchuvashes,  on  tlie  ri"lit"bank  of  the 
Volga,  in  KazaB  and  Simbirsk.  (4)  The  Meschenaks,  a  tribe  of 
Finnish  origin  which  formerly  inhabited  the  basin  of  the  Oka,  and, 
driven  thence  during  tho  15th  century  by  the  Russian  colonizers, 
immigrated  into  Ufa  and  Perm,  where  they  now  live  among  Bash- 
kirs, having  adopted  their  religion  and  customs.  (5)  Tho  Tepters, 
also  of  Finnish  origin,  settled  among  Tartars  and  Bashkirs,  together 
with  the  Mescheriaks,  also  in  Samara  and  Vyatka.  They  have 
adopted  tho  religion  and  customs  of  the  Bashkirs,  from  whom  they 
can  hardly  be  distinguished.  The  Bashkirs,  Mescheriaks,  and 
Tepters  have  rendered  able  service  to  the  Russian  Government 
against  the  Kirghizes,  and  until  1863  they  constituted  a  separate 
Bashkir  and  Mescheriak  Cossacks  army,  employed  for  service  in 
the  Kirghiz  Steppe.  (6)  The  Kirghizes,  whose  true  abodes  were  in 
Asia,  in  the  Isliira  and  Kirghiz  Steppe  ;  but  one  section  of  them 
crossed  the  Urals  and  occupied  tho  Steppes  between  the  Urals  and 
tho  Volga.  Only  the  Horde  of  Bukeefi  inhabits  European  Russia, 
north-east  of  Astrakhan,  the  remainder  belonging  to  Turkestan, 
and  Siberia. 

The  Mongolian  race  is  represented  in  Russia  by  the  Lamaite 
Kalmuks,  who  inhabit  the  Steppes  of  Astrakhan  between  tho 
Volga,  the  Don,  and  the  Kunia.  They  immigrated  to  tho 
mouth  of  the  Volga  from  Dzuiigaria,  in  the  17th  century, 
driving  out  the  Tartai-s  and  Nogais,  and  after  many  wars  with. 
the  Don  Cossacks,  followed  by  treaties  of  mutual  assistance  for 
military  excursions,  one  part  of  them  was  taken  in  by  the  Don. 
Cossacks,  so  that  even  now  there  aro  among  these  Cossocks 
several  Kalmuk  soCnias  or  squadrons.  They  live  for  tho  most 
part  in  tents,  supporting  tuomselvcs  by  cattle-breeding,  and 
partly  by  agriculture. 

Tho  Semitic  race  is  represented  in  Russia  by  upwap's  of  3,000,000 
Jews  and  3000  Karaites.  The  Jews  first  entered  Po  and  from  Ger- 
many during  the  crusades,  and  soon  spread  through  Lithuania, 
Courland,  the  Ukraine,  and,  in  tho  18th  century,  Bessarabia,  The 
rapidity  with  which  they  peopled  certain  towns  and  whole  pro- 
vinces was  really  prodigious.  Thus,  .from  having  been  but  a  few 
dozens  at  Odessa  some  eighty  yeai's  since,  they  male  ■  now  one- third 
of  its  population  (73,400,  out  of  207,000).  The  law  of  Russia 
prohibits  them  from  entering  Great  Russia,  only  tho  wealthiest  and 
most  educated  enjoying  tliis  privilege  ;  nevertiieless  they  are  met 
with  everywhere,  oven  on  the  Urals.  Their  chief  abodes,  however, 
continue  to  be  Poland,  tho  western  provinces  of  Lithuania,  White 
and  Little  Russia,  and  Bessarabia.  In  KusBian  Poland  they  are  io 
the  proportion  of  1  to  7  inhabitants.  In  Kovuo,  Vilno,  Moghileff, 
Groano,  Volhynia,  Podolin,  and  probably  also  in  Bessarabia  and 
Kherson,  they  constitute,  on  tho  average,  10  to  10  per  cent  of  the 
population,  while  in  sejiarate  districts  tho  proportion  reaches  30 
to  36  per  cent  (SOii  in  Tchaussy).  Organized  as  they  are  into  a 
kind  of  community  for  mutual  protection  and  mutual  help  (the 
Kuhal),  they  soon  become  masters  of  the  trade  wherever  they 
Iienetrato.  In  tho  villages  they  aro  mostly  innkeepers,  interme- 
diaries in  trade,  and  pawnbrokers.  In  many  towns  most  of  the 
skilled  labourers  and  a  great  many  of  tho  unskilled  (for  instanc^ 
tlio  grain-porters  at  Odessa  and  elsewhere)  aro  Jews.  In  tho  16 
wistern  provinces  of  Russia  they  nunibured  2,843,400  in  1883,  and 
about  432,000  in  live  Polish  iirovineos.  Less  than  800,000  of  them 
inhabit  villages,  the  rcmaiuJer  being  concentrated  in  tomis. 

The  Karaites  dilVer  entirely  from  the  Jews  both  in  worship  nml 
in  mode  of  life.     Thi-y,  too,  are  inclined  to  trade,  but  also  success- 


80 


RUSSIA 


Lethnogkaphy; 


fully  cany  on  agriculture.  Those  inliabitinfj  the  Crimea  speak 
Tartar,  and  the  few  who  are  settled  in  western  Kussia  speak  Polish. 
They  are  on  good  terms  with  the  Russians. 

Of  West  Europeans,  only  the  Germans  attain  considerahle  num- 
bers (uinvards  of  a  million)  in  European  Kussia.  In  the  Baltic 
provinces  they  constitute  the  ennobled  landlord  class,  and  that 
of  tradcsnieu  and  artisans  in  towns.  Considerable  numbers  of 
Germans,  also  tradesmen  and  artisans,  were  scattered  throughout 
Ttmny  of  tUo  larger  towns  of  Russia  as  early  as  the  16th  century, 
and  to  a  much  greater  extent  in  the  18th  century,  German  artisans 
having  been  invited  by  the  Government  to  settle  iu  Russia,  and 
their  numbers  having  steadily  increased  since.  Finally,  numbers 
of  Germans  were  invited  in  1762  to  settle  in  soutlicrn  Russia,  as 
separata  agiiciiltural  colonies,  which  gradually  extended  in  the  Don 
region  and  iu  northern  Caucasia.  Piotectcd  as  tliey  were  by  the 
right  of  scll-government,  exempted  from  military  service,  and 
endowed  with  considerable  allotments  of  good  land,  these  colonies 
are  much  wealthier  than  tlie  neighbouring  Russian  peasants,  from 
whom  they  have  adopted  the  slowly  modified  village  community. 
They  arc  chiefly  Lutherans,  but  many  of  them  belong  to  other  reli- 
gious sects, — Anabaptists,  Moravians,  Mennonites  (about  40,000). 
In  certiin  districts  (Akkerman,  Odessa,  Berdiansk,  Kamyshin, 
Novonzcnsk)  they  constitute  from  10  to  40  per  cent,  of  the  total 
population.  The  Swedes,  who  numbt-r  about  300,000  in  Finland, 
hardly  reach  12,000  in  European  Russia,  mostly  in  the  Baltic  pro- 
vinces. 

The  Roumanians  (Moldavians)  number  not  less  than  800,000, 
and  are  still  increasing.  They  inhabit  the  governments  of  Bess- 
arabia, Podolia,  Kherson,  and  Ekaterinoslafl'.  In  Bessarabia  they 
constitute  from  one-fourth  to  three-fourths  of  the  population  of 
certain  districts.  On  the  whole,  the  Novorossian  governments 
(BL'Ssarabia,  Kherson,  Ekatcrinoslaff,  and  Taurida)  exhibit  the 
greatest  variety  of  population.  Little  and  Great  Russians,  Rouma- 
nians, Bulgarians,  Serbs,  Germans,  Greeks,  Frenchmen,  Poles, 
Tartars,  and  Jews  are  mixed  together  and  scattered  about  in  small 
colonies,  especially  in  Bessarabia.  Of  course,  the  Greeks  inhabit 
chiefly  the  towns,  where  they  carry  on  trade,  as  also  do  the  Ar- 
menians, scattered  through  the  towns  of  southern  Russia,  and 
appearing  in  larger  numbers  only  in  the  district  of  Rostotf  (10  per 
cent,  of  population). 

However  great  the  variety  of  nationalities  inhabiting  European 
Russia,  its  etlinological  composition  is  much  simpler  than  might  at 
first  sight  be  supposed.  The  Russians — Great,  Little,  and  White 
— largely  prevail  over  all  others,  both  numerically  and  as  respects 
the  territories  they  occupy  in  compact  bodies.  Central  Russia  is 
almost  purely  Great  Russian,  and  represents  a  compact  body  of 
more  than  30,000,000  inhabitants  with  but  1  to  5  per  cent,  of 
admixture  of  other  nationalities.  The  governments  on  the  Dnieper 
(Kicff,  Volliyuia,  Tchernigoff,  Podolia,  and  Pottava),  as  also  the 
adjoining  districts  of  Kharkoff,  Voronezh,  Kursk,  and  Don,  are 
Little-Russian,  or  Ukrainian,  with  but  a  slight  admixture  of  White 
oud  Great  Russians,  and  some  12  per  cent,  of  Jews.  The  Poles 
there  number  only  3  to  6  per  cent,  of  the  population — chiefly  land- 
holders— .and  are  hated  by  the  Ukrainians. 

Moghilelf,  Vitebsk,  ami  Minsk  are  White  Russian,  the  Poles  con- 
stituting ouly  3  per  cent,  of  the  population  (16  iu  Minsk).  In  other 
Bielorussian  provinces,  the  White  Russians  are  mixed  either  with 
Lithuanians  (Vilna),  or  Ukrainians  (Grodno),  or  Great  Russians 
(Smolensk),  anl  their  relations  to  Polish  landlords  .ire  no  better 
than  in  the  Ukraine.  The  Lithuanians  prevail  in  Kovno,  where 
they  are  80  per  cent,  of  the  population,  the  remainder  being  chiefly 
Jews  (10  per  cent.),  Poles  (3  per  cent.),  Great  Russians  (3  per  cent), 
Germans,  &c. 

In  the  Balti-i  provinces  (Esthoni.a,  Livonia,  and  Courland)  the 
jirevailing  ponuhitiou  is  Esthonian,  Curonian,  or  Lettish,  the 
Germans  (landlords,  or  tr.adcsmcn  and  artisans  in  towns)  being 
respectively  only  3'5,  6'8,  and  7 '6  per  cent,  of  the  population.  In 
the  three  provinces,-  Riga  included,  they  Irardly  reach  120,000  out 
of  1,800,000  inhabitants.  The  relations  of  the  Esthes  and  Letts 
I  to  tlicir  landlords  are  anything  but  friendly. 

The  northern  governments  of  St  Petersburg  (apart  from  the 
capital),  Olonctz,  and  Archangel  contain  an  admixture  of  12  to  28 
percent,  of  Karelians,  Samoyedes,  and  Zyrians,  the  remainder  being 
Great  Russians.  In  the  east  and  south-east  provinces  of  the 
Volga  (Nijni,  Simbirsk,  Samara,  Penza,  and  Saratofl")  the  Great 
Russians  again  prevail  (88  to  65  per  cent. ),  the  remainder  being 
chiefly  Mordvinians,  rapidlj'  Russifying,  as  also  Tartars,  Tchuvashes, 
and  Bashkirs,  Germans  in  Samara  and  SaratotT,  and  Little  Russians 
in  the  last-named.  Only  in  Kazan  and  Astrakhan  do.  the  Great 
Russians  number  less  than  one  half  of  the  aggregate  population 
(42-43  per  cent.).  In  the  Ural  provinces  of  Perm  and  Vyatka 
Great  Russians  are  again  in  the  majority  (92  and  81  per  cent.),  the 
remainder  being  a  variety  of  Finno-Tartars.  It  is  only  in  the 
southern  Ural  governments  (Uralsk,  Orenburg,  Ufa)  that  the  ad- 
mixture of  a  vai-iety  of  Turco-Tartars— of  Kirghizes  in  Uralsk  (23 
percent.),  Bashkii-s  in  Orenburg  and  Ufa  (22  and  23  per  cent.), 
and   less  imjiortant   stems — becomes    considerable,    reducing   the 


number  of  Great  Russians  respectively  to  72,  67,  and  32  per  ceut> 
of  the  aggregate  population  of  these  three  provinces. 

Of  the  Turco-Tartars  of  eastern  Russia,  the  Bashkirs  often  revolted 
against  Russian  rule,  and  the  traffic  in  Bashkir  lands,  recently 
carried  on  by  the  Orenburg  administration,  certainly  does  not  tcna 
to  reconcile  them.  The  Tcheremisses  have  often  joined  tbf 
Bashkirs  in  their  revolts,  but  are  rapidly  losing  their  nationality. 
As  regards  the  other  Turco-  and  Finno-Tartars,  the  Mordviniam 
really  have  been  assimilated  to  the  Russians  ;  the  Moslem  Tartars 
of  Kazan  lived  till  recently  on  excellent  terms  with  their  Russiaa 
neighbours  and  would  have  continued  to  do  so  had  no  attempts 
been  made  to  interfere  with  their  land  laws. 

In  western  Russia,  while  an  antipathy  exists  between  Ukrainians 
and  Poles,  the  Russian  Government,  by  its  harassing  interference  in 
religious,  educational,  and  eeoiyimical  matters,  has  become  antagA 
onistic,  cot  only  to  the  Poles,  but  also  to  the  Ukrainians;  printing 
in  Ukrainian  is  prohibited,  and  "  Russification  "  is  being  carried  oa 
among  Ukrainians  by  the  same  means  as  those  employed  in  Poland. 
The  same  is  true  with  the  Esthes  and  Letts,  whom  the  Govern- 
ment, while  countenancing  them  to  some  extent  in  their  autipathy 
to  the  German  aristocracy,  has  not  yet  found  means  to  conciliate. 

The  relative  strength  of  the  difl'erent  ethnical  elements  of  which 
the  population  of  European  Russia  and  Poland  is  composed  may 
be  seen  from  the  followiug  figures  (Table  IV.).  They  must  be 
regarded,  however,  as  rough  estimates  only.  They  were  originally 
computed  by  M.  Kittioh  for  an  aggregate  population  of  69,788,240, 
and  in  the  following  table  they  have  merely  been  increased  in  ior(w 
portion  to  the  actual  population  of  84,495,000. 

Table  IV. 

Great  Russians 41,994,000 

Little  Russians 17,241,000 

White  Russians 4,330,000 


Russians 63,565,000 

Poles 6,750,000 

Bulgarians ' 110,000 

Czechs 9,500 

Serbs  9,500 


Total  Slavonians 

Lithuanians 987,000 

Zhmuds 771,000 

Letts 1,243,000 


69.{44,00« 


Letto-Lithuanians 

Greeks 

Roumanians,  and  French  (about  2000) . 


84,000 
795,000 


Graeco-Romans 

Germans  and  English 1,165,000 

Swedes 12,000 


a,001,OM 


879,000 


Saxons 

Armenians  and  Georgians. 
Tsigans 


Total  Aryans.. 


1,177,000 
43,000 
16,000 

74,560,000 


Jews 3,120,000 

Karaites 3,000 


Total  Semites.. 


Karelians 235,000 

Esthes 891,000 

Lives 2,000 

Various 175,000 


Baltic  Finns  . 


Lapps 

Samoyedes.. 


7,500 
6,500 


Korthern  Finns . 


Mordvs 

Tcheremisses.. 
Votiaks 


960,000 
311,000 
292,000 


VolgJ  Finns 

Zyrians 102,000 

Permians 80,000 

Voguls 2,000 


Ugriatfs 

Total  Ural-Altaians . 


3,123,000 

1,803,000 
14,000 

1,668,000. 

184,000 
3,064,000 


v'iTAL  STATISTICS.] 

Tapi.r  IV. — contmu'.d. 

Tchuvashea 697,000 

Tartars 1,500,000 

Baslikh^ 903,000 

Nescheriaks 167,000 

Tenters 159,000 

Kirghizes 197.000 

VarTous 6.000 

Turco-Tartars 

Kalmucks 

Total  Tur.inians 

Grand  Total 


R  U  «  !S  i  iv 


81 


8,629,000 
119,000 

3,748,000 

84,495,000' 


Paut  hi.  European  Russia— Statistics.' 
Russia  is  on  the  wliole  a  thinly-peopled  country,  the  average 
jiopulation  being  but  42  to  the  square  mile.  The  density  of 
population  varies,  however,  very  much  in  European  Russia — from 
one  inhabitant  per  square  mile  in  the  government  of  ^r. Iianf;el  to 
102  in  that  of  Moscow  (exclusive  of  the  cnpital)  and  138  iu 
Vodolia.  Two-thirds  of  the  whole  population  are  concentrated 
upon  h>s3  thua  one-third  of  the  whole  surface.  The  most  thickly- 
peopled  parts  form  a  strip  of  territory  which  extends  from 
Oalicia  through  KicfT  to  Moscow,  and  comprises  partly  the  most 
fertile  governments  of  Russia  and  partly  the  manufacturing  ones  ; 
next  come  a  strip  of  fertile  country  to  the  south  of  the  above  and 
the  manufacturing  jirovinces  of  the  upper  Volga.  The  black-ear'li 
region  has  an  average  of  90  inhabitants  )icrsqaare  mile;  tlie 
pcntnl  manufactuiing  region,  85  ;  the  western  provinces,  79  ;  the 
black-earth  and  ;lay  region,  38  ;  the  black-earth  Steppes,  33  ;  the 
hilly  tracts  of  the  Crimea  and  Caucasus,  31 ;  the  forest-region 
liroper,  26  ;  the  Steppes,  9  ;  the  far  north,  less  than  2. 

The  rate  at  which  the  population  is  increasinc'  throughout  the 
empire  is  very  considerable.  It  varies,  however,  very  much  in 
diderent  parts,  and  even  iu  European  Russia,  being  almost  twice 
as  high  in  the  fertile  tracts  of  the  south  as  it  is  in  the  north  (1-8 
to  i'O).  The  rajiid  increase  is  chielly  due  to  early  marriages,  the 
peasants  for  Uic  most  part  marrying  their  sons  at  eighteen  and  theu' 
daughters  at  sixteen.  The  resulting  high  birth-rate  compensates 
for  the  great  mortality,  and  the  Russian  popidation  is  increasing 
more  quickly  than  the  Polish,  Lithuanian,  Finnish,  or  Tartar.  In 
1S80  the  marriages,  births,  and  deaths  were  returned  as  follows 
(Table  V.)  :— 


Marriages. 

nirths. 

_      ,          Excess  of  Births 
Dcutlis.     1    over  Uenths. 

European  Russia.. 
Poland 

725,427  3,678,071 
62,771  1    294,021 
14,223        74,469 
32,952      180,802 

2,684,828 

189,514 

53,777 

131,793 

993,243 

104,507 

20,692 

49,009 

Eiuland  (1881) 

Total 

835,433  4.2''7.363 

3,059,912 

1,167,451 

These  fi;;ure3  agree  pretty  nearly  with  thoso  for  a  series  of 
Vcixrs  (1871-78),  wliicli  gave  an  ammal  surplus  of  945,000  for 
European  Hussia  alone.  In  1882,  tlirougliout  tlie  onipirc — leaving 
out  of  account  Caucasus  and  Turgui — tlie  births  numbeied 
4,'103,ri55  and  the  deaths  3,464,404,  lor  an  estimated  population 
of  95,565,100.  But  the  birth-rate  and  death-rate  were  very 
ilifh-rent  iu  Kussia  proper  and  in  the  Asiatic  dominions  ;  in  the 
former  they  reached  respectively  4'83  and  3'77,  and  in  the  latter 
only  3'75  and  2'84.  The  low  birth-rate  iu  Asia  counterbalances 
the  low  mortality.  So  al:^o  within  Unssia  proper  :  in  the  central 
provinces  the  high  mortality  (35  per  lliousand)  is  compensnted  by 
a  high  birth-rate  (40),  while  iu  tno  western  jirovinces,  where  the 
mortality  is  relatively  small  (27),  the  number  of  birlha  is  also  the 
lowest  (37). 

On  the  whole,  the  mortality  in  Russia  is  greater  tlian  anywhere 
else  iu  Europe.     The  lowest  figures  are  found  in  Courland  (20), 

'  '  Tiiblio>7raphtj.—\{\i\\K!\\.  EthwgrnphkaJ  ,^fnp  of  Hw^fa,  oni  Ftftttnrjf.  Com- 
fo%ttion  {I'lcmrttnoi  Sottar)  of  Itunsia  ;  Vcnukoff,  Outtlirts  of  Ki'stia  (llu^x.); 
Woris  of  ihe  Exprdttion  to  the  W'eftci-n  Provincrs;  Mem.  of  the  Oroyr.  Socift)/ 
lEtf\nograptnj)\  Mem.  of  the  Moscouf  Soc.  of  Frinidt  of  Nat.  Scieucr  (^Anthi-o- 
pofofjjf);  Paul!.  T/ie  Peoplra  of  Jimsia;  Narody  Ro%ii,  pm-ular  cilltlon  by  M. 
Mlin.  F'or  prclilstoilc  nntliropMlogy,  8co  Count  l*v.noff,  A>chtt!ofog\f,  1.;  Inos- 
IrHntscfT,  Prehittofk  Man  on  take  Ladoga;  Buililovlirh.  Piimilire  SUironiim', 
1879;  A.  HoKdunotrs  extensive  and  most  valunblc  ye^carc]\c»  \n  Mem.  of  Moscoip 
Soc.  of  Friendt  of  Nat.  A'c.;  tlio  icscaiclicB  of  Polynkoff  nml  mnny  othoia  In 
various  Bclcntiflc  pLMioiIicnls(St  IVlcisburfi.  Knznii  iinlvtrslilL-s);  nnd  Rtporit  of 
the  Archxol.  ijongrtnei.  For  subsequent  periods,  nee  mum  roiin  pnpcrs  In  Mt- 
tuoirt  of  Archa:ol.  Roe.,  Mem.  Ac.  of  Scirnee%,  ^c,  nnil  the  uoiks  of  Hiissian  hUro- 
rluns.  MeJihoff' 9  JiibHogr,  Indexei,  published  ymily  bv  tJio  Rn^ftilln  Grnui-aphlcal 
Society,  enntiiln  romplclo  Infoimation  iibout  works  and  pnj.cis  published. 

*  l-'or  nil  stniistirs  for  European  Kiissin,  sco  "Kecuiil  of  In(orniBtlon"  for 
Kuvopcnn  RuMin  In  1882  {Sboniik  Srrdriiiu),  pulilNhe«l  In  1R84  by  the  Conlrnl 
SinflsTi'.-iil  Committee,  uiU  tlio  pubUcutluus  mcntlui.eU  bctuw  uuilor  dltfercnt 
tii  acis-  * 

21-5 


the  Baltic  provinces  (22),  and  Poland  (30).  Within  Russia  itself 
the  rate  varies  between  29  and  49  (30  to  38  iu  towns).  Iu  1882 
the  average  mortality  in  the  13  central  governments  reached  tho 
excei)tional  figure  of  62,  so  that  there  was  a  decrease  of  1  '7  per 
cent,  in  the  aggregate  population.  The  mortality  is  highest 
among  children,  only  one-naif  of  those  born  reaching  their  seventh 
year.  From  military  reptisters  it  appears  that  of  1000  males  bom 
only  480  to  490  reach  their  twenty-first  year,  and  of  these  only 
375  are  able-bodied  ;  of  the  remainder,  who  are  unfit  for  military 
service,  50  per  cent,  suffer  from  chronic  diseases.  Misery,  insani< 
tary  dwellings,  and  want  of  food  account  for  this>higk  mortality, 
wliich  is  further  increased  by  the  want  of  medical  help,  there  being 
in  Kussia  with  Poland  only  15,348  males  and  66  female  surgeon^ 
7679  assistants,  and  one  bed  in  hospital  for  every  1270  inhabitants. 
The  hospitals  are,  however  so  unequally  distributed,  that  in  63 
governments  having  an  aggregate  country  population  of  abou> 
76,000,000  there  were  only  657  hospitals  with  8273  beds,  and  an 
average  of  two  surgeons  to  100,000  inhabitants. 

The  rate  of  emigration  from  the  Russian  empire  is  not  high.  IiJ 
1871-80  the  average  number  was  280,700  yearly,  nnd  tho  immigra- 
tion 245,500.  But  within  tho  empire  itself  migration  to  South 
Ural,  Siberia,  and  Caucasus  goes  on  extensively  ;  figures,  however, 
even  approximate,  are  wanting.  During  the  ten  years  1872-81  no 
less  than  406,180  Geimtns  and  235,600  Austrians  immigrated  into 
Russia,  chiefly  to  Poland  and  the  south-western  provinces. 

A  very  great  diversity  of  religions,  including  (besides  numerous 
varieties  of  Christianity)  Molinmmedanism,  Shamanism,  and 
Buddhism,  are  found  in  European  Russia,  corresponding  for  the 
most  part  with  the  separate  ethnological  subdivisions.  All 
Russians,  with  the  exception  of  a  number  of  White  Russians  who 
belong  to  the  Union,  profess  the  Greek  Orthodox  faith  or  one  oi' 
other  of  the  numberless  varieties  of  nonconformity.  The  Poles 
and  most  of  the  Lithuanians  are  Roman  Catholics.  Tho  Esthes 
ami  all  other  Western  Finns,  the  Germans,  and  the  Swedes 
arc  Protestant.  The  Tartars,  tho  Bashkirs,  and  Kirghizes  are 
Jlohammedans;  but  the  last-named  have  to  a  great  extent 
maintained  along  with  Moliammedanism  their  old  Shamanism. 
The  same  liolds  good  of  the  Wescheriaks,  both  Jloslem  ami 
Cliristian.  The  Mordvinians  are  nearly  all  Greek  Ortliodox,  as 
also  are  the  Votiaks,  Yoguls,  Tchereniisses,  and  Tcluivashcs,  but 
their  religioi's  are,  in  reality,  very  interesting  modifications  of 
Slmnianl<m,  upder  the  influence  of  some  Christian  nnd  Moslem 
beliefs.  The  Voguls,  though  baptized,  arc  iu  fact  fetichists,  as 
luuoh  as  the  unconverted  Samoyedes.  Finall/,  the  Kalmucks  are 
BuJdhi-t  Lainaites.  ,    . 

All  these  religions  are  ir.ct  with  in  close  proximity  to  one 
another,  a:'d  thnir  places  of  worship  often  stand  side  by  side  in  the 
same  town  or  village  without  giving  rise  to  religious  disturbances. 
The  recent  outbreaks  against  the  Jews  Were  directed,  not  against 
tho  Talmudist  creed,  but  against  the  trading  and  exploiting 
community  of  the  "Kahal."  In  his  relations  with  Moslems, 
Buddhists,  and  even  fetichists,  the  Russian  peasant  looks  rather  to 
conduct  than  to  creed,  the  latter  being  in  his  view  simply  a  matter 
of  nationality.  Indeed,  towards  paganism,  at  least,  ho  is  perhaps 
even  more  than  tolerant,  prclcrring  on  the  whole  to  keep  on  good 
terms  with  pagan  divinities,  and  in  difficult  circumstances — 
especially  on  travel  and  in  hunting— not  tailing  to  present  to  them 
his  offering.  Any  idea  of  proselytism  is  quite  foreign  to  ths 
ordinary  Russian  mind,  and  tho  outbursts  of  proselytizing  zeal 
occasionally  manifested  by  the  clergy  are  really  due  to  the  desire 
for'"Russification,"  and  traceable  to  the  inlluence  of  tho  higher 
clergy  and  of  the  Government.  . 

The  various  creeds  of  European  Russia  were  estimated  in  18(9 
as  follows  :— Greek  Orthodox  and  R.iskolniks,  03,836,000  (about 
l'>,000,000  being  Raskolni\s)  ;  United  Greeks  and  Arnienio- 
Grcorians,  55,000  ;  Romat  Catholics,  8,300,000  ;  Protestants, 
2,95"o,000  ;  Jews,  3,000,000  ;  jloslems,  2,600,000  ;  Pagans,  26,000. 
In  1831  tho  number  of  Greek  Orthodox  throughout  the  empire, 
excluding  two  foreign  bishoprics,  was  estimated  at  61,941,000.  _ 

Nonconformity  (Kaskol)  is  a  most  important  feature  of  Russian' 
popular  life,  an.l  its  influence  and  prevalence  hnve  rapidly  grown 
during  the  last  twenty-five  years. 

When,  towards  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  tho  Moscow 
principality  fell  under  the  rule  of  the  Moscow  iiimr»(oiie  of  whom, 
Godunoir,  reached  tho  throne),  they  took  advantage  of  the  power 
thus  acquired  to  increase  tlu;ir  wealth  by  a  .•scriisof  measures  nllccl- 
iiig  land-holding  and  trade;  they  sanctioned  and  enforced  by  law 
tho  serfdom  which  had  already  from  economical  causes  found  tU 
"way  into  Russian  life.  Tho  great  outbreak  of  ]608-)2  wcnkoncrt 
their  power  in  favour  of  that  of  the  czar,  but  without  breaking  it ; 
and  throughout  tho  reigns  of  JIiiha.1  nnd  Alexis  the  uhi:r3  were 
i.ssucd  ill  tho  name  of  "the  czar  and  boiars."  Serfdom  was  rein- 
forced by  a  series  of  laws,  and  tho  whole  of  tho  17lli  century  is  char- 
acterized by  a  rapid  accumulation  of  wealth  in  the  hands  of  boinrs, 
by  tho  development  of  luxury,  imported  from  rolniid,  nnd  by  the 
strugfilo  of  a  number  of  families  to  acquire  the  poliliciil  ]>uwc» 
already  enjoyed   by  their  Polish  neighbours.     Tho  »nine  tondcnoj 


82 


II  U  IS  S  I  A 


[nonconfoemi^ts. 


pervaded  the  cTiurcli,  ■which  was  also  accused  by  the  people  of  having 
introduced  "Polish  luxury,"  "Polish  creed,"  and  the  tendencies 
fowards  supremacy  of  the  Polish  clergy.  The  patriarch  Nikon  was 
a.  perfect  representative  of  these  tendencies.  Opposition  resulted, 
and  the  revision  of  the  sacred  books,  which  was  undertaken  by 
Nikon,  gave  the  opposition  acute  character.  The  Haskoi  {lit. 
"  splitting "  or  " schism  ")  made  its  appearance,  and  gatliered  umler 
its  banner,  not  only  those  who  accused  Nikon  of  "Polish"  and 
"  Latin  "  tendencies,  but  also  all  thoSe'who  were  for  the  old  customs, 
for  federative  and  communist  principles  of  social  organization, 
and  who  revolted  against  serfdom,  centralization,  and  the  suppres- 
sion of  municipal  life.  A  series  of  insurrections  broke  out  ujider 
the  banner  of  thq  "  eight-ends  "  cross  of  the  Easlcolniks.  Barbarous 
persecutions  by  Alexis,  Peter  I.,  and  their  followers  did  not  kill  out 
an  opposition  which  inspired  with  fanatical  enthusiasm  the  best 
elements  among  the  Great  Russians,  and  induced  its  supporters  to 
feubmit  to  the  fire  by  thousands  at  a  time,  whUe  others  rather  than 
Bubmit  went  to  colonize  the  forests  of  the  Arctic  littoral,  or  betook 
themselves  to  Siberia.  Profound  modifications  have  taken  place 
jn  Russian  nonconformity  iJnce  its  first  appearance.  It  would  be 
impossible  to  enumerate  "them  all  here,  but  the  following  points 
of  primary  importance  must  be  mentioned.  (1)  The  mere  protest 
kgainst  Nikon's  "inuovatious"  ()iOt)s7i«(iias)  led,  in  the  course  of 
two  centuries,  to  a  mere  servile  adlierence  to  the  letter  of  the  ver- 
nacular Scriptures — even  to  obvious  errors  of  earlier  translators — 
and  to  interminable  discussions  about  minor  points  of  ritual  and 
about  unintelligible  words,  (2)  Another  current  which  now  per- 
vades the  whole  of  Russian  noncoiiformity  is  that  proceeding  from 
rationalist  sects  which  had  already  spread  in  north-west  Russia  in 
the  16th  century,  and  even  in  the  14th.  These  have  given  rise  to' 
several  sects  which  deny  the  divinity  of  Christ  or  explain  away 
various  dogmas  and  prescriptions  of  orthodoxy.  (3)  Protestantism, 
with  its  more  or  less  rationalistic  tendencies,  has  made  itself  in- 
creasingly felt,  especially  during  the  present  century  and  in  southern 
Russia,  (i)  Hostile  critics  of  the  Government,  and  especially  of 
the  autocracy,  with  its  army  of  officials'  and  its  system  of  con- 
scriptions, passports,  and  various  restrictions  on  religious  liberty, 
are  found  more  or  less  in  all  the  nonconforming  bodies,  which  see 
in  these  manifestations  of  authority  the  appearance  of  the  Anti- 
christ. Several  of  them  refuse  accordingly  to  have  any  dealings 
xvhatever  with  the  official  world.  (B)  Another  tendency  pervading 
the  whole  of  Russian  nonconformity  is  that  which  seeks  a  return 
to  what  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  old  communist  principles  of 
Christianity  in  its  earlier  days.  All  new  sects  start  with  applying 
these  priuciples  to  practical  Ufe  ;  but  in  the  course  of  their  develop- 
ment they  modify  them  more  or  less,  though  always  maintaining 
the  principle  at  least  of  mutual  help.  (6)  Finally,  all  sects  deal  more 
or  less  with  the  (question  of  marriage  ajid  the  position  of  woman. 
A  few  of  them  solve  it  by  encouraging, — at  least  during  their 
"love-feasts," — absolutely  free  relations  between  all  "  brethren  and 
sisters,"  while  others  only  admit  the  dissolubility  of  marriage  or 
prohibit  it  altogether.  On  the  whole,  leaving  the  extremer  views 
out  of  account,  the  position  of  woman  is  undoubtedly  higher  among 
the  dissenters  than  among  the. Orthodox. 

These  various  currents,  combining  with  and  counteracting  one 
another  in  the  most  complicated  ways,  have  played  and  continue  to 
play  a  most  important  part  in  Russian  history.  The  mutual  assist- 
ance found  in  dissenting  sects  has  preserved  many  millions  of 
peasants  from  falling  into  abject  misery,  the  nonconformists  enjoy- 
ing, as  a  rule,  a  greater  degree  of  prosperity  than  their  Orthodox 
neighbours.  The  leading  feature  of  Russian  history,  the  spread  of 
the  Great  Russians  over  the  immense  territory  they  now  occupy, 
cannot  be  rightly  understood  without  taking  into  account  the 
colonization  of  the  most  inaccessible  wildernesses  by  Raskolniks, 
and  the  organization  of  this  by  their  communities,  who  send  dele- 
gates for  the  choice  of  land  and  sometimes  clear  it  in  common  by  the 
united  labours  of  all  the  young  men  and  cattle  of  the  community. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  nonconforming  sects,  while  helping  to 
preserve  several  advantageous  features  of  Russian  life,  have  had  a 
powerful  influence  in  maintaining,  especially  among  the  "  Staroobr- 
*adtsy,"  the  old  system  of  the  jloscovite  family,  subject  to  the 
iBspotic  yoke  of  its  chief,  and  hermetically  sealed  against  instruc- 
|ion. 

-It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  since  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs 
flbnconformity  has  again  made  a  sudden  advance,  the  more  radical 
eects  preponderating  over  the  scholastic  ones,  and  the  influence 
of  Protestantism  being  increasingly  felt.  Nonconformity,  which 
formerly  had  no  hold  upon  Little  Russia  (though  it  had  penetrated 
among  Protestant  Esthonians  and  Letts,  and  even  among  Moslem 
Tartars),  has  suddenly  begun  to  make  progress  there  in  the  shape  of 
the  "Stunda,"  a  mixture  of  Protestant  and  rationalistic  teaching, 
with  tendencies  towards  a  social  but  rarely  socialistic  reforma- 
tion. 

The  Russian  dissenting  sects  may  be  subdivided  into  (1)  the 
"Popovtsy"  (who  have  priests),  (2)  the  "  Bezpopovtsy  "  (who  have 
none),  and  (3)  numerous  spiritualist  sects,  "Dukhovnyie  Khris- 
tiane."    The  Popovtsy  (5  to  6  millions)  are  again  subdivided  into 


two  classes, — those  who  recognize  the  Austri.in  hierarchy,  and  those 
who  have  only  Orthodox  "runaway  priests"  (" Byeglopopov tsy "). 
The  latter  have  recently  received  unexpected  help  in  the  accessioD 
of  three  Orthodox  priests  of  great  learning  and  energy.  Moreover, 
there  are  among  the  Popovtsy  about  a  million  of  "  Edinovyertsy," 
who  have  received  Orthodox  priests  on  the  condition  of  their  keeping 
to  tlie  unrevised  books.     They  are  patronized  by  Government. 

The  Bezpopovtsy  embody  three  large  sects — the  Pomory,  Fedo- 
seevtsy,  and  Kilipovtsy — and  a  variety  of  minor  ones.  They  recog- 
nize no  priests,  and  repudiate  the  Orthodox  ritual  and  the  sacra- 
nients.  They  avoid  all  contact  with  the  state,  and  do  not  allow 
prayer  for  the  czar,  who"is  regarded' as  the  Antichrist.  They  may 
number  about  5,000,000  in  west,  north,  and  north-east  Russia,  ana 
represent,  on  the  whole,  an-  intellectually  developed  and  wealthy 
population.  Of  the  very  numerous  smaller  sects  of  Bezpopovtsy, 
the  "Stranniki"  (Euants)  are  worthy  of  notice.  They  prefer  to 
lead  the  life  of  hunted  outcasts  rather  than  hold  any  relation  with 
the  state. 

The  spiritualists,  very  numerous  in  central  and  southern  Russia, 
are  subdivided  into  a  great  variety  of  schools.  Tlie  "  Khlysty,"  who 
have  their  "love-feasts,"  their  Virgin.s,"  sometimes  flagellation, 
and  so  on,  represent  a  numerous  and  strong  organization  in  central 
Russia.  The  "Skoptsy"  ("Men  of  God,"  Castrati")  occur  every- 
where, even  among  the  Finns,  but  chiefly  in  Orel  and  Kursk,  and 
in  towns  as  money-brokers.  The  "Dukhobortsy"  communities 
(warriors  of  the  Spirit),  chiefly  found  in  the  south-east,  are  renowned 
as  colonizers.  They  are  spreading  rapidly  in  Caucasia  and  Siberia. 
The  "  Molokany "  (a  kind  of  Baptists),  numbering  perhaps  about 
one  million,  are  spread  also  in  the  south-east,  and  are  excellent 
gardeners  and  tradesmen.  Both  are  quite  open  to  instruction,  and 
have  come  under  the  influence  of  Protestantism,  like  the  "Stunda" 
in  Little  Russia  and  Bessarabia.  The  "  Sabbathers"  and  the  "  Ska- 
kuny  "  (a  kind  of  Shakers)  are  also  wcrthy  of  notice ;  while  a  great 
variety  of  new  sects,  such  as  the  "Nemolyaki"  ("who  do  not 
prav"),  the  "  Vozdykhateli "  ("who  sigh"),  the  "Neplatelshchiki" 
("who  do  not  pay  taxes"),  tho  "Ne-Nashi"  (the  "Not-ours"),  and 
so  on,  spring  up  every  year. 

The  aggregate  number  of  Raskolniks  is  officially  stated  at  nearly 
one  million,  but  this  is  quite  misleading.  The  ministry  of  ipterior 
estiinated  them  at  9,000,000  in  1S50  and  9,500,000  in  1859.  lu 
reality  the  number  is  still  liigher..  In  Perm  alone  they  were  recently 
computed  at  a  million,  and  there  would  be  no  exaggeration  in  esti- 
mating them  at  a  total  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  millions.' 

The  old  subdivisions  of  the  population  into  orders  possessed  of 
unequal  rights  is  still  maintained.  The  great  mass  of  the  people, 
81 '6  per  cent.,  belong  to  the  peasant  order,  tho  others  being — 
nobilitj',  1"3  per  cent.;  clergy,  0'9;  the  "meschane"  or  burghers 
and  merchants,  9'3;  military,  6'1;  foreigners,  0'2;  unclassified, 
0'5.  Thus  more  than  63  millions  of  the  Russians  are  peasants. 
Half  of  them  were  formerly  serfs  (i0,447,149  males  in  1858), — 
the  remainder  being  "state  peasants"  (9;lfl4,891  males  in  1858, 
exclusive  of  the  Archangel  government)  and  "  domain  peasants " 
(842,740  males  the  same  year). 

The  serfdom  which  had  sprung  up  in  Russia  in  the  16th  century, 
and  became  consecrated  by  law  in  1609,  taking,  however,  nearly 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  to  attain  its  full  growth  arid  assume 
the  forms  under  which  it  appeared  in  the  present  century,  was 
abolished  by  law  in  186].  This  law  liberated  the  serfs  from  t 
yoke  which  was  really  terrible,  even  under  the  best  landV>r<fej- aial 
from  this  point  of  view  it  was  obviously  an  immense  benefit,  the 
results  of  which  arc  apparent  now.  But  it  was  far  from  securing 
corresponding  economic  results.  Along  with  the  enrichment  o\ 
the  few,  a  general  impoverishment  of  the  great  mass  followed,  and 
took  proportions  so  alarming  as  to  arouse  public  attention  and  tt 
result  in  a  great  number  of  serious  investigations  conducted  by 
tho  state,  the  provincial  assemblies,  scientific  societies,  and  private 
statisticians.  Th6  general  results  of  these  inquiries  may  be 
summed  up  in  the  subjoined  statement. 

The  former  "dvorovyie,"  attached,  to  the  personal  service  of 
their  masters,  were  merely  set  free  ;  and  they  entirely  went  ta 
reinforce  the  town  proletariat.  The  peasants  proper  received  theit 
houses  and  orchards,  and  also  allotments  of  arable  land.  These 
allotments  were  given  over  to  the  rural  commune  (mir),  which  was 
made  responsible,  as  a  whole,  for  the  payment  of  taxes  ibr  the  allot- 
ments. The  size  of  the  allotments  was  determined  by  a  maximum 
and  by  a  minimum,  which  last,  however,  could  bo  still  further 
reduced  if  the  amount  of  land  remaining  in  tho  landlord's  hands 
was  less  than  one  half  of  what  was  allotted  to  the  peasants.  For 
these  allotments  the  peasants  had  to  pay,  as  before,  either  by  per-J 
sonal  labour  (twenty  to  forty  men's  days  and  fifteen  \o  thirtv 
women's  days  per  year),  or  by  a  fixed  rent  ("  obrok"),  which  varieii 
from  8  to  12  roubles  per  allotment.  As  long  as  tliese  relatioua 
subsisted,  the  peasants  were  considered  as  "  temporarily  obliged" 
{vreinenno  obyazannyie).     On  January  1, 1882,  they  still  numbered 

>  See  Schapoff  on  Rufiian  Ra^kot\  Sbomik  of  State  Retjulationi  against  the 
Raskolnits  ;  and  very  many  papers  piinled  in  rovieAvs,  chkfly  in  otttcii.  ZapisHt 
DijetOf  Vt/ettnii  £croj>i\  ^tc.,  by  Scliapuff,  Yuzuff,  i'rugavin,  Rozoff,  &C. 


Class 
divisioi 


I 


CLASS     DIVIi, 


lOXS.J 


11  U  S  S  I  A 


83 


1,422,012  males;  but  this  category  is  now  disappearing  in  conse- 
iiucnce  of  a  recent  law  (December  28,  1S81). 

Tlio  allottiieuts  could  bo  redeemed  by  tlio  peasants  with  tbo 
liclp  of  the  crown,  and  then  the  peasants  were  freed  from  all  obliga- 
tions to  tlie  landlord.  The  crown  paid  the  landlord  in  obligations 
representing  the  capitalized  "obrol:,"  and  the  peasants  had  to  pay 
the  crown,  for  forty-nine  years,  6  per  cent,  interest  on  this  capital, 
that  is,  9  to  12  roubles  per  allotment.  If  the  redemption  was 
niado  without  the  consent  of  ihtr  peasants— on  a  mere  demand  of 
the  landlord,  or  in  consequence  of  his  being  in  arrear  for  the  pay- 
ment of  his  debts  to  the  nobility  hypothec  bank — the  value  of 
the  redemption  was  reduced  by  one-fifth.  Tlie  redemption  was 
not  calculated  on  the  value  of  the  allotments,  but  was  considered 
as  a  compensation  for  the  loss  of  the  compulsory  labour  of  the 
serfs  ;  so  that  throughout  Russia,  with  the  c^iception  of  a  few  pro- 
vinces in  the  south-east,  it  was — and  still  remains  notwithstanding 
a  very  great  increase  of  the  value  of  land— much  higher  than  the 
market  value  of  tho  allotment  Moreover,  taking  advantage"  of 
the  ma.\imura  law,  many  proprietors. cut  away  large  parts  of  tho 
allotments  tho  peasants  possessed  under  serfdom,  and  precisely 
the  parts  the  peasants  were  most  in  need  of,  namely,  pasture 
lands  around  their  houses,  and  forests.  On  tho  whole,  tho 
tendency  was  to  give  tho  allotments  so  as  to  deprive  the  peasants 
of  grazing  land  and  thus  to  compel  them  to  rent  pasture  lands 
from  the  landlord  at  any  pric«. 

Tho  present  condition  of  the  peasants— according  to  official  docu- 
ments— appears  to  be  as  follows.  In  the  twelve  central  governments 
the  jreasants,  on  the  average,  have  their  own  rye-bread  for  only 
200  days  per  year, — often  for  only  ISO  and  100  days.  One  quarter 
of  them  have  received  allotments  of  only  2'9  acres  per  male,  and 
one  half  less  than  8'5  to  11'4  acres, — the  normal  size  of  the 
allotment  necessary  to  the  subsistence  of  a  family  under  the  thrce- 
lields  system  being  estimated  at  28  to  42  acres.  Land  must  be 
ihns  rented  from  the  landlords  at  fabulous  prices.  Cattle-breeding 
is  diminishing  to  an  alarming  degree.  The  average  redemption  is 
8 '56  roubles  (about  17s.)  for  such  allotments,  and  the  smaller  the 
allotment  the  heavier  tho  payment,  its  first  "dessiatina"  (2'86 
acres)  costing  twice  as  nwich  as  the  second,  and  four  times  as  much 
as  the  third.  In  all  these  governments,  the  state  commission 
testifies,  there  are  whole  districts  where  one-third  of  the  peasants 
have  received  allotments  of  only  2 '9  to  5 '8  acres.  The  aggregate 
value  of  the  redemption  and  land-taxes  often  reaches  from  185 
to  275  per  cent,  of  the  normal  rental  value  of  the  allotments,  not 
to  speak  of  taxes  for  recruiting  purposes,  the  church,  roads,  local 
administration,  and  so  on,  chiefly  levied  from  peasants.  The 
arrears  increase  every  year  ;  one-lilth  of  the  inhabitants  have  left 
their  houses  ;  cattle  are  disappearing.  Every  year  more  than  half 
the  adult  males  (in  some  districts  three-fourths  of  the  men  and 
one-third  of  the  women)  leave  their  homes  and  wander  throughout 
Russia  in  search  of  labour.  The  state  peasants  are  only  a  little 
better  off. 

Such  is  the  state  of  affairs  in  central  Russia,  and  it  would  be  use- 
less to  multiply  figures,  repeating  nearly  the  same  details.  In  the 
eight  governments  of  the  black-earth  region  the  state  of  matters  is 
hardly  better.  Many  peasants  took  the  "gratuitous  allotments," 
whose  amount  was  about  one-ei"hth  of  the  normal  ones. 

The  average  allotment  in  Kherson  is  now  only  0  90  acre,  and 
for  allotments  from  2'9  to  5'8  acres  they  pay  from  5  to  10  roubles 
of  redemption  tax.  The  state  peasants  are  better  off,  but  still 
they  are  emigrating  in  masses.  It  is  only  in  the  Steppe  govern- 
ments that  the  situation  is  more  hopeful.  In  Little  Russia,  where 
the  allotments  were  personal  (tho  viir  existing  only  among  state 
peasants),  the  state  of  affairs  does  not  differ  for  the  better  on 
occount  of  the  high  redemption  taxes.  In  tho  western  provinces, 
where  the  land  was  valued  cheaper  and  the  allotments  somewhat 
increased  after  tho  Polish  insurrection,  the  general  situation  might 
bo  better  were  it  not  for  the  former  misery  of  peasants.  Finally, 
in  the  Baltic  provinces  nearly  all  (he  land  belongs  to  German 
landlords,  who  either  carry  on  agriculture  themselves,  with  hired 
labourers,  or  rent  their  land  as  small  farms.  Only  one-fourth  of 
tho  peasants  are  farmers,  tho  remainder  being  mere  labourers,  who 
are  emigrating  in  great  numbers. 

Tho  situation  of  tho  former  serf-proprietors  is  also  unsatisfactory. 
Accustomed  to  tho  use  of  compulsory  labour,  they  have  failed  to 
accommodate  themselve^  to  the  now  conditions.  Tho  700,000,000 
roubles  of  redemiition  money  received  from  tho  crown  down  to  1877 
by  71,000  landed  proprietors  in  Russia  have  been  spent  without 
accomplishing  any  agricultural  improvement.  The  forests  have 
been  sold,  and  olily  those  landlords  ore  prospering  who  exact  rack- 
rents  for  the  land  without  which  tho  peasants  could  not  livo  upon 
their  allotments. 

As  showing  a  better  aspect  of  tho  situation  it  must  bo  added 
that  in  eighty-five  districts  of  Russia  tho  pearants  havo  bought 
6,349,000  acres  of  land  since  1861.  But  these  are  mostly  village- 
traders  and  grain-lenders  (kulaks).  A  real  exception  can  be  made 
only  for  Tver,  where  63,474  householders  united  in  communities 
have  bought  633,240  acres  of  land.     There  has  been  an  increase  of 


wealth  among  the  few,  but  along  v.-ith  this  a  general  impoverish- 
ment of  tho  mass  of  tlie  people.' 

The  ancient  Scandinavians  described  Russia  as  Garaariki, — the  The 
country  of  towns, — and  until  now  Great  Russia  has  raaintaiLed  villagu 
this  character.     The  dwellings  of  the  peasantry  are  not  scattered  couudub 
over  the  face  of  the  countr}',  but  aggregated  in  villages,  where  they  if  y. 
are  built  in  a  street  or  streets.     Tliis  grouping  in  villages  has  its 
origin  in  the  bonds  which  unite  the  peasants  in  tho  village  com- 
munity— the  mir,  or  the  obshchina. 

■\Vhcn  Haxthausen  first  described  the  Great  Russian  mir,  it  was 
considered  a  peculiarity  of  the  Slavonian  race, — a  view  which  is 
no  longer  tenable.  The  mir  is  the  Great  Rusbian  equivalent  for 
the  German,  Dutch,  and  Swiss  "mark  "  or  "allmend,  the  English 
"township,"  the  French  "commune,"  the  Polish  "gmina,"  tho 
South  Slavonian  "zadrura,"  the  Finnish  "pittaya,"  &.c;  and  it 
very  nearly  approaches,  though  diflering  from  them  in  some  essen- 
tial features,  the  forms  of  possession  of  land  jirevailing  among  the 
Moslem  Turco-Tartars,  while  the  same  principle  is  found  even 
among  the  Mongol  Buriat  shepherds  and  the  Tungus  hunters. 

The  following  are  the  leading  features  of  tho  organization  of  the 
mir  among  the  Great  Russians. 

Tho  whole  of  the  land  occupied  by  a  village— whoever  be  the 
landlord  recognized  by  law — the  state,  a  private  person,  or  a 
juridical  unity,  such  as  the  voisl-o  of  the  Cossacks — is  considered 
as  belonging  to  the  village  community  as  a  whole,  the  separate 
members  of  tho  community  having  only  the  right  of  temporary 
jiossession  of  such  part  of  the  common  property  as  will  be  allowed 
to  them  by  the  mir  in  proportion  to  their  working  power.  To 
this  right  corresponds  the  obligation  of  bearing  an  adequate  part 
of  the  charges  which  may  fall  upon  the  community.  If  any 
produce  results  from  the  common  work  of  the  community,  each 
member  has  a  right  to  an  equal  part  of  it. 

According  to  these  general  principles,  the  arable  land  is  divided 
into  as  many  lots  as  there  are  working  units  in  the  community, 
and  each  family  receives  as  many  lots  as  it  has  working  units.  The 
unit  is  usually  one  male  adult ;  but,  when  the  working  power  of 
a  large  family  is  increased  by  its  containing  a  numbelr  of  adult 
women,  or  boys  approaching  adult  age,  this  circumstance  is  takeu 
into  account,  as  well  as  the  diminution  from  any  cause  of  working 
power  in  other  households. 

For  dividing  the  arable  land  into  lots,  the  whole  is  parted  first 
into  three  "fields,"  according  to  tho  three-field  rotation  of  crops. 
As  each  field,  however,  contains  land  of  various  qualities,  it  is  in 
its  turn  subdivided  into,  say,  three  parts— of  good,  average,  and 
poor  quality  ;  and  each  of  these  parts  is  subdivided  into  as  many 
lots  as  there  are  working  units.  Each  household  receives  its  lots 
in  each  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  "field,"  a  carefully  minute 
equalization  as  to  the  minor  differences  between  the  lots  being 
aimed  at ;  and  the  partition  is  nearly  always  made  so  as  to  permit 
each  householder  to  reach  his  allotment  without  passing  through 
that  of  another. 

To  facilitate  this  division,  the  community  divides,  first,  into 
smaller  groups  (t')/J,  zherclycvka,  a  "ten,"an  "eight,"  &c.),  each  of 
which  is  composed,  by  free  selection,  of  a  number  of  householders 
— the  community  only  taking  care  that  each  shall  not  be  composed 
of  rich,  of  poor,  or  of  "  turbulents" -e.xclusively.  The  division  of 
the  land  is  first  made  among  such  groups,  and  the  subdivision  goes 
on  within  these.  The  division  into  groups  facilitates  also  the  dis- 
tribution of  such  work  as  the  community  may  have  to  accomplish — 
as  when  a  bridge  or  a  ditcu  has  to  be  repaired,  or  a  meadow  mowed 
— and  the  work  cannot  bo  done  by  the  community  as  a  whole. 

As  sickness,  death,  removal,  and  other  incidents  bring  about 
changes  in  the  distribution  of  working  power  among  the  different 
households,  or  when  tho  number  of  working  units  in  the  com- 
munity has  increased  or  decreased,  a  redistribution  of  land 
(jicrcdijcl)  follows.  Whether  tho  land  bo  a  burden  (tho  taxes 
exceeding  its  rental  value)  or  a  benefit,  its  division  is  equalized  ; 
tho  households  whoso  working  power  has  increased  receive  ad- 
ditional lots,  and  vice  versa.  The  peredycl  may  be  "partial "or 
"general."  In  most  cases  a  mere  equalization  of  lots' ntiionR 
several  families  will  serve,  and  a  general  redistribution  is  resorted 
to  only  when  greater  inequalities  have  arisen.  On  tho  whole, 
these  redistributions  are  rare,  and  tho  precariousness  of  land- 
holding  which  has  been  supposed  to  bo  a  consequence  of  tho  mir 
proves  to  havo  been  exaggerated.     Moro  detailed  inquiries  havo 

*  See  Ynnson's  Researches  on  Attotmetits  and  Pavments  (2J  ed..  IMl)  nml  Com- 

parative  Stalisties  of  Russia  (vol.  il.);  .*•■'■'' '  '  ■■  '    '   *'- ■ '   '  ''ctl 

by  Central  StiilUtlcnl  Cominiitco  ;  works  "f  iio 

of  tho  Commlitco  of  Inquiry  Into  Petty  I  ti. 

mission  on  A'}rifuHure\  CoUtttion  ^*  ^t''  ........y,   ■-..1.); 

Collection  o/AfateriftIt  on  Landhv!:  ions  of  Scpnialo 

Govcninicnts,  putiIi»)R-d  by  siverul  .  nl,  Tula,  Ityaian, 

Tumboff,  Pdhuvn,  SnvfttolT,  Ac.);     i. .         .   ;   ■.  .u/ion;    Vaitllirhl- 

koff,  Land  J'roperlj/  and  Agticutlure  \i  miI^.j,  iikiJ  1  tii'ii'jc  i.yfe  and  AgrieMtturt\ 
IviinilkofT,  Tl^e  Fait  of  Serfdom  in  Ai'iiid  ;  .SlinBltkoff,  "  Pvi»antiy  In  the  Hiillij 
Provlncfj,"  In  Rusilaya  Hysl,  ISHfl,  III.  unit  Ix.;  V  Y.,  Ai/ric.  Sketches  o/liussia; 
(loUnutclioff.  Capital  and  Peasant  f'arminy;  EniIcl)inriU*a  Leittvs  frcm  !*• 
i'i'uiitry;  ninny  ctiiborato  |<n[>riii  In  rcvluws  (all  Ituulan);  anU  Ai'i'CDtilx  to 
Uuulun  tBanBlutiuii  of  Rcctus'a  Qtogr.  Vniv, 


84 


K  a  S  S  i  A 


[village  communities^ 


jKown  that  no  redistiibution  is  made  without  urgent  necessity. 
Thus,  to  quote  but  one  instance,  in  4442  village  communities  of 
Moscow,  the  average  number  of  redistributions  has  been  2"1  in 
twenty  years  (1858-78),  and  in  more  than  two-thirds  of  these 
communities .  the  redistribution,  took  place  only  once.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  regular  rotation  of  all  households  ovr  all 'lots,  in 
prder  to  equalize  the  remaining  minor  inequalities,  is  very  often 
practised  in  the  black-earth  region,  where  no  manure  is  needed. 

Besides  the  arable  mark,  there  is  usually  a  vi/gon{or  "common  '*) 
for  grazing,  to  which  all  householders  send  their  cattle,  whatever 
the  number  they  possess.  The  meadows  ai'e  either  divided  on  the 
jibove  principles,  or  mowed  in  common,  and  the  hay  divided 
according  to  the  number  of  lots.  The  forests,  when  consisting  of 
small  wood  in  sufficient  quantity,  are  laid  under  no  regulations  ; 
When  this  is  scarce,  every  trunk  is  counted,  and  valued  according 
to  its  age,  number  of  branches,  &c.,  and  the  whole  is  divided  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  lots. 

fhe  houses  and  the  orchards  behind  them  belong  also,  in  prin- 
ciple, to  the  community  ;  but  no  peredyel  is  made,  e.\cept  after  a 
fire  or  when  the  necessity  arises  of  building  the  houses  at  greater 
distances  apart.  The  orchards  usually  remain  for  years  in  the 
game  hands,  with  bui  slow  equalizations  of  the  lots  in  width. 

All  decisions  in  the  village  community  are  given  by  the  mir, 
that  is,  by  Mie  general  assembly  of  all  householders, — women  being 
admitted  on  »n  equal  footing  with  men,  when  widows,  or  when  their 
male  guardians  are  absent.  For  the  decisions  unanimity  is  neces- 
sary ;  and,  though  in  some  difficult  cases  of  a  general  peredyel  the 
discussions  may  last  for  two  or  three  days,  no  decision  is  reached 
until  tho  minoiity  has  declared  its  agreement  with  the  majority. 

Each  commune  elects  an  elder  (starosla) ;  ho  is  the  executive, 
but  has  no  authority  apart  from  that  of  the  mir  whose  decisions 
he  carries  out.  All  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  Government  to 
{uake  him  a  functionary  have  failed. 

Opinion  as  to  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  village 
bommunity  being  much  divided  in  Russia,  it  has  been  within  the 
last  twenty  years  the  subject  of  extensive  inquiry,  both  private 
and  official,  and  of  an  ever-growing  literature  and  polemic.  The 
supporters  of  the  mir  are  found  chiefly  among  those  who  have  made 
more  or  less  extensive  inquiries  into  its  actual  organization  and  con- 
sequences, while  their  opponents  draw  their  arguments  principally 
from  theoretical  considerations  of  political  economy.  The  main 
reproach  that  it  checks  individual  development  and  is  a  source  of 
immobility  has  been  shaken  of  late  by  a  better  knowledge  of  the 
institution,  which  has  brought  to  light  its  remarkable  plasticity  and 
power  of  adaptation  to  new  circumstances.  The  free  settlers  in 
Siber-a  have  voluntarily  introduced  the  same  organization.  In  north 
and  north-east  Russia,  where  arable  land  is  scattered  in  small  patches 
among  forests,  communities  of  several  villages,  or  "  volost "  com- 
munities, have  arisen  ;  and  in  the  "  voisko  "  of  the  Ural  Cossacks  we 
find  community  of  the  whole  territory  as  regards  both  land  and  fish- 
eries and  work  in  common.  Nay,  the  German  colonists  of  southern 
Russia,  who  set  out  with  the  principle  of  personal  property ,  have  sub- 
sequently introduced  tliat  of  the  village  community,  adapted  to  their 
special  needs  (Clauss).  In  some  localities,  where  there  was  no  grSat 
scarcity  of  land  and  the  authorities  did  not  interfere,  joint  cultiva- 
tion of  a  common  area  for  filling  the  storehouses  has  recently  been 
developed  (in  Penza  974  communes  have  introduced  this  system  and 
cultivate  an  aggregate  of  26,910  acres).  The  renting  of  land  in 
common, or  even  purchase  of  land  by  wealthy  communes,  has  become 
quite  usual,  as  also  the  purchase  in  common  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments. 

Since  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs,  however,  the  mir  has  been 
undergoing  profound  modifications.  The  differences  of  wealtli' 
which  ensued, — the  impoverishment  of  the  mass,  the  rapid  increase 
of  the  rural  proletariat,  and  the  enrichment  of  a  few  "kulaks" 
and  "miroyedes"  .("  mir-eatei-s  "), — are  certainly  operating  un- 
favourably for  the  mir.  The  miroyedes  steadily  strive  to  break  up 
the  organization  of  the  commune  as  an  obstacle  to  the  e.xtension 
of  their  power  over  the  moderately  well-to-do  peasants  ;  while  the 
proletariat  cares  little  about  the  mir.  Fears  on  the  one  side  and 
hopes  on  the  other  have  been  thus  entertained  as  to  the  likelihood 
of  the  mir  resisting  these  disintegrating  influences,  favoured,  more- 
over, by  those  landowners  and  manufacturers  who  foresee  in  the 
creation  of  a  rural  proletariat  the  certainty  of  cheap  labour.  But 
the  village  community  does  not  appear  as  yet  to  have  lost  the  power 
of  adaptation  which  it  has  exhibitsd  throughout  its  history.  If, 
indeed,  the  impoverishment  of  the  peasants  continues  to  go  on,  and 
legislation  also  interferes  with  the  mir,  it  must  of  course  disap- 
pear, but  not  without  a  corresponding  disturbance  in  Russian  life.' 
The  co-operative  spirit  of  the  Great  Russians  shows  itself  further 

'  1  See  CcUection  of  Materials  on  Village  Communifieg,  pubUshRd  by  the  Geogra- 
phfcal  and  Economlciil  Societies,  vol.  i.  (containing  a  complete  bibliography  up  to 
1880).  Of  more  recent  worka  the  following  are  worthy  of  notice :— Lutchitsky, 
Ctllfrlion  of  UateriaH  for  Ihe  History  of  the  Village  Community  in  the  Ukraine, 
Kleff,  1S84;  Efimenko,  Researches  into  Popular  Life,  1S84 ;  Hantower,  On  the 
Origin  of  Iht  Ciinsz  Possession,  1S84:  Samokfasoff. //isfory  o/fiujjinniaw,  1884; 
Keiissler.Zar  Oeschichte  und Kritik ties bduerlic.'ien  Gemeinde-Bnitta in  Russland, 
3  »ol8..  1884;  and  papers  in  publications  of  Geographical  Society. 


in  another  sphere  in  the  arl.cls,  which  liave  also  been  a  prominent 
feature  of  Russian  life  since  the  dawn  of  history.  The  artel  very 
much  resembles  the  co-operative  society  of  western  Europe,  with  this 
difference  that  it  makes  its  appearance  without  any  impulse  from 
theory,  simply  as  a  natural  foim  of  popular  life.  When  workmen 
from  any  province  come,  for  instance,  to  St  Petersburg  to  engage 
in  the  textile  industries,  or  to  woik  as  carpenters,  masons,  &c., 
they  immediately  unite  in  groups  of  from  ten  to  fifty  persons, 
settle  in  a  house  together,  keep  a  common  table,  and  pay  each  his 
part  of  the  expense  to  the  elected  elder  of  the  aitel.  All  Russia  is 
covered  with  such  artels,— in  the  cities,  in  the  forests,  on  the  banks 
of  rivers,  on  journeys,  and  even  in  the  prisons. 

The  industrial  artel  is  almost  as  frequent  as  the  preceding,  in  all 
those  ti-ades  which  admit  of  it.  A  social  history  of  the  most  funda- 
mental state  of  Russian  society  would  be  a  history  of  their  hunting, 
fishing,  shipping,  trading,  building,  exploring  artels.  Artels  of  one 
or  two  hundred  carpenters,  bricklayers,  &c.,  are  coi.imon  wherever 
new  buildings  have  to  be  erected,  or  railways  ci-  bridges  made;  the 
contractors  always  prefer  to  deal  with  ku  artel,  rather  than  with 
separate  workmen.  The  same  principles  are  often  put  into  practice 
ill  the  domestic  trades.  It  is  needless  to  add  that  the  wages  divided 
by  the  artels  are  higher  than  those  earned  by  isolated  workmen. 

Finally,  a  great  nuinbc-  of  artels  on  the  stock  exchange,  in  the 
seaports,  in  the  great  cities  (commissionaires),  during  the  great 
fairs,  and  on  railways  have  grown  up  of  late,  and  have  acquired 
the  confidence  of  tradespeople  to  such  an  extent  that  considerable 
sums  of  money  and  complicated  banking  operations  are  frequently 
handed  over  to  an  artelshik  (member  of  an  artel)  without  any 
receipt,  his  number  or  his  name  being  accepted  as  sufficient 
guarantee.  These  artels  are  recruited  only  on  personal  acquaint- 
ance with  the  candidates  for  membershiji,  and  security  reaching 
£80  to  £100  is  exacted  in  the  exchange  arteis.  These  last  have  a 
tendency  to  become  mere  joint-stock  companies  employing  salaried 
servants.  Co-operative  societies  have  lately  been  organized  by 
several  zemstvos.  They  have  achieved  good  results,  but  do  not 
exhibit,  on  the  whole,  the  same  unity  of  organization  as  those  which 
have  arisen  in  a  natural  way  among  peasants  and  artisans." 

The  chief  occupation  of  the  population  of  Russia  is  agriculture. 
Only  in  a  few  parts  of  Moscow,  Vladimir,  and  Nijni  has  it  been 
abandoned  for  manufacturing  pursuits.  Cattle-breeding  is  the 
leading  industry  in  the  Steppe  region,  the  timber-tr;ide  in  the 
north-east,  and  fishing  on  the  White  and  Caspian  Seas.  Of  the 
total  surface  of  Russia,  1,237,360,000  acres  (excluding  Finland), 
1,018,737,000  acres  are  registered,  and  it  appears  that  39'9  per 
cent,  of  these  belongs  to  the  crown,  1  '9  to  the  domaiii-  {udel}, 
31 '2  to  peasants,  24'7  to  landed  proprietors  or  to  private  com- 
panies, and  2  3  to  the  towns  and  monasteries.  Of  the  aci-es 
registered  only  592,650,000  can  be  considered  as  "good,"  that  is, 
capable  of  paying  the  land  tax ;  and  of  these  248,630,000  acres 
were  under  crops  in  18S4.^  The  crops  of  1883  were  those  of  aa 
average  year,  tnat  is,  29  to  1  in  central  Russia,  and  4  to  1  in 
south  Russia,  and  were  estimated  as  follows  (seed  corn  being  left 
out  of  account) :— Rye,  49,185,000  quarters;  wheat,  21,605,000; 
oats,  50,403,000  ;  barley,  13,476,000  ;  other  grains,  18,808,000. 
Those  of  1884  (a  very  good  year)  reached  an  average  of  18  per 
cent,  higher,  except  oats.  The  crops  are,  however,  very  unequally 
distributed.  In  an  average  year  there  are  8  governments  whicj^ 
are  some  6,930,000  quarters  shor.t-of  their  requirements,  35  which. 
have  an  excess  of  33,770,000  quarters,  and  17  which  have  neither 
excess  nor  deficiency.  The  export  of  corn  from  Russia  is  steadily 
increasing,  having  risen  from  6,660,000  quarters  in  1S56-60  to  an 
average  of  23,700,000  quarters  in  1876-83  and  26,623,700  quarters 
in  1884.  This  increase  does  not  prove,  however,  an  excess  of 
corn,  for  even  when  one-third  of  Ru-ssia  was  famine-stricken,  during 
the  last  years  of  scarcity,  the  export  trade  did  not  decline  ;  eveu 
Samara  exported  during  the  last  famine  there,  the  peasants  being 
compelled  to  sell  their  com  in  autumn  to  pay  their  taxes.  Scarcity 
is  quite  usual,  the  food  supply  of  somo  ten  provinces  being 
exhausted  every  year  by  the  end  of  the  spring.  Orach,  and  eveu 
bark,  are  then  mixed  with  floii*  for  making  bread. 

Flax,  both  for  yarn  and  seeo;  is_ extensively  grown  in  the  north- 
west and  west,  and  the  -innual  production  is  estimated  at  6,400,000 
cwts.  of  fibre  and  2,900,000  quarters  of  linseed.  Hemp  is  largely 
cultivated  in  the  central  governments,  the  yearly  production  beinp 

2  See  Tsaeff  on  Artels  in  Russia,  and  in  Appendix  to  Russian  translation  oj 
Reclus;  Kalatchoff,  The  Artels  of  Old  and  Keis  Russia',  Recueil  of  Materials  on 
Artels  (2  vols.);  Scherblna,  South  Russian  Artels-  Nenlroff.  Stock  Exchangt 
Artels  (all  Russian). 

3  The  division  of  the  registered  land  is  as  follows,  the  figores  twing  percentage; 
of  the  whole; — 


Arable 
Land. 

Forests. 

Meadowa, 
Pasture. 

Unproductive. 

B3-8 

27-2 

1-7 

101 
S7-6 
64» 

2SS 

231 

1-6 

9  5 
11-9 

32-4 

Private  holdintra 

Total 

26-3 

38-7 

15  9 

191 

INDUSTRIES.] 


RUSSIA 


85 


1,800,000  cwts.  of  fibre  and  1,800,000  quarters  of  seed.  The 
export  of  botli  (which  along  with  other  oil-boarinj;  plants  reached 
the  value  of  136,816,000  roubles  in  1882)  holds  the  second  place 
in  the  foreign  trade  of  Russia. 

The  culture  of  the  beet  is  increasing,  and  in  1884  785,700  acres 
were  under  this  root,  chiefly  in  Little  Russia  and  the  neighbouring 
governments  ;  68,900,000  cwts.  of  beetroot  were  worked  up,  yield- 
ing 5,119,000  cwts.  of  sugar,  while  fifty-five  refineries  (twenty-si.t 
of°theni  in  Poland)  showed  a  production  valued  at  ftS, 883,530 
roubles  in  1882.  Tobacco  is  cultiv.ited  everywhere,  but  good  qua- 
lities are  obtained  only  in  the  south.  In  1876-80  an  average  area 
of  101,600  acres  was  under  this  steadily  increasing  culture,  and  the 
crop  of  1884  yielded  86,400,000  cwts.  The  vine,  which  might  bo 
grown  much  farther  north  than  at  present,  is  cultivated  only  on 
Mount  Caucasus,  in  Bessarabia,  in  the  Crimea,  and  on  the  lower 
Don  for  wine,  and  in  Ekaterinoslaff,  Podolia,  and  Astrakhan  for 
raisins.  The  j-early  produce  is  ID'S  million  gallons  in  Russia,  10  0 
in  the  Caucasus,  and  24  in  Transcaucasia. 

Market  gardening  is  extensively  carried  on  in  Yaroslavl  for  a 
variety  of  vegetables  for  exportation,  in  Jfoscow  and  Ryaziiil  for 
hops,  and  in  the  south  for  sunflowers,  poppies,  melons,  &c. 
Gardening  is  also  widely  spread  in  Little  Russia  and  in  the  more 
fertile  central  governments.  Madder  and  indigo  are  cultivated  on 
Caucasus,  and  the  sllk-worm  in  Taurida,  Kherson,  and  Caucasia. 
Bee-keeping  is  widely  spread. 

The  breeding  of  live  stock  is  largely  carried  on  in  the  east  and 
south,  but  the  breeds  are  usually  inferior.  Good  breeds  of  cattle  are 
met  with  only  in  the  Baltic  provinces,  and  excellent  breeds  of  horses 
on  the  Don,  in  Tambofl",  and  in  Voronezh.  Since  the  emancijiation, 
the  peasants  have  been  compelled  to  reduce  the  number  of  their 
cattle,  so  that  the  increase  in  this  dejiartnient  does  not  correspond 
to  the  increase  of  population,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  figures: — 


1851. 

1882. 

Cattle 

20,962,000 

37,527,000 

8,886,000 

23,845,100 

47,508,970 

9,207,670 

Swine    

A  more  thorough  registration  of  liorses  for  military  purpo.scs 
gives  a  return  of  21,203,900  horses  in  Russia  and  Poland,  that  is, 
255  horses  per  1000  inhabitants — a  proportion  which  is  elsewhere 
approached  only  in  the  United  States.  They  are  kept  in  largest 
numbers  in  the  three  Steppe  governments  and  on  the  Urals  (550 
and  384  per  1000  inhabitants),  while  the  smallest^proportion  occurs 
in  the  manufacturing  region  (155  per  1000  inhabitants).  90  per 
cent,  of  the  total  number  of  horses  belong  to  peasants  ;  these  are 
mostly  of  a  very  poor  description.  Infectious  diseases  make  great 
ravages  every  year.  In  1882  no  less  than  121,500  cattle  and 
14,110  horses  perished  from  that  cause.' 

Fishing  is  a  most  important  source  of  income  for  whole  com- 
munities in  Russia.  No  less  than  2000  to  3000  inhabitants  of 
Archangel  are  engaged  in  fishing  on  the  Norwegian  coast  and  in 
the  White  Sea,  the  aggregate  yield  of  this  industry  being  estimated 
at  200,000  cwts.,  including  150  million  herrings.  These  fisheries 
are,  however,  declining.  Fishing  in  the  Baltic  is  not  of  much 
importance.  In  the  estuaries  of  the  Dnieper,  Dniester,  and  Bug 
it  gives  occupation  to  about  4000  men,  and  may  be  valued  at  less 
than  1,000,000  roubles.  Tho  fisheries  in  the  Sea  of  Azolf,  which 
occupy  about  15,000  men,  are  much  more  important,  as  are  .ilso 
those  of  tho  lower  Don,  which  last  alone  are  valued  at  over 
1,000,000  roubles  a  year.  The  chief  fisheries  of  Russia  are,  how- 
ever, on  the  Caspian  and  in  its  feeders :  those  of  the  Volga  cover 
no  less  than  6000  square  miles,  and  those  of  the  Ural  extend  for 
over  100  miles  on  the  sea-coast  and  400  miles  np  the  river.  The 
lowest  estimates  give  no  less  than  4  million  cwts.,  valued  at  15 
million  roubles,  of  fish  taken  every  year  in  the  Caspi.au  and  its 
affluents.  Tho  fislieries  on  the  lakes  of  tho  lake  region  are  also 
worthy  of  notice. 

Hunting  is  an  important  source  of  income  in  north  and  north- 
east Russia,  no  less  than  400,000  squirrels  and  800,000  grouse,  to 
mention  no  other  game,  being  killed  in  dllferent  governments,  while 
sea-hunting  is  still  productive  on  tho  shores  of  tlio  Arctic  Ocean.'' 

Notwithstanding  the  wealth  of  tho  conntry  in  minerals  and 
metals  of  all  kinds,  and  the  endeavours  made  by  Government  to 
encourage  mining,  including  tho. imposition  of  protective  tariffs 
oven  against  Finland  (in  1835),  this  and  tho  related  industries 
are  still  at  a  low  stage  of  development.  The  remoteness  of  the 
mining  from  the  industrial  centres,  tho  want  of  technical  instruc- 
tion and  also  of  capital,  and  the  existence  of  a  variety  of  vexatious 

'  See  Tht  rear  1884  with  regard  to  Aurlnilliirr,  published  bv  (be  Ministry  of 
Interior  (jo  nl.io  prcrcdi-.K  ycnr«)i  tbc  publliKtIoni'of  tlio  Xliiiatcrof  Fliinnco; 
Yanson's  Compnralive  Slilt-lirt  o/Husiia,  1880;  Ap|icn(llx  lo  Iiu5<lan  Iriinslallon 
of  Rpclua;  nnil  .Suvorln'd  Hutikt\/  KaUnttar. 

'  /<i6/iojia;iAw,— ll.icrniid  VnMnKsUy ,  FIthery  Itofarrhtt  in  /tuofa,  piihllnlird 
by  Minister  of  Domains,  9  vols.;  Vcninmlnotf.  fiihmg  In  IKntta,  W,i,  .SIdornlf 
Korlhrrn  lim>ia.  onj  Conlrihiiliont  to  thr  Ki'oxclrdije  0/  Korthern  Rutiia,  1882; 
Gilmm.  T/ie  M'ork  of  the  Aral-Caspian  Expedition. 


regulations  may  be  given  as  the  chief  reasons  for  this  state  o( 
matters.  The  imports  of  foreign  metals  in  tho  rough  and  of  coal 
are  steadily  increasing,  while  the  exports,  never  otherwise  than 
insignificant,  show  no  advance.  The  chief  mining  districts  of 
Russia  are  the  Ural  Mountains  and  Olonetz  for  .all  kinds  of  metals  ; 
the  Moscow  and  Donetz  basins  for  coal  and  iron  ;  Poland  and 
Finland ;  Caucasus ;  and  tho  Altai,  the  Nertchinsk,  and  tho 
Amur  mountains. 

Gold  is  obtained  from  gold-washings  in  Siberia  (63,194  lb  in 
1882),  the  Urals  (16,850  lb).  Central  Asia  (325  lb  in  1881),  and 
Finland  (42  lb) ;  silver  in  Siberia  (16,128  lb),  and  partly  on  Cau- 
casus (1232  lb),  the  quantity  steadily  decreasing ;  platinum  in  tlie 
Ur.i.ls  (3G00  to  4600  lb  every  year).  Lead  is  extracted  along  with 
silver  (19,416  cwts.  >n  1881 ;  357,260  cwts.  imported);  zinc  only  in 
Poland  (89, 650  cwts. ;  half  as  much  is  imported);  tin  in  Finland  (194 
cwts. ;  40,000  cwts.  imported).  Copper  is  worked  in  several  govern- 
ments of  the  Ural  region,  in  Kazan,  Vyatka,  Caucasus,  Siberia,  and 
Finland,  but  the  industry  is  a  languishing  one,  and  tho  crown  mines 
show  a  deficit  (65,000  cwts.  ;  double  this  amount  is  imported). 
Iron-ores  are  found  at  many  places.  Excellent  mines  are  worked 
on  the  Urals ;  and  iron  mines  occur  also  in  largo  numbers  throughout 
the  Ifoscow  and  Donetz  basins,  as  also  in  the  western  provinces,  not 
to  speak  of  those  of  tho  Asiatic  dominions,  of  Poland,  and  of  Fin- 
land (bcg-iron).  In  1881  the  annual  production  of  pig-iron  (which 
covered  only  two-thirds  of  the  consumption)  was  stated  as  follows, 
(in  thousands  of  cwts.) :— Urals,  6153;  central  Russia,  1092; 
Olonetz,  42;  south  and  south-west  Russia,  501;  Poland,  951; 
Finland,  413  ;  Siberia,  85.  The  iron  and  steel  throughout  tha 
empire  amounted  to  10,720,000  cwts.  in  1882.  European  Russia 
alone  produced  in  1882  31,520  cwts.  of  copper,  7,703,000  cwts.  of 
pig-iron,  4,981,300  cwts.  of  iron,  and  3,799,600  cwts.  of  steel. 

The  production  of  coal  is  rapidly  increasing  and  in  18S2  reached 
46,270,000  cwts.,  three-fourths  being  produced  by  the  Donetz 
basin,  and  one-fifth  by  that  of  JIoscow.  Poland,  moreover,  yielded 
27,950,000  cwts.  of  coal  in  1882,  and  tho  Asiatic  dominions  about 
800,000  cwts.  Nearly  34,000,000  cwts.  are  imported  annually. 
The  extraction  of  naphtha  on  the  Apsheron  peninsula  of  the  Caspian 
has  been  greatly  stimulated  of  late,  reaching  about  20,000,000  cwts. 
in  1883  (4,600,000  cwts.  of  kerosene,  1,000,000  cwts.  of  lubricating 
oils,  and  300,000  cwts.  of  asphalt). 

Russia  and  Siberia  are  very  rich  in  rock-salt,  salt  springs,  and 
salt  lakes  (16,360,000  cwts.  extracted  ;  3,746,000  imported).  Excel- 
lent graphite  is  found  in  tho  deserts  of  the  Sayan  Mountains  and 
Turukhansk.  Sulphur  is  obtained  in  Caucasia,  Kazan,  and  Poland 
(2000  to  5000  cwts.  extracted  ;  70,000  tc  170.000  cwts.  imported). 
The  milling  and  related  industries  occupy  altogether  about  an 
aggregate  motive  force  (steam  and  water)  of  73,500  horse-power 
and  305,000  hands.^ 

Since  the  time  of  Peter  I.  the  Russian  Government  has  been  Manufac* 
unceasing  in  its  efl'orts  for  the  creation  and  development  of  home  tures 
manufactures.     Important  monopolies  in  last  century,  and  heavy  and  petty 
protective,  or  rather  proliiliitivc,  import  duties,  as  well  as  large  industrioa 
money   bounties,   in   the  present,    have   contributed    towards  tlio 
accumulation  of  immense  private  fortunes,  but  manufactures  have 
developed  but  slowly.     A  great  upward  movement  has,  however, 
been  observable  since  1863.     About  that  time  a  thorough  reform 
of  the  machinery  in  use  was  eflVcted,  whereby  the  number  of  hands 
emiiloyed   was   rorluced,    but   the   yearly   production   doubled   or 
trebled.     In  some  branches  the  production  sudilenly  rose  at  a  yet 
higher  rate  (cottons  from  12  million  roubles  in  1865  to  209  millioii 
in   1882),     Tho   following   figures  for   European  Russia,  without 
Poland  and  Finland,  will  give  some  idea  of  this  progress  : — 


Number  of 
EstAblishmonts. 

Workmen 
Employed. 

Yearly  Production 
In  Roubles. 

Production  per 
AVorknlan, 

1851 
1861 
1870 
1882 

9,256 
14,060 
18,892 
66,905 

456,596 
659,533 
463,093 
954,971 

1.57,372,000 

295,560,000 

452,060,000 

1,126,033,000 

817 

528 

977 

],IS7 

fhcse  figures  lose,  however,  some  of  their  significance  if  the  corre- 
sponding rate  of  progress  in  manufacturing  productivity  in  western 
Europe  be  t.aken  into  account.  Besides,  since  tho  great  improvo- 
moiits  of  1861-70  the  industrial  progress  of  Rii.ssia  has  been  but  slow. 
The  manufactories  of  rails  and  railway  plant,  and  even  the  Ural  iron- 
works, are  in  a  precarious  condition.  The  textile  industries,  though 
undoubtedly  they  have  made  great  advances,  are  subject  to  great 
fluctuations  in  connexion  with  those  of  the  homo  crops,  and  are  llnis 
in  an  abnormal  state.  Tho  artisans  labour  for  twelve,  fourteen,  and 
sometimes  sixteen  hours  a  day,  and  their  rondilion,  as  rove»b  d  by 
recent  inquiries,  is  very  unsatisfactory.  JIany  causes  contribute  lo 
this, — tho  want  of  technical  instruction,  tho  want  of  capital,  mid 

3  Sro  tho  yenrly  accounts  In  Mintnf  Journal ;  Potirnnljskly,  Mining  in  tht 
Jiuitian  IC.rhibition  *4  IRH.1  (drtFilInl  acmnnl):  publlcttlons  ti(  tlip  Mltilstn-  o| 
l-'Inancc  ;  Kiippcn'a  "  Mlnliiff  Industty  of  Itusria,"  In  Mining  Jovnnl,  I8S0,  and 
Uveitta  Geog.  Soe.,  1880;  Muivlti's  J'ftroteum  Induitrjf  of  liut$ia,  188^. 


86 


RUSSIA 


[teade. 


above  all  the  want  of  markets.  Russia  lias  not,  aiiJ  cannot  have, 
such  foreign  markets  as  the  countries  whicli  tirst  attainoil  anjnjus- 
ti-ial  ilevclopment.  Her  colonies  are  deserts,  and  in  tlic  lioine 
markets  the  manufacturer  only  finds  SO  millions  of  poverty-stricken 
people,  whose  wants  are  nearly  all  supplied  by  their  petty  domestic 
industries. 

These,  that  is,  the  domestic  industries  which  are  carried  on  by 
the  peasants  in  conjunction  with  their  agricultural  pursuits  during 
the  long  days  of  idleness  imposed  by  the  climate  and  by  the  vc- 
idaced  allotments  of  land,  continue,  not  only  to  hold  their  ground 
side  by  side  with  the  large  manufactures,  but  to  develop  and  to 
compete  with  these  by  the  cheapness  of  their  products.  Extensive 
inquiries  are  now  being  made  into  these  domestic  industries  {Iciistar- 
noyie  proizvodstvo).  855,000  persons  engaged  in  them  along  with 
agriculture  {kustari)  have  already  been  registered,  and  an  unexpected 
variety  of  industries,  and  a  still  more  unexpected  technical  develop- 
ment in  several  of  them,  have  been  disclosed  by  these  researches. 
The  yearly  production  of  the  855,000  kustari  who  have  been  regis- 
tered reaches  218,444,000  roubles;  while  the  total  number  of 
peasants  engaged  in  the  industries,  mostly  in  Great  Russia  and 
northern  Caucasia,  is  estimated  at  a  minimum  of  7,500,000  persons, 
with  a  yearly  production  of  at  least  1,800,000,000  roubles,  or  more 
than  double  the  aggregate  production  of  the  manufactures  proper. 

Of  course  the  machinery  they  use  is  very  primitive,  and  the  wages 
for  a  day  of  twelve  to  sixteen  hours  exceedingly  low.  But  the 
industries  are  capable  of  being  improved,  and  it  has  been  brought 
out  that  "  Paris  silk  hats  and  "  Vienna  "  house  furniture  sold  by 
substantial  foreign  firms  at  Moscow  are  really  manufactured  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  capital  by  peasants  who  still  continue  to  till 
their  fields.  All  these  industries  suffer  very  much  from  want  of 
credit,  and  the  producers  become  the  prey  of  intermediaries.  But 
their  continued  existence  and  their  progress  under  most  unfavour- 
able conditions  show  that  they  meet  a  real  want,  which  is  itself  the 
consequence  of  the  peculiar  conditions  under  which  Russia,  the  last 
to  come  into  the  international  market,  has  to  develop. 

In  those  very  governments  where  two-thirds  of  the  textile  manu- 
factories of  Russia  are  concentrated  domestic  weaving  (for  the 
market,  not  for  domestic  use)  employs  about  200,000  hands,  whose 
yearly  production  is  valued  at  45,000, 000  roubles.  In  Stavropol  on 
Caucasus  it  has  so  rapidly  developed  that  42,400  looms  are  now  at 
work,  With  a  yearly  production  of  2,007,700  roubles.  But  no  ade- 
quate idea  could  be  given  of  the  petty  industries  of  Russia  without 
entering  into  greater  detail  than  the  scope  of  the  present  article  per- 
mits. Suffice  it  to  say  that  there  is  no  branch  ot  the  industr.es  in 
textiles,  leather,  woodwork,  or  metal  work,  provided  it  needs  no 
lieavy  machinery,  whitih  is  not  successfully  carried  on  in  the 
villages.  Nearly  all  the  requirements  of  nine-tenths  of  the  popula- 
lion  of  Russia  are  met  in  this  way. 

The  aggregate  production  of  industries  within  the  empire,  in- 
clusive of  raining,  was  stated  in  1882  as  follows : — European  Russia, 
1,126,033,000  roubles;  Poland,  147,309,000;  Finland,  15,130,000. 
The  chief  manufactures  in  European  Russia  (apart  from  Poland  and 
Finland),  and  their  yearly  production  in  1882  in  millions  of  roubles, 
were  as  follows: — cotton  yarn  and  cottons,  20S-6;  other  textile 
industries,  103-5;  metal  wares  and  machinery,  107-9;  chemicals, 
6-6  ;  candles,  soap,  glue,  leather,  and  other  animal  products,  61-4  ; 
distillery  products,  156-0  ;  other  liquors,  39-0;  sugar,  140-9  ;  flour, 
74-0.  Thereraainder  are  of  minor  importance.  It  must  be  observed, 
however,  that  these  figures  are  much  below  those  given  for  1879, 
when  the  aggregate  production  of  Russian  manufactures  was  com- 
puted at  1,102,949,000  roubles,  without  the  mining  and  related 
industries,  the  distillery  products,  and  the  flour. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  manufactures  in  Russia  is  very 
unequal.  The  governments  of  Moscow  and  St  Petersburg,  with  a 
j'early  production  of  173  and  134  million  roubles  respectively,  repre- 
sent together  two-fifths  of  the  aggregate  production  of  Russia.  If 
we  add  AHadimir  (91,766,000  roubles),  Kieff  (73,300,000),  Perm 
(50,500,000),  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Kharkoff,  and  Kherson  (from  30  to 
35  millions  each),  we  have  all  the  principal  manufacturing  centres. 
In  fact,  Moscow,  with  portions  of  the  neighbouring  governments, 
contains  half  the  Russian  manufactures  exempted  from  excise  duties, 
while  the  south-west  governments  of  Kieff',  Podolia,  and  Kherson 
contain  two-thirds  of  those  not  so  exempted.' 

The  main  wealth  of  Russia  consisting  in  raw  produce,  the  trade 
of  the  country  turns  chiefly  on  the  purchase  of  this  for  export,  and 
the  sale  of  manufactured  and  imported  goods  in  exchange.     This 

1  S€e  Orloffs  Index  of  Russian  Manufactures,  ISSl ;  TimiryazefTs  Development 
of  Industry  in  Russia,  .ind  Industrial  Atlas  of  Russia  ;  ilatei-ials  for  Statistics  of 
Sleam-Enaines,  published  by  Central  Statistical  Committee,  1SS2;  Historical  and 
Statistical  Sietch  of  Russian  Industry,  vol.  ii.,  1883  ;  Annuaire  of  the  Ministry  of 
Finance;  Russische  Revue,  published  monthly  at  St  Petersburg  by  Rocttger.  On 
ll-.e  petty  trades,  sec  Ifemoirs  of  the  Committee  for  Investigation  of  Petty  Trades, 
vols.  i.  to  xii.,  1S79-S4 ;  Recueil  of  Statistical  Information  for  Moscou>  Govern- 
tneni,  published  by  the  Zemslvo,  vols.  Ti.  and  viL;  IsaetTs  Trades  of  Moscow. 
«cve;al  papers  in  reviews;  and  an  appendiK  to  the  Russian  translation  of  Reclus's 
Ceographie  Universelle;  Resume  of  Materials  on  Russian  Petty  Trades,  1874  (all 
IiU!sii:i) ;  alsr.  Thun,  Russlands  Getverbe.  For  the  position  of  workmen  in  manu- 
factviries  see  tiie  extensive  inquiries  of  the  Moscow  Ztmstvo  in  its  Recueil,  and 
the  reports  of  the  recenlly  nominated  inspectors  of  manufactures,  especially 
iwjul.  Sketches  and  Researches,  2  vols.,  1884. 


traffic  is  in  the  hands  of  a  great  number  of  middlemen, — in  the  west' 
Jews,  and  elsewhere  Russians, — to  whom  the  peasants  arc  for  tlio 
most  part,  in  debt,  .ts  tliey  purchase  in  advance  on  security  of  sub- 
sequent p.ayments  in  corn,  tar,  wooden  wares,  &c.  A  good  deal  of 
the  iutcrnal  trade  is  carried  on  by  travelling  merchants  {ofcni). 

The  fairs  are  very  numerous  ;  the  minor  ones  numbered  6500  in 
1878,  and  showed  sales  amounting  to  an  .iggregate  of  305  million 
roubles.  Those  of  Nijni-Novgorod,  with  a  return  of  400  million 
roubles,  of  Irbit  and  Kharkolf  (above  100  million  roubles  each),  of 
liomny,  Krestovskoyc  in  Perm,  and  Jlenzelinsk  in  Ufa  (55  to  12 
million  .roubles),  have  considerable  imporL-ince  both  for  trade  and 
for  home  manufactures.  The  total  value  of  the  internal  trade,  which 
is  in  the  hands  of  681,116  licensed  dealers,  is  roughly  estimated  at 
more  than  seven  milliards  of  roubles. 

The  development  of  the  external  trade  of  Russia  is  seen  from  the 
following  figures  (millions  of  roubles); — 


1SCI-C5. 

lSCO-70. 

1871-75. 

1876-80. 

IfSl. 

18S2.  ' 

ICxporls. 

Articles  of  food 

Raw  and  half-manu- 
factured produee. 
Manufactured  wares 
Cattle 

66-1 

102-8 
12-7 

116-9 

130-1 
15-6 

200-1 

164-6 
10-1 

326-2 

197-4 
11-0 

261-9 

219-5 
13-2 
11-8 

350-6 

232-2 
15-8 
191 

Total 

„     in  metallic 
roubles  - 

Imports. 

Articles  of  food 

Raw  and  half-manu- 
factured produce . 
Manufactured  wares 

Total 

181-6 
158-4 

262-7 
214-4 

374-9 
319-2 

534-6 
342-3 

506-4 
336-8 

617-7, 
370-6 

60-4 

66-4 
36-1 

68-5 

116-9 
96-4 

109-3 

208-4 
132-2 

122  0 

259-7 
139-2 

125-7 

278-5 
113-0 

148-2 

284-7 
135-1 

162-9 
142-5 

281-8 
229-3 

449-9 
390-3 

520-9 
359-4 

517-8 

568-0 

,,     in  metallic 
roubles... 

344-3 

340-8 

The  chief  article  of  export  is  grain — wheat,  oats,  and  rye — 
(24,870,000  quarters,  321,042,000  roubles  in  1882),  to  which  the 
increase  of  exports  is  mainly  due.  This  increSse,  however,  does  not 
correspond  to  an  increase  of  crops,  only  10  per  cent,  of  which  were 
exported  in  1870  and  about  20  per  cent,  in  1882.  Next  to  grain 
come  flax,  hemp,  linseed,  and  hempseed  (129,370,000  roubles  in 
1882)  ;  oil-yielding  grains  (441,000  quarters) ;  wool,  tallow,  hides, 
bristles,  and  hone  (31,120,000  roubles).  If  we  add  to  these  timber 
(35,044,000  roubles)  and  furs  (4,147,000  roubles),  95  percent,  of  all 
Russian  exports  are  accounted  for,  the  remainder  consisting  of 
linen,  ropes,  and  some  woollen  stuffs  and  metallic  wares  (7, 172;00O 
roubles  to  western  Europe,  2,888,000  to  Fiiiland,  and  5,763,000  to 
Asia). 

The  chief  imports  from  Europe  were  in  1882  as  follows : — Tea 
(48,091,000  roubles),  liquors  (16,124,000  roubles),  salt,  fish,  rice, 
fruits,  and  colonial  wares  (38,446,000  roubles),  various  raw  tex- 
tile wares  (127,986,000  roubles— cotton  72,417,000),  raw  metals 
(32,630,000  roubles),  chemicals  (57,894,000  roubles),  and  stuffs 
(22,428,000  roubles).  The  imports  from  Asia — chiefly  tea — in  the 
same  year  reached  32,853,000  roubles.  The  chief  imports  were  from 
Germany  (214,000,000  roubles)  and  Great  Britain  (124,700,000), 
the  chief  exports  to  Great  Britain  (210,000,000),  Germany 
(178,000,000),  and  France  (54,000,000).  Even  in  her  trade  with 
Finland  Russia  imports  more  than  she  exports, — the  chief  imports 
being  paper,  cotton,  iron,  and  butter  ;  prohibitory  tariffs  were  im- 
posed on  Finnish  wares  in  1885. 

During  18S2  the  ports  of  the  empire  were  visited  by  13,638 
foreign  ships  (5,337,000  tons),  of  which  number  1436  were  to 
Asiatic  ports  (391,200  tons).  Of  the  above  total  only  2489  vessels 
(628,000  tons)  were  under  the  Russian  flag  (mostly  Finnish),  whilo 
the  13ritish  alone  showed  a  tonnage  of  2,258,000  and  the  German 
639,000.  The  coasting  trade  was  represented  by  35,083  vessels 
(6,040,000  tons)  entering  the  ports,  chiefly  those  of  the  Black  Sea. 
The  mercantile  marine  of  Russia  in  1882  numbered  6383  vessels 
(727,000  tons),  including  604  steamers  ;  of  the  total  number  1593 
(254,000  tons)  were  Finnish.  The  chief  ports  are  St  Petersburg, 
Odessa,  Riga,  Taganrog,  Libau,  and  Reval.  Baku  has  recently 
acquired  some  importance  in  consequence  of  the  naphtha  trade.' 

The  rivers  of  the  empire,  mostly  connected  by  canals,  play  a  very  Comm' 
important  part  in  the   inland   traffic.     The   aggregate   length  of  ca*soii. 
navigable  waters  reaches   21,510  miles  (453  miles  of  canals),  and 
12,600  miles  more  are  available  for  floating  rafts.     In  1SS2  51,407 
boats,  with   cargoes   amounting  to   153,250,000  cwts.,  valued   at 
186,480,000  roubles,  left  the  ports  on  Russian  rivers  and  canals. 

=  See  note  1,  p.  72. 

■  3  See  Obzor  of  the  Foreign  Trade  of  Russia  in  1852,  published  by  the  Minister 
of  Finance,  and  the  same  for  trade  with  Europe  ia  1883  and  1881. 


mSTORY.] 


RUSSIA 


87 


Cora,  firewood,  and  timber  constitute  two4hm  3  of  the  whole 
cargoes  carried.  Within  Russia  proi>er,  from  5740  to  7400  boats, 
larlerand  smaller,  worth  from  four  to  seven  millions  of  roubles, 
hale  been  built  annually  during  the  last  five  years  (74  5  boats, 
valued  at  6,758,000  roubles,  in  1882. -18  of  them  being  steamers) ; 
r^rt  nf  t),em  are  lieht  flat-bottomed  structures,  which  are  broken 
up  cl  so  a"  theytave  reached  their  destination.  The  number  of 
steamers  plying  on  inland  waters,  chiefly  on  the  Volga,  was  esti- 
mated ia  1879  at  1056  (80,890  horse-power). 
TwenW-five  years  ago  Russia  had  only  993  miles  of  railways  ;  on 
ineiu^  II  /  tlip"  totals  were  13,428  miles  for  Russia  and 
Ssfa  8  8  Ir  Pohnd.  734  for  Finland,  and  141  for  the 
?ran  e^piaa  re^on,  and  two  yea,^  later  they  had  reached  an  aggrC- 
cate  S'th  of  16.155  miles.  The  railways  chiefly  connect  he 
Baltic  ports  with  the  granaries  of  Russia  in  the  south-east,  and  the 
western  frontier  with  Moscow,  whence  six  trunk  lines  radiate  in  all 
dYrections.  Several  military  lines  run  along  the  western  frontier, 
while  two  trank  lines,  starting  from  St  Petersburg  follow  the  two 
shores  of  the  Gulf  oi  Finland.  Of  the  projected  Sibenan  railway 
one  main  line  (444  miles),  connecting  Perm  and  Berezniki  on  the 
Kamrwith  Ekaterinburg  and  the  chief  iron-works  of  the  Urals,  has 
been  constructed.  It  has  been  extended  east  to  Kamyshkoff,  and  is 
to  be  continued  to  Tinmen,  100  miles  farther  east,  whence  steamers 

^'^nly^73'8''mile3  of  the  railways  of  Russia  belong  to  the  state, 
but  most  of  them  tave  been  constructed  under  Government  guar- 
ante"  involving  payment  of  from  11  to  21  million  roubles  yearly. 
On  the  o"her  hand  the  yearly  increasing  debt  of  the  railways  to  the 
ftate  amounted  to  781.888.800  -roubles  in  1883.  Of  the  aggreffafe 
value  of  the  Russian  railways,  estimated  at  2210  million  roubles,  no 
less  than  1971  million  roubles  were  held  by  Government  in  shares 
and  bonds.  The  cost  of  construction  has  been  a  together  out  of 
proportion  to  what  it  ought  to  be;  for.,  whereas  the  average  rate 
per  verst  (0-663  mile)  in  Finland  was  only  20,000  silver  roubles  in 
feussia  it  reached  60,000,  75.000,  90,000,  and  even  100.000  roubles. 
In  1882  21.322  vei-st3  (14.136  miles)  represented- an  expenditure 
of  2  210,047,632  roubles,  and  their  net  revenue  was  on'y  3-18  per 
cent  on  the  capital  invested  (4982  --oubles  per  English  mile  in 
1882).  In  1834  34,674.853  passengers,  2,287,955  military,  and 
834,600,000  cwts.  of  merchandise  were  conveyed  by  5808  locomo- 
tives and  120,940  carriages  and  waggons.  Fully  one-half  of  the 
merchandise  carried  consisted  of  corn  (24  per  cent.),  coal  (13  per 
cent),  firewood  (12  per  cent. ),  and  timber  (8  per  cent.). 
sts  For  the  conveyance  of  correspondence  and  travellers  along  ordi- 

id  tele,  nary  routes  the  state  maintains  an  extensive  organization  of  post- 
«ph3  horses  between  all  towns  of  the  empire,  that  is,  over  an  aggregate 
■  length  of  110,170  miles.  In  1882  4355  stations,  with  a  stalT  of 
15  560  men  and  446,460  horses,  were  kept  up  for  that  purpose.  In 
1883  242  193  470  letters,  newspapers  (93,520,000),  registered 
letters  and  parcels  were  carried,  of  which  29,808,100  belonged  to 
international  correspondence.  The  telegraph  system  had  m  the 
same  year  an  aggregate  length  of  65, 394  miles,  mth2,95/  telegraph- 
offices,  and  10,222,139  telegrams  were  transmitted.'      (P.  A-  K.) 

Paet  rV.  Russian  History. 

(t«  UL  The  Russians,  properly  so  called,  belong  to  the  Slavonic 
race,  itself  a  division  of  the  great  Aryan  family.  It  can- 
not be  denied  that  in  the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of 
Russia  large  Finnish  elements  have  become  mixed  with 
the  Slavs,  °and  Mongolian  in  the  south,  but  this  is  far 
from  justifying  the  prejudiced  attempts  of  Duchinski  and 
others  to  challenge  the  right  of  the  Russians  to  be 
called  an  Aryan  people.  The  derivation  of  the  Wv^ds  Russia, 
Russians  {Rous,  liossia,  Jiossiane),  has  been  much  disputed. 
The  old-fashioned  view  was  to  identify  them  with  the 
Rlwxolani,  who  are  now  generally  believed  to  have  been  a 
Medish  tribe.  The  later  and  probably  correct  one  is  to 
derive  the  name  from  the  Finnish  Ruotsi  applied  to  the 
Swedes,  and  considered  by  Professor  Thomsen  of  Copen- 
hagen to  be  itself  a  corruption  of  the  Swedish  word 
rothsmenn,   rowers  or  seafarers.     They  are  Scandinavian 

>  See  tlio  Slaiielical  Sbomik  of  the  Ministry  of  Roadt  and  Commu- 
nications, vols,  viii.,  ii.,  andJt.  (roads,  canals  railways  and- traffic 
thereon,  with  maps  and  graphic  rcpre.ientation  of  traflic);  Oolovatelioff, 
"KusBian  nailways,"  in  Bezobrazoffs  «tor«.7;  aosudarstminykh 
Knaniy,  rols.  iv..  v..  vii„  viii.;  Rybakod  and  liiulolT,  Our  Ways  of 
r.mmunication,  1884  ;  Tchuproff,  Tammyie  Skl<uly,  &c.  (trade  lu 

torn),  1884.  ,  ,oor\         i  .i 

2vSeo  Postal  Statistics  for  1883  (St  Petersburg,  1880),  and  the 

Jl'.isskiy  Kalcndar. 


vikings  with  whom  we  first  become  acquainted  in  northern 
Russia,  and  who  in  a  way  founded  the  empire,  although 
from  Arabian  and  Jewish  writers  we  have  dim  records  of 
a  Slavonic  race  inhabiting  the  basin  of  the  Dnieper  about 
the  close  of  the  9th  century.  In  recent  times  Ilovaiski 
and  GedeonoS  have  again  attacked  the  view  of  the  Swedish 
origin  of  the  invaders.  They  see  in  them  only  Slavs,  but 
they  are  not  considered  to  have  shaken  the  theorj-  which 
derives  the  name  from  Ruotsi.  As  the  story  goes,  three 
brothers,  Rurik,  Sineus,  and  Truvor,  were  invited  to  Russia 
from  the  north  and  settled  at  Novgorod  in  862.  Nestor 
calls  them  Varangians,  a  name  in  which  most  people  are 
willing  to  see  Norsemen.  For  a  long  time  the  Russians 
and  Scandinavians  are  considered,  as  we  shall  find,  to  bo 
separate  races,  but  at  length  they  are  fused,  as  the  Saxons 
and  Normans  in  England  under  Henry  I.  Concerning 
the  origin  of  the  town  of  Novgorod,  which  bears  a  purely 
Slavonic  name,  nothing  is  known ;  it  has  been  supposed 
that  at  first  a  Finnish  settlement  existed  on  its  site. 
According  to  the  legend  the  three  brothers  were  invited 
over  by  a  leading  citizen  named  GostomisL  There  is, 
however,  no  mention  of  such  a  person  in  the  Chronicle  of 
Nestor.  There  is  another  story  that  Rurik  was  the  son 
of  the  Swedish  king,  Ludbrat,  a  person  met  with  in 
Scandinavian  legend,  and  his  queen  Uraila,  the  daughter 
of  Gostomisl,  and  was  born  at  Upsala  in  830.  Whatever 
the  variants  of  the  legend  may  be,  we  seem  to  learn  one 
thing, — that  a  successful  Scandinavian  invasion  occurred 
in  the  north  of  Russia.  The  three  brothers  finally  settled 
in  the  country, — Rurik  at  Ladoga,  where  the  river 
VolkhofE  flows  into  the  lake,  Sineus  at  Bielo-ozero,  and 
Truvor  at  Izborsk  on  Lake  Peipus.  On  the  death  of 
his  two  brothers  without  heirs,  we  are  told  that  Rurik 
annexed  their  dominions  to  his  own,  and  took  the  title  of 
■vcliki  kniaz,  or  grand-prince.  These  three  brothers  are 
said  to  have  brought  two  other  adventurers  with  them, 
Askold  and  Dir,  who,  having  had  a  quarrel  with  Rurik, 
set  out  with  some  companions  to  Constantinople  to  try 
their  fortune.  On  their  way  they  saw  Kieff,  situated  on  a 
rich  and  grassy  plain,  in  the  occupation  of  the  Khazars.  Of 
this  city  they  made  themselves  masters,  and  permanently 
established  themselves  on  the  Dnieper.  The  origin  of 
Kieff  itself  is  involved  in  mystery.  It  is  first  mentioned 
about  the  9th  century.  Constantino  Porphyrogenitus speaks 
of  TO  Kao-rpoi'  TO  Ktoo/?a  to  tVoi'O/u.afd/^ci'oi'  'S.afj.ftaTas. 
This  last  word  has  gi'en  much  labour  to  scholars ;  some  are 
disposed  to  see  in  it  the  Norse  sandbakki,  the  bank  of  sand. 
It  is  at  KieS  that,  according  to  the  legend,  St  Andrew 
preached  the  gospel  to  the  Russians.  From  this  place 
Askold  and  Dir  sallied  forth  two  years  afterwards,  with 
an  artnament  of  two  hundred  vessels,  sailed  up  the  Bos- 
phorus,  and  plundered  the  capital  of  the  Byzantine  empire. 
The  Greek  writers  give  851  as  the  date  of  this  enter- 
prise, thus  making  it  precede  the  arrival  of  Rurik  by 
eleven  years.  The  emperor  at  the  time  of  their  invasion 
was  Michael  III. 

Having  greatly  extended  his  dominions  oy  subduing  the 
surrounding  Slavonic  tribes,  ^Rurik  died  at  an  advanced 
age  in  879,  leaving  the  regency  of  the  principality  and  the 
guardianship  of  his  son  Igor  to  the  renowned  Oleg.'  This 
chief  subdued  Smolensk,  a  city  of  the  Krivitchi,  in  882. 
Allured  by  its  wealth  and  advantageous  situation,  Oleg 
now  resolved  to  attempt  ICieff,  which  was  held  by  Askold 
and  Dfr.  The  story  goes  that  be  took  young  Igor  with 
him,  and  disguised  himself  and  his  companions  as  Slavonic 
merchants.  The  unsuspecting  Askold  and  Dir  were  invited 
to  a  conference  and  slain  on  the  spot.  Thus  was  Kieff 
added  to  the  dominions  of  Igor,  who  was  recognized  as  the 

>  Buth  these  names  are  Scandluavliu.^  Uio  original  fonna  being 
Ingvar  and  Uolgi. 


88 


RUSSIA 


[hISTOEVj 


I(ird  of  the  town.'  In  903  Oleg  chose  a  wife  for  Igor, 
named  Olga,^  said  to  have  been  a  native  of  Pskoff,  the  origin 
of  which  place,  now  mentioned  for  the  first  time,  is  unknown. 
AVe  are  told  that  it  was  a  city  of  importance  before  the 
arrival  of  Rurik.  The  derivation  of  the  name  is  disputed, 
some  deriving  it  from  a  Finnish,  others  from  a  Slavonic  root. 
Oleg  next  resolved  to  make  an  attack  upon  Byzantium, 
and  his  preparations  were  great  both  by  sea  an(|  land. 
Leo  the  I'hilosopher,  then  emperor,  was  ill  able  to  resist 
these  barbarians.  He  attempted  to  block  the  passage  of 
the  Bosphorus,  but  Oleg  dragged  his  ships  across  the  land 
and  arrived  before  the  gates  of  Constantinople.  The 
Greeks  begged  for  peace  and  offered  tribute.  Oleg  is  said 
to  have  hung  his  shield  in  derision  on  the  gates  of  the 
city.  We  may  believe  this  without  going  so  far  as  to  give 
credence  to  Strj-ikowski,  the  Polish  writer,  who  sa3'S  it  was 
to  be  seen  there  in  his  time  (16th  century).  The  atrocities 
committed  by  Oleg  and  his  followers  are  described  by 
Karamzin,  the  Russian  historian  ;  they  are  just  such  as 
the  other  Norsemen  of  their  race  were  committing  at 
the  same  time  in  northern  and  western  Europe.  The 
Byzantines  paid  a  large  sum  of  money  that  their  city 
might  be  exempted  from  injury,  and  soon  after  Oleg  sent 
ambassadors^  to  the  emperor  to  arrange  the  terms.  The  i 
treaty  was  ratified  by  oaths :  the  Byzantines  swore  by  the 
Gospels,  and  the  Russians  by  their  gods  Perun  and  Volos. 
In  911  Oleg  made  another  treaty  with  the  Byzantines,  the 
terms  of  which,  as  of  the  preceding  one,  are  preserved  in 
Nestor.  The  authenticity  of  these  two  treaties  has  been 
called  in  question  by  some  writers,  but  Miklosich  truly 
observes  that  it  would  have  been  impossible  at  the  time 
Nestor  wrote  •  to  forge  the  Scandinavian  names.  Soon 
after  this  Oleg  died ;  he  had  exercised  supreme  power  till 
the  time  of  his  death  to  the  exclusion  of  Igor,  and  seems 
to  have  been  regarded  by  the  people  as  a  wizard.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  killed  by  the  bite  of  a  serpent,  which  had 
coiled  itself  in  the  skull  of  his  horse,  as  he  was  gazing  at 
the  animal's  unburied  bones.  The  story  is  in  reality  a 
Scandinavian  saga,  as  has  been  shown  by  Bielowski  and 
Rafn.  It  is  also  found  in  other  countries.  In  the  reign 
of  Igor  th.e  Petchenegs  first  make  their  appearance  in 
Russian  history.  In  941  he  undertook  an  expedition 
against  Constantinople  and  entered  the  Bosphorus  after 
devastating  the  provinces  of  Pontus,  Paphlagonia,  and 
Bithynia.  Nestor  has  not  concealed  the  atrocities  com- 
mitted by  the  Russians  on  this  occasion ;  he  tells  us  of  the 
churches  and  monasteries  which  they  burned,  and  of  their 
cruelty  to  the  captives.  They  were,  however,  attacked  by 
the  Byzantine  fleet,  and  overpowered  by  the  aid  of  Greek 
fire  ;  many  were  drowned,  and  many  of  those  who  swam  to 
land  were  slaughtered  by  the  infuriated  peasants ;  only 
one  of  their  number  escaped.  Thirsting  to  avenge  his 
loss,  Igor  fitted  'out  another  expedition  in  the  spring  of 
the  following  year.  The  Greeks  were  unwilling  to  run 
"  a  risk  again ;  they  renewed  the  treaty  which  had  been 
signed  with  Oleg,  and  were  only  too  glad  to  purchase 
deliverance  from  their  adversaries.  The  Russian  at  first 
demanded  too  much,  but  was  finally  persuaded  by  his  more 
prudent  attendants :  "  If  Caesar  speaks  thus,"  said  they, 
"  what  more  do  we  want  than  to  have  gold  and  silver 
and  silks  without  fighting?  'WTio  knows  which  will 
survive,  we  or  they  ?  Who  has  ever  been  able  to  conclude 
a  treaty  with  the  sea  ?  We  do  not  go  on  the  dry  land, 
but  on  the  waves  of  the  sea ;  death  is  common  to  all." 

'  This  story  is  considered  by  the  historian  BestuzliefT  Eiuniin  to 
be  a  mere  legend  invented  to  explain  the  connexion  between  Novgorod 
and  Kieff. 

^  Here  again  we  have  a  Norse  name.  Olga  is  equivalent  to  Helga, 
which  in  its  older  form  is  Holga. 

'  It  has  been  observed  that  the  names  of  the  ambassadors  in  this 
■  treaty  are  purely  Scandinavian. 


A  treaty  of  peace  was  accordingly  concluded,  which  ia 
given  at  full  length  by  Nestor  ;  of  the  fifty  names  attached 
to  it  we  find  three  were  Slavonic  and  the  rest  Norse.  The 
two  races  are  beginnings  to  be  fused.  From  this  exped' 
tion  Igor  returned  triumphant.  He  was,  however,  unibrt 
tunate  in  a  subsequent  attack  on  the  Drevlians,  a  Slavonii 
tribe  whose  territory  is  now  partly  occupied  by  tue 
government  of  TchernigofF.  The  Drevlians  had  lonj 
suffered  from  his  exactions.  They  resolved  to  encounte; 
him  under  the  command  of  their  prince  Male ;  for  they 
saw,  as  a  chronicler  says,  that  it  was  necessary  to  kill  tho 
wolf,  or  the  whole  flock  would  become  his  prey.  They 
accordingly  laid  an  ambuscade  near  their  town  Korosten, 
now  called  Iskorost,  in  the  government  of  Volhynia,  and 
slew  him  and  all  his  company.  According  to  Leo  the 
Deacon,  he  was  tied  to  two  trees  bent  together,  and  when 
they  were  let  go  the  unhappy  chief  was  torn  to  pieces. 

Igor  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sviatoslaff,  the  first 
Russian  prince  with  a  Slavonic  nam«.  Olga,  however, 
the  spirited  wife  of  Igor,  was  now  regent,  owing  to  hei 
son's  minority.  Fearful  was  the  punishment  she  inflictec 
upon  the  Drevlians  for  the  death  of  her  husband,  and  the 
story  lacks  no  dramatic  interest  as  it  has  been  handed 
down  by  the  old  chronicler.  Some  of  the  Drevlians  were 
buried  alive  in  pits  which  she  had  caused  to  be  dug  for 
the  purpose  previously;  some  were  burned  alive ;  and  others 
murdered  at  a  trizna,  or  funeral  feast,  which  she  had 
appointed  to  be  held  in  her  husband's  honour.  The  town 
Iskorost  was  afterwards  set  on  fire  by  tying  lighted 
matches  to  the  tails  of  sparrows  and  pigeons,  and  letting 
them  flj-  on  the  roofs  of  the  houses.  Here  we  certainly 
have  a  piece  of  a  bilina,  as  the  old  Russian  legendary 
poems  are  called.  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  and  Layamon  give 
the  same  account  of  the  capture  of  the  city  of  Cirencester 
by  Gurmund  at  the  head  of  the  Saxons,  and  something 
similar  is  also  told  about  Harold  Hardrada  in  Sicily. 
Finally,  at  the  close  of  her  life,  Olga  became  a  Christian. 
She  herself  visited  the  capital  of  the  Greek  empire,  and 
was  instructed  in  the  mysteries  of  her  new  faith  by  the 
patriarch.  There  she  was  baptized  by  him  in  955,  and  the 
emperor  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  became  her  god- 
father. She  did  not,  however,  succeed  in  persuading  her 
son  Sviatoslaff  to  embrace  the  same  faith,  although  he 
took  no  measures  to  impede  its  progress  among  his  sub- 
jects. This  son  was  as  celebrated  a  warrior  as  Oleg ;  his 
victories  were  chiefly  over  the  Petchenegs  previously  men- 
tioned, a  people  of  Mongol  origin  inhabiting  the  basin  of 
the  Don.  He  began,  however,  the  fatal  custom  of  breaK- 
ing  up  Russia  into  apanages,  which  he  distributed  among 
his  sons.  The  effects  of  this  injudicious  policy,  subse- 
quently pursued  by  other  grand  princes,  were  soon  felt. 
Thus  was  paved  the  way  for  the  invasion  of  Russia  by  the 
Mongols,  who  held  it  for  two  hundred  years,  and  com- 
municated that  semi-Asiatic  character  to  the  dress  and 
customs  of  the  country  which  the  ukazes  of  Peter  the 
Great  could  hardly  eradicate,  and  which  perhaps  have 
not  entirely  disappeared  even  in  our  own  times.  In  his 
division  of  the  country,  Sviatoslaff  gave  Kieff  to  his  son 
Yaropolk ;  to  another  son,  Oleg,  the  conquered  land  of  the 
Drevlians ;  to  another,  Vladimir,  he  assigned  Novgorod.' 
It  would  be  impossible  to  interest  the  reader  in  the  petty 
wars  of  these  princes.  After  having  gained  several 
victories  over  the  Petchenegs,  Sviatoslaff  set  out  on  an 
expedition  sgainst  the  Bulgarians,  a  Ugro-Finnish  tribe, 
dwelling  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga,  the  remains  of  whose 
ancient  capital  can  still  be  seen.  He  made  himself  master 
of  their  country,  but  his  victorious  career  was  cut  short  at 
the  cataracts  of  the  Dnieper,  where  he  and  his  soldiers 
were  slain  by  the  Petchenegs.  According  to  the  barbarous 
custom  of  the  times,  their  prince  Kurya    made  his  skuU 


r 


VOL. XXL 


HUSSIA 


^ 


c 


003-117-1.] 


11  U  S  S  I  A 


89 


into  a  drinking-cup.  Vladimir,  the  son  of  SviatoslafF,  was 
for  some  time  a  monster  of  cruelty  and  debauchery.  He 
killed  his  brother  Yaropolk,  and  seized  his  dominions  ;  and, 
Yaropolk  having  some  timo  before  murdered  his  brother 
Oleg,  Vladimir  now  became  solo  ruler.  To  his  hereditary 
dominions  he  added  Galicia  Or  Red  Russia,  and  subjugated 
some  Lithuanian  and  Livonian  tribes.  Suddenly  he  seems 
to  have  been  troubled  with  religious  difTicuities.  Accord- 
ing to  the  chronicler,  he  sent  ambassadors  to  bring  him 
reports  of  the  different  religions — Catholic,  Jewish,  Mus- 
sulman, and  Greek.  The  last  of  these  beliefs  sr  ;med  the 
most  satisfactory.  Vladimir  marched  south,  took  the  city 
of  Chersonesus  in  the  Crimea,  which  at  that  time  belonged 
to  the  Byzantine  emperors,  and  then  sent  to  demand  the 
hand  of  tlie  daughter  of  that  potentate.  After  some 
deliberation  his  request  was  granted  on  condition  that  ho 
was  baptized.  Accordingly  ho  went  to  Constantinople  in 
988,  and  was  admitted  into  the  church,  and  at  the  same 
time  received  the  hand'  of  Anne,  the  Byzantine  princess, 
although  he  seems  to  have  already  had  a  great  number  of 
wives.  On  his  return  to  Kieff,  he  caused  the  image. of 
Perun,  the  Slavonic  god  of  thunder,  wiiich  had  been 
erected  on  an  eminence,  to  be  cast  into  the  river,  after 
liaving  been  belaboured  by  the  cudgels  of  his  soldiers. 
After  this  Vladimir  issued  a  proclamation  ordering  all  the 
inhabitants  to  proceed  on  the  following  day  to  the  banks 
of  the  river  to  receive  baptism.  This  extraordinary  com- 
mand met  with  universal  obedience,  and  Russia  was 
Christianized.  As  Vladimir  introduced  Christianity  into 
Russia,  so  Yaroslaff  his  son  was  the  first  legislator.  He 
was  prince  of  Novgorod,  and  died  in  1051.  Vladimir  on 
his  death  divided  his  dominions  among  his  sons : — to 
YaroslafF,  Novgorod;  tolziaslaff,  Polotsk;  to  Boris,  Rostoff ; 
to  Gleb,  Murom ;  to  Sviatoslaff,  the  Drevlians ;  and  a  few 
other  provinces  to  others  of  his  sons.  KieS,  his  capital, 
was  seized  by  his  nephew  Sviatopolk,  who  murdered  Boris 
and  Gleb,  now  canonized  among  the  martyrs  of  the 
Russian  Church.  Yaroslaff  at  length  drove  Sviatopolk 
from  Kieff,  and  was  temporarily  restored  by  the  Polos,  but 
only  to  be  driven  out  again,  and  he  ended  his  life  as  an 
exile.  Yaroslaff  was  successful  against  the  Petchenegs,  but 
failed  in  an  attack  on  Constantinople.  His  great  claim  to 
be  remembered  lies  in  his  publishing  the  first  recension  of 
the  liusskaia  Pravda,  the  earliest  Russian  code,  which 
was  handed  down  in  the  chronicles  of  Novgorod. 

We  now  leave  the  earliest  period  of  Russian  history, 
with  its  romantic  stories  and  embedded  sagas,  telling  us 
of  heroic  men,  for  the  second  division  of  our  subject.  The 
^eath  of  Yaroslaff  was  followed  by  the  dreariest  portion 
of  the  Russian  annals — the  period  of  the  apanages  (ndu'lt), 
lasting  from  1054  to  1238.  The  country  was  now  broken 
up  into  petty  principalities,  and  we  shall  understand  its 
condition  more  clearly  if  wo  remember  that  the  chief 
divisions  of  Russia  from  the  11th  century  to  the  13th 
were  as  follows' : — 

I  (1)  The  principality  of  Smolensk,  formerly  of  great  importance, 
.IS  including  in  its  territories  the  sources  of  thrcft  of  tiio  great 
liussian  rivers — the  Volga,  tlio  Dniejicr,  ninl  the  Diina. 

(2)  Tlio  principniity  of  Russia,  in  the  early  and  restricted  sonso, 
the  original  element  of  the  country.  The  first  form  of  tlie  name  is 
Rous.  The  word  appears  to  have  been  a  collectivo  appellation  of 
the  people  ;  it  was  under  the  intluenco  of  the  Uyzantino  writers 
that  in  the  17th  century  the  form  Rossia  sprang  up,  which  in  time 
spread  over  the  whole  land.  Wo  must  not  forget,  however,  that 
to  the  majority  of  Englishmen,  till  the  beginning  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, its  name  wasiMuscovy.  Its  situation  on  the  Dnieper  was  very 
advantageous;  and  the  soil  was  fertile,  tho  bl.ick-earth  region  being 
at  tho  present  time  the  great  wheat-growing  district  of  Hussia. 
IJesidcs,  the  Uyzanlinc  territory  was  not  far  olf.  On  the  jirinci- 
pality  of  Kieir  depended  that  of  Pereiaslnvl  ;  ami  Vishgorod,  I'.iel- 
gorod,  and  Tortchesk  were  made  apanages  for  princes  of  the  samo 
dynasty. 

'See  Ranibaud,  Uisloire  rfe  la  Jiuaiie,  p.  7C. 

21-5* 


(3)  Ou  tho  affluents  of  tho  right  bank  of  tho  Dnieper,  especially 
the  Sozha,  the  Desna,  and  the  Seim,  stretched  the  principalities 
of  Tchernigofl' with  Starodub  and  Lubech,  and  Novgorod  Severski 
with  Putlvl,  Kursk,  and  Briansk. 

(•4)  The  double  principality  of  Ryazan  and  Slurom. 

(5)  The  principal' ty  of  Suzdal. 

(6)  Tho  republics  of  Novgorod  and  Tskofr,  and  the  daughter-city 
of  the  latter,  Vyatka. 

Iziaslaff,  the  son  of  Yaroslaff,  seems  to  have  had  a 
troubled  reign  of  twenty-four  years,  constantly  disturbed 
by  civil  wars.  On  his  death  in  1078,  although  ho  had 
two  sons,  he  left  the  principality  of  Kieff  to  liis  brother 
Vscvolod,  apparently  on  a  principle  common  among  the 
Slavs  to  bequeath  the  crown  to  the  oldest  male  of  the 
family ;  but,  on  the  death  of  Vscvolod,  Sviatopolk,  the 
son  of  Iziaslatf,  succeeded  in  1093.  At  his  death 
Vladimir  Monomakh  came  to  the  throne,  and  ruled  from 
1 1 1 3  to  1 1 25.  He  was  the  son  of  Vsevolod,  and  was  called 
after  his  maternal  grandfather,  the  Byzantine  emperor 
Constantino  !Monomachus.  Tlie  reign  of  this  prince  was 
a  very  prosperous  one.  He  left  a  curious  treatise 
called  "Instruction"  (Pottchenie),  addres.sed  to  his  sons,  in 
which  we  get  a  picture  of  the  simple  life  in  Russia  at  that 
period  (see  below,  p.  103).  He  also  founded  on  the  river 
Kliazma  a  town  w-hich  bears  his  name.  There  were  con- 
tinual quarrels  among  his  descendants,  but  it  is  impossible 
to  go  into  these  minutely  here.  George  Dolgoruki,  one  of 
the  sons  of  Vladimir  Monomakh,  gained  possession  of  Kieff 
in  1 1 57,  but  tho  city  soon  began  to  pale  before  the  growing 
power  of  Suzdal,  and  ceased  to  bo  tho  capital.  He  died 
the  same  year,  just  while  a  league  was  being  formed  to 
drive  him  out  of  it.  The  confederates  entered  the  city, 
and  their  chief  made  himself  prince.  In  1169  Andrew 
Bogolioubski,  son  of  George  Dolgoruki,  formed  a  coali- 
tion against  Jlstislaff,  who  was  reigning  in  Kieff,  and  a 
large  army  was  sent  against  the  city.  It  was  taken  and 
pillaged ;  and  the  sacred  pictures,  sacerdotal  ornaments, 
and  even  bells  were  carried  off.  It  is  on  this  occasion 
that  the  head  of  St  Clement,  the  Slavonic  apostle,  which 
is  known  to  have  been  preserved  at  Kieff,  was  lost. 

After  tho  fall  of  this  city  Russia  ceased  for  some  ti-nie 
to  have  any  political  centre.  During  the  fifty-four  years 
previous  to  the  arrival  of  the  Mongols,  our  chief  interest 
is  drawn  to  Suzdal  and  Galicia,  and  the  republics  of 
Novgorod  and  Pskoff.  George  Dolgoruki  had  founded 
the  principality  of  Suzdal ;  his  great  anxiety,  however, 
was  to  make  himself  master  of  Kieff.  The  chief  aim  of 
his  son  Andrew  Bogoliubski  was  to  extend  his  authority 
in  another  direction,  and  to  cause  it  to  be  recognized  at 
Novgorod  the  Great,  where  he  had  established  his  nephew 
as  a  kind  of  lieutenant.  Ho  attacked  the  city  in  1170, 
but  was  completely  repulsed  from  its  walls,  a  panic 
having  seized  his  army.  The  Novgorodians  put  to  death 
many  of  their  prisoners,  and  sold  others  as  slaves,  so  that, 
to  quote  tho  words  of  their  chronicler,  "six  Suzdalians 
could  be  bought  for  a  grivna,"  an  old  piece  of  money.  In 
1173  Andrew  was  also  defeated  by  Mstislaff  the  Brave  at 
Smolensk,  and  in  1174  he  was  assassinated  by  his  own 
nobles.  The  reign  of  Andrew  was  in  all  respects  an  im- 
portant one.  From  his  refusing  to  divide  his  dominions 
among  his  brothers  and  ncphew.s,  it  is  plain  that  he  saw  tho 
evil  effect  of  the  system  of  apanages  and  could  conceive  tho 
idea  of  a  united  state.  He  was  a  man  of  iron  will,  and  an 
astute  diplomatist  rather  than  a  groat  soldier.  He  thui 
had  .something  of  the  spirit  of  tho  Ivans,  and  anticipated 
their  policy.  He  may  be  said  with  truth  to  have  been 
the  last  of  the  conspicuous  rulers  of  Russia  before  tho 
Mongol  invasions.  As  yet  wo  have  had  but  few  worthy 
of  the  attention  of  the  historian.  Tliey  fire  Rurik,  the 
founder  of  tho  empire,  Olog  tlio  warrior,  and  Olga  I  ho 
first  Cliristian  sovereign.     To  these  succeed  the   warliko 


00 


RUSSIA 


[niSTOEY. 


BviatoslafE,  slain  by  tlie  Petohenegs ;  Vladimir,  who  caused 
the  country  to  be  Christianized ;  and  YaroslafE  his  son, 
the  legislator.  During  the  second  period,  in  which  we 
find  Russia  weakened  and  divided  into  apanages,  we 
have  only  two  noteworthy  princes  among  a  score  of 
unimportant  persons, — Vladimir  Monomakh  and  Andrew. 

The  death  of  Andrew,  whose  murderers  .were  not 
tirought  to  justice,  was  followed  by  many  petty  wars. 
The  only  event,  however,  of  any  importance  for  a  con- 
Biderable  time  ■  is  the  battle  of  Lipetsk  (near  Pereiaslavl 
Zaliesski)  in  1215,  in  which  George,  son  of  Vsevolod, 
brother  of  Andrew,  was  defeated  by  the  combined  troops 
of  PTovgorod,  Pskoff,  and  Smolensk.  In  1220  we  hear  of 
Nijni-Kovgorod  being  founded.  A  prince  of  consider- 
able importance  was  Eoman  of  Volhynia,  to  whom  the 
inhabitants  of  Galicia  offered  the  government  of  their 
principality,  bi-t  he  was  superseded  by  another  Vladimir, 
and  did  not  get  the  crown  till  after  a  great  deal  of 
hard  fighting.  He  is  said  by  Kadlubek,  the  Polish 
historian,  to  have  acted  with  ferocious  cruelty.  In  1205 
hei  was  killed  in  a  battle  with  the  Poles.  In  1224  we 
have  the  first  invasion  of  Russia  by  the  Mongols.  Daniel  of 
,Galicia  was  one  of  the  last  of  the  Russian  princes  to  make 
his  submission  to  Batu  (1238).  He  died  in  1264.  In 
the  14th  century  the  principality  of  Galicia  was  lost  in 
the  Polish  republic,  having  been  annexed  to  Lithuania.  It 
joined  the  fortunes  of  that  state  in  its  union  with  Poland 
at  the  time  of  the  marriage  of  Jagietlo  with  Jadwiga. 
Jrte  We  now  come  to  the  third  division  of  our  subjei;i,  — 

Mongor  jRussia  under  the  yoke  of  the  Mongols,  viz.,  from  1238  to 
^^™"  1462.  This  is  indeed  a  dreary  period,  in  which  the 
political  and  material  development  of  the  country  was 
delayed  by  its  complete  enslavement.  The  first  occasion 
on  which  the  Russians  came  into  contact  with  their 
Mongolian  invaders  was  in  1224,  when,  in  company 
with  their  allies,  the  Polovtzes,  they  suffered  a  complete 
defeat  on  the  banks  of  the  Kalka,  near  where  it  flows 
into  the  sea  ©f  Azoff,  and  Adjoining  the  site  of  the 
present  town  of  Mariupol.  Ln  this  occasion,  however, 
the  Mongols  only  marched  a  little  way  up  the  river 
Dnieper,  and  retired  after  devastating  the  country.  In 
1238  they  reappeared,  and  after  destroying  Bolgari,  the 
capital  of  the  Finnish  Bulgarians  on  the  Volga,  advanced 
against  Ryazan,  which  was  plundered  and  burned,  with 
adjoining  cities.  They  then  defeated  the  army  of  Suzdal, 
at  Kolomna,  on  the  Oka ;  after  which  they  burned  Moscow, 
Suzdal,  Yaroslavl,  and  other  important  towTis.  The  grand- 
duke  Yuri  of  Suzdal  had  encamped  on  the  river  Sit,  almost 
on  thfl  frontiers  of  the  territory  of  Novgorod.  He  was 
fhere  defeated  and  was  decapitated  on  the  field  of  battle, 
while  his  nephew  Vasilko  had  his  throat  cut  for  refusing 
to  serve  Batu.  After  taking  Tver  and  advancing  within 
fifty  leagues  of  Novgorod,  the  Mongols  turned  south  and 
occupied  the  two  following  years  (1239-1240)  in  ravaging 
southern  Russia.  They  then  burned  Pereiaslavl  and 
Tchernigoff,  and  Mangu,  the  grandson  of  Jengkiz  Khan, 
directed  his  march  against  Kieff.  The  noise  of  the  great 
host  pro.ceeding  to  Wa  capture  of  the  fated  city  is  graphic- 
ally described  by  the  chronicler.  The  city  was  taken  and 
given  up  to  pillage,  not  even  t\e  graves  being  respected. 
Volhynia  and  Galicia  follnwod  the  fate  of  the  other  prin- 
cipalities, and  all  Russia  wa-;  now  under  the  yoke  of  the 
Mongols,  except  the  territory  of  Novgorod. 

The  subsequent  mo\ement9  of  those  liarbarlans  in 
Hungary  and  Moravia  cannot  be  described  here.  It  will 
suffice  to  say  that  soon  afterwards  Batu  turned  eastv>'ards. 
He  nest  founded  on  the  Volga  the  city  of  Sarai  (the 
Palace),  which  became  the  capital  of  the  powerful  Mon- 
golian empire,  the  Golden  Horde.  Here  also  congregated 
the  remains  of  the  Petchenegs,  the  Polovtzes,  and  other 


tribes,  and  to  these  barbarians  Russia  was  for  a  long  time 
tributary.  In  1272  the  ilongolian  hordes  embraced 
Islam.  Yaroslaff,  who  entered  into  his  territory  of  Suzdal 
after  the  death  of  his  brother  Yuri,  found  his  hereditary 
domains  completely  devastated.  He  had  commenced  re- 
building the  ruined  town,  when  he  was  summoned  by 
Batu  to  do  him  homage  in  his  new  capitaljnf  Sarai.  This, 
however,  was  not  considered  sufficient,  and  the  poor  prince 
■was  obliged  to  betake  himself  to  the  court  of  the  great 
khan,  which  was  at  the  further  end  of  Asia,  on  the  banks 
of  the  river  Amur.  His  title  was  confirmed,  but  on  hia 
return  he  died  of  the  fatigues  of  the  journey.  He  waa 
succeeded  in  Suzdal  by  his  son  Andrew  (1246-1252). 
His  other  son  Alexander  reigned  at  Novgorod  the  Great, 
and  gained  the  surname  of  Nevski  from  his  celebrated 
victory  over  the  Swedes  in  1240.  He  and  Dmitri  Donskoi 
are  the  only  great  figures  of  this  period  of  national  abase- 
ment. Alexander  Nevski  has  become  consecrated  in  the 
memories  of  the  people,  and  is  now  one  of  the'  leading 
Russian  saints.  In  spite,  however,  of  his  services  to  the 
people  of  Novgorod,  he  afterwards  quarrelled  with  them 
and  retired  to  Pereiaslavl  Zaliesski.  But  the  citizens  were 
soon  glad  to  betake  themselves  to  his  help.  On  being 
invaded  by  the  German  Sword-bearing  Knights,  who  had 
established  themselves  in  Livonia  in  the  year  1201,  and 
an  army  of  Finns,  Alexander  was  summoned,  like  another 
Camiilus,  and  defeated  the  enemy  on  Lake  Peipus  in  what 
was  called  the  "Battle  of  the  Ice"  in  1242.  He  entered 
Novgorod  in  triumph  with  his  prisoners.  In  spite  of  all 
this  brilliant  success,  Alexander  was  unable  to  resist  the 
power  of  the  Golden  Horde,  and  was  obliged  to  go  to 
Sarai  to  do  homage  to  the  khan.  He  was  accompanied 
by  his  brother  Andrew.  The  ceremony  was  always 
attended  by  many  degrading  acts  of  submission  on  the 
part  of  the  tributary  prince.  In  1260  the  Novgorodians, 
who  had  so  long  preserved  the  liberty  of. their  republic 
uninjured,  consented  to  submit  to  the  khan  and  pay 
tribute ;  Alexander  died  before  reaching  Vladimir  on  his 
return  from  one  of  these  humiliating  journeys.  A  great 
part  of  western  Russia  was  now  consolidated  by  the 
Lithuanian  princes  into  a  state,  the  capital  of  which  was 
Vilna  and  the  language  Wiite  Russian.  To  this  many  of 
the  western  provinces  of  Russia  gravitated,  and  by  the 
marriage  of  the  Polish  heiress  Jadwiga  with  Jagiefto  of 
Lithuania  these  provinces  went  to  Poland  and  were  not 
reannexed  to  Russia  till  a  much  later  period.  The  eastern 
portion  of  Russia  grouped  itself  round  Moscow,  which  is 
first  heard  of  in  the  chronicles  in  1147.  We  find  four  con- 
siderable eastern  states — Ryazan,  Suzdal,  Tver,  and  Moscow. 
For  a  century  after  its  foundation  we  hear  nothing  of  this 
city,  the  name  of  which  is  certainly  Finnish.  We  are  told 
that  it  was  burned  by  the  Mongols  in  1237,  and  that  a 
brother  of  Alexander  Nevski  was  killed  there  in. 1248,  in 
a  battle  against  the  Lithuanians.  We  have  seen  that  the 
political  centre  of,  the  country  has  constantly  changed. 
From  Novgorod  it  went  to  Kieff,  from  Kieff  to  Vladimir, 
the  capital  of  Suzdal,  and  from  Vladimir  to  Moscow ;  we 
shall  soon  find  that  owing  to  the  vigorous  policy  of  its 
rulers  this  principality  became  the  nucleus  of  the  great 
Russian  empire,  and  gathered  round  it  the  adjacent  states. 
Its  true  founder  was  Daniel,  a  son  of  Alexander  Nevski, 
who  added  to  it  the  cities  of  Pereiaslavl  Zaliesski  and 
Kolomna.  At  his  death  in  1303  he  was  the  first  to  be 
buried  in  the  church  of  St  Michael  the  Archangel,  where 
all  the  Russian  sovereigns  were  laid  till  the  days  of  Peter 
the  Great.  Since  that  time,  with  the  exception  of  Peter 
II.,  they  have  been  interred  in  the  church  of  the  Petro- 
pavlovski  fortress  at  St  Petersburg.  Daniel  was  followed 
on  the  throne  by  his  sons  Yuri  and  Ivan  in  succession.  Yuri 
Danilovich  (1303-1326)  took  possession  of  Mozhaisk.  The 


117-1-151U.] 


RUSSIA 


91 


reign  of  Ivan  Kalita,  or  the  Purse  (1328--1340),  still 
further  strengtlieneJ  the  new  jn-incipality.  Tver  was 
added,  and  the  pre-eminence  of  JIoscow  was  assured  by 
the  metropolitan  coming  to  reside  there.  After  Kalita 
came  in  succession  his  two  sons,  Simeon  the  Proud  (1310- 
1353)  and  Ivan  II.  (135.3-1359).  Simeon  first  took  the 
title  of  grand-duke  of  all  the  Russias.  He  died  of  the 
Black  Death,  which  was  then  devastating  Europe.  In 
spite  of  the  efforts  of  these  princes  to  maintain  the 
supremacy  of  Moscow,  on  their  death  the  hegemony  of  the 
Russian  states  went  again  for  a  time  to  Suzdal.  It  was 
Dmitri,  surnamed  Donskoi,  the  son  of  Ivan  II.,  who  won 
the  battle  of  Kulikovo  (lit.  "the  field  of  woodcocks") 
over  JIamai,  the  i^Iongolian  chief,  in  1380.  In  spite  of 
this,  however,  Toktamish  their  general  invaded  llussia, 
burned  JIoscow  to  the  ground,  and  put  to  death  a  great 
number  of  the  inhabitants.  To  Dmitri  succeeded  his  son 
Vasilii  or  Basil  (1389-1425),  who  was  prince  both  of 
Moscow  and  Vladimir.  He  in  turn  was  followed  by  Vasilii 
the  Blind  (U25-14G2). 

We  begin  to  touch  firmer  ground  when  we  approach  the 
reign  of  Ivan  III.,  the  son  of  Vasilii,  who  may  be  con- 
sidered the  founder  of  the  autocracy.  We  may  take,  there- 
fore, as  our  fourth  division  the  period  from  14G2  to  1613, 
which  will  include  the  consolidation  of  the  empire  under 
the  vigorous  rule  of  Ivan  III.,  Basil  V.,  and  Ivan  IV., 
the  .usurpation  of  Boris  Godunoff,  the  reign  of  the  false 
Demetrius,  and  the  troubles  following  upon  it  till  the 
accession  of  the  house  of  Romanoff  in  the  person  of  Michael 
in  the  year  1013.  Ivan  III.  reigned  forty -three  years, 
and  had  as  much  influence  in  the  consolidation  of  Russia 
as  Louis  XL  had  in  that  of  France.  It  was  the  great 
age  when  throughout  Europe  absolute  monarchies  were 
being  created  on  the  ruins  of  feudalism.  On  his  accession 
Ivan  found  himself  surrounded  by  powerful  neighbours — to 
the  east  the  great  principality  of  Lithuania,  to  the  south 
the  Mongols ;  Ryazan  and  Tver  had  not  been  annexed  to 
the  territory  of  Muscovy ;  Novgorod  and  Pskoff  were  still 
republics.  It  was  against  Novgorod,  a  wealthy  city  and 
a  member  of  the  Hanseatic  league,  that  his  efforts 
were  first  directed.  In  consequence  of  its  situation,  and 
by  its  paying  the  tribute  demanded,  it  had  escaped  from 
the  ravages  which  other  parts  of  Russia  had  under- 
gone. Taking  advantage  of  the  factions  which  harassed 
this  city,  he  succeeded  in  creating  a  party  subservient  to 
his  own  interests,  and  as  early  as  1470  had  got  the  con- 
trol of  the  government  of  the  city,  which  a  rival  faction 
was  anxious  to  transfer  to  the  Poles.  In  1478  the 
republic  of  Novgorod  ceased  to  exist ;  the  chief  ojaponents 
of  Ivan  were  transported  to  Jfoscow,  and  their  goods 
confiscated.  The  vec/te,  as  the  public  assembly  was  called, 
was  terminated  for  ever,  and  the  bell  which  had  summoned 
the  mutinous  citizens  carried  off  triumphantly  to  Moscow. 
In  1495  the  tyrant  was  so  foolish  as  to  confiscate  the 
goods  of  many  of  the  German  merchants  who  traded  at 
Novgorod.  In  consequence  of  this  nearly  all  the  foreigners 
left  the  city,  and  its  prosperity  rapidly  declined.  It  is 
now  a  decayed  provincial  town,  interesting  only  to  tho 
antiquary.  In  1489  Vyatka,  a  daughter  city  of  PskoflF, 
was  annexed  and  lost  thereby  its  republican  constitution. 
In  1464  by  giving  the  hand  of  his  sister  to  the  prince  of 
Ryazan  Ivan  made  sure  of  the  proximate  annexation  of 
that  apanage.  He  seized  Tver  and  joined  it  to  his 
dominions,  when  the  grand-prince  Michael  had  allied  him- 
self with  Lithuania.  The  system  of  apanages  in  Russia 
liad  now  to  come  to  an  end.  But  Ivan,  who  had  married 
the  niece  of  the  Byzantine  emperor,  and  assumed  as  his 
icogiii?.ance  tho  two  headed  eagle,  was  also  to  come  into  col- 
lision with  the  hereditary  enemies  of  llussia,  the  Mongols. 
The  i;rcat  power  of  tlio  (iold'.'n  Horde  had  been  broken  up; 


on  its  ruins  had  arisen  the  empires  of  Kazan  and  of  Sarai 
or  Astrakhan,  the  horde  of  the  Nogais,  and  the  khanate  of 
the  Crimea.  In  1478,  when  Ahmed,  the  khan  of  the  Great 
Horde,  whose  capital  was  Sarai,  sent  his  ambassadors  with 
his  portrait,  to  which  the  Russian  was  to  do  homage,  Ivan 
trampled  it  under  foot,  and  put  to  death  all  the  envoys, 
except  one,  who  was  deputed  to  take  back  the  news  to  the 
khan.  The  reiily  of  Ahmed  to  this  outrage  was  a  declara- 
tion of  war;  and  the  two  armies  met  on  the  banks  of  the 
Oka.  Ivan,  who,  like  Louis  XL,  was  much  more  of  a  dip- 
lomatist than  a  soldier,  according  to  the  accounts  of  the 
chroniclers,  was  in  great  terror,  and  could  not  be  induced  to 
fight  by  the  persuasions  of  his  soldiers  or  the  benedictions 
of  his  ecclesiastics.  He  had  already,  after  the  armies  had 
been  for  some  time  encamped  opposite  to  each  other,  given 
the  signal  of  retreat,  when,  in  consequence  of  a  sudden 
panic  the  Jlongols  also  retreated,  and  the  armies  fled  from 
each  other  in  mutual  fear.  This  invasion,  which  occurred 
in  the  year  1480,  was  the  last  great  inroad  of  the  Asiatic 
enemies  of  Russia,  but  we  shall  find  some  even  later 
than  the  days  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  in  whose  time  Moscow 
was  burned  by  these  barbarians.  Meanwhile  Ivan  went 
on  in  his  career  of  annexation.  In  1472  he  conquered 
Permia,  in  1489  Vyatka.  Ten  years  afterwards  he  had 
extended  his  authority  as  far  north  as  the  Petchora.  His 
good  fortune  seemed  ever  on  the  increase ;  by  a  war  with 
Alexander,  king  of  Poland,  he  gained  an  accession  o£ 
territory  to  the  west  as  far  as  the  river  Desna.  Upon 
peace  being  concluded,  Alexander  married  Helen,  the 
daughter  of  Ivan,  but  that  monarch,  on  pretence  that  no 
regard  had  been  paid  to  his  daughter's  religious  scruples, 
declared  war  against  his  new  son-in-law.  The  Po.'ish 
monarch  could  not  rely  upon  the  fidelity  of  many  of  his 
vassals,  as  we  find  so  often  the  case  in  Polish  history,  and 
suffered  a  complete  defeat  at  the  battle  of  the  Vedrosha. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  1501  the  Russians  were  routed  at 
the  battle  of  the  Siritza,  near  Isborsk,  by  the  grand-master 
of  the  Teutonic  order,  Hermann  von  Plcttenberg.  The 
order  had  been  established  in  Lithuania  as  early  as  1225  j 
the  Sword-bearers  amalgamated  with  them  in  1237. 

In  1472  Ivan  had  married  a  Byzantine  princess,  Sophia, 
daughter  of  Thomas,  brother  of  the  emperor  Constantine 
Palffiologus.  This  Thomas  had  fled  to  Rome  after  the  fall 
of  Constantinople  in  1453.  In  consequence  of  this  mar- 
riage, a  great  many  Greeks  came  to  Moscow,  bHnging 
Byzantine  culture,  such  as  it  was,  to  Russia,  and  among 
other  things  a  quantity  of  valuable  manuscripts,  which 
formed  the  nucleus  of  the  synodal  library.  Italians  also 
made  their  appearance  in  Russia,  among  others  the  cele- 
brated Aristotle  Fioraventi  of  Bologna,  the  architect  of 
so  many  buildings  at  Moscow.  Ivan  not  only  welcomed 
foreigners  in  his  dominions,  but  entered  into  relations  with 
many  European  powers,  among  others  the  Germans,  the 
Venetians,  and  the  Pope.  His  reign  is  remarkable,  not  only 
for  tho  consolidation  of  tho  Russian  autocracy,  but  also 
for  legislation.  In  1497  he  issued  his  SiidebnU;  or  Book 
of  Laws,  the  second  Russian  code  after  the  Eiisskala 
Pravda  of  Yaroslaff.  Comparison  of  the  two  codes  will 
show  how  much  had  been  done  by  tho  Mongols  to  lower 
tho  Russian  character.  It  is  in  tho  reign  of  Ivan  that  wt3 
fir.st  hoar  of  tho  use  of  tho  knout :  an  archimandrite  and 
some  noblemen  were  publicly  knouted  for  being  concerned 
in  forging  a  will.  At  his  death  Ivan  bequeathed  Lis 
throno  to  his  second  son  Vasilii  or  Basil,  passing  over  bia 
grandson,  the  child  of  his  eldest  son  Ivan,  who  had  pre- 
deceased him  ;  ho  was  evidently  unwilling  to  commit  hia 
growing  empire  to  the  perils  of  a  minority.  Vasilii  Ivnn- 
ovich  (1505-1533)  fully  carried  out  tho  programme  of  his 
father.  Ho  destroyed  tho  independence  of  P-nkoff  in  1510, 
put  an  end  to  tho  xxche  or  |x>pular  assembly,  and  carried 


92 


K  U  S  S  I  A 


[mjlTOET, 


oflE  the  bell  which  summoned  the  citizens. "  Thus  fell  the 
last  of  the  Slavonic  republics.  Ryazan  was  next  added 
to  the  Muscovite  territory.  The  prince,  being  accused  of 
having  contracted  an  alliance  with  the  khan  of  the  Crimea, 
fled  to  Lithuania,  where  he  died  in  obscurity.  Nov- 
gorod Severski  was  annexed  soon  after,  and  by  a  war  with 
Sigismund  I.  Basil  got  back  Smolensk.  He  was  doomed, 
however,  to  suffer  from  an  invasion  of  the  Mongols  of  the 
Crimea,  and  is  said  to  have  signed  a  humiliating  treaty  to 
save  his  capital,  whereby  he  acknowledged  himself  the 
tributary  of  the  khan. 

.  Meanwhile  at  home  Basil  exercised  absolute  authority ; 
Russia  now  exhibited  the  spectacle  of  an  Asiatic  despotism. 
He  entered  into  negotiations  with  many  foreign  princes. 
Herberstein,  the  German  ambassador,  who  has  left  us  such 
an  interesting  account  of  the  Russia  of  this  time,  has  told 
us  of  the  great  splendour  of  his  court.  We  now  come  to 
the  reign  of  the  terrible  Ivan,  who  has  left  his  name 
written  in  blood  upon  the  annals  of  Russia,  and  ruled  for 
the  long  period  of  fifty-one  years  (1533-1584).  It  was  a 
fortunate  thing  for  the  aggrandizement  of  the  empire 
that,  instead  of  having  a  succession  of  weak  sovereigns, 
who  only  ruled  a  short  time,  it  had  three  such  vigorous 
potentates  as  Ivan  III,  Basil,  and  Ivan  IV.,  whose  united 
reigns  extended  over  a  hundred  and  twenty-two  years. 
,The  grand-duke  Basil  at  his  death  left  two  sons,  Ivan  and 
lYuri,  under  the  guardianship  of  his  second,  wife  Helen 
Glinska.  She  had  come  into  Russia  from  Lithuania,  her 
family  having  been  proscribed  by  the  Polish  king  A  lexander- 
on  the  accusation  of  having  plotted  against  his  life.  The 
grand-duchess  ruled  with  great  ability,  but  died  in  1538, 
having  been,  as  is  supposed,  poisoned.  The  two  young 
princes  then  became  the  victims  of  the  intrigues  of  the 
chief  families,  especially  those  of  Shuiski  and  Belski. 
Ivan  early  gave  proof  of  a  vigorous  understanding,  whereas 
his  younger  brother  Yuri  appears  to  have  been  half-witted. 
In  1543,  when  only  in  his  thirteenth  year,  Ivan  determined 
to  emancipate  himself  from  the  galling  yoke  of  the  boiars, 
md  by  a  kind  of  coxq:)  d'etat  threw  oflf  their  tutelage,  and 
caused  Shuiski  to  be  torn  to  pieces  by  dogs.  After  this, 
for  some  time,  he  was  under  the  influence  of  his  maternal 
relations.  In  January  1547  Ivan  was  crowned  by  the 
metropolitan  Macarius,  and  took  the  title  of  czar,  or  tsar, 
a  Slavonic  form  of  the  Latin  CMsar.  He  soon  afterwards 
celebrated  his  marriage  with  Anastasia  Romanova.  The 
jame  year  a  great  conflagration  took  place  at  Moscow. 
The  mob  affected  to  believe  that  this  had  been  caused  by 
the  Glinskis,  who  were  very  unpopular,  and  massacred  a 
piember  of  that  family. 

After  this  time  Ivan  seems  to  have  committed  him.self 
^ery  much  to  the  guidance  of  the  priest  Silvester  and 
Alexis  Adasheff.  This  was  the  happiest  portion  of  his 
.•eign,  for  he  was  also  greatly  under  the  influence  of  his 
imiable  wife.  To  this  period  also  belongs  a  recension 
of  the  Siidebnik  of  his  grandfather  Ivan  III.  (1550), 
lud  the  Sioglaff,  or  Book  of  the  Hundred  Chapters,  by 
which  the  affairs  of  the  church  were  regulated  (1551). 
In  the  following  year  Ivan  became  master  of  Ka^an,  and 
two  years  later  of  Astrakhan.  The  power  of  the  Mongols 
was  now  almost  broken.  Triumphant  in  the  south  and 
the  east,  he  then  turned  his  attention  to  the  north,  being 
mxious  to  open  up  a  means  of  communication  with  the 
west..  He  anticipated  the  plans  which  Peter  the  Great 
was  destined  to  carry  out  long  afterwards.  He  was  thus 
brought  into  collision  with  the  Swedes  and  the  Teutonic 
Knights.  When  Ivan  sent  a  German  .named  Schlitt  to 
procure  the  assistance  of  some  foreign  artisans,  they  were 
stopped  by  the  Germans  and  prevented  from  entering 
Russian  territory.  In  consequence  of  this,  war  afterwards 
broke -out  between  Ivan  and  the  Order.     In  1558  the 


Russian  army  invaded  Livonia,  and  took"  several  towns, 
whereupon  the  Order  made  an  alliance  with  Sigismund 
Augustus  of  Poland.  But,  while  Russia  was  busy  with 
this. war,  a  great  change  was  taking  place  in  the  home 
policy  of  Ivan.  He  threw  off  the  influence  of  Silvester 
and  Adasheff,  who  were  .both  banished.  From  this  timei 
may  be  said  to  date  the  commencement  of  the  atrocities  of 
this  czar  which  have  earned  him  the  epithet  constantly* 
added  to  his  name.  He  was  especially  moved  by  the 
treason  of  Prince  Andrew  Kurbski,  who,  having  lost  a 
battle  with  the  Poles,  was  too  much  afraid  of  the  wrath  of 
his  imperial  master  to  venture  again  into  his  clutches. 
He  accordingly  fled  to  the  king  of  Poland,  by  whom  be 
was  well  received,  and  from  his  safe  retreat  he  commenced 
an  angry  correspondence  with  the  czar,  reproaching  him 
with  his  cruelties  (see  below,  p.  104).  The  answer  of 
Ivan  has  been  preserved.  In  it  he  dwells  upon  the  degrad- 
ing subjection  in  which  he  had  been  kept  by  his  early 
advisers,  and  attempts  to  justify  his  cruelties  by  saying 
that  they  were  only  his  slaves  wt.oia  he  had  killed,  over 
whom  God  had  given  him  power  of  life  and  death. '  \ 

In  December  1564  Ivan  retired  with  a  few  personal 
friends  to  his  retreat  at  Alexandrovskoe,  near  Moscow,' 
where-he  passed  his  time  pretty  much  as  Louis  XL  did  at 
Plessy-les-Tours,  for  he  resembled  the  French  monarch 
both  in  his  cruelty  and  his  superstition.  The  boiars/ 
afraid  that  the  monarch  was  about  to  quit  them  for  ever, 
went  in  crowds  to  Alexandrovskoe  to  supplicate  him  to 
return  to  Moscow.  This  he  finally  consented  to  do,  and 
on  his  return  established  his  bodyguard  of  oprichniksi 
who  were  the  chief  agents  of  his  cruelty.  In  the  year  in 
which  he  retired  to  Alexandrovskoe  we  have  the  establish- 
ment of  a  printing-press  at  JIoscow.  Ivan  now  commenced, 
a  long  series  of  cruelties.  To  this  period  belong  the  deposv, 
tion  and  perhaps  murder  of  Philip,  the  archbishop  of  Mos- 
cow ;  the  execution  of  Alexandra,  the  widow  of  his  brother 
Yuri;  the  atrocities  committed  at  Novgorod,  which  seems 
to  have  fallen  under  the  tyrant's  vengeance  for  having 
meditated  opening  its  gates  to  the  king  of  Poland ;  and, 
lastly,  the  terrible  butcheries  on  the  Red  Square  (Krasnaiq 
Plostchad).  _        _ 

It  was  in  the  reign  of  Ivan  that  the  English  first  nact 
dealings  with  Ru.ssia.  In  1553,  while  Edward  VI.  was 
on  the  throne,  three  ships  were  sent  out  under  Willoughby 
and  Chancellor  to  look  for  a  north-east  passage  to  China 
and  India.  Willoughby  and  the  crews  of  two  of  the  ships 
were  frozen  to  death,  but  Chancellor  arrived  safely  in  the 
White  Sea,  and  thence  proceeded  to  the  court  of  Ivan,  by 
whom  he  was  favourably  received.  The  English  secured 
great  trading  privileges  from  Ivan,  and  established  faw 
tories  in  the  country.  In  one  of  his  mad  sallies,  Ivan 
actually  wrote  to  Queen  Elizabeth  (1570)  asking  fop  ,a 
safe  retreat  in  her  dominions  if  he  should  be  driven  out 
by  his  own  subjects. 

Ivan  was  continually  waging  war  in  the  Baltic  territory 
with  the  Teutonic  Knights,  in  which,  although  on  the 
whole  unsuccessful,  he  committed  great  cruelties.  But  in 
1571  he  was  obliged  to  suffer  another  invasion  of  the 
Mongols  of  the  Crimea,  who,  to  quote  the  quaint  language 
of  an  English  resident,  burned  "  the  JIosco  every  stick " 
(Hakluyt's  Voyarjes,  i.  402).  On  the  death  of  Sigismund 
Augustus  of  Poland  in  1572,  when  the  crown  of  tha' 
country  had  become  elective,  the  family  of  the  Jagieltos 
being  now  extinct,  Ivan  declared  himself  one  of  the  com- 
petitors. The  successful  candidate  was  the  French  princo 
Henry  of  Valois,  but  he  soon  fled  from  his  new  kingdomy 
and,  on  the  throne  again  becoming  vacant,  the  redoubtable 
Stepheti  Batory  was  chosen,  wlio  proved  a  formidable  foe: 
to  the  tyrant  now  growing  old.  I.^^consequence;^af  thai 
success^  of  Stephen,  Ivan  was  obliged  to  abandon  all  hiaj 


1533-1598.] 


RUSSIA 


93 


conquests  in  Livonia;  and  the  attempt  to  open  up  a 
passage  for  Russia  into  the  Baltic  failed  till  carried  out  by 
the  efforts  of  Peter  the  Great. 

One  of  the  chief  events  of  this  reigp  was  the  conquest 
of  Siberia  by  a  Cossack  named  Yermak,  who  had  formerly 
been  a  robber,  but  was  pardoned  by  the  czar  on  laying  his 
conquests  at  the  imperial  feet.  Among  many  points  in  which 
Ivan  resembled  Henry  VIII.  was  the  number  of  his  wives. 
On  the  death  of  the  seventh,  he  was  anxious  to  procure 
an  eighth  from  the  court  of  his  friend  Elizabeth  of  Eng- 
land, and  the  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Huntingdon  was 
offered  to  the  inspection  of  the  Russian  ambassador, 
Feodor  Pisemski,  at  her  own  desire  and  the  queen's. 
She  was  presented  to  him  in  the  gardens  of  York  House. 
The  ambassador  prostrated  himself  before  her,  and  pro- 
fessed to  be  dazzled  by  her  beauty.  Before,  however,  the 
negotiations  for  the  marriage  were  concluded,  the  young 
lady,  of  whom  a  very  favourable  account  had  been  trans- 
mitted to  the  court  of  Moscow,  became  alarmed.  Rumours 
had  reached  her  about  the  former  wives  of  the  czar  and 
his  habits.  She  therefore  declined  the  brilliant  prcoect 
of  an  alliance  associated  with  so  many  dangers,  i  '11 
details  of  the  adventures  of  the  Englishmen  who  resided  ai 
Ivan's  court  will  be  found  in  Hakluyt's  Voyages:.  In  1567 
Anthony  Jenkinson  was  commissioned  by  the  czar  to 
convey  a  special  message  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  "  that  the 
Queen's  Majestie  and  he  might  be  to  all  their  enemyes 
joyned  as  one,  and  that  England  and  Russland  might  be 
in  all  manners  as  one."  In  fact  Ivan  wanted  the  assistance 
of  the  English  in  his  wars  against  the  Swedes  and  the 
Poles ;  he  could  appreciate  the  superiority  of  their  weapons 
and  military  tactics ;  but  Elizabeth  only  cared  to  secure  a 
monopoly  of  trade  which  the  English  for  a  long  time 
enjoyed,  a:"d,  according  to  the  historian  Ustrialoff,  the 
Russians  were  but  little  benefited  by  it. 

The  declining  days  of  Ivan  were  embittered  by  the  death 
of  his  eldest  son,  whom  he  had  stricken  in  a  fit  of  passioQ 
with  his  iron  staff.  When  the  paro.xysm  of  his  anger  was 
over,  his  grief  was  boundless.  Full  of  remorse  and 
continually  afraid  of  conspiracies  which  might  be  concocted 
by  his  -subjects,  and  harassed  by  superstitious  dread,  in 
which  he  betook  himself  to  the  divination  of  witches,'  he 
expired  in  the  year  1584. 

Ivan  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  surviving  son  Feodor 
(Theodore),  at  that  time  twenty-seven  years  of  age.  He 
was  feeble  both  in  mind  and  body,  and  very  superstitious. 
Fletcher  calls  him  "very  simple,  and  almost  a  natural," 
and  Solomon  Hcnning,  author  of  a  Chronicle  of  Livonia, 
says  that  he  was  so  weak-minded  that  he  could  find  no 
greater  amusement  than  tolling  the  church  bells  before 
service.  In  consequence,  the  chief  power  in  the  empire 
"ell  into  the  hands  of  Boris  Godunoff,-  the  brother-in-law 
of  Feodor,  a  man  of  boundless  ambition  and  great 
capacity.  His  inordinate  lust  of  rule  he  concealed  under 
the  guise  of  piety ;  his  commanding  presence  extorted 
respect  wherever  he  went.  Between  him  and  the  throne 
were  only  the  sickly  Feodor  and  his  brother  Dmitri, 
still  a  child,  who  had  been  previously  removed  to  the 
town  of  Uglich  in  the  government  of  Y'aroslavl.  For  a 
while  Boris  had  nourished  the  idea  of  proclaiming  Dmitri 
illegitimate,  on  the  ground  that  ho  was  the  son  of  Ivan's 
eventh  wife,  a  marriage  forbidden  by  the  caooDS  of  the 
church. '  Finally,  as  there  seems  every  reason  to  believe, 
be  caused  the  child  to  be  assassinated  at  Uglich  on  the 
15th  of  May  1591.  The  circumstances  of  the  death  of  the 
young  prince  are  involved  in  mystery  ;  so  much,  however, 
is  certain.    Dmitri  was  playing  in  a  court-yard;  his  gover- 

»  Horsey'a  Diary,  edited  for  the  Hakliiyt  Society,  1850,  p.  199. 
'  He  was  of  Mongol  descent, — his  ancestor  being  a  certain  Murza 
Tcbet. 


ness  Vasilissa  Volokhova,  his  nurse,  and  a  servant-maid 
were  in  attendance.  Whether  from  accident  or  design 
they  all  for  a  time  lost  sight  of  him.  According  to  their 
testimony  while  under  examination,  the  young  prince  had  a 
knife  in  his  hand  when  last  seen ;  he  amused  himself  with 
sticking  it  into  the  ground  and  cutting  pieces  of  wood. 
Suddenly  the  nurse,  on  looking  round,  saw  him  prostrate 
and  covered  with  blood.  IT"  died  alm'-*i  immediately 
from  a  large  wound  in  his  throat.  The  account  of  how 
the  news  was  brought  to  Moscow  is  described  in  a  highly 
dramatic  manner  by  Horsey.'  We  have  no  direct  evi- 
dence of  the  complicity  of  Godunoff  in  this  murder ;  but 
there  seems  little  doubt  of  it.  A  secret  inquiry  was  con- 
ducted ;  the  body,  however,  was  not  examined,  and  the 
commissioners  reported  that  Dmitri  had  died  of  a  wound 
accidentally  inflicted  by  himself  in  a  fit  of  epilepsy.  On 
account  of  the  riot  which  had  taken  place  at  Uglich, 
Boris  proceeded  to  punish  the  town.  More  than  two 
hundred  of  the  inhabitants  were  put  to  death  and  many 
sent  to  Siberia.  The  church  bell  of  Uglich  was  banished 
with  them  and  placed  in  the  capital  of  Siberia;  it  was  not 
brought  back  till  the  earlier  part  of  the  present  century. 
The  remoins  of  Dmitri,  who  was  afterwards  canonized, 
were  deposited  in  the  cathedral  of  St  Michael,  the  burial- 
place  of  the  czars.  Soon  afterwards  a  great  firo  broke  out 
in  Moscow,  and  Boris  caused  many  streets  to  be  rebuilt  at 
his  own  expense,  distributed  aid,  aud  exempted  the  sufferers 
from  taxes;  but  still  the  people  murmured  secretly;  they 
felt  that  the  stain  of  blood  was  upon  him,  and  ungratefully 
accused  him  of  having  caused  the  city  to  be  set  on  fire. 
In  the  same  year  (1591)  the  khan  of  the  Crimea  made  one 
of  his  periodical  raids  against  Moscow.  He  set  out  from 
Perekop,  and  marched  in  a  straight  line,  everywhere  plun- 
dering and  devastating.  In  these  circumstances,  Feodoi 
displayed  nothing  but  imbecility.  He  merely  remarked 
that  the  saints  who  protected  Russia  would  fight  for  her, 
and  again  betook  himself  to  his  favourite  amusement  of 
bell-ringing.  Boris,  however,  showed  vigour.  In  a  few 
days  he  caused  Moscow  to  bo  surrounded  with  palisades, 
redoubts,  and  artillery.  The  Mongols  were  repulsed  with 
great  slaughter;  but,  although  Boris  saved  his  country,  ha 
could  not  secure  the  goodwill  of  the  people.  Indeed,  they 
accused  him  of  having  invited  the  Mongols  that  the  general 
danger  might  make  them  forget  the  death  of  Dmitri. 
The  czarina,  Irene,  wife  of  Feodor  and  sister  of  Bori  i, 
about  this  time  gave  birth  to  a  female  child,  which  lived 
but  a  few  dayss,  and  Boris  was  of  course  accused  of  having 
poisoned  it.  In  reality  the  princess  suffered  from  continual 
ill-health,  and  on  one  occasion  we  find  Elizabeth  of 
England  sending  her  a  physician.  Boris,  however,  still 
persevered  in  his  energetic  measures  for  strengthening  the 
empire.  Smolensk  was  fortified,  Archangel  built ;  and  a 
strong  cordon  was  drawn  round  the  territories  occupied  by 
the  Mongols.  The  Swedes  were  driven  into  Narva,  and  dip- 
lomatic relations  were  opened  with  the  European  powers. 
About  this  time  the  imbecile  Feodor  died,  and  with 
him  became  extinct  the  dynasty  of  Scandinavian  Rurik. 
This  event  occurred  in  1598,  and  Boris  was  elected  to 
succeed  him.  Godunoflf,  however,  who  felt  sure  of  the 
crown,  at  first  affected  to  be  unwilling  to  receive  it.  He 
retired  to  a  monastery  and  was  followed  by  the  people, 
supplicating  him  to  be  their  emperor.  ■  H.  kept  Russia  in 
this  state  of  suspense  for  six  weeks,  and  then  relented.  As 
soon  as  ho  ascended  the  throne,  the  traces  of  his  vigorous 
hand  could  be  found  everywhere.  One  of  his  firat  plana 
was  the  abridgment  of  the  power  of  the  nobility,  viiich 
had  been  begun  by  Ivan  111.  and  continued  by  Tvim  TV. 
By  this  a  benefit  was  confcricd  upon  Russia;  but  Borifi&leo 
served  his  own  ambition.  Ho  was  particularly  severe  to 
•  Diary,  cd.  Bond,  p.  25Z 


94 


RUSSIA 


[uiSTOEY. 


all  members  of  the  Eomanoff  family,  because  they  were 
allied  to  the  house  of  Kurik,  and  troubled  his  dreams  of 
sovereignty.  The  head  of  this  house  was  compelled  to 
become  a  monk  ;  his  son,  however,  was  destined  to  ascend 
the  throne.  A  famine  broke  out  in  1601,  which  Boris  was 
unsparing  in  his  efforts  to  allay.  In  the  midst  of  all  this 
suffering  a  rumour  spread  that  Dmitri,  the  youngest  son 
of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  was  not  dead. 

One  day  in  the  year  1603  Prince  Adam  \Visniowiecki, 
of  Bragin  in  Lithuania,  happening  to  be  very  angry  with 
a  servact,  struck  him  and  used  an  insulting  epithet.  The 
young  man,  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  said,  "If  you  knew 
who  I  am,  you  would  not  treat  me  so  nor  call  me  by 
that  name."  "Who  then  are  you,  and  whence  do  you 
come?"  replied  the  astonished  prince.  "I  am  the  prince 
Dmitri,  son  of  Ivan  Vasilievich."  He  then  recounted  a 
'.vell-concocted  tale  of  his  miraculous  escape  from  the 
assassin  whom  Boris  had  employed.  This  was  his  physi- 
cian, who  feigned  compliance  with  the  usurper's  designs, 
but  only  to  frustrate  them.  On  the  night  appointed  for 
the  murder,  the  man,  whose  name  was  Simon,  put  the 
son  of  a  serf  into  his  young  master's  bed  (who  was 
accordingly  killed),  and  immediately  fled  with  Dmitri  from 
Uglich.  He  was  then  committed  to  the  care  of  a  loyal 
gentleman,  who  thought  it  better  for  the  sake  of  protection 
that  he  should  enter  a  monastery.  This  gentleman  and 
the  physician  were  dead,  but  in  confirmation  of  his  story 
>the  false  Dmitri  exhibited  a  seal,  bearing  the  arms  and 
name  of  the  prince,  and  a  golden  cross  set  with  jewels 
(which  he  said  was  the  baptismal  gift  of  his  godfather. 
Prince  Ivan  Matislavski.  Wisniowiecki  believed  his  tale. 
There  were  also  other  supposed  signs.^  The  Polish  nobles 
thronged  around  the  young  man,  whose  manners,  as  we 
read  in  the  case  of  Perkin  Warbeck,  seemed  to  bear  out 
his  pretensions.  Meanwhile  Dmitri  remained  in  Poland, 
enjoying  all  the  lavish  attentions  of  the  Polish  nobility. 
Boris  was  soon  made  acquainted  with  his  appearance  on 
the  scene,  and  offered  the  brothers  Wisniowiecki  money 
and  lands  if  they  would  surrender  the  impostor  to  him. 
Without,  however,  replying  to  these  overtures,  they  removed 
Lim  into  the  interior  of  Poland,  and  he  was  received  with 
royal  honours  by  George  Mniszek,  the  palatine  of 
Sandomir.  Here  he  is  said  to  have  entered  into  a  secret 
■understanding  with  the  Jesuits  to  bring  over  Russia  to  the 
Latin  faith,  on  condition  of  being  supported  by  the  papal 
nuncio.2  The  pretender  privately  abjured  the  Greek  faith, 
and  signed  a  contract  of  marriage  with  Marina,  the  youngest 
daughter  of  Mniszek,  by  which  he  settled  upon  her  the 
towns  of  Novgorod  and  Pskoff',  and  engaged  to  pay  her 
father  a  million  of  florins  as  soon  as  he  had  ascended  the 
throne.  Afterwards  he  executed  another  treaty  ceding 
Smolensk  and  the  surrounding  territory  to  JIniszek  and 

'  The  present  writer  doubts  the  genuineness  of  tliis  claimant ; 
many  authors,  howover,  some  of  them  contemporaries,  were  con- 
vinced that  ho  W.-IS  the  real  son  of  Ivan,  and  among  these  tiie  first 
l)lace  must  be  assigned  to  tlie  Frencli  •'lerceuary  captain  Margeret, 
whose  intimate  relations  witli  the  nmn  point  liim  out  as  a  valuable 
antliority.  Tliia  clever  adventurer  had  entered  the  Russian  service 
In  tile  time  of  Boris  Godunoff,  and  was  a  witness  of  the  whole 
struggle.  At  first  he  led  the  troops  of  the  latter  against  Dmitri,  hut 
when  the  pretender  had  established  his  authority  he  accepted  a 
[loat  in  his  service.  He  has  given  us  an  interesting  portrait  of 
Dmitri,  of  whom  he  speaks  very  favourably,  in  his  work  on  Russia 
published  at  Paris  in  1G69. 

*  According  to  some  authors,  the  whole  plot  had  been  concocted  by 
the  Jesuits  for  this  purpose.  For  the  contrary  view,  however,  see 
Ronxe  et  Deinetriics  d'ajrres  ties  docuincnis  nouveaitx  aoec  pieces 
ii:s/iJu:tUives  et  facsimile,  by  P^re  Pierling,  S.  J,,  Paris,  1878.  Gerard 
Wiiller  tells  us  that  the  pretender  "conversed  in  Latin  and  Polish  with 
fluency  ;  "  if  tliis  had  been  the  case  his  knowledge  of  the  former  would 
be  easily  explained  by  his  Jesuitical  training.  JIargei-et,  however, 
denies  it  altogether.  "  II  est  tros  certain  qu'il  ne  parloit  nullcment 
IiHtiu,  j'en  puis  teiuoigncr,  moius  la  scavoit-il  lire  ct  iScrire  "_  [p.  163). 


the  king  of  Poland.  These  proceedings  were  not  likely  to 
recommend  him  to  his  Russian  subjects.  For  the  present 
they  were  concealed,  and  Dmitri  publicly  professed  the 
Greek  ritual.  Soon  after  this  Sigismund  of  Poland  saluted 
him  as  czar  of  Moscow,  and  assigned  him  a  pension  of 
40,000  florins.  All  this  time  Boris  affected  to  regard  the 
pretender  with  contempt,  and  issued  a  manifesto  setting 
forth  that  his  real  name  was  Grishka  (or  Gregory) 
Otrepieff,  a  renegade  monk.  Whether  this  individual  was 
really  the  man  who  personated  Dmitri,  the  son  of  Ivan, 
cannot  be  known  for  certain;  but  it  seems  very  probable. 
Karamzin  has  adopted  this  view.  Boris  soon  issued  a 
proclamation  against  him,  calling  him  an  apostate  monk, 
who  wished  to  introduce  the  Latin  heresy  into  Russia,  and- 
to  build  Romish  churches  iu  the  Orthodox  land.  Dmitri 
entered  that  country  on  the  31st  of  October  1604,  and 
marched  on  Moravsk  in  Tchernigoff.  He  met  with  uninter- 
rupted success,  large  numbers  joining  his  expedition,  and 
the  authorities  of  the  chief  towns  on  his  route  offering  him 
bread  and  salt  till  he  came  to  Novgorod  Severski  on  the 
23d  of  November.  This  well-fortified  place  was  defended 
by  Basmanoff,  a  veteran  captain,  with  five  hundred  streltzt 
On  the  arrival  of  the  pretender  he  was  summoned  to 
capitulate,  but,  standing  on  the  ramparts  with  a  lighted 
match,  he  replied  :  "  The  grand-prince  and  czar  is  at  Mos- 
cow ;  as  for  your  Dmitri  he  is  a  robber,  who  shall  be  im- 
paled, along  with  his  accomplices."  After  three  months 
the  invaders  abandoned  the  siege,  but  they  had  the  good 
fortune  soon  afterwards  to  seize  a  large  sum  of  money  which 
Boris  was  sending  to  some  of  the  towns.  Shortly  after 
this  the  important  fortresses  of  Putivl,  Sievsk,  and 
Voronezh  surrendered  to  Dmitri.  Boris  was  too  ill  to  go 
in  person  against  the  impostor ;  he,  however,  raised  an 
army  of  fifty  thousand  men.  A  great  battle  took  place 
near  Novgorod,  and  the  supporters  of  the  czar  would  have 
suffered  a  most  ignominious  defeat  had  it  not  been  for 
Basmanoff.  This  captain  was  recalled  to  Moscow  and 
loaded  with  honours  by  Boris,  who,  from  motives  not  very 
evident,  unless  he  had  begun  to  have  suspicions  of  his 
fidelity,  detuned  him  in  the  city,  and  committed  the  care 
of  the  new  army  which  he  had  formed  to  Shuiski,  who 
was  probably  only  half-hearted  in  his  cause.  A  great 
battle  took  place  on  the  2d  of  January  1605,  on  the 
plain  of  Dobrinichi,  not  far  from  Orel ;  here  Dmitri 
was  defeated,  chiefly  through  the  bravery  of  the  foreign 
legion.  He  would  have  been  captured  had  it  not  been 
for  the  fidelity  of  his  Cossack  infantry— for  at  this  time 
the  Cossacks  were  subject  to  Poland — who  were  killed 
to  a  man,  and  probably  not  a  fugitive  would  have 
reached  Sievsk  had  not  Shuiski  acted  with  duplicity. 
Meanwhile,  the  pretender  rode  as  fast  as  his  horse  would 
carry  him  to  Putivl,  a  strong  town  on  the  frontier,  from 
which  he  could  easily  beat  a  retreat  into  Poland.  The 
followers  of  Boris  remained  at  Dobrinichi,  putting  to  death 
their  prisoners.  The  conduct  of  Shuiski  showed  with  what 
apathy  he  vievi'ed  the  cause  of  his  master ;  he  soon  drew 
off  his  troops  into  winter  quarters,  alleging  that  nothing 
more  could  be  done  that  season,  and  also  wasted  time 
before  Kromi,  an  insignificant  place.  Meanwhile  Dmitri 
corrupted  some  of  the  chief  generals  of  Boris.  An  attempt 
to  poison  him  soon  afterwards  failed,  and  the  pretender 
sent  a  message  to  Boris,  recommending  him  to  descend 
from  the  throne  which  he  had  usurped.  But  the  days  of 
the  latter  were  numbered.  On  the  13th  of  April  1605  ho 
presided  as  usual  at  the  council-board,  and  received  some 
distinguished  foreigners.  A  grand  banquet  was  given,  but 
suddenly  after  dinner  he  was  seized  with  illness ;  blood 
burst  from  his  nose,  ears,  and  mouth,  and  in  the  brief 
period  before  his  death,  according  to  the  Ru.ssian  cu.stom, 
the  dress  of  a  monk  was  thrust  upon  him.  and  he  was 


1601-1619.] 


K  U  S  S  I  A 


95 


consecrated  under  the  name  of  Bof/nhp  ("acceptable  to 
God").  He  cxiju-ed  in  the  fifty-tliird  year  of  liis  age.  after 
a  rci"n  of  si.x  ynars.  AVhetlier  lie  committed  suicide  or 
wa.s  poisoned  cannot  now  be  ascertained  ;  his  death  could 
hardly  have  been  natural.  Doris  was  a  man  of  great 
energy  of  character,  with  views  singularly  in  advance  of  his 
a"e.°  In  some  respects  he  anticipated  the  plans  of  Peter 
the  Great ;  thus  he  caused  several  young  Russians  to  be  sent 
abroad  to  be  educated,  some  of  whom  came  to  England. 
By  i  ukaze,  however,  binding  the  peasani  to  the  soil,  he 
be"an  the  system  which  reduced  him  bv  degrees  to  a  con- 
dition of  abject  serfdom. 

Boris  had  left  a  sufficient  number  of  partisans  at  Moscow 
to  proclaim  his  son  Feodor,  a  youth  of  sixteen,  and  all 
classes  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  him.  Shuiski  and 
Mstislavski  returned  to  Moscow  to  assist  the  young  czar 
in  the  government.  Basmanoff  was  sent  to  take  the 
command  of  the  army,  but,  probably  feeling  the  cause  of 
Feodor  to  be  desperate,  on  the  7th  of  Jlay  he  proclaimed 
Dmitri.  He  was  now  ordered  to  march  on  the  capital. 
Feodor,  however,  and  his  adherents  still  held  the  Kremlin 
with  a  large  garrison.  Accordingly  it  was  resolved  to 
make  an  attempt  on  Krasnoe  Selo,  a  large  town  near 
Moscow,  where  many  wealthy  merchants  resided.  This 
was  easily  taken,  whereupon  many  of  its  citizens  marched 
to  Moscow,  and  convoking  the  people  called  upon  them  to 
acknowledge  Dmitri  as  their  sovereign.  Feodor  and  his 
mother  were  murdered,  and  buried  ia  a  cemetery  out- 
side the  city  walls,  whither  also  the  remains  of  Boris 
were  carried,  for  they  were  not  allowed  sepulture  among 
the  tombs  of  the  czars.  Petreius,  the  Swedish  envoy, 
who  has  left  us  an  interesting  account  of  these  times,  tells 
us  that  the  rumour  was  circulated  that  these  unhappy 
people  had  poisoned  themselves,  but  he  himself  saw  their 
bodies,  and  the  marks  on  their  necks  of  the  cords  with 
which  they  had  been  strangled.  According  to  some 
authorities,  Xenia,  the  daughter  of  Boris,  described  as 
beautiful  by  the  old  Russian  chronicler  Kubasoff,  was 
forced  to  retire  into  a  convent,  but  Petreius  declares  that 
she  was  compelled  to  become  the  mistress  of  the  conqueror. 
The  usurper  now  hearing  that  every  obstacle  was  removed, 
marched  upon  the  capital,  which  he  entered  on  June  20, 
1605.  We  have  not  space  to  detail  the  splendours  of  his 
retinue,  nor  the  ceremonies  and  feastings  which  attended 
his  arrival.  He  acted  at  first  with  prudence  and  concilia- 
tion towards  his  new  subjects,  and  even  promised  to  pay 
the  debts  of  his  father  Ivan.  He  received  his  mother 
with  transports  of  joy ;  she  professed  to  identify  him, 
although  she  afterwards  denied  that  he  was  her  son. 
She  was  probably,  however,  glad  enough  to  get  out  of 
the  convent  into  which  she  had  been  thrust  by  Boris. 
But  Dmitri  soon  gave  offence  on  account  of  his  neglect 
of  Russian  etir|uotto  and  superstitious  observances.  It 
was  plain  that  he  held  the  Greek  Orthodox  religion  very 
cheap,  and  his  subjects  could  see  that  he  had  a  propensity 
for  the  Latin  heresy.  In  the  following  year  Marina 
JIniszek,  his  bride,  made  her  appearance  in  Moscow,  and 
the  marriage  took  place  on  the  18th  of  May.  It  was 
I'ollowed  by  continued  banquets.  But  a  rebellion  broke 
>)ut  on  the  29tli,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Vasilii 
yiiuiski,  whom  Dmitri  had  spared  when  about  to  be 
executed.  The  czar,  hearing  a  noise  in  the  night,  and 
finding  liimself  surrounded  by  enemies,  oi)cncd  a  window 
.30  feet  from  the  ground,  leapt  down,  and  broke  his  leg. 
!Ho  was  soon  afterwards  found  and  killed.  Basmanoff  was 
slain  while  attempting  to  defend  his  master.  The  corpse 
of  the  impostor  was  afterw'ards  burned.  Marina  was  not 
killed,  although  there  was  a  great  massacre  of  the  Poles 
in  every  quarter  of  Moscow ;  she  and  the  ladies  of  her 
suite  were  kept  as  prisoners.    Thus  ended  this  remarkable 


episode  of  Russian  history.  The  whole  period  has  beca 
aptly  termed  by  the  national  historians  "the  Period  o£ 
Troubles"  (Sinutnoye  Viemi/n). 

The    boiars,    on    being    convoked    after    the    murder 
of    Dmitri,   elected    Vasilii    Ivanovich    Shuiski    for    their 
sovereign,  but  he  found  himself  in  every  way  di.--advan- 
tageously  situated,  without  an  army  and  without  money 
He  was,  moreover,  troubled  by  nn  announcement  whicl' 
gained  credence  among  the  people  that  Dmitri  was  no 
really  dead.     To  put  an  end  to  these  runiour.s,  Shuiski. 
entii^ly  changing  his   policy,  and  -contradicting  his  pro< 
vious  assertions,  sent  to  Uglich  for  the  body  of  the  un- 
fortunate prince,  and  caused  him  to  be  canonized.     Two 
subsequent   impostors,    who   gave   themselves  out  to   bol 
Dmitri,  were  taken  and  executed.     To  complete  the  mis.) 
fortunes  of  Russia,  the  country  was  invaded  by  the  Polcal 
in    1609,    who   laid    siege   to    Smolensk.      Sliuiski    was 
defeated  at  Klushino  (a  village  situated  to  the  north-east' 
of  JIoscow),  was   taken   prisoner,  and   was   set    free,    to 
become  a  monk, — a  favourite  way  of  treating  troublesomo 
persons  in  Russia.     He  was  afterwards  delivered  over  toi 
Sigismund,  who  kept  him  in   prison  during  the  rest  of 
his  life.     The  crown  was  finally  offered  to  Ladislaus,  the 
son   of   Sigismund,    who   in   reality   for   two   years   was 
sovereign  of  Russia,  and  caused  money  to  be  coined  in 
his  name  at  Moscow.     Everything  seemed  to  portend  the^ 
ruin  of  the  country,  when  it  was  saved  by  the  bravery  of 
Minin,    the  butcher  of   Nijni-Novgorod,  who  roused  thff 
citizens  to  arms  by  his  patriotic  appeal,  and  was  joined  byi 
Prince  Pozharski.     The  latter  took  the  command  of  thol 
army  ;  the  administrative  department  was  handed  over  to 
the  former.     The  brave  prince  succeeded  in  driving  the 
Poles  from  Russia.     In  1612  the  boiars  resolved  to  elect 
a  new  czar,  but  they  did  not  actually  meet  till  1613,  and' 
many  debates  ensued.     The  sufferings  of  the  country  had 
been   great ;  a  considerable  part  of  the  city  of  Moscow, 
(with  the  exception  of  the  Kremlin  and  the  churches  built 
of  stone)  was  laid  in  ashes.     The  treasury  was  plundered,' 
and    its  contents   sent    to  Poland.     Among  other    things 
Olearius,  the  traveller  of  the  17th  century,  quaintly  adds,; 
"  the  Russians  lost  the  horn  of  a  unicorn  of  great  value, 
set  with  precious  stones,"  which  was  also  carried  off  to 
Poland  ;   and  he  tells  us  that  even  up  to  his  time  the 
Muscovites  bitterly  regretted  that  they  had  been  lobbed 
of   it.     Princes   Jlstislavski   and   Pozharski    refused   the 
crown,  and  finally  the  name  of  Slichael  Romanoff,  a  youth  Mich»* 
of  sixteen,    was  put  forward   as  a   candidate,  chiefly  on  "-««">"< 
account   of   the   virtues    of   his.  father   Philarete.      The 
RomanofTs  were  connected  on  the  female  side  with  tlio 
house  of   Rurik,  Anastasia  Romanova   having  been   the 
first  wife  of  Ivan  the  Terrible.     Before  being  allowed  to 
ascend  the  throne,  the  youthful  sovereign,  according  to 
some   authors,    took   a   constitutional  oath.     The   condi- 
tion -of    the   country  all    this    time   was   most   critical ; 
large   portions   of    its   territory   were   in   the    hands   of 
the    Swedes    and    Poles,    and    the    villages  were    plun« 
dered  by  wandering  bands  of   Cossacks.     Ladislaus  tb^ 
son  of    Sigismund    had    not   yet    renounced    the  title    o| 
czar;  in  1617  ho  appeared  with  an  invading  army  undcs 
the  walls  of  Moscow,  but  was  repulsed,  and  on  December  1, 
1618,  consented  to  abandon  liis  claims,  and  conclude  qd 
armistice  for  fourteen  years.     In   1C17  a  treaty  had  been 
made  at  Stolbovo,  a  town  near  Lake  Ladoga,  by  whicb 
the   Russians   had    been   compelled  to  give   up   a  large 
portion  of  their  territory  to  the  Swedes.     Philarete,  tho 
father  of  Michael,  who  had  been  for  pome  lime  imprisoned  ■ 
at    Warsaw,    was    now    allowed    to    return ;    he    entered 
Moscow  in  1619,  and  was  elected  patriarch,  an  office  whicb 
had  been  vacant  since  tho  death  of  Hermogcncs.     Michael 
associated  his  father  with  himself  in  his  power ;  all  ukazai 


96 


H  U  S  S  I  A 


[histoev. 


were  published  ia  their  joint  names ;  the  patriarch  held  a 
separate  court,  and  always  sat  at  the  right  hand  of  the  sove- 
reign. The  patriarchate  was  suppressed  in  1721  by  Peter 
the  Great,  who  had  formed  the  idea  of  making  himself  head 
of  the  church  from  what  he  saw  in  England  and  other 
Protestant  countries.  The  reign  of  Michael  was  not  very 
eventful ;  he  employed  it  wisely  in  ameliorating  the  condi- 
tion of  the  country,  which  had  recently  suffered  so  much, 
and  in  improving  the  condition  of  his  army.  Foreigners 
began  to  visit  the  country  in  great  numbers,  and  Paissia 
was  gradually  opening  itself  to  Western  civilization. 
Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden  induced  the  czar  to  sign  a 
treaty  offensive  and  defensive,  and  a  Swedish  ambassador 
appeared  at  the  Russian  court.  The  sufferings  which  had 
been  inflicted  upon  them  by  the  Poles  made  the  Russians 
eager  to  join  an  alliance  which  was  directed  against  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion.  In  1629  a  French  ambassador 
appeared  at  Moscow.  Dutch  and  German  artisans  were 
taken  into  the  Russian  service  to  assist  in  the  iron- 
foundries,  with  special  view  to  the  manufacture  of  cannon. 
The  country  swarmed  with  English  merchants  who  had 
obtained  valuable  privileges.  Scottish  adventurers  were  to 
be  met  with  in  the  Russian  army  in  great  numbers.  We 
find  thetn  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  to 
judge  from  Horsey's  Diary.  The  false  Demetrius,  like 
Louis  XI.,  had  a  Scottish  guard.  In  Russian  documents 
we  find  the  names  of  Carmichaels,  Hamiltons  (frequently 
in  the  corrupted  Russified  form  of  Khomutoff),  Bruces, 
Gordons,  and  Dalziels.  From  Scottish  settlers  in  Russia 
sprang  the  celebrated  poet  Lermontjff,  the  first  two 
syllables  of  whose  name  fully  show  his  Caledonian  origin. 

The  following  are  the  leading  events  of  the  reign  of 
Alexis,  who  succeeded  to "  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his 
•father  Michael  in  1645.  (1)  First  comes  his  codification 
of  the  Russian  laws  (called  Ulozhetiie),  which  was  based  on 
the  preceding  codes  of  Ivans  III.  and  IV.  By  the  order  of 
the  czar,  a  commission  of  ecclesiastical  and  lay  members 
was  appointed  to  examine  the  existing  laws,  and  make  any 
necessary  additions,  or  to  adapt  to  present  needs  any  which 
had  become  obsolete.  The  work  was  chiefly  carried  on  by 
Princes  Odoievski  and  Volkonski,  with  the  assistance  of  two 
secretaries.  They  were  engaged  over  it  two  months  and 
a  half,  and  the  original  code  is  still  preserved  in  the 
Oruzhennaia  Palata  at  Moscow.  Ustrialoff'  boasts  that, 
by  recognizing  the  equality  of  all  men  in  the  eyes  of  the 
law,  it  anticipated  a  principle  which  was  not  generally 
acknowledged  in  western  Europe  till  the  18th  century. 
This  doctrine,  however,  may  be  considered  as  only  a 
natural  consequence  of  autocracy.  We  are  told  that 
Alexis  allowed  access  to  all  petitioners,  and  at  his  favourite 
village  of  Koloraenskoe,  opposite  his  bed-room  window, 
was  placed  a  tin  box ;  as  soon  as  the  czar  rose  and  appeared 
at  the  window  the  suppliants  came  forward  with'  their 
complaints,  and,  making  an  obeisance,  placed  them  in 
the  box,  which  was  afterwards  taken  to  him.  (2)  The 
second  great  event  of  his  reign  was  the  incorporation  of 
the  Ukraine  and  "country  of  the  Cossacks  with  Russia. 
For  a  description  of  the  causes  of  this  war,  see  Poland. 
(3)  By  the  treaty  of  Andruszowo  the  Russians  gained 
Smolensk,  Tchernigoff,  and  finally  Kieff,  the  Dnieper 
being  the  new  boundary,  and  thus  the  towns  which  had 
been  taken  by  the  Lithuanians  and  annexed  to  Poland 
by  the  treaty  of  Lublin  .(1569)  became  Russian  again. 
The  only  other  events  of  the  reign  of  Alexis  of  any 
importance  are  the  great  riot  at  Moscow,  on  account  of 
the  depreciatiori  of  the  coinage  in  1648,  and  the  rebellion 
of  Stenka  Razin,  a  Cossack.  The  riot  is  fully  described 
in  the  interesting  letter  of  an  eyewitness  which  is  pre- 
served in  the  Ashmolean  Collection  at  Oxford.  Razin 
devastated  the  country  round  the  Volga,  and  continued  his 


depredations  for  three  years.  Alexis,  however,  captured 
him,  and  pardoned  him  on  condition  of  his  taking  the  oath 
of  allegiance.  He  soon,  however,  broke  out  into  rebellion 
again,  and  proclaimed  himself  the  enemy  of  the  nobles,  and 
the  restorer  of  the  liberty  of  the  people.  By  various  arti- 
fices he  succeeded  in  alluring  two  hundred  thousand  men 
to  his  standard.  Astrakhan  was  surrendered  to  him,  and 
he  ruled  from  Nijni-Novgorod  to  Kazan.  He  was, 
however,  like  Pugatcheff  in  the  reign  of  .Catherine  II.,  a 
vulgar  robber  and  nothing  more.  His  atrocities  disgusted 
the  more  respectable  of  his  adherents ;  his  forces  were 
gradually  dispersed,  and  in  1671  he  was  taken  to  Moscow 
and  executed.  The  czar  Alexis  died  in  1676  in  his  forty- 
eighth  year.  One  of  the  most  eminent  men  of  his  reign 
was  Ordin-Nastchokin,  who  negotiated  the  peace  of 
Andruszowo.  Alexis  was  a  man  of  broad  views,  and  made 
many  efforts  to  raise  Russia  to  the  level  of  a  Eurojjean 
power,  by  sending  competent  men  as  ambassadors  to 
foreign  parts,  and  developing  the  trade  of  the  country. 
In  these  respects  he  resembled  Boris  Godunoff.  Altogether 
his  reign  was  one  of  distinct  progress  for  Russia. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son  Feodor,  by  his  first 
wife  Maria  Miloslavskaia.  Feodor  (1676-1682)  was  a 
prince  of  weak  health,  and  his  reign  was  uneventful.  A 
potable  occurrence  was  he  destruction  of  the  rozriadnie 
hiigi,  or  books  of  pedigrees.  According  to  the  miestni- 
chestw  no  man  could  take  any  ofiice  which  was  inferior  to 
any  which  his  ancestors  had  held,  or  could  be  subordinate 
to  any  man  who  reckoned  fewer  ancestors  than  himself. 
Feodor,  however,  finding  to  what  interminable  quarrels 
these  pedigrees  gave  rise,  both  at  court  and  in  the  camp, 
hit  upon  a  bold  plan,  said  to  have  been  suggested  by  his 
minister  Vasilii  Golitzin.  He  caused  all  the  families  to 
deliver  their  pedigrees  into  court  that  they  might  be 
examined,  under  pretext  of  ridding  them  of  any  errors 
which  might  have  crept  in.  The  nobles  were  convoked ; 
and  the  czar,  assisted  by  the  clergy,  caused  their  books  to 
be  burned  before  their  eyes. 

On  the  death  of  Feodor,  there  seemed  eveiy  probability. 
that  the  empire  would  fall  into  a  complete  state  of  anarchy. 
The  czar  Alexis  had  been  twice  married  :  his  first  wife 
Maria  Miloslavskaia  bore  him  two  sons,  Feodor  and  Ivan, 
and  several  daughters ;  ids  second,  Natalia  Narishkina, 
was  the  mother  of  Peter  and  a  daughter  Natalia.  The 
court  was  rent  by  the  rival  factions  of  the  Miloskvskis  and 
the  Narishkins.  Ivan  was  even  more  infirm  than  Feodor 
and  the  Narishkins  strove  to  bring  it  about  that  he  should 
be  set  aside  and  Peter  should  be  elected.  Sophia,  however, 
the  daughter  of  Alexis  by  his  first  wife,  was  a  woman  of 
singular  energy  of  character,  the  more  remarkable  on 
account  of  the  little  attention  paid  to  the  education  of 
women  ia  Russia  and  the  cloistered  and  spiritless  lives 
they  were  compelled  to  lead.  According  to  some  accounts 
she  was  a  woman  altogether  wanting  in  personal  at- 
tractions. Perry,  however,  the  engineer  employed  by 
Peter  the  Great,  speaks  of  her  as  good-looking.  But  the 
position  of  the  women  of  the  imperial  family  was  even 
worse  than  that  of  the  generality ;  they  were  not  allowed 
to  marry  subjects,  and  in  consequence  the  majority  of 
them  led  a  life  of  enforced  celibacy.  Sophia  was  the 
favourite  daughter  of  her  father,  and  was  assiduous  in  her 
attentions  to  him  during  his  last  illness.  One  of  her 
brothers  being  an  imbecile  and  the  other  a  child,  she  hoped 
to  wield  the  sceptre.  She  fomented  a  revolt  of  the  streltzl, 
and,  instigated  by  her  harangues,  they  murdered  some  of 
the  family  and  partisans  of  the  Narishkins.  Not  content 
with  slaying  one  of  the  czarina's  brothers  at  the  beginning 
of  the  rebellion,  they  afterwards  dragged  another  from  his 
hiding-place  and  cut  him  to  pieces. 

The  result  of  all  these  disturbaUces  was  that  Ivan  and 


(619-1722,] 


RUSSIA 


97 


rotor  were  declared  joint-sovereigns,  and  Sopbia  was  to  bo 
regent  during  their  minority.  She  appointed  Vasilii 
Goliezin  to  be  commanderin-chicf  of  the  forces.  He 
marched  against  the  Jfongols  of  the  Crimea,  but  owing 
to  the  le.igth  of  the  journey  and  sufferings  of  the  troops 
Was  able  to  effect  but  little.  In  1GS9  Peter  married 
Eiidokia  Lopakhina;  but  the  union  was  by  no  means 
a  hai)py  onb.  Two  sons  were  born  to  Peter,  Alexander 
and  Alexis ;  th.'.  first  lived  six  months  only,  the  latter 
survived  to  makj  a  sad  figure  in  Russian  history.  Next 
we  have  another  1 3\olt  of  the  streltzi,  said  to  have  been 
instigated  by  Sopl.iu  and  Golitzin.  It  is  even  alleged 
that  the  object  of  ih.s  conspiracy  was  to  put  Peter  to 
death.  His  cause,  ho^\ev•er,  prevailed,  and  the  rebels  were 
punished  with  great  severity.  Golitzin's  life  was  sjiared, 
but  all  his  property  was  takti  froai  him.  Sophia  was  now 
permanently  incarcerated  in  a  convent  under  the  name  nf 
Susanna,  where  she  remained  till  her  death  fifteen  years  ■ 
afterwards,  at  the  age  of  forty-aix  Thus  from  1689  dates 
the  actual  rule  of  Peter.  His  brot.'ier  Ivan,  'infirm  both  in 
body  and  mind,  had  but  little  sha.e  in  the  government ; 
his  faculties  both  of  sight  and  spotch  are  said  to  have 
been  very  imperfect.  He  took  a  wift^  however,  and  had 
three  daughters,  concerning  one  of  whom  at. least,  we  have 
much  more  lo  hear.  Ivan  led  a  retired  'ife,  and  died  in 
1696  at  the  age  of  thirt}'. 

Want  of  space  compels  us  to  deal  hero  only  with  the 
leading  facts  of  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great  ^1689-1725) ; 
for  more  minute  details  the  reader  must  consuit  the  special 
article  (vol.  xviii.  p.  698).  The  great  object  of  the  new 
czar  was  to  give  Russia  ports  in  some  otlier  diiiotion  than 
the  White  Sea,  constantlj-  blocked  with  ice.  He  had 
already  trained  an  army  which  was  officered  by  f->reigners 
m  his  pay.  The  Turks  were  the  first  objects  of  hi;*  attack. 
At  first  ho  was  unsuccessful  in  his  attempt  to  get  pobs,;ssion 
of  Azoif  at  the.mouth  of  the  Don, — partly  on  account  oi  the 
treason  of  the  Dutch  engineer  Jansen,  who,  iu  consequence 
of  some  slight  put  upon  him,  went  over  to  the  enemy.  In 
1696,  however,  he  took  the  fort  and  soon  afterwards  made 
his  triumphant  entry  into  Moscow.  In  the  following  yeai' 
Peter,  accompanied  by  Lefort  and  Generals  Golovin  and 
Vosnitzin,  set  out  on  his  travels.  For  some  time  he  worked 
at  the  docks  of  Saardam  in  Holland,  and  then  he  went 
to  England,  where  he  remained  three  months.  The  story 
of  his  stay  at  Deptford  is  too  well  known  to  need  descrip- 
tion here.  He  left  England,  taking  with  him  a  great 
number  of  ingenious  men,  who  were  appointed  to  teach  the 
arts  to  the  barbarous  Russians.  He  ^^•as  getting  ready  to  go 
to  Venice  when  he  heard  of  the  great  revolt  of  the  streltzi. 
Before  his  arrival  their  insurrection  had  been  quelled  by 
Gordon  and  others,  and  many  of  them  lay  in  prison  await- 
ing the  sentences  to  be  given  by  Peter.  When  he  reached 
Moscow,  a  series  of  terrible  executions  took  place,  which 
have  been  described  with  only  too  much  accuracy  by  .some 
eyewitnesses,  the  chief  being  Korb,  the  secretary  of  the 
German  embassy.  In  1706  broke  out  the  revolt  of  the 
,Cossacks  of  the  Don,  and  in  1709  that  of  Mazeppa,  the 
.hctman  of  tho  Little-Russian  Cossacks,  who  eagerly  joined 
Charles  XII.  in  his  struggle  with  Peter.  As  early  as  1700 
the  Russian  czar  had  carried  on  war  with  this  last  of  the 
vikings,  as  ho  had  been  called.  In  that  year  Charles 
defeated  Peter  at  the  battle  of  Xarva,  but  tho  latter, 
although  humbled,  was  not  disheartened.  He  gathered  all 
his  strength  for  another  encounter.  In  tho  following  year 
Sheremetreff  defeated  the  Swedish  general  Solili[)i)enbach  in 
Livonia,  and  again  in  1702.  Tho  great  object  of  Peter 
was  to  gain  possession  of  the  Neva  ;  this  he  attained,  but 
the  Russian  arms  were  disgraced  by  many  cruelties  and 
robberies  in  tho  unfortunate  Raltic  [irovinces,  which  had 
already  suffered  so  much  in  the  wars  of  Ivan  tho  Terrible. 


Charles  XII.  now  abandoned  his  attacks  on  tho  Polish 
king  and  invaded  Russia.  "  I  will  treat  with  the  czar  at 
ifoscow,"  he  said.  Peter  replied,  "Jly  brother  Charles 
wishes  to  jilay  the  part  of  Alexander,  but  ho  will  not  find 
me  Darius."  At  Lesna  the  Swedish  general  Liiwenhaupt 
fought  a  desperate  battle  with  the  Russians,  in  which, 
although  nominally  victorious,  his  losses  were  terrible. 
On  June  15  (n'.s.)  was  fought  the  battle  of  Poltava,  which 
resulted  in  the  complete  defeat  of  Charles.  He  had 
brought  it  on  by  his  recklessness,  and,  it  may  be  added, 
complete  ignorance  of  his  duties  as  a  genera!. 

With  the  fall  of  Mazeppa  and  the  coalition  of  the  Little 
Russians  in  aid  of  Charles  fell  also  the  independence  ol 
the  Cossacks  and  their  seek  or  republic.  They  now  became 
enl.rcly  dependent  upon  the  Muscovite  czar.  Tho 
hetmanship,  which  had  long  been  a  mere  empty  title,  lasted 
till  the  year  1789.  In  1712  Peter  married  JIartha 
Skavronska,  a  Livonian  or  Lithuanian  peasant  who  had 
been  tiken  prisoner  at  the  siege  of  Marienburg  in  1702. 
But  little  is  known  of  her  previous  history  ;  she  received 
the  r.a:ne  of  Catherine  on  being  baptized  as  a  member  of 
the  Greek  Ciiuich.  Peter  had  previously  divorced  his 
wife  Eudokia,  who  was  distasteful  to  him  on  account  of 
her  sympathies  with  the  conservative  party  in  Russia.  He 
now  set  about  his  great  plan  of  civilizing  the  country  on 
the  model  of  the  nations  of  the  West.  In  this  he  was 
assisted  by  many  foreigners  in  his  pay.  He  abolished  the 
patriarchate,  probably  from  dislike  of  its  great  power, 
based  nobility  entirely  upon  service  either  civil  or  military, 
and  divided  the  merchants  into  guilds,  but  left  serfdom  still 
existing  in  Russia,  or  perhaps  we  may  say  Muth  truth  even 
augmented  it,  by  doing  away  with  the  privileges  which  the 
odnodoorizi  and  potovniki  had  and  confounding  all  in  a. 
common  category  of  serfdom.  His  attempt  to  introduce 
primogeniture  into  Russia  did  not  succeed.  He  put  an 
end  to  tho  Oriental  seclusion  of  women  and  the  Oriental 
dress  of  men ;  for  the  beard  and  long  caftan  were  sub- 
stituted the  cleanly-shaved  face  and  the  dress  in  vogue 
in  the  West.  He  abolished  also  the  pravezhe  or  public 
flagellation  of  defaulting  debtors.  The  army  was  com- 
pletely remodelled  on  tho  European  system.  During 
the  exile  of  Charles  XIL  at  Bender  Peter  drove  Stanis- 
laus Lcszczynski  out  of  Poland,  and  Augustus  II.  re- 
entered Warsaw.  Peter  conquered  Esthonia,  and  Livonia. 
He  was  not  able  to  annex  Courland,  which  was  a 
feudatory  of  Poland,  but  he  negotiated  a  marriage  between 
the  duke  and  his  niece  Anna,  daughter  of  the  late  czar 
Ivan,  who  was  afterwards  empress.  A  foolish  expedition 
undertaken  against  Turkey  was  not  successful.  Peter 
found  himself  but  ill-sup[iorted  by  the  inhabitants  through 
whose  territory  he  marched,  and  was  compelled  to  sign  tho 
treaty  of  the  Pruth  in  1711,  whereby  he  gave  back  Azofl, 
one  of  his  most  valuable  conquests,  to  the  Turks.  Tho 
story  of  his  having  been  rescued  by  the  dexterity  of 
Catherine  seems  to  lack  confirmation  ;  under  any  circum- 
stances, he  shortly  afterwards  acknowledged  her  as  his 
wife.  In  May  1713  Peter  gained  some  fresh  victories 
over  the  Swedes.  In  1717  he  made  another  Euroi>can 
tour,  visiting,  among  other  -laces,  Paris.  On  this  occasion 
he  was  accompanied  by  his  wife  ;  concerning  both  strange 
stories  were  told,  but  perhaps  wo  must  be  cautious  how  wo 
receive  too  credulously,  as  Carlyle  has  done,  tho  malicious 
gossip  of  tho  margravine  of  Baircuth.  In  1721,  by  tho 
treaty  of  Nystad  with  Sweden,  Peter  was  left  master  of 
Livonia,  Esthonia,  Ingria,  and  part  of  Finland.  Ho  had 
begun  building  St  Petersburg,  "tho  window  by  which 
Russia  looks  "  at  Europe,  as  early  as  1 703. 

In  1722  wo  find  Peter  descending  tho  Volgtl  from 
Nijni  to  Astrakhan,  and  gaining  some  imjiortant  points  on 
that  river.     Previous  to  this  had  occurred  the  .sad  death 

XXI.    -    13 


98 


RUSSIA 


[HISTOBY, 


of  his  son  Alexis,  in  which  it  must  be  said  with  sorrow 
Peter  seemed  lost  to  all  the  feelings  of  a  father.  Alexis 
had  undoubtedly  given  him  great  cause  for  dislike  by 
identifying  himself  in  every  way  with  the  retrogressive 
party.  The  unfortunate  young  man  probably  died  under 
the  infliction  of  torture.  In  1721  Peter  promulgated  the 
celebrated  iikaze  (afterwards  abrogated  by  Paul)  that 
the  sovereign  had  the  right  of  naming  his  successor.  On 
January  28,  1725,  the  great  reformer  was  dead.  An 
attempt  to  estimate  his  character  has  been  made  in  the 
separate  article  assigned  to  him. 

On  the  death  of  Peter  the  country  was  divided  into  two 
factions.  The  old  reactionary  party,  the  Golitzins,  Dolgo- 
rukis,  and  others,  were  eager  to  proclaim  Peter  the  son  of 
Alexis,  but  those  who  had  identified  themselves  with  the 
reforms  of  the  late  sovereign  were  anxious  that  Catherine 
his  widow,  who  had  been  crowned  empress,  should  succeed. 
MenshikofE,  the  favourite  of  the  late  czar,  whci  is  said  when 
a  boy  to  have  sold  cakes  in  the  streets  of  Moscow,  became 
all-powerful  at  this  period,  and  the  reforms  of  Peter  con- 
tinued to  be  ca:rried  out.  Catherine  died  in  1727  ;  she 
appears  to  have  been  an  indolent,  good-natured  woman, 
with  but  little  capacity  for  government,  and  accordingly, 
throughout  her  short  reign,  was  entirely  controlled  by 
P»ter  II.  others.  She  designated  as  her  successor  Peter  the  son  of 
Alexis,  and,  in  default  of  Peter  and  his  issue,  Anna,  who 
had  married  the  duke  of  Holstein,  and  Elizabeth,  her 
daughters.  The  regency  was  exercised  by  a  council  consist- 
ing of  the  two  daughters,  the  duke  of  Holstein,  Jlenshikoff, 
and  seven  or  eight  of  the  chief  dignitaries  of  the  empire. 
MenshikofE  was  still  all-important ;  he  had  obtained  from 
Catherine  her  consent  to  a  marriage  between  his  daughter 
and  the  youthful  czar.  But  his  authority  was  gradually 
undermined  by  the  Dolgorukis.  The  favourite  of  Peter 
the  Great  was  first  banished  to  his  estates,  and  afterwards 
to  Berezoflf  in  Siberia,  where  he  died  in  1729.  The  Dol- 
gorukis were  now  in  the  ascendency,  and  the  czar  was 
betrothed  to  ITatalia,  one  of  that  family.  He  showed 
every  inclination  to  undo  his  grandfather's  work,  and  the 
court  was  removed  to  Moscow.  Soon  afterwards,  how- 
ever, in  January  1730,  the  young  prince  died  of  small- 
pox. His  last  words  as  he  lay  on  his  death-bed  were, 
"  Get  ready  the  sledge ;  I  want  to  go  to  my  sister," — 
alluding  to  the  Princess  Natalia,  the  other  child  of  Alexis, 
who  had  died  three  years  previously.  The  only  foreign 
event  of  importance  in  this  reign  was  the  attempt  of 
Maurice  of  Saxony  to  get  possession  of  Courland,  by 
marrying  the  duchess  Anna,  then  a  widow.  She  con- 
sented to  the  union,  and  the  states  of  the  province 
elected  him,  but  Menshikoff  sent  a  body  of  troops  who 
forced  him  to  quit  it.  On  the  death  of  Peter  at  the  age 
of  fifteen,  various  claimants  of  the  throne  were  put  for- 
ward. The  great  czar  had  left  two  daughters,  Elizabeth, 
and  Anna,  duchess  of  Holstein,  who  had  a  son,  afterwards 
Peter  III.  Two  daughters  were  also  surviving  of  his 
eldest  brother  Ivan,  Anna,  the  duchess  of  Courland,  and 
Catherine,  duchess  of  Mecklenburg.  Alexis  Dolgoruki 
even  had  an  idea  of  claiming  the  crown  for  his  daughter, 
because  she  had  been  betrotued  to  the  young  emperor. 
This  proposal,  however,  was  treated  with  derision,  and  the 
High  Secret  Council  resolved  to  call  to  the  throne  Anna 
<\f  Courland,  thinking  that,  as  she  was  so  much  more  remote 
by  birth  than  the  daughters  of  Peter,  she  would  more 
willingly  submit  to  their  terms.  In  fact,  they  had  pre- 
pared for  her  signature  something  like  the  pacta  conventa 
of  Poland.  The  following  were  the  terms  : — (1)  the  High 
Council  was  always  to  be  composed  of  eight  members,  to 
be  renewed  by  co-option,  and  the  czarina  must  consult  it 
on  state  affairs ;  (2)  without  its  consent  she  could  neither 
make  peace  nor  declare  war,  could  not  impose  any  tax, 


alienate  any  crown  lands,  or  appoint  to  any  office  abov? 
that  of  a  colonel ;  ^3)  she  could  not  cause  to  bo  condemned 
or  executed  any  member  of  the  nobility,  nor  confiscate  tho 
goods  of  pny  noble  before  he  had  a  regular  trial;  (4)  she 
could  not  marry  nor  choose  a  successor  without  the  con-! 
sent  of  the  council.  In  case  she  broke  any  of  these  stipui 
lations  she  was  to  forfeit  the  crown  (see  Rambaud,  p.  425)i 
Anna  assented  to^  these  terms  and  made  her  entry  into 
Moscow,  which  was  no\v  to  be  the  capital.  But  the  em- 
press was  soon  informed  how  universally  unpnpnlar  these 
pacta  conventa  were,  which  in  reality  put  Russia  into  the 
hands  of  a  few  powerful  families,  chiefly  the  Dolgorukis  and 
Golitzins.  She  accordingly  convened  her  supporters,  and 
publicly  tore  the  document  to  pieces,  and  thus  ended  the 
last  attempt  to  give  Russia  a  constitution.  Tho  new. 
empress  was  a  cold,  repulsive  woman,  whose  temper  had' 
been  soured  by  indignities  endured  in  her  youth  ;  ^she 
took  vengeance  upon  her  opponents,  and  threw  herself 
almost  entirely  into  the  hands  of  German  advisers,  espe- 
cially Biron,  a  Courlander  of  low  origin.  This  is  the  period 
called  by  the  Russians  the  Bironovstchina.  The  country 
was  now  thoroughly  exploited  by  the  Germans ;  some  of 
the  leading  Russians  were  executed,  and  others  banished 
to  Siberia.  Among  the  former  was  the  able  minister 
Volinski,  beheaded  with  two  others  in  1740.  He  had 
fallen  under  the  wrath  of  the  implacable  Biren.  One  of 
the  most  important  enactments  of  this  reign  was  tho 
abolition  of  the  right  of  primogeniture  introduced  by 
Peter  the  Great,  which  had  never  been  popular  in  the 
country.  Ou  the  crown  of  Poland  falling  vacant  in  1733,' 
an  attempt  was  again  made  to  place  Stanislaus  Leszczynski 
on  the  throne,  but  it  failed  through  the  opposition  of 
Russia,  and  Stanislaus  escaped  with  difficulty  from  Dantzic. 
Upon  this  followed  a  war  with  Turkey,  which  lasted  four 
years  (1735-1739),  in  conjunction  with  Austria.  This 
was  not  very  successful,  but  the  Russian  generals  gained 
possession  of  a  few  towns,  and  were  indignant  when  the 
Austrians  signed  the  treaty  of  Belgrade  with  the  Turks 
(1739),  and  the  campaign  came  to  an  end.  In  1740  the 
empress  Anna  died ;  she  had  reigned  exactly  ten  years. 
She  left  the  crown  to  Ivan,  the  son  of  her  niece  Anna, 
daughter  of  her  sister  Catherine,  duchess  of  Mecklenburg, 
During  the  minority  of  this  child  Biren  was  to  be  regent. 
By  a  revolution  de  palais,  however,  the  German  adventurer 
was  hurled  from  power  and  sent  .to  Pelim  in  Siberia. 
But  matters  did  not  rest  here ;  taking  advantage  of  the 
general  unpopularity  of  the  German  faction,  the  partisans 
of  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  were 
resolved  to  work  their  overthrow,  and  place  her  upon  thtr 
throne.  They  consisted  of  Alexander  and  Peter  Shuvaloff, 
Michael  Vorontzoff,  Razumovski,  Schwarz,  and  a  French 
surgeon  named  Lestocq.  Elizabeth  ingratiated  herself 
into  the  favour  of  ihe  soldiers,  by  whom  the  name  of  Peter 
the  Great  was  still  so  much  cherished.  Anna  Leopold- 
ovna,  as  she  was  called,  her  husband  Anthony  Ulrich, 
the  infant  emperor,  Munich,  Ostermann,  and  the  wholu 
German  faction  were  arrested  in  the  night,  and  Elizabeth 
ascended  the  throne.  Ivan  VI.  was  imprisoned  in  the' 
fortress  of  Schliisselburg;  Anna,  with  her  husband  and 
children,  was  banished  to  Kholmogori  near  Archangel, 
where  she  died  in  1746.  Ostermann  was  banished  to  Bere- 
zofT,  and  Munich  to  Pelim ;  they  had  both  been  previously 
sentenced  to  death.  Biren  and  his  family  were  now 
recalled  and  allowed  to  live  at  Yaroslavl.  Elizabeth 
Petrovna  (1741-1762)  inaugurated  the  return  of  Eussian 
influence  in  opposition  to  the  Germans,  from  whom  the 
country  had  suffered  so  much  during  the  reign  of  Anna. 
The  people  were  weary  of  them,  yet  they  were,  as  we  shall 
see,  to  have  one  German  emperor  more.  On  ascending 
the  throne  she  summoned  to  her  court  the  son  of  her  sister 


1721-1775.] 


RUSSIA 


99 


Anna  and  the  duke  ot  Holstein,  who  took  the  name  of 
Peter  Fcodorovich  on  assuming  the  Greek  religion,  and 
was  declared  heir  to  tlie  throne.  In  1744:  he  married  the 
Princess  Sophia  of  Anhalt-Zerbst,  who  by  her  baptism  in 
the  Orthodox  Church  became  Catherine.  Thus  the  line  of 
de.scent  was  secured  to  the  direct  heirs  of  Peter  the  Great. 
In  1743,  the  armies  of  Elizabeth  having  gained  some 
victories  over  the  Swedes,  the  treaty  of  Abo  was  signed,  by 
which  Russia  acquired  the  southern  part  of  Finland,  as  far 
as  the  river  Kiuinen.  The  next  event  of  importance  is 
the  war  between  Russia  and  Frederick  the  Great  (1 75G- 
17G2).  In  1757  Apraksin  crossed  the  frontier  with  85,000 
Russians,  occiiiiied  Eastern  Prussia,  and  defeated  Lewald 
at  Gross-.Tfigersdorf ;  but,  instead  of  taking  advantage  of 
the  victory,  he  soon  afterwards  retired  behind  the  Niemen, 
Laving  been  tampered  with  by  the  grand-duchess  Catherine 
and  the  chancellor  P>estuzheff-Kiumin.  In  175S  Fermor, 
the  Russian  general,  was  completely  defeated  by  Frederick 
at  Zorndorf.  but  he  was  allowed  to  retreat  without  molefta- 
tion.  In  1759  Saltikoff  beat  the  Prussians  at  Paltzig,  and 
in  the  same  year  Frederick  was  obliged  to  submit  to  a 
greater  defeat  at  ICiinersdorf,  where  he  lost  eight  thousand 
men  and  one  hundred  and  seventy-two  cannon.  It  was 
on  the  Joss  of  this  battle  that  he  meditated  committing 
suicide.  In  17G0  the  Russians  entered  Berlin,  where 
they  committed  great  havoc  and  destruction.  "AA'e  have 
to  do,"  said  Fiederick,  "  with  barbarians,  who  are  digging 
the  grave  of  liuuianTty."  In  the  following  year  they  took 
Pomerania.  The  cause  of  Frederick  seemed  on  the  verge 
of  ruin ;  he  was'^avcd  by  the  death  of  Elizabeth  in  Decem- 
ber 1761.  The  empress  was  an  idle,  superstitious  woman 
of  lax  morals,  who  was  greatly  under  the  influence  of 
favourites.  Since  the  reign  of  Peter  I.  no  successor  had 
appeared  worthy  of  him.  Still  Russia  made  more  progress 
under  Elizabeth  than  it  liad  made  under  Anna.  In  1755 
tlie  university  of  Moscow,  the  oldest  in  the  country,  was 
founded  through  the  influence  of  Ivan  Shuvalofl.  Litera- 
ture made  great  advances,  as  will  be  seen  below. 

Elizabeth  was  succeeded  by  her  nephew  Peter,  son  of 
lier  sister  Anna  and  Charles  Frederick,  duke  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp.  He  was  suspected  of  German  leaning'^,  but  his 
first  measures  made  him  very  popular.  In  February  1762 
he  published  an  ukaze  by  which  the  nobility  were  freed 
from  the  necessity  of  entering  upon  any  state  employment, 
and  lie  abolished  the  secret  chancery.  On  the  other  hand 
he  acted  in  some  matters  injudiciously,  and  offended  the 
prejudices  of  the  Russians,  as  the  false  Demetrius  had 
done  a  century  and  a  half  previously.  He  ridiculed  some 
of  the  ceremonies  of  tho  Orthodox  Church,  and  showed  a 
fondness  for  tho  Lutheran.  He  introduced  many  German 
tactics  into  the  army,  and  evinced  a  gi'eat  preference  for 
his  Gorman  corps  of  Holsteiners.  His  ]iersonal  habits 
•were  very  coarse  :  he  was  constantly  seen  drunk.  Jloreover 
lie  sent  out  of  the  country  many  of  the  talented  Frenchmen 
who  had  dining  the  reign  of  I'llizabeth  been  helping  Russia 
to  get  rid  of  her  barbarism.  Frederick  If.  of  Prussia,  who 
was  at  his  lowest  depths  after  the  battle  of  Runersdorf, 
now  saw  to  his  delight  a  c()m))letc  change  in  the  Russian 
policy.  Peter  was  an  ardent  ndmiier  of  the  I'russian 
sovereign  ;  in  order  to  ensure  jK-ace,  Frederick  would  have 
Ceded  Eastern  Prussia;  but  Peter  dreamed  of  nothing  of 
tho  kind;  he  restored  all  the  Russian  con<iucsts  and  formed 
an  alliance  with  him,  offensive  and  defensive.  He  lived 
very  unhap|)ily  with  his  wife  Catherine,  and  meditated 
divorcing  her  and  inijirisoning  her  for  the  rest  of  her  life 
in  a  convent.  The  condition  in  which  ^he  passed  her  time 
may  bo  seen  from  her  memoirs,  tir.st  jiublished  bv  Hcrzen, 
the  authcutirity  of  which  there  seems  to  Ik;  no  icason  to 
doubt.  •She,  however,  quietly  waited  lu-r  time,  and  a 
tonsi^racy  was  concocted  in  which  slio  was  assisted  by  the 


Orloffs,  Potemkin,  the  princess  Dashkoff,  and  others  (sea 
Peter  III.).  Leaving  her  residence  at  Peterhof,  Catherine 
boldly  put  herself  at  tho  head  of  twenty  thousand  men. 
The  miserable  emperor  abdicated  without  a  struggle,  and 
was  .soon  afterwards  secretly  assa.ssinated  at  Ropcha,near  St 
Petersburg.  JIany  of  the  details  of  this  catastrophe  are 
given  iu  the  interesting  memoirs  of  the  Princess  Dashkoff, 
which  were  published  by  an  English  lady,  ^Irs  W.  Brad- 
ford, in  1840,  having  been  taken  down  from  her  dictation. 
Thus  had  a  German  woman,  by  adroitly  flattering  the 
prejudices  of  the  Russians,  succeeded  in  making  herself 
head  of  this  vast  empire.  Two  years  afterwards  Ivan  VI., 
who  is  said  to  have  become  an  idiot  from  his  long  confine- 
ment at  Schliisselburg,  was  murdered  by  his  guards  on 
account  of  the  attempt  of  a  certain  Lieutenant  !Mirovich  to 
set  him  free.  Whether  Jlirovich  was  incited  to  this  adven- 
ture by  secret  promises  of  the  Government,  so  that  there 
might  be  an  excuse  for  the  murder  of  Ivan,  has  never  been 
clearly  shown.  He  expiated  his  crime  by  public  execution, 
and  is  said  to  have  expected  a  reprieve  till  the  last  moment. 

The  Seven  Years'  AVar  was  now  over,  and  the  next  great 
European  complications  were  to  be  concerned  w;ith  the 
partition  of  Poland,  throughout  the  struggles  of  which 
countrj-  the  Russians  were  constantly  interfering;  but  for 
a  fuller  discussion  of  this  subject  the  reader  must  be 
refeired  to  the  article  Poland.  In  1767  Turkey,  urged 
on  by  France,  declared  war  against  Russia;  the  object  was 
to  aid  the"  Poles  by  creating  a  diversion.  The  Russian 
general  Golitzin  attacked  the  grand  vizier,  took  the  town 
of  Khotin  (1769),  and  in  the  following  year  Rumantzoff 
defeated  the  khan  of  tho  Crimea,  the  Turkish  feudatory 
and  ally,  and  in  1770  won  the  great  victory  of  Kagul. 
In  1771  Dolgoruki  overran  the  Crimea,  and  Alexis  Orloff 
defeated  the  Turks  in  a  naval  engagement  at  Chesme,  on 
the  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  In  their  naval  expeditions  the 
Russians  were  at  this  time  greatly  assisted  by  the  number 
of  Englishmen  in  their  service.  In  1774  was  signed  tho 
peace  of  Kutchuk-Kainardji,  whereby  the  sultan  acknow- 
ledged the  independence  of  the  Mongols  of  the  Crimea. 
The  Russians  thus  detached  this  province  from  the  sultan's 
dominions,  and  after  exercising  a  kind  of  protectorate  over 
it  added  it  to  their  own.  He  also  ceded  Azof!  on  the  Don, 
Kinburn  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dniester,  and  all  the  fortified 
places  of  the  Crimea.  The  Greeks,  who  had  been  induced 
to  rise,  were  abandoned  to  the  vengeance  of  tho  Turks. 

In  1771  the  plague  broke  out  at  Moscow,  and  many  o^ 
the  inhabitants  perished.  The  archbishop  Ambro.s6  was 
massacred  in  a  popular  tumult,  while  endeavouring  to 
carry  out  some  measures  which  were  necessary  for  tho 
preservation  of  the  public  health.  Soon  afterwards 
occurred  the  rebellion  of  Pugatchefl,  a  Cossack  of  tho  Don, 
who  declared  himself  to  be  the  emperor  Peter  III.  Tho 
czar,  he  alleged,  had  escaped  from  the  hands  of  his  would- 
be  murderers,  and  would  soon  regain  his  throne.  A  large 
band  of  disaffected  peasants  and  Raskolniks  gathered  round 
him,  and  he  was  joined  by  many  of  the  Jlongol  races,  who 
were  inimical  to  the  Russian  rule.  At  first  tho  generals 
sent  against  him  were  defeated.  The  rebel's  path  was 
everywhere  marked  with  bloodshed  and])illago;  lie  even 
got  possession  of  several  towns,  including  Kazan.  Had  ho 
been  something  more  than  a  vulgar  assassin  lie  might  have 
made  Cathcrino  tremble  on  her  throne,  but  his  cruelties 
estranged  his  more  moderate  followers.  Ho  was  after- 
wards beaten  by  Bibikoff  and  otheri*,  and  finally  surrendered 
by  his  accomjilices  to  Suwarofl.  Ho  was  taken  to  ^[oscow 
iu  an  iron  cage  and  thero  )iublicly  executed  in  1775, 
together  with  four  ol  his  principal  followers.  In  the  samo 
year  tho  empress  put  uii  end  to  tho  republic,  as  it  was 
called,  of  the  Zaporoginu  Cos.--acks.  A  great  codification 
of  the  laws  took  jilaco  under  Catherine,  which    may  bo 


100 


RUSSIA 


[history. 


styled  tlie  sixth  great  period  of  Russian'  lej;islation.  Tlie 
serfs,  liowever,  were  not  benefited  by  these  changes.  In 
1767  an  ukaze  forbade  them  to  bring  any  complaints 
against  their  masters.  The  latter  had  the  power  of  send- 
ing their  serfs  to  Siberia  as  a  punishment,  or  handing 
them  over  to  be  enlisted  in  the  army.  The  public  sale  of 
serfs  was  not  put  an  end  to  till  the  reign  of  Alexander  I. 
The  country  was  now  divided  iuto  governments  for  the 
better  administration  of  justice,  each  government  being 
subdivided  into  uiezdi  or  districts.  Catherine  also  took 
away  from  the  monasteries  their  lands  and  serfs,  and 
allotted  them  payments  according  to  their  importance  from 
the  state  revenues.  The  plans  of  Peter  I.  were  thus  fully 
carried  out,  and  the  church  became  entirely  dependent 
upon  the  state.  In  1783  the  Crimea  was  annexed  to 
Russia.  A  second  war  with  Turkey  broke  out  in  1787; 
the  Ottoman  power  had  many  grounds  of  complaint,  but 
its  suspicions  were  particularly  aroused  by  the  tour  of 
Catherine  through  the  southern  provinces  of  Russia  and 
her  interviews  with  the  emperor  Joseph  II.  Turkey 
declared  war  that  same  year;  and,  to  increase  the  em- 
barrassed position  of  the  empress,  Sweden  did  the  same, 
requiring  from  Russia  the  cession  of  the  southern  part  of 
Finland  which  had  been  taken  from  her.  But  King 
Gustavus  III.,  in  spite  of  some  petty  successes,  was  unable 
to  carry  on  the  war,  and  soon  signed  the  peace  of  Verela 
on  the  footing  of  status  quo  ante  bellum.  The  empress  met 
with  equal  good  fortune  in  the  south  ;  Potemkin  took 
Otchakoff  and  SuwarofE  Khotin.  In  1789  the  latter  gene- 
ral won  the  battles  of  Fokshani  and  Kimnik ;  and  in  1790 
after  a  sanguinary  engagement  he  took  Ismail.  By  the 
treaty  of  Jassy  in  1792  Catherine  kept  possession  of  Otch- 
akoff, and  the  shore  between  the  Bug  and  Dniester. 
She  was  next  occupied  with  the  affairs  of  Poland,  which 
have  beeu  described  under  that  heading.  In  consequence  of 
the  demands  of  the  confederates  of  Targovica, — men  who 
were  prepared  to  ruin  their  country  for  their  own  private 
ends, — eighty  thousand  Russians  and  twenty  thousand 
Cossacks  entered  the  Ukraine  to  undo  the  work  of  the 
confederates  of  Bar.  In  1794  Suwarofi  stormed  Warsaw, 
and  the  inhabitants  were  massacred.  In  the  following 
year  Stanislaus  Poniatowski  laid  down  his  crown,  the  third 
division  of  Poland  took  place,  and  the  independence  of 
that  country  was  at  an  end.  In  spite  of  her  correspond- 
ence and  affected  sympathies  with  Voltaire,  Diderot,  and 
many  of  the  advanced  French  thinkers,  Catherine  showed 
great  opposition  to  the  principles  of' the  French  Revolu- 
tion, and  the  policy  of  the  latter  part  of  her  reign  was 
reactionary.  She  died  suddenly  on  November  17,  1796. 
Her  character  has  been  amply  discussed  by  foreign  writers. 
It  may  suffice  to  say  here  that,  whatever  her  private  vices 
may  have  been,  she  was  unquestionably  a  woman  of  great 
genius,  and  the  only  sovereign  worthy  of  Russia  who  had 
appeared  since  the  days  of  Peter  the  Great.  Hence  the 
veneration  with  which  her  memory  is  regarded  by  the 
Russians  to  this  day. 

Paul,  who  had  lived  in  retirement  during  the  life  of  his 
■mother,  was  an  object  of  aversion  to  her.  We  are  told  that 
she  had  prepared  a  will  by  which  he  would  be  disinherited, 
and  the  succession  conferred  upon  his  son  Alexander,  but 
his  friend  Kurakin  got  hold  of  it  immediately  upon  the 
death  of  the  empress  and  destroyed  it.  The  events  of  the 
reign  of  Paul  {q.v.)  can  be  only  briefly  discussed  here. 
He  concluded  an  alliance  with  Turkey,  and  entered  into 
a  coalition  against  the  French  republic,  which  he  regarded 
with  horror.  Suwaroff  took  the  command  of  the  united 
Russian  and  Austrian  troops  at  Verona.  In  1799  he 
■defeated  the  French  general  Moreau  on  the  banks  of  the 
Adda,  and  made  a  triumphant  entry  into  Milan.  After 
this  he  won  another  victory  over  Macdonald  on  the  Trebbia, 


and  later  the  same  year  that  of  Novi  over  Joubert.  He  then 
crossed  the  Alps  for  the  purpose  of  driving  the  French  out 
of  Svvitzerland,  but  he  was  everywhere  hampered  by  the 
Austrians,  and,  after  fighting  his  way  over  the  Alps  and 
suffering  great  losses,  he  reached  his  winter  quarters  between 
the  lUer  and  the  Lech,  and  soon  afterwards  he  was  recalled 
in  disgrace.  Paul  now  completely  changed  his  tactics.  Ac- 
cusing England  and  Austria  of  having  acted  treacherously 
towards  him,  he  threw  himself  into  the  arms  of  Bonaparte, 
who  had  won  him  over  by  skilful  diplomacy,  and,  among 
other  pieces  of  flattery,  sent  back  the  Russian  prisoners 
newly  clothed  and  armed.  Paul  then  meditated  joining  him 
in  a  plan  for  conquering  India ;  but  in  the  night  between 
the  23d  and  21th  of  March  1801  he  was  assassinated.  The 
chief  agents  in  this  catastrophe  were  Plato  Zuboff,  Benning- 
sen,  and  Pahlen.  The  rule  of  Paul  had  become  intolerable, 
and  he  was  fast  bringing  on  a  national  bankruptcy. 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Alexander  I. 
(1801-1825).  One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  new  emperor 
was  to  make  peace  with  England  and  France.  He,  how- 
ever, soon  changed  his  policy,  and  in  1805  joined  the  third 
coalition  against  France,  to  which  Austria  and  England 
were  parties.  Events  which  belong  to  general  European 
history,  and  are  well  known,  need  only  be  described  briefly 
here.  On  December  2d  of  that  year  took  place  the  battle 
of  Austerlitz,  in  which  the  Russians  lost  21,000  men,  133 
guns,  and  30  flags.  They  accused  their  Austrian  allies 
of  treachery.  The  war  was  soon  ended  by  the  treaty  of 
Pressburg.  We  now  come  to  the  fourth  coalition  against' 
France  (1806-7).  In  1807  Napoleon  engaged  the  Russian 
general  Benningsen  at  Eylau.  The  battle  was  protracted 
and  sanguinary,  but  not  decisive ;  both  parties  abandoned 
the  field  and  retired  into  winter  quarters.  A  defeat  at 
Friedland  in  the  same  year  was  followed  by  the  peace  of 
Tilsit.  By  this  treaty  the  Prussian  king,  Frederick  William 
III.,  lost  half  his  dominions.  Nearly  all  his  Polish  posses- 
sions were  to  go  to  the  king  of  Saxony  under  the  name  of 
the  grand-duchy  of  Warsaw.  By  a  secret  treaty,  it  seemed 
as  if  Alexander  and  Napoleon  almost  aspired  to  divide  the 
world,  or  at  least  Europe,  between  them.  The  terms,  how- 
ever, were  received  by  a  large  party  in  Russia  with  disgust. 
The  next  important  event  ia  the  reign  of  Alexander  was 
the  conquest  of  Finland.  By  the  treaty  of  Frederikshamn, 
September  17,  1809,  Sweden  surrendered  Finland,  with  the 
whole  of  East  Bothnia,  and  a  part  of  West  Bothnia  lying 
eastward  of  the  river  Tornea.  The  Finns  were  allowed  a 
kind  of  autonomy,  which  they  have  preserved  to  this  day. 
The  annexation  of  Georgia  to  Russia  was  consolidated  at 
the  beginning  of  this  reign,  having  been  long  in  prepara- 
tion. It  led  to  a  war  with  Persia,  which  resulted  in  the 
incorporation  of  the  province  of  Shirvan  with  the  Russian 
empire  in  1806. 

In  1809  commenced  the  fifth  coalition  against  Napoleon. 
Alexi^nder,  who  was  obliged  by  treaty  to  furnish  assistance 
to  the  French  emperor,  did  all  that  he  could  to  prevent 
the  vyar.  A  quarrel  with  Turkey  led  to  its  invasion  by  a 
Russian  army  under  Michelsen.  This  war  was  terminated 
by  a  congress  held  at  Bucharest  in  1812.  Russia  gave  up 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  which  she  had  occupied,  but  kept 
Bessarabia,  with  the  fortresses  of  Khotin  and  Bender. 
Gradually  an  estrangement  took  place  between  Alexander 
and  Napoleon,  not  only  on  account  of  the  creation  of  the 
grand-duchy  of  Warsaw,  but  because  Russia  was  suffering 
greatly  from  the  Continental  blockade,  to  which  Alexander 
had  been  forced  to  give  his  adhesion.  This  led  to  the 
great  invasion  of  Russia  by  Napoleon  in  1812.1 

•  This  has  been  fuUy  described  in  the  pages  of  Eugene  Labaume  and 
Sir  Robert  Wilson.  In  the  recent  volumes  of  the  exceUent' review, 
Rmsfd  Arkhiv,  edited  by  M.  Bartenieff,  will  be  found  some  most  in- 
teresting details  bused  upon  Russian  family  papers  and  traditions. 


i^le^iiUI 


1767-1831.] 


RUSSIA 


101 


On  May  9,  1812,  Napoleon  left  Paris  for  Dresden, 
and  the  Russian  and  French  ambassadors  recaived  their 
passports.  The  grand  army  comprised  678,000  men, 
356,000  of  them  being  French ;  and,  to  oppose  them,  the 
Russians  assembled  372,000  men.  Napoleon  crossed  the 
Niemen  and  advanced  by  forced  marches  to  Smolensk. 
Here  he  defeated  the  Russians,  and  -iigain  at  the  terrible 
battle  of  Borodino,  and  then  entered  Moscow,  -which  had 
been  abandoned  bj'  most  of  the  inhabitants ;  s6on  after- 
wards a  fire  broke  out  (probably  caused  by  the  order  of 
Rostopchin  the  governor),  which  raged  six  days  and 
destroyed  the  greater  part  of  the  city.  Notwithstanding 
this  disaster,  Napoleon  lingered  five  weeks  among  the 
ruins,  endeavouring  to  negotiate  a  peace,  which  he  seemed 
to  think  Alexander  would  be  sure  to  grant ;  but  he  had 
mistaken  the  spirit  of  the  emperor  and  his  people.  On 
the  18th  of  October  Napoleon  reluctantly  commenced  his 
backward  march.  The  weather  was  unusually  severe,  and 
the  country  all  round  had  been  devastated  by  the  French 
on  their  march.  With  their  ranks  continually  thinned  by 
cold,  hunger,  and  the  skirmishes  of  the  Cossacks  who  hung 
upon  their  rear,  the  French  reached  the  Beresina,  which 
they  crossed  near  Studianka  on  the  26th-29th  of  November 
with  great  loss.  The  struggle  ,on  the  banks  of  this  river 
forms  one  of  the  most  terrible  pictures  in  history.  ,  At 
Smorgoni,  between  Vilna  and  Minsk,  Napoleon  left  the 
army  and  hurried  to  Paris.  Finally  the  wreck  of  the 
grande  armee  under  Ney  crossed  the  Niemen.  Not  more 
than  eighty  thousand  of  the  whole  army  are  said  to  have 
returned. 

Frederick  William  III.  of  Prussia  now  issued  a  mani- 
festo, and  concluded  an  alliance  with  Russia  for  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  Prussian  monarchy.  In  1813  took 
place  the  battle  of  Dresden,  and  the  so-called  Battle  of 
the  Nations  at  Leipsic  on  October  16  and  the  two  fol- 
lowing days.  In  1814  the  Russians  invaded  France 
with  the  allies,  and  lost  many  men  in  the  assault  upon 
Paris.  After  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  and  the  iconveyance 
of  Napoleon  to  tho  island  of  St  Helena,  it  fell  to  the 
Russian  forces  to  occupy  Champagne  and  Lorraine.  In 
the  same  year  Poland  was  re-established  in  a  mutilated 
form,  with  a  constitution  which  Alexander,  who  was 
crowned  king,  swore  to  observe.  In  1825  the  emperor 
died  suddenly  at  Taganrog  at  the  mouth  of  the  Don,  while 
visiting  the  southern  provinces  of  his  empire  He  had 
added  to  the  Russian  dominions  Finlanc  Poland, 
Bessarabia,  and  that  part  of  tho  Caucasus  which  includes 
Daghestan,  Shirvan,  Mingrelia,  and  Imeretia.  Much  was 
done  in  this  reign  to  improve  tho  condition  of  the  serfs. 
The  Raskolniks  were  better  treated  ;  many  efforts  were- 
made  to  improve  public  education,  and  the  universities  of 
Kazan,  Kharkoff,  and  St  Petersburg  were  founded.,  One 
of  tho  chief  agents  of  these  reforms  was  the  minister 
Speranski,  who  for  some  time  enjoyed  the  favour  of  the 
emperor,  but  he  attacked  so  many  interests  by  h'"'  measures 
that  a  coalition  was  formed  against  him  He  was 
denounced  as  a  traitor,  and  his  enemies  succeeded  in 
getting  him  removed  and  sent  as  governor  to  Nijni- 
Novgorod.  In  1819,  when  tho  storm  raised  against  him 
had  somewhat  abated,  ho  was  appointed  to  the  important 
post  of  governor  of  Siberia.  In  1821  he  returned  to  St 
Petersburg,  but  he  never  regained  his  former  power.  To 
the  mild  influence  of  Speranski  succeeded  that  of  Shishkoff, 
Novosiltzeff,  and  Arakcheeff.  The  last  of  these  men  made 
himself  universally  detested  in  Russia.  Ho  rose  to  great 
influence  in  the  time  of  Paul,  and  managed  to  continue  in 
favour  under  his  son.  Besides  many  other  pernicious 
measures,  it  was  to  him  that  Russia  owed  the  military 
colonies  which  were  so  unpopular  and  led  to  serious  riots. 
The  censorship  of  the  press   became   much  stricter,  and 


many  professors  of  liberal  tendencies  were  dismissed  from 
their  chairs  in  the  universities.  The  country  was  now 
filled  with  secret  societies,  and  the  emperor  became  gloomy 
and  suspicious.  In  this  condition  of  mind  he  died,  a  man 
thoroughly  disenchanted  and  weary  of  life.  He  has  been 
judged  harshly  by  some  authors;  readers  will  remember 
that  Napoleon  said  of  him  that  he  was  false  as  a  Byzantine 
Greek.  To  us  he  appears  as  a  well-intentioned  man, 
utterly  unable  to  cope  with  the  discordant  elements  aroundj 
him.     He  had  discovered  that  his  life  was  a  failure. 

The  heir  to  the  throne  according  to  the  principles  of 
succession  recognized  in  Russia  was  Constantine,  the  second 
son  of  the  emperor  Paul,  since  Alexandef  left  no  children. 
But  he  had  of  his  own  free  will  secretly  renounced  his 
claim  in  1822,  having  espoused  a  Roman  Catholic,  the 
Polish  princess  Julia  Grudzinska.  In  consequence  of  this 
change  in  the  devolution  of  the  sovereign's  authority,  the 
conspiracy  of  the  Dekabrists^  broke  out  at  the  end  of  the 
year,  their  object  being  to  take  advantage  of  the  confusion 
caused  by  the  alteration  of  the  succession  to  get  consti- 
tutional government  in  Russia.  Their  efforts  failed,  but 
the  rebellion  was  not  put  down  without  great  bloodshed. 
Five  of  the  conspirators  were  executed,  and  a  great  many 
sent  to  Siberia.  Some  of  the  men  implicated  were  among 
the  most  remarkable  of  their  time  in  Russia,  but  tho 
whole  country  had  been  long  honeycombed  with  secret 
societies,  and  many  of  the  Russian  officers  had  learned 
libsral  ideas  while  engaged  in  the  campaign  against  Napo- 
leon. So  ignorant,  however,  were  the  common  people  of 
the  most  ordinary  political  terms  that  when  told  to  shout 
for  Constantine  and  the  constitution  {constitutzia)  they 
naively  asked  if  the  latter  was  Constantino's  wife.  The 
new  emperor,  Nicholas,  the  next  brother  in  succession, 
showed  throughout  his  reign  reactionary  tendencies;  all 
liberalism  was  sternly  repressed.  In  1830  appeared  the 
Complete.  Collection  of  the  Laws  of  the  Hussian  Empire, 
which  Nicholas  had  caused  to  be  codified.  He  partly 
restored  the  right  of  primogeniture  which  had  been  taken 
away  by  the  empress  Anna  as  contrary  to  Russian  usages, 
allowing  a  father  to  make  his  eldest  son  his  sole  heir.  In 
spite  of  the  increased  severity  of  the  censorship  of  the 
press,  literature  made  great  progress  in  his  reign.  From 
1826  to  1828  Nicholas  was  engaged  in  a  war  with  Persia, 
in  which  the  Russians  were  completely  victorious,  having 
beaten  theenemyat  Elizabetpol.and  again  under Paske witch 
at  Javan  Bulak.  Tho  war  was  terminated  by  the  peace 
of  Turkmantohai  (February  22,  1828),  by  which  Persia 
ceded  to  Russia  the  provinces  of  Erivan  anfl  Nakhitchevan, 
and  paid  twenty  millions  of  roubles  as  an  indemnity.  The 
next  foreign  enemy  was -Turkey.  Nicholas  had  sympa- 
thized with  the  Greeks  in  their  struggle  for  independence,' 
in  opposition  to  the  policy  of  Alexander ;  he  had  also  a 
part  to  play  as  protector  of  the  Orthodox  Christians,  who 
formed  a  large  number  of  the  sultan's  subjects.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  sanguinary  war  which  the  Turks  were 
carrying  on  against  the  Greeks  and  th(i-\ittcr  collapse  bf 
the  latter,  England,  France,  and  Russia  signed  tho  t.eaty 
of  London  in  1827,  by  which  they  forced  themselves  upon 
the  belligerents  as  mediators.  From  this  union  resulted 
the  battle  of  Navarino  (October  20,  1827),  in  which  the 
Turkish  fleet  was  annihilated  by  that  of  tho  allies. 
Nicholas  now  pursued  the  war  with  Turkey  on  his  own 
account ;  in  Asia  Paskewitch  defeated  two  Turkish  ntmies, 
and  conquered  Erzeroum,  and  in  Europe  Diebitsch  defeated 
the  grand  vizier.  Tho  Russians  crossed  the  Balkans  and 
advanced  to  Adrianople,  where  a  treaty  was  signed  in  182^ 
very  disadvantageous  to  Turkey. 

In  1831   broke  out  the  Polish  insurrection,  of  which.  8 
'  Literally,  tlio  men  of  December,  tho  month  in  which  Alei*nd«i 
(lied. 


102 


RUSSIA 


[histoeyj 


tfescription  has  already  been  given  (see  Poland,  vol.  xix. 
p.  ii98).  Paskewitcb  took  Warsaw  in  1 831.  The  cbolera 
which  was  than  raging  had  already  carried  o£E  Diebitsch 
and  the  grand-duke  Coastantine.  Pf^Iand  was  now  entirely 
at  the  mercy  of  Nicholas.  The  constitution  which  had 
been  granted  by  Alexander  was  annulled;  there  were  to 
be  no  more  diets ;  and  for  the  ancient  palatinates,  familiar 
to  the  historical  student,  were  substituted  the  governments 
of  Warsaw,  Radom,  Lublin,  Plock,  and  Modlin.  The 
university  of  Vilna,  rendered  celebrated  by  Jlickiewicz 
and  Lelewel,  was  suppressed.  By  another  treaty  with 
Turkey,  that  of  Unkiar-Skelessi  (1833),  Russia  acquired 
additional  rights  to  meddle  w-ith  the  internal  politics  of 
that  countrj'.  Soon  after  the  revolution  of  1848,  the 
emperor  Nicholas,  who  became  even  more  reactionary  in 
consequence  of  the  disturbed  state  of  Europe,  answered 
the  appeal  of  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph,  and  sent  an 
army  under  Paskewitch  to  suppress  the  Hungarian  revolt. 
After  the  capitulation  of  Gorgei  in  1849,  the  war  was  at 
an  end,  and  the  Magyars  cruelly  expiated  their  attempts 
to  procure  constitutional  government.  In  1853  broke  out 
the  Crimean  War.  The  emperor  was  anxious  to  distribute 
the  possessions  of  the  "sick  man,"  but  found  enemies  instead 
of  allies  in  England  and  France.  The  chief  events  of  this 
memorable  struggle  were  the  battles  of  the  Alma,  Balaklava, 
Inkermann,  and  Tchernaya,  and  the  siege  of  Sebastopol; 
this  had  been  skilfully  fortified  by  Todleben,  who  appears  to 
have  been  the  only  man  of  genius  who  came  to  the  front  on 
either  side  during  the  war.  In  1855  the  Russians  destroyed 
the  southern  side  of  the  city,  and  retreated  to  the  northern. 
In  the  same  year,  on  March  14th,  died  the  emperor 
Nicholas,  after  a  short  illness.  Finding  all  his  plans 
frustrated  he  had  grown  weary  of  life,  and  rashly  exposed 
himself  to  the  severe  temperature  of  the  northern  spring. 
SJexander  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Alexander  II.  (1855-1881), 
U.  at  the  age  of  thirty-seven.     One  of  the  first  objects  of  the 

new  czar  was  to  put  an  end  to  the  war,  and  the  treaty  of 
Paris  was  signed  in  1856,  by  which  Russia  consented  to 
keep  no  vessels  of  war  in  the  Black  Sea,  and  to  give  up 
her  protectorate  of  the  Eastern  Christians ;  the  former, 
it  must  be  added,  she  has  recently  recovered.  A  portion 
Oi  Russian  Bessarabia  was  also  cut  off  and  added  to 
the  Danubian  principalities,  which  were  shortly  to  be 
united  under  the  name  of  Roumania.  This  was  afterwards 
given  back  to  Russia  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin.  Sebastopol 
also  has  been  rebuilt,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  ^e  what 
the  practical  results  of  the  Crimean  War  were,  in  spite 
of  the  vast  bloodshed  and  expenditure  of  treasure  which 
attended  it.  The  next  important  measure  was  the  emanci- 
pation of  the  serfs  in  1861.  This  great  reform  had  long 
been  meditated  by  Nicholas,  but  he  was  unable  to  ac- 
complish it,  and  left  it  to  be  carried  out  by  his  son.  The 
[landlords,  on  receiving  an  indemnity,  now  released  the 
serfs  from  their  seigniorial  rights,  and  the  village  commune 
became  the  actual  property  of  the  serf.  This  great 
revolution  was  not,  however,  carried  out  without  great 
Jiffip.nlty.  The  Polish  insurrection  of  1863  has  already 
been  described,  as  well  as  its  fatal  effects  upon  that  part  of 
I  Poland  which  had  been  incorporated  with  Russia.  On  the 
jther  hand  Finland  has  seen  her  privileges  confirmed. 

Among  important  foreign  events  of  this  reign  must  be 
mentioned  the  capture  of  Schamyl  in  1859  by  Prince 
,  Bariatinski,  and  the  pacification  of  the  Caucasus;  many  of 
I  the  Circassians,  unable  to  endure  the  peaceful  life  of 
cultivators  of  the  soil  under  the  new  regime,  migrated  to 
Turkey,  where  they  have  formed  one  of  the  most  turbulent 
elements 'of  the  population.  Turkestan  also  has  been 
gradually  subjugated.  In  1865  the  city  of  Tashkend  was 
taken,  and  in  1867  Alexander  II.  created  the  government 
of  Turkestan.     In  1858  General  Muravieff  signed  a  treaty 


with  the  Chinese,  by  which  Russia  acquired  all  the  lefl 
bank  of  the  river  Amur.  A  new  port  has  been  created  in 
Eastern  Asia  (Vladivostok),  which  promises  to  be  a  great 
centre  of  trade.  In  1877  Russia  came  to  the  assistance 
of  the  Slavonic  Christians  against  the  Turks.  After  the 
terrible  siege  of  Plevna,  nothing  stood  between  them 
and  the  gates  of  Constantinople.  In  1878  the  treaty  of 
San  Stefano  was  signed,  by  which  Roumania  became 
independent,  Servia  was  enlarged,  and  a  free  Bulgaria, 
but  (.under  Turkish  suzerainty,  was  created.  But  these 
arrangements  were  subsequently  modified  by  the  treaty  of 
Berlin.  Russia  got  back  the  portion  of  Bessarabia  which 
she  had  lost,  and  advanced  her  Caucasian  frontier.  The 
new  province  of  Bulgaria  was  cut  into  two,  the  southern 
portion  being  entitled  Eastern  Roumelia,  with  a  Christian 
governor,  to  be  appoiiited  by  the  Porte,  and  self-govern- 
ment. Austria  acquired  a  protectorate  over  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina.  The  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Alexander 
II.  was  a  period  of  great  internal  commotion,  on  account 
of  the  spread  of  Nihilism,  and  the  attempts  upon  the 
emperor's  life,  which  unfortunately  were  at  last  successful. 
In  the  cities  in  which  his  despotic  father  had  walked  about 
fearless,  without  a  single  attendant,  the  mild  and  amiable 
Alexander  was  in  daily  peril  of  his  life.  On  April  IC, 
1866,  Karakozofi  shot  at  the  emperor  at  St  Petersburg; 
in  the  following  year  another  attempt  was  made  by  a  Pole, 
Berezowski,  while  Alexander  was  at  Paris  on  a  visit  to 
Napoleon  III.;  on  April  14,  1879,  Solovioff  shot  at  him. 
The  same  year  saw  the  attempt  to  blow  up  the  Winter  Palace 
and  to  wreck  the  train  by  which  the  czar  was  travelling 
from  Moscow  to  St  Petersburg.  A  similar  conspiracy  in 
1881  (March  13)  was  successful.  Five  of  the  conspirators, 
including  a  woman,  Sophia  Perovskaia,  were  publicly 
executed.  Thus  terminated  the  reign  of  Alexander  II., 
which  had  lasted  nearly  twenty-six  jears.  He  died  leaving 
Russia  exhausted  by  foreign  wars  and  honeycombed  by 
plots.  His  wife  and  eldest  son  Nicholas  had  predeceased 
him,  the  latter  at  Nice.  He.  was  succeeded  by  his  second  -Aien 
son  Alexander,  born  in  1845,  whose  reign  has  been  char- 
acterized by  conspiracies  and  constant  deportations  of 
suspected  persons.  It  was  long  before  he  ventured  to 
be  crowned  in  his  ancient  capital  of  Moscow  (1883), 
and  the  chief  event  since  then  has  been  the  disturbed 
relations  with  England,  which  for  a  time  threatened 
war.  (w.  E.  M.) 

Pabt  V. — Russian  Literature. 

To  get  a  clear  idea  of  Russian  literature,  it  will  be  most 
convenient  for  us  to  divide  it  into  oral  and  written.  The 
first  of  these  sections  includes  the  interesting  bllini,  or  Bilia 
"  tales  of  old  time,"  as  the  word  may  be  translated,  which 
have  come  down  to  us  in  great  .numbers,  as  they  have  been 
sung  by  wandering  minstrels  all  over  the  country.  The 
scholars  who  during  the  last  forty  years  have  given  their 
attention  to  these  compositions  have  made  the  following 
division  of  them  into  cycles: — (1)  that  of  the  older 
heroes ;  (2)  that  of  Vladimir,  prince  of  Kieff ;  (3)  that 
of  Novgorod ;  (4)  that  of  Moscow ;  (5)  that  of  the  Cos- 
sacks; (6)  that  of  Peter  the  Great;  (7)  the  modern 
period.  These  poems,  if  they  may  be  so 'styled,  are  not  in 
rhyme ;  the  ear  is  satisfied  with  a  certain  cadence  which 
is  observed  throughout.  For  a  long  time  they  were 
neglected,  and  the  collection  of  them  only  began  at  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century.  The  style  of 
Russian  'literature  which  prevailed  from  the  time  of 
Lomonosoff  was  wholly  based  upon  the  French  or  pseudo- 
classical  school.  It  was,  therefore,  hardly  likely  that  these 
peasant  songs  would  attract  attention.  But  when  the 
gospel  of  romanticism  was  preached  and  the  Hutory  of 
Kararazin  appeared,  which  presented  to  the  Russians  8 


( 


LITEKATURE.] 


R  a  S  S  1  A 


103 


past  of  which  they  had  known  but  little,  descri'  ea  in 
poetical  and  oreate  phraseology,  a  new  impulse  was  given 
to  the  collection  of  all  the  remains  of  popular  literature. 
In  1804  appeared  a  volume  based  upon  those  which  had 
been  gathered  fogcther  by  Cyril  or  Kirsha  Daniloif,  a  Cos- 
sack, at  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century.  They  were 
received  with  much  enthusiasm,  and  a  second  edition  was 
published  in  1818.  In  the  following  year  there  appeared 
at  Leipsic  a  translation  of  many  of  these  pieces  into  Ger- 
man, in  consequence  of  which  they  became  known  much 
more  widely.  This  little  book  of  160  pages  is  important  in 
many  ways,  and  not  the  least  so  because  the  originals  of 
some  of  the  bilini  translated  in  it  arc  now  lost.  Since 
that  time  large  collections  of  these  poems  have  been 
published,  edited  by  KibnikofF,  Hilferding,  Sreznevski, 
Avenarius,  and  others. 

These  curious  productions  have  all  the  characteristics  of 
popular  poetry  in  the  endless  repetitious  of  certain  con- 
ventional phrases — the  "  green  wine,"  "  the  bright  sun" 
(applied  to  a  hero),  "  the  damp  earth,"  and  others.  The 
heroes  of  the  first  cycle  are  monstrous  beings,  and  seem  to 
be  merely  impersonifications  of  the  powers  of  nature ; 
euch  are  Volga  Vseslavich,  Mikula  Selianinovich,  and  Svia- 
tcor.  They  are  called  the  hogath-i  starshie.  Sometimes 
we  have  the  giants  of  the  mountain,  as  Sviatogor,  and 
the  serpent  Gorinich,  the  root  of  part  of  both  names  being 
gora  (mountain).  The  serpent  Gorinich  lives  in  caves, 
and  has  the  care  of  the  precious  metals.  Sometimes  animal 
natures  are  mixed  up  with  them,  as  zmei-bogath;  who 
unites  the  qualities  of  the  serpent  and  the  giant,  and  bears 
the  name  of  Tugarin  ZmievicL  There  is  the  Pagan  Idol 
{Idolistche  Poganskoe),  a  great  glutton,  and  Nightingale 
the  Eobber  (Solovei  Mazboinik),  who  terrifies  travellers  and 
lives  in  a  nest  built  upon  six  oaks. 

In  the  second  cycle  the  legends  group  themselves  round 
the  celebrated  prince  Vladimir  of  Kieff,  in  whose  time  the' 
Christian  religion  was  introduced  into  Russia,  as  previously 
mentioned.  The  chief  hero  is  Ilya  Murometz,  who 
performs  prodigies  of  valour,  and  is  of  gigantic  stature  and 
superhuman  strength.  The  cycle  of  Novgorod  deals  with 
the  stories  of  Vasilii  Buslaevich  and  Sadko,  the  rich 
merchant.  The  great  commercial  prosperity  of  Novgorod 
has  been  already  described.  The  fourth  cycle  deals  with 
the  autocracy  ;  already  Moscow  has  become  the  capital  of 
the  future  empire.  We  are  told  of  the  taking  of  Kazan, 
of  the  conquest  of  Siberia  by  Yermak,  of  Ivan  the  Terrible 
and  his  confidant  Maliuta  Skuvlatovich.  It  is  observable 
that  in  the  popular  tradition  Ivan,  in  spite  of  his  cruelties, 
is  not  spoken  of  with  any  hatred.  As  early  as  1619  some  of 
these  bilini  were  committed  to  writing  by  Kichard  James, 
an  Oxford  graduate  who  was  in  liussia  about  that  time  as 
chaplain  of  the  embassy..  The  most  pathetic  of  these  Ls 
that  relating  to  the  unfortunate  Xenia,  the  daughter  of 
Boris  Godunoff.  Yermak,  the  conqueror  of  Siberia,  forms 
the  subject  of  a  very  spirited  lay,  and  there  is  another  on 
the  death  of  Ivan  the  Terrible.  Considering  the  relation 
in  which  she  stood  to  the  Ilussians,  wo  cannot  wonder  that 
Marina,  the  wife  of  the  false  Demetrius,  appears  as  a 
magician.  Many  spirited  poems  are  consecrated  to  the 
achievements  of  Stenka  Razia,  the  bold  robber  of  the 
Volga,  who  was  a  long  time  a  popular  hero.  The  cycle  of 
Peter  the  Great  is  a  very  interesting  ope.  We  have  songs 
in  abundance  on  the  various  achievements  of  the  wonderful 
czar,  as  the  taking  of  Azoff  in  1696.  There  is  also  a  poem 
on  the  execution  of  the  streltzi,  and  another  on  the  death  of 
Peter.  In  the  more  modern  period  there  arc  many  songs 
on  Napoleon.  The  Cossack  songs,  written  in  the  Little 
Russian  language,  dwell  upon  the  glories  of  the  seek,  the 
Bufferings  of  the  people  from  the  invasions  of  the  Turks 
and  Mongols,  the  exploits  of  the  Uaidamaks  and  lastly  the 


fall  of  the  Cossack  republic.  Besides  these,  the  Russians 
can  boast  of  large  collections  of  religious  poeuis,  many  of 
them  containing  very  curious  legends.  In  tnem  we  have 
a  complete  store  of  the  beliefs  of  the  Jliddle  Ages.  A  rich 
field  may  be  found  here  for  the  study  of  comparative 
mythology  and  folk-lore.  !Many  of  them  are  of  considerable 
antiquity,  and  some  seem  to  have  been  derived  from  tho 
Midrash.  Some  of  tho  more  important  of  these  have  been 
collected  by  Beszonoff.  Besides  the  bilini  or  legendary 
poems,  the  Russians  have  large  collections  of  sLazki  or 
folk-tales,  which  have  been  gathered  together  by  Sakharoff, 
Afanasieff,  and  others.  They  also  are  full  of  valuable 
materials  Lr  the  study  of  comparative  mythology. 

Leaving  the  popular  and  oral  literature,  we  come  to 
what  has  been  committed  to  writing.  The  earliest 
specimen  of  Russian,  properly  so-called,  must  be  considered 
the  Ostromir  Codex,  written  by  tho  lUak  Gregory  at 
the  order  of  Ostromir,  the  posadnik  or  governor  of 
Novgorod.  This  is  a  Russian  recension  of  the  Slavonic 
Gospels,  of  the  date  1056-57.  Of  the  year  1073  we  have 
the  Izhornik  or  "  Jliscellany "  of  Sviatoslaff.  It  was 
written  by  John  the  diak  or  deacon  for  that  prince,  and  is 
a  kind  of  Russian  encyclopedia,  drawn  from  Greek  sources.' 
The  date  is  1076.  The  style  is  praised  by  Luslaeff  as 
clear  and  simple.  Tho  next  monument  of  the  language  is 
the  Discourse  concerning  the  Old  and  Kexo  Testament^  by 
Uarion,  metropolitan  of  Kieff.  In  this  work  there  is  a 
paneg}'ric  on  Prince  Madimir  of  Kieff,  the  hero  of  so  much 
of  the  Russian  popular  poetry.  Other  writers  are  Theodo- 
sius,  a  monk  of  the  Pestcherski  cloister,  who  wrote  on  tho 
Latin  faith  and  some  Pov.chenia  or  "  Instructions,"  and 
Luke  Zhidiata,  bishop  of  Novgorod,  who  has  left  us  a 
curious  Discourse  to  the  Brethren.  From  the  writings  of 
Theodosius  we  see  that  many  pagan  habits  were  still  in 
vogue  among  the  people.  He  finds  fault  with  them  for 
allowing  these  to  continue,  and  also  for  their  drunkenness; 
nor  do  the  monks  escape  his  censures.  Zhidiata  writes  in 
a  more  vernacular  style  than  many  of  his  contemporaries; 
he  eschews  the  declamatory  tone  of  the  Byzantine  authors. 

With  the  so-called  Chronicle  of  Nestor  (q.v.)  begins  the  Aimalista 
long  series  of  the  Russian  annalists.  There  is  a  '"'^S"'^'"  j".^[,,i,e„ 
catena  of  these  chronicles,  extending  with  only  two  breaks 
to  the  time  of  Alexis  Mikhailovich,  the  father  of  Peter  the 
Great.  Besides  the  -work  attributed  to  Nestor,  we  have 
chronicles  of  Novgorod,  Kieff,  Volhynia,  and  many  others. 
Every  town  of  any  importance  could  boast  of  its  annalists, 
Pskoff  and  Suzdal  among  others.  In  some  respects^ these 
compilations,  the  productions  of  monks  in  their  cloisters, 
remind  us  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  dry  details 
alternating  with  here  and  there  a  picturoe?iue  incident; 
but  tho  Anglcj-Saxon,  Chronicle  has  nothing  of  the  saga 
about  it,  and  many  of  thesa  annals  abound  with  tho 
quaintest  stories.  There  arc  also  works  of  early  travellers,' 
as  tho  igumen  Daniel,  who  visited  the  Holy  Land  at  the 
end  of  the  11th  and  beginning  of  the  12th  century.  A 
later  traveller  was  Athanasius  Nikitin,  a  merchant  of  Tver, 
who  visited  India  in  1470.  He  has  loft  a  record  of  his 
adventures,  which  has  been  translated  into  Knglish  and 
publi-shed  for  the  Hakluyt  Society.  Later  also  is  tho 
account  written  by  the  two  merchants,  Korobeinikoll  and 
Grckoff.  They  were  sent  with  a  sum  of  money  to  tho 
Holy  Sepulchre  to  entreat  tho  monks  to  pray  without 
ceasing  for  tho  soul  of  the  son  of  Ivan  the  Terrible,  whom 
his  father  had  killed.  A  curious  monument  of  old  Slavonic 
times  is  the  Pouchenie  ("Instruction")  written  by  Vladimir 
Monomakh  for  tho  benefit  of  his  sons.  This  composition 
is  generally  found  in.sertcd  in  tho  Chronicle  of  Nestor;  it 
gives  a  quaint  picture  of  the  daily  life  of  a  Slavonic  prince. 

In  tho  l'2th  century  wo  have  the  sermons  of  Cyril,  the 
bishop  of  Turoff,  which  are  altumptu  to  imitate  in  Russian 


104 


RUSSIA 


[literatuse. 


the  florid  Byzantine  style.  He  is  very  fond  of  allegorical 
representations ;  thus,  in  his  sermon  on  Holy  Week, 
Christianity  is  represented  under  the  form  of  spring, 
Paganism  and  Judaism"  under  that  of  winter,  and  evil 
thoughts  are  spoken  of  as  boisterous  winds.  An  attempt 
to  carry  this  symbolism  through  other  portions  of  his 
writings  leads  him  to  many  fantastic  conceits  which  are 
far  from  being  in  good  taste.  And  here  may  be  mentioned 
the  many  lives  of  the  saints  and  the  Fathers  to  be  found  in 
early  Paissian  literature.  Some  of  these  have  been  edited 
by  Count  Bezborodko  in  his  Fametni/ci  Starinnoi  Russkoi 
Literntitri  ("  Memorials  of  Ancient  Russian  Literature"). 

We  now  come  to  the  story  of  the  expedition  of  Prince 
Igor,  which  is  a  kind  of  bilina  in  prose,  and  narrates  the 
expedition  of  Igor,  prince  of  Novgorod-Severski,  against 
the  Polovtzes.  The  manuscript  was  at  one  time  preserved 
in  a  monastery  at  Yaroslavl,  but  was  burnt  in  the  great 
fire  at  Moscow  in  the  year  1812.  Luckily  the  story  had 
been  edited  (after  a  fashion)  by  Count  Musin-Pushkin, 
and  a  transcript  was  also  found  among  the  papers  of  the 
empress  Catherine.  The  authenticity  of  this  production 
has  been  disputed  by  some  modern  scholars,  but  without 
solid  grounds.  The  original  was  seen  by  several  men  of 
letters  in  Kussia,  Karamzin  among  the  number.  There  is 
a  mixture  of  Christian  and  heathen  allusions,  but  there  are 
parallels  to  this  style  of  writing  in  such  a  piece  as  the 
"  Discourse  of  a  Lover  of  Christ  and  Advocate  of  the  True 
Faith,"  from  which  an  extract  has  been  given  by  Luslaeff 
'"n  li!s  Chrestomathy.  Unlike  most  of  the  productions  of 
this  period,  which  are  tedious,  and  interesting  only  to  the 
philologist  and  antiquary,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  poetical 
spirit  in  the  story  of  Igor,  and  the  metaphors  are .  fre- 
quently very  vigorous.  Mention  is  made  in  it  of  anothpr 
bard  named  Boyan,  but  none  of  his  inspirations  have  come 
down  to  us.  A  strange  legend  is  that  of  the  czar  Solomon 
p.ad  Kito\  ras,  but  the  story  occurs  in  the  popular  literatures 
of  many  countries.  Some  similar  productions  among  the 
Russians  are  merely  adaptations  of  old  Bulgarian  tales, 
especially  the  so-called  apocryphal  writings.  The  Zadon- 
stchina  is  a  sort  of  prose-poem  much  in  the  style  of  the 
"  Story  of  Igor,"  and  the  resemblance  of  the  latter  to  this 
piece  and  to  many  other  of  the  skazania  included  in  or 
attached  to  the  Russian  chronicle,  furnishes  an  additional 
proof  of  its  genuineness.  The  account  of  the  battle  of  the 
"  Field  of  Woodcocks,"  which  was  gained  by  Dmitri 
Donskoi  over  the  Mongols  in  1380,  has  come  down  in  three 
important  versions.  The  first  bears  the  title  "  Story  of 
the  Fight  of  the  Prince  Dmitri  Ivanovich  with  Mamai";  it 
is  rather  meagre  in  details  but  full  of  expressions  showing 
the  patriotism  of  the  writer.  The  second  version  is  more 
complete  in  its  historical  details,  but  still  is  not  without 
anachronisms.  The  third  is  altogether  poetical.  The 
Povu-st  o  Drakule  ("Story  of  Drakula")  is  a  collection  of 
anecdotes  relating  ito  a  cruel  prince  of  Moldavia,  who  lived 
at  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century.  Several  of  the  bar- 
barities described  in  it  have  also  been  assigned  to  Ivan  the 
Terrible. 

The  early  Russian  laws  present  many  leatures  of 
interest,  such  as  the  Rnsshaia  Pravda  of  Yaroslaff,  which 
is  preserved  in  the  chronicle  of  Novgorod ;  the  date  is 
between  1018  and  1051.  Large  additions  were  made  to 
it  by  subsequent  princes.  It  has  many  points  in  common 
with  'JiQ  Scandinavian  codes,  e.r;.,  trial  by  wager  of  battle, 
tha  wergild,  and  the  circuits  of  the  judges.  The  laws 
show  Russia  at  that  time  to  have  been  in  civilization 
quite  on  -a  level  with  the  rest  of  Europe.  But  the  evil 
influence ,  of  the  Jlongols  was  soon  to  make  itself  felt. 
The  ne.xt  important  code  is  the  Sudehnik  of  Ivan  III., 
the  date  of  which  is  1497 ;  this  was  followed  by  that  of 
Ivan  IV.,  of  the  year  1550,  in  which  we  have  a  republi- 


cation by  the  czar  of  his  grandfather's  laws,  with  additions. 
In  the  time  of  this  emperor  also  was  issued  the  Stoglav 
(1551),  a  body  of  ecclesiastical  regulations.  Mention  must 
also  be  made  of  the  Ulozhenie.  or  "  Ordinance"  of  the  czar 
Alexis.  This  abounds  with  enactments  of  sanguinary 
punishment:  women  are  buried  alive  for 'murdering  their 
husbands ;  torture  is  recognized  as  a  means  of  procuring 
evidence ;  and  the  knout  and  mutilation  are  mentioned  on 
almost  every  page.  Some  of  the  penalties  are  whimsical  : 
for  instance,  the  man  who  uses  tobacco  is  to  have  his  nose 
cut  off  ;  this,  however,  was  to  be  altered  by  Peter  the  Great; 
who  himself  oractised  the  habit  and  encouraged  it  ia 
others. 

In  1553  a  printing  press  was  established  at  Moscow,' 
and  in  1564  the  first  book  was  printed,  an  "Apostol,"  as 
it  is  called,  i.e.,  a  book  containing  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
and  the  Epistles.  The  printers  were  Ivan  Feodoroff  and 
Peter  Mstislavetz ;  a  monument  was  erected  a  year  or  two 
ago  to  the  memory  of  the  former.  As  early  as  1548  Ivan 
had  invited  printers  to  Russia,  but  they  were  detained  on 
their  journey.  Feodoroff  and  his  companions  were  soon, 
however,  compelled  to  leave  Russia,  and  found  a  protector 
in  Sigismund  III.  The  cause  of  their  failure  appears  to 
have  been  the  enmity  which  they  had  stirred  up  among 
the  copyists  of  books,  who  felt  that  their  means  of  gaining 
a  livelihood  w^ere  lessened.  They  succeeded  accordingly 
in  drawing  over  to  their  side  the  more  fanatical  priests, 
who  thought  it  degrading  that  the  sacred  books  should  be 
multiplied  by  such  an  art,  just  as  at  the  present  day  the 
Arabs  refuse  to  allow  the  Koran  to  be  printed.  The  first 
Slavonic  Bible  was  printed  at  Ostrog  in  A'^olhynia  in  1581, 
Another  press,  however,  was  soon  established  at  Moscow ; 
up  to  1600  sixteen  books  had  been  issued  there. 

A  curious  work  of  the  time  of  Ivan  the  Terrible  is  the 
Domostroi,  or  "  Book  of  Household  Management,"  which  is 
said  to  have  been  written  by  the  monk  Sylvester,  although 
this  statement  has  been  disputed.  This  priest  was  at  one 
time  very  influential  with  Ivan,  but  ultimately  offended 
him  and  was  banished  to  the  Solovetzkoi  monastery  on 
the  White  Sea.  The  work  was  originally  intended  by 
Sylvester  for  his  son  Anthemius  and  his  daughter-in-law 
Pelagia,  but  it  soon  became  very  popular  and  in  general 
use  We  have  a  faithful  picture  of  the  Russia  of  the 
time,  with  all  its  barbarisms  and  ignorance.  We  see  the 
unbounded  authority  of  the  husband  in  his  own  houses 
hold:  he  may  inflict  personal  chastisement  upon  his  wifcj 
and  her  chief  duty  lies  in  ministering  to  his  wants.  The 
Jlongols  had  introduced  into  Russia  the  Oriental  seclusion 
of  women ;  those  of  the  older  time  knew  nothing  of  these 
restrictions.  Sylvester,  or  whoever  wrote  the  book,  was  a 
complete  conservative,  as  indeed  the  clergy  of  Russia 
almost  universally  were.^  To  thejeign  of  Ivan  the  Ter-" 
rible  must  also  be  assigned  the  Chetii-MiiKi  or  "Book 
of  Monthly  Readings,"  containing  extracts  from  the  Gre^^ 
fathers,  arranged  for  every  day  of  the  week.  The  wori 
was  compiled  by  the  metropolitan  !Macarius,  and  was 
the  labour  of  twelve  years.  An  important  writer  of 
the  same  period  was  Prince  Alexander  Kurbski,  de- 
scended from  the  sovereigns  of  Yaroslavl,  who  was  born 
about  1528.  In  his  early  days  Kurbski  saw  a  greal 
deal  of  service,  having  fought  at  Kazau  and  in  Livonia. 
But  he  quarrelled  with  Ivan,  who  had  begun  to  perse- 
cute the  followers  of  Sylvester  and  Adasheff,  and  fled 
to  Lithuania  in   1563,   where  he  was  well   received   by 

^  In  a  curious  letter  of  the  date  of  1698,  and  now  among  the  raanu^ 
scripts  of  the  Bodleian,  Bishop  Burnet  writes  thus  of  a  priest  who 
accompanied  Peter  the  Great  to  England  •  "The  czar's  priest  is  come 
over,  who  is  a  truly  holy  man,  and  morff^learned  than  I  should  have 
imagined,  but  thinks  it  a  great  piece  of  religion  to  be  iio  wis^Lthan 
his  fathers,  and  therefore  cannot  bear  the  thought  pf  imagiuinajtbali 
anything  among  them  can  want  amendment." 


iLTTERATtTKE.] 


RUSSIA 


105 


Sigismund  Augustus.  From  his  retrcal  he  commenced  a 
correspondence  with  Ivan,  in  which  he  reproached  him  for 
his  many  cruelties.  Ivan  in  his  answer  declared  that  he 
was  quite  justified  in  taking  the  lives  of  his  slaves,  if  he 
thought  it  right  to  do  so.  While  living  in  Lithuania, 
Kurbski  appeared  as  the  defender  of  the  Greek  faith, 
which  was  being  undermined  by  the  Jesuits.  He  died  in 
exile  in  15S3.  Kurbski  was  a  fluent  writer,  but  Bestu- 
zhefi  Kiumin  thinks  that  his  hatred  of  Ivan  led  him  to 
exaggerate,  and  he  regrets  that  Karamzin  should  have 
followed  him  so  closely.  Besides  the  answers  of  Ivan  to 
Kurbski,  there  is  his  letter  to  Cosmas,  and  the  brother- 
liood  of  the  Cyrillian  monastery  on  the  White  Lake  (Bielo 
Ozero),  in  which  he  reproaches  them  for  the  self-indulgent 
lives  they  are  leading.  Other  works  of  the  IGth  century 
are  the  Stepennaya  Kniga,  or  "Book  of  Degrees  "  ("  or  Pedi- 
grees"), in  which  historical  events  are  grouped  under  the 
reigns  of  the  grand-dukes,  whose  pedigrees  are  also  given  ; 
and  the  Life  of  (lie  Czar  Feodor  Ivanovich  (1584-1598), 
written  by  the  patriarch  Job.  To  the  beginning  of  the 
1 7th  century  belongs  the  Chronograph  of  Sergius  Kubasoff 
of  Tobolsk.  His  work  extends  from  the  creation  of  the 
world  to  the  accession  of  Michael  Romanoff,  and  contains 
interesting  accounts  of  such  of  the  members  of  the  Russian 
royal  family  as  Kubasoff  had  himself  seen.  Something 
of  the  same  kind  must  have  been  the  journal  of  Prince 
Mstislavski,  which  he  showed  the  English  ambassador 
Jerome  Horsey,  but  which  is  now  lost.' 

To  the  time  of  the  first  Romanoffs  belongs'  the  story  of 
the  siege  of  Azoff,  a  prose  poem,  which  tells  us,  in  an 
inflated  style,  how  in  1637  a  body  of  Cossacks  trium- 
phantly repelled  the  attacks  of  the  Turks.  They  had 
seized  this  town,  which  they  were  anxious  to  hand  over  to 
the  czar  Michael,  but  circumstances  were  not  ripe  for  it. 
There  is  also  an  account  of  the  siege  of  the  Troitza 
monastery  by  the  Poles  during  the  "Smutnoye  Vremya,"  or 
Period  of  Troubles,  as  it  is  called, — that  which  deals  with 
the  adventures  of  the  false  Demetrius  and  the  Polish 
invasion  which  followed.  But  all  these  are  surpassed  by 
the  work  on  Russia  of  Gregory  Karpoff  Kotoshikhin.  He 
served  in  the  ambassador's  office  (posolski  prilcaz),  and 
when  called  upon  to  give  information  against  his  col- 
leagues fled  to  Poland  about  16C1:.  Thence  he  passed  into 
Sweden  and  wrote  his  account  of  Russia  at  the  request  of 
Count  Delagardie,  the  chancellor  of  that  country.  He 
was  executed  about  16G9  for  slaying  in  a  quarrel  the 
master  of  the  house  in  which  he  lived.  The  manuscript 
was  found  by  Prof.  Solovieff  (not  the  eminent  historian 
lately  deceased)  at  Upsala  and  printed  in  1840.  A  new 
edition  has  recently  appeared,  and  Prof.  Grote  has  col- 
lected some  fresh  facts  about  the  author's  life,  but  we 
have  no  space  here  for  a  minute  examination  of  them. 
The  picture  which  Kotoshikhin  draws  of  his  native  country 
is  a  sad  oruj :  ignorance,  cruelty,  and  superstition  are 
seen  everywhere  rampant.  His  work  is  of  great  import- 
ance, since  it  is  from  his  description,  and  the  facts  we 
gather  from  the  Domostroi,  that  we  can  reconstruct  the 
Old  Russia  of  the  time  before  Peter  the  Great,  as  in  our 
days  the  valuable  labours  of  M.  Zabielin  have  done  in 
his  work  on  Russian  domestic  life.  Perhaps,  as  an  exile 
from  his  country,  Kotoshikhin  has  allowed  himself  to  write 
too  bitterly.  A  curious  work  is  the  UriaJnik  Sokol- 
nichid  Puti  ("  Directions  for  Falconry"),  which  was  written 
for  the  use  of  the  emperor  Alexis,  who,  like  many  Russian. 

*  Horsey  g.iys  ;  *' I  rea»t  in  llicir  croiiickelh  written  Qtid  kept  in 
fccront  l>y  n  great  priem  prince  of  thnt  country  iiinned  Kiici  Ivan 
Feilorowiili  Mistisloslioie,  wlio,  owt  of  liia  love  mid  favour,  imparted 
unto  me  many  sccreats  observed  in  the  memory  and  procis  of  his  tyme, 
which  w^s  foweracoro  years,  of  llie  state,  nalur,  and  government  of 
that  cnmoimocltli." — BoBi, Russia  at  the  Ciotco/thc  SixkcntliCcnluT]/ 
(Ualcluj-t  Society),  1856. 


of  old  time,  was  much  addicted  to  this  pastime.  The  Serb, 
Yuri  Krizhanich,  who  wrote  in  Russian,  was  the  first  Pan- 
slavist,  anticipating  Kollar  by  one  hundred  and  fifty  years 
or  more.  He  wrote  a  critical  Servian  grammar  (with 
comparison  of  the  Russian,  Polish,  Croatian,  and  White 
Russian),  which  was  edited  from  the  manuscripts  by 
Bodianski  in  1848.  For  his  time  he  had  a  very  good 
insight  into  Slavonic  philology.  His  Panslavism,  how- 
ever, sometimes  took  a  form  by  no  means  practical.  He 
went  so  far  as  to  maintain  that  a  common  Slavonic 
language  might  be  made  for  all  the  peoples  of  that  race, — 
an  impossible  project  which  has  been  the  dream  of  many 
enthusiasts.  From  some  unexplained  cause  he  was  ban- 
ished to  Siberia,  and  finished  his  grammar  at  Tobolsk. 
He  also  wrote  a  work  on  the  Russian  empire,  which 
was  edited  by  Beszonotf  in  1860.  In  it  he  shows  him- 
self a  widely-read  man,  and  with  very  extensive  Western 
culture.  The  picture  drawn,  as  in  the  corre.sponding 
production  of  Kotoshikhin,  is  a  very  gloomy  one.  The 
great  remedy  suggested  by  the  Serb  is  education.  To 
this  period  belongs  the  life  of  the  patriarch  Kikon  by 
Shusherin.  The  struggles  of  Nikon  with  the  czar,  and 
his  emendations  of  the  sacred  books,  which  led  to  a 
great  schism  in  Russia,  are  well  known.  They  have  been 
made  familiar  to  Englishmen  by  tlie  eloquent  pages  of 
Dean  Stanley.^  At  Moscow  may  be  seen  the  portrait 
of  this  celebrated  divine  and  his  tomb  ;  his  robes,  which 
have  been  preserved,  show  him  to  have  been  a  man  of  7 
feet  in  stature.  The  mistakes  which  had  crept  into  the 
translation  of  the  Scriptures,  from  the  blunders  of  genera- 
tions of  copyists,  were  frequently  of  a  ludicrous  character; 
still,  a  large  number  of  the  people  preferred  retaining  them, 
and  from  this  revision  may  bo  dated  the  rise  of  the 
Raskolniks  (Dissenters)  or  Staro-obriadtzi  (those  who 
adhere  to  the  old  ritual).  With  the  name  of  Simeon 
Polotzki  (1628-1680)  the  old  period  of  Ru.ssian  literature 
may  be  closed.  He  was  tutor  to  the  czar  Feodor,  son  of 
Alexis,  and  may  be  said  in  a  way  to  have  helped  to 
introduce  the  culture  of  the  West  into  Russia,  as  he  was 
educated  at  Kieff,  then  a  portion  of  Polish  territory. 
Polotzki  came  to  Moscow  about  1664.  He  wrote  religious 
works  {Vienetz  Vieri,  "The  Garland- of  Faith,")  and 
composed  poems  and  religious  dramas  {The  Prodigal  Son, 
Nebuchadnezzar,  kc).  He  has  left  us  some  droll  verses  on 
the  czar's  new  palace  of  Kolomenskoe,  which  are  very 
curious  doggerel.  The  artificial  lions  that  roared,  moved 
their  eyes,  and  walked  especially  delighted  him.  Alexis 
had  probably  ordered  something  to  be  constructed  resem- 
bling the  machinery  we  find  mentioned  in  the  Byzantine 
writers.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  ground  for  the 
assertion  (often  met  with  even  in  Russian  writers)  that 
Sophia,  the  sister  of  Peter  the  Great,  was  acquainted  with 
French,  and  translated  some  of  the  plays  of  Moliire. 

.\nd  now  all  things  were  to  be  changed  as  if  by  an 
enchanter's  wand.  Russia  was  to  leave  her  martjn-ologies 
and  historical  stories  and  fragmentary  chronicles,  and  to 
adopt  the  forms  of  literature  in  use  in  the  West,  One  of 
the  chief  helpers  of  Peter  the  Great  in  the  education  of 
the  people  was  Feofane  (Thcophancs)  Procopovicff,  who 
advocated  the  cause  of  science,  and  attacked  unsparingly 
the  superstitions  then  prevalent ;  the  cause  of  conservatism 
was  defended  by  Stephen  Yavorski.  The  Pock  of  Faith 
of  the  latter  was  written  to  refute  the  Lutherans  and 
Calvini.sts.  Another  remarkable  writer  of  the  times  of 
Peter  the  Great  was  Pososhkoff,  who  produced  a  valuable 
work  on  Poverty  and  Pirhc.i,  a  kind  of  treatise  on  political 
economy.  Antiokh  Kantcmir  (1708-1744),  son  of  a 
former  hospodar  of  Moldavia,  wrote  some  clever  satires 
still    read  ;  they    are    imitated    from    Boileati.      He   also 


^  Lectures  VH  the  J-Utstt^rii  Church. 

XXI.  — 


'4 


106 


RUSSIA 


[liteeatcee; 


translated  parts  of  Horace.  Besides  his  satires,  he  pub- 
lished versions  of  Fontenelle's  Plnralite  des  Mondes  and 
the  histories  of  Justin  and  Cornelius  Nepos.  He  was  for 
some  time  Russian  ambassador  at  the  courts  of  London 
and  Paris.  But  more  celebrated  than  these  men  was 
Michael  Lomonosoff  (q.v.).  He  was  an  indefatigable 
writer  of  verse  and  prose,  and  has  left  odes,  tragedies, 
didactic  poetry,  essays,  and  fragments  of  epics ;  without 
being  a  man  of  great  genius  he  did  much  to  advance 
the  education  of  his  country.  He  also  made  many  valu- 
able contributions  to  science.  Basil  Tatistchefi  (1686- 
1750),  a  statesman  of  eminence,  was  the  author  of  a  Rus- 
sian history  which,  although  written  in  a  confused  style 
and  hardly  superior  to  a  chronicle,  is  interesting  as 
the  first  attempt  in  that  field,  which  was  afterwards  so 
successfully  cultivated  by  Karamzin,  Soloviefl,  and  Kosto- 
maroff.  His  work  was  not  given  to  the  world  till  after 
his  death.  There  had  been  a  slight  sketch  published 
before  by  Khilkoff,  entitled  the  Ilarmu  ofJitissian  History. 
i'fidia-  Basil  Trediakovski  (1703-1769)  was  but  a  poor  poetaster, 
koTski.  in  gpite  of  his  many  productions.  He  was  born  at 
Astrakhan,  and  we  are  told  that  Peter,  passing  through 
that  city  at  the  time  of  his  Persian  expedition,  had 
Trediakovski  pointed  out  to  him  as  one  of  the  most 
promising  boys  of  the  school  there.  Whereupon,  having 
questioned  him,  the  czar  said,  with  truly  prophetic  insight, 
"A  busy  worker,  but  master  of  nothing."  His  Telemakhida, 
a  poem  in  which  he  versified  the  Telemaque  of  F6nclon, 
drew  upon  him  the  derision  of  the  wits  of  the  time.  He 
had  frequently  to  endure  the  rough  horse-play  of  the 
courtiers,  for  the  position  of  a  literary  man  at  that  time  in 
Russia  was  not  altogether  a  cheerful  one. 

From  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth 
Russian  literature  made  great  progress,  the  French 
Sumaro-  furnishing  models.  _,  Alexander  Sumarokofi  (1718-1777) 
koff.  wrote  prose  and  verse  in  abundance — comedies,  tragedies, 
idyls,  satires,  and  epigrams.  He  is,  perhaps,  best  entitled 
to  remembrance  for  his  plays,  which  are  rhymed,  and  in 
the  French  style.  It  took  the  Russians  some  time  to  find 
3ut  that  their  language  was  capable  of  the  unrhymed 
iambic  line,  which  is  the  mpst  suitable  for  tragedy.  His 
Dmitri  Samozvanetz  ("Demetrius  the  Pretender")  is 
certainly  not  without  merit.  Some  of  the  pieces  of 
Kniazhnin  had  great  success  in  their  time,  such  as  The  Chat- 
Urhox,  The  Originals,  and  especiaUy  The  Fatal  Carriage. 
He  is  now,  however,  almost  forgotteiL  In  1750  the  first 
theatre  was  opened  at  St  Petersburg,  the  director  being 
3umaroko£E.  Up  to  this  time  the  Russians  had  acted 
otdy  religious  plays,  such  as  those  written  by  Simeon 
Polotzki.  ■  The  reign  of  Catherine  11.  (1762-96)  saw  the 
rise  of  a  whole  generation  of  court  poets,  ma  ny  of  whom 
were  at  best  but  poor  writers.  Everything  i  i  Russia  was 
to  be  forced  like  plants  in  a  hot-house ;  she  was  to  have 
Homers,  Pindars,  Horaces,  and  Virgils.  Michael  Kheraskoff 
(1733-1807)  wrote  besides  other  poems  two  enormous 
epics — the  Hossiada  in  twelve  books,  and  Vladimir  in 
eighteen ;  they  are  now  but  little  read.  Although  they 
are  tedious  poems  on  the  whole,  yet  we  occasionally  find 
spirited  passages.  Eogdanovich  (1743-1803)  wrote  a 
pretty  lyric  piece,  Ditshenka,  based  upon  La  Fontaine, 
and  telling  the  old  story  of  the  loves  of  Cupid  and  Psyche. 
Perhaps  the  elegance  of  the  versification  is  the  best  thing 
to  be  found  in  it.  With  Ivan  Khemnitzer  begins  the 
long  list  of  fabulists ;  this  half-Oriental  form  of  literature, 
so  common  in  countries  ruled  absolutely,  has  been  very 
popular  in  Russia.  Khemnitzer  (1744—1784),  whose  name 
seems  to  imply  a  German  origin,  began  by  translating 
ijhe  fables  of  Gellert,  but  afterwards  produced  original 
specimens  of  this  kind  of  literature.  A  writer  of  real 
Qational  comedy  appeared  in  Denis  von  Visin,  probably  of 


German  extraction,  but  born  at  Moscow  (1745-1792). 
His  best  production  is  Nedorosl  ("The  Minor"),  in  which 
he  satirizes  the  coarse  features  of  Russian  society,  the  ill- 
treatment  of  the  serfs,  and  other  matters.  The  colouring 
of  the  piece  is  truly  national.  He  has  also  left  some  very 
good  letters  describing  his  travels.  He  saw  France  on  the 
eve  of  the  great  Revolution,  and  has  well  described  what 
he  did  see.  Russian  as  he  was,  and  accustomed  to 
serfdom,  he  was  yet  astonished  at  the  wretched  condi- 
tion of  the  French  peasants.  The  great  poet  of  the  age 
of  Catherine,  the  laureate  of  her  glories,  was  Gabriel 
Derzhavin  (1743-1816).  He  essayed  many  styles  of 
composition,  and  was  a  great  master  of  his  native  language. 
Many  of  his  lyric  pieces  are  full  of  fire.  No  one  can  deny 
the  poet  a  vigorous  imagination  and  a  great  power  of 
expressing  his  ideas.  There  is  something  grandiose  and. 
organ-like  in  his  high-sounding  verses ;  unfortunately  he 
occasionally  degenerates  into  bombast.  His  versification 
is  perfect ;  and  he  had  the  courage,  rare  at  the  time,  to 
write  satirically  of  many  persons  of  high  rank.  His  Ode 
to  God  is  the  best  known  of  his  poems  in  Western  countries. 
We  can  see  from  some  of  his  pieces  that  he  was  a  student 
of  Edward  Young,  the  author  of  the  Night  Thoughts. 
Tawdry  rhetoric,  containing,  however,  occasionally  fine  and 
original  thoughts,  rendered  this  writer  popular  throughout 
Europe.  Other  celebrated  poems  of  Derzhavin  are  the 
Odes  on  the  Death  of  Prince  Mesicherski,  The  Nobleman, 
The  Taking  of  Ismail,  and  The  Taking  of  Warsaro. 

An  unfortunate  author  of  the  days  of  Catherine  was  Radia- 
Alexander  Radistcheff,  who,  having,  in  a  small  work,  A  tcheff. 
Journey  to  Moscow,  spoken  too  severely  of  the  miserable 
condition  of  the  serfs,  was  punished  by  banishment  to 
Siberia,  from  which  he  was  afterwards  allowed  to  return, 
but  not  till  his  health  had  been  permanently  injured  by 
his  sufierings.  An  equally  sad  fate  befell  the  spirited 
writer  NovikofF,  who,  after  having  worked  hard  as  a  Novikoil 
journalist,  and  done  much  for  education  in  Russia,  fell 
under  the  suspicion  of  the  Government,  and  was 
imprisoned  by  Catherine.  On  her  death  he  was  released 
by  her  successor.  The  short  reign  of  Paul  was  not  favour- 
able to  literary  production ;  the  censorship  of  the  press 
was  extremely  severe,  and  many  foreign  books  were 
excluded  from  Russia.  Authors  and  lovers  of  literature 
were  liable  to  get  into  trouble,  as  we  see  by  the  experiences 
of  the  poet  Kotzebue  and  pastor  Seidler. 

But  a  better  state  of  things  came  with  the  reign  of 
Alexander,  one  of  the  glories  of  whose  days  was  Nicholas  Karami 
Karamzin  {q.v.).  His  chief  work  is  his  History  of  the 
Riissian  Empire,  but  he  appeared  in  the  fourfold  aspect  of 
historian,  novelist,  essayist,  and  poet.  Nor  need  we  do 
more  than  mention  the  celebrated  Archbishop  Platon  Platon. 
(q.v.).  Ivan  DmitriefE  (1760-1837)  virote  some  pleasing  Dmitrie 
lyrics  and  epistles,  but  without  much  force.  He  is  like 
some  feeble  British  poets  towards  the  close  of  last  cen- 
tury, in  whom  the  elegance  of  the  diction  will  not  atone 
for  the  feebleness  of  the  ideas.  He  appears  from  hia 
translations  to  have  been  well  acquainted  with  the  English 
poets.  Ozerofi  wrote  a  great  many  tragedies,  which  are 
but  little  read  now.  They  are  in  rhyming  alexandrines 
His  form  belongs  to  the  false  classical  school,  but  ht 
occasionally  handled  native  subjects  with  success,  as  in 
his  Dmitri  Donskoi  and  Yaropolk  and  Oleg.  In  Ivan 
RrilofE  (1768-1844)  the  Russians  found  their  most  genial 
fabulist.  His  pieces  abound  with  vigorous  pictures  of 
Russian  national  life,  and  many  of  his  lines  are  standard 
quotations  with  the  Russians,  just  as  Hudibras  is  with  our- 
selves. Long  before  his  death  Krtloflf  had  become  the 
most  popular  man  in  Russia.  He  resembled  La  Fontaine 
not  only  in  the  style  of  his  verse  but  in  his  manner  of  life. 
He  was  the  same  careless,  unpractical  sort  of  person,  and 


XITEEATURE.] 


RUSSIA 


107 


'stowed  the  same  simplicity  of  character.  As  Derzhavin 
(was  the  poet  of  the  age  of  Catherine,  so  Zhukovski  (1783- 
1852)  may  be  said  to  have  been  that  of  the  age  of 
Alexander.  He  is  more  remarkable,  however,  as  a  trans- 
lator than  as  an  original  poet.  With  him  Romanticism 
began  in  Russia.  The  pseudo-classical  school,  led  by  the 
French,  was  now  dead  throughout  Europe.  In  1802  he 
published  his  version  of  Gray's  Elegy,  which  at  once 
became  a  highly  popular  poem  in  Russia.  Zhukovski 
translated  many  pieces  from-  the  German  (Goethe,  Schiller, 
Uhland)  and  English  (Byron,  Moore,  Southey).  One  of 
his  original  productions,  "  The  Poet  in  the  Camp  of  the 
Russian  Warriors,"  was  oh  the  lips  of  every  one  at  the 
iime  of  the  war  of  the  fatherland  {Olecheslvennaid  Voina) 
in  1812.  He  attempted  to  familiarize  the  Russians  with 
all  the  most  striking  specimens  of  foreign  poetical  litera- 
ture. He  produced  versions  of  the  episode  of  Nala  and 
Daraayanti  from  the  Mafiahharata,  of  Rustam  and  Zohrab 
from  the  ShahrNamah,  and  of  a  part  of  the  Odyssey.  In 
the  case  of  these  three  masterpieces,  however,  he  was 
obliged  to  work  from  literal  translations  (mostly  German), 
as  he  was  unacquainted  with  the  original  languages.     The 

ich.  Iliad  was  translated  during  this  period  by  Gnedich,  who 
was  familiar  with  Greek.  He  has  prodliced  a  faithful  and 
spirited  version,  and  has  naturalized  the  hexameter  in  the 
Russian  language  with  much  skiU.   Constantine  Batiushkoff 

•'^  (1787-1855)  was  the  author  of  many  elegant  poems,  and 
at  the  outset  of  his  career  promised  much,  but  sank  into 
imbecility,  and  lived  in  this  condition  to  an  advanced  age. 
Merzliakoff  and  Tziganoff  deserve  a  passing  notice  as  the 
writers  of  songs, some  of  which  still  keep  their  popularity. 
As  the  poet  of  the  age  of  Catherine  was  Derzhavin,  and 
of  that  of  Alexander  Zhukovski,  so  the  next  reign,  that 
of  Nicholas,  was  to  have  its  representative  poet,  by  the 
common  consent  of  his  critics  the  greatest  whom  Russia 
had  yet  seen.     During  his  short  life  (1799-1837)  Ale.x- 

un.  ander  Pushkin  produced  many  celebrated  poems,  which 
will  be  found  enumerated  in  the  article  devoted  to  him 
(see  Poushkin).  It  may  suffice  to  say  here-  that  he  tried 
almost  all  styles  of  composition — the  drama,  lyric  poetry, 

ie-  the  novel,  and  many  others.  In  Alexander  Griboiedoff 
(1794-1820)  the  Russians  saw  the  writer  of  one  of  their 
most  clever  comedies  {Gore  ot  Uma),  which  may  perhaps 
be  translated  "The  Misfortune  of  being  too  Clever"  (lit. 
"Grief  out  of  Wit").  The  fate  of  Griboiedoff  was  sad; 
he  was  murdered  in  a  riot  at  Teheran,  where  ho  was 
residing  as  Russian  minister  at  the  court  of  Persia.  The 
poet  is  said  to  have  had  a  presentiment  of  his  fate  and  to 
have  been  unwilling  to  go.  Pushkin,  while  travelling  in 
the  Caucasus,  in  the  track  of  the  army  of  Paskewitch,  met 
the  body  of  Lis  friend,  which  was  being  carried  to  Tiflis 
for  burial.  The  satirical  powers  of  Griboiedoff  come  out 
in  every  line  of  his  play;  he  was  unquestionably  a  man  of 
genius.  A  few  words  may  be  allowed  to  Ivan  Kozloff 
(1774—1838),  the  author  of  some  pretty  original  lyrics, 
aiid  some  translations  from  the  English,  among  others 
Burns's  Cotter's  Saturday  Night.  He  became  a  cripple 
and  blind,  and  his  misfortunes  elicited  some  cheering  and 
sympathetic  lines  from  Pushkin,  which  will  always  bo  read 
with  pleasure. 

Since  the  death  ot  Pushkin,  the  most  eminent  Russian 
poet  is  Lermontoff  (1814-41);  his  life  terminated,  like 
that  of  his  predecessor,  in  a  duel.  He  has  left  us  many 
exquisite  lyrics,  mostly  written  in  a  morbid  and  melan- 
choly spirit.  In  quite  a  different  vein  is  his  clover  imita- 
tion of  a  Russian  bilina,  "Song  about  the  Czar  Ivan 
yasilievich,  the  Young  Oprichnik,  and  the  Bold  Mer- 
chant Kalashnikoff."  The  poet  was  of  Scotch  extrac- 
tion (I.aarmont),  the  termination  being  added  to  Russify 
his  name.  .  la  one  of   his  pieces  Lo   has  alluded  to  his 


Caledonian  ancestors.  His  chief  poems  are  "  The  Demon,'' 
"The  Novice"  ("Mtziri,"  a  Georgian  word),  and  "Hadji 
Abrek."  He  also  wrote  a  novel,  A  Hero  of  our  Time. 
He  has  faithfully  reproduced  in  his  poems  the  wild 
and  varied  scenery  of  the  Caucasus  and  Georgia ;  from 
them  he  has  drawn  his  inspiration — feeling,  no  doubt, 
that  the  flat  grey  landscapes  of  ,northern  Russia  offered 
no  attractions  to  the  poet.  A  genuine  bard  of  the 
people,  and  one  of  their  most  truly  national  authors,  was 
Koltzoff  (1809-1842),  the  son  of  a  tallow  merchant  of. 
Voronezh.  He  has  left  us  a  few  exquisite  lyrics,  which  are' 
to  be  found  in  all  the  collections  of  Russian  poetry.  He 
died  of  consumption  after  a  protracted  illness.  Another 
poet  who  much  resembled  Koltzoff'  was  Nikitin,  born 
in  the  same  town,  Voronezh.  His  life  was  spent  in 
poverty ;  his  father  was  an  incurable  drunkard,  and 
brought  his  family  to  the  greatest  distress.  Nikitin,  to 
support  his  relations,  was  obliged  to  keep  an  inn  ;  this  he 
was  afterwards  enabled  to  change  for  the  more  congenial 
occupation  of  a  bookseller.  He  died  in  1861.  The 
novel  in  Russia  has  had  its  cultivators  in  Zagoskin  and 
Lazhechnikoff,  who  imitated  Sir  Walter  Scott.  The  most 
celebrated  of  the  romances  of  Zagoskin  was  Yuri  Milo-  Zagoski« 
davski,  a  tale  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Poles  from  Russia 
in  1612.  The  book  may  even  yet  be  read  with  interest ; 
it  gives  a  very  spirited  picture  of  the  times ;  unfortunately, 
as  is  but  too  often  the  case  with  the  writings  of  Sir; 
Walter  Scott  himself,  a  gloss  is  put  upon  the  barbarity[ 
of  the  manners  of  the  period,  and  the  persons  of  the  novel, 
have  sentiments  and  modes  of  expressing  them  which 
could  only  have  existed  about  two  centuries  afterwards.' 
There  is  also  too  much  of  the  sentimentalism  which  was 
prevalent  at  the  time  when  the  author  wrote.  Among 
the  better  known  productions  of  Lazhechnikoff  are  TIte 
Heretic  and  The  Palace  of  Ice.  A  flashy  but  now 
forgotten  writer  of  novels  was  Bulgavin,  author  of  Ivan 
Vishigin,  a  work  which  once  enjoyed  considerable  popular- 
ity. The  first  Russian  novelist  of  great  and  original  talent 
was  Nicholas  Gogol  (1809-1852).  In  his  Dead  Souls  ho 
satirized  all  classes  of  society,  some  of  the  portraits  being 
wonderfully  vivid ;  take,  for  example,  that  of  Pliush- 
kin,  the  miser.  Being  a  native  of  Little  Russia,  he  is 
very  fond  of  introducing  descriptions  of  its  scenery  and 
the  habits  of  the  people,  especially  in  such  stories  as  tho 
Oldfashioned  Household,  or  in  the  more  powerful  7\iras 
Buiba.  This  last  is  a  highly-wrought  story,  giving  us  a 
picture  of  the  savage  warfare  carried  on  between  the 
Cossacks  and  Poles.  Taras  is  brave,  but  perhaps  too  much 
of  a  barbarian  to  be  made  interesting  to  Western  readers. 
He  reminds  us  of  some  of  the  heroes  of  the  Cossack  poet 
Shevchenko.  Gogol  was  also  the  author  of  a  good  comedy, 
The  Reviser,  wherein  the  petty  pilfcrings  of  Russian  muni- 
cipal authorities  are  satirized.  In  his  Memoirs  of  a  Mad- 
man, and  Portrait,  he  shows  a  weird  and  fantastic  power 
which  proves  him  to  have  been  a  man  of  strong  imagina- 
tion. The  same  may  be  said  of  The  Cloak,  and  the 
curious  tale  Vii  ("Tho  Demon"),  where  ho  gives  us  a 
picture  of  Kicff  in  tho  old  days.  He  has  very  dexterously 
interwoven  his  talcs  with  the  traditions  and  superstitions 
of  Little  Ru.ssia.  Tho  fate  of  Gogol  was  sad ;  ho  i<ank  into 
religious  melancholy,  and  ultimately  into  imbecility.  Ho 
made  great  efforts  to  destroy  all  his  writings,  and  indeed 
burnt  most  of  the  second  part  of  his  Dead  Souls ;  only 
fragments  have  been  preserved.  His  Cimfessious  of  an 
Auth'T  is  tho  i)roduction  of  a  mind  verging  on  insanity. 
He  died  in  1852,  aged  forty  two.  Since  his  lime  the 
novel  has  been  very  much  cultivated  in  Russia,  tho  school 
culminating  in  Ivan  Turgenicff,  but  it  is  tho  school  of 
Thackeray  and  Dickens,  not  that  of  Bulzac  and  George 
Sand.     Tho  Russians  scum  to  affect  especially  tho  realistic 


108 


RUSSIA 


LLITEUa.tui:e. 


novels  of  England.  Among  the  most  conspicuous  of  these 
writers  was  the  celebrated  Ale5cander  Herzen,  author  of 
a  striking  romance,  Kin  Vinovat  1  ("Who  is  to  Clamed'), 
•which  ho  published  under  the  assumed  name  of  Iskander. 
The  public  career  of  Herzen  is  well  known.  The  freedom 
of  his  opinions  soon  embroiled  him  with  the  authorities. 
He  was  exiled  to  Perm,  and,  seizing  the  first  opportunity 
which  offered  itself  of  passing  the  Russian  frontiers,  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  chiefly  in  France  and 
England,  and  died  at  Geneva  in  1869.  His  celebrated 
journal  Kolokol  ("The  Bell")  had  a  greart  circulation.  A 
novelist  of  repute  was  Goncharoff,  his  two  chief  works 
.being  A  Commoyi-plcice  Sloiy  and  Ohlomoff.  Grigorovich 
has  written  The  Fisherman  and  The  Emiffraiils.  Piseniski, 
another  novelist  of  the  realistic  type,  is  the  author  of  The 
Man  of  St  Pefershui-'j  and  Licsht  ("  The  Wood  Demons"). 
Otlier  novelists  of  celebrity  are  Saltikoff,  who  writes  under 
the  name  of  Stchedrin,  and  whose  Procincial  Sketches  pub- 
lished a  few  years  ago  made  a  great  sensation  and  have 
been  followed  by  Letters  to  My  Aunt  and  other  works; 
Dostoievski  (d.  1881),  author  of  Poor  People,  Letters  from 
the  House  of  the  Dead  (describing  his  impressions  of  Siberia, 
■whither  he  was  banished  in  consequence  of  a  political 
offence),  a  powerful  writer  ;  and  Ostrovski.  We  may  also 
add  Rycshetnikoff,  who  takes  his  characters  from  the 
humbler  classes  ;  he  died  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-nine. 
All  these  are  disciples  of  the  school  of  Dickens  and 
Thackeray.  Count  A.  Tolstoi,  also  celebrated  as  a  dra- 
matist, has  written  an  historical  novel  entitled  Prince  Sere- 
brianni.  Count  L.  Tolstoi  is  author  of  a  work  of  fiction 
describing  the  war  of  1812,  which  has  gained  great  cele- 
brity in  Russia,  Voina  i  Mir  ("War  and  Peace").  Novelists 
of  the  French  school  are  Krcstovski,  Stebnitzki,  and  Bobo- 
rikin.  During  1885  a  now  A\Titer  of  merit,  Kozolenko, 
appeared,  who  describes  Siberian  life. 

On  September  4,  1883,  died  Ivan  Turgenieff,  aged 
sixty-four,  the  most  eminent  Russian  novelist,  and  perhaps 
the  only  Russian  man  of  letters  universally  known.  His 
celebrity  dates  from  his  Memoirs  of  a  Sportsman,  in  which 
he  appears  as  the  advocate  of  the  Russian  mu:hik  or  pea^ 
sant.  He  had  witnessed  in  his  youth  many  sad  scenes  at 
his  own  home,  where  his  mother,  a  wealthy  lady  of  the 
old  school,  treated  her  serfs  with  great  cruelty.  The  poet 
devoted  all  his  energiesto  procure  their  emancipation.  This 
work  was  followed  by  a  long  array  of  tales,  too  well  known 
to  need  recapitulation  here,  which  have  gained  their  author 
a  European  reputation,  such  as  Dvorianskoe  Gnezdo  ("A 
Nest  of  Gentle  People  "),  oae  of  the  most  pathetic  tales 
in  any  language,  Nov  ("Virgin  Soil"),  and  others;  nor 
can  the  minor  tales  of  Turgenieff  be  forgotten,  especially 
Murav,  a  story  based  upon  real  life,  for  the  dumb  door- 
keeper was  a  serf  of  his  mother's,  and  experienced  her  ill- 
treatment.  His  last  two  works  were  Poetry  in  Prose  and 
Clara  Milich. 

In  Belinski  the  Russians  produced  their  best  critic. 
■For  thirteen  years  (1834-1847)  he  was  the  Aristarchus 
of  Russian  literature  and  exercised  a  healthy  influence. 
In  hi3  latter  days  he  addressed  a  withering  epistle  to 
Gogol  on  the  newly-adopted  reactionary  views  of  the 
latter. 

Since  the  time  of  Karamzin  the  study  of  Russian 
history  has  made  great  strides.  He  was  followed  by 
Nicholas  Polevoi,  who  wrote  what  he  called  the  History  of 
the  Russian  People,  but  his  work  was  not  received  with 
much  favour  and  has  now  fallen  into  oblivion.  Polevoi 
was  a  self-educated  man,  the  son  of  a  Siberian  merchant ; 
besides  editing  a  well-known  Russian  journal  Thi 
Telegraph,  he  was  also  the  author  of  many  plays,  among 
others  a  translation  of  Hamlet.  Since  his  time,  however, 
the  English    dramatist   has    been    produced    in    a    more 


perfect  dress  by  Kroneberg,  Druzhinin,  and  others.  In 
the  year  1879  died  Sergius  Solovieff,  whose'  History  of 
Russia  had  reached  its  twenty-eighth  volume,  and, 
fragments  of  the  twenty-ninth  were  published  after  his 
death.  This  stupendous  labour  lacks  something  of  the 
critical  faculty,  and  perhaps  may  be  described  rather  as  a 
quarry  of  materials  for  future  historians  of  Russia  than  an 
actual  history.  During  1885  the  Russians  have  had  to 
mourn  the  loss  of  Kostomaroff,  the  writer  of  many  valuable 
monographs  on  the  history  of  their  country,  of  which  those 
on  Bogdan  Khmelnitzki  and  the  False  Demetrius  deserve 
special  mention.  From  1847  to  1854  Kostomaroff,  who 
had  become  obnoxious  to  the  Russian  Government,  wrote 
nothing,  having  been  banished  to  Saratoff,  and  forbidden  to 
teach  nr  publish.  But  after,  this  time  his  literary  activity 
begins  again,  and,  besides  separate  works,  the  leading 
Russian  reviews,  such  as  Old  and  New  Russia,  The  His- 
torical Messenr/cr,  and  The  Messenger  of  Europe,  contain 
many  contributions  from  his  pen  of  the  highest  value. 
In  1885  also  died  Constantine  Kavelin,  the  author  of 
many  valuable  works  on  Russian  law,  and  Kalatcheff,  who 
published  a  classical  edition  of  the  old  Russian  codes. 
Ilovaiski  and  Gcdeouoff  have  attempted  to  upset  the 
general  belief  that  the  founders  of  the  Russian  empire  were 
Scandinavians.  Their  opinions  have  been  alluded  to  above 
(p.  87).  A  good  history  of  Russia  was  published  by 
Ustrialoff  (1855),  but  his  most  celebrated  work  was  his 
Tzarstvovanie  Petra  Velikago  ("  Reign  of  Peter  the  Great") ; 
in  this  many  important  documents  first  saw  the  light,  and 
the  circumstances  of  the  death  of  the  unfortunate  Alexis 
were  made  clear.  Russian  writers  of  history  have  not 
generally  occupied  themselves  with  any  other  subject  than 
that  of  their  own  country,  but  an  exception  may  be  found 
in  the  writings  of  Granovski,  such  as  Abbe  Suger  (1849) 
and  Four  Historical  Portraits  (185X)).  So  also  Kudriav- 
tzoff,  who  died  in  1850,  wrote  on  "The  Fortunes  of  Italy, 
from  the  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  -of  the  West  till  its 
Reconstruction  by  Charlemagne."  He  also  wrote  on  "  The 
Roman  Women  as  described  by  Tacitus."  We  may  add 
Kareyeff,  now  professor  at  Warsaw,  who  has  written  on 
the  condition  of  the  French  peasantry  before  the  Revolu- 
tion. Other  writers  on  Russian  history  have  been  Pogo- 
dine,  who  compiled  a  History  of  Russia  till  the  invasion  of 
the  Mongols,  1871,  and  especially  Zabielin,  who  has  written 
a  History  of  Riissiaii  Life  from  the  most  Remote  Times 
(1876),  and  the  Private  Lives  of  the  Czarinas  and  Czars 
(1869  and  1872).  Leshkoff  has  written  a,  Histoi-y  of  Rus- 
sian Law  to  the  18th  Century,  and  Tchitcherin  a  History  of 
Provincial  Institutions  hi  Russia  in  the  17th  Century  (1856). 
To  these  must  be  added  the  work  of  Zagoskin,  History  of 
Law  in  the  State  of  Muscovy  (Kazan,  1877).  Prof.  Michael 
Kovalevski,  of  the  university  of  Moscow,  is  now  publish- 
ing an'  excellent  work  on  Communal  Land  Tenure,  in  which 
he  investigates  the  remains  of  this  custom  throughout  ^ 
the  world.  Of  the  valuable  history  of  Russia  by  Prof.  1 
Bestuzheff-Riumin  (1872)  one  volume  only  has  appeared;  P 
the  introductory  chapters  giving  an  account  of  the  sources 
and  authorities  of  Russian  history  are  of  the  highest  value,. 
It  is  the  most  critical  history  of  Russia  which  has  .yet 
appeared.  In  1885  Dubrovin  published  an  excellent  his- 
tory of  the  revolt  of  Pugatcheff.  The  valuable  work  by 
Messrs  Pipin  and  Spasovich,  History  of  Slavonic  Litera- 
tures, is  the  most  complete  account  of  the  subject,  and 
has  been  made  more  generally  accessible  to  Western  stu- 
dents by  the  German  translation  of  Pech.  The  Ilktory  of 
Slavonic  Literature  by  Schafarik,  published  in  1826,  has 
long  been  antiquated.  Previous  to  this,  a  history  of 
Russian  literature  by  Paul  Polevoi  had  appeared,  which  has 
jrone  through  two  editions.  It  is  modelled  upon  Ciiam- 
bors's  Cyclopxdia  of  English  Literature.     The  account  of 


LITEEATUEE.] 


R  a  IS  s  i  A 


109 


the  Polish  reoellion  of  1863  by  Berg,  published  in  1873, 
■which  gave  many  startling  and  picturesque  episodes  of 
this  celebrated  struggle,  has  now  been  withdran-n  from 
circulation.  It  appeared  originally  in  the  pages  of  the 
Kussian  magazine,  Slorina. 

Since  the  death  of  Lermontoff  the  chief  Kussian  poet 
who  has  appeared  is  Nicholas  Nekraeoif,  who  died  in  1877. 
He  has  left  six  volumes  of  poetry,  which  in  many  respects 
remind  us  of  the  writings  of  Crabbe;  the  poet  dwells 
mainly  upon  the  melancholy  features  of  Russian  life.  He 
is  of  that  realistic  school  in  which  Russian  authors  so  much 
resemble  English.  Another  writer  of  poetry  deserving 
mention  is  Ogarieff,  for  a  long  time  the  companion  in 
exile  of  llerzen  in  England;  many  of  his  compositions 
appeared  in  the  Polar  Star  of  the  latter,  a  medley  of 
prose  and  verse,  which  contains  some  very  important 
papers,  including  the  interesting  autobiographical  sketches 
of  Herzen,  entitled  B'doe  i  Dumt  ("The  Past  and  my 
Thoughts").  Maikoff  at  one  time  enjoyed  great  popu- 
larity as  a  poet ;  he  is  a  kind  of  link  between  the  present 
generation  and  that  of  Pushkin,  of  whose  elegance  of 
versification  he  is  somewhat  of  an  imitator.  Another  poet 
of  a  past  generation  was  Prince  Yiazemski,  whose  works 
are  now  being  collected.  Graceful  lyrics  have  also  been 
written  by  Mei,  Fet  (whose  name  would  apparently  prove 
Dutch  extraction,  Veth),  Stchorbina,  arid,  going  a  little 
farther  back,  Yazlkoff,  the  friend  of  Pushkin,  and  Khoini- 
akoff,  celebrated  for  his  Slavophile  propensities.  To  these 
may  be  added  JIdlle  Zhadovskaia,  who  died  a  short  time 
ago,  Benediktoff,  Podolinski,  and  Tiutcheff.  It  will  bo 
seen  that  in  Russia  (as  in  England)  lyrical  poetry  is  almost 
the  only  form  now'cultivated.  It  is  becoming  more  and 
more  coloured  with  imitations  of  the  bilini  and  reproduc- 
tions of  the  old  Russian  past,  which  is  perhaps  getting 
treated  somewhat  fantastically,  as  was  the  old  Irish  life  in 
the  Irish  melodies  of  Moore.  Occasionally  Polonski  con- 
tributes one  of  his  exquisite  lyrics  to  the  Yiestuik  Yeuropi 
("European  ilesscnger"). 

Excellent  works  on  subjects  connected  with  Slavonic 
philology  have  been  published  by  VostokofF,  who  edited  the 
Ostromir  Codex,  mentioned  above  (p.  103),  and  Sreznevski 
and  Bodianski,  who  put  forth  an  edition  of  the  celebrated 
codex  used  at  Itheims  for  the  coronation  of  the  French 
kings.  Since  their  deaths  their  work  has  been  carried 
on  by  Prof.  Grote  {Philological  Investigations,  also  many 
critical  editions  of  Russian  classics).  Budilovich,  now  a 
professor  at  Warsaw,  Potebnya  of  Kharkoff,  and  Ijaudoin 
de  Courtenay,  who,  among  other  services  to  philology,  has 
described  the  Slavonic  dialect  spoken  by  the  Resanians,  a 
tribe  living  in  Italy,  in  two- villages  of  the  Julian  Alps. 
The  songs  (bilini)  of  the  Russians  have  been  collected  by 
Zakrevski,  Ribnikoff,  Hilferding,  Barsoff,  and  others,  and 
their  national  tales  by  Sakharoif,  Afanasieff,  and  Krlcn- 
vein.  Kotliarevski,  Tereshcnko,  and  others  have  treated  of 
their  customs  and  superstitions,  but  it  is  to  bo  regretted 
that  no  one  as  yet  has  made  a  complete  study  of  the 
vexed  question  of  Slavonic  mythology.  At  the  present 
time  Stanislaus  Mikutzki,  professor  at  the  university  of 
Warsaw,  is  publishing  his  Mntcriah  for  a  Dicliomiry  of 
the  Roots  of  the  Rrcssiait  and  all  Slavonic  Biulect",  but, 
unfortunately,  it  represents  a  somewhat  obsolete  school  of 
philology.  The  Early  Russian  Text  Society  continues  its 
useful  labours,  and  has  edited  many  interesting  monu- 
xnents  of  the  older  Slavonic  literature.  Quito  recently 
two  valuable  codices  have  been  printed  in  Russia,  Zogra- 
plius  and  Marianus,  interesting  vcrssions  of  the  Gospels  in 
Pahcoslavonic.  They  were  edited  by  the  learned  Croat 
Jagii',  who  now  occupies  the  chair  of  Sreznevski  in  St 
Petersburg.  An  excellent  Tolkovi  Sloi-ar  VdikornKiikatjo 
'  Yazika  ("  Explanatory  Dictionary  of  the  Great  llussian 


Language"),  by  Dahl,  has  gone  into  a  second  edftioni 
Alexander  Hilferding  published  some  valuable  works 
on  ethnology  and  philology,  among  others  on  the  Polabes, 
an  extinct  Slavonic  tribe  who  once  dwelt  on  the  banks  of 
the  Elbe.  Although  they  have  produced  some  good  Sla- 
vonic scholars,  the  Rus.sians  have  not  exhibited  many 
works  in  the  field  of  classical  or  other  branches  of  philo- 
logy. Exception,  however,  must  be  made  in  favour  of  the 
studies  of  Tchubinoff  in  Georgian,  Minayeff  in  the  Indian, 
and  Tzvetaycff  in  the  old  languages  of  Italy. 

In  moral  and  mental  philosophy  the  Russians  have  pro- 
duced but  few  authors.  We  meet  with  some  good  mathe- 
maticians, Ostrogradski  among  others,  and  in  natural 
science  the  publications  of  the  Society  for  Natural  History 
at  JIosco-.v  have  attracted  considerable  attention. 

Since  the  Boris  Godunojf  of  Pushkin,  which  was  the 
first  attempt  in  Russia  to  produce  a  play  on  the  Shake- 
spearian model,  many  others  have  appeared  in  the  same 
style.  A  fine  trilogy  was  composed  by.  Count  A.  Tolstoi 
on  the  three  subjects.  The  Death  of  Ivan  the  Terrible 
(18G6),  The  Czar  Feodor  (1868),  and  The  Ciar  Boris 
(18G9).  Other  plays  of  merit  have  been  written  by 
Ostrovski  and  Potiekhin. 

l^Iany  excellent  literary  journals  and  magazines  make 
their  appearance  in  the  country ;  among  these  may 
especially  be  mentioned  the  time-honoured  Viestnik  Yevropi 
("Messenger  of  Europe"),  which  contains  some  of  tho 
most  brilliant  writing  produced  in  the  Russian  empire. 
The  Istoricheski  Viestnik  ("  Historical  ilessenger ")  is  full 
of  curious  matter,  and  does  not  confine  itself  merely  to 
Russian  subjects.  It  is  edited  by  M.  Shubinski,  the 
author  of  some  pleasant  sketches  on  the  manners  of 
Russia  in  the  old  time.  On  the  contrary  Starina  (the 
"Antiquary,"  if  we  may  so  freely  translate  the  original 
name)  is  entirely  Russian,  and  is  a  valuable  repertory  of 
documents  concerning  the  history  of  the  country,  and 
memoirs,  especially  relating  to  the  latter  part  of  the  17th 
century.  The  highly  interesting  magazine  Drcvnaia  i 
Novaid  Rossia  did  not  protract  its  existence  beyond  six 
years,  having  come  to  an  end  in  1S81.  Many  of  the  best 
Rii.^sian  writers  contributed  to  it;  it  contains  much  valuable 
material  for  the  student  of  history.  The  Rnsskii  Arkhiu 
is  edited  by  M.  Bartenieff,  and  has  long  been  celebrated  ; 
some  of  the  most  important  notes  on  Russian  history 
of  the  18th  and  19th  century  have  appeared  in  this 
journal.  During  tho  last  few  years  extensive  excava- 
tions have  been  made  in  many  parts  of  Russia,  an^  much 
has  been  done  to  throw  light  upon  the  prehistoric  period 
of  the  country.  A  large  "  kurgan,"  called  Cherna  Mogila, 
or  the  Black  Grave,  was  opened  by  SamokvasofE  in  tho 
government  of  Tchcrnigoll  and  described  in  the  pages  of  Old 
and  New  Russia.  Explorations  have  been  carried  on  on 
the  site  of  Bolgari,  the  ancient  capital  of  tho  Ugrian 
Bolgars  on  the  Volga.  One  of  the  most  active  workers  in 
this  field  was  the  late  Count  Uvaroflf  (d.  1881),  who  pub- 
lished a  valuable  monograph  on  the  Stone  Ago  in  Russia, 
and  many  other  important  works. 

A  few  words  must  bo  said  on  the  litcmturo  of  tho  Russian 
dialects,  tlio  Lilllo  and  Wliito  Russian.  Tin-  Little  Hussi.iH  is 
lich  \n  sicazki  (tales)  and  songs.  Peculiar  to  tlicni  is  tlie  tliniia, 
n  narrative  poem  which  corresponds  in  many  particulars  with  tliu 
Russian  bilin.i.  Since  llio  connuenccmcnt  of  tlie  jire-sont  eeutury,| 
when  curiosity  was  first  aroused  on  tho  buhject  of  national  poetry, 
tho  Littio  Kussian  dumt  have  been  repeatedly  edited,  m  by 
Maksiniovich  Mctlinski  and  others.  An  elaborato  edition  (f.ir 
surjiassinj;  tho  earlier  ones)  was  commenced  by  I)raj;onianol( 
and  Antoiiovich,  but  as  yet  only  ono  volume  and  a  pnrlion  of  n 
second  liavo  inado  their  op|H>nrance.  Jnst  as  the  bilini  of  tho 
Great  Russians,  so  also  theso  duuii  of  the  Utllo  Uu-s-sians  admit 
of  classification,  and  they  have  been  divided  by  their  lalest  editors 
ns  fidlows:— (I)  the  Hnnf;s  of  the  dnrJiiiia,  treating  of  the  early 
iiriuccs  and  their  followers;  (2)  the  Cossack  period  (A'DMc/Ks/ro) 
Ml  which  tho  Cossacks  oro  found  in  coiilimiil  warfaro  with  tlti 


110 


R  U  S  — R  U  T 


Polish  pans  and  the  attempts  of  the  Jesuits  to  introduce  the 
Eoman  Catholic  religion  ;  (3)  the  period  of  the  Haidamaks,  who 
formed  the  nucleus  of  the  national  party,  and  prolonged  the 
struggle.  The  gradual  break  up  of  tlie  military  republic  of  these 
Sturdy  freebooters  has  already  been  described. 

The  foundation  of  tlie  Little  Russian  literature  (written,  as 
opjiosed  to  tho  oral)  was  laid  by  Ivan  Kotliarevski  (1769-1838), 
whose  travesty  of  part  of  the  ^Eneid  enjoys  great  popularity  among 
some  of  his  countrymen.  Others,  however,  object  to  it  as  tending 
to  bring  the  language  or  dialect  into  ridicule.  A  truly  national 
poet  appeared  in  Taras  Shevchenko,  born  at  the  village  of  Kirilovka 
In  the  government  of  Kiefi',  in  the  condition  of  a  serf.  The  strange 
sdventurea  of  his  early  life  he  has  told  us  in  his  autobiography. 
He  did  not  get  his  freedom  till  some  time  after  he  had  reached 
manhood,  when  he  was  purchased  from  his  master  by  the  gener- 
vtu  efforts  of  the  poet  Zhukovski  and  others.  Besides  poetry, 
be  occupied  himself  with  painting  with  considerable  success.  He 
oufortunately  became  obno.xious  to  the  Government,  and  was 
jiuuished  with  exile  to  Siberia  from  1847  to  1857.  He  did  not 
long  survive  his  return,  dying  in  1861,  aged  forty-six.  rfo  one 
has  described  witTi  greater  vigour  than  Shevchenko  the  old  days  of 
tho  Ukraine.  In  his  youth  he  listened  to  the  village  traditions 
handed  down  by  the  priests,  and  he  has  faithfully  reproduced 
them.  The  old  times  of  Nalivaiko,  Doroshenko,  and  others  live 
over  again.  Like  Gogol  he  is  too  fond  of  describing  scenes  of 
bloodshed.  In  the  powerful  poem  entitled  HaiSamak  we  have  a 
graphic  picture  of  the  horrors  enacted  by  Gonta  and  his  followers 
at  Uman.  The  sketches  are  almost  too  realistic.  Like  Burns 
with  the  old  Scottish  songs,  so  Shevchenko  has  reproduced 
admirably  the  spirit  of  the  lays  of  the  Ukraine.  All  those  familiar 
with  his  works  will  remember  the  charming  littla  lyrics  with  which 
they  are  interspersed.  The  funeral  of  the  poet  was  a  vast  public 
procession ;  a  great  cairn,  surmounted  with  a  cross,  was  raised 
over  his  remains,  where  he  lies  buried  near  Kanioff  on  the  banks 
of  the  Dnieper.     His  grave  has  been  styled  the  "  Mecca  of  the 


South  Russian  Revolutionists."  He  is  the  great  national  poet  of 
the  Southern  Russians.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works,  with 
interesting  biographical  notices — one  contributed  by  the  novelist 
Turgenietf — appeared  at  Prague  -n  1876.  Besides  the  national 
songs,  excellent  collections  of  the  South  Russian  folk-tales  have 
appeared,  edited  by  Dragomanoff,  Rudchenko,  and  others.  Many  of 
these  are  still  recited  by  the  "  tchumaki"  or  wandering  pedlars.  A 
valuable  work  is  the  Zapiski  o  Yuzhnoi  Rossii  ("Papers  on  Southern 
Russia"),  published  atSt  Petersburg  in  1857  byPanteleimonKulish. 
After  he  got  into  trouble  (with  Kostom^roff  and  Shevchenko)  for 
his  political  views,  the  late  works  of  this  author  show  him  to 
have  undergone  a  complete  change.  Other  writers  using  the  Little 
Russian  language  are  Marko-Vovchok  (that  is,  Madame  Eugenia 
Markovich),  and  Yuri  Fedkovich,  who  employs  ?.  dialect  of  Buko- 
vina.  Fedlcovich,  like  Shevchenko,  sprang  frcm  a  peasant  family, 
and  served  as  a  soldier  in  the  Austrian  army,  against  the  French. 
during  the  Italian  campaign.  Naturally  w'e  find  his  poems  fiUed 
with  descriptions  of  life  in  the  camp.  Like  the  Croat  Preradovid, 
he  began  writing  poetry  in  the  German  language,  till  he  was  turned 
into  more  natural  paths  by  some  patriotic  friends.  A  collection 
of  songs  of  Bukovina  was  published  at  Kieff  in  1875  by  Lona- 
chevski.  At  the  present  time  Eugene  Zelcchowski  continues  his 
'vaX'oable  Dictionary  of  Little  Russian,  of  which  about  one  half  ha^ 
appeared.  This  promises  to  be  a  very  useful  book,  for  up  to  the 
present  time  students  have  been  obliged  to  rest  satisfied  with 
the  scanty  publications  of  Levchenko,  Piskunoff,  and  Verchratzki 
There  is  a  good  grammar  by  Osadtza,  a  pupil  of  Miklosich. 

In  the  White  Russian  dialect  are  to  be  found  only  a  few  songs, 
with  the  exception  of  portions  of  the  Scriptures  and  some  legal 
documents.  A  valuable  dictionary  was  published  a  short  time  ago 
by  Nosovich,  but  this  is  one  of  the  most  neglected  of  the  Russian 
dialects,  as  the  part  in  which  it  is  spoken  is  one  of  the  dreariest 
of  the  empire.  Collections  of  White  Russian  songs  have  been 
published  by  Sheinand  others.  For  details  regarding  this  and  the 
other  Russian  dialects  see  Slavs.  (W.  R.  M.  ) 


Index. 


/Idministration,  70. 
Ahmed  Khan,  91. 
Jklcvamler  I.,  100. 
Alexander  III.,  102. 
Alexander  Nevski,  90. 
Atexb,  96 

Andrew  BogoUubskI,  89. 
.Aniraab,  77. 
Anna,  9S. 
Arakcheef,  101. 
Archeology,  109. 
Area,  67,  72. 
Aimy,  72. 
Artels,  84. 

Anstcrlitz,  battle  of,  100. 
Vitsil,  91. 
Kjuil  Sliuiski,  93. 
Kiltiushkoff,  107. 
B«linskl,  103. 
Blluii,  102,  107,  109 
Btren,  98. 
Births,  81. 
iKJgdanovich,  lOG. 
IJyS'ililibaki,  89. 
feelars,  81,  92,  9j. 
Boris,  98. 

B4<rodino,  battle  of,  101. 
Boundaries,  (i7,  72. 
Cittlierine  I.,  98. 
Ciltheriiic  II.,  90. 
OllurlesXir.,  97. 
Chetii-Minci,  104.  , 
Chronicles,  103. 
Church,  71,  81. 
Cities,  70. 
Class  divisions,  82. 
Climate,  75. 
Communication,  8C 
Cossacks,  79. 


Crime,  71. 

Crimea  annexed,  100. 
Crimean  War,  102. 
Cyril.  103. 
Daniloff.  103. 
Debt,  72. 
Derzhavin,  106. 
Dmitii,  93,  94. 
Dmitrieff,  106. 
Dolgorukis,  98. 
Domostroi,  104. 
Drakula,  story  of,  104. 
Diama.  106,  109. 
I)umi,  109. 
Education,  71. 
E:iizabeth,  98. 
Emigration,  81. 
England,  war  with,  102. 
Ethnograi)Iiy,  78. 
European  Russia,  72. 
Fauna,  77. 
Fedkovich,  110. 
Fcodor  I.,  93. 
Feodor  II.,  95. 
Feodor  III.,  90. 
Former,  99. 
Field      of      Woodcocks, 

battle  of,  91,  104. 
Finance,  72. 
Finland  annexed,  100. 
Finns,  79. 
Flora,  76. 
Forests,  76. 
Fortre  3363,^72. 
France,  vhi'^  with,  100, 

102. 
Frederick  the  Great,  99. 
Geography,  67,  72. 
Geology,  74. 


vjcorgia  annexea,  100. 
finedich.  107. 
Qodunoff,  93. 
Gogol,  107. 
Golden  Horde,  90. 
Golitzin,  97. 
Government,  70. 
Government*  (provinces), 

69,  71. 
Great  llussians,  79. 
Griboiedoff,  107. 
Ilerzen,  108. 
Historians.  108. 
History,  87-102. 
Ice,  battle  of  the,  90. 
Igor,  story  of,  104. 
Industries,  84-80. 
Islands.  67. 
Ivan  111.,  91. 
Ivnn  IV.  (the  Terrible), 

_92. 
Jews,  79. 
Kjmteniir,  105. 
Karaites,  79. 
Karainzin,  106. 
Khemnitzer,  106. 
Kheraskoff,  106. 
Kniazhnin,  106. 
Knout,  91. 
Koltzoff,  107. 
Kostominoff,  lOS. 
Kotosliikhin,  105. 
Kozloff,  107. 
Kriloff,  106. 
Krizhanioh,  105. 
Kubasoff,  105. 
Kudiiavtzoff,  108. 
Kiinersdorf,  battle  of,  99. 
Kurbski,  104. 


Ladislaus,  95. 
Language,  110. 
Law  codes,  06,  104. 
Lermontoff,  107. 
Lipetsk,  battle  of,  90. 
Literature,  102-110. 
Little  Russians,  79 
Lomonosoff,  106. 
MaiL-off,  109. 
Manufactures,  85. 
Mazeppa,  97, 
Mecarius,  104. 
Meteorology,  76. 
Michael,  95. 
Mongolian  race,  79. 
Mongol  supremacy,  90. 
Mortality.  81. 
Napoleon's  invasion,  100. 
National  debt.  72. 
Navarino,  battle  of,  101. 
Navy,  72. 
Nekrasoff,  109. 
Nestor,  103. 
Nicholas,  101. 
Nihilism,  102. 
NIkitin  (poet),  107. 
Nikitm  (traveller),  103. 
Nikon,  82,  105. 
Nonconformists,  81. 
Novels,  107. 

Novgorod  republic,  89, 91. 
Novikoff,  106. 
Ozeroff,  106. 
Paul,  100. 

Persia,  war  with.  101. 
Peter  I.  (the  Great),  97. 
Peter  II.,  93. 
Peterl  11.^99. 
Philology,  109. 


Physical  features,  67,  72. 
Platon,  106. 
Plevna,  siege  of,  102. 
Poetry,  recent-  109. 
Poland,  paitition  of,  99; 

insurrection  in,  101, 
Polevoi,  108. 
Polotzki,  105. 
Poltava,  battle  of,  97. 
Population,  68,  81. 
Pososhkolf,  105. 
Postal  sen"ice,  87, 
Piinling,  introduction  of, 

104. 
Procopovich,  105.. 
Piovinces,  GO. 
Pskoff  republic,  89,  91. 
Pugatcheff,  39. 
Pushkin,  107. 
Races,  08,  78. 
Radistcheir,  106. 
Railw.ays,  37. 
Raskolniks,  31. 
Razin,  96. 
Religion,  71,  81. 
Revenue,  72. 
Kivers,  73. 
Rnmanoffsf,  95. 
Roraanticisni,  107. 
Roumanian  race,  86. 
Russian  race,  78,  79. 
St    Petersburg    founded, 

97. 
Saltikoff,  99. 
Schools,  71. 
Scientific  societies,  71. 
Sects.  81,  82. 
Serfdom,  82,  100. 
Shevcheako,  110. 


Shniskis,  92,  95. 

Siberia,  acquisition  of,  93. 

Slavonians,  78. 

Soil,  75. 

Solovieff,  108. 

Sophia,  regent^  96, 

Speranski,  101. 

Statistics,  69,  81. 

Steppes,  77. 
'  Sumarokoff,  106. 
;  Suwaroff,  100. 
i  Suzdal  principality,  89. 
,  Sweden,  conflict  with,  97 

Svlvester,  104. 
I  Tales,  104. 
I  Tartars,  79. 
'.  Tatistcheff,  106. 
'  Teutonic  knighls,  92. 

Tolstoi,  108. 
I  Towns,  70. 
i  Trade,  86. 

Trediakovski,  106. 

Tundras,  75. 

Turco-lartars.  79. 

Tuigenieff,  108. 

turkey,  wars  with,  97-102- 

Ulozhenie,  OH,  lOL 

Ustrialoff,  108. 

Vasilii,  91. 

Viuzemski,  109. 

Village  communities,  S3 

Visin,  106. 

Vital  statistics,  81. 

White  Russians,  79. 

Vavorski,  105. 

Zadonstchina,  104. 

Zagoskin.  107. 

Zhukovski,  107. 

Zorndorf,  battle  of,  99. 


EUSTCHUK  (Rus(5uK),  a  city  of  Bulgaria,  Turkey  in 
Europe,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Danube,  opposite 
Giurgevo,  at  the  point  where  the  river  receives  the  waters 
of  the  Lorn,  a  fine  stream  from  the  northern  slopes  of  the 
Balkans.  Since  1867  it  has  been  connected  by  rail  (1.39 
miles)  with  Varna.  The  town  was  nearly  "destroyed  by  the 
Russian  bombardment  from  Giurgevo  in  1877,  and  the 
military  works  have  since  been  dismantled  in  tenTis  of  the 
treaty  of  Berlin.  Its  position  on  the  river  frontier  of 
Turkey  long  made  it  a  place  of  strategic  importance. 
In  1871  the  population  was'.about  23,000  (10,800  Turks, 
7700  Bulgarians,  1000  Jews,  800  Armenians,  500  Gipsies, 


800  Wallachians  and  Serbs,  400  Western  Europeans),  and 
in  1881  it  was  returned  as  26,163. 

In  the  time  of  the  Romans  Rustchuk  was  one  of  the  fortified 
points  along  the  line  of  the  Danube.  .  In  the  Tabula  Pcutingcriana 
it  appears  as  Prisca,  in  the  Antonine  Itinerary  as  Serantaprista,,in 
the  Nolilia  as  Seragiutaprista,  and  in  Ptolemy  as  Priste  Polls. 
Destroyed  by  the  barbarian  invasion,  the  town  recovered  its 
importance  only  in  comparatively  modem  times.  In  1810  it  was 
captured  by  the  Russians,  and  on  his  departure  next  year  Kutusoff 
destroyed  the  fortifications.  In  1828-29  and  again  in  1853-54  it 
played  a  part  in  the  Kasso-Turlash  War,  and  in  1877,  as  already 
mentioried,  it  was  nearly  destroyed. 

KUTH.  Book  of.  The  story  of  Kuth,  the  Moabitess, 
great-grandmother  of  David,  one  of  the   Old-  Testament 


tt  U  T  H 


111 


Hagiographa,  is  usually  reckoned  as. the  second  of  tbe  five 
Megilloth  or  Festal  KoUs.     This  position  corresponds  to 
the  Jewish  practice  of  reading  the  book  at  the  Feast  of 
Pentecost;   Spanish  MSS.,   however,   place   Ruth    at  the 
head  of  the  Megilloth  (see  CANTiCLhs) ;  and  the  Talmud, 
in  a    well-known  passage  of  Baba  Bathra,   gives  it  the 
first    place  among  all    the  Hagiographa.     On    the   other 
hand  the  Seiituagint,  the  Vulgate,  and  the  English  version 
make  Ruth  follow  Judges.     It  has  sometimes  been  held 
that  this  was  its  original  place  in  the  Hebrew  Bible  also, 
or  rather  that  Ruth  was  originally  reckoned  as  an  appen- 
dix to  Judges,  since  it  is  only  by  doing  this,  and  also  by 
reckoning  Lamentations  to  Jeremiah,  that  all  the  books  of 
the   Hebrew  canon   can   be  reduced    to   twenty-two,   the 
iiumber  assigned  by  Josephus  and  other  ancient  authori- 
ties.    But  it  has  been  shown  in  the  article  Lamentations 
(q.v.)  that  the  argument  for  the  superior  antiquity  of  this 
way  of  reckoning  breaks  Aown  on  closer  examination,  and, 
while   it    was   very   natural  that   a  later   rearrangement 
should  transfer  Ruth  from  the  Hagiographa  to  the  histor- 
ical books,  and  place  it  between  Judges  and  Samuel,  no 
motive  can  be  suggested  for  the  opposite  change.     That 
the  book  of  Ruth  did  not  originally  form  part  of  the  series 
of    Prophetx  pnore-i  (Judges-Kings)   is  further  probable 
from  the  fact  that  it  is  quite  untouched  by  the  process  of 
"prophetic"  or    " Deuteronomistic "   editing,  which  gave 
that  series  its  present  shape  at  a  time  soon  after  the  fall 
of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  ;  the  narrative  has  no  affinity 
with  the  point  of  view  which  looks  on  the  whole  history 
of  Israel  as  a  series  of  examples  of  divine  justice  and 
mercy  in  the  successive  rebellions  and  repentances  of  the 
people  of  God.i     But  if  the  book  had  been  know  T,t  the 
time  when  the  history  from  Judges  to  Kings  wa^    dited, 
•t  could  hardly  have  been  excluded  from  the  collection  ; 
the  ancestry  of  David  was  of  greater  interest  than  that  of 
Saul,  which  is  given  in  1  Sam.   ix.   1,  whereas  the  old 
history   names  no  ancestor  of  David  beyond  his  father 
Jesse.     In  truth  the  book  of  Ruth  does  not  offer  itself  as 
a  document  written  soon  after   the   period  to  which  it 
refers;  it  presents  itself  as  dealing  with  times  far  back 
(Ruth  i.  1),  and  takes  obvious  delight  in  depicting  detaiL" 
of    antique  life  and  obsolete  usages ;   it  views-  the  rude 
and  stormy  period  before  the  institution  of  the  kingship 
through  the  softening  atmosphere  of  time,  which  imparts 
to  the  scene  a  gentle  sweetness  very  different  from  the 
harsher  colours    of   the   old   narratives   of  the   book  of 
Judges.     In  the  language,  too,  there  is  a  good  deal  that 
makes  for  and  nothing  that  makes  against  a  date  sub- 
sequent to  the  captivity,  and  the  very  designation  of  a 
period  of  Hebrew  history  as  "the  days  of  the  judges"  is 
based  on  the  Deuteronomistic  additions  to  the  book  of 
Judges  (ii.  16  ««?.)  and  does  not  occur  till  the  period  of 
the  "exile.     An  inferior  limit  for  the  date  of  the  book 
cannot  be  assigned  with  precision.     It  has  been  argued 
that,  as  the  author  seems  to  take  no  offence  at  the  marriage 
of  Israelites   with  Moabito   women,   he  must  have  lived 
before  the  time  of  Ezra  and  Nehomiah  (Ezra  ix. ;  Neh. 
xiii.) ;  but  the  same  argument  would  prove  that  the  book 
of  Esther  was  written  before  Ezra,  and  indeed  "a  disposi- 
tion to  derive  prominent  Jewish  families  from  proselytes 
prevailed  to  a  much  later  date,"  and  finds  expression  in 
the  Talmud  (see  Wellhausen-Bleek,  p.  205).      The  lan- 
guage of  Ruth,  however,  though  post-classical,  does  not 
seem  to  place  it  among   the  very   latest  Old  Testament 
books,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  story  is  told  is  as 
remote  from   the  legal  pragmatism  of  Chronicles  as  from 
the   proiihctic   pragmatism   of    the   editor    of   the   older 
histories.      The   tone   of   simple   piety  and  graciousness 

'  Tbo   religions   pragmati-ini    lackiug  in   Iho  original  l»  in   part 
BoppUcd  liy  tho  Targuui  (i.  C,  6). 


which  runs  through  the  narrative,  unencumbered  by  the 
pedantry  of  Jewish  legality,  seems  to  indicate  that  the 
book  was  written  before  all  the  living  impulses  of  Jewish 
literature  were  choked  by  the  growing  influence  of  the 
doctors  of  the  law.  In  this  respect  it  holds  in  Hebrew 
prose  writing  a  position  analogous  to  that  of-  the  older 
Chohna  in  Hebrew  poetry.  But  the  triumph  of  the  scribes 
in  literature  as  -Well  as  in  law  was  not  accomplished  till 
long  after  the  time  of  Ezra. 

Wellhausen  in  Bleek,  4th  edition,  p.  204  sq.,  finds  thu 
clearest  indication  of  the  date  of  Ruth  in  the  appended 
genealogy,  Ruth  iv.  18-22  ;  compare  his  remarks  in 
Prol.  Gesch.  Israels,  p.  227  (Eng.  tr.,  pp.  217  sj.).  Salroa 
(Salmon),  father  of  Boaz,  is  a  tribe  foreign  to  old  JudaE, 
which  -was  not  "father"  of  Bethlehem  till  after  the  exile, 
and  the  names  of  Salma's  ancestors  arc  also  open  to  criti- 
cism. But  this  genealogy  is  also  found  in  Chronicles, 
and  is  quite  in  the  manner  of  other  genealogies  in  the 
same  book.  That  it  was  borrowed  from  Chronicles  and 
added  to  Rv.th  by  a  later  hand  seems  certain,  for  the 
author  of  Ruth  clearly  recognizes  that  Obed  was  legally 
the  son  of  Jlahlon,  not  of  Boaz  (iv.  5,  10),  so  that  from 
his  standpoint  the  appended  genealogy  is  all  wrong. 

The  design  of  the  book  of  Ruth  has  been  much  dis- 
cussed and  often  in  too  narrow  a  spirit ;  for  the  author  is 
an  artist  who  takes  manifest  delight  in  the  touching  and 
graceful  details  of  his  picture,  and  is  not  simply  guided 
by  a  design  to  impart  historical  information  about  David's 
ancestors,  or  enforce  some  particular  lesson.  Now  the 
interest  of  the  story,  as  a  work  of  art,  culminates  in  the 
marriage  of  Boaz  and  Ruth,  not  in  the  fact  that  their  son 
was  David's  ancestor,  which,  if  the  book  originally  ended 
with  iv.  17,  is  only  mentioned  in  a  cursory  way  at  the 
close  of  the  story.  Had  the  author's  main  design  been  to 
illustrate  the  history  of  the  house  of  David,  as  many 
critics  think,  or  to  make  the  point  that  the  noblest  stock 
in  Israel  was  sprung  from  an  alien  mother  (Wellhausen), 
this  design  would  certainly  have  boon  brought  into  more 
prominence.  The  marriage  acquires  an  additional  interest 
when  we  know  thafRuth  was  David's  great-grandmother, 
but  the  main  interest  is  independent  of  that,  and  lies  in 
the  happy  issue  of  Ruth  and  Naomi  from  their  troubles 
through  the  loyal  performance  of  the  kinsman's  part  by 
Boaz.  Doubtless  the  writer  meant  his  story  to  be  an 
example  to  his  own  age,  as  well  as  an  interesting  sketch 
of  the  past ;  but  this  is  effected  simi)ly  by  describing  the 
exemplary  conduct  of  Naomi,  Ruth,  Boaz,  and  even  Boaz's 
harvesters.  All  these  act  as  simple,  kindly,  God-fearing 
people  ought  to  act  in  Israel. 

There  is  one  antiquo  custom  -n'liich  tho  writer  foUowa  with 
peculiar  interest  ami  ilcsciilies  with  archa:olo^ical  detail  as  a  thin" 
wliicli  had  evidently  Rouo  out  of  use  in  his  own  day.  ^By  old 
Hebrew  law,  as  by  the  oUl  law  of  Arabia,  a  wife  who  h'ad  been 
brought  into  her  luisbniid's  lio\iso  by  contract  and  payment  of  a 
price  io  her  father  was  not  set  free  by  the  death  of  her  lii:sband 
to  marry  again  at  will.  The  risht  to  her  hand  lay  -witli  tho 
nearest  heir  of  the  dead.  Originally  wc  must  suppose,  among  tho 
Hebrews  as  among  tlio  Arabs,  this  law  was  all  to  the  disadvaiitiigo 
of  tho  widow,  wlioso  hand  was  simply  part  of  tho  dead  nian'a 
estate  ;  but,  while  this  remained  so  in  Arabia  to  tho  timo  of 
Jlohammcd,  among  tho  Hebrews  tho  law  early  took  (luilo  an 
opposite  turn  ;  tho  \viih)W  of  a  man  who  died  childless  was  lielj 
to  have  a  right  to  have  a  son  begotten  on  her  by  the  next 
kinsman,  and  this  son  was  regarded  as  tlio  sou  of  tho  dead  and 
succeeded  to  his  inheritance  so  that  his  name  might  not  bo  cut 
oir  from  Israel.  The  duty  of  raising  up  a  son  to  tlio  dead  lay  ujwn 
Iiis  brotlier,  and  in  Deut.  xxv.  5  is  restricted  to  tho  caso  when 
brothers  live  together.  In  old  times,  as  appears  from  Gen.  .wxvni., 
tliis  was  not  so,  and  the  law  as  put  in  the  book  of  Kulli  appears 
to  bo  that  the  nearest  kinsman  of  the  dead  in  general  l,.id  a 
right  to  "redeem  for  liimself"  tlie  ihad  man's  estate,  but  at  tho 
sanio  timo  was  bound  to  marry  the  widow.  Tho  son  of  this 
marriage  was  reckoned  as  tlie  dead  man's  son  and  succeeded  to 
his  properly,  so  that  tho  "reilicmer"  had  only  a  temporary 
usufruct  in  it.     Naomi  was  too  old  to  bo  married  in  this  way,  but 


112 


li  U  T  —  R  U  T 


she  had  certain  rights  over  her  husband's  estate  which  the  next 
dnsman  had  to  buy  up  before  he  could  enter  on  tlie  property. 
And  tliis  he  was  willing  to  do,  but  he  was  not  willing  also  to 
marry  Rutb  and  beget  on  her  a  son  who  would  take  the  name  and 
estate  of  the  dead  and  leave  him  out  of  pocket.  He  therefore 
withdraws  and  Boaz  comes  in  in  his  place.  That  this  is  the  sense 
of  the  transaction  is  clear ;  there  is,  however,  a  little  obscurity  in 
iv.  6,  where  one  letter  seems  to  have  fallen  out  and  we  must  read 
on  nivnX  D31.  and  translate  "  What  day  thou  buyest  the  field 
fi'om  Naomi  thou  must  also  buy  Ruth,"  &c.  Comp.  vv.  9,  10. 
,  Among  older  commentaries  special  mention  may  be  made  of  J.  B.  Carpzov, 
Collegium  rabbinico-biblicum  in  libellum  Ruth,  Leipstc,  1703.  In  recent 
ti.nes  Kuth  has  usually  been  taken  up  by  commentators  along  with  Jt/Dciia 
iq.v.).  Vfl.  R.  S.) 

EUTHENIANS.  See  Slavs.  For  Ruthenian  (Little 
Russian)  literature,  see  Russia. 

RUTHENIUM.     See  Platinum. 

RUTHERFURD,  or  Rutherford,  Samuel  (1600- 
1661),  Scottish  divine,  was  born  about  1600  at  the  village 
of  Nisbet  in  Roxburghshire.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
received  his  early  education  at  Jedburgh,  and  he  entered 
the  university  of  Edinburgh  in  1617.  He  graduated  M.A. 
in  1621,  and  two  years  afterwards  was  elected  professor 
of  humanity.  On  account  of  some  alleged  indiscretion 
or  irregularity  connected  with  his  marriage  in  1525,  he 
resigned  his  professorship  in  that  year,  but,  after  study- 
ing theology,  he  was  in  1627  appointed  minister  of  An- 
woth,  Kirkcudbrightshire,  v/here  he  displayed  remarkable 
diligence  and  zeal,  alike  as  preacher,  pastor,  and  student,  and 
soon  took  a  leading  place  among  the  clergy  of  Galloway. 
In  1636  his  first  book,  entitled  Exercitationes  de  Gratia 
— an  elaborate  treatise  against  Arminianism — appeared  at 
Amsterdam,  and  attracted  some  attention  both  in  Great 
Britain  and  on  the  Continent.  Combined  with  his  strict 
and  non-conforming  presbyterianism,  the  severe  Calvinism 
set  forth  in  this  work  led  to  a  prosecution  by  the  new 
bishop  of  the  diocese,  Sydserff,  in  the  High  Commission 
Court,  first  at  Wigtown  and  afterwards  at  Edinburgh,  with 
the  result  that  Eutherfurd  was  deposed  from  his  pastoral 
office,  and  sentenced  to  confinement  in  Aberdeen  during 
the  king's  pleasure.  His  banishment  lasted  from  September 
1636  to  February  1638,  and  was  chiefly  remarkable  for 
the  epistolary  activity  he  displayed,  the  greater  number  of 
his  published  Letters  belonging  to  this  period  of  his  life. 
He  was  present  at  the  signing  of  the  Covenant  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1638,  and  afterwards  at  the  meeting  of  the 
Glasgow  Assembly  the  same  year,  which  restored  him  to 
his  parish.  In  1G39  he  was  appointed  professor  of  divin- 
ity in  St  Mary's  College,  St  Andrews,  and  shortly  after- 
wards became  colleague  to  Robert  Blair  in  the  church  of 
St  Andrews.  He  was  sent  up  to  London  in  1643  as  one 
of  the  eight  commissioners  from  Scotland  to  the  West- 
minster Assembly.  Arriving  along  with  Baillie  in  Novem- 
ber, and  ^remaining  at  his  post  over  three  years,  he  did  great 
service  to  the  cause  of  his  party.  In  1642  he  had  pub- 
lished his  Peaceable  and  Temperate  Plea  for  PauTs  Preshy- 
tcrie  in  Scotland,  and  the  sequel  to  it  in  1644  on  The  Due 
Right  of  Presbyteries  provoked  Milton's  contemptuous 
reference  to  "mere  A.  S.  and  Rutherfurd"  in  his  sonnet 
On  the  New  Forcers  of  Conscience  "under  the  Long  Parliament. 
In  1644  also  appeared  Rutherfurd's  Lex  Bex,  a  Dispute  for 
the  Just  Prerogative  of  King  and  People,  which  gives  him  a 
recognized  place  among  the  early  writers  on  constitutional 
law;  it  was  "followed  by  The  Divine  Right  of  Church 
Government  (1 646),  and  Free  Disputation  against  Pretended 
Liberty  of  Conscience  (1649),  Among  his  other  works  are 
the  Tryal  and  Triumph  of  Faith  (1645),  Christ  Dying 
and  Drawing  Sinners  to  Himself  (1647),  and  Survey  of  the 
Spiritual  Antichrist  (1648).  In  1647  he  returned  to 
St  Andrews  to  become  principal  of  the  New  College  there, 
and  in  1648  and  1651  he  declined  successive  invitations  to 
theological  chairs  at  Harderwijk  and  Utrecht.  His  last 
days  were  assailed  by  the  persecution  which  followed  the 


Restoration  in  1660.  His  Lex  Rex  was  ordered  to  be 
burned  at  the  cross  of  Edinburgh,  and  also  at  the  gate  of 
the  college.  He  was  deprived  of  all  his  offices,  and  on 
a  charge  of  high  treason  was  cited  to  appear  before  the 
ensuing  parliament.  His  health,  Tiowever,  now  utterly 
broke  down,  and  knowing  that  he  had  not  long  to  live  he 
drew  up,  on  2Cth  February  1661,  a  Testimony,  which  was 
posthuraoufily  published.  He  died  on  the  20th  of  the 
following  Marcb. 

The  fame  of  Rutherfurd  now  rests  principally  upon  his  remark- 
able Lrllcrs,  on  which  W'odrow  thus  comments: — "He  seems  to 
have  outdone  even  himself  as  well  as  everybody  else  in  liis  admir- 
able and  every  way  singular  letters,  which,  though  jested  upon  by 
profiue  wits  because  of  some  familiar  expressions,  yet  will  be  owned 
of  all  who  have  any  relish  of  piety  to  contain  such  sublime  (lights  of 
devotion  and  to  bo  fraughted  with  such  massy  tlioughts  as  loudly 
speak  a  soul  united  to  Jesus  Christ  in  the  closest  embraces,  and  must 
needs  at  once  ravish  and  edify  every  serious  reader."  In  addition 
to  the  other  works  already  mentioned,  Rutherfurd  published  in  1651 
a  treatise  De  Divinci  Prondciilicr,  against  Slolinism,  Socinianism, 
and  Arminianism,  of  which  Richard  Baxter,  not  without  justice, 
remarked  that  "  as  the  Letters  were  the  best  piece  so  this  was  the 
worst  he  had  ever  read." 

The  Lellers.  to  tlic  number  Of  21S,  were  first  publislied  anonymously  by  >!' Ward, 
an  amanuensis,  at  Rutte:  dam,  in  1C04.  They  have  bc^-n  frequently  rcpilntcd,  the 
best  edition  ^305  letters)  b-iiig  tliat  by  Rev.  A.  A.  Bnnar,  I84S,  with  a  skctcll  of 
his  life.    See  also  a  short  Li/e  by  Kev.  Dr  Andrew  Thomsun,  1884. 

EUTHERGLEN,  an  ancient  royal  burgh  of  Lanark- 
shire, Scotland,  is  situated  near  the  left  bank  of  the  Clyde, 
2  miles  south-east  of  Glasgow.  It  consists  chiefly  of  one 
long  wide  irregular  street,  with  narrow  streets,  w^nds,  and 
alleys  branching  from  it  ftt  intervals.  The  parish  church 
is  situated  near  the  centre  of  the  town,  a  little  distanco 
from  the  tower  of  the  old  church  where  the  treaty  wa.s 
made  in  1297  with  Edward  I.,  by  which  Sir  John  Mon- 
teith  agreed  with  the  English  to  betray  the  Scottish  hero 
Wallace.  The  most  important  public  building  is  the  town- 
hall,  a  haadsome  structure  with  a  large  square  tower.  In 
the  vicinity  tliere  are  extensive  collieries  and  ironworks, 
and  the  town  possesses  chemical  work.s,  a  paper  mill,  a 
pottery,  and  a  shipbuilding  yard.  The  corporation  consists 
of  a  provost,  two  bailies,  a  dean  of  guild,  a  treasurer,  and 
fifteen  councillors.  The  population  of  the  royal  burgh  in 
1871  was  9239,  and  in  1881  it  was  11,473. 

Rutherglen  was  erected  into  a  royal  burgh  by  King  David  ia 
1126.  At  this  time  it  included  a  portion  of  Glasgow,  but  in  1226 
the  boundaries  were  rectified  so  as  to  exclude  the  whole  of  that 
city.  In  early  times  it  had  a  castle,  which  was  taken  by  Bruce 
from  the  English  in  1313.  It  was  kept  in  good  repair  till  after  the 
battle  of  Langside  it  was  burnt  by  order  of  the  regent  Murray. 
After  this  Iho  town' for  a  time  gradually  decayed,  the  trade  being 
absorbed  by  Glasgow.  Rutherglen  is  included  in  the  Kilmarnock, 
district  of  parliamentary  burghs. 

EUTILIUS  CLAUDIUS  NAMATIANUS  is  known  to 
us  as  the  author  of  a  Latin  poem  in  elegiac  metre,  describ- 
ing a  coast  voyage  from  Rome  to  Gaul  in  4}6  a.d.  The 
literary  excellence  of  the  work  and  the  flashes  of  light 
which  it  throws  across  a  momentous  but  dark  epoch  of 
history  combine  to  give  it  exceptional  importance  among 
the  relics  of  late  Roman  literature.  The  poem  was  in  two 
books ;  the  exordium  of  the  first  and  the  greater  part  of 
the  second  have  been  lost.  What  remains  consists  of  about 
700  lines. 

The  poet's  voyage  took  place  in  the  late  autumn  of  416 
(i.  135  sq.),  and  the  verses  as  we  have  them  were  evi- 
dently written  at  or  very  near  the  time.  The  author  ia 
a  native  of  southern  Gaul,  and  belonged,  like  Sidonius, 
to  one  of  the  great  governing  families  of  the  Gaulish  pro- 
vinces. His  father,  whom  he  calls  Lachanius,  had  held 
high  offices  in  Italy  and  at  the  imperial  court,  had  been 
governor  of  Etruria  and  Umbria  {consularit  Tusciae)  pro- 
bably in  389,  when  a  Claudius  is  named  in  the  Theodosran 
Code  (2,  4,  5)  as  having  held  the  oSice,  then  imperi.O 
treasurer  (co7nes  ■  sacrariim  laryitionum),  imperial  recorJer 
('luaestor),  and  (governor  of  the  capital  itself  (praefectu! 


K  U  T  —  E   U  T 


113 


■urbis).  Rutilius  boasts  his  career  to  have  been  no  less 
distinguished  than  his  father's,  and  particularly  indicates 
that  he  had  been  secretary  of  state  {magister  offidorum) 
and  governor  of  the  capital  (i.  157,  427,  467,  5G1).  It  is 
probable  that  a  certain  Namatius  named  in  the  Theodosian 
Code  (6,  27,  15)  as  viagister  offidorum  of  the  year  412  is 
no  other  than  our  poet.  The  true  literary  man  is  apt  to 
be  inordinately  proud  of  political  distinction,  and  Rutilius 
celebrates  his  own  praises  in  a  style  worthy  of  Cicero  or 
Pliny.  At  all  events,  he  had  lived  long  in  the  great  world 
of  the  Western  empire,  and  knew  much  of  the  inner  history 
of  his  time.  After  reaching  manhood,  he  had  passed 
through  the  tempestuous  period  that  stretches  between  the 
death  of  Theodosius  (395)  and  the  fall  of  the  usurper 
Attalus,  which  occurred  near  the  date  when  our  poem  was 
written.  He  had  witnessed  the  chequered  career  of  Stilicho 
as  actual,  though  not  titular,  emperor  of  the  West ;  he  had 
seen  the  hosts  of  Iladagaisus  rolled  back  from  Italy,  only 
to  sweep  over  the  helpless  provinces  of  Gaul  and  Spain, 
the  defeats  and  triumphs  of  Alaric,  the  three  sieges  and 
final  sack  of  Rome,  followed  by  the  marvellous  recovery  of 
the  city,  Heraclian's  vast  armament  dissipated  by  a  breath, 
and  the  fall  of  seven  pretenders  to  the  Western  diadem. 
Undoubtedly  the  sympathies  of  Rutilius  were  with  those 
who  during  this  period  dissented  from,  and,  when  they 
could,  opposed,  the  general  tendencies  of  the  imperial  policy. 
We  know  from  himself  that  he  was  the  intimate  of  dis- 
tinguished men  who  belonged  to  the  circle  of  the  great 
orator  Symmachus,- — men  who  had  scouted  Stilicho's  com- 
pact with  the  Goths,  and  had  led  the  Roman  senate  to 
support  the  pretenders  Eugenius  and  Attalus  in  the 
vain  hope  of  reinstating  the  gods  whom  Julian  bad  failed 
to  save. 

While  mating  hut  few  direct  assertions  about  historical 
characters  or  events,  the  poem,  by  its  very  texture  and  spirit  and 
assumptions,  forces  on  us  important  conclusions  concerning  the 
politics  and  religion  of  the  time,  which  are  not  brought  home  to 
us  with  the  same  directness  by  any  other  authority.  The  attitude 
of  the  writer  towards  paganism  is  remarkable.  The  whole  poem 
is  intensely  pagan,  and  is  penetrated  by  the  feeling  tliat  the  world 
of  literature  and  culture  is  and  must  remain  pagan,  that  outside 
paganism  lies  a  realm  of  barbarism.  The  poet  wears  an  air  of 
exalted  superiority  over  the  religious  innovators  of  his  day,  and 
entertains  a  buoyant  confidence  that  the  future  of  the  ancient  gods 
of  Rome  will  not  belie  their  glorious  past.  Invective  andapology 
he  scorns  alihe,  nor  troubles  himself  to  show,  with  Claudian,  even 
a  suppressed  grief  at  the  indignities  put  upon  the  old  rejigion  by 
the  new.  As  a  statesman,  he  is  at  pains  to  avoid  offending  those 
jiolitio  Christian  senators  over  whom  pride  in  their  country  had  at 
least  as  great  power  as  attachment  to  their  new  religion.  Only 
once  or  twice  does  Kutilius  speak  directly  of  Christianity,  and 
then  only  to  attack  the  monks,  whom  the  temporal  authorities 
had  hardly  as  yet  recognized,  and  whom,  indeed,  only  a  short 
time  before,  a  Christian  emperor  had  forced  by  thousands  into 
the  ranks  of  his  army.  Judaism  Kutilius  could  assail  without 
wounding  either  pagans  or  Christians,  but  he  intimates,  not 
obscurely,  that  he  liatcs  it  chiefly  as  the  evil  root  whence  the 
rank  plant  of  Christianity  liad  sprung. 

We  read  in  Gibbon  that  "Honorius  cxclOdcd  nil  persons  who 
were  adverse  to  the  catholic  church  from  holding  any  office  in  the 
state,"  that  ho  "obstinately  rejected  the  service  of  all  those  who 
dtssentcd  from  his  religion,"  and  that  "the  law  was  applied  in 
the  utmost  latitude  and  rigorously  executed."  Far  different  is 
the  picture  of  political  life  impressed  upon  us  by  Rutilius.  His 
voice  is  assuredly  not  that  of  a  partisan  of  a  discredited  and  over- 
borne faction.  Wo  see  by  the  aid  of  his  poem  a  senate  at  Rome 
composed  of  past  olEce-holdors,  the  majority  of  whom  wcro 
certainly  pagan  still.  We  discern  a  Christian  section  whoso 
Chiistianity  was  political  rather  than  religious,  who  were  Romans 
first  and  Christians  afterwards,  whom  a  now  breeze  in  politics 
might  easily  have  wafted  back  to  the  old  religion.  Between  these 
two  sections  the  broad  old  Roman  toleration  reigns.  Some 
ccclesiasticnl  historians  have  fondly  imagined  that  after  the  sack 
of  Rome  the  bishop  Innocent  returned  to  a  jmsitiou  of  practicnl 
predominance.  No  one  who  fairly  reads  Kutilius  can  cJierish 
this  idea.  The  air  of  the  capital,  perhaps  even  of  Italy,  wub 
still  charged  with  paganism.  The  court  was  far  in  advance  of 
the  people,  and  the  persecuting  laws  were  in  largo  part  incapable 
of  execution. 


Perhaps  the  most  interesting  lines  in  the  whole  poem  are  those 
in  Avhich  Rutilius  assails  the  memory  of  "dire  Stilicho,"  as  lie 
names  him.  Stiliclio,  "fearing  to  suffer  all  tliat  had  caused 
himself  to  be  feared,"  annihilated  those  defences  of  Alps  and 
Apennines  which  the  provident  gods  had  interposed  between  tlie 
b;irbarians  and  tlie  Eternal  City,  and  planted  the  crael  Goths,  his 
"skin-clad"  minions,  in  the  very  sanctuary  of  the  empire.  His 
wile  was  wickeder  than  the  wile  of  the  Trojan  horse,  than  the  wile 
of  Althaea  or  of  Scylla.  May  Nero  rest  from  all  the  torments  of 
the  damned,  that  they  may  seize  on  Stiliclio,  for  Nero  smote  his 
own  mother,  but  Stilicho,  the  mother  of  the  world  I 

We  shall  not  err  in  supposing  that  we  have  here  (what  we  find 
nowhere  else)  an  authentic  expression  of  the  feeling  entertained  by 
a  majority  of  the  Roman  senate  concerning  Stilicho.  He  had  but 
imitated  the  policy  of  Theodosius  with  regard  to  the  barbarians; 
but  even  that  great  emperor  had  met  witli  passive  opposition  from 
the  old  Roman  families.  The  relations,  however,  between  Alaric 
and  Stilicho  had  been  closer  and  more  mysterious  than  tliose 
between  Alaric  and  Theodosius,  and  men  w"lio  had  seen  Stilicho 
surrounded  by  his  bodyguard  of  Goths  not  unuiiturally  looked 
on  the  Goths  who  assailed  Rome  as  Stilicho's  avengers.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  Kutilius  speaks 'of  the  crime  of  Stiliclio  in  terms 
far  different  from  those  used  by  Orosius  and  the  historians  of  the 
lower  empire.  They  believed  that  Stilicho  was  plotting  to  make 
his  son  emperor,  and  that  he  called  in  the  Goths  in  order.to  climb 
higher.  Rutilius  holds  that  he  used  the  barbarians  merely  to  save 
himself  from  impending  ruin.  The  Christian  historians  assert 
that  Stilicho  designed  to  restore  paganism.  To  Kutilius  ho  is 
the  most  uncompromising  foe  of  paganism.  His  crowning  sin 
(recorded  by  our  poet  alone)  was  the  destruction  of  the  Sibylline 
books — a  sin  worthy  of  one  who  had  decked  his  wife  in  the  spoils 
of  Victory,  the  goddess  who  had  for  centuries  presided  over  the 
deliberations  of  the  senate.  This  crime  of  Stilicho  alone  is 
sufficient  in  the  eyes  of  Kutilius  to  account  for  the  disasters  that 
afterwards  befell  the  city,  just  as  Merobaudes,  a  generation  or  two 
later,  traced  the  miseries  of  his  own  day  to  the  overthrow  of  the 
ancient  rites  of  Vesta. 

With  regard  to  the  foiin  of  tho  poem,  Rutilius  handles  the 
elegiac  couplet  with  great  metrical  ]uirity  and  freedom,  and 
betrays  many  signs  of  long  study  in  tho  elegiac  poetry  uf  the 
Augustan  era.  The  Latin  is  unusually  clean  for  tho  times,  and  is 
generally  fairly  classical  both  in  vocabulary  and  Construction.  The 
taste  of  Rutilius  too  is  comparatively  pure.  If  ho  lacks  the  genius 
of  Claudian,  he  also  lacks  his  overloaded  gaudiness  and  his  large 
exaggeration,  and  the  directness  of  Rutilius  shines  by  comparison 
with  the  laboured  complexity  of  Ausonius.  It  is  common  to  call 
Claudian  the  last  of  the  Roman  poets.  That  title  might  fairly  be 
claimed  for  Rutilius,  unless  it  be  reserved  for  Jlerobaudes.  At 
any  rate  in  passing  from  Rutilius  to  Sidonius  no  reader  can  fail  to 
feel  that  he  has  left  tho  region  of  Latin  poetry  for  the  region  of 
Latin  verse. 

Of  the  many  interesting  detans  of  inc  poem  we  can  only  mention 
a  few.  At  the  outset  we  have  an  almost  dithyrambic  address  to 
tho  goddess  Roma,  whoso  glory  has  ever  shone  the  brighter  for 
disaster,  and  who  will  rise  once  more  in  her  might  and  confound 
her  barbarian  foes.  The  poet  shows  as  deep  a  consciousness  as  any 
modern  historian  that  the  grandest  achievement  of  Rome  was  the 
spread  of  law.  Next  we  get  incidental  but  not  unimportant 
references  to  the  destruction  of  roads  and  iirojjcrty  wrought  by  the 
Goths,  to  the  state  of  the  havens  at  the  inoulhs  of  the  Tiber  and 
the  general  decay  of  nearly  all  the  old  commercial  ports  on  the  co.tst 
Most  of  thcsewere  as  desolate  then  as  now.  Rutilius  even  exaggerates 
tho  desolation  of  the  once  important  city  of  Cosa  in  litruria, 
whose  walls  have  scarcely  changed  Irom  that  day  to  ours.  The 
port  that  served  I'isiE,  almost  alone  of  all  those  visited  by  Rutilius, 
seems  to  have  retained  its  prosperity,  and  to  have  foreshadowed  tho 
subsequent  greatness  of  that  city.  At  one  point  on  tho  coast  the 
villagers  everywhere  wcro  "soothing  their  wearied  hearts  with  lioly 
merriment,"  and  were  celebrating  the  festival  of  0.siris. 

All  existing  MSS.  ot  Hulllliis  arc  later  tlinn  1451.  anil  uvo  co|ilc»  .mm  o  Inst 
copy  of  on  auclont  MS.  once  at  llic  monHslcry  ot  llnliln,  which  (ll>U|i|>earcd  nliuut 
170i).  Tlic  edilio  princcps  is  tlial  t)y  J.  n.  I'Iub  (lltJoRnri,  l.V.'O),  linj  Ilic  pi  hid. 
pnl  editions  since  Imvu  been  Hum  by  llarth  (IliW),  P.  I)urm>in(l73l,  In  lib  <.lii|.  n 
of  the  minor  Latin  poets),  Wernxlorf  (1778.  pail  of  u  hiniilar  ct.llnilnn).  Zinnpt 
(ISiO)  and  the  erlllcal  eaillon  by  I.ncian  .\IiilliT(Tiubnor.  Ulpslr,  1^70).  .Milller 
writes  the  poet's  name  as  Claudius  Ilmlllua  NKTnnllunus,  liisii-.id  of  llin  u^utl 
Kutilius  ClnialiusNamutlanus;  but  If  the  identllliatlon  of  the  po,l  »  f.ilhrr  >»llh 
tho  Claudius  mentioned  In  tho  Thcodoshm  Code  be  correct.  MUller  Is  probably 
wionR  Rutilius  reciivos  more  or  less  albnlion  from  all  wilt.ii  on  the  bIMory 
or  llierature  of  tho  limes,  but  n  lutld  chapter-  In  lleutnoi.  //i-l,.irt  Jt  Itt  iJflrur. 
lion  iln  Paiianiimr  m  OcctJml  (1831).  may  be  ospiclally  inentloried.  It  should  bii 
noted  that  In  usIrrR  Ihc  passaur  eoneemlnit  .Sllilcho  we  have  k  mured  lo  r.u.1  Iho 
lino  at  11.  4'.  thus— //rVifdc  tladit  JtUriarr  tlu'o;  trie  chanco  frm  the  M'-S. 
rcadlnR  /llntnf  ctadis  liUrim-r  dolv  (iir.scrvod  In  oil  idllluris)  seums  .luiiambj 
by  the  context,  as  well  as  by  tho  sense.  (J-  S.  II.) 

RUTLAND,  tho  smallest  county  in  England,  is  bounded 
N.  and  N.R  by  Lincolnshire,  S.R  by  Nortlminpton.sliirc; 
and  W.  by  Leicestershire.  Its  shape  is  extremely  irregular. 
Tho  greatest  length  from  north-ea.st  to  .soulb-wcst  is  about 


21— 1> 


114 


R  U  T— R  U    It 


20  miles,  and  the  greatest  breadth  from  east  to  west  about 
16  miles.  The  area  is  94,889  acres,  or  about  148  square 
miles.  The  surface  is  pleasantly  undulating,  ridges  of  high 
ground  running  east  and  west,  separated  by  rich  and  luxu- 
riant valleys,  generally  about  half  a  mile  in  breadth.  The 
principal  valley  is  that  of  Catmoss  to  the  south  of  Oakham, 
having  to  the  north  of  it  a  tract  of  table-land  commanding 
an  extensive  prospect  into  Leicestershire. 

The  Welland,  which  is  navigable  to  Stamford,  flows 
north-east,  forming  the  greater  part  of  the  boundary  of 
the  county  with  Northamptonshire.  The  Gwash  or  Wash, 
which  rises  in  Leicestershire,  flows  eastwards  through  the 
centre  of  the  county,  and  just  beyond  its  borders,  enters 
the  Welland  in  Lincolnshire.  The  Chater,  also  rising  in 
Leicestershire  and  flowing  eastwards  enters  the  Welland 
about  two  miles  from  Stamford.  The  Eye  flows  south- 
eastwards  along  the  borders  of  Leicestershire.  The  county 
belongs  almost  entirely  to  the  Jurassic  formation,  consist- 
ing o?Liassio  and  Oolitic  strata— the  harder  strata,  chiefly 
limestone  containing  iron,  forming  the  hills  and  escarp- 
ments, and  the  clay-beds  the  slopes  of  the  valleys.  _  The 
oldest  rocks  are  those  belonging  to  the  Lower  Lias  in  the 
north-west.  The  bottom  of  the  vale  of  Catmoss  is  formed 
of  marlstone  rock  belonging  to  the  Middle  Lias,  and  its 
sides  are  composed  of  long  slopes  of  Upper  Lias  clay.  The 
Upper  Lias  also  covers  a  large  area  in  the  west  of  the 
county.  The  lowest  series  of  the  Oolitic  formation  is  the 
Northampton  sands  bordering  Northamptonshire.  The 
Lincolnshire  Oolitic  limestone  prevails  in  the  east  of  the 
county  north  of  Stamford.  It  is  largely  quarried  for 
building  purposes,  the  quarry  at  Ketton  being  famous 
beyond  the  boundaries  of  the  county.  The  Great  Oolite 
prevails  towards  the  south-east.  Formerly  the  iron  was 
largely  dug  and  smelted  by  means  of  the  wood  in  the 
extensive  forests,  and  the  industry  is  again  reviving. 

AgricuUure.—\u  the  eastern  and  south-eastern  districts  the  soil 
is  light  and  shallow.  In  the  other  districts  it  consists  chiefly  of 
a  tenacious  hut  fertile  loam,  and  in  the  fertile  vale  of  Catmoss 
the  soil  is  either  clay  or  loam,  or  a  mi-xture  of  tlie  two.  The 
prevailing  redness,  which  colours  even  the  streams,  is  oAing  to 
the  ferruginous  limestone  carried  down  from  the  slopes  of  the  hills. 
The  name  of  the  county  is  by  some  authorities  derived  from  this 
characteristic  of  the  soil,  but  the  e.\planation  is  doubtful.  The 
eastern  portions  of  the  county  are  chiefly  under  tillage  and  the 
western  in  grass.  Out  of  94,889  acres  no  fewer  than  86.477  acres 
in  1885  were  under  cultivation,  corn  crops  occupying  22,820  acres, 
green  crops  7520  acres,  rotation  grasses  6553  acres,  and  permanent 
pasture  47,816  acres.  Over  3000  acres  were  under  woodland. 
The  principal  corn  crop  is  oarley,  which  occupied  9484  acres,  but 
wheat  and  oats  are  also  largely  grown.  Turnips  and  swedes  occupy 
about  five-sixths  of  the  area  under  green  crops.  The  rearing  of 
sheep  and  cattle  occupies  the  chief  attention  of  the  farmer.  Large 
quantities  of  cheese  are  manufactured  and  gold  as  Stilton.  Cattle, 
principally  shorthorns,  numbered, 19,810,  of  which  3054  were  cows 
and  heifers  in  milk  and  in  calf.  Sheep — Leicesters  and  South 
Downs— numbered  80,881,  horses  3062,  pigs  3054,  and  poultry 
27,376.  According  to  the  parliamentary  return  of  1873  the  number 
of  proprietors  was  1425,  of  whom  861  possessed  less  than  one  acre. 
The  largest  proprietors  were  the  earl  of  Gainsborough  15,076, 
Lord  Aveland  13,634,  marquis  of  Exeter  10.713,  and  George  H. 
Finch  9182. 

Railways. — The  main  line  of  the  Great  Northern  intersects  the 
north-eastern  corner  of  the  county,  and  branches  of  that  System,  of 
the  London  and  North-Western,  anu  of  the  Midland  connect  it 
with  all  parts  of  the  country. 

Administ ration  and  Population. — Rutland  comprises  nve  hun- 
dreds and  contains  fifty-seven  civil  parishes,  and  part  of  the  parish 
of  Stoke-Dry,  which  extends  into  Leicestershire.  Formerly  repre- 
sented by  two  members  of  parliament,  since  1885  it  returns  one 
only.  There  is  no  municipal  or  parliamentary  borough.  The 
county  has  one  court  of  quarter  sessions,  but  is  not  subdivided  for 
petty  sessional  purposes.  Ecclesiastically  it  is  entirely  in  the 
diocese  of  Peterborough.  The  population  was  21;&61  in  1861, 
22,073  in  1871,  and  21,434  in  1881.  The  average  number  of  per- 
sons to  an  acre  in  1881  was  0'23,  and  of  acres  to  a  person  4 '43. 

History  and  Antiquities. — In  the  time  of  the  Romans  the 
district  now  included  in  Rutlandshire  was  probably  inhabited  by 
the  Coritani,  and  was  included  ia  Flavia  Caesariensis.     Erinyn 


Street  traversed  it  in  the  north-cast,  and  there  was  an  important 
station  at  Great  Casterton.  As  a  shire  it  is  later  than  Domesday, 
when  a  portion  of  it  was  included  in  Northamptonshire  but  the 
greater  part  in  Nottingham.  It  is  referred  to  as  com.  Roteland 
in  the  fifth  year  of  King  John,  in  the  document  assigning  a  dowry 
to  Queen  Isabella,  but  for  a  long  time  previous  to  this  the  name 
Roteland  was  applied  to  Oakham  and  the  countty  round  it 
Edward,  eldest  son  of  Edmund  of  Langley,  fifth  sop  of  Edward  111., 
was  created  carl  of  Rutland,  but  the  title  became  extinct  in  the 
royal  house  when  EJwcrd  earl  of  Rutland  was  stabbed  to  death  at 
the  battle  of  Clifford.  In  1525  the  title  was  revived  in  the  person 
of  Lord  Ros,  and  the  tenth  earl  was  created  duke  in  1703.  At 
the  battle  of  Stamford  in  1470  Lancaster  was  defeated  by  Edward 
IV.  The  only  old  castle  of  which  there  are  important  remains,  is 
Oakham;  dating  from  the  time  of  Henry  11.,  and  remarkable  for 
its  Norman  ball 

RUTLAND,  a  township  and  village  of  the  United  States, 
capital  of  Rutland  county,  Vermont,  117  miles  north-north- 
west of  Boston.  It  is  an  important  railway  junction, 
being  the  terminus  of  several  minor  lines  and  the  seat  of 
machine-shops  and  engine-houses;  but  its  name  is  even 
better  known  through  its  quarries  of  white  marble.  The 
population  of  the  township  was  12,149  and  that  of  the 
village  7-502  in  1880. 

Chartered  by  New  Hampshire  in  1761  and  again  chartered  as 
Socialborough"iu  1772  by  New  York,  Rutland  became  in  1775 
a  fortified  post  on  the  great  northern  military  road,  and  in  1781 
was  made  the  chief  town  of  Rutland  county.  Between  1784  and 
1804  it  was  one  of  the  capitals  of  the  State. 

RUYSBROECK,  or  RirtSBROEK,  John,  mystic,  was 
born  at  Ruysbroek,  near  Brussels,  about  1293,  and  died  as 
first  prior  of  the  convent  of  Groenendael,  near  Waterloo,  in 
1381.     See  Mysticism,  vol  xvii.  p.  133. 

RUYSCH,  Fkedeeik  (1638-1731),  anatomist,  was 
born  at  The  Hague  in  1638,  and  died  at  Amsterdam  on 
February  22,  1731.     See  Akatomy,  vol.  i.  p.  812. 

RUYSDAEL,  or  RmsDAAX,  Jacob  (c.  1625-1682), 
the  most  celebrated  of  the  Dutch  landscapists,  was  born 
at  Haarlem  about  1625.  The  accounts  of  his  life  are 
very  conflicting,  and  recent  criticism  andresearch  have 
discredited  mlich  that  was  previously  received  as  fact 
regarding  his  career.  He  appears  to  have  studied  under 
his  father  Izaac  Ruysdael,  a  landscape-painter,,  though 
other  authorities  make  him  the  pupil  of  Berghem  and  of 
Albert  van  Everdingen.  The  earliest  date  that  appears 
on  his  paintings  and  etchings  is  1645.  Three  years  later 
he  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  guild  of  St  Luke  in 
Haarlem  ;  in  1659  he  obtained  the  freedom  of  the  city  of 
Amsterdam,  and  we  kaow  that  he  was  resident  there  in 
1668,  for  in  that  year  his  name  appears  as  a  witness  to 
the  marriage  of  Hobbema.  During  his  lifetime  his  works 
were  little  appreciated,  and  he  seems  to  have  sufiered  from 
poverty.  In  1681  the  sect  of  the  Mennonites,  with  whom 
he  was  connected,  petitioned  the  council  of  Haarlem  for 
his  admission  into  the  almshouse  of  the  town,  and  there 
the  artist  died  on  the  14th  of  March  1682. 

The  works  of  Ruysdael  may  be  studied  in  the  Louvre  and  the 
National  GaUcry,  London,  and  in  the  collections  at  The  Hague, 
Amsterdam,  Berlin,  and  Dresden.  '  His  favourite  subjects  are 
simple  woodland  scenes,  similar  to  those  of  Everdingen  and 
Hobbema,  or  views  of  picturesque  mills  and  cottages,  or  of  ruined 
towers  and  temples,  set  upon  broken  ground,  beside  streams  or 
waterfalls.  He  is  especially  noted  as  a  painter  of  trees,  and  his 
rendering  of  foliage,  particularly  of  oak  leafage,  is  characterized 
by  the  greatest  spirit  and  precision.  His  views  of  distant  citiea, 
such  as  that  of  Haarlenr  in  the  possession  of  the  marquis  of  Bute, 
and  that  of  Katwijk  in  the  Glasgow  Corporation  Galleries,  clearly 
indicate  the  influence  of  Rembrandt.  He  frequently  paints  coast- 
scenes,  and  sea-pieces  with  breaking  waves  and  stormy  flkies  filled 
with  wind-driven  clouds,  but  it  is  in  his  rendering  of  lonely 
forest  glades  that  we  find  him  at  his  best.  The  subjects  of  certain 
of  his  mountain  scenes,  with  bold  rocks,  waterialls,  and  fit-trees, 
seem  to  be  taken  from  Norway,  and  have  led  to  the  supposition 
that  he  had  travelled  in  that  country.  We  have,  however,  no 
record  of  such  a  journey,  and  the  works  in  question  are  probaTily 
merely  adaptations  from  the  landscapes  of  Van  Everdingen,  whose 
nianner  he  copied  at  one  period.     Only,  a  aicgie  architeaturtl  subi 


K  U  Y— R  Y  A 


115 


5ect  from  liis  brost  is  known — an  admirable  interior  of  the  New 
jChurch,  AmsterdanJ,  in  the  possession  of  the  marquis  of  Bute.  The 
(prevailing  hue  of  his  landscapes  is  a  full  rich  green,  which,  how- 
ever, has  darkened  with  time,  while  a  clear  grey  tone  is  character- 
istic of  his  sea-pieces. 

The  art  of  Kuysdael.-while  it  shows  little  of  the  scientific  know- 
ledge of  later  landscapists,  is  sensitive  and  poetic  in  sentiment,  and 
direct  and  skilful  in  technique.  Figures  are  sparingly  introduced 
into  hb  compositions,  and  such  as  occur  are  believed  to  be  from  the 
pencils  of  Adrian  Vandevelde,  Philip  Wouwerman,  and  Jan  Lingel- 
lach.  In  his  love  of  landscape  for  itself,  in  his  delight  in  the  quiet 
and  solitude  of  nature,  the  painter  is  thoroughly  modem  in  feeling. 

Ruysdael  etched  a  few  plates,  which  were  reproduced  by  Amand 
Durand  in  1878,  with  text  by  M.  Georges  Duplessis.  The 
"Champ  deBle"  and  the  "Voyageurs"  are  characterized  by  M. 
Duplessis  as  "estanipes  de  haute  valeur  qui  peuvent  fitre  regardees 
comme  les  specimens  les  plus  eiguificatifs  de  I'art  du  paysagiste 
dans  les  Pays-Bas." 

KUYSSELJiDE,  or  RinssELiDE,  a  market-town  of 
Belgium,  in  the  province  of  West  Flanders,  15  miles  south- 
east of  Bruges.  It  is  best  known  as  the  seat  of  a  great 
reformatory  for  boys,  founded  by  the  Government  in  1849. 
The  population  was  6663  in  1874,  and  6670  in  1881. 

RUYTER,  Michael  Adeian  de  (1607-1676),  a  dis- 
tinguished Dutch  naval  ofiBcer,  was  born  at  Flushing,  24  th 
March  1607.  He  began  his  seafaring  life  at  the  age  of 
eleven  as  a  cabin  boy,  and  in  1636  was  entrusted  by  the 
merchants  of  Flushing  with  the  command  of  a  cruiser 
against  the  French  pirates.  In  1640  he  entered  the 
service  of  the  States,  and,  being  appointed  rear-admiral  of 
a  fleet  fitted  out  to  assist  Portugal  against  Spain,  specially 
distinguished  himself  at  Cape  St  Vincent,  3d  November 
1641.  In  the  following  year  he  left  the  service  of  the 
States,  and,  until  the  outbreak  of  war  with  England  in 
1652,  held  command  of  a  merchant  vessel.  In  1653  a 
squadron  of  seventy  vessels  was  despatched  against  the 
English,  under  the  command  of  Admiral  Tromp.  Ruyter, 
who  accompanied  the  admiral  in  this  expedition,  seconded 
him  with  great  skill  and  bravery  in  the  three  battles 
which  were  fought  with  the  English.  He  was  afterwards 
stationed  in  the  Mediterranean,  where  he  captured  several 
Turkish  vessels.  In  1659  he  received  a  commission  to 
join  the  king  of  Denmark  in  bis  war  with  the  Swedes. 
As  a  reward  of  his  services,  the  king  of  Denmark  ennobled 
him  and  gave  him  a  pension.  In  1661  he  grounded  a 
vessel  belonging  to  Tunis,  released  forty  Christian  slaves, 
made  a  treaty  with  the  Tunisians,  and  reduced  the 
Algerine  corsairs  to  submission.  From  his  achievements  on 
the  west  coast  of  Africa  he  was  recalled  in  1665  to  take 
command  of  a  large  fleet  which  had  been  organijed  against 
England,  and  in  May  of  the  following  year,  after  a  long 
contest  off  the  North  Foreland,  he  compelled  the  English  to 
take  refuge  in  the  Thames.  On  Jane  7,  1672,  ho  fought 
a  drawn  battle  with  the  combined  fleets  of  England  and 
France,  in  Southwold  or  Sole  Bay,  and  after  the  fight 
he  convoyed  safely  homo  a  fleet  of  merchantmen.  His 
valour  was  displayed  to  equal  advantage  in  several  engage- 
ments with  the  French  and  English  in  the  following  year. 
In  1676  he  was  despatched  to  the  assistance  of  Spain 
against  France  in  the  Mediterranean,  and,  receiving  a 
mortal  wound  in  the  battle  on  the  21st  April  off 
Messina,  died  on  the  29th  at  Syracuse.  A  patent  by  the 
.king  of  Spain,  investing  him  with  the  dignity  of  duke, 
did  not  reach  the  fleet  till  after  his  death.  His  body 
was  carried  to  Amsterdam,  where  a  magnificent  monu- 
ment to  his  memory  was  erected  by  command  of  the 
states-general. 

See  Life  of  Ruyter  by  Brandt,  Amsterdam,  1687,  and  by  Klopp, 
2d  ed.,  Hanover,  1S08, 

RYAZAf?,  a  government  of  Central  Russia,  is  bounded 
by  Moscow  and  Tula  on  the  W.,  by  Vladimir  on  the  N., 
and  by  Tamboff  on  the  E.  and  S.,  with  an  area  of  16,255 
square  milos,   and  a  population   of  1,713,681  in   1882. 


Ryazan  is  an  intermediate  link  between  the  central  Great 
Russian  governments  and  the  Steppe  governments  of  the 
south-east, — the  wide  and  deep  valley  of  the  Oka,  by  which 
it  is  traversed  from  west  to  east,  with  a  broad  curve  to  the 
south,  being  the  natural  boundary  between  the  two.  On 
the  left  of  the  Oka  the  surface  often  consists  of  sands, 
marshes,  and  forests ;  while  on  the  right  the  fertile  black- 
earth  prairies  begin,  occupying  especially  the  southern 
part  of  the  government  (the  districts  of  Ranenburg, 
Sapojok,  and  Dankoff).  The  whole  of  Ryazan  is  a  plateau 
about  700  feet  above  the  sea,  but  deeply  cut  by  the  river 
valleys  and  numerous  ravines.  The  geological  formations 
represented  are  the  Devonian,  the  Carboniferous,  the 
Jurassic,  and  the  Quaternary.  The  Devonian  appears  in 
the  deeper  valleys  in  the  south,  and  belongs  to  the  well- 
known  "  Malevka-Muraevnya  horizon,"  now  considered  as 
equivalent  to  the  Cypridina  eerraio-striata  Upper 
Devonian  deposits  of  the  Eifel.  The  Carboniferous 
deposits  are  widely  spread,  and  appear  at  the  surface  in 
the  bottoms  of  the  ravines  and  valleys.  They  contain 
strata  of  excellent  coal  between  plastic  blue  clays,  which 
are  worked  at  several  places.  Upper  Carboniferous  lime- 
stones, as  also  sandstones,  the  age  of  which  has  not  yet 
been  determined,  but  which  seem  to  be  Lower  Jurassic, 
cover  the  Carboniferous  clays.  The  Upper  Jurassic  de- 
posits are  widely  spread,  but  they  have  been  much  destroyed 
and  now  appear  as  separate  insular  tracts.  They  belong 
to  the  Oxford  and  Callovian  horizons,  the  former  contain- 
ing corals,  which  are  very  rare  on  the  whole  in  the 
Russian  Jurassic  deposits.  The  Quaternary  deposits  are 
represented  by  the  Glacial  boulder  clay  and  more  recent 
alluvial  deposits,  which  occupy  wide  areas  in  the  valley  of 
the  Oka.  Iron-ores,  limestone,  grindstone  grits,  potters* 
clays,  and  thick  beds  of  peat  are  worked,  besides  coal. 
The  northern  parts  of  Ryazan  belong  to  the  forest  regions 
of  Russia,  and,  notwithstanding  the  wholesale  destructioa 
of  forests  in  that  part  of  the  country,  these  (chiefly  Coni- 
ferous) still  cover  one-third  of  the  surface  in  several  dis« 
tricts.  In  the  south,  -where  the  proximity  of  the  Steppes  is 
felt,  they  are  much  less  extensive,  the  prevailing  species 
being  oak,  birch,  and  other  deciduous  trees.  They  cover 
an  aggregate  area  of  more  than  2  million  acres. 

The  Oka  is  the  chief  river ;  it  is  navigable  throughout, 
and  receives  the  navigable  Pronya,  Pra,  and  Tsna,  besides 
a  great  many  smaller  streams  utilized  for  floating  timber. 
■  Steamers  ply  on  the  Oka  to  Kasimoff  and  Nijni  Novgorod. 
The  Don  and  the  Lyesnoi  Voronezh  belong  to  Ryazan  in 
their  upper  courses  only.  On  the  whole,  the  south  dis- 
tricts are  not  well  watered.  Small  lakes  are  numerous 
in  the  broad  depression  of  the  Oka  and  elsewhere,  while 
extensive  marshes  cover  the  north-east  districts ;  a  few 
attempts  at  draining  several  of  those  on  the  banks  of  the 
Oka  have  resulted  in  the  reclamation  of  excellent  pasture 
lands.  The  climate  is  a  little  warmer  than  at  Moscow,  the 
average  temperature  at  Ryazaii  being  41°. 

The  territory  of  Ryazan  was  occupied  in  tho  9th 
century  by  Finnish  stems  (Mordvinians,  Mers,  Muroma, 
and  Meschers),  which  for  tho  most  part  have  cither  given 
way  before  or  disappeared  amongst  the  Slavonian  colonizers. 
Tho  population  is  now  Great  Russian  throughout,  and 
contains  only  a  trifling  admixture  of  some  6000  Tartars,' 
1500  Poles,  and  500  Jews  in  towns.  Some  Tartars' 
immigrated  into  the  Kasimoff  region  in  the  15th  century,' 
and  are  noted  for  their  honesty  of  character  as  well  as  for 
their  agricultural  prosperity.  Tho  people  of  tho  Pta  river, 
are  described  ns  Mescheriaks,  but  their  manners  and 
customs  do  not  differ  from  those  of  the  Russians. 

The  chief  occupation  in  Rvazaft  isnRricuUure.  Outof  10,100,00(1 
acrt'3  only  £38,000  sre  u'ulit  for  tiUai|t«.  5,482,000  urt*  af« 
under  crops,  and  tlicnnnual  produce  i«e,timotcd  ot  about  i.Hi'f.fHtO 


116 


R  Y  A  —  R  Y  C 


quartera  ot  corn  and  972,000  qtiiu-tCTs  of  potatoes.  Tlie  ai-ea  uuder 
cultivation  and  the  ci'ops  themselves  are  increasing,  as  also  is  the 
export  of  corn.--  But  even  here,  in  one  of  the  wealthiest  govern- 
pents  of  Fnssia,  the  situation  of  the  peasants  is  fai-  from  satis- 
jfectory.  Cattle-breeding  is  rapidly  falling  off  on  account  of  wajit 
of  pasture  lands,  hut  hay,  which  is  abundant,  especially  on  the  rich 
miadow  lands  of  the  Oka,  is  exported.  In  1SS2  tliere  were 
283,500  horses,  'JG2,200  cattle,  and  839,600  sheeii,  the  figures 
h.-i-ving  been  446,000,  297,000,  and  847,000  respectively  in  1S5S. 
In  the  northeni  part  of  the  government  varions  industries  aro 
carried  on,  such  as  boatbuilding,  the  preparation  of  pitch  and  tar, 
the  manufacture  of  wooden  vessels,  sledges,  &c  Various  otlier 
petty  trades,  such  as  weaving,  lace-maldng,  and  boot-making,  are 
co:nbiued  with  agriciiltnre.  ilanufactures  also  have  lately  begun 
to  make  progress,  and  iu  1832  their  aggregate  pioduction  reached 
I'tjOOOiOOO  roubles  (cotton  and  fla.^-spinniug  mills,  glass-works 
and  metal-\rare  works,  and  distilleries,  the  last-named  producing 
to  the  value  of  1,850,000  roubles).  Trade,  especially  in  com  and 
other  agricultural  produce  and  in  merchandise  manufactured  in 
the  villages,  is  very  active.  The  railway  from  Eyazaii  to  JIoscow 
is  one  of  the  most  important  in  Russia,  from  the  amount  of  goods 
carried  from  the  south-east  Steppe  governments.  The  Oka  is 
another  artery  ot  ti'afGc,  the  aggregate  amount  shipped  to  or 
sent  from  its  ports  within  Ryazan  reaching  3,634,000  cwts.  in 
1880.  The  government  is  divided  into  twelre  districts,  the  chief 
towns  of  wliich,  with  their  populations  in  1883,  are  subjoined : 
Kyazaii  (30,325  inhabitants),  Dankoff  (2475),  Egorievsk  (6055), 
Kasimoff  (15,260),  Mikhailolf  (2720),  Pronsk  (1740),  Ranenburg 
1(^500),  Ryazhsk  (4265),  Sapojok  (2670),  Skopin  (10,260),  Spasik 
(4320),  and  Zaraisk  (5870).  Ranenburg,  Skopin,  and  Zaraisk  are 
important  markets  for  corn  and  hemp.  Several  villages,  such  as 
fclui-aevuya,  Dyediuovo  (G600)  and  Lovtsy  (loading  places  on  the 
Oka),  and  Ukolovo  (market  for  corn),  have  more  commerce  and 
industry  than  the  district  to\\nis.  Large  villages  are  mimerons, 
about  si.tty  having  each  from  2500  to  7000  inhabitants. 

The  Slavonians  began  to  colonize  the  region  of  Ryazaii  as  early 
as  the  9th  century,  penetrating  thither  both  from  the  north-west 
(Givat  Russians)  and  from  the  Dnieper  (Little  Russians).  As  early 
as  the  10th  centruy  the  principality  of  Murom  and  Eyazafl  ia 
mentioned  in  the  chronicles.  During  the  following  centuries 
this  principality  increased  both  in- extent  and  in  wealth  and 
included  parts  of  what  are  now  the  governments  of  Kaluga  and 
Moscow.  Owing  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  its  Russian  popula- 
tion rapidly  increased,  while  the  Frnnish  stems  which  formerly 
inhabited  it  migrated  farther  east,  or  became  merged  among  the 
^Uivonians.  A  dozen  towns,  all  fortified  and  commercial,  are 
Jnentioiicd  as  belonging  to  the  principality  towards  the  end  of  the 
J 2th  century.  The  Mongolian  invasion  stopped  all  this  develop- 
ment. The  horsemen  of  Batu  burned  and  destroyed  several  towns 
in  1237,  and  killed  many  people,  desolating  the  country.  The 
principality,  however,  still  continued  to  exist ;  its  great  princes 
strongly  opposed  the  annexation  plans  of  Moscow,  making  alliance 
^ith  tlio  ilongols  aud  with  Lithuania,  but  they  succumbed,  and, 
the  last'of  them,  Ivan,  having  been  imprisoned  in  Moscow,  his' 
principality  was  definitively  annexed  in  1517. 

RYAZ«^,  capital  of  the  above  government,  lies  119 
miles  to  tbe  south-east  of  JIoscow,  on  the  elevated  right 
batik  of  the  Trubej,  a  mile  above  its  junction  with  the 
Oka.  A  wide  prairie  dotted  with  large  villages,  being  the 
bottom  of  a  former  lake,  spreads  out  from  the  base  of  the 
crag  on  which  Ryazaii  stands,  and  has  the  aspect  of  an 
immense  lake  when  it  is  inundated  in  the  spring.  Except 
one  or  two  streets,  the  town  is  badly  built,  chiefly  of  wood, 
and  ill-paved.  It  has  often  suffered  from  fire,  and  has  few 
remains  of  former  days.  The  large  church  of  Uspensk 
dates  from  1770.  Those  of  Arkhangelsk  and  Kresto- 
vozdvijensk  have  preserved,  however,  their  old  archi- 
tecture, though  obliterated  to  some  extent  by  subsequent 
repairs,  as  also  the  archi episcopal  palace,  formerly  the 
"terem"  of  the  great  princes.  The  industries  are  un- 
dcveloi>ed,  and  the  trade  has  less  importance  than  might 
be  expected  from  the  position  of  the  town  in  so  rich  a  region.' 
It  is,  however,  an  important  railway  centre,  no  less  than 
15,000,000  cwts.,  chiefly  of  corn,  being  bi-ought  from  the 
south-east  and  sent  on  to  Moscow,  while  nearly  3,390,000 
cwts.  of  various  manufactured  and  grocery  wares  are  con- 
veyed in  the  opposite  direction.  The  loading  place  on  the 
Oka  also  has  some  importance.  The  population,  30,325 
(n  1883,  is  increasing  but  slowly. 

The  capital  of  Ryazati  principality  was  Jlyozatl — now  Old  Ryc-iB, 
1  village  cloii«_to^§passk,  aUo  on  the   Oka.     It  la  mentioned  ia 


annals  as  early  as  1097,  but  continued  to  be  the  chief  town  of  tin 

lirincipality  only  until  the  14th  century.  In  the  11th  century 
one  of  the  Kielf  princes — probably  Yaroslaff  Svyatoslavitch  in 
1095 — founded,  on  the  banks  of  a  small  lake,  a  fort  which  received 
the  name- of  PereyaslaJT-Ryazanskny.  In  1294  (or  in  1335)  the 
bishop  of  Murom,  compelled  to  leave  liis  own  town  and  probably 
following  the  usual  policy  of  that  epoch,— that  of  selecting  a  new 
town  with  DO  municipal  tiaditions,  as  the  nucleus  of  a  new  state, 
— settled  in  Pereyaslaff-Ryazanskiy,  aud  thus  gave  new  importance 
to  tills  formerly  insignificant  settlement.  The  great  princes  of 
Ryazan  followed  his  example  and  by-and-by  completely  abandoned 
the  old  republican  town  of  Ryazan,  transferring  also  its  name  to 
Pereyaslaff-Ryazanskiy.  In  1300  a  congress  of  Russian  princes 
was  held  there,  and  in  the  foUowing  year  the  town  was  taken  by 
the  Moscow  prince.  It  continued,  however,  to  be  the  residence 
of  the  Eyazarl  princes  until  1517.  In  1365  and  1377  it  was 
plundered  and  burned  by  Tartars,  but  in  the  two  followuig 
centuries  (in  1460,  1513,  1521,  and  1564)  it  was  strong  enough 
to  repel  them.  Earthen  walls  with  toweis  were  erected  after 
1301  ;  and  iri  the  17th  century  a  "kreml"  still  stood  on  the  high 
crag  above  t4ie  Trubej.  Ryazan  became  chief  town  of  the  Kjazaa 
lieutenancy  in  1778. 

RYBINSK,  or  Ruibinsk,  though  but  a  district  town  of 
the  goverrment  of  Yaroslavl,  with  a  permanent  population 
(1883)  of  ouly  18,900,  is,  as  being  virtually  the  port  of 
St  Petersburg  on  the  Volga,  one  of  the  most  important 
towns  of  the  northern  part  of  Central  Russia.  It  lies  54 
mUes  to  the  north-west  of  Yaroslavl,  and  is  connected  by 
rail  (186  miles)  with  Bologoye,  on  the  line  between  St 
Petersburg  and  Moscow.  It  derives  its  importance  from 
its  situation  on  the  Volga,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the 
Sheksna, — one  of  those  tributaries  which,  flowing  from 
the  north-west,  have  since  the  dawn  of  Russian  history 
connected  the  Volga  with  the  regions  around  Lake 
Ladoga.  Russians  settled  there  as  early  as  the  12th 
century,  or  perhaps  eirlier;  subsequently  it  seems  to 
have  become  a  mere  fishing  station  under  Moscow,  with 
perhaps  some  shipbuilding.  It  became  a  considerable 
centre  for  traffic  when  the  Vyshnevolotsk,  Tikhvinsk,  and 
Mariinsk  canal  systems,  connecting  St  Petersburg  with 
the  Volga,  were  opened.  The  cargoes  of  the  larger  boats 
from  the  lower  Volga,  consisting  mainly  of  corn  and  flour, 
as  also  of  salt,  spirits,  potash,  and  tallow,  are  here  trans- 
ferred to  smaller  boats  capable  of  accomplishing  the 
navigation  to  St  Petersburg,  and  vice  versa.  The  amount 
of  goods  thus  transhipped  is  estimated  at  16,000,000 
cwts.,  worth  32,800,000  roubles.  Since  the  opening  of 
the  line  to  Bologoye,  a  large  proportion  of  this  merchandise 
is  sent  to  St  Petersburg  by  rail  (9,293,000  cwts,  in  1880). 
The  total  number  of  boats  visiting  Rybinsk  anntially  is 
estimated  at  5000  to  7000,  their  aggregate  cargoes 
amounting  to  nearly  20,000,000  cwts.  (about  40,000,000 
roubles).  Upwards  of  100,000  labourers  (male  and  female) 
assemble  at  Rybinsk  during  the  navigation,  and  the  num- 
ber of  vessels  is  so  great  as  to  cover  the  Volga  and  the 
Sheksna  like  a  bridge.  Besides  the  business  of  tranship- 
ment, Rybinsk  has  an  active  trade  in  corn,  hemp,  &c.,  from 
the  neighbouring  districts.  The  town  is  but  poorly  built, 
and  its  sanitary  condition  leaves  very  much  to  be  desired, 
especially  in  summer. 

RYCAUT,  or  Ricaut,  Sir  Padx  (d.  1700),  traveller 
and  diplomatist,  was  the  tenth  son  of  Sir  Peter  Ricaut,  a 
Royalist  who  on  account  of  his  support  of  King  Charles 
had  to  pay  a  composition  of  .£1500.  The  son  was  admitted 
a  scholar  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1647,  and  took 
his  B.A.  degree  iu  1650.  After  travelling  in  Europe  and 
in  various  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  he  in  1661  accom- 
panied as  secretary  the  earl  of  Winchelsea,  ambassador 
extraordinary  to  Turkey.  During  a  residence  there  of 
eight  years  he  wrote  The  Present  State  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  in  three  books ;  containing  the  Maxims  of  the 
Turkish  Politic,  their  Religion  and  Military  Discipline 
(1670;  4th  ed.,  1686;  Fr.  transl  by  Briot,  1670;  and 
another  with  notes  by  Bespier,   1677).     In  1663  he  pub- 


ii  X  U  — R  ^   E 


ir 


lished  at  Constantinople  The  Capitulation, '  A  rticles  of 
Peace,  ir.,  concluded  between  the  Kinr/  of  Enijland  and  t/if 
Sultan  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Subsequently  ho  was  for 
eleven  years  consul  at  Smyrna,  and  at  the  command  of 
Charles  II.  wrote  The  Present  Stale  of  the  Greek  and 
Armenian  Churches,  Anno  Christi  167S,  which  on  his 
return  to  England  he  presented  to  the  king  and  published 
in  1679.  In  1685  Lord  Clarendon,  lord  lieutenant  of 
Ireland,  made  him  principal  secretary  for  the  provinces  of 
Leinster  and  Connaught.  He  at  the  same  time  received 
from  James  11.  the  honour  of  knighthood,  was  made  a 
member  of  the  privy  council  of  Ireland,  and  named  judge 
of  the  high  court  of  admiralt\-,  which  office  he  retained 
till  1688.--  From  1690  to  1700  he  was  employed  by  King 
William  ■  as  English  resident  at  the  Hanse  towns,  and 
shortly  after  his  return  to  England,  worn  out  with  age  and 
infirmities,  he  died  on  the  16th  December  1700. 

Eycaut  was  a  ft-llow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  wrote  an  article 
on  Sable  Jlice  which  was  published  in  their  Transactions.  In 
addition  to  the  works  already  mcutioncd  he  was  the  author  of 
A  Continuation  of  KnolUs  History  of  the  Turks  from  1G23  to  1677 
(1680),  and/rcni  1679  to  1609  (1700)  ;  A  Translation  of  Flatina's 
Lives  of  the  Popes,  with  a  Continuation  from  1471  to  the  Present 
Time  (1685) ;  The  Crilick,  from  the  Spanish  of  Gracian  (16S6) ; 
and  the  Poyal  Commentaries  of  Peru,  from  the  Sjyanish  of 
Garcilasso  (1688). 

RYDE,  a  municipal  borough  and  watering  place  of  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  is  finely  situated  on  a  sloping  eminence 
above  the  Solent,  5  miles  south  by  west  of  Portsmouth, 
and  7  (12  by  rail)  from  AVest  Cowes.  It  occupies  the  site 
of  a  village  called  La  Eye  or  La  Piiche,  which  was  destroyed 
by  the  French  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IL  About  the  close 
of  the  18th  century  it  was  a  small  fishing  hamlet,  but 
[B'hen  the  beauty  of  its  site  attracted  attention  it  rapidly 
grew  into  favour  as  a  watering-place.  The  streets  are 
■vfide,  regular,  and  wcllpaved,  and  there  are  a  large  number 
cif  fine  villas  on  the  slopes  of  the  hill.  It  is  connected 
by  rail  with  the  principal  other  towns  in  the  island,  and 
there  is  also  steamboat  communication  with  Portsmouth, 
Southampton,  Soutbsca,  Portsca,  and  Stoke's  Bay.  The 
pier,  built  originally  in  1812,  but  since  then  greatly  ex- 
tended, forms  a  delightful  promenade  half  a  mile  in  length. 
The  principal  buildings  are  All  Saints  church,  erected  in 
1870  from  the  designs  of  Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  and  other 
churches,  the  market-house  and  town  hall,  the  Pioyal  Vic- 
toria Yacht  club-house,  the  theatre,  and  the  Royal  Isle  of 
Wight  Infirmary.  The  town  was  incorporated  in  1868, 
and  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  six  aldermen,  and  eighteen 
councillors.  The  population  of  the  municipal  borough  (area 
t792  acres)  in  1871  was  11,260  and  in  1881  it  was  11,461. 

RYE.  As  in  the  case  of  other  cereals,  it  is  doubtful  if 
rye  {Secale  cereale)  exists  at  the  present  time  in  a  truly 
wild  state.  The  best  evidence  on  this  point  goes  to 
6l\ow  that  the  plant  is  a  native  of  tlio  regions  between 
the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas.  It  is  also  recorded  from 
Afghanistan  and  Turkestan  ;  but  botanists  arc  very  chary 
about  admitting  the  validity  of  the  e^'idence  hitherto 
adduced.  Aitcbison,  the  latest  investigator  of  the  flora  of 
Afghanistan,  mentions  it  as  growing  in  wheat-fields,  where 
it  is  considered  as  a  weed,  not  being  intentionally  sown.  In 
some  fields  "  it  almost  eradicates  the  wheat  crop."  Pmt 
this  merely  shows  that  the  conditions  arc  more  favourable 
to  the  growtli  of  rye  than  to  that  of  wheat.  In  spite  of 
tlic  uncertainty  as  to  the  precise  origin  of  the  cultivated 
plant,  its  cultivation  docs  not  appear  to  have  been  practised 
at  a  very  early  date,  relatively  speaking.  Alphonse  de 
Candollo,  who  has  collected  the  evidence  on  tins  point, 
draws  attention  to  the  fact  that  no  traces  of  this  cereal 
liave  liitherto  been  found  in  Egyptian  monuments  or  in 
[the  earlier  Swiss  dwellings,  though  seeds  have  been  found 
Sn   association    with    weapons   of   the   Bronze   period   at 


Olmiitz.  The  absence  of  any  special  name  for  it  in  tho 
Semitic,  Chinese,  and  Sarvskrit  languages  is  also  adduced 
as  an  indication  of  its  comparatively  recent  culture.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  general  occurrence  of  the  name  in  tho 
more  modern  languages  of  northern  Europe,  under  various 
modifications,  points  to  the  cultivation  of  the  plant  then, 
as  now,  in  those  regions.  The  origin  of  tho  Latin  name 
secale,  which  exists  in  a  modified  form  among  tho  Bascjues 
and  Bretons,  is  not  explained.  The  circumstances  that  tho 
cultivation  of  rye  is  relatively  not  of  great  antiquity  and 
that  it  is  confined  to  a  relatively  restricted  area  must  be 
taken  into  account,  in  connexion  with  the  fact  that  tlio 
variations  of  this  cereal  are  much,  fewer  than  are  noted  in 
the  case  of  other  plants  of  like  character. 

The  fact  stated  by  Jliiller  that  the  anthers  and  stigmas 
of  the  flowers  come  to  maturity  at  the  same  time  would 
tend  to  "close  fertilization"  and  a  consequent  constancy  ol 
"characters"  in  tho  offspring,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,' 
the  varieties  of  this  grass  are  not  numerous.  Eye  is  a 
tall-growing  annual  grass,  with  fibrous  roots,  flat,  narrow,' 
ribbon-like  bluish-green  leaves,  and  erect  or  dccurvcd 
cylindrical  slender  spikes  like  those  of  barley.  The  spike, 
lets  contain  two  or  three  flowers,  of  which  the  uppermost 
is  usually  imperfect.  The  outer  glumes  are  acute  glabrous, 
the  flowering  glumes  lance-shaped,  with  a  comb-like  keel 
at  the  back,  and  thp.  outer  or  lower  one  prolonged  at  the 
apex  into  a  very  long  bristly  awn.  Within  these  are  threa 
stamens  surrounding  a  compressed  ovary,  with  two  feathery 
stigmas.  When  ripe,  the  grain  is  of  an  elongated  oval 
form,  with  a  few  hairs  at  the  summit. 

In  the  southern  parts  of  Great  Britain  rye  is  chiefly  or 
solely  cultivated  as  a  forage-plant  for  cattle  and  horse.s, 
being  usually  sown  in  autumn  for  spring  use,  after  tho 
crop  of  roots,  turnips,  Ac,  is  exhausted,  and  before  the 
clover  and  lucerne  are  ready.  For  forage  purposes  it  is 
best  to  cut  earl)',  before  the  leaves  and  haulms  have  beeni 
exhausted  of  their  supplies  to  benefit  the  grain.  In  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe,  and  more  especially  in  Scnn-i 
dinavia,  Russia,  and  parts  of  northern  Germanj',  rye  is  the 
principal  cereal ;  and  in  nutritive  value,  as  measured  by  the 
amiumt  of  gluten  it  contains,  it  stands  next  to  wheat,  a 
fact  which  furnishes  the  explanation  of  its  culture  in 
northern  latitudes  ill-suited  for  the  growth  o,'  wheat.  Rye- 
bread  or  black-bread  is  in  general  use  in  northern  Europe, 
but  finds  little  favour  with  those  unaccustomed  to  its  use, 
owing  to  its  sour  taste,  the  sugar  it  contains  rapidlj 
passing  into  the  acetous  fermentation. 

When  the  ovaries  of  the  plant  become  affected  with  oi 
peculiar  fungus  {Cordyceps),  they  become  blackened  and 
distorted,  constituting  Eroox  (<?•«'■). 

RYE,  a  municipal  town  and  seaport  at  tho  eastern 
extremity  of  the  county  of  Sussex,  63  miles  south-south^ 
east  of  London,  is  built  upon  a  rocky  eminence  which  two 
or  three  centuries  ago  was  washed  on  all  sides  by  the 
influx  of  the  tide,  but  now,  in  consequence  of  tho  gradual 
recession  of  tho  sea,  lies  two  miles  inland.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  rich  marsh  land  through  which  flows  tho  riven 
Bother,  uniting  at  the  south-east  foot  of  tho  rock  witbl 
two  rivulets  to  form  a  small  serpentine  estuary,  Rye 
harbour,  tho  mouth  of  which  is  connected  with  tho  town 
by  means  of  a  branch  lino  of  railway.  In  bygone^ycnrs, 
when  the  adjacent  marshes  were  flooded  with  tidal  water, 
tho  efllux  was  so  powerful  as  to  cfTectnally  maintain  safe 
and  free  entrance  into  Rye  harbour ;  and  in  tho  reign  oi 
Charles  II.  a  frigate  of  r>0  guns,  could  enter  and  ride  at 
anchor.  Now  tho  liilrbour "suffers  seriou.tly  from  thel 
shifting  .sand  a,nd  .shingle,  and  considornblo  sums  of  moncV 
have  been  expended  by  tho  harbour  commis->-ioncrs  witU 
tho  view  of  overcoming  these  impediments,  with  but 
.partial   rucccssu  J.'1)o_ trade  ia  chiaflj.  in.  coal,   timherj 


118 


R  Y  E  —  R  Y  M 


and  bark,  and  shipbuilding  is  carried  on  as  well  as  fish- 
ing. There  is  a  large  market  every  alternate  Wednesday, 
■nd  considerable  business  in  cattle,  sheep,  corn,  wool,  and 
hops  is  transacted.  Rye  is  a  quaint,  compactly-built  town 
perched  upon  the  rock  to  which  for  centuries  it  was 
restricted,  but  in  the  course  of  the  last  half-century  it  has 
gradually  extended  itself  over  the  northern  slopes  beyond 
the  town  wall.  It  is  excellently  drained,  abundantly 
supplied  with  clear  spring  water,  and  very  healthy. 
The  church,  said  to  be  the  largest  parish  church  in  Eng- 
land, is  of  very  mixed  architecture,  chiefly  Transitional, 
Norman,  and  Early  English ;  the  nave  and  high  chancel 
were  judiciously  restored  in  1882,  according  to  designs  by 
the  late  Mr  G.  E.  Street.  Of  the  old  fortifications  there 
still  remain  portions  of  the  town  wall,  much  hidden  by 
newer  buildings,  a  strong  quadrangular  tower  built  by 
1  William  of  Ypres,  earl  of  Kent,  and  lord  warden  in  the  time 
of  Stephen,  and  now  forming  part  of  the  police  station, 
and  a  handsome  gate  with  a  round  tower  on  each  side, 
known  as  the  Sandgate,  at  the  entrance  into  Rye  from  the 
London  road.  Rye  ceased  in  1885  to  be  a  parliamentary 
borough,  but  gives  its  name  to  the  eastern  division  of  the 
county.  •  The  population  in  1881  was  4224. 

Of  the  early  history  of  Rj-e  little  is  known.  In  the  nieiliaeval 
Freuch  chronicles  it  is  always  mentioned  as  "La  Rie."  Having 
been  conferred  upon  the  abbey  of  Fecamp  by  Edward  the  Confessor, 
it  was  taken  back  by  King  Henry  III.  into  his  own  hands,  "for 
the  better  defence  of  his  realm,"  and  received  from  that  sovereign 
the  full  rights  and  privileges  of  a  Cinque  Port  under  the  title  of 
"Ancient  Town."  In  cousequeuce  of  the  frequent  incursions  of 
the  French,  by  whom  it  was  sacked  and  burnt  three  times  in. the 
l<th  century,  it  was  fortified  by  order  of  Edward  III.  on  the  land- 
,tvard  side,  the  steep  precipitous  sides  of  the  rock  affording  ample 
protection  towards  the  sea.  lu  addition  to  the  naval  services 
■rendered  by  Rye  as  a  Cinque  Port  under  the  Plantagenet  and 
Tudor  sovereigns,  it  was  a  principal  port  of  communication  with 
France  in  times  of  peace, — for  which  reason  successive  bauds  of 
jHu^uenots  fled  thither  between  1562  and  1685,  many  of  whom 
Bettled  at  Rye  and  have  left  representatives  now  living. 

RYEZHITZA,  a  town  of  European  Russia  at  the  head 
of -a  district  in  the  Vitebsk  government,  in  56"  30'  N.  lat. 
and  27°  21'  E.  long.,  198  miles  north-west  from  Vitebsk 
on  the  railway  between  St  Petersburg  and  Warsaw,  near 
the  Ryezhitza,  which  falls  into  Lake  Luban.  Its  popu- 
lation increased  from  7306  (2902  Jews)  in  1867  to 
about  9000  in  1881 ;  but  its  importance  is  mainly  histori- 
cal. The  cathedral  is  a  modern  building  (1846). 
'  Ryezhitza,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  the  Livoniau  chronicles,  Boziten, 
was  founded  in  1285  by  W'ilhelm  von  Harburg  to  keep  in  subjec- 
tion the  Lithuanians  and  Letts.  The  castle  w.as  continually  the 
object  of  hostile  attacks.  In  1559  the  Livoni.nn  order,  e.-shausted 
by  the  war  with  Russia,  gave  it  in  pawn  to  Poland,  and,  though 
it  was  captured  by  the  Russians  in  1567  aud  1577,  and  had  its 
fortifications  dismantled  by  the  Swedes  during  the  war  of  1656- 
11660,  it  continued  Polish  till  1772,  when  White  Russia  was  united 
jwith  the  Russian  empire.  lu  early  times  Rvezhitza  was  a  largo 
and  beautiful  town. 

RYLAND,  William  Wynne  (1738-1783),  engraver, 
was  born  in  London  in  July  1738,  the  son  of  an  engraver 
knd  copper-plate  printer.  He  studied  under  Ravenet,  and 
in  Paris  under  Boucher  and  J.  P.  le  Bas.  After  spending 
five  years  on  the  Continent  he  returned  to  England,  and 
having  engraved  portraits  of  George  IH.  and  Lord  Bute 
after  Ramsay  (a  commission  declined  by  Strange),  and  a 
portrait  of  Queen  Charlotte  and  the  Princess  Royal  after 
Francis  Cotes,  R.A.,  he  was  appointed  engraver  to  the 
king.  ■  In  1766  he  became  a  member  of  the  Incorporated 
'  Society  of  Artists,  and  he  exhibited  with  them  and  in  the 
Royal  Academy.  In  his  later  life  Ryland  abandoned  line- 
engraving,  and  introduced  "chalk-engraving,"  in  which 
the  line  is  composed  of  stippled  dots,  a  method  by  means 
of  which  he  attained  great  excellence,  and  in  which  he 
transcribed  Mortimer's  King  John  Signing  Magna  Charta, 
tuid  coyi^dthe  drawings  of  the  o)/i  masters  and  the  works 


of  Angelica  Kauflman.  He  traded  largoly  IP  prints,  bni 
in  consequence  of  his  extravagant  habits  hir,  affairs  became 
involved ;  he  was  convicted  of  forging  bills  upon  the  East 
India  Company,  and,  after  attempting  to  commit  suicide, 
was  executed  at  Tyburn  on  the  29th  of  August  1783.  A. 
short  memoir  of  Ryland  was  published  the  year  after  his 
death. 

RYJIER,  Thomas  (1641-1713),  historiographer  royal, 
was  the  younger  son  of  Ralph  Rymer,  lord  of  the  manor 
of  Brafferton  in  Yorkshire,  described  by  Clarendon  as 
"  possessed  of  a  good  estate  "  and  executed  for  his  share  in 
the  "  Presbyterian  rising"  of  1663.  Thomas  was  probably 
born  at  Yafforth  Hall  early  in  1641,  and  was  educated  at 
a  private  school  kept  by  Thomas  Smelt,  a  noted  Royalist, 
with  whom  Rymer  was  "  a  great  favourite,"  ^nd  "  well 
kno\vn  for  his  great  critical  skill  in  human  _  learning, 
especially  in  poetry  and  history.''  ^  _  _       — i 

He  was  admitted  as  peimonarius  minor  at  Sidney 
Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  on  April  29,  1658,  but  left 
the  university  without  taking  a  degree.  On  May  2,  1666, 
he  became  a  member  of  Gray's  Inn,  and  was  called  to  the 
bar  on  June  16,  1673.  His  first  appearance  in  print  was 
as  translator  o!  Cicero^s  Prince  (1668),  from  the  Latin 
treatise  (1608)  drawn  up  for  I'rince  Henry.  He  also 
translated  Rapin's  Reflections  on  Aristotle's  Treatise  of 
Poesie  (1674),  and  followed  the  principles  there  set  forth 
in  a  tragedy  in  verse,  licensed  September  13,  1677,  called 
Edgar,  or  the  Enr;/ish  Monarch,  which  was  not,  howeveiv' 
very  successful.  The  printed  editions  of  1678,  1G91,  and 
1693  belong  to  the  same  issue,  with  new  title-pages, 
Rymer's  views  on  the  drama  were  again  given  to  tha 
worli  in  the  shape  of  a  printed  letter  to  Fleetwood  Shep- 
heard,  the  friend  of  Prior,  under  the  title  of  The  Tragedies 
of  the  Last  Age  Considered  (1678).  To  Ovid's  Epistles 
Translated  by  Several  Hands  (1680),  with  preface  by  Dry- 
den,  "Penelope  to  Ulysses"  was  contributed  by  Rymer, 
who  was  also  one  of  the  "hands",  who  Englished  the 
Plutarch  of  1683-86.  The  life  of  Nicias  fell  to  his  share. 
He  furnished  a  preface  to  Whitelocke's  J/emorj'a/s  of  Eng- 
lish Affairs  (1682),  and  wrote  in  1681  A  General  Draught 
and  Prospect  of  the  Government  of  Europe,  reprinted  in 
1689  and  1714  as  Of  the  Antiquity,  Power,  and  Decay  of 
Parliaments,  where,  ignorant  of  his  future  dignity,  the 
critic  had  the  misfortune  to  observe,  "You  arc  not  to 
expect  truth  from  an  historiographer  royal"  He  con- 
tributed three  pieces  to  the  collection  of  Poems  to  the 
Memory  of  Edmund  Waller  (1688),  afterwards  reprinted 
in  Dryden's  Miscellany  Poems,  and  is  said  to  have  wTitten 
the  Latin  inscription  on  Waller's  monument  in  Beaconsfleld 
churchyard.  He  produced  a  congratulatory  poem  upon  the 
arrival  of  Queen  Mary  in  1689.  His  nest  piece  of  author- 
ship was  to  translate  the  sixth  elegy  of  the  third  book 
of  Ovid's  Tristia  for  Dryden's  Miscellany  Poems  (1692, 
p.  148).  On  the  death  of  Thomas  Shadwell  in  1692 
Rymer  received  the  appointment  of  historiographer  royal, 
at  a  yearly  salary  of  X200.  Immediately  afterwards 
appeared  his  Short  View  of  Tragedy  (1693),  criticizing 
Shakespeare  acid  Ben  Jonson,  which  produced  Thelmpartial 
Critick  (1693)  of  Dennis,  the  epigram  of  Dryden,-  and  the  i 
judgment  of  Macaulay  that  Rymer  was  "the  worst  critic  ^ 
that  ever  lived."  Within  eight  months  of  his  blEcial 
appointment  Rymer  was  directed  (August  26, 1693)  to  carry 

'  See  Hickes,  Memoirs  of  John  KettleweU,  1718,  pp.  10-14. 

-  "The  con-uplion  of  a  poet  is  the  generation  of  a'critic"  {Ded. 
of  the  Third  iliscellany,  in  Works,  1821,  xii.  p.  49),  which  is  much 
more  pointed  than  Beaconsfield's  reference  to  critics  aa  "-men  who 
have  f.iiled  in  literature  and  art"  [Lothair,  chap.  xxxr.).!'or  Balzac's 
sly  hit  at  Jlerimee  in  similar  terms.  The  poet's  remarks  on  the 
Tragedies  of  the  Last  Age  have  been  reprinted  in  his  Works,  1821,  rv., 
pp.  383-96,  and  in  Johnson's  Life  of  Drydx,'^  See.  alsq.  Drjden'a) 
Works,  i..377.  vi-  251    si.  60  xiii.  20. 


R  Z  H  —  R  Z  H 


119 


«u',  that  great  national  undertaking  with  which  his  name 
will  always  be  honourably  connected,  and  of  which  there 
i&  reason  to  believe  that  Lords  Somers  and  Halifax  were 
the  original  promoters.  The  Codex  Juris  Gentium  Diplo- 
'tnaiicus  of  Leibnitz  was  taken  by  the  editor  as  the  model 
of  the  Foedera.  The  plan  was  to  publish  all  records  of 
alliances  and  other  transactions  in  which  England  was 
concerned  with  foreign  powers  from  1101  to  the  time  of 
publication,  limiting  the  collection  to  original  documents 
in  the  royal  archives  and  the  great  national  libraries. 
Unfortunately,  this  was  not  uniformly  carried  out,  and 
the  work  contains  some  extracts  from  printed  chronicles. 
From  1694  he  corresponded  with  Leibnitz,  by  whom  ho 
was  greatly  influenced  with  respect  to  the  plan  and  forma- 
tion of  the  Fcedera.  While  collecting  materials,  Rymer 
unwisely  engraved  a  spurious  charter  of  King  JIalcolm, 
acknowledging  that  Scotland  was  held  in  homage  from 
Edward  the  Confessor.  When  this  came  to  be  known, 
the-  Scottish  antiquaries  were  extremely  indignant.  G. 
Redpath  published  a  ^IS.  on  the  independence  of  the 
Scottish  crown,  by  Sir  T.  Craig,  entitled  Scotland's  Sover- 
eignty Asserted  (1695),  and  the  subject  was  referred  to  by 
Bishop  Nicolson  in  his  Scottish  Historical  Library  (1702). 
This  led  Rymer  to  address  three  Letters  to  the  Bishop  of 
Carlisle  (1702),  explaining  his  action,  and  discussing  other 
antiquarian  matters.  The  first  and  second  letters  are 
usually  found  together ;  the  third  is  extremely  rare.  Rymer 
had  now  been  for  some  years  working  with  great  industry, 
but  was  constantly  obliged  to  petition  the  crown  for  money 
to  carry  on  the  undertaking.  Up  to  August  1698  he 
had  expended  £1253,  and  had  only  received  X500  on 
account. 

At  last,  on  November  20,  1704,  was  issued  the  first 
folio  volume  of  the  Fcedera,  Conventiones,  Litlerx  et  cujuscun- 
qtie  generis  Acta  Publica  inter  reges  Anglix  et  alios  quosvis 
imperatores,  reges,  <i-c.,  ab  a.d.  1101  ad  nostra  usque 
tempora  habita  aut  tractata.  The  publication  proceeded 
with  great  rapidity,  and  fifteen  volumes  were  brought  out 
by  Rymer  in  nine  years.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  copies 
were  printed ;  but,  as  nearly  all  of  them  were  presented  to 
persons  of  distinction,  the  work  soon  became  so  scarce 
that  it  was  priced  by  booksellers  at  one  hundred  guineas. 
A  hundred  and  twenty  sheets  of  the  fifteenth  volume  and 
the  copy  for  the  remainder  were  burnt  at  a  fire  at  William 
Bovfyer's,  the  printer,  on  January  30,  1712-13.  Rymer 
died  shortly  after  the  appearance  of  this  volume,  but  he 
had  prepared  materials  for  carrying  the  work  down  to  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  James  I.  These  were  placed  in  the 
hands  of  Robert  Sanderson,  his  assistant.  For  the  greater 
part  of  his  life  Rymer  derived  his  chief  subsistence  from 
a  mortgage  assigned  to  him  by  his  father.  His  miscel- 
laneous literary  work  could  not  have  been  very  profitable. 
At  one  time  he  was  reduced  to  offer  his  MSS.  for  a  new 
edition  for  sale  to  the  earl  of  Oxford.  About  1703  his 
affairs  became  more  settled,  and  ho  afterwards  regularly 
received  his  salary  as  historiographer,  besides  an  addi- 
tional £200  a  year  as  editor  of  the  Fcedera.  Twenty- 
five  copies  of  each  volume  were  also  allotted  to  him.  Ho 
died  at  Arundel  Street,  Strand,  December  14,  1713,  and 
was  buried  in  the  church  of  St  Clement  Danes.  His  will 
was  dated  July  10,  1713.  Tonsoh  issued  an  edition  of 
Rochester's  Worl;s.  (1714),  with  a  short  preface  by  the 
late  historiographer.  Another  posthumous  publication 
was  in  a  miscellaneous  collection  called  Curious  Amuse- 
ments, by  M.  B.  (1714),  which  included  "some  transla- 
tions from  Greek,  Latin,  and  Italian  poets,  by  T. 
Rymer."  Some  of  his  poetical  pieces  were  also  inserted 
ia  J.  Nichols's  Select  CoiUction  (1780-86,  8  vols.). 

Two  moro  volumes  of  tlio  Fccd/^ra  were  ii^auetl  by  .Sanderson  iti 
ITlfi.and  1717,  and  tholast  Ihrco  volunica  (xviii.,  xix.,  unil  xx. )  by 


the  same  editor,  but  upon  a  slightly  different  plan,  in  1726-35. 
The  latter  volumes  were  published  by  Tonson,  all  the  former  by 
Churchill.  Under  Rymer  it  was  carried  down  to  15S6,  and  con- 
tinued by  Sanderson  to  1654.  The  rarity  and  importance  of  the 
work  induced  Tonson  to  obtain  a  licence  lor  a  second  edition,  and 
George  Holmes,  deputy  keeper  of  the  Towar  records,  was  appointed 
editor.  The  new  edition  appeared  between  1727  and  1735.  The 
last  three  volumes  are  the  same  in  both  issues.  There  are  some 
corrections,  enumerated  in  a  volume,  The  Emendations  in  the  new 
edition  of  Mr  r.ijmer's  Fcedera,  printed  by  Tonson  in  1730,  but  io 
other  respects  the  second  is  inferior  to  the  first  edition.  A  third 
edition,  embodying  Holmes's  collation,  was  commenced  at  The  Hague 
in  1737  and  finished  in  1745.  It  is  in  smaller  type  than  the  others, 
and  :s  compressed  within  ten  folio  volumes.  'The  anangement  is 
rather  more  convenient ;  there  is  some  additional  matter  ;  the  index 
is  better ;  and  on  the  whole  it  is  to  be  preferred  to  either  of  tho 
previous  editions.  When  the  volumes  of  the  Fmdera  first  appeared 
they  were  analysed  by  Leclerc  and  Rapin  in  the  Bibllolhiqut 
Choisie  and  SMiotMque  Ancicnnc  et  Modeiiie.  Rapin's  articles 
were  collected  together,  and  appended,  under  the  title  of  Abregi 
historique  dcs  actes  puUiqv.es  de  V Anglelcrre,  to  the  Ha^ue  edition. 
A  translation,  called  Acta  Fcgia,  was  published  by  Stepheu 
Whatley,  1726-7,  4  vols.  8vo,  reprinted  both  in  8vo  and  folio, 
the  latter  edition  containing  an  analysis  of  the  cancelled  sheets, 
relating  to  the  journals  of  the  first  Parliament  of  Charles  I.,  of  tho 
18th  volume  of  the  Fcedera. 

In  1808  the  Record  Commissioners  appointed  Dr  Adam  diarketo 
prepare  a  new  and  improved  edition  of  the  Fmdera.  Six  parts, 
large  folio,  edited  by  Clarke,  Caley,  and  Holbrooke,  were  pub- 
lished between  1816  and  1830.  Considerable  additions  were  made, 
but  the  editing  was  performed  in  so  unsatisfactory  a  manner  that 
the  publication  was  suspended  in  the  middle  of  printing  a  seventh 
part  The  latter  portion,  bringing  the  work  down  to  1383,  was 
ultimately  issued  in  1869. 

The  wide  learning  and  untiring  labours  of  Rymer  have  received 
theTvarmest  praise  from  historians.  Sir  T.  D.  Hardy  styles  the 
Fcedera  "  a  work  of  which  this  nation  has  every  reason  to  be  proud, 
for  with  all  its  blemishes — and  what  work  is  faultless  ? — it  has 
no  rival  in  its  class"  (Syllabus,  v.l.  ii. ,  xxxvi. ),  and  Jlr  J.  B. 
JIullinger  calls  it  "  a  collection  of  the  highest  value  and  authority  " 
(Gardiner  and  Muliinger's  Introduclion  to  English  History,  p.  224). 

The  best  account  of  Rymev  Is  to  be  found  In  the  preface9  to  Sir  T.  D.  Flardy's 
Syllabus,  1SG9-8G,  3  vols.  8vo.  There  13  an  unpublished  life  by  Dcs  Maizeaux 
(Brit.  Mus.  Add.  MS.  No.  4223),  and  a  few  memoranda  in  Bishop  Kennel's 
collections  (Lansd.  MS.  No.  987).  In  Caulfleld's  Portraits,  &c.,  1819,  1.  60,  may 
be  seen  an  engraving  of  Rymer,  with  a  description  of  a  satirical  print.  Rymer'a 
two  ciitieal  wor]{3  on  the  drama  are  discussed  by  Sir  T.  N.  Xaifourd  In  tha 
Retrospective  Review,  1820,  vol.  i.  p.  1-lB. 

Sir  T.  D.  Haidy's  Sijllabus  gives  in  English  a  condensed  notice  of  each  Instru- 
ment In  the  several  editions  of  tiie  Fcedera,  arranged  in  chronological  order.  Th« 
third  volume  contains  a  complete  Index  of  names  and  places,  ultli  a  catalogue  of 
tiie  volumes  of  transcripts  collected  for  the  Recoid  edition  of  \hQ  Fcedera,  In 
1S(j9  the  Record  Office  printed,  for  private  distribution,  Appendices  A  to  E  *'  to  a 
report  on  the  Fcedera  Intended  to  have  been  submitted  by  C.  Purton  Cooper  to  tho 
Late  Commissioners  of  Public  Records,"  3  vols.  Svo  (inciiiding  accounts  of  MSS. 
In  foreigQ  archives  relating  to  Great  Britain,  with  facsimiles).  In  the  British 
>Iuseum  Is  preserved  (Add.  JIS.  24,fl99)  a  foUo  volume  of  reports  and  papers 
relating  to  the  Record  edition.  Rymer  left  extensive  materials  for  a  new  edition 
of  the  Fadera,  bound  In  69  vols,  folio,  and  embracing  the  period  from  1116  to 
lfi98.  This  was  the  collection  olfered  to  tho  carl  of  Oxford.  It  was  purchased 
by  the  Treasury  for  £215  and  is  now  In  tho  British  Kluseum  (Add.  MSS.  Nos. 
4673  to  4C30,  and  18,911).  A  catalogue  and  index  may  be  consulted  In  tho  17th 
volume  of  Tonson's  edition  of  the  Fcedera.  Tho  Public  Record  Office  possessen 
a  MS.  volume,  compiled  by  Robert  Lemon  about  1800,  containing  Instruments 
In  the  Patent  Rolls  omitted  by  Rymer.  In  tlie  same  place  may  be  seen  a  volume 
of  reports,  orders,  Ac,  on  tho  Fu-Jera,  ISOS-ll.  (H.  R.  T.) 

RZHEFF,  EsuEFF,  E  jev,  or  Rziioff,  a  town  of  European 
Eussia  at  the  head  of  a  district  in  the  Tver  government, 
in  56°  16'  N.  lat.  and  34-  21'  E.  long.,  89  miles  south- 
west of  Tver,  occupies  the  bluffs  on  both  banks  of  the 
Volga  (here  350  feet  wide)  near  the  confluence  of  the  river 
Bazuza.  It  is  the  terminus  of  a  branch  line  from  the  St 
Petersburg  and  Moscow  Eailway,  has  a  -population  of 
18,569(1880;  19,660  in  1860),  carries  on  a  vojiety  of 
manufactures — hemp-spinning,  malting,  brewing,  ship- 
building, <tc. — and  is  the  centre  of  a  great  transit  trade 
between  the  provinces  of  tho  lower  Volga,  Orel,  Kaluga, 
and  Smolensk,  and  ♦.he  ports  of  St  Petersburg  and  Riga. 

RzhefT  was  already  in  eitistenco  in  tho  12th  conturv,  when  it 
belonged  to  the  principality  of  Smoloiisk  and  stood  on  the  highway 
between  Novgorod  and  KiclT.  Under  the  rulers  of  Novgorod  it 
become  from  1225  a  subordinate  principalily,  and  in  the  15th 
century  the  two  portions  of  the  town  were  held  by  two  independent 
princes,  whoso  names  are  still  preserved  in  tho  designations  Knyai 
Fcdorovskii  and  Knyaz  Diinitrievskii,  given  respcetivciy  to  th» 
left  and  tho  right  bank  of  tho  Volga.  In  1368  Rzholf  was  captured 
l>y  Vlnilimir  Andreevitch,  and  in  1375  it  stood  a  three  weeks'  seigo 
mid  had  W^  suburb  burned  by  the  same  prince.  It  was  mads  « 
district  town  in  177S. 


120 


S 


S  represents  the  hard  open  (or  fricative)  sound  producea 
by  bringing  the  blade  of  the  tongue  close  to  the 
front  palate,  immediately  behind  the  gums,  or  rather,  this 
is  the  normal  position  for  S,  as  slight  varieties  can  be 
produced  by  bringing  the  tongue  farther  back.  By  the 
"  blade  "  is  meant  the  pointed  end  of  the  tongue,  not  the 
mere  point,  which  at  the  same  part  of  the  palate  produces 
R.  This  position  differs  little  from  that  for  TH,  into 
which  S  passes  in  a  lisping  pronunciation ;  a  larger  part 
of  the  surface  of  the  tongue  is  brought  near  to  the  palate 
for  TH  than  for  S.  The  symbol  which  represents  the  soft 
open  sound  corresponding  to  S  is  Z,  though  in  practice  S 
.often  stands  for  both. 

The  history  of  our  symbol  S  is  easy  up  to  a  certain 
point.  It  is  the  rounded  form  of  ^  >  rounded  at  a  very 
early  period  for  convenience  of  writing,  for  the  change 
is  apparent  in  the  old  Italian  a'phabet  of  Coere,  and  still 
more  on  the  recently  discovered  vase  of  Formello ;  and 
even  in  the  scribbling  of  the  Greeks  at  Abu  Simbel — the 
oldest,  or  nearly  the  oldest,  bit  of  Greek  epigraphy — per- 
fectly rounded  forms  stand  side  by  side  with  the  angular 
ones.  The  common  Greek  form  2  was  obtained  by  adding 
a  fourth  stroke,  and  gradually  making  the  top  and  bottom 
ones  horizontal.  When,  however,  we  wish  to  identify  the 
Greek  symbol  of  three  strokes  with  its  Phoenician  counter- 
part, the  difficulty  begins.  The  Phcsnicians  had  four 
eymbols  for  sibilants,  known  in  Hebrew  as  Zayin,  Samekh, 
§ade,  and  Shin ;  the  last  of  these  at  a  very  early  date 
represented  two  sounds,  the  English  sh,  and  another  soucd 
which  resembled  that  of  Samekh  and  ultimately  became 
indistinguishable  from  it,  both  being  pronounced  as  the 
English  s.  The  Greeks  clid  not  want  all  these  symbols, 
consequently  in  different  parts  of  Greece  one  or  other — 
not  the  same — Phoenician  symbol  fell  into  disuse.  One 
of  these,  M  or  M  called  San,  though  lost  in  Ionic,  appears 
in  old  Doric  inscriptions,  as  those  of  Thera,  Melos,  and 
Crete,  Argos,  Corinth,  and  Corcyra ;  but  the  later  Doric 
form  is  the  usual  Sigma;  piooably  San  was  too  like  the 
nasa'l  JI.  There  is  no  doubt  that  in  form  Zeta  represents 
Zayin,  and  that  Xi  represents  Samekh.  Moreover,  Zeta 
and  Zayin  stand  seventh  in  the  Greek  and  Phoenician 
alphabets  respectively,  and  Xi  and  Samekh  each  fifteenth. 
Again,  the  form  of  San  with  three  strokes  corresponds 
fairly  with  Sade,  and  Sigma  is  moderately  like  Shin ;  but 
here  the  evidence  of  position  comes  in  again  to  strengthen 
a  somewhat  weak  case,  for  in  the  old  Italian  alphabets 
San  has  the  place  of  Sade,  the  simpler  form  occurring  in 
the  Ci'ere  alphabet,  the  fuller  in  that  of  the  Formello  vase ; 
in  both  Sigma  (rounded  in  form)  has  the  place  of  Shin. 
These  identifications  would  be  certain  if  the  names  cor- 
responded as  well  as  the  forms ;  but  they  clearly  do  not : 
Zeta  and  Sade  (not  Zayin)  seem  to  hold  together  in  sound, 
and  Sigma  (as  has  often  been  suggested)  looks  like  a  "  popu- 
lar etymology"  for  Samekh.  But  the  objection  from 
difference  of  names  is  not  fatal.  All  names  which  are 
thought  of  habitually  in  rows  or  sets  tend  to  be  modified 
under  the  influence  of  analogy ;  and  analogy  has  certainly 
been  at  work  here,  for  Xi,  which  is  a  purely  Greek  name, 
is,  like  Psi,  and  like  Chi  and  Phi,  due  to  the  older  Pi. 
Similarly  Eta  and  Theta  have  probably  made  Zeta ;  but 
it  must  be  allowed  that  the  metamorphosis  of  Sade  is 
more  intelligible  (as  a  matter  of  sound-change)  than  that 
of  Zayin,  Probably  we  must  have  recourse  to  a  different 
principle  to  explain  at  least  some  part  of  our  difficulty. 
We  may  suppose  that  in  some  part  of  Greece  the  sounds 


denoted  originally  by  Sade  and  Zayin  becaffie  indis- 
tinguishable ;  there  would  then  exist  for  a  time  one  sound 
but  two  names.  It  would  be  a  matter  of  little  moment 
which  name  should  survive ;  thus  Sade  (or  Zeta)  might 
supersede  Zayin,  or  one  name  might  survive  in  one 
district — as  San  in  the  Doric,  but  Sigma  in  the  rest  of 
Greece.  This  suggestion  is  made  by  Dr  Taylor  (The 
Alphabet,  ii.  100).  The  history  of  the  sounds,  as  well  as 
of  the  forms,  of  the  Greek  sibilants  is  difficult.  Probably 
Sigma  was  generally  hard — our  s  in  sign.  But  Zeta  did 
not  originally  denote  the  corresponding  z :  rather  it  was 
dz;  some  say  dj,  as  in  "John,"  but  this  is  not  likely.  Xi 
was  probably  a  strong  sibilant  with  a  weak  guttiual,  as  X 
was  in  Latin.  If  the  sound  z  existed  in  Greek,  as  is  prob- 
able, it  was  denoted  by  Sigma.  In  Italy,  also,  we  must 
infer  that  the  soft  sibilant  was  heard  too  little  to  need  a 
special  symbol,  because  z,  which  exists  in  the  old  alphabets 
of  Caere  and  Formello,  was  lost  early  enough  to  leave  a 
place  for  the  newly-made  Italian  symbol  G.  When  Z  was 
restored,  it  was  placed  at  the  end  of  the  alphabet  and  doubt- 
less with  the  value  of  Greek  Z  in  the  Greek  words  in  which 
alone  it  was  used.  One  Latin  s — probably  z — became  the 
trilled  r  between  two  vowels, — e.g.,  in  "Papirius"  for 
"Papisius,"  "arboris"  for  "arbosis." 

In  English  the  symbol  s  alone  existed  till  z  was  intro- 
duced from  France  with  words  of  French  origin,  as  "  zeal," 
"  zone."  An  attempt  was  made  to  employ  it  at  the  end  of 
plural  nouns,  where  the  sound  is  regularly  heard  except 
when  the  last  sound  of  the  noun  is  hard,  e.ff.,  "bedz" 
(beds),  but  "hops";  but/  this  was  not  maintained,  nor 
•even  consistently  done,  for  the  symbol  was  used  even  when 
the  sound  must  have  been  s.  We  regularly  write  s  for 
both  sounds, — e.g.,  in  "lose"  and  "loose,"  "curs"  and 
"  curse,"  "  hers  "  and  "  hearse."  When  there  is  a  distinc- 
tion in  spelling  the  s  comraonlj*  has  the  value  of  z} — e.g., 
"vies  "and  "  vice,"  "  pays  "  and  "  pace,"  "his  "and  "hiss." 
S  has  the  soimd  of  sh  in  "sure,"  "sugar,"  and  some  other 
words ;  this  is  due  to  the  palatal  sound  heard  before  the  ti. 
Sh,  in  spite  of  its  spelling,  is  a  single  sound,  the  position 
of  which  differs  from  that  for  s  only  in  a  slight  retraction 
of  the  point  of  the  tongue ;  it  is  commonly  found  in 
English  words  which  originally  had  sJ:, — e.g.,  "shall,"  O.E. 
sreal ;  "  shabby,"  a  doublet  of  "  scabby  " ;  "  fish,"  O.E.  JisL 
The  sound  is  the  sams  as  that  of  French  ck  in  "  chateau," 
"chef,"  "secher,"  where  it  is  due  to  assibilation  of  original  k. 

SAADI.     See  Sa'dL 

SAADIA,  or  Saadias  (Heb.  Se'adyah,  Arab.  Sa'ld'^), 
was  the  most  accomplished,  learned,  and  noble  gaon  (head 
of  the  academy)  of  Sura  (see  Rab).  Mar  Rab  Se'adyab 
b.  Yoseph^  was  born  in  the  Fay3rilm,  Upper  Egypt,  in  892 
and  died  at  Sura  in  942.  Of  his  teachers  only  the  Jew 
Abu  Kethir  is  positively  known  by  name,^  but  he  must 
have  had  at  least  three  more  teachers  of  considerable 
learning,  one  a  Karaite,*  one  a  Mohammedan,  and  one  a 
Christian,  as  his  acquaintance  with  the  literature  of  these 
four  religious  bodies  testifies.     His  pre-eminence  over  his 

'  He  signs  himself  TJJD  acrostically  in  his  Azharoth  {Kohes,  pp. 
62,  53  ;  see  note  4  on  next  page). 

^  M.is'udi,  a  contemporary,  calls  the  father  Ya'alob ;  tut  see  FUrst, 
Literaturblatl  d.  Orients,  vi.  col.  140. 

»  Mas'iidi  (De  Sacy,  Chrest.  Ar.,  2d  ed.,  I  350,  351). 

*  The  late  learned  and  ingenious  Rabbi  S.  L.  Rapoport  loUed  here, 
as  in  many  other  places,  the  stone  o£  Sisyphus  ("Toledoth  Kabbenu 
Se'adyah  Gaon,"  in  Bikkure  Ha'Mm,  Vienna,  1828,  note  31).  Per- 
haps, after  all,  the  Karaites  may  be  rie^t  in  asserting  that  Salmon  K 
Yeruliam  was  Rah  Se'adyab's  teacher. 


S  A  A.  D  1  A 


121 


contemporaries  is  indicated  in  the  fact  that  he-  was  the 
only  gaon  who  liad  not  been  educated  and  then  advanced 
by  degrees  in  the  academy,  to  the  highest  dignity  of  which 
Le  was  called  from  a  far-off  country,  but  best  appears 
in  the  excellence  of  his  many  works,  which  extend  over 
most  branches  of  Iparning  known  in  his  time.     And  his 
learning  was  exceeded  by  his  manifold  virtues.     His  love 
of  truth  and  justice  was  made  more  conspicuous  by  the 
<3arkness  of  the  corruption  amid  which  he  lived.     VThen 
the  resh  galutha  ("prince  of  the  captivity,"  the  highest 
dignitary  of  the  Jews  in  Babylonia,  and  to  some  extent  of 
those  of  the  whole  world)  attempted  to  wrest  judgment  in 
a  certain  case,  and  first  asked,  then  requested,  and  finally 
demanded  the  signature '  of  the  gaori  of  Sura  in  a  threaten- 
ing manner,  Se'adyah  refused  it,  fearl.ess  of  consequences. 
David   b.   Zakkai,   the  resh   galutha,  deposed   him   and 
Ichose  another  gaon  in  his  stead.     A  reconciliation  took 
^lace  some  years  afterwards,  and  Se'adyah  was  reinstated 
in  his  old.  dignity.     And,  although  his  health  had  been 
fatally  undermined  by  the  behaviour  of  the  resh  galutha 
and  his  son,  Se'adyah,  when  his  former  opponent  died, 
was  indefatigable  in  his  eudea,vours  to  have  this  very  son 
■of  his  once  mortal  enemy  placed  on  the  throne  of  his 
fathers.     But  the  new  prince  of  the  captivity  enjoyed  his 
dignity  for  little  more  than  half  a  year.     He  left  behind 
him  a  boy,  twelve  years  of  age,  whom  Se'adyah  took  into 
his  own  house  and  treated  in  every  respect  as  his  own 
child.     This  learning  and  these  virtues  endeared  Se'adyah 
not  merely  to  his  contemporaries  but  also  to  the  best 
men  of  succeeding  ages.     Behayye  b.  Yoseph  (the  author 
of  the  Jlobolh  Uallebaboth),  Rashi,  Se'adyah  (the  author 
of  the  commentary  on  Daniel  in  the  Rabbinic  Bible),  David 
Kimhi,  Behayye  b.  Asher  (the  author  of  Kad  Hahlccmali), 
all  appeal  to  him  as  an  authority  not  to  be  questioned. 
Even  Ibn  'Ezra  defers  more  to  him  than  to  any  other 
authority.     To  this  day  Jewish  and  Christian  scholars  alike 
express  for  him  the  highest  admiration. 

The  numerous  works  which  aro  ascribed  to  him  may  be  con- 
veniently divided  into  four  classes. 

I.  Oeimine  and  still  extant  Wot1cs.~{\)  Arabic  translations  of, 
snJ  tu  part  commentaries^  on,  books  of  the  Bil.lo  :  (a)  the  I'enta- 
tauch  (printed  in  Hebiew  characters,  Constantinople,  1546,  fol., 
And  in  Arabic  characters  in  the  Paris  and  London  polyglotts) ;  (i) 
Isaiah  (printed  in  Arabic  characters  from  Hebrew  letters  of  the 
Bodleian  MS.  Uri  156,^  by  Paulus,  Jena,  1790-91,  8to)  ;  (c)  Psalms 
(Kwald,  Ueber  die  arabisch  cjcschriebenen  JVerke  judischer  Sprack- 
grlehrtcn,  Stuttgart,  1844,  8vo) ;  (d)  Proverbs  (Bodleian  SIS.  Uri 
15) ;  («)  Job  (Uri  45)  ;  (/)  Canticles  (Merx,  Die  Saadjanischc  Ueber- 
eclzmvj  dcs  Hohen  Licdes  ins  Arabische,  Heidelberg,  1882,  Svo). 
(2)  Hebrew  Lexicography:  Seventy  (90  or  91)  dVof  Xcyifitva  to  bo 
found  in  the  Bible,  published  from  the  Bodl.  MS.  Hunt.  673,  by 
Dukes  (Z.  K.  M.,  v.  6)  and  by  Benjacob  {Dcbarim' Atti/cim,  i., 
Lcipsic,  1844).  (3)  Talmudio  Literature :  (a)  Decisions  (incorpo- 
rated in  'lUur,  Venice,  1608,  fol.  ;  and  in  the  book  of  Itesponsa, 
S/ia'are  Salcl:,  Salonica,  1792,  4to)  ;  (i)  On  the  laws  of  inheritance 
(Bodl.  JI3.  Hunt.  630).  (4)  Liturgy,  both  in  prose  and  poetry  : 
{a)SiddHr  (Bodleian  MS.  Uri  261);*  (4)  Arabischcr  ilidrasch  (!) 

kv"  ■    ^ 

'  To  make  the  legal  decisions  of  the  rfsh  grduth.l  more  respected, 
the  signatures  of  tlie  geonim  of  Sura  and  Pumbaditha  werq  desirable. 
A.  specimen  of  a  legal  'decision  by  David  b.  Zakkai  signed  on  the 
authority  of  Kab  Se'adyah  Gaon  is  to  bo  found  in  Frankel-Griitz, 
Monalsschrift,  xxxi.  pp.  167-170. 

"  If  we  may  argue  from  the  known  to  the  unknown,  So'adyan's 
translations,  whetlier  they  were  called  tafatr  or  sharh,  contained 
more  than  a  mere  translation.  From  Ibn  'Ezra's  preface  to  his  com- 
mentary on  the  Pentateuch  and  from  tlio  Arabic  comm.  on  the  Psalms 
published  in  c.xcerpt  by  Ewald  wo  see  that  Rab  Se'adyah  was  in  tho 
habit  of  explaining  in  addition  to  translating.  Compare  also  Munk, 
"Notice  sur  Saadia,"  in  Cahcn,  La  Bible  (Isaio),  Paris,  1838,  Svo,  p. 
77,  note  1. 

'  In  tho  copytst's  subscription  to  this  MS.  tho  actual  reading  is  not 
nxnaV  (Itapoport),  but  n-IXDl? ;  this  should  bo  liixay,  as  Munk 
prints  it  ("  Notice,"  p.  108).  T\\a  Bodleian  MS3.  aro  referred  to  in 
this  article  from  personal  inspection. 

'  *  The  oriRiual  codex  on  brownish  paper,  in  square  characters  of 
Bibylonian  handwriting  (14th  cent.),  is  defecliro  at  betjinning  and 
fad.     The  supplement  at  tho  Jjeginnitig,  containing  also  later  matter. 

r-  r 


zii  tint  Zchn,  Gcholai,  in  Hebrew  letters  (MS.  Jellinck  of  Vienna, 
with  Hebrew  and  German  translation  by  W.  Eiscnstadter,  ^"icnna, 
1S68,  Svo).  (5)  Religions  Philosophy  ;■  (ri)  Commentary  on  the 
Scplur  Ycsirah,  JIS.  Uri  370  (Opp.  Add.,  4to,  89),  contains  tho  ear- 
lier part  of  a  Heb.  trans,  in  a  modern  hand  ;  (4)  Kildb  al-Amiindt 
wnl-riiqMal  (LanddinoT,  Leyden,  1880,8vo),  translated  into  Hebrew 
by  Ycluuiah  Ibn  Tibbon  (cditio  inrinccps,  Constantinoi.Ie,  1502,  4to), 
and  by  K.  Bcrckljyah  Hannakdan,  author  of  tho  Mishcle  Shitallm 
(printed  only  in  part;  see  Dukes,  Bcitrtiyr,  pp.  20,  22);  nine 
chapters  have  been  translated  into  Germ.an  (Fuist,  Leipsic.  1845, 
121110),  and  parts  into  English  {Two  Treatises,  bv  P.  AUix.  London. 
1707,  Svo). 

II.  n^orlcs  now  tost,  hit  the  existence  of  wineh  is  testified  to  by 
eontcmporanj  and  later  authors.— {I)  An  Arabic  tmnslation  of,  and 
in  part  commentary  on,  most,  if  not  all,  the  other  books  of  tho 
Bible.'  (2)  Lexical  Treatises:  Book  of  Interpretations  {Scphcr 
ritlironim,  or  Collection  (Iggcron).''  (3)  Grammatical  Treatises :  (a) 
Elegancy  of  the  Hebrew  Tongue— (a)  Treatise  on  the  Changes,  (V) 
Treatise  on  the  Combinations,  (7)  Treatise  on  Durjcsli  and  Jta/'lieh,' 
id)  Treatise  on  the  Letters  V,  n,  H,  N ' ;  (i)  Treatise  on  Punctuation  » ; 
(c)  Treatise  on  Kight  Reading";— it  is  not  impossible  that  the  first 
four  constituted  one  work  and  the  last  two  another  work.  (4) 
Talmudic  Literature:  («)  Translation  of  the  J/is/;>ia/i"  ;  (i)  Meth- 
odologj- of  the  (Babylonian)  Talmud";  (c)  Treatise  on  Bills '2;  (rf) 
Treatise  on  Deposits";  (c)  Treatise  on  Oaths";  (/)  Treatise  on 
Prohibited  Degrees  '^ ;  (g)  Treatise  on  Imjmra  dt  I'ura,  including 
Uilcklioth,  Niddali '«  ;— it  is  VC17  possible  that  those  marked  c  to 
/  constituted  one  book,  just  as  the  treatise  marked  .7  constituted  oiio 
book.     (5)  Calcndaric  Literature  :   .Scplicr  Ha'ibbur  (Treatise  on 


Balkhi"  ;  (c)  against  the  Karaite  Ben  Asher  (the  completer  of  tho 
Massorelh  ;  see  L.-B.  d.  Or'.,  x.  684).  (8)  The  nature  of  the  Scpher, 
Hagcjalui  cited  by  Kabad  II.  and  Ab.  b.  Hivva  in  his  iici>her  Ha'ibbur 
is  not  clear.  ' 

III.  WorTcs  ascribed  to  Se'adyah  the  aitthorsMp  of  tvhieh  is  not 
sufficiently  proven. — (1)  The  commentary  on  Canticles  edited  by 
Yishak  Ibn  'Akrish  (Constantinople,  1577,  4to),  and  that  published 
by  L.  Margalij-j-oth  at  Frankfort-on-Oder,  1777'--'.  (2)  The  well- 
known  piece  of  didactic  poetry  which  gives  account  of  all  the  letters 
of  tho  Bible,  how  many  times  they  occur,  &c.  {cditio  princeps, 
Venice,  1538,  at  the  end  of  Elias  Levita's  Massorelh  Jfammas-  ). 

IV.  fVorks  ascribed  to  Se'adyah  by  mistalce.  — (1 )  The  Comnitulary 
on  Daniel  commonly  found  in  the  Rabbinic  Bibles  belongs  tc  in- 
other  Rab  Se'adyah,  who  lived  at  least  two  hundred  years  later, 
and  was  a  native  either  of  France  or  tho  south  of  Germany.  (2) 
The  Commentary  on  the  Scplier  Ycsirali,  printed  with  the  text  and 
three  other  commentaries  at  Mantua  in  1562,  4to.  (3)  Tho  Book 
on  Lots  {Sepher  Hnygoraloth),  often  printed  separately  and  in  con- 
junction with  similar  works.  (4)  Ebcn  J/ajipilosopliim  {Lapis  PhUo- 
sopfwrum),  ascri'oed  to  him  by  R.  Mosheh  Butrial  (Mantua  edition 
of  the  Scjihcr  Yesirah  as  above).  (S.  JI.  S.-S.) 

is  in  S.  Arabian  handwriting.  The  well-kno\vn  "Ten  reasons  for 
Sounding  the  Trumpet  on  the  Day  of  Memorial "  are  not  found  in  this 
Siddur  (against  Eapoport,  iil  supra,  note  21).  The  three  poetical 
pieces  published  as  tive  by  Rosenberg  (Aofej,  ii.,  Berlin,  1856)  form 
an  integral  part  of  tho  Siddur,  but  bear  on  the  surface  marks  of  having 
been  taken  from  a  second-hand,  if  not  a  third-hand,  co]>y,  as  the  editor 
admits  with  regard  to  the  "second  petition."  Tho  "Two  Petitions" 
must  have  served  Ibn  Gebirol  (Avicedhon)  as  a  model  for  the  lattei 

or  liturgical  part  of  his  ni37(3  "1113,  just  as  he  and  others  after  him 
silently  utilized  Se'adyah's  philosophy. 

"  See  Hoboth  J/aliaabolh  (preface)  and  SWbub  (Travels)  of  E.  Pctb- 
ahyah  of  Ratisbon  (London,  1861,  Svo,  p.  22). 
■"  L.B.  d.  Orients,  x.  coll.  616,  541,  684. 

'  Ibid.,  coll.  516,  518.  «  See  Rashi  on  Psalm  xlv.  10. 

»  L.-B.  d.  Or.,  I.  518.  "  Sibbub  (as  in  note  5  above). 

"  See  Shem  Uaggcdolim  (Vilnn,  1852,  Svo),  ii.  leaf  16a,  col.  2. 

'-  See  Sha'arc  Scdek  (ut  supra),  leaf  17b. 

^  Sea  R.  Menaliem  b.  Shclomoh  lebeth  Meir  (commonly  called 
Meiri)  on  Aboth  (Vienna,  1854,  Svo,  Introduction,  p.  17).  ' 

'*  See  Rapoport,  I.e.,  note  20. 

"  See  Pinsker,  Lilckute  Kcuimoniyyoth  (Vienna,  1860,  p.  174,  not« 
1,  in  Nispahim).  "  See  Rapoport,  I.e.,  note  19. 

"  See  L.-B.  d.  Or.,  xii.  coll.  101,  102. 

"  See  Sion  (Frankfort-on-Main,  1842-43,  Svo).  ii.  p.  137. 

'»  See  Pinsker  {ut  supra),  p.  103.  "  Sinn  (as  before/. 

^  On  this  commentator  800  Urn  'Ezra  on  F.xodus  xxi.  24.  From 
this  passage  wo  learn  that  Se'ady.ih  and  Hen  Zilta  were  conteniporarieai 
and  even  had  oral  controversies  with  one  another. 

'•''  See  Uulikhvlh  Kcdcm,  Amsterdam,  1846,  p.  71.  Tlivvi  al-Ralkhl 
had  raised  strong  objections  against  tho  truth  of  Scripture  iu  nis  Twa 
Jlnndrrd  Questions,  or  Olijecttons  to  the  /iiVVr, 

^  Tlie  editions  '*  Prag",  1782  (Stcinschneider),  nnd  Now^'dwor,  1733 
(Zcducr),  arc  probably  the  same  as  that  of  Frankfort  with  dilfer^^nt  titles. 


122 


S  A  A  — S  A  A 


SAALFELD,  a  busy  little  town  of  Germany, in  tlie  eastern 
horn  of  the  crescent-shaped  duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen,  is 
picturesquely  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Saale  (here 
spanned  by  a  bridge),  24  miles  south  of  Weimar  and  77 
miles  south-west  of  Leipsic.  One  of  the  most  ancient 
towns  in  Thuringia,  Saalfeld  was  the  capital  of  the  now 
extinct  duchy  of  Sase-Saalfeld,  and  contains  some  interest- 
ing old  buildings.  Among  these  are  the  former  residential 
palace,  built  in  1679  on  the  site  of  the  Benedictine  monas- 
tery of  St  Peter,  destroyed  during  the  Peasants'  War ;  the 
Gothic  church  of  St  John,  dating  from  the  1 3th  century ; 
the  quaint  tcivn  house,  built  in  -1533-37  ;  and  the  Kitzer- 
Btein,  a  shooting  lodge  said  to  have  been  originally  erected 
by  the  emperor  Henry  I.,  though  the  present  building  is 
not  older  than  the  16th  century.  But  perhaps  the  most 
interesting  relic  of  the  past  in  Saalfeld  is  the  striking  ruin 
of  the  Sorbenburg  or  Hoher  Schwarm,  a  strong  castle  said 
to  have  been  built  by  Charlemagne  to  protect  his  borders 
from  the  Slavi^nic  hordes.  Its  destruction  took  place  in 
1290,  under  EudoU  of  Hapsburg.  Saalfeld  is  situated 
in  one  of  the  busiest  parts  of  Meiningen,  and  carries  on  a 
number  of  brisk  industries,  including  the  manufactiure  of 
sewing-machines,  colours,  wax-cloth  and  wire-cloth,  brewing, 
and  iron-founding.  It  has  an  active  trade  in  iron,  elate, 
wood,  and  wooden  goods,  and  there  are  ochre  and  iron 
mines  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  population  in  1880  was 
7458. 

Springing  up  under  the  wing  of  the  Sorbenburg,  Saalfeld  early 
became  an  imperial  demesne,  and  received  various  benefits  at  the 
hands  of  successive  emperors.  After  a  somewhat  chequered  career, 
the  town  became  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Saalfeld,  founded 
in  1680  by  the  youngest  son  of  the  duke  of  Gotha ;  but  in  1735, 
when  the  successionr  to  the  dnchy  of  Cobnrg  was  assigned  to  the 
dukes  of  Saalfeld,  their  residence  was  removed  to  Coburg.  In 
1826  the  united  duchies  merged  by  inheritance  w.  the  duchy  of 
Saxe-Meiningen. 

SAAKBEUCKEX,  an  important  industrial  and  com- 
mercial town  in  Prussia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Saar,  a 
navigable  tributary  of  the  MoseUe,  is  situated  49  miles  east 
of  Metz,  at  the  south  end  of  one  of  the  most  extensive  coal- 
fields in  Europe,  to  which  it  has  given  its  name.  With  the 
town  of  St  Joharm,  immediately  opposite  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  river,  here  spanned  by  two  bridges,  Saarbriicken 
forms  in  reality  a  single  community,  with  a  united  popu- 
lation of  nearly  22,000.  St  Johana,  though  now  the  larger, 
is  the  more  recent  town,  being  in  fact  the  creation  of  the 
important  railways  whose  junction  is  fixed  there.  Saar- 
briicken itself  is  not  directly  on  any  main  line.  The 
industries  of  St  Johann-Saarbriicken  include  wool-spinning, 
breAving,  and  the  manufacture  of  tobacco,  chemicals,  tin, 
and  stoneware.  The  trade  is  chiefly  connected  with  the 
produce  of  the  neighbouring  coal-mines  and  that  of  the 
numerous  important  iron  and  glass  works  of  the  district. 
The  Saarbriicken  coal-field  extends  over  70  square  miles  ; 
and  its  annual  output  ■  is  about  6  million  tons.  Of  this 
total  the  Prussian  state  mines  yield  about  5,200,000  tons, 
Prussian  private  mines  100,000  tons,  the  mines  in  Lorraine 
600,000  tons,  and  mines  in  Rhenish  Bavaria  200,000 
tons.  In  1880  the  population  of  Saarbriicken  alone  was 
9514,  and  of  St  Johann  12,346. 

TOl  1233  Saarbriicken  was  in  the  possession  of  the  eld  counts  of 
Ardennes  ;  from  1381  till  1793  it  was  the  residence  of  the  princes 
of  Nassau-Saarbrucken  ;  from  1793  till  1815  it  was  iu  the  possession 
of  the  French  ;  and  since  1816  it  has  been  Prussian.  St  Johann 
is  said  to  have  been  founded  as  an  outwork  to  Saarbriicken  in 
1046,  and  to  have  received  town-rights  in  1321.  In  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  of  1870-71  Saarbriicken  was  seized  by  the  French  on 
2d  August  1870,  but  the  first  German  victory,  on  the  heights  of 
Spicheren,  3  miles  to  the  sottth,  relieved  it  four  days  later. 

SAAEDAM,    See  Zaanbam. 

SAAEGEMUND  (Fr.  Sor.-eguemines),  an  industrial 
town  and  railway  junction  of  Germany,  in  the  imperial 
province  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  is  situated  at  the  confluence 


of  the  Blies  and  the  Saar,  40  miles  east  of  Metz.  It  carriee- 
on  considerable  manufacttires  of  silk,  plush,  porcelain,  and 
earthenware,  and  is  a  chief  depot  for  the  papier-saacha 
boxes  (mostly  snuff-boxes)  which  are  made  in  great  quan- 
tity in  the  neighbourhood.  To  the  south  lies  the  district 
lunatic  asylum  of  Steinbacherhof.  The  town,  which  ia 
garrisoned  by  four  squadrons  of  cavalry,  in  1880  had  a 
population  of  9573,  chiefly  Eoman  Catholics. 

SAAVEDEA,  Anoel  de,  Duke  of  Rivas  (1791-1865), 
Spanish  poet  and  politician,  was  born  at  Cordova  in  1791, 
and  fought  with  bravery  in  the  Spanish  War  of  Independ- 
ence. From  1813  to  1820  he  lived  in  retirement  in  An- 
dalucia,  but  in  the  latter  year  he  sided  actively  with  the 
revolutionary  party,  and  in  consequence  had  to  go  into 
exile  in  1823.  He  lived  successively  in  England,  Malta, 
and  France  until  1834,  when  he  received  permission  to 
return  to  Spain,  shortly  afterwards  succeeding  his  brother 
as  duke  of  Eivas.  In  1836  he  became  minister  of  the 
interior  under  Isturi^,  and  along  with  his  chief  had  again 
to  leave  the  country.  Having  returned  with  Maria  Chri* 
tina  in  1844,  he  again  held  a  portfolio  for  a  short  time  in 
1854 ;  and  during  the  last  two  decades  of  his  life  he  was 
ambassador  at  Naples,  Paris,  and  Florence  for  consider- 
able periods.     He  died  in  1865. 

In  1813  he  published  Ensayos  poelicos,  and  between  that  date 
and  his  first  exile  several  tragedies  of  his  composition  {Aliatar, 
1S14  ;  El  Duque  d'Aquitania,  1814  ;  Lanuai,  1822)  were  put  upon- 
the  sta<;e.  Tanto  vales  quanta  tienes,  a  comedy,  appeared  in  1834, 
Don  Alvaro,  a  tragedy,  in  1835,  and  two  other  dramatic  composi- 
tions in  1842.  Saavedra  was  also  the  author  of  El  Mora  Erposilo, 
a  narrative  poem  iu  ballad  metre  (two  volumes),  and  Elorinka,  ar 
epic  romance. 

SAAVEDRA,   Miguel    de    Ceevantes.     See   Ces- 

VANTES. 

SAAVEDRA  FAXARDO,  Diego  de  (1584-1648), 
diplomatist  and  man  of  letters,  was  bom  of  a  noble  family 
at  Algezares  in  the  Spanish  province  of  Murcia  in  1684. 
Having  been  educated  for  the  church  at  Salamanca,  and 
admitted  to  the  priesthood,  he  accompanied  Cardinal 
Borgia,  the  Spanish  ambassador,  to  Rome  in  the  capacity 
of  secretary.  ,  Ultimately  he  rose  to  high  rank  in  the  diplo- 
matic service,  and  was  Spanish  plenipotentiary  at  Ratisbon 
in  1636  and  at  Miinster  in  1645.  He  was  nominated  to 
the  supreme  council  of  the  Indies  in  1646,  but  not  long 
afterwards  retired  to  a  monastery,  where  he  died  in  1648. 

In  1640  he  published  a  treatise  entitled  Empresas  politicas,  6  idea 
de  un  principe  politico  cristiano  representado  en  cien  empresas,  a 
hundred  short  essays,  in  which  he  discusses  the  education  cf  a 
prince,  his  relation  and  duties  to  those  around  him,  and  so  forth, 
primarily  intended  for  and  dedicated  to  the  son  of  Philip  IV.  It 
is  sentenrious  in  style  and  characterized  by  the  curious  learning  of 
the  time,  and  is  still  read  and  admired  in  Spain.  It  passed  through 
a  number  of  editions  and  was  translated  into  several  languages,  the 
English  version  being  by  Astry  (2  vols.,  .6vo,  London,  1700).  An 
unfinished  historical  work  entitled  Corona  Gotica,  Castellana,  y 
Austriaca  pollticamenle  ilustrada,  appeared  in  1646.  Another 
work  by  Saavedra,  only  'second  in  popularity  to  the  Empresas,  Us 
Bepuhlica  Literaria,  was  published  posthumously  in  1670  ;  it  dig- 
cusses  in  a  somewhat  mocking  tone  some  of  the  leading  characters 
in  the  ancient  and  modern  world  of  letters.  Collected  editions  of 
his  works  appeared  at  Antwerp  in  1677-78,  and  again  at  Madrid  iu 
1789-90  ;  see  also  vol  xxv.  of  the  Bibl.  de  Aid.  Esp.  (1853). 

SAAZ  (Bohemian  Zatec),  a  manufacturing  and  com- 
mercial town  in  the  north  of  Bohemia,  is  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Eger,  42  miles  north-west  of  Prague. 
The  suspension  bridge,  210  feet  long,  which  here  spana 
the  river,  was  constructed  in  1826  and  is  one  of  the  oldest 
of  the  kind  in  Bohemia.  Saaz,  which  claims  to  have  ex- 
isted as  early  as  the  8th  century,  contains  a  number  of 
ancient  churches,  of  which  one  is  said  to  date  from  1206, 
and  five  others  from  before  tte  clos»of  the  14th  century. 
The  town-house  was  built  in  1559.  A  technical  school 
was  added  in  1878  to  the  already  fairly  numerous  educa- 
tional institutions.  NaUs,  leather,  beetroot-sugar,  and 
pasteboard  are  among  the  chief  manufactures  of   Saai^ 


S  A  B  —  S  A  B 


125 


which,  however,  owes  its  main  importance  to  being  the 
centre  of  the  extensive  hop-trade  of  the  neighbourhood. 
The  hops  of  Saaz  are  said  to  have  been  renowned  for  the 
last  five  hundred  years  ;  and  nearly  800  tons  are  annually 
raised  in  the  district  to  which  the  town  gives  its  name. 
The  population  of  Saaz  was  12,425  in  1880. 

SAB.EA.     See  Yemen. 

SABAH,  or  British  North  Borneo,  is  all  that  portion 
of  the  island  of  Borneo  {q.v.)  which  was  formally  recog- 
nized by  the  charter  of  incorporation  granted  in  Novem- 
ber 1881  as  the  territory  of  the  British  North  Borneo 
Company.  It  has  a  coast-line  of  over  600  miles,  and  its 
area,  still  to  a  great  extent  iinexplored,^  is  estimated  at 
30,000  square  miles.  Leaving  out  of  account  the  deep 
indentations  of  the  coast-line,  it  may  be  said  to  form  a 
pentagon,  of  which  three  sides,  the  north-west,  north-east, 
and  south-east,  are  washed  by  the  sea,  while  the  remaining 
two  sides  are  purely  conventional  lines  drawn  from  Gura 
Peak  (3°  50'  N.  lat.,  116°  10'  E.  long.),  the  one  almost  due 
east  to  the  Sibuco  river,  the  other  north-north-west  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Sipitong  on  Brunei  Bay.  The  latter  separates 
the  Company's  territory  from  the  independent  sultanate 
of  Brunei ;  the  former  is  the  frontier  towards  the  Dutch 
possessions. 

The  great  central  feature  of  Sabah_is  the  magnificent 
mountain  of  Kinabalu  (compare  Borneo)  or  Nabalu,  built 
up  of  porph)'ritic  granite  and  igneous  rocks  to  a  height 
of  13,698  feet,  and  dominating  the  whole  northern  part 
of  the  island,  with  all  its  profusion  of  lesser  mountains 
and  hills.  Kinabalu,  which  has  the  appearance  of  two 
mountains,  unites  towards  the  east  by  a  low  ridge  with 
"Nonohan  t'  agaioh  (the  great  Nonohan)  and  the  terminal 
cone  Tumboyonkon  (Tamboyukon)."  These  two  summits 
are '  respectively  8000  and  7000  feet  high,  and  there  are 
others  of  considerable  elevation  in  the  same  neighbour- 
hood. At  some  1 5  or  20  miles  to  the  north  rises  Mount 
Madalon  (5000  feet),  separated  from  Kinabalu  and  the 
other  igneous  and  metamorphic  hills  by  a  wide  valley,  and 
consisting  of  those  aqueous  rocks,  limestones,  sandstones, 
and  clays  which  appear  to  occupy  the  whole  country  to 
the  north.  Westward  from  Kinabalu  are  hills  between 
1000  and  2000  feet  in  height,  and  about  40  or  50  miles 
Bouth-ea^t  is  an  important  group  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Labuk  valley  known  as  the  Mentapok  Mountains  (3000- 
8000  feet).  The  whole  surface  of  the  country  is  channelled 
by  countless  streams  whose  precipitous  ravines,  boulder- 
Btrewn  rapids,  and  enormous  beds  of  rolled  pebbles  bespeak 
the  denuding  energy  of  tropical  rains.  The  coasts  are 
generally  low  and  flat,  and  to  a  great  extent  lined  with 
casuarina  trees,  with  here  and  there  a  stretch  of  mangrc/e, 
a  low  sandstone  or  limestone  cliff,  or  a  patch  of  that  grea,t 
forest  which  in  the  interior  still  covers  so  large  a  portion 
of  the  territory.  In  the  low  grounds  along  the  coast  and 
also  inland  among  the  hills  are  vast  swamps  and  watery 
plains,  which  in  the  rainy  season,  when  the  rivers  rise  20 
or  30  feet  above  their  usual  level,  are  transformetl  into 
lakes.  On  the  west  side  of  Sabah  the  principal  rivers 
are  the  Padas  and  the  Klias,  debouching  opposite  Labiian, 
but  quite  unexplored  in  their  upper  courses;  the  Papar 
{Pappar  or  Pappal),  which  passes  the  village  of  that  name 
and  enters  the  sea  at  Pajjar  Point ;  the  Tampassuk,  one 
of  the  first  to  be  explored  (see  St  John's  Life  in  the 
Forests  of  the  Far  East)  and  remarkable  for  the  waterfall 
of  Pandaasan  or  Tampassuk  (1500  feet  high,  and  thus  one 
of  the  highest  in  the  world),  formed  by  its  headwater 
the  Kalupis.     The  Sckwati,  a  comparatively  small  river 

'  But  tlio  officers  of  (lie  company  nre  veiy  nctivc  in  exploration. 
L.  B.  Von  Donop,  F,  W|i  ti  (l<illctl  188'.;),  W  B.  Prycr,  Frank  Hntton 
(killcil  1883),  ami  Henrj  Walker  are  or  h^  e  been  among  the  more 
(aerW<<i. 


farther  north,  is  well  known  for  its  oil-springs.  At  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  island  the  deep  inlet  of  Marudu 
Bay  receives  the  waters  of  the  Marudu  or  Maludu  river, 
which  rises  on  the  west  side  of  Mount  Madalon.  On  the 
east  coast  are  the  Sugut,  which  has  its  headwaters  in  the 
hills  to  the  east  of  Kinabalu,  and  forms  its  delta  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Torongohok  or  Purpura  Island ;  the 
Labuk,  debouching  in  Labuk  Bay,  and  having  its  sources 
in  the  highlands  about  70  miles  inland ;  the  Kinabatangan, 
with  a  longer  course  than  any  yet  mentioned,  rising  prob- 
ably between  116°  and  117°  E.  long.,  and  forming  at  its 
mouth  a  very  extensive  delta  to  the  south  of  Sandakan 
Harbour ;  and  finally  the  Segama,  the  scene  of  Frank 
Hatton's  death  (1883).  Farther  south,  and  inland  from 
Darvel  Bay  and  Sibuco  (or  St  Lucia)  Bay,  there  are  no 
doubt  other  rivers  of  equal,  it  may  be  superior,  import- 
ance; such,  to  judge  by  its  delta,  is  the  Kalabakong, 
debouching  opposite  Sebattik  Island.  Most  of  the  rivers 
mentioned  are  navigable  for  steam  launches  of  light 
draught,  I  at  their  value  is  frequently  impaired  by  a  bar 
near  the  mouth.  Several  of  the  natural  harbours  of  North 
Borneo,  on  the  other  hand,  are  at  once  accessible,  safe, 
and  commodious.  Sandakan  Harbour,  on  the  north-eas^ 
coast  (5°  40'  N.  lat.  and  118°  10'  E.  long.),  runs  inland 
some  17  miles,  with  a  very  irregular  outline  broken  by 
the  mouths  of  numerous  creeks  and  streams.  The  mouth^ 
only  2J  miles  across,  is  split  into  two  channels  by  the  little 
island  of  Balhalla.  The  depth  in  the  main  entrance 
varies  from  10  to  17  fathoms,  and  vessels  drawing  20 
feet  can  advance  half-way  up  the  bay.  Just  wthin  the 
mouth,  on  the  north  side,  lies  Elopura  (see  below).  At 
Silam,  on  Darvel  Bay,  farther  south,  there  is  good  anchor- 
age. Kudat  (discovered  by  Commander  Johnstone,  of 
H.M.S.  "  Egeria,"  in  1881)  is  a  small  but  valuable  harbour 
in  Marudu  Bay  running  inland  for  2  or  3  miles,  but 
rapidly  shoaling  after  the  first  mile  to  1  and  2  fathoms. 
It  affords  anchorage  for  vessels  of  any  draught,  but  the 
frontage  available  for  wharves  is  limited  to  some  1500 
feet.  In  Gaya  Bay,  on  the  west  coast,  any  number  of 
vessels  may  lie  in  safety  during  either  njonsoon,  the  depths 
varying  from  6  to  16  and  17  fathoms. 

The  climate  of  North  Borneo  is  of  course  tropical,  with  a  very 
equable  temperature.  The  lowest  minimum  of  the  thermometer 
recorded  in  18S3  at  Sandakan  was  68°  5  in  December.  The  prcatest 
interval  without  rain  was  eight  days  in  March.  The  rainfall  was 
3ih  inches  (157  'n  1880)  at  Sandakan,  129  at  Tapar,  and  120  at 
Kudat.     In  the  interior  it  must  often  be  much  above  these  figures. 

That  North  Borneo  should  prove  rich  in  minerals  was  supposed 
probable  from  the  character  of  some  other  parts  of  the  island  ;  but 
iiitlierto  investigations  have  not  in  this  matter  proved  very  suc- 
cessful. Coal  or  lignite  exists,  but  most  frequently  in  thiu  seams 
and  insignificant  pockets  ;  the  petroleum  springs  caunot  come  into 
any  true  competition  with  those  worked  elsewhere  ;  gold  has  beeix 
discovered  (1885)  in  the  Segama  river  and  may  prove  a  stimulus  to 
immigration  ;  iron-ores  appear  both  abundant  and  at  times  produc- 
tive ;  and  there  are  indications  of  the  existence  of  copper,  antimony, 
tin,  and  zinc  ores.  As  yet  the  wealth  of  the  country  lies  in  its 
timber  and  jungle  products  (camphor  and  gutta-pcrcua  in  great 
quantities),  and  in  its  edible  nuts,  guano,  sagn,  sugar,  tobacco,  coffee, 
pepper,  and  gambler.  Tobacco  is  most  successfully  grown  by  tho 
natives  in  the  inland  districts  of  Mansalut,  Kandassang,  Koporin- 
gan,  Gpna-Gana,  Tomborongo,  Karnahan,  I'enusak,  TiongTuhan, 
&c.  ;  and  its  cultivation  has  been  taken  up  by  several  foreign  com. 
panics.  The  birds'-ncst  caves  of  Goninnlon  (Gormanton)  near  tho 
village  of  Malape  on  the  Kinabatangan  yield  tho  Government  a 
revenue  of  from  SCOOO  to  $7000  ;  and  other  caves  of  tho  same  kind 
are  still  lujworked.  As  the  natives  (I)usuns,  Tagnas-B.'y'aus,  Idaan, 
&c.)  are  soottered,  mostly  in  small  villages,  throughout  the  unex- 
plored as  wall  as  the  explored  districts,  their  number  con  only  bo 
guessed,  but  it  is  usually  stated  at  150,000.  Since  the  formation 
of  the  company  there  lias  been  a  steady  immigriition,  especially  o( 
Chinese  from  Singapore.  At  Elonura,  tho  capital  of  tho  territory 
an<l  of  its  East  Coast  residency,  tne  inhabitants  in  1883  numbered 
3770  (1500  being  Chinese  and  10S5  Suliis).  lUuigKong  and  Singa« 
pore  steamers  now  c.ill  regularly  at  .Sandakan,  liaya,  and  Kudat.' 
In  1885  tho  territory  was  divided  into  Alcock  province  (in  th» 
uortb),   Kcppcl   province  (along  tho  west  coast  as  far  north  u 


124 


S  A  B  — S  A  b 


Kiraanis  Bay),  tlie  East  Coast  residency  (to  the  south-east  of 
*AIcockand  Keppel  provinces),  and  Dent  province  (to  tlic  soiith-wcst 
of  the  East  Coast  residency  with  the  coast  from  Kioianis  Bay  to 
Brunei  Bay). 

'.  In  1865  an  American  company  stiirted  by  llr  Torrey  obtained 
'from  the  sultan  of  Brunei  certain  concessions  of  territory  in  North 
'Borneo ;  but  this  enterprise  proved  a  financial  failure  and  the 
settlement  formed  on  the  Kimanis  river  broke  up.  The  rights  of 
the  American  company  were  bought  up  by  the  Austrian  Baion  von 
Overbeck  and  the  Knglish  merchant  Mr  Alfred  Dent,  who  further 
obtained  from  the  bultan  of  Brunei  aud  the  sultan  of  Sulu  a  series 
of  charters  conferring  on  them  the  sovereign  authority  in  Nortli 
Borneo  under  the  titles  of  maharajah  of  Sabah,  rajah  of  Gaya  aud 
Sandakan  and  Data  Bandahara.  lu  spite  of  the  opposition  of 
Spain,  which  claimed  that  the  sultan  of  Sulu  being  a  Spanish  vassal 
could  not  dispose  of  his  territory  without  her  consent,  the  English 
company  organized  by  Mr  Deut  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  charter 
of  incorporation  under  Act  of  Parliament,  1st  November  1881,  as 
the  "British  North  Borneo  Company,"  with  right  to  acquire  other 
'interests  in,  over,  or  affecting  the  territories  or  property  comprised 
in  the  several  grants. 

I  The  test  of  the  charter  will  be  found  in  the  lojufore  Gazette,  8th  November 
11881  anil  in  the  appendix  to  Mr  Joseph  Hatton's  New  Ceyfon  (1S81):  see  also 
Franlv  Hatton,  North  Borneo,  1885;  the  Century  Magazine,  18S5;  the  EiUiltmrgh 
\ltsvi:w,  1882  ;  and  the  English  Illustrated  Magazine,  1SS3. 

SA3AS,  or  Sabbas,  St  (Syr.  3fdr  Sdbha),  one  of  the 
early  leadens  of  mouasticism  in  Palestine,  was  a  native 
'of  Cappadocia,  born  about  439.  Wbile  still  a  child  bo 
accompanied  his  parents  to  Alexandria,  whence  in  his 
eighteenth  year,  having  made  choice  of  the  ascetic  life,  he 
Removed  to  Palestine,  settling  at  the  desolate  spot  now 
.occupied  by  the  convent  called  by  his  name,  about  two 
hours  from  the  north-west  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea.  As  his 
reputation  for  holiness  increased  he  was  joined  by  others, 
who  ultimately  constituted  a  "  laura "  under  the  rule  of 
St  Basil.  He  took  some  part  in  the  doctrinal  controversies 
of  the  day,  being  a  zealous  defender  of  the  decrees  of 
Chalcedon.  He  died  about  532  and  is  commemorated 
on  5th  December.  Another  saint  of  this  name,  surnamed 
i"  the  Goth,"  suffered  martj^dom  at  the  hands  of  Athanaric, 
the  Visigothic  king,  in  the  reign  of  Yalentinian  ;  he  is 
commemorated  on  15th  (or  18th)  April.  See  also  Hoff- 
mann, Syr.  Aden  Persischer  Martyrer  (1880),  Nos.  iv.  and 
xii.,  for  lives  of  two  martyrs  named  Sabha. 

SABBATH  (nac"),  the  day  of  sacred  rest  which  among  the 
Hebrews  followed  sis  days  of  labour  and  closed  the  week. 

1.  Observance  of  the  Sabbath. — The  later  Jewish  Sab- 
bath, observed  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  the  Scribes, 
was  a  very  peculiar  institution,  and  formed  one  of  the 
most  marked  distinctions  between  the  Hebrews  and  other 
nations,  as  appears  in  a  striking  way  from  the  fact  that 
on  this  account  alone  the  Romans  found  themselves  com- 
pelled to  exempt  the  Jews  from  all  military  service.  The 
rules  of  the  Scribes  enumerated  thirty-nine  main  kinds  of 
work  forbidden  on  the  Sabbath,  and  each  of  these  prohibi- 
tions gave  rise  to  new  subtilties.  Jesus's  disciples,  for 
example,  who  plucked  ears  of  corn  in  passing  through  a 
field  on  the  holy  day,  had,  according  to  Rabbinical  casuis- 
try, violated  the  third  of  the  thirty-nine  rules,  which  for- 
bade harvesting ;  and  in  healing  the  sick  Jesus  Himself 
broke  the  rule  that  a  sick  man  should  not  receive  medical 
aid  on  the  Sabbath  unless  his  life  was  in  danger.  In  fact, 
as  our  Lord  puts  it,  the  Rabbinical  theory  seemed  to  bo 
that  the  Sabbath  was  not  made  for  man  but  man  for  the 
Sabbath,  the  observance  of  which  was  so  much  an  end  in 
itself  that  the  rules  prescribed  for  it  did  not  require  to  bo 
justified  by  appeal  to  any  larger  principle  of  leligiou  or 
humanity.  The  precepts  of  the  law  were  valuable  in  tlio 
eyes  of  the  Scribes  because  they  were  the  seal  of  Jawibh 
particularism,  the  barrier  erected  between  the  world  at 
largo  and  the  exclusive  community  of  Juhovah's  grace. 
For  this  purpose  the  most  arbitrary  prei-e|)ts  were  the 
most  effective,  and  none  were  more  so  than  the  complicated 
rules  of  Sabbath  observancB.  The  ideal  of  tlie  S.Oibatli 
uhich  all  these  rules  aimed  at  realiiiny  wius  nhaolutn  rrot 


from  everything  that  could  be  called  work  ;  and  even  the 
exercise  of  those  offices  of  humanity  which  the  strictest 
Christian  Sabbatarians  regard  as  a  service  to  God,  and 
therefore  as  specially  appropriate  to  His  day,  was  looked 
on  as  work.  To  save  life  was  allowed,  but  only  because 
danger  to  life  "superseded  the  Sabbath."  In  like  manner 
the  special  ritual  at  the  temple  prescribed  for  the  Sabbath 
by  the  Pentateuchal  law  was  not  regarded  as  any  part 
of  the  hallowing  of  the  sacred  day  ;  on  the  contrary,  tho 
rule  was  that,  in  this  regard,  "  Sabbath  was  not  kept  in 
the  sanctuary."  Strictly  speaking,  therefore,  the  Sabbath 
was  neither  a  day  of  relief  to  toiling  humanity  nor  a  day 
appointed  for  public  worship ;  the  positive  duties  of  its 
observance  were  to  wear  one's  best  clothes,  eat,  drink,  aud 
be  glad  (justified  from  Isa.  Iviii.  13).  A  more  directly 
religious  element,  it  is  true,  was  introduced  by  the  prac- 
tice of  attending  the  synagogue  service ;  but  it  is  to  bo 
remembered  that  this  service  was  primarily  regarded  not 
as  an  act  of  worship  but  as  a  meeting  for  instruction  in 
the  law.  So  far,  therefore,  as  the  Sabbath  existed  for  any 
end  outside  itself  it  was  an  institution  to  help  every  Jew 
to  learn  the  law,  and  from  this  point  of  view  it  is  regarded 
by  Philo  and  Josephus,  who  are  accustomed  to  seek  a 
philosophical  justification  for  the  peculiar  institutions  of 
their  religion.  But  this  certainly  was  not  the  leading 
point  of  view  with  the  mass  of  the  Rabbins  ;i  and  at  any 
rate  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  synagogue  is  a  post-exilic 
institution,  and  therefore  that  the  Sabbath  in  old  Israel 
must  either  have  been  entirely  different  from  the  Sabbath 
of  the  Scribes,  or  else  must  have  been  a  mere  day  of  idle- 
ness and  feasting,  not  accompanied- by  any  jiroperly  reli- 
gious observances  or  having  any  properly  religious  mean- 
ing. The  second  of  these  alternatives  may  be  dismissed 
as  quite  inconceivable,  for,  though  many  of  the  religions 
ideas  of  the  old  Hebrews  were  crude,  their  institutions 
were  never  arbitrary  and  meaningless,  and  when  they  siioke 
of  consecrating  the  Sabbath  they  must  have  had  in  7ie\? 
some  religious  exercise  of  an  intelligible  kind  by  which 
they  paid  worship  to  Jehovah. 

Indeed,  that  the  old  Hebrew  Sabbath  was  quite  differ- 
ei.t  from  the  Rabbinical  Sabbath  is  demonstrated  in  tho 
trenchant  criticism  which  Jesus  directed  against  the  latter 
(Matt.  xii.  1-U  ;  Slark  ii.  27).  The  general  position  which 
He  takes  up,  that  "the  Sabbath  is  made  for  man  and  not 
man  for  the  Sabbath,"  is  only  a  special  application  of  the 
wider  principle  that  the  law  is  not  an  end  in  itself  but  a 
help  towards  the  realization  in  life  of  the  great  ideal  of 
love  to  God  and  man,  which  is  the  sum  of  all  true  religion. 
But  Jesus  further  maintains  that  this  view  of  the  law  as  a 
whole,  and  the  interpretation  of  the  Sabbath  law  which  it 
involves,  can  be  historically  justified  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. And  in  this  connexion  He  introduces  two  of  the 
main  methods  to  which  historical  criticism  of  the  Old 
Testament  has  recurred  in  moderu  times :  He  appeals  to 
the  oldest  history  rather  than  to  the  Pentateuchal  code  aa 
proving  that  the  later  conception  of  the  law  was  unknown 
in  ancient  times  (Matt.  xii.  3,  4),  and  to  the  exceptions  to 
the  Sabbath  law  which  the  Scribes  themselves  allowed  in 
the  interests  of  worship  (ver.  5)  or  humanity  (ver.  11),  as 
showing  that  the  Sabbath  must  originally  have  been  de- 
voted to  purposes  of  worship  and  humanity,  and  was  not 
always  the  purposeless  arbitrary  thing  which  the  schoolmen 
made  it  to  be.  Modern  criticism  of  the  histo;y  of  Sabbath 
observance  among  the  Hcbrewt,  tas  done  nothing  more 
than  follow  out  these  arguments  lu  detail,  and  show  rhat 
the  result  is  in  agreement  with  what  is  known  as  to  tho 
dates  of  the  several  component  parts  of  the  Pentateuch. 

'  See  the  Mishnali,  tr.  "Shabbath,"  and  15.  of  Jubilees,  eh.  I.  ;  anil 
coni|  are  Schurer,  Ciesch.  d.  jUiL  Vothjs,  ii.  357,  376,  393  s,j.,  when*, 
tho  lUljbinical  balbath  Ui  well  e.xi'laiuud  and  illustratwl  iu  ilfliiL 


SABBATH 


125 


Of  the  legal  passages  that  speak  of  the  Sabbath  all  those 
'■which  show  affinity  with  the  doctrine  of  the  Scribes — 
regarding  the  Sabbath  as  an  arbitrary  sign  between 
Jehovah  and  Israel,  entering  into  details  as  to  particular 
acts  that  are  forbidden,  and  enforcing  the  observance  by 
severe  penalties,  so  that  it  no  longer  has  any  religious 
value,  but  appears  as  a  mere  legal  constraint — are  post-exilic 
(Exod.  xvi.  23-30,  xxxi.  12-17,  xxxv.  1-3;  Num.  xv.  32-36); 
while  the  older  laws  only  demand  such  cessation  from  daily 
toil,  and  especially  from  agricultural  labour,  as  among  ail 
ancient  peoples  naturally  accompanied  a  day  set  apart  as  a 
religious  festival,  and  in  particular  lay  weight  on  the  fact 
that  the  Sabbath  is  a  humane  institution,  a  holiday  for  the 
labouring  classes  (Exod.  xxiii.  12  ;  Deut.  v.  13-15).  As  it 
stands  in  these  ancient  laws,  the  Sabbath  is  not  at  all  the 
unique  thing  which  it  was  made  to  be  by  the  Scribes. 
"The  Greeks  and  the  barbarians,"  says  Strabo  (x.  3,  9), 
"have  this  in  common,  that  they  accompany  their  sacred 
rites  by  a  festal  remission  of  labour."  So  it  was  in  old 
Israel :  the  Sabbath  was  one  of  the  stated  religious  feasts, 
like  the  new  moon  and  the  three  great  hgricultural  sacri- 
ficial celebrations  (Hosea  ii.  11);  the  new  moons  and  the  Sab- 
baths alike  called  men  to  the  sanctuary  to  do  sacrifice  (Isa. 
i.  14);  the  remission  of  ordinary  business  belonged  to  both 
alike  (Amos  viii.  5),  and  for  precisely  the  saraa  reason. 
Hosea  even  takes  it  for  granted  that  in  captivity  the  Sab- 
bath will  be  suspended,  like  all  the  other  feasts,  because  in 
his  day  a  feast  implied  a  sanctuary. 

This  conception  of  the  Sabbath,  ho%"ever,  necessarily 
underwent  an  important  modification  in  the  7th  century 
B.C.,  when  the  local  sanctuaries  were  abolished,  and  those 
sacrificial  rites  and  feasts  which  in  Hosea's  time  formed 
the  essence  of  every  act  of  religion  were  limited  to  the 
central  altar,  which  most  men  could  visit  only  at  rare 
mtervals.  From  this  time  forward  the  new  mooas,  which 
till  then  had  been  at  least  as  important  as  the  Sabbath 
and  were  celebrated  by  sacrificial  feasts  as  occasions  of 
religious  gladness,  fall  into  insignificance,  except  in  the 
conservative  temple  ritual.  The  Sabbath  did  pot  share 
the  same  fate,  but  with  the  abolition  of  local  sacrifices  it 
became  for  most  Israelites  an  institution  of  humanity 
divorced  ffom  ritual.  So  it  appears  in  the  Deuteronomic 
decalogue,  and  presumably  also  in  Jer.  xvii.  19  sq.  In  this 
form  the  institution  was  able  to  survive  the  fall  of  the  state 
and  the  temple,  and  the  seventh  day's  rest  was  clung  to  in 
exile  as  one  of  the  few  outward  ordinances  by  which  the 
Israelite  could  stiU  show  his  fidelity  to  Jehovah  and  mark 
his  separation  from  the  heathen.  Hence  we  understand 
the  importance  attached  to  it  in  the  exilic  literature  (Isa. 
Ivi.  2  sq.,  Iviii.  13),  and  the  character  of  a  sign  between 
Jehovah  and  Israel  ascribed  to  it  in  the  post- exilic  law. 
This  attachment  to  the  Sabbath,  beautiful  and  touching 
so  long  as  it  was  a  spontaneous  expression  of  continual 
devotion  to  Jehovah,  acquired  a  less  pleasing  charac  er 
when,  after  the  exile,  it  camo  to  bo  enforced  by  the  civil 
arm  (Noh.  xiii.),  and  when  the  later  law  even  declared 
Sabbath -breaking  a  capital  offence.  But  it  is  just  to 
remember  that  without  the  stern  discipline  of  the  law  the 
community  of  the  second  temple  could  hardly  have  escaped 
dissolution,  and  that  Judaism  alone  preserved  for  Chris- 
tianity the  haid-won  achievements  of  the  prophets. 

The  Sabbath  exercised  a  twiofold  influence  on  the  early 
Christian  church.  On  the  one  hand,  the  weekly  celebration 
of  the  resurrection  on  the  Lord's  day  could  not  have  arisen 
except  in  a  circle  that  already  know  the  week  as  a  sacred 
division  of  time ;  and,  moreover,  the  manner  in  which  the 
Lord's  day  was  observed  was  directly  inllubnccd  by  the 
synagogue  service.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tians continued  to  keep  the  Sabbath,  like  other  points  of 
ihe  old  law.     Eusebius  (f/.E.,  iii.  27)  remarks  that  the 


Ebionites  QD?erved  both  the  Sabbath  and  the  Lord's,  lay ; 
and  this  practice  obtained  to  some  extent  in  much  ■wider 
ei'rcles,  for  the  Apostolical  Constitutions  recommend  that 
the  Sabbath  shall  be  kept  as  a  memorial  feast  of  the  orea- 
tion  as  well  as  the  Lord's  day  as  a  memorial  of  the  r-«ur- 
rcction.  The  festal  character  of  the  Sabbath  was  long 
recognized  in  a  modified  form  in  the  Eastern  Church  by  a 
prohibition  of  fasting  on  that  day,  which  was  also  a  painl 
in  the  Jewish  Sabbath  law  (comp.  Judith  viii.  6). 

On  the  other  hand,  Paul  had  quite  distinctly  laid  down 
from  the  first  days  of  Gentile  Christianity  that  the  Jewish 
Sabbath  was  not  binding  on  Christians  (Rom.  xiv.  5  sq. ; 
Gal.  iv.  10;  Col.  ii.  16),  and  controversy  with  Judaizers 
led  in  process  of  time  to  direct  condemnation  of  those  who 
still  kept  the  Jewish  day  {e.g.,  Co.  of  Laodicea,  363  a.d.). 
Nay,  in  the  Roman  Church  a  practice  of  fasting  on  Satur- 
day as  well  as  on  Friday  was  current  before  the  time  of 
TertuUian.  The  steps  by  which  the  practice  of  resting 
from  labour  on  the  Lord's  day  instead  of  on  the  Sabbath 
was  established  in  Christendom  and  received  civil  as  well 
as  ecclesiastical  sanction  will  be  spoken  of  in  Sunday;  it  is 
enough  to  observe  here  that  this  practice  is  naturally  and 
even  necessarily  connected  ■with  the  religious  observance 
of  the  Lord's  day  as  a  day  of  worship  and  religious  glad- 
ness, and  is  in  full  accordance  with  the  principles  laid 
down  by  Jesus  in  His  criticism  of  the  Sabbath  of  the 
Scribes.  But  of  course  the  complete  observance  of  Sunday 
rest  was  not  generally  possible  to  the  early  Christians 
before  Christendom  obtained  civil  recognition.  For  the 
theological  discussions  whether  and  in  what  sense  the 
fourth  commandment  is  binding  on  Christians,  see  Deca- 
logue, vol.  vii.  p.  17. 

2.  Origin  of  the  Sabbath. — As  the  Sabbath  ■was  origin- 
ally a  religious  feast,  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the 
Sabbath  resolves  itself  into  an  inquiry  why  and  in  what 
circle  a  festal  cycle  of  seven  days  was  first  established. 
In  Gen.  ii.  1-3  and  in  Exod.  xx.  1 1  the  Sabbath  is  declared 
to  be  a  memorial  of  the  completion  of  the  ■work  of  creation 
in  six  days.  But  it  appears  certain  that  the  decalogue  as 
it  lay  before  the  Deuteronomist  did  not  ("ontain  any  allusion 
to  the  creation  (see  Decalogue,  vol.  vii.  p.  16),  and  it  is 
generally  believed  that  this  reference  was  added  by  the 
same  post-exilic  hand  that  wrote  Gen.  L  1-ii.  4a.  The 
older  account  of  the  creation  in  Gen.  ii.  4b  sq.  does  noti 
recognize  the  hexaemeron,  and  it  is  even  doubtful  whether 
the  original  sketch  of  Gen  i.  distributed  creation  over  six 
days.  The  cormexion,  therefore,  between  the  seven  days' 
week  and  the  work  of  creation  is  now  generally  recognized 
as  secondary.  The  week  and  the  Sabbath  ■vyere  already 
known  to  the  ■writer  of  Gen.  i.,  and  he  used  them  to  give 
the  framework  for  his  picture  of  the  creation,  which  in  the 
natu,re  of  things  could  not  be  literal  and  required  somo 
framework.  At  the  same  time,  there  was  a  peculiar  ap- 
propriateness in  associating  the  Sabbath  with  the  doctrino 
that  Jehovah  is  the  Creator  of  all  things ;  for  we  see  from 
Isa.  xl.-lxvi.  that  this  doctrine  was  a  mainstay  of  Jewish 
faith  in  those  very  days  of  exile  which  gave  the  Sabbath 
a  new  importance  for  the  faithf  J. 

But,  if  the  week  as  a  religious  cycle  is  older  than  tho 
idea  of  the  week  of  creation,  wc  cannot  hope  to  find  nioro 
than  probable  evidence  of  tho  origin  of  tho  Sabbath. 
At  the  time  of  tho  exile  tho  Sabbath  ■n-as.  already  an 
institution  peculiarly  Jewish,  otherwise  it  could  not  have 
served  as  a  mark  of  distinction  from  heathenism.  This, 
however,  docs  not  necessarily  imply  that  in  its  origin  it 
was  specifically  Hebrew,  but  only  that  it  had  acquired 
distinguishing  features  of  a  marked  kind.  What  is  cer- 
tain is  that  tho  origin  of  tho  Sabbath  must  bo  sought 
within  a  circle  that  used  tho  week  ns  a  division  of  tirao.i 
Hero  again  wo  must  distinguish  between  tho  week  »4 


126 


SABBATH 


Btich  and  the  astrological  week,  i.e,  the  week  in  which 
the  seven  days  are  named  each  after  the  planet  which  is 
held  to  preside  over  its  first  hour.  If  the  day  is  divided 
into  twenty-four  hours  and  the  planets  preside  in  turn 
over  each  hour  of  the  week  in  the  order  of  their  periodic 
times  (Saturn,  Jupiter,  Mars,  Sun,  Venus,  Mercury, 
Moon),  we  get  the  order  of  days  of  the  week  with  which 
we  are  familiar.  For,  if  the  Sun  presides  over  the  first 
hour  of  Sunday,  and  therefore  also  over  the  eighth,  the 
fifteenth,  and  the  twenty-second,  Venus  wiU  have  the 
twenty-third  hour.  Mercury  the  twenty-fourth,  and  the 
Moon,  as  the  third  in  order  from  the  sun,  will  preside 
pver  the  first  hour  of  Monday.  Mars,  again,  as  third 
from  the  Moon,  will  preside  over  Tuesday  (Dies  Martis, 
Mardi),  and  so  forth.  This  astrological  week"  became 
very  current  in  the  Roman  empire,  but  was  still  a  novelty 
in  the  time  of  Dio  Cassius  (xxxvii.  18).  This  writer 
believed  that  it  came  from  Egypt ;  but  the  old  Egyptians 
had  a  week  of  ten,  not  of  seven  days,  and  the  original 
home  of  astrology  and  of  the  divisioij  of  the  day  into 
twenty-four  hours  is  Chaldsea.  It  is  plain,  however, 
that  there  is  a  long  step  between  the  astrological  assigna- 
tion of  each  hour  of  the  week  to  a  planet  and  the  recog- 
nition of  the  week  as  an  ordinary  division  of  time  by 
people  at  large.  Astrology  is  in  its  nature  an  occult 
science,  and  there  is  not  the  slightest  trace  oT  a  day  of 
twenty-four  hours  among  the  ancient  Hebrews,  who  had 
the  week  and  the  Sabbath  long  before  they  had  any 
acquaintance  with  the  planetary  science  of  the  Babylonian 
priests.  Moreover,  it  is  quite  clear  from  extant  remains 
of  Assyrian  calendars  that  our  astrological  week  did  not 
prevail  in  civil  life  even  among  the  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians :  they  did  not  dedicate  each  day  in  turn  to  its 
astrological  planet.  These  facts  make  it  safe  to  reject 
one  often -repeated  explanation  of  the  Sabbath,  viz.,  that 
it  was  in  its  origin  what  it  is  in  the  astrological  week,  the 
day  sacred  to  Satiun,  and  that  its  observance  is  to  be 
derived  from  an  ancient  Hebrew  worship  of  that  planet. 
In  truth  there  is  no  evidence  of  the  worship  of  Saturn 
among  the  oldest  Hebrews ;  Amos  v.  26,  where  Chiun 
(Kaiwan)  is  taken  by  many  to  mean  Saturn,  is  of  ulicer- 
tain  interpretation,  and,  when  the  tenses  are  rightly 
rendered,  refers  not  to  idolatry  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  but  to  the  time  of  the  prophet. 

The  week,  however,  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
world  in  a  form  that  has  nothing  to  do  with  astrology  or 
the  seven  planets,  and  with  such  a  distribution  as  to  make 
it  pretty  certain  that  it  had  no  artificial  origin,  but 
suggested  itself  inc  jpendently,  and  for  natural  reasons, 
to  different  races.  In  fact  the  four  quarters  of  the  moon 
supply  an  obvious  division  of  the  month ;  and,  wherever 
new  moon  and  full  moon  are  religious  occasions,  we  get 
in  the  most  natural  way  a  sacred  cycle  of  fourteen  or 
fifteen  day%  of  which  the  week  oi  seven  or  eight  days 
(determined  by  half  moon)  is  the  half.  Thus  the  old 
Hindus  chose  the  new  and  the  full  moon  as  days  of 
sacrifice ;  the  eve  of  the  sacrifice  was  called  upavasatha, 
and  in  Buddhism  the  same  word  (uposatka)  has  come  to 
denote  a  Sabbath  observed  on  the  full  moon,  on  the  day 
when  there  is  no  moon,  and  on  the  two  days  which  are 
eighth  from  the  full  and  the  new  moon  respectively,  with 
fasting  and  other  religious  exercises. '' 

From  this  point  of  vie-v  it  is  most  significant  that  in  the 
older  parts  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  the  new  moon  and 
the  Sabbath  are  almost  invariably  mentioned  together. 
The  monti  is  beyond  question  an  old  sacred  division  of 
time  common  to  all  the  Semites ;  even  the  Arabs,  who  re- 
ceived the  week  at  quite  a  late  period  from  the  Syrians 

'  Ctilders,  Pali  Diet.,  p.  6S5 ;  Kem,  Buddhismus  (Ger.  V:.),  p.  8 : 
McMvagga,  u.  i,  1  (Eng.  tr.,  i.  239,  291). 


(Birflni,  Chronology,  Eng.  tr.,  p.  58),  greeted  the  new 
moon  with  religious  acclamations.  And  this  must  have 
Ibeen  an  old  Semitic  usage,  for  the  word  which  properly 
means  "  to  greet  the  new  moon  "  (ahalla)  is,  as  Lagarde 
{Orientalia,  ii.  19)  has  shown,  etymologically  connected 
with  the  Hebrew  words  used  of  any  festal  joy.  Among 
the  Hebwws,  or  rather  perhaps  among  the  Canaanites, 
whose  speech  they  borrowed,  the  joy  at  the  new  moon  be- 
came the  type  of  religious  festivity  in  general.  Nor  are 
other  traces  wanting  of  the  connexion  of  sacrificiaU occa- 
sions— i.e.,  religious  feasts — with  the  phases  of  the  moon 
among  the  Semites.  The  Harranians  had  four  sacrificial 
days  in  every  month,  and  of  these  two  at  least  were  deter- . 
mined  by  the  conjunction  and  opposition  of  the  moon.^ 

That  full  moon  as  well  as  new  moon  had  a  religious 
significance  among  the  ancient  Hebrews  seems  to  follow 
from  the  fact  that,  when  the  great  agricultural  feasts  were 
fixed  to  set  days,  the  full  moon  was  chosen.  In  older 
times  these  feast-days  appear  to  have  been  Sabbaths  (Lev. 
xxiii.  II ;  comp.  PasSovee,  vol.  xviii.  p.  344). 

A  week  determined  by  the  phases  of  the  moon  has  an 
average  length  of"29|-;-4  =  7|  days,  i.e.,  three  weeks  out 
of  eight  would  have  eight  days.  I?ut  there  seems  to  be  in 
1  Sam.  XX.  27,  compared  with  w.  18,  24,  an  indication  that 
in  old  times  the  feast  of  the  new'moon  lasted  two  days — a 
very  natural  institution,  since  it  appears  that  the  feast  was 
fixed  in  advance,  while  the  Hebrews  of  Saul's  time  cannot 
have  been  good  enough  astronomers  to  know  beforehand  on 
which  jf  two  successive  days  the  new  moon  would  actually 
be  observed.^  In  that  case  a  week  of  seven  working  days 
would  occur  only  once  in  two  months.  We  cannot  tell 
when  the  Sabbath  became  dissociated  from  th<^  month ; 
but  the  change  seems  to  have  been  made  before  the  Book 
of  the  Covenant,  which  already  regards  the  Sabbath  simply 
as  an  institution  of  humanity  and  ignores  the  new  moon. 
In  both  points  it  is  followed  by  Deuteronomy. 

The  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Sahbalh. — The  word  "Sabbath" 
(sabatluv),  with  the  explanation  "day  of  rest  of  the  heart,"  is 
claimed  aa  Assyrian  on  the  basis  of  a  textual  emendation  made  by 
F.  Delitzsch  in  II.  Rawl.,  32,  16.  The  value  of  this  isolated  and 
uncertain  testimony  cannot  be  placed  very  high,  and  it  seems  to 
prove  too  much,  for  it  i3_  practically  certain  that  the  Babylonians 
at  the  time  of  the  Hebrew  exile  cannot  have  had  a  Sabbath  exactly 
corresponding  in  conception  to  what  the  Hebrew  Sabbath  had  be- 
come under 'very  special  historical  circumstances.  What  we  do 
know  from  a  calendar  of  the  intercalary  month  Elul  II.  is  that 
in  that  month  the  7th,  14th,  19th,  21st,  and  2Sth  days  had  a  pecu- 
liar character,  and  that  certain  acts  were  forbidden  on  them  to  tha 
king  and  others.  There  is  the  greatest  uncertainty  as  to  the  details 
(compare  the  very  divergent  renderings  in  Kecords  of  the  Past,  vii 
160  sq.  ;  Schrader,  K.A.T.,  2d  ed.,  p.  19  ;  Lotz,  Qu.  de  historia 
SabbcUi,  39  sq.);  but  these  days,  which  are  taken  to  be  Assyrian 
Sabbaths,  are  certainly  not  "days  of  rest  of  the  heart,"  and  to' all 
appearance  are  unlucky  days,  and  expressly  designated  as  such.* 
If,  therefore,  they  are  "  Assyrian  Sabbaths  "  at  all,  they  are  exactly 
opposite  in  character  to  the  Hebrew  Sabbath,  which  Hosea  describes 
as  a  day  of  gladness,  and  which  never  ceased  to  be  a  day  of  feasting 
and  good  rheer. 

Etymology  of  the  word  "  Sabbath. " — The  grammatical  inflexions  of 
the  word  "  Sabbath  "show  that  it  is  a  feminine  forn,  properly  shab^ 
bal-t  ioT  shabbdt-t,  from  TO\^  II.  The  root  has  nothing  to  do  with' 
resting  in  the  sense  of  enjoying  repose ;  in  transitive  forms  and! 
applications  it  means  to  "  sever,"  to  "  put  an  end  to,"  and  intran- 
sitively it  means  to  "desist,"  to*'' come  to  an  end."  The  gram- 
matical form  of  shabbath  suggests  a  transitive  sense,  "the  divider,  j 
and  apparently  indicates  the  Sabbath  as  dividing  the  month.  I| 
may  mean  the  day  which  puts  a  stop  to  the  week's  work,  but  thisi 
is  less  likely.     It  certainly  cannot  be  translated  "  the  day  of  rest" 

Sabbatical  Tear. — The  Jews  under  the  second  temple  observed 
every  seventh  year  as  a  Sabbath  according  to  the  (post-exilic)  law 
of  Lev.  XXV.  1-7.  .  It  was  a  year  in  which  all  agriculture  was  re- 


*  The  othera  according  to  iha Fihrisl,  319, 14— are  the  17tli.and| 
the  28th. 

'  It  appears  ^om  Judith  viii  6  that  even  in  later  times  ther^  weis 
two  days  at  the  new  moon  on  which  it  was  improper  to  fast. 

*  Lotz  says  they  are  lucky  days ;  but  the  expression  which  he  render*, 
" difs  faustus"  is  applied  to  every  day  in  the  calendar.  -The  rest  of 
his  book  does  not  rise  above  this  example  of  acumen. 


S  A  B  — S  A  B 


127 


mitteJ,  in  which  llio  ficKlg  lay  unsown,  (he  vines  grew  unpruned, 
»ad  even  the  natural  produce  was  not  gathered  in.  That  this  law 
was  not  observed  before  the  captivity  we  learn  from  Lev.  xxvi.  34 
tq. ;  indeed  so.  long  as  the  Hebrews  were  an  agricultural  people  with 
little  trade,  in  a  land  often  ravaged  by  severe  famines,  such  a  law 
could  not  havo  been  observed.  Kven  in  later  times  it  was  occasion- 
ally productive  of  great  distress  (1  Mac.  vi.  49,  53  ;  Jos.,  Antt.,  xiv. 
16,  2).  In  the  older  legislation,  however,  we  already  meet  with  a 
seven  years'  period  in  more  than  one  connexion.  The  release  of  a 
Hebrew  servant  after  six  years'  labour  (Exod.  xxi.  2  sq. ;  Deut.  xv. 
12  sq.)  has  only  a  remote  analogy  to  the  Sabbatical  year.  But  in 
Exod.  xxiii.  10,  11  it  is  prescribed  that  the  crop  of  every  seventh 
year  (apparently  the  self-sown  crop)  shall  be  left  for  the  poor,  and 
iftcr  tliem  for  the  beasts.  The  difference  between  this  and  the 
later  law  is  that  the  seventh  year  is  not  called  a  Sabbath,  and  that 
there  is  no  indication  that  all  land  was  to  lie  fallow  on  the  samo 
year.  In  this  form  a  law  prescribing  one  year's  fallow  in  seven 
may  have  been  anciently  observed.  It  is  extended  in  ver.  11  to  tho 
vineyard  and  the  olive  oil,  but  here  the  culture  necessary  to  keep 
the  vines  and  olive  trees  in  order  is  not  forbidden  ;  the  precept 
Is  only  that  the  produce  is  to  bo  left  to  the  poor.  In  Deuteronomy 
this  law  is  not  repeated,  but  a  fixed  seven  yeara'  period  is  ordained 
for  the  benefit  of  poor  debtors,  apparently  in  the  sense  that  in  tho 
seventh  year  no  interest  is  to  be  exacted  by  the  creditor  from  a 
Hebrew,  or  that  no  proceedings  are  to  be  taken  against  the  debtor 
In  that  year  (Dent.  xv.  1  sq.).  _     _  (W.  R.  S.) 

SABELLIUS.  Even  after  the  elimination  of  Gnosti- 
cism the  church  remained  without  any  uniform  Christology ; 
tho  Trinitarians  and  the  Unitarians  continued  to  confront 
each  other,  the  latter  at  the  beginning  of  the  3d  century 
Btill  forming  the  large  majority.  These  in  turn  split  into 
two  .principal  groups — the  Adoptianists  and  the  Modalists 
— the  former  holding  Christ  to  be  the  man  chosen  of  God, 
on  whom  the  Holy  Spirit  rested  in  a  quite  unique  sense, 
and  who  after  toil  and  suffering,  through  His  oneness  of 
will  with  God,  became  divine,  the  latter  maintaining  Christ 
to  be  a  manifestation  of  God  Himself.  Both  groups  had 
their  scientific  theologians  who  sought  to  vindicate  their 
characteristic  doctrines,  the  Adoptianist  divines  holding 
by  the  Aristotelian  philosophy,  and  the  Modalists  by  that 
of  the  Stoics ;  while  the  Trinitarians  (Tertullian,  Hippo- 
lytus,  Origen,  Novatianl.  on  the  other  hand,  appealed  to 
Plato. 

In  Rome  Modalism  was  the  doctrine  which  prevailed 
from  Victor  to  Cali.xtus  (c.  190-220).  The  bishops  just 
named  protected  within  the  city  the  schools  of  Epigonus 
and  Cleomenes  where  it  was  taught  that  the  Son  is 
identical  with  tne  Father.  But  the  presbyter  Hippolytus 
was  successful  in  convincing  the  leaders  of  that  church 
that  the  Modalistic  doctrine  taken  in  its  strictness  was 
contrary  to  Scripture.  Bishop  Calixtus  saw  himself  under 
the  necessity  of  abandoning  his  friends  and  setting  up  a 
mediating  formula  designed  to  harmonize  the  Trinitarian 
and  the  Modalistic  positions.  But,  while  e.xcommunicating 
the  strict  Unitarians  (Monarchians),  he  also  took  the  same 
course  with  Hippolytus  and  his  followers,  declaring  their 
teaching  to  be  ditheism.  The  mediation  formula,  how- 
ever, proposed  by  Calixtus  became  t';e  bridge  by  which, 
in  the-  course  of  the  decades  immediately  following,  tho 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  made  its  way  into  the  Roman 
Church.  In  the  year  250,  when  the  Roman  presbyter 
Novatian  wrote  his  book  De  Trinitate,  the  doctrine  of 
Hippolytus,  once  discredited  as  ditheism,  had  already 
become  official  there.  At  the  same  time  Rome  and  most 
of  tho  other  churches  of  the  West  still  retained  a  certain 
leaning  towards  Modalistic  raonarcliianism.  This  appears, 
on  the  one  hand,  in  tho  use  of  expressions  having  a 
Modalistic  ring  about  them— see  especially  the  poems  of 
Commodian,  written  about  the  time  of  Valerian— and,  on 
the  other  hand,  in  the  rejection  of  tho  doctrine  that  tho 
Son  is  subordinate  to  the  Father  and  is  a  creature  (wit- 
ness the  controversy  between  Dionysius  of  Alexandria 
and  Dionysius  of  Rome),  as  well  as  in  tho  readiness  of  tho 
West  to  .accept  the  formula  of  Athanasius,  that  tho  Father 
and  tho  Son  are  one  and  the  same  m  substance  (o/iooiViot). 


The  strict  Modalists,  whom  Calixtus  had  excommuni- 
cated along  with  their  r^.ost  zealous  opponent  Hippolytus, 
were  led  by  Sabellius,  who  was  perhaps  a  Libyan  by  birth. 
His  party  continued  to  subsist  in  Rome  for  a  considerable 
time  afterwards,'  and  withstood  Calixtus  as  an  unscrupu- 
lous apostate.  In  the  West,  however,  the  influence  of 
Sabellius  seems  never  to  have  been  important ;  in  the 
East,  on  the  other  hand,  after  the  middle  of  the  3d  cen- 
tury his  doctrine  found  much  acceptance,  first  in  the 
Pentapolis  and  afterwards  in  other  provinces.^  It  waa 
violently  controverted  by  the  bishops,  notably  by  Dionysius 
of  Alexandria,  and  the  development  in  the  East  of  the 
philosophical  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  after  Origen  (from  2G0 
to  320)  was  very  powerfully  influenced  by  the  opposition 
to  Sabellianism  Thus,  for  example,  at  the  great  synod 
held  in  Antioch  in  2G8  the  word  6/.tooicrios  was  rejected, 
as  seeming  to  favour  Unitarianism.  The  Sabellian  doc- 
trine itself,  however,  during  the  decades  above  mentioned 
underwent  many  changes  in  the  East  and  received  a  philo- 
sophical dress.  In  the  4  th  century  this  and  tho  allied 
dootrino  ■A  JIarcellus  of  Ancyra  were  frequently  con- 
founded, so  that  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  arrive  at  a 
clear  account  of  it  in  its  genuine  form.  Sabellianism,  in 
fact,  became  a  collective  name  for  all  those  Unitarian 
doctrines  in  which  the  divine  nature  of  Christ  wa3 
acknowledged.  The  teaching  of  Sabellius  himself  waa 
indubitably  very  closely  allied  to  the  older  Modalism 
("Patripassianisra")  of  Noetus  and  Praxeas,  but  waa 
distinguished  from  it  by  its  more  careful  theological 
elaboration  and  by  the  account  itf  took  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
His  central  proposition  was  to  the  effect  that  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Spirit  are  the  same  person,  three  names  thua 
being  attached  to  one  and  the  same  being.  ^Vhat  weighed 
most  with  Sabellius  was  the  monotheistic  interest.  The 
One  Being  was  also  named  by  hifn  vloTraTwp, — an  expression 
purposely  chosen  to  obviate  ambiguity.  To  explain  how 
one  and  the  same  being  could  have  various  forms  of 
manifestation,  he  pointed  to  the  tripartite  nature  of  man 
(body,  soul,  spirit),  and  to  the  sun,  which  manifests  itself 
as  a  heavenly  body,  as  a  source  of  light,  and  also  as  a 
source  of  warmth.  He  further  maintained  that  God  ia 
not. at  one  and  the  same  time  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  has  been  active  in  three  consecutive 
energies, — first  in  the  prosopon  of  the  Father  as  Creator, 
then  in  the  prosopon  of  the  Son  as  Redeemer,  and  lastly 
in  the  prosopon  of  the  Spirit  as  the  Giver  of  Life.  It  ia 
by  this  doctrine  of  tho  succession  of  tho  prosopa  that 
Sabellius  is  essentially  distinguished  from  tho  older 
Modalists.  In  jiarticular  it  is  significant,  in  conjunction 
with  the  reference  to  tho  Holy  Spirit,  that  Sabellius  re- 
gards the  Father  also  as  merely  a  form  of  manifestation 
of  tho  one  God,— in  other  words,  has  formally  put  Him 
in  a  position  of  complete  cquahty  with  the  other  Persons. 
This  view  prepares  the  way  for  Augustine's  doctrine  of 
tho  Trinity.  Sabellius  himself  appears  to  have  made  use 
of  Stoical  formulas  (s-Aaru'ifo-Oai,  crfortA-Xto-Oat),  but  he 
chiefly  relied  upon  Scripture,  especially  such  pas-sagcs  aa 
Deut.  vi.  4,  E.xod.  xx.  3,  Isa.  xliv.  6,  John  x.  38.  Of 
liis  later  history  nothing  is  kno'ivn ;  his  followers  died  out 
in  tho  course  of  the  4th  century. 

Tho  sources  of  our  knowlcdgo  of  Sabellianism  arc  Hippolytus 
(rhilos.,  bk.  ix.).  Epiphanius  (Ha-r.,  Ixii.),  and  D.onya.  Alex. 
(&;).):  also  various  passages  in  Athnnty.sins  and  the  other  fathers 
of  the  4th  century.  For  modern  di.soB.Hsions  of  tho  ...bject  sco 
Schleiermacher(7-A<.o/.  Zlschr.,  1822,  hft.  3).  L«"K«  ^'»^';^-/- '"j^ 
Tltml,  1832,  li.  2),  DoUinger  {IlippoUjt  u.  halhsl,  18 j3).  IaWtx 
(Marci::  V.  Ancyra,  1867).  and  llarnack  (s.f.  "  Monarch.anisnuis, 
in  Hcrzog-Plitt,  Encykl.f.  Prol.  Thcol.,  x.  199  sq.).        (A.  HA.) 

»  In  the  18lh  century  there  wa.s  iliscovircJ  in  one  of  the  catAcombs 
of  Uomo  an  inscription  containinR  tho  words  "qui  cl  Filiua  dlceris  el 
Pater  inveniris."     This  can  only  have  conio  from  a  Sabellian. 

»  Whether  Sabellius  himself  ever  visited  tlio  East  it  unknown. 


128 


S  A  B  — S  A  B 


SABIANS.  In  ttree  passages  of  the  Koran  Mohammed 
mentions  between  the  Jews  and  the  Christians  a  sect  whom 
he  calls  Sabians  {Sdhi'una).  He  distinguishes  them  from 
the  Magians  and  polytheists  (xxii.  17),  and  appears  to  say 
that  they  believed  in  God  and  in  the  day  of  resurrection 
and  judgment.  It  has  commonly  been  supposed  that  the 
sect  referred  to  is  the  Manb^eans  (q.v.) ;  but  it  is  more 
probable  that  they  were  some  obscure  half-Christian  body 

JEUkesaites  ?),  which  had  representatives  in  Arabia  itself 
see  MoHAJTMEDAJTisM,  vol.  xvi.  p.  547).  The  'name  is 
derived  from  the  Aramaic  yav,  with  a  softening  of  y  to  }?, 
Buch  as  took  place  in  certain  dialects  of  that  speech,  and 
means  "Baptists."  The  older  Mohammedan  theologians 
were  agreed  that  the  Sabians  possessed  a  written  revela- 
tion, and  were  entitled  accordingly  to  enjoy  a  toleration 
not  granted  to  mere  heathen,  and  it  appears  that  the  Man- 
dieans  got  the  benefit  of  this,  whether  they  were  the  sect 
Mohammed  had  in  view  or  not.  But  under  AI-Mamiin 
(830)  a  body  that  had  certainly  no  claim  to  be  deemed 
other  than  polytheists  began  to  shield  themselves  under 
the  same  name,  viz.,  the  Harranians,  or  remnant  of  the 
old  heathen  of  Mpsopotamia.  Star-worship  had  a  chief 
place  in  the  religion  of  the  Harrauians,  as  it  had  had -in 
the  older  Babylonian  and  Syrian  faiths,  but  they  had 
partly  disguised  their  polytheism  in  a  fantastic  phOosophy, 
so  that  they  were  able  on  occasion  to  pose  as  people  of 
enlightened  beliefs.  Accounts  of  these  false  Sabians 
reached  the  West  through  Maimonides,  and  then  through 
Arabic  sources,  long  before  it  was  understood  that,  in  this 
application,  the  name  was  only  a  disguise.  Hence  the 
greatest  confusion  prevailed  in  all  European  accounts  of 
them  till  Chwolsohn  published  in  1856  his  Ssabier  und 
Ssabismus,  in  which  the  authorities  for  the  history-and 
belief  of  the  Harranians  in  the  Middle  Ages  are  collected 
and  discussed.  See  also  Dozy  and  De  Goeje  in  the  Actes 
of  the  sixth  Oriental  congress,  ii.  1, 185  sq.,  Leyden,  1885. 
It  is  quite  inappropriate  to  call  star- worshippers  in  general 
Sabians  or  Zabians  or  to  speak  of  a  distinct  Sabian  religion, 
as  older  writers  do.  The  religion  of  the  Harranians  is 
simply  a  modernized  form  of  the  old  Syrian  polytheism. 

SABICU  WOOD  is  the  produce  of  a  large  leguminous 
tree,  Lysiloma  Salicu,  a  native  of  Cuba,  where  alone  it 
appears  to  be  found.  The  wood  has  a  rich  mahogany 
coloiu-;  it  is  exceedingly  heavy,  hard,  and  durable,  and 
therefore  most  valuable  for  shipbuilding.  Sabicu,  on 
TOcount  of  its  durability,  was  selected  for  the  stairs  of  the 
Great  Exhibition  (London)  of  1851,  and,  notwithstanding 
the  enormous  traffic  which  passed  over  them,  the  wood  at 
the  end  was  found  to  be  little  affected  by  ■wear. 

SABINE,  Sm  Edwaed  (1788-1883X  astronomer,  was 
Jborn  in  Dublin  on  14th  October  1788,  a  scion  of  a  family 
said  to  be  of  Italian  origin.  He  was  educated  at  Wool- 
wich and  obtained  a  commission  in  the  Eoyal  Artillery  at 
the  age  of  fifteen.  He  attained  the  rank  of  major-general 
in  1859.  His  only  experience  of  actual  warfare  seems  to 
have  been  at  the  siege  of  Fort  Erie  in  1814  ;  but  few  men 
have  seen  more  than  he  of  active  and  sometimes  perilous 
service.  In  early  life  he  devoted  himself  to  astronomy  and 
physical  geography,  and  in  consequence  he  was  appointed 
astronomer  to  various  expeditions,  among  others  that  of 
Sir  J.  Koss  (1818)  in  search  of  the  North- West  Passage,  and 
that  of  Sir  E.  Parry  soon  afterwards.  Later,  he  spent  long 
periods  on  the  inter-tropical  coasts  of  Africa  and  America, 
and  again  among  the  snows  of  Spitzbergen.  Sir  Edward 
Sabine  died  at  East  Sheen,  Surrey,  on  26th  May  1883. 

Of  Satine's  scientific  ■work  two  branches  in  particular  deserve 
very  high  credit — his  determination  of  pendulum  data  for  the 
(investigation  of  the  figure  of  the  earth  and  his  extensive  researches 
connected  with  terrestrial  magnetism.  His  pendulum  ohservations 
were  the  first  to  show  the  altogether  unexpected  amount  of  accuracy 
Utairable  in  a  matter  which,  under  the  most  favourable  conditions, 


is  one  of  great  delicacy,  but  which  had  to  be  pursued  by  him  uniler 
circumstances  often  of  peculiar  difficulty.  The  establishnient  of  a 
system  of  magnetic  observatories  in  various  parts  of  British  territcTy 
all  over  the  globe  was  accomplished  mainly  on  Ijis  representations  ; 
and  to  the  direction  of  these  observatories  and  to  the  reduction 
and  discussion  of  the  observations  a  great  part  of  his  life  Mas 
devoted.  Kis  published  papers,  as  shown  by  the  Royal  Society's 
Catalogue,  amouuteu  in  1872  to  101.  While  the  majority  bear  on 
one  or  other  of  the  subjects  just  mentioned,  others  deal  with  svich 
widely  different  topics  as  the  birds  of  Greenland,  ocean  tempera- 
tures, the  Gulf  Stream,  barometric  measurement  of  heights,  arcsof 
meridian,  glacier  transport  of  rocks,  the  volcanoes  of  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  and  various  points  of  meteorology.  Sabine  occupied  for  ten 
years  (1861-71)  the  president's  chair  of  the  Eoyal  Society,  and  was 
made  K.C.B.  in  1869.  Though  he  cannot  be  said  to  have  been 
a  man  of  striking  originality,  nis  unflagging  devotion  to  hii  work 
deservedly  won  him  an  honourable  position  among  the  foremost 
scientific  men  of  the  present  century. 

SABINES.  The  Sabines  (Sabini)  were  a  people  of  Cen- 
tral Italy,  who  played  an  important  part  in  the  early  history 
of  Eome.  According  to  all  old  ■writers  they  were  one  of  the 
most  ancient  nations  of  Italy,  and  the  parent  stock  from 
which  many  of  the  other  tribes  that  occupied  the  central 
and  southern  regions  of  the  peninsula  derived  their  origin. 
Of  their  own  origin  and  affinities  we  know  very  little. 
Strabo  calls  them  a  very  ancient  race  and  "  autochthonous," 
which  may  be  taken  as  signifying  that  there  was  no  authen- 
tic tradition  of  their  immigration,  or  of  the  quarter  from 
■R'hence  they  came.  The  story  of  their  Laconian  descent 
may  be  safely  rejected  as  one  of  those  fictions  by  ■which  a 
certain  class  of  the  later  Greek  writers  sought  to  derive 
every  people  in  Italy  from  a  Greek  origin.  But  the  evi- 
dence concerning  their  language,  scanty  as  it  is,  is  sufficient 
to  prove  that  they  were  a  cognate  race  with  the  neighbom-- 
ing  Umbrians  and  Oscans,  as  well  as,  more  remotely,  ■with 
the  Latins.  Cato,  the  best  authority  among  the  Roman 
■writers  'with  respect  to  the  different  races  of  Italy,  affirmed 
that  the  Sabines  originally  occupied  the  country  about 
Amiternum,  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Aternus,  at  the 
foot  of  ^the  loftiest  group  of  the  Apeimines.  From  thence 
they  gradually  extended  themselves  into  the  fertile  valleys 
about  Eeate,  where  we  find  them  established  in  historical 
times,  and  occupied  the  tract  from  thence  to  the  Tiber 
and  the  Anio.  But  even  in  its  ■widest  extension  the  region 
held  by  the  Sabines  was  of  small  dimensions,  and  for  the 
most  part  of  a  rugged  and  mountainous  character.  Hence 
it  was  natural  that  they  should  seek  a  place  for  their  super- 
fluous population  by  repeated  emigrations  into  the  neigh- 
bouring districts,  and  the  general  tradition  among  Eoman 
■writers  ascribed  the  origin  of  several  of  the  more  powerful 
and  populous  nations  of  the  peninsula  to  such  emigrations. 
This  result  ■was  especially  promoted  by  a  custom  which, 
though  not  unknown  to  the  other  nations  of  Italy,  appears 
to  have  been  peculiarly  characteristic  of  the  Sabines — that 
of  a  Ver  Sacrum,  or  "sacred  spring,"  when  everything  bom 
in  that  year  was  consecrated  to  some  local  divinity,  most 
frequently  to  Mamers  or  Mars.  All  the  cattle  were  duly 
sacrificed,  while  the  young  men  ■were  allowed  to  grow  up 
to  manhood,  and  then  sent  forth  in  a  body  to  seek  for 
themselves  new  abodes  beyond  the  limits  of  their  native 
land.  To  such  colonies  is  ascribed  the  foundation  of  the 
Pic'entes  or  people  of  Picenum,  the  Samnites,  and  the 
Hirpini.  Of  these  the  last-mentioned  derived  their  name 
from  kirpus,  the  Sabine  name  for  a  wolf,  an  animal  of  that 
description  being  supposed  to  have  been  divinely  sent  as 
the  leader  of  the  colony,  as  a  woodpecker  (picus),  also 
sacred  to  Mars,  became  that  of  the  Piceni.  The  PeUgni 
also,  as  we  learn  from  Ovid,  himself  a  native  of  the  dis- 
trict, claimed  a  Sabine  origin,  and  the  same  was  probably 
the  case  ■with  the  smaDer  kindred  tribes  of  the  Marsi, 
Marrucini,  and  Vestini  The  Samnites,  again,  in  their  turn 
sent  forth  the  Frentani  and  the  Lucanians,  who  extended 
their  dominion  throughout  the  mountainous  regions  of 


S  A  B  — S  A  B 


129 


Sonthem  Italy  and  carried  their  arms  from  the  Adriatic 
to  the  Sicilian  Straits. 

Meanwhile  the  Sabines  themselves  vrere  confined  within 
comparatively  narrow  limits,  and  their  extension  towards 
the  south  was  checked  by  the  growing  power  of  the  Latins. 
Here  their  power  appears  to  have  attained  its  highest  point 
about  the  time  of  the  foundation  of  Rome,  and  the  legend- 
ary history,  familiar  to  every  schoolboy,  of  the  contests 
between  Romulus  and  Tatius,  the  divided  sovereignty  at 
one  time  established  between  them,  and  the  peaceful  reign 
and  legislation  of  the  Sabine  king  Numa  may  be  taken 
as  representing  the  historical  fact  that  the  population  of 
Rome  really  contained  an  important  Sabine  element,  and 
that  Sabine  influences  ^vere  largely  intermixed  with  those 
of  Latiri  origin,  both  in  the  civil  institutions  and  still 
more  in  the  religious  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  rising 
republic.  Beyond  this  it  is  impossible  to  pronounce  with 
certainty  as  to  the  teal  value  and  significance  of  the  tradi- 
tions preserved  to  us  in  the  poetical  legends  transmitted 
in  the  garb  of  history ;  and  it  is  impossible  in  an  article 
like  the  present  to  give  even  an  outline  of  the  various 
theories  that  have  been  devised  by  modern  ^v^iters  to  put 
an  historical  interpretation  upon  the  records  thus  preserved 
to  us.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  the  power  6l  the  Sabines 
was  by  no  means  broken,  even  by  the  establishment  of  the 
more  powerful  monarchy  at  Rome  under  the  Tarquins,  and 
for  a  period  of  more  than  fifty  years  after  the  fall  of  tho 
monarchy  we  find  the  Romans  engaged  in  almost  perpetual 
hostilities  against  the  Sabines  on  the  one  side  and  the 
iEquians  and  Volscians  on  the  other.  At  length  in  the 
year  449  B.C.  the  Sabines  were  defeated  by  the  consul 
M.  Horatius,  in  an  action  which  appears  to  have  been  of 
BO  decisive  a  character  that  we  do  not  find  them  again 
appearing  in  arms  against  the  Romans  for  a  period  of  more 
than  160  years.  Their  quiescence  is  the  more  singular  as 
during  this  interval  the  republic  was  engaged  in  the  long 
series  of  the  Samnite  Wars,  in  which  their  adversaries  were 
the  direct  descendants  of  the  Sabines,  and  had  therefore 
every  claim  on  their  support.  Still  more  unaccountable 
is  it  that,  after  looking  on  with  apparent  neutrality  for  so 
long,  we  find  the  Sabines  in  the  year  290  B.C.  once  more 
in  arms  against  Rome,  and  that  at  a  period  when  the 
Third  Samnite  War  had  for  a  time  crushed  all  the  hopes 
of  their  natural  allies.  The  result  was,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  that  they  found  themselves  wholly  unequal  to 
contend  single-handed  against  the  power  of  Rome,  and  the 
consul  M'.  Curius  Dentatus  reduced  them  to  submission  in 
a  single  campaign.  They  were  severely  punished  for  this 
defection ;  and  henceforth  their  national  existence  was  at 
an  end.  Those  who  survived  the  slaughter  of  the  war 
were  admitted  to  the  position  of  Roman  citizens,  thougli 
at  first  without  the  right  of  sufTrage,  but  twenty  years 
after  this  also  was  granted  them,  and  they  were  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  incorporated  in  the  Roman  state. 
Thus  separated  from  all  the  tribes  of  kindred  origin,  they 
never  again  appear  in  history,  and,  like  the  Campanians 
and  Latins,  were  content  to  swell  the  ranks  of  the  Roman 
legions  even  in  tho  fierce  struggle  of  the  Social  War  (91- 
88  B.C.).  Under  the  arrangements  of  the  Roman  empire 
their  very  name  was  lost  as  a  territorial  designation,  but 
it  always  continued  in  popular  use,  and  was  revived  in  the 
Middle  Ages  as  that  of  an  ecclesiastical  province.  Even 
at  the  present  day  every  peasant  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Rome  will  point  to  La  Sabina  as  the  familiar  appellation 
of  the  lofty  mountain  tract  to  the  north  of  tho  city. 

The  limits  of  the  territory  occupied  by  tho  Sabines  do 
rot  appear  to  have  varied  much  from  a  very  early  period 
till  the  days  of  Strabo.  That  geographer  describes  them 
as  extending  as  far  .south  as  Eretum  near  the  Tiber,  on 
the  road  to  Rome,  and  a  few  miles  only  from  Cures,  the 


reputed  birthplace  of  Tatius  and  Numa,  but  which  in  his 
time  had  become  a  mere  village.  The  principal  town  of 
the  Sabines  was  Reate  (still  called  Rieti),  in  the  midst  of 
the  beautiful  and  fertile  valley  of  the  Velino,  and  from 
thence  they  occupied  the  upper  valley  of  that  river  to  its 
sources  in  the  Monte  della  Sibilla  and  the  rugged  mountain 
valleys  which  connected  it  with  that  of  the  Atemus. 
Here  was  found  Amiternura,  the  original  capital  of  tho 
tribe,  near  the  modern  Aquila,  and  between  that  and 
Reate  lay  Interocrea  (Antrodoco),  in  a  pass  that  has  always 
formed  one  of  the  leading  lines  of  communication  through 
the  central  Apennines.  In  the  extreme  north  was  Nursia 
(Norcia),  noted  for  the  coldness  of  its  climate,  and  cele- 
brated in  ecclesiastical  history  as  the  birthplace  of  St  Bene- 
dict. These  were  the  only  towns  of  any  importance  iu 
the  territory  of  the  Sabines ;  but  they  lived  for  the  most 
part  scattered  in  villages  about  the  mountains,  a  circum- 
stance absurdly  alleged  by  some  Roman  writers  as  a  proof 
of  their  Laconian  origin.  It  was  doubtless  owing  to  this 
habit,  as  well  as  to  tho  rugged  mountainous  character  of 
the  country  in  which  they  dwelt,  that  the  Sabines  owed 
the  primitive  simplicity  of  their  manners  and  the  inigal 
and  severe  character  which  distinguished  them  even  in 
the  days  of  Augustus.  All  readers  of  Horace  must  be 
familiar  with  his  frequent  allusions  to  the  moral  purity 
and  frugal  manners  of  the  people  that  surrounded  his 
Sabine  villa,  which  was  situated  on  the  reverse  of  Mount 
Lucretilis,  only  about  15  miles  from  the  rich  and  luxurious 
Tibur  (Tivoli).  The  small  town  of  Varia  (Vicovaro),  ia 
its  immediate  neighbourhood,  seems  to  have  marked  the 
frontier  on  this  side. 

No  remains  of  the  Sabine  language  are  extant  in  the 
form  of  inscriptions,  but  coins  struck  during  the  Social 
War  with  the  inscription  "  Satinim  "  show  that  the  native 
appellation  was  the  same  as  that  in  use  among  the  Latins. 
The  form  "Sabellus"  is  frequently  found  in  Latin  writers 
as  an  ethnic  adjective  equivalent  to  Sabine ;  but  the  practice 
adopted  by  modern  writers,  of  employing  the  term  "  Sabel- 
lian  "  to  designate  all  the  tribes  of  Sabine  origin,  including 
Samnites,  Lucanians,  &c.,  was  first  introduced  by  Nicbuhr, 
and  is  not  supported  by  any  ancient  authority,     (e.  u.  b.) 

SABLE  {fhistela  zibellina).  Sec  Marten,  vol.  xv.  p.' 
577,  and  Foe,  vol.  ix.  p.  838. 

SABLES  D'OLONNE,  a  seaport  town  of  Franco,  the 
chef-lieu  of  an  arrondissemcnt  of  tho  department  of  La 
Vendue,  is  situated  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  in  46"  30'  N. 
lat.,  300  miles  south-west  of  Paris  by  the  railway  for  Tours 
and  La-Roche-sur-Yon.  Tho  town  stands  between  the  sea 
on  the  south  and  tho  port  on  the  north,  while  on  the  west 
it  is  separated  by  a  channel  from  tho  suburb  of  La  Chaume, 
built  at  the  foot  of  a  range  of  dunes  65  feet  high,  which 
terminates  southwards  in  the  rocky  peninsula  of  L'Aiguille 
(tho  Needle),  defended  by  Fort  St  Nicholas.  To  tho  north 
of  Sables  extendsalt-niarshes  ai\d  oyster-parks,  stocked 
fr«m  Auray  or  Capo  Breton,  and  yielding  6,000,000  to 
8,000,000  oysters  per  annum.  Tho  port  of  Sables,  consisting 
of  a  tidal  basin  and  a  wet:dock,  is  accessible  only  to  vessels 
of  from  350  to  400  tons,  and  is  dangerous  when  tho  winds 
are  from  the  south-west.  Tho  entrance  is  sliown  by  six 
lights ;  a  seventh  lighthouse,  that  of  the  Barges,  a  niilo  out 
at  sea  to  the  west,  lias  a  height  of  80  feet  and  is  visible 
for  17  to  18  nautical  miles.  In  18S2  145  vessels  (62,073 
tons)  entered  and  140  vessels  (61,037  tons)  cleared.  Tho 
staple  articles  of  trade  are  grain,  wine,  cattle,  timber,  salt,, 
tar,  fish,  building  stone,  manures ;  400  boat.s  arc  engaged 
in  the  sardine  fishery.  Tho  beautiful  smoothly  sloping 
beach,  a  mile  in  length,  is  much  frequented  by  bathers. 
It  is  lined  by  an  embankment  which  serves  as  a  promenade 
and  drive,  and  is  bordered  by  holds,  villas,  and  cafe's.  Tho 
population  in  1881  was  9769,  that  of  the  commune  10,420,1 

XXL  —  17 


130 


S  A  C  — S  A  C 


Founded  by  Basque  or  Spanish  sailors,  Sables  was  the  first  place 
in  Poitou  invaded  by  the  Normans  in  817.  Louis  XI.,  -nho  went 
there  in  1472,  granted  the  inhabitants  various  privileges,  improved 
the  harbour,  and  fortified  the  entrance.  Captured  and  recaptured 
during  the  Wars  of  Religion,  the  town  afternards  became  a  nursery 
of  hardy  sailors  and  privateers,  who  harassed  tlic  Spaniards  and 
afterwards  the  English;  In  1696  Sables  was  bombarded  by  the 
combined  fleets  of  England  and  Holland.  Hurricanes  have  more 
than  once  caused  grievous  damage  to  town  and  harbour. 

SACCATOO.     See  Sokota. 

SACCHETTl,  FR.4.NC0  (c.  1335-c.  1400),  Italian  novel- 
ist, was  the  son  of  Benci  di  Uguccione,  surnamed  "Buono," 
of  the  noble  and  ancient  Florentine  family  of  the  Sacchetti 
{conip.  Dante,  Par.,  c.  xvi.),  and  was  born  at  Florence  about 
t-he  year  1 335.  While  still  a  young  man  he  achieved  repute 
as  a  poet,  and  he  appears  to  have  travelled  on  affairs  of 
more  or  less  importance  as  far  as  to  Genoa,  Milan,  and  "  Is- 
chiavonia."  When  a  sentence  of  banishment  was  passed 
upon  the  rest  of  the  house  of  Sacchetti  by  the  Florentine 
authorities  in  1 380  it  appears  that  Franco  was  expressly 
exempted,  "per  esser  tanto  uomo  buono,"  and  in  1383 
he  was  one  of  the  "eight,"  discharging  the  ofiice  of 
"prior"  for  the  months  of  March  and  April.  In  1385  he 
was  chosen  ambassador  to  Genoa,  but  preferred  to  go  as 
podest;'i  to  Bibbiena  in  Casentino.  In  1392  he  was  podesti 
of  San  Miniato,  and  in  1396  he  held  a  similar  office  at 
Faenza.  In  1398  he  received  from  Lis  fellow-citizens  the 
post  of  captain  of  their  then  province  of  Romagna^  having 
his  residence  at  Portico.  The  date  of  his  death  is  un- 
known; most  probably  it  occurred  about  1400,  though 
some  writers  place  it  as  late  as  1410. 

Sacchetti  left  a  considerable  number  of  sonndli,  canami,  taUalc, 
madrigali,  &c.,  which  have  never  been  printed,  but  which  are  still 
extant  in  at  least  one  MS.  in  the  Laurentian  library  of  Florence. 
His  JVoi-«He  were  first  printed  in  1721,  from  the  MS.  in  the  same 
collection,  which,  however,  is  far  from  complete.  They  were  ori- 
ginally 300  in  nufliber,  but  only  258  in  whole  or  in  part  now  sur- 
vive. They  are  written  in  pure  and  elegant  Tuscan,  and,  based  as 
they  are  for  the  most  part  on  real  incidents  in  the  public  and 
domestic  life  of  Florence,  they  are  valuable  for  the  light  they  throw 
on  the  manners  of  that  age,  and  occasionally  also  for  the  biograph- 
ical facts  preserved  in  them.  But  in  no  other  respect  do  they  come 
up  to  the  corresponding  compositions  of  his  friend  Boccaccio.  Some 
c\  them,  it  need  hardly  be  said,  are  very  coarse — a  feature  not  com- 
pensated for  by  the  moralizings  almost  invariably  appended — and 
many  more  are  dull  and  pointless,  leaving  the  impression,  as  Sis-' 
mondi  has  remarked,  that  in  that  century  of  artistic  advance  the 
art  of  conversation  had  remained  far  behind  the  others. 

SACCHI,  Andrea  (c  1600-1661),  a  leading  painter  of 
the  later  Roman  school,  was  born  in  Rome  in  1600,  or 
perhaps  as  early  as  1598.  His  father,  Benedetto,  a  painter 
of  undistir;;uished  position,  gave  him  his  earliest  instruc- 
tion in  the  art  j  Andrea  then  passed  into  the  studio  of 
Albani,  of  whom  he  was  the  last  and  the  most  eminent 
pupU,  and  under  Albani  he  made  his  reputation  early. 
The  painter  of  Sacchi's  predilection  was  Raphael ;  he 
was  the  jealous  opponent  of  Pietro  da  Cortona,  and  more 
especially  of  Bernini.  In  process  of  time  he  became  one  of 
the  most  learned  designers  and  one  of  the  soundest  colour- 
ists  of  the  Roman  school.  He  went  to  Venice  and  to  Lom- 
.  bardy  to  study  Venetian  colour  and  the  style  of  Correggio ; 
but  he  found  the  last-named  master  unadaptable  for  his  own 
proper  methods  in  art,  and  he  returned  to  Rome.  Sacchi 
was  strong  in  artistic  theory,  and  in  practice  slow  and  fasti- 
dious ;  it  was  his  axiom  that  the  merit  of  a  painter  consists 
in  producing,  uot  many  middling  pictures,  but  a  few  and 
perfect  ones.  His  works  have  dignity,  repose,  elevated 
yet  natural  forms,  severe  but  not  the  less  pleasing  colour, 
a  learned  treatment  of  architecture  and  perspective ;  he 
is  thus  a  painter  of  the  correct  and  laudable  academic 
order,  admired  by  connoisseurs  rather  than  by  ambitious 
students  or  the  large  public.  His  principal  painting, 
often  spoken  of  as  the  fourth  best  easel-picture  in  Rome — 
in  the  Vatican  Gallery — is  St  Romuald  relating  his  Vision 
to  Five  Monks  of  his  Order.    The  pictorial  crux  of  dealing 


with  these  iigures,  who  are  all  in  the  white  garb  of  their 
order,  has  often  been  remarked  upon ;  and  as  often  the 
ingenuity  and  judgment  of  Sacchi  have  been  praised  in 
varying  the  tints  of  these  habits  according  to  the  Light  and 
shade  cast  by  a  neighbouring  tree.  The  Vatican  Gallery 
contains  also  an  early  painting  of  the  master, — the  Miracle 
of  St  Gregory,  executed  in  1624  ;  a  mosaic  of  i  was  made 
in  1771  and  placed  in  St  Peter's.  Other  leading  examples 
are  the  Death  of  St  Anna,  in  S.  Carlo  ai  Catinari ;  St 
Andrew,  in  the  Quirinal ;  St  Joseph,  at  Capo'  alle  Case ; 
also,  in  fresco,  a  ceiling  in  the  Palazzo  Barberini — Divine 
Wisdom — reckoned  superior  in  expression  and  selection  to 
the  rival  work  of  Pietro  da  Cortona.  There  are  likewise 
altar-pieces  in  Perugia,  Foligno,  and  Camenno.  Sacchi, 
who  worked  almost  always  in  Rome,  left  few  pictures 
visible  in  private  galleries  :  one,  of  St  Bruno,  is  in  Gros- 
venor  House.  He  had  a  flourishing  school :  Nicholas 
Poussin  and  Carlo  Maratta  were  his  most  eminent  scholars ; 
Luigi  Garzi  and  Francesco  Lauri  were  others,  and  Sacchi's 
own  son  Giuseppe,  who  died  young,  after  giving  very  high 
hopes.  This  must  have  been  an  illegitimate  son,  for  Andrea 
died  unmarried.  This  event  took  place  in  Rome  in  1661. 
SACCHINI,  Antonio  Maria  Gaspare  (1734-1786), 
musical  composer,  of  the  Italian  school,  was  born  at  Pozzuoli, 
23d  July  1734,  and  educated  under  Durante  at  the  Conseu- 
vatorio  di  San  Onofrio  at  Naples.  His  first  serious  opera 
was  produced  at  Rome  in  1762,  and  was  followed  by  many 
others,  nearly  all  of  which  were  successful.  In  1769  he 
removed  to  Venice;  and  in  1772  he  visited  London, 
where,  notwithstanding  a  cruel  cabal  formed  against  him, 
he  achieved  a  briUiant  success,  especially  in  his  four  new 
operas,  Tamerlano,  Lucio  Vero,  Nitetti  e  Perseo,  and  // 
Gran  Cid.  Ten  years  later  he  met  with  an  equally  enthu- 
siastic reception  in  Paris,  where  his  Rinaldo  was  produced 
under  the  immediate  patronage  of  Queen  JIarie  Antoinette, 
to  whom  he  had  been  recommended  by  the  emperor 
Joseph  II.  But  neither  in  England  nor  in  France  did 
his  reputation  continue  to  the  end  of  his  visit.  He  seems 
to  have  been  everywhere  the  victim  of  bitter  jealousy. 
Even  Marie  Antoinette  was  not  able  to  support  his  cause 
in  the  face  of  the  general  outcry  against  the  favour 
shown  to  foreigners ;  and  by  her  command,  most  unwill- 
ingly given,  his  last  opera  and  undoubted  masterpiece, 
Q^dipe  a  Colone,  was  set  aside  in  1786  to  make  room  for 
Lemoine's  Phedre, — a  circumstance  which  so  preyed  upon 
his  mind  that  he  died  of  chagrin,  7th  October  1786. 

Sacchini's  style  was  rather  graceful  than  elevated,  and  he  was 
deficient  both  in  creative  power  and  originality.  But  the  dramatic 
truth  of  his  operas,  more  especially  the  later  ones,  is  above  all  praise, 
and  he  never  fails  to  write  with  the  care  and  finish  of  a  thorough 
and  accomplished  musician.  (Edipe  was  extremely  successful  after 
his  death,  and  has  since  been  performed  at  the  Academie  nearly 
600  times.  The  last  performance  of  which  anv  record  has  reached 
us  took  place  in  1844. 

SACHEVERELL,  Henry  (1674-1724),  an  English 
church  and  state  politician  of  'extreme  views,  was  born  in 
1674,  the  son  of  Joshua  Sacheverell,  rector  of  St  Peter's, 
Marlborough,  who  at  his  death  left  a  large  family  in 
poverty.  Henry  Sacheverell  matriculated  at  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford,  28th  August  1689,  and  was  demy  of  his 
college  from  1689  to  1701  and  fellow  from  1701  to  1713. 
Addison,  another  Wiltshire  lad,  entered  at  the  same  college 
two  years  earlier,  but  was  also  elected  a  demy  in  1689; 
he  inscribed  to  Sacheverell  in  1694  his  account  of  the 
greatest  English  poets.  Sacheverell  took  his  degree  of 
B.A.  in  1693,  and  became  M.A.  in  1696  and  D.D.  in 
1708.  His  first  preferment  was  the  small  vicarage  of 
Cannock  in  Staffordshire ;  but  he  leapt  into  notice  when 
holding  a  preachership  at  St  Saviour's,  Southwark.  His 
famous  sermons  on  the  church  in  danger  from  the  neglect 
of  the  Whig  ministry  to  keep  guard  over  its  interests 


S  A  C  — S  A  C 


131 


^vere  preached,  the  one  at  Derby,  14th  August,  the  other 
at  St  Paul's  Cathedral,  5th  November  1709.  They  were 
immediately  reprinted,  the  latter  being  dedicated  to  the 
lord  mayor  and  the  former  to  the  author's  kinsman,  George 
Sacheverell,  high  sheriif  of  Derby  for  the  year ;  and,  as 
the  passions  of  the  whole  British  population  were  at  this 
period  keenly  exercised  between  the  rival  factions  of  Wliig 
and  Tory,  the  vehement  invectives  of  this  furious  divine  on 
behalf  of  an  ecclesiastical  institution  which  supplied  the 
bulk  of  the  adherents  of  the  Tories  made  him  their  idol. 
The  ■\Vliig  ministry,  then  slowly  but  surely  losing  the  su[>- 
port  of  the  country,  were  divided  in  opinion  as  to  the  pro- 
priety of  prosecuting  this  zealous  parson.  Somers  was 
against  such  a  measure  ;  but  Godolphin,  who  was  believed 
to  be  personally  alluded  to  in  one  of  these  harangues  under 
the  niclcname  of  "  Volpone,"  urged  the  necessity  of  a 
prosecution,  and  gained  the  day.  The  trial  lasted  from 
27th  February  to  23d  March  1710,  and  the  verdict  was 
that  Sacheverell  should  be  suspended  for  three  years  and 
that  the  two  sermons  should  be  burnt  at  the  Royal  Ex- 
change. This  was  the  decree  of  the  state,  and  it  had  the 
effect  of  making  him  a  martyr  in  the  eyes  of  the  populace 
and  of  bringing  about  the  downfall  of  the  ministry.  Im- 
mediately on  the  expiration  of  L-a  sentence  (13th  April 
1713)  he  was  instituted  to  the  valuable  rectory  of  St 
Andrew's,  Holborn,  by  the  new  Tory  ministry,  who  tlespised 
the  author  of  the  sermons,  although  they  dreaded  his  in- 
fluence over  the  mob.  He  died  at  the  Grove,  Highgate, 
on  5th  June  1724. 

Ample  information  about  his  life  ana  trial  will  ba  found  in 
tlearae's  Diaries,  Bloxani's  Jicgistcr  of  Magdalen,  iii.  98-HO,  and 
Hill  Burton's  Queen  Anne,  vol.  ii.  Mr  Madan  of  the  Bodleian 
Library  has  compiled  a  Sacheverell  bibliography 

SACHS,  Hans  (1494-1576),  the  most  eminent  German 
poet  of  the  16th  century,  was  born  at  Nuremberg  on 
6th  November  1494.  His  father  was  a  shoemaker,  and 
Hans  was  trained  to  the  same  calling.  Before  beginning 
bis  apprenticeship,  however,  he  was  educated  at  the  Latin 
school  of  Nuremberg.  Having  finished  his  "Lehrjahre" 
as  a  shoemaker,  he  began  his  "Wanderjahre"  in  1511,  and 
worked  at  his  craft  in  many  towns,  including  Eatisbon, 
Passau,  Salzburg,  Lcipsic,  Liibeck,'and  Osnabriick.  In 
1516  he  returned  to  Nuremberg,  where  he  remained  during 
the  rest  of  his  life,  working  steadily  at  his  business,  and 
devoting  his  leisure  time  to  literature.  He  married  in 
1519,  and  after  his  wife's  death  he  married  again  in  1561. 
Ha  died  on  19th  January  1576. 

Sachs  was  much  respected  by  his  fdlow-citizens,  and  acquired 
great  fame  as  a  poet.     Early  in  life  lio  received  instruction  in  tho 

t principles  and  rules  of  the  "  ilei3ierfiU!>ar;g,"  and  at  Munich  in  1513 
10  completed  his  study  of  "the  charming  art."  Afterwards  ha 
wrote  many  poems  in  the  formal  manner  of  the  "Meistersinger," 
but  to  these  efforts  ho  attributed  so  little  importance  tliat  he  did 
not  iiichule  them  in  his  own  collection  of  his  works.  Among  his 
host  writings  are  his  liymns,  in  which  he  gave  expression  to  tho 
highest  spiritual  ar.piration3  of  the  ago  of  the  Reformation.  Ho 
was  one  of  tho  most  ardent  adherents  of  Luther,  and  in  1523  wrote 
in  his  honour  the  poem  beginning,  "  Die  ttittc'nbpr''isch  Nachtigall, 
Die  man  jetz  hbret  viberall."  This  poem  attracted  much  attention 
and  was  of  great  service  to  Luther.  Sachs  also  Wrote  in  verso 
many  fables,  parables,  tales,  and  dialogues.  Of  his  dramatic 
poems,  tho  most  remarkable  are  his  Shrovo  Tuesday  Pl^'js,  in  each 
of  which  ho  offers  a  lively  representation  of  an  action  without  any 
attempt  at  exact  poiliaiture  or  at  a  profound  BTiprcciation  of  motives. 
Works  of  this  kiml  were  popular  before  Sachs's  time,  but  he  gave 
them  fresh  vitality  by  his  humour  and  fancy.  Sachs  had  extra- 
ordinary fertility  of  imagination,  and  none  of  his  German  contem- 
poraries approached  him  in  his  mastery  of  the  forms  of  literary 
expression  which  were  then  known.  Ho  wrote  thousands  of  poems, 
and  in  his  lifetime  a  large  number  of  thorn  were  piinteil,  in  threo 
volumes  ;  after  his  deatli  two  additional  volumes  appeared  ;  and  in 
recent  times  many  volumes  of  his  works  in  manuscript  have  been 
discovered.  From  about  tho  middle  of  tho  17th  century,  when 
German  writers  of  verso  became  as  a  rule  mere  imitators  of  foreign 
models,  Sachs  was  almost  forgotten,  until  interest  in  his  work  was 
tevived  by  Goethe ;  and  many  selections  from  bis  writings  have 


since  been  published.  A  complete  edition,  prepared  by  A  von 
Keller,  has  been  issued  by  the  Literary  Society  of  Stuttgart.  A 
biography  of  Sachs  by  M.  Solomon  Ranischwas  published  in  1760, 
and  there  are  later  biographies  by  J.  L.  Hoffmann  (1817),  Wcllei 
(1863),  and  Lutzelbergcr  (1874). 

SACKING  AND  SACK  JliVNITFACTUKE.  Sacking 
is  a  stout  close-woven  fabric,  properly  of  flax,  but  now  very 
largely  made  of  jute.  The  chief  centres  of  the  manufacture 
are  Dundee  and  Forfar  in  Scotland.  Sacks,  however,  axi 
made  of  many  qualities  and  from  different  fibres,  according 
to  the  purposes  to  which  they  are  devoted.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  flour  sacks,  those  particularly  of  American 
origin,  are  made  of  stout  cotton.  Numerous  attempts 
have  been  made  to  manufacture  seamless  sacks ;  but  none 
have  met  with  success.  The  invention  of  a  sewing-machine 
for  the  "  overhead  "  seaming  of  sacks  has  been  successfully 
solved  in  the  machine  of  Laing  and  other  inventors. 

SACO,  a  city  of  tho  United  States,  in  York  coimty, 
Maine,  on  the  left  or  north  bank  of  the  Saco  river, 
opposite  Biddeford,  9  miles  from  the  sea  and  100  from 
Boston  by  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad.  The  water- 
power  furnished  by  the  river,  which  here  falls  55  feet,  is 
utilized  by  various  cotton-factories,  machine-shops,  lumber- 
mills,  ifec.  Originally  included  in  Biddeford,  but  sepa- 
rately incorporated  in  1762  as  Pepperellborough,  Saco  re- 
ceived its  present  name  in  1805  and  was  made  a  city  in 
1867.    The  population  was  5755  in  1870  and  6389  in  1880. 

SACRAJIENT.  The  Latin  word  sacramenlum,  mean- 
ing "  an  oath,"  is  most  commonly  used  by  classical  writert 
to  denote  the  military  oath  of  aUegiance ;  for  its  technicai 
application  in  legal  phraseology  see  Roman  Law,  vol.  xx. 
p.  682.  In  the  earliest  ecclesiastical  Latin  traces  of  the 
old  military  meaniijg  are  still  present;  thus  Tertullian 
{Ad  Mart.,  3)  writes,  "We  were  called  to  the  warfare  of 
the  living  God  in  our  very  response  to  the  sacramental 
•words  [in  baptism]  " ;  but  the  main  import  of  the  word 
has  entirely  changed,  it  being  used  simply  as  the  equiva- 
lent of  the  Greek  ixv(TTi]pi.ov.  Thus  even  in  the  Vulgate 
wo  still  have  tho  "sacrament  of  godliness"  (1  Tim.  iii 
16),  "of  the  seven  stars"  (Rev.  i.  20),  "of  the  woman  and 
the  beast"  (Rev.  xvii.  7);  but  in  earlier  Latin  versions 
the  word  .also  occurred  in  numerous  other  places  where 
"  mysteriiun  "  i^  now  found  {e.g..  Rom.  xvi.  25 ;  1  Cor.  xiiL 
2).  In  addition  to  its  general  sense  the  word  [iv(m'ipiov 
not  unnaturally  soon  came  to  have  for  Christians  a  more 
special  meaning  as  denoting  those  external  rites  of  their 
religion,  solemn,  instructive,  and  more  or  less  secret,  which 
had  most  analogy  with  the  JIysteeies  (q.v.)  of  paganism. 
No  attempt,  however,  was  at  first  made  to  enumerate  or 
to  define  these.  Tertullian  speaks  of  the  sacrament  of 
baptism  and  tho  Eucharist,  Cyprian  of  "either  sacrament," 
meaning  baptism  and  confirmation,  and  many  others,  fol- 
lowing Eph.  V.  22  (see  Vulgate)r,of  the  eacramcrt  of 
marriage,  but  all  with  the  utmost  vagueness.  Augustine's 
definition  of  the  word  was  little  more  explicit,  but  for  cen- 
tiwies  it  -was  all  tho  Western  Church  had,  and  for  even  a 
longer  period  it  continued  to  be  a  sufficiently  adequate 
expression  of  the  Oriental  view  also.  According  to  him  a 
sacrament  is  "the  visible  form  of  invisible  grace,"  or  "a 
sign  of  a  sacred  thing."  .The  sacraments  ho  principally 
has  in  view  are  those  of  baptism  and  tho  Lord's  Supper, 
but  with  so  wide  a  definition  there  was  nothing  to  prevent 
him  from  using  the  word  (as  ho  freely  does)  in  many  other 
applications.  The  old  Sacramentariea  or  liturgical  books, 
which  can  in  some  cases  bo  carried  back  as  far  a.s  to  thfl 
8th  century,  in  like  manner  contain  prayers  and  benedic- 
tions, not  only  for  tho  administration  of  tho  Eucharist  and 
of  baptism,  but  also  for  a  variety  of  other  rites,  such  as 
the  blessing  of  holy  water  and  tho  dedication  of  churches. 
In  tho  De  tacramenlU  Chrxstiantt  Jidci  of  Hugh  of  St 


132 


,S  A.  C  —  S  A  C 


Victor  (d.  1141),  no  fewer  than  tliirty  sacraments  are 
enumerated,  divided  into  three  classes,  baptism  and  tlie 
Lord's  Supper  occupying  a  first  place.  What  proved  to 
be  an  important  new  departure  was  taken  by  Peter 
Lombard  (d.  116-1),  in  the  4th  book  of  his  Sentences,  which 
treats  "of  sacraments  and  sacramental  signs."  There 
for  the  first  tone  are  enumerated  the  seven  sacraments 
(baptism,  confirmation,  the  Eucharist,  penance,  extreme 
unction,  order,  matrimony),  which  were  afterwards  formally 
recognized  by  tlie  Church  of  Eome  at  the  councils  of 
Florence  (1439)  and  of  Trent;  and  there  also  for  the  fir.st 
time  it  was  expressly  recognized  that  not  all  signs  of 
sacred  things  can  be  regarded  as  sacraments,  but  only 
those  which  are  the  form  of  invisible  grace  in  such  a  sense 
as  to  represent  it  and  bring  it  about  ("ut  ipsius  imaginem 
gerat  et  causa  existat ").  This  "  differentia  "  of  the  sacra- 
ment, properly  so  called,  became  the  basis  of  all  subse- 
quent scholastic  discussion  and  authoritative  decree  in  the 
Western  church,  and  even,  though  of  course  indirectly,  in 
the  Eastern  also.  The  main  points  in  the  Tridentine 
doctrine  are  these  :  the  sacraments  have  the  power  of  con- 
ferring grace  ex  opere  operalo  on  the  recipients  who  do  not 
resist  it  ("non  ponentibus  obicem");  for  their  validity, 
however,  there  must  be  in  the  minister  the  intention  of 
doing  that  which  the  church  does.  Though  all  are  in  a 
sense  necessary,  they  are  not  so  with  equal  directness  for 
each  individual,  nor  are  they  alike  in  dignity.  The  two 
principal  sacraments  are  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper. 
All  were  instituted  by  Christ.  Three  of  them  (baptism, 
confirmation,  order)  impart  an  indelible  "  character,"  and 
therefore  cannot  be  repeated.  For  the  teaching  of  the 
Greek  Church  compare  vol.  xi.  pp.  158, 159.  The  churches 
of  the  Reformation,  while  retaining  the  current  doctrine 
that  sacraments  were  " effectual  signs  of  grace  and  Gods 
good  will "  "  ordained  by  Christ,"  reduced  their  number  to 
two,  the  remaining  five  being  excluded  partly  because 
direct  evidence  of  their  institution  by  Christ  was  wanting, 
and  partly  because  "  they  have  not  any  visible  sign  or 
ceremony  ordained  of  God."  For  further  details  on  the 
individual  sacraments  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  separate 
articles  (B.iPTisM,  Euchaeist,  kc). 

SACRAMENTO,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  capital 
of  California  and  the  county  seat  of  Sacramento  county, 
135  miles  by  raU  north-cast  of  San  Francisco  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Sacramento  river,  which  at  this  point  receives 
the  American  river  and  becomes  navigable  for  large  steam- 
boats. The  site  is  only  15  feet  above  low  water  of  the 
river,  or  30  above  sea-level,  and  as  the  river  sometimes 
rises  20  feet  the  city  was  originally  subject  to  destructive 
floods.  Those  of  1850,  1852,  and  1853,  however,  led  to 
the  raising  of  the  level  of  the  principal  streets  and  ibuild- 
ings  in  the  business  quarter  by  5  feet,  and  to  the  construc- 
tion of  strong,  levees  or  embankments,  from  4  to  20  feet 
high  for  2  miles  along  the  Sacramento  and  3  along  the 
American  river.  Further  measures  of  the  same  kind  were 
adopted  after  the  disaster  of  1861,  which  almost  rendered 
the  city  bankrupt ;  and  the  level  of  the  principal  districts 
is  now  8  feet  above  the  river.  The  shops  and  stores  in 
the  city  are  mostly  of  brick,  but  the  dwelling-houses  gener- 
ally only  of  wood.  The  State  capitol,  commenced  in  1861 
and  completed  at  a  tost  of  $2,500,000,  is  one'  of  the  finest 
buUdings  of  its  kind  in  the  States ;  it  stands  in  the  heart 
of  the  city  in  the  midst  of  a  park  of  50  acres.  The  other 
public  buildings — the  State  printing-office  and  armoury, 
the  agricultural  hall,  the  Oddfellows'  hall,  the  hospital, 
the  grammar-school,  (tc. — are  comparatively  xmimportant. 
Besides  the  State  library  (36,000  volumes)  there  are  two 
other  public  libraries  in  the  city.  The  number  of  industrial 
establishments  has  recently  been  rapidly  increasing  ;  tney 
comprise  the  extensive  workshops  of  the  Central  Pacific 


Railroad,  a  woollen-mill,  carriage-factories,  plough-factories, 
marble-works,  breweries,  potteries,  glue-works,  ic.  The 
population  was  6820  in  1850,  13,785  in  1860,  16,283 
in  1870  (6202  foreigners,  1370  Chinese),  and  21,420  ia 
1880  (7048  foreigners,  1781  Chinese). 

In  1841  John  Augustus  Sutter  (b.  1S03),  a  Sw'iSBmilitavy  oflicer,' 
obtained  a  giant  of  hml  fit  tlie  junction  of  the  Sacramento  and 
American  rivers,  and  made  a  settlement  which  he  called  Xc\v  Hel-i 
vetia.  The  discovery  of  gold  on  Iiis  property  in  1S48  clian;;cd  the. 
whole  history  of  California.  Sutter's  Fort,  as  the  spot  was  popu-' 
larly  called,  became  the  site  of  a  mining  town,  which  was  made  the 
capital  of  the  State  in  1S54,  and  obtained  a  city  charter  in  1863., 
The  name  sf  Sacramento  was  first  applied  to  the  place  iu  the  adver- 
tisement for  the  sale  of  ground-lots  in  18-18. 

SACRIFICE.  The  Latin  word  sacnficivm,  from  whicli 
we  have  the  English  "sacrifice,"  properly  means  an  action 
within  the  sphere  of  things  sacred  to  the  gods,  so  that 
"sacrificial"  and  "hierurgic"  are  synonymous,  and,  strictly 
speaking,  cover  the  whole  field  of  sacred  ritual.  By  the 
Romans,  as  by  all  ancient  or  primitive  nations,  the  gods 
were  habitually  apjiroached  with  gifts,  and  the  presentation 
of  the  gift,  being  the  central  feature  in  every  ordinary  act 
of  worship,  is  regarded  as  the  sacrifice  proper.  In  all  parts^ 
of  the  world,  moreover,  for  reasons  which  will  ajipcar  ly 
and  by,  the  stated  gifts  by  which  the  gods  are  honoured. 
in  private  worship  or  public  feasts  are  drawn  from  the 
stores  on  which  human  life  is  supported, — fruits,  grair/,' 
wine,  oil,  the  flesh  of  animals,  and  the  like.  All  gifts  of 
this  kind,  which  are  not  merely  presented  to  the  god  but 
consumed  in  liis  service,  fall  under  the  notion  of  sacrifice,' 
while  permanent  votive  offerings  of  treasure,  lands,  temples, 
images,  or  the  like,  not  forming  part  of  any  stated  ritual, 
are  excluded.  But  again,  wliere  we  find  a  practice  o^ 
sacrificing  honorific  gifts  to  the  gods,  we  usually  find  also 
certain  other  sacrifices  which  resemble  those  already  chaivi 
,acterized  inasmuch  as  something  is  given  up  by  the  wcr^ 
shippers  to  be  consumed  in  sacred  ceremony,  but  difl'er  from 
them  inasmuch  as  the  sacrifice — usually  a  living  victim—* 
is  not  regarded  as  a  tribute  of  honour  to  the  god,  but  has 
a  special  atoning  or  mystic  significance.  The  most  famUi./r 
case  of  this  second  species  of  sacrifice  is  that  which  tha 
Romans  distinguished  from  the  /losfia  honoraria  by  lU* 
name  of  hoslia  piandaris.  In  the  former  case  the  deitv 
accepts  a  gift;  in  the  latter  he  demands  a  life.  The  formeC 
kind  of  sacrifice  is  ofl'ered  by  the  worsliijiper  on  the  hnAi 
of  an  established  relation  of  friendly  dependence  on  liis 
divine  lord ;  the  latter  is  directed  to  appease  the  divi.ne 
anger,  or  to  conciliate  the  favour  of  a  deity  on  whom  tlie 
worshipper  has  no  right  to  count.  The  precise  scojjc  ol 
sacrifices  not  merely  honorific  will  appear  more  clearly  :in 
the  sequel ;  for  the  history  of  religion  this  second  kind  of 
sacrifice  has  a  very  peculiar  importance,  as  may  be  judj,ed 
from  the  fact  that  the  ordinary  metaphorical  use  of  "sac  ri- 
fice  "  in  English  answers  not  to  the  notion  of  a  "  gift "  1  ait 
to  that  of  "reluctant  surrender." ^ 

Honorific  Sacrifices  naturally  hold  tlie  cliief  place  in  all 
natui-al  (as  opposed  to  positive)  religions  that  have  reached 
the  stage  in  which  orthodox  ritual  is  differentiated  from 
sorcery  (comp.  Priest,  vol.  xix.  p.  724),  and  in  which  £ho 
relations  between  the  gods  and  their  worshippers  are  con- 
ceived as  being  of  a  fixed  and  habitually  friendly  character, 
so  that  the  acts  by  which  a  continuance  of  divine  favour 
can  be  secured  are  known  by  well-established  tradition 
and  regularly  practised  with  full  confidence  in  their  efficacy. 
Religions  of  this  tyjie  unite  the  god  to  a  definite  circle  of 


^  Apart  from  this  metaphorical  use  the  word  "sacrifice"  in  EiigliKb 
is  often  taken  as  synonjinous  with  "victim,"  bloodless  oblations  beiri^ 
called  rather  by  the  vague  word  "  offering."  This  usagpe  correspoml'i 
to  the  practice  of  the  Authorised  Version,  which  commonly  rendt-rs 
nnjDI  n^t,  i-e.,  "victim  and  cereal  oblation,"  by  the  wonls  "sacriliue 
and  offering,"  and  uses  the  verb  "  to  sncrilice  "  for  tire  Hebrew  V\'Ztt 
"  to  slaughter  a  victim." 


SACRIFICE 


133 


■worshippers  forming  a  natural  unity,  so  that  every  man's 
tirth  or  political  and  social  status  determines  at  once  what 
god  he  is  called  upon  to  worship  and  may  confidQntly  look 
ito  for  help.  Religions  of  this  sort,  therefore,  are  mainly 
jtribal  or  national,  and  the  deity  is  regarded  as  a  king,  or, 
if  there  are  several  gods  worshipped  by  the  same  circle, 
they  are  lords  and  ladies  and  are  naturally  to  bo  honoured 
in  the  same  way  as  earthly  grandees.  Thus  among  the 
Hebrews,  whose  early  institutions  afford  a  typical  exampU 
of  a  national  religion,  the  fundamental  rule  is  that  no  one 
is  to  appear  before  Jehovah  empty-handed  (Exod.  xxiii. 
[15),  just  as  it  would  be  indecent  (and  in  the  East  is  still 
indecent)  to  approach  a  king  or  great  man  without  some 
present,  however  trilling.  In  like  manner  Homer  teaches 
that  gods  and  kings  alike  are  persuaded  by  gifts.  A 
special  request  will  naturally  be  accompanied  by  a  special 
gift  proportioned  to  the  occasion  or  by  a  vow  to  be  fulfilled 
wheQ  the  prayer  is  heard ;  but  apart  from  this  the  general 
goodwill  whether  of  god  or  king  falls  to  be  acknowledged 
and  secured  by  offerings  renewed  from  time  to  time  by 
wny  of  tribute  or  homage.  Thus  in  Hebrew  the  word 
mhiha  means  alike  "gift,"  "  tribute,"  and  ".sacrificial  obla- 
tion," especially  an  oblation  of  agricultural  produce.  For 
iri  a  simple  agricultural  society  payments  in  kind,  whether 
to  a  divine  or  to  a  human  lord,  would  natnially  consist  for 
the  most  part  of  the  fruits  of  the  soil ;  and  with  this  it 
agrees  that  not  only  in  Canaan  but  among  the  Greeks 
there  is  evidence  that  cereal  oblations  had  a  great  place 
in  early  ritual,  though  they  afterwards  became  second  in 
importance  to  animal  sacrifices,  which  yielded  a  more 
luxurious  sacrificial  banquet,  and  also,  as  we  shall  see, 
derived  a  peculiar  significance  from  the  shedding  of  the 
victim's  blood.  In  almost  all  nations  we  fijid  that  the 
chief  sa(!rificial  feasts  are  associated  with  the  harvest  and 
the  vintage,  or,  where  pastoral  life  predominates,  are  re- 
gulated by  the  time  at  which  the  flocks  bear  their  young 
(comp.  Passover)  ;  at  these  seasons  tribute  of  firstfruits 
and  firstlings  is  paid  to  the  gods  of  the  good  things  which 
they  themselves  have  given  to  the  inhabitants  of  their  land. 
This  conception  of  sacrifice  may  go  with  very  various  views 
of  the  nature  of  the  gods  and  of  religion.  It  may  go  with 
the  idea' that  the  god  has  need  of  the  worshipper  and  his 
gifts  just  as  the  worshipper  has  need  of  the  god  and  his 
help,  and  thus  with  a  matter-of-fact  business-like  people 
like  the  Romans  religion  may  become  very  much  a  sort  of 
bargain  struck  with  the  gods.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
is  quite  possible  that  sacrifices  may  continue  to  be  offered 
by  men  who  have  ceased  to  believe  that  the  deity  has  any 
need  of  what  man  can  give,  simply  because  such  gifts  are 
in  ordinary  life  the  natural  expression  of  respect  and 
homage  and  no  fitter  and  more  expressive  way  of  giving 
utterance  to  the  same  feelings  tov.'ards  the  gods  has  been 
devised.  Tims  the  Hebrews  continued  to  offer  sacrifices 
to  Jehovah  long  after  they  knew  that  "  if  He  were  hungry 
He  wovdd  not  tell  man,  for  the  world  was  His  and  the 
fulness  thereof."  But  when  this  standpoint  is  reached 
sacrifice  becomes  a  merely  conventional  way  of  expressing 
religious  feeling ;  the  ritual  becomes  a  simple  affair  of 
tradition,  which  may,  as  in  the  Levitical  legislation,  be 
based  on  an  express  divine  command  ;  and  those  who  are 
not  content  with  the  authority  of  tradition  as  a  sufficient 
proof  that  the  gods  love  to  be  honoured  in  this  way  take 
refuge  in  some  allegorical  explanation  of  the  ceremonial. 
In  general,  however,  we  find  an  extraordinary  persistence 
of  the  notion  that  sacrifices  do  in  some  way  afford  a  phy- 
eical  satisfaction  to  the  deity.  If  they  do  not  feed  him,  he 
is  at  least  gratified  by  their  odour.  Neither  the  Greek 
philosophers  nor  the  Jewish  rabbins  ever  quite  got  rid  of 
this  idea. 

But  in  fact  the  notion  that  the  more  ethereal  elements 


of  the  sacrifice  rise  to  heaven,  the  seat  of  the  gods,  in  the 
savoury  smoke  that  ascends  from  the  sacrificial  flame  can 
in  certain  instances  be  shown  to  be  connected  with  a  later 
development  of  sacrifice.  Among  the  Semites,  for  ex- 
ample, sacrifices  were  not  originally  burned.  The  god 
was  not  seated  aloft,  but  was  present  at  the  place  of  sacri- 
fice, inhabiting  a  sacred  stone  (a  baetylium,  beth-el,  or 
"  house  of  god  "),  which  answered  at  once  to  the  later'idol 
and  the  later  altar.  That  the  god  was  thought  by  the 
heathen  Semites  to  inhabit  the  sacred  stone,  or  in  other 
cases  a  sacred  tree,  is  expressly  recorded  of  several  Arabian 
sanctuaries,  and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  this  was  the 
general  view  wherever  there  was  a  maf^eba  (sacred  cippus) 
or  an  askera  (sacred  pole  or  tree).  And  in  these  cases  the 
gift  of  the  worshipper  was  not,  in  the  more  primitive  cults, 
consumed  by  fire,  but  the  sacred  stone  was  daubed  with  oil 
or  blood,  libations  of  milk,  of  blood,  or  of  wine  were  poured 
forth  beside  it,  cereal  gifts  were  presented  by  being  simply 
laid  on  the  sacred  ground,  and  slaughtered  victims  were 
left  there  to  be  de%oured  by  wild  beasts  (Sprenger,  Leb. 
Moll.,  iii.  457),  or  even  a  human  sacrifice  was  offered  by 
burying  the  victim  under  the  cippus.  Sacrifices  of  this 
type  are  found  not  only  throughout  the  Semitic  field  but 
in  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  they  belong  to  the  same  category 
with  the  Hebrew  showbread  and  the  Roman  leclisternia. 
Ie  later  times  the  food  spread  on  the  tables  of  the  god  is 
eaten  by  his  ministers,  the  priests,  to  whom  he  is  sujjposed 
to  make  over  the  enjoyment  of  the  banquet ;  but  this  is 
a  refinement  on  the  original  usage.  In  older  times  the 
gods  themselves  were  held  to  partake  of  these  gifts  of  food, 
just  as  the  venerable  dead  were  fed  by  the  meat  and  drink 
p'.aced  or  poured  out  upon  their  tombs.  In  the  religions  of 
.';avages  both  gods  and  the  dead  have  very  material  needs, 
among  which  the  need  of  nourishment  has  the  first  place ; 
and  just  as  we  learn  from  the  story  of  Periander  and 
Melissa  (Herod.,  v.  92)  that  among  the  Greeks  of  the  7th 
century  B.C.  it  was  a  new  idea  that  the  dead  could  make 
no  use  of  the  gifts  buried  with  them  unless  they  were 
etherealized  by  fire,  so  also  the  fact  that  among  the  Greeks, 
especially  in  old  times,  sacrifices  to  water-gods  were  simply 
flung  into  the  river  or  the  sea,  and  sacrifices  to  underground 
gods  were  buried,  indicates  that  it  is  a  secondary  idea 
that  the  gods  were  too  ethereal  to  enjoy  a  sacrifice  through 
any  other  sense  than  that  of  smell.  Even  the  highest 
antique  religions  show  by  unmistakable  signs  that  in  their 
origin  sacrifices  were  literally  "  the  food  of  the  gods." "  In 
Israel  the  conception  against  which  the  author  of  Psalm  L 
protests  so  strongly  was  novir  eliminated  from  the  ancient 
technical  language  of  the  priestly  ritual,  in  which  the  sacri- 
fices are  called  D'HPX  DDP,  "  food  of  the  deity  "  (Lev.  xxi. 
8,  17,  21) ;  and  among  the  Greeks  we  find  not  only  such 
general  expressions  as  that  the  gods  "  feast  on  hecatombs  " 
{IL,  ix.  531)  but  even  that  particular  gods  bear  special 
surnames,  such  as  "the  goat-eater,"  the  "ram-eatcr," 
"  Dionysus  the  eater  of  raw  (human)  flesh "  (atyoi^ayos. 
Kpio<}>a.yoi,  tijuTytTTiJs). 

A  sacrifice,  therefore,  is  primarily  a  meal  ofTercd  to  the 
deity.  In  some  of  the  cases  already  noticed,  and  in  the 
case  of  holocausts  or  whole  burnt-offerings,  the  sacrificial 
gift  is  entirely  made  over  to  the  god  ;  but  ordinarily  the 
sacrifice  is  a  feast  of  which  gods  and  worshippers  partake 
together.  If  all  sacrifices  are  not  convivial  entertainments, 
at  least  the  tendency  is  to  give  to  all  feasts,  nay  to  all  meals, 
a  sacrificial  character  by  inviting  the  gods  to  jmrtako  of 
them  (Athenieus,  v.  19).  Thus  the  Roman  family  never 
rose  from  supper  till  a  portion  of  the  food  had  been  laid 
on  the  burning  hearth  as  an  offering  to  the  Jatcs  (Scrv., 
AdJUn.,  1.  730 ,  Ovid,  Fast.,  ii.  033) ;  and  a  similar  practice 

was  probably  followed  in  early  Greece.' At  all  evciita 

~  ^  bee  the  ducussiou  In  Buchholt,  Homer.  JttcUun,  II.  U.  213  tg. 


134 


SACRIFICE 


the  slaugnter  of  an  animal  (which  gave  the  meal  a  more 
luxurious  and  festal  character,  animal  food  being  not  in 
daily  use  with  the  mass  of  the  agricultural  populations  of 
the  Mediterranean  lands)  seems  to  have  been  always 
sacrificial  in  early  Greece,  and  even  in  later  times  St  Paul 
assumes  that  the  flesh  sold  in  the  shambles  would  often 
consist  of  eLSu)\66 vra.  Among, the  Semites  sacrifice  and 
slaughter  for  food  are  still  more  clearly  identified ;  the 
Hebrews  use  the  same  word  for  both,  and  the  Arabian 
invocation  of  the  name  of  Allah  over  every  beast  killed 
for  food  is  but  the  relic  of  a  sacrificial  formula.  The 
part  of  the  gods  in  such  sacrificial  meals  was  often  very 
small,  the  blood  alone  (Arabia),  or  the  fat  and  the  thighs 
(//.,  i.  460),  or  small  parts  of  each  joint  (Od.,  xiv.  427), 
or  the  blood,  the  fat,  and  the  kidneys  (Lev.  iii.),  'WTien 
the  sacrifice  was  ofl'ered  by  a  priest,  he  also  naturally 
received  a  portion,  which,  properly  speaking,  belonged  to 
the  deity  and  was  surrendered  by  him  to  his  minister,  as 
is  brought  out  in  the  Hebrew  ritual  by  the  ceremonial  act 
of  waving  it  towards  the  altar  (Lev.  vii.  29  sq.).  The 
thigh,  which  in  Homeric  sacrifice  is  burned  on  the  altar, 
belongs  in  the  Levitical  ritual  to  the  priest,  who  was 
naturally  the  first  to  profit  by  tha  growth  of  a  conviction 
that  the  deity  himself  did  not  reauire  to  be  fed  by  man's 
food. 

The  conception  of  the  sacrifice  as  a  banquet  in  which 
gods  and  men  share  together  may  be  traced  also  in  the 
accessories  of  sacred  ritual.  Music,  song,  garlands,  the 
sweet  odour  of  incense,  accompany  sacrifice  because  they 
are  suitable  to  an  occasion  of  mirth  and  luxurious  enjoy- 
ment. Wine,  too,  "  which  cheereth  gods  and  men  "  (Judges 
ix.  13),  was  seldom  lacking  in  the  vine-growing  coui;tries  ; 
but  ihe  most  notable  case  where  the  sacrificial  feast  has 
the  use  of  an  into.xicant  (qr  narcotic)  as  its  chief  feature 
is  the  ancient  soma  sacrifice  of  the  old  Aryans,  where  the 
gods  are  honoixred  by  bowls  of  the  precious  draught  which 
heals  the  sick,  inspires  the  poet,  and  makes  the  poor 
believe  that  he  is  rich. 

The  sacrificial  meal,  with  the  general  features  that  have 
been  described,  may  be  regarded  as  common  to  all  the  so- 
called  nature-religions  of  the  civilized  races  of  antiquity, 
— religions  which  had  a  predominantly  joyous  character, 
and  in  which  the  relations  of  man  to  the  gods  were  not 
troubled  by  any  habitual  and  oppressive  sense  of  human 
guilt,  because  the  divine  standard  of  man's  duty  corre- 
sponded broadly  'with  the  accepted  standard  of  civil  con- 
duct, and  therefore,  though  the  god  might  be  angry  with 
his  people  for  a  time,  or  even  irreconcilably  wroth  with 
individuals,  the  idea  was  hardly  conceivable  that  he  could 
be  permanently  alienated  from  the  whole  circle  of  his 
worshippers, — that  is,  from  all  who  participated  in  a  certain 
local  (tribal  or  national)  cult.  But  whefi  this  type  of 
religion  began  to  break  down  the  sacrificial  ritual  under- 
went corresponding  modifications.  Thus  we  find  a  decline 
of  faith  in  the  old  gods  accompanied,  not  only  by  a  grow- 
ing neglect  of  the  temples  and  their  service,  but  also  by  a 
disposition  to  attenuate  the  gifts  that  were  still  offered, 
or  to  take  every  opportunity  to  cheat  the  gods  out  of 
part  of  their  due, — a  disposition  of  which  Arabia  before 
Mohammed  affords  a  classical  example.  But,  again,  the 
decline  of  faith  itself  was  not  a  mere  product  of  indiffer- 
ence, but  was  partly  due  to  a  feeling  that  the  traditional 
ritual  involved  too  material  a  conception  of  the  gods,  and 
this  cause,  too,  tended  to  produce  modifications  in  sacri- 
ficial service.  The  Persians,  for  example  (Herod.,  i.  132  ; 
Strabo,  XV.  p.  732),  consecrated  their  sacrifices  with 
liturgical  prayers,  but  gave  no  part  of  the  victim  to  the 
deity,  who  "  desired  nothing  but  the  life  (or  soul)  of  the 
victim."  This,  indeed,  is  the  Roman  formula  of  piacular 
as  distinct  from  honorific  offerings  (Macrob.,  iii.  5,  1), 


ana  mignt  bo  taken  as  implying  that  the  Persians  had 
ceased  to  look  on  sacrifices  as  gifts  of  homage ;  but  such 
an  explanation  can  hardly  be  extended  to  the  parallel  case 
of  the  Arab  sacrifices,  in  which  the  share  of  the  deity  was 
the  blood  of  the  victim,  which  according  to  antique  belief 
contained  the  life.  For  among  the  Arabs  blood  was  a 
recognized  article  of  food,  and  the  polemic  of  Ps.  1.  1 3  is 
expressly  directed  against  the  idea  that  the  deity  "  drinks 
the  blood  of  goats."  And  the  details  given  in  Strabo 
make  it  tolerably  clear  that  Persian  sacrifice  is  simply  an 
example  of  the  way  in  which  the  material  gift  offered  to 
the  deity  is  first  attenuated  and  then  allegorized  away  as 
the  conception  of  the  godhead  becomes  less  crassly  mate- 
rial. But  on  the  other  hand  it  is  imdoubtedly  true  thai 
under  certain  conditions  the  notion  of  piacular  sacrifice 
shows  much  greater  vitality  than  that  of  sacrificial  gifts 
of  homage.  When  a  national  religion  is  not  left  to  slow 
decay,  but  shares  the  catastrophe  of  the  nation  itself,  as 
was  the  case  with  the  religions  of  the  small  western  Asiatic 
states  in  the  period  of  Assyrian  conquest,  the  old  joyous 
confidence  in  the  gods  gives  way  to  a  sombre  sense  of 
divine  wrath,  and  the  acts  by  which  this  wrath  can  be 
conjured  become  much  more  important  than  the  ordinary 
traditional  gifts  of  homage.  To  this  point  we  must  return 
by  and  by. 

It  appears,  then,  that  in  the  old  national  nature-religions 
the  ordinary  exercises  of  worship  take  the  form  of  meals 
offered  to  the  gods,  and  usually  of  banquets  at  which  gods 
and  worshippers  sit  down  together,  so  that  the  natural 
bond  of  unity  between  the  deity  and  his  subjects  or 
children  is  cemented  by  the  bond  of  "  bread  and  salt " — 
salt  is  a  standing  feature  in  the  sacrifices  of  many  races 
(comp.  Lev.  ii.  13) — to  which  ancient  and  unsophisticated 
peoples  attach  so  much  importance.  That  the  god  is 
habitually  \\-illing  to  partake  of  the  banquet  offered  to 
him  is  taken  for  granted  ;  but,  if  anything  has  occurred  to 
alienate  his  favour,  he  will  show  it  by  his  conduct  at  the 
feast,  by  certain  signs  knowTi  to  experts,  that  indicate  his 
refusal  of  the  offered  gift.  Hence  the  custom  of  inspect- 
ing the  exta  of  the  victim,  watching  the  behavioiu-  of  the 
sacrificial  flame,  or  otherwise  seeking  an  omen  which 
proves  that  the  sacrifice  is  accepted,  and  so  that  the  deity 
may  be  expected  to  favour  the  requests  with  which  the 
gift  ^  associatcd.1 

In  the  religions  which  we  have  been  characterizing  «U 
the  ordinary  functions  of  worship  are  summed  up  in  these 
sacrificial  meals  ;  the  stated  and  normal  intercourse  between 
gods  and  men  has  no  other  form.  God  and  worshippers 
make  up  together  a  society  of  commensah,  and  every  other 
point  in  their  reciprocal  relations  is  included  in  what  this 
involves.  Now,  with  this  we  must  take  the  no  less  certain 
fact  that  throughout  the  sphere  of  the  purely  sacrificial 
religions  the  circle  of  common  worship  is  also  the  circle 
of  social  duty  and  reciprocal  moral  obligations.  And  thus 
the  origin  of  sacrificial  worship  must  be  sought  in  a  stage 
of  society  when  the  circle  of  commensals  and  the  circle 
of  persons  united  to  each  other  by  sacred  social  bonds 
were  identical.  But  all  social  bonds  are  certainly  de- 
veloped out  of  the  bond  of  kindred,  and  it  will  ba 
generaUy  admitted  that  all  national  religions  are  develop- 
ments or  combinations  of  the  worship  of  particular  kins. 
It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  world-wide  prevalence 
of  sacrificial  worship  points  to  a  time  when  the  kindred 
group  and  the  group  of  commensals  were  identical,  ag;d 
when,  conversely,  people  of  different  kins  did  not  eat  aiM 
drink  together. 

At  first  sight  it  might  appear  that  this  amounts  to  the 


^  Hence  in  Roman  ritual  there  is  no  inspection  of  the  exta  wher© 
the  sacrifice  is  piacular,  and  so  does  not  involve  a  iae%l  offered  to  tha 
dtity. 


SACRIFICE 


135 


proposition  that  all  religious  and  civil  societies  of  antiquity 
have  the  family  as  their  type,  and  that  the  type  of  sacii- 
fice  is  such  a  family  meal  as  is  found  among  the  Eomans. 
And  this  view  would  seem  to  be  favoured  by  the  frequent 
occurrence  among  ancient  peoples  of  the  conception  that 
the  deity  is  the  father  (progenitor  and  lord)  of  his 
worshippers,  who  in  turn  owe  filial  obedience  to  him  and 
brotherly  duty  to  one  another.  But  in  the  present  stage 
of  research  into  the  history  of  early  society  it  is  by  no 
means  legitimate  to  assume  that  the  family,  with  a  father 
at  its  head,  is  the  original  type  of  the  circle  of  com- 
mensals. It  is  impossible  to  separate  the  idea  of  com- 
mensality  from  the  fact  so  constantly  observed  in  primitive 
nations,  that  each  kindred  has  certain  rules  about  for- 
birlden  food  which  mark  it  off  from  all  other  kindreds. 
And  in  a  very  large  proportion  of  cases  kindred  obliga- 
tions, religion,  and  laws  of  forbidden  food  combine  to 
divide  a  child  from  his  father's  and  unite  him  to  his 
mother's  kin,  so  that  father  and  sons  are  not  commensals. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  family  meals  are  by  no  means  so 
u.iiversal  an  institution  as  might  >3  imagined  a  priori. 
At  Sparta,  for  example,  men  took  laeir  regular  meals  not 
Tlith  their  wives  and  children  but  in  syssitia  ov  pheiditia  ; 
and  a  similar  organization  of  nations  in  groups  of  com- 
ciensals  which  are  not  family  groups  is  found  in  other 
j.'laces  (Crete,  Carthage,  <tc.).  The  marked  and  funda^ 
mental  similarity  between  sacrificial  worships  in  all  parts 
of  the  globe  makes  it  very  difiicult  to  doubt  that  they  are 
all  to  bo  traced  back  to  one  type  of  society,  common  to 
[irimitive  man  as  a  whole.  But  the  nearest  approximation 
to  a  primitive  type  of  society  yet  known  is  that  based  not 
on  the  family  but  on  the  system  of  totem  stocks ;  and  as 
this  system  not  only  fulfils  all  the  conditions  for  the 
formation  of  a  sacrificial  worship,  but  presents  the  con- 
ception of  the  god  and  his  worshippers  as  a  circle  of 
commensals  in  its  simplest  and  most  intelligible  form,  it 
seems  reasonable  to  look  to  it  for  additional  light  on  the 
whole  subject.  In  totemisra  and  in  no  other  system  laws 
of  forbidden  food  have  a  direct  religious  interpretation  and 
form  the  principal  criterion  by  which  the  members  of  one 
stock  and  religion  are  marked  oflf  from  all  their  neigh- 
boius.  For  the  totem  is  usually  an  animal  (less  often  a 
plant) ;  the  kindred  is  of  the  stock  of  iw  *otcm ;  and  to 
kill  or  eat  the  sacred  animal  is  an  impiety  oJ  the  same 
kind  with  that  of  killing  and  eating  a  tribesman.  To 
eat  the  totem  of  a  strange  stock,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
legitimate,  and  for  one  totem  group  to  feast  i  n  the  carcase 
of  a  hostile  totem  is  to  express  their  social  and  religious 
particularism  in  the  most  effective  and  laudable  way,  to 
honour  their  own  totem  and  to  cast  scorn  on  that  of  the 
enemy.  The  importance  attached  to  the  religious  feast  of 
those  who  have  the  same  laws  about- food,  and  are  there- 
fore habitual  commensals,  is  more  intelligible  on  this  system 
than  on  any  other. 

Though  the  subject  has  not  been  completely  worked  out, 
tliere  is  a  good  deal  of  evidence,  both  from  social  and  from 
religious  phenomena^  that  the  civilized  nations  of  antiquity 
once  passed  through  the  totem  stage  (see  Family  and 
MYTnoLOoy) ;  it  is  at  least  not  doubtful  that  even  in  the 
historical  period  sacred  animals  and  laws  of  forbidden  food 
based  on  the  sacredncss  of  animals,  in  a  way  quite  analo- 
gous to  what  is  found  in  totemism,  were  known  among  all 
these  nations.  Among  the  Egyptians  the  whole  organiza- 
tion of  the  local  populations  ran  on  totem  lines,  the  dilfcrcnt 
villages  or  districts  being  kept  permanently  apart  by  the 
fact  that  each  had  its  own  sacred  animal  or  herb,  and  that 
one  group  worshipped  what  another  ate.  And  the  sacri- 
flcial  feast  on  the  carcase  of  a  hostile  totem  persisted  down 
to  a  late  date,  as  wo  know  from  Plutarch  (/«.  et  Odr.,  p. 
380  ;  comp.  Alex.  Polyh.,  ap.  Eus..  rra^i.  Ev.,  Ix.  p.  432; 


Diod.  Sic,  i.  89).  Among  the  Semites  there  are  many 
relics  of  totem  religion  ;  and,  as  regards  the  Greeks,  so 
acute  an  observer  as  Herodotus  could  hardly  have  imagined 
that  a  great  part  of  Hellenic  religion  was  borrowed  from 
Egypt' if  the  visible  features  of  the  popular  worship  in 
the  two  countries  had  really  belonged  to  entirely  different 
types.  To  suppose  that  the  numerous  associations  between 
particular  deities  and  corresponding  sacred  animals  which 
are  found  in  Greece  and  other  advanced  countries  are 
merely  symbolical  is  a  most  unscientific  a-ssumption ;  especi- 
ally as  the  symbolic  interpretation  could  not  fail  to  be 
introduced  as  a  harmonizing  expedient  where,  through  the 
fusion  of  older  deities  under  a  common  name  (in  connexion 
with  the  political  union  of  kindreds),  one  god  came  to  have 
several  sacred  animals.  But  originally  even  in  Greece 
each  kin  had  ita  own  god  or  in  later  language  its  hero  j 
so  in  Attica  the  Criocis  have  their  hero  Crius  (Ram),  the 
Butadse  have  Butas  (Biilhnan),  the  /Egida;  have  yEgeus 
(Goat),  and  the  Cynida;  Cynus  (Dcg).  Such  heroes  are 
real  totem  ancestors ;  Lycus,  for  example,  had  his  statue  in 
wolf  form  at  the  Lyceum.  The  feuds  of  clans  are  repre-^ 
sented  as  contests  between  rival  totems :  Lycus  the  wolf 
flees  the*  country  before  iEgeus  the  goat,  and  at  Argos, 
where  the  wolf-god  (Apollo  Lycius)  was  introduced  by 
Danaus,  the  struggle  by  which  the  sovereignly  of  the 
Danaida  was  established  was  set  forth,  in  legend  and 
picture  as  following  on  the  victory  of  a  wolf  (representing 
Danaus)  over  a  bull  (representing  the  older  sovereignty  of 
Gelanor) ;  see  Paus.,  ii.  19,  3  sq.  That  Apollo's  sacrifices 
were  bulls  and  rams  is  therefore  natural  enough ;  at  the 
sanctuary  of  the  wolf-Apollo  at  Sicyon  indeed  legend  pre- 
served the  memory  of  a  time  when  flesh  was  actually  set 
forth  for  the  wolves,  as  totem-worshippers  habitually  set 
forth  food  for  their  sacred  animals, — though  by  a  touch  of 
the  later  rationalism  which  changed  the  wolf-god  into 
Apollo  the  wolf -slayer  (Lycoctonus)  the  flesh  was  said  to 
have  been  poisoned  by  Apollo's  direction  in  a  way  that 
even  theological  experts  did  not  understand  (Pans.,  ii.  9,  7). 
Such  clear  traces  of  the  oldest  form  of  sacrifice  are  neces- 
sarily rare,  but  the  general  facts  that  certain  animals 
might  not  be  sacrificed  to  certain  gods,  while  on  the  other 
hand  *ach  deity  demanded  particular  victims,  which  the 
ancients  themselves  explained  in  certain  cases  to  be  hostile 
animals,  find  their  natural  explanation  in  such  a  stage  of 
religion  as  has  just  been  characterized.  The  details  are 
difficult  to  follow  out,  partly  because  most  worships  of 
which  we  know  much  were  syncretistic,  partly  because  the 
animals  which  the  gods  loved  and  protected  were  in  later 
times  often  confused  with  the  victims  they  desired,  and 
partly  because  piacular  and  mystical  sacrifices  were  on 
principle  (as  we  shall  see  by  and  by)  chosen  from  the  class 
of  victims  that  might  not  be  used  for  the  feasts  of  the  god^. 
A  single  example,  therefore,  must  here  suflTice  to  close  this 
part  of  the  subject.  At  Athens  the  goat  might  not  be 
oflfered  to  the  Athena  on  the  Acropolis.  Now  according 
to  legend  Athena's  worship  was  made  Panathenaic  by  the 
Mgidaa  or  goat  clan,  and  Athena  herself  was  represented  clad 
in  the  a;gis  or  goat-skin,  an  attribute  which-  denotes  that 
she  too  -was  of  the  goat  kin  or  rather  had  been  taken  into 
that  kin  when  her  worship  was  introduced  among  them.'  ' 
Generally  speaking,  then,  the  original  principle  on  w-hich 
a  sacrificial  meal  is  chosen  is  that  men  may  not  cat  what 
cannot  be  oflered  to  their  god  (generalized  in  later  syn- 
cretism to  the  rule  that  men  may  not  cat  things  that  can  bo 
oflfered  to  no  god;  Julirm,  Oral.,  v.  p.  17G  C.)  ;  and  that> 

'  Tho  leligious  mcnning  of  wearing  tlio  Mn  of  «n  miimal  li  iJrutl- 
ficntion  with  the  animnl.  Exnmplos  will  ni>penr  below  ;  comp.-iri<  nlio 
tlio  wcrc-w-olf  fiuper^lilions  (vol.  xv.  p.  00),  wliero  the  Mmo  symbolitm 
occurs.  So  too  l^ausaiiiiis  (x.  31,  10)  describes  a  reprcscDtatiou  of  tb» 
bcar-bcroine  Callisto  recllniuK  on  k  bear-skiu  cove)- 


136 


SACRIFICE 


converselj',  accejitable  offerings  are  the  things  ^hich  are 
eaten  by  predilection  by  that  divine  animal  which  in  later 
times  became  the  sacred  sjTnbol  of  the  anthropomorphic 
god,  or  else  victims  are  to  be  chosen  which  are  sacred 
among  a  hostile  tribe.  The  two  principles  may  often  co- 
incide. Fierce  mountain  tribes  who  live  mainly  by  harry- 
ing their  neighbours  in  the  plain  will  be  wolves,  lions, 
bears,  while  their  enemies  will  naturally  worship  bulls, 
sheep,  goats,  like  the  Troglodytes  on  the  Red  Sea,  who 
"gave  the  name  of  parent  to  no  human  being  but  to  the 
ball  and  the  cow,  the  ram  and  the  ewe,  because  from  them 
they  had  their  daily  nourishment "  (Strabo,  xvi.  4) ;  and 
thus  in  cases  like  that  of  Argos  the  ultimate  shape  of  the 
ritual  may  throw  important  light  on  the  character  of  the 
early  population.  When  by  conquest  or  otherwise  two 
such  originally  hostile  nations  are  fused  the  opposing 
animal  symbols  will  ultimately  be  found  in  friendly  asso- 
ciation :  e.g.,  Artemis  (in  her  various  forms)  is  associated 
both  with  carnivora  and  with  stags  or  domestic  animals. 
The' former  is  the  original  conception,  as  her  sacrifices 
.show.  She  is  therefore,  like  the  wolf-Apollo,  originally  the 
deity  of  a  wild  hunting  tribe,  or  rather  various  carnivorous 
deities  of  such  tribes  have  coalesced  in  her. 

Human  Sacrifices. — From  these  observations  the  tran- 
sition is  easy  to  those  human  sacrifices  which  are  not 
piacular.  It  is  perfectly  clear  in  many  cases  that  such 
sacrifices  are  associated  with  cannibalism,  a  practice  which 
always  means  eating  the  flesh  of  men  of  alien  and  hostile 
kin.  The  human  wolves  would  no  more  eat  a  brother  than 
they  would  eat  a  wolf ;  but  to  eat  an  enemy  is  another 
matter.  Naturally  enough  traces  of  cannibalism  persist 
in  religion  after  they  have  c^isappeared  from  ordinary  life, 
and  especially  in  the  religion  of  carnivorous  gods.'  Thus 
it  may  be  conjectured  that  the  human  sacrifices  offered 
to  the  wolf-Zeus  (Lycaeus)  in  Arcadia  were  originally  can- 
nibal feasts  of  a  wolf  tribe.  The  first  participants  in  the 
rite  were  according  to  later  legend  changed  into  wolves 
(Lycaon  and  his  sons) ;  and  in  later  times,  as  appears  by 
comparing  Plato  {Rep.,  viii.  15)  with  Pausanias  (viii.  2),  at 
least  one  fragment  of  the  human  flesh  was  placed  among 
the  sacrificial  portions  derived  from  other  victims,  and  the 
man  who  ate  it  was  balieved  to  become  a  were-wolf.  All 
human  sacrifices  where  the  victim  is  a  captive  or  other 
foreigner  may  be  presumed  to  be  derived  from  cannibal 
feasts  ;  but  a  quite  different  explanation  is  riquired  for  the 
cases,  which  are  by  far  more  numerous  among  people  no 
longer  mere  savages,  in  which  a  father  sacrifices  his  child 
or  a  tribe  its  fellow-tribesman.  This  case  belongs  to  the 
head  of  piacidar  sacrifices. 

Piacular  Sacrifice.^, — Among  all  primitive  peoples  there 
are  certain  oftenci-.s  against  piety  (especially  bloodshed 
within  the  kin)  which  are  regarded  as  properly  inexpiable  ; 
the  offender  must  die  or  become  an  outlaw.  Where  the 
god  of  the  kin  appears  as  vindicator  of  this  law  he  demands 
the  life  of  the  culprit ;  if  the  kinsmen  refuse  this  they 
share  the  guilt.  Thus  the  execution  of  a  criminal  assumes 
tlie  character  of  a  religious  action.  If  now  it  appears  in 
any  way  that  the  god  is  offended  and  refuses  to  help  his 
people,  it  is  concluded  that  a  crime  has  been  committed 
and  not  expiated.  This  neglect  must  be  repaired,  and,  if 
the  true  culprit  cannot  be  found  or  cannot  be  spared,  the 
worshippers  as  a  whole  bear  the  guilt  until  they  or  the 
guilty  man  himself  find  a  substitute.  The  idea  of  substitu- 
tion is  widespread  through  all  early  religions,  and  is  found 
in  honorific  as  well  as  in  piacular  rites ;  the  Romans,  for 
example,  substituted  models  in  wax  or  dough  for  victims 

'  In  the  Roman  empire  buman  sacrifice  was  practised  at  not  a  few 
slirines  down  to  the  time  of  Hadrian  ;  for  examples  the  reader  may 
refer  to  PorphjTy,  De  Abslin.,  ii.  27,  54  sq.,  and  to  Clem.  Alex., 
Coh.  ad  Gei'.U-s,  p.  27. 


that  could  not  be  procured  according  to  the  ritual,  or  else 
feigned  that  a  sheep  was  a  stag  {cervaria  ovis)  and  the 
like.  In  all  such  cases  the  idea  is  that  the  substitute 
shall  imitate  as  closely  as  is  possible  or  convenient  the 
victim  whose  place  it  supplies;  and  so  in  piacular  ceremonies 
the  god  may  indeed  accept  one  life  for  another,  or  certain 
select  lives  to  atone  for  the  guilt  of  a  whole  community, 
but  these  lives  ought  to  be  of  the  guilty  kin,  just  as  in 
blood-revenge  the  death  of  any  kinsman  of  the  manslayer 
satisfies  justice.  Hence  such  rites  as  the  Semitic  sacrifices 
of  children  by  their  fathers  (see  Moloch),  the  .sacrifice 
of  Iphigeneia  and  similar  cases  among  the  Greeks,  or  the 
offering  up  of  boys  to  the  goddess  Mania  at  Rome  pro 
famiUarium  sospitate  (Macrob.,  i.  7,  31).  In  the  oldest 
Semitic  cases  it  is  only  under  extreme  manifestations  of 
divine  v\Tath  that  such  ofl'erings  are  made  (eonip.  Porph., 
De  Abst.,  ii.  56),  and  so  it  was  probably  among  other  races 
also  ;  but  under  the  pressure  of  long-continued  calamity, 
or  other  circumstances  which  made  men  doubtful  of  the 
steady  favour  of  the  gods,  piacular  offerings  might  easily 
become  more  frequent  and  ultimately,  assume  a  stated 
character,  and  be  made  at  regular  intervals  by  way  of 
nrecaution  without  waiting  for  an  actual  outbreak  of 
divine  anger.  Thus  the  Carthaginians,  as  Theophrastus 
relates,  annually  sprinkled  their  altars  with  "  a  tribesman's 
blood  '  (Porph.,  De  Abst.,  ii.  28).  But  in  advanced 
societies  the  tendency  is  to  modify  the  horrors  of  the 
ritual  either  by  accepting  an  effusion  of  blood  without 
actually  slaying  the  victim,  e.g.,  in  the  flagellation  of  the 
Spartan  lads  at  the  altar  of  Artemis  Orthia  (Pans.,  iii.  16,  7  ; 
comp.  Eurip.,  Jph.  Taur.,  1170  sq. ;  1  Kings  xviii.  28),  or 
by  a  further  extension  of  the  doctrine  of  substitution  ;  the 
Romans,  for  example,  substituted  puppets  for  th?  human 
sacrifices  to  JIania,  and  cast  rush  dolls  into  the  Tiber  at 
the  yearly  atoning  sacrifice  on  the  Sublician  bridge.  More 
usually,  however,  the  life  of  an  animal  is  accepted  by  the 
god  in  place  of  a  human  life.  This  e,xi)lanation  of  the 
origin  of  piacular  animal  sacrifices  has  often  been  disputed, 
mainly  on  dogmatic  grounds  and  in  connexion  with  the 
Hebrew  sin-offerings  ;  but  it  is  quite  clearly  brought  out 
wherever  w»  have  an  ancient  account  of  the  origin  of  such 
a  rite  {e.g.,  for  the  Hebrews,  Gen.  xxii.  13  ;  the  Phoenicians, 
Porph.,  De  Abst.,  iv.  15;  the  Greeks  and  many  others, 
ibid.,  ii.  54  sq. ;  the  Romans,  Ovid,  Fasti,  vi.  162).  Among 
the  Egyptians  the  victim  was  marked  with  a  seal  bearing 
tha  imaae  of  a  man  bound,  and  kneeling  with  a  sword  at 
his  throat  (Plut.,  Is.  et  Os.,  chap,  xxxi.)  And  often  we 
find  a  ceremonial  laying  of  the  sin  to  be  expiated  on  the 
head  of  the  victim  (Herod.,  ii.  39 ;  Lev.  iv.  4  compared 
with  xiv.  21). 

In  such  piacular  rites  the  god  demands  only  the  life  of 
the  victim,  which  is  sometimes  indicated  by  a  special  ritual 
with  the  blood  (as  among  the  Hebrews  the  blood  of  the 
sin-oflering  was  applied  to  the  horns  of  the  altar,  or  to  the 
mercy-seat  within  the  vail),  and  there  is  no  .sacrificial  meal. 
Thus  among  the  Greeks  the  carcase  of  the  victim  was 
buried  or  cast  into  the  sea,  and  among  the  Hebrews  the 
most  important  sin-offerings  were  burnt  not  on  the  altar 
but  outside  the  camp  (city),  as  was  also  the  case  with  tho 
children  sacrificed  to  "Moloch."  Sometimes,  however, 
the  sacrifice  is  a  holocaust  on  the  altar  (2  Kings  in.  2/), 
or  the  flesh  is  consumed  by  the  priests.  The  latter  was 
the  case  with  certain  Roman  piacula,  and  with  those 
Hebrew  sin-offerings  in  which  the  blood  was  not  brought 
within  the  vaU  (Lev.  vi.  25  sq.).  Here  the  sacrificial  flesh 
is  seemingly  a  gift  accepted  by  the  deity  and  assigned  by 
him  to  the  priests,  so  that  the  distinction  between  a 
honorific  and  a  piacular  .sacrifice  is  partly  obliterated. 
But  this  is  not  hard  to  understand;  for  just  as  a  blood- 
rite  takes  the  nlace  of  blood-revenge  in  human  justice,  so  an^ 


SACRIFICE 


137 


offence  against  the  goda  may  in  certain  cases  be  redeemed 
by  a  fine  {e.g.,  Herod.,  ii.  65)  or  a  sacrificial  gift.  This 
seems  to  be  the  original  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  ashdni 
(trespass-offering),  which  was  a  kind  of  atonement  made 
partly  in  money  (^Lev.  v.  15  sq.),  but  accompanied  (at 
least  in  later  times)  by  a  sacrifice  which  differed  from  the 
Bin-offering,  inasmuch  as  the  ritual  did  not  involve  any 
exceptional  use  of  the  blood.  The  ordinary  sin-offerings 
in  which  the  priests  ate  the  flesh  may  be  a  compound  of 
the  dskdm  arid  the  properly  piacular  substitution  of  life 
for  life.  The  two  kinds  of  atonement  are  mixed  up  also 
in  Micah  vi.  6  sq.,  and  ultimately  all  bloody  sacrifices, 
especially  the  whole  burnt-offering  (which  in  early  times 
was  very  rare  but  is  prominent  in  the  ritual  of  the  second 
temple),  are  held  to  have  an  atoning  efficacy  (Lev.  i.  •!, 
ivii.  11).  There  is,  however,  another  and  mystical  sense 
sometimes  associated  with  the  eating  of  sin-offerings,  as  we 
shall  see  presently. 

The  most  curious  developments  of  piacular  sacrifice 
take  place  in  the  worship  of  deities  of  totem  type.  Here 
the  natural  substitute  for  the  death  of  a  criminal  of  the 
tribe  is  an  animal  of  the  kind  with  which  the  worshippers 
and  their  god  alike  count  kindred  ;  an  animal,  that  is, 
which  must  not  be  offered  in  a  sacrificial  feast,  and  which 
indeed  it  is  impious  to  kill.  Thus  Hecate  was  invoked  as 
a  dog  (Porph.,  De  Absf.,  iii.  17),  and  dogs  were  her  j)ia- 
cular  sacrifices  (Plut.,  Qu.  Bom.,  iii.).  And  in  like  manner 
in  Egypt  the  piacular  sacrifice  of  the  cow-goddess  Isis- 
Hathor  was  a  bull,  and  the  sacrifice  was  accompanied  by 
lamentations  as  at  the  funeral  of  a  kmsman  (Herod.,  ii. 
39,  40).  This  lamentation  at  a  piacular  sacrifice  is  met' 
with  in  other  cases,  e.g.,  at  the  Argean  festival  at  Rome 
(Marquardt,  Eiiyn.  Staatsveriv.,  iii.  192),  and  is  parallel  to 
'ihe  marks  of  indignation  which  in  various  atoning  rituals 
It  is  proper  to  display  towards  the  priest  who  performs 
the  sacrifice.  At  Tenedos,  for  example,  the  priest  was 
attacked  vrith  stones  who  sacrificed  to  Bacchus  a  bull-calf, 
the  affinity  of  which  with  man  was  indicated  by  the 
mother-cow  being  treated  like  a  woman  in  childbed  and 
the  victim  itself  wearing  the  cothurnus.  As  the  cothurnus 
was  proper  to  Bacchus,  who  also  was  often  addressed  in 
worship  and  represented  in  images  as  a  bull,  the  victim 
here  is  of  the  same  race  with  the  god  (.<EI.,  II. N.,  xii.  34  ; 
Plut.,  Qu.  dr.,  XXXV.)  as  well  as  with  the  worshippers. 
In  such  rites  a  double  meaning  was  suggested  :  the  victim ' 
was  an  aniinal  kindred  to  the  sacrificers,  so  that  his  death 
was  strictly  speaking  a  murder,  for  which,  in  the  Attic 
Diipolia,  the  sacrificial  axe  cast  away  by  the  priest  was 
tried  and  condemned  (Paus.,  i.  24,  4),  but  it  was  aiso  a 
sacred  animal  sharing  the  nature  of  the  god,  who  thus  in 
a  sense  died  for  his  people.  The  last  point  comes  out 
clearly  in  the  annual  sacrifice  at  Thebes,  where  c,  ram  was 
slain  and  the  ram -god  Amen  clothed  in  his  si  in.  The 
worshippers  then  bewailed  the  ram  and  buried  him  in  a 
sacred  coffin  (Herod.,  ii.  42).  Thus  the  piacular  sacrifice 
in  such  cases  is  merged  in  the  class  of  offerings  which 
may  be  called  sacramental  or  mystical. 

Mystical  or  Sacramental  Sacrifices., — That  the  mysteries 
of  races  like  the  Greeks  and  Egyptians  are  sprung  from 
the  same  circle  of  ideas  with  the  totem  mysteries  of  savage 
tribes  has  been  suggested  in  Mythology,  vol.  xvii.  p.  151, 
with  which  the  reader  may  compare  Mr  Lang's  book  on 
Custom  and  Myth ;  and  examples  of  sacramental  sacrifices 
have  been  adduced  in  the  same  article  (p.  150)  and  in 
Mexico,  vol.  xvi.  p.  212.  In  Mexico  the  worshippers  ate 
sacramentally  paste  idols  of  the  god,  or  slew  anj  feasted 
on  a  human  victim  who  was  feigned  to  be  a  rejirescntative 
of  the  deity.  The  Mexican  gods  are  unquestionably  de- 
veloped out  of  totems,  and  these  sacraments  are  on  one 
line  with  the  totem  mysteries  of  the  ruder  Indian  tribes 


in  which  once  a  year  the  sacred  animal  is  eaten,  body  and 
blood.  Now  according  to  Julian  (Orat.,  v.  p.  175)  the 
mystical  sacrifices  of  the  cities  of  the  Roman  empire  were 
in  like  manner  offered  once  or  twice  a  year  and  consisted 
of  such  victims  as  the  dog  of  Hecate,  which  might  not  bo 
ordinarily  eaten  or  used  to  furnish  fortli  the  tables  of  the 
gods.  The  general  agreement  with  the  American  mysteries 
is  therefore  complete,  and  in  many  cases  the  resemblance 
extends  to  details  i\hich  leave  no  doubt  of  the  totem  origin 
of  the  ritual.  The  mystic  sacrifices  seem  always  to  have 
had  an  atoning  efficacy ;  their  special  feature  is  that  the 
victim  is  not  simply  slain  and  burned  or  cast  away  but 
that  the  worshippers  partake  of  the  body  and  blood  of  the 
sacred  animal,  and  that  so  his  life  jiasscs  as  it  were  into 
their  lives  and  knits  them  to  the  deity  in  living  commu- 
nion. Thus  in  the  orgiastic  cult  of  the  bull-Bacchus  the 
worshippers  tore  the  bull  to  pieces  and  devoured  the  raw 
flesh.  These  orgies  are  connected  on  the  one  hand  with 
older  practices,  in  which  the  victim  was  human  (Orpheus 
legend,  Dionysus  'fl/itja-T^?),  and  on  the  other  hand  with  the 
myth  of  the  murder  of  the  god  by  his  kinsmen  the  Titans, 
who  made  a  meal  of  his  flesh  (Clem.  Al.,  CoL  ad  Gentes, 
p.  12).  Similar  legends  of  fratricide  occur  in  connexion 
with  other  orgies  (the  Corybantes ;  see  Clement,  lit  supra) ; 
and  all  these  various  elements  cun  only  be  reduced  to  unity 
by  referring  their  origin  to  those  totem  habits  of  thought 
in  which  the  god  has  not  yet  been  differentiated  from  the 
plurality  of  sacred  animals  and  the  tribesmen  are  of  one 
kin  with  their  totem,  so  that  the  sacrifice  of  a  fellow- 
tribesman  and  the  sacrifice  of  the  totem  animal  are  equally 
fratricides,  and  the  death  of  the  animal  is  the  death  of  the 
mysterious  protector  of  the  totem  kin.  In  the  Diipolia  at 
Athens  we  have  seen  that  the  slaughter  of  the  sacred  bull 
was  viewed  as  a  murder,  but  "  the  dead  was  raised  again 
in  the  same  sacrifice,"  as  the  mystic  text  had  it :  the  skin 
was  sewed  up  and  stuffed  and  all  tasted  the  sacrificial 
flesh,  so  that  the  life  of  the  victim  was  renewed  in  the 
lives  of  those  who  ate  of  it*  (TheOphr.,  in  Porph.,  De 
Abst.,  ii.  29  sq.). 

Mystic  sacrifices  of  this  sacramental  type  prevailed  also 
among  the  heathen  Semites,  and  are  alluded  to  in  Isa.  Ixv. 
4  sq.,  Ixvi.  3,  17 ;  Zech.  ix.  7 ;  Lev.  xLx.  26,  &c.,-  from 
which  passages  we  gather  that  the  victim  was  eaten  with 
the  blood.- "This  feature  reappears  elsewhere,  as  in  the  pia- 
cular swine-offerings  of  the  Fratres  Arvales  at  Rome,  and 
possesses  a  special  significance  inasmuch  as  common  blood 
means  in  antiquity  a  share  in  common  life.  In  the  Old 
Testament  the  heathen  mysteries  seem  to  appear  as  cere- 
monies of  initiation  by  which  a  man  was  introduced  into 
a  new  worship,  i.e.,  primarily  made  of  etie  blood  with  a 
new  reb'gious  kin.ship,  and  they  therefore  cime  into  promi- 
nence just  at  the  time  when  in  the  7th  century  B.C.  political 
convulsions  had  shaken  men's  faith  in  thei*'  old  gods  and 
led  them  to  seek  on  all  sides  for  new  and  stronger  pro- 
tectors. The  Greek  mysteries  too  create  a  close  bond 
between  the  mystx,  and  the  chief  ethical  significance  of 
the  Eleusinia  was  that  they  were  open  to  all  Hellenes  and 
so  represented  a  brotherhood  wider  than  the  political  limits 
of  individual  states.  But  originally  the  initiation  must 
have  been  introduction  into  a  particular  social  community; 
Theophrastus's  legend  of  the  origin  of  the  Diijxilia  is  ex- 
pressly connected  with  the  ado]ition  of  the  house  of  Sopa- 
trus  into  the  position  of  Athenian  citizens.  From  this 
point  of  view  the  sacramental  rites  of  mystical  sacrifice 
are  a  form  of  bbod<ovenant,  and  serve  the  same  purposo 

'  In  tlio  snmo  woy  tlio  Isacdonoa  hoiiouro.i  tliwir  pArciit.1  by  citing 
their  dead  bodies  (Mc<rod.,  Iv.  26).  Tlio  liTu  wu  not  allonod  to  go 
out  of  tlie  fnmily. 

*  For  di'tnils  soo  W.  It.  Smith,  Kinship  and  ilarriagt  inBartjf 
Arabia,  p.  309. 

XXL  —  18 


138 


SACRIl'ICE 


as  the  mixing  of  blood  or  tasting  of  each  other's  blood  by 
which  in  ancient  times  two  men  or  two  clans  created  a 
sacred  covenant  bond.  In  all  the  forms  of  blood-covenant, 
whether  a  sacrifice  is  offered  or  the  veins  Of  the  parties 
opened  and  their  own  blood'  used,  the  idea  is  the  same  : 
the  bond  created  is  a  bond  of  kindred,  because  one  blood 
is  now  in  the  veins  of  all  who  have  shared  the  ceremony. 
The  details  in  which  this  kind  of  symbolism  may  be 
carried  out  are  of  course  very  various,  but  where  there  is 
a  covenant  sacrifice  we  usually  find  that  the  parties  eat 
and  drink  together  (Gen.  xxxi.  54),  and  that  the  sacrificial 
blood,  if  not  actually  tasted,  is  at  least  touched  by  both 
parties  (Xen.,  A?iab.,  ii.  2,  9),  or  sprinided  on  both  and  on 
the  altar  or  image  of  the  deity  who  presides  over  the  con- 
tract (Exod.,  xxiv.  6,  7).^  A  peculiar  form  which  meets 
us  in  vaiious  places  is  to  cut  the  animal  in'  twain  and 
make  those  who  swear  pass  between  the  parts  (Gen.  xiii. 
9  sq.;  Jer.  xxxiv.  18  sq.;  Pint.,  Qu.  Rom.,  iii.,  &c.).  This 
is  generally  taken  as  a  formula  of  imprecation,  as  if  the 
parties  prayed  that  he  who  proved  unfaithful  mi^ht  be 
similarly  cut  in  twain  ;  but,  as  the  case  cited  from  Plutarch 
shows  that  the  victim  chosen  was  a  mystic  one,  it  is  more 
likely  that  the  original  sense  was  that  the  wotshippers 
were  taken  within  the  mystic  life. 

Even  the  highest  forms  of,  sacrificial  worship  present 
much  that  is  repulsive  to  modern  ideas,  and  in  particular 
it  requires  an  effort  to  reconcile  our  imagination  to  the 
bloody  ritual  which  is  prominent  in  almost  every  religion 
which  has  a  strong  sense  of  sin.  But  we  must  not  forget 
that  from  the  beginning  this  ritual  expressed,  however 
crudely,  certain  ideas  which  lie  at  the  very  root  of  true 
religion,  the  fellowship  of  the  worshippers  with  one  another 
m  their  fellowship  with  the  deity,  and  the  consecration  of 
the  bonds  of  kinship  as  the  type  of  all  right  ethical  relation 
between  man  and  man.  And  the  piacular  forms,  though 
these  were  particularly  liabl*  to  distortions  disgraceful  to 
man  and  dishonouring  to  the  godhead,  yet  contained  from 
the  first  germs  of  eternal  truths,  not  only  expressing  the 
idea  cf  divine  justice,  but  mingling  it  with  a  feeling  of 
divine  and  human  pity.  The  dreadful  sacrifice  is  per- 
formed not  with  savage  joy  but  with  awful  sorrow,  and 
in  the  mystic  sacrifices  the  deity  himself  suffers  with  and 
for  the  sins  of  his  people  and  lives  again  in  their  new 
life.  (w.  E.  s.) 

The  Idea  of  Sacrifice  in  the  Christian  Church.   ' 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  idea  of  sacrifice  occupied 
an  important  place  in  early  Christianity.  It  had  been -a 
fundamental  element  of  both  Jewish  and  Gentile  religions, 
and  Christianity  tended  rather  to  absorb  and  modify  such 
elements  than  to  abolish  them.  To  a  great  extent  the 
idea  had  been  modified  already.  Among  the  Jews  the 
preaching  of  the  prophets  had  been  a  constant  protest 
against  the  grosser  forms  of  sacrifice,  and  there  are  indica- 
tions that  when  Christianity  arose  bloody  sacrifices  were 
already  beginning  to  fall  into  disuse ;  a  saying  which  was 
attributed  by  the  Ebionites  to  our  Lord  repeats  this  protest 
in  a  strong  form,  "  I  have  come  to  abolish  the  sacrifices ; 
and  if  ye  do  not  cease  from  sacrificing  the  wrath  of  God 
will  not  cease  from  you"  (Epiph.,  xss.  16).  Among  the 
Greeks  the  philosophers  had  come  to  use  both  argument 
and  ridicule  against  the  idea  that  the  offering  of  material 
things  could  be  needed  by  or  acceptable  to  the  Maker  of 
them  all.  Among  both  Jews  and  Greeks  the  earlier  forms 
of  the  idea  had  been  rationalized  into  the  belief,  that  the 
most  appropriate  offering  to  God  is  that  of  a  pure  and 
penitent  heart,  and  among  them  both  was  the  idea  that 

'  In  Greek  ritual  the  identity  of  the  covenant  sacrifice  ^vith  mystico- 
piacular  rites  is  clearly  brought  out  by  the  animals  chosen  and  by  other 
features  in  the  ritual.     See  Schoemann,  Qr.  Alt,  p.  243  sq. 


the  vocal  expression  of  contrition  ir  pj-ayer  or  of  gratitud* 
m  praise  is  also  acceptable.  The  best  instances  of  these 
ideas  in  the  Old  Testament  are  i»»  Psalms  1.  and  11.,  and  is 
Greek  literature  the  striking  words  which  Porphyry  quotes 
from  an  earlier  writer,  "  We  ought,  then,  having  been  united 
and  made  like  to  God,  to  offer  our  own  conduct  as  a  holy 
sacrifice  to  Him,  the  same  being  also  a  hymn  and  our  sal- 
vation in  passionless  excellence  of  soul "  (Euseb.,  Dem. 
Ev.,  3).  The  ideas  are  also  found  both  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  in  early  Christian  literature  :  "  Let  us  offer  up  | 
a  sacrifice  of  praise  to  God  continually,  that  is,  the  fruit " 
of  lips  which  make  confession  to  HiS|  name  "  (Heb.  xiii 
15);  "That  prayers  and  thanksgivings,  made  by  worthy 
persons,  are  the  only  perfect  and  acceptable  sacrifices  l' 
also  admit  "(Just.  Mart.,  Try-pho,  c.  117);  "We  honour 
God  in  prayer,  and  offer  this  as  the  best  and  holiest  sacrifict 
with  righteousness  to  the  righteous  Word  "  (Clem.  Alex., 
Strom.,  vii.  6). 

But  among,  the  Jews  two.  other  forms  of  the  idea  ex- 
pressed themselves  in  usages  which  have  been  perpetuated 
in  Christianity,  and  one  of  which  has  had  a  singular  im- 
portance for  the  Christian  world.  The  one  form,  which 
probably  arose  from  the  conception  of  Jehovah  as  in  an 
especial  sense  the  protector  of  the  poor,  was  that  gifts  to 
God  may  properly  be  bestowed  on  the  needy,  and  that 
consequently  alms  have  the  virtue  of  a  sacrifice.  Biblical 
instances  of  this  idea  are — "  He  who  doeth  alms  is  offering 
a  sacrifice  of  praise  "  (Ecclus.  xxxii.  2) ;  "  To  do  good  and 
to  communicate  forget  not,  for  with  such  sacrifices  God  is 
well  pleased  "  (Heb.  xiii.  16);  so  the  offerings  sent  by  the 
Philippians  to  Paul  when  a  prisoner  at  Rome  are  "an 
odour  of  a  sweet  smell,  a  sacrifice  acceptable,  well  pleasing 
to  God"  (Phil.  iv.  18).  The  other  form,  which  was  prob- 
ably a  relic  of  the  conception  of  Jehovah  as  the  author 
of  natural  fertility,  was  that  part  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth 
should  be  offered  to  God  in  acknowledgment  of  His  bounty, 
and  that  what  was  so  offered  was  especially  blessed  and 
brought  a  blessing  upon  both  those  who  offered  it  and 
those  who  afterwards  partook  of  it.  The  persistence  of 
this  form  of  the  idea  of  sacrifice  constitutes  so  marked 
a  feature  of  the  history  of  Christianity  as  to  require  a 
detailed  account  of  it. 

In  the  first  instance  it  is  probable  that  among  Christians, 
as  among  Jews,  every  meal,  and  especially  every  social 
meal,  was  regarded  as  being  in  some  sense  a  thank-offering. 
Thanksgiving,  blessing,  and  offering  were  co-ordinate  terms. 
Hence  the  Tahnudic  rule,  "A  man  shall  not  taste  anything 
before  blessing  it "  {Tosephta  Berachoth,  c.  4),  and  hence 
St  Paul's  words,  "  He  that  eateth,  eateth  unto  the  Lord, 
for  he  giveth  God  thanks  "  (Kom.  xiv.  6 ;  comp.  1  Tim.  iv. 
4).  But  the  most  important  offering  was  the  solemn  obla- 
tion in  the  assembly  on  the  Lord's  day.  A  precedent  for 
making  such  oblations  elsewhere  than  in  the  temple  had 
been  afforded  by  the  Essenes,  who  had  endeavoured  in 
that  way  to  avoid  the  contact  with  unclean  persons  and 
things  which  a  resort  to  the  temple  might  have  involved 
(Jos.,  Antiq.,  xviii.  1,  5),  and  a  justification  for  it  was 
found  in  the  prophecy  of  Malachi,  "  In  every  place  incense 
is  offered  unto  My  name  and  a  pure  offering;  for  My  name 
is  great  amohg  the  Gentiles,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts' 
(Mai.  i.  11,  repeatedly  quoted  in  early  Christian  writings, 
e.g..  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  c.  14;  Just.  Mart., 
Trypho,  c   28,  41,  116;  Irenaeus,  iv.  17,  5). 

The  points  in  relation  to  this  offering  which  are  clearly 
demonstrable  from  the  Christian  writers  of  -the  first  two 
centuries,  but  which  subsequent  theories  have  tended  to 
confuse,  are  these.  (1)  It  was  regarded  as  a  true  offering 
or  sacrifice ;  for  in  the  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apost'.:^,  in 
Justin  Martyr,  and  in  Irenseus  it  is  designated  by  each 
of  the  terms  which  are  used  to  designate  sacrifices  in  -the 


SACRIFICE 


139 


Old  Testament.  (2)  It  ■wa9  primarily  an  offering  of  th6 
fruits  of  the  earth  to  the  Creator ;  this  is  clear  from  both 
Justin  Martyr  and  IrenKUs,  the  latter  of  whom  not  only 
explicitly  states  that  such  oblationa  are  continued  among 
Christians  but  also  meets  the  current  objection  to  them 
by  arguing  that  they  are  offered  to  God  not  as  though  He 
needed  anything  but  to  show  the  gratitude  of  the  offerer 
(Iren.,  iv.  17,  18).  (3)  It  was  offered  as  a  thanksgiving 
I  partly  for  creation  and  preservation  and  partly  for  re- 
.demption :  the  latter  is  the  special  purpose  mentioned 
{,e.ff.)  in  the  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles ;  the  former  is 
that  upon  which  Irenseus  chiefly  dwells ;  both  are  men- 
'tioned  together  in  Justin  Martyr  {Trypho,  c.  41).  (4) 
Those  who  offered  it  were  required  to  be  not  only  baptized 
Christians  but  also  "in  love  and  charity  one  with  another  "; 
there  is  an  indication  of  this  lat+er  requirement  in  the  Ser- 
uon  on  the  Mount  (Matt.  v.  23,  24,  where  the  word  trans- 
W  ted  "  gift "  is  the  usual  LXX.  word  for  a  sacrificial  offer- 
Mig,  and  is  so  used  elsewhere  in  the  same  Gospel,  viz., 
Katt.  viii.  4,  xxiii.  19),  and  stiU  more  explicitly  in  the 
Teaching,  c.  14,  "Let  not  any  one  who  has  a  dispute  with 
l  is  fellow  come  together  w  ith  you  {i.e.,  on  the  Lord's  day) 
until  they  have  been  reconcUed,  that  your  sacrifice  be  not 
«Iefiled."  This  brotherly  unity  was  symbolized  by  the  kiss 
«rf  peace.  (5)  It  was  offered  in  the  assembly  by  the  hands 
of  the  president ;  this  is  stated  by  Justin  Martyr  {Apol,,  i. 
<J5,  67),  and  implied  by  Clement  of  Rome  (-£/>.,  i.  44,  4). 

Combined  with  this  sacrifice  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth 
to  the  Creator  in  memory  of  creation  and  redemption,  and 
probably  always  immediately  folloiting  it,  was  the  sacred 
meal  at  which  part  of  the  offerings  Vas  eaten.  Such  a 
Bacred  meal  had  always,  or  almost  always,  formed  part  of 
Ihe  rites  of  sacrifice.  There  was  the  idea  that  what  had 
been  solemnly  offered  to  God  was  especially  haUowed  by 
Him,  and  that  the  partaking  of  it  united  the  partakers  in 
a  special  bond  both  to  Him  and  to  one  another.  In  the 
aise  of  the  bread  and  wine  of  the  Christian  sacrifice,  it 
■was  believed  that,  after  having  been  offered  and  blessed, 
tliey  became  to  those  who  partook  of  them  the  body  and 
l)lood  of  Christ  This  "  communion  of  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ,"  wliich  in  early  writings  is  clearly  distinguished 
from  'the  thank-offering  which  preceded  it,  and  which  fur- 
nished the  materials  for  it,  gradually  came  to  supersede 
the  thank-offering  in  importance,  and  to  exercise  a  reflex 
influence  upon  it.  In  the  time  of  Cyjirian,  though  not 
before,  we  begin  to  find  the  idea  that  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ  were  not  merely  partaken  of  by  the  worshippers 
but  also  offered  in  sacrifice,  and  that  the  Eucharist  was 
not  so  much  a  thank-offering  for  creation  and  redemption 
."is  a  repetition  or  a  showing  forth  anew  of  the  self-sacrifice 
(if  Christ.  This  idea  is  repeated  in  Ambrose  and  Augus- 
tine, and  has  since  been  a  dominant  idea  of  both  Eastern 
fud  Western  Christendom.  But,  though  dominant,  it  has 
n  it  been  universal ;  nor  did  it  beconio  dominant  until 
eoveral  centuries  after  its  first  promulgation.  The  history 
of  it  has  yet  to  bo  WTitten.  For,  in  spite  of  the  important 
controversies  to  which  it  has  given  birth,  no  one  has  been 
at  the  pains  to  distingui.sh  between  (i.)  the  theories  which 
hs.ve  been  from  time  to  time  put  forth  by  eminent  writers, 
and  which,  though  they  have  in  some  cases  ultimately  won 
a  general  acceptance,  have  for  a  long  period  remained  as 
merely  individual  opinions,  and  (ii.)  the  current  beliefs  of 
the  great  body  of  Christians  which  are  exprcssco.  in  recog- 
nized formularies.  A  catena  of  opinions  may  be  produced 
in  favour  of  almost  any  theory ;  but  formularies  express 
the  collective  or  average  belief  of  any  given  period,  and 
changes  in  them  are  a  sure  '"dication  that  there  Las  been 
a  general  change  in  ideas. 

It  is  clear  from  the  evidence  of  the  early  Western  litur- 
gies that,  for  at  least  six  centuries,  the  prLimtivu  touccptiuu 


of  tlie  nature  of  the  Christian  sacrifice  remained. '  There 
is  a  clear  distinction  between  the  sacrifice  and  the  com- 
munion which  followed  it,  and  that  which  is  offered  con- 
sists of  the  fruits  of  the  earth  and  not  of  the  body  and 
Wood  of  Christ.  Other  ideas  no  doubt  attached  themselvea 
to  the  primitive  conception,  of  w'hich  there  is  no  certain 
evidence  in  primitive  times,  e.g.,  the  idea  of  the  propitiatory 
character  of  the  offering,  but  these  ideas  rather  confirm 
than  disprove  the  persistence  of  those  primitive  conception 
themselves. 

All  Eastern  liturgies,  in  their  present  form,  are  of  later 
date  than  the  surviving  fragments  of  the  earlier  Western 
liturgies,  and  cannot  form  the  basis  of  so  sure  an  induction; 
but  they  entirely  confirm  the  conclusions  to  which  the 
Western  liturgies  lead.  The  main  points  in  which  the 
pre-mediaeval  formularies  of  both  ibo  Eastern  and  the 
Western  Churches  agree  in  relation  to  the  Christian  sacri- 
fice are  the  following.  (1)  It  was  an  offering  of  the 
fruits  of  the  earth  to  the  Creator,  in  the  belief  that  a 
special  blessing  would  descend  upon  the  offerers,  and 
sometimes  also  in  the  belief  that  God  would  be  propitiated 
by  the  offerings.  The  bread  and  wine  are  designated  by 
all  the  names  by  which  sacrifices  ire  designated  (sacrijicia, 
hostisc,  libamina,  and  at  least  once  sacrificium  placaticmis), 
and  the  act  of  offering  them  by  the  ordinary  term  for 
offering  a  sacrifice  {immolatio).  (2)  The  offering  of  bread 
and  wine  was  originally  brought  to  the  altar  by  the  person 
who  offered  it,  and  placed  by  him  in  the  hands  of  the 
presiding  officer.  In  course  of  time  there  were  two  im- 
portant changes  in  this  respect :  (a)  the  offerings  of  bread 
and  wine  were  commuted  for  money,  with  which  brea^ 
and  wine  were  purchased  by  the  church-officers ;  (6)  the 
offerings  were  sometimes  handed  to  the  deacons  and  by 
them  taken  to  the  bishop  at  the  altar,  and  sometimes,,  as 
at  Rome,  the  bishop  and  deacons  went  round  the  church 
to  collect  them.i  (3)  In  offering  the  bread  and  wine  the 
offerer  offered,  as  in  the  ancient  sacrifices,  primarily  for 
himself,  but  inasmuch  as  the  offering  was  regarded  as 
having  a  general  propitiatory  value  he  mentioned  also  the 
names  of  others  in  whom  he  was  interested,  and  especially 
the  departed,  that  they  might  rest  in  peace.  Hence,  after 
all  the  offerings  had  been  collected,  and  before  they  were 
solemnly  offered  to  God,  it  became  a  custom  to  recite  the 
names  both  of  the  offerers  and  of  those  for  whom  they 
offered,  the  names  being  arranged  in  two  lists,  which  were 
known  as  diptychs.  Almost  all  the  old  rituals  have 
prayers  to  bo  said  "before  the  names,"  "after  the  names." 
It  was  a  further  and  perhaps  much  later  development  of 
the  same  idea  that  the  good  works  of  those  who  had  pre- 
viously enjoyed  the  favour  of  God  were  invoked  to  give 
additional  weight  to  the  prayer  of  the  offerer.  In  the 
later  series  of  Western  rituals,  beginning  with  that  which 
Ls  known  as  the  Leonine  Sacramentary,  this  practice  is 
almost  universal.  (4)  The  placing  of  the  bread  and  wine 
upon  the  altar  was  followed  by  the  kiss  of  peace.  (5) 
Then  followed  the  actual  offering  of  the  gifts  to  God 
{immolatio  nnssa:).  It  was  an  act  of  adoration  or  thanks- 
giving, much  longer  in  Eastern  than  in  Western  rituals, 
but  in  both  classes  of  rituals  beginning  with  the  form 
"  Lift  up  your  hearts,"  and  ending  with  the  Ter  Sanctua 
or  Trisagion.2  '  The  early  MSS.  of  Western  rituals  indi- 
cate the  importance  which  was  attached  to  this  part  of  the 
liturgy  by  the  fact  of  its  being  written  in  a  much  more 
ornate  way  than  the  other  parts,  e.g.,  ia  gold  uncial  lett.-rs 


1  Of  this  procoudlng  an  olnbornto  account  exists  In  tbo  Tory  Inter- 
esting document  printed  by  Mnbillon  in  his  Museum  Italkum  us  "Ordo 
Ronmnus  I.";  the  small  pliinls  of  wine  which  were  brought  wer«  emptioiJ 
Into  n  largo  bow!,  nnJ  the  loaves  of  bread  were  collected  in  *  bag. 

'^  Tho  elcTncnlH  of  the  forui  are  preserved  eiaclly  la  ib«  liturgy  ol 
the  Luiu\:li  A  iuiiiliiiul.. 


140 


S  A  0  — S  A  C 


Upon  a  purple  ground,  as  distinguished  from  the  vermilion 
cijrsive  letters  of  the  rest  of  the  MS.  With  this  the 
sacrifice  proper  was  concluded.  (6)  But,  since  the  divine 
injunction  had  been  "  Do  this  in  remembrance  of  Me,"  the 
sacrifice  was  immediately  followed  by  a  commemoration  of 
the  passion  of  Christ,  and  that  again  by  an  invocation  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  (epiclesis)  that  He  would  make  the  bread 
and  wine  to  become  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  Of 
this  invocation,  which  is  constant  in  all  Eastern  rituals, 
there  are  few,  though  sufficient,  surviving  traces  in 
Western  rituals.^  Then  after  a  prayer  for  sanctification, 
or  for  worthy  reception,  followed  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and 
after  the  Lord's  Prayer  the  communion. 

In  the  course  of  the  8th  and  9th  centuries,  by  the  opera- 
tion of  causes  which  have  not  yet  been  fully  investigated, 
the  theory  which  is  first  found  in  Cyi)rian  became  the 
dominant  belief  of  Western  Christendom.  The  central 
point  of  the  racrificial  idea  was  shifted  from  the-ofi"ering 
cf  the  fruits  of  the  earth  to  the  offering  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ.  The  change  is  marked  in  the  rituals  by 
the  duplication  cf  the  liturgical  forms.  The  prayers  of  ic- 
tercession  and  oblation,  which  in  earlier  times  are  found 
only  in  connexion  with  the  former  offering,  are  repeated 
in  the  course  of  the  same  service  in  connexion  with  the 
latter.  The  designations  and  epithets  which  are  in  earlier 
times  applied  to  the  fruits  of  the  earth  are  applied  to  the 
body  and  blood.  From  that  time  until  the  Reformation 
the  Christian  sacrifice  was  all  but  universally  regarded  as 
the  offering  of  the  body  and  blood  of -Christ.  The  in- 
numerable theories  which  were  framed  as  to  the  precise 
nature  of  the  offering  and  as  to  the  precise  change  in  the 
elements  all  imphed  that  conception  of  it.  It  still  remains 
as  the  accepted  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  For, 
although  the  council  of  Trent  recognized  fully  the  dis- 
tinction which  has  been  mentioned  above  between  the 
Eucharist  and  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  and  treated  of 
them  in  separate  sessions  (the  former  in  Session  xiii.,  the 
latter  in  Session  xxii.),  it  continued  the  mediieval  theory 
of  the  nature  of  the  latter.  The  reaction  against  the 
mediaeval  theory  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation  took  the 
form  of  a  return  to  what  had  no  doubt  been  an.  early  belief, 
— the  idea  that  the  Christian  sacrifice  consists  in  the  offer- 
ing of  a  pure  heart  and  of  vocal  thanksgiving.  Luther  at 
one  period  (in  his  treatise  De  Captivitate  Bahylonica)  main- 
tained, though  not  on  historical  grounds,  that  the  offering  of 
the  (^blations  of  the  people  was  the  real  origin  of  the  con- 
ception of  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass ;  but  he  directed  all 
the  force  of  his  vehement  polemic  against  the  idea  that 
any  other  sacrifice  could  be  efficacious  besides  the  sacrifice 
cf  Christ.  In  the  majority  of  Protestant  communities  the 
idea  of  a  sacrifice  has  almost  lapsed.  That  which  among 
Catholics  is  most  commonly  regarded  in  its  aspect  as  an 
offering  and  spoken  of  as  _the  "  mass  "  is  usually  regarded 
in  its  aspect  as  a  participation  in  the  symbols  of  Christ's 
death  and  spoken  of  as  the  "  communion."  But  it  may 
be  inferred  from  the  considerable  progress  of  the  Anglo- 
Catholic  revival  in  most  English-speaking  conntriea  that 
the  idea  of  sacrifice  has  not  yet  ceased  to  be  an  important 
lelement  in  the  general  conception  of  religion,      (e.  ha.) 

SACRILEGE.  The  robbery  of  churches  was  in  Roman 
law  punishable  wth  death.  There  are  early  instances  of 
persons  having  suffered  death  for  this  offence  ia  Scotland. 
In  England  at  common  law  benefit  of  clergy  was  denied 
to  robbers  of  churches.  The  tendency  of  the  later  law 
has  been  to  put  the  offence  of  sacrilege  in  the  same  position 
as  if  the  offence  had  not  been  committed  in  a  sacred  build- 


^  It  is  fomid,  e.g,,  m  the  becoiid  of  Jlone's  masses  from  tbe  Eeichenau 
palimpsest,  and  iu  Mabillou's  Missale  Gotkicin/i,  No.  12  ;  it  is  ex- 
pressly nieotioned  liy  Isidore  of  Seville  as  the  sixth  clemeut  ia  the 
Euchiiristic  service,  be  Offic.  Eccks.,  i.  15. 


ing.  Thus  breaking  into  a  place  of  worship  at  night,  says 
Lord  Coke,  is  burglary,  for  the  church  is  the  mansion- 
house  of  Almighty  God.  The  Larceny  Act  of  1861  punishes 
the  breaking  into  or  out  of  a  place  of  divine  worship  in 
the  same  way  as  burglary,  and  the  theft  of  things  sacred 
in  the  same  way  as  larceny.  The  breaking  or  defacing  of 
an  altar,  crucifLx,  or  cross  in  any  church,  chapel,  or  church- 
yard is  an  offence  punishable  with  three  months'  itiprison- 
ment  on  conviction  before  two  justices,  the  impmonmenl 
to  be  continued  unless  the  offender  enter  into  surety  for 
good  behaviour  at  quarter  sessions  (1  Mary,  sess.  2,  c.  3). 

SACRO  BOSCO,  Johannes  de,  or  John  Holywood, 
astronomical  author,  died  1244  (or  1256)  as  professor  of 
mathematics  at  the  university  of  Paris.  Nothing  else  is 
known  about  his  Life.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  spherical 
astronomy,  Tractatus  de  Spkera  Mundi,  first  printed  at 
Ferrara  in  1472,  and  reprinted,  generally  with  copious 
notes  and  commentaries,  about  sixty  times  until  the  end 
of  the  17th  century.  About  the  year  1232  he  wrote  De 
anni  ratione  seu  ut  vacatur  vulgo  computus  eccltsiasticus, 
in  which  he  points  out  the  increasing  error  of  the  Julian 
calendar,  and  suggests  a  remedy  which  is  nearly  the  same 
as  that  actually  used  under  Gregory  XIII.  three  hundred 
and  fifty  years  later. 

SACY,  An-tolne  Isaac,  Baron  Silvestke*  de  (1758- 
1838),  the  greatest  of  French  Orientalists  and  the  founder 
of  the  modern  school  of  Arabic  scholarship,  was  the  second 
son  of*  a  Parisian  notary,  and  was  born  at  Paris  on  21st 
September  1758.  From  the  age  of  seven  years,  when  he 
lost  his  father,  he  was  educated  in  more  than  monastic 
seclusion  in  the  house  of  his  pious  and  tender  ^mother. 
Designed  for  the  civil  service,  he  studied  jurisprudence, 
and  in  1781  got  a  place  as  counsellor  in  the  cour'des 
motinaies,  in  which  he  continued  till,  in  1791,  he  was 
advanced  to  be  a  commissary-general  in  the  same  depart- 
ment. De  Sacy  had  a  natural  turn  for  business  and  liked 
variety  of  work,  while  he  seems  to  have  had  little  or  no 
need  of  absolute  repose.  He  had  successively  acquired  all 
the  Semitic  languages  while  he  was  following  the  usual 
course  of  school  and  professional  training,  and  while  he 
was  engaged  in  the  civil  service  he  found  time  to  make 
himself  a  great  name  as  an  Orientalist  by  a  series  of  pub- 
lications which,  beginning  with  those  Biblical  subjects  to 
which  his  education  and  sympathies  naturally  directed  his 
first  Semitic  studies,  gradually  extended  in  range,  and 
already  displayed  the  comprehensive  scholar  who  had 
chosen  the  whole  Semitic  and  Iranian  East  for  his  domain.^ 
The  works  of  these  early  years  do  not  show  the  full 
maturity  of  his  powers ;  his  chief  triumph  was  an  effect- 
ive commencement  of  the  decipherment  of  the  Pahlavf 
inscriptions  of  the  Sasanian  kings  (1787-91).  It  was  the 
French  Revolution  which  gained  De  Sacy  wholly  for  letters. 
As  a  good  Catholic  and  a  staunch  royalist  he  felt  con- 
strained in  1792  to  retire  from  the  public  service,  and 
lived  in  close  seclusion  in  a  cottage  jiear  Paris  till  in  1795 
he  was  called  to  be  professor  of  Arabic  in  the  newly  founded 
school  of  living  Eastern  languages.  The  years  of  retire- 
ment had  not  been  fruitless ;  they  were  in  part  devoted 
to  the  study  of  the  religion  of  the  Druses,  which  continued 
to  occupy  him  throughout  life  and  was  the  subject  of  his 
last  and  unfinished  work,  the  Expose  de  la  Religion  dea 
Bruges  (2  vols.,  1838).     Nevertheless,  when  called  to  be  a 

'  His  father's  name  was  Silvestre,  the  addition  De  Sacy  he  took  as  a 
younger  son  after  a  fashion  then  common  with  the  Parisian  bourgeoisie, 

'  A  communication  to  Eichhom  on  the  Paris  MS.  of  the  Syro- 
Hciaplar  version  of  IV.  Kings  formed  the  basis  of  a  paper  in  the 
latter's  Repertorium.,  vol.  vii.  (1780).  This  was  De  Sacy's  literary 
di-buL  It  was  followed  by  text  and  translation  of  the  letters  of  the 
Samaritans  to  Jos.  Scaliger  {ibid.,  vol.  xiii.,  1783)  and  by  a  seriej)  of 
essays  on  Arabian  and  Persian  history  in  the  Recucil  «f  the  AttftdSBiy 
0*  Inscriptions  and  in  the  Notices  et  Extraits, 


S  A  C  Y 


141 


teacher,  he  felt  that  he  had  himself  much  to  learn.  Since 
the  death  of  Reiske  Arabic  learning  had  been  in  a  back- 
ward state,  the  standard  of  philological  knowledge  was 
low,  and  the  books  for  students  extremely  defective.  De 
Sacy  set  himself  with  characteristic  thoroughness  to  com- 
plete his  own  knowledge  and  supply  the  lacking  helps  to 
others,  and  he  accomplished  this  task  on  such  a  scale,  with 
such  width  of  range,  precision  of  thought,  and  scrupulous 
attention  to  details,  that  he  became  the  founder  of  a  wholly 
new  school  and  the  father  of  all  subsequent  Arabists. 
iHis  great  text-books,  the  Gramraaire  Arabe  (2  vols.,  1st 
;ed.  1810,  2d  ed.  1831)  and  the  Chresiomathie  (3  vols., 
listed.  1806,  2ded.  182G-31),  together  with  its  supplement, 
the  Anthologie  Grammalicale  (1829),  are  works  that  can 
never  become  obsolete ;  the  luminous  exposition  of  the 
grammar  and  the  happy  choice  of  the  pieces  in  the  chres- 
tomathy — all  inedita — with  the  admirable  notes,  drawn 
from  an  enormous  reading  in  JIS.  sources,  make  them 
altogether  different  from  ordinary  text-books.  The  whole 
powers  of  a  great  teacher,  the  whole  wealth  of  knowledge 
of  an  unrivalled  scholar,  are  spent  with  absolute  single- 
ness of  purpose  for  the  benefit  of  the  learner,  and  the 
result  is  that  the  books  are  equally  delightful  and  instruc- 
tive to  the  student  and  to  the  advanced  scholar.  A  com- 
parison of  the  first  and  second  editions  shows  how  much 
toil  and  research  it  cost  the  author  to  raise  his  own  scholar- 
ship to  the  level  which,  thanks  to  his  work,  has  become 
the  starting-place  for  all  subsequent  ascents  of  the  Arabian 
Parnassus. 

De  Sacy's  place  as  a  teacher  vi'as  threatened  at  the  outset 
by  his  conscientious  refusal  to  take  an  oath  of  hatred  to 
royalty.  He  tendered  his  resignation  both  as  professor 
and  as  member  of  the  Institute ;  but  he  was  allowed  to 
continue  to  teach,  and  rejoined  the  Institute  on  its  re- 
organization in  1803.  In  1805  he  made  the  only  con- 
siderable journey  of  his  life,  being  sent  to  Genoa  on  a  vain 
search  for  Arabic  documents  sujjposed  to  lie  in  the  archives 
of  that  city.  In  1806  he  added  the  duties  of  Persian  pro- 
fessor to  his  old  chair,  and  from  this  time  onwards — as,  in 
spite  of  his  royalist  opinions,  he  was  ready  to  do  public 
service  under  any  stable  government — his  Jife,  divided 
between  his  teaching,  his  literary  work,  and  a  variety  of 
public  duties,  was  one  of  increasing  honour  and  success, 
broken  only  by  a  brief  period  of  retreat  during  the  Hundred 
Pays.  He  found  time  for  everything :  while  his  pen  was 
ever  at  work  on  subjects  of  abstruse  research,  he  was  one 
of  the  most  active  leaders  in  all  the  business  which  the 
French  system  throws  on  the  savans  of  the  capital,  especi- 
ally as  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions 
(from  1832) ;  in  1808  he  entered  the  corps  legislatif ;  and 
in  1832,  when  quite  an  old  man,  ho  became  a  peer  of 
France  and  was  regular  in  the  duties  of  the  chamber.'  In 
J815  he  became  rector  of  the  university  of  Paris,  and  after 
the  second  restoration  he  was  active  on  the  commission  of 
public  instruction.  Of  the  Sod'd'e  Asiatique  he  was  one 
of  the  founders,  and  when  he  was  inspector  of  Oriental  types 
at  the  royal  printing  press  he  thought  it  his  duty  to  read 
a  ■  proof  of  every  book  printed  in  Arabic  and  Persian. 
With  this  he  maintained  a  vast  correspondence  and  was 
accessible  not  only  to  every  one  who  sought  his  advice 
on  matters  of  learning  and  business  but  to  all  the  poor  of 
his  quarter,  who  camo  to  him  as  a  member  of  the  bureau 
of  charity.  Yet  he  was  neither  monk  nor  hermit:  he 
enjoyed  society  and  was  happy  in  forty-eight  years  of 
married  life  and  in  the  care  of  a  largo  family.  Though 
small  and  to  ajipearance  of  delicate  frame,  De  Sacy  enjoyed 
unbroken  health  and  worked  on  without  sign  of  failing 
powers  till  two  days  before  his  death  (21st  P'obruary  1838), 
vrhen  he  suddenly  fell  down  in  the  street  and  never  rallied 
'  The  title  of  barou  lie  received  from  Napolcou  lu  1813. 


I  De  Sacy  wroto  so  niucii  tliat  a  list  even  of  liis  larger  essays,  mostly 
coinmiiiiicated  to  the  Academy  or  iu  the  Koliccs  cl  'Jzlraits,  is  im- 
possible in  this  place,  while  his  lesser  papers  ar-1  reviews  in  the 
Allg.  Bib.f.  IMiache  Lillcratur,  the  ilvicsde  l' Orient,  the  Jfagasin 
Enctjdopidiquc,  the  Journal  dcs  Savanis  (of  which  he  was  an  editor^ 
and  the  Journal  Asiatique  are  almost  imiuiiicrable.  Among  the 
works  which  he  designed  mainly  for  students  may  be  classed  his 
edition  of  Hariri  (1822,  2d  edition  by  Reinaud,  1847,  1855),  with  a 
selected  Arabic  commentary,  and  of  the  AlJ'iya  (1833),  and  his 
Calila  ct  Dimna  (1816), — the  Arabic  version  of  that  famous  collec- 
tion of  Buddhist  animal  tales  which  has  been  in  various  forms  one 
of  the  most  popular  books  of  the  world.  Do  Sacy's  enq'ury  into 
the  wondciful  history  of  these  tales  forms  one  of  his  best  sei  vices  to 
letters  and  a  "ood  example  of  the  way  in  which  ho  always  made 
his  work  for  the  benefit  of  learners  go  hand  in  hand  with  profound 
research.  Of  his  continued  interest  in  Biblical  subjects  he  gave 
evidence  in  his  memoir  on  the  Samaritan  Arabic  vcrsi  n  jf  tlio 
Pentateuch  (^/^«.  Acad,  dcs  Iiiscr.,  vol.  xlix.),  and  in  the  Arabic 
and  Syiiac  New  Testaments  edited  for  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  ;  among  works  imjiortant  for  Eastern  history,  besides 
that  on  the  Druses  already  named,  may  bo  cited  his  version  of 
Abd-Allatif,  Jlclation  A  rale  sur  I'Ajypte,  and  his  essays  ou  the 
History  of  the  Law  of  Property  in  Egypt  since  tha  Arab  conquest 
(1805-18).  And,  in  conclusion,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  his 
oral  teaching  was  not  less  influential  than  his  writings,  and  that, 
except  Ewal.l,  almost  all  Arabists  of  chief  note  in  the  Erst  half  of 
this  century,  in  Germany  as  well  as  in  France,  were  his  p;rsonal 
pupils.  •  Of  the  brilliant  series  of  teachers  who  wont  out  fr  m  his 
lecture-room  one  or  two  veterans  still  survive,  and  Prjfjssor 
Fleischer's  elaborate  notes  and  corrections  to  the  Orammaire  Arabe 
(Kkinere  Schriftcn,  vol.  i. ,  1885),  may  be  regarded  as  the  latest 
tribute  to  the  memory  of  the  great  master  by  a  disciple  who  is  now 
the  patriarch  of  living  Arabists.  (W.  R.  S.) 

SACY,  Isaac  Louis  Le  MaItre  de  (1613-1684),  a  figure 
of  some  prominence  in  the  literary  annals  of  Port  Royal 
(q.v.),  and  after  the  death  of  St  Cyran  (1643)  and  binglin 
(1664)  the  leading  confessor  and  "director"  of  the  Jan- 
senists  in  France,  was  born  in  Paris  on  29th  March  1613. 
He  was  closely  connected  with  the  Arnauld  family,  lis  true 
surname  being  Le  Maitre  and  that  of  Saci  or  Sa'-y  which 
he  afterwards  assumed  a  mere  anaF;ram  of  I.saac,  his 
Christian  name.  He  studied  philosophy  and  bell  s  lettres 
at  the  College  de  Calvi-Sorbonne,  and  afterwards,  under 
the  influence  of  St  Cyran  (see  Dovergier  de  Haukanne), 
his  spiritual  director,  joined  his  eldest  brother  Antjine 
Le  JIaitre  at  Port  Royal  des  Champs.  Here  he  threw 
himself  heartily  into  the  life  of  the  place,  devoting  himself 
specially  to  teaching  and  the  preparation  of  school  books, 
his  chief  productions  in  this  class  being  expurgated  edi- 
tions of  Martial  and  Terence  and  a  translation  cf  Phxdrus. 
In  1650  he  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood,  and  in  1654 
he  entered  the  field  of  theological  controversy  with  a 
brochure  entitled  Enluminures  de  V Almanack  dcs  Jesuites 
intitule  la  Deroute  el  la  Confusion,  dcs  Jansenistcs,  of  which 
it  is  enough  to  say  that,  if  the  Jesuit  attack  was  in  exe- 
crable taste,  neither  was  the  reply  in  keeping  with  the 
finer  ethical  tone  of  Port  Royal.  From  1661,  after  the 
breaking  up  of  the  Petites  £coles,  he  lived  more  or  less  in 
concealment  in  Paris  until  May  1666,  when  ho  was  thrown 
into  the  Bastille,  where  he  remained  till  November  1668. 
During  his  imprisonment  he  occupied  himself  with  the 
completion  of  a  new  version  of  the  New  Tsstamcnt,  known 
as  the  Nouvcau  Testament  de  Mons  (1667),  and  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  was  largely  devoted  to  a  similar  trans- 
lation of  the  Old  Testament,  based  chiefly  on  the  Vulgate, 
with  jSclaircissements.  These  began  to  appear  in  1672 
and  were  continued  down  to  the  end  of  the  minor  |)rophets. 
As  De  Sacy  knew  nothing  of  Hebrew,  this  version  is  of 
no  value  as  a  contribution  to  scholarship,  and  in  style  it 
is  more  artificial  and  laboured  than  those  which  had  i)ro- 
ceded  it.  From  1668  till  his  death  on  ^tli  January  1684 
he  lived  partly  in  Paris,  partly  at  Port  Royal  dcs  Champs, 
nnd  partly  at  Pomponne,  the  scat  of  his  cousin,  the 
marquis  de  Pomjionne.  Ho  was  buried  at  Port  Royal  des 
Champs. 
In  aiJdition  to  the  works  alrcody  mcutiOQctl,  ho  publishcJ,  indcr 


142 


S  A  D  — S  A  D 


the  psenOiJnym  pi"  tho  "S?enr  de  Bdn,"*  a  f  rench  translation  of  the  ' 
De  Imitalione  Ckrisli  (1662).     He  also  translated  Chrysostom's 
Bomilies  on  IfatOiM,    See  Sainte-Beuve,  Port  Soyal,  bk.  li  chaps. 
17,  18  (ed.  1878). 

SADDLERY  embraces  the  industries  connected  with 
the  harnessing  and  controlling  of  all  beasts  of  draught  and 
burden.  The  materials  used  in  harnessing  the  various 
creatures  so  employed  and  the  modifications  of  harness 
necessary  to  suit  their  structure,  temperament,  and  duties 
are,  of  coiuse,  exceedingly  varied.  In  a  restricted  sense 
saddlery  is  principally  a  leather  trade,  and  has  to  do  with 
the  harnessing  of  the  horse.  The  craft  has  been  recognized 
and  established  in  England  as  a  separate  trade  since  the 
1 3th  century,  when  the  London  Saddlers'  Company  received 
its  charter  of  incorporation  from  Edward  L  There  is  evi- 
dence also  of  its  early  prosperity  at  Birmingham,  where 
it  grew  to  an  importance  which  it  still  retains,  the  princi- 
pal seat  of  the  saddlery  trade  being  now  at  Walsall  near 
Birmingham,  which  is  practically  a  saddlers'  town.  The 
trade  divides  it§elf  into  two  branches,  brown  saddlery  and 
black  saddlery.  The  former  is  concerned  with  saddle- 
making  and  the  cutting  and  sewing  of  bridles,  reins,  and 
all  other  uncoloured  leather-w6rk.  The  saddle  is  the 
most  important  article  on  the  brown  saddler's  list.  It 
consists  of  the  tree  or  skeleton,  on  which  the  leather  is 
stretched,  the  seat,  the  skirts,  and  the  flaps.  The  tree  is 
commonly  made  of  beech  strengthened  with  iron  plates. 
The  whole  leather-work  ought  to  be  of  pig-skin,  but  often 
the  sea);  alone  is  of  that  material,  the  other  parts  being 
imitation,  cleverly  grained  by  means  of  electro-deposit 
copper  casts  from  the  surface  of  real  pig-skin.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  saddles,  such  as  racing,  military,  hunting, 
and  ladies'  saddles,  &c.  A  racing  saddle  may  Weigh  not 
more  than  two  or  three  pounds,  while  a  cavalry  saddle 
will  be  four  times  heavier.  The  saddle-maker  has  to  con- 
sider the  ease  and  comfort  of  both  horse  and  rider.  The 
saddle  aiust  fit  closely  and  evenly  to  the  curvature  of  the 
horse's  back  without  tendency  to  shift,  and  it  ought  to 
ofiFer  as  far  as  possible  a  soft  and  elastic  seat  for  the  rider. 
The  black  saddler  is  concerned  with  the  harness  of  carriage, 
cart,  and  draught  horses  generally.  The  skUl  of  the 
tradesman  in  this  department  is  displayed  in  designing 
and  arranging  harness  most  favourable  for  the  proper  dis- 
tribution of  the  load,  and  for  bringing  into  use  the  muscles 
of  the  animal  without  chafing  or  fra3dng  the  skin.  Much  of 
the  usefulness  and  comfort  of  a  horse  depends  on  the  accu- 
rate and  proper  fit  of  its  harness.  The  collar  and  traces  and 
the  saddle  arw  the  important  features  of  draught  harness, 
the  former  being  the  pieces  through  which  the  draught  is 
effected,  while  dead  weight  is  borne  through  the  saddle. 
The  portions  of  saddlery  by  which  the  horseman  controls 
and  guides  the  horse  are  the  bridle  and  bit  and  the  reins. 
Into  the  many  devices  connected  with  these  and  other 
parts  of  harnoss  for  curbing  horses,  for  breaking  them  of 
evil  habits,  and  for  adding  to  the  security  of  the  equestrian 
and  carriage  traveller,  we  cannot  here  enter  (compare 
HoESEM-tNSHiP,  vol.  xii.  p.  198).  Saddler's  irormiongery 
forms  an  important  feature  of  the  trade.  It  embraces  the 
making  of  buckles,  chains,  cart-gearing,  stirrups,  spurs, 
bits,  ham  es,  &c.  "The  ornamental  metal-work  of  carriage- 
harness  is  either  electro-plated  in  silver  or  of  solid  polished 
brass. 

SADDTJCEES  (D'^-nV,  i.e.,  Zadokites),  the  party  of  the 
priestly  aristocracy  under  the  later  HasmonKans.  The 
Sadducees  were  essentially  a  political  party  opposed  to  the 
Pharisees  or  party  of  the  Scribes,  and  their  position  and 
history  have  therefore  already  been  discussed  in  IdKAT:r., 
voL  xiii.  p.  424  sq.  The  common  view  that  Sadducseism 
was  essentially  a  philosophico-religious  school  is  due  partly 
to  Josephus  but  mainly  to  later  Jewish  tradition,  which 


never  could  realize  the  difference  between  a  nafion  and  & 
sect,  and  fancied  that  the  whole  history  of  Israel  was 
made  np  of  such  scholastic  controversies  as  engrossed  the 
attention  of  later  times.  The  theologii^al  tenets  of  the 
Sadducees  as  they  appear  in  the  New  Testament  and  in 
Josephus  had  a  purely  political  basis.  They  detested  the 
doctrine  of  the  resurrection  and  the  fatalism  of  the  Phari- 
sees because  these  opinions  were  used  by  their  adversaries 
to  thwart  their  political  aims.  The  aristocracy  suflfertd 
a  great  loss  of  position  through  the  subjection  of  Judata 
to  a  foreign  power;  but  it  was  useless  to  urge  political 
schemes  of  emancipaiion  on  those  who  believed  with  the 
Pharisees  that  Israel's  task  was  to  endure  in  patience  till 
Jehovah  redeemed  the  nation,  and  the  resurrection  rewarded 
those  who  had  lived  and  died  in  bondage.  In  matters  of 
ritual  the  Sadducees  were  naturally  conservative,  and  their 
opposition  to  the  unwritten  traditions,  from  which  they 
appealed  to  Scripture,  is  simply  one  phase  of  their  opposi- 
tion to  Pharisaic  innovations ;  for  the  traditions  were  the 
invention  of  the  Pharisees  and  the  written  law  represented 
old  practice.  When  the  Sadducees  had  lost  all  political 
importance  their  opposition  to  Pharisaism  necessarily  be  • 
came  more  and  more  an  affair  of  the  schools  rather  than  oi 
practical  life,  but  the  Sadducees  of  the  schools  are  only  the 
last  survival  of  what  had  once  been  a  great  political  party. 

SA  DE  MIKAJSfDA,  Francisco  de  (1495-1558),  Portu- 
guese poet,  was  born  of  noble  family  on  27th  October  1495, 
at  Coimbra,  where  also  he  received  his  education.  He  after- 
wards travelled  in  Spain  and  Italy,  and  held  for  some  time 
a  post  at  the  court  of  John  III.  of  Portugal.  He  died  on 
his  own  property  at  Tapada  near  Ponte  do  Lima  on  15th 
March  1558.  Besides  eight  eclogues  (six  in  Spanish  and 
two  in  Portuguese),  he  wrote  two  comedies  in  Portuguese, 
— Os  Estrangeiros  and  Os  Tilhalpandos.  See  Portugai 
(Literature),  voL  xix.  p.  556,  and  Spain  (Literature) 

SA'DI,  generally  called  Muslih-uddIn,  but  more  cor- 
rectly Mushaeeif-uddIn  b.  MusLiH-UDDfN,  the  greatest 
didactic  poet  and  the  most  popular  writer  of  Persia,  was 
bom  about  1184  (580  a.h.)  in  Sblrdz,  where  his  father, 
'Abdalldh,  a  man  of  practical  religion  and  good  common 
sense,  who  impressed  upon  his  son  from  early  childhood 
the  great  maxims  of  doing  good  and  fearing  nobody,  was 
in  the  service  of  the  Turkoman  race  of  the  Salgharides  or 
Atdbegs  of  Firs.  The  fifth  ruler  of  this  dynasty,  Sa'd  \i. 
Zengl,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1195  (591  a.h.),  con- 
ceived a  great  affection  for  young  Musharrif-uddin  and 
enabled  him,  after  the  premature  death  of  his  father,  to 
pursue  his  studies  in  the  famous  medreseh  of  Baghdad, 
the  Nizimiyyah,  where  he  remained  about  thirty  yeae 
(1196-1224).  Strict  college  discipline  and  severe  theo- 
logical studies  repressed  for  a  long  time  the  inborn  cheer- 
fulness and  joviality  of  his  nature;  but  his  poetical  geniuf, 
which  rapidly  developed,  kept  alive  in  him,  amid  all  tUe 
privations  of  an  austere  life,  the  elasticity  of  youth,  ar  d 
some  of  his  "early  odes,"  in  which  he  praises  the  pleasures 
of  life  and  the  sweetness  of  love,  were  no  doubt  composiid 
during  his  stay  in  Baghddd.  At  any  rate  his  literary  fawe 
had  already  spread  about  1210  (606  a.h.)  as  far  as  Kdsh- 
gar  in  Turkistin,  which  the  young  poet  (who  in  hor.oar 
of  his  patron  had  assumed  the  name  of  Sa'dl)  visited  in 
his  twenty-sixth  or  twenty-seventh  year.  After  mastering 
all  the  dogmatic  disciplines  of  the  Iskmitic  faith  he  turned 
his  attention  first  to  practical  philosophy,  and  later  on  to 
the  more  ideal  tenets  of  Siific  pantheism,  under  the  spirit- 
ual guidance  of  the  famous  sheikh  Shihab-uddin  'Umar 
Suhrawardl  (died  1234;  632  a.h.).  Between  1220  and 
1225  he  paid  a  visit  to  a  friend  in  IspahAn,  went  from 
there 'to  Damascus,  and  returoed  to  Ispahan  j\ibt  at  the  ^ 
time  of  the  inroads  of  the  Mongols,  when  the  AtAbeg  Sa"d 
had  been  deposed  by  the  victorious  ruler  of   K.irm4n» 


S  A.  D  — S  A  D 


143 


Ghiyith-uddin  (1223).  Sadly  grieved  bj  the- misfortune 
of  his  generous  patron  and  disgusted  v/iih  the  miserable 
itate  to  which  Persia  had  been  reduced,  Sa'di  started  in 
1224  or  1225  on  his  way  to  India,  thus  entering  on  the 
second  period  of  his  life — that  of  his  wanderings  (1225- 
1255).  He  proceeded  via  Balkh,  Ghaznf,  and  the  Punjab 
to  Gujrat,  on  the  western  coast  of  which  he  visited  the 
famous  shrine  of  Siwa  irj  Pattan-Suman.'lt,  and  met  with 
sremarkabla  adventure.  Having  seen  the  statue  of  the 
god  lifting  up  its  bands  to  heaven  every  morning  at  sun- 
rise, he  discovered  that  a  priest,  hidden  behind  the  image, 
wrought  the  miracle  by  means  of  a  cord ;  but,  being 
caught  in  the  very  act  of  watching  the  performance,  he 
had  no  alternative  but  to  hurl  his  pursuer  into  a  deep 
well  and  to  escape  at  full  speed, — not,  however,  until  he 
had  smashed  the  detested  statue.  After  a  prolonged  stay 
in  Delhi,  where  he  acquired  the  knowledge  of  HindustAni 
which  he  afterwards  turned  to  account  in  several  of  his 
poems — just  as  a  number  of  excellent  Arabic  Ifasidas  bear 
witness  to  his  fluency  in  that  idiom  which  he  had  learnt 
in  Baghddd — he  sailed  for  Yemen.  In  San'.'l,  the  capital 
of  Yemen,  the  loss  of  a  beloved  child  (when  he  had 
married  is  not  known)  threw  him  into  deep  melancholy, 
from  which  only  a  new  adventurous  expedition  into  Abys- 
sinia on  the  opposite  African  shore  and  a  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca  and  Medina  could  again  rouse  him.  Thence  he 
directed  his  steps  towards  Syria  and  lived  as'a  renowned 
bheikh  for  a  considerable  time  in  Damascus,  which  he  had 
once  already  visited.  There  and  in  Baalbec  he  added  to 
his  literary  renown  that  of  a  first-rate  pulpit  orator. 
Specimens  of  his  spiritual  addresses  are  preserved  in 
the  five  homilies  (on  the  fugitiveness  of  human  life,  on 
faith  and  fear  of  God,  on  love  towards  God,  on  rest  in 
God,  and  on  the  search  for  God)  which  usually  form  the 
second  risAlah  or  prose  treatise  in  Sa'di's  complete  works. 
At  last  weary  of  Damascus  he  withdrew  into  the  desert 
near  Jerusalem  and  led  a  solitary  wandering  life,  till  one 
day  he  was  taken  captive  by  a  troop  of  Frankish  soldiers, 
brought  to  Tripoli,  and  condemned  to  forced  labour  in  the 
trenches  of  the  fortress.  Aftor  enduring  countless  hard- 
ships, he  was  eventually  rescued  by  a  rich  friend  in  Aleppo, 
■who  paid  his  ransom,  and  moreover  gave  him  his  daughter 
in  marriage.  But  Sa'di,  unable  to  live  with  his  quarrel- 
some wife,  set  out  on  new  travels,. first  to  North  Africa 
find  then  through  the  length  and  breadth  of  Asia  Minor 
and  the  adjoining  countries.  Not  until  he  had  passed  his 
•eventieth  year  did  he  return  to  ShlrAz  (about  1255 ;  653 
A.H.).  Finding  the  place  of  his  birth  tranquil  and  pros- 
p*ous  under  the  wise  rule  of  Abiibakr  b.  Sa'd,  the  son 
of  his  old  patron  (1226-1260;  623-658  a.h.),  the  aged 
poet  took  up  his  permanent  abode,  interrupted  only  by 
repeated  pilgrimages  to  Mecca,  in  a  little  hermitage  out- 
side the  town,  in  the  midst  of  a  charming  garden,  and 
devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  Sufio  contemplation 
and  poetical  composition.  Sa'dl  died  at  Shfrdz  in  1292 
(691  A.}!.)  according  to  Hamdalh'ih  Mustaufi  (who  wrote 
only  forty  years  later),  or  in  December  1291  (690  a.u.), 
at  the  age  of  110  lunar  year.?. 

The  experience  of  tlie  world  g.ained  duiing  his  travels,  his  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  vaiious  countries  ho  had  visited,  his  insight 
into  human  character,  its  grandeur  and  its  littleness,  which  a  thiity 
years'  intercourse  witli  ni'en  of  all  ranks  and  of  many  nationalities 
Lad  fully  matured,  together  with  an  inborn  loftiness  of  thought 
and  tlic  jiurest  moral  standard,  made  it  easy  for  Sa'di  to  nompoao 
in  the  sliort  space  of  three  years  his  two  masterpieces,  whieli  have 
immortalized  his  name,  the  Bihtdn  or  "Fruit-garden"  (1257)  and 
the  Gulistdu  or  "  Rose-garden  "  (1258),  both  dedicated  to  the  reign- 
ing Atabeg  Abi'ibakr.  The  former,  also  called  Sa'dindma,  is  a  kmd 
of  didactic  c|)opce  in  ten  chapters  and  double-rhymed  verses,  which 
{lasses  in  review  the  highest  philosophical  and  religious  questions, 
not  seldom  in  the  very  spirit  of  Cliristianity,  and  abounds  with 
6ound  ethical  ni.ixims  and  matchless  gems  of  transcendental  specu- 
lation.    The  latt«r  u  a  proso  work  of  a  siiuUar  luudeucy  iu  uijjtit 


cnapters,  interspersed  with  numerous  verses  and  illustrated,  like 
the  Biisldn,  bv  u.  rich  store  of  clever  talcs  and  charming  anecdotes ; 
it  discusses  more  or  less  the  same  topics  as  the  larger  work,  but  has 
acquired  a  much  greater  popularity  in  both  the  East  and  the  West, 
owin^  to  its  easier  and  more  varied  style,  its  attractive  lessons  of 
practical  wisdom,  und  its  numerous  bou-inots.  But  Sa'di's  Dlwdn, 
or  collection  of  lyrical  poetry,  far  surpasses  the  Bustdn  and  Giilistdn, 
&t  any  rate  in  quantity,  whether  in  quality  also  is  a  matter  of 
taste.  Other  minor  works  are  the  Arabic  kofidas,  the  first  of  which 
laments  the  destruction  of  the  Arabian  caliphate  by  tho  Mongols 
in  125S  (656  A.u. ) ;  the  Persian  ka^ldas,  partly  panegyrical,  partly 
didactical ;  the  mardtht,  or  elegies,  beginning  with  one  on  the  death 
of  Abiibakr  and  ending  with  one  on  the  defeat  and  demise  of  tho 
last  caliph,  Musta'sim  ;  tho  mulanivid dt,  or  poems  with  alteraato 
Persian  and  Arabic  verses,  of  a  rather  artihcial  character ;  tho 
larjl'dt,  or  refrain-poems ;  the  ghazals,  or  odes ;  the  fdhibiyyah 
and  mukatla'AI,  or  moral  aphorisms  and  epigrams  ;  the  rubdiyydt, 
or  quatraini  ;  and  the  mv/raddt,  or  disticns.  Sa'di's  lyrical  poems 
possess  neither  the  easy  grace  and  melodious  charm  of  Hafii's 
songs  nor  the  overpowering  grandeur  of  Jelal-uddin  Riimi's  divine 
hymns,  but  they  are  nevertheless  full  of  deep  pathos  and  show  sucli 
a  fearless  love  of  truth  as  is  seldom  met  with  in  Eastern  poetry. 
Even  his  panegyrics,  although  addressed  in  turn  to  almost  all  tho 
rulers  who  iu  those  days  of  continually  changing  dynasties  presided 
over  the  fate  of  Persia,  arc  free  from  that  cringing  servility  so  com- 
mon in  the  effusions  of  Oriental  encomiasts. 

The  first  who  collected  and  arranged  his  works  was  'All  b.  Ahmad  h 
Bisutun  (13C6-I334  ;  T26-734  A.H.).  The  most  exact  information  about  Sa'dC* 
life  and  wurks  is  found  in  the  introduction  to  Dr  W.  Bachcr's  5a'di's  Aphoris- 
men  und  SinngcdichU,  Strasburg,  1S79  (a  complete  metrical  translation  of  tno 
epigrammatic  poems),  and  in  the  same  author's  "Sa'di  Sludicn,"  in  Z.D.M.G., 
XXX.  pp.  81-106.  Sa'di's  KuUiyydt  or  complfcte  works  have  been  edited  by 
Harington,  Calcutta,  1701-95  (with  an  English  translation  of  some  of  the  prose 
treatises  and  of  Daulat  Shah's  notice  on  the  poet,  of  whicli  a  German  veraioD 
is  found  in  Grafs  Jiosengarten,  Leipsic,  184(i,  p.  229  S(j.) ;  for  the  numerous  litlio-  f 
graphed  editions,  see  Rieu's  Pers.  Cut.  0/  (ftc  Brit  Miis.,  il.  p.  506.  Tho  Bustd'i 
has  been  printed  in  Calcutta  (1810  and  1828),  as  well  as  in  Lahore,  Cawnpore, 
Tabriz,  &c.  ;  a  critical  edition  with  Persian  commentary  was  published  by  K. 
H.  Graf  at  Vienna  in  1850  (German  metrical  translations  by  the  same,  Jena, 
1850,  and  by  Schlechta-Wssehrd,  Vienna,  1852 ;  English  tranilaticn  by  W. 
Clarke,  London,  1S79  ;  French  translation  by  Barbier  de  Me>TiArfi,  Paris,  1880). 
The  best  editions  of  the  Gulistdn  are  by  A.  Sprenger  (CalcutU,  aciil)  and  by 
Platts  (London,  1874);  the  best  translations  into  English  by  iajlwick  (1852) 
and  by  Platts  (1873)  ;  into  French  by  Defremery  (1858) ;  into  0-!i''n.,in  by  Oral 
(1840)  ;  see  also  S.  Robinson's  Persian  Poetry  for  English  /trtxf.rf.,  1(;S3,  pp.  24S 
300.  Select  kasidas,  ghazals,  elegies,  quatrains,  and  listichi  barn  been  edited, 
with  a  German  metrical  translation,  by  Graf,  in  the  Z.D.M.G.^  Is.  p.  92  sq.,  xii. 
p.  82  sq.,  xiii.  p.  445  sq.,  xv.  p.  541  sq.,  and  xvill.  p.  570  sq.  On  the  Silflo 
character  of  Sa'di  in  contrast  to  ndfli  and  Jeldl-uddln  Riinil  comp.  EIW.  ''  Det 
Sflflsmus  nnd  seine  drei  Hauptvcrtreter,"  ia  MorgentaadiiO* ^ulitn',  leipsic. 
18J0,  pp.  95-124.  (H.  £)  ' 

SADLER,  Sir  Ralph  (1507-1587),  English  statesman, 
was  the  son  of  Henry  Sadler,  steward  to  the  proprietor 
of  the  manor  of  Gillney,  near  Great  Hadham,  Hertford- 
shire, and  was  born  at  Hackney  in  Jliddlesex  in  1507. 
While  a  mere  child  ho  obtained  a  situation  in  the  family 
of  Thomas  Cromwell,  earl  of  Essex.  Through  him  ho  was 
introduced  to  Henry  YIII.,  who  conferred  on  him  various 
appointments' an4  employed  him  in  connexion  -mth  the 
dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  in  tho  rich  spoils  of  which 
he  was  a  large  sharer.  So  much  was  the  king  impressed  by 
Sadler's  ability  and  address  that  ho  made  choice  of  him  for 
his  subsequent  important  negotiations  with  Scotland.  In 
1537  he  was  sent  thither  to  strengthen  the  English  interest; 
in  1539-40  he  was  commissioned  to  persuade  tho  Scottish 
king  James  V.  to  cast  off  the  supremacy  of  tho  pope ;  in 

1541  he  went  back  to  enforce  the  samo  counsel;  and  in 

1542  he  was  appointed  to  settle  the  profjosed  match  be- 
tween Edward  prince  of  Wale's  and  Mary  the  infant  queen 
of  Scots.  Although  not  successful  in  any  of  these  missions, 
ho  continued  to  retain  the  full  confidence  of  the  king,  who, 
in  recognition  of  his  zealous  services,  conferred  on  him  in 

1543  tho  honour  of '  knighthood.  On  Henry's  death  iu 
1547  Sadler's  name  was  found  in  tho  royal  will  as  one  of  tho 
councillors  to  tho  sixteen  nobles  who  were  entrusted  with 
tho  guardianship  of  tho  young  king.  In  tho  .sanio  year  bo 
was  appointed  treasurer  to  the  aniiy  sent  against  Scotland, 
and  for  his  great  services  in  rallying  tho  repulsed  cavalry 
ho  was  created  a  knight-bannerol  on  tho  battlefield  of 
Pinkie.  During  tlio  roign  of  Mary  ho  lived  in  retirement 
on  his  estate  near  Hackney;  but  on  tho  accession  of  Eliza- 
beth in  1558  lio  camo  onco  'noro  into  a  sphere  of  active 
omiiloyment.  lio  iinmediateiy  became  a  member  of  piirlia- 
ment  for  tho  county  of  Hcrtf'^rd  and  a  jirivy  councillor. 


144 


S  A  D  — S  A  F 


Not  long  afterwards  liis  strong  Protestant  sympathies  and 
his  acquaintance  with'  Scottish  affairs  recommended  him 
as  a -fit  person  to  be  employed  by  Elizabeth  in  her  intrigues 
with  the  Scottish  lords  of  the  congregation  against  Queen 
Mary.  In  1584  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  !Mary  queen 
of  Scots  in  the  castle  of  Tutbury ;  but  on  account  of  "age 
and  infirmity  "  he  was  permitted  to  resign  his  charge  some 
time  before  the  death  of  the  queen.  His  last  service  was 
to  repair  to  Scotland  to  pacify  the  king's  indignation  on 
account  of  Mary's  death.  He  died  after  his  return  home  at 
Standon  in  Hertfordshire,  30th  March  1587. 

The  Letters  and  Kcriotiations  of  Sir  Ralph  Sadler  were  published 
at  Edinburgh  in  1720,  and  a  more  complete  collection  under  the 
title  State  Papers  and  Letters  of  Sir  Ralph  Sadler,  with  a  life  by 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  in  1809.  The  Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Times  of 
Sir  Fuilph  Sadleir,  by  his  Descendant  Major  F.  Sadleir  Stoney, 
appeared  in  1877. 

SADOLETO,  Jacopo  (1477-1547),  Italian  humanist  and 
churchman,  was  born  at  Modena  in  1477,  and,  being  the 
son  of  a  noted  jurist,  was  designed  for  the  same  profession. 
He  gave  himself,  therefore,  to  humanistic  studies  and 
acquired  reputation  as  a  Latin  poet,  his  best-known  piece 
being  one  on  the  group  of  Laocooh.  Passing  to  Rome,  he 
obtained  the  patronage  of  Cardinal  Carafa  and  adopted  the 
ecclesiastical  career.  Leo  X.  chose  him  as  his  secretary 
along  with  Peter  Bembo,  and  in  1517  made  him  bishop  of 
Carpentras.  Sadoleto  had  a  remarkable  talent  for  aflairs 
and  approved  himself  a  faithful  servant  of  the  papacy  in 
many  difficult  negotiations  under  successive  popes,  especi- 
ally as  a  peacemaker ;  but  he  was  no  bigoted  advocate  of 
papal  authority,  and  the  great  aim  of  his  life  was  to  win 
back  the  Protestants  by  peaceful  persuasion — he  wo'ild 
never  countenance  persecution — and  by  putting  Catholic 
doctrine  in  a  conciliatory  form.  Indeed  his  chief  work,  a 
Covimentary  on  Romans,  though  meant  as  a  prophylactic 
against  the  new  doctrines,  gave  great  offence  at  Rome 
and  Paris.  Sadoleto  was  a  diligent  and  devoted  bishop 
and  always  left  his  diocese  with  reluctance  even  after  he 
was  made  cardinal  (1536).  His  piety  and  tolerant  spirit, 
combined  with  his  reputation  for  scholarship  and  eloquence 
and  his  diplomatic  abilities,  give  him  a  somewhat  unique 
place  among  the  churchmen  of  his  time.  He  died  in  1 547. 
His  collected  works  appeared  at  Mainz  in  1607,  and  in- 
clude, besides  his  theologico-irenical  pieces,  a  collection  of 
Epistles;  Oi,  treatise  on  education  (first  published  in  1533), 
and  the  P/uxdrus,  a  defence  of  philosophy,  written  in  1538. 

S^MUND.  See  Edda,  voL  vii.  p.  650,  and  ICELiND, 
vol.  xii.  p.  624. 

SAPES.  A  safe  is  any  repository  in  whicu  Taluable 
■property  is  guarded  against  risk  of  loss  by  fire  or  froci  the 
attacks  of  thieves.  The  protection  of  valuable  documents 
and  possessions  was  only  imperfectly  effected  in  the  charter- 
rooms  of  old  mansions  and  in  the  iron-bound  oaken  chests 
and  iron  coffers  of  the  Middle  Ages ;  but  these  in  their  day 
represented  the  strong  rooms  and  safes  of  modern  times. 
The  vast  increase  in  realized  wealth  and  the  complication 
of  financial  and  banking  operations  necessitate  in  .our  days 
the  greatest  attention  to  the  safeguarding  of  securities 
and  property.  The  ingenuity  of  inventors  has,  within 
practicable  limits,  effected  much  in  safe-making ;  but  the 
cunning  of  thieves  has  increased  in  proportion  to  the 
obstacles  to  be  overcome  and  to  the  value  of  the  booty  at 
which  they  aim.  No  safe  can  be  held  to  be  invulnerable ; 
for,  whatever  human  ingenuity  can  put  together  and  close, 
the  same  ingenuity  can  tear  down  and  open.  An  impreg- 
nable safe  would  indeed  be  a  source  of  greater  danger  than' 
of  security  to  its  owTier,  for,  y.ere  the  key  or  other  means 
of  access  k»t  or  rendered  unworkable,  the  contents  of  the 
safe  would  of  necessity  be  irrecoverable.  Tlie  efficiency  of 
a  safCj  therefore,  does  not  d.pend  on  absolute  impregna- 
l)ility..  but  oB  the  nature  of  the  obstacles  it  presents  to 


successful  attack,  and  to  the  generally  unfavotirable  cotP 
ditions  under  which  r uch  attacks  are  made.  It  is  common 
to  make  safes  both  thief-  and  fire-resisting,  and  the  condi- 
tions necessary  for  the  one  object  to  a  certain  extent  con- 
duce to  the  attainment  of  both ;  but  for  many  purposes 
security  from  the  one  danger  alone  is  requisite. 

Tlie  d&vices  for  baffling  thieves  are  numerous.  The 
safe  must  in  the  first  place  be  made  heavy  and  unwieldy, 
or  otherwise  it  must  be  so  fixed  that  it-can  only  be  carried 
away  with '  the  utmost  difficulty.  Next,  the  greatest 
obstacles  to  obtaining  illegitimate  access  must  be  presented. 
To  prevent  fracturing  a  tough  metal  must  be  used  in  the 
construction,  and  to  resist  penetration  by  drilling  metal  of 
great  hardness  must  be  interposed.  These  conditions  are 
commonly  met  by  making  the  outer  casing  of  the  safe  of 
boiler  plate,  backed  by  a  lining  of  hard  steel,  over  which 
is  an  inner  lining  of  thin  boiler  plate,  the  three  kyera 
being  securely  bolted  together  by  screws  from  within.  By 
some  makers  a  layer  of  hard  metal  is  poured,  in  a  fluid 
state,  between  the  outer  and  inner  casing;  others  case- 
harden  one  surface  ;  and  there  are  numerous  additional  de- 
vices for  securing  the  combination  of  hardness  and  tough- 
ness. To  prevent  WTenching  of  joints,  the  two  sides  with' 
top  and  bottom  of  the  outer  shell  are  sometimes  made  out 
of  a  single  plate  welded  at  the  joint,  and  the  back  and 
front  are  then  attached  to  that  shell  by  angle  irons  screwed 
from  within.  The  frame  upon  which  the  door  hangs  and 
into  which  the  bolts  shoot  is  made  of  great  strength,  with, 
special  precautions  to  prevent  the  wrenching  off  of  the 
door  by  means  of  crowbars  or  wedges.  In  an  ordinary 
safe  the  massive  bolts,  three  or  more  in  number,  shoot  only 
at  the  front,  and  fixed  dogs  or  sham  bolts  fit  into  slots  at 
the  back  or  hinged  side.  This  arrangement,  is  sufficient 
to  keep  the  door  closed  independent  of  hinges,  which  ara 
merely  the  pivot  on  which  the  door  tui-ns.  In  all  Chubb's 
safes  bolts  shoot  both  to  front  and  back ;  and  in  the 
higher  quality  of  that  and  of  every  other  good  maker, 
bolts  shoot  on  every  side, — front,  back,  top,  and  bottoittf' 
Ordinarily  the  bolts  shoot  straight  into  the  slot  as  in  a/i 
ordinary  lock ;  but,  to  defy  wrenching,  additional  grip  ji) 
secured  by  Chatwood,  who  makes  a  bolt  with  a  clutch  oi* 
projection,  which  falls  into  a  recess  in  the  slot  and  thuii 
holds  against  any  direct  wrench.  In  Chubb's  finer  safes 
the  bolts  shoot  diagonally  all  round,  so  that  in  each  faca 
of  the  door  they  go  in- two  different  directions.  Safe  bolts 
are  shot  not  by  the  key,  as  in  an  ordinary  lock,  but  by  the 
door  handle,  and  the  key  simply  secures  them  in  their 
position.  By  this  arrangem^pt,  patented  by  !Mr  Charles 
Chubb  in  1835,  a  series  of  the  most  ponderous  bolts  can 
be  secured  in  locked  position  by  a  small  key  which  can  be 
carried  in  the  vest  pocket.  The  lock  of  a  safe  must  be  a 
careful  piece  of  mechanism,  not  subject  to  derangement, 
tinpickable,  and  gunpowder-proof.  The  portion  of  the 
door  on  which  it  is  fastened  is  generally  provided  with 
extra  precautions  against  drilling.  A  safe  being  well 
made  and  securely  locked  remains  vulnerable  through  the 
medium  of  the  key,  which  may  be  siu-reptitiously  obtained 
either,  for  direct  use  or  to  form  a  mould  by  which  false 
keys  can  be  cut.  On  this  account,  keyless  locks  and  time 
locks  are  coming  into  great  favour  in  America.  In  keyless 
permutation  locks,  such  as  those  of  Hall,  Sargent,  Yale, 
and  Dalton,  the  bolts  can  be  withdra%vn  only  after  an 
indicator  has  Been  successively  set  against  a  oombiuation 
of  numbers  arranged  before  the  closing  of  the  door  ;  and 
in  the  time  lock  of  these  inventors  the  safe  can  only  bo 
opened  at  any  hoiu:  to  which  the  time  controller  is  set 
before  closing.  Electrical  arrangements  have  also  been 
attached  to  safes  -by  which  signals  are  conveyed  to  any 
spot  when  a  safe  so  guarded  is  unlawfully  interfered  with. 

It  is  much  easier  tc  render  a  safe  fire-proof  than  to. 


S  A  F  — S  A  F 


145 


guard  it  against  burglary.  It  requires  nothing  more  than 
a  calculation  of  the  intensity  and  duration  of  any  fire  to 
■which  it  is  likely  to  be  exposed,  and  the  provision  of  a 
sufficient  linmg  of  fire-resisting  material.  What  is  princi- 
pally used  is  a  mixture  of  some  absorbent  medium — such 
as  sawdust,  powdered  gypsum  or  cement,  or  infasorial 
earth — with  ground  alum.  Asbestos,  silicate  cotton,  mica, 
and  other  non-conductors  ajc  also  used;  and  by  some 
makers  sealed  tubes  of  alkaline  salts  are  distributed 
through  the  absorbent  material.  These  burst  when  exposed 
to  high  heat  and  their  contents  saturate  the  surrounding 
substance.  A  carefully  packed  shell  of  not  less  than  3^ 
inches  of  the  fire-resisting  medium  should  lino  the  interior 
of  every  fire-proof  safe ;  but  in  many  cheap  safes  a  quantity 
of  brick  dust  is  the  only  fire-resisting  medium. 

Where  an  ordinary  safe  provides  insufficient  accommoda- 
tion the  strong  room  takes  its  place.  Such  an  apartment, 
being  generally  in  the  basement  of  a  building,  presents 
no  special  difficulties  to  make  it  proof  against  fire  and 
thieves.  Thickness  of  walls,  built  by  preference  of  hard 
brick  laid  in  cement,  and  liberal  use  of  cement  within  the 
walls,  as  well  as  at  the  floor  and  over  the  arched  roof, 
give  strength  against  both  fire  and  burglars.  The  interior 
of  a  strong  room  is  generally  lined  with  boiler-plate,  and, 
in  addition  to  the  massive  steel  and  iron  door,  it  has  an 
inner  wrought-iron  grill -door,  which  secures  the  vault 
during  business  hours  and  permits  the  ventilation  of  the 
apartment.  Within  such  a  strong  room  extra  strong 
chambers  or  separate  safes  may  be  placed,  and  in  this  way 
precautions  may  be  indefinitely  multiplied. 

The  most  complete  examples  of  safe  and  strong-room  arrange- 
ments are  afforded  by  the  public  saf(^  or  safe-deposits  erected  in 
most  of  the  gieat  cities  of  America  and  in  Loudon.  The  premises 
of  the  National  Safe  Deposit  Company  in  London  consist  of  a  " 


isolated  building  in  Queen  Victoria  Street.  The  building,  which 
is  fire-proof,  covers  and  surrounds  the  great  safe  vault  or  citadel, 
which  is  sunk  in  the  ground  to  a  depth  of  45  feet.  The  vault 
itself,  founded  on  a  bed  of  concrete  20  leet  in  thickness,  has  walls, 
3  feet  thick,  of  hard  blue  brick  laid  ia  cement,  with  an  external 
lining  of  fire-brick,  and  is  lined  internally  ^lith  cast-iron  plates 
4J  inches  thick  chilled  on  one  side, the  plates  having  embedded  in 
thetu  a  network  of  strong  interlaced  wrought-iron  bars.  The  vault 
is  divided  into  four  tiers  or  stories  with  eight  separate  compart- 
ments in  each,  wliich,  after  business  hours,  are  closed  with  doors 
raised  and  lowered  by  hydraulic  power.  These  doois,  wliich  each 
weigh  four  tons,  are  built  up,  12  inches  thick,  of  combinations  of 
hard  and  tough  metal  to  resisi;  fracture  and  drilling,  and  when  they 
are  raised  for  business  purposes  the  entrance  to  each  compartment 
is  protected  by  a  massive  wrought-iron  grill.  Within  the  thirty- 
two  compartments  there  is  space  for  about  20,000  safes  of  various 
sizes,  which  are  let  to  owners  of  valuables,  each  renter  having  the 
sole  control  of  the  safe  hired  by  him.  Additional  security  is 
obtained  by  the  patrol  of  armed  watchmen,  and  generally  it  may 
be  said  that  in  the  institution  precautions  have  been  carried  almost 
to  the  pitch  of  perfection,  if  indeed  they  have  not  been  puslied  to 
needless  excess.  (.J.  PA.) 

SAFETY  LAMP.     See  Coai,  vol.  vi.  p.  72  sq. 

8AFFi.RIDS,  a  Persian  dynasty  of  the  9th  century. 
See  Mohammedanism,  vol.  xvi.  p.  586. 

SAFFI  (Asafi),  a  seaport  of  Morocco,  with  6000  inha- 
bitants, some  commerce,  and  a  fatuous,  shrine,  the  Hou.se 
of  the  Seven  Sleepers,  frequented  by  Moslem  and  Jewish 
pilgrims.     See  vol.  xvi.  p.  831. 

SAFFLOWER,  or  Bastakd  Saffron  {Carthamus  tinc- 
toriiis),  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Composite ;  its  flowers 
form  the  basis  of  the  safflower  dye  of  commerce.  The  plant 
is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  but  is  cultivated  in  Egypt 
and  to  some  extent  in  southern  Europe.  To  obtain  the 
dyeing  principle — carthamine— the  flowers  are  first  washed 
to  free  them  from  a  soluble  yellow  colouring  matter  they 
contain ;  they  are  then  dried  and  powdered,  and  digested 
in  an  alkaline  solution  in  which  pieces  of  clean  white 
cotton  are  immersed.  The  alkaline  solution  having  been 
neutralized  with  weak  acetic  acid,  the  cotton  is  removed 
»nd  washed  in  another  alkaline  solution.  When  this 
■>i T 


second  solution  is  neutralized  with  acid,  carthamine  in  a 
pure  condition  is  precipitated.  Dried  carthamine  has  a 
rich  metallic  green  colour ;  it  forms  a  brilliant  but  fugitive 
scarlet  dye  for  silk,  but  is  principally  used  for  prei)aring 
toilet  rouge.  In  1884  there  were  ini])ortcd  into  the  United 
Kingdom  179  t  tons  of  safllower,  valued  at  £7109,  almost 
the  whole  of  which  came  from  the  East  Indies. 

SAFFRON  (Arab.  za'/arCm)  is  manufactured  from  thd 
dried  stigmas  and  part  of  the  style  of  the  saff'ron  crocus,  a 
cultivated  form  of  Crocus  sativus,  L.,  the  jirecise  origin 
of  which  1  jmkncnvn ;  for,  though  some  Oi'  the  wild  forma 
(var.  Thomasii,  Carlviri</htianus)  arc  also  employed  for  the 
manufacture  of  saffron,  they  difi"er  in  character  from  tha 
cultivated  type  and  are  somewhat  restricted  in  geographical 
range,  while  the  cultivated  form  extends  with  little  or  no 
change  through  nearly  ninety  degrees  of  longitude  (Spain 
to  Kashmir)  and  twenty-five  degrees  of  latitude  (England 
to  Persia).  It  is  invariably  sterile,  unless  artificially 
fertilized  with  the  poUen  of  some  of  the  wild  varieties. 
The  purple  flower,  which  blooms  late  in  autumn,  is  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  common  spring  crocus,  and  tha 
stigmas,  which  are  protruded  from  the  perianth,  are  of  a 
characteristic  orange-red  colour.  The  Egyptians,  though 
acquainted  with  the  bastard  safllower  (see  preceding  article), 
do  not  seem  to  have  possessed  saffron  ;  but  it  is  named  ia 
Canticles  iv.  14  among  other  sweet-smelling  herbs.  It  ia 
also  repeatedly  mentioned  (k/jo'kos)  by  Homer,  Hippocrates, 
and  other  Greek  writers ;  and  the  word  "  crocodile  "  waa 
long  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from  k^okos  and 
SetXoi,  whence  we  have  such  stories  as  that  "  the  croco 
dile's  tears  are  never  true  save  when  he  is  forced  where 
saffron  groweth"  (Fuller's  Worthies).  It  has  long  beea 
cultivated  in  Persia  aud  Kashmir,  and  is  supposed  to  b»  fa 
been,  introduced  into  China  by  the  Mongol  invasion.  It 
is  mentioned  in  the  Chinese  materia  medica  {Pun  tsaou, 
1552-78).  The  chief  seat  of  cultivation  in  early  times, 
however,  was  the  town  of  Corycus  (modern  Korghoz)  in 
Cilicia,  and  from  this  central  point  of  distribution  it  may 
not  improbably  have  spread  east  and  west.  According  to 
Hehn,  the  town  derived  its  name  from  the  crocus;  Ray- 
mond, on  the  other  hand,  w^th  more  probability,  holds 
that  the  name  of  the  drug  arose  from  that  of  the  town. 
It  was  cultivated  by  the  Arabs  in  Spain  about  961,  and 
is  mentioned  in  an  English  leech-book  of  the  10th  century, 
but  seems  to  havo  disappeared  from  western  Europe  till 
reintroduced  by  the  crusaders.  According  to  Hakluyt,  it 
was  brought  into  England  from  Tripoli  by  a  pilgrim,  who 
hid  a  stolen  corm  in  the  hollow  of  his  staff.  It  was  especi- 
ally cultivated  near  Hinton  in  Cambridgeshire  and  in 
Essex  at  Saffron  Walden  {i.e..  Saffron  Woods,  not  Saffron 
Wallcd-in,  as  the  canting  crest  of  the  town  would  imply), 
its  cultivators  being  called  "crokcrs."  This  industry, 
though  very  important  in  th'  I5th  century,  when  English 
saffron  commanded  the  hig'/cst  prices  on  the  Continent, 
appears  to  havo  died  out  about  1768. 

Saffron  was  used  as  an  ingredient  in  many  of  the  com- 
plicated medioincs  of  early  times.  According  to  Gerard 
"  the  moderate  use  of  it  is  good  for  the  head  and  maketh 
the  sonces  more  quicke  and  lively.  It  shaketh  off  heavie 
and  drowsy  sleep  and  maketh  a  man  mery."  It  appears 
to  bo  really  a  stimulant  and  antispasmodic,  though  its 
powers  are  slight.  It  is  scarcely  ever  employed  by  modern 
pharmacists  unless  for  the  mere  coloration  of  other  tinc- 
tures, or  at  most  as  a  cordial  adjunct  to  other  medicines. 
That  it  was  very  largely  used  in  cookery  is  evidenced  by 
many  writers;  thus  \jx\iran\MTgi\i3{Af>]yaraltu Plantarujiu, 
1632)  makes  the  largo  assertion  "  In  ro  faniiliaro  vix  ullus 
est  tclluris  babitatus  angulus  ubi  non  sit  croci  qiiotidiana 
usurpatio  aapcrsi  vel  incocti  cibis."  The  Chinca«  used 
also  to  employ  it  largely,  and  the  Persians  and  Spaniards 


146 


S  A  F  — S  A  G 


Btill  mix  it  with  their  rice.  ^  As  a  perfume  it  was  strewn 
in  Greek  halls,  courts,  and 'theatres,  and  in  the  Roman' 
hums.  The  ^treeta  of  Rome  were  sprinkled  with  saffron 
when  Nero  made  his  entry  into  the  city. 

It  was,  however,  mainly  used  as  a  dye.  It  was  a  royal 
colour  in  early  Greek  times,  though  afterwards  perhaps 
from  its  abundant  use  in  the  baths,  and  as  a  scented  salve, 
it  wcs  especially  appropriated  by  the  hetairae.  In  ancient 
Irelacd  a  king's  mantle  was  dyed  with  safiron,  and  even 
down  to  the  17th  century  the  "  lein-croich,"  or  saffron-dyed 
shirt,  was  worn  by  persons  of  rank  in  the  Hebrides.  In 
medissval  iUumination  it  furnished,  as  a  glaze  upon  bur- 
nished tinfoil,  a  cheap  and  effective  substitute  for  gold. 
The  sacred  spot  on  the  forehead  of  a  Hindu  pundit  is  also 
partly  composed  of  it.  Its  main  use  in  England  was  to 
colour  pastry  and  confectionery, — hence  '"i  must  have 
saffron  to  colour  the  .Warden  pies"  {Winter's  Tale,  act  iv. 
sc.  i.), — and  it  is  still  often  added  to  butter  and  cheese. 
One  grain  of  saffron  rubbed  to  powder  with  sugar  and  a 
little  water  imparts  a  distinctly  yellow  tint  to  ten  gallons 
of  water.  This  colouring  power  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  polychlorite,  a  substance  whose  chemical  formula  appears 
to  ,be  C^gHgoOjg,  and  which  may  be  obtained  by  treating 
Baffron  with  ether,  and  afterwards  exhausting  with  water. 
Under  acids  it  yields  the  following  reaction — 

C«H«>0„+ HjO =2(C,5H,80j)  +  Ci,H„0  +  CJS,,0^ 

Polychlorite.  Crocin.       Essential  oiL    Sugar. 

Crocin,  according  to  "Watts,  Did.  of  Chem.,  has  a  composi- 
tion of  CojHjoOis  or  CrgH^jOj,.  This  crocin  is  a  red 
colouring  matter,  and  it  is  surmised  that  the  red  colour  of 
the  stigmas  is  due  to  this  reaction  taking  place  in  nature. 

At  present  saffron  is  chiefly  cultivated  in  Spain,  France,  Sicily, 
on  the  lower  spUrs  of  the  Apennines,  and  in  Persia  and  Kashmir. 
The  ground  has  to  be  thoroughly  cleared  of  stones,  manured,  and 
trenched,  and  the  corms  are  planted  in  ridges.  The  flowers  are 
gathered  at  the  end  of  October,  in  the  early  morning,  just  when 
they  are  beginning  to  open  after  the  night  The  stigmas  and  a 
part  of  the  style  are  carefully  picked  out,  and  the  wet  saffron  is  then 
scattered  on  sheets  of  paper  to  a  depth  of  2  or  3  inches ;  over  this  a 
cloth  is  laid,  and  nest  a  board  with  a  heavy  weight  A  strong  heat 
is  applied  for  about  two  hours  so  as  to  make  the  saffron  "sweat," 
and  a  gentler  temperature  for  a  further  period  of  twenty-four  hours, 
the  cake  being  turned  every  hour  so  that  every  part  is  thoronghly 
dried.  It  is  calculatc>ii  that  the  stigmas  of  about  4300  flowers 
are  required  to  give  an  ounce  of  saffron  ;  but  the  experiments  of 
Chappellier  indicate  a  possibility  of  greatly  increasing  the  yield  by 
the  cultivation  of  monstious  fonns. 

'  The  drug  has  naturally  always  been  liible  to  great  adulteration 
in  spite  of  penalties,  the  severity  of  which  suggests  the  surviving 
tradition  of  its  sacred  character.  Thus  in  Isuremberg  a  regular 
saffron  inspection  was  held,  and  in  the  15th  century  we  read  of 
men  being  l)urned  in  the  market-place  along  with  their  adulterated 
Baffron,  while  on  another  occasion  three  persons  convicted  of  the 
same  crime  were  buried  alive.  Grease  and  butter  are  still  very 
frequently  mixed  with  the  cake  and  shreds  of  beef  dipped  in  saffron 
water  are  also  used.  Good  saffron  is  distinguished  by  its  deep 
orange-red  colour ;  if  it  is  light  yellow  or  blackish,  it  is  bad  or  too 
old.  It  should  also  have  a  peculiar  and  rather  powerful  odour,  and 
a  bitter  pungent  taste.  If  oily  it  is  probably  adulterated  mth  butter 
or  grease. 

Sfte  Fluckiger  and  HMbnry,  FhaTTnacographia,  and  Maw,  ^^o^lograph  of  On 

CM  Crocus,  upon  wbich  the  precciing  account  is  essentially  based ;  also 
eira,  Materia  Medicrt,  and  the  pliarmacopoeiast 

SAFFRON  WALDEN,  a  market-town  and  municipal 
;orough  of  Essex,  England,  is  finely  situated  near  the  Cam 
ji  a  valley  surrounded  by  hills,  on  a  braich  of  the  Great 
Eastern  Railway,  44  miles  north-uorth-east  of  London  and 
4  scuta  of  Cambridge.  It  has  a  somewhat  ancient  ap- 
pearance and  possesses  good  streets  and  a  spacious  market- 
place. Of  the  old  castle,  dating  probably  from  before  the 
Conquest,  the  keep  and  a  few  other  portions  stUl  remain. 
The  church  of  St  Marj'  the  Virgin,  a  beautiful  specimen  of 
the  Perpendicular  style,  dating  from  the  reign  of  Henry 
VTI.,  but  frequently  repaired  and  restored,  contains  the 
tomb  of  Lord  .^ndley,  chancellor  to  Henry  VUT.  There 
is  an  Edward  VI.  grammor-i^rhool,  for  which  new^  buildings 
hive  recently  been  erected.     Amongst  the  modprn  public 


buildings  are  the  corn  exchange  (1848)  and  the  new  town- 
hall  (1879).^.  The  town  possesses  a  museum,  a  literary 
institute,  and  a  horticultural  society  The  benevolent 
institutions  include  the  hospital  and  the  Edward  VL  alms- 
houses. In  the  neighbourhood  is  the  fine  mansion  of 
Audley  End,  built  by  Thomas,  first  earl  of  Suffolk,  in 
1603  on  the  ruins  of  the  abbey,  converted  in  1190  from  a 
Benedictine  priory  founded  by  Geoffrey  da  Mandeville  in 
1136.  The  town  is  an  important  centre  of  agricultural 
industry  and  has  large  com,  cattle,  and  sheep  markets. 
Brewing  and  malting  are  carried  on.^  The  population  of 
the  municipal  borough  (area,  7416  acres)  in  1871  was 
5718,  and  in  1881  it  was  6060. 

The  original  name  of  the  town  was  "Wealdenlierg,  and  vifxen  't 
received  a  grant  of  a  market  in  the  time  of  Geoffrey  de  Mandeville 
it  was  called  Cheping  Walden.  The  substitution  of  the  prefix 
Saffron  is  accounted  for  by  the  former  culture  of  Saffron  {q.v.j 
in  the  neighbourhood.  The  town  has  existed  for  more  than  500 
years  as  a  guild,  and  the  government  is  now  vested  ui  a  mayor,  four 
aldermen,  and  twelve  councillors. 

SAGAN,  a  manufacturiEg  town  in  Prussian  Silesia, 
situated  on  the  Bober,  a  tributary  of  the  Oder,  lies  60 
miles  south-south-east  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  and  102 
miles  south-east  of  Berlin.  It  contains  the  handsome 
palace  of  the  dukes  of  Sagan,  several  interesting  churches, 
a  Roman  Catholic  gymnasium,  and  a  large  Gothic  hospital, 
named  after  its  founder,  the  duchess  Dorothea  (1793-1862). 
The  leading  industry  of  the  town  is  cloth-weaving,  with 
wool  and  flax  spinning ;  it  has  also  some  trade  in  wool 
and  grain.     The  population  in  1880  was  11,373. 

The  mediate  principality  of  Sagan,  formed  in  1397  out  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  duchy  of  Glogau,  has  several  times  changed  hands  by 
purchase  as  well  as  by  inheritance.  One  of  its  most  famous  pos- 
sessors was  Wallenstein,  who  held  it  for  seven  years  before  his  death 
in  1634.  Bought  by  Prince  Lobkowitz  in  1646,  the  principality 
remained  in  his  fanuly  until  17S6,  when  it  was  sold  to  Peter,  duka 
of  Courland,  whose  descendant,  the  duke  of  Talleyrand-Perigord 
and  Valen^ay  in  France,  now  owns  it.  The  area  of  the  principality 
is  about  467  square  miles,  and  its  population  is  about  65,000. 

SAGAR,  or  Saugoe,  a  British  district  of  India,  situated 
in  the  extreme  north-west  of  the  Central  Provinces,  and 
comprised  between  23°  4'  aiid  24°  27'  N.  lat,  and  between 
78°  6'  and  79°  12'  E.  long.,  with  a  total  area  of  4005 
square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the_^  N.  by  the  Lilitpur 
district  of  the  North-Western- Provinces  and  the  native 
states  of  BijAwar,  Pannd,  and  Charkhdri;  on  the  E.  by 
Pannd  and  Damoh  district ;  on  the  S.  by  Narsinhpur  dis- 
trict and  the  native  state  of  Bhopal ;  and  on  the  W.  also 
by  Bhopal.  Sdgar  district  is  an  extensive,  elevated,  and 
in  parts  tolerably  level  plain,  broken  in  places  by  low 
hills  of  the  Vindhyan  sandstone.  It  is  traversed  by 
numerous  streams,  chief  of  which  are  the  Sunar,  Beis, 
Dhupan,  and  Bina,  ell  flowing  in  a  northerly  direction 
towards  the  valley  of  the  Ganges.  In  the  southern  and 
central  parts  the  soil  is  black,  formed  by  decaying  trap ; 
to  the  north  and  east  it  is  a  reddish- brown  aUuviuni- 
Iron  ore  of  excellent  quality  is  found  and  worked  at  Him- 
pur,  a  small  village  in  the  extreme  north-east.  The  dis- 
trict contains  several  densely  wooded  tracts,  the  largest  of 
which  is  the  Ramna  teak  forest  preserve  in  the  north. 
Roads  are  the  only  means  of  communication ;  of  these  the 
total  length  is  134  miles,  50  being  returned  as  first_  class. 
The  climate  is  moderate ;  the  average  temperature  is  75°, 
and  the  average  rainfaU  is  aboiit  46  inches. 

By  the  census  of  1831  the  popnla^:on  numbered  564,950  (294,795 
males  and  270,155  females).  Hindus  numbered  498,071,  Sloham- 
medans  25,396,  Buddhists  and  Jains  16,432,  Christians  1034,  and 
aboriginals  19,144.  '  The  only  looi.  except  the  capital  (see  below) 
with  a  population  exceeding  10,000  is  Garhakota,  which  contains 
11,414  inhabitants.  Of  the  total  area  only  1396  square  miles  are 
cultivated,  and  of  the  portion  lying  waste  1220  are  returned  as 
cultivable.  Wheat  forms  the  principal  crop,  which  is  produced  in 
large  quantities  all  over  the  district ;  other  products  are  food 
giai:.^,  rice,  (/il  seeds,  cotton,  and  sugar-cane.  Cattle  and  buffaloes 
aro  bred  to  a  large  extent  both  for  draiicrht  and  caiTiflxre,  and  a]<»> 


S  A  G  — S  A  G 


147 


fcr  3airy  purposes, 'especially  for  the  manufaoturo  of  ghee.  The 
tevenue  of  Sagar  district  in  1883-84  amoanted  to  £08,376,  of  which 
'jhe  land-tax  contributed'i:44,429. 

By  a  treaty  concluded  with  Baji  Eao  in  1818,  the  greater  part  of 
the  present  district  was  made  over  to  the  British.  During  the 
ttiutiay  of  1857  the  whole  district  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
rebels,  excepting  the  town  and  fort,  in  which  the  Europeans  were 
shut  upfor  eight  months,  till  relieved  early  in  the  following  year 
by  Sir  Hugh  Rose.  The  rebels  were  totally  defeated  and  order  was 
again  restored  by  March  1858.  Sagar  was  formed  into  a  sepaiiato 
district  of  the  Central  Provinces  in  1?61. 

SAGAE,  principal  town  and  headquarters  of  the  above 
district,  situated  in  23°  50'  N.  lat.  and  78°  49'  E.  long., 
is  well  built  with  wide  streets  and  stands  on  the  borders 
of  a  small  but  beautiful  lake,  and  has  military  canton- 
ments. Sigar  is  the  entrepot  of  the  salt  trade  with 
K.'ijputdna,  and  carries  on  a,  large  trade  with  MIrzipnr 
district  in  the  North- Western  Provinces,  importing  sugar 
and  other  grocery,  besides  English  cloth.  The  population " 
of  the  town  in  1881  was  44,416  (males  22,556,  females 
21,860). 

SAGE,  Le.     See  Le  Sage. 

SAGHALIN,  or  Sakhalin,  is  the  name  improperly 
given  to  a  large  elongated  island  in  the  North  Pacific, 
lying  between  45°  57'  and  54°  24'  N.  lat.  and  141°  30'  and 
144°  50'  E.  long.,  oflf  the  coast  of  Russian  Manchuria.  Its 
proper  name  is  Karaftu,  or  Karafuto.  It  is  separated 
from  the  mainland  by  the  narrow  and  shallow  Strait  of 
Tartary,  which  often  freezes  in  winter  in  its  narrower 
part,  and  from  Yezo  (Japan)  by  the  Strait  of  La  Perouse. 
This  island  (670  miles  long,  20  to  150  broad,  with  an 
area  of  24,560  square  miles),  about  equal  in  size  to  Belgium 
and  HoUand  together,  must  be  considered  as  a  continua- 
tion of  the  mountains  bordering  the  Manchurian  littoral. 
Its  orography  is  still  imperfectly  known.  The  present 
maps  represent  it  as  formed  of  two  parallel  ridges,  running 
north  and  south  and  reaching  from  2000  to  4000  ot  5000 
feet  (Mounts  Berniget  and  Ktous-pal)  high,  wth  two  or 
more  mde  depressions,  not  exceeding  600  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  general  configuration  of  the  littoral  and  the 
island,  however,  renders  it  more  probable  that  there  are 
three  chains  running  south-west  to  north-east,  forming 
continuations  of  those  of  the  mainland.  The  geological 
structure  of  the  island  is  also  imperfectly  known.  A  few 
crystalline  rocks  are  found  at  several  capes;  Cretaceous 
limestones  containing  a  rich  and  specific  fauna  of  gigantic 
ammonites  occur  at  Dui ;  and  Tertiary  conglomerates, 
sandstones,  marls,  and  clays,  folded  by  subsequent  up- 
heavals, are  widely  spread.  The  clays,  which  contain 
layers  of  good  coal  and  a  rich  fossil  vegetation,  show  that 
during  the  Miocene  period  Saghalin  was  part  of  a  continent 
which  comprised  both  north  Asia,  Alaska,  and  Japan,  and 
enjoyed  a  much  warmer  climate  than  now.  The  Pliocene 
deposits  contain  a  mollusc  fauna  moro  arctic  than  the 
present,  and  probably  indicating  that  the  connexion  be- 
tween the  Pacific  and  Arctic  Oceans  was  broader  than 
now.  Only  two  rivers,  the  Tym  and  the  Poronai,  are  worthy 
of  mention.  The  former,  250  miles  long,  and  navigable 
by  rafts  and  light  boats  for  60  miles  from  its  mouth, 
flows  north  and  north-cast  with  numerous  (about  100) 
rapids  and  shallows,  in  a  wild  valley  suitable  only  for 
fishing  or  hunting  settlements,  and  enters  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk  at  the  Bay  of  Nyi.  The  Poronai  flows  north  and 
then  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Patience,  a  wide  bay  on  the 
south-east  coast.  Three  other  small  streams  enter  the 
wide  semicircular  Gulf  of  Anira  at  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  island. 

Owing  to  the  cooling  influence  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk, 
the  climate  is  very  cold.  At  Uui  the  average  yearly  tem- 
perature is  only  33°'0  Fahr.  (January,  3°'4  ;  July,  6r-0), 
35°-0  at  Kusunai,  and  37°-6  at  Aniva  (January,  9°'5; 
.July,  60°'2).     A  dense  covering  of  clouds  for  the  most 


part  shuts  out  the  rays  of  the  sun ;  whilo  t^  cold  current 
issuijig  from  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  aided  by  north-east 
winds,  in  summer  brings  immense  ice-floes  to  the  cast 
coast.  The  -whole  of  the  island  is  covered  with  dense 
forests  (mostly  coniferous).  The  Ayan  fir  (^Abies  dyanensis), 
the  ^aghalin  pichta,  and  the  Daurian  larch  are  the  chief 
trees ;  and  the  upper  parts  of  the  mountains  have  the 
Siberian  rampant  cedar  {Cembra  pumUa)  and  the  Curilian 
bamboo  {Arunditiaria  kurilense),  4  feet  high  and  half  an 
inch  thick.  Birch,  both  European  and  Kamchatkan  {B. 
alba  and  B.  Ermani),  elder,  poplar,  elm,  wild  cherry  (Prunus 
padus),  Tarus  baccaia,  and  several  willows  are  mixed  with 
the  Conifers ;  while  farther  south  the  maple,  the  ash,  and 
the  oak,  as  also  the  Japanese  Panax  ricinifolium  and  the 
Amur  cork  (Philodendron  amurense),  make  their  appear- 
ance. The  number  of  phanerogamous  sjiecies  known 
reaches  690  and  may  reach  700,  of  which  only  20  are 
peculiar  to  Saghalin,  the  remainder  belonging  to  the  Amur 
and  partly  to  the  Japanese  flora.  The  fauna  of  Saghalin 
closely  resembles  that  of  the  Amur  region,  and  in  fact 
the  Siberian.  Bears,  foxes,  and  sables  are  still  numerous, 
as  also  the  reindeer  in  the  north  and  the  antelope ;  and 
tigers  are  occasionally  met  with  in  the  south.  The  avi- 
fauna is  the  common  Siberian ;  and  the  rivers  are  ex- 
ceediftgly  rich  in  fish,  especially  species  of  salmon  (Onco- 
rhynchus\  whibh  make  their  way  up  the  rivers  in  vast 
numbers  to  spawn.  The  lower  marine  fauna,  explored  by 
Schrenck,  is  also  rich,  while  numerous  whales,  not  in  high 
esteem  with  whalers,  are  met  with  on  the  sea-coast.  Otaries, 
seals,  and  dolphins  are  a  source  of  profit. 

Saghalin  has  been  inhabited  since  at  least  the  Keolithic  Stone 
Age.  Flint  implements,  exactly  like  those  of  Siberia  and  Russia, 
have  been  found  at  Dui  and  Kusunai  in  grSat  numbers,  as  well  as 

fiolished  hatchets  (of  trap,  diorite,  and  argillaceous  schists) — also 
ike  the  European  ones — primitive  pottery  with  decorations  like 
those  of  Olonetz,  and  stone  weights  for  nets.  Afterwards  came  a 
population  to  whom  bronze  was  known  ;  they  have  left  their  traces 
in  earthen  walls  and  kitchen-middens  (in  the  Bay  of  Aniva).  The 
present  inhabitants  consist  of  some  200O  Gilyaks,  2500  Ainos,  500 
Oroks,  as  many  Japanese,  and  about  6000  Russians.  The  Gilyaks, 
who  do  not  dilTer  from  those  of  the  Amur,  inhabit  the  northern  part 
of  the  island.  They  support  themselves  by  fishing  and  partly  by 
hunting,  but  suffer  from  competition  with  the  Japanese,  who  take 
possession  of  the  best  fishing-grounds.  The  Oroks,  of  Tungus  origin, 
resemble  the  Orotchons  of  the  Amur ;  they  live  by  hunting.  The 
Ainos,  who  are  still  the  subject  of  so  much  discussion  among  ethno- 
logists, are  the  aborigines  of  the  island  ;  they  are  closely  akin  to  the 
Crtrilians,  and,  like  these,  dilfer  from  all  other  Jlougolian  races  by 
their  luxuriance  of  hair  and  beard.  They  now  inhabit  only  the 
south  part  of  tha  island,  and  have  been  brought  into  a  condition  of 
slavery  by  the  Japanese,  by  whom  they  have  been  driven  out  of 
Yezo  and  Nippon,  m  both  of  which  they  were  the  aboriifines.  The 
Japanese  have  several  colonies  on  Saghalin  and  force  the  Ainos  to 
fish  and  to  collect  seaweed  for  exportation.  They  send  their  ships 
to  the  south  part  of  the  island  and  have  colonies  there,  and  also 
on  the  cast  coast,  at  the  rncmth  of  the  Tym.  The  Russians  began 
to  settle  permanently  on  Saghalin  in  1857 ;  and,  though  next  year 
posts  were  established  in  the  southern  part  of  the  island,  it  still 
continued  to  belong  to  J.ipan,  which  definitely  ceded  it  to  Russia 
in  1875.  A  scheme  having  been  lately  formed  foi  colonizing  the 
island  with  convicts,  several  thousands  have  been  trniisimrtcd 
thither,  especially  to  Dui  (Alexandrovsk),  whuru  they  are  employed 
in  coal-mining  (annual  output  from  3000  to  30,000  cwts.),  or  make 
some  attempt  at  agricnlturo ;  they  are  cither  kept  in  the  Alcx- 
androvsk  prison,  or  permitted  to  build  houses  and  *.j  eoltlo  with 
thoir  families.  Those  cfTorta  towards  colonization,  however,  en- 
counter great  ■diflicultica  from  the  quality  of  the  soil,  tlio  cultivable 
patches  occurring  hero  and  there  in  the  marshy  valley  of  the  Duika 
river,  on  the  upper  course  of  the  Tym,  and  in  tlio  bays  of  Patience 
and  Aniva.  Tlie  only  crops  that  thrive  are  various  kinds  of  kittturn 
prodnco.  The  Russian  betllemeuls  are  ut  Uui  on  tlio  west  coast, 
Malo-Tymovsk  and  Rykmsk  on  the  upper  Tym.  Korsakoff  4nd 
Muraviclfon  the  P.ay  of  Aniva. 

i/is(ory.— Saghalin,  wliioh  was  under  Chinese  dominion  until  th«. 
present  century,  became  known  to  Kuropcuns  from  the  travail  of 
.\lartin  Gcrrita  in  the  17lh  century,  and  still  bolter  from  thotc  o( 
La  rirouso  (1787)  and  Krusonstern  (1805),  who  described  l.irgo 
p.nrts  of  its  coasts.  Both,  howovcr,  rcganled  it  as  a  mere  apnrnda;,  ■ 
of  the  continent,  and  vvtie  unawam  of  tho  exiitimce  of  tho  strait  of 


148 


S  A  G  — S  A  G 


Tartary,"  which  was  discovered  a  few  years  later  by  a  Japanese,  | 
Ilainia  Rinso,  whose  discovery  is  embodied  in  Siebold's  Nippoju  I 
The  Russian  navigator  Ncvelskoi,  in  1849,  definitively  established 
the  existence  and  navigability  of  this  strait ;  since  that  time  the 
Russian  expeditions  of  Boshnyak  (1851)  and  Rimskiy- Korsakoff 
(1853)  continued  iha  explorations,  and  in  the  latter  year  a  Russian 
post  was  temporarily  established  at  Aniva  Bay.  L.  Schreuck  in 
1855-56,  and  MM.  Schmidt,  Glelin,  Brylkin,  and  Shebunin  in 
1860,  explored  the  geology,  fauna,  fl'ira,  and  ethnology  of  the  island  ; 
M.  Lopatin  in  1867  explored,  on  foot,  the  east  coast ;  MM.  Dobrot- 
vorsky  published  (1869  and  onwards)  interesting  data  as  to  the 
inhabitants,  and  M.  Polyakoff  was  entrusted  in  1881-82  with  a 
detailed  exploration,  and  retunied  with  rich  ethnological  and  zoo- 
logical collections,  with  regai-d  to  which  only  preliminary  reports 
have  as  yet  been  published.  (P.  A.  K.) 

SAGINAW,  a  city  of  tho  United  States,  capital  of 
Saginaw  county,  Michigan,  lies  on  an  elevated  plateau 
about  30  feet  above  the  water  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Saginaw  river,  which  falls  into  Saginaw  Bay  on  Lake 
Huron,  about  18  miles  lower  down.  It  is  a  railway  junc- 
tion of  some  importance,  100  miles  north-west  of  Detroit, 
is  connected  with  East  Saginaw  by  a  street  railway,  and 
can  be  reached  by  the  largest  vessels  that  ply  on  the  lake. 
The  upper  branches  of  the  river  are  also  available  for  boat 
traffic  throughout  a  considerable  district.  Saw-mills, 
planing -mills,  and  salt-works  are  the  principal  industrial 
establishments.  The  .population  was  7460  in  1870  and 
SOj-Oil  in  1880.  The  city  charter  dates  from  1859,  the 
first  settlement  from  1822. 

SAGITTA.  The  name  "  Sagitta  "  was  given  by  Martin 
Slabber  in  1775  to  a  small  marine  worm  which  is  now 
known  as  the  type  of  a  distinct  group,  the  Clt^iognatha 
(Leuckart).  The  group  comprises  two  genera  {Sagitta 
and  Spadella)  and  a  considerable  number  of  species ;  they 
are  small  transparent  pelagic  animals,  varying  in  length 
from  a  few  lines  up  to  two  inches,  and  are  universally  dis- 
tributed. The  body  (see  fig.)  is  elongated  and  furnished 
■with  a  tail  and  lateral  fins,  which  are  prolongations  of  the 
chitinous  cuticle;  the  head  is  provided  with  a  great  number 
of-  variously  shaped  chitinous  setce.  The  body  is  divided 
by  transverse  septa  into  three  distinct  segments  :  the  first 
septum  is  placed  just  behind  the  head  {st),  the  second  {st) 
about  the  middle  of  the  body,  separating  the  ovaries  and 
testes.  The  body-cavity  is  likewise  separated  into  right 
and  left  haltes  by  a  continuous  vertical  mesentery,  which 
suspends  the  gut.  The  alimentary  canal  is  a  simple 
straight  tube  of  uniform  structure  passing  from  the  mouth 
to  the  anus,  which  is  placed  veutrally  and  at  the  second 
transverse  septum  ;  the  alimentary  tube  is  ciliated  and  is 
unprovided  with  glands  of  any  kind.  The  body-wall  is 
composed  of  (1)  an  outer  layer  of  epidermis,  which  secretes 
the  chitinous  cuticle  already  referred  to, — the  thickness  of 
the  epidermis  varying  from  five  or  sis  cells  in  the  region  of 
the  head  to  a  single  layer  of  cells  in  the  "  fins  ";  (2)  a  deli- 
cate structureless  supporting  lamella ;  (3)  a  layer  of  longi- 
tudinal muscles.  These  last  have  a  peculiar  arrangement 
and  structure  :  they  are  disposed  in  four  bands,  two  dorsal 
and  two  ventral,  the  action  of  which  is  evidently  favour- 
able to  producing  the  onward  movements  of  the  creature. 
The  muscular  fibres,  which  are  transversely  striated,  are 
arranged  in  a  series  of  lamellae  whose  direction  is  per- 
pendicular to  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  body.  Projec- 
tions inward  of  the  supporting  lamella  bear  on  either  side 
a  single  row  of  muscular  fibres ;  a  similar  muscular  struc- 
ture occurs  in  the  Neniaioidea  and  in  many  Oligochaeta. 
In  the  anterior  region  of  the  body  the  muscular  layer  is 
differentiated  into  special  muscles  for  the  movement  of  the 
jetse.  (4)  The  body-cavity  is  lined  by  a  delicate  peritoneal 
epithelium  closely  applied  to  the  muscular  layer  of  the 
body-wall  and  to  the  gut.  The  nervous  system  consists 
of  a  cerebral  ganglion  and  a  large  ventral  ganglion — the 
two  united  by  commissures  which  pass  round  the  gut , 
both  ganglia  are  embedded  ia  the  epidermis.     This  primi- 


-y 


"fi  f 


-^ 


tive  condition  of  the  nervous  system  is  retained  itt  Othen 
lowly  organized  worms  {e.g.,  Poly- 
gordius).  Tho  ventral  ganglion  is 
connected  with  an  intra-epiderniic 
nervous  plexus  which  surrounds  the 
whole  body.  Eyes  are  present,  be- 
sides a  number  of  tactile  cells  upon 
the  outer  surface  of  the  body ;  an- 
teriorly is  a  ring-shaped  structure 
(r)  which  is  supposed  to  be  olfac- 
tory in  function.  The  generative 
organs  consist  of  ovaries  and  testes, 
which  are  united  in  the  same  indi- 
vidual ;  the  ovaries  (<;),  placed  an- 
terior to  the  testes,  are  furnished 
with  oviducts,  which  appear  to  ter- 
minate in  a  csecal  extremity.  The 
testes  {lio)  are  placed  behind  the 
second  septum ;  they  are  each  fur- 
nished with  a  vas  deferens  opening 
on  to  the  exterior  and  into  the 
body-cavity  by  a  ciliated  funnel. 
For  embryology,  see  Balfour,  Com- 
parative Emhrtjology,  vol.  i.  p.  303. 

In  spite  of  the  detailed  Ttnowledge 
which  we  now  possess  of  the  structure 
and  development  of  the  CItxtoijnatha,  the 
systematic  position  of  the  group  remains 
a  matter  of  tlie  greatest  uncertainty.  That 
they  are  an  archaic  gioup  is  shown  by 
their  hermaphroditism,  by  the  primitive 
condition  of  the  nervous  system,  and  by 
the  persistence  of  the  vertical  mesentery 
among  other  characters ;  in  all  these 
points  and  in  others  they  agree  with  such 
primitive  Annelida  as  Pfotodrihis'  and 
Pohjgordius.  On  the  other  hand,  their 
similarity  to  the  Kcmatoidca  has  been 
dwelt  upon ;  the  disposition  of  the  muscles 
is  the  same  in  both  groups,  aud  the  Gor. 
diaccx  have  the  gut  susjicnded  by  a  dorsal 
aud  ventral  mesenteiy  in  the  same  fashion 
as  has  been  described  above  in  Sngilla  ; 


rf' 


1—sl 


S}>adel!a  c(jjhrdo2itera 
(Biibch). 
the  Chaitognatlia  ditfer,  however,  from  the  Sf.septadividingbncly-cavity 
Ncmatoldca  m  the  imi)oi-tant  fact  of  their     trausyeiiely  ;  jz.  cerebral 
segmentation.     On  tho  whole,  it  appears 
that  'he  Chxtognatha  are  best  regarded  as 
a  special  phylum  equivalent  to  such  groups 
as  Annclida^PlahjlidmlntJLCSf  Konntoidca^ 
but  having  no  special  relation  to  any  one 
of  them. 


gangUa  ;  n^,  comniissui-o 
uuitiiig  this  with  veotral 
panglion  (not  sliown  in 
lis-)  ;  't-i  ii«^'ve  uniting 
cerebral  gaiic^lia  with  small 
gaiigUa  on  liea'l ;  Hr,  ol- 
factoiy  nerve  ;  rf,  aliment- 
ary canal ;  r,  olfactory 
oifian  ;  te,  tentacle  ;  t,  tac- 
tile bairs  springing  fVoni 
sni-race  of  boUy  ;  e,  ovary  ; 
eU  oviduct ;  /(o,  testes  ;  sg, 
vas  deferens  ;  /-,/3,  lateral 
andcauilal  fins;s't. seminal 
pouch.  The  eyes  are  indi- 
cated as  black  dnts  beluud 
the  cerebral  ganglia. 


SAGO  is  a  food-starch  prepared 
from  a  deposit  in  the  trunk  of  several 
palms,  the  principal  source  being 
the  sago  palm,  Mtlroxylon  Rumphii 
(Mart.),  aud  M:  Uve  (JIart.).  These 
palms  are  natives  of  the  East  Indian 
Archipelago,  the  sago  forests  being  especially  extensive  in 
the  island  of  Coram.  The  trees  flourish  only  in  low  marshy 
situations,  seldom  attaining  a  height  of  thirty  feet,  with  a 
thick-set  trunk.  They  attain  maturity  as  starch-yielding 
plants  at  the  age  of  about  fifteen  years,  when  the  stem  is 
gorged  with  an  enormous  mass  of  spongy  medullary  matter, 
around  which  is  an  outer  rind  consisting  of  a  hard  dense 
woody  wall  about  two  inches  thick.  When  the  fruit  is 
allowed  to  form  and  ripen,  the  whole  of  this  starchy  core 
disappears,  leaving  the  stem  a  mere  hollow  shell ;  and  the 
tree  immediately  after  ripening  its  fruit  dies.  When  ripe 
the  palms  are  cut  down,  the  stems  divided  into  Sections 
and  split  up,  and  the  starchy  pith  extracted  and  grated  to 
a  powder.  The  powder  is  then  kneaded  with  water  over 
a  strainer,  through  which  the  starch  passes,  leaving  ths 
woody  fibre  behind  The  starch  settles  in  the  bottom  of 
a  trough,  in  which  it  is  floated,  and  after  one  or  two 
washings  is  fit  for  use  by  the  natives  for  their  cakes  wai 


S  A  G  — S  A  H 


149 


■OTips.  That  intended  for  exportation  is  mixed  into  a 
^te  with  water  and  rubbed  through  sieves  into  small 
grains,  from  the  size  of  a  coriander  seed  and  larger,  whence 
it  is  known  according  to  size  as  pearl  sago,  bullet  sago, 
Ac.  A  large  proportion  of  the  sago  imported  into  Europe 
comes  from  Borneo,  and  the  increasing  demand  has  led 
to  a  large  extension  of  sago-palm  planting  along  the  marshy 
river  banks  of  Sarawak. 

Various  palms,  in  addition  to  the  two  above  named,  yield  sago, 
but  of  an  inferior  quality.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  the 
Gomuti  palm  {Arenrja  sacdiarifcra),  the  Kittul  palm  [Caryota  urais), 
the  cabbage  palm  {Conjpha  iimbraculi/cra),hcsidesCorypha  O'cbanga, 
RaphiaflabcUiformis,  Phoenix  farinifera,  and  Melroxylon  filare — all 
East  Indian  palms — and  Mauritia  Jlcxuosa  and  Guilidma  speciosa, 
two  South-American  species.  The  imports  of  sago  into  the  United 
Kingdom  for  1884  amounted  to  346,188  cni;.,  valued  at  £195,680, 
the  whole  of  which,  excepting  less  than  300  tons,  is  entered  as  coming 
from  the  Sti'aits  Settlements. 

SAGUNTUM,  an  ancient  city  of  Hispania  Tarraco- 
nensis,  was  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Pallantias 
(Paldncia).  It  was  the  centre  of  a  fertile  district  and  was 
a  rich  trading  place  in  early  times,  but  owes-its  celebrity 
to  the  desperate  resistance  it  made  to  Hannibal  (see  vol 
li.  p.  441).  The  Romans  restored  the  city  and  made  it  a 
colony;  later  writers  speak  of  its  figs,  which  were  esteemed 
at  Rome,  and  of  its  earthenware,  which  enjoyed  a  certain 
reputation.  The  most  important  remains  are  those  of  the 
theatre. 

The  modern  Sagunto  or  Murviedro  {muri  veteres),  18 
miles  by  rail  from  Valencia  on  the. line  to  Tarragona,  is 
now  about  3  miles  from  the  sea ;  the  population  within 
the  municipal  boundaries  was  6287  in  1877. 
iS^  SAHARA  is  the  great  desert  region  which  stretches 

°}-  *••  across  the  continent  of  Africa  eastwards  from  the  Atlantic 
for  a  considerable  distance  on  both  sides  of  the  Tropic  of 
Cancer,  and  is  generally  distinguished  by  aridity  of  soil, 
absence  of  running  water,  dryness  of  atmosphere,  and 
comparative  scarcity  of  vegetable  and  animal  life.  The 
physical  limits  of  this  region  are  in  some  directions  marked 
trith  great  precision,  as  in  part  of  Morocco  and  Algeria, 
where  the  southern  edge  of  the  Atlas  range  looks  out  on 
what  has  almost  the  appearance  of  a  boundless  sea,  and 
forms,  as  it  were,  a  bold  coast-line,  whose  sheltered  bays 
and  commanding  promontories  are  occupied  by  a  series  of 
towns  and  villages — Tizgi,  Figlg,  Laghouat,  &c.  In  other 
directions  the  boundaries  are  vague,  conventional,  and  dis- 
puted. This  is  especially  the  case  towards  the  south, 
where  the  desert  sometimes  comes  to  a  close  as  suddenly 
as  if  it  had  been  cut  off  with  a  knife,  but  at  other  times 
merges  gradually  and  irregularly  into  the  well-watered  and 
fertile  lands  of  the  Sudan  (Soudan).  While  towards  the 
east  the  valley  of  the  Nile  at  first  sight  seems  to  afford 
a  natural  frontier,  the  characteristics  of  what  is  usually 
called  the  Nubian  or  Arabian  desert  are  so  identical  in 
most  respects  with  those  of  the  Sahara  proper  that  some 
authorities  extend  this  designation  over  the  whole  country 
to  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  desert,  indeed,  does 
not  end  with  Africa,  but  is  prolonged  eastwards  through 
Arabia  towards  the  desert  of  Sind.  As  the  Nubian  region 
has  been  described  under  the  heading  Ndbia  (vol.  xvii.  p. 
610),  attention  will  in  the  present  article  bo  confined  to 
the  desert  country  west  of  the  Nile  valley.  Even  as 
thus  defined  the  Sahara  is  estimated  to  have  an  area  of 
3,56.5,565  square  miles,  or  nearly  as  much  as  all  Europe 
■minus  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  and  Iceland  ;  but,  while 
Europe  supports  a  population  of  327,000,000,  the  Sahara 
probably  does  not  contain  more  than  2,5OO,O0O,— a  figure, 
howevcT,  which  is  sufficiently  startling  to  thoso  who  think 
of  it  as  an  uninhabitable  expanse  of  sand.  The  sea-like 
aspect  of  certain  portions  of  the  Sahara  has  given  rise  to 
jnuch  popular  misconception,  and  has  even  affected  the 
ideas  and  phraseology  of  scientific  writers.      Instead  of 


being  a  boundless  plain  broken  only  by  wave-like  mounds 
of  sand  hardly  more  stable  and  little  less  dangerous  than 
the  waves  of  ocean,  the  Sahara  is  a  region  of  the  most 
varied  surface  and  irregular  relief,  ranging  in  altitude  from 
100  feet  below  to  some  5000  or  6000  or  even  it  may  be 
8000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and,  besides  sand-dunes  and 
oases,  containing  rocky  plateaus,  vast  tre.cts  of  loose  stones 
and  pebbles,  ranges  of  hills  of  the  most  dissimilar  types, 
and  valleys  through  which  abundant  watercourses  must 
once  have  flowed. 

The  culminating  points  of  the  Sahara  are  probably  the 
summits  of  the  Ahaggar  (Hoggar),  a  great  mountain 
plateau,  not  inferior  to  .the  Alps  in  the  area  which  it 
coders,  crossing  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  about  5°  and  6°  E. 
long.,  almost  midway  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  valley 
of  the  Nile.  In  its  central  mass  rise  with  red  steep  cliffs 
two  peaks,  Watellen  and  Hikena,  which  Duveyrier  believes 
to  be  volcanic  like  those  of  Auvergne.  The  height  ot 
this  country  hac  not  been  ascertained  by  direct  Europeaa 
observation,  but  may  bo  gathered  from  the  fact  that 
according  to  the  Tuareg  the  snow  lies  for  three  months 
of  the  year,  from  December  to  March.  To  the  •  north- 
west, and  separated  from  tie  Atakor-'n- Ahaggar  by  (^ 
wide  plain,  rises  the  ^Muydir  plateau,  lying  nearly  east 
and  west  for  a  distance  of  about  200  miles.  Its  north- 
eastern extremity  is  extended  towards  Timassinin  by  tha 
Irawen  Mountains,  which  in  their  turn  are  separated  bj 
a  narrow  valley  from  the  Tasili  plateau  (strictly  Tasili  of 
the  Asjer  or  Asgar).  Tliis  great  plateau  stretches  south- 
east for  300  miles  parallel  i\ith  the  Atakor-'n- Ahaggar 
(from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Amadghor  and  Adaroar 
plains),  and  then  the  line  of  elevation  is  continued  by  'ow 
ridges  to  the  Tummo  or  War  Mountains,  and  so  onwards 
to  the  highland  country  of  Tibesti  or  Tu,  whoso  highest 
point,  Tusidde,  is  7880  feet  above  the  sea-level,  while  its 
south-eastern  eminences  gradually  die  away  in  the  direction 
of  Wadai  and  Darfor  (Darfur).  About  midway  between 
Tibesti  and  the  Niger  rises  the  isolated  mountain  mass  of 
Air  or  Asben,  in  which  Dr  Erwin  von  Bary '  discovered 
the  distinct  volcanic  crater  of  Teginjir  with  a  vast  lava-bed 
down  its  eastern  side.  By  some  this  country  is  assigned 
to  the  Sudan,  as  it  lies  within  the  limit  of  the  tropical 
rains  ;  but  the  districts  farther  south  have  all  the  character- 
istics of  the  desert.  The  low  but  extensive  plateau  of 
Adghagh  lies  between  Air  and  the  Niger.  Away  to  the 
north-east,  in  the  country  of  Fezzan  (q.v.),  are  the  dark 
mountains  of  Jebel  es-S6da,  which  are  continued  south-east 
towards  Kufra  by  the  similar  range  of  the  Haruj  ;  and  in 
the  extreme  south-west  at  no  great  distance  from  the 
Atlantic  is  the  hilly  country  of  Adrar  (Aderer). 

Nearly  all  the  rest  of  the  Sahara  consists  in  the  main 
of  undulating  surfaces  of  rock  (distinguished  as  hammada)' 
vast  tracts  of  water-worn  pebbles  (serir),  and  regionso^ 
sandy  dunes  (variously  called  maghter,  erg  or  arcg*igidi 
and  in  the  east  rhart),  which,  according  to  M.  Pome!,' 
occupy  about  one-ninth  or  one-tenth  of  the  total  area.' 
The  following  is  the  general  distribution  of  the  dunes.' 
From  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  south  of  Capo  Blanco  a 
broad  belt  extends  north-east  for  a  distance  of  about  1 300 
miles,  with  a  breadth  varying  from  50  to  300  miles.  This 
is  usually  called  the  Igidi  or  Gidi,  from  the  Berber  word 
for  dunes.  Eastward  it  is  continued  to  the  south  of 
Algeria  and  Tunis  by  tho  Western  Erg  and  the  Eastera 
Erg,  separated  by  a  narrow  belt  at  Golea.  To  tho  soudi 
of  tho  Eastern  Erg  (which  extends  as  far  north  oa  flio 
neighbourhood  of  tho  Lesser  S>Tti3)  tho  continuity  of -the 
sandy  tract  is  completely  broken  by  tho  Uammada  al- 
Homra  (or  Red  Rock  Plateau),  but  to  tho  south  of  Uiia 
region  lie  the  dunes  of  Edeycn,  which,  with  slight  inter- 


•  ZeilKhri/l/iir  Erdkundt;  1880i 


J50 


S  A  H  A.R  A 


ruptions,  ertend  to  Murziik  (Morziilj).  To  the  south  of 
the  hammada  of  Murzuk  the  dunes  of  Murzuk  stretch 
away  south-east.  Looked  at  in  its  entirety,  this  series  of 
tracts  may  be  called  the  northern  zone ;  it  forms  a  kind 
of  bow,  with  its  extremities  respectively  at  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Libyan  Desert  and  its  apex  in  the  south  of  Tunis. 
In  the  south  are  the  Juf,^  covering  a  vast  area  to  the 
south-east  of  the  middle  portion  of  the  Igidi,  another  area 
between  the  Adghagh  plateau  and  the  TasUi  wan  Ahaggar, 
and  a  third  between  Air  and  Tibesti.  Away  to  the  east 
in  the  Libyan  Desert  is  a  vast  region  of  dunes  of  unascer- 
tained limits.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  sands 
do  not  entirely  cover  the  areas  assigned  to  them  in  the 
ordinary  maps,  which  are  of  too  small  a  scale  to  show  the 
interchange  of  different  kinds  of  surface.  In  the  Eastern 
Erg  especially  the  dunes  lie  in  long  lines  in  a  north-north- 
west and  south-south-east  direction,  presenting  a  gradual 
slope  to  windward  and  an  abrupt  descent  to  leeward. 
There  they  are  generally  about  60  or  70  feet  high,  but  in 
other  parts  of  the  Sahara  they  are  said  to  attain  a  height 
of  upwards  of  300  feet.  The  true  dune  sand  is  remarkable 
for  the  uniformity  of  its  composition  and  the  geometrical 
regularity  of  its  grains,  whi  h  measure  less  than  03937 
inch.^  While  individually  these  appear  crystalline  or 
reddish  yellow  (from  the  presence  of  iron),  they  have  in 
the  mass  a  rich  golden  hue.  According  to  il.  Tissandier's 
examination,  animal  organisms,  sach  as  the  microscopic 
shells  of  Rhizopoda,  so  abundant  in  sea-sand,  are  strik- 
ingly absent.  Under  the  influence  of  the  wind  the  surface 
of  the  dunes  is  subject  to  continual  change,  but  in  the 
mass  they  have  attained  such  a  state  of  comparative 
equilibrium  that  their  topographic  distribution  may  be 
considered  as  permanent,  and  some  of  them,  such  as  Gern 
(Peak)  al-Shiif  and  Gern  Abd-al-Kader,  to  the  south  cf 
Grolea,  have  names  of  their  own.  The  popular  stories 
about  caravans  and  armies  being  engulfed  in  the  moving 
sands  are  quite  apocryphal,  but  there  is  abundant  evidence 
against  the  theory  of  M.  Vatoune  as  to  the  dunes  having 
been  formed  in  situ.  To  understand  their  origin  it  is 
necessary  to  glance  at  the  general  geology  of  the  Sahara, 
■which,  however,  in  this  aspect,  is  only  known  in  detail  to 
the  south  of  Algeria  and  along  the  routes  of  the  Rohlfs  ex- 
pedition (1873-74,  Dr  Zitte!)  and  that  of  Dr  Lenz  (1880). 
Granite,  which,  along  with  gneiss  and  raica  schists,  seems  to  be 
the  prevailing  rock  in  the  highlands  of  Air  (Von  Bmy),  comes  to 
the  surface  more  or  less  sporadically  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Al- 
Eglab  and  in  the  Admr  districts  in  the  south-west.  Gneiss  and 
mica  schists  are  probably  the  main  materials  of  the  Ahaggar 
plateau.  Volcanic  rocks  (basalt,  &c.)  form  the  mountain  masses 
of  Jebel  es-S6da  and  the  Haruj-;  In  Air  they  break  through  the 
granite  and  other  rocks  in  a  very  erratic  fashion.  Slates  and  quai-tz- 
ite  (possibly  Silurian,  according  to  Lenz),  which  play  so  great  a 
part  in  Senegambia,  appear  to  the  north  of  the  Senegal,  along  the 
edge  of  the  desert,  and  crop  out  again  in  Adi-ar,  on  the  eastern 
borders  of  the  Juf,  and  to  the  east  of  Wady  Sus.  An  immense 
tract  from  Adrar  north-east  to  the  borders  of  Algeria  seems  to  be 
occupied  by  Devonian  and  Carboniferous  formations,  the  character- 
istic fossils  of  which  frequently  show  on  the  surface  ;  farther  east 
these  rocks  are  covered  hy  Cretaceous  and  Quaternary  deposits, 
though  they  again  appear  in  the  Muydir  and  Tasih  plateaus  (M. 
Roche's  report^).  The  development  of  the  Cretaceous  system  ia 
altogether  one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  Saharan  geology,  its 
extreme  limits  being  the  coasts  of  the  Atlantic  and  the  Red  Sea,  and 
the  area  occupied  by  it  in  the  Algerian  Sahara  alone  being  equal 
to  the  whole  of  France.  In  the  Algerian  Sahara  the  Cretaceous 
rocks  are  covered  by  no  later  sediments,  with  the  exception  of 
certain  Quaternary  deposits,  but  in  the  Libyan  Desert  Tcrtiaiy 
deposits  are  abundant,  though,  according  to  Zittel,  there  is  no 
sharp  distinction  between  Cretaccons  and  Tertiary,  the  one  seem- 

'  This  name,  meanirig  the  "depression,"  has  lonj  been  in  use,  bnt 
»f pears  to  be  a  misnomer ;  the  lowest  point  in  Ltnz's  route,  which, 
however,  only  crossed  the  cast  end  of  the  Juf,  was  400  feet  above 
the  dea, 

'  See  Holland,  in  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  giol.  de  Fmnct,  1881,  and  iJeruc 
Scioit-fulue,  1881. 

*  Cuiiptcs  Hcndiis,  Acad,  dts  S.-Uncts. 


iiig  (certain  palocological  characteristics  apart)  to  pass  gradually 
into  the  other.  Eocene  liniestoucs,  rich  in  nnmniulites  aud  oper- 
cnlines,  stretch  south  and  east  from  the  oasis  of  Siwa  and  are  well 
seen  in  the  cliffs  enclosing  the  depressed  oasal  areas  which  sink 
down  to  the  Cretaceous  rocks.  To  the  south  of  Farafreh  extends 
a  vast  tract  of  Nubian  sandstone. 

In  all  parts  of  the  Sahara  there  is  evidence  of  denudation  carried 
ont  on  a  scale  of  uunsual  ma^nitndc.  The  present  surface  of  the 
desert  has  been  exposed  to  the  protracted  wear  and  te.ir  of  the 
elements.  But  to  determine  the  exact  method  by  which  the  ele- 
ments have  done  their  work  has  hitherto  pro\'ed  beyond  the  power 
of  science.  The  supei-ficial  obseiTer  is  at  once  tempted  to  accept 
the  theory  of  submaHne  denudation  :  the  Sahara  is  still  the  "  dried 
bed  of  a  sea  "  in  even  such  text-books  as  Professor  Huxley's  Phxjsio- 
(jraphy  and  Stanford's  Compendium  of  GeogrnjJty.  The  sand-dunes, 
the  salt  efflorescence  and  deposits,  and  the  local  occurrence  of  certain 
modem  marine  molluscs  all  go  to  help  the  hjpothesis  of  a  diluvial 
sea.  But  a  more  extensive  acquauitance  with  Saharan  character- 
istics shows  that  snch  a  sea  for  tne  Sahara  as  a  whole  is  impossible. 
The  denndation  must  probably  be  explained  as  due  to  the  combined 
action  of  fresh  water  and  atmospheric  agencies.  Even  at  present 
the  Sahara  is  not  so  destitute  as  has  been  sujiposed  of  fresh  water. 
Though  rain  is  one  of  the  rarest  phenomena  of  the  lowlands,  the 
mountains  on  its  northern  borders  and  the  central  highlands  are 
both  regions  of  precipitation,  aud  discharge  their  surplus  waters 
into  the  hollows.  A  glance  at  a  good  physical  map  of  the  Sahara 
shows  in  fact  the  skeleton  of  a  regular  river  system.  From  the 
north  side  of  the  Atakor-'n- Ahaggar,  for  instance,  begins  Wady 
Igharghar,  which,  ninning  northwards  between  the  Tasili  plateau 
and  the  Irawen  Uountauis,  appears  to  lose  itself  in  the  sands  of 
the  Eastern  Erg,  but  can  be  distinctly  traced  northwards  for 
hundreds  of  miles.  Its  bed  contains  rolled  fragments  of  lava  and 
freshwater  shells  [Ci/mia  and  Planoibis).  In  a  lino  almost  parallel 
to  Wady  Igharghar  Wady  llya  descends  from  the  plateau  of 
Tademayt,  aud  shows  the  importance  of  its  ancient  current  by  deep 
erosion  of  the  Cretaceous  rocks,  in  which  a  large  number  of  left- 
hand  tributaries  have  also  left  theh  inark.  Away  in  the  far  east 
of  the  Libyan  Desert  Dr  Zittel  discovered  stalactite  caves  in  the 
limestone.  The  r|uestion  arises.  What  has  become  of  the  abundant 
water-supply  which  fillet!  the  wadics  aud  hollowed  out  the  caves? 
Recent  discoveries  in  the  Algcri.in  Sahara  suggest  that  part  of  the 
water  circulation  has  become  subterranean.  The  streams  horn  the 
Atlas  which  seem  to  be  absorbed  in  the  sands  of  the  desert  evidently 
find  a  series  of  underground  reservoirs  or  basins  capable  of  being 
tapped  by  artesian  wells  over  very  extensive  areas.  As  Olympio- 
dorus  (quoted  by  Photius)  meutions  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Sahara  used  to  make  excavations  from  100  to  120  feet  deep,  out  of 
which  jits  of  pure  water  rose  in  columns,  it  is  clear  that  this  stato 
of  matters  is  historically)  cf  ancient  date.  Since  1856  theFrencii 
engineers  have  carried  o:i  a  spries  of  borings  which  have  resulted 
in  :be  fertilising  of  extensive  tracts  ;  between  1856  aud  1879  155 
wells  were  bored  in  the  province  of  Constautine  alone.  lu  AVady 
Rir',  which  runs  for  80  miles  towards  the  south-west  of  the 
Shott  llelrir  (comp.  infra),  the  water-beaiiiig  stratum  is  among 
permeable  sands,  which  are  covered  to  a  depth  of  200  feet  by 
impermeable  marls,  by  which  the  water  is  kejrt  under  pressure. 
The  wells,  vai^ying  much  in  their  discharge  and  "head,"  give  a 
total  of  3  6  cubic  metres  per  second  at  an  average  temperature  of 
25°'l  Fabr.  A  similar  artesian  zone  exists  between  Negnssa  and 
Wargla.  Connexions  probably  exist  with  subteri-ancan  water-sup- 
plies iu  the  mountains  to  the  north.  That  in  some  way  the  water 
in  the  artesian  reservoirs  is  kept  aerated  is  shown  by  the  existence 
below  ground  of  fishes,  crabs,  and  freshwater  molluscs,  all  of  which 
were  ejected  by  the  well  called  Mezer  in  AVadj'  Rir'.  Hitherto 
those  subterranean  basins  have  been  verified  only  in  a  comparatively 
limited  area  (the  whole  expanse  of  the  Sahara  being  considered).; 
but  the  same  phenomena  are  probably  repeated  to  some  extent  in 
other  regions.'  The  oases  are  of  course  proofs  of  the  presence  of 
a  steady  supply  of  underground  moisture,  for  vegetation  under  the 
Saharan  climate  is  exceptioually  thirsty. 
]  Everything  considerra,  it  may  therefore  be  assumed  that  the 
desert  formerly  possessed  a  suiface  circulation  of  water  capable  of 
I  aiding  in  the  processes  of  disintegration,  removal,  and  deposition. 
I  Since  the  water  disap]jeared  other  ageuciefe  have  been  at  work.  The 
i  surface  of  the  rocks,  heated  by  the  eui»  and  suddenly  chilled  by 
'  rapid  radiation  over  night,  gets  fractured  and  crumbled  ;  elsewhere 
the  cliffs  have  been  scored  and  the  sand  thus  formed  is  at  once 
turned  by  the  wind  into  an  active  instrument  of  abrasion.  In  many 
j  places  it  has  planed  the  flat  rocks  of  the  hammada  as  smooth  as 
I  ice.  Elsewhere  it  has  scored  the  vertical  faces  of  the  chffs  with 
curious  imitations  of  glacial  striation,  and  helped  to  undercut  the 
pillar-  or  table-like  eminences  which,  under  the  name  of  gurs  or 
I  "witnesses,"  are  among  the  most  familiar  products  of  Saharan 
erosion.    The  softer  quarti  rocks  of  the  Quaternary  and  Cretaceous 

•  See  Rolland,  "Le  regime  des  eanx  artilsiennes  de  I'Oued  Rir  et  da 
'  B.13  Sahara,"  iu  Com]).  Rend.,  Acad,  des  Sc,  Sept.  1885. 


S  A  H  —  tt  A  H 


151 


series  (and  according  to  Zittel  especially  tbc  Nubian  sandstone)  have 
been  made  to  yield  the  sand  which,  drifted  and  sifted  by  the  winds, 
has  taken  on  the  fonii  of  dunes.  The  slightest  breeze  .is  enough 
to  make  the  surface  "smoke"  with  duist  ;  and  at  times  the  weird 
singing  of  the  sands,  waxing  louder  and  louder,  tells  the  scientific 
traveller  that  the  motion  is  not  confined  to  the  superlicial  particles.' 
How  important  a  part  the  winds  may  play  in  the  redistribution  of 
the  lighter  particles  is  probably  shown  by  the  clouds  of  red  dust 
■which  were  noticed  by  tdrisi  as  frccjuently  obscuring  the  Atlantic 
sky  between  Cape  Verd  and  the  American  coast,  and  which  have 
recently  been  referred  by  Dr  Gustav  Hellemann  to  the  African 
Sahara,  whence  Professor  Tacchini  also  derives  the  similar  clouds 
of  dust  observed  in  many  parts  of  Italy  (corap.  Tchihatchef). 

But  even  such  a  river-system  as  that  supposed  combined  with  all 
conceivable  atmospheric  agencies  would  only  account  for  the  minor 
phenomena  of  erosion.  Dr  Zittel  in  dealing  with  the  Libyan  Desert 
finda  it  necessary  to  assume  violent  freshwater  floods  pioceeding 
from  the  south,  though,  as  he  confesses,  this  only  shifts  the  diffi- 
culty a  stage  fmther  back,  aa  it  involves  an  enormous  change  of 
climate.  To  render  such  a  change  of  climate  a  probable  hypothesis 
various  recent  speculations  combine  ;  and  Dr  Theobald  Fischer  and 
Dr  Oscar  Fraas  agree  in  believing  that  the  desiccation  has  markedly 
increased  in  historic  times.  Evidence  derived  from  ancient  monu- 
ments combined  with  the  statements  of  Herodotus  and  Pliny  are 
lield  to  prove  that  the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  and  the  crocodile 
existed  in  North  African  regions  where  the  environment  is  now 
utterly  alien,  and  on  the  other  hand  that  the  camel  is  a  late  intro- 
duction. Humboldt  sought  to  attribute  the  desiccation  of  the  desert 
region  of  Asia  and  Africa  to  the  effects  of  the  north-east  trade-wind  ; 
but  Dr  Lenz,  who  points  out  that  in  North  Africa  the  wind  seldom 
blows  from  the  north-east  but  generally  from,  the  north  or  north- 
west' (the  latter  of  course  from  the  Atlantic,  in  the  western  parts, 
but  farther  east  from  the  European  regions  of  precipitation),  argues 
that  one  of  the  principal  causes  has  been  the  destruction  of  the  forests 
ou  the  highlands.  The  dry  winds  from  the  Sahara  are  known  in 
Europe  as  the  Scirocco  and  the  Fohn  or  Fon. 

Botanically  the  Sahara  is  the  meeting-ground  of  representatives 
of  the  "Mediterranean"  and  the  "Tropical"  floras  which  have  man;. 
aged  to  accommodate  themselves  to  the  peculiar  climatic  conditions. 
The  Hne  of  demarcation  between  the  two  floral  areas,  almost  coin- 
ciding in  the  west  with  tho  Tropic  of  Cancer  and  in  the  east  dipping 
south  towards  the  meridian  of  Lake  Tchad,  assigns  by  far  the  greater 
portion  of  the  area  to  "Mediterranean"  influences.'  Uniformity, 
in  spite  of  difl'erences  of  altitude  and  soil,  is  a  general  characteristic 
of  the  vegetation,  which  outsiile  of  the  oases  consists  mainly  of 
plants  with  a  tufty  dry  stiff  habit  of  growth.  Tho  oases  are  the 
special  homo  of  the  date-palm,  of  which  there  are  about  4,000,000 
in  the  Algerian  oases  alone.  In  company  with  this  tree,  without 
which  life  in  the  Sahara  would  be  practically  impossible,  are  grown 
apples,  peaches,  oranges,  citrons,  figs,  giapes,  pomegranates,  kc. 
During  the  months  from  December  to  March  wheat,  barley,  and 
other  northern  grain  crops  are  successfully  cultivated  and  in  the 
hotter  season  rice,  diikhn,  durra,  and  other  tropical  products. 
Altogether  tho  oasal  flora  has  considerable  variety  ;  thirty-nine 
species  are  knowi-  from  the  ICufra  group,  forty-eight  from  the 
Aujila  group. 

Zoologically  the  Sahara  is  also  a  debatable  territory,  partly 
Mediterranean,  partly  Tropical.  Apart  from  the  domestic  animals 
(camels,  asses,  &c.,  and  very  noticeably  a  black  breed  of  cattle  in 
Adrar),  the  list  of  fifteen  mammals  comprises  the  jerboa,  the  fonnek 
or  fox,  the  jackal,  the  sand  rat  {rsamiiiomi/a  obesiia),  the  hare,  tho 
wild  ass,  and  three  species  of  antelope.  In  Borku,  Air,_&c.,  baboons, 
hysnas,  and  mountain  sheep  are  not  uncommon.  Without  count- 
ing migratory  visitants,  about  eighty  species  of  birds  have  been 
registered— tho  ostrich,  the  Ceiihilauda  dcscrli  or  descrt-lark 
(\Tiiich  often  surprises  the  traveller  with  its  song),  Embcri-M 
Salmrm,  throe  species  of  Dromolca,  &c.  Tortoises,  lizards,  chame- 
leons, geckos,  skinka,  ic,  of  fifteen  dilTerent  species  were  collected 
by  the  single  Rohlfa  expedition  of  1873-74  ;  the  serpents  compriso 
the  horned  viper,  PsammophU  sibilmis,  Cculopi-ltia  laecrtina,  tho 
python,  and  several  other  species.  Tho  edible  frog  also  occurs. 
Cyprinodon  dispar,  a  fish  not  unlike  CypTinodon  calaritanus,  is 
found  in  all  the  brackish  waters  of  north  Sahara  and  swarms  in  tho 
lake  of  tho  Siwa  oasis.  Tho  bnno-shrimp  has  been  described  in 
the  article  Fkzzan. 

The  present  popul.ation  of  the  Sahara  consists  almost  exclusively 
of  Arabs,  Berbers,  and  Negro  tribes.  Tho  Berbers  (Tuarc;^  tr 
Tuarik,  &c.)  occupy  the  west  central  region  almost  exclusively, 
appear  sporadically  in  tho  western,  and  stretch  northwards  into 
Jlorocco  and  Algeria  ;  the  Negro  tribes  form  a  compact  block  in 
the  east  central  region  northwards  anil  nnrth-east^vard3  fiom  Lake 

'  See  Leuz's  chapter  on  tliiti  pbenotnonon. 

'  Comp.  Derrucagaix,  "  Lo  sud  de  la  tiroviuco  d'Oran,"  in  B\U  da  la 
Soc.  dc  aiogr.,  Paris,  1873. 
'  Comp.   Drude,  Florcnreicht  dcr  Erde,  1834  :    lud  CoMon,  Com- 

gendiiiiii,  Fli/ro!  AtUiiUica:,  1881,  &c 


Tchad  ;  and  tho  Arabs  are  in  possession  of  all  therost  of  the  country. 
Politically  the  Sahara  belongs  partly  to  Morocco  (Ta&let,  &c.), 
partly  to  Algeria  and  Tunis  (and  thus  to  France),  and  partly  to  the 
Turkish  empire  (Tripolis,  Egypt,  &c.).  France  especially  has  been 
steadily  pushing  south  witli  the  purpose  of  forming  a  junction 
ultimately  with  uer  colony  on  the  Senegal.  The  spirit  of  independ- 
ence among  the  Mohammedan  populations  has  neen  crystallized 
and  stimulated  by  the  remarkable  coufratemity  of  Sidi  Mohammed 
ben  'Ali  es-Sonusi,  founded  about  1837,  and  now  possessing  aboat 
120  convents  or  zawiga  (mostly  in  the  Saharan  region),  with  its 
headquarters  at  Jerabub.*  With  this  organization  the  French  have 
already  come  into  conflict  in  their  southward  progress.  To  estab- 
lish their  influence  they  proiwse  the  construction  of  a  trans-Saharan 
railway  and  the  opening  up  of  the  region  to  the  south  of  Algeria 
and  Tunis  by  the  construction  of  an  inland  sea.  According  to 
M.  Koudaire,  the  author  and  protagonist  of  this  scheme,  which  is 
familiarly  but  decepti%'ely  styled  the  "flooding  of  the  Sahara,"* 
it  is  possible  by  proper  engineering  works  to  create  an  inland  sea 
to  the  south  of  Algeria  and  Tunis  with  an  average  depth  of  73  feet 
and  an  area  of  3100  square  miles,  or  about  fourteen  times  the  size 
of  tho  Lake  of  Geneva.  A  Government  commission  decided  that 
the  excavation  of  the  necessary  canal  would  not  be  difficult,  and 
that,  in  spito  of  siltingup  processes,  the  work  would  at  least  last 
1000  to  1500  years.  M.  de  Lcjsi-ps,  U.  Roudaire's  principal  sup- 
porter, visited  the  district  in  1883  and  reported  that  the  canal 
would  cost  five  years"  labour  and  150,000,000  francs.  The  scheme, 
which  has  met  with  persistent  hostility  on  the  part  of  M.  Cosson 
and  others,  is  based  on  the  following  facts.  Tho  Gulf  of  Gabes 
is  separated  by  a  lidgo  13  miles  across  and  150  feet  high  from  Shott 
al-Fejej,  a  depression  which  extends  south-west  into  the  Shott 
Jerid,  which  in  ita  turn  is  separatrd  from  the  Shott  Rharsa  only 
by  a  still  narrower  ridge.  Shott  Rharsa  is  succteded  westwards 
by  a  series  of  smaller  depressions  aad  beyond  them  lies  the  Shott 
Melrir,  whoso  north-west  end  is  not  far  from  the  town  of  Biskra. 
■\\liat  we  know  about  such  inland  seas  as  the  Caspian  and  the  Aral 
seems  to  cast  serious  doubt  on  tho  probability  of  any_  increase  of 
the  rainfall  in  the  Sahara  by  tho  formation  of  Roudaire's  sea. 

The  commerce  of  tho  Sahara  is  not  inconsiderable.  Among  tho 
more  important  trade  routes  arc— (1)  from  Morocco  to  Cairo  by 
Insalah  and  Ghadames,  which  is  followed  by  the  pUgrima  of 
Western  Africa  bound  for  Jlecca  ;  (2)  from  Euka  to  Murzuk  and 
Tripolis;  (3)  from  the  Sudan  to  Tripolis  by  Air  and  Ghat;  (4)  from 
Timbuktu  to  Insalah,  Ghadames,  and  Tripolis  ;  (5)  from  Timbuktu 
to  Insalah  and  thcuce  to  Algeria  and  Tunis  ;  (6)  from  Timbuktu 
to  Morocco.  Tho  two  great  products  are  dates  and  salt.  Full 
details  of  the  date  trade  will  be  found  in  Fischer's  Die  Daitelpalme, 
1831.  Tho  principal  sources  of  salt  are  tho  rock-salt  deposits  of 
the  Juf  (especially  Tandcui),  the  lakes  of  Kufra,  and  the  rock-salt 
and  brine  of  Kawar  (Bilma). 

See,  bosidos  the  works  already  (inited,  Vatonne,  Mixion  d«  ClWirfoiw^  1883 ; 
Duveyrlor,  Lea  Tmiaruis  d:i  Nord,  lti04  ;  Ville,  Erplor.  geoloiique  dit  ilzab,  tc, 
ISO-  •  Pomd,  U  Saliara,  1SV2  ;  Uolilfs,  Qucr  dnnh  AfrLln  (1874),  Drci  MonaU 
in  Ubyxhrii  Ifiistc  (ISTS),  acd  Kvfm  (IMl) ;  Larjeau,  U  rxiys  dt  Kirlia^pwirgla, 
1879  ■  Nachtii-al,  SdMrd  tind  SidUn,  2  vols.,  IbT'J  ;  nolland,  "Lo  Cretic*  du 

-     ■        -       ■  ■•  '   -'         '         • »  .1-- *-•—*-->  a-i>«"i),  In  ilit//.  a* 

■d.  da  C*ol(», 


Siiliara  Septentrional"  (with  geological  map  of  tho  Ceutnil  Sahara),  la  Bull,  dt 
la  Son  Ciol.  de  Frana,  1831 ;  Roudaire,  Itapport  sur  la  (krnihre  tivfd.  des  CItolts, 
J8S1  (and  other  reiiorts  by  tho  aamo  aattior) ;  Tchihatchef,  "Tho  Descrta  of 


Africa  and  Asia,"  in  Brtlish  AssocinUm  Reports  (Southampton,  18S2);  Derrij 
cacaix,  "Eiplor.  du  Siihara :  Los  ilcux  missions  da  Lieut-Ccloncl  Flattora, 
In  Ball,  dc  la  m'-..  dc  Giogr.,  ISSa  ;  Lvnz,  Timh^klu  :  Rcisc  dnrch  ilarokKO,  <fc., 
ISS ; ;  and  Iteclus,  ^ou».  alograjpKte  Univ.,  il.,  18S0,  wUlch  contains  an  admir- 
able rhtmi.  (H.  A.  W.) 

SAHARANPUR,  or  Sehaetjotoor,  a  British  district  or 
India,  in  the  Meerut  division  of  the  lieutonaat-govemor- 
ship  of  tho  North -Western  Provinces.  It  lies  betweeti 
29''' 35'  and  30°  21'  N.  lat.,  aud  between  77°  9'  and  78'  15' 
E.  long.,  and  is  bounded  on  tho  N.  by  the  Siw.'ilik  Hills, 
separating  it  from  the  district  of  Dehra  Diin,  on  the  S.  by 
the*  district  of  Muzaffarnagor,  on  tho  E.  by  the  Ganges, 
and  on  tho  W.  by  tho  Juinna.  SahAranpur  forms  the  most 
northerly  portion  of  tho  Doib,  or  alluvial  tableland,  which 
stretches  between  tho  valleys  of  the  Ganges  and  tho  Jumna.' 
The  Siwilik  Hills  rise  precipitously  on  its  northern  fron- 
tier ;  at  their  base  stretches  a  wild  submontane  tract,  wth 
muc'h  forest  and  junglo.  Cultivation  generally  iu  thii 
part  is  backward,  tho  surface  of  tho  country  being  broken 
by  wild  and  magniiiccnt  ravines.  South  of  this  tract, 
llaukcd  on  the  east  and  wcot  by  broad  alluvial  plains,  lies 
tho  Doab,  with  fertile  soil  and  good  natural  watcr-suiiply. 
This  portion  of  tho  country  is  divided  into  paraUel  tracts 

'  See  lilt  in  Duvoyricr'a  paper,  !i:d!.  de  U  5<v.  rf«  fi',<(.^.,_1884. 

'  In  this  connexion  it  is  cnou>;h  to  incntiin  Mr  Markontie  a  «chom» 
for  nooding  tho  Weileni  Sahara;  «oo  tT  "livj  Hihira,  1877,  end 
Ravonstein,  "Tb.«  WMlcru  Snliarn."  io  Uf  y.  MaJ.,  IS7(J. 


152 


S  A  H  — S  A  I 


by  numerous  streams  from  the  SiwAliks,  wliile  the  Eastern 
Jumna  and  the  Ganges  Canals,  which  traverse  the  district 
'from  north  to  south  and  issue  from  its  north-west  and 
iporth-east  corners,  cover  the  district  vfith  a  netvfork  of 
irrigation  channels.  The  only  large  rivers  are  the  Ganges, 
iwhich  enters  SahAranpur  180  miles  from  its  source,  by 
'a  well-marked  gorge  formed  in  the  rock  at  Hardw^r; 
Wnd  the  Jumna,  which  debouches  into  the  plain  about 
|123  miles  from  its  source,  at  a  place  called  KhAra. 
The  district  has  abundant  means  of  communication  :  the 
Sind,  Punjab,  and  Delhi  Railway  traverses  it  for  a  dis- 
tance of  42  miles,  with  stations  at  Deoband,  Sahiranpiir, 
and  Sarsdwa ;  and  it  has  numerous  roads,  both  metalled 
and  unmetalled.  The  cUmate  of  Sahiranpur  is  that  of 
the  North-Western  Provinces  in  general ;  at  one  season  it 
is  tropical,  at  another  partiaUy  European.  Its  average 
annual  rainfall  is  about  37  inches.  Wild  animals  are 
plentiful,  including  the  tiger,  leopard,  wild  cat,  lynx, 
hysna,  and  wolf. 

By  the  census  of  1881  the  population  of  SaMranpur  numbered 
979,544  (530,427  males  and  449,117  females).  By  religion  there 
»rere  653,272  Hindus,  317,535  Mohammedans,  and  1793  Christians. 
Five  towns  had  populations  exceeding  10,000  each,  namely,  SahXr- 
ASPUR  to-t'.),  Hardwar  Union  (28,106),  Deoband  (22,116),  Kmki 
(12,818),  and  Gangoh  (12,089).  Rurki  (Roorkee)  is  a  towu  of  con- 
liderable  importance,  situated  in  29°  62'  25"  N.  lat.  and  77°  65'  40" 
K.  long.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  the  Ganges  Canal  workshops 
and  iron-foundrv,  with  the  Thoraason  CivU  Engineering  College, 
for  the  instruction  of  natives  and  others  in  practical  engineering ; 
K  contains  also  an  excellent  meteorological  observatory.  _  Hard- 
Yf&r  municipality,  which  lies  S9  miles  north-east  of  Saharanpur 
town,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  is  the  most  frequented  of 
all  Hindu  places  of  pilgiimage,  and  is  largely  used  for  the  bathing 
festivals.  Every  twelfth  year,  when  Jupiter  is  in  Aquarius,  a  gi-eat 
fair  or  kumbh-mela  is  held,  which  attracts  an  immense  number  of 
people  ;  as  many  as  3,000,000  attended  in  1882. 
I  Of  a  total  area  of  2221  square,  miles  1256  are  cultivated  and 
331  are  cultivable  waste.  Cereals  form  the  principal  products. 
The  chief  spring  crops  are  wheat,  barley,  pulses,  and  oil-seeds,  and 
the  staples  of  the  rain  crops  are  rice,  joar,  bajra,  and  vegetables ;  the 
cultivation  of  cotton  and  indigo  is  also  carred  on,  the  latter  in  much 
greater  quantities  since  the  introduction  of  canal  irrigation  has 
rendered  its  out-turn  less  precarious  than  formerly.  .  The  commer- 
cial importance  of  the  district  depends  mostly  on  its  raw  materials. 
It  manufactures  broad-cloth,  jewellery,  and  sweetmeats;  among  the 
articles  produced  at  the  Riirki  workshops  are  steam-engines,  pumps, 
printing  presses,  lathes,  and  mathematical  instruments.  'The  gross 
revenue" of  Sahiranpur  in  1883-84  amounted  to  £172,960,  of  which 
^he  land-tax  (Jontributed  £118,067. 

During  the  later  years  of  the  Mogul  empire  Sahdraupur  was 
the  sceng  of  much  strife  and  suffering  on  account  of  the  perpetual 
'raids  of  the  Sikhs,  but  in  1785  the  district  under  Ghulam  Kadir 
enjoyed  comparative  tranquillity.  On  his  death  the  country  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Mahrattas,  but  it  was  for  a  time  occupied  by 
the  adventurer  George  Thomas,  until  his  death  iu  1802.  It  was 
afterwards  overrun  by  Sikhs  and  Mahrattas,  remaining  practically 
in  the  hands  of  the  former  until  their  final  defeat  in  November 
1804,  when  it  passed  under  British  rule.  Several  disturbances 
subsequently  took  place  among  the  native  chiefs ;  but  from  1824 
to  1857  nothing  occurred  to  disturb  the  peace  of  the  district.  The 
mutiny  in  this  part  was  soon  queUed. 

SAHAEANPUR,  principal  town  and  administrative 
fieadquarters  of  the  above  district,  is  situated  in  29°  58' 
15"  N.  lat.  and  77°  35'  15"  E.  long.,  on  a  small  stream 
(the  Damaula  Nadi)  in  an  open  level  country.  -  It^  height 
above  the  sea  is  over  900  feet.  The  town  possesses  a  fine 
botanic  garden,  where  early  experiments  were  made  in  tea 
and  cinchona  culture.  Amongst  its  buildings  are  an  old 
Rohilla  fort,  used  as  a  court-honse,  and  a  handsome  Mo- 
hammedan mosque.  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in 
grain,  sugar,  molasses,  and  country  cloth.  The  population 
in  1881  was  59,194  (31,506  males  and  27,688  females). 

SAID  A.     See  Sidon. 

SAIGA.     See  Antelope,  vol.  ii.  p.  102. 

SAIGON,  the  capital  of  French  Cothln  China;,  Dccnpies 
am  area  of  1000  acres,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Saigon 
river  or  Don-nai  (one  of  the  streams  that  inosculate  with 
the  deltaic  branches  of  the  Me-kong),  about  60  miles  from 


Cn^NiUt 


the  China  Sea.  In  1884  it  was  connected  by  rail  with 
Mytho,  37  miles  south-west  on  one  of  the  branches  of  the 
Me-kong,  with  which  it  had  obtained  direct  water-communL 
cation  in  1877  by  the  opening  of  the  Canal  de  Cho-gon. 
The  present  city  has 
beenpractically  created 
since  1861,  and  its  fine 
streets,  boulevards, 
squares,  and  public 
buildings  make  it  one 
of  the  most  attractive 
towns  in  the  East,  as 
it  was  well  planned 
and  the  plan  not  un- 
worthily carried  out. 
The  town  possesses  a 
governor's  palace  or  cit- 
adel (cost  12,000,000 
francs)  with  a  grand  Fio.  1.— Map  of  Saigon  Di.strict. 
fagad^,  a  cathedral  (1877;  cost  2,5.00,000  francs),  a  palace 
of  justice  (1882),  a  chamber  of  commerce,. a  large  military 
hospital,  municipal  gardens,  and  botanical  gardens  with 
collections  of  wild  beasts.  Among  the  educational  insti- 
tutions are  the  College  Chasseloup-Laubat  and  the  Col- 
lege d'Adran,  the  latter  in  memory  of  Bishop  Piqueaux 
de  Behaigne,  whose  tomb  is  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town. 
There  is  a  large  arsenal  with  upwards  of  100  European 
employes  and  a  special  establishment  for  the  artillery 
with  machine-shops  and  foundries.  A  floating-dock  was 
constructed  iu  1868;  a  much  larger  one  (cost  3,400,000 
francs)  sank  in  1880-82  at  its  first  trial  and  became  a 
wreck.  The  population  of  Saigon  in  1881  was  13,348. 
The  Europeans,  exclusive  of  the  troops,  numbered  only 
965  (913  French).  The  Chinese  element  was  the 
strongest,  and  next  came  the  Anamite.  The  muni- 
cipality consists  of  fifteen  members,  of  whom  four  are 
Anamites,  the  rest,  including  the  mayor,  being  French. 
As  a  commercial  centre  Saigon  is  one  of  the  principal 
towns  in  the  colony,  but  most  of  the  trade  is  really  done  at 
Cholon;  4  miles  off  on  the  Arroyo  Chinois  and  Rach-lo-gom, 
but  connected  with  Saigon  by  a  steam  tramway.  Though 
it  has  its  own  local  government  and  officials,  Cholon  is 
practically  part  of  the  capital.  Chinese  emigrants  from 
Bien-hoa  were  its  founders  in  1778,  and  the  Chinese  still 
form  half  of  its  population  and  almost  monopolize  its 
trade.  In  1881  it  had  39,925  in- 
habitants (83  Europeans).  Wide 
streets  have  been  opened  up  through 
its  original  complexity  of  lanes  and 
substantial  quays  constructed  for 
miles  along  the  AJroyo.  A  fine  granite- 
paved  market  stands  in  the  heart  of 
the  town.  Rice  is  the  great  staple 
of  the  Saigon -Cholon  trade,  finding 
pm-chasers  mainly  at  Hong-Kong, 
Java,  and  the  Philippines.  Other 
articles  are  black  pepper,  gamboge, 
and  cocoa-nut  oil.  In  1883  8,648,243 
piculs  of  rice,  worth  more  than 
£2,000,000,  were  exported.  In  1884,  leaving  out  the 
Messageries  Maritimes,  503  vessels  (568,077  tons),  of  which 
.239  (253,871  tons)  were  British,  cleared  from  Saigon. 
Fig.  2  shows  the  relative  positions  of  Saigon  and  Singapore. 

Saigon  was  the  native  capital  of  Lower  Cochin  China  and  the 
residence  of  the  governor  of  the  southern  provinces.  In  1836  it 
was  fortified  for  the  emperor  Gia  Long  by  Colonel  OUivier.  The 
French  under  Admiral  Rigault  de  GenouUly  captured  it  in  1858, 
and  it  was  part  of  the  territory  ceded  in  1861.  The  importance  ot 
the  old  town  may  be  judged  by  the  vast  mouuds  of  brick  and  stone 
which  still  crowd  the  ancient  necropolis  on  one  of  the  two  roads 
between  Saigon  and  Cholon. 


Pig.  2. 


SAIL 


153 


SAIL,  SAILCLOTH,  SAILiLiKING.  A  sail  is  a 
sheet  of  canvas  (or  other  material  of  the  requisite  flexi- 
Irility  and  strength)  by  the  action  of  the  wind  on  which, 
when  spread  out  or  extended,  a  vessel  is  moved  through 
the  water.  Sails  are  supported  and  extended  by  means 
of  masts,  yards,  gaffs,  booms,  bowsprit — all  technically 
termed  "  spars  " — and  stays  or  slanting  ropes.  In  the  first 
experiments  for  impelling  vessels  by  sails  the  least  com- 
plicated form,  that  of  a  single  square  sail  erected  on  a 
single  mast,  was  no  doubt  adopted.  To  the  quadrangular 
the  triangular  sail  would  soon  be  added ;  and  single  sails' 
of  both  tlicse  forms  are  known  to  have  been  used  at  very 
early  periods.  Subsequently  the  trapeziform  and  trape- 
zoidal sails  also  came  into  use.  As  vessels  increased  in 
size,  thereby  requiring  a  greater  surface  of  canvas  to  impel 
them,  it  became  necessary  to  use  not  only  more  sails  but 
also  an  increased  number  of  masts  ;■  and  the  number  and 
disposition  of  the  several  kinds  of  sails  could  be  almost 
indefinitely  varied  according  to  the  ideas  of  navigators,  the 
services  required  of  the  vessels,  the  places  in  which  they 
were  employed,  and  the  size  of  the  crews.  Thus  a  great 
variety  of  rig  naturally  arose.  Leaving  out  of  account  the 
many  nondescript  styles  adopted  in  the  case  of  boats  and 
small  craft,  all  modern  vessels  may,  for  general  purposes, 
be  considered  as  belonging  to  one  or  other  of  the  following 
categories — cutter,  schooner,  three-masted  schooner,  brig- 
antine,  brig,  barquetine,  barque,  or  full  square-rigged  ship; 
but  the  cardinal  distinction  is  that  by  which  they  are 
classified  as  square-rigged  or  fore-and-aft-ngged  (compare 
Seamanship  and  Ship).  These  expressions  can  be  easily 
explained  by  reference  to  any  three-masted  ship.  The 
mast  nearest  the  bow  or  head  is  known  as  the  fore-mast, 
the  next  abaft  or  nearest  the  middle  of  the  ship  as  the 
main-mast,  and  the  third  or  that  nearest  the  stern  as  the 
mizzen-mast.  Each  mast  consists  of  several  sections,  that 
attached  to  the  hull  being  called  the  lower  or  standing- 
mast,  the  next  above  that  the  top-mast,  the  next  the  toj)- 
gallant-mast,  above  which  may  rise  a  pole  or  royal-mast. 
On  each  of  these  masts,  and  at  right  angles  with  it,  is  a 
yard  denominated  "  square,"  which  ia  hung  (slung)  by  the 
middle  and  balanced.  These  j'ards  are  named  according 
to  their  situation,  those  placed  on  the  fore  and  main 
standing-masts  being  called  respectively  the  fore  and  main 
lower-yards,  that  on  the  mizzen  the  cross-jack -yard ;  the 
yards  on  the  top-masts  are  called  the  top-sail-yards,  those 
on  the  top-gallant-masts  the  top-gallant-yards,  and  those 
on  the  royal^masts  the  royal-yards.  To  each  of  these 
yards  a  sail  is  bent  or  attached,  taking  its  name  from  the 
yard ;  thus  the  principal  sail  upon  the  fore-lower-yard  is 
called  the  fore-course  or  fore-sail ;  the  next  above,  upon 
the  fore-top-sail-yard,  is  the  fore-top-sail ;  above  which, 
upon  the  fore-top-gallant-yard,  is  the  fore-top-gallant-sail ; 
and  above  all,  upon  the  fore-royal-yard,  is  the  fore-royal. 
In  like  manner  on  the  main-mast  we  have  the  main-course 
or  main-sail,  main-top-sail,  maln-top-gallant-sail,  and  the 
main-royal.  Similar  appellations  are  given  to-  tlfose  on 
the  mizzen-mast ;  in  large  merchant-ships,  by  means  of  a 
sky-sail-pole,  a  sail  termed  "sky-scraper"  is  sometimes  set 
above  the  royals,  but  not  so  frequently  as  formerly.  Such 
square  sails  can  be  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  direction 
of  the  keel  of  the  ship,  a  position  given  to  them  when 
going'  before  the  wind  ;  the  same  sails  can  also,  by  means 
of  braces,  be  placed  obliquely  to  the  keel  with  a  side  wind, 
commonly  termed  by  seamen  "on  a  wind"  or  "by  the 
wind."  In  addition  to  these  there  are  sails  between  the 
masts,  set  either  on  gaffs  (unbalanced)  or  on  stays,  also 
others  beyond  the  extremities  of  the  sliip,  extended  prin- 
cipally by  means  of  the  bowsprit,  which,  in  addition  to 
supporting  the  fore-mast  by  a  stay,  also  supports  the  jib 
and  flying-jib-booms  for  extending  the  sails  still  farther 

1^1-7' 


forwards ;  the  means  for  extending  the  after-sail  are  the 
driver  or  spanker-boom  and  the  gaff.  Sails  extended  or 
set  on  gaffs  and  on  stays  are  called  "fore-and-aft,"  and 
are  generally  or  approximately  in  a  vertical  plane  passing 
through  the  keel ;  but  a  certain  degree  of  obliquity  can 
be  given  them  by  easing  off  the  sheet  or  aft  lower  corner 
of  the  sail.  A  ship  fitted  as  above  described  would  be 
termed  "square-rigged,"  the  square  sails  predominating 
both  in  importance  and  in  niunber.  A  square-rigged  line- 
of-battle  ship  would  be  sunolied  with  the  following  dai 
scriptions  of  sails ' : — 


Fore-and-J/t. 
Flying-jib. 
Jib. 

Second  jib. 
Fore-galT-sail. 

„    try-sail  (storm-sail). 
5Iain-gaff-sail. 

„     try-sail  (storm-sail). 
Jlizzcn-try-sail  (storai-sail). 
Spauker. 
Stay-sail-foro  (storm-sail). 

»         »        top. 


Sqttare. 
Fore-conrse  or  fore-sail. 
,,    top-sail. 
,,    top-gallant-sail. 
,,    royal. 
Main-course  or  main-sail. 
,,     top-sail. 
,,     top-gallant-saU. 
, ,     rojaL 
Mizzen-top-sail. 

,,      top-eallant-sail. 
, ,       royal. 
Studding-sail-fore. 
„  ,,       top. 

„  „       top-gallant. 

,,        sail -main-topgallant. 
In  the  fore-and-aft-rig  the  principal  sails  are  of  course 
fore-and-aft;  a  cutter  (vessel  with  one  mast)  when  fully 
equipped  carries  the  following  : — 

Forc-mid-A/t.  Square. 

Jib-top-sail.  Square-sail  (set  flying). 

Jib. 

Fore-sail. 
Boom-main-sail. 
Gaff-top-sail. 

rhe  several  sides  of  a  sail  have  separate  names  applied 
to  them,  the  upper  part  or  side  being  known  as  the  "  head," 
the  lower  part  as  the  "  foot " ;  the  sides  in  general  are  called 
"  leeches,"  but  the  weather  or  side  edge  where  the  wind 
enters  the  sail,  of  any  but  a  square-sail,  is  called  the  "  luff," 
and  the  other  edge  the  "  after-leech."  The  two  top  comers 
are  "  earings,"  but  the  top  corner  of  a  jib,  ie.  (triangular, 
one  corner  only),  is  the  "  head  " ;  the  two  bottom  corners 
are  in  general  "  clews " ;  and  the  weather  clew  of  a  fore- 
and-aft-sail  or  of  a  course  while  set  is  the  "tack." 

The  relative  importance  of  particular  sails  in  the  working 
of  a  ship  varies  according  to  conditions  of  weather,  and  is 
a  matter  for  the  judgment  of  the  officer  in  command.  The 
following  table,  however,  shows  approximately  what  sails 
arc  commonly  set  "  by  the  wind,"  presuming  that  the  effect 
on  the  ship  in  relation  to  her  stability  is  safe  : — 


Wiuds  as  commonly 
distinguished. 


Light  airs 

Liglit  wiuds 

Light  breezes  ... 
Moderate  breezes 
Fresh  breezes    ... 

Strong  breezes  ... 


Moderate  gales .. 
Fresh  gales   


Strong  gales . 
Heavy  gales  . 
Storms. 


Sails  commonly  set  "  by  the  wind." 


S  Courses,  topsails,  top-gallant-saiis,  royals, 
spanker,  jib,  flying-jib,  and  all  liglit  sails. 

Royals  and  flying-jib  taken  in,  in  a  sea  way, 
to  two  reefs  in  the  top-sails. 

Single-reefed  top-sails,  and  top-gallant-sails, 
in  much  sea,  two  reefs  in  tho  topsails  to 
taking  in  top-gallaut-sails. 

Double-reefed  top-.-iails  to  treble -rcofcd  top. 
sails,  reefed  spanker,  and  iib. 

Close-reefed  top-sails,  reefed  courses,  to  tak- 
ing in  spauker,  jib,  foro  aud  mizzcu  ton- 
sail. 

Keefed  courses,  closo-rcefed  main -top -sail, 
foie-stay-sail,  mizzen-try-sail,  to  taking  in 
tlie  main-sail. 

Closeroefed  main-top-saiJ,  storm  st-iy-sails, 
to  storm  stay-sails  or  closo-rcofcd  main-top- 
sail only. 


1  Some  stiips  (merchant-liners)  have  two  jib«,  inner  aud  outer,  i 


154 


S^A  I  L 


To  tlie  casual  observer  sail*  when  spread  and  in  use 
appear  merely  as  so  matiy  large  pieces  of  cloth  ;  but  some 
of  thera  are  of  very  considerable  sizs  :  it  is  not  at  all  un- 
iisual  in  full  square-rigged  ships  for  a  main-course  or 
main-sail  to  contain  1000  yards  of  canvas  (24  inches 
■wide),  and  a  main-top-sail  nearly  as  much, — the  single  suit 
for  such  a  vessel  comprising  upwards  of  10,000  yards. 
Courses  and  top -sails  are  made  reducible  ;  in  the  British 
navy  they  are  reduced  by  means  of  reefs  (two  in  courses, 
four  in  top -sails),  each  fitted  with  spilling,  slab,  and  reef 
Jines  and  becket,  and  toggles  on  the  yard  (reef-points 
'throughout  being  now  obsolete).  In  the  merchant  service 
double  top-sails — upper  and  lower — are  much  in  use  on 
account  of  handiness  in  reducing  sail ;  there  is  also  "  patent 
.reefing  gear,"  such  as  Cunningham's,  which  allows  reefing 
to  be  done  as  much  as  possible  from  deck.  The  dimensions 
of  masts  and  j-ards,  quantity  of  canvas  or  area  of  sail, 
centre  of  gravity  of  each  sail  (from  which  the  moment  of 
sail  is  obtained  and  compared  with  the  moment  of  stability), 
centre  of  effort  of  the  sails,  and  other  important  calcula- 
tions necessary  in  relation  to  the  body  of  the  vessel  are 
luade  by  constructors  and  naval  architects. 

Sailcloth  is  obtainable  from  any  description  of  fibrous 
material  capable  of  being  woven  into  cloth,  having  sufiicient 
compactness  and  closeness  of  texture,  and  possessing  the 
requisite  strength  for  sustaining  the  heavy  pressure  which 
Bails  often  have  to  bear  in  severe  weather.  Several  de- 
scriptions of  fibre  might  be  enumerated  which  would  to  a 
certain  extent  serve  for  sailcloth  but  for  the  absence  of 
quality  of  endurance  or  resistance ;  hemp  has  been  and  is 
DOW,  occasionally  used,  as  also  a  mixture  of  cotton  and 
linen  yarn,  or  cotton  only, — especially  in  America;  but 
in  the  United  Kingdom  Flax  (q.v.)  is  the  usual  •  staple 
material,  since,  when  well  manufactured,  it  possesses  the 
qualities  of  flexibility  and  lightness,  and,  what  is  still  more 
important,  the  element  of  strength  in  a  very  large  degree. 

i'Xhe  following  points  may  be  rcgarJed  as  of  primary  importance 
(or  seciu'ing  saUcloth  or  canvas  of  a  superior  quality  and  durability. 
(Whatever  flax  is  used,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  "  warp  " 
tnd  "weft "  of  the  canvas  be  spun  wholly  from  the  ""longs,"  be  free 
from  blacks  and  any  mixture  of  short  flax,  well  dressed  or  lieckled, 
and  that  the  yarn  be  well  and  evenly  spun  and  projjerly  twisted. 
Both  warp  and  weft  yarn  should  be  twice  boiled  with  the  best 
'American  pot  and  pearl  ashes,  and  carefully  and  thoroughly  washed 
and  cleansed.  Xo  acid  chloride  of  lime  or  other  preparation  of 
chlorine,  nor  any  deleterious  substance,  should  be  used  in  any  stage 
of  the  process,  othtrnise  the  integrity  of  the  fibre  w-ill  most  prob- 
ably be  interfered  with  ;  the  only  advantage  got  is  that  the  cloth 
looks  much  whiter,  which  for  yachts  and  pleasure-boats  is  perhaps 
desirable,  but  for  naval  and  mercantile  uses  is  not  at  all  necessary. 
The  yarns  are  first  boJid  a  sufficieut  length  of  time  in  a  solution 
,of  the  best  American  pc.  ish,  in  fixed  proportions  of  ashes,  green 
yarn,  and  water,  then  mill-washed  (beating  process),  and  subse- 
quently carefully  washed  in  a  considerable  stream  of  clear  mnning 
water,  and  wrung.  They  are  again  boiled  for  a  sufficient  length 
of  time  in  a  solution  of  American  pearl  ashes,  in  due  proportions 
of  ashes,  green  yarn,  and  water,  then  carefully  rinsed,  or  washed 
in  a  clear  stream  of  water,  carefully  dried,  and  frequently  shaken 
iin  the  course  of  drying,  so  that  the  fibres  of  the  flax  may  be  equally 
stretched.  These  repeated  boilings,  &c.,  have  the  effect  of  cleans- 
ing, bleaching,  softening,  and  removing  all  vegetable  impurities 
which  may  be  hanging  about ;  no  starch,  tallow,  paste,  or  weaver's 
diessing  of  any  description  should  be  used,  otherwise  the  fabric 
will  tend  to  mildew  if  allowed  to  remain  damp  for  any  time.  Sail- 
cloth is  made  in  bolts,  mostly  24  inches  wide,  but  also  18  inches 
wide,  and  for  yachting  purposes  frequently  still  less  wide,  upon 
tlie  ground  that  the  narrower  the  cloth  the  flatter  and  better  will 
■the  sail  stand  to  its  work.  It  is  generally  made  of  eight  different 
qualities  in  respect  of  thickness,  numbered  1  to  8  accordingly  ;  the 
heavier  numbers — Nos.  1,  2,  and  3 — are  used  for  storm  and  other 
esjls  that  have  to  do  heavy  work,  the  remaining  numbers  for  the 
lighter  descriptions  of  sail.  The  weight  of  each  bolt  of  canvas  24 
inches  wide,  from  Nos.  1  to  6  inclusive  for  39  yards  in  length  and 

their  top-sails  also  in  two  parts,  upper  and  lower  or  cap-top-sails,  an 
trrangement  which  makes  it  easier  to  reduce  or  sliorten  sail ;  they  also 
iave  a  mizzen  course  (cross-.jack),  and  carry  several  light  stay-sails  so 
la  to  catch  every  breath  of  wnd.  - 


for  Nos.  7  and  8  for  40  yards  in  length,  is  about  as  follows,  T.ii., 
No.  1,  46  lb  ;  No.  2,  43  ;  No.  3,  40  ;  No.  4,  36;  No.  5,  33  ;  Nd. 
6,  30 ;  No.  7,  27  ;  No.  8,  23  tb.  The  weight  of  each  bolt  of  narrowot- 
canvas  is  in  pioportion.  The  warp  (or  lengthwise)  should  co.usis£ 
of  the  following  proportions  of  clean  unstarched  yarn,  viz.  :■ 


2 

24,,.. 

....lOi 

OtiO 

"f 

S 

2i„.. 

.  ..loi 

(WO 

4 

:i„.. 

....17 

650 

;,( 

5 

1!),,.. 

....17 

(/SO 

j' 

6 

IS.,.. 

....17            „ 

liSO 

,j   i 

7 

15,,.. 

••   .-'0            „ 

SOOsil 

gle  tlir(»d« 

S 

u,,.. 

...20            „ 

80O 

„ 

As  a  nile  about  40  yards  in  length  may  be  considered  as  fho 
average  content  of  each  bolt.  Particular  attention  should  be  paid 
to  the  weaving,  that  the  texture  be  sUuck  sufliciently  close,  and 
tlie  selvages  be  evenly  and  well  manufactuied ;  wliat  is  teimcd  a 
slack  selvage  (that  is,  one  selvage  longer  than  the  otlier)  is  not 
only  awkward  for  the  sailmaker  but  unsatisfactory  both  in  wear 
and  appearance,  the  slack  side  showing  itself  ])uckereil.  Sailcloth 
made  upon  these  conditions  is  very  likely  to  be  a  good  article  ; 
tests,  however,  can  be  applied,  generally  to  stiips  1  inch  wide 
from  Nos.  1  to  6  inclusive,  and  I J  inch  wide  from  Nos.  7  and  8. 
Weft  and  warp  (24  inches  in  length)  in  each  case  are  placed  in  a 
small  testing  niacliine,  «  hich  has  a  dial  plate  with  a  spring  under- 
neath ;  vices  are  attached  to  grip  the  strips,  one  vice  to  the  spring, 
the  other  iu  connexion  with  a  long  screw  with  a  handle ;  by  turning 
this  handle  the  vices  are  diawn  asunder  until  the  strip  breaks,  «nd 
the  hands  on  the  dial-plate  indicate  the  strain  in  pounds.  The 
following  is  a  fair  test  of  strength  for  the  various  numbers  of  good 
sailcloth  : — 

Kal. 


1 

Weft. 
4S0Ib... 

Wm-p. 
....340  1b 

....3ao 

...300 
. . . .260 

Ko.S..  . 

6  ... 
7.... 
8.    .. 

Weft. 

....3;o»... 
....3:0   ... 

....300      ... 
....3S0      ... 

\Vtti"p. 

2.... 
S.... 

4... 

....4C0     ... 
....440     ... 

....400     ... 

...250 
...330 
....310    , 

It  is  not  at  all  unusual,  however,  to  find  some  sailcloth  stand  a 
strain  considerably  in  excess  of  this.  Freedom  from  blacks,  twist 
and  spun  of  the  yarn,  stiffening,  calendering,  kc,  can  be  discovered 
by  observation  and  a  magnifying  glass,  excessive  dressing  by  a  littlo 
tincture  of  iodine. 

Sailmaling  is  a  very  old  branch  of  industry  in  connexion 
with  the  navy  and  commerce,  and  it  still  continues  to  be 
important  notwithstanding  the  enormous  extent  to  which 
steam  is  now  employed  in  navigation. 

The  operations  of  the  sailmaker  may  be  stated  ns  f'jTiows."  The 
Jimeoaioua  of  mast  and  yards  and  sail  plan  ut.ng  siippl'.ed,  the 
master  sailmaker  is  enabled  to  determine  the  dimensioiM  of  each 
sail — after  due  allowance  for  stretching — in  terms  of  dloths  and 
depth  iu  yards — if  a  square  sail,  the  number  of  clothi,  in  the  head, 
number  in  the  foot,  and  the  depth  in  yards  ;  if  a  fcce-and-aft  sail 
(triangular),  the  number  of  cloths  iu  the  foot,  and  the  depth  in 
yards  of  the  luff  or  stay  and  of  leech  or  after-leech  ;  if  a  fore-and- 
aft  sail  (trapezium  form),  the  number  of  cloths  in  the  head,  number 
in  foot,  and  the  depth  of  mast  or  luff  and  of  after-leech.  These 
particulars  obtained,  there  is  got  out  what  is  technically  termed  a 
"casting,"  which  shuply  means  the  shape,  length,  ic,  of  each  in- 
dividual cloth  in  the  saU.  These  figures  are  given  to  the  cutter, 
who  proceeds  to  cut  out  the  sail  cloth  by  cloth  in  consecutive  order, 
numbering  them  1,  2,  3,  4,  kc.  ;  the  scries  of  cloths  thus  cut  out 
are  handed  over  to  the  workman,  who  joins  them  together  by  care- 
fully made  double  flat  scams,  sewn  with  twine  specially  prepared 
for  the  purpose,  with  about  120  stitches  in  a  yard.  In  the  heavy 
sails  the  seam  is  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  width  and  in  the 
British  navy  stuck  or  stitched  in  the  middle  of  tlie  seam  to  give 
additional  strength  ;  the  seams  in  the  lighter  sails  are  about  an 
inch  wide.  The  whole  of  the  cloths  are  then  brought  together, 
and  spread  out,  and  the  tabling  (or  hemming,  so  to  speak)  is  turned 
in  and  finislied  off  with  about  72  stitches  to  a  yard.  Strengthen- 
ing pieces  or  "linings"  are  affixed  where  considered  necessary,  in 
courses  end  top-sails  such  pieces  as  reef-bands,  middle-bands,  foot- 
bands,  leech-linings,  bunt-line  cloths  ;  in  top-sails  (only)  a  top- 
lining  or  brim ;  in  other  and  lighter  sails  such  pieces  as  mast-liniug 
clew  ;.nd  head,  tack,  and  corner  pieces  ;  holes,  such  as  head,  reef, 
stay  (luff),  mast,  cringle,  bunt-line,  kc,  are  .also  mad(!  where  re- 
quired, a  gronimet  of  line  of  suitable  size  being  worked  in  them  to 
prevent  their  being  cut  through.  The  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to 
secure  the  edges  of  'he  sail, — an  important  operation,  as  much 
depends  upon  this  whether  the  sail  will  stand  well  and  do  its 
work  elhciently.  Bolt-rojw,  a  comparatively  soft  laid  rope  made 
from  the  finer  hemp  yarn  (Italian)  is  used  for  this  purpose  ;  in  tho 
British  navy  it  ranges  from  1  inch  (increasing  in  size  by  quarter 
inches)  up  to  8  inches  inclusive,  the  size  selected  for  each  part  of 
a  sail  being  determined  by  the  amount  of  strain  it  will  have  tO 
bear  ;  it  is  then  neitly  sewn  on  with  roping  twine  specially  pre- 
pajeii,  the  needle  and  twine  parsing  between  and  clear  of  every 
two  blciuds  of  the  rope  in  roping.  Where  slack  sail  has  to  b(5 
taken  iu,  it  is  the  practice  to  leave  it  to  the  judgment  of  the  sail- 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


155 


tnaker ;  but  where  possible  it  is  better  to  set  up  the  rope  by  means 
of  a  titkle  to  a  strain  approximate  to  what  it  will  hare  to  bear 
when  in  use,  and  whilst  on  the  stretch  mark  it  off  in  yarJs,  as  also 
the  edgfl  of  the  sail  in  yards,  so  that  by  bringing  the  marks  to- 
gether in  roping  the  sail  will  stand  flat.  In  the  British  navy  the 
largest  size  of  ropo  sewa  on  to  a  sail  is  6  inches  ;  sizes  above  this 
are  used  for  foot  and  clew  ropes  of  top-sails  and  courses,  being  first 
.formed,  parcelled  (that  is,  wound  round  with  strips  of  worn  canvas), 
tajTed,  and  served  over  with  spun  yam  ;  the  foot  of  the  sail  is  then 
eecured  to  it  by  being  marled  in.  Where  two  sizes  of  bolt-rope  used 
in  roping  a  sail  have  to  bo  connected,  it  is  effected  by  a  tapjred 
'splice.  Cringles  (similar  to  the  handle  of  a  maund)  formed  by  a 
strand  of  bolt-rope,  mostly  liaving  a  galvanized  iroU  thimble  in 
jthem  as  a  protection,  arc  then  Stuck  where  necessary,  as  at  the 
[comers,  sides  or  leeches,  mast  or  luff ;  they  are  required  either 
for  makiug  stationary  or  hauling  "  taut "  by  tackle  or  otherwise 
certain  parts  of  the  sail  when  in  use.  Fore-and-aft  sails,  such  as 
spankers,  gaff-sails,  and  storm  try-sails,  are  reduced  in  size  by  reef- 
points  made  of  stout  line  (4  to  20  lb),  crow-footed  in  tlie  middle,  a 
hole  being  pierced  through  every  seam  ;  one-half  of  the  poiut  is 
'passed  through  and  the  crowfoot  sewn  firmly  to  the  sail ;  the 
number  of  reefs  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  sail,  and  the  reefs  are 
placed  parallel  to  the  foot.  The  sails — now  finished  in  respect  of 
making — have  to  be  fitted,  that  is,  such  ropes  have  to  be  attached 
to  each  of  them  as  are  necessary  for  proper  use  ;  such  ropes  may 
be  summarily  s^tated  as  follows : — head-earings,  robands,  reef-car- 
ings,  reef-lines,  spilling  and  slab  lines,  reef-tackle  pendant,  reef- 
points,  bow  line  bridles,  bunt-line  toggles,  bunt-becket,  leech-line 
strops  and  toggles,  toggles  in  clews,  sheet  ropes,  down-haul,  lacings, 
head  and  stay,  tack -rope  (gaff  topsail),  tack  lashiiig,  bending  strops, 
matting,  and  gaskets. 

The.  tools  and  appliances  of  a  sailmaker  are  not  very  numerous  : — 
a  bench  about  7  feet  long  and  15  inches  high,  upon  which  he  sits  to 
perform  the  gieater  part  of  his  work ;  palms  for  seaming  and  roping 
to  fit  the  hand,  made  of  hide  lined  with  leather,  a  plate  properly 
tempered  being  fixed  in  it  having  chambers  to  catch  the  head  of 
the  needle,  thus  acting  as  a  •thimble  in  forcing  it  through  the 
several  parts  of  canvas  in  seaming,  and  between  the  strands  and 
through  the  canvas  in  roping ;  needles  of  various  sizes,  that  for 
seaming  being  the  smallest ;  and  fids,  spliciug,  serving,  and  stretch- 
ing knife,  rubber,  sail-hook,  bobbin  for  twine,  and  svindry  small 
(wiicles.  (E.  JE.) 

SAINTOIN  {Onohrychis  sativa)  is  a  low-growing  per- 
ennial plant  with  a  woody  root-stock,  whence  proceed  the 
ptems,  which  are  covered  with  fine  hairs  and  bear  numerous 
long  pinnate  leaves,  the  segments  of  which  are  elliptic. 
The  f.owers  are  borne  in  close  pyramidal  or  'cylindrical 
clusters  on  the  end  of  long  stalks.  Each  flower  is  about 
half  an  inch  in  length  with  lanceolate  calj's-teeth  shorter 
than  the  corolla,  which  latter  Ls  papilionaceous,  pink,  with 
darker  stripes  of  the  same  colour.  The  indehiscent  pods 
or  legumes  are  flattened  from  side  to  side,  wrinkled,  some- 
^what  sickle-shaped  and  crested  and  contain  only  a  single 
iseed.  In  Great  Britain  the  plant  is  a  native  of  the 
|ialcareou3  districts  of  the  southern  counties,  but  elsewhere 
it  is, considered  as  an  escape  from  cultivation.  It  is 
native  throughout  the  whole  of  central  Europe  and  Siberia; 
but'  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  cultivated  in  Great 
Britain  till  1651,  when  it  was  introduced  from  Franco  or 
French  Flanders,  its  French  name  being  retained.  It  is 
grown  as  a  forage  plant,  being  especially  well  acjapted  for 
dry  limestone  soils.  It  has  about  the  same  nutritive  value 
as  lucerne,  and  is-  esteemed  for  milch  cattle  and  for  sheep 
in  winter.  Sinclair  speaks  in  high  terms  of  its  value  for 
.this  latter  purpose. 

^  SAINT.  The  New  Testament  writers  have  much  to  say 
about  the  relations  of  the  "  saints "  (as  members  of  the 
various  churches  are  usually  called)  with  their  living  con- 
temporaries, but  are  comparatively  reticent  on  their  duties 
and  privileges  with  regard  to  their  departed  brethren. 
Long  before  the  close  of  the  4th  century,  however,  certain 
very  definite  practices  in  the  way  of  comniemoration  and 
invocation  had  sprung  up,  which  ultimately  found  doc- 
trinal expression  in  the  authoritative  documents  alike  of 
the  Eastern  and  of  the  Western  Church.  (1)  Commemo- 
ration.— Under  Fitnekax  Rites,  Manm,  <S:c.,  allusion  has 
already  been  made  to  the  ancient  custom  of  visiting  the 
tombs  nf  deceased  relatives  at  certain  periods  and  there 


offering  various  gifts.  "With  certain  modifications,  this 
practice  was  retained  by  the  early  Christians ;  they  cele- 
brated the  Eucharist  at  or  near  the  grave,  laid  oblatioa- 
on  the  altar  in  the  name  of  the  departed,  and  in  the  pr&, 
communion  prayer  made  supplication  for  the  peace  of  theif 
souls.  Thus  among  the  usages  "  originated  by  tradition," 
strengthened  by  custom,  observed  by  faith,"  Tertullian  (Bt 
Cor.  Mil.,  3;  comp.  Be  Exh.  Cast.,  11)  mentions  "the 
offerings  wo  make  for  the  dead  as  often  as  the  anniversary 
comes  round"  (comp.  Saceifice,  p.  139).  If  such-  com- 
memoration was  usual  in  domestic  circles,  it  was  little  likely 
to  be  omitted  by  Christian  congregations  in  the  case  of 
those  who  had  "  spoken  to  them  the  word  of  God,"  least' 
of  all  when  the  bishop  had  also  been,  as  was  so  often  thfe 
case,  a  martyr.  In  the  very  instructive  document  of  the 
2d  century,  preserved  by  Eusebius  (H.  E.,  iv.  15),  .in 
which  the  martyrdom  of  Polycajip  {q.v.)  is  described,  we 
are  told  that  the  followers  of  the  martyr,  liaving  taken  up' 
the  bones,  deposited  them  "  where  it  was  proper  that  thej* 
should  be."  "  There  also,  as  far  as  we  can,  the  Lord  will 
grant  us  to  assemble  and  celebrate  the  natal  day  of  hia 
martyrdom  in  joy  and  gladness."  Cyprian  (Ep.,  36)  ei-' 
horts  that  the  days  of  death  of  those  who  have  died  in, 
prison  should  be  carefully  noted  for  the  purpose  of  celebratj 
ing  their  memory  annually  ;  and  all  the  earliest  extant 
liturgies  contain  commemorations  of  the  departed.  The 
names  to  be  commemorated  were  written  on  the  diptychs 
(see  Diptych).  (2)  Invocation. — It  is  not  difiicult  to  under- 
stand how  a  belief  in  the  efiicacy  of  the  prayers  of  departed 
saints — especially  of  martyrs — should  at  an  early  date  have 
taken  a  practical  form.  JIartyrs  were  believed  to  pass  into 
the  immediate  presence  of  God,  and  the  supposed  nature 
of  their  claims  there  is  not  dimly  indicated  in  the  docu- 
ment already  referred  to,  which  once  and  again  spcaka  oi 
Polycarp  as  "  a  noble  victim  selected  from  the  flock,"  ,"^ 
rich  and  acceptable  sacrifice  to  God."  The  readsrs-  /A 
Cyprian  are  familiar  with  the  use  made  of  the  intercession 
of  living  "  martyrs "  by  the  lapsed  to  secure  their  recon- 
ciliation with  the  church ;  but  positive  evidence  of  the  inter- 
cession of  the  dead  being  invoked  for  obtaining  favour  with 
God  is  not  forthcoming  so  soon.  Perhaps,  indeed,  Cyril 
of  Jerusalem  (c.  350)  is  the  earliest  author  to  make  express 
allusion  to  the  practice  {Cat.  Myst.,  v.  9):  "wo  commemo-' 
rate  .  .  .  patriarchs,  prophets,  apostles,  martyrs,  .  .  .  that 
God  at  their  prayers  and  intercessions  (n-pfo-ySftats)  would 
receive  our  supplications."  In  the  liturgies,  however,  the 
oblation  still  continued  to  be  offered  "  for  all  martyrs  and 
confessors  "  as  well  as  for  others,  and  Augustine  was  the 
first  to  declare  {In  Joann.,  Tract.  8-t)  that  "  at  the  table 
of  the  Lord  we  do  not  commemorate  martyrs  in  the  same 
way  that  we  do  others  who  rest  in  peace  so  as  to  pray  for 
them,  but  rather  that  they  may  pray  for  us  that  we  may 
follow  in  their  footsteps." 

For  the  subsequent  development  of  Catholic  practice  see  th8 
various  church  histories ;  oomrare  also  Canonization,  Litant,' 
Relics,  Image  Worsuip,  &c.  Previous  to  the  Reformation  ecolesi, 
astical  legislation  inninly  sought  to  check  the  popular  tendency 
towards  something  like  polytheism.  The  Tridcntine  doctrine  ii 
"  that  the  saints  who  reign  along  with  Christ  arc  to  b«  honoured 
and  invoked,  that  they  oiler  prayers  for  ns,  and  that  their  ndies  ar« 
to  bo  venerated."  All  the  churches  of  the  Reformation,  on  tho 
other  hand,  while  in  one  form  or  another  commemorating  "all  thy 
servants  departed  this  life  in.  thy  faith  and  fclir,"  practically  conciu 
in  the  teaching  of  the  Church  of  Kngland  (Ai-t.  xxiL),  (hot  "tha 
Romish  doctrine  concerning  .  .  .  invocation  of  saints"  is  "«  fond 
thing,  vainly  invented,  and  grounded  upon  uo  w»rr«iity  of  Scripture, 
but  1  ithcr  repugnant  to  tho  word  of  t!od." 

ST  ALBANS,  a  city,  municipal  borough,  and  market 
town  of  Hertfirdshire,  England,  is  finely  situated  on  an 
eminence  above  the  river  Vcr,  on  tho  main  lino  of  the  Mid- 
land Railway  and  on  branches  cif  the  London  and  North- 
western and  tho  Great  Northern  lines,  about  24  tmlea 


156 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


north-west  of  London  and  5  miles  west  from  Hatfield. 
The  abbey  or  cathedral  church,  in  some  respects  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  ecclesiastical  buildings  in  England, 
is  described  below.  St  Michael's  church  to  the  west  of 
the  town,  within  the  site  of  the  ancient  Verulamium,  was 
originally  constructed  in  the  10th  century  partly  out  of  the 
ruins  of  the  town.  Considerable  portions  of  the  Norman 
building  remain  ;  the  church  contains  the  tomb  of  Lord 
Chancetlor  Bacon.  St  Stephen's  church,  dating  from  the 
same  period,  contains  some  good  examples  of  Norman 
architecture.  St  Peter's  church  has  been  in  great  part 
rebuilt,  but  the  nave  of  Early  Perpendicular  remains. 
The  (restored)  clock-house  in  the  market-place  was  built 
by  one  of  the  abbots  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  There  is 
an  Edward  YI.  grammar-school.  The  principal  modern 
buildings  are  the  corn  exchange,  the  court-house,  the 
prison,  "the  public  baths,  and  the  public  library.  There 
are  a  number  of  charities  and  benevolent  institutions,  in- 
chiding  the  hospital  and  dispensary,  and  the  almshouses 
founded  in  1734  by  Sarah  duchess  of  Marlborough.  The 
jirincipal  industries  are  the  manufacture  of  silk  and  straw- 
plaiting.  There  are  also  breweries  and  ironfoundries. 
The  population  of  the  municipal  borough  (area,  997  acres, 
extended  in  1S79)  in  1881  was  10,931;  the  population  of 
the  same  area  in  1871  was  estimated  at  8239. 

Not  only  is  the  cathedral  "a  text-book  of  medieval  architec- 
ture from  its  beginning  to  its  ending,"  but  it  "is  still  in  style, 
material,  and  feeling  that  one  among  our  great  churches  which  most 
thoroughly  carries  us  back  to  Old   English  and  even  to  earlier 
days  "  CFreeman).     Shortly  after  the  execution  of  Britain's  proto- 
martyr,  St  Alban,  probably  in  303,  a  church  was  built  on  the  spot. 
In  793  Offa  of  Mercia,  who  professed  to  have  discovered  tlie  relics 
of  the  martyr,  founded  in  his  honour  a  monastery  for  Benedictines, 
which  became  one  of  the  richest  and  most  important  houses  of  that 
order  in  the  kingdom.     The  abbots  Ealdred  and  Ealmer  at  the 
close  of  the  10th  century  began  to  break  up  the  ruins  of  the  old 
Roman  city  of  Verulamium  for  materials  to  construct  a  new  abbey 
'church  ;  but  on  account  of  the  nnsettled  character  of  the  times  its 
erection  was  delayed  till  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror,  when 
Paul  of  Caen,  a  relative  of  Archbishop  Lanfranc,   was  in   1077 
appointed  abbot.     Canterbury  as  built  by  Lanfranc  was  almost  a 
reproduction  of  St  Stephen's,  Caen  ;  but  Paul,  while  adopting  the 
same  model  for  St  Albans,  built  it  on  an  immensely  larger  scale. 
The  church  was  consecrated  in  1115,  but  had  been  finished  some 
years  before.    Of  the  original  K orman  church  the  principal  portions 
■now  remaining  are  the  eastern  bays  of  the  nave,  the  tower,  and  the 
transepts,  but  the  main  outlines  of  the  building  are  still  those 
planned  by  Paul.     It  is  thus  one  of  the  most  imjiortant  specimens 
ef  Norman  architecture  in  England,  with  the  special  characteristic 
that,  owing  to  the  use  of  the  Hat  broad  Roman  tile,  the  Norinau 
mjrtious  a°e  peculiarly  bare  and  stern.     The  western  towers  were 
julled  down  in  the  13th  century.     About  1155  Robert  de  Gorham 
^paired  and  beautified  the  early  shrine  and  rebuilt  the  chapter- 
house and  part  of  the  cloister ;  but  nothing  of  his  work  now  re- 
mains except  part  of  a  very  beautiful  doorway  lately  discovered. 
Abbot  John  de  Cella  (1195-1214)  pulled  down  the  west  front  and 
iiortions  of  the  north  and  south  aisles.     He  began  the  erection  of 
the  west  front  in  a  new  and  enriched  form,  and  his  work  was  con- 
tinued by  his  successor  William  de  Trumpyngtone  (1214-35)  in  a 
plainer  manner.     In  1257  the  eastern  portion  was  pulled  down, 
and  between  the  middle  of  the  13th  and  the  beginning  of  the  llth 
century  a  sanctuary,  ante-chapel,  and  lady  chapel  were  added,  all 
remarkably  fine  specimens  of  the  architecture  of  the  period.     In 
1323  two  great  columns  on  the  south  side  suddenly  fell,  which 
■necessitated  the  rebuilding  of  five  bays  of  the  south  aisle  and  the 
Norman   cloisters.      Various   incongruous    additions  were    made 
flurin"  the  Perpendicular  period,  and  much  damage  was  also  done 
iluring  the  dissolution  of  the  abbeys  to  the  finer  work  in  the  in- 
terior.    The  building  within  recent  years  has  undergone  extensive 
renovation,   first   under  the  direction  of  Sir  Gilbert   Scott,   and 
latterly  to  a  much  greater  extent  under  Sir  Edmund  Beckett.     Its 
extreme  length  outside  is  550  feet,  which  is  exceeded  by  'Winchester 
Ly  6  feet.     The  nave  (284  feet)  is  the  longest  Gothic  nave  in  the 
■norld  and  exceeds  that  of  Winchester  by  about  20  feet.    The  length 
of  the  transepts  is  175  feet  inside.     The  monastic  buildings  have 
«U  disapijeared  with  the  exception  of  the  gi-eat  gateway. 

To  the  south-west  of  the  present  city  of  St  Albans  stood  the 
ancient  Verulamium,  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  Britain,  on  Wat- 
ling  Street.  It  was  the  chief  station  of  Cassivcllaunus  at  the  time 
of  Ctesar's  invasion,  and  under  the  Romans  became  a  municipium. 
The  ancient  town  which  grew  up  around  St  Albans  church  was 


completely  destroyed  by  the  Saxons  between  500  and  5G0.  During 
Wat  Tyler's  insurrection  the  monastery  was  besieged  by  the  towns- 
people, many  of  whom  were  executed  in  consequence.  At  St  Albans 
the  Lancastrians  were  defeated  on  21st  Way  1405,  their  leader,  the 
duke  of  Somerset,  being  killed,  and  Henry  VI.  taken  iirisoner ;  there 
too  Queen  Margaret  defeated  the  earl  of  Warwick  on  17lh  Fobru.iry 
1461.     During  the  civil  wars  the  town  vas  gaiiisoiud   for   the 


Parliament.  On  a  printing  press,  one  of  the  earliest  in  the  king- 
dom, set  up  in  the  abbey  the  first  English  trans-lation  of  the  Hiblo 
was  printed.     A  charter  of  incorporation  was  granted  to  the  tow  ii 


by  Edward  VI.  It  returned  two  members  to  parliament  until 
1S52,  when  it  was  disfranchised.  It  became  a  bishop's  see  in  1877. 
Nicholas  I3re.akspear,  tlio  only  English  pope  (Adria'u  IV.),  was 
born  near  St  Albans,  and  was  elected  its  abbot  in  1137. 

See  Mattliew  Paris,  Hisloria  Major;  H.  T.  Biley.  ClmuUIr  of  Ihe  Jl/osns/fi-yo/ 
St  AlbaJis,  11  vols.,  1S03-73  ;  Kiclntlson,  lIL^orji  of  SI  Albinis  ;  Uiicklcr,  k'orman 
Church  of  SI  Albans  ;  Nc-nlo,  Ahbrii  churrh  of  St  Albans,  ISI'3  ;  Sir  E.  Bcckutt, 
St  Albans  Calhalral  aurt  its  r.estui'nt:on,  ItiSi. , 

ST  ALBANS,  a  township  and  village  of  the  United 
States,  the  capital  of  Franklin  county,  Vermont,  at  the 
junction  of  several  divisions  of  the  Central  Vermont 
Railroad.  The  village, lies  on  an  elevated  plain  about  3 
miles  east  of  Lake  Champlain,  and  has  its  principal 
buildings  arranged  round  a  public  park.  Besides  being 
the  seat  of  the  extensive  workshops  of  the  railroad  com- 
pany, St  Albans  is  the  great  cheese  and  butter  market  of 
the  eastern  States.  In  the  neighbourhood,  which  is  cele- 
brated for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery,  are  quarries  of  calico 
stone  and  variegated  marble.  The  population  of  the  town- 
ship was  1814  In  1850,  3G37  in  1860,  7014  in  1870,  and 
7193  in  1880.  Being  only  14  miles  distant  from  the 
Canadian  frontier,  the  village  has  more  than  once  been 
the  scene  of  political  disturbances.  In  18G6  a  band  of 
1200  Fenians,  on  their  return  from  a  fruitless  invasion  of 
Canada,  were  disarmed  there  by  the  United  States  troops. 

ST  AMAND-LESEAUX,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Nord,  at  the  junction  of  the  Elnon  with' 
the  Scarpe  (a  left-hand  tributary  of  the  Scheldt),  7i  miles 
by  rail  north-west  of  Valenciennes  and  22  south-eastj 
of  Lille.  It  Las  numerous  industrial  establishments,  hxit 
is  better  known  from  the  mineral  waters  in  the  vicinity. 
Though  from  Roman  coins  found  in  the  mud  it  is  evi- 
dent that  these  must  have  been  frequented  dm  nig  the 
Roman  period,  it  is  only  two  centuries  since  they  began 
to  be  again  turned  to  account,  -i  There  are  four  distinct 
springs;  the  water  (75°  Fahr.)  contains  sulphates  of  lime 
and  sulphur,  and  deposits  White  gelatinous  threads  with- 
out smell  or  taste.  The  black  mud,  which  constantly 
gives  out  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  is  composed  of  three 
strata — (1)  a  clayey  peat,  (2)  clay,  and  (3)  a  composition 
of  silica,  carbonate  of  lime,  oxide  of  iron,  and  aluminium. 
Numerous  small  sulphurous  springs  ooze  through  the  lowest 
stratum  and,  soaking  those  above,  form  a  slough  in  which 
patients  suffering  from  rheumatism,  gout,  and  certain 
aiTections  of  liver  and  skin  remain  for  liours  at  a  time. 
The  population  in  1881  was  7881  (commune,  11,184). 

St  Amand  owes  its  name  to  St  Amand,  bishop  of  Toiigres,  who 
founded  a  monastery  here  in  the  reign  of  Dagobert.  The  abbey 
was  laid  waste  by  the  Normans  iu  882  and  by  the  count  of  Hainault 
in  1340.  The  town  was  captured  by  Mary  of  Burgundy  in  1447, 
by  the  count  of  Ligne,  Charles  V.'s  lieutenant,  iu  1521,  and  finally 
in  1CG7  by  the  French.  The  «bbe.y  has  been  destroyed,  with  the 
exception  of  the  gateway  flanked  l>y  two  octagonal  pavilions,  nowj 
occupied  by  municipal  offices  ;  and  of  the  abbey  church  thejc  re- 
mains only  the  17th-century  facade. 

SAINT-AM  ANT,  Marc  Antoine  Gerard,  Sieur  db 
(1594-1661),  the  most  eminent  of  a  curious  bacchanalian 
school  of  poets  in  France  during  the  17th  century,  was 
born  at  Rouen  in  the  year  1594.  Very  little  is  known  of 
his  family  except  that  it  was  of  some  jxisition  at  Rouen, 
and  the  mysterious  description  which  all  his  French  bio- 
graphers give  of  his  father — that  he  was  a  sailor  "qui 
commanda  pendant  22  ans  un  escadre  de  la  reino  Eliza- 
beth"— does  not  greatly  assist  an  English  imagination.' 
It  appears  that  Saint-Amant  himself  haunted  taverns  and 


S  A  I  —  S  A  I 


157 


other  resorts  of  gay  society  a  good  deal  during  his  youth 
and  manhood,  that  he  attached  himself  at  different  times 
to  different  great  noblemen — Retz  (the  duke,  not  the  car- 
dinal), Crequi,  Harcourt,  itc. — that  he  saw  some  military 
service,  and  sojourned  at  different  times  in  Italy,  in  England 
(a  sojourn  which  provoked  from  him  a  violent  poetical 
attack  on  the  country,  only  printed  within  the  last  thirty 
years),  in  Poland  (where  he  held  a  court  appointment  for 
two  years),  and  elsewhere.  'But  details  on  all  these  points 
are  both  few  and  vague.  Saint-Amant's  later  years  were 
spent  in  France;  and  he  died  at  Paris  in  1661. 

Snint-Amint  has  left  a  not  inconsiderable  body  of  poetry  as 
various  iu  style  as  Hcrrick's,  and  exliibiting  a  decided  poetical 
faculty,  hardl)'  at  all  assisted  by  education.  Of  one  class  of  his 
poetry  tlie  chief  monument  is  the  ito'isc  Saiivi',  published  in  1653. 
The  author  calls  this  by  the  odd  title  of  " idylle  heroique";  but 
it  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  an  epic  of  the  school  of  Tasso.  It 
is  not  by  any  means  without  merit,  and  the  alexandrine  couplet  is 
mmaged  in  it  with  much  vigour  and  ease.  The  second  and  !ar;;cr 
put  of  Saint-Amant's  works  consists  of  short  miscellaneous  poems 
on  a  great  \  ariety  of  subjects.  The  best  of  these  are  Bacchanalian, 
the  oft-quoted  La  Dibai'.clu:  bein"  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
convivial  poems  of  its  kind.  .All  through  his  work  flashes  of 
strength  and  true  poetical  imagination  occur  ;  but  he  was  rarely 
happy  iu  his  choice  of  subjects,  and  his  execution  is  constantly 
marred  by  want  of  polish  and  form. 

Tlie  stan'lard  edition  of  Sarnt-Aniant,  with  life,  notes,  &e.,  is  that  in  the 
••  Bibliotlicque  Elzcvirienne  '*  by  JI.  C.  L.  Livet  (2  vols.,  Paris, .1855). 

ST  Als^'DREWS,  a  city,  royal  burgh,  university  town, 
and  seaport  of  Scotland,  in  the  county  of  Fife,  is  situated 
on  a  bay  of  the  German  Ocean  and  on  a  branch  of  the 
North  British  llailway,  9  miles  east  of  Cupar  and  11 
south-south-east  of  Dundee.  It  occupies  a  platform  of 
sandstone  rock  about  50  feet  in  height,  running  east  and 
west  and  presenting  to  the  sea  a  precipitous  wall,  which 
has  been  much  encroached  on  by  its  action  within  recent 
years.  The  principal  streets  (North  Street,  Market  Street, 
and  South  Street)  diverge  from  the  cathedral  and  run  east 
and  west,  and  Queen  Street  runs  south  from  the  centre  of 
South  Street.     Manv  new  'houses  and  villas  have  been 


Plan  of  St  Andrews. 

recently  erected  towards  the  south,  north,  and  west.  The 
prosperity  of  the  city  depends  primarily  on  its  educational 
institutions,  especially  the  university.  The  golf  links, 
which  are  considered  the  best  in  Scotland,  and  sea-bathing 
attract  many  residents  and  visitors.  In  the  16th  century 
St  Andrews  wa.'j  one  of  the  most  important  ports  north 
of  tho  Forth,  and  is  said  to  have  numbered  11,000  inha- 
bitants; but  it  full  into  decay  after  the  Civil  War,  and, 
although  it  has  much  increased  in  the  present  century,  its 
trade  has  not  revived  to  any  extent.  The  harbour,  pro- 
tected by  a  pior  630  feet  in  length,  affords  entrance  to 
Tessels  of  100  tons  burden.  The  principal  imports  are 
TicBuul  and  coals  and  the  principal  exports  agricultural  pro- 


duce. The  herring  and  deep-sea  fishing  is  carried  on 
by  about  170  fishermen.  The  evidences  of  antiquity  in' 
the  dwelling-houses  are  comparatively  few.  The  city  was 
never  surrounded  by  walls,  but  had  several  gates,  of  which 
that  called  the  West  Port  still  remains.  The  most  pro- 
minent ruins  are  those  of  the  cathedral  and  the  castle  (see 
below).  Among  the  modern  public  buildings  are  the  town- 
hall  (1858)  in  the  Scottish  baronial  style,  the  golf  club- 
house, the  Gibson  and  fever  hospitals,  and  the  recreation 
hall  (1884).  Tho  population  of  St  Andrews  in  1801  was 
only  3263,  but  by  1881  it  had  nearly  doubled,  being  6406. 
Tho  parliamentary  burgh  in  1881  numbered  6458. 

The  cathedral  originated  partly  in  the  priory  of  Canons  Regular 
founded  to  tho  south-east  of  the  town  by  Bishop  Robert  (n22-1159).' 
Martine,  who  wrote  in  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  states  that  in 
his  time  some  of  the  buildings  were  entire  and  that  considerable 
remains  of  others  existed,  but  nearly  all  traces  have  now  disappeared, 
with  the  exception  of  portions  of  the  abbey  wall  and  the  arcnways, 
now  known  as  tho  "  Pends,"  forming  the  main  entrance  from  tho 
city.  The  wall  is  abont  three-quarters  of  a  mile  Ion"  and  bears 
turrets  at  intervals.  The  cathedral  was  founded  by  Bishop  Arnold 
(1159-1162),  to  supply  more  ample  accommodation  for  the  canons 
and  for  tho  celebration  of  the  worship  of  the  see  than  was  afforded 
by  the  church  of  St  Regulus.  Of  this  older  building  in  the  Roman- 
esque style,  probably  dating  from  the  10th  century,  there  remain 
the  square  tower,  108  feet  iu  height,  and  the  choir,  of  very  diminu- 
tive proportions.  On  a  plan  of  the  town  c.  1530  a  chance,  appears 
beyond,  and  on  seals  affixed  to  the  city  aud  college  charters  thero 
are  representations  of  other  buildings  attached.  The  cathedral  which 
succeeded  the  church  of  St  Regulus  is  represented  in  full  outline 
in  the  plan  of  the  town  of  1530.  It  was  constructed  in  tlie  form 
of  a  Latin  cross,  tho  total  length  of  the  building  inside  the  walls 
being  355  feet,  the  length  of  the  nave  200,  of  the  choir  and  lateral 
aisles  62,  and  of  the  lady  chapel  at  the  eastern  extremity  50.  The 
width  at  the  transepts  was  166  feet  and  of  the  nave  and  choir  62. 
According  to  Fordun  the  building  w.is  founded  in  1159  ;  but  before 
it  was  finished  the  see  mtnessed  the  succession  of  eleven  bishops, 
the  consecration  taking  pl.ice  in  the  time  of  Bishop  Lambenon 
(1297-1328)  in  1318,  when  the  ceremony  was  witnessed  by  Robert 
the  Bnice.  When  entire  it  had,  besides  a  central  tower,  six  turrets, 
of  which  two  at  the  eastern  aud  one  of  the  two  at  the  western  ex- 
tremity rising  to  a  height  of  100  feet  still  remain.  Tho  building 
was  partly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1378,  and  the  icsparation  and  further 
embellishment  were  completed  in  1440.  It  was  stripped  of  its  altars 
and  images  iu  1559  by  the  magistrates  aud  inhabitants  of  the  city. 
It  is  believed  that  about  the  end  of  the  16th  century  the  central 
tower  gave  way,  carrying  with  it  the  north  wall.  Since  then  large 
portions  of  the  ruins  have  been  taken  away  for  building  purposes, 
and  nothing  was  done  to  jireserve  them  till  1826.  The  principal 
portions  now  remaining,  partly  Norman  and  partly  Early  English, 
are  the  eastern  and  western  gables,  the  greater  part  of  the  southcru 
wall  of  the  nave,  and  the  western  wall  of  the  south  transept. 

Closely  connected  with  the  fortunes  of  tho  cathedral  arc  those  of 
the  castle,  the  picturesque  ruins  of  which  are  situated  about  250 
yards  north-west  of  tho  cathedral,  on  a  rocky  promontory  now 
much  worn  away  by  the  sea.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  erected 
by  Bishop  Roger  about  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century  as  an 
episcopal  residence,  and  was  strongly  fortified.  It  was  frcqiiently 
taken  by  the  English,  and  after  it  had  been  captured  by  the  Scot- 
tish regent  in  1336-37  was  destroyed  lest  it  should  fall  into  the-r 
hands.  Towards  tho  close  of  tho  century  it  was  rebuilt  by  Bishop 
Trail  in  tho  form  of  a  massive  fortification  with  a  moat  on  tho 
south  and  west  sides.  James  I.  spent  some  of  his  early  years 
within  it  under  the  care  of  Bishop  Wardlaw,  and  it  is  supposed  to 
have  been  tho  birthplace  of  James  III.  From  a  window  in  the 
castle  Cardinal  David  Beaton  witnessed  tho  burning  of  M'ishart  in 
front  of  the  gate,  and  shortly  afterwards  ho  was  murdered  within 
it  iu  his  bedroom  by  a  party  of  Reformers.  Tho  castle  was  tiken 
from  the  conspirators  by  the  French,  among  tho  prisoners  captured 
being  John  Knox.  Somo  years  afterwards  it  was  repaired  by  Arch- 
bishop Hamilton,  but  in  a  less  ma.ssivo  and  substantial  form.  It 
had  in  165G  fallen  into  such  disrepair  that  tho  town  council  oi^h'rctl 
its  "sleatts  and  timmer,  redd  and  lumps"  to  bo  dcvotid  to  tho 
repair  oj'tho  pier  at  tho  harbour.  Tho  principal  remains  .iro  a  por- 
tion of  the  south  wall  enclosing  a  square  tower,  tho  bottlo  dungeon 
below  tho  north-west  tower,  tho  kitchen  tower,  and  a  curious  aab- 
terranean  passage. 

The  town  church,  formerly  tho  church  of  tho  Holy  Trinity,  waa 
originally  founded  in  1112  by  Bi.shop  Turgot.  Tho  early  buildinr 
was  a  beautiful  Norman  structure,  but  at  tho  closo  of  tho  18ln 
Century  tho  whole,  with  tho  exception  ofliltlo  else  than  tho  equaro 
tower  and  spire,  wns  rc-ercetcd  in  a  jiUin  and  ungainly  etjla. 
Within  the  church  Knox  preached  Iho  sormon  which  led  to  tlie 
etrippiiig  of  tho  cathedral  and  tho  dcslruction  of  thu  moaa-sli* 


158 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


buildiugs.  It  contains  an  elaborate  monumrnt  to  Archbisliop 
Sharp.  Near  the  south-west  of  the  town  is  the  ruined  northern 
transept  of  the  chapel  of  the  Dominican  monastery  founded  by 
Bishop  Wishart  in  1274  ;  but  all  traces  of  the  Observantine  mon- 
astery founded  about  1450  by  Bishop  Kennedy  have  disappeared, 
except  the  well.  Tlie  church  of  St  Mary  on  the  rock  erected  by 
the  Culdees  is  supposed  to  have  stood  on  the  Lady's  Craig  now 
covered  by  the  sea  ;  and  the  foundations  of  another,  also  dedicated 
to  the  Virgin,  to  the  west  of  the  harbour  were  discovered  in  1860, 
giring  the  full  outline  of  the  ground-plan  of  the  building. 

The  university  was  possibly  a  development  of  tlie  "schools" 
which  were  ill  existence  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  12th 
century,  and  were  endowed  by  certain  "rents  and  kune"  payable 
to  them  from  lauds  in  the  neighhourhood.  Its  immediate  origin 
was  due  to  a  society  formed  in  1410  by  Lawrence  of  Liudores, 
abbot  of  Scone,  Eichard  Cornwall,  archdeacon  of  Lothian,  William 
ptephen,  afterwards  archbishop  of  Dunblane,  and  a  few  others,  for 
the  instruction  of  all  wlio  chose  to  attend  their  lectures.  A  charter 
was  granted  in  1411  by  Bishop  Wardlaw,  who  attracted  the  most 
learned  men  in  Scotland  as  professors,  and  bulls  were  obtained 
from  the  pope  in  1413  confirming  the  charter  and  constituting  it  a 
studium  gmtrale  or  university.  The  lectures  were  delivered  in 
various  parts  of  the  town  until  1430,  when  a  building  called  the 
"  pedagogy  "  to  the  Faculty  of  Arts  was  granted  by  the  founder 
of  the  university.  St  Salvator's  College  was  founded  and  richly 
cndcwed  by  Bishop  Kennedy  in  1456 ;  twelve  years  later  it  was 

f  ranted  the  power  to  confer  degrees  in  theologj'  and  philosophy,  and 
y  the  end  of  the  century  was  regarded  as  a  constituent  part  of  the 
university.     In  1512  the  university  received  a  further  addition  by 
the  foundation  of  St  Leonard's  College  by  Prior  John  Hepburn 
and  Archbishop  Alexander  Stuart  on  the  site  of  buildings  %vhich 
at  one  time  were  used  as  a  hospital  for  pilgrims.     In  the  same  year 
Archbishop  Stuart  nominally  changed  the  oiiginal  "  pedagogy  " 
into  a  college  and  annexed  to  it  the  parish  church  of  St  Jlichael  of 
Tarvet ;  but  its  actual  erection  into  a  college  did  not  take  place 
until  1537.     By  a  bull  obtained  from  Paul  IIL  it  was  dedicated 
to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Jlary  of  the  Assumption.     The  outline  of 
the  ancient  strncture  is  preserved,  but  the  general  character  of  the 
buildings  has  been  much  altered  by  various  restorations.     They 
'form  two  sides  of  a  quadrangle,  the  library  and  principal's  residence 
being  on  the  north  and  the  lecture-rooms  and  old  dining-hall  on 
llie  west     The  university  library,  which  now  includes  the  older 
college  libraries,  was  founded  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century, 
xcbuSt  in  1764,  and  improved  in  1S29.     The  lower  hall  in  the  older 
part  of  the  building  has  beeu  used  as  a  provincial  meeting-place 
lor  the  Scottish  parliament     When  the  constitution  of  the  colleges 
was  remodelled  in  1579  St  Mary's  was  set  apart  to  theologj' ;  ami 
lin  1747  the  colleges  of  St  Salvator  and  St  Leonard  were  formed 
into  the  United  College.     The  buildiugs  of  St  Leonard's  are  now 
occupied  as  a  high  class  school  for  girls.     The  college  chapel  is  in 
'ruins.     The  United  College  occupies  the  site  of  St  Salvator's  Col- 
'iege,  but  the  old  buildings  have  been  removed,  with  the  exception 
[of°the  college  chapel,  now  used  as  the  university  chapel  and  the 
.parish  chnrcli  of  St  Leonard's,  a  fine  Gothic  structure  containing 
an  elaborate  tomb  of  Bishop  Kennedy  ;  the  entrance  gateway  witli 
the  square  clock  tower  rising  to  a  height  of  152  feet;  and  the 
janitor's  house,  with  some  class-rooms  above.     The  modem  build- 
ing, in  the  Elizabethan  stvle,  formiug  two  sides  of  a  quadrangle,  was 
^erected  between  the  years"  1827  and  1847.    The  Madras  College  was 
founded  and  endowed  by  Dr  Andrew  Bell.     It  is  attended  by  about 
'700  pupils.     There  are  also  several  large  boarding  and  day  schools. 
St  -Andrews  (see  Scotl.^xd)  is  said  to  have  been  made  a  bishopric 
in.  the  9th  century,  and  when  in  908  the  Pictish  and  Scottish 
Churches  were  united  the  primacy  was  transferred  to  it  from  Dun- 
Kcld,  its  bishops  being  henceforth  known  as  bishops  of  Alban. 
Turgot,  who  was  appointed  in  1109,  was  the  first  bishop  who  really 
Jilled  the  see.     It  became  an  archbishopric  dining  the  primacy  of 
Patrick  Graham  (1466-78).     This  ceased  in  1688.     It  was  created  a 
royal  burgh  by  David  I.  in  1124.     The  St  Andrews  district  of 
burghs  returns  one  member  to  the  House  of  Commons. 

Mnrtine,  Hislorii  old  A  ntiqvilirs  of  SI  RuU's  Chapel,  St  Andrews,  17B7  ;  Grier- 
6on,  Di'Uxealimis  o/St  Antlrcu-s,  1S07,  3d  ed.  183S  ;  Rdiquix  DM  Andrex,  1797  ; 
l.ibfr  Cnrtarnm  ^anrti  AwUnir,  Bannatyue  Club,  1S41 ;  Sltenc,  "  Ecclesiastical 
Settlements  in  Scntlaiid,"  in  Proc.  Soe.  AMiq.  Scot.,  1862-63;  Uklories  of  St 
Andrews  by  Lyou  (lS43)and  Rogers  (lSt9) ;  Skene,  Celtic  Scotland.    (T.  F.  H.) 

ST  ASAn,  a  city  and  parliamentary  borough  of 
liorth  Wales,  iu  tlie  county  of  Flint,  is  situated  on  an 
eminence  in  the  Yale  of  Clwyd,  near  the  junction  of  the 
Clwyd  and  Elwy,  about  6  miles  south-south-east  of  Ehyl 
and  6  north-north-'west  of  Denbigh.  It  is  somewhat  irre- 
gularly built  and  has  an  antique  appearance.  On  the 
brow  of  the  hill  is  an  encampment,  Bron-y-  Wt/lva,  supposed 
to  have  been  occupied  by  the  Roman  forces  under  Suetonius 
iPaulinus.  According  to  tradition  the  cathedral  occupies 
{lie  site  of  a  church  and  monastery  founded  by  St  Kenti- 


gern  about  560,  when  he  fled  from  Strathclyde.  It  was 
originally  called  Llan-Elwy,  the  church  on  the  Elwy.  It 
is  uncertain  whether  the  first  bishop  was  Kentigern  or 
Asaph,  to  whom  Kentigern  committed  the  charge  of  the 
church  and  monastery  when  he  returned  to  Scotland.  The 
ancient  wooden  structure  was  burnt  down  by  the  English 
in  1245;  and  again  in  1278  the  same  fate  befell  the 
building.  A  third  edifice  was  in  great  part  destroyed 
during  the  wars  of  Owen  Glendower  in  1402.  The 
greater  part  of  the  present  building  was  constructed  by 
Bishop  Redman  about  1480  ;  the  choir  and  chancel  under- 
went restoration  from  the  designs  of  Sir  Gilbert  Scott  in 
1867-68,  and  the  nave  in  1875,  when  a  new  roof  was 
added.  It  is  one  of  the  smallest  cathedrals  in  Britain, 
its  total  length  being  182  feet,  while  the  breadth  across 
the  transepts  is  108  feet.  It  is  a  plain  cruciform  structure, 
chiefiy  Decorated,  but  with  some  Early  English  portions, 
with  an  embattled  tower,  97  feet  in  height,  rising  from 
the  intersection  of  the  nave  and  the  transept.  In  the  south 
transept  there  is  a  library  of  nearly  2000  volumes,  includ- 
ing some  rare  and  valuable  books.  The  bishop's  palace  is  a 
comparatively  modern  structure.  The  town  has  a  grammar- 
school  (1882),  county  court  offices,  the  union  workhouse, 
and  almshouses.  The  population  of  the  borough  (area, 
1155  acres)  in  1881  was  1901  and  of  the  parish  3177. 

ST  AUGUSTINE,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  capital  of 
St  John's  county,  Florida,  has  the  distinction  of  being  the 
oldest  city  in  the  States  built  by  Europeans,  and  has  re- 
cently become  a  popular  winter  watering-place.  By  rail 
it  is  36  miles  south-east  from  Jacksonville.  It  stands  on  a 
narrow  sandy  peninsula,  not  more  than  1 2  feet  above  the  sea, 
formed  by  the  JIatanzas  and  San  Sebastian  rivers,  and  is 
separated  from  the  ocean  by  the  northern  end  of  Anastasia 
Island.  The  streets  are  very  narrow,  the  principal  thorough- 
fares being  only  12  or  15  feet  wide,  and  the  balconies  of 
the  old  houses  often  project  so  as  almost  to  meet  overhead. 
Along  the  sea-front  for  nearly  a  mile  extends  a  granite- 
coped  sea-wall  (1837-43),  which  forms  a  fine  promenade. 
At  its  northern  end  stands  the  old  fort  of  San  Marco  (now 
Fort  Marion),  a  well-preserved  specimen  of  Spanish  military 
architecture  (finished  1756),  with  moat  and  outworks, 
walls  21  feet  high,  bastions  at  the  corners,  heavy  casemates, 
dungeons,  and  subterranean  passages.  It  is  in  the  form 
of  a  trapezium,  and  covers  about  4  acres.  Like  most  of 
the  Spanish  buildings,  it  is  constructed  of  coquina,  a  curious 
shelly  conglomerate  from  Anastasia  Island,  which  ■was 
easily  quarried,  but  grew  very  hard  on  exposure  to  the 
atmosphere.  The  same  material  was  used  for  paving  the 
streets,  which  were  thus  kept  extremely  clean  and  firm. 
At  the  southern  end  of  the  sea-wall  is  the  old  Franciscan 
monastery,  now  used  as  United  States  barracks.  Of  the 
Spanish  wall  which  ran  across  the  peninsula  and  defended 
the  city  on  the  north  side  there  only  remains  the  so-called 
city  gate.  In  the  centre  of  St  Augustine  is  the  Plaza  de 
la  Constitucion,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  monument 
in  the  middle,  erected  in  1812  in  memory  of  the  Liberal 
Spanish  Constitution.  On  this  square  stand  the  cathedral 
(1793),  with  a  Moorish  belfry,  the  old  governor's  palace, 
now  used  as  a  post^ofiice  and  public  library,  and  an  Episco- 
pal church  in  modem  Gothic.  Other  buildings  of  note  in 
the  town  are  the  convent  of  St  Mary  and  the  convent  of 
the  sisters  of  St  Joseph.  Modern  villas  and  hotels  have 
recently  been  erected  in  various  parts.  Palmetto  straw 
goods  are  largely  manufactured  in  St  Augustine,  the 
palmetto  being  one  of  the  characteristic  features  of  the 
surroimding  landscape,  to  which  orange  and  lemon  trees 
also  contribute.  The  climate  is  remarkably  equable,  the 
mean  temperature  for  winter  being  58°,  and  for  the  other 
seasons  68°,  80°,  and  71°  respectively.  Frosts  seldom 
1  occur,  though  that  of   1833  killed  many  of  the  orange- 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


159 


trees.  Tii  1880  the  total  populatioa  of  me  city  was 
2293,  but  in  winter  northern  visitors  swell  the  number  to 
7000  or  8000. 

Menendez  de  A  viles  arrived  off  the  coast  of  Florida  on  28th  August 
(St  Augustine's  day)  1565,  and  accordingly  he  gave  the  name  of  that 
saint  to  the  city  which  he  shortly  afterwards  founded.  His  first  act 
was  to  attack  the  French  settlement  on  St  John's  river,  and  two 
years  later  the  French  retaliated  on  St  Augustine  (see  Florida, 
vol.  i.T.  340,  and  Ribacltj.  In  15S6  Drake  attacked  and  plundered 
the  to\Tn,  and  throughout  the  17th  century  it  frequently  suffered 
from  the  raids  of  Indians,  pirates,  and  the  English  settlers  of  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia.  Occupied  by  the  British  from  176.3  to  1783, 
it  ultijnately  passed  to  the  United  States  in  1821.  During  the 
Civil  War  it  changed  hands  three  times. 

ST  BARTHOLOMEW,  or  St  Barthelemy,  a  French 
island  of  the  West  Indies,  in  the  archipelago  of  the  Antilles, 
is  situated  in  17°  55'  35"  N.  lat.  and  63°  60'  15"  W.  long., 
108  miles  north-north-west  of  Guadaloupe,  of  which,  poli- 
tically, it  is  a  dependency.  In  form  it  is  very  irregular 
and  the  surface  is  mountainous.  The  soil,  in  spite  of  a 
scarcity  of  moisture,  is  not  unfertile ;  and  in  some  of  the 
valleys  the  growing  of  vegetables  is  an  important  industry. 
Bananas,  cassia,  tamarinds,  and  sassafras  are  exported. 
In  modern  times  zinc  and  lead  ores  have  been  found  in  the 
island,  but  they  are  not  worked.  Rocks  and  shallows 
make  St  Bartholomew  difficult  of  access,  and  its  port  (Le 
Carenage),  though  safe  during  the  greater  pait  of  the  year, 
is  capable  of  receiving  only  the  larger  class  of  coasting 
vessels.  The  chief  town  is  Gustavia,  near  the  port.  The 
population  was  2942  in  1883. 

St  Bartholomew,  occupied  by  the  French  in  1648,  was  ceded  to 
Sweden  in  17S4  ;  but  it  was  restored  to  France  by  the  treaty  signed 
at  Paris,  August  1877,  with  the  full  approval  of  the  iuhabitants, 
wlio  had  remained  French  in  language  and  manners.  Universal 
suffrage  was  introduced  in  1830  and  slavery  abolished  in  1S48. 

ST  BRIEUC,  a  town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  the  depa.-t- 
ment  of  Cotes  da  Nord,  295  miles  west  of  Paris  by  the 
railway  from  Brest,  at  the  junction  of  a  branch  to  Vannes 
by  Pontivy.  It  stands  290  feet  above  the  sea,  between  1 
and  2  miles  from  the  English  Channel,  where  L6gu6,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Gouet,  serves  as  its  seaport.  About 
600  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  of  27,600  tons,  enter  or 
clear  per  annum ;  the  local  shipowners  take  part  especi- 
ally in  the  Newfoundland  and  Iceland  fisheries.  St  Briettc 
is  an  old  to^vn  vrith  a  considerable  number  of  curious 
houses.  The  principal  articles  of  trade  are  grain,  flax, 
liemp,  vegetables,  honey,  cider,  butter,  and  eggs,  which  are 
despatched  to  England,  and  fish  and  game,  which  are  sent 
in  considerable  quantities  to  Paris.  At  the  fairs  in  bygone 
days  the  Breton  women  sold  their  hair  for  trifling  sums. 
Nurseries  of  some  size  exist  at  St  Brienc,  and  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood are  quarries  of  blue  granite,  giving  employment 
to  300  workmen.  St  Brieuc  is  the  scat  of  a  bishopric  in 
the  province  of  Rennes,  and  has  a  cathedral  dating  from 
the  13th  century,  but  partially  rebuilt  in  the  18th,  and 
extensively  restored  recently.  The  tombs  of  the  bishops, 
the  modern  but  delicately  carved  organ-loft,  the  tapestries, 
and  the  stained-glass  windows  deserve  mention.  The  old 
monastery  of  the  Capuchins  is  occupied  by  the  civil  hos- 
pital. The  monastery  of  the  Cordeliers  contains  the  lycte, 
a  library  of  30,000  volumes,  and  a  museum  of  arch:eology 
and  natural  history,  and  the  convent  of  the  Ursulinea  has 
been  turned  into  barracks.  Tlie  episcopal  palace,  the  pre- 
fecture, and  the  town-house  were  formerly  private  mansions, 
a  class  of  old  buildings  which  is  steadily  being  reduced  in 
number  by  the  opening  of  now  streets.  A  colossal  image 
of  the  Virgin  looks  down  upon  the  to\vn,  and  the  Dugues- 
clin  boulevard,  on  the  site  of  the  ramparts,  has  a  statue 
of  that  hero.  The  population  in  1881  was  14,869  (com- 
muno  17,833). 

St  Brieuc  owes  its  origin  and  its  name  to  the  missionary  f5t 
Briocus,  who  came  from  Wales  in  the  6th  century,  and  whoso  tomb 
afterwards  attracted  crowds  of  pilgrims.    The  place  was  defended  in 


1375  by  Olivier  de  Clisson  against  the  duke  of  Brittany,  and  again 
attacked  by  the  same  Clisson  in  1394,  the  cathedral  sullering  greatlj 
in  botn  sieges.  In  1592  the  town  was  pillaged  by  the  Spaniard* 
in  1601  ravaged  by  the  plague,  and  in  1628  surrounded  by  walls, 
of  which  no  traces  remain.  Between  1602  and  1708  the  states  oj 
Brittany  several  times  met  at  St  Brieuc,  and  during  the  KeinTi 
of  Terror  Chouans  and  Blues  carried  on  a  ruthless  conBict  witS 
each  other. 

ST  CATHARINES,  a  city  and  port  of  entry -.^4 
Ontario,  Canada,  and  the  capital  of  Lincoln  county,  ia 
situated  12  miles  north-west  of  Niagara  Falls  and  35 
south  of  Toronto  (by  water),  on  the  Welland  Canal  and 
the  Grand  Trunk  and  Welland  branch  of  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railway.  _  It  is  celebrated  for  its  artesian  mineral  wells, 
and  contains  a  convent  and  a  marine  hospital.  The  manu- 
facture of  flour  has  long  been  a  staple  industrj',  and  the 
abundant  water-power  is  also  utilized  in  cotton-mills, 
machine-shops,  agricultural  implement  works,  ic.  In- 
corporated as  a  town  in  1845,  St  Catharines  had  in  1861 
a  population  of  6284,  in  1871  of  78G4,  and  in  1881  of 
9631.     A  city  charter  was  granted  in  1875. 

ST  CHAMOND,  a  manufacturing  town  of  France,'  in 
the  department  of-  Loire,  7i  miles  east-north-east  of  St' 
£tienne,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Janon  with  the  Gier  (an 
afiluent  of  the  Rhone),  and  on  the  railway  from  St  fitienne 
to  Lyons.  Besides  working  a  considerable  number  of 
coal-mines,  St  Chamond  employs  twelve  mills  in  the  silk, 
manufacture,  and  from  12,000  to  15,000  looms  (mostly, 
driven  by  hydraulic  machinery)  in  lace-making,  and  has  a 
variety  of  other  manufactures.  The  population  was  14,149 
in  1881. 

St  Chamond,  founded  in  the  7th  century  hy  St  Enneraond  or 
Chamond,  archbishop  of  Lyons,  became  the  chief  town  of  the 
Jarret,  a  little  principality  formed  by  the  valley  of  the  Gier.  Silk- 
milling  was  introduced  in  the  town  in  the  middle  of  the  16tb  cen- 
tury by  Gayotti,  a  native  of  Bologna,  and  perfected  towards  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  by  Richard  Chambovet.  Remains  are  found 
at  St  Chamond  of  a  Pioman  aqueduct,  which  conveyed  the  watera 
of  the  Janon  along  the  valley  of  the  Gier  to  Lyons. 

ST  CHARLES,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  county 
seat  of  St  Charles  county,  Missouri,  is  situated  on  the 
left  or  north  bank  of  the  Missouri  20  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and  23  from  St  Louis  by  the  St  Louis  and 
Omaha  line  of  the  Wabash,  St  Louis,  and  Pacific  Railway, 
which  crosses  the  river  by  a  great  iron  bridge  6535  feet 
long,  erected  in  1871  at  a  cost  of  §1,750,000.  Besides 
one  of  the  large'st  car-factories  in  the  United  States,  the 
industrial  establishments  of  St  Charles  comprise  tobacco- 
factories,  flour-mills,  hominy-mills,  creameries,  woollen- 
factories,  and  breweries.  St  Charles  College  (Xlethodist 
Episcopal),  chartered  in  1838,  the  Lindenwood  Female 
College  (Presbyterian),  the  Convent  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  public  library  are  tha  principal 
institutions.  In  1850  the  inhabitants  numbered  only 
1498;  by  1870  they  were  5570,  and  in  1880  5014  (in 
the  township  8417). 

A  Spanish  post  was  established  at  St  Charles  in  1769.  As  o 
town  it  dates  from  1S09  and  as  a  city  from  1849.  The  fii-st  Stats 
legislature  of  Missouri  met  in  the  town  in  1321  and  St  Charles 
continued  to  bo  the  Slate  capital  till  1826. 

ST  CHRISTOPHER,  or  St  Kitts,  one  of  the  Leeward 
Islands,  West  Indies,  situated  in  17°  18'  N.  lat.  and  62° 
48'  W.  long.  Its  length  is  23  miles,  its  greatest  breadth 
5  miles,  and  the  total  area  68  square  miles.  I^lountains 
traverse  the  central  part  from  south-east  to  north-west, 
the  greatest  height.  Mount  Misery,  being  about  4100  feet 
above  sea-level.  On  the  seaboard  is  Basseterre,  the  capital, 
the  outlet  of  a  fertile  plain,  which  contains  the  cultivated 
land.  The  thermometer  ranges  from  78"  to  84°  Fahr. 
St  Christopher  is  united  with  Nevis  (q.v.)  as  one  colony, 
with  one  executive  and  one  legislative  council  (olhcial  and 
nominated)  for  the  united  presidency.  In  1883  the  revenue 
and  expenditure  were  £31,000  and  £33,000  respectively, 


160 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


and  the  public  debt  was  £2500.  The  tonnage  entering 
and  clearing  was  307,000,  and  the  imports  and  exports 
were  valued  at  £190,000  and  £240,000  respectively  per 
annum.  The  sugar  exports  amounted  to  10,000  tons.  The 
population  of  the  island  was  about  30,000. 

ST  CLAIR,  a  borough  of  the  United  States,  in  Schuyl- 
kill county,  Pennsylvania,  3  miles  east  of  Pottsville  on  the 
Reading  and  Philadelphia  Eailroad.  It  mainly  depends 
on  its  coal-mines.  The  population  was  5726  in  1870  and 
4149-in  1880. 

ST  CLOUD,  a  village  of  France,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Seine,  7  miles  west  from  the  centre  of  Paris  and  9i 
by  the  railroad  from  Paris  to  Versailles,  forming  part  of 
the  canton  of  Sevres  and  of  the  arrondissement  of  Ver- 
sailles (Seine-et-Oise).  Picturesquely  built  on  a  hill-slope, 
it  overlooks  the  river,  the  Bois  de  Boulogne,  and  Paris ; 
and,  lying  amid  the  foliage  of  its  magnificent  park  and 
numerous  villa  gardens,  it  is  one  of  the  favourite  resorts 
of  the  Parisians.  The  palace  of  St  Cloud,  which  had  been 
a  summer  residence  for  Napoleon  I.,  Louis  XVIII.,  Charles 
X.,  Louis  Philippe,  and  Napoleon  III.,  was  burned  by 
the  Prussians  in  1870  along  with  part  of  the  village.  In 
spite  of  the  damage  inflicted  on  the  park  at  the  same 
period,  magnificent  avenues  still  make  it  one'of  the  finest 
rural  haunts  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris.  It  occupies 
a  varied  tract  of  9G0  acres,  and  abounds  in  picturesque 
views.  Every  year  in  September  a  great  fair,  lasting 
three  weeks,  is  held  in  the  park ;  and  within  its  precincts 
are  situated  the  new  national  Sevres  porcelain  manufac- 
ture and  the  Breteuil  pavilion,  the  seat  of  the  interna- 
tional metre  commission.  St  Cloud  possesses  a  church, 
erected  about  1865,  in  the  style  of  the  12th  century,  with 
an  elegant  stone  spire  ;  and  here  too  has  been  established 
the  upper  normal  school  (science  and  letters)  for  the 
training  of  teachers  (male)  for  the  provincial  normal 
schools  of  primary  instruction.  The  population  in  1881 
was  4081,  and  4126  in  the  commune. 

ClocJoald  or  C]oud,  grandson  of  Clovis,  adopted  the  monastic  life 
and  left  his  name  to  the  spot  where  his  tomb  was  discovered  after 
the  lapse  of  1200  years,  in  a  crypt  near  the  present  church.  He 
had  granted  the  domain  to  the  church  of  Paris,  which  possessed  it 
as  a  fief  till  the  18th  century.  At;  St  Cloud  Henry  III.  and  the 
king  of  Navarre  (Henry  IV.)  established  then'  camp  during  the 
League  for  the  siege  of  Paris  ;  and  there  the  former  was  assassinated 
ty  Jacques  Clement.  The  castle  was  at  that  time  only  a  plain 
country  house  belonging  to  Pierre  de  Gondi  archbishop  of  Paris. 
Louis  XIV.  bought  it  for  his  brother,  the  duke  of  Orleans,  who 
was  the  originator  of  the  palace  which  perished  in  1870.  Peter  the 
Great  of  Russia  was  received  there  in  1717  by  the  regent,  whose 
grandson  sold  the  palace  to-JIarie  Antoinette.  It  was  in  the 
orangery  at  St  Cloud  that  Bonaparte  executed  the  coup  d'itat  of 
ISth  Brumaire  ;  and  after  he  became  emperor  the  palace  was  his 
favourite  residence,  and  there  he  celebrated  his  marriage  with  Marie 
Louise.  In  1815  it  was  the  scene  of  the  signing  of  the  capitulation 
of  Paris;  and  in  1830  from  St  Cloud  Charles  X.  issued  the  orders 
which  brought  about  his  fall.  Napoleon  III.  was  there  when  he 
received  the  senatusconsult  which  restored  the  empire  in  his  favour 
(1st  December  1852).  Seized  by  the  Prussians  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  invtatment  of  Paris  in  1870,  St  Clond  was  sacked 
dining  the  siege. 

ST  CROIX,  or  Sainte  Ceoix,  one  of  the  Danish  West 
India  IsLmds,  is  situated  between  17°  and  18"  N.  lat., 
about  40  miles  south-south-east  of  St  Thomas.  Twenty- 
ihree  miles  long,  and  -with  a  maximum  width  of  6  miles, 
it  has  an  area  estimated  at  51,168  acres.  Blue  Mountain, 
the  highest  peak  (1100  feet),  lies  in  the  range  of  hills 
running  parallel  with  the  coast  in  the  western  half  of  the 
ialand.  The  narrower  eastern  end  is  also  hilly.  In  the 
centre  and  towards  the  west  the  surface  is  undulating, 
And  towards  the  south  flat  with  brackish  lagoons.  With 
'wo  exception  of  about  4000  acres,  the  soil  is  everywhere 
productive ;  but  only  about  one-third  of  the  area  is  de- 
moted to  sugar  growing  and  one-sixth  to  pasture-land,  the 
greater  part  of  the  remainder  being  either  worthless  brush- 


wood (the  haunt  of  small  deer)  or  scanty  timber.  Besides 
little  Negro  hamlets  there  are  two  garrison  towns — Chris- 
tiansted  (or  popularly  Bassin)  on  the  north  coast,  with  a 
small  harbour  15  to  16  feet  deep  at  the  entrance,  and 
Frederiksted  (popularly  West  End)  on  the  west  coast, 
with  an  open  roadstead.  The  population  of  the  island 
was  23,194  in  1860,  22,760  in  1870,  and  18,430  in  1880. 
This  decrease  is  due  to  the  comparative  failure  of  the 
sugar-crops.  Destruction  of  the  forests  (or  some  unsus- 
pected cause)  has  brought  diminished  rainfall  (from  20  to 
34  inches  per  annum) ;  and  the  belt  of  abandoned  cane- 
ground  has  been  steadily  increasing.  To  help  in  checking 
this  decay  the  Government  constructed  (1876)  a  great 
central  factory,  to  which  the  juice  is  conveyed  from  the 
plantations  by  a  system  of  pipes.  Apart  from  the  official 
element  (mostly  Danish),  the  white  inhabitants  of  St  Croix 
are  almost  wholly  British  either  by  birth  or  descent. 

St  Crou:  was  discovered  by  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage..  In 
1651  Fi-ance  entrusted  it  to  the  Knights  of  Malta,  and  in  1733  it 
was  purchased  by  Denmark  for  750,000  livres  (167,000  rixdollars). 
Slavery  was  abolished  in  1848,  and  coolies  began  to  be  employed 
in  1803. 

ST  CYE,  JIaeshal  (1764-18301  See  GotmoN  Si 
Cyr. 

ST  CYR-L'fiCOLF,  a  village  of  France  (Seine-et-Oise); 
2  J  miles  west  of  Versailles  at  the  end  of  the  old  park 
of  Louis  XIV.  It  had  only  2712  inhabitants  in  1881, 
and  its  importance  is  solely  due  to  the  famous  military 
school  now  established  in  the  convent  which  Madame  de 
Maintenon  founded  for  the  education  of  noble  young  (adits 
in  indigent  circumstances.  It  was  here  that  Racine's  Either 
and  Athalie  were  first  acted,  having  been  written  expressly 
for  the  pupils.  Madame  de  Maintenon's  tomb  is  still 
preserved  in  the  chapel.  The  convent  was  suppressed  at 
the  Revolution,-  and  the  gardens  are  now  partly  trans- 
formed into  parade-grounds.  Two  advanced  forts  of  the 
new  enceinte  round  Paris  are  situated  at  St  Gyr. 

ST  DAVID'S,  a  village  of  Pembrokeshire,  South  Wales, 
and  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  is  situated  in  the  valley  of  the 
Alan,  16  miles  north-west  of  Haverfordwest,  the  nearest 
railway  station,  and  li  miles  east  from  the  most  westerly 
point  of  Wales.  By  some  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  Roman 
Menapia.  It  consists  of  straggling  and  somewhat  mean 
houses,  occupying  the  crest  of  the  hill  above  the  cathedraL 
It  was  the  birthplace  of  St  David,  the  patron  saint  of 
Wales.  The  see,  which  includes  nearly  the  whole  of  South 
Wales,  was  founded  at  least  not  later  than  the  7th  century. 
Till  the  middle  of  the  12th  century  the  bishops  had 
archiepiscopal  powers.  The  existing  cathedral  was  begun 
in  1180.  Its  tower  fell  in  1220,  crashing  through  the 
choir  and  transepts ;  when  it  was  rebuilt  the  old  western 
arch  was  retained.  About  the  time  the  choir  and  tran- 
septs were  repaired  St  Thomas's  chapel  was  added.  In 
1243  an  earthquake  caused  the  walls  of  the  nave  to  bulge. 
The  chapels  east  of  the  presbytery  were  begun  about  this 
period,  and  the  lady  chapel  between  1296  and  1328. 
The  aisles  of  the  nave  and  of  the  presbytery  were  raised 
by  Bishop  Go'wer  (1328-1347),  who  set  up  the  beautiful 
stone  rood  screen.  The  great  window  in  the  south  tran- 
sept in  the  Perpendicular  style  was  erected  in  1384,  and 
the  roofs  renewed  in  the  Late  Perpendicular  between  1461 
and  1522.  The  west  front  was  rebuilt  by  Nash  about 
the  end  of  the  18th  century,  and  in  1862  extensive 
restorations,  including  the  rebuilding  of  the  two  western 
piers  of  the  tower  and  of  the  west  front,  were  begun 
under  the  direction  of  Sir  G.  G.  Scott.  'The  cathedral 
contains  the  tomb  of  Edmund  Tudor,  father  of  Henry 
VII.,  and  the  shrine  of  St  David.  The  total  internal 
length  of  the  building  is  298  feet,  the  breadth  of  the  nave 
(with  aisles)  70  feet,  and  the  breadth  of  the  transepts  27 
feet  3  inches.     Parts  of  the  rich  interior  decoration  of  tb< 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


161 


ftave  are  particularly  -vrorthy  of  notice.  To  the  north  of 
the  cathedral  are  the  picturesque  ruins  of  the  chapel  of 
Bt  Mary's  College,  founded  in  1377.  On  the  other  side 
of  the  Man  are  the  remains  of  the  bishop's  palace,  a 
masterjiioce  of  Bishop  Gower,  particularly  noteworthy  for 
the  beautiful  arcade  and  parapet  running  round  the  whole 
building.  It  was  partly  unroofed  by  Bishop  Barlow  in 
153G.  In  the  centre  of  the  village  stands  the  ancient 
cross,  28  feet  high,  the  steps  of  which  were  restored  by 
Bishop  Thirlwall  in  1873.  The  place  is  without  municipal 
gcJvernment,  its  mayor  being  the  officer  of  the  bishop's 
manorial  court.  The  population  of  the  parish  in  1881 
was  20o3. 

ST  DENIS,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Seine,  4i  miles  north  of  Paris  by  the  Northern  Railway, 
which  there  divides  into  two  branches  leading  respectively 
to  Pontoise  and  Creil,  is  now  a  great  manufacturing  centre 
for  machinery,  boats,  railway  carriages,  chemical  products, 
printed  goods,  candles,  beer,  leather,  and  flour.  Many  of 
the  works  are  supplied  with  water  from  the  Crould  and 
the  Rouillon,  which  there  fall  into  the  Seine ;  and  a  canal 
extends  from  the  Seine  to  La  Villette,  the  great  inner 
harbour  of  Paris.  In  1881  the  population  was  43,127. 
The  name  and  fame  of  the  town  are  derived  from  the 
abbey  founded  by  Dagobert  on  the  spot  where  St  Denis, 
the  apostle  of  Paris,  was  interred  (see  below).  The  west 
front  was  built  between  1137  and  1140.  The  right-hand 
tower  is  almost  pure  Piomanesque ;  that  on  the  left  was 
Gothic,  and  its  spire  was  carried  to  a  height  of  280  feet, 
but  it  was  struck  by  lightning  in  1837  and  its  reconstruc- 
tion effected  in  so  clumsy  a  manner  that  it  had  to  be 
taken  down  till  it  was  on  a  level  with  the  roof  of  the 
nave.  The  rose  window,  now  occupied  by  a  clock  face, 
dates  from  the  13th  century.  Under  one  of  the  three 
rows  of  arches  above  the  main  entrance  runs  an  inscrip- 
tion recording  the  erection  of  the  church  by  Suger  with 
abbatial  funds  and  its  consecration  in  1140.  "  The  porch 
formed  by  the  first  three  bays  of  the  church  contains  some 
remains  of  the  basilica  of  Pippin  the  Short.  The  nave 
proper  (235  feet  long  and  57  wide)  has  seven  bays,  and 
dates,  as  well  as  jnost  of  the  choir  and  transepts,  from  the 
reign  of  St  Louis.  The  gallery  of  the  triforium  is  of  open 
work  and  is  filled  in  with  glass.  The  secondary  apse  (i-ond- 
point)  and  its  semicircular  chapels  (consecrated  on  11th 
June  1144)  are  considered  as  the  first  perfected  attempt 
at  Gothic.  The  transepts  have  fine  13th-century  fagades, 
each  with  two  unfinislied  towers ;  if  the  plan  had  been 
fully  carried  out  there  would  have  been  six  towers  besides 
a  central  fl^che  in  lead.  In  the  chapels  of  the  nave  are 
the  tombs  of  Louis  XII.  and  Anne  of  Brittany  (1591) ;  of 
Henry  II.  and  Catherine  de'  Medici,  a  masterpiece  by 
Germain  Pilon ;  of  Louis  of  Orleans  and  Valentine  of 
Milan,  from  the  old  church  of  the  Celestines  at  Paris ;  of 
Francis  I.  and  Claude  of  France,  one  of  the  most  splendid 
tombs  of  the  Renaissance,  executed  under  the  direction  of 
Philibert  Dclorme ;  and  that  of  Dagobert,  which,  though 
considerably  dilapidated,  ranks  as  one  oi  the  most  curious 
of  mediaeval  (13th-century)  works  of  art.  In  the  apse 
some  stained  glass  of  the  time  of  Suger  still  remains. 
The  crypt  dates  partly  from  Charlemagne  and  jiartly  from 
Suger.  In  the  centre  is  the  vault  where  the  cotlin  of  the 
dead  king  used  to  lie  until,  to  make  room  for  that  of  his 
euccessor,  it  was  removed  to  its  final  resting-place.  It  is 
at  present  occupied  by  the  coffin  of  Louis  XVIII.,  the  last 
sovereign  whose  body  was  borne  to  St  Denis  and  the  only 
one  whose  ashes  have  been  respected.  Beside  p^nie  fine 
statues,  the  crypt  contains  tho  Bourbon  vault,  in  which 
were  deposited  the  remains  of  Louis  XVI.  and  Marie 
Antoinette,  or  at  least  whatever  of  them  was  recoverable 
{rom  the  cemetery  of  La  Madeleine,  where  the  Chapcllo 


Expiatoire  now  stands.  Tte  treasury  of  St  Denis  has  beea 
despoiled  of  its  richest  possessions,  including  the  books 
now  in  the  National  Library ;  but  it  stiU  contains  crosses, 
altar-pieces,  and  reliquaries,  notably  those  of  St  Denis 
and  his  two  companions,  Rusticus  and  Eleutherius,  the 
three  patrons  of  the  basilica.  The  chapter  of  St  Denis  is 
usually  composed  of  emeritus  bishops  with  the  title  of 
canons ;  but  the  institution  is  about  to  be  abolished 
(1886).  St  Denis  possesses  a  fine  town-house  and  a  poor- 
house  (300  beds).  Its  three  forts  formed  part  of  the 
Parisian  enceinte  in  1870-71,  and  from  23d  to  26th  January 
1871  the  place  was  bombarded  by  the  Prussians,  who  did 
considerable  damage  to  the  basilica. 

St  Denis,  the  ancient  CatuUiacum,  was  a  town  of  no  pfetensionj 
till  the  founding  of  its  abbey.  The  process  of  rebuilding  begua 
in  the  12th  century  by  Abbe  Suger  was  completed  under  Philip 
tho  Bold.  In  the  meantime  St  Louis  caused  mausoleums  to  be 
erected  with  figures  of  the  princes  already  burled  in  the  abbey  ; 
and  from  his  time  onwards  to  Henry  II.  every  monarch  in  suc- 
cession had  his  monument.  Louis  XIV.  reduced  the  abbey  to  the 
rank  of  a  priory  ;  and  at  the  Revolution  it  was  suppressed,  the 
tombs  being  violated  and  the  church  sacked  (1793).  Two  years 
later  all  the  remains  and  fragments  that  could  be  recovered  wero 
collected  in  the  museum  of  tlie  Petits  Au^stincs  at  Paris  ;  but  the 
bronze  tombs  had  been  melted  down,  the  stained -glass  windows 
shattered,  and  large  numbers  of  interesting  objects  stolen  or  lost. 
Napoleon  established  in  the  monastery  a  school  for  daughters  of 
the  members  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  which  has  continued  to 
flourish.  Louis  XVIII.  caused  all  the  articles  belonging  to  St 
Denis  to  be  brought  back  from  the  museums  to  their  original  site> 
and  added  numerous  other  monuments  from  the  suppressed  abbeys. 
But  it  was  not  till  after  1848  that,  under  the  intelligent  direction 
of  Viollet  le  Due,  the  damage  inflicted  by  revolutionist  and  unskil- 
ful restorer  was  repaired  and  the  basilica  recovered  its  original 
appearance.  Charles  the  Bold  instituted  the  famous  fair  of  Landit, 
which  was  transferred  from  the  neighbouring  plain  to  St  Denis 
itself  in  1552,  and  is  still  held  in  the  town.  Sheep  and  parchment 
were  formerly  the  staples.  The  abbey  was  pillaged  by  Charles  the 
Bad,  king  of  Navarre,  in  1358,  by  the  BurgunJians  and  Flemings 
in  1411,  and  by  the  English  in  1430.  A  sanguinary  battle,  in 
which  thfi  Catholic  leader  Constable  Anno  de  Montmorency  found 
victory  and  death,  was  fought  between  Huguenots  and  Catholics  in 
the  neighbourhood  on  10th  November  1567. 

ST  DENIS,  the  capital  of  Ei^tjnion  {q.v.). 

ST  DI1<;,  a  town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  an  arrondisse- 
ment  and  a  bishop's  see  in  the.  department  of  Vosges,  is- 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Meurthe,  1030  feet  above 
the  sea,  on  the  railway  from  Lun6ville  (32  miles  north- 
west) to  I<;pinal  (38  miles  south-west).  One  portion  of  the: 
town  was  rebuilt  after  the  fire  of  1757  in  the  regular  and 
monumental  style  of  Nancy ;  the  other  has  a  somewhat 
mean  appearance.  Several  Alsatian  manufacturers  having- 
emigrated  to  St  Di6  on  the  annexation  of  their  country 
to  Germany,  the  town  has  made  great  progress  since 
1871,  and  now  possesses  weaving  factories,  bleacheries, 
hosiery  factories,  engineering  work.s,  a  tile  work,  and  an 
extensive  brewery.  The  cathedral  has  a  Romanesque  nave 
(10th  century)  and  a  Gothic  choir;  the  portal,  in  red 
sandstone,  dates  from  the  18th  century.-  A  fine  cloister, 
recently  restored  and  containing  a  beautifully  executed 
stone  pulpit,  loads  to  the  Petite  iglise  or  Notre  Dame,  a. 
well-preserved  specimen  of  early  Romanesque.  Other 
points  of  interest  are  the  library,  the  museum,  belonging 
to  the  Soci6t6  Philomathiquo  Vosgieune,  tho  large  school^ 
and  the  public  fountains.  The  town  commands  an  exten- 
sive view  of  tho  Vosges  and  is  a  convenient  centre  for  ex- 
cursions. Tho  population  in  1881  was  12,677  (15,312  ia- 
tho  commune). 

St  Di(!  (Dmlatum,  Theodata,  S.  Deodaii  Farmm)  grew  nrj  round 
a  monastery  founded  in  tho  0th  century  bv  St  Dcodatus  of  Novers,^* 
who  gave  up  his  Episcopal  functions  in  order  to  retire  to  this  place. 
In  tlio  10th  century  tho  community  became  a  chanter  of  canons; 
and  among  those  who  subsequently  held  tho  rank  of  provc.t  or 
dean  were  Giovanni  do'  Medici  (afterwards  Pope  Leo  X. )  and  sovoral 
princes  of  the  hniwe  of  J,orruinc.  Among  tho  cxUvnaivo  privUcgcs 
enjoyed  by  them  was  that  of  coining  money.  Thouch  thoy  co- 
operated iu  building  tho  town  walls,  tho  conon.s  and  tho  dukc8  of 

XXL--21 


162 


S  A  I  —  S  A  I 


Lorraine  soon  became  rival  competitors  for  the  authority  over  St 
Die.  The  institution  of  a  town  council  in  1628,  and  the  establish- 
ment under  King  Stanislaus  of  a  bishopric  which  appropriated 
part  of  their  spiritual  jurisdiction,  contributed  greatly  to  diminish 
the  influence  of  the  canons  ;  and  with  the  Revolution  they  were 
completely  swept  away.  During  the  17th  century  the  town  was 
repeatedly  sacked  -by  the  Burgundians  under  Charles  the  Bold,  by 
the  French,  and  by  the  Swedes.  It  was  also  partially  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1065,  1155,  1554,  and  1757.  St  T)ii  was  the  seat  of  a 
very  early  printing  press. 

SAINTE-BEUVE,  Charles  Augustin  (1804-1869), 
the  most  notable  critic  of  our  time,  was  bom  at  Boulogne- 
sur-Mer  on  23d  December  1804.  He  was  a  posthumous 
child, — his  father,  a  native  of  Picardy,  and.  controller  of 
town-dues  at  Boulogne,  having  married  in  this  same  year, 
At  the  age  of  fifty-two,  and  died  before  the  birth  of  his  son. 
The  father  was  a  man  of  literary  tastes,  and  used  to  read, 
like  his  son,  pencil  in  hand  ;  his  copy  of  the  Elzevir  edition 
of  Virgil,  covered  with  his  notes,  was  in  his  son's  possession, 
and  is  mentioned  by  him  jn  one  of  his  poems.  Sainte- 
Beuve's  mother  was  half  English, — her  father,  a  mariner  of 
Boulogne,  having  married  an  Englishwoman.  The  little 
Charles  Augustin  was  brought  up  by  his  mother,  who 
never  remarried,  and  an  aunt,  his  father's  sister,  who 
lived  with  her.  They  were  poor,  but  the  boy,  having 
learnt  all  he  could  at  his  first  'school  at  Boulogne,  per- 
suaded his  mother  to  send  him,  when  he  was  near  the  age 
of  fourteen,  to  finish  his  education  at  Paris.  He  boarded 
with  a  M.  Landry,  and  had  for  a  fellow-boarder  and  inti- 
mate friend  Charles  Neate,  afterwards  fellow  of  Oriel 
College  and  member  of  parliament  for  the  city  of  Oxford. 
From  M.  Landry's  boarding-house  he  attended  the  classes, 
first  of  the  CoUdge  Charlemagne,  and  then  of  the  College 
Bourbon,  winning  the  head  prize  for  history  at  the  first, 
and  for  Latin  verse  at  the  second.  In  1823  he  began  to 
study  medicine,  and  continued  the  study  with  diligence 
and  interest  for  nearly  four  years,  attending  lectures  on 
anatomy  and  physiology  and  walking  the  hospitals.  But 
meanwhile  a  Liberal  newspaper,  the  Globe,  was  founded  in 
1827  by  M.  Dubois,  one  of  Sainte-Beuve's  old  teachers  at 
the  College  Charlemagne.  M.  Dubois  called  to  his  aid 
his  former  pupU,  who,  now  quitting  the  study  of  medicine, 
contributed  historical  and  literary  articles  to  the  Globe, 
among  them  two,  which  attracted  the  notice  of  Goethe,  on 
Victor  Hugo's  Odes  and  Ballads.  These  articles  led  to  a 
friendship  with  Victor  Hugo  and  to  Sainte-Beuve'g  con- 
nexion with  the  romantic  school  of  poets,  a  school  never 
entirely  suited  to  his  nature.  In  the  Globe  appeared 
also  his  interesting  articles  on  the  French  poetry  of  the 
16th  century,  which  in  1828  were  collected  and  published 
in  a  volume,  and  followed  by  a  second  volume  contain- 
ing selections  from  Ronsard.  In  1829  he  made  his  first 
venture  as  a  poet  with  the  Vie,  Poesies,  et  Pensees  de  Joseph 
Delorme.  liis  own  name  did  not  appear;  but  Joseph 
Delorme,  that  "Werther  in  the  shape  of  Jacobin  and 
medical  student,"  as  Guizot  called  him,  was  the  Sainte- 
Beuve  of  those  days  himself.  About  the  same  time  was 
founded  the  Reirne  de  Paris,  and  Sainte-Beuve  contributed 
the  opening  article,  with  Boileau  for  its  subject.  In  1830 
came  his  second  volume  of  poems,  the  Consolations,  a 
work  on  which  Sainte-Beuve  looked  back  in  later  life 
with  a  special  affection.  To  himself  it  marked  and  ex- 
pressed, he  said,  that  epoch  of  his  life  to  which  he  coulJ 
with  most  pleasure  return,  and  at  which  he  could  like  best 
that  others  should  see  him.  But  the  critic  in  him  grew 
to  prevail  more  and  more  and  pushed  out  the  poet.  In 
1831  the  Bevue  des  Deux  Mondes  was  founded  in  rivalry 
with  the  Reuue  de  Paris,  and  from  the  first  Sainte-Beuve 
was  one  of-  the  most  active  and  important  contributors. 
He  brought  out  his  novel  of  Volupti  in  1834,  his  third 
and  last  volume  of  poetry,  the  Pensees  d'Aout,  in  1837. 


He  himself  thought  that  the  activity  which  he  had  in  the 
meanwhile  exercised  as  a  critic,  and  the  offence  which  in 
some  quarters  his  criticism  had  given,  were  the  cause  of 
the  less  'favourable  reception  which  this  volume  received. 
He  had  long  meditated  a  book  on  Port  Royai  At  the 
end  of  1837  he  quitted  France,  accepting  an  invitation 
from  the  academy  of  Lausanne,  where  in  a  series  of  lectiirea 
his  work  on  Port  Royal  came  into  its  first  form  of  being. 
In  the  summer  of  the  next  year  he  returned  to  Paris  to 
revise  and  give  the  final  shape  to  his  work,  which,  how- 
ever, was  not  completed  for  twenty  years.  In  1840  M. 
Cousin,  then  minister  of  public  instruction,  appointed  him 
one  of  the  keepers  of  the  JIazarin  Library,  an  appointment 
which  gave  him  rooms  at  the  library,  and,  with  the  money 
earned  by  his  pen,  made  him  for  the  first  time  in  his  life 
easy  in  his  circumstances,  so  that,  as  he  afterwards  used 
to  say,  he  had  to  buy  rare  books  in  order  to  spend  his  in- 
come. A  more  important  consequence  of  his  easier  cir- 
cumstances was  that  he  could  study  freely  and  largely. 
He  returned  to  Greek,  of  which  a  French  schoolboy  brings 
from  his  lycee  no  great  store.  With  a  Greek  teacher,  JL 
Pantasides,  he  read  ^ud  re-read  the  poets  in  the  original, 
and  thus  acquired,  not,  perhaps,  a  philological  scholar's 
knowledge  of  them,  but  a  genuine  and  invaluable  acquaint- 
ance with  them  as  literature.  His  activity  in  the  Eevue 
des  Deux  Mondes  continued,  and  articles  on  Homer,  Theo- 
critus, Apollonius  of  Rhodes,  and  Jleleager  were  fruits  of 
his  new  Greek  studies.  He  wrote  also  a  very  good  article 
in  1844  on  the  Italiain  poet  Leopardi ;  but  iu  general  his 
subjects  were  taken  from  the  great  literature  which  he  knew 
best,  that  of  his  own  country,— its  literature  both  in  the 
past  and  in  the  contemporary  present.  Seven  volumes  of 
"Portraits,"  contributed  to  the  Pevue  de  Paris  and  the 
Bevue  des  Denx  Mondes,  exhibit  his  work  in  the  years  from 
1832  to  1848,  a  work  constantly  increasing  in  range  and 
value.  In  1844  he  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy 
as  successor  to  Casimir  Delavigne,  and  was  received  there 
at  the  beginning  of  1845  by  Victor  Hugo. 

From  this  settled  and  prosperous  condition  the  revolu- 
tion of  February  1848  dislodged  him.  In  JIarch  of  that 
year  was  published  an  account  of  secret -service  money 
distributed  in  the  late  reign,  and  Sainte-Beuve  was  put 
down  as  having  received  the  sum  of  one  hundred  francs. 
The  smallness  of  the  sum  would  hardly  seem  to  suggest  cor- 
ruption ;  it  appears  probable  that  the  money  was  given  to 
cure  a  smoky  chimney  in  his  room  at  the  Jlazarin  Library, 
and  was  wiongly  entered  as  secret  service  money.  But 
Sainte-Beuve,  who  piqued  himself  on  his  independence  and 
on  a  punctilious  delicacy  in  money  matters,  was  indignant 
at  the  entry,  and  thought  the  proceedings  of  the  minister 
of  public  instruction  and  his  otEcials,  when  he  demanded  to 
have  the  matter  sifted,  tardy  and  equivocal.  He  resigned 
his  post  at  the  Mazarin  and  accepted  an  offer  from  the 
Belgian  Government  of  a  chair  of  French  literature  in  the 
university  of  Li^ge.  There  he  gave  the  series  of  lectures 
on  Chateaubriand  and  his  contemporaries  which  was  after- 
wards (in  1 86 1 )  published  in  two  volumes.  He  liked  Li6ge, 
and  the  Belgians  would  have  been  glad  to  keep  him; 
but  the  attraction  of  Paris  carried  him  back  there  in  the 
autumn  of  1849.  Louis  Napoleon  was  then  president. 
Disturbance  was  ceasing ;  a  time  of  settled  government, 
which  lasted  twenty  years  and  corresponds  with  the  second 
stage  of  Sainte-Beuve's  literary  activity,  was  beginning. 
Dr  Vcron,  the  editor  of  the  Constitutionnel,  proposed  to 
him  that  he  should  supply  that  newspaper  with  a  literary 
article  for  every  Monday ;  and  thus  the  Causeries  du 
Lnndi  were  started.  They  at  once  succeeded,  and  "gave 
the  signal,"  as  Sainte-Beuve  himseK  says  with  truth,  "  for 
the  return  of  letters."  Sainte-Beuve  now  lived  in  the  small 
house  in  the  Rue  Mont-Parnasse  (No.  11)  which  he  oscu- 


6AINTE-BEU^^E 


163 


pied  for  the  remainder  of  his  life,  and  where  in  1850  his 
mother,  from  whom  he  seems  to  have  inherited  his  good 
sense,  tact,  and  finesse,  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-six.  For 
three  years  he  continued  writing  every  Monday  for  the 
Constitutionnd ;  then  he  passed,  with  a  similar  engage- 
ment, to  the  Moniteur.  In  1857  his  Monday  articles 
began  to  be  published  in  volumes,  and  by  1862  formed  a 
coDection  in  fifteen  volumes;  they  afterwards  were  resumed 
under  the  title  of  Nouveatix  Lundis,  which  now  make  a 
collection  of  thirteen  volumes  more.  In  1854  M.  Fortoul 
nominated  him  to  the  chair  of  Latin  poetry  at  the  College 
of  France.  His  first  lecture  there  was  received  with  inter- 
ruptions and  marks  of  disapprobation  by  many  of  the 
students,  displeased  at  his  adherence  to  the  empire ;  at  a 
second  lecture  the  interruption  was  renewed.  Sainte- 
Beuve  had  no  taste  for  public  speaking  and  lecturing; 
his  frontis  mollities,  he  said,  unfitted  him  for  it.  He  was 
not  going  to  carry  on  a  war  with  a  party  of  turbulent 
students ;  he  proposed  to  resign,  and  when  the  minister 
would  not  accept  his  resignation  of  his  jirofessorsliip  he 
resigned  its  emoluments.  The  £ttide  sur  Virgile,  a  volume 
published  in  1857,  contains  what  he  had  meant  to  be  his 
first  course  of  lectures.  He  was  still  a  titular  official  of 
public  instruction ;  and  in  1858  his  services  were  called 
for  by  M.  Rouland^  then  minister  of  public  instruction,  as 
a  lecturer  (matlre  de -conferences)  on  French  literature  at 
the  Ecole  Normale  Sup6rieure.  This  work  he  discharged 
with  assiduity  and  success  for  four  years.  In  1859  he 
was  made  commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  having 
twice  previously  to  1848  refused  the  cross.  During  the 
years  of  his  official  engagement  his  Monday  contributions  to 
the  Monitetir  had  no  longer  been  continuous;  but  in  1862 
an  arrangement  was  proposed  by  which  he  was  to  return 
to  the  Constitutionnel  and  again  supply  an  article  there 
every  Monday.  He  consented,  at  the  age  of  fifty-seven, 
to  try  this  last  pull,  as  he  called  it,  this  "dernier  coup  de 
collier";  he  resigned  his  office  at  the  ficole  Normale  and 
began  the  series  of  his  Nouveaux  Licndis.  They  show  no 
falling  off  in  vigour  and  resource  from  the  Causeries. 
But  the  strain  upon  him  of  his  weekly  labour  was  great. 
"  I  am  not  a  monnieur  nor  a  gentleman,"  he  writes  in  1864, 
"but  a  workman  by  the  piece  and  by  the  hour."  "I 
look  upon  myself  as  a  player  forced  to  go  on  acting  at  an 
age  when  he  ought  to  retire,  and  who  can  see  no  term  to 
his  engagemant."  He  had  reason  to  hope  for  relief.  Ex- 
cept himself,  the  foremost  literary  men  in  France  had  stood 
aloof  from  the  empire  and  treated  it  with  a  hostility  more 
or  less  bitter.  He  had  not  been  hostile  to  it :  he  had 
accepted  it  with  satisfaction,  and  had  bestowed  on  its 
official  journal,  the  Monitetir,  the  lustre  of  his  litei'ature. 
The  prince  Napoleon  and  tho  princess  Mathilde  were  his 
warm  friends.  A  SsMiatorship  was  mentioned;  its  income 
of  £1600  a  year  would  give  him  opulence  and  freedom. 
But  its  coming  was  delayed,  and  the  strain  upon  him  con- 
tinued for  some  time  longer.  When  at  last  in  April  1865 
he  was  made  senator,  his  health  was  already  seriously  com- 
promised. The  disease  of  which  ho  died,  but  of  which 
the  doctors  did  not  ascertain  tho  presence  until  his  body 
was  opened  after  his  death — the  stone — began  to  distress 
and  disable  him.  He  could  seldom  attend  tho  meetings 
of  the  senate ;  tho  part  ho  took  there,  however,  on  two 
famous  occasions,  when  tho  nomination  of  JI.  Eenan  to 
the  College  of  France  came  under  discussion  in  1807  and 
tho  law  on  the  press  in  tho  year  following,  provoked  the 
indignation  of  tho  great  majority  in  that  conservative 
assembly.  It  delighted,  however,  all  who  "belonged,"  to 
use  his  own  phrase,  "  to  the  dioce&e  of  free  thought ";  and 
he  gave  further  pleasure  in  this  diocese  by  leaving  at  tho 
beginniag  of  1809  the  J/unileur,  injudicioasly  managed 
by  the  Qoveromeut  and  M.  Jvc'ah?r,  and  contributing  to  a  ' 


Liberal  journal,  the  Temps.  His  literary  activity  suffered 
little  abatement,  but  the  attacks  of  his  malady,  though 
borne  with  courage  and  cheerfulness,  became  more  and 
more  severe.  Pain  made  him  at  last  unable  to  sit  to 
write ;  he  could  only  stand  or  lie.  He  died  in  his  house 
in  the  Rue  Mont  Parnasse  on  the  13th  of  October  1869. 
He  had  inherited  an  income  of  four  thousand  francs  a  year 
from  his  mother,  and  he  left  it  six  thousand ;  to  the  extent 
of  eighty  pounds  a  year  and  no  further  had  literature  and 
the  senatorship  enriched  him.  By  his  will  he  left  directions 
that  his  funeral  was  to  be  without  religious  rites,  quite 
simple,  and  with  no  speeches  at  the  grave  except  a  few 
words  of  thanks  from  one  of  his  secretaries  to  those  present. 
There  was  a  great  concourse ;  the  Paris  students,  who  had 
formerly  interrupted  him,  came  now  to  do  honour  to  him 
as  a  Liberal  and  a  champion  of  free  thought — a  senator 
they  could  not  but  admit — undeniably,  alas,  a  senator, 
but  oh,  si  pen  I  Yet  his  own  account  of  himself  is  the 
best  and  truest, — an  account  which  lays  no  stress  on  his 
Liberalism,  no  stress  on  his  championship  of  free  thought, 
bdt  says  simply  :  "  Devoted  to  my  profession  as  critic,  I 
have  tried  to  be  more  and  more  a  good,  and,  if  possible, 
an  able  workman." 

The  work  of  Sainte-Beuve  divides  itself  into  three 
portions — his  poetry,  his  criticism  before  1848,  and  his 
criticism  after  that  year.  His  novel  of  Volupte  may 
properly  go  with  his  poetry. 

We  have  seen  his  tender  feeling  for  his  poetry,  and  he 
always  maintained  that,  when  the  "  integrating  molecule,"^ 
the  foundation  of  him  as  a  man  of  letters,  was  reached, 
it  would  be  found  to  have  a  poetic  character.  And  yet 
he  declares,  too,  that  it  is  never  without  a  sort  of  surprise 
and  confusion  that  he  sees  his  verses  detached  from  their 
context  and  quoted  in  public  and  in  open  day. .  They  do 
not  seem  made  for  it,  he  says.  This  admirable  critic 
knew,  indeed,  what  a  Frenchman  may  be  pardoned  for 
not  wiUingly  perceiving,  and  what  even  some  Englishmen 
try  to  imagine  that  they  do  not  perceive,  the  radical  in- 
adequacy of  French  poetry.  For  us  it  is  extremely 
interesting  to  hear  Sainte-Beuve  on  this  point,  since  it  is 
to  English  poetry  that  he  resorts  in  order  to  find  his 
term  of  comparison,  and  ta  award  the  praise  which  to 
French  poetry  he  refuses.  "Since  you  are  fond  of  the 
poets,"  he  writes  to  a  friend,  "  I  should  like  to  see  you 
read  and  look  for  poets  in  another  language,  in  English 
for  instance.  There  you  will  find  the  most  rich,  the  most 
ikdcot,  and  tho  most  new  poetical  literature.  Our  French 
poets  are  too  soon  read ;  they  are  too  slight,  too  mixed, 
too  corrupted  for  the  most  part,  too  poor  in  ideas  even 
when  they  have  the  talent  for  strophe  and  line,  to  hold 
and  occupy  for-  long  a  serious  mind."  And  again  :  "  If 
you  knew  English  you  would  have  treasures  to  draw 
upon.  They  have  a  poetical  literature  far  superior  to 
ours,  and,  above  all,  sounder,  more  full.  Wordsworth  is 
not  translat -d ;  these  things  are  not  to  be  translated ;  you 
must  go  to  tie  fountain-head  for  them.  Let  me  give  you 
this  advice  :  learn  English." 

But,  even  as  French  poetry,  Sainte-Beuve's  poetry  had 
fciults  of  its  own.  Critics  who  found  much  in  it  to  praise 
yet  pronounced  it  a  poetry  "  narrow,  puny,  and  stifled," 
and  its  style  "slowly  dragging  and  laborious."  Here 
we  touch  on  a  want  which  must  no  doubt  be  recognized 
in  him,  which  he  recognized  in  himself,  and  whereby  he 
is  separated  from  tho  spirits  who  succeed  in  uttering 
their  most  highly  inspired  note  and  in  giving  their  full 
measure, — soiuo  want  of  flame, .  of  breath,  of  pinioa. 
Perhaps  we  may  look  for  the  cause  in  a  confession  of  hifl 
own  :  "  I  have  my  weaknesses ;  they  arc  those  which  gave 
to  Kin^  Solomon  his  disgust  vilh  everything  and  his 
satiety  witii  Life.     I  may  have  regretted  sometimea  that 


164 


S  A  I  N  T  E  -  B  E  U  V  E 


I  was  thua  extinguisliing  my  lire,  but  I  did  not  ever 
pervert  my  heart."  It  is  enougli  for  us  to  take  his  con- 
fession that  he  extinguished  or  impaired  his  fire. 

Yet  his  poetry  is  characterized  by  merits  which  make 
it  readable  stLll  and  readable  by  foreigners.  So  far  as  it 
exhibits  the  endeavour  of  the  romantic  school  in  France 
to  enlarge  the  vocabulary  of  poetry  and  to  give  greater 
freedom  and  variety  to  the  alexandrine,  it  has  interest 
chiefly  for  readers  of  his  own  nation.  But  it  exhibits 
more  than  this.  It  exhibits  already  the  genuine  Sainte- 
Beuve,  the  author  who,  as  M.  Duvergier  de  Hauranne 
said  in  the  Globe  at  the  time,  "sent  h,  sa  maniere  et  ^crit 
comme  il  sent,"  the  man  who,  even  in  the  forms  of  an 
artificial  poetry,  remains  always  "  un  penseur  et  un  homrae 
d'esprit."  That  his  Joseph  Delorme  was  not  the  Werther 
of  romance,  but  a  Werther  in  the  shape  of  Jacobin  and 
medical  student,  the  only  Werther  whom  Sainte-Beuve  by 
his  oivn  practical  experience  really  knew,  was  a  novelty  in 
French  poetical  literature,  but  was  entirely  characteristic 
of  Sainte-Beuve.  All  his  poetry  has  this  stamp  of  direct 
dealing  with  common  things,  of  plain  unpretending  reality 
and  sincerity ;  and  this  stamp  at  that  time  made  it,  as 
Beranger  said,  "a  kind  of  poetry  absolutely  new  in  France." 
It  foimd,  therefore,  with  all  its  shortcomings,  friends  in 
men  so  diverse  as  Beranger,  Lamartine,  Jouffroy,  Beyle. 
Whoever  is  interested  in  SaLnte-Beuve  should  turn  to  it, 
and  will  be  glad  that  he  has  done  so. 

It  has  been  the  fashion  to  disparage  the  criticism  of  the 
Critiques  et  Portraits  Litteraires,  the  criticism  anterior  to 
1848,  and  to  sacrifice  it,  in  fact,  to  the  criticism  posterior 
to  that  date.  Sainte-Beuve  has  himself  indicated  what 
considerations  ought  to  be  present  with  us  in  reading  the 
Critiques  et  Portraits,  with  what  reserves  we  shotild  read 
them.  They  are  to  be  considered,  he  says,  "  rather  as  a  de- 
pendency of  the  elegiac  and  romanesque  part  of  my  work 
than  as  express  criticisms."  "  The  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes," 
he  adds,  which  published  them,  was  young  in  those  days, 
"  mixed  a  good  deal  of  its  wishes  and  its  hopes  with  its 
criticism,  sought  to  explain  and  to  stimulate  rather  than 
to  judge.  The  portraits  there  of  contemporary  poets  and 
romance-writers  can  in  general  be  considered,  whether  as 
respects  the  painter  or  as  respects  the  models,  as  youth- 
ful portraits  only;  juvenis  juvenem  pinxit."  They  have 
the  copiousness  and  enthusiasm  of  youth ;  they  have  also 
its  exuberance.  He  judged  in  later  Hfe  Chateaubriand, 
Lamartine,  Victor  Hugo,  more  coolly,  judged  them  differ- 
ently. But  the  Critiques  et  Portraits  contain  a  number 
of  articles  on  personages,  other  than  contemporary  French 
poets  and  romance-writers,  which  have  much  of  the  sound- 
ness of  his  later  work,  and,  in  addition,  an  abundance  and 
fervour  of  their  own  which  are  not  without  their  attraction. 
Many  of  these  are  delightful  reading.  The  articles  on  the 
Greek  poets  and  on  Leopardi  have  been  already  mentioned. 
Those  on  Boileau,  MoUfere,  Daunou,  and  Fauriel,  on  Madame 
de  la  Fayette  and  Mademoiselle  Aiss6,  may  be  taken  as 
samples  of  a  whole  group  which  will  be  found  to  support 
perfectly  the  test  of  reading,  even  after  we  have  accustomed 
ourselves  to  the  later  work  of  the  maister.  Nay,  his  sober- 
ness and  tact  show  themselves  even  in  this  earlier  stage  of 
his  criticism,  and  even  in  treating  the  objects  of  his  too 
fervid  youthful  enthusiasm.  A  special  object  of  this 
was  Victor  Hugo,  and  in  the  first  article  on  him  in  the 
Portraits  Contemporains  we  have  certainly  plenty  of  en- 
thusiasm, plenty  of  exuberance.  We  have  the  epithets 
"  adorable,"  "-sublime,"  "  supreme,"  given  to  Victor  Hugo's 
poetry;  we  are  told  of  "the  majesty  of  its  high  and 
sombre  philosophy."  All  this  is  in  the  vein  of  Mr  George 
GUfillan.  But  the  article  next  following  this,  and  written 
only  four  years  later,  in  1835,  is  the  article  of  a  critic, 
and  takes  the  points  of  objection,  seizes  the  weak  side  of 


Victor  Hugo's  poetry,  how  much  it  has  of  what  is  "  creux," 
"sonore,"  "artificiel,"  "voulu,"  "thatral,"  "violent,"  as 
distinctly  as  the  author  of  the  Causeries  could  seize  it. 
"  The  Frank,  energetic  and  subtle,  who  has  mastered  to 
perfection  the  technical  and  rhetorical  resourcas  of  the 
Latin  literature  of  the  decadence,"  is  a  description  never 
to  be  forgotten  of  Victor  Hugo  as  a  poet,  and  Sainte-Beuve 
launches  it  in  this  article,  written  when  he  %^'as  but  thirty 
years  old,  and  still  a  painter  of  "portraits  de  jeunesse" 
only. 

He  had  thus  been  steadily  working  and  growing ;  never- 
theless, 1848  is  an  epoch  which  divides  two  critics  in  him 
of  very  unequal  value.  When,  after  that  year  of  revolution 
and  his  stage  of  seclusion  and  labour  at  Liege,  he  came 
back  to  Paris  in  the  autumn  of  1849  and  commenced  in  the 
Constitutioimel  the  Causeries  du  Lundi,  he  was  astonish- 
ingly matured.  Something  of  fervour,  enthusiasm,  poetry, 
he  may  have  lost,  but  he  had  become  a  perfect  critic — a 
critic  of  measure,  not  exuberant ;  of  the  centre,  not  pro- 
vincial ;  of  keen  industry  and  curiosity,  with  "  Truth  "  (the 
word  engraved  in  English  on  his  seal)  for  his  motto;  more- 
over, with  gay  and  amiable  temper,  his  manner  as  good  as 
his  matter, — the  "critique  souriant,"  as,  in  Charles  Mon- 
selet's  dedication  to  him,  he  is  called. 

Merely  to  say  that  he  was  all  this  is  less  convincing  than 
to  show,  if  possible,  by  words  of  his  own,  in  what  fashion 
he  was  all  this.  The  root  of  everything  in  his  criticism 
is  his  single-hearted  devotion  to  truth.  What  he  called 
"fictions"  in  Literature,  in  politics,  in  religion,  were  not 
allowed  to  influence  him.  Some  one  had  talked  of  his 
being  tenacious  of  a  certain  set  of  literary  opinions.  "  I 
hold  very  little,"  he  answers,  "  to  literary  opinions  ;  literary 
opinions  occupy  very  little  place  in  my  life  and  in  my 
thoughts.  What  does  occupy  me  seriously  is  life  itself 
and  the  object  of  it."  "I  am  accustomed  incessantly  to 
call  my  judgments  in  question  anew,  and  to  re-cast  my 
opinions  the  moment  I  suspect  them  to  be  without 
validity."  "  What  I  have  wished  "  (in  Poi-t  Royal)  "  is  to 
say  not  a  word  more  than  I  thought,  to  stop  even  a  little 
short  of  what  I  believed  in  certain  cases,  in  order  that  my 
words  might  acquire  more  weight  as  historical  testimony." 
To  all  exaggeration  and  untruth,  from  whatever  side  it 
proceeded,  he  had  an  antipathy.  "I  turn  my  back  upon 
the  Michelets  and  Quinets,  but  I  cannot  hold  out  my  hand 
to  the  Veuillots."  When  he  was  writing  for  the  Mo7iitew 
he  was  asked  by  the  manager  of  the  paper  to  review  a 
book  by  an  important  personage,  a  contributor ;  his  answer 
is  a  lesson  for  critics  and  paints  him  exactly.  "  I  should 
like  to  say  yes,  but  I  have  an  insurmountable  difficulty  as 
to  this  author ;  he  appears  to  me  to  compromise  whatever 
he  touches;  he  is  violent,  and  has  not  the  tradition  of  tlia 
things  he  talks  about.  Thus  his  article  on  Condorcet, 
which  the  Moniteur  inserted,  is  odious  and  false ;  one  may 
be  severe  upon  Condorcet,  but  not  in  that  tone  or  in  that 
note.  The  man  has  no  in^irjht — a  defect  which  does  not 
prevent  him  from  having  a  pen  with  which  at  a  given 
moment  he  can  flourish  marvellously.  But,  of  himself,  he 
is  a  gladiator  and  a  desperado.  I  must  tell  you,  my  dear 
sir,  that  to  have  once  named  him  with  compliment  in  some 
article  of  mine  or  other  is  one  of  my  self-reproaches  as  a 
man  of  letters.  Let  me  say  that  he  has  not  attacked  me 
in  any  way ;  it  is  a  case  of  natural  repulsion." 

But  Sainte-Beuve  could  not  have  been  the  great  critic 
he  was  had  he  not  had,  at  the  service  of  this  his  love  of 
truth  and  measure,  the  conscientious  industry  of  a  Bene- 
dictine. "  I  never  have  a  holiday.  On  ^Monday  towards 
noon  I  lift  up  my  head,  and  breathe  for  about  an  hour; 
after  that  the  wicket  shuts  again  and  I  am  in  my  prison 
cell  for  seven  da3-s."  The  Causeries  were  at  this  pric-e. 
They  came  once  a  Tveek.  and  to  write  one  of  them  as  he 


S  A  I  —  S  A  I 


165 


■wrote  it  was  indeed  a  week's  work.  The  "  irresponsible 
indolent  reviewer  "  should  read  his  notes  to  his  friend  and 
provider  '.vith  books,  M.  Paul  Cheron  of  the  National 
Library.  Here  is  a  note  dated  the  2d  of  January  18.53  : 
"  Good-day  and  a  happy  New  Year.  To-day  I  set  to  work 
on  Grimm.  A  little  dry;  but  after  St  Frauijois  de  Sales" 
(his  Monday  article  just  finished)  "one  requires  a  little 
relief  from  roses.  I  have  of  Grimm  the  edition  of  his 
Correspondence  by  M.  Taschercau.  I  have  also  the  Jfemoirs 
of  Madame  d'fipinay,  where  there  are  many  letters  of  his. 
But  it  is  possible  that  there  may  be  7iolices  of  him  men- 
tioned in  the  bibliographical  book  of  that  Gorman  whose 
name  I  have  forgotten.  I  should  like,  too,  to  have  thojirst 
editions  of  his  Corresponderice ;  they  came  out  in  successive 
parts."  Thus  he  prepared  himself,  not  for  a  grand  review 
article  once  a  quarter,  but  for  a  newspaper  review  once  a 
week. 

His  adhesion  to  the  empire  caused  him  to  be  habitually 
represented  by  the  Orleanists  and  the  Republicans  as 
without  character  and  patriotism,  and  to  be  charged  with 
baseness  and  corruption.  The  Orleanists  had,  in  a  great 
iegree,  possession  of  the  higher  press  in  France  and  of 
English  opinion, — of  Liberal  English  opinion  more  especi- 
ally. And  with  English  Liberals  his  indifference  to  parlia- 
mentary government  was  indeed  a  grievous  fault  in  him  ; 
"you  Whigs,"  as  Croker  happily  says,  "are  like  quack 
doctors,  who  have  but  one  specific  for  all  constitutions." 
To  him  either  the  doctrine  of  English  Liberals,  or  the 
,'doctrine  of  Republicanism,  applied  absolutely,  was  what 
he  called  a  "fiction,"  one  of  those  fictions  which  "always 
end  by  obscuring  the  truth."  Not  even  on  M.  de  Tocque- 
ville's  authority  would  he  consent  to  receive  "les  hypotheses 
dites  les  plus  honorables," — "  the  suppositions  which  pass 
for  the  most  respectable."  All  suppositions  he  demanded 
to  sift,  to  see  them  at  work,  to  know  the  place  and  time 
and  men  to  which  they  were  to  be  applied.  For  the 
France  before  his  eyes  in  1849  he  thought  that  something 
"solid  and  stable" — un  mur,  "a  wall,"  as  he  said — was 
requisite,  and  that  the  government  of  Louis  Napoleon  sup- 
plied this  wall.  But  no  one  judged  the  empire  more  inde- 
pendently than  he  did,  no  one  saw  and  enounced  its  faults 
more  clearly ;  he  described  himself  as  being,  in  his  own 
single  person,  "  the  gauche  of  the  empire,"  and  the  descrip- 
tion was  just. 

."  To  these  merits  of  mental  independence,  industry, 
measure,  lucidity,  his  criticism  adds  the  merit  of  happy 
temper  and  disposition.  Goethe  long  ago  noticed  that, 
whereas  Germans  reviewed  one  another  as  enemies  whom 
they  hated,  the  critics  of  the  Globe  reviewed  one  another 
as  gentlemen.  This  arose  from  the  higher  social  develop- 
ment of  France  and  from  the  closer  relations  of  literature 
with  life  there.  But  Sainte-Beuvo  has  more,  as  a  critic, 
than  the  external  politeness  which  once  at  any  rate  dis- 
tinguished his  countrymen  :  he  has  a  personal  charm  of 
manner  due  to  a  sweet  and  humane  temper.  He  com- 
plained of  un peu  de  durete,  "a  certain  dose  of  hardness," 
in  the  new  generation  of  writers.  The  personality  of  an 
author  had  a  peculiar  importance  for  him ;  the  poetical 
side  of  his  subjects,  however  latent  it  might  be,  always 
attracted  him  and  he  always  sought  to  extricate  it.  This 
was  because  he  had  in  himself  the  moderate,  gracious, 
amiably  human  instincts  of  the  true  poetic  nature.  "Let 
me  bog  of  you,"  he  says  in  thanking  a  reviewer  who  praised 
him,  "  to  alter  one  or  two  expressions  at  any  rate.  I  can- 
not bear  to  have  it  said  that  I  am  the  /irst  in  anything 
whatever,  as  a  writer  least  of  all ;  it  is  not  a  thing  which 
can  be  admitted,  and  these  ways  of  classing  people  give 
offence  "  Literary  man  and  loyal  to  the  French  Academy 
as:  ho  was,  he  can  yet  write  to  an  old  friend  after  hia 
eJectJon  :  ".AU  these  academies,  between  you  and  me,  are 


pieces  of  childishness;  at  any  rate  the  French  Academy 
is.  Our  least  quarter  of  an  honr  of  solitary  reverie  or  of 
serious  talk,  yours  and  mine,  in  our  youth,  was  better  em- 
ployed ;  but,  as  one  gets  old,  one  falls  back  into  tlie  iiower 
of  these  nothings ;  only  it  is  well  to  know  that  nothings 
they  are." 

Perhaps  the  best  way  to  get  a  sense  of  the  value  and 
extent  of  the  work  done  in  the  last  twenty  years  of  his 
life  by  the  critic  thus  excellently  endowed  is  to  take  a 
single  volume  of  the  Causeries  du  Lundi,  to  look  through 
its  list  of  subjects,  and  to  remember  that  with  the  quali- 
ties above  mentioned  all  these  subjects  are  treated.  Any 
volume  will  serve;  let  us  take  the  fourth.  This  volume 
consists  of  articles  on  twenty-four  subjects.  Twenty  of 
these  are  the  following  : — Mirabeau  and  Sophie;  Montaigne, 
Mirabeau  and  Comte  de  la  Marck,  Mademoiselle  de  Scudiry, 
Andr6  Chdnier  as  politician,  Saint-fivremond  and  Ninon, 
Joseph  de  Maistre,  Madame  de  Lambert,  Madame  Necker, 
the  Abb6  Maury,  the  Due  de  Lauzun  of  Louis  XVI.'s  reign, 
Marie  Antoinette,  Buffon,  ^Madame  de  Maintenon,  De 
Bonald,  Amyot,  Mallet  du  Pan,  Marmontel,  Chamfort, 
Ruhli^re.  Almost  every  personage  is  French,  it  is  true ; 
Sainte-Beuve  had  a  maxim  that  the  critic  should  prefer 
subjects  which  he  possesses  familiarly.  But  we  should  re- 
cognize more  fully  than  we  do  the  immense  importance 
and  interest  of  French  literature.  Certain  productions  of 
this  literature  Mr  Saintsbury  may  misjudge  and  over- 
praise ;  but  he  is  entirely  right  in  insisting  on  its  immense 
importance.  More  than  any  modern  literature  it  has  been 
in  the  most  intimate  correspondence  with  the  social  life 
and  development  of  the  nation  producing  it.  Now  it  so 
happens  that  the  great  place  of  France  in  the  world  is 
very  much  due  to  her  eminent  gift  for  social  life  and 
development ;  and  this  gift  French  literature  has  accom- 
panied, fashioned,  perfected,  and  continues  to  reflect.  This 
gives  a  special  interest  to  French  literature,  and  an  interest 
independent  even  of  the  excellence  of  individual  French 
writers,  high  as  that  often  is.  And  nowhere  shall  we  find 
such  interest  more  completely  and  charmingly  brought  out 
than  in  the  Causeries  du  Lundi  and  the  A^ouveatix  Lundis 
of  the  consummate  critic  of  whom  we  have  been  speaking. 
As  a  guide  to  bring  us  to  a  knowledge  of  the  French 
genius  and  literature  he  is  unrivalled, — perfect,  so  far  as 
a  poor  mortal  critic  can  be  perfect,  in  knowledge  of  his 
subject,  in  judgment,  in  tact,  and  tone.  Certain  spirits 
are  of  an  excellence  almost  ideal  in  certain  lines  ;  the 
human  race  might  willingly  adopt  them  as  its  spokesmen, 
recognizing  that  on  these  lines  their  style  and  utterance 
may  stand  as  those,  not  of  bounded  individuals,  but  of  the 
human  race.  So  Homer  speaks  for  the  human  race,  and 
with  an  excellence  which  is  ideal,  in  epic  narration ; 
Plato  in  the  treatment  at  once  beautiful  and  profound 
of  philosophical  questions ;  Shakespeare  in  the  present- 
ation of  human  character ;  Voltaire  in  light  verse  and 
ironical  discussion.  A  list  of  perfect  ones,  indeed,  each 
in  his  own  line  I  and  we  may  almost  venture  to  add 
to  their  nimiber,  in  his  line  of  literary  criticism,  Sainte- 
Beuve.  (m.  a.) 

SAINTE-CLAIRE  DEVILLE,  £tienne  Henki  (1818- 
1881),  French  chemist,  was  born  on  11th  March  1818  in 
the  island  of  St  Thomas,  West  Indies,  whore  his  father  was 
French  consul.  He  was  educated  in  Paris  along  with  his 
elder  brother  Charles  at  the  Colk^ge  RpUin.  In  1844, 
having  graduated  as  doctor  of  medicine  and  doctor  of 
science,  he  was  appointed  dean  of  the  now  faculty  of  science 
at  Besan^on  by  Thcnard.  In  1851  he  succeeded  Balard 
in  the  £coIe  Normalo  and  in  the  Sorbonne.  _  He  died  at 
Boulognc-sur-Scine  on  1st  July  1881. 

Sainto-Clairo  Dcville  began  his  experimental  work  in  1841  with 
investigations  on  oil  of  turpentine  and  balsam  of  tolu,  in  the  course 


1166 


STE-CLATRE      DEVILLE 


of  which  he  discovered  tne  hj'aro-caroon  toluene."  But  he  soon 
abandoned  organic  chemistry,  and  his  most  important  work  was  in 
inorganic  and  thermal  cliemistry.  In  1850  he  discovered  anhy- 
[droua  nitric  acid,  a  suhstanco  interesting  not  only  in  itself  but  as 
the  iirst  obtained  of  an  important  group,  the  so-called  "aniiy- 
drides  "  of  the  monobasic  acids.  In  1855  he  succeeded  in  obtaining 
alumiuium  in  mass.  This  metal,  of  which  clay  is  the  hydi'ated 
silicate,  is  of  course  one  of  the  most  abundant  of  metals,  jjut  was 
not  obtained  in  the  metallic  stata  until  Wdhler  in  1827  decomposed 
its  chloride  by  means  of  potassium.  The  aluminium  thus  prepared 
was  iu  the  form  of  a  fine  powder,  and,  although  the  isolation  of 
the  metal  was  of  great  theoretical  importance,  there  did  not  seem 
much  prospect  of  a  practical  application  of  the  discovery.  In  1845 
Wohler  returned  to  the  subject  and  by  using  large  quantities  of 
material  obtained  small  globiUes  of  an  obviously  metallic  character. 
Deville,  who  laiew  only  Wbhler's  paper  of  1827,  set  to  work  to 
prepare  aluminium,  not  for  the  sake  of  the  metal  itself,  but  with 
the  view  of  procuring  by  the  action  of  aluminium  on  chloride  of 
aluminium  a  lower  chloride  from  which  a  series  of  new  compounds 
corresponding  to  the  ferrous  salts  might  be  obtained.  He  did  not 
succeed  in  this,  but  he  did  succeed  in  producing  globules  of  alumi- 
nium of  considerable  size.  This  led  him  to  perfect  the  process,  and 
ultimately  he  devised  a  method  by  which  aluminium  could  be  pre- 
pared on  a  large  scale.  The  first  use  to  whic6  he  put  the  metal 
was  to  make  a  medal  with  the  name  of  Wohler  and  the  date  1827. 
In  connexion  with  the  preparation  of  aluminium  may  be  mentioned 
Deville's  investigations,  partly  with  TVchler,  into  the  allotropic 
forms  of  silicon  and  boron. 

r-  Along  with  Debray,  Deville  studied  the  platinum  metals  ;  their 
object  was  on  the  oue  hand  to  prepare  the  sue  metals  in  a  state  of 
purity  and  on  the  other  to  obtain  a  suitable  metal  for  the  standard 
metre.  In  the  course  of  these  investigations  large  quantities  of 
platinum  and  of  the  alloys  of  platinum  and  iridium  were  fused  and 
cast,*  and  the  methods  used  for  obtaining  the  nocessary  high 
temperatures  were  applied  to  the  fusion  of  other  refractory  metals, 
such  as  cobalt,  nickel,  chromium,  and  manganese. 
-•,  Along  with  Troost,  Deville  devised  a  method  for  determining 
the  density  of  vapours  at  very  high  temperatures  and  applied  it 
to  the  cases  of  sulphur,  selenium,  tellurium,  zinc,  cadmium,  and 
many  other  substances  boiling  at  temperatures  up  to  1400°  C.  The 
interesting  and  important  results  have  been  already  described  (see 
Chemistry  and  IIolecule).  Deville  made  a  large  number  of 
ingenious  experiments  on  the  artificial  production  of  minerals. 
Among  these  may  be  specially  mentioned  the  formation  of  apatite 
and  isoinorphous  minerals  and  of  crystallized  oxides.  Deville  and 
Caron  found  that  when  the  vapour  of  a  metallic  fluoride  acts  on 
fused  boracic  acid  the  fluorine  and  the  oxygen  change  places,  a 
metallic  oxide  remains  in  crystals,  while  the  gaseous  fluoride  of 
boron  escapes.  In  this  way  they  prepared  corundum  (crystallized 
oxide  of  aluminium)  and  sapphire,  ruby  and  emerald  ;  coloured 
ibrins  of  corundum  were  obtained  by  mixing  small  quantities  of 
fluoride  of  chromium  with  the  fluoride  of  aluminium.  Another 
ute:hod  discovered  by  Deville  for  the  preparation  of  crystallized 
oxides  is  of  great  interest  When  an  amorphous  oxide — such  as 
amorphous  ferric  oxide — is^heated  to  redness  and  exposed  to  a  slow 
current  of  hydrochloric  acil  gas,  it  gradually  changes  into  a  crystal- 
line oxide  of  the  same  composition.  In  this  way  Deville  obtained 
hrematite,  tinstone,  pcriclase,  and  other  crystalline  oxides.  This 
conversion  of  an  amorphous  into  a  crystalline  substance  without 
[bhange  of  composition,  by  the  action  of  a  gas  (in  this  case  hydro- 
chloric acid)  which  itself  undergoes  no  change,  is  one  of  those 
mysterious  processes  which  used  to  be  referred  to  a  "  catalytic 
force"  or  called  "actions  by  contact";  like  many  such  actions, 
this  has  been  shown  by  Deville  to  belong  to  the  same  class  of 
phenomena  as  dissociation. 

This  leads  us  to  Deville's  greatest  contribution  to  general 
rhemistry.  Many  chemical  actions  have  been  long  known  which 
take  place  either  in  the  one  or  the  other  sense  according  to  certain 
conditions.  For  instance,  if  a  tube  containing  metallic  iion  is  heated 
to  redness  and  steam  passed  through  it,  water  is. decomposed,  black 
oxide  of  iron  is  formed,  and  hydrogen  escapes.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  tube  is  filled  with  black  oxide  of  iron  and  hydiogen  passed 
through,  the  oxide  is  reduced  and  water  is  formed.  Both  of  these 
opposite  changes  occur  at  the  very  same  temperature.  Again,  a 
solution  of  sulph-hydrate  of  potassium  is  completely  decomposed 
by  passing  a  current  of  carbonic  acid  gas  through  it  for  a  sufficient 
time,  sulphuretted  hydrogen  being  given  off  and  bicarbonate  re- 
maining in  solution.  But  exactly  the  opposite  happens  if  we  begin 
with  bicarbonate  and  pass  sul])huretted  hydrogen  gas  through  it : 
carbonic  acid  gas  escapes  and  the  solution  ultimately  contains 
nothing  but  sulph-hydrate.  An  imperfect,  unsatisfactory  ex- 
planation of  some  of  the  phenomena  of^  which  these  are  examples 
was  given  by  Berthollet ;  it  remained  for  Deville  to  give  a  general 
theory  and   show  their  relation  to  such  physical  phenomena  as 

.«  Tlie  mitre  commission  fused  a  quarter  «t  a  ton  ol  the  alloy  at  a  single 
•Aoration. 


evaporation  and  condensation.  This"  h~e~di3^y  his  experiniEntai 
work  on  "  Dissociation  "  and  his  theoretical  disouseiou  of  the  facta 
in  papers  published  in  the  Comptcs  Jlcndus.  He  gave  a  very  com- 
plete and  clear  account  of  the  whole  subject  in  a  lecture  dEliVered 
before  the  Chemical  Society  of  Paris  in  1866.' 

As  illustrations  we  shall  take  a  few  cases  as  alfferenl' fcom  ona 
another  as  possible. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  carbonate  of  litne— limestone — 
when  heated  is  decomposed  into  quicklime  .and  carbonic  acid  gas, 
and  that  this  decomposition  takes  place  the  more  quickly  the  more 
thoroughly  the  carbonic  acid  produced  is  removed.  Sir  James  Hall 
showed  that,  if  the  carbonate  of  lime  is  heated  in  a  closed  vessel 
strong  enough  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  it  can 
be  fused,  only  a  small  part  undergoing  decomposition.  Deville 
examined  this  relation  quantitatively  and  showed  that,  if  in  a  closed 
vessel  we  have  quicklime,  carbonate  of  lime,  and  carbonic  acid  gas, 
the  pressure  of  the  carbonic  ccid  gas  depends  on  the  temperature 
only,  and  is  quite  independent  of  the  quantity  of  the  quicklime  or 
of  the  carbonate  of  lime,  as  long  as  there  is  some,  however  little, 
of  both,  and  is  also  quite  uninfluenced  by  the  preseuce  of  other 
gases.  It  wUl  be  seen  tliat  this  case  exactly  resembles  that  of  the 
evaporation  of  water.  In  a  closed  vessel  containii.g  liquid  water 
and  water-vapour  the  pressure  of  the  water-vapour  depends  on  the 
temperature  only  and  isindependent  of  the  quantity  of  liquid  water, 
as  long  as  there  is  any,  and  is  not  influenced  by  the  presence  of 
other  gases.  In  both  cases,  if  we  disturb  the  equilibrium  and  then 
leave  things  to  themselves  the  equilibrium  is  restored.  If  in  the 
first  case  we  diminish  the  pressure  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  sonic 
carbonate  of  lime  decomposes,  yielding  carbonic  acid  gas  until  the 
pressure  is  raised  to  what  it  was  ;  if  we  increase  the  pressure,  sonio 
of  the  carbonic  acid  combines  with  quicklime  until  the  pressure  is 
1  educed  to  what  it  was  before.  In  tlia  second  case,  if  we  diminish 
the  pressure,  some  of  the  liquid  water  evaporates  ;  if  we  increase  it, 
some  of  the  water-vapour  condenses,  and  so  the  pressure  is  restored. 
Rise  of  temperature  causes  in  the  one  case  evaporation  of  water,  in 
the  other  decomposition  of  carbonate  of  lime, — in  both  increase  of 
•pressure.  Lowering  of  temperature  causes  iu  the  one  case  condensa- 
tion of  water-vapour,  in  the  other  combination  of  quicklime  £ini 
carbonic  acid  gas, — in  both  diminution  of  pressure. 

As  a  secoud  instance  we  may  take  the  dissociation  of  water.  Just 
as  water-vapour  condenses  into  liquid  water  under  certain  condi- 
tions, but  always  with  the  evolution  of  heat  (latent  heat  of  vapour), 
so  the  mixture  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in  the  proper  proportion  to 
form  water  combines,  under  certain  conditions,  to  ii>rm  water-vapour, 
but  always  with  the  evolution  of  heat  (heat  of  combination).  In 
both  cases  we  have  change  of  state  but  no  chdnge  of  composition, 
and  in  both  we  have  evolution  of  heat.  In  the  first  case  we  can 
reverse  the  process :  heat  the  liquid  water,  heat  becomes  latent, 
liquid  water  changes  into  water-vapour.  There  is  a  certain  definite 
pressure  of  water-vapour  corresponding  to  the  temperature ;  raise 
the  temperature,  more  water  evaporates,  the  pressure  of  water- 
vapour  increases.  It  occurred  to  Deville,  to  whom  both  changes 
were  equally  physical,  that  in  the  second  case  the  process  should 
be  reversible  also, — that  on  heating  the  water-vapour  it  ought  to 
decompose  into  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  heat  disappearing  here  also,] 
and  that,  as  there  is  a  definite  pressure  of  water-vapour  correspond- 
ing to  the  temperature  (often  called  the  tension  of  water-vapour),  so 
there  should  be  a  definite  ratio  of  the  pressure  of  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  to  that  of  water- vapour  (the  tensiou  of  dissociation).  Deville 
showed  in  the  most  conclusive  manner  that  this  is  the  case  and 
devised  ingenious  arrangements  for  proving  the  actual  occurrence 
of  dissociation. 

Another  case  very  fully  investigated  by  Deville  is  that  already 
mentioned, — viz.,  the  actfon  of  water-vapour  on  iron,  and  of 
hydrogen  on  oxide  of  iron.  He  showed  that,  for  a  fixed  temper- 
ature, water-vapour  and  hydrogen  are  in  equilibrium  in  presence  of 
iron  and  oxide  of  iron  when  the  pressures  of  the  two  gases,  hydrogen 
and  water-vapour,  are  in  a  certain  ratio  quite  independent  of  the 
quantity  of  the  iron  or  of  the  oxide  of  iron,  as  long  as  there  is  some 
of  each.  If  the  ratio  is  changed,  say  by  increasing  the  pressure  of 
the  water-vapour,  chemical  action  takes  place :  water  is  decomposed, 
oxide  of  iron  is  formed,  and  hydrogen  set  free.  Again,  if  the  pressure 
of  the  water-vapour  is  diminishei.1,  part  of  the  hydrogen  acts  on  oxide 
of  iron,  reducing  it  and  forming  water.  In  both  cases  the  ratio  of 
pressures  is  restored.  This  gives  an  easy  explanation  of  the  appa- 
rently anomalous  results  mentioned  above.  When  a  current  of 
hydrogen  is  passed  over  oxide  of  iron  the  water- vapour  produced 
is  swept  away  as  fast  as  it  is  formed  ;  the  ratio  of  the  pressure  of 
hydrogen  to  that  of  water-vapour  is  therefore  always  greater  than 
that  required  for  equilibrium  and  reduction  of  iron,  and  formation 
of  water  goes  on  continuously  until  all  the  oxide  of  iron  is  reduced. 
In  the  same  way,  a  current  of  water- vapour  carries  away  the  hydrogen 
as  fast  as  it  is  produced  ;  the  ratio  of  the  pressure  of  hydrogen  to 
that  of  water-vapour  is  always  less  than  that  required  for  equili- 
brium, and  the  o.vidation  of  iron  and  production  of  hydrogen  goes 
on  until  no  metallic  iron  remains.  Exactly  the  same  explauatioa 
applies  to  the  action  of  carbonic  acid  gas  on  solution  of  sulph- 


S  A  1  — S  A  1 


167 


bjitite  t)f  potassium,  and  of  sulpliuretted  hydrogen  on  solution  of 
bicarbonate  of  potassium.  Equilibrium  results  when  the  pressures 
oi  the  gases  are  in  a  certnin  ratio  ;  if  tlie  equilibrium  is  ilisturbed 
chemical  action  takes  place  in  the  direction  which  tends  to  restore 
the  equilibrium  by  reproducing  the  ratio  of  pressures. 
(  The  apparatus  devised  by  Dtville  for  delecting  and  measuring 
dissociation  illustrates  his  remarkable  ingenuity.  We  shall  instance 
only  one  example  in  addition  to  those  already  mentioned. 
»-  One  of  the  great  difficulties  in  observing  dissociation  depends  on 
its  reversible  character.  A  compound  may  indeed  decompose  when 
raised  to  a  high  temperature  ;  but,  if,  as  we  cool  it  again,  reunion 
occurs,  it  is  not  easy  to  prove  that  any  chemical  change  took  place. 
One  of  the  ways  in  which  Deville  got  over  this  difficulty  was  by  the 
use  of  his  "hot  and  cold  tube."  Inside  a  porcelain  tube  he  placed 
a  metal  tube  of  smaller  diameter,  so  that  their  axes  coincided,  le.iving 
an  annular  space  between  thera.  This  annular  space  was  closed  at 
both  ends,  but,  by  means  of  side  tubes  near  the  ends,  could  be 
filled  with  any  gas,  or  a  current  of  gas  could  be  passed  through  it. 
The  porcelain  tube  was  raised  to  a  high  temperature  by  being  placed 
in  a  furnace,  while  the  internal  metal  tube  was  kept  cold  by  running 
water  through  it.  By  this  mesns  he  proved  the  dissociation  of 
«arbonic  acid  gas,  carbonic  oxide,  and  sulphurous  acid  gas, — the 
carbon  or  sulphur  being  deposited  on  the  outer  wall  of  the  cold 
internal  tube,  and  thus  kept  at  a  temperature  below  that  at  which 
recombination  could  take  place. 

»  Dcville's  observations  on  dissociation  ?nd  his  generalizations  from 
them  have  a  very  direct  bearing  on  the  kinetic  theory  of  gases,  and 
it  is  a  fact  of  interest  in  the  history  of  science  that  Deville  did  not 
recognize  the  validity  of  that  theory.  Our  estimate  of  the  inge- 
nuity, skill,  and  patience  shown  in  his  experimental  work,  and  of 
the  genius  and  sound  judgment  which  directed  his  theoretical 
conclusions,  is  perhaps  raised  when  we  recollect  that  he  was  neither 
led  in  the  first  nor  biassed  in  the  second  by  ideas  derived  from 
Ithe  kinetic  theory,  and  his  hostile  or  at  least  neutral  attitude 
Itowards  it  gives  perhaps  greater  value  to  the  evidence  that  his  work 
lias  contributed  to  its  soundness. 

'  Deville's  works  were  published  in  the  Annates  de  Chimie  et  de  Phystqne  and 
to  the  Comptes  Rendus  He  further  published  a  volume,  entitled  De  lAtuml- 
ntum;  ses  PropriiteSt  &c  ,  Paris,  1859,  and  the  lecture  On  Dissociation  already 
Referred  to.  (A.  C.  B.) 

STE  jrARIE-AUX  MINES.     See  Markirch. 

SAINTES,  a  town  of  France,  the  chef-lieu  of  an  arron- 
dissement  in  the  department  of  Charente-Inferieure,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Charente,  88  feet  above  the  sea  and 
45  miles  south-east  of  La  Rochelle  by  the  railway  from 
Nantes  to  Bordeaux.  It  occupies  a  delightful  position 
and  is  of  interest  for  its  Roman  remains.  Of  these  the 
best  preserved  is  the  triumphal  arch  of  Germanicus, 
although  it  has  been  removed  and  rebuilt  stone  by  stone. 
The  amphitheatre  is  larger  than  those  of  Nimes,  Bordeau.v, 
and  Pompeii,  and  in  area  ('89  of  an  acre)  is  surpassed  only 
by  the  Colosseum.  The  external  ellipse  was  436  feet  long 
and  35 1  broad.  Rubble  embedded  in  cement  is  the  material 
of  the  building,  which  dates  probably  from  the  close  of  the 
1st  or  the  beginning  of  the  2d  century,  ileasures  have 
been  taken  to  keep  the  ruins,  now  made  picturesque  by 
trees,  from  further  injury  or  decay.  Tlie  capitol  was 
destroyed  after  the  capture  of  the  to\vn  from  the  English 
by  Charles  of  Alentjon,  brother  of  Philip  of  Yalois,  in  1330. 
An  ancient  hypoga;um  is  still  preserved,  as  well  as  numer- 
ous traces  of  the  channels  by  which  water  was  conveyed 
to  private  houses.  The  antiquarian  museum  contains  7000 
medals  and  numerous  sculptured  pieces.  Saintes  was  a 
bishop's  see  till  1790;  the  cathedral  of  St  Peter,  rebuilt 
at  the  close  of  the  .12th  century,  was  almost  destroyed  by 
the  Huguenots  in  15G8.  As  rebuilt  between  1582  and 
1585  the  interior  of  the  church  has  an  unattractive  appear- 
ance. The  tower  is  236  feet  high.  The  church  of  St 
Eutropius  (which  was  founded  in  the  close  of  the  6th 
century,  rebuilt  in  the  11th,  and  had  its  nave  destroyed  in 
the  Wars  of  Religion)  stands  above  a  very  interesting  well- 
lighted  crypt,  the  largest  in  France  after  that  of  Cliartrcs, 
adorned  with  richly  sculptured  capitals  and  containing  the 
tomb  of  St  Eutropius  (4th  or  5tli  century).  Notre  Dame, 
H  splendid,  example  of  the  architecture  of  the  11th  and 
12th  centuries,  with  a  noble  round  clock-tower,  is  unfortu- 
nately occupied  by  the  military  authorities,  who  have 
divided  and  mutilated  the  interior.    The  town,  which  was 


at  one  time  at  the  head  of  the  department,  is  still  the  seat 
of  the  courts  of  assize  and  has  a  court-house.  Other  public 
buildings  are  a  town-house  (Renaissance),  a  hospital,  and 
a  library.  Small  vessels  ascend  the  river  as  far  as  Saintes,- 
which  has  an  advantageous  situation  between  Angoulerae 
and  Cognac  higher  up  and  Taillebouig  and  Rochefort; 
farther  down,  and  is  the  seat  of  iron  and  copper  foundries,' 
factories  for  agricultural  instruments,  cooperages,  and  skin- 
dressing  establishments.  The  population  in  1881  was 
13,341  (15,763  in  the  commune). 

Saintes  (Mediolanum  or  Mediolanium),  the  capital  of  theSantones, 
was  a  flourishing  town  before  Cajsar's  coiir|Uest  of  Gaul.  Chris- 
tianity was  introduced  by  St  Eutropius,  its  first  bishop,  in  tha 
middle  of  the  3d  century.  Charlemagne  rebuilt  its  cathedral.  Tho 
Normans  burned  the  to\m  in  8J5  and  85i.  Richard  Cteur  do  Lion 
fortified  himself  within  its  walls  against  his  father  Henry  II.,  who 
captured  it  after  a  destructive  siege.  It  was  not  till  tho  reign  of 
Charles  V.  that  Saintes  was  permanently  recovered  from  the  English. 
The  Protestants  did  great  damage  during  tho  Wars  of  Religion. 

ST  fiTIENNE,  an  industrial  and  manufacturing  to'rni 
of  France,  chef-lieu  of  the  department  of  Loire,  312  miles 
south -south -east  of  Paris  and  36  miles  south -south -west 
of  Lyons  by  rail,  with  a  branch  line  to  Lo  Puy.  The 
coal-field  of  St  Etienne  is  the  richest  in  France  after  that 
of  Valenciennes  and  Pas  de  Calais,  giving  employment  to 
12,000  miners  and  5000  workmen  at  the  pit-heads.  There 
are  64  concessions  worked  by  28  companies,  extending  over 
an  area  20  miles  long  by  -5  in  width  ;  the  mineral  is  of 
two  kinds, — smelting  coal  (said  to  be  the  best  in  France) 
and  gas  coal ;  the  yearly  output  is  between  3,000,000  and 
4,000,000  tons,  but  with  a  tendency  to  decrease.  In  tho 
metallurgio  establishments  of  the  arrondissenient,  which 
extend  all  the  way  along  tho  railway  from  Firminy  to 
Rive-de-Gier,  5540  workmen  are  employed,  and  in  1883 
61,127  tons  of  cast  metal,  58,445  tons  of  iron,  10,815 
tons  of  sheet-iron,  and  131,563  tons  of  steel  of  all 
kinds  were  manu- 
factured. The  last- 
named  industry, 
carried  on  accord- 
ing to  the  Besse- 
mer and  Martin 
processes,  yields 
nearly  a  third  of 
the  whole  French 
production  of  steel. 
Military  and  naval 
material,  railway 
plant,  and  articles 
of  general  mer- 
chandise are  all 
madeatStfitienne, 
and  its  name  is 
especially  associ- 
ated with  large 
castings,  bomb- 
proof plates,  ship-  3j 
armour,  masts,  and  "^ 
pieces  of  machin- 
ery. The  national 
gun-factory,  under 
the  direction  of  artillery  officers  and  employing  4300 
workmen,  is  almost  exclusively  devoted  to  tho  produo-, 
tion  of  rifles  and  revolvers  for  tho  army.  A  certain 
number  of  gun -makers  not  engaged  in  tho  factory  turn 
out  from  80,000  to  90,000  firearms  (hunting-pieces,' 
revolvers,  ic.)  per  annum.  ITardware  is  manufactured 
by  60  firms,  employing  7000  workmen  (who  are  not,  how- 
ever, exclusively  occuiiicd  with  this  department)  ;  Icadin'j 
articles  arc  locks  (known  as  Forcz  locks),  common  cutlery, 
files,  nails,  bolts,  anvils,  vices,     llemu  cables  for  mines^ 


5caTf  cfViiMa 


Plan  of  St  litienae. 


.,::f21 


168 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


hats,  pottery,  and  lime  are  among  the  miscellaneous  manu- 
factured products  of  the  town,  which  is  besides  a  great 
centre  of  the  ribbon  trade,  with  a  testing-house  {condition) 
for  examining  the  silk.  From  500  to  600  tons  of  silk, 
valued  at  £1,200,000  to  £1,400,000,  are  used  per  annum, 
and  the  manufactured  articles  reach  a  value  ranging  from 
£2,800,000  to  £3,200,000.  The  ribbons,  laces,  trimmings 
{in  silk,  cotton,  and  india-rubber)  produced  in  the  arron- 
dissement  of  St  litienne  are  valued  at  £4,000,000,  and 
form  four-fifths  of  the  total  French  production.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few  factories  where  machinery  is  employed, 
the  whole  manufacture  is  carried  on  by  persons  with  small 
means.  About  5000  looms  (Jacquard's  permitting  thirty- 
six  pieces  to  be  woven  at  once)  and  40,000  workmen  are 
employed.  Besides  the  old  abbey  church  of  Valbenoite 
(outside  of  the  town)  with  its  nave  dating  from  the 
13th  century,  the  public  buUdings  comprise  a  Protestant 
church,  a  synagogue,  a  town-house  (finished  under  the 
second  empire  and  dfecorated  with  statues  of  the  ribbon 
trade  and  metallurgy),  a  school  of  mines  (1816),  with  a 
mineralogical  and  geological  collection,  and  a  "palace  of 
the  arts,"  with  a  museum  and  library  rich  in  old  MSS. 
and  collections  in  connexion  with  artillery  and  natui'al 
history.  Near  Valbenoite  in  the  wooded  gorge  of,  the 
Furens  is  the  reservoir  of  Gouffre  d'Enfer,  formed  by  a 
dam  (1861-1866)  328  feet  long,  131  high,  and  131  wide 
at  the  base,  and  capable  of  storing  about  70,000,000  cubic 
feet  of  water.  The  population  of  the  town  was  28,000  in 
1764;  by  1876  it  was  126,019,  but  it  had  decreased  to 
114.962  (123,813  in  the  commune)  in  1881. 

At  the  close  of  tlie  12th  ceutury  St  Etienne  tras  only  a  parish  of 
the  Pays  do  Gier  belonging  to  the  abbey  of  Valbenoite.  By  the 
middle  of  the  14th  century  the  coal  trade  had  reached  a  certain 
-development,  and  by  the  close  of  the  century  the  town  was  sur- 
rounded \dih  walls  and  had  consuls.  A  hundred  years  later  it 
had  three  growing  suburbs.  Tlie  AVars  of  Religion  stimulated  the 
manufacture  of  arms,  and  about  the  same  period  the  ribbon  trade 
sprang  into  e.Mstence.  It  was  not  till  the  ISth  century,  however, 
that  the  town  entered  on  its  era  of  prosperity.  The  royal  manu- 
factory of  arms  was  estabUshed  in  1764.  In  1789  they  were  pro- 
ducing at  the  rate  of  12  000  muskets  per  annum;  between  September 
1794  and  May  1796  they  delivered  170,858  ;  and  100,000  was  the 
annual  averag*  throughout  the  whole  period  of  the  empire.  The 
fir^t  ra»l^avo  opened  in  France  were  the  line  between  St  Etienne 
and  Andrezieu  on  the  Loire  in  1828  and  that  between  St  Etienne 
and  Lyons  in  1831.  In  1856  St  fitienne  became  the  administrative 
centre  of  the  department  instead  of  Jlontbrisou.  Among  the  local 
celebrities  are  Francis  Garnier,  who  conquered  Tongkiug  in,  1873, 
and  several  engravers  who  have  given  eminence  to  the  St  Etienne 
school  of  engraving. 

ST  EUSTATIUS,  or  St  Eitstache,  one  of  the  Dutch 

West  India  Islands,  a  dependency  of  Curasao,  lying  north- 
Tvest  of  St  ICitts  in  17°  50'  N.  lat.  and  62°  40'  W.  long., 
consists  of  two  volcanic  cones  and  an  intervening  valley, 
and  contains  the  small  town  of  Orangetown  and  two  forts. 
The  population,  which  from  7600  in  1786  had  decreased 
to  1741  (about  1000  Negroes),  was  again  2247  in  1882. 
Between  300  and  400  vessels  visit  the  island  annually. 
Yams  and  sweet  potatoes  are  exported  (5187  and  3010 
tons  in  1882).  The  Dutch  occupied  St  Eustatius  in  1635, 
and,  after  frequent  French  and  English  irruptions,  were 
confirmed  in  their  possession  of  it  in  1814. 

SAINT-fiVREMOND,  Charles  de  Maegttetel  de 
Sax^t-Denis,  Seigneijrde  (1613-1703),  was  born  at  Saint- 
Denis-le-Guast  near  Coutances,  the  seat  of  his  family  in 
Normandy,  on  1st  April  1613.  He  was  a  younger  son, 
but  took  his  designation  from  one  of  the  smaller  estates 
of  the  family  and  appeare  to  have  had  a  sufficient  portion. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  the  Jesuits  at  the  College  de  Clermont, 
•Paris,  then  a  student  at  Caen.  For  a  time  he  followed  the 
law  at  the  College  d'Harcourt.  He  soon,  however,  took 
to  arms  and  in  1629  went  with  Bassompierre  to  Italy. 
He  served  through  great  part  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
»hiefly  in  Germany,  and,  meeting  Gassendi  at  Paris,  became 


strongly  imbued  with  his  doctrines.  He  was  present  at 
Kocroy,  at  Nordlingen,  and  at  Lens.  For  a  time  he  was 
attached  to  Cond^,  but  is  said  to  have  ofiended  him  by 
some  satirical  speech  or  speeches.  During  the  Fronde, 
Saint-fivremond,  unlike  most  of  his  contemporaries,  never 
changed  sides,  but  was  a  steady  royalist.  The  duke  of 
Candale  (of  whom  he  has  left  a  very  severe  portrait)  gave 
him  some  appointments  in  Guienne,  and  Saint-fivremond 
is  said  to  have  saved  50,000  livres  in  less  than  three  years. 
He  was  one  of  the  numerous  victims  of  the  fate  of  Fouquet. 
His  letter  to  Cr^qui  on  the  peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  which 
is  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  Colbert's  agents  at  the 
seizure  of  the  superintendent's  papers,  seems  a  very  in- 
adequate cause  for  exile,  and  it  has  been  supposed  that 
there  was  more  behind ;  but  nothing  is  known  certainly. 
Saint-fivremond  went  to  Holland  and  England,  where  he 
was  received  with  open  arms  by  Charles  II.,  and  was  pen- 
sioned. He  found  himself  very  much  at  home  in  England, 
and  though  after  James  II.'s  fliglit  to  France  Saint- 
Evremond  was  invited  to  return  he  declined.  Hortense 
Mancini,  the  most  attractive  of  Mazarin's  strangely  attrac-j 
five  group  of  nieces,  came  to  England  and  set  up  a  salon 
for  love-making,  gambling,  and  witty  conversation,  and 
here  Saint-fivremond  was  for  many  years  at  home.  He 
died  on  Michaelmas  Day  1703,  and  was  buried  in  AVest 
minster  Abbey,  where  his  monument  still  is  in  Poet's 
Corner  close  to  that  of  Prior. 

Saint-Evremond  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  instance  of  the 
curious  17th-century  fancy  for  circulating  literary  work  in  manu- 
script or  clandestinely.  He  never  himself  authorized  the  printing 
of  any  of  his  works  during  his  long  lifetime,  though  Barbin  in  1663 
published  an  unauthorized  collection.  But  he  empowered  Des 
Maizeaux  to  publish  his  works  after  his  death,  and  they  duly 
appeared,  the  earliest  form  and  date  being  3  ^'ols.  4to,  1705.  They 
were  often  reprinted  in  various  forms  during  the  first  half  of  the  18th 
century.  Saint-Evremond,  however,  had  made  his  mark  and  estab- 
lished his  influence  long  before  the  earUost  of  these  books  appeared. 
He  was  an  older  man  than  Pascal,  a  very  much  older  man  than 
Anthony  Hamilton,  and  he  probably  preceded  the  first,  as  he 
certainly  long  preceded  the  second,  in  the  employment  for  literary 
purposes  of  a  singularly  light,  polished,  and  graceful  irony,  which 
taught  a  great  deal  to  Voltaire,  but  which  Voltaire  was  never  able 
to  imitate  with  quite  the  air  of  good  company  which  distinguishes 
his  teacher.  The  masterpiece  of  Saint- Evremond's  style  in  this 
respect  is  the  so-called  Conversation  du  Marechal  d' Encqidncourt 
avcc  U  Fire  Canayc  (the  latter  a  Jesuit  and  Saint -Evremond's 
master  at  school),  which  has  been  frequently  classed  with  tho 
Lcttres  Frovincialcs^  but  which  with  less  of  moral  purpose  and  of 
cutting  reproof  even  excels  those  famous  compositions  in  dramatic 
power  ,and  in  subtle  good-humoured  irony.  The  remainder  of 
Saint-Evremond's  works  are  desultory  in  the  extreme.  Some  ela- 
borate letters  contain  the  exposition  of  an  Epicurean  philosophy 
of  life  which  had  a  very  great  influence  on  the  polite  society  of  his 
day.  Others,  and  the  most  impoi-tant  of  all,  e.\hibit  the  writer  as 
a  literary  critic  of  singular  discrimination  and  taste.  His  com- 
parisons of  CorneiUe  and  Racine,  liis  remarks  on  English  drama 
(chiefly  that  of  Ben  Jonson),  his  sketches  of  criticism  on  Roman 
character  and  literature,  all  show  a  remarkable  union  of  acute  and 
orderly  generalization  with  freedom  from  the  merely  academic  spirit 
which  had  in  his  time  already  begun  to  beset  France.  Altogether, 
Saint-livremond  may  be  said  with  greater  right  to  deserve  the 
phrase  which  used  to  be  applied  to  Sir  William  Temple.  He  is 
the  first  master  of  the  genteel  style  in  Fi  ench  literature,  and  the 
lively  poignancy  of  his  irony  prevents  this  gentility  from  ever 
becoming  insipid.  His  influence  indeed  was  hardly  less  in  his 
adopted  than  in  his  native  counti-y,  and  it  may  be  traced  in  tho 
Queen  Anne  essayists  to  «  not  much  less  degree  than  in  Hamilton 
and  Voltaire. 

Baiiit-Cvremond's  complete  works  have  not  recently  been  reprinted,  bat 
there  are  selections  by  Hippeau,  Giraud,  and  others. 

ST  GALL,  in  area  the  sixth  (789  square  miles),  in 
ac'aial  population  the  fourth  (210,491),  and  iu  relative 
density  of  population  the  tenth  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  was 
formed  in  1803  out  of  the  two  independent  communities 
of  the  "  town  "  and  the  "  abbey  "  (including  Toggenburg), 
Piapperswyl,  Uznach,  Gaster,  Sargans,  Gams,  Kheinthal, 
Sax  (with  Forsteck),  which  belonged  to  Zurich,  and  We^ 
denberg,  which  belonged  to  Glarus.    It  encloses  the  cantOB 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


169 


lof  Appenzell,  extending  between  the  Lake  of  Constance 
and  the  Lake  of  Zurich  on  the  west,  and  being  bounded 
by  the  Rhine  on  the  east,  while  in  the  south-west  lies  the 
valley  occupied  by  the  Wallenst;itt  Lake  and  the  Linth 
Canal.  The  Rhine  separates  St  Gall  from  Tyrol,  and  the 
rest  of  its  frontier  is  conterminous  in  succession  with 
Orisons,  Glarus,  Schwyz,  Zurich,  and  Thurgau.  In  alti- 
Jude  the  canton  ranges  from  1306  feet  above  the  sea  (the 
height  of  the  Lake  of  Constance)  to  10,GG0  feet  in  the 
Kingelspitz  of  the  Sardona  group.  The  arable  area  is  not 
'sufficient  to  supply  the  local  demand  for  grain ;  but  the 
stock-breeding  and  especially  the  manufacturing  iudus- 
|tries,  to  which  a  large  part  of  the  population  is  devoted, 
make  up  for  any  agricultural  deficiency.  Rorschach  and 
Ra])perswj-1  are  lake  ports ;  Wyl,  Lichtensteig,  AltsUitten, 
and  Uznach  markets  of  some  importance  for  local  pro- 
ducts. L'onstone  is  worked  in  the  Gonzen  district,  and 
there  are  quarries  at  Rorschach  and  BoLLigen,  Mels  and 
Degeraheim.  Ragatz,  the  ■well-known  watering-place,  is 
supplied  with  mineral  water  from  Pfaffers.  The  people  of 
St  Gall  are  three-fifths  Roman  Catholic  and  two-fifths 
Protestant  (12G,16i  and  83,411  in  1880),  but,  in  spite  of 
this  and  considerable  diversities  of  culture  and  character 
from  district  to  district,  a  fair  degree  of  harmony  has  ulti- 
mately been  secured  even  in  the  treatment  of  educational 
questions.  The  constitution  dates  from  1861  and  was 
partially  revised  in  1875.  After  being  abolished  for  many 
years,  the  death-penalty  was  re-enacted  in  1 882.  Besides 
the  city  of  St  Gall  there  were  in  the  canton  in  1880  three 
'communes  with  upwards  of  5000  inhabitants  each, — Tablat 
(8092),  Wattwyl  (a  seat  of  the  cotton  manufacture,  5283), 
and  Straubenzell  (5026). 

ST  GALL  (German  Sanld  Galhn),  capital  of  the  above 
canton,  occupies  along  with  its  suburbs  St  Fiden,  Neudorf, 
and  Langgasse  (to  the  east),  and  Lachen  and  Vonwil  (to 
the  west),  an  area  4  miles  long  by  1  broad  in  the  high- 
land valley  of  the  Steinach,  which  descends  north-east 
to  the  Lake  of  Constance.  On  a  pillar  in  the  market- 
place are  the  following  details: — Lat.  47°  25'  36"  N. ;  long. 
7°  2'  27"  E.  from  Paris  (9'  22'  41"  Green.);  height  above 
the  sea,  2196'6  feet;  mean  annual  temperature,  45'6;  an- 
nual rainfall,  50  inches ;' air-distance  from  Zurich  39  miles, 
from  Geneva  174.  The  only  town — not  village — in  Europe 
^which  has  a  higher  position  than  St  Gall  is  Madrid.  The 
chief  building  in  St  Gall  is  the  abbey,  of  which  (as  it 
iVas  originally  arranged)  a  ground  plan  and  description 
are  given  in  vol.  i.  pp.  12,  13.  The  abbey  church,  since 
J846  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  was  entirely  rebuilt 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century  in  the  rococo  style. 
Partly  from  the  desire  to  include  within  the  choir  the 
tombs  of  the  two  founders  and  partly  from  the  hostility 
which  long  existed  between  town  and  tonsure,  both  the 
towers  (217  feet)  are  placed  at  the  east  end  and  the  main 
entrance  is  in  the  north  side.  The  whole  church  has  a 
length  of  400  feet  (with  the  sacristy  454  feet),  and  a 
breadth  in  the  nave  of  95  feet,  a  disproportion  which  is 
considerably  disguised  by  the  arrangement  of  the  interior. 
'Among  the  internal  decorations  are  two  colossal  statues 
of  St  Desiderius  and  St  JNIauritius,  the  original  patrons 
of  the  church,  whoso  relics  w'ero  brought  from  Scotland. 
Other  buildings  of  importance  are  the  (Protestant)  church 
of  St  Lawrence,  partially  rebuilt  (1851-53)  according  to 
plans  by  the  Swiss  poet  Johann  O.  Miiller,  the  Government 
offices  on  the  east  side  of  the  abbey-court  (where  SchoU's 
famous  relief  of  the  cantons  of  St  Gall  and  Appenzell  is  to 
bo  seen),  the  town-house,  the  odiccs  of  the  Mercantile 
Direetorium  (a  1 7th-century  institution  to  which  the  to\vn 
owes  much  of  its  commercial  jirosperity),  the  great  cantonal 
school— ^comprising  a  gymnasium,  a  technical  school  (pre- 
paratory to  the  polytecliuicum  at  Zurich),  and  a  mercantile 


school — the  cantonal  reformatory  of  St .'  acob,  the  hospitals, 
and  the  infantry  and  cavalry  barracks.  In  the  town  park, 
part  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  botanic  gardens,  stands 
the  public  museum,  containing  natural  history  collections, 
the  industrial  collections  and  industrial  drawing-school  of 
the  Mercantile  Direetorium,  the  picture  gallery  of  the  Art 
Society,  and  the  antiquarian  collections  of  the  Historical 
Society.  The  museum  of  the  East  Swiss  Geographical 
Commercial  Society  is  located  in  the  cantonal  school. 
Besides  the  abbey  library,  famous  for  its  ancient  MSS. 
(original  of  the  Ki(hclungenli«^,  Ac),  there  is  a  town 
library  (Bibliotheca  Vadiana),  founded  by  the  reformer 
Joachim  de  Watt  or  Vadianus.  In  spite  of  its  position 
and  climate,  St  Gall  is  the  seat  of  extensive  industries  and 
trades.  About  45,000  persons  in  the  surrounding  cantons 
are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  embroidered  goods, 
mainly  muslins,  for  the  St  Gall  capitalists,  who  also  em- 
ploy some  6000  or  7000  women  in  chain-stitch  and  hand 
embroidery.  In  1872  6384  machines  were  at  work  in  this 
department  in  the  town  and  vicinity,  and  in  1882  14,883. 
The  value  of  textile  fabrics  and  embroidered  goods  annu- 
ally exported  from  St  Gall  is  £3,600,000  to  £^,000,000. 
All  round  the  town  the  meadows  are  used  as  bleaching- 
grounds  for  the  webs.  In  1870  the  population  was  16,675, 
in  1880  21,438. 

The  abbey  of  St  Gall  was  named  after  its  founder,  a  follower  of 
St  Coliimba,  who  along  with  Columbau  left  Ireland  on  the  destruc- 
tion of  Bangor  aud  finally  settled  down  in  the  midst  of  the  great 
forest  which  then  stretched  from  the  Lake  of  Constance  to  the 
Santis  Jlountains,  for  the  jiurpose  of  converting  the  Alemanns.  On 
his  death  on  16th  October  625  this  apostle  of  Celtic  Christianity 
was  buried  in  his  oratory,  and  in  the  9th  century  the  spot  tlius  con- 
secrated became  the  site  of  the  monastic  buildings  erected  by  Abbots 
Gozbert  and  Grimoakl.  The  fouudatiou  was  already  a  wealthy 
one,  and  it  soon  became  a  great  centre  of  literary  and  artistic  culture, 
attracting  numerous  pupils  and  receiving  the  homage  of  dukes  and 
emperors.  In  the  10th  century  the  abbey  and  its  cluster  of  houses 
were  surrounded  with  a  wall,  which  in  954  had  to  defend  the  settle- 
ment against  an  attack  by  a  band  of  Saracens.  In  the  reign  of 
Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  the  tovni  obtained  a  recognition  of  its  com- 
munal independence  from  Abbot  Ulrichand  from  the  emperor  him- 
self a  variety  of  important  privileges.  An  alliance  delensive  and 
offensive  was  formed  in  1312  with  Zurich,  Constance,  ajid'Schaff- 
hausen  ;  and,  although  the  prosperity  of  the  town  received  a  severe 
check  by  a  great  conflagration  in  1314,  the  vigour  with  which  the 
burghers  prosecuted  the  newly  introduced  linen  manufacture  soon 
made  it  one  of  the  most  flourishing  towns  of  Switzerland.  About 
the  middle  of  the  14th  century  the  burghers  began  to  share  in  the 
government  of  the  town  ;  and  in  1457  they  bought  up  all  tho 
claims  of  the  abbots  to  territorial  jurisdiction.  In  1454  St  Gall 
joined  the  confederation  of  the  Swiss  towns,  Zurich,  &c.  Abbot 
Ulrich  YIII.  determined  to  remove  the  abbey  to  Rorschach  ;  but 
the  inhabitants  of  St  Gall,  Apjienzell,  &c. ,  combined  to  destroy  his 
new  buildings,  and,  though  St  Gall  was  besieged  by  the  abbot's 
supporters  and  had  to  pay  grievous  damages  (1490),  the  treaty  which 
it  signed  bound  the  abbots  never  to  attempt  to  remove  the  relics 
of  the  founder.  The  abbey,  which  had  purchased  the  countsliip  of 
Toggenburg,  passed  at  the  Reformation  into  the  hands  of  the  town 
(1529),  but  it  was  restored  to  the  abbots  in  1530;  and,  when  in 
1712  in  the  "  Toggenburg  War "  Zurich  and  Bern  devastated  tho 
abbey  and  its  possessions,  the  townsfolk  remained  neutral.  Tho 
final  dissolution  of  tho  abbey  occurred  in  1798.  Under  the  Freucli, 
St  Gall  was  the  chief  town  of  the  canton  of  Siintis. 

SAINT-GERMAIN,  Co.mte  de  (d.  1780),  a  celebrated 
adventurer  of  tho  18th  century  who  by  tho  assertion  of  his 
discovery  of  some  extraordinary  secrets  of  nature  exercised 
considerable  influence  at  several  European  courts.  Of  bis 
])arcntage  and  place  of  birth  nothing  is  definitely  known  ; 
tho  common  version  is  that  ho  was  a  Portuguese  Jew.  It 
was  also  commonly  stated  that  ho  obtained  his  money 
from  discharging  the  functions  of  spy  to  one  of  the  Euro- 
pean courts.  He  knew  nearly  all  tho  European  languages, 
spoke  good  German  and  English,  excellent  Italian,  French 
(with  a  Piedmontese  accent),  and  Portuguese  and  Spani.sh 
with  perfect  purity.  Grimm  aflirms  him  to  liavo  bscn  tha 
man  of  the  best  parts  lie  had  ever  known.  His  knowledge 
of  history  was  comprehensive  and  minute,  and  his  accom- 

.-i.a.  —  22 


170 


S  A  I  —  S  A  1 


plishments  as  a.  chemist,  on  wbich  he  based  Lis  reputation, 
were  undoubtedly  real  and  considerable.  The  most  re- 
markable of  his  professed  discoveries  was  of  a  liquid  which 
could  prolong  life,  and  by  which  he  asserted  he  had  lived 
2000  years.  At  the  court  of  Louis  XV.,  where  he  ap- 
peared about  1748,  he  exercised  for  a  time  extraordinary 
influence,  but,  having  interfered  in  the  dispute  between  the 
houses  of  Austria  and  France,  he  was  compelled  in  June 
1760,  on  account  of  the  hostility  of  the  duke  of  Choiseul, 
to  remove  to  England.  He  appears  to  have  resided  in 
London  for  one  or  two  years,  but  was  at  St  Petersburg  in 
1762,  and  is  asserted  to  have  played  an  important  part  in 
connexion  with  the  conspiracy  against  the  emperor  Peter 
in.  in  July  of  that  year.  He  then  went  to  Germanj-,  where, 
according  to  the  Memoires  axithentiques  of  Cagliostro,  he  was 
the  founder  of  freemasonry,  and  initiated  Cagliostro  into 
that  rite.  After  frequenting  several  of  the  German  courts 
he  finally  took  up  his  residence  in  Schleswig-Holstein,  where 
he  and  the  landgrave  Charles  of  Hesse  pursued  together 
the  study  of  the  "  secret "  sciences.  He  died  at  Schleswig 
in  1780. 

Saint -Germain  figures  prominently  m  the  correspondence  of 
Grimm  and  of  Voltaire.  See  also  Oettinger,  Graf  Saint-Germain, 
18-16  ;  Biilau,  Gcheime  Geschichten  tmd  rathsclha/te  Menschen,  vol. 
i  cap.  xiii. 

ST  GERiUIN-EN-LAYE,  a  to^-n  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  8  miles  north  of  Versailles 
and  13  west  of  Paris  by  rail.  Built  on  a  hill  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Seine,  nearly  200  feet  above  the  river,  and  on 
the  edge  of  ,a  forest  10,000  to  11,000  acres  in  extent,  St 
Germain  has  a  healthy  and  bracing  air,  which  makes  it  a 
favourite  place  of  summer  residence  with  the  Parisians.  It 
had  15,5-15  inhabitants  in  1881  (15,790  in  the  commune). 
The  terrace  of  St  Germain,  constructed  by  Lenotre  in 
1672,  is  7900  feet  long  and  100  feet  wide,  is  planted  with 
lime  trees  upwards  of  a  hundred  years  old,  and  affords  an 
extensive  view  over  the  valley  of  the  Seine  as  far  as  Paris 
and  the  surrounding  hills;  hence  it  ranks  as  one  of  the  finest 
promenades  in  Europe.  It  was  also  after  Lenotre's  plans 
that  the  "  parterre  "  promenade  was  laid  out  between  the 
castle  and  the  forest  and  the  "  English  garden  "  (by  which 
it  is  approached).  The  history  of  St  Germain  centres  in  the 
castle,  now  occupied  by  a  museum  of  national  antiquities. 
A  monastery  in  honour  of  St  Germain,  bishop  of  Paris,  was  built 
in  the  forest  of  Laj-e  by  King  Kobert.  Louis  VI.  erected  a  castle 
close  by.  Bunied  by  tlie  English,  rebuUt  by  Louis  IX.,  and  again 
by  Charles  V.,  this  castle  diil  not  reach  its  full  development  till 
the  time  of  Francis  I.,  who  may  be  almost  regarded  as  the  real 
foimdcr  of  the  building.  A  new  castle  was  erected  by  Henry  II.  ; 
but  it  was  demolished  by  the  count  of  Artois,  and  there  remains 
only  the  so-called  Henry  IV.  paviliori,  now  used  as  an  liot"'..  and 
known  as  the  place  where  Thiers  died,  3d  September  1S77.  The 
old  castle,  on  the  contrary,  is  being  completely  restored  to  the 
state  in  which  it  was  under  Francis  I.  The  chapel,  dating  from 
1240,  is  older  than  the  Sainte  Chapelle  at  Paris,  and  is  worthy  of 
note  for  its  rose  and  other  windows.  The  museum,  which  will 
occupy  forty  rooms,  contains  a  chronological  series  of  artistic  and 
industrial  products  from  the  earliest  i)rehistoric  times.  In  the 
church  of  St  Germain  is  a  mausoleum  erected  by  Queen  Victoria 
to  the  memory  of  James  II.  of  lingland,  who  found  in  the  old 
castle  (now  demolished)  an  asylum  after  the  Revolution  of  16SS. 
In  one  of  the  public  squares  "i.=  a  statue  of  Thiers.  The  town  is 
the  seat  of  one  of  the  cavalry  garrisons  which  surround  Paris. 
At  no  great  distance  in  the  forest  is  the  Convent  des  Logcs,  a 
branch  of  the  educational  establishment  of  the  Legion  of  Honour 
(St  Denis).  The  fete  des  Loges  is  one  of  the  most  popular  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Paris.  Henry  II.,  Charles  IX.,  and  Margaret 
of  Navarre  were  born  at  St  Germain,  as  well  .as  Louis  XIV.,  who  is 
said  to  have  removed  from  this  place  to  Versailles  to  get  away  from 
the  sight  of  the  clock-tower  of  St  Denis,  the  church  where  he  was 
S'  be  buried. 

ST  HELENA,  an  island  in  the  Atlantic  in  15°  55'  26" 
g.  lat.  and  5°  42'  30"  W.  long.  (Ladder  Hill  Observa- 
tory), lies  1140  miles  from  Africa,  1800  from  America, 
*C0  south-east  of  the  island  of  Ascension  (the  nearest 
aud),  and  4000  from  Great  Britain,  of  which  it  has  been 


a  dependency  since  1651.  The  area  is  about  45  square 
miles,  the  extreme  length  from  south-west  to  north-east 
being  10}  miles  and*the  extreme  breadth  8}.  The  island 
is  a  very  ancient  volcano,  greatly  changed  by  oceanic 
abrasion  and  atmospheric  denudation.  The  northern  rim 
of  the  great  crater  still  forms  the  princiijal  ridge,  with  the 
culminating  summits  of  Diana's  Peak  (2704  feet)  and  High 
Peak  (2635);  the  southern  rim  hag  been  altogether  washed 
away,  though  its  debris  apparently  keejis  the  sea  shallow 
(from  20  to  50  fathoms)  for  some  2  miles  south-east  of 
Sandy  Bay,  which  hypothetically  forms  the  centre  of  the 
ring.  From  the  crater  wall  outwards  water-cut  gorges 
stretch  in  all  directions,  widening  as  they  approach  the 
sea  into  valleys,  some  of  which  are  1000  feet  deep,  and 
measure  one-eighth  of  a  mile  across  at  bottom  and  three- 
eighths  across  the  top  (JleUiss).  Along  the  enclosing  hill- 
sides caves  have  been  formed  by  the  washing  out  of  the 


Sta.fr 


BmcPsMtimf^, 


Spt^Tyli,     .Cflrti«a'A^ 


^ToEig  ef  WLssd  as  sees  from  a pomt  "^"fr^  10  coles  K Zi^'S. 


Map  of  St  Helena. 

softer  rocks.  High  Hill  (2823  feet)  and  High  Knoll  (1903) 
are  lateral  cones.  Many  dykes  and  masses  of  basaltic  rock 
seem  to  have  been  injected  "subsequently  to  the  last  vol- 
canic eruptions  from  the  central  crater."  Among  the  more 
remarkable  instances  are  the  Ass's  Ears  and  Lot's  Wife, 
picturesque  pinnacles  standing  out  on  the  south-east  part 
of  the  crater  ridge,  and  the  Chimney  on  the  coast  to  the 
south  of  Sandy  Bay.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Man  and 
Horse  (south-west  comer  of  the  island),  throughout  an 
area  of  about  40  acres,  scarcely  50  square  yards  exist  not 
crossed  by  a  dyke.  On  the  leeward  side  of  St  Helena  the 
sea-face  is  generally  formed  by  cliffs  from  600  to  1000 
feet  high,  and  on  the  windward  side  these  heights  often 
increase  to  full  2000  feet,  as  at  Holdfast  Tom,  Stone  Top, 
and  Old  Joan  Point.  Limited  deposits  of  calcareotis  sand- 
stones and  stalagmitic  limestones  occur  at  certain  points, 
as  on  Sugar-Loaf  Hill ;  they  probably  consist  of  particles 
of  shells  blown  by  the  wind  from  some  primeval  beach, 
long  since  destroyed. 

As  regards  its  vegetation,  St  Helena  is  divided  into  three  zones, 
— (1)  the  coast  zone,  extending  inland  for  a  mile  to  a  mile  and  a 
half,  formerly  clothed  with  a  luxuriant  vegetation,  but  now  "dry, 
barren,  soilless,  lichen-coated,  and  rocky,"  with  Uttle  save  prickly 
poars,  wire  grass,  and  Mcsembryanthcnuin ;  (2)  the  middle  zone  (400- 
ISOO  feet),  extending  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  inland,  not  so 
rocky,  with  shallower  valleys  and  grassier  slopes, — the  English  bi-oom 
and  gorse,  brambles,  willows,  poplars,  Scotch  pines,  &c.,  being  the 
prevailing  forms  ;  and  (3)  the  central  zone,  about  3  miles  long 
and  2  wide,  the  last  refuge  for  the  most  part  of  that  marvellous 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


171 


ffbra  wnicri  has  been  lur  generations  the  admiration  and  sorrow  of 
the  botanist.  According  to  Sir  W.  B.  Helnislry  (who  has  snra- 
marized  all  that  is  known  on  the  matter  in  las  report  on  the 
botany  of  the  Atlantic  Islands),^  the  certainly  indigenous  species 
of  plants  are  65,  the  probably  indigenous  24,  and  the  doubtfully 
indigenous  5  ;  total  94.  Of  the  38  flowering  plants  20  are  shrubs 
or  small  trees.  With  the  exception  of  Sciriius  nodosus,  all  the  23 
ire  peculiar  to  the  island  ;  and  tho  same  is  true  of  12  of  the  27 
vascular  cryptogams  (a  remarkable  proportion).  Since  the  flora 
began  to  be  studied,  two  species — Mclha,na  mclanoxylon  and 
Aoalypha  rubra — are  known  to  have  become  extinct ;  and  at  least 
two  others  have  probably  shared  the  same  fate — Hdiotropium 
pennifoltian  and  Dcinaxria  oblitcrata.  Jt/clhauia  mclanoxyJon^  or 
"native  ebony,"  once  abounded  in  parts  of  the  island  now  barren  ; 
but  the  local  legislation  decided  that  goats  were  of  more  value 
than  ebony.  Its  beautiful  congener  Mdhania  erythroxylon  ("red- 
wood") was  still  tolerably  plentiful  in  1810,  but  is  now  reduced 
to  a  few  specimens.  Very  rare,  too,  has  become  Pelargonium 
cottjlcdonis,  called  "Old  Father  Live-for-ever,"  from  its  retaining 
vitality  for  months  without  soil  or  water.  Commidendron  robustum 
("gumwood"),  a  tree  about  20  feet  high,  once  the  most  abundant 
in  the  island,  was  represented  in  1868  by  about  1300  or  1400 
examples  ;  and  Commidendron  ruyosum  ("scrubwood")  is  confined 
to  somewhat  limited  regions.  Both  these  plants  are  characterised 
by  a  daisy-  or  aster-like  blossom,  which  looks  very  strange  on  a 
tree.  In  general  the  affinities  of  the  indigenous  flora  of  St  Helena 
were  described  by  Sir  Joseph  Hooker  as  .African,  but  Mr  Bentham 

fioints  out  that  the  important  element  of  the  Com}iosiix  shows,  at 
east  in  its  older  forms,  a  coniwxion  rather  with  South  America. 
The  exotic  flora  introduced  from  all  parts  of  the  world  gives  the 
island  almost  the  aspect  of  a  botanic  garden.  The  oak,  thoroughly 
naturalized,  grows  alongside  of  the  bamboo  and  banana.  As  con- 
tributing largely  to  the  general  physiognomy  of  the  Tegetation 
jnust  be  mentioned — the  common  English  gorse  ;  Jiubus pinnaUis, 
probably  introduced  from  Africa  about  1775  ;  Hypochxris  radicata, 
•which  above  1500  feet  forms  the  dandelion  of  the  country  ;  the 
beautiful  but  aggressive  Buddlcia  madagascaric7isis  ;  Physalis p>cm- 
viana  ;  the  common  castor-oil  plant ;  and  the  pride  of  India.  The 
pecpiil  is  the  principal  shade  tree  in  Jamestown,  and  in  Jamestown 
valley  tho  date. palm  grows  freely.  Orange  and, lemon  trees,  onco 
common,  are  now  scarce.  Tho  attempt  (1869-71)  to  introduce 
cinchona  -cultivation  failed.  Potatoes  are  piob.ably  the  staple  pro- 
duction of  the  St  Helena  farmers,  and  as  many  as  three  crops  per 
annum  are  sometimes  obtained. 

The  fauna  of  St  Helena  is  only  second  in  interest  to  its  flora. 
Besides  domestic  animals  the  only  land  mammals  are  rabbits, 
rats,  and  mice,  the  rats  being  especially  abundant  and  building 
their  nests  in  the  highest  trees.  Probably  the  only  endemic  land 
bird  is  the  wire  bird,  ^-Egialitis  sanetas  heJcnx  ;  the  averdevat,  Java 
sparrow,  cardinal,  ground -dove,  partridge  (possibly  the  Indian 
ekukar),  pheasant,  and  guinea-fowl  are  all  common.  The  pea-fowl, 
at  one  time  not  uncommon  in  a  wild  state,  is  long  since  extermi- 
nated. Though  fresh  water  abounds  in  the' island  in  the  form  of 
springs,  rivulets,  and  streams,  there  are  no  freshwater  fish,  beetles, 
orshells.  Of  sixty-five  species  of  sea-fish  caught  oS' the  island  seven- 
teen are  peculiar  to  St  Helena  ;  economically  the  more  important 
kinds  are  gurnard,  eel,  cod,  mackerel,  tunny,  buUscye,  cavalley, 
flounder,  hog-fish,  mullet,  and  sknlpin.  Mr  Wollaston,  in  Coleopltra 
Sands  HcUnx,  1877,  shows  that  out  of  a  total  list  of  203  species 
of  beetles  129  are  probably  aborigin.al  and  128  peculiar  to  the  island, 
—an  individuality  perhaps  unequalled  in  the  world.  More  than 
two-thirds  are  weevils  and  a  vast  majority  wood-borers,  a  fact  which 
bears  out  tho  tradition  of  forests  having  onco  covered  the  island. 
The  Ucmiplcra  &nA  tho  land-shells  also  show  a  strong  residuum 
of  peculiar  genera  and  species.  A  South-American  white  ant 
{Tcrmes  tenuis,  Hagen.),  introduced  from  a  slave-ship  in  1840, 
soon  became  a  real  plague  at  Jamestown,  where  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  public  library  fell  a  prey  to  its  voracity.  The  honey- 
bee, which  throve  for  some  time  after  its  introduction,  again  died 
out     (Comp.  Wallace,  Island  Life. ) 

The  population  of  St  Helena  was  6444  in  1871  and  6059  (2617 
males,  2442  females)  in  1881  ;  it  consists  of  Government  officials, 
of  old-established  residents  ("  yamstalks")  of  somewhat  composite 
origin,  European  and  Asiatic,  and  of  tho  descendants  of  Negroes 
landed  from  the  West  African  slave-ships  subsequent  to  1840.  Tho 
only  towa — Jamestown  (3000  inhabitants) — lies  in  a  drop  valley 
on  tho  north-west  coast,  and  there  is  a  village  in  the  neighnouring 
Kiipert's  Valley.  Ladder  Hill,  tho  seat  of  the  garrison,  is  so  called 
from  tho  almost  precipitous  ladder-like  wooden  stair  by  wliich  its 
height  of  600  feet  can  bo  scaled.  Longwood,  whore  Napoleon  died 
in  1821,  is  a  farmhouse  in  an  elevated  plain  (2000  feet  high),  about 
3i  miles  inland  from  Jamestown. 

St  Helena  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  navigator  Jouo 
Ja  Nova  on  the  2l8t  of  May  1501.  The  island  received  its  lir.°t 
known  inhabitant  iu  1613  in  tho  person  of  Fernandez  Lopez,  a 

'  Voyagt  of  H. M.S.  Challmger,  Botany,  vol.  i. 


Portuguese  of  good  family,  who  piclerrcd  being  marooned  to  re- 
tuining  to  Europe  after  the  barbarous  mutilation  to  which  he  had 
been  subjected  for  some  misdemeanour.  Cavendish  (1588),  EcndaU 
(1591),  and  Lancaster  (1593)  wore  the  earliest  English  visitoi-s. 
The  Dutch,  who  had  for  some  time  bee  .  in  ^wsscssion  of  the  island, 
witlidrew  in  1651,  but  on  two  occasions  (1665  and  1673)  managed 
to  CTpel  the  forces  of  the  English  East  India  Company,  which  had 
at  once  seized  the  abandoned  prize.  Tho  company,  having  procured 
a  second  charter  of  possession  on  16th  Decemlrer  1673,  remained 
the  governing  authority  till  22d  April  1834,  when  St  Helena  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  British  crown.  In  1832  it  had  purchased 
the  freedom  of  the  slaves  (614)  for  £28,062.  As  a  port  of  call  tho 
island  continued  to  prosper  till  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Can".l, 
which,  by  altering  the  route  to  the  East  Indies,  deprived  tho  people 
of  their  means  of  subsistence.  The  revenue  has  decreased  from 
£13,931  in  1874  to  £10,421  in  1884,  the  expenditure  from  £14,521 
to  £10,806,  the  value  of  imports  from  £53,874  to  £41,816,  and  of 
exports  from  £4006  to  £1436.  Halley  the  astronomer  in  1676  left 
his  name  to  Hall.y's  Mount;  and  Maskelyne  and  Waddington 
visited  the  island  in  1761. 

Soe  Seale,  Gtognosij  o/  .Sainf  Uelena  (folio  plates),  1834  ;  Brooke,  History  oj 
Sninl  ifAna,  1808  aii'l  1824;  Beatson,  TtikU,  ic.,  1810;  Darwin,- Gra/gaicoi 
Oh^Tvationi  on  Voko-niz  Jstaiuls,  1844  ;  Melliss,  .Saiitl  Iteleiia,  1873. 

ST  HELEN'S,  a  market-town  and  municipal  ana  parlia- 
rr>F,nkry  borough  of  south-west  Lancashire,  England,  is 
situated  on  a  branch  of  the  London  and  North-We.stern 
Railway,  21  miles  west  by  south  of  Manchester  and  10 
east-north-east  of  Liverpool.  It  is  the  principal  seat  in 
England  for  the  manufacture  of  crown,  plate,  and  sheet 
glass,  and  has  extensive  copper  smelting  and  refining 
works,  as  well  as  chemical  works,  iron  and  brass  foundries, 
and  potteries.  There  are  coUieries  in  the  neighbourhood. 
The  town,  which  is  entirely  of  modern  origin,  obtained  a 
charter  of  incorporation  in  1868.  A  town-hall  was  erected 
in  1873,  and  there  are  also  a  public  library  and  various 
institutes  for  affording  instruction  and  amusement  to  the 
working-class  population.  Extensive  drainage  works  have 
been  carried  out  under  a  local  Act.  The  corporation  are 
the  owners  of  the  waterworks  and  gasworks.  Enfranchised 
in  1885,  St  Helen's  returns  one  member  to  the  House  of 
Commons.  The  population  of  the  borough  (area,  6586 
acres)  in  1871  was  45,134,  and  in  1881  it  was  57,403. 

ST  HELIER.     See  Jersey^  vol.  xiii.  p.  635. 

SAINT-HILAIRE.     See  Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire. 

SAINT-HILAIRE,  Aughste  de  (1799-1853),  French 
botanist  and  traveller,  was  born  at  Orleans  on  4th  October 
1799.  He  began  to  publish  memoirs  on  botanical  subjects 
at  an  early  age.  In  1816-22  and  in  1830  he  travelled  in 
South  America,  especially  in  south  and  central  Brazil,  and 
the  results  of  his  personal  study  of  the  rich  flora  of  the 
regions  through  which  he  jiassed  appeared  iu  several  books 
and  numerous  articles  in  scientific  journaLs.  These  works 
are  most  valuable  from  the  copious  information  they  afford 
not  only  about  the  plants  and  other  natural  products  but 
also  about  the  native  races  he  encountered.  Those  by  which 
he  is  best  known  are  the  Flora  Brasilix  Mcndionalis  (3 
vols,  folio,  with  192  coloured  plates,  1825-32),  published 
in  conjunction  with  A.  de  Jussieu  and  Cambessede,  Jlisloire 
des  plantes  les  plus  remarquables  dii  Brcsil  et  de  Paraeiuay 
(1  vol.  4to,  30  plates,  1824),  Plantes  usudles  des  Brhilient 
(1  vol.  4to,  70  plates,  1827-28),  also  in  conjunction  with 
Do  Jussieu  and  Cambessede,  Voyarfe  dans  le  distrirt  des 
Diamanis  et  snr  le  littoral  du  Bresil  (2  vols.  8vo,  1833). 
His  numerous  articles  in  journals  deal  largely  with  the  plants 
of  Brazil  and  the  general  characters  of  its  vegetation  ;  but 
Saint-Hilaire  also  aided  much  in  establishing  tho  natural 
system  of  classification  on  the  firm  basis  of  structural 
characters  in  the  flowers  and  fruits;  and  that  he  recognized 
the  importance  of  tho  study  of  anomalies  in  this  view  is 
shown  in  more  than  one  of  his  writings.  His  Leipns  de 
Botanique,  comprenant  principalenant  la  Morphologic  Vegi- 
tale,  published  in  1840,  is  a  very  comprehensive  and  cle^r 
exposition  of  botanical  morphology  up  to  1840  and  of  its 
application  to  systematic  botany.  He  died  at  Orleans  on 
?Oth  September  1853. 


172 


S  A  1  — S  A  I 


ST  IVES,  a  seaport  and  borough  of  west  Cornwall, 
'England,  is  situated  at  the  west  entrance  of  the  beautiful 
St  Ives  Bay  on  the  Bristol  Channel,  7  miles  north  of 
Penzance.  The  older  streets  are  narrow  and  irregular, 
but  on  the  slopes  above  there  are  modern  terraces  with 
good  houses.  The  town  takes  its  name  from  St  Hya  or 
la,  an  Irish  virgin  who  is  said  to  have  arrived  in  the  bay 
in  tlie  5th  century.  The  parish  church  of  St  Andrew  is 
in  the  Early  Perpendicular  style  of  the  15th  century.  In 
the  churchyard  is  an  ancient  cross  recently  restored.  A 
town-hall  was  erected  in  1832.  The  town  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  pilchard  fishery.  The  port  has  suffered 
greatly  from  the  accumulation  of  sand.  A  stone  pier  was 
built  by  Smeaton  in  1767  j  a  breakwater  was  commenced 
in  1S16  but  abandoned;  and  a  wooden  pier,  which  was 
commenced  in  1865,  is  still  unfinished.  Formerly  the 
town  was  called  Pendenis  or  Pendunes.  Its  charter  of 
incorporation,  granted  by  Charles  I.  in  1639,  was  forfeited 
in  1685,  but  was  renewed  by  James  II.' in  1686.  From 
the  reign  of  John  until  1832  it  sent  two  members  to  par- 
liament, and  one  from  1832  until  1885,  when  it  was 
merged  in  the  St  Ives  division  of  the  county.  The  popu- 
lation of  the  municipal  borough  (area,  1890  acres)  in  1871 
was  6965,  and  in  1881  it  was  6445. 

ST  JEAN  BAFTISTE,  a  suburb, of  Montreal,  Canada, 
under  a  separate  municipality.  It  lies  north-north-east  of 
Mount  Royal  Park  and  is  hardly  a  mile  from  the  centre 
of  the  city.     The  population  in  1881  was  5874. 

ST  JEAN  D'ACRE.     See  Acre. 

ST  JEAN  D'ANGELY,  a  town  of  France,  the  chef-lieu 
of  an  arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Charente-Inf6- 
rieure,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Bputonne  (a  right-hand 
affluent  of  the  Charente)  t^nd  on  the  railway  from  Taille- 
bourg  (12  miles  south-west)  to  Niprt  (30  miles  north). 
The  town,  which  is  badly  planned  and  built,  contains  the 
remains  of  a  Benedictine  abbey,  destroyed  in  1568;  the 
existing  church  corresponds  to  but  a  part  of  the  large  old 
abbey  church  erected  in  the  13th  century.  The  harbour 
admits  vessels  of  30  to  40  tons  burden,  and  wine  and 
brandy  are  exported.  The  population  was  6538  in  1881 
(7279  in  the  commune). 

St  Jean  owes  its  origin  to  a  castle  of  the  7th  century,  which  the 
(takes  of  Aqiiitaine  used  as  a  lodge  for  boar-hunting  in  the  neigh- 
bouring forest  of  Angerl.  Pipjiin,  son  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire, 
turned  it  into  a  monastery,  where  he  deposited  the  head  of  John 
Baptist.  This  relic  attracted  hosts  of  pilgrims  ;  a  town  grew  up, 
took  tlie  name  St  Jean  d'Angeri,  aftenvards  d'Angely,  was  fortified 
in  1131,  and  in  1204  received  from  Philip  Augustus  a  communal 
charter.  The  possession  of  the  place  was  disputed  between  French 
»nd  English  in  the  Hundred  Years'  War,  and  between  Catholics  and 
Protestants  at  a  later  date.  Louis  XIIL  took  it  from  the  Protestants 
in  1629  and  deprived  it  of  its  fortifications,  its  privileges,  and  its 
Teiy  name,  which  he  wished  to  change  into  Bourg-Louis. 

ST  JOHN,  capital  of  St  John  county  and  the  largest 
city  of  the  province  of  New  Brunswick,  is  strikingly 
situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  in 
45°  14'  6"N.  lat.  and  66°  3'  30"  W.  long  (see  vol.  xvii.,  plate 
IV.).  It  stands  on  an  elevated  rocky  peninsula  which 
projects  into  the  harbour  for  a  considerable  distance.  The 
latter,  which  is  protected  by  batteries  and  never  freezes,  is 
well  equipped  with  wharves  and  docks,  and  is  capable  of 
accommodating  ships  of  the  largest  size.  Its  entrance  is 
guarded  by  Partridge  Island,  lying  2  miles  south  of  the 
city,  and  containing  the  quarantine  hospital  and  light- 
house. About  1|  miles  north  of  the  lighthouse  is  situated 
the  Beacon,  and  below  the  town  ea^st  of  the  channel  is  the 
breakwater,  2250  feet  long.  The  St  John  river  enters  the 
harbour  through  a  rocky  and  sharply  defined  gorge,  100 
yards  wide  and  about  400  long,  having  a  total  fall  of 
about  17  feet,  which  is  passable  to  ships  for  forty-five 
minutes  during  each  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide.  The  river- 
has   afternatefy  rn    inwaii   and    an   outward   fall    twice 


every  twenty-four  hours,  the  high-water  tide  leveK  imme- 
diately below  the  gorge  being  6  to  8  feet  higher  than  the 
average  level  above  the  gorge.  The  river  is  here  spanned 
by  a  stanch  suspension  bridge  640  feet  long  and  100  feet 
above  low-water  level,  and  a  cantilever  railway  bridge, 
2260  feet  long,  with  a  river  span  of  825  feet,  was  opened 


Plan  of  St  John,  New  Brunswick. 

in  1885.  The  city,  approached  from  the  sea,  presents  a 
bold  and  picturesque  appearance,  and,  next  to  Quebec, 
possesses  more  natural  beauty  than  any  other  town  in 
Canada.  There  are  three  large  public  squares,  and  the 
streets  (lighted  with  gas  and  the  electric  light)  are  regularly 
laid  out.  The  water  supply  is  derived  from  Little  river,  5 
miles  distant,  and  brought  to  the  city  by  three  separate 
mains  with  an  aggregate  capacity  estimated  at  10,000,000 
gallons  daily;  the  jjresent  daily  consumption  (including  that 
of  the  city  of  Portland)  is  5,000,000  gallons.  The  works, 
which  are  owned  by  the  city,  cost  8992,326.  The  water 
supply  of  St  John  (West)  is  derived  from  Spruce  Lake. 
St  John  (East)  has  also  an  admirable  sewerage  system. 

On  the  20th  of  June  1877  two-fifths  of  St  John  (about 
200  acres)  were  destroyed  by  a  fire,  which  in  nine  hours 
burned  over  $27,000,000  worth  of  property.  The  city 
was  quickly  rebuilt,  and  on  a  much  grander  scale,  many 
brick  and  stone  edifices  taking  the  place  of  the  old  land- 
marks, which  were  principally  composed  of  wood.  The 
chief  buildings  are — the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral.  Trinity, 
St  Andrew's,  the  Stone,  St  David's,  the  Centenary,  Ger- 
main Street  Baptist,  and  Leinster  Street  Baptist  churches, 
the  custom-house,  post-office,  city-hall,  savings  bank, 
Wiggins's  Orphan  Asylum,  Victoria  skating-rink,  lunatic 
asylum,  Victoria  and  Madras  schools,  the  Masonic  and 
Oddfellows'  halls,  the  young  men's  Christian  association 
building,  the  general  public,  the  epidemic,  and  the  marine 
hospitals,  tlie  court-house,  jail,  police  office,  and  mechanics' 
institute  (with  a  reading-room,  library,  and  museum). 
There  are  thirty-three  places  of  worship  (Church  of  Englancl 
6,  Roman  Catholic  3,  Presbyterian  7,  Wesleyan  Methodi'tt 
5,  Baptist  6,  Congregationalist  1,  Methodist  Episcopal^  1, 
Christian  Brethren  1,  Disciples  of  Christ  2,  and  Christ- 
adelphians  1);  the  educational  institutions  consist  of  a 
grammar-school,  a  Madras  school,  Baptist  seminary,  and 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


173 


several  public  and  private  schools  and  academics.    St  John 
has  also  a  free  public  library,  numerous  religious,  charitable, 
scieTitific,  and  literary  societies,  and  three  daily  newspapers. 
Carleton,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  and  connected 
with  the  east  side  by  ferry,  is  included  within  the  corpora- 
tion limits,  and  is  represented  in  the  common  council.    The 
population  in  1871  was  28,805,  in  1881  it  was  2G,127 
(males  12,263,  females  13,SC4),  the  decrease  being  caiised 
by  the  great  tire  of  1877,  when  many  persons  left  the  city. 
St  John  is  the  entrepot  of  a  large  extent  of  country,  lich  in 
minerals,  agricultural  produce,  and  timber.     It  is  the  scat  of  an 
extensive  business  connexion,  and  possewes  first-class  lucans  of 
cominunicatioii  both  by  steamships  and  sailing  vessels  and  by  rail- 
ways.   Of  late  yeai-s  its  maritime  and  manufacturing  interests  have 
been  greatly  extended.    The  chief  articles  of  manufacture  are  non- 
castings,  steam  engines  and  locomotives,  railway  cars,  coaches  ami 
carriages,  machinery,  edge-tools,  nails  and  tacks,  cotton  and  woollen 
goods,  furniture,  wooden  ware,  leather,  boots  and  shoes,  soap  and 
candles,  agricultural  implements,  lumber,  sugar-boxes,  paper,  boats,' 
sails,  &c.     The  fisheries  allord  employment  to  about  1000  men, 
and  shad,  salmon,  holiiiut,  cod,  herrings,  alcwives,  sturgeons,  and 
haddock  comprise  the  chief  varieties  taken.    The  exports  {$4,310,576 
in  1884)  consist  of  fish,  lumber,  woollen  and  cotton  goods,  manu- 
factured articles,  &c.  ;  the  imports  (S4,621,C91  in  1S84)  are  tobaccos, 
sugar  and  molasses,  spirits  and  malt  liquors,  dried  fruits,  coffee, 
tea,  silks,  velvets,  &c.     The  following  figures  represent  the  move- 
ment of  the  coasting  trade  in  1884  : — vessels  arrived  1864,  tonnage 
117,566,  m'en  7340  ;  vessels  departed  1941,  tolinage  105,050,  men 
6875.    The  number  of  entrances  from  foreign  ports  was  1904  (486,471 
tons),  of  clearances  1961  (517,415  tons).     The  vessels  on  the  re- 
gistry books  (31st  December  1884)  numbered  677,  with  a  tonnage 
of  251,136  ;  63  vessels  were  built  in  that  year  with  a  tonnage  of 
18,989.    The  taxable  property  in  1885  was— real  estate  89,122,000, 
personal  $9,153,300,  income  $2,833,900,  total  821,109,200.     The 
corporation  affairs  are  managed  by  a  mayor,  elected  by  the  people 
annually,  and  a  city  council  of  eighteen  members.     St  John  city 
and  county  return  three  members  to  the  House  of  Commons  of 
Canada,   and  six   members  to  the   House   of  Assembly  of  New 
Branswick. .    The  climate,   though   healthy,   is  changeable,    the 
pleasantest  season  being  t)ie  autumn.      The  highest  temperature 
observed  since  1860  was  87°  Fahr.,  and  tlio  lowest-  22°  Fahr.,  the 
mean  temperature  for  spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  winter  respect- 
ively being  36°-9,  58°,  45°,  and  20°  6.    The  number  of  schools  is  81, 
Avith  4171   pupils  (average  daily  attendance  2722).     Kesides  the 
libraries  belonging  to  the  city  and  the  mechanics'  institute,  there 
are  large  collections  of  books  open  to  members  of  the  young  men's 
Christian  association  and  the  Church  of  England  institute.     Navi- 
gation on  St  John  river  opens  on  15th  April  and  closes  t)n  26th 
November. 

De  Monts  visited  St  John  in  1604,  but  it  was  not  until  1635  that 
a  regular  settlement  of  the  place  was  made,  when  Charles  de  la 
Tour  founded  a  colony,  which  existed  under  French  rule,  with 
vaiying  fortunes,  until  1758,  when  it  finally  passed  under  I5ritish 
control.  In  1764  the  first  Scottish  settlers  arrived  in  Kew  Bruns- 
wick, and  in  1783  the  Loyalists  landed  at  St  John  and  established 
the  city.  It  was  called  Parr  Town,  in  honour  of  Governor  Parr, 
until  1785,  when  it  was  incorporated  with  Conway  (Carleton) 
under  royal  charter,  as  the  city  of  St  John. 

ST  JOHN,  Chakles  William  George  (1809-1856), 
naturalist  and  sportsman,  was  the  son  of  General  the  Hon. 
Frederick  St  John,  .second  son  of  Frederick,  second  viscount 
Bolingbroke,  and  was  born  3d  December  1809.  He  was 
educated  at  Midhurst  School,  Sussex,  and  about  1828 
obtained  a  clerkship  in  the  treasury,  but,  after  joining 
some  friends  in  various  expeditions  to  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland,  he  found  his  duties  so  irksome  that  he  resigned 
in  1834.  The  same  year  bo  married  a  lady  with  some 
fortune,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  gratify  his  tasto  for 
the  life  of  a  sportsman  and  naturalist.  Ho  ultimately 
settled  in  the  "Laigh"  of  Moray,  "within  easy  distance 
of  mountain  sport,  in  the  midst  of  the  game  and  wild 
animals  of  a  low  country,  and  with  the  coast  indented  by 
bays  of  the  sea,  and  studded  with  freshwater  lakes,  the 
haunt  of  all  the  common  wild  fowl  and  many  of  tlie  rarer 
sorts?"  In  1853  a  paralytic  seizure  permanently  deprived 
him  of  the  use  of  his  limbs,  and  for  the  benefit  of  his 
Jicalth  ho  removed  to  the  south  of  England.  Ue  died  at 
Woooton  near  Southampton  on  22d  July  1856. 

He  wrote  several  books  on  snort,  which  record  the  results  of 
acoura^  observatioiu  on  tho  liabiuo  and  peculiarities  of  th«  birds 


and  will!  animals  of  the  Highlands.  They  are  wiittcn  in  a  pleasalit 
and  graphic  style,  and  illustrated  with  engravings,  mauy  :>(  them 
from  pen  and  ink  sketches  of  his  own,  in  whiih  the  tiaits  and 
features  of  the  auimals  arc  depicted,  though  in  rough  oatline,  \et 
with  almost  the  vivilncss  of  life.  His  works  are  IVild  Sports  uud 
Attiural  History  of  the  Highlands  (1846,  2d  ed.  1848,  3d  ed.  1861); 
T'oiir  in  Sutherland  (1849,  2d  cd.,  with  recollections  by  Captain  H. 
St  John,  1884) ;  Notes  of  Kalural  History  and  Sport  in  Morai/shii  e, 
with  Jlcmoir  by  C.  Innes  (1803,  2d  ed.  1884). 

SAINT-JOHN,  Heney.  See  Bolingbroke. 
ST  JOHN,  James  Augustus  (1801-1875),  trjivellcr 
and  author,  was  born  in  Carmarthenshire,  Wales,  on  24th 
September  1801.  After  attending  a  village  grammar-school 
he  received  private  instruction  from  a  clergyman  in  the 
classics,  and  also  acquired  proficiency  in  French,  Italian, 
Spanish,  Arabic,  and  Persian.  At  the  age  of  seventeen 
he  went  to  London,  where  he  obtained  a  connexion  with 
a  Plymouth  newspaper,  and,  along  with  James  Silk  Buck- 
ingham, became  editor  of  the  Oriental  Herald.  In  1827, 
along  with  D.  L.  Richardson,  he  founded  the  London 
Week/y  Revieio,  which  was  subsequently  purchased  by 
Colburn  and  transformed  into  the  Court  Jonrnal.  About 
1829  he  left  London  for  Normandy,  and  in  1830  publislied 
an  account  of  his  experiences  there  under  the  title  Journal 
of  a  Residence  in  Normandy  (2  vols.).  After  spending 
some  time  in  Paris  and  Switzerland  he  set  out  for  Nubia 
and  Egypt,  visiting  tho  second  cataract  in  a  small  vessel 
He  made  important  discoveries  in  regard  to  volcanic 
agencies  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile,  and  found  traces  of 
volcanic  agency  in  the  Libj-an  Desert.  He  also  explored 
the  antiquities  connected,  with  the  religion  of  ancient 
Egypt.  The  results  of  his  journey  were  published  under 
tlie  titles  Egypt  and  Mohammed  Ali,  or  Travels  in  t/ie 
Valley  of  the  Nile  (2  vols.,  1834),  Egypt  and  Nubia, 
(1844),  and  Isis,  an  Egyptian  Pilgrimage  (2  vols.,  1853). 
He  died  on  22d  September  1875. 

St  John  was  also  the  author  of  Lives  of  Celebrated  Travellert 
(1830),  Anatomy  of  Society  (1831),  History,  Manners,  and  Customs 
of  tlie  Hindus  (1831 ),  Margaret  Eavenscroft,  or  Second  Love  (3  vols., 
1833),  I'he  Hellenes,  or  Manners  and  Customs  of  Ancient  Greece 
(1842),  Sir  Cosmo  Digby,  a  novel  (1844),  Viercs  in  Borneo  (1847), 
There  and  Bach  Again  in  Srarch  of  Beauty  (1853),  J'he  Nemesis  of 
Poiocr  (1S54'.,  Philosophy  at  the  Fool  of  the  Cross  (1854),  The  Preach- 
ing of  Chris„  (1855),  The  King  and  the  Veil,  a  novel  (1856),  Life 
of  Louis  Napoleon  (1857),  History  of  the  Four  Conquests  of  England 
(1862),  }Vei/]hed  in  the  Balance,  a  novel  (1864),  and  Life  of  Sir 
IValler  PuUeigh  (1868).  Ue  also  edited,  with  notes,  various  English 
classics. 

Of  his  four  sons,  all  of  some  literarj'  distinction — Percy  Boling- 
broke, Bayle,  Spenser,  and  Horace  lioscoe — the  second,  Uayie  St 
John  (18221809),  predeceased  him.  '  Ho  was  educated  privately, 
and  began  contributing  to  the  periodicals  when  only  thirteen.  At 
tho  age  of  twenty  he  wrote  a  series  of  papers  for  Fraser  under  the 
title  "  De  Ko  Vehiculari."  To  the  same  magazine  he  contiibuteJ 
a  series  of  essays  on  Jlontaigne,  and,  after  continuing  his  studies 
on  the  same  subject  for  some  time,  he  published  in  1857  Montaigne 
the  Essayist,  a  Biography,  in  4  volumes.  In  1846  he  passed  through 
Franco  and  Italy  on  his  way  to  Egypt,  where,  during  a  residence 
of  two  years,  he  wrote  The  Libyan  Desert  (1849).  On  his  return 
he  settled  for  some  time  in  Paris  and  published  Tico  Years  in  a 
Levantine  Family  {IS,5Q)  a.ni.  Vievjs  in  the  Oasis  of  Siwah.  {ISiO). 
After  a  second  visit  to  the  East  he  published  Village' Life  in  Egypt 
(1852).  From  this  time  ho  continued  until  twelve  months  of  his 
death  to  reside  in  France,  and  as  the  result  of  his  residence  there 
published  Purple  Tints  of  Paris :  Characters  and  Manners  in  the 
New  Empire  (iSM),  The  Lotivre,  or  Biography  of  a  Museum  (1855), 
and  the  Subalpinc  Kingdom,  or  Eii>cricnecs  and  Studies  in  Savoy 
(1856).  He  Was  also  the  author  of  Trarels  of  an  Arab  Merchant 
in  the  Soudan  (1854),  Maretimo,  a  Story  of  Adventure  (1856),  and 
Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of  Sainl'Simon  in  lite  lieign  of  Louia  Xiy. 
(4  vols.,  1857). 

SAINT  JOHN  OF  JERUSALEM,  K.vights  ok  the 
Order  op  (see  Knighthood).  In  the  year  1023  certain 
merchants  of  Ainalfi  obtained  permission  from  the  caliph 
of  Egj'pt  to  establish  a  hospital  in  Jerusalem  for  tho  use  of 
"poor  and  sick  Latin  ])ilgrim3."  The  hospice  prospered  far 
beyond  the  hopes  of  its  founders,  and  grateful  travellers 
spread  its  fame  throughout  Europe  and  cent  offerings  to 


174 


ST     JOHN,     KNIGHTS      Oi^' 


its  funds,  while  others  voluntarily  remained  behind  to 
assist  actively  in  its  pious  purposes.  With  its  increased 
utility  organization  became  necessary,  and  in  this  organiza- 
tion is-to  be  found  the  origin  of  the  Order  of  Saint  John. 
^When  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Godfrey  de  Bouillon  (see 
Crusades),  Lis  Tvounded  soldiers  were  tended  by  Peter 
Gerard,  rector  of  the  Amalfi  hospital  of  St  John,  and  the 
more  wealthy  of  the  crusaders  eagerly  followed  the  example 
of  their  leader  in  endowing  so  useful  and  so  practical  an 
institution.  Many  of  the  Christian  warriors  sought  per- 
mission to  join  the  ranks  of  the  fraternity.  At  the  pro- 
posal of  Gerard  a  regularly  constituted  religious  body  was 
formed ;  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  invested  every  approved 
candidate  ^vith  a  black  robe  bearing  on  the  breast  an  eight- 
pointed  white  cross  and  received  in  return  a  vow  of  poverty, 
obedience,  and  chastity.  In  1 1 13  Pope  Paschal  II.  formally 
sanctioned  the  establishment  of  the  order  by  a  bull.  Five 
years  later  Gerard  was  succeeded  by  Raymond  du  Puy,  and 
under  his  auspices  the  monastic  knights  took  a  fresh  oath 
to  become  militant  defenders  of  the  cause  of  the  Cross. 
During  the  first  century  of  its  existence  the  fraternity  thus 
acquired  a  religious,  republican,  military,  and  aristocratic 
character.  The  rules  introduced  by  Raymond  du  Puy 
became  the  basis  of  all  subsequent  regulations  ;  the  4ea(i- 
ing  members  of  the  hospital  or  master's  assistants  were 
formed  into  an  all-powerful  council,  which  divided  the 
order  into  knights  of  justice,  chaplains,  and  serving 
brethren.  There  was  also  an  affiliation  of  religious  ladies 
(daynes)  and  of  donats  or  honorary  members.  The  income 
of  the  body  corporate  was  derived  from  landed  property 
in  aU  parts  of  Europe.  To  facilitate  the  coUection  of 
rents,  commanderies  (first  called  preceptories)  were  formed. 
These  gradually  acquired  the  character  of  branch  establish- 
ments where  candidates  were  received  and  the  same  obser- 
vances practised  as  in  the  parent  convent.  Raymond  du 
Puy  twice  repulsed  the  advancing  Turks ;  and  Hugh  de 
Payens,  fired  by  the  successes  of  the  Hospitallers,  founded 
the  sister  order  of  the  Temple.  In  1 160  Raymond  du  Puy 
died.  The  rule  of  his  immediate  successors  was  unevent- 
ful ;  Gilbert  d'Ascali  greatly  weakened  the  influence  of 
ths  order  by  joining  (1168)  in  an  ill-fated  expedition  to 
Egypt.  Roger  Desmoulins,  the  eighth  master,  was  killed 
fighting  against  Salad  in  before  Jerusalem,  while  his  suc- 
cessor, Gamier  de  Napoli,  died  of  the  wounds  he  received 
in  the  decisive  battle  of  Tiberias,  which  led  to  the  surrender 
of  Jerusalem  to  the  Moslems  in  1187.  The  seat  of  the 
order  was  now  transferred  to  Margat,  a  town  which  still 
remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Christians,  and  it  become? 
difficult  to  trace  the  frequent  changes  of  the  mastership. 
The  dangerous  enmity  which  arose  between  the  Hospitallers 
and  the  Templars  necessitated  the  energetic  intervention 
of  the  pope.  In  1216  Andrew,  king  of  Hungary,  was 
received  into  the  order.  The  brief  occupations  of  Jeru- 
salem by  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  (1228)  and  by  Richard 
of  Cornwall  (1234)  had  little  appreciable  effect  on  the 
waning  fortunes  of  the  Hospitallers.  A  savage  horde  from 
the  borders  of  the  Caspian  advanced  agaib»c  the  Christians, 
and  in  the  final  struggle  with  the  Chorasmians  the  masters 
of  both  orders — united  before  the  common  enemy — fell 
with  nearly  the  whole  of  their  followers  (1244).  William 
de  Chateauneuf,  elected  to  the  mastership  by  the  few  sur- 
vivors, repaired  to  Acre  only  to  take  part  in  the  fruitless 
crusade  of  Louis  of  France.  The  truce  between  the  rival 
orders  was  doomed  to  be  of  short  duration.  In  1259  their 
armies  met  in  a  general  eagagement.  and  victory  rested 
with  the  Hospitallers.  A  brief  period  of  success  in-1281 
was  powerless  to  avert  the  fall  of  Margat,  and  in  1289 
Acre  alone  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Christians.  John 
de  Villiers,  a  man  of  singular  ability,  became  at  this  criti- 
cal juncture  master  of  the  order.     An  overwhelming  force 


was  sent  from  Egypt  to  besiege  Acre,  which  only  fell  after 
a  desperate  resistance.  Under  cover  of  the  arrows  of  their 
archers  the  knights  sailed  for  Cyprus  (1291).  Repeated 
acts  of  prowess  by  sea  still  served  to  remind  the  Moslem 
corsairs  of  the  survival  of  their  implacable  foes.  De 
Villiers  died  three  years  later  and  was  succeeded  by  Odon 
de  Pins,  who  tried  ineflectually  to  restore  the  purely  con- 
ventual character  of  the  order.  William  de  Villaret 
(elected  in  1300)  shared  the  dangers  of  an  expedition  to 
Palestine  and  prepared  for  the  conquest  of  Rhodes,  which 
was  effected  in  1310  by  his  brother  and  successor.  The 
revenues  of  the  Hospitallers  were  now  augmented  from 
the  confiscated  estates  of  their  old  rivals  the  Templars. 
Fulk  de  Villaret  was  attacked  at  Rhodes  by  Osman,  ruler 
of  Bithynia,  but  with  the  assistance  of  Amadeus  of  Savoy 
he  defeated  the  invaders.  A  serious  difference  which  arose 
between  De  Villaret  and  his  subordinate  knights  enabled 
Pope  John  XXII.  to  appoint  his  nominee  John  de  Villa- 
nova  (1319).  It  was  at  this  period  that  the  order  was 
divided  into  the  seven  langves  of  France,  Provence,  Au- 
vergne,  Italy,  Germany,  England,  and  Aragon.  In  1346 
De  Gozon  became  grand-master.  His  administration  and 
that  of  his  immediate  successors  are  only  remarkable  for 
a  perpetual  struggle  for  supremacy  with  the  papal  court. 
In  1365  Raymond  Beranger  captured  Alexandria  in  con- 
cert with  the  king  of  Cyprus,  but  the  victors  contented 
themselves  with  burning  the  city.  Philibert  de  Naillac 
had  no  sooner  been  elected  grand-master  than  he  was  sum- 
moned to  join  the  European  crusade  against  the  sultan 
Bajazet,  and  took  part  in  the  disastrous  battle  of  Nicopolis. 
The  Greek  emperor  unfortunately  invoked  the  aid  of  Timur, 
who  overthrew  Bajazet,  but  followed  up  his  success  by  an 
attack  on  Smyrna,  the  defence  of  which  had  been  entrusted 
to  the  knights.  Smyrna  Avas  taken  and  its  brave  garrison 
put  to  the  sword.  In  1440  and  1444  De  Lastic  defeated 
two  expeditions  sent  against  him  from  Egypt.  Nine  years 
later  Constantinople  fell  at  last  into  the  hands  of  the 
Turks.  It  was  evident  to  the  knights  that  an  attack  on 
, their  sanctuary  would  follow  the  triumph  of  Islam,  but  it 
was  not  till  1480  that  the  long-dreaded  descent  on  Rhodes 
took  place.  Fortunately  for  the  order,  Peter  d'Aubusson 
was  grand-master,  and  the  skilfully  planned  attack  of  the 
three  renegades  was  valorously  repulsed.  The  heroic 
D'Aubusson  recovered  from  his  wounds,  restored  the 
s'.attered  fortifications,  and  survived  till  1503.  Nearly 
twenty  years  passed  away  before  the  sultan  Solyman  de- 
termined to  crush  the  knights,  who  had  just  elected  L'lsla 
d'Adam  as  their  chief.  After  a  glorio'is  resistance,  D'Adam 
capitulated  and  withdrew  with  all  the  honours  of  war  to 
Candia  (Crete).  Charles  V.,  when  the  news  of  the  disaster 
reached  him,  exclaimed,  "Nothing  in  the  world  has  been 
so  well  lost  as  Rhodes,"  and  fiva  years  later  (1530),  with 
the  approval  of  the  pope,  ceded  the  island  of  Malta  and 
the  fortress  of  Tripoli  in  Africa  to  the  homeless  knights. 
Peter  Dupont  succeeded  D'Adam  in  1534,  and  in  the 
following  year  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  emperor's 
famous  expedition  against  Tunis.  "The  position  in  'Tripoli 
was  from  the  first  precarious,  and  it  was  surrendered  to 
the  corsair  Dragut  in  1551.  In  1557  John  La  Valette 
was  chosen  grand-master.  The  construction  of  fresh  forti- 
fications was  hastened  and  every  precaution  taken  against 
a  surprise.  On  the  18th  May  1565  the  Turkish  fleet 
under  the  redoubtable  Dragut  appeared  in  sight  and  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  sieges  in  history  began.  It  was 
finally  raised  on  the  Sth  September  after  the  death  of 
Dragut  and  25,000  of  his  followers.  The  city  of  Valetta 
afterwards  rose  on  the  scene  of  this  desperate  struggle. 
La  Valetts  died  in  1568,  and  no  events  of  importance 
mark  the  grand-mastershiiss  of  De  Monte  (1568),  De  la 
Cassiire  (1572),  and  Verdala  (1581).     During  thcj-  terms 


S  A  I  — S  A  1 


175 


of  office  the  cathedral,  the  auhtrges,  the  hospital,  and 
many  remarkable  edifices  were  built.  Another  city  gradu- 
ally arose  on  the  opposite  shores  of  the  grand  harbour,  and 
the  once  barren  island  became  almost  imperceptibly  the 
site  of  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  and  most  flourishing 
commercial  communities  ia  the  Mediterranean.  Verdala 
was  succeeded  by  Martin  Garces  (1595),  but  it  was  reserved 
for  Alof  de  Vignacourt  to  revive  for  a  time  the  military 
reputation  of  the  order.  Vasconcellos,  De  Paula,  and 
Lascaris  were  all  aged  men  when,  one  after  another,  they 
were  called  to  the  supreme  power,  and  their  election  (with 
a  view  to  secure  frequent  vacancies)  contributed  to  weaken 
the  vitalitj'  of  the  fraternity.  Lascaris  lived  till  the  age 
of  ninety-seven,  built  the  fortifications  of  Floriana,  en- 
dowed Valetta  with  a  public  library,  and  resisted  the  grow- 
ing encroachments  of  the  Jesuits.  Martin  de  Kedin  and 
Raphael  Cottoner  ruled  each  for  three  years.  Nicholas 
Cottoner  was  electel  in  1663,  and  the  knights  of  St  John 
once  again  distinguished  themselves  in  the  siege  of  Candia. 
The  losses  which  the  order  sustained  in  the  repulse  of  the 
allies  before  Negropont  (1689)  was  the  indirect  cause  of 
the  death  of  Caraffa,  who  was  succeeded  by  Adrian  de 
Vignacourt  (1690),  Raymond  PereUos  (1697),  Zondodari 
n720),  De  A'ilhena  (1722),  Despuig  (1736),  and  Pinto 
(1741).  Emmanuel  Pinto  was  a  man  of  no  mean  ability 
and  of  considerable  force  of  character.  He  steadily  resisted 
all  papal  eccroachments  on  his  authority,  expelled  the 
Jesuits  from  Malta,  and  declined  to  hold  a  chapter-general. 
After  the  brief  rule  of  Francis  Ximines,  Emmanuel  de 
Rohan  became  grand-master  (1775).  He  assembled  a 
chapter-general,  erected  the  Anglo-Bavarian  langite,  and 
Bent  his  galleys  to  relieve  the  sufferers  from  the  great  earth- 
quake in  Sicily.  The  order  never  perhaps  seemed  to  all 
outward  appearances  more  prosperous  than  when  the  storm 
of  the  French  Revolution  broke  suddenly  upon  it.  In  1792 
the  Directory  decreed  the  abolition  of  the  order  in  France 
and  the  forfeiture  of  its  possessions.  Five  years  afterwards 
De  Rohan  died.  He  had  taken  no  pains  to  conceal  his 
sympathy  for  the  losing  cause  in  France  and  his  court  had 
become  an  asylum  and  home  for  many  French  refugees. 
His  successor  Ferdinand  Hompssch  was  perhaps  the  weakest 
m%n  ever  elected  to  fill  a  responsible  position  in  critical 
times.  On  the  12th  April  1798  the  French  Government 
resolved  on  the  forcible  seizure  of  Malta.  Warnings  were 
sent  to  the  grand-master  in  vain.  Within  two  months 
from  that  date  the  island  was  in  the  hands  of  Bonaparte, 
and  Horapesch  was  permitted  to  retire  to  Trieste  with 
some  of  the  most  cherished  relics  of  the  order. 

Subsequent  to  tlie  departure  of  Hompesch  a  number  of  the  lcnif;ht3 
who  had  takca  refuge  at  St  Potei'sburg  elected  tlie  emperor  Faul 
grand-master.  Notwithstanding  the  patent  illegality  of  the  pro- 
ceeding the  proffered  honour  was  eagerly  accepted  and  duly  an- 
nounced to  all  the  courts  of  Europe  (October  1798).  Hompesch  was 
induced  to  resign  in  the  following  year.  On  the  death  of  Paul  au 
arrangement  was  arrived  at  which  vested  tho  actual  nomination  iu 
the  pope.  From  1805  to  1S79  only  lieutcnanta  of  tho  ord^T  were 
appointed,  who  resided  first  at  Catania,  then  at  Ferrara,  and  finally 
at  Home.  In  1879  Leo  XIII.  made  Giovanni  Battista  Ceschi  grand- 
master, and  ho  actually  rules  over  portions  of  the  Italian  and  Gorman 
langucs  and  some  other  scattered  groups  of  tho  ancient  fraternity. 

Two  other  associations  also  trace  their  origin  from  the  same  parent 
Ktock  —  the  Brandenburg  branch  and  tho  English  lanrjiie.  Tho 
former  can  claim  an  unbroken  existence  since  its  establishment  in 
1160.  In  1853  the  king  of  Prussia  (in  whom  tho  right  of  nomina- 
tion had  been  vested  since  1812)  restored  tho  original  bailiwick  of 
Brandenburg  and  tho  assembled  commanders  elected  Prince  Charles 
of  Prussia  Hcrm  Mcisier,  who  notified  his  election  to  the  lieutenant 
of  the  grand-master  at  Rome.  The  "  Johanniter  "  did  good  scrvico 
in  the  German  campaigns  of  1868  and  1870.  As  regards  the  English 
laiurue,  1  Eli/abcth  c.  24  annexed  to  the  crown  all  the  property  of 
the  order  in  England.  After  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  tho 
French  knights  met  once  more  in  cliapter-gcneial  and  elected  a 
permanent  capitular  commission,  which  was  officially  reeonniZ'Ml 
by  both  Louis  XVIII.  and  tho  pope.  After  ccitulu  negotiations, 
the  three  French  lang\u>,  acting  in  accord  with  those  of  Aragon 


and  Castile,  agreed  to  the  resuscitation  of  the  dormant  langue  of 
England  (1827-1831),  and  Sir  Robert  Peat  was  appointed  lord  prior, 
taking  the  customary  oath  de  fideli  adminislratione  in  the  Court 
of  King's  Bench.  Duiing  t)ie  past  half  century  the  good  work  done 
by  the  modem  knights— now  (18S6)  once  more  located  in  St  John's 
Gate,  Clerkenwell— can  honourably  compare  with  the  memorable 
deeds  of  their  predecessors.  The  establishment  of  the  hospice  at 
Jerusalem  is  duo  to  the  energy  and  zeal  of  Sir  Edmund  Lechmere, 
who  has  been  mainly  instrumental  in  collecting  at  St  John's  Gate 
the  unrivalled  historical  literature  of  which  the  order  can  boast 

There  are  few  subjects  cf  study  which  present  so  rich  and  so  varied  materials 
as  the  annals  of  the  knights  of  St  John.  The  archives  still  preserved  in  Malta 
are  almost  unique  in  their  value  and  completeness,' and  each  grand-master 
patronized  and  eiicouraged  the  industrious  historiographers  who  sought  to 
perpetuate  the  fame  of  the  order  to  which  they  belonged.  The  work  of  Oitcomo 
Bosio  is  an  elaborate  end  generally  trustworthy  record  of  events  from  tho  time 
of  Gerard  down  to  the  year  1571.  Bartolomco  del  Pozzo  treats  with  equal  caro 
the  period  between  1571  and  lC3u.  Editions  of  these  volumes  were  published 
in  Rome,  Naples,  Verona,  and  Venic?.  The  Abbe  Vertot  concludes  his  ehiborata 
history  with  the  vear  1726.  His  bonk  enjoyed  a  considerable  popularity,  was 
published  in  English  witti  the  original  plates  in  1728,  but  can  hardly  claim  the 
confidence  to  which  Bosio  and  De!  Puz-o  arc  both  entitled.  From  the  16th 
century  down  to  the  appearance  of  the  famous  Codiu  of  De  Kohan  (1782)  we 
have  a  series  of  publications  on  the  subject  of  the  statutes  of  the  order.  A 
fresh  compilation  seems  generally  to  have  followed  each  assembly  of  the  chapter- 
general.  Before  the  time  of  L'c  Rolian  the  best-known  edition  was  that  cf 
Borgofante  (16T6),  but  Bosio  produced  a  translation  from  the  Latin  in  1689  wheu 
residing  at  Rome  as  agent  of  the  gracd-master,  and  another  was  printed  at  the 
press  of  the  order  in  Malta  in  1718.  Tlie  Mtmorit  de'  Gran  Mackri  by  Bodoni 
(Parma,  17S0)  may  also  be  consulted  w.th  advantage.  For  information  con- 
cerning the  archaeology  of  the  order  and  the  antiquities  of  Malta  itself  reference 
should  be  made  to  At)ela  and  Ciantar's  Malta  lUustruta,  dedicated  to  Em. 
Pinto  in  1772  ;  to  Raphael  Caruana's  CoUczione  di  monvmcnti  e  lapidi  sepolcToli 
di  miUti  Gcrosolimitanl  ndte  chiesa  di  Snn  G iovanni  (Malta,  18.^8-40);  toDe  Bols- 
gelin's  Malta  (3  vols.)  ,  and  to  Lis  Momtiruns  des  Grands  Maitrcs,  by  Villeneuvc- 
Bargemont  (Paris,  1829).  The  last-named  writer  has,  hov/ever,  drawn  largely 
on  his  own  imagination  for  the  earlier  part  of  the  information  he  professes  to 
give.  In  English  the  most  noteworthy  treatises  concerning  the  knights  are 
John  Taaffes  History  of  ths  Order  of  Malta,  (London,  1852,  4  vols.)aud  General 
Porter's  History  of  the  Knights  of  Malta  of  th'.  Order  of  St  Joft.i  of  Jerusalem 
(London,  1S83).  The  Rev.  W.  R.  Bedford  has  recently  published  a  valuable 
account  of  the  great  hospital  at  Valetta-  A  useful  guide  to  the  contents  of 
the  Malta  Record  Office  is  to  be  found  in  M.  CelaviUe  Le  RouJx's  Archives 
de  I'Ordra  dc  SI  Jean,  de  Jerusalem  (Paris,  1833).  (A.  M.  B.) 

ST  JOHN'S,  the  capital  cf  Newfoundland,  is  situated 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  island,  60  miles  north  of  Cape 
Eace,  in  47°  33'  33"  N.  lat.  and  52°  45'  10"  W.  long,  (see 
vol.  xvii.,  plate  v.).  It  is  10°  52'  cast  of  Halifax,  and 
stands  on  what  is  nearly  the  most  eastern  point  of  America, 
— Cape  Spear,  5  miles  south  of  St.  John's,  alone  projecting 
a  little  farther  towards  the  Old  World.  It  is  1000  miles 
nearer  than  New  York  to  England,  and  but  1640  from  the 
coast  of  Ireland.  The  approach  to  the  harbour  of  St  John's 
presents  one  of  the  most  picturesque  views  along  the  coast 
of  America.  In  a  lofty  iron-bound  coast  a  narrow  open- 
ing occurs  in  tho  rocky  wall,  guarded  on  one  side"  by 
Signal  Hill  (520  feet)  and  on  the  other  by  South  Side 
Hill  (620  feet),  with  Fort  Amherst  lighthouse  on  a  rocky 
promontory  at  its  base.  The  entrance  of  the  Narrows  is 
about  1400  feet  in  width,  and  at  the  narrowest  point, 
between  Pancake  and  Chain  Rocks,  the  channel  is  not 
more  than  600  feet  wide.  The  Narrows  are  half  a  mile  in 
length,  and  at  their  termination  tho  harbour  trends  suddenly 
to  the  west,  thus  completely  shutting  out  the  swell  froTi 
tho  ocean.  Vessels  of  the  largest  tonnage  can  enter  at  all 
periods  of  the  tide.  The  harbour  is  a  mile  in  length  and 
nearly  halt  a  mile  in  width.  At  its  head  is  a  dry  dock, 
recently  completed  at  a  cost  of  $550,000 ;  it  is  600  feet 
in  length,  83  in  breadth,  and  26  in  depth,  capable  of 
admitting  the  largest  steamers  afloat.  The  city  is  built 
on  sloping  ground  on  tho  northern  side  of  the  harbour, 
on  tho  southern  side  of  which  the  hills  rise  so  abruptly 
from  the  water  that  there  is  only  room  for  a  range  of 
warehouses  and  oil -factories.  Three  principal  streets, 
winding  and  irregular,  follow  the  sinuosities  of  the  harbour 
and  of  one  another  the  whole  length  of  the  city,  and  thoso 
ore  intersected  by  a  number  of  cross-streets.  Water  Street, 
the  principal  business  locality,  presents  a  very  substantial, 
though  not  handsomo,  appearance,  the  houses  being  of 
stono  or  brick.  Shops,  stores,  and  cor.nling-housos  occupy 
tho  ground  floor,  while  many  of  tho  merchants  and  shop- 
keepers live  in  tho  upper  stories.  Fish-stores,  warehouses, 
and  wharves  project  from  behind  on  tuo  side  next  the 
harbour.     Tho  city,  three-fourths  of  whir.h  are   still  of 


176 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


wood,  is  rapidly  extending  in  several  directions,  and  in 
recent  years  many  dwelling-Iiouses  of  an  improved  descrip- 
tion have  been  ereclfed.  There  is  an  abundant  supply  of 
excellent  vpater,  brought  in  pipes  from  a  lake  5  miles  off. 
Epidemics  are  rare,  and  the  city  is  very  healthy.  Of  the 
public  buildings  the  most  important  are  Government  House, 
a  substantial  and  spacious  building  erected  in  1828  by  the 
Imperial  Government;  the  colonial"  building  (1847),  con- 
taining the  chambers  of  the  legislature  and  Government 
offices;  the  athenceum  (1877),  containing  a  public  hall, 
library,  reading-room,  savings  bank,  museum,  <fec.  The 
foundation  of  a  new  post-office  was  laid  in  the  same  year. 
The  churches  are — the  Church  of  England  and  Roman 
Catholic  cathedrals,  St  Thomas's  and  St  ^Mary's  (Church 
cf  England),  St  Patrick's,  three  Methodist  churches,  St 
Andrew's  Presbyterian  church,  and  the  Congregational 
church.  The  manufacture  of  seal  and  cod  oils  has  long 
teen  carried  on  upon  an  extensive  scale.  Of  late  years 
other  manufactures  have  been  introduced,  and  have  made 
considerable  progress.  There  are  three  iron-foundries, 
two  large  machine-shops,  two  boot  and  shoe  factories, 
a,  nail -factory,  three  furniture -factories,  two  tobacco- 
factories,  soap-works,  two  tanneries,  and  a  large  and 
-weU-equipped  factory  for  the  manufacture  of  cables,  ropes, 
twines,  nets,  seines,  &c.  The  export  trade  in  fish  of 
various  kinds,  fish  oils,  seal  oil,  and  seal  skins  is  very 
large ;  the  greater  part  of  all  the  imports  into  Newfound- 
land also  arrives  at  St  John's.  The  city  is  not  yet  (1886) 
incorporated,  the  Colonial  Board  of  Works  having  charge 
of  all  civil  affairs.  The  population,  which  in  1780  was 
1605,  had  in  1801  increased  to  3420,  in  1812  to  7075, 
in  1835  to  15,000,  and  in  1874  to  23,890,  and  in  1884 
it  was  28,610  (Roman  Catholics,  17,693;  Episcopalians, 
5741;  Methodists,  3715;  Presbyterians,  973;  Congrega- 
tionalists,  465 ;  other  denominations,  23).  The  census 
last  mentioned  also  shows  the  population  of  the  whole 
island  and  Labrador  to  be  197,589,  being  an  increase  of 
36,209  since  1874,  or  at  the  rate  of  about  22  per  cent. 
in  ten  years.  The  population  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
Xabrador,  which  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Newfound- 
land, was  4211,-1347  being  Eskimo. 

ST  JOHNSBURY,  a  township  of  the  United  States, 
capital  of  'Caledonia  county,  Vermont,  on  the  Fassumpsic 
river  (a  tributary  of  the  river  Connecticut),  about  50 
miles  south  of  the  Canadian  frontier,  and  on  the  railway 
between  Boston  (205  mOes)  and  Quebec.  St  Johnsbury  is 
the  seat  of  perhaps  the  largest  scale-factory  in  the  world, 
•which  employs  about  600  hands  and  works  up  4000  tons 
of  iron  per  annum.  The  township  contains  an  athenjeum, 
public  library  (10,000  vols.),  and  art  gallery.  The  popu- 
lation has  increased  from  2758  in  1850  to  4665  in  1870 
and  5800  in  1880.  The  three  villages  are  distinguished 
as  St  Johnsbury  (3360  in  1880),  St  Johnsbury  Centre, 
and  St  Johnsbury  East.  Founded  in  1786,  the  township 
received  its  name  in  honour  of  St  John  de  Crfevecoeur, 
French  consul  at  New  York,  and  a  benefactor  of  Vermont. 
ST  JOSEPH,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  capital  of 
Buchanan  county,  Missouri,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Missouii,  260  miles  west  by  north  of  St  Louis.  It  is  an 
important  railway  junction,  possessing  since  1873  a 
great  road  and  •  railway  bridge  over  the  river  constructed 
of  iron ;  in  the  extent  of  its  wholesale  business  it  ranks 
as  the  second  city  in  the  State ;  and  among  its  manufac- 
turing establishments  are  flour-mills,  starch-works,  boot  and 
shoe  factories,  pork -packing  establishments,  waggon -fac- 
tories, a  distillery,  &c.  Besides  a  city-hall  and  market-house, 
it  contains  a  court-house  (1875),  an  opera-house,  a  State 
lunatic  asylum  (1874),  an  agricultural  and  mechanical  ex- 
position association,  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  and  fiye 
puhlic  libraries.    The  population  was  8932  in  1860,  19,565 


(1512  coloured)  in  1870,  and  32.431  (3227  coloured)  in 
1880. 

Founded  in  1843  by  Joseph  RobiJoax,  n  French  Roman  Catholic, 
who  hall^settled  in  the  district  sonic  years  previously  as  a  trader, 
St  Joseph  in  1846  was  made  the  county  seat,  and  before  1857, 
when  it  received  its  first  city  charter,  became  well  known  as  the 
great  point  of  departure  for  emijjrants  bound  for  California  and 
the  West.  During  the  Civil  War,  when  it  was  fortified  by  the 
Federals,  its  natural  development  was  considerably  checked,  but 
this  revived  as  soon  as  the  struggle  was  over. 

^  SAINT-JUST,  Antoine  (1767-1794),'  French  revolu- 
tionary leader,  was  born  at  Decize  in  the  Nivernais  on  25th 
August  1767.  He  was  educated  at  Soissons,  and  showed 
his  character  at  school  as  ringleader  of  a  plot  to  set 
the  school  buildings  on  fire.  Saint-Just  was  caught  red- 
handed  in  the  act  of  incendiarism,  and,  refusing  to  exhibit 
any  tokens  of  submission,  was  ignominiously  expelled. 
His  education,  however,  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
neglected ;  and  the  reports  and  speeches  of  his  short  and 
stormy  political  career  exhibit  not  a  little  scholarship, 
and  in  particular  considerable  acquaintance  with  ancient 
history.  Intoxicated  with  republican  ideas,  Saint-Just 
threw  himself  with  enthusiasm  into  the  political  troubles  of 
his  time,  had  himself  appointed  an  officer  in  the  National 
Guard,  and  by  fraud — he  being  yet  under  age — admitted 
as  a  member  of  the  electoral  assembly  of  his  district. 
Ambitious  of  fame,  he  in  1789  published  twenty  cantos  of 
licentious  verses  under  the  title  of  Organt,  and  this  work 
was  afterwards  reissued  under  the  title  of  My  Pastimes , 
or  The  Neio  Organt.  From  that  year  onwards,  however, 
the  open  turbulence  of  his  youth  gave  place  to  a  rigor- 
ously stoical  demeanour,  which,  united  to  a  policy  tyran-i 
nical,  uncompromisingly  thorough,  and  pitilessly  severe, 
became  the  marked  and  startling  characteristic  of  his  life.' 
He  now  entered  into  correspondence  with  Robespierraj,' 
who  thenceforward  became  his  hero  and  ideal.  Robes- 
pierre invited  him  to  Paris,  felt  flattered  by  his  worship,' 
saw  that  he  suited  his  purpose,  and  in  a  short  time  the 
two  became  hand  and  glove.  Thus  supported,  Saint- 
Just  became  deputy  of  the  department  of  Aisne  to  the 
national  convention,  where  he  made  his  first  speech-r- 
gloomy,  fanatical,  remorseless  in  tone — on  19th  November 
1792.  He  had  but  twenty  months  to  live;  but  into  these 
he  seemed  ■  to  crowd  the  life  of  twenty  years.  In  the 
convention,  in  the  Jacobin  Club,  and  among  the  popu- 
lace his  relations  with  Robespierre  became  known,  and 
he  was  dubbed  the  "St  John  of  the  Messiah  of  the 
People."  Hardly  a  week  passed  without  the  attention  of 
France  being  arrested  by  his  attitude  or  his  utterances. 
Both  were  anxiously  watched,  as  the  unfailing  indication 
of  the  trend  of  Robespierre's  designs.  His  appointment 
as  a  member  of  the  committee  of  public  safety  now 
placed  him  at  the  very  height  and  centre  of  the  political 
fever-heat.  In  the  name  of  this  committee  he  was 
charged  with  the  drawing  up  of  reports  to  the  convention 
upon  the  absorbing  themes  of  the  overthrow  of  the  party 
of  the  Gironde,  thereafter,  when  even  the  "  Mountain " 
seemed  to  have  fallen  in  pieces,  of  the  H^bertists,  and 
finaUy,  as  the  tragic  sequel  to  the  rupture  between  Robes- 
pierre and  Danton,  of  that  denunciation  of  the  latter 
"vhich  consigned  him  and  his  followers  to  the  guillotine. 
What  were  then  called  reports  were  far  less  statements  of 
fact  than  appeals  to  the  passions ;  in  Saint-Just's  hands 
they  furnished  the  occasion  for  a  display  of  fanatical  dar- 
ing, of  gloomy  eloquence,  and  of  undoubted  genius ;  and 
— with  the  shadow  of  Robespierre  behind  them — they 
served  their  turn.  Once  a  flash  of  cruel  humour  lighted 
up  his  angry  retorts,  and  it  became  memorable.  Des- 
inoulins,  in  jest  and  mockery,  said  of  Saini-Just — the 
youth  with  the  beautiful  cast  of  countenance  and  the  long 
fair  locks — "  He  carries  his  head  like  a  Holy  Sacrament." 


p 


VOL.  XXL 


PLATE  IV. 


k 


d 


S  A  I  —  S  A  I 


177 


*'And  I,"  savagely  replied  Saint-Just,  "will  make  him 
carry  his  like  a  Saint-Denis."     The  threat  was  not  vain  : 
Desnioulins  accompanied  Danton  to  the  scaffold.      The 
same  ferocious  inflexibility  animated  Saint-Just  with  refer- 
ence to  the  external  policy  of  France.     He  proposed  that 
the  national  convention   should   itself,   through   its  com- 
mittees, direct  all  military  movements.     This  was  agreed 
to,  and  Saint-Just  was  despatched  to  Strasburg,  in  com- 
pany with  Lebas,  to  superintend  operations.     It  was  sus- 
pected that  the  enemy  without  was  being  aided  by  treason 
■within.     Saint-Just's  remedy  was  direct  and  terrible  :  he 
followed  his  experience  in  Paris,  "organized  the  Terror," 
and  soon  the  heads  of  all  suspects  were  falling  under  the 
guillotine.     The  conspiracy  was  defeated,  and  the  armies  of 
the  Rhine  and  the  Moselle  having  been  inspirited  by  suc- 
cess— Saiut-Just  himself  taking  a  fearless  jjart  in  the  actual 
fighting — and  having  effected  a  junction,  the  frontier  was 
delivered.    Later,  with  the  army  of  the  North,  he  wrought 
similar  magical  changes  in  the  aspect  of  affairs.     Before 
the  generals  he  placed  the  terrible  dilemma  of  victory  over 
the  enemies  of  France  or  trial  by  the  dreaded  revolution- 
ary tribunal ;  and  before  the  eyes  of  the  army  itself  he 
organized  a  force  which  was  specially  charged  with  the 
slaughter  of  those  who  should  seek  refuge  from  the  enemy 
by  flight.     Success  again  crowned  his  terrible  efforts,  and 
Belgium  was  gained   for  France.     Meanwhile  affairs  in 
Paris  looked  gloomier  than  ever,  and  Robespierre  recalled 
Saint-Just  to  the  capital.     As  the  storm  was  gathering 
Saint-Just  gave  it  direction  by  mooting  the  dictatorship 
of  his  master  as  the  only  remedy  for  the  convulsions  of 
society.     At  last,  at  the  famous  sitting  of  the  9th  Ther- 
midor,  he  ventured  to  present  as  the  report  of  the  com- 
mittees of  general  security  and  public  safety  a  document 
expressing  his  own  views,  a  sight  of  which,  however,  had 
been  refused  to  the  other  members  of  committee  on  the 
previous  evening.     Then  the  storm  broke.     He  was  vehe- 
mently interrupted,  and  the  sitting  ended  with  an  order  for 
Robespierre's  arrest  (see  Robespiekee).     On  the  follow- 
ing day,  28th  July  1794,  twenty-two  men,  nearly  all  young, 
were  guillotined.     Robespierre  was  one,  aged  thirty-six ; 
Saint-Just  another,  aged  twenty-six. 

In  1800  there  was  publisliecl  at  Strasburg  a  work  from  the  pen 
•of  Saint-Just  entitled  Fragments  on  RcpiMican  InsliltUions.  It  is  a 
crude  mixture  of  his  opinions  on  social  and  political  topics. 

ST  KILDA,  the  largest  islet  of  a  small  group  of  the 
Outer  Hebrides,  Scotland,  40  miles  west  of  North  Uist,  in 
57°  48'  35"  N.  lat.  and  8°  35'  30"  W.  long.  It  measures 
3  miles  from  east  to  west  and  2  from  north  to  south,  and 
has  an  area  of  3000  to  4000  acres.  Except  at  the  landing- 
plaee  on  the  south-east,  the  cliffs  rise  sheer  out  of  deep 
water,  and  on  the  north-east  side  the  highest  eminence 
in  the  island,  Conagher  or  Conna-Ghair,  forms  a  gigantic 
precipice,  1220  feet  high  from  sea  to  summit.  According 
to  Professor  Judd,  St  Kilda  is  probably  the  core  of  a 
Tertiary  volcano ;  but,  besides  volcanic  rocks,  it  is  said  to 
contain  hills  of  sandstone  in  which  the  s'ratification  is 
very  distinct.'  While  the  general  relief  is  peculiarly  bold 
and  picturesque,  a  certain  softness  of  scenery  is  produced 
by  the  richness  of  the  verdure.  The  inhabitants  are  an 
industrious  Gaelic-speaking  community  (110  in  1851,  and 
77  in  1881).  They  cultivate  about  40  acres  of  land 
(potatoes,  oats,  barley),  keep  about  1000  sliocp  and  50 
West  Highland  cow.s,  and  catch  puflins  and  other  sea-fowl. 
Coarse  tweeds  and  blanketing  .are  manufactured  for  home 
use.  The  houses  are  collected  in  a  little  village  at  the 
head  of  the  East  Bay,  which  contains  a  Free  church,  a 
manse,  and  th6  factor's  house.  The  island  is  practically 
inaccessible  for  eight  months  of  the  year. 

'  No  tnined  geologist  seems  to  h.ivc  visited  the  island  subsequent 
to  Maccvilloch. 

21—8 


St  Kilda,  or,  as  it  wa.i  originally  c.-iUcd,  Ilirt  (Iliith,  Ilvrtlia), 
seems  to  have  been  in  the  possession  of  the  Slaclrods  for  400  or 
even  500  years.  In  1779  it  changed  hands  along  with  Harris,  and 
again  in  1804  and  in  1S71  (to  Haclcod  of  llaclcod).  The  feudal 
su)ierior  is  Lord  Dunmore,  who  receives  one  shilling  of  feu-duty. 
From  1734  to  1742  Lady  Grange  was  confined  on  St  Kilda  by  com- 
mand of  her  high-handed  husband  (see  Proceed.  Soc.  Scot.  AnUq.,  x. 
and  xi.).  David  Slallet  makes  the  island  the  scene  of  his  Amyidor 
and  Theodore,  or  Ike  IJcroiit.  See  works  on  St  Kilda  by  Rev.  K. 
iMacanlay  (1764),  L.  JlacLcnu  (1838),  J.  Sauds  (1876  aud  1877), 
and  George  Seton  (1878). 

ST  KILDA,  a  watering-place  in  Victoria,  Australia,  on 
the  east  shore  of  Hobson's  Bay,  31  miles  south  of  Mel- 
bourne, with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  railway.  The 
borough  had  an  area  of  1886  acres  and  a  population  of 
11,662  in  1881.  The  sea-beach  is  bordered  by  an  esplan- 
ade ;  there  is  a  large  public  park ;  and  portions  of  the  sea 
have  been  fenced-in  to  protect  bathers  from  sharks.  A 
town-hall,  an  assembly  hall,  a  library,  and  the  large  Episco- 
pal church  of  All  Saints  are  among  the  public  buildings. 
ST  KITTS.  See  St  CHnisToPHER. 
SAINT-LAMBERT,  Jean  Francois  de  (1716-1S03), 
French  poet,  was  born  at  Nancy  in  1716,  and  died  at 
Paris  in  1803.  During  great  part  of  his  long  life  he  held 
various  emploj-ments  at  the  court  of  Stanislaus  of  Poknd, 
when  that  prince  was  established  in  Lorraine.  Ho  also 
served  in  the  French  arm}',  and  then  betook  himself  to 
literature,  producing  among  other  things  a  volume  of  de- 
scriptive verse,  Les  Saisons  (wildly  overpraised  at  the  time, 
and  now  never  read),  many  articles  for  the  Encyclophlk, 
and  some  miscellaneous  works  in  verse  and  prose.  Saint- 
Lambert's  chief  fame,  however,  comes  from  the  strange 
fate  which  made  him  the  successful  rival  in  love  of  tha 
two  most  famous  men  of  letters  in  France,  not  to  say  in 
Europe,  during  the  18th  century.  The  infatuation  of  the 
marquise  du  Chatelet  for  him  and  its  fatal  termination  aru 
known  to  all  readers  of  the  life  of  Voltaire.  His  subse- 
quent courtship  of  Madame  d'Houdetot,  Rousseau's  Sophie, 
though  hardly  less  disastrous  to  his  rival,  was  less  dis- 
astrous to  the  lady,  and  continued  for  the  whole  lives  of 
himself  and  his  mistress.  They  survived  till  the  present 
century  as  a  kind  of  irregular  Baucis  and  Philemon,  illus- 
trating the  manners  of  the  vanished  regime,  which  had 
been  not  unjustly  celebrated,  and  vindicating  its  constancy 
from  a  very  general  opinion. 

ST  LAWRENCE.     The  rl\er  St  Lawrence  =  in  North  Plato 
America,  taken  in  connexion  with  the  great  lakes,  offers  to  '^ 
trading  vessels   the  most -magnificent  system   of    inland 
navigation  in  the  world.     Its  total  length  from  the  source  LengtlL 
of  the  St  Louis  river,  which  discharges  into  Fond  du  Lac 
at  the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  to  Cape  Gaspe  is  2100  miles. 
The  river  St  Louis  springs  from  the  same  spacious  plateau 
in  JlinnesOta  that  gives  birth  to  tlie  Jlississippi  and  the 
Red  River  of  the  North.     The  intiirmediato  distances  be- 
tween the  source  of  the  St  Lawrence  and  its  mouths  are 
shown  in  Table  I.     According  to  the  most  recent  surveys 
the  approximate  area  of  the  bas'.n  of  the  St  Lawrence  is 
510,000  square  miles,  of  which  322,560  belong  to  Canada 
and  187,440  to  the  United  States. 

Lake  Superior,  the  most  westerly  of  the  lakes,  is  the 
lai'gest  body  of  fresh  water  in  the  world.  In  addition  to 
the  river  Nipigon,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  chief 
source  of  the  upper  St  Lawrence,  and  the  St  Louis  and 
Pigeon  rivers,  which  con.stitutCi  the  international  boundary, 
it  receives  its  waters  from  200  rivers,  draining  an  aggrcgato 
of  85,000  square  miles,"  including  its  own  area  of  32,000. 


^  The  name  given  by  Jacoues  Cartler,  who  ascended  the  riier  in 
1535  as  far  as  Montreal. 

*  The  nmpiitutles  and  nltitudcs  of  Iho  great  lakes  are  derived  from 
the  licpcrl  of  the  Canadian  Canal  Commission,  FL-liruary  1871  ;  lli« 
cn-^inecring  data  relating  to  canals  have  Iwen  mainly  obtained  from 
oilier  annual  reports  publiilud  by  tlie  Canadian  Government  and  from 
the  annual  reports  of  the  cliief  of  engineers,  United  Slates  arr.iy. 


178 


ST     LAWHENCE 


Table  I. — Distanus  of  Sections  of  Si  Lawrence. 


Local 

Name. 

From 

To 

Sections  of  Navi- 
gation. 

Statute 
Miles. 

"S? 

152 

390 

65 

270 
V6 

232 

27 

J  TO 

59 
119 

86 
"4 

134 

436 

sSmcc 

Saulte  St 
Mary 

StMaiy 
river 

Sagara 
river 

St  Law- 
rence ■ 

Source  of  St 

Louis  river 

Fond  du  Lac 

Pointe      aux 

Pins 
St  Joseph's  I. 
Sarnia 

Amcrherst- 

burg 
Port  Colborne 

PortDalhousie 
Kingston.... 
Prescott  .... 

Montreal..  . 

Three  Eivers 

Quebec     .... 
Cape  Chat    . . 

Cape  Gasp6  . . 

Fond  du  Lac 

Fointe     aux 

Pins 
St  Joseph's  I. 

Sarnia   

Amerherst- 

burg 
Port  Colborne 

PortDalhousie 

Kingston 

Prescott   .... 
Montreal 

Three  Rivers 

Quebec  

Cape  Chat    . . 
Cape  Gaspo  . . 

BeUelsIel  .. 

St  Louis  river    

Lake  Superior    

St  Mary's  river  ., 

Lake  Huron    

St  Claire  and  Detroit 

river 
Lake  Erie    

152 

642 

697 

S67 
943 

1175 

120^ 

1372 
1431 
1550 

1636 

1710 

1970 
210C 

2536 

Welland  Canal   

Lake  Ontario 

Head  of  canal  section 

St  Lawrence  Canal 
section 

Head  of  ocean  navi- 
gation to  head  of 
tidal  flow 

Head  of  tidal  flow  to 
Quebec 

Mouth    of    rii,-er    St 

Lawrence 
Mouth  of  the  Gulf  of 

St  Lawrence 

Its  length  is  390  miles,  its  greatest  breadth  16C,  and  its 
mean  breadth  80.  Its  mean  depth  is  900  feet  and  its  altitude 
above  the  sea-level  600  feet.  Its  coast  is  generally  rock- 
bound.  Numerous  islands  are  scattered  about  the  north 
side  of  the  lake,  many  rising  precipitously  to  great  heights 
from  deep  w.ater, — some  presenting  castellatsd  walls  of 
basalt  and  others  rising  in  granite  peaks  to  various  eleva- 
tions up  to  1300  feet  above  the  lake.  The  Laurentian 
and  Huronian  rocks  to  the  north  along  the  shore  abound  in 
silver,  copper,  and  iron  ores.  The  United  States  side  is 
generally  lower  and  more  sandy  than  the  opposite  shore, 
and  is  also  especially  rich  in  deposits  cf  native  copper  and 
beds  of  red  hematite  iron  ores.  Both  these  minerals  are 
extensively  worked.  U  nf ossilif erous  terraces  occur  abun- 
dantly on  the  margin  of  the  lake;  at  one  point  no  fewer 
than  seven  occur  at  intervals  up  to  a  Jieight  of  33  feet 
above  the  present  level  of  the  watffr.  Lake  Superior  is 
subject  to  severe  storms  and  the  effect  of  the  waves  upon 
the  sandstone  of  the  '•  picture  rocks  "  of  Grand  Island  pre- 
sents innumerable  fantastic  and  very  remarkable  forms. 
The  lake  never  freezes,  but  cannot  be  navigated  in  vrinter 
on  account  of  the  shore  ice.  At  the  west  end  of  the  lake, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  St  Louis,  is  situated  the  city  of  Duluth, 
a  place  of  considerable  importance  as  the  eastern  terminus 
of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway,  and  of  the  St  Paul  and 
Duluth  Eailway,  which  runs  to  St  Paul  on  the  Mississippi, 
155  mUes  south  of  Duluth.^ 

St  Mary's  river,  55  miles  long,  is  the  only  outlet  from 
Lake  Superior,  and  its  course  to  Lake  Huron  is  but  a 
succession  of  expansions  into  lakes  and  contractions  into 
rivers.  St  Mary's  rapids,  which  in  a  distance  of  half  a 
mile  absorb  18  feet  out  of  the  total  fall  of  22  feet  between 
the  two  lakes,  are  avoided  by  a  ship  canal,  constructed 
in  1855. 

As  originally  built,  the  canal  Tras  1  mile  long,  had  a  -width  of  100 
feet  at  the  water  line  and  a  depth  of  12  feet.  The  locks  were  two 
io  number,  combined,'  each  350  feet  in  length,  70  in  width,  with 
a  lift  of  9  feet.  At  the  time  the  canal  was  made  these  dimensions 
were  sufEcient  to  pass  any  vessel  on  the  lakes  fidly  laden,  butby 
1870  it  became  necessary  to  provide  for  more  rapid  lockage  and 
for  the  passage  of  larger  vessels.    Accordingly  the  old  canal  was 

^  'The  distance  from  Belle  Isle  to  Liverpool  is  2234  statute  or  1942 
geographical  miles. 

'  Lake  Nipigon  is  situated  50  miles  to  the  north  of  Lake  Superior, 
into  which  it  drains  by  the  river  Nipigon  ;  it  is  still  very  little  Icno^vn 
except  from  the  report  of  Professor  Bell  of  the  Geological  Survey.     It 


widened  and  deepened,  and  .1  new  lock  constructed,  515  feet  long 
and  80  wide,— the  width  of  the  gates  being  60  feet,  the  liit  of  the 
lock  18,  aud  the  depth  of  water  on  tlie  mitre  sills  17.  Thci-e  is 
now  eveiywhere  a  navigable  depth  of  16  feet  from  Lake  Superior 
through  St  Mary's  Falls  Canal  and  St  Mary's  river  to  Lake  Huron. 
In  1883  the  registered  tonnage  passing  the  canal  was  2,042,295 
tons, — the  annual  increase  of  tonnage  during  the  previous  fifteen 
years  having  averaged  107,313  tons.  The  United  States  Govern- 
ment engineers  have  abeady  presented  a  project  for  still  further 
improvements,  name]}-,  to  replace  the  old  locks  by  one  only  with 
a  length  of  700  feet  and  a  width  of  70,  and  witli  a  depth  of  21  feet 
on  the  sill. 

Lake  Huron  is  270  miles  long  and  105  broad  and  has 
an  area  of  23,000  square  miles  (the  area  of  its  basin, 
including  the  lake,  being  74,000),  a  mean  depth  variously 
stated  at  from  700  to  1000  feet,  and  an  altitude  above  the 
sea  of  574  feet.  Georgian  Bay  on  the  north-east  lies 
entirely  within  the  region  of  Canada,  whilst  Thunder  Bay 
and  Saginaw  Bay  on  the  west  and  south-west  are  in  the 
State  of  Michigan.  The  north  aud  north-east  shores  of 
Lake  Huron  ai'e  mostly  composed  of  sandstones  and  lime- 
stones, and  where  metamorphic  rocks  are  found  the  surface 
is  broken  and  hilly,  rising  to  elevations  of  600  feet  or  more 
above  the  lake,  unlike  in  this  respect  the  southern  shores 
skirting  the  peninsulas  of  Michigan  and  south-western 
Ontario,  which  are  comparatively  flat  and  of  great  fertility. 
As  in  Lake  Superior,  regular  terraces  corresponding  to 
former  water-levels  of  the  lake  run  for  miles  along  the 
shores  of  Lake  Huron  at  heights  of  120,  150,  and  200  feet; 
and  deposits  of  fine  sand  and  clay  containing  freshwater 
shells  rise  to  a  height  of  40  feet  or  more  above  the  present 
level  of  the  water.  At  several  places  these  deposits  extend 
to  a  distance  of  20  miles  inland.  The  chief  tributaries  of 
the  lake  on  the  Canadian  side  are  the  French  river  froni 
Lake  Xipissing,the  Severn  from  Lake  Simcoe,  the  Sluskoka, 
and  the  Xottawasaga,  all  emptying  into  Georgian  Bay; 
and  on  the  United  States  side  the  Thunder  Bay  river,  the 
Au-Sable,  and  the  Saginaw. 

Lake  ilicnigan  is  entirely  in  the  territory  of  the  United  Laki 
States.  It  has  a  maximum  breadth  of  84  miles  and  its  Mich 
length  is  345  miles  from  the  north-west  corner  of  Indiana  ^^° 
ana  the  north  part  of  Illinois  to  JIackinaw,  where  it  com- 
municates -n-ith  Lake  Huron  by  a  strait  4  miles  wide  at 
its  narrowest  part.  Its  depth  is  variously  stated  at  from 
700  to  1 800  feet.  Its  altitude  above  sea-level  is  578  feet. 
Its  basin  is  70,040  square  miles  in  area,  of  which  the  lake 
occupies  22,400.  Five  of  its  tributaries  are  from  135  to 
245  miles  in  length.  The  country  round  Lake  Michigan 
is  for  the  most  part  low  and  sandy.  The  rocks  are  lijne- 
stones  and  sandstones  of  che  Sub -carboniferous  groups, 
lying  in  horizontal  strata  and  never  rising  into  bold  cliifs. 
Along  the  south  shore  are  Post-tertiary  beds  of  clay  and 
sand  Ijing  a  few  feet  above  the  level  t>f  the  lake,  the  waters 
of  which  probably  at  one  time  foimd  their  way  by  the 
valleys  of  the  lUinois  and  the  ilississippi  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico. 

Chicago  (population,  503,185  in  1S80)  is  situated  at  the  south- 
west angle  of  the  lake.  In  the  receipt  aud  shipment  of  grain  and 
pork  it  is  the  largest  market  in  the  world.  In  1883  12,015  vessels 
with  a  tonnage  of  3,980,837  tons  cleared  from  the  harbour.  Com- 
paring the  decades  of  1864-73  and  1874-83  the  total  export  in 
quarters  of  wheat  and  corn  from  Chicago  was  as  foUows  -. — 


Lake. 

1S64-73 43,SS4,196 

1874-83 60,205,175 


6,32S,-37 
27,342,140 


60,2)2,S33 
93.607,315 


In  18S3  the  export  of  gi-ain  by  the  lakes  amounted  to  6,850,722 
quarters  (of  which  68'1  per  cent,  were  shipped  direct  to  Buffalo  and 
only.6'3  per  cent,  to  Kingston  and  Montreal)  as  against  3,146,000 
sent  by  rail.     The  first  appropriation  for  the  harbour  of  Chicago, 

is  313  feet  above  the  level  of  Lake  Superior,  and  in  some  parts  is  up- 
wards of  500  feet  in  depth.  The  lake  is  thickly  studded  vntti  islands  ; 
its  shores  are  undulating  and  sometimes  hillv  ;  and  owing  to  its  numer- 
ous indeutatious  its  coast-line  measures  580  miles. 


ST     LAWKENCE 


179 


made  in  1883,  was  expended  in  cutting  a  straight  outlet  from  tlje 
Chicago  river  into  the  lake.  The  availaMe  depth  was  only  2  feet, 
but  since  then  the  harbour  accommodation  has  been  extended,  by 
means  of  piers,  dredging,  and  a  breakwater,  to  accommodate  vessels 
of  14  feet  draught. 

The  harbour  works  at  Chicago,  as  well  aa  at  other  lake  and  river 
ports,  are  constructed  simply  of  cribs  or  boxes,  composed  of  logs  12 
by  12  inches,  filled  with  stone,  and  joined  to  each  other,  after  they 
have  finally  settled  down,  by  a  continuous  timber  superstructure 
raised  a  few  feet  above  the  level  of  the  water.  On  this  plan  break- 
waters, piers  at  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  wharves  have  been  built 
within  the  last  sLxty  years  at  the  most  important  points  along  the 
•hores  of  the  St  Lawrence  lakes,  as  well  as  at  most  of  the  river 
harbours  communicating  with  the  Atlantic;  and  experience^ has 
proved  that  no  cheaper  and  better  system  could  have  been  devised 
for  such  localities. 

The  St  Lawrence  leaves  Lake  Huron  by  the  St  Clair 
river  at  Sarnia,  and  after  a  course  of  33  miles  enters 
Lake  St  Clair,  25  miles  long,  and  terminating  at  the 
head  of  the  Detroit  river,  near  the  city  of  Detroit  in 
Michigan.  Eighteen  miles  farther  on  the  St  Lawrence, 
with  a  descent  of  11  feet,  enters  Lake  Erie.  The  naviga- 
tion through  the  St  Clair  river  is  easy  throughout,  but  in 
Lake  St  Clair  there  are  extensive  sandbanks  covered  with 
a  depth  of  water  varying  from  6  to  10  feet.  Previous  to 
1858  much  inconvenience  was  experienced  in  navigating 
the  lake  owing  to  its  insufficient  depth ;  but  at  the  end 
of  that  year  the  Governments  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  dredged  a  canal  through  the  bed  of  the  lake, 
which  is  of  soft  material,  to  a  minimum  depth  of  12  feet, 
with  a  width  of  300  feet.  This  channel  has  since  been 
deepened  to  16  feet  over  a  width  of  200  feet,  and  works 
are  now  in  progress  to  deepen  the  rocky  shoal  called  the 
"  Lime-Kiln  Crossing  "  in  the  Detroit  river  to  18  feet,  to 
enable  vessels  drawing  15  feet  to  pass  with  nafpty  from 
fake  to  lake  in  stormy  weather. 

The  peculiar  features  of  Lake  Erie  are  its  shallowness 
^nd  the  clayey  nature  of  its  shores,  which  are  generally 
low.  The  south  shore  is  bordered  by  an  elevated  plateau, 
through  which  the  rivers,  which  are  without  importance 
as  regards  Lake  Erie,  have  cut  deep  channels.  The  mean 
depth  of  the  lake  is  only  90  feet  and  its  maximum  depth 
204.  Owing  to  its  shallowness  it  is  easily  disturbed  by  the 
wind,  and  is  therefore  the  most  dangerous  to  navigate  of 
all  the  great  lakes.  Its  length  is  250  miles  and  its 
greatest  breadth  GO.  The  area  of  the  basin  of  Lake  Erie  is 
39,G80  square  miles,  including  10,000  square  miles,  the  area 
of  the  lake.  Its  waters  are  564  feet  above  the  sea  and 
330  above  Lake  Ontario.  The  extreme  difference  observed 
in  the  level  of  the  lake  between  1819  and  1838  was  5  feet 
2  inches,  but  the  average  annual  rise  and  fall  (taken  on 
a  mean  of  twelve  years)  is  only  1  foot  H  inches.  T^o 
mean  annual  rainfall  is  34  inches.  The  navigation  of 
Lake  Erie  usually  opens  about  the  middle  of  April  and 
closes  early  in  December.  Besides  the  Erie  and  the 
"Welland  Canals,  the  lake  has  two  other  great  canal  systems 
on  its  south  shore,-^the  Ohio  and  Eric  Canal,  from  Cleve- 
land to  Portsmouth,  and  the  Miami  and  Erie  Canal,  from 
Toledo  to  Cincinnati. 

Buffalo  (population,  171,.500  In  1883)  is  situated  at  tho  north- 
east angle  of  Lake  Erie,  and  U  therefore  much  exposed  to  tho 
Tiolence  of  sonth-wost  winds,  in  whidi  direction  tho  lake  has  a 
"fetch"  of  200  miles.  Tlius  more  tban  ordinary  care  has  been 
taken  to  provide  safe  hnrbonr  accommodation  for  the  largo  fleets  of 
vessels  constantly  arriving  at  Buffalo  from  the  upper  lakes.  The 
Buffalo  river,  which  has  been  made  navigable  for  more  than  a  mile, 
is  protected  at  its  mouth  by  a  breakwater,  ■1000  feet  long,  built  at 
about  half  a  mile  from  the  shore.  Tho  harbour  thus  formed  allows 
of  tho  entrance  of  vessels  of  17  feet  draught  as  against  13  in  1853. 
Not  only  is  the  port  situated  at  tho  head  of  tho  Krie  Canal  and 
within  an  hour's  sail  of  the  WcII.ind  Canal,  but  it  is  the  western 
terminus  of  the  New  York  Central,  Eric,  and  several  other  railways. 
Tlio  possession  of  these  exceptional  advantages  has  constituted 
Buffalo  the  great  commercial  centre  of  tlio  inland  sca-s  of  North 
America.  For  the  six  years  ending  1883  the  yearly  average  sliip- 
fflonts  of  wheat  and  corn  received  by  lake  at  BuiTalo,  by  the  Erie 


Canal,  and  by  rail  from  elevators  was  5,555,000  quarters  by  canal 
and  2,320,000  by  rail,  or  7020  and  29-50  jrer  cent.  re»pectively.' 
There  are  38  elevators  in  the  city,  comprising  storage,  transfer, 
and  floating  elevators,  with  a  combiued  storage  capacity  of  1,125,000 
quarters  and  a  daily  transfer  capacity  of  333,000  quarters.  Daring 
the  ten  years  ending  1883  the  annual  average  number  of  lake 
vessels  arriving  and  departing  from  Buffalo  Creek  numbered  7486, 
the  aggiegate  tonnage  was  4,165,098  tons,  and  the  average  size  of 
craft  560  tons. 

In  1883  the  enrolled  tonnage  of  the  United  States 
vessels  for  the  northern  lakes,  and  the  enrolled  registered 
tonnage  of  steam  and  sailing  vessels  in  the  province  of 
Ontario,  including  tugs  and  barges  on  the  Ottawa  river 
and  barges  at  Kingston,  were  as  follows  (Table  11.)  : — 


United  States. 

Canada. 

No 

Aggregate 
Toanage, 

Na 

Aggregate  i 

Tonnage. 

Sailing  vessels 
Bteam  vessels        .     . . 

irs 

1149 

810,454 
304,649 

452 

862 

44.000 
04,000 

2522 

015,103 

804 

103,000 

Freight  propellers  are  now  rapidly  doing  away  with 
sailing  vessels,  or  causing  them  to  be  converted  .into  barges 
or  consorts.  The  rapid  increase  in  their  tonnage  capacity 
has  been  remarkable.  In  1841  there  was  only  1  freight; 
propeUer  mth  a  tormage  of  128  tons ;  in  1850  there  were 
50  with  an  average  of  215  tons,  in  1860  there  -were  197 
with  an  average  of  340  tons,  and  in  1880  there  were  202 
with  an  average  of  689  tons. 

The  Erie  Canal  connects  Lake  Erie  with  the  Hudson  Hver  at  Erie 
Troy  and  Albany  and  with  Lake  Ontario  at  Oswego  The  move-  Caiia) 
mcnt  of  freight  of  all  kinds  by  tho  canal  was  3,002,535  tons  in 
1873,  and  3,587,102  in  1883,  and  the  average  annual  movement 
from  1874  to  1883  was  3,447,464  tons.  This  canal  was  constructed 
in  1825  by  the  State  of  New  York,  for  the  passage  of  vessels  of  80 
tons  ;  but  by  the  year  1862  it  was  sufficiently  enlarged  to  allow  of 
the  passage  of  vessels  of  240  tons.  The  dimensions  and  capacity 
of  the  canal  and  its  two  principal  feeders  are  given  in  Table  III. : — 


.a  n 

Size  of  Canal. 

No.  &  Size  of  Locks. 

I^ioalily. 

i 

-a 

BufTalo  to  Albany.... 
Oswego  to  Syracuse  . . 
Lake  a-'.'v'-'-  tn  Al- 
banj 

Albany  to  New  York 
by  the  Hudson  river 

351 
38 
66 

Feet. 
70 
70 
60 

Feet. 
58 
66 
85 

Feet 
7 
7 
6 

72 
18  . 

20 

Feet. 
110 
110 
100 

Feet. 
18 
IS 
13 

Feet. 
CD5 
155 
180 

455 
145 

The  cost  of  construction,  maintenance,  and  management  of  tho  455 
miles  of  canal  up  to  30th  September  1873  amounted  to  £17,460,000. 
A  project  has  for  some  time  been  nnder  serious  consideration  for 
tho  enlargement  of  one  tier  of  the  jiresent  locks  and  tbe  deepening 
of  the  canal  so  that  between  Buffalo  and  Albany  there  would  no- 
where be  a  less  depth  than  8  feet.  The  estimated  cost  of  this  work 
is  about  £1,600,000. 

Tho  Welland  Canal  flanks  the  Niagara  riTsr  and  is  27  miles  in 
length  from  Port  Colborne  on  Lake  Erie  to  Port  Dalhousie  on  Lake 
Ontario.  It  was  opened  in  1833  for  the  navigation  of  small  vessels 
and  was  first  enlarged  in  1844.  Vessels,  however,  continued  to 
increase  in  size  until  in  18C0  there  were  341  with  an  ngtn^gato 
tonnage  of  143,918  tons  which  were  unable  to  pass  through  tho 
enlarged  canal.  In  1870  tho  number  that  cou.d  not  pass  had 
increased  to  384,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  194,685  tons;  in 
1880  to  460,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  287,342  tons ;  and  in 
1883  (notwithstanding  tho  completion  of  tho  second  enlargement 
in  1882)  to  657,  with  an  a^^regato  tonnage  of  398,808  tons.  Thu 
cost  of  tho  canal  including  its  maintenance  up  to301h  Juno  ISS;-  n«s 
820,859,605.  Its  dimensions  are  now  as  follows  :— number  of  lu"^ 
locks,  25  i  dimensions,  270  by  45  feet ;  total  rise  of  lockage,  SSflJ 
feet ;  depth  of  water  on  sills,  12  fecL  Tho  movement  of  freight  o£ 
all  kinds  by  tho  canal  was  1,330,620  tons  in  1873  and  827,196  ia 
1883,  and  the  average  annual  movement  for  the  decide  ending  ISSS 
was  986,4  (1  tons.  Tbi.i  scrioua  falliug  otT  in  IrafTic  is  partly  dua 
to  tbe  numerous  competitors  by  lake  and  rail  which  have  sprung  up 
during  the  last  ton  ycai-s  for  the  transportation  of  products  to  tli« 
cast,  but  principally  to  the  deepening  of  tho  channels  and  harbour* 
of  the  upper  lakes,  a  work  that  has  encouraged  tho  coQstructioD  of 


idO 


ST      LAWRENCE 


a  Class  of  vessels  tliat  cannot  make  use  of  the  'Wellanil  Canal  even 
after  its  last  enlargement.  In  order  to  meet  this  strong  competition 
the  Government  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  was  called  upon  still 
further  to  deepen  the  canal  so  as  to  allow  the  passage  of  the  largest 
existing  lake  vessels  without  lightering;  and  in  1SS6  contracts 
were  concluded  for  deepening  it  to  14  feet. 

The  Niagara  river  flows  from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Ontario 
in  a  northerly  direction.     Its  width  between  BufSlo  and 
Fort  Erie  (the  site  of  the  international  iron-trusapd  rail- 
way bridge ;  see  sketch  map  of  Niagara  river  in  vol.  xvii. 
p.  472)  is  1900  feet  and  its  greatest  depth  48.     At  this 
point  the  normal  current  is  5  J  miles  an  hour, — the  ex- 
treme variation  in  the  level  of  the  river  when  uninflu- 
enced by  the  iWnd  being  only  2  feet.     During  south-west 
gales,  however,  the  water  occasionally  rises  as  much  as  4 
^eet  in  a  few  hours,  and  at  such  times  the  current  attains 
a  maximum  velocity  of  12  miles  an"  hour.      Two  miles 
below  the  bridge  the  river  is  divided  into  two. arms  by 
Grand  Island,  at  the  foot  of  which  they  reunite  and  spread 
iover  a  width  of  2  or  3  miles.     The  river  then  becomes 
studded  with   islands,   until  about  16   miles  from   Lake 
Erie,  after  a  total  fall  of  20  feet,  it  narrows  again  and 
begins  to.  descend  with  great  velocity.     This  is  the  com- 
mencement of  the  rapids,  which  continue  for  about  a  mile 
with  a  total  descent  of  52  feet.     The  rapids  terminate  in 
the  great  cataract  of  Niagara,  the  fall  of  which  on  the 
American  side  is  164  feet  and  on  the  Canadian  side  150 
feet.     The  falls  are  divided  by  Goat  Island,  which  rises 
40  feet  above  the  water  and  extends  to  the  very  verge  of 
the  precipice,  where  the  total  width  of  the  river,  including 
the  island,  >js  4750  feet.      The  Horse-Shoe  Fall  on  the 
Canadian  shore  is  2000  feet  long,  and  the  depth  of  water 
on  the  crest  of  the  fall  is  about  20  feet.     The  American 
fall  is  only  one-half  that  length,  and  discharges  less  than 
one-fourth  the  volume  of  the  Horse-Shoe  Fall.     United, 
they  discharge  nearly  400.000  cubic  feet  per  second  or 
41,000,000  tons  per  hour      Thp  upper  layer  of  the  escarp- 
ment down  which  this  enormous  mass  of  water  leaps  con- 
sists of  hard  limestone  about  90  feet  thick,  beneath  which 
'he  soft  shales  of  equal  thickness,  which  are  continually 
being  undermined   by  the  action   of  the  spray,  driven 
.■violently  by  gusts  of  wind  against  the  base  of  the  preci- 
pice.    In  consequence  of  this  action  and  that  of  the  frost, 
portions  of  the  incumbent'  rock  overhang  40   feet,  and 
■often,  when  unsupported,  timible  down,  so  that  the  falls 
do  not  remain  absolutely  stationary  in  the  same  spot. 
Sir  C.  Lyell  in  1842  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
cataract  was  receding  at  an  average  rate  of  1  foot  annually, 
"in  which  case  it  would  have  required  35,000  years  for 
the  retreat  of  the  falls  from  the  escarpment  at  Queens- 
town  to  their  present  site."     From  the  foot  of  the  falls  to 
Queenstown,  a  distance  of  about  7  miles,  the  river  descends 
104  feet  through  a  gorge  from  200  to  300  feet  deep  and 
from  600  to  1 200  feet  wide.     Midway  in  this  deep  defile 
the  turbulent  waters  strike  against  the  cliff  on  the  Canadian 
jide  with  great  violence,  and,  being  thus  deflected  from 
west  to  north,  give  rise  to  the  dangerous  eddy  called  the 
"  Whirlpool."     The  escarpments  end  abruptly  at  Queens- 
town,  where  the  waters  suddenly  expand  to  a  great  width, 
jjid  finally,  7  miles  farther  on,  tranquilly  flow  into  Lake 
Ontario. 

About  one-third  of  a  mile  below  the  cataract  a  carria^e- 
load  suspension  bridge  (built  in  1869  by  Blr  Samuel 
Keefer)  spans  the  river  with  a  single  opening  of  1190 
feet,  at  a^height  of  190  feet  above  the  water;  and  2 
sniles  low^  down  Eoebling's  celebrated  railway  and  road 
suspension  bridge  (completed  in  1855)  crosses  the  river  at 
n,  height  of  245  .feet  above  the  water  mth  a  single  span 
•^f  800  feet.  In  November  1883  a  double-track  railway 
three-span  iroTi  and  steel  cantilever  bridge,  situated  about 
100  yards  above  Eoeblins's  bridga  was  comuleted  for  the 


New  York  Central  and  Michigan  Central  Raihvays.  The 
total  length  of  the  bridge  is  910  feet  and  that  of  the 
centre  span  470  feet.  The  height  froin  the  water  to  the 
level  of  the  rails  is  239  feet. 

Lake  Ontario  is  the  easternmost  and  smallest  of  the 
great  lakes  of  the  St  Lawrence  system.  Its  basin  drains 
29,760  square  miles,  including  the  lake  surface  of  6700 
square  miles.  The  length  of  the  lake  is  190  miles,  its 
greatest  width  52  miles,  its  mean  depth  412  feet,  and  its 
elevation  above  the  sea  234  feet.  It  never  freezes  except 
.near  the  shore.  Its  chief  tributaries  are  the  Trent  on  the 
north  shore  and  the  Genesee  and  the  Oswego  on  the  south 
-shore,  and  its  chief  ports,  Toronto,  the  capital  of  Ontario, 
32  miles  north  of  Port  Dalhousie,  at  the  foot  of  the  Wellancl 
Canal ;  Oswego,  at  the  south-east  angle  of  the  lake ;  and 
Kingston,  at  its  north-east  extremity;  52  miles  north  of 
Oswego. 

Trent  river  navigation  is  a  term  applied  to  a  series  of  reaches 
which  do  not,  however,  form  a  connected  system  of  navigation,  and 
which  in  their  present  condition  are  efficient  only  for  local  use. 
The  series  is  composed  of  a  chain'of  lakes  and  rivers  extending  froc 
Trenton,  .at  the  mouth  of  the  Trent  on  the  Bay  of  Quinte, -north 
shore  of  Lake  Ontario,  to  Lake  Huron.  The  new  works  (which 
will  have  locks  134  feet  by  33  feet'with  a  depth  of  5  feet  on  siU) 
will  give  communication  between  Lakeiield,  QJ  miles  from  Peter- 
boro,  and  Balsam  Lake,  the  headwaters  of  the  system,  opening  up 
a  total  of  about  150  miles  of -direct  and  lateral  navigation. 

The  port  of  Oswego  has  been  in  direct  communication  with  the 
Hudson  river  since  1822,  by  means  of  a  canal  of  small  capacity  as 
far  as  Syracuse,  and  thence  by  the  Erie  Canal  to  Troy  and  Albany. 
It  is  now  proposed  by  the  United  States  Government  to  enlarge 
this  route  under  the  name  of  the  Oneida  Ship  Canal,  so  that  vessel? 
arriving  from  the  Welland  Canal  with  cargoes  of  50,000  bushels  ot 
wheat  may  be  able  to  tranship  them  at  Oswego  iuto  steam  barges 
holding  25,000  bushels,  or  into  barges  to  be  towed  with  a  capacity 
of  28,000  bushels.  The  length  Of  the  proposed  route  by  the  Oneida 
Lake  and  Dnrhamville  is  200  miles,  with  a  lockage  of  609  feet ; 
and  its  estimated  cost,  including  20  ascending  and  47  descending 
locks  (each  170  by  28  by  SJ  feet),  is  §25,213,857.  The  Government 
of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  has  also  under  consideration  the  follow- 
ing projects  to  connect  the  St  Lavrrence  with  Lake  Huron  : — (1) 
the  Ottawa  and  Georgian  Bay  Canal,  from  Jlontreal,  by  the  Ottawa 
and  Lake  Kipissing,  to  French  river  ;  (2)  the  Toronto  and  Georgian 
Bay  Canal,  by  way  of  Xake  Simcoe  ;  (3)  the  Hur- Ontario  Canal, 
from  Hamilton  to  Lake  Huron,  near  Port  Franks. 

Kingston,  being  the  port  of  transhipment  for  Montreal  Kin.esi 
of  three-fourths  of  the  grain  that  arrives  from  the  upper  '°  ^^ 
lakes,  is  a  place  of  some  commercial  importance.    Formerly  ^'"  " 
lake  vessels  were  sent  from  Chicago  to  Montreal  througl. 
the  St  Lawrence  canals  without  breaking  bulk.     But  it 
was  afterwards  found  cheaper  to  transfer  grain  at  Kingston, 
and  to  send  it  down  the  St  Lawrence  in  barges,  the  cost 
^  such  transfer  being  only  half  a  cent  per  bushel.     Kings- 
ton is  also  at  the  south  terminus  of  the  Eideau  Canal, 
which  connects  it  with  the  city  of  Ottawal 

This  canal,  126  miles  long,  has  33  locks  ascending  292  feet  ana 
14  descending  165,  and  admits  vessels  130  by  30  feet  drawing  4J 
feet  of  water.  It  was  constructed  in  1826-32  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment at  a  cost  of  about  §4,000,000,  chiefly  with  a  view  to  the  defence 
of  the  province,  but  since  the  opening  of  the  St  Lawrence  canals 
it  has  become  of  comparatively  little  importance  as  a  means  of 
transport, — the  distance  from  llontreal  to  Kingston  being  68  mUe 
longer  by  the  Eideau  and  Ottawa  Canals  than  by  the  St  Lawrenc 

Almost  immediately  after  leaving  Kingston, that  part 
the  St  Lawrence  commences  which  is  called  the  Lake 
a  Thousand  Islands.     In  reality  they  number  1692,  an 
extend  for  40  miles  below  Lake  Ontario.    At  this  poll 
the  Laurentian  rocks  break   through   the  Silurian,  an, 
reach  across  the  St  Lawi-ence,  in  this  belt  of  islands, ; 
unite  with  the  Laurentian  Adirondack  region  in  the  Sta 
of  New  York.     Near  Prescott,  a  toivn  on  the  Canadia 
side  about  60  miles  below  Kingston,  begins  the  chain 
the  St  Lawrence  canals  proper,  which  were  constructed 
overcome  a  total  rise  of  206i  feet, — the  number  of  loci! 
being  27  and  the  total  length  of  the  six  canals  43i  miJe? 

Tlie  canals  are  called,  in  the  order  of  their  descent,' the  "Galoiis, 
"Rapid  Plat,"  and  "Farran's  Point,"  with  an  aggregate  length  r 


ST      L  A  W  R  E  Is  C  E 


181 


12i  miles  (tlic  three  forming  with  their  intervening  15  miles  of 
river  navigation  what- is  called  the  Williamsburg  Canals),  the 
"Cornwall,"  11^  miles  long,  the  "  Beauharnois,"  connecting  Lakes 
St  Louis  and  St  Francis,  llj  miles  long,  and  the  "Lachine,"  fij 
miles  Jong.  The  locks  of  the  first  live  canals,  constructed  in 
1.S-J5-48,  are  200  feet  in  length,  with  a  depth  of  from  7  to  10  feet 
o:i  their  sills  at  exceptionally  low  water,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  the  "Galops"  and  "Cornwall,"  which  are  55  feet  wide,  their 
width  is  45  feet.  The  Lachine  Canal  was  begun  in  1821  and  com- 
pleted in  1824  for  the  navigation  of  vessels  drawing  4i  feet,  but 
it  was  not  until  1843-48  that  it  was  widened  and  deepened  to  the 
dimensions  of  the  upper  canals.  It  has  lately  been  still  further 
enlarged,  and  is  already  provided  with  locks  270  by  40  feet,  with 
an  available  depth  of  14  feet.  The  canal  was  closed  on  1st  December 
1882  and  opened  on  1st  May  1883, — the  navigation  having  been 
interrupted  as  usual  by  the  ice  for  a  period  of  five  months.  The 
cost  to  the  provincial  and  Dominion  Government  of  the  six  canals, 
including  their  maintenance  to  30th  June  1883,  was  .?1 4, 454, 508. 
Tlie  five  upper  canals  are  now  being  enlarged  to  the  dimensions  of 
the  improved  Lachine  Canal. 

Near  Cornwall,  on  the  left  bank,  50  miles  below  Pres-' 
cott,  the  intersection  of  the  parallel  of  4.5°  determines  the 
point  where  the  St  LawTenco  and  its  lakes  (Lake  Michigan 
excepted),  having  boon  an  international  boundary  from 
the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  become  exclusively  Canadian. 
Immediately  below  Cornwall  the  river  flows  through  Lake 
St  Francis,  which  has  a  length  of  about  30  miles  and  a 
width  varying  from  2  to  5  miles.  In  the  long  reach  of 
the  river  below  the  lake  it  has  been  calculated  by  the 
Canadian  canal  commissioners  that  the  mean  volume  of 
water  discharged  is  510,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  Ten 
miles  below  the  foot  of  Lake  St  Francis,  near  the  head  of 
the  island  of  Montreal,  the  river  flows  into  Lake  St 
Louis,  which  receives  the  main  body  of  the  Ottawa  river, 
a  small  fraction  of  whose  waters  is  delivered  into  the  St 
Lawrence  at  the  foot  of  the  island  35  miles  lower  down 
the  stream. 

The  Ottawa  river,  which  is  600  miles  long,  drains 
60,000  square  miles,  and  contributes  a  volume  of  90,000 
cubic  feet  per  second  to  the  St  Lawrence,  of  which  it  is 
the  largest  tributary.  Between  Lake  St  Louis  and  the 
city  of  Ottawa,  the  capital  of  the  Dominion,  and  perhaps 
the  largest  market  for  lumber  in  the  world,  the  St  Anne's 
lock  (23|  miles  from  Montreal),  Carillon  Canal,  Chute-Ji- 
Blondoau  Canal,  and  the  Grenville  Canal  (63i  miles  from 
Montreal)  have  been  constructed,  and  are  now  enlarged 
to  200  by  45  feet,  with  a  depth  of  9  feet  o'n  their  sills, 
except  the  Chute-<\-Blondoau  Canal,  whose  single  lock 
has  still  its  original  dimensions  of  130  by  32  feet  with 
only  6  foot  on  its  sill.  The  total  lockage  between  the 
Lachine  Canal  and  Kingston  by  the  Rideau  Canal  (the' 
entrance  to  which  isllDi  miles  from  Jlontrcal)  is  509 
feet  (345  rise,  164  fall)  and  the  number  of  locks  is  55. 
On  the  upper  Ottawa — the  Culbute  Canal  and  L'Islot 
rapids — there  arc  two  locks  200  foot  long,  45  wide,  and  6 
deep,  with  a  lift  of  18  to  20  feet.  The  cost  of  the  Ottawa 
canals,  including  the  Rideau  Canal,  to  30th  Juno  1883 
was  $9,126,125. 

After  leaving  Lake  St  Louis  tho  St  La^vrenco  da.shcs 
wildly  down  the  Lachine  rapid.s,  a  descent  of  42  feet  in 
2  miles,  and  8  miles  farther  on,  after  passing  beneath  the 
25  spans  of  the  Victoria  Tubular  Railway  Bridge,  which 
has  a  length  of  9144  feet,  reaches  the  quays  of  Montreal, 
198  miles  below  Kingston.  In  the  beginning  of  the  pre- 
sent century  vcs.scls  of  over  300  tons  burden  were  unable 
to  reach  the  city,  but  by  deepening  Lake  St  Peter  and  the 
shoals  in  the  St  Lawrence  between  Quebec  and  Montreal 
tho  latter  has  boon  made  accessible  to  ve.ssols  of  4000 
tons  burden  and  drawing  25  feet  of  water.  Work  is  being 
steadily  continued  and  will  not  cease  until  a  depth  of  27i 
feet  is  attained,  so  as  to  enable  the  largest  vessels  afloat 
to  reach  the  long  stretch  of  new  deep-water  quays.  In 
1883  the  tonnage  of  the  660  sca-goiiig  vessels  which  visited 


the  port  was  664,263  tons,  of  which  605,805  belonged  to 
264  steamships,  so  that  only  9  per  cent,  of  the  freight 
arriving  from  sea  was  carried  in  sailing  vessels.  The  St 
Lawrence  has  an  average  width  of  1|  miles  for  46  miles 
from  Jlontrcal  down  to  Sorel  on  the  right  bank,  at  which 
point  it  is  joined  by  the  Richelieu  river,  a  tributary  that 
drains  9000  square  miles. 

The  Richelieu  river  is  made  navigable  from  its  mouth  to  Lake 
Champlain,  a  distance  of  81  miles  to  the  United  States  boundary, 
by  a  dam  and  lock  at  St  Ours,  half  a  mile'  long  (14  mil(«  above 
Sorel),  and  a  canal  of  12  miles  in  length  32  miles  farther  up  the 
river,  known  as  the  Chambly  Canal.  These  give  a  navigable  depth 
of  7  feet,  allowing  vessels  114  feet  long,  23  broad,  and  drawing  6^ 
feet  of  water,  to  pass  through  the  canal  from  end  to  end.  The  cost 
of  tho  works  to  30th  June  1SG7  was  8756,249.  The  total  lengtU 
of  navigation  between  Montreal  and  New  York  by  the  Richelieu 
Canal,  Lake  Champlain,  the  Champlain  and  Erie  Canal,  Albany 
and  the  Hudson  river  is  456  miles.  The  Richelieu  Canal,  wliich 
already  carries  a  freight  of  350,000  tons  annually,  is  to  be  enlarged, 
and  a  canal  is  to  be  constructed  from  Lake  St  Louis  at  Chaugh- 
iiawaga,  above  Lachine,  to  St  Johns  on  the  Richelieu  river,  in  con- 
nexion with  the  Chambly  Canal,  to  connect  the  St  Lawrence  with 
Lako  Champlain  by  a  new  channel,  which  it  is  proposed  should 
have  the  same  dimensions  as  the  improved  Wclland  Canal.  The 
cost  of  the  proposed  Chaughnawaga  Canal,  which  would  have  a 
length  of  32  miles  and  a  lockage  of  only  29  feet,  is  estimated  at 
65,500,000. 

Immediately  below  Sorel  the  river  flows  into  Lake  St 
Peter,  20  miles  in  length  by  9  in  width,  through  which 
prior  to  1851  no  vessel  drawing  more  than  11  feet  coulj 
pass.  Since  then  a  cutting  300  feet  wide  has  been  drcdfxd 
to  a  depth  of  25  feet.  At  Three  Rivers,  86  miles  below 
Jlontreal,  the  St  Lawrence  first  mcet-5  the  tide  and  receives 
from  the  north  the  waters  from  the  St  Maurice,  which  drains 
about  16,000  square  miles.  Nearing  Quebec,  the  river, 
which  maintains  an  average  width  of  IJ  miles' from  Lake 
St  Peter,  narrows  into  a  width  of  three-quarters  of  a  mile 
at  Cape  Diamond,  on  the  left  bank,  160  miles  below  Jlont- 
real.  The  depth  here  is  128  feet  and  the  rise  of  spring 
tides  1 8  feet.  . 

The  lower  town  of  Quebec,  which  has  ex,tensive  harbour 
accommodation,  is  built  on  reclaimed  land  around  the  base 
of  the  cape,  one  of  its  sides  being  washed  by  the  river  St 
Charles,  which  here  flows  into  the  St  Lawrence.  At  tho 
mouth  of  the  St  Charles  the  Princess  Louise  embankment, 
4000  feet  long  by  300  wide,  encloses  a  tidal  area  of  20 
acres,  having  24  feet  of  depth  at  low  water.  Connected 
with  it  is  a  wet  dock,  which  is  to  have  a  permanent  depth 
of  27  feet  with  an  area  of  40  acres.  On  the  opposite 
side,  at  Pointe  Levis,  the  Lome  graving-dock  is  nearly 
completed.  Its  dimensions  are  500  feet  in  length,  100 
in  width,  and  251  feet  depth  of  water  on  its  sill.  During 
tho  year  ending  June  1884  the  departures  for  sea  of 
vessels  from  Quebec  were  698,  with  an  aggregate  burthen 
of  686,790  tons. 

The  Canadian  Government  have  sanctioned  the  proposal  to  con- 
struct a  railway  bridge  across  the  St  Lawrence  within  a  few  miles 
of  Quebec,  at  a  ]ioint  where  the  river  narrows  to  a  width  of  2400 
feet  at  high  water.  Thy  area  of  tho  waterway  at  high  water  is 
200,000  sciuarc  feet  and  at  low  water  160,000.  For  a  width  o( 
about  1400  feet  in  the  centre  of  tho  channel  tho  water  shelves 
rapidly  from  eitlier  shore  into  deep  water,  until  it  attains  a  nia\i- 
niuni  depth  of  nearly  200  feet.  Tlio  proposed  bridge,  as  dcsigiic-d 
by  Jlessrs  Brunlees,  Light,  &  Claxton  Fuller,  will  consist  of  thn.o 
principal  spans,  entirely  of  steel,  resting  on  masonry  piers  founded 
on  the  rock.  The  central  span  will  have  n  clear  width  of  1 442  feet, 
tho  underside  of  the  snperslructuro  being  150  feet  above  high  water. 
Seven  miles  below  Quebec  the  St  Lawrence  is  4  milct 
wide  and  divides  into  two  channels  at  tho  head  of  the 
Island  of  Orleans,  nearly'  opposite  which,  on  tho  north 
shore,  are  tho  celebrated  falls  of  Montmorency,  with  a 
perpendicular  descent  of  240  feet  and  a  width  of  50  feet 
At  the  foot  of  the  island,  whi'h  is  22  miles  long,  tho  rivor 
expands  to  a  ^\^(lth  of  1 1  miles.  This  Midth  increasci  to 
16  miles  90  miles  farther  on,  at  tho  mouth  of  tho  rivet 
Sagucna}',  which  drains  an  area  of  23,716  square  tni'ci 


182 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


About  260  miles  below  Quebec,  between  Pointe  des  Monts 
on  the  nortb  and  Cape  Chat  on  the  south,  the  St  Lawrence 
has  a  width  of  30  miles,  and,  as  this  expanse  is  doubled 
30  miles  farther  seaward.  Cape  Chat  has  been  considered 
by>  many  geographers  as  the  southern  extremity  of  an 
imaginary  line  of  demarcation  between  the  St  Lawrence 
river  and  the  gulf  of  the  same  name  It  may,  however, 
be  assumed,  with  more  propriety  perhaps,  taking  the  con- 
figiiration  of  the  gulf  into  special  account,  that  Cape 
Gasp6,  about  400  miles  below  Quebec  and  430  miles  from 
the  Atlantic  at  the  east  end  of  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle, 
is  the  true  mouth  of  the  St  Lawrence  river. 

It  has  been  calculated  by  Darby,  the  American  hydro- 
grapher,  that  the  mean  discharge  from  the  St  Lav.Tence 
river  and  gulf,  from  an  area  rather  largely  estimated  at 
565,000  square  miles,  must  be  upwards  of  1,000,000  cubic 
feet  per  second,  taking  into  account  the  mean  discharge  at 
Niagara,  which  is  389,000  cubic  feet  per  second  from  a 
drainage  area  of  237,000  square  miles,  and  bearing  in  mind 
the  well-ascertained  fact  that  the  tributaries  of  the  lower 
St  Lawrence,  coming  from  mountainous  woody  regions 
where  snow  falls  from  4  to  8  feet  in  depth,  deliver  more 
water  per  square  mile  than  its  upper  tributaries. 

The  great  prosperity  and  growth  of  Canada  are  ovring 
no  doubt-  to  its  unrivalled  system  of  intercommunication 
by  canal  and  river  with  the  vast  territories  through 
which  the  St  La-wTcnce  finds  its  way  from  the  far-off 
regions  of  the  Jlinnesota  to  the  seaboard.  This  great 
auxiliary  of  the  railways  (by  means  of  which  trade  is  now 
carried  on  at  all  seasons)  must  therefore  be  prominently 
taken  into  account  in  considering  the  transport  routes  of 
the  future,  their  chief  use  being,  as  far  as  the  conveyance 
of  traffic  over  long  distances  is  concerned,  to  augment,  in 
the  shape  of  feeders,  the  trade  of  the  river,  as  long  as  it 
keeps  open,  and  when  it  closes  to  continue  the  circulation 
of  commerce  by  sledges  until  the  ice  breaks  up  and  restores 
the  river  to  its  former  activity.  By  the  published  statistics 
of  the  harbour  commissioners  of  Montreal  it  appears  that 
during  the  ten  years  1870-79  the  opening  of  the  navigation 
at  Montreal  varied  between  30th  March  and  1st  May,  and 
the  close  of  the  navigation  between  26th  November  and 
2d' January,  and  that,  whilst  the  first  arrival  from  sea 
varied  from  20th  April  to  11th  May,  the  last  departure 
to  sea  only  varied  from  21st  November  to  29th  November 
during  the  ten  years.  (c.  a.  h.) 

According  to  the  chief  geographer  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  tlie  foUomng  were  the  principal  data  for  the  St  Lawrence 
takes  in  1886.  Area  of  basin  of  St  Lawrence  457,000  square  miles, 
of  Tvhich  330,000  belong  to  Canada  and  127,000  to  the  United 
States.  Zni-c  Siipciicr—arcn.  31,200  square  miles,  length  412miles, 
maximum  breadtli  1(57  miles,  maximum  depth  1008  feet,  altitude 
above  sea-level  602  feet.  Lake  Huron— area.  21,000  square  miles, 
263  miles  long,  101  broad,  maximum  depth  702  feet,  altitude  581 
feet.  Zake  J/Wiijrtii— area  22,450  sqnare  miles,  maximum  breadth 
84  miles,  length  345  miles,  maximum  depth  870  feet,  altitude  581 
feet  Lake  SI  Clair— 29  iniles  long.  Lake  Erie— area.  9960  square 
miles,  length  250  miles,  maxinnnri  breadth  60  miles,  maximnm 
depth  210  feet,  height  above  sea-level  573  feet  and  above  Lake 
Ontario  326  feet.  Lake  Ontario— avca,  7240  square  miles,  length 
>90  miles,  breadth  64  miles,  maximum  depth  738  feet,  elevation 
2^47  feet.  In  1885  tlie  enrolled  vessels  on  the  St  Lawrence  lakes 
belonging  to  the  United  States  numbered  2497  (steam  1175,  sailing 
13-22)\vith  an  aggregate  burthen  of  648,988  tons  (steam  335,859  tons, 
sailing  313,129" tons). 

ST  LEONARDS  is  the  name  given  to  the  -western  and 
more  modern  part  of  H.iSTiNG3  (q.v.),  a  watering-place  on 
the  coast  of  Sussex,  England.  St  Leonards  proper,  which 
formed  only  a  small  part  of  the  district  now  included 
under  that  name,  was  at  one  time  a  separate  township. 
The  population  of  St  Leonards  in  1881  was'  7165. 

ST  LEONARDS,  Edward  Boetenshaw  Sxjgden,  Lord 
(1781-1 S75),  loid  chancellor  of  England,  was  the  son  of  a 
.hairdresser  in  Duke  Street,  AYestminster,  and  was  born  in 


February  1781.  After  practising  for  some  years  as  a  con- 
veyancer, he  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1807, 
having  already  published  his  well-known  treatise  on  the 
Law  of  Vendors  and  Purchasers.  In  1822  he  was  made 
king's  counsel  and  chosen  a  bencher  of  Lincoln's  Inn. 
He  was  returned  at  different  times  for  various  boroughs 
to  the  House  of  Commons,  where  he  made  himself  pro- 
minent by  his  opposition  to  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832. 
He  was  appointed  solicitor-general  in  1829,  was  named 
lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  in  1834,  and  again  filled  tha 
same  oflSce  from  1841  to  1846.  Under  Lord  Derby's  first 
administration  in  1852  he  became  lord  chancellor  and  was 
raised  to  tlie  peerage  as  Lord  St  Leonards.  In  this  posi- 
tion he  devoted  himself  with  energy  and'  vigour  to  tha 
reform  of  the  law;  Lord  Derby  on  his  return  to  power  in 
1858  again  offered  him  the  same  office,  which  from  co!i- 
siderations  of  health  he  declined.  He  continued,  however, 
to  take  an  active  interest  especially  in  the  legal  matters 
that  came  before  the  House  of  Lords,  and  bestowed  his 
particular  attention  on  the  reform  of  the  law  of  property. 
He  died  at  Boyle  Farm,  Thames  Ditton,  29th  January  1875. 
Lord  St  Leonards  was  the  auth->i-  of  various  important  legal 
publications,  many  of  which  have  pas.'sed  through  several  editions. 
Besides  the  treatise  on  purchasers  alreadv  mentioned,  they  include 
Powers,  Cases  decided  by  the  House  of  Lovls,  Gilbert  on  Uses,  New 
Meal  Property  Laws,  and  Handybook  of  Prortarty  Law. 

ST  LO,  a  town  of  France,  chef-lieu  -^f  the  department 
of  Manche,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Virc  195  miles  west 
by  north  of  Paris  by  the  railway  which  here  breaks  up 
into  two  branches  for  Coutances  and  Vire  respectively. 
The  old  town  stands  on  a  rocky  hill  (110  feet  high)  com- 
manding the  river ;  the  modern  town  spreads  c-ut  below. 
Notre  Dame  is  a  Gothic  building  of  the  I4th  century, 
with  portal  and  two  towers  of  the  15th.  In  the  town- 
house  is  the  Torigny  marble,  commemorating  the  assem- 
blies held  in  Gaul  under  the  Eomans  and  now  serving  as 
a  pedestal  for  the  bust  of  Leverrier  the  astronomer,  wh-> 
was  born  at  St  L6.  The  museum  has  some  good  pictures, 
and  in  the  abbey  of  St  CroLs  there  are  windows  -of  the 
14th  century.  The  Champs  da  Mars  is  a  fine  tree-planted 
place.  Horse-breeding,  cloth  and  calico  weaving,  wool- 
spinning,  currying  and  tanning,  are  the  local  industries. 
The  population  in  1881  was  9889  (10,121  in  the  commune). 

St  L6,  founded  in  the  Gallo-Roman  period,  was  originally  called 
Briovira  (bridge  on  the  "\^ire),  and  afterwards  St  ^tienne,  the  present 
name  being  from  one  of  its  bishops  (Lo,  Landus),  V7ho  lived  in  the 
6th  century.  By  the  time  of  Charlemagne  the  town  was  already 
surrounded  with  walls  and  contained  the  abbey,  which  was  sacked 
by  the  Normans.  In  1141  it  fell  into  the  hand*  of  Geoffrey  Planta- 
genet.  But  in  1203  the  castle  opened  its  gates  to  Philip  Augustus, 
and,  weaving  being  introduced,  St  L*  goon  became  a  flourishing 
industrial  centre.  In  the  middle  of  the  14th  century  Edward  III. 
of  England  captured  the  town  and  according  to  Froissart  obtained 
immense  booty.  It  was  again  taken  by  the  English  in  1417,  but 
the  victory  of  Formigny  (1450)  restored  it  pe'-manently  to  France. 
The  hearty  welcome  it  gave  to  the  Reformation  brought  upon  St 
L6  new  disasters  and  new  sieges.  The  revocatipu  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  led  to  the  emigration,  of  a  part  of  the  inhab-'tants.  In  1800 
the  town  was  made  the  centre  of  the  department,  but  by  Napoleon's 
orders  it  was  deprived  of  its  fortificatious. 

ST  LOUIS,  the  capital  of  Senegambia  or  Senegal, 
West  Africa,  and  kno^wn  to  the  natives  as  far  as  Timbuktu 
as  N'dar,  is  built  on  an  island  10  sea-miles  above  the 
mouth  of  the  Senegal  river,  near  the  right  bank,  which 
is  there  a  narrow  strip  of  sand — the  Langue  de  Barbarie — 
occupied  by  the  villages  of  N'dar  Tuute  and  Guet  N'dar. 
Two  bridges  on  piles  connect  the  town  with  the  villages ; 
and  the  Pont  Faidherbe,  2132  feet  long  and  constructed 
in  1863,  aflords  communication  with  BouetvOle,  a  suburb 
and  the  terminus  of  the  railway,  on  the  left  bank,  '  The 
houses  of  the  European  portion  of  St  Louis  have  for  the 
most  part  flat  roofs,  balconies,  and  terraces.  Besides  the 
governor's  residence  the  most  prominent  buildings  are  tha 
cathedral,  the  great  mosque,  the  court-house,  and^tba 


ST      LOUIS 


183 


Tarious  barracks  and  offices  connected  with  the  army. 
The  town  also  contains  the  Senegal  bank  (1855),  a  Govern- 
ment printing-office  (1855),  a  chamber  of  commerce  (1869), 
a  public  library,  and  an  agricultural  society  (1874).  The 
round  beehive  huts  of  Guet  N'dar  are  mainly  inhabited 
by  native  fishermen.  N'dar  Toute  consists  of  villas  with 
gardens,  and  is  frequented  as  a  summer  watering-place. 
There  is  a  pleasant  public  garden  in  the  town,  and  the 
neighbourhood  is  rendered  attractive  by  alleys  of  date- 
palms.  As  there  are  no  natural  wells  on  the  island,  and 
the  artesian  well  at  the  north  side  of  the  town  gives  only 
brackish  water,  St  Louis  used'  to  be  dependent  on  rain- 
tanks  and  the  river  (and  except  during  the  rainy  season 
the  water  in  the  lower  part  of.  the  river  is  salt) ;  but  in 
1879  1,600,000  francs  were  appropriated  to  the  construc- 
tion of  a  reservoir  at  a  height  of  300  feet  above  the  sea, 
7i  miles  from  the  town.  The  mouth  of  the  Senegal  being 
closed  by  a  bar  of  sand  with  extremely  shifting  entrances 
for  Small  vessels,  the  steamships  of  the  great  European 
lines  do  not  come  up  to  St  Louis,  and  passengers,  in  order 
to  meet  them,  are  obliged  to  proceed  by  rail  to  Dakar,  on 
the  other  side  of  Cape  Verd.  Ordinary  vessels  have  often 
to  wait  outside  or  inside  the  bar  for  days  or  weeks  and 
partial  unloading  is  often  necessary.  It  is  proposed  to 
construct  a  pier  opposite  Guet  N'dar.  The  population 
of  St  Louis  was  15,980  in  1876  and  18,924  in  1883. 
Though  founded  in  1662,  the  town  did  not  receive  a 
municipal  government  till  August  1872.     See  Senegal, 

ST  LOUIS,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  chief  city  of 
the  State  of  Missouri,  is  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Mississippi  river,  20  miles  below  its  confluence  with  the 
Missouri  river  and  200  miles  above  the  influx  of  the  Ohio, 
in  38°  38'  3"-6  N.  lat.  and  90°  12',17"  W.  long.  It  is 
distant  by  river  about  1200  miles  from  New  Orleans,  and 
729  from  St  Paul  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Missis- 
sip))i,  and  occupies  a  position  near  the  centre  of  the  great 
basin  through  which  the  mingled  flood  of  the  Mississippi 
and  Missouri  and  their  extensive  system  of  tributaries  is 
carried  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  site  embraces  a  series  of 
undulations  extending  westwards  with  a  general  direction 
nearly  parallel  to  the  river,  which  at  this  point  makes  a 
wide  curve  to  the  east.  The  extreme  length  in  a  straight 
line  is  17  miles,  the  greatest  width  6  60  miles,  the  length 
of  river  front  19'15  miles,  and  the  area  (including  con- 
siderable territory  at  present  suburban  in  character)  62J 
square  miles.  The  elevation  of  the  city  directrix  above 
the  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  428  feet,  that  of  the 
highest  point  of  ground  in  the  city  above  the  directrix  is 
203  feet ;  the  extreme  high-water  mark  above  the  directrix 
is  7  feet  7  inches,  and  the  extreme  low-water  mark  below 
the  same  is  33  feet  9J  inches.  The  elevated  site  of  the 
city  prevents  any  serious  interruption  of  business  by  high 
■water,  even  in  seasons  of  unusual  floods. 

The  plan  of  the  city  is  rectilinear,  the  ground  being  laid 
•out  in  blocks  about  300  feet  square,  with  the  general  direc- 
tion of  street  lines  north-south  and  east-west.  The  wharf 
or  river  front  is  known  as  the  Levee  or  Front  Street,  the 
next  street  west  is  Main  Street,  and  the  next  Second,  and 
thence  the  streets  going  north-south  are,  with  few  excep- 
tions, in  numerical  order  (Third,  Fourth,  ic).  Fifth  Street 
has  recently  been  named  Broadway.  The  east-west  streets 
bear  regular  names  (Chestnut,  Pine,  Washington,  Franklin, 
and  the  like).  Market  Street  is  regarded  as  the  middle  of 
the  city,  and  the  numbering  on  the  intersecting  streets 
commences  at  that  line,  north  and  south  respectively.  One 
hundred  house  numbers  are  allotted  to  each  block,  and 
the  blocks  follow  in  numerical  order.  The  total  length  of 
paved  streets  in  St  Louis  is  316  miles,  of  unpaved  streets 
and  roads  427,  total  743  miles.  In  the  central  streets, 
Wibject  to  heavy  traffic,  the  pavement  is  of  granite  blocks ; 


wood,  asphalt,  and  limestone  blocks  and  Telford  pave- 
ments arc  ahn  n^i^A      Th-r->  <>.re  nearly  300  miles  of  mac- 


f  10.  1.— Plan  of  St  Louis  (Central  Part). 


1.  Fonr  Courts. 

2.  City  HaU. 

8.  Exposition  Building. 
4.  Castom  House. 
6.  Washington  University, 
6.  Court  House. 


7.  Union  Dep^t. 

8.  First  Presbyterian  Chorch. 

e.  Temple  of  the  Gates  of  Truth. 

10.  8t  Peter  and  Paul  Church. 

11.  Lindcll  Hotel. 

12.  Southern  Hotel. 


adamized  streets,  including  the  roadways  in  the  new  limits. 
The  length  of  paved  alleys  is  about  66  miles.  The  city  has 
an  extensive  sewer  system  (total  length  223  mUcs),  and, 
owing  to  the  elevation  of  the  residence  and  business  dis- 
tricts above  the  river,  the  drainage  is  admirable.  The 
largest  sewer,  Mill  Creek  (20  feet  wide  and  15  feet  high), 
runs  through  the  middle  of  the  city,  from  west  to  east, 
following  the  coui'se  of  a  stream  that  existed  in  earlier 
days.  The  water-supply  is  derived  from  the  Mississippi ;  the 
water  is  pumped  into  settling  basins  at  Bissell's  Point,  and 
thence  into  the  distributing  pipes,  the  surplus  flowing  to 
the  storage  reservoir  on  Compton  Hill,  which  has  a  capacity 
of  60,000,000  gallons.  The  length  of  water-pipe  is  neariy 
250  miles;  the  capacity  of  the  low-sers'ice  engines  which 
pump  tlie  water  into  tlio  settling  basins  is  56,000,000 
gallons  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  that  of  the  high-scrvico 
engines  which  supi)ly  the  distributing  system  70,000,000 
gallons.  The  average  daily  consunijition  in  twenly-fou 
hours  is  nearly  28,000,000  gallons.  The  works,  which  are 
owned  by  the  city,  cost  over  §6,000,000.    Among  the  morsi 


184 


ST      LOUIS 


imiJortant  public  buildings  are  the  new  custom-bouse  and 
post-office,  erected  at  a  cost  of  over  §5,000,000  ;  the  mer- 
chants' exchange,  which  contains  a  grand  hall  221  feet  10 
inches  in  length  by  62  feet  10  inches  in  width  and  60  feet  in 
height;  the  court-house,  where  the  civil  courts  hold  their 
sessions ;  the  four  courts  and  jail,  in  which  building  are  the 
headquarters  of  the  police  department  and  the  chambers 
of  the  criminal  courts  ;  the  cotton  exchange  ;  the  new  ex- 
position and  music-hall  building  on  Olive  Street,  erected 
by  public  subscription ;  and  the  Crow  Museum  of  Fine 
Arts.  The  present  city-hall  is  a  large  but  hardly  orna- 
mental edifice.  The  mercantile  library,  on  Fifth  and 
Locust  Streets,  contains  nearly  65,000  volumes  and  also  a 
valuable  art  collection.  The  public  school  library  in  the 
polytechnic  building  has  about  55,000  volumes.  There 
are  six  handsome  theatres  and  various  other  smaller  places 
of  amusement.  The  public  school  system  of  St  Louis 
includes  the  kindergarten  (for  which  St  Louis  has  become 
somewhat  celebrated),  the  grammar-schools  (including  eight 
grades,  of  a  year  each),  and  a  high  school,  besides  the 
normal  school  and  a  school  for  deaf  mutes.  The  public 
schools  naturally  absorb  much  the  largest  number  of  pupils; 
but  the  parochial  schools  and  the  private  schools  gathered 
about  the  Washington  university  are  also  much  frequented. 
The  number  of  pupils  in  1883-84  was  in  the  normal  school 
64,  high  school  783,  grammar-schools  52,280,  total  in  day 
schools  53,127  ;  total  in  day  and  evening  schools  56,366. 
The  total  number  of  public  school  buildings  is  104;  and 
the  value  of  property  used  for  school  purposes  $3,229,148; 
all  the  school  edifices  are  substantial  and  convenient,  and 
many  architecturally  attractive.  The  receipts  of  the  public 
school  system  for  1884  were  §941,332,  and  the  total  ex- 
penditure $934,609,  the  amount  paid  to  teachers  being 
§632,873.  Of  parochial  schools  there  are  about  75.  The 
Washington  and  St  Louis  universities  are  old  and  well- 
established  institutions.  There  are  also  the  Mary  Institute 
and  the  manual  training  school,  both  connected  with  Wash- 
ington university,_  the  college  of  the  Christian  Brothers, 
convent  seminaries,  and  numerous  medical  colleges.  In 
addition  there  are  art  schools,  singing  and  gymnastic 
societies,  and  other  similar  organizations  and  establish- 
ments. There  are  published  in  St  Louis  four  daily  news- 
papers in  English  and  four  in  German,  and  also  a  number 
of  weekly  publications. 

There  are  16  Baptist  churches,  8  Congregational, 
13  Episcopal,  25  German  Evangelical  and  Lutheran,  6 
Hebrew  congregations,  18  Methodist  Episcopal,  8  Methodiat 
Episcopal  Church  (South),  25  Presbyterian,  45  Roman 
Catholic,  and  3  Unitarian.  Many  of  the  buildings  are  of 
imposing  proportions,  built  of  stone,  massive  in  character, 
and  with  lofty  spires.  The  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  built 
in  1830,  is  the  oldest  church  now  in  use.  On  the  high 
ground  in  the  central- western  portion  of  the  city  (Stoddard's 
Addition)  will  be  found  most  of  the  costly  church  build- 
ings, whilst  in  the  northern  and  southern  portions  of  the 
city  there  are  very  few  indeed. 

The  parks  and  squares  of  St  Louis  number  1 9,  covering 
nearly  2100  acres.  Tower  Grove  Park,  in  the  south-western 
suburbs,  containing  about  266  acres,  was  presented  by  Mr 
Henry  Shaw.  The  smaller  parks  are  situated  to  the  east 
of  Grand  Avenue,  and  the  driving  parks  in  the  suburbs, 
— O'Fallon  Park  (158  acres)  at  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  city,  Forest  Park  (1372  acres)  west  of  the  central 
liortion,  Tower  Grove  in  the  south-west,  and  Carondelet 
(180  acres)  in  the  south.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
Tower  Grove  Park  are  the  Missouri  Botanical  Gardens, 
established  by  Mr  Henry  Shaw,  and  containing  the  most 
extensive  botanical  collection  in  the  United  States.  In 
addition  to  the  parks,  the  Fair  Grounds  in  the  north-west 
should  be  mentioned,  where  the  annual  fair  is  held,  and 


where  there  is  a  permanent  zoological  department.  An 
amphitheatre,  capable  of  seating  between  20,000  i\nd 
30,000  sjiectators,  and  a  race-course  with  a  most  elabo- 
rate grand  stand,  are  among  the  other  features.  There 
are  various  beer-gardens  in  the  city,  largely  frequented  as 
pleasure-resorts.  There  are  about  120  miles  of  street  rail- 
ways in  operation. 

The  following  table  shows  the  population  of  St  Louis 
at  different  periods  : — 


1799 925 

ISIO 1,400 

1S20 4,928 

1830 5,S62 

1840 16,469 

1850 74,439 


1S56    125,200 

1866    204,327 

1870  (United  States  i 

census)    310,864, 

18S0   350,618' 


The  figures  of  the  United  States  census  are  strictly  con- 
fined to  municipal  limits,  and  do  not  include  the  residents 
of  East  St  Louis  and,  of  various  suburban  localities,  pro- 
perly a  part  of  the  city  population.  In  1880  the  popula- 
tion (179,520  males,  170,998  females)  was  divided  as 
follows :— native,  245,505;  foreign-born,  105,013.  Of 
the  latter  36,309  came  from  Great  Britain  (28,536  Irish) 
and  54,901  from  Germany.  The  death-rate  per  thousand 
in  1882  was  19-6,  in  1883  it  was  20-4,  and  in  1885 
(population  being  estimated  at  400,000)  it  was  19'7. 

The  police  force,  including  detectives  and  employes,  numter& 
about  500  men.  The  fire  brigade  numbers  250  men,  with  22  engine- 
houses.  The  city  has  three  public  hospitals,  an  asylum  for  the 
insane,  a  poorhouse,  a  workhouse  for  the  confinement  and  employ- 
ment of  prisoners  charged  with  petty  offences,  and  a  house  of 
refuge  which  is  a  reformatory  institution  for  juvenile  offenders  and 
for  the  education  of  children  thrown  upon  the  care  of  the  city  by 
abandonment  or  otherwise.  The  number  of  asylums,  hospitals,  and 
other  institutions  supported  by  private  charity  is  very  large. 

Govenuncnt  and  Finance. — St  Louis  is  not  included  in  any  county 
of  the  State,  but  exists  as  a  separate  municipality.  It  was  formerly 
erabiaced  in  St  Louis  county,  and  was  within  the  jurisdiction  and 
ta.fing  power  of  a  city  and  county  government.  The  State  con- 
stitution was  revised  in  1875  and  two  years  later  the  separation  of 
the  city  and  the  county  government  was  effected,  the  former  being 
reorganized  under  the  present  charter.  The  city  levies  and  collects, 
municipal  and  State  revenues  within  its  limits,  and  manages  its- 
own  affairs,  free  from  all  outside  control,  except  that  of  the  legis- 
lature of  the  State.  The  voters  of  the  city  have  the  right  to  amend 
the  charter  at  intervals  of  two  years  at  a  general  or  special  election, 
— provided  the  proposed  amendments  have  been  duly  sanctioned, 
and  submitted  to 
the  people  by  the 
municiiial  asiiem- 
bly.  Trie  legisla- 
tive power  of  the 
city  is  in  the 
handsofacouncil 
and  a  house  of 
delegates,  styled 
collectively  the 
municipal  assem- 
bly. The  council 
is  composed  of 
thirteen  mem- 
bers, elected  for 
four  years  by 
the  voters  of  the 
city  generally, 
and  the  house  of 
delegates  con- 
sists of  one  mem- 
ber from  each  of 
the  twenty-eight 
wards,  elected  for 
two  j-ears.  The 
following  officers 
are  elected  for 
a  term  of  four 
years  :  —  mayor, 
comptroller,  au- 
ditor, treasurer, 
registrar,  col- 
lector, recorder  ,  , 
of  deeds,  inspector  of  weights  and  measures,  sheriff;  coroner,  marsnai,, 
public  administrator,  president  of  the  board  of  assessors,  and  pre- 


FiQ.  2. — St  Louis  and  environs. 


ST     LOUIS 


185 


sident  of  the  board  of  putlic  improTemcnta.  The  elective  officers, 
iocUidiBg  the  membera  of  the  board  of  public  imrrovements,  are 
nominated  by  the  mayor  and  approved  by  the  council,  and  the 
appointments  are  made  at  the  beginning  of  the  third^car  of  the 
mayor's  term,  so  as  to  remove  the  distribution  of  mnnicipal  patron- 
age from  the  influences  of  a  general  city  election.  The  power  of 
tfio  mayor  and  conncfil  touching  appointments  to  office  and  removals 
is  subject  to  certainreciprocal  checks.  ,  ,,     -      ,        ••   ,»■,, 

The  bonded  debt  of  St  Louis  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year,  13th 
April  1885,  was  $22,016,000.  This  debt  is  reduced  each  year  by 
the  operation  of  the  sinking  fund.  The  city  has  no  floating  debt. 
The  receipts  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  13th  Aprd  1885,  deducnng 
proceeds  of  revenue  bonds  and  special  deposits,  were  So,659  086,  or 
with  balance  in  treasury  at  opening  of  year  $6,514,877.  The  total 
expenditure  was  $5,681,557.  The  city  tax  rate  for  the  year  1884 
was  $1-75  on  the  $100.  During  the  last  few  years  the  rate  of  in- 
terest on  the  bonded  debt  has  been  reduced  from  6  and  7  per  cent. 
to  5  per  cent,  and  more  recently  to  4  per  cent.  Most  of  the  out- 
alandiig  bonds  are  held  in  England  and  Germany.  All  appropria- 
tions are  rigidly  limited  to  the  available  means,  and  the  increase 
«f  the  bonded  debt  is  forbidden  by  law.  „!»  18«0„t*'e  t^'=\''i« 
valuation  was  $69,846,845,  in  1870  it  was  $147,969,660,  in  1880 
«160,493,000,  and  in  1885  $207,910,350.  _         ,     . ,    ,        , 

CommCTM.— Subjoined  are  a  few  of  the  more  important  facts  and 
figures  respecting  the  commerce  of  St  Louis.  In  1884  there  were 
€  440  787  tons  of  freight  received  by  raU  and  620,350  by  nver, 
making  a  total  of  6,961,137  tons.  In  the  same  year  there  were 
shipped  by  rail  3,611,419  tons  and  by  river  514,910  tons  (total 
4  126  S^g).  The  total  receipts  of  grain  for  1834,  including  wheat 
reduced  to  flour,  were  62,776,832  bushels,  as  against  51,983  494 
bushels  in  the  previous  year.  During  1884  the  amount  of  flour 
manufactured  was  1,960,737  barrels,  and  the  amount  that  changed 
hands  4,757,079  barrels  ;  302,534  bales  of  cotton,  19,426  hogsheads 
of  tobacco,  and  118,484,220  ft  of  sugarwere  received;  and  193,8(5,479 
ft  of  pork  in  various  forms  were  shipped.  There  are  thirteen  tobacce 
manufactories,  with  a  production  in  1884  of  22,631,104  ft.  In  liVe 
stock,  lumber,  hides,  wool,  salt,  lead,  and  a  long  list  of  other  com- 
modities the  business  is  large  and  increasing.  Extensive  stock- 
yards are  established  in  the  northern  part  of  the  city,  and  also  m 
East  St  Louis,  where  they  are  known  as  the  national  stock-yards, 
and  cover  a  space  of  over  600  acres.  In  1884  there  were  imported— 
cattle,  450,717  ;  sheep,  380.822  ;  pigs,  1,474,475  ;  horses  and  mules, 
41  870  The  shipments  in  the  same  year  were— cattle,  316,43^  ; 
sheep,  248,545  ;  pigs,  678,874  ;  horses  and  mules,  39,544.  There 
are  twelve  grain  elevators,  with  a  "total  capacity  for  bulk  gram  ot 
10  950,000  bushels  and  415,000  sacks.  The  coal  received  during 
the  year  amounted  to  62,349,600  bushels.  The  foreign  value  of 
imports  for  the  year  was  $2,586,876,  and  the  collections  at  the 
custom-house  were  $1,463,495.  .•       j 

Among  the  more  important  manufactures  may  be  mentioned 
those  of  iron  and  steel,  glass,  flour,  sugar,  beer,  bagging,  prepared 
foods,  tobacco,  boots  and  shoes,  furniture,  planed  and  sawed  lumber, 
•wire  and  wire-work,  carriages  and  waggons,  foundry  and  machine- 
shop  products,  hardware,  agricultural  implements,  &c.  Meat  pack- 
ing is  also  an  important  industry.  The  summary  of  manufactures 
in  the  United  States  census  of  1880  shows  2924  establishments, 
having  a  capital  of  $50,832,885  ;  amount  paid  in  wages  during  the 
year',  |l7,743,532  ;  value  of  materials,  $75,379,867  ;  value  of  pro- 
ducts, $114,333,375.  These  figures  ought  probably  to  be  largely 
increased  now  (1886).  In  the  wholesale  grocery  trade  St  Louis  is 
ahead  of  neariy  all  the  inland  cities  of  the  Union.  There  are  be- 
tween twenty  and  thirty  wholesale  houses,  and  it  is  estimated  that 
the  annual  sales  exceed  $30,000,000.  The  Belcher  sugar-refinery 
13  able  to  turn  out  1200  barrels  a  day.  The  capital  employed  in 
the  wholesale  and  retail  dry  goods  establishments  is  estimated  at 
between  $10,000,000  and  $12,000,000,  and  the  annual  amount  of 
business  at  $35,000,000  to  $40,000,000.  The  brewing  business  of 
St  Louis  has  had  an  astonishing  development,  and  its  product  is 
shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  employs  over  $8,000,000  of 
capital,  and  pays  out  in  wages  over  $2,000,000  per  annum.  The 
ale  and  beer  shipments  during  1884  numbered  1,834,545  packages. 
The  brick-making  industry  has  recently  become  important,  and  the 
hard  red  brick  for  building  and  the  fire  brick  produced  in  St  Louis 
are.  among  the  best  to  be  found  in  the  United  States.  In  1884 
there  Were  eighteen  State  banks  and  six  national  banks  represent- 
ing—capital and  surplus,  $14,742,123  ;  saving  and  time  deposits, 
$9,102,021 ;  current  deposits,  $29,000,691  ;  circulation,  $674,150  ; 
total,  $53, 518, 985.  The  clearings  for  1884  amount  to  $785,202,177, 
»nd  the  balances  to  $125,260,945,  making  a  totel  of  $910,463,122. 
Sailtmys.—St  Louis  is  one  of  the  most  important  railroad 
c«ntl«3  in  the  United  States  ;  the  nineteen  lines  which  run  trams 
into  the  Union  dep6t  represent  neariy  20,000  miles  of  railway. 
The  Union  passenger  'dcjiot,  contiguous  to  the  business  centre  of 
the  city,  is  connected  with  the  bridge  over  tho  Mississippi  by  a 
tunneL  Tho  buildings  are  of  a  temporary  character,  and  aro  not 
adequate  to  the  enormous  business  transaettd;  a  new  dcpOt  of 
imposing  proportions  is  now  in  contemplation.    Over  150  passen- 

'MS* 


gcr  trains  arrive  and  depart  daily.  The  tunnel  already  j-eferred  to 
commences  a  few  hundred  yards  cast  of  the  Union  depot.  It  has 
double  tracks  throughout  its  length,  which  is  about  1  mile,  and  is 
suppUed  with  electric  lights,  ventilating  shafts,  and  the  best  ap- 
pliances for  safety  and  convenience.  It  is  leased  by  the  Wabash. 
St  Louis,  and  Pacific  and  the  Missouri  Pacific  Railroad  Companies, 
which  are  also  the  lessees  of  tho  bridge.  The  bridge  across  the 
Mississippi  river  at  St  Louis  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  struc- 
tures in  the  world  in  character  and  magnitude.  It  consists  of  three 
arches,  the  two  side  spans  bemg  502  feet  in  the  clear  and  thd 
centre  span  520  feet,  and  carries  a  roadway  for  ordinary  trafilc  54 
feet  wide  and  below  this  two  lines  of  raU.  Tho  dimensions  of  the 
abutments  and  piers  are  as  follows : — 


East  abatment 

East  pier 

West  pier    . . .  ■ 
West  abutment 


Dimeosions  at 
foundation. 


Thickness. 


ft. 
83 
82 
82 
94 


Dimensions  at 
top. 


Length. 


Thickness 


Height 
from  foun- 
dation to 
top  of  M. 


ft  in. 

47  0 

24  0 

24  0 

47  6 


Fonnda- 
tion  below 

eitremo 
low  water. 


^ 


The  foundations  of  abutments  and  piers  rest  on  solid  rock.  The 
two  piers  and  the  east  abutment  were  sunk  by  means  of  pneumatic 
caissons.  The  greatest  depth  below  the  surface  at  Which  work 
was  done  was  110  feet,  the  air-pressure  in  the  caisson  being  49  ft. 
Each  arch  consists  of  four  equal  ribs  ;  each  rib  is  composed  of  two 
circular  members,  12  feet  apart,  which  are  connected  by  a  single 
system  of  diagonal  braces.  The  circular  members  consist  of  steel 
tubes,  which  are  12  feet  long  and  18  inches  in  diameter  ;  each  tube 
is  composed  of  6  steel  staves,  varying  in  thickness  between  1  A-  and 
2i  inches.  These  staves  are  held  together  by  a  steel  enveloiie, 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick.  The  tubes  are  joined  together  by  coup- 
lings, and  the  end  tubes  are  rigidly  connected  with  wrought-iron 
skewbacks,  which  are  fixed  to  the  masonry  by  long^bolts.  The 
arches  were  erected  without  using  any  false  work.  Work  on  the- 
bridge  was  commencedMarch  1868,  and  it  wasopenedfor  traffic  on4th 
July  1874.  The  total  cost  of  bridge  and  approaches  was  $6,536,7^0. 
The  traffic  across  the  bridge  is  rapidly  developing.  In  1876  the 
.TOSS  earnings  were  $448,447  (loaded  waggons,  45,027  ;  railw.iy 
passengers,  496,686);  in  1884  the  gross  earnings  were  $1,520,483 
(loaded  waggons,  172,730;  railway  passengers,  1,333,360) ;  a  total  of 
2,225,994  touswas  carried  ;  and  the  total  number  of  cars  which 
crossed  the  bridge  was  472,324.  '  _       ,  „   x     - 

ffistory.—ihe  first  permanent  settlement  on  the  site  of  St  Louis 
was  made  in  February  1764,  and  was  in  the  nature  of  a  trading 
post,  established  by  PieiTe  Laclede  Liguest.  Long  prior  to  this 
event  there  had  been  some  exploration  of  the  vast  regions  of  the 
Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  by  Marquette,  Joliet,  La  Salle, 
Hennepin,  and  others  ;  but,  although  a  few  widely  separated  mili- 
tary and  trading  posts  had  been  established,  there  was  no  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  character  and  resources  of  the  countiy.  Laclede's 
expedirion  was  nearly  contemporaneous  with  the  treaty  of  Paris, 
1763,  by  which  the.  title  of  France  to  the  regions  in  the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi  was  practically  extinguished,  Spain  becoming  owner  of 
all  Louisiana  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  JEngland  of  all  territor)' 
cast  of  that  river,  excepting  New  Orleai.s.  The  few  French  forts 
north  of  the  Ohio  were  nominally  surrendered  to  the  English,  in- 
cluding Yincennes,  Cahokia,  Kaskaskia,  and  Fort  de  Chartres ;  but 
there  was  no  immediate  formal  assertion  of  English  control,  and 
French  sentiments  and  manners  and  customs  remained  undis- 
turbed. In  1771  St  Louis  was  fornially  occujiied  by  a  small  body 
of  Spanish] 
of  somewhat 

whicli  few  local  events  of  noteworthy  ( 

May  1780— the  festival  of  Coi-pus  Christi— the  post,  or  vdlage,  was 
attacked  by  Indians,  and  about  thirty  of  the  citi2ens  were  killed  ; 
but  the  savages  were  beaten  oft'  and  did  not  renew  the  attack.  In 
1800  Spain  ceded  back  to  Franco  all  her  territory  of  Louisiana,  aBd 
three  years  later— 30th  April  1803— France  ceded  to  tho  United 
States  all  her  right,  title,  and  interest  in  the  territory  for  eighty 
mUlion  francs.  At  this  time  St  Louis  and  the  adjacent  districts 
had  a  population  of  not  over  3000,  and  tho  total  population  of 
Upper  Louisiana  was  between  8000  and  9000,  including  1 300  ^  egrocs. 
There  were  not  over  200  houses  in  the  embryo  city,  which  con- 
sisted mainly  of  two  streets  paraUol  to  tho  river.  For  fifty  or  sixty 
years  after  tho  landing  of  Lacledo  the  progress  of  tho  town  wa« 
necessarily  slow.  In  1810  the'  population  was  less  than  1600,  and 
in  1830  it  had  not  reached  6000.  From  the  latter  date. progress 
became  steady  and  rapid,  and  the  real  growth  of  tho  city  was  com- 
pressed within  half  a  century.  An  extensive  conflagration  occurred 
in  1849  which  destroyed  most  of  tho  business  houses  onvtho  Lcvoo 
and  Main  Street.  During  the  Civil  War  the  commercial  advance- 
ment of  St  Louis  was  seriously  retarded  ;  but  thb  city  continued 
to  expand  in  population  owing  to  its  adv^nUigcous-gcograid  ic-il 
position.  C-  '■^-  ^  —  > 


[n  1771  St  Louis  was  formally  occupied  by  a  smau  ooay 
troops,  commanded  by  Don  Pedro  Piemas,  and  a  period 

mt  over  tliirty  yeara  of  Spanish  rule  followed,  during 
local  events  of  noteworthy  character  occurred.    On  26tli 


186 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


ST  LUCIA,  a  TVest  Tndia  island,-  discovered  by  Colum- 
bus in  1502,  is  situsted  in  13'  50"-  N.  lat.  and  60°  58' 
W.  long.,  and  has  a  lengtli  of  42  miles  and  a  maximum 
breadth  of  21.  Pigeon  Island,  formerly  an  important 
military  post.  lies  at  its  northern  extremity.  Originally 
inhabited  by  Caribs,  St  Lucia  was  settled  by  the  English 
in  1639,  and,  after  many  alternations  of  English  and 
French  possession,  surrendered  to  the  British  arms  in 
1794.  Sir  John  Moore -was  governor  till  1797.  St  Lucia 
was  subsequently  in  French  possession,  but  was  finally 
i-estored  to  Great  Britain  in  1803.  The  scenery  consists 
bf  mountain,  valley,  and  forest;  two  cone-shaped  rocks 
rise  out  of  the  sea  to  a  height  of  3000  feet,  and  near  them 
tire  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes  and  a  solfatara.  The 
island  is  considered  a  good  coaling  station  for  mail-steamers 
and  war-ships ;  there  is  a  good  harbour  on  the  west  coast, 
below  Castries,  the  capital  (population,  5000).  The  total 
population  was  40,532  in  1883,  of  whom  1000  were 
white,  mostly  French.  St  Lucia  forms  part  of  the  general 
government  of  the  Windward  Islands  (from  which  Barba- 
dos is  excluded) ;  it  has  a  legislative  council  composed  of 
officials  and  crown  nominees.  The  annual  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure were  £43,026  and  £36,652  respectively  in  1883, 
the  debt  (principally  for  Central  Sugar  Factory)  being 
£32,400.  The  tonnage  of  vessels  entered  and  cleared 
was  438,688  ;  the  total  imports  were  valued  at  £191,191 
and  the  exports  (sugar,  7600  tons;  cocoa,  307,120  lb)  at 
£213,823.  The  Usine  or  Central  Factory  system  has 
been  established  with  Government  assistance. 

ST  MALO,  a  seaport  town  of  France,  on  the  English 
Channel,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  estuary  of  the  Eance,  is 
situated  in  48"  39'  N.  lat.,  51  miles  by  rail  north-north- 
west of  Kennes.  It  is  the  administrative  centre  of  an 
arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Ille-et-Vilaine  and  a 
first-class  garrison  town,  surrounded  by  ramparts  of  the 
I3th,  16th,  and  17th  centuries,  which  are  strengthened 
with  great  towers  at  the  principal  gates.  The  granite 
island  on  which  St  Malo  stands  communicates  with  the 
[uainland  only  on  the  north-east  by  a'  causeway  known  as 
the  "Sillon  "  (furrow),  650  feet  long,  and  at  one  time  only 
46  feet  broad,  though  now  three  times  that  breadth. 
inia  causeway  forms  part  of  the  site  of  Rocabey,  an  in- 
dustrial suburb  more  extensive,  though  less  populous,  than 
tt\6  town  itself.  In  the  sea  round  about  lie  other  granite 
rocks,  which  have  been  turned  to  account  in  the  defences 
i)f  the  coast ;  on  the  islet  of  the  Grand  Bey  is  the  tomb 
il848)  of  Chateaubriand.  The  rocks  and  beach  in  the 
vii'ciiit  of  St  Malo  are  continually  changing  their  appear- 
aace,  owing  to  the  violence  of  the  tides.  Equinoctial 
»,i ring-tides  sometimes  rise  50  feet  above  low-water  level, 
ikXid  during  storms  the  sea  sometimes  washes  over  the 
ramparts.  The  harbour  of  St  Malo  lies  south  of  the  tovn 
m  the  creek  separating  it  from  the  neighbouring  town  of 
St  Servan.  It  has  a  wet  dock  with  from  20  to  25  feet 
■jf  water  (30  feet  in  spring-tides),  and  a  mile  of  quays. 
Additional  works  are  projected,  to  make  the  area  of  the 
dock  42  acres  and  the  length  of  quays  1|  miles.  Among 
French  seaports  St  ]\Ialo  stands  twelfth  in  commercial 
importance,  but  first  in  the  number  of  seamen  on  its 
register.  The  annual  imports  and  exports  together  amount 
to  184,000  tons,  and  3000  tons  of  shipping  are  built 
yearly.  Besides  fitting  out  fishing- boats  for  Newfound- 
land, St  Malo  exports  grain,  colza-seed,  cider,  butter, 
tobacco,  and  various  kinds  of  provisions  to  the  Channel 
Islands,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  regular  steamboat 
service.  The  coasting  vessels  have  a  tonnage  of  about 
30,000.  Communication  between  St  Malo  and  St  Servan 
is  maintained  by  a  revolving  bridge.  St  Malo  is  largely 
frequented  for  sea-bathing,  but  not  so  much  as  Dinard, 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Eance.     Parame,  to  the  east  of 


St  !Malo,  has  recently  sprung  into  importance.  The  interior 
of  St  Malo  presents  a  tortuous  maze  of  narrow  streets  and 
of  small  squares  lined  with  high  and  sometimes  quaint 
buildings.  The  old  house  in  which  Duguay-Trouiu  was 
born  deserves  to  be  noted.  Above  aU  rises  the  stone  spire 
which  since  1859  terminates  the  central  tower  of  the 
cathedral.  The  castle,  which  defends  the  town  towards 
the  "  Sillon,"  is  flanked  with  four  towers,  and  in  the 
centre  rises  the  great  keep,  an  older  and  loftier  structure, 
which  was  breached  in  1378  by  the  duke  of  Lancaster. 
St  ilalo  has  statues  to  Chateaubriand  and  Duguay-Trouin. 
The  museum  contains  remains  of  the  ship  "La  Petite  Her- 
niine,"  in  which  Jacques  Cartier  sailed  for  the  discovery 
of  Canada ;  and  the  natural  history  museum  possesses  a 
remarkable  collection  of  from  6000  to  7000  European 
birds.  The  population  of  St  Malo  in  1881  was  10,891 
(commune,  11,212). 

In  the  6th  century  the  granite  island  on  which  St  Jiaip  now 
stands  was  the  retreat  of  Abbot  Aaron,  who  gave  asylum  in  liis 
monastery  to  Malo  (Maclovius  or  JIalovius),  a  Cambrian  priest,  who 
came  hither  to  escape  the  episcopal  dignity,  but  afterwards  became 
bishop  of  Aletli  (now  St  Sei"vau) ;  the  see  was  transferred  to  St 
JIalo  only  in  the  12th  century.  Jealous  of  their  independence, 
the  inhabitants  of  St  Malo  played  off  against  each  other  the  dukes 
of  Brittany  and  the  kings  of  France,  who  alternately  sought  to 
bring  them  under  subjection.  During  the  troubles  of  the  League 
they  hoped  to  establish  a  republican  government  in  their  city,  and 
on  the  night  of  lUh  March  1590  they  exterminated  the  royal 
garrison  and  imprisoned  their  bishop  and  the  canons.  But  four 
year's  later  they  surrendered  to  Henry  IV.  of  France.  During  the 
following  centurT,'  the  maritime  power  of  St  Malo  attained  some 
importance.  In  Kovember  1693  the  English  vainly  bombarded  St 
Malo  for  four  consecutive  days.  In  July  1695  they  renewed  the 
attempt,  but  were  equally  unsuccessful.  The  people  of  St  Malo 
had  in  the  course  of  a  single  war  captured  upwards  of  1500  vessels 
(several  of  them  laden  with  gold  and  other  treasure)  and  burned  a 
considerable  number  more.  Enriched  by  these  successes  and  by  the 
wealth  they  drew  from  Fern,  the  shipowners  of  the  town  not  only 
supplied  the  king  with  the  means  necessary  for  the  famous  Rio  de 
Janeiro  expedition  conducted  by  Duguay-'Trouin  in  1711,  but  also 
Isnt  him  £1,200,000  for  carrying  on  the  AVar  of  the  Spanish  Suc- 
cession. In  June  1758  the  English  sent  a  third  expedition  against 
St  Malo  under  the  command  of  Marlborough,  and  inflicted  a  loss 
of  £480,000  in  the  harbour.  But  another  expedition  undertaken 
in  the  foUomng  September  received  a  complete  check.  In  1778 
and  during  the  wars  of  the  empire  the  St  Malo  privateers  resumed 
their  activity.  In  1789  St  Servan  was  separated  from  St  Malo  and 
in  1790  St  Malo  lost  its  bishopric.  During  the  Reign  of  Terror 
the  town  was  the  scene  of  sanguinary  executions.  Among  the 
celebrities  born  in  St  ilalo  are  Jacques  Cartier,  Duguay-Trouin, 
Surcoul",  and  Mahe  de  la  Bourdonnais — all  four  of  naval  fame — 
Maupertuis,  Chateaubmnd,  the  Abbe  de  Lamennais,  and  Broussais. 

ST  MARTIN,  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  (West  Indies), 
part  of  which  (20  square  miles)  belongs  to  France  and 
forms  a  dependency  of  Guadeloupe,  while  the  remainder 
(18  square  miles)  belongs  to  Holland  and  along  with  Saba, 
(tc,  is  a  dependency  of  Curacao.  Situated  in  18°  N.  lat. 
and  63°  W.  long.,  it  ascends  to  a  height  6i  1380  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  has  a  comparatively  small  cultivable  area. 
The  great  saltpans  of  the  Dutch  portion  produced  in  1882 
276,434  tons  of  salt,  and  there  are  similar  saltpans  in  the 
French  portion.  Sugar  and  live-stock  (horses,  cattle, 
sheep,  goats,  and  pigs)  are  also  exported.  The  chief 
settlement  and  anchorage  in  the  French  portion  is  Marigot, 
in  the  Dutch  PhUippsburg.  The  population  in  1882  was 
7083  (French  portion  3724,  Dutch  3359).  Occupied  by 
French  freebooters' in  1638  and  by  the  Spam'ards  between 
1640  and  1648,  St  Martin  was  divided  between  the  French, 
and  Dutch  in  this  latter  year. 

SALNT-MARTIN,  Louis  Clatoe  de  (1743-1803), 
known  as  "  le  philosophe  inconnu  "  from  the  fact  that  all 
his  works  were  published  under  that  name,  was  bom  at 
Amboise  of  a  poor  but  noble  family,  on  the  18th  January 
1743.  By  his  father's  desire  he  tried  first  la*  and  thea 
the  army  as  a  profession.  While  in  garrison  at  Bordeaux, 
he  came  under  the  influence  of  Martinez  Pasqualis,  a  Portu- 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


187 


guese  Jew,  -nlio  taught  a  species  o£  mj^stlcism  drawn  from 
cabbalistic  sources,  and  endeavoured  to  found  thereon  a 
secret  cult  with  magical  or  theurgical  rites.  In  1771 
Saint-Martin  left  the  army  in  order  to  become  a  social 
preacher  of  mysticism.  His  conversational  powers  mada 
him  welcome  in  the  most  aristocratic  and  polished  Parisian 
salons  ;  but  his  missionary  zeal  led  him  to  England,  Italy, 
and  Switzerland,  as  well  as  to  the  chief  towns  of  France. 
At  Strasburg  in  1788  he  met  Charlotte  de  Boecklin,  who 
initiated  hira  in  the  writings  of  Jacob  Boehrae,  and  at  the 
same  time  inspired  in  his  breast  a  semi-romantic  attach- 
ment. His  later  years  were  devoted  almost  entirely  to  the 
composition  of  his  chief  works  and'  to  the  translation  of 
those  of  Boehme.  He  died  at  Aunay,  near  Paris,  on  the 
23d  October  1803. 

His  chief  works  are — Leltre  d  uii  ami  sur  la  Revolution  Franqaise  ; 
iklair  sur  I'associat ion  humaine ;  De  I'csprit  des  clwses  ;  Miiiistire 
de  thomme-esprit.  Other  treatises  appeared  in  his  (Eum-es  post- 
humes  (1807).  Saint-Martin  regarded  tlie  French  Revolution  as  a 
sermon  in  action,  if  not  indeed  a  miniature  of  tho  last  judgment ; 
its  result  was  to  be  the  regeneration  of  society  by  a  destruction  of 
its  abuses.  His  ideal  society  was  " a  natural  and  spiiitual  theo- 
cracy," in  which  God  would  raise  up  men  of  mark  and  endowment, 
■who  would  regard  themselves  strictly  as  ' '  divine  commissioners  " 
to  guide  the  people  through  the  crises  of  their  history.  This 
mystical  dictatorship  was  to  rest  entirely  upon  persuasion.  In 
like  manner  all  ecclesiastical  organization  was  to  disappear,  giving 
place  to  a  purely  spiritual  Christianity,  the  doctrines  of  which 
constitute  a  species  of  theosophy.  Their  philosophical  basis  in 
Saint-Martin  is  the  assertion  of  a  faculty  superior  to  the  reason, 
which  he  calls  the  moral  sense,  and  from  which  we  derive  our 
knowledge  of  God.  In  man,  and  not  elsewhere,  is  to  be  found  the 
key  to  the  divine  nature.  God  exists  as  an  eternal  personality, 
and  the  creation  is  an  overflowing  of  the  divine  love,  which  was 
unable  to  contain  itself.  The  human  soul,  the  human  intellect  or 
spii'it,  the  spirit  of  tho  universe,  and  the  elements  or  matter  are 
the  four  stages  of  this  divine  emanation,  man  being  the  immediate 
reflexion  of  God,  aud  nature  in  turn  a  reflexion  pi  man.  Man, 
however,  has  fallen  from  his  high  estate,  and  matter  is  one  of  tho 
consequences  of  his  fall.  But  the  divine  love,  united  to  humanity 
in  Christ,  will  work  the  final  regeneration  or  restoration  of  all  things. 

Comp.  Gence,  Koilit  biograpklqiie  (1824);  Caro,  Essai  surJa  vie  et  les  doctrines 
deSait{t'MartinilS^2);  Sainte-Beuve,  Canseries de Lrindi,  vol.  x.  V- 190  ;  Matt<!r, 
Saint'Mnrtin,  le  philosophe  tnconnu  (1862) ;  Franck,  La  philosophie  mya/igiie  fu 
Smnce  a  lajiti  du  dix-huiliime  stick  (1866). 

ST  MiVUR-SUR-LOIRE,  founded  by  St  Jlaunis  (see 
Maurus),  was  the  first  Benedictine  -monastery  in  Gaul. 
It  was  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Loire  about  1& 
miles  below  Saumur.  About  the  middle  of  the  9th  century 
it  was  reduced  to  ruins  by  the  Normans ;  shortly  before 
the  event  and  in  anticipation  of  it  the  relics  of  the  saint 
.  were  transferred  to  St  JIaur-les-Fossds  near  Paris.  St 
Maur-aur-Loire  was  afterwards  restored  and  fortified,  but 
tho  only  extant  remains  consist  of  a  part  of  the  church 
and  a  few  shattered  columns. 

ST  MICHAEL'S.     See  Azores,  vol.  iii.  p.  171. 

ST  NAZjVIRE,  a  town  of  France,  in  tho  departmtsut  of 
Loire  Inf^rie.ure,  and  a  port  on  tho  right  bank  of  the  Loire 
near  its  mouth.  It  has  rapidly  grown  since  the  new  docks 
rendered  it  the  outport  or  detached  harbour  of  Nautes 
(7.^.),  from  which  it  is  distant  29  miles  west-north-west 
by  water  and  40  by  rail.  Begun  in  1845  and  opened  in 
1857,  the  first  basin  has  an  area  of  26  acres  and  1  mile  of 
quays;  and  the  depth  varies  from  20  to  25  feet.  To  tho 
north  of  tho  first  basin  a  new  dock  (Penhouet),  56.  acres 
in  extent  and  .with  1 J  miles  of  quay,  was  constructed  be- 
tween 1 864  and  1 88 1 ,  at  a  cost  of  nearly  £  1 ,000,000.  It 
communicates  with  tho  older  basin  by  a  passage  82  feet 
wide  and  673  long.  Tho  harbour  can  admit  vessels  of  23 
feet  draught  at  every  tide,  the  depth  of  water  on  the  sill 
varying  from  26  to  30  feet  at  high  tide,  and  never  being 
less  than  13.  The  town  is  the  terminus  of  the  General 
Transatlantic  Coitpany,  whose  steamers  connect  Franco 
with  Mexico,  the  Antilles,  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
The  total  imports  and  exports  amount  to  about  1,600,000 
Koaa  annually,  valued  at  £24,000,000.     The  staple  articles 


imported  are  coals  fr6m  Great  Britain  (500,000  tons), 
grain,  sugar,  cofiee,  rice,  timber  (from  the  North),  phos- 
phates, aud  guano.  Pit-props,  salt,  and  preserved  foods 
are  exported.  The  town  being  of  recent  origin,  its  indua- 
tiies  are  only  in  process  of  development ;  but  it  already 
contains  shipbuilding  yards,  large  ironworks,  artificial  fuel 
factories,  sawmills,  a  flour-mill,  and  extensive  commercial 
warehouses.  There  are  no  edifices  of  historical  or  architect- 
ural note  with  the  exception  of  a  granite  dolmen,  10  feet 
long  and  5  broad,  resting  horizontally  on  two  other  stones 
simk  in  the  soil,  above  which  they  rise  6J  feet.  The 
population  was  16,314  in  1881  (19,626  in  the  commune). 

According  to  certain  remains  discovered  on  excavating  the  docks, 
St  Nazaire  seems  to  occupy  ihe  site  of  the  ancient  Coroilo,  placed 
by  Strabo  among  the  more  important  maritime  towns  of  Gaul,  and 
probably  founded  by  the  Phoenicians.  It  was  iu  the  harbour  of 
Corbilo  that  Crassus  by  CKsar's  order  built  the  fleet  by  which,  in 
56  B.C.,  Brutus  routed  tho  220  vessels  of  the  Venetian  insurgents. 
At  the  t^ose  of  the  4th  century  the  site  of  Corbilo  was  occupied  by 
Saxuns,  and,  their  conversion  to  Christianity  being  effected  one  or 
two  hundred  years  later  by  St  Felix  of  Nantes,  the  place  took  the 
name  of  St  Nazaire.  It  was  still  only  a  Httlo  "bourg"  of  3000 
inhabitants  when  it  was  chosen  as  the  site  of  the  new  harbour  for 
Nantes,  because  the  ascent  of  the  Loire  was  becoming  more  and 
more  difficult.  In  1868  the  sub -prefecture  was  transferred  to  St 
Nazaire  from  Savenay. 

ST  NICOLAS,  a  town  of-  Belgium,  in  the  district 
of  Dendermonde,  in  the  province  of  East  Flanders,  19i 
miles  from  Ghent  by  the  railway  to  Antwerp.  It  is  a 
well-built,  modern -looking  place,  with  a  very  spacious 
market-place,  famous  as  the  spot  where  Philip  the  Fair 
swore  in  1497  to  maintain  the  privileges  of  Waesland,  of 
which  St  Nicolas  was  the  capital.  From  a  comparatively 
small  village,  with  only  5000  inhabitants  in  1661,  it  has 
grown  into  a  large  manufacturing  centre,  with  wool  and 
cotton  mills,  needle-factories,  itc,  and  a  population  (in 
1876)  of  24,729.  The  more  conspicuous  buildings  are 
the  town-hall  and  two  of  the  churches. 

ST  OMER,  a  town  and  fortress  of  France,  chef-lieu  of 
the  department  of  Pas-de-Calais,  situated  on  the  Aa  (which 
flows  into  the  North  Sea),  177  miles  north  of  Paris  by  the 
railway  to  Arras,  Hazebrouck,  and  Calais,  at  the  junction 
of  a  line  to  Boulogne.  Before  the  modifications  made  in 
the  defensive  system  of  the  frontier  the  place  was  a  fortress 
of  the  first  class.  At  St  Omer  begins  the  canalized  portion 
of  the  Aa,  which  reaches  the  sea  at  Gravclines,  and  under 
its  walls  it  connects  with  the  Neuffoss^,  which  ends  at  the 
Lys.  There  are  two  harbours  outside  and  one  within  .the 
city.  St- Omer  has  wide  streets  and  spacious  squares,  but 
little  stir  of  life.  The  old  cathedral  is  tho  most  curious 
chuixh  in  Artois;  it  belongs  almost  entirely  to  the  13th, 
14th,  and  15th  centuries.  Of  its  four  portals  the  finest, 
dating  from  the  13th  and  14th  centuries, -was  decorated 
with  statuettes,  unfortunately  mutilated  during  the  Revolu- 
tion. In  spito  of  the  spoliations  of  tho  18th  century,  the 
contents  of  the  church  still  comprise  interesting  paintings, 
a  Virgin  in  wood  of  the  12th  century  (the  object  of  numer- 
ous pilgrimages,  and  solemnly  crowned  in  1875),  a  colossal 
statue  of  Christ  seated  between  the  Virgin  and  St  John 
(13th  century,  originally  belonging  to  tho  cathedral  of 
Thdrouanne  and  presented  by  Charles  V.),  fine  stained  glass 
and  mosaics,  interesting  tombstones,  the  cenotaph  of  St 
Omer,  and  numerous  ex-votos,  distinguished  by  their  an- 
tiquity, originality,,  and  delicacy  of  workmanship!  The 
clearing  of  the  church  from  tho  encroachments  of  other 
buildings  has  led  to  tho  reconstruction  of  the  apsidial  chapel 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  in  tho  purest  Gothic  style.  Of  St 
Bertin,  the  church  of  tho  abbey  (built  between  1326  and 
1520  on  tho  site  of  previous  churches),  where  Childeric  III. 
retired  to  end  his  days,  nothing  now  remains  but  some 
arches  and  a  tower,  190  feet  high,  which  serves  to  adorn 
the  public  gardens  (once  possessed  by  the  monks).    Several 


1,S8 


B  A  1  —  S  A.  1 


^her  churches  or  convent  chapels  are  of  interest/liut  it  is 
enough  to  mention  St  Sepulchre's  (i  4th  century)  for  the 
sake  of  its  beautiful  stone  spire  and  stained-glass  windows. 
A  fine  collection  of  records,  a  picture  gallery,  and  a  theatre 
are  all  accommodated  in  the  town-hall,  built  of  the  materials 
of  the  abbey  of  St  Bertin.  Among  the  five  hospitals  the 
military  hospital  is  of  note  as  occupying  the  college  opened 
by  the  English  Jesuits  in  1592  and  known  as  the  place 
where  O'Connell  received  his  education.  The  old  episcopal 
palace  is  used  as  a  court-house.  Several  learned  societies 
exist  in  the  town ;  the  public  library  contains  20,000 
volumes  and  1000  MSS.  The  arsenal  is  an  extensive  series 
of  buildings.  Besides  30,000,000  to  40,000,000  tobacco- 
pipes  exported  to  America  and  the  colonies,  St  Omer 
manufactures  cloth,  hosiery,  and  tulle,  cambric,  and  muslin 
embroideries.  Its  trade  (and  it  is  the  seat  not  only  of  a 
tribunal  but  also  of  a  chamber  of  commerce)  is  mainly  in 
provisions  for  England,  the  products  of  the  local  industry, 
!ind  those  of  the  paper-mills,  flour-mills,  distilleries,  and 
?ugar-factories  in  the  vicinity,  especially  along  the  banks  of 
the  Aa.  The  suburb  of  Haut '  Pont  to  the  north  .of  St 
Omer  is  inhabited  by  a  special  stock,  which'  has  remained 
faithful  to  the  Flemish  tongue,  its  original  costume,  and 
its  peculiar  customs,  and  is  distinguished  by  honesty  and 
industry.  The  ground  which  these  people  cultivate  has 
been  reclaimed  from  the  marsh,  and  the  legres  (i.e.,  the 
square  blocks  of  land)  communicate  with  each  other  only 
by  boats'  Coated  on  the  ditches  and  canals  that  divide  them. 
At  the  end  of  tlie  marsh,  on  the  borders  of  the  forest  of 
Clairmarais,  are  the  ruins  of  the  abbey  founded  in  1140  by 
Thierri  d'Alsace,  to  which  Thomas  a  Becket  betook  himself 
in  1165.  To  the  south  of  St  Omer  on  a  hill  commanding 
the  Aa  lies  the  camp  of  Helfaut,  often  called  the  camp  of 
St  Omer.  On  15th  June  1884  a  statue  was  erected  to 
jTacquehne  Robin,  a  heroine  who  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV. 
Saved  St  Omer  from  foreign  occupation.  The  population 
Bf  the  town  was  20,479  in  1881  (21,556  in  the  commune). 

Near  a  castle  named  Sifliiu,  Omer,  bishop  of  Tterouanne,  erected 
churches  and  the  monks  of  Luxeuil  established  monasteries  in  the 
7th  century  ;  and  in  the  9th  century  the  vUlage  thus  originated 
tooK  the  name  of  its  founder  St  Omer.  The  Normans  laid  the 
[ilace  waste  in  861  and  881,  but  ten  yeare  later  found  town  and 
monastery  surrounded  by  walls  and  safe  from  their  attack.  Situ- 
ated on  the  borders  of  territories  frequently  disputed  by  French, 
i'lemish,  English,  and  Spaniards,  St  Omer  long  continued  subject 
to  siege  and  military  disaster.  In  1071  PhDip  I.  put  all  to  sword 
and  flame.  Burned  in  1136,  captured  in  1193  by  Richard  and 
Baldwin  IX.,  attacked  in  1214  by  Ferrand  of  Portugal,  in  1302 
and  1303  by  the  Flemish,  in  1337  and  1339  by  the  English,  and 
in  1477  by  Louis  XI.,  St  Omer  at  last  fell  in  1487  into  the  hands 
of  Charles  VIII.  Two  years  later  it  was  recorered  by  the  arch- 
duke Maximilian  ;  and  Charles  V.  strengthened  its  ramparts  with 
bastions.  The  French  made  five  futile  attempts  against  it  between 
1551  and  1596,  and  had  no  better  success  in  1638  (under  Richeheu) 
or  in  1647.  But  on  26th  April  1677,  after  seventeen  days'  siege 
Louis  XIV.  forced  the  town  to  capitulate;  and  the  peace  of 
Nimeguen  permanently  confirmed  the  conquest.  From  time  to 
time  the  people  of  St  Omer  ( Audomarois)  still  celebrate  the  entrance 
into  the  town  of  William  CUton,  count  of  Flanders,  from  whom  m 
1127  they  obtained  a  communal  charter  granting  them  numerous 
privileges.     St  Omer  ceased  to  be  a  bishopric  in  1790. 

SAINTON GE  {Santonia,  Santonensis  tradus),  an  old 
province  of  France,  of  which  Saintes  (q.v.)  was  the  capital, 
H-as  bounded  on  the  N.W.  by  Aunis,  on  the  N.E.  by 
Poitou,  on  the  E.  by  Angoumois,  on  the  S.  by  Guienne,  and 
on  the  W.  by  Guienne  and  the  Atlantic.  It  now  forms  a 
small  portion  of  the  department  of  Charente  and  the 
greater  part  of  that  of  Charente  Inferieure. 

ST  OUEN,  an  industrial  district  in  the  outskirts  of 
Paris,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine,  1  mile  above  St  Denis. 
It  had  17,718  inhabitants  in  1881.  The  docks  (6  acres  in 
area),  where  the  boats  from  the  lower  Seine  discharge, 
are  connected  by  rail  with  the  Northern  and  Eastern  lines 
at  Paris  and  with  the  circular  railway  near  Batignolles. 


The  importance  of  St  Ouen  is  mainly  due  to  its  industrial 
establishments, — foundries  and  forges,  steam-engine  fac- 
tories, dyeworks,  waxcloth  works,  potteries,  d-c. ;  it  has  also 
the  steam-pumps  for  supplying  the  upper  quarters  of  Paris 
with  water  from  the  river,  a  racecourse,  and  a  fine  castle, 
occupying  the  site  of  the  building  in  which  Louis  XVIII. 
signed  (2d  May  1814)  the  declaration  bj  which  he  cro- 
mised  a  charter  to  France. 

ST  PAUL,  a  city  of  the  nited  States,  second  city  of 
Minnesota,  a  port  of  entry  and  the  capital  of  the  State  and 
of  Ramsey  county,  is  situated  in  44°  52'  46"  N.  lat.  and 
93°  5'  W.  long.,  on  the  Mississippi  river,  2150  miles  from 
its  mouth,  10  below  the  falls  of  St  Anthony,  the  natural 
head  of  navigation,  and  360  north-west  of  Chicago.  The 
ground  on  which  the  city  is  built  rises  from  the  river  in 
a  series  of  terraces,  the  ascent  being  in  many  places  pre- 
cipitous and  not  easily  adapted  to  urban  uses. '  The  city 
is  mainly  confined  to  the  second  and  third  terraces,  b.ut  is 
gradually  spreading  over  the  elevated  plateau  beyond.  The 
difiiculties  of  the  situation  have  much  increased  the  cost  c' 
erecting  large  business  structures,  circumscribed  the  busi- 
ness quarter,  and  impeded  the  railway  companies  in  secur- 
ing convenient  and  adequate  facilities.  The  city  site  is 
underlaid  with  a  thick  stratum  of  bluish  limestone,  which 
comes  near  the  surface,  and  which,  while  it  renders  excava- 
tion expensive,  furnishes  unlimited  supplies  of  building 
material  of  a  fair  quality.  The  streets  of  the  older  portions 
are  uncomfortably  narrow,  but  the  newer  streets  are  better 


1.  state  Capitol. 

2.  U.S.  Custom-House  and 

Post-Olfice. 


6.  CTiamber  of  Commerce.' 

7.  Bice  Park. 
S.  Smith  Park. 


Plan  of  St  Paul. 
S.  City-Hall. 

4.  City-Market. 

5.  Opcra-House. 

laid  out.  The  chief  public  buUdings  are  the  State  capitol 
(built  in  1882),  the  United  States  custom-house  and  post- 
office,  the  city-hall,  and  the  city-market.  A  handsome  opera- 
house  and  a  chamber  of  commerce  building  are  conspicuous 
features.  In  1885  there  were  seventy-one  church  organiza- 
tions,— 9  Episcopal,  7  Presbyterian,  4  Congregational,  12 
Methodist,  12  Lutheran,  2  Jewish,  7  Baptist,  11  Roman 
Catholic,  1  Unitarian,  4  Evangelical,  1  Swedenborgian, 
and  1  Disciples  of  Christ.  Besides  the  charitable  institu- 
tions connected  with  the  church  organizations  there  are 
an  orphan  asylum,  a  home  for  the  friendless,  a  Swedish 
hospital,  a  women's  Christian  home,  and  a  Magdalen  home. 
Of  periodical  publications  there  were  issued  in  1885  5 
dailies,  17  weeklies,  and  7  monthlies.  The  city  has  (1886) 
eleven  banks,  of  which  six  are  national  with  an  aggregate 
paid-up  capital  of  $5,200,000,  and  five  State  institutions 
with  a  paid-up  capital  of  §1,150,000.  St  Paul  is  an  im- 
portant railway  centre,  dividing  vrith  Minneapolis  the  ter- 
minal and  distributing  business  of  no  less  than  fifteen  lines 
owned  by  six  difierent  corporations  and  having  an  aggre- 
gate length  of  15,818  miles.  The  navigation  of  the  upper 
Mississippi  acts  as  a  check  upon  the  rates  charged  by  the 


r 


jN   I  Has  V  i&l 


1 


o 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


189 


railway  companies.  Tho  tralTic  at  tlie  port  of  St  PduI  in 
1884  was— tons  landed,  45,800;  tons  shipped,  13,300; 
passengers  carried,  34,625.  Two  lines  of  steamers  ply 
between  St  Paul  and  St  Louis  and  intermediate  points. 
The  average  season  of  navigation  lasts  six  and  a  half- 
months.  The  city  has  within  its  corporate  limits,  but  re- 
moved some  miles  from  the  city  proper,  two  colleges — 
Macalester  (Presbyterian)  and  Hamline  (Methodist) — both 
only  partially  endowed  or  supplied  with  buildings.  There 
are  twenty-two  public  school  buildings,  built  at  an  aggre- 
gate cost  of  §663,000.  There  are  also  several  academies  and 
seminaries  under  private  or  denominational  management. 
The  public  park  system  of  St  Paul  is  as  yet  undeveloped, 
bat  an  area  of  250  acres  has  been  secured  near  Lake  Como 
to  be  laid  out  as  pleasure-grounds.  Rice  Park  and  Smith 
Park  are  public  squares  in  the  central  portion  of  the  city, 
tastefully  adorned  -n-ith  walks  and  shrubbery.  The  popula- 
tion of  St  Paul,  according  to  the  United  States  census,  was 
840  in  1850,  10,600  in  1800,  20,300  in  1870,  and  41,473 
in  1880  (males  22,483,  females  18,990).  According  to 
the  State  census,  it  was  111,334  in  1885. 

St  Paul  is  a  commercial  ratlier  than  a  manufacturing  city.  The 
jobbing  trade  for  the  year  1884  reached  a  total  of  about  $05,000,000, 
an  increase  of  50  per  cent,  in  four  years.  In  the  same  year  manu- 
factures valued  at  620,000,000  were  produced,  the  principal  items 
being  agricultural  implements,  boots  and  shoes,  machinery,  sash, 
doors,  and  blinds,  wagfjons  and  carriages.  There  is  a  large  flour- 
mill,  capable  of  producing  700  barrels  daily.  Tho  lack  of  water- 
Jlo^Ye^  and  the  liigh  cost  of  fuel  are  drawbacks  to  the  growtli  of 
manufactures.  The  main  thoroughfares  have  recently  been  paved, 
for  the  most  part  with  blocks  of  white  aedar,  and  ptone  sidewalks 
arc  rapidly  replacing  wooden  ones.  Tho  water-supply  is  obtained 
from  a  group  of  small  lakes  lying  north  of  the  city  limits,  and  the 
works  are  owned  and  managed  by  tho  city.  The  drainage  is 
excellent.  For  governmental  purposes  tho  city  consists  of  eight 
wards,  each  of  which  elects  three  members  of  council.  The  chief  of 
police  and  all  subordinate  members  of  the  force  are  appointed  by 
tho  mayor,  who  is  elected  by  popular  vote  in  May  of  each  alternate 
yeah  The  aggregate  assessed  valuation  of  real  and  personal  pro- 
perty in  St  Paul  was  860,463,000  in  1884.  The  total  bonded  debt 
of  tho  city  on  31st  March  1885  was  officially  stated  at  $3,027,141. 

Tlie  first  settlement  on  the  site  of  St  Paul  was  ia  1838,  when  an 
nnimportant  trading-post  was  established  there  by  adventurers. 
In  1841  a  Jesuit  missionary  built  a  log  chapel  and  dedicated  it  to 
St  Paul  (whence  the  name  of  the  liamlet).  Tho  site  of  the  future 
city  was  surveyed  and  laid  out  in  1849-50.  About  this  timo  (1851) 
tho  Sioux  Indians  ceded  to  the  United  States  all  lands  hold  by 
them  between  the  Mississippi  and  Big  Sioux  rivers.  Prior  to  this 
cession  the  wlute. population  in  the  then  Territory  of  Minnesota 
had  not  reached  a  total  of  6000,  but  the  removal  of  the  aborigines 
was  promptly  followed  by  a  notable  iutlux  of  white  settlers.  With 
a  population  of  some  2800  in  1854  the  town  obtained  a  fully  organ- 
ized city  government.  Upon  the  admission  of  Minnesota  to  the 
Union  in  1858  St  Paul  was  designated  as  the  capital.  Tho  city 
was  originally  confined  to  the  east  bank  of  tho  river,  but  ia  1874 
by  popular  vote  a  portion  of  Dakota  county  was  transferred  to 
Ramsey  county,  and  West  St  Paul  on  tho  west  bank  of  tlie  Missis- 
sippi, then  containing  some  3000  inhabitants,  became  a  part  of  St 
Paul  proper.  In  1884  an  Act  of  the  State  legislature  extended  tho 
geographical  boundaries  of  the  city  so  as  to  embrace  all  territory 
in  Ramsey  county  westward  to  the  lino  of  Hennepin  county,  and 
virtually  to  tho  corporate  limits  of  tho  "sister"  city  Minneapolis, 
10  miles  distant. 

ST  PAUL,  a  remarkable  volcanic  island  which,  along 
n-ith  tho  island  of  New  Amsterdam,  is  situated  in  the 
Indian  Ocean  about  midway  between  Africa  and  Australia, 
a  little  to  the  north  of  tho  ordinary  route  of  tho  steamers 
from  Plymouth  (via  Capo  Town)  to  Adelaide.  Its  exact 
position  as  determined  by  tho  Transit  of  Venus  E.xpedition 
in  1874  is  38°  42'  50"  S.  Lat.  and  77°  32'  29"  E.  Long. 
Though  the  distance  between  tho  two  islands  St  Paul  and 
New  Amsterdam  is  only  50  miles,  they  belong  to  two 
separate  eruptive  areas  characterized  by -quite  difTerent 
products ;  and  tho  comparative  bareness  of  St  Paul  ia  in 
striking  contrast  to  tho  donso  vegetation  of  New  Amster- 
dam. St  Paul  is  H  miles  long  from  north-west  to  south- 
east and  its  coast-line  is  estimated  at  5  nautical  miles.  In 
thapo  it  is  almost  an  isosceles  triangle  with  a  circle  inscribed 


tangcntially  to  the  north-east  side, — the  circle  (3940  feet  lo 
diametery  being  the  volcanic  crater  which  previous  to  1780 
formed  an  inland  lake,  but  which,  since  the  sea  broke  down 
its  eastern  barrier,  has  become  practically  a  land-locked  bay 
entered  by  a  narrow  but  gradually  widening  passage  not  • 
quite  6  feet  deep.  The  highest  ridge  of  the  island  is  no) 
more  than  820  feet  ^bove  the  sea.  On  the  south-west  side 
the  coasts  are  inaccessible.  According  to  M.  V^lain,  the 
island  originally  rose  above  the  ocean  as  a  mass  of  rhyoUtl.ic 
trachyte  similar  to  that  which  still  forms  the  Nine  Pin 
rock  to  the  north  of  the  entrance  to  the  crater.  Ne.-<:t 
followed  a  period  of  activity  in  which  basic  rocks  were 
produced  by  submarine  eruptions — lavas  and  scoriae  of 
anorthitic  character,  palagonitic  tuffs,  and  basaltic  ashes ; 
and  finally  from  the  crater,  which  must  have  been  a  vast 
lake  of  firo  like  those  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  poured 
forth  quiet  streams  of  basaltic  lavas.  The  island  has  been 
rapidly  cooling  down  in  historic  times.  Dr  Gillian  (Lord 
Macartney's  visit,  1793)  mentions  spots  still  too  warm  to 
walk  on  where  no  trace  of  beat  is  now  perceptible  ;  and 
the  remarkable  zone  of  hot  subsoil  extending  westwards 
from'  the  crater  has  lost  most  of  the  more  striking  char- 
acteristics recorded  by  Hochstetter  in  1857,  though  it  is 
still  easily  distinguished  by  its  warmth-loving  vegetation, 
— Sphagnum  lacteotum  and  Lycopodium  cemuum. 

The  general  flora  of  the  island  is  exceedingly  meagre.  -If  wf 
leave  out  of  view  the  potato,  carrot,  parsley,  cabbage,  ic,  intro- 
duced by  temporary  inhabitants,  the  list  comprises  L'^ibcHifirm, 

1  ;  Compositx,  2  ;  Planlaginaccse,  2  ;  Cyperaccx,  2 ;  Graminacesi, 

2  ;  Lycvpodiaccse,  1 ;  ferns,  2  ;  and  from  35  to  40  species  of  messes 
and  lichens.  The  only  plants  really  abundant  are  an  Tsolepsis 
nodosa  {Cuperaccx)  and  one  or  two  grasses.  None  of  the  trees 
(oak,  apple,  mulberry,  pine,  &c.)  introduced  at  different  periods 
have  succeeded.  The  cabbage,  which  grows  pretty  freely  in  soma 
parts,  shows  a  tendency  to  become  like  the  Jersey  variety.  The 
pigs  mentioned  by  Hochstetter  have  died  ont ;  but  goat?,  cats, 
rats,  and  mice  continue  to  flourish, — tho  cats,  which  feed  mainly  on 
birds  and  fish,  living  in  apparent  amity  and  in  the  same  holes  with 
the  rats.  House-flies,  bluebottles,  slaters,  &c.,  literally  swarm. 
But  nothing  is  so  characteristic  of  St  Paul  as  the  multitude  of  its 
sea-fowl, — albatrosses,  petrels  of  many  kinds,  puffins,  penguins,  &c. 
The  neighbouring  waters  teem  with  life,  and,  while  the  various 
genera  of  the  seal  family  are  no  longer  a  source  of  wealth,  a  number 
of  vessels  (50  to  80  tons)  from  the  Mascareno  Islands  still  yearly 
carry  on  the  fisheries  off  the  coasts,  where  Cheilodactylus  /csciatus 
(in  shoals),  LaCris  hccntcia  {cabot  ovpoisson  defond),  and  ilcndcsomjt 
elongatum  afford  a  rich  harvest.  Tho  stories  told  about  gigantic 
sea  creatures  were  curiously  confirmed  by  the  Venus  Expedition 
iinding  on  the  shore  a  Cephalopod  (since  named  Jifouchtzis  scnicU 
pauli)  which  measured  upwards  of  22  feet  from  the  end  of  its  body 
to  the  tip  of  its  longest  arm. 

The  island  now  known  as  New  Amsterdam  was  probably  that 
sighted  on  18th  March  1622  by  the  companions  of  Magellan  a 
they  sailed  back  to  Europe  under  the  command  of  Sebastiau  del 
Cano ;  and  in  1617  tho  Dutch  ship  "Zecwolf"  from  TexiJ  to 
Bantam  discovered  the  island  which,  instead  of  tho  name  "Zen.  V.f  ' 
then  bestowed  on  it,  soon  after  began  to  be  called  on  tho  charts  .St 
Paul.  Tho  designation  "New  Amsterdam"  is  derived  from  the 
vessel  in  which  Van  Diemen  sailed  between  tho  islands  in  1633. 
Tho  first  navigator  to  set  foot  on  St  Paul  was  'Willcm  van  Vlaming 
in  1690.  Lord  Macartney  spent  a  day  exploring  it  in  1793,  hi^ 
guide  being  a  marooned  Frenchman,  Captain  IVron,  whoso  narrative 
of  his  sojourn  from  1st  September  1792  to  10th  December  1795  is 
a  document  of  grestt  value  (J/t'moi'rcs  dii  Capitaine  Piron,  vol.  i., 
Paris,  1824).  In  1843  tho  governor  of  Reunion  took  posse.ssioa  of 
tho  islands  with  a  detachment  of  marines, — seal-catching  and  tho 
fisheries  having  attracted  to  them  a  considerable  floating  popula- 
tion. In  Juno  1871  tho  British  frigate  "Mega;ra"  was  wrecked  at 
tho  mouth  of  the  crater  and  most  of  the  400  soub  on  board  h.id  to 
reside  on  tho  island  for  upwards  of  thrco  niontha.  Landing  on 
23rd  September  1874,  a  French  Transit  of  Venus  expedition 
remained  on  St  Paul  till  8th  January  1S75,  and  a  viiit  of  much 
importance  was  paid  to  New  Amsterdam. 

Bco  Vflnin,  Dcscnplion  g/at,  rfc  la  rns.ju'llc  dAdtn,  its  Met  it  fa  SiSuni'jn,  il<  fl 
raMl,  lie.  (Paris,  1878),  ntid  lil»  pniure  III  Archiro  <tc  In  nxloalt  aixrimtalalr, 
18(7,  ond  In  Ompitj  Itcndu),  Acad.  ((«&.,  1876;  Sauvuijo  ontho  flBttMln  .ilrcA. 
Zool.  Kxjt.,  1879-80. 

ST  PAUL  DE  LOANDA.     Sco  Loanda. 

ST  PAUL'S  ROCKS,  not  to  bo  confounded  with  the 
island  of  St  Paul  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  are  a  number  of  small 
islauda  in  tho  Athintic,  nearly  1°  north  of  thfl  on'-.ntor  and 


190 


S  A  I  —  S  A  1 


540  miles  from  Soutli  America,  in  29'  15'  TV.  long.  Their 
outline  is  irregular,  and  as  they  are  only  separated  by 
narrow  but  deep  chasms  they  have. the  appearance  of  being 
one  island.  The  whole  space  occupied  does  not  exceed  1 400 
feet  iu  length  by  about  half  as  much  in  breadth.  Besides 
sea-fowl — two  species  of  noddy  (Anous  stolidxcs  and  Anous 
melanogenys)  and  a  booby  or  gannet  {Sida  kucogaster) — 
the  only  terrestrial  inhabitants  are  insects  and  spiders. 
Fish  are  abundant,  seven  species  (one,  Holocentrum  sancti 
pduli,  peculiar  to  the  locality)  being  collected  by  the 
"Challenger"  during  a  brief  stay.  Darwin  (On  Volcanic 
Islands,  p.  32)  decided  that  St  Paul's  Eocks  were  not 
of  volcanic  origin ;  more  modern  investigators — Renard, 
A.  Geikie,  and  Wadsworth — maintain  that  they  probably 
are  eruptive.  See  Reports  of  the  Voyage  of  H.M.S.  dial- 
linger  :  Narrative  of  the  Cruise,  vol.  i. 

ST  PETER  PORT,  the  capital  of  the  island  of  Gheensey 
i'l-v.);  its  population  was  16,658  in  1881. 

ST  PETERSBURG,  a  government  of  north-western 
Russia,  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  stretching 
along  its  south-eastern  shore  and  the  southern  shore  of 
Lake  Ladoga.  It  is  bounded  by  Finland  and  Olonetz  on 
the  N'.,  Novgorod  and  Pskoff  ou  the  E.  and  S.,  Esthonia 
and  Livonia  on  the  W.,  and  has  an  area  of  20,750  square 
miles.  It  is  hilly  only  on  its  Finland  border,  the  re- 
mainder being  flat  and  covered  with  ma-rshy  forests,  with 
the  exception  of  a  plateau  of  about  350  feet  high  in  the 
south,  the  Duderhof  hills  at  Krasnoye  Selo  reaching  550 
feet.  A  great  number  of  parallel  ridges  of  glacier  origin 
intersect  the  government  towards  Lake  Peipus  and  north- 
wards of  the  Neva.  Silurian  and  Devonian  rocks  appear 
in  the  south,  the  whole  covered  by  a  thick  glacial  deposit 
with  boulders  (bottom  moraine)  and  by  thick  alluvial  de- 
posits in  the  valley  of  the  Neva.  The  government  skirts 
the  Gulf  of  Finland  for  130  miles.  The  bays  of  Cronstadt, 
Koporye,  Luga,  and  Narva  afford  good  anchorage,  but  the 
coast  is  for  the  most  part  lined  with  reefs  and  sandbanks ; 
to  the  east  of  Groxistadt  the  water  becomes  very  shallow 
(IS  to  20  feet).  The  chief  river  is  the  Neva,  which 
receives  only  a  few  small  tributaries ;  the  Luga  and  the 
Narova  also  enter  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  The  feeders  of 
Lake  Ladoga — the  Volkhoff,  the  Syass,  and  the  Svir,  the 
last  two  forming  part  of  the  system  of  canals  connecting 
the  Neva  with  the  Volga — are  important  channels  of  com- 
merce, as  also  is  the  Narova  (see  Pskoff).  Marshes  and 
forests  cover  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  surface  (70  per 
cent,  at  the  end  of  the  18th  century). 

The  population  (apart  from  the  capital)  was  635,780  in  1S82, 
827  per  cent,  being  Russians,  IB'O  Finns,  O'S  Esthonians,  and  1-8  per 
cent.  German  colonists  who  have  immigrated  since  1765.  Twenty 
per  cent,  are  Protestants  ;  the  remainder  mostly  belong  to  the  Greek 
Church  ;  but  there  are,also  more  than  20,000  Nonconformists,  about 
6000  Catholics,  and  1500  Jews.  Agriculture  is  at  a  low  stage  and 
very  unproductive  ;  the  Gennaus,  however,  get  advantage  from  it. 
The  Finns  rear  cattle  to  some  extent.  Jlanufactures  are  especially 
developed  in  the  districts  of  Tsarskoye  Selo  and  Yamburg,— cottons, 
silks,  paper,  ironware,  and  machinery  (at  Kolpino)  being  the  chief 
products.  Several  large  manufacturing  establishments — especially 
at  Cronstadt— are  maintained  by  the  state  for  military  purposes. 
The  government  is  subdivided  into  eight  districts,  the  chief  to^ras 
of  which  are  St  Petersburg  (see  below),  Gdotf  (3130  inhabitants), 
Luga  (1650),  Novaya  Ladoga  (4100),  Peterhof  (7950),  Schlusselburg 
(10,400),  and  Yamburg  (3250).  Gatchiua  (10,100),  Karva  (8610), 
Oranienbaum  (3600),  and  Pavlovsk  (3400)  have  no  districts.  Cron- 
stadt and  the  capital  form  separate  governorships.  Okhta,  Kolpino, 
Pulkbva,  and  Krasnoye  Selo,  though  -without  municipal  institutions, 
are  worthy  of  mention. 

ST  PETERSBURG,  capital  of  the  Russian  empire,  is 
situated  iu  a  thinly-peopled  region  at  the  head  of  the  G^ilf 
of  Finland,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Neva,  in  59°  56'  N.  Idt. 
and  30°  40'  E.  long.,  400  miles  from  Moscow,  696  from 
Warsaw,  1138  from  Odessa,  and  1338  from  Astrakhan. 
The  city  covers  an  area  of  21,195  acres,  of  which  12,820 


belong  to  the  delta  proper  of  the  Neva;  1330  acres  ave 
under  water.  The  Neva,  which  leaves  Lake  Ladoga  ut 
its  south-west  angle,  flows  in  a  wide  and  deep  stream  for 
36  miles  south-west  and  north-west,  describing  a  curve  to 
the  soiith.  Before  entering  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  it  takes 
for  ^  miles  a  northerly  direction  ;  then  it  suddenly  tujus 
and  flows  south-west  and  west,  forming  a  peninsula  on 
which  the  main  part  of  St  Petersburg  stands,  itself  sub- 
dividing into  several  branches.  It  discharges  a  body  of 
remarkably  pure  water  at  the  rate  of  1,750,000  cubic  "feet 
per  second,  by  a  channel  from  400  to  650  j'ards  in  width, 
and  so  deep  (maximum  depth,  59  feet)  that  large  vessels 
approach  its  banks.  The  chief  branch  is  the  Great  Neva, 
which  flows  south-west  with  a  width  of  from  400  to  700 
yards  and  a  maximum  depth  of  49  feet  (discharge,  1,267,000 
cubic  feet  per  second).  The  other  branches  are  the  Little 
Neva,  which  along  with  the  Great  Neva  forms  Vasilyevskiy 


Fig.  1. — Environs  of  St  Petersbuig. 

(Basil's)  Island,  and  the  Great  Nevka,  which  with  the 
Little  NeTO  forms  Pelerburgskiy  Island  and  sends  out 
three  other  branches,  the  Little  Nevka,  the  Jiliddle  Nevka, 
and  the  narrow  Karpovka,  enclosing  the  islands  Elagbin, 
Krestovskiy,  Kamennyi,  and  Aptekarskiy  (Apothecaries' 
Island).  Smaller  branches  of  the  Great  and  the  Little 
Nevas  form  the  islands  Petrovskiy,  Goloday,  and  numerous 
smaller  ones  ;  while  a  broader  navigable  channel  forms  the 
Gutueff  and  several  islands  of  less  size  in  the  south-west. 
Two  narrow  canalized  channels  or  rivers — the  Moika  and 
the  Fontanka — as  also  the  Catherine,  Ligovskiy,  and 
Obvodnyi  Canals  (the  last  with  basins  for  receiving  the 
surplus  of  water  during  inundations),  intersect  the  main- 
land. All  the  islands  of  alluvial  origin  are  very  low,  their 
highest  points  rising  only  10  or  11  feet  above  the  average 
level  of  the  water.  Their  areas  are  rapidly  increasing 
(572  acres  having  been  added  between  1718  and  1864), 
and  the  wide  banks  which  continue  them  towards  the  sea 
are  gradually  disappearing.  The  mainland  is  not  much 
higher  than  the  islands.  At  a  height  of  from  7  to  20  feet 
(seldom  so  much  as  29)  the  low  marsh  land  stretches  back 
to  the  hills  of  the  Forestry  Institute  (45  to  70  feet)  on 
the  right  and  to  the  Pulkova  and  Tsarskoye  Selo  hills  on 
the  left.  The  river  level  being  subject  to  wide  oscillations 
and  rising  several  feet  during  westerly  gales,  extensive 
portions  of  the  islands,  as  also  of  the  mainland,  are  flooded 
every  winter ;  water  in  the  streets  of  Vasilyevskiy  Island 
is  a  common  occurrence.  In  1777,  when  the  Neva  ruse 
10-7  feet,  and  in  1824,  when  it  rose  13'8  feet,  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  city  was  inundated.  But,  owing  to  the  con- 
struction of  cauals  to  receive  a  largt.  amount  of  surplus 
water,  and  still  more  to  the  secular  rising  of  the  sea-coast^ 
no  similar  occurrence  has  since  been  witnessed. 

Broad  sandbanks  at  the  month  of  the  river,  leaving  but 
a  narrow  channel  7  to  20  feet  deep,  prevent  the  entrance 
of  larger  ships ;  their  cargoes  are  discharged  at  Cronstadt 


ST      PETERSBURG 


191 


and  brought  to  St  Petersburg  in  smaller  vessels.  A  ship 
canal,  completed  in  1SS5  at  a  cost  of  10,205,400  roubles 
{£1,026,500),  is  intended  to  make  the  capital  a  seaport. 
Beginning  at  Cronstadt,  it  terminates  at  Gutueflf  Island  in 
a  hlirbour  capable  of  accommodating  fifty  sea-going  ships 
at  a  time.  It  is  22  feet  deep,  17i  miles  in  length,  and 
from  70  to  120  yards  broad  at  the  bottom,  and  is  Dro- 
tected  by  huge  submarine  dams. 

Communication  between  the  banks  of  the  Neva  is  main- 
tained by  only  two  permanent  bridges, — the  Nicholas  and 
the  Alexander  or  Liteinyi,  the  latter  467  yards  long;  both 
are  fine  specimens  of  architecture.  Two  other  bridges — 
the  Palace  and  the  Troitskiy  (720  yards) — across  the 
Great  Neva,  connect  the  left  bank  of  the  mainland  with 
Yasilyevskiy  Island  and  the  fortress  of  St  Peter  and  St 
Paul;  but,  being  built  on  boats,  they  are  lemoved  during 
the  autumn  and  spring,  and  intercourse  with  the  islands 
then  becomes  very  difficult.  Several  wooden  or  floating 
bridges  connect  the  islands,  while  a  number  of  stone 
bridges  span  the  smaller  channels ;  their  aggregate  number 
is  ninety.  In  winter,  when  the  Neva  is  covered  with  ice 
2  to  3  feet  thick,  temporary  roadways  for  carriages  and 
pedestrians  are  made,  and  artificially  lighted.  ■  Numerous 
boats  also  maintain  communication,  and  small  steamers 
ply  in  summer  between  the  more  distant  parts  of  the 
capital.  A  network  of  tramways  (about  80  miles)  inter- 
sects the  city  in  all  directions,  reaching  also  the  remoter 
islands  and  suburbs,  and  carrying  about  45,000,000  pass- 
engers yearly.  Omnibuses  and  public  sledges  maintain  the 
traffic  in  winter.  In  1882  hackney  carriages  numbered 
7930  in  summer  and  rose  to  14,780  in  winter,  when  thou- 
sands of  peasants  come  in  from  the  neighbouring  villages 
with  their  small  Finnish  horses  and  plain  sledges. 

The  Neva  continues  frozen  for  an  average  of  147  clays  in  the 
jear  (25th  November  to  21st  April).  It  is  unnavigable,  however, 
for  some  time  longer  on  account  of  the  ice  from  Lake  Ladoga, 
which  is  sometimes  driven  by  easterly  winds  into  the  Neva  during 
several  days  at  the  end  of  April  or  in  the  beginning  of  May.  The 
climate  of  St  Petersburg  is  very  changeable  and  unhealthy.  Frosts 
are  made  much  more  trying  by  the  wind  which  accompanies  them  ; 
and  westerly  gales  in  winter  bring  with  them  oceanic  moisture  and 
warmth,  and  so  melt  the  snow  before  and  after  hard  frosts.  Tlie 
summer  is  hot,  but  short,  lasting  hardly  more  than  live  or  six 
■weeks  ;  a  hot  day,  however,  is  often  followed  by  cold  weather : 
changes  of  temperature  amounting  to  35"  Fahr.  \vithin  twenty-four 
hours  are  not  uncommon.  In  autumn  a  cold  dampness  continues 
for  several  weeks,  and  in  spring  cold  and  wet  weather  alternates 
with  a  few  warm  days.  The  lollowing  figures  will  give  a  more 
CTiplete  idea  of  the  climate  : — 

January.       July.       The  Year. 

Mean  temperature,  Fahr 15"-4  (?4"0  8S*-« 

Baiufall,  inches  0-9  2-6  18'8 

Amount  of  cloud,  percentage SO  63  •  C7 

rrcvailing  winfig S.W.  W.  W. 

Number  of  rainy  days  12"5  12*7  150"6 

Average  daily  range  of  temperature,  Fahr.  2''2  10''2  7°*7 

Relative  humidity 69  74  81 

The  bulk  of  St  Petersburg  is  situated  on  the  mainland,  on  the 
left  bank  of  tlio  Neva,  including  the  best  and  busiest  stioets,  the 
richest  shops,  the  great  bazaars  and  markets,  the  palaces,  cathedrals, 
«nd  theatres,  as  well  as  all  the  railway  stations,  except  that  of  the 
Finland  Kailway.  From  tho  Liteinyi  bridge  to  that  of  Nicholas 
1.  a  granite  embankment  runs  along  tho  left  bank  of  the  Neva, 
fcordered  by  palaces  and  largo  private  houses.  About  midway, 
lohind  a  range  of  fine  houses,  stands  tho  admiralty,  the  very  centre 
of  tho  capital.  Formerly  a  wharf,  on  which  Peter  1.  caused  his 
first  Baltic  ship,  to  bo  Ijuilt  in  170G,  it  is  now  tho  scat  of  tho 
ministry  of  marine  and  of  the  hydrogr.iphical  department,  the  new 
sdmiralty  standing  farther  down  the  Neva  on  tho  same  bank.  A 
broad  square,  now  partly  a  garden,  surrounds  the  admiralty  on  tho 
•west,  south,  and  east.  To  tho  west,  opposite  the  seriate,  stands 
tho  fine  memorial  to  Peter  I.,  erected  in  1782,  and  now  backed  by 
the  cathedral  of  St  Isaac.  A  bronze  statue,  a  masterpiece  by 
Falconet,  represents  the  founder  of  the  city  on  horseback,  at  full 
gallop,  ascending  a  rock  and  pointing  to  the  Neva  ;  the  pedestal 
is  a  huge  granite  monolith,  44  feet  long,  22  wide,  and  27  high, 
brought  from  Lakhta,  a  village  on  the  shore  of  the  Ciulf  of  FinlaniL 
To  the  south  of  the  admiralty  are  several  buiMings  of  the  ministry 
of  war  and  to  the  east  the  VVinter  Palace,  the  work  of.Rastrelli 
(Ut)4),afino  building  of  mixed  style;  but  its  admirable  proportioua 


hide  its  huge  dimensions.  It  communicates  by  a  gallery  with  tn» 
Hermitage  Fine  Arts  Gallery.  A  broad  semicircular  square,  adorned 
by  the  Alexander  I.  column,  separates  the  palace  from  the  gener.il 
staff  and  foreign  ministry  buildings  ;  tho  column,  the  work  of 
ilontfeirant,  is- a  red  granite  monolith,  84  feet  high,  supported  by 
a  huge  pedestal.  Being  of  Finnish  rappa-kivi  (from  Piterlaks),  it 
disintegrates  rapidly,  and  has  had  to  bo  bound  with  massive  iron 
rings  concealed  by  painting.  The  range  of  palaces  and  private 
houses  facing  the  embankment  above  the  admiralty  is  interrupted 
by  the  large  macadamized  "  Field  of  ilars,"  formerly  a  marsh,  but 
transformed  at  incredible  expense  into  a  parade-ground,  and  the 
Lyetniy  Sad  (summer-garden)  of  Peter  I.  The  Neva  embankment 
is  continued  to  the  west  to  a  little  below  the  Nicholas  bridge  under 
the  name  of  "English  embankment,"  and  farther  down  by  the 
new  admiralty  buildings. 

The  topography  of  St  Petersburg  is  very  simple.  Tnree  long 
streets,  the  main  arteries  of  the  capital,  radiate  from  the  admiralty, 
— the  Prospekt  Nevskiy  (Neva  Prospect),  the  Goiokhovaya  (Peas' 
Street),  and  the  Prospekt  Voznesenskiy  (Ascension  Prospect). 
Tliree  girdles  of  canals,  roughly  speaking  concentric,  cross  these 
tliree  streets, — the  Jloika,  the  Catherine,  and  the  Fontanka  ;  to 
these  a  number  of  streets  run  parallel, — the  Great  and  the  Little 
Morskaya,  tho  Kazanskaya,  tlie  Sadovaya  (Garden  Street),  and 
the  Liteinaya,  continued  west  by  Prospekts  Zagorodnyi  and  Rizh- 
skiy(Riga).  The  Prospekt  Nevskiy  is  a  very  broad  street  running 
straight  east-south-east  for  3200  yards  from  the  admiralty  to  the 
Moscow  railway  station,  and  thence  1650  yards  farther,  bending 
a  little  to  the  south,  to  the  Smolnyi  convent,  again  reaching  the 
Neva  at  Kalashnikoff  harbour.  The  part  first  mentioned  owes  its 
picturesque  aspect  to  its  width,  its  rich  shops,  and  still  more  its 
animation.  But  the  houses  which  border  it  architecturally  leave 
very  much  to  bo  desired.  And  neither  the  cathedral  of  the  Virgin 
of  Kazan  (an  ugly  imitation  on  a  small  scale  of  St  Peter's  in  Rome), 
nor  the  still  uglier  Gostinyi  Dvor  (a  two-storied  quadrilateral 
building  filled  with  second-rate  shops),  nor  the  Anitchkoff  Palace 
(which  looks  like  immense  barracks),  nor  even  the  Catholic  and 
Dutch  churches  do  anything  to  embellish  it.  About  midway 
between  the  public  library  and  the  Anitchkoff  Palace  an  elegant 
square  conceals  the  old-fashioned  Alexandra  theatre  ;  a  profusely 
adorned  memorial  to  Catherine  II.  does  not  beautify  it  much.  The 
Goiokhovaya  is  a  narrow  and  badly  paved  street  between  gloomy 
houses  occupied  mostly  by  artisans.  Tho  Voznesenskiy,  on  the 
contrary,  though  as  narrow  as  the  last,  has  better  houses.  In  its 
north  part  it  passes  into  a  scries  of  large  squares  connected  with 
that  on  which  the  monument  of  Peter  I.  stands.  One  of  them  is 
occupied  by  the  cathedral  of  St  Isaac  (of  Dalmatia)  and  another  by 
the  memorial  to  Nicholas  I.,  the  gorgeousness  and  bad  taste  of 
which  strangely  contrast  with  the  simplicity  and  significance  of 
that  of  Peter  I.  The  general  aspect  of  the  cathedral  is  undoubtedly 
imposing  both  without  and  within  ;  its  red  granite  colonnades  are 
not  devoid  of  a  certain  grandiose  character  ;  but  on  the  whole  this 
architectural  monument,  built  between  1818  and  1858  according  to 
a'plan  of  Montferrant,  under  the  pergonal  direction  of  Nicholas  I., 
does  not  correspond  cither  with  its  costliness  (23,000,000  roubles) 
or  with  the  efforts  put  forth  in  its  decoration  by  the  best  Russian 
artists.  The  pictures  of  Briilolf,  Bruiii,  and  many  others  which 
cover  its  walls  are  deteriorating  rapidly  and  their  place  is  being 
taken  by  mosaics.  The  entire  building,  notwithstanding  its  vast 
foundations  and  pile-work,  is  subsiding  unequally  in  the  marshy 
ground,  and  the  walls  threaten  soon  to  give  way. 

The  eastern  extremity  of  Vasilyevskiy  Island  is  the  centre  ol 
commercial  actinty  ;  the  stock  exchange  is  situated  there  as  well 
as  the  quays  and  storehouses.  The  remainder  of  the  island  is  occu- 
pied chiefly  by  scientific  and  educational  institutions, — the  academy 
of  science,  with  a  small  observatoiy  (>shcrc  some  astronomical  ob- 
servations are  carried  on,  not\vithstanding  the  tremors  of  the  earth), 
the  university,  the  philological  institute,  tho  acadtray  of  tho  first 
corps  of  cadets,  tho  academy  of  arts,  tlie  marine  academy,  tho  min- 
ing institute,  and  the  central  physical  observatory,  all  facing  tho 
Neva.  Peterburgskiy  Island  contains  the  fortress  of  St  Peter  and 
St  Paul,  opposite  the  Winter  Palace,  separated  by  a  cliannel  from 
its  "  kronverk, "  the  glacis  of  which  is  used  as  a  nark.  The  fortrcsu 
is  now  merely  a  state  prison.  A  cathedral  which  stands  within  tho 
fortress  is  the  burial-place  of  the  emperors  and  the  imperial  family. 
Tho  mint  is  also  situated  within  tiio  fortress.  The  remainder  o( 
the  island  is  meanly  built,  and  is  tho  refuge  of  the  poorer  olTicials 
[tcliinovniks)  and  of  the  intellectual  prolotiriat.  Its  northern  part, 
separated  from  tho  main  island  by  a  narrow  channel,  be.ini  the 
name  of  Apothecaries'  Island,  andis  occupied  by  a  botanical  pnnieii 
of  great  scientific  value  and  several  fine  private  gardens  and  |>arks. 
Krestovskiy,  Elaghin,  and  Kamennyi  Islands,  as  also  the  opposite 
right  bank  of  the  Great  Xevkn  (.'^laiaya  and  Nov.iya  Dercvnyn), 
are  occupied  by  pnblie  gardens  and  parks  and  by  summer  huu  ■■•i 
(datchis).  Owing  to  the  beat  and  dust  during  the  short  summer 
the  middle-class  inhabitants  and  the  numi-rous  oftieials  and  cleric 
emigrate  to  the  dittchis,  tho  wealthier  families  to  tho  islands  n  .-i 
the  poorer  to  Staraya  and  Novaya  Derovnva   Polustrnvo   Ivu.i..'. 


192 


ST.     PETERSBURG 


leva,  and  as  fur  as  tlic  first  teo  or  three  railway  stations  of  tlio 
principal  railways,  especially  that  of  Finland.  The  mainland  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Neva  above  its  delta  is  known  as  Vyborg- 
skaya  Storoua  (Viborg  Side),  and  is  connected  with  the  main  city 
by  the  Liteinyi  bridge,  closely  adjoining  which  are  the  buildings 
of  the  military  academy  of  medicine  and  spacious  hospitals.  .The 
small  streets  (many  of  them  unpaved),  with  numerous  wooden 
houses,  are  inhabited  by  students  and  workmen  ;  farther  north  are 
great  textile  and  iron  factories.  Vast  orchards  and  the  yards  of 
the  artillery  laboratory  stretch  north-eastwards,  while  the  railway 
and  the  highroad  to  Finland,  running  north,  lead  to  the  park  of 
the  Forestry  Institute.     The  two  villages  of  Okhta,  on  the  right 


bank,  aio  suburbs  ;  higher  up,  on  the  left  bank,  are  several  factories 
{ Alexandrovsk)  which  formerly  belonged  to  the  crown,  where 
playing-cards,  cottons,  glass,  china,  ironware,  and  so  on  are  made. 
Tim  true  boundary  of  St  Petersburg  on  the  south  is  the  Obvodnyi 
Canal ;  but  wide  tracts  covered  with  orchards,  cemeteries,  and 
factories,  or  even  unoccupied  spaces,  are  included  in  the  city  in  that 
direction,  though  they  are  being  rapidly  covered  with  buildings. 

Of  the  21,195  acres  covered  by  St  Petersburg  1160  remain  un- 
occupied. The  gardens  and  parks,  public  and  private,  take  up  798- 
acres,  to  which  must  be  added  Aptekarskiy,  Petrovskiy,  Elaghin,. 
and  Krestovskiy  Islands,  which  are  almost  quite  covered  with  parks- 
Is  early  30  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  of  the  most  densely  populated 


-itde 


'vf*' 


Li. 


w 


es 


:>•<•  rf  1  c><hii,»n« 


<?- 


'^N 


\ 


Fio.  2.— Plan  of  St  Petersburg. 


1.  Stock  Exchange. 

2.  Academy  of  Sciences. 
S.  University. 

4.  Academy  of  First  Corps  of 

Cadets. 

5.  Academy  of  Arts. 
0.  Mining  Institute. 


7.  Physical  Observatory. 

8.  Winter  Palace. 

9.  Statue  of  Peter  I. 

10.  Senate  and  Synod. 

11.  Cathedral  of  St  Isaac. 

12.  General  Staff  Buildings. 

13.  Hermitage  Gallery  of  Ai-t 


14.  Cathedral  of  Virgin  of  Kazan. 

15.  TowTi-house. 

16.  Gostinyi  Dvor. 

17.  Public  Library. 
IS.  Anitchkoff  Palace. 

19.  Orpl.anafie. 

20.  General  Post-Offlce. 


21.  Military  Storerooms. 

22.  Theatres  (Great  and  Mariinski). 

23.  Woscow  Railway  Station. 

24.  Medical  Academy. 

25.  Hospital. 

2i5.  Courts  of  Justice. 
27.  House  of  Detention. 


parts  are  squares  and  streets,  the  aggregate  length  of  the  latter 
being  283  miles.  More  than  half  of  them  are  lighted  by  gas,  the 
remainder  with  kerosene.  Except  in  a  few  principal  streets,  which 
are  paved  with  wood  or  asphalt,  the  pavement  is  usually  of  gi-anite 
boulders,  and  is  bad  and  very  difficult  to  keep  in  order.  Many 
streets  and  embankments  in  the  suburbs  are  unpaved.  Nearly  all 
the  more  populous  parts  have  water  led  into  the  houses  (4733 
houses  in  1883),  and  the  same  begins  to  extend  also  to  the  right 
bank  of  the  Neva.  In  1SS3  7,091,500,000  gallons  of  water,  mostly 
from  the  Neva,  very  pure  on  the  whole,'  were  supplied  by  seven- 
teen steam-engines  to  the  left-bank  portion  of  the  city  (9423 
gallons  per  inhabitant)..  The  number  of  houses  in  1881  was  22,229 
inhabited  and  16,633  Bninhabited.  Of  the  former  18,816  belonged 
to  private  persons  and  3143  to  societies  or  the  crown.  The  houses 
are  mostly  very  large:  of  the  private  houses  no  fewer  than  169 
had  from  400  to  2000  inhabitants  each ;  the  contrary  holds  good 

'  For  analyses,  see  Journ.  Ru33,  Chemical  Soc.,  voL  rv,  5S7. 


of  the  out-lying  .parts,  where  2005  houses  had  fewer  than  20  inha- 
bitants each. 

On  27th  December  1881  the  population  of  St  Petersburg  was 
861,303,  exclusive  of  the  suburbs,  and  929.100  including  them,  thus 
showing  an  increase  of  29  per  cent,  since  1869.  The  census  of 
1881  having  been  made  with  great  accuracy,  the  following  interest- 
ing results  may  be  relied  upon.''  The  density  of  population  varies 
from  1  inhabitant  per  93  square  feet  to  1  per  17,346  square  feet 
(on  Peterburgskiy  Island) ;  the  average  is  1  per  1068  square  feet. 
Less  than  a  third  of  the  aggregate  pojjulation  (29"3  per  cent.)  were 
born  in  the  capital,  the  remainder  coming  from  all  parts  of  Russia, 
or  being  foreigners.  The  males  are  to  the  females  in  the  proportion 
of  122  to  100  ;  at  the  same  time  the  married  men  and  women  con- 
stitute respectively  <9  and  39  per  cent,  of  the  population,  the 
numbers  of  the  unmarried  or  widowed  being  respectively  43  and  3 
per  cent,  for  men,  and  56  and  5  for  women.     The  proportion  of 

^  See  .SI  Pricrshurg  acmrdimj  to  tJu  Census  ofJSSl,  and  the  Stututical  YeaThork. 
I  o/St  felersiurgfir  icSS,  St  Petersburg,  1884. 


ST      PETEESBURG 


C  rider  5  years   . . 
Ftoui  6  to  10  rears 
11  to  10 


,  7'9  per  cent. 
5-7    ..      .. 
8-6 


cJ»>ldrcn  is  small.  The  Uistribution  of  tho  population  according  to 
ffic  is  as  follow!^: — 

From  16  to  CO  years  .  .12-5  per  cent. 
„    21  to  SO     „      ..65-2   „      „ 

Atove 50  years 10'4   ,,      „ 

lie  mortai;t)-  at  St  Petersburg  being  very  high  (34-2  in  1883, 
"rem  297  to  riS-6  in  1868-82),  and  the  niimbor  of  births  only  31 'l 
per  1000,  t\if  deaths  are  in  excess  of  the  births  by  2500  to  3000  in 
ivcra^o  yeirs;  in  1883  there  were  26,320  births  (1151  still-born) 
and  30,150  deaths.  It  must  not  bo  inferred,  ho\yever,  from  these 
fleures  that  the  ropulation  of  St  Petersburg  would  die  out  if  not 
recniited  from  without.  The  larger  number  of  tho  workmen  who 
come  every  year  to  the  capital  leave  their  families  in  the  provinces, 
and  the  births  which  occur  do  i.ot  appear  among  the  births  ol  the 
capital,  while  the  deaths  very  often  do.  The  chief  mortality  is  due 
to  chest  diseases,  which  prove  fatal  on  the  average  to  9000  persons 
annually  ;  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs  also  prevaU  largely  ; 
European  and  perhaps  also  Asiatic  cholera  is  almost  endemic,  an 
average  of  3700  deaths  annually  being  due  to  this  cause.^  Infectious 
liseascs  such  as  typhus  (from  4280  to  5100  deaths  during  tho  last 
few  years),  diphtheria,  and  scarlet  fever  (3500  deaths)  are  common. 
Owin"  to  a  notable  increase  of  these  three  infectious  diseases  the 
mortality  figures  for  the  last  few  years  are  above  the  average.  01 
28,212  deaths  nearly  two-fifths  (12,369)  were  among  children  under 
five.  Another  critical  age  seems  to  be  that  between  21  and  25.  1  he 
number  of  marriages  in  1883  was  6183  (only  7-1  per.  1000  inhabit- 
ants) :  out  of  a  total  of  26,320  births  7977  (30  per  cent.)  were  illegiti- 
mate ;  and  no  fewer  thau  31  per  cent,  of  all  children,  both  legitimate 
and  illegitimate,  born  at  St  Petersburg  are  nursed  in  the  louudlings 
home,  which  sends  most  of  them  to  be  brought  up  in  villages.  Wore 
than  100  000  persons  enter  the  public  hospitals  annually. 

An  interesting  feature  of  the  Russian  capital  is  the  very  high 
proportion  of  people  living  on  their  oVn  earnings  or  income  (  in- 
dependent "),  as  compared  with  those  who  live  on  the  earnings  or 
income  of  some  one  else  ("dependent").  Whereas  at  Paris  and 
Berlin  only  34  and  50  per  cent,  respectively  belong  to  the  lormer 
catcorv,  the  proportion  is  reversed  at  St  Petersburg:  only  33  per 
cent",  282,678  persons  in  all,  have  not  their  own  means  of  support 
(18  per  cent,  of  themen  and  51  of  the  women).  The  proportiou  of 
employers  to  employed,  as  also  the  extent  of  their  respective  famdies, 
are  as  follows  : — 


Employers 

Their  families    

Clerks 

Their  families    

Workmen    

Their  families    

Independent  workers  . 

Their  families    


Trade. 


8,858 

20,867 

3,597 

4,163 

37,559 

11,997 

8,336 

4.470 


Various 
Industries. 


19,508 
88,153 
6,681 
7,491 
195,850 
66,856 
2S,054 
17,808 


Total 


28,366 
59,010 
9,178 
11,654 
233,409 
68,853 
37,290 
22,276 


Only  a  few  industrial  establishments  employ  more  thau  twenty 
worknicn,  the  average  being  less  than  ten  and  the  figure  seldom 
fallino'  below  five.  The  great  factories  are  beyond  the  limits  of  bt 
I'ctci"bar<'  which  contains  a  busy  population  of  artisans  grouped 
in  small  workshops.  The  proportions  of  various  professions  to  the 
total  population  are  as  follows  :— workmen,  1  in  3  ;  servants,  1  in 
10 ;  scholars,  1  in  12 ;  soldiers,  1  in  25 ;  officials,  1  m  61  ; 
"rentiers"  1  in  76  ;  female  teachers,  1  in  186  ;  male  teachers,  1  m 
291  ;  policemen,  1  in  20*-;  surgeons,  1  in  608  ;  advocates,  1  in  1261 ; 
npothicaries,  1  in  1538  ;  pawnbrokers,  1  in  1846  ;  savanls  or  liUe. 
rittcars,  1  in  2121  ;  lawyers,  1  in  2700.  In  respect  of  c  asses,  40i; 
per  cent,  of  the  aggregate  population  belong  to  tho  "peasaiits,  _ 
20-0  arc  mucshchanc  (burgesses)  and  artisans,  12;3  are  nobles, 
2-4  "merchants,"  and  S'l  foreigners.  Tho  various  religions  are 
represented  by  84'9  per  cent.  Orthodox  Greeks,  99  Protestants  3-3 
Riman  Catholics,  and  1-9  various  (16,826  Jews).  On  the  whole, 
the  Orthodox  population  are  not  great  frequenters  of  tUo  churches, 
which  are  far  less  numerous  than  iu  Moscow.  ,      ,       ..       , 

St  Petersburg  is  well  provided  with  scientific  niid  educational 
institutions,  as  also  with  libraries  and  museums.  The  intellectual 
life  of  tho  educated  classes  is  vigorous,  and,  although  36  per  cent, 
of  tho  population  above  silt  years  old  are  unable  to  read,  the  work- 
men must  bo  counted  among  the  most  inlclligont  classes  in  Kussia. 
Notwithstanding  tho  hardships  and  prosecutions  it  is  periodically 
subjected  to,  tho  university  exercises  a  pronounced  mlluence  on  the 
life  of  St  Petersburg.  In  1882  it  had  eighty  professors  and  2165 
students  (908  in  physics  and  mathematics,  776  in  law),  llio  raccU- 
cal  faculty  forms  a 'separate  academy,  under  military  iurisdictiou, 
with  about  1500  students.  There  are,  moreover,  a  philological  insti- 
tute, a  technological  institute,  a  forestry  academy,  an  cnjjinccnng 
academy,  two  theological  academies  (Greek  and  Roman  Catholic), 


193 

an  academy  of  arts,  five  military  academies,  a  high  school  of  law 
aud  a  lyceum.     Higher  instruction  for  womon  is  represented  by  a 
medical  academy  (now  ordered  to  bo  closed),  by  a  free  university 
with  914  students  in  1882,  the  standards  of  instruction  and  exami- 
nation in  both  being  equal  to  those  of  tho  other  universities,  and 
bv  higher  pedagogical  courses.     For  secondary  education  there  are 
twelve  classical  gymnasia  for  boys  and  nine  for  girls,  with  four 
private  gymnasia  and  three  progymnasia,  eight  "real  schools,    five 
seminaries  for  teachers,  ten  militai?  schools,  three  German  gym- 
nasia and  five  other  schools.    For  primary  education  there  are  156 
municipality  schools  (7226  scholars  in  1883),   16  schools  of  the 
-cmslvo  and  about  450  others  maintained  either  by  public  institu- 
tions or  by  private  persons  ;  19,400  boys  and  girls  received  mstruc- 
tion  in  431  pubUc  schools  in  1884,  the  aggregate  cost  being  £24,765  ,' 
about  70  institutions  for  receiving  the  younger  children  of  the 
poorer  classes  and  several  private  "kindergartens    must  be  added 
to  the  above.     The  scientific  institutions  are  numerous.     Iho 
academy  of  sciences,  opened  in  1726,  has  rendered  immense  service 
in  the  exploration  of  Russia.'    The  oft-repeated  reproach  that  it 
keens  its  uoors  shut  to  Russian  savants,  while  opening  them  too 
widely  to  German  ones,  is  not  without  foundation  ;  but  the  services 
rendered  to  science  by  the  Germans  in  connexion  with  the  academy 
are  undoubtedly  very  great.     The  Pulkova  astronomical  observa- 
tory, the  chief  physical  (meteorological)  observatory  (with  branches 
throughout  Russia  and  Siberia),  the  astronomical  observatory  at 
VUnafthe  astronomical  and  magnetical  observatory  at  Pekmg,  and 
the  botanical  gardeu,^  all  attached  to  the  academy  of  sciences,  issue 
every  year  publications  of  the  highest  scientilic  value     The  Socie^ 
of  Naturalists  aud  the  Physical  and  Chemical  Socie  y,  though  hss 
than  twenty  years.old,  have  already  issued  most  valuable  pubUca- 
tions,  which  are  not  so  well  known  abroad  as  they  deserve  tO  be. 
The  still  more  recently  founded  geological  committee  is  ably  pusH- 
ing  forward  the  geological  survey  of  the  country ;  the  Mmeralogica! 
Society  was  founded  hi  1817.    The  Geographical  Society,  with  four 
sections  (923  members)  and  branch  societies  for  West  and  has. 
.Siberia,  Caucasus,  Orenburg,  the  north-western  and  south-western 
provinces  of  Em-opean  Russia,  all  liberaUy  aided  by  the  state,  is 
well  known  for  its  valuable  work,  as  is  also  the  Eutomo  ogical 
Society.      There  are  four  medical  societies,  and  an  Arcbseological 
Society- (since  1846),  an  Historical  Society,  an  Economical  Society 
(120  years  old).  Gardening,  Forestry,  Technical,^ Navigation  Socie- 
ties  and  others,  as  also  several  scientific  committees  appointed  at 
the  ministries.     The  scientific  work  of  the  hydrographical  depart- 
ment and  of  the  general  staff  is  well  known.     On  the  whole,  there 
is  access  to  all  these  societies,  as  well  as  to  their  museums  and 
libraries.     At  St  Petersburg  classical  music  always  finds  farst-rate 
performers  and  attentive  hearers.    The  conservatory  of  music  gives 
a  superior  musical  instruction.    The  Musical  Society  is  also  worthy 
of  notice.     Art,  on  the  other  hand,  has  not  freed  itself  from  the 
old  scholastic  methods  at  the  academy.      Severa    independent 
artistic  societies  seek  to  remedy  this  drawback,  and  are  the  true 
cradleof  the  Russian  ffcri re  painters.  ,     „,_   ,       .    t,  „  „„„ 

The  imperial  public  library,  open  free  for  S47  days  m  the  year, 
thoucrh  far  behind  the  British  Museum  and  the  BlblIoth^uo 
NatiSnale  in  the  number  of  volumes,  nevertheless  contains  rich 
collections  of  books  and  MSS.  Its  first  nucleus  was  the  libra'T  ff 
the  Polish  republic  seized  in  1795  (262  640  volumes  and  24,574 
prints),  ooUccted  mostly  by  Archbishop  Zalusski  of  KiefT.  It  has 
been  much  enriched  since  then  by  purchases  and- donations  and 
now  (1886)  contains  more  than  1,000,000  volumes,  a  remarkable 
collection  of  50,000  "  Rossica"  (everything published lu  Russia),  and 
40  000  MSS.,  some  of  which  are  very  valuable  and  unique,  ine 
library  of  the  academy  of  sciences,  also  open  every  day,  contains 
more  than  500,000  volumes,  13,000  MSS..  rich  collections  of  work, 
on  Oriental  languages,  and  valuable  collections  of  periodica  pubbca- 
?ions  from  scientif^icieties  throughout  the  world.  The  IiWary  of 
the  council  of  state  is  also  open  to  the  public  ;  while  several  libraries 
of  scSlic  societies  and  iepartments  of  the  nii'^;ft"^/;,vf5y.™': 
in  their  special  branches,  are  easily  accessible.  Those  of  tho  hjdro- 
graphical  department,  the  academy  of  art,  tl'"  ™f  ■"}.  f?°f' ^^^ 
tory,  the  university  (150,000  vols.  ,  are  especially  .val";^We  to  the 
student  Nearly  thirty  private  circulating  libraries,  which  havo 
0  contend  with  many  Vesfrictions,  supply  tlie  »»"?? °» ,'°;„»„^'7^ 
fee  with  everything  printed  iu  Russia,  if  not  prohibited  by  Go"r°- 
ment  The  museums  of  the  Russian  capitaf  have  a  marWl  p  aco 
anionc  those  of  Europe.  That  of  tho  academy  of  science,  will. 
Ze^th'n Too  000  systematically  classified. natural  1.1^^^ 

mens;  that  of  tho  Mineralogical  Society,  6'""^.,''  'J'l  i;'i/"™o°; 
the  geology  of  Russia  ;  the  Asiatic  museum,  «''•' ''V';^' ™".?^,  l?^^ 
of  Asiatic  MSS.  and  coins;  and  several  "'l'"''^  "^^f  B"^f X,",io° 
value.  The  Hermitage  Art  Gallery  contains  a  «."'•««'?>  '"f^^ 
of  the  Flemish  schooirsomo  pictures  of  the  Kuss.anj  oo  tliOj«- 
mainder  being  at  tho  academy  of  arts),  some  good  specimens  of  tho 


1  Full  mortality  tables  according  to  tho  separate  df«ea«c««re  gl""  '"  the 
SUUhlical  Yearbook.  Very  careful  researches  '"'»  th«  »"'S",™"'"''?"»  "J 
tho  city  are  Riven  in  th«  now  nupprcssed  Shomik  Sudetmot  MedtMnn  (Mag.  of 
WcC.  Jurisprudence)  aud  2dori>vi/e  (Health). 


3  eukhomllnoir,  "History  of  the  Academy  of  Felence,"i„iu«mo(r. 
fnuB«lanl  v.d.  xxvl..  1870,  and  the  same  year  In  Its  }  imoires  In  "''"nj°-_„. 

3  Trauuvtiir,  ••  Hlitorj;  of  U.o  Botanical  Oanlen, "  in  Mmolr.  of  the  same, 
1873,  vol.  11. 


194 


ST     PETERSBURG 


Italian,  Spanish,  and  old  French  schools,  and  especially  invaluable 
treasures  of  Greek  and  Scythian  antiquities,  as  also  a  good  collection 
of  200,000  engravings.  The  old  Christian  and  old  Kussian  arts  are 
well  represented  at  the  museum  of  the  academy  of  arts.  Besides 
these  there  are  many  other  museums — pedagogical,  medical,  engin- 
eering, agricultural,  forestry,  marine,  technical. 

The  press  is  represented  by  about  120  periodicals,  including  those 
of  the  scientific  societies ;  the  right  of  publishing  political  papers 
is  a  monopoly  in  the  hands  of  the  very  few  editors  who  are  able 
to  procure  the  necessarj'  authorization.  The  publication  of  literary 
and  scientific  works,  after  having  developed  rapidly  iu  1859-69,  is 
now  greatly  on  the  decrease  owiug  to  the  oppressive  measures  of 
the  censorship.  In  the  development  of  the  Russian  drama  St 
Petersburg  has  played  a  far  less  important  pai-t  than  Moscow,  and 
the  stage  at  St  Petersburg  has  never  reached  the  same  standard  of 
excellence  as  that  of  the  older  capital.  On  the  other  hand,  St 
Petersburg  is  the  cradle  of  Russian  opera  and  Russian  music.  There 
are  only  four  theatres  of  importance  at  St  Petersburg — all  imperial 
— two  for  the  opera  and  ballet,  one  for  the  native  drama,  ind  one 
for  the  French  and  German  drama. 

St  Petersburg  is  much  less  of  a  manufacturing  city  than  Moscow 
or  Berlin.  The  annual  production  of  all  the  manufactures  la  the 
government  of  St  Petersburg,  chiefly  concentrated  in  or  around 
the  capital,  was  in  1879  v.ilued  at  £16,768,600  out  of  £110,294,900 
for  the  empire,  against  £19,500,000  in  the  government  of  Moscow. 
The  chief  manufactured  goods  are  cottons  (£3,073,000)  and  other 
textile  fabrics  (altogether  £3,762,500),  machinery  (£^,355,800),  rails 
(£1,342,300),  tobacco  and  spirits  (about  £1,200,000  each),  leather, 
sugar,  stearine  candles,  copper  and  gum  wares  (from  £850,000  to 
£450,000  each),  and  a  variety  of  smaller  articles.  The  minor  trades 
are  greatly  developed.  No  exact  statistics  of  the  internal  trade  can 
be  given,  except  for  the  import  and  export  of  articles  of  food.  In 
1883  31,176,000  cwts.  of  grain  and  flour  were  imported  by  rail  or 
river,  of  which  18,680,450  were  re-exported  and  2,809,900  sent  to 
the  interior.  The  exports  in  1882  were  valued  at  £1,864,980  from 
St  Petersburg  and  at  £6,557,017  from  Cronstadt,  the  aggregate  thus 
being  £8, 421, 997,  in  which  articles  of  food,  chiefly  corn,  represented 
£4,214,312,  raw  and  half  raw  produce  £4,009,446,  and  manufactured 
wares  £197,520.  The  value  of  the  imports  was — to  St  Petersburg 
£8,616,383  and  to  Cronstadt  £116,316.  Among  the  total  imports 
articles  of  food  were  valued  at  £1,941,393,  raw  and  half  raw  produce 
at£4,009,090  (chiefly  coal),  and  manufactured  wares  at  £1,082,698. 
Cronstadt  and  St  Petersburg  were  visited  in  the  same  year  by  2195 
ships  of  951,000  toiis  (730  ships,  152,730  tons,  from  Great  Britain). 
The  co.istiug  trade  was  represented  by  702  vessels  (119,300  tons) 
entered.  The  conunercud  fleet  numbered  only  43  steamers  (14,000 
tons)  and  49  sailing  vessels  (8200  tons). 

Six  railways  meet  at  St  Petersburg.  Two  run  westwards  along 
both  banks  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland  to  Hangoudd  and  to  Port 
Baltic  ;  two  short  lines  connect  Oranienbaum,  opposite  Cronstadt, 
and  Tsarskoye  Selo  (with  Pavlovsk)  with  the  capital;  and 'two 
great^trimlv- lines  run  south-west  and  south-east  to  Warsaw  (with 
branches  to  Jiiga  and  Smolensk)  and  to  Moscow  (with  branches  to 
Is'ovgorod  and  Rybinsi-).  All  are  connected  in  the  capital,  escept 
tha  Finlaad  Railway,  v.iiich  has  its  station  on  the  light  bank  of 
the  JfcTa,  Moreover,  the  Neva  is  the  great  channel  for  the  trade 
of  St  Petersburg  with  the  rest  of  Rus.sia,  by  means  of  the  Volga 
and  its  tributaries.  The  importance  of  the  ti'afBc  may  best  be  seen 
from  the  following  figures,  showing  in  cwts.  the  amount  imported 
by  different  channels : — 


Com  and  flonr. 

Firewood. 

All  kinds 
of  wares. 

11,061,000 
311,000 

12,658,000 
312,000 

20,891,000 
301,000 
482,000 
157,000 

5!>,331,000 
8,532,000 

21,056,000 
2,353,000 

Moscow  Railway    . . , 

Warsaw  Railway    

No  less  than  1,162,230  pieces  together  with  7,337,000  cwts  of 
timber  were  supplied  in  the  same  year  via  the  Neva.  The  aggre- 
gate exports  by  rail  and  the  Neva  amounted  to  11,382,000  cwts. 

The  average  income  of  the  St  Petersburg  municipality  was 
£581,425  in  1880-82  (£577,856  in  1884),— that  is,  13-7s.  (6-84  roubles) 
per  inhabitant,  as  against  35-8s.  at  Berlin  and  98 '28.  at  Paris.  The 
indirect  taxes  yield  but  Is.  per  inhabitant  (57s.  at  Paris).  The 
average  expenses  for  the  same  years  reached  £574,479  (£572,162  in 
1884),  distributed  as  follows  : — 20  per  cent,  of  the  whole  for  the 
police  (10  at  Paris  and  27 '5  at  Berlin),  8  for  administration,  16 
for  paving,  7  for  lighting,  5  for  public  instruction,  2  '6  for  charity, 
and,  3  for  the  debt  (7  at  Berlin  -and  37  at  Paris).  The  municipal 
affairs  are  in  the  hands  of  a  municipality,  elected  by  three  categories 
of  electors  (see  Russi.i),  and  is  practically  a  department  of  the  chief 
of  the  police.  The  city  is  under  a  separate  governor-general,  whose 
authority,  like  that  of  the  chief  of  police,  is  all  the  more  unlimited 
iiinee  it  has  not  been  accurately  defined  by  law. 

St  Petersburg  is  surrounded  by  several  fine  residences,  mostly  im- 
perial palaces  with  large  and  beautiful  parks.     Tsarskoye  Selo,  16 


miles  to  the  south-east,  and  Peterhof,  on  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  are 
summer  residences  of  the  emperor.  Pavlovsk  has  a  fine  palace  and 
parks,  open  to  the  public,  where  summer  concerts  attract  thousands 
of  people.  Oranienbaum  is  now  a  rather  neglected  place.  Pulkova, 
on  a  hill  5  miles  from  St  Petersburg,  is  well  known  for  its  obser- 
vatory ;  whOe  several  vUlages  north  of  the  capital,  such  as  Pargolovo, 
Murino,  &c.,  are  visited  in  summer  by  the  less  wealthy  inhabitants. 

History. — The  region  between  Lake  Ladoga  and  the  Gulf  of 
Finland  was  inhabited  in  the  9th  century  by  Finns  and  some 
Slavonians.  Novgorod  and  Pskoff  made  efforts  to  retain  their 
dominion  over  this  region,  so  important  for  their  trade,  and  in  the 
13th  and  14th  centuries  they  built  the  forts  of  Koporye  (in  the 
present  district  of  Peterhof),  Yam  (now  Yamburg),  and  Oryeshek 
(now  Schliisselburg)  at  the  point  where  the  Neva  issues  from 
Lake  Ladoga.  They  found,  however,  powerful  opponents  in  the 
Swedes,  who  erected  the  fort  of  Landskrona  at  the  junction  of  the 
Okhta  and  the  Neva,  and  in  the  Livonians,  who  had  their  fortress 
at  Narva.  Novgorod  and  Moscow  successively  were  able  by  con- 
tinuous fighting  to  maintain  their  supremacy  over  the  region  south 
of  the  Neva  throughout  the  16th  century  ;  but  early  in  the  17th 
century  Moscow  was  compelled  to  cede  it  to  Sweden,  which  erected 
a  fortress  (Nyonschanz)  on  the  Neva  at  the  mouth  of  the  Okhta. 
In  1700  Peter  I.  began  his  wars  vrith  Sweden.  Oryeshek  was  taken 
in  1702,  and  next  year  Nyonschanz.  Two  months  later  (29th  June 
1703)  Peter  I.  laid  the  foundations  of  a  cathedral  to  St  Peter  and 
St  Paul,  and  of  a  fort  which  received  his  own  name  (in  its  Dutch 
transcription,  "  Piterburgh  ").  Next  year  the  fort  of  Cronslott  was 
erected  on  the  island  of  Kotlin,  us  also  the  admiralty  on  the  Nev.i, 
opposite  the  fortress.  The  emperor  took  most  severe  and  almost 
barbarous  measures  for  increasing  his  newborn  city.  Thousands 
of  people  from  all  parts  of  Russia  were  removed  thither  and  died  in 
erecting  the  fortress  and  building  the  houses.  Great  numbers  cf 
artisans  and  workmen  were  brought  to  St  Petersburg  to  form  thu 
Myeshchanskaya  villages,  which  raised  the  population  to  100,000 
inhabitants.  All  proprietors  of  more  than  "600  souls"  weio 
ordered  to  build  a  house  at  St  Petersburg  and  to  stay  there  in  tho 
printer.  The  construction  of  stone-houses  throughout  the  rest  of 
Russia  was  prohibited,  all  masons  having  to  be  sent  to  St  Peters- 
burg. After  Peter  I.'s  death  the  population  of  the  capital  rapidly 
decreased  ;  but  foreigners  continued  to  settle  there.  Under'  Eliza- 
beth a  new  series  of  compulsory  measures  raised  the  population 
to  150,000,  which  figure  was  nearly  doubled  during  the  reign  of 
Catherine  II.  Since  the  begiuning  of  the  present  century  tliS 
population  has  steadily  increased  (364,000  in  1817,  468,600  in 
1837,  491,000  in  1855,  and  667;000  in  1S69).  The  chief  embellisli- 
ments  of  St  Petersburg  were  efl'eeted  during  the  reigns  of  Alexand  i.- 
I.  (1801-25)  and  Nicholas  I.  (1825-55). 

When  Peter  I.,  desirous  of  giving  a  "European"  capital  to  hi3 
empire,  laid  the  prst  foundations  of  St  Petersburg  on  the  marshy- 
islands  of  the  Neva,  in  land  not  fully  conquered  and  remote  from 
the  centres  of  Russian  life,  it  is  hardly  possible  that  he  could  ha\  e 
foreseen  the  rapid  development  it  has  since  undergone  :  it  has  no'v 
a  population  approaching  a  million  and  commands  more  than  one- 
sixth  of  the  foreign  trade  and  manufactures  of  Russia.  In  point 
of  fact,  there  is  no  capital  in  Europe  so  disadvantageously  situated 
with  regard  to  its  own  country  as  St  Petersburg.  Desolate  wilder- 
nesses begin  at  its  very  gates  and  extend  for  hundreds  of  miles 
to  the  north  and  east.  To  the  south  it  has  the  very  thinly  peopled 
regions  of  Pskoff  and  Novgorod, — the  marshy  and  woody  tracts  of 
the  Valdai  Heights.  For  400  miles  in  each  of  these  three  dii-ections 
there  is  not  a  single  city  of  any  import«ice ;  and  towards  the 
west,  on  both  shores  of  the  Gidf  of  Finland,  are  foreign  peoples  who 
have  their  own  centres  of  gravitation  in  cities  on  or  nearer  to  the 
Baltic.  With  the  provinces  of  Russia  the  capital  is  connected 
only  by  canals  and  railways,  which  have  to  traverse  vast  trsct';  of 
inhospitable  country  before  reaching  them.  But  St  Petersburg 
possesses,  on  the  other  hand,  one  immense  advantage  in  its  si  to, 
which  has  proved  of  great  moment,  especially  in  the  present  cib- 
tury  of  development  of  international  trafiic.  Ruled  by  the  idea  of 
creating  a  new  Amsterdam — that  is,  a  meeting-place  for  traders  of  ill 
nationalities — and  a  great  export  market  for  Russia,  Peter  I.  could 
have  selected  no  better  place.  St  Petersburg  has  been  for  nearly 
150  years  the  chief  place  of  export  for  raw  produce  from  the  most 
productive  ;^arts  of  Russia.  The  great  central  plateau  which  fonns 
the  upper  basins  of  all  the  chief  Russian  rivers  had  no  other  outlet 
to  the  sea  than  the  estuary  of  the  Neva.  The  natural  outlet  might 
indeed  have  been  the  Black  Sea ;  but  the  rivers  to  the  southward 
are  either  intemipted  by  rapids  like  the  Dnieper,  or  are  shallow  like 
the  Don  ;  while  their  mouths  and  the  entire  coast-region  remained 
till  the  end  of  the  18th  ceutuiy  in  the  hands  of  Turkey.  As  for  the 
Caspian,  it  faced  Asia,  and  not  Europe.  The  commercial  outlet  of 
the  central  plateau  was  thus  the  reverse  of  the  physicaL  Froa 
the  earliest  years  of  Russian  history  trade  had  taken  this  northern 
direction.  Novgorod  owed  its  wealth  to  this  fact ;  and  as  far  back 
as  the  12th  century  the  Russians  had  their  forts  on  Lalce  Ladci,i 
and  the  Neva.  In  the  14th  and  li>ch  centuries  they  already  ox- 
chaused  their  wares  with  the  Dantzic  merchants  at  Nu  or  Nii,^ 


S  A  I  —  S  A  1 


195 


the  Ihen  name  for  what  is  now  Vasilycvskiy  Island.  By  founding 
fit*  Petersburg  Peter  I.  only  restored  the  trade  to  its  old  but  dis- 
carded chaunels.  The  system  of  canals  for  connecting  the  upper 
ydga  and  the  Dnieper  with  the  great  lakes  of  the  north  completed 
the  work  ;  tho  commercial  mouth  of  the  Volga  was  transferred  to 
the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  St  Petersburg  became  the  export  harbour 
for  more  than  half  Russia.  Foreigners  hastened  thither  to  take 
possession  of  tho  growing  export  trade,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
Kussians  ;  and  to  this  circumstance  the  Russian  capital  is  indebted 
For  its  cosmopolitan  character.  But  its  present  extensive  and  west- 
European  aspect  has  not  been  achieved,  nor  is  it  maintained,  without 
a  vast  expenditure  of  tho  national  resources.  It  cost  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  human  lives  before  the  marshy  islands  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Neva  could  be  rendered  fit  to  receive  a  million  inhabitants 
and  be  brought  into  connexion  with  the  remainder  of  Russia  ;  and 
very  many  more  are  annually  sacriSied  for  the  maintenance  of  this 
Capital  on  its  unhealthy  site,  under  the  COth  parallel,  hundreds  of 
tnues  distant  from  the  centres  of  Russian  life. 

The  development  of  the  railway  system  and  the  rapid  coloniza- 
tion of  southern  Russia  now  operite,  however,  adversely  to  St 
Petersburg.  Its  foreign  trade  is  not  actually  decreasing,  but  the 
very  rapid  growth  in  the  exports  of  Russia  within  the  twenty  years 
■before  1886  was  entirely  to  tho  benefit  of  other  ports  more  highly 
favoured  by  nature,  such  as  Riga  and  especially  Libau,  while  the 
rapid  increase  of  population  in  the  Black  Sea  region  is  tending  to 
shift  the  Russian  centre  of  gravity :  new  centres  of  commercial, 
industrial,  and  intellectual  life  are  being  developed  at  Odessa  and 
Kostoff.  The  revival  of  Little  Russia  is  another  influence  operating 
in  the  same  direction. 

Another  important  factor  in  the  growth  of  the  influence  of  St 
Petersburg  on  Russian  life  was  the  concentration  of  all  political 
power  in  the  hands  of  an  absolute  Government  and  in  the  narrow 
circles  surrounding  the  chief  of  the  state.  As  Yuriy  Dolgorukiy 
felt  the  necessity  of  creating  for  a  neT?  phase  of  national  history — 
that  of  a  centralized  state — a  new  capital,  Moscow,  free  from  the 
municipal  and  republican  traditions  of  the  old  Russian  towns,  so 
Peter  I.  felt  the  necessity  of  again  cieating  a  fresh  capital  for  a 
third  phase  of  tho  country's  progress,- -a  capital  where  the  rising 
imperial  power  would  be  fi-ee  from  the  control  of  the  old  boyar 
families.  St  Petersburg  fully  answers  to  this  need.  For  more  than 
s  century  and  a  half  it  was  tho  real  centre  of  political  life  and  of 
political  thought,  impregnated  with  the  conception  of  a  powerful 
central  Government.  In  so  strongly  centralized  a  state  as  Russia 
•was,  and  still  is,  and  for  the  phase  of  life  which  the  empire  has 
passed  through  during  the  last  two  centuries,  it  mattered  little 
■whether  the  capital  was  some  hundred  miles  away  from  the  natural 
centres  of  life  and  without  the  support  of  a  dense  and  active  sur- 
rounding population.  Bureaucracy,  its  leading  feature,  was  simply 
reinforced  by  the  remoteness  of  the  capital.  But  these  circumstances 
are  at  present  undergoing  a  change.  Since  the  abolition  of  serfdom 
and  in  consequence  of  the  impulse  given  to  Russian  thought  by 
this  reform,  the  provinces  are  coming  more  and  more  to  dispute 
the  right  of  St  Petersburg  to  guide  tho  political  life  of  the  country. 
It  has  been  often  said  that  St  Petersburg  is  the  head  of  Russia  and 
Moscow  its  heart.  The  f.rst  part  at  least  of  this  saying  is  true. 
In  the  development  of  thought  and  in  naturalizing  in  Russia  the 
results  of  west  European  reflection  St  Petersburg  has  played  through- 
out the  present  century  a  prominent  part.  Attracting  to  itstlf  from 
the  provinces  tho  best  intellects  of  tno  country,  it  lins  powerfully 
contributed  towards  familiarizing  tho  reading  public  with  tho 
teachings  of  west  European  science  and  philosophy,  and  towards 
Jiving  to  Russian  literature  that  liberality  of  luind  and  freedom 
from  tho  trammels  of  tradition  that  have  so  often  been  noticed  by 
west  Europeans.  St  Petersburg  has  no  ti'aditions,  no  history  beyond 
that  of  the  palace  conspiracies,  and  nothing  in  its  past  can  attract 
tho  writer  or  the  thinker.  But,  as  new  centres  of  intellectual 
movement  and  new  currents  of  thought  develop  again  at  Moscow 
and  Kieff  or  arise  anew  at  Odessa  and  in  tho  eastern  provinces, 
these  places  claim  the  right  to  their  own  Bliaro  in  tho  further  de- 
velopment of  intellectual  life  in  Russia  ;  and  it  would  not  bo  sur- 
prising if  the  administrative  and  intellectual  centre  of  the  empire, 
after  its  migrations  successively  from  Kielf,  Novgorod,  and  PbUoIT 
to  Moscow,  and  thence  to  St  Petersburg,  were  again  to  follow  a  new 
movement  towards  tho  south.  (P.  A.  K.) 

ST  PIERRE.     Seo  RiSunion,  vol.  xx.  p.  493. 

ST  PIERRE.     Seo  Maktiniqije,  vol.  xv.  p.  586. 

SAINT-PIERRE,  Chables  Iri:;ni5e  Castkl,  Abb6  de 
^1658-1743),  a  French  writer  of  much  infjcnuity  and  influ- 
ence, who  is  not  unfrcqucntly  confounded  with  tho  author 
of  Patd  et  Vir(jinie,  was  born  near  Carfieur  on  tho  18th 
of  February  1658.  His  father  was  bailli  of  tho  Cotentin, 
and  Saint- Pierre,  who  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits,  appears 
to  havo  had  an  easy  entrance  to  tho  best  literary  and 
political  society  of  tho  capital.     He  was  presented  to  the 


abbacy  of  Tours,  which  a  century  before  the  poet  Des- 
portes  had  held,  and  was  elected  to  the  Academy  in  1695. 
But  in  1718,  in  consequence  of  the  political  offence  given 
by  his  Folysynodie,  he  suffered  the  very  rare  penalty  of 
expulsion  from  that  body.     He  died  at  Paris  in  1743. 

Saint- Pierre's  works  (collected  shortly  before  his  death  in  eighteen 
volumes  and  originally  published  chiefly  in  the  second  and  third 
decades  of  the  18th  century)  are  almost  entirely  orcupied  Avith  an 
acute  and  inventive,  though  generally  visionary,  criticism  of  politics, 
law,  and  social  institutions,  fhey  had  a  great  influence  on  Rousseau, 
who  has  left  elaborate  examinations  of  some  of  them,  and  has  repro- 
duced not  a  few  of  their  ideas  in  his  own  work.  'The  titles  are 
almost  suflicient  to  show  their  nature.  The  chief  are  Projet  de  Paix 
Perpcluelle  (appositely  published  at  Utrecht  in  1713)  and  Poly- 
synodic  (a  severe  stricture  on  the  Government  of  Louis  XIV.,  with 
projects  for  the  administration  of  France  by  a  system  of  councils 
for  each  department  of  government),  together  with  a  crowd  of 
memorials  and  projects  for  stopping  duelling,  for  equalizing  taxa- 
tion, for  treating  mendicancy,  for  reforming  education  and  spelling, 
&e.  Unlike  the  later  reforming  abbes  of  tho  jy/iilosoji/ie  period, 
Saint-Pierre  was  a  mau  of  very  unworldly  character  and  quite 
destitute  of  the  Frondeur  spirit.  He  was  also  a  mau  of  not  a  little 
intellectual  power,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  every  such  man  who  gives 
his  fancy  free  course  in  the  construction  of  political  Utopias,  not  a 
few  of  his  wishes  and  ideas  have  been  realized  in  course  of  time.  But 
it  is  difficult  to  give  him  much  credit  for  practical  grasp  of  politics. 

SAINT-PIERRE,  Jacques  HENRiBERNAEDraDE(1737- 
1814),  French  man-of-letters,  was  born  at  Havre  on  19th 
January  1737  and  was  educated  at  Caen.  After  a  fashion 
coirunouer  with  English  than  with  French  buys,  he  took 
an  early  fancy  to  the  sea,  and  his  uncle,  a  ship  captain, 
gave  him  the  opportunity  of  gratifying  it.  But  a  single 
voyage  to  Martinique  was  enougL  for  him  and  he  went 
back  to  school.  He  next  wanted  to  be  a  missionary  ;  but 
his  parents,  who  had  probably  taken  tho  measure  of  his 
enthusiasms  from  his  sea  experiences,  objected,  and  he 
became  an  engineer.  He  served  in  the  army,  but  was 
dismissed  for  insubordination,  and,  after  quarrelling  with 
his  family,  was  in  some  difficulty.  But  in  1761  he  obtained 
an  appointment  at  Slalta,  which  also  he  did  not  hold  long. 
The  most  rolling  of  stones,  he  appears  at  St  Petersburg, 
at  Warsaw,  at  Dresden,  at  Berlin,  holding  brief  commis- 
sions as  an  engineer  and  rejoicing  in  romantic  adventures. 
But  he  came  back  to  Paris  at  the  age  of  thirty  even  poorer 
than  he  set  out.  He  then  passed  tv,o  years  in  literary 
work,  supporting  himself  in  an  unknown  fashion,  and  in 
1768  (for  he  seems  to  have  been  as  successful  in  obtaining 
appointments  as  in  losing  them)  he  set  out  for  the  Isle  of 
France  (Mauritius)  with  a  Government  commission  and 
remained  there  three  year.'?,  returning  homo  in  1 77 1.  These 
wanderings  supplied  IJernardLu  with  tho  whole  of  what  may 
be  called  his  stock-in-trade,  for,  though  ho  lived  more  than 
forty  years  longer,  he  never  again  quitted ,  Franco.  Ho 
was  very  poor,  and  indeed  it  is  not  easy  to  discover  from 
his  biographers  what  ho  lived  upon,  for,  though  ho  was  an 
unwearied  solicitor  of  employments  and  "gratifications," 
ho  received  but  little,  and  his  touchy  and  sensitive  tempera- 
ment frequently  caused  him  to  quarrel  with  what  littlo  ho 
did  receive.  On  his  return  from  Mauritius  ho  was  intro- 
duced to  the  society  of  D'Alembert  and  his  friends,  and 
continued  to  frequent  it.  But  ho  took  no  great  pleasure 
in  tho  company  of  any  literary  man  excej)!  Rousseau,  of 
whom  in  Jean  Jacques's  last  years  ho  saw  much,  and  on 
whom  ho  formed  both  his  own  character  and  still  more  his 
stylo  to  a  considerable  degree.  His  first  work  of  any  im- 
portance, tlie  Voyage  il  I' lie  de  Franct;  appeared  in  1773 
and  gained  him  sonio  reputation.  It  is  tho  soberest  and 
therefore  tho  least  characteristic  of  his  Iwoks.  Tlie  £ludes 
de  la  Nature,  wiiich  mailo  his  fame  and  assured  him  of 
literary  i  uccess,  did  not  appe.ir  till  ton  years  later,  his 
masterpiece  Paul  el  Viryinie  not  till  1787,  and  his  other 
masterpiece  (which,  as  much  less  .sentimental  and  showing 
not  a  littlo  humour,  some  jjcrsons  may  bo  allowed  to  prefer), 
tho  Chaumiire  Iiidienne,  not  till  1790.    In  I79'2  ho  married 


196 


S  A  I  — S  A  1 


a  very  young  girl,  F(51icite  Didot.  For  a  short  time  in 
179.2  he  was  superintendent  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  and 
again  for  a  short  time  professor  of  morals  at  the  ficole 
Xormale  in  1794.  Next  year  be  became  a  member  of  the 
Institute.  After  his  first  wires  death  he  married,  in  1800, 
when  he  was  sixty-three,  another  young  girl,  Desirte  de 
Pelleport,  and  is  said  to  have  been  very  happy  with  her. 
He  still  continued  to  publish,  and  was  something  of  a 
favourite  with  Napoleon.  On  the  21st  of  January  1814 
he  died  at  firagny  near  Pontoise,  where  he  had  in  his  last 
years  chiefly  lived  and  where  he  had  a  house,  so  that  he 
cannot  have  been  ill  off. 

It  has  been  hinted  that  Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre's  personal 
character  was  not  entirely  amiable  ;  it  may  be  added  that  Ins 
literary  character  has  not  in  all  English  eyes  sufficed  to  atone  for  it. 
Englishmen,  and  not  Englishmen  only,  have  been  found  to  pro- 
nounce Paul  ct  Viryinie  gaudy  in  style  and  unhealthy,  not  to  say 
unwholesome,  in  tone.  Perhaps  Bernardin  i«  not  fairly  to  be 
judged  by  this  famous  story,  in  which  the  exuberant  sensibility  of 
the  time  finds  equally  exuberant  expression.  The  ChanmUrc  and 
some  passages  in  the  £liiilcs  de  la  Nature  proper  may  be  thought 
to  exhibit  the  real  merits  of  his  style  to  greater  advantage.  The 
historic  estimate  (the  sole  estimate  that  is  of  much  worth  in  com- 
parative literary  criticism)  at  once  disengages  the  question  from  its 
difficulties.  Where  Bernardin  is  of  merit  and  importance  is  in  his 
Breaking  away  from  the  dull  and  arid  vocabulary  and  phrase  which 
more  than  acenturyof  classical  writing  had  brought  upon  France,  in 
his  genuine  and  vigorous  preference  of  the  beauties  of  nature  to  the 
mere  charms  of  drawing-room  society,  and  in  the  attempt  which 
lie  made,  with  as  much  sincerity  as  could  fairly  be  expected  from  a 
man  of  his  day,  to  reproduce  the  aspects  of  the  natural  world 
faithfully.  After  Rousseau,  and  even  more  thaa  Rousseau,  Ber- 
nardin was  in  French  literature  the  apostle  of  the  return  to  nature, 
and,  though  in  him  and  his  immediate  follower,  Chateaubriand, 
there  is  still  much  mannerism  and  unreality,  he  should  not  and 
will  not  lack  the  credit  due. 
Aims  Martin,  disciple  of  Bernardin  and  tlie  scconj  husband  of  his  second 
,  wife,  published  a  complete  edition  of  his  works  in  18  volumes  (Paris,  1S16-S0) 
afterwards  increased  by  additional  correspondence,  Ac.  Paul  et  Virijinie,  the 
Chaumiire  radUane,  6:c.,  have  been  separately  reprinted  in  innumerable  forms. 

ST  PIERRE  AXB  MIQUELON,  two  islands  10  miles 
oflF  the  south  coast  of  Newfoundland  (see  vol.  xvii.  pi.  V.), 
at  the  entrance  of  Fortune  Bay,  are,  with  five  lesser  islets, 
the  last  remnant  of  the  North  American  colonics  of 
France.  Both  are  rugged  masses  of  granite,  with  a  few 
small  streams  and  lakelets,  a  thin  covering  of  soil,  and 
Bcanty  vegetation.  Miquelon  (area,  45,542  acres)  consists 
of  Great  Miquelon  in  the  north  and  Little  Miquelon, 
Langlade,  or  Langley  in  the  south;  previous  to  1783  they 
were  separate  islands  divided  by  a  navigable  channel,  but 
they  have  since  become  connected  by  a  dangerous  sandbar. 
St  Pierre  (6420  acres)  has  a  good  harbour  and  roadstead, 
the  latter,  protected  by  lie  aux  Chiens,  afTording  shelter, 
except  in  north-east  storms,  to  the  largest  vessels.  The 
small  but  busy  town  of  St  Pierre  climbing  the  steep  hill 
above  the  harbour  is  mainly  built  of  wood  j  but  it  has  a 
cathedral  (of  wood),  an  English  chapel,  a  governor's  resi- 
dence, and  various  administrative  offices,  including  the 
American  terminus  of  the  French  Atlantic  cable.  Cod- 
fishing,  to  which  the  settlement  owes  its  prosperity,  was 
prosecuted  in  the  five  years  1878-82,  on  an  average,  by 
4560  fishermen  (mainly  from  Dunkirk  and  other  French 
ports),  and  produced  3876  tons  of  dried  and  157,754  tons 
of  undried  cod,  with  450  tons  of  cod-liver  oil.  The  total 
exports  and  imports  were  valued,  respectively,  at  9,218,278 
and  4,441,817  francs  in  1865,  and  17,164,153  and 
11,062,617  francs  in  1883.  The  foreign  trade  in  1883 
was  valued  at  10,218,473  francs.  The  population  of  the 
islands  was  5564  (torfn  of  St  Pierre  4365)  in  1883 ;  but 
the  number  is  often  above  10,000  in  the  fishing-season. 

St  Pierre  and  Miquelon,  with  3000  inhabitants,  were  ceded  ^ 
England  along  with  Newfoundland  in  1713  ;  but  on  the  English 
conquest  of  Canada  they  were  assigned  to  France  as  a  fishery 
depot.  Destroyed  by  the  English  in  1778,  restored  to  France  in 
1783,  again  depopulated  by  the  English  in  1793,  recovered  by 
France  in  1802  and  lost  in  1803,  the  islands  have  remained  an 
undisputed  French  possession  since  1818.  i 


ST  PIERRE-LES-CA^.AIS,  a  suburb  of  Calais  (q.v.), 
with  a  population  of  30,786  in  1881. 

ST  POL  DE  LtON,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  arrond- 
issement  of  Morlaix  and  department  of  Finistere,  not  far 
from  the  shores  of  the  English  Channel,  13f  miles  north- 
west of  Morlaix  by  the  railway  to  Roscoff.  This  quiet 
episcopal  city,  old  but  modernized,  is  mainly  of  interest 
on  account  of  its  cathedral  and  the  church  of  Notre  Dame, 
though  it  also  contains  an  episcopal  palace  (1712-50),  n 
seminary  (1691),  and  a  hospital  (1711).  The  cathedral, 
classed  as  an  historical  monument,  belongs  largely  to  the 
13th  century.  Besides  the  west  front,  with  its  portico 
and  its  tv.o  towers  with  granite  spires  180  feet  high,  the 
principal  points  of  architectural  interest  are  the  traceried 
window  of  the  south  transept  (with  its  glass)  and  the  rect- 
angular apse,  and  in  the  interior  the  stalls  of  the  choir 
(16th  century)  and  the  fascicled  pillars  and  vault^arches 
of  the  nave.  On  the  right  of  the  high  altar  is  a  wooden 
shrine  containing  the  bell  of  St  Pol  de  Leon  (6  &  10  oz. 
iri  weight),  which  has  the  repute  of  curing  headache  and 
diseases  of  the  ear,  and  at  the  side  of  the  main  entrance  i^ 
a  huge  baptismal  font,  popularly  regarded  as  the  stone 
coffin  of  Conan  M^riadec,  king  of  the  Bretons.  Notre 
Dame  de  Creizkor  has  a  15th-century  spire,  252  feet  high, 
which  crowns  the  central  tower.  The  north  porch  is  a 
fine  specimen  of  the  flamboyant  style.  The  population  of 
the  town  in  1881  was  3739  and  of  the  commune  6659. 

St  Pol  dB  Leon,  or  Fanum  Sancti  Pauli  Lconini,  was  formerly  a 
place  of  considerable  importance.  The  barony  of  Leon,  in  tho 
possession  of  the  dukes  of  Rohan,  gave  them  the  right  of  presiding 
in  the  provincial  states  alternatively  with  the  duke  of  La  TremouilU, 
baron  of  Vitre. 

ST  QUENTIN,  a  manufacturing  town  of  France,  th>' 
chef-lieu  of  an  arrondissement  and  in  population  (45,69? 
.in  1881)  the  largest  town  in  the  department  of  Aisne, 
stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Somme,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Somme  Canal  with  the  St  Quentin  Canal  (which 
unites  the  Somme  Canal  with  the  Scheldt),  95|  miles  north- 
east of  Paris  by  the  railway  to  Brussels  and  Cologne,  with 
branch  lines  to  Guise  (on  the  Oise)  and  Ep^hy  on  tho 
Flanders  and  Picardy  railway.     Built  on  a  slope,  with  a, 
southern  exposure,  the  town  is  crowned  by  the  collegiate 
church  of  St  Quentin,  one  of  the  finest  Gothic  buildings 
of  the  north  of  France,  which  was  erected  between  1114 
and  1477,  and  has,  like  some  English  cathedrals,   the 
somewhat  rare  peculiarity  of  double  transepts.    The  length 
of  the  church  is  436  feet  and  the  height  of  the  nave  131. 
The  magnificent  clerestory  windows  are  supported  by  a 
very  elegant  triforium.     The  baptismal  chapel  contains  a 
fine  stone  retable.     The  choir  has  a  great  resemblance  to 
that  of  Rheims,  and,  like  the  chapels  of  the  apse,  has  been 
decorated  with  polychromic  paintings.     Under  the  choir 
is  a  crypt  occupying  the  site  of  an  older  crypt  constructed 
in  the  9th  century,  of  which  only  the  three  vaults  with  the 
tombs  of  St  Quentin  and  his  fellow-martyrs  remain.     The 
town-house  of  St  Quentin  is  a  splendid  building  of  the 
15th  aud  16th  centuries,  with  a  flamboyant  facade,  adorned 
with  curious  sculptures.     Behind  the  central  gable  rises  a 
bell-tower  with  chimes.     The  council-room  is  a  fine  hall 
with  a  double  wooden  ceiling  and  a  huge  chimneypiece 
half  Gothic  half  Renaissance.     The  old  buildings  of  the 
Bernardines  of  Fervaques  now  provide  accommodation  fo'r 
the  courts,  the  learned  societies,  the  school  of  design,  the 
museum,  and  the  library,  and  contain  a  large  hall  for 
public  meetings.     St  Quentin  is  the  centre  of  an  indus- 
trial district   which   employs   130,000   workmen   in   800 
factories,  and  manufactures  the  fortieth  part  of  the  cotton 
imported  into  France,  producing  goods  to  the  value  of 
about  £3,500,000,  mainlycalicoes,  percales  (glazed  cott  jns), 
cretonnes,  jaconas,  twills,  piques,  muslins,  cambrics,  gauzes, 
wool-mu.slinfi^  Scotch  cashmeres,  and  merinos.     Other  in- 


S  A  I  —  S  A  1 


197 


dustriea  are  the  making  of  embroideries  by  machinery  and 
by  hand,  turning  billiard-balls,  and  engine-building. 

St  Qucntin,  tlie  Augusta  Veromanduorum  of  tlio  Romaua.  stood 
at  tlic  meeting-place  of  five  roads  of  military  importance.  In  the 
3d  century  it  was  the  scene  of  the  martyrdom  of  Caius  Quintiniis, 
who  had  come  as  a  preacher  of  Christianity,  and  in  the  reign  of 
Dagobert  the  martyr's  tomb  became  under  the  influence  of  St  liloi 
&  place  of  pilgrimage.  After  it  had  been  thrice  ravaged  by  the 
Normans  the  town  was  surrounded  by  walls  in  883.  It  became 
under  Pippin,  grandson  of  Charlemagne,  one  of  the  principal  domains 
of  the  county  of  Vermandois,  and  in  1103  was  constituted  a  com- 
mune. In  1195  it  was  incorporated  with  the  royal  domain  and 
about  the  same  time  received  an  increase  of  its  privileges.  From 
1420  to  1471  St  Quentin  was  occupied  by  the  Burgundians.  Its 
capture  by  the  Spaniards  on  the  day  of  St  Lawrence,  1557,  was  the 
success  which  Philip  II.  of  Spain  commemorated  by  building  the 
Escorial.  Two  years  later  the  town  was  restored  to  the  French,  and 
in  1560  it  was  assigned  as  the  dowry  of  Mary  Stuart.  The  forti- 
fications erected  under  Louis  XIV.  were  demolished  between  1810 
and  1820.  During  the  Franco-Prussian  War  St  Quentin  repulsed 
the  German  attacks  of  8tli  October  1870  ;  and  on  19th  January 
1871  it  was  the  centre  of  the  great  battle  fought  by  General  Faid- 
herbe,  one  of  the  last  episodes  of  the  campaign. 

ST  SEBASTIAN.     See  San  Sebastian. 

ST  SERVAN,  a  cantonal  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Ille-ot-Vilaine,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ranee  to 
the  south  of  St  JIalo,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  creek 
at  least  a  mile  wide  (see  St  Malo).  In  population  (10,691 
inhabitants  in  1881 ;  12,867  in  the  commune)  St  Servan 
is  slightly  the  smaller  town  of  the  two.  It  is  not  enclosed 
by 'walls',' Und  with  its  new  houses^  straight  wide  streets, 
and  numerous  gardens  forms  quite  a  contrast  to  its  neigh- 
bour. In  summer  it  attracts  a  number  of  seaside  visitors. 
The  floating  dock  will  when  finished  have  an  area  of  27 
acres  and  one  mile  of  quays.  The  creek  on  which  it  opens 
is  dry  at  low  water,  but  at  high  water  is  30  to  40  feet  deep. 
Another  port  on  the  Ranee,  to  the  south-west  of  the  town 
at  the  foot  of  t  he  tower  of  Solidor,  is  used  by  the  local 
guard-ship.  This  tower,  erected  in  the  close  of  the  14th 
century  by  Duke  John  IV.  for  the  purpose  of  contesting 
the  claims  of  Josselin  de  Rohan,  bishop  of  St  Malo,  to  the 
tetoporal  sovereignty  of  the  town,  consists  of  three  distinct 
towers  formed  into  a  triangle  by  loop-holed  and  raachico- 
lated  curtains.  At  the  north-west  point  of  St  Servan 
stands  the  "  city  fort "  and  near  by  are  the  ruins  of  the 
cathedral  of  St  Peter  of  Aleth,  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  from 
the  .6  th  to  the  12th  century.  The  church  is  modern 
(1742-1842). 

The  northern  quarter  of  St  Servan,  called  "  the  City,"  occupies 
the  site  of  the  city  of  Aleth,  which  at  the  close  of  the  Roman  empire 
supplanted  Corseul  as  the  capital  of  the  Curiosolites.  Aleth  was  a 
bulwark  of  Druidism  in  those  regions  and  was  not  Christianized 
till  the  6th  century,  when  St  Malo  became  its  first  bishop.  On  the 
removal  of  the  bisho[iric  to  St  Ifalo  Aleth  declined  ;  but  the 
houses  that  remained  standing  became  the  nucleus  of  a  new  com- 
munity, which  placed  itself  under  the  patronage  of  St  Servan, 
apostle  of  the  Orkneys.  In  1758  the  place  was  ocenpied  by  Marl- 
borough. It  was  not  till  1789  that  St  Servan  became  a  separate 
commune  from  St  JIalo  with  a  municipality  and  police  of  its  own., 

SAINT-SIMON,  Claude  Henri,  Comte  de  (1760- 
1825).  the  founder  of  French  socialism,  was  born  at  Paris 
on  17  th  October  1760.  lie  belonged  to  a  younger  branch 
of  the  family  of  the  celebrated  duke  of  that  name.  His 
education,  he  tells  us,  was  directed  by  D'Alembert.  At 
the  age  of  nineteen  he  went  as  volunteer  to  assist  the 
American  colonies  in  their  revolt  against  Britain.  From 
his  youth  Saint-Simon  felt  the  promptings  ot  an  eager 
ambition.  His  valet  had  orders  to  awake  him  every  morn- 
ing with  the  words,  "Remember,  monsieur  Ic  comtc,  that 
you  have  great  things  to  do";  and  his  ancestor  Charle- 
magne appeared  to  him  in  a  dream  foretelling  a  remarkable 
future  for  him.  Among  his  early  schemes  was  one  to 
unite  the  Atlantic  aiul  the  Pacific  by  a  canal,  and  another 
to  construct  a  canal  from  Madrid  to  the  sea.  He  took  no 
part  of  any  importance  in  the  Revolution,  but  amassed  a 
IlttlQ.fortune  by  land  speculation, — not  on  his  owa  account, 


however,  as  he  said,  but  to  facilitate  his  future  projects. 
Accordingly,  when  he  was  nearly  forty  years  of  age  he 
went  through  a  varied  course  of  study  and  e.\periment,  in 
order  to  enlarge  and  clarify  his  view  of  things.  One  of 
these  experiments  was  an  unhappy  marriage,  which,  after 
a  year's  duration,  was  dissolved  by  the  mutual  consent  of 
the  parties.  Another  result  of  his  e.vperiments  was  that 
he  found  himself  completely  impoverished,  and  lived  in 
penury  for  the  remainder  of  his  life..  The  first  of  his  numer- 
ous writings,  Ltttres  d'un  Habitant  de  Geneve,  appeared  in 
1803;  but  his  early  writings  were  mostly  scientific  and 
political.  It  was  not  till  1817  that  he  began  in  a  treatise 
entitled  L'Indmlrie  to  propound  his  socialistic  views,  which 
he  further  developed  in  L'Organisateur  ( 18 19),  Z)«  Systime 
Industriel  (1821),  Catechisme  des  Industriels  (1823).  The 
last  and  most  important  expression  of  his  views  is  the 
A'ouveau  Chrutianisme  (1825).  For  many  years  before 
his  death  in  1825  (at  Paris  on  19th  May)  Saint-Simon  had 
been  reduced  to  the  greatest  straits.  He  was  obliged  to 
accept  a  laborious  post  for  a  salary  of  £40  a  year,  to  live 
on  the  generosity  of  a  former  valet,  and  finally  to  solicit 
a  small  pension  from  his  family.  In  1823  he  attempted 
suicide  in  despair.  It  was  not  till  very  late  in  his  career 
that^e  attached  to  himself  a  few  ardent  disciples. 

As  a  thinker  Saint-Simon  was  entirely  deficient  in 
system,  clearness,  and  consecutive  strength.  But  his 
great  influence  on  modern  thought  is  undeniable,  both  as 
the  historic  founder  of  French  socialism  and  as  suggest- 
ing much  of  what  was  afterwards  elaborated  into  Comtism. 
Apart  from  the  details  of  his  socialistic  teaching,  which 
are  vague,  inconsistent,  and  unsystematic,  we  find  thit 
the  ideas  of  Saint-Simon  as  to  the  reconstruction  of 
society  are  very  simple.  His  opinions  were  conditioned 
by  the  French  Revolution  and  by  the  feudal  and  military 
system  still  prevalent  in  France.  In  opposition  to  tbo 
destructive  liberalism  of  the  Revolution  he  insisted  on  the 
necessity  of  a  new  and  positive  reorganization  of  society. 
So  far  was  he  from  advocating  fresh  social  revolt  that  he 
appealed  to  Louis  XVUI.  to  inaugurate  the  new  order  of 
things.  Ki  opposition,  however,  to  the  feudal  and  military 
system,  the  former  aspect  of  which  had  been  strengthened 
by  the  restoration,  he  advocated  an  arrangement  by  which 
the  industrial  chiefs  should  control  society.  In  place  of 
the  media;val  church  the  spiritual  direction  of  society 
should  fall  to  the  men  of  science.  What  Saint  Simon 
desired,  therefore,  was  an  industrialist  stato  directed  by 
modern  science.  In  short,  tho  men  who  are  fitted  to 
organize  society  for  productive  labour  are  entitled  to  bear 
rule  in  it.  The  social  aim  is  to  produce  things  useful  to 
life ;  the  final  end  of  social  activity  is  "  the  exploitation 
of  tho  globe  by  association."  Tho  contrast  between 
labour  and  capital  so  much  emphasized  by  later  socialism 
is  not  present  to  Saint-Simon,  but  it  is  assumed  that  tho 
industrial  chiefs,  to  whom  the  control  of  production  is  io 
be  committed,  shall  rule  in  tho  interest  of  society.  Later 
on  the  cause  of  the  poor  receives  greater  attention,  till  in 
his  greatest  work.  The  New  Christianity,  it  becomes  tho 
central  point  of  his  teaching  and  takes  the  form  of  a 
religion.  It  was  this  religious  development  of  his  teach- 
ing that  occasioned  his  final  quarrel  witli  Comte.  Previous 
to  tho  publication  of  the  Nouveati  C hrislianisme,  Saint- 
Simon  had  not  concerned  himself  with  theology.  Here 
ho  starts  from  a  belief  in  God,  and  his  object  in  tho 
treatise  is  to  reduce  Christianity  to  its  simple  and  essential 
elements.  Ho  docs  this  by  clearing  it  of  (ho  dogmas  and 
other  excrescences  and  defects  which  have  gathered  round 
both  the  Catholic  nnd  Protestant  forms  of  it,  which  Ii» 
subjects  to  a  searching  and  ingenious  criticism.  "Thi 
new  Christian  organization  will  deduce  tho  temporal  insti- 
tution.') as  well  OS  tho  spiritual  from  tho  principle  that  all 


198 


SAINT-SIMON 


men  should  act  towards  one  another  as  brethren."  Es- 
pressing  the  same  idea  in  modern  language,  Saint-Simon 
propounds  as  the  comprehensive  formula  of  the  new 
Christianity  this  precept — "The  whole  of  society  ought 
to  strive  towards  the  amelioration  of  the  moral  and 
physical  existence  of  the  poorest  class  ;  society  ought  to 
organize  itself  in  the  way  best  adapted  for  attaining  this 
end."  This  principle  became  the  watchword  of  the^entire 
school  of  Saint-Simon  ;  for  them  it  -was  alike  the  essence 
of  religion  and  the  programme  of  social  reform. 

Daring  his  lifetime  the  views  of  Saint-Simon  had  very 
little  Lufluence ;  and  he  left  only  a  very  few  devoted 
disciples,  who  continued  to  advocate  the  doctrines  of  their 
master,  whom  they  revered  as  a  prophet.  An  important 
departure  was  made  in  1828  by  Bazard,  who  gave  a 
"  complete  exposition  of  the  Saint-Simonian  faith  "  in  a 
long  course  of  lectures  at  Paris  in  the  Kue  Taranne.  In 
1830  Bazard  and  Enfantin  were  acknowledged  as  the  heads 
of  the  school ;  and  the  fermentation  caused  by  the  revolu- 
tion of  July  of  the  same  year  brought  the  whole  movement 
prominently  before  the  attention  of  France.  Early  next 
year  the  school  obtained  possession  of  the  Globe  through 
Pierre  Leroux,  who  had  joined  the  school,  which  now 
numbered  some  of  the  ablest  and  most  promising  young 
men  of  France,  many  of  the  pupils  of  the  ficole  Poly- 
technique  having  caught  its  enthusiasm.  The  members 
formed  themselves  into  an  association  arranged  in  three 
grades,  and  constituting  a  society  or  family,  which  lived 
out  of  a  common  purse  in  the  Eue  Monsigny.  Before 
long,  however,  dissensions  began  to  arise  in  the  sect. 
Bazard,  a  man  of  logical  and  more  solid  temperament, 
could  no  longer  work  in  harmony  with  Enfantin,  who 
desired  to  estabhsh  an  arrogant  and  fantastic  sacerdotalism 
with  lax  notions  as  to  marriage  and  the  relation  of  the 
sexes.  After  a  time  Bazard  seceded  and  many  of  the 
strongest  supporters  of  the  school  followed  his  example. 
A  series  of  extravagant  entertainments  given  by  the  society 
during  the  winter  of  1832  reduced  its  financial  resources 
and  greatly  discredited  it  in  character.  They  finally  re- 
moved to  ilenilmontant,  to  a  property  of  Enfantin,  where 
they  lived  in  a  communistic  society,  distinguished  by  a 
peculiar  dress.  Shortly  after  the  chiefs  were  tried  and 
condemned  for  proceedings  prejudicial  to  the  social  order ; 
and  the  sect  was  entirely  broken  up  (1832).  JIany  of  its 
members  became  famous  as  engineers,  economists,  and  men 
of  busmess.  The  idea  of  constructing  the  Suez  Canal,  as 
carried  out  by  Lesseps,  proceeded  from  the  school. 

In  the  school  of  Saint-Simon  we  find  a  gieat  advance  both  in  the 
breadth  and  firmness  with  which  the  vague  and  confused  views  of 
the  master  are  developed  ;  and  this  progress  is  due  chiefly  to  Bazard. 
In  the  philosophy  of  history  they  recognize  epochs  of  two  kinds, 
the  critical  or  negative  and  the  organic  or  constructive.  The 
former,  in  which  philosophy  is  the  dominating  force,  is  charac- 
tei  Lzed  by  war,  egotism,  and  anarchy ;  the  latter,  which  is  controlled 
by  reUgion,  is  marked  by  the  spirit  of  obedience,  devotion,  associa- 
tion. The  two  spiiits  of  antagonism  and  association  are  the  two 
great  social  principles,  and  on  the  degree  of  prevalence  of  the  two 
depends  the  character  of  an  epoch.  The  spirit  of  association,  how- 
ever, tends  more  and  more  to  prevail  over  its  opponent,  tj^tending 
iom  the  family  to  the  city,  from  the  city  to  the  nation,  and  from 
the  nation  to  the  federation.  This  principle  of  association  is  to  be 
the  keynote  of  the  social  development  of  the  future.  Hitherto  the 
law  of  humanity  has  been  the  "  exploitation  of  man  by  man  "  in  its 
three  stages,  slavery,  serfdom,  the  proletariat ;  in  the  future  the 
aim  must  be  "  the  exploitation  of  the  globe  by  man  associated  to 
man."  Under  the  present  system  the  industrial  chief  still  exploits 
the  proletariat,  the  members  of  which,  thougli  nominally  free,  must 
accept  his  terms  under  pain  of  starvation.  Tiis  state  of  things  is 
consolidated  by  the  law  of  inheritance,  whereby  the  instruments  of 
production,  which  are  private  property,  and  all  the  attendant  social 
"'-vantages  are  transmitted  without  regard  to  personal  merit.  The 
social  disadvantages  being  also  transmitted,  misery  becomes  here- 
ditary. The  only  remedy  for  this  is  the  abolition  of  the  law  of 
inheritance,  and  the  union  of  »11  the  instruments  of  labour  in  a 
social  fund,  which  shall  be  exploited  by  association.     Society  thus 


becomes  sole  proprietor,  intnisting  to  social  groups  and  social  func- 
tionaries the  management  of  the  various  properties.  The  riglit  of 
succession  is  transferred  from  the  family  to  the  state.  The  school 
of  Saiut-Simon  insists  strongly  on  the  claims  of  meiit;  they 
advocate  a  social  hierarchy  iu  wliich  each  man  shall  bo  placed 
acuoixliug  to  las  capacity  and  rcwanled  according  to  his  works. 
This  is,  indeed,  a  most  special  and  pronounced  feature  of  the  Saiut- 
Simon  socialism,  whose  tlicory  of  government  is  a  kind  of  spiritual 
or  scienti6c  autocracy,  dcgenei-ating  into  the  fantastic  sacerdotalism 
of  Enfantin.  With  regard  to  the  family  and  the  relation  of  the 
se.xes  the  school  of  Saint-Simon  advocated  the  complete  emancipa- 
tion of  woman  and  her  entire  eqrulity  with  man".  The  "social 
individual "  is  man  and  woman,  who  arc  associated  in  the  exercise 
of  the  triple  function  of  religion,  the  state,  and  the  family.  In  its 
official  declarations  the  school  maintained  the  sanatity  of  the  Chris- 
tian law  of  marriage.  On  this  point  Enfantin  fell  into  a  pimient 
and  fantastic  latitudinariairism,  which  made  the  school  a  scandal 
to  France,  but  many  of  the  most  prominent  members  besides  Bazard 
refused  to  follow  him.  Connected  with  these  doctifnes  was  their 
famous  theory  of  the  "rehabilitation  of  the  ilcsh,"  deduced  from 
the  philosophic  theory  of  the  school,  which  was  a  species  of  Pan- 
theism, though  they  repudiated  the  name.  On  this  theoi-y  they 
rejected  the  dualism  so  much  emphasized  by  Catholic  Christianity 
in  its  penances  and  mortifications,  and  held  that  the  body  should 
be  restored  to  its  due  place  of  honour.  It  is  a  vague  principle  of 
which  the  ethical  character  depends  on  the  interpretation ;  and  i( 
was  variously  interpreted  in  the  school  of  Saint-Simon.  It  wa: 
certainly  immoral  as  held  by  Enfantin,  by  whom  it  was  developed 
into  a  kind  of  sensual  mysticism,  a  system  of  free  love  mth  .i  reli- 
gions sanction. 

An  excellent  ediHon  of  the  works  of  Ssiot-Simon  and  Enfantin  was  begun  by 
survivors  of  the  sect  in  P.iris  (1805),  and  now  numbers  forty  vols.  See  Reybaud, 
Etudes  suT  Us  H'^/ormateiirs  nioderr.es  (7th  edition,  Paris,  1864);  Janet,  SaiiU- 
Simon  et  le  Saint-Shrtonisme  (Paris,  1S7S)  ;  A.  J.  Sootb,  SttintSimon  and  Sainl- 
Sixitonism  (London,  1S71).  (T.  K.) 

SAINT-SIMON,  Loms  de  Roittkay  (or  RoimioY), 
Due  DE  (1675-1755),  was  born  at  VersaUles  on  16th 
January  1675.  He  was  the  son  of  Claude  de  Saint-Simon, 
who  represented  a  family  which  had  been  established  for 
many  centuries  at  La  Ferte  Vidame,  between  Mortagne 
and  Dreux,  and  which  claimed  descent  from  Charlemagne. 
Claude  de  Saint-Simon  had  been  a  page  of  Louis  XLU., 
and,  gaining  the  king's  favour  as  a  sportsman,  had  received 
various  preferments  and  was  finally  created  due  et  pair. 
This  peerage  is  the  central  fact  in  Saint-Simon's  history, 
and  it  is  impossible  to  understand  him  without  under- 
standing it.  To  speak,  as  one  of  his  few  biographeA  in 
English  has  spoken,  of  "  a  young  duke  of  recent  creation," 
and  of  the  apparent  absurdity  of  such  a  yoimg  duke  taking 
the  aristocratic  views  which  characterized  Saint-Simon 
through  life,  is  to  show  the  most  deplorable  ignorance  of 
the  facts.  The  French  peerage  under  the  old  regime  was 
a  very  peculiar  thing,  difficult  to  comprehend  at  all,  but 
quite  certain  to  be  miscomprehended  if  any  analogy  of  the 
English  peerage,  such  as  is  implied  in  the  observation  just 
quoted,  is  imported  into  the  consideration.  No  two  things 
could  be  more  different  in  France  than  ennobling  a  man 
and  making  him  a  peer.  No  one  was  made  a  peer  who 
was  not  ennobled,  but  men  of  the  noblest  blood  in  France 
and  representing  their  houses  might  not  be,  and  in  most 
cases  were  not,  peers.  Derived  at  least  traditionally  and 
imaginatively  from  the  douze  pairs  of  Charlemagne,  the 
peers  were  supposed  to  represent  the  chosen  of  the  noblesse, 
and  gradually,  in  an  indefinite  and  constantly  disputed 
fashion,  became  associated  with  the  parlement  of  Paris 
as  a  quasi-legislative  (or  at  least  law -registering)  and 
directly  judicial  body.  But  the  peerage  was  further  com- 
plicated by  the  fact  that  not  persons  but  the  holders  of 
certain  fiefs  were  made  peers.  Strictly  speaking,  neither 
Saint-Simon  nor  any  one  else  in  the  same  case  was  made  a 
peer,  but  his  estate  wa,s  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  ducke  pairie 
or  a  comte  pairie  as  the  case  might  be.  If  all  analogies 
were  not  deceptive,  the  nearest  idea  of  a  French  peerage  of 
the  old  kind  may  be  obtained  by  an  English  reader  if  he 
takes  the  dignity  of  a  Scotch  or  Irish  representative  peer, 
then  supposes  that  dignity  to  be  made  hereditary,  and 
then  limits  the  heritableness  of  it  not  merely  to  descent 


SAINT-SIMON 


199 


but  to  the  tenure  in  direct  succession  of  certain  estates. 
Jt  must  of  coursK  be  understood  that  the  peers  were  not 
elected  but  noniii  ated.  Still  they  were  in  a  way  a  stand- 
ing committee  representative  of  the  entire  body  of  nobles, 
and  it  was  Saint-Simon's  lifelong  ideal  and  at  times  his 
practical  effort  to  convert  them  into  a  sort  of  great  council 
of  the  nation.  These  remarks  are  almost  indispensable 
to  illustrate  his  life,  to  which  we  may  now  return.  His 
mother,  Claude  de  Saint-Simon's  second  wife,  was  Charlotte 
de  I'Aubespine,  who  belonged  to  a  family  not  of  the 
oldest  nobility  but  which  had  been  distinguished  in  the 
public  service  at  least  since  the  time  of  Francis  I.  Her 
son  Louis  was  well  educated,  to  a  great  extent  by  her- 
Btlf,  and  he  had  had  for  godfather  and  godmother  no 
leis  persons  than  Louis  XIV.  and  the  queen.  After  some 
tuition  by  the  Jesuits  (especially  by  Sanadon,  the  editor  of 
Horace),  he  betook  himself  in  1692,  at  the  age  of  seventeen, 
U'  the  career  of  arms,  entering  the  mousquetaires  gris. 
II  e  was  present  at  the  siege  of  ICamur,  and  next  year  his 
fiilher  died.  He  still  continued  in  the  army  and  was 
present  at  the  battle  of  Neerwinden.  But  it  was  at  this 
V  !ry  time  that  he  chose  to  begin  the  crusade  of  his  life  by 
iustigating,  if  not  bringing,  an  action  on  the  pai't  of  the 
[lecrs  of  France  against  Luxembourg,  his  victorious  general, 
(.11  a  point  of  precedence.  He  fought,  however,  another 
lampaign  or  two  (not  under  Luxembourg),  and  in  1695 
married  Gabriellc  de  Durfort,  daughter  of  the  marechal 
<le  Lorges,  under  whom  he  latterly  served.  He  seems  to 
have  regarded  her  with  a  respect  and  affection  not  very 
usual  between  husband  and  Ti-ife  at  the  time,  and  she 
sometimes  succeeded  in  modifj'ing  his  aristocratic  crotchets. 
But  as  he  did  not  receive  the  promotion  he  desired  he 
flung  up  his  commission  in  1702.  Louis,  who  was  already 
becoming  sensitive  on  the  point  of  military  ill-success,  and 
who  was  not  likely  to  approve  Saint-Simon's  litigiousncss 
on  points  of  privilege,  took  a  dislike  to  him,  and  it  was 
only  indirectly  and  by  means  of  establishing  interest  with 
the  dukes  of  Burgundy  and  Orleans  that  he  was  able  to 
keep  something  of  a  footing  at  court.  He  was,  however, 
intensely  interested  in  all  the  transactions  of  Versailles, 
and  by  dint  of  a  most  heterogeneous  collection  of  instru- 
iTifcnts,  ranging  from  dukes  to  servants,  he  managed  to 
obtain  the  extraordinary  secret  information  which  ho  has 
handed  down  to  us  about  almost  every  event  and  every  per- 
Eoaage  of  the  last  twenty  years  of  the  "grand  monarque." 
His  own  part  appears  to  have  been  entirely  subordinate. 
He  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Rome  in  1705,  but  the 
appointment  was  cancelled  before  he  started.  At  last  he 
attached  himself  to  the  duke  of  Orleans  and,  though  this 
was  hardly  likely  to  conciliate  Louis's  goo<l  will  to  him, 
it  gave  him  at  least  (what  was  of  the  first  importance  in 
that  intriguing  court)  the  status  of  belonging  to  a  definite 
party,  and  it  eventually  placed  him  in  the  position  of  tried 
friend  to  the  acting  chief  of  the  state.  He  was  able,  more- 
over, to  combine  attachment  to  the  duke  of  Burgundy  with 
that  to  the  duke  of  Orleans.  Both  attachments  were  no 
doubt  all  the  more  sincere  because  of  his  undying  hatred 
to  "  the  bastards,"  that  is  to  say,  the  illegitimate  sons  of 
Louis  XIV.  It  docs  not  appear  that  this  hatred  was 
founded  on  moral  reasons  or  on  any  real  fear  that  these 
bastards  would  bo  intruded  into  the  succession.  The  tnio 
cause  of  his  wrath  was  that  they  had  precedence  of  the  peers. 
The  death  of  Louis  seemed  to  givo  Saint-Simon  a  chanco 
ot  realizing  his  hopes.  Tlio  duke  of  Orleans  was  at  once 
acknowledged  regent  and  Saint-Simon  was  of  tlio  council 
of  regency,  but  no  steps  were  taken  to  carry  out  his 
favourite  vision  of  a  Franco  ruled  by  tho  nobles  for  its 
good  (it  must  always  be  understood  tliat  Saint-Bimon'a 
ideal  was  in  no  respect  an  aristocratic  tyranny  except  of 
the  beneficent  kind),  and  ho  had  little  real  influence  with 


tho  regent.  He  was  indeed  gratified  by  tho  degradation  of 
"the  bcistards,"  and  in  ITl'I  he  was  appointed  ambassador 
to  Spain  to  arrange  for  the  marriage  (not  destined  to  take 
place)  of  Louis  XV.  and  the  infanta.  His  visit  was 
splendid ;  he  received  the  grandeeship,  and,  though  he 
also  caught  the  smallpox,  he  was  qxiite  satisfied  with  tho 
business.  After  his  return  he  had  little  to  do  with  public 
affairs.  His  o^vn  account  of  the  cassation  of  his  intimacy 
wnth.  Orleans  and  Dubois,  the  latter  of  whom  had  never 
been  his  friend,  is,  like  his  own  account  of  some  other 
events  of  his  life,  obscure  and  rather  suspicious.  But  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  he  was  practically  ousted  by  the 
favourite.  He  survived  for  more  than  thirty  years  ;  but 
little  is  kno^^•n  of  his  life.  His  wife  died  in  1743,  his 
eldest  son  a  little  later  ;  he  had  other  family  troubles,  and 
he  was  loaded  with  debt.  'WTien  he  died,  at  Paris  on  2d 
March  1755,  he  had  almost  entirely  outlived  his  own 
generation  (among  whom  he  had  been  one  of  the  youngest) 
and  the  prosperity  of  his  house,  though  not  its  notoriety. 
This  last  was  in  strange  fashion  revived  by  a  distant  rela- 
tion born  five  years  after  Lis  own  death,  Claude  Henri, 
Comte  de  Saint-Simon,  the  subject  of  the  preceding  article. 

It  will  liavc  been  observed  that  the  actual  events  of  Saint-Simon's 
life,  long  as  it  was  and  high  as  was  his  position,  are  neither  very 
numerous  nor  very  noteworthy.  If  nothing  more  had  been  known 
about  him  than  was  know-n  at  the  tima  of  his  death  ho  would 
certainly  not  hav^  deserved  mention  at  length  hero.  Saint-Simon 
is,  however,  an  almost  unique  example  of  a  man  who  has  acquired 
great  literary  fame  entirely  by  posthnmous  publications.  He  was 
an  indefatigable  writer,  and  not  merely  from  the  time  he  left  tho 
army  but  much  earlier  he  began  to  set  down  in  black  and  white 
all  the  gossip  he  collected,  all  his  interminable  legal  disputes  of 
precedence,  and  a  vast  mass  of  unclassified  and  almost  unclassifi- 
ablc  matter.  Most  of  his  manuscripts  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  Government,  and  it  was  long  before  their  contents  were  pub- 
lished in  anything  like  fulness.  Extracts  and  abstracts,  however, 
leaked  out  and  parts  of  the  manuscript  were  sometimes  lent  to 
privileged  persons,  so  that  some  notion  of  the  unique  value  of  Saint- 
Simon  got  abroad  within  twenty  or  thirty  years  of  his  death. 
Partly  in  the  form  of  notes  on  Dangeau's  Journal,  partly  in  that  of 
orif.inal  aud  independent  memoirs,  partly  in  scattered  and  multi- 
farious tracts  and  disquisitions,  be  had  committed  to  paper  an 
amount  of  matter  which  has  probably  never  been  exceedea  by  any 
one  except  a  professional  journalist,  if  indeed  the  parallel  will  hold 
even  there.  The  new  edition  now  publishing  of  f  lie  Memoirs  with 
tho  notes  on  Dangean  is  estimated  to  contain  thirty  large  octavo 
volumes.  Besides  this;  M.  Drumont,  M.  Faugere,  and  other  in- 
dependent workers  are  bringing  out  series  of  (Euvres  Inldites  of  a 
less  gossiping  and  more  technical  character  found  in  different  re- 
ceptacles of  the  public  archives.  But  tho  mere  mass  of  these  prc- 
ductioBS  is  their  least  noteworthy  feature,  or  rather  it  is  most 
remarkable  as  contrasting  with  their  character  and  style.  The 
voluminous  writer  is  usually  thought  of  as  least  likely  to  bo 
characterized  by  an  original  and  sparkling  stylo.  Saint-Simon, 
though  careless  and  sometimes  even  ungrammatical,  ranks  among 
tho  most  striking  memoir  writers  of  France,  the  country  richest 
in  memoirs  of  any  in  tho  world.  His  pettiness,  his  nbsoluto 
injustice  to  hia  private  enemies  and  to  thoso  who  espoused  public 

Eartics  with  which  ho  did  not  agree,  tho  bitterness  which  allows 
im  to  give  favourable  portraits  of  hardly  any  one,  liis  omnivorous 
appetite  for  gossip,  his  lack  of  proportion  and  perapectivc,  are  all 
Iciit  sight  of  in  admiration  of  his  extraordinary  genius  for  historical 
narrative  and  character-drawiug  of  a  certain  sort.  IIo  has  been 
compared  to  Tacitus,  and  for  oiico  tho  comparison,  so  often  made 
and  generally  so  ludicrously  out  of  place,  is  just.  In  tho  midst 
of  his  enormous  mass  of  WTiting  phrases  scarcely  inferior  to  tho 
Roman's  occur  frequently,  and  hero  and  there  passages  of  sustained 
description  equal  for  intense  concentntion  of  li^'lit  and  life  to  tlioso 
of  Tacitus  or  of  any  other  histurian.  As  may  bo  cxpectiJ  from  tho 
vast  extent  of  his  work,  it  ia  in  tho  highest  degree  unequal.  But 
he  is  at  the  same  time  not  a  writer  who  can  bo  "sampled"  easily, 
inasmuch  aa  hU  moat  characteristic  phrases  sonietimca  occur  in  tho 
midst  of  long  atrotches  of  quite  uniiiture8ting  matter.  Hence  ho 
haa  been  even  since  his  dis.-ovory  more  praised  than  read,  aud 
better  liked  by  ciilios  than  by  iho  general  nailer.  A  few  critical 
studies  of  him,  especinlly  those  of  .Saiiitn-Heuve,  are  in  fact  tho  basis 
of  much,  if  not  niosit,  that  has  been  written  about  him.  Yet  no 
ono  is  so  littlo  to  1>o  tiikeii  at  socoml-haiul  lOven  his  most  famous 
passages,  such  as  tho  neeount  of  the  d^'iitli  of  tho  dauphin  or  of 
tho  bod  of  justice  where  his  enemy  the  duko  of  Maine  was  degraded, 
will  not  give  a  fair  idea  of  his  talent.     These  »rc  his  gallery  pieces, 


200 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


his  great  "machinos,"  as  French  art  slang  calls  them.  Much  more 
noteworthy  as  well  as  more  frequent  are  tlie  sudden  touches  whicli 
lie  gives.  The  bishops  are  "cuistrcs  violets";  M.  de  Caiimartin 
"  porte  sous  son  nianteau  toute  la  f.ituite  que  M.  de  Villcroy  etale 
sur  sou  baudricr";  another  politician  1  as  a  "mine  de  rhat  fache  "; 
a  third  is  hit  oH  as  "coniptaut  faire"  ("he  would  still  he  doing," 
though  Saint-Simon  certainly  did  not  know  tliat  pliiase).  In  short, 
the  interest  of  the  Memoirs,  independent  of  tlie  large  addition  of 
positive  knowledge  wliich  tliey  make,  is  one  of  constant  surprise 
at  the  novel  and  adioit  use  of  word  and  phrase.  It  is  not  super- 
lluous  to  inform  the  English  reader  that  some  of  Jlacaulay's  most 
brilliant  portraits  and  sketches  of  incident  are  adapted  and  some- 
times almost  literally  translated  from  Saiut-Simon. 

The  1st  edition  of  baint-Smion  (some  scattcivil  pieces  may  ha\ie  been  printer! 
before)  appeared  in  17SS.  It  was  a  mere  selection  in  llnee  volumes  and  was 
much  cut  down  before  it  was  allowed  toapjiear.  Next  year  four  more  volumes 
made  their  appeai-ance,  and  in  1791  a  new  edition,  still  further  increased.  The 
whole,  or  rather  not  the  whole,  was  printed  in  1S29-:jO  and  reprinted  some  ten 
years  later.  Tlie  real  creator  of  Saiut-.'simon,  as  far  as  a  full  and  exact  text  is 
concerned,  was  M.  Clieruel,  whose  edition  in  20  volumes  dates  from  ISoG  and 
was  reissued  again  revised  in  1872.  So  immense,  however,  is  the  mass  of  Saint- 
Simon's  MSS.  tliat  still  another  recension  lias  been  found  necessary,  and  is  now 
beinc:  published  by  M.  de  Boislisle  in  the  series  of  Grands  tcrivains,  but  with 
JI.  Clieruel's  sanction  and  assistance.  Even  this,  as  above  noted,  will  not  ex- 
haust available  Saiiit-Simoiiiaiia,  and  it  may  be  doubted  whether  it  will  be 
possible  for  many  years  to  place  a  complete  edition  on  the  shelves.  It  must, 
however,  be  admitted  that  tlie  matter  other  than  the  .1/emjirs  is  jf  altogether 
inferior  interest  and  may  be  pretty  safely  neslected  by  any  one  but  professed 
antiquarian  and  historical  students.  For  criticism  on  Saint-Simoii  there  is 
nothing  better  than  Sainte-Beuve's  two  sketches  in  the  ad  and  15lh  volumes  of 
the  Canssrie$  dn  Lundi.  The  latter  was  written  to  accompany  M.  Cheruel's  1st 
edition.  In  English  by  ftir  the  most  accurate  treatment  is  in  a  recent  Lothian 
prize  essay  by  E.  Cannan  (Oxford  and  London,  ISSJ).  (G.  SA.) 

ST  THOMAS,  one  of  the  Danish  West  India  Islands, 
lies  36  miles  east  of  Porto  Rico  (Spanish)  and  40  north- 
north-west  of  St  Croix  (Danish),  with  its  principal  town 
(Charlotte  Amalie)  in  18'  20'  27"  N.  lat.  and  64°  55'  40" 
W.  long.  It  is  1 3  miles  long  from  east  to  west,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  3,  and  is  estimated  to  have  an  area  of 
33  square  miles.  The  highest  point.  West  Mountain,  is 
1586  feet  above  the  sea.  Previous  to  the  abolition  of 
slavery  in  1848  the  island  was  covered  withsugar  planta- 
tions and  dotted  with  substantial  mansions ;  but  now  a 
few  vegetables,  a  little  fruit,  and  some  guinea  grass  are  all 
that  it  produces.  Greengroceries  are  imported  from  the 
United  States,  poultry  and  eggs  from  the  neighbouring 
islands.  Nor  is  the  exceptional  position  which  St  Thomas 
has  hitherto  enjoyed  as  a  commercial  depot  any  longer 
secure;  the  value  of  the  imports  in  188()  was  less  than 
one-half  of  what  it  was  in  1870,  and  the  merchants  of 
Venezuela,  Porto  Rico,  San  Domingo,  Hayti,  &c.,  who  used 
to  purchase  in  St  Thomas,  now  go  direct  to  the  markets 
of  the  United  States  and  Europe.  The  Royal  Iilail  Com- 
pany, which  at  an  early  date  chose  the  island  as  the  princi- 
pal rendezvous  for  its  steam-packets  in  that  part  of  the 
world,  and  whose  example  was  followed  by  other  important 
lines,  removed  its  headquarters  to  Barbados  in  1885. 
The  harbour  lies  about  the  middle  of  the  south  coast  and 
is  nearly  landlocked;  its  depth  varies  from  36  to  18  feet. 
A  floating  dock,  250  feet  in  length,  was  completed  in  1875  ; 
there  is  in  addition  a  steam-slip  capable  of  taking  up  a 
vessel  of  1200  tons.  Along  the  north  side  of  the  harbour 
lies  Charlotte  Amalie,  popularly  known  as  St  Thomas,  the 
only  town  on  the  island.  In  188D  tha  inhabitants  of  the 
island  numbered  14,389  (males  5757,  females  8632),  of 
whom  about  a  sixth  are  white,  of  various  nationalities ; 
the  rest  have  nearly  all  more  or  less  of  Negro  blood. 
English  has  gradually  become  almost  the  exclusive  lan- 
guage of  the  educated  classes,  and  is  used  in  the  schools 
and  churches  of  all  the  various  communities.  The  curious 
Creole  speech  of  the  Negroes,  which  contained  a  mixture 
of  broken  Dutch,  Danish,  English,  <tc.,  though  it  was  re- 
duced to  WTiting  by  the  iloravian  missionaries  subsequent 
to  1770,  is  rapidly  dying  out.^  About  a  third  of  the  popu- 
lation are  Roman  Catholics,  and  the  rest  mainly  Protestants 
of  the  Lutheran,  Dutch  Reformed,  ^Moravian,  and  English 
Episcopal  Churches.  The  Jewish  community,  500  or  600 
strong,  has  a  synagogue.      There  are  in  the  town  two 

'  See  .iperimens  and  analysis  by  Dr  E.  PoutOiijndan,  in  Zlsolir.  f. 
Kthiwl,  Berlin,  1S81. 


hospitals,  a  public  reading-room  and  library,  a  Government 
college  (1877),  a  Roman  Catholic  college  (St  Thomas),  a 
Moravian  school,  and  a  small  theatre.  A  quarantine  laza- 
retto is  maintained  on  Lighthouse  or  Muhlenfeldt  Point. 
The  general  health  of  the  town  is  good.  The  climate 
varies  little  all  the  year  round,  the  thermometer  seldom 
falling  below  70°  or  rising  above  90°.  In  the  "  hurricane  " 
months — August,  September,  and  October — south  winds, 
accompanied  by  sultry  heat,  rain,  and  thunder,  are  not  un- 
common ;  throughout  the  rest  of  the  year  the  wind  blows 
between  east  anci  north.  Earthquakes  are  not  un  frequent, 
but  they  do  little  damage  in  comparison  witb  cyclones, 
which  sometimes  sweep  over  the  island. 

St  Thomas  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1493,  and  at  that 
time  was  inhabited  by  two  tribes,  the  Carihs  and  the  Arrowauks. 
In  1657  it  was  colonized  by  the  Dutch,  and  after  their  departure 
for  New  York  it  was  held  by  tlie  English  iu  1667.  The  Danish 
West  India  and  Guinea  Company  took  possession  in  1671,  and 
some  eight  years  later  began  the  introduction  of  slave  labour.  It 
was  succeeded  in  1685  by  the  so-called  Brandenburgh  Company, 
the  principal  shareholders  of  which  were  Dutch.  The  colony  was 
strengthened  by  French  refugees  froiii  St  Christopher's  after  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  Tlie  neutrality  of  Denmark  led 
to  the  prizes  of  the  various  belligerents  being  brought  to  its  port  for 
sale.  In  1754  the  king  of  Denmark  took  the  management  of  thj 
colony  into  his  own  hands,  and  in  1764  he  threw  open  the  port  to 
vessels  of  all  nations.  The  neutrality  of  Denmaik  again  favoured 
it  in  the  war  of  1792  ;  and  it  became  the  only  maiket  m  the  West 
Indies  from  which  the  products  of  the  colonics  could  be  conveyed 
to  the  north  of  Europe.  In  1801  the  island  was  held  by  the  British 
for  ten  months,  and  it  was  again  in  their  possession  froto  the  latter 
part  of  1807  to  1815.  At  that  time  the  harbour  was  three  or  four 
times  a  year  the  rendezvous  for  homeward  bound  English  ships, 
from  200  to  400,  as  the  case  might  be,  which  waited  there  for  their 
convoys.  The  South  American  War  of  Independence  letl  a  number 
of  Spaniards'to  settle  at  St  Thomas.  A  great  but  temporary  stimulus 
was  given  to  its  commerce  during  the  American  Civil  War.  In 
1871  the  Danish  Government  removed  the  headquarters  of  their 
West  India  possessions  from  St  Croix  to  St  Thomas. 

ST  THOMAS  (Portuguese,  Sao  Thome),  a  volcanic,  island 
in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  (West  Africa),  lies  immediately 
north  of  the  equator  and  in  6°  40'  E  long.  From  the 
Gaboon,  the  nearest  point  of  the  mainland,  the  distance  is 
166  miles,  and  from  the  Cameroons  297.  The  extreme 
length  of  the  island  is  32  miles  and  the  breadth  from  west 
to  east  21 ;  the  area  is  estimated  at  355  square  miles. 
From  the  coast  it  rises  pretty  uniformly  towards  the  lofty 
and  verdant  mountains,  in  the  midst  of  which  the  peak  of 
St  Thomas  towers  to  a  height  of  6000  feet.  At  least  a 
hundred  streams  great  and  small  rush  down  the  mountain- 
sides through  deep-cut  ravines,  many  of  them  forming 
beautiful  waterfalls,  such  as  those  of  Blu  blu,-  &c.,  on  the 
Agua  Grande.  The  bi-seasonal  climate  of  the  tropics  ob- 
tains a  comparatively  normal  development  on  the  island, 
which,  however,  has  a  very  evil  repute  of  unhealthiness, 
probably  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  chief  town  occupies  a 
peculiarly  malarial  site  on  the  coast.  The  first  object  of 
European  cultivation  in  St  Thomas  u-as  sugar,  and  to  this 
the  colony  owed  its  prosperity  in  the  16th  century;  but 
now  it  is  quite  displaced  by  cofl'ee  and  cocoa,  introduced 
in  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century.  In  1879-80  the 
export  of  coffee  was  3,778,580  S)  and  of  cocoa  1,026,746 
lb.  Vanilla  and  cinchona  bark  both  succeed  well,  the  latter 
between  1800  and  3300  feet  of  altitude.  Though  nearly 
the  whole  surface  of  the  island  is  fitted  for  cultivation,  only 
about  a  fifth  part  is  really  turned  to  account.  Along  witli 
Principe,  St  Thomas  forms  a  Portuguese  province,  to  which 
are  attached  the  little  island  of  Rolas  and  the  petty  fort  of 
Ajuda  on  the  Guinea  coast. 

Tlie  town  of  St  Thomas,  the  capital  of  the  province,  is  situated  on 
the  north-east  coast  of  the  island,  and  the  neighbouring  districts 
form  tlie  only  well-peopled  region.  In  1878  the  population  in  the 
island  was  18,266,  of  whom  1200  were  white.  The  great  bulk  con- 
sisted of  a  mi.\ture  of  Negroes  from  various  parts  of  the  West 
Coast,  mainly  introduced  as  slaves,  and  now  all  using  a  Negro 
Portuguese— "liugua  do  S.  Thome."     On  the  south-west  coast  ara 


S  A  I  — S  A  I 


201 


about  1200  Angolarcs,  descendants  of  a  shipload  of  Angoia  slaves 
wrecked  at  Sete  Pcdras  in  1544,  who  still  retain  their  Bunda  speech 
and  peculiar  customs. 

St  Thomas  was  discovered  about  the  closn  of  1470  by  the  Portu- 
guese navigators  Joao  de  Saiitarem  and  Pero  de  Escobar,  who  iii 
the  beginning  of  the  following  year  discovered  Annobom  {"Good 
Year").  They  found  St  Thomas  uniuhaliited.  Tlie  first  attempts' 
at  colonization  were  Joiio  de  I'aiva's  in  1485  ;  but  nothin"  perma- 
nent was  accomplished  till  1493,  when  a  body  of  criminals  and  of 
young  Jews  torn  from  their  parents  to  bo  taptized  were  sent  to  the 
island,  and  the  present  capital  was  founded  by  Alvaro  do  Carminha. 
Considerable  progress  had  been  made  by  the  16th  century  ;  but  in 
1567  the  settlement  was  attacked  by  the  French,  aud  in  1574  the 
Angolarcs  began  those  raids  which  only  ended  with  their  subjuga- 
tion in  1693.  In_  1595  there  was  a  slave  revolt ;  and  from  1641  to 
1844  the  Dutch,  who  had  plundered  the  capital  in  1600,  held  pos- 
session of  the  island.  The  French  did  great  damage  in  1709  ;  and 
in  the  course  of  the  century  internal  anarchy  reduced  St  Thomas 
to  a  deplorable  state. 

See  Dr  Greeff's  papers  in  Fetermann's  Milletluniien,  1884,  and  Globus,  1882, 
vol.  xlii. 

SAINT-VICTOR,  Paul  ee  (1827-1883),  one  of  the 
chief  masters  of  a  very  ornate  style  in  recent  French  litera- 
ture, was  born  at  Paris  in  1827  and  died  there  in  1883. 
He  was  of  noble  birth  and  inherited  the  title  of  count,  but 
rarely  used  it,  his  political  principles  being  democratic. 
Saint-Victor  began  as  a  dramatic  critic  on  the  Pays  in 
1851  and  subsequently  WTOte  in  many  journals.  In  1870, 
during  the  last  days  of  the  second  empire,  he  was  made 
inspector-general  of  fine  arts.  Almost  all  Saiut-Victor's 
work  consists  of  reprinted  articles,  the  best  known,  and  on 
the  whole  the  best,  being  the  collection  entitled  I/ommes 
tt  Dieux  (1SG7).  His  death  interrupted  the  publication 
of  an  elaborate  work,  partly  reprinted,  partly  developed 
from  formerly  printed  papers,  entitled  Les  Deux  Jifasques, 
in  which  the  author  intended  to  survey  the  whole  dramatic 
literature  of  ancient  and  modern  times.  Saint-Victor's 
actual  critical  faculty  was  considerahle,  though  rather  one- 
sided ;  but  his  position  in  French  literature  is  likely  to 
be,  in  an  inferior  degree,  something  like  that  of  Mr  Ruskin 
in  English.  He  owed  a  good  deal  to  Theophilo  Gautier, 
but  he  carried  ornateness  to  a  pitch  far  beyond  Gautier's, 
— a  pitch  which  may  sometimes  deserve  the  eoithet 
"barbaric." 

ST  VINCENT,  an  island  in  the  West  Indies,  discovered 
by  Columbus  in  1498,  is  situated  in  13°  10'  N.  lat.  and 
60°  57'  W.  long.,  100  miles  to  the  west  of  Barbados;  it 
is  18  miles  in  length,  11  in  breadth,  and  has  an  area  of 
132  .square  miles.  Volcanic  hills  cross  the  i.^land  from 
north  to  south,  intersected  by  beautiful  and  fertile  valleys. 
In  the  north-west  is  the  Souffriere,  a  volcanic  mountain 
(3000  feet),  of  which  the  last  violent  eruption  was  in 
1812 ;  the  crater  is  3  miles  in  circumference  and  500  feet 
in  depth.  The  climate  is  humid  and  tolerably  healthy 
(averatgo  rainfall  nearly  80  inches).  In  1627,  when  Charles 
1.  granted  St  Vincent  to  the  earl  of  Carlisle,  it  was  peo}ilcd 
by  Caribs  ;  in  1G72  it  was  given  to  Lord  Willoughby,  and 
in  1722  was  granted,  along  with  other  i.slands,  to  the 
duke  of  Montagu  by  George  I.  After  hostilities  with  the 
French  and  Caribs,  it  passed  definitively  to  Great  Britain 
in  1783.  Immigrants  were  afterwards  introduced  and 
plantations  cultivated  ;  the  chief  products  are  sugar,  rum, 
molasses,  and  arrowroot.  The  capital  is  Kingstown  (popu- 
lation, 5593),  the  total  population  of  the  island  being 
42,200,  including  2700  Europeans  and  30,000  Africans. 
The  island  was  formerly  under  the  general  government  of 
the  Windward  Islands,  Barbados  being  headquarters ;  but 
in  1885  Barbados  was  made  a  separate  government,  and 
Grenada,  St  Vincent,  Tobago,  and  St  Lucia  were  jjUtccd 
under  a  governor.  The  legislative  council  of  St  Vincent 
is  composed  of  official  members  and  others  nominated  \>y 
the  crown.  In  1883  the  revenue  and  expenditure  were 
respectively  £34,509  and  £32,902,  the  debt  being  £28 10. 
The  tonnage  entered  and  cleared  ivas  172,989,  the  imnorts 


ana  exports  being  valued  at  £148,286  and  £166,752  re- 
spectively (sugar  exports,  9250  tons). 

ST  VINCENT,  Sin  John  Jf.rvis,  Earl  (1734-1823),  a 
distinguished  naval  officer,  was  born  at  Mcaford,  Stafford- 
shire, on  9th  January  1734.  His  father  was  dounsel  and 
solicitor  to  the  admiralty  and  treasurer  of  Greenwich  hos- 
pital. Young  Jervis  was  destined  for  the  law,  but  early 
showed  such  a  strong  predilection  for  the  sea  that  be  ran 
away  from  school  in  order  to  become  a  sailor.  Accordingly 
in  1748  he  was  placed  on  board  the  "Gloucester"  under 
Commodore  Townsend.  Si.K  years  later  he  rose  to  be  lieu- 
tenant, and  in  1759  he  distinguished  himself  so  much  at 
the  siege  and  capture  of  Quebec  tha^  he  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  commander.  In  the  following  year  he  was 
made  a  post-captain.  He  commanded  the  "Foudroyant" 
in  July  1778,  when  the  memorable  rencontre  took  place  be- 
tween Admiral  Keppel  and  Count  d'Orvilliers,  and  bore  a 
very  distinguished  part  in  that  action.  In  1782,  while  in 
command  of  the  same  vessel,  he  captured  the  French  ship 
"  P(^'gase,"  of  74  guns  and  700  men,  off  Brest  Harbour,  and 
was  rewarded  for  his  exploit  by  being  made  Knight  Com- 
panion of  the  Bath.  In  1784  he  entered  parliament  as 
member  for  Launceston,  and  he  afterwards  sat  for  Yar- 
mouth. Conjointly  with  Sir  Charles  Grey,  Jervis  was 
appointed  to  command  an  expedition  sent  out  in  1793 
against  the  French  Caribbee  islands,  and,  though  the  rainy 
season  and  the  yellow  fever  prevented  the  full  success  of 
the  British,  they  were  able  to  obtain  possession  of  Mar- 
tinique and  St  Lucia,  and  to  hold  Guadaloupe  for  a  short 
time.  In  1795  Jervis  became  full  admiral  and  succeeded 
Lord  Wood  in  command  of  the  British  fleet  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, where  he  rendered  important  service  in  blockad- 
ing the  French  fleet  in  Toulon,  and  protecting  English  trade 
in  the  Levant.  On  14th  February  1797  he  won  his  most 
celebrated  victory.  AVith  only  fifteen  ships  of  the  line, 
seven  frigates,  and  two  sloops  he  encountered  off  Cape  St 
Viucent  a  Spanish  fleet  of  twenty-si.^c  sail  of  the  line,  twelve 
frigates,  and  a  brig,  and  completely  defeated  it,  capturing 
four  0*  the  enemy's  largest  ships.  For  this  great  triumph, 
which  had  a  mo.st  important  effect  on  the  prosecution  of 
the  war,  Jervis  was  created  a  peer  by  the  title  of  Earl 
"St  Vincent.  He  still  further  distinguished  himself  some 
months  later  by  his  resolute  and  sagacious  conduct  in  re- 
pressing a  mutiny  in  his  fleet  when  off  Cadiz.  In  Juno 
1799  he  resigned  his  command  in  consequence  of  ill-health, 
but  was  shortly  afterwards  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
Channel  fleet.  On  the  formation  of  the  Addington  ministry 
in  1801  ho  was  made  first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  and  in 
that  important  office,  which  he  held  for  three  years,  the 
great  capacity  for  business  with  which  he  was  endowed  by 
nature  shone  forth  in  all  its  lustre.  By  means  of  the  cele- 
brated Commission  of  naval  inquiry  he  was  enabled  to  ex- 
pose a  vast  extent  of  corruption  in  the  public  service  and  to 
lay  the  foundation  of  a  system  of  economical  administration. 
He  grappled  boldly  with  the  monstrous  and  deep-rooted 
abuses  brought  to  light,  and  by  his  vigour,  honesty,  and 
energy  succeeded  in  rectifying  thcra.  In  180C,  at  the  age 
of  seventy-two,  Lord  St  Vincent  was  again  called  upon  to 
lake  the  command  of  the  Channel  fleet  and  to  head  nn 
expedition  to  the  court  of  Portugal,  in  which  ho  displayed 
great  talents  and  address.  Advanced  ago  and  imi)nircd 
health  led  to  his  final  retirement  from  public  life  in  1807, 
but  he  survived  till  13th  JIarch  1823,  when  ho  died  in  his 
ninetieth  year. 

Sto  Ilienton,  Lifi  of  Earl  St  Vintxnt ;  Lord  Brougham,  Stales- 
7ncn  of  the  Times  of  Ocorqc  III, 

ST  VITUS'S  DANCE,'  or  CnonnA^  a  disorder^ of  tlio 

'"I'lils  iinine  was  origTiinlly  eiuployod  iu  comicxiou  witli  those 
rrniarknbic  cpidenvic  outburets  of  coniliiiied  mental  and  pliy»lcnl  ex- 
citeiiiiiit  which  for  n  lime  prevailed  among  the  inhnliitants  of  some 
parta  of  Geruinny  iu  the  Middle  Agi'J.     It  is  »lntcd  that  sulTircM  fruii' 


20-i 


ST     VITUS'S     DANCE 


nervous  system  occurring  for  the  most  part  in  children, 
and  characterized  mainly  by  involuntary  jerking  move- 
ments of  the  muscles  throughout  almost  the  entire  body. 
It  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  functional  nervous  disorder  of 
■wide  extent,  the  manifestations  of  which  appear  not 
merely  in  disturbance  affecting  the  motor  apparatus  but 
in  various  associated  morbid  phenomena  of  cerebral  origin. 
Among  the  predisposing  causes  age  is  important,  chorea 
being  essentially  an  ailment  of  childhood  and  more  par- 
ticularly of  the  period  in  which  the  second  dentition  is 
taking  place.  The  greater  number  of  the  cases  occur 
between  the  ages  of  nine  and  twelve.  It  is  not  often  seen 
in  very  young  children  nor  after  puberty ;  but  there  are 
many  exceptions  to  this  rule.  It  is  twice  as  frequent  with 
girls  as  with  boys.  Hereditary  predisposition  to  nervous 
troubles  is  apt  to  find  expression  in  this  malady  in  youth, 
more  especially  if  the  general  health  becomes  lowered.  Of 
exciting  causes  strong  emotions,  such  as  fright,  ill-usage 
or  hardship  of  any  kind,  insufficient  feeding,  overwork  or 
anxiety,  are  among  the  most  common  ;  while,  again,  some 
distant  source  of  irritation,  such  as  teething  or  intestinal 
worms,  appears  capable  of  giving  rise  to  an  attack.  It  is 
an  occasional  but  rare  complication  of  pregnancy.  The 
connexion  of  chorea  with  rheumatism  is  now  universally 
recognized,  and  is  shown  not  merel}*  by  its  frequent  occur- 
rence before,  after,  or  during  the  course  of  attacks  of 
rheumatic  fever  in  young  persons,  but  even  independently 
of  this  by  the  liability  of  the  heart  to  suffer  in  a  similar 
way  in  the  two  diseases. 

The  symptoms  of  St  Vitus's  dance  are  in  some  instances 
developed  suddenly  as  the  result  of  fright,  but  much  more 
frequently  they  come  on  insidiously.  They  are  usually 
preceded  by  changes  in  the  temper  and  disposition,  the 
child  becoming  sad,  irritable,  and  emotional,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  general  health  is  somewhat  impaired.  The 
first  thing  indicative  of  the  disease  is  a  certain  awkward- 
ness or  fidgetiness  of  manner  together  with  restlessness, 
the  child  being  evidently  unable  to  continue  quiet,  but 
frequently  moving  the  limbs  into  different  positions.  In 
walking,  too,  slight  dragging  of  one  limb  may  be  noticed. 
Tho  convulsive  muscular  movements  usually  first  show 
themselves  in  one  part,  such  as  an  arm  or  a  leg,  and  in 
some  instances  they  may  remain  localized  to  that  limited 
extent,  while  in  all  cases  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  dis- 
orderly symptoms  to  be  more  marked  on  one  side  than  on 
the  other.  When  fully  developed  the  phenomena  of  the 
disease  are  very  characteristic.  The  child  when  standing 
or  sitting  is  never  still,  but  Is  constantly  changing  the 
position  of  the  body  or  limbs  in  consequence  of  the  sudden 
and  incoordinate  action  of  muscles  or  groups  of  them. 
The  shoulder  is  jerked  up,  the  head  and  trunk  twisted 
about,  the  limbs  crossed  suddenly  and  changed  again,  the 
fingers  keep  moving  restlessly,  while  the  face  is  distorted 
with  grimaces,  frowning  and  smiling  irregularly.  These 
symptoms  are  aggravated  when  purposive  movements 
are  attempted  or  when  the  child  is  watched.  Speech  is 
affected  both  from  the  incoordinate  movements  of  the 
tongue  and  from  phonation  sometimes  taking  place  during 
an  act  of  inspiration.  The  taking  of  food  becomes  a 
matter  of  difficulty,  since  much  of  it  is  lost  in  the  attempts 
to  convey  it  to  the  mouth,  whilo  swallowing  is  also  inter- 
fered with  owing  to  the  irregular  action  of  the  pharyngeal 
muscles.  AVTien  the  tongue  is  protruded  it  comes  out  in  a 
jerky  manner  and  is  immediately  withdrawn,  the  jaws  at 
the  same  time  closing  suddenly  and  sometimes  with  con- 
this  dancing  niauia  wcro  wout  to  report  to  the  chapels  of  bt  Vitus 
(more  tlian  ouc  iu  Swabia),  tlie  saiut  beii^g  believed  to  possess  tbe  power 
of  curing  tliein.  The  transference  of  the  name  to  the  disease  now  under 
consideration  was  s.  manifest  error,  but  so  closely  has  the  association 
tiow  become  that  the  original  applicatioa  o£  tin-  teroi  has  been  com? 
paratively  obscured. 


siderable  force.  In  locomotion  the  muscles  of  the  limbs 
act  incoordinately  and  there  is  a  marked  alteration  of  the 
gait,  which  is  now  halting  and  now  leaping,  and  the  c!."''l 
may  be  tripped  by  one  limb  being  suddenly  jerked  in 
front  of  the  other.  In  short,  whether  at  rest  or  in  motion 
the  whole  muscular  system  is  seen  to  be  deranged  in  its 
operations,  and  the  term  "  insanity  of  the  muscles"  not 
inaptly  expresses  the  condition,  for  they  no  longer  act  in 
harmony  or  with  purpose,  but  seem,  as  Trousseau  ex- 
presses it,  each  to  have  a  will  of  its  own  and  to  be  exercis- 
ing this  for  different  objects  at  one  time.  The  muscles  of 
organic  life  (involuntary  muscles)  appear  scarcely,  if  at 
all,  affected  in  this  disease,  as,  for  example,  the  heart,  the 
rhythmic  movements  of  which  are  not  as  a  rtile  impaired. 
But  the  heart  may  suffer  in  other  ways,  especially  from 
inflammatory  conditions  similar  to  those  which  attend 
upon  rheumatism  and  which  frequently  lay  the  foundation 
of  permanent  heart-disease.  In  severe  cases  of  St  Vitus's 
dance  the  child  comes  to  present  a  distressing  appearance 
from  the  constant  restlessness  and  disorderly  movement, 
and  the  physical  health  declines.  Usually,  however,  there 
is  a  remission  of  the  symptoms  during  sleep.  The  mental 
condition  of  the  patient  is  more  or  less  affected,  as  shown  in 
emotional  tendencies,  irritability,  and  a  somewhat  fatuous 
expression  and  bearing,  but  this  change  is  in  general  of 
transient  character  and  ceases  with  convalescence. 

This  disease  occasionally  assumes  a  very  acute  and 
aggravated  form,  in  which  the  disorderly  movements  are 
so  violent  as  to  render  the  patient  liable  to  be  injured  and 
to  necessitate  forcible  control  of  the  limbs  or  the  employ- 
ment of  anaesthetics  to  produce  unconsciousness.  Such 
cases  are  of  very  grave  character,  if,  as  is  common,  they 
are  accompanied  with  sleejSessness,  and  they  may  prove 
rapidly  fatal  by  exhaustion.  In  the  great  majority  of 
cases  of  St  Vitus's  dance,  however,  complete  recovery  is  to 
be  anticipated  sooner  or  later,  the  symptoms  usually  coti- 
tinuing  for  from  one  to  two  months,  or  even  sometimes 
much  longer. 

The  nature  of  this  disease  lias  given  rise  to  much  dis- 
cussion and  there  still  remains  considerable  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  its  true  pathology.  The  fact  that  the  vast 
majority  of  cases  recover  would  seem  to  show  that  there 
could  have  been  no  profound  change  in  the  structiual 
integrity  of  the  nerve-centres,  while  in  those  instances 
where  a  fatal  result  takes  place  post-mortem  examination 
reveals  no  constant  morbid  condition.  A  theory  supported 
by  high  authority  has  referred  the  cause  of  ths  malady  to 
tlie  plugging  up  of  minute  blood-vessels  in  the  motor 
centres  of  the  brain  (a  condition  not  unlikely  to  occur  in 
rheiunatic  inflammation  affecting  the  lining  membrane  of 
the  heart),  and  such  a  change  has  been  seen  in  a  few 
instances.  In  a  still  larger  number,  however,  no  appear- 
ances of  this  kind  have  bepn  observed,  but  simply  vascular 
changes  of  a  congestive  character  widely  diffused  through- 
out the  central  nervous  system,  accompanied  with  evidences 
of  slight  inflammatory  action.  Dr  Dickinson,  whose  views, 
founded  upon  carefully  conducted  investigations,  are  those 
most  widely  accepted,  concludes  as  follows  :  "  We  see  in 
chorea  a  widely  distributed  hyperiemia  [i.e.,  congestion]  of 
the  nervous  centres,  not  due  to  any  mechanical  mischance, 
but  produced  mainly  by  causes  of  two  kinds, — one  » 
morbid,  probably  a  humoral  influence,  which  may  affect 
the  nervous  centres  as  it  affects  other  organs  and  tissues ; 
the  other,  irritation  in  some  mode  usually  mental  but  some- 
times what  is  called  reflex,  which  especially  belongs  to  and 
disturbs  the  nervous  system,  and  affects  persons  differently, 
a^gcording  to  the  inherent  mobility  of  their  nature." 

For  the  treatment  of  St  Vitus's  dance  the  remedies  pro- 
poscxl  hiive  been  innumerable,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
any  of  them  have  much  control  over  the  disease,  which. 


S  A  1  — S  A  L 


203 


Sti&et  sultabfe  hygietiic  conditions  tends  to  recover  oi 
itself.  These  conditions,  however,  are  all-important,  and 
embrace  the  proper  feeding  of  the  child  with  nutritious 
light  diet,  the  absence  of  all  sources  of  excitement  and 
annpyance,  such  as  being  laughed  at  or  mocked  by  other 
children,  and  the  rectification  of  any  causes  of  irritation 
and  of  irregularities  in  the  general  health.  For  a  time, 
and  especially  if  the  symptoms  are  severe,  confinement  to 
the  house  or  even  to  bed  may  be  necessary,  but  as  soon  as 
possible  the  child  should  be  taken  out  into  the  open  air 
and  gently  exercised  by  walking.  Of  medicinal  remedies 
the  most  serviceable  appear  to  be  zinc,  arsenic,  and  iron, 
especially  the  last  two,  which  act  as  tonics  to  the  system 
and  improve  the  condition  of  the  blood.  They  should  be 
continued  during  the  whole  course  of  the  disease  and  con- 
valescence, if  they  do  not  disagree.  As  sedatives  in  cases 
of  sleeplessness,  bromide  of  potassium  and  chloral  are  of 
use;'-  Many  other  agents,  such  as-  conium,  belladonna, 
strychnia,  the  salts  of  silver,  &c.,  have  been  recommended, 
but  they  do  not  seem  to  possess  any  special  advantages. 
In  long-continued  cases  of  the  disease  much  benefit  will 
be,  obtained  by  a  change  of  air  as  well  as  by  the  employ- 
ment of  moderate  gymnastic  exercises.  Bearing  in  mind 
the  weakened  condition  of  the  muscles  as  the  result  of  the 
choreic  movements,  the  employment  of  friction  and  of 
electricity  is  also  likely  to  be  beneficial.  After  recovery 
the  general  health  of  the  child  should  for  a  long  time 
receive  attention,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  guard 
against  excitement,  excessive  study,  or  any  exhausting 
condition,  physical  .or  mental,  from  the  fact  that  the 
disease  is  apt  to  recur  and  that  other  nervous  disorders 
still  more  serious  may  be  developed  from  it. 

In  the  rare  instances  of  the  acute  form  of  this  malady, 
•where  the  convulsive  movements  are  unceasing  and  violent, 
the  only  measures  available  are  the  use  of  chloral  or 
chloroform  inhalation  to  produce  insensibility  and  muscular 
relaxation,  but  the  effect  is  only  palliative  and  does  not 
prevent  the  fatal  result  which  in  most  such  cases  quickly 
supervenes.  (j.  o.  a.) 

ST  UBES.  •  SeFSETtJB.VL. 

S.-US.     See  Egypt,  vol.  vii.  p.  768. 

SALADIN.  See  Egypt,  vol.  vii.  pp.  753-754. 
^SALAMANCA,  a  province  of  Spain,  which  until  1833 
formed  part  of  that  of  Leon,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
Zamora  and  Valladolid,  on  the  E.  by  Avila,  on  the  S.  by 
Caceres,  'and  on  the  W.  by  Portugal.  It  has  an  area  of 
4910  square  miles.  The  population  in  1877  was  285,500; 
but  by  the  year  1880  it  was  estimated  that  it  had  decreased 
to  about  270,000.  Salamanca  belongs  almost  entirely  to 
t6e  basin  of  the  Douro,  its  principal  rivers  being  the 
Tbrmes,  which  follows  the  general  slope  of  the  province 
towards  the  north-west,  and  after  a  course  of  135  miles 
flows  into  the  Douro,  which  forms  jiart  of  the  north-west 
boundary ;  the  Ycltos  and  the  Agueda,  also  tributaries  of 
the  Douro ;  and  the  Alagon,  an  affluent  of  the  Tagus.  The 
northern  part  of  the  province  is  flat,  and  at  its  lowest 
point  (on  the  Douro)  is  488  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
highest  point  (in  the  Sierra  de  Pcna  do  Francia)  is  5692 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  rainfall  is  irregular ;  but  where 
it  is  plentiful  the  soil  is  productive  and  there  are  good 
l)arvests  of  wine,  oil,  hemp,  and  cereals  of  all  kinds.  The 
corn  harvest  is  always  good,  rain  or  no  rain.  The  principal 
wealth  of  the  province  consists  in  the  forests  of  oak  and 
chestnut,  -which  cover  the  hills  in  its  southern  part.  Sheep 
and  cattle  also  find  good  pasturage  there ;  and  wool  and 
merino  of  medium  quality  are  grown.  Gold  is  found  in 
the  streams,  and  iron,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  coal,  and  rock 
crystal  in  the  hills,  but  owing  to  the  difficulties  of  trans- 
port and  other  causes  the  mines  are  only  partially  de- 
veloped. _  The  manufactures  of  the  orovince  are  few  and 


mostly  or  a  low  class,  intended  for  home  consumption, 
such  as  frieze,  coarse  cloth,  hats,  and  pottery.  The  cloth 
jnanufactories  of  Bejar  turn  out  a  material  of  superior 
quality.  The  tanning  of  hides  is  carried  on  pretty  exten- 
sively, and  cork  and  flour  are  exported  via  Santander  and 
Barcelona.  The  province  is  traversed  by  a  railway  line  to 
Portugal,  passing  Medina  del  Campo  and  Ciudad  Piodrigo  to 
Figueira  da  Fez.  Administratively  the  province  is  divided 
into  eight  partidos  judiciales,  and  it  has  388  ayuntamientos; 
of  these  last  only  two  besides  Salamanca,  the  capital,  have 
a  population  exceeding  5000, — Bejar  (11,099)  and  Ciudad 
Rodrigo  (6856).  It  is  represented  in  the  cortes  by  three 
senators  and  seven  deputies.  Apart  from  that  of  Leon 
the  province  has  little  history  till  the  Peninsular  War, 
when  the  battles  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  Fuentes  de  Onoro, 
and  Salamanca  were  fought  on  its  soil. 

SALAMAXCA  (Satmantica,  Elmantica),  the  capital  cf 
The  above  province,  lies  on  the  banks  of  the  Tormes,  172 
miles  north-west  of  Madrid  by  rail.  The  river  is  here 
crossed  by  a  bridge  500  feet  in  length  built  on  twenty-six 
arches,  fifteen  of  which  are  of  Roman  origin,  while  the 
remainder  date  from  the  16th  century.  The  town  was  of 
importance  in  times  as  remote  as  222  B.C.,  when  it  was 
captured  by  Hannibal  from  the  Yettones ;  and  it  after- 
wards became  under  the  Romans  the  ninth  station  on  the 
Via  Lata  from  Slerida  to  Zaragoza.  It  passed  successively 
under  the  rule  of  the  Goths  and  the  Moors,  till  the  latter 
were  finally  driven  out  about  1055.  The  city  is  still  much 
the  same  in  outward  appearance  as  when  its  tortuous 
streets  were  thronged  -n-ith  students.  The  university  was 
naturally  the  chief  source  of  wealth  to  the  town,  the  popu- 
lation of  which  in  the  16th  century  numbered  50,000. 
Its  decay  of  course  reacted  on  tjie  townsfolk,  but  it 
fortunately  also  arrested  the  process  of  modernization,  so 
that  the  city  retains  most  of  its  old  features  and  is  now 
one  of  the  most  picturesque  in  Spain.  The  ravages  d- 
war  alone  have  wrought  serious  damage,  for  the  French 
in  their  defensive  operations  at  the  siege  almost  destroyed 
the  western"  quarter.  The  ruins  still  remain,  and  give  an 
air  of  desolation  which  is  not  borne  out  by  the  real  condi- 
tion of  the  inhabitants,  however  poverty-stricken  they  may 
appear.  The  magnificent  Plaza  Mayor,  built  by  Andres 
Garcia  de  Quinones  at  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century, 
and  capable  of  holding  20,000  people  to  witness  a  bull- 
fight, is  one  of  the  finest  squares  in  Europe.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  an  arcade  of  ninety  arches  on  Corinthian 
columns,  one  side  of  the  square  being  occupied  by  the 
municipal  buildings.  The  decorations  of  the  facades  are 
in  the  Renaissance  style,  and  the  plaza  as  a  whole  is  a 
fine  sample  of  plateresque  architecture.  But  the  old  and 
new  cathedrals  (see  below)  are  the  chief  objects  of  interest 
in  the  city. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  trade  of  Salamanca  was  not 
insignificant,  and  the  stamped  leather-work  produced  there 
is  still  sought  after.  Its  manufactures  are  now  of  little 
consequence,  and  consist  of  china,  cloth,  and  leather.  The 
transport  trade  of  the  town  is,  however,  of  more  import- 
ance, and  shows  signs  of  increasing.  But  any  great  revival 
can  only  take  place  when  communication  with  the  coast  is 
considerably  improved,  a  result  which  -will  no  doubt  bo 
promoted  by  the  recent  opening  of  the  lino  to  the  coast  of 
Portugal.  The  population  within  the  municipal  boundaries 
in  1877  was  18,007,  and  in  1886  was  estimated  at  aboi't 
20,000. 

Tho  old  calliedral  is  a  cruciform  builJing  of  the  12th  century, 
begun  liy  Bishop  Gcroniino,  the  confcssov  of  the  CiJ.  Its  stylo  «.! 
nrchitccturo  is  that  Liilo  Ronmncsquo  whioli  prcvnilud  in  tho  south 
of  Krincc,  but  tho  builder  showed  much  orij,TnalitY  in  tho  construc- 
tion of  tho  dome,  which  covers  tho  crossing  of  the  navo  and  tran- 
septs. Tlio  inner  dome  is  made  to  spring,  rot  from  immediately 
above  tho  arclics,  but  from  a  higher  btage  uf  ■  double  arcade  pierce^ 


204 


S  A  L  — S  A  L, 


iwlth  windows,  i  Tlie  thrust  of 'the  vaulting  is  borne  by  four  massive 
pinnacles,  and  over  the  inner  dome  is  an  outer  pointed  one  covered 
•with  tiles.  The  whole  forms  a  most  effective  and  graceful  gronp. 
On  the  vault;  of  the  apse  is  a  fresco  of  Our  Lord  in  Judgment  by 
Nicolas  Florentino. '  The  reredos,  which  has  the  peculiarity  of 
fitting  the  curve  of  the  apse,  contains  fifty-five  panels  with  paint- 
ings mostly  by  the  same  artist.  There  are  many  fine  monuments 
in  the  south  transept  and  cloister  chapels.  An  adjoining  building, 
the  Capilla  de  Talavera,  is  used  as  a  chapel  for  service  according  to 
the  Mozarabio  rite,  which  is  celebrated  there  six  times  a  year.  On 
the  north  of  and  adjoining  the  old  church  stands  the  new  cathedral, 
built  from  designs  by  Juan  Gil  de  Ontailon.  Begun  in  1513  under 
Bishop  Francisco  de  Bobadilla,  but  not  finished  until  1734,  it  is  a 
notable  example  of  the  late  Gothic  and  Plateresqua  styles.  Its 
length  is  340  feet  and  its  breadth  160  feet.  The  interior  is  fairly 
Gothic  in  character,  but  on  the  outside  the  Kenaissance  spirit  shows 
itself  more  clearly,  and  is  fully  developed  in  the  dome.  Everywhere 
the  attempt  at  mere  novelty  or  richness  results  iii  feebleness.  The 
main  arch  of  the  great  portal  consists  of  a  simple  trefoil,  but  the 
label  above  takes  an  ogee  line,  and  the  inner  arches  are  elliptical. 
Above  the  doors  are  bas-reliefs,  foliage,  &c.,  which  in  exuberance  of 
design  and  quality  of  workmanship  are  good  examples  of  the  latest 
efforts  of  Spanish  Gothic.  The  church  contains  paintings  by  Navar- 
rete,  Becerra,  and  Morales,  and  some  overrated  statues  by  Juan  de 
Juni.  The  treasury  is  very  rich,  and  amongst  other  articles  pos- 
sesses a  custodia  which  is  a  masterpiece  of  goldsmith's  work,  and  a 
bronze  crucifix,  of  undoubted  authenticity,  which  was  borne  before 
the  Cid  in  battle.  The  tower  is  too  unsafe  to  allow  of  the  ring- 
ing of  its  great  bell,  which  weighs  over  23  tons.  The  interest  of 
Salamanca  centred  in  its  university,  founded  by  Alfonso  IX.  about 
1200  and  for  four  centuries  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  European 
learning.  Of  the  university  buildings  the  facade  of  the  library 
(80,000  volumes,  exclusive  of  JISS.)  is  a  peculiarly  rich  example 
of  late  15th-century  Gothic.  The  cloisters  are  light  and  elegant ; 
the  grand  staircase  ascending  from  them  has  a  fine  balustrade  of 
foliage  and  figures.  The  Colegio  de  Nobles  Irlandeses,  formerly 
Colegio  de  Santiago  Apostol,  was  built  in  1521  from  designs  by 
Ibarra.  The  double  arcaded  cloister  is  a  fine  piece  of  work  of  the 
best  period  of  the  Renaissance.  The  Jesuit  College  is  an  iminense 
and  ugly  Kenaissance  building  begun  in  1614  by  Juan  Gomez  de 
Mora.  The  Colegio  Viejo,  also  called  San  Bartolome,  was  rebuilt 
in  the  18th  century,  ani  now  serves  as  the  governor's  palace.  The 
convent  of  Santo  Domingo,  sometimes  called  San  Esteban,  shows  a 
mixture  of  styles  from  the  13th  century  onwards.  The  church  is 
Gothic  with  a  plateresque  facade  of  great  lightness  and  delicacy. 
It  is  of  purer  design  than  that  of  the  cathedral ;  nevertheless  it 
shows  ,the  tendency  of  the  period.  The  reredos,  one  of  the  finest 
Renaissance  works  in  Spain,  contains  statues  by  Salvador  Carmona, 
and  a  curious  bronze  statuette  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  on  a  throne 
of  champleve  enamel  of  the  12th  century.  The  chapter -house, 
built  by  Juan  Moreno  in  1637,  and  the  staircase  and  sacristy  are 
good  examples  of  later  work.  The  convent  of  the  Augustinas 
Recoletas,  begun  by  Fontaua  in  1616,  is  in  better  taste  than  any 
other  Renaissance  building  in  the  city.  The  church  is  rich  in 
marble  fittings  and  contains  several  fine  pictures  of  the  Neapolitan 
school,  especially  the  Conception  by  Ribera  over  the  altar.  The 
convent  of  the  Sancti  Spiiitu  has  a  good  door  by  Berruguete.  There 
is  also  a  rather  eflective  portal  to  the  convent  of  Las  Duenas.  The 
church  of  S.  JIarcos  is  a  curious  circular  building  with  three  eastern 
apses ;  and  the  churches  of  S.  Martin  and  S.  Matteo  have  good 
early  doorways.  Many  of  the  private  houses  are  untouched  ex- 
amples of  the  domestic  architecture  of  the  prosperous  times  in 
which  they  were  built.  Such  are  the  Casa  de  las  Conchas,  the 
finest  example  of  its  period  in  Spain  ;  the  Casa  de  la  Sal,  with  a 
magnificent  courtyard  and  sculptured  gallery  ;  and  the  palaces  of 
Maldonado,  Monterey,  and  Espinosa.  (H.  B.  B.) 

SALAMAJTDRA.  In  the  nomenclature  of  zoology  this 
name  deaignates  a  genus  of  animals  belonging  to  the  verte- 
brate class  Amphihia.  The  genus  was  first  defined  under 
this  name  by  Laurenti.i  It  will  be  seen  on  referring  to 
the  taxonomio  synopsis  of  the  class  given  at  the  end  of 
the  article  Amphibia  that  the  genus  Salmnandra  belongs 
to  the  first  tribe  Mecodonla  of  the  fifth  division  Salaman- 
drida.  The  diagnosis  of  the  genus  is  as  follows: — no 
fronto-squamosal  arch  in  the  skull;  tongue  large,  adherent 
below,  free  at  the  sides  and  slightly  so  behind ;  toes  five ; 
tail  cylindrical.  There  are  three  species,  distinguished  as 
follows : — (1)  iS'.  maculosa,  Laurenti,  tail  not  so  long  as 
rest  of  body,  colour  black  with  yellow  spots ;  (2)  S.  atra, 
Laurenti,  tail  not  so  long  as  rest  of  body,  colour  uniform 
ulack ;  (3)  S.  caucasica,  Waga,  tail   longer  than  rest  of 

'  Sfiitopsis  reptilium  emendaia,  &c.,  Vienna,  1768. 


body.  In  all  the  species  the  body  is  plump  and  rounded, 
and  there  is  no  dorsal  crest  or  fin ;  the  head  is  depressed, 
its  greatest  width  being  at  the  angle  of  the  jaws ;  the  snout 
is  rounded.  The  vent  is  a  longitudinal  slit,  the  border! 
of  which  in  the  male  are  slightly  swollen.  The  skin  ia 
smooth  and  shining ;  at  the  junction  of  the  head  and  neck 
is  a  pronounced  fold  of  skin  called  the  gular  fold.  The 
swollen  patches  of  skin  behind  the  tympaua,  caused  by 
the  presence  of  large  cutaneous  glands,  and  known  as 
parotids,  are  well  developed  and  exhibit  the  openings  of 
the  glands  as  distinct  pores.  Similar  gland-openings  form 
a  series  along  either  side  of  the  body.  In  the  first  two 
species  there  is  also  a  longitudinal  series  of  warts  on  each 
side ;  these  are  wanting  in  S.  caucasica.  Depressions  of 
the  skin  between  the  vertebrie  are  present,  and  are  known 
as  costal  grooves.  The  palatine  teeth-series  are  S-shaped, 
and  the  anterior  ends  of  the  two  series  do  not  meet.-  •  S. 
maculosa  is  the  largest  of  the  three  species,  attaining  a 
length  of  7  to  8J  inches.  S.  atra  is  about  4i  and  S. 
caucasica  about  6  inches  in  length. 

The  genus  is  confined  to  the  western  sub-region  of  tns 
paltearctic  region,  extending  over  almost  the  whole  of 
Eiu-ope,  especially  the  central  and  southern  parts,  and 
occurring  also  in  Algiers  and  Syria.  The  spotted  species 
is  the  commonest  anr"  most  widely  distributed,  being  found 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  Germany,  France,  Italy,  and  Spain. 
The  genus  is  entirely  absent  from  the  British  Islands. 
The  black  salamander,  S.  atra,  is  confined  to  the  Alps  of 
Central  Europe,  and  there  only  occvu-s  between  the  limits 
of  2500  to  10,000  feet  of  altitude;  it  is  found  in  the 
mountains  of  South  Germany,  France,  Switzerland,  and 
Austria.  S.  caucasica  is  only  known  from  one  specimen, 
which  was  obtained  from  the  Caucasus  and  was  sent  to 
the  Paris  Museum  by  Dr  Waga.* 

The  food  of  Salamandra  consists  of  worms  and  insects, 
and,  like  British  frogs  and  toads,  the  animals  can  only 
exist  in  damp  shady  localities.  As  in  all  Salamandrida, 
the  process  of  reproduction  is  commenced  by  a  true  copu- 
lation, which  takes  place  in  spring  and  summer.  The 
seminal  fluid  is  passed  into  the  female  cloaca,  where  it  is 
received  into  a  tube-shaped  receptaculum  seminis.  The 
eggs  are  thus  fertilized  in  the  oviduct,  but  the  development 
takes  place  under  somewhat  diflferent  conditions  in  the  two 
species  S.  maculosa  and  S.  atra.  Both  species  are  vivipar- 
ous ;  in  the  former  thirty  to  forty  eggs  undergo  develop- 
ment in  the  oviducts  at  one  time,  and  they  are  brought 
forth  and  deposited  in  stagnant  or  sluggishly-flowing  water 
when  they  have  reached  a  stage  similar  to  that  of  adult 
Perennihraiichiata,  the  newly-born  larvse  having  long 
feather-like  external  gills  and  a  length  of  12  to  15  mm. 
(one-third  to  one-half  an  inch).  After  a  period  of  aquatic 
life,  the  larvaa  pass  through  a  metamorphosis :  the  limbs 
appear ;  the  gill  slits  close  up ;  and  the  young  animals, 
having  reached  the  adult  condition,  leave  the  water  for  a 
terrestrial  life.  In  S.  atra  only  the  two  lowest  eggs  which 
pass  into  the  oviducts,  one  in  the  duct  of  each  side,  under- 
go development.  The  rest  of  the  eggs  fuse  into  a  mass  of 
yolk  material  and  are  devoured  by  the  two  developing 
larvaj.  In  this  way  the  larvae  are  provided  with  nutriment 
during  the  later  stages  of  development,  for  in  this  species 
they  are  retained  within  the  body  of  the  mother  until 
they  have  reached  the  air-breathing  condition  and  are  in 
all  respects  similar  to  the  parents.  This  peculiarity  in  the 
process  of  reproduction  bears  an  obvious  relation  to  the 
physical  conditions  of  the  habitat  of  S.  atra.  In  the 
elevated  regions  that  the  species  inhabits  stagnant  and 


^  For  a  figure  of  S.  maculosa,  see  Latreille,  Jlist.  NuL  dcs  Sal.  d: 
France,  Taris,  1800,  pi.  i. ;  Daudin,  Uist.  Xi/t.  d.  Repliles,  pi.  xcvii.  f 
1.     For  S  utra,  see  Laur.,  op.  cit.,  pi.  i.  f.  2. 

'  See  Waga,  Rev.  Mug.  ZooL,  1876,  p.  326. 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


205 


sluggish  waters  are  wanting,  and  therefore  the  process  of 
reproduction  that  occurs  in  S.  maculosa  is  rendered  im- 
possible. '  The  black  Satamandra  has  become  adapted  to 
its  environment  (I)  by  the  slight  changes  in  colour  and 
structure  which  distinguish  it  from  the  spotted,  and  (2)  by 
a  modification  in  its  reproductive  processes,  which  elimi- 
nates the  aquatic  stage  of  existence  from  the  life-history  of 
the  individual.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  stage  character- 
ized by  the  presence  of  pinnate  external  gills  is  exhibited 
by  the  larva  during  its  development  in  the  oviduct,  and 
the  gills  doubtless  there  perform  their  function.  Friiulein 
von  Chauviu  '  made  the  experiment  of  taking  the  larvae  of 
S.  atra  from  the  pregnant  female  when  they  were  in  the 
branchiate  cppdition,  and  placing  them  in  water  to  see  if 
they  would  survive  and  pass  through  their  metamorphosis 
under  these  circumstances.  On  one  occasion  the  experi- 
ment was  perfectly  successful  in  the  case  of  one  specimen; 
the  rest  of  the  larvaj  died. 

Tlie  tailed  Amphibia  of  Europe  have  from  the  very  earliest  times 
down  to  the  present  day  bcen'almost  universally  known  in  popular 
language  as  salamanders,  and  identified  in  the  popular  mind  with 
the  salamander  of  myth  and  fable.-  Besides  the  species  of  Sala- 
mandra  there  are,  according  to  Boulanger  {Brii.  Mus.  Cat.,  1881), 
eighteen  other  species  of  Urodcla  in  Europe, 'of  which  fourteeu 
belong  to  the  genus  Tritox  {q.v.).  Chioglossa  lusitnnica,  Bocage, 
is  distinguished  by  haviug  a  tongue  supported  anteriorly  by  a  pro- 
tractile median  pedicle  and  free  everywhere  else,  and  by  haviug  its 
tail  cylindrical  at  the  base  but  compressed  at  the  end.  It  occurs  in 
Spain  an^  Portugal.  Salamandrina  pcrspicHlala,  Tschudi,  occurs 
in  Italy ;  like  Chioglossa,  it  belongs  to  the  Mccodonla  and  is  distin- 
guished by  the  following  characters : — touguc  large,  subtriangular, 
nee  everywhere  except  on  anterior  median  line ;  toes  four ;  tail 
slightly  compressed ;  a  strong  bony  fronto-squamosal  arch.  Spehrpcs 
fuscus,  Strauch,  occurs  in  Italy  and  in  France  iu  the  Alpes  MaritLmes. 

SALAAIIS,  in  modern  times  called  by  the  people 
KoXovpi.  (a  ring-shaped  cake),  and  by  purists  SaAa/ti's,  is 
aa  island  in  the  Saronic  Gulf,  off  the  coast  of  Attica, 
Greece.  It  is  said  to  have 'been  called  in  ancient  times  by 
other  names, — Sciras,  which  associates  it  with  the  worship 
of  Athena  Sciras  ;  Cychreia,  which  connects  it  with  the 
Eleusinian  cultus  and  the  sacred  serpent  (Kdxpe''5>js  o</iis) 
of  Demeter ;  and  Pitylissa.  There  was  a  small  stream, 
Bocarus  or  Bocalia,  in  the  island.  The  city,  which  bore 
the  same  name  as  the  island,  was  originally  situated  on 
the  south  coast  opposite  ^gina,  but  was  afterwards  trans- 
ferred to  a  promontory  on  the  east  side  nearer  Athens. 
The   transference  corresponds   to  a   total  change   in  the 

'  See  Zeiischr.f.  wiss.  Zootogie,  vol.  rxvii.  p.  534,  and  C.  von  Siebold, 
ihid.,  p.  536  ;  M.  v.  Chauviil,  ibid.,  vol.  xxiv. 

'  Aristotle  (U.  A.,  v.  19)  cites  the  salani.inder,  which  ■'  when  it  walks 
through  fire  extinguishes  it,"  as  a  proof  that  some  animal  frames  are 
incombustible,  and  ^lian  (Nut.  An.,  ii.  31)  will  have  it  that  tlioso 
who  work  with  forges  are*  familiar  with  this  fact  and  when  their  bellows 
fail  to  quicken  the  flame  know  to  look  for  a  s,ilamander  and  put  things 
right  by  kilUng  it.  'According  to  this  form  of  the  fable  the  salamander, 
as  iElian  expressly  says,  is  not  bora  of  fire,  nor  does  it  live  therein. 
On  the  contrary,  according  to  Pliny  {//.  A^,  x.  1)7  sq.,  xxix.  4)  it  is  of 
a  cold  complexion  and  emits  a  cold  venom  like  aconite,  but  .so  virulent 
that  even  bread  baked  with  wood  of  a  tree  on  which  a  salamander  has 
crept  is  poisonous.  The  touch  of  its  saliva  even  on  the  foot,  says 
Pliny,  causes  the  hair  to  fall  out.  So  Dioscorides  .speaks  of  salamander 
jirepared  in  oil  as  a  depilatory  ;  comp.  Petronius,  o.  107,  and  Rurraan's 
notes,  and  for  late  survivals  iu  Europe  of  the  bcUef  in  a  deadly  lizard, 
identified  with  the  salamander,  Bochart,  Ilierozoicon,  bk.  iv.  c,  1. 
That  the  salamander  extinguishes  fire  appears  also  in  the  PnvsiOLOous 
(.q.v.),  and  so  became  a  common  part  of  media!val  animal  lore;  but 
the  Arabic  Pliysiologus  (Land,  Anec.  Syr.,  iv.  166)  speaks  instead. of 
a  stone  that  quells  fire.  This  stone  is  asbestos,  the  salamander  of 
Marco  Polo  (i.  215,  Yule),  of  whose  fibres  a  sort  of  incombustible  cloth 
was  made,  which  was  represented  iu  the  East  as  made  of  the  hair  of 
the  salamander  or  of  its  plumage  ;  for  the  Arabs  mixed  up  the  sala- 
mander fable  with  that  of  the  Pikenix  {q.v.)  and  were  not  sure  whether 
it  was  bca.st  or  bird.  In  later  story  the  salamander  is  representctl 
aa  born,  and  living  in  fire  and  so  tlio  name  is  used  by  cabbalistic 
moderns  for  the  spirits  of  that  element.  Salamander's  wool  or  hair 
a.s  e  name  for  asbestos  occurs  in  Hacon  and  other  English  writers, 
.i^rancis  I.  chose  aa  hia  emblem  a  salamopder  vith  tba  uictto,  "  J'y  vis 
«'.  j3  r^teiiu," 


political  relations  of  Salamii?.  It  was  originally  connected, 
not  with  Attica,  but  with  /Egina  and  with  Megara,  the 
competitors  of  Athens  in  the  struggle  for  supremacy  in 
the  Saronic  Gulf.  The  most  prominent  heroes  of  the 
island,  Telamon,  Ajax,  and  Teucer,  were  /Eacidaj  from 
/Egina.  But  aljout  the  end  of  the  7th  century  B.C.  the 
war  between  Athens  and  ilegara  for  the  possession  of 
Salamis  was,  under  the  guidance  of  Solon,  determined  in 
favour  of  Athens.  A  line  of  the  Hvid  (ii.  558)  is  said  to 
have  been  interpolated  by  the  Athenians  in  support  of 
their  claim  to  the  island,  while  the  Megariau  version  of 
the  passage  was  quite  different.  The  priestess  of  Athena 
Polias  might  not  eat  Attic  cheese,  but  it  was  lawful  for 
her  to  eat  foreign  or  Salaminian  cheese.  Salamis,  having 
come  so  late  into  the  hands  of  the  Athenians,  retained, 
like  Eleusis,  more  local  independence  than  the  other  demes. 
The  island  remained  subject  to  Athens  in  later  history, 
except  during  the  period  318  to  232  B.C.,  when  it  was 
abandoned  to  the  Macedonian  rule.  The  name  of  Salamis 
is  famous  chiefly  on  account  of  the  great  sea-fight,  4S0  B.C., 
in  which  the  allied  Greeks  defeated  the  Persians  under 
Xerxes.  The  battle  took  place  beside  the  town  of  Salamis 
and  the  island  of  P.syttaleia,  at  the  south-eastern  end  of 
the  straits.  v 

A  city  on  the  east  coast  of  C3rprus,  near  the  river 
Pediajus,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Salaminian 
Teucer,  son  of  Telamon,  was  also  called  Salamis. 

SAL  AMMONIAC.     See  Ammo.viac,  vol.  i.  p.  741. 

SALDANHA,  Joao  Carlos  Sald.4.nha  de  Oliveira  e 
Daun  (1791-187G).    See  Portugal,  vol.  xix.  pp.  553-554. 

SALE,  an  urban  sanitary  district  of  Cheshire,  England, 
on  the  Bridgewater  Canal  and  the  Mersey,  about  5  miles 
south  of  Manchester.  At  the  beginning  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury the  greater  part  of  the  township  was  stiU  waste  and 
unenclosed.  It  owes  its  increase  in  population  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  Manchester  and  contains  a  number  of 
handsome  villas  belonging  to  the  wealthier  classes.  The 
Moorsland  pleasure-grounds  in  the  neighbourhood  cover 
10^  acres.  There  ale  national  and  British  schools  and  a 
literary  institute.  Market  gardening  is  extensively  carried 
on.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area, 
2006  acres)  in  1871  was  5573,  and  in  1881  it  was  7915. 

SALE  is  one  of  the  forms  of  Contract  (q.o.).  The 
law  of  contract  is  accordingly  applicable  as  a  whole  to  the 
law  of  sale.  But  the  importance  of  the  contract  of  sale 
demands  a  fuller  treatment.  The  law  of  the  United 
Kingdom  and  of  the  United  States  is  based  upon  the 
Roman  law  in  its  later  stage,  as  modified  by  the  prxtors 
and  by  legislation.  But  there  are  soiiie  considerable  dif- 
ferences. In  Roman  law  sale  originally  meant  nothing 
more  than  barter  ;  but  the  introduction  of  coined  money 
converted  the  contrilnition  of  one  of  the  contracting  parties 
into  price  (jiretiiun),  as  distinguished  from  article  of  sale 
(merj;)  contributed  by  the  other  (sec  Ro.uan  L.\w,  vol. 
XX.  pp.  700-701).  Sale  fell  under  the  head  of  consensual 
contracts,  i.e.,  those  in  which  the  cajisa  or  that  which 
made  the  contract  enforcible  was  consent.  In  all  con- 
tracts of  this  class  (except  vmndotum)  consent  really  de- 
noted valuable  consideration.  The  law  in  the  case  of 
movables  and  immovables  was  as  far  as  might  bo  the 
same.  The  price  must  be  definite.  Reduction  of  tho 
terms  to  writing  was  optional;  if  a  wTiting  was  used, 
either  party  was  at  liberty  to  withdraw  before  tho  com- 
pletion of  tho  writing.  If  earnest  or  deposit  {arrha) — 
often  a  ring,  sometimes  a  part  of  the  price — was  given,  it 
was  by  the  legislation  of  Justinian  made  the  measure  of 
forfeit  on  rescission,  the  buyer  losing  what  ho  had  given 
as  arrha,  the  seller  restoring  double  its  value.  Tho  seller 
did  not  warrant  title ;  his  contract  was  not  rcni  <l<ir<;  t'> 
give  the  thing,  but  prxslare  emptori  rem  habere  licere,  to 


206 


SALE 


guarantee  the  buyer  prossession ;  the  transfer  was  of  vacua 
possessio,  not  of  property.  The  buyer  was  secured  by  a 
covenant  duplx  stipulatio  against  eviction  by  a  superior 
title,  limited  to  double  the  price  where  there  was  no  fraud 
by  the  seller.  There  was  a  warranty  of  quality  by  the 
seller.  He  was  bound  to  suffer  rescission  or  to  give  com- 
pensation at  the  option  of  the  buyer  if  the  thing  sold  had 
undisclosed  faults  which  hindered  the  free  possession  of  it. 
The  damages  to  which  he  was  liable  differed  according  as 
he  was  guilty  of  bad  faith  {dolus)  or  not.  If  guilty  he 
was  liable  for  aU  consequential  damage,  if  innocent  only 
for  the  diminution  in  the  value  of  the  thing  sold  by  reason 
of  its  unsoundness.  Thus,  if  a  seller  knowingly  sold  an 
infected  sheep  and  the  whole  flock  caught  the  disease  and 
died,  he  would  be  liable  for  the  value  of  the  flock;  if  he 
was  ignorant  of  the  defect,  he  would  be  liable  only  for  the 
difference  in  value  between  a  sound  and  an  unsound  sheep. 
Mere  overpraise  did  not  amount  to  dolus ;  nor  was  inade- 
quacy of  price  in  itself  a 'ground  of  rescission.  When  the 
agreement  was  complete  it  was  the  duty  of  the  seller  to 
deliver  the  thing  sold  {rem  tradere).  In  case  of  a  sale  on 
credit,  the  delivery  must  be  made  at  the  time  appointed. 
Prior  to  delivery  the  seller  must  take  due  care  of  the  thing 
sold,  the  care  which  a  reasonably  prudent  householder 
{bonus  paterfamilias)  was  expected  to  exercise.  Delivery 
did  not  pass  property  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word,  but 
rather  va<ma  possessio  secured  by  duplx  stipulatio.  Risk 
of  loss  {periculum  rei  venditx)  after  agreement  but  before 
delivery  fell  upon  the  btyer.  On  the  other  hand,  he  was 
entitled  to  any  advantage  accruing  to  the  thing  sold  be- 
tween those  dates.  It  was  the  duty  of  some  one  to  pay 
the  price ;  the  obligation  was  discharged  if  payment  were 
made  by  the  debtor  or  by  any  other  person,  whether 
authorized  or  not  by  the  debtor,  and  even  against  his  wiU. 
The  duties  of  buyer  and  seller  might  be  varied  by  agree- 
ment, the  only  restriction  being  that  the  seller  could  not 
oy  any  agreement  be  relieved  from  liability  for  dolus. 

Sale  in  English  law  may  be  defined  to  be  "  a  transfer  of 
the  absolute  or  general  property  in  a  thing  for  a  price  in 
money  "  (Benjamin,  On  Sales,  p.  1).  The  words  "absolute 
or  general"  are  inserted  because  there  may  be  both  a 
general  and  a  special  property  in  certain  cases,  and  a 
transfer  of  the  special  property  would  not  be  a  sale.  The 
above  definition,  though  applied  in  the  work  cited  only  to 
sales  of  personalty,  seems  to  be  fully  applicable  to  sales  of 
any  kind  of  property.  The  rules  as  to  legality,  capacity 
of  parties,  assent,  and  fraud  depend  upon  the  law  of  Con- 
tract {q.v.),  of  which  sale  is  a  particular  instance.  In- 
capacity is  either  absolute  or  relative,  the  latter  being  a 
bar  only  in  the  individual  case,  e.g.,  the  incapacity  of  a 
person  in  a  fiduciary  position  (see  Teust).  The  capacity 
of  parties  tends  to  become  more  extended  as  law  advances ; 
thus  in  England  the  Roman  Catholic,  the  alien,  and  the 
married  woman  have  all  been  relieved  within  a  compaia- 
tively  recent  period  from  certain  disabilities  in  sale  and 
purchase  which  formerly  attached  to  them. 

In  England,  for  historical  reasons  (see  Real  Estate), 
there  is  a  considerable  difference  in  the  law  as  it  affects 
real  and  personal  estate.  The  main  principles  of  law  are 
perhaps  the  same,  but  the  sale  of  real  estate  is  a  matter  of. 
greater  expense  and  intricacy  than  the  sale  of  personal 
estate,  and  depends  to  a  large  extent  upon  legislation 
inapplicable  to  the  latter.  It  appears,  therefore,  better  to 
treat  the  two  kinds  of  sale  separately. 

Real  Estate. — At  common  law  it  was  not  necessary  that 
there  should  be  written  evidence  of  a  contract  of  sale. 
The  publicity  of  the  feoffment  obviated  the  necessity  of 
writing,  which  was  not  essential  to  the  validity  of  a  feoff- 
ment until  the  Statute  of  Frauds  (see  Feoffment).  The 
earliest  statute  making  a  written  instrument  essential  to 


a  sale  appears  to  be  the  Statute  of  Enrolments  (27  Hen. 
VIII.  c.  16).  The  bargain  and  sale  operating  under  th& 
Statute  of  Uses,  and  enrolled  under  the  Statute  of  Enrol- 
ments in  the  High  Court  of  Justice  or  with  the  custos 
rotulorum  of  the  county,  is  no  longer  in  use ;  a  bargain 
and  sale  at  common  law  is  a  mode  of  conveyance  some- 
times used  by  executors  exercising  a  power  of  sale.  Such 
a  bargain  and  sale  must  be  by  deed  since  8  and  9  Vict, 
c.  106,  but  need  not  be  enrolled.  There  was  no  compre- 
hensive legislative  enactment  dealing  with  all  cases  of  sale 
of  real  estate  until  section  4  of  the  Statute  of  Frauds.  Since 
that  date  a  contract  for  the  sale  of  real  estate  must  be  in 
writing  (see  Fraud,  where  the  provisions  of  the  Act  are 
set  out).  Sales  by  auction  are  within  the  statute,  the 
auctioneer  being  the  agent  of  both  parties  (see  Auction). 
In  an  ordinary  case  of  the  sale  of  real  estate  the  contract 
is  formaUy  drawn  up  on  the  basis  of  particulars  and  con- 
ditions of  sale,  which  ought  fairly  to  represent  the  actual 
state  of  the  property.  The  statute,  however,  is  satisfied 
by  informal  agreements,  such  as  letters,  if  they  contain 
the  means  of  determining  the  property,  the  parties,  and 
the  price.  The  price  must  be  a  sum  of  money.  If  it  is 
another  estate,  the  contract  is  one  of  exchange ;  if  no  con- 
sideration passes,  it  is  a  gift.  The  price  may  be  left  to  be 
determined  by  a  third  person,  as  by  arbitration.  For  the 
way  in  which  pa5Tnent  of  the  price  may  be  made,  see 
Payment.  The  formation  of  a  binding  contract  of  sale 
is  the  most  important  stage  in  the  transfer  of  real  estate. 
From  the  moment  at  which  the  parties  are  bound  by  the 
contract  the  sale  is  made ;  the  purchaser  has  the  equitable 
estate  in  the  subject-matter  of  the  contract  (see  Equity), 
the  vendor  holding  in  trust  for  him,  subject  to  the  pay- 
ment of  the  purchase  money,  for  which  the  vendor  i  has 
a  lien.  The  price  becomes  personal  estate  of  the  vendor 
and  the  land  real  estate  of  the  purchaser.  The  latter  has 
the  right  to  accidental  benefits  and  the  burden  of  accidental 
losses  accruing  before  completion  of  the  purchase.  The 
rights  defined  by  the  contract  descend  to  the  representa- 
tives of  a  deceased  vendor  or  purchaser.  In  most  cases 
the  personal  representative  of  a  deceased  vendor  may 
convey  the  property  under  44  and  45  Vict.  c.  41,  s.  4. 
After  the  contract  it  becomes  the  duty  of  the  vendor 
to  deliver  an  abstract  of  title,  to  satisfy  the  purchaser's 
reasonable  requisitions  as  to  any  question  arising  on  the 
title  of  the  purchaser,  and  to  pay  a  deposit,  usually  ten  per 
cent,  of  the  price  fixed,  within  a  certain  time,  the  remainder 
being  paid  t)n  completion, — that  is,  the  execution  of  the 
conveyance  and  payment  of  the  balance  of  the  price. 
He  also  prepares  the  conveyance,  which  since  8  and  9  Vict, 
c.  106  must  be  by  deed.  The  costs  of  execution  of  the 
conveyance  are  paid  by  the  vendor.  Any  of  these  duties 
may  be  varied  by  special  agreement.  The  sale  is  not  in 
ordinary  cases  avoided  because  tbe  purchaser  is  in  default 
in  payment  of  the  purchase  money  on  the  day  appointed. 
The  purchaser  does  not  forfeit  his  rights  if  he  be  ready 
to  complete  within  a  reasonable  time  after  the  day  fixed 
for  completion  and  to  pay  interest  on  the  sum  overdue. 
This  rule  is  an  -old  doctrine  of  equity,  and  is  generally 
expressed  by  saying  that  time  is  not  of  the  essence  of  the 
contract.  As  a  general  rule,  any  real  estate  is  capable  of 
sale,  unless  it  is  altogether  extra  commercium,  as  a  church  or 
public  building.  There  are,  however,  a  few  exceptions 
introduced  by  the  legislature,  such  as  estates  tail  not 
barred,  estates  which  by  Act  of  Parliament  are  inalienable 
(see  Real  Estate),  and  crown  lands,  of  which  all  grants  for 
more  than  thirty-one  years  are  in  general  void  by  1  Anne 
St.  1,  c.  7.     Sales  of  pretended  titles  to  land  are  void  by  32 

'  "  Vendor  "  and  "  purchaser  "  are  the  words  always  used  to  denote 
the  parties  to  a  contract  of  sale  of  real  estate.  Where  the  sale  is  of 
personal  estate,  "  buyer  "  and  "  seller  "  may  be  used  as  well. 


SALE 


207 


Hen.  VIII.  c.  9.  The  sale  of  land  to  be  held  in  mortmain 
would  be  void  as  contrary  to  the  policy  of  the  Mortmain  Acts 
(see  Chakities,  Corporation).  The  rights  and  liabilities 
of  vendors  and  purchasers  have  been  considerably  aflccted 
by  recent  legislation,  the  principal  Acts  dealing  with  the 
subject  being  the  Vendor  and  Purchaser  Act,  1874,  and  the 
Conveyancing  Act,  1881.  A  period  of  forty  years  has 
been  substituted  for  the  period  of  si.xty  years  previously 
uecf.ssary  as  the  root  of  title, — that  is  to  say,  in  most  cases 
an  abstract  showing  title  for  forty  years  is  sufficient.  In 
an  abstract  of  title  to  leaseholds,  the  title  is  to  commence 
with  the  lease  or  underlease,  in  an  abstract  of  title  to 
enfranchised  lands,  under  a  contract  to  sell  the  freehold, 
with  the  deed  of  enfranchisement.  Recitals  twenty  years 
old  are  evidence,  except  so  far  as  they  can  be  proved  to 
be  inaccurate,  and  recitals  of  documents  dated  prior  to 
the  commencement  of  the  abstract  are  to  be  taken  as 
cortrect,  and  their  production  is  not  to  be  required.  The 
expenses  of  evidence  required  in  support  of  the  abstract 
and  not  in  the  vendor's  possession  are  thrown  upon  the 
purchaser.  The  Conveyancing  Act,  1881,  further  protects 
the  purchaser  by  implying  in  a  conveyance  by  a  beneficial 
owner  on  sale  for  valuable  consideration  covenants  for 
right  to  convey,  quiet  enjoyment,  freedom  from  encum- 
brances, and  further  assurance.  In  a  conveyance  of  lease- 
holds a  covenant  for  the  validity  of  the  lease  is  implied. 
These  covenants  protect  the  purchaser  much  in  the  same 
way  as  the  implied  warranty  in  the  sale  of  personalty. 
The  Act  also  gives  the  mortgagee,  where  the  mortgage  is 
by  deed,  the  power  of  sale  generally  inserted  in  mortgage 
deeds  (see  Mortgage). 

The  remedies  of  the  vendor  are  an  action  for  the  price 
or  for  specific  performance  according  to  circumstances. 
There  is  also  a  remedy  by  mandamus  against  public  com- 
panies refusing  to  complete.  Specific  performance  is  a 
remedy  introduced  by  the  Court  of  Chancery  to  enforce 
contracts  for  the  sale  or  purchase  of  real  estate,  it  being 
considered  that  in  such  cases  the  common  law  action  for 
damages  was  an  insufficient  remedy.  Strictly,  it  is  only 
an  exercise  by  the  court  of  its  jurisdiction  over  trustees, 
the  vendor  being  after  the  contract,  as  has  been  said,  a 
trustee  for  the  purchaser.  By  the  Judicature  Act,  1873, 
actions  of  specific  performance  arc  specially  assigned  to 
the  Chancery  Division.  A  county  court  has  jurisdiction 
where  the  purchase  money  .does  not  exceed  £500.  In 
spite  of  the  Statute  of  Frauds,  specific  performance  may  in 
some  cases  be  decreed  where  a  parol  contract  has  been 
followed  by  part  performance  and  where  the  position  of 
the  parties  has  been  materially  altered  on  the  faith  of  the 
contract.  Actions  for  the  price  or  for  specific  performance 
are  subject  to  the  purchaser's  right  to  compensation  for 
deficiency  of  quality  or  quantity  or  of  the  vendor's  interest 
in  the  property.  The  question  whether  in  a  particidar 
case  the  purchaser  is  entitled  to  rescind  the  contract  or 
only  to  compensation  is  often  a  very  difficult  one.  The 
remedies  of  the  purchaser  are  an  action  for  specific  perform- 
ance, for  rescission  of  the  contract  or  for  damages  (in  case 
of  fraud),  for  a  return  of  the  deposit,  or  for  expenses.  On 
the  principle  of  caveat  emptor,  the  sale  is  not  avoided  by 
mere  commendatory  statements,  statements  of  opinion,  or 
non-disclosure  of  patent  defects.  Non-disclosuro  of  latent 
defects  or  material  misrepresentation  of  facts,  on  tho  faith 
of  which  the  purchaser  entered  into  tho  contract,  will  as 
a  rule  be  a  ground  for  rescission  or  for  damages,  and  this 
irrespective  of  fraud,  as  a  contract  for  tha  sale  of  land  is  a. 
contract  uberrima  fidei.  Where  tho  sale  goes  off  or  the 
Vendor  withont  fraud  fails  to  make  a  good  title,  the  pur- 
chaser can  only  recover  tho  deposjt,  if  any,  and  any  ex- 
penses to  which  he  may  have  been  put ;  he  cannot  recover 
damages  for  the  losa  of  hid  bargaiu.     Certain  frauds  by  a 


vendor  or  his  solicitor  or  agent  in  order  to  induce  the  pur- 
chaser to  accept  a  title  render  the  offender  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanour,  as  well  as  liable  to  an  action  for  damages 
(22  and  23  Vict.  c.  35,  s.  24).  By  the  Vendor  and  Pur- 
chaser Act,  1874,  either  a  vendor  or  a  purchaser  of  real 
or  leasehold  estate  in  England  may  obtain  on  a  summary 
application  the  decision  of  a  judge  of  the  Chancery  Division 
on  any  question  connected  with  the  contract,  not  being  a 
question  affecting  its  existence  or  validity.  (See  Sugden, 
Vendors  and  Purchasers ;  Dart,  Vendors  and  Purchasers ; 
Fry,  Specific  Performance.) 

Personal  Estate. — At  common  law,  as  in  the  case  of 
real  estate,  writing  was  not  essential  to  the  validity  of  a 
contract  of  sale.  The  common  law  is  thus  stated  by 
Blackstone  :  "A  contract  of  sale  implies  a  bargain,  or 
mutual  understanding  and  agreement  between  the  parties 
as  to  tenns ;  and  the  law  as  to  the  transmutation  of 
property  under  such  contracts  may  be  stated  generally  as 
follows.  If  the  vendor  says  the  price  of  the  goods  is  £4 
and  the  vendee  says  he  will  give  £4,  the  bargain  is  struck ; 
and,  if  the  goods  be  thereon  delivered  or  tendered,  or  any 
part  of  the  price  be  paid  down  and  accepted  (if  it  be  but 
a  penny),  the  property  in  the  goods  is  thereupon  trans- 
muted and  vests  immediately  in  the  bargainee ;  so  that 
in  the  event  of  their  being  subsequently  damaged  or  de- 
stroyed he  and  not  the  vendor  must  stand  to  the  loss. 
This  supposes  (it  will  be  observed)  the  case  of  a  sale  for 
ready  money  ;  but,  if  it  be  a  sale  of  goods  to  be  delivered 
forthwith,  but.  to  be  paid  for  afterwards,  the  property 
passes  to  the  veudee  immediately  upon  the  striking  of  the 
bargain  without  either  delivery  on  the  one  hand  or'pay- 
ment  on  the  other"  (Stephen,  Commentaries,  vol.  ii;  bk. 
ii.  pt.  ii.  ch.  v.).  Earnest  may  have  been  originally  the 
same  as  the  Roman  arrha  ;  it  was  never,  however,  part 
payment,  as  arrha  might  have  been, — in  fact,  the  Statute  of 
Frauds  specially  distinguishes  it  from  part  payment.  The 
giving  of  earnest  has  now  fallen  into  disuse.  The  prico 
need  not  bo  fixed ;  if  not  fixed,  a  reasonable  price  will  be 
presumed.  Though  writing  was  in  no  case  necessary  at 
common  law,  it  has  become  so  under  the  provisions  of 
various  Acts  of  Parliament,  prominent  among  which  is  the 
Statute  of  Frauds,  ss.  4  and  17  (see  Contract,  Fraud). 
Section  17  of  tho  Statute  of  Frauds  was  extended  to  execu- 
tory contracts  of  sale  by  Lord  Tentorden's  Act,  9  Geo.  IV.  c. 
14.  The  sale  of  horses  in  market  overt  must  be  entered  in 
a  book  kept  by  the  toll-keeper  (2  and  3  Ph.  and  M.  c.  7, 
31  Eliz.  c.  12).  Tho  sale  of  ships  must  by  the  Jlerchant 
Shipping  Act,  1854,  be  made  by  bill  of  sale  in  a  certain 
form.  Contracts  for  the  sale  of  shares  in  a  joint-stock 
banking  company  are  void  unless  tho  contract  sets  forth 
in  writing  the  numbers  of  tho  shares  on  the  register  of  the 
company  or  (where  tho  shares  are  not  distinguished  by 
numbers)  the  names  of  the  registered  proprietors  (29  and 
30  Vict.  c.  29).  Bills  of  sale  of  goods  must  be  in  writing 
in  a  certain  form  and  registered  under  the  Bills  of  Sale 
Acts,  1878  and  1882:i  As  a  general  rule  the  property  in 
goods  passes  by  the  contract  of  sale.  This  general  rule  is 
subject  to  tho  following  important  exceptions:  (1)  where 
tho  vendor  is  to  do  anything  to  the  goods  for  the  purpose 
of  putting  them  into  that  state  in  which  tho  purchaser  is 
bound  to  accept  them,  the  property  does  not  pass  until 
performance  of  tho  necessary  acts ;  (2)  the  same  is  the 
caso  where  the  goods  are  to  be  weighed,  tested,  or  measured; 
(3)  where  tho  purchaser  is  bound  to  do  anything  as  a 
condition  on  which  the  passing  of  the  property  depends, 
tho  property  docs  not  pa.ss  until  tho  condition  is  fulElled, 
even  thougii  tho  goods  may  bo  actually  in  the  posstession 
of  the  buyer;  (4)  wiiero  nn   executory  contract  for  the 


'  Bills  of  salo  bavo  been  incliukvl  bcru  oolcly  ou  accouut  of  Uicir 
namo  j  tbey  arc  iu  reality  mortgages. 


208 


SALE 


Sal6  of  goods  is  made,  the  property  does  not  pass  until 
appropriation  of  specific  goods  by  the  vendor  in  completion 
of  the  contract ;  (5)  where  the  vendor  reserves  to  himself 
the  jus  disponendi  or  future  power  of  dealing  with  the 
goods,  as  by  making  a  bill  of  lading  deliverable  to  his 
order,  the  property  does  not  pass  until  the  jus  disponendi 
is  esercrbed  *°  favour  of  the  purchaser ;  (6)  where  there 
is  fraud  on  the  part  of  the  vendor  or  purchaser,  the  sale 
is  voidable,  not  void  ;  it  may  be  affirmed  and  enforced  or 
rescinded.  In  sales  of  personalty,  unlike  sales  of  real 
estate,  time  is  usually  of  the  essence  of  the  contract.  A 
sale  of  goods  may  be  accompanied  by  an  express  warranty 
or  collateral  contract  as  to  the  title  to  or  quality  of  the 
goods.  No  special  form  of  words  is  necessary  to  create  a 
warranty,  nor  need  it  be  in  writing.  An  implied  warranty 
of  title — that  is,  an  affirmation  that  the  vendor  has  a  right 
to  sell — exists  certainly  in  executory  contracts  of  sale.  It 
most  probably  exists  in  executed  contracts,^  the  exceptions 
to  the  rule  having  in  recent  times  become  by  judicial 
decision  more  numerous  than  the  cases  falling  under  the 
old  rule,  that  there  was  no  such  warranty.-  Warranty  of 
quality  exists  either  by  statute  or  at  common  law.  The 
Merchandise  Marks  Act,  1862,  implies  a  warranty  from 
the  existence  of  trade-marks  on  chattels  that  the  trade- 
mark is  genuine,  and  from  the  existence  of  any  statement 
respecting  number,  quantity,  weight,  place,  or  country 
that  such  statement  is  not  in  any  material  respect  false. 
The  rules  as  to  warranty  of  quality  at  common  law  cannot 
be  better  stated  than  in  the  language  of  the  clear  and  full 
judgment  of  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench  in  Jones  v.  Just 
{Laio  Jieporls,  3  Queen's  Bench,  197). 

"  First,  where  goods  are  tn  esse  and  may  be  inspected  by  the 
tuyer,  and  there  is  no  fraud  on  the  part  of  the  seller,  the  maxim 
caveat  emptor  applies,  even  though  the  defect  which  exists  in  *hem 
is  latent  and  not  discoverable  on  examination,  at  least  where  the 
seller  is  neither  the  grower  nor  the  manufacturer.  The  buyer  in 
such  case  has  the  opportunity  of  exercising  his  judgment  upon  the 
•natter,  and  if  the  result  of  the  inspection  be  unsatisfactory,  or  if 
he  distrusts  his  own  judgment,  ho  may  if  he  chooses  require  a 
warrantj'.  In  such  a  case  it  is  not  an  implied  terra  of  the  contract 
of  sale  that  the  goods  are  of  any  particular  quality  or  are  merchant- 
able. So  in  the  case  of  the  sale  in  a  market  of  meat  which  the 
buyer  had  inspected,  but  which  was  in  fact  diseased  and  unfit  for 
food,  although  that  fact  was  not  apparent  on  examination  and  the 
seller  was  not  aware  of  it,  it  was  held  that  there  was  no  implied 
warranty  that  it  was  fit  for  food,  and  that  the  maxim  caveat  emvtor 
applied.  Secondly,  where  there  is  a  sale  of  a  definite  existing 
chattel  specifically  described,  the  actual  condition  of  which  is 
capable  of  being  ascertained  by  either  party,  there  is  no  implied 
warranty.  Thirdly,  where  a  known  described  and  defined  article 
is  ordered  of  a  manufacturer,  although  it  is  stated  to  be  required 
by  the  purchaser  for  a  particular  purpose,  still  if  the  known  de- 
Bcribed  and  defined  thing  he  actually  supplied  there  is  no  warranty 
that  it  shall  answer  for  the  particular  purpose  intended  by  the 
buyer.  Fourthly,  where  a  manufacturer  or  dealer  contracts  to 
supply  an  article  which  he  manufactures  or  produces,  or  in  which 
he  deals,  to  be  applied  to*  a  particular  purpose,  so  that  the  buyer 
necessarily  trusts  to  the  judgment  or  skill  of  the  manufacturer  or 
dealer,  there  is  in  that  case  an  implied  warranty  that  it  shall  be 
reasonably  fit  for  the  purpose  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied.  In 
Buch  a  case  the  buyer  trusts  to  the  manufacturer  or  dealer,  and 
relies  upon  his  judgment  and  not  upon  his- own.  Fifthly,  where 
a  manufacturer  undertakes  to  supply  goods  manufactured  by  him- 
self or  in_ which  he  deals,  but  which  the  vendee  has  not  had  the 
opportunity  of  inspecting,  it  is  an  implied  term  in  the  contract 
that  he  shall  supply  a  merchantable  article.  And  this  doctrine 
has  been  held  to  apply  to  the  sale  of  an  existing  barge  by  the 
dealer  which  was  afloat  but  not  completely  rigged  and  furnished  ; 
there,  inasmuch  as  the  buyer  had  only  seen  it  when  buUt  and  not 
during  the  course  of  the  building,  he  was  considered  as  having  re- 
lied on  the  judgment  and  skill  of  the  builder  that  the  barge  was 
reasonably  fit  for  use." 

The  case  of  sale  by  sample  is  peculiar  to  personalty. 

'  An  executed  contract  passes  title,  an  executory  gives  a  right.  A 
purchase  for  ready  money  in  a  shop  is  an  executed  contract,  an  order 
tor  a  certain  chattel  to  be  made  is  an  excutory  contract.  The  con- 
sideration for  such  a  contract  is  the  express  or  implied  promise  to  pay 
for  the  chattel  on  completion. 


In  such  a  sale  the  vendor  warrants  the  quality  of  the  tulk 
to  be  equal  to  that  of  the  sample.  There  are  certain  kinds 
of  sale  which  are  governed  by  special  legislation,  chiefly 
on  grounds  of  public  policy.  A  sale  contrary  to  the  pro- 
visions of  any  of  the  Acts  is  generally  void  in  the  same 
way  as  though  it  were  illegal  at  common  law,  on  the 
principle  of  the  maxim  Ex  turpi  causa  non  oritur  actio. 
The  sale  of  certain  public  offices  is  forbidden  by  5  and  6 
Edw.  VI.  c.  16,  49  Geo.  HI.  c.  126,  and  other  Acta 
dealing  with  special  offices.  A  sale  by  a  tradesman  in 
the  way  of  his  ordinary  business  upon  Sunday  is  illegal 
under  29  Car.  II.  c.  7.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  sale 
of  intoxicating  liquors  during  prohibited  hours,  whethei 
on  Sundays  or  week  days  (31  and  38  Vict.  c.  49,  s.  6).  No 
action  can  be  brought  to  recover  any  debt  alleged  to  be 
due  in  respect  of  the  sale  of  any  ale,  &c.,  consumed  on  the 
premises  where  sold  (30  and  31  Vict.  c.  142).  The  sale 
of  game  in  the  close  season  or  by  an  unlicensed  person 
is  forbidden  by  1  and  2  Will.  IV.  c.  32.  The  sale  of 
spirits  to  a  person  apparently  under  the  age  of  sixteen 
is  made  penal  by  35  and  36  Vict.  c.  94,  s.  7.  These  cases 
are  only  given  as  examples;  there  are  numerous  other 
enactments  dealing  with,  inter  alia,  sales  of  anchors  and 
chain  cables,  adulterated  food  and  drugs,  explosives,  and 
poisons.  Every  sale  by  weight  or  measure  must  be  accord- 
ing to  one  of  the  imperial  weights  or  measures  ascertained 
by  the  Weights  and  Measures  Act,  1878 ;  if  not  so  made^ 
the  sale  is  void  (41  and  42  Vict.  c.  49,  s.  19). 

The  remedies  of  the  vendor  are  of  two  kinds,  judicial 
against  the  purchaser,  extra-judicial  against  the  goodai 
Judicial  remedies  are  either  by  action  for  non-acceptance 
where  the  property  has  not  passed  or  by  action  for  the 
price  where  it  has  passed.  The  extra-judicial  are  (1)  a 
lien  for  the  price,  so  that,  in  the  absence  of  agreement  to 
the  contrary  or  assent  to  a  sub-sale,  the  vendor  need  not 
deliver  the  goods  until  the  price  is  paid ;  (2)  the  right  of 
stoppage  in  transitu.  This  right  is  universally  acknow- 
ledged by  the  commercial  law  of  civilized  nations.  It 
arises  on  the  insolvency  of  the  purchaser  before  the  goods 
have  reached  his  possession,  and  is  defeasible  only  by 
transfer,  whether  by  way  of  sale  or  pledge,  of  the  bill  of 
lading  or  other  document  of  title  to  a  bonajide  indorsee 
for  value.  The  protection  affisrded  at  common  law  to  the 
bona  fide  transferee  has  been  extended  by  the  Bills  of 
Lading  Act,  1855,  and  by  the  Factors  Act,  1877.  There 
is  no  general  right  of  resale  by  the  vendor  on  default  of 
the  purchaser.  The  remedies  of  the  buyer  are  an  action 
for  damages  for  non-delivery,  for  conversion,  for  breach 
of  warranty,  for  misrepresentation,  &c.,  according  to  cir^ 
cumstauces.  He  has  also  a  remedy  analogous  to  specific 
performance  under  the  Mercantile  Law  Amendment  Act, 
1856.  The  Act  gives  power  to  the  court  or  a  judge,  in  an 
action  for  breach  of  contract  to  aejver  specmc  goods,  to 
order  execution  to  issue  for  the  delivery  of  the  goods  with- 
out  giving  the  defendant  the  option  of  retaining  them 
upon  paying  the  damages  assessed.  The  buyer  has  further 
a  right  to  reject  goods  where  they  are  different  in  kind 
or  quality  from  those  which  he  had  a  right  to  expect.  He 
is  entitled  to  keep  them  for  a  sufficient  time  to  give  them 
a  fair  trial.  It  should  be  noticed  thr^t  the  effect  of  mis 
representation  in  the  sale  of  real  and  personal  property  is 
not  the  same.  As  a  rtile  innocent  misrepresentation  of 
facts  does  not  give  a  right  to  rescind  the  sale,  since  a 
representation  is,  like  an  express  warranty,  not  an  integral 
part  of  the  contract.  A  representation  may,  however,  if 
so  intended  by  the  parties,  become  a  condition  a  breach 
of  which  will  avoid  the  sale.  See  Story's,  Blackburn's,  and 
Benjamin's  treatises  on  the  sale  of  personal  property, 
especially  Benjamin's,  vhicli  is  now  the  recognized  teit* 
book  on  the  subject. 


SALE 


209 


It  may  be  useful  to  recapitulate  shortly  the  main  points 
of  difference  between  Roman  and  English  law.  They  have 
all  been  noticed  in  the  preceding  part  of  this  article.  (1) 
Arrha  was  not  the  same  as  earnest.  (2)  Written  contracts 
were  not  necessary  in  Roman  law  under  any  circumstances. 
(3)  There  was  no  warranty  of  title  in  Roman  law  :  the 
transfer  was  of  vacua  possessio,  not  of  ownership  ;  in  Eng- 
land there  is  a  warranty  of  title  (unless  the  parties  other- 
wise intend)  on  sales  of  personalty,  but  not  on  sales  of  real 
property,  though  the  covenants  for  title  practically  amount 
to  a  warranty.  (4)  There  was  a  warranty  of  quality 
extending  to  undisclosed  defects  in  Roman  law  beyond 
anything  recognized  by  English  law.  (5)  By  Roman  law 
the  property  did  not  pass  until  trcditio ;  even  then  it  was 
only  property  in  a  modified  sense ;  it  was  rather  vacua 
possessio  secured  by  duplx  stipulaiio ;  by  English  law  the 
property  in  specific  ascertained  goods  vests  by  the  contract 
in  the  buyer.  (6)  A  sale  by  a  person  who  was  not  the 
owner  was  not  good  in  Roman  law ;  it  is  good  in  certain 
cases  in  English  law  (see  below). 

There  arc  .cort.iin  k-ntls  of  sale  which  it  is  proposed  to  consider 
sepnratel}-  on  account  of  the  exceptional  circumstances  in  which 
they  stand. 

Compulsory  Sale. — As  a  general  rule  sale  is  a  matter  of  contract 
between  the  parties,  aud  no  one  can  be  forced  to  sell  against  his 
wiU.  But  in  this,  as  in  otlier  matters,  the  right  of  the  state  comes 
in.  Under  tlie  powcs  of  the  lands  Clauses  and  other  Acts  the 
state,  exercising  its  nght  of  eminent  domain,  may  force  an  owner 
to  sell  for  the  parpose  of  public  improvements, — such  as  railways. 
The  power  of  compu'sorj-  sale  is  less  common  where  the  interests 
of  the  state  are  not  involved  ;  an  example  occuis  in  the  Partition 
Act,  1S6S,  under  which  the  court  may  order  a  sale  instead  of  a 
division,  even  though  some  of  the  parties  interested  dissent. 

Judicial  Snlf. — Under  this  head  may  be  grouped  all  those  sales 
which  are  made  under  the  authority  and  by  the  direction  of  a 
court  of  justice.  In  regard  to  real  property  the  most  important 
example  is  the  sale  by  order  of  the  Chancery  Division.  Such  a  sale 
lua.v  be  ordered  either  under  the  original  jurisdiction  of  the  court 
or  under  the  provisions  of  certain  Acts  of  Parliament,!  such  as  the 
l/unacy  Regulation  Act,  1853,  the  Partition  Act,  1868,  the  Settled 
Estates  Act,  1877,  or  the  Settled  Land  Act,  1882  (see  Settle- 
tiENT).  The  Conveyancing  Act,  1881,  provides  for  freeing  any 
land  from  encumbrances  on  sale  by  the  couit,  on  payment  into 
I'Oiirt  of  a  sum  to  meet  the  encumbrance.  The  Act  also  makes  the 
order  for  sale  conclusive  in  favour  of  a  purchaser  in  alm>jst  every 
case.  The  abstract  of  title  in  a  sale  by  the  court  is  submitted  to 
one  of  the  conveyancing  counsel  of  the  Chancery  Division,  and  the 
particulars  and  conditions  are  settled  in  judges'  chambers.  The 
sale  is  generally  by  public  auction,  the  auctioneer  being  appointed 
by  the  judge.  The  regulations  for  the  conduct  of  sales  by  the 
court  will  be  found  in  the  Rules  of  the  Supreme  Court,  1883,  Ord. 
li.  r.  1-13. 

The  Bankruptcy  Act,  1883,  gives  power  to  a  trustee  acting  under 
the  authority  of  a  court  of  banlcruptcy  to  sell  all  or  any  part  of  the 
property  of  a  bankrupt  by  public  auction  or  private  contract.  Simi- 
lar rights  are  given  by  the  Scotch  Bankruptcy  Act,  1856.  Judicial 
sales  of  the  property  of  a  debtor  in  Scotland  are  regulated  by  19 
and  20  Vict.  c.  92.  The  term  "judicial  sale"  does  not  seem  to  be 
used  as  a  technical  term  in  English  as  it  is  in  Scotch  law.  In 
admiralty  actions  a  vessel  may  be  sold  under  a  commission  of  ap- 
praisement and  sale  issued  by  the  court.  The  practice  is  now 
regulated  by  Ord.  li.  r.  14-16.  Similar  powers  may  be  exercised 
in  an  action  of  sett  in  Scotland.  A  common  instance  of  a  judicial 
Kile  is  the  sale  by  a  sheriff  of  an  execution  debtor's  goods  under  a 
\s\\t  o(  fieri  faeiaj  or  venditioni  aqyonas.  Where  the  execution  is 
for  a  sum  above  £20  the  sale  is,  unless  the  court  otherwise  orders, 
to  be  by  public  auction.  Where  the  sheriff  has  seized  aijd  a  claim 
by  interpleader  is  set  up,  the  court  may  order  a  sale  of  the  whole 
or  part  of  the  goods  (Rules  of  the  Supremo  Court,  1883,  Ord.  Ivii. 
r.  12).  The  same  rules  (Ord.  1.  r.  2)  give  a  valuable  power  to  the 
court  orajudgo  of  ordering  a  sale  of  any  goods  of  a  perishable  nature, 
or  euch  as  for  any  reason  it  may  bo  desirable  to  have  sold  at  once. 

Sale  by  Persons  not  Owners. — English  law  in  general  agrees  with 
the  rule  in  Dig.  1.  17,  54,  "  Nemo  plus  juris  ad  alium  tranifcrro 
potest  cjuam  ipso  liaberet,"and  a  purchaser  takes  his  purchase  subject 
to  informalities  in  the  title.  To  this  rule  there  are  several  excep- 
tions, in  which  title  may  be  given  by  persons  who  are  limited 
owners  or  not  owners  at  all.  An  example  of  sale  by  a  limited 
owner  is  a  sale  by  a  tenant  for  life  under  the  powers  given  by  the 
Settled  Land  Act,  1832.  Under  the  same  head  would  fall  sulea  by 
persons  having  a  qualified  right  of  sale  under  particular  circum- 
stances, such  as  a  shcrilf,  the  master  of  a  ship  in  a  foreign  port,  or 

•1 1  -!) 


a  pawnee  in  default  oX  payment  (see  Pledge).  Sales  by  persons 
not  owners  at  all  must  as  a  rule,  in  order  to  be  valid,  be  made  to 
purchasers  ignorant  of  the  defect  of  title  on  the  part  of  the  vendor. 
In  the  case  of  real  estate  a  bona  fide  purchaser  for  valuable  con- 
sideration without  notice,  actual  or  implied,  of  any  adverse  title 
is  protected.  This  is  on  the  principle  that  equity  assists  the  person 
in  possession  of  the  legal  estate.  In  the  case  of  personal  property 
title  may  be  passed  by  a  person  not  owner  under  the  Factors  Acts 
and  in  the  case  of  stolen  goods.  The  effect  of  the  Factors  Acts  is 
to  enable  title  to  bo  given  by  the  vendor  or  vendee  or  any  person 
on  his  behalf  while  he  is  in  possession  of  the  documents  of  title 
(see  Factors).  The  law  as  to  the  sale  of  stolen  goods  will  be  found 
under  Theft. 

Pre-emption. — This  is  a  right  of  purchasing  some  particular 
property  given  to  some  particular  person  in  priority  to  the  publia 
It  is  conferred  cither  by  agreement  between  parties  or  by  law. 
Thus  by  the  Lands  Clauses  Act,  1845,  before  the  promoters  of  an 
undertaking  dispose  of  superfluous  lands  not  required  for  the  pur- 
poses of  the  undertaking  they  must  (with  certain  exceptions)  first 
offer  to  sell  the  same  to  the  person  then  entitled  to  the  lands  from 
which  the  same  were  originally  severed.  In  the  United  States  pre- 
emption is  very  important  in  its  connexion  with  the  homestead 
law  (see  Homestead).  In  international  law  the  right  is  exercisable 
by  a  belligerent  nation  over  property  not  strictly  contraband,  but 
which  would  still  be  of  advantage  to  the  enemy.  The  goods  are 
not  seized  and  condemned,  but  rnirchased  by  the  capturing  nation 
at  a  reasonable  compensation.  The  right  of  pre-emption  is  givca 
to  the  admiralty  by  27  and  28  Vict.  c.  25,  s.  38  (see  Contraeaxd). 
The  old  crown  prerogative  of  purvejance  and  pre-emption  was  a 
right  of  buying  up  provisions  and  other  necessaries  for  the  royal 
household  at  a  valuation  even  without  the  consent  of  the  owner, 
and  also  of  impressing  horses  and  carriages  for  the  king's  service 
on  the  public  roads  upon  paying  a  settled  price  to  the  proprietor. 
The  right  was  relinquished  by  the  Act  abolishing  the  feudal  tenures 
(12  Car.  II.  c.  24). 

Scotland. — The  law  of  Scotland  follows  the  Roman  law  more 
closely  than  does  English  law.  Thus  in  Scotch  as  in  Roman  law 
the  contract  of  sale  is  called  a  consensual  contract ;  the  sale  is  not 
complete  until  delivery,  and  market  overt  does  not  afford  any  pro- 
tection. Writing  is  essential  to  the  sale  of  heritable  property,  not 
by  any  statute,  as  in  England,  but  by  the  ancient  unwTitten  law. 
Rei  intcrventus  may,  however,  in  some  cases,  like  part  performance 
in  England,  supply  the  place  of  writings.  The  vendor  is  bound 
on  completion  to  supply  a  sufficient  progress  of  titles.  In  addition 
to  the  protection  afforded  to  the  purchaser  by  the  progress  of  titles 
the  statutory  form  of  warrandice  in  31  and  32  \ict.  c.  101,  s.  8 
implies,  unless  specially  qualified,  absolute  warrandice  as  regards 
the  lands  and  writs  and  evideuts,  and  warrandice  from  fact  and 
deed  as  regards  the  rents, — that  is  to  say,  that  a  good  title  to  the 
land  has  been  conveyed,  and  that  the  granter  has  not  done  and 
will  not  do  anything  contrary  to  the  writ  as  regards  the  rents  (see 
Watson,  Law  Diet.,  s.v.  "Warrandice").  In  the  case  of  movables 
writing  is  not  necessary  for  a  good  contract  of  sale,  except  where 
the  sale  is  of  a  ship,  or  the  parties  agree  to  reduce  the  terms  to 
writing.  The  Mercantile  Law  Amendment  (Scotland)  Act,  1856 
(19  anci  20  Vict.  c.  60),  has  made  important  changes  in  the  law  of  . 
Scotland.  "  The  statute  was  passed  for  the  purpose  of  assimilating 
the  law  of  Scotland  to  that  of  England  "■  (Lord  Watson,  in  M'Bain 
V.  Wallace,  Laio  Reports,  6  Appeal  Cases,  588).  By  section  1  goods 
after  sale  but  before  delivery  are  not  attachable  by  the  creditors  of 
the  seller.  By  section  2  the  sub-purchaser  may  demand  that  delivery 
be  made  to  him  instead  of  to  the  original  purchaser,  without  pre- 
judice to  the  right  of  retention  of  the  seller.  By  section  3  the  seller 
of  goods  may  attach  the  goods  while  in  his  own  possession  at  any 
time  prior  to  the  date  when  the  sale  of  such  goods  shall  have  been 
intimated  to  him.  By  section  6  the  English  principle  of  caveat 
emptor  is  introduced  :  "where  goods  shall  be  sold  the  seller,  if  at 
the  time  of  the  sale  he  was  without  knowledge  that  the  same  were 
of  defeftive  or  of  bad  quality,  shall  not  bo  held  to  have  warranted 
their  quality  or  sufficiency,  but  the  goods,  with  all  faults,  shall  ba 
at  the  risk  of  tho  purchaser,  unless  the  seller  shall  have  given  an 
express  warranty  of  tho  quality  or  sufficiency  of  such  goods,  or 
unless  the  goods  have  been  expressly  sold  for  a-specilicd  and  par- 
ticular purpose,  in  which  case  the  seller  shall  bo  considered,  with- 
out such  warranty,  to  warrant  that  tho  same  are  fit  for  such  pur- 
pose." The  right  of  retention  corresponds  clo»ly  to  tho  right  of 
lien  in  England,  but  rests  upon  the  simpler  ground  of  undiveatcd 
property  (see  Watson,  Laio  Diet.,  s.v.  "Sale").  Criminal  liability 
for  fraud  seems  to  be  carried  farther  in  Scotland  than  in  Eughind 

(sco  FllAUD). 

United  Slates.— Tho  law  as  to  the  sale  of  real  estate  agrees  gener- 
ally with  English  law.  It  is  considerably  simplified  by  tho  system 
of  Reoistuatios  {q.v.).  Tho  covenant  of  warranty,  unknown  in 
England,  is  the  principal  covenant  for  title  in  tho  United  States. 
It  corresponds  generally  to  the  Eng'.ish  covenant  for  quiet  enjoy- 
ment. The  right  of  judicial  sale  of  buildings  under  a  mechanic'* 
lien  fur  labour  uiid  materials  is  given  by  the  law  of  many  States. 


210 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


The  sale  of  public  lands  is  rcguhtcd  by  Act  of  Congress  (Heviscd 
Slatutes,  2353-2379).  In  the  law  of  sale  of  personal  property 
American  law  is  also  based  upon  English  law.  The  principal  dif- 
ferences are  that  the  law  of  marliet  overt  (see  Theft)  is  not  recog- 
niied  by  the  United  States,  and  that  an  unpaid  vendor  is  the  agent 
of  the  vendee  to  resell  on  non-payment,  and  is  entitled  to  recover 
the  difference  between  t)ie  contract  price  and  the  price  of  resale. 
The  law  of  Louisiana  {Civil  Code,  §  3194)  gives  the  unpaid  vendor 
a  still  greater  right  in  his  preferential  claim  for  the  price  against 
the  creditors  of  the  purchaser,  if  the  property  still  remains  in  the 
latter's  possession.  Warranty  of  title  is  not  carried  as  far  as  in 
England.  United  States  decisions  draw  a  distinction  between  goods 
in  the  possession  and  goods  not  in  the  possession  of  the  vendor  at 
the  time  of  sale.  There  is  no  warranty  of  title  of  the  latter.  The 
Statute  of  Frauds  has  been  construed  in  some  respects  differently 
from  the  English  decisions.  The  differences  will  be  found  in  Mr 
Benjamin's  work.  As  to  unlawful  sales.  It  has  been  held  that  a 
sale  in  a  State  where  the  sale  is  lawful  is  valid  in  a  State  where  it 
is  unlawful  by  statute,  even  though  the  goods  are  ia  the  latter 
State.  (J.  Wt.) 

SALEIYER  (in  Mancassarese  Sildyara,  in  Buginese 
Silaja),  also  called  Taiwi-doivang  ("  Land  of  Shrimps  "),  is 
a  Dutch  island  separated  from  the  south  coast  of  Celebes 
(East  Indies)  by  a  strait  8  miles  wide,  which  in  the  west 
monsoon  is  used  by  vessels  bound  for  the  Jloluccas,  the 
Philippines,  and  China.  With  a  length  of  46  miles  and 
general  breadth  of  9,  the  area  is  estimated  at  315  square 
miles.  Along  the  east  side  of  the  island  is  a  belt  of 
volcanic  rock ;  the  west  side  is  of  limestone  or  coralline 
formation.  The  highest  point  seems  to  be  Haru  on  the 
east  coast,  but  estimates  of  its  altitude  vary  from  1000  to 
3000  feet.  There  are  no  navigable  rivers,  and  many  of 
the  streams  dry  up  in  the  west  monsoon.  Besides  most  of 
the  ordinary  tropical  fruits,  the  cultivated  plants  comprise 
Indian  corn,  barley,  potatoes,  tobacco,  coffee,  and  indigo, 
and  among  the  trees  are  cocoanut  and  areng  palms,  Jcanari, 
ebony,  and  teak  (the  last  considered  the  property  of  the 
Dutch  Government).  Horses,  bufialoes,  goats,  and  sheep 
are  kept,  and  pigs  and  deer  exist  in  a  wild  state.  The 
population  of  Saleiyer  and  dependencies,  mainly  a  mixed 
race  of  Mancassars,  Buginese,  and  natives  of  Luvu  and 
Buton,  was  in  1B69  55,147,  and  is.  1880  06,276.  They  use 
the  JIancassar  language,  are  for  'iLe  most  part  nominally 
Mahommedans  (though  many  heathen  customs  survive), 
and  support  themselves  by  agriculture,  fishing,  seafaring, 
trade,  the  preparation  of  salt  (on  the  south  coast),  and  the 
weaving  of  clothing  materials.  Field  work  is  largely 
performed  by  a  servile  class.  Raw  and  prepared  cotton, 
tobacco,  trepang,  tortoise-shell,  cocoanuts  and  cocoanut 
oil,  and  salt  are  the  principal  articles  of  export. 

The  island  is  divided  into  nine  regencies  : — Tanette,  Batammata 
(Batangmata;  including  the  former  regency  of  Onto),  Buki,  Mare- 
Mare,  Boneya — aU  five  in  tho  no;'th— Bontobangung,  Balla-bulo, 
Layolo,  and  Barambarang — in  the  south.  PanggUiyang  or  Benteng 
on  the  west  coast,  often  called  also  Saleiyer,  is  the  capital  of  the 
island.  It  stands  in  6°  3'  3"  S.  lat.  and  120°  31'  48"  E.  long.,  and 
possesses  the  best  harbour  on  the  whole  coast,  being  protected  by 
Pulo  Pasi  or  Hog  Island  (also  Sariwa  or  Pulo  Babi).  To  the 
Saleiyer  group  belong  a  variety  of  small  islands,  for  the  most  part 
iminhabited — Tana  Jampeya  (the  largest  of  all  with  a  good  anchor- 
age at  Maringi  Bay),  Gowang,  Malimbu,  &c.  Previous  to  the  Dutch 
occupation  the  Saleiyers  were  subject  to  the  king  of  Temate. 

SALEM,  a  British  district  of  India,  in  Madras  presi- 
dency, lying  between  11°  1'  and  12°  57'  N.  lat.  and  77"  32' 
and  79°  5'  E.  long.  It  embraces  an  area  of  7653  square 
miles,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Mysore  and  North 
Arcot,  on  the  S.  by  Coimbatore  and  Trichinopoly,  on  the  E. 
by  Trichinopoly  and  South  and  North  AiTOt,  and  on  the  W. 
by  Coimbatore  and  Mysore.  Except  towards  the  south, 
the  district  is  very  hilly,  with  large  plains  lying  betv.'eeu 
the  several  ranges.  Salem  is  described  as  couilatiug  of 
three  distinct  tracts  of  country,  kno\\-n  as  the  Talaghat, 
the  B.-lramahAl,  and  the  Baldghdt.  The  T  ilaghdt  is  situated 
below  the  Eastern  Ghats  on  the  level  of  the  Carnatic  gener 
ally ;  the  BAramahdl  includes  the  whole  Salem  face  of  the 
Ghats  and  a  wide  tract  of  country  at  their  base  ,  and  the 


BdUghdt  is  situated  above  the  Ghats  on  the  tableland  of 
Mysore.  The  western  part  of  the  district  is  very  mountain- 
ous, some  of  the  ranges  attaining  an  elevation  of  between 
5000  and  6000  feet.  Amongst  the  chief  ranges  are  the 
Shevaroys,  the  Kabdyans,  the  Jlelagiris,  the  Kolhmalais, 
the  Pachamalais,  and  the  Yelagiris.  The  chief  rivers  are 
the  Cauvery  with  its  numerous  tributaries,  and  the  Pennar 
and  Palar;  the  last,  however,  only  flows  through  a  few 
miles  of  the  Tirupatiir  idlul:,  situated  in  the  north-western 
corner  of  the  district.  The  forests  are  of  considerable  value 
and  their  area  is  roughly  estimated  at  2251  square  miles. 
The  geological  structure  of  the  district  is  mostly  gneissic, 
with  a  few  irruptive  rocks  in  the  form  of  trap  dykes  and 
granite  veins.  Magnetic  iron  ore  is  common  in  the  hill 
regions,  and  corundtim  and  chromate  of  iron  are  also 
obtainable.  The  qualities  of  the  soil  differ  very  much ;  in 
the  country  immediately  surrounding  the  town  of  Salem  a 
thin  layer  of  calcareous  and  red  loam  generally  prevails, 
through  which  quartz  rocks  appear  on  the  surface  in  many 
places.  The  climate,  owing  to  the  great  difference  of 
elevation,  varies  considerably ;  on  the  hills  it.  is  cool  and 
bracing,  and  for  a  great  part  of  the  year  very  salubrious ; 
the  average  rainfall  is  about  38  inches.  Salem  has  about 
1400  miles  of  road,  and  the  length  of  railway  line  within 
the  district  is  134  miles. 

In  1881  the  population  was  1,599,595  (males  778,483,  females 
821,112)  ;  Hindus  numbered  1,531,855,  Mohammedans  51,092, 
and  Christians  16,567.  Besides  Salem  (see  be'ow),  the  capital,  the 
district  contains  three  other  towns  with  a  population  exceeding 
10,000  each,  viz.,  Daringambadi  (15,426),  Tirupatiir  (14,278),  and 
Shendamangalam  (12,575).  Of  the  total  area  of  the  district  only 
1,283,190  acres  were  under  cultivation  in  1883-84;  but  of  these 
137,403  acres  were  twice  cropped.  The  staple  crops  are  rice  and 
ragi ;  other  important  crops  are  pulses  and  seeds.  The  chief 
industry  is  weaving,  which  is  carried  on  in  almost  every  large  town 
and  village.  Carpets  of  great  beauty  and  superior  workrnanship  are 
made  in  the  Salem  jail.  Good  iron  and  steel  are  made,  but  only 
on  a  small  scale.  Tho  gross  revenue  of  the  district  in  1883-84  was 
^£260,364,  the  laud-tax  contributing  £211,062  of  tho  amount 
Though  Salem  has  no  connected  history,  there  are  few  parts  of 
Southern  India  that  contain  more  spots  of  interest  for  English 
students.  As  at  present  composed  it  was  acquired  by  the  treaty 
of  peace  with  Tipu  Sultan  in  1792  and  the  partition  treaty  ol 
Mysore  in  1799.  By  the  former  the  Talaghit  and  Baramahal  were 
ceded,  and  by  the  latter  the  Balaghat,  or  what  is  now  the  Osur  IdluJc 

SALEM,  chief  town  of  the  above  district,  situated  in 
11°  39'  10"  N.  lat.  and  78°  U'  47"  E.  long.,  is  a  busy 
trading  place,  with  a  considerable  weaving  industry.  It 
is  tolerably  well  built  and  is  prettily  situated  on  the  river 
Tirumanimuttar,  900  feet  above  sea-level,  in  a  long  valley 
enclosed  by  the  Shevaroy  hills,  which  are  6  miles  distant. 
The  population  of  the  town  in  1881  was  50,667  (males 
24,584,  females  26,083). 

SALEM,  a  city  of  the  United  Slates,  capital  of  Essex 
coimty,  Massachusetts,  is  built  on  a  peninsula  between  two 
inlets  of  the  sea  (North  river  and  South  river),  in  42' 
31'  18"  N.  lat.  and  70°  53'  53"  W.  long.,  16  miles  north  by 
east  of  Boston,  on  the  Eastern  Railroad.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  18th  and  the  early  part  of  the  19th  century 
Salem  was  the  seat  of  a  flourishing  foreign  commerce, 
especially  with  the  East  Indies;  but,  its  comparatively  shal- 
low harbour  failing  to  accommodate  the  larger  vessels  of 
modern  times,  it  has  been  supplanted  by  Boston.and  has  to 
content  itself  with  a  good  share  of  the  coasting  trade.  Its 
industrial  activity  has,  on  the  other  hand,  increased,  and 
it  now  possesses  steam  cotton-mills,  jute-factories,  extensive 
tanneries,  and  various  minor  manufactories.  The  main 
interest,  however,  of  Salem  consists  in  its  historical  and 
literary  associations  and  the  institutions  by  which  they 
are  represented.  Best  known  of  these  institutions  is  the 
Peabody  Academy,  founded  in  1867  with  funds  provided 
by  the  well  known  philanthropist.  The  academy  at  "^nce 
purchased  and  refitted  the  East  Tcdia  Marino  Hall,  origin* 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


211 


ally  built  in  1824  by  the  East  India  Marino  Society  (1799), 
which  consisted  of  captains  and  supercargoes  who  had 
doubled  either'  Cape  Horn  or  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ; 
and  the  building  now  contains  tinder  the  trusteeship  of 
the  academy  the  collections  of  the  old  East  India  ^luseum 
and  those  of  the  Essex  Institute,  illustrating  the  zoology, 
natural  history,  and  archaeology  of  the  county.  The  ethno- 
graphical collections,  such  as  that  dealing  with  Corca,  are 
especially  valuable.  The  American  Naturalist  has  been  the 
organ  of  the  academy  since  1867.  The  Peabody  Institute, 
not  to  be  confounded  with  the  academy,  is  m  the  \-illage  of 
Peabody  (Danvers),  about  2  miles  distant  from  Salem  and 
about  midway  between  the  house  in  which  the  philanthropist 
was  bom  and  the  grave,  in  Harmony  Grove  cemetery,  in 
which  he  was  buried.  The  institute  contains  various  personal 
relics  of  the  founder,  Euch  as  the  famous  portrait  of  Queen 
Victoria-  Piummer  Hall,  a  fine  building  in  Essex  Street, 
erected  out  of  funds  left  to  the  Salem  AtiienKum  by 
Miss  Plnmmer,  contains  the  libraries  of  the  Athenaeum, 
the  Esses  Institute,  and  the  South  Essex  Medical  Society, 
making  an  aggregate  of  50,000  volumes.  Behind  this 
hall  is  the  frame  of  the  oldest  church  edifice  in  New  Eng- 
land, erected  in  1634  for  Roger  Williams.  Other  buildings 
of  note  in  Salem  are  a  State  normal  school,  the  city  hall, 
the  court-house,  St  Peter's  Episcopal  church,  the  custom- 
hoa«e,  in  which  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  once  acted  as  clerk, 
and  several  of  the  private  houses  (such  as  "  Dr  Grimshawc's 
house,"  the  dwelling  really  occupied  by  Dr  Peabody,  Mrs 
Hawthorne's  father)  which,  whUe  not  exactly  prototypes, 
have  lent  much  of  their  verisimilitude  to  the  localities  of 
Hawthorne's  fiction.  The  house  in  which  the  novelist 
was  born  is  21  Union  Street.  Salem  had  24,117  inha- 
bitants in  1870,  26,063  in  1875,  and  27,563  in  1880. 

Ifaumkeag  (Eel  Land)  was  the.  Indian  name  of  tlie  district  in 
which  Salem  stands,  and  is  still  used  familiarly  by  the  inhabitants. 
The  first  house  was  built  by  Roger  Conants  from  Cape  Ann  in  162G, 
and  two  years  later  a  settlement  was  formed  by  John  Eudicott  and 
called  Salem,  "from  the  peace  they  had  and  hoped  in  it."  In  1630 
Governor  John  AVinthrop  introduced  a  large  body  of  colonists  from 
England,  including  the  brave  and  beautiful  Arabella  Jolmson, 
daughter  of  the  earl  of  Lincoln,  who  died  shortly  aflei-waxds.  In 
1631  the  Quakers  were  persecuted  at  Salem,  and  in  1692  the  towu 
was  the  scene  of  Co::on  blather's  terrible  proceedings  against  witch- 
craft :  nineteen  persons  were  hanged  on  Gallows  Hill  and  Giles  Cory 
was  pressed  to  death.  It  was  in  Salem  that  in  1774  the  house  of 
representatives  of  Massachusetts  resolved  themselves  into  a  sovereign 
political  power.  The  town  obtained  a  city  charter  in  1836.  Few 
cities  of  the  United  States  have  given  more  eminent  men  to  the 
world — Timothy  Pickering,  secretary  of  state  (1795-18S0),  General 
Israel  Putnam,  F.  T.  Ward  of  China  celebrity,  Jolm  Rogers  the 
sculptor,  Bowditch  the  astronomer  and  mathematician,  Maria  S. 
Cummins  the  novelist,  W.  H.  Prcscott  the  historian,  and  Natlinaiel 
Hawthorne. 

SALEM,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  county  seat  of 
Salem  county,  Kew  Jersey,  on  a  small  stream  of  the  same 
name,  by  which  it  has  steam  communication  with  Phil- 
adelphia (on  the  Delaware),  44  miles  distant  to  the  north- 
north-east  by  rail.  Widle  Salem  depends  mainly  on  tho 
agricultural  prosperity  of  the  surrounding  district,  it  also 
contains  foundries  and  machine-shop.s,  fruit-canning  estab- 
lishments, glass-ware  factories,  oil-cloth  factories,  (kc.  The 
population  was  3052  in  1850,  4555  in  1870,  and  5056  in 
1880. 

A  colony  settled  on  the  sita  of  Salem  in  1641  was  replaced  by  a 
Swedish  fort,  aid  tliis  passed  tlirough  the  Diitx:h  to  the  English. 
One  of  the  Quakers  who  in  1673  bought  Lord  Berkeley's  half  of 
New  Jersey  gave  tho  place  its  present  name  and  restored  tho  settle- 
ment, which  in  1682  was  declared  a  port  of  entry.  In  1778  tho 
town  was  plundered  by  Colonel  Manhood. 

SALEM,  a  city  of  tho  United  States,  tho  capital  of 
Oregon,  in  Marion  county,  on  the  cast  bank  of  Willamette 
river,  53  miles  south  of  Portland  by  the  Oregon  and 
California  Railroad.  It  lies  in  a  fertile  prairie  district, 
adorned  with -copses,  and  possesses  a  good  soui-ce  of  water- 
power  in  Mill  Creek.    The  capitol,  a  rather  im oosing  edifice 


with  a  tower  180  feet  high,  erected  in  1875-7G,  occupies  a 
fine  site  above  the  city ;  other  public  boildings  are  the 
Willamette  University  (Methodist),  which  grants  degrees 
in  medicine,  science,  and  general  literature,  the  opera-house, 
the  Roman  Catholic  school  for. girls,  the  State  penitentiarj-, 
and  State  schools  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  the  blind. 
Lumber,  woollen  goods,  flour,  leather,  brass  castings,  furni- 
ture, linseed  oil,  and  building  materials  are  the  chief  articles 
of  manufacture  and  trade.  The  population  was  2538  in 
1881.  Settled  in  1834,  incorporated  in  1853,  Salem  bft- 
came  the  State  capital  in  1860. 

SALEP  (Arab,  sahleb,  Gr.  op^i?),  a  drug  extensively  used 
in  the  East  as  a  nervine  restorative  and  fattener,  and  also 
much  prescribed  in  paralytic  affections,  probably  owed  its 
original  popularity  to  the  belief  in  the  so-called  "  doctrine 
of  signatures."  In  Europe  it  is  chiefly  used  as  a  demulcent 
drink,  but  is  also  supposed  to  possess  nutrient  properties  ; 
it  may  be  employed  with  advantage  in  inflammatory  condi- 
tions of  tho  mucous  membrane,  as  in  bronchitis,  diarrhoea, 
cystitis,  and  other  urinary  disorders.  It  consists  of  the 
tuberous  roots  of  various  species  of  Orchis  and  Eulophio, 
which  are  decorticated,  washed,  heated  until  horny  in  ap- 
pearance, and  then  carefully  dried.  The  most  important 
constituent  of  salep  is  a  kiud  of  mucilage  which  it  yields 
to  cold  water  to  the  extent  of  48  per  cent.  This  mucilage 
in  its  chemical  reactions  is  more  nearly  allied  to  cellulose 
than  to  gum,  since  when  dry  it  Ls  readily  soluble  in 
ammoniacal  solution  of  copper;  when  boiled  with  nitric 
acid  it  yields  oxalic  but  not  mucic  acid.  Salep  also  con- 
tains sugar  and  albumen,  and  when  fresh  traces  of  a  volatile 
oil ;  dried  at  100°  C.  it  yields  2  per  cent,  of  ash,  chiefly  the 
phosphates  and  chlorides  of  potassium  and  calcium. 

Salep  was  formerly  imported  into  Europe  from  the  Levant,  but 
in  1760  the  French  chemist  Geoffroy  discovered  its  true  nature  and 
showed  how  it  might  be  prepared  from  tho  species  of  Orchis  indi- 
genous to  France.  That  used  in  Geiinany  is  obtained  from  plants 
growing  wild  in  the  Taunua  Mountains,  the  AVesterwald,  the  Rhon, 
the  Odenwald,  and  Franconia.  Grecian  salep  is  chiefly  collected 
in  Macedonia.  In  Asia  Minor  tl<e  tubers  are  collected  near  Mclassa 
and  Mughla,  and  about  330  tons  are  annually  exported  from 
Smyrna.  The  salep  of  the  Bombay  inarket,  which  is  imported 
principally  from  Persia,  Cabnl,  and  northern  India,  occurs  in  three 
forms,  palmate,  largo  ovoid,  and  small  ovoid  tubers  on  strings,  all 
more  or  less  horny  and  translucent  Salep  is  also  produced  on  the 
Nilgiri  (Neilgherry)  Hills  and  in  Ceylon.  Besides  the  above-men- 
tioned forms,  elongated  cylindrical  tubers,  usually  in  pairs  and 
undecorticated,  are  occasionally  met  with.  The  palmate  tubers  are 
the  most  highly  esteemed,  being  valued  at  ten  rupees  per  pound. 
This  variety  is  known  in  the  Bombay  market  as  Persian  salep.  It 
is  probably  derived  chiefly  from  0.  lalifoUa,  L.,  although  0.  macu- 
lala,  L.,  0.  sacci/cra,  Brongn.,  and  0.  conopsea,  L.,  also  allbrd  pal- 
mate tubers.  The  species  known  to  yield  ovate  salep  are  0.  mascula, 
0.  ilorio,  0.  pyrcimidalis,  0,  uslnlala,  0.  militaris,  0.  coriopkora, 
L.,  and  0.  lojigicruris.  Link.  All  these  species  are  natives  of  the 
greater  part  of  central  and  southern  Europe,  Turkey,  the  Caucasus, 
and  Asia  Minur,  0.  latifolin  extending  to  western  India  and  Tibet 
and  0.  conopsea  to  tho  Amur,  in  the  extreme  east  of  Asia.  Salep  is 
not  easily  reduced  to  powder,  being  both  hard  and  tough,  and  is 
therefore  usually  ground  between  millstones.  This  dilficulty  is 
said  to  bo  lessened  if  tho  salep  is  6rst  soaked  in  cold  water  until  soft 
and  then  rapidly  dried.  As  the  powder  doesjiot  mix  readily  with. 
water,  tho  authors  of  Phannacograyhia  (2d  ed.  p.  656)  rotonjracnd 
that  it  should  bo  first  mixed  with  IJ  parts  of  rectified  s]iirils  of 
wino  (brandy  or  other  strong  spirit  would  answer  equally  well), 
40  parts  of  cold  water  being  then  added  (juiukly  and  tho  mixture 
boiled.     In  these  proporiious  salep  all'oras  a  thick  jelly. 

S.ILERNO,  a  city  of  Italy  and  the  chief  town  of  a  pro- 
vince of  its  own  name  (formerly  Princijiato  Citeriore),  is 
beautifully  situated  on  the  west  coast  34  miles  south-cast  of 
Naples,  and  presents  a  fine  appearance  with  tho  niina  of  its 
old  Norman  castle  on  an  eminence  905  feet  above  the  sea 
and  its  background  of  graceful  Umestoao  hills.  Tho  town 
walls  were  destroyed  in  tho  beginning  of  the  19lh  cen- 
tury ;  the  seaward  portion  has  given  place  to  tho  Corso 
Garibaldi,  tho  princiiiol  promenada  Among  tho  con- 
spicuous buildings  are  thf  Mieatro,  the  prefecture,  aud  the 


212 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


tathedral  of  St  Hatthew  (wLose  bones  ^vere  brought  from 
Psestum  to  Salerno  in  954),  begun  in  1076  by  Robert  Guis- 
eard  and  consecrated  in  1084  by  Gregory  VII.  In  front 
IS  a  beautiful  quadrangular  court  (112  by  102  feet),  sur- 
rounded by  arcades  formed  of  twenty-eight  ancient  pillars 
mostly  of  granite ;  and  the  middle  entrance  into  the  church 
is  closed  by  a  remarkable  bronze  door  of  11th  or  12th 
century  Byzantine  work.  The  nave  and  two  aisles  end  in 
apses.  Two  magnificent  marble  ambos,  the  larger  dating 
from  1175,  several  specimens  of  ancient  mosaic,  and  the 
tombs  of  Gregory  VII.  and  Queen  Margaret  of  Durazzo 
deserve  to  be  mentioned.  In  the  crypt  is  a  bronze  statue 
of  St  Matthew.  The  lofty  aqueduct,  one  of  whose  arches 
ia  now  used  by  the  railway,  is  a  building  of  1320  ;  the 
present  water-supply  is  provided  by  a  canal  formed  in  1 865. 
A  fine  port  constructed  by  Giovanni  da  Procida  in  1260 
■was  destroyed  when  Naples  became  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom, and  remained  blocked  with  sand  till  after  the  unifica- 
tion of  Italy.  A  series  of  works,  especially  those  decreed 
in  1880,  have  provided  an  inner  harbour  of  40  acres  (depth 
12  to  22  feet),  an  outer  harbour  (22  to  25  feet),  and  wharves 
to  the  extent  of  4468  feet.  In  1884  180  vessels  (29,078 
tons)  entered  and  173  (28,069)  cleared.  Silk  and  cotton 
spinning  are  the  principal  industries.  The  population  was 
19,905  in  1870  and  22,328  (commune,  31,245)  in  1881. 

A  Koman  colony  was  founded  at  Saleruo  (Salernum)  in  19-J  B  c.  to 
keep  the  Picentines  in  check,  but  the  city  makes  no  figure  in  history 
till  after  the  Lombard  conquest.  Dismantled  by  order  of  Charle- 
magne, it  became  in  the  9th  century  the  capital  of  an  independent 
principality,  the  rival  of  that  of  Benevento,  and  was  surrounded  by 
strong  fortiJBcations.  The  Lombard  princes,  who  had  fremiently 
defended  their  city  against  the  Saracens,  succumbed  before  Robert 
Guiscard,  who  took  the  castle  after  an  eight  months'  siege  and  made 
Salerno  the  capital  of  his  new  territory.  The  removal  of  the  court 
to  Palermo  and  the  sack  of  the  city  by  the  emperor  Henry  VL  in 
1194  put  a  stop  to  its  development.  The  position  which  the  medical 
school  of  the  Civitas  Hippocratica  (as  it  called  itself  on  its  seals) 
held  in  mediceval  times  has  been  described  under  Medicine,  vol. 
sv.  pp.  806-807.  Salerno  university,  founded  in  1150,  and  long 
one  of  the  great  seats  of  learning  in  Italy,  was  closed  in  1817. 

SALES,  Feakcois  de  (1567-1622),  see  vol.  ix.  p.  695. 

SALFORD.     See  Manchester,  vol.  xv.  p.  459  sq. 

SALICIN,  the  bitter  principle  of  willow  bark,  was  dis- 
covered by  Leroux  in  1831.  It  exists  in  most  species  of 
Salix  and  Populus,  and  has  been  obtained  to  the  extent 
of  3  or  4  j)er  cent,  from  the  bark  of  S.  helix  and  S. 
■pmtandra.  According  to  Herberger,  the  bark  of  the 
young  branches  afibrds  salicin  in  larger  proportion  than 
that  of  the  trunk  and  contains  less  of  the  other  ingredients 
•which  interfere  with  its  extraction.  SaUcin  is  prepared 
from  a  decoction  of  the  bark  by  first  precipitating  the 
tannin  by  milk  of  lime,  then  evaporating  the  filtrate  to  a 
soft  extract,  and  dissolving  out  the  salicin  by  alcohol. 
As  met  with  in  commerce  it  is  usually  in  the  form  of 
glossy  white  scales  or  needles.  It  is  neutral  to  test  paper, 
inodorous,  imaltered  by  exposure  to  the  air,  and  has  a 
persistently  bitter  taste.  It  is  soluble  in  about  30  parts 
Df  alcohol  or  water  at  the  ordinary  temperature,  and  in 
yl  of  boiling  water  or  in  2  parts  of  boiling  alcohol,  and 
more  freely  in  alkaline  liquids.  It  is  also  soluble  in  acetic 
acid-  without  alteration,  but  is  insoluble  in  chloroform 
and  benzol.  From  phloridzin  it  is  distinguished  by  its 
immoniacal  solution  not  becoming  coloured  when  exposed 
to  the  air.  Cold  sulphuric  acid  dissolves  salicin,  forming 
i  bright  red  solution.  WTien  salicin  is  heated  with  sul- 
phuric acid  and  potassium  bichromate,  salicylic  aldehyde 
'CyHjjOj)  is  formed,  which  possesses  the  odour  of  meadow- 
jweet  flowers  {Spirxa  Ulmaria,  L.). 

Salicin  is  chiefly  used  in  medicine  as  an  antipyretic  in 
acute  rheumatism,  for  which  it  is  given  in  doses  of  5  to 
30  grains.  Its  action  is  less  powerful  than  that  of  Sau- 
CYLic  Acid  (q.v.),  and.  its  depressing  eSFect  on  the  circulation 
is  less  marked.  -  It  is  ajso  given  for  headache  and  for  ague. 


Salicin  is  a  elucoside,  having  the  composition  C,3Hij(>„  and  is' 
not  precipitated  by  the  alkaloidal  reagents.  It  has  been  pi-epared 
artificially  from  helicin,  synthesized  from  sodium,  salicyl-ildehyde. 
and  aceto-chlorhydrose,  being  the  first  glucoside  that  has  I'een  arti- 
ficially prepared  (Joum.  Chem.  Soc,  1884,  p.  439).  Acordingto 
Binz,  it  may  be  split  up  by  digestion  with  emulsiu  or  saliva  into 
salicylic  alcohol  (saligenol,  CjHjOj)  and  glucose ;  heating  it  gently 
with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  produces  a  similar  effect.  Salicylic 
alcohol  is  converted  by  oxidizing  agents  into  salicylic  actd.  This 
acid  is  formed  when  salicin  is  taken  internally,  since  iialicin  is 
eliminated  from  the  system  partly  in  the  form  of  eali;.yUc  and 
salicyluric  acids,  and  partly  as  saligenin. 

SALIC  LAW,  AND  OTHER  Barbaeluj  Laws.  The  (1) 
Lex  Salica  is  one  of  those  Teutonic  laws  of  ths  early 
Middle  Ages  which  are  known  as  leges  barbarorum,  among  ' 
which  we  also  reckon  the  (2)  Lex  Eipuariorum  or  Ribuari- 
orum,  (3)  Ewa  {Lex)  Francorum  Chamfivorum,  {i}  Lex 
Alamannorum,  (5)  Lex  Bajuvariorum,  (6)  Lex  Friiionum, 
(7)  Lex  Angliorwn  et  Werinorum,  h.e.,  Thuringorvm,  (8) 
Lex  Saxonum,  (9)  Leges  Anglo-Saxonmn,  (10)  Lex  Bur- 
gwidionum,  (10a)  Lex  Bomana  Burgundionum,  (11)  Lex 
Wisigothorum,  (11a)  Breviarium  Aland,  (lib)  Edv.imt 
Theodorici,  (12)  Leges  Langohardorum,  and  to  a  certain 
extent  (13)  Leges  Wallix.  All  these  laws  may  in  general 
be  described  as  codes  of  procedure  and  of  rights,  which 
regulated  for  some  indefinite  period  the  internal  afiairs  of 
the  several  Teutonic  tribes  whose  names  they  bear. 

(1)  The  Salic  Law  originated  with  the  Salian  Franks, 
often  simply  called  Salians,  the  chief  tribe  of  that  con- 
glomeration of  Teutonic  peoples  known  as  Franks  {q.v.). 
The  latter  first  appear  in  history  about  240  (Vopisc,  Vit. 


Map  of  Salic  and  other  Barbarian  Countries. 

Aurd.,  c.  7),  after  which  date  we  find  them  carrying  on 
an  almost  .uninterrupted  struggle  with  the  Roman  empire, 
till  486,  when  they  finally  established  a  kingdom  of  their 
own  in  provinces  which  had  previously  been  considered 
Roman.  The  Salian  Franks  first  appear  under  their  specific 
name  in  358,  when  they  had  penetrated  westwards  as  far 
as  Toxandria  (Texandria,  now  Tessenderloo,  in  Limburg, 
the  region  to  the  south  and  west  of  the  lower  Meuse), 
where  they  were  subdued  by  the  emperor  Julian  (Ammian., 
xvii.  8).  As  regards  their  previous  ^istory  nothing  is 
known  vrith  certainty,  though  it  seems  probable  that  the 
Franks  who  occupied  the  Batavian  island  c.  290,  and  were 
there  conquered  in  292  by  Constantius  Chlorus  {Paneg. 
incerti  autk.,  c.  4),  and  thence  transplanted  into  Gaul, 
were  the  Salian  Franks.     We  frd,  moreover,  such  un 


.SALIC      LAW 


213 


TnistakAble  evidence  of  a  connexion  between  the  Sigambri 
and  the  Salii'  that  the  latter  are  by  some  regarded  as  the 
descendants  of  the  Sigambri  whom  Tiberius  removed  in 
8  B.C.  from  their  home  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Eliine; 
and  it  is  argued  that  he  did  not  transform  them  into  the 
Gugerni,  nor  "place  them  on  the  Morwede,  a  stream  and 
locality  near  Dordrecht  and  Zwijndrecht,  but  transplanted 
them  into  the  region  now  called  the  Veluwe,  between  the 
Utrecht  Vccht  and  the  Eastern  Yssel,  where  the  Komans 
probably  made  of  them  what  the  Batari  Lad  been  for 
years  past — their  allies — perhaps  on  the  same  condition  as 
the  latter,  who  merely  furnished  the  Eomans  with  men 
and  arms.  This  accounts  for  the  Sigambrian  cohort  in 
|thc  Thmcian  War  in  26  a.d.  Some  think,  however,  that 
the  Salians  were  a  separate  tribe  of  the  Franks  who  merely 
coalesced  with  the  Sigambri  (comp.  Watterich,  Die  Ger- 
vianen  des  E/ieins;  AVaitz,  Verfass.,  ii.  24).  In  431  the 
Frankish  (Salic)  king  Chlodio  (Chlojo,  Chlogio),  said  to 
have  been  a  son  (or  the  father)  of  Merovech,  the  founder 
of  the  Merovingian  dynasty  (Greg.  Tur.,  ii.  9),  took  Cam- 
brai  and  advanced  his  dominion  as  far  as  the  Somme 
(Greg.,  ib. ;  Sid.  Apoll.,  v.  2\\sq.),  though  still  acknow- 
ledging Rf^man  supremacy.  Childerich  reigned  from  457 
to  481,  and  resided  at  Tournai,  where  his  grave  was  dis- 
covered in  1653.  His  son  Clovis  (Chlovis,  Chlodovech) 
in  486  extended  his  empire  to  the  Seine  (Greg.  Tur.,  ii. 
43,  27).  For  an  account  of  him,  see  vol.  ix.  pp.  528,  529. 
We  have  very  few  means  of  ascertaining  when  the 
Salic  Law  ^  was  compiled,  and  how  long  it  remained  in 
force.  Our  knowledge  of  the  code  is  derived — (i.)  from 
ten  texts,  preserved  in  a  comparatively  large  number  of 
manuscripts,  chiefly  WTitten  in  the  8th  and  9th  centuries ; 
(ii.)  from  allusions  to  a  Salic  Law  in  various  charters  and 
other  documents.  But  the  Latin  texts  do  not  contain  the 
original  Salic  Law.  This  is  clear  (a)  from  the  allusions 
wo  find  in  them  to  a  "Lex  Salica"  and  "Antiqua  Lex," 
which  can  hardly  be  anything  but  references  to  another 
and  earlier  Lex  Salica ;  (6)  from  a  certain  peculiarity  and 
awkwardness  in  the  construction  of  the  Latin,  which, 
though  it  is  so-called  Merovingian,  and  therefore  very 
corrupt,  would  have  been  different  if  the  texts  were  original 
compilations ;  (c)  from  a  number  of  words,  found  in  nearly 
every  paragraph  of  certain  groups  of  the  MSS.,  and  now 
'known  as  "  Malberg  glosses,"  which  are  evidently  the  re- 
mains of  a  vernacular  Salic  Law,  and  appear  to  have  been 
retained  in  the  Latin  versions,  in  some  cases  because  the 
|translators  seemed  doubtful  as  to  whether  their  Latin  terms 
correctly  rendered  the  meaning  of  the  original,  in  other 
cases  beaause  these  words  had  become  legal  terms,  and 
indicated  a  certain  fine.  We  do  not  know  whether  the 
original  Frankish  lawbook  was  ever  reduced  to  writing,  or 
merely  retained  in,  and  handed  down  to  jiosterity  from, 
the  memory  of  some  persons  charged  with  the  preservation 
of  the  law.  All  that  we  know  of  such  an  original  is  con- 
tained in  a  couple  of  prologues  (apparently  later  than  the 
texts  themselves)  found  in  certain  MSS.  of  the  existing 

'  "Detonsus  Vachnlim  [tlio  river  Waal]  bihat  Sirnmbcr"  (Siil. 
Apoll.,  Carm.f  xiii.  31).  "  Ut  Salina  jam  rura  colat  floxosr|ue  Sicainbri 
In  fftlrem  curvcnt  gladioj"  (Claudian,  De  Laude  Stilic.,  i.  222). 
According  to  the  Ocsta  Franc,  c.  1,  tho  Franks  at  ono  time  inhabited 
the  town  of  Sicambria.  Tho  earliest  Frankish  kings,  who  were 
nndoubtodly  kings  of  tho  Salian  Franks,  are  often  called  Sigambri, 
and  always  with  tho  object  of  honouring  them.  St  Remigiiis,  when 
he  baptized  Clovis,  exhorted  him,  "Mitis  dcpono  colla  Sicamber" 
(Greg.  Tur.,  ii.  31).  Venantiua,  Fortunatus  (vi.  4)  says  to  King  Chari- 
bert,  "Cum  sis  progenitus  clara  do  gento  Sygambcr."  For  further 
evidence,  comp.  Waitz,  Verfass.,  ii.  22  sq. 

"••.The  origin  of  the  name  Saliciis,  Saliua,  is  uncertain.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  it  was  derived  from  the  river  Yssel,  called  in  tho 
Middle  Ages  Isloa,  Ilisloa,  Isla,  Isela,  Isalia.  Tlio  region  about 
Devcnter,  in  the  cast  of  Holland,  is  still  called  Snlland,  lliougli  it  is 
nowhere  fzpressl^  said  that  the  Salians  Qvcr  lived  tlicru. 


Latin  versions.  One  of  them  states  that  four  iiaen  "  in 
villis  quae  ultra  Renura  sunt  per  trcs  mallos  (juclicial  as- 
semblies) coavenientes,  omnes  causarum  origines  soUicite 
discutiendo  tractantcs,  judicium  decreverunt,"  which  must 
refer  to  a  period  before  358,  as  in  that  year  the  Salian 
Franks  had  already  crossed  the  Rhine  and  occupied  the 
Batavian  island  and  Toxandria.  Another  prologue  says 
that  the  Salic  Law  was  compiled  {dktare)  while  the  Franks 
were  still  heathens  (therefore  before  496),  and  afterwards 
emended  by  Clovis,  Childebert,  and  Chlotar.  Nor  can  it 
be  stated  with  certainty  when  the  Latin  translations  which 
wo  now  possess  were  made,  but  it  mult  have  been  after 
Clovis  had  extended  his  power  as  far  as  the  Loire  (486-507), 
as  in  chapter  47  the  boundaries  of  the  Frankish  empire 
are  stated  to  be  the  Carbonaria  Silva  (in  southern  Belgium 
between  Tournai  and  Li^ge)  and  the  Loire.^ 

There  exist  five  Latin  recensions,  more  or  less  different.' 
(i.)  The  earliest  of  tho  code  (handed  down  in  four  MSS. 
with  little  difference,  and  very  likely  compiled  .shortly  after 
Clovis  extended  his  empire  to  the  Loire)  consists  of  sixty- 
five  chapters  (with  the  Malberg  glosses).  In  the  course 
of  the  6th  century  a  considerable  number  of  chapters 
appear  to  have  been  added  (under  the  title  of  "  edicts" 
or  "  decrees "),  some  of  which  are  ascribed  to  Clovis,  and 
the  remainder  to  his  successors  before  the  end  of  the  cen- 
tury. One  of  them  (chap.  78)  may  with  some  certainty  be 
a.scribed  to  Hilperic  (c.  574).  Some  others  seem  to  have 
originated  with  Childebert  I.  and  Chlotar  I.  (whose  joint 
reign  lasted  from  511  to  558),  and  are  known  collectively 
as  "Paotus  Childeberti  et  Chlotharii."  From  internal  evi- 
dence we  may  infer  that  this  fir.st  version  dates  from  a  time 
when  Christianity  had  not  yet  become  general  among  tho 
Franks,  (ii.)  Two  MSS.  contain  a  sc'^ond  recension,  having 
tlie  same  sixty-five  chapters  (with  the  Malberg  glosses)  as 
the  first,  but  with  numerous  interpolations  and  additions, 
which  point  to  a  later  period.  Especially  may  this  be  said 
of  the  paragraph  (in  chap.  13)  which  pronounces  fines  on 
marriage;!  between  near  relatives,  and  which  is  presumed 
to  have  been  embodied  in  the  Lex  Salica  from  an  edict  of 
Childebert  II.  i.s.sued  in  596.  In  chapter  55  paragraphs 
six  and  seven  speak  of  a  "  basilica,"  of  a  "  basilica  sancti- 
ficata,"  and  of  a  "basilica  iibi  requiescunt  reliquiie,"  but 
it  is  more  than  doubtful  whether  wo  have  here  any  evi- 
dences of  Christianity,  though  a  later  recension  (the  fourth) 
altered  "basilica"  into  "ecclesia,"  the  "rcliquiiu"  into 
"  reliquiaj  .sanctorum,"  and  thereby  gave  a  decidedly  Chris- 
tian a.spcct  to  tho  clause,  (iii.)  A  third  recension  is  con- 
tained in  a  group  of  nine  JISS.  (divided  into  two  classes), 
three  of  which  have  the  same  text  (with  the  Malberg 
glosses)  as  tho  MSS.  of  the  first  and  second  recensions, 
divided,  however,  systematically  into  ninety-nine  chapters, 
while  the  other  six  MSS.  have  the  same  ninety-nine 
chapters,  wth  very  little  difference,  but  without  tlie  Mal- 
berg glosses.  This  text  seems  to  have  been  arranged  in 
Pippin's  or  Charlemagne's  reign  (c  765-779).  The  clause 
on  marriages  between  near  relatives  mentioned  above  is 
not  found  in  this  recension.  On  tho  other  hand,  wo  find 
in  chapter  55  (  =  77)  fines  pronounced  on  tho  murder  of  a 
presbyter  and  deacon  (no  bishop  yet  mentioned),  while  tho 
six  MSS.  of  tho  second  class  do  not  contain  chapter  99 
("Do  Chrenccruda"),  but  merely  say  that  the  .symbolism 
described  in  that  chapter  had  been  observed  in  heathen 
times,  and  was  to  be  no  longer  in  force,  (iv.)  'riio  fourth 
version  (handed  down  in  a  great  number  of  MS.S.,  and 
embodying  in  seventy  chapters  substantially  tho  whole  ot 
the  previous  version;?)  is  usually  called  Lex  Siilica  Emriv- 
data,  as  tho  text  bears  traces  of  having  bocn  emended  (by 
Charlemagne),  which  operation  sc<-.ms  to  havo  consisted  in 


'  Sonic  explain  f.i-jrris  to  be  tlio  rivir  Li-ye,  n  branch  of  the  Scheldt, 
in  which  case  the  corapilatioD  would  fall  between  c.  4S3  and  486. 


214 


SALIC     LAW 


eliminating  the  Malberg  glosses  from  the  text,  correcting 
the  Latin,  omitting  a  certain  number  of  paragraphs,  and 
inserting  some  now  ones.  In  chapter  65  the  bishop  ia 
mentioned  with  the  presbyter  and  the  deacon,  (v.)  Finally, 
•we  have  a  fifth  text,  which  seems  an  amalgamation  of  the 
previous  recensions,  more  especially  of  the  second,  third, 
and  fourth,  but  here  and  there  with  considerable  differences. 
It  was  published  in  1557,  at  Basel,  by  Bas.  Joh.  Herold 
{Origimim  ac  Germanicai-um  Aniiquitaium  Libri) ;  but  no 
trace  of  the  Fulda  and  other  MSS.  which  the  editor  says 
that  he  used  has  hitherto  been  found. 

The  Salic  code  consists  of  enactments  regarding  procedure  in 
lawsuits  (chaps.  1,  18,  26,  37,  46-53,  56,  57,  60),  judicial  fines  and 
penalties  for  various  kinds  of  theft  and  kidnapping  (2-8,  10-12,  21- 
23,  27,  28,  33-35,  33-40,  65,  61),  for  offences,  injuries,  &c.,  to  per- 
sons, animals,  and  property  (9,  15-17,  19,  20.  24,  2.'>,  29-32,  36, 
41-43,  64,  65) ;  it  regulates  the  "wergeld"  (a  word  found  only  in 
the  text  published  by  Herold  ;  all  the  other  texts  have  leodis, 
lendis = people,  associate  of  the  people)  of  all  classes  of  persons  living 
viuder  the  Salic  Law  (41-43,  54,  63),  the  share  of  the  kindred  in 
the  composition  for  homicide  (58-62),  the  devolution  of  property 
and  inheritance  (59),  migration  from  one  village  to  another  (45),  &c. 

The  Salic  Law  speaks  of— ((j)  freebom  pra-sons  {ingenuits  Francois, 
Salicus  Francus),  with  a  wergeld  of  200  solidi,  which  was  tripled 
when  such  a  person  served  in  the  army,  atid  the  latter  amount  again 
tripled  when  the  person  killed  was  an  officer  of  the  king  ;  (J)  serfs 
{lai  or  Uti),  who  enjoyed  personal  freedom  though  belonging  to 
some  master,  and  (c)  pue,  i,  regis  (probably  serfs  in  the  service  of 
the  king),  both  with  a  wergeld  of  100  solidi ;  (d)  the  Roman  popu- 
lation, not  yefplaced  on  the  same  footing  with  the  Francus  {pos- 
««sor«  with  a  wergeld  of  100  solidi;  Iributarii,  perhaps  =  coto7iJ, 
with  a  wergeld  of  62  J  solidi) ;  (e)  slaves  {scrvi),  with  a  wergeld  of 
30  solidi ;  and  a  variety  of  otlier  persons  belonging  to  one  or  other 
of  these  classes  {pucr  crinilvi,  class  a  ;  porcdrius,  falcr  fenrrarius, 
aurifex,  &c.,  class  e).  An  aristocracy  is  not  mentioned.  The 
people  lived  together  in  villages  (chap.  45) :  they  exercised  agri- 
culture and  reared  cattle  (2-5,  27,  &c.) ;  they  hunted  and  fished 
(6,  33) ;  vineyards  and  gardens  were  known  to  them  (27,  6,  Ac.) ; 
and  gold  work  and  iron  work  are  mentioned  (10).  The  chief  of 
the  state  was  a  king  ;  his  officers  included  the  grajio,  who  was  chief 
of  a  pagus  (shire);  sacebaro,  chief  of  a  hundred  (both  with  a 
wergeld  of  600  solidi ;  the  latter  could  also  be  a  ptwr  regis,  in 
which  case  he  had  a  wergeld  of  300  solidi) ;  thunginus  or  centen- 
arius,  chief  of  a  hundred,  but  probably  elected  by  the  people  from 
among  themselves,  as  his  wergeld  seems  to  have  been  the  ordinary 
one.  The  j'udicial  assembly  was  called  rnallus,  the  place  where  it  as- 
sembled mallohcrg,  the  party  in  a  suit  gamalhis,  the  councillor  of  the 
assembly  rachincburgus,  an  officer  who  had  to  advise  upon  the  sen- 
tence to  be  pronounced,  and  to  value  the  property  in  question. 

The  famous  clause  in  the  Salic  Law  by  which,  it  is 
commonly  said,  women  are  precluded  from  succession  to 
the  throne,  and  which  alone  has  become  known  in  course 
of  time  as  the  Salic  Law,  is  the  fifth  paragraph  of  chapter 
b9  (with  the  rubric  "  De  Alodis  "),  in  which  the  succession 
to  private  property  is  regulated.  The  chapter  opens  with 
four  (five)  paragraphs  in  which  it  is  enacted  that — (1)  if 
a  man  died  without  male  issue,  his  mother  (so  in  first 
recension ;  the  second  to  fifth  have  "pater  aut  mater")  would 
succeed  to  the  inheritance  (in  hereditatem  succedat) ;  (2> 
failing  her  (the  father  and  mother),  his  brother  (brothers) 
or  sister  (sisters) ;  (3)  failing  these,  the  sister  of  the  mother; 
(4)  when  there  was  no  sister  of  the  mother,  the  sisters 
(sister)  of  the  father ;  and  (5),  failing  these,  the  nearest 
relative.    After  this  the  fifth  paragraph  reads  as  follows  : — 


First 
recension. 

De  terra  vero 
nulla  in  muli- 
cre  [portioaut] 
hereditas  Don 
pertinebit,  sed 
&d  virilero  eex- 
umqui  fpities 
foerint  tota 
terra  perti- 
neat. 


Second 
recension. 

De  terra 
vero  Salica 
in  muliere 
nulla  per- 
tinet  portio, 
edd  qui  tm- 
trea  fuerint, 
et  ad  virile 
sexn  tota 
terra  per- 
tineat. 


Tliird 
recension. 

De  terra 
vero  Salica 
nuUa  in  mu- 
liere heredi- 
tatis  transeat 
porcio,  sed  ad 
virilis  sexus 
tota  terra* 
proprietatis 
su%  possede- 
ant. 


Fourth 
recension. 

De  terra 
vero  Salica 
nulla  portio 
liereditatis 
mulieri 
veniat  sed 
ad  virilem 
sexum  tota 
terrsB  here- 
ditas per- 
venjat 


Fifth 
recension. 

De  terra  vero 
Salica,  in  mulie- 
rem  nulla  portio 
hsereditatis  trans- 
it, sed  hoc  virilis 
sexus  acquirit, 
hoc  est,  filii  in 
ipsa  hsereditate 
succedunt.  Sed 
nbi  inter  nepotes 
aut  pro  nepotes 
post  longom  tem- 
pus  de  alode  ter- 
rre  contentio  sus- 
citatur,  non  per 
stirpes  sp'l  per  ca- 
pitadividantur. 


i  Text  B  reads :  *'  proprietas  perveniat." 


It  seems  clear  that  the  first  four  paragraphs  of  the 
chapter,  which  admit  women  to  a  share  in  the  inheritance, 
refer  to  private,  movable  property,  and  that,  by  the  fifth 
paragraph,  the  inheritance  of  land  was  exclusively  confined 
to  males.  We  know  that  this  exclusion  of  women  from 
landed  property  was  hardly  a  rule  anjrWhere  in  the 
Frankish  empire,  and  certainly  not  in  the  6th  century, 
but  it  obtained  more  or  less  afterwards,  especially  during 
the  feudal  period,  when  all  the  owners  of  landed  property 
{i.e.,  the  tenants  of  fiefs)  were  liable  to  military  service.i 
We  do  not  know  when  this  exclusion  of  women  from 
landed  property  began  first  to  be  applied  and  extended  to 
an  exclusion  from  the  succession  of  thrones,  as  we  do  not 
read  of  such  a  notion  until  the  middle  of  the  14th  century 
during  the  controversy  between  Edward  in.  and  Phihp 
of  Valois,  when  it  was  alleged  to  be  derived  from  the 
Salic  Law.  It  wiU  be  obeerved  that  the  word  Salica  is 
not  found  in  the  oldest  existing  recension,  but  appears 
first  in  the  second  text,  which  some  would  ascribe  to  the 
end  of  the  6th  century.  Nor  is  the  word  found  in  the 
corresp'onding  paragraph  (56,4)  of  the  Lex  Ripuaria,  which 
was  based  on  the  Salic  Law.  This  addition  (retained  in 
all  the  other  recensions,  also  in  the  so-caUed  Lex  Emen- 
data)  was  no  doubt  made  for  some  purpose,  but  we  do  not 
know  whether  it  was  made  by  a  scribe,  nor  what  parti- 
cular notion  it  was  intended  to  convey,  nor  whether  it  was 
this  special  word  which  gave  rise  to  the  idea  of  women 
oeing  precluded  from  the  succession  of  thrones. 

The  various  texts  of  the  Lex  Salica,  arranged  in  parallel  columnai 
with  a  commentary  on  the  Slalberg  glosses,  were  published  in 
lESO,  under  the  title  Zkb  Salica:  the  Ten  Texts  with  the  Glosses, 
a-.id  the  Lex  Emmdata,  ed.  J.  H.  Hessels,  with  notes  on  the  Frankish 
words  in  the  Lex  Salica  by  H.  Kern,  4to,  Loudon,  1880  ;  romp, 
also  Geo.  Waitz,  Das  alte  Recht  der  salischen  Frankm,  8vo,  Kiel, 
1846  ;  Rud.  ?,a\an,DiefTanlc.Reichs-und.  Qerichis-Vrrfassung,  Svoy 
Weimar,  1871 ;  Pardessus,  Loi  Salique,  4to,  Paris,  1843. 

Having  treated  of  the  Salic  Law  somewhat  minutely, 
we  need  only  say  a  few  words  about  each  of  the  other 
leffes  barbarorum,  as  they  all  present  somewhat  similar 
features,  and  hardly  differ  except  in  the  time  of  their 
compilation,  the  amount  of  fines,  the  number  and  nature 
of  the  crimes,  the  number,  rank,  duties,  and  titles  of  the 
officers,  «tc. 

(2)  The  Ripuarian  Law,  or  Law  of  the  Ripuarian  Franks  {Lex 
Ripuaria  or  Riboaria,  L.  Ripuariorum  or  Ribuariorum,  L.  Ripu- 
aricnsis  or  Ribuariensis),  or  inhabitants  of  the  river-banks,  was 
in  force  among  the  East  or  Rhenish  Franks  in  the  Provincia 
Ribuaria,  also  called  Ducatus  or  Pagus  Ribuarius  (see  vol.  ix.  p. 
723),  of  which  Cologne  was  the  chief  town.  It  has  ranch  in 
common  with  tho  Salic  Law  ;  in  fact,  chapters  32-64  are,  with  the 
exception  of  some  necessary  modifications  and  additions,  merely  a 
repetition  of  the  corresponding  chapters  of  the  Salic  Law,  and  even 
follow  the  same  arrangement,  so  that  this  part  cf  the  code  is  hardly 
anything  but  the  Salic  Law  revised  by  order  of  the  kings  of 
Austrasia.  Professor  Sohm  (whose  edition,  published  in  1883  in 
Mm.  Germ.  Hist.,  Legg.,  vol.  v.  part  2,  is  based  on  neorly  forty 
JISS.,  written  between  the  8th  and  the  11th  century)  divides  tho 
eighty-nine  chapters  of  this  code  into  four  distinct  portions,  ascrib- 
ing the  first  portion  (chaps.  1-31),  which  contains  enactments  not 
met  with  in  the  Salic  Law,  to  the  first  part  of  the  6th  centur)',  the 
second  (chaps.  32-64)  to  the  second  part  of  the  same  century  [c. 
575),  the  third  (chaps.  65-79)  to  the  7th  century,  and  the  fourth 
(chaps.  80-89)  to  the  beginning  of  the  8th  century.  This  result 
practically  agrees  with  the  statements  found  in  a  prologue  in  certain 
MSS.  (which  contain  some  of  the  barbarian  codes),  where  it  is  said 
that  the  "Leges  Franconim  (  =  Lex  Ripuariorum),  Alamannorum, 
et  Bajuvariorum  "  were  compiled  at  Chalons-sur-JIarne  at  the  dicta- 
tion  of  Thierry  I.  (511-534),  by  wise  men  learned  in  the  law  of  his 
kingdom,  and  that  the  codes  were  afterwards  revised  and  amended 
by  Cluldebert  L,  CHotar  L,  and  Dagobert.  Charlemagne  promul- 
gated some  additional  chapters  to  the  Ripuarian  Law  in  803  {Jlfoti. 
Germ.  Hist.,  Legg.,  i.  117).  We  may  here  observe  that  the  Salic 
and  Ripuarian  Laws  were  to  some  extent  introduced  into  Englaml 
by  the  Norman  Conquest,  as  appears  from  the  Laws  of  Henry  I., 
where  we  find  enactments  "secundum  Legem  Salicara  "  and  "secun- 
dum Legem  Ripuariara";  comp.  Leg.  Hen.  L,  capp.  87,  §§  9,  10, 
11  (word  fnr  word  =  L.  Sa!.,  tit.  43),  89,  90  §  4  (  =  U  Rip.,  70), 
aud  83  §  5  ( =  L.  Sal.,  tit.  55  §  4). 


I 


SALIC     LAW 


215 


(3)  With  tlie  T?ipnai-;an  Law  the  Ux  Franeonim,  Chamamrum  is 
intimately  connected.  The  two  MSS.  in  which  it  is  preserved  caU 
ft  "  Notitia  Vel  commemoratio  de  ilia  cwa  (law)  quic  se  ad  Amorem 
habet."  Amor  is  the  district  called  Hamailant,  Hamalant,  Ham- 
melant,  Hainuland,  in  the  9th  centnry.  This  name  was  derived 
from  the  Chamavi,  a  German  state  mentioned  by  Tatitus  (ytnji., 
xiii.  55  :  Germ.,  c  33,  34),  which  afterwards  constituted  a  part  of 
the  Prankish  empire.  In  the  9th  century  Hamalant  was  a  part 
of  the  PaKUS  Ribuariomm.  The  whole  code  consists  of  only  lorty- 
eight  short  paragraphs,  which  are  apparently  nothm"  but  sUtc- 
mints  made  in  answer  to  the  ' '  missi  dominici  whom  Charlemagne 
despatched  to  the  various  nations  of  hU  empire  to  mquu-e  into  their 
condition  and  to  codify  their  respective  laws.  It  may  therefore 
be  ascribed  to  the  beginning  of  the  9th  century  (802  or  803). 
Professor  Sohm  has  publislied  it  as  an  appendix  to  the  Lex  Kipuaria 
(3fon.  Geniu  Hist.,  Legg.,  vol.  v.  part  2,  p.  269). 

(4)  The  Lex  Alamamionim  was  (according  to  the  prologue  men- 
tioned above)  Bret  comnUed  by  the  East-Prankish  king  Thieriy 
<511-534),  and  afterwards  improved  and  renewed  by  OliUaebert  1. 

511-558  Chlotar  I.  (558),  and  Dagobert  I.  (622-638).  Although 
not  much  reliance  can  be  placed  on  this  statement,  the  researches 
of  Professor  Mcrkel,  who  edited  the  code  from  forty -eight  Mbb. 
(Uon.  Germ.  Hist.,  Legg.,  vol.  iii.),  show  that  some  kind  of  code 
caUed  Pactus  (of  which  he  published  three  fragments)  was  com- 
pUed  for  the  Alamanni  in  the  reign  of  Chlotar  I.  (537-561).  Under 
Chlotar  II.  (613-622)  a  more  complete  code,  consisting  of  seventy- 
five  chapters,  ivas  compiled,  which  was  revised  nnaer  Dagobert 
(628)  and  augmented  with  chapters  76-97;  itJT,/?J''"/''r"^ 
and  augmented  under  the  Alamannio  duke  Landfrid  (d.  730),  whose 
work  Meikel  caUs  Lex  Alamannorum  Lantfndana,  and  tnally  aug- 
mented in  the  CaroUngian  period  (hence  called  Lex  AlaiHannorunx 
KaroUna  sivc  re/onnata),  perhaps  early  in  the  9th  century,  the 
code  consists  of  97  (in  some  MSS.  98,  99,  105,  and  107)  chapters. 

(5)  The  Lex  Bajuvarioram,  or  Pactus  Bawarorum,  had  the  same 
ori<nn  as  the  Lex  Alamannorum,  if  wc  accept  the  somewhat  un- 
rel^ble  statement  of  the  prologue  spoken  of  above.  It  seems 
probable  that  some  kind  of  code  was  compiled  for  the  Bavarians 
during  the  reigns  of  Clo\Hs's  sons.  Those  paragraphs  which  treat 
of  ecclesiastical  affairs  and  the  position  of  the  Bavarian  dukes  to- 
wards the  Prankish  kings  (tit  iL  chap.  x?:.  §  3)_  have  clearly  been 
inserted  in  Dagobert's  time,  if  not  later.  There  is  a  great  similarity 
between  certam  provisions  of  the  Bavarian  and  the  Aiamaanic 
codes,  and  also  some  paragraphs  of  the  former  have  been  derived 
from  the  earliest-  recension  of  the  Lex  Wisigothorum.  Some  addi- 
tions were  made  by  Duke  Thassilo  II.  (763-7(5),  -ome  by  Charle- 
magne (803),  some  by  King  Louis  (c.  906)  and,  finally,  some  by 
Dale  Henry  II.  (end  of  10th  century).  The  emperor  Henry  IIL 
is  aUeged  to  have  granted  the  law  of  the  Bivanans  to  the  Hunga- 
rians in  1044.  It  consists  of  twenty-one  chapters,  each  containing 
several  paragraphs.  Professor  Merkcl  distinguishes  three  different 
recensions  of  the  code  and  various  additions,  which  he  edited  in 
1863  from  thirty-five  JISS.  for  the  Mon.  Germ.  Mist.,  Legg.,  m. 
■p.  183  sq.  ,    .  _,- 

(6)  For  the  Lex  Frisionum,  see  vol.  ir.  p.  7»».        _ 

(7)  TheLcxAngliorumct  Werinorum,  hoc  est,  T/mrtnjonmi,  con- 
sists of  seventeen  chapters.  Early  editions  of  this  code  contained 
some  legal  decisions  identical  with  those  of  Judge  Wlemarus  m 
the  appendix  to  the  Lex  Frisionum  (L.  Angl.  Jud.  Wlem  1,  2,  6, 
7  =  L  Fris  22,  §§  54,  55,  86  ;  Addit.,  i.  18),  from  which  circum- 
stance it  was  inferred  that  the  compUation,  or  at  least  the  revision 
of  both  codes  took  place  at  one  and  the  samo  time  (802.803).  But 
Richthofen,  who  edited  the  work  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.  (Legg., 
V.  p.  103),  and  who  rejects  these  legal  decisionsof  Wlemarus  a"  not 
belonging  to  this  code'  at  all,  is  of  opinion  (p.  115)  tliat  the  code 
Tvas  not  written  even  at  the  end  of  the  9th  century.  Opinions  have 
differed  also  as  to  the  region  where  the  law  onginated  Some 
ascribe  it  to  the  AngU  and  Werini,  who  inhabited  the  Holstein  and 
fichleswig  regions ;  others  attribute  it  to  Thunngia  proper ;  and 
in  more  Mcent  times  it  haa  been'  ascribed  to  Thunngia  on  tho  left 
bank  of  the  RhiiiO  (  =  South  Holland,  Brabant,  &c.)  It  was  also 
argued  that  the  code  mu.?t  have  originated  in  a  repou  where  Frisian 
and  Prankish  elements  had  become  mUed,  both  inlanguage  and 

larv.  and  where  the  Frankish  preponderated.  That  the  code 
..vinated  in  South  Holland  was  inferred  from  its  agreement  in 
somrrespects  ^vith  tho  Lex  Chamavorum,  which  onginated  lu  tho 
r-gion  0^  tho  lower  Kliino  and  the  Yssel.  And  the  law  may  have 
come  to  be  in  force  among  tho  allied  tribes  on  the  E  be  in  northern 
Thuringia,  even  though  it  originated  in  houth  Holland  If  it 
originated  in  Thuringia,  it  must  have  been  transplanted  to  the 
Holstein  and  Schleswig  regions;  and  it  was  used  by  tho  Uanes, 
as  is  clear  from  Canut-5  bringing  it  over  to  Ln-hiid  when  ho  con- 
quered tho  country  in  1013.'  But  in  England  the  code  was 
simply  called  "  Lex  AVcrinorum,  h.e..  Thuriugorum,  but  do  longer 
"  A^glotum,"  u  the  Danes  called  the  whole  Anglo-Saxon  po|.ula- 


tion  which  they  had  conquered  ■' Angli,"  and  the  law  which  they 
found  in  force  "  Lex  Anglorum  "  (Legg.  Edw.  Conf ,  c.  30).  Hence 
it  has  been  concluded  that  what  was  called  in  England  Lex  Danorum 
is  nothing  but  the  Lex  ^'erinorum.  When  the  Normans  conquered 
England  in  1066  they  m.od  Twwnij«d  th»t  thbi  I*«  IHnorum  »nd 
the  Law  of  the  Norwegbns  (Lex  N'oricorum  or  >oiwegensiuml,  who 
had  migraUd  to  Enghind  in  earlier  times,  were  practically  one  and 
the  same.  Hence  WilUam  I.,  declaring  that  the  population  which 
he  had  brought  over  with  him  from  Normandy  were  also  originally 


homlnls  racdiocris,  quod  Bccundnm  Legem  WcrlD  i.e.,  TliurlnKomm  I-  u 

AukU  and  Werln.,  I.  21  est  200  soUdorum. 


lie  naa  orougut  over  «ii,u  uiui  nwwi  ^.■,v^u..^.>^j  ..v..., ^  °  \ — 

Norwegians,  resolved  to  abrogate  the  An^lo-Saxon  laws  and  to  leave 
only  tha£  of  the  Danes  in  force  (Legg.  tdw.  Conf.,  c.  80),— a  plan 
which  only  the  most  persevering  entreaties  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
barons  could  induce  him  to  abandon.  The  latest  edition  of  this 
code  (1875)  is  by  K.  F.  von  Richthofen,  who  is  decidedly  against 
the  South  Holland  origia  of  the  kw. 

(8)  Tho  Lex  Saxonum  consists  of  nineteen  chapters  or  sixty-six 
articles  or  paragraphs,  and  appears  to  be  composed  of  three  essential 
parts,  the  oldest  of  which  (arts.  1-23)  seems  to  have  existed  before 
the  later  additions  known  as  the  Capitulare  Paderborneuse  (do 
partibus  Saxonia;)  of  785  {or  777)  and  the  Capitulare  Saxonicum 
of  797  (in  which  a  "Lex  Saxonum"  and  "  Ewa  Saxonum  are 
referred  to ;  comp.  chaps.  33  and  7,  8,  10) ;  the  second  part  (arts. 
24-60)  must  have  been  compiled  after  that  date ;  and  the  third 
(arts  61-66)  was  probably  added  in  798,  when  Charlemagne  had 
removed  a  part  of  the  Saxon  nobility  as  hostages  from  their  own 
country  ;  vAd\e  the  whole  was  united  into  one  code  at  the  diet  ot 
Abc-la-Chapelle  in  802-303  (Merkel,  Lex  Saxonum,  Bcriin,  1853). 
The  enactments  of  this  code  are  far  more  severe  than  those  of  any 
other  of  the  barbarian  laws,  and  it  often  inflicts  capital  punish- 
ment  for  crimes  which  the  other  laws  punish  with  mere  pecuniary 
fines  as,  for  instance,  theft  and  incendiarism.  This  rigour  Charle- 
magne softened  by  reserving  to  himself  the  right  of  asylum  and 
pardon,  but  it  was  expressly  retained  and  gi-anted  anew  by  Conrad 
IL  (1024-1039).  The  code  was  edited  in  1875  by  V  on  Richthofen 
in  jl/on   Germ  S'u/,  Legg.,  V   p   1«7. 

(9)  The  Leges  Anglo-Saxonum  are  for  a  great  part  mitten  m 
Anclo-Saxon,  and  as  such  may  be  reckoned  among  the  most  ancient 
monuments  of  the  Teutonic  language.     They  appeared  mostly  in 
the  form  of  constitutions  promulgated  by  tne  vaiious' kings  (some- 
what like  the  Frankish  capitularies),  with  the  co-operation  of  an 
assembly  of  leading  men  ("sapientes,"  Beda,  ff.  E.,  ii.  5),  and  fre- 
queritly  also  of  the  clergy  (,coiiciliu.m,  synidns)      They  may  bt 
divided  into  two  classes,— secuiar  and  eccletuistical  laws,     bome-, 
times  they  are  mere  judicial  sentences  (d/hn)  or  treaties  of  p«ace 
( friS)     The  earliest  laws  we  have  are  those  of  .Sthelbert,  king  of 
Kentic  561);  then  follow  those  of  HlocJliaer  (c.  678)  and  Eadno 
(c.  685),   Wihtraed  (c  691),  Ine  (after  688),   -Elfred  (after  871  , 
Eadward  (after  901),  /Ethelstau  ^after  924),  Eadmund  (after  941), 
I  Edgar  (after  959),  ^thelred  II.  (after  978),  the  Danish  Canute 
(after  1017),  WiUiam  the  Conqueror  (after  1066).      Then   foUow 
'  two  collections  of  laws,  the  so-called  "  Leges  Edwardi  Coiifessoris 
and  "Leges  Henrici  I.,"  which,  drawing  from  tho  Anglo-Saxon 
Law    represent  the  modilicatious  which  had  been  made  in  the 
earliest  laws  during  tho  Norman  period,  and  the  i:Uro<luction  of 
new  elements  derived  from  the  Salic  and  Ripuarian  i^ws.    Besulcs 
these  there  are  ^  jrood  many  canons  and  other  ccclesi3,ti>'al  ordi- 
nances enacted  nuJer  tho  archbishops  Theodore  and  Lcgbertand 
King  Edgar,  &c.  ;  comp.  Engia>1).  voL  viu.  pp.  286,  30.i.     There 
is  an  editiou  ul   th»».  ia»»  b>   iJ.  Thorpe  (lol.     London    IMOl 
another  by  Dr  Reinh.  Schmid  (.Die  Gesctze  der  Angel- Scuhscn,  2d 
ei,  8vo,  Leipsic,  1858).  .      „  ,.  .  n .  „, 

(10)  The  compilation  of  the  Lex  Surgmidumum  is  usually  as- 
cribed to  Gundobald  (d.  516),  whence  it  is  also  called  i<:x  Gundo- 
bada  (corrupted  Gmiibala,  Fr.  Loi  Gomhelle).     It  consists,  according 
to  its  first  prologue,  of  l  collection  of  constitrtions  enacted  partly 
by  the  earlier  kiSgs  of  Burgundy,  partly  by  Gundoba  d,  «"'!  revised 
by  a  general  Burgundiau  diet     (fh.s  agrees  with  tho  statements 
contained  in  its  second  prologue,  which  itself  may  bo  legarded^ 
an  independent  constitution  or  edict  to  tho  counts  and  jmlgos  re- 
garding the  introduction  of  the  law.     In  the  rubric  which  it  l>ca™ 
in  thellSS.  it  is  said  that  it  was  nroniulgated  at  Lyo:..  on    9th 
March  in  tho"  second  year  of  GiinUald  (some  MbS.  >";1  S'Sis- 
muDd)      A»  the  year  ol  OundoUulds  accession  is  supposed  to  bo 
465      ko  promulgation  must  have  taken  place  ui  46  .  or    if  wo 
^Jme  that  *l.e  year  is  meant  in  which  Gundobald    «an  e  so  o 
kin"  of  Burgundy  (478),  the  date  of  the  law  would  bo  ISO.  whilo  it 
t^uld  bo  617  S  Tadopt  tho  reading  "SigLsmund  "  of  some  of  tho 
MSS      But  as  tho  law'in  it3  present  state  <•""'-,'»  f.'Xole^s  a 
of  Gundobald  and  of  Sigisnumd  wc  c;.u  onlv  r-ffl'J     '«•«''"'«  »J^ 
compilation  clVected  by  the  Utter.     In  early  <■".■;»»  l^"  ^«  l^ 
divided  into  ci"htv-nine  cliaplers,  with  two  ndditamenta,    lu  nrst 
0   w  hich  con  is-t  ng  of  twenty  chapters)  was  as-iibed  to  S.gisraund 
?he.econd°of  thirteen  chapters)  to  his  ''^V;"  ""\»"'7'i'5:,v\^' 
last  king  of  the  UurgundiaiiH.  Godoman     But  Professor  Bluhmo 
Mio  P.^Ushe3  the  hw  in  18C.1,  in  Mo„.  6Vn,..  i/"/-.  Legg  .  ill. 
49n  pCes  chap.  L  (Do  causis  itiueril.us  et  ..His  servituUbus    and 
S  ,^^x   (Do^  boraU  causa)  of  tho  Urst  uddiUmcntum  as  ch.l«. 


216 


SALIC     LAW 


xviL  and  xliv.  in  "Papianus"  ;  clar.  xx.  as  ctap.  cvi.  (extrava- 
gant) and  its  remJiining  chapters  as  chapters  Ixxxix.  to  cr.  The 
second  additamentum  is  placed  as  chap,  crii.,  the  old  chap.  Ixxxix. 
k3  chap,  cviii,  and  a  new  chapter  cix.  (a  decree  of  Sigismund  "  De 
coUectis  "  of  516)  added.  It  was  Gundobald's  intention  that  his 
law  should  decide  all  cases  between  Bmgundians  and  between  them 
and  Bomans  ;  in  all  other  cases  the  latter  would  only  use  Koman 
law  (comp.  second  preface),  of  which  the  Lex  Burgundionum  con- 
tains  many  traces,  and  even  the  Burgundians  were  allowed  to  use 
Eoman  law  (comp.  L.  Burg.,  titt.  43,  60,  65  §  2).  The  Latinity  of 
the  Burgundian  Law  is  purer  than  that  of  all  the  preceding  bar- 
barian codes,  and  we  find  in  it  a  distinct  tendency  to  treat  Romans 
with  greater  leniency  and  to  make  them  equal  to  the  Burgimdians 
in  the  eye  of  the  law.  Through  Gundobald's  political  relations 
with  Alaric  IL,  the  Lex  Burgundionum  influenced  the  West-Gothic 
legislation,  of  which  traces  are  found  in  the  Lex  Wisigothorum  and 
the  interpretatio  to  Alaric's  Breviarium.  Charlemagne  C'-°™ul- 
gated  in  813  a  Capitulare  Aquisgranum  {Uon.,  Legg.,  i.  817)  re- 
cardincT  the  Lex  Burgundionum,  though  the  text  was  not  altered. 
Agoba?t,  bishop  of  Lyons,  complained  to  Louis  the  Pious  respecting 
certain  abuses  caused  by  the  Burgundiau  Law  (Bouquet,  vi.  356), 
but  no  remedy  was  efl-ected.  On  the  other  hand,  towards  the  end 
of  the  9th  century  the  law  had  gradually  fallen  into  disuse  like  all 
the  other  barbarian  laws,  though  it  is  said  that  the  emperor  Conrad 
II  revived  and  confirmed  it.  See,  besides  Professor  Bluhmes 
edition,  Hube,  Mist,  de  la  formation  de  la  loi  Bmrguignonne, 

Paris,  1867.  .     ,      .„  ,.  ,     w  -u  j 

(10a)  In  the  second  preface  to  the  Lex  Burgundionum  (published 
in  502)  the  Roman  subjects  of  the  Burgundian  king  were  promised 
a  codification  of  their  own  laws.  This  work  appears  to  have  been 
promptly  executed  aud  was  published  under  the  title  Lex  Somana 
JiuTgundionum,  perhaps  before  the  compilation  of  the  Breviarium 
Alarici  (506).  This  collection  is  also  known  as  Papianus,  of  which 
name  (found  already  in  MSS.  of  the  9th  century)  no  satisfactory 
explanation  has  hitherto  been  offered,  some,  perhaps  wrongly,  sup- 
posing that  it  is  a  corruption  of  the  name  of  Papinianus,  the  Reman 
jurist.  It  was  published  by  Professor  Bluhme  as  an  appendix  to 
the  Lex  Burgundionum  {Hon.  Germ.  Hist.,  Legg.,  iiL  p.  579). 

(11)  As  regards  the  Lex  Wisigothorum  (also  called  Forum  Judi- 
cum,  Judicum  Liber,  Forum  Judiciale,  kc),  we  know  with  certainty 
from  Isidore  of  Seville  (Hist.  Goth.  Hisp.,  504)  that  Euric  (466-483) 
■was  the  first  Gothic  king  who  gave  written  laws  to  the  West  Goths. 
It  would  therefore  be  erroneous  to  ascribe  (with  Mariana,  Hist,  de 
Espana,  v.  6)  their  first  written  laws  to  Euric's  son,  Alaric  II., 
though  it  seems  probable  that  the  latter,  by  adding  his  own  laws 
to  those  of  his  father,  was  reaUy  the  first  author  of  a  "West-Gothic 
codification.     Isidore  refers  to  the  collection  of  laws  (as  it  had  been 
preserved  up  to  the  end  of  the  5th  and  the  beginning  of  the  6th 
century)  as  the  Laws  of  Euric,  though  we  must  assume  that  the 
statutes  of  the  kings  who  succeeded  Euric  had  already  been  added 
to  his  collection.     Isidore  also  tells  ns  (Hist.  Goth.  Hisp.,  606-624) 
that  Leovigild  (d.    586)  revised  Euric's  Laws.      As  Isidore  was 
bishop  of  Seville  from  599  to  636,  and  may  therefore  be  said  to 
Jiave  been  a  contemporary  of  Leovigild,  lus  testimony  may  be 
^ccSpted  as  conclusive,  though  a  much  later  but  untrustworthy 
tradition  would  have  it  that  the  revision  was  executed  by  Leovi- 
cild's  son,  Eeccared  I.  (the  first  Catholic  king  of  the  Goths),  who 
died  in  601,  whereby  the  whole  population  of  Spain  was  equalized 
In  point  of  law.      According  to  Spanish  traditions  of  the  12th 
century,  the  West-Gothic  collection  of  laws  was  again  revised, 
onder  Sisenand,  by  the  fourth  council  of  Toledo  (633),  a  revision 
on  which  Isidore  seems  to  have  exercised  some  influence.     It  is  un- 
:ertain,  however,  whether  the  code  was  then  systematically  arranged 
and  divided  into  t^velve  books,  as  we  now  have  it,  or  whether  this 
was  done  under  Chindaswinth  (d.  652)  or  under  liis  son  Receswinth 
(d.  672).     The  several  books  of  the  code  are  divided  (in  imitation 
of  the  codes  of  Theodosius  and  Justinianus)  into  tituli,  and  those 
again  into  chapters  or  constitutions.     From  Leovigild  down  to 
Egica  (d.  701)  and  his  son  and  coregent  Witiza  (d.  c  701,  the  last 
king  of  the  Goths  before  the  invasion  of  this  Moors)  every  constitu- 
tion bears  the  name  of  the  king  who  promulgated  it,  while  those 
dating  from  before  Leovigild  have  the  word  "antiqua"  prefixed 
to  them  instead  of  the  name  of  a  king.     This  designation  is  said 
to  have  been  commenced  by  Erwig  (680-687),  who  thereby  wished 
to  prevent  the  clergy  from  claiming  the  code  as  their  work.    Of  the 
texts  which  existed  before  the  fourth  councU  of  Toledo  only  one 
small  fragment  has  come  down  to  us,  in  a  palimpsest  preserved  in 
the  Paris  National  Library  (No.  1278).     Some  regard  this  as  the 
remainder  of  the  supposed  recension  of  Reccared  I.  ;  others  regard 
it  as  a  fragment  of  the  Laws  of  Euric,  though  it  could  in  no  case 
be  the  Laws  of  Euric  themselves,  but  ad  most  their  codification  by 
Alaric  II.     The  fragment  was  known  to  the  Benedictines  (No^Cv. 
TraiU  de  Diplom.,  i.  483,  iii.  52,  152,  note  1),  aud  was  published 
in  1847  by  Professor  Bluhme  (Die   Westgoth.  Antiqua  oder  das 
Gesetzbuch  Beccared's  /.,  Halle).     The  text  is  undoubtedly  older 
than  those  enactments  which  we  find  designated  as  "  anriqua,"  so 
that  it  could  hardly  be  placed  later  than  the  commencement  of  the 


6th  century,  i.e.,  shortly  after  the  compilation  of  the  Breviarium 
Alarici  (506).  Hence  the  text  called  "antiqua"  may  be  regarded 
as  a  modification  of  that  of  the  Paris  palimpsest,  and  was  probably 
not  made  before  the  end  of  the  6th  or  the  beginning  of  the  7th 
centuiy.  Roman  law,  which  is  so  conspicuous  in  the  later  text, 
may  already  be  traced  in  that  of  the  palimpsest  (taken  from  the 
Breviarium  Alarici),  and  also  in  the  "antiqua"  constitutions,  in 
which  we  find  even  traces  of  Justinian's  law.  The  Lex  Wisi- 
gothorum (the  first  code  in  which  Roman  law  and  Teutonic  law  were 
systematicaUy  combined)  was  no  doubt  regarded,  after  Leovigild 
and  Reccared  I.,  as  a  code  for  the  Goths  as  well  as  for  the  Romans, 
without  abolishing  the  Breviarium  among  the  Romans.  But  King 
Chindaswinth  ordained  that  the  Lex  Wisigothorum  shonid  ba  the 
sole  code  for  both  nations,  prohibiting  at  the  same  time  the  use  of 
the  Roman  law,  thereby  materially  promoting  the  amalgamation  of 
the  two  nations.  It  remained  in  force  in  Spain  throughout  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  was  translated  into  Spanish  (Castilian)  under 
Ferdinand  III.  (1229-1234,  or  1241)  under  the  title  Fuero  Juzgo, 
or  Fuero  de  Cordova. 

Editions  :  (1)  Fvcro  Jud^go  en  Latin  e  Castellano  coUjado  con  los  mas  aniigms 
y  precicsos  Codices  Jior  la  Kml  Academia,  Espanola,  lladriii,  1815,  fol. ;  (2)  ia 
Poriugalix  ilcmumenia  Hislorica,  vol.  i.,  Lisbon,  lSo6,  fol. 

(11a)  Here  also  we  may  mention  a  Lex  Eomana  compiled  for  the 
Roman  population,  just  as  in  Burgundy.  It  is  also  known  as  Liber 
Legum,  Liber  Legum  Romanorum,  and  as  Lex  Theodosii  or  Corpus 
Theodosianum.  It  received  the  latter  name  because  thr  Codex 
Theodosianus  served  as  its  basis.  It  includes  also  excerpts  from 
novelise  of  Theodosius,  Valentinian,  Mercian,  Majorian,  Severus, 
and  from  the  Lnstitutiones  of  Gains,  the  Sententiw  of  Paulus,  the 
Codices  Gregorian-its  and  Hermogcnianus,  Sec.  In  a  MS.  of  the  10th 
century  it  is  called  Breviarium,  and  the  title  Breviarium  Alarici  or 
Alaricianum  has  become  general  since  the  16th  century.  The  com- 
pilers of  the  Breviarium  are  not  known,  but  it  was  published  in 
the  twenty-second  year  of  Alaric  II.,  i.e.,  on  5th  February  506,  at 
Aire'  (Atures)  in  Gascony.  It  was  also  used  in  other  western  pro- 
vinces of  the  Roman  empire,  and  was  imitated,  excerpted,  and 
altered  in  other  places.  One  recension,  probably  datmg  from  the 
9th  century,  is  kno\ni  (from  the  place  where  the  MS.  was  found) 
as  the  Lex  Eomana  Utinensis.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  G. 
Haenel,  Lex  Romana  Wisigothorum,  Berlin,  1847. 

(lib)  We  have  also  a  code  for  the  Eastern  Goths  compiled  by 
command  of  Theodoric  after  506,  but  before  526,  and  known  as 
Edictum  Theodorici.  It  consists  of  155  chapters  (with  a  few  addi- 
tions), which  are  in  reality  an  epitome  of  Roman  law.  It  was 
pubUshed  in  1875,  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.,  Legg.,  v.  d.  145  sq.,  ed. 
by  Professor  Bluhme.,  _  ..  ^      ,      ,-    i       •- 

(12)  Leges  Langobardorum.— The  first  trace  of  Lorabardic  law  is 
an  edict  of  Rothar,  consisting  of  388  chapters,  and  promulgated  at 
a  diet  held  at  Pavia  on  22d  November  643.  This  was  followed  by 
laws  of  Grimoald  (668),  nine  chapters;  Liutprand  (a3-735),  su 
books  ;  Eatchis  (746),  nine  chapters  ;  Aistulphus  (c.  7!.5),  tourteett 
chapters.  Additions  were  also  made  by  Charlemagne  and  his 
successors  down  to  Lothair  II.  In  the  manuscripts  the  texts  are 
arranged,  some  in  a  chronological,  some  in  a  systematical  order. 
The  latter  arrangement  is  already  found  in  a  MS.  of  the  9th  centur)-. 
The  systematic  collection,  which  was  used  chiefly  in  Bologna  at 
lectures  and  for  quotations  and  was  known  as  Lomiarda  (Liber 
Langobardm  s.  Lombardee),  appears  to  have  been  made  m  the  litb 
century.  The  text  as  it  exists  at  present  is  very  corrupt,  as  a 
number  of  glosses  (some  of  great  anriquity)  and  formulae,  added 
in  the  first  instance  by  those  who  had  to  use  the  code  to  explain 
certain  enactments  of  the  law,  afterwards  found  their  way  into  the 
text.  Towards  the  end  of  the  12th  and  down  to  the  beginning  ol 
the  16th  century  various  glosses  and  commenUries  on  the  Lom- 
bardse  made  their  appearance.  The  first  commentaries  were  those 
of  Ariprand  and  of  Albertus  (second  half  of  12th  century).  The 
later  commentators  (Carolus  de  Tocco,  e.  1200  ;  Andreas  of  Barulo 
c  1230  :  Blasius  de  Morcone  of  Naples,  before  1333  ;  Bobenus  and 
Johannes  Nenna  of  Eari,  c.  1540)  refer  frequently  to  Roman  law 
Of  the  Edictum  Rotharis  a  Greek  translation  was-made,  ot  w_hich 
only  fragments  have  been  preserved  (comp.  C.  E.  /achana,  ±rag- 
mcnta  versionis  Grxex  Legum  Rotharis,  Langob.  regis,  ex.  cod. 
Paris.  Grac,  No.  1348,  Heidelberg,  1835). 

Editions  ■  m  C.  Baudus  a  Vesme,  Edicta  regum  LangolaTdorum,  Tunn,  I8o5, 
renrintedlV  J    P  Neigebaiir,  Munich,  1855,  1856  ;  (2)  Mon.  Cenn.i/u(.,  Legg. 
1^^(1868)   by  VredrBluim.  and  Alfr.  Boretius ;  (3),Fr-,,Bli,hn.e    .Ed.cli:s 
ccu?£!^}LLl,oZd^ram  leges,  Hanover,  1870;  comp.  Merkel.  Gesch,chu  des 
Lombardenrechts,  Berlin,  1850.  ....        ^ 

(13)  The  Leges  Wallix  do  not  belong  to  the  Teutomc  femily  of 
codes  ;  but  it  is  not  out  of  place  to  mention  them  her,^  There  is 
compiatively  speaking,  no  great  distance  of  tim^  ^'*™r'^,Tr 
lege!  barbarorum  and  the  Laws  of  Wales,  "l^^.''  t^^"  5°°^'"'^,  "^ 
the  latter  show  a  simUar,  nay  almost  the  same,  idea  of  law  as  the 
former  ;  and,  apart  from  the  fact  that  Wales  became  permanently 
connected  at  the  end  of  the  13th  century  with  a  Teutonic  people 
the  A^glo-Saxons,  it  has  been  noticed  that  in  ^^  ales  Roman  and 
Germanic,  but  no  traces  of  a  specific  Welsh,  law  are  found.  King 
Howel  Pda  (i.e.,  the  Good),  who  died  in  948,  is  the  originator  of 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


217 


tbe  'Welsli  code.'  In  the  preface  it  is  stated  that  Howel,  "seeing 
the  laws  and  custoins  of  the  country  violated  with  impunity,  sum- 
moned the  archbishop  Menevia,  other  bishops  and  the  chief  of  the 
clergy,  the  nobles  of  Wales,  and  six  persons  (four  laymen  and  two 
clerks)  from  each  comot,  to  meet  at  a  place  called  Y  Ty  Gwyn  ar 
Dav,  or  the  white  house  on  the  riycr  Tav,  repaired  thither  in  person, 
selected  from  the  whole  assembly  twelve  of  the  njost  experienced 
persons,  added  to  their  number  a  clerk  or  doctor  of  laws,  named 
Bllgj'wryd,  and  to  these  thirteen  confided  the  task  of  examining, 
retaining,  expounding,  and  abrogating.  Their  compilation  was, 
when  completed,  read  to  the  assembly,  and,  after  having  been  con- 
firmed, proclaimed.  Howel  caused  three  copies  of  them  to  be 
written,  one  of  which  was  to  accompany  the  court  for  daily  use, 
another  was  deposited  in  the  court  at  Aberfraw,  and  a  third  at 
Dinevwr.  Tlie  bishops  denounced  sentence  of  excommunication 
against  all  transgi'cssors,  and  soon  after  Howel  himself  went  to 
Rome  attended  by  the  archbishop  of  St  David's,  the  bishops  of 
Bangor  and  St  Asaph,  and  thirteen  other  personages.  The  laws 
were  recited  before  the  pope  and  confirmed  by  his  authority,  upon 
which  Howel  and  his  companions  returned  home."  All  this  could 
not  have  been  effected  before  Howel  had  subjected  Wales  to  his 
own  rule,  therefore  not  before  943.  We  have  three  different  recen- 
sions of  the  code,  one  for  Venedotia  or  North  V/ales,  another  for 
Dimetia  or  South  Wales,  a  third  for  Gwent  or  North-East  Wales. 
We  do  not  know  how  far  these  recensions  were  uniform  in  the 
beginning ;  but  a  variance  must  have  occurred  shortly  after,  for 
the  manuscripts  in  which  the  codes  are  preserved  differ  greatly 
from  each  other.  The  code  was  originally  compiled  in  Welsh,  but 
we  have  no  older  MSS.  than  the  12th  century,  and  even  the 
earliest  ones  jespecially  those  of  the  Venedotia  recension)  contain 
many  interpolations.  The  Latin  translations  of  the  code  would 
seem  to  be  very  old,  though  even  here  we  have  no  earlier  JISS. 
(belonging  to  the  Dimetia  recension)  than  the  13th  century.  The 
Latin  text  is  much  shorter  than  the  Welsh,  but  we  do  not  know 
whether  this  abridgment  was  made  on  purpose,  or  whether  the 
translation  is  an  imitation  of  an  earlier  text.  The  texts  present 
only  a  few  traces  of  Roman  law,  which,  however,  are  evidently 
additions  of  a  later  period.  The  whole  body  of  Welsh  laws  was 
published  in  one  volume  by  An.  Owen  under  the  direction  of  the 
commissioners  on  the  public  records  (fol.,  Loudon,  1S41). 

For  Airther  inlormation  on  the  barbarian  coJes,  see  Heinr.  Zoepfl,  Deutsche 
liechUgeschichte,  8vo,  Bruns^vick,  18G0,  vol.  i.  p.  8  s?.,  wliose  clear  and  able 
treatment  of  the  subject  has  been  taken  as  the  basis  of  paragraphs  4-13  above  ; 
comp.  also  Stobbe,  Cachlchle  der  deutsdietj,  JUchUq'idient  8vo,  Brunswick, 
ISOO.  (J.  H.  H.) 

SALICYLIC  ACID,  an  organic  acid  found  in  nature, 
iiv  the  free  state,  in  the  flowers  of  the  meadow-sweet 
{Spirxa  Ulmaria,  L.)  and,  combined  with  methylic  ether, 
in  the  leaves  of  the  wintergreen  (Gaultheria  jjrocumbens, 
L.)  and  Andromeda  Leschenaultii,  in  the  bark  of  the 
sweet  birch  (Betxda,  lenta,  L.),  and  in  several  species  of 
Viola.  It  was  discovered  in  1838  by  Piria,  who  prepared 
it  artificially  by  the  decomposition  of  Salicin  (q.v.).  It  is 
remarkable  as  being  the  first  organic  compound  occurring 
in  nature  which  has  been  prepared  artificially  on  the  large 
scale  as  a  commercial  article.  During  the  lasc  few  years 
it  has  been  extensively  used  in  medicine  as  a  remedy  for 
acute  rheumatism,  either  alone  or  in  the  form  of  its  sodium 
salt.  Possessing  powerful  antiseptic  properties  and  being 
poisonous  only  in  large  do-ses  (the  medicinal  dose  being  from 
5  to  30  grains),  it  is  capable  of  manifold  uses  in  the  arts  and 
manufactures.  In  the  proportion  of  from  1  to  10  per  cent, 
it  prevents  the  development  of  bacteria  in  fluids  containing 
them,  and  if  added  to  the  extent  of  1  part  in  GO  it  will 
destroy  their  life.  It  also  kills  Torula,  and  prevents  the 
souring  of  beer  and  milk.  It  hinders  the  chemical  changes 
brought  about -by  the  action  of  vegetable  ferments  or 
enzymes  such  asamygdalin  and  sinnigrin,  and  consequently 
can  prevent  the  formation  of  essential  oil  of  almonds  or 
of  oil  of  mustard,  ic.  Plants  watered  with  its  solution 
speedily  die.  The  addition  of  a  littlo  of^thc  acid  to  gluo 
renders  it  more  tenacious  ;  skins  to  be  used  for  making 
leather  do  not  undergo  decomposition  if  steeped  in  a  dilute 

^  There  is  no  historical  foundation  for  the  h^gendary  laws  of  a  prince 
Dymal  (or  Dyvnwal)  Moel  Mud,  nor  for  the  Laws  of  Marsia,  which 
are  said  to  belong  to  a  period  before  the  Romau  invasion,  oven  ao 
early  as  400  years  before  Christ.  An  English  translation  by  the  side 
of  the  Welsh  text  of  the  so-called  triads  of  Dyvuwal  Mod  .Mud  is  given, 
by  Ovron,  7/i«  AncieiU  Lawn  of  Wala,  London,  1841,  p.  630. 


solution  ;  butter  containing  a  small  quantity  of  it  may  bq 
kept  sweet  for  months  even  in  the  hottest  weather.  It 
also  prevents  the  mouldiness  of  preserved  fruits  and  has 
been  found  useful  in  the  manufacture  of  vinegar.  Unless 
the  perfectly  pure  acid  bo  employed  the  addition  of  salicylic 
acid  to  articles  of  food  must  be  considered  dangerous,  soma 
persons  being  peculiarly  susceptible  to  its  action. 

Salicylic  acid  is  met  with  in  commerce  in  two  forms,  "natural" 
and  "  artificial."  The  former  occurs  as  handsome  prismatic  crystals 
resembling  those  of  strychnin,,  but  considerably  larger,  usually 
about  half  an  inch  in  length  ;  the  latter  is  met  with  aslight  minuts 
crystals  bearing  some  resemblance  to  sulphate  of  quinine,  but  smaller. 
The  natural  acid  is  prepared  by  decomposing  the  volatile  oil  of 
wintergreen  or  of  the  sweet  birch  by  a  strong  solution  of  potassium 
hydrate,  and  treating  the  resulting  potassium  salicylate  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  which  liberates  the  salicylic  acid.  The  artificial  acid 
is  prepared  according  to  Robbe's  patent  process  by  passing  carbonic 
anliydride  through  sodium  phenoxide  (carbolate)  heated  in  a  retort, 
with  certain  precautions  i-cspecting  temperature  to  prevent  the  for- 
mation of  para-hydroxybenzoic  acid.  It  is  subsequently  purified 
and  recrysta;lized.  An  improvement  has  recently  been  made  oa 
this  process  by  substituting  sodium  phenol  for  sodium  phenoxide, 
the  whole  of  the  phenol  being  in  this  case  converted  into  salicylic 
acid.  Formerly  this  acid  was  met  with  in  commerce  contaminated 
with  phenol,  rosolic,  and  para-oxybenzoic  acids,  but  is  now  prepared 
in  a  perfectly  pure  condition.  The  presence  of  the  first-named 
impurity  may  be  detected  by  its  odour  and  by  the  melting-point 
being  lower  tlian  when  pure,  the  second  by  the  pink  tinge  it  com- 
municates to  the  acid,  and  the  third  by  its  comparative  insolubility 
in  boiling  chloroform,  by  the  greater  solubility  of  its  calcium  salt, 
and  by  its  giving  a  yellow  precipitate  with  ferric  chloride.  Sali- 
cylic acid  when  pure  should  be  free  from  odour  and  should  dissolve 
completely  in  alcohol,  and  its  solution,  when  spontaneously  evapo- 
rated without  contact  with  air,  sliould  yield  crystals  having  colour- 
less points.  It  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1'45  and  fuses  at  155"  C. 
(311°  Fahr. ) ;  above  that  temperature  it  is  converted  into  phenol 
and  carbonic  anhydride.  Its  chemical  formula  is  C8H4(OH)CO,H. 
It  is  soluble  in  760  parts  of  cold  water,  in  4  of  rectified  spirits  of 
wine,  and  in  200  of  glycerin,  also  in  oHve  and  castor  oils,  in  melted 
fats  and  vaseline.  Alkaline  salts  of  citric,  acetic,  and  phosphoric 
acids  render  it  more  soluble  in  water,  possibly  from  the  base  corn- 
bin''"^-  with  it.  An  aqueous  solution  of  salicylic  acid  gives  a  deep 
violet  colour  with  ferric  salts.  The  methyl,  ethyl,  and  amyl  ethers 
of  the  acid  are  used  in  perfumery,  and  the  calcium  salt  if  kept 
for  some  time  and  then  distilled  with  water  yields  a  liquid  which 
has  a  strong  odour  of  roses  (Dingier,  Polylechn.  Journ.,  ccrviL 
p.  136). 

When  administered  internally  salicylic  acid  rapidly  lowers  the 
bodily  temperature  and  reduces  the  pulse  rate,  blood  pressure,  and 
rapidity  of  respiration,  causing  death  when  given  in  excessive  doses 
by  p.aralysis,  of  the  respiratory  organs.  It  is  excreted  in  the  urine 
partly  as  salicylic  and  partly  as  salicyluric  acid,  communicating 
to  it  a  brown  colour  by  reflected  and  a  green  one  by  transmitted 
light.  When  taken  for  some  time  it  produces  deafness,  giddiness, 
headache,  and  noises  in  the  ears,  like  quinine.  Taken  internally  in 
medicinal  doses  it  possesses  the  same  properties  as  salicin  and 
sodium  salicylate  (see  below),  but  is  much  less  used  in  medicine. 
Applied  externally,  it  has  a  marked  action  on  thickened  epidermis, 
and  is  hence  used  for  the  cure  of  corns  and  warts,  to  relieve  pain 
and  destroy  fetor  in  ulcerated  cancer,  and  also  in  certain  skiu 
diseases  in  which  an  antiseptic  is  useful,  as  in  psoriasis,  eczema, 
intertrigo,  lupus,  and  ringworm.  Taken  as  snuff  it  relieves  hay 
fever. 

Sal iajlate  of  sodium  (JTaC^HjO,)  is  more  frequently  used  in  medi- 
cine than  salicylic  acid  because  less  irritating  to  the  mucous  mem. 
branes.  It  is  prepared  by  neutralizing  a  solution  of  sodium  carbonate 
with  salicylic  acid.  It  occurs  in  commerce  as  small  w  hite  crystalliiic 
plates  with  a  slight  pearly  lustre,  having  a  sweetish  saline  tasto 
and  mildly  alkaline  reaction.  It  is  soluble  in  r5  parts  of  water  and 
6  of  alcohol  at  15°  C.  (59°  Fahr.),  but  much  more  so  in  boiling  water 
and  alcohol.  It  is  chiefly  employed  medicinally  as  a  renu'dv  for 
acute  rheumatism,  in  which  it  lowers  the  temneratuio  and  allays 
pain.  It  is  also  useful  in  headache  and  in  plilegmasia  alba  ;  its 
cholagogic  action  and  its  power  of  rendering  the  bile  more  fluid 
indicate  its  usefulness  in  the  treatment  of  gall  stones.  It  has  been 
found  of  service  in  Meniiro's  disease.  Alcohol  or  other  stimulants 
are  often  given  with  it  to  prevent  the  depressing  influence  on  the 
heart's  action  which  is  caused  by  large  doses.  Ammonia  is,  how- 
over,  unfit  for  this  purpose  (Martindalc,  Extrn  Phamiacop(ria,  3d 
cd.,  p.  67).  Like  salicylic  acid,  it  produces  when  given  in  full  doses 
subjective  auditory  phenomena,  but  these  .symptoms  are  relieved  by 
the  use  of  ergot  ana  hydrobromic  acid,  lu  a  few  persons  it  cauaej 
most  disagrccablo  visions  whenever  tlio  eyes  are  shut,  and  in  others 
it  has  evi:n  proilueiil  di  liriuni.  In  its  action  on  bacteria  it  is  about 
one-third  less  powerful  than  salicvlio  acid. 


21-9* 


218 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


SALIERI,  AuTONio  (1750-1825),  dramatic  composer, 
was  born  at  Legnano,  Italy,  August  19,  1750.  In  1766  he 
was  taken  to  Vienna  by  a  former  "Kapellmeister"  named 
Gassmann,  who  introduced  him  to  the  emperor  Joseph, 
and  fairly  prepared  the  way  for  his  subsequent  success. 
His  first  opera,  Le  Donne  Letterate,  was  produced  at  the 
Burg-Theater  in  1770.  On  Gassmann's  death  in  1774, 
he  received  the  appointment  of  Kapellmeister  and  com- 
poser to  the  court;  and  on  the  death  of  Bonno  in  1788 
he  was  advanced  to  the  dignity  of  "Hof kapellmeister." 
He  held  his  offices  with  honour  for  fifty  years,  though  Le 
made  frequent  visits  to  Italy  and  Paris,  and  composed 
for  many  important  European  theatres.  His  chef  d'ceuvre 
(vas  Tarare  (afterwards  called  Axur,  Ee  (TOnnus),  a 
work  which  was  preferred  by  the  fublic  of  Vienna  to 
Mozart's  Don  Giovanni,  though  it  is,  in  reality,  quite 
unworthy  of  comparison  with  that  marvellous  inspiration. 
It  was  first  produced  at  Vienna,  June  8,  1787,  and 
Strangely  enough,  considering  the  poverty  of  its  style,  it 
kvas  revived  at  Leipsic  in  1846,  though  only  for  a  single 
tepresentation.  His  last  opera  was  Die  Neger,  produced 
In  1804.  After  this  he  devoted  himself  to  the  composi- 
tion of  church  music,  for  which  he  had  a  very  decided 
talent.  Salieri  lived  on  friendly  terms  with  Haydn,  but 
was  a  bitter  enemy  to  Mozart,  whose  death  he  was  sus- 
pected of  having  produced  by  poison  ;  but  no  particle  of 
evidence  was  ever  forthcoming  to  give  colour  to  the  odious 
accusation.  He  retired  from  oflice,  on  his  fuU  salary,  in 
1824,  and  died  at  Vierma  May  7,  1825.  None  of  Salieri's 
works  have  survived  the  change  of  fashion.  He  gave 
lessons  in  composition  both  to  Cherubini  and  Beethoven  ; 
the  latter  dedicated  to  him  his  Three  Sonatas  for  Piano- 
forte and  Violin,  Op.  12. 

SALH.     See  Mars. 

SALISBURY,  or  New  Saetjm,  a  city  and  mimicipal  arid 
parliamentary  borough,  the  county  town  of  Wiltshire,  Eng- 
land, is  situated  in  a  valley  at  the  confluence  of  the  Upper 
Avon,  the  Wilj',  the  Bourne,  and  the  Nadder,  on  the  Great 
Western  and  South  Western  Railways,  80  miles  west-south- 
west of  London.  The  city  at  the  begbining  was  regularly 
laid  out  by  Bishop  Poore  and  still  retains  substantially  its 
original  plan.  In  the  centre  is  the  market-place,  a  large 
and  handsome  square,  from  which  the  streets  branch  off 
at  right  angles,  forming  a  series  of  quadrangles  facing  a 
thoroughfare  on  each,  side,  and  enclosing  in  the  interior  a 
space  for  courts  and  gardens.  The  streams  flow^il  un- 
covered through  the  streets  till  the  visitation  of  cholera 
in  1849  led  to  their  being  arched  over.  The  cathedral 
of  St  Mary  was  originally  founded  on  the  hill  fortress 
of  Old  Sarum  by  Bishop  Herman,  when  he  removed  the 
see  from  Sherborne  between  1075  and  1078.  The  severe 
drought  in  1834  caused  the  old  foundations  to  be  dis- 
covered. Its  total  length  was  270  feet ;  the  nave  was  150 
feet  by  72,  the  transept  150  feet  by  70  ;  and  the  choir  was 
60  feet  in  length.  In  1218  Bishop  Poore  procured  a  papal 
bull  for  the  removal  of  the  cathedral  to  New  Sarum.  For 
this  various  reasons  have  been  given, — the  despotism  of  the 
governor,  the  erposure  to  high  winds  which  drowned  the 
voice  of  the  ofiiciating  priest,  the  narrow  space  for  houses, 
ind  the  difficulty  of  procuring  water.  Until  the  Reforma- 
tion service  stiU  continued  to  be  performed  in  the  old 
church.  A  wooden  chapel  of  St  Mary  was  commenced  at 
New  Sarum  in  the  Easter-tide  of  1219,  and  the  founda- 
tions of  the  new  cathedral  were  laid  by  Bishop  Poore, 
28th  April  1220.  It  was  dedicated  at  Michaehnas  1258, 
the  whole  cost  having  amounted  to  40,000  marks,  or 
£26,666.  The  cloisters,  of  great  beauty,  and  the  late 
Early  English  chapter-house  were  added  by  Bishop  Walter 
de  la  Wyle  (1263-74).  The  tower  from  near  the  ridge  was 
built  in  the  Decorated  style  by  Bishop  WyviUe  about  1331, 


and  the  spire  was  added  between  1335  and  1375.  It  is 
the  highest  in  England  (404  feet),  and  is  remarkable  both 
for  its  beauty  of  proportion  and  the  impression  it  conveys 
of  lightness  and  slenderness.  The  chapel  built  by  Bishop 
Beauchamp  (1450-82),  that  built  by  Lord  Hungerford  in 
1476,  and  the  fine  campanile  were  all  ruthlessly  demolished 
by  the  architect  James  Wyatt,  1782-1791.  The  cathedral 
as  a  whole  is  a  unique  specimen  of  Early  English,  having 
the  advantage  of  being  practically  completed  as  it  now 
stands  within  a  remarkably  short  period.  For  lightness, 
simplicity,  grace,  and  unity  of  design  it  is  not  surpassed 
in  England.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  or  double: 
cross,  and  comprises  a  nave  of  ten  bays  with  aisles  and  a 
lofty  northern  porch  ;  two  transepts,'  one  of  three  and  the 
other  of  two  bays,  while  both  have  eastern  aisles  for 
chapels ;  a  choir  of  three  bays  with  aisles ;  a  presbytery 
of  three  bays  with  aisles ;  and  a  lady-chapel  of  two  bays. 
The  total  length  of  the  building  is  449  iVet,  the  length  of 
the  nave  being  229  feet  6  inches,  of  the  choir  151  feet,, 
and  of  the  lady-chapel  68  feet  6  inches,  while  the  principal 
transept  has  a  length  of  203  feet  10  inches,  and  the 
eastern  transept  of  143  feet.  The  width  of  the  nave  is 
34  feet  4  inches,  and  of  the  principal  transept  50  feet  4 
inches.  The  library,  built  by  Bishop  Jewel  ( 1 560-7 1^. 
contains  about  5000  volumes  and  several  MSS.  of  great 
interest.  In  the  close,  occupying  an  area  of  half  a  square 
mile,  and  possessing  a  finely-shaded  mall,  are  the  episcopal 
palace,  an  irregular  structure  begun  by  Bishop  Poore  but 
of  various  dates,  the  deanery  house,  and  other  buildings. 
The  three  parish  churches  are  St  Martin's,  with  square 
tower  and  spire,  and  possessing  a  Norman  font  and 
portions  of  Early  English  in  the  choir ;  St  Thomas's  (of 
Canterbury),  founded  in  1240  as  a  chapel  to  the  cathedral, 
and  rebuilt  in  the  15th  century,  a  handsome  building  in  the- 
Perpendicular  style ;  and  St  Edmund's,  founded  as  the 
collegiate  church  of  secular  canons  in  1266,  but  subse- 
quently rebuilt  in  the  Perpendicular  style  and  lately 
restored  at  a  cost  of  £6000.  The  residence  of  the  college 
of  secular  priests  is  now  occupied  by  the  modern 
ecclesiastical  coUege  of  St  Edmund's,  founded  in  1873. 
St  John's  chapel,  founded  by  Bishop  Bingham  (1228-46), 
is  now  occupied  by  a  dwelling-house.  There  is  a  beauti- 
ful ohapel  attached  to  the  St  Nicholas  hospital,  founded 
iu  the  reign  of  Richard  11.  The  poultry  cross,  or 
high  cross,  an  open  hexagon  with  six  arches  and  a  central 
piUar,  was  erected  by  Lord  Montacute  before  1335.  Iu 
the  market-place  is  Marochetti's  statue  to  Lord  Herbert 
of  Lea.  The  principal  secular  buildings  are  the  court- 
house, the  marketrhouse,  the  Hamilton  Hall,  the  county 
jaU,  and  the  theatre.  Among  the  specimens  of  ancient 
domestic  architecture  still  remaining  may  be  mentioned 
the  banqueting  hall  of  J.  Halle,  wool  merchant,  built  in- 
1470,  and  Audley  House,  belonging  also  to  the  15th  cen- 
tury,- and  repaired  in  1881  as  a  diocesan  church  house. 
There  are  a  large  niunber  of  educational  and  other  charities, 
including  the  bishop's  grammar  school.  Queen  Elizabeth's, 
grammar  school,  Talman's  girls'  school,  the  St  Nicholas 
hospital,  founded  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.,  and  Trinity 
hospital,  founded  by  Agnes  Bottenham  in  1379.  At  one 
time  the  city  possessed  wooUen  and  cutlery  manufactures, 
but  these  have  now  declined ;  and,  although  the  manufac- 
ture of  hardware  and  of  boots  and  shoes  is  still  carried  on,  it 
is  on  its  shops  for  the  supply  of  the  neighbouring  viUages 
and  its  agricultural  trade  that  it  now  principally  depends. 
The  population  of  the  city  and  municipal  borough  (area  616 
acres)  in  1871  was  12,903,  and  that  of  the  parliamentary 
borough  (area  676  acres)  13,839;  in  1881  the  numbers 
were  14,792  and  15,680. 

Salisbury  and  its  neighbourhood  are  remarkably  rich  in  relics  of 
autiiiuity.     To  say  nothing  of  Old  Sarum  and  the  scanty  fuins  oL 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


219 


the  royal  palace  of  Clarendon,  llilford  Hill  and  Fisherton  are  two 
of  the  riclicst  fielJs  in  the  country  for  paleolithic  itnplcmoDts. 
In  the  Blackmoro  Museum  Salisbuiy  possesses  one  of  the  finest 
collections  of  prehistoric  antiquities  la  England ;  its  splendid 
gathering  of  objects  from  the  mounds  in  the  Saw  World  is  pro- 
bably unsurpassed.  The  fortress  of  Old  Sarum  (Searoii/rig,  i.e.. 
Sear-borough,  probably  "the  dry  city";  Sarisberio  in  Domesday) 
^  of  very  early  date,  and  was  undoubtedly  held  by  the  Bclgse  before 
It  became  an  important  fortress  of  the  Komans  {Horbiodunum).  It 
tccupied  a  conical  mound  rising  abruptly  from  the  valley,  and  its 
fossse  and  ramparts,  which  still  remain,  are  about  a  mile  in  circum- 
ference. Various  Roman  roads  branched  out  from  It  in  different 
Urections.  Near  it  Cynric  won  a  great  victory  over  the  Britons  in 
552.  It  was  burned  and  sacked  by  Swend  in  1003.  In  the  great 
jlain .  beneath  William  the  Conqueror  in  1070  reviewed  his  army 
ifter  his  victories  ;  and  it  was  heie  that  he  took  the  oath  of  fealty 
from  all  English  landholders  ou  tlie  completion  of  Domesday  in 
1086.  Old  Sarum  continued  to  have' the  privilege  of  returning  two 
members  to  parliament  until  1832,  although  latterly  not  a  single 
house  remained  within  its  limits.  New  Sarum  grew  np  round 
the  new  cathedral  founded  in  the  13th  century.  In  1227  it 
received  from  Henry  III.  a  charter  conferring  on  it  the  same 
freedom  and  liberties  as  Winchester.  The  duke  of  Buckingham 
was  executed  at  Salisbury  in  1484.  During  tho  Civil  War  it  was 
held  alternately  by  both  parties.  Salisbury  first  sent  members  to 
parliament  in  1295,  ana  various  parliaments  have  been  held 
there.  The  Redistribution  Act  of  1885  deprived  it  of  one  of  its 
two  representatives. 

8e«  DiscHptUm  o/  SalUburn  CaOitiral,  171(1  and  1787 ;  Ranlln,  Salisbury, 
1718 ;  M.  E.  Walcott,  Memorials  o/ Saliibtiry,  18Ci  ;  W.  Henry  Jones,  fas/1  Ec- 
tiiiia  Sarisberiensis,  1879 ;  W.  Henry  Jones,  biocesan  History  of  Salisbury,  18S0. 

SALISBUEY,  EoBEET,  Eakl  of.    See  Cecil. 

SALIVA,  SALIVARY  GLANDS.    See  Nuteition. 

SALLEE.     See  Ra3At. 

SALLUST  (86-34  B.C.).  Sallust  is  the  generally 
accepted  modern  form  of  the  name  of  the  Roman  his- 
torian Caius  SalltLstius  Crispus.  86  B.C.  was  the  year 
of  his  birth,  and  the  old  Sabine  town  of  Amitemum  at 
the  foot  of  the  Apennines  was  his  birthplace.  He  came 
of  a  good  plebeian  family,  and  entered  public  life  at  a 
comparatively  early  age,  obtaining  first  the  quiestorship, 
and  then  being  elected  tribune  of  the  people  in  52  B.C., 
that  year  of  political  turbulence  in  ■which  Clodius  was 
killed  by  Slilo.  SaUust  was  opposed  to  Mlo  and  to 
Pompey's  party  and  to  the  old  aristocracy  of  Rome. 
From  the  first  he  was  a  decided  partisan  of  Caesar's,  and 
to  Caesar  he  owed  such  political  advancement  as  he 
attained.  Unless  he  was  the  victim  of  violent  party 
misrepresentation,  he  seema  to  have  been  morally  worth- 
lesSf  In  50  B.C.  tho  censors  exorcised  their  power  of 
removing  him  from  the  senate  on  the  ground  of  gross 
immorality.  A  few  years  afterwards,  however,  no 
doubt  through  Caesar's  influence,  he  was  restored  to  his 
position,  and  in  46,  in  which  year  Caesar  was  for  the 
third  time  consul,  he  was  praetor,  and  was  with  Caesar 
in  his  African  campaign,  which  ended  in  tho  decisive 
victory  of  Thapsua  over  the  remains  of  the  Pompeian 
party  and  in  the  suicide  of  XI!ato.  Sallust  remained 
for  a  time  in  Africa  as  governor  of  the  province  of 
Numidia,  which,  it  would  seem,  Cae.sar  gave  him  as  a 
reward  for  good  service.  It  was  said  that  he  enriched 
oimaelf  at  the  expense  of  tho  provincials,  but  the  charge, 
ks  far  as  we  know,  ..aa  never  substantiated,  though  it  was 
rendered  highly  probable  by  the  fact  that  ho  returned  to 
Rome  the  following  year  a  very  rich  man,  able  to  purchase 
and  lay  out  ill  giaaX  splendour  those  famous  gardens  on 
the  Quirinal  known  as  tho  "horti  Sallustiani,"  which 
became  subsequently  an  imperial  residence.  He  now 
retired  from  public  life  and  devoted  his  leisure  to  letters, 
for  which  he  had  always  had  a  taste,  and  certainly 
considerable  ability.     The  fruita  of  his  industry  have  como 

down   to  us  in  tho   .pc  of  a  history  of  the  famous 

Catiline  conspiracy,  of  an  account  of  tho  war  with 
Jugui-tha,  and  of  some  fragments  of  a  larger  work — 
"  hiatones,"  as  the  Rimans  called  them,  "  memoir.-<,"  as  wo 
iboald  ityle  tbeni.       His  history  of  the  Caliiino  conspiracy 


was  his  finst  published  work;  it  is  the  history  of  tbo 
memorable  year  63,  when  Cicero  as  consul  baffled  and 
confounded  Catiline  by  making  all  men  beUeve  that  he 
was  an  arch-conspirator  against  the  liberties  of  his  country, 
who,  under  specious  pretexts  of  relieving  poverty  and 
distress,  was  really  aiming  at  making  himself  a  tyrant  and 
a  despot.  Sallust  adopts  the  view  which  was  no  doubt  the 
usually  accepted  one,  and  he  writes  accordingly  aa  a 
political  partisan,  without  giving  us  a  clear  insight  into  the 
causes  and  circumstances  which  guvc  Catiline  a  consider- 
able following,  and  led  many  to  think  that  his  schemes 
were  more  respectable  than  those  pf  a  mere  wild  revolu- 
tionist. He  does  not  explain  to  us  at  all  adequately  what 
Catiline's  plans  and  views  were,  but  simiily  paints  the  man 
as  the  deliberate  foe  of  all  law,  order,  and  morality. 
Catiline,  it  must  be  remembered,  had  been  of  Sulla's  p>-.iy, 
to  which  SaUust  was  opposed.  There  may  be  truth  in 
Mommsen's  suggestion  that  he  was  particularly  anxious  to 
clear  his  patron  Caesar  of  all  complicity  in  the  conspiracy. 
Anyhow,  the  subject  was  quite  one  to  his  taste,  as  it  gave 
him  the  opportunity  of  showing  off  his  rhetoric  at  tho 
expense  of  the  old  Roman  aristocracy,  'whose  degeneracy 
he  delighted  to  paintit  the  blackest  coloiirs.  His  history, 
again,  of  the  war  with  Jugurtha,  though  a  valuaWtj  and 
interesting  monograph,  is  not  a  satisfactory  performance. 
We  may  assume  that  he  had  collected  materials  and  put 
together  notes  for  it  during  his  governorship  of  Numidia. 
Here  too  we  find  him  dwelling  on  the  feebleness  of  the 
senate  and  of  the  aristocracy,  and  dropping  too  often  into 
a  tiresome  moralizing  and  philosophizing  vein,  his  be.settinjf 
weakness,  but  altogether  failing  us  in  those  really  im- 
portant details  of  geography  and  even  chronology  which 
we  naturally  look  for  in  the  historians  of  military  opera- 
tions and  campaigns.  In  all  this  Sallust  is  no  better  than 
Livy.  Of  his  Histories,  said  to  have  been  in  five  books, 
and  to  have  commenced  with  the  year  78  B.C.  (the  year  of 
Sulla's  death),  and  to  have  concluded  with  the  year  66,  we 
have  but  fragments,  which  are,  however,  enough  to  show 
the  political  partisan,  who  took  a  keen  plea'jure  in  describ- 
ing the  reaction  which  followed  on  the  dictator's  death 
against  his  policy  and  legislation.  It  is  unfortunate  that 
the  work  has  not  come  down  to  us  entire,  as  it  must  have 
thrown  much  light  on  a  very  eventful  period,  embracing 
the  war  against  Sertorius,  the  campaigns  of  Lucullus 
against  Mithradates  of  Pontus,  and  the  victories  of  the 
great  Pompey  in  the  East.  A  few  fragments  of  his  works 
were  pubhshed  for  the  first  time  from  a  manuscript  in  the 
Vatican  early  in  the  present  century.  We  have  also  two 
letters  {Dnae  epistolae  de  liepublica  ordinanda)  addressed 
to  Caesar,  letters  of  political  counsel  and  advice;  Which 
have  been  commonly  attributed  to  Sallust,  but  as  to  the 
authenticity  of  which  we  must  suspend  oui  Judgment. 

Tho  verdict  of  antiquity  was  on  tho  whole  favourable  to  Sallaat 
as  an  historian  and  as  a  man  of  letters.  In  certain  quarters  ho  was 
decried  ;  his  brevity  was  said  to  bo  obscurp  and  Ins  foudncss  for 
o.d  words  and  phrases,  in  vhich  ho  ia  oaid  to  have  imitated  his 
contemporary  Cato,  was  .idiculed  as  an  affectation.  Tacitus, 
hcvuver,  speaks  higlily  of  him  {Ann.,  iii.  80);  and,  to  do  him 
jr'dii*.  we  must  remember  that  he  struck  out  for  himself  almost  a 
new  lino  in  i  tcrcturo,  as  up  to  his  time  nothing  of  miu;h  volua 
had  been  done  for  Roman  history,  and  his  prcdtcossors  had  been 
little  bertcf  ihan  chroniclers  and  annalista  of  tho  '•drv-as-djiat'* 
type.  SCiust  aimed  at  being  something  like  a  Roman  Tnucydides, 
and,  though  he  falU  far  short  of  tho  great  Greek  historian,  on  J 
drifts  now  and  again  into  mcro  rhfctoric  and  pidatitry,  we  may 
at  least  congratulate  ourselves  on  tho  possession  of  his  CatUinc  ana 
Jugurtha,  and  wo  must  feel  that  fortune  has  been  unkind  in 
depriving  us  of  his  larger  work,  his  Bistaries. 

SALMASIUS,  CLAunus  (1588-1653),  in  tho  vemar 
cular  Saumaisv:,  tho  most  distinguished  classical  scholar 
of  his  day,  was  born  at  Scmur-cn-Auxoia  in  Burgundy, 
April  15,  1688.  His  father,  a  counsellor  of  tho  parlo 
ment  of  D\joD,  gave  him  %u  esccllcat  education,  and  aait 


220 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


him  at  tlie  age  of  sixteen  to  Paris,  where  his  promise 
excited  the  especial  interest  of  Casaubon.  After  hardly 
overcoming  his  father's  opposition,  he  proceeded  in  1606 
to  the  university  of  Heidelberg,  nominally  to  be  initiated 
into  jurisprudence  under  Godefroy,  but  in  fact  entirely 
devoted  to  classical. studies.  The  atmosphere  of  the  place 
probably  had  its  influence  in  inducing  him  to  embrace 
Protestantism,  the  religion  of  his  mother ;  and  his  first 
publication  was  an  edition  of  a  work  by  Nilus  Cabasllas, 
archbishop  of  Thessalonica,  against  the  primacy  of  the 
pope,  with  a  similar  tract  by  Barlaam.  The  Latin  trans- 
lation of  these  works,  although  apparently  assigned  to 
Salmasius  on  the  title  page,  is  not  by  him.  In  1609  he 
edited  Floras,  with  notes  compiled  in  ten  days.  In  the 
following  year  he  returned  to  France,  and  nominally  pur- 
sued the  study  of  jurisprudence  to  qualify  himself  for  the 
succession  to  Ixis  father's  post,  which  he  eventually  lost  on 
account  of  his  religion.  Nothing  important  proceeded  from 
his  pen  until  1620,  when  he  published  Casaubon's  notes  on 
the  Augustan  History,  with  copious  additions  of  his  own, 
equally  remarkable  for  learning  and  acumen.  In  1623  he 
married  Anna  Mercier,  a  Protestant  lady  of  a  distinguished 
family;  and  in  1629  he  produced  his  magnum  opus  as  a 
critic,  his  commentary  on  Solinus's  Polyhistor,  or  rather 
on  Pliny,  to  whom  Solinus  is  indebted  for  most  of  his 
materials.  Greatly  as  this  work  may  have  been  overrated 
by  his  contemporaries,  it  is  still  a  monument  of  stupendous 
learning  and  conscientious  industry.  Salmasius  learned 
Arabic  to  qualify  himself  for  the  botanical  part  of  his  task, 
and  was  so  unwilling  to  go  to  press  without  having  con- 
sulted a  rare  treatise  by  Didymus  that  the  third  part  of  his 
commentary,  De  Herhis  et  Plantis,  did  not  appear  in  his 
lifetime.  He  was  now  ostensibly  as  well  as  actually 
devoted  to  philology,  and  foreign  universities  vied  with 
each  other  in  endeavouring  to  secure  his  services.  After 
declining  overtures  from  Oxford,  Padua,  and  Bologna,  he 
closed  in  1631  with  a  proposal  from  Leyden,  ofEering  an 
entirely  honorary  professorship,  with  a  stipend  of  two 
thousand  (afterwards  raised  to  three  thousand)  livres  a 
year,  merely  to  live  in  Holland  and  refute  the  Annals  of 
Baronius.  This  latter  stipulation  he  never  fulfilled. 
Shortly  after  his  removal  to  Holland,  he  composed,  at  the 
request  of  Prince  Frederick  of  Nassau,  his  treatise  on  the 
military  system  of  the  Romans,  which  was  not  published 
until  1657.  Other  works  followed,  mostly  philological, 
but  including  a  denunciation  of  wigs  and  hair-powder,  and 
a  vindication  of  moderate  and  lawful  interest  for  money, 
which  drew  down  upon  him  many  expostulations  from 
lawyers  and  theologians.  It  prevailed,  however,  with  the 
Dutch  Church  to  admit  money-lenders  to  the  satrament. 
His  treatise  De  Primatu  Papx  (1645),  accompanying  a 
republication  of  the  tract  of  Nilus  Cabasllas,  excited  a  warm 
controversy  in  France,  but  the  Government  declined  to 
suppress  it.  Notwithstanding  his  Protestantism  and  the 
opposition  of  the  papal  nuncio,  he  had  already  been  made 
a  royal  counsellor  and  a  knight  of  St  Michael,  and  great 
offers  had  been  made  to  induce  him  to  return,  which,  sus- 
pecting that  he  was  to  be  charged  with  the  composition  of 
a  panegyric  on  Richelieu,  he  honourably  declined. 

In  November  1649  appeared  the  work  by  which 
Salmasius  is  best  remembered,  his  Defensio  Regia  pro 
Carolo  I.  His  advice  had  already  been  sought  on  English 
and  Scotch  affairs,  and,  inclining  to  Presbyterianism  or  a 
modified  Episcopacy,  he  had  written  against  the  Independ- 
ents. It  does  not  appear  by  whose  influence  he  was 
induced  to  undertake  the  Defensio  Regia,  but  Charles  II., 
low  as  his  exchequer  was,  defrayed  the  expense  of  printing, 
and.  presented  the  author  with  £100.  The  first  edition 
was  anonymous,  but  the  author  was  universally  known. 
A  Erench  translation  which  speedily  appeared  under  the 


name  of  Le  Gros  was  the  work  of  Salmasius  himself.  Thia 
celebrated  work,  in  our  day  principally  famous  for  the 
reply  it  provoked  from  Milton,  even  in  its  own  added  little 
to  the  reputation  of  the  author.  Salmasius  injured  his 
character  for  consistency  by  defending  absolute  monarchy, 
and  knew  too  little  of  English  history  and  politics  to  argue 
his  cause  with  effect.  He  deals  chiefly  in  generalities,  and 
most  inappropriate  illustrations  from  Biblical-and  classical 
history.  Not  caring  sufficiently  for  his  theme  to  rise  to 
the  heights  of  moral  indignation,  he  is  as  inferior  to  Milton 
in  earnestness  as  in  eloquence  and  the  power  of  invective. 
Milton  had,  no  doubt,  a  great  advantage  in  encountering 
a  personality,  at  whose  head  vituperation  could  be  launched, 
while  Salmasius  is  fighting  abstractions  and  indicting  a 
people.  But  the  reply  to  Milton,  which  he  left  unfinished 
at  his  death,  and  which  was  published  by  his  son  in  1660, 
is  insipid  as  well  as  abusive.  Until  the  appearance  of 
Milton's  rejoinder  in  March  1651  the  eff'ect  of  Salmasius's 
work  was  no  doubt  considerable ;  and  it  probably  helped 
to  procure  him  the  flattering  invitation  from  Queen 
Christina  which  induced  him  to  visit  Sweden  in  1650. 
Christina  loaded  him  with  gifts  and  distinctions,  but  upon 
the  appearance  of  Milton's  book  was  unable  to  conceal  her 
conviction  that  he  had  been  worsted  by  his  antagonist. 
Milton,  addressing  Christina  herself;  ascribes  Salmasius's 
withdrawal  from  Sweden  in  1651  to  mortification  at  this 
affront,  but  this  appears  to  be  negatived  by  the  warmth  of 
Christina's  subsequent  letters  and  her  pressing  invitation 
to  return.  The  claims  of  the  university  of  Leyden  aftd 
dread  of  a  second  Swedish  winter  seem  fully  adequate 
motives.  Nor  is  there  any  foundation  for  the  belief  that 
Milton's  invectives  hastened  his  death,  which  took  place 
on  September  3,  1653,  from  an  injudicious  use  of  the  Spa 
waters.  He  was  at  the  time  engaged  upon  his  reply  to 
Milton ;  this  he  does  not  seem  to  have  reckoned  among 
the  MSS.  which,  feeling  that  he  had  expressed  himself  with 
undue  asperity,  he  directed  his  wife  to  burn  after  his 
decease.  He  left  several  sons,  but  his  posterity  did  not 
attain  the  third  generation. 

Nothing,  to  modern  ideas,  can  seem  more  sin^iuiar  than  the 
literary  dictatorsliip  exercised  by  a  mere  classical  scholar,  who 
shone  principally  as  a  commentator,  and  whose  independent  works, 
though  highly  respectable,  evince  no  especial  powers  of  mind. 
Salmasius  was  far  enough  from  being  a  Grotius,  a  I.,eibnitz,  or 
even  a  Casaubon.  As  a  commentator  and  verbal  ciitic,  however, 
he  is  entitled  to  very  high  rank.  His  notes  on  the  Angxislan 
History  and  Solinus  display  not  only  massive  erudition  but 
massive  good  sense  as  well  ;  his  perception  of  the  meaning  of  his 
author  is  commonly  very  acute,  and  his  corrections  of  the  text  ai'e 
frequently  highly  felicitous.  His  manly  independence  was  shown 
iu  many  circumstances  of  his  life,  and  tlie  general  bias  of  his 
mind  was  liberal  and  sensible.  He  was  accused  of  sourness  and 
suUenness  of  temper ;  but  the  charge,  if  it  had  any  foundation, 
is  extenuated  by  the  wretched  condition  of  his  health.  Hi.s 
biographer  Clement  enumerates  seven  classes  of  disorders  which 
pursued  him  throughout  his  life,  and  which  render  his  industry 
and  productiveness  the  more  extraordinary.  Papillon  catalogues 
eighty  books  published  by  Salmasius  himself,  or  from  his  JISS.,  or 
to  which  he  contributed  notes  ;  eighteen  manuscripts  which  he 
himself  saw  in  the  library  of  M.  de  la  JIare  ;  forty-three  more 
mentioned  by  others  ;  ninety-three  works  with  JIS.  notes  by 
Salmasius,  which  should  now  be  in  the  National  Library  of  France  ; 
and  fifty-nine  books  projected  or  contemplated. 

The  life  of  Salmasius  was  wiitten  at  great  lencth  by  Philibert  de  la  Slare, 
coansellor  of  the  pailenicnt  of  Dijon,  who  inlieiited  hi3  JISS.  from  his  son. 
Papillon  says  that  this  biographj  left  nothing  to  dcsii-e,  but  it  has  the  capital 
fault  of  never  having  been  printed.  It  was,  however,  UaCtl  by  Tapillon  himself, 
whose  account  of  Salmasius  in  his  BibJiotkeque  des  AuCeurs  de  Dourgogne  (Dijon, 
17-45)  is  by  far  the  best  extant.  Tliere  is  an  eloge  by  element  prefixed  to  hi> 
edition  of  Salmasius's  LeCleis  (K50),  and  another  by  Moiisot,  inserted  in  his  own 
Letters,  Clement's  notice  contains  many  intciesting  facts,  but  it  is  man-ed  by 
an  exti'avagant  admiration  for  its  subject,  perhaps  excusable  if  he  really  believed 
that  his  hero  was  l)orn  in  1,'iOG,  and  edited  f  loi-us  at  thirteen.  It  Is  remarkable, 
Uowever,  that  Clement  passes  over  the  Defensio  Regia  almost  without  notice, 
■whether  from  feeling  that  it  was  unworthy  of  Salmasius.  or  because  discussion 
of  the  subject  was  discouraged  in  Holland  during  the  existence  of  the  Englisb 
Commonwealth.  ^  (I-  G.) 

SALMON.  It  will  be  convenient  to  consider  this  in 
connexion  with  the  other  members  of  the  great  family  9f 
fishes  to  which  it  belongs.     See  SALSioNiDiE. 


aALMONlD^ 


221 


F<ALMONID^.  The  distinguishing  features  of  this 
AmUy  of  fishes  are  described  in  technical  language  in  the 
ariT.cle  Ichthyology  (vol.  lii.  p.  693),  and  it  ia  un- 
necessary to  repeat  the  definition.  The  "nost  conspicuous 
of  the  external  characteristics  is  the  presence  of  two  dorsal 
fins,  of  which  the  anterior  is  well  developed  and  supported 
by  the  usual  jointed  bones  known  as  fin-rays,  while  the 
posterior  La  thick  and  fleshy,  rounded  in  outline,  and  desti- 
tute of  rays.  The  posterior  fin  is  thus  a  rudimentary  organ, 
and  it  is  commonly  called  the  adipose  fin.  There  are  two 
other  families  of  fishes  which  resemble  the  Salmonidiz  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  dorsal  fins — the  Percopsidx  and 
Haplochiionidx;  but  the  former  consists  of  only  one  species, 
found  in  the  United  States,  and  the  latter  is  confined  to  the 
southern  hemisphere.  Amongst  British  fishes  a  Salmonoid 
can  be  always  recognized  by  its  dorsal  fins.^ 

The  Salmonidx  retain  the  open  communication  of  the 
air-bladder  with  the,  intestine,  and  the  original  posterior 
position  of  the  pelvic  fins, — features  which  characterize  the 
division  of  Teleosiei  known  as  Pkysostomi.  In  the  great 
assemblage  of  bony  fishes  known  as  Physoclisti,  these 
features  are  lost  in  the  adult  condition.  It  is  known  that 
in  all  cases  the  air-bladder  develops  in  the  young  fish  as 
an  outgrowth  or  diverticulum  from  the  intestine;  and  it  is 
obvious  from  a  survey  of  Vertebrates  in  general  that  the 
posterior  limbs  belong  originally  to  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  anus.  It  follows  therefore  that  in  these  features  the 
Salmonida,  and  all  the  Pkysostomi,  are  more  similar  to 
the  early  ancestors  of  the  bony  fishes  than  are  those  species 
in  which  the  air-bladder  ia  closed  and  the  pelvic  fins  have 
an  anterior  position. 

In  the  Salmonidee  the  characteristic  Teleostean  pseudo- 
branchia  is  present.  This  organ  is  the  diminished  remnant 
of  the  series  of  gill-lamellje  belonging  to  the  posterior  face 
of  the  hyoid  arch,  as  the  pseudobranchia  in  Elasmobranchs 
is  the  rudiment  of  the  series  of  gill-lameilce  belonging  to 
the  posterior  face  of  the  mandibular  arch.^  The  bones 
known  as  maxilto  form  portion  of  the  boundary  of  the 
upper  jaw  in  Salmonidx ;  in  many  fishes  they  are  excluded 
from  the  jaw  margin  by  the  backward  prolongation  of  the 
premaiillae.  There  are  no  scales  on  the  head  in  this 
family,  and  there  are  no  fleshy  filaments  or  "barbels"  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  mouth  as  there  are  in  many  bony 
fishes — for  example,  the  Cod,  in  which  a  single  short  barbel 
is  attached  beneath  the  lower  jaw.  The  pyloric  append- 
ages, caecal  diverticula  of  the  intestinal  tube  immediately 
behind  the  stomach,  are  nearly  always  present  in  consider- 
able numbers.  In  the  female  Salmon  the  oviduct,  the 
tube  connecting  the  ovary  with  the  exterior,  is  wanting; 
the  eggs  when  ripe  escape  from  the  surface  of  the  ovary 
into  the  abdominal  cavity  and  pass  thence  to  the  exterior 
through  a  pair  of  apertures  in  the  body  wall  situated  one 
on  each  side  of  the  anus ;  these  apertures  are  the 
abdominal  pores.  In  the  male  salmon  there  is  a  duct  fo 
the  testis,  and  the  semen  is  extruded  through  it  in  the 
usual  way.  Fertilization  takes  place  outside  the  body,  the 
spermatozoa  and  eggs  uniting  in  the  water. 

Distribution. — Salmonidx  are  found  both  in  the  sea  and 
in  fresh  water.  Most  of  the  marine  species  inhabit  the 
deeper  parts  of  the  ocean.  Many  of  the  freshwater  forms 
pass  a  portion  of  their  lives  in  the  littoral  parts  of  the  sea, 
ascending  rivers  when  adult  every  year  in  order  to  deposit 


^  It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  a  peculiarity  of  llie  dorsal  flns  is 
often  a  family  cliaracter  among  the  bony  fishes.  Thus  the  species  of 
the  Cod  family  (Oadiclx)  have  usually  threo  separate  dorsal  fins  similar 
in  shape  and  size.  The  JSlenniida  are  characterized  by  the  presence 
of  a  continuous  dorsal  fin  extending  almost  the  whole  length  of  the 
back."  The  Clupeidm  or  Herrings  all  have  a  single  triangular  dorsal 
fln  in  the  middle  of  the  back. 

'  This  at  least  is  the  view  till  recently'Uccepted  by  most  morpho- 
legists  ;  ita  correctness  ia  (questioned  by  Anton  Dobm. 


their  spawn ;  that  is  to  say,  many  species  are  anadromoua. 
Some  are  confined  entirely  to  fresh  water.  The  Salmonidtt 
are,  with  the  exception  of  one  species  indigenous  to  New 
Zealand,  peculiar  to  the  temperate  and  arctic  regions  of  the 
northern  hemisphere.  Fossils  belonging  to  the  family  are 
found  in  strata  of  Mesozoic  age.  Osmerus  occurs  in  the 
greensand  of  Ibbenbiiren,  and  the  schists  of  Glarus  and 
Licata.  Mallotus  mllosus,  indistinguishable  from  the 
living  Capelin,  occurs  abundantly  in  clay  in  Greenland,  the 
geological  age  of  the  bed  being  unknown.  Osmeroides 
acrognalhus  and  Aulolepis  are  fossil  genera  occurring  in 
the  chalk  near  Lewes  in  Sussex,  and  were  probably  deep-sea 
Salmonoids.  The  introduction  of  certain  species  into  new 
areas  by  human  agency,  which  has  been  effected  recently, 
and  is  still  going  on,  will  be  described  in  another  section. 

Synopsis  of  Genera. 

The  following  five  genera  inclnde  British  species  : — 

1.  Salmo,  Artedi  (Salmon  and  Trout).  Scales  small.  Cleft  of 
mouth  wide ;  maxilla  extending  backward  to  below  or  behind  the 
eye.  Dentition  well  developed  ;  conical  teeth  on  the  jaw  bones, 
on  the  vomer  arid  palatines,  and  on  the  tongue ;  none  on  the 
pterygoid  bones.  Anal  fin  short,  with  fourteen  or  fewer  rays. 
Pyloric  appendages  numerous.  0"a  large.  Dark  transversa 
bands,  known  as  "parr  marks,"  present  on  the  sides  of  the  body 
in  the  young  stages  of  life. 

2.  Osmema,  Cuv.  (Smelts).  Scales  of  moderate  size.  Cleft  of 
the  mouth  wide;  maxilla  long,  extending  to  or  nearly  to  the  hind 
margin  of  the  orbit.  Dentition  well  developed ;  teeth  on  the 
maxilla  and  premaxilla  smaller  than  those  on  the  mandible  ; 
transverse  scries  of  teeth  on  the  vomer,  several  of  which  are  Urg* 
and  fang-like  ;  a  series  of  conical  teeth  along  the  palatine  and 
pterygoid  bones  ;  strong  fang-like  teeth  on  the  front  of  the 
tongue,  several  longitudinal  series  of  smaller  ones  on  its  posterior 
part     Pyloric  appendages  short  and  few  in  number.     Ova  small. 

3.  CoregonuB.  Scales  of  moderate  size.  Cleft  of  mouth  small ; 
maxilla  rather  short,  not  extending  back  beyond  the  orbit.  Teeth 
minute,  or  absent  altogether.  Anterior  dorsal  fin  with  few  raj's. 
Pyloric  appendages  numerous.     Ova  smalL 

4.  ThymaUuB,  Cuv.  (Graylings).  Similar  to  Coregonus,  but 
having  a  long  anterior  dorsal  with  many  Taya.  SmaU  teeth  oii 
jaws,  vomer,  and  palatine  bones. 

5.  Argentina,  Cuv.  Scales  rather  large.  Cleft  of  mouth  smaii ; 
maxilla  not  extending  to  below  the  orbit  Teeth  wanting  on 
jaws;  minute  teeth  on  the  head  of  the  vomer  and  fore  part  of  the 
palatines;  series  of  small  curved  teeth  on  each  side  of  the  tongue. 
Dorsal  fin  short,  in  advance  of  the  pelvic.  Pyloric  appendages  few 
or  in  moderate  numbers.  Ova  small.  The  most  conspicuous 
peculiarity  of  this  genus  is  the  flattening  of  the  sides  to  plane 
surfaces  bordered  by  keeled  ridges,  so  that  the  transverse  section  of 
the  fish  is  hexagonal. 

The  following  eleven  genera  include  no  British  species  :— 

6.  Oncorhynchus,  Buckley  [Ann.  Lye.  Nat.  Hist.,  1861).  Simi- 
lar to  Salmo,  except  that  the  anal  fin  has  more  than  fourteen  rays.' 

7.  Brachymyatax,  Giinther.  Intermediate  between  Salmo  and 
Coregonus. 

8.  Luciotrutta,  Giinther.    Migratory  trout  from  Korth  America. 

9.  Plecoglossns,  Schlcgel.  Body  covered  with  very  small  scales. 
Cleft  of  mouth  wide  ;  maxilla  long.  Dentition  feeble  ;  premaxilla 
with  few  small  conical  teeth.  Eu'ls  of  mandibles  separate  at  the 
chin,  the  mucous  membrane  'between  them  forming  folds  and 
pouches.     Tongue  very  small,  with  minute  teeth. 

10.  Eetropinna,  Gill.     Similar  to  Ostnerus. 

11  and  12.  Hynomesus,  Gill,  and  Thaleichthys,  Oiraid,  are 
allied  genera. 

13.  Mallotus,  Cuv.  (Capolin).  Scales  minute,  Mmewhat  larger 
along  the  lateral  lino  and  along  each  side  of  the  belly.  In  mature 
males  those  scales  become  elongate,  lanceolate  with  y  rojeoting  points. 
Cleft  of  mouth  wide  ;  maxilla  very  thin,  lamelliform,  oxtenainfj  to 
below  middle  of  eye.  Dentition  very  feeble  ;  teeth  in  single  senes. 
Pyloric  appendages  very  short,  few.     Ova  small. 

14.  Salanx,  Cuv.  Body  elongate,  couipressod,  raked,  or  with 
small,  exceedingly  fine  deciduous  scales.  Head  elongate  and  much 
depressed,  terminating  in  a  long,  flat,  pointed  snout  Cleft  of 
mouth  wide.  Jaws  and  palatine  bones  with  conical  teeth,  some  of 
those  on  premaxilla  and  mandibles  being  enlarged  ;  no  teeth  on 
vomer  ;  tongue  with  single  series  of  curved  teeth.  Anterior  dona! 
fin  far  behind  ventral,  in  front  of  anal ;  adipose  small.  Pecudo- 
branchim  well  developed  ;  air-bladder  none.  Aliroeut&ry  canal 
q^uite  straight ;  pyloric  ajipendages  none.     Ova  small. 

'  This  is  the  generic  distinction  adopted  by  Dr  Giinther.  Suckley'i 
original  diagnosis  was  the  prolongation  of  both  jaws  In  the  inalct 


222 


ALMONID^ 


15.  Microstoma,  Cnv.  Body  elongate,  cylinarical,  covered  with 
large  thin  silvery  scales.  Cleft  of  mouth  very  small ;  prcmaxiila 
very  small ;  mimlffi  very  short  and  broad.  Eye  very  large. 
Narrow  series  of  very  small  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  and  across 
the  head  of  the  vomer  ;  no  other  teeth.  Dorsal  fin  short,  inserted 
behind  the  ventrals,  but  bofore  the  anal ;  adipose  fin  present  in 
most  young  specimens,  frequently  absent  in  old  ones.  Pseudo- 
biancliis  well  developed;  air-bladder  large.  Pyloric  appendages 
absent ;  raucous  membrane  of  stomach  with  numerous  large 
papillae.     The  genus  is  allied  to  Argailina. 

16.  Bathylflgna,  ^  genus  of  deep  sea  Salmonoids  discovered  by 
the  "  Challenger  "  in  the  Atlantic  and  Antarctic  Oceans  at  depths 
of  1950  and  2040  fathoms. 

Species. 
1.  Genus  Salmo.  The  difficulty  of  defining  and  distinguishing 
the  species  of  this  genus  is  considerable,  and  much  diversity  of 
opinion  on  the  subject  e.tists  among  iclithyologists.  Many  of  the 
species  are  extremely  variable,  so  that  some  individuals  of  one 
resemble  the  more  aberrant  individuals  of  another ;  the  species 
are  seldom  separated  by  conspicuous  differences.  The  individuals 
of  a  given  species  vary  considerably  with  age  and  sex,  and  also 
with  habitat  and  external  conditions.  Many  of  the  species  are 
capable  of  breeding  together  and  producing  fertile  olTspring.  The 
characters  which  are  most  constant,  and  on  whose  ditierences  the 
distinction  of  species  chiefly  rests,  are  as  follows  : — (1)  the  form 
of  the  pneoperculum  (the  horizontal  breadth  of  this  bone  at  its 
lower  portion  is  always  small  in  the  young,  but  in  the  adult  it  is 
greater  in  some  species  than  in  others;  (2)  width  and  strength 
of  maxillary  in  adult);  (3)  size  of  teeth;  (4)  arrangement  and  per- 
manence of  vomerine  teeth  ;  (5)  form  of  caudal  fin ;  (6)  pectoral 
iins ;  (7)  size  of  scales  ,  (8)  number  of  vertebrae  ;  (9)  number  of 
pyloric  appendages. 

In  all  the  species  of  Salvia  there  are  teeth  in  the  vomer.  In  the 
Salmons  proper  and  in  the  Trouts  there  are,  in  the  young,  teeth 
both  on  the  head  and  body  of  that  bone,  but  in  some  species  on  the 
body  only ;  some  of  the  teeth  on  the  body  ai'e  deciduous,  and  are  in 
most  of  the  species  shed  at  an  early  age.  In  the  Charrs  there  are 
teeth  on  the  head  of  the  vomer  but  none  on  the  body  of  the  bono 
at  any  period  of  life,  and  none  of  the  vomerine  teeth  are  deciduous. 
The  species  of  true  Trout  are  confined  to  fresh  water,  and  are  not 
migratory.  In  accordance  with  these  peculiarities  some  zoologists 
have  divided  the  genus  Salmo  into  three  subgenera, — Salmn  sensu 
restricto,  Fario,  and  Salvdiiitis.  But  modern  authorities  retain 
only  two  subdivisions, — the  subgenera  Salmo,  including  migratory 
Salmon  and  non-migratory  Trout,  and  Salvelimis,  the  Charrs. 

A.  Subgenus  Salmo. — A  vast  number  of  sjiecies  of  Sabiw  haxe 
been  described  ;  in  the  Brit.  Mits.  Cat.  Dr  Giinther  distinguishes 
fifty-two,  of  which  seven  are  confined  to  the  British  Islands  and 
four  are  found  botli  in  the  British  Islands  and  other  parts  of  the 
world.  Mr  Day  on  the  other  hand  considers  that  all  ^  the  indi- 
genous Salmon  and  Trout  of  the  British  Islands  belon'y  to  two 
species,  Salnio  salar  and  Salmo  tnitla, — Salmo  levciiensis  and 
Salmo  fario  being  varieties  of  the  latter  ;  the  rest  of  the  described 
British  species  he  considers  as  local  varieties  or  subvarietjes"  of 
these. 

(1)  Salmo  salar,  L.  (the  Salmon).  B.  11-12  ;  D.  14 ;  A.  11 ; 
P.  14;  V.  9;  L.  lat.  120;  L.  tiansverse  i|ff| ;  Vert.  59-60;  Cac 
pyl.  53-77.'  Attains  to  a  length  of  4  to  5  feet ;  female  mature  at  a 
length  of  about  15  inches.  Prajoperculum  with  a  distinct  lower 
limb  and  with  the  angle  rounded.  Head  of  vomer  subpentagonal, 
as  long  as  broad,  toothless  ;  the  body  of  the  bone  with  single  series 
of  small  teeth  which  are  gradually  lost  .from  behind  forwards  so 
that  older  examples  only  have  from  one  to  four  left.  Hind  part  of 
body  elongate  and  covered  with  relatively  large  scales.  Young 
■with  about  eleven  dusky  transverse  bars  on  the  sides  ;  half-grown 
and  old  specimens  silvery,  with  small  black  spots  in  miaU  number  ; 
spawning  males  with  numerous  large  black  and  red  spots,  some  of 
the  red  spots  confluent  into  more  or  less  extensure  patches,  especi- 
ally on  the  belly.  An  anadromous  species,  inhabiting  temperate 
Europe  southwards  to  43"  N.  lat ;  not  "found  in  Jlediterranean  ; 
in  Asia  and  America  southwards  to  41°  N.  lat. 

No  varieties  of  Salmo  salar  are  recognized  in  Europe,  but  in 
North  America  there  occurs  one  Salmonoid  which  is  considered  by 
different  authorities  either  as  a  variety  or  a  sub-species,  viz.,  Salmo 
talar,  var,  sebago,  L.  lat.  115.  Body  and  dorsal  and  caudal  fins 
with  sub'quadrangular  or  subcircular  black  spots.  Is  non-migra- 
tory and  occurs  in  soine  of  thrf  lakes  of  Maine  and  New  York  in 
lie  United  States  ;  these  lakes  have  no  communication  with  the 
soa.  Ihis  form  is  called  variously  the  Landlocked  Salmon  or  the 
Schoodic  Salmon. 

>  In  the  formula  usually  preceding  the  diagnosis  or  description  of  a  species  of 
fah,  B^number  of  branchioetegal  rays;  D-number  of  i-ays  In  dorsal  fin;  P  = 
ditto  in  pectoral  fin;  A  =  dltto  in  anal  fln;  V=ditto  in  ventral  fin;  L.  lat.= 
number  of  scalesalong  tlie  lateral  line  ;  L.  transverse  =  number  of  scales  in  the 
oblique  transverse  row  of  the  widest  part  of  the  body,  the  nnmbers  above  and 
Mow  the  line  in  the  fraction  being  those  of~4tie  Scales  above  and  below  the 
Htcra]  line  respectively. 


Tho  troe  Salmo  salar  on  the  American  shore  of  the  Atlantic 
is  sometimes  called  the  P^obscot  Salmon. 

(2)  Salmo trtilta,  Fleming;  Salmo  eriox,  Pamell  {Fishes of  FirOi 
of  Forth)  (Sea-Trout,  Salmon-Trout,  Bull-Trout).  B.  11  ;  D.  13  ; 
A.  11  ;  P.  15  ;  V.  9  ;  L  lat.  120  ;  L.  transverse  |i^ ;  Vert.  69- 
60 ;  Ckc  pyL  49-01.  Attains  to  a  length  of  about  3  feet ; 
female  mature  at  a  length  of  10  to  12  inches.  Head  of  vomer 
triangular,  as  broad  as  long,  toothless,  body  of  the  bono  with  a 
longitudinal  ridge  armed  with  a  single  series  of  teeth,  which  are 
deciduous  ;  generally  only  the  two  or  three  anterior  ones  fotmd 
in  examples  of  more  than  20  inches  in  length.  Silvery,  sometimes 
immaculate,  usually  with  more  or  less  numerous  X-shaped  spots; 
spots  on  the  head  and  dorsal  fin  round  and  readily  disappearing. 
Young  (parr)  with  nine  or  ten  dusky  cross  bars  ;  grilse  with  top  of 
dorsal  and  pectoral  and  with  hind  margin  of  caudal  black.  A 
migratory  species,  occurring  in  the  rivers  falling  into  tho  Baltic 
and  German  Ocean ;  numerous  in  Scotland,  less  frequent  in 
English  and  Irish  rivers. 

(3)  Salmo  cambriciis,  Donov.  (Brit.  Fishes)  (the  Sewen  of  Conch, 
Salmon  Peal).  B.  10-11;  D.  14;  A.  11-12;  P.  16;  V.  9;  L.  lat 
120-125 ;  L.  transverse  ^j^  ;  Vert  59 ;  Csec.  pyl.  39-47.  Attain- 
ing to  a  length  of  3  feet ;  female  mature  at  a  length  of  from  12  to  13 
inches.  Prsoperculum  with  a  distinct  lo^er  limb,  with  the  angle 
rounded  and  with  the  hind  margin  convex  or  undulated,  Bubvertical. 
Head  of  vomer  triangular,  broader  than  long,  toothless  in  adult 
examples,  armed  with  a  few  teeth  across  its  hinder  margin  in 
young  ones ;  body  of  the  bone  with  a  sharp  longitudinal  ridge,  in 
the  sides  of  which  the  teeth  are  inserted,  forming  a  single  series, 
and  alternately  pointing  to  right  and  left.  In  pure-bred  specimens 
these  teeth  are  lost  in  the  grilse  state,  so  that  only  the  two  or  three 
anterior  remain  in  specimens  more  than  12  or  13  inches  long.  Fins 
of  moderate  length  ;  caudal  fin  forked  in  parr  stage,  slightly 
emarginate  in  grilse,  truncate  in  mature  specimens.  This  sjwcies 
loses  the  parr  marks  very  early,  when  only  5  to  6  inches  long  ;  it  L= 
then  bright  silvery.  Greenish  on  the  back,  with  few  small  round 
black  spots  on  the  head  and  sides.  This  coloration  remains  nearly 
unaltered  during  the  further  growth  ot  the  fish,  but  the  spots 
become  more  irregular,  indistinctly  X-shaped.  An  anadromous 
species,  occurring  in  rivers  of  Norway,  Denmark,  Wales,  and 
Ireland.  Mr  Day  {Fishes  of  Great  Britain)  considers  this  form  as 
merely  a  variety  of  Salmo  trtitta. 

(4)  Salmo  fario,  h.  (Trout).  Dr  Giinther  distinguishes  two 
varieties  : — 

{a)  Salmo  fario  gaimardi;  Salmo  gaimardi,  Cuv.  and  Val. ; 
Salmo  trutta,  Gaimard  {Voy.  Is!,  and  Groenl.,  Atl.  Poiss.,  pi.  15, 
fig.  A).  D.  13-14  ;  A.  11-12 ;  P.  14  ;  V.  9  ;  L.  lat  120  ;  L.  trans- 
verse 1^;  Cjec.  pyl.  33-4G ;  Vert  69-60.  Largest  specimen 
observed,  15  inches ;  female  mature  at  a  length  of  7  or  8  inches. 
Head  of  vomer  triangular,  small,  broader  than  long  ;  vomerine  teeth 
in  a  double  series  sometimes  disposed  in  a  zigzag  line,  persistent 
throughout  life.  Sides  with  numerous  round  or  X-shaped  black 
spots  ;  tipper  surface  and  sides  of  the  head  and  the  dorsal,  adipose, 
and  caudal  fins  usually  with  crowded  round  black  spots  ;  dorsal, 
anal,  and  ventral  with  a  black  and  white  outer  edge.  Found  in 
Iceland,  North  Britain,  Ireland,  Scandinavia 

(J)  Salmo  fario  ausonii ;  Salmo  ausonii,  Cuv.  and  Val.  (the 
common  Eiver-Trout).  Formula  as  iiL«,  but  Vert  57-58.  Attains 
to  a  length  of  30  inches ;  female  mature  at  a  length  of  8  inchci 
A  non-migratory  species,  inhabiting  numerous  fresh  waters  of 
Central  Europe,  Sweden,  and  England,  and  rivers  of  the  Maritime 
Alps. 

The  following  forma  are  peculiar  to  the  British  Islands : — 

(5)  Salmo  kvciiatsis.  Walker  {Wem.  Mem.,  i.  p.  541)  (Loch 
Leven  Tront).  D.  13 ;  A.  11 ;  P.  14 ;  V.  9 ;  L.  lat.  118  ;  L.  trans- 
verse |-| ;  Caec.  pyl.  68-80 ;  Vert  59.  Maximum  length  21  inches. 
Teeth  moderately  strong ;  the  head  of  the  vomer  triangular  with  a 
transverse  series  of  two  or  three  teeth  across  its  base  ;  the  teeth  of 
the  body  of  the  vomer  form  a  single  series  and  are  persistent 
throughout  life.  Upper  parts  brownish  or  greenish  olive ;  sides 
of  the  head  with  roimd  black  spots  ;  sides  of  the  body  with 
X-shaped,  sometimes  rounded,  brown  spots.  Dorsal  and  adipose 
fins  vrith  ntimerous  small  brown  spots.  A  non-migratory  species, 
inhabiting  Loch  Leven  and  other  lakes  of  southern  ScotLind  and 
northern  England.  This  species  is  considered  by  Mr  Day  as  a 
variety  of  S.  trutta, 

(6)  S.  brachyj)oma,  Giinther ;  i'.  eriox,  Pamell  {Fish.  Firth  of 
Forth).  D.  13 ;  A.  10-11 ;  P.  14  ;  V.  9 ;  L.  lat.  118-128 ;  L  trans- 
verse fj  ;  Caec.  pyl.  45-47  ;  Vert  59.  Praeoperculnm  with  scarcely 
a  trace  of  lower  limK  Teeth  rather  strong  ;  those  of  the  vomer 
in  double  series,  but  in  zigzag  line.  Jlost  of  them  are  lost  in 
specimens  17  inctae  long,  only  a  few  of  the  anterior  remaining. 
Sides  of  the  body  with  X-shaped  or  oceUated  black  spots,  some  red 
spots  along  and  below  the  lateral  line ;  dorsal  fin  with  round  black 
spots.  Dorsal,  anal,  and  ventral  fins  with  a  white  and  black  outer 
margin  va  young  examples.  A  migratory  species,  from  the  rivers 
Forth,  Tweed, .and  Ouss.  According  to  Mr  Day,  it  is  identical  witk 
the  White  Salmon  of  Pennant  and  Salmo  albus  of  Cuv.  and  Val, 


SALMONID^ 


223 


ill  of  them  being  considered  by  Day  as  a  rariety,  S.  albus,  of  Salmo 
tnUta. 

(7)  S.  gallivcnsis,  Gunther.  An  anadromous  species  from  Galway, 
distinguished  by  the  acutely  pointed  but  not  elongate  snout,  broad 
convex  head,  small  eye,  feeble  teeth,  feeble  maxillary  and  mandible, 
and  by  extremely  thin  and  short  pyloric  appendages,  which  are  not 
longer  than  one  inch  nor  thicker  than  a  pigeon's  quill.  According 
to  Day  a  variety  of  S.  fario. 

(8)  S.farox,  Jard.  and  ?>e\hy  [Edinh.  Nev>Philos.  Journal,  1835, 
xviii.).  A  non-migratory  species  inhabiting  the  large  lochs  of  the 
north  of  Scotland  and  several  lakes  of  the  north  of  England, 
Wales,  and  Ireland.  Prseopercnlum  crescent-shaped,  the  hinder 
and  lower  margins  passing  into  each  other  without  forming  an 
angle.     According  to  Day  a  variety  of  S.  fario. 

(9)  S.  orcadcnsis,  Giinther,  from  Loch  Stennis  in  Orkney. 

(10)  5".  stomachicus,  Giinther  (the  Gillaroo).  From  lakes  of 
Ireland.     Thick  stomach.     Feeds  on  shells  (Limnsxts,  Aneyhis). 

(11)  S,  nigripinnis,  Giinther.  Non -migratory  species  inhabiting 
mountain  pools  of  Wales,  also  Lough  Melvin,  Ireland. 

Day  mentions  also  the  following  varieties  of  S.  fario  :— 

S.  comubicnsis,  Walb.,  Artedi ; 

Swaledale  trout,  from  Swaledale,  TorKshire  ;  and 
Crassapuill  trout,  from  Loch  Crassapuill,  Sutherlandshire. 

Many  species  of  Salmo  exist  which  are  confined  to  limited  areas 
in  the  continent  of  Europe.  An  account  of  these  is  given  in  the 
Brit.  Mus.  Catalogue,  which  also  contains  references  to  the  litera- 
ture. One  of  these,  S.  macrosligma,  Dumeril,  is  a  non-migratory 
form  occurring  in  Algeria,  and  is  the  southernmost  species  of  the 
Old  World.  Three  nou-niigratory  species  exist  in  the  rivers 
belonging  to  the  basin  of  the  Adriatic.  In  the  Alpine  lakes  of 
central  Europe  five  species  are  known,  which  resemble  ia.  habits 
the  forms  found  in  British  lakes,  ascending  the  streams  which 
feed  the  lakes,  in  order  to  spawn.  Two  of  these  species  inliabit 
the  Lake  of  Constance,  one  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  Fario  argentcus, 
Cuv.  and  Val.,  found  in  the  Atlantic  rivers  of  France,  is  con- 
sidered by  Dr  Gunther  a  distinct  species,  by  Mr  Day  as  a  synonym 
of  S.  trutia.  One  migratory  species  is  known  from  the  Eid^ord 
river  in  Norway  ;  two  land-locked  species  from  Lake  Wener  in 
Sweden. 

The  species  of  Salmo  belonging  to  the  Pacific  Coast  of  North 
America  have  been  described  by  Kichards  in  Faun.  Bor.  Avier., 
by  Suckley  in  Hat.  Bist.  Ifashington  Territory,  and  by  Girard  in 
Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sc.  Philad.  Only  one  species  need  be  mentioned 
here,  and  that  on  account  of  the  importance  it  has  acquired  in 
connexion  with  the  work  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  : — 

Salmo  xrtdeus.  Gibbons  (Proc.  Cal.  Ac.  Nat.  Sc,  1855,  p.  36); 
Salar  iridea,  Girard  (Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sc.  Philad.,  1856,  p.  220 
and  U.  S.  Fac.  B.  R.  £xplor.—Fish,  p.  821,  pi.  73,  f.  5,  and  pi.  74) 
(the  Califomian,  Mountain,  or  Kainbow  Trout).  B.  10  ;  D.  14  ; 
A.  14  ;  L.  lat.  140.  Caudal  deeply  emarginate.  Body  and  dorsal 
and  caudal  fins  with  numerous  small  black  spots.  A  non -migratory 
opccies  in  rivers  of  Upper  California. 

For  the  same  reason  as  in  tlie  preceding  case,  the  following 
species  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  North  American  continent  is 
introduced : — 

Salmo  namaycush,  Penn  {Arct.  Zool.,  ii.  p.  l39),  Cuv.  and  Val. 
(xjci.  p.  348)  (Lake  Trout).  B.  11-12  ;  D.  18-14  ;  A.  12  ;  V.  9  ;  L. 
lat.  220.  I'rsEoporculum  very  short,  without  lower  limb  ;  head 
very  large.  Teeth  strong  ;  those  on  the  vomer  persistent  through- 
out life,  and  in  single  series.  Inhabits  all  the  great  lakes  of  the 
northern  part  of  North  America. 

B.  Subgenus  SALVELiNns  : — 

Salmo  alpinus,  L.  (the  Charr,  Yarrell,  Brit.  Fishes,  8d  ed.). 
D.  13;  A.  12;  P.  13;  V.  10;  L.  lat.  195-200;  Vert.  59-62; 
CiBC.  pyl.  36-42.  Body  slightly  compressed  and  elongate.  Length 
of  head  equal  to  height  of  body  in  mature  specimens  and  two- 
ninths  or  one-fifth  of  total  length  ;  maxillary  extends  but  little 
beyond  the  orbit  in  the  fully  adult  fish.  Eyo  one-half,  or  less 
than  one-half,  of  the  width  of  the  interorbital  space.  Teeth  of 
moderate  size.  Inhabits  lakes  of  Scandinavia,  Scotland  (Holier 
Lake,  Hoy  Island,  Orkneys ;  Sutherlaudshiro  ;  Loch  Koy,  Inver- 
ness-shire), and  probably  Iceland. 

S.  killincnsis,  Gunther  (/Voc.  Zool.  Soc,  1865,  p.  699).  D.  14- 
15;  A.  13;  P.  13;  V.  9;  L.  lat.  180;  Vert.  62;  Ca;c.  pyl.  44- 
52.  Head,  upper  pai-ts,  and  fins  brownish  black  ;  lower  parts 
with  an  orange-coloured  tingo  in  tlia  male ;  sides  with  very 
small,  light,  inconspicuous  spots.  Anterior  margins  of  the  lower 
fins  white  or  liglit-orangocoloured.  Loch  Killin,  Invomese-shiro. 
Considered  by  Mr  Day  as  a  variety  of  S.  alpinus. 

S.,  vnlluqhbii,  Giinther  {Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1862,  p.  48,  pi.  6)  • 
Charr,  Willughby  (///,<  Pise,  p.  186),  Penn  (Urit.  Zool.),  and 
Yarrell  (Brit.  Fish.,  3d  cd.)  (the  Charr  of  Wimlermoro).  D  12- 
13  ;  A.  12  ;  P.  13-14  ;  V.  9-10  ;  L.  lat.  165  ;  Vert.  69-C2  ;  CiBC. 
pyl.  32-44.  Sides  with  red  dots;  belly  red;  pectoral,  vuutral. 
and  anal  with  white  margins.  Lake  of  Windermere  ;  Loch  Bruiach 
(Scotland).     Considered  by  Mr  Day  as  a  variety  of  S.  alpinxu. 

8.  pcriaii,  Gunther  (Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  llist.,  1805,  p.  75); 


Torgoch,  Willughby  (Hist.  Pise.)  and  Penn  (.BriL  Zool.)  (the 
Torgoch  or  Red  Charr).  D.  13  :  A.  12  ;  P.  12  ;  V.  9  ;  L.  lat.  170  ; 
Vert.  61  ;  Ca:c.  pyl.  36.  Sides  with  numerous  red  dots  ;  belly  red 
in  the  mature  fish ;  pectoral,  ventral,  and  anal  with  white 
margins.  Lakes  of  North  Wales  (IJanberris).  Considered  by  Mr 
Day  as  a  variety  of  S.  alpinus. 

S.  grayi,  Giinther  (Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1862,  p.  61).  D.  i3  ;  A.  i2  ; 
P.  13-14;  V.  9;  L.  lat.  125;  Vert.  60;  Ca;c.  pyl.  37.  Sides 
with  scattered  light-orange-coloured  dots ;  belly  uniform  silvery 
whitish,  or  with  a  li^ht-red  shade  ;  fins  blackish.  Lough  Melvin, 
Ireland.     Considered  by  Mr  Day  as  a  variety  of  S.  alpintts. 

S.  coin,  Giinther  (Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1863)  (Cole's  Charr,  Couch, 
Fish.  Brit.  Isles).  D.  14;  A.  12;  P.  13  ;  V.  9  ;  L.  lat.  160; 
Vert.  63  ;  Csec.  pyl.  42.  Bluish  black  above  ;  sides  silvery  with 
scattered  light-salnion-colonred  dots ;  belly  reddish ;  fins  black, 
tho  anal  and  the  paired  fins  with  a  reddish  tinge,  the  anal  and 
ventrals  with  a  narrow  whitish  margin.  A  small  species  7  to  8 
inches  long  from  Loughs  Eske  and  Dan,  Ireland.  Considered  by 
Mr  Day  as  a  variety  of  ,5'.  alpinus. 

The  above  are  all  the  British  species. 

8.  ■umbla,  L.  (Syst.  Nat.),  Cuv.  ana  Val.  D.  12  ;  A.  12-13  •  P 
14  ;  V.  9  ;  L.  lat.  200  ;  Vert.  65  ;  Ca;c.  pyl.  36.  Commonly  called 
in  French  Ombre  Chevalier.  Lower  parts  whitish  or  but  slichtly 
tinged  with  red.  Lakes  of  Constance,  Neuchatel,  and  Geneva. 
Considered  by  Mr  Day  as  identical  i\-ith  S.  alpinus.  Other  species 
have  been  described  from  lakes  in  Europe  and  Asia,  buc  are  imper- 
fectly known  ;  for  an  account  of  them  see  Giinther's  Catalogue. 

The  following  American  species  of  Charr  is  one  of  those  cultivated 
by  tho  American  Fish  Commission  : — 

S.  (Salvelimis)  fontinalis,  Mitch.  (Trans.  Lit.  and  Phil.  Soc., 
New  York,  i.  p.  435),  Cav.  and  Val.  (xxL  p.  266)  (Brook  Trout)' 
B.  12;  D.  12;  A.  10;  L.  lat.  2C0;  Caec.  pyl.  34.  No  median  series 
of  teeth  along  tho  hyoid  bone.  Prceotierculum  short  in  longitudinal 
direction,  with  the  lower  limb  very  indistinct.  Ri.ers  and  lokes  of 
British  North  America,  and  of  tho  northern  pai-tc  of  the  United 
States.     Introduced  in  Britain. 

2.  Of  the  genus  Osmems  only  three  species  are  described  in  the 
Brit.  Mus.  Cat. ,  one  of  which  is  British  : — 

Osmerus  eperlanus,  Lucep.,  Linn,  (the  Smelt;  Fr.,  J^perlan; 
Scotch,  Sparling  or  Spirting).  B.  8  ;  D.  11  ;  A.  13-16  ;  P.  11  ;  V. 
8  ;  L.  lat  60-62  ;  L.  transverse  -/i ;  Csc.  pyl.  2-6  ;  Vert.  60-62. 
Height  of  body  much  less  than  length  of  the  bead,  which  is  a  quarter 
or  two-ninths  of  the  total  length  to  base  of  caudal  fin.  Snout  pro- 
duced. Vomerine  teeth  and  anterior  lingual  teeth  large,  fang  like  ; 
posterior  mandibular  teeth  larger  than  the  anterior  ones,  which  form 
a  double  series,  the  inner  series  containing  stronger  teeth  than,  tho 
outer  one.  Back  transparent,  greenish  ;  sides  suvcry.  Adult  size 
10  or  12  inches.  Coasts  and  numerous  fresh  waters  of  northern  and 
central  Europe. 

Osmerus  viridescens,  Lesueur,  another  species  scarcely  distinct 
from  0.  eperlanus,  but  with  scales  a  little  smaller,  occurring  on  the 
Atlantic  side  of  the  United  States. 

Osmerus  tlialeichthya,  Ayres,  occurs  abundantly  in  the  Bay  of  San 
Francisco. 

3.  Of  Coregonua  forty-ono  species  are  described  in  the  Brit. 
Mies.  Cat.     Four  species  are  found  in  Britain  : — 

C.  oxj/rAt/nc/iiw,  Kroyer,  Linn.,  Cuv.  and  Val.  (xii.).  Called  the 
Bouting  in  Holland.  J).  9  ;  D.  14  ;  A.  14-16  ;  L.  lat.  75-81  ;  L. 
transverse  ^-j^-"- ;  Vert  58.  Snout  produced,  with  tho  upper  jaw 
protruding  beyond  tho  lower,  and  in  adult  specimens  produced 
into  a  ilesliy  cone.  Length  of  the  lower  limb  of  operculum  IJ  to 
IJ  times  that  of  the  upper.  Pectoral  as  Ion"  as  the  head  without 
snout  Found  on  coasts  and  in  estuaries  of  HoUalid,  Germany, 
Denmark,  and  Sweden.  Ca|iturcd  recently  (tlireo  specimens 
only)  in  Lincolnshire,  near  Chichester,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Medway. 

C.  clupcoidcs,  LaciSptde  ;  C.  pcnnantii,  Cuv.  and  VaL  (the  Gwy- 
niad  of  Lako  Bala,  Schelly  of  Ullswaler,  Powan  of  Loch  Lomoua ; 
sometimes  called  the  Freshwater  Herring).  B.  9 ;  D.  14-15 ;  A.  13- 
16  ;  L.  lat  73-90;  L.  transverse  -h;  Ca;c.  pyl.  120;  Vert  38/20. 
Snout  with  upper  jaw  not  produced.  Pectoral  larger  than  tlie  head. 
Fins  black  or  nearly  so.    Lakes  of  Great  Britain. 

C.  vaiulcsitis,  liichards  (Faun.  Bor.  Amer.);  C.  albula,  Cuv.  and 
Val.  (the  Vendaco).  D.  11  ;  A.  13  ;  V.  11  ;  L.  lat.  68-71  ;  L. 
transverse  va ;  Vert  60.  Castle  Loch,  Lochmabcn  iu  Dumfries- 
shire. 

C.  pollan,  Thompson  (Proc.  Zool  Soc.,  1835),  Cuv.  and  Val.  (tho 
Pollan).  D.  13-14;  A.  12-13;  V.  12;  L  lat  80-Stf ;  L.  transverse 
A;  Vert  60-61.  Two  jaws  of  same  length.  Teeth  if  present 
very  minute.  Bluish  along  tho  back,  silvery  along  tho  sides  and 
beneath.  Usual  length  ol  adults  10  to  U  inches,  maximum  13 
inches.  Ireland,  iu  Loughs  Nrjtgh,  Erne,  Dcrg,  Corrib,  and  tho 
Shannon. 

'i'liirty-Kovcn  speeies  of  Coregonus  have  been  distinguished 
bosiuos  these  four.  Some  ore  migratory  ;  but  tho  greater  numlior 
are  inhabitants  of  large  lakes.  The  anadromous  species  are  confined 
to  the  Arctic  Sea,  aud  tho  greater  number  belong  to  th«  coast  aud 


224 


S  A  L  lAI  0  N  I  D  .« 


livera  of  Siberia.  Several  aistlnct  species  occur  in  the  lakes  of 
Sweden  ;  a  few  are  found  in  the  lakes  of  Switzerland  and  central 
Europe.  C.  hUmalis  is  peculiar  to  the  Lake  of  Constance.  Several 
species  inhabit  the  great  freshwater  lakes  connected  with  the  river 
St  Lawrence  of  North  America,  and  the  lakes  farther  to  the  north. 
One  of  these  is  cultivated  by  the  American  Fish  Commission  : — 

Coregoniis  dupei/ormis,  Mitchell,  Dekay  (iVew  York  Fauna, 
Fish),  Cuv.  and  Val.,  Agassiz  {Lake  Superior)  (the  Shad 
Salmon,  Freshwater  Herring,  Whitefish).  D.  12  ;  A.  14  ;  L.  lat. 
76-77  ;  L.  transverse  tV  The  snout  is  pointed,  and  there  is  an 
appendage  to  the  ventral  fin  which  is  half  as  long  as  the  fin  itself. 
[Length  of  adult  11  to  13  inches.     Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario. 

4.  Only  one  species  of  ThymallnB  occurs  iu  the  British  Islands  : — 
Thymallus  vtilgaris,  Nilsson  ;    Thymallus  vexilli/er,  Cuv.  and 

Val.  (the  Grayling ;  French,  L'Ombre ;  Italian,  Temelo).  B. 
7-8  ;  D.  20-23  ;  A.  13-16  ;  P.  16 ;  V.  10-U  ;  L  lat.  75-85  ;  L. 
^nsverse  jli,  ;  Csc.  pyl.  22;  Vert.  39/22.  Length  of  head  two- 
ninths  or  one-fifth  of  total  length  to  base  of  caudal ;  posterior 
dorsal  rays  somewhat  produced  in  adult.  Grows  to  15  inches  in 
length.  A  freshwater  Ssh,  common  in  many  of  the  rivei's  of 
England,  introduced  into  some  of  those  of  southern  Scotland  ; 
absent  from  Ireland.  It  is  widely  distributed  in  central  and 
northern  Europe,  occurring  in  Lapland,  Sweden,  Lake  of  Constance, 
the  Isar,  and  the  Danube.     Adult  size  about  15  inches. 

Thymallm  mliani,  Cuv.  and  Val.  {ei/iahXos,  Ml.,  xiv.  22),  occurs 
in  Lago  Maggiore.  One  species  has  been  described  from  Siberia, 
and  two  are  Known  inhabiting  Lake  Michigan  and  the  waters  of 
British  North  America, 

5.  Of  Argentina  four  species  are  described  in  the  JBrit.  3fus.  Cat. , 
namely :— Argentina  silus,  Nilsson,  occurring  off  the  north-west 
coast  of  Norway,  Argentina  sphyrasna,  L.,  from  the  Jlediterranean. 
Argentina  hebridica,  Nilsson,  found  on  the  coasts  of  Norway  and 
Scotland,  and  Argentina  lioglossa,  Cuv.  and  VaL  According  to  Mr 
Day,  two  of  these,  A.  sphyrsna  and  A.  hebridica  are  identical,  the 
species  ranging  from  the  coast  of  Norway  and  east  and  west  shores 
of  Scotland  to  the  Mediterranean.  The  followipg  is  the  formula  of 
A.  licbridica,  Nilsson,  according  to  Giinther: — D.  9-11  ;  A.  13  (12) ; 
P.  13-14  ;  V.  11  ;  L.  lat.  62-53  ;  Cceo.  pyl.  14-20  ;  Vert.  62.  The 
scales  with  minute  spines. 

6.  The  species  of  Oncorhynchna  are  all  anadromons,  and  are  oon- 
fined  to  AJuerican  and  Asiatic  rivers  flowing  into  the  Pacific. 
O.  gidnnat,  Richardson  =  0.  chouicha  occurs  in  the  river  Sacra- 
mento, and  is  cultivated  by  the  American  Fish  Commission. 

7.  8.  For  Brachymystax  and  Luciotmtta,  see  p.  221  above. 

9.  PlecoglosBus  comprises  small  aberrant  freshwater  species 
abundant  iu  Japan  and  the  island  of  Formosa. 

10.  Eetropinna  contains  but  one  species,  R  richardsonii,  which 
is  known  as  the  New  Zealand  Smelt.  It  is  common  on  the  coasts 
of  New  Zealand,  ascending  estuaries.  Like  Osmerus  eperlanus,  it 
is  landlocked  infresh  water  in  some  localities. 

11.  12.  The  species  of  Hypomesus  and  Thaleichthys  occur  jm  tlie 
Pacific  coast  of  North  America.  Thaleichthys  pacificus,  Girard,  is 
caught  in  vast  numbers  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Vancouver  Island ; 
it  is  extremely  fat,  and  is  used  as  a  torch  when  dried,  and  also  as 
food.     It  is  called  locally  the  Eulachan  or  Oulachan. 

13.  Of  Mallotus  only  one  species  is  described  by  Giinther: — 
Mallotus  villosus,  Cuv.  and  VaL,  MiiU.  (the  Capelin  ;   French, 

Capelan).  B.  8-10  ;  D.  13-14  ;  A.  21-23  ;  P.  18-20  ;  V.  8 ;  Ca;c. 
pyl.  6  ;  Vert.  68.  Brownish  on  the  back,  silvery  on  the  sides. 
Operculum  silvery  with  minute  brown  dots.  Shores  of  Arctic  North 
America  and  of  Kamchatka. 

14.  Of  the  genus  Salanx  two  species  are  known: — Salanx 
chinensis,  Giinther,  Osbeck,  wliich  is  common  on  the  coast  of  China 
and  called  "  Whitebait "  at  Macao,  and  Salanx  microdon,  Bleeker, 
from  the  rivers  of  Jeddo. 

15.  Microstoma. — AT.  rotundatum,  Risso,  is  marine  and  occurs 
in  the  Mediterranean  ;  it  is  not  anadromons.  It  is  the  only 
species  of  the  genus  kno^vn,  unless  the  Microstonius  gronlandicus, 
described  by  Reinhardt,  from  the  Sea  of  Greenland,  really  belongs 
to  this  genus. 

16.  For  Bathylagus,  see  p.  222  abofa 

Zife  Eistory  of  ths  Salmon  and  Allied  Species. 

TTp  to  a  period  not  many  years  past,  when  our  knowledge  of  the 
breeding  and  life  history  of  the  salmon  and  kindred  species  was 
based  entirely  on  desultory  observations  of  the  fish  in  their  natural 
conditions,  there  existed  a  great  deal  of  uncertainty  and  diversity 
of  opinion  .on  the  subject.  Within  the  last  twenty  or  thirty- 
years  the  extensive  practice  of  aalmon-culture  has  removed  nearly 
all  obscurity  from  the  phenomena,  and  the  history  of  Salmonoids 
is  now  more  accurately  known  than  that  of  most  other  fishes. 

The  salmon  proper,  Salmo  salar,  breeds  in  the  shallow  running 
waters  of  the  upper  streams  of  the  rivers  it  ascends.  The  female, 
when  about  to  deposit  her  eggs,  scoops  out  a  trough  in  the  gravel 
of  the  bed  of  the  stream.  TMs  she  effects  by  lying  on  her  side  and 
plcugUing  into  the  gravel  by  energetic  motions  of  her  body.     She 


then  deposits  her  eggs  in  the  trough  ;  while  she  U  engaged  in  these 
operations  she  is  attended  by  a  male,  who  sheds  milt  over  the  eggs 
as  the  femtle  extrudes  them,  fertilization  being,  as  in  the  great 
majority  of  Teleostei,  external.  The  parent  fish  then  fill  up  the 
trough  and  heap  up  the  gravel  over  the  eggs  until  these  are  covered 
to  a  depth  of  some  feet.  The  gravel  heap  thus  formed  is  called  a 
"  redd.  '  The  period  o/  the  year  at  which  spawning  takes  place  in 
the  British  Isles,  and  m  similar  latitudes  of  the  northern  hemir 
sphere,  varies  to  a  certain  extent  with  the  locality,  and  iu  a  given 
locality  may  vary  in  different  years  ;  but,  with  rare  exceptions, 
spawning  is  confined  to  the  period  between  the  beginning  of 
September  and  the  middle  of  January. 

The  eggs  of  Salmo  salar  are  spherical  and  non-adhesive  ;  they 
are  heavier  than  water,  and  are  moderately  tough  and  elastic.  The 
size  varies  sliglitly  with  the  age  of  the  parent  fish,  those  from  fuU- 
sized  females  being  slightly  larger  than  those  from  very  young  fish. 
According  to  rough  calculations  made  at  salmon-breeding  establish- 
ments, there  are  25,000  eggs  to  a  gallon  ;  the  diameter  is  about 
a  quarter  of  an  inch.  It  is  usually  estimated  that  a'female  salmon 
produces  about  900  eggs  for  each  pound  of  her  own  weight ;  but 
this  average  is  often  exceeded. 

The  time  between  fertilization  and  hatching,  or  the  escape  of 
the  young  fish  from  the  egg-membrane,  varies  considerably  with 
the  temperature  to  which  the  eggs  are  exposed.  It  has  been  found 
that  at  a  constant  temperature  of  41°  F.  the  period  is  97  days ; 
but  the  period  may  be  as  short  as  70  days  and  as  long  as  150  days 
without  injury  to  the  health  of  the  embryo.  It  follows  therefore 
that  in  the  natural  conditions  eggs  deposited  in  the  autumn  are 
hatched  in  the  early  spring.  The  newly  hatched  fish,  or  "  alevin," 
is  provided  with  a  very  large  yolk-sac,  and  by  the  absorption  of 
the  yolk  contained  in  this  the  young  creature  is  nourished  for 
some  time  ;  although  its  mouth  is  fully  formed  and  open,  it  takes 
no  food.  The  alevin  stage  lasts  for  about  six  weeks,  and  at  the 
end  of  it  the  young  fish  is  about  1 J  inches  long.  During  the  next 
period  of  its  fife  the  young  salmou  is  called  a  "parr,"  and  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  possession  of  a  number  of  dark  transverse  marks 
along  the  sides,  known  as  "parr  marks."  These  marks  occur  in 
the  young  stage  of  many  species  among  the  Salmonidtg.  The  parr 
doubles  its  length  in  about  four  months. 

The  great  majority  of  parr  remain  in  fresh  water  for  two  yeara 
after  hatching,  at  the  end  of  which  time  they  are  about  8  inches 
in  length.  The  second  spring  after  they  are  hatched  they  develop 
a  coating  of  bright  silvery  scales  'which  completely  conceals  the 
p^rr  marks,  and  they  pass  into  a  stage  in  which  they  are  known 
as  "?molts."  The  smolt  is  similar  to  the  adult  salmon  in  all 
respects  except  size,  and  the  young  salmon,  as  soon  as  the  smolt 
stage  is  reached,  migrates  down  the  rivers  to  the  sea. 

The  above  facts  have  been  established  within  recent  years  by 
accurate  observation  and  experiment,  n  Not  very  long  ago  it  was  a 
disputed  question  whjther  the  parr  was  the  young  salmon  or  a 
distinct  species  of  fish.  That  the  former  view  was  correct  was  first 
experimentally  proved  by  Mr  John  Shaw,  gamekeeper  to  the  duke 
of  Buccleuch,  Dnmilanrig,  Dumfriesshire,  who  in  1833  isolated 
several  parrs  in  a  pond,  and  found  that  in  April  1834  they  changed 
into  smolts  ;  an  account  of  this  experiment  was  published  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.  The  question  is 
now  of  merely  historical  interest,  for  at  the  present  time  large  num- 
bers of  parr  are  hatched  at  various  fish -hatching  establishments 
every  season.  By  observation  at  these  establishments,  the  know- 
ledge of  the  history  of  the  parr  and  the  migi-ation  of  the  smolt 
which  had  been  gained  by  the  study  of  the  fish  in  their  natural 
conditions  has  been  rendered  more  accurate  and  complete.'  It  has 
been  conclusively  ascertained  that  some  parr  become  smolts  and 
migrate  to  the  sea  in  the  spring  following  that  in  which  they  were 
hatched,  while  the  great  majority  remain  in  the  parr  stage  imtil 
the  second  spring,  and  a  few  do  no'  attain  to  the  smolt  condition 
until  the  third  year.  The  male  parr  when  only  7  or  8  inches  in 
length  is  often  sexually  mature,  the  milt  being  capable  of  fertilizing 
the  ova  of  an  adult  female  salmon. 

The  migration  of  smolts  to  the  sea  takes  place  in  all  rivers  at 
about  the  same  time  of  the  year,  viz.,  between  March  and  June. 
Sometimes  the  smolts  are  observed  descending  in  large  shoals. 
Pormerly  angling  for  the  descending  smolts  was  a  recognized  sport, 
but  their  capture  is  now  illegal.  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  most 
competent  authorities  that  the  smolts  increase  with  wonderful 
rapidity  in  size  and  weight  when  they  reach  the  sea,  and  then 
return  to  the  rivers  after  a  few  months,  during  the  same  year,  as 
"grilse,"  which  name  is  given  to  sexually  mature  salmon  up  to  a 
little  over  5  lb  in  weight  It  is  surprising  that  a'  smolt  weighing 
only  a  few  ounces  should  increase  to  3  or  4  or  even  6  lb  in  about 
three  months.  Nevertheless  it  has  been  proved  by  actual  experi- 
ment that  this  is  the  fact.  At  Stormontfield,  in  May  1855,  1800 
smolts  Were  marked  by  cutting  off  the  adipose  fin,  and  22  of  these 

*  The  first  Important  Beries  of  experimenta  on  the  growth  and  life  history  of 
the  salmon  was  made  at  the  salmon-hatchery  of  Stormontfield  near  Peilh  in  1862 
and  some  previona'vears.  The  restilts  are  detailed  in  a  work  entitled  Stormont. 
field  Experimcnti,  1862. 


bALMONlDiE 


225 


were  rpcaptnred  the  same  summer  as  grilse,  weighing  from  3  ft 
upwards.  It  might  be  supposed  that  some  bmo  ts  do  not  return 
as  grilse  till  the  summer  following  the  year  of  theiv  descent,  tho 
time  of  their  stay  in  the  sea  being  variable,  as  is  thii  period  spent 
by  parr  in  the  rivers.  But  aU  tho  evidence  is  against  tins  supposi- 
tion: grilse  never  commence  ascending  till  late  in  summer ;  if  they 
had  been  more  than  a  year  in  the  sea,  some  would  probably  ascend 
early  in  the  season,  as  do  the  larger  salmon.  At  the  same  time  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  fish  whicli  remamed  in  the  sea  a  year 
after  descending  as  a  smolt  might  not  be  recognized  as  a  grilse, 
havin"  reached  the  size  of  a  small  salmon.  .    .     ^. 

The°'n-Use,  after  spawning  in  autumn,  return  agam  to  the  sea  m 
the  winter  or  following  spring,  and  reascend  the  rivers  as  mature 
snawriin'  salmon  in  the  following  year.  Both  salmon  aiid  grilse 
afterspaw^n"  are  called  "kelts.'^  'ihe  following  recorded  e^er._ 
ment  iLstrat°es  the  growth  of  grUse  into  salmon  :-a  g"lse^e1t  of 
2  ft  was  marked  on  March  31, 1858,  and  recaptured  on  August  2  of 

the  same  year  as  a  salmon  of  8  ft.  , 

The  ascentof  rivers  by  adult  salmon  is  not  so  regular  as  that 
,f  f^Isrand  the  knowledge  of  the  subject  is  not  at  the  presen 
time  complete.  Although  salmon  scarcely  ever  spawn  before  the 
monthTf^September,  thty  do  not  ascend  in  shoals  just  before  that 
^^on  the  time  of  ascent  extends  throughout- the  spring  and  - 
summer  A  salmon  newly  arrived  in  fresh  water  from  the  sea  is 
calTeS  a  clean  salmon,  on  account  of  its  bright,  well-fed  appearance  ; 
during  their  stay  in  the  rivers  the  fish  lose  the  briUiancy  of  their 
S  and  deteriorate  in  condition.  The  time  of  year  at  which 
Sn  Xon  ascend  from  the  sea  varies  greatly  in  d.tferent  rivers  ; 
and  ri^eV^  are,  in  relation  to  this  subject,  usually  denominated 
^rly"r  late.  The  Scottish  rivers  flowing  into  the  German  Ocean 
Tnd  Pen  land  Firth  are  almost  all  eariy,  ^^■hlle  those  of  the  Atlantic 
slope  are  late.  The  Thurso  in  Caithness  and  the  Naver  m  Suther- 
Shire  contain  fresh-run  salmon  in  December  and  January  ;  the 
l^e  s  the  case  with  the  Tay.  In  Yorkshire  salmon  commence 
thdr  ^cent  in  July.  August,  or  September  if  the  season  is  wet 
but  if^t  is  drv  their  migration  is  delayed  till  the  autjimn  rains  set 
to  In  all  rivers  more  falmon  ascend  immediately  after  a  spa  e  or 
flood  than  when  the  river  is  low,  and  more  with  the  flood  tide  than 

''"{iTfhek  as«nt  salmon  are  able  to  pass  obstructions,  such  ^water- 
falls and  weirs  of  considemble  heigl^t,  and  the  leaps  they  make  in 
surmounting  such  impediments  and  the  persistence  of  their  efforts 
a,^  very  remarkable  ^n  a  great  many  rivers  anadromous  Salmon- 
oids  have  been  excluded  from  the  upper  reaches  by  artificial 
obstructions,  such  as  dams  and  weirs,  constructed  for  the  purpose 
of  utiliz  ng  the  water  of  the  stream,  or  to  obtain  wa  er  power, 
o  simpW  to  facilitate  the  capture  of  the  fish.  Other  rivers  bave 
been  rendered  uninhabitable  to  salmon  by  pollutions.  The  state 
of  the  Thames  within  the  boundaries  of  London  has  since  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century  excluded  Salmonoids  entirely 
from  the  river;  but  every  season  salmon  and  g"'";  ^J'^.J^'f " '"  °^ 
near  the  Thames  estuary,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  if  the  water 
Sd  Lin  be  rendered  moderately  clear,  and  if  fish-ways  were 
provide?  at  tho  impassable  weirs,  the  upper  waters  ot  the  Thames 
would  again  be  frequented  by  salmon  and  migratory  trout. 

The  U7e  history  of  Salmo  IruUa  and  S.  cambncus  is  very  similar 
to  that  of  Sabno  salar.  Tho  river  trout,  S.  fario,  makes  a  redd 
in  the  shallower  parts  of  streams  in  the  same  manner  as  the  salmon 
tSc  only  difference  being  that  the  mound  of  gravel  forming  the  redd 
is  smaller  the  egg  lying  from  one  to  two  feet  below  the  surface. 
The  beding  period  of  the  trout  varies  in  different  rivers,  withm 
the  limits  o!  September  and  March.  >  The  number  of  eggs  pro- 
duced by  each  female  is  about  800  for  every  pound  of  the  parents 
weight ;  about  40,000  of  the  eggs  make  a  gallon,  so  that  they  are 
coniide  ably  smaller  than  those  of  S.  salar  The  trout  of  Loch 
Leven,  S.  Icvcnensis,  ascend  the  stream.s  feeding  the  loch  m  order 
to  spaU,  at  the  end  of  September  and  beginning  of  October.  The 
habits  of  other  species  of  lake  trout  arc  simUar  to  thoso  of  S. 

''"riiT^harrs  differ  from  lake  trout  in  tno  fact  that  they  do  not 
ao-end  streams  in  order  to  spawn,  but  form  their  redds  m  the 
cravellv  shallows  of  the  lakes  they  inhabit.  Tho  spawning  period 
of  tho  charr  of  the  Cumberland  lake  district  is  from  tho  beginning 
of  November  to  the  beginning  of  December,  fho  eggs  of  the 
charr  bave  been  found  to  hatct.  in  from  GO  t^  90  days,  tho  great 
majority  in  70  days,  at  an  average  temperature  of  40  !•.  Iho 
American  species,  k  fmlinalis,  breeds  at  about  tho  same  time  as 
S.  fario ;  its  eggs  are  only  half  tho  8iz3  of  those  of  the  latter. 

The  smelt,  y.  cpcrlanus.  is  a  gregarious  fish  and  exhibits 
regulnr  migrations  in  most  estuaries.  „!' »,<=°"'"'5"' !"  theSolway 
the  Kirth  of  Forth,  tho  rivors  ot  Norfolk,  and  the  estuary  of 
the  Thames.  In  most  places  where  it  is  found  it  remains  in  the 
fresh  and  brackish  water  from  August  until  May,  spawning  about 
the  month  of  April,  and  afterwards  descending  to  the  sea  for  tho 
"i  riio  «v».QKO  period  bilwccn  furtlllz.llon  «"'».>'"'«l''"/.  "."""Ji^i'J^i."' 
71:  fl.  lalai;  77 


summer      At  Alloa  on  the  Forth  smelts  are  taken  m  large  numbers 
bv  seine  nets  in  spring,  before  and  during  tho  spawning  period, 
there  is  a  rcular  fishery  for  them  at  the  same  season  on  the  solway 
Firth  and  in  Norfolk.     The  food  of  the  smelt  consists  chiefly  of 
voun"fish,  especially  young  herrings,  and  crustaceans.     The  eggs 
arc  small   yellowish  in  colour,  and  adhesive,  not  adhering  by  the 
surface  merely  as  is  tho  caso  with  thoso  of  the  herring,  but  each 
ess  possessing  a  short  thread  tho  end  of  which  becomes  attached 
to  planks,  stones,  or  other  soUd  objects  in  the  water.     According 
to  Mr  Day  the  eggs   are  deposited  near  tho  high-water  mark  ot 
spring-tides,  so  that  they  must  be  exposed  to  th»  air  during  the 
ebb   °The  smelt  when  in  the  sea  is  largely  eaten  by  the  picked 
dog'-fish  XJcaiUhiaa  vulgaris).     Tho  species   is  absent   from   the 
southern  coast  of  England  and  from  Ireland,  the  smeU  recorded  as 
occurring  on  those  coasts  being  probably  tho  atherine  (Aihenna), 
often  called  the  sand-smelt.     0.   cpcrlanus  is  abundant   on  tbe 
coast  of  Finland,  and  also  is  common  there  in  freshwater  lakes, 
in  which  it  remains  all  the  year  round.     It  is  also  common  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  France.     It  is  of  interest  to  note  tl.at  the  smelt 
in  Britain  and  on  other  coasts,  when  not  confined  to  fresh  water, 
is   in  its  migration,  intermediate  between  anadromous  SaZmontd^, 
which  ascend  to  near  the  sources  of  rivers,  and  such  fish  as  the 
herring,   which  approach  the  shore  to  spawn  but  do  not  usuaUy 
enter  rivers.     The  smelt  as  a  rule  ascends  estuaries  only  as  far  as 

the  region  of  brackish  water.  , ,    ^v     -u        •     ♦!,»:■. 

The  various  species  of  Coregonus  resemUe  the  charr  in  their 
habits,  spawning  in  the  autumn  in  the  shallows  of  the  lakes  they 
rnl,aWt?their  ova  are  small,  and,  as  mentioned  in  r..sc.cuLTUKE 
(q.v.),  are  non-adhesive  and  of  almost  the  same  specific  gravity  as 
fresii  water,  so  that  they  are  semi-buoyant.        „  .^  .  ,     •     i  , 

•  The  "railing,  ThymaUus  vulgaris,  is  in  Bri  am  exclusively 
fluWatil1;^n  Scandinavia  it  is.  found  also  in  ^kes.  It  is  met 
with  chiefly  in  clear  streams  with  ^"^y  graveb  or  loamy  beds^ 
It  was  introduced  not  many  years  ago  'ntothe  Tweed  by  he 
marquis  ot  Lothian,  and  thrives  there.  It  is  absent  from  the 
Thames,  but  is  common  in  most  of  the  rivers  of  England  and  W  ales 
—c  a  ,  the  rivers  of  Yorkshire,  the  Severn,  and  the  Wye,  It  is 
absent  from  Ireland.  It  feeds  on  insects  and  their  larvs, 
cru  taceans,  and  smaU  molluscs.  It  breeds  in  April  and  May 
depositing  ts  ova  on  the  surface  of  the  gravel  in  the  shallow's,  not 
in^a  redd!  The  ova  are  smaUer  than  those  of  the  trout,  and  s^ry 
n  colour  from  white  to  deep  orange,  and  they  hatch  from  the  twel  th 
to  the  fourteenth  day  after  extrusion.  The  Iry  grow  to  4  or  5 
[nches  in  length  by  August,  and  by  the  foUowing  autumn  to  9  or 
10  Inches. 


Salmon  Fishery  Legislation. 

In  England  and  Wales  the  common  law  is  that  every  .P^^""  ^^ 
an  equal  ri"bt  to  fish  for  salmon  in  the  sea  and  in  navigable  tidal 
riverT  wh.To  the  proprietors  of  the  soil  on  the  banks  of  nvcrs 
which  are  not  navigable  have  the  exclusive  r.-ht  of  fishmg  in 
rhem      The  efection^f  stake-nets,  or  other  fixe3  engines  for  tho 
canture  of  salmon  in  estuaries  or  on  the  sea-coast  is  necessarily 
n?ompatible^vith  the  maintenance  of  the  public  righto    hsh.ng. 
and  his  therefore  from  very  early  times  been  r^p'^T'^^.  f  '"/e'*': 
mate      There  has  consequently  been  a  constant  conflict  between 
rislation  and  private  interest  over  this  point      By  Magna  Charta 
alt  fishing  weir^  were  abolished  except  on  the  sea-coast,  but  the 
obiect  of   this  seems  to  have   been  rather   the  protection  of  the 
?reedomot  navigation  tiian  the  advantage  of  the  salmon  fisheries 
or  the  maintenance  of  a  public  right.     In  later   imes  b ^f   "J'""' 
were  roneatedly  declared  illegal  and  their  erection  pvohibited  by 
Ttatute     Finally  in  1861  they  were  definitively  abolished  in  all  cases 
exoent  where  leLl  right  to  maintain  them  could  be  conclusively 
,™v^ed      T he  S^mon  Fishery  Act  of  1861,  of  which  the  P>,ob.b.tion 
Fust  referred  to  was  one  ot  the  clauses,  was  based  upon  the  r.port 
if  a  royal  commission   appointed   in   1860  to   inquire   into  the 
condition  of  the  salmon  iis'heries,  and  it  forms  the  basis  of  the 
egul    ions  at  present  in  force,  all  prev  ous  /^f 'f »,"«" '"^"S,^^'  ^ 
expressly  abolished  and  superseded,     ^t  F°l''''l''i'H't  ".Mon 
unclean  and  unseasonable  salmon,  made  a  ""'f^^'   =  "^^^^ 

time,      ^n   1866,    as  it  was   found    useUi^  toj  |        ^„„,^it„to 

^ppoiJlted  by  the  ma^strat^s  ^j:^;^^^^^^^^^^ 
"""\  rSlc  wlter  One  or  Uo  minor  sulmon^islu.ry  Acta 
"     .  ZJtin  suJcecdin"  "can.,  but  tho  next  important  piece  of 


226 


S  A  L  M  O  N  I  D  iE 


local  board  of  conservators,  and  (2)  that  each  lioara  of  conservators 
"may  make  bye-laws  for  the  regulation  and  improTcnient  of  the 
fisheries  within  its  own  district.  The  annual  close  tinio  for 
salmon  in  England  and  Wales  at  present  for  nets  commences  Anp;. 
14-Sept.  30  and  closes  Feb.  2-April  1,  varying  in  dillerent  districts 
jvithin  the  limits  given;  for  rods  the  close  time  is  Sept.  30-Nov.  29 
to  Feb.  1-May  1.  The  law  as  regards  close  time  for  fixed  engines 
was  amended  in  1879.  The  method  of  fishing  followed  in  the 
English  and  Welsh  estuaries  is  in  consequence  of  the  above  course 
of  legislation  that  of  sweep-nets  worked  from  shore  by  boats  ;  a' 
licence  duty  has  to  be  paid  for  each  net,  and  stake-nets  along  tlio 
coast  are  very  rare.  An  inspector  of  salmon  fisheries  appointed  by 
the  HoDje  Office  reports  annually. 

.In  Scotland  the  salmon  fishery  customs  in  one  respect  differ 
much  from  those  of  England :  stake  nets  are  the  common  and 
universal  means  of  salmon  capture  in  estuaries,  although  sweep 
nets  are  also  employed.  The  reason  of  this  is  that  originally  all 
the  salmon  fishings  belong  to  the  cro^vn  or  the  grantees  of  the 
cro^vn.  The  principal  Acts  regulating  Scottish  salmon  fisheries  are 
those  of  1S62  and  1868,  but,  as  the  previous  statutes  have  nover  been 
repealed,  the  law  on  the  subject  is  somewhat  confused.  Scotland 
has  been  divided  into  fishery  districts  managed  by  district  boards. 
An  annual  close  time  of  168  days  is  enforced,  lasting  for  nets 
from  August  26  to  September  14  until  February  6  to  February 
25,  and  for  rods  from  September  14  to  November  20  until  January 
11  to  February  25.  The  weekly  close  time  lasts  thirty-si.-c  houis, 
from  Saturday  night  till  JJonday  morning.  The  construction  of 
cruives,  mill-lades,  dams,  and  water  wheels  and  the  size  of  the 
meshes  of  nets  are  alf  regi'.lated.  In  1882  the  management  of  the 
salmon  fisheries  was  placed  together  with  that  of  the  sea  fisheries 
under  the  control  of  the  reconstituted  Scottish  Fishery  Board,  to 
■which  power  was  given  to  appoint  an  inspector  of  salmon  fisheries; 
by  this  ofiicial  an  annual  report  of  the  condition  of  the  fisheries 
is  presented  through  the  Fishery  Board  to  the  Home  OfDce. 

The  principal  Act  relating  to  Irish  fisheries  is  that  of  18C3. 
Special  Fishery  Commissioners  are  responsible  for  the  carrying  out 
of  the  legal  regulations.  The  country  is  divided  like  England  and 
Scotland  into  tishery  districts  under  the  jurisdiction  of  boards  of 
conservators,  by  whom  clerks  and  water  bailiffs  are  appointed.  A 
scale  of  licensing  duties  is  enforced,  and  all  new  fixed  engines— that 
is,  any  beyond  those  which  legally  existed  in  1862 — are  illeg.il.  The 
weekly  close  time  in  Ireland  is  of  forty-eight  hours'  dtiration,  from 
6  A.M.  Saturday  to  6  A.M.  Monday.  The  annual  close  time  is  for 
nets  fron.  July  16  to  September  30  until  January  1  to  June  1,  and 
for  rods  irom  September  14  to  November  1  until  January  1  to  June 
1,  In  Ireland  as  in  England  and  Scotland  an  inspectorship  of 
salmon  hslienes  exists,  and  the  holder  of  the  office  makes  an 
annual  report  to  the  Home  Office  on  the  condition  of  the  fislieries. 

Introduction  of  Species  to  New  Areas  by  Human  Agency. 

"Within  the  past  few  years,  since  great  activity  has  been  ex- 
hibited in  pisciculture  generally,  and  especially  in  the  culture 
of  Salmouidw,  various  experiments  have  been  made  in  the  trans- 
portation of  eggs  or  young  fry  of  valuable  species  from  their 
native  habitats  to  distant  parts  of  the  world.  The  American  so- 
called  brook  trout,  S.  /onlinalis,  has  been  imported  somewhat 
largely  into  Britain  by  various  salmon  fishery  proprietors.  It 
thrives  well  in  various  places  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales 
where  it  has  been  set  free, — for  example,  in  Norfolk  rivers,  near 
Guildford  in  Surrey,  and  in  the  stock  ponds  at  Howietoun. 

In  Nature,  July  16,  18S5,  an  account  was  given  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  fry  of  the  American  landlocked  salmon  {S.  salnr,  var. 
sebago)  to  the  upper  waters  of  the  Thames.  Eggs  of  S.  namaycush, 
S.  sebago,  S.  fontinalis,  and  Corcgonus  albus  have  been  successfully 
forwarded  from  the  hatcheries  of  the  American  Fish  Commission 
to  the  Deutsche  Fischerei-Verein  in  Berlin,  and  to  the  Scciete 
d'Acclimatatiou  at  Paris. 

The  common  trout  of  Britain,  S.  fario,  Tvas  introduced  with 
complete  success  into  Tasmania  nearly  twenty  years  ago  by 
Frank  Buckland,  and  is  now  abundant  in  the  Tasmanian  streams, 
although  it  is  reported  to  be  much  less  valued  as  food  there  than  at 
home.  From  Tasmania  the  eggs  were  transported  to  the  rivers  in 
Otago,  New  Zealand,  where  they  also  thrive  and  breed  (see  Trans. 
of  Otago  Institute,  1878).  In  1866  Mr  Francis  Day  introduced  the 
fry  of  the  same  species  into  tho  rivers  of  the  table-land  of  tlio 
Nilgiris  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jladras.  The  experiment  on 
this  occasion  failed,  but  two  years  later  the  establishment  of  the 
species  in  the  district  in  question  was  successfully  accomplished  by 
Mr  M'lvor,  who  imported  tho  fry  from  Scotland. 

Salmon  Culture. 
For  the  artificial  culture  of  Salmonoids  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  article  Pisciculture.  Tho  following  account  of  tho  salmon 
and  trout  hatcheries  iu  Scotlanil  is  abridged  liom  a  paper  read 
before  the  Scottish  Fisheries  Improvement  Association  m  Edin- 
burgh, 26th  November  1834,  by  J.  liarker  Duncan,  the  hauor.iry 
secretary  to  tho  Association. 


The  principal  institution  of  Its  Mnd  In  Scotland  fit  iWfODt  ia  the  Howlefonn 
Fishfi-y,  beloiiKinc  iuSir  J.  Gibsnii  Mailland,  who  Cdniincncfd  it  in  1.S73.  1Io>vIl-- 
loiin  is  about  lour  miles  from  Stirling.  Tire  cslablishmeiit  conlains  thirty-two 
fisli  j>onds  itnd  fl  largo  hatching-Iiouse;  there  aro  also  four  ponds  nt  Craicend, 
und  one  of  0  acres  nt  Goldcnhnve,  where  fish  are  reared  to  tiicir  adult  ccndiiitm- 
The  hatching-bnxcs  are  of  wood,  and  thecpgsare  kept  during  development  on 
giniS  prilles.  Tho  wafer  supply  is  abundant,  about  a  million  gallons  of  epriig 
water  Itowing  tiirough  the  ponds  ^vcry  tweiity-Iour  hours.  Tiic  eggs  hatched  In 
greatest  numbers  are  those  of  the  Loch  Leven  trout,  but  Salmo  falat-  and  tile 
common  trout  (Safmo  fario')  are  also  extensively  reared.  Tlie  American  brook 
trout,  S./ontinaiis.  is  also  cultivated.  More  than  ten  millions  of  ova  arc  annually 
treated  at  ttiis  t.5tchery.  In  1884  ninety  thousand  young  flsh  were  distributed  to 
various  parts  of  Great  Uiifain  and  Ireland,  and  two  consignments  of  trout  and  one 
of  salmon  ova  were  successfully  sent  to  New  Zealand. 

The  Solway  Fisheiy,  belonging  to  Mr  Joseph  J,  Armistcsd,  V!t%  established  In 
1881,  to  supersede  the  Treutdale  Fishery  near  Keswick,  Cumberland.  It  Is  situ- 
ated near  tho  Sohvay  in  Kii  kcudb;  ightshire.  Various  kinds  of  trout  and  chorr, 
salmon  and  sea-trout,  grayling,  and  other  freshwater  flsh  are  bred.  The  halchlng- 
house  is  fitted  to  hatcti  about  n  million  ova.  Small  and  large  f^tinntitles  of  ova 
are  supplied  to  applicants  for  piuriosea  of  stockiug  or  for  cxrcriiaents  in  fish 
culture. 

Tlio  Stormontfleld  Ponds  were  established  In  I853-by  proprietors  of  Tay 
fisheries.  They  aie  situated  about  5  miles  above  Penh  on  the  Tay  and  occupy 
Mbout  2  acres  of  ground.  The  Stormontfleld  experiments  Mbove  referred  to 
wero  earned  out  at  these  ponds  under  the  direction  of  Mr  Itobeit  Buist.  Tho 
esiaulishment  ia  now  almost  superseded  by  the  Dupplin  ITatciicry,  but  la  still 
used  to  some  extent  The  hatching-boxes,  360  in  number,  arc  In  the  open  air.  and 
the  egga  are  placed  on  gravel  at  the  bottom  of  the  boxes  ;  a  larger  percentage  of 
loss  occurs  witli  thfe  system  than  when  glass  giilles  are  used.  Two  of  tho  ponds 
at  Stormontfleld  are  stocked  with  parr  from  the  Dupplin  Hatchery,  about  20,000 
being  placed  in  them  in  lS8t ;  ihe  parr  are  fed  with  giound  liver,  and  are  liber- 
atefl  in  tlie  river  and  its  tributaries  when  two  years  old. 

T-he  Dupplin  Hatchery  was  instituted  in  1882  by  the  Tay  district  board  at 
Newmill,  Dupplin  Castle,  on  the  river  Earn,  a  tributary  of  the  Tay.  The 
hatcliing-hoube  is  supplied  with  spring  water,  and  conlains  about  300,000  ova. 
The  rla-s  grille  system  is  adopted  here,  and  the  fry  ure  liberated  in  Iho  Tay  and 
Its  tributaries  when  about  forly  days  old. 

There  is  a  hatchery  for  Loch  Leven  trout  erected  In  1883  by  Iho  loch  Leven 
Angling  Associalion.  situated  about  800  yards  from  the  Inch,  beside  a  sni«ll 
stream.  In  the  season  of  1684-85  about  2-.'0,000  eggs  were  laid  down.  Tho  fry  are 
turned  into  the  feeders  of  the  loch  five  or  six  weeks  after  hatching.  Before  the 
erection  of  this  hatchery  Loch  Leven  was  several  times  stocked  with  fry  from  Ihe 
Howietoun  fishery.  The  great  effect  of  stocking  on  the  produce  of  Loch  Leven 
is  shown  by  the  following  figures :— in  1884  o-er  15,000  trout  were  taken  in  Ihe 
loch  during  the  season  from  Apiil  to  September;  duiing  the  preceding  ten 
years  the  lake  had  been  supplied  with  some  thousands  ot  fry  In  five  several 
seasons;  previous  to  1874  no  attempt  at  slocking  had  been  made,  and  in  that 
year  the  total  catch  wr-;  about  5000. 

In  Jlay  ISS4the  Linhrhgow  Palace  LochHatcheiy  was  opened  by  Its  proprietor, 
Mr  A.  G.  Anderson,  fish  merch.ar.t,  Edinburgh,  who  holds  a  Ica^e  of  the  loch  tor 
angling  purposes  from  ihe  crown.  The  hatchery  is  Intended  chiefly  to  stock  tho 
locli,  and  is  capable  of  containing  about  600,000  ova.  Experiments  on  tho  cultiva- 
tion of  Salmo  latar,  var.  sebago,  from  America,  are  also  to  be  made  here. 

A  private  hatcheiy  belonging  to  the  marquis  of  Aiisa,  capable  of  hatching 
about  250,000  ova,  is  situated  at  Culzean  in  Ayrshire.  Salmon  ova  are  obtained 
from  the  rivers  Doon.  Slinchar.  and  Minnock,  and  the  fiy  turned  again  into 
tliose  livers  when  about  siit  weeks  old.  Cliair,  S.  fontiualis,  and  Loch  Leven 
trout  are  also  hatched  to  stock  the  hill  lochs  of  Ihe  estate  of  Culzean.  Accord- 
ing to  Mr  Voung  the  number  of  salmon  in  the  Doon  has  been  considerably 
increased  by  the  artilcial  stocking  from  this  establishment. 

Another  phvate  hatchery,  with  a  capacity  of  50,000.  is  maintained  on  the  Loch- 
buy  estate,  laie  of  ilull,  for  the  purpose  of  stocking  the  rivers  and  lakes  on  the 
propetty. 

Tlie  Aberdeen  Hatchery  was  established  In  Aberdeen  by  the  district  boards  of 
the  rivers  Dee  and  Don.  From  1.3,000  to  20,000  fry  are  hatched  hcie  eveiy  year 
and  are  conveyed  ID  to  40  miles  up  tho  rivers  Dee  and  Don  and  then  liberated. 

Villous  proprietors  In  Scotland  have  at  vaiious  -times  erected  small  hutchlng- 
houses  on  tlie  rivers  of  their  estates  for  the  purpo.sc  of  stocking,  but  these  have 
not  been  maintained-  The  above-mentioned  arc  the  only  salmon-rearing  eslaly 
tishments  of  any  importance  at  piesent  in  operation  in  Scotland. 

Salmon  Disease. 
Duringtholast  few  years  saliron  in  a  great  many  rivers  have  been 
observed  to  be  suffering  from  an  epidemic  cutaneous  disease  from 
which  large  numbers  have  died.  So  far  as  is  known  this  disease  in 
its  epiden'io  form  is  quite  a  now  phenomenon  ;  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  it  must  have  occurred  as  a  sporailic  all'cction  in  former 
time",  but  it  seems  on  the  other  hand  probable  that  such  mor- 
tality among  salmon  as  has  taken  place  in  some  recent  seasons 
must  have  attracted  attention  if  it  occurred,  even  when  accurate 
observation  was  rare.  The  disease  was  first  noticed  in  1877  in 
the  Esk  and  the  Nith,  flowing  into  the  Solway  Firth,  and  since 
then  it  has  destroyed  very  large  numbers  of  salmon  in  almost 
every  river  in  Britain.  The  disease  consists  in  ulcerations  of  tho 
skin,  which  begin  at  one  or  several  spots  on  the  head  and  body,  and 
tdtiinately  extend  to  the  whole  surface  of  th<;  fish.  Tho  diseased 
paits  of  the  skin  are  found  when  examined  to  be  covered  with  a 
tungoid  growth,  with  the  mycelium  of  a  fungus  consisting  of 
plaited  hyphse  which  extend  into  and  ramify  through  the  tissue  of 
the  derma  and  epidermis,  causing  the  cells  to  die,  until  the  super- 
ficial tissues  decay  and  slough  off,  aud  inflammation  and  bleeding 
are  produced  in  the  deeper  and  surrounding  parts.  It  is  certain 
that  the  injury  to  the  skin  and  flesh  of  tho  salmon  is  caused  by  the 
fungus.  If  a  section  of  the  edge  of  an  affected  spot  be  made,  and 
e.tamined  microscopically,  the  cells  are  seen  to  be  perfectly  normal 
and  healthy  beyond  the  region  to  which  the  hypho;  extend,  and 
the  growing  points  of  the  hyphee  are  seen  to  be  penetrating 
between  and  distorting  these  uninjured  cells.  It  is  evident  therefore 
that  tho  morbid  alteration  of  the  tissues  follows  the  attack  of  tho 
hyph-E  and  does  not  precede  it.  The  external  superficial  piui; 
of  the  mycelium  covering  a  diseased  spot  of  the  skin  boars  the 
fru;:tilicatii'n  of  the  fungus.  This  consists  of  zoospoiangia,  which 
ara  tho  oulargod   blind   terminal   parts  of  certain  of  tho   bypha;. 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


227 


that  dtand  out  perpendicular  to  tba  surrace  of  the  mycelium. 
Each  zoosporangium  contains  a  niultitudo  of  eph>!rical  spores. 
These  epores  aro  of  the  kind  technically  called  zoospores,  each  on 
its  escape  from  the  sporangium  moving  about  actively  by  means 
of  two  vihratilo  cilia.  The  zooaporangiuin  emits  the  zoospores  by 
an  aperture  at  its  end,  and  when  it  has  emptied  itself  the  hypha 
begiu.<i  to  crow  again  at  the  base  of  the  empty  membrans  and  sends 
up  through  the  cavity  of  the  old  zoosporangiuiu  a  new  sprout 
which  becomes  a  second  spcre  capsule.  This  feature  is  characttr- 
istio  of  the  gonu.i  Soviclegnia,  belonging  to  the  Oosporcse, 
varioui!  kinds  of  which  ure  well  kLowo  to  botanists  ;  they  nsnally 
occur  i".  dead  insects  or  other  invertebrate  animals  in  water: 
the  dead  bodies  of  the  common  house-fly  when  in  a  sufficiently 
moist  place  almost  invariably  produce  a  luxv.riant  crop  of  Sapro- 
legnia.  The  commonest  species  of  Snprolcgnia  is  S.  ferax,  and  the 
salmon  fungus  has  usually  received  the  same  name,  as  though  it 
^ere  a  proved  fact  that  it  was  identical  with  that  species.  But  the 
species  ofaSa/z/'o/c'jnio  can  onlv  •joascerta^'iedfrom  the  characters  of 
its  oosporangia,  which  arequ  ttO<(ferent  from  the  zoosporangia and 
are  produced  much  more  rarely,  and  whose  contents,  the  oospores, 
are  lertilized  by  the  contents  of  simultaneously  produced  antheridia. 
ilr  Stirling  has  observed  the  oosporangia  of  salmon  fungtis  (see  his 
papers  in  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Ed.,  1878  aud  1879),  but  his  description  is 
not  sufficient  to  put  the  identification  of  the  spr  cies  beyond  a  douht. 
From  Prof  Huxlev's  experiments  it  is  evident  that  the  salmon 
fungus  may  reproduce  for  very  many  generations  without  the 
•appearance  of  oospores.  The  salmon  fiiuguR  gro^s  with  great 
luxuriance  on  other  animal  substances.  In  a  diseased  saimon  the 
fungus  eeoms  to  be  confined  to  the  skin  and  not  to  give  rise  to 
bacteria-like  bodies  in  the  internal  organs.  What  are  the  condi- 
tions  which  favour  the  infection  of  salmon  in  a  river  is  a  question 
to  which  at  present  no  answer  can  be  given.  Until  it  is  known 
under  what  conditions  the  Saprolc^nia  exists  in  a  river  before 
infecting  the  salmon,  the  conditions  which  favour  or  prevent 
Ealmou  disease  cannot  be  ascertained.  The  fungus  may  have  its 
permanent  nidus  in  decaying  vegetable  substances,  but  at  present 
it  has  not  been  determijied  whether  it  is  possible  to  cultivate  the 
Ealmon  SaproUgnia  on  vegetable  matter ;  or  the  disease  may  be 
propagated  sporadically  among  the  fi.sh,  Salmonoids  aud  'others, 
which  are  permanent  residents  of  the  rivers  ;  or  its  abundance  may 
depend  on  the  amount  of  dead  animal  matter  that  is  available  for 
its  nutrition.  There  is  probably  always  some  Suprolcgnia  in  every 
river ;  the  secondary  conditions  which  determine  whether  or  not  the 
fangns  shall  multiply  on  the  anadromous  salmon  to  such  an 
oitent  as  to  cause  an  epidemic  have  yet  to  be  ascertained. 

Literature.~A\hii:-t  Gilnthcr,  CataJogue  of  Fiahei  in  B'-ii.  J/u^.,  London.  1866, 
fol.  Tl.  ;  Id.,  Jntroduclion  to  Sludit  of  Fishes,  Edinburgh,  18S0;  Francis 
Day,  fishn  of  Gi-^at  Bruatn  and  Ireland,  London  and  Edinbarcb.  1880  to 
1884,  vol.  iL  Tho  following  papers  of  the  Conferences  of  the  Intem.itional 
Fisheries  Exhibition,  London.  18S3,  also  conuln  TaJuablo  Information  :— *'  Fish 
Culture,"  by  Fiancls  Day;  "Salmon  Fisheries.""  by  Charles  S,  Folger;  "  Culture 
of  Salrhonidx,"  by  Sir  James  Maitland ;  •'Salmon  and  Salmon  Fisheries,"  by 
Pavld  Mllno  Home.  For  a  most  complete  and  valuable  memoir  on  the  salmon 
dbcase  ace  the  paper  by  I'rof .  Uuxley,  Quart.  Jour.  Mic.  Set.,  1882.        (J.  T.  C.) 

SALOilE,  widow  of  Alexander  Jannaeus,  and  queen  cf 
-Tudaa  from  79  to  C9  B.C.  (see  Israel,  vol  xiii.  p.  42i). 
Another  Salome  is  the  daughter  of  Herodias  mentioned  in 
Mutt.  xiv.  G.  Her  father  was  Herod,  son  of  Herod  the 
Great  and  Mariamme,  and  she  became  successively  wife 
of  her  father's  brother  the  tetrarch  Philip  (eon  of  Herod 
tho  Great  by  Cleopatra;  see  Heeod  Ptttt.t?),  and  of 
Atistobulus. 

8AL0NICA,  or  Saloniki  (ItaL  Sdonicco,  Turkish 
Sdanilc,  Slav.  Solnn,  tho  ancient  Thessalonica),  during  the 
Roman  empire  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Macedonia, 
and  still  one  of  the  most  important  cities  of  European 
Turkey,  the  chief  town  of  an  oxtonsive  vilayet  which 
includes  the  sanjaks  of  Salonica,  Serres,  Drama,  and 
Monastir,  and  has  an  aggregate  population  of  1,500,000. 
Salonica  lies  on  tho  west  side  of  tho  Chalcidic  peninsula,  at 
tho  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Salonica  {Sinus  Themiaicus),  on  a 
fine  bay  whose  southern  edge  is  formed  by  the  Oalamerian 
hiilghts,  while  its  northern  and  western  side  is  the  broad 
alluvial  plain  produced  by  tho  discharge  of  the  Vardar  and 
thij  Inje-Karasu,  the  principal  rivers  of  western  Macedonia. 
Built  partly  on  the  low  ground  along  the  edge  of  the  bay 
and  partly  on  tho  liiU  to  the  north  (a  compact  mass  of 
mica  schist),  the  city  with  its  white  nouses  enclosed  by 
wliite  waUs  runs  up  along  natural  ravines  to  the  castle  of 
tho  Seven  Towers  (Heptapyrgion),  and  ia  rendered  pictttf- 
osiine  by  numerous  domes  and  minarets  and  tho  foliage 
of  elms,  cypresses,  and  mulberry  trees.     The  hill  of  the  j 


Heptapyrgion  is  dominated  by  a  second  and  that  by  a  third 
eminence  towards  the  nortL  The  commercial  qtuuter  of 
the  town,  lying  naturally  to  the  north-west,  towards  tho 
great  valleys  by  which  the  inland  traffic  is  conveyed,  ia 
now  pierced  by  broad  and  straight  streets  paved  with  lava; 
and  the  quay  extends  from  tho  north-west  c*  the  city  for 
four-fifths  of  a  mile  to  the  Kauli-Kule  (Tower  of  Blood),  or 
as  it  is  now  called  Ak-Kule  (White  Tower).  The  old  Via 
Egnatia  traverses  the  city  from  what  is  now  the  Vardar 
Gate  to  tho  Calamerian  Gate.  The  houses  are  for  the  most 
part  insignificant  wooden  erections  covered  with  bme  or 
mad.  Two  Roman  triumphal  arches  used  to  span  the  Via 
Egnatia,  The  arch  near  the  Vardar  Gate — a  massive  stona 
structure  probably  erected  after  the  time  of  Vespasian- 
was  destroyed  about  1867  to  furnish  material  for  repairing 
the  city  walls ;  an  imperfect  inscription  from  it  is  now 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum.^  The  other  arch,  popu- 
larly called  the  arch  of  Constantino,  but  by  Lcako  assigned 
to  the  reign  of  Theodosius,  consisted  of  three  archways 
bailt  of  brick  and  faced  with  marble.  It  is  now  in  %  very 
dilapidated  state.*  A  third  example  of  Roman  architecture 
— the  remains  of  a  white  marble  portico  supposed  to  have 
formed  the  entrance  to  the  hippodrome — is  known  by  the 
Judaeo-Spanish  designation  of  Las  Incantadas,  from 'the 
eight  Caryatides  in  the  upper  part  of  the  structure.*  The 
conspicuous  mosques  of  Salonica  have  nearly  all  an  early 
Christian  origin ;  the  remarkable  preservation  of  their 
mural  decorations  makes  them  "very  important  for  the 
history  of  Byzantine  architecture.  The  principal  are  those 
dedicated  to  St  Sophia,  St  George,  and  St  Demetrius. 

St  Sophia  (Aya  gofia),  formerly  tho  cathedral,  and  probably 
erected  by  Justinian's  architect  Authemius,  was  converted  into  a 
mosque  in  1589.  It  is  cased  with  slabs  of  white  marble.  The 
whole  length  of  the  interior  is  110  feet.  The  nave,  forming  a  Greek 
cross,  is  surmounted  by  a  hemispherical  dome,  the  600  square  yards 
of  which  are  covered  with  a  rich  mosaic  representing  the.Asccnsion. 
8t  Demetrius,  which  is  probably  older  than  the  time  of  Justinian, 
consists  of  a  long  nave  (divided  into  three  bays  by  massive  square 
piers)  and  two  side  aisles,  each  terminating  eastward  in  an  atrium 
the  full  height  of  the  nave,  in  a  style  not  known  to  occur  in  any 
other  church.  The  columns  of  the  aisles  are  half  tlie  height  of 
those  in  the  nave.  The  internal  decoration  is  all  produced  by 
slabs  of  different-coloured  marbles.  St  George's,  conjerturally 
assigned  by  Messrs  PuUan  and  Toxier  to  the  rcigu  of  Coustantine, 
is  cu-cular  in  plan,  measuring  internally  80  feet  in  diameter.  Tho 
external  wall  is  18  feot  thick,  and  at  the  angles  of  id  in.^cribcd 
octagon  are  chapels  formed  ia  the  thickness  of  tho  wall,  and  roofed 
with  waggon-headed  vaults  visible  on  the  exterior ;  the  eastern 
chapel,  however,  is  enlarged  and  developed  into  a  bema  and  apso 
projecting  beyond  the  circle,  and  tho  western  and  southern  chapels 
constitute  the  hvo  entrances  of  tho  building.  The  dome,  72  yards 
in  circumference,  is  covered  throughout  its  entire  surface  of  800 
square  yards  with  what  ia  the  largest  work  in  ancient  mosaic  that 
has  come  down  to  us,  representing  a  scries  of  fourteen  sainta 
standing  in  tho  act  of  adoration  in  front  of  temples  and  colonnades. 
The  Eff*  Juma.  or  Old  Mosque,  is  another  intercstiug  basilica, 
fi^Wen'  rinstautinc,  with   side  aisles  and   an  apse 

without  «ido  chapels.  Tho  church  of  the  Holy  Apostles  and  that 
of  St  Elias  also  deserve  mention.  Of  tho  secular  buildings,  tho 
Caravanserai,  usually  attributed  to  Amurath  II.,  probably  dates 
from  Byzantine  times. 

Tho  prosperity  of  Salonica  has  all  along  been  largely  that  of 
a  commercial  city.  During  tho  Christian  ccuturies  before  tho 
Mohammedan  conquest  tho  patron  saint  of  tho  city  was  also  tho 
saint  of  a  great  market  or  fair  to  which  morchant*  caino  from  all 
parts  of  tho  Mediterranean,  and  oven  from  countries  beyond  tlio 
Alps.  At  the  beginning  of  tho  present  century  a  largo  export 
trade  was  carried  on  in  woollen  and  cotton  fubritis,  white  and  rod 
yarns,  grain,  wool,  tobacco,  yellow  berries,  silk  fabrics,  siwngcs,  kc ; 
and  silk  gauze  was  manufactured  in  the  city.  Direct  Uritiah  trado 
with  Salonica  began  after  tho  Grcjik  war  of  ludoiwndence.  Woven 
fabrics  aro  at  prosont  imported  from  England,  Austria,  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  Italy;  lUgar  mainly  from  Austria;  colTeo  from 
South  America  (|iartly  direct) ;  potrolenm  from  America  and 
Russia  ;  soap  from  Greece  and  Crete  ;  metal  goods  from  England 
France,  and  Austria ;  and  coal  from  Englauii.     Tho  export*  com- 

*  SflB  Tratu.  Roy.  Soc.  Lit.,  vol,  viii.,  new  scrits,  lff78. 

'  Sco  N'cwton's  Travels,  Ac,  in  the  Levant,  vol,  I,  p,  122. 

*  See  Stuart's  Alhem,  vol.  lii,  pL  45,  for  engraving. 


228 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


prise  cereals  (wheat,  barley,  oats,  maize,  rye),  tobacco,  wool, 
fcotton,  poppy  seed,  opium,  cocoons,  prunes,  and  timber.  In  1884 
the  industrial  establishments  were  steam  ilnur-mills,  ft  cotton- 
spinning  factory  (employing  500  hands  and  sending  its  goods  to 
Constantinople,  Smyrna,  and  Beyrout),  a  distillery,  several  large 
Boap-works,  a  nail  factory,  an  iron-bedstead  factory,  and  a  number 
of  brick  and  tile  works. 

'  -In  Salonica  the  several  nationalities  have  schools  of  their  own;  the 
Greeks,  for  example,  have  a  normal  school,  a  gymnasium,  and 
Dine  other  schools  (one  for  girls) ;  and  even  the  Bulgarians,  though 
their  members  are  comparatively  small,  have  two  normal  schools. 
The  Jewish  community  (about  60,000)  is  of  Spanish  origin,  and 
still  preserves  its  Judaeo-Spanish  written  in  Hebrew  characters. 
Besides  their  own  schools  they  have  the  advantage  of  a  large  school 
Rupported  by  the  Jewish  Mission  of  the  Established  Church  of 
Scotland  (instituted  about  1860).  The  total  population  of  Salonica 
was  estimated  by  Tozer  about  1865  as  60,000.  'It  has  since  in- 
creased probably  to  90,000  or  100,000.  The  railway  opened  to 
Kiuprili  (1361  miles)  in  1873  is  now  extended  75  miles  to 
Mitrovitza. 

History.— the  older  name  of  Thessalonica  was  Therma  (in  allu- 
sion to  the  hot-sprin'53  of  the  neighbourhood).  It  was  a  military 
and  commercial  staiion  on  a  main  line  of  communication  between 
Eome  and  the  East,  and  had  reached'  its  zenith  before  the  seat  of 
empire  was  iraniiferred  to  Constantinople.  It  became  a  Roman 
colonia  in  the  middle  of  the  3d  century,  and  in  the  later  defence  of 
the  ancient  civilization  against  the  barbarian  inroads  it  played  a 
considerable  part.  In  390  Thessalonica  was  the  scene  of  the  dreadful 
massacre  perpetrated  by  command  of  Theodosius.  Constantine  re- 
paired the  port,  and  probably  enriched  the  town  with  some  of  its 
buildings.  During  the  iconoclastic  reigns  of  terror  it  stood  on  the 
defensive,  and  succeeded  in  saving  the  artistic  treasures  of  its 
churches:  in  the  9th  century  Joseph,  one  of  its  bishops,  died  in 
chains  for  his  defence  of  image-worship.  In  the  7th  century  the 
Slavonic  tribes  strove  to  capture  the  city,  but  in  vain  even  when 
it  was  thrown  into  confusion  by  a  terrible  earthquake  which  lasted 
several  days,  it  wes  the  attempt  made  to  transfer  the  whole  Bul- 
garian trade  to  Thessalonica  that  in  the  close  of  the  9th  century 
caused  the  invasion  of  tho  empire  by  Simeon  of  Bulgaria.  In  904 
the  Saracens  from  the  Cyrenaica  took  the  place  by  storm  ;  the 
public  buildings  wore  grievously  injured,  and  the  inhabitants  to 
the  number  of  '22,000  were  carried  off  and  sold  as  slaves  through- 
out the  countries  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  1185  the  Normans  of 
Sicily,  having  landed  at  Dyrrhacliium  and  marched  across  country, 
took  Thessalonica  after  a  ten  days'  siege,  and  perpetrated  endless 
barbarities,  of  which  Eustathius,  then  bishop  of  the  see,  has  left  us 
an  account.  In  1204  Baldwin,  conqueror  of  Constantinople,  con- 
ferred the  kingdom  of  Thessalonica  on  Boniface,  marquis  of  Mont- 
ferrat ;  but  «ighteeu  years  later  Theodore,  despot  of  E|nrus,  one  of 
the  natural  enemies  of  the  new  kingdom,  took  tlie  city  and  had 
himself  there  crowned  by  the  patriarch  of  Macedonian  Bulgaria. 
On  the  death  of  Demetrius  (who  had  been  supported  in  his  endea- 
vour to  recover  his  father's  throne  by  Pope  Honorius  ni.)"the 
empty  title  of  king  of  Salonica  was  adopted  by  several  claimants. 
In  1260  tlie  house  of  Burgundy  received  a  grant  of  the  titular 
kingdom  from  Baldwin  II.  when  he  was  titular  emperor,  and  it 
was  soUl  by  Eudes  IV.  to  Philip  of  Tarentum,  titular  emperor  of 
Eomauia  in  J  320.  The  Venetians,  to  whom  the  city  was  transferred 
by  one  of  the  Palieologi,  were  in  power  when  Sultan  Amurath 
appeared,  and  on  the  1st  of  May  1430,  in  spite  of  the  -desperate 
resistance  of  the  inhabitants,  took  the  city,  which  had  thrice  previ- 
ously been  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  The  body  of  St  Demetrius, 
the  patron  saint,  who  from  the  time  of  his  death  under  Maximiau 
in  the  4th  century  had  exercised  a  marvellous  influence  on  the  popu- 
lar imagination,  was  hacked  to  pieces,  though  even  the  Moham- 
medans attributed  virtue  to  the  famous  oil  from  which  the  saint 
obtained  the  title  of  Myroblete.  In  1876  the  Frendi  and  German 
consuls  at  Thessalonica  were  massacred  by  the  Turkish  po_pulace. 

Besides  Tafel's  monograph,  Dusertatio  de  Theisalcmica  (Rerlin,  18391,  see 
Holland's  Travels  (1815);  Grlaebnch,'  RumcHen  und  Srusm,  1839 ;  Bowcn's  Mount 
Mhos,  Thessaly,  and  Epirus  (1«52);  Boeckh,  G  I.  O..  vol.  11.;  Texier  and 
Pullan,  Byzantine  Architecture  (1864) ;  Tozer,  Highlands  of  Turkey,  1869. 

SALOP.    See  Sheopshihs. 

SALSETTE,  a  large  island  to  the  north  of  Bombay, 
witli  an  area  of  241  square  miles.  It  lies  between  19°  2' 
30"  and  19°  18'  30",  N.  lat.  and  between  72°  51'  30"  and 
73°  3'  E.  long. ;  it  is  connected  with  Bombay  Island  by 
bridge  and  causeway.  Salsette  is  a  beautiful,  picturesque, 
and  well-wooded  tract,  its  surface  being  well  diversified  by 
hills  and  mountains,  some  of  coisiderable  elevation,  while 
it  is  rich  in  rice  fields.  In  various  parts  of  the  island  are 
romantic  views,  embellished  by  the  ruins  of  PortngoMe 
churches,  convents,  and  villas ;  its  cave  antiquities  still 
form  a  subject  of  interest. 


At  the  census  of  1881  Salsette  had  a  population  of  108,149 
(males  58,540,  females  49,609);  Hindus  numbered  7J,736  and 
Mohammedans  7,036.  The  island  was  taken  from  the  Portuguese 
by  the  Mahrattas  in  1739,  and  from  them  tho  British  captured 
it  in  1774  ;  it  was  formally  annexed  to  the  East  India  Company's 
dominions  in  1782  by  the  treaty  of  Salbai. 

SALT.  Common  salt,  or  simply  salt,  is  the  name  given 
to  the  native  and  industrial  forms  of  sodium  chloride 
(NaCl).  The  consideration  of  this  important  substance 
naturally  falls  under  two  heads,  relating  respectively  to  sea 
salt  or  "bay"  salt  and  "rock"  salt  or  mineral  salt.  As 
actually  found,  however,  the  one  is  probably  derived  from 
the  other,  most  rock  salt  deposits  bearing  evidence  of  having 
been  formed  by  the  evaporation  of  lakes  or  seas  at  former 
(often  remote)  geological  periods.  This  is  seen  from  their 
stratified  nature,  with  their  interposed  beds  of  clay,  which 
could  only  have  been  deposited  from  solution.  The  crystals 
of  selenite  (hydrated  calcium  sulphate),  moreover,  which 
they  contain  can  only  have  been  formed  in  water  and  can 
never  since  have  been  subjected  to  any  considerable  amount 
of  heat,  otherwise  their  water  of  crystallization  would  have 
been  driven  off.  The  beds  also  of  potassium  and  magnesium 
salts  found  at  Stassfurt  and  other  places,  interposed  be- 
tween or  overlying  the  rock  salt  deposits,  are  in  just  the 
position  in  which  one  would  naturally  expect  to  find  them 
if  deposited  from  salt  water.  Finally,  the  marine  shells 
often  occurring  abundantly  in  the  surrounding  rocks  of 
contemporary  periods  also  testify. to  the  former  existence 
of  large  neighbouring  masses  of  salt  water. 

Sea  Salt. — Assuming  a  degree  of  concentration  such  that 
each  gallon  of  sea  water  contains  0'2547  lb.  of  salt,  and 
allowing  an  average  density  of  2-24  for  rock  salt,  it  has  been 
computed  that  the  entire  ocean  if  dried  up  would  yield  no 
less  than  4,419,360  cubic  miles  of  rock  salt,  or  about  four- 
teen and  a  half  times  the  bulk  of  the  entire  continent  of 
Europe  above  high-water  mark,  mountain  masses  and  all 
The  proportion  of  sodium  chloride  in  the  water  of  the  ocean, 
■where  it  is  mised  with  small  quantities  of  other  saltp,  is 
on  the  average  about  33-3  per  1000  parta,  ranging  from 
29  per  1000  for  the  polar  seas  to  35-5  per  1000  or  more 
at  the  equator.  Enclosed  seas,  such  as  the  Mediterranean, 
the  Red  Sea,  the  Black  Sea,  the  Dead  Sea,  the  Caspian,  and 
others,  are  dependent  of  course  for  the  proportion  and  qual- 
ity of  their  saline  matter  on  local  circumstances.  Fcrch- 
hammer  found  the  following  quantities  of  solid  matter  in 
the  water  of  various  seas : — 

North  Sea 32 -80  grammes  per  litre. 

Cattegat  and  Sound 15'12  ,, 

Baltic 4-81 

Mediterranean 87'50  ,, 

Atlantic 34-30 

Black  Sea 16-89 

Caribbean  Sea 36-10  „ 

Of  this  sodium  chloride  constitutes  about  four-fifths. 
See  Sea  "Watee. 

At  one  time  almost  the  whole  of  tne  salt  in  commerce 
was  produced  from  the  evaporation  of  sea  water,  and  in- 
deed salt  so  made  still  forms  a  staple  commodity  in  many 
countries  possessing  a  seaboard,  especiaUy  those  where  the 
climate  is  dry  and  the  summer  of  long  duration.  In 
Portugal  a  total  of  over  250,000  tons  is  annually  made  in 
the  salt  works  of  St  Ubes  (Setubal),  Alcacer  do  Sal,  Oporto, 
Aneyro,  and  Figueras.  Spain,  with  the  salt  works  of  the 
Bay  of  Cadiz,  the  Balearic  Islands,  &c.,  makes  300,000  tons. 
Italy  has  salt  works  in  Sicily,  Naples,  Tuscany,  and  Sar- 
dinia, producing  165,000  tons.  In  France,  between  the 
"marais  salantadu  midi"  and  those  on  the  Atlantic,  250,000 
to  300,000  tons  are  annually  produced,  besides  those  of 
Corsica.  The  "Salzgiirten"  of  Austria  produce  collectively 
from  70,000  to  100,000  tons  annually  at  various  places  on 
the  Adriatic  (Sabioncello,  Trieste,  Pirano,  Capo  d'lstria, 
&c.).     In  England  and  Scotland  the  industry  has  (St  lats 


»  A  L  T 


229 


years  greatly  fallen  off  under  the  competition  of  the  rock- 
salt  works  of  Cheshire,  but  some  small  manufactories  still 
exist,  at  North  Shields  and  elsewhere,  where  salt  is  made 
by  dissolving  rock-salt  in  sea  water,  and  evaporating  the 
solution  to  crystallization  by  artificial  heat. 

The  process  of  the  spontaneous  evaporation  of  sea  water  has 
been  very  caitfully  studied  by  Usiglio  on  Mediterranean  water  at 
Cettc.  The  density  at  first  was  102.  Primarily  but  a  slight 
deposit  is  formed  (none  until  the  concentration  arrives  at  specific 
gravity  1-0509),  this  deposit  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  calcic 
carbonate  and  ferric  oxide.  This  goes  on  till  a  density  of  ri315 
is  attained,  when  hydrated  calcium  sulphate  begins  to  deposit,  and 
continues  till  specific  gravity  1  -2646  is  reached.  At  a  density  of 
1-218  the  volume  of  the  sea  water  has  become  reduced  to  rSojrths 
cf  what  it  was  at  first,  and  from  this  moment  the  deposit  becomes 
augmented  by  sodium  chloride,  which  goes  down  mixed  with  a 
little  magnesium  chloride  and  sulphate.  At  specific  gravity  1  -2461 
a  little  sodium  bromide  has  begun  also  to  deposit.  At  specific 
gravity  l'-311  the  volume  of  the  water  is  only  riliths  of  what  it 
was  at  first,  and  it  is  thus  composed: — 

Magnesium  sulphate .  ir45  per  cent. 

Magnesium  chloride 19-53        ,, 

Sodium  chloride 15-98        ,, 

Sodium  bromide.  ..' 2-04        ,, 

Potassium  chloride 3-30        ,, 

Up  to  the  time  then  that  the  water  became  concentrated  to 
specific  gravity  1-218  only  0-150  of  deposit  had  formed,  and  that 
chiefly  composed  of  lime  and  iron,  but  between  specific  gravity 
1-218  and  1-313  there  is  deposited  a  mi.vture  of— 

Calcium  sulphate 0-0283  perceut. 

Magnesium  sulphate 0-0624        ,, 

Magnesium  chloride 0-0153        „ 

Sodium  chloride 2-7107 

Sodium  bromide 0-0222 


2-8389 
And  of  this  wo  see  that  about  95  per  cent,  is  sodium  chloride. 
Up  to  this  point  the  separation  of  the  salts  has  taken  place  in  a 
iiirly  regular  manner,  but  now  the  temperature  begins  to  exert  an 
inliuenco,  and  some  of  the  salts  deposited  in  the  cold  of  the  night 
dissolve  again  ])JrtialIy  in  the  hn  t  of  the  day.  By  night  the 
liquor  gives  nearly  pure  magnesium  sulphate  ;  in  the  day  the  same 
sulphate  mixed  with  sodium  and  notassium  chlorides  is  deposited. 
The  mother-liquor  now  falls  a  little  in  density  to  a  specific  gravity 
of  1  -3082  to  1  ?&65,  and  yields  a  very  mixed  deposit  of  magnesium 
bromide  and  chlr-ride,  potassium  chloride,  an4  magnesium  sulphate, 
•ft'ith  the  double  magnesium  and  potassium  sulphate,  corresponding 
to  the  kimite  of  fetassfurt.  There  is  also  deposited  a  double  mag- 
nesium and  potassium  chloride,  similar  to  the  carnallite  of  Stassfurt, 
and  finally  the  mi'thir-liquor,  which  has  uow  agaiu  risen  to  specific 
gravity  1  3374,  contains  only  pure  magnesium  chloride. 

The  application  of  these  results  to  the  production  of  salt  from  sea 
water  Ls  obvious.  A  large  piece  cf  land,  varying  from  ono  or  two 
to  several  acres,  barely  apovo  high-water  mark,  is  levelled,  and  if 
Deceasary  puddled  with  clay  so  as  to  prevent  the  water  from  perco- 
lating and  sinking  away.  In  tidal  seas  a  "jas"  (as  the  storage 
reservoir  is  calledj  is  constructed  alongside,  similarly  rendered  im- 
pervious, in  which  the  water  is  stored  and  allowed  to  settle  and 
concentrate  to  a  certain  extent.  lu  non-tidal  seas  this  storage 
basin  is  not  required.  The  prepared  land  is  partitioned  off  into 
large  basins  {aJerncr-  or  muanls)  and  others  (called  in  Franco  aires, 
mullets,  or  tables  salanics)  which  get  smaller  and  more  shallow  in 
proportion  as  they  are  intended  to  receive  the  water  as  it  becomes 
more  and  more  concentrated,  just  sufficient  fall  being  allowed  from 
ono  set  of  baaius  to  tho  other  to  cause  the  water  to  flow  slowly 
through  them.  Tho  flow  is  often  assisted  by  pumping.  Tho  sea 
salt  thus  made  is  collected  into  small  heaps  on  tho  paths  around 
the  basins  or  the  floors  of  the  basins  themselves,  and  hero  it  under- 
goes a  first  partial  purification,  tho  more  deliquescent  salts  (espe- 
cially tho  magnesium  chloride)  being  allowed  to  drain  away.  From 
these  heaps  it  is  collected  into  larger  ones,  whore  it  drains  further, 
and  becomes  more  purified.  Here  it  is  protected  by  thatch  till 
required  for  sale. 

Tho  salt  is  collected  from  tho  surface  by  means  of  a  sort  of 
wooden  scoop  or  scraper  which  the  workman  pushes  before  him, 
but  in  spite  of  every  i>recaution  some  of  tho  soil  on  which  it  is  pro- 
duced is  inevitably  taken  up  with  it,  communicating  a  red  or  grey 
tint.  Sea  salt  is  thence  known  in  many  of  the  French  markets  as 
sd  gris,  and  frequofitly  contains  as  much  as  15  per  cent  of  impurity. 
Yet  such  is  the  ignorance  and  prejudice  of  many  people  that  they 
■will  buy  it  in  preference  to  tho  j'Uror  article  from  tho  evaporation 
of  rock-salt  brine,  a&sci  ting  its  action  to  bo  milder  and  more  oven 
Even  if  this  were  true  they  forgot  that  mud  ought  to  bo  cheaper 
than  salt.  Tho  salt  made  on  the  coast  of  Brittany  poasossos  tho 
foIlovMllg  coinpusltloli  :  — 


Sodium  chloride 87-97  per  cent 

MagnesSvun  chloride 1-58        ,, 

Magnesium  sulphate  0-50        ,, 

Calcium  sulphate 1'65        ,, 

Insoluble 080        „ 

Water 750        „ 

Generally  speaking  this  salt  goes  into  commerce  just  as  it  is, 
but  in  some  cases  it  is  taken  first  to  the  refinery,  where  it  either  is 
simply  washed  and  then  stove-dried  before  being  sent  out  or  is  dis- 
solved in  fresh  water  and  then  boiled  down  and  crystalltzed  like 
white  salt  from  rock-salt  brine.  The  salt  of  the  "salines  du  midi" 
of  the  south-east  of  France  is  far  purer  than  the  abov«,  however, 
its  composition  being  as  follows : — 

Sodium  chloride 95-11  percent. 

Magnesium  chlonde 023        ,, 

Magnesium  sulphate    130        ,, 

Calcium  sulphate 0  91         ,, 

Insoluble 0  10        „ 

Water 2  35 

This  is  perhaps  partly  owing  to  the  fact  that  of  late  years,  by  way 
of  obviating  the  above-mentioned  cause  of  impurity,  a  species  of 
moss  has  been  introduced  there  with  some  success  from  Portugal 
and  forms  a  bed  on  which  the  salt  is  deposited.  The  mother- 
liquors  from  the  crystallization  of  the  common  salt  contain  still  a 
little  sodium  chloride  and  most  of  the  bromine  and  lodme  of  the 
sea  water,  all  the  potassium  salts,  much  magnesium  sulphate,  and 
a  large  quantity  of  magnesium  chloride.  They  are  often  thrown 
away  as  useless,  but  lately,  in  the  south  of  France,  in  the  "salines 
du  midi,""they  have  been  used  for  the  production  of  certain  chemi- 
cals by  a  system  of  ulterior  treatment  introduced  by  M.  Merle  and 
still  continued  by  his  successor  M.  Pechinet. 

As  soon  as  the  water  arrives  at  specific  gravity  1  "2407  and  has 
deposited  most  of  its  salt,  it  is  drawn  off  and  stored  in  large  tanks 
of  50,000  or  60,Q00  cubic  metres  capacity  From  these  it  is 
withdrawn  in  successive  portions,  and  artiiiciaUy  cooled  to  0-4° 
Fahr.  Under  these  circumstances,  indeed  at  any  temperature 
below  26°  Fahr.,  a  double  decomposition  takes  place  between  tho 
sodium  chloride  and  the  magnesium  sulphate — crystallized  sodium 
sulphate  being  thus  separated.  After  being  withdrawn  and  freed 
from  the  mother-liquor  by  a  hydro-extractor,  this  sulphate,  which 
contains  two  atoms  of  water,  is  then  rendered  anhydrous  by  heating 
m  a  reverberatory  furnace.  From  the  relrigerating  vessel  the  water 
now  passes  to  an  ordinary  evaporating  pan,  where  the  remaining 
salt  is  precipitated  by  boiling,  collected,  and  purified  by  the  hydro- 
extractor.  Here  the  water  attains  a  specific  gravity  1  2680,  and, 
being  spread  out  in  a  thin  layer  on  a  smooth  level  bed  of  cement 
or  concrete,  deposits  on  cooling  all  its  potassium  aa  the  double 
chloride  of  potassium  and  magnesium,  the  same  as  tho  carnallite  of 
Stassfurt. 

Fig.  1  represents  the  usual  form  of  an  Austrian  "Salz^arten"  at 
Capo  d'Istria.     It  is  a  parallelogram  of  2  to  3  acres  in  extent 


■+ — sjk- 

-    -Jj  IL 


41- 


/f  f 


-t^—— 


,-w 


l._.  1 


surrounded  by  a  dyke  or  sea-wall  o.  Tho  see  water  enters  by  ths 
sluice  J,  and  passes  into  the  wide  fosse  c,  whore,  c'.arifying  by 
settlement,  it  posses  by  tho  openings  /  into  a  sextuple  scries  of 
largo  baaina  divided  by  tho  sopamtions  rf,  firet  of  all  cut«riug  th* 


230 


SALT 


hrgest  ones  g,  h,  i,  and  then  passing  by  tlie  canah  n  into  the  other 
basins  *•,  k,  !,  I,  Tlio  flovv  of  the  water  from  one  set  of  basins  to  the 
other  is  regulated  by  the  sluices  e,e,c.  As  it  passes  from  one  set 
of  basins  to  another  it  becomes  more  and  more  concentrated,  till  at 
last  in  the  basins  Hi,  m  the  salt  deposits.     The  mother-liquor  or 


"bittern"  is  then  run  off  into  p,  and  thence  into  the  sea.  In, 
Franca  it  is  often  stored  as  already  stated  for  future  treatment. 
In  case  of  heavy  rain,  the  already  concentrated  water  is  run  into 
the  covered  cisterns  s,  s,  which  serve  to  hold  it  tUl  the  return  of 
fine  weather. 


Table  l.—Pcrcodugc  Atmlyscs  of  Sea  Salts  from  Wdl-hnomi  LocalilUs. 


St 
Martin. 

Marais 

Snlants  de 

I'Ouest. 

Island  of 
01^i9a. 

Salines 
du  Midi. 

Cadiz. 

.        ,1 

Authoilty 

Heoiy. 

BertUlcr. 

Km-sten: 

Henry. 

Enqnate 
BUI-  les  Sels. 

Henry. 

Enquete 
BUT  les  Scla. 

Watts. 

Schriitter  and  FoU. 

Sodium  chloride.... 
Jlagnesium  chloride 
JIaguesium  sulphate 
1  Sodium  sulphate.... 
Calcium  sulphate... 

■VS'ater 

Insoluble  matters... 
Loss 

96-00 
0-30 
0-45 

2-36 

0-90 

95-19 

1-69 

0-56 

2-45 
0-11 

89-19 
6 -20 

b-81 

0-20 
3-60 

95-85 
0-24 
0-35 

1-30 
2-10 
015 

92-46 
0-55 
0-66 

2-28 
3-10 
0-95 

96-50 
0-32 
0-25 

0-88 
1-95 
0-10 

■S5-95 
0-35 
0-60 

i-90 

i-20 

87-97' 
1-58 
0-50 

i-65 
7-50 
0-80 

96-40 
0-2O 
0-45 

1-95 

i-00 

95-11 
0-23 
1-30 

0-91 
2-35 
0-10 

92-11 

b-99 

0-33 
6-30 
0-27 

95-91 
0-46 
0-40 

C-49 
2-58 
0-16 

96-05 
0-50 
0-51 

b-45 
2-42 
0-07 

I 


EochSaU. — This    appears    to  occur    in   almost  everj' 
formation,  except  in  the  Primary  rocks,  strictly  so  called. 
The  oldest  deposit  of  which  the  age  may  be  considered  to 
have  been  anything  like  precisely  determined  may  be  said 
to  be  the  great  salt  range  of  the  Punjab,  which  is  regarded 
as  belonging  to  the  Permian ;  and  that  lately  discovered 
at  iliddfesbrough  in  Yorkshire,  immediately  overlying  the 
magnesian   limestone,    may  bo   probably  referred  to  the 
same  period.     In  the  northern  counties  of  England  there 
are  frequent  instances   of  brine  springs  rising  from  the 
Carboniferous  and  contiguous  formations.     The  Cheshire 
and  Worcestershire  salt-beds  are  by  some  attributed  to  the 
Permian  :  more  generally,  however,  they  are  referred  to  the 
Trias.     Those  of  West  New  York  and  Giooderich  (Canada) 
are  said  to  belong  to   the  Salina  period  of  the   Upper 
Silurian.      The  deposits  of  the   Vosges,    Salzburg,   and 
others  of  central  Germany  and  Austria  are  considered  to 
belong  to  the  Trias ;  that  of  Bex  in  Switzerland  to  the 
Lias.     Those  of  Wieliczka  in  Poland,  Cardona  in  Spain, 
and  some  Algerian  formations  are  admitted  to  be  Creta- 
ceous.    Those  of  Bayonne,  Das,  and  Camarade,  in  the 
Pyrenees,  are  probably  Tertiary,  while  the  Dead  Sea,  Lake 
Elton  in  Astrakhan,  the  Bitter  Lakes  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez,  the  Kara  Boghaz  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian,  the 
Limans  of  Bessarabia  south  of  Odessa,  the  Kunn  of  Cutch, 
and  certain  formations  of  the  Sea  of  Azoff,  (fcc,  are  instances 
of  salt  formations  now  in  actual  progress.     The  frequent 
association  of  bitumen  and  petroleum  with  rock-salt  and 
brine  is  one  of  the  most  noticeable  features  in  the  geology 
of  those  substances,  and  seems  to  point  to  some  unknown 
condition  of  the  formation  of  the  two  first  named.     The 
Das  salt  is  close  to  the  bitumen  deposits  of  Bastenis  and 
Gaujac.     Borings  made  at  Das,  as  -well  as  at  Salies  about 
20  miles  distant  (where  also  salt  exists),  gave  vent  to  an 
efflux  of  inflammable  gas  which   continued  for  several 
weeks,  and  the  water  of  several  springs  in  that  neighbour- 
hood is  tainted  with  petroleum.     Bitumen  and  petroleum 
occur  near  Volterra  in  Tuscany,  where  a  large  deposit  of 
salt  is  being  worked.     In  Walachia  the  two  occur  in  the 
same  formation.     In  the  United  States  of  America  and  in 
the  south  of  Russia  petroleum  and  brine  are  found  in  many 
places  either  actually  associated  or  in  near  proximity ; 
petroleum  has  recently  been  discovered  not  far  from  the 
salt  deposits  of  Hanover,  and  one  of  the  beds  of  rock-salt 
at  Nancy  is  strongly  coloured  by  bitumen,  while  almost 
all  rock-salt  has  a  more  or  less  perceptible  bituminous 
odour  when  struck  or  rubbed.     lu  the  province  of  Sze- 
chuen,  China,  are  some  remarkable  salt  springs,  where  the 
brine  is  accompanied  by  such  an  efflux  of  inflammable  gas 
that  the  latter   serves  as  fuel  for  its   evaporation  ;   and 
Other  Bj)rings  accompanied  by  the  same  phenomenon  exist 


in  the  same  region.  In  fact,  instances  without  end  might 
bo  cited  of  the  tw<;  occurring  together,  and  it  would  appear 
that  petroleum  for  some  mysterious  reason  can  only  be 
formed  in  presence  of  salt. 

The  chief  rock-salt  districts  of  Europe  may  be  classified 
as  follows  : — (1)  the  Carpathians;  (2)  Austrian  and  Bava- 
rian Alps;  (3)  West  Germany;  (4)  Vosges;  (5)  Jura  ;  (6) 
Swiss  Alps ;  (7)  Pyrenees  and  the  Spanish  or  Celtiberian 
Mountains  ;  (8)  the  British  salt  deposits ;  (9)  isolated 
deposits  and  springs  in  Russia,  Turkey,  Italy,  &c. 

The  Carpathian  district  may  be  subdivided  into  the  Moldo- 
'Walachian,  Trancylvanian,  Galician,  and  Hungarian  sections. 
They  form  probably  the  richest  and  most  extensive  of  the 
European  salt  fields  and  by  them  alone  the  entire  continent  might 
be  saipplied  for  ages.  The  Transylvanian  and  TValacliian  mines 
are  specially  numerous  and  rich.  Thousands  o£  tons  of  salt,  in 
the  form  of  brine  from  the  springs  which  are  common  throughout 
the  country,  are  allowed  to  run  to  waste,  no  important  factory- 
existing  in  the  counti-y  for  its  evaporation.  The  rock  is  in  fact 
in  itself  so  pure  that  simply  ^ound  it  meets  all  req^uirements  of 
public  consumpticm.  In  Gahcia  the  principal  mines  and  those 
of  most  historicaf  interest  are  at  Wieliczka  and  Boehnia.  The 
former,  which  is  justly  the  most  celebrated  in  the  world,  is  situated 
9  miles  from  Cracow  and  has  been  wprked  continuously  for  sir 
hundred  years.  The  mass  of  salt  is  calculated  to  be  500  miles 
long,  20  miles  broad,  and  1200  feet  thick.  It  is  on  the  north-west 
side  of  a  ridge  of  hills,  an  offset. of  the  Carpathians.  The  salt  i» 
sloped  out  in  longitudinal  and  transverse  galleries,  and  largo 
vaulted  chambers,  supported  by  massive  pillars.  Explosives  are 
not  used  in  this  or  any  of  the  other  mines  of  the  district.  The 
salt  is  sold  just  as  it  comes  from  the  mine,  or  else  finely  ground 
and  packed  in  casks  or  sacks.  The  mine  is  divided  into  four 
levels,  and  is  234  yards  deep  and  1  mile  1279  yards  long  by  830 
yards  vnAe.  All  "the  grindin"  and  packing  is  done  within  it. 
it  is  stated  that  the  collective  length  of  the  galleries  and  chambers 
is  no  less  than  30  English  miles  and  the  total  yield  55,067  tons 
per  annum.  These  mines  employ  from  eight  hundred  to  one 
thousand  persons,  many  of  whom  live  permanently  under  ground  ; 
the  lower  levels  contain  streets  and  houses  and  coi;stitnte  a 
complete  village.  Travellere  have  given  glowing  descriptions 
of  the  crystal  vaults,  sparkling  aisles,  and  fairy  palaces  of  this 
mine.  The  salt  is  greyish,  and  somewhat  resembles  gi-anite  in 
appearance. 

In  the  well-known  district  of  the  .Anstrian  and  Bavarian  Alps 
the  mine  of  Salzbnrg  (Salzkammcrgut)  is  perhaps  the  .most 
familiar.  The  Austrian  portion  of  the  <listrict  includes  the 
towns  of  Aussee,  Ischl,  Hallstadt,  and  Hallein,  and  the  Bavarian 
includes  Berchtesgaden,  Keichenhall,  Traunstein,  and  Rosenheim. 
In  the  last-namjl  salt  is  made  from  brine  conveyed  in  pipes  from 
Berchtesgaden,  passing  by  Reichenhall,  15  miles  in  all,  mth  a  total 
fall  of  1552  feet.  There  arc  also  large  salt  works  at. Hall  near 
Innsbruck.  Here,  as  in  the  Carpathian  region,  most  of  the  rock- 
salt  is  sold  merely  ground,  or  in  Imups,  and  the  trade  is,  as  in 
other  parts  of  Austria-Hungary,  a  strict  Government  monopoly, 
producing  an  annual  revenue  of  two  and  a  quarter  to  two  and  a. 
half  millions  sterling. 

The  German  mines  are  numerous  ;  they  extend  north  and  south 
from  Segebierg  in  Holstein  to  Sulz  on  the  Ncckar,  and  east  and 
west  from  Kreuznach  to  Halle.  Brine  springs  and  small  workings 
lie  si-attcrcd  all  over  the  country.  But  two  formations  of  special 
importance  are  Stassfurt  in  Saxony  and  the  Liineburg  Heath  in. 


iS  A  L  T 


231 


lanover  Fie  2  rcpreaents  a  section  of  the  Stassfurt  beds,  nnd 
wUl  (rivo  an  idea  of  their  formation.  It  appears  lesa  tlian  most 
othera  to  have  been  subjected  to  denudation  since  being  formed, 
oiQorav  j^   ^^^    consequently   better    than   many 

^~        othera  illustrates  the  formation  of  such 


,  the  Salt  properly 
band  of  antiydrite, 


and  above  this 
i,  c,  rf,  beds  of 
variously  -  col- 
oured clay,  red 
and  grey,  con- 
taining highly 
deliquescent 
d  salts,  forming 
three  distinct 
layers.  The 
lowest,(?,  called 
"  polyhalite, " 
containa  some 
sodium     chlo- 


l 
c 

d^.     ,  

Fio   2 —Section  of  Stassfurt  Salt-Beds,  

ride  and  .rith  it  other  deliquescent  chlorides  Next  to  tbU  comes 
c,  the  "kieserile"  region,  about  30i  yard^  th.ck-here  "e  chiefly 
potassium  and  magnesium  sulphates;  and  lasHy  .^e  have  6,  the 
S^^Tayer  or  "  (Srnallit* "  region,  23  yards  thick,  contammg 
afmost  eLlusively  the  double  potassium  and  magnesium  chlondes 
toS^ther  with  other  deliquescent  salts,  nodules  of  boraeite,  &c.  _  It 
Ken  computed  that  'a  sea  depth  of  12i  mJes  would  be  required 
for  the  production  of  such  a  series  as  this.  ^ 

The  Vosges,  which  is  a  very  important  cjstrict  supplied  a  large 
part  of  thJcast  of  France  with  sa^t,  tilllost  by  the  war  of  187^- 
1871,  since  which  time  Nancy  has  gained  considerably  in  import- 
ance.     Geologically  speaking,'  Nancy  is  included  in  this  basin. 

In  Switzerland  the  chief  salt  district  lies  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Rhone,  near  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  The  principal  centres  are 
Aisle,  Roche,  and  Bex,. the  last  being  the  most  important. 

The  Pyrenees  are  rich  on  both  sides  in  brme  springs  and  rock- 
telt  formations.  In  the  south-west  of  France  we  have  the  rock- 
salt  of  Dax  and  Villefranche,  and  the  biine  springs  of  Salies  and 
Briscous,  as  well  as  that  of  Camarade.  In  Spain  both  rock-salt 
and  brine  are  plentiful,  as  is  indicated  by  the  frequent  recnrrence  of 
the  syllable  "  Sal "  in  the  names  of  towns  (SaUnas,  SaliniUas,  Foza 

"The  c'eltiberian  or  exclusively  Spanish  district  includes  various 
towns  scattered  over  Spain-Salinas  do  Saelices  (Guadalajara  , 
Villafifila  (Znmora),  Torreximeno,  Cazorla,  and  Hinojares  (Jaen), 
to  ■  but  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  deposit  of  salt  in  .Spam  is 
that  of  Caroona  in  the  province  of  Barcelona,  45  miles  north-west 
of  that  city.  Here  is  a  veritable  mountain  composed  of  a  bod  ol 
remarkably  pure  salt  142  to  184  yards  thick,  and  forming  two 
masses,  each  about  a  mile  in  ciicunifererce.  The  salt  is  as  usual 
ftratified,  and  bears  very  strong  evidence  of  denudation,  It  is 
chiefly  pure  white,  but  in  parts  varies  from  light-blue  to  bnck-red. 
It  is  extracted  by  an  oponair  working  like  stone  from  u  quarry. 

There  are  some  biine  and  rock-salt  deposits  which  can  hardly  be 
classified  as  belonging  to  anv  particular  district.  Such  are— m 
France,  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  the  brine  spring  of  Moutiers  and 
Castellane  ;  In  Italy,  Voltcrra;  in  Sicily,  Nicosia  and  llussonieli ; 
in  Croatia,  Szambor  ;  in  Bosnia,  Tusia  ;  in  Russia,  Baihmutz  on 
the  Donetz,  Balachna  on  the  Volga,  Staraya-Russa  near  Lake  llmcn 

Kupatoria  and  other  places  in  the  Crimea ;  in  Prussia,  Walters 

dortf,  Sperenberg,  ic.  ..„■,,  ,.  t.t    iv    ■  v 

The  chief  centres  of  manufacture  in  England  are  at  Northwich, 
Middlewich,  Winsford,  and  Sandbach  in  Cheshire,  Woston-on-Trent 
in  SUffordshire,  Stoke  Prior  aiid  Droitwich  in  Worce-stcrahire,  and 
Middlesbrough  in  Yorkshire.'  Duncrue  near  Camckfergus  in 
Ireland  also  possesses  a  large  deposit  of  salt.  The  Cheshire  and 
Worcestershire  salt  deposits  are  up  to  .the  present  time  by  far  the 
most  important,  the  Duncrue  deposit  being  only  partially  worked. 
•  Although  brine  springs  have  been  known  to  exist  in  both  these 
counties  ever  since  the  Romanoccnpation,  and  salt  had  been  made 
there  from  time  immemorial,  it  was  not  till  1670  that  rock-salt 
about  30  yards  thick  was  discovered  at  Marbury  near  Northwi.  h 
by  some  men  exploring  for  coal,  at  a  depth  of  34  yards.  In  1779 
throe  beds  of  rock-salt  wore  discovered  at  Lawton,  separated  from 
one  another  by  layers  of  indurated  clay.  Tho  Marston  mine,  the 
property  of  Messis  Rigby  and  Fletcher  of  Nortliwi.-h,  is  tho  largest 
and  perhaps  the  oldest  (there  are  tiventy-flvo  in  England  altng.  llicr 
where  rock-salt  is  raised).  It  was  worked  for  about  a  hundred  years 
in  only  its  upper  bed.  Imt  in  1781  its  owners  decided  on  sinking 
farther,  and,  after  travcr.sing  a  layer  of  indurated  clay  intorsocted 
with  small  veins  of  salt  lOJ  yards  thi(J{.  they  came  on  another  of 


rock-salt.     This— tho  bed  which  has  continued  to  be  worked  ever 
since- is  S3  to  37  yards  thick.    Beneath  it  are  others,  but  they  are 
thin  and  impure.    The  total  depth  of  tho  mine  to  the  bottom  of  the 
lower  level  is  120  yards.     At  Winsford,  where  the  same  formation 
seems  to   recur,  it  is  159  yards  from  the  surface.     Tho  ilarston 
mine  covers  an  area  of  about  40  acres.     The  salt  is  first  reached 
at  S.'i-lO  yards  in  the  Northwich  district,  and  the  upper  layer 
is  25-50  yards/in  thickness  (ilarston  23-26  yards) ;  it  has  above 
it    apparently  lying  in  the  recesses  of  its  surface,  a  layer  of 
saturated  brine.     This  is  the  brine  which  is  raised  at  the  various 
pumping  stations  in  Northwich  and  elsewhere  around,  and  which 
serves   when  evaporated   to   produce   white   salt.     The   beds   are 
reached  by  sinking  through  the  clays  and  variegated  marls  typical 
of  this  formation.     The  salt  is  blasted  out  with  gunpowder.     The 
Middlesbrough  deposit  bids  fair  soon  to  become  of  very  great 
importance.     It  was  discovered  by  Messrs  2olckow  and  Vaughan  in 
boring  for  water  in  1802  at  a  depth  of  400  yards,  but  was  not  utilized, 
and  was  again  found  by  Messrs  Bell  Bros,  at  Port  Clarence  at  a 
depth  of  376  yards,  and  is  being  now  w?rked  by  them,  the  heat 
used  for  evaporation  being  the  waste  gases  of  their  blast  furnaces. 
Encouraged  by  their  success  the  Newcastle  Chemical  Company  have 
also  bored  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river.     They  faded  at  first 
to  find  the  salt,  but  ultimately  succeeded  by  a  fresh  bormg.     The 
extent  of  the  bed  is  not  yet  ascerftincd,  but  evidently  by  the 
failure  of  the  Newcastle  Chemical  Company  at  first  it  cannot  extend 
far  to  the  north.     Its  thickness  has  been  proved  in-  so  far  as  the 
spot  wheVe  Messrs  BeU  Bros,  made  their  boring  is  concerned.     1  hese 
gentlemen  have    introduced    the    mc-hod    employed    at.  Nancy 
of  raising  the  salt  in  the  form  of  brine  without  the  trouble  or 
expense  of  sinking  a  shaft.     In  Cheshire  the  surface-water  tnckling 
through   the  overlying  strata   dissolves  the  salt    which  is  subse- 
quently pumped  as  brine,  but  here  the  great  depth  and  imper- 
nieability  of  tTie  strata  precludes  this,  so  another  method  has  been 
resorted  to.     A  boro  is  made  into  the  salt,  and  heed  with  tubing 
in  the  usual  maaner,  and  this  tube  where  it  traverses  the  salt  is 
pierced  with  holes.     Within  this  is  hung  loosely  a  second  tube  o£ 
much  smaller  dimensions  so  as  to  leave  an  annular  space  between 
tho  two.     Through  this  space  the  fresh  surface  water  bnds  its  way, 
and  dissolving  the  salt  below  rises  in  the  inner  tube  aa  brine,  but 
onlv  to.  such  a  level  that  the  two  columns  bear  to  one  another  the 
relation  of  ten  to  twelve,  this  being  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  respec- 
tive weights  of  saturated  brine  and  fresh  water.    For  the  remaining 
distance  the  brine  is  raised  by  a  pump.     At  first,  whUe  tha  cavity 
remains  small,  there  is  some  difficulty  in  gettmg  a  continuous 
supply  of  brine  of  full  strength,  but  thU  ceases  to  be  the  case  as 
the  solution  chamber  (as  it  is  called)  becomes  enlarged.     The  fresh 
water,   however,  as  it  descends  risis   to  the  surface  of   the   salt, 
tending  rather  to  dissolve  its  upper  layers  and  extend  superficial! j, 
so  that  after  a  time  tho  superincumbent  soU,  bemg  without  suppoit 
falls  in.     These  interior  landslips,  besides  choking  the  pipes  and 
breaking  the  communication,  often  produce sinkfaigs  at  the  surface, 
such  as  occurred  some  time  .ago  at  Dienzo  (Lon-aino).     The  same 
inconvenience  is  beginning  to  make  itself  felt  in  the  environs  of 
Naucv,  and  a  similar  one  produces  on  a.  larger  scale  the  sinking 
nnd  subsidences  at  Winsford  and -Northwich  so  much  complained 
of      The  deposits  of  salt  in  the  United  States  are  unimportant 
The  country  possesses  no  really  ^onsiderabl«  salt  industry,  but  is 
puppliod  so  far  aa  interior  consumption  is  concerned  to  a  small 
extent   by  brine   springs.     The   pnncipal  ""PPl'f'-  ^'"'''J'""'  "* 
d.-rived  from  England  and  the  shores  of  Spam  and  Portugal.     Tho 
same  remark  appli«.  to  Canada.     South  Amenca,  possesses  several 
salt  deposits  ani  brine  springs,  but  also  taias  all  ita  supplies  from 

'  .     .     ..        T^  •        : U«...lAn«liT   ciii^r,li0i1    with   tLllr..    aS 


I  The  tonnlnatlon  "wich'"  In  F.HRllih  pl«c«-nanim  often  polnl.i  to  nndont  wilt 
manufacluro,— tho  nmd  "vkli"  (cn<k,  boy;  Icol.  tit)  Imvlng  acqnlnil  a 
•pedal  sense  In  EnRlHh  nsiigi-.  In  Ocnnnny  tho  varions  loni.is  of  tho  non- 
Tontonlc  words  Hall,  Hullo  occuntag  ln.pl«c«-a«ino«  point  lu  tho  »«mo  wajr  to 
ancient  aalt-works. 


salt  deposits  ana  orino  oiJMu(4=.,  uu.,  „,™  „_ -.- -   ,r 

Europe.  Asiatic  Russia  is  very  abundantly  supplied  with  salt,  as 
likewise  is  China;  and  Persia  is  perhaps  one  of  the  countries 
most  abundantly  endowd  with  this  naUiral  and  useful  product 
British  India  cannot  bo  said  to  be  similarly  favoured.  In  the 
north,  it  is  true,  is  the  great  salt  range  of  the  Punjab  a.s  well  as 
the  Sambhur  Lake,  and  salt  is  obtained  from  sea-water  at  many 
places  along  its  extensive  seaboard  ;  but  India  "  pot  well  suppiie.l 
n  many  parts,  and  is  dependent  largely  for  this  article  c.i  tao 
Cheshire  salt  works.  In  fact  this  export  is  one  of  the  most  oi- 
oortant  branches  of  their  tr.ade.  „  ,  „  ,  v,  „//«..  r«. 
Table  II.  (see  next  page)  is  from  Spon's  Enajctopordyi  oflM  /«- 
dxi.-'trial  Arts,  &c.  t/i6  clay  and  insoluble  mattera  given  for  the 
Stassfurt  salt  seem  to  be  sonfowhat  abnormally  large 

Kock-salt  is  probably  the  origin  of  more  than  half  the  ««'' ">«!■«- 
factored  in  the  world.  It  oei'urs  in  all  degrees  of  pun  y.  fro""  tl"** 
of  mere  salty  clay  to  that  of  the  most  transparent  crystal*  In  ^6 
former  ca.,e  it  U  often  dithcult  to  obtain  the  brine  «' •  '>^'l«'*y  ««» 
approaching  saturation,  and,  aa  at  Moutiers  in  Savoy  and  in  Bevoral 
or  the  German  salt  works,  chambers  and  galleries  are  "™vatod 
within  the  saliferous  bed  to  increase  the  dis..<o  ving  surfac*.  and 
water  let  down  fresh  is  pumped  up  as  brine.  Many  brine  spnnfp 
also  occur  in  a  more  or  less  saturated  condition.  In  such  caao. 
the  water  is  sometimes  caused  to  trickle  over  faggots  arranged 
under  largo  open  slicds  called  " gmduntioi,  house.  ('"•"''•.'*Y'I'>| 
whereby  a  more  cxtonaiio  uuttaco  of  evaporation  ia  obtainod.  an-l 


232 


fe  A  I>  If 

Table  II. — Percentage  Composition  of  Roclc-SaU  frorn  Well-Tcnown  Localities. 


France. 

Schwabisch-Hall, 
WUrtemberg. 

Berchtes- 
gaden, 
Bavaria. 

stassfurt, 
near 
Magde- 
burg. 

Chateau 

Salins, 

Lorraine. 

Vic,  Loiriiine. 

Dai. 

Hall. 

Wle- 
llczka, 
Gallcla. 

White 
Salt  from 
Rock  Salt. 
Cheshire. 

Mars  ton 
Mine, 
North- 
wich. 

Fehllng. 

Blschof. 

Rammels- 
berg. 

Mathieu 

de  Dom- 

basle. 

Berthler. 

Cordler. 

Maxwell- 
Lyte. 

Blscbof. 

BlKhof. 

Richard- 
son and 
Watts. 

Crace 
Calvert. 

Sodium  chloride 

Calcium  chloride 

Magnesium  chloride... 
Potassium  chloride.... 

Calcium  sulphate 

Magnesium  sulphate.. 
Magnesium  carbonate 
Calcium  carbonate .... 
FeiTic  chloride  . 

99-97 
0  02 

0-or 

98-81 

0-02 

trace 

0-11 

0-16 
0  16 

0-80 

99-85 
trace 
0-15 

94-57 
b-97 
0-89 

8-35 
0-22 

97  05 
d-45 

i-50 

trace 

i'-oo 

99-30 
0-50 

0-20 

97-80 
0-30 

1-90 

97-45- 

0-25 
2-30 

96-97 

b'51 

trace 

0-23 

b'oi 

2-28 

99-43 

0-25 
0-12 

0-20 

100-00 

98-30 
b-06 
i-66 

96-70 

0-68 

trace 

trace 

0-25 

1-74 
0-63 

Clay     or     insoluble 

matters 

Water  or  loss 

tlie  brine  becomes  rapidly  concentrated.  Fig.  3  shows  one  of  these 
"  Gradirhauser."  It  consists  of  a  long  shed,  the  floor  of  which  is  a 
shallow  cistet-n  kept  filled  with  the  brine  to  be  concentrated,  the 
body  of  the  house  being  occupied  by  a  single  or  double  row  of 


Flo.  3. — Gradirhaus. 

faggots  of  blackthorn  t,  and  above  these  a  trough  or  troughs  J,  into 
which  the  brine  is  pumped;  escaping  from  these  into  the  channel 
c,  it  is  allowed  to  flow  or  drip  slowly  over  the  faggots,  and  finds 
its  way  back  to  the  basin  beneath.  The  shed  has  its  sides  open 
and:  exposed  to  the  prevailing  wnds,  and,  the  brine  being  thus 
spread  over  a  large  surface,  there  is  much  scope  for  evaporation, 
and  it  becomes  rapidly  concentrated.  Several  such  sheds  are  often 
built  in  series,  and  the  brine,  being  conveyed  from  one  to  the  other 
as  it  becomes  denser,  attains  at  last  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1-18, 
when  it  is  stored  in  large  cisterns  till  required  for  evaporation. 
This  is  done  in  large  iron  pans  by  the  method  to  be  hereafter  de- 
scribed when  speaking  of  rock-salt  brine.  The  use,  however,  of  the 
"  graduation  houses "  is  dying  out,  except  in  particular  localities 
where  competition  from  sea  salt  or  purer  rock-salt  is  difficult,  as 
both  their  construction  and  their  maintenance  are  expensive.  The 
purer  rock-salt  is  often  simply  ground  for  use,  as  we  have  seen 
to  be  the  case  at  Wieliczka  and  elsewhere,  but  it  is  more  frequently 
pumped  as  brine,  produced  either  by  artificial  solution  as  at 
Middlesborough  and  other  places,  or  by  natural  means  as  in 
Cheshire  and  Worcestershire.  One  great  drawback  to  the  use  of 
even  the  purest  rock-salt  simply  ground  is  its  tendenty  to  revert 
to  a  hard  unwieldy  mass,  when  kept  any  length  of  time  in  sacks. 
This  is  partly  but  n(Jt  wholly  obviated  by  packing  in  casks,  which, 
however,  are  dear  and  not  always  obtainable.  As  usually  made, 
white  salt  from  rock-salt  may  be  classified  into  two  groups : — (1) 
boiled :  known  as  fine,  table,  lump,  stoved  lump,  superfine,  basket, 
butter,  and  cheese  salt  (Fr.  sel  fin-fin,  set  d  la  ininnie,  &c. ) ;  (2) 
unboiled  :  common,  chemical,  fishery,  Scotch  fishery,  extra  fishery, 
double  extra  fishery,  and  bay  salt  (Fr.  sel  de  IS,  S4,  4S,  60,  and 
72  heures).  .  All  these  names  are  derived  from  the  size  and  appear- 
ance of  the  crystals,  their  uses,  and  the  modes  of  their  production. 
The  boiled  salts,  the  crystals  of  whij^h  are  small,  are  formed  in  a 
medium  constantly  agitated  by  boiling.  The  tine  or  stoved  table 
salts  are  those  white  masses  with  which  we  are  all  familiar.    Basket 


salt  takes  its  name  from  the  conical  baskets  from  which  it  is 
allowed  to  drain  when  first  it  is  "drawn"  from  the  pan.  Butter 
and  cheese  salts  are  not  stove-dried,  but  left  in  their  more  or  less 
moist  condition,  as  being  thus  more  easily  applied  to  their  respec- 
tive uses.  Of  the  unboiled  salts  the  first  two,  corresponding  tQ  the 
Fr.  sel  de  12  heures  and  sel  de  S4  heures,  show  by  their  English 
names  the  uses  to  which  they  are  applied,  and  the  others,  the 
applications  of  which  are  equally  shown  by  their  names,  merely 
depend  for  their  quality  on  the  length  of  time  which  elapses 
between  successive  drawings,"  and  the  temperature  of  the  evapora- 
tion. The  time  varies  for  the  unboiled  salts  from  twelve  hours  to 
three  or  four  weeks,  the  larger  crystals  being  allowed  a  longer  time 
to  form,  and  the  smaller  ones  being  formed  more  quickly.  The 
temperatufe  varies  from  55°  to  180°  Fahr. 

One  striking  difference  between  the  manufacture  of  salt  from 
rock-salt  brine  as  carried  on  in  Britain  and  on  the  Continent  lies 
in  the  almost  exclusive  use  in  the  latter  case  of  closed  or  covered 
pans,  except  in  the  making  of  fine  salt,  whereas  in  Britain  open 
ones  are  employed.  With  open  pans  the  vapour  is  free  to  difl'use 
itself  into  the  surrounding  atmosphere, , and  the  evaporation  is 
perhaps  more  rapid.  When  covered  pans  are  used,  the  loss  of  heat 
by  radiation  is  less,  and  the  salt  made  is  also  cleaner.  In  works 
published  in  France  and  Germany  the  statement  is  frequently 
made  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  sell  there  a  grain  of  salt 
manufactured  by  English  methods,  but  one  is  fairly  justified  in 
doubting  this  assertion,  seeing  the  ease  with  which  the  public  are 
induced  to  purchase  the  sel  gris  of  the  marais  salants.  In  fact,  it 
is  customary  in  some  places  to  make  a  special  article,  which  is  sold 
in  competition  with  sea  salt,  by  mixing  with  the  purer  one  10  or 
12  per  cent,  of  mud  or  earth.  The  most  advantageous  mode  of 
evaporation  would  evidently  be  to  cause  the  heated  gases  from  the 
furnace  to  pass  over  the  surface  of  the  liquid  itself.  No  wearing- 
out  of  the  pans  need  thus  be  feared,  no  lowering  of  the  conductive 
power  by  incrustation,  but  the  vapour  as  fast  as  formed  would 
diffuse  itself  into  heated  air  in  rapid  morion,  this  air  being  far 
from  its  point  of  saturation  and  greedy  of  moisture.  The  plan, 
however,  which  was  tried  in  Britain  by  Otto  Pohl  and  in  Germany 
by  Born  has  hitherto  been  a  failure,  the  salt  being  for  one  thing 
very  much  soiled  with  the  soot  and  other  jsroducts  of  combustion. 
Again,  this  mode  of  evaporarion  hardly  consorts  with  the  slow 
progress  and  perfect  stillness  required  for  the  production  of  the 
larger-grained  salts,  and  gives  only  fine  salt. 

Figs.  4  and  5  represent  a  French  pan,  while  fig.  6  is  a  British 
pan,  only  differing  from  the  Continental  ones  in  not  being  covered 
m,  and  in  usually  having  three  or  four  fires  in  place  of  two  or 
three,  and  a  separate  chamber  beyond  the  pan  in  which  the  salt 
is  stoved,  heated  by  the  flues  conveying  the  fnrnace  gases  to 
the  chimney  after  leaving  the  pan.  The  first  two  represent  a  pan 
of  64  feet  long  by  21 J  feet  wide  filled  with  brine,  &c.,  and  with 
circulating  flues  beneath  for  economy  of  heat.  This  pan,  a,  is  sup- 
ported all  round  its  lower  edges  on  a  wall  and  on  the  piUars  b,  b, 
and  heated  by  two  fires  e,  c.  The  flame  and  the  heated  gases  of 
each  fire  circulate  in  the  flues  p,  p,  p,  in  -which  are  holes  at  various 
convenient  points  for  cleaning  ;  thus  then  these  gases  are  made  to 
traverse  the  length  of  the  pan  three  times  before  arriving  at  the 
chimneys  n,  n  or  the  drying  floors  0,  0.  The  channels  e,  e 
beneath  the  fluSs  (fig.  5)  serve  to  warm  the  air  which  feeds  the  fires, 
and,  entering  at  the  further  end  of  the  pan,  traverses  them  and 
issues  warm  into  the  ash  pit  g,  which  is  of  course  otherwise  closed 
by  the  door  A.  The  steam,  collecting  beneath  the  cover  m,  of 
which  the  upper  portion  »  is  attached  to  the  timbers  of  the  roof. 


SALT 


233 


issues  Ly  the  chimney  I-,  while  below  a  series  of  shuttcis  allow 
access  for  the  various  manipulations. 
The  two  drying  floors  o,  o  arc  each  heated  by  three  flues  q,  g,  q, 


Kro.  4. — iira\vinj  in  tiansvcibe  section  of  a  J'Kiiiiy  ^ait  fan,  with  all 
the  latest  improvements,  as  used  in  Frauce. 

continuations  of  those  below  the  pan,  within  which  circulate  the 
heated  gases  on  their  way  to  the  main  chimney,  and  on  this  floor 
is  Boread  the  salt  to  be  dried.  The  floor  of  a  pan  is  generally  at 
first  slightly  arched  towards  the  centre,  so  that  when  new  a  pan 


Fio.  5. — The  same  in  longitudinal  section, 

i.s  rather  deeper  at  the  sides  than  in  the  middle,  hut  they  soon 
flatten  out  and  warp  in  all  directions  on  being  fired.  This  warp- 
ing is  a  great  i-nconvenience,  opening  communications  between  the 
flues    and    in-  

'I  .1.')!'.  I 


terfering  sadly 
with  the  ar- 
rangements of 
these  latter 
just  described, 
somuchsothat 
some  makers 
i-for  simple 
iron  or  brick 
supports  placed 
liere  and  there, 
without  any  de- 
finite arrange- 
ment. On  tlio 
Continent  the 
pan  is  often 
suspended  by 
iron  rods  from 
the  beams  of 
the  roof.     Tlio 

warping  or  buckling,  the  scaling,  and  the  formation  of  "cats,"  as 
the  workmen  call  the  sort  of  stalactites  of  salt  which  form  in 
the  flues,  arising  from  leaks  in  the  pan,  arc  perhaps  among  the 
worst  annoyances  of  the  saltmakcrs.     The  pans  are  of  ordinary 


Kio.  e.- 


■  Eritisli  Sail  I'an.      11,  II,  hurdles  into 
which  the  sail  is  drawn. 


boiler  plates  riveted  together.  The  plates  vary  in  size,  but  usually 
arc  2  feet  by  4  feet,  and  rather  smaller  over  the  fire.  The  grate, 
which  should  be  such  as  to  produce  a  moderate  and  diffused  heat, 
is  of  the  ordinary  kind,  and  the  firing  is  usually  done  from  a  pit 
below  the  end  of  the  pan.  In  England  they  use  "  slack"  sometimes 
called  "burgey";  abroad  they  use  all  kinds  of  fuel — wood,  coal, 
lignite,  and  turf ;  and  they  also  in  many  places  are  in  the  habit  of 
protecting  the  pan  from  the  more  intense  heat  immediately  over 
the  fire  c  by  a  guard  t  at  that  particular  part.  As  a  means  of  pro- 
ducing a  diff-used  and  gentle  heat  without  smoke,  water  "as  will 
probably  come  to  be  used  by  and  by.  On  the  Continent  tlie  flues 
are  often  2  or  2J  feet  high,  and  in  Britain  they  are  usually  half 
that  height.  As,  however,  a  slow  and  regular  draught  is  to  ba 
aimed  at,  on  the  principle  enunciated  by  Mr  Fredk.  Siemens,  the 
Continental  plan  seems  the  more  rational.  Space  does  not  here 
admit  of  a  description  of  the  so-called  machine  pans— the  clay  pans 
of  the  Cheshire  Amalgamated  Salt  Company  or  Otto  Pohl's  system.' 

In  Britain  the  brine  is  so  pure  that,  keeping  a  small  stream  of 
it  running  into  the  pan  to  replace  the  losses  by  evaporation  and 
the  removal  of  the  salt,  it  is  only  necessary  occasionally  (not  often) 
to  reject  the  mother-liquor  when  at  last  it  becomes  too  impure 
with  magnesium  chloride  ;  but  in  some  of  the  works  on  the  Con- 
tinent, especially  those  of  North  Germany,  the  mother-liquor  not 
only  contains  more  of  this  impurity  but  becomes  quite  brown  from 
organic  matter  on  concentration,  and  totally  unfit  for  further 
service  after  yielding  but  two  or  three  crops  of  salt  crystals.  Some- 
times, to  get  rid  of  these  impurities,  the  brine  is  treated  in  a  large 
tub  {hessoir)  with  li-mc  ;  on  settling  it  becomes  clear  and  colourless, 
but  the  dissolved  lime  forms  a  skin  on  its  surface  in  the  pan, 
retards  the  evaporation,  and  impedes  the  crystallization.  At 
times  sodium  sulphate  is  added  to  the  brine,  producing  sodium 
chloride  and  magnesium  sulphate  by  double  decomposition  with 
the  magnesium  chloride.  A  slight  degree  of  acidity  seems  more 
favourable  to  the  crystallization  of  salt  than  alkalinity  ;  thus  it 
is  a  practice  to  add  a  certain  amount  of  alum,  2  to  12  lb.  per  pan 
of  brine,  especially  when,  as  in  fishery  salt,  fine  crystals  are  required. 
The  salt  is  "drawn"  from  the  pan  and  placed  (in  tlie  case  of 
boiled  salts)  in  small  conical  baskets  hung  round  the  pan  to  drain, 
and  thence  moulded  in  square  boxes,  and  afterwards  stove-dried, 
or  (in  case  of  unboiled  salts)  "drawn"  in  a  heap  on  to  the 
"hurdles,"  on  which  it  drains,  and  thence  is  carried  to  the  store. 

In  most  Continental  countries  a  heavy  tax  is  laid  on  salt ;  and 
the  coarser  as  well  as  the  finer  crystals  are  therefore  often  dried  so 
as  not  to  pay  duty  on  more  water  than  can  be  helped. 

The  brine  used  in  the  salt  manufacture  in  England  is  very  nearly 
saturated,  containing  25  or  26  per  cent,  of  sodium  chloride,  the 
utmost  water  can  take  up  being  27  per  cent. ;  and  it  ranges  from 
38  to  42  ounces  of  salt  per  gallon.  In  some  other  countries,  as  has 
been  explained,  the  brine  has  to  be  concentrated  before  use,  and 
every  ounce  per  gallon  by  which  the  brine  is  below  saturation 
indicates  a  difference  of  cost  in  the  production  from  it  of  salt  of 
about  4id.  to  4Jd.  per  ton.  Subjoined  are  four  analyses  of  brine 
taken  from  Messrs  Richardson  and  Watts's  Chemistry  applied  to 
the  Arts  atul  Manvfaclurcs : — 


Constituents  In  100  Parts 
Brine. 

Chesliire. 

Worccsteraliire. 

Murston. 

Wheelock. 

Droltwlch. 

Stoke. 

Chloride  of  sodium 

Chloride  of  potassium 

Bromide  of  sodium 

25-3'22 

•Oil 
trace 

trace 
•146 

•391 
•036 
•107 
trace 
trace 
trace 
trace 
trace 

25-333 

■020 
trace 

■171 
trace 

•418 

■107 
trace 
trace 
trace 
trace 
trace 

22^452 

trace 
trace 

trace 
■390 

•887 
•115 
•084 

trace 
trace 
trace 

trace 

25^492 

trace 
trace 

trace 
•594 

•261 
■016 
•034 

trace 
trace 

trace 

trace 
26-397 

Iodide  of  sodium 

Chloride  of  magnesium ... 
Sulphate  of  potash 

Sulphate  of  magnesia 

Sulphate  of  lime 

Carbonate  of  soda 

Carbonate  of  magnesia.... 
Carbonate  of  manganese . . 
Carbonate  of  lime. 

Plios|>hato  of  ferric  oxide. 
Alumina 

Silica 

26  013 

•J6  049 

23  378 

The  price  of  salt  at  the  works  may  be  said  to  range  from  4s,  6d. 
to  Cs.  per  ton,  the  former  being  less  than  the  cost  price  la  given 
before  the  British  parliamentary  commis.tion  in  1881.  It  is  them 
stated  to  be— brine,  6d.  ;  labour,  lOd. ;  fuel  Ss.  ;  rent,  interest,  &c.. 
Is.  ;  total,  69.  4d.  Thus  the  margin  for  ))rofit  is  but  small,  almost  the 
only  gain  being  said  to  accrue  from  the  lightering,  most  of  the  ult 

manufKcturers  doing  the  carriage  in  their  own  "flats." 

»  Set  Spoa-«  tacyelpprdla  nflhe  IniuHriat  Arti,  *c. 

XXI.  —  30 


234: 


S  A  L— W  A  L. 


SaltmaldDg  is  by  no  means  an  •whcaltliy  trade,  some  slight  sore- 
ness of  the  eyes  being  the  only  alicction  sometimes  complained  of  ; 
indeed,  the  atmosphere  of  steam  saturated  with  salt  in  which 
the  workmen  live  seems  specially  preservative  against  colds, 
rheumatism,  neuralgia,  &o.  It  is  said  that  wages  are  rather 
better  and  employment  more  regular  in  Worcestershire  than  in 
Cheshire. 

The  parliamentary  commission  above  referred  to  was  appointed 
with  a  view  to  the  investigation  of  the  causes  of  the  disastrous 
subsidences  which  are  constantly  taking  place  in  all  the  salt 
districts,  and  the  provision  of  a  remedy.  It  led  to  no  legislative 
action  ;  but  the  evil  is  recognized  as  a  grave  one.  At  Northwich 
and  Winsford  scarcely  a  house  or  a  chimney  stack  remains  straight. 
Houses  are  keyed  up  with  "shaps,"  "  face  plates,"  and  "bolts," 
and  only  kept  from  fafiing  by  leaning  on  one  another.  The  doors 
and  windows  have  become  lozenge-shaped,  the  walls  bulged,  and 
the  floors  crooked.  Buildings  have  sunk, — some  of  them  dis- 
appearing altogether.  Lakes  have  been  formed  where  there  was 
solid  ground  before,  and  incalculable  damage  done  to  property  in 
all  quarters.  At  the  same  time  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  this 
griefance  can  be  rsmedied  without  inflicting  serious  injury,  almost 
ruin,  upon  the  salt  trade.  The  workings  in  Great  Britain  represent 
the  abstraction  of  rather  more  than  a  cubic  mile  of  rock  every  five 
years,  and  of  this  by  far  the  larger  part  ih  in  Cheshire. 

Manley  gives  the  following  statistics  of  the  production  of  salt  in 
England  for  1831  :— 

(  Northwich 500,000  tons. 

1  Winsford 1,000,000     „ 

iMiddlewich 80,000     „ 

,  Wheelock  and  Lawton 100,000     „ 

Shirley  wick  and  Weston-on-Trent         4,000     ,, 

i  Droitwich 115,000     „ 

I  Stoke  Prior 105,000    „ 


Cheshire 

Staffordshire... 
Worcestershire 


Total 1,854,000     „ 

He  also  gives  the  following  details  of  the  salt  exported  for  yes.rs 
ending  Dec.  31,  1881  to  1883  inclusive,  quoted  from  the  arcliives 
of  the  Salt  Chambsr  of  Commerce,  whence  the  importance  of  the 
salt  trade  in  England  may  be  judged  : — 


1881.               1882. 

1883. 

From  Liverpool ; — 

To  United  States ; 

Tons. 

228,891 
80,784 
16,656 
25,181 

324,109 
23,872 

100,957 

1,187 

67,780 

41, 663 

Tons. 

223,602 
61,716 
28,953 
84,287 

274,866 
17,232 

116,509 
6,001 
67,334 
32,462 

Tons. 

239.459 
99.352 
25,413 
36,8a$ 

816,327 
10,«60 

107,978 
2,803 
72,353 
46,753 

,,  British  North  America 

„  West  Indies  and  South  America 
„  Africa 

„  East  Indies 

,,  France  and  Meiliterranean 

<5bastwise r„ 

909,970 
148,122 
85,645 

876.962 

146,713 

68,147 

958,194 
141.021 
87,954 

„    Western  Doclc 

Grand  totaJ 

1  143  637      '  1  oQi  R^.":      i  l  ift?  ifiQ      1 

""■"•"-^ 

■'" 1 

(F.  M.  L.) 

Ancient  History  and  Religious  Symbolism. — Indispensable  as  the 
nse  of  salt  appears  to  ns,  it  must  have  been  quite  unattainable  to 
primitive  man  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  Thus  the  Odyssey 
(xi.  122  sq.)  speaks  of  inlanders  (in  Epirus?)  who  do  not  know  the 
sea  and  use  no  salt  with  their  food.  In  some  parts  of  America, 
and  even  of  India  (among  the  Todas),  salt  was  first  introduced  by 
Europeans  ;  and  there  are  stiU  parts  of  central  Africa  where  the 
use  of  it  is  a  luxury  confined  to  the  rich.  Indeed,  where  men  live 
mainly  on  milk  and  flesh,  consuming  the  latter  raw  or  roasted,  so 
that  its  salts  are  not  lost,  it  is  not  necessary  to  add  sodium  chloride, 
and  thus  we  understand  how  the  Numidian  nomads  in  the  time  of 
Sallust  and  the  "Bedouins  of  Hadramaut  at  the  present  day  never 
eat  salt  with  their  food.  On  the  other  baud,  cereal  or  vegetable 
diet  calls  for  a  supplement  of  salt,  and  so  does  boiled  meat.  The 
important  part  played  by  the  mineral  in  the. history  of  commerce 
and  religion  depends  on  this  fact ;  at  a  very  early  stage  of  progress 
salt  became  a  necessary  of  life  to  most  nations,  and  in  many  cases 
they  could  procure  it  only  from  abroad,  from  the  sea-coast,  or  from 
districts  like  that  of  Palmyra  where  salty  incrustations  are  found 
on  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Sometimes  indeed  a  kind  of  salt  was 
got  from  the  ashes  of  saline  plants  (e.j.,  by  the  Umbrians, 
Aristotle,  Met.,  ii.  p.  459),  or  by  pouring  the  water  of  a  brackish 
stream  over  a  fire  of  (saline)  wood  and  collecting  the  ashes,  as  was 
done  in  ancient  Germany  (Tac,  Ann.,  xiii.  57),  in  Gaul,  and  in 
Spain  (Plin.,  H.  N.,  xxxi.  7,  82  sq.);  but  these  were  imperfect 
surrogates.  Among  inland  peoples  a  salt  spring  was  regai'ded  as  a 
special  gift  of  the  gods.  The  Chaonians  in  Epirus  had  one  which 
flowed  into  a  stream  where  there  were  no  fish ;  and  the  legend  was 
that  Heracles  had  allowed  their  forefathers  to  have  s.ilt  instead  of 
fish  (Arist ,  ut  supra).     The  Germans  waged  war  for  saline  streams. 


and  believed  that  the  presence  of  salt  in  the  60U  invested  a  district 
with  peculiar  sanctity  and  made  it  a  place  where  prayers  were  most 
readily  heard  (Tac,  ut  sup.).  That  a  religious  significance  was 
attached  to  a  substance  so  highly  prized  and  which  was  often 
obtained  with  dilEculty  is  no  more 'than  natural.  And  it  must 
also  be  remembered  that  the  habitual  use  of  salt  is  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  advance  £'om  nomadic  to  agricultural  life,  i.e., 
with  precisely  that  step  in  civilisation  which  had  most  influence  on 
the  ciilts  of  almost  all  ancient  nations.  The  gods  were  worshipped 
as  the  givers  of  the  kindly  fruits  of  the  earth,  and,  as  all  over  the 
world  "  bread  and  salt  "  go  together  in  common  use  and  common 
phrase,  salt  was  habitually  associated  with  ofTerings,  at  least  with 
all  ofl'erings  which  consisted  in  whole  or  in  part  of  cereal  element3.| 
This  practice  is  found  alike  among  the  Greeks  and  Eomans  and. 
among  the  Semitic  peoples  (Lev.  ii.  13) ;  Homer  calls  salt  "divine," 
and  Plato  names  it  "a  substance  dear  to  the  gods"  (Timxus,  p. 
60  ;  comp.  Plutarch,  Sympos.,  v.  10).  As  covenants  were  ordinarily 
made  over  a  sacrificial  meal,  in  which  salt  was  a  necessary  element, 
the  expression  "a  covenant  of  salt"  (Numb,  xviii.  19)  is  easily 
understood  ;  it  is  probable,  however,  that  the  preservative  (lualities 
of  salt  were  held  to  make  it  a  peculiarly  fitting  symbol  of  an 
enduring  compact,,  and  influenced  the  choice  of  this  particular 
element  of  the  covenant  meal  as  that  which  was  regarded  as  sealing 
an  obligation  to  fidelity.  Among  the  ancients,  as  ^mong  Orientals 
down  to  the  present  day,  every  meal  that  included  salt  had  a  certain 
sacred  character  and  created  a  bond  of  piety  and  guest  friendship 
between  the  participants.  Hence  the  Greek  phrase  aKas  koX 
rpdire(av  TrapaSalytir,  the  Arab  phrase  "there  is  salt  between  us," 
the  expression  "to  eat  the  salt  of  the  palace"  (Ezra  iv.  14,  Rev. 
Ver. ),  the  modern  Persian  phrase  namak  hardm,  "  untrue  to  salt," 
i.e.,  disloyal  or  ungrateful,  and  many  others. 

It  has  been  plausibly  conjectured  that  the  oldest  trade  routes 
were  created  for  traflic  in  salt ;  at  any  rate  salt  and  incense,  the 
chief  economic  and  religious  necessaries  of  the  ancient  world,  play 
a  great  part  in  all  that  we  know  of  the  ancient  highways  cif 
commerce.  Thus  one  of  the  oldest  roads  in  Italy  is  the  Via  Sal-aria, 
by  which  the  produce  of  the  salt  pans  of  Ostia  was  carried  up  into 
the  Sabine  country.  Herodotus's  account  of  the  caravan  route 
uniting  the  salt-oases  of  the  Libyan  desert  (iv.  181  sq. )  makes  it 
plain  that  this  was  mainly  a  salt-road,  and  to  the  present  day  the 
caravan  trade  of  the  Sahara  is  largely  a  trade  in  salt.  The  salt  of 
Palmyra  was  an  important  element  in  the  vast  trade  between  the 
Syrian  ports  and  the  Persian  Gulf  (see  Palmtea,  vol.  xviii.  p.  200), 
and  long  after  the  glory  of  the  great  merchant  city  was  past  "  the 
salt  of  Tadmor"  retained  its  reputation  (Mas'iidi,  viii.  398).  In 
like  manner  the  ancient  trade  between  the  .£gean  and  the  coasts 
of  southern  Russia  was  largely  dependent  on  the  salt  pans  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Dnieper  and  on  the  salt  fish  brought  from  this 
district  (Herod.,  iv.  63;  Dio  Chrys.,  p.  437).  In  Phoenician 
commerce  salt  and  salt  fish — the  latter  a  valued  delicacy  in  the 
ancient  world— always  formed  an  important  item.  The  vast  salt 
mines  of  northern  India  were  worked  before  the  time  of  Alexander 
(Strabo,  v.  2,  6,  xv.  1,  30)  and  must  have  been  the  centre  of  a  wide- 
spread trade.  The  economic  importance  of  salt  is  further  indi- 
cate.iby  the  almost  universal  prevalence  in  ancient  and  mediaeval 
times,  and  indeed  in  most  countries  down  to  the  present  day,  of 
salt  taxes  or  of  Government  monopolies,  which  have  not  often  been 
directed,  as  they  were  in  aueieut  Rome,  to  enable  every  one  to  pro- 
cure so  necessary  a  condiment  at  1  moderate  price.  In  Oriental 
systems  of  taxation  high  imposts  on  salt  are  never  lacking  and  ara 
often  carried  out  in  a  very  oppressive  way,  one  result  of  this  being 
that  the  article  is  apt  to  roach  the  consumer  in  a  very  impure  state 
largely  mixed  with  earth.  "The  salt  which  has  lost  its  savour" 
(Mat.  v.  13)  is  simply  the  earthy  residuum  of  such  an  impure  salt 
after  the  sodium  chloride  has  been  washed  out. 

Cakes  of  salt  have  been  used  as  money  in  more  than  one  part  of 
the  world, — for  example,  in  Abyssiuiaand  elsewhere  in  Africa,  and 
in  Tibet  and  adjoining  parts.  See  the  testimony  of  Marco  Polo 
(bk.  ii.  ch.  48)  and  Col.  Yule's  note  upon  analogous  customs 
elsewhere  and  on  the  use  of  salt  as  a  medium  of  exchange  in  the  Shan 
markets  down  to  our  own  time,  in  lus  translation  of  Polo,  ii.  48  sq. 
In  the  same  work  interesting  details  are  given  as  to  the  importance 
of  salt  in  the  financial  system  of  the  Mongol  emperors  (ii.  200 
sq.).  (W.  R.  S.) 

SALTA,  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name  in  the 
Argentine  Republic,  ■with  a  population  of  about  20,000 
(1881),  is  a  well-built  town  occupying  a  somewhat  in- 
salubrious situation,  3780  feet  above  the  sea,-  at  the  can- 
fluence  of  the  Kio  de  la  Sillata  and  Kio  de  Arias,  head 
streams  of  the  Rio  Salado  (there  called  Bio  Pasaje  or 
Juramanto),  about  820  miles  north-west  of  Buenos  Ayres. 
The  town,  founded  by  Abreu  in  1582,  was  originally  known 
as  San  Clemente  de  Nueva  Castilla,  took  the  name  of  San 
Felige  de  Lerma  when  Hernando  de  Lerma  removed  it  t« 


!S  A  L  — S  A  L 


235 


its  present  site,  and  began  to  be  called  Salta  in  the  17th 
century.     A  large  trade  is  carried  on  with  Bolivia. 

SALTCOATS,  a  seaport  and  watering-plaqo  of  Ayr- 
shire, Scotland,  contiguous  to  Ardrossan,  and  19  miles 
north  of  Ayr.  It  possesses  a  good  sea-beach,  and  of  late 
years  has  become  a  favourite  watering-place.  The  town 
received  a  charter  as  a  burgh  of  barony  in  1528,  but 
afterwards  lost  its  privileges  and  fell  into  decay.  At  a 
very  early  period  marine  salt  was  manufactured,  and  salt- 
pans were  erected  by  Sir  Robert  Cunningham  in  1656, 
but  that  industry  has  now  ceased.  A  harbour  was  also 
constructed  and  for  a  considerable  time  there  was  a 
large  shipment  of  coal,  but  the  trade  has  now  passed  to 
Ardrossan.  The  population,  4624'  in  1871,  in  1881  was 
5096. 

SALTILLO,  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Coahuila  in 
Mexico,  65  miles  south-west  of  Monterey  by  the  Mexican 
National  Railway,  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  overlooking  a 
fertile  valley.  It  has  well-paved  streets,  several  good 
public  buildings,  and  cotton  factories  and  other  industrial 
establishments.     The  population  is  about  17,000. 

SALT  LAKE  CITY  (originally  Great  Salt  Lake  City), 
a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  capital  of  Utah  Territory 
and  the  metropolis  of  Mormonism,  stands  nearly  in  41°  N. 
lat.  and  112°  W.  long.,  at  a  height  of  4250  feet  above  the 
8ea,  on  the  brow  of  a  slight  decline  at  the  western  base  of 
the  Wahsatch  range,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jordan, 
a  stream  which  flows  from  Utah  Lake  into  Great  Sale 
Lake.i  By  the  Utah  Central  Railroad  the  city  is  36 
milessouthof  Ogden 
Junction  on  the 
Union  and  Central 
Pacific  Railroad,  and 
it  is  the  terminus  of 
the  Southern  and 
Western  Utah  Rail- 
roads. The  city  is 
laid  out  chessboard 
fashion,  with  all  the 
streets  137  feet  wide 
and  all  the  blocks  40 
rods  square.  Shade 
and  fruit  trees  have  Environs  of  Salt  Irtke  City. 

been  freely  planted,  and  on  each  side  of  every  north  and 
south  street  flows  a  stream  of  pure  water  in  an  open  channel. 
With  the  exception  of  some  modern  erections,  the  houses 
are  nearly  all  of  sun-dried  bricks.  The  largest  and  ugliest 
public  building  is  the  tabernacle,  with  its  huge  oval  wooden 
dome.  It  is  said  to  accommodate  8000  to  10,000  persons, 
and  has  the  second  largest  organ  in  America.  Within 
the  same  enclosure  as  the  tabernacle  are  the  endowment 
house,  where  the  initiation  ceremonies  of  Mormonism 
are  performed,  and  the  new  Mormon  temple  (1874-5) 
erected  at  a  cost  of  $10,000,000.  Other  conspicuous 
buildings  are  the  city-hall,  used  as  the  Territorial  capitol, 
the  theatre,  Walker's  opera  house,  the  Salt  Lake  pavilion, 
the  museum,  the  Deseret  university,  several  hospitals, 
and  the  city  prison.  The  population  was  6000  in  1850 
8230  in  18G0,  12,813  in  1870,  and  20,768  in  1880  (86 
coloured). 

AVlien  Great  Salt  Lake  City  was  founded  in  July  1847  (</ 
Mormonism,  vol.  xvi.  p.  827)  the  whole  rcgiou  lay  far  beyond  the 
mlvajicing  wave  of  western  civilization.  But  the  city  did  not  loii" 
remain  the  isolated  oasis  iu  the  desert  which  its  first  stttlcra  nwdc 

'  This  lake,  about  10  miles  from  the  city,  tbu  principal  body  of 
\v3tn  in  the  Great  Fremont  basin,  is  70  miles  long  by  45  miles  brood 
lias  an  area  of  1900  square  miles,  and  lies  4200  feet  above  the  sea' 
The  water  of  the  lake  contains  about  6^  times  more  than  the  average 
►ohd  constituents  of  sea  water,  being  almost  as  heavily  iniprognatoil 
(22-4  per  cent.)  as  that  of  the  Dead  Sea  (24  0  per  cent.).  Tho  salt 
la  ased  in  the  city  without  artificial  reliniug. 


it;  and  it  now  has  a  considerable  non-Mormon  population,  a 
United  States  garrison  at  Camp  Douglas  (between  2  and  8  miles 
distant),  and  United  States  judges. 

SALTPETRE,  or  Nitkate  of  Potash  (KNO,),  is  a 
salt  obtained  as  a  commercial  product  in  three  different 
ways.  (1)  It  occurs  as  an  efflorescence  on  the  surface  or  in 
the  superficial  stratum  of  the  soil  in  many  parts  of  the 
world,  but  specially  to  a  great  extent  in  the  Ganges 
valley  and  other  parts  of  India,  (2)  It  is  obtained  in  a 
semi-artificial  manner  in  nitraries  or  saltpetre  plantations. 
These  consist  of  heaps  of  decomposing  animal  matter 
mixed  with  lime  ashes,  road  scrapings,  and  other  rubbish 
covered  over  from  rain,  and  from  time  to  time  damped 
with  the  runnings  from  stables  and  other  urine.  Such 
heaps  develop  within  them  small  proportions  of  the  salt 
and  other  nitrates,  and  are,  in  effect,  artificial  imitations 
of  the  saltpetre-bearing  soil  of  India.  They  were  formerly 
very  common  in  Switzerland,  France,  Germany,  and 
Sweden.  (3)  A  large  quantity  of  saltpetre  is  now 
prepared  from  Chili  saltpetre,  the  nitrate  of  soda,  by 
double  decomposition  of  the  soda  salt  with  another 
salt  of  potash.  See  Nitrogen,  vol.  xvii.  p.  518, 
and  QuNPowBEB,  vol.  xi.  pp.  319,  323.  Saltpetre  is 
of  importance  in  numerous  industries,  among  the  most 
prominent  of  which  are  gunpowder  manufacture  and 
pyrotechny.  It  ia  also  used  as  an  oxidizing  agent  in  glass- 
making  and  in  metallurgical  operations.  In  the  curing  of 
meat  it  is  extensively  employed  with  common  salt  and  sugar, 
and  it  also  occupies  an  important  place  in  pharmacy. 

In  the  year  1884  337,708  ewt.  of  saltpetre  was  imported  into 
the  United  Kingdom,  the  estimated  value  being  £306,113.  Of 
tliis  amount  200,065  cwt.  came  from  Bengal  and  British  Burmah 
alone,  and  78,545  cwt.  of  converted  saltpetre  came  from  Cennany. 
During  each  of  the  two  years  1883  and  1884  the  imports  of  Chili 
saltpetre,  under  the  name  of  cubic  nitre,  exceeded  2,000,000  cwt., 
nearly  the  whole  supply  coming  from  Bolivia  and  Peru. 

SALUS  (Safety),  a  goddess  worshipped  in  various  parts 
of  ancient  Italy.  At  Rome  a  temple  adorned  with 
paintings  by  Fabius  surnamed  the  Painter  (Pictor)  was 
dedicated  to  her  in  302  B.C. ;  and  public  prayers  were 
offered  to  her  on  behalf  of  the  Roman  people  and  the 
emperor.  In  180  B.C.,  on  the  occasion  of  a  plague,  vows 
were  made  to  Apollo,  jEsculapius,  and  Salus.  Here  the 
special  attribute  of  the  goddess  appears  to  be  "health"; 
and  in  later  times  she  was  identified  with  the  Greek 
goddess  of  health,  Hygeia.  On  coins  of  Tiberius,  Nero, 
&c.,  she  is  represented  as  a  young  maiden  with  the  symbol 
of  llygeia,  a  serpent  drinking  out  of  a  goblet. 

SALUTATIONS,  or  greetings,  are  customary  forms  of 
kindly  or  respectful  address,  especially  on  meeting  or 
parting  or  on  occasions  of  ceremonious  approach.  Ely- 
mologically  the  word  salutation  (Lat.  salntatio,  "  wishin" 
health")  refers  to  words  spoken,  but  the  conventional 
gestures  are  even  more  purposeful,  and  both  should  be 
considered  together.  The  principal  modes  of  saluting, 
when  classified,  fall  into  a  few  groups,  with  well-defined 
meanings,-  the  examination  of  which  explains  the  practice 
of  any  particular  tribe  or  nation. 

Forms  of  salutation  frequent  among  savages  and  bar- 
barians may  last  on  almost  unclianged  in  civilized  custom, 
or  may  be  found  in  modified  shapes,  while  in  other  cases 
they  may  have  disappeared  altogether  and  been  replaced 
liy  new  greetings.  The  habit  of  affectionate  clasping  or 
embracing  is  seen  at  the  meetings  of  the  rude  Andainaners 
and  Australians,  or  where  the  Fuegians  in  friendly  saluto 
hug  "like  the  grip  of  a  bear."'  This  naturhl  gesture 
appears  in  old  Semitic  and  Arynn  custom  :— "Esau  ran  to 
meet  him  (.lacob)  and  embraced  him,  and  fell  on  his  neck, 
and  kissed  him,  and  they  wept"  (Gen.  xxxiii.  4) ;  so,  when 
Ulysses  makes  himself    known,  Philretius  and  EumKuii 

LW.  P.  Snow,  iu  Trant.  ElhwU  Sot.,  n.  t.,  vuL  i.  o.  B6i 


236 


SALUTATIONS 


cast  tneir  arms  round  him  with  kisses  on  the  head,  hands, 
and  shoulders  (Odyss.,  xxi.  223)  : — 

K\a7ov  &p  afx(i>  'O5yo"^t  5at(ppoifi  X^'P^  ^aKovrej 
£ts  5'  pfiTias  '050(761/9  KfcpaXui  «ai  x^^P^^  ^Kvaff^v. 

The  embrace  continues  habitual  through  later  ages,  and, 
though  in  modern  times  a  good  deal  restricted,  it  still 
marks  the  meetings  of  near  kinsfolk  and  lovers.  But  the 
kiss,  associated  with  it  in  passages  like  those  just  cited, 
has  no  such  universality.  The  idea  of  the  kiss  being  an 
instinctive  gesture  is  negatived  by  its  being  unknown  over 
half  the  world,  where  the  prevailing  salute  is  that  by 
smelling  or  sniffing  (often  called  by  travellers  "rubbing 
noses"),  which  belongs  to  Polynesians,  Malays,  Burmese 
and  other  Indo-Chinese,  Mongols,  &c.,  extetiding  thence 
eastward  to  the  Eskimo  and  westward  to  Lapland,  where 
Linnaeus  saw  relatives  saluting  by  putting  their  noses 
together.^  This  seems  the  only  appearance  of  the  habit  in 
Europe.  On  the  other  hand  the  kiss,  the  salute  by  tasting, 
appears  constantly  in  Semitic  and  Aryan  antiquity,  as  in 
the  above  cases  from  the  book  of  Genesis  and  the  Odyssey, 
or  in  Herodotus's  description  of  the  Persians  of  his  time 
kissing  one  another — if  equals  on  the  mouth,  if  one  was 
somewhat  inferior  on  the  cheek  (Herod.,  i.  134).  In  Greece 
in  the  classic  period  it  became  customary  to  kiss  the  hand, 
breast,  or  knee  of  a  superior.  In  Eome  the  kisses  of  in- 
feriors became  a  burdensome  civility  (Martial,  xii.  59): — 
"  Te  vicinia  tota,  te  piloses 
Hircoso  premit  osculo  colonus," 

The  early  Christians  made  it  tb?  sign  of  fellowship  : 
"greet  all  the  brethren  with  an  holy  kiss  "  (1  Thess.  v.  26; 
cf.  Kom.  xvi.  16,  &c.);  and  this  may  even  new  be  seen 
among  Anabaptists,  who  make  an  effort  to  retain  primitive 
Christian  habit.  It  early  passed  into  more  ceremonial 
form  in  the  kiss  of  peace  given  to  the  newly  baptized  and 
in  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist^j  this  is  retained  by 
the  Oriental  Church.  After  a  time,  however,  its  indis- 
criminate use  between  the  sexes  gave  rise  to  scandals,  and 
it  was  restricted  by  ecclesiastical  regulations — men  being 
only  allowed  to  kiss  men,  and  women  women,  and  eventually 
in  the  Roman  Church  the  ceremonial  kiss  at  the  communion 
being  only  exchanged  by  the  ministers,  but  a  relic  or  cross 
called  an  osculatoritim  or  pax  being  carried  to  the  people 
to  be  kissed.^  While  the  kiss  has  thus  been  adopted  as  a 
religious  ritO)  its  original  social  use  has  continued.  Among 
men  however,  it  has  become  less  effusive,  the  alteration 
being  marked  in  England  at  the  end  of  the  17th  century 
by  such  passages  as  the  ads'ice  to  Sir  Wilfull  by  his  London- 
bred  brother  : — "  in  the  country,  where  great  lubberly 
brothers  slabber  and  kiss  one  another  when  they  meet ; 
...  'T  is  not  the  fashion  here."*  The  kiss  on  both  cheeks 
between  parents  and  children  on  Continental  railway  plat- 
forms DOW  surprises  the  undemonstrative  Englishman,  who, 
when  servants  sometimes  kiss  his  hand  in  southern  Europe, 
is  even  more  struck  by  this  relic  of  servile  ages.  Court  cere- 
monial keeps  up  the  kiss  on  the  cheek  between  sovereigns 
and  the  kissing  of  the  hand  by  subjects,  and  the  pope, 
like  a  Roman  emperor,  receives  the  kiss  on  his  foot.  A 
curious  trace  which  these  osculations  have  left  behind  is 
that  when  ceasing  to  be  performed  they  are  still  talked  of 
by  way  of  politeness  :  Austrians  say,  "  kiiss  d'Hand  ! "  and 
Spaniards,  "beso  a  Vd.  las  manos!"  "I  kiss  your  hands!" 

Strokings,  pattings,  and  other  caresses  have  been  turned 
to  use  as  salutations,  but  have  not  a  wide  enough  range  to 
make  them  important.  Weeping  for  joy,  often  occurring 
naturally  at  meetings,  is  sometimes  affected  as  a  salutation; 

'  J.  E.  Sriu'th,  Linnmus's  Tour  in  Lapland,  vol.  i.  p.  315. 
'  Bingham,  Antiquities  of  the  Chr.  Church,  bk.  xii.  c.  4,  xv.  c.  3. 
'  The  latter  term  has  supplied  the  Irish  language  with  its  term  for 
s  kiss,  p6g,  Welsh  poc  ;  see  Rhys,  Revue  Celliqve,  vol.  vi.  p.  43 
*  Congi-eve's  Way  of  the  World,  Act  iii. 


out  tnis  seems  to  be  different  from  the  highly  ceremonious 
weeping  performed  by  several  rude  races  when,  meeting 
after  absence,  they  renew  the  lam",ntations  over  those 
friends  who  have  died  in  the  meantime.  The  typical  case 
is  that  of  the  Australians,  where  the  male  nearest  of  kin 
presses  his  breast'  to  the  new  comer's,  and  the  nearest 
female  relative,  with  piteous  lamentations,  embraces  his 
knees  with  one  hand,  while  with  the  other  she  scratches 
her  face  till  the  blood  drops.*  Obviously  this  is  no  joy- 
weeping,  but  mourning,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  New 
Zealand  tangi,  which  is  performed  at  the  reception  of  a 
distinguished  visitor,  whether  he  has  really  dead  friends  to 
mourn  or  not.^ 

Cowering  or  crouching  is  a  natural  gesture  of  fear  or 
inability  to  resist  that  belongs  to  the  brutes  as  well  as 
man  ;  its  extreme  form  is  lying  prostrate  face  to  ground.  In 
barbaric  society,  as  soon  as  distinctions  are  marked  between 
master  and  slave,  chief  and  commoner,  these  tokens  of 
submission  become  salutations.  The  sculptures  of  Egypt 
and  Assyria  show  the  lowly  prostrations  of  the  ancient 
East,  while  in  modern  Dahomey  or  Siam  subjects  crawl 
before  the  king,  and  even  Siberian  peasants  grovel  and 
kiss  the  dust  before  a  noble.  A  later  stage  is  to  suggest, 
but  not  actually  perform,  the  prostration,  as  the  Arab 
bends  his  hand  to  the  ground  and  puts  it  to  his  lips  or 
forehead,  or  the  Tongan  would  touch  the  sole  of  a  chief's 
foot,  thus  symbolically  placing. himself  under  his  feet. 
Kneeling  prevails  in  the  middle  stages  of  culture,  as  in  the 
ceremonial  of  China;  Hebrew  custom  sets  it  rather  apart  as 
an  act  of  homage  to  a  deity  (1  Kings  xix.  18  ;  Isa.  xlv.  23); 
mediseval  Europe  distinguishes  between  kneeling  in  worship 
on  both  knees  and  on  one  knee  only  in  homage,  as  in  thf 
£oke  qf  CvD'tasye  (15th  century)  : — 

Be  eurtayse  to  god,  and  knele  doun 
On  bothe  knees  with  grete  deuocioun; 
To  mon  fou  shall  e  knele  opon  J)e  ton, 
[le  tofer  to  Jiy  self  {lou  halde  alon. " 

Bowing,  as  a  salute  of  reverence,  appears  in  its  e:;treme 
in  Oriental  custom,  as  among  the  an:ient  Israelites: 
"bowed  himself  to  the  ground  seven  times"  (Gen.  xxxiii. 
3).^  The  Chinese  according  to  the  degree  of  respect 
implied  bow  kneeling  or  standing.^  The  bowing  saluta- 
tion, varying  in  Europe  from  something  less  than  the 
Eastern  salaam  down  to  tBe  slightest  inclination  of  the 
head,  ia  interesting  from  being  given  mutually,  the  two 
saluters  each  making  the  sign  of  submission  to  the  other, 
which  would  have  been  absurd  till  the  sign  passed  into 
mere  civility.  Uncovering  is  a  common  mode  of  saluta- 
tion, originally  a  sign  of  disarming  or  defencelessness  or 
destitution  in  the  presence  of  a  superior.  Polynesian  or 
African  chiefs  require  more  or  less  stripping,  such  as  the 
uncovering  to  the  waist  which  Captain  Cook  describes  in 
Tahiti.^  Taking  off  the  hat  by  men  has  for  ages  been  the 
accepted  mode  in  the  Western  world,  done  in  a  frequent, 
demonstrative  way  by  such  as  make  a  show  of  politeness, 
and  who  by  being  "  free  of  cappe  and  full  of  curtesye  "  pay 
cheaply  social  debts ;  but  modern  society  has  moderated 
this  bowing  and  scraping  (the  scrape  is  throwing  back  the 
right  leg  as  the  body  is  bent  forward),  as  well  as  the 
curtseys  {courioisic)  of  women.  Eastern  nations  are  apt  to 
see  disrespect  in  baring  the  head,  but  insist  on  the  feet 
being  uncovered ;  the  importance  attached  to  entering 
barefoot  is  well  known  to  EngUsh  officials  in  India ; 
Burmah   was  agitated   for    years    by  "  the    great    shoe 

^  Grey,  J&u.-nals,  vol.  ii.  p.  255. 
'  A.  Taylor,  Jfew  Zealand,  p.  221. 

'  See  the  Egyptian  bow  with  one  hand  to  the  knee;  TVilkinson, 
Anc.  Eg. 

*  S.  Wells  Williams,  Middle  Kingdom,  vol.  i.  p.  801. 

*  See  references  to  thesj  customs  in  Tvlor.  Earlu  UUiory  of-  Ma*- 
kind.  ch.  iii. 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


237 


question,"  whetlier  Europeans  sliould  be  called  on  to 
conform  to  native  custom,  rather  than  theii'  own,  by  taking 
o£E  their  shoes  to  enter  the  royal  presence.*  Grasping 
hands  is  a  gesture  which  makes  its  appearance  in  antiquity 
as  a  legal  act  symbolic  of  the  parties  joining  in  compact, 
peace,  or  friendship ;  this  is  well  seen  in  marriage,  where 
the  hand  grasp  was  part  of  the  ancient  Hindu  ceremony, 
as  was  the  "dextrarum  junctio"  in  Rome,  which  passed 
on  into  the  Christian  rite.  In  the  classic  world  we  see  it 
passing  into  a  mere  salutation,  as  where  the  tiresome 
acquaintance  met  by  Horace  on  his  stroll  along  the  Via 
Sacra  seizes  his  hand  (Hon,  Sat,  i.  9)  : — 

"  Arrept.iqiin  rn.inii, '  Quid  agis,  diilcissime  rerum  ?'" 

Giving  the  right  hand  of  fellowship  (Gal.  ii.  9)  passed 
naturally  into  a  salutation  throughout  Christendom,  and 
spread,  probably  from  Byzantium,  over  the  Moslem  world. 
The  emphatic  form  of  the  origiaal  gesture  in  "striking 
hands"  is  still  used  to  make  the  greeting  more  hearty. 
The  variety  called  in  English  "shaking  hands"  (Germ. 
Hande.-snh.utf.efn)  only  appears  to  have  become  usual  in  the 
Middle  Agea.^  In  the  Moslem  legal  form  of  joining  hands, 
the  parties  press  theiF  thumbs  together.^  This  has  been 
adopted  as  a  salute  by  African  tribes.  But  it  has  been 
especially  English  traders  and  missionaries  who  of  late 
years  have  introduced  shaking  hands  far  and  wide  in  the 
world,  so  that  even  such  rude  peoples  as  Australians  and 
Hottentots,  Eskimo  and  Fuegians,  unite  in  practising  this 
modern  civilized  custom. 

As  to  words  of  salutation,  it  is  found  even  among  the 
lower  races  that  certain  ordinary  phrases  have  passed  into 
formal  greetings.  Thus  among  the  Tupis  of  Brazil,  after 
the  stranger's  silent  arrival  in  the  hut,  the  master,  who  for 
a  time  had  taken  no  notice  of  him,  would  say  "  £re- 
ioube  I  "that  is,  "Art  thou  come?"  to  which  the  proper 
reply  was,  "  Yes,  I  am  come  I "  *  Many  formulas  express 
difference  of  rank  and  consequent  respect,  as  where  the 
Basuto  salute  their  chiefs  with  "Tama  sevata/"  i.e., 
"Greeting,  wild  beast ! "  Congo  negroes  returning  from  a 
journey  salute  th«ir  wives  with  an  affectionate  Olmoe  I  but 
they  meekly  kneeling  round  him  may  not  repeat  the  word, 
but  must  say  Kal  ka/^  Among  cultured  nations,  saluta- 
tions are  apt  to  bo  expressions  of  peace  and  goodwill,  as 
in  the  Biblical  instances,  "  Is  it  well  with  thee? "  (2  Kings 
iv.  26);  "Peace  to' thee,  and  peace  to  thine  house,"  &c. 
(1  Sam.  XXV.  6;  see  Ezra  iv.  17)..  Such  formulas  run  On 
from  age  to  ago,  and  the  latter  may  be  traced  on  to  the 
Moslem  greeting,  Saldm  'alaihuml  "The  peace  bo  on 
you,"  to  vhich  the  reply  is  Wa-'alail-um  as-saldml  "And 
on  you  be  the  peace  (»r.  of  God)  V"^'  This  is  an  example 
how  a  greeting  may  become  a  pass-word  among  fellow- 
believers,  for  it  is  usually  held  that  it  may  not  be  used  by 
or  to  an  infidel.  From  an  epigram  of  Meleager  {^Anth., 
ed.  Jacobs,  vii.  119 ;  cf.  Plautus,  Pa'ti.,  v.,  passim)  wo  learn 
that,  while  the  Syrian  salutation  was  Shelom  ("  Peace  '  "), 
the  Phoenicians  greeted  by  wi.shing  life  {>y\v.  nn,  the  Nin, 
&.C.,  of  Neo-Punic  gravestones).  The  cognate  Babylonian 
form,  "O  king,  live  for  over!"  (Dan.  iii.  9),  represents  a 
series  of  phraseswhich  continue  still  in  the  Vivat  rex/  "Long 
live  the  king  I "  The  Greeks  said  x^'^pf,  "  Be  joyful ! "  both 
at  meeting  and  parting;  the  Pythagorean  vyiaivuv  and  the 
Platonic  tv  Trparruv  wish  health;  at  a  later  time  do-Tra'^o/iat, 
"  I  greet!"  came  into  fashion.  The  Romans  applied  Salve  / 
"Be  in  health!"  especially  to  meeting,  and  Vale/  "Be  well!" 
to  parting.  In  the  modern  civilized  world,  everywhere,  the 
old  inquiry  after  health  appears,  the  "How  do  you  do?"  be- 
coming 80  formal  as  often  to  be  said  on  both  sides  without 

'  Shway  Toe,  The  Burman,  vol.  il,  pp.  168,  205. 
'  Seo  Tylor  in  MacmiUan'a  Mar/.,  May  1882,  pi  76. 


'  Lane,  Mod.  Eg.,  vol.  1.  p.  219. 
.»  Magyar,  Reite  in  Sud-A/rika. 


*  Joan  de  Lory,  part  fl.  p.  204. 

•  Of.  vol.  ivl.  p.  668,  note  1. 


either  waiting  for  an  answer.  Hardly  less  w:d.e  in  range 
is  the  set  of  phrases  "Good  day!"  "Good  night !"  «fec., 
varying  according  to  the  hour,  and  translating  into  every 
language  of  Christendom.  A  rcong  other  European  phrases, 
some  correspond  to  our  "welcome!"  and  "farewell!"  while 
the  religious  element  enters  into  another  class,  exemplified  by 
our  "Good-bye!"  ("God  be  with  you!"),  and  Ftench  Adieu/ 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  shape  European  greetings  into 
expressions  of  orthodoxy,  or  even  tests  of  belief,  but  they 
have  had  no  great  success.  Examples  are  a  Protestant 
German  salutation  "  Lobe  Jesum  Ch.ristum  /"  answered  by 
"In  Eiviffkeit,  Amen/"  and  the  formula  which  in  Spain 
enforces  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  "Ave 
3fana  purisima /"  answered  by  "  Sin  pecado  concehida/" 
On  the  whole,  though  the  half-meaningless  forms  of  salu- 
tation may  often  seem  ridiculous,  society  would  not  carry 
them  on  so  universally  uidess  it  found  them  usefuL  In 
fact,  they  serve  the  substantial  purpose  of  keeping  up  social 
intercourse,  and  establishing  relations  between  the  parties 
in  an  inferview,  of  which  their  tone  may  strike  the  key 
note.  Montaigne,  a  master  of  the  courtesy  of  an  age 
more  ceremonious  than  ours,  truly  asserts  their  importance, 
"  C'est  au  demourant  une  tres  utile  science  que  la  science 
de  I'entregent."  (e.  b.  t.)- 

SALUZZO,  or  Saiuces,  a  city  of  Italy,  at  the  head  of  a 
circondario  in  the  province  of  Cuneo,  42i  miles  south  of 
Turin  (with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway  and  a  steam 
tramway),  is  situated  600  to  650  feet  above  the  sea,  just 
where  the  last  hills  of  the  Monte  Viso  die  away  into  the 
plain  bstween  the  Po  and  its  tributary  the  Vraita.  The 
upper  town  preserves  some  part  of  the  fortifications  which 
protected  it  when,opreviou3  to  the  plague  of  1630,  the 
city  had  upwards  of  30,000  inhabitants ;  and  the  hill  is 
crowned  by  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  castle.  The  more  im- 
portant castle  of  the  marquises  (in  which  according  to  the 
legend  the  patient  Griselda  was  confined)  is  in  the  lower 
town  and  now  serves  as  a  penitentiary.  Besides  the 
cathedral  (Gothic,  1480-1511),  with  tl  .  tombs-of  the  old 
marquises,  other  conspicuous  buildings  a^e  the  churches  of 
San. Giovanni  (formerly  San  Domenico)  and  San  Bernardo 
(the  former  the  finest  architectural  monument  of  the 
marquisate),  the  old  town-house  (1102),  the  new  town-house 
(formerly  belonging  to  the  Jesuits),  and  the  theatre  (1829). 
To  the  north  of  the  city  lies  the  abbey  of  Staffarda  (1130- 
1737).  The  population  of  the  city  was  10,145  (commune 
16,237)  in  1880. 

By  some  authorities  Saluzzo  is  it^cntified  with  Augusta  Vagien- 
porum.  Tho  line  of  its  marquises  began  (1142)  with  Manfred,  son 
of  Boniface,  marquis  of  Savona,  ind  continued  till  1543,  when  tha 
death  of  Gabriel,  imprisoned  by  Henry  II.  of  Franco  in.tho  castle 
of  Pinerolo,  allowed  city  and  territory  to  be  seized  by  the  French. 
Tho  marquises  of  Saluzzo  being  great  ojiponents  of  tho  house  of 
Savoy,  and  frequently  taking  part  in  tho  struggles  between  France 
and  tho  empire,  the  city  often  had  to  suffer  severely  from  the 
fortunes  of  war.  Henry  IV.  restored  tho  marquisate  to  Charles 
Emmanrel  I.  of  Savoy  at  the  peace  of  Lyons  in  1601.  Among  the 
celebrities  of  Salu^zo  ere  Silvio  Pellico  (whoso  statue,  1863,  gives 
name  to  the  Piazza  del  Statuto),  Bodoni  tha  famous  printer,  and 
Casalis  th"  historian  of  Sardinia.  Tho  history  of  the  marquisate 
was  wn:  ;„  '  y  DelDno  Muletti,  6  vols.,  1829-1833. 

SALVADOR.     See  San  Salvador.- 

SALVAGE  is  "the  reward  which  is  earned  by  those 
who  have  voluntarily  saved  or  assisted  in  saving  a  bhip  or  . 
boat,  or  their  apparel,  or  nny  part  thereof;  or  the  lives  of 
persons  at  sea  ,  or  a  ship's  cargo  or  any  part  thereof  from 
peril;  or  a  wreck  from  total  loss"  (Roscoc,  Admiralty 
Law  and  Practice,  p.  13).  The  word  salvage  is  indiffer- 
ently used  to  denote  tho  claim,  tho  reward,  or  tho  projierty 
saved.  Salvage  is  interesting  ns  being  jHirhaps  the  one 
case  in  English  law  in  which  a  person  may  bccomo  liable 
to  a  claim  upon  him  for  services  rendered  to  him  without 
his  request,  express  or  implied.  Salvage  may  bo  either 
military  or  civil.     Claims  for  military  ealvage,  t>.,  salvage 


238 


S  A  L  — S  A  L 


on  recapture  (for  which  see  Peize),  are  decided  by  a  prize 
court.  The  tribunal  for  determining  cases  of  civil  salvage, 
the  usual  kind,  is  a  court  having  admiralty  jurisdiction. 
In  England  or  Ireland  the  High  Court  of  Justice  (Admiralty 
Division),  in  Scotland  the  Court  of  Session,  have  cognizance 
of  salvage  claims  to  any  amount.  The  Merchant  Shipping 
Act,  1854,  confers  jurisdiction  on  justices  of  the  peace  to 
arbitrate  on  claims  not  exceeding  .£200,  or  where  the  value 
of  the  property  saved  does  not  exceed  .£1000.  Certain 
county  courts  named  by  order  in  council  have  by  the  County 
Courts  Admiralty  Jurisdiction  Act,  1868,  jurisdiction  in 
any  claim  in  which  the  value  of  the  property  saved  does 
not  exceed  £1000,  or  in  which  the  amount  claimed  does  not 
exceed  £300.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  inferior  courts  is 
protected  by  provisions  depriving  the  suitor  in  the  High 
Court  of  his  costs  without  a  certificate  from  the  judge  in 
cases  where  the  claim  might  have  been  made  before  justices 
or  in  a  county  court.  In  addition  there  are  various  local 
tribunals  exercising  a  more  or  less  limited  jurisdiction  in  sal- 
vage claims.  Such  are  the  Commissioners  within  the  Cinque 
Ports,  the  Court  of  Passage  of  the  city  of  Liverpool,  and  the 
Royal  Courts  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  besides  the  various 
Vice-Admiralty  Courts  throughout  the  British  empire. 

The  rules  which  guide  the  courts  in  the  award  of 
salvage  are  reducible  to  a  few  simple  principles,  depending 
partly  upon  the  general  maritime  law,  partly  upon  the 
Merchant  Shipping  Acts,  1854  and  1862.  (1)  The 
salvage  services  must  have  been  rendered  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  ADMiE-iLLTr  (q.v.).  (2)  There  must  be 
no  legal  duty  on  the  part  of  the  salvors  to  render  assist- 
ance. Therefore  there  must  be  very  meritorious  and 
exceptional  services  on  the  part  of  the  crew,-  or  even  of  a 
pilot,  a  passenger,  or  the  crew  of  a  tug,  to  entitle  any  of 
them  to  salvage.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  officers 
and  crew  of  a  queen's  ship,  coastguardsmen,  &c.,  who  are 
bound  by  their  position  to  assist.  (3)  The  prop«rty  must 
have  been  in  peril,  and  rescued  by  the  salvors.  (4)  The 
services  must  have  been  successful  Of  course  where  a 
request  {or  help  has  actually  been  made,  and  the  property 
perishes,  the  right  of  remuneration  nevertheless  survives, 
on  the  ordinary  principles  of  contract.  The  basis  of 
salvage  proper  is  service  independently  of  contract. 

If  these  conditions  be  satisfied,  salvage  claims  take 
priority  of  all  others  against  the  property  saved,  and  give 
the  salvors  a  maritime  lien  upon  such  property,  enforceable 
by  an  action  in  rem.  Salvage  of  life  from  a  British  ship 
or  a  foreign  ship  in  British  waters  ranks  before  salvage  of 
goods.  In  distributing  the  salvage  reward  the  court 
considers  (1)  the  extent  of  the  peril  of  the  property  saved, 
(2)  its  value,  (3)  the  nature  of  the  services.  This  is 
subject  to  ally  contract,  not  inequitable,  made  between  the 
parties.  Seamen  cannot  abandon  their  right  to  salvage 
unless  they  specially  engage  themselves  on  a  ship  to  be 
employed  on  salvage  duty.  Salvage  of  life  is  rewarded  at 
a  higher  rate  than  salvage  of  property.  Misconduct  of 
salvors  may  operate  as  a  bar  to  their  claim.  Salvage 
reward  is  commonly  apportioned  between  the  officers  and 
crew  of  the  salving  ship,  its  owners,  and  other  persons 
assisting.  The  amount  is  at  the  discretion  of  the  distri- 
buting authority.  It  seldom  exceeds  in  the  whole  one- 
half  the  value  of  the  property  saved.  Apportionment  for 
salvage  services  rendered  within  the  United  Kingdom, 
where  the  sum  does  not  exceed  £200,  due  by  agreement 
or  the  order  of  justices,  may  be  made  by  the  receiver  of 
wreck  on  application  of  the  parties  liable  to  pay  it. 

Salvage  is  a  term  also  applied  by  analogy  to  property  not  saved 
at  sea,  but  from  lire  on  land,  and  also  to  property  recovered  from 
destruction  by  the  aid  of  voluntary  payments.  Tbe  person  making 
the  last  advance  is  entitled  to  priority  in  the  nature  of  quasi- 
salvage,  as  the  continued  existence  of  the  property  at  aU  may  he 
due  to  him,  e.g.,  the  case  of  a  payment  made  to  prevent  the 


forfeiture  of  a  policy  of  insuiance.  Charges  in  favour  of  a  solicitor 
upon  property  recovered  or  preserved  by  his  means  have  been 
several  times  declared  by  the  courts  to  be  in  the  nature  of  salvage 
of  this  kind. 

The  law  of  the  United  States  is  in  general  agreement  with  that 
cf  England.  The  court  of  admiralty  jurisdiction  is- the  district 
court.  The  area  in  which  salvage,  services  may  be  rendered  is 
much  wider  than  in  England,  as  it  includes  the  great  freshwater 
navigable  rivers  and  lakes.  This  difference  arises  from  the  greater 
importance  of  inland  navigation  in  the  L'uited  States.  See 
Riparian  Laws. 

SALVIAN,  a  Christian  writer  of  the  5th  century,  was 
born  in  Gaul,  and  most  probably  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Treves  or  Cologne  {De  Gub.  Dei,  vi.  8,  13).  His  birth 
has  been  conjecturally  assigned  to  the  period  from  390 
to  420.  He  was  probably  brought  up  as  a  Christian, 
though  of  this  there  is  no  absolute  proof.  Zschimmer 
considers  his  writings  to  show  that  he  had  made  a  special 
study  of  the  law ;  and  this  is  the  more  likely  as  he 
appears  to  have  been  of  noble  birth  and  could  describe  one 
of  his  relations  as  being  "of  no  small  account  in  her  own 
district  and  not  obscure  in  family"  {Ep.  i.).  He  was 
already  a  Christian  when  he  married  Palladia,  the 
daughter  of  heathen  parents,  Hypatius  and  Quieta,- whose 
displeasure  he  incurred  by  persuading  his  wife  to  retire 
with  him  to  a  distant  monastery,  which  is  almost  certainly 
to  be  identified  with  that  so  lately  founded  by  St  Honora- 
tus  at  Lerins.  For  seven  years  there  was  no  communica- 
tion between  the  two  branches  of  the  family,  till  at  last, 
when  Hypatius  had  become  a  Christian,  Salvian  wrote 
him  a  most  touching  letter  in  his '  own  name,  his  wife's, 
and  that  of  his  little  daughter  Auspiciola,  begging  for  the 
renewal  of  the  old  affection  (Up.  iv.).  This  whole  letter 
is  a  most  curious  illustration  of  Salvian's  reproach  against 
his  age  that  the  noblest  man  at  once  forfeited  all  esteem  if 
he  became  a  monk  (Be  Gub.,  iv.  7 ;  cf.  viii.  4). 

It  was  presumably  at  Lerins  that  Salvian  made  the 
acquaintance  of  St  Honoratus  (o6.  429),  St  Hilary  of 
Aries  (ob.  449),  and  St  Eucher  of  Lyons  {ob.  449).  That 
he  was  a  friend  of  the  former  and  wrote  an  account  of 
his  life  we  learn  from  St  Hilary  ( Vita  Hon.,  ap.  Migne, 
1. 1260).  To  St  Eucher's  two  sons,  Salonius  and  Veranus, 
he  acted  as  tutor  in  consort  with  St  Vincent  of  Lerins. 
As  he  succeeded  St  Honoratus  and  St  Hilary  in  this  office, 
this  date  cannot  well  be  later  than  the  year  426  or  427, 
when  thp  former  was  called  to  Aries,  whither  he  seems  to 
have  summoned  Hilary  before  his  death  in  429  (Eitckerii 
Instrvdio  ad  Salonium,  ap.  Migne,  1.  773 ;  Salv.,  Ep. 
ii.).  Salvian  continued  his  friendly  intercourse  with  both 
father  and  sons  long  after  the  latter  had  left  his  care ;  it 
was  to  Salonius  (then  a  bishop)  that  he  wrote  his  explana- 
tory letter  just  after  the  publication  of  his  treatise  Ad 
Ecclesiam ;  and  to  the  same  prelate  a  few  years  later  he 
dedicated  his  great  work,  the  De  Guhematione  Dei.  The 
above  facts,  as  wiU  be  seen,  render  it  almost  certain  that  he 
must  liave  been  born  a  good  deal  before  420.  If  French 
scholars  are  right  in  assigning  Hilary's  Vita  ffonorati  to 
430,  Salvian,  who  is  there  called  a  priest,  had  probably 
already  left  Lyons  for  Marseilles,  where  he  is  knov/n  to  have 
spent  the  last  years. of  his  life  (Genu.,  ap.  Migne,  Iviii. 
1099).  It  was  probably  from  Marseilles  that  he  wrote  his 
first  letter — presumably  to  Lerins — begging  the  community 
there  to  receive  his  kinsman,  the  son  of  a  widow  of  Cologne, 
who  had  been  reduced  to  poverty  by  the  barbarian  in- 
vasions. It  seems  a  fair  inference  from  this  letter  that 
Salvian,  acting  up  to  the  precepts  of  his  own  treatise  Ad 
Ecclesiam,  had  divested  himself  of  all  his  property  in  favour 
of  that  society  and,  having  no  longer  any  possessions  of  his 
own,  sent  his  'elative  to  Lerins  for  assistance  (Ep.  L,  with 
which  compare  Ad  Eccles.,  ii.  9,  10 ;  iil  5).  It  has  been 
conjectured  that  Salvian  paid  a  visit  to  Carthage  ;  but  this 
is  a  mere  inference  based  on  the  minute  details  he  gives  of 


b  A  L  — S  A  L 


239 


the  state  of  this  city  just  before  its  fall  {De  Guh.,  vii.,  viiL). 
He  seems  to  have  been  still  living  at  Marseilles  when  Gen- 
nadius  wrote  under  the  papacy  of  Gclasius  (492^96). 

Of  Sftlffian's  writings  there  are  still  eitant  two  treatises,  eutitled 
respectively  De  GuberiuUunis  Dei  and  Ad  Ecclesiam,  and  a  series 
of  nine  letters.  The  De  Gubcmatione,  Salvian's  greatest  worlt,  was 
published  after  the  capture  of  Litorius  at  Toulouse  (439),  to  wliich 
he  plainly  alludes  in  viL  10,  and  after  the  Vandal  conquest  of  Car- 
thage in  the  same  year  (vi.  12),  but  before  Attila's  invasion  (-150), 
as  Salvian  speaks  of  the  Huns,  not  as  euemiss  of  the  empiru,  but 
as  serving  in  the  Roman  armies  (vii.  9).  The  words  "  proximum 
helium  "  seem  to  denote  a  year  very  soon  after  439.  In  this  work ' 
Satvian  deals  with  the  same  problem  tliat  had  moved  the  eloquence 
of  St  Augustine  and  Orosius.  Why  were  these  miseries  tailing  on 
the  empire  ?  Could  it  bo,  as  the  pagans  said,  because  the  ago  had 
forsaken  its  old  gods?  or,  as  the  semi-pagan  creed  of  some  Chris- 
tians taught,  tliat  God  did  not  constantly  overrule  the  world  he 
had  created  (L  1)?  With  the  former  Salvian  will  not  argue  (iii.  1). 
To  the  latter  he  replies  by  asserting  that,  "just  as  the  navigating 
steersman  never  looses  the  helm,  so  does  God  never  remove  his  care 
from  the  world."  Henco  the  title  of  the  treatise.  In  books  i.  and 
ii.  Salvian  sets  himsii'.  to  prove  God's  constant  guidance,  first  by 
the  facts  of  Scripture  bistory,  and  secondly  by  the  enumeration  of 
special  texts  declaring  this  truth.  Having  thus  "  laid  the  founda- 
tions "  of  his  work,  he  declares  m  book  lii  that  the  misery  of  the 
Roman  world  is  all  due  to  the  neglect  of  God's  commandments  and 
the  tenible  sins  of  every  class  of  society.  It  is  not  merely  tliat  tho 
slaves  are  thieves  and  runaways,  wine-bibbers  and  gluttons, — the 
rich  are  worse  ^v.  3).  It  is  their  harshness  and  greed  that  drive  , 
the  poor  to  join  the  Bagaudte  and  fly  for  shelter  to  the  barbarian 
Invaders  (v.  5  and  6).  Everywhere  the  taxes  are  heaped  upon  the 
needy,  while  the  rich,  who  have  the  apportioning  of  the  impost, 
escape  comparatively  free  (v.  7).  The  great  town?  are  wholly  given 
np  to  tho  abominations  of  the  circus  and  the  theatre,  where  decency 
is  wholly  set  at  nought,  and  Minerva,  Mars,  Neptune,  and  the  old 
gods  are  still  worshipped  (vi.  11  ;  cf.  vi.  2  and  viii.  2).  Troves  was 
almost  destroyed  by  the  barbarians ;  yet  the  first  petition  of  its 
few  suiviving  nobles  was  that  the  emperor  would  re-establish  the 
circus  games  as  a  remedy  for  tho  ruined  city  (vi.  15).  And  this 
was  tho  prayer  of  Christians,  whose  baptismal  oath  pledged  them 
to  renounce  "the  devil  and  his  works  .  .  .  the  pomps  and  shows 
(spectacula)  "  of  this  wicked  world  'vi  6).  Darker  still  were  the 
iniquities  of  Carthage,  surpassing  even  the  unconcealed  licentious- 
ness of  Gaul  and  Spain  (iv.  6);  and  more  fearful  to  Salviau  than 
all  else  was  it  to  hear  men  swear  "by  Christ"  that  they  would 
eommit  a  crime  (iv.  15).  It  would  be  the  atheist's  strongest 
argument  if  God  left  such  a  state  of  society  unpunished  (iv.  12), — • 
especially  among  Christians,  whose  sin,  since  they  alone  had  the 
Bcriptures,  Vvas  worse  than  that  of  barbarians,  even  if  equally 
wicked,  would  be  (v.  2).  But,  aa  a  matter  of  fact,  tho  latter  had 
at  least  some  shining  virtues  mingled  with  their  vices,  whereas  the 
Romans  were  wholly  corrupt  (vii.  15,  iv.  14).  With  tliis  iniquity 
of  the  Romans  Salvian  contrasts  the  chastity  of  the  Vandals,  the 
piety  of  the  Goths,  and  the  ruder  virtues  of  the  Franks,  the  Saxons, 
•nd  the  other  tribes  to  whom,  though  heretic  Arians  or  unbelievers, 
God  is  giving  in  reward  the  inheritance  of  the  empire  (vii.  9,  11, 
21).  It  is  curious  that  Salvian  shows  no  such  hatred  of  the  hetero- 
dox barbarians  as  was  rife  in  Gaul  seventy  years  later. 

Ad  Ecchsiam  is  sufficiently  explained  by  its  common  title.  Contra 
Avariliam.  It  is  quoted  more  than  once  in  the  De  Chibcmalionc. 
Salvian  published  it  under  the  name  of  Timothy,  nnd  explained  his 
motives  for  so  doing  in  a  letter  to  his  old  pupil.  Bishop  Salonius 
(Ep.  ix.).  This  work  is  chiefly  remarkable  uccause  in  some  places 
it  seems  to  recommend  parents  not  to  bequeath  anything  to  their 
children,  on  the  plea  that  it  is  better  for  tho  children  to  sulTer 
want  in  this  world  than  that  their  parents  should  bo  damned  in 
the  next  (iii.  4).  Salvian  is  very  clear  on  the  duty  of  absolute  self- 
denial  in  the  case  of  sacrsd  virgins,  priests,  and  monks  (W.  8-10). 
Several  works  mentioned  by  Gennadius,  notably  a  poem  "  in  morem 
Grfficorum  "  on  tho  six  days  of  creation  (hexacmeron),  and  certain 
homilies  composed  for  bishops,  are  now  lojit  (Genu.,  07). 

Tho  Ad  Eccleilam  wiu  ttrat  printed  in  SIchard's  Aniidoton  (Rue),  1(38); 
tbe  De  aubernalione  by  BraHlCiin  (Ba-'cl,  1630j.  Tlio  two  appeared  in  one 
volume  at  Puns  in  lft7r>,  PlthcDua  added  varlic  loctlonpa  and  Iho  flrnk  acven 
IcttLTB  (i*iiri9,  l.VMi);  RlttOThusiaa  made  varioua  conjcctur*!  cmcndaUona  (Altorf. 
1611),  and  lioluio  many  more  based  un  M3.  aiilhorlty  (Tarin,  ICOS-ICB'J). 
Kmnerooa  oHier  edllloi.a  appcarc<l  from  tho  K-tli  to  tlif.  I8lh  century,  all  of  which 
arc  now  superseded  by  tho  CKCcIlcnt  rues  of  C.  Halru  (Hirlin,  ls"7)  and  F,  Panly 
(Vienna,  188.1).  The  two  oldcat  MSS.  of  tlio  Dt  f;ot>frnalwne  belong  to  llio 
10th  century  (Cod.  Parla,  No.  13.S8S)  and  tho  13lh  (Uruaiols.  10.0;«);  of  Uio 
Ad  Eccleslam  to  tho  10th  (Puria,  ilTi)  and  Iho  lllh  (I'iirts,  2;«i):  of  Epltllc  IX. 
to  the  9lh  (Paris,  2785);  of  Epistle  VIII.  to  Iho  7lh  or  8lh  conlnry  (Parts, 
9e,ei>U)and  to  Ihc  l)th  or  lOlh  century  (Paris,  12,237,  12,230).  Of  tho  first  seven 
cplsllcs  there  I3  (jnly  one  MS,  extant,  of  which  one  part  Is  now  at  Bern  (No.  2Il»), 
the  other  at  Puiis(No.  37iH).  See  lliitoire  Litteraire  rfe  France,  vol.  11.;  /sclilrn- 
mer'a  Salvianui  (tlatlo,  1876).  Salvlan'a  works  aro  reprinted  (after  llaUize)  In 
Ml(fne*8  Curtm  ratrotorriir ,  vol.  llll.  For  blbllOffiaphy  seo  T.  O.  Sehnenrmann's 
HU'lwlfieca  I'litrum  (II.  t^23)  and  Iho  pr«faeaa  to  the  editions  of  llaltn  and  Pauly. 
bennadlus,  St  Hilary,  aad  HI  i:.ucliur  may  bo  causulled  la  M<guo,  vols.  Ivlii. 
anil  U  .  CT>  A.  A.) 


SAL  WIN  HILL  TRACTS,  a  district  in  tho  Teiiasserim 
division  oi  British  Burmah,  extending  from  the  northern 
portion  of  the  province  southwards  to  Kaw-ka-rit  on  the 
Salwin  river,  and  occupying  the  whole  of  the  country 
between  that  river  on  the  east  and  tho  Poung-loung 
mountains  on  the  .west.  The  district  contains  an  area  of 
about  4646  square  miles,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Kareng-ni  state,  on  the  east  by  Zong-mai,  on  the  south 
by  Amherst  and  Shwe-gyeng  and  on  the  west  by  Shwe- 
gyeng  and  Tounggnu.  '  From  the  annexation  of  Pegu 
until  1872  the  Hill  Tracts  formed  a  subdivision  of  the 
Shwe-gyeng  district,  but  in  that  year  it  was  constituted 
into  a  separate  jurisdiction.  Nearly  the  whole  district  is 
a  mass  of  mountains  intersected  by  deep  ravines,  the  only 
level  land  of  any  considerable  extent  being  found  in  the 
valley  of  the  Rwon-za-leng,  while  every  part  of  the  country 
is  covered  with  dense  forest. 

The  HiU  Tracts  are  drained  by  three  principal  rivera,  tho  Salwin, 
Rwon-za-lcng,  and  Bhi-lcng,  fed  by  numtrous  mountain  tonents 
which  rush  down  narrow  ravines.  The  Salwin  is  the  largest  river 
in  the  Tenasserim  division.  Its  source  has  never  been  explored, 
but  it  appears  to  take  its  rise  far  north  in  the  Himalayas  or  in  the 
movmtains  which  form  their  extension  eastward.  After  traversing 
the  Chinese  province  of  Yunnan  and  tlio  Shan  and  Kareng-ni 
states  to  the  south,  it  enters  British  Burmah  at  its  extreme  north- 
eastern corner,  and  Jor  some  distance  marks  the  eastern  limits  of 
the  province.  It  has  a  known  course  of  about  700  miles,  but  its 
breadth  seldom  exceeds  100  yards,  and  in  some  parts  the  bed  does 
not  occupy  more  than  30  yards.  The  Salwin  is  greatly  obstructed 
by  rapids,and  is  not  navigable  by  large  craft  for  more  than  100 
miles  from  its  month.  The  Rwon-za-leng,  which  rises  in  the 
extreme  north,  is  navigable  with  some  difficulty  in  the  dry  season 
OS  far  as  Pa-pwon,  the  administrative  headquarters  ;  tho  Bhi-leng 
is  not  navigable  within  the  limits  of  the  district  except  by  small 
boats  and  rafts. 

Of  the  total  area  of  the  district  only  21  square  miles  are  cnl'i- 
vated ;  the  chief  crops  are  rice  and  betel-nuts.  The  revenue  of 
Salwin  amounted  in  1883-84  to  only  £1904,  of  which  £940  were 
raised  from  the  land-tax.  Tho  population  in  1S81  was  returned  at 
30,009  (males  15,509,  females  14,500). 

SALZA,  Heemakn  von  (c  1180-1239),  one  of  tho  most 
illustrious  knights  of  the  Teutonic  order,  was  a  scion  of 
the  house  of  Langensalza  in  Thuringia,  where  he  was  born 
about  1180.  He  was  a  faithful  and  influential  councillor 
of  the  emperor  Frederick  II.,  and  took  a  prommcnt  part 
in  the  contemporary  affairs  of  the  German  ompire.  Tho 
events  of  his  life  are  involved  in  the  history  of  the 
Tetttonio  Order  (q.v.),  of  which  he  was  elected  master 
in  1210  or  1211. 

SALZBKUNN,  a  small  German  watering-place,  visited 
annually  by  about  4000  patients,  is  situated  in  Silesia,  30 
miles  to  tho  south-west  of  Breslau.  Its  alkalo-salino 
springs,  which  are  especially  edicacious  in  pulmonary 
complaints,  were  known  as  early  aa  1316,  but  afterwards 
fell  into  disuse  until  their  merits  were  once  more  dis- 
covered at  the  beginning  of  this  century.  Tho  resident 
population  in  1880  numbered  5777. 

SALZBURG,  capital  of  the  present  Austrian  crownland 
and  formerly  of  the  archbishopric  of  tho  same  name,  occu- 
pies a  position  of  singular  beauty  on  tho  Salzach,  87  miles 
south,€ast  of  Munich,  and  154  miles  west  by  soutli  of  Vienna. 
The  river,  flowing  north-west  from  the  glaciers  of  the  Salz- 
burg Alps  to  the  Bavarian  plain,  passes  at  this  point  between 
two  isolated  hills,  tho  Miinch.slserg  (1732  feet)  on  tho  loft 
and  tho  Capuzinerberg  (2132  feet)  on  the  right;  in  the 
lovely  valley  so  formed,  and  stretching  info  the  plain 
beyond,  lies  Salzburg.  The  picturesque  and  wooded  con- 
fining hills,  the  lofty  citadel  of  Hohon-Sal/burg,  rising 
like  a  Greek  nrropolis  above  tho  towers  and  spires  of  tho 
city  at  its  foot,  and  tho  mngnificont  background  of  tho 
Sakbuig  Alps,  overhanging  tho  broad  i)lain,  niako  Salzburg 
the  most  beautifully  situated  town  in  Austria  or  Germany. 
Tho  older  and  main  part  of  tho  city  lies  on  tho  loft  bank  of 
tho  Salzach,  in  a  narrow  semicircular  plain  at  tho  base  of  tho 


240 


S  A  L.Z  B  .U  E  G 


Monchs'berg ;  the  newer  town  is  on  the  right  bank  at  the 
foot  of  the  Capuzinerberg,  which  is  separated  from  the  river 
by  the  narrow  suburb  of  Stein.  At  the  south  end  of  the 
old  town,  below  the  Nonnberg,  or  south-east  spur  of  the 
Monchsberg,  is  the  suburb  of  Nonnthal ;  and  at  the  north 
end  is  Miilln.  The  steep  sides  of  the  Monchsberg  rise 
directly  from  amidst  the  houses  of  the  town,  some  of 
■which  have  cellars  and  rooms  hewn  out  of  the  rock  ;  and 
the  ancient  cemetery  of  St  Peter,  the  oldest  in  Salzburg,  is 
bounded  by  a  row  of  vaults  cut  in  the  side  of  the  hill. 
The  narrowest  part  of  the  .ridge,  which  has  a  length  of 
above  two  miles,  is  pierced  by  the  Neu  Thor,  a  tunnel  436 
feet  long  and  23  feet  broad,  completed  in  1767,  to  form  a 
convenient  passage  from  the  town  to  the  open  plain.  The 
south  end  of  the  Monchsberg  is  occupied  by  the  ipiposing 
Hohen-Salzburg,  a  citadel  originally  founded  in  the  9th 
cenlury,  though  the  present  buildings,  the  towers  of  which 
rise  400  feet  above  the  town,  date  chiefly  from  1496- 
1519.  The  streets  in  the  older  quarters  are  narrow, 
crooked,  and  gloomy ;  but  the  newer  parts  of  the  city, 
especially  those  laid  out  since  the  removal  of  the  fortifica- 
tions about  1861,  are  handsome  and  spacious.     Owing  to 


Plan  of  Salzbnrg. 

the  frequent  fires  the  private  buildings  of  Salzburg  are 
comparatively  modern  ;  and  the  present  flat-roofed  houses, 
lavishly  adorned  with  marble,  are,  like  many  of  the 
public  buildings,  monuments  of  the  gorgeous  taste  of  the 
prince  archbishops  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries.  The 
style  of  the  houses,  the  numerous  open  squares,  and  the 
abundant  fountains  give  an  Italian  air  to  the  town. 
Both  sides  of  the  river  are  bordered  by  fine  promenades, 
planted  with  trees ;  and  a  public  park  has  been  l^d  out 
to  the  north  of  the  new  town.  The  Salzach  is  spanned 
by  four  bridges,  including  a  railway  bridge. 

Salzburg  is  full  of  objects  and  buildings  of  interest.  The 
cathcdml,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  perfect  specimens  of  the 
Renaissance  style  in  Germany,  was  built  in  1614-28  by  the  Italian 
architect  Santino  Solari,  in  imitation  of  St  Peter's  at  Rome.  On 
three  sides  it  is  bounded  by  the  Dom-Platz,  the  Capitel-Platz,  and 
tlie  Residenz-Platz  ;  and  opening  on  the  north-east  and  north-west 
of  the  last  are  the  Mozart-Platz  and  the  Markt-Platz.  In  the 
Mozajt-Platz  is  a  statue  of  Mozart,  who  was  born  in  Salzburg  in 
1756.  On  one  side  of  the  Besidenz-Platz  is  the  palace,  an  irregular 
though  imposing  building  in  the  Italian  style,  begun  in  1592  and 
finished  in  1725.  It  is  now  occupied  by  the  grand-duke  of  Tus- 
cany. Opposite  is  the  Neu  Bau,  begun  in  158S,  in  which  are  the 
Government  offices  and  the  law  courts.  The  palace  of  the  present 
archbishops  is  in  the  Capitel-Platz.     Across  the  river,  with  its 


French  garden  adjoining  the  public  park,  is  the  Mirabell  palace, 
formerly  the  summer  residence  of  the  prince  archbishops.  Built 
in  1607,  and  restored  after  a  fire  in  1818,  it  was  presented  to  the 
town  in  1867  by  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph.  The  building  close 
to  the  Neu  Thor,  now  the  cavalry  barracks,  was  formerly  the 
sumptuous  stables  of  the  archbishops,  built  in  1607  to  accom- 
modate 130  horses.  Beside  it  is  an  amphitheatre,  partly  hewn 
out  of  the  rock  of  the  Monchsberg  in  1693,  known  as  the  Summer 
Riding  School.  The  Winter  Riding  School,  in  the  adjacent  build- 
ing, has  its  ceiling  decorated  with  the  painting  of  a  tournament, 
dating  from  1690.  The  town-house  of  Salzburg  was  built  in  1407 
and  restored  in  1675.  Other  interesting  secular  buildings  are  the 
Chiemsechof,  founded  in  1305  and  rebuilt  in  1697,  formerly  the 
palace  of  the  suffragan  bishop  of  Chiemsee,  and  now  the  meeting- 
place  of  the  Salzburg  diet ;  the  united  school-building,  erected  in 
1873  ;  St  John's  hospital ;  the  Carolino-Augusteum  museum  ;  and 
the  handsome  Curhaus,  erected  in  the  public  park  in  1868. 

Of  the  twenty-four  churches  the  majority  are  interesting  from 
their  antiquity,  their  architecture,  or  their  associations. '  Next  to 
the  cathedral,  the  chief  is  perhaps  the  abbey  church  of  St  Peter,  a 
Romanesque  basilica  of  1127,  tastelessly  restored  in  1745.  It  con- 
tains monuments  to  St  Rupert,  and  to  the  "  Monk  of  Salzburg,"  a 
religious  poet  of  the  latter  half  of  the  14th  century.  St  Margaret's, 
in  the  midst  of  St  Peter's  churchyard,  built  in  1485,  and  restored 
in  1865,  is  situated  near  the  cave  in  the  side  of  the  Monchsberg, 
said  to  have  been  the  hermitage  of  St  Maximus,  who  was  martyred 
by  the  pagan  Heruli  in  477.  The  Franciscan  church,  with  an 
elegant  tower  built  in  1866,  is  an  interesting  example  of  the  trans- 
ition style  of  the  13th  century,  with  later  baroque  additions.  St 
Sebastian's,  on  the  right  bank,  built  in  1505-12  and  restored  in 
1812,  contains  the  tomb  of  Paracelsus,  whose  house  stood  in  the 
Platzl,  or  square  at  the  north  end  of  the  chief  bridge.  The  oUest 
and  most  important  of  the  eight  convents  (four  for  each  sex)  at 
Salzburg  is  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  St  Peter,  founded  about  582 
by  St  Rupert  as  the  nucleus  of  the  city.  It  contains  a  library  of 
40,000  volumes,  besides  MSS.  The  Capuchin  monastery,  dating 
from  1599,  gives  name  to  the  Capuzinerberg.  The  oldest  nunnei-y 
is  that  founded  on  the  Nonnberg  by  St  Rupert  in  585.  The  single 
Protestant  church  in  Salzburg  was  not  built  until  1865. 

A  theological  seminary  is  the  only  relic  now  left  of  the  univer- 
sity of  Salzburg,  founded  in  1623  and  suppressed  in  1810.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  other  educational  institutions,  lay  and  clerical, 
have  their  seat  in  the  town.  The  public  library  contains  62,000 
volumes  and  a  collection  of  MSS.,  and  the  museum  library  contains 
10,000  volumes.  The  number  of  benevolent  and  charitable  insti- 
tutions is  large.  Salzburg  carries  on  a  variety  of  small  manufac- 
tures, including  musical  instruments,  iron-wares,  marble  ornaments, 
cement,  artificial  wool,  &c.  Its  trade  has  become  more  important 
since  direct  railway  communication  has  been  opened  with  Munich 
and  Vienna.  A  large  number  of  tourists  visit  Salzburg  annually; 
and  its  baths  also  attract  many  visitors.  It  is  the  seat  of  important 
judicial  and  administrative  departments,  and  also  of  an  archbishop, 
with  a  cathedral  chapter  and  a  consistory.  In  1880  the  population 
(including  the  suburbs)  was  20,336. 

The  origin  and  development  of  Salzburg  were  alike  ecclesiastical, 
and  its  history  is  involved  with  that  of  the  archbishopric  to  which 
it  gave  its  name.  The  old  Roman  town  of  Juvavum  was  laid  in 
ruins,  ^nd  the  incipient  Christianity  of  the  district  overwhelmed, 
by  the  pagan  Goths  and  Huns.  The  nucleus  of  the  present  city 
was  the  monastery  and  bishopric  founded  here  about  700  (some  say 
about  582)  by  St  Rupert  of  Worms,  who  had  been  invited  by  Duke 
Theodo  of  Bavaria  to  preach  Christianity  in  his  land.  The  modern 
name  of  the  town,  due  like  several  others  in  the  district  to  the 
abundance  of  salt  found  there,  appears  before  the  end  of  the  8th 
century.  When  Charlemagne  took  possession  of  Bavaria  in  798  he 
made  Bishop  Arno  of  Salzburg  an  archbishop.  Thenceforward  the 
dignity  and  power  of  the  see  steadily  increased.  Before^  the  end 
of  the  11th  century  Arno's  successors  had  been  named  primates  of 
Germany  and  perpetual  papal  legates  ;  in  the  course  of  time  they 
obtained  high  secular  honours  also  ;  and  in  1278  Rudolph  of  Haps- 
burg  made  the  archbishops  imperial  princes.  The  able  and  ambi- 
tious line  of  prince  archbishops,  chosen  from  the  noblest  families  of 
Germany,  eagerly  ehlarged  their  possessions  by  purchase,  exchange, 
and  gift,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  come  into  warlike  collision  with 
the  rulers  of  Bavaria  and  Austria,  or  even  with  the  emperor  himself. 
They  took  an  active  share  in  the  affairs  of  the  empire,  and  held  au 
influential  position  in  the  electoral  college.  As  a  constituent  ot 
the  German  empire,  Salzburg  embraced  an  area  of  3700  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  250,000.  The  last  independent 
archbishop  was  Hieronymus,  count  of  Colleredo,  elected  in  1772, 
who  ruled  with  energy  apd  justice  but  without  poprlarity.  The 
see  was  secularized  by  the  peace  of  Luneville  in  J8.02. 

The  strife  between  lord  and  people  had  always  been  keen  in 
Salzburg;  and  in  1511  the  archbishop,  Leonhard,  was  besieged  in 
Hohen-Salzburg  by  the  inhabitants.  The  Peasants'  War  also 
raged  within  the  see.  From,  the  beginning  an  orthodox  stronghold 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  iatlh,  Salzburg  expelled  the  Jews  in  1498. 


S  A  L  — S  A  M 


241 


aud  energetically  opposed  the  Protestant  Eeformation.  Under 
Wolfgang  Dietrich  many  Protestant  citizens  were  driven  from 
the  town  and  their  houses  demolished.  In  spite,  however,  of 
rigorous  persecution  the  new  faith  spread  in  secret,  especially 
among  the  landward  subjects  of  the  archbishop,  and  a  new 
aud  more  searching  edict  of  expulsion  was  issued  by  Arch- 
bishop Von  Firmian  in-1727.  The  Protestants  invoked  the  aid  of 
Frederick  AViUiam  I.  of  Prussia,  who  procured  for  them  permission 
to  sell  their  goods  and  to  emigrate  ;  and  in  1731  and  1732  Salzburg 
parted  to  Prussia  with  about  30,000  industrious  and  peaceful 
citizens.     About  6000  of  these  came  from  the  capital. 

By  the  peace  of  LuneviUe  Salzburg  was  given  to  the  archduke  of 
Austria  and  grand-duke  of  Tuscany  in  exchange  for  Tuscany  ;  and 
its  new  owner  was  enrolled  among  the  electoral  princes.  In  the  re- 
distribution follomng  the  peace  of  Pressburg  in  1805,  Salzburg  feU 
to  Austria.  .  Four  years  later  it  passed  to  Bavaria,  but  the  peace  of 
Paris  in  1814  restored  it  to  Austria,  to  which  it  has  since  belonged. 
Under  the  designation  of  a  duchy  the  territory  formed  the  depart- 
ment of  Salzach  in  Upper  Austria  until  1849,  when  it  was  made  a 
separate  crown-laud,  with  the  four  departments  of  Salzburg,  Zell, 
Tamsweg,  aud  St  Johann.  In  1861  the  management  of  its  affairs 
was  entrusted  to  a  local  dief,  consisting  of  the  governor,  the  arch- 
bishop, and  twenty-five  representatives.  The  area  of  the  duchy  is 
2762  square  mUes  and  the  population  in  1880  was  163,570,  almost 
exclusively  Roman  Catholic  and  of  German  stock.  (F.  MU.) 

SALZKAABrERGUT,  a  district  in  the  south-west  angle 
of  Upper  Austria,  between  Salzburg  and  Styria,  famous 
for  its  fine  scenery,  forms  a  separate  imperial  domain 
about  250  square  miles  in  area,  and  with  a  population 
of  over  18,000.  The  beauty  of  its  lofty  mountains, 
sequestered  lakes,  and  green  valleys  has  made  it  one  of 
the  favourite  tourist  resorts  of  Europe,  and  has  gained 
for  it  the  title  of  the  "Austrian  Switzerland";  but  it  owes 
its  name  (literally  "salt-exchequer  property")  and  its 
economic  importance  to  its  extensive  and  valuable  salt 
mines.  The  chief  lakes  are  the  Traunsee  or  Lake  of 
Gmundeu,  the  Lake  of  Hallstatt,  the  Attersee  or  Kara- 
niersee  (the  largest  lake  in  Austria),  the  Mondsee,  and  the 
St  Wolfgang  Lake.  The  principal  mountains  are  the 
Dachstein  (9849  feet),  Thorstein  (9659  feet),  the  Todte 
Gebirge  with  the  summits  of  Priel  (8238  feet")  and  others, 
and  the  HoUcngebirge  (6371  feet).  The  Schafberg  (5840 
feet)  or  "  Austrian  Rigi "  and  the  Traunstein  (5548  feet), 
isolated  peaks  among  the  lakes,  are  well-known  tourist 
points.  In  the  very  heart  of  the  salt-yielding  district  lies 
the  fashionable  spa  of  Ischl ;  but  the  capital  of  the 
Salzkammergut  is  Gmunden,  situated  on  the  Traunsee  at 
the  exit  of  the  Traun,  the  chief  river  of  the  district. 
Cattle-rearing  and  forestry  are  carried  on  to  a  certain 
extent  by  the  people,  but  between  6000  and  7000  of  them 
are  engaged  in  the  salt-mines  and  evaporating  works, 
which  yield  annually  about  60,000  tons  of  salt.  The  sale 
of  the  salt  is  an  Austrian  crown-monopoly.  The  most 
important  salt-works  arc  at  Ischl,  Hallstatt,  Ebenaee,  and 
Aussee.     See  Salt. 

SALZWEDEL,  an  ancient  town  of  Prussian  Saxony, 
lies  on  the  Jeetze,  a  tributary  of  the  Elbe,  32  miles  to  the 
north-west  of  Stendal.  It  is  an  industrial  place  of  some 
importance,  with  linen,  cotton,  and  woollen  manufactures, 
carries  on  a  brisk  river  trade  in  grain,  and  possesses  a  fine 
Gothic  church  of  the  13th  century.  But  its  chief  claim 
to  notice  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  was  for  about  a  century 
(c.  1070-1170)  the  capital  of  the  Old  or  North  Mark 
(also  for  a  time  called  the  "Mark  of  Soltwedol"),  the 
kernel  of  the  Prussian  state.  The  old  castle,  perhaps 
founded  by  Charlemagne,  was  purchased  in  1864  by  the 
king  of  Prussia,  anxious  to  preserve  this  interesting  relic. 
Salzwedel  was  also  a  member  of  the  Hanseatic  League, 
and  at  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  seems  to  have 
engrossed  great  part  of  the  inland  commerce  of  North 
Germany.     The  population  in  1880  was  8780. 

SAMANID  DYNASTY,  the  name  of  the  third  among 
those  native  dynasties  which  sprang  up  in  the  9th  and  10th 
centuries  in  the  eastern  portions  of  Persia,  and,  although 


nominally  provincial  governors  under  the  Biizerainty  of  the 
caliphs  of  Baghddd,  succeeded  in  a  very  short  time  in  estab- 
lishing an  almost  independent  rule  over  the  vast  territories 
round  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes.  The  Ma'muu,  HAnin-al- 
rashid's  son,  to  whose  patronage  the  Tdhirid  family  owed 
their  supremacy  in  Khordsiin  and  Transoxiana  (820-872, 
205-259  A.H.)  appointed  three  sons  of  Siman,  originally  a 
Tartar  chief  who  claimed  descent  from  the  old  Sisdnian 
kings,  governors  of  Her4t  and  some  districts  beyond  the 
Oxus ;  and  these  soon  gained  such  an  ascendency  over  all 
rival  clanships  that  in  872,  when  the  Tdhirids  were  over- 
thrown by  the  SaffArids  under  the  leadership  of  Ya'kiib  b. 
Laith  (868-878),  they  were  strong  enough  to  retain  in 
their  family  the  governorship  of  Transoxiana,  with  the 
official  sanction  of  the  caliph  Mo'tamid  (870-892),  and  to 
establish  a  semi-royal  court  in  Bokhdri.,  the  seat  of  the 
new  Siminid  government.  During  the  reign  of  YaTciib's 
brother  'Amr  b.  Laith  (878-900)  Isma'il  b.  Alunad,  SAmdn'a 
great-grandson  (892-907,'279-295  A.H.),  crossed  the  Oxus 
with  a  powerful  army,  invaded  the  territory  of  the  Safiirids, 
sent  "Amr  as  prisoner  to  Baghdid,  and  gradually  extended 
his  rule  over  Khordsdn,  Khwdrizm,  Jurjdn,  and  the  neigh- 
bouring countries.  His  successors,  all  renowned  by  the 
high  impulse  they  gave  both  to  the  patriotic  feelings  and 
the  national  poetry  of  modern  Persia  (see  Persia,  vol.  xviii. 
p.  655  sq.),  were  Ahmad  b.  Isma'il  (907-913,  295-301 
A.H.) ;  Nasr  IT.  b.  AJimad,  the  patron  and  friend  of  the 
great  poet'Riidagi  (913-942,  301-331  a.h.)  ;  Niih  L  b, 
Nasr  (942-954,  331-343  a.h.);  'Abd  al-Malik  L  b.  Niih 
(95'4-961,  343-350  A.H.);  Mansiir  L  b.  Ndli,  whose  vizier 
Baraml  translated  Tabarl's  universal  history  into  Persian 
(961-976,  350-366  a.h.);  Nilh  IL  b.  Mansur,  whose 
court-poet  Daldkl  commenced  the  Shdhn/ivia  (976-997, 
366'-387  A.H.)VMansilr  IL  b;  Niih  (997-998,  387-389 
A.H.);  and 'Abd  al-Maiik  U.  b.  Nilh  (999),  with  whom  the 
Sdmdnid  dynasty  came  to  a  rather  abrupt  end.  The 
rulers  of  this  powerful  house,  whose  silver  dirhems  had 
an  extensive  currency  during  the  10th  century  all  over 
the  northern  part  of  Asia,  and  were  brought,  through  Rus- 
sian caravans,  even  so  far  as  to  Pomerania,  Sweden,  and 
Norway,  where  SAmdnid  coins  have  lately  been  found  in 
great  number,  suflfercd  in  their  turn  the  fate  they  had  pre- 
pared for  their  predecessors ;  they  were  overthrown  by  a 
more  yojithful  and  vigorous  race,  that  of  Sabuktagfn,  which 
founded  the  illustrious  Ghaznawid  dynasty  and  the  Mussul- 
man empire  of  India.  Under  'Abd  al-!Malik  I.  a  Turkish 
slave,  Alptagln,  had  been  entrusted  with  the  government 
of  Bokhdrd,  but,  showing  himself  hostOe  to  'Abd  al-maUk's 
successor  Mansiir  I.,  he  was  compelled  to  fly  and  to  take 
refuge  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  Ghazna,  where  he  soon 
established  a  semi-independent  rule,  to  which,  after  his 
death  in  977  (367  a.h.),  his  son-in-law  Sabuktagln,  like- 
wise a  former  Turkish  slave,  succeeded.  Niih  II.,  in  order 
to  retain  at  least  a  nominal  sway  over  those  Afghdn 
territories,  confirmed  him  in  his  high  position  and  even 
invested  Sabuktagin's  son  Mahmiid  with  the  governorship 
of  Khordsdn,  in  reward  for  the  powerful  help  they  had 
given  him  in  his  desperate  struggles  with  a  confederation 
of  disaffected  nobles  of  Bokhdrd  under  the  leadership  of 
Fd'ik  and  the  troops  of  the  Dailamitos,  a  dynasty  that  had 
arisen  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea  and  wrested 
already  from  the  hands  of  the  SAmAnids  all  their  western 
provinces.  Unfortunately;  Sabuktagln  died  in  the  same 
year  as  Ndh  U.  (997,  387  a.h.),  and  Malinu'ul,  confronted 
with  an  internal  contest  against  his  own  brother  Isma'il, 
had  to  withdraw  his  attention  for  a  short  time  from  the 
nITairs  in  KhorAsAn  and  Transoxiana.  This  interval 
sulliccd  for  the  old  rebel  leader  FA'ilf,  supported  by  a  strong 
Tartar  army  under  IlokkbAn,  to  turn  Niili's  successor 
MaoBiir  II.  into  a  more   puppet,  to  concentrate  all    the 


:}]— 1" 


242 


S  A-  M  —  S  A  M 


power  in  Ms  own  hand,  and  to  induce  even  Ms  nominal 
master  to  reject  Mahrnud's  application  for  a  continuance 
of  bis  governorship  in  Khordsdn.  Mahmild  refrained  for 
the  moment  from  vindicating  his  right ;  but,  as  soon  as, 
through  court  intrigues,  Mansiir  II.  had  been  dctMoned, 
he  took  possession  of  IChordsdu,  deposed  Mansur's  suc- 
cessor 'Abd  al-Malik  II.,  and  assumed  as  an  independent 
monarch  for  the  first  time  in  Asiatic  history  the  title  of 
"sultin."  The  last  descendant  of  the  house  of  Sdmdn, 
Prince  Muntasir,  a  bold  warrior  and  a  poet  of  no  mean 
talent,  carried  on  for  some  years  a  kind  of  gueriiia  warfare 
against  both  Mahmiid  and  Ilekkhan,  who  had  occupied 
Transoxiana,  till  he  was  assassinated  in  1005  (395  A.H.). 
Transoxiana  itself  was  annexed  to  the  Ghaznawid  realm 
eleven  years  later,  1016  (407  A.H.). 

SA^IAR.     See  Philippine  Islaijds,  vol.  xviii.  p.  752. 

SAMAKA,  a  government  of  south-eastern  Russia,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  lower  Volga,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Kazan,  on  the  west  by  Simbirsk  and  Saratoff,  on  the  east 
by  Ufa  and  Orenburg,  and  on  the  south  by  Astrakhan,  the 
KirgMz  Steppes,  and  the  territory  of  the  Ural  Cossacks. 
The  area  is  58,320  square  miles,  and  the  population  in 
liSy2  was  2,224,0&3.  A  line  drawn  eastwards  from  the 
great  bend  of  the  Volga — the  Samarskaya  Luka — would 
divide  the  province  into  two  parts,  differing  in  orographical 
character.  In  the  north  flat  hills  and  plateaus,  deeply 
intersected  by  rivers,  cover  the  surface.  Some  of  these 
are  spurs  of  the  Urals ;  the  others  are  continuations  of  the 
flat  swelling  wMch  traverses  middle  Eussia  from  the 
CarpatMans  to  the  Urals  and  compels  the  Volga  to  make 
its  characteristic  bend  before  entering  the  Aral-Caspian 
lowlands,  vt  The  Samara  Hills,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river  Samara ;  the  Kinel  Hills ;  the  Falcon  (Sokolii)  Hills, 
to  the  north  of  the  Buzutuk;  the  Sok  Hills,  with  the  Tsareff 
Kurgan  at  the  junction  of  the  Sok  with  the  Volga ;  and 
the  Zheguleff  "  Mountains  "  on  the  Volga  opposite  Samara 
are  so  many  names  given  to  separate  elevations  or  parts 
of  plateaus  between  the  deep-cut  river  valleys.  In  their 
Mghest  parts  they  rise  about  1000  feet  above  the  sea, 
whila  the  level  of  the  Volga  at  Samara  is  but  43  feet,  and 
the  broad  valleys  of  the  Volga  'affluents  sink  to  a  cor- 
respondingly low  level.  South  of  the  Samarskaj'a  Luka 
the  country  assumes  the  characters  of  a  low  and  flat  iteppe, 
recently  emerged  from  the  great  Post-Pliocene  Aral-Caspian 
basin.  Only  two  ranges  of  gentle  swellings,  spurs  of  the 
Obshchiy  Syrt,  enter  the  south-east  corner  of  the  province. 

'  The  geolofCT  of  Samara  is  not  yet  fully  known.  Carboniferons 
limestones  (Upper  ?)  occupy  large  tracts  in  the  north-east  and  east. 
When  approacliing  the  Volga  the  zechstein  appears  in  wide 
islands  surrounded  by  the  (probably  Triassic)  variegated  marls  and 
sands.  Some  Jurassic  deposits  are  mentioned  about  the  Samarsk- 
aya Luka.  Cretaceous  deposits,  which  cover  large  tracts  on  the 
light  bank  of  the  Volga,  appear  on  the  left  bank  only  in  the 
8oruth-east  of  Samara.  Older  Tertiary  deposits  appear  also  in  the 
very  south  of  Samara  ;  while  Pliocene  limestones  and  sandy  clays, 
which  cover  the  Obshchiy  Syrt  and  Ust-Urt,  protrude  north  as  a 
narrow  strip,  reaching  the  bend  of  the  Volga.  The  Glacial 
boulder-clay  of  middle  Russia  does  not  extend  as  far  south-east  as 
Samara,  and  the  Post-Glaeial  deposits,  not  yet  fully  investigated, 
are  represented  by  loess,  black  earth,  and  lacustrine  formations. 
It  is  now  establislied  that  d\iring  Post-Glacial  times  the  Aral- 
Caspian  sea  extended  in  a  wide  gulf  occupying  the  broad  depression 
of  the  Volga  as  far  north  as  the  Samarskaya  Luka,  Caspian 
mussels  haviDg  been  traced  as  far  as  Samara.  The  soU  is  on  the 
whole  very  fertile.  All  the  northern  part  of  the  government  is 
csvcred  with  a  thick  sheet  of  black  earth  ;  this  becomes  thinner 
towards  the  south,  chij-s — mostly  fertile — appealing  from  beneath  ; 
salt  clays  appear  in  the  south-east. 

Samara  is  inadequately  watered,  especially  in  the  south.  The 
Volga  flows  for  B50  miles  along  its  western  border.  Its  tribntaries 
the  Great  Tcheremshan  (220  miles),  the  Sok  (195  miles),  the 
Samara  (340  miles),  with  its  sub-tributaries,  and  the  smaller 
tributaries  the  Motcha,  Elan-Irghiz  or  Tchagra,  and  Little  Irghiz 
are  not  navigable,  partly  on  account  of  their  shallowness,  and 
partly  becaasa  of  water-mills.     When  the  water  is  high,  boats  can 


enter  some  of  them  to  a  distance  of  15  ta  30  mHea.  The  Gieic 
Irghiz  alone,  which  has  an  exceedingly  winding  course  of  &1V 
miles,  is  navigated  to  Kutchum,  and  rafts  are  floated  fron 
Nikolaevsk.  The  banks  of  both  Karamans  are  densely  peopleiL 
The  Great  and  Little  Uzen  water  south-eastern  Samara  and  IciB 
themselves  in  tlie  Ivamysh  sands  before  reaching  the  Caspian.  &. 
few  lakes  and  marshes  occur  in  the  river-valleys,  and  salt  marshiB 
in  the  south-east. 

The  whole  of  the  region  is  rapidly  drying  np.  The  forests, 
which  are  disappearing,  arc  extensive  only  in  the  north.  Altogether 
tliey  still  cover  an  area  of  3,043,000  acres,  or  8  per  cent  of  the 
whole  surface  ;  prairie  and  grazing  land  occupies  11,495,000  acres, 
and  only  4,193,000  acres  are  vmcviltivable. 

The  climate  is  one  of  extremes,  especially  in  the  steppes,  where 
the  depressing  heat  and  drought  of  summer  are  followed  in  the 
winter  by  severe  frosts,  often  accompanied  by  snow-storms.  The 
average  temperature  at  Samara  (53°  11'  N.  lat.)  is  only  39°'2 
(January,  9°-3  ;  July,  70°-4). 

The  population,  which  was  only  1,388,500  in  1853,  has  almost 
doubled  since  then,  mostly  in  consequence  of  immigration  ;  it 
reached  2,224,093  in  1882,  and  must  now  (1886)  be  about  2, 250,000. 
Only  139,300  of  these  live  in  towns,  the  remainder  being  distri- 
buted over  4,470  villages,  which  are  often  very  large,  no  fewer  than 
150  ranging  in  population  from  2000  to  6000.  The  Great  Russians, 
who  have  immigrated  in  compact  masses,  now  constitute  65  per 
cent,  of  the  population  ;  the  Little  Russians,  who  "were  settled  by 
the  Government  about  the  salt  lakes,  number  about  30,000;  and 
the  White  Russians,  also  sent  to  Samara  from  West  Russia,  may 
number  about  15,000.  A  special  feature  of  Samara  is  its  popula- 
tion of  German  colonists,  from  Wiirtembcrg,  Baden,  Switzerland, 
and  partly  also  from  Holland  and  the  Palatinate,  whose  immigration 
i  dates  from  the  invitation  of  Catherine  II.  in  1762  Protected  as 
they  were  by  free  and  extensive  grants  of  land,  by  exemption  from 
military  service,  and  by  self-government,  they  have  developed  rich 
coloniesofCatholics,  Protestants,  Unitarians,  Anabaptists,  Jioravians, 
and  Mennonites,  most  of  which  have  adopted  the  Russian  village- 
community  system,  slowly  modified  by  the  existence  of  a  special 
capital  reserved  for  the  purchase  of  land  for  the  increasing  popula- 
tion.' They  now  constitute  40  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  tho 
distiict  of  Novo-Uzen,  and  9  per  cent,  of  that  of  NiJiolaevsk,  their 
aggregate  number  reaching  150,000.  The  Moksha  and  Erzya  Mord- 
vinians^Dow  nearly  quite  Russified,  gathered  in  Samara  dming  the 
reign  ot  Peter  I.,  when  they  abandoned  in  great  numbers  the  left. 
bauk  of  the  Volga ;  they  constitute  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  popn- 
lation.  Some  70,000  Tchuvashcs  and  1500  Votj-iks  may  be  added 
to  tho,  above.  The  Turkish  stem  is  represented  by  some  100,000 
Tartars,  70, 000  Bashkiis,  and  a  fev,-  Kirghizes.  Some  baptized  Kal- 
mucks were  settled  in  1730  at  Stavropol ;  and  about  600  Ad}-ghe 
Ciicassians,  settled  at  Novo-Uzeu,  may  still  be  found  there.  All 
these  varied  elements,  living  in  close  juxtaposition,  nevert^ieless 
continue  to  maintain  their  own  ethnographical  features ;  the  ilcrd- 
vinians  alone  have  lost  their  ethnological  individuality  and  rapidly 
undergo  a  modification  of  tyi)e  as  they  adopt  the  life  of  Russiaa 
peasants.  As  regards  religion,  the  great  bulk  of  tho  population 
are  Orthodox  Greeks ;  the  Nonconformists,  who  still  retain  their 
numerous  aud  widely  celebrated  communities  and  monasteries  on 
both  the  rivers  Uzen,  number  several  hunuied  thousands  (officially 
100,000);  next  come  Mohammedans,  12  per  cent;  a  variety  of 
Protestant  sects,  5  per  cent. ;  Roman  Catholics,  about  2  per  cant. ; 
and,  lastly,  some  4000  pagans. 

The  chief  occupation  is  agriculture, — summer  wheat,  rye,  oats, 
millet,  oil-yielding  plants,  and  tobacco  being  the  principal  crops. 
Owing  to  its  great  fertility.  Samara  usually  has  a  surplus  of  gijin 
for  export,  varying  from  li  to  4  million  quarters  (exclusive  of  oits) 
annually.  In  1S83,  which  was  an  average  year  for  summer  whiial^ 
but  under  the'  average  for  winter  rye,  the  total  crops  were — whiQt, 
3,219,600  quarters;  rye,  717,800;  oats,  1,800,000;  barley,  127,300; 
and  other  grains,  1,310,000.  Notwithstanding  this  production, 
varying  from  5,000,000  to  9,000,000  quarters  of  grain  (exclusive 
of  oats)  for  a  population  of  only  2^  millions.  Samara  is  periodi- 
cally liable  to  famine  to  such  an  extent  that  men  die  by  thousands 
of  hunger-typhus,  are  compelled  to  send  (as  in  1879)  to  adjoining 
provinces  to  purchase  orach  as  food,  or  are  forced  to  go  by  hundreds 
of  thousands  in  search  of  employment  on  the  Volga,  while  rjiUions 
of  quarters  of  corn  are  nevertheless  exported.  The  population 
have  no  store  of  corn,  or  reserve  capital  for  years  of  scarcity 
(there  were  in  1882  only  2-15,100  quarters  of  corn  in  the  public 
granaries,  and  503,022  roubles  of  capital  for  that  purpose),  and 
some  210,000  males  have  in  all  only  845,000  acres  of  arable  and 
pasture  land.  But  even  this  soil,  although  all  taxed  asarable,  is 
often  of  such  qualitv-  that  only  50  to  55  per  cent  of  it  is  under 
crops,  while  the  peasants  are  compelled  to  rent  from  two  to  two 
and  a  half  million  acres  for  tillage  from  large  proprietors.  At 
present  8,549,000  acres,  or  about  one-quarter  of  tho  total  area  of 

'  See  the  interesting  work  ot  M.  Clauss  on  "Our  Colonies'* 
(Raseiaoj,.' 


S  A  ]\I  —  S  A  M 


243 


Samara,  pnrenased  from  llie  crown  or  from  the  BaslikirS  at  nomi- 
nal prices — very  often  a  few  copecks  per  acre — are  in  the  hands  of 
no  more  than  1704  persons  The  aggregate  taxes  exacted  from 
the  peasants  amounting  to  5,782.870  roubles  (1879),  that  is  to  say, 
from  8  to  10  roubles  per  male,  they  are,  when  account  is  taken  of 
the  advances  received  during  scarcity,  reduced  to  absohite  destitu- 
tion whenever  tho  crops  ^ro  short,  so  as  to  be  compelled  to  sell 
their  last  horse  and  cow.  In  1880  the  arrears  reached  7,000,000 
roubles,  to  which  must  be  added  about  8, 000, 000  roubles  of  advances, 
and  in  1832,  out  of  tho  1,196,646  roubles  proposed  to  bo  levied  by  tho 
zemstvos,  376,643  remained  iu  arrears.  Tho  general  impoverish- 
ment may  bo  judged  from  tho  death-rate,  which  for  several  years 
has  ranged  from  46  to  43  per  thousand.  In  1879  61,488  families, 
were  compelled  to  abandon  their  homes  and  disperse  throughout 
Eussia  in  search  of  employment ;  while  100,000  families  were  left 
wholly  dcstituto  of  cattle  in  1880.  Notwithstanding  an  increase 
of  population  by  nearly  one-third  during  the  last  twenty  years  the 
numbers  of  sheep  and  cattle  decreased  by  about  one-hall  from  1863 
to  1882. 

"he  manufactures-  of  Samara  are  unimportant,  the  aggregate 
production  (chiefly  from  tanneries,  flour-mills,  tallow-melting 
houses,  and  distilleries)  in  1882  reaching  only  7,671,000  roubles 
(ie767,100).  Potty  trades,  especially  tho  weaving  of  woollen  cloth, 
are  making  progress  in  tho  south.  The  culture  of  oil-yielding 
plants  is  developed  in  several  districts,  as  is  also  that  of  tobacco 
(10,690  acres,  yielding  101,980  cwta.,  in:l834).  Trade  is  very 
active — com,  taUow,  potash,  salt,  and  some  woollen  cloth  being 
exported ;  tho  imports  of  raw  cotton  from  Central  Asia  by  tho 
Orenburg  railway  to  bo  forwarded  to  the  interior  of  Kussia  are 
increasing.  The  aggregate  value  of  merchandise  shipped  on  the 
Volga  ana  its  tributaries  within  the  government  reached  27,025,000 
roubles  in  1882  ;  while  9,100,000  cwts.  of  merchandise  were  carried 
in  both  directions  on  the  OrenlDurg  railway.  The  chief  loading  places 
are  Samara,  Stavropol,  Batakova,  and  Pokrovsk  on  the  Volga,  Staro- 
Mainsk  on  tho  Maina,  and  Ekateriuinsk  on  tho  Bezeutehuk. 

The  government  is  divided  into  seven  districts,  tho  chief  towns  of 
which,  with  population  as  estimated  in  1879,  are — Samara  (63,400 
inhabitants),  Bugulma  (13,000),  Bugurustan  (18,000),  Buzutuk 
(10,500),  Nikolacvsk  (9,900),  Novo-Uzeti  (9700),  and  Stavropol 
(4285).  Scrghievsk  (1000)  also  has  municipal  institutions  ;  its 
mineral  waters-are  becoming  more  and  more  frequented.  Pokrov- 
skaya  Sioboda  (20,000),  Ekatennenstadt,  Gtushitza,  and  Alexau- 
droff  Gay,  each  with  more  than  5000  inhabitants,  tho  loading  place 
of  Batakova  (2500),  and  several  others,  although  still  but  villages, 
have  moro  importance  than  most  of  the  abovB  towns. 

The  territory  now  occupied  by'  Samara  was  until  last  century  the 
abode  of  nomads.  Tlie  Bulgarians  who  occupied  it  until  the  13th 
century  were  followed  by  Mongols  of  the  Golden  Horde.  The 
Russians  penetrated  thus  far  in  the  16th  century,  after  the  defeat 
of  the  principalities  of  Kazali  and  Astrakhan.  To  secure  com- 
munication between  these  tw.  cities,  the  fort  of  Pamara  was 
srected  in  1586,  as  well  as  Saratoff,  Tsaritsyn,  and  the  first  line  of 
Russian  forts,  which  extended  from  ByeJyi  Yar  to  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Menzelinsk  near  the  Kama.  A  few  settlers  began  to 
gather  under  its  protection.  In  1670  it  was  taken  by  the  insur- 
gent leader  Stenka  Razin,  whose  name  is  still  remembered  in 
the  province.  In  1732  the  line  of  forts  was  removed  a  little 
farther  east,  so  as  to  include  Krasnyi  Yar  and  parts  of  what  is  now 
tho  district  of  Bugurusian.  The  Russian  colomsts  also  advanced 
eastwards  as  the  forts  were  pushed  forwards  and  increased  in 
number.  The  southern  part  of  the  territory,  however,  remained 
still  exposed  to  the  raids  of  tho  nomads.  In  1762  Catherine  II. 
invited  foreigners,  especially  Germans,  and  Nonconformists  who 
had  left  Ru.ssia,  to  settle  within  the  newly-annexed  territory. 
Emigrants  from  various  parts  of  Germany  responded  to  tlio  call, 
aa  also  did  tho  Raskolniks,  whoso  communities  on  tho  Irghiz  soon 
became  the  centre  of  a  formidable  insurrection  of  tho  peasantry 
which  broke  out  in  1775  under  Pngatchelf  and  was  supported  by 
the  Kalmucks  and  tho  Bashkirs.  After  tho  insurrection,  in  1787, 
a  new  line  of  forts  from  Uzeli  to  the  Volga  and  tho  Urals  was 
erected  to  protect  tho  southern  part  of  the  territory.  At  tho  end 
of  tho  18th  century  Samara  became  an  important  centre  for  trade. 
Aa  soon  as  tho  southern  part  of  tlie  territory  became  quiet,  great 
numbers  of  Great  and  Littlo  Russians  began  to  settle  there—the 
latter  by  order  of  Government  for  tho  transport  of  salt  obtained 
in  the  salt  lakes.  In  tho  first  half  of  tho  present  century  tho  region 
was  rapidly  coloniaed.  In  1847-50  tho  Government  introduced 
about  120  Polish  families ;  in  1867-59  llennonites  from  Dantzic 
also  founded  settlements ;  and  in  1869  a  few  Circassians  were 
brought  liither  by  Government;  while  an  influx  of  Great  Russian 
peasants  continued  and  still  goes  on.  Tlio  territory  of  Samara 
remained  long  under  Kozafi,  or  Astrakhan,  or  Simbirsk  and  Oren- 
burg.    The  separate  govornmont  dates  from  1861.        (P.  A.  K.) 

SAMARA,  capital  of  the  above  govornment,  i.s  Bituated 
on  tho  slopes  of  the  left  bank  of  the  Volga,  743  miles  to 
the  Bouth-eaat  of  Moscow,  at  tho  mouth  of  the  Samara 


and  opposite  the  hills  of  Zheguleff.     It  is  one  of  the  most 
important  towns  of  the  iower  Volga  for  its  trade,  and  its 
importance  cannot  fail  to  increase  as  the  rjiilway  to  Ontral 
Asia  advances  eastwards.    Its  population  rose  from  34,500 
in  18C9  to  63,400  in  1879.     Samara  is  built  mostly  of 
wood,  and  large  spaces  rcmaiil  vacant  on  both  sides  of 
its  broad  unpaved  streets.     Its  few  public  buildings  are 
insignificant.     A  number  of  the  inhabitants  support  them- 
selves by  agriculture  and-  gardening,  for  which  they  rent 
large  areas  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town.     The  remainder 
are  engaged  at  the  harbour,  one  of  tho  most  important  oa 
tho  Volga.     Three  fairs  are  held  annually,  with  aggregate 
returns  exceeding  2,000,000  roubles.     Samara  is  becoming 
more  and  more  a  resort  for  consumptives  on  account  of  its  ' 
koumiss  establishments  (see  vol.  xvi.  pp.  305-6). 
SAMARANG.     See  Java,  vol.  xTii.  p.  606. 
SAMAECAJSTD.     See  Samaekand. 
SAMAEIA    (Heb.  p-iOB",  ShOmerdn;  LXX.  Sa/Aaptio, 
except  in  1  Kings  xvi.  24'),  the  capital  of  Northern  Israel 
froin  the  time  of  Omri  to  the  fall  of  the  kingdom,  which 
was  consummated  in  the  long  siege  of  the  royal  city  by 
Shalmaneser  (2  Kings   xvii.    5)  and  its  capture   by  his 
successor  Sargon  (c.  721  B.C.).     The  choice  of  Samaria  as 
his  capital  by  the  warlike  and  energetic  prince  to  whom 
the  kingdom  of  Ephraim  mainly  owed  its  greatness  is  easily 
understood.     It  stands  in  the  very  centre  of  Palestine  and 
of  the  country  of  the  dominating  tribe  of  Joseph,  and,  built 
on   a  steep  and  almost  isolated  hill,  with   a   long  and 
spacious  plateau  for  its  summit,  was  natiu:ally  a  position  of 
mu/h   strength,  commanding  two  of  the  most  important 
roads — the   great    north   and  south   road  which^  passes 
immediately  under  the  eastern  wall,  and  the  road  fromi 
Shechem  to  the  maritime  plain  which  runs  a  little  to  tho 
west  of  Omri's  capital.     The  hill  of  Samaria  is  separated 
from  the  surrounding  mountains  (Amos  iii.  9)  by  a  rich 
and  well-watered  plain,  from  which  it  rises  in  successive 
terraces  of  fertile  soil  to  a  height  of   400  or  600  feet. 
Only  on  the  east  a  narrow  saddle,  some  200  feet  beneath 
the  plateau,  runs  across  the  plain  towards  the  mountains ; 
it  is  at  this  point  that  the  traveller  coming  from  Shechem 
now   ascends  the   hill  to  the   village  of   Sebastiya  (now 
pronounced  Sebastiya),  which  occupies  only  the  extreme 
east  of  a  terrace  beneath  tho  hill  top,  behind  tho  crusading 
church  of  John  the  Baptist,  which  is  the  first  thing  that 
draws  the  eye  as  one  approaches  tho  town.     The  hill-top, 
the  longer  axis  of  which  runs  westward  fromr  the  village, 
rises  1450  feet  above  the  sea,  and  commands  a  superb  view 
towards  the  Jlediterranean,  the  mountains  of  Shechem,  and 
Mount  Hennon.      The  situation  as  a  whole  is  far  more 
beautiful  than  tha,t  of  Jerusalem,  though  not  so  grand 
and  wild.      The  lino  of  the  ancient  walls  has  not  been 
determined,  the  chief  visible  ruins  being  of  the  time  of 
Herod ;  but,  if  they  followed  the  natural  lines  of  defence, 
the  city  may  have  been  almost  a  mile  in  length  from  east 
to  west. 

The  foundation  of  tho  new  capital  was  speedily  followed  hy  tho 
wars  with  Damascus;  in  which  repeated  iiielTectuol  sieges  by  tho 


city  never  lost  its  pre-eminence.  While  it  stood,  Sanmriii  and  not 
Jerusalem  was  tho  centre  of  Hebrew  life,  and  tho  j)rophBtB 
Bomotimcs  speak  of  it  oa  also  tlie  centre  of  corrupt  Joliovali- 
worship  and  idolatry  (Hos.  viii.  6,  Jlic.  i.  6,  Isa.  =(•  l")-     TUo 

'  The  first  6  In  Sh/)mcr6n  can  hardly  represent  tlio  old  pronunciation. 
In  1  Kings  xvi.  24,  tho  name  of  the  city  Inderivid  from  that  of  8hcni«r, 
from  whom  Omri  bought  the  silo,  and  hero  I^X.  ««inia  to  Unvo  ongirt- 
ally  had  T^afuptiv  or  Itntpiif  (Cod.  Vat.  Sa.MW"').  alttrwanls 
corrected  to  Xonopuv  {aa  In  Lagarde's  edition  of  Luclan  a  text)  from 
tho  Ilulirew  tradition  (couipaio  Field's  lUrapla  on  the  passago). 
Tho  Assyrian  mouumcDta  hiivo  Samirina. 


244 


S  A  M  —  S  A  M 


ashera  of  Samaria,  which  was  not  rcmoveJ  by  tlio  house  of  Jehu,  is 
mentioned  in  2  Kings'xiii.  6  ;  and  Hos.  viii.  5  seems  to  speak  of 
calf-idols  there,  unless  the  prophet  is  already  using  the  name  of 
Samaria  for  the  kingdom  as  a  whole,  as  later  writers  often  do. 
Ultimately,  in  tlio  Greek  period,  the  name  of  Samaria  or  Samaritis 
was  applied  to  the  whole  tract  of  which  it  is  the  centre — the  region 
between  Judaja  and  Galilee,  the  country  of  tlie  Samaritans (j.n.); 
and  the  New  Testament  uses  Samaria  iu  this  sense.  The  city  of 
Samaria  was  Hellenized  by  Alexander,  who  settled  Macedonian 
colonists  in  it.  It  became  a  fortress  and  was  twice  taken  by  siege  in 
the  wars  of  the  Diadochi  (by  Ptolemy  I.  in  312  and  by  Demetrius 
Poliorceteg  about  296).  Under  the  Ptolemies  Samaria  was  the  iiead 
of  a  separate  province,  and  it  continued  to  be  a  strong  city  till  John 
Hyrcanus  took  and  utterly  destroyed  it  after  a  year's  siege  {c.  110 
B.C.;  see  Jos.,  Ant.,  xiii.  10,  2  sq.).  Taken  from  the  Jews  by 
Pompey,  Samaria  was  one  of  the  -ruined  cities  which  Gabinius 
ordered  to  be  restored  (Jos. ,  Ant.,  xlvi  6,  3);  then  given  by  Augustus 
to  Herod  the  Great,  it  was  refounded  by  him  on  a  splendid  scale 
probably  in  27  B.C.,  the  autumn  of  which  year,  according  to 
Schnrer'a  calculations,  is  the  probable  epoch  of  the  new  city  of 
Sebaste,  as  it  was  now  called  in  honour  of  Augustus.  Many  remains 
of  Herod's  buildings,  described  by  Josephus  (Ant.,  xv.  8,  5 ;  B.J., 
i.  21,  2),  still  remain ;  the  most  notable  belong  to  a  long  colonnade 
just  above  the  line  of  Herod's  wall  and  those  of  the  great  temple 
of  Caesar.  The  tombs  of  John  the  Baptist,  Elisha,  and  Obadiah 
were  visited  at  Samaria  in  the  time  of  Jerome  (see  Obadiah),  and 
that  of  St  John  must  have  been  shown  there  still  earlier,  for  it  was 
violated  by  Julian.  The  old  crusading  church,  now  a  mosque,  was 
bmlt  over  the  tomb  of  the  Baptist,  who  is  reverenced  as  a  prophet 
by  the  Moslems.  A  view  and  plan  of  the  church,  with  details,  are 
given  in  the  Survey  of  IV.  Pal.  (Memoirs,  vol.  ii.  p.  211  sq.),  where 
also  there  is  a  plan  of  the  city.  (W.  B.  S.) 

SAMARITANS.  This  term,  ■which  primarily  means 
"inhabitants  of  Samaritis  or  the  region  of  Samaria,"  is 
speciaUy  used,  as  in  the  New  Testament  and  in  Josephus, 
as  the  name  of  a  peculiar  rebgious  community  which  had 
its  headquarters  in  the  Samaritan  country,  and  is  still 
represented  by  a  few  families  (about  150  souls)  at  Nibulus, 
thcj  ancient  Shechem.  They  regard  themselves  as  Israelites, 
descendants  of  the  ten  tribes,  and  claim  to  possess  the 
orthodox  religion  of  Moses,  accepting  the  Pentateuch. and 
transmitting  it  in  a  text  which  for  the  most  part  has  only 
microscopic  variations  from  the  Torah  of  the  Jews.  But 
they  regard  the  Jewish  temple  and  priesthood  as  schismati- 
cal,  and  declare  that  the  true  sanctuary  of  God's  choice  is 
not  Zion  but  Mount  Gerizim,  overhanging  Shechem  (John 
iv.  20) ;  here  they  had  a  temple  which  was  destroyed  by 
John  Hjo-canus  about  128  b.o.  (Jos.,  Ant.,  xiii.  9,  1),  and 
on  the  top  of  the  mountain  they  still  celebrate  the  pass- 
over.  The  sanctity  of  this  site  they  prove  from  their 
Pentateuch,  reading  Gerizim  for  Ebal  in  Deut.  xxvii.  4. 
With  this  change  the  chapter  of  Deuteronomy  can  be 
interpreted  with  a  little  straining  as  a  command  to  select 
Gerizim  as  the  legitimate  sanctuary  (comp.  ver.  7) ;  and 
accordingly  in  Exod.  xx.  and  Deut.  v.  a  commandment 
taken  from  Deut.  xxvii.  is  inserted  at  "the  close  of  the 
decalogue.  Thus  on  their  reckoning  the  tenth  command- 
ment is  the  direction  to  build  an  altar  and  do  sacrifice  on 
Gerizim,. — from  which  of  course  it  follows  that  not  only  the 
temple  of  Zion  but  the  earlier  temple  of  Shiloh  and  the 
priesthood  of  Eli  were  schismatical.  Such  at  least  is  the 
express  statement  of  the  later  Samaritans;  the  older 
Samaritans,  as  they  had  no  sacred  books  except  the  Penta- 
teuch, probably  ignored  the  whole  history  between  Joshua 
and  the  captivity,  and  so  escaped  a  great  many  difficulties. 
The  contention  that  the  Pentateuch  is  a  law  given  by 
Moses  for  a  community  worshipping  on  Mount  Gerizim  is 
of  course  glaringly  tmhistorical.  By  the  (unnamed)  sanc- 
tuary of  God's  choice  the  Deuteronomist  certainly  designed 
the  temple  of  Zion ;  and  the  priestly  law,  which  is  through- 
out based  on  the  practice  of  the  priests  of  Jerusalem  before 
the  captivity,  was  reduced  to  form  after  the  exile,  and  was 
first  published  by  Ezra  as  the  law  of  the  rebuilt  temple  of 
Zion.  The  Samaritans  must  therefore  have  derived  their 
Pentateuch  from  the  Jews  after  Ezra's  reforms,  i.e.,  after 
444  B.o.     Before   that  time   Samaritanism   cannot  have 


existed  in  a  form  at  all  similar  to  that  which  we  know; 
but  there  must  have  been  a  community  ready  to  accept  the 
Pentateuch.  In  point  of  fact  the  district  of  Mount 
Ephraim  was  not  entirely  slripped  of  its  old  Hebrew  popu- 
lation by  the  Assyrian  captivity,  and  the  worship  of  Jehovah 
went  on  at  the  old  shrines  of  Northern  Israel  side  by  side, 
or  even  interfused,  with  the  old  heathenish  lites  of  the  new  , 
settlers  whom  the  Assyrians  brought  to  fill  up  the  lands 
desolated  by  war.  The  account  of  the  religious  condition 
of  the  country  given  in  2  Kings  xvii.  24  sq.  dwells  only  on 
the  partial  adoption  of  Jehovah-worship  by  the  foreigners 
who  had  come  into  the  land,  but  by  no  means  implies  that 
the  foreigners  constituted  the  whole  population.  Josiah 
extended  his  reforms  beyond  the  limits  of  Judaea  proper  to 
Bethel  and  other  Samaritan  cities  (2  Kings  xxiii.  19),  and 
the  narrative  shows  that  av  that  date  things  were  going  on 
at  the  Northern  sanctuaries  much  as  they  had  done  in  the 
time  of  Amos  and  Hosea.  To  a  consideiable  extent  his 
efforts  to  make  Jerusalem  the  sanctuary  of  Samaria  as  well 
as  of  Judaea  must  have  been  successful,  for  in  Jer.  xli.  5 
we  find  fourscore  men  from  Shechem,  Shiloh,  and  Samaria 
making  a  pilgrimage  to  "the  house  of  Jehovah,"  after  the 
catastrophe  of  Zedekiah.  And  so  it  is  not  surprising  to 
find  that  the  people  of  this  district  came  to  Zemb- 
babel  and  Joshua  after  the  restoration,  claiming  to  be 
of  the  same  religion  with  the  Jews  and  asking  to  be  asso- 
ciated with  them  in  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple.  Their 
overtures  were  rejected  by  the  leaders  of  the  new  theocracy, 
who  could  not  but  fear  the  results  of  interfusion  with  so 
large  a  mass  "of  men  of  mixed  blood  and  very  questionable 
orthodoxy;  and  so  the  Jehovah-worshippers  of  Samaria 
were  thrown  into  the  ranks  of  "  the  adversaries  of  Judah 
and  Benjamin  "  (Ezra  iv.).  Nevertheless,  down  to  the  time 
of  Nehemiah,  the  breach  was  not  absolute ;  but  the  expul- 
sion from  Jerusalem  in  432  B.C.  of  a  man  of  high-priestly, 
family  who  had  married  a  daughter  of  Sanballat  made  it' 
so;  and  it  is  more  than  probable,*  as  has  been  explaine4  in.] 
Israel,  vol.  xiii.  p.  419,  that  this  priest  is  the  Manasseh' 
of  Josephus,  who  carried  the  Pentateuch  to  Shechem,  and 
for  whom  the  temple  of  Gerizim  was  built.  For,  though 
the  story  in  Josephus  {Ant.,  xi.  8)  is  falsely  dated  and' 
mixed  with  fable,  it  agrees  with  Neh.  xiii.  in  too  many, 
essential  points  to  be  wholly  rejected,  and  supplies  exactly, 
what  is  wanted  to  explain  the  existenre  in  Shechem  of  a 
community  bitterly  hostile  to  the  Jews,  and  yet  constituted 
in  obedience  to  Ezra's  Pentateuch. 

When  we  consider  what  difficulties  were  met  with  in  the 
introduction  of  Pentateuehal  orthodoxy  even  at  Jerusalem,  i 
the  foundation  of  a  community  of  the  Law  in  the  Samaritan' 
country,  among  the  mi.xed  populations  whom  the  Judaean, 
leaders  did  not  venture  to  receive  into  fellowship,  must 
appear  a  very  remarkable  exploit.  The  Samaritan  religion 
was  built  on  the  Pentateuch  alone ;  and  the  fact  that  theyi 
did  not  receive  even  those  prophetic  books  and  historical' 
narratrres  which  originated  in  Northern  Israel  (all  which' 
have  been  preserved  to  us. only  by  the  Jews)  shows  that,j 
before  they  received  the  Pentp,teuch,  their  Jehovah-worship 
was  a  mere  afi'air  of  traditional  practice,  uninspired  by. 
prophetic  ideas  and  unsupported  by  written  record  of  the 
great  deeds  of  Jehovah  in  time  past.  It  can  hardly  in  an^ 
respect  have  risen  above  the  level  of  the  popular  religion] 
of  North  Israel  as  described  and  condemned  by  Hosea  andJ 
Amos.  In  Judaea  the  duty  of  conformity  to  the  Pentateuch 
was  enforced  by  appeal  to  the  prophets  and  to  the  history 
of  the  nation's  sins  and  chastisements,  and  the  acceptance 
of  a  vast  and  rigid  body  of  ordinances  was  more  easy, 
because  they  came  as  the  consolidation  and  logical  develop^ 
ment  of  a  movement  that  had  been  in  progress  from  the 
days  of  Isaiah.  Among  the  Samaritans,  on  the  other  hand] 
the  acceptance  of  the  Pentateuch  implied  a  tremendou* 


SAMARITANS 


245 


breach  of  continuity.  They  must  indeed  have  felt  that 
they  liad  fallen  behind  the  Judicans  in  religious  matters, 
and  the  opportunity  of  putting  themselves  on  a  par  with 
them  by  securing  a  copy  of  the  institutes  of  Moses  and  the 
services  of  a  Juda:an  priest  would  naturally  be  grasped  at. 
But  what  is  remarkable  is  that,  having  got  the  Fentateuch, 
they  followed  it  with  a  fidelity  as  loyal  and  exact  as  the  Jews 
themselves,  save  in  the  one  matter  of  the  change  of  the 
sanctuary.  No  concessions  were  made  to  heathenism  or  to 
the  old  lax  Jehovah-worship ;  the  text  of  the  sacred  book 
was  transmitted  with  as  much  conscientiousness  as  was 
practised  by  Jewish  scribes  in  the  first  centuries  after 
Ezra;  1  and  even  from  the  unwilling  witness  of  their 
enemies  the  Jews  we  can  gather  that  they  fulfilled  all 
righteousness  with  scrupulous  punctiliousness  so  far  as  the 
letter  of  the  written  law  was  concerned,  though  of  course 
they  did  not  share  in  the  later  developments  of  the  oral  law, 
and  so  were  heretics  in  the  eyes  of  the  Pharisees.^ 

That  it  was  possible  to  establish  such  a  community  on 
such  a  soil  is  a  remarkable  evidence  that  in  that  age  the 
tendency  to  a  legal  religion  was  favoured  by  general  causes, 
not  confined  to  Judaia  alone ;  it  must  be  remembered  that 
elaborate  hierocracies  sprang  up  after  the  fall  of  the  old 
nationalities  in  many  parts  of  western  Asia  (comp.  Pkiest, 
vol.  xix.  p.  729).  At  the  same  time  it  must  be  remembered 
that,  as  Ezra  could  not  have  succeeded  without  Nehemiah, 
Manasseh  had  Sanballat's  civil  authority  to  back  him.-  It 
is  probable,  too,  that  Josephus  is  right  in  assuming  that  he 
was  strengthened  by  a  considerable  secession  of  Judoeans, 
and  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  "  Samaritans "  ever 
embraced  anything  like  the  whole  population  of  the 
Samaritan  country.  Samaria  itself  was  Hellenized  in  the 
time  of  Ale.\ander;  and  in  Ecclus.  I.  26  the  foolish  people 
that  dwell  at  Shechem  are  distinguished  from  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  Samaritan  hill-country  in  general.^  The 
Samaritans,  like  the  Jews,  throve  and  multiplied  under  the 
discipline  of  the  law,  but  at  no  time  in  their  history  do  they 
appear  to  have  had  the  political  importance  that  would 
Lave  accrued  to  so  closely  knit  a  religious  body  if  it  had 
held  all  the  fertile  Samaritan  district. 

Jews  and  Samaritans  wore  separated  by  bitter  jealousies 
and  open  feuds  (Jos.,  Ant,  xiL  4,  1),  but  their  internal 
development  and  external  history  ran  closely  parallel 
courses  till  the  Jewish  state  took  a  new  departure  under  the 

'  This  appears  especially  by  comparison  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch 
with  the  Septuagint.  It  is  not  of  course  to  be  wondered  at  that  the 
Judaian  text  is  on  the  whole  superior  to  the  Samaritan,  for  the 
Samaritans  had  no  opportunity  of  revising  their  text  by  Juda^an 
copies.  The  Samaritan  character  is  an  independent  development  of 
the  old  Hebrew  writing  as  it  was  about  the  time  when  they  first  got 
the  Pentateuch.  This  in  itself  is  an  indication  that  from  the  first 
their  text  ran  a  separate  course,  and  that  there  was  no  opportunity  of 
chocking  corruptions  that  h.id  got  into  it  by  reference  to  differen', 
recensions.  In  Judoea  also  there  were  important  variations  between 
MSS.  down  to  tho  time  of  the  Septuagint  and  even  later,  and  in  many 
cases  tho  Septuagint  readings  agree  with  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch, 
showing  an  affinity  between  the  sources  of  tlieso  two  texts.  But 
ultimately  the  Jewish  scribes  were  able  to  con-stituto  or  rather  to 
select  an  authoritative  text,  and  whetlier  by  good  luck  or  by  judgment 
tlio  text  they  chose  was  on  the  whole  one  of  a  singularly  good  type. 
The  Samaritans  never  had  opportunity  to  do  anything  of  this  kind. 

*  Compare,  for  details  and  references,  "i^niit  Fragments  of  a  Samarilit.n 
Targurt,  p.  37  57. ,  42  sq. ,  and  Schtircr,  Gesch.  dcs  Judischen  Volkes,  p. 
7  Josephus  {Ant.,  xi.  8,  7)  says  they  received  Judnoans  who  were 
accused  of  ritual  irrcgul.arities,  but,  as  he  adds  that  tho  fugitives  pro- 
fessed that  they  were  falsely  accused,  it  is  plain  that  even  this  partisa.i 
writer  did  not  venture  to  represent  them  as  inditfercnt  to  ritual 
orthodoxy.  No  doubt,  in  addition  to  tho  legal  ordinances,  tho 
Samaritans  retained  some  ancient  traditional  practices,  as  they 
certainly  introduced  somo  new  observances.  Tlieir  passovcr,  for 
ozample,  has  some  peculiar  features,  one  of  which,  viz.,  tlio  application 
of  the  sacrificial  blood  to  tho  faces  of  the  chddren,  has  an  exact 
parallel  in  the  old  Arabic  'akil-a.  Seo  tho  account  of  an  eyo-witness 
(Prof.  Socin)  in  Badeker's  Palestine. 

"  So  all  Greek  MS.S.  Tlio  old  Latin  substitntcs  Mount  Edom  ;  tha 
S'Tiac  has  "Ghcl,"  which  may  mean  Eb.al  or  tho  Edomite  i»untry. 


Maccabees.  The  religious  resemblance  between  the  two 
bodies  was  increased  by  the  adoption  of  the  institution  of 
the  synagogue,  and  from  the  synagogue  there  certainly  grew 
up  a  Samaritan  theology  and  an  exegetical  tradition.  The 
latter  is  embodied  in  the  Samaritan  Targum  or  Aramaic 
version  of  the  Pentateuch,  which  in  its  j)resent  form  is, 
according  to  Noldeke's  investigations,  not  earlier  than  the 
fourth  Christian  century,  but  in  general  agrees  with  the 
readings  of  Origen's  to  ^a/iopciTiKoV.  For  the  dogmatic 
views  of  the  Samaritans  our  sources  are  all  late ;  they 
embrace  hymns  and  other  books  of  little  general  interest,' 
and  mainly  at  least  of  mediaeval  origin.  Like  tho  Jews, 
too,  the  Samaritans  had  a  haggada;  indeed  the  Arabic  books 
they  still  possess  under  the  name  of  chronicles  are  almost 
entirely  haggadic  fable  with  very  little  admixture  of  true 
tradition.  The  recent  date  of  all  this  literature  seems  to 
show  that  the  old  Samaritans  had  not  nearly  so  vigorous 
an  intellectual  life  as  .the  Jews,  though  what  life  they  had 
moved  in  similar  lines ;  indeed,  having  no  sacred  book 
but  the  Pentateuch,  and  having  passed  through  no  such 
national  revival  as  that  of  the  Maccabees,  they  lacked  two 
of  the  most  potent  influences  that  shaped  the  development 
of  Judaism.  On  the  other  hand,  they  shared  with  the  Jews 
the  influence  of  a  third  great  intellectual  stimulus,  that  of 
Hellenism.  Samaritans  as  well  as  Jews  were  carried  to 
Egypt  by  Ptolemy  Lagi ;  the  rivalry  of  tho  two  sects  was 
continued  in  Alexandria  (Jos.,  Ant.,  xii.  1,  1),  and  Hellen- 
ized Samaritans  wrote  histories  and  epic  poems  in  Greek 
with  exactly  the  same  patriotic  mendacity  which  charac- 
terizes Jewish  Hellenism  Of  this,  the  oldest  surviving 
Samaritan  literature,  some  fragments  have  been  creserved 
in  the  remains  of  Alexander  Polyhistor.'' 

The  troubles  that  fell  on  the  Jews  for  their  fidelity  to 
the  law,  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  were  not  escaped 
by  the  Samaritans  (2  Mac.  v.  23,  vi.  2) ;  the  account  in 
Josephus  (Ant,  xii.  5,  5)  which  makes  them  voluntarily 
exchange  their  religion  for  the  worship  of  the  Grecian  Zeus 
is  certainly  a  malignant  falsehood.^ 

Under  the  Maccabees  their  relations  with  Judcoa  became 
very  bitter,  and  they  were  severely  chastised  by  Hyrcanus, 
who  destroyed  their  temple.  Hostilities  between  the  two 
nations  recurred  from  time  to  time  ;  and  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, in  Josephus,  and  in  Jewi.sh  tradition  we  see  how 
deep-seated  was  their  mutual  abhorrence.'^  But,  with  all 
thi.s,  the  sects  were  too  nearly  alike  not  to  have  much  in 
common.  The  Roman  yoke  galled  both  in  the  same  way  ; 
tho  Samaritan  false  prophet  whoso  movement  Pilate  put 
down  with  cruel  slaughter  (Jos.,  A7it.,  xviii.  4,  1),  and  pro- 
bably also  Simon  JIagus  and  Dositheus  (Orig.,  Cont. 
Cds.,  i.  p.  44),  arc  p.irallcl  phenomena  to  the  false  Messiahs 
that  arose  among  the  Jews.  The  original  views  of  tho 
Samaritans  were  like  tliose  of  tho  Sadducecs,  and  they  did 
not  believe  in  a  resurrection  or  a  Messiah  ;  but  it  was 
impossible  for  their  faith  to  suvvivc  under  tho  cruel  pres- 
sure of  foreign  bondage  with lut  ahsorbing  something  from 
Jewish  eschatology.  And  so  too,  in  the  struggle  of  Iho 
Jcwu  with  Vespasian,  perhaps  also  in  that  with  Hadrian, 
the  Samaritans  forgot  their  old  feud,  and  took  part  against 
tho  Romans.  They  seem  also  to  have  shared  in  great 
measure  In  tho  subsequent  dispersion,  for  in  later  times  wi) 
hear  of  Samaritans  and  Samaritan  synagogues  not  only 
in  Egypt  but  in  Rome,  and  in  other  parts  of  tho  empire 
'  "  t 

*  See  especially  Fricdlandcr,  J/eUcnutische  SludUn  (1875),  p.  82  .ty. 
An  Egyptio-Samaritan  fragment  has  alsp  been  suspected  by  Ewald 
to  bo  imbedded  in  tho  Sibyllina,  xi.  239-244 

'  See  Appel,  Quasslionrs  tie  /telms  Snnianlanonim,  1874,  p.  37  S7. 

•  Josephus  calls  them  Culliaans  (from  2  Kings  xvii.  30),  and  will 
not  admit  that  they  are  of  Hebrew  blood  at  all  ;  the  Itnbbins  use  tho 
same  name,  but  arc  not  always  so  positive  in  calling  tlicm  jiuro  Gen- 
tiles. The  groundless  accusation  of  dovcwonihip  (which  makes  thnlr 
religion  that  of  tho  Syrian  Aniirodite)  arono  In  jiiikl-Mishnic  timi<«. 


246 


S  A  M  — S  A  M 


The  Christian  emperors  made  hard  edicts  against  them  as 
•well  as  the  Jews,  and  at  length  excluded  them  from  the 
public  service.  Under  these  circumstances  they  .naturally 
came  to  be  mainly  traders  and  merchants'  clerks ;  in  Con- 
stantinople "a  Samaritan"  meant  "a  banker's  clerk."  In 
their  old  homes  they  still  remained  numerous  enough  to 
make  a  serious  insurrection  under  Justinian  (529  a.d.). 
Its  suppression  was  followed  by  very  stern  decrees  against 
the  whole  sect,  and  Europe  heard  little  more  of  the 
Samaritans  tiU,  towards  the  close  of  the  16th  century, 
Western  scholars  took  an  interest  in  the  few  congregations 
that  still  remained  in  the  East,  at  Cairo  and  Damascus  as 
well  as  at  Ndbulus.  It  was  found  that  during  the  IMiddle 
Ages  they  had  formed  an  Arabic  literature  of  considerable 
si2e  but  of  little  intrinsic  worth,  and  had  continued  faith- 
fully to  preserve  their  scriptures.  Since  then  their  num- 
bers have  been  constantly  on  the  wane,  and  they  have 
almost  lost  their  old  learning,  which  was  never  very 
considerable. 

Samaritan  Literature.— Oi  this  a  full  account  is  ^ven,  along 
■with  a  sketch  of  Samaritan  history,  in  the  introduction  to  Nutt's 
Fragments  of  a  Samaritan  Targum  (1874).  The  foUo-n-ing  list 
confines  itself  to  what  has  been  printed,  (a)  Tiiei  Hebre%f- 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  i.e.,  the  Hebrew  text  in  Samaritan  recen- 
sion and  character,  was  first  printed  in  the  Paris  polyglott.  Ou 
the  nature  of  this  recension,  see  Gesenius,  De  Pent.  Sam.  oric/ine, 
8cc.  (1815).  A  list  of  variations  from  the  Jlassoretic  text  is  given 
by  Petennann,  Uebr.  Formenlehre  nach  der  Anssprache  der 
Samaritaner  (186S).  (6)  Targum,  also  in  the  Paris  and  London 
polyglotts,  but  in  very  corrupt  form.  A  critical  edition  of  the 
whole  is  still  lacking ;  the  best  test  of  part  is  that  given  by  Nutt 
from  a  Bodleian  JIS.  The  dialect,  apart  from  the  corruptions  of 
lie  text,  differs  little  from  other  Palestinian  Aramaic,  (c)  Aramaic 
iaving  been  supplanted  in  Palestine  by  Arabic,  an  Arabic  version 
of  the  Pentateuch  was  made  by  Abd  Sa'id  about  1100  A.D.  The 
first  three  books  have  been  edited  by  Kuenen  (1851-54).  On  this 
version,  see  especially  Do  Sacy  in  Mim.  Acad.  Inscr.  ct  Bcllcs-Lcttrcs, 
vol.  xlix.  (rf)  The  so-called  Samaritan  book  of  Joshua  is  an 
.Arabic  chronicle  going  down  to  Roman  times,  but  of  almost  no 
historical  use.  'It  may  date  from  the  13th  century.  Juynboll 
edited  it  in  1848  from  a  Leyden  MS. ;  there  are  other  MSS.  in  the 
British  JIuseum  and  in  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  (c)  Another 
short  chronicle,  El-Tolidoth,  published  by  Neubauer  in  Jour.  As. 
(1869),  seems  to  have  usefl  the  Jewish  BooT:  of  Juhilees,  Both  (rf) 
and  (e)  with  some  other  sources  were  used  by— (/)  The  Chroniclo 
of  Abulfath,  written  iu  1355,  and  continued  by  later  hands  ;  edited 
hy  Tilmar  (Gotha,  1865).  (tf)  A  collection  of  hymns  was  published 
by  Gesenius  [Cannina  Samarilana,  1824).  Other  lihirgical  pieces 
have' been  published  by  Heideiiheini.  (A)  Specimens  of  Samaritaj?. 
writings  on  Hebrew  grammar  were  published  by  Noldeke  in  the 
Gottiwjer  Nachriddcn  (1852). 

For  the  Samaritans  in  general,  see  Nutt,  cp.  cit.;  Juynboll,  Comm.  in  Bht. 
<jeniis  Samar..  Leyden,  1S4G  ;  Appel,  De  Kebus  Samaritanorum  sub  imperio 
Romano  peractis.  Ve  Sacy  publistied  in  the  Sotkei  et  Extraits,  xiL  (1831),  ail 
tJie  correspondence  of  the  Samaritans  with  European  scholars,  and  other  material 
about  the  modern  Samaritans.  For  the  modem  Samaritans  see  also  Petennann's 
JUisen.  vol.  i.  (I8C0).  For  Matrlzi's  account  of  the  Samaritans,  see  De  Sacy, 
Chrest.  Ar..  vol.  i.  Other  literature  in  Nutt  and  very  fully  ia  KauLzsch's  ai  tide 
in  Herzog-Pliit,  vol.  xiii.  (W.  R.  S.) 

SAMABKAND,  a  city  of  Central  Asia,  anciently  M«.r- 
amda,  the  capital  of  Sogdiana,  then  the  residence  of  the 
SAmdnids,  iand  subsequently  the  capital  of  Timur,  is  now 
chief  town  o^  the  Zerafshan  district  of  the  Russian  domin- 
ions. It  lies  in  a  richly  cultivated  region,  185  miles  south- 
west of  Tashkend,  and  145  miles  east  of  Bokhara,  in  39°  39' 
N.  lat.  and  &T  17'  E.  long.,  2150  feet  above  the  sea,  in 
the  valley  of  the  Zerafshan,  at  the  point  where  it  issues 
from  the  extreme  western  spurs  of  the  Tian-Shan  before 
entering  the  steppes  of  Bokhara.  The  Zerafshan  now 
flows  about  three  or  four  miles  to  the  north  of  the  city, 
supplying  its  extensive  gardens  with  water. 

Marcanda,  a  great  city,  whose  walls  had  a  compass  of 
90  stadia,  was  destroyed  by  Alexander  the  Great.  It  re- 
appears as  Samarkand  aMlie  time  of  the  conquests  of  the 
Arabs,  when  it  was  finally  reduced  by  Kotaiba  ibn  Moslim 
in  93  A.H.  (711-712  a.d.).  Under  the  SAmdnids  it  became 
a  brilliant  seat  of  Arabian  civilization.  Its  schools,  its 
savants,  were  widely  renowned ;  it  was  so  populous  that, 
when  Losieged  by  Jenghiz  Khan  in  1219,  it  is  reported  to 


have  been  defended  by  an  army  of  110,000  men.  De- 
stroyed and  pillaged  by  the  great  conqueror,  its  population 
was  reduced  to  one-quarter  of  what  it  had  been,  but  it  still 
reckoned  25,000  families  within  its  waUs.  The  great 
conqueror  'Timur  made  it  his  residence,  and  the  inhab- 


Plan  of  Samarkand.  1,  Governor's  house  ;  2,  Burying-place  of  Russian  soldien 
who  fell  in  the  defence  of  1863!  3,  College  of  Ulug-bcir;  4,  College  of  ShirwJar; 
6,  College  of  Tilla-karl ;  6,  Grave  of  Timur ;  7,  Grave  of  Timur's  irtves. 

itants  rose  to  150,000.  The  magnificent  buildings  of  fhe 
epoch  of  the  successors  of  Timur,  which  still  remain, 
testify  to  its  former  wealth.  But  new  invaders  again  re- 
duced it  to  ruin,  so  that  at  the  beginning  of  last  century  it 
is  reported  to  have  been  almost  ■without  inhabitants.  It 
fell  under  Chinese  dominion,  and  subsequently  under 
that  of  the  emir  of  Bokhara,  suffering  again  and  again 
from  wars  which  were  fought  for  it  and  around  it.  But 
no  follower  of  Islam  enter^  it  without  feeling  that  he  is  on 
holy  ground,  although  the  venerated  mosques  and  beautiful 
colleges  of  Samarkand  are  falling  into  ruins,  its  high  influ- 
ence as  a  seat  of  learning  has  vanished,  and  its  very  boU  ia 
profaned  by  infidels.  It  was  not  without  a  struggle  that 
the  Mohammedans  permitted  the  Russians  to  take  posses- 
sion of  their  holy  city ;  and,  while  other  cities  of  Central 
Asia  submitted  almost  without  striking  a  blow,  Samarkand 
revolted  in  1868,  the  Russian  garrison,  shut  up  in  the 
citadel  being  rescued  only  by  the  timely  arrival  of  a  corps 
despatched  from  Tashkend. 

The  present  city,  which  is  but  a  wreck  of  its  former  self, 
is  quadrangular  iii  shape  and  is  enclosed  by  a  low  wall  9 
miles  long.  The  citadel  rises  in  the  west,  and  to  the  west- 
ward of  this  again  the  Russians  have  kid  out  their  new 
town,  with  bread  streets  and  boulevards  radiating  from 
the  citadel,  while  a  pretty  public  garden,  carefully  irrigated, 
occupies  the 'centre. 

The  central  part  of  Samarkand  is  the  Righistan — a  square  limited 
by  the  three  nyxdramlis  (colleges)  of  Ulug-beg,  Shir-dar,  and  Tilla- 
kari ;  in  its  architectural  symmetry  and  beauty  this  is  rivalled 
only  by  some  of  the'  squares  of  Italian  cities.  Though  differing 
in  detail,  the'great  lines  of  the  three  colleges  are  the  same.  An 
immense  doorway  decorates  the  front  of  each  of  these  large  quadri- 
lateral buildings.  A  high  and  deep-pointed  porch,  whose  summit 
almost  reaches  the  top  of  the  lofty  fa9ade,  is  flanked  on  each  side 
by  a  broad  quadrilateral  pillar  of  the  same  height,  subdivided  into 
three  sections,  each  of  which  has  its  own  style  of  decoration.  Two 
fine  columns,  profusely  decorated,  in  turn  flank  these  broad  pillars. 
On  each  side  of  the  high  doorway  are  two  lower  archways  connect- 
ing it  with  two  elegant  towers,  narrowing  towards  their  tops  and 
slightly  inclined.  The  whole  of  the  facade  and  also  the  interior 
courts  are  profusely  decorated  with  enamelled  bricks,  whose  colooiB 
— blue,  green,  pink,  or  golden,  but  chiefly  turquoise-blue — are 
wrought  into  the  most  fascinating  designs,  in  striking  harmony 
with  the  whole  and  with  each  part  of  the  building.  In  the  recess 
of  the  deep  doorway  is  the  wide  door,  with  proportions  of  remark- 
able elegance,  and  above  it  are  the  broad  decorations  filling  up  the 
upper  part  of  the  arch.  Over  the  interior  are  bulbed  or  melon-like 
domes,  perhaps  too  heavy  for  the  facade.     Tlje  cool  and  shad; 


S  A  M  —  S  A  M 


247 


mcrclj  the  cfwelliT.ss  of  molbhs,  >vho  livo  on  tlie  revenues  of  the 

^^hV^olt^'  ot^S^i'Kuilt  in  1601)  takes  iU  nan.e  f.o,n  the 
tWo  ious  o?°athc.  timers,  figured  on  the  top  of  its  doorway,  ^vnch 
L  richly  decorated  svitU  green,  Wuc,  red  and  ^lj''°4'^;^™  f^ 
brides  It  is  the  most  spacious  of  the  three  and  128  mo  la  is 
i"hubtt  its  64  npartmentsr^  The  Tilla-kan  (" '^'-^^f.'i  "' f"  1  J. 
luilt  in  161S,  has  56  roo.us..  But  the  "^"f,,--^"^,"^  °U  Timm 
Madrasahs  U  that  of  Ulug-beg,  buUt  in  1120  oi  1434  by  iimm, 
So  grandson  of  the  great  conqueror.  _  It  is  smaUer  than  the  ohu  ^ 
but  it  was  to  its  school  of  mathematics  and  astronomy  that  Samar- 
kaud  owed  its  wide  renown  in  the  15th  century.  ,     j    ,. 

A  windin"  street  running  north-east  from  the  Rig  ustan  leads  to 
»m«Thlar°er  square  havfng  tho  college  of  B.bi-khanym  on  the 
tSe  Kiaves  of  Timur's  wives  on  the  south   and  a  clean  ba.aar 
Tn  the  eas?     The  ooUege  was  erected  in  18S8  by  a  Chmese  wife  o 
Th,i  r  ami  is  said  to  liave  once  sheltered  as  many  as  a  thousand 
ituden'ts      It  covers  a  large  area,  and  has  three  mosques  connected 
by  a  ^a'dranValir  buildi^  contkining  the  students'  rooms.     The 
archXvand  towere  of  its  facade  are  considered  by  Vambery  as  a 
LofeLcLbuildings,  and^ts  decorations  resis^^^^^^^ 
influences  alike  of  time  and  of  man.      One  ol  its  mosques  sua 
r"  ses  its  liWi  bulbed  dome  above  the  outer  walls,  which  arc  falling 
In  o  ruuis  and  now  give  accommodation  to  the  ^^f  y-^^Ji^^^^^^^^ 
of  traders  in  cotton.     The  lofty  rums  of  the  grave  of  Timui  s  wi\  cs 

""T^the^Stoutside  the  walls  of  Samarkand,  but  clo.  at  hand 
is  the  Hazreti  Shah-Zindeh-the  summer-palace  "f  J'^ii^.  ■  ,^"f 
Bear  this  is  the  grave  of  Shah-Zindeh,  or,  more  precisely,  Kotham 
Ibn  al'lbbas  ibn  'Abd  al-Mott.lib,  a  famous  companion  of  the 
R^iphct     This  w^s  already  a  famous  shrine  in  the  14th  century  (Ibn 
Batu ta  iii  52);  it  is  beUeved  that  the  saint  stUl  lives  in  the  mosque 
and  w^il  one  day  rise  for  the  defence  of  his  religion      The  Ha.i^ti 
Shah-Zindeh  covei-s  a  wide  area  on  a  terrace  reached  by  forty-  maiblo 
steps     A  series  of  galleries  and  rooms  lead  to  the  ha    containiug  tho 
X  li'esof  the  saint.  'tHo  decoration  of  *e  interior  halls  is  marvellous 
Another  street  running  south-west  from  the  RighisUn  Jeaas 
to  the  Gur-Emir-the  grave  of  Timur.     Tlus  consists  of  a  chapel 
™ed  with  an  elegant  dome,  enclosed  by  a  wall  and  Wonted  by 
an  rhw:r  Time  and  earthquakes  have  g-^^.y-J^i^^tntefi^: 
buildiu":  one  of  tho  minarets  is  already  m  rums.     The  inteuor 
constu  of  t,vo  apartments  raved^vith  white  ^i^^-We.  Ae  ;-J^ 
hem"  covered  with  elegant  turquoise  arabesques  and  inscriptions 
cein     coverca  «"•         o  i       ,       ,     ^^^  ijg  decorations,  of 


^:Zr^  SS^o?^::rbea;^y:p  its  decorations  ^f 
a  bolder  style  than  the  others,  are  in  strict  ^'^'^°}'y'''^^J^'Z 
Brcssion  it  is  designed  to  produce.  A  large  pyramidal  piece  of  jade 
Cun  into  two  covers  the  grave  of  Timur,  wLch  has  by  its  side  that 
ofhis  t  acher,  Mir  Seid  Beike.  and  those  of  several  "^embers  of  his 
family,  all  enclosed  by  a  marble  railing.  A  dark  and  narrow  fiight 
of^ps  leads  down  to  the  ci7pt,  also  ornamented  with  arabesques, 
there  the  fiVaves  arc  placed  in  the  same  order  as  in  the  upper  tall. 
'  The  c  taSd  is  situaVed  on  the  west  of  the  city,  upon  a  lull  whose 
steep  slopes  render  it  one  of  the  strongest  in  Central  Asia.  Its 
S,  3S0O  yards  in  circuit  and  about  10  feet  high,  enclose  a  space 
of  about  4  square  miles.  It  contained  the  palace  "f  ^t-^J^""^  f 
Bokhara, -a  vulgar,  modem  building  now  transformed  into  a  hos- 
Xl -ai-l  the  audience  hall  of  Timur,-a  long  narrow  court,  sur- 
Fom^ded  by  a  colonnade,  and  containing  the  Kcuk-tash,  a  grey 
aZe  10  feet  long  4  feet  broad,  and  4i  feet  high,  reported  to  have 
been  brought  from  Bmssa.  On  it  Timur  used  to  take  his  seat, 
su^oundeS  by  his  numerous  vassals  ;  from  it  more  recently  the 
cm™  rf  Bokhara  also  wer«  wont  to  dispense  their  ternble  nistice 

EuiiVs  of  former  buildings-heaps  of  plain  and  enamelled  brick  , 
among  which  Grrcco-Bactrian  coins  liave  been  ound-cover  a  w-ido 
ar"a  all  around  the  present  city,  and:  esnecially  on  the  west  and 
'orth      The  name  of  Aphrosiab  is  usually  e'ven  to  these  ruins 
S  extend  for  nearly  three  miles  to  tho  westward  of  the  present 
Csiant^wn    this  suburb  of  Samarkand  was  -.cosed  by  a  wall 
th7  ruins  of  which  can  be  traced  for  seven  or  eight  m,lc3.Fivo 
miles  to  the  south-west  of  Samarkand  is  tho  co  lego  K^'olja  Akrar 
Us  lie  vor  ornamentation  in  enamelled  brick  is  one  of  tho  most 
beautiful  of  Samarkand.     Rye  is  now  grown  in  us  courts,  and  .9 
nrlistic  ornamentation  is  going  to  ruin.     To  tho  north-north-east 
TZ  Tehupa'n-ata  Hills!  thf  chief  of  which  has  on  lUs  summ.^ 
the  grave  of  baniar  Polvan.     On  tho  right  bank  0    l''"  '^^^ V'/^  ""^ 
stands  tho  village  of  Dchbid,  peopled  by  ^f  "";'■'•''  .^^^^^'''I'^^.T 
Aain.n  (died  inl542),  who  possess  abeaut.ful  /*a,ta  ("^"''^'"fy)' 
with  prottv  avenues  of  trees  planted  by  Nezr  I'.'^f  "S'V"/^^?; 
As  ior  the'famous  Baghitchi-naran  (the  gardcno  plane  treos),  only 
tho  ruins  of  its  t,alac?now  mark  its  former  position  ;  the  trees  have 
disappeared.      6f  tho  Grteco-Arraonian  library  said  to  have  been 
brought  to  Samarkand.by.Tirnur  no  traces  have    ''^<^°. '^'f^^r,^' 
and  Vambiry  regai'ds  tho  whole  legend  as  »  fable  '"vented  by 
Anncnians.     Every  trace  of  tho  venowncd  high  scliool  Kallnrter- 
kbauy  has  also  disappeared. 


Tho  present  Moslem  city  is  an  intricato  labynnth  of  narrow 
windin'  streets,  having  on  both  sides  day  walls  concealing  dirty 
court-ylrds  and  miserable  houses.  The  population  was  estimated 
at  36000  in  1879  ;  it  consists  of  Tajiks  (Iranians)  and  Sarts  or 
U7be'^  Tho  Europeans  numbered  5380.  Some  300  Jews  occupy 
a  sep°a^to  quarter,  remarkable  for  its  filth.  Numbe.s  of  Arabs, 
Pers  ans,  Alghans,  Hindus,  Kiptchaks,  and  Tsigans  (Gipsies)  may 
be  met  with  m  tho  streets.  The  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants 
is  Gardening ;  the  gardens  beyond  the  walls  are  ex..:nsive  and  very 
well  kept  There  is  also  a  certain  amount  of  manufactuniig  in- 
dustry ;  tho  workshops,  which  are  small,  aro  thus  enumerated  by 
M.  Kos'tenko  :-for  metallic  wares,  12;  for  tallow  and  soa,,  84 
tanneries,  30;  potteries,  37;  for  various  tissues,  24b.  Thnso  for 
he?ng  and  the  manufacture  of  harness,  boots,  and  silver  and  gdd 

•^res°are  also  numerous.  The  best  harness,  ornamented  witfc 
turquoises,  and  tho  finer  products  of  the  goldsmith  s  art  m» 
imported  from   Bokhara  or  Afghanistan.     Tho  products  of  local 

^'°Thfba":r:7  Samarkand,  the  chief  of  which  is  in  tke  centre  of 
the  town,  dose  by  the  Righistan,  are  more  animated  and  kept  witll 
much  gr;atcr  cl/anliness°than  those  of  Tashkcnd  or  Kamangan. 
The  trfde  carried  on  by  local  or  Bokhara  merchants  is  very  brisk, 
the  cMef  items  being  cotton,  silk,  wheat  and  rice,  ^orses,  asses 
■  uits  and  cutlery.  ^Hieat,  rice,  and  silk  are  exported  chieQy  to 
BokharaTcotton  to  Russia  fia  Tashkend.  Silk-wares  and  excel- 
lent  fruits  are  imported  from  Shahri-Syabs,  and  ""ck-salt  torn 

SAMBALPUR,  or  SmreirLPOOE,  a  Britisli  district  in  tho 
chief-coramissionersliip  of  the  Central  Provinces  of  India, 
bet^veen  21°  2'  and  21"  57'  N.  lat.  and  between  83    16 
and  Si"  21'  E.  long.     Exclusive  of  attached  native  states 
by  which  it  is  surrounded,  Sambalpur  contains  an  area 
of  4521  square  miles.     Including  the  native  states,  it  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Chutia  Nagpur,  on  the  east  and 
south  by  Cuttack  district,  Bengal,  and  on  tho  west  by  the 
Bilaspur  and  Eaipur  districts.     The  JlahAnadi  which  is 
the  only  important  river  in  the  district,  flows  througli  it, 
dividing  it  into  unequal  parts.      The  greater  portion  of 
Sambalpur  is  an  undulating  plain,  with  ranges  of  rugged 
hills  running  in  every  direction,  the  largest  of  which  is  tho 
BarA  PahAr,  a  mountain  chain  covering  an  area  ot^DU 
square  miles,  and  attaining  at  Dibrigarh  a  height  of  2267 
feet  above  the  plain.     The  MahAnadi  aifords  means  of 
water  communication  for  90  miles  ;  its  principal  tributaries 
in  Sambalpur  are  the  lb,  Kel6,  and  JhirA.     To  the  west 
of  the  Mahdnadi  the  district  is  well  cultivated.     The  sou 
of  the  district  is  generally  light  and  sandy.    It  is  occupied 
for  the  greater  part  by  crystalline  metamorphic  rocks ;  but 
part  of  the  north-west  corner  is  composed  of  sandstone, 
limestone,  and  shale.     Gold  dust  and  diamonds  have  been 
found  near  HfrakhudA  or  Diamond  Island,  at  the  junction 
of  the  lb  and  Mahdnadi.     The  climate  of  Sambalpur  is 
considered  very  unhealthy  ;  its  average  temperature  is  7  J  , 
and  its  average  annual  rainfall  is  58i  inches. 

The  census  of  1881  disclosed  a  population  of  693,499  (346,549 
males  and  346,950  females).  HinJlns  numbered  632  747  and 
Mohamr^edans  2966.  Tho  only  town  in  tho  d.stnet  with  a 
po°.rtron  exceeding  6000  is  Sambalpur.  tho  admm.stratavo 
leLlquarters,  with  13,939  i°h'^b'tants,  situated  in  21  27  10 
N  lat  and  84°  1'  E.  long.,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Sla'"".,,  'v, Jl 
has  much  improved  since  1864,  when  a  cart  could  only  with  gi^at 
ifiicX  pass  through  tho  main  street.  Of  the  total  area  oF  tho 
d  strict  1125  square  miles  are  cultivated,  and  of  Uio  portion  lying 
w^Te  SSa^eTlti^ahL  Kico  forms  the  staple  croP ;  0  hor  pro- 
duc  s  arc  food  grains,  oil-seeds,  cotton,  and  sugar-cano.  The  manu- 
ttures  are  ,e>^  and  of  no  great  value.  J^ie  gross  revenue  in  1883- 
84  was  £22,445,  of  which  the  land  contributed  -"•^So- 

simbalimr  lipsed  to  tho  British  in  1849,  who  ""mp-JiaW^f 
adoTed  a  "ystem  of  exaction  and  confiscation  by  raising  ti» 
?evinuo  L?ssLnU  one-fourth  an'l  "f'^'-Jg/''"  l^i^Z^ 
religious  and  others.  Great  d'ssat.sfaclion  was  U.o  consc  u^^^ 
and  the  Bnihmans,  who  form  a  nmnerous  «>"  'o;;'^f"l  ^,^,^™<i  u^i 
made  an  appeal,  but  obta  nod  .10  rtidrcss.  In  1854  a  sccona  laim 
8eUlcm^t^&  :«i»'-d  *»  ««»«'««"''>"»  every  wheroono^ourtk 
Tl  s^^tem^f  «acticn  produced  its  natural  rosu^UOu  tl- 
outbreak  of  tho  mutiny  in  1857  a  general  "J^of'.o  chiefs  took 
Place  and  it  was  not  until  tho  final  arrest  of  burandra  sa,  n  crnei 
^ho  for  Bomo  years  had  been  tho  cause  of  K;-^**'  ■='l»;.''»1=r'.  J^ 
7864  that  tranquillity  was  restored;  since  then  tho  district  liU 
,  ifujoyod  ijroTound  piaoo. 


248 


SAMNITES 


SAMNITES,  a  people  of  ancisut "  lia!y,  whpse  name 
figures  conspicuously  in  the  early  history  of  Rome.  They 
.occupied  an  extensive  tract  in  the  centre  of  the  peninsula, 
■which  derived  from  them  the  name  of  Samnium.  The 
territory  thus  designated  was  a  wholly  inland  district, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Marsi,  Peligni,  and  Fren- 
tani,  who  separated  them  from  the  Adriatic,  on  the  east 
by  Apulia,  on  the  south  by  Lucania,  and  on  the  west 
by  Campania  and  Latium.  But  the  Samnites  were  from 
an  early  period  a  numerous  and  powerful  nation,  and 
formed  rather  a  confederacy  of  tribes  than  a  single 
people.  Hence  the  name  is  sometimes  used  in  a  wider 
sometimes  in  a  more  limited  sense, — the  Hirpini,  espe- 
cially, who  occupied  the  southernmost  portion  of  their 
territory,  being  sometimes  included  amongst  them,  some- 
times disting)iished  from  them.  But  according  to  the 
usual  acceptation  of  the  term — excluding  the  Frentani, 
who,  though  unquestionably  of  Samnite  origin,  were  not 
usually  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  Samnite  nation — 
they  consisted  of  three  principal  tribes  : — the  Caraceni  in 
the  north,  the  Pentri,  who  may  be  termed  the  Samnites 
proper,  in  the  centre,  and  the  Hirpini  in  the  south. 
Almost  the  whole  of  Samnium,  as  thus  defined,  was  a 
rugged,  mountainous  country,  and,  though  the  Apennines 
do  not  in  this  part  of  their  range  attain  to  so  great  an 
elevation  as  farther  north,  they  form  irregular  masses  and 
groups,  filling  up  almost  the  whole  territory,  and  in  great 
part  covered  with  extensive  forests.  On  the  side  of 
Campania  alone  the  valley  of  the  Vulturnus  was  richer 
and  more  fertile,  and  opened  a  natural  access  from  the 
south  into  the  northern  regions  of  Samnium,  while  the 
Calor,  a  tributary  of  the  same  river,  which  flows  from  the 
east  past  Benevento,  afforded  in  all  ages  a  similar  route 
into  ,the  upland  districts  of  the  Hirpini  Between  the 
Wo,  occupying  the  centre  of  the  Pentrian  territory  and 
thejvery  heart  of  Samnium,  was  the  great  mountain  mass 
;iow  known  as  the  Slonte  Matece,  of  which  the  highest 
Eumrnit  attains  to  an  elevation  of  6600  feet,  and  which 
must  in  all  ages  have  been  a  region  presenting  peculiar 
difficulties  of  access. 

Ji.ll  ancient  writers  agree  in  representing  the  Samnites 
aSAjJCople  of  Sabine  origin,  who  migrated  at  an  early 
period  to  the  region  of  which  we  find  them  in  the  occupa^ 
tion  when  they  first  appear  in  history.  The  period  of 
this  emigration  is  whoUy  unknown,  but,  if  we  can  trust 
the  tradition  reported  by  Strabo,  that  it  was  the  result  of 
a  vow  to  send  forth  the  produce  of  a  "  sacred  spring  "  (see 
Sabines),  it  could  hardly  have  been  in  the  first  instance 
very  numerous,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  invaders  estab- 
lished themselves  in  the  midst  of  an  Oscan  population, 
with  whom  they  gradually  coalesced.  It  is  certain  that 
no.yery  long  interval  elapsed  before  the  Samnites  in  their 
turn  found  themselves  exceeding  the  resources  of  their 
barren  and  rugged  territory,  and  extending  their  dominion 
over  the  more  fertile  and  accessible  regions  by  which  they 
were  surrounded.  The  first  of  these  movements  was  pro- 
bably that  by  which  they  "occupied  the  land  of  the 
Frentani,  a  fertile  district  along  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic, 
between  the  northern  part  of  Samnium  and  the  sea.  '  The 
Hirpini  also  were  in  the  first  instance  almost  certainly  a 
later  ofishoot  of  the  central  Samnite  people,  though  they 
continued  always  in  &nch  close  connexion  with  them  that 
they  were  generally  reckoned  as  forming  part  of  the 
Samnite  confederacy,  and  almost  uniformly  took  part  with 
the  more  central  tribes  in  their  wars  against  Rome.  The 
Frentani,  on  the  contrary,  generally  either  stood  aloof  from 
the  contest  or_secured_their  own  safety  bjrjin  alliance 
iwith  Rome. 

To  a  later  pcnocTDelong  the  emigrations  that  gave  rise 
to  the  two  powerful  uatious  of  the  Lucaniaus  and  Cain-  I 


panians.  At  the  time  when  the  Greek  colonies  were 
established  in  southern  Italy  the  native  tribes  that  occu- 
pied the  regions  to  the  south  of.  Samnium  were  the 
Qinotrians  and  other  Pelasgic  races,  and  it  was  not  till 
after  the  middle  of  the  5th  century  B.C.  that  the  pressure 
of  the  Lucanians  from  the  interior  began  to  make  itself 
felt  in  this  quarter.  '  From  this  time  they  gradually 
extended  their  power  throughout  the  whole  country  to  the 
Gulf  of  Tarentura  and  the  Sicihan  Straits.  It  was  pro 
bably  at  a  somewhat  earlier  period  (about  440  to  420 
B.C.)  that  they  effected  the  conquest  of  the  fertile  country 
to  the  west,  intervening  between  the  mountain  regions  o) 
Samnium  and  the  sea.  Here  they  found  an  Oscan  popula* 
tion,  with  whom  they  seem  to  have  speedily  coalesced^ 
and  thus  gave  rise  to  the  people  known  thenceforth  as 
Campanians,  or  "  inhabitants  of  the  plain."  But  in  this 
case  also  the  new  nationality  thus  constituted  had  no 
political  connexion  with  the  parent  state,  and  retained  its 
independent  action  both  for  peace  and  war.  The  first 
mention  of  the  Samnites  themselves  in  Roman  history 
occurs  in  354,  v.'hen  they  concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance 
with  the  rising  republic. 

But  it  was  not  long  before  the  course  of  events  brought 
the  two  rival  powers  into  collision.  The  Samnites,  who 
appear  to  have  been  still  actuated  by  aggressive  tenden- 
cies, had  attacked  the  Sidicini,  a  petty  tribe  to  the  north 
of  Campania,  and  the  latter,  feeling  unable  to  cope  with 
80  powerful  an  adversary,  invoked  the  assistance  of  the 
Campanians.  These,  however,  were  in  their  turn  attacked 
by  the  Samnites,  and  sustained  so  crushing  a  defeat,  imder 
the  very  walls  of  Capua,  that  they  were  compelled  to 
implore  the  aid  of  Rome.  Their  request  was  granted,' 
though  not  without  hesitation,  and  thus  began  (in 
343)  the  first  of  the  long  series  of  the  Samnite  Wars^i 
which  ultimately  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Roman 
domination  over  the  whole  of  southern  Italy.  The  events 
of  these  wars,  which  are  related  in  all  histories  of  Rome, 
can  only  be  very  briefly  noticed  here.  The  first  contest 
was  of  short  duration;  and  after  two  campaigns  the 
Romans  were  willing,  not  only  to  conclude  peace  with 
Samnium  but  to  renew  the  previously  existing  alliance,  to 
which  the  Samnites  continued  faithful  throughout  the 
great  struggle  which  ensued  between  the  Romans  and  the 
allied  Campanians  and  Latins.  The  Second  Samnite  War 
was  of  a  very  different  character.  Both  nations  felt  that 
it  was  a  struggle  for  supremacy,  and,  instead  of  being 
brought  to  a  close  within  three  years,  it  lasted  for  more 
than  twenty  years  (326-304),  and  was  marked  with 
considerable  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  among  which  the 
celebrated  disaster  of  the  Caudine  Forks  (321)  stands 
most  conspicuous.  Nor  was  the  struggle  confined  to  the 
two  leading  powers,  many  of  the  neighbouring  nations 
espousing  the  cause  of  the  one  side  or  the  other,  and  often 
with  fluctuating  faith,  in  accordance  with  the  varying 
fortunes  of  the  war.  The  result,  however,  was  on  the 
whole  favourable  to  the  Roman  arms,  notwithstanding 
which  they  were  willing  to  conclude  peace  in  304,  on  con- 
dition of  the  renewal  of  the  previously  existing  alliance. 
This  interval  of  tranquillity  was  of  short  duration,  and 
little  more  than  five  years  elapsed  between  the  end  of  the 
Second  Samnite  War  and  the  commencement  of  the  Third 
(298).  In  this  fresh  contest  they  received  a  formidable 
auxiliary  in  a  large  body  of  Gauls,  who  had  recently 
crossed  the  Alps,  and,  together  with  their  countrymen  the 
Senones,  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Samnites  against  Rome. 
Their  combined  forces  were,  however,  defeated  in  the  great 
battle  of  Sentinum  (294),  and  after  several  successive  cam- 
paigns the  consul  M.  Curius  Dentatus  was  able  to  boast  of 
having  put  an  end  to  the  Samnite  Wars  (290),  after  they, 
had  laated  more  tliau  fifty  years,     it  is  true  that  a  fes 


S  A  M  —  S  A  M 


249 


years  later  the  Samnites  again  appear  in  arms,  though 
rather  as  auxiliaries  than  principals,  and  the  name  of 
Fourth  Samnite  War  is  given  by  some  historians  to  the 
memorable  contest  which,  commenced  in  282  by  the  Lu- 
•canlans,  assumed  a  wholly  different  aspect  when  Pyrrhus, 
king  of  Epirus,  appeared  in  Italy  as  their  auxiliary.  But 
the  power  of  the  Samnites  was  evidently  broken,  and  after 
the  final  defeat  of  Pyrrhus  they  appear  to  have  offered 
little  resistance.  Their  final  submission  was  made  in  272, 
and  according  to  the  usual  Roman  policy  was  secured  by 
the  establishment  in  their  territory  of  the  two  important 
colonies  of  .lEsernia  and  Beneventum. 

During  the  Second  Punio  'War,  Samnium  tecamo  tho  frequent 
theatre  of  hostilities.  The  Hirpini  were  among  the  first  of  the 
Italian  tribes  to  declare  in  favour  of  Hannibal  after  the  battle  of 
Cannse  (216) ;  but  their  example  was  not  followed  by  the  more 

Sowerful   tribe   of  the   Pentri,  and   when   Hannibal   was   finally 
riven  out  of  Central  Italy  the  Samnites  were  speedily  reduced  to 
submission.     From  this  time  we  hear  no  more  of  them  till  the 

treat  outbreak  of  the  Italian  nations,  commonly  known  as  tho 
ocial  War  (90),  in  which  they  bore  a  prominent  part.  •  Two 
of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Italian  leaders,  C.  Papius 
Mutilus  and  C.  Pontius  Telesinus,  were  of  Samnite  birtb,  and 
after  the  fall  of  Corfmium  the  Samnite  tovra  of  Bovianuni  became 
tho  temporary  capital  of  the  confederates.  Their  submission  had 
not  Indeed  been  completed  when  the  civil  war  between  Marius 
and  SuUa  gave  a  fresh  character  to  the  contest.  The  Samnites 
warmly  espoused  the  cause  of  the  former,  and  it  was  the  defeat  of 
their  leader  C.  Pontius  Telesinus  at  the  CoUine  Gate  of  Rome  that 
secured  the  victory  of  Sulla  and  sealed  the  fate  of  the  Samnite 
nation  (82).  Not  content  with  putting  all  his  Samnite  prisoners 
to  the  sword,  the  ruthless  conqueror  organized  a  systematic  devas- 
tation of  the  whole  country,  with  the  avowed  object  of  extirpating 
theTery  name  of  the  Samnites,  as  the  eternal  enemies  of  Rome. 
To  such  an  extent  was  this  cruel  purpose  carried  into  effect  that 
more  than  a  hundred  years  afterwards,  in  the  time  of  Strabo,  tho 
whole  country  is  described  as  being  in  a  state  of  utter  desolation, 
flourishing  towns  being  reduced  to  mere  villages,  while  others  had 
altogether  ceased  to  exist.  Nor  does  it  appear  probable  that  it 
ever  recovered  this  severe  blow ;  and,  though  some  attempt  was 
made  to  revive  its  prosperity  by  the  establishment  of  Roman 
colonies  within  its  limits,  none  of  these  attained  to  any  importance. 
The  name  of  Samnium  was  indeed  retained  as  that  of  a  distinct 
province  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  is 
0till  found  in  Cassiodorus.  But  under  the  Lombard  rule  the 
whole  of  this  part  of  Italy  was  included  in  the  duchy  of  Benevento, 
which  continued  to  subsist  as  an  independent  state  long  after  the 
fall  of  the  Lombard  kingdom  in  the  north  of  Italy.  During  the 
revolutions  of  the  Middle  Ages  all  trace  of  tho  name  is  lost  ;  and, 
though  it  was  revived  in  the  last  century  as  the  ofScial  designation 
ef  a  part  of  the  region  comprised  within  the  ancient  limits,  pre- 
viously known  as  the  Contado  di  Molise,  this  was  a  mere  piece  of 
official  pedantry,  and  the  name  has  again  disappeared  from  tho 
modern  maps  of  Italy. 

Very  few  towns  of  importance  existed  at  any  period  \|fithin  the 
limits  of  Samnium,  and  many  of  those  mentioned  in  history  had 
disappeared  in  the  continual  wars  with  which  the  country  was 
ravaged.  The  only  names  that  are  worthy  of  special  notice  are — 
Aufidena,  in  the  north,  the  capital  of  tho  Caraceni,  tho  ruins  of 
which  still  exist  a  few  miles  from  Castel  di  Sangro ;  Bovianum 
(still  called  Bojano),  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Pentri,  in  the  heart 
of  Monte  Matese  ;  Sffipinum  (Sepino),  in  tho  same  neighbourhood  ; 
.fflscmia,  in  the  valley  of  the  Vulturnus,  still  known  as  Isernia ; 
Aquilonia  (Lacedogna),  in  tho  land  of  the  Hirpini,  near  the  frontier 
of  Apulia  ;  and  Compsa  (Conza),  on  the  borders  of  Lncania,  near 
the  sources  of  the  Aufidus.  Beneventum  alone  has  retained  its 
ancient  consideration  as  well  as  name,  an  advantage  which  it 
derives  from  its  position  on  the  Via  Appia,  commanding  tho 
entrance  to  the  mountain  district  of  the  Hirpini. 

The  language  of  the  Samnites,  like  that  of  their  parents  tho 
Sabines,  must  clearly  have  been  closely  related  to  that  of  the 
Oscans,  and  tho  two  nationalities  appear  to  have  onmlgamnted  so 
readily  that  before  the  historical  period  there  was  probably  little 
difference  in  this  respect.  Several  of  the  most  imiiortaiit  of  the 
inscriptions  that  remain  to  us  have  been  found  within  tho  limits 
of  the  Samnite  territory,  and  may  be-  considered  as  SaboUo-Oscan 
in  their  charactorj  rather  than  purely  Oscan.  See  for  these  the 
articles  Italy  and  Latin  Lanquaoe.  (E.  H.  B.) 

SAMOA.     See  Navigators'  Islands. 

SAMOS,  one  of  the  principal  and  most  fortiio  of  tho 
islands  in  the  iEgean  Soa  that  closely  adjoin  the  mainland 
of  Asia  Minor,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  strait  of 

:21— 10"* 


only  about  a  mile  in  width.  It  is  about  27  miles  io 
length,  by  about  14  in  its  greatest  breadth,  and  is  occupied 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  its  extent  by  a  range  ol 
mountains,  of  which  the  highest  summit,  near  its  western 
extremity,  called  Mount  Kerkis,  attains  to  the  height  of 
4725  feet.  This  range  is  in  fact  a  continuation  of  that  of 
Mount  Mycale  on  the  mainland,  of  which  the  promontory 
of  Trogilium,  immediately  opposite  to  the  city  of  Samos, 
formed  the  extreme  point.  Various  mythical  legends  were 
current  to  account  for  the  original  settlement  of  the  city  of 
Samos,  and  to  connect  its  founders  with  the  Greek  heroic 
genealogies ;  but  the  earliest  record  that  has  any  claim  to 
an  historical  character  is  that  of  the  occupation  of  the 
island  by  a  colony  of  Ionian  settlers  under  a  leader  named 
Procles,  at  the  time  of  the  great  Ionian  emigration  to  Asia 
Minor  (about  1050  B.C.).  In  tho  historical  period  Samoa 
figures  as  a  purely  Ionic  city,  and  was  one  of  the  most  in- 
fluential members  of  the  Ionic  confederacy.  In  the  five 
centuries  that  intervened  from  its  first  settlement  to  the 
reign  of  Polycrates,  Samos  had  rapidly  attained  to  a  great 
height  of  power  and  prosperity,  had  founded  colonies  at 
Perinthus  and  other  places  on  the  Propontis,  as  well  as  at 
Nagidns  and  Celenderis  in  Cilicia,  and  possessed  a  powerful 
navy,  including,  according  to  Thucydides  (i.  13),  the  first 
triremes  that  ever  were  constructed.  It  was  a  Samian 
named  Colaeus  also  who  was  the  first  Greek  that  ventured 
to  penetrate  between  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  into  the  ocean 
beyond,  and  brought  back  a  vast  amount  of  wealth  from 
these  previously  unknown  regions  (Herod.,  iv.  152). 

Samos  was  doubtless  protected  by  its  insular  position' 
from  conquest  by  the  Persian  general  Harpagus ;  nor  did 
it  follow  the  example  of  the  two  other  great  islands  of 
Chios  and  Lesbos  by  voluntary  submission  to  the  Persian 
monarch.  On  the  contrary,  it  not  only  preserved  its 
independence  for  a  period  of  more  than  twenty  years 
longer,  but  it  was  precisely  in  this  interval  that  it  rose  to 
the  highest  pitch  of  power  and  prosperity  under  the 
enlightened  and  able,  though  tyrannical,  government  of 
the  despot  Polycrates  (q.v.).  Under  his  government 
Samos  became  "  the  first  of  all  cities  Hellenic  or  barbaric," 
and  was  adorned  with  three  of  the  greatest  public  works 
that  had  ever  been  executed  by  Greeks — an  aqueduct 
tunnelled  through  a  mountain  for  a  length  of  7  stadia,  a 
mole  of  more  than  2  stadia  in  length  for  the  protection  of 
the  harbour,  and  a  temple  (that  of  Hera)  exceeding  all 
others  in  size.  How  far  these  great  works  belong  to  the 
time  of  Polycrates  cannot  be  determined  with  certainty ; 
but  there  is  little  doubt  that  they  were  enlarged  and  com- 
pleted, if  not  commenced,  under  his  government.  He  was 
also  the  first  to  lay  claim  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  .^gean 
Sea,  or  thalassocraty,  which  at  that  time  there  was  none  to 
dispute  with  him. 

After  the  death  of  Polycrates  (522  B.C.)  Samos  fell 
under  the  power  of  his  brother  Syloson,  who  established 
himself  in  the  sovereignty  with  the  support  of  a  Persian 
army,  but  this  revolution  was  not  accomplished  without  ei 
massacre  of  the  citizens,  which  must  have  given  a  heavj 
blow  to  the  prosperity  of  the  island.  Henceforth  it  con^ 
tinned  to  be  tributary  to  Persia  till  the  groat  battle  of 
Mycale  (480),  which  not  only  freed  tho  Samian.s  from  the 
Persian  yoke,  but  became  tho  ttegir.ning  of  a  fresh  era  of 
great  prosperity,  during  'xhich  ihey,  like  the  neighbouring 
Chians  and  Lesbians,  (voro  admitted  as  members  of  the 
Athenian  confederacy,  on  free  and  ccjual  terms,  without 
payment  of  tribute.  An  abrupt  termination  was,  however, 
put  to  this  state  of  things  in  439,  when,  tho  Samians 
having  given  offence  to  tlio  Athenians,  their  city  vfOM 
bcsicmil  and  tr.ken  by  Pericles,  who  compelled  thonl  to 
razo  their  fortifications,  to  give  up  their  ships  of  war,  to 
furiish  hostagef,  and  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  war.    'Erara 


250 


S  A  M  — S  A  M 


this  time  therefore  Samos  became  a  mere  dependency  of 
Athens,  and  continued  in  this  subordinate  condition 
throughout  the  Peloponnesian  War ;  but  after  the  victory 
of  the  Spartans  at  ^gospotami,  the  city  was  besieged  and 
taken  by  Lysander  (404),  and  as  usual  an  oligarchy  was 
set  up  under  Spartan  control.  Other  revolutions,  however, 
quickly  followed.  The  victory  of  Conon  at  Cnidas  in  394 
restored  the  democracy,  but  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  shortly 
afterwards  (387)  placed  the  island  under  the  government 
of  a  Persian  satrap,  and  thus  exposed  it  to  the  attacks  of 
the  Athenians,  who  sent  an  expedition  against  it  under 
Timotheus,  one  of  their  ablest  generals,  who  after  a  siege 
ef  eleven  months  reduced  the  whole  island  and  took  the 
capital  city.  A  large  part  of  the  inhabitants  were  expelled, 
and  their  place  supplied  by  Athenian  emigrants  (366). 

From  this  time  we  hear  but  little  of  Samos.  It  passed 
without  resistance  under  the  yoke  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  retained  a  position  of  nominal  autonomy  under  his 
successors,  though  practically  dependent,  sometimes  on  the 
kings  of  Egypt,  sometimes  on  those  of  Syria.  After  the 
defeat  of  Antiochus  the  Great  at  the  battle  of  Magnesia 
(190),  it  passed  with  the  rest  of  Ionia  to  the  kings  of  Per- 
garaum,  but,  having  in  an  evil  hour  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  pretender  Aristonicus,  it  was  deprived  of  its  freedom, 
and  was  united  with  the  Roman  province  of  Asia  (129). 
Henceforth  it  of  course  held  only  a  subordinate  position, 
but  it  seems  to  have  always  continued  to  be  a  flourishing 
and  opulent  city.  We  find  it  selected  by  Antony  as  the 
headquarters  of  his  fleet,  and  the  place  where  he  spent  his 
last  winter  with  Cleopatra,  and  a  few  years  later  it  became 
the  winter  quarters  of  Augustus  (21-20),  who  in  return 
restored  its  nominal  freedom.  Its  autonomy,  however,  as 
in  many  other  cases  under  the  Koman  empiie,  was  of  a 
very  fluctuating  and  uncertain  character,  and  after  70  a.d. 
it  lapsed  into  the  ordinary  condition  of  a  Ilouian  provincial 
town.  Its  coins,  however,  attest  its  continued  importance 
during  more  than  two  ce2.tur:es,  and  it  was  even  able  to 
contest  with  Smyrna  and  Ephesus  the  proud  title  of  the 
"  first  city  of  Ionia."  It  still  figures  prominently  in  the  de- 
scription of  the  Byzantine  empire  by  Constantine  Porphyro- 
genitus,  but  little  is  known  of  it  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
..  During  the  Greek  War  of  Independence  Samoa  bore  a  conspicu- 
oas  part,  and  it  was  in  the  strait  between  the  island  and  Mount 
Myeale  that  Canaris  achieved  one  of  his  most  celebrated  exploits 
by  setting  fire  to  and  bloiving  up  a  Turkish  frigate,  in  the  presence 
of  the  army  that  had  been  assembled  for  the  invasion  of  the  island, 
a  success  that  led  to  tlie  abandonment  of  the  enterprise,  and  Samos 
held  its  own  to  the  very  end  of  the  war.  On  the  conclusion  of 
peace  the  island  was  indeed  again  handed  over  to  the  Turks,  but 
since  1835  has  held  an  exceptionally  advantageous  position,  being 
in  fact  self-governed,  though  tributary  to  the  Turkish  empire,  and 
ruled  by  a  Greek  governor  nominated  by  the  Porte,  who  bears  the 
title  of  "Prince  of  Samos,"  but  is  supported  and  controlled  by  a 
Greek  council  and  assembly.  The  prosperity  of  the  island  bears 
Iritness  to  the  wisdom  of  this  arrangement.  It  now  contains  a  popu- 
lation of  above  40,000  inhabitants,  and  its  trado  has  rapidly  in- 
creased. Its  principal  article  of  export  is  its  wiue,  which  w.is 
celebrated  in  ancient  times,  and  stiU  enjoys  a  high  reputation  in 
the  Levant.    It  e.tports  also  silk,  oil,  raisins,  and  other  dried  fruits. 

The  ancient  capital,  which  bore  the  name  of  the  island,  was 
aituated  on  the  south  coast,  directly  opposite  to  the  promontory 
of  llycale,  the  town  itself  adjoining  the  sea  and  having  a  large 
artificial  port,  the  remains  of  which  are  still  visible,  as  are  the 
ancient  walls  that  surrounded  the  summit  of  a  hill  which  rises 
immediately  above  it,  and  now  bears  the  name  of  Astypalaa.  This 
formed  the  acropolis  of  the  ancient  city,  whicli  in  its  flourishing 
times  occupied  a  wide  extent,  covering  the  slopes  of  Mount  Ampelus 
down  to  the  shore.  From  thence  a  road  led  direct  to  the  far-famed 
temple  of  Hera  (Juno),  which  was  situated  close  to  the  shore,  where 
its  site  is  stUl  marked  by  a  single  column,  but  even  that  bereft  of 
its  capital.  This  miserable  fragment,  which  has  given  to  the 
Dcighbouring  headland  the  name  of  Cajio  Colonna,  is  all  that 
remains  of  the  temple  that  Via-i  extolled  by  Herodotus  as  the 
largest  he  had  evur  seen,  and  which  vied  in  splendour  as  well  as  in 
celebrity  with  that  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  But,  like  the  Ephcsian 
Artemis,  the  goddess  \7orshipped  at  Samos  was  really  a  very 
dilTcrout  divinity  from  the  one  that  frcsid .d  over  Argos  i.  id  other 


purely  Greek  cities,  and  was  unquestionably  in  the  first  instmce  a 
native  Asiatic  deity,  who  was  identified,  on  what  grounds  w»  know 
not,  with  the  Hera  of  the  Olympic  mythology.  Her  image  as  wo 
learn  from  coins,  much  resembled  that  of  the  Ephesian  goddess, 
and  was  equally  remote  from  any  Greek  conception  of  the  beautiful 
and  stately  Hera.  Though  so  littlo  of  the  temple  remains,  the  plan 
of  it  has  been  ascertained,  and  its  dimensions  found  fully  to  verify 
the  assertion  of  Herodotus,  as  compared  with  all  other  Greek  tem- 
pics  existing  in  his  time,  though  it  was  afterwards  surpassed  by 
the  later  temple  at  Ephesus. 

The  modern  capital  of  the  island  was,  until  a  recent  period,  at  a 
place  called  Khora,  about  two  miles  from  tho  sea,  and  the  same 
distance  from  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  ;  but  since  the  change  in 
the  political  condition  of  Samos  the  (iapital  has  been  transferred  to 
Vathy,  situated  at  the  head  of  a  deep  bay  on  the  north  coast,  which 
has  become  the  residence  of  the  prince  and  the  scat  of  government. 
Here  a  new  town  has  grown  up,  well  built  and  paved,  with  a  con- 
venient harbour,  and  already  numbers  a  population  of  6000. 

Samos  was  celebrated  in  ancient  times  as  the  birth-place  of 
Pythagoras,  who,  however,  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  at  a 
distance  from  his  native  country.  His  name  and  figure  are  found 
on  coins  of  the  city  of  imperial  3ato.  It  was  also  conspicuous  in 
the  history  of  art,  having  produced  in  early  times  a  school  of 
sculptoi-s,  commencing  with  Khaecua  and  Theodoras,  who  are  said 
to  have  invented  the  art  of  castiilg  statues  in  bronze,  and  to  have 
introduced  many  other  technical  improvements.  The  architect 
Rha'cus  also,  who  built  the  temple  of  Hera,  was  a  native  of  the 
island.  At  a  later  period  Samos  was  noted  for  the  manufactms 
of  a  particular  kind  of  red  earthenware,  so  much  valued  by  the 
Romans  for  domestic  purposes  that  specimens  of  it  generally  occur 
wherever  there  are  remains  of  Roman  settlements. 

All  the  particulars  that  are  reconltd  concerning  Samos  in  ancient  times  are 
collected  by  Panofka  (Res  Samiorum,  Berlin,  1S2"2).  A  fuU  dcsciiptlon  of  tlie 
island,  as  it  existed  in  his  time,  wiii  be  found  In  Tournefoit  ( Voyage  du  Levant^ 
410.  Paris.  1717),  and  more  recent  accounts  in  the  worlts  of  Ross  (Reisen  avfdeti 
Griechtschca  Imelti^  vol.  ii.,  Stuttgai-t,  1843)  and  Gu^rio  {Paimos  ct  jSomoi,  Paris, 
1856).  (E.  H.  B.) 

SAMOTHEACE  was  the  ancient  name  of  an  island  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  .^gean  Sea,  nearly  opposite  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Hebrus,  and  lying  north  of  Imbros  and 
north-east  of  Lemnos.  It  is  still  called  Samothraki,  and 
though  of  small  extent  is,  next  to  Mount  Athos,  by  far  the 
most  important  natural  feature  in  this  part  of  the  jEgean, 
from  its  great  elevation — the  group  -of  mountains  which 
occupies  almost  the  whole  island  rising  to  the  height  of 
5240  feet.  The  highest  summit,  named  by  Pliny  Saoce,' 
is  estimated  by  him  at  an  elevation  of  10  Koman  miles. 
Its  conspicuous  character  is  attested  by  a  well-known 
passage  in  the  Hiad  (xiii.  12),  where  the  poet  represents 
Poseidon  as  taking  post  on  this  lofty  summit  to  survey 
from  thence  the  plain  of  Troy  and  the  contest  betweea 
the  Greeks  and  the  Trojans.  This  mountainous  character 
and  the  absence  of  any  tolerable  harbour — Pliny,  in 
enumerating  the  islands  of  the  .^Egean,  calls  it  "  importuos- 
issima  omnium " — prevented  it  from  ever  attaining  to 
any  political  importance,  but  it  enjoyed  great  celebrity 
from  its  connexion  with  the  worship  of  the  Cabiei  (q.v.),  a 
mysterious  triad  of  divinities,  concerning  whom  very  little 
is  really  known,  but  who  appear,  like  all  the  similar 
deities  venerated  in  different  parts  of  Greece,  to  have  been 
a  remnant  of  a  previously  existing  Pelasgic  mythology, 
whoDy  distinct  from  that  of  the  Greeks.  Herodotus 
expressly  tells  us  that  the  "  orgies  "  which  were  celebrated 
at  Samothrace  were  derived  from  the  Pelasgians  (iil  51). 
These  mysteries,  and  the  other  sacred  rites  connected  there- 
with, appear  to  have  attracted  a  large  nui^ibcr  of  visitors, 
and  thus  imparted  to  the  island  a  degree  of  importance 
which  it  would  not  otherwise  have  attained.  The  only 
occasion  on  which  its  name"  is  mentioned  in  history  is 
during  the  expedition  of  Xerxes  (b.c.  480),  when  the  Samo- 
thracians  sent  a  contingent  to  the  Persian  fleet,  one  ship 
of  which  bore  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  battle  of  Salamis 
(Herod.,  viii.  90).  But  the  island  appears  to  have  always 
enjoyed  the  advantage  of  autonomy,  probably  on  account 
of  its  sacred  character,  and  even  in  the  thr.e  of  Pliny  it 
ranked  as  a  free  state.  Such  was  still  the  reputation  of  its 
mysteries  that  Germanicus  endeavoured  to  visit  the  island, 
but  was  driven  o2  by  adverse  winds  (Tac,  Ann.,  ii.  54). 


S  A  M  — S  A  M 


251 


No  modem  trayeller  appears  to  liave  visited  Samotlirace  till  the 
year  1S58,  when  it  was  fully  explored  by  Coiue,  wLo  published  an 
account  of  it,  as  well  as  the  larger  neighbouring  islands,  in  1860. 
The  ancient  city,  of  wldch  the  ruins  are  called  Paleopoli,  was  situ- 
Bted  on  the  north  side  of  the  island  close  to  the  sea ;  its  site  is 
clearly  marked,  and  considerable  remains  still  exist  of  the  ancient 
nails,  which  were  built  in  massive  Cyclopean  stj'lc,  but  no  vestiges 
are  found  of  temples  or  other  public  buildings.  The  modem  vil- 
lage is  on  the  hill  above.  The  island  is  at  the  present  day  very 
poor  and  thinly  peopled,  and  has  scarcely  any  trade  ;  but  a  con- 
siderable sponge  fishery  is  carried  on  around  its  coasts  by  traders 
from  SmjTna  (Conze,  Seise  auf  den  Iiiscln  des  ThraTcisckcu  Uccres, 
Hanover,  1860). 

The  similarity  of  name  naturally  led  to  the  supposition  that 
Samothrace  was  peopled  by  a  colony  from  Samos  in  Ionia,  aud 
this  is  stated  as  an  historical  fact  by  some  Greek  writers,  but  is 
rejected  by  Strabo,  who  considers  that  in  both  cases  the  name  was 
derived  from  the  physical  conformation  of  the  islands,  Samos  being 
an  old  word  for  any  lofty  height  (Strabo,  x.  2,  p.  457).  The  same 
characteristic  is  found  in  Cepballenia,  which  was  also  called  Samos 
in  the  time  of  Homer. 

SAMOYEDES,  a  UraJ-Altaio  stock,  scattered  ia';sraall 
groups  over  an  immense  area,  from  the  Altai,  liloimtains 
down  the  basins  of  the  Obi  and  Yenisei,  and  along  the 
Bhores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  from  the  mouth  of  the  latter 
river  to  the  White  Sea.  They  may  be  subdivided  into  two 
main  groups.  (A)  Those  inhabiting  the  southern  parts 
of  the  governments  of  Tomsk  and  Yeniseisk  have  been  so 
much  under  Tartar  influence  as  to  be  with  difEculty 
separated  from  the  Tartars ;  their  sub-groups  are  the 
ICamasin  Tartars,  the  Kaibals,  the  ilotors,  the  BeltLi-s, 
the  Karagasses,  and  the  Samoyedes  of  the  middle  Obi. 
(B)  Those  inhabiting  the  subarctic  region  form  three 
separate  sub-groups  : — (a)  the  Yuraks  in  the  coast-region 
from  the  Yenisei  to  the  White  Sea ;  (6)  the  Tavghi 
Samoyedes,  between  the  Yenisei  and  the  Khatanga;  (c) 
the  Ostiak  Samoyedes,. intermingled  with  Ostiaks,  to  the 
south  of  the  others,  in  the  forest  regions  of  Tobolsk  and 
Yeniseisk.  Their  whole  number  may  be  estimated  at  from 
20,000  to  25,000. 

The  proper  place  of  the  Samoyedes  among  the  Ural- Altaians  is 
very  diificult  to  determine.  As  to  their  present  name,  signifying 
in  its  present  Kussian  spelling  "self-eaters,"  many  ingenious 
theories  have  been  advanced,  but  the  current  one,  proposed  by 
Schrenk.  who  derived  the  name  "Samo-yedes"  from  "Syroyadtsy, 
or  "raw-eaters, "  leaves  much  to  bo  desired.  Perhaps  the  etymology 
ought  to  be  sought  in  quite  another  direction,  namely,  in  the  like- 
ness to  Suomi.  The  names  assumed  by  the  Samoyedes  themselves 
are  Hazovo  and  Nyanyaz.  The  Ostiaks  know  them  under  the 
names  of  Orghoy,  or  Workho,  both  of  which  recall  the  Ugrians ; 
the  name  of  Hui  is  also  in  use  among  the  Ostiaks,  and  that  of 
Yaron  among  the  Zyrians. 

The  language  now  spoken  by  the  Samoyedes  is,  like  the  Finnish 
languages,  agglutinative,  but  in  both  lexicon  and  grammar  it  differs 
80  widely  from  these  that  Prof.  Ahlqvist  docs  not  regard  the  simi- 
larity as  greater  than,  for  instance,  that  between  Swedish  and 
Persian,  ^luch  remains  to  be  done  for  the  study  of  Snmoyedic, 
but  it  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  remote  cousin  of  tlie  Ugrian. 
It  is  a  sonorous  speech,  pleasant  to  the  ear.  Ko  fewer  than  three 
separate  dialects  and  a  dozen  sub-dialects  are  known  in  it 

The  conclusions  dcduciblc  from  their  anthropological  features— 
apart  from  tlio  general  difficulty  of  arriving  at  safe  conclusions  on 
this  ground  alone,  on  account  of  tho  variability  of  the  ethnological 
type  under  various  conditions  of  life — are  also  rather  indefinite. 
The  Samoyedes  are  recognized  as  having  tho  face  more  flattened 
than  undoubtedly  Finnish  stocks ;  their  eyes  are  narrower,  their 
complexion  and  hair  darker.  ZuycfT  describes  them  as  like  tho 
Tunguscs,  with  flattened  nose,  thick  lips,  little  beard,  and  black, 
^rd  hair.  At  first  sight  they  may  be  niistnkon  for  Ostiaks, — 
especially  on  the  Obi ;  but  they  are  undoubtedly  dilfcrent.  Castrc^n 
considers  tlicm  as  a  mixture  of  Ugrians  witli  Mongolians,  and  M. 
Zograf  as  brachyccphalic  Mongolians.  Qiiatrcfngcs  classes  them, 
together  with  tho  Vo;;iiIs,  as  two  families  of  the  Ugrian  sub-branch, 
this  last,  togetlier  with  the  Sabmis  (Laponians),  forming  part  of 
the  Ugrian  or  Uoreal  branch  of  tho  yellow  or  Jlongolic  race. 

It  is  certain  that  formerly  tho  Samoyedes  occupied  tho  Altai 
Mountains,  whence  they  were  driven  northwards  Iiy  Turco-Tiirtars 
— probably  at  the  time  of  tho  rise  of  tho  empire  of  tho  Huns, 
that  is,  before  the  present  era.  Their  further  and  later  migration 
towards  the  north  may  bo  said  to  bo  going  on  still.  Thus,  tho 
Kaibals  left  tho  Sayan  l^Iountnins  and  took  possossion  of  tho 
Abakan  steppo  (Minusiusk  region),  abandoned  by  tho  Kirghizes, 


in  tho  eailier  years  of  last  ceutnty,  and  in  north-eastern  Eilssia 
the  ZjTiaus  are  still  driving  tho  Samoyedes  farther  north,  towards 
tho  Arctic  coast.  Since  the  researches  of  Schrenk  it  may  be  c«n« 
sidered  as  settled  that  in  historical  times  the  Samoyedes  were 
inhabitants  of  the  so-called  Ugria  in  the  Northern  tjrala,  wiule 
it  would  rcstdt  from  M.  RadlolTs  extensive  researches  that  the 
numberless  graves  containing  remains  of  the  Bronze  Period  which 
are  scattered  throughout  West  Siberia,  on  tho  Altai,  and  on  the 
Yenisei  in  the  Minusinsk  region ,  are  relics  of  a  nation  which  he 
considers  as  Ugro-Sanioyedes.  This  nation,  very  uumerous  at  that 
epocli, — which  preceded  the  Iron-Period  civilization  of  the  Turco- 
Tartars, — were  pretty  well  acquainted  with  mining  ;  tho  remains 
of  their  mines,  sometimes  50  Icet  deep,  and  of  the  furnaces  whero 
they  melted  copper,  tin,  aud  gold,  ai-e  very  nunrtrons ;  their 
weapons  of  a  hard  bronze,  their  pots  (one  of  which  weighs  76  lb),' 
and  their  melted  aud  polished  bronze  aud  golden  decorations 
testify  toaliigh  development  of  artistic  feelingaud  industrial  skill,! 
strangely  contrasting  with  tho  low  level  reached  by  their  earthen- 
ware. They  were  not  nomads,  but  husbandmen,  and  their  irriga- 
tion canals  are  still  to  be  seen-  They  kept  horses  (though  in  "nnall 
numbers),  sheep,  and  goats,  but  no  traces  of  their  rearing  homed 
cattle  have  yet  been  found.  The  Turkish  invasion  of  southern 
Siberia  by  the  Tukus,  Khagases,  and  Uigurs,  which  took  place  in 
tho  5th  century,  drove  them  farther  north  and  probably  reduced 
most  of  them  to  slavery, — these  slaves  seeming  to  have  taught 
mining  to  their  masters. 

At  present  they  are  disappearing,  and  have  almost  entirely 
lost  their  earlier  civilization.  M.  Polyakoff  quite  rightly  observes 
that  the  Samoyedes,  who  now  maintain  themfcelves  by  hunting  and 
fishing  on  the  lower  Obi,  partly  mixed  in  tho  south  with  Ostiaks, 
recall  the  conditiou  of  the  inhabitants  of  France  and  Gennany  at 
the  epoch  of  the  reindeer.  Clothed  in  skins,  like  the  troglodytes 
of  the  Weser,  they  make  use  of  the  same  implements  in  bone  and 
stone,  eat  carnivorous  animals— the  wolf  included — and  cherish 
the  same  superstitions  (of  which  those  regarding  the  teeth  of  the 
bear  are  perhaps  the  most  characteristic)  as  were  current  among 
the  Stone-Period  inhabitants  of  western  Europe.  Their  heaps  of 
reindeer  horns  and  skulls — memorials  of  religious  ceremonies — are 
exactly  similar  to  those  dating  from  the  similar  period  of  civiliza- 
tion in  northern  Germany.  Their  huts  often  resemble  the  well- 
known  stone  huts  of  the  Esquimaux  ;  their  graves  are  mere  boxes 
left  in  the  tundra.  The  religion  is  fetichism  mixed  with  Shamanism, 
the  shaman  (Cadji-hei)  being  a  representative  of  tbb  great  divinity, 
the  Num.  The  Yalmal  peninsula,  where  they  find  so  great  facilities 
for  hunting,  is  especially  venerated  by  the  Obi  Ostiak  Samoyedeejt 
and  there  tliey  have  one  of  their  chief  idols,  Khese.  They  axe  nreio 
independent  than  the  Ostiaks,  less  yielding  in  character,  although 
as  hospitable  as  their  neighbours.  Reduced  almost  to  slaveiy  by 
Russian  mei-cliants,  and  brought  to  the  extreme  of  misery  by  the  use 
of  ardent  spirits,  they  are  disappearing  rapidly,  small-pox  complet- 
ing the  work  of  destruction.  They  still  maintain  the  high  standard 
of  honesty  mentioned  by  historical  documents ;  and,  while  the 
Russians  plunder  even  the  stores  of  their  shamans,  tlie  Samoyedes 
never  will  take  anything  icftin  the  tundra  or  about  the  houses  by 
their  "  civilized  "  neighbours.  The  Ynrak  Samoyedes  are  courag- 
eous and  warlike  ;  they  offered  armed  resistance  to  th6  Russian 
invaders,  and  it  is  only  since  the  beginning  of  the  century  that 
they  have  paid  tribute.  The  exact  number  of  the  Ostiak  Samoyedes 
is  not  known  ;  the  Tavghi  Samoyedes  may  number  about  1000, 
and  the  Yuraks,  mixed  with  the  former,  are  estimated  at  6000  in 
Obdorsk  (about  150  settled),  5000  in  Jiuropean  Russia  in  the 
tundr.ns  of  the  ilczcD,  and  about  .350  in  Yeniseisk. 

Of  the  southern  Samoyedes,  who  are  completely  Tartarized,  the 
Ueltirs  (3070  in  1859)  live  by  agriculture  and  cattle-breeding  in  the 
Abakan  steppe.  They  profess  Christianity,  and  speak  a  language 
closely  resembling  that  of  the  Sagai  Tartars.  The  KaibaJB,  or 
Koibals,  can  hardly  bo  distinguished  from  the  Minusinsk  Tartars, 
and  support  themselves  by  rearing  cattle.  Castren  considers  that 
three  of  their  stems  are  of  Ostiak  origin,  tho  remainder  being 
Samoycdic.  Tho  Kamasins,  in  the  Kansk  district  of  Yeniseisk, 
are  either  herdsmen  or  agiicultiirists.  They  speak  the  SomoycJo 
language,  with  an  admixture  of  Tartar  words,  and  some  of  their 
stems  contain  a  large  Tartar  element.  Tho  very  interesting 
nomadic  tribe  of  Karagasses,  in  the  Sayan  Mountains,  is  quite  dis- 
appearing ;  the  few  representatives  of  this  formerly  much  nioro 
numerous  stem  are  rapidly  losing  their  anthropological  fc«turc«. 
their  Turkish  language,  and  their  distinctive  dress.  The  Motors 
are  now  little  more  than  a  memory.  One  portion  of  the  tribe  emi- 
grated to  China  and  was  there  oxtemiinatcd  ;  tho  remainder  haro 
disappeared  among  tho  Tuba  Tartars  and  the  .Soyotos.  The 
SamoycdoH  on  the  Obi  in  Tomsk  may  number  alniut  loiiO  ;  they 
have  adopted  the  Russian  nianiivr  of  life,  but  have  dilliculty  ilt 
carrying  on  agriculture,  and  are  a  {lOVorty-Ktricken  population  witli 
little  prospect  of  liolding  their  own. 

SAMPIEUDAKENA  (population  in  1881, 10,501 ).  See 
Of.noa,  vol.  X.  p.  157. 


252 


S  A  M  — S  A  M 


SAMSON  (Hebrew,  Shimshon),  the  great  enemy  of  the 
Philistines,  is  reckoned  as  one  of  the  judges  of  Israel  in 
two  editorial  notes  which  belong  to  the  chronological 
scheme  of  the  book  of  Judges  (sv.  20,  xvi.  31) ;  but  his 
story  itself,  which  is  a  self-contained  narrative  by  a  single 
hand  (Jud.  xiii.  2-16,  31a),  represents  him  not  as  a  judge 
but  as  a  popular  hero  of  vast  strength  and  sarcastic 
humour,  who  has  indeed  been  consecrated  from  his  birth 
as  the  deliverer  of  Israel,  and  is  not  unaware  of  his  voca- 
tion, but  who  yet  is  inspired  by  no  serious  religious  or 
patriotic  purpose,  and  becomes  the  enemy  of  the  Philistines 
only  from  personal  motives  of  revenge,  the  one  passion 
which  is  stronger  in  him  than  the  love  of  women.  In  his 
life,  and  still  more  in  his  death,  he  inflicts  great  injury 
on  the  oppressors  of  Israel,  but  he  is  never  the  head  of 
a  national  uprising  against  them,  nor  do  the  Israelites 
receive  any  real  deliverance  at  his  hands.  The  story  of 
his  exploits  is  plainly  taken  from  the  mouths  of  the  people, 
and  one  is  tempted  to  conjecture  that  originally  his 
Nazarite  vow  was  conceived  simply  as  a  vow  of  revenge, 
which  is  the  meaning  it  would  have  in  an  Arab  story. 
Our  narrator,  however,  conceives  his  life  as  a  sort  of 
prelude  to  the  work  of  Saul  (xiii.  5),  and  brings  out  its 
religious  and  national  significance  in  this  respect  in  the 
opening  scene  (ch.  xiii.),  which  is  closely  parallel  to  the 
story  of  Gideon,  and  in  the  tragic  close  (ch.  xvi.) ;  while 
yet  the  character  of  Samson,  who  generally  is  quite  for- 
getful of  his  mission,  remains  much  as  it  had  been  shaped 
in  rude  popular  tale  in  a  circle  which,  like  Samson  him- 
self, was  but  dimly  conscious  of  the  national  and  religious 
vocation  of  Israel. 

The  name  of  Samson  (Shamshon,  of  which  the  Masso- 
retic  S/mitshon  is  a  more  modern  pronunciation,  and  later 
than  the  LXX.,  who  write  ^afiipwv)  means  "solar,"  but 
neither  the  name  nor  the  story  lends  any  solid  support  to 
Steinthal's  fantastic  idea  that  the  hero  is  a  solar  myth 
(compare  "Wellhausen-Bleek,  p.  196).  He  is  a  member  of 
an  undoubtedly  historical  family  of  those  Danites  who  had 
their  standing  camp  near  Zorah,  not  far  from  the  Philistine 
border,  before  they  moved  north  and  seized  Laish  (compare 
xiii.  25  with  xviii.  8,  11,  12).  The  family  of  Manoah  had 
an  hereditary  sepulchre  at  Zorah,  where  Samson  was  said 
to  lie  (svL  31),  and  their  name  continued  to  be  associated 
with  Zorah  even  after  the  exile,  when  it  appears  that  the 
Manahethites  of  Zorah  were  reckoned  as  Calibbites.  The 
name  had  remained  though  the  race  changed  (1  Chron.  ii. 
52,  54).  One  of  Samson's  chief  exploits  is  associated  with 
a  rock  called  from  its  shape  "the  Ass's  Jawbone,"  from 
which  sprung  a  fountain  called  En-hakkore,  "  the  spring  of 
the  partridge,"  and  these  names  have  influenced  the  form 
in  which  the  exploit  is  told.  The  narrative  of  Samson's 
marriage  and  riddle  is  of  peculiar  interest  as  a  record  of 
manners ;  specially  noteworthy  is  the  custom  of  the  wife 
remaining  with  her  parents  after  marriage  (cf.  Gen.  ii.  24). 

SAMUEL  (7^^•105^',  ShSmuel),!  a  seer  aijd  "judge"  of 
Israel  in  the  time  of  the  Philistine  oppression.  His  history, 
as  told  in  the  first  book  of  Samuel  (compare  Psahn  xcix. 
5;  Ecclus.  xlvi.  13  sq.),  is  too  familiar  to  call  for  repetition 
here,  and  a  critical  estimate  of  his  place  in  Hebrew  history 
has  been  given  in  Israel,  voL  xiii  p.  403.  There  remain, 
however,  one  or  two  points  of  detail  which  may  be  noticed 
here.  His  birthplace  was  Ramah,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  the 
Hebrew  text  of  1  Sam.  i.  1,  Ha-Ramathaim  (Kamathem, 
1  Mace.  xi.  34 ;  Arimathaea,  Mat.  xxvii.  57) ;  the  identity 

'  Thia  is  one  of  an  obscuVe  class  of  proper  naftes  (7S1iD,  ^X1V"1i 
&c.),  the  analogy  of  which  seems  to  exclude  the  idea  that  it  is  softened 
from  ^SVIDB'i  "heard  of  God."  It  seems  rather  to  mean  "name  of 
El,"  i.e.,  "  manifestation  of  God's  power  or  will. "  Compare  the  title 
Shem  Baal,  "name  of  Baal,"  given  to  Astarte  on  tha  epitaph  of 
Kshmusazar, 


of  the  two  names  is  supported  by  the  Septuagint,  which 
has  Arimathaim  for  Ramah  in  several  passages.  RamiJi, 
which  appears  in  1  Kings  xv.  17  as  a  stronghold  on  the 
frontier  of  the  kingdoms  of  Ephraim  and  Judah,  is  probably 
identical  with  the  modern  El-R^m,  about  5  miles  north  of 
Jerusalem,  on  a  lull  on  the  east  side  of  the  main  road  to 
Shechem  and  the  north.  Ramah  was  also  the  place  where 
Samuel  usually  resided  in  his  later  days,  and  from  whkh 
he  made  a  yearly  circuit  through  a  very  limited  district  in 
the  immediate  neighbourhood,  "judging  Israel "  (1  Sam. 
vii.  16).  None  of  the  cities  which  he  visited  is  more  than 
a  few  miles  from  Ramah.  Ramah,  according  to  I  Sam.  L  1 
(where  the  text  is  to  be  corrected  by  the  Septuagint),  was 
a  town  in  the  district  of  Zuph,  belonging  to  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim  (comp.  1  Sam.  ix.  5  and  1  Sam.  x.  2,  where  the 
grave  of  Rachel  lies  on  the  frontier  between  Ephraim  and 
Benjamin ;  a  different  localization  is  given  in  Gen.  xxxv. 
19,  20,  unless  the  identification  of  Bethlehem  and  Ephrath 
there  is  a  later  gloss). 

The  original  text  of  1  Sam.  i.  1  does  not  seem  to  say 
explicitly  that  Samuel's  father  was  an  Ephrathite  (i.e., 
of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim),  though  his  city  was  Ephrathite ; 
and  1  Chron.  vi.  28,  33  [vi.  13,  18]  makes  him  a  Levite, 
'apparently  because  a  post-exile  family  of  singers  traced 
their  stock  from  him.  The  old  accounts  certainly  repre- 
sent Samuel  even  as  a  child  as  doing  priestly  service  at 
Shiloh,  gii-t  with  the  ephod  and  wearing  the  priestly  robe 
(meil,  E.  V.  "coat,"  1  Sam.  ii.  18  sq.),  but  at  that  early 
date  priesthood  was  by  no  means  confined  to  Levites, 
and  the  story  certainly  implies  that  it  was  not  by  birth 
but  only  by  his  mother's  vow  that  he  was  dedicated  to 
the  service  of  the  sanctuary.  On  Samuel's  relation  to  the 
prophets,  See  vol  xix.  p.  815.  Compare  also  Samxtel, 
Books  op. 

SAMUEL,  Books  of.  The  Hebrew  Book  of  Samuel, 
like  the  Hebrew  Book  of  Kings,  is  in  modem  Bibles 
divided  into  two  books,  after  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate, 
whose  four  books  of  "  kingdoms  "  answer  to  the  Hebrew 
books  of  Samuel  and  Kings.  The  connexion  between  the 
books  of  Samuel  and  Kings  has  been  spoken  of  in  the 
article  Kings  (qv.).  These  two  books,  together  with 
Judges,  are  made  up  of  a  series  of  extracts  and  abstracts 
from  various  sources  worked  over  from  time  to  time  by 
successive  editors,  and  freely  handled  by  copyists  down  to 
a  comparatively  late  date,  as  the  variations  between  the 
Hebrew  text  and  the  Septuagint  show.  The  main  redac- 
tion of  Judges  and  Kings  has  plainly  been  made  under 
the  influence  of  the  ideas  of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy, 
and  it  was  in  connexion  with  this  redaction  that  the 
history  from  the  accession  of  Solomon  onwards  was 
marked  ott"  as  a  separate  book  (see  Kings)  In  Samuel 
the  Deuteronomistic  hand  is  much  less  prominent,  but  in 
1  Sam.  vii.  2-4,  and  in  the  speech  of  Samuel,  ch.  xii.,  its 
characteristic  pragmatism  is  clearly  recognizable;  the 
nature  of  the  old  narrative  did  not  invite  frequent  inser 
tions  of  this  kind  throughout  the  story.  So,  too,  the 
chronological  system  which  runs  through  Judges  and 
Kings  is  not  completely  carried  out  in  Samuel,  (Sbugh  its 
influence  can  be  traced  (1  Sam.  iv.  18,  vii.  2,  iui.  1  eq., 
xxvii.  7,  2  Sam.  ii.  10  sq.j  v.  4  sq.).     In  1  Sam.  xiii  1, 

in  the  note  "  Saul  was years  old  when  he  became 

king  and  reigned  [two]  years  over  Israel "  (lacking  in 
LXX.),  one  of  the  numbers  has  been  left  blank  and  the 
other  has  been  falsely  filled  up  by  a  mere  error  of  the 
text;  the  similar  note  in  2  Sam.  ii.  10  seems  also  to  have 
been  fiUed  up  at  random ;  it  contradicts  and  disturbs  the 
context.  But,  though  the  book  of  Samuel  has  been  much 
less  systematically  edited  than  Kings,  unsystematic  addi- 
tions to  and  modifications  of  the  oldest  narratives  were 
tnsde  from  time  to  time  on  a  very  considerable  scale,  and 


S  A  N  — Si  A  N 


253 


in  this  book,  as  in  Judges,  we  not  seldom  find  two  accounts 
of  the  same  events  which  not  only  differ  in  detail  but 
plainly  are  of  very  different  date. 

The  book  as  a  whole  may  be  divided  into  three  main 
sections: — (1)  Samvel  and  Saul,  1  Sam.  i.-xiv. ;  (2)  The 
rise  and  kingdom  of  David,  1  Sam.  xv.-2  Sam.  viii.;  (3) 
Hie  personal  history  of  David's  court  at  Jerusalem  (mainly 
from  a  single  source,  which  also  includes  1  Kings  i.,  ii.),  2 
Sam.  ix.-xx.  Finally,  the  appendix,  2  Sam.  xxi.-xxiv., 
must  have  been  added  after  the  book  of  Kings  had  been 
separated  from  the  context  to  which  1  Kings  i.,  ii.  origin- 
ally belonged.  As  the  greater  part  of  the  book  of  Samuel 
is  occupied  with  the  history  of  David,  which  has  been  dis- 
cussed at  length  in  his  article,  and  with  that  of  Samuel 
and  Saul,  the  chief  points  of  which  have  been  critically 
examined  in  the  article  Israel,  a  very  brief  resum6  of  the 
contents  of  each  of  the  main  sections  must  here  suffice. 

I.  The  story  of  Samuel's  birth,  consecratiou  to  the  service  of  the 
sanctuary  at  Shiloh,  and  prophetic  calling  (1  Sam.  i.-iii.)  connects 
itself  through  the  prophecy  of  the  rejection  of  the  house  of  Eli 
(iii.  11  eq.)  with  the  history  of  the  disaster  of  Ebenezer  and  the 
capture  and  restoration  of  the  ark  (iv.  1-vii.  1).  But  the  second 
of  these  two  sections  does  not  seem  to  have  been  originally  written 
33  the  sequel  to  chaps.  i.-iii. ;  in  it  we  lose  sight  of  Samuel  and  his 
prophecy  altogether.  The  song  of  Hannah  (ii.  1-10)  and  the 
prophecy  of  the  nameless  man  of  God  (ii.  27-36)  are  later  insertions 
(see  Wellhauseu-Bleek,  EM.,  p.  207). 

Chap,  vii.,  with  its  Deuteronomistio  introduction  (verses  2-4)  and 
its  accoimt  of  a  victory  at  Ebenezer  (the  counterpart  of  the  defeat 
in  chap,  iv.)  which  delivered  Israel  from  the  Philistines  during 
all  the  days  of  Samuel,  is  inconsistent  with  the  position  of  the 
Philistine  power  at  the  accession  of  SauL  The  chapter  in  its 
present  form  must  be  late,  though  hardly  post-exilic,  and  it  is  the 
necessary  introduction  to  the  later  and  less  authentic  account  of 
the  way  in  which  Saul  came  to  the  kingdom  (chaps,  viii.,  x.  17- 
27,  xii. ).  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that,  though  Samuel  is  taken 
by  the  late  narrator  to  have  a  widespread  authority,  inconsistent 
with  the  facts  disclosed  in  the  older  narrative  of  the  choice  of  Saul, 
the  sphere  assigned  to  him  in  vii.  16,  17  is  very  narrow  and  agrees 
with  chap.  ix. 

Of  the  beginnings  of  the  kingship  of  Saul  we  have  a  twofold 
account,  the  older  being  that  in  ix.  1-x.  16,  xi.  The  relative  value 
of  the  two  accounts  has  been  already  discussed  in  Israel,  vol.  xiii. 
p.  403.  The  older  history  is  continued  in  chaps,  xiii. ,  xiv.,  hut  here 
xiii.  7J-15 — a  doublette  of  the  account  of  the  rejection  of  Saul  in 
chap.  xiv. — is  certainly  foreign  to  the  original  context.  Tlie 
summary  of  Saul's  exploits  in  xiv.  47  sq.  is  written  by  an  admirer, 
who  appears  to  ascribe  to  him  some  of  David's  victories.  But 
this  does  not  affect  the  value  of  the  preceding  more  detailed 
narrative,' which  is  plainly  based  on  a  full  andautbentio  tradition. 

II.  The  account  of  the  campaign  against  Amalek  (chap,  xv.)  does 
not  merely  supply  details  supplementary  to  xiv.  48  but  puts 
the  war  with  Agag  in  quite  a  dilfereiit  light  by  laying  the  chief 
weight  on  Saul's  disobedience  to  Samuel  and  rejection  by  tlio 
prophet.  This  pissago  is  closely  allied  to  1  Sara,  xxviii.  3-25,  wliich, 
nowever,  is  no  part  of  the  original  story  of  Saul's  defeat  and  death, 
as  a])i)ear8  by  comparing  the  position  of  the  two  armies  in  xxviii. 
4  and  xxix.  1.  Ciiap.  xv.,  in  like  manner,  is  j^obably  no  original 
part  of  tho  narrative  of  David's  rise,  to  which  it  now  forms  the 
mtroduction,  and  both  passages,  though  relatively  ancient  addi- 
tions, represent  a  typo  of  religious  thought  and  a  view  of  prophecy 
which  can  hardly  no  older  than  tho  epoch  of  Elisha  (conip. 
PnoruET,  vol.  xix.  p.  816).  Tho  anointing  of  David  (xvi.  1-13) 
presuiiposes  chap,  xv.,  and  is  consistent  with  what  follows  only 
if  we  suppose  tliat  the  moaning  of  Samuel's  act  was  not  understood 
at  tbo  timo.  Tho  older  history  repeatedly  indicates  that  David's 
kingship  was  predicted  by  a  divino  oracle,  but  would  hardly  lead 
us  to  place  the  prediction  so  early  (1  Sam.  xxv.  30,  2  Sam.  iii.  9, 
V.  2  compared  with  1  Sam.  xvii.  28,  xviil.  23). 

The  story  of  David's  iutrodnction  to  Saul  is  told  in  two  forms 
(xvi.  14-23 ;  xvii.  1-xviii.  C).  In  tho  former  David  is  already  a  man 
of  approved  courago  and  parts  when  ho  is  attracted  to  tho  court ;  in 
the  latter  he  is  an  obscure  and  untried  shepherd  lad  (as  in  chap, 
xvi.j'wlion  ho  voliinttiors  to  meet  Goliath.  In  tho  Hebrew  text 
tlio  contradiction  between  tho  two  accounts  is  absolute,  but  tho 
Soptuagint  omits  xvii.  12-81,  xvii.  65-xviii.  6,  which  greatly 
lessens  if  it  does  not  entirely  remove  the  difliculty.'  Tho  rise  of 
Saul's  jealousy  against  David  (xviii.  6-30)  and  tho  open  broach 
between  them,  witli  David's  flight  from  tho  court  (xix.,  ix. ),  aro  very 
confused  in  the  Hebrew  text.     Some  serious  ditllcultios  aro-oscaped 

>  A  fiirtlier  dilBcuHy  is  caused  by  2  Sam.  xxl  19,  which  makes 
Elhauau  tbo  Betldehemite  slayer  of  Qollath. 


by  following  tho  Septu.igint  recension,  but  others  remain,  and 
there  is  a  good  deal  of  confusion  also  in  tlie  accounts  uf  David's 
life  as  an  outlaw  (xxi.-xxvi.) and  with  Achish'(xxvii.).  For  details 
see  David,  vol.  vi.  p.  838  sq.  The  narrative  is  largely  made  up 
of  detached  anecdotes,  and  sometimes  there  were  two  divergent 
anecdotes  based  on  a  single  incident  This  is  clear  as  regards  the 
two  stories  of  David's  generosity  to  Saul  (xxiv.,  xxvL)  anC.  still 
rroro  clear  where  the  LXX.  omits  one  of  two  parallel  anecdotes  (see 
David,  ut  supra),  while  tlio  same  account  may  perhaps  be  given  of 
the  twofold  narrative  of  David's  iiight  from  Saul  and  of  his  bctaldng 
liimself  to  Achish.  At  tho  same  time  there  is  sufficient  connexion 
to  show  that  the  douhlettes  and  additions  are  strung  on  an  origiual 
thread  of  continuous  history — a  history  of  David,  wliich  becomes 
more  free  from  foreign  accretions  at  the  point  when  tho  outlaw 
and  refugee  acquires,  throu"h  the  death  of  Saul,  a  position  of  com- 
manding importance.  Sam's  defeat  and  death  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  1, 
2,  XXX. )  are  related  as  part  of  the  history  of  Da^id,  whicli  runs  on 
from  this  point  with  little  evidence  of  editorial  additions  to  the 
close  of  2  Sam.  v.  Tho  summary  account  of  David's  war  and 
government  in  2  Sam.  viii.  appears  to  be  the  continuation  of  th« 
same  document ;  chaps.  vL  and  vii.,  oa  tho  other  hand,  seem  to 
have  an  independent  source. 

III.  Tho  history  of  David's  court,  a  vivid  picture  of  events 
wliich  must  be  referred  in  substance  if  not  in  form  to  a  contem- 
porary observer,  is  in  its  origin  a  distinct  book  from  the  life  of 
David  that  closes  with  2  Sam.  viii.  It  extends  over  2  Sam.  ix.- 
1  Kings  ii.  with  very  little  appearance  of  interpolation  except  the 
great  appeudix,  2  Sara,  xxi.-xxiv.,  and  is  throughout  one  of  the 
most  aclmirable  remains  of  ancient  history. 

The  appendix  is  made  up  of  various  pieces, — chap.  xxiv.  appearing 
to  attach  itself  directly  to  xxi.  1-14,  while  xxi.  15  sq.  is  akin  in 
subject  to  xxiii.  8sq.;  the  two  poems,  chap.  xxii.  (Psalm xviii.) and 
xxiii.  1-7,  have  no  relation  to  the  context,  so  that  we  can  only  say 
of  them  that  they  were  accepted  as  Davidic  at  the  time — posterior 
to  the  Deuteronomistio  redaction — when  the  miscellaneous  matter 
of  the  appendix  was  incorporated  witli  our  book. 

In  this  rapid  sketch  it  Iius  not  been  attempted  to  notice  all  the  minor  marks  of 
editoiial  retoucliing  found  in  one  or  both  of  tite  two  (,'icat  recensions  of  the  text. 
For  all  details  the  reader  nuist  refer  printipaliy  to  Wellliausen's  repeated  studies 
of  the  book,  first  in  his  'Ijj£t  tier  Bilr/ier  Sar/iw-lis,  1871,  then  in  the  fourth  edition 
of  Bieek's  Einleitung,  WtS,  and  finally  in  ills  Prolegometui  to  the  llisiory  of 
Israel  (Eng.  tr.,  1885).  Of  earlier  works  on  the  subject  the  reiutivy  parts  of 
Ewald's  OetchicUte  are  the  must  important.  Tho  commentaries  of  Thtnlus 
(1st  cd.  1S42,  2d  cd.  18C4)  and  Keil  (lSO-1,  Eng.  tr.  1S6G)  aro  not  very  satis- 
factory. In  i^nglish  Prof.  Kirkpatiick's  short  commentary  (In  tlie  Cambrldgo 
Bible  for  Schools;  will  ho  found  useful.  See  also  F.  II.  Woods  In  Sludia  Bitliea, 
0.\ford,  1885. 

SANAA  (San'A),  the  capital  of  Yemen  in  Arabia,  and 
seat  of  the  Turkish  governor  of  that  province,  is  situated 
in  15°  22'  N.  lat.  and  44°  31'  E.  long.,  in  a  well-watered 
upland  valley,  4000  feet  above  the  sea  and  six  to  nine 
miles  broad,  running  north  and  south  between  two  table- 
lands. The  western  table-land,  over  which  lies  tho  road 
to  tho  port  of  Hodaida  on  the  Ked  Sea,  rises  1200  feet 
above  the  town,  the  eastern  (J.  Nokom)  is  some  300  feet 
higher,  and  crowned  by  the  ruins  of  the  fortress  BirAsh, 
which  local  tradition  connects  with  the  name  of  Shem, 
son  of  Noah,  to  whom  the  foundation  of  tho  city  is  attri- 
buted by  HamdAnl,  Janrat,  p.  55.  Under  Mount  Nokom 
in  the  valley  is  the  hill  Ghomddn  with  the  citadel,  which 
Haiti vy  in  1870  found  in  ruins.  The  ancient  fortress  of 
GhomdAn,  which  is  often  referred  to  by  poets,  and  la 
described  in  extravagant  terms  by  later  writers,  is  said  to 
have  been  destroyed  by  the  caliph  'OthmAn.  The  city 
proper,  which  is  walled,  extends  from  the  citadel  on  the  east 
to  tho  garden  and  ruined  palace  of  the  imAm  Motawakkil 
on  the  west.  Eoyond  this  is  the  quarter  known  as  Bir 
al-'Azab,  where  the  imims  had  their  pleasure  gardens, 
adjoining  which,  to  the  south,  is  the  ancient  Jewish  settle- 
ment (KA*  al-YAhild).  In  Niebuhr's  time  (1763)  the  two 
last  were  open  suburbs,  but  they  have  since  been  walled 
in.  Though  Sanaa  is  a  very  old  town,  tho  earliest  buildings 
now  standing  are  perhaps  those  which  date  from  tho 
Turkish  occupation  (1570-1630) — some  mosques,  parts  of 
tho  fortifications,  the  aqueduct.  In  last  century,  under 
the  independent  imsVins  of  Yemen,  aa  tbo  capital  of  thj) 
coffee  country  and  tho  most  fertile  region  of  Arabia,  it 
was,  with  its  palaces  and  gardens,  its  mosques,  caravanserais, 
and  good  private  houses,  by  much  the  first  city  of  the 
peninsula.  Tho  WubliAbl  movement  and  Turko-Egyptiaa 
intervoDtioD  in  tho  atfuirs  of  Yemen  shook  tbo  power  of 


254 


S  A  N  — S  A  N 


the  imims  and  diminished  the  prosperity  of  their  capital, 
but  Cruttenden  in  1836  still  estimated  the  population  at 
40,000,  or,  with  the  three  neighbouring  towns  of  Eauda, 
Jiraf,  and  W^dy  Dahr,  at  not  less  than  70,000.  In  1870, 
■when  the  imamate  had  been  extinct  for  twenty  years,  and 
the  town  was  governed  by  an  elected  sheikh  and  had  lost 
its  provinces,  Hal^vy  found  it  much  decayed,  with  many  of 
the  palaces  and  public  buildings  demolished  or  used  as 
quarries,  but  still  presenting  a  comely  aspect,  with  good 
streets,  houses,  and  mosques.  In  1872,  having  been  bard 
pressed  by  the  Bedouins  for  several  years,  Sanaa  opened 
its  gates  to  the  Turks,  who  were  then  engaged  in  the 
reconquest  of  Yemen.  In  the  following  year  Miliingen 
estimated  the  population  at  only  20,000. 

The  climate  is  good,  though  the  extreme  dryness  of  the 
air  is  trying.  Eain  usually  falls  in  January  and  June, 
and  more  copiously  in  the  end  of  July ;  the  markets  are 
well  supplied  with  grain  and  fruit;  vineyards  were 
formerly  numerous,  but  were  largely  given  up  after  an 
attack  of  vine  disease  some  thirty  years  ago. 

Arabic  nriters  give  many  discordant  and  fabulous  traditions 
about  the  oldest  history  of  Sanaa  and  its  connexion  with  the 
ancient  kingdom  of  Himyar.  But  most  agree  that  its  oldest  name 
was  Azdl,  which  seems  to  be  the  saine  word  with  Uzal  in  Gen.  x. 
'27.  A  Himyarite  nation  of  Auzalites  occhis  in  a  Sjrriac  writer  of 
the  6tli  ccntiu-y.  The  better-informed  Arab  writers  knew  also  that 
the  later  name  is  due  to  the  Abyssinian  conquerors  of  Vemen, 
and  that  it  meant  in  tlieir  language  "  fortified  "  (Bakri,  p.  606  ; 
Nbldeke,  Gesch.  d.  Pers.  u.  Arab.,  p.  187).  Sanaa  became  the 
capital  of  the  Abyssinian  Abraha  (c.  530  a.d.)  who  built  here  the 
famous  church  {Kalis),  of  whose  splendour  the  Arabs  give  exag- 
gerated pictures,  and  which  was  destroyed  two  centuries  later  by 
order  of  the  caliph  llansiir  (Azraki,  p.  91). 

SANA'f.  Abulmajd  Majdtid  b.  Adam,^ommonly  known 
as  the  hakim  or  philosopher  San4'l,  the  earliest  among  the 
great  Sdfic  poets  of  Persia,  was  a  native  of  Ghazna  or 
Ghaznin  (in  the  present  Afghinistdn),  and  flourished  in 
the  reigns  of  the  Ghaznawid  sultdns  IbrAhlm  (1059- 
1099,  451-492  a.h.),  his  son  Masud  (1099-1114),  and  his 
grandson  Bahrdmshdh,  who,  after  some  years  of  desperate 
struggle  among  members  of  his  own  family,  ascended  the 
throne  in  1118  (512  A.H.)  and  died  after  a  long  and 
prosperous  reign  in  1152  (547  a.h.).  The  exact  dates 
of  the  poet's  birth  and  death  are  uncertain,  Persian  autho- 
rities giving  the  most  conflicting  statements.  At  any 
rate,  he  must  have  been  born  in  the  beginning  of  the 
second  half  of  the  11th  century  and  have  died  between 
1131  and  1150  (525  and  545  a,h.).  He  gained  already 
at  an  early  age  the  reputation  of  a  very  learned  and  pious 
man  and  of  an  accomplished  minstrel.  Like  his  con- 
temporaries Mas'iid  b.  Sa'd  b.  Salmin  (died  1131),  Hasan 
of  Ghazna  (died  1179),  and  Uthmdn  Mukhtdrl  (died  1149 
or  1159),  who  was  his  master  in  the  poetical  art,  he  com- 
posed chiefly  kasidas  in  honour  of  his  sovereign  and  the 
great  men  of  the  realm,  but  a  peculiar  incident  made  him 
for  ever  abandon  the  highly  remunerative  although  often 
perilous  career  of  a  court-panegyrist,  and  turn  his 
poetical  aspirations  to  higher  and  less  worldly  aims.  One 
day,  when  he  was  proceeding  to  the  royal  palace  .to  pre- 
sent an  encomiastic  sbng  to  Sultdn  IbrdhlJtn,  he  was  taunted 
by  a  half-mad  but  witty  jester,  who  proposed  a  toast  to 
the  poet's  blindness,  because  with  all  his  learning  and 
piety  he  had  as  yet  only  succeeded  in  flattering  kings  and 
princes,  who  -were  mere  mortals  like  himself,  and  entirely 
misinterpreted  God's  motive  in  creating  him.  Sand'l 
was  80  struck  with  the  appropriateness  of  this  satirical 
remark  that  he  forthwith  gave  up  all  the  luxuries  of 
court-life,  retired  from  the  world,  and  devoted  himself 
after  the  dne  performance  of  the  pilgrimage  exclusively 
to  devotional  exercises,  pious  meditations,  and  the  com- 
position of  Stifle  poetry  in  praise  of  the  Godhead  and  the 
divine  unity.     For  forty  years  he  led  a  life  of  retirement 


and  poverty,  and,  although  Sultdn  Bahrdmshdh  offered 
him  not  only  a  high  position  at  court,  but  also  his  own 
sister  in  marriage,  he  remained  faithful  to  the  austere 
and  solitary  life  he  had  chosen.  But,  partly  to  show  his 
gratitude  to  the  king,  partly  to  leave  a  lasting  monu- 
ment of  his  genius  beliind  him,  that  might  act  as  a 
stimulus  to  all  disciples  of  the  pantheistic  ereed,  he  began 
to  write  his  great  double-rhymed  poem  on  ethics  and 
religious  Ufe,  which  has  served  as  model  to  Farid-uddln 
'Attdr's  ^nd  Jaldl-uddin  Eural's  Siific  masterpieces,  the 
Iladikat-ulhakikat,  or  "  Garden  of  Truth "  (also  called 
Alkitdb  alfal-hri),  in  ten  cantos,  deahng  with  the  following 
topics : — unity  of  the  Godhead,  the  divine  word,  the 
excellence  of  the  prophet,  reason,  knowledge  and  faith, 
love,  the  soul,  worldly  occupation  and  inattention  to  higher 
duties,  stars  and  spheres  and  their  symbolic  lore,  friends 
and  foes,  separation  from  the  world,  &c.  One  of  Sand'f's 
earliest  disciples,  who  wrote  a  preface  to  this  work,  'All 
al-Eaffd,  alias  Jluhammed  b.  'All  Eakkdm,  assigns  to  its 
composition  the  date  1131  (525  a.h.),  which  in  a  consider- 
able number  of  copies  appears  as  1140  (535  a.h.),  and 
states  besides  that  the  poet  died  immediately  after  the 
completion  of  bis  task.  Now,  Sand'l  cannot  possibly 
have  died  in  1131,  as  another  of  his  mathnawls,  the 
Tarik-i-tahklk,  or  "  Path  to  the  Verification  of  Truth,"  was 
composed,  according  to  a  chronogram  in  its  last  verses,  in 
1134  (528  A.H.),  nor  even  in  1140,  if  he  really  wrote, 
as  the  Atashkada  says,  an  elegy  on  the  death  of  Amir 
Mu'izzl;  for  this  court-poet  of  Sultdn  Sanjar  lived  till 
1147  or  1148  (542  a.h.).  It  seems,  therefore,  that  Taki 
Kdshl,  the  most  accurate  among  Persian  biographers,  is 
right  after  all  in  fixing  Sand'fs  death  in  1150  (545  a.h.), 
the  more  so  as  'AH  al-Eaffd  himself  distinctly  says  in  his 
preface  that  the  poet  breathed  bis  last  on  the  11th  of 
Sha'bdn,  "which  was  a  Sunday,"  and  it  is  only  in  1150 
that  this  day  happened  to  be  the  first  of  the  week. 
Sand'l  left,  besides  the  Hadikah  and  the  Tarilp  i-tahkik, 
several  other  Siifio  mathnawls  of  similar  purport : — for 
instance,  the  Sair  ul'ibdd  U&'lma'Ad,  or  "  Man's  Journey 
towards  the  Other  World"  (also  called  Eunuz-urrumuz, 
"  The  Treasures  of  Mysteries  ")  ;  the  'Iskhidnta,  or  "  Book 
of  Love ;  "  the  'Akliidma,  or  "  Book  of  Intellect ; "  the 
Kdrndma,  or  "Eecord  of  Stirring  Deeds,"  &c.;  and  an 
extensive  dlwdn  or  collection  of  lyrical  poetry.  His  tomb, 
called  the  "  Mecca  "  of  Ghazna,  is  still  visited  by  numerous 
pilgrims. 

Sana'i's  Hadikah  still  lacks  a  critical  edition,  for  which  'Abd- 
uUatif  al- Abbasi's  commentary  (completed  1632  and  preserved  in  a 
somewhat  abridged  form  in  several  copies  of  the  India  Office 
Library)  wonld  form  an  excellent  basis.  See,  on  the  poet's  life  and 
works,  Ouseley,  Biogr.  Notices,  pp.  184-187  ;  Eieu's  and  Fliigel's 
Catalogues,  kc. 

SAN  ANTONIO,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  incor- 
porated in  1873,  the  county -seat  .of  Bexar  (Bejar)  county 
and  the  principal  centre  of  western  Texas,  is  situated  in 
the  fertile  plain  watered  by  the  head-streams  of  the  San 
Antonio  river,  which,  after  a  course  of  200  miles,  falls  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  at  Espiritu  Santo  Bay*  It  is  an  im- 
portant junction  for  several  of  the  Texan  railways,  lying 
on  the  main  routes  from  the  States  to  Mexico,  153  miles 
north  of  the  frontier  at  Laredo.  San  Ajitonio  proper,  or 
the  business  part  of  the  city,  lies  between  the  San  Antonio 
and  the  San  Pedro,  and  has  been  nearly  all  rebuUt  since 
1860.  Chihuahua  (formerly  San  Antonio  de  Valero),  west 
of  the  San  Pedro,'  is  stiU  almost  exclusively  Mexican  ;  and 
Alamo,  on  somewhat  higher  ground  to  the  east  of  the  San 
Antonio,  is  largely  inhabited  by  Germans.  The  total  popu- 
lation of  the  city  was  in  1870  12,256  (1957  coloiued) 
and  20,550  (3036)  in  1880.  Newspapers  are  published, 
in  English,,  German,  and  Spanish.  Flour,  beer,  meat- 
extract,  ice,  candles,  and  soap  are  the  local  manufactures. 


S  A  N— S  A  N 


"yr^rt 


On  tho  sito  of  Chilmalina  a  fort,  Sati  Fernando,  was  erected  by 
tlm  Spaniards  iu  1714,  and  four  years  later  tho  mission  of  the 
Alamo  (poplar  tree)  was  establislied  in  its  vicinity.  I'oth  fort  and 
iiiissiou  were  afterwards  transferred  to  the  other  side  of  the  San 
I'edro, — tlie  fort  taking  the  name  of  tho  mission,  which  was  tlius 
destined  to  become  famous  in  the  Texan  war,  when  in  1836  a 
^'anison  attacked  by  a  superior  llexican  force  perished  rather  than 
surrender.     German  immigration  began  about  1845. 

SANCHEZ.  Tbreo  persons  of  this  name  once  enjoyed 
considerable  literary  celebrity: — (1)  Feancisco  Sanciiez 
(Sanctius)  (1.523-lCOl),  successively  professor  of  Greek 
and  of  rhetoric  at  Salamanca,  whoso  Minerva,  first  printed 
at  that  town  in  1587,  was  long  the  standard  -work  on 
Latin  grammar ;  (2)  Fk.vncisco  Sanchez,  a  Portuguese 
physician  of  Jewish  parentage,  professor  of  philosophy  and 
physic  at  Toulouse,  where  he  died  at  tho  age  of  seventy  in 
1632,  whose  ingenious  but  sophistical  writings  (Qnod  nihil 
scilur,  1581)  mark  the  high- water  of  reaction  against  the 
dogmatism  of  the  traditional  schools  of  his  time ;  (3) 
Thomas  Sanchez  of  Cordova  (1551-1610),  Jesuit  and 
casuist,  whose  treatise  JJe  Matiimomo '(Genoa,  1592)  is 
more  notorious  for  its  repulsive  features  than  celebrated 
for  its  real  learning  apd  ability. 

SANCflO  I.  (il54-1211)  and  SANCHO  EL  (1208-, 
124:8),  kings  of  Portugal  from  1185  and  1223  respectively. 
See  PottTTJOAL,  vol.  xix.  p.  541-2. 

SAls^CHUNlATHON,  (that  is,  \m2D,  "the  god  Sak- 
kun  hath  given  ")  is  the  name  of  the  pretended  author  of 
fbe  Phoenician  writings  said  to  have  been  used  by  Phtt.o 
Byblius  (f/.i!.).     See  also  Phcenicia,  vol.  xviii.  p.  802. 

SAN  CRISTOBAL  DE  LOS  LLANOS,  otherwise 
known  as  Ciud^U)  Eeal,  chief  town  of  the  Mexican  state 
of  Chiapas,  stands  in  a  fertile  valley  on  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  central  mountain  range  450  miles  east-south-east 
from  the  city  of  Mexico.  It  was  founded  in  1528  under 
the  name  of  Villa  Eeal,  and  received  its  present  name  in 
1 829.  Its  inhabitants,  variously  estimated  as  numbering 
from  8000  to  12,000,  are  chiefly  employed  in  rearing 
cattle.    Coarse  woollen  and  cotton  stuffs,  and  also  common 

/arthenwarc,  are  manufactured. 
SANCROFT,  William  (1616-1693),  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  was  born  at  Fressingfield  in  Suffolk  30th 
January  1616,  and  entered  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
in  July  1634.  Ho  became  M.A.  in  1641  and  fellow  in 
1642,  but  was  ejected  in  1649  for  refusing  to  accept  the 
"  Engagement."  Ho  then  remained  abroad  till  the  Resto- 
ration, after  which  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  university 
preachers,  and  in  1663  ho  was  nominated  to  the  deanery  of 
York.  In  1664  he  was  installed  dean  of  St  Paul's.  In  this 
situation  ho  set  himself  with  unwearied  diligence  to  repair 
the  cathedral,  till  the  fire  of  London  in  1666  necessitated 
the  rebuilding  of  it,  towards  which  he  gave  £1400.  Ho 
also  rebuilt  the  deanery,  and  improved  its  revenue.  In 
1668  he  was  admitted  archdeacon  of  Canterbury  upon  the 
king's  presentation,  but  ho  resigned  the  post  in  1670.  In 
1677,  being  now  prolocutor  of  tho  Convocation,  he  was 
unexpectedly  advanced  to  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury. 
He  attended  Charles  II.  upon  his  deathbed,  and  "  made 
to  him  a  very  weighty  exhortation,  in  which  ho  used  a 
good  degree  of  freedom."  He  WTOte  with  his  own  hand 
the  petition  presented  in  1687  against  the  reading  of  the 
Declaration  of  Indulgence,  which  was  signed  by  himself 
and  six  of  his  suffragans.  For  this  they  were  all  committed 
to  the  Tower,  but  after  a  trial  for  misdemeanour  they 
were  acquitted.  Ui^sn  tho  withdrawal  of  James  IL  ho 
concurred  with  the  Lords  in  a  declaration  to  tho  prince  of 
Orange  for  a  free  parliament,  and  due  indulgence  to  tho 
Protestant  dissenters.  But,  when  that  prince  and  his 
consort  were  declared  king  and  cjueen,  ho  refused  to 
take  the  oath  to  them,  and  was  accordingly  suspended  and 
deprived.    From  5th  August  1691  till  his  death  on  Novem- 


ber 24,  1G93,  he  lived  a  very  retired  life  in  his  native  placc.| 
He  was  buried  in  the  churchyard  of  Fressingfield,  where. 
there  is  a  Latin  epitaph  to  his  memory. 

lie  published  Fur  Fr.rdcsthmlus  (1051),  Modern  Politics  (1652)1 
and  llircc  Sermons  (1GS>4).  li'iiiaau  Fninilinr  Letters  to  Mr  Kurth 
(aficrwards  Sir  Ucmy  Kortli)  appeared  iu  1757.  He  is  chai-actcrizcd 
by  Macaulay  as  "an  honest,  piOu."i,  narrow-minded  inau." 

SANCTUiOlT  is  the  Christian  rei)resentative  of  the 
classical  AsynTii  (rj.v.),  and  was  no  doubt  suggested  in 
the  first  instance  by  the  cities  of,  refuge  of  the  Levitical 
law.  Originally  every  church  or  chiircli3-ard  was  o,  sanctu- 
ary for  criminals.  In  England  about  thirty  churches,  from 
a  real  or  pretended  antiquity  of  tho,  privilege,  acquired 
special  reputation  as  sanctudries,  e.>j.,  Westminster  Abbejl 
and  Beverley  Minster.  "The  precincts  of  the  Abbey," 
says  Dean  Stanley,  "  were  a  vast  cave  of  Adullam  for  all 
tho  distressed  and  discontented  in  the  metropolis  who 
desired,  according  to  the  phrase  of  the  time,  to  take  West- 
minster." Tho  sanctuary  seats  at  Hexham  and  Beverley, 
and  the  sanctuary  knocker  at  Durham  are  still  in  exist-' 
ence.  The  protection  afforded  by  a  sanctuary  at  common 
law  was  this: — a  person  accused  of  felony  might  fly  for  the 
safeguard  of  his  life  to  sanctuary,  and  there  before  the  coro- 
ner, within  forty  days,  confess  the  felony  and  take  an  oath 
of  abjuration  entailing;  perpetual  banishment  into  a  foreign 
Christian  country.  The  sanctuary  being  the  privilege  of 
the  church,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  it  did  not  ex- 
tend to  the  crime  of  sacrilege,  nor  was  it  held  to  extend  to 
high  or  petit  treason.  The  law  of  abjuration  and  sanctuary 
was  regulated  by  numerous  and  mtricate  statutes.  A  "list 
of  them  will  bo  found  in  Coke,  Institutes,  vol.  iii.  p.  115.' 
Finally  it  was  enacted  by  21  Jac.  I.  c.  28,  §7,  that  no 
sanctuary  or  privilege  of  sanctuary  should  ha  admitted  or 
allowed  in  any  case.  The  privilege  of  sanctuary  as  pro- 
tecting from  civil  process  extended  to  certain  places,  parts 
or  supposed  parts  of  royal  palaces,  such  as  White  Friars 
or  AJsatia,  the  Savoy,  and  the  Mint.  The  privilege  of 
these  places  was  abolished  by  8  and  9  Will.  III.  c.  27, 
and  9  Geo.  I.  c.  28.  (See  Stephen,  Llist.  of  the  Crim. 
Law,  vol.  i.,  c.  xiii.). 

In  Scotland  religious  eanctnnries  were  abolished  at  the  Reforma- 
tion. But  the  debtor  still  finds  sanctuary  from  diligence  in 
llolyrood  House  and  its  precincts.  The  sanctuary  does  not  protect 
criminals,  or  even  all  debtors,  c.ij.,  not  crown  debtors  or  fraudulent 
■  bankrupts;  and  a  mcdUatio  furjeo  warrant  may  bo  executed  within 
the  sanctuary.  After  twenty-four  hours'  residence  the  debtor  mnst 
enter  his  name  in  tho  record  of  the  Abbey  Court  in  order  to  entitle 
him  to  further  protection.  Under  tlie  Act  1C9C,  c.  5,  insolvency 
concurring  with  retreat  to  the  sanctuary  constitutes  notour  bank- 
ruptcy (seo  Btll,  Commentaries,  vol.  ii.  p.  461). 

SAND,  George.     See  Dudevant. 

SANDALWOOD,  a  fragrant  wood  obtained  from  varioui 
trees  of  the  natural  order  Santalanx  and  from  the  genera 
Santalmii  and  Fmanua.  The  principal  commercial  source 
of  sandalwood  is  Sanlalum  album,  L.,  a  native  of  India, 
but  it  is  also  yielded  by  S.  Freycinctianvm,  Gaud.,  and  S. 
pyrularium,  A.  Gray,  in  tho  Hawaiian  Islands,  5.  Uomei, 
Seem.,  and  .S'.  austro-cakdonicum,  Viell.,  in  New  Caledonia, 
and  S.  insulart,  Bert.,  in  Tahiti.  The  wood  of  S.  laii- 
foliiim,  Benth.,  and  also  that  of  Fvsanus  spicalus,  B.  Br.,' 
have  been  exported  from  south-west  Australia,  and  that  of 
Eremophila  Milchelli,  of  the  natural  order  Myoporinea;  from 
Queensland,  but  these  have  little  odour  and  are  chiefly 
used  for  cabinet  work.  Sandalwood  is  also  said  to  be  pro- 
duced in  Nossi-B6,  and  has  been  imported  into  London 
from  Zanzibar,  and  into  Germany  from  Venezuela,  but  of 
tho  botanical  source  of  llioso  varieties  little  is  at  present 
known.  Tho  vise  of  sandalwood  dates  as  far  back  at  least 
as  the  5th  century  li.c,  for  tho  wood  is  mentioned  under 
its  Sanskrit  nanio  "  cLandana"  in  tho  Xirukta,  the  earliest 
extant  Vedic  commentary.  It  is  still  extensively  used  in 
India  and  China,  wherever  Duddhism  prevails,  being  cm- 


256 


g  A  N  — S  A  N 


ployed  in  funeral  rites  and"  religious  ceremonies ;  compara~' 
tively  poor  people  often  c-p^nd  as  much  ar,  50  rnjiecs  on 
sandalwood  for  a  single  cremation.  Until  the  middle  of 
the  18th  century  India  was  the  only  source  of  sandal- 
wood. The  discovery  of  a  sandalwood  in  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific  led  to  a  considerable  trade  of  a  somewhat  piratical 
nature,  resulting  in  difficulties  Tvith  the  natives,  often 
ending  in  bloodshed,  the  celebrated  missionary  John 
Williams,  amongst  others,  having  fallen  a  victim  to  an 
indiscriminate  retaliation  by  the  natives  on  white  men 
visiting  the  islands.  The  loss  of  life  in  this  trade  was  at 
one  time  even  greater  than  in  that  of  whaling,  with  which 
it  ranked  as  one  of  the  most  adventurous  of  callings. 
About  the  year  1810  as  much  as  400,000  dollars  is  said 
to  have  been  received  annually  for  sandalwood  by  Kame- 
hameha,  king  of  Hawaii.  The  trees  consequently  have 
become  almost  extinct  in  all  the  well-known  islands,  except 
New  Caledonia,  where  the  v/ood  is  now  cultivated.  Sandal- 
wood of  inferior  quality  derived  from  Fusmius  acuminalus 
was  exported  from  south-west  Australia  in  1884  to  the 
extent  of  2620  tons,  valued  at  an  average  of  about  £8  per 
ton,  genuine  sandalwood  being  worth  in  China  from  £12 
to  £40  per  ton. 

In  India  sandalwood  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  boxes,  fans,  and  other  ornamental  articles  of  inlaid 
work,  and  to  a  limited  extent  in  medicine  as  a  domestic 
remedy  for  all  kinds  of  pains  and  aches.  The  oil  is 
largely  used  as  a  perfume,  few  native  Indian  attars  or 
essential  oils  being  free  from  admixture  with  it.  In  the 
form  of  powder  or  paste  the  wood  is  employed  in  the 
pigments  used  by  the  Brahmans  for  their  distinguishing 
caste-marks. 

During  the  last  few  years  oil  of  sandalwood  has  largely 
replaced  copaiba,  both  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  on 
the  Continent,  in  the  treatment  of  various  diseases  of  the 
mucous  membrane.  Three  varieties  are  distinguished  in 
trade — East-Indian,  Macassar,  and  West-Indian.  The  first- 
named  is  derived  from  S.  album,  the  second  probably 
from  another  species  of  Santalum,  and  the  third  from  a 
wood  imported  from  Puerto  Cabello  in  Venezuela.  Bucida 
capitata,  a  Combretaceous  plant,  is  known  in  the  West 
Indies  as  sandalwood ;  but  the  odour  of  the  wood  as  well 
as  of  the  oil,  which  is  quite  distinct  from  that  of  the  true 
sandalwood,  has  more  resemblance  to  that  of  a  Myroxylon. 
Inferior  qualities  of  the  oil  are  said  to  be  adulterated  in 
Germany  with  the  oil  of  red  cedar  wood  {Juniperus 
virginiana). ' 

In  India  sandalwood  is  produced  in  the  dry  tracts  of  country  in 
My.sore  and  Coimbatore,  north  and  north-west  of  the  NUgiri 
Hills,  also  farther  eastward  in  the  districts  of  Salem  and  North 
Arcot,  where  the  tree  grows  from  the  sea-level  up  to  an  elevation  of 
3000  feet.  In  the  first-named  district  the  wood  is  a  Government 
monopoly  and  can  only  be  felled  by  the  proper  officers,  this 
privilege  having  been  retained  since  1770,  when  it  was  conferred 
by  treaty  with  Hyder  Ali  on  the  East  India  Company.  The 
Mysore  sandalwood  is  shipped  from  llangalore  to  the  extent  of 
about  700  tons  annually,  valued  at  £27,000.  In  the  Madras 
Presidency — although  there  is  now  no  monopoly — sandalwood,  by 
the  careful  management  of  the  forest  department,  has  been  made  to 
yield  an  increasing  revenue  to  the  Government,  as  much  as  547J 
tons  having  been  furnished  by  the  reserved  forests  iu  1872-3.  The 
tree  is  propagated  by  seeds,  v^hich,  however,  must  be  placed  where 
they  are  intended  to  grow,  since  the  seedlings  will  not  bear  trans- 
plantation, probably  on  account  of  deriving  their  nourishment 
parasitically  by  means  of  tuberous  sv,-ellings  attached  to  the  roots 
of  other  plants.  The  trees  are  cut  down  when  between  eighteen 
and  twenty-five  years  old,  at  which  period  they  have  aitained  their 
maturity,  the  trunks  being  then  about  one  foot  in  diameter.  The 
felling  takes  place  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and  the  trunk  is  allowed 
to  remain  on  the  ground  for  several  months,  during  which  time 
the  white  ants  eat  away  the  valueless  sapwood  but  leave  the 
fragrant  heartwood  untouched.  The  heartwood  is  then  sawn  into 
billets  about  2  or  2i  feet  long.  These  are  afterwards  more  carefully 
trimmed  at  the  foiest  depots,  and  left  to  dry  slowly  in  a  close 
.warehouse  for  some  weeks,  by  which  the  odour  is  im^iroved  and 


the  tendency  of  the  wood  to  split  obviated.  An  annual  auction  of 
the  wood  takes  pLicc,  at  which  merchants  from  all  parts  of  India 
congregate.  The  largest  iiieces  are  chieily  exported  to  China,  the 
small  pieces  to  Arabia;  and  those  of  medium  size  are  retained  for 
use  in  India.  China  imported  into  the  treaty  ports  66,237  picula 
(of  133i  lb)  of  sand,alwoo(l  in  1872.  As  much  as  700  tons  are  annu- 
ally injported  into  Bombay  from  the  Malabar  coast,  of  which  about 
4r>0  tons  are  again  exported.  The  oil,  which  is  distilled  chiefly  at 
JIangalore  from  the  roots  and  chips,  is  also  imported  into  Bombay 
to  the  extent  of  12,000  !b  annually.  .., 

Red  Sandalwood,  known  also  as  Red  Sanders  Wood,  is'  the  pro- 
duct ttf  a  small  Leguminous  tree,  Pterocarpus  sanlalinus,  native  of 
Southern  India,  Ceylon,  and  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  wood 
is  obtained  principallj-  from  Madras,  in  certain  parts  of  which 
province  it  is  regularly  cultivated,  coming  into  the  market  in 
the  form  of  irregular  billets  of  heartwood,  3  or  4  feet  in  length. 
A  fresh  surface  of  the  wood-  has  a  rich  deep  red  colour,  which  on 
e.xposure,  however,  assumes  a  dark  brownish  tint.  Under  the 
influence  of  alkaline  solutions,  alcohol,  or  strong  acetic  acid,  red 
sandalwood  yields  up  to  16  per  cent,  of  a  resinoid  body,  santalin 
or  santilic  acid  CjsHjjO;  (?),  which  substance  is  the  tinctoiial 
principle  of  the  wood.  Santalin  is  quite  insoluble  in  cold  water; 
it  neutralizes  alkalies,  and  with  them  forms  uncrystallizable  salts. 
In  its  pure  condition  santalin  forms  minute  prismatfc  crystals  of  a 
beautiful  ruby  colour.  The  wood  also  contains  small  proportions 
of  colourless  crystalline  principles— sant.al,  CgHjOj,  and  pterocarpin, 
CijHjfiOs — and  of  an  amorphous  body  having  the  formula  C-„A^iflg. 
In  medieval  times  red  sandalwood  possessed  a  high  reputation  in 
medicine,  and  it  was  valued  as  a  colouring  ingredient  in  many 
dishes.  Now  it  is  a  little  used  as  a  colouring  ageut  in  pharmacy, 
its  principal  application  being  in  wool-dyeing  and  calico-printing. 
Several  other  species  of  Pterocarpus,  notably  P.  indieus,  contain  the 
same  dyeing  principle  and  can  be  used  as  substitutes  for  red  sandal- 
wood. The  barwood  and  camwood  of  the  Guinea  Coast  of  Africa, 
presumably  the  produce  of  one  tree,  Baphia  nitida  (Plcroearptts 
angoknsis  of  De  CandoUe),  called  santal  rouge  d'Afrique  by  the 
French,  are  also  in  all  respects  closely  allied  to  the  red  sandalwood 
of  Oriental  countries. 

See  Seemann,  Flora  ri7iVris/s. pp. 210-215  J  Pfiarm.  Jovrn.ind  T/'flns..  1885-8fi; 
Phamacographia,  2d  ed  ,  p.  699 ;  Dyinock,  Materia  Afcilira  of  Weitem  India, 
p.  617;  Jour.  Sac.  Arts,  1S75,  p.  641;  Scemann,  Vo'jafje  pf  the  "  Ilet-aid,"  1853, 
p.  83;  Seemann,  Jour.  Botany,  18G4,  p.  218;  Erskinc,  'ls!aniis  of  the  »'.  Pacific, 
18.53,  p.  143,  326,  800,  and  Appendix,  p.  478.  486:  Marlin,  Natives  of  the  Tonga 
Is/amis,  1817,  pp.  310-333;  Lirdwood,  Bombay  Products,  p.  306;  Afadras  Jur^ 
Reports,  1857;  Hawkes.  Report  on  Oils  of  India,  p.  38. 

SAJSIDABACH  is  a  resinous  body  obtained  from'the 
small  Coniferous  tree  Callitris  quadrivahis,  native  of  the 
north-west  regions  of  Africa,  and  especially  characteristic 
of  the  Atlas  Mountains.  The  resin,  which  is  procured  as 
a  natural  exudation  on  the  stems,  and  also,  obtained  by 
making  incisions  in  the  bark  of  the  trees,  comes  into 
commerce  in  the  form  of  small  round  balls  or  elongated 
tears,  transparent,  and  having  a  delicate  yellow  tinge.  *It 
is  a  little  harder  than  mastic,  for  which  it  is  sometimes 
substituted,  and  does  not  soften  in  the  mouth  like  that 
resin  ;  but,  being  very  brittle,  it  breaks  with  a  clean  glas.sy 
fracture.  Sandarach  has  a  faintly  bitter  resinous  taste, 
and  a  pleasant  balsamic  odour.  It  consists  of  a  mixtu/e 
of  three  distinct  resins,  the  first  readily  soluble  in  alcohol,' 
constituting  67  per  cent,  of  the  mass,  while  the  second  dis-' 
solves  with  more  difficulty,  and  the  third  is  soluble  only  in' 
hot  alcohol.  Sandarach  is  imported  chiefly  from  Mogadiir,' 
and  is  an  important  ingredient  in  spirit  varnishes.  It  is 
also  used  as  incense,  and  by  the  Arabs  medicinally  au  a 
remedy  for  diarrhcea.  An  analogous  resin  is  procured  in 
China  from  Callitria '  sinensis,  and  in  South  Australia, 
under  the  name  of  pine  gum,  from  C.  Eeissii.  ^_ 

SANDBACH,  a  town  and  urban  sanitary  district  of 
Cheshire,  is  situated  on  the  Trent  and  Mersey  Canal,  and 
on  the  London  and  North-Western  Railway,  at  the  junc- 
tion for  Northwich,  25  miles  east-south-east  of  Chester  and 
5  north-east  of  Crewe.  In  the  market-place  are  two 
ancient  obelisks,  dating,  according  to  some,  from  the  7th 
century.  The  principal  public  buildings  are  the  parish 
church  of  St  Mary,  in  the  Perpendicular  style,  with  a 
tower  rebuilt  1847-9,  the  grammar  school,  the  public 
reading  rooms,  and  the  town-hall.  Anciently  tlie  town 
was  celebrated  for  its  ale.  The  principal  indu.stry  was 
formerly  silk  throwsting,  but  this  is  now  discontinued,  and 
the  inhabitants  are  chiefly  employed  in  the  salt-works  and 


S  A  N  — S  A  N 


257 


alkali-works.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district 
(area  2694  acres)  in  1871  was  5259,  and  in  1881  it  was 
5493. 

SAND-BLAST.  The  erosive  influence  of  driven  sand 
is  tvirned  to  useful  account  for  several  industrial  purposes 
by  means  of  an  apparatus  devised,  about  1870,  by  Mr  B. 
C.  Tilghman  of  Philadelphia.  Tilghman's  sand-blast  con- 
sists of  a  contrivance  for  impelling,  with  graduated  degrees 
of  velocity,  a  jot  or  column  of  sand,  by  means  of  com- 
pressed air  or  steam,  against  the  object  or  surface  to  be 
acted  on.  The  apparatus  is  principally  adapted  for 
obscuring,  engraving,  and  ornamenting  glass,  but  accord- 
ing to  the  velocity  with  which  the  sand  is  impelled  it  may 
be  used  to  carve  deep  patterns  in  granite,  marble,  and 
other  hard  stones,  to  bite  into  steel,  &c.,  and  even  to  ci\t 
and  perforate  holes  through  these  and  other  most  refrac- 
tory materials.  Sheets  of  glass  4  feet  wide  are  obscured 
at  the  rate  of  3  feet  per  minute,  with  a  blast  of  air  having 
a  pressure  of  1  D)  per  inch.  With  the  aid  of  tough  elastic 
stencils,  patterns  and  letters  are  engraved  on  flashed 
glass,  globes  for  lamps  and  gaslights  are  ornamented, 
druggists'  bottles  are  lettered,  ic.'  Driven  with  moderate 
velocity  against  a  metal  surface,  the  sand  produces  by  its 
impact  a  fine  uniform  pitted  appearance  without  removing 
the  metal ;  and  in  this  way  it  is  used  for  "  frosting " 
plated  goods.  A  strong  blast  is  largely  used  for  sharpen- 
ing files,  which,  as  they  leave  the  cutter,  have  always  a 
slight  backward  curve  or  "  burr  "  on  their  cutting  edges 
which  blunts  their  biting  effect.  By  directing  a  blast  of 
very  fine  sand,  mixed  with  water  into  a  thin  mud,  with 
steam  pressure  of  70  lb,  at  an  angle  against  the  back  of  the 
teeth,  this  burr  is  ground  off,  the  shape  of  the  teeth  is 
improved,  and  the  file  is  rendered  very  keen.  While  the 
use  of  steam  for  impelling  the  sand-blast  is  most  simple 
and  economical,  many  practical  difficulties  have  hitherto 
been  found  in  the  way  of  its  employment,  and  conse- 
quently for  obtaining  high  pressure  of  air  costly  apparatus 
was  required,  thus  limiting  the  applications  of  the  agency. 
In  1884  Mr  Mathewson  patented  an  apparatus  in  which, 
by  an  ingenious  exhaust  arrangement,  the  impelling  steam 
is  swept  away,  leaving  only  cool,  dry  sand  to  strike  against 
the  object  acted  on ;  and  the  success  of  this  device  has 
already  opened  up  a  wider  field  for  the  employment  of 
the  sand-blast. 

SANDBY,  Paul  (1725-1809),  founder  of  the  English 
school  of  water-colour  painting,  was  descended  from  a 
branch  of  the  Sandbys  of  Babworth,  and  was  born  at 
Nottingham  in  1725.  After  commencing  his  artistic 
studies  in  London,  in  1746  he  was  appointed  by  the  duke  of 
Cumberland  draughtsman  to  the  survey  of  the  Highlanda 
In  1752  he  quitted  this  post,  and  retired  to  Windsor, 
where  he  occupied  himself  with  the  production  of  water- 
colour  drawings  of  scenery  and  picturesque  architecture, 
which  brought  him  under  the  notice  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks, 
who  gave  him  his  patronage,  and  subsequently  commis- 
sioned him  to  bring  out  in  aquatinta  (a  method  of  engrav- 
ing then  peculiar  to  Sandby)  forty-eight  plates  drawn 
during  a  tour  in  Wales.  Sandby  displayed  considerable 
power  as  a  caricaturist  in  his  attempt  to  ridicule  the 
opposition  of  Hogarth  to  the  plan  for  creating  a  public 
academy  for  the  arts.  Ho  was  chosen  a  foundation- 
member  of  the  Koyal  Academy  in  1768,  and  tho  same 
year  was  appointed  chief  drawing-master  to  tho  Royal 
Military  Academy  at  Woolwich,  lie  held  this  situation 
till  1799,  and  during  that  time  he  trained  many  artists 

'  In  1875  ioRcriptionfl  were  cut  by  monns  of  tho  blast  on  150,000 
torabstoncs  of  soldiers  killed  in  tho  American  Civil  War.  Caft-iron 
letters  were  fastened  by  shellac  on  tho  marble,  tho  sand  was  Jrivcn  by 
eteara  preasnre  of  90  lb,  and  tho  stone  was  cut,  in  four  niiniite!i,  to  a 
dODth  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  loavinjr  tho  letters  in  relief. 


who  afterwards  gained  a  name  in  their  profession.  Sandby 
will  be  best  remembered,  however,  by  his  water-colour 
paintings.  They  are  topographical  in  character,  and,  'while 
they  want  the  richness  and  brilliancy  of  modern  water- 
colour,  he  nevertheless  impressed  upon  them  the  originality 
of  his  mind.  In  his  later  pieces,  in  particular,  decided 
progress  is  observable  in  richness  and  in  harmony  of 
tinting,  and  they  al.so  show  a  measure  of  poetic  feeling, 
due,  in  great  part,  to  the  influence  of  Cozens.  His 
etchings,  such  as  the  Cries  of  London  and  the  illustrations 
to  Ramsay's  Gentle  Shepherd,  and  his  plates,  such  as  those 
to  Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered,  are  both  numerous  and 
carefully  executed.  He  died  in  London  on  the  9th 
November  1809. 

SANDEAU,  LEONARD  Sylvain  Jxtles  (1811-1882),  a 
French  novelist  of  much  grace  and  not  a  little  Jjower,  was 
born  at  Aubusson  (Creuse)  on  February  9,  1811.  He  made 
acquaintance  as  an  art  student  with  Madame  Dudevant 
(George  Sand),  who  had  just  taken  to  an  unrestrained 
literary  life  at  Paris.  The  intimacy  did  not  last  long,  but 
it  produced  Bose  et  Blanche  (1831),  a  novel  written  in 
common,  and  from  it  George  Sand  took  the  idea  of  the 
famous  nom  de  guerre  by  which  she  is  and  always  will  be 
known.  Sandcau's  subsequent  work  showed  that  he  could 
run  alone,  and  for  nearly  fifty  years  he  continued  to 
produce  novels  and  to  collaborate  in  plays.  His  best 
works  are  Marianna  (1839),  Le  Docteur  Herheau  (1841), 
Catherine  (1845),  Mademoiselle  de  la  Seigliire  and  Made- 
leine (1848),  La  Chasse  au  Roman  (1849),  Sacs  et  I'arclie- 
mins  (1851),  La  Maison  de  Penarvan  (1858),  La  Roche 
aux  Mouettes  (1871).  The  famous  play  of  Le  Gendre  de 
M.  Poirier  is  only  one  of  several  which  he  wi-ote  with 
fimUe  Angier, — the  novelist  usually  contributing  the  story 
and  the  dramatist  the  theatrical  working  up.  Meanwhile 
Sandeau,  who  had  accepted  the  empire,  but  who  never 
took  any  active  part  in  politics,  had  been  made  conserva- 
teur  of  the  Mazarin  library  in  "1853,  elected  to  the 
Academy  in  1 858,  and  next  year  appointed  librarian  of  St 
Cloud.  At  the  suppression  of  this  latter  office,  after  the 
fall  of  the  empire,  he  was  pensioned.  He  died  on  the 
24th  of  April  1882.  He  was  never  a  very  popular  novelist, 
judging  by  the  sale  of  his  works;  and  tho  peculiar  quiet 
grace  of  his  stylo,  as  well  as  his  abstinence  from  sensational 
incident,  and  his  refusal  to  pander  to  the  French  taste  in 
fictitious  morals,  may  bo  thought  to  have  disqualified  him 
for  popularity.  But  his  literary  ability  has  always  been 
recognized  by  competent  judges.  His  skill  in  construc- 
tion was  very  great ;  his  character-drawing,  though  pure,  is 
eminently  free  from  feebleness  and  commonplace ;  and  of 
one  particular  situation — the  tragical  clashing  of  aristo- 
cratic feeling  with  modern  tendencies — he  had  an  extra- 
ordinary mastery,  whioh  ho  showed  without  any  mere 
repetition,  but  in  many  different  studies. 

SANDEC.     See  Neu-Sandec. 

SAND-EEL  or  Sand-La  once.  Tho  fishes  known 
under  those  names  form  a  small  isolated  group  {Ainmo- 
dytina),  distantly  related  to  the  cod-fishes.  Their  body  is, 
of  an  elongate-cylindrical  shape,  with  the  head  terminat- 
ing in  a  long  conical  snout,  tho  projecting  lower  jaw  form- 
ing the  pointed  end.  A  low  long  dorsal  fin,  in  which  no 
distinction  between  spines  and  rays  can  be  observed, 
occupies  nearly  tho  whole  length  of  tho  back,  and  a  long 
anal,  composed  of  similar  short  and  delicate  rays,  com- 
mences immediately  behind  the  vent,  which  is  placed 
about  midway  between  tho  head  and  faudal  fin.  The 
caudal  is  forked  and  tho  pectorals  ore  short.  Tho  total 
absence  of  ventral  fins  indicates  the  burrowing  habits  of 
these  fishes.  The  scales,  when  present,  are  very  small ; 
but  generally  the  development  of  scales  has  only  proceeded 
to  tho  formation  of   oblique   folds   of   the   integuments) 

XXL  -  33 


258 


S  A  N  — S  A  N 


The  eyes  are  lateral  and  of  moderate  size ;  the  dentition  is 
quite  rndimentar7. 

Sand-eels  are  small  littoral  marine  fishes,  only  one 
species  attaining  a  length  of  18  inches  (Ammodytes  lanceo- 
Idhis).  They  live  in  shoals  at  various  depths  o.i  a  sandy 
bottom,  and  bury  themselves  in  the  sand  on  the  slightest 
alarm.  They  are  able  to  do  this  with  the  greatest  ease 
and  rapidity  whilst  the  bottom  is  covered  with  water. 
Jlany  of  those  which  live  close  inshore  are  left  by  the 
receding  tide  buried  in  the  sand,  and  are  then  frequently 
dug  out  from  a  depth  of  one  or  two  feet  Other  shoals  live 
in  deeper  water ;  when  they  are  surprised  by  fish  of  prey 
6r  porpoises,  they  are  frequently  driven  to  the  surface  in 
such  dense  masses  that  numbers  of  them  can  be  scooped 
out  of  the  water  with  a  bucket  or  hand-net.  In  faet,  this 
used  to  be,  in  the  Channel  Islands,  the  common  practice 
of  the  fishermen  to  provide  themselves  with  bait.  -Some 
species  descend  to  a  depth  of  100  fathoms  and  more  ; 
and  the  greater  sand-eel  is  not  rarely  taken  on  the 
mackerel  line  far  out  at  sea  near  the  surface.  Sand-eels 
are  very  rapacious,  destroying  a  great  quantity  of  fry  and 
other  small  creatures,  such  as  the  lancelet  (Branchiostoma), 
which  lives  in  similar  localities.  They  are  excellent  eating, 
and  are  much  sought  after  for  bait. 

Sand-eels  are  common  in  all  suitable  localities  of  the  North 
Atlantic  ;  a  species  scarcely  distinct  from  the  European  common 
sand-launce  occurs  on  the  Pacific  side  of  North  America,  another 
on  the  east  coast  of  South  Africa.  On  the  British  coasts  three 
species  are  found : — the  Greater  Sand-Eel  (Ammodylcs  lanaolahts), 
distinguished  by  a  tooth-like  bicuspid  prominence  on  the  vomer  ; 
the  Common  Sand-Launce  {A.  tohianus),  from  five  to  seven  inches 
long,  with  unarmed  vomer,  even  dorsal  fin,  and  with  the  integu- 
ments folded  ;  and  the  Southern  Sand-Launce  (A.  sicubis),  with 
unarmed  vomer,  smooth  skin,  and  with  the  margins  of  the  dorsal 
and  anal  fins  vmdulated.  The  last  species  is  common  in  the 
Mediterranean,  but  local  farther  northwards.  It  has  been  found 
near  the  Shetlands  at  depths  from  80  to  100  fathoms,  and  is 
generally  distinguished  from  the  common  species  by  the  fishermen 
of  ■Ab  Channel  Islands,  who  have  a  tradition  that  it  appeared 
suddenly  on  their  coasts  some  fifty  years  ago. 

SAKDEMANLINS.  See  Glas,  vol.  x.  p.  637. 
^  SANDERSON,  Robert  (1587-1663),  bishop  of  Lin- 
coln, and  one  of  the  worthies  celebrated  by  Izaak  Walton, 
was  born  at  Rotherham,  Yorkshire,  in  1587.  He  was  edu- 
cated at 'the  grammar  school  of  his  native  town  and  at 
Lincoln  College,  0.xford,  took  orders  in  1611,  and  was 
promoted  successively  to  several  benefices.  On  the  recom- 
mendation of  Laud  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  royal 
chaplains  inl631,  and  as  a  preacher  was  a  great  favourite 
with  the  king.  In  1642  Charles  created  him  regius  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  at  Oxford,  with  a  canonry  of  Christ 
Church  annexed.  But  the  civil  war  prevented  him  until 
1646  from  entering  on  the  office;  and  in  1648  he  was 
ejected  by  the  visitors  whom  the  parliament  had  com- 
missioned. He  recovered  these  preferments  at  the  Restora- 
tion, and  was  promoted  to  the  bishopric  of  Lincoln,  but 
lived  only  two  years  to  enjoy  his  new  dignities,  dying  in 
h=s  seventy-sixth  year  in  1663.  His  most  celebrated  work 
is  his  Cases  of  Conscience,  deliberate  judgments  upon  points 
of  morality  submitted  to  him.  Some  of  these  cases,  notably 
that  of  Sabbath  observance,  and  that  of  signing  the  "  En- 
gagement" to  the  Commonwealth,  were  printed  surrepti- 
tiously during  his  lifetime,  though  drawn  up  in  answer 
to  private  spiritual  clients;  and  a  collection,  gradually 
enlarged  in  successive  editions,  was  published  after  his 
death.  They  are  extremely  interesting  specimens  of 
English  casuistry,  distinguished  not  less  by  moral  integrity 
than  good  sense,  learning,  and  close,  comprehensive,  and 
subtle  reasoning.  His  practice  as  a  college  lecturer  in 
logic  is  better  evidenced  by  these  "cases"  than  by  his 
Compendium  of  Logic  published  in  1615.  A  complete 
edition  of  Sanderson's  works  was  edited  by  Dr  Jacobson  in 
1854  (Oxford  Press).     To  this  the  reader  may  be  referred 


for  his  sermons  and  his  occasional  tracts  on  public  affairs 
during  the  troubled  period  of  his  middle  life  and  old  age. 

SAND-GROUSE,  the  namei  ^y  which  are  commonly 
known  the  members  of  a  small  but  remarkable  group  of 
birds  frequenting  sandy  tracts,  and  having  their  feet  more 
or  less  clothed  with  feathers  after  the  fashion  of  Grouse 
(vol.  xi.  p.  221),  to  which  they  were  originally  thought  to 
be  closely  allied,  and  the  species  first  described  were  by 
the  earlier  systematists  invariably  referred  to  the  genus 
Tetrao.  Their  separation  therefrom  is  due  to  Temminck, 
who  made  for  them  a  distinct  genus  which  he  called 
Pterocles,'^  and  his  view,  as  Lesson  tells  us  {Traite,  p.  515), 
was  subsequently  corroborated  by  De  Blainville ;  while  in 
1831  Bonaparte  {Saggio,  p.  54)  recognized  the  group  as  a 
good  Family,  Pediophili  or  Pteroclidx.  Further  investiga- 
tion of  the  osteology  and  pterylosis  of  the  Sand-Grouse 
revealed  still  greater  divergence  from  the  normal  Gallinx 
(to  which  the  true.  Grouse  belong),  as  well  as  several 
curious  resemblances  to  the  Pigeons  ;  and  in  the  Zoological 
Society's  Proceedings  for  1868  (p.  303)  Prof.  Huxley  pro- 
posed to  regard  them,  under  the  name  of  Pteroclomorphas, 
as  forming  a  group  equivalent  to  tlie  Alectoromorphx 
and  Peristeromorphx,  for  reasons  already  briefly  stated 
(Ohnithology,  vol..  xviii.  p.  46).^  The  Pteroclidx  consist 
of  two  genera — Pterocles,  with  about  fifteen  species,  and 
Syrrliaptes,  with  two.  Of  the  former,  two  species  inhabit 
Europe,  P.  arenarius,  the  Sand-Grouse  proper,  and  that 
which  is  usually  called  P.  alchata,  the  Pin-tailed  Sand-' 
Grouse.  The  European  range  of  the  first  is  practically 
limited  to  Portugal,  Spain,  and  the  southern  partsrt)f 
Russia,  while  the  second  inhabits  also  the  •  south  'o£ 
France,  where  it  is  generally  known  by  its  Catalan  name 
of  "  Ganga,"  or  locally  as  "  Grandaulo,"  or,  strange  to  sajr,: 
"  Perdrix  d'Angleterre."  Both  species  are  also  abundant 
in  Barbary,  and  have  been  believed  to  extend  eastwards 
through  Asia  to  India,  in  most  parts  of  which  country^ 
they  seem  to  be  only  winter-visitants ;  but  in  1880  Herr 
Bogdanow  pointed  out  to  the  Academy  of  St  Petersburg 
{Bulletin,  x.xvii.  p.  164)  a  slight  difference  of  coloration 
between  eastern  end  western  examples  of  what  had  hith- 
erto passed  as  P.  alchata ;  and  the  difference,  if  found  to 
be  constant,  may  require  the  specific  recognition  of  each, 
while  analogy  would  suggest  that  a  similar  difference 
might  be  found  in  examples  of  P.  arenarius.  India,  more^ 
over,  possesses  five  other  species  of  Pterocles,  of  which 
however  only  one,  P.  fasciatvs,  is  peculiar  to  Asia,  while 
the  others  inhabit  Africa  as  well,  and  all  the  remaining 
species  belong  to  the  Ethiopian  region — one,  P.  personatvs, 
being  peculiar  to  Madagascar,  and  four  occurring  in  or  on 
the  borders  of  the  Cape  Coloay. 

The  genus  Syrrhaptes,  though  in  general  appearance 
resembling  Pterocles,  has  a  conformation  of  foot  quite 
unique  among  birds,  the  three  anterior  toes  being  encased 
in  a  common  "podotheca,"  which  is  clothed  to  the  claws 
with  hairy  feathers,  so  as  to  look  much  like  a  fiigcrlesa 
glove.  The  hind  toe  is  wanting.  The  two  species  of  Syr- 
rhaptes  are  S.  tibetamis — the  largest  Sand-Grouse  known- 
inhabiting  the  country  whence  its  trivial  name  is  derived, 
and  S.  paradomts,  ranging  from  Northern  China  across 
Central   Asia  to  the  confines  of   Europe,  which  it  occa- 

'  It  seems  to  have  been  first  used  by  Latham  in  1783  {Synopsis, 
iv.  p.  751)  as  the  direct  translation  of  the  name  Tetrao  aretiarius 
given  by  Pallas. 

-  He  states  that  he  published  this  name  in  1809  ;  but  hitherto  re- 
search has  failed  to  find  it  used  until  1815. 

'  Some  more  recent  writers,  recognizing  the  group  as  a  distinct 
Order,  have  applied  to  it  the  name  *'I^terodetes,"  while  another  calls 
it  Ileieroclitse.  The  former  of  these  words  is  based  on  a  grammatics 
misconception,  whilB  the  use  of  the  latter  has  long  since  been  other- 
wise preoccupied  in  zoology.  If  there  be  need  to  set  aside  Prof. 
Huxley's  term,  Bonaparte's  Pediophili  (as  above  mentioned)  may  be 
accepted,  and  indeed  ha.i  priority  of  sM  others,   .' 


S  A  N  — S  A  N 


259 


eionall}-,  and  in  a  marvellous  manner,  invades,  as  Las  been 
already  briefly  described  (Birds,  vol.  iii.  p.  770).^  Though 
its  attempts  at  colouization  in  the  extreme  west  have 
'  failed,  it  would  seem  to  have  established  itself  of  late 
years  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Astrakhan  (His,  1882,  p. 
220).  It  appears  to  be  the  "  Bargnerlac  "  of  iiarco  Polo* 
(ed.  Yule,  i.  p.  239)  ;  and  the  "  Loung-Kio  "  or  "  Dragon's 
Foot,"  so  unscientifically  described  by  the  AbbiS  Hue 
(Souvenirs  d'un  Voyage  dans  la  Tartaric,  L  p.  244),  can 
scarcely  be  anything  else  than  this  bird. 

Externally  all  Sand-Grouse  present  an  appearance  so  distinctive 
that  nobody  who  has  seen  one  of  them  can  be  in  doubt  as  to  any 
of  the  vest.  Their  plumage  assimilates  in  general  colour  to  that 
of  the  ground  they  frequent,  being  above  of  a  doll  ochreons  hue, 
more  or  less  barred  or  mottled  by  darker  shades,  while  beneath  it 
is  frequently  varied  by  belts  of  deep  brown  in  tensify ing  into  black. 
Lighter  tints  are,  however,  exhibited  by  some  species, — the  drab 
merging  into  a  pale  grey,  the  buff  brightening  into  a  lively  orange, 
and  streaks  or  edgings  of  an  almost  pure  white  relieve  the  pro- 
vailing  sandy  or  fawn-coloured  hues  that  especially  characterize 
the  group.  The  sexts  seem  always  to  differ  in  plumage,  that  of 
the  male  being  the  briglitest  and  most  diversified.  The  expression 
ia  decidedly  i)ove-lift,  and  so  is  the  form  of  the  body,  the  long 
wings  contributing  also  to  that  effect,  so  that  among  Anglo-Indians 
these  birds  are  commonly  known  as  "Kock- Pigeons."  The  long 
wings,  the  outermost  primary  of  which  in  Syrrhaples  has  its  shaft 
produced  into  au  attenuated  filament,  are  in  all  the  species  worked 
l>y  e.\-cecdingly  powerful  muscles,  and  in  several  forms  the  middle 
rectrices  are  likewise  protracted  and  pointed,  so  as  to  give  to  their 
wearers  the  name  of  Pin-tailed  Sand-Grouse.'  The  nest  ia  a 
shallow  hole  in  the  sand.  Three, seems  to  be  the  regular  comple- 
ment of  eg^p  laid  in  each  nest,  but  there  are  writers  who  declare 
(most  likely  in  error)  that  the  full  number  in  some  species  is  four. 
These  eggs  are  of  peculiar  shape,  being  almost  cylindrical  in  the 
middle  and  nearly  alike,  at  each  end,  and  are  of  a  pale  earthy 
colour,  spotted,  blotched,  or  marbled  with  darker  shades,  the 
markings  being  of  two  kinds,  one  superficial  and  the  other  more 
deeply  seated  in  the  shell.  The  yoiuig  are  hatched  fully  clothed 
in  down  (P.  Z.  S.  1866,  pL  ix.  fig.  2),  and  though  not  very  active 
would  appear  to  be  capable  of  locomotion  soon  after  birth. 
Morphologically  generalized  as  the  Sand-Grouse  undoubtedly  are, 
no  one  can  contest  the  extreme  specialization  of  many  of  their 
features,  and  thus  they  form  one  of  the  iftost  instructive  groups  of 
birds  with  which  ornithologLsts  are  acquainted.  The  remains  of 
an  extinct  species  of  Plcrodes,  P.  sepultus,  intermediate  apparently 
between  P.  alchala  and  P.  guUuralis,  have  been  recognized  in  the 
Miocene  caves  of  the  AUier  by  Prof.  A.  Milne-Edwards  (^Ois.  foss. 
do  la  France,  p.  294,  pi.  clxi.  figs.  1-9) ;  and,  in  addition  to  the 
other  authorities  on  this  very  interesting  croup  of  birds  already 
cited,  reference  may  be  made  to  Mr  Elliot's  Study"  of  the  Faniiiy 
(P.  Z.  S.,  1878,  pp.  233-264)  and  Dr  Gadow,  "  On  certain  points  in 
tho  Anatomy  of  FUrodcs"  (op,  cit.,  1882,  pp.  312-332).     (A,  N.) 

SANDHURST,  a  city  of  Victoria,  Australia,  in  the 
county  of  Bendigo,  is  situated  in  36°  46'  S.  lat.  and 
144°  17'  E.  long.,  at  a  height  of  758  feet  above  the  sea, 
on  Bendigo  Creek  (a  sub-tributary  of  the  Murray),  lOOf 
miles  nortli-nortl^-west  of  Slelbourne  by  the  railway  to 
Echuca.  Built  on  an  exhausted  part  of  old  goldfields  of 
Bendigo  (1851),  and  long  better  kIl0^^^l  by  that  name, 
Sandhurst,  which  became  a  municipality  in  1855,  a 
borough  in  1863,  and  a  city  in  1871,  has  been  gradually 
•working  itself  clear  of  the  irregularity  and  disorder 
characteristic  of  abandoned  mines  and  quartz-crushing 
enterprises.  Pall  Mall,  the  principal  street,  consists  of 
good  houses  of  two  and  three  stories ;  and,  besides  banks, 
insurance  offices,  hotels,  and  churches  (many  of  which  are 

'  Some  slight  additions  to  and  corrections  of  that  account  may  hero 
be  given.  A  sixth  example  is  stated  (Jbis,  1871,  p.  223)  to  have  becu 
killed  in  Europe  in  18D9,  namely,  at  PeriJiguaii  in  France.  One  is 
believed  to  h.ive  been  obtained  at  or  near  Archangel  {This,  1873,  p.  66); 
but  the  report  of  one  in  Sicily  proves  to  Lave  been  a  mistake,  and 
Rimini,  ou  the  Adriatic,  remains  the  most  Bouthom  Haliau  locaUty 
reached  m  1863.  Since  1872  a  male  obtamcd  near  Modona  m  May 
1876  {Ibii,  1881,  p.  208),  and  a  pair,  one  of  which  was  shown  to  tho 
writer,  in  the  county  of  Kildare  in  Ireland,  tho  following  October 
{Zoologist,  1877,  p.  24),  are  all  that  arc  known  to  have  occurred  In 
We«tern  Europe. 

'  The.'io  were  separated  by  Bonaparte  (Compfrs  lirndut,  xHI.  p.  880) 
as  a  distinct  genas,  Pteroclmiu,  which  lut«r  autUorii  have  jiuUy  eeeu  no 
reason  to  adopt 


substantial  buildings),  there  are  in  Sandhurst  Govern- 
ment and  municipal  offices,  a  hospital,  a  benevolent 
asylum,  a  mechanics'  institute  and  school  of  mines,  a 
theatre,  and  several  halls.  Rosalind  Park,  opposite  Pall 
JIall,  the  Camp  Reserve,  and  the  Botanical  Gardens  are 
the  principal  pleasure  grounda  A  good  supply  of  water 
has  been  secured  by  the  construction  of  nve  large  reser- 
voirs capable  of  storing  in  the  aggregate  upwards-  of 
622,600,000  gallons.  Besides  gold-mining,  which  in  the 
Sandhurst  district  employs  6800  miners,  the  local  indus- 
tries are  brewing,  iron-casting,  coach-building,  the  working 
of  bricks  and  tiles  and  earthenware,  and  tanning.  The 
population  of  the  city  (which  is  divided  into  three  wards 
—Sutton,  Darling,  and  Barkly)  was  28,662  in  1881.  The 
value  of  rateable  property  is  £1,663,910. 

SAN  DIEGO,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  the  United 
States,  chief  town  of  San  Diego  county,  California,  15 
miles  north  of  the  Mexican  frontier.  It  has  a  land-locked 
harbour  5J  miles  long  and  next  to  San  Francisco  the  best 
on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  States,  is  the  selected  terminus 
of  the  Texas  and  Pacific  Railroad,  and  has  recently  become 
a  fashionable  winter  resort  owing  to  the  remarkable  steadi- 
ness of  its  winter  climate  (mean  annual  temperature  62°). 
San  Diego  was  founded  by  Roman  Catholic  missionaries 
in  1769.  In  1880  it  had  only  2637  inhabitants,  but  they 
have  since  increased  to  upwards  of  5000.  In  the  county  is 
a  lake  of  boiling  mud  half  a  mile  long  by  500  yards  wid& 

SAN  DO]SnNGO,  or  Santo  Doim.-Go.     See  Haytl 

SANDOMIR,  or  Sedomxeez,  a  town  of  Russian  PolanjI, 
in  the  province  of  Radom,  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of 
Poland,  being  mentioned  in  annals  as  early  as  1079  ;  from 
1139  to  1332  it  was  the  chief  town  of  the  principality. 
Under  Casimir  111.  it  received  extensive  privileges  and 
reached  a  high  degree  of  prosperity  and  strength.  In 
1429  it  was  the  seat  of  a  congress  for  the  establishment  of 
peace  with  Lithuania,  and  in  1570  the  well-known  "  Con- 
sensus Sandomiriensis "  was  held  there  for  uniting  the 
Lutherans,  Calvinists,  and  Moravian  Brethren.  Subse- 
quent wars,  and  especially  the  Swedish;  ruined  the  town 
still  more  than  numerous  conflagrations,  and  jn  the  second 
part  of  the  18th  century  it  had  only  2060  inhabitants.  It 
is  now  a  quite  unimportant  place,  but  retains  a  few  remark- 
able monuments  of  its  past.  The  beautiful  cathedral,  rising 
on  a  high  hill  above  the  Vistula,  and  facing  the  plains  of 
Galicia,  was  built  between  1120  and  1191  ;  it  was  rebuilt 
in  stone  in  1360,  and  is  thus  one  of  the  oldest  monuments 
of  old  Polish  architecture.  The  churches  of  St  Paul  and 
St  James  are  fine  relics  of  the  13th  century.  In  1881  the 
population  was  6265,  or,  including  the  suburbs,  14,710. 

SANDOWAY,  a  district  in  the  south  of  the'Arakan 
division  of  British  Burmah,  ceded  to  th6  British  by  treaty 
in  1826,  embracing  an  area  of  3667  square  miles,  and 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Ma-i  river,  on  the  west  by  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  on  the  east  by  the  Arakan  Mountains,  and 
on  the  south  by  the  Khwa  river.  The  whole  face  of  the 
country  is  mountainous,  the  Arakan  range  sending  out 
spurs  which  reach  down  to  the  coast.  Some  of  tho  peaks 
in  the  north  attain  an  elevation  of  over  4000  feet.  Not 
more  than  one-eighteenth  part  of  the  surface  can  be  called 
plain  J  and,  except  there,  whore  rice  cultiTOtion  is  carried 
on,  and  on  tho  hill-sides,  where  clearings  are  made  for 
Umnyya  or  nomadic  cultivation,  the  coimtry  is  covered  with 
dense  forest.  There  is  nothing  in  the  district  that  can  bo 
called -a  river,  the  streams  draining  it  being  but  mountain 
torrents  to  within  a  few  miles  of  the  coast ;  the  mouth  of 
the  Khwa  forms  a  good  anchorage  for  vessels  of  from  9  to 
10  feet  draught.  So  far  as  is  known  of  the  geology  of  the 
district,  the  rocks  in  the  Yoma  range  and  its  spurs  are 
metamorphic,  and  comprise  clay,  slates,  ironstone,  and  in- 
diu-atod  sandstone ;  towards  the  south,  ironstone,  trap,  and 


2eo 


i5  iV   IN  —  !S  A  N 


rocks  of  basaltic  cliaractcr  arc  commoir;'  veins  of  steatite 
and  wliite  fibrous  quartz  arc  also  found  in  the  district. 

Only  135  square  miles  of  the  total  aica  are  cultivable,  ami  of  tlicso 
out  75  arc  cultivated.  The  chief  crojis  arc  rice,  scsainuni,  tohaceo, 
cotton,  sn^ar-canc,  rW;r!)ii  [lalnis,  and  yams.  The  revenue  in  1SS3-84 
was  f  13,078,  the  land  tax  rcalii^ing  £0749  of  that  amount.  This 
mountainous  and  forest-clad  country,  with  such  a  small  cultivable 
area,  is  .'■parscly  inhabited,  the  poimlation  as  returned  by  the  census 
of  1881  being  only  64,010  (males  32,706,  females  31,304);  of  this 
'number  56,458  wcroBuddhists.  There  are  no  towns  with  a  popul.a- 
jtion  exceeding  2000.  Sandoway,  the  chief  town  and  headijuarters, 
on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  in  18°  27'  35"  N.  lat.  and  94^  24'  36 " 
\E.  long.,  is  a  very  ancient  town,  and  is  said  to  have  been  at  one  time 
Ithe  capital  of  a  kingdom,  or  more  probably  of  a  petty  chieftainship. 
SAJVTDPIPER  (Germ.  Saw/pfeifir),  according  to 
(WlUughby  in  1676  the  name  given  by  Yorkshirenien  to 
jthe  bird  now  most  popularly  known  in  England  as  the 
'"Summer-Snipe," — the  Trinfta  hypokricos  of  Linnaeus  and 
Ithe  Totanus,  Actiiis,  or  Tringoides  k'ypoleucus  of  later 
iwriters, — but  probably  even  in  Willughby's  time  of  much 
ivider  signification,  as  for  more  than  a  century  it  has 
certainly  been  applied  to  nearly  all  the  smaller  kinds  of 
thn  group  termed  by  modern  ornithologists  Liniicolx 
jWhich  are  not  Plovers  (vol.  xix.  p.  227),  or  Snipe.') 
'{q.v.),  but  may  bu  said  to  be  intermediate  between  them. 
'Placed  by  most  syf.loniatists  in  the  family  Scolopacidx,  the 
f)irds  commonly  c"Jled  Sandpipers  seem  to  form  three 
Bections,  which  have  been  often  regarded  as  Subfamilies — 
^oiamine,  Trinr/inu:,  OTid  rkalaropodinx,  the  last  indeed  in 
some  classifications  taking  the  higher  rank  of  a  Family — 
'Phalaropodidx.  This  section  comprehends  three  species 
oi^Jy,  known  as  Phalaropcs  or  swimming  Sandpipers,  which 
are  at  once  distinguished  by  the  membranes  that  fringe 
their  toes,  in  two  of  the  species  forming  marginal  lobes,' 
and  by  the  character  of  their  lower  plumage,  which  is  as 
close  as  that  of  a  Duck,  and  is  obviously  connected  with 
their  natatory  habits.  The  distinctions  between  Toianinx 
and  Trinffinse,  though  believed  to  be  real,  are  not  so 
easily  drawn,  and  space  is  wanting  here  to  describe  them 
minutely.  The  most  obvious  may  be  said  to  lie  in  the 
ajcute  or  blunt  form  of  the  tip  of  the  bill  (with  which  is 
Associated  a  less  or  greater  development  of  the  sensitive 
nerves  running  almost  if  not  quite  to  its  extremity,  and 
therefore  greatly  influencing  the  mode  of  feeding)  and  in 
the  style  of  plumage — the  Tringins:,  with  blunt  and 
flexible  bills,  mostly  assuming  a  summer-dress  in  which 
Bome  tint  of  chestnut  or  reddish-brown  is  very  prevalent, 
while  the  Totaninx,  with  acute  and  stiffer  bills,  display  no 
such  lively  colours.  Furthermore,  the  Tringinx,  except 
[when  actually  breeding,  frequent  the  sea-shore  much  more 
ithan  do  the  Totaninx.'^  To  the  latter  belong  the  Geeen- 
feHANK  (vol.  xi.  p.  173)  and  Redshank  (vol.  xx.  p.  317), 
as  well  as  the  Common  Sandpiper  of  English  books,  the 
*'  Summer-Snipe  "  above-mentioned,  a  bird  hardly  exceed- 
ing a  Skylark  in  size,  and  of  very  general  distribution 
throughout  the  British  Islands,  but  chiefly  frequenting 
clear  streams,  especially  those  with  a  gravelly  or  rocky 
bottom,  and  most  generally  breeding  on  the  beds  of  sand 
or  shingle  on  their  banks.  It  usually  makes  its  appearance 
in  Jlay,  and  from  thence  during  the  summer-months  may 
be  seen  in  pairs  skimming  gracefully  over  the  water  from 
'one  bend  of  the'  stream  to  another,  uttering  occasionally  a 

'  These  are  Phalaropus  fHlicarius  and  P.  (or  Lubipes)  hijperborms, 
and  on  that  account  were  thought  by  some  of  the  older  writers  to  be 
allied  to  the  CooTS  (vol.  vi.  p.  341).  The  third  species  is  P.  (or 
Stcganopus)  wilsoni.  All  are  natives  of  the  higher  parts  of  the  northern 
licniispliere,  .and  the  last  is  especially  American,  though  perhaps  a 
str.-uigler  to  Europe. 

'  There  are  uufortnn.ately  no  English  words  adequate  to  express 
these  two  sections.  By  some  British  writers  the  Tringinx  have  been 
•  iidic.-ited  as  "Stints,"  a  term  cognate  with  Stunt  and  wholly  inapplic- 
able to  many  of  them,  while  recent  American  wi-iters  restrict  to  them 
jthe  name  of  "Sandpiper,"  and  call  the  ToCaninie,  to  which  that  name 
b  especially  appropriate,  "  WiUets." 


shrill  but  plaintive  whistle,  or  running  nimbly  along  the 
margin,  the  mouse-coloured  plumage  of  its  back  and.wings 
making  indeed  but  little  show,  though  the  pure  white  of 
its  lower  parts  often  renders  it  conspicuous.  The  nest,  in 
which  four  eggs  are  laid  with  their  pointed  ends  meeting 
in  its  centre  (as  is  usual  among  Limicolinc  birds),  is  seldom 
far  from  the  water's  edge,  and  the  eggs,  as  well  as- the 
newly-hatched  and  down-covered  young,  so  closely  resemble 
the  surrounding  pebbles  that  it  takes  a  sharp  eye  to 
discriminate  them.  Later  in  the  season  family-parties  miy 
be  seen  about  the  larger  w'aters,  whence,  as  autuun 
advances,  they  depart  for  their  winter-quarters.  The 
Common  Sandpiper  is  found  over  the  greater  part  of  the 
Old  World,  In  summer  it  is  the  most  abundant  bird  of 
its  kind  in  the  extreme  north  of  Europe,  and  it  extends 
across  Asia  to  Japan.  In  winter  it  makes  ifs  way  to 
India,  Australia,  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  America 
its  place  is  taken  by  a  closely  kindred  species,  which  is  said 
to  have  also  occurred  in  England — T.  macularius,  tlie 
"  Peetweet,"  or  Spotted  Sandpiper,  so  called  from  its  usual 
cry,  or  from  the  almost  circular  marks  wtich  spot  its  lower 
plumage.  In  habits  it  is  very  similar  to  its  congener  of 
the  Old  World,  and  in  winter  it  migrates  to  the  Antilles 
and  to  Central  and  South  America.  Of  other  Totanins, 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  is  that  to  which  the  inappro- 
priate name  of  Green  Sandpiper  has  been  assigned,  the 
Totanus  or  Helodromas  ochi-opus  of  ornithologists,  which 
most  curiously  differs  (so  far  as  is  known)  from  all  others 
of  the  group  both  in  its  osteology  '  and  mode  of  nidifica- 
tion,  the  hen  laying  her  eggs  in  the  deserted  nests  of  other 
birds, — Jays,  Thrushes,  or  Pigeons, — but  nearly  always 
at  some  height  (from  3  to  30  feet)  from  the  ground 
(Proc.  Zoo/.  Society,  1863,  pp.  529-532).  This  species 
occurs  in  England  the  whole  year  round,  and  is  pre- 
sumed to  have  bred  here,  though  the  fact  has  never 
been  satisfactorily  proved,  and  our  knowledge  of  its  erratic 
habits  comes  from  naturalists  in  Pomerania  and  Sweden  ; 
yet  in  the  breeding-sea.son,  even  in  England,  the  cock-bird 
has  bee'n  seen  to  rise  high  in  air  and  perform  a  variety  of 
evolutions  on  the  wing,  all  the  while  piping  what,  without 
?.ny  violence  of  language,  may  be  called  a  song.  This 
Sandpiper  is  characterized  by  its  dark  upper  jjlumage, 
which  contrasts  strongly  with  the  white  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  back  and  gives  the  bird  as  it  flies  away  frqjn  its  dis- 
turber much  the  look  of  a  very  large  House-Martin.  T)je 
so-called  Wood-Sandpiper,  T.  glareola,  which,  tliough  mucb 
less  common,  is  known  to  have  bred  in  England,  has  a 
considerable  resemblance  to  the  species  last  mentioneJ, 
but  can  at  once  be  distinguished,  and  often  as  it  flies,  I  y 
the  feathers  of  the  axillary  plume  being  white  barred  wiih 
greyish-black,  while  in  the  Green  Sandpiper  they  £.yo 
greyish-black  barred  with  white.  It  is  an  abundant  bird 
in  most  parts  of  northern  Europe,  migrating  in  winter 
very  far  to  the  southward. 

Of  the  section  Tringinx  tne  best  known  are  the  Knot 
(vol.  xiv.  p.  129)  and  the  Dunlin,  T.  alpina.  The  latttr, 
often  also  called  Ox-bird,  Plover's-Page,  Purre,  and  Stint,  -- 
names  which  it  shares  with  some  other  species, — not  oidy 
breeds  commonly  on  many  of  the  elevated  moors  of  Britain, 
but  in  autumn  resorts  in  countless  flocks  to  the  shores,  where 
indeed  a  few  may  be  seen  at  almost  any  time  of  year.  In 
seasonal  diversity  of  plumage  it  is  -scarcely  excelled  by  any 
bird  of  its  kind,  being  in  winter  of  a  nearly  uniform  ash- 
grey  above  and  white  beneath,  while  in  summer  the 
feathers  of  the  back  are  black,  with  deep  rust-coloured 
edges,  and  a  broad  black  belt  occupies  the  breast.     The 

'  It  possesses  only  a  single  pair  of  posterior  "cmargin.itions"  on  its 
sternum,  in  this  respect  resembling  the  Ruff  (supra,  p.  54).  Among 
the  Plovers  (vol.  xix.  p.  227)  and  Snipes  {q.v.)  other  similarjjr  ex- 
ceptional cases  may  be  found. 


S  A.  .N  — S.A..N 


2G1 


Duolin  varies  considerably  in  size,  and  to  somd  extent 
according  to  locality,  examples  from  North  America  being 
almost  always  recognizable  from  their  greater  bulk,  while 
in  Europe,  besides  the  ordinary  form,  there  appears  to  bo 
a  smaller  race  which  has  received  the  name  of  T.  schin:i, 
but  no  other' ditlerenco  is  perceptible.  In  the  breediug- 
eeason,  while  performing  the  amatory  flights  in  which  like 
all  Sandpipers  ho  indulges,  the  male  Dunlin  utters  a  most 
peculiar  and  far-sounding  whistle,  quito  impossible  to 
syllable,  and  somewhat  resembling  the  continued  ringing 
of  a  high-toned  but  yet  musical  bell.  Next  to  the  Dunlin 
and  Knot  the  commonest  British  Tringinx  are  the  Sander- 
ling,  Calidris  arenaria  (to  be  distinguished  from  every 
other  bird  of  the  group  by  wanting  a  hind  toe),  the  Purplo 
Sandpiper,  T.  striata  or  maritima,  the  Curlew-Sandpiper, 
T.  sitbarquata,  and  the  Little. and  Temminck's  Stints,  T. 
viiauta  and  T.  temmincki,  but  want  of  space  forbids  mora 
than  the  record  of  their  names  ;  and  for  the  same  reason 
.no  notice  can  here  be  taken  of  the  many  other  species, 
chiefly  American,^  belonging  to  this  group.  Two  other 
birds,  however,  must  be  mentioned.  These  are  tha 
J-iroad-billed  Sandpiper,  T.  'platyrhyncha,  of  the  Old 
World,  which  seems  to  be  more  Snipe-like  than  any  that 
are  usually  kept  in  this  section,  and  the  marvellous 
Spoon-billed  Sandpiper,  Eurinorhynchiis  2]ygmx'us,  whose 
true  home  has  still  to  be  discovered,  according  to  the 
experience  of  Earon  Nordenskjdld  in  the  memorable 
voyage  of  the  "  Vega."  (a.  n.) 

SANDROCOTTUS  (Chandeagupta),  founder  of  the 
Maurya  kingdom  in  India.  See  India,  vol.  xii.  p.  787,  and 
iPEfisiA,  vol.  xviii.  p.  536. 

SANDUSKY,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  capital 
of  Erie  county,  Ohio,  lies  at  the  mouth  of  Sandusky  river, 
210  miles  by  rail  north-east  of  Cincinnati,  and  is  hand- 
somely built  of  limestone  from  the  subjacent  strata  on 
ground  rising  gradually  from  the  shore  of  Lake  Erie.  The 
ooort  b juse  and  the  high  school  are  both  of  considerable 
architectural  note.  Besides  being  the  centre  of  a  great 
vine-growing  district,  Sandusky  has  the  largest  freshwater 
fish  market  in  the  United  States,  is  the  seat  of  the  State 
fish-hatchery  (which  annually  puts  about  3,000,000  young 
whitefish  into  the  lake),  and  has  attained  a  reputation  for 
the  manufacture  of  such  wooden  articles  as  handles,  spokes, 
"bent  work"  for'carriages,  carpenters'  tools,  ifcc.  The  city 
is  coextensive  with  Portland  township.  Its  population  was 
13,000  in  1870  and  15,838  in  1880. 
"■SANDWICH,  an  English  borough,  market-town,  and 
Cinque  Port,  is  situated  in  the  cast  of  Kent,  opposite  the 
Downs,  on  a  branch  of  the  South-Eastern  Eailway,  and  on 
the  Stour,  2  miles  from  the  sea,  12  miles  east  of  Canter- 
bury, and  4  north-west  c£  Deal.  The  streets  are  narrow  and 
the  houses  irregularly  built.  The  old  line  of  the  walls  on 
the  land  side  is  marked  by  a  public  walk.  The  Fishers' 
Gate  and  a  gateway  called  the  Barbican  arc  interesting ; 
but  the  four  principal  gates  were  pulled  down  in  the  last 
century.  St  Clement's  church  has  a  fine  Norman  central 
tower,  and  St  Peter's,  said  to  date  from  the  reign  of  King 
John,  has  interesting  medioeval  monuments.  The  grammar 
school  founded  by  Sir  Roger  Manwood  in  1564  is  now  in 
abeyance.  There  are  three  ancient  hospitals;  St  Bar- 
tholomew's has  a  fine  Early  English  chapel  of  the  12th 

'  A  "Monograph  of  tho  Tringem  of  Noitli  America"  by  Prof.  Coucs 
was  published  in  the  I'roceciUngs  of  the  Philndelpliia  Acailcniy  for 
1861  (pp.  190-205),  Imt  is  of  courdo  now  out  of  dnto.  Schlegel's 
list  of  "  Scolopacea  "  iu  tho  Musluiii  dcs  J'ai/s-Bas  is  tlio  best  Rcncral 
ilescription  wo  have,  but  that  is  only  u  few  years  later  (1804),  and 
rcquirta  much  modification  to  be  put  on  a  level  with  tho  knowlcd^^o 
of  the  present  day.  Tho  very  rare  Tringa  Icucu/jkra  of  tho  ohk-r 
Jystenmtists,  figured' by  Latham  {Synopsis,  pi.  82),  tho 'typo  of  tho 
genus  Prosotmtia  of  lionnparte,  acorns  to  he  ranUy  •  Rallino  form 
'Complca  Jlemlus,  xxxi.  p.  Oti'Z  uud  xlLii.  p.  SOS). 


century.  Until  tho  beginning  of  the  16th  century  Sand- 
wich was  of  considerable  importance  as  a  port,  but*  after 
the  filling  up  of  the  harbour  with  sand  about  the  begin- 
ning of  tho  IGth  century  it  fell  into  decay.  The  principal 
industries  of  the  town  are  market-gardening,  tanning, 
wool-sorting,  and  brewing.  Coal,  timber,  and  iron  are 
imported.  Sandwich  returned  two  members  to  parliament 
till  1880,  and  was  merged  iu  the  St  Augustine's  division 
of  the  county  in  18Sj.  The  parliamentary  borough,  which 
included  Deal  and  Walmer  (area  2G84  acres),  had  in  1881 
a  population  of  1.5,655,  while  that  of  tho  municipal 
borough  farea  706  acres)  was  2816. 

In  the  Norniau  survey  Sandwich  is  described  as  a  borougli.  It 
rose  into  importance  on  the  decline  of  tho  Partus  liiUiipcnsis,  its 
name  denoting  the  situation  on  tho  s.mds.  The  Danes  frequently 
attackc'l  it  in  the  10th  and  11th  centuries;  and  it  was  repeatedly 
plundered  by  tho  French  in  tho  15th  ceatury.  It  was  fortified  by 
Edward  VI.  Sandwich  was  incorporated  by  Edward  tho  Confessor, 
and  received  its  last  charter  from  diaries  II. 

SANDWICH,  EowAED  MosTAOtr,  Earl  of  (1625- 
1672),  general  and  admiral,  was  tho  son  of  Sir  Sidncj 
Montagu,  youngest  brother  of  Edward  Lord  Montagu  oi 
Boughton,  and  was  born  2"th  July  1625.  In  August 
1643  he  raised  a  regiment  in  the  service  of  the  Parliament, 
with  which  he  specially  distinguished  himself  at  Marston 
Jloor,  Naseby,  and  tha  siege  of  Bristol.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  "Little  Parliament"  (1653),  and  one  of 
the  committee  for  regulating  tie  customs.  In  November 
he  was  elected  to  the  council  of  state.  In  the  first  Pro- 
tectorate parliament  he  sat  for  Huntingdonshire.  In 
January  1656  h,e  succeeded  Penn  as  admiral,  and  he  was 
associated  with  Blake  in  his  expedition  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean in  the  same  year.  After  the  treaty  with  France 
against  Spain  in  1657  he  held  command  of  the  fleet  sent 
to  prevent  the  relief  of  the  three  coast  towns — Gravelines, 
Mardike,  and  Dunkirk — besieged  by  the  French,  and  w^* 
successful  in  defeating  an  attempt  by  a  great  Spanish 
force  to  retake  Jlardike.  After  the  death  of  Cromwell 
he  was  sent  with  a  fleet  to  the  North  Sea  to  enter  into 
negotiations  with  the  Northern  powers,  but,  communi- 
cations having  been  opened  with  him  on  behalf  of 
Charles  U.,  he<returned  to  England  only  to  find  that  tho 
conspiracy  of  Sir  George  Booth  had  miscarried,  where- 
upon, after  a  lame  explanation,  ho  was  dismissed  from  his 
command.  At  the  Restoration,  having  commanded  tho 
fleet  which  conveyed  tho  king  to  England,  he  was  made 
Knight  of  the  Garter,  a'nd  soon  afterwards  elevated  to  the 
peerage  as  Baron  Montagu  of  St  Neots,  Viscount  Hin- 
chinbroke,  and  Earl  of  Sandwich.  During  tho  war  with 
the  Dutch  in  1664-65  he  commanded  tho  Blue  squadron 
under  the  duke  of  York,  and  specially  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  great  battle  of  3d  June  16G5.  After  his  return 
to  England  he  was  sent  to  negotiate  a  peace  between 
Spain  and  Portugal,  and  also  a  treaty  of  commerce  with 
Spain.  On  a  renewal  of  the  war  in  1672  ho  again  com- 
manded tho  Blue  squadron  under  the  duke  of  Vork,  and 
during  tho  fight  in  Southwold  Bay,  on  tho  28th  May,  hi? 
ship,  the  Royal  James,  was  set  on  fire  by  tho  Dutch,  when 
he  leaped  overboard  and  was  drowned.  His  body  was 
found  a  fortnight  aftwwards,  and  was  interred  in  Henry 
VII.'s  Chapel,  Westminster  Abbey. 

Lord  Sandwich's  translation  of  a  Spanish  work  on  the  j4rt  of 
Metals  by  Alvaro  Alonso  Barba  (1610)  appeared  ill  1074.  Soyeral 
of  bis  letters  during  tho  Spanish  negotiations  Imvo  been  published 
in  Arlihj,'toii'3  Letters,  and  vaiious  letters  to  him  by  Cromwell  will 
bo  found  in  Carlylo's  Cromxi'cll.  See  nlso  Original  Letters  anil 
Kcgotinlious  of  Sir  Riehard  Fansltaue,  the  Earl  of  Sandwich,  Iht 
Earl  of  Simdcrlaiid,  and  Sir  H'illiam  Oodolphin,  wherein  Ditxrst 
Matters  between  the  Three  Crowns  of  England,  Sjiain,  and  Portugal 
from  1G03  to  JC7S  an  set  in  a  clear  light. 

S.\NDWICH,  John  MoNTAnr,*'  Fotir.Tii  Eari,  ok 
(1718-1792),  was  born  3d  \ov»aubM  1718,  aud  succeeded 


262 


S  A  N  — IS  A  N 


his  granlfather  in  tbe  earldom,  20th  October  1729.  ITo 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
which  he  entered  in  1735.  After  a  voyage  round  the  Medi- 
terranean, he  returned  to  Engiand«and  began  to  take  an 
tictivo  int«rest  in  politics  as  a  supporter  of  Sir  Ilobert 
VValpole. '  A  clear  and  lucid  rather  than  a  brilliant 
debater,  his  style  of  address  always  won  the  attention  of 
his  audience,  and  his  accurate  knowledge  secured  their 
respect.  The  high  opinion  the  Government  entertained- 
of  his  judgment  and  his  diplomatic  abilities  was  evidenced 
by  his  .appointment  in  1746  as  plenipotentiary  to  the 
congress  at  Breda,  which  was  continued  till  peace  was 
negotiated  at  jVix-la-Chapdle  in  1748.  On  his  return  he 
became  first  lord  of  the  admiralty,  retaining  the  post 
until  June  1751.  He  held  the  same  ofBce  from  1763  to 
1765,  and  again  from  1771  till  the  dissolution  of  Lord 
North's  administration  in  1782.  He  died  30th  April 
1792.  His  Voyage  Bomid  the  Mediterranean  was  pub- 
lished posthumously  in  1799,  accompanied  with  a  memoir. 

SANDWICH  ISLANDS.     See  Hawahan  Islvnds. 

SANDYS,  Geoege  (1577-16-14),  famous  in  the  reigns 
of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  as  a  traveller  and  a  metrjv^l 
translator.  He  was  born  in  1577,  the  youngest  son  oi  an 
archbishop  of  York,  studied  at  St  Jlary  Hall,  Oxford,  and 
afterwards  probably  at  Corpas  Christi,  and  began  his  travels 
in  1610.  The  record  of  them  was  a  substantial  contribu- 
tion to  geography  and  ethnology,  written  in  a  style  always 
interesting  and  often  eloquent,  interspersed  witli  versified 
scraps  of  quotations  from  classical  authors.  He  travelled 
from  Venice  to  Constantinople,  thence  to  Egypt,  thence 
by  way  of  Mount  Sinai  to  Palestine,  and  back  to  Venice 
by  way  of  Cyprus,  Sicily,  Naples,  and  Eome.  Later  on 
in  his  life  he  published  translations  of  Ovid's  Metamor- 
phases,  the  first  book  of  the  jEneid,  and  various  books  of 
Scripture.  His  verse  was  praised  by  Dryden,  and  de- 
servedly so,  for  it  has  vitality  as  well  as  a  clearly  marked 
rhythm.  He  died  in  1644.  Selections  from  his  poetry 
^were  published  by  the  Rev.  H.  J.  Todd  in  1839. 

SAN  FERNANDO,  formerly  Isla  de  Leon,  a  fortified 
city  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Cadiz,  near  the  head  of 
the  inner  bay,  and  9J  miles  by  rail  from  the  city  of  Cadiz 
(see  vol.  iv.  p.  627),  is  a  modern  town  with  straight  and 
level  streets,  two  clmrches,  two  hospitals,  several  barracks, 
and  a  school  of  navigation,  with  an  observatory.  It  has 
considerable  trade  in  the  salt  produced  in  the  neighbouring 
"  Salinas."  The  population  within  the  municipal  limits 
'(which  include  the  "  poblaeion''  of  San  Carlos  and  the  naval 
grsenal  of  La  Carraca)  was  returned  as  26,346  in  1877. 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the 
largest  commercial  city  of  California  and  of  the  Pacific 
coast,  is  situated  in  37°  47'  22"-55  N.  lat.  and  122°  25' 
40"'76  W.  long.,  on  the  end  of  a  peninsula  which  has  the 
Pacific  Ocean  on  one  side  and  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  on 
the  other.  The  width  of  this  tongue  of  land  within  the 
city  limits  is  about  6  miles,  and  its  whole  length  about  26. 
The  original  site  of  San  Francisco  was  so  uninviting  that 
many  of  the  pioneers  doubted  if  a  place  of  much  importance 
could  ever  spring  up  there.  The  hills  (Russian  Hill,  360 
feet;  Telegraph  Hill,  294  feet;  and  a' number  of  others, 
ranging  from  75  to  120  feet)  were  barren  and  precipitous, 
and  the  interspaces,  especially  on  the  westerly  side,  were 
made  up  largely  of  shifting  sand-dunes;  on  the  east  side, 
however,  the  land  sloped  gently  towards  the  bay,  and  there 
was  the  further  advantage  of  a  small  cove  extending  inland 
nearly  to  the  present  line  of  Montgomery  Street.  This  cove 
has  since  been  filled  up  and  built  over.  After  an  attempt 
to  found  the  commercial  metropolis  at  Benicia,  30  mUes 
north  on  the  Straits  of  Carquinoz,  it  was  evident  that  no 
other  place  within  easy  distance  from' the  ocean  possessed 
so  many  advantages  for  the  site  of  a  city  as  this  barren 


peninsula.  The  Bay  of  San  Francisco  is  reached  from  ttic 
ocean  through  the  Golden  Gate,  a  strait  about  5  miles 
long  and  averaging  I  mile  in  .width,  with  a  dcj^  :h  of  30 
feet  on  the  bar  at  the  entrance  and  from  60  to  100  feet 
witliin.  The  bay,  which  extends  past  the  city  in  a  south- 
southeast  direction  for  about  40  miles,  is  about  seven 
miles  wide  in  front  of  the  city,  while  its  greatest  width  is 
12.  Connected  with  the  Bay  of  San  Fiaiicisco  on  the 
north  by  a  strait  3  miles  wide  is  San  Pablo  Bay,  about  10 
miles  in  length  and  the  same  in  breadth,  having  at  its 
extreme  northerly  end  JIare  Island,  the  site  of  the  navy 
yard.  This  bay,  again,  is  connected  by  the  Straits  of 
Carquinez  with  Suisun  Bay,  8  miles  long  and  4  wide. 
The  total  length  of  these  bays  and  connecting  straits  is  65 
miles.  This  great  inland  water,  sheltered  and  for  the  most 
part  navigable  by  the  largest  craft,  receives  the  two  great 


Environs  of  San  Francisco. 

rivers  of  California,  the  Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin. 
In  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  are  Alcatraz  Island  (30  acres), 
strongly  fortified  ;  Angel  Island  (800  acres),  fortified;;  and 
Yerba  Buena,  or  Goat  Island  (about  300  acres). 

The  presidio  or  fortified  settlement  of  San  Francisco 
was  founded  on  17th  September  1776,  and  the  noission 
(San  Francisco  de  los  Dolores)  in  the  following  October. 
In  1830  the  population  of  the  presidio  consisted  of  about 
fifty  Spanish  soldiers  and  officers;  these  added  to  the 
number  at  the  mission  made  an  aggregate  population  of 
about  200.  Beechy,  who  visited  the  harbour  and  presidio 
in  1826,  has  left  the  following  description: — 

"  The  governoi'.s  abode  was  in  a  corner  of  the  presidio,  and  formed 
cue  end  of  a  row  of  which  the  olher  was  occiqiied  by  a  chaiiel ;  the 
opposite  side  was  broken  down,  and  little  better  than  a  heap  of 
rubbish  and  bones,  on  which  jackals,  dogs,  and  vultures  were  con- 
stantly preying.  'The  other  two  sides  of  the  qu.idrangle  contained 
stone  houses,  artificers'  shops,  and  thej.iil,  all  l^iilt  in  the  humblest 
style  with  badly  I>tirned  bricks  and  roofed  with  tiles.  The  chapel  and 
the  Government  house  were  distinguished  by  being  whitewashed." 


SAN      FRANCISCO 


263 


The  presidio  enclosure  was  about  300  yards  square. 
In  1834,  when  it  was  secularized  and  began  to  be  known 
by  the  secular  name  of  Yerba  Buena,  the  mission  Dolores 
had  a  population  of  500.  In  the  summer  of  184G  an 
American  man-of-war  took  possession  of  the  place.  In  the 
early  part  of  1849  the  inhabitants  numbered  about  2000, 
and  the  embrj'O  city  had  already  come  to  be  known  by  its 
future  name  of  San  Francisco.  In  consequence  of  the  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  California  a  strong  drift  of  population 
set  in  towards  the  placer  mines,  and  at  the  end  of  1849 
there  were  20,000  people  in  the  city.  The  first  legislature 
•f  California  granted  a  charter  to  San  Francisco  on  1st  May 
1850.  Prior  to  that  date  the  government  of  the  pueblo 
had  been  administered  by  an  alcalde.  The  pueblo  grant 
originally  made  by  the  king  of  Spain  contained  four  square 
(Spanish)  leagues  of  land ;  this  grant  was  subsequently 
confirmed  to  San  Fran- 
cisco by  an  Act  of  Con- 
gress. The  jurisdiction 
of  the  municipality  ex- 
tends over  the  islands  in 
tide  bay.  The  area  in- 
cluded in  the  limits  of  the 
city  exceeds  the  original 
four  square  leagues  con- 
siderably, including  what 
were  originally  denomi- 
nated "swamp  and  over- 
flowed lands"  (see  Dwi- 
nelle's  Colonial  Histori/). 
'  In  the  first  stages  of 
its  history  the  buildings 
of  the  city  were  chiefly 
of  wood, — in  many  cases 
the  frames  and  coverings 
having  been  brought  from 
the  Atlantic  States  round 
Cape  Horn  in  sailing 
vessels.  Within  a  few 
months  of  the  establish- 
mentof  municipal  govern- 
ment the  city  suffered 
Beverely  on  more  than 
rone  occasion  from  fire. 
The  fire  of  4th  May  1850 
destroyed  property  to 
the  value  of  about 
$3,000,000;  another  in 
the  following  month  was 


west,  a  distance  of  3  miles- or  more,  ine  more  important 
streets  are  paved  for  the  most  part  with  cobble  stones  and 
basalt  blocks ;  but  asphalt  on  a  stone  or  concrete  founda- 
tion has  begun  to  be  used.  Among  the  public  buildings 
and  institutions  of  San  Francisco  are  the  mint,  appraisers' 
stores,  subtreasury,  custom-house,  merchants'  exchange 
stock  exchange,  city-hall,  industrial  school,  house  of  correc- 
tion, almshouse,  Jlasonic  Temple,  new  Oddfellows'  building 
safe  deposit,  and  seven  theatres  and  opera-houses.  The 
Palace  Hotel  cost  83,250,000,  and  can  accommodate  1200 
guests.  The  city  has  eleven  public  squares.  Its  greatest 
attraction  is  the  Golden  Gate  Park  of  1050  acres,  3  miles 
long  and  half  a  mile  wide,  having  the  ocean  for  its  extreme 
westerly  boundary.  The  greater  part  of  this  area  was  for- 
merly a  shifting  sand-dune.  An  extensive  glass-house  in 
a  central  position  is  filled  with  the  rarest  tropical  and  semi- 


^^ 


SriJc  of  Yards 


QOaO 


MMffim^^ 


ra«» 


^^m 


o^W 


8^' 


'^ 


-SUp» 


Baaeo 


Q! 


third  in  September  was 
estimated   at   §500,000. 

These  occurrences  naturally  led  to  the  employment  of  more 
substantial  building  material  in  some  cases,  granite  being 
imported  from  China  for  some  buildings,  and  iron  and 
brick  being  used  to  a  considerable  extent  on  others ;  but 
to  this  day  nearly  all  the  private  dwellings  of  the  city  are 
of  wood.  Since  1850,  however,  the  damage  from  fire  in 
the  portion  of  the  city  occupied  by  private  houses  has 
been  remarkably  small, — partly  because  of  the  use  of  red- 
wood instead  of  pine.  In  the  business  houses  erected 
recently  the  increase  of  solidity  and  costliness  Las  been 
very  marked. 

Throughout  a  considerable  part  of  the  city  the  streets 
ire  laid  out  in  rectangular  form,  and  nowhere  with  any 
reference  to  the  natural  elevations.  The  most  imporlaot 
business  thoroughfare  is  Market  Street,  extending  from 
)be  w:atcr  front  at  the  ferry  landings  to  the  hills  on  the 


r" 


Snn  Francisco  (uorth-castern  part). 

tropical  plants  and  shrubs ;  a  large  part  of  the)  area  is 
planted  with  forest  trees,  or  is  laid  down  in  grass ;  the 
walks  and  drives  are  well  planned  and  well  kept. 

San  Francisco  is  traversed  in  various  directions  by 
horse  railroads,  which  extend  from  the  water  front  to  the 
suburbs.  There  are  also  50  miles  of  wire  cable  roads, 
which  are  yearly  increasing.  These  cable  tramways 
extend  2  miles  on  Cloy  Street,  overcoming  an  elevation 
of  120  feet.  The  cost  of  their  construction  and  equip- 
ment has  ranged  from  SIOO.OOO  to  ?12.">,000  per  milo. 
The  speed  is  usually  about  6  miles  an  hour.  San  Fran- 
cisco is  the  terminus  of  two  continental  railways,  viz.,  the 
Union  and  Central  Pacific  and  tlio  Southern  Pacific ; 
while  a. third,  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  enters  the  city  over 
a  leased  line  from  Mohave.  Two  narrow-gnugo  lines  and 
one  broad-gauge,  each  less  than  a  hundred  miles  long,  to 


264 


SAN      FRANCISCO 


important  points  in  the  State,  are  connected  with  the  city 
|by  means  of  ferries. 

The  population  of  San  Francisco,  as  shown  by  the 
census  returns,  was  34,000  in  1850;  in  1860,  56,802; 
in  1870,  149,473;  and  in  1880,  233,959  (132,608  males, 
101,351  females);  in  1885  it  was  estimated,  on  the  basis 
of  the  school  census,  at  275,00C'  (Chinese,  30,000).  At 
the  last  presidential  election  (l884)  the  total  vote  cast  in 
the  city  was  50,167,  the  total  foreign  vote  being  25,254; 
of  these  12,837  were  British  (10,206  of  them  Irish)  and 
7052  Germans.  Of  the  90,468  children  in  the  city  under 
seventeen  reported  for  the  fiscal  j'ear  1884-85,  50,973 
had  foreign-born  parents,  and  15,400  more  had  one  parent 
of  foreign  origin.  In  social  customs,  trade  usages,  amuse- 
ments, and  religious  observances,  the  large  foreign  popu- 
lation of  San  Francisco  contributes  materially  to  the 
formation  of  its  liberal  and  cosmopolitan  character. 

Administration,  <tc.  — In  July  1856  the  city  and  county,  which 
until  then  hid  maintained  separate  governments,  were  consolidated 
in  one  organization.  The  government  is  administered  by  a  mayor 
and  a  board  of  twelve  supervisors,  with  the  usual  oiEcers  common 
to  municipal  and.  county  organizations.  There  is  also  a  superior 
court  having  twelve  departments,  with  one  judge  for  each,  a  police 
court,  and  justices'  courts.  The  supreme  court  of  the  State  holds 
a  number  of  terms  each  year  in  San  Francisco.  The  U.  S.  district 
and  circuit  courts  also  hold  regular  terms  in  the  city.  There  is  a 
well-organized  and  efficient  police  force  of  400  men.  On  1st  July 
1884  the  fire  department  had  315  men.  The  city  is  supplied  with 
gas  by  two  companies.  Water  is  supplied  by  the  Spring  Valley 
Company,  principally  from  San  Mateo  county.  The  water  is 
brought  in  three  lines  of  wi-ought-iron  pipe;  the  largest,  which 
connects  the  Crystal  Springs  reservoir  with  the  city,  is  44  inches 
in  diameter  and  23  miles  in  length.  The  dally  consumption  of 
water  is  about  18,000,000  gallons.  The  company  is  able  to  supply 
25,000,000  gallons  daily. 

Finance. — The  assessment  roll  of  personal  property  in  1885 
showed  a  value  of  $56,034,860, — that  of  real  estate  and  improve- 
ments being  returned  at  8171,433,126.  The  actual  value  is  not 
less  than  $350,000,000.  The  debt  of  the  municipality  is  3i  million 
dollars.  There  are  twelve  incorporated  commercial  or  discount 
banks,  "with  an  aggregate  paid-up  capital  of  $21,047,965,  and  a 
surplus  (1st  July  1885)  of  $8,945,647.  The  total  assets  are  set 
down  at  $50,894,972.  There  are  also  a  number  of  private  banks. 
There  are  eight  savings  banks,  all  but  one  of  these  having  some 
paid-up  capital,  the  aggregate  of  which  is  $1,651,200.  These 
tanks  on  the  1st  of  July  1885  held  deposits  to  the  amount  of 
$52,577,746;  they  had  also  a  surplus  beyond  the  paid-up  capital 
of  $2,067,209.  The  banks  having  a  subscribed  and  paid-up  capital 
pay  regular  dividends  on  the  entire  amount  of  nominal  capital  and 
about  4J  per  cent,  per  annum  to  depositors. 

Cormnerce. — The  exports  by  water  for  the  fiscal  year  1884-85 
amounted  to  $37,170,800,  and  the  imports  to  $37,171,100;  the 
items  of  import  and  export  by  rail  bring  the  total  up  to  $80,000,000. 
The  duties  collected  on  imports  were  $6,610,400.  The  treasure 
shipped  amounted  to  $17,540,000  ;  and  the  exports  of  quicksilver 
were  14,900  flasks,  valued  at  $438,800.  The  receipts  of  treasure 
from  all  productive  sources  west  of  the  Missouri,  including  Mexico, 
reached  a  total  of  $40,253,635,  and  the  coinage  at  the  mint  in  San 
Francisco  was  of  the  value  of  $23,750,000,  with  an  addition  of 
$1,500,000  on  foreign  account  The  sailing  ships  entering  the 
port  numbered  619  (604,200  tons) ;  the  steamers  were  225.  Among 
the  imports  were— coffee,  19,505,800  lb;  sugar,  152,374,870  lb; 
coal,  900,000  tons  ;  lumber,  297,234,000  feet  (92,754,000  feet  red- 
wood, 177,305,000  feet  pine,  the  remainder  miscellaneous).  The 
exports  of  wheat  were  1,001,900  tons,  valued  at  $26,791,500;  this 
([uantity  was  exported  in  366  ships,  the  freights  to  Europe  ranging 
from  253.  to  48s.  6d.  per  ton.  British  iron  sailing  vessek  have  the 
preference  for  wheat  exportation,  and  obtain-  the  highest  rates.  A 
much  larger  class  of  vessels  is  employed  in  this  trade  than  formerly, 
the  cargoes  now  averaging  about  3000  tons.  There  are  regular 
steamsliip  lines  connecting  San  Francisco  with  Mexican,  Central 
American,  Australian,  Hawaiian,  Japanese,  and  Chinese  ports, 
and  with  the  chief  port  of  British  Columbia.  The  Pacific  ^V^laling 
Company  owns  five  or  sLx  ships,  principally  steamers,  employed  in 
the  Arctic  whale  fishery.  The  same  company  has  also  extensive 
works  for  refining  the  oil  in  San  Francisco.  There  it  one  stone 
dry  dock  admitting  vessels  of  6000  tons,  and  two  or  more  floating 
docks  which  can  take  on  vessels  from  500  to  800  tons  burthen.  A 
sea-wall  is  in  process  of  construction  by  State  authority  round  the 
deep-water  front  to  prevent  the  shoaling  of  the  water  in  the  slips 
resulting  in  part  from  the  gradual  washing  down  of  debris  from 
the  hills  and  steep  slopes  of  the  city. 

Uanvfactures. — For  many  years  manufactures  made  ilow  pro- 


gress. The  city  was  remote  from  the  great  ceatres  of  poptJation, 
and  labour  was  very  costly.  But  these  disadvantages  have  been 
gradually  overcome.  In  1875  there  were  18,000  persons  employed 
in  manufacturing  establishments,  and  the  value  produced  was 
$40,000,000.  In  1885  38,919  persons  were  so  employed,  and  the 
estimated  value  for  the  business  year  ending  1st  July  was 
$86,417,200.  Subjoined  are  some  of  the  leading  manufactures, 
with  the  number  of  persons  employed  and  the  annual  value  of 
their  production  :— bags,  300,  $1,500,000  ;  boots  and  shoes,  3500, 
$5,300,000;  cigar-boxes,  260,  $5,000,000;  wooden  boxes,  350, 
81,000,000;  brass-fouudries,  350,  $53.';, 000  ;  breweries,  4.50, 
$2,450,000  ;  cig.irs,  8000,  $4,850,000  ;  clothing,  1900,  $3,750,000  ; 
coffee  and  spices,  $900,000  ;  cordage  and  ropes,  150,  $600,000  ; 
crackers,  150,  $620,000  ;  dry  docks  (stone),  6,  $675,000  ;  flour,  175, 
$2,230,000;  foundries,  2000,  $5,500,000 ;  furs,  170,  $500,000; 
furniture,  1000,  $2,000,000;  gas-works,  460,  $12,000,000;  harness, 
440,  $1,150,000;  jewellery,  165,  $600,000;  linseed  oil,  55, 
$600,000;  pickles  and  fruits,  2000,  $1,700,000;  provision-packing, 
250,  $1,900,000 ;  rolling-mills,  650,  $1,880,000  ;  sashes,  doors,  &c., 
1550,  $5,010,000 ;  ship-yards,  200,  $503,000 ;  shirts,  2550, 
$1,000,000;  soap,  190,  $715,100;  sugar-refineries,  360,  $8,700,000; 
tanneries,  335,  $1,700,000;  tinwares,  180,  $525,000;  woollen- 
mills,  1500,  $1,900,000.  In  the  laundries,  it  may  be  added,  935 
whites  and  1300  Chinese  were  employed. 

Churches  and  Charities. — There  are  70  Protestant  churches  in 
the  city,  representing  nearly  all  the  denominations  of  the  country. 
Besides  these  there  are  19  Roman  Catholic  churches  and  a  number 
of  chapels  connected  with  the  various  hospitals  and  schools.  There 
are  7  synagogues  and  1  Greek  church  (Russian).  Including  the 
chapels,  the  total  number  of  places  of  worship  may  be  set  down  at 
100.  With  few  exceptions,  the  church  edifices  are.  not  imposing. 
In  consequence  of  the  rapid  growth  of  the  city  wood  has  been 
employed  in  a  major'ty  of  cases,  but  this  is  now  being  discarded 
for  stone.  The  asylums  and  benevolent  associations  are  numerous 
and  well-supported.  The  more  prominent  of  these  institutions  are 
the  Protestant  Orphan  Asylum  (214  children),  Catholic  Orphan 
Asylum,  Pacific  Hebrew  Orphan  Asylum,  Magdalen  Asylum,  Old 
People's  Home,  Ladies'  Protection  and  Relief  Society,  Little  Sisters' 
Infant  Shelter,  Seamen's  Friends  Society,  San  Francisco  Benevolent 
Society,  Ladies'  United  Hebrew  Benevolent  Society,  San  Francisco 
Fruit  and  Flower  Mission,  Young  Men's  Christian  Association, 
Pacific  Homceopathic  Dispensary,  Lying-in  Hospital.  Besides 
these  there  are  a  great  number  of  associations  which  care  for  their 
members,  and  in  some  instances  provide  the  best  medical  attend- 
ance in  private  hospitals.  Nearly  all  classes  of  foreign  nativity 
have  established  benevolent  associations ;  British,  French,  and 
German  institutions  have  large  resources,  and  are  managed  with 
great  efficiency.  Nearly  all  the  secret  orders  (Masonic,  Oddfellows, 
&c. )  devoted  in  whole  or  in  part  to  works  of  benevolence  are 
strongly  represented. 

Public  Schools.  — The  first  public  school  was  established  in  April 
1849.  There  are  now  sixty-one  free  schools,  with  43,265  pupils 
and  an  average  daily  attendance  of  32,183.  The  number  of 
children  in  the  city  between  the  ages  of  five  and  seventeen  years 
according  to  the  census  report  of  1880  was  69,000.  The  number 
of  teachers,  male  and  female,  employed  in  the  public  school 
department  was  734,  the  number  of  schoolhouses  65,  and  the 
expenditure  for  the  fiscal  year  $817,168.  The  public  schools  are 
graded,  the  highest  grades  being  two  high  schools  for  boys  and 
girls  respectively.  Besides  the  day  schools  a  number  of  evening 
schools  are  provided.  There  are  upwards  of  25,000  children  who 
are  to  a  large  extent  provided  with  instruction  in  public  and  private 
schools  other  than  those  belonging  to  the  free-school  department. 
There  are  about  100  schools  in  the  city,  of  all  grades,  which  are 
supported  wholly  by  fees  and  voluntary  contributions.  Of  these 
the  Roman  Catholics  have  the  greatest  number,  the  latter  includ- 
ing two  colleges  and  a  number  of  convent  schools.  The  Protestant 
denominations  also  have  a  number  of  classical  and  secondary 
schools  of  great  excellence.  The  public-school  system  of  the  State 
culminates  in  the  university  of  California,  which  has  an  aggregate 
endowment  equal  to  about  $3,000,000.  The  institution  is  situated 
in  the  beautiful  suburban  town  of  Berkeley,  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  bay  (named  in  honour  of  Bishop  Berkeley).  Instruction  is 
furnished  free  to  all  pupils  who  comply  with  the  terms  of  admis- 
sion. There  are  also  a  number  of  professional  schools  in  the  city, 
chief  among  which  are  the  law,  medical,  and  dental  departments 
of  the  university,  the  Cooper  Medical  College,  the  Hahnemann 
Medical  College,  the  San  Francisco  Theological  Seminary,  and  an 
art  school  with  an  average  attendance  of  about  75  students.  The 
late  James  Lick  left  a  bequest  of  $540,000  for  the  endowment  of  a 
School  of  Mechanic  Arts,  and  among  other  bequests  a  large  one  for 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  founded  in  the  early  period  of  the  city. ' 
The  public-school  department  of  San  Francisco  is  under  the 
immediate  supervision  of  a  superintendent  and  twelve  school 
directors,  one  for  each  ward  of  the  city.  There  are  eighteen  publif 
libraries,  including  the  free  library  with  62,970  volumes.  The 
Mercantile  Library  Association  has  52,000  volumes,  the  Mechaniorf- 


S  A  N  — S  A  N 


2G5 


Institute  33,000,  the  Oddfellows'  Library  Association  39,000,  and 
the  Law  Library  23,355.  There  is  also  a  rich  and  extensive  State 
mineralogical  collection.  (W.  C.  B.) 

SANGALLO,  the  surname  of  a  Florentine  family, 
several  members  of  which  became  distinguished  in  the 
fine  arts. 

I.  GiuLiANO  Di  Sangallo  (1443-1517)  was  a  dis- 
tinguished Florentine  architect,  sculptor,  -tarsiatore,  and 
military  engineer.  His  father,  Francesco  di  Paolo  Giam- 
berti,  was  also  an  able  architect,  much  employed  byCosimo 
de'  Medici.  During  the  early  part  of  his  life  Giuliano 
[worked  chiefly  for  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  for  whom  he 
tuilt  a  fine  palace  at  Poggio-a-Cajano,  between  Florence 
and  Pistoia,  and  strengthened  the  fortifications  of  Flor- 
ence, Castellana,  and  other  places.  Lorenzo  also  employed 
him  to  build  a  monastery  of  Austin  Friars  outside  the 
Florentine  gate  of  San  Gallo,  a  nobly  designed  structure, 
which  was  destroyed  during  the  siege  of  Florence  in  1530. 
It  was  from  this  building  that  Giuliano  received  the 
name  of  Sangallo,  which  was  afterwards  used  by  so  many 
Italian  architects.  AYhile  still  in  the  pay  of  Lorenzo, 
Giuliano  visited  Naples,  and  worked  there  for  the  king, 
who  highly  appreciated  his  services  and  sent  him  back  to 
'Florence  with  many  handsome  presents  of  money,  plate, 
and  antique  sculpture,  the  last  of  which  Giuliano  presented 
to  his  patron  Lorenzo,  who  was  an  enthusiastic  collector 
of  works  of  classic  art.  After  Lorenzo's  death  in  1492, 
Giuliano  visited  Loreto,  and  with  great  constructive  skill 
built  the  dome  of  the  church  of  the  Madonna,  in  spite  of 
serious  difficulties  arising  from  its  defective  piers,  which 
.were  already  built.  In  order  to  gain  strength  by  means 
of  a  strong  cement,  Giuliano  built  his  dome  with  pozzolana 
brought  from  Rome.  Soon  after  this,  at  the  invitation  of 
Pope  Alexander  VI.,  Giuliano  went  to  Rome,  and  designed 
the  fine  panelled  ceiling  of  S.  Maria  Maggiore.  He  was 
also  largely  employed  by  Julius  II.,  both  for  fortification 
walls  round  the  castle  of  S.  Angelo,  and  also  to  build  a 
palace  adjoining  the  church  of  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli,  of 
which  Julius  had  been  titular  cardinal.  Giuliano  was 
much  disappointed  that  Bramante  was  preferred  to  him- 
self as  architect  for  the  new  basilica  of  St  Peter,  and  this 
led  to  his  returning  to  Florence,  where  he  was  warmly 
received  by  the  gonfaloniere  Pier  Soderini,  and  did  much 
service  to  his  native  state  by  his  able  help  as  a  military 
engineer  and  builder  of  fortresses  during  the  war  between 
Florence  and  Pisa.  Soon  after  this  Giuliano  was  recalled 
to  Rome  by  Julius  II.,  who  had  much  need  for  his  military 
talents  both  in  Rome  itself  and  also  during  his  attack 
upon  Bologna.  For  about  eighteen  months  in  1514-1515 
Giuliano  acted  as  joint-architect  to  St  Peter's  together 
with  Raphael,  but  owing  to  age  and  ill-health  he  resigned 
this  office  about  two  years  before  his  death  in  1517.  But 
little  remains  to  enable  one  to  judge  of  Giuliano's  talents 
in  the  artistic  side  of  his  profession ;  the  greater  part  of 
his  life  was  spent  on  military  works,  in  which  he  evidently 
showed  great  skill  and  practical  knowledge  of  construction. 

II.  Antonio  bi  Sangallo  (1448?-1534)  was  the 
younger  brother  of  Giuliano,  and  took  from  him  the  name 
of  Sangallo.  To  a  great  extent  he  worked  in  partnership 
with  his  brother,  but  he  also  e.xecutcd  a  number  of  inde- 
pendent works.  As  a  military  engineer  he  was  as  skilful 
as  Giuliano,  and  carried  out  important  works  of  walling 
and  building  fortresses  at  Arezzo,  Montefiascone,  Florence, 
and  Rome.  His  finest  existing  work  as  an  architect  is 
the  church  of  S.  Biagio  at  Montepulciano,  in  jilan  a 
Greek  cross  with  central  dome  and  two  towers,  much 
resembling,  on  a  small  scale,  Bramante's  design  for  St 
Peter's.  Ho  also  built  a  palace  in  the  same  city,  various 
churches  and  palaces  at  Monte  Sansavino,  and  at  Florence 
a  range  of  monastic  buildings  for  the  Servito  monks. 


Antonio  retired  early  from  the  practice  of  his  profession, 
and  spent  his  latter  years  in  farming. 

III.  Francesco  di  Sangallo  (1493-1570),  the  son  of 
Giuliano  di  Sangallo,  was  a  pupil  of  Andrea'  Sansovino, 
and  worked  chiefly  as  a  sculptor.  His  works  have  fur  the 
most  part  but  little  merit, — the  finest  being  his  noble 
effigy  of  Bishop  Leonardo  Bonafede,  which  lies  on  the 
pavement  of  the  church  of  the  Certosa,  near  Florence.  It 
is  simply  treated,  with  many  traces  of  the  better  taste  of 
the  15th  century.  His  other  chief  existing  work  is  the 
gronp  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  and  St  Anne,  executed  in 
1526  for  the  altar  of  Or  San  Michele,  where  it  still  stands. 

rV.  Bastiano  ur  Sangallo  (1481-1551),  Florentine 
sculptor  and  painter,  was  a  nephew  of  Giuliano  and 
Antonio.  He  is  usually  known  as  Aristotile,  a  nickname 
he  received  from  his  air  of  sententious  gravity.  He  was 
at  first  a  pupil  of  Perugino,  but  afterwards  became  a 
follower  of  Michelangelo.  His  life  is  given  at  great 
length  by  Vasari,  in  spite  of  his  being  an  artist  of  very 
mediocre  powers. 

V.  Antonio  di  Sangallo,  the  younger  (H546),  anotner 
nephew  of  Giuliano,  went  while  very  young  to  Rome,  and 
became  a  pupil  of  Bramante,  of  whose  style  he  was  after- 
wards a  close  follower.  He  lived  and  worked  in  Rome 
during  the  greater  part  of  his  life,  and  was  much  employed 
by  several  of  the  popes.  His  most  perfect  existing  work 
is  the  brick  and  travertine  church  of  S.  Maria  di  Loreto, 
close  by  Trajan's  column,  a  building  remarkable  for  the 
great  beauty  of  its  proportions,  and  its  noble  effect  pro- 
duced with  much  simplicity.  The  lower  order  is  square  in 
plan,  the  next  octagonal ;  and  the  whole  is  surmounted  by 
a  fine  dome  and  lofty  lantern.  The  lantern  is,  however,  a 
later  addition.  The  interior  is  very  impressive,  considering 
its  very  moderate  size.  Antonio  also  carried  out  the  lofty 
and  well-designed  church  of  S.  Giovanni  dei  Fiorentini, 
which  had  been  begun  by  Jacobo  Sansovino.  The  east  end 
of  this  church  rises  in  a  very  stately  way  out  of  the  bed  of 
the  Tiber,  near  the  bridge  of  S.  Angelo ;  the  west  end  has 
been  ruined  by  the  addition  of  a  later  facade,  but  the 
interior  is  a  noble  example  of  a  somewhat  dull  style.  Great 
skill  has  been  shown  in  successfully  building  this  large 
church,  partly  on  the  solid  ground  of  the  bank  and  partly 
on  the  shifting  sand  of  the  river  bod.  Antonio  also  built 
the  Cappella  Paolina  and  other  parts  of  the  Vatican,  together 
with  additions  to  the  walls  and  forts  of  the  Leonine  City. 
His  most  ornate  work  is  the  lower  part  of  the  cortile  of  the 
Farnese  palace,  afterwards  completed  by  Michelangelo,  a 
very  rich  and  well-proportioned  specimen  of  the  then 
favourite  design,  a  series  of  arches  between  engaged  columns 
supporting  an  entablature,  an  arrangement  taken  from  the 
outside  of  the  Colosseum.  A  palace  in  the  Via  Giuiia 
built  for  himself  still  exists  under  the  name  of  the  Palazzo 
Sacchetti,  but  is  much  injured  by  alterations.  Antonio 
also  constructed  the  very  deep  and  ingenious  rock-cut  well 
at  Orvieto,  formed  with  a  double  spiral  staircase,  like  the 
well  of  Saladin  in  the  citadel  of  Cairo. 

For  other  architects  called  Sangallo  who  lived  during  tho  16tU 

century  see  Eavioli,  /i'oti:ic  sui  laiori dei  nove  Da  San 

Gallo,  Homo,  1860.  (J.  H.  M.) 

SANGERHAUSEN,  an  ancient  town  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  is  situated  on  tho  Gonna,  near  the  south  base  of 
the  Harz  Mountains,  and  30  miles  to  the  west  of  Halle. 
In  1880  it  contained  913G  inhabitants,  chiefly  occupied  in 
the  manufacture  of  beetroot  sugar,  machinery,  buttons, 
iic,  in  agriculture,  and  in  the  coal  ond  co[iper 'mines  of  tho 
neighbourhood.  Sangcrhausen  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns 
in  Thuringia,  being  mentioned  in  a  document  of  the  10th 
century.  The  Romanesque  church  of  St  Ulrlcli  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Louis  the  "Springer,"  morgrave  of 
Thuringia,  in  1079. 

x.xr  -  .u 


266 


S  A  N  — S  A  N 


SAXFTEDRm.     See  Synedeium, 

PANITATIOX.     See  Hygiene  and  Sewaoe. 

SAN  JOSE,  tlie  capital  of  Costa  Kica,  Central  America, 
stands  3900  feet  above  tha  sea,  in  a  beautiful  valley  sur- 
rounded by  mountains,  on  the  west  side  of  the  main  range 
about  15  miles  north-west  of  Cartago  (the  ancient  capital), 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  railway  (1884).  Since 
1870  the  cathedral  has  been  restored,  a  liandsome  market- 
place with  offices  for  the  municipality  erected,  the  barracks 
rebuilt  aud  fortified,  and  several  of  the  streets  macadam- 
ized. San  Jos^  is  the  seat  of  the  national  bank  (founded 
in  1873)  and  of  a  university,  to  which  a  medical  school 
and  a  museum  are  attached.  The  population  is  estimated 
at  from  20,000  to  25,000.  As  a  city  it  dates  from  the 
latter  half  of  the  18th  century  ;  it  became  the  capital  after 
the  destruction  of  Cartago  by  earthquake  in  184rl. 

SAN  JOSE,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  capital  of 
Santa  Clara  county,  California,  lies  40  miles  south-east  of 
San  Francisco  and  8  miles  from  the  southern  end  of  San 
Francisco  Bay,  in  the  heart  of  the  beautiful  Santa  Clara 
Valley.  It  is  at  this  point  that  the  railways  from  the  two 
sides  of  the  bay  meet.  The  main  part  of  the  city  occupies 
a  gently  rising  plateau  between  the  Coyote  and  Guadalupe 
rivers.  Among  the  principal  buildings  are  a  fine  court- 
house, a  theatre,  a  city-hall,  two  markets,  a  music-hall, 
the  State  normal  school,  the  Methodist  "  university  of  tho 
Pacific,"  and  a  number  of  large  colleges  and  schools. 
Besides  three  public  parks  in  the  city  San  Jos6  possesses 
a  tract  of  400  acres  in  Penitencia  Canon,  7  miles  east, 
reserved  for  a  similar  purpose.  The  Lick  Observatory 
(founded  in  1884  on  the  top  of  Mount  Hamilton)  is  12 
miles  distant,  and  the  Almaden  quicksilver  mines  about 
14  miles.  The  population  of  the  city  was  9089  in  1870, 
and  12,567  (township  18,103)  in  1880. 

FounJed  by  the  Spanish  missionaries  in  1777,  San  Jos^  remained 
a  small  village  of  adobe  huts  till  the  annexation  of  the  country  to 
the  United  States.  The  first  session  of  the  legislature  of  Cahfoioia 
was  held  in  the  town  in  1849-50 

SAN  JUAN  BAUTISTA.     See  Porto  Rico. 

SAN  JUAN  DE  LA  FRONTERA,  the  capital  of  a 
province  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  is  situated  2310  feet 
above  the  sea  in  a  great  bend  of  the  Rio  de  San  Juan,  95 
miles  north  of  Mendoza  and  730  miles  from  Buenos  Ayres, 
with  which  it  is  about  to  be  connected  by  rail  (1886).  It 
is  mostly  built  of  sun-dried  bricks,  Las  a  cathedral,  several 
churches  and  schools,  two  banks,  and  a  botanical  garden, 
and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  with  Chili  by  the  Patos 
and  Uspallata  passes.  Population  estimated  at  20,000 
(1881). 

San  Juan  was  founded  in  1561  by  Captain  Castillo  on  a  site  4 
miles  to  the  north,  which  had  to  be  abandoned  owing  to  inundations 
and  is  now  called  Pueblo  Viejo.  From  1776  to  1820  the  city  wx5 
in  the  government  of  Mendoza.  President  Sarmiento  bestowed 
special  attention  on  this  his  native  town  and  g«ve  his  name  to  its 
principal  school,  famous  throughout  the  repubhc  for  its  excellent 
equipment. 

SAN  JUAN  DEL  NORTE.     See  Greytown. 

SAN  JUAN  (or  HARO)  ISLANDS,  an  archipelago 
(San  Juan,  Orcas,  Shaw,  Lopez,  Blakely,  Cypress,  &c.)  lying 
between  Vancouver  Island  and  the  mainland  of  North 
America,  which  were  for  many  years  the  subject  of  dispute 
between  the  British  and  the  United  States  Governments, 
and  were  finally  assigned  to  the  latter  country  by  the 
arbitration  of  the  emperor  of  Germany  (21st  October 
1872).  Geographically  the  cluster  certainly  belongs  to  the 
mainland,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  Rosario  Channel, 
generally  much  under  50  fathoms  in  depth,  while  Haro 
Strait,  separating  it  from  Vancouver  Jsland,  has  depths 
ranging  from  100  to  190  fathoms  In  1873  the  islands, 
formerly  considered  part  of  Whatcom  county,  Washington 
Territory,  were- made  the  separate  county  of  San  Juan.  Of 
the  total  area  of  200  square  miles,  about  60  are  in  San 


Juan,  60  in  Orcas,  and  30  in  Lopez.     The  population  was 
551  in  1870  and  948  in  1880. 

See  Papers  rchitiiig  lo  Ihc  Tfcniy  of  H'aJiinglon,  voL  v.,  1872, 
and  the  map  in  Petcrmanu's  Mitiltcilungcn^  1S73. 

SANKT  JOHANN.     See  Saarbrucken. 

SANKT  POLTEN,  a  small  town,  and  the  seat  of  a 
bishop,  in  Lower  Austria,  is  situated  on  the  Treisen,  a. 
tributary  of  the  Danube,  61  miles  west  of  Vienna  by  rail. 
It  contains  an  interesting  old  abbey  church,  founded  in 
1030  and  restored  in  1266  and  again  at  the  beginning  of 
the  18th  century.  There  are  several  religious  educational 
institutions  in  the  town,  and  a  military  academy  for 
engineers.  The  inhabitants,  10,015  in  number,  carry  on 
some  trade,  and  the  manufacture  of  iron  wire,  paper, 
weapons,  &c.  The  name  is  said  to  be  a  corruption  of 
Traisma  ad  S.  Hippolytum,  from  a  convent  that  formerly 
stood  here.  The  history  of  the  bishopric  has  been  written 
in  two  volumes  by  Kerschbauraer  (Vienna,  1875-6). 

SAN  LUCAR  DE  BARRAMEDA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in 
the  province  of  Cadiz,  and  27  miles  by  sea  from  that  city, 
in  a  bare,  sandy,  and  umlulating  country,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Guadalquivir,  not  far  from  its  mouth.  It  stands 
partly  on  the  flat  bank  of  the  river  and  partly  on  the 
rising  ground  behind,  the  summit  of  which  is  crowned  by 
an  old  Moorish  castle.  There  is  an  old  parish  church 
dating  from  the  14th  century.  The  other  buildings  have 
no  special  interest,  and  the  place  as  a  whole  is  dull  and 
lifeless,  having  lost  much  of  the  commercial  importance  it 
formerly  possessed.  It  is  now  chiefly  dependent  on  the 
trade  in  its  wines,  which  is  still  considerable.  Many  of 
the  inhabitants  are  employed  in  agriculture  and  fishing. 
The  population  within  the  municipal  boundaries  was 
21,918  in  1877. 

SAJ^  LUIS  POTOSI,  a  city  of  Mexico,  capital  of  the 
state  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  at  a  height  of  6200 
feet  on  the  eastern  edge  of  the  great  plain  of  Anahuac,  in 
a  valley  running  north  and  south,  160  miles  north-west  of 
Queretaro.  It  is  a  great  centre  for  the  "  diligence  "  traffic, 
and  in  1885  was  cotnected  by  rail  with  Tampico,  a  pro- 
mising harbour  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  city  proper, 
which  has  a  rather  imposing  Oriental  appearance,  is  laid 
out  with  great  regularity ;  the  streets  are  well- paved,  and 
the  houses,  usually  two  stories  in  height,  are  frequently 
fine  specimens  of  old  Spanish  architecture.  But  suburbs 
of  wretched  hovels  spread  over  a  considerable  area. 
Among  the  conspicuous  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  the 
Government  house,  with  a  front  in  rose-coloured  stone,  the 
city-hall,  the  mint,  the  churches  of  El  Carmen,  San  Fran- 
cisco, &.C.,  and  the  recently  erected  "  Aoicrican "  hotel, 
which,  with  tramways,  telephones,  and  electric  light,  is  a 
symptom  of  the  Occidentalizing  that  is  rapidly  taking  place 
in  the  inland  cities  of  Mexico.  The  Institute  Cientifico  is 
a  kind  of  univer.sity  for  the  teaching  of  law,  medicine,  and 
the  exact  sciences.  Plaza  Hidalgo  takes  its  name  from 
the  statue  to  the  martyr  of  Mexican  independence.  A 
considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  cattle,  hides,  and 
tallow.  The  population  is  stated  at  30,000,  or  with  the 
suburbs  60,000. 

Founded  in  1586,  San  Luis  Potosi  has  played  an  important  part 
in  the  Mexican  civil  wars.  In  1863  it  was  the  seat-  of  the  national 
government  under  Juarez,  and  after  being  occupied  by  Bazaine  was 
recovered  by  Juarez  in  1887. 

SAJN  MAJIINO,  the  smallest  independent  republic  in 
Europe,  has  an  area  of  33  square  miles  (Strelbitsky),  lies 
between  the  provinces  of  Forli  and  Pesaro-Urbino,  and 
consists  of  part  of  the  eastern  spurs  of  the  Apennines. 
Monte  Titano,  the  central  and  culminating  summit,  has 
three  peaks  (M.  Guaita,  Cucco,  and  Gista),  the  three  Pevne 
of  San  Marino — a  name  evidently  identical  with  the  Celtic 
Penn  or  Benn,  bat  translated  by  the  canting  heraldry  of 
the  republic's  coat  of  arms  as  three  "  feathers."     The  twa 


S  A  ^  —  S  A  N 


267 


streams  (Mareccbia  and  Ausa)  wLicli  i)ass  tbrougli  Rimini 
to  tho  sea  have  their  head-waters  partly  in  the  north  and 
•west  oi  San  Jlarino,  while  its  south-eastern  valleys  are 
drained  by  the  sources  of  the  Marano.  Farming  and 
stock-raising  occupy  the  bulk  of  the  population  (total,  5700 
in  1850,  7816  in  1874),  and  their  wines  and  oxen  are  both 
liighly  prized.  The  city  of  San  Marino  (IGOO  inhabitants), 
formerly  reached  only  by  a  mule-track  but  since  1875  by 
a  good  carriage-road,  is  a  quaint  little  place  with  steep 
and  narrow  streets  and  picturesque  but  gloomy  houses  of 
undressed  stone,  and  containing  five  churches,  a  council- 
hall,  an  audience  chamber,  a  law  court,  a  little  theatre,  a 
museum,  and  a  library.  In  the  centre  of  the  principal 
nquare  (PiancUo)  stands  a  white  marble  statue  of  Liberty, 
presented  by  ths  duchess  of  Acquaviva.  At  the  foot  of 
the  cit^-hill  lies  tho  Borgo  di  San  Marino  (the  commercial 
centre  of  the  republic);  and  other  municipal  villages  are 
Serravalle,  Faetano,  and  Jlontegiardino,  each  with  remains 
of  its  castle  and  fortifications. 

The  republic  is  governed  by  a  great  conncil  {OenemJe-Caitsijlio- 
Principe)  of  60  members  (20  nobles,  20  burgesses,  20  rural  land- 
owners) named  for  life  by  tlia  council  itself.  From  this  body  is 
elected  the  Council  of  Twelve,  which  witli  tho  assistance  of  a  legal 
adviser  decides  in  the  third  and  last  rcsoit.  Two  captains-regent 
elected  every  six  months  (one  from  the  nobles,  one  from  the  other 
two  classes)  represent  the  state,  which  also  has  its  home  secretary, 
its  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  its  cliancellor  of  the  exchemier,  an 
army  of  9D0  men,  and  a  regular  budget,  15y  treaty  with  Italy 
(1872)  San  Marino,  instead  of  maintaining  a  customs  line  of  its 
cvta,  receives  a  certain  proportion  of  tho  Italian  customs  revenue, 
and,  agreeing  not  to  grow  tobacco,  is  allowed  to  purchase  foreign 
tobacco  duty  free.  To  avoid  any  difficulty  about  copyright  there 
is  no  printing  press  in  the  republic.  ' 

San  Marino  derives  its  name  from  a  certain  Dalmatian  mason 
who,  along  with  a  comrade  immortalized  by  the  neighbouring  castle 
and  cathedral  of  Sau  Leo,  settled  in  this  region  in  the  3d  century. 
The  bones  of  Marinus  are  said  to  have  been  removed  to  I'avia  by 
the  Lombard  king  Astolphus  and  restored  to  the  little  city  on 
Mount  Titauus  by  Pippin;  but  the  first  authentic  document  proving 
the  existence  of  tho  community  dates  from  885.  Situated  as  a 
bulwark  between  the  hoslilo  houses  of  Montefeltro  and  Jlalatesta, 
San  Marino  fortunately  attached  itself  to  the  stronger  party,  which 
in  the  15th  century  placed  its  representative  on  the  ducal  throne 
of  "Jrbino.  Tho  assistance  which  it  rendered  Duke  Federigo  and 
his  allies,  the  king  of  Naples  and  the  pope,  against  Sigisniondo 
Malatesta  was  rewarded  in    1463  with  tno  castles  and  territories 


of  Serravalle,  Faetano,  and  Monleginrdino.  On  the  annexation  of 
Urbino  to  tho  States  of  the  Church  (1631),  the  independence  of  Snn 
Marino  was  acknowledged;  and  tho  unauthorized  assertion  of  papal 
jurisdiction  by  Alberoni  in  1739  was  disallowed  by  Clement  XIL 
on  February  5th  1740.  In  1797  Napoleon  I.  decided  to  preserve 
this  "(.'chantillon  de  renubliquo;"  and  in  1854  it  was  protected  from 
the  designs  of  Vius  lA.  by  the  interference  of  Napoleon  III.  At 
the  unification  of  Italy,  Cibrario,  a  citizen  in  the  service  of  the  house 
of  Savoy,  helped  to  secure  excellent  terms  for  San  Marino. 

Sec  Melcl.iorre  Dclllco,  3/cmorie  jMriVA^  .  ,  .  di  Stin  Mavino',  Miirlno  Flittnri, 
Ricordi  itorici  ....  1609;  Count  Bruc,  at  Mai  in,  I'nris,  1876;  Bent,  A  freak 
o/ Freedom,  1S73  ;  CasatI,  La  repubtjUea  di  San  Marino,  Milan,  1681. 

SAN  MARTEN  DE  JOSlil  (1778-1850),  Chilian  gene- 
ral, was  born  at  Yapcyu,  on  the  Uruguay  river,  February 
25,  1778.',  In  his  eighth  or  ninth  year  be  accompanied  his 
own  family  to  Spain  for  his  education,  and  being  intended 
for  the  military  profession  was  admitted  into  the  college  of 
nobles  at  Madrid.  He  saw  active  service  and  gained  dis- 
tinction in  tho  war  of  independence,  and  had  risen  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  when  in  1811  ho  returned  to  La 
'Plata. .  Entering  the  service  of  the  insurgents  there  he  was 
entrusted  with  raising  a  troop  of  cavalry,  and  afterwards 
Iv/as  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  the  army  acting  in 
JJpper  Peru  against  the  forces  of  tho  viceroy  of  Lima, 
/^ftcr  re-establishing  his  health  at  Cordova  in  1814,  he 
proceeded  in  1815  to  take  command  of  Cuyo,  where  ho 
organized  aaexpedition  for  the  liberation  of  Chili  (see  vol. 
V.  p.  618).  He  crossed  the  mountains  early  in  1817,  and, 
after  gaining  a  ibrillinnt  victory  nt  Chacabuco  on  12th 
February,  was  pressed  by  the  people  of  Chili  to  take  tho 
supreme  command,  and  gained  a  still  more  brilliant  victory 
at  JIaypu,  5th  April  1818.     After  organizing  tho  govern- 


ment of  Chili  he  sailed  with  the  squadron  under  Lord 
Cochrane  for  Peru,  21st  August  1820,  and,  capturing  Lima, 
drove  the  Spaniards  from  the  coast  and  assumed  the  title 
of  "Protector"  of  Peru  in  1821,  but  resigned  it  a  year 
afterwards,  and,  sailing  "secretly  for  Europe,  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  absolute  seclusion  near  Paris.  He 
died  at  Boulogne,  17th  August  1850. 

See  Liographical  Sketch  of  General  San  Majtiu  attached  to 
Peruvian  Pamphlet,  icing  an  exposition  of  tlie  Administrative 
iMbours  of  the  Peruvian  Government,  1823. 

SAN]\aCHELE,  MicHELE  (1484-1559),oneof  the  ablest 
architects  of  his  time,  learnt  the  eldtaents  of  his  profession 
from  his  father  Giovanni  and  his  uncle  Bartolommeo,  'who 
both  practised  as  architects  at  Verona  with  much  success. 
Like  almost  all  tho  enthusiastic  students  of  that  time 
he  went  at  an  early  age  to  Rome  to  study  classic  sculp- 
ture and  architecture.      His  great  talents  soon  became 
known,  and   he   designed   and  carried  out   a  very  large 
number  of   works   at  Verona,  Venice,  and  other   places. 
Among  his  earliest  are  the  duomo  of  Montcfiascone  (an 
octagonal  building  surmounted  with  a  cupola),  the  church 
of  San  Domenico  at  Orvieto,  and  several  palaces  at  both 
places.     He  also  executed  a  fine  tomb  in  S.  Domenico.* 
He  was  no  less  distinguished  as  a  military  architect,  and 
was  much  employed  by  the  signoria  of  Venice,  not  only 
at  home,  but   also  in  strengthening  the  fortifications  of 
Corfu,  Cyprus,  and  Candia.^     One  of  Sanmichcle's  most 
graceful  designs  is  the  Cappella  de'  Peregrini  in  tho  church 
of  S.  Bernardino  at  Verona — square  outside  and  circular 
within,  of  the  Corinthian  order.^     He  built  a  great  number 
of  fine  palaces  at  Verona,  five  of  which  still  exist,  as  well 
as  the  graceful  Ponte  Nuovo.     His  last  work,  begun  is 
1559,  was  the  round  church  of  the  Madonna  di  Campagna, 
a  mile  and  a  half  from  Verona  on  the  road  to  Venice. 
Like  most  other  distinguished  architects  of  his  time  he 
wrote  a  work  on  classic  architecture,  Li  Cinque  Ordini 
dell'  Architeltura,  printed  at  Verona  in  1735.    Sanmichele 
to  some  extent  followed  the  earlier  style  of  Brunelleschi; 
his  work  is  always  refined  and  his  detail  delicate.     His 
chief  pupil  was  his  nephew  Bernardino. 

See  Ronzani  and  Luciolli,  Fnbbriche  .  .  .  .  di  it.  Sammichele, 
Venice,  1832  ;  and  Selva,  Elogio  di  Sanmichele,  Rome,  1814. 

SAN  JIIGUEL  (S.  Salvador),  or  St  Michael's.     See 
Azores,  vol.  iii.  p.  171. 

SANNAZARO,  Jacopo  (1453-1530),  one  of  the  poets 
of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy,  was  born  in  1458  at  Naples 
of  a  noble  family,  said  to  have  been  of  Spanish  origin, 
which  had  its  seat  at  San  Nazaro  near  Pavia.     His  father 
died  during  tho  boyhood  of  Jacopo,  who   was  accordingly 
brought  up  in  a  very  plain  way  at  Nocera  Inferiore.     He 
afterwards    studied   at    Naples   under    Pontanus,    when, 
according  to  the  fashion  of  the  time,  he  assumed  the  name 
Actius  Syncerus,  by  which  ho  is  occasionally  referred  to. 
After  the  death  of  his  mother  he  went  abroad, — driven, 
we  are  told,  by  the  pangs  of  despised  love  for  a  certain 
Carmosina,  whom  lie  has   celebrated  in  his  verse  under 
various  names ;  but  of  the  details  of  his  travels  nothing  is 
recorded.     On  his  return  he  speedily  achieved  fame  as  & 
poet  and  place  as  a  courtier,  receiving  from  Frederick  111. 
as  a  country  residence  the  Villa  Mcrgillina  near  Naples. 
When  his  patron  was  compelled  to  tako  refuge  in  I'ranco 
in  1501   ho  was  accompanied  by  Sannazaro,  who  did  not 
return  to  Italy  till  after  his  death  (1504).     The  later  years 
of  tho  poet  bcem  to  ha»'o  been  spent  at  Naples  without 
interruption  or  memorable  incident.    Ho  died  on  April  27, 
1530. 

The  Arcadia  of  Sannazaro,  begun  in'carly  life  and  publikhcd  in 
1504,  is  a  somuwliut  ulfectcd  and  insipid  It&haii  postoral,  iu  which 


'  Sco  Delia  Vallc,  Sloriii  drl  Itiiomo  di  Orvieto,  Rome,  1791. 
>  Seo  liartoldi,  iiuHiiiiclirU  al  tervitin  drlln  rrfmWica  Veiuta, 
'  tico  Giuban,  Cap.  dt  J'ercjriui,  Vorona,  1316. 


268 


S  A  N— S  A  N 


In  alteruate  prose  und  verse  the  scenes  and  occupations  of  pastoral 
life  are  described.  His  now  seldom  read  Latin  poem  DePfirtu 
Virginis,  which  gained  for  him  the  name  of  the  "  Christiaa  Virgil," 
ippeared  in  1526,  and  his  collected  Sonelli  e  Canzoni  in  1530. 
'  SAN  BEMO,  a  town  and  seaport  of  northern  Italy,  at 
the  head  of  a  circondario  in  the  province  of  Porto 
Maurizio'on  the  Western  Riviera,  16|  miles  by  rail  east 
of  Mentone  and  84J  south-west  of  Genoa.  Climbing  the 
slope  of  a  steep  hill,  it  looks  south  over  a  small  bay  of  the 
Gulf  of  Genoa,  and,  protected  towards  the  north  by  hills 
rising  gradually  from  500  to  8000  feet,  has  the  reputation 
of  being  in  climate  one  of  the  most  favoured  places  on  the 
whole  coast.  The  narrow  stair-like  streets  of  the  old 
town,  with  their  lofty  houses,  arched  gateways,  and  flying 
buttresses,  form  a  fine  contrast  to  the  modern  districts  of 
villas  and  hotels  which  haVe  sprung  up  since  about  1860. 
Besides  the  Gothic  cathedral  of  San  Siro,  the  buildings 
of  most  interest  are  the  Madonna  della  Costa,  crowning 
the  highest  part  of  the  old  town,  the  town-house,  and 
the  hospital  for  cutaneous  diseases  founded  by  Charles 
Albert.  The  port,  formed  by  two  moles,  both  lengthened 
3ince  1880,  was  at  one  time  much  more  important,  its 
annual  movement  having  sunk  from  about  1000  in  1866 
to  388  small  vessels  in  1884.  The  population  of  the 
commune  (10,012  in  1861)  was  16,055  in  1881,-12,285 
in  the  city  proper,  and  1717  in  the  suburbs  Poggio  and 
Verezzo. 

San  Kemo,  identified  by  Girolamo  Rossi  {Storia  della  CittA) 
with  a  Greek  Leucothea  and  a  Roman  Matistra,  was  Christianized  by 
Et  Ormisdas  and  his  pupil  St  Sirus.  Rebuilt  after  the  e.\pulsiou 
of  the  Saracens  from  Liguria,  it  took  the  name  of  San  Romolo  from 
its  6th-century  bishop  whose  death  day,  13th  October,  is  still  a  local 
fete.  In  what  way  Romulus  was  supplanted  by  Remus  is  not 
clearly  ascertained.  In  1544  the  town  was  attacked  by  Barbarossa, 
and  in  1625  by  the  French  and  Savoyards.  The  Genoese,  against 
whose  encroachments  it  had  long  defended  its  independence,  sub- 
jugated it  in  1753  ;  and  in  1797  it  was  Incorporated  in  the  district 
of  Palms-of  the  Ligurian  republic. 

SAN -SALVADOR,  or  Salvador  {RepUhlica  del  Sal- 
lador),  the  smallest  but  most  densely  peopled  of  the 
republics  of  Central  America,  has  a  coast-line  of  160 
niles  along  the  Pacific  from  the  mouth  of  Rio  de  la  Paz 
to  that  of  the  Goascoran  in  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca,  and  is 
bounded  inland  by  Guatemala  on  the  west  and  Honduras 
on  the  north  and  east.  Its  length  from  east  to  west  is 
140  miles,  and  its  average  breadth  about  60  miles.  Its 
area  is  estimated  at  7225  square  miles,  and  in  1883  it 
contained  613,273  inhabitants  (290,870  males,  322,403 
females).  With  the  exception  of  a  comparatively  narrow 
seaboard  of  low  alluvial  plains,  the  country  consists  mainly 
of  a  plateau  about  2000  feet  above  the  sea,  broken  by  a 
large  number  of  volcanic  cones,  geologically  of  more  recent 
origin  than  the  main  chain  of  the  Cordillera  which  lies 
farther  to  the  north.  The  principal  river  of  the  republic 
is  the  Rio  Lempa,  which,  rising  naar  Esquipulas  in  Guate- 
mala and  crossing  a  corner  of  Honduras,  enters  Salvador 
north  of  CitaU.  After  receiving  from  the  right  the 
surplus  waters  of  the  Laguna  de  Cuija,  a  vast  lake 
belonging  partly  to  Guatemala  and  partly  to  Salvador,  it 
flows  for  nearly  a  degree  of  longitude  eastward  through  a 
magnificent  and  lu,xuriant  valley  botweon  the  plateau  and 
the  Cordillera,  and  then  turning  somewhat  abruptly  south 
skirts  the  base  of  the  volcano  of  Siguatepeque  and  reaches 
the  Pacific  in  88°  40'  W.  long.  Among  its  numerous 
tributaries  are  the  Rio  Santa  Ana,  rising  near  the  city  of 
that  name,  the  Asalguate,  which  passes  the  capital  San 
Salvador,  the  Sumpul,  which  forces  its  way  like  the 
Lempa  itself  athwart  the  mountains  from  Honduras,  and 
the  Torola,  draining  the  north-eastern  corner  of  Salvador 
and  part  of  Honduras.  The  Lempa  is  even  in  the  dry 
season  a  considerable  river  with  a  rapid  current,  and  for 
two-thirds  of  its  course  it  could  easily  be  made  navigable 
for  steamers.     The   Rio  San  Miguel  drains  the  country 


between  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca  and  the  basin  of  the  Lempa. 
The  volcanic  mountains  do  not  form  a  chain  but  a  series  of 
clusters  : — the  Izalco  group  in  the  west — including  Izalco 
(formed  in  1770),  Marcelino,  Santa  Ana,  Naranjos,  Aguila, 
San  Juan  de  Dios,  Apaneca,  Tamajaso,  and  Lagunita ;  the 
San  Salvador  group,  about  30  miles  to  the  east;  Cojute- 
peque  to  the  north-east  and  the  San  Vicente  group  to  the 
east  of  the  great  volcanic  lake  of  Ilopango ;  the  Siguate- 
peque summits  to  the  north-east  of  San  Vicente;  and  thei 
great  south-eastern  or  San  Miguel  group — San  Miguel, 
Chinameca,  Buenapa,  Usulatan,  Tecapa,  Taburete.  Caca- 
guateque  and  Sociedad  volcanoes  in  the  north-east  belong 
to  the  inland  Cordillera. 

The  volcanic  forces  in  Salv.ador  have  not  as  yet  spent  themselves. 
The  Izalco  vent  still  acts  as  a  safety  valve,  and  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  capital  is  so  subject  to  tremblings  and  rockiugs  of  the 
earth  as  to  have  acquired  the  name  of  the  swinging  mat  or  ham- 
mock. The  city  itself  has  been  destroyed  by  earthquake  in  1594, 
1658,  in  1719,  and  in  1854.  San  Jliguel  is  described  as  one  of  the 
most  treacherous  burning  mountains  in  America,  sometimes  several 
years  iu  complete  repose  and  then  all  at  once  bursting  out  with- 
terrific  fury  (Scherzer).  In  1879-1880  the  Lake  of  llop^ingo  was 
the  scene  of  a  remarkable  series  of  phenomena.  With  a  length  of 
5i  milesand  a  breadth  of  4J,  it  forms  a  rough  parallelogram  with 
deeply  indented  sides,  and  is  surrounded  in  all  directions  by  steep 
mountains  except  at  the  points  whero  the  villages  of  Asino  and 
Apulo  occupy  little  patches  of  level  ground.  Between  31st  Decem- 
ber 1879  and  11th  January  18S0  the  lake  rose  four  feet  above  its 
level.  The  Jiboa,  which  flows  out  at  the  south-cast  corner,  became, 
instead  of  a  very  shallow  stream  20  feet  broad,  a  raging  torrent 
which  soon  scooped  out  for  itself  in  the  volcanic  rocks  a  channel 
30  to  35  feet  deep.  A  rapid  subsidence  of  the  lake  was  thus  pro- 
duced, and  by  the  6tb  of  March  the  level  was  34|  feet  below  its 
ma.\imum.  Towards  the  centre  of  the  lake  a  volcanic  centre  about 
500  feet  in  diameter  rose  150  feet  above  the  water,  surrounded  by 
a  number  of  small  islands.  A  number  of  villages  were  ruined  by 
the  accompanying  earthquakes.  The  lake,  originally  stocked  by 
the  early  Spanish  settlers,  had  become  the  great  fish-pond  of  the 
republic.  On  tlie  outbreak  of  the  volcanic  forces,  the  fish  fled 
towards  the  sides,  and  on  the  receding  of  the  waters  their  dead 
bodies  were  left  behind  in  such  quantities  that  at  Asino  several 
hundred  men  were  employed  for  days  burying  them  to  avoid  a 
pestilence. 

It  is  less  to  these  natural  catastrophes  than  to  political 
instability  that  the  comparative  backv.ardness  of  Salvador  to 
develop  its  resources  of  soil  and  minerals  must  be  ascribed  ;  and 
considerable  progress  has  in  many  respects  been  made  since  the 
middle  of  the  century.  Cotfee  is  now  the  principal  export  (to  tbo 
vaUie  of  $1,05  i,000  in  1873,83,416,104  in  1883).  Indigo,  for  along 
time  the  staple  of  the  country  and  exported  to  the  annual  value 
of  820,000,000,  is  still  extensively  cultivated  (exports  in  1883 
$1,812,594).  As  this  indigo  is  generally  quoted  in  the  market  as 
Guatemalan,  so  another  valuable  product  of  Salvador  is  always 
designated  Balsam  of  Peru  (see  vol.  iii.  p.  293),  though  the  tree 
from  which  it  is  obtained  grows  naturally  nowhere  else  in  the 
world  except  in  a  limited  part  of  the  Salvadorian  seaboard  known 
as  the  Balsam  coast.  It  was  exported  in  1883  to  the  value  of 
$53,612.  Other  productions  o'  less  importance  are  tobacco, 
sarsapaiilla,  india-rubber,  and  sugar  The  silver  mines  have  been 
and  may  again  bo  of  some  account  ;  and  coal  has  been  discovered 
inland.  On  the  whole  the  trade  of  tho  country  has  greatly  in- 
creased :  the  imports  and  exports,  $1,306,378  and  $1,991,650 
respectively  in  1859,  were  $2,401,463  and  $5,861,053  in  1883. 
At  !ha  timo  .>f  T)r  Scherzer's  visit,  there  was  not  a  bridge  in  the 
country  ;  there  are  now  a  considerable  number  of  good  iron  bridges 
on  the  new  roads  between  the  principal  cities.  The  first  railway,  that 
from  Acajutla  to  Sonsonate  (15  miles)  was  opened  in  1882,  and  has 
since  been  continued  in  the  direction  of  Santa  Ana,  the  chief 
commercial  town.  Telegraphic  communication  has  been  estab- 
lished between  the  more  important  towns,  and  in  July  1882  tho 
Centra!  and  North  American  Company  landed'  its  cable  at  La 
Libertad.  Acajutla,  La  Libertad,  and  La  Union  or  San  Carlos 
de  la  Union  (in  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca)  are  the  principal  harbours. 
Besides  the  capital  San  Salvador,  with  14, 059  inhabitants,  there  were 
in  1878,  according  to  the  census,  68  places  in  the  republic  with 
over  2000  each— Santa  Ana  (29,908),  Nahuizalco  (9988),  San 
Vicente  (9957),  San  iliguel  (9842),  Jletapan  (9782),  Chalchuapa 
(8171),  Ahuachapan  (7930),  Nuevo  San  Salvador  (7337),  &c. 
There  are  three  universities — San  Salvador,  Santa  Ana,  and  San 
Miguel,  with  funds  partly  provided  by  a  quarter  of  the  customs, — 
a  girls'  college  at  Santa  Ana,  and  a  fair  number  of  secondary 
and  primary  schools.  Salvador  received  this  name  from  Pedro 
Alvarcdo,  who,  when  he  conquered  it  for  Spain  in  1525-26,  fouml 
it  a  rich  and  populous  country,     its  iudcpeudcucc  of  the  Spauisb 


S  A  N— S  A  N 


26y 


<?rown  <1atcs  from  1S42  ;  in  1853  it  obtnlneJ  the  constitution  under 
'vliich  (in  a  modified  form)  it  now  exists  as  a  sovereign  state. 
General  Barrios,  liaving  in  1858  obliged  tlie  president  Santin  del 
Castillo  to  abdicate,  secured  his  own  permanent  appointment  to  the 
office  in  ISCO  ;  but  in  1863-4  he  failed  in  his  endeavour  to  defend 
his  capital  against  the  Guatemalans,  and  when  he  returned  in'l  864  to 
attack  Duehas.  the  Guatemalan  iirotege.  he  was  defeated  and  put  to 
death.  "  I'ronunciamiontos  "  have  since  been  the  too  general  pre- 
liminaries of  presidential  elections  ;  but  there  has  bren  no  serious 
war,  and  the  linauces  of  the  republic  have  usually  a  balance  on  the 
right  side. 

See  Schcrzcr,  TrartU  >n  Crnlral  AmiHra  (IRST);  -Sotmcnstem,  Dfsn-lprinn 
'liel  eitado  del  Salmttor  (Sew  Yoik,  IS'^9,  Avith  a  pofd  map  rciirmlucod  in  lu  rliii 
Zeificft./ur  Oeo<jia]itiu,  liiGO) ;  UolUus  niiti  lilnntsi-rrat.  i'oi/.  tjci'lcjt'j^'e  (t'lm  Its 
r^publiqurt  lie  Ouatrmala  el  lie  Salrador  (lf>CS);  lilalicl.  Le  Sn/eailor  (IS72); 
Frantzlus'sIranNUit  on  of  Dc  Palncio,  San  &ihn'l„i- nnU  l/on'luras  in  ;■;;';  (1S73); 
*Cu<man,  Apuulamientos  subre  la  r/eo-jr.  faica  </e  In  rep.  del  Sal'-adoi;  18S3. 

<SANSANDING,  or  Sansandig,  a  town  in  tbe  interior 
it  Western  Africa,  on  the  nortlt  bank  of  the  Niger,  in 
13°  40'  N.  lat.  and  6*  25'  V>\  long,  and  included  in  the 
"empire"  of  Segu.  It  was  visited  by  Miingo  Park  in 
1796,  and  in  1865  by  Mago  and  Quintin,  who  witnessed 
the  stand  it  made  against  a  siege  by  Ahmedu,  sultan  of 
Segu,  from  whom  it  had  revolted.  The  population  is  esti- 
mated at  30,000  to  40,000. 

SAN  SEBASTIAN,  a  seaport  of  Spam,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Guipuzcoa,  42  miles  north-north-west  of 
Pamplona,  and  402  miles  by  rail  from  Jladrid.  It 
occupies  a  narrow  isthmus,  terminated  towards  the  north 
by  a  lofty  conical  rock  called  Urguil  or  Orgullo,  and 
flanked  on  its  eastern  side  by  the  river  Urumea,  here 
crossed  by  a  bridge,  and  on  the  other  by  a  bay  (La  Concha), 
•which  forms  the  harbour.  The  summit  of  the  hill  is 
crowned  by  a  fort  (Castillo  de  la  Mota),  and  the  landward 
side  of  the  town  was  formerly  defended  by  aolid  ramparts. 


The  houses  are  almost  all  modern,  built  uniformly  in 
straight  streets  and  regular  squares,  so  as  to  present  an 
appeauince  quite  unlike  most  Spanish  towns.  There  are 
two  largo  churches,  a  court-house,  a  theatre,  hospitals, 
barracks,  ic.  The  manufactures  of  the  place  are  insigni- 
ficant ;  and  the  harbour  is  small,  and  not  easily  accessible, 
though  well  protected  by  a  mole  and  small  island.  There 
is  a  considerable  trade  in  English  and  French  goods, — corn 
and  other  articles  being  e.xported.  During  summer  the 
town  is  much  frequented,  especially  by  the  wealthier 
inhabitants  of  Madrid,  for  sea-bathin^g,  and  tent-like  hut* 
are  set  up  for  the  purpose  on  the  shore  of  the  bay.  From 
its  position  and  strength  San  Sebastian  has  been  long  a 
place  of  much  importance,  and  has  sustained  several  sieges. 
The  most  memorable  of  these  was  in  August  1813,  wheo 
tbe  British,  under  Wellington,  took  it  by  storm.  The 
population  within  the  municipal  boundaries  was  21,355 
in  1877. 

SAN  SEVERO,  a  city  of  Ttaly,  in  the  province  of 
Foggia,  and  at  one  time  the  chief  town  of  the  Capitanata,' 
lies  at  the  foot  of  the  spurs  of  Monte  Gargano,  and  has  a 
station  on  the  railway  to  Brindisi,  36  miles  south-east  of 
Termoli  and  17  north  cf  Foggia.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop 
(since  1580),  and  has  a  handsome  cathedral  and  some  re- 
mains of  its  old  fortifications.  In  1880  the  copulation 
was  19,756  (20,382  in  commune). 

San  Seveio  dates  from  the  Middle  Ages.  It  Was  laid  In  valns  by 
Frederick  II.,  and  in  1053  was  tho  scene  of  a  victory  by  Robert 
Guiscard  over  the  papal  troops  under  Leo  IX.  The  overlordship 
vas  held  in  succession  by  the  Benedictines  of  Torre  Maggiorff 
abbey,  the  Knights  Templars,  the  crown  of  Naples,  and  the  Sangio 
family  (commendatorics  of  Torre  Maggiore).  In  1627,  Mid  agaift 
iu  1828  and  1851,  the  town  suffered  from  earthquakes. 


SANS^KKIT   LANGUAGE   AND   LITERATURE 


PART  I— SANSKRIT  LANGUAGE. 


SANSKRIT  is  the  name  applied  by  Hindu  scholars  to 
tho  ancient  literary  language  of  India.  The  word 
sarpstrita  is  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  ken;  "  to 
make "  (cognate  with  Latin  creo),  with  tho  preposition 
'sam,  "  together  "  (cog.  a/ua,  6/i09,  Eng.  "  same  "),  and  has 
probably  to  be  taken  here  in  the  sense  of  "  completely 
formed"  or  "accurately  made,  polished," — some  noun 
tneaning  "  speech "  (esp.  bhashu)  being  either  expressed 
or  understood  with  it.  The  term  was,  doubtless,  origin- 
ally adopted  by  native  grammarians  to  distinguish  tho 
literary  language  of  tho  educated  classes  from  the  uncul- 
tivated popular  dialects — the  forerunners  of  tho  modern 
vernaculars  of  northern  India — which  had,  from  an  early 
period,  developed  side  by  side  with  it,  and  which  were 
called  (from  the  same  root  Icar,  but  with  ditlerent  preposi- 
tions) I'li'ikiita,  i.e.,  either  "derived"  or  "natural,  common  " 
forms  of  speech.  But  this  designation  of  the  literary 
idioiii,  being  evidently  intended  to  imply  a  languago 
regulated  by  conventional  rules,  also  involves  a  distinction 
between  the  grammatically  fixed  languago  of  Brilhmanical 
India  and  an  earlier,  less  settled,  phase  of  tho  same 
language  exhibited  in  the  Vedic  writings.  For  greater 
convenience  the  Vedic  language  is,  however,  usually 
included  in  the  term,  and  scholars  generally  distinguish 
between  the  Vedic  and  the  classical  Sanskrit.  Tho 
Sanskrit  language,  with  its  old  and  modern  descendants, 
represents  the  easternmost  branch  of  the  great  Indo- 
Germanic,  or  Aryan,  stock  of  speech.  Philological 
research  has  clearly  established  tho  fact  that  the  Indo- 
Aryans  must  originally  havo  immigrated  into  India  from 
the  northwest.  In  the  oldest  literary  documents  handed 
down  by  them  their  gradual  advance  can  indeed  be  traced 


from  the  slopes  of  eastern  Kabulistau  down  to  the  land  of 
tho  five  rivers  (Punjab),  and  thenco  to  the  plains  o^ 
the  Yamuna  (.Jumna)  and  Ganga  (Ganges).  Numerous 
special  coincidences,  both  of  language  and  mythology,  bej 
tween  the  Vedic  Aryans  and  tho  peoples  of  Iran  also  show 
that  thesB  two  members  of  the  Indo-Germanic  family  must 
have  remained  in  close  connexion  for  some  considerable 
period  after  the  others  had  separated  from  them. 

Tho  origin  of  comparative  philology  dates  from  the 
time  when  European  scholars  became  accurately  acquainted 
with  the  ancient  language  of  India.  Before  that  time 
classical  scholars  had  been  unable,  through  centuries  of 
learned  research,  to  determine  the  true  relations  between 
the  then  known  languages  of  our  stock.  This  fact  alone 
shows  the  importance  of  Sanskrit  for  comparative  re- 
search. Though  its  value  in  this  respect  has  perhaps  at 
times  been  overrated,  it  may  still  be  considered  as  the 
eldest  daughter  of  the  old  mother-tongue.  Indeed,  so  far 
as  direct  documentary  evidence  goes,  it  may  rather  be 
said  to  be  tho  only  surviving  daughter ;  for  none  of  the 
other  six  principal  members  of  tho  family  have  left  any 
literary  monuments,  and  their  original  features  have  to  be 
reproduced,  as  best  they  can,  from  tho  materials  supplied 
by  their  own  daughter  languages:  such  is  tho  case  as 
regards  the  Iranic,  Hellenic,  Italic,  Celtic,  Teutonic,  and 
Letto-Slavic  languiigcs.  To  tho  Sanskrit  tho  antiquity 
and  extent  of  its  literary  documents,  tho  transparency  of 
its  grammatical  structure,  tho  comimratively  primitive 
state  of  its  accent  system,  and  tlio  thorough  grammatical 
treatment  it  has  early  rcccivod  nt  tho  hand  of  native 
scholars  must  ever  secure  tho  foremost  place  in  tho  com- 
parative study  of  Indo-Qermauic  spoucU. 


270 


SANSKRIT 


[lanov  age- 


iTIie  Sanstrit  alphabet  consists  of  the  following  sounds  : — 
(a)  Fourteen  vowek,  viz. : — 

Ten  simple  vowels  :  a  d,  i  f,  u  H,  r  f,  {  (?) ;  and 
Four  diphthongs  ;  e  Ai,  6  6.U. 
(6)  Thirty-three  consonants,  viz. : — 
Five  series  of  mutes  and  nasals  : 
guttural :  k  kh  g  ghn 
palatal :  c  ch  j  jh  A   f 
lingual :  I  th  d  dh  n 
dental :  tthddhn 
labial :  p  ph  b  bk  m  ; 
Tour  semivowels  :  y  r  I  v  {w) ; 
Three  sibilants  :  palatal  i,  lingual  sh,  dental  s  ;  and 
'A  soft  aspirate  :  A 
(c)  Three  unoriginal  sounds,  viz. : — 

.,  visarga,  (A),  a  hard  aspirate,  standing  mostly  for  original 
s  or  r  ;  and  two  nasal  sounds  of  less  close  contact  than 
the  mnte-nasals,  viz.,  anusvUra  (m)  and  anuTi&sika  (m). 

''  As  regards  the  vowels,  a  prominent  feature  of  the  language  is  the 
prevalence  of  a-soitnds,  these  being  about  twice  as  frequent  as  all 
the  others,  including  diphthongs,  taken  together  (Whitney). 

The  absence  of  the  short  vowels  ?  and  S  from  the  Sanskrit  alpha- 
bet, and  the  fact  that  Sanskrit  shows  the  a-vowel  where  other 
Towels  appear  in  other  languages, — e.g.,  bharantam  =■  tpepovra, 
ferenlem;  jaims  =  yeyos,  gcmis,- --were  formerly  considered  as 
strong  evidence  in  favour  of  the  more  primitive  state  of  the 
Sanskrit  vowel  system  as  compared  with  that  of  the  sister 
languages.  Recent  research  has,  however,  shown  pretty  con- 
clusively from  certain  indications  in  the  Sanskrit  language  itself 
that  the  latter  must  at  one  time  have  possessed  the  same,  or  very 
nearly  the  same,  three  vowel-sounds,  and  that  the  differentiation 
of  the  original  o-sound  must,  therefore,  have  taken  place  before 
the  separation  of  the  languages. 

The  vowels  I  and  S,  though  apparently  simple  sounds,  are  classed 
as  diphthongs,  being  contracted  from  original  a  i  and  au  respectively, 
and  liable  to  be  treated  as  such  in  the  phonetic  modifications  they 
have  to  undergo  before  any  vowel  except  a. 

As  regards  tne  consonants,  two  of  the  five  series  of  mutes,  the 
palatal  and  liugual  series,  are  of  secondary  (the  one  of  Indo-lranian, 
the  other  of  purely  Indian)  growth. 

The  palatals  are,  as  a  rule,  derived  from  original  gutturals,  the 
modification  being  generally  due  to  the  influence  of  a  neighbouring 
palatal  sound  i  or  7j,  or  2  (o) :  e.g.,  caraH  =  ha.t.  cxirrit;  jdiiw 
y6yv,  genu,  knee.  The  surd  aspirate  ch,  in  words  of  Indo-Germanio 
origin,  almost  invariably  goes  back  to  original  sk:  e.g..  chid- 
{chind-)=seindo,  trxiC"  \  chdyd  =  aKii. 

The  palatal  sibilant  i  (pronounced  sh)  likewise  originated  from  a 
guttural  mute  k,  but  one  of  somewhat  dift'erent  phonetic  value  from 
that  represented  by  Sanskrit  k  or  c.  The  latter,  usually  designated 
jby  k^  (or  q),  ia  frequently  liable  to  labialization  (or  dentalization) 
ia  Greek,  probably  owing  to  a)i  original  pronunciation  kw  {qu) : 
e.g.,  katara  =  ir6T€pos,  uicr  ;  while  the  former  (i'')  shows  invariably 
K  in  Greek,  and  a  sibilant  in  the  Letto-Slavic  and  the  Indo-lranian 
languages:  e.g.,  ivan  [^im)  —  Kva>v  (kuv),  canis,  Germ,  hund; 
'fUtian='SfKa,  decemj/ioth.  taiiitm. 

The  non-original  nature  of  the  palatals  betrays  itself  even  in 
Sanskrit  by  their  inability  to  occur  at  the  end  of  a  word,— e. p., 
ace.  iidcam  =•  Lat.  vocem,  but  nom.  vdk  •=  vox,— and  by  otherwise 
frequently  reverting  to  the  guttural  state. 

The  Unguals  differ  in  pronunciation  from  the  dentals  in  their 
^being  uttered  with  the  tip  of  the  tongue  turned  up  to  the  dome  of 
the  palate,  while  in  the  utterance  of  the  dentals  it  is  pressed 
against  the  upper  teeth,  not  against  the  upper  gums  as  is  done  in 
the  English  dentals,  which  to  Hindus  sound  more  like  their  own 
•Unguals.  The  latter,  when  occurring  in  words  of  Aryan  origin, 
etre,  as  a  rule,  modifications  of  original  dentals,  usually  accom- 
'pauied  by  the  loss  of  au  r  or  other  adjoining  consonant ;  but  more 
commonly  they  occur  in  words  of  foreign,  probably  non-Aryan, 
origin.  Of  regular  occurrence  in  the  language,  however,  is  the 
change  of  dental  n  into  lingual  «,  and  of  dental  s  into  lingual  jft, 
when  prec*ded  in  the  same  word  by  certain  other  letters. 

The  sonant  aspirate  h  is  likewise  non-original,  being  usually 
derived  from  original  sonant  aspirated  mutes,  especially  gh:  e.g., 
hamsa  =  xh"  (for  X'^'")<  o.nacr.  Germ,  gans  ;  aham  =  iyiiv,  ego, 
Goth.  ik. 

'  The  contact  of  final  and  initial  letters  of  words  in  the  same  sen- 
tence is  often  attended  in  Sanskrit  with  considerable  euphonic 
modifications  ;  and  we  have  no  means  of  knowing  how  far  the  prac- 
tice of  the  vernacular  language  may  have  corresponded  to  these 
phonetic  theories.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  a  good 
deal  in  this  respect  has  to  be  placed  to  the  account  «f  grammatical 
feflexion  ;  and  the  very  facilities  which  the  primitive  stnicture  of 
the  language  oflTered  for  grammatical  analysis  and  an  insight  into 
the  principles  of  internal  inodification  may  have  given  the  first 
impulse  to  external  modifications  of  a  similar  kind. 
Jlono  of  the  cognate  languages  exhibits  in  so  transparent  a 


manner  as  the  Sanskrit  the  cardinal  principle  of  Indo-Getfnania 
word-formation  by  the  addition  of  inflexional  endings — either  case- 
endings  or  personal  termin.itions  (themselves  probably  original 
roots) — to  stems  obtained,  mainly  by  means  of  suffixes,  from  mono- 
syllabic roots,  with  or  without  internal  modifications. 

There  are  in  Sanskrit  declension  three  numbers  and  seven  /"ases, 
not  counting  the  vocative,  viz.,  nominative,  accusative,  instru- 
mental, dative,  ablative,  genitive  and  locative.  Ao  a  matter  of 
fact,  all  these  seven  cases  appear,  however,  only  in  the  singular  of 
a-stems  and  of  the  pronominal  declension.  Other  noun -stems  hav& 
only  one  case-form  for  the  ablative  and  genitive  singular.  In  the 
plural,  the  ablative  everywhere  shares  its  form  with  the  dative 
(except  in  the  personal  pronoun,  where  it  has  the  same  ending  as 
in  the  singular),  whilst  the  dual  shows  only  three  different  case- 
forms — one  for  the  nominative  and  accusative,  another  for  the 
instrumental,  dative,  and  ablative,  and  a  tbii-d  for  the  genitive  and 
locative. 

The  declension  of  a-stems,  corresponding  to  the  first  and  second 
Latin  declensions,  is.of  especial  interest,  not  so  much  on  account 
of  its  being  predominant  from  the  earliest  time,  and  becoming  more 
and  more  so  with  the  development  of  the  language,  but  becau.se  it 
presents  the  greatest  number  of  alternative  forms,  which  supply  a 
kind  of  test  for  determining  the  age  of  literary  productions,  a  test 
which  indeed  has  already  been  applied  to  some  extent  by  Professoi* 
Lanman,  in  his  excellent  Statistical  Account  of  Noun  Inflexion  in 
the  Veda.     These  alternative  ease-forms  are  ;— 

(1)  dsas  and  ds  for  the  nominative  plural  masc.  and  £em.:  e.g.,' 
aivdsas  and  asvds=equi  (equw).  The  forms  in  dsas, — explained  by 
Bopp  as  the  sign  of  the  plural  as  applied  twice,  and  by  Schleicher^ 
as  the  sign  of  the  plural  as  added  to  the  jiominative  singular,—' 
occur  to  those  in  ds  {i.e.,  the  ordinary  plural  sign  as  added  to  tiie 
o-stcm)  in  the  Rigveda  in  t?etiH-oportion  of  1  to  2,  and  in  the 
peculiar  parts  of  the  Atharvaveda  in  that  of  1  to  26,  whilst  the 
ending  ds  alone  remains  in  the  later  language. 

(2)  d  and  dni  for  the  nominative  and  accusative  plural  of  neuters  ; 
as  yugd,  yugdni  —  (uyd,  jiiga.  The  proportion  of  the  former  ending 
to  the  latter  in  the  Rik  is  11  to  7,  in  the  Atharvan  2  to  3,  whilst 
the  classical  Sanskrit  knows  only  the  second  form. 

(3)  ebhis  and  dis  for  the  instrumental  plural  masc.  and  neuter : 
e.g.,  devlbhis,  dcvdis.  In  the  Rik  the  former  forms  are  to  the 
latter  in  the  proportion  of  5  to  6,  in  the  Atharvan  of  1  to  6,  while 
in  the  later  language  only  the  contracted  form  is  used.  The  same 
contraction  is  found  in  otlier  languages  ;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
it  did  not  originate  independently  in  them. 

(4)  d  and  du  for  the  nominative  and  accusative  dual  masc. :  e.g., 
Vhkd,  ubhdu  =  iiiipv.  In  the  Rik  forms  in  d  outnumber  those  in  dw. 
more  than  eight  times ;  whilst  in  the  Atharvan,  on  the  contrary, 
those  in  da  (the  only  ending  used  in  the  classical  language)  occur 
Cyo  times  as  often  as  those  in  d. 

(5)  d  and  ena  {end)  for  the  instrumental  singular  masc.  and  neut. : 
as  ddnd,  ddnena=dono.  -  The  ending  aia  is  the  one  invarrably  used 
in  the  later  language.  It  is  likewise  the  usual  form  in  the  Veda ; 
but  in  a  number  of  cases  it  shows  a  final  long  vowel  which,  thongh 
it  may  be  entirely  due  to  metrical  requirements,  is  more  probably  a 
relic  of  the  normal  instrumental  ending  d,  preserved  for  prosodic 
reasons.  For  the  simple  ending  d,  as  compared  with  that  in  ena. 
Prof.  Canman  makes  out  a  proportion  of  about  1  to  9  in  the 
Rigveda  (altogether  114  cases) ;  whQe  in  the  peculiar  parts  of  the 
Atharvan  he  finds  only  11  cases. 

(6)  dm  and  dn&m  for  the  genitive  plural :  e.g.;  (aiixJm),  aivdjutm 
=  iTrvai>,  equum  [equorum).  The  form  with  inserted  nasal  (doubt- 
less for  andm,  as  in  Zend  aipandm),  which  is  exclusively  used  m 
the  later  language,  is  also  the  prevailing  one  in  the  Rik.  There 
are,  however,  a  few  genitives  of  a-stems  in  original  dm  (for  a-dm), 
which  also  appear  in  Zend,  Prof.  Lanman  enimierating  a  dozen 
instances,  some  of  which  are,  however,  doubtful,  while  others  arc 
merely  conjectural. 

The  Sanskrit  verb  system  resembles  that  of  the  Greek  in  rarietj 
and  completeness.  While  the  Greek  excels  in  nicety  and  definite 
ness  of  modal  distinction,  the  Sanskrit  surpasses  it  in  primitivenes: 
and  transparency  of  formation.  In  this  part  of  the  grammatical 
system  there  is,  however,  an  even  greater  difference  than  in  the 
noun  inflexion  between  the  Tedic  and  the  classical  Sanskrit. 
While  the  former  shows,  upon  the  whole,  the  full  complement  oJ 
modal  forms  exhibited  by  the  Greek,  the  later  language  has  prac- 
tically discarded  the  subjunctive  mood.  The  Indo-Aryans  never 
succeeded  in  working  out  a  clear  formative  distinction  between  the 
subjunctive  and  indicative  moods ;  and,  their  syntactic  requirements 
becoming  more  and  more  limited,  they  at  last  contented  themselves, 
for  modal  expression,  with  a  present  optative  and  imperative,  in 
addition  to  the  indicative  tense-forms,  and  a  little-used  aorist 
optative  with  a  special  "precative"  or  "benedictive"  meaning 
attached  to  it. 

Another  part  of  the  verb  in  which  the  later  language  differs 
widely  from  Vedic  usage  is  the  infinitive.  The  language  of  the  old 
hymns  shows  a  considerable  variety  of  case-forms  of  verbal  abstract 
nouns  with  the  function  of  infinitives,  a  certain  number  of  which 


LANGUAGE.] 


SANSKRIT 


27) 


can  still  bo  traced  back  to  the  parent  language    as   for  '"stance, 
such  dative  forms  as  jf t.-as«  -  viv-ere ;  »f'-«'«yf'  =  f>:*''/"' '  Lr  " 
ma.«  =  5<;M.^a,;  dd'-vanc  ^Soi.oi.     Further,  j:-s/;^,  'to  conquer 
ZJi-s^,  ^pnarently  an  aorist  in6nitive  -'Lh   «>e  dat.ve  end.ng 
(parallel  to  tVe  radical  forms,  such  asyiidh-(     to  1  ght     aris-i,    to 
^'^  thus  corresponding  to  tho  Greek  aorist  infinitive  M„7«.  (hut  cf 
So  Utin  rfa-re.^for  A  esse.  kc).    The  .^''^^^'f  J^f  ^"''  °" 
the  other  hand   practically  uses  only  one  infinitive  form,  viz.,  the 
^cusltivcof  avcrbalnounin  lu,  e.g.,  sOMum,  elum    correspond. 
i^K  to  the  Latin  supinum  dalum,  Hum.     But,  as  in  Latin  another 
cS^   the  ablative  {datu),  of  the  same  abstract  noun  is  utilized  for 
nfnnlar  purpose,  so  the  Vedic  language  makes  t^™,?ther  cases  do 
duty  as  infinitives,  viz.,  the  dative  in  tave  (,cg.,dalave,  and  the 
anomalous  Xra'i),  and  ihe  gen.-abl.  in  tos  {ddlos)      A  prominent 
?  Lturo  of  the  later  Sanskrit  syntax  is  the  so-called  f  ™"<i  »/  '"J?" 
clinable  participle  in  M.  apparently  the  instrumeutal  of  a  s  em   n 
<m  (probably  a  derivatire  from  that  in  tu)   as  well  as  the  gerund  m 
Ja(or/'«  after  a  final  short  radical  vowe)  made  from  compound 
?erte      The  old   language  knows  not  only  such  gerunds  u    tvi, 
nsin-them,  however: ve?y  sparingly,  but  also  correspondmg  dative 
forms  in  «.La  (yuklv^ua),  and  the  curious  contracted  forms  m  tv. 
A-n"rf   "  to  do  ").     And,  besides  those  in  ya  and   ya  it  frequently 
uses  forms  with  a  final  long  vowel,  as  bhid-yd,  t-^H  thus  show- 
"ng  the  former  to  be  shorte°ned  instrumentaU  of  abstract  nouns 

'"i'hrslnskrit  verb,  like  the  Greek,  has  two  voices,  active  and 
middle,  called,  after  their  primary  functions.  r'^f^l.^^'Z";",' 
"  word  for  another,"  and  d<»mn<;-;)«srf«,  "  word  forone  sself.  While 
in  Greek  the  middle  forms  have  to  do  duty  also  for  the  pa.,sive  in 
all  tenses  except  the  aorist  and  future,  the  Sanskrit,  on  the  other 
hand  has  developed  for  the  passive  a  special  present-stem  in  ya, 
the  o'ther  tenses  being  supplied  by  the  corresnondmg  middle  forms 
with  the  exception  of  the  third  person  singular  aorist,  for  which  a 
special  form  in  i  is  usually  assigned  to  tho  passive. 

The  present-stem  system  is  by  far  the  most  important  part  of  the 
whole  verb  system,  both  on  account  of  frequency  of  actual  occur- 
rence and  of  its  excellent  state  of  preservation  It  is  with  regard 
to  the  dilferent  ways  of  present-stem  formation  that  the  entire  stock 
of  assumed  roots  has  been  grouped  by  the  native  grammarians  under 
ten  different  classes.  These  classes  again  naturally  faU  under  t^o 
divisions  or  "  conjugations,"  with  this  characteristic  difference  that 
the  one  (the  second)  retains  the  same  stem  (ending  m  a)  through- 
out the  present  and  imperfect,  only  lengthening  the  final  vowel 
before  terminations  beginning  with  v  or  m  (not  final) ;  wlule  the 
other  shows  two  different  forms  of  the  stem,  a  strong  and  a  weak 
form,  according  as  the  accent  falls  on  the  stem-syllab  e  or  on  the 
personal  ending:  e.g.,  3  sing,  bhdra-ti,  0tpt.-2  ^l  bUra-iha, 
S(.€'(,€T€  ;  but  i-ii,  ^Ut-Uhd,  fre  (for  lr4) ;  1  emg.  strn6-mi,  <rr6p- 
Kuui— 1  pl.  stmu-mds  {trrSpyuiifs).  ,     . ,    ,     •     -i     -x     t 

As  several  of  the  personal  endings  show  a  decided  simiJarity  to 
personal  or  demonstrative  pronouns,  it  is  highly  probable  that,  as 
might  indeed  be  a  priori  expected,  all  or  most  of  tliem  are  ot 
pronominal  origin,— though,  owing  to  their  exposed  position  and 
consequent  decay,  their  original  form  and  identity  cannot  now  be 
determined  with  certainty.  The  active  singular  terminations,  witli 
the  exception  of  the  second  person  of  the  imperative,  are  unaccented 
and  of  comparatively  light  appearance  ;  while  those  of  the  dual 
and  plural,  as  well  as  the  middle  terminations,  have  the  accent, 
being  apparently  too  heavy  to  be  supported  by  the  stem-accent, 
either  because,  as  Schleicher  supposed,  they  are  composed  of  two 
dilferent  pronominal  elements,  or  otherwise.  The  trcatroent  of 
the  personal  endings  in  the  first,  and  presumably  older,  conjuga- 
tion may  thus  be  said  somewhat  to- resemble  that  of  enclitics  in 

In  the  imperfect,  the  present-stem  is  increased  by  the  augment, 
consisting  of  a  prefixed  a.  Here,  as  in  the  other  tenses  in  which 
it  appears,  it  has  invariably  tho  accent,  as  being  the  distinctive 
element  (originally  probably  an  independent  demonstrative  adverb 
"then")  for  the  expression  of  past  time.  This  shifting  of  tho 
word-accent  seems  to  have  contributed  to  the  further  reduction  of 
tho  personal  endings,  and  thus  caused  tho  formation  of  a  new,  or 
secondary,  set  of  terminations  which  came  to  bo  appropriated  for 
secondary  tenses  and  moods  generally.  As  in  Greek  poetry,  tho 
augment  is  frequently  omitted  in  Sanskrit. 

The  mood-sign  of  tho  subjunctive  is  H,  added  to  (the  strong  form 
of)  tho  tense-stem.  If  the  stem  ends  already  in  S,  the  latter  bo- 
comes  lengthened.  As  regard  the  personal  terminations,  some 
persons  take  tho  primary,  otliers  tho  sacondary  forms,  while  others 
ogain  may  take  either  the  one  or  tho  other.  The  first  singular 
active,  however,  takes  ni  instead  of  mi,  to  distinguish  it  from  tho 
indicative.  But  besides  these  forms,  showing  the  mood-sign  S, 
the  subjunctive  (both  present  and  aorist)  may  take  niiother  form, 
without  any  distinctive  modal  sign,  and  with  tho  secondary  endings, 
being  thus  identical  with  tho  augmentless  form  of  the  preterite. 

The  optative  invariably  takes  the  secondary  endings,  with  some 
peculiar  variations.  In  tho  active  of  tho  first  conjugation,  its  mood- 
sign  is  yi,  ttllixcd  to  tho  weak  form  of  tho  stem  ;  e.g.,  root  oi, — 


m<lm  =  Lat.   JiViii.   s'on;  while  in  tho    second    conjugation    and 
throughout  tho  middle  it  is  !,  probably  a  contraction  ot  yd  :  en., 

"Be'sides 'the  ordinary  perfect,  made  from  a  reduplicated  stem, 
with  distinction  between  strong  (active  singular)  and  weak  forms, 
and  a  partly  peculiar  set  of  endings,  the  kter  language  niakes 
larce  use  of  a  periphrastic  perfect,  consisting  of  the  accusative  of 
a  feminine  abstract  noun  in  d  {-dm)  with  the  reduplicated  perfect 
forms  of  the  auxiliary  verbs  kar,  "to  do,"  or  as  (and  occasionally 
Hid)  "to  be."  Though  more  particularly  resorted  to  for  the 
derivative  forms  of  conjugation— viz. ,  the  causative  (including  the 
so-called  tenth  conjugational  class),  the  desiderative,  intensive,  and 
denominative-this  perfect-form  is  also  commonly  used  with  roots 
besinniiK'  with  prosodically  long  vowels,  as  well  as  with  a  few 
other  isolated  roots.  In  the  Kigveda  thU  formation  is  quite 
unknown,  and  the  Atharvan  offers  a  single  instance  of  it.  from  a 
causative  verb,  with  the  auxiliary  kar.  In  the  Vedic  prose,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  rather  frequent,'  and  it  is  quite  common  in 
the  later  language.  .  , 

In  addition  to  the  ordinary  participles,  active  and  middle  of 
the  reduplicated  perfect, -c.  3.,  ;aya»-fan,  ytyoy^s ;  bubudhdnd, 
TreTTvff-fxiyo,— there  is  a  secondary  participial  formation,  obtained 


hv  affixin"  the  possessive  suffix  vat  (rant)  to  the  passive  past 
participle:  e.g.,  krita-vant,  lit.  "having  (that  which  is)  done.  A 
secondary  participle  of  this  kind  occurs  ouce  in  the  Athai;vaveda. 
audit  is  occasioimlly  met  with  in  the  Biahmanas.  In  the  later 
language,  however,  it  not  only  is  of  rather  frequent  occurrence, 
but  haf  assumed  quite  a  new  function,  viz.,  that  of  a  finite  perfect- 
form  ;  thus  kritavdn,  kriiavantas,  without  any  auxiliary  verb, 
mean   not  "  having  done,    but  "  he  has  done,       they  have  done. 

The  original  Indo-Germanic  future-stem  formation  in  sya,  with 
primary  endings,— c.flr. ,  ddsydU=Ua(i  (for  UirtrC),  —is  the  ordinary 
tcnse-form  both  in  Vedic  and  classical  Sanskrit, -a  preterite  of  it, 
witii  a  conditional  force  attached  to  it  (fiddsyat),  being  also  common 
to  all  periods  of  the  language.  ,   ,.■    ^         e    „ 

Side  by  side  with  this  future,  however,  an  analytic  tense-torm 
makes  its  appearance  in  the  Brahmanas,  obtaining  wider  currency 
in  the  later  language.  This  periphrastic  future  is  made  by  means 
of  the  nominative  singular  of  a  nomm  agcntis  in  tar  (ddtar,  nom. 
{MM=Lat.  dalor),  followed  by  the  corresponding  present  forms  of 
as,  "to  be"  (ddtd-'smi,  as  it  were,  daturus  sum),  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  third  persons,  which  need  no  auxiliary,  but  take  the 
respective  nominative  of  the  noun.  ,   .     ,    ..  .»  1  »„ 

The  aorist  system  is  somewhat  complicated,  including  as  it  does 
augment-preterites  of  various  formations,  viz  a  radical  aorist 
sometimes  with  reduplicated  stem,-<;.!7.,  dsthdm-'iff^v;  srndM 
=.K\S9.;  ddudrot;  an  o-aorist  (or  thematic  aorist)  with  or 
withoutreduplication,-c.3.,rfrto  =  ?\,jr«;  d;""^'""'./- f';-'*;^^^^^^ 
and  several  different  forms  of  a  sib.lant-aorist.  In  the  older 
Vcdie  language  the  radical  aorist  is  far  more  common  than  the 
a.aorist,  whicl  becomes  more  frequently  used  later  on.  Of  the 
different  kinds  of  sibilant-aorists,  the  most  common  "  the  »"« 
which  makes  its  stem  by  the  addition  of  s  to  the  ™ot,  either  wtU 
«r  without  a  connecting  vowel  i  in  different  roots:  e.g.,  root  ;i— 
1  sing.  djdUham,  1  pl.  djdiskma;  <ikr'imi^1^!'m,'il-ramiskmaK 
limited  number  if  roots  take  a  double  f  "f  "^'S?.;"^.  "^"''^^'^ 
connecting  vowel  (sish  for  sU:),-e.g.,  dydsisham  {cf.  «^'f-*"-"  ■ 
whilst  others-very  rarely  in  the  older  but  more  numerously  in  tho 
Taterlangli'IIe-mTko  their  aorist-stem  by  tho  addition  of  sa.-e.g.. 

'^fj'rT^rl'iteyntactic  functions  of  the  three  preterites.-the 
iniperf'd^  perfect.  Ind  aorist, -tho  classical  writers  ";»'^?J.';^^  "  'V 
no'distinction  between  them,  but  use  tl'^m  quite  indiscrim.nat^^^^ 
In  tho  older  language,  on  the  other  hand,  tho  ""P«*^t  "/^'  '"J 
used  as  a  narrative  tense,  while  the  other  two  F'"^r"">';^l'''^ '°  " 
mst  action  which  is  now  complcte.-tho  aorist,  however,  moro 
[™uentrto  that  which  is  on'ly  j"st  done  -  c^'-P'f  ^,-,„  ^^^ 
perlcct,  owing  doubtless  to  its  reduplicative  forn,,  has  also  not 
nfrenuentlv  tlie  force  of  an  iterative,  or  intensive,  present 

The  Sanskrit  like  the  Greek,  shows  at  all  times  a  considerable 
poler  and  fadlity  of  noun-comfosition.  But.  while  in  the  older 
Fanp^age,  as'^w^l  as  in  tho  carliJr  literary  prodncts  of  tl";.^  ";^'|'» 
3d  such  combinations  rarely  exceed  tho  limits  compati  do  wi  h 
tl7e  general  econo'''y  "f  inflexional  speech,  during  tho  later,  arti- 
fi  ial'"r1od  of  the  iLguago  they  gra.lually  1-"-  "--^"tS 
excessive,  both  in  size  and  frequency  of  use.  ill  at  last  they  absorb 
almost  tho  entire  range  of  syntactic  constmrtinn.  . 

Ono  of  the  most  striking  features  of  Sanskrit  wonl-formation  is 
th^t  r°eg  liar  interdiange  o'f  Ught  and  strong  vowcUounda,  usually 
dcsicnated  bv  the  native  terms  of  g'lr.a  (quality  and  mMh' 
anmase)  Tho  phonetic  process  implied  in  those  terms  consists 
n  Uio  ra ising  under  certain  conditions,  of  a  radical  or  thematio 
r  1  f  „  ,.!.„I  V  «  r  I  bv  moans  of  on  nsortcd  asound.  to  tho 
d\'{lhthrg^U^narsi:n.j'»  S^Tsanskr.  /).  au  (San.kr.  .).  and  the 

.  I,  .1,0  .MOW.  o<-ciu>loo»ny  other  tciue-10™.  man  the  I>«rl«i  o«  Uic  un.« 
pcrlpliiMllc  (omiallon  wllli  kar. 


272 


SANSKRIT 


[la»-guaoe. 


cfombination  ar  and  at  respectively,  and,  by  a  repetition  of  the' same 
process,  to  the  (vriddhi)  sounds  lii,  rfit,  dr,  and  dl  respectively. 
iThns  from  root  vid,  "to  know,"  we  have  vida,  "l<no\vledge,"  and 
therefrom  vdldika  ;  from^^Kjr,  y6ga,  yduijika.  Wliilc  the  inter- 
change of  the  former  kind,  due  mainly  to  accentual  causes,  was  un- 
doubtedly a  common  feature  of  Indo-Germanic  speech,  the  latter, 
or  vriddhi-cbange,  which  chiefly  occurs  in  secondary  stems,  is  pro- 
bably a  later  development.  Moreover,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
jthe  vriddhi- vowels  are  really  due  to  what  the  term  implies,  viz.,  to 
a  process  of  "  increment,"  or  vowel-raising.  The  same  was  univer- 
sally assumed  by  comparative  philologists  till  a  few  years  ago, 
as  regards  the  relation  between  the  guna-sounds  ai  (c)  and  du  (6) 
and  the  respective  simple  i-  and  w-sounds.  According  to  a  recent 
theory,  however,  which  has  already  received  a  considerable  amount 
of  acceptance,  we  are  henceforth  to  look  upon  the  heavier  vowels 
as  the  original,  and  upon  the  lighter  vowels  as  the  later  sounds, 
produced  through  the  absence  of  stress  and  pitch.  'The  grounds 
on  which  this  theory  is  recommended  are  those  of  logical  consist- 
ency. In  the  analogous  cases  of  interchange  between  r  and  ar, 
fls  well  as  /  and  al,  most  scholars  have  indeed  been  wont  to  regard 
the  syllabic  r  ^nd  I  as  weakened  from  original  ar  and  al,  while 
the  native  grammarians  reiiresent  the  latter  as  produced  from  the 
former  by  increment.  Similarly  the  verb  as  (is),  "to  be,"  lo§es  its 
vowel  wherever  the  radical  syllable  is  unaccented:  e.g.,  dsii,  Lat. 
est — smds,  s{u)mKs  ;  opt.  sydm,  Lat.  sicm  (s'tm).  For  other  analo- 
gous cases  of  vowel-change,  see  Philologt,  vol.  xviii.  p.  783  sq. 
On  the  strength  of  these  analogous  cases  of  vowel-modihoation  we 
are,  therefore,  to  accept  some  such  equation  as  this : — 

dsmi:  snuh^SepKO/iai  :  f5p{a)Kov  =  \flTra  :  XiTfrv 

=  emi  (fl/xi):  vnds  {t/itv  for  //itV) 

=  (pfvyw  :  (pvyf^v 

^duhmi  (I  milk)  :  duhmds. 

Acquiescence  in  this  equation  would  seem  to  involve  at  least 
one  important  admission,  viz.,  that  original  root-syllables  contained 
no  simple  i-  and  M-vowels,  except  as  the  second  element  of  the 
diphthongs  ai,  ei,  oi ;  aw,  eu,  ou.  AVe  ought  no  longer  to  speak 
of  the  roots  vid,  "to  know,"  dik,  "to  show,  to  bid,"  dhugh,  "to 
milk,"  yug,  "to  join,"  but  of  vdd,  deik,  dhaugh  or  dhcugh,  yeug, 
&c.  Nay,  as  the  same  law  would  apply  will)  equal  force  to  suftixal 
vowels,  the  suffix  nu  would  have  to  be  called  nau  or  neu  ;  and,  in 
explaining,  for  instance,  the  irregularly  formed  ZiiKvv^Ll,  SiUvCfiey, 
we  might  say  that,  by  the  affixion  of  i/eu  to  the  root  SttK,  the 
present^stem  5ik«i;  was  obtained  (Si/ci/eO/ii))  which,  as  the  stress 
was  shifted  forward,  became  1  plur.  SiKvufieirii), — the  subsequent 
modifications  in  the  radical  and  formative  syllables  being  due  to 
the  effects  of  "analogy"  (c/.  G.  Meyer,  Gricch.  Gramm.,  §  487). 
Kow,  if  there  be  any  truth  in  the  "  agglutination  "  theory,  accord- 
ing to  which  th"'  radical  and  formative  elements  of  Indo-Germanic 
speech  were  at  one  time  independent  wo"rds,  we  would  have  to  be 
(prepared  for  a  pretty  liberal  allowance,  to  the  parent  language, 
of  diphthongal  monosyllables  such  as  deik  nei,  while  simple  com- 
binations such  as  dtk  nu  could  only  spring  up  after  separate 
syllable-words  had  become  united  by  the  force  of  a  common  accent. 
But,  whether  the  agglutinationists  be  right  or  wrong,  a  theory  in- 
volving the  priority  of  the  diphthongal  ovep  the  simple  sounds 
can  hardly  be  said  to  be  one  of  great  prima  facie  probability  ;  and 
one  may  well  ask  whether  the  requirements  of  logical  consistency 
might  not  be  satisfied  in  some  other,  less  improbable,  way. 

Now,  the  analogous  case.?  which  have  called  forth  this  theory 
turn  upon  the  loss  of  a  radical  or  suffixal  a  (?),  occasioned  by  the 
shifting  of  the  word-accent  to  some  other  syllable  :  e.g.,  ace. 
m&tdram,  instr.  mdlra  ;  irtVo/ia;,  (ttt6ixt\v  ;  ZipKOfiai,  eZp(a)KOv  ; 
dsmi,  smds.  Might  we  not  then  assume  that  at  an  early  stage  of 
noun  and  verb  inflexion,  through  the  giving  way,  under  certain 
conditions,  of  the  stem  a  (?),  the  habit  of  stem-gradation,  as  an 
element  of  inflexion,  came  to  establish  itself  and  ultimately  to 
extend  its  sphere  over  stems  with  i-  and  M-vowels,  but  that,  on 
meeting  here  with  more  resistance  ^  than  in  the  a  (?)-vowel,  the 
stem-gradation  then  took  the  shape  of  a  raising  of  the  simple 
vowel,  in  the  "strong"  cases,  and  verb-forms,  by  that  same  o- 
'ilement  which  constituted  the  distinctive  element  of  those  cases  in 
the  other  variable  stems  ?  In  this  way  the  above  equation  would 
■still  hold  good,  and  the  corresponding  vowel-grades,  though  of 
somewhat  different  genesis,  would  yet  be  strictly  analogous. 

The  accent  of  Sanskrit  words  is  marked  only  in  the  more  import- 
ant Vedio  texts,  different  systems  of  notation  being  used  in  different 
works.  Our  knowledge  of  the  later  accentuation  of  words  is  entirely 
derived  from  the  statements  of  grammarians.  As  in  Greek,  there 
are  three  accents,  the  uddtta  (raised,"  i.e.,  acute),  the  anuddtla 
("  not  raised,"  i.e.,  grave),  and. the  svarita  {"sounded,  modulated," 
i.e.;  circumflex).      The  last  is  a  combination  of  the  two  others, 

1  We  might  compare  the  different  treatment  In  Sanskrit  of  an  and  in  bases 
{mUrdfidni-fTiilydhna;  vAdmi-vddind) ;  for,  though  the  latter  are  doubtless  of 
later  origin,  their  inflexion  might  hu-ve  been  inliuenced  by  that^'of  the  forn.er. 
Also  a  comparison  of  such  forms  as  (dcvd)  deviindm,  (^agni)  agniuam,  and  (jJhenu) 
dhendnam,  tells  in  favour  of  the  «'-  and  w-vowels,  as  regards  power  of  re>istanco. 
inasmuch  as  it  does  not  require  the  accent  in  order  to  remain  intact. 


its  proper  use  being  confined  almost  entirely  to  a  vowel  preceded 
by  a  semivowel  y  or  v,  representing  an  original  acuted  vowel.' 
Hindu  scholars,  however,  also  include  in  this  term  the  accent  of  a 
grave  syllable  preceded  by  an  acuted  syllable,  and  itself  followed 
by  a  grave. 

The  Sanskrit  and  Greek  accentuations  present  numerous  coin- 
cidences. Although  the  Greek  rule,  confining  the  accent  within 
the  last  three  syllables,  has  frequently  obliterated  the  original 
likeness,  the  old  features  may  often  be  traced  through  the  latei 
forms.  Thus,  though  augmented  verb-forms  in  Greek  cannot 
alw.ays  have  the  accent  on  the  augment  as  in  Sanskrit,  they  have 
it  invariably  as  little  removed  from  it  as  the  accentual  restrictions 
will  allow;  e.g.,  dbharam,  tipfpov;  dbhardma,  iipiponfv ;  Abliard- 
mahi,  i<pep6fif6a. 

The  most  striking  coincidence  in  noun  declension  is  thrf 
accentual  distinction  made  by  both  languages  between  the  "strong" 
and  "weak"  cases  of  monosyllabic  nouns, — the  only  difl'erence  in 
this  respect  being  that  in  Sanskrit  the  accusative  plural,  as  a  rule, 
has  tbe  accent  on  the  case-ending,  and  consequently  shows  thff 
weak  form  of  the  stem:  e.g.,  sicmpad,  iro5;  pddam,  Trrioo;  padus, 
•noZi^  ;  2^adi,  iroZi ;  pddas,  "TrtJSes  ;  padds,  iT68as  ;  padam,  TroSdv  ; 
patsii,  voai  In  Sanskrit  a  few  other  classes  of  stems  (especially 
present  participles  in  ant,  al),  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  are  apt 
to  yield. their  accent  to  heavy  vowel  (not  consonantal)  termina- 
tions; compare  the  analogous  accentuation  of  Sanskrit  and  Greek 
stems  in  Idr  :  pitdravi,  jrarepa  ;  piM,  varpis  ;  pitdras,  irarcpej  ; 
pitrshu,    7ratp{d)<n. 

The  vocative,  when  heading  a  sentence  (or  verse-division),  hii3 
invariably  the  accent  on  the  first  syllable ;  otherwise  it  is  not 
accented. 

Finite  verb-forms  also,  as  a  rule,  lose  their  accent,  except  when 
standing  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  or  verse-division  (a  vocativa 
not  being  taken  into  account),  or  in  dependent  (mostly  relative) 
clauses,  or  in  conjunction  with  certain  particles.  Of  two  or  more 
co-ordinate  verb-forms,  however,  only  the  first  is  nnaocented. 

In  writing  Sanskrit  the  natives,  in  different  parts  of  India, 
generally  employ  the  particular  character  used  for  writing  their  own 
vernacular.  The  character,  however,  most  widely  understood  and ' 
employed  by  Hindu  scholars,  and  used  invariably  in  European 
editions  of  Sanskrit  works  (unless  printed  in  Roman  letters)  is  tha 
so-called  Dcvandgart,  or  ndgart  ("town "-script)  of  the  gods. 

The  origin  of  the  Indian  alphabets  is  still  enveloped  in  doubt. 
The  oldest  hitherto  known  specimens  of  Indian  writing  are  five, 
rock-inscriptions,  containing  religious  edicts  in  Pali  (the  Prakrit 
used  in  the  Buddhist  scriptures),  issued  by  the  emperor  Atoka^ 
(Piyadasi)  of  the  Maurya  dynasty,  in  253-251  B.C.,  and  scattered 
over  the  area  of  northern  India  from  the  vicinity  of  Peshawar,  on 
the  north-west  frontier,  and  Girnar  in  Guzerat,  to  Jaugada  and 
Dhauli  in  Katak,  on  the  eastern  coast.  The  most  western  of  thesaj 
inscriptions — called,  from  villages  near  it,  the  Kapurdagarhi  op 
Shahbaz-garhi  inscrijition — is  executed  in  a  different  alphabet 
from  the  others.  It  reads  from  right  to  left,  and  is  usually  called 
the  Arian  PSli  alphabet,  it  being  also  used  on  the  coins  of  the 
Greek  and  Indo-Soytbian  princes  of  Ariana  j  while  the  other,' 
which  reads  from  left  to  right,  is  called  the  Indian  Pali  alphabet: 
The  former,  which  is  manifestly  derived  from  a  Semitic  (probably 
Aramaean)  source,  has  left  no  traces  on  the  subsequent  development' 
of  Indian  writing.  The  Indo-Pali  alphabet,  on  the  other  hand,' 
from  wliich  the  modern  Indian  alphabets  are  derived,  is  of  uncertain 
origin.  The  similarity,  however,  which  several  of  its  letters 
present  to  those  of  the  old  Phoenician  alphabet  (itself  probably 
derived  from  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics)  suggests  for  this  alphabet! 
also— or  at  least  for  the  germ  of  it— the  probability  of  a  Semitio 
origin,  though,  already  at  AiSoka's  time,  the  Indians  had  worked 
it  up  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection  and  wonderfully  adapted  it  to 
their  peculiar  scientific  ends.  As  to  the  probable  time  and  channel 
of  its  introduction,  no  satisfactory  theory  has  yet  been  proposed.' 
Considering,  however,  the  high  state  of  perfection  it  exhibits  in 
the  Maurya  and  Andhra  inscriptions,  as  well  as  the  wide  area  ovei 
which  these  are  scattered,  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  the  art 
of  ^vriting  must  have  been  known  to  and  practised  by  the  Indiana 
for  various  purposes  long  before  the  time  of  Afoka.  The  fact  that 
no  reference  to  it  is  found  in  the  contemporary  literature  has 
probably  to  be  accounted  for  by  a  strong  reluctance  on  the  part  of 
the  Brahmans  to  commit  their  sacred  works  to  writing.  A  useful 
1 56ume  of  the  various  theories  proposed  on  this  subject  will  be  found 
in  a  paper  contributed  by  Mr  R.  Gust  to  the  Journal  of  the  Itoyal 
Asiatic  Society,  new  series,  vol.  xvi 

The  invention  of  the  numeral  figures,  which  used  to  be  generally 
ascribed  to  the  Indians,  has  also  been  rendered  doubtful  by  mora 
recent  research, 

An  excellent  Sanskrit  grammar,  dealing  with  the  laniniage  historically,  hal 
been  published  by  Prof.  W.  D.  Whitney.  Of  other  English  grammars,  dealing 
almost  exclusively  with  the  classical  Sanskrit,  those  of  Pr^'s.  Max  MliUerj 
Monier  Williams,  and  F.  Kielhorn  are  now  most  widely  nsed. 

The  best  diciionary  Is  the  great  Sanskrit-German  Wdrlerbucn,  published  at  Si 
Pelereburg,  in  7  vols.,  by  Profs.  Bohtiingk  and  Roth.  Largely, based  on  thla 
great  thesaurus  are  the  SanskritEnglish  dictlonariea  by. Prof.  M.  Williams  and 
the  late  Prot.-Th.  Deufey. 


irrEK4TVRE.J 


SANSKRIT 


273 


PART  II.-SANSKEIT  LITERATURE. 


The  history  of  Sanskrit  literature  labours  under  the 
same  disadvantage  as  the  political  history  of  ancient  India, 
from  the  total  want  of  anything  like  a  fixed  chronology. 
As  there  are  extremely  few  well-ascertained  political  facts 
until  comparatively  recent  times,  so  in  that  whole  vast 
range  of  literary  development  there  is  scarcely  a  work  of 
importance  the  date  of  which  scholars  have  succeeded  in 
fixing  with  absolute  certainty.  The  original  composition 
of  most  Sanskrit  works  can  indeed  bo  confidently  assigned 
to  certain  general  periods  of  literature,  but  as  to  many  of 
them,  and  these  among  the  most  important,  scholars  have 
but  too  much  reason  to  doubt  whether  they  have  come 
down  to  us  in  their  original  shape,  or  whether  they  have 
not  rather,  in  course  of  time,  undergone  alterations  and 
additions  so  serious  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  regard 
them  as  genuine  witnesses  of  any  one  phase  of  the 
development  of  the  Indian  mind.  Nor  can  we  expect 
jnany  important  chronological  data  from  the  new  materials 
which  will  doubtless  yet  be  brought  to  light  in  India. 
Though  by  such  discoveries  a  few  isolated  spots  may 
indeed  be  lighted  up  here  and  there,  the  real  task  of 
clearing  away  the  mist  which  at  present  obscures  our  view, 
if  ever  it  can  be  cleared  away,  will  have  to  be  performed 
by  patient  research — by  a  more  minute  critical  e.xamina- 
tion  of  the  multitudinous  writings  which  have  been  handed 
down  from  the  remote  past.  In  the  following  sketch  it  is 
intended  to  take  a  rapid  view  of  the  more  important 
works  and  writers  in  the  several  departments  of  literature. 

In  accordance  with  the  two  great  phases  of  linguistic 
development  above  referred  to,  the  history  of  Sanskrit 
literature  readily  divides  itself  into  two  principal  periods, 
the  Vedic  and  the  classical.  It  should,  however,  be 
rioted  that  these  periods  partly  overlap  each  other,  and 
that  some  of  the  later  Vedic  works  are  included  in  that 
period  on  account  of  the  subjects  with  which  they  deal, 
and  for  their  archaic  style,  rather  than  for  any  just  claim 
to  a  higher  antiquity  than  may  have  to  be  assigned  to  the 
oldest  works  of  the  classical  Sanskrit. 

I.  The  Vedic  Period.^ 

The  terra  veda — i.e.,  "knowledge,"  (sacred)  "lore" — 
embraces  a  body  of  writings  the  origin  of  which  is 
ascribed  to  divine  revelation  (irw^!,  literally  "hearing"), 
and  whiglx  forms  the  foundation  of  the  Br.^hmanical 
system  of  religious  belief.  This  sacred  canon  is  divided 
into  three  or  (according  to  a  later  scheme)  four  coordinate 
collections,  likewise  called  Veda: — (1)  the  Rig-veda,  or 
lore  of  praise  (or  hymns) ;  (2)  the  Sdma-veda,  or  lore  of 
tunes  (or  chants) ;  (3)  the  Yqjur-veda,  or  lore  of  prayer ; 
and  (i)  the  Atharva-veda,  or  lore  of  the  Atharvan.s. 
tfis.  Each  of  these  four  Vedas  consists  primarily  of  a  collection 
(^smp.hitd)  of  sacred,  mostly  poetical,  texts  of  a  devotional 
nature,  called  mantra.  This  entire  body  of  texts  (and 
particukrly  the  first  three  collections)  is  also  frequently 
referred  to  as  the  trayt  vidyu,  or  threefold  wisdom,  of  hymn 
{rich"),  tune  or  chant  {idman),  and  prayer  (yajus), — the 
fourth  Veda,  if  at  all  included,  being  in  that  case  classed 
together  with  the  Rik. 

The  Br^hmanical  religion  finds  its  practical  expression 
chietly  in  sacrificial  performances.  The  Vedic  sacrifice 
requires  for  its  proper  [lerformance  the  attendance  of  four 
officiating   priests,  each   of  whom   is  assisted  by  one   or 

'  J.  Muir's  Original  Sanskrit  Texts,  0  vols.,  U  cil.,  forms  tbo  roost 
complete  general  survey  of  tho  results  of  Vedic  research. 

•  rho  combination  ch,  useil  (in  conformity  with  the  usual  English 
practice)  in  this  eketch  of  the  literature,  corresponds  to  Iho  simple  e 
Ml  tho  scheme  of  tho  olphabet,  p.  270. 

21-11 


more  (usually  three)  suDordinate  priests,  viz.:^-(l)  thS 
Hotar  (i.e.,  either  "sacrificer,"  or  "invoker"),  whose  chief 
business  is  to  invoke  the  gods,  either  in  short  prayers 
pronounced  over  the  several  oblations,  or  in  liturgical 
recitations  (sastra),  made  up  of  various  hymns  and 
detached  verses ;  (2)  the  Udy&tar,  or  chorister,  who  has  to 
perform  chants  (stotni)  in  connexion  with  the  hotar'e 
recitations  ;  (3)  the  Adhvaryu,  or  offering  priest  par  excels 
lence,  who  (performs  all  the  material  duties  of  the  sacrifice, 
such  as  the  kindling  of  the  fires,  the  preparation  of  the 
sacrificial  ground  and  the  offerings,  the  making  of  obla- 
tion.s,  &c. ;  (4)  the  Brahman,  or  chief  "  priest,"  who  has  to 
superintend  the  performance  and  to  rectify  any  mistakes 
that  may  be  committed.  Now,  the  first  three  of  these 
priests  stand  in  special  relation  to  three  of  the  Vedic 
Sanihitas  in  this  way,  that  the  Sanihitas  of  the  Samaveda 
and  Yajurveda  foru  special  song  and  prayer  books, 
arranged  for  the  practical  use  of  the  udgatar  and 
adhvaryu  respectively ;  whilst  the  Rik-sarnhita,  though 
not  arranged  for  any  such  practical  purpose,  contains  the 
entire  body  of  sacred  lyrics  whence  the  hotar  draws  the 
material  for  his  recitations.  The  brahman,  on  the  other 
hand,  had  no  special  text-book  assigned  to  him,  but  was 
expected  to  be  familiar  with  all  the  Samhitas  as  well  as 
with  the  practical  details  of  the  sacrificial  performance. 
In  point  of  fact,  however,  the  brahmans,  though  their 
attendance  at  Vedic  sacrifices  was  required,  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  have  formed  a  separate  class  of  priests  :  their 
office  was  probably  one  which  might  be  held  by  any  priest 
of  the  three  other  classes  who  had  acquired  the  necessary 
qualification  by  additional  study  of  the  other  SarnhitSa 
and  manuals  of  ritual.  In  later  times,  when  the  votaries 
of  the  fourth  Veda  pressed  for  recognition  of  their  Sainhit4 
as  part  of  the  sacred  canon,  the  brahman  priest  was 
claimed  by  them  as  specially  connected  with  the  Atharva- 
veda.  It  is  perhaps  for  this  reason  that  the  latter  is  also 
called  the  Brcihmaveda, — though  this  designation  may  also 
be  taken  to  mean  the  Veda  of  spells  or  secret  doctrines 
{brahman).  It  sometimes  happens  that  verses  not  found 
in  our  version  of  the  Rik-sainhiti,  but  in  the  Atharva- 
veda-sarnhitit,  are  used  lay  the  hotar ;  but  such  texts,  if 
they  did  not  actually  form  part  of  soma  other  version  of 
the  Rik, — as  Saj'ana  in  the  introduction  to  his  commentary 
on  the  Rik-sarnhita  assures  us  that  they  did, — were  prob- 
ably inserted  in  the  liturgy  subsequent  to  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  fourth  Veda. 

Tho  several  SarnhitSs  have  attached  to  them  certain  Brah. 
theological  prose  work.s,  called  Brdhmana,  which,  though  ""a""* 
subordinate  in  authority  to  the  Mantras  or  Samhitas,  are 
liko  them  held  to  be  divinely  revealed  and  to  form  part  of 
the  canon.  The  chief  works  of  this  class  are  of  an  exegetic 
nature, — their  purport  being  to  supply  a  dogmatic  exposi- 
tion of  tho  sacrificial  ceremonial  in  so  far  as  tho  particular 
class  of  priests  for  whose  enlightenment  tho  Br&hmana  is 
intended  is  concerned  in  it.  Notwithstanding  the  un- 
interesting character  of  no  small  part  of  their  contents,  the 
Brahmanas  are  of  considerable  importance,  both  as  regards 
the  history  of  Indian  institutions  and  as  "  tho  oldest  body 
of  Indo-European  prose,  of  a  generally  free,  vigorous, 
simple  form,  affording  valuable  glimpses  backward  at  the 
primitive  condition  of  unfettered  Indo-European  talk' 
(Whitney). 

More  or  less  closely  connected  with  tho  BrAhmanas  (and' 
in  a  few  exceptional  cases  with  SainhitAn)  are  two  classes 
of  treatises,  called  Aratjyaka  and  Upanishad.  The  Aran- 
yakas,  i.e.,  works  "relating  .to  tho  forest,"  being  intended 
to  bo  read  by  those  who  have  retired  from  the  world  an(/ 


274 


SANSKRIT 


LirEBATUKE. 


lead  the  life  of  anchorites,  do  not  greatly  differ  in  char- 
acter and  style  from  the  Brahmanas,  but  like  them  are 
chiefly  ritualistic,  treating  of  special  ceremonies  not  dealt 
witli,  or  dealt  with  only  imperfectly,  in  the  latter  works, 
to  which  they  thus  stand  in  the  relation  of  supplements. 
The  Upanishads,  on  the  other  hand,  are  of  a  purely  specu- 
lative nature,  and  must  be  looked  upon  as  the  first 
attempts  at  a  systematic  treatment  of  metaphysical  ques- 
tions. The  number  of  Dpanishads  hitherto  known  is  very 
considerable  (about  170);  but,  though  they  nearly  all  pro- 
fess to  belong  to  the  Atharvaveda,  they  have  to  be  assigned 
to  very  different  periods  of  Sanskrit  literature, —  some  of 
them  being  evidently  quite  modern  productions.  The 
oldest  treatises  of  this  kind  are  doubtless  those  which 
form  part  of  VedicSamhitiis,  Brahmanas,  and  Aranyakas, 
though  not  a  few  others  which  have  no  such  special  con- 
nexion have  to  be  classed  with  the  later  products  of  the 
Vedic  age. 

As  the  sacred  texts  were  not  committed  to  writing  till  a 
mivh  later  jieriod,  but  were  handed  down  orally  in  the 
Brahmanical  schools,  it  was  inevitable  that  local  differences 
of  reading  should  spring  up,  which  in  course  of  time  gave 
rise  to  a  number  of  independent  versiOTis,  more  or  less 
differing  from  one  another.  Such  different  text-recen- 
sions, called  stikhd  (i.  e.,  branch),  were  at  one  time  very 
numerous,  but  only  a  limited  number  of  them  have  sur- 
vived. As  regards  the  Sarnhitus,  the  poetical  form  of  the 
hymns,  as  well  as  the  concise  style  of  the  sacrificial 
formulas,  would  render  these  tests  less  liable  to  change, 
and  the  discrepancies  of  diffi'rent  versions  would  chiefly 
consist  in  various  readings  of  single  words  or  in  the 
different  arrangement  of  the  textual  matter.  The  diffuse 
ritualistic  discussions  and  loosely  connected  legendary 
illustrations  of  the  Brahmanas,  on  the  other  hand,  offered 
scope  for  Very  considerable  modifications  in  the  traditional 
matter,  eitlier  through  the  ordinary  processes  of  oral 
transmission  or  through  the  special  influence  of  indi- 
vidual teachers. 

.■\n  original  Brdhmana,  then,  may  be  characterized  as  a 
series  of  theoretic  discourses,  composed  by  recognized 
authorities  on  ritualistic  matters,  such  as  might  be 
delivered  or  referred  to  in  connexion  with  j)ractieal 
instruction  in  tlie  sacrificial  art.  The  growing  intricacy 
of  the  ceremonial,  however,  could  not  fail,  in  course  of 
time,  to  create  a  demand  for  tri'atises  of  a  more  practical 
.  tendency,  setting  fortli,  in  conci.se  and  methodical  form, 
the  duties  of  the  several  piiests  in  the  sacrificial  perform- 
ances. But,  besides  the  purely  ceremonial  matter,  the 
Brahmanas  also  contained  a  considerable  amouut  of  matter 
bearing  on  the  correct  interpretation  of  the  Vedic  texts; 
and,  indeed,  the  sacred  obligation  incumbent  on  the 
Brahmans  of  handing  down  correctly  the  letter  and  sense 
of  those  texts  necessarily  involved  a  good  deal  of  serious 
grammatical  and  etymological  study  in  the  Brdhmanical 
schools.  These  literary  pursuits  could  not  but  result  in 
the  accumulation  of  much  learned  material,  which  it  would 
become  more  and  more  desirable  to  throw  into  a  system- 
atic form,  serving  at  the  same  time  as  a  guide  for  future 
research.  These  practical  requirements  were  niet  by  a 
class  of  treatises,  grouped  under  six  different  heads  or 
sultjects,  called  Veddnffiis,  i.  e.,  members,  or  limbs,  of  the 
(body  of  the)  Veda.  None  of  the  works,  however,  which 
have  come  down  to  us  under  this  designation  can  lay  any 
just  claim  to  being  considered  as  the  original  treatises  on 
their  several  subjects ;  but  they  evidently  represent  a  ' 
more  or  less  advanced  stage  of  scientific  development.  [ 
Though  a  few  of  them  are  composed  in  metrical  form  —  j 
especially  in  the  ordinary  epic  couplet,  the  annshtubh 
KlokH,  consisting  of  two  lines  of  sixteen  syllables,  or  of 
two  octosyllabic  pddas,  each  —  the  majority  of  them  belong 


to  a  class  of  writings  called  si'itra,  i.  e.,  "string,"  consisting  Svitrtu 
as  they  do  of  strings  of  rules  in  the  shape  of  tersely 
expressed  aphorisms,  intended  to  be  committed  to  memory. 
The  Slitras  form  a  connecting  link  between  the  Vedic  and 
tffe  classical  periods  of  literature.  But,  although  these 
treatises,  so  far  as  they  deal  with  Vedic  subjects,  are 
included  by  the  native  authorities  among  the  V^edic  writ- 
ings, and  in  point  of  language  may,  generally  speaking, 
be  considered  as  the  latest  products  of  the  Vedic  age,  they 
have  no  share  in  the  sacred  title  of  sruti  or  revelation. 
They  are  of  human,  not  of  divine,  origin.  And  yet,  as 
the  production  of  men  of  the  highest  standing,  and  pro- 
foundly versed  in  Vedic  lore,  the  Sutras  are  naturally 
regarded  as  works  of  great  authority,  second  only  to  that 
of  the  revealed  scriptures  themselves;  and  their  relation 
to  the  latter  is  expressed  in  the  generic  title  of  Smriti,  or 
Tradition,  usuall.v  applied  to  them. 

The  six  branches  of  Vedic  science,  included  under  the 
term  Veddnga,  are  as  follows :  — 

(1)  Siksbd,  or  Phonetics.    The  privileged  position  ofPlione 
representing  this  subject  is  assigned  to  a  small  treatise 
ascribed  to  the  great  gTammarian  Panini,  viz.,theP((Binij-4 
siksbd,  extant  in  two  different  (Rik  and  Tajus)  recensions. 

But  neither  this  treatise  nor  any  other  of  the  numerous 
sikshas  which  have  recently  come  to  light  can  lay  claim  to 
any  very  high  age.  Scholars,  however,  usually  include 
under  this  head  certain  works,  called  Prdtisdkbja,  i.  e., 
"belonging  to  a  certain  st'tkhd  or  recension,"  which  deal 
minutely  with  the  phonetic  peculiarities  of  the  several 
Samhitas,  and  are  of  great  importance  for  the  textual 
criticism  of  the  Vedic  SamhitAs. 

(2)  Chlinndnf:,  OT  Metre.     Tradition  makes  the  CAAan- Metre 
dah-satra  of  Pingala  the  starting  point  of  prosody.    The 
Vedic  metres,  however,  occupy  but  a  small  part  of  this 
treatise,  and  they  are  evidently  dealt  with  in  a  more 
original  manner  in  theNidAna-sutra  of  theSamaveda,  and 

in  a  chapter  of  the  Rik-prfitisflkhya.  For  profane  prosod.v, 
on  the  other  hand,  Pingala's  treati.se  is  rather  valuable, 
no  less  than  100  metres  being  described  by  him. 

(3)  Vjd karana, or GTammar.   PSTiini'sfamousgrammar Gram 
is  said  to  be  t/ie  Vedanga ;  but  it  marks  the  culminating 
point  of  grammatical  research  rather  tlian  the  beginning, 

and  besides  treats  cliiefly  of  the  post-Vedic  language. 

(4)  Ninikta,  or  Etymology.    Yflska's  Nirukta  is  the  Ety- 
traditional rejiresentativeof  thissubject,  and  thisimportant  ""^  °^ 
work  certainly  dfals  entirely  with  \'edic  etymology  or  ex- 
planation.   It  consists,  in  the  first  place,  of  strings  of  words 

in  three  chapters  : — (1 )  .synonymous  words  ;  (2)  such  as  are 
purely  or  chiefly  Vedic:  and  (3)  names  of  deities.  These 
lists  are  followed  by  Yaska's  commentary,  interspersed  with 
numerous  illustrations.  Yaska,  again,  quotes  several  pre- 
decessors in  the  same  branch  of  science;  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  original  works  on  this  subject  consisted  merely 
of  lists  of  words  similar  to  those  handed  down  by  him. 

(5)  Jrotisha,  or  Astronomy.     Although   astronomical  Astro- 
calculations  are  frequentl.v  referred  to  in  older  works  in  """y- 
connexion  with  the  performance  of  sacrifices,  the  metrical 
treatise  which  has  come  down  to  us  in  two  different  recen- 
sions under  the  title  of  Jyotisha,  a.scribed  to  oneLagadha, 

or  Lagata,  seems  indeed  to  be  the  oldest  existing  systematic 
treatise  on  astronomical  subjects.  With  the  exception  of 
some  apparently  spurious  ver-ses  of  oneof  the  recensions,  it 
betrays  no  sign  of  the  Greek  influence  which  shows  itself 
in  Hindu  astronomical  works  from  about  the  third  century 
of  our  era,  and  its  date  may  therefore  be  set  down  as 
probably  not  later  than  the  earl.v  centuries  after  Christ. 

((5)  Kalpa,  or  Ceremonial.  Tradition  does  not  single 
out  any  special  work  as  the  Veddnga  in  this  branch  of 
Vedic  science;  but  the  sacrificial  practice  gave  rise  to  a 
large  number  of  systematic  sfitra-manuals  for  the  several 


EjTERATURB.i 


SANSKRIT 


275 


classes  of  priests.  The  most  important  of  these  works 
Lave  como  clown  to  us,  and  they  occupy  by  far  the 
most  prominent  place  among  the  literary  productions  of 
the  sfttra-pcriod.  The  Kalpa,-siltras,  or  rules  of  ceremonial, 
ar«  of  two  kinds: — (1)  the  Srauta-stltrus,  which  are  based 
on  the  ^ruti,  and  teach  the  pefformaneo  of  the  great  sacri- 
fifi«>4,  requiring  three  eacrlfici'il  fires  ;  and  (2)  the  SmJirta- 
tHiras,  or  rules  based  on  tb'>  smriti  or  tradition.  The 
latter  class  again  idclndes  two  kl;,j3  of  treatises : — (1)  the 
Grtkya-sutras,  or  domestic  rules,  treating  of  ordinary 
family  rites,  such  as  marriage,  birtli,  name-giving,  <fcc., 
connected  with  simple  offerings  in  the  domeslic  fire ;  and 
(2)  the  Sdmaydck'irik-a-  (or  Dhurma)  sAlras,  which  treat  of 
customs  and  temporal  duties,  and  are  supposed  to  have 
■formed  the  chief  sources  of  the  later  law-books.  Besides, 
the  Srauta-sfttras  of  the  Yajurveda  have  usually  attached 
to  them  a  set  of  so-called  Siilva-st'i.tras,  Le.,  "rules  of 
')5  cord,"  which  treat  of  the  measurement  by  means  of 
cords,  and  tho  construction,  of  different  kinds  of  altars 
vejuired  for  sacrifices.  These  treatises  (tho  study  of 
which  has  been  successfully  taken  up  by  Prof.  Thibaut  of 
Benares)  are  of  considerable  interest  as  sujiplying  import- 
ant information  regarding  the  earliest  geometrical  opera- 
tions in  India.  Along  with  the  Sfttras  may  be  classed  a 
large  number  of  supplementary  treatises,  usually  called 
Parisi.ikta  {TrapaXiTOfitva),  on  various  subjects  connected 
with  tho  sacred  tc^its  and  Vedic  religion  generally. 

After  this  brief  characterization  of  the  various  branches 
of  Vedic  literature,  we  proceed  to  take  a  rapid  survey  of 
the  several  Vedic  collections. 

A.  Jiigveda.^ — The  Jiigtmla-samliM  has  come  down  to  us  in  tlie 
RCcnsion  of  the  Sikala  school.  Jleiition  is  iiiaile  of  several  other 
versions  ;  and  regarding  one  of  them,  that  of  tho  Bashkalas,  we 
iiavo  some  further  information,  according  to  wliich  it  Eeemi5,  how- 
ever, to  have  differed  but  little  from  tlic  Sakala  text.  The  latter 
consists  of  102S  hymns,  inclnding  eleven  so-called  VuhiHih/as, 
which  Wvfe  probably  introduced  into  tlio  collection  subsequently  to 
its  completion.  The  hymns  arc  composed  in  a  f7e;it  variety  of 
metres,  and  consist,  on  an  average,  of  rather  more  than  10  verses 
each,  or  about  10,600  verses  altogether.  This  body  of  sacred  lyrics 
Iv.is  been  subdivided  by  ancient  authorities  in  a  twofold  way,  viz., 
either  from  a  purely  artificial  point  of  view,  into  eight  asli'nkna  of 
about  coual  length,  or,  on  a  more  natural  principle,  based  on  tho 
origin  ot  tho  hymns,  and  invariably  adopted  by  Euroiican  scholars, 
into  ten  books,  or  mnndalts,  of  unequal  length.  Tradition  (not, 
however,  always  tiustworthy  in  this  respect)  has  handed  down  the 
names  of  tho  reputed  authors,  or  rather  nispired  "  seers  "  (rishi),  of 
most  hymns.  These  indications  have  enabled  scholars  to  form  some 
idea  as  to  the  probable  way  in  which  the  Hik-satphiti  originated, 
though  mueli  still  remains  to  bo  cleared  up  by  future  research. 

In  tho  first  place,  mamhias  ii.-vii.  are  evidently  arranged  on  a 
Tiniform  plan.  Each  of  tlicm  is  ascribed  to  a  dilVerent  family  of 
rishis,  whence  they  are  usually  called  tho  six  "family-books": — 
ii.,  thoGritsamadas;  iii.,  tho  Visv:lmitrasor  Kusikas;  iv.,  tho  VHma- 
devyas;  v.,  the  Atris;  vi. ,  tho  Bharadvfijas;  and  vii.,  the  Vasishthas. 
Further,  each  of  thcso  books  begins  with  tho  hymns  addressed  to 
Agni,  the  god  of  fire,  which  aro  followed  by  those  to  Indra,  tho 
Jupiter  I'luvius,  whereupon  fidlow  those  addressed  to  minor  deities — 
tho  Visvo  Devfih  ("all-gods"),  tlio  Maruta  (storm-gods),  S:e.  Again, 
the  liymns  nddi-csscd  to  each  deity  aro  arranged  (as  Prof.  Uelbriick 
lias  shown)  in  a  doseendiug  order,  according  to  tho  number  of  verses 
of  which  they  consist. 

The  first  mandiila,  tho  longest  in  tli6  wholo  8atphit5,  contains 
191  hymns,  ascribed,  with  tho  exception  of  a  few  isolated  ones, 
to  sixteen  poets  of  different  families,  llcio  again  tho  hymns  of 
each  author  aro  arranged  on  precisely  tho  same  principle  na  tho 

'  The  Rigveda  has  been  edited,  together  with  tho  commentary  of 
Sayana  (of  the  14th  century),  by  Max  Miilhr,  6  voIh.,  London, 
184ft-74.  The  same  schohir  has  published  an  edition  of  the  hymns, 
both  in  the  connected  {sntiihifA)  and  the  disjoined  Ipada)  texts,  1873. 
An  edition  In  Roman  tinnsllteralion  was  published  by  Th.  Aufrecht, 
Berlin,  1861-3  (2.1  ed.  1877).  Part  of  an  English  translation  (chieHy 
•i:u<ed  on  Sayana's  intei-pretation)  was  brought  out  by  tlio  late  Trof. 
H  a.  Wilsou  (vols,  i.-iii.,  ISSO-IS.";;)  and  rontinued  by  Prof.  E.  B. 
Cowell  (vol..iv.,  \8Cfi,  bringing  up  the  work  to  mnndula  viiL  hymn 
10).  Wo  ha^o  also  tho  firit  volume  of  a  traniiliitlon,  with  a  niniiiiig 
commentary,  by  M.  Miiller,  containing  tho  hymns  to  tho  Maruts  or 
Moini-gods.  Complete  Oerniau  tiauslnlii.ns  have  becQ  published  by 
B.  Gv  •sainann  (187C-7)  aud  A.  Ludwig  (1876J. 


"  family-books.-'    The  eighth  and  ninth  books,  on  the  other  hind, 
have  a  special  character  of  their  own.     To  the  Samaveda-sanihita, 
which,  as  we  shall  see,  consists  almostcntirely  of  verses  chosen  from 
tho  Kik  for  chanting  purposes,  these  two  niandaUs  have  contiibuted 
a  miich  larger  proportion  of  verses  than  any  of  the  others.     Now, 
the  hymns  of  the  eighth  book  aro  ascribed  to  a  number  of  difTercnt 
rishis,  mostly  belonging  to  the  Kdnva  family.     The  productions  of 
each  poet  are  usually,  though  not  always,  grouped  together,  but 
no  other  principle  of  arrangement  has  yet  been  discovered.     Tho 
chief  peculiarity  of  this  mandala,  however,  consists  in  its  metres. 
Many  ot  the  hymns  aro  coiiiposed  in  the  form  of  stanzas,  calledj 
pra<jUha  (from  g<X,  "to  sing"),   consisting  of  two  verses  in   the 
brihatt  and  sntobrihait  metres  ;  whence  this  book  is  usually  known 
under  tho  designation  of  Pragathah.     The  other  metres  met  with 
in    this   book   aro    likewise  such   as  wero    evidently  considered 
peculiarly  adapted  for  singing,  viz.,  the  gdyatrt  (from  ml,  "to  sing") 
and  other  chiefly  octosyllabic  metres.     It  is  not  yet  clear  how  to 
account  for  these  peculiarities  ;  but  farther  research  may  perhaps 
show  that  either  the  Kanvas  wero  a  family  of  udgatars,  or  chanters, 
or  that,  before  the  establishment  of  a  common  system  of  worship 
for  tho  Bralimanical  community,  they  were  accustomed  to  carry  on 
their  liturgical  service  exclusively  by  means  of  chants,  instead  of 
using  the  later  form  of  mixed  recitation  and  chant.     One  of  tlie 
rishis  of  this  family  is  called  Pragatha  Kanva  ;  possibly  this  sui- 
iiame  "pragatha"  may  bo  an  old,  or  local,  synonym  of  udg^tar, 
or  perhaiis  of  tho  chief  chanter,  the  so-called  Prastotar,  or  pre- 
centor.    The  ninth  mandala,  on  tho  other  hand,  consists  entirely 
of  hymns  (114)  addressed'to  Soma,  the  deified  juice  of  the  so-called 
"moon-plant"   {Sarcostcmma  riminak,  or  Asclcpl/ts  aci(la),  and 
ascribed  to  poets  of  dillcrcnt  families.     They  are  called  pavamdnt, 
"imrificational,"  because  theyvtreto  bo  recited  by  tho  hotar 
while  the  juico  expressed  from  i/ie  soma  plants  was  clarifying. 
Tlio  first  sixty  of  these  hymns  are  arranged  strictly  according  to 
their  length,  ranging  from  ten  down  to  four  verses ;  but  as  to  the 
remaining  hymns  no  such  principle  of  arrangement  is  observable, 
except  pel-Iiaps  in  smaller  groups  of  liymns.    One  might,  therefore, 
feel  inclined  to  look  upon  that  fii-st  section  as  the  body  of  soma 
hymns  set  apart,  nt  the  time  of  the  first  redaction  of  tho  Samhiti, 
for  the  special  purpose  of  being  used  as  p/7TOn!(J)i,i/«-A,— the  remsiii- 
ing   hymns  having   been    added    at    subsequent  redactions.      It 
would  not,  however,  by  any  means  follow  that  all,  or  even  any, 
of  the  latter  hymns  wero  actually  later  productions,  as  they  might 
previously  have   formed  part  of  the  family  collections,  or  might 
have  been  overlooked  when  the  hymns  were,  first  collected.     Other 
mandalas  (viz.,  i.j  viii.,  and  x.)"still  contain  four  entire  hymns 
addressed  to  Soma,  consisting  together  of  68  verses,  of  %vhich  only 
a  single  ono  (x.  25,  1)  is  found  in  tho  Samaveda-saiphita,  as  also 
8omo°28  isolated   verses  to  Soma,  and   four  hymns  addressed   to 
Soma  in  coiijunction  with  some  other  deity,  which  are  entirely 
unrepresented  in  that  collection. 

The  tenth  mandala  contains  tho  same  number  of  hymns  (l&l)  as 
the  first,  which  it  nearly  equals  in  actual  length.  The  hymns  aro 
ascribed  to  many  rishis,  of  various  families,  some  of  whom  appear 
already  in  the  preceding  mandalas.  Tho  traditional  record  is, 
however,  less  to  be  depended' iipon  as  regards  this  book,  many 
names  of  gods  and  fictitious  personages  appearing  in  the  list  of  its 
rishis.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  book  the  hymns  are  clearly 
arranged  according  to  tho  number  of  verees,  in  decreasing  order, — 
occasional  exceptions  to  this  rule  being  easily  adjusted  by  the 
removal  of  a  few  additional  verses.  A  similar  arrangement  seems 
also  to  suggest  itself  in  other  portions  of  tho  book.  This  mandala 
stands  somewhat  apart  from  tho  preceding  books,  both  its  lan- 
guage and  the  general  character  of  many  of  its  hymns  betraying  a 
comparatively  modern  origin.  In  this  respect  it  stands  about  on  a 
level  with  tlio  Atharvaveda-samhita,  with  which  it  is  otherwise 
closely  connected.  Of  some  1350  Rik-verses  found  in  the  AUiarvan, 
about  D50,  or  rather  more  than  40  percent.,  occur  in  tho  tenth 
mandala.  In  tho  latter  we  meet  with  tho  samo  tendencies  as  in 
the  Atliarvan  to  motupliysical  speculation  and  abstract  conceptions 
of  tho  deity  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  superstitious  practices  on  tho 
other.  But,  although  in  its  general  appearance  tho  tenth  mandala 
is  decidedly  more  modern  than  tho  other  books,  it  contains  not  a 
few  hymns  which  aro  little,  if  at  all,  inferior,  both  in  respect  of  age 
and  poetic  quality,  to  the  generality  of  Vedic  hymns. 

It  has  become  the  custom,  after  Roth's  example,  to  call  tho 
Rik-samhitu  (as  well  as  the  Atliarvan)  an  historical  colUcti.m,  aa 
compared  with  tho  Saiiihitas  put  together  for  purely  ritualistic  pur- 
poses. And  indeed,  though  tho  several  family  collections  which 
make  up  the  earlier  mandalas  may  originally  have  served  ritual 
ends,  ns  tho  hymnals  of  certain  clans  or  tribal  confederacies,  and 
although  tho  Js.imhil.l  itself,  in  it3  oldest  form,  may  bar*  bMi 
iiiiendcd  ns  a  common  prayer-book,  eo  to  spiak,  for  the  wholo  of 
the  Bruhmanicol  community,  it  is  certain  that  in  the  atago  in 
which  it  has  been  finally  handed  down  it  includes  a  certain  nortioB 
of  hymn  material  (and  even  some  secular  poetry)  which  coula  never 
have  licen  used  for  purposes  of  nligioiui  service.  It  may,  therefore, 
^bo  assumed  that  the  Kik-s:iniliitucuntainsall  of  theoiituro  of  popU' 


276 


SANSKRIT 


[LITtEATORE. 


lar  lyrics  tl.at  was  accessible  to  tlie  collectors,  or  seemed  to  them 
worthy  of  being  prescrvea.  The  question  as  to  the  exact  period 
when  the  hymns  were  collected  cannot  bo  answered  witli  any 
approach  to  accuracy.  For  many  reasons,  however,  which  cannot 
be  detailed  here,  scholars  have  come  to  fix  ou  the  year  1000  V..C.  as 
an  approximate  date  for  the  collection  of  the  Vedic  hymns.  I'rom 
that  time  every  moans  that  human  ingenuity  could  suggest  was 
adopted  to  secure  the  sacred  texts  against  the  rislis  connected  with 
oral  transmission.  But,  as  there  is  abundant  evidence  to  show  that 
even  then  not  only  had  the  text  of  the  hymns  sulfered  corruption, 
but  their  language  had  become  antiquated  to  a  considerable  extent, 
and  was  only  partly  understood,  the  period  during  which  the  great 
mass  of  the  hymns  were  composed  must  have  lain  considerably 
further  back,  and  may  very  likely  have  extended  over  the  earlier 
half  of  the  second  millenary,  or  from  about  2000  to  1500  B.C. 

As  regards  the  people  wliich  raised  for  itself  this  imposing  monu- 
mcnt,  the  hymns  exhibit  it  as  settled  in  the  regions  watered  by  the 
mighty  Sinllhu  (Indus),  with  its  eastern  and  western  tributaries. 
Tlio  land  of  the  five  rivers  forms  the  central  home  of  the  Vcdic 
people  ;  but,  while  its  advanced  guard  has  already  debouched  upon 
the  plains  of  tho  upper  Ganga  and  Yamuna,  those  who  bring  up 
the  rear  are  still  found  loitering  far  behind  in  the  narrow  glens  of 
tho  Kubha  (Cabul)  and  Gomati  (Gomal).  Scattered  over  this  tract 
of  land,  in  hamlets  and  villages,  the  Vedic  Aryas  are  leading 
chielly  the  life  of  herdsmen  and  husbandmen.  The  numerous  clans 
and  tribes  ruled  over  by  chiefs  and  kings,  have  still  constantly  to 
vindicate  their  right  to  the  land  but  lately  wrung  from  an  inferior 
race  of  darker  hue  ;  just  as  in  these  latter  days  their  kinsmen  in 
tho  Far  West  are  ever  on  their  guard  against  the  fierce  attacks  of 
the  dispossessed  red-skin.  Not  unfrcquently,  too,  the  light-coloured 
Aiyas  ra^e  internecine  war  with  one  another,— as  when  the 
Bharatas,°with  allied  tribes  of  the  Paujab,  goaded  on  by  the  royal 
sage  Visv.amitra,  invade  the  country  of  the  Tritsu  king  Sudas,  to 
bo  defeated  in  tho  "  ten  kings'  battle,"  through  the  inspired  power 
of  tho  priestly  singer  Vasishtha.  The  priestly  oface  has  already 
become  one  of  high  social  importance  by  the  side  of  the  political 
rulers,  and  to  a  large  extent  an  hereditary  profession ;  but  it  does 
not  yet  present  the  baneful  features  of  an  exclusive  caste.  The 
Aryan  housewife  shares  with  her  husband  the  daily  toil  and  joy,  the 
privilege  of  worshipping  the  national  gods,  and  even  the  triumphs 
of  song-craft,  some  of  the  finest  hymns  being  attributed  to  female 

Tlie  religious  belief  of  the  people  consists  in  a  system  of  natural 
symbolism,  a  worship  of  the  elementary  forces  of  nature,  regarded 
as  beings  endowed  with  reason  and  power  superior  to  those  of  man. 
In  giving  utterance  to  this  simple  belief,  the  priestly  spokesman 
has,  howxver,  frequently  worked  into  it  his  own  speculative  and 
mystic  notions.  Indra,  the  stout-hearted  ruler  of  the  cloud-region, 
receives  by  far  the  largest  share  of  tho  devout  attentions  of  the 
Vedic  singer.  His  ever-renewed  battle  with  the  malicious  demons 
of  darkness  and  drought,  for  the  recovery  of  the  heavenly  light  and 
the  lain-sponding  cows  of  the  sky,  forms  an  inexhaustible  theme  of 
opirited  song.  Next  to  him,  in  the  affections  of  the  people,  stands 
A^ni  (ignis)°  the  god  of  fire,  invoked  as  the  genial  inmate  of  the 
Aryan  household,  and  as  the  bearer  of  oblations,  and  mediator 
between  gods  and  men.  Indra  and  Agni  are  thus,  as  it  were,  the 
divine  representatives  of  the  king  (or  chief)  and  the  priest  oj  the 
Aryan  comuuinity  ;  and  if,  in  the  arrangement  of  the  SarnhitS.,  the 
Urahmanical  collectors  gave  precedence  to  Agni,  it  was  but  one  of 
many  avowals  of  their  own  hierarchical  pretensions.  Hence 'also 
the  hymns  to  Indra  are  mostly  followed,  in  the  family  collections, 
by  those  addressed  to  the  Visve  Devah  (the  "all-gods")  or  to  tho 
Mavuts  (JIavors,  Mars),  the  warlike  storm-gods  and  faithful  com- 
panions of  Indra,  as  the  divine  impersonation  of  the  Aryan  free- 
men, the  vis  or  clan.  Cut,  while  Indra  and  Agni  are  undoubtedly 
tho  favourite  figures  of  tho  Vedic  pantheon,  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  these  gods  had  but  lately  supplauted  another  group  of  deities 
■who  play  a  less  prominent  part  in  the  hymns,  viz..  Father  Heaven 
(Dyaus  Fit-ir,  Zeus  irarrip,  Jupiter);  Varuna  {oipavos),  the  all- 
cmbiacing  firmament;  Mitra  (Zend.  Jlithra),  the  genial  light  of 
day;  and  Savitar  (Saturnus)  or  Surya  (tjeA. os),  the  vivifying  sun. 

Of  the  Br.ihmanas  that  were  handed  down  in  the  schools  ot  the 
Bahvrichns  (i.e.,  "possessed  of  many  verses"),  as  thefollowers  of 
the  liigveda  are  called,  two  have  come  down  to  us,  viz.,  those  of 
tho  Aitareyins  and  the  Kaushitakins.  The  Aitarcya-hrAhmana^ 
.ind  the  KaiiskUaki-  (or  Sdiikhchjana-)  bnVimana  evidently  have  for 
their  groundwork  the  same  stock  of  traditional  exegetic  matter. 
They  differ,  however,  considerably  as  regards  both  the  arrange- 
ment of  this  matter  and  their  stylistic  handling  of  it,  with  the 
(exception  of  the  numerous  legends  common  to  both,  in  which  the 
discrepancy  is  comparatively  slight.  There  is  also  a_  certain 
nmouiit  of'material  peculiar  to  each  of  them.  The  Kaushitaka  is, 
■ipnn  the  whole,  far  more  concise  in  its  style  and  more  systematic 
in  its  arrangement — merits  which  would  lead  one  to  infer  that  it 

'  F.ilitcil,  with  iminclisli  transhilidn,  by  JI.  ll.ius,  2  voK,  r.ouiliay,  ISr,3.  An 
-ilUion  iu  Roman  iraribliicration,  wiih  ctuacts  from  the  comnicutaiy,  has  been 
■.'ubllshM  by  Th.  Aufrcclit.  Uoilll-  1370. 


is  probably  the  more  modern  work  of  the  two.  It  consists  of  thirty 
chapters  (adhyuya) ;  while  the  Aitareya  has  forty,  divided  iiito 
eight  books  (or  pentads,  panchakd,  of  five  chapters  each).  Tho 
last  ten  adhyayas  of  the  latter  work  are,  however,  clearly  a  later 
addition,— though  they  must  have  already  formed  part  of  it  at  tho 
time  of  Taiiini  (c.  400  B.C.  ?),  if,  as  seems  probable,  one  of  his 
grammatical  sutras,  regulating  the  formation  of  tlie  names  of 
Brfdiinanas,  consisting  of  thirty  and  forty  adhyayas,  refers  to  theso 
two  works.  In  this  last  portion  occurs  the  well-known  legcnu 
(also  found  in  the  Sankhayana-sutra,  but  not  in  the  Kaushitaki- 
brahmana)  of  Sunahsepa,  whom  his  father  Ajigarta  sells  and  oilers 
to  slay,'  the  recital  of  which  formed  part  of  the  inauguration  ot 
kings.  While  the  Aitareya  deals  almost  exclusively  with  tho 
Soma  sacrifice,  the  Kaushitaka,  in  iU  first  six  chapters,  treats  of 
the  several  kinds  of  haviryajn((,  or  offerings  of  rice,  milk,  ghee, 
&c.,  whereupon  follows  the  Soma  sacrifice  in  this  way,  that  chapters 
7-10  contain  the  practical  ceremonial  and  11-30  the  recitations 
(saslra)  of  the  hotar.  Sayana,  in  the  introduction  to  his  com- 
mentary ou  the  work,  ascribes  the  Aitareya  to  the  sage  Mahida»a 
Aitareya  (son  of  Itara),  also  mentioned  elsewhere  as  a  philosopher  ; 
and  it  seems  likely  enough  that  this  person  arranged  the  Brahmana 
and  founded  the  school  of  the  Aitareyins.  Regarding  the  author- 
ship of  the  sister  work  we  have  no  information,  except  that  tho 
opinion  of  the  sage  Kaushitaki  is  frequently  referred  to  in  it  as 
authoritative,  and  generally  in  opposition  to  the  Paingya— tl  9 
Brahmana,  it  would  seem,  of  a  rival  school,  the  Paingins.    ^^ 

Each  of  these  two  Bralimanas  is  supplemented  by  a  forest- 
portion,"  or  Aranyaka.  The  Aitarcydmnyaka-  is  not  a  uniform 
production.  It  consists  of  five  books  (drcnyaka),  three  of  which,  . 
the  first  and  the  last  two,  are  of  a  liturgical  nature,  treating  of  the 
ceremony  called  inaMvrata  or  great  vow.  The  second  and  third 
books,  on  the  other  hand,  are  purely  speculative,  and  are  also  styled 
the  Bahvricha-hrdhmana-vpanishad.  Again,  the  last  four  chaptera 
of  the  second  book  are  usually  singled  out  as  the  Aitareyopamshad,^ 
ascribed,  like  its  Brahmana  (and  the  first  book),  to  Jlahidai^a 
Aitareya;  and  tho  third  book  is  also  referred  to  as  the  Samhitd- 
vpanishad.  The  fourth  and  fifth  books  are  doubtless  of  later 
origin,  being  composed  in  siltra-form.  Even  native  authorities 
exclude  them  from  the  sacred  canon,  and  ascribe  them  to  Asva 
layana  and  Saunaka  respectively,  of  whom  more  further  on.  As 
regards  the  Kaicshttaki-dranyaka,  our  JIS.  material  is  not  yet 
sulticient  to  enable  us  to  determine  its  exact  extent  and  arrange- 
ment. It  would,  however,  seem  that  there  are  two  different 
recensions  of  this  treatise,  a  shorter  one,  consisting  of  nine,  and  a 
longer  one  of  fifteen,  adhyayas.  Four  of  these,  variously  placed 
at  the  beginning  or  end,  or  after  the  second  adhyaya,  constitute 
the  highly  interesting  Kaushitaki-  (brdhmnna-)  iipanishad,*  of 
which  we  possess  two  different  receiisions.  The  remaining  portions 
of  the  Aranyaka  seem  to  correspond,  to  some  extent,  to  the  cere- 
monial sections  of  the  Aitareya-aranyaka.  _ 

Of  Kalpa-sMras,  or  manuals  of  sacrificial  ceremonial,  composed 
for  the  use  of  the  hotar  priest,  two  different  sets  are  in  existence, 
the  Asmldyana-  and  the Sdnkhdyana-sMra.  Each  of  these  woilis 
follows  one  of  the  two  Eiahmanas  of  the  Rik  as  its  chief  authority, 
viz.,  the  Aitareya  and  Kaushitaka  respectively.  Both  consist  of  a 
^rauta-  and  a  GrihyasUra.  Asvalayana  seems,  to  have  lived  about 
the  same  time  as  Panini,— his  own  teacher,  Saunaka,  who  com- 
pleted the  Eik-prati^4khya,  being  probably  intermediate  between 
the  great  grammarian  and  Vaska,  the  author  of  tlie  Nirukta. 
Saunaka  himself  is  said  to  have  been  the  author  of  a  Srauta-sfltra 
(which  was,  however,  more  of  tho  nature  of  a  Brahmana)  and  tu 
have  destroyed  it  on  seeing  his  pupil's  work.  A  Grihya-sfitra  is 
still  quoted  under  his  name  by  later  writers.  The  Asvalayana 
Srauta-siitra^  consists  of  twelve,  the  Grihya^  of  four,  adhyayas. 

Ke-rarding  Sankhayana  still  less  is  known  ;  but  he,_  too,  was 
doubtless  a  comparatively  modern  writer,  who,  like  Asvalayana, 
founded  a  new  school  of  ritualists.  Hence  the  KausMtaki-brahmana, 
adopted  (and  perhaps  improved)  by  him,  also^goesunder  his  name, 
just  as  the  Aitareya  is  sometimes  called  Asvalayana-hrahmana. 
The  Sankh.iyana  Siauta-siitra  consists  of  eighteen  adhyayas  Iho 
last  two  chapters  of  the  work  are,  however,  a  later  addition," 
while  the  two  preceding  chapters,  on  the  contrary,  present  a  com; 
r.arativelv  aichaic,  brihmana-like  appearance.  The  Grihya-sutra • 
consists  of  six  chapters,  the  last  two  of  which  are  likewise  later 
appendages.     The  Sdmhavya  Grihya-sHtra,  of  which,  a  single  Uh. 

\  Edited  with  SSvana's  commcntarj',  by  RSiendralWa  Mitra,  in  the  Bibriolhn-i: 
/,irf.m  1875-7G     Tl.eflrst  three  books  have  been  translated  by  F.  Max  MUller  in 

^TEdur  S^f t^nsbt^  VyDV  Rber,  in  the  ^,«.  In,.  T^e  last  chapter  «ftb<, 
second  book,  not  being  commented  up..n  by  Slyana  is  probab  y  a  late,  addition^ 

.  Tcjt.  commentaryfand  translation  published  by  E.  B  C„wel  ,  in  the  BM.  M. 
Also  a  translation  by  F.  Max  MUller  in  Sacred  Books  of  he  -^js',  vol.  i.  . 

s  Both  woiks  have  been  published  with  the  commentary  of  Gargya  ^&ra>™«, 
by  native  scliola.s,  in  the  BM.  l«d.    Also  tho  text  ot  the  Gr.hya,  TMth  a  Gemrm 

'Tl'efr  'Ltf-r'atlysis.  m:  Studicn,  il.  p.  2S8  »,.     This  work,  with  It, 

"rS^:J;;?^,lrrlL?S:^^Sl^^j;:rr?f:  Cdenberg  (/»...:....«!.  xv.> 
who  also  gives  an  account  of  the  SSmbavja  G|1hya. 


tITERATURE.] 


SANSKRIT 


277 


is  at  Tircsent  known,  seems  to  be  closely  connected  with  tho 
preceding  work.  Prof.  Buhler  also  refers  to  the  RigT.'cda  the 
rUsishtha-dh^rmaiastra,''-  composed  of  mixed  siltras  and  couplets. 

A  few  works  remain  to  be  noticed,  bearing  chiefly  on  the  textual 
form  and  traditionary  records  of  the  Rik-samhita.     In  our  remarks 
on  the  Vedangas,  the  Pratisakhyas  have  already  been  referred  to 
as   the  chief  repositories  of  siksha  or   Vedic  phonetics.     Among 
these   works  the  Eik-prdlisdkhya''  occupies  the  fii-st  place.     The 
original  eompositidn  of  this  important  work  is  ascribed  to  tho  same 
Sdkalya  from  whom  the  vulgate  recension  of  the  (Sakala)  Sarphita 
takes  its  name.     He  is  also  said  to  be  the  author  of  the  existing 
Pada-vdiha  (i.e.,  tho  text-form  in  which  each  word  is  given  uncon- 
nected with  those  that  precede  and  follow  it),— winch  report  may 
well  bo  credited,  since  the  pada-text  was  doubtless  prepared  with 
a  view  to  an  examination,  such  as  is  presented  in  the  Pratisakhya, 
of  the  phonetic  modifications  undergone  by  words  iii  their  syntactic 
combination.      In   the   Pratisakhya    itself,    Sakalyas    father   (or 
Sakalva  the  elder)  is  also  several  times  referred  to  as  an  authority 
on  phonetics,  though  the  younger  Sakalya  is  evident  y  regarded 
as   havin"  improved  on  his  father's   theories.     Thus  both  father 
Biid  son  probably  had  a  share  in  the  formulation  of  the  rules  of 
iironunciation  and  modification  of  Vedic  sounds.     Tho  completion 
or  final  arrangement  of  the  Rik-pratisakhya,_  in  its  present  form,  is 
ascribed  to  Saunaka,  the  reputed  teacher  of  Aivalayana.     Saunaka, 
however,    is  merely  a  family  name  ("descendant  of  Sunaka   ), 
■which  is  given  even  to  the  rishi  Gritsamada,  to  whom  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  second  mandala  of  the  Eik  is  attributed.     How  long 
a^ter  Sakalya  this  particiiiar  Saunaka  lived  we  do  not  know  ;  but 
some  generations  at  all  events  would  seem  to  lie  between  them, 
considering  that  in  the  meantima  the  Sakalas,  owing  doubtless  to 
minor  differences   on  phonetic   points   in  the   Samhita  text,  had 
split  into  several  branches,  to  one  of  which,  the  Saiiira  (or  Saisiriya) 
school,  Saunaka  belonged.     While  Sikalya  is  referred  to  both  by 
Yaska  and  Fanini,  neither  of  these  miters  mentions  Saunaka.     It 
eeems   nevertheless   likely,  for   several   reasons,  that   Panini   was 
acquainted   with   Saunaka's   work,  though   the   point  has  by  no 
means  been  definitively  settled.     The  Kik-pratisakliya  is  composed 
in  mixed  ^lokas,  or  couplets  of  various  metres,  a  form  of  composi- 
tion for  which  Saunaka  seems  to  have  had  a  special  predilection. 
Besides  the  Prati-akhya,  and  the  Griliya-sutra  mentioned  above, 
eight  other  works  are  ascribed  to  Saunaka,   viz.,  the  Bnlmd- 
dcvat<!,  an  account,  in  epic  ^lokas,  of  the  deities  of  the  hymns, 
■which  supplies  much    valuable    mythological    information  ;  tlie 
Hig-vidhdna,  a  treatise,  likewise  in  epic  metre,  on  the  magic  effects 
of  Vedic  hymns  and  verses  ;  the  Pdda-vidlidna,  a  similar  treatise, 
apparently  no  longer  in   existence  ;  and  five  different  indexes  or 
catalo-nies   (anukramant)  of  the   rishis,    metres,  deities,  sections 
(anuvdka),  and  hymns  of  the  Rigvcda.     It  is,  however,  doubtful 
whether  the  existing  version  of  the  Brihaddevata  is  the  original 
one  •  and   the  Rigvidhana  would  seem  to  be  much  more  modern 
than  Saunaka's  time.     As  regards  the  Anukramains,  they  seem  all 
to  have  been  composed  in  mixed  ^lokas ;  but,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Anuvikanukramani,  they  ate  only  known  from  quotations, 
bavin"  been  superseded  by  the  Sarvdnukrama,  or  complete  index, 
of  Kdlydyana.     Both  these  indexes  have  been  commented  upon  by 
Sbadouiuiishya,  towards  the  end  of  the  12th  century  of  our  era. 
'•  B.'^iJ-ma-vcia.— Theterms(2'/)i<i7i,  ofuncertain  derivation,  denotes 

•,A  a  solemn  tune  or  melody  to  be  sung  or  chanted  to  a  rich  or  verse. 
The  set  chants  (stotra)  of  tho  Soma  sacrifice  arc  as  a  rule  performed 
in  triplets,  either  actually  consisting  of  three  different  verses,  or  of 
two  verses  which,  by  the  repetition  of  certain  parts,  are  made,  as 
it  were,  to  form  three.  'The  three  verses  are  usually  sung  to  tho 
same  tunc  ;  but  in  certain  cases  two  verses  sung  to  the  same  tune 
had  a  different  saman  enclosed  between  them.  One  and  the  same 
eaman  or  tune  may  thus  be  sung  to  many  difl-erent  verses  ;  but,  as 
in  teaching  and  practising  the  tunes  the  same  verse  was  invariably 
used  for  a  certain  tune,  the  terra  "sSlman,"  as  well  as  tho  special 
technical  names  of  samans,  are  not  unfrequently  applied  to  the 
veries  themselves  with  which  they  were  most  commonly  con- 
nected, just  as  ono  would  quote  the  beginning  of  the  text  of  an 
English  hymn,  when  tho  tuno  usually  sung  to  that  hymn  is 
meant  The  Indian  chant  somewhat  resembles  tho  Gregorian  or 
Plain  Chant  »  Each  samnn  is  divided  into  five  parts  or  phrases 
(vrastdm  oi  prelude,  &c.),  the  first  four  of  which  are  distributed 
between  tho  several  chanters,  wliilo  tho  finale  {nidhana)  is  sung 
in  unison  by  all  of  them.  .  ,         x     i       i 

In  accordance  with  tho  distinction  between  rich  or  text  and 
lAmaii  or  tune,  the  saman-hymnal  consists  of  two  parts,  viz.,  the 
Sdmaveda-sarnhiia,  or  collection  of  texts  (rich)  used  for  making  up 
saman-hymns,  and  tho  Gdna,  or  tune-book:<,  song-books.  Iho 
textual  matter  of  tho  Sanihita  consists  of  somewhat  under  1600 
•Jifferent  verses,  selected  from  the  Rik-saiphita,  with  the  exception 

•  Text  Willi  Krlshnnpandlta's  commentary,  published  «t  Benares;  Ir.nBlallon 

'»  E.Uled  wUh  »  French  tranjlnUon.  by  A.  Rcenler,  In  Iho  Journal  Allalique, 
Wt6-«;  also,  with  a  Ocrman  translallon,  by  M.  MUllcr,  1609. 
"  Buinell.  Arstici/itbrafiiitaTta,  p.  xll. 


of  some  seventy-five  verses,  some  of  which  have  been  taken  from" 
Khila  hymns,  '.-hilst  others  wliich  also  occur  in  tho  Atharvan  or 
Yajurveda,  as  wi'U  as  such  not  otherwise  found,  may  perhaps  have 
formed  part  of  some  other  recension  of  the  Rik.     The  Sdtnaveda- 
samhild*  is  divided  into  two  chief  parts,  thc/^urra-  (first)  and  the 
uliara-  (second)  drchika.    The  second  part  contains  the  texts  of 
the  saman-hymns,  arranged  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  actually 
required  for  the  stotras  or  chants  of  tho  various  Soma  sacrifices. 
The  first  part,  on  the  other  hand,  contains  the  body  of  tune- verses, 
or  verses  used  for  practising  the  several  samans  or  tunes  upon, — the 
tunes  themselves  being  given  in  the  Grdma-gcya-ydna  {i.e. ,  songs 
to  be  sung  in  the  village),  the  tune-book  specially  belonging  to  the 
Purvarchika.     Hence  the  latter  includes  all  the  first  verses  of  those 
triplets  of  the   second   part  which  had  special   tunes  peculiar  to 
them,  besides   the   texts  of    detached   samans   occasionally   used 
outside  the  regular  ceremonial,  a.i  well  as  such  as  were  perhaps 
no  longer  required  but  had  been   so  used  at  one  time  or  other. 
The  verses  of  the  Purvarchika  are  arranged  on  much  tho  same  plan 
as  the   family-books   of  the  Rik-samhixa,  viz.,  in  three  sections 
containing  the  verses  addressed  to  Agni,   Indra,  and  Soma  (j>aia-_ 
md)ia)  respectively,— each  section  (consisting  of  one,  three,  and  ono 
adhyayas   respectively)   being  again    arranged   according  to    the 
metres.     Hence  this  part  is  also  called  Chhatidas-  (metre)  drchika. 
Over  and  above  this  natural  arrangement  of  the  two  archikas,  there 
is    a    purely   formal    division   of    the    texts  into   six    and   nine 
piapathakas  respectively,  each  of  which,  in  the  first  part,  consists! 
ofteu'decades  (daiat)  of  verses.     We  have  two  reconsions  of  the 
Samliita,  belonging  to  the  Ranayaiuya  and  Kauthuma  schools,  and 
dili'ering  but  slightly  from  each  other.     Besides  the  six  prapathakas 
(or  five  adhyayas)  of  the  Purvarchika,, some  schools  have  an  addi- 
tional"forest "  chapter,  called  the  Aranyrika-samhitd,  the  tunes 
of  which— along  with  others  apparently  intended  for  being  chanted 
by  anchorites— are  contained  in  the  Araiiya-gdna.     Besides  the 
two   tune-books    belonging  to   tho   PO.rvarchika,    there    are   two 
others,  the  Cha-gdna  ("  modification-songs  ")  and  Uhya-gdna,  which 
follow  the  order  of  the  Uttaraichika,  giving  the  several  saman- 
hymns  chanted  at  the  Soma  sacrifice,  with  the  modifications  the 
tunes  undergo  when  applied  to  texts  other  than  those  for  which 
they  were  originally  composed.     The  Saman  hymnal,  as  it  has  come 
down  to  us,  has  evidently  passed  through  a  long  course  of  develop- 
ment.    The  practice  of  chanting  probably  goes  back  to  very  early 
times  ;  but  the  question  whether  any  of  the  tunes,  as  given  m  the 
Ganas,  and  which  of  them,  can  lay  claim  to  an  exceptionally  high 
antiquity  will  perhaps  never  receive  a  satisfactory  answer.  - 

The  title  of  Brdhmana  is  bestowed  by  the  Chhandogas,  or  .^Ama 
followers  of  the  Samaveda,  on  a  considerable  number  of  treatises.  J^eoa- 
In  accordance  with  the  statements  of  some  later  writers,  their  ja&u&> 
number  was  usually  fixed  at  eight ;  but  within  tho  last  few  years 
one  new  Brahmana  has  been  recovered,  while  at  least  two  others 
which  are  found'  quoted  may  yet  be  brought  to  light  in  India. 
The  majority  of  the  Samaveda-brahmanas  present,  however,  none 
of  the  characteristic  features  of  other  works  of  that  class ;  but 
thev  are  rather  of  the  nature  of  siitras  and  kindred  treatises,  with 
which  they  probably  belong  to  the  same  period  of  literature^ 
Moreover,  the  contents  of  these  works— as  might  indeed  be  sxpccted 
from  the  nature  of  tho  duties  of  the  priests  for  whom  they  were 
intended-are  of  an  extremely  arid  and  technical  character, 
though  they  all  are  doubtless  of  some  importance,  either  for  tho 
textual  criticism  of  tho  Saiphiti,  or  on  account  of  the  legendary 
and  other  information  they  supply.  These  works  are  as  follows  .; 
—(1)  tho  Tdndya-mahd-  (or  Praudha-)  brdhmana,'  or_  grer.t 
Brlhmana,— usually  called  Panchavimsa-hrdhmanahom  its  con- 
sisting of  twentv-five  "  adhyiyas-which  treats  of  the  duties  of  the 
udgatars  generally,  and  especially  of  the  various  kinds  of  chants  . 
(2)  the  Shadvimsa,  or  "twenty-sixth,"  being  a  supplement  to  the 
preceding  work, -its  last  chapter,  which  also  bears  the  tit  o  of 
Adbhuta-brdhraana,'  or  "book  of  marvels,"  _is_  rather  interesting, 
as  it  treats  of  all  manner  of  portents  and  evil  influences,  ^hidi  it 
teaches  how  to  avert  by  certain  rites  and  charms;  (3)  Hi"  f"*"  «^- 
dhdna,''  analogous  to  tho  Rigvidhana,  , descanting  on  tho  magic 
pflects  of  the  various  samans  ;  (4)  the  Arshcya-hrahmana,  a  mcro 
catalogue  of  tho  technical  names  of  the  samans  in  tho  order  of  tho 

Purvarchika,  known  in  two  <l\'l^^'-'="t/-=<^^"'^'°"^  =  (''/''V^TJl 
dhydya,  which  treats  of  tho  deities  of  the  ^.mans  ;  («'.'' «£f^f''^"- 
gya-brdhmana,  tho  last  eight  »<^hyf..va.s  (3-10   of  whic      o,^^^^^^ 
the   important   Chhandogyopanushad  ;•  (/)  tl'^'^^.-^^Xnu'  (8) 
brdhmana,  treating  of  various  subjecU  connected  with  ch»nto  .  (8) 


.  K„l,ed  and  ,r.n,la,ed  by  ^■.^■--^-^iXii^.y  ■'iJ^:'^--!^'''^!^ 

'".'Fdl'cd  wl.h  SHyana'.  commenl.ry,  by  An.nd.e.>«.dr.  Vcd»nt.v»Kl,..  In 
"^  T^i^k  "Omlna  et  rortont.,"  ^6/^.n*„n,«  of  Derlln  R.yl  Academy  ..f 
'n'!;-rwo^^.  enumerated  nn.ler  3.  4,  «,  7.  8  h.rc  been  edited  by  A.  Ilumell ; 
't^:Zr:,X:LtZTv"i<^:oit,.  /nd.:  .,«,  .»nU^a  by  M.Mm.cr. 
Sacred  Jioolt  o/th«  Eatt,  I. 


278 


SANSKRIT 


[UTEEATBKB 


ttw'f^aJtiM-brdiimana;  a  mere  list  of  the  Samave'da  teachers.  To 
ihese !  works  has  to  be  added  the  Jaiminiya-  or  Talavakdra- 
brdkmana,  discovered  by  the  late  Dr  A.  Burnell,  but  as  yet  only 
Icnown  by  a  few  extracts.  From  Prof.  Whitney's  account  of 
it,i  the  work  stands  much  on  a  level  with  the  Brahmanas  of  the 
RikJ'and  .iTajurveda.  A  portion  of  it  is  the  well-known  JCeiin- 
'oi^^Talarakdra-)  upanishad,  on  the  nature  of  Brahman,  as  the 
'upremo  of  deities. 

If  the  Samaveda  has  thus  its  ample , "share  of  Brahmana-literature, 
though  in  part  of  a  somewhat  questionable  character,  it  is  not 
loss  richly  supplied  mth  sutra-treatises,  some  of  which  probably 
belong  to  the  oldest  works  of  that  class.  There  are  three  ^rauta- 
jiitras,  which  attach  themselves  more  or  less  closely  to  the 
Panchavimsa-brahmana: — llasaka's  Arsheya-kalpa,  which  gives  the 
beginnings  of  tlie  samans  in  their  sacrificial  order,  thus  supplement- 
ing the  Arsbeya-brahmana,  which  enumerates  their  technical 
names;  and  the  Srauta-sutras  of  Ldtydtjaiia'  and  Drdhydyana, 
of  the  Kauthuma  and  RanSyaniya  schools  respectively,  which 
differ  but  little  from  each  other,  and  form  complete  manuals  of  the 
duties  of  the  udgatars.  Another  siitra,  of  an  exegetic  character, 
the  Anupada-siitra,  likewise  follows  the  Panchavirpsa,  the  difficult 
passages  of  ■(\:hich  it  explains.  Besides  these,  there  are  a  con- 
siderable number  of  siitras  and  kindred  technical  treatises 
bearing  on  the  prosody  and  phonetics  of  the  sama-texts.  Tlie 
more  important  of  them  are — the  Riktantra,  apparently  intended 
to  serve  as  a  Pratisakhya  of  the  Siraaveda ;  the  Niddna-siUra,^  a 
treatise  on  prosody  ;  the  Piislipa-  or  Phulla-s&tra,  ascribed  either 
to  GobliUa  or  to  Vararuehi,  and  treating  of  the  phonetic  modi- 
fications of  the  rich  in  the  samans  ;  and  the  Sdmatanlra,  a  treatise 
on  chants,  of  a  very  technical  nature.  Further,  two  Grihya-sOtras, 
belonging  to  the  Samaveda,  are  hitherto  known,  viz.,  the  Drihyd- 
yana-grihya,  ascribed  to  Khadira,  and  that  of  Gobhila*  (who  is  also 
said  to  have  composed  a  ^rauta-siiti-a),  with  a  supplement,  entitled 
Karmapradipa,  by  Katya^ana.  To  the  Samaveda  seems  further 
to  belong  the  Ganiatna-dharmaidstra,'  composed  in  sntras,  and 
apparently  the  oldest  existing  compendium  of  Hindu  law. 

C.  Vajur-veda.- — This,  the  sacrificial  Veda  of  the  Adhvaryu 
priests,  divides  itself  into  an  older  and  a  younger  branch,  or,  as 
they  are  usually  called,  the  Black  (krishm)  and  the  White  (ijikla) 
Yajurveda.  Tradition  ascribes  the  foundation  of  the  Yajurveda  to 
the  sage  Vaisampayana.  Of  his  disciples  three  are  specially  named, 
yiz.,  Katha,  Kalapin,  and  Yaska  Paingi,  the  last  of  whom  again 
js  stated  to  have  communicated  the  sacrificial  science  to  Tittiri. 
How  far  this  genealogy  of  teachers  may  be  authentic  cannot  now 
be  determined  ;  but  certain  it  is  that  in  accordance  therewith  we 
have  three  old  collections  of  Yajus-texts,  viz.,  the  Kalhaka,  the 
Kdldpaka  or  Mailrdyant  Samhitd,^  and  the  Taitlirtya-samhildJ 
The  Kathaka  and  Kalapaka  are  frequently  mentioned  together  ; 
and  the  author  of  the  "  great  commentary  "  on  Panini  once  remarks 
that  these  works  were  taught  in  every  village.  The  Kathas  and 
Kalapas  are  often  referred  to  under  the  collective  name  of  Charakas, 
which  apparently  means  "wayfarers"  or  itinerant  scholars;  biit 
according  to  a  later  writer  (Hemachandra)  Charaka  is  no  other 
ihau  Vai&mpayana  himself,  after  whom  his  followers  would  have 
oeen  thus  called.  Frbm  the  Kathas  proper  two  schools  seem  early 
CO  have  branched  off,  the  Prachya-  (eastern)  and  Kapishthala- 
iiathas,  the  text-recension  of  the  latter  of  whom  has  recently 
oeen  discovered  in  the  Kapishthala-katha-sarfihild.  The  Kalapas 
also  soon  became  subdivided  into  numerous  different  schools. 
Thus'  from  one  of  Kalapin's  immediate  disciples,  Haridrii,  the 
Haridraviyas  took  their  origin,  whose  text-recension,  i\ieHdri- 
dravika,  is  quoted  together  with  the  Kathaka  as  early  as  in  Yfiska's 
jNirukta  ;  but  we  do  not  know  whether'it  differed  much  from  the 
original  Kalapa  texts.  As  regards  the  Taittiriya-saiphita,  that 
collection,  too,  in  course  of  time  gave  rise  to  a  number  of  different 
schools,  the  text  hande^,,  down  being  that  of  the  Apastambas ; 
,while  the  contents  of  another  recension,  that  of  the  Atreyas,  are 
known  from  their  Anukramani,  w!)ich  has  been  preserved. 

The  four  collections  of  old  Yajus  texts,  so  far  known  to  us,  while 
differing  niore  or  less  considerably  in  arrangement  and  verbal 
points,  have  the  main  mass  of  their  textual  matter  in  common. 
This  common  matter  consists  of  both  sacrificial  prayers  (yajus)  in 
verse  and  prose  and  exegetic  or  illustrative  prose  portions  (briih- 
mana).  A  prominent  feature  of  the  old  Yajus  texts,  as  compared 
with  the  other  Vedas,  is  the  constant  intermixture  of  textual  and 
exegetic  portions.  The  Charakas  and  Taittinyas  thus  do  not 
recognize  the  distinction  between  Samhita  and  Brahmana  in  the 
sense  of  two  separate  collections  of  texts,  but  they  have  only  a 
Banihiti,  or  collection,  which  includes  likewise  the  exegetic  or 

1  Proceedings  of  Am.  Or.  Sac,  Hay  1883. 

2  Eiiited  with  AEnisvamia's  coramentarv,  and  the  v.  11.  of  the  DrShySyana- 
«atm,  by  Anandachandra  Ve<iantav4gisa,  Bibl.  Jnd.,  1872. 

'  Two  chapters  published  by  A.  Weber,  fnii.  St.,  yiil. 

•  Edited  with  a  commentary,  by  Chandrakftma  Tarkal.mkara,  BiM.  Ind. 

tdited  by  A.  Stenzlcr ;  translated  by  G.  BUhler,  Sacrsd  Books,  vol.  U.  '' 
°  In  process  of  publication  by  L.  y.  Schroeder.  •  '     ' 

j^y.^"™!"  published,  with  Sayana's  commentaiy,  by  E.  RUer,  E.  B.  Cowell,  &c.. 


Brahmana  portions  The  Taittinyas  secm'at  last" to' have  been 
impressed  with  their  want  «{  a  separate  Brahmana  and  to  have  sot 
about  supplying  the  deficiency  in  rather  an  awkward  fashi<yn  : 
instead  of  separating  from  each  other  the  textual  and  exegctio 
portion?  of  their  Samhitii,  they  merely  added, to  the  latter  a 
supplement  (in  three  books),  which  shows  the  same  mixed  con- 
dition, and  applied  to  it  the  title  of  Taittirtya-brdhmana.^  But, 
though  the  main  body  of  this  work  is  manifestly  of  a  supple- 
mentary nature,  a  portion  of  it  may  perhaps  be  old,  and  may  once 
have  formed  part  of  the  SamhitI,  considering  that  the  latter  con- 
sists of  seven  ashtakas,  instead  of  eight,  as  this  term  requires, 
and  that  certain  essential  parts  of  the  ceremonial  handled  in  the 
Brahmana  are  entirely  wanting  in  the  Saiphita.  Attached  to 
this  work  is  the  Taittiriyordranynka,'  in  ten  books,  the  fij-st  sin 
of  which  are  of  a  ritualistic  nature,  while  of  the  remaining  booka 
the  first  three  (7-9)  form  the  TailiirUjopnnishad  (consisting  o! 
three  parts,  viz.,  tho  Siksliavalli  or  Samhitopanishad,  and -the 
Anandavalli  and  Bhriguvalli,  also  called  together  the  VArunt- 
upauishad),  and  the  last  book  forms  the  Naiayaiiiya-  (or  YajDiki-) 
upanishad. 

The  Mailrdyant  Satjihitd,  the  identity  of  which  with  the  original 
K.\lapaka  has  been  proved  pretty  conclusively  by  Dr  L.  v. 
Schroder,  who  attributes  the  cliange  of  name  of  the  Kilapa- 
Maitrayaniyas  to  Buddhist  influences,  consists  of  four  books, 
attached  to  which  is  the  Mailri-  (or  Mailrdyant)  upavishad.^  The 
Kdlhaka,  on  the  other  hand,  consists  of  five  parts,  the  last  two  of 
which,  however,  are  perhaps  later  additions,  containing  merely  tho 
prayers  of  the  hotar  priest,  and  those  used  at  the  horse-sacrifice., 
There  is,  moreover,  trie  beautiful  Katha-  or  Kdlhaka-tqmnisluid,"' 
which  is  also  ascriljed  to  the  Atharvavcda,  and  in  which  Dr  Rocr 
would  detect-rallusions  to  the  Saukhya  philosojihy,  and  cvento 
Buddhist  doctrines.  "       ^      ' ' , 

The  defective  arrangement  of  the  Yajus  texts  was^at  last  Sniiilii 
remedied  by  a  different  school  of  Adhvaryus,  the  Vajasaneyins.  of  Wli 
The  reputed  originator  of  this  school  and  its  text-recension  is  Yajur- 
Yajfiavalkya  A'ajasaneya  (son  of  Vajasani).  The  result  of  the  re-  ved& 
arrangement  of  the  texts  was  a  collection  of  sacrificial  mantras,  the 
Vdjasaneyl-samhild,  and  a  Brahmana,  the  Satapatha.  On  account 
of  the  greater  lucidity  of  this  arrangement,  the  Vajasaneyins 
called  their  texts  tho  White  (or  clear)  Yajurveda, — tho  name  of 
Black  (or  obscure)  Yajus  being  for  opposite  reasons  applied  to  the 
Charaka  texts.  Both  the  Sarphita  .and  Bralimana  of  the  Vajasaneyins 
have  come  down  to  us  in  two  different  recensions,  viz.,  those  of  the 
Mddhyandina  and  Kdnva  schools  ;'and  we  find  besides  a  consider- 
able number  of  quotations  from  a  Vajasaneyaka,  from  which  wo 
cannot  doubt  that  there  must  have  been  at  least  one  other  recension 
of  the  Satapatha-brahmana.  The  difference  between  the  two  extaut 
recensions  is,  on  the  whole,  but  slight  as  regards  the  subject-matter ; 
but  in  point  of  diction  it  is  quite  sufficient  to  make  a  comparison' 
especially  interesting  from  a  philological  point  of  view.  Which  of 
the  two  versions  may  be  the  more  original  cannot  as  yet  be 
determined  ;  but  the  phonetic  and  grammatical  dilferences  will 
probably  have  to  be  accounted  for  by  a  geographical  separation  of 
the  two  schools  father  than  by  a  difference  of  age.  ;  In  several 
points  of  difference  the  Kanva  recension  agrees  with  the  practice  of 
the  Rik-sainhita,  and  there  probably  was  some  connexion  between 
the  Yajus  school  of  Kanvas  and  the  famous  family  of  rishis  of  that 
n^me  to  which  the  eighth  mitndala  of  the  Rik  is  attributed.n,  ^ 

The  Fdjasaneyi-samhitd'^'-  consists  of  forty  adhyayas.yhe  firsf 
eighteen  of  which  contain  the  formulas  of  the  ordinary  sacrifices. 
The  last  fifteen  adhyayas  are  doubtless  a  later  addition.— as  may 
also  be  the  case  as  regards  the  preceding  seven  chapters.'H^'The  last 
adhyaya  is  commonly  known  under  the  title  of  Vajasaneyi-samhita. 
(or  Isavasya-)  upanishad.'-  Its  object  seems  to  be  to  point  out  the 
fruitlcssness  of  mere  works,  and  to  insist  on  the  necessity  of  man's 
acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  supreme  spirit.  The  sacrificial  texts 
of  the  Adhvaryus  consist,  in  about  equal  parts,  of  verses  (rich)  and 
prose  formulas  (yajus).  The  majority  of  the  former  occur  likewise 
in  the  Rik-samhiti,  from  which  they  were  doubtless  extractcd^ 
Not  unfrequently,  however,  they  show  considerable  discrepancies 
of  reading,  which  may  be  explained  partly  from  a  difference  of  recen- 
sion and  partly  as  the  result  of  the  adaptation  of  these  verses  to 
their  special  sacrificial  purpose.  As  regards  the  prose  formulas, 
though  only  a  few  of  them  are  actually  referred  to  in  the  Rik.^t  ih 
quite  possible  that  many  of  them  may  be  of  high  antiquity.  :^_^ 

The  &ata2>atha-brdhmam,'''  or  Brahmana  of  a  hundred  paths, 
derives  its  name  frotn  the  fact  of  its  consisting  of  100  lectures 
(adhyaya),  which  are  divided  by  the  Madhyandinas  into  fourteon,_bj 

8  Edited,  witb  Siyana's  commentaiy,  by  Rajcndraiaia  Mllra,  Bibl.  Ini, 

'  Text  and  translation  published  by  £.  B.  CowcIl,  £iW. /"<f.         i- 
-    *"  Tfxt,  commentarv,  and  tianslation  published  by  E.  liijer,  Bibl.  Ind. 

11  Edited,  in  the  Mddhyandina  recension,  with  the  comraeotary.of  .MahMMDi 
and  the  v.  II.  of  the  Kdnva  text,  by  A.  Weber.  1849.  ^ 

'2 Translation  by  E.  Roer,  Bibl.  Jnd.;  by  F.  >l.  Muller,  Sacred  Bools.sf.li.B 
East.  i.  „  , 

"  Edited  bv  A.  Wcbcr,  who  also  translated  the  first  chapter  Into  Geitnan.  in 
Sacred  Book's  of  the  East,  a  translntion,  by  J.  EiTneling,  is  being  published.— a 
vols.,  containing  the  first  four  books,  liaving  appeared. 


LITERATURE.] 


SANSKRIT 


279 


tlie  Kinvas  into  seventeen  books  Ckanda).  Tlio  first  nine  books  of  the 
fonner,'  corresponding  to  the  first  eleven  of  tlie  Kanvtis,  and  consist- 
lu"  of  sixty  adhyiyas,  form  a  kind  of  running  commentary  on  the 
first  eighteen  books  of  the  Vaj.-Samhiti;  and  it  has  been  plausibly 
suggested  by  Prof.  Weber  that  this  portion  of  the  Brihnianamay 
l>o  referred  to  in  the  Jlahibhashya  on  Pin.  iv.  2,  60,  where  a  Sata- 
patha  and  a  Shashti-patha  {i.e.,  "  consisting  of  60  paths")  are  men- 
tioned together  as 'objects  of  study,  and  that  consequently  it  may 
jit  one  time  hare  formed  an  independent  work.  This  view  is  also 
sapported  by  the  circumstance  that  of  the  remaining  five  books 
(10-14)  of  the  Jladbvandinas  the  third  is  called  the  middle  one 
(madhyama) ;  while  the  Kanvas  apply  the  samo  epithet  to  the 
middlemost  of  the  five  boo^s  (12-16)  preceding  tlieir  last  one 
This  last  book  would  thus  seem  to  be  treated  by  them  as  a  second 
supplement,  and  not  without  reason,  as  it  is  of  the  Upanishad 
cider,  and  bears  the  siwcial  title  of  SMlLud-  (great)  draiiyaka.^ 
Except  in  books  6-10  (M.),  which  treat  of  the  construction  of 
fire-altare,  and  recognize  the  sage  Sijfdilya  as  their  chief  authority, 
Yainavalkya's  opinion  is  frequently  referred  to  in  the  Satapatha  as 
auUiorititive.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  the  later  books,  part 
©f  the  Briliad-iranvaka  being  even  called  yaji>avalkiya-kanila.  As 
regards  the  age  of 'the  Satapatha,  the  probability  is  that  the  maiii 
boly  of  the  vork  is  considerably  older  than  the  time  of  Panini,  but 
that  some  of  its  latter  parts  were  considered  by  Panini's  critic 
Katyayana  to  be  cf  about  the  same  age  as,  or  not  much  older  than, 
Piiniui.  Even  those  portions  had  probably  been  long  in  existence 
■before  they  obtained  recoguition  as  part  of  the  canou  of  the  White 

Tlie  contemptuous  manner  in  which  the  doctrines  of  the  Cbaraka- 
adhvaryus  are  repeatedly  animadverted  upon  in  the  Satapatha 
betrays  not  a  little  of  the  odium  C/uologiaim  on  the  part  of  the 
ilivines  of  the  VSijasaneyins  towards  their  brethren  of  the  older 
schools.  Nor  was  their  animosity  confined  to  mere  literary  war- 
fare, but  they  seem  to  have  striven  by  every  means  to  gam 
ascendency  over  their  rivals.  The  consolidation  of  the  Brahmaiacal 
hierarchy  and  the  institution  of  a  common  system  of  ritual  worship, 
which  called  forth  the  liturgical  Vedic  collections,  were  doubtless 
consummated  in  the  so-called  lladbya-defe,  or  "middle  country, 
lying  between  the  Sarasvatt  and  the  confluence  of  the  Yamuna  and 
tfanga  ;  and  more  especially  in  its  western  part,  the  Kuru-kshetra, 
or  land  of  the  Kurus,  with  the  adjoining  territory  of  the  Panchiilas, 
between  the  YamunJ  and  Ganga.  From  thence  the  original  schools 
of  Vaidik  ritualism  gradually  extended  their  sphere  over  the  adja- 
cent parts.  The  Charakas  seem  for  a  long  time  to  have  held  sway 
in  the  western  and  north-western  regions  ;  while  the  Taittiriyas 
n  course  of  time  spread  over  the  whole  of  the  peninsula  south  of 
he  Narmada  (Ncrbudda),  where  their  ritual  has  remained  pre- 
eminently the  object  of  study  till  comparatively  recent  times._  The 
Viijasaneyins,  on  the  other  hand,  having  first  gained  a  footing  in 
the  lands  on  the  lower  Ganges,  chiefly,  it  would  seem,  through  the 
patronage  of  Kin?  Janakaof  Videha,  thence  gradually  worked  their 
■way  westwards,  and  eventually  succeeded  in  superseding  the  older 
schools  north  of  the  Vindhya,  with  the  exception  of  some  isolated 
places  where  even  now  families  of  Bralimaus  are  met  with  which 
profess  to  follow  the  old  Saiiihitas. 

In  Kalpa-s&lms  the  Black  Yajurveda  is  particularly  rich  ;  but, 
owing  to  the  circumstances  just  indicated,  they  are  almost  entirely 
confined  to  the  Taittiiiya  schools.  The  only  Srauta-sfltra  of  a 
Cliaraka  school  which  has  hitherto  been  recovered  is  that  of  the 
Jlanavas,  a  subdivision  of  the  Maitrayaniyas.  The  Miiiava-iraula- 
aHlra'  seems  to  consist  of  eleven  books,  the  first  nine  of  which  treat 
«f  the  sacrificial  ritual,  while  the  tenth  contains  the  Sulva-sutra  ; 
and  the  eleventh  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  supplemenU  (pari- 
tishta).  The  Mdnava-grihya-siUra  is  likewise  in  existence  ;  but  so 
far  nothing  is  known,  save  one  or  two  quotations,  of  a  iWiava- 
Marma-slilra,  the  discovery  of  which  ought  to  solve  some  important 
ouestions  regarding  the  development  of  Indian  law.  Of  siitra- 
ivorks  belonging  to  the  Kalhas,  a  single  treatise,  the  Kdthaka- 
crihija-stKra,  is  known ;  while  Dr  Jolly  considers  the  Fislinu-smrih," 
a' compendium  of  law,  composed  in  mixed  sfitros  and  ^lokas,  to 
be  nothing  but  a  Vaishnava  recast  of  the  Kathaka-dharma-sutra, 
which  seems  no  longer  to  exist.  As  regards  the  Taittiriyas,  the  Kal- 
pa-sfttra  most  widely  accepted  among  them  was  that  of  Apastarabn, 
to  whose  school,  as  we  have  seen,  was  also  due  our  existing  recen- 
sion of  the  Taittiriya-sauihitA.  The .  paslamha-kalpa-sMra  coDsisU 
«!■  thirty  praina  (questions);  the  first  twenty-five  of  these  consti- 
tute the  Srauta-sdtra*  ;  26  and  27  the  Grihya-sutra  ;  28  and  29  the 
Dharmn-sfttra»;  and  the  last  the  Sulva-sutra.  Prof  IJuhl.r  has  tned 
to  fix  the  date  of  this  work  somewhere  between  the  ttli  and  3rd 

I  The  text,  with  §nnkara»  coramcniury,  ond  >D  Engnsh  lrnn»)»H«n,  publl»heil 

''^»io  P.''v.Ta/kc'!^.  D.  hi.  0.,  vol.  «.vl.     A  MS.  cf  .  »<>'i,'»"  »''"'«""'•• 
»Otra,  wllh  the  commcntarj-  ot  the  timioos  MlmSmiHt  KumHr.lii.hE.  b«.n  yholo- 
llthofjrai.hcd  by  the  India  Office,  under  OoldatUckcr  s  .upculaloa. 
>  Edind  and  translated  by  J.  Jolly. 

'  In  course  or  publlrallon,  by  K.  Garbc,  In  BUI.  Ind.  „..•._ 

»  G.  Uiililir  hasputdl.hcd  the  text  wlihcxtracH  ftomllarailotlosconimcnlanr, 
alio  a  IroMlatlou  m  Sacred  Uooki  of  Iht  foif, 


centuries  B.C.;  but  it  can  hardly  yet  be  considered  ns  definitelj 
settled.  Considerably  more  ancient  than  this  work  arc  the  Baudhd 
yaim-kalpa-sMra,'  which  consists  of  the  same  principal  divisions, 
and  the  Bhdriulvija-siiUa,  of  which,  however,  only  a  few  iiortioos 
have  as  yet  been  discovered.  The  JUiramiakcsi-sOIra,  which  is 
more  modern  than  that  of  ApasUrnba,  from  which  it  differs  but  little, 
is  likewise  fragmentary  ;  and  several  other  Kalpa-siUras,  csjiecially 
that  of  Laugakshi,  are  found  quoted.  The  recognized  compendium 
of  the  White  Yajua  ritual  is  the  .iraula-sitra  of  Kityayana,' 
in  twenty-six  ndhyayas.  •  This  work  is  supplemented  by  a  large 
number  of  secondary  treatises,  likewise  attributed  to  Katyayana, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  Charana-ri/iha,'  a  statistical 
account  of  the  Vedic  schools,  which  unfortunately  has  come  down 
to  us  in  a  very  unsatisfactt^ry  state  of  preservation.  A  manual  of 
domestic  rites,  closely  connected  with  Katyayana's  work,  is  the 
Kiillya-(/ri/iya-sCtra,»  ftscTihed.  to  Paraskara.  To  Katyayana !  we 
further  o'wo  the  Fajasaiui/i-prdtiSdkhya,'"  and  a  catalogue  (oh uA-ro.- 
wani)  of  the  White  Yajus  texts.  As. regards  the  former  work,  it  is 
stili  doubtful  whether  (with  Weber)  we  have  to  consider  it  as  older 
than  Panini,  or  whether  (with  Goldstiicker  and  M.  lliiller)  we  are 
to  identify  its  author  with  Panini's  critic.  The  only  existing 
Pratis4khya"  of  the  Black  Yajus  belongs  to  the  Taittiriyas.  Its 
author  is  unknown,  and  it  confines  itself  entirely  to  the  Taittiriya- 
samhila,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Brahmana  and  Aranyaka. 

b.    AChana-veda.—The  Atharvan  was  the  latest  of  Vedic  col- 
lections to  be  recognized  as  part  of  the  sacred  canon.     That  it  U 
also  the  youngest  Veda  is  proved  by  its  language,  which,  both 
from  a  lexical  and  a  grammatical  point  of- view,  marks  an  inter- 
mediate stage  between  the  main  body  of  the  Rile  and  tlie  BrSh- 
mana  period.    It  is  not  less  manifest  from  the  spirit  of  its  contents, 
which  shows  that  the  childlike  trust  of  the   early  singer  in  the 
willinoiiess  of  the  divine  agents  to  comply  with  the  earnest  request 
of  their  pious  worshipper  had  passed  away,  and  in  its  place  had 
sp.-'v.ig  up  a  superstitious  fear  of  a  host  of  malevolent  powers,  whoso 
baleful  wrath  had  to  be  deprecated  or  turned  aside  oy  incantations 
and  magic  contrivances.     How  far  some  lower  form  of  worship, 
practised  by  the  conquered  race,  may  have  helped  to  bring  about 
this  change  of  religious  belief  it  would  be  idle  to  luqmre  ;  but  it 
is  far  from  improbable  that  the  hymns  of  the  Rik  reflect  chiefly 
the  religious  notions  of  the  more  intelligent  and  educated  minority 
of   the    community,   and  that  superstitious   practices  like   those 
disclosed  by  the  greater  part  of  the  Atharvan  and  a  portion  of  the 
tenth  book  of  the  Rik  had  long  obtained  among  the  people,  and 
became  the  more  prevalent  the  more  the  spiritual  leaders  of  the 
people  gave  themselves  up  to  theosophic  and  metaphysical  specula- 
tions     Hence  also  verses  of  the  Atharvaveda  arc  not  unfrcquently 
used   in  domestic  (grihya)  rites,  but  very  seldom  in  the  Sraiita 
ceremonial.     But,  even  if  these  or  such  like  spells  and  incantaUons 
had  long  been  in  popular  use,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  by  the 
time  they  were   collected  they  must  have  adapted  themselves  to 
the  modifications  which  the  vernacular  language  itself  had  under- 
gone in  tlie  mouths  of  the  people.  ,.  .       ,,  4  j     -,k 
-"his  body  of  spells  and  hymns  is  traditionally  connected  with 
l„o   old   mythic   priestly   families,  the   Angiras  and  Atharvan^ 
their  names,   in  the  plural,   serving  either  singly  or  combined 
(Atharvangirasas)   as   the    oldest    appellation    of    the    collection. 
Instead  of  the  Atharvans,  another  mythic  family,  the  Bhrigus, 
are  sunilarly  connected  with  the  Angiras  (Bhrigvongirasas)  as  the 
depositaries   of   this  mystic   science.      The   currenf   text  of   the 
.j/Aan-a..«»AiM'=-apparently  the  recension  of  the  baunaka  school 
-consists  of  some  750  difleient  f.ieces,  about  five-sixths  of  wh^ch 
is  in  various  metres,  the  remaining  portion  being  in  prose.     Ihe 
whole  mass  is  divided  into  twenty  books.     The  jirinciple  of  dis- 
tribution is  for  the  most  part  a  merely  formal  one,  in  books  i.--xiu 
pieces  of  the  same  or  about  the  same   number  of  verses  being 
placed  together  in  the  same  book.     The  next  five  books,  xn^ 
xviii.,  have  each  its  own  special  subject  :-x.v.  treats  of  niarri^ 
and  sexual  union  ;  xv. ,  in  prose,  of  the  Vratya,  or  rehgious  vag^^t 
xvi.  consists  of  prose  formulas  of  conjuration  ;xvii.  of  «  •^"8"'? 
mystic  hymn;   and  xviii.   contains   all  that  relates  t°  <lcath  and 
mneral  rftes.     Of  the  last  two  books  ,10  accoun    is  taken  in  U^c 
Atharva-pratisakhya,  and  they  indeed  stand  clearly  in  tl.   uKitiou 
of  suiipluments  to  the  original  collection.     The  .  'ook 
evidently  was  the  result  of  a  subsequent  gleaning  ■  •"" 


hat  been  translated  by  O.  BUhlcr,  iacrcd  llMtt,  xU.  ^j 

7  Edited  by  A.  Weber.  -        .  "•■''>^. 

•  Tcit  and  GeiHiun  translation  by  A.  S'™""-^      tranaUllon   by  A.  Wiber. 
i»  Edited   with  UvaVas  commentary,  »iid  a  German  iranauiion,  oy  «.  "iu»  , 

'If  ^^."wil'has  been  pnblUhed  M;  W- H  Wd^cy  ;lth  a  tranU.^^^^^^^^ 

^:r■U7le^^"!fre:nr."o;?;•rl\f.r^''oV;err;,,^^^^^ 

(YK/Uyftyana),  Maldslioya.  and  A'iV>" 


contain  the  Ln.  i.?'.--'  -".'."'"I  l^  "h""',':'".;'  ^'c     '  " '' 


contain  the    Varl«  Ucll.v^.  "",'"',"1  v',';hmV,m";o"t'trc  tiolk''    ■riTn™!"  t'lTl^ 

xlll.,  xvil. 


280 


SANSKRIT 


[liteeatuee. 


to  those  of  the  earlier  books,  which  had  probably  escaped  the 
collectors'  attention;  while  the  last  book,  consisting  almost  entirely 
of  hymns  to  Indra,  taken  from  the  Rik-sarphita,  is  nothing  more 
than  a  litm-gical  r.aBual  of  the  recitations  and  chants  required  at 
the  Soma  sacrifice. 

The  Atharvan  has  come  down  to  us  in  a  much  less  satisfactory 
8tat«  of  preserpatiou  than  any  of  the  other  Sarphitas,  and  its 
interpretation,  which  offers  considerable  difficulties  on  account  of 
numerous  popular  and  out-of-the-way  expressions,  has  so  far 
received  comparatively  little  aid  from  native  sources.  A  com- 
mentary by  the  famous  Vedic  exegete  Sayana,  which  has  lately  come 
to  light  in  India,  may,  however,  be  expected  to  throw  light  on  some 
obscure  passages.  Even  more  important  is  the  discovery,  some 
years  ago,  through  the  exertions  of  Sir  William  Muir,  of  an  entirely, 
different  recension  of  the  Atharva-samhitS,  preserved  in  Kashmir. 
This  new  recension,^  supposed  to  be  that  of  the  Paippalada  school, 
consists  likewise  of  twenty  books  (kajjda),  but  both  iu  textual  matter 
and  in  its  arrangement  it  differs  very  much  from  the  current  text. 
A  considerable  portion  of- the  latter,  including  unfortunately  the 
whole  of  the  eighteenth  book,  is  wanting;  while  the  hymns  of  the 
nineteenth  book  are  for  the  most  part  found  also  in  this  text,  though 
not  as  a  separate  book,  but  scattered  over  the  whole  collection. 
Possibly,  therefore,  this  recension  may  have  formed  one  of  the 
sources  whence  the  nineteenth  book  was  compiled.  The  twentieth 
book  is  wanting,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  of  the  verses  not  taken 
from  the  Rik.  As  a  set-off  to  these  shortcomings  the  new  version 
offers,  however,  a  good  deal  of  fresh  matter,  amounting  to  about 
one-sixth  of  the  whole.  From  the  Mahabhashya  and  other  works 
quoting  as  the  beginning  of  the  Atharva-samhita  i  verse  that 
coincides  with  the  first  verse  of  the  sixth  hymn  of  the  current  text, 
it  has  long  been  known  that  at  least  one  other  recension  must  have 
existed ;  but  owing  to  the  defective  state  of  the  Kashmir  SIS.  it 
cannot  be  determined  whether  the  new  recension  (as  seems  likely) 
corresponds  to  the  one  referred  to  in  those  works. 

The  only  Brahmana  of  the  Atharvan,  the  Go/iaJha-brdhmana,^  is 
probably  one  of  the  most  modera  woiks  of  its  class.  It  consists  of 
two  parts,  the  first  of  which  contains  cosmogonio  speculations, 
interspersed  with  legends,  apparently  taken  from  other  Brah- 
manas,  and  general  instructions  on  religious  duties  and  observ- 
ances ;  while  the  second  part  treats.,  in  a  very  desultory  manner, 
of  various  points  of  the  sacrificial  ceremonial 

The  Kalpa-sfitras  belonging  to  this  Veda  comprise  both  a  manual 
of  irautarites,  the  VaiUhui-siUra,^  and  a  manual  of  domestic  rites, 
the  KauUka-sitra.*  The  latt.;r  treatise  is  not  only  the  more  inter- 
esting of  the  two,  but  also  the  more  ancient,  being  actually  quoted 
in  the  other.  The  teacher  Kausika  is  repeatedly  referred  to  in  the 
work  on  points  of  ceremonial  doctrine.  Connected  with  this  S&tra 
are  upwards  of  seventy  Pariiishtas,  or  supplementary  treatises, 
mostly  iu  metrical  form,  on  various  subjects  bearing  on  the  per- 
formance of  grihya  rites.  The  last,  sutra-work  to  be  noticed  in 
connexion  with  this  Veda  is  the  SaunaHyA  ChaturddhySyil:'t,^ 
being  a  Pritisakhyaof  the  Atharva-samhita,  so  called  from  its  con- 
sisting of  four  lectures  (adhyaya).  Although  Saunaka  can  hardly 
be  credited  irith  being  the  actual  author  of  the  work,  considering 
that  his  opinion  is  rejected  in  the  only  rule  where  his  name 
appears,  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  it  chiefly  embodies  the 
phonetic  theories  of  that  teacher,  which  were  afterwards  perfected 
by  meinbers  of  his  school.  'Whether  this  Saunaka  is  identical  with 
the  writer  of  that  name  to  whom  the  final  redaction  of  the  Sakala- 
pratisakhya  of  the  Rik  is  ascribed  is  not  known  ;  but  it  is  worthy 
of  note  that  ou  at  least  two  points  where  Sakalya  is  quoted  by 
PJnini,  the  Chaturadhyayika  seems  to  be  referred  to  rather  than 
the  Rik-pratisakhya.  Saunaka  is  quoted  once  in  the  Vajasaneyi- 
prdtisakhya;  and  it  is  possible  that  Katyayana  had  the  Chatur- 
adhyayika  in  view,  though  his  reference  iloes  not  quite  tally  with 
the  respective  rule  of  that  work. 

Another  class  of  writings  already  alluded  to  as  traditionally 
connected  with  the  Atharvaveda  are  the  numerous  Vpanishads' 
which  do  not  specially  attach  themselves  to  one  or  other  of  the 
Samhitas  or  Brahmanas  of  the  other  Vedas.  The  Atharvana- 
upanishads,  mostly  composed  in  Slokas,  may  be  roughly  divided 
into  two  classes,  viz.,  those  of  a  purely  speculative  or  general 
pantheistic  character;  treating  chiefly  of  the  nature  of  the  supreme 
spirit,  and  the  means  of  attaining  to  union  therewith,  and  those 
of  a  sectarian  tendency.  Of  the  former  category,  a  limited  number 
— such  as  the  Prasna,  Mundaka,  and  Mdndukya-upanishads — have 

^  ll  13  in  the  hands  of  Prof.  R.  v.  Kotb,  who  has  given  an  account 
of  it  in  his  academic  dissertation,  "  Der  Atharvaveda  in  Kaschmir," 
1875.  '  Edited,  in  the  Bibl  Ind.,  by  Rajendralala  Mitra. 

'  Text  and  a  German  translation  pubhshed  by  R.  Garbe. 

*  This  difBcuIt  treatise  is  about  to  be  published  by  Prof.  Plnomfield. 
Two  sections  of  it  have  been  printed  and  translated  by  A,  Wclur 
"Omina  et  Portenta,"  1859. 

Edited  and  translated  by  W.  D.  Whitney. 

'  For  a  full  list  of  existing  translations  of  and  essays  on  the  Upani- 
aLads,  see  Introd.  Jo  Max  MiiUer's  Upanishads,  Sacred^Books,  i. 


probably  to  be  assigned  to  the  later  period  of  Vedic  literature  ; 
whilst  the  others  presuppose  more  or  less  distinctly  the  existence 
of  some  fully  developed  system  of  philosophy,  especially  the 
Vedanta  or  the  Yoga.  The  sectarian  Upanishads,  on  the  other 
hand — identifying  the  supreme  spirit  either  with  one  of  the  forms 
of  Vishnu  (such  as,  the  Narayana,  Nrisirphatapaniya,  Raina- 
tapaniya,  Gopala-tapapiya),  or  with' Siva  (cy.  tiie  Rudiooanishad). 
or  with  some  other  deity — belong  to  post-Vedic  times. 

XL  The  Classical  Peeiod. 

The  classical  literature  'of  India  is  almost  entirely  a  pro- 
duct of  artificial  growth,  in  the  sense  that  its  vehicle  was 
not  the  language  of  the  general  body  of  the  people,  but  of 
a  small  and  educated  class.  It  would  scarcely  be  possible, 
even  approximately,  to  fix  the  time  when  the  literary 
idiom  ceased  to  be  understood  by  the  common  people.  We 
only  know  that  in  the  3d  century  B.C.  there  existed  several 
dialects  in  different  parts  of  northern  India  which  differed 
considerably  from  the  Sanskrit ;  and  Buddhist  tradition, 
moreover,  tells  us  that  Gautama  Sftkyamuni  himself,  in 
the  6th  century  B.C.,  made  use  of  the  local  dialect  of 
Magadha  (Behar)  for  preaching  his  new  doctrine.  Not 
unlikely,  indeed,  popular  dialects,  diS'ering  perhaps  but 
slightly  from  one  another,  may  have  existed  as  early  as 
the  time  (si  the  Vedic  hymns,  when  the  Indo-Aryans, 
divided  into  clans  and  tribes,  occupied  the  Land  of  the 
Seven  Rivers ;  but  such  dialects  must,  at  any  rate,  have 
sprung  up  after  the  extension  of  the  Aryan  sway  and 
language  over  the  whole  breadth  of  northern  India.  Such, 
however,  has  been  the  case  in  the  history  of  all  nations ; 
and  there  is  no  reason  why,  even  with  the  existence '  of 
local  dialects,  the  literary  language  should  not  have  kept 
in  touch  with  the  people  in  India,  as  elsewhere,  but  for  the 
fact  that  from  a  certain  time  that  language  remained  alto- 
gether stationary,  allowing  the  vernacular  dialects  more 
and  more  to  diverge  from  it.  Although  linguistic  research 
had  been  successfully  carried  on  in  India  for  centuries,  the 
actual  grammatical  fixation  of  Sanskrit  seems  to  have  taken 
place  about  contemporaneously  with  the  first  spread  of 
Buddhism  ;  and  indeed  that  popular  religious  movement 
undoubtedly  exercised  a  powerful  influence  on  the  linguistic 
development  of  India. 

A.  Poetical  Literature. 
> 
1.  EpicPoems. — The  Hindus,  like  the  Greeks, possess  two  Tiie 
great  national  epic3,  the  Edmdyana  and  the  Mahdbhdrata.  "^t'oi 
The  EdmAyana,  i.e.,  poem  "relating  to  Rama,"  is  ascribed  ^P"^^' 
to  the  poet  Valmiki ;   and,  allowance  being  made  for  later 
additions  here  and  there,  the  poem  indeed  presents  the 
appearance  of  being  the  work  of  an  individual  genius.    In 
its  present  form  it  consists  of  some  24,000   ^lokas,  or 
48,000  lines  of  sixteen  syllables,  divided  into  seven  books. 

(I.)  King  Da^aratha  of  Kosala,  reigning  at  Ayodhya  (Oudh), 
has  four  sons  born  him  by  three  wives,  viz. ,  Rama,  Bharata,  and 
the  twins  Lakshmana  and  Satrughna.  Rama,  by  being  able  to 
bend  an  euormous  bow,  formerly  the  dreaded  weapon  of  the  god 
Kudra,  wins  for  a  wife  Sita,  daughter  of  Janaka,  king  of  Videha 
(Tirhut).  (II. )  On  his  return  to  Ayodhyi  he  is  to  be  appointed 
heir-apparent  (ynva-raja,  i.e. ,  juvenis  rex);  but  Bharata's  mother 
persuades  the  king  to  banish  his  eldest  son  for  fourteen  years  to 
the  wilderness,  and  appoint  her  son  instead.  Separation  from  his 
favourite  son  soon  breaks  the  king's  heart;  whereupon  the  ministers, 
call  on  Bharata  to  assume  the  reins  of  government  He  refuses, 
however,  and,  betaking  himself  to  Kama's  retreat  on  the  Chitrakiita 
mountain  (in  Bundelkhund),  implores  him  to  return  ;  but,  unable 
to  shake  Rama's  resolve  to  complete  his  term  of  exile,  he  consents 
to  take  charge  of  the  kingdom  in  the  meantime.'  (III.)  After  a 
ten  years'  residence  in  the  forest,  Eama  attracts  tho  attention  of  a 
fom.ili)  demon  (Rakshasi) ;  and,  infuriated  l>y  the  rejection,  of  her 
.^.Ivancps,  and  by  the  wounds  infiicted  on  her  by  Lakshmana,  who 
keeps  Edma  company,  she  inspiroa  her  brother  Pavana,  demon- 
king  of  Ceylon,  with  love  for  Sit.^,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
latter  is  carried  off  by  him  to  his  capital  Lankl.  While  ."he 
resolutely  rejects  tho  Eakahasa's  addresses,  Rama  sets  out  with  hia 
brother   to   her   rescue.      (IV.)  After  numerous  adventures  thejr 


ajTERATUEE.J 


SANSKRIT 


281 


enter  into  an  alliance  with  Sugriva,  kin^  of  the  monkeys  ;  anil, 
with  tlie  assistance  of  tlie  monkey-general  Hanumin,  and  Havana's 
own  brother  Vibhishana,  they  prepare  to  assault  Lauka.  (V.)  'i'he 
monkeys,  tearing  up  rocks  and  trees,  construct  a  passage  across 
the  straits-  the  so-called  Adam's  Bridge,  still  designated  Rama's 
Bridge  in  India.  (VI.)  Having  crossed  over  with  his  allies,  Kama, 
after  many  hot  encounters  and  miraculous  deeds,  slays  the  demon 
'and  captures  the  stronghold  ;  whereupon  he  places  Vibhishana  on 
the  throne  of  Lanka.  To  aliay  Rama's  misgivings  as  to  any  taint 
she  might  have  incurred  through  contact  with  the  demon,  Sitd 
now  undergoes  an  ordeal  by  tire  ;  after  which  they  return  to 
Ayodhya,  wherej  after  a  triumphal  entry,  Rama  is  installed. 
(VII.)  In  the  last  book— probably  a  later  addition— Rama,  seeing 
that  the  peoole  are  not  yet  satislied  of  Sita's  purity,  resolves  to 
put  her  away  ;  whereupon,  in  the  forest,  she  falls  in  with  Valmiki 
himself,  and  at  his  hermitage  gives  birth  to  two  sons.  While 
growing  up  there,  they  are  taught  by  the  sage  the  use  of  the  bow, 
as  well  as  the  Vcdas,  and  the  Ramayaiia  as  far  as  the  capture  of 
Lanka  and  the  royal  entry  into  Ayodhya.  Ultimately  Rama 
discovers  and  recognizes  them  by  their  wonderful  deeds  and  their 
likeness  to  himself,  and  takes  his  wife  and  sons  back  with  him. 

The  ifakdbhdrata,^  i.e.,  "  the  great  (poem  or  feud)  of 
the  Bharatas,"  on  the  other  hand,  is  not  so  much  a  uni- 
form epic  poem  as  a  miscellaneous  collection  of  epic 
poetry,  consisting  of  a  heterogeneous  mass  of  legendary 
and  didactic  matter,  svorked  into  and  round  a  central 
heroic  narrative.  The  authorship  of  this  work  is  aptly 
attributed  to  Vyasa,  "  the  arranger,"  the  personification  of 
Indian  diaskeuasis.  Only  the  bare  outline  of  the  leading 
story  can  here  be  given. 

In  the  royal  line  of  Hastinapura  (the  ancient  Delhi)— claiming 
descent  from  the  moon,  and  hence  called  the  Lunar  race  (somavamsa), 
and  counting  among  its  ancestors  King  Bharata,  after  whom  India 
is  called  Bharata-varsha  (land  of  the  13haratas) — the  succession  lay 
between  two  brothers,  when  Dhritarashtra,  the  elder,  being  blind, 
had  to  make  way  for  his  brother  Pandii.  After  a  time  the  latter 
retired  to  the  forest  to  pass  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  hunting  ; 
and  Dhritarashtra  assumed  tho  government,  assisted  by  his  uncle 
Bhishma,  the  Nestor  of  tho  poem.  After  some  years  Pandu  died, 
leaving  five  sons,  viz.,  Yudhishthira.  Bhima,  and  Arjuna  by  his 
chief  wife  KuntJ,  and  the  twins'  Nakula  and  Sahadova  by  Madri. 
Tho  latter  having  burnt  herself  along  with  her  dead  husband, 
Kunti  returned  with  the  five  princes  to  Hastinapura,  and  was  well 
received  by  the  king,  who  offered  to  have  his  nephews  brought  up 
together  with  his  own  sons,  of  whom  he  had  a  hundred,  Duryodhana 
teing  tho  eldest.  From  their  great-grandfather  Kuru  both 
famXlics  are  called  Kauravas  ;  but  for  distinction  that  name  is 
more  usually  applied  to  the  sons  of  Dhritarashtra,  while  their 
cousins,  as  the  younger  line,  are  named,  after  their  father,  I'dndavus. 
The  rivalry  and  varying  fortunes  of  these  two  houses  form  the 
main  plot  "of  the  great  epopee.  The  Pandii  princes  soon  proved 
themselves  greatly  superior  to  their  cousins  ;  and  Yudhishthira, 
the  eldest  of  them  all,  was  to  bo  appointed  heir-apparent.  But, 
by  his  son's  advice,  the  king,  good-natured  but  weak,  induced  his 
nephews  for  a  time  to  retire  from  court  and  reside  at  a  house  where 
the  unscrupulous  Duryodhana  meant  to  destroy  them.  They 
escaped,  however,  and  passed  some  time  in  tho  forest  with  their 
motnei.  Here  Draupadi,  daughter  of  King  Drunada,  won  by 
Arjutia  In  open  contest,  became  tho  wife  of  tho  five  brotlicrs.  On 
that  occasion  they  also  met  their  cousin,  Kunti's  nephew,  tho 
famous  Yadava  princo  Krishni  of  Dvaraka,  who  ever  afterwards 
remained  their  faithful  friend  and  confidential  adviser.  Dhrila- 
rftshtra  now  resolved  to  divide  the  kingdom  between  tho  two 
hnus'es  ;  whereupon  the  PAndavas  built  for  themselves  tho  city  of 
Indraprastha  (on  the  site  of  tho  modem  Delhi).  After  a  time  of 
great  prosperity,  Yudhishthira,  in  a  game  of  dice,  lost  everything 
to  Duryodhana,  when  it  Was  settled  that  tho  Pfindavas  should 
retire  to  the  forest  for  twelve  years,  but  should  afterwards  ho 
Tfstorcd  to  their  kingdom  if  they  succeeded  in  passing  an  additional 
y«ar  in  disguise,  without  being  recognized  by  anyone.  During 
their  forest-lifo  they  met  with  many  adventures,  among  which 
may  bo  mentioned  their  encounter  with  King  Jayadratha  of 
Chedi,  who  had  carried  olf  Draupadi  from  their  hermitage.  After  ; 
ttio  twelfth  year  has  expired  they  leave  tho  forest,  and,  assuming 
•various  disguises,  take  service  at  the  courtof  king  Vir.'ila  of  Matsya.  ' 
Here  all  goes  well  for  a  time  till  tho  queen's  brother  Kiehaka,  a 
greflt  warrior  and  commander  of  tho  royal  forces,  falls  in  love  with 

*  There   are  'several    complete    editions    j>ubli8lM'd    in    India,    tho 

handiest  in  4  vols.,  Calcntta,  183'l-9.     Nunurous  epis'Hiea  from  it  have  ! 

been  printed  and  translated  by  European  scholars.     Tlicro  is  a  French  ' 

translation,  by  H.    Fauchc,   of  about  one    half  of  tlio  work  ■  but  it  ] 

must  bo  used  with  caution.      An  KnKlish  translation  ii  being  broiiylit  | 

«ut  at  Calcutta  by  Pratap  Chundra  Koy.  I 


Draupadi,  and  is  slain  by  Bl^ima.  The  Kauravas,  profiting  by 
Kichaka's  death,  -lOW  invade  tho  JIat.syan  kingdom,  when  the 
Pandavas  side  with  king  Virata,  and  there  ensues,  on  the  field  of 
Kurukshetra,  a  series  of  fierce  battles,  ending  in  the  annihilation 
of  the  Kauravas.  Yudhishthira  now  at  last  becomes  yuva-raja,  and 
eventually  king, — Dhritarashtra  having  resigned  and  retired  with 
his  wife  and  Kunti  to  the  forest,  where  they  soon  after  perish  in  a 
conflagration.  Learning  also  tho  death  of  Krishna,  Yudhishthira 
himself  at  last  becomes  tired  of  life  and  resigns  his  crown  ;  and 
the  five  princes,  with  their  faithful  wife,  and  a  dog  that  joins  them, 
set  out  for  Mount  Meru,  to  seek  admission  to  Indra's  heaven.  On 
tho  way  one  by  one  drops  off,  till  Yudhishthira  alone,  with  the  dog, 
reaches  the  gate  of  heaven;  but,  the  dog  being  refused  admittance, 
the  king  declines  entering  without  him,  when  tho  dog  turns  out  to 
be  no  other  than  the  god  of  Justice  himself,  having  assumed  that 
form  to  test  Yudhishthira's  constancy.  But,  finding  neither  his 
wife  nor  his  brothers  in  heaven,  and  being  told  that  they  are  in 
tho  nether  world  to  expiate  their  sins,  the  king  insists  on  sharing 
their  fate,  when  this,  too,  proves  a  trial,  and  they  are  all  reunited 
to  enjoy  perpetual  bliss. 

Whether  this  story  is  partly  based,  as  Lassen  sug- 
gested, on  historical  events, — perhaps  a  destructive  war 
between  the  neighbouring  tribes  of  the  Kurus  and  Pan- 
chalas, — or  whether,  as  Dr  A.  Holtzmann  thinks,  its  prin- 
cipal features  go  back  to  Indo-Germanic  times,  will  pro- 
bably never  be  decided.  The  complete  work  consists  of 
upwards  of  100,000  couplets, — its  contents  thus  being 
nearly  eight  times  the  bulk  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  com- 
bined. It  is  divided  into  eighiecn  books,  and  a  supple- 
ment, entitled  Harivamsa,  or  genealogy  of  the  god  Hari 
(Krishita-Vishnu).  In  the  introduction,  ,  Vyasa,  being 
about  to  dictate  the  poem,  is  made  to  say  (i.  81)  that  so 
far  he  and  some  of  his  disciples  knew  8800  couplets ; 
and  further  on  (i.  101)  he  is  said  to  have  composed  the 
collection  relating  to  the  Bhilratas  (bharata-samhita),  and 
called  the  Bhdratam,  which,  not  including  the  episodes, 
consisted  of  24,000  slokas.  Now,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
portion  relating  to  the  feud  of  the  rival  houses  constitutes 
somewhere  between  a  fourth  and  a  fifth  of  the  work ;  and 
it  is  highly  probable  that  this  portion  once  formed  a 
separate  poem,  called  the  Bhdiata.  But,  whether  the 
former  statement  is  to  be  understood  as  implying  the 
existence,  at  a  still  earlier  time,  of  a  yet  shorter  version  of 
about  one-third  of  tho  present  extent  of  the  leading  narra- 
tive cannot  now  bo  determined.  While  some  of  the 
episodes  are  so  loosely  connected  with  the  story  as  to  be 
readily  severed  from  it,  others  are  so  closely  interwoven 
v.ith  it  that  their  removal  would  seriously  injure  the  very 
texture  of  the  work.  This,  however,  only  shows  that  tha 
original  poem  m.ust  have  undergone  some  kind  of  revision, 
or  perhaps  repeated  revisions.  That  such  has  indeed  taken 
place,  at  the  hand  of  Brihmans,  for  sectarian  and  caste 
purposes,  cannot  be  doubted. 

The  earliest  direct  information  regarding  the  existence 
of  c|)ic  poetry  in  India  is  contained  in  a  passage  of  Dion 
Chrysostom  (c.  80  A.D.),  according  to  which  "  even  among 
the  Indians,  they  say,  Homer's  poetry  is  sung,  having 
been  translated  by  them  into  their  own  dialect  and 
tongue;"  and  "tho  Indians  are  w>eU  acquainted  with  the 
sufferings  of  Priam,  tho  lamentations  and  wails  of  Andro- 
mache and  Ilecuba,  and  tiio  prowess  of  Achilles  and 
Hector."  Now,  althougli  these  allusions  would  Buit  either 
poem,  they  seem  on  tho  whole  to  correspond  best  to 
certain  incidents  in  tho  MalMhArata,  especially  as  no 
direct  mention  is  made  of  a  warlike  expedition  to  a  remote 
island  for  the  rescue  of  an  abducted  woman,  tho  rcseni- 
blanco  of  which  to  the  Trojan  expedition  would  nnlurnlly 
have  struck  a  Greek  becoming  ncnuiiinted  with  the 
general  outline  of  tho  IMmdyaua.  Whence  Dion  derived 
his  infcriiralion  is  not  known;  but  a.s  many  leading  names 
of  tho  Mahftbhilrataand  even  the  name  of  the  poem  itself* 
are  already  mcntiooed  in  Puiiiui's  grammatical  rules,  it  is 

'  Vii. ,  as  an  adj.,  apparently  with  "wor  "  or  "poem"  umlirstuoil. 


2i-ir 


i!»l! 


S  A  N  S  K  R  I  i 


not  only  certain  that  the  Bh&rata  legend  must  havo  hcen 
current  in  his  time  (tc.  400  b.c),  but  most  probable  that  it 
existed  already  in  poetical  form,  as  undoubtedly  it  did  at 
the  time  of  Patanjali,  the  author  of  the  "great  comment- 
ary" on  Panini  (c.  150  B.C.).  The  gveat  epic  is  also 
laentioned,  both  as  Bhdrata  and  MahdbhArata,  in  the 
Grihya-siltra  of  Asvaliiyana,  whom  Lassen  supposes  to 
Lave  lived  about  350  B.C.  Nevertheless  it  must  remain 
uncertain  whether  the  poem  was  then  already  in  the  form 
in  which  we  now  have  it,  at  least  as  far  as  the  leading 
story  and  perhaps  some  of  the  episodes  are  concerned,  a 
large  portion  of  the  episodical  matter  being  clearly  of 
later  origin.  It  cannot,  however,  be  doubted,  for  many 
reasons,  that  long  before  that  time  heroic  song  had  been 
diligently  cultivated  in  India  at  the  courts  of  princes  and 
among  Kshatriyas,  the  knightly  order,  generally.  In  the 
Mahdbhdrata  itself  the  transmission  of  epic  legend  is  in 
some  way  connected  with  the  Siltas,  a  social  class  which, 
in  the  caste-system,  is  defined  as  resulting  from  the  union 
of  Kshatriya  men  with  Brahmana  women,  and  which 
supplied  the  office  of  charioteers  and  heralds,  as  well  as 
(along  with  the  Mugadhas)  that  of  professional  minstrels. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that,  as  Hellas 
had  her  doiSoi  who  sang  the  nXia  avtpuiv,  and  Iceland  her 
skalds  who  recited  favourite  sagas,  so  India  had  from 
olden  times  her  professional  bards,  who  delighted  to  sing 
the  praises  of  kings  and  inspire  the  knights  with  warlike 
feelings.  But  if  in  this  way  a  stock  of  heroic  poetry  bad 
gradually  accumulated  which  reflected  an  earlier  state 
of  society  and  manners,  we  can  well  understand  why, 
after  the  Brahmanical  order  of  things  had  been  definitely 
established,  the  priests  should  have  deemed  it  desirable  to 
subject  these  traditional  memorials  of  Kshatriya  chivalry 
and  prestige  to  their  own  censorship,  and  adapt  them  to 
their  own  canons  of  religious  and  civil  law.  Such  a 
revision  would  doubtless  require  considerable  skill  and 
tact ;  and  if  in  the  present  version  of  the  work  much 
remains  that  seems  contrary  to  the  Brahmanical  code 
and  pretensions — <■.<;.,  the  polyandric  union  of  Draupadi 
and  the  Paijdu  princes — the  reason  probably  is  that  such 
legendary,  or  it  may  be  historical,  events  were  too  firmly- 
rooted  in  the  minds  of  the  people  to  be  tampered  with ; 
and  all  the  clerical  revisers  could  do  was  to  explain  them 
away  as  best  they  could.  Thus  the  special  point  alluded 
to  was  represented  as  an  act  of  duty  and  filial  obedience, 
in  this  way,  that,  when  Arjuna  brings  home  his  fair  prize, 
and  announces  it  to  his  mother,  she,  before  seeing  what  it 
is,  bids  him  share  it  with  his  brothers.  Nay,  it  has  even 
been  suggested,  with  some  plausibility,  that  the  '  BrSh- 
manical  editors  have  completely  changed  the  traditional 
relations  of  the  leading  characters  of  the  story.  For, 
although  the  Pandavas  and  their  cousin  Krishna  are  con- 
stantly extolled  as  models  of  virtue  and  goodness,  while 
the  Kauravas  and  their  friend  Karna — a  son  of  the  snn- 
god,  born  by  Kunti  before  her  marriage  with  Pandu,  and 
brought  up  secretly  as  the  son  of  a  Sftta — are  decried  as 
monsters  of  depravity,  these  estimates  of  the  heroes' 
bharacters  are  not  unfrequently  belied  by  their  actions, — 
especially  the  honest  Kama  and  the  brave  Duryodhana 
contrasting  not  unfavourably  with  the  wily  Krishna  and 
the  cautious  and  somewhat  effeminate  Yudhishthira. 
These  considerations,  coupled  with  certain  peculiarities  on 
the  part  of  the  Kauravas,  suggestive  of  an  original  con- 
nexion of  the  latter  with  Buddhist  institutions,  have  led 
Dr  Holtzmann  to  devise  an  ingenious  theory,  viz.,  that 
the  traditional  stock  of  legends  was  first  worked  up  into 
its  present  shape  by  some  Buddhist  poet,  and  that  this 
version,  showing  a  decided  predilection  for  the  Kuril  party, 
as  the  representatives  of  Buddhist  principles,  was  after- 
warrU  rLvised  in  a  <;ontvary  seaee^  at  the  time  o£  thg 


[LITEr.ATTJnU. 

T*ruhmanical  reaction,  by  votaries  of  Yishiiu,  when  the 
Buddhist  features  were  generally  modified  into  Saivite 
tendencies,  ar:d  p.-ominence  was  given  to  the  divine  nature 
of  Krishna,  as  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu.  The  chief  objec- 
tion to  this  theory  probably  is  that  it  would  seem  to 
make  such  portions  as  the  Bhagavad-g'dA  ("  song  of  tho 
holy  one ") — the  famous  theosophic  episode,  in  which 
Krishna,  in  lofty  and  highly  poetical  language,  expounds 
the  doctrine  of  faith  (bbakti)  and  claims  adoration  as  the 
incarnation  of  the  supreme  spirit — even  more  tnodcra 
than  many  scholars  may  bo  inclined  to  admit  as  at  all 
necessary,  considering  that  at  the  time  of  Patanjali'a 
MahdbMihya  the  Krishna  worship,  as  was  shown  by  Prof. 
Bhandarkar,  had  already  attained  some  degree  of  develop- 
ment. Of  the  purely  legendary  matter  incorporated 
with  the  leading  story  not  a  little,  doubtless,  is  at  least  as 
old  as  the  latter  itself.  Some  of  these  episodes — especially 
the  well-known  story  of  Nala  and  Damayanti,  and  the 
touching  legend  of  Savitri — form  themselves  little  epic 
gems,  of  which  any  nation  might  be  proud.  There  can 
be  no  doubt,  however,  that  this  great  storehouse  of 
legendary  lore  has  received  considerable  additions  down 
to  comparatively  recent  times,  and  that,  while  its  main 
portion  is  considerably  older,  it  also  contains  no  small 
amount  of  matter  which  is  decidedly  mora  modern  ^thaiv 
the  Rdmdyana. 

As  regards  the  leading  narrative  of  the  RdmdySnS, 
while  it  is  generally  supposed  that  the  chief  object  whjch 
the  poet  had  in  view  was  to  depict  tho  spread  of  Aryan 
civilization  towards  the  south,  Mr  T.  Wheeler  has  tried 
to  show  that  the  demons  of  Lanka  against  whom  Kama's 
expedition  is  directed  are  intended  for  the  Buddhists  of 
Ceylon.  Prof.  Weber,  moreover,  from  a  comparison  of 
Rftma's  story  ■with  cognate  Buddhist  legends  in  which 
the  expedition  to  LankS  is  not  even  referred  to,  has 
endeavoured  to  prove  that  this  feature,  having  been  added 
by  Valmiki  to  the  original  legend,  was  probably  derived 
by  him  from  some  general  acquaintance  with  the  Trojan 
cycle  of  legends,  the  composition  of  the  poem  itself  being 
placed  by  the  same  scholar  somewhere  about  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era.  Though,  in  tho  absence  of  positive 
proof,  this  theory,  however  ably  supjoited,  can  scarcely 
be  assented  to,  it  will  hardiy  be  possible  to  put  the  date  of 
the  work  farther  back  than  about  a  century  before  our 
era ;  while  the  loose  connexion  of  certain  passages  ia 
which  the  divine  character  of  f.ima,  as  an  avatSr  'of 
Vishnu,  is  especially  accentuated,  raises  a  strong  sua.^ 
picion  of  this,  feature  of  Piama's  nature  having  b=en  intro> 
duced  at  a  later  time. 

A  remarkable  feature  of  this  poem  is  the  great  variation' 
of  its  text  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  amounting  ia 
fact  to  several  distinct  recensions.  The  so-called  Gauda 
recension,  current  in  Bengal,  which  differs  most  of  all,  has 
been  edited,  with  an  Italian  translation,  by  G.  Gorresio  ; 
while  the  version  prevalent  in  western  India,  and  pub- 
lished at  Bombay,  has  been  made  the  basis  for  a  beautiful 
poetical  translation  by  Jlr  R,  Griffith,'  This  diversity  has 
never  been  explained  in  a  quite  satisfactory  way ;  but  it 
was  probably  due  to  the  very  popularity  and  wide  oral 
diffusion  of  the  poem.  Yet  another  version  of  the  same 
story,  with,  however,  many  important  variations  of  details, 
forms  an  episode  of  the  Mahdhhdrata,  the  relation, of 
which  to  Valmiki's  work  is  still  a  matter  of  uncertainty.' 
To  characterize  the  Indian  epics  in  a  single  word  :-J 
though  often  disfigured  by  grotesque  fancies  and  wild 
exaggerations,  they  are  yet  nolle  works,  abounding  in 
passages  of  remarkable  descriptive  power,  intense  pathosj 
and  high  poetic  grace  and  beauty;  and,  while,  as  works  of 
art,  they  are  far  inferior  to  the  Greek  epics,  in  .gome 
respects  they  appeal  far  more  strongly  to  the  romantic 


UTE:iArui:i:.] 


SANSKRIT 


2d3 


miiid  of  Enropc,  nameJy,  by  tbeir  loving  appreciation  of 
natural  beauty,  their  exquisite  delineation  of  womanly 
love  and  devotion,  and  their  tender  sentiment  of  mercy 
xnd  forgiveness. 

2.  FuvAnas  and  Tanfras. — The  PurCtiias  are  partly 
legendary  partly  speculative  histories  of  the  universe, 
compiled  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  some  special, 
locally  prevalent  form  of  BriUimanical  belief.  They  are 
sometimes  styled  a  fifth  Veda,  and  may  indeed  in  a 
certain  sense  bo  looked  upon  as  the  scriptures  of  Brah- 
manieal  India.  The  term  'p^trAna,  signifying  "old," 
applied  originally  to  prehistoric,  especially  cosmogonic, 
legends,  and  then  to  collections  of  ancient  traditions 
generally.  The  existing  works  of  this  class,  though  recog 
iiizing  the  Brahmanical  doctrine  of  the  Trimfirti,  or  triple 
manifestation  of  the  deity  (in  its  creative,  preservative. 
Olid  destructive  activity),  are  all  of  a  sectarian  tendency, 
bung  intended  to  establish,  on  quasi-historic  grounds, 
tie  claims  of  some  special  god,  or  holy  place,  on  the 
ili.'votion  of  the  people.  For  this  purpose  the  compilers 
Jiive  pressed  into  their  service  a  mass  of  extraneous  didac- 
tJp  matter  on  all  manner  of  subjects,  whereby  these  works 
I'aive  become  a  kind  of  popular  encyclopedias  of  useful 
Uiowledge.  It  is  evident,  however,  from  a  comparatively 
e\'rly  definition  given  of  the  typical  Purtlna,  as  well  as 
f;.i>m  numerous  coincidences  of  the  existing  works,  that 
I'.'uey  are  based  on,  or  enlarged  from,  older  works  of  this 
Jjiod,  more  limited  in  their  scope,  and  probably  of  a  more 
tlecidedly  tritheistic  tendency  of  belief.  Thus  none  of  the 
i'dra-naa,  38  now  extant,  is  probably  much  above  a 
tlionsand  years  old,  though  a  considerable  proportion  of 
their  materials  is  doubtless  much  older,  and  may  perhaps 
in  part  go  back  to  several  centuries  before  our  era. 

In  legendary  matter  the  Pur&nas  have  a  good  deal  in 
iiommon  with  the  epics,  especially  the  MaMbhdrata, — the 
t'ompilers  or  revisers  of  both  classes  cf  works  having 
c<ddently  drawn  their  materials  from  the  same  fluctuating 
t^iass  of  popular  traditions.  They  are  almost  entirely 
composed  in  epic  couplets,  and  indeed  in  much  the  same 
easy  flowing  style  as  the  epic  poems,  to  which  they  are, 
however,  geat'.y  inferior  in  poetic  value. 

Aceoriling  tb  tlie  traditional  classification  of  these  'works,  there 
HTe  said  to  be  ciglitcen  {inuhd-,  or  great)  PurAvas,  and  as  many 
Dpn-p7irdnas,  or  subordinate  I'uraiias.  The  fonncr  are  by  some 
Mitiiorities  divided  into  three  groups  of  six,  according  as  one  or 
other  of  the  tliruc  ]niiiiary  qualities  of  external  existence — goodness, 
ilarknesa  (ignoranie),  and  passion — is  supposed  to  prevail  in  tlii'"i 
viz.,  tlic  Vishnu , NAradUja ,  Bh^lijnmla,  Oan«Ja,Pailma,  VaiHiu^  - 
MnU)/a,  KUnna,  Litim,  Siva,  Slandn,  Agui, — BrahmSnija,  Idahmn- 
Taivarta-,  M&rkandeya, Uhavishya,  Vihiiaita,  and  Bnih',nu- Purdn^if. 
In  accordance  with  the  nature  of  the  several  forms  of  the  Triiuirti, 
the  first  two  groups  chiedy  devote  themselves  to  the  conimeiida- 
tion  of  Vishnu  and  Siva  respectively,  whilst  the  third  group, 
which  would  jirojierly  belong  to  Brahman,  ha»  been  largely  ajipro- 
i>riatc<l  for  the  proniolicn  of  the  claims  of  other  deities,  viz., 
Vishnu  in  liis  sensuous  Vorm  of  Krishna,  Devi,  Ganesa,  and 
SArya.  As  Prof.  Baneijca  lias  shown  in  Ids  jireface  to  the  JIMr- 
kaixinjrt,  this  seems  to  have  been  chiefly  eH'cctcd  by  later  additions 
and  interpolafions.  llic  insulllciency  of  the  above  classification, 
h.wcvcr,  appears  from  the  fact  that  it  omits  the  VAtjii-purAnn, 
probably  one  of  the  oldest  of  all,  though  some  MS.S.  substitute  it 
(oi  one  or  other  name  of  the  second  group.  The  eighteen  principal 
Punmas  are  said  to  consist  of  together  400,000  couplets.  In 
Nortliein  India  the  Vaishnava  Pnranas,  especially  the  Bli/tgntnta 
and  Vishnu,^  are  by  far  the  most  popidar.  The  Bliiigavata  was 
formerly  supposed  to  have  been  composed  by  Vopadcva,  the 
grammarian,  who  lived  in  the  13th  century.  It  has,  however, 
b«ou  shown*  that  what  ho  wrote  was  a  synojisis  of  the  PurSna, 

'  There  are  sevcrnl  Indian  editions  of  these  tw6  works.  The 
Fn.^avata  has  been  partly  printed,  in  an  Millcn  dr.  hixr,  at  Paris,  in 
3  vols.,  by  E.  Burnouf,  and  a  fourth  by  M.  llnuvelte  lUsnault.  Of 
tlio  Vi.dinup.  there  is  a  tr:uialatioii  by  H.  U.  Wilfcon,  2d  ed.  enriched 
■nith  vabiablo  notes  by  F.  Ilnll.  Several  olher  Piiranna  have  been 
j.rinted  in  India;  llie  MAik.indoya  .ui.l  Agui  Piin>na«,  In  tho  Bibl. 
ind.,  by  Pjof.  DAniTJea  nt.il  liajendralala  Alitia  respectively. 

-  Hyjudialdla  Jlilia,  Xuticcs  o/Sanak.  MSS.,  ii.  17. 


and  that  the  latter  is  already  quoted  in  a.  work  by  Ballala  Sena  of 
Bengal,  in  the  lllh  century. 

From  tJie  little  we  know  regarding  the  Upa-nuranas,  their  char- 
acter d6e3  not  seem  to  dilTcr  very  much  from  tliat  of  the  principal 
Puhinas.     One  of  them,  tho  Drain  :in,  eontiin.i,  as  an 

episode,  tho  well  known  Adhyiliiui-  i  kind  of  spiritual- 

ized version  of  Vilmiki's  )»i-m.  jj, o....,  wn.ie  two  classes  of 
works  there  is  a  large  number  of  so-called  Slluila-jmr&nas,  rr 
chronicUs  recounting  thehistory  and  merits  of  some  holy  "place" 
or  shrine,  where  their  recitation  usually  I'ornis  an  important  part 
of  the  daily  service.  Of  much  the  same  nature  are  the  numerons 
ildhdlmyas  (literally  "relating  to  the  great  sjiirit"),  which  usually 
profess  to  be  sections  of  one  or  other  Purjna.  Thus  the  DnU 
md/uSttnya,  which  celebrates  the  victories  oi'  the  great  goddess 
Dorgd  over  the  Asaias,  and  is  daily  read  at  the  temples  of  that 
deity,  forms  a  section,  though  doubtless  an  interpolated  one,  of 
the  ilfirkandeya-puraiia. 

The  Tantras,  which  have  to  be  considered  as  a  later 
development  of  the  sectariin  Puranas,  are  tho  sacred 
writings  of  the  numerou-s  Hdklas,  or  worshippers  of  the 
female  energy  (sakli)  of  some  god,  especially  the  wife  of 
^iva,  in  one  of  her  many  forms  (Parvati,  Devi,  Krdi, 
Bhavani,  Durg^  itc).  This  ■n'orshiv>  of  a  fen:ale  repre-' 
Eontation  of  the  divine  power  appaars  already  in  some  of 
the  Puranas;  but  in  the  Tantras  it  assumes  quite  a  peculiar 
character,  being  largely  intermixed  with  magic  perform-i 
anees  and  mystic  rites,  partly,  it  would  seem,  of  a  grossly 
immoral  nature.  This  class  of  writings  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  in  existence  at  the  time  of  Amarasimha  {6th 
century);  but  they  are  mentioned  in  some  of  the  Puriinas. 
They  are  usually  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  Siva  and 
his  wife.  Their  number  is  very  large;  but  they  still  await 
a  critical  examination  at  the  hands  of  western  scholars. 
Among  the  best  known  may  be  mentioned  the  Rudra 
ydmala,  Kuldmava,  Sydind^raliasya,  and  Kdlit^tanira. 

3.  Modfrn  Epics. — A  new  class  of  epic  poems  begin  tOModer 
make  their  appearance  about  the  5th  or  6th  century  of  *P"^*' 
our  era,  during  a  period  of  renewed  literary  activity  which 
has  been  fitly  called  '  the  Renaissance  of  Indian  literature. 
These  works  differ  widely  in  character  from  those  that 
had  preceded  them.  The  great  national  epics,  composed 
though  they  were  in  a  language  different  from  the  ordin- 
ary vernactdars,  had  at  least  been  drawn  from  the  living 
stream  of  popular  traditions,  and  were  doubtless  readily 
understood  and  enjoyed  by  the  majority  of  the  people. 
The  later  productions,  on  the  other  hand,  are  of  a  decidedly 
artificial  character,  and  must  necessarily  have  been  beyond 
the  reach  of  any  but  the  highly  cultivated.  They  are,  on 
the  whole,  singularly  deficient  in  incident  and  invention, 
their  subject  matter  being  almost  entirely  derived  from 
the  old  epics.  Nevertlieleas,  these  works  are  by  no  means 
devoid  of  merit  and  interest;  and  a  number  of  them 
display  considerable  descriptive  jKiwer  and  a  wealth  of 
genuine  poetic  sentiment,  though  unfortunately  often 
clothed  in  language  that  deprives  it  of  half  its  value.  Tho 
simple  heroic  couplet  has  mostly  been  discarded  for 
various  more  or  less  elaborate  metres ;  and  in  accordance 
with  this  change  of  form  the  diction  becomes  gradually 
more  complicated, — a  growing  taste  for  unwieldy  com- 
pounds, a  jingling  kind  of  alliteration,  or  rather  agnomina- 
tion, and  an  abuse  of  similes  marking  tho  increasing 
artificiality  of  these  productions. 

The  generic  appellation  of  eueh  works  is  Tiivya,  which,  meanin)^ 
"poem,"  or  tho  work  of  au  individual  poet  (iuri).  >«  alreadyi 
applied  to  tho  Mmdijana.  Six  poema  of  this  kind  are  singled  out 
by  native  rhetoricians  lis  btandard  works,  luidcr  the  title  ol  UoM- 
kdvua,  or  great  poems.  Two  of  tlicjso  arc  n-eribod  to  the  fumoua 
dramatist  Ki'didasa,  the  nuwt  prominent  li(;nro  of  Uio  Indiau 
Eenaissauce,  and  truly  a  master  of  the  poetic  art.  Ho  i»  eaid  to 
have  been  one  of  the  nine  literary  "  gems  '  at  the  court  of  Vikmm&« 
ditya,  now  generally  idenlilied  with  King  Vikramiditya  IUn<ha  of 
Ujjayini  (L'jjain  or  Oujcin),  who  reigned  about  the  middle  of  tho 
aih  century,  and  seems  to  have  originoleil  the  Vikramiditya  era, 
reckoned  from  56  n.c.     Of  the  poets  whose  works  have  come  down 

'  M.  MUUer,  India:    W'hut  can  it  itach  luLuatflCt' 


284 


SANSKEIT 


[UTEEATURE.' 


to  us  KaliJasa  appears  to  he  one  of  the  earliest;  but  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  lie  was  precoJfd  in  this  as  in  other  departments 
of  poetic  composition  by  many  lesser  lights,  eclipsed  by  the  sun  of 
his  fame,  and  forgotten.  Of  the  six  "great  poems"  named  below 
the  first  two  are  th  se  attributed  to  Kalidasa.  (1)  The  Raghu- 
vajnSa,^  or  "race  of  Kaghu,"  celebrates  the  ancestry  and  deeds 
of  Rama.  The  work,  consisting  of  nineteen  cantos,  is  manifestly 
incomplete ;  but  hitherto  no  copy  has  been  discovered  of  the  six 
additional  cantos  which  are  supposed  to  have  completed  it.  (2)  The 
Kumdra-sambhava^  or  "the  birth  of  (the  war-god)  Kumara"  (or 
Skanda),  the  son  of  Siva  and  Pdrvatl,  consists  of  eight  cantos,  the 
last  of  which  has  only  recently  been  made  public,  being  usually 
omitted  in  the  MSS.,  probably  on  account  of  its  amorous  character 
rcndeiing  it  unsuitable  for  educational  purposes,  for  which  the 
works  of  Kalidasa  are  extensively  used  in  India.  Nine  additional 
cantos,  which  were  published  at  the  same  time,  have  been  proved 
to  he  spurious.  Another  poem  of  this  class,  the  Nalodaya,^  or 
"  rise  of  Nala," — describing  the  restoration  of  that  king,  after 
having  lost  his  kingdom  through  gambling, — is  wrongly  ascribed 
to  Kalidasa,  being  far  inferior  to  the  other  works,  and  of  a  much 
more  artificial  character.  (3)  The  JCirdtdrjuutya,*  or  combat 
between  the  Pandava  prince  Arjuna  and  the  god  6iva,  in  the 
guise  of  a  Kii.ata  or  mid  mountaineer,  is  a  poem  in  eighteen 
cantos,  by  Bharavi,  probably  a  contemporary  of  KalidSsa,  being 
mentionej  together  with  him  in  an  inscription  dated  634  A.D. 
(4)  The  Siiupdla-badha,  or  slaying  of  Sisupala,  who,  being  a 
prince  of  Chedi,  reviled  Krishna,  who  had  carried  off  his  intended 
wife,  and  was  killed  by  him  at  the  inauguration  sacrifice  of  Yu- 
dhishthira,  is  a  poem  consisting  of  twenty  cantos,  attributed  to 
Magha,"  whence  it  is  also  called  Mdghakdvya.  (5)  The  R&vana- 
badha,  or  "slaying  of  Ravana,"  more  commonly  called  Hhatli- 
Irdvya,  to  distinguish  it  from  other  poems  (especially  one  by 
Pravarasena),  likeOTse  bearing  the  former  title,  was  composed 
for  the  practical  purpose  of  illustrating  the  less  common  gram- 
matical forma  and  the  figures  of  rhetoric  and  poetry.  In  its 
closing  couplet  it  professes  to  have  been  written  at  Vallabhi,  under 
Siidharasena,  but,  several  princes  of  that  name  being  mentioned 
in  inscriptions  as  having  ruled  there  in  the  6th  and  "th  cen- 
turies, its  exact  date  is  still  uncertain.  Bhatti,  apparently  the 
author's  name,  is  iLsually  identified  with  the  well-known  gi-am- 
marian  Bhartrihari,  whose  death  Pi'of.  M.  MiillA,  from  a  Chinese 
statement,  fixes  at  650  a.d.,  while  others  make  him  Bhartrihari's 
son.  (6)  The  Naishadh'uja,  or  Xaishadka-charila,  the  life  of  Nala,. 
king  of  Nishadha,  is  ascribed  to  Sri-Harsha  (son  of  Hira),  who  is 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  12th  century. 
A  small  iiortion  of  the  simple  and  noble  episode  of  the  MaMbM- 
rata  is  here  retold  in  highly  elaborate  and  polished  stanzas,  and 
with  a  degree  of  lasciviousness  which  (unless  it  be  chiefly  due  to 
the  poet's  exuberance  of  fancy)  gives  a  truly  appalling  picture  of 
social  corruption.  Another  highly  esteemed  poem,  the  Rdghava- 
pdndavhja,  compdsed  by  Kaviraja  ("king  of  poets"),— whose  date 
is  uncertain,  though  some  scholars  place  liini  later  than  the  10th 
century,— is  characteristic  of  the  trifling  uses  to  which  the  poet's 
art  was  put.  The  well-turned  stanzas  are  so  ambiguously  worded 
that  the  poem  may  be  interpreted  as  relating  to  the  leading  story 
uf  either  the  Edmdyana  or  the  Mahdbhdrata. 

A  still  more  modern  popular  development  of  these  artificial 
poems  are  the  numerous  so-called  CMmpils,  being  compositions  of 
inbced  verse  and  prose.  As  specimens  of  such  works  may  be  men- 
tioned the  ChampA-bhdrata  in  twelve  cantos,  by  Ananta  Bhatta, 
and  the  Chainp{L-rdmdyana  or  Bhoja-champi,  in  five  books, 'by 
Bhojaraja  (or  Vidarbhaiaja)  Pandita,  being  popular  abstracts  of 
tlie  two  great  epics. 

Vei'y  similar  in  character  to  the  artilicilil  epics  are  the  panegyrics, 
composed  by  court  poets  in  honour  of  their  patrons.  Such  pro- 
ductions were  probably  very  numerous,;  but  only  two  of  any  special 
interest  are  hitherto  known,  viz.,  the  Srt-irars!ia-c?iarita,  composed 
in  ornate  prose,  by  Bana,  in  honour  of  Siladitya  Harshavardhana 
(c  610-650  A.D.)  of  Kanyakubja  (Kan.auj),  and  the  ni-ramdnka- 
eharita,^  written  by  the  Kashmir  poet  Bilhana,  about  1086,  in 
honour  of  his  patron,  the  Chalukya  king  Vikramaditya  of  Kalyana, 
regarding  the  history  of  whose  dynasty  the  work  supplies  iuuch 
valuable  information.  In  this  place  may  also  bo  mentioned,  as 
composed  in  accordance  with  the  Hindu  poetic  canon,  the  Jldja- 
inrangint,''  or  chronicle  of  the  kings  of  Kashmir,  the  only  important 

'  Edited,  with  a  Latin  transl.,  by  F.  Stenzler;  also  text,  and  com- 
meiitary,  by  S.  P.  Pandit. 

■  Test  .-ind  Latin  transl.  published  by  F.  Stenzler  ;  an  English 
Iransl.  by  R.  T.  H.  Griffith. 

^  Text,  with  comm.  and  Latin  transl.,  edited  by  F.  Benary;  Engb 
transl.,  in  verse,  by  Dr  Taylor. 

*  Editions  of  this  and  the  three  following  poems  have  been  pub- 
lished in  Iiirii.i. 

'  Bh.-io  D.iji,  'in  his  paper  on  K.alid.isi,  calls  M.iiha  "a  contem- 
por.iry  of  the  Bhnja  of  the  lltli  century."  «  Edited  by  G.  Biihler. 

'  Published  at  Calcutta;  also,  with  a  French  transl.,  by  A.  Troyer. 


historical  work  in  the  Sanskrit  language,  though  even  here  con- 
siderable allowance  has  to  be  made  for  poetic  licence  and  fancy. 
The  work  was  composed  by  the  Kashmirian  poet  Kalhana,  about 
1150,  and  was  afterwards  continued  by  three  successive  supple- 
ments, bringing  down  the  history  of  Kashmir  to  the  time  of  the 
emperor  Akbar.      Unfortunately  the  two  existing  editi'ins  were 

Srepared  from  very  imperfect  MS.  materials ;  but  Dr  iJiihler's 
iscovery  of  new  JISS. ,  as  well  as  of  some  of  the  works  on  which 
Kalhana's  poem  is  based,  ought  to  enable  the  native  scholar  (Prof. 
Bhand'arkar)  who  has  undertaken  a  new  edition  to  pnt  the  text  ia 
a  more  satisfactory  condition. 

4.  The  Drama. — The  early  history  of  the  Indian  drama! 

is  enveloped  in  obscurity.     The  Hindus  themselves  ascriba 

the  origin  of  dramatic  representation  to  the  sage  Bharata,! 

who  is  fabled  to  have  lived  in  remote  aintiquity,  and  to 
have  received  this  science  directly  from  the  god  Brahman,! 

by  whom  it  was  extracted  from  the  Veda.  The  term 
bharata — (?)  i.e.,  one  who  is  kept,  or  one  who  sustains  (a 
part) — also  signifies  "  an  actor  " ;  but  it  is  doubtful  which 
of  the  two  is  the  earlier, — the  appellative  use  of  the  word, 
or  the  notion  of  an  old  teacher  of  the  dramatic  art  bearing 
that  name.  On  the  other  hand,  there  still  exists  ani 
extensive  work,  in  epic  verse,  on  rhetoric  and  dramaturgy, 
entitled  N^iya4dstra,  and  ascribed  to  Bharata.  But, 
though  this  is  probably  the  oldest  theoretic  work  on  the 
subject  that  has  come  down  to  us,  it  can  hardly  be  referred 
to  an  earlier  period  than  several  centuries  after  the  Chris- 
tian era.  Not  improbably,  however,  this  work,  which  pre- 
supposes a  fully  developed  scenic  art,  had  an  origin  sinular 
to  that  of  some  of  the  metrical  law-books,  which  are  generally 
supposed  to  be  popidar  and  improved  editions  of  older 
sfltra-works.  We  know  that  such  treatises  existed  at  the 
time  of  Panini,  as  he  mentions  two  authors  of  Nata-sMras, 
or  "  rules  for  actors,"  viz.,  Silalin  and  KrisSsva.  Now,  the 
words  nata  and  ndtya — as  well  as  jidtaka,  the  common 
term  for  "  drama  " — being  derived  from  the  root  nat  (nari) 
"  to  dance,"  seem  to  point  to  a  pantomimic  or  choral 
origin  of  the  dramatic  art.  It  might  appear  doubtful, 
therefore,  in  the  absence  of  any  clearer  definition  in 
Pardni's  grammar,  whether  the  "  actors'  rules  "  he  mentions 
did  not  refer  to  mere  pantomimic  performances.'  Fortun- 
ately, however,  Patanjali,  ;n  his  "great  commentary," 
speaks  of  the  actor  as  singing,  and  of  people  going  "to 
hear  the  actor."  Nay,  he  even  mentions  two  subjects, 
taken  from  the  cycle  of  Vishnu  legends — viz.,  the  slaying 
of  Karpsa  (^by  Krishna)  and  the  binding  of  Bali  (by 
Vishnu) — which  were  represented  on  the  stage  both  by 
mimic  action  and  declamation.  Judging  from  these  allu- 
sions, theatrical  entertainments  in  those  daj^s  seem  to  have 
been  very  much  on  a  level  with  our  old  religious  spectacles 
or  mysteries,  though  there  may  already  have  been  some 
simple  kinds  of  secular  plays  which  Patanjali  had  no  occa- 
sion to  mention.  It  is  not,  however,  till  some  five  or  six 
centuries  later  that  we  meet  with  the  first  real  dramas, 
which  mark  at  the  same  time  the  very  culminating  point  of 
Indian  dramatic  composition.  In  this,  as  in  other  depart- 
ments of  literature,  the  earlier  works  have  had  to  make  way 
for  later  and  more  perfect  productions  ;  and  no  trace  now 
remains  of  the  intermediate  phases  of  development. 

■  Here,  however,  the  problem  presents  itself  as  to 
whether  the  existing  dramatic  literature  has  naturally 
grown  out  of  such  popular  religious  performances  as  are 
alluded  to  by  Patanjali,  or  whether  some  foreign  influence 
has  intervened  p*  come  time  or  other  and  given  a  different 
direction  to  dramatic  composition.  The  question  has  been 
arg'ied  both  for  and  against  the  probability  of  Greek 
influence  ;  but  it  must  still  be  considered  as  sub  judice. 
There  are  doubtless  some  curious  points  of  resemblance 
between  the  Indian  drama  and  the  Modern  Attic  (and 
Roman)  comedy,  viz.,  the  prologue,  the  occasional 
occurrence  of  a  token  of  recognition,  and  a  certain  corre- 
spondence  of  characteristic  stage  figures  (especially  the 


UTEEATUEL.] 


S  A  N  S  K  E  I  T 


285 


Vidilshaka,  or  jocose  eompanioD  of  tho  hero,  presenting  a 
certain  analogy  to  the  servus  of  the  lloman  stage,  as  does 
the  Vita  of  some  plays  to  the  Koman  parasite) — for  whicli 
the  assumption  of  some  acquaintance  with  the  Greek 
comedy  on  the  part  of  the  earlier  Hindu  writers  would 
afford  a  ready  explanation.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
differences  between  the  Indian  and  Greek  plays  are 
perhaps  even  greater  than  their  coincidences,  which, 
iiioreover,  are  scarcely  close  enough  to  warrant  our  calling 
iirqtiestion  the  originality  of  the  Hindus  in  this  respect. 
Certain,  however,  it  is  that,  if  the  Indian  poets  were 
pidebted  to  Greek  playwrights  for  the  first  impulse  in 
ffi:amatic  composition,  in  the  higher  sense,  they  have 
known  admirably  how  to  adapt  the  Hellenic  muse  to  tho 
oaijonal  genius,  and  have  produced  a  dramatic  literature 
worthy  to  be  ranked  side  by  side  with  both  the  classical 
and  our  own  romantic  drama.  It  is  to  the  latter 
specially  that  the  general  character  of  the  Indian  play 
presents  a  striking  resemblance,  much  more  so  than  to  the 
classical  drama.  The  Hindu  dramatist  has  little  regard 
for  the  "unities  "  of  the  classical  stage,  though  he  is 
hardly  ever  guilty  of  extravagance  in  his  disregard  of 
them.  The  dialogue  is  invariably  carried  on  in  prose, 
plentifully  interspersed  with  those  neatly  turned  lyrical 
etanzas  in  which  the  Indian  poet  delights  to  depict  some 
natural  scene,  or  some  temporary  physical  or  mental  con- 
dition. The  most  striking  feature  of  tho  Hindu  play, 
however,  is .  the  mixed  nature  of  its  language.  While 
the  hero  and  leading  male  characters  speak  Sanskrit, 
women  and  inferior  male  characters  use  various  Prakrit 
dialects.  As  regards  these  dialectic  varieties,  it  can  hardly 
be  doubted  that  at  the  time  when  they  were  first  employed 
in  this  way  they  were  local  vernacular  dialects ;  birt  in 
the  course  of  the  development  of  the  scenic  art  they 
became  permanently  fixed  for  special  dramatic  purposes, 
just  as  the  Sanskrit  had,  long  before  that  time,  become 
fixed  for  general  literary  purposes.  Thus  it  would  happen 
that  these  Prakrit  dialects,  having  once  become  stationary. 
Boon  diverged  from  the  spoken  vernaculars,  until  the 
difference  between  them  was  as  great  as  between  the 
Sanskrit  &.nd  the  Prakrits.  As  regards  the  general 
character  of  the  dramatic  Pr&krits,  they  are  somewhat  more 
removed  from  tho  Sanskrit  type  than  the  Pali,  the  language 
of  the  Buddhist  canon,  which  again  is  in  a  rather  more 
advanced  state  than  the  language  of  the  A^oka  inscriptions 
(c.  250  B.C.).  And,  as  the  Buddhist  sacred  books  were 
committed  to  writing  about  80  B.C.,  the  state  of  their 
language  is  attested  for  that  period  at  latest ;  while  the 
grammatical  fixation  of  the  scenic  Prakrits  has  probably 
to  be  referred  to  the  early  centuries  of  our  era. 

The  eiristing  dramatic  literature  18  not  very  extensive.  The 
number  of  plays  of  all  kirnla  of  any  literary  value  will  scarcely 
amount  to  fifty.  The  reason  for  this  pnncity  of  dramatic  inodut^ 
.'ions  doubtless  ia  that  thoy  appealed  to  the  tastes  of  only  alimitod 
class  of  highly  cultivated  persona,  and  were  in  conscf|ucnco  hut 
seldom  acted.  As  regards  the  theatrical  entortainnieuts  of  the 
common  people,  their  standard  eeeros  never  to  have  risen  mnch 
aliovo  tho  level  of  the  religious  spectacles  mentioned  by  Patanjali. 
Such  at  least  ia  evidently  tho  case  as  rcparda  tho  mwlern  Bengali 
7iWr>tj — described  by  Wilson  as  exhibitions  of  somo  incidents  in 
the  youthful  life  of  Krishna,  maintained  iu  extempore  dialogue, 
interspersed  with  popular  songa — as  well  as  tho  similar  nhas  of 
the  western  provinces,  and  the  rough  and  ready  performances 
uf  the  thanrs,  or  professional  buffoons.  Of  tho  religious  drama 
Sanskrit  literature  offers  but  one  example,  viz.,  the  famous 
OUnrjoDinda,^  composed  by  Jayadova  in  tlie  12th  century.  It  ia 
rather  a  mytho-lyrical  poem,  which,  however,  in  tho  opinion  of 
Lassen,  may  bo  considered  as  a  modern  and  refined  speeimon  of 
(he  early  form  of  dramatic  composition.  The  subject  or  the  jioom 
is  as  follows : — Krishna,  while  leading  a  cowherd's  life  in  Vrin- 
lUvana,  is  in  love  with  Kadhft,  the  milkmaid,  but  has  been  faith- 
less to  her  for  a  while.     Presently,  however,  ho  returns  to  her 


'  Bd..  with  a  Latin  tniniil.,  by  C.  Lassen;  Engl.  Irausl.  by  E.  Arnold. 


"  who.=^o  image  has  all  the  while  lingered  in  his  breast,"  and  after 
much  earnest  entreaty  obtains  her  forgiveness.  The  emotions 
appropriate  to  these  situations  are  expressed  by  the  two  lovers  and  a 
fneud  of  KadhS,  in  melodious  and  passionate  stanzas  of  great  poetic 
beauty.  Like  the  Song  of  Solomon,  the  Gitagovinda,  moreover,  ia 
supposed  by  the  Hindu  commentators  to  admit  of  a  mystic  inter- 
pretation ;  for,  "as  Krishna,  faithless  for  a  time,  discovers  the 
vanity  of  all  other  loves,  and  returns  with  sorrow  and  longing  to  ^ 

his  onn  darling  Eadh.%  so  the  hmnan  soul,  after  a  brief  ami 
frantic  attachment  to  objects  of  sense,  burns  to  return  to  tho  Go<l 
from  whence  it  came  "  (Griflith). 

The  ifrichckhakalikd,^  or  "  earthen  toy-cart,"  is  by  tradition 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  existing  dramas ;  and  a  certaiu  clumsiness 
of  construction  seems  indeed  to  justify  this  distinction.  Accord- 
ing to  several  stanzas  in  the  prologue,  the  j^lay  was  coniposed  by  a 
king  Sudraka,  who  is  there  stated  to  have,  through  Siva's  favour, 
recovered  his  eyesight,  and,  alter  seeing  his  son  as  king,  to  have 
died  at  tho  ripe  age  of  a  hundred  years  and  ten  days.  Accord- 
ing to  the  same  stanzas,  the  piece  was  enacted  after  tho  king's 
death  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  they  were  added  for  a  subsequent 
performance.  In  Bana's  novel  Kddambart  (c  630  A.D.),  a  king 
^fldraka,  probably  the  same,  is  represented  as  having  resided  at 
Bidi^a  (IJhilsa)— some  130  miles  east  of  lijjayint  (Ujjain),  where 
the  scene  of  the  play  is  laid.  Charudatta,  a  Brahman  merchant, 
reduced  to  poverty,  and  Vasantasena,  an  accomplished  courtezan, 
meet  and  fall  in  love  with  each  other.  This  forms  the  main  story, 
which  ia  interwoven  with  a  political  underplot,  resulting  in  a 
change  of  dynasty.  The  connexion  between  the  two  plots  is 
eirected  by  means  of  the  king's  rascally  brother-in-law,  who  pur 
sues  Vasantasena  with  his  addresses,  as  well  as  by  the  part  of^tha 
rebellious  cowherd  Aryaka,  who,  having  escaped  from  prison,  finds 
shelter  iu  the  hero's  house.  The  wicked  prince,  on  being  rejected, 
strangles  Vasantasena,  and  accuses  Charudatta  of  having  murdered 
her ;  but,  just  as  the  latter  is  about  to  bo  executed,  his  lady  love 
appears  again  on  the  scene.  Keauwhile  Aryaka  has  succeeded  in 
deposing  the  king,  and,  having  himself  mounted  the  throne  of 
Ujjain,  he  raises  Vasantasena  to  tho  position  of  an  honest  woman, 
to  enable  her  to  become  tho  wife  of  Charudatta.  The  play  is  one 
of  tho  longest,  consisting  of  not  less  than  ten  acts,  some  of  whicli, 
however,  are  very  short.  Tho  interest  of  the  action  is,  on  the 
v/hole,  well  sustained;  and,  altogether,  tho  piece  presents  a  vivid 
picture  of  the  social  manners  of  the  time. 

In  K&lid4sa  (S  e.  550  a.d.)  the  dramatic  art  attained  its  highest  Kfllidfiaa. 
point  of  perfection.  From  this  accomplished  poet  we  have  three 
well-constructed  plays,  abounding  in  stanzas  of  exquisite  tenderness 
and  fine  descriptjve  passages,  viz.,  the  two  well-known  mytho- 
pastoral  dramas,  Sakimtald  iu  seven  and  Vikramorvail^  in  Eve  acts, 
and  a  piece  of  court  intrigue,  distinctly  inferior  to  the  other  two, 
entitled  Mdlavikdgnimitra,*  in  five  acts.  King  A"nimitra,  who 
has  two  wives,  falls  in  love  with  Malavika,  maid  to  the  first  queen. 
His  wives  endeavour  to  frustrate  their  affection  for  each  other,  but 
in  tho  end  JlalavikJ  turns  out  to  be  a  princess  by  birth,  and  is 
accepted  by  the  queens  as  their  sister. 

In  the  prologue  to  this  play,  Kaliddsa  mentions  Bhasa  and 
Saumilla  as  his  predecessors  in  dramatic  composition.  Of  the 
former  poet  somo  si.x  or  seven  stanzas  have  been  gathered  from 
anthologies  by  Prof.  Aufrecht,  who  has  also  brought  to  light  one 
fine  stanza  ascribed  to  Ramila  and  Saumila. 

^ri  Harshadeva — whom  Dr  F.  Hall  has  proved  to  bo  identicaj 
with  King  Siladitya  Harshavardhana  of  Kanyakubja  (Kanauj), 
who  reigned  in  the  first  half  of  the  7th  century— has  three  plays 
attributed  to  him.  Most  likely,  however,  he  did  not  write  any  of 
them  himself,  but  they  were  only  dedicated  to  him  as  the  patron 
of  tlieir  authors.  Such  at  least  seems  to  have  been  the  case  as 
regards  tho  Jialndvalt,'  which  was  probably  composed  by  Buna. 
It  is  a  graceful  drama  of  genteel  domestic  manners,  in  four  acts,  ol 
no  very  great  originality,  the  author  having  been  largely  indebted 
to  Kalidasa's  plays.  Eat.navali,  a  Ceylon  princess,  is  sent  by  het 
father  to  tho  court  of  King  S'atsa  to  become  his  second  wife.  She 
suffers  shipwreck,  but  is  rescued  and  received  into  Vatsa's  jmlatr: 
as  one  of  queen  Vasavadatta'a  attendants.     The  king  falls  in  lovo 


•  Edited  by  F.  Stenzkr,  translated  by  H.  H.  Wilson;  Garmiu,  bj 
0.  Bahtlingk  and  L.  Fritze ;  French  by  P.  Regnaud. 

^  Both  these  plays  cro  known  in  different  recensions  In  different  part 
of  India.  The  Bengali  recension  of  the  liahinCald  was  tran»lnt*.'il  hi 
Sir  W.  Jones,  and  into  French,  with  tho  text,  by  Chezy,  anil  «,-nii 
edited  critically  by  R.  Piacliel,  who  has  also  advocated  u.^  gU'Btei 
antiquity.  E<lition3  and  translations  of  tho  western  (Devai.4Rari)  re 
ccnsion  hnvo  been  published  by  0.  Bohtlingk  and  Slon.  WlUmna.  Th« 
VUrajnorvail  has  boon  edited  crltlcAlly  by  a  P.  Pan-UV,  «nd  tht 
Boutliein  text  by  R.  Piscliel.  It  has  been  traniilBtwl  bj-  II.  H.  Wflsoi 
and  E.  B.  Cowel'.. 

*  F.dited  critically  by  S.  P.  Pondlt ;  transK  by  0.  H.  T»wn»y,  ati 
proviouKly  into  Oerman  by  A.  Wuher. 

»  Eili'cd  by  Tlrun/itlm  Turknvftchnspatl,  and  bv  C.  Pnppellcr* 
Bohtliiigk'»,San3*n'<-C/irc4to;nnM«:  tra>iBlalo<l  by  U.  II.  WiIkib, 


2b6 


S  A  1^  S  K  R  I  T 


[uTErwVTOUE. 


with  her,  and  the  queen  tries  to  keep  them  apart  from  each  other  ; 
but,  on  learning  the  maiden's  origin,  she  becomes  reconciled,  and 
recognizes  her  as  a  "sister."  According  to  H.  H.  Wilson,  "the 
manners  depictured  are  not  ioiluenced  by  lofty  principle  or  pro- 
found reflexion,  but  they  are  mild,  affectionate,  and  elegant.  It 
may  be  doubted  whether  the  harams  of  other  eastern  nations,  either 
in  ancient  or  modern  times,  would  afford  materials  for  as  favourable 
a  delineation."  Very  similar  in  construction,  but  distiuctly  in- 
ferior, is  the  Priyadariikd,  in  four  acts,  lately  published  in  India, 
having  for  its  plot  another  amour  of  the  same  king.  The  scene 
of  the  third  play,  the  Kdgdnanda,^  or  "joy  of  the  serpents"  (in 
five  acts),  on  the  other  hand,  is  laid  in  semi-divine  regions. 
Jimutavah<.na,  a  prince  of  the  Tidyadharas,  imbued  with  Buddhist 
principles,  weds  Malayavatt,  daughter  of  the  king  of  the  Siddhas, 
a  votary  of  Gaurl  (Siva's  wife).  But,  learning  that  Garuda,  the 
mythic  bird,  is  in  the  habit  of  consuming  one  snake  daily,  he 
resolves  to  offer  himself  to  the  bird  as  a  victim,  and  finally  succeeds 
in  converting  Garuda  to  the  principle  of  ahirps4,  or  abstention 
from  doing  injury  to  living  beings ;  but  he  himself  is  about  to 
succumb  from  the  wounds  he  has  received,  when,  through  the 
timely  intervention  of  the  goddess  Gaurl,  he  is  restored  to  his 
former  condition.  The  piece  seems  to  have  been  intended  as  a 
compromise  between  Brahmanieal  (Saiva)  and  Buddhist  doctrines, 
being  thus  in  keeping  with  the  religious  views  of  kiug  Harsha, 
who,  as  we  know  from  Hweu-tsang,  favoured  -Buddhism,  but  was 
very  tolerant  to  Brahmans.  It  begins  mth  a.  benedictory  stanza 
to  Buddha,  and  concludes  with  one  to  GaurL  The  author  is  gene- 
rally believed  to  have  been  a  Buddhist,  but  it  is  more  likely  that 
he  was  a  Saiva  Brahman,  possibly  Bana  himself.  Nay,  one  might 
almost  feel  inclined  to  take  the  hero's  self-sacrifice  in  favour  of  a 
Kaga  as  a  travesty  of  Buddliist  principles. 
Bha^a-"  Bhavabhflti,  suroaffled  Sri-kantha,  "whose  throat  is  beauty 
bhati.  (eloquence),"  was  a  native  of  Padnaapura  in  the  Vidarbha  country 
(the  Berars),  being  the  son  of  the  Brahman  Nllakantha,  and  his 
wife  Jatakami.  lie  is  said  to  have  passed  his  literary  life  at  the 
court  of  Yasovarman  of  Kanauj,  who  is  supposed  to  have  reigned 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  7th  and  beginning  of  the  8th  century. 
Bhavabhuti  was  the  author  of  three  plays,  two  of  which,  the 
Mahdvtradiarila-  ("life  of  tiie  great  hero")  and  the  Utlarardma- 
-Aariio' ("later  life  of  Rama"),  in  seven  acts  each,  form  together 
a  dramatized  version  of  the  story  of  the  RdmAyana.  The  third, 
the  Mdlalt-mdcUmva*  is  a  domestic  drama  in  ten  acts,  representing 
the  fortunes  of  Madhava  and  Malatt,  the  son  and  daughter  of  two 
ministers  of  neighbouring  tings,  who  from  childhood  have  begn 
destined  for  each  other,  but,  by  the  resolution  of  the  maideu's 
royal  master  to  marry  her  to  an  old  and  ugly  favourite  of  liis, 
are  for  a  while  threatened  <vtth  permanent  separation.  The  action 
of  the  play  is  full  of  life,  and  abounds  in  stirring,  though  some- 
times improbable,  incidents.  The  poet  is  considered  by  native 
pandits  to  be  not  only  not  inferior  to  Kaiidasa,  but  even  to  have 
sui^assed  him  in  his  UttaraT&maclmrUa.  But,  though  he  ranks 
deservedly  high  as  a  lyric  poet,  he  is  far  inferior  to  Kalidasa  as  a 
dramatic  artist  Whilst  the  latter  delights  in  depicting  the 
gentler  feelings  and  tender  emotions  of  the  human  heart  aiid  the 
peaceful  scenes  of  rural  life,  the  younger  poet  finds  a  peculiar 
attractioii  in  the  stamer  and  more  imposing  aspects  of  nature  and 
the  human  character.  Bhavabhuti's  language,  though  polished 
and  felicitous,  is  elaborate  and  artificial  compared  with  that  of 
Kalidasa,  and  his  genius  is  sorely  shackled  by  a  slavish  adherence 
to  the  arbitrary  rules  of  dramatic  theorists.  u.  ,      v      » 

ahatta        Bhatta   Nariyana,  surnamed  Mrigaraja  or  Sirnha,      the  hon, 
\ar4>-  the   author  of  the   Venisamhdra"  ("the  seizing   by  the  braid  of 
rana        hair "),  is  a  poet  of  uncertain  date.     Tradition  makes  him  one  of 
the  five  Kanauj  Brahmans  whom  king  Adisara  of  Bengal,  desirous 
of  establishing  the  pure  Vaishnava  doctrine,  invited  to  his  court, 
■  and  from  whom  the  modern  Bengali  Brahmans  are  supposed  to  be 
.descended.     The  date  of  that  event,  however,  is  itself  doubtlul; 
while  a  modern  genealogical  work  fijces  it  at  1077,  I^asscu  refers  it 
to  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century  and  GriU  to  the  latter  part  of 
the  6th      It  it  couli  be  proved  that  the  poet  is  identical  with  tlio 
Narayana  whom  Bfma  (c.  630)  mentions  as  being  his  friend,  tie 
question  would  be  settled  in  favour  of  the  earlier  calculations.    The 
play,  consisting  of  six  acts,  is  founded  on  the  story  of  the  Mahdbhd- 
Tata,  and  takes  its  title  from  the  insult  offered  to  Draupadi  by  one 
of  the  Kaurava  princes,  who,  when  she  had  been  lost  at  dice  by 
Yudhishthira,  dragged  her  by  the  hair  into  the  assembly.     Tlie 
piece  is  composed  in  a  style  similar  to  that  of  Bhavabhuti  s  plays, 
though  less  polished,  and  inferior  to  them  in  dramatic  construction 

and  poetic  merit.  ' 

1  Edited  by  Madhava  Chandra  Ghosha,  and  translated  by  P.  Boyd, 
with  a  preface  by  E.  B.  Cowell. 

■^  Edited  by  F.   H.  Trithen  (1848),  and  twice  at  Calcutta  ;  trans- 
lated by  J.  Pickford.  ,  „   „   „, 
'    »  Edited  at  Calcutta;  tra.isl.  by  H.  H.  Wilson  and  C.  H.  Tawncy. 
'  Edited  by  K.  G.  Bhandarkar,  1876 ;  translated  by  y.  U.  WiLoii. 
•JIditedbyJ.  Grill,  1871. 


The  Ilaiimnan-ndtaka  is  a  dramatized  version  of  the  stoVy  of 
Kama,  interspersed  with  numerous  purely  descriptive  poetic  ii«»- 
sages.  It  cousists  of  fourteen  acts,  and  on  account  of  its  lengtn  is 
also  called  the  Mahd-ndlaka,  or  great  drama.  Tradition  relati^s 
that  it  was  composed  by  Hanuman,  the  monkey  general,  and 
inscribed  on  rocks  ;  but,  Valmiki,  the  author  of  the  Ainu!i/am«, 
being  afraid  lest  it  might  throw  his  own  poem  into  the.  shad;, 
Hanuman  allowed  him  to  cast  his  verses  into  the  sea.  Theii'-e 
fragments  were  ultimately  picked  up  by  a  merchant,  and  brouplit 
to  King  Bhoja,  who  directed  the  poet  Paniodara  ilLsra  to  put  the  u 
together,  and  fill  up  the  lacunae  ;  whence  the  present  co'npositii  vu 
originated.  Whatever  particle  of  truth  tlicre  may  be  in  this  stor/, 
the  "  great  drama  "  seems  certainly  to  be  the  production  of  differci  it 
hands.  "The  language,"  as  Wilson  remaikj,  "  is  iu  general  vejy 
harmonious,  but  the  work  is  after  all  a  most  disjointed  and  boii- 
descript  composition,  and  the  patchwork  is  very  glariugly  and 
clumsily  put  together. "  It  is  nevertheless  a  work  of  some  interest, 
as  compositions  of  mixed  dramatic  and  declamatory  passages  of  this 
kind  may  have  been  common  in  the  early  stages  of  the  dramatic 
art.  The  connSsion  of  the  poet  with  Kiug  Bhoja,  also  confirmed 
by  the Bhoja-prabandha,  would  bring  the  composition,  or  final  redac- 
tion, down  to  about  the  10th  or  11th  century.  There  are,  however, 
two  difl'ercnt  recensions  of  the  work,  a  shorter  one  commented  upon 
by  Mohanadasa,  and  a  longer  one  arranged  by  Madhusildniia.  A 
Damodara  Gupta  is  mentioned  as  having  lived  under  Jay&plda  of 
Kashmir  (755-86);  but  this  can  scarcely  be  the  same  author. 

The  Mudrdrdicshasa,^  or  "Kakshasa  (the  minister)  with  the 
signet,"  is  a  drama  of  political  intrigue,  in  seven  acts,  partly  based 
on  historical  events,  the  plot  turning  on  the  reconciliation  of 
Eakshasa,  the  minister  of  the  murdered  king  Nanda,  with  tho  hostile 
party,  consisting  of  prince  Chandiagupta  (the  Greek  Sandrocoltus, 
315-291  B.C.),  who  succeeded  Kauda,  and  his  minister  Chanakya. 
The  plot  is  developed  with  considerable  dramatic  skill,  in  vigorous, 
if  not  particularly  elegant,  language.  The  play  was  composed  by 
Vi^akhadatta,  prior,  at  any  rate,  to  the  11th  century,  but  perliais 
as  early  as  the  7th  or  8th  century,  as  Buddhism  is  referred  to  iu  it 
in  rather  j;omplimentary  terms. 

The  Prabodha-chandrodaija,''  or  "the  mooo-ris*  of  intelligence," 
cvmjioscd  by  Krishnamiira  about  the  12th  century,  is  an  allegorical 
play,  in  .six  acts,  the  dramalts  persaiue  of  which  consist  entirely  of 
abstract  ideas,  divided  into  two  conflicting  hosts. 

Of  numerous  inferior  dramatic  compositions  we  may  mention  as 
the  h(!St—\.h&Anargkya-i-dghat!a,'by  Murari ;  the  Bdta-rdmiyana, 
one  of  six  plays  (three  of  which  are  known)  by  liajasokliara;  and 
the  Prasfinna-rdjhaca,  by  Jayadeva,  tlie  author  of  tho  rhetorical 
treatise  Chandrdloka.  Abstracts  of  a  number  of  other  pieces  are 
given  iu  H.  H.  \Si\son'&  Hindu  Theatre,  the  standard  woik  on  this 
subject.  The  dramatic  genius  of  the  Hindus  m.iy  be  said  to  have 
exhausted  itself  about  the  14th  century. 

5.  Lyrical,  Beseriplive,  and  Didactic  Poetiy. — We  have  Lyrio 
already  alluded  to  the  marked  predilection  of  the  mediaeval  fo<All 
Indian  poet  for  de|ucting  in  a  single  stanza  some  peculiar 
p'nysieal  or  mental  situation.  The  profane  h-rical  poetry 
consists  chiefly  of  such  little  poetic  pictures,  which  form  a 
prominent  feature  of  dramatic  compositions.  Numerous 
poets  and  poetesses  are  only  known  to  us  through  such  de- 
tached stanzas,  preserved  in  native  anthologies  or  manuals 
of  rhetoric.  Thus  the  Saduktikarndmnta,^  or  "ear- 
ambrosia  of  good  sayings,"  an  anthology  compiled  by 
Srtdhara  Dasa  in  1205,  contains  verses  by  four  hundred 
and  forty-six  different  writers;  while  the  Sariigadkrtra- 
paddkati,  another  anthology,  of  the  14th  century,  contain* 
some  COOO  verses  culled  from  two  hundred  and  sixty-four 
different  writers  and  works.  These  verses  are  either  of  a 
purely  descriptive  or  of  an  erotic  character ;  or  they  havo 
a  didactic  tendency,  being  intended  to  convey,  in  an 
attractive  and  easily  remembered  form,  some  moral  truth 
or  useful  counsel.  An  excellent  specimen  of  a  longer  poem, 
of  a  partly  descriptive  partly  erotic  character,  is  Kalidasa's 
Megha^duta,^  or  "cloud  messenger,"  in  which  a  banished 
Yaksha  (demi-god)  sends  a  love-message  across  India  to  his 
wife  in  the  Himalaya,  and  describes,  in  verse-pictures,  tho 
various  places  and  objects  over  which  the  messenger,  a 

«  Edited  (Bomhay,  18S4)  by  K.  T.  Telang,  wlio  discusses  the  date 
of  the  work  io  his  preface. 

'  Translated  by  J.  Taylor,  1810  ;  by  T.  Oold^tiicker  into  Cerniaii. 
1842.      Edited  by  H.  Bro.  kliaus,  1845. 

'  Rajendralala  Jlitra,  Notices,  iii.  p.  134 

9  Tc-ct  and  trauil.,  by  U.  H.  WiUoii ;  witli  vocabulary  by  S. 
Johnson. 


LITERATUUE.] 


SANSKRIT 


287 


cloud,  will  have  to  sail  in  bis  airy  voyage.  This  little 
rnastei-piece  has  called  forth  a  number  of  more  or  less  suc- 
cessful imitations,  such  as  Lakshmidasa's  Sida-saiiclesa,  or 
"  parrot-message,"  lately  edited  by  the  mahSraja  of  Travan- 
core.  Another  much  admired  descriptive  poem  by  Kalidasa 
is  the  /lilu-saiiiJuira,^  or  "collection  of  the  seasons,"  ia 
which  the  attractive  features  of  the  six  seasons  are  suc- 
cessively set  forth. 

I*  As  regards  religious  lyrics,  the  .  fruit  of  sectarian 
fervour,  a  large  collection  of  hymns  and  detached  stanzas, 
extolling  some  special  deity,  might  be  made  from  Puranas 
and  other  works.  Of  independent  productions  of  this 
ki'id  only  a  few  of  the  more  important  can  be  mentioned 
Lere.  fSankar.icharya,  the  great  Vedantist,  who  probably 
lived  in  the  7th  century,  is  credited  with  several  devo- 
tional poems,, especially  the  Ananda-lahari,  or  "  wave  of 
joy,"  a  hymn  of  103  stanzas,  in  praise  of  the  goddess  Par- 
vati.  •  The  Silyi/a-sataL-a,  or  century  of  stanzas  in  praise  of 
Silrya,  the  sun,  is  ascribed  to  Mayflra,  the  contemporary 
(and,  according  to  a  tradition,  the  father-in-law)  of  Bana 
(in  the  early  part  of  the  7th  century).  The  latter  poet 
himself  composed  the  ChMuUMstotra,  a  hymn  of  102 
stanzas,  extolling  Siva's  consort.  The  Khm}(Iapraiash,  a 
poem  celebrating  the  ten  avataras  of  Vishnu,  is  ascribed 
to  no  other  than  Hanuman,  the  monkey  general,  himself. 
Jayadeva's  beautiful  poem  GUagovinda,  which,  like  most 
productions  concerning  Krishna,  is  of  a  very  sensuous 
character,  has  already  been  referred  to. 
Didautie  The  particular  branch  of  didactic  poetry  in  which  India 
poetry,  jg  especially  rich  is  that  of  moral  maxims,  expressed  in 
single  stanzas  on  couplets,  and  forming  the  chief  vehicle  of 
the  NUi-aditra  or  ethic  science.  Excellent  collections  of 
such  aphorisms  have  been  published, — in  Sanskrit  and 
German  b}'  Dr  v.  Bohtlingk,  and  in  English  by  Dr  J. 
'Muir.  Probably  the  oldest  original  collection  of  this  kind 
■is  that  ascribed  to  Chariakya, — and  entitled  Jicljanliisfi- 
mmMiau'i,  "  collection  on  the  conduct  of  kings  " — tradi- 
tionally connected  with  the  Machiavellian  minister  of 
i-Chandragupta,  but  (in  its  present  form)  doubtless  much 
later — of  which  there  are  several  recensions,  especially  a 
shorter  one  of  one  hundred  couplets,  and  a  larger  one 
!of  some  three  hundred.  Another  old  collection  is  the 
iKdmandakt^a-Nitistlra,^  ascribed  to  K.lmandaki,  who  is 
said  to  have  been  the  disciple  of  Chaiiakya.  Under  the 
•name  of  Bhartrihari  have  been  handed  down  three  centuries 
of  sententious  couplets,  one  of  which,  the  ntti-salalca, 
relates  to  ethics,  whilst  the  other  two,  the  ^nxr/dra-  and 
vairdgt/a-^atakas,  consist  of  amatory  and  devotional  verses 
■respectively.  The  N'di-pradlpa,  or  "lamp  of  conduct," 
consisting  of  sixteen  stanzas,  is  ascribed  to  Vetalabhatta 
who  is  mentioned  as  one  of  nine  gems  at  Vikramatlitya's 
court  (r.  550  a.d.).  The  AmanViitida,  consisting  of  a 
hundred  stanzas,  ascribed  to  a  King  Amaru  (sometimes 
wrongly  to  !5ankara),  and  the  Chaura-suratapanclidMci,  by 
Bilhana  (Uth  century),  are  of  an  entirely  erotic  character. 
6.  Fables  and  Narrallvef:. — For  purposes  of  popular  in- 
struction stanzas  of  an  ethical  import  were  early  worked 
up  with  existing  prose  fables  and  popular  stories,  pro- 
bably in  imitation  of  the  Buddhi.-^t  Ji1(<thjs,  or  birth- 
stories.  A  collection  of  this  kind,  intended  as  a  manual 
for  the  guidance  of  princes  (in  nsnui  dtlp/tini),  was  trans- 
lated into  Pahlavi  in  the  reign  of  the  Persian  king  Chosru 
Nushirvan,  031-.379  a.d.;  but  neither  this  translation 
nor  the  original  is  any  longer  extant.  A  Syriae  transla- 
tion, however,  made  from  iljc  Pahlavi  in  the  same  century, 
under  the   title  of  "Qualilag  and  Dimnag" — from   the 

•  The  first  Sanskrit  book  puWishcd  (by  Sir  W,  Jones),  17!)'2. 
Tent  nnJ  Latin  transl.  by  P.  v.  Bolilcn.  Partly  traiisl.,  iu  vcise,  l>y 
R.  T.  H.  Giimtli,  SpKimens  n/ Old  huUan  I'uetry. 

*  EJifeil  by  li^ijeaUraluIa  Mitro,  liibl.  Ind. 


Sanskrit  "  Karataka  and  Damanaka,"  two  j.Tcllals  "avIkj 
play  an  important  part  as  the  lion's  counsellors-^  lins 
been  discovered  and  published.  The  Sanskrit  original 
which  probably  consisted  of  fourteen  chapters,  was  after 
wards  recast,— the  result  bfing  the  existing  /'(oif/wtfiii/ra,' 
or  "five  books"  (or  headings).  A  popular  summary  ol 
this  work,  in  four  books,  the  Ilitopndfs'i*  or  "Salutary 
counsel,"  is  ascribed  to  the  Brahman  Vishnusarman. 
Other  highly  popular  collections  of  stories  and  fairy  tales, 
interspersed  with  moral  maximfe,  are — the  Veld/ti-pfia- 
chaviniiati  or  "  twenty-five  (stories)  of  the  Vetfila"  (the 
original  of  the  Baitai  Pachisi),  ascribed  eithei-  to  JamUiala 
Datta,  or  to  SivadSsa  (while  Prof.  Weber  suggests  that 
Vetrda-bhatta  may  have  been  the  author),  and  at  all  events- 
older  than  the  12th  century,  since  Somadeva  has  used  it  ; 
the  Siika-sajytali,  or  "seventy  (stories  related)  by  the 
parrot,"  the  author  and  age  of  which  are  unknown";  and 
the  SimMsana-dvdtrimiiM,  or  "thirty-two  (tales)  of  the 
throne,"  .being  laudatory  stories  regarding  Vikram4ditya, 
related  by  thirty -two  statues,  standing  round  the  old  throne 
of  that  famous  monarch,  to  King  Bhojs  of  DhunX  to  ills 
courage  him  from  sitting  down  on  it.  This  work  is  ascribed 
to  Kshemankara,  and  was  probably  composed  in  the  tinie 
of  Bhoja  (who  died  in  1053)  from  older  stories  in  Dip 
Maharashtra  dialect.  The  original  text  has,  however, 
undergone  many  modifications,  and  is  now  known  in  several 
different  recensions.  Of  about  the  same  date  are  two 
great  storehouses  of  fairy  tales,  composed  entirely  in  ^lokaa 
viz.,  the  Vi-ihat-katliA,  or  "great  story,"  by  Kshemendra 
also  called  Kshemankara,  who  wrote  c.  1020-40,  under 
King  Ananta,  and  the  KalhA-sarit-sAgara,^  or  "the  ocean 
of  the  streams  of  story,"  composed  by  Somadeva,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  12th  century,  to  console  the  mother  oJ 
King  Harshadeva  on  her  son's  death.  Both  these  works 
are  based  on  a  work  in  the  Paisachi  dialect,  of  the  Cth 
centuoy,  viz.,  Gunildhya's  Vnfutt-hakd 

In  higher  class  prose  works  of  fiction  the  Sanskrit 
literature  is  extremely  poor ;  and  the  few  productions  of 
this  kind  of  which  it  can  boast  are  of  a  highly  artificial 
and  pedantic  character.  These  include  the  Do&iLumdra- 
chai-ila,"  or  "  the  adventures  of  the  ten  princes,"  composed 
by  Danilin,  about  the  Cth  century,  and  the  VihavuhiUd,'' 
by  Subandhu,  the  contemporary  of  the  poet  Biina  (c  G20), 
who  himself  wrote  the  first  part  of  a  novel,  the  Kddumhari,* 
afterwards  completed  by  his  son. 

B.  ScrENTiFrc  LWbratttee. 

I.  Law  (M«)'m«).— Auiong  the  technical.  trcTciscu  of  tlie  later 
Vedic  period,  certain  iioitions  of  tlie  Kalp.vsfltras,  or  mamials  of 
ceremonial,  jieculiar  to  particular  schools,  were  rcferrcj  to  as  tho 
earliest  attempts  at  a  systematic  treatment  of  law  subjects.  Thist 
are  the  Dliayiaa-siitras,  or  "rules  of  (religious)  law,"  also  calleU' 
Sdinaijachdrika-siUras,  or  "rules  of  conventional  usnj;c  (saninya- 
achSra)."  It  is  doubtful  whether  such  treatises  were  at  any  time 
quite  OS  numerous  aa  the  Grihv-«atra3,  or  rules  of  Jomestio  ot 
family  rites,  to  which  they  are  closely  alliol,  and  of  which  indceJ 
they  may  originally  have  been  an  outgrowth.  That  the  number  ol 
those  actually  extant  is  comparatively  small  is,  however,  chiefly 
due  to  the  fact  that  this  class  of  worlis  was  supplanted  by  anothct 
of  a  more  popular  kind,  which  coveiud  tho  same  ground.  The 
Dhnrmasutras  consist  chiefly  of  strings  of  terse  rules,  containing 
tho  essentials  of  the  science,  and  intended  to  bo  committed  to 
memory,  and  to  be  expounded  orally  by  the  teacher— thus  forming, 
as  it  were,  epitomes  of  class  lectures.  These  mil's  arc  interspeited 
with  couplets  or  "gathus,"  in  various  metres,  cither  composed  by 
the  uHlhor  liirnself  or  {pioted  from  elsewhere,  which  generally  givo 
the  substance  of  tlio  piccediug  rnh's.  One  eun  well  undirslaml 
why  such  couplets  should  gradually  havo  beeonio  more  pojiulur,  and 

'  Edited  by  Kose^arteii,  O.  Didder,  and  1".    Kieiliom;  traii.J.  by 

'i'li.  ISenfey,  li.  Luncereuu,  I,,  rrtlzo. 

*  Kditt'd  au'l  traiisl.  by  V.  Juhnsun. 

'  I'Mited  by  Jl.  Kroekliauri ;  truiisl.  I.v  C.  II.  'lawney. 

'  Iviileil  bv  II.  II.  Wilson  ;  freely  transluud  by  1'.  W.  Jacob. 

'  IMitid  by  K.  Hull,  ISiU.  liid. 

"  Ldlted  by  Madana  .Muliana  .Sarmnn,  and  by  I*.  Peterson, 


288 


SANSKRIT 


[litekaturei 


sliould  ultimately  lave  led  to  the  appearance  of  works  entirely 
composed  in-  verse.  Such  metrical  law-books  did  spring  up  in 
large  numbers,  not  all  at  once,  but  over  a  long  period  of  time, 
extending  probably  from  about  the  beginning  of  our  era,  or  even 
earlier,  down  to  well-nigh  the  Moliammedan  conquest ;  and,  as  at 
the  time  of  their  first  appearance  the  epic  impulse  was  particularly 
strong,  other  metres  were  entirely  discarded  for  the  epic  sloka. 
These  worlcs  are  the  metrical  Dharma-idstras,  or,  as  they  are 
usually  called,  the  Smriti,  "recollection,  tradition," — a  term 
■which,  as  we  havf  seen,  belonged  to  the  wliole  body  of  Siitras  (as 
opposed  to  the  Sriiti,  or  revelation),  but  which  has  become  tlie 
almost  exclusive  title  of  the  versified  institutes  of  law  (and  the  few 
Dharraasfltras  still  extant).  Of  metrical  Smritis  about  forty  are 
hitherto  known  to  exist,  but  their  total  number  probably  amounted 
to  at  least  double  that  ligiire,  though  some  of  these,  it  is  true,  are 
but  short  and  insignificant  tracts,  while  others  are  only  diflereut 
recensions  of  one  aud  the  same  work. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  of  these  works — such  as  the  Agni-, 
Tama-,  and  Vishmi-Smrilis — which  are  ascribed  to  the  respective 
gods,  the  authorship  of  the  Smritis  is  attributed  to  old  rishis, 
Buch  as  Atri,  Kanva,  Vyasa,  Sandilya,  Bharadvaja.  It  is,  how- 
ever, extremely  doubtful  whether  in  most  cases  this  attribution  is 
not  altogether  fanciful,  or  whether,  as  a  rule,  there  really  existed 
a  traditional  connexion  between  these  works  and  their  alleged 
authors  or  schools  named  after  them.  The  idea,  which  early  sug- 
gested itself  to  Sanskrit  scholars,  that  Smritis  which  passed  by 
the  names  of  old  Vedic  teachers  and  their  schools  might  simply  be 
metrical  recasts  of  the  Dharma-  (or  Grihya-)  sutras  of  these  schools, 
was  a  very  natural  one,  and,  indeed,  is  still  a  very  probable  one, 
though  the  loss  of  the  original  Siitras,  and  tho  modifications  and 
additions  which  the  Smritis  doubtless  underwent  in  course  of 
time,  make  it  very  difficu't  to  prove  this  point.  One  could,  how- 
ever, scarcely  account  for  tho  disappearance  of  tlie  Dharmasiitras 
of  some  of  the  most  important  schools  except  on  the  ground  that 
they  were  given  up  in  favour  of  other  works;  and  is  it  likely  that 
this  should  have  been  done,  unless  there  was  some  guarantee  that 
the  new  works,  upon  the  whole,  embodied  the  doctrines  of  the  old 
authoritie.'i  of  the  resjiective  scliools?  Thus,  as  regards  the  most 
importan*,  of  the  Smritis,  tho  Mdnava-Dliarinaidslra,^  there  exist 
-auiu.  hotl'  a  Srauta-  and  a  Grihya-sdtra  of  the  Manava  school  of  the 
Black  Ya  jus,  but  no  sucli  Dharmasutra  has  hitherto  been  discovered, 
though  the  former  existence  of  such  a  work  has  been  made  all  but 
certain  by  Prof.  Biihler's  discovery  of  quotations  from  a  Manavam, 
consistiiig  partly  of  prose  rules,  and  partly  of  couplets,  some  of 
which  occur  literally  in  the  Manusmriti,  whilst  others  have  been 
slightly  altered  there  to  suit  later  doctrines,  or  have  been  changed 
from  t)io  original  trishtubh  into  the  epic  metre.  The  idea  of  an 
old  law-giver  Mauu  Svayambhuva,—  sprung  from  the  self-exist- 
ent (svayam-bhii)"  god  Brahman, — reaches  far  back  into  Vedic 
antiq'jity :  he  is  mentioned  as  such  in  early  texts  ;  aud  in  Yaska's 
Nirukta  a  ^loka  occurs  giving  his  opinion  on  a  point  of  inheritance. 
But  whether  or  not  the  Manava-Dharraasiltra  embodied  what  were 
supposed  to  be  the  authoritative  precepts  of  this  sage  on  questions 
of  s'-icred  Iaw,we  do  not  know  ;  nor  can  it  as  yet  be  shown  that 
thf,  Manusmriti,  which  seems  itself  to  have  undergone  considerable 
modifications,  is  the  lineal  descendant  of  that  Dharmasutra.  It 
is,  however,  worthy  of  note  that  a  very  close  connexion  exists 
letween  the  Manusmriti  and  the  Vishnuiastra ;  and,  as  the  latter 
is  most  likely  a  modern,  only  partially' remodelled,  edition  of  tho 
'Siitras  of  the  Black  Yajus  school  of  the  Kathas,  the  close  relation 
between  the  two  works  would  be  easily  understood,  if  it  could  be 
shown  that  the  JIanasmriti  is  a  modern  development  of  the 
Sutras  of  another  school  of  the  Charaka  division  of  the  Black 
Yajurveda, 

The  Manava  Dharmasastra  consists  of  twelve  books,  the  first 
and  last  of  which,  treating  of  creation,  transmigration,  and  final 
beatitude,  are,  however,  generally  regarded  as  later  additions.  In 
them  the  legendary  sage  Bhrigu,  here  called  a  Manava,  is  intro- 
duced as  Manu's  disciple,  through  whom  the  great  teacher  lias  his 
work  promulgated.  Why  this  intermediate  agent  should  have 
been  considered  necessary  is  by  no  means  clear.  Except  in  these 
two  books  the  work  shows  no  special  relation  to  Mann,  for, 
though  he  is  occasionally  referred  to  in  it,  the  same  is  done  in 
other  Smritis.  The  question  as  to  the  probable  date  of  the 
final  redaction  of  the  work  cannot  as  yet  be  answered.  Dr  Burnell 
has  tried  to  show  that  it  was  probably  composed  under  the 
Chalukya  king  Pulakesi,  about  500  A.D.,  but  his  argumentation 
is  anything  but  convincing.  From  several  ^lokas  quoted  from 
Mauu  by  Varahamihira,  iu  the  6th  century,  it  would  appear  that 
the  text  which  the  great  astronomer  had  before  him  differed  very 
fonsiderably  from  our  Manusmriti.  It  is,  however,  possible  that 
he  referred  eitlior  to  the  Brihat-Maim  (Great  M.)  or  the  Vriddha- 

'  The  standard  edition  Is  by  G.  C.  Haugliton,  with  Sir  W.  Jones's  translation, 
JS?5;  the  latest  translations  by  A.  Burnell  and  G.  BUhler.  There  Is  also  a 
ciitlcal  essay  on  th'.  woik  by  F.  Johiintgen.  On  the  relation  between  the 
DharmasOiras  and  Smritis  SCO  especially  West  and  BUhlei',  Digest  of  Hindu  Laic. 
Jcil.,  i.  p.  37  sy.  n       .1  I 


Manu  (Old  M. ),  who  are  often  found  quoted,  and  apparently 
represent  one,  if  not  two,  larger  recensions  of  the  Smiiti.  Thfl 
oldest  existing  commentary  on  tho  ihhiam-Dhaniiasuslm  is  by 
Mcdhatithi,  who  is  first  qnotcd  in  1200,  and  is  usually  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  9th  or  10th  century.  He  liad,  however, 
several  predecessors  to  whom  he  refers  as  piirve,  "  the  former 
ones." 

Next  in  importance  among  Smritis  ranks  tne  Ytjjiiavalhja 
DharmaMstra.''  Its  origin  and  ilate  are  not  less  uncertain, — except 
tliat,  ill  tlie  opinion  of  Prof.  Stcnzler,  which  has  never  been  ques- 
tioned', it  is  based  on  the  Manusmriti,  and  represents  a  more 
advanced  stage  of  legal  theory  and  definition  tlian  that  work. 
Yajnavalkya,  as  we  have  seen,  is  looked  upon  as  the  founder  of 
the  Vajasaueyins  or  White  Yajus,  and  the  author  of  the  Satapatha- 
brahmana.  In  the  latter  work  he  is  represented  as  having  passed 
some  time  at  tlie  court  of  King  Janaka  of  Videha  (Tirliut) ;  and  in 
accordance  therewitli  he  is  stated,  in  the  introductory  couplets  of  tho 
Dharmasastra,  to  have  propounded  his  legal  doctrines  to  the  sage.i, 
while  staying  at  Mithilu  (tlie  capital  of  Videha).  Hence,  if  the  con. 
nexion  between  the  metricalSmritisandtheoldVedicschoolsbearea) 
one  and  not  one  of  name  merely,  we  should  expect  to  find  in  the  Y;i. 
jilavalkya-smriti  special  coincidences  of  doctrine  with  the  Katiya- 
sutra,  thepriucipalSiitraof  theVajasaneyins.  Now,  some  sufficiently 
striking  coincidences  between  this  Smriti  and  Puraskara's  Kdllya- 
GrihyasMra  have  indeed  been  pointed  out ;  and  if  there  ever  existed 
a  Dharmasfitra  belonging  to  the  same  school,  of  which  no  tr.nce  haii 
hitherto  been  found,  the  points  of  agreement  between  this  and  tht! 
DharmaiSastra  might  be  expected  to  be  even  more  numerous.  Aii 
in  the  case  of  Manu,  ^lokas  are  quoted  in  various  works  from  ii 
Brihal-  and  a  Vriddha-Ydjuavalkya.  The  Yajiiavalkya-smriti 
consists  of  three  books,  corresponding  to  the  three  great  divisions 
of  the  Indian  theory  of  law  ; — dchdra,  rule  of  conduct  (social  ant- 
caste  duties) ;  vyavahdra,  civil  and  criminal  law;  ami prdijaichitta , 
penance  or  expiation.  There  are  two  important  commentaries  on 
the  work  : — the  famous  MildJcshard,^  by  VijBanesvara,  who  lived 
under  the  Chalukya  king  Vikramaditya  of  Kalyana  (1076-1127); 
and  another  by  Apararka  or  Aparaditya,  a  petty  Sila'ra  crince  of  tht. 
latter  half  of  "the  12th  century. 

The  PardSara-smriti  contains  no  chapter  on  jurisprudence,  but 
treats  only  of  religious  duties  and  expiations  in  12  adhyayas.  The 
deficiency  was,  however,  supplied  by  the  famous  exegete  Madhava 
(in  the  latter  half  of  the  14th  century),  who  made  use  of  Paraiara's 
text  for  the  compilation  of  a  large  digest  of  religious  law,  usually 
called  Pard.<ara-mddhavtyam,  to  which  he  added  a  third  chapter 
on  vyavahara,''  or  law  proper.  Besides  the  ordinary  text  of  tho 
Para4ara-smriti,  consisting  of  rather  less  than  600  couplets,  there 
is  also  extant  a  Brihai-Pardiarasmriti,  probably  an  amplification 
of  the  former,  containing  not  less  than  2980  (according  to  others 
even  3300)  slokas.  The  Ndradtya-Dharmaidstra,  or  Hdradasmrili, 
is  a  work  of  a  more  practical  kind ;  indeed,  it  is  probably  the  most- 
systematic  and  business-like  of  all  the  Smritis.  It  does  not  cor- 
cern  itself  with  religious  and  moral  precepts,  but  is  strictly  con  - 
fined  to  law.  Of  this  work  again  there  are  at  least  two  diU'erent 
recensions.  Besides  the  text  translated  by  Dr  Jolly,  a  portion  of 
a  larger  recension  has  come  to  light  in  India.  This  version  ha< 
been  commented  upon  by  Asahaya,  "the  peerless" — a  verj' 
esteemed  writer  on  law  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  before  Mtv. 
dhatithi  (?  9th  century) — and  it  may  therefore  be  considered  as  th« 
older  recension  of  the  two.  But,  as  it  has  been  found  to  contaii-^ 
tho  word  d'mdra,  an  adaptation  of  the  Roman  dcnarhis,  it  cannot,, 
at  any  rate,  be  older  than  the  2d  century ;  indeed,  its  date  is  proh  • 
ably  several  centuries  later. 

Whether  any  of  the  Dharma^astras  were  ever  used  in  India  mei 
actual  "codes  of  law"  for  the  practical  administration  of  justite 
is  very  doubtful ;  indeed,  so  far  as  the  most  prominent  works  f\f 
this  class  are  concerned,  it  is  highly  improbable.''  No  doulri 
these  works  were  held  to  be  of  the  highest  authority  as  laying; 
down  the  principles  of  religious  and  civil  duty;  but  it  was  not  HO- 
much  any  single  text  as  the  whole  body  of  the  Smriti  that  Wii.''i 
looked  upon  as  the  embodiment  of  the  divine  law.  Hence,  the 
moment  the  actual  work  of  codification  begins  in  the  11th  cen- 
tury, we  find  the  jurists  engaged  in  practically  showing  how  the 
Smritis  confirm  and  supplement  each  other,  and  in  rt,conciliii(» 
seeming  contradictions  between  them.  This  new  phase  of  Indian 
jurisprudence  commences  with  Vijiianelvara's  Mildkshard,  which, 
though  primarily  a  commentary  on  Yajiiavalkya,  is  so  rich  in 
original  matter  and  illustrations  from  other  Smritis  that  it  is  I'ar 
more  adapted  to  serve  as  a  code  of  law  than  the  work  it  profesBes 
to  explain.  This  treatise  is  held  in  high  esteem  all  over  India, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Bengal  or  Gaudiya  school  of  law,  which 
recognizes  as  its  chief  authority  the  digest  of  its  founder,  Jimiita 
vahana,  especially  the  chapter  on  succession,  entitled  Ddyahhdg.i  ^ 

2  Edited,  with  a  German  transl-,  by  F.  Stenzler. 

3  Transl.  by  H.  T.  Colebrooke- 

*  The  section  of  this  chapter  on  Inheritance  (ddya-vibhflga)  has  been  tni;\s- 
lated  Ijy  A-  C.  Burnell,  1868. 

■''  See  West  and  BUhler.  Digest.  I- p.  55.    A  different  view  m  expressed  b^ 
Burnell,  DAyavibhaga,  p.  iiil.  _  °  Transl.  by  11.  C-  Colebrook«.  JSIO. 


SANSKRIT 


UTBKATUKE.J 

feascd  on  the  Jlitakslial-a  are  tlio  Smpti-cliandiihl,^  a  work  of 
great  common-scuso,  written  by  Devaiida  lUi.itta,  in  tlie  13th  cen- 
turj',  and  highly  esteemed  m  Soutlicni  India;  and  the  Fira- 
milro(la'ji>,  a  oompilation  consisting  ol  two  chaptfrs,  on  achara 
and  vyavaliaia,  made  in  the  first  half  of  the  l/th  century  by 
Jlitiamiiiti,  for  Raja  Virasiijiha,  or  JUrsinh  D^o  of  Orchha,  who 
murdered  ALal^  Ta^l,  the  minister  of  the  emperor  Akbar,  and 
author  of  i\io  Ain.i  Akhciri.  There  is  no  need  here  to  enumerate 
any.  more  of  tlie  vast  number  of  treatises  on  speciol  points  of  law, 
of  greater  or  jess  merit,  the  more  inijiortant  of  which  will  be  found 
mentioned  in  English  digests  of  Hindu  luiv.  ' 

II.  PiiiLOsoniy. — The  Indian  mind  shows  at  all  <imcs  a  strong 
disposili'tii  for  metaphysical  speculation.  In  the  old  rc-lij;ious 
lyrics  this  may  bo  detected  from  the  very  fu-st.  Not  to  speak  of 
(ie  abstract  nature  of  some  even  of  the  oldest  Ycdic  deities,  this 
propensity  betrays  itself  in  a  certain  mystic  symbolism,  tending  to 
refine  and  spiritr.alize  the  original  purely  physical  character  and 
bctivity  of  some  of  the  more  prominent  gods,  and  to  impart  a  deep 
and  eubtifc  import  to  tlio  riles  of  the  saciilicc  The  primitive 
•worship  of  more  or  less  isolated  clemcu'ary  forces  and  phenomena 
Lad  evidently  cea«d  to  satisfy  the  religious  wants  of  the  more 
thoughtful  minds.  Various  syncretist  tendencies  show  the  drift 
of  religious  thought  to  be  towards  some  kind  of  unity  of  the 
divine  powers,  be  it  in  the  direction  of  the  pantlieistic  idea,  or  in 
that  of  an  organized  jjolytheism,  or  even  towards  monotheism. 
In  the  latter  age  of  the  hymns  the  pantheistic  idea  is  rapidly 
gaining  ground,  and  finds  vent  in  various  cosmogonic  speculations  ; 
and  in  the  Brahmana  period  wo  see  it  fully  developed.  The 
fundamental  conception  of  this  doctrine  finds  its  expression  in  the 
two  synonymous  terms  brahman  (neutr.),  originally  "power  of 
growth,"  then  "devotional  impulse,  prayer,"  and  dltnuTi  (masc), 
*breath,  self,  soul."  ,    •>    , 

The  recognition  of  the  essential  sameness  of  the  individual  soius, 
emanating  all  alike  (whether  really  or  imaginarily)  from  the 
•nltiraate  sinritual  essence  [paTama-lruhman)  "as  sparks  issue  from 
the  fire,"  and  destined  to  return  thither,  involved  some  important 
problems.  Consiilering  the  infinite  diversity  of  individual  souls 
of  the  animal  and  vegetable  world,  exhibiting  various  degrees  of 
perfection,  is  it  conceivable  that  each  of  them  is  the  immediate 
efflux  of  the  Supreme  Being,  the  All-perfect,  and  that  each,  from 
the  lowest  to  the  highest,  could  re-Unito  therewith  directly  at  the 
close  of  its  mundane  existence  ?  The  difficulty  implied  in  the 
latter  question  was  at  first  met  by  the  assumption  of  an  inter- 
mediate state  of  expiation  and  purification,  a  kind  of  purgatory  ; 
bnt  the  wlioic  problem  found  at  last  a  more  comprehensive  solu- 
tion in  the  doctrine  of  transmigration  {samsdra).  ,  Some  scholars 
have  suggested '  that  metempsychosis  may  have  been  the  prevalent 
belief  among  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  India,  and  may  have  been 
taken  over  from  them  by  the  Indo-Aryans.  Tliis  no  doubt  is 
quite  possible  ;  but  even  in  that  case  wo  can  only  assume  that 
speculative  minds  seized  upon  it  as  olfering  the  most  satisfactory 
(if  not  the  only  possible)  explanation  of  tho  great  problem  of 
phenomenal  existence.  It  is  certainly  a  significant  fact  that,  once 
established  in  Indian  thought,  tho  doctrine  of  metempsychosis  ia 
never  again  called  in  question,— that,  like  the  fundamental  idea  on 
■ivhich  It  rests,  viz.,  the  essiintial  sameness  of  tho  immaterial 
clement  of  all  sentient  beings,  the  notion  of  sariisdra  has  become 
an  axiom,  a  universally  conceded  principle  of  Indian  philosophy. 
Thus  the  latter  has  never  quite  risen  to  the  heights  of  jmro 
thought ;  its  object  is  indeed>!>il(lji^,  the  search  for  knowledge  ;  but 
it  is  an  inquiry  (m!)n<!<;is(l)  into  the  nature  of  things  nndertaken 
not  solely  lor  tho  attainment  of  the  truth,  but  with  a  view  to  a 
Bppcilic  object,— the  discontinuance  of  samsara,-tho  cessation  of 
jnundane  existence  after  the  present  Ufe.  Every  sentient  being, 
thiough  ignorance,  being  liable  to  sin,  and  destined  after  each  cx- 
jslciicc  to  be  born  .igain  in  some  new  form,  depoudcnt  on  the  actions 
committed  during  the  immediately  jircceding  life,  all  mundane 
CTistciico.  thus  is  the  source  of  ever-renewed  suircring  ;  and  the 
task  of  the  vhilosonher  is  to  discover  the  means  ol  attaining 
moKsha,  "release"  from  the  bondage  of  material  exiBtenco,  and 
,/OOT.  "union  "  with  the  Supreme  Self.-in  fact,  salvation  It  is 
vith  ^  view  to  this,  and  this  only,  that  the  Indian  metaphysician 
t.ikes  lip  the  great  luobloms  of  lir.,-the  or;«.n  of  man  and  tho 
niiivcrso   and  the  re  atioii  between  mmd  and  matter. 

U  is  no?  likely  that  these  speculations  were  viewed  with  much 
fa".  1  by  the  great  body  of  BrAhmans  engaged  in  iitualistic 
rmc  ices  Kot  That  the  metai.bysicians  actual  y  discountenanced 
the  cereiuon  al  worship  of  the  old  mythological  gods  as  van.  and 
«„%tir  On  the  contrary,  tliey  expressly  admitted  U.e  propriety 
of^Bacriies  and  commended  them  as  the  most  mentonous  of 
of  s^cnlicis,   »""  ,     ,  ,,,    „i,o   l,i,„seir  to   the  highest 

'•"'r   "f    n.    .1.W  <Nis.ence.  to  the  worlds  of  the  Fathers  and 
Elo^as.     Nevertbclo..s.   the  fart  that  these    were  on 


iiBy 


iilv  bi;;hor 


«1 

^^''"7-"\^^::::!\,^:f ';;;!;;;H:r^:^on;;:iii.^"tho «»«!  goai 


vidual   »elf  would  •till  bo  liable  to 


lay  beyond  even  those  worlds,  unattainable  thVongh  anglit  but  a 
perfect  knowledge  of  the  soul's  nature  and  its  identity  witli  tho 
Supremo  Self, — this  fact  of  itself  was  sufficient  to  depreciate  thn 
merit  cf  the  sacrificial  cult,  and  to  undennine  the  authority  of  tho 
sacred  rituals.  "Know  yo  that  .Self,"  exhorts  one  of  those  old 
idealists,'  "  and  have  done  with  other  words ;  for  that  (knowledge) 
is  the  bridge  to  immortality  I"  Intense  self-contemplation  being, 
moreover,  the  only  way  of  attaining  the  all-important  knowledge, 
this  doctrine  left  little  or  no  room  for  those  mediatorial  offices  ol 
the  priest,  so  indispensable  in  ceremonial  worship ;  and  indeed 
wo  actually  read  of  Brahman  sages  resorting  to  Kshatriya  princes 
to  hear  them  expound  this,  tho  true  doctrine  of  salvation.  But,  in 
spite  of  their  anti-hicrarcliical  tendency,  these  speculations  con- 
tinued to  gain  ground  ;  and  in  the  end  the  body  of  treatises  pro- 
pounding the  pantheistic  doctrine,  tho  Upanishads,  were  admitted 
into  the  sacred  canon,  as  appendages  to  the  ceremonial  writings, 
tho  Brahmanas.  The  Upani.shads  thus  form  literally  "the  end 
of  tho  Veda,"  the  Vcddnla  ;  hut  their  adherents  chum  this  title 
for  their  doctrines  in  a  metaphorical  rather  than  in  a  material  i 
sense,  as  "  the  ultimate  aim  and  consummation  of  the  Veda."  In 
later  lin.os  the  radical  distinction  between  these  speculative 
appendages  and  tho  bulk  of  the  Vedio  writings  was  strongly  accent- 
uated in  a  new  classification  of  the  sacred  scriptures.  According 
to  this  scheme  they  were  supposed  to  consist  of  two  great  divisions, 
— the  Karma-Mnda,  i.e.,  "tho  work-section,"  or  practical  cere- 
monial (exoteric)  part,  coDsistLng  of  th«  SamhitSa  and  Brahmanas 
(includiiig  the  ritual  portions  of  tho  Aranyakas),  and  the  JMna- 
h&nda,  '"the  knowledge-section,"  or  soeculative  (esoteric)  part 
These  two  divisions  are  also  called  respEctively  the  Pana. 
("former")  and  Vtlara-  ("latter,"  or  higher-")  Icdndn, ;  and  when 
the  speculative  tenets  of  the  Upanishads  came  to  be  formulated  into 
a  regular  system  it  was  deemed  desirable  that  there  should  also  be 
a  special  system  corresponding  to  the  older  and  larger  portion  of 
the  Vedic  writings.  Thus  arose  the  two  systems — the  Firm-  (or 
Karma-)  mtmdiiisd,  or  "former  (practical)  speculation,"  and  the 
UUara-  (or  Brahma-)  mtmdmsd,  usually  called  the  Vedinta  philo- 
sophy. 

It  is  not  yet  possible  to  determine,  even  anproximately,  the  Philo 
time  when  the  so-called  Varkmas  (literally  "demonstrations"),  eophi 
or  systems  of  philosophy,    were  first  formulated.     And,  though  syst 
they  have  certainly  developed  from  the  tenets  enunciated  in  the 
Upanishads,  there  is  considerable  doubt  as  to  the  exact  order  in 
which   these  systems  succeeded   each   other.     The    authoritative 
exposis  of  the  systems  have  apparently  passed   through   several 
redactions ;  and,  in  their  present  form,  these  sfltra-works '  evi- 
dently belong  to  a  comparatively  recent  period,  being  probably  not 
older  than  the  ccriy  centuries  of  our  era.     By  far  tho  ablest  general 
review  of  the  philosophical  systems  (except  tho  Vedanta)  produced 
by  a  native  scholar  is  the  Sarva-dariaiia-sangraha"  ("summary 
of  all  tho  Darsanas"),   composed  in   the  14th  century,  from  a 
Vcduutist  point  of  view,  by  the  great  exegete  JI&di;ava  Acharya. 

Among  tho  different  systems,  six  are  geneially  recognized  as 

orthodox,  as  being  (cither  wholly  or  for  the  most  part)  consistent 

with  the  Vedic  religion,— two  .and  two  of  which  are_again  mora 

closely  related  to  each  other  than  to  the  rest,  viz.  :—   ,       ,    ,     ^ 

(1)   JParva-mhndmsd.    IMtmdmsd),    and    (2)    UUara-mimdmsd 

( Vcddida)  ; 
(3)  Sdnkhya,  and  (4)  Toga  , 
(6)  Kydija,  and  (6)  VaiicsMJca. 

h)  The  {P&rva-)  ilimdnsd  is  not  a  system  of  phUosophy  in  the  M!, 
proper  sense  of  the  word,  but  rather  a  system  of  dogmatic  criticism  m&nisa.- 
and  scriptural  interpretation.  It  maintains  the  eternal  existence 
of  tho  Veda,  the  different  parts  of  which  are  minutely  classiti«l. 
lU  lirincipal  object,  however,  is  to  ascertain  tho  religious  (chiefly 
ceremonial)  duties  enjoined  in  tho  Veda,  and  to  show  ho\y  these 
duties  must  be  performed,  and  what  are  the  special  merits  and 
rewards  attached  to  them.  Hence  arises  the  necessity  of  dctcrmin- 
"ing  the  principles  for  rightly  interpreting  the  Vcdic  texts,  as  also 
of  what  forms  its  only  claim  to  being  dassed  among  sneculativo 
systems,  viz.,  a  philosop'liical  examination  of  the  means  of,  and  the 
proper  method  for  arriving  at,  accurate  knowledge.  The  founda- 
tion of  this  school,  ns  well  as  the  composition  of  the  bfitras  or 
aphorisms  which  constitute  its  chief  doctrinal  authority,  is  ascribed 
to  Jaimiiii.  The  Sfitrus  were  commented  on  by  Sobara  Svamin  ; 
and  further  annotations  {vdMikii)  Ibercou  were  supplied  by  tlio 
great  theologian  Kumfirila  Bliatia,  who  is  supposed  to  have  Uvea 
111  the  (Olhor)  7th  century,  and  to  have  worked  lianl  for  tl'e  re- 
establishment  of  Bi-ahmanism.  According  to  a  popular  traditioii 
his  self-immolation  was  witnessed  by  Snnkarfichurya.     llio  moat 


relapse  into  the  vort 


ml  bjT,  KilMivmawiny  IjcrilftUO. 


»  'llii-^-olloiion  liilicruniirolin.  brcniui" 


!  *r;:Vim:iX";;™i»-.i'' '•4, »,  «i,oro  ..,c-.  two  oivi.,„n.  .r«  c»iioa  ■•.•«• 

»  Thc.0  work,  hiivo  all  b,-.n  ii.lnuil  will,  commontnrir.  n  InJInj  ^.1  the/ 
havi-  bcf..  partly  tian.l.il.a  by  J.  ll.Ola.il)-np  .nil  by  h.  >rll»mT).-..  Ttio  be^jt 
n-nti.l  vlcvv  or  llio  .y.luin  1.  li.  bo  obl.lncci  from  11.  C.  Colcb, .wkc  .  a.  countj 
iil'tFimit  \  SiloJ  Willi  I'll.!.  Ciiwiir.nolci.  Comii.ro  .Uothi' bikl  abstiacl 
p.vi  li  lii  f.;  l.'lMUck.i'.  l.iltraiv  Krmatni  vi.l.  1.  A  very  UJCful  dajulllcil  Imlc* 
ol  pl.llo>(.i)lilcal  worK»  wn.imbllhhiil  by  F.  INU,  I<^MI.  ,.,..„ 

•  EilUci  IQ  tha  illW.  /"''• ;  li.mlutnl  by  E.  U.  towill  .im  A.  E.  Oousb,  IMS 

;^i-  —  37 


290 


SANSKRIT 


[UTERATORE. 


approved  general  introduction  to  the  study  of  the  Jlimaijiaa  is  the 
metrical  Jaiminhja-Nydya-mild-vUitara,^  with  a  prose  commentary, 
both  by  Madhava  Acharya.  This  distinguished  writer,  who  has 
already  been  mentioned  several  times,  was  formerly  supposed, 
from  frequent  statements  in  JISS.,  to  have  been  the  brother  of 
Sayana,  the  well-known  interpreter  of  the  Vedas.  The  late  Dr 
Burnell'  has,  however,  made  it  very  probable  that  these  two 
are  one  and  the  same  person,  Sayana  being  his  Telugu,  and 
Madhavacharya  his  Brihmanical  name.  In  1331  he  became  the 
jagadguru,  or  spiritual  head,  of  the  Smartas  (a  Vedantist  sect 
founded  by  Sankaracharya)  at  the  JIath  of  6ringcri,  where,  under 
the  patronage  of  Bukka,  king  of  Vidyanagara,  he  composed  his 
numerous  works.  He  sometimes  passes  under  a  third  name, 
Vidyaranya-svamin,  adopted  by  him  on  becoming  a  sannydsiii, 
or  religious  mendicant. 

(2)  The  Vcddnta  philosophy,  in  the  comparatively  primitive 
form  in  which  it  presents  itself  in  most  of  tlie  Uj.anishads,  con- 
stitutes the  earliest  phase  of  systematic  metaphysical  speculation. 
In  its  essential  features  it  remains  to  this  day  the  prevalent  belief 
of  Indian  thinkers,  and  enters  largely  into  the  religious  life  and 
convictions  of  the  people.  It  is  an  idealistic  monism,  which  derives 
the  universe  from  an  ultimate  conscious  spiritual  principle,  the 
one  and  only  existent  from  eternity — the  Atman,  the  Self,  or  the 
Purusha,  the  Person,  the  Brahman.  It  is  this  primordial  essence 
or  Self  that  pervades  all  things,  and  gives  life  and  light  to  them, 
"without  being  sullied  by  the  visible  outw.ard  impurities  or  the 
miseries  of  the  world,  being  itself  apart," — and  into  which  all 
things  will,  through  knowledge,  ultimately  resolve  themselves. 
"The  wise  who  perceive  him  as  being  within  their  own  Self,  to 
them  belongs  eternal  peace,  not  to  others. "^  But,  while,  the  com- 
mentators never  hesitate  to  interpret  the  tJpanishads  as  being  in 
perfect  agreement  with  the  Vedantio  system,  as  elaborated  in  later 
times,  there  is  often  considerable  difficulty  in  accepting  their 
explanations.  In  these  treatises  only  the  leading  featares  of  the 
■pantheistic  theory  find  utterance,  generally  in  vague  and  mystic 
though  often  in  singularly  powerful  and  poetical  language,  from 
■which  it  is  not  always  possible  to  extract  the  author's  real  idea  on 
fundamental  points,  such  as  the  relation  between  the  Supreme 
Spirit  and  the  phenomenal  world, — whether  the  latter  was  actually 
evolved  from  the  former  by  a  power  inherent  in  him,  or  whether 
the  process  is  altogether  a  fiction,  an  illusion  of  the  individual 
self.  Thus  the  Kaths-upanishad*  offers  the  following  summary  :— 
"Beyond  the  senses  [tliere  are  the  objects;  beyond  the  objects] 
there  is  the  mind  (mani?) ;  beyond  the  mini  there  is  the  intellect 
(buddhi)  ;  beyond  the  intellect  there  is  the  Great  Self.  Beyond 
the  GreatOue  there  is  the  Hijfhest Undeveloped (avyaktam)j  beyond 
the  Undeveloped  there  is  the  Pereon  (purusba),  the  all-pervading, 
characterless  (alinga).  Whatsoever  knows  liim  is  liberated,  and 
attains  immortality."  Here  the  Vedantist  commentator  assures 
us  that  the  Great  Undeveloped,  which  the  Sankhyas  would  claim 
as  their  own  primary  materia!  principle  (pradhTsua,  prakriti),  is  in 
reality  Udyd.,  illusion  (otherwise  called  AvidyS,  ignorance,  or 
6akti,  power),  the  fictitious  energy  which  in  coiyanction  with  the 
Highest  Self  (Atnun,  Purusha)  produces  or  constitutes  the 
Isvara,  the  Lord,  or  Cosmic  Soul,  the  fii-st  emanation  of  the 
Atman,  and  himself  the  (fictitious)  cause  of  all  that  seems  to  exist. 
It  must  remain  doubtful,  however,  whether  the  author  of  the 
Upanishad  really  meant  this,  or  whether  he  regarded  the  Great 
Undeveloped  as  an  actual  material  principle  or  substratum  evolved 
from  out  of  the  Purusha,  though  not,  as  X\&  Suukhyas  hold, 
coexisting  with  him  from  eternity.  Besides  passages  such  as 
these  which  seem  to  indicate  realistic  or  materialistic  tendencies 
of  thought,  which  may  well  have  developed  into  the  dualistic 
Sankhya  and  kindred  systems,  there  are  others  which  -.udicate 
the  e.xistence  even  of  nihilist  theories,  such  as  the  Bauddhaa— the 
Huya-vMins,  or  afiSrmers  of  a  void  or  primordial  nothingness- 
profess.  Thus  we  read  in  the  Chhandogya-upanishad' : — "The, 
existent  alone,  my  son,  was  here  in  the  beginning,  one  only,  with- 
out a  second.  Others  say,  there  was  the  non-exisieut  alone  here 
in  the  beginning,  one  only,  without  a  second, — and  from  tlie  non- 
existent the  existent  was  born.  But  how  could  this  be,  my  sou ! 
How  could  the  existent  be  born  from  the  non-existent  ?  "So,  my 
son,  only  the  existent  was  here  in  the  beginning,  one  only,  with- 
out a  second."  I 

The  foundation  of  the  Vedanta  system,  as  "  the  completion  of 
the  Veda,"  is  naturally  ascribed  to  Vyasa,  the  mythic  ai-ranger 
of  the  Vedas,  who  is  said  to  be  identical  with  Badarayana,  the 
reputed  author  of  the  Brahma-  (or  Sdriraka-)  sitra,  the  authorita- 
tive, though  highly  obscure,  summary  of  the  system.  The  most 
distinguished  interpreter  of  these  aphorisms  is  the  famous  Malabar 
theologian  ^ankara  Acharya  (7th  or  Sth  century),  who  ajso 
commented  on  the  principal  Upanishads  and  the  Bhagavadgita, 
and  is  said  to  have  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  wandering 
all  over  India,  as  far  as  Kashmir,  and  engaging  in  disputations 

1  Edited  by  Til.  GoWslUcker,  completed  by  E.  B.  Cowell. 

»  V<imia-br6ltmnr)<t,  Inlrod.  '  Kntha-upanlshad.  11.5,  11-13 

*  I.  S,  19;  II.  C,  7.  »  V'.  2.1. 


with  teachers— whether  of  the  Saiva,  or  Vaishnava,  or  less 
ortliodox  persuasions— with  the  view  of  rooting  out  heresy  and 
re-establishing  the  doctrine  of  the  Upanishads.  His  controversial 
triumphs  (doubtless  largely  mythical)  are  related  in  a  number  of 
treatises  current  in  South  India,  the. two  most  important  of  which 
are  the  Sankara-dig-vijaya  ("Sankara's  world-conquest"),  ascribed 
to  his  own  disciple  Anandagiri,  and  the  Sankara-vijaya,  by  JU- 
dliavacliarya-  In  Sankara's  philosophy «  the  theory  that  the 
material  world  has  no  real  existence,  but  is  a  mere  illusion  of  tho 
individual  soul  wrapt  in  ignorance, — that,  therefore,  it  has  only  a 
practical  or  conventional  (vydvahdrika)  but  not  a  transcendental  or 
true  (pHramdrthika)  reality, — is  strictly  enforced.  To  the  question 
why  the  Supreme  Self  (or  rather  his  fictitious  development,  the' 
Highest  Lord, -or  cosmic  soul)  should  have  sent  forth  this  phantasma- 
gory  this  great  thinker  (with  the  author  of  the  Sutras")  can  return' 
no  better  answer  than  that  it  must  have  been  done  for  sport  (I'Ud), 
without  any  special  motive— since  to  ascribe  such  a  motive  to  tho 
Supreme  Lord  would  be  limiting  his  self-sufficiency, — and  that  the 
process  of  creation  has  been  going  on  from  all  eternity.  Sankara'a 
Sdrlraka-m'mdmsd-hhdshya  has  given  rise  to  a  large  number  of 
exegetic  treatises,  of  which  Vachaspati-mi.sra's'  exposition,  entitled 
Bhdmatl,^  is  the  most  esteemed.  Of  numerous  other  commentaries  ' 
on  the  .Brahma-sitras,  the  SrUbhdshya,  by  Eamanuja,  the  founder  Rami( 
of  the  Sri-Vaishnava  sect,  is  the  most  noteworthy.  This  religious  nuja 
teacher,  who  probably  flourished  during  the  first  half  of  the  12th 
century,  caused  a  schism  in  the  Vedanta  school.  Instead  of  adher' 
ing  to  Sankara's  orthodox  advaita,  or  non-duality  doctrine,  he  put 
forth  the  theory  of  vUishiddvaita,  i.e.,  non-duality  of  the  (two) 
distinct  (principles),  or,  as  it  is  more  commonly  explained,  ' 
non-duality  of  that  which  is  qualified  (by  attributes).  According 
to  this  theory  the  Braliman  (which  is  identical  with  Vishnu)  is 
neither  devoid  of  form  and  quality,  nor  is  it  all  things  ;  but  it  is 
endowed  with  all  good  qualities,  and  matter  is  distinct  from  it; 
bodies  consist  of  souls  {chit)  and  matter  (achit)  ;  and  God  is  the 
soul.  With  this  theory  is  combined  the  ordinary  Vaishnava 
doctrine  of  periodical  descents  (avatdra)  of  the  deity,  in  various 
forms,  for  the  benefit  of  creatures.  In  Ramanuja's  system  con- 
siderable play  is  also  allowed  to  the  doctrine  of  faith  (ihakti).  Bham 
This  phase  of  Indian  religious  belief,  which  has  attached  itself  to 
the  Vedanta^  theory  more  closely  than  to  any  other,  and  the  origin 
of  which  some  scholars  are  inclined  to  attri'oute  to  Christian 
influence,  seems  first  to  make  its  appearance  very  prominently  in 
the  Bhagavadgttd,  the  episode  of  the  ilahd'ohdraia,  already  referred 
to,  and  is  even  more  fully  developed  in  some  of  the  Purdnas, 
especially  the  Bhftgavata.  In  the  Sandthja-  [Bhi-.Hi-)  jijira,''  tha 
author  and  date  of  which  are  unknown,  the  doctrine  is  systemati- 
cally propounded  in  one  hundred  aphorisms.  According  to  tais 
doctrine  mundane  existence  is  due  to  want  of  faith,  t>ot  to 
ignorance ;  and  the  final  liberation  of  the  individual  soul  can  only 
he  efl'ected  by  faith.  Knowledge  only  contributes  to  this  end  by 
removing  the  mind's  foulness,  unbelief.  Its  highest  phase  of 
development  this  doctrine  probably  re.ielied  in  tha  religious  creed 
of  the  Bhaktas,  a  Vaishnava  sect  founded,  towards  tho  end  of  the 
15th  century,  by  Chaitanya,  whose  followers  subsequently  grafted 
the  Vedanta  speculations  on  his  doctrine.  A  popular  summary  of 
the  Vedanta  doctrine  is  the  Veddnta-3d>a  by  Sadauauda,  which 
has  been  frequently  printed  and  translated-'^ 

(8)  The  Sdnkkya,^  or  '•enumerative"  system,  prob?.bly  derives  S.^ril. 
its  name  from  its  systematic  enumeration  of  the  twenty-five 
principles  (tattva)  it  recognizes, —consisting  of  twenty-four  material 
and  an  independent  immaterial  principle.  In  opposition  to  the 
Vedfuita  school,  which  maintains  the  eternal  coexistence  of  a 
spiritual  principle  of  reality  and  an  unspiritual  principle  o£ 
unreality,  the  S&nkhya  assumes  the  eternal  coexistence  of  a 
material  first  cause,  which  it  calls  either  mila-Frakriii  (fern.), 
"chief  Origiuant"  (N:-,ture),  or  Prculhdnu,  "the  principal"  cause, 
and  a  plurality  of  spiritual  elements  or  Selves,  Purusha.  The 
system  recognizes  no  intelligent  creator  (such  as  the  Isvara,  or 
demiurgus,  of  the  Vedanta) — whence  it  is  called  nirtieara, 
godless  ;  but  it  conceives  the  Material  First  Cause,  itself  unin- 
telligent, to  have  become  developed,  by  a  gradual  process  of 
evolution,  into  all  the  actual  forms  of  the  phenomenal  universe, 
excepting  the  souls.  Its  first  emanation  is  buddhi,  intelligence  ; 
whence  springs  ahaiitkdra,  consciousness  ;  thence  five  elementary 
particles  {tanmdii'a}  and  eleven  organs  of  sense  ;  and  finally,  from 
the  elementary  particles,  five  elements.  The  souls  have  from  all 
eternity  been  connected  with  Nature, — having  in  the  first  placo 
become  invested  with  a  subtile  frame  (linga-,  or  sikshma-,  iartra), 
consisting  of  seventeen  principles,  viz.,  intelligence,  consciousness, 
elementary  particles,  and  organs  of  sense  and  action,  including 

«  p.  Deufsen,  Dot  Syslem  det  Teddnla,  1883.    A.  E.  Gougli,  T!ia  Philotophy  nf 
the  VpanisKadit  elso  follows  chiefly  Saniara'a  interpretation. 

?  Brahrr.asiitra,  ill.  1,  32-31. 

e  Prof.  Cowell  assigns  hlra  to  about  tha  10th  century.  ^  Bibl.  Ind. 

^^  Text,  with  Svapntivara's  commentary,  edited  by  J.  B.  Ballantyne;  transl.  by 
E    B.  Cowell.  "  Last  by  0    .^.  Jacob. 

i»  E.  Riier,  Lecture  m  thf  Sinttaa  Philosophi/,  Calcutta-.  IS-M;  B.  St  Hllaire, 
M^moire  sur  ie  £dnl.hya,  Iti^i- 


J.rr£RATUIiE.l 


SANSKRIT 


291; 


mind.  Invested  witli  this  suljlile  frame,  tlicy,  for  the  sake  of 
fruition,  connect  tliemsolvo3  ever  anew  with  Kature,  thus,  as  it 
•were,  creating  for  themselves  ever  now  forms  of  matciial  existence; 
and  it  is  only  on  his  attaining  perfect  knowledge,  whereby  the 
ever-changing  modes  of  intelligence  cease  to  be  reflected  ou  him, 
that  the  Purusha  is  liberated  from  the  miseries  of  Saipsara. 
»  The  reputed  founder  of  this  school  is  the  sage  Kapila,  to  whom 
tradition  ascribes  the  composition  of  the  fundamental  text-book, 
the  {Sdnkhya-sUlra,  or)  Sdnl:hya-pravac?mna,^  as  well  as  the 
TaUva-samdsa,  a  jnero  catalogue  of  tho  principles.  That  tho 
Sdtras  have  undergone  subsequent  modifications  mi^ht  be  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  they  twice  refer  to  the  opinion  ot  Paadia^ilUia, 
■who  elsewhere  is  stated  to  have  received  his  instruction  from  Asuri, 
the  disciple  of  Kapila,  as  well  as  from  the  sage  himself.  Of  the 
commentaries  on  tho  Sutras,  that  by  Vijiidna  Bhikshu,'  a  writer 
probably  of  the  16th  century,  is  the  most  approved.  An 
mdependent  treatise  by  the  same  author,  the  S&nkhya-s&ra,^ 
consisting  of  a  prose  and  a  verse  part,  is  probably  the  most 
valuable  compendium  of  S^nkhya  doctrines.  Another  admirable 
and  highly-esteemed  treatise  is  l^vara-krishna's  S&nkhya-kdrikd,' 
which  gives,  in  the  narrow  compass  of  seventy-five  ^lokas,  a  lucid 
and  complete  sketch  of  the  system.  Though  nothing  certain  is 
known  regarding  its  author,*  this  work  must  be  of  tolerable 
antiquity,  considering  that  it  was  commented  upon  by  Gaudapada," 
the  preceptor  of  Govinda,  who,  on  his  part,  is  said  to  have  b"""  ♦'"> 
teacher  ot  Sankar&charya. 
nea.  (*)  ^^®  ^'y'-''  system  is  merely  a  schismatic  branch  or   the 

preceding  school,  holding  tho  same  opinions  on  most  points  treated 
in  common  in  their  Sutras,  with  tho  exception  of  one  important 
point,  tho  existence  of  God.  To  the  twenty-five  principles  {taltva) 
of  the  Kirl^vara  Sankhya,  the  last  of  which  was  the  PutusIm,  tho 
Yoga  adds,  as  the  twenty-sixth,  the  Nirguiia  Purusha,  or  Sell 
devoid  of  qualities,  the  Supreme  God  of  the  system.  Hence  the 
Yoga  is  called  the  Seivara  (theislical)  Sunkhya.  But  over  and 
above  the  purely  8j)eculative  part  of  its  doctrine,  which  it  shares 
with  tho  sister  school,  the  theistic  Sdnkhya  lias  developed  a 
complete  system  of  mortification  of  the  senses— by  means  of 
prolonged  apathy  and  abstraction,  protracted  rigidity  of  posture, 
and  similar  practices,— many  of  which  are  already  alluded  to  iu  tho 
Upanishads,— with  the  view  of  attaining  to  an  ecstatic  vision  of, 
and  reunion  {yoga)  with,  the  Supreme  Spirit  It  is  from  this 
portion  of  the  system  that  the  school  derives  the  name  by  which 
It  is  more  generally  known.  The  authoritative  Siitras  of  the 
Yoga,  bearing  the  same  title  as  those  of  the  sister  school,  viz., 
Sdnkhya-pravachana,  but  more  commonly  called  Yoga-idstra,  are 
ascribed  to  PataQjali,  who  is  perhaj)s  identical  with  the  author  of 
the  "great  commentary"  on  Paniui.  The  oldest  commeutary 
on  the  Siitras,  the  PitaHjala-hhiskya,  is  attributed  to  no  other 
thiin  Vyasa,  the  mythic  arranger  of  the  Veda  and  founder  of  the 
(Vedanta.  Both  works  have  again  been  commented  upon  by 
•Vachaspati-raisra,  Tijiiana-bhikshu,  and  other  writers. 
«y4ya  (5)  (6)  The  i\'y<!ya«  and  Vaiieshika  are  but  separate  branches  of 

ind  one  and  the  same  school,  which  supplcmeut  each  other  and  the 

^hit^'  doctrines  of  which  have  virtually  become  amalgamated  into  a  single 
itUka.  gyjtjjQ  of  philosophy.  The  special  part  taken  by  each  of  the  two 
branches  in  the  elaboration  of  thesystem  may  be  briefly  stated  in  Dr 
.Koer's  words  :— "  To  the  Kydya  belong  the  logical  doctrines  of  the 
forms  of  syllogisms,  terms,  and  propositions ;  to  the  Vai<e.slukas  the 
systematical  explanation  of  the  categories  (the  simplest  metaphys- 
ical ideas)  of  the  metaphysical,  physical,  and  psychical  notions,— 
which  notions  are  hardly  touched  upon  in  the  Nyaya-sCitras. 
They  differ  in  their  statement  of  the  several  modes  of  proof,— the 
Nyaya  asserting  four  modes  of  proof  (fiom  perception,  inference, 
analogy,  and  verbal  commuiiicatioii),  the  Vaiseshikas  Admitting 
only  the  two  first  ones."  The  term  Nyaya  {ni-dya,  "in-going," 
entering),  though  properly  meaning  "analj-tical  investigation,"  as 
applied  to  philosophical  inquiry  generally,  has  come  to  bo  taken 
more  commonly  in  the  mriower  sense  of  "logic,"  because  this 
school  has  entered  more  thoroughly  than  any  other  into  the  laws 
and  processes  of  thought,  and  has  worked  out  a  formal  Bystcm  of 
reasoning  which  forms  the  Hindu  standard  of  logic. 

The  followers  of  these  schools  generally  recognize  seven  categories 
(^rfi{r(Aa) :— substance  (rfrarj/n),  quality  (guna),  action  {karma), 
generality  {sdmdnya),  particularity  {viksha),  intimate  relation 
(samavdya),  and  non-existence  or  negation  {ablidra).  Substances, 
forming  "the  substrata  of  qualities  and  nclioiis,  are  of  two  kinds:— 
eternal  (without  a  eauscl,  viz.,  space,  time,  ithcr,  soul,  and  tho 
atoms  of  mind,  earth,  water,  fire,  and  nir ;  and  non-eternal,  com- 

>  Trnnsl.  by  .1.  R.  Ballantyno  ;  Sd  cd.  by  F.  Hall.  '  Eilllcd  by  F.  Hall. 

'  Edited  by  C.  Lasmn,  isas.    Tronsliitloiii  by  II.  T.  Colibrooko  ond  J.  Dovlos. 

*  One  writer  makes  lilm  the  pupil  of  ranchaalklm,  vtlilUt  aoollicr  even  ldiintini.'9 
hlni  with  KHIWisn  ;  r/.  F.  Hall,  .Jiint/ilWJiira,  p.  -Jl. 

'  Trirosl.  by  11.  II.  Wlljon.  .\  ClilneK  IranslnllriD  ot  a  cnmmiiilory  rcaotnblliiK 
that  of  GaiulapAda  Is  said  to  liave  been  rande  during  tlic  Cli'cn  dyitnflty,  b!il-it63 
A.D.  (M.  MUUtr,  India,  p.  SCO). 

•  Besides  Colebiookc  s  Euan,  with  Conells  notes,  sec  Dullantync'a  IranslnUon 
of  the  Tnrka-Sangroha  and  tho  Inlrududlnn  to  llllci's  translation  of  tlio 
Bhiihipartchhtda,  and  hU  uillclc,  E.  D.  U.  0  ,  >>l. 


prising  all  comiiounds,  or  the  things  we  perceive,  and  which  must 
have  a  cause  of  their  existence.  Causality  is  of  three  kinds : — 
that  of  intimate  relation  (material  enusc) ;  that  of  non-iutiniato 
relation  (between  parts  of  a  coinjiound);  and  instrumcutal  csusalityi 
(effecting  the  union  of  comjiouont  parts).  Material  things  arc  thus 
composed  of  atoms  {anu),  i.e.,  ultimate  simple  substances,  or  uiiita| 
of  space,  eternal,  unchangeable,  and  without  dimension,  chara.tcr- 
izef  only  by  "particularity  (viicsha)."  It  is  from  this  predicalioa 
of  ultimrte  "  particulars  "  that  the  Vai^cshikae,  the  originators  of 
the  atomistic  doctrine,  derive  their  iinnie.  The  Nyaya  draws  a 
clear  lino  between  matter  and  spirit,  and  has  worked  out  a  careful 
and  ingenious  system  of  psychulogy.  It  distinguishes  betv.eeu 
individual  or  living  sowh  {jivdtman),  which  are  numerous,  infinite, 
and  eternal,  and  tho  Supreme  Soul  {Paramdtinan),  which  is  one 
only,  the  seat  of  eternal  knowledge,  and  the  maker  and  ruler 
(livara)  of  all  tilings.  It  is  by  his  will  and  agency  that  the  un- 
conscious living  soius  (soul-atoms,  in  fact)  enter  into  union  with  the 
(material)  atoms  of  mind,  &c.,  and  thus  partake  of  the  pleasures 
and  sufferings  of  mundane  cxisteucc.  On  the  Hindu  syllogism 
eompare  Prof.  Cowell's  notes  to  Colebrooke's  Essays,  i.  p.  314. 
.  The  original  collection  of  NySya-silras  is  ascribed  to  Gotama, 
uud  that  of  tho  Vaiicshika-sa.irtts  to  Kanada.  The  etymological 
meaning  of^  the  latter  name  seems  to  be  "little-cater,  particle- 
cater,"  whence  in  works  of  hostile  critics  the  synonymous  terms 
Kaiia-lhi(j  or  Kana-bhaksha  are  sometimes  derisively  apnlied 
to  iim,  doubtless  in  allusion  to  his  theory  of  atoms.  He  is 
also  occasionally  referred  to  uuder  the  name  of  Kasvapa.  Both 
sutra-woiks  have  been  interpreted  and  supplemented  by  a  number 
of  writers,  the  commeutary  of  Vi^vanatha  on  the  Nyaya  and  that 
of  ^ankara-mi^ra  on  the  Vaiseshika  Sutras  being  most  generally 
used.  Tliere  are,  moreover,  a  vast  number  of  separate  works  oo 
the  doctiines  of  these  schools,  especially  on  logic.  _  Of  favourite 
elementary  treatises  on  the  subject  may  be  mentioned  Ke&tva- 
misra's  Tarka-hhdsM,  the  Tarka-sangraha,''  and  tho  ShSshd- 
parichheda.^  A  large  and  important  book  on  logic  is  Gangtia's 
Chintdniani,  which  formed  the  text-book  of  the  celebrated  Nuddea 
school  of  Bengal,  founded  by  Raghunatha-iiroiiiaiii  about  the 
beginning  of  the  ]6th  century.  An  interesting  little  treatise  is 
tht  KummdHjali,"  in  which  the  author,  Ud^yana  Acharya  (about 
the  12th  century,  according  to  Prof  Cowell)  attempts,  in  72 
couplets,  to  prove  the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Being  on  the 
principles  of  the  Nyaya  system. 

As  regards  the  different  heretical  systems  of  Hindu  philosophy, 
there  is  no  occasion,  in  a  sketch  of  Sau.;krit  literature,  to  enter  into 
the  tenets  of  the  two  great  anti-Brdhmanieal  sects,  the  Jainas  and 
Buddhists.  'While  the  original  works  of  the  former  are  written 
entirely  in  a  popular  (the  Ardhtt-magadhl)  dialect,  the  northern 
Buddhists,  it  is  true,  have  produced  a  considerable  body  of  litera- 
ture,"" composed  in  a  kind  of  hybrid  Sanskrit,  but  only  a  few  of 
their  sacred  books  have  as  yet  been  published ; "  and  it  is,  more- 
over, admitted  on  all  hands  that  ior  the  pure  and  authentic 
Bauddha  doctrines  we  have  rather  to  look  to  the  Pali  swiptures  of 
the  southern  branch.  Nor  can  we  do  more  here  than  briedy  allude 
to  the  theories  of  a  few  of  the  less  prominent  heterodox  systems, 
however  interesting  they  may  be  for  a  history  of  human  thought. 

The  ChdrvSJcas,  an  ancient  sect  of  undisguised  materi-aJism,  who 
deny  the  existence  of  tho  soul,  and  consider  tho  human  person 


textbook,  the  JBiirhaipatya-slllra,  is  only  known  so  far  from  a  liW 


q  notations. 

The  rdilAarilrai,  or  Vlidgavatas,  are  an  early  Vaishnava  sect, 
iu  which  the  doctrine  of  faith,  already  alluded  to,  is  stromjlv 
developed.  Hence  their  tenets  arc  defended  by  liimilnuja,  thougU 
they  are  i<artly  condemned  as  heretical  in  the  Brahnia-sutras.  Their 
recognized  te.Tt-book  is  tho  ^Vu■ada  Panchardtra.'^  According  to 
their  theory  the  .Supremo  Being  (Bhagavat,  Vasudeva,  ^y )■*'"■"> 
became  four  separate  peisons  by  successive  production.  «  lulc  the 
Supreme  Being  himself  is  indued  with  the  six  qualities  of  know- 
ledge, power,  strength,  absolute  sway,  vigour,  and  eiiergj',  the  three 
divine  persona  successively  emanating  from  him  and  from  one  nnotber 
represent  the  living  soul,  mind,  and  consciousness  rospcctiyely. 

The  J'Oiupalas,  one  of  several  Baiva  (Wahisvaral  sects,  hohl  th* 
Supreme  Being  (/imra),  whom  thev  idintify  with  Siva,  to  he  the 
creator  and  ruhr  of  the  world,  but  not  its  niiitinnl  cause.  W  ith 
the  Sankhyas  they  admit  tho  notion  of  a  pla.ntic  material  cause,  the 
Pradhdua;  while  thev  follow  I'ataBjali  in  lu^untaiuing  tho  exist- 
ence of  a  Supreme  God. 


7  Edited  und  Iniosluted  by  J.  R.  Bnllantyne. 

8  Kdlted  and  liuiisUied,  with  conina-ntmy,  hy  K.  Ryor. 

»  Edited  and  mnu.  lied,  with  cotnmenuiiy,  by  E.  U.  Cowell.  ,„      , 

■0  Sec  II.  II.  llodusun,  The  l-an'juao'i,  lilrraine,  and  Rtltglon  of  Hqtal  and 

11  iaillavlilara,  edited  and  p.nrtly  translated  by  RnjendmUla  Mllm;  MaH- 
railu  e.llled  E.  Senart ;  Vtvra  parlrhlirda.  edited  M.  Wllller;  Saddharnit- 
riiiic/nrUn,  ttamtiited  by  E.  llurnouf  (' Lotu»  dc  la  bonne  lol '■);  and  H.  Kcro, 
S.icrni  limit  of  the  fait.  "  Edited  by  K.  «.  UaDcrJca. 


292 


SANSKRIT 


[UTEKATUnE. 


III.  Grammar  (r;/({i-«rana).— Wo  found  tliis  subject  enumer- 
ated as  one  of  tho  six  "lirafss  of  the  Veda,"  or  auxiliary  sciencea, 
the  study  of  which  was  deemed  necessary  for  a  correct  interpreta- 
tion of  the  sacred  Mantras,  and  the  proper  performance  of  Vedio 
rites.  Linguistic  inquiry,  plionetio  as  well  as  grammatical,  was 
indeed  early  resorted  to  both  for  the  purpose  of  elucidating  the 
meaning  of  the  Veda,  and  with  the  view  of  settling  its  textual 
form.  The  particular  work  which  came  ultimately  to  be  looked 
upon  as  the  "vedfinga"  representative  of  grammatical  science, 
and  has  ever  since  remained  the  standard  authority  for  Sanskrit 
grammar  in  India,  is  Panini's  Ashtdd/iyiiyt,'-  so  called  from  its 
"  consisting  of  eight  lectures  {adhyAya),"  of  four  pMas  each.  For 
a  comprehensive  grasp  of  linguistic  facts,  and  a  penetrating  insight 
into  the  structure  of  the  vernacular  language,  this  work  stands 
probably  unrivalled  in  the  literature  of  any  nation,  —though 
few  other  languages,  it  is  true ,  afford  such  facilities  as  the  Sans- 
krit for  a  scientiiic  analysis.  Panini's  system  of  arrangement 
ditfers  entirely  from  that  usually  adopted  in  our  grammars,  viz., 
according  to  tho  so-called  parts  of  speech.  As  the  work  is  com- 
posed in  aphorisms  intended  to  be  learnt  by  heart,  economy  of 
memory-matter  was  the  author's  paramount  consideration.  His 
object  was  chiefly  attained  by  the  grouping  together  of  all  cases 
exhibiting  the  same  phonetic  or  formative  feature,  no  matter 
whether  or  not  they  belonged  to  tho  same  part  of  speech.  For 
this  purpose  he  also  makes  use  of  a  highly  artificial  and  ingenious 
system  of  algebraic  symbols,  consisting  of  technical  letters  {aim- 
bandha),  used  chiefly  with  suffixes,  and  indicative  of  the  changes 
which  the  roots  or  stems  have  to  undergo  in  word-formation. 

It  is  self-evident  that  so  complicated  and  complete  a  system  of 
linguistic  analysis  and  nomenclature  could  not  have  sprung  up,  all 
at  once  and  in  the  infancy  qf  grammatical  science,  but  that  many 
generations  of  scholars  must  have  h^ped  to  bring  it  to  that  degreo 
of  perfection  which  it  exhibits  in  Panini's  work.  Accordingly  we 
find  Paiiini  himself  making  reference' in  various  places  to  ten  dif- 
ferent gi'ammarians,  besides  two  schools,  which  he  calls  the  "eastern 
{prduchas)"  and  "northern  {xidafichas)"  grammarians.  Perhaps 
the  most  important  of  his  predecessors  was  Sakatayana,^  also 
mentioned  by  Yaska — the  author  of  the  Nirukta,  wlio  is  likewise 
supposed  to  have  preceded  Panini — as  the  only  grammarian  (vaiyd- 
karaiia)  who  held  with  the  etymologists  {nairukta)  that  all  nouns 
are  derived  from  verbal  roots.  Unfortunately  there  is  little  hope 
of  the  recovery  of  his  gi-ammar,  which  would  probably  have  enabled 
us  to  determine  somewhat  more  exactly  to  what  extent  Panini  was 
indebted  to  the  labours  of  his  predecessors..  There  exists  indeed  a 
grammar  iu  South  Indian  MSS.,  entitled  Sabddnusdsana,  which  is 
ascribed  to  one  Sakatayana  ;  ^  but  this  has  been  proved  ■*  to  be  the 
production  of  a  modern  Jaina  writer,  which,  however,  seems  to  be 
partly  based  on  the  original  work,  and  partly  on  Panini  ami  others. 
Panini  is  also  called  Dakshiputra,  after  his  mother  Dakshi.  As 
.his "birthplace  the  village  Salatura  is  mentioned,  which  was  situated 
some  few  miles  north-west  of  the  Indus,  in  the  country  of  the 
Gandharas,  whence  later  writers  also  call  him_  Salaturiya,  the 
formation  of  which  name  he  himself  explains  in  his  grammar. 
Another  name  sometimes  applied  to  him  is  Salanki.  In  the  Kathd- 
earitsdgara,  a  modern  collection  of  popular  tales  mentioned  above, 
panini  is  said  to  have  been  the  pupil  of  Varsha,  a  teacher  at  Pata- 
liputra,  under  the  reign  of  Nanda,  the' father  (!)  of  Chandragupta 
(315-291  B.C.).  The  real  date  of  tho  great  grammarian  is,  how- 
ever, still  a  matter  of  uncertainty.  While  Goldstiicker'  attempted 
to  put  his  date  back  to  ante-Buddhist  times  (about  the  7th 
century  B.C.),  Prof.  Weber  holds  that  Panini's  grammar  cannot 
have  been  composed  till  some  time  after  the  invasion  of  Alexander 
the  Great.  This  opinion  is  chiefly  based  ou  the  occurrence  in  one 
of  the  Sfltras  of  tho  word  yavandnt,  in  the  sense  of  "  the  writing 
of  the  Yavanas  (lonians),"  thus  implying,  it  would  seem,  such  an 
acquaintance  with  the  Greek  alphabet  as  it  would  be  impossible  to 
assume  for  any  period  prior  to  Alexander's  Indian  campaign 
(326  B.C.).  But,  as  it  is  by  no  means  certain^  that  this  term 
really  applies  to  the  Greek  alphabet,  it  is  scarcely  expedient  to 
make  the  word  the  corner-stone  of  thf  argument  regarding  Panini's 
age.-'.  If  Patanjali's  "great  commentary"  was  written,  as  seems 
highly  probable,  about  the  middle  of  the  2nd  century  B.C.,  it  is 
hardly  possible  to  assign  to  Panini  a  later  date  than  about  400  B.C. 
Though  this  grammarian  registers  numerous  words  and  formations 
as  peculiar  to  the  Vedic  hymns,  his  chief  concern  is  with  the  ordi- 
nary speech  (hhdsM)  of  his  period  and  its  literature  ;  and  it  is 
Doteworthy,  in  this  respect,  that  the  rules  he  lays  down  on  some 
important  points  of  syntax  (as  pointed  out  by  Profs.  Bhandarkar 
and  RJelhorn)  are  in  accord  with  the  practice  of  the  Brahmanas 
rather  than  with  that  of  the  later  classical  literature. 

•  Printed,  with  a  commentai  y,  at  Calcutta;  also,  vrlth  rotes,  Indexes,  and  an 
Instmctive  Introduction,  by  0.  BulilIinKk. 

2  I.e.,  son  of  Siiltata,  wlience  lie  is  also  called  Sakaflincaja. 

•  Compaie  G.  BUtiler's  paper,  Orimt  und  Occident,  p.  601  sq. 

•  A.  Buinell,  On  the  Aindra  .Sc/ioo/  0/ S<i?isint  Ovainmarians. 
5  Pdnini,  hii  place  in  Sansiril  literatitre.  ISGl. 

'  See  Lassen,  Ind.  Alt..  1.  p.  723  ;  M.  Miiller,  Hist,  of  A.  S.  Lit.,  p.  521  j  A. 
Weber,  Ind.  Stud.,  v.  p.  8  iq. 


P.anini's  Sutras  continued  for  ages  after  to  form  tho  ccuti'O  of 
gi'ammatical  activity.  But,  as  his  own  work  had  superseded  those 
of  his  predecessors,  so  many  of  tho  scholars  who  devoted  them- 
selves to  the  task  of  perfecting  his  system  liavo  sunk  into 
oblivion.  The  earliest  of  his  successors  whose  work  has  como. 
down  to  us  (though  perhaps  not  in  a  separate  form),  is  Katylvyana,- 
the  author  of  a  large  collection  of  concise  critical  notes,  called 
Fdrttika,  intended  to  supidement  and  correct  the  Sutras,  or  give 
them  greater  precision.  The  exact  date  of  this  writer  is  likewise 
unknown;  but  tlicre-eau  be  little  doubt  that  he  lived  at  least  a 
century  alter  ranini.  During  the  interval  a  new  body  of  literature 
seems  to  have  sprung  up," — accompanied  with  considci-able  changes 
of  language, — and  the  geographical  knowledge  of  India  extended 
over  lai-ge  tracts  towards  tlie  south.  Whether  this  is  tho  same 
Katyayana  to  whom  the  Vajasancyi-pratisrddiya  (as  well  as  the 
Sarvaiiukrama)  is  attributed,  is  still  doubted  by  some  scholars.^ 
Katj'.ayana  being  properly  a  family  or  trib.al  name,  meaning  "tho 
descendant  of  Katya,"  later  works  usually  assign  a  second  name 
Vararuchi  to  tho  writers  (for  there  are  at  least  two)  wlio  bear 
it.  The  Kathasaritsagara  makes  the  author  of  the  V.arttikas  a 
fellow-student  of  Panini,  and  afterwards  the  minister  of  Kincf 
Nauda ;  but,  though  this  date  might  have  fitted  Katyajtina  well 
enough,  it  is  impossible  to  place  any  reliance  on  tho  statements 
derived  from  such  a  source.  Katyayana  was  succeeded  again, 
doubtless  after  a  considerable  interval,  by  Patanjali,  the  author  of 
the  ( Vyukarana-)  lUahd-bhdshya,^  or  Great  Commentary.  For  the 
great  variety  of  information  it  incidentally  supplies  regarding  tho 
literature  and  manners  of  the  period,  this  is,  from  an  historical 
and  antiquarian  point  of  view;  one  of  the  most  important  works  of 
the  classical  Sanskrit  literature.  Fortunately  the  author's  date 
has  been  settled  by  synchronisms  implied  in  two  passages  of  his 
work.  In  one  of  them  the  use  of  the  imperfect — as  the  tenso 
referring  to  an  event,  known  to  people  generally,  not  witnessed  by 
the  speaker,  and  yet  capable  of  being  witnessed  by  him — is  illus- 
trated by  the  sta"tement,  "  The  Yavana  besieged  Saketa,"  which 
there  is  reason  to  believe  can  only  refer  to  the  Indo-Bactrian  king 
Menander  (144-0.  124  n.c),  who,  according  to  Strabo,  extended  his 
rule  as  far  as  the  Yamuna.'"  In  the  other  passage  tho  use  of  the 
present  is  illustrated  by  the  sentence,  "We  are  sacrificing  for  Pusli- 
pamitra," — this  prince  (178-c.  142  B.C.),  the  founder  of  the  Sunga 
dynasty,  being  known  to  have  fought  against  tho  Greeks.'"  Wo 
thus  get  the  years  144-142  B.C.  as  the  probable  time  when  the 
work,  or  part  of  it,  was  composed.  Although  Patafijali  probably 
gives  not  a  few  traditional  grammatical  examples  mechanically 
repeated  from  his  predecessors,  those  here  mentioned  are  fortun- 
ately such  as,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  case,  must  have  been 
made  by  himself.  The  JIahabhashya  is  not  a  continuous  com- 
mentary on  Panini's  grammar,  but  deals  only  with  those  Sdtras 
(some  1720  out  of  a  total  of  nearly  4000)  on  which  Katyayana  had 
proposed  any  Varttikas,  the  critical  discussion  of  which,  in  con- 
nexion with  the  respective  Sutras,  and  with  the  views  of  other  gram- 
marians expressed  thereon,  is  the  sole  object  of  Patanjali's  com- 
mentatorial  remarks.  Though  doubts  have  been  raised  as  to  tho 
textual  condition  of  the  work,  Piof  Kielhoru  has  clearly  shown 
that  it  has  probably  been  handed  down  in  as  good  a  state  of  pre- 
servation as  any  other  classical  Sanskrit  work.  Patanjali  is  also 
called  Gonardiya, — which  name  Prof  Bhandarkar  takes  to  menu 
"a  n.ative  of  Gonarda,"  a  place,  according  to  the  same  scholar, 
probably  identical  with  Gonda,  a  town  some  20  miles  north-west  of 
Oudh, — a,.d  Gonikaputr.a,  or  sou  of  Gonika.  Whether  there  is  any 
connexion  between  this  writer  and  the  reputed  author  of  tho 
Yoga.sastra  is  doubtful.  The  JIahabhashya  has  been  commented 
upon  by  Kaiyata,  in  his  Bliushyapmdtpa,  and  the  latter  again  by 
Nagojibhntta,  a'  distinguished  grammarian  of  the  earlier  part  of  the 
last  century,  in  his  Bhdshya-prad'ipoddyola. 

Of  running  commentaries  on  Panini's  Sutras,  the  oldest  extant 
and  most  important  is  the  KdHkA  'Vritli,^^  or  "comment  of  KS.si 
(Benares),"  the  joint  production  of  two  jaina  writers  of  probably 
the  first  half  of  the  7th  century,  viz.,  Jayaditya  and  Vajnana,  each 
of  whom  composed  one  half  (fouradhyayas)  of  the  work.  The  chief 
commentaries  on  this  work  are  Haradatta  Jlisra's  Padnmaiijart, 
whicli  also  embodies  the  substance  of  tho  JIahabhashya,  and. 
Jinendra-buddhi's  Kydsa.^' 

Educational  requirements  in  course  of  time  led  to  tho  appearance" 
of  gr.ammar.s,  chiefly  of  an  elementary  character,  constructed  on  a 

'  F.  Kielhorn,  Katm'njana  vnd  Patanjali,  1S7C.  The  Sanoraba.  a  huge  niotri- 
cal  woik  on  grammar,  by  Yy^di,  whicli  is  frequently  .^feiTCd  to,  doubtk-sa 
belongs  to  this  period. 

*E.<].,  A.  Webci".    Goldstiicker  and  M.  Miiller  take  the  opposite  view, 

9  Part  of  this  work  was  first  printed  by  Ballanf  yne ;  followed  by  a  litlioRraphcd 
edition,  by  two  Benares  pandits,  1371;  and  a  photo-lithnRraitliic  edition  of  tlio 
text  and  commentaries,  published  by  tho  India  Office,  under  Goidstiicker's 
supervisliin,  1374 ;  finally,  a  critical  edition,  now  in  ]ii-o(;ress,  by  K.  Kielliorn. 
For  a  review  of  the  literary  and  antiiniari;in  data  sul'plied  by  tho  work,  see  A. 
Weber,  Ind.  Stud.,  xiii.  203  sg.  The  author's  date  li.is  been  frequently  dis- 
cussed, most  thoroughly  and  successfully  by  It.  G.  y'iaid'>i*'ar  \fi  srve:-a;  papers. 
See  also  A.  Weber,  Hist,  of  I.  L.,  p.  223.  '»  La-sen,  Ind.  A'l.,  iL  3*1.  3C4 

"  Edited  by  Pandit  BfilaSastil,  Benares,  187C-7(!. 

'»  As  It  Is  quoted  by  'VopaUeva,  It  cannot  be  Later  tJian  thi  I'-tl,  •'c:il..'C 


lITERATURR.] 


'SANSKRIT 


203 


move  practical  system  of  arrangement — tlie  principal  heads  under 
/which  the  grammatical  matter  was  distributed  usually  being- 
rules  of  euphony  {sandhi) ;  inflexion  of  nouns  {ndman),  gene- 
rally including  composition  and  secondary  derivatives  ;  the  verb 
{AkkylUa) ;  ami  priniary  (krid-anla)  derivatives.  In  this  way  a 
jnum'ber  of  grammatical  schools  •  sprang  up  at  dilferent  times,  each 
(recognizing  a  special  set  of  Sutras,  round  which  gradually  gathered 
a  more  or  less  numerous  body  of  commentatorial  and  subsidiary 
[treatises.  As  regards  the  grammatical  material  itself,  these  later 
grammars  supply  comparatively  little  that  is  not  already  contained 
in  the  older  works,— the  dilTerenco  being  mainly  one  of  method, 
'and  partly  of  terminology,  including  modifications  of  the  system 
'of  technical  letters  [amihaiidJia).  Ot  the  grammars  of  this  descrip- 
tion hitherto  known  the  CItdndm-vydkarnna  is  probably  the 
[oldest, —its  author  Chandra  Acharya  having  flourished  under  King 
'Abhimanyu  of  Kaslunir,  who  is  usually  supposed  to  have  lived 
towards  the  end  of  the  2d  century,^  and  in  whose  reign  that 
grammarian  is  stated,  along  with  others,  to  have  revived  the  study 
of  the  Mahiibhashya  in  Kashmir.  Only  portions  of  this  grammar, 
witli  a  commentary  bv  Anandadatta,  have  »s  yet  been  recovered. 
!■■  The  Kdtantm,^  or  Kdhtpa,  is  ascribed  to  Kumr.ra,  the  god  of  war, 
•whence  this  school  is  also  sometimes  called  Kaumdra.  The  real 
author  probably  was  Sarva-varman,  who  also  wrote  the  original 
commentary  {vriUi),  which  was  afterwards  recast  by  Durgasiniha, 
and  again  commented  upon  by  the  same  writer,  and  subsequently 
by  Trilochana-dusa.  The  date  of  the  Katantra  is  unknown,  but  it 
•will  probably  liave  to  be  assigned  to  about  the  Glh  or  7th  century. 
It  is  still  used  in  many  parts  of  India,  especially  in  Bengal 
and  Kashmir.  Other  grammars  are— the  Sdrasvall  PrakriyA,  by 
Anublmti  Svarupacharya ;  the  Smikshipla-s&ra,  composed  by 
Kramadi^vara,  and  corrected  by  Jumara-nandin,  whence  it  is  also 
called  Jaumara ;  the  Haima-vydkarana,*  by  the  Jaina  writer 
Hemachandra  (1088-1172,  according  'to  Dr  Bhao  Daji) ;  the 
' Muijdha-bodha,^  composed,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  13th  century, 
by  Vopadeva,  the  court  pandit  of  King  Mahadeva  (Ramaruja)  of 
Devagiri  (or  Dcoghar) ;  the  Siddhdnta-kaumudi,  the  favourite 
text-book  of  Indian  students,  by  Bhattoji  Dikshita  (17th  cen- 
•tury)  ;  and  a  clever  abridgment  of  it.'tho  Laghu-  {SiddhdiUa-} ' 
kaiitniidi,^  by  Varadaraja. 

I  Several  subsidiary  grammatical  treatises  remain  to  be  noticed. 
The  Paribhdshds  are  general  maxims  of  interpretation  presupposed 
by  the  Sutras.  Those  handed  down  as  applicable  to  Piinini's 
system  have  been  interpreted  most  ably  by  Nagojibhatta,  in  his 
Parlbdshendidekhara.''  In  the  case  of  rules  applying  to  whole 
grovips  of  words,  the  complete  lists  ((jana)  of  these  words  are  given 
jn  the  Ganapdlhii,  and  only  referred  to  in  the  Sutras.  Vardha- 
mana's  GaiMraliia-malwdadhi,^  a  comparatively  modern  recension 
of  these  lists  (1140  a.d.),  is  valuable  as  offuriug,  tlie  only  available 
commentary  on  the  Ganas  which  contain  many  words  of  unknown 
meaning.  The  Dhdiupiithas  are  complete  lists  of  the  roots  {dhdtu)  of 
the  language,  with  their  general  meanings.  The  lists  handed  down 
under  this  title,'  as  arranged  by  Panini  himself,  have  been  com- 
mented upon,  amongst  others,  by  Jlaiihava.  The  Unddi-siUras  are 
rnles  on  the  formation  of  irregular  derivatives.  The  oldest  work 
of  this  kind,  commented  upoii  by  Ujjvaladatta,'"  is  by  some  writers 
ascribed  to  Katyayana  Vararuchi,  by  others  even  to  Sakatayana. 
The  oldest  known  treatise  on  the  philosophy  of  grammar  and 
syntax  is  tho  Vdkya-padtya,''^  composed  in  verse,  by  Bhartcihari 
(?  7th  century),  whence  it  is  also  called  Harikdrikd.  Of  later 
works  on  this  subject,  tho  Vaiydkaraiut-lhAshmm,  by  Koiula- 
bhatta,  and  the  Vaiydkarana-siddhdnta-manjishA,  by  Nagoji- 
bhatta, are  tho  most  important. 

IV^.  LEXicoonArnr. — Sanskrit"  dictionaries  {kosha),  invariably 
composed  in  verse,  are  cither  homonymous  or  synonymous,  or  partly 
the  one  and  partly  tho  other.  Of  those  hitlierto  published, 
^i^vata's  Anekd)iha-samuc!u:hai/a,'^'  or  "  collection  of  homonyms," 
is  probably  tho  oldest.  While  in  tho  later  homonymio  vocabu- 
laries tho  words  arc  usually  arranged  according  to  the  alphabetical 
order  of  the  final  (or  sometimes  tho  initial)  letter,  and  then  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  syllables,  ^dsvata's  principle  of  arrangement 
— viz.,  tho  number  of  meanings  assignable  to  a  word — seems  to  bo 
more  primitive.  Tho  work  probably  next  in  time  is  tho  famous 
Amara-koslia"  ("immortal  treasury")  by  Amarasiipha,  one  of 
"the  nine  gems"  at  tho  court  of  King  Vikramaditya  (e.  550  A.D.). 
This  dictionary  consists  of  a  synonymous  and  a  short  homonymous 
part ;  whilst  in  tho  former  the  words  aro  distributed  in  sections 

1  Dr  Ilumcll.  in  h!9  Aindra  School^  proposca  to  Qpply  this  term  to  all 
frraromavs  aiTniiRcd  on  this  plan. 

'  Prof.  Bhnndnikar,  Early  lliitoi]/  o/  llm  Dtllian,  p,  20.  propoiM  to  flu  Mm 
Atxiut  tho  end  of  the  3d  century.  ^  Kd.,  with  cninm.,  hy  J.  Kggeling, 

«  Part  ed.  and  transl.  by  It.  I'HchcI.  '  Ed.  by  O.  BuhtllnKk,  18«. 

«  Ed.  and  trans),  by  J.  li.  BallantyTie.  For  otiicr  modern  grammars  too 
Colebrooke,  Eliai/i,  II.  p.  41;  KlUcndiamla  MItro.  tincriptiM  Calnlogiu,  I., 
<Jrammar.  '  Kd.  and  transl.  by  F.  Klclhom. 

«  Ed.  by  J.  EitBcllnit.  •  Kd.  by  N.  L.  Wcalcr(taarJ. 

>o  Text  and  commentary,  ctl.  by  Th.  Aufrccht. 

>*  In  courao  of  publication,  with  commontarlca,  at  Benares. 

"  Ed  tjyTh.  Zaclhirlac. 

«  KdlteJny  II.  T.  Colcbrooko  (180B),  and  by  L.  Ilcslonijchampi  (lS5!l-«5). 


according  to  subjects,  as  lic.ivcn  and  tho  gods,  time  ,\ni'  scason.s, 
&c.,  iu  the  latter  they  are  arranged  according  to  their  lina)  letttr, 
without  regard  to  tlio  nuinlicr  of  svllables.  This  Kosha  haslotint" 
many  commentators,  tho  oldest  of  those  kjiown  being  Kshira- 
svamin,"  Among  the  works  quoted  by  commentators  as  Amar.a's 
sources  are  the  I'rikdmla  and  UtpnlinUkoshas,  and  the  glos-saiHcS 
of  Rabhasn,  Vyadi,  Katyiynna,  and  Vararuchi.  A  Kosha 
.ascribed  to  Vararuchi, — wlioni  tradition  makes  one  of  the  nine 
literary  "gems,"  and  hence  the  contemporary  of  Aniara-siii>ha, — 
consisting  of  ninety  short  sections,  has  been  printed  at  Benares 
(18G5)  in  a  collection  of  twelve  Kosluos.  Tho  Abhidhdna-ratna- 
)n(W(i,"  by  Halayudha  ;  the  VUvaprakdia,  by  Jlahesvara  (1111) ; 
and  the  AbhiiUuina-chiiildtimiii^"  (or  Ilaima-koslM),  by  the  Jaina 
Hemachandra,  sicin  all  three  to  belong  to  the  12tli  century. 
Somewhai  earlier  than  these  probably  is  Ajaja  I'ala,  tho  author 
of  the  (homonymous)  Kdiidrtha-saugralia,  being  quoted  by  Var- 
dhamana  (1140  A.D.).  Of  more  uncertain  date  is  rurushottam.i 
Deva,  •who  wrote  the  TrikdmJa-ieslM,  a  supplement  to  the 
Amarakosha,  besides  tho  ili'rdvali,  a.  collection  of  uncommon 
words,  and  two  other  short  glossaries.  Of  numerous  other  works 
of  this  class  the  most  important  is  the  iledint,  a  dictionary  of 
homonyms,  arranged  in  the  first  place  according  to  the  finals  and 
the  syllabic  length,  and  then  alphabetically.  Two  important 
dictionaries,  compiled  by  native  scholars  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, are  the  h'abdakalpadruma  by  Hadhakanta  Deva,  and  the 
Vdchaspatya,  by  Taranatha  Tarka-vachaspati.  A  full  account 
of  Sanskrit  dictionaries  id  contained  in  the  preface  to  the  first 
edition  of  II.  H.  Wilson's  Dictioiiary,  reprinted  in  his  Essays  on 
Sanskrit  Literature,  vol.  iii. 

V.  Prosody  (Chhandas). — The  oldest  treatises  on  prosody  have  Pbo.w» 
already  been  referred  to  in  the  account  of  the  technical  branches 

ot  the  later  Yedis  literature.  Among  more  modern  treatises  the 
most  importatr.  are  the  Mrita-saiijivant,  a  commentary  on 
Pingala's  Sfitia,  by  Halayudlii  (perhaps  identical  with  the  author 
of  the  glossary  above  referred  to) ;  the  Vritta-ratndkara,  or 
"jewel-mine  of  metres,"  in  six  chapters,  composed  before  tho 
13th  century  by  Kedara  Bliatia,  with  several  commentaries  ;  and 
the  Chlmndo-Dianjart,  likewi.se  in  six  chapters,  by  Gangadasa. 
The  Snitabodha,  ascribed,  probably  wrongly,  to  tho  great  Kalidasa, 
is  a  comparatively  insignificant  treatise,  dealing  only  with  the 
more  common  metres,  in  such  a  way  that  each  couplet  forms  a 
specimen  of  the  metre  it  describes.  The  Vritta-darpana  treats 
cliielly  of  Prakrit  metres.  Sanskrit  prosody,  which  is  probably  not 
surpassed  by  any  other  cither  in  variety  of  metre  or  iu  harmonioiis- 
ness  of  rhythm,  recognizes  two  classes  of  metres,  viz.,  such  as  con- 
sist of  a  certain  number  of  syllables  of  fixed  quantity,  and  such, 
as  are  regulated  by  groups  of  breves  or  metrical  instants,  thi? 
latter  class  being  again  of  two  kinds,  according  a.s  it  is  or  is  not 
bound  by  a  fixed  order  of  feet.  A  pleasant  account  of  Sanskrit 
poetics  is  given  in  Colebrooke's  Essays,  vol.  ii. ;  a  more  completg 
and  systematic  one  by  Prof.  Weber,  Ind.  Slud.,  vol.  viiL 

VI.  Musio  (Sangita). — The  musical  art  has  been  practised  in  MOBir 
India  from  early  times.     Tlie  theoretic  treatiser.  on  profane  musie( 

now  extant  are,  however,  quite  modern  productions, »  Tho  two 
most  highly  esteemed  works  are  the  Sanglta-ralndkara  ("jewel- 
mine  of  music  "),  by  Sarngadeva,  antl  the  Sangita-darpana  ("  mirror 
of  music"),  by  Dumodara.  Each  of  these  works  consists  of  seven 
chapters,  treating  respectively  of— (1)  sound  and  musical  notes 
(svara) ;  (2)  melodies  {rdga) ;  (3)  music  in  connexion  with  tho 
human  voice  (jprakirnaka)  \  (4)  musical  compositions  {prabandha) ; 
(5)  time  and  measure  (lata)  ;  (6)  musical  instruments  and  instru- 
mental music  (vddya)  ;  (7)  dancing  and  acting  (nritta  or  nritya). 
The  Indian  octave  consists  like  our  own  of  seven  chief  notea 
(svara) ;  but,  while  with  us  it  is  subdivided  into  twelve  semi-tones, 
tho  Hindu  theory  distinguishes  twenty-two  intervals  (sruli, 
audiblo  sound).  There  is,  however,  some  doubt  as  to  whether 
these  irutis  are  quite  equal  to  one  atiother, — in  which  case  tho 
intervals  between  tho  chief  notes  would  bo  unequal,  since  they 
consist  of  cither  two  or  three  or  four  h-ulis, — or  whether,  if  the 
intervals  between  the  chief  notes  bo  equal,  the  initii  themselves 
vary  in  duration  between  quarter-,  third-,  and  semi-tones.  There 
are  three  scales  {grdma),  dill'ering  from  each  other  in  tho  nature 
of  tho  cliiof  intervals  (either  as  regards  actual  duration,  or  tho 
number  of  iSrutis  or  sub-tones).  Indian  mu.sic  consists  almost 
entirely  in  melody,  instrumental  accompaniment  being  performed 
in  unison,  and  any  attempt  at  harmony  being  confined  to  tho 
continuation  of  tho  key-note.  A  number  of  pajiers,  by  various 
writers,  have  been  reprinted  with  additional  remarks  on  tho 
subject,  in  Sourindro  Jlohun  Tagore's  Hindu  Mimie,  Calcutta, 
1876.  Compare  also  "  Hindu  Music,"  reprinted  from  tho 
mndoo  Patriot,  September  7,  1874. 

VII.  RiiKTOHio  (y-i/anA-dra-iils^ro).— Treatises  on  the  theory  of 

'*  A  (jrammarlan  of  Uila  name  la  mcnllonrd  aa  the  tutor  of  King  JayApt^a  of 
Kashmir  (75&-7S6  A.l>.);  but  Kshira,  the  commentator  on  Amara  la  placctl  bjr 
Prof.  Aufrccht  beiwci-n  tho  11th  and  12th  centuries,  because  ho  quotca  tbo 
dubdftn-tiavnna  asci  itH?tl  to  Khoiar&Ja,  • 

"  Kd.  by  Tl'  Anfrecht  (1801)  ■<  Ed.  by  0.  Buhlltnglc  and  C.  Rlan  (1847) 


204 


SANS  K  11  I  !• 


[LITCnATUUEi 


literary  composition  arc  very  numerous.  Imlccd,  a  subjoci  of  tliia 
dcsiniptioii— iuvolviiig  such  iiicciUstinctioiia  as  roganls  tlio  various 
kinds  of  pootic  composition,  tlio  particular  subjects  and  clmracters 
adapted  I'or  tliem,  and  tlie  dilfcrcut  sentiments  or  mental  condi- 
tions capable  of  being  both  depictured  and  called  forth  by  thcni  — 
could  not  but  be  congenial  to  the  Indian  mind.  II.  H.  Wilson,  in 
his  ThcfUrc  of  tlie  Hindus,  has  given  a  detailed  account  of  these 
theoretic  distinctions  with  special  reference  to  the  dranm,  \vliicli,  as 
tho  most  perfect  and  varied  kind  of  iioctic  production,  usually 
takes  an  important  place  in  the  theory  of  literary  composition. 
The  Bharala-sCistra  has  already  been  alluded  to  as  probably  the 
oldest  extant  work  in  this  department  of  literature.  Anothei- 
comparatively  ancient  treatise  is  the  KAvyudaria,^  or  "mirror  of 
poetry,"  in  three  chapters,  by  Dandin,  the  author  of  the  novel 
basakumaracharita,  who  probably  flourished  not  long  after 
Kalidasa  (whose  Prakrit  poem  Setubandha  he  ipiotcs)  in  the  Cth 
century.  The  work  consists  of  three  chapters,  treating— (1)  of  two 
different  local  styles  (rili)  of  poetry,  the  Gaudi  and  tho  Vaidarbhi 
[to  which  later  critics  add  four  others,  the  Panchali,  JIagadhi, 
Lati,  and  Avantika) ;  (i2)  *f  the  graci-s  and  ornaments  of  style,  as 
tropes,  figures,  similes  ;  (3)  of  alliteration,  literary  puzzles,  and 
twelve  kinds  of  faults  to  be  avoided  in  com|iosing  poems.  Another 
treatise  on  rhetoric,  in  Sutras,  with  a  commentary  entitled 
KiXvyAlanl-dm-vritli,  is  ascribed  to  Vamana.  Prof.  Capjieller,  to 
whom  we  owe  an  edition  of  this  work,  is  inclined  to  fix  it  as  lato 
as  tho  12th  century  ;  but  it  may  turn  out  to  be  somewhat  older. 
The  Xdvydlankdra,  by  the  Kashmirian  Kudrata,  must  have 
been  composed  prior  to  the  11th  century,  as  a  gloss  on  it 
(by  Kami),  whicli  professes  to  be  based  on  older  commentaries, 
was  written  in  1063.  Dhauanjaya,  tbe  author  of  the  Sasa- 
rtipa,^  or  "ten  forms  (of  plays),"  the  favourite  compendium  of 
dramaturgy,  appears  to  have  flourished  in  the  10th  centui-y.  In 
the  conclu5ing  stanza  lie  is  stated  to  liave  composed  his  work  at 
the  court  of  King  JIunja,  who  is  probably  identical  with  the  well- 
known  Malava  prince,  the  nncle  and  predecessor  of  King  Bhoja  of 
Dhara.  The  Dasarupa  was  early  commented  upon  by  Dhanika, 
j)ossibly  the  author's  owu  brother,  their  father's  name  being  the 
same  (Tishnu).  Dhanika  (juotes  Rajasekhara,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  flourished  about  1000  A.D.,^  but  may  after  all  have  to  be  put 
somewhat  earlier.  The  Sarasvatt-i.v.niMf'haratia,  "the  neck- 
ornament  of  Sarasvati  (the  goddess  of  eloquence),"  a  treatise,  in 
rive  chapters,  oji  poet'cs  jtenerally,  remarkable  for  its  wealth  of 
quotations,  is  ascribed  to  King  Bhoja  himself  (11th  century),  pro- 
oably  as  a  compliment  by  some  WTiter  patronized  by  him.  Tho 
Kdvya-prakdia*  "the  lustre  of  poetry,"  another  esteemed  work  of 
the  same  claS3,  in  ten  sections,  was  probably' composed  in  the  12th 
century,^the  author,  Jlammata,  a  Kashmirian,  haTin^  been  the 
maternal  uncle  of  SrI-Harsha,  the  author  of  the  Naishadhiya.  The 
Sdkitya-darpana,^  or  "  mirror  of  composition,"  the  standard  work 
on  literary  criticism,  was  composed  in  the  15th  century,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Brahmaputra,  by.  Yi^vanatha  Kaviraja.  The  work  consists 
ci'  ten  chapters,  treating  of  the  following  subjects : — (1)  the  nature 
of  poetry  ;  (2)  the  sentence  ;  (S)  poetic  flavour  {rasa)  ;  (4)  the 
divisions  of  po-^*ry ;  (5)  the  functions  of  literary  suggestion ;  (6) 
visible  and  audible  poetry  (chiefly  on  dramatic  art) ;  (7)  faults  of 
style ;  (8)  merits  of  style ;  (9)  distinction  of  styles ;  (10)  ornaments 
of  stj'le. 
vpni-  vin.  Medicisb  (^y«r-i'«(?(i,  r«.!V?i/«-!fA??m).— Though  the  early 
-'"•"•  cultivation  of  the  healing  art  is  amply  attested  by  frequent  aUu- 
sions  in  the  A'edic  wntings,  it  was  -doubtless  not  till  a  much  later 
period  that  the  medical  practice  advanced  beyond  a  certain  degree 
of  empirical  skill  and  pharmaceutic  routine.  From  the  simultaneous 
mention  of  the  three  humours  (ivind,  bile,  phlegm)  in  a  vdrttika  to 
Panini  (v.  1,  38),  some  kind  of  humoral  pathology  would,  however, 
?eein  to  have  beeii  prevalent  among  Indian  physicians  several 
lenturies  before  our  era.  The  oldest  existing  work  is  supposed  to 
be  the  Ckai-aka-samliHa,'  a  bulky  cyclopedia  in  slokas,  mixed  with 
prose  sections,  which  consists  of  eight  chapters,  and  was  jirobably 
composed  some  centuries  after  Christ.  Of  equal  authority,  but 
probably  somewhat  more  modern,  is  the  SniriUa  (-samAidl),' which 
Susruta"  is  said  to  have  received  from  Dhanvantari,  the  Indian 
iEsculapius,  whose  name,  however,  appears  also  among  the  "nine 
gems"  \c.  550  A.D.).  It  consists  of  six  chapters,  and  is  likewise 
composed  in  mixed  verse  and  prose,— the  greater  simplicity  of 
srrancement,  as  well  as  some  slight  attention  paid  in  it  to  surgery, 
bctok'ening  an  advance  upon  Charaka.  Both  works  are,  however, 
characterized  by  great  prolixity,  and  contain  much  matter  which 
has  little  connexion  with  medicine.  The  late  Prof.  E.  Haas,  in 
two  very  suggestive  papers,*  tried  to  show  that  the  work  of  Susruta 

•  Ed.  -Kith  commentarj-,  by  Premachandva  Talkablgtsa,  Bill.  Jnd. 

2  Edited  by  Fitzedw.  Hall,  BiK.  Ind.',  1805. 

3  R.  Pischel.  Oolt.  Get.  A.,  1B83;  G.  Buhler,  Jnd.  Ant.,  1684,  p.  29. 
■•  Ed.  by  Mahesa  Chandra  XySyaratna,  ISiiii. 

*  Text  and  translation  in  Bibl../ni. 

«  Ed.  by  Jibananda  Vidvasagara.  Calc,  1S77. 

'  Ed.  by  Madhusudana  Gupt.i,  1S35-37,  and  by  Jibananda  Vidyasagar*.  1873. 

B  Z.  I/.  M.  a.,  1S76,  p.  617  J}. ;  1877,  p.  647  »J. 


(identified  by  him  with  Socrates,  so  often  confoundod  iii  the 
JliiUllo  Ages  with  Hippocrato.'s)  was  probably  not  coinjioscd  till 
after  the  iMohammcdan  coinjupst,  and  that,  so  far  froni  the  Ai-aba» 
(as  they  themselves  dci-larc)  having  derived  son>c  of  their 
kuowleilgo  of  medical  science  from  Indian  authorities,  tl  Indian. 
Vaid^-asi'istra  w.as  nothing  but  a  poor  copy  of  Greek  nudicine,  as 
tran.sniitted  by  the  Arabs.  But  even  tliough  Greek  influence  may 
bo  traced  in  this  as  in  other  branches  of  Indian  science,  there  can 
be  no  doubt,"  at  any  rate,  that  both  Charaka  and  Susiuta.  were 
known  to  tho  Arab  Razi  (t  932  a.d.),  and  to  the  author  of  the 
Fihrist  (completed  9S7  a.d.),  and  that  their  works  nnist  therefore 
have  existed,  in  some  form  or  other,  at  least  as  early  as  tlic  9lh 
century.  Among  the  numerous  later  medical  works  the  most 
important  general  compendiums  are  Vagbhuti's  A^hhoKja-hrldaija, 
"the  heart  of  the  eight-limbed  (body  of  nicdical  science),"  aiij 
Bhiiva  llisra's  Ehdva-pralcida ;  whilfi  of  special  treatises  may  b» 
mentioned  JIadhava's  system  of  nosology,  the  Rugvimkhaya,  or 
iliXdhiim-nidaiM,  and  Sarngadhara's  compendium  of  therapeutics, 
the  Sunigadhara-sO.mhUA.  Materia  mcdica,  with  which  India  i» 
so  lavishly  endowed  by  nature,  is  a  favourite  subject  with  Hindo' 
medical  writers, — the  most  valued  treatise  being  the  lidja-iiirjhantu, 
by  the  Kashmirian  Xarahari.  The  best  geneial  view  of  this  bi'anch 
of  Indian  science  is  continued  in  T.  A.  Wise's  Commentary  on, 
Hindu  Medicine,  1S45,  and  in  his  Hinlory  of  Mfilidne,  vol  i.,: 
1867 ;  but  the  whole  subject,  including  the  principal^^oriipnaV 
works,  still  awaits  a  criticiil  investigation. 

I.X.  Astronomy  and  JIathematics.— Hindu  asti-onomy  may 
be  broadly  divided  into  a  pre-scientitic  and  a  scientific  jieriod. 
While  the  latter  clearly  presupposes  a  knowledge  of  the  researches 
of  Hipparchus  and  other  Greek  astronomers,  it  is  still  doubtful 
whether  the  earlier  astronomical  and  astrological  theories  of  Indian 
writers  were  entirely  of  home  growth  or  partly  derived  from 
foreign  sources.  From  very  ancient  {probabr;j.Indo-  European )  times 
chronological  calculations  were  based  on  the  synodieal  revolutions  of 
the  moon,— the  difference  bctft-een  twelve  such  revolutions  (making 
together  354  days)  and  the  solar  year  being  adjusted  by  tlie  in- 
sertion, at  the  time  of  the  winter  solstice,  of  twelve  additional  days. 
Besides  this  primitive  mode  tlie  Bigveda  also  alludes  to  the  method 
prevalent  in  post-Vedic  times,  according  to  which  the  year  is  dividcd- 
into  twelve  (s&vana  or  solar)  months  of  thirty  days,  with  a  thir- 
teenth month  intercalated  every  fifth  year.  This  quinquennial 
cycle  {yuga)  is  explained  in  the  Jyotisha,  regarded  as  the  oldest 
astronomical  treatise.  An  institution  which  occupies  an  important 
part  in  those  early  speculations  is  the  theory  of  the  so-called  Innairj 
zodiac,  or  system  of  lunar  mansions,  by  which  tlie  planetary  path,  id 
accordancewith  the'duration  of  the  moon's  rotation,  is  divided  into) 
twenty-seven  or  twenty-eight  different  stations,  named  after  certaiii 
constellations  (nakshatra)  which  are  found  alongside  of  the  ecliptic^  ^ 
and  with  which  the  moon  (masc.)  was  supposed  to  dwell  successively 
durin"  his  circuit.  The  same  institution  is  found  in  China  audi 
Arabia;  but  it  is  still  doubtful"  whether  the  Hindus,  as  some 
scholars  hold,  or  the  Chaldtcans,  as-  Prof.  'Weber  thinks,  ai-e  to  b» 
credited  with  the  invention  of  this  theory.  The  principal  works, 
of  this  period  arc  hitherto  kno^vn  from  quotations  only,  vu.,  the, 
Gdrgt  Samhild,  which  Prof.  Kern  would  fix  at  c  SO.^c.,_JJia 
Mradi  Samhitd,  and  other  «  _  • 

The  new  era,  which  the  same  scholar  dates  from  c.  230  A.D.,  oq 
marked  by  the  appearance  of  the  five  original  Siddhdntas  (partlj 
extant  in  revised  redactions  and  in  quotations),  the  very  names  o^ 
two  of  which  suggest  "Western  inriuence,  viz.,  the  Paitdrnaha-, 
Sdri/a-,"  Fcisishtla-,  Romaka-  {i.e.,  Boman),  and  Paulisa-s^d- 
dkdnias.  Based  on  these  are  the  works  of  the  most  distinguished. 
Indian  astronomers,  viz.,  Aryabhata,'=  proDably  bom  in  4,6; 
Varaha-mihii-a,'3  probably  505-507:  Brahma-gupta,  who  completed 
his  Brahma-siddhdnta  in  628;  Bhatta  Utpala_ (10th  century,, 
distinguished  especially  as  commentator  of  ^  araha-mihira  ;  and 
Bhaskara  Achirya,  who  finished  his  gieat  coui-se  of  astronomy,  the 
Siddhdnta-sirmnani,  in  1150.  In  t^e  works  of  several  of  these 
-ivritei-s,  from  Aryablata  onwards,  special  attention  is  paid  to 
mathematical  (especially  arithmetical  and  algebraic)  computa- 
tions ;  and  the  respective  chapters  of  Bhaskara  s  compendium  viz. 
the  Lildvait  and  Vija-gaxiiW*  still  form  favourite  textbooks  of 
these  subjects.  The  question  whether  Aryabhata  was  a^'q^^'^ted 
with  the  researches  of  the  Greek  algebraist  Diophantus  (<;.  360 
A.D.)  remains  still  unsettled;  but,  e^«°.  >/  this  was  the  case 
algebraic  scienci  seems  to  have  been  earned  by  ,hm  .beyond  the 
point  attained  by  tlie  Greeks. 


:(J.  E.) 


9  Sea  Prot  Aue.  MUUer's  paper,  Z.  D.  II.  O.,  1830,  p.  465.  «_•—»,« 

1.  lee  esp'cMi^  Prof.  Whitifey's  essay  oa  the  Lunar  Zodiac,  In  his  Orumiai 

""n  Ti:i%f^'a%tan,a.  translated  by  (W.  D.  Whitney  and)  E.  Burgee.  1860. 

\l  ?l;i  ^r'aWlf  Sd  "iCS-emL'i  and  transla.ed>y  H.  Ken, ;  the 

^"^*H±ik«on'of'L'^hTr?a'ii«;'^  weU  as  of  the  respective  chapters  «f| 
Brah^a'?u"p?a4'work,waspublished0817)by  H.T.  Coleb^oke  -IJ  an  import- 
ant "  Dissertation  on  the  Algebra  of  the  Hindus,"  reprinted  In  the  Hue.  i«oj»,i 
ii.  p.  S7d  s^. 


S  A  N  — S  A  N 


295 


SANSON,  Nicolas  (1 600-1 6G7),  a  French  carto- 
grapher, who,  wcile  it  is  a  mistake  to  call  bim  the  creator 
of  French  geography,  attained  a  great  and  well-dcscrved 
eminence  ia  his  profession.  He  x^'as  born  of  an  old 
Picardy  family  of  Scottish  descent,  at  Abbeville,  on 
rtecembor  20,  1600,  and  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits  at 
Amiens.  The  mercantile  pui-suit  by  which  he  first  sought 
to  make  his  living  proved  a  failure,  but  in  1627  he  was 
fi.rtunateenongh  to  attract  the  attention  of  Kichclicu  by 
a  map  ot  Gaul  which  he  had  constructed  while  still  in 
l:is  teens,  and  through  the  cardinal's  influence  he  was 
appointed  royal  engineer  in  Picardy  and  geographer  to  the 
king.  How  highly  his  services  wers  appreciated  by  his 
royal  patrons  i.<5  .shown  by  the  fact  that  when  Ix>ui.s  XIII. 
Ceime  to  Abbeville  he  preferred  to  become  the  guest  of 
Sanson  (then  employed  on  the  fortifications),  instead  of 
occupying  the  sumptuous  lodgings  provided  by  the  town. 
F.nnson's  success  was  embittered  by  a  quarrel  with  the 
Jetiuit  Labbo,  whom  he  accused  of  plagiarizing  him  in  his 
Fhaivs  Gallic  AntiqtiK,  and  by  the  death  of  his  eldest 
son  Nicolas,  killed  during  the  disturbances  of  the  Fronde 
^1648).  He  died  at  Paris  July  7,  1667.  Two  younger 
Mils,  Adrien  (died  1708)  and  Guillauma  (died  1703),  suc- 
ceeded him  OS  geographers  to  the  king. 

Sanson's  principal  worlcs  aro  Gallim  Antiques  Dcseriptio  Geo- 
(fraphica,  1627  ;  BrUnnnia,  163S,  in  which  ne  seek-s  to  identify 
Strabo's  Britannia  mth  Abbeville  (!)  ;  La  France,  1644  ;  InPknntm 
Oallis  AiUviTziB  Philippi  Labbe  Disquisiticncs,  1647-1648  ;  and 
Gcoffraphia  Siura.  In  1692  Jarllot  collected  Sanson's  maps  iu  an 
'Atlas  Xouveau.     Ilis  cartogrsphy  is  generally  bold  and  vigorous. 

',  SANS0"\T;N0,  Andrea  Contucci  del  Monte  (UGO- 
1529),  an  able  Florentine  sculptor,  who  lived  during  the 
rapid  decline  of  plastic  art  which  took  place  from  about  ihe 
beginning  of  the  16th  century;  he  was  the  son  of  a  sh«p- 
herd  called  Niccolo  di  Domenico  Contucci,  and  was  born 
in  1640  at  Jlonte  Sansavino  near  Arezzo,  whence  he  took 
his  name,  which  is  usually  softened  to  Sansovino.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Antonio  Pollaiuolo,  and  during  the  first 
part  of  his  life  worke<l  in  the  purer  style  of  1  oth-century 
Florence.  Hence  his  early  works  are  by  far  the  best, 
such  as  the  terra-cotta  altar-piece  in  Sasta  Chiara  at  Monte 
Sansavino,  and  the  marble  reliefs  of  the  Annunciation, 
the  Coronation  ctf  the  Virgin,  a  Piet^  the  Last  Supper, 
and  various  statuettes  of  saints  and  angels  in  the 
Corbinelli  chapel  of  S.  Spirito  at  Florence,  all  executed 
between  the  years  1488  and  1492.  From  1491  to 
]  r»00  Andrea  worked  in  Portugal  for  the  king,  and  some 
pieces  of  sculpture  by  him  still  exist  in  the  monastic 
church  of  Coimbra.^  These  early  reliefs  show  strongly 
the  influence  of  Donatello.  The  beginning  of  a  later  and 
^(:0re  pagan  style  i.s  shown  in  the  statues  of  St  John 
baptizing  Christ  which  arc  over  the  east  door  of  tho 
I'lorentine  baptistery.  This  group  was,  however,  finished 
by  the  weaker  hand  of  Vincenzo  Danti.  In  1502  he 
executed  the  marble  font  at  Volterra,  with  good  reliefs  of 
t'le  Four  Virtues  and  tho  Baptism  of  Christ,  In  1505 
S*nsovino  was  invited  to  Rome  by  Julius  11.  to  make 
the  monuments  of  Cardinal  Ascanio  Maria  Sforza  and 
(Cardinal  Girolamo  della  Rovero  for  the  retro-choir  of  S. 
lllaria  del  Popolo.  The  architectural  parts  of  these 
monuments  and  their  sculptured  foliage  aro  extremely 
graceful  and  executed  with  the  most  minute  delicacy,  but 
the  recumbent  effigies  show  tho  beginning  of  a  serious 
decline  in  taste.  Though  skilfully  modelled,  they  are 
uneasy  in  attitude,  and  have  completely  lost  tho  calm 
dignity  and  simple  lines  of  the  earlier  effigies,  such  as 
those  of  the  school  of  Mino  da  Fiesole  in  tho  same  church. 
These  tombs  had  a  very  important  influence  on  the 
n.onuraent»l   sculpture  of    the  time,  and  became  modttis 

-  .'  Soo  Baciinski,  La  Arts  <n  Portugal,  Paris,  1846,  p.  344. 


which  for  many  years  were  c/pied  ly  most  later  sculptors 
with  increasing  exaggerations  of  their  defects.  In  1512, 
while  still  in  Rome,  Sansovino  executed  a  very  beautifu'i 
group  which  shows  strongly  the  influence  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  both  in  the  pose  and  in  the  sweet  expression  of  the 
faces ;  it  is  a  group  of  the  Madonna  and  Child  with  St 
Anne,  now  over  one  of  the  side  altars  in  the  church  of  S. 
Agostino.  From  151.3  to  1528  he  was  at  Lorcto,  where 
be  cased  the  outside  of  the  Santa  Casa  in  white  marble, 
covered  with  reliefs  and  statuettes  in  niches  between 
engaged  columns ;  a  small  {)art  of  this  gorgeous  mass  of 
sculpture  was  the  work  of  Andrea  himself,  but  the  greater 
part  was  executed  by  Montelupo,  Tribolo,  and  others  of 
his  numerous  school  of  assistants  and  pupils.  Though 
the  general  eft'cct  of  the  whole  is  very  rich  and  magnificent, 
the  individual  pieces  of  sculpture  aro  both  dull  and  feeble, 
showing  the  unhappy  results  of  an  attempt  to  imitate 
Jfichelangelo's  grandeur  of  style.  The  earlier  reliefs,  those 
by  Sansovino  himself,  are  the  best,  still  retaining  some  of 
the  sculpturesque  purity  of  the  older  Florentines.  ^  Ho 
died  in  1529. 

SANSOVHTO,  Jacopo  (1477-1570);  was  called  San- 
sovino after  his  master  Andrea  (see  above),  his  fam'ly 
name  being  Tatti.  Born  in  1477,  ho  became  a  f^^-i'/  of 
Andrea  in  1500,  and  in  1510  accompanied  him  to 'Rome, 
devoting  himself  there  to  tho  study  of  antique  sculpture. 
Julius  11.  employed  him  to  restore  damaged  statt£i4  and 
while  working  in  the  Vatican  he  made  a  full-sized  copy  of 
the  Laocoon  group,  which  was  aftersvards  cast  in  bronze, 
and  is  now  in  the  Uffizi  at  Florenca  In  1511  he  returned 
to  Florence,  and  began  the  statue  of  St  James  the  Elder, 
•ft'hich  is  now  in  a  nicho  in  one  of  tho  great  piers  of  the 
Duomo.  Under  the  influence  of  his  studies  in  Rome  he 
carved  a  nude  figure  of  Bacchus  and  Pan,  now  in  the 
Bargello,  near  the  Bacchus  of  Slichclangelo,  from  tho 
contrast  with  which  it  suffers  much.  Soon  after  the  com- 
pletion of  these  works,  Jacopo  returned  to  Rome,  and 
designed  for  his  fellow-citizens  the  grand  church  of  S. 
Oiovanni  dei  Fiorentini,  which  was  afterwards  carried  out 
by  Aiiionio  Sangallo  the  younger.  A  marble  group  of  tlio 
JIadonna  and  Child,  now  at  the  west  of  S.  Agostino,  was  his 
next  important  work.  It  is  heavy  in  style,  and  quite  with- 
out the  great  grace  and  beonty  of  tho  Madonna  and  St  Anno 
in  the  same  church  by  his  niastet  Airdrca,  In  1527  Jacopo 
fled  from  the  sack  of  Rome  to  Venice,  where  he  was  welcomed 
by  his  friends  Titian  and  Pietro  Aretino ;  henceforth  till 
his  death  in  1570  be  was  almost  incessantly  occupied  in 
adorning  Venice  with  a  vast  number  of  magnificent  build- 
ings and  many  second-rate  pieces  of  sculpture.  Aniong 
the  latter  Jacopo's  poorest  works  are  the  colossal  statues 
of  Neptune  and  Mars  on  the  grand  staircase  of  the  ducal 
palace,  from  which  it  is  u.sually  known  as  the  "  Giants' 
Staircase. "  His  best  are  the  bronze  dooi-s  of  tho  sacristy 
of  St  Mark,  cast  in  1562  ;  inferior  to  these  aro  tho  series 
of  six  bronze  reliefs  round  the  choir  of  the  same  church, 
attempted  imitations  of  Ghiborti's  stylo,  but  uncjuict  in 
design  and  unsculpliiresque  in  trcatm'>nt  In  1565  ho 
completetl  a  small  bronze  gato  with  a  graceful  relief  of 
Christ  surrounded  by  Angels ;  this  gato  shuts  off  tho  altar 
of  the  Reserved  Host  in  tho  clioir  of  St  Mark's. 

Jacopo's  chief  claim  to  real  distinction  rests  upon  the 
numerous  fine  Venetian  buildings  which  he  de.<ij;ncd,  such 
as  the  public  library,  the  mint,  the  Scuola  dclla  Miscri- 
cordia,  tho  Palazzo  do'  Cornari,  aud  tho  Palazzo  Dclfino, 
with  its  magnificent  staircase, — tho  lust  two  both  on  tho 
grand  canal;  a  small  loggia  which  he  built  at  the  foot  of 
tho  great  Campanile,  richly  decorated  with  sculpture,  ha.s 
recently  been  pulled  down  and  much  damaged,  but  is 
being  rebuilt.  Among  his  occlcsia.stical  works  tho  chief 
are  the  church  of  S.  Fantino,  that  of  S.  Martiuo^  near  the 


296 


S  A  N  — S  A  N 


arsenal,  the  Scuola  di  S.  Giovanni  degli  Scliiavoui,  aud, 
finest  of  all,  the  church  of  S.  Geininiano,  near  St  Mark's, 
a  very  good  specimen  of  the  Tuscan  and  Composite  orders 
used  with  the  graceful  freedom  of  the  Eenaissance. 

The  otherwise  prosperous  course  of  the  artist's  life  was 
interrupted  by  one  serious  misfortune.  In  1545  the  roof 
of  the  public  library,  which  he  was  then  constructing, 
gave  way  and  fell  in ;  on  account  of  this  he  was  im- 
prisoned, fined,  and  dismissed  from  the  office  of  chief 
architect  of  the  cathedral,  to  which  he  had  been  appointed 
by  a  decree  of  the  signoria  on  April  7,  1529.  Owing, 
however,  to  the  intervention  of  his  friends,  Titian,  Pietro 
Aretino,  and  others,  he  was  soon  set  at  liberty,  and  in 
1549  he  was  restored  to  his  post.  He  did  good  service 
to  the  cathedral  of  St  !Mark's  by  strengthening  its  failing 
domes,  which  he  did  by  encircling  them  with  bands  of 
iron.  Sansovino's  architectural  works  have  rnuch  beauty 
of  proportion  and  grace  of  ornament,  a  little  marred  in 
some  cases  by  an  excess  of  sculptured  decoration,  though 
the  carving  itself  is  always  beautiful  both  in  design  and 
execution.  He  used  the  classic  orders  with  great  freedom 
and  tasteful  invention — very  different  from  the  dull  schol- 
asticism of  most  of  his  contemporaries.  His  numerous 
pupils  were  mostly  men  of  but  little  talent. 

SANTA  ANNA,  Antoj^io  Lopez  de  (1798-1876),  for 
many  years  a  prominent  figure  in  the  troubled  politics 
of  Mexico,  was  born  at  JAlapa  on  February  21,  1798, 
Having  entered  the  army,  he  joined  the  party  of  Iturbide 
(q.v.)  in  1821,  and  gained  distinction  and  promotion  by 
the  part  he  took  in  the  surprise  and  capture  of  Vera  Cruz. 
In  the  following  year  he  quarrelled  with  his  chief  and 
himself  became  leader  of  a  party,  but  without  in  the  first 
instance  achieving  success.  In  1828,  however,  he  sided 
with  Guerrero,  who  made  him  war  minister,  and  also 
commander-in-chief  after  a  successful  operation  against 
the  Spaniards  in  1829.  He  successively  accomplished  the 
overthrow  of  Guerrero  in  favour  of  Bustamante  and  of 
Bustamante  in  favour  of  Pedraza,  and  finally  in  March 
1833  was  himself  elected  president.  In  1836  he  was 
defeated  and  taken  by  the  Texan  revolutionists,  but 
returned  to  Mexico  the  following  year.  In  1844,  after 
considerable  vicissitudes,  he  was  deposed  and  banished,  but 
he  was  brought  back  once  more  to  the  presidential  chair 
in  1846.  This  second  term  of  office  lasted  till  the  fall  of 
Mexico  in  1847,  when  he  resigned.  He  was  made  presi- 
dent again  in  1853,  but  finally  abdicated  in  1855.  In 
1867  he  took  part  in  "pronunciamientos"  which  led  to 
his  banishment.  In  1874  he  was  permitted  to  return  to 
his  native  soil,  where  he  died  two  years  afterwards. 

SANTA  CRUZ.  See  Saint  Ceoix.  For  Santa 
Crtjz  de  Santiago  see  Canary  Islands,  vol.  iv.  p.  799 ; 
and  for  Santa  Cruz  or  Nitendi  Island  see  New 
Hebrides,  vol.  xvii.  p.  395. 

SANTA  FE,  a  city  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Santa  Fe  (38,600  square  miles ; 
189,000  inhabitants),  occupies  an  area  of  400  acres,  90 
miles  north  of  Rosario,  on  the  north-east  or  left  bank  of  the 
Rio  Salado  at  its  junction  with  the  Parana,  in  a  district 
subject  to  periodical  inundations.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
governor,  the  bishop,  and  the  legislature,  and  contains  a 
cathedral,  a  Jesuits'  church  (1654)  and  college  (the  latter 
an  important  institution  with  400  boarders),  a  new 
bishop's  palace,  a  town-hall  (with  a  fine  tower),  extensive 
infantry  barracks,  and  a  large  market.  A  foundry,  a 
macaroni-factory,  oii-factories,  and  tile-works  are  the  chief 
industrial  establishments.  The  population  in  1881  was 
10,400,  a  decrease  since  1869.  Santa  Fe  was  founded  in 
1673  by  Juan  de  Garay. 

SANTA  Ft,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  capital  of 
New  Mexico,  stands  in  a  wide  \,k.ia  surrounded  by  moun- 


tains about  7000  feet  above  the  sea,  in  35°  41'  N.  lat.  and 
105°  46'  W.  long.,  near  the  Santa  Fc  Crseli,  which  joins 
the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte  14  or  15  miles  farther  south- 
west. It  is  connected  by  a  branch  line  (18  miles)  with 
the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  oanta  Fe  Railroad  at  Lamy 
Junction,  835  miles  from  Atchison.  The  houses  are  mainly 
constructed  of  adobe,  and  the  irregularity  of  the  plan 
shows  how  recently  the  city  has  come  under  the  influence 
of  "American"  progress.  Among  the  more  noteworthy 
buildings  are  the  new  capltol,  for  which  funds  were  voted 
in  1883,  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  erected  since 
1870,  and  the  old  governor's  palace,  a  long  low  edifice 
occupying  one  side  of  the  principal  plaza,  which  now  con- 
tains a  soldiers'  monument  in  honour  of  those  who  fell  in 
the  service  of  the  United  States.  Santa  Fe  is  an  imjjortant 
centre  of  trade,  and  the  development  of  the  mining  in- 
dustries ill  the  vicinity  is  rapidly  increasing  its  prosperity. 
The  population  was  6635  in  1881. 

One  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Kortli  America,  Santa  Fe  ile  San 
Francisco  was  tlio  capital  of  New  Jlexico  from  1640,  but  remainutl 
in  comparative  seclusion  till  tlie  early  part  of  the  present  century, 
wlieu  it  became  a  main  station  on  what  was  called  the  Santa  Fe 
Trail — the  trade  route  between  the  United  States  and  Jle-xico,  or 
more  especially  between  St  Louis  and  Chihuahua.     A  custom-house 
w.is  established  in  the  city  in  IS21,  and  the  first  American  mercan- 
tile house  began   business  in  1S26.      By  1S43  the  value   of  the 
merchandise  entrusted  to  the  train  of  230  waggons  from  St  Louis 
was  $450,000.     General  Kearny  built  Fort  Marcy  at  Santa  Fe  in 
1846,  and  in  1851  the  city  became  the  capital  of  tlie  new  Territory. 
In  1862  it  was  occupied  for  a  few  days  by  the  Confederates. 
SANTA  FE  DE  BOGOTi..     See  Bogota. 
SANTAL  PARGANAS,  The,  a  British  district  in  the 
lieutenant-governorship  of  Bengal,  forming  the  southern 
portion  of  the  BhAgalpur  division,  and  lying  between  23° 
48'  and  25°  19'  N.  lat.,  and  between  86°  30'  and  87°  58' 
E.  long.     The  total  area  of  the  district  is  5456  square 
miles;   it  is   bounded   on  the  north  by  the  districts  of 
BhAgalpur  and  Purniah,  on  the  east  by  ilaldah,  Murshi- 
ddbid,  and   Birbhum,   on   the   south   by   Bardwdn   and 
MAnbhiim,  and  on  the  west  by  Hazdribagh  and  Bhdgalpur. 
Tliree  distinct  types  of  country  are  represented  within  thb 
area  of  the  SantAl  Parganas  :  in  the  east  a  sharply  defined 
belt  of  hills  stretches  for  about  a  hundred  miles  from  the 
Ganges  to  the  Naubil  River ;  west  of  this  point  a  rolling 
tract  of  long  ridges  with  intervening  depressions  covers 
an  area  of  about  2500  square  miles ;  while  the  third  type 
is  exemplified  by  a  narrow  strip  of  flat  alluvial  country 
about  170  miles  long,  lying  for  the  most  part  along  the 
loop  line  of  the  East  Indian  Railway.     The  Rajmahal  Hills 
are  the  only  range  of  any  importance  in  the  district,  and 
occupy  an  area  of  1366  square  miles;  but  they  nowhere 
exceed    2000   feet   in  height.     Several  other  hiU  ranges 
occur,  which  are  with  few  exceptions  covered  almost  to 
their  summits  with  dense  jungle ;  they  are  all  difiicult  of 
access ;  there  are,  however,  numerous  passes  through  all 
the  ranges.     Coal  and  iron  are  found  in  almost  all  parts 
of  the  country,  but  the  coal  is  of  such  inferior  quality 
that  all  attempts  to  work  it  have  failed.     Wild  animals, 
including  tigers,  leopards,  bears,  hycenas,  deer,  and  wild 
pig,  with  a  variety  of  small  game,  are  common  almost 
everywhere.     The  climate  varies :   the  alluvial  tract  has 
the  damp  heat  and  moist  soil  characteristic  of   Bengal, 
while  the  undulating  and  hiUy  portions  are  swept  by  the 
hot  westerly  winds  of  Behar,  and  are  very  cool  in  the 
winter  months.     The  average  annual  rainfall  is  over  50 
inches.     The  district  is  traversed  on  the  east  by  the  loop 
line,  and  on  the  west  by  the  chord  line,  of  the  East  Indian 
Railway  ;  the  total  length  of  railway  is  about  130  miles. 

The  census  of  1881  disclosed  a  total  population  in  the  Santal 
Parganas  of  1,568,093  (males  785,330,  females  782,762)  ;  Hindus 
nnmbered  847,590,  Mohammedans  108,899,  and  Christians  3057. 
The  total  number  of  persons  belongint;  to  the  aboriginal  tribes 
was  605,517,  of  whom  tho  great  majority  (537,646)  were  SaiicaU 


S.A  N  — S  A  N 


297 


For  an  account  of  this  interesting  tribe,  see  India,  vol.  xii.  p. 
778.  Tlio  iiopulation  is  almost  entirely  rural ;  only  two  towns 
contain  over  6000  inhabitants  each,  viz.,  Deogliar,  whieli  is  tho 
only  municipality,  with  a  popul.ntion  of  8015.  an<l  Sliahfligniigo 
ivith  6512.     The  ajministrative  lie.nlquarters  are  .it  Xaya  Dinnka. 

Rice  forms  the  staple  crop  of  the  Sant.-il  Pargaii.is,  and  is  largely 
gi'owu  in  the  alluvial  strip  of  country  which  runs  along  the  easTeru 
boundary  of  the  district.  Other  crops  are  millets,  wheat,  barley, 
maize,  various  pulses  and  oil-seeds,  jute,  flax,  sugar-cane,  cotton, 
anil  indigo.  The  district  is  singularly  destitute  of  any  local 
manufactures :  iron  is  roughly  smelted  by  Kol  settlers  from 
Chutia  Nagpur;  coarse  cloth  is  woven  as  a  domestic  manufacture, 
aud  bell. metal  utensils  are  made  to  a  small  extent ;  indigo  is  also 
manufactured.  The  trade  is  carried  on  by  means  of  permanent 
markets.  Exports  consist  chiefly  of  rice,  Indian  corn,  oil  seeds, 
tasar-silk  cocoons,  lac,  small-sized  timber,  and  hill  bamboos;  while 
European  piece  goods,  salt,  and  brass  or  bell-metal  utensils  for  house- 
hold use  compose  the  bulk  of  the  imports.  In  1883-84  tho  gross 
revenue  of  the  district  amounted  to  £45,437,  of  which  the  laiul- 
tax  yielded  £22,556. 

The  Santdls  have  been  known  to  the  British  since  the  latter 

Sart  of  the  18th  century.  In  1832  two  Government  officials  were 
eputed  to  demarcate  with  solid  masonry  pillars  the  present  area 
of  the  Daman-i-Koh,  or  skirts  of  the  hills.  The  permission  to 
Santdls  to  settle  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the 
Daman  stimulated  Santal  immigration  to  an  enormous  extent. 
The  Hindu  money-lender  soon  made  his  appearance  amongst  thcni, 
and  led  to  the  rebellion  of  1855-56.  The  insurrection  was  not 
quelled  without  bloodshed,  but  it  led  to  the  establishment  of  a 
form  of  administration  congenial  to  the  immigrants;  and  a  land 
settlement  has  since  been  carried  out  on  conditions  favourable  to 
the  occupants  of  the  soil. 

-SANTA  MARIA.  See  Capua. 
SANTA  JIAURA,  or  Ledcadia  (AcvKaSa,  ancient 
AfUKcis),  one  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  with  an  area  of  110 
square  miles  and  a  population  (1880)  of  25,000  (20,892 
in  1870),  lies  off  the  coast  of  Acarnania  (Greece), 
immediately  south  of  the  entrance  to  tho  Gulf  of  Arta. 
It  first  appears  in  history  as  a  peninsula  {Odyssey,  xxiv. 
378),  and,  if  the  statements  of  ancient  authorities  be 
accepted  literally,  it  owed  its  existence  as  an  island  to  the 
Corinthians,  whose  canal  across  the  isthmus  was  again 
after  a  Jong  period  of  disuse  opened  up  by  the  Romans. 
But  it-  is  probable  rather  that  Leucas  was  then  as  now 
separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  shallow  lagoon  (two 
feet  or  less).  During  the  English  occupation  a  canal  for 
boats  of  four  to  five  feet  draught  was  formed  from  Fort 
Santa  Maura  to  the  town,  but  tho  16-feet-deep  ship  canal 
which  it  was  proposed  (1844)  to  carry  right  across  the 
lagoon  or  submerged  isthmus  to  Fort  Alexander  was  only 
.partially  excavated. ^  Santa  Maura,  measuring  about  20 
miles  from  north  to  south  and  5  to  8  miles  in  breadth,  is 
a  rugged  mass  of  limestone  and  bituminous  shales  (partly 
Tertiary),  rising  in  its  principal  ridges' to  heights  of  2000 
and  3000  feet,  and  presenting  very  limited  areas  of  level 
ground.  The  grain  crop  suliiccs  only  for  a  few  months' 
local  consumption;  but  olive  oil  of  good  quality  is  produced 
to  the  extent  of  30,000  to  50,000  barrels  per  annum; 
the  vineyards  (in  the  west  especially)  yield  100,000  barrels 
of  red  wine  (bought  mainly  by  Rouen,  Cette,  Trieste,  and 
Venice);  the  currant,  introduced  about  1859,  has  gradually 
eome  to  bo  tho  jirincipal  source  of  wealth  (the  crop  averag- 
ing 2,500,000  lb);  and  small  quantities  of  cotton,  flax, 
tobacco,  valonia,  ifec,  arc  also  grown.  The  salt  trade,  for- 
merly of  importance,  has  suffered  fron)  Greek  customs 
regulations.  Though  to  a  largo  extent  unlettered  and 
superstitious,  the  inhabitants  aro  industrious  and  well- 
behaved.  The  chief  town  (5000  inhabitants)  jiroperly 
called  Amaxiklii,  but  fnoro  usually  Santa  Maura,  after  tho 
neighbouring  fort,  is  situated  at  the  northeast  end  of  the 
island  op[)Osite  the  lagoon.  In  the  south-west  is  the 
village  of  Vasiliki,  where  a  wharf  protected  by  a  mole 

'  As  a  six  hours'  BhortcninR  of  the  stcim-passago  between  tho  Levant 
Riul  tho  Adriatic  would  bu  eflcclcd  by  mich  a  cliannel  Iho  scheme  has 
jiguin  been  taken  up.  Acconlinf^  to  Af.  Pyat,  tho  engineer  eoiployed 
to  I'vpoit,  the  dredging  could  bo  done  for  1,200,000  francs. 


was  built  in  1877-78  for  shipping  the  currant  crop.  Re- 
mains of  Cyclopean  and  polygonal  walls  exist  at  Kaligoni 
(south  of  Amaxikhi),  probably  the  site  of  the  ancient 
acropolis  of  Neritus  (or  Ncricus),  and  of  the  later  and 
lower  Corinthian  settlement  of  Leucas.  From  this  point 
a  Roman  bridge  seems  to  have  crossed  to  the  mainland. 
Between  the  town  and  Fort  Santa  Maura  extends  a 
remarkably  fine  Turkish  aqueduct  partly  destroyed  along 
with  the  town  by  tho  earthquake  of  1825.  Forts  Alex- 
ander ind  Constantino  commanding  the  bridge  are  relics 
of  the  Russian  occupation ;  the  other  forts  are  of  Turko- 
Venetian  origin.  The  magnificent  cliff,  some  2000  feet 
high,  which  forms  the  southern  termination  of  the  modem 
island  still  bears  the  substructions  of  tho  temple  of  Apollo 
Leucatas  (hence  the  modern  name  Capo  Ducato).  At  the 
annual  festival  of  Apollo  a  criminal  was  obliged  to  plunge 
from  the  summit  into  the  sea,  where,  however,  an  effort 
was  made  to  pick  him  up ;  and  it  was  by  the  same  heroic 
leap  that  Sappho  and  Artemisia,  daughter  o£  Lygdamis, 
are  said  to  have  ended  their  lives. 

Sx^NTANDER,  a  province  in  the  north  of  Spain,  on 
the  Ehores  of  the  Bay  of  Bisca)',  bounded  on  the  E.  by 
Biscaya,  on  the  S.  by  Burgos  and  Palencia,  and  on  tiie 
W.  by  Leon  and  Oviedo.  The  area  is  2113  square  miles. 
The  province  is  mountainous  in  character,  being  traversed 
from  east  to  west  by  the  Cantabrian  chain,  which  in  the 
Picos  de  Europa  reaches  a  height  of  over  8700  feet,  and 
sends  off  numerous  branches  to  the  sea.  On  tho  north  side 
of  the  range  the  streams  are  all  short,  the  principal  being 
tho  Ason,  the  Miera,  the  Pas,  the  Bcsaya,  the  Soja,  and 
the  Nansa,  which  flow  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay ;  part  of  the 
province  lies  to  the  southward  of  the  watershed,  and  is 
drained  by  the  upper  Ebro.  The  valleys  of  Santander 
are  fertile,  and  produce  various  kinds  of  grain,  maize, 
piilse,  hemp,  flax,  and  vegetables.  Oranges,  lemons, 
grapes,  figs,  and  other  fruits  flourish,  and  forests  of  oak, 
chestnut,  walnut,  and  fir  cover  the  hills.  Rich  pasturage 
for  cattle  and  swine-and  a  good  supply  of  game  are  also 
found  among  them,  and  the  fisheries  along  the  coast  are 
likewise  productive.  Foreign  capital  has  been  success- 
fully applied  to  the  development  of  lead,  coal,  and  iron 
mines  ;  and  the  mountains  contain  quarries  of  limestone, 
marble,  and  gypsum,  and  abound  with  mineral  springs. 
The  district  was  part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Cantabria, 
which,  after  passing  under  the  empire  of  the  Goths, 
became  the  principality  of  the  Asturias.  The  portion 
called  Asturia  dc  Santa  Juliana,  or  Santillana,  was  included 
in  he  kingdom  of  Old  Castile,  and,  on  the  .subdivision  of 
the  old  provinces  of  Spain  in  1833,  became  the  province 
of  Santander.  The  people  are  of  a  purer  race  than  in 
parts  of  Spain  subjected  by  the  Jloors,  and  both  in  mental 
and  physical  qualities  show  their  Teutonic  ancestry.  The 
industries  of  the  country  are  consequently  in  a  flourishing 
condition,  and,  besides  the  natural  products  above  men- 
tioned, there  are  foundries,  breweries,  distilleries,  tanneries; 
cotton,  linen,  cloth,  and  (lour  mills;  brick  and  tile  works; 
and  manufactories  of  hats,  soap,  buttons,  prcscn-es,  and 
chocolate.  The  province  is  traversed  from  north  to  south 
by  the  railway  and  high  road  from  Santander  by  Palencia 
to  JIadrid  ;  the  highest  point  on  the  railway  (Venta  do 
Pazozal)  is  3229  feet  above  tlu  sea.  For  purposes  of 
administration  the  province  is  divided  into  eleven  parlidos 
judiciales,  containing  103  ayuntamicntos,  and  returns  two 
senators  aiyJ  five  deputies  to  tbo  cortes.  The  population 
in  1877  numbered  235,299.  Besides  Santander,  the 
capital,  the  only  places  having  within  the  municipal 
boundaries  a  pojHilation  exceeding  5000  are  Costro- 
Urdi-'iles  (7G23),  Vallo  de  Pielagos  (5500),  Torrelavciiu 
(7192),  and  Valdcrrcdiblc  (7240).  Santofia  has  4428, 
and  Laredo  4384.     Sanlilkna  a??^^  ha.s  a  fino  Ronian- 


298 


S  A  N  — S  A  N 


Bsque  church  and  cloister  (T2th'  century),  and  was  tho 
birthplace  of  the  architect  Juan  de  Herrera. 

SANTANDER  (Poi-tus  Blendimn,  Faiium  S.  Andrex), 
capital  of  the  above  province,  316  miles  by  rail  from 
Madrid,  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  and  one  of  the  chief 
seaports  of  Spain.  The  population  in  1S77  numbered 
41,000,  having  almost  doubled  in  the  precediny  quarter  of 
a  century,  and  the  trade  of  the  port  has  increased  in  an 
even  greater  proportion.  The  town  is  situated  on  the 
inside  of  a  rocky  peninsula,  which  separates  it  from  the 
Bay  of  Biscay  and  forms  a  magnificent  harbour  from  2  to 
3  miles  wide  and  4  miles  long.  The  entrance  is  at  the 
eastern  extremity  of  the  promontory,  and,  though  some- 
what difficult  for  sailing  vessels  in  certain  winds,  has 
depth  of  water-  sufficient  for  the  largest  ships.  The 
total  burthen  of  the  vessels  entered  m  1883  amounted 
to  104,449  tons  British  and  500,342  tons  of  other  nations. 
The  chief  exports  consisted  of  iron  ore  (20,9GG  tons)  to 
Great  Britain,  and  wiuo  (191,400  galls.)  and  olive  oil 
(8000  galls.)  to  France.  The  city  is  divided  into  an 
upper  and  a  lower  town,  and  contains  few  buildings  of 
interest.  The  cathedral  was  originally  a  Gothic  structure, 
but  has  been  so  altered  by  later  additions  that  little  of 
the  old  work  remains.  In  the  crypt,  or  Capilla  del 
Cristo  de  Abajo,  there  is  a  font  of  Jloorish  workmanship 
which  has  some  interest.  The  castle  of  S.  Felice  contains 
a  prison  which  was  probably  the  first  example  of  the 
radiating  system  of  construction.  Besides  these  buildings 
there  are  the  theatre,  which  was  formerly  a  convent,  the 
hospital,  and  the  Jesuits'  church.  Tho  city  is  essentially 
modern,  and  its  chief  features  are  its  well-built  houses,  its 
quays,  and  its  factories.  In  addition  to  the  manufactures 
of  the  province  mentioned  above,  Santander  has  gas-works, 
phosphorus,  sulphuric  acid,  and  sail  manufactories,  and  a 
large  cigar  factory,  formerly  a  convent,  where  over  1000 
hands  are  employed.  Besides  being  a  trading  port 
Santander  is  ajso  a  watering-place  which  enjoys  peculiar 
advantages  of  climate.  The  bathing  establishment  of  the 
Sardinero,  on  the  seaward  side  of  the  strip  of  land  the  town 
is  built  on,  offers  all  the  attractions  usual  to  Continental 
watering-places.  There  is  communication  by  rail  w-ith 
iladrid  and  by  steamer  with  Liverpool,  London,  and  Ham- 
burg, as  well  as  with  Havana  and  the  seaports  of  Spain. 

The  port  waa  m  1753  mcide  one  of  the  "puertos  habilitados  "  or 
ports  privileged  to  trade  with  America,  and  iu  1755  it  was  created  a 
"ciudad."  Charles  V.  landed  here  in  1522when  he  came  to  take  pos- 
session of  the  Spanish  crown,  and  from  this  portCharlesI.  of  England 
embarked  on  his  return  from  his  ill-fated  visit  incognito  in  search  of 
a  wife.  The  city  was  sacked  by  tho  French  under  Soult  in  ISOS ;  but 
so  little  giatitude  did  the  people  show  to  their  English  allies  that  it 
was  with  the  greatest  difficulty  supplies  were  found  for  the  troops. 

SANTAREM,  a  city  and  bishop's  see  of  Portugal,  in  the 
province  of  Estremadura,  on  the  declivities  of  the  right 
bank,  of  the  Tagus,  4Gi  miles  by  rail  frnm  Lisbon.  It  has 
the  ruins  of  an  old  castle,  well  known  in  Portuguese  history 
as  a  royal  residence,  especially  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
several  of  its  churches  are  of  historic  and  architectural 
interest,  x  A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on,  and  the  popu- 
lation was  7001  in  1878. 

Santarem,  so  named  after  a  certain  St  Irene,  is  identified  with 
the  ancient  Scallabis  Pricsidium  Julium.  The  death  of  Diniz  I., 
and  the  birth,  abdication,  and  death  of  Don  Henrique  the  cardinal 
king,  all  occurred  in  the  city ;  it  gave  its  name  to  Joao  de  Santarem, 
one  of  the  15th-century  navigators  ;  and  Fernando  I.  and  Cabral, 
discoverer  of  Brazil,  were  buried  within  its  walls.  The  Miguelists 
were  completely  routed  here  by  Napier  and  Villaflor  in  1834. 

SANTAREM,  a  city  of  Brazil,  at  the  head  of  a  comarea 
in  the  province  of  Par.i,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Tapaj6s,  a  right-hand  tributary  of 
the  Amazon,  it  is  a  clean  and  neat-looking  place,  with 
rows  of  whitewashed  houses  in  the  European  town, 
clusters  of  palm-thatched  huts  in  the  Indian  suburb,  a 
large  church,  the  ruins  of  a  stone  fort,  and,  standing  apart. 


the  municipal  buildings  with  tne  court-Iiouser.  .  A",  the 
Rio  Tajiajns  is  navigable  for  steamers  to  the  rapids,  170 
miles  above  Santarem,  and  for  boats  to  within  a  i>hort 
distance  of  Diamnntino,  the  town  carries  on  a  considerable 
trade  with  ilatto  Grosso  and  the  country  along  the  banks. 
The  population  and  importance  of  the  place,  originally 
founded  by  a  Jesuit  missionary  for  his  converts  in  IGGl, 
and  made  a  city  in  1848,  are  steadily  increasing; 

SANTERRE,  Jean  Baptistk  (16.50-1717),  French 
painter,  born  at  Magny  near  PontoLso  in  1650,  was  a 
pupil  of  Bon  Boulogne.  He  began  life  as  a  portrait- 
painter,  but  refused  to  paint  any  except  those  who  pleased 
his  taste ;  he  was  incapable  of  managing  the  large  com- 
positions then  in  vogue,  but  enjoyed  for  half  a  century  a 
great  reputation  as  a  painter  of  the  nujde.  He  had  opened 
his  studio  to  a  class  of  young  girls,  to  whom  ho  gave 
lessons,  and  who  served  him  as  models.  ^luch,  however, 
of  Santerre'.s  work  of  this  class  was  destroyed  by  himself 
in  a  fit  Qf  lively  repentance  after  a  serious  illness  which 
attacked  him  late  in  life.  He  died  at  Paris  on  November 
21,  1717.  His  paintings,  in  consequence  of  bis  extreme 
care  in  choice  of  vehicles  and  pigments,  have  stood  well. 
His  Portrait  of  a  Lady  in  Venetian  Costume  (Louvre),  and 
his  Susanna  at  the  Bath  (Louvre,  engra'.ed  by  Purporati), 
the  diploma  work  executed  by  him  in  1704,  when  he  was 
received  into  the  Academy,  give  a  good  impression  of 
Santerre's  taste  and  of  his  elaborate  and  careful  method; 

SAN  THIAGO.     See  Cape  Veed  Islands,  vol.  v.  p.  GO. 

SANTIAGO,  the  capital  of  Chili,  and  the  chief  town  of 
a  province  of  its  own  name  (now  .5223  square  miles  in 
extent,  reduced  in  1883  by  the  formation  of  the  new  pro- 
vince of  O'Higgins),  is  situated  in  33°  26'  42"  S.  lat.  and 
70°  40'  36"  WJong.,  at  a  height  of  about  1830  feet  above 
the  sea,  in  a  wide  and  beautiful  plain  between  the  main 
range  of  the  Andes  and  the  less  elevated  heights  of  Cuesta 
del  Prado,-115  miles  east  of  Valparaiso  by  rail.  In  the 
centre  of  the  city  rises  the  rocky  hill  of  Santa  Lucia,  with 


rd«it^_ 


Euvirons  of  Santiago. 

its  two  fortresses, — recently  converted  into  a  pleasure- 
ground,  with  theatres,  restaurants,  and  monuments;  and 
immediately  to  the  north-north-west  and  north-east  are 
those  known  as  Colina,  Renca,  and  San  Cristobal.  _  The 
snow-clad  range  of  the  Andes,  in  which  the  summits  of 
La  Chapa  and  Los  Amarillos  are  conspicuous,  is  visiHe 
from  Santiago.  A  turbid  mountain  stream,  the  Mapocho, 
flows  west  through  the  heart  of  the  city  to  join  the  Colina 
and' ultimately  the  Maipu  or  Maipo;  its  floods  were  some- 
times, as  in  1609  and  1783,  the  cause  of  great  damage 
till  the  construction  of  a  solid  embankment  was  under' akcn 


SANTIAGO 


299 


nuder  the  government  of  Ambrosio  O'Higglus;  it  is  now 
crossed  by  several  liandsome  bridges,  the  oldest  of  which, 
a  structure  of  eleven  arclics,  dates  from  17G7-1779.  From 
the  very  first  Santiago  was  laid  out  with  great  regularity 
in  parallelograms ;  but  owing  to  the  frequency  of  earth- 
quakes the  dwelling-houses  are  seldom  built  of  more  than 
a.  single  story  in  height.  The  cathedral,  situated  in  the 
Pla^a  de  la  indei)endencia,  Is  the  oldest  of  the  churches. 
Originally  erected  by  Pedro  Valdivia  and  rebuilt  by  Garcia 
Hurtado  de  Jlendoza,  it  was  destroyed  by  the  earthquake 
of  t647  and  rebuilt  on  a  new  plan  subsequent  to  1748. 
It  is  351  feet  long  by  92  feet  wide,  but  has  no  very  striking 
features.  Among  the  other  ecclesiastical  buildings  are  the 
church  of  San  Agustin,  erected  in  1.'595  by  Cristobal  de 
Vera  and  in  mo,dern  times  adorned  with  a  pillared  portico ; 
the  churches  of  San  Francisco,  La  Merced,  and  Santo 
Domingo,  dating  from  the  ISth  century;  the  Augustine 
nunnery  founded  by  Bishop  Medellin  in  1576;  the  Carmen 
Alto,  or  church  of  the  Carmelite  nunnery,  an  elegant  little 
■Gothic  building;  the  stately  church  of  the  Reformed 
Dominicans,  rich  in  marble  monolithic  columns ;  and  the 
chapel  erected  in  1852  to  the  memory  of  Pedro  Valdivia 
next  to  the  house  in  which  he  is  reputed  to  have  lived. 
The  public  cemetery,  recently  secularized,  has  a  large 
number  of  marble  and  bronze  monuments, — mostly  from 
Italy.  Among  the  secular  buildings  the  more  noteworthy 
are  the  palace  of  the  intendeucy,  the  old  presidential  palace 
(popularly  Las  Cajas),  the  congress  buildings,  the  mint, 
the  jjalace  of  justice,  the  municipal  theatre.  The  present 
university  of  Santiago  dates  from  1842, — the  older  Uni- 
versidad  de  San  Felipe,  which  had  been  establi-shed  in 
1747,  having  been  closed  in  1839.  It  occupies  a  fine 
building  in  the  Alameda,  and  alongside  stands  the  great 
National  Institute  of  Secondary  Education.  In  1882  the 
university  was  attended  by  920  students  and  the  institute 
by  1059.  The  city  also  contains  a  school  of  arts  and  trades 
(1849),  a  musical  conservatorio  (1849),  a  national  museum, 
a  military  school  established  ia  1842  and  enlarged  on  the 
abolition  of  the  naval  military  school  at  Valparaiso  in  1872 
(now  re-established),  and  a  .school  of  agriculture  founded 
by  the  Agricultural  Society  chartered  in  1809.  The 
National  Library  is  a  noble  collection  of  books  dating  from 
1813,  especially  rich  in  works  relating  to  America;  there 
is  also  a  good  library  in  the  National  Institute.  Besides 
the  official  journal,  Santiago  has  fgur  daily  papers,  as 
well  as  various  reviews  and  other  serials.  Besides  the 
Alameda,  a  great  tree-planted  avenue  decorated  with- 
statucs  (the  Abb(5  Molina,  Generals  San  IMartin,  Carrera, 
O'Higgins,  and  Freire,  <tc.),  the  principal  open  spaces  in 
Santiago  are  the  Plaza  de  la  Indopondencia,  the  Canadilla, 
a  broad  tree-bordered  avenue,  the  Alameda  de  Yungay, 
the  Campo  do  Marte  (where  are  the  Penitentiary,  a  prison 
bttilt  and  administered  according  to  the  most  approved 
modern  principles,  and  the  large  Artillery  Park),  the  Quinta 
Normal  de  Agricultura,  which  comprises  zoological  and 
botanical  gardens,  and  the  large  area  in  which  the  Inter- 
national E.Khibition  of  1875  was  held.  As  the  Mapocho 
was  unfit  for  drinking,  water  was  introduced  about  1805 
by  an  aqueduct  5  miles  long.  The  i)rcvailing  winds  at 
Santiago  are  from  the  south  and  south-west.  On  an 
average  rain  falls  for  210  hours  in  the  course  of  tho  year, 
mostly  between  !May  and  September.  Snow  and  hail  are 
both  e.\treniely  rare.  Earthquakes  arc  so  frequent  that 
as  many  as  twenty-seven  or  thirty  .shocks  are  sometimes 
registered  in  a  year.  Those  which  have  proved  really 
disastrous  are  the  earthquakes  of  17th  March  ].''i75,  13th 
May  1647,  8th  July  1730,  lUth  Novembor  1822,  and  20th 
February  1835.  The  population  of  Sunlingo,  which  was 
returned  in  1805  as  168,553  (79,920  males  and  88,633 
females),  had  increased  to  200,000  in  1883. 


It  was  in  February  15-il  that  Pedro  dc  Valdivia,  one  of  Pb^rro'a 
cajitaiiis,  founded  tho  city  of  Santiago'  del  Niievo  Estreiiio«,j  i 
accoidancu  with  a  vow  he  had  made  at  Cnzio.  Tlie  pliicc  ii'is  ,.il 
along  lield  an  iniport;int  iiositioniu  Chilian  history,  but  ]Kina]'S 
none  of  the  events  with  wiiicli  it  is  .issociateJ  sent  such  a  se:isation 
throa;;h  the  world  as  the  burning  of  the  Jesuit  church  with  tlio  lu^s 
of  more  than  two  thousand  lives  in  the  llaines  (8th  Deccnibi-r  1863). 

SANTIAGO  DE  COMPOSTELLA,  the  former  capital 
of  Galicia,  in  the  north-west  of  Spain,  situated  in  42° 
52'  30"  N.  lat.  and  8°  30'  0"  W.  long.,  olS  miles  west- 
by-south  from  Lugo,  and  32  miles  south-by-west  from 
Corunna,  in  the  province  of  that  name.  It  lies  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Monte  Pedroso,  surrounded  by 
mountains  which  draw  down  incessant  rain  that  gives  the 
granite  buildings  of  its  deserted  streets  an  extra  tint  of 
melancholy  and  decay.  The  city  is  still  the  seat  of  a 
university  and  of  an  archbishopric,  which  lays  claim  to 
the  primacy  of  all  Spain,  but  its  former  glories  have  quite 
departed.  In  the  Middle  Ages  its  shrine,  which  con- 
tained the  body  of  St  James  the  Great,  was  one  of  the 
most  famous  in  Europe,  and  gathered  crowds  of  pilgrims 
from  all  parts.  The  city  became,  in  fact,  the  focus  of  all 
the  art  and  chivalry  of  neighbouring  Christendom,  and  a 
spot  where  conflicting  interests  could  meet  on  neutral 
ground.  But  the  days  of  pilgrimages  are  past,  and, 
though  tho  Congregation  of  Rites  declared  in  1884  that 
the  cathedral  still  enshrines  the  veritable  body  of  the 
apostle,  pilgrims  are  scarcely  more  often  seen  than  in  any 
other  cathedral  town.  The  trade  of  Santiago  can  never 
have  been  otherwise  than  dependent  on  the  crowds  of 
pilgrims  who  visited  the  shrine.  It  now  only  survives  in 
the  silversmiths' shops  on  the  Plaza  de  los  Plateros,  which 
still  have  a  .steady  sale  for  artistic  pieces  of  peasant 
jewellery.  Otherwise  it  consists  in  mere  local  traliic  in 
cattle,  linen,  silk,  leather,  hats,  and  paper.  There  is  com- 
munication by  rail  with  tho  little  seaport  of  Carril  on 
the  west  coast.  The  population^within  the  municipal 
boundaries  was  23,000  in  1885. 

The  relics  of  the  saint  were  said  to  have  been  disooverod  iu  835 
by  Tlieodoniu',  bishop  of  Ida,  wlio  was  guided  to  the  sjiot  by  a 
star,  whence  the  name  (CamiJus  Stcllx). '  A  chapel  was  forthwith 
erected,  and  the  bishopric  was  tiansfcrred  thither  by  a  special  bull 
of  Pope  Leo  III.  A  more  substantial  building  was  begun  in  88S, 
but  was  totally  destroyed  iu  997  by  Ahnanzor,  who,  liowever, 
respected  the  sacred  relics.  On  the  rcconquest  of  tho  city  by 
BermuJo  III.  the  roads  which  led  to  it  were  improved  by  that 
monarch,  and  pilgrims  began  to  flock  to  the  shrine,  whii-li  fast 
gi-ew  in  reputation.  In  1078  tho  erection  of  tho  present  cathedral 
was  begun  during  the  episcopate  of,  Diego  Pelaez,  and  was  con- 
tinued until  USS,  wheii  the  western  doorway  was  completed.  It 
is  a  cruciform  building  in  tho  Romanesfine  style,  280  feet  long,  60 
feet  wide,  aud  70  feet  high,  and  keeps  its  original  form  iu  tho 
interior,  but  is  disfigured  externally  by  much  poor  late  work. 
Besides  the  classic  dome  and  clock-tower,  the  two  western  towera 
have  been  raised  to  a  height  of  2'iO  feet  and  crowned  with  cupolas, 
and  between  them  has  been  erected  a  classic  portico,  above  which 
is  a  niche  contaiuin^  a  statue  of  St  James.  The  facade  was  the 
work  of  Casas  y  Noboa  in  1738,  and  the  statue  w.as  by  Ventura 
Rodriguez  in  17C1.  The  design  is  mediocre,  and  "ains  its  rhii-t 
cffoet  from  forming  part  of  au  cvtendcd  avchitecluriil  oomiiosition 
on  the  riaza  Mayor,  a  grand  sr^unro  which  is  survoundcil  on  nil 
sides  by  public  buildings.  The  ground  rises -to  tho  cathedral, 
which  is  reached  by  a  nKignificent  ijuadruple  flight  of  stejis,  llankwl 
by  statues  of  David  and  Solomon.  Access  to  tho  staircase  i.s 
givon  through  some  fine  wrought-iron  gale*,  and  in  the  crntro,  on 
tho  level  of  the  Plaza,  is  the  entrance  to  a  Iiomonesr|ue  chapel,  La 
Iglcsia  IJaja,  constructed  under  tho  puitico  and  contemporary  with 
the  cathedral.  To  the  north  and  south,  and  in  a  line  with  tho 
west  front,  are  dependent  buildings  of  the  ISth  century,  gronpin-} 
well  with  it.  Tiioso  to  the  sonth  contain  n  h'ght  and  elegant 
nreado  to  the  uppoi'  window.s,  nnil  serve  as  a  MTeen  to  the  clpistofK, 
built  in  1533  by  I'ouseca,  altirwurds  arclibislio|i  uf  'I'nledo.  They 
are  said  to  bo  the  largest  in  .Spain,  and  are  a  lair  example  of  tho 
latest  Gothic  The  delicate  sculiiluru  nver  the  heads  of  tlic 
windows  and  along  the  wall  of  the  cloister  is  very  noticeahlo.  On 
the  north  of  the  cathedral  is  the  I'lamela  S.  Juan,  wher«  tlie 
peasants  collect  to  do  tliiir  marketing,  lloro  ia  tho  convent  of 
S.  Martin,  built  in  ]63ii,  which,  allir  sirring  oa  a  barrack  is  now 
used  as  an  ccclcsiastieal  neminary,  restored  to  tho  church.     It  has 


300 


S  A  N  —  S  A  N 


a  tolerable  ckistcr  and  bell-tower.  The  north  side  of  the  cathedral 
is  much  overlaid  by  classical  and  Chun  igucresque  work  ;  and  the 
same  treatment  has  been  applied  to  the  east  end,  where  is  the 
Puerta  Santa,  Avhich  is  kept  closed,  exce])t  in  jubilee  years,  when  it 
is  opened  by  the  archbishop.  The  corner  of  the  south  transe|>t  on 
the  Plaza  de  los  Plateros  has  been  mutilated  by  the  erection  of  the 
clock-tower,  but  the  facade  is  fortunately  preserved  intact.  _  Perliajjs 
the  chief  beauty  of  tlie  cathedral,  however,  is  the  Portico  do  la 
Gloria,  behind  the  western  classic  portal.  It  is  a  work  of  the  12lh 
century,  and  probably  the  utmost  development  of  which  round- 
arclied  Gothic  is  capable.  The  shafts,  tympana,  and  archivolts  of 
the  three  doorways  which  open  on  to  the  nave  and  aisles  are  a  mass 
of  strong  and  nervous  sculpture.  The  design  is  a  geneial  icpre- 
sentation  of  the  Last  Judgment,  and  the  subjects  are  all  treated 
with  a  quaint  grace  which  shows  the  work  of  a  real  artist.  Faint 
traces  of  colour  remain  and  give  a  tone  to  the  whole  work.  The 
catliedral  is  at  such  a  height  from  the  ground  that  it  is  probable 
tliat,  until  the  erection  of  the  present  grand  staircase,  the  portico 
could  not  be  reached  from  the  Plaza,  but  stood  open  to  the  air. 
There  are  no  marks  of  doors  in  tlie  jambs,  and  the  entrance  to  the 
chapel  beneath  would  have  been  blocked  by  any  staircase  which 
differed  much  in  plan  from  the  present  one.  The  interior  of  tlie 
church  is  one  of  the  purest  and  best  examples  of  Romanesque  work 
to  be  met  with  in  Spain.  The  absence  of  a  clerestory  throws  an 
impressive  gloom  over  the  barrel-vaulted  roof,  which  makes  tlio 
building  seem  larger  than  it  is.  A  passage  leads  from  the  nortli 
transept  to  the  Parroquia  of  San  Juan,  or  La  Corticela,  a  small 
but  interesting  portion  of  the  original  foundation.  JIany  line 
examples  of  metal  work  are  in  the  cathedral,  as,  for  instnr,ce, 
the  two  bronze  ambos  in  the  choir  by  Juan  B.  Celina  of  1563,  the 
gilt  chandeliers  of  1763,  and  the  enamelled  shrines  of  Sts  Cucufnto 
and  Fructuoso.  In  the  Capilla  del  Relicario  are  a  gold  crucifix, 
dated  874,  containing  a  piece  of  the  true  cross,  and  a  silver  gilt 
custodia  of  1544.  The  Hospicio  de  los  Keyes,  on  the  north  of  the 
Plaza  Mayor,  for  the  reception  of  pilgrims,  was  begun  in  1504  liy 
Enrique  de  Egas  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  It  consists  of 
two  Gothic  and  two  classic  court-yards  with  a  chapel  in  the  centre. 
The  gateway  is  fine,  and  there  is  some  vigorous  carving  in  the 
court-yards,  one  of  which  contains  a  graceful  fountain.  The 
suppressed  Colegio  de  Fonseca  and  the  adjoining  convent  of  S. 
Gcronimo  have  good  Renaissance  doorways.  The  university,  which 
■was  created  in  1504  by  a  bull  of  Pope  Julius  II.,  has  fair  Renais- 
sance buildings,  which  date  from  1532.  Tliose  of  the  Seminario 
(1777)  have  no  merit.  The  chapel  of  the  convent  of  S.  Francisco, 
the  cloisters  of  the  half-ruined  S.  Augustin,  the  belfry  of  S. 
Domingo,  the  church  of  S.  Feliz  de  Celorio,  which  is  a  modernized 
building  of  the  14th  century,  and  the  facades  of  several  houses  of 
the  12th  and  13th  centuries  are  also  good  examples  of  different 
architectural  styles. 

SANTIAGO  (or  ST  JAGO)  DE  CUBA,  a  city  and  sea- 
port of  Cuba,  at  one  time  the  capital  of  the  whole  island, 
and  now  the  chief  town  of  the  eastern  department,  is 
situated  in  19°  57'  7"  N.  lat.  and  75°  54'  3"  AV.  long, 
(lightliouse),  on  a  fine  bay  on  the  south  coast.  Tlie  spaci- 
ous and  well-defended  harbour  is  accessible  to  the  largest 
vessels,  but  silt  near  the  wharf  allows  onlj'  those  drav.-ing 
less  than  14  feet  to  come  alongside.  The  city,  which  climbs 
a  hill-side  150  feet  above  the  bay,  has  considerably  im- 
proved since  1870,  though  its  streets  are  still  badly  paved. 
It  contains  the  largest  cathedral  in  the  island,  a  theatre, 
a  custom-house,  barracks  (1858-1880),  and  hospitals. 
Foundries,  soap-works,  tan-yards,  and  cigar  factories  are  the 
only  industrial  establishments.  The  exports  were  valued  in 
1867  at  £1,650,000,  in  1882  at  £1,032,200,  and  in  1883 
at  £722,632.  Besides  sugar,  which  forms  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole,  the  principal  articles  are  cocoa,  rum, 
tobacco  and  cigars,  coffee,  honey  and  wax,  mahogany,  and 
copper-ore — this  last  at  one  time  to  the  extent  of  25,000 
tons  per  annum,  but  now  in  greatly  diminished  quantity. 
The  copper  mines  Lomas  del  Cobre  lie  on  the  other  side 
of  the  bay  inland  from  Punta  de  Sal.  The  estimated 
population  is  between  24,000  and  30,000. 

Founded  by  Diego  A'elazquez  in  1514,  and  incorporated  as  a  city 
iu  1522,  Santiago  is  memorable  mainly  for  the  French  occupation 
and  ransom  in  1553,  and  the  affair  of  the  ship  "  Virginius"  iu  1873, 
which  resulted  in  the  Spanish  Government  paying  an  indemnity 
to  the  Uuited  States  for  the  murder  of  Captain  Fry  and  his 
companions. 

SANTIAGO  DEL  ESTERO,  chief  town  of  the  province 
of  Santiago  in  the' Argentine  Republic,  is  situated  in  27° 


46'  S.  lat.  and  64°  19'  W.  long.,  520  feet  above  the  sea, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Dulce.  It  is  the  •■esidence  of  the 
provincial  governor  and  the  seat  of  the  legi.«lature,  and  it 
ranks  as  the  oldest  European  city  in  the  republic,  having 
been  founded  by  Aguirre  in  1552.  The  most  ci-nspicuous 
building  is  the  cathedral,  whose  dome  contrasts  strangely 
by  its  size  and  evident  costliness  with  the  ])overty  of  the 
rest  of  the  town.  The  population  is  about  8000  (most  of 
whom  have  a  great  deal  of  Indian  blood  in  their  veins). 
The  railway  from  Rosario  to  Santiago  (689  miles)  was 
opened  in  1884. 

SANTILLANA,  I.vioo  Lopez  de  Mendoza,  JIarqdis 
OF  (1398-1458),  Castiliau  poet,  was  born  at  Carrion  de 
los  Condes  in  Old  Castile  on  August  19,  1398.*  His 
father,  Don  Diego  Hurtado  do  Mendoza,  grand  admiral 
of  Castile,  having  died  while  Ifiigo  was  still  quite  young,*! 
the  boy  was  brought  up  by  his  uncle  Don  Alfonso  Enriqucz.' 
From  his  twentieth  year  onwaids  he  became  an  increasingly 
prominent  figure  at  the  court  of  Juan  II.  of  Castile,' dis- 
tinguishing himself  both  in  civil  and  military  service; 'he 
was  created  ilarques  de  Santillana  and  Conde  del  Real  de 
Manzanares  for  the  part  he  took  in  the  battle  of  Olmcdo 
in  1445.  In  the  protracted  struggle  of  the  Castiliau 
nobles  against  the  prepondeiating  influence  of  Alvaro  de 
Luna  he  showed  great  moderr.tion,  but  ultimately  in  1452 
he  joined  the  combination  which  effected  the  fall  of  the 
favoiu'ite  in  the  following  year.  From  the  death  of  Juan  II. 
in  1454  Mendoza  took  little  part  in  public  affairs,  devoting 
himself  mainly  to  the  pursuits  of  literature  and  to  pious 
meditation.     He  died  at  Guadalajara  on  March  26,  1458.1 

Wendoza  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  Italian  sonnet  into 
Castile,  but  his  productions  in  this  class  are  somewhat  conven- 
tional in  style  ami  have  little  to  recommend  them  beyond  thecliarui 
of  smooth  versilicatiou.  He  was  much  more  successful  in  the 
sc/-r«»i;//<T  or  higliland  ]>aBtoral  after  the  rroven9al  manner.  His 
long-popular  Cculilo'jiiio  {14^4),  consisting  of  one  hundreil  proverbs, 
each  rendered  in  an  eight  line  stanza,  w.as  prepared  at  the  request 
of  Juan  II.  for  the  instruction  of  IJon  Enrique,  the  heir-apparent. 
To  the  same  didactic  category  belong  the  JJiiilojo  dc  Biat  coiiira 
FoHioia  (144S)  and  the  JJodrinal  de  Prlmdoi  (1453J.  .  Tho 
Comalida  de  Ponza  is  a  Dantesque  dream-dialogue,  in  octavo 
stanzas,  founded  on  the  disastrous  sea-fight  off  Ponza  in  1435,  when 
the  kings  of  Ar.ngon  and  Navarro  along  with  the  iufantc  of  Castile 
were  taken  piisoucrs  by  the  Genoese. 

The  works  of  Snntillana  have  been  cilitcd  with  commentaries  Tjy  Amador  do  los 
Rios  (M.aJrid,  1S52). 

SANTINI,  GiovA.\xi  (1787-1877),  Italian  astronomer, 
boru  30th  January  1787  at  Caprese,  in  the  province  of 
Arezzo,  was  from  1813  director  of  the  observatory  at  Padua. 
He  wrote  Elementi  di  Astronomin  (2  vols.  1820,  2d  ed. 
1830),  Teoria  decjli  Stromenti  otlici  (2  vols.  1828),  and 
a  great  many  scientific  memoirs  and  notices,  among  which 
are  five  catalogues  of  telescopic  stars  between  -1- 10°  and 
- 15°  declination,  from  observations  made  at  the  Padua 
observatory.     He  died  June  26,  1677. 

SANTO  DOMINGO.     See  Haytl 

SANTORIN.     SeeTHERA. 

SANTOS,  a  city  and  seaport  of  Rrazil  in  the  province 
of  Sao  Paulo,  is  situated  on  the  north  side  of  the  island  of 
Sao  Vicente  or  Engua-Gua^u,  \Vhich  forms  the  west  side  of 
the  harbour-bay  (an  inlet  3i  miles  deep,  with  soundings 
varying  from  4  to  10  fathoms).  It  is  a  well-built  town 
with  wide  airy  streets,  and  most  of  the  better  classes 
have  their  residences  at  Barra  Fort  (4  miles  out)  and  other 
suburban  villages.  Commercially  the  town  has  grown  to 
great  importance  as  the  terminus  of  the  whole  railway 
system  of  this  part  of  Brazil — the  Santos  and  Jiindiahy 
line  (1867)  running  inland  87  miles  and  connecting  with 
the  Sao  Paulo  and  Rio  de  Janeiro  Railway  and  various 
other  lines.  The  export  of  coffee  (the  great  staple)  in- 
creased from  344,800  60-kilogramme  bags  in  1862-3  to 
537,478  in  1872-3  and  1,932,^94  in  1883-4.  The  value  of 
the  cofiee  was  estimated  at  £1,630,275  in  1870-71,  and  at 


SAO      SAO 


301 


£3,632,838  in  1878-79.  Tho  export  and  import  trade  is 
estimated  to  circulate  £10,000,000  a  year.  The  popula- 
tion has  increased  since  1870  from  9000  to  about  15,000. 

As  the  city  of  Sao  Vicente,  the  first  permanent  Portuguese  settle- 
ment in  Brazil,  began  to  decline  from  its  position  as  capital  of  the 
southern  provinces,  Santos,  founded  by  Bvaz  Cuba  in  1543-46, 
gradually  took  its  place.  In  the  17th  century  it  was  besieged  by 
the  Dutch  and  English.  The  provincial  assembly  passed  an 
enactment  by  which  the  city  was  to  be  called  Cidadc  do  Bonifacio 
in  honour  of  Jos^  Bonifacio  d'Andrade  e  Silva,  the  national  patriot, 
to  "whom  it  had  given  birth,  but  the  older  name  of  Santos  held  its 
ground. 

SAO  LEOPOLDO,  a  German  colony  in  the  province 
of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Brazil,  founded  in  1824.  It  is 
connect^^d  with  Porto  Alegre  by  rail  and  also  by  tho  Rio 
do  Jinos,  a  small  but  deep  and  navigable  river.  Tho 
inhabitants  of  the  town  and  sixteen  neighbouring  settle- 
ments number  in  aU  about  20,000,  and  are  engaged  in 
cattle-breeding  and  in  the  culture  of  grain,  arrow-root,  and 
sugar. 

SAONE.     See  Rhoni:. 

SA6NE,  Haute-,  a  department  in  the  north-east  of 
France,  formed  in  1790  from  the  northern  portion  of 
Tranche  Comt6,  and  traversed  by  the  river  Saone.  Situated 
between  47°  14'  and  48°  1'  N.  lat.  and  between  5°  21 
and  6°  49'  E.  long.,  it  is  bounded  N.  by  the  department 
of  the  Vosges,  E.  by  the  territory  of  Belfort,  S.  by 
Doubs  and  Jura,  and  W.  by  Cote-d'Or  and  Haute- 
Marne.  On  the  north-east,  where  they  are  formed  by  the 
Vosges,  and  to  tho  south  along  the  course  of  the  Ognon 
the  limits  are  natural.  The  highest  point  of  the  depart- 
ment is  the  Ballon  de  Servance  (3900  feet),  and  the  lowest 
the  confluence  of  the  Saone  and  Ognon  (610  feet).  The 
general  slope  is  from  north-east  to  south-west,  the  direction 
followed  by  those  two  streams.  In  the  north-east  the 
department  belongs  to  the  Vosgian  formation,  consisting 
of  pine-clad  mountains  of  sandstone  and  gianite;  but 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  its  extent  it  is  composed 
of  limestone  plateaus  800  to  1000  feet  high  pierced  with 
crevasses  and  subterranean  caves,  into  which  the  rain 
water  disappears  to  issue  again  as  springs  in  the  valleys 
200  feet  lower  down.  In  its  passage  through  the  depart- 
ment the  Saone  receives  from  the  right  the  Amance  and 
the  Salon  from  the  Langres  plateau,  and  from  the  left 
the  Coney,  tho  Lanterne  (augmented  by  the  Breuchin 
which  passes  by  Luxeuil),  tho  Durgcon  (passing  Vesoul), 
and  the  Ognon.  The  north-eastern  districts  are  cold  in 
climate  and  have  an  annual  rainfall  ranging  from  36  to  48 
inches.  Towards  the  south-west  tho  characteristics  become 
those  of  the  Rhone  valley  generally.  At  Vesoul  and  Gray 
the  rainfall  only  reaches  24  inches  per  annum. 

Out  of  a  total  of  1,319,570  acres  664,846  are  arable,  375,999  under 
forest,  153,278  natural  meadows  and  orchards,  and  31,752  vine- 
yards. The  agricultural  population  numbers  180,893  out  of  a 
total  of  295,905.  They  possess  22,331  horses,  152,609  cattle, 
63,000  sheep,  72,678  pigs,  7094  goats,  more  than  19,000  dogs, 
and  15,915  fceehives  {40  tons  15  cwts.  of  honey  in  1881).  Wheat 
is  the  staple  crop — 2,727,425  bushels  in  1883;  next  come  oats, 
8,188,322  bushels;  potatoes,  8,175,673  bushels;  wine,  mostly  of 
middling  quality,  4,887,652  gallons  (average  vintage  for  tho  last 
ten  vears  6,086,652  gallons) ;  rye,  449,308  bushels ;  barley, 
396,940  ;  meslin,  276,251  ;  buckwheat,  63,945  ;  maize,  64,924  ; 
millet,  154  ;  colza,  456  tons  ;  beetroot,  26,365  tons ;  pulse,  5662 
bushels ;  hemp,  line'ii,  tobacco,  hops.  The  woods,  which  cover 
more  than  a  quarter  of  the  department,  are  composed  of  firs  in  tho 
Vosges  and  beech  trees,  oaks,  wj'ch  elms,  and  aspens  in  tho  other 
districts.  Kirschwasscr  is  manufactured  at  Fougerolles  from  tho 
native  chenies.  Tlio  industrial  population  number  61,477  ;  650 
|Tvorkmen  raise  143,842  tons  of  iron-oro  yearly  ;  copper,  silver,  and 
manganese  cxigt  in  tho  department,  and  gold  occurs  in  tho  bed 
of  the  Ognon.  Rock-salt  mines  yield  annually  11,000  tons  of  salt 
and  the  materials  for  a  considerable  manufacture  of  sulphuric, 
hydrochloric,  and  nitric  acids,  sulpliate  of  soda,  chloride  of  lime, 
and  Epsom  and  Glauber  salt".  Coal  mines,  with  their  principal 
centre  at  Ronchamp,  give  em|>loynient  to  more  than  2000  workmen, 
and  in  1883  yielded  212,680  tons  of  coal.    Peat,  limestone,  plaster, 


building-stone,  marble,  porphyry,  granite,  syenite,  anJ  sanilstone 
are  all  worked  in  the  de]iartiuont.  Tho  green  jmrpliyry  pedestal  ol 
Napoleon's  sarcophagus  at  Les  Invalides  and  the  syenite  columns 
of  the  Grand  Opera  in  Paris  were  cut  at  Servance.  Of  the  many 
mineral  waters  of  UauteSaono  tho  best  known  arc  the  hot  springs 
of  Luxeuil,  which,  with  their  shxteen  saline  and  two  chalybeate 
sources,  discharge  over  127,000  gallons  in  the  24  hours  and  art 
used  for  bathing  and  drinking.  Besides  forty-seven  iron-working 
establishments  (smelting  furnaces,  foundries,  and  wire-drawing 
mills,  producing  in  1883  4S75  tons  of  iron  smelted  by  wood-fuel, 
286  tons  of  refined  iron  and  1040  tons  of  sheet-iron,  &c. ),  Haute- 
Saone  possesses  copper-foundries,  engineering  works,  steel-foundries, 
and  factories  for  producing  tin  plate,  nails,  pins,  files,  saws,  screws, 
shot,  chains,  agricultural  implements,  locks,  spinning  machinery, 
edge  tools,  &c.  Window-glass  is  manufactured  by  105  worlonen 
and  glass  wares  by  300,  pottery  and  earthenware  by  220  to  230. 
There  are  also  about  100  brick  and  tile  works;  the  paper-mUls 
employ  329  hands,  and  the  21  cotton-mills  (66,700  spindles  and 
2518  looms,  of  which  154  are  hand-looms)  upwards  of  2000.  Print- 
works, fulling  mills,  hosiery  factories,  and  straw-hat  factories  are 
also  of  some  account;  as  well  as  sugar- works,  dye-works,  saw-mills, 
starch-works,  chemical  works,  oil-mills,  tanyards,  and  flour-mills. 
The  department  exports  wheat  (893,000  bushels),  cattle,  iron,  wood, 
pottery,  kirschwasser,  and  cooper's  wares.  'The  SaOne  provides 
a  navigable  channel  of  40  miles,  which  is  about  to  be  connected 
with  the  Moselle  and  the  Meuse  by  the  Canal  de  I'Est  in  com-se  of 
construction  along  the  valley  of  the  Coney.  Gray  is  the  great 
emporium  of  the  water-borne  trade,  estimated  at  200,000  tons  per 
annum.  The  department  has  186  raUes  of  national  roads,  3313 
miics  of  other  roads,  and  235  miles  of  railway — the  Paris-Mulhouse 
and  iTancy-Gray  railways,  crossing  at  Vesoul,  and  various  other 
lines.  There  are  three  arrondissements, — Vesoul,  Gray  (7254  in- 
habitants in  the  town),  Lure  (4360), — 28  cantons,  583  communes. 
Haute-Sa6ne  is  in  the  district  of  the  7th  corps  d'armde,  and  in  its 
legal,  ecclesiastical,  and  educational  relations  depends  on  Besaucon. 
Luxeuil  (4376  inhabitants),  the  most  important  place  after  the  sub- 
prefectures,  is  celebrated  for  its  abbey,  foimded  by  St  Columban 
in  690. 

SA6KE-ET-L0IRE,  a  department  of  the  east  central 
region  of  France  formed  in  1790  from  the  districts  of 
AutunoLs,  Brionnais,  Chalonnais,  CharoUais,  and  llaconnais 
previously  belonging  to  Burgundy.  Lying  between  46°  9' 
and  47°  9'  N.  lat.,  3°  37'  and  5°  27'  E.  long.,  it  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  department  of  Cote  d'Or,  K 
by  that  of  Jura,  S.E.  by  Ain,  S.  by  Rhone  and  Loire,  W. 
by  Allier  and  Nifcvre.  The  two  streams'  from  which  it 
takes  its  name  bound  the  department  on  the  south-east  and 
on  the  west  respectively.  Between  these  the  continental 
watershed  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic 
called  the  CharoUais  Mountains  runs  south  and  north.  Its 
altitude  (2500  feet  on  the  .south)  diminishes  to  the  north 
in  tho  direction  of  Cute-d'Or.  "The  culminating  point  of 
the  department  is  in  tho  heights  of  Morvan,  on  the  border 
of  Ni6vre  (2960  foot).  The  lowest  point,  where  the  SaOne 
leaves  the  department,  is  under  550  feet.  The  Saone 
crosses  the  department  from  north  to  south,  and  receives 
on  its  right  the  Dheunc,  followed  by  the  Canal  du.Centro 
and  the  Grosne,  and  on  its  left  tho  Doubs  and  tho  Seille. 
The  Loire  only  receives  one  important  affluent  from  the 
right,  the  Arroux,  which  is  increased  by  tho  Bourbince, 
whose  valley  is  followed  by  the  Canal  du  Centre.  Tho 
average  temperature  ia  slightly  higher  at  Macon  than  at 
Paris — the  winters  being  colder  and  the  summer  hotter. 
The  yearly  rainfall  (32  inches,  increasing  towards  the 
hilly  districts)  is  distributed  over  135  days;  there  are  25 
days  of  snow  and  27  of  storm. 

Of  a  totil  area  of  2,116,311  acres  (this  is  one  of  the  largest  of  tha 
French  departments)  1,079,395  arc  arable,  371,866  forest,  292,287 
natural  meadows  and  orchards,  and  106,111  vineyards.  In  1880  tho 
livestock  comprised  26,000  horses,  COOO  asses  and  mules,  75,000 
bulls  and  oxen,  150,000  cows  ond  heifers,  56,000  calves,  216,000 
sheep,  175,000  pigs,  60,000  goats,  35,000  booliivcs  (yielding  214 
tons  of  honey  and  52  tons  of  wax).  The  white  Charollnis  oxen  are 
one  of  tho  finc-.t  French  breeds,  equnlly  siiit.ihlo  for  labour  and 
fattening.  No  fewer  than  366,252  of  the  iiiliabitauts  of  tho  de- 
partment out  of  a  total  of  625,659  depend  on  agriculture.  In  1883 
there  was  produced  3,678,270  bushels  of  wheat,  22,890  meslin, 
1,022,037  rye;  in  1880  210,375  bushels  of  barley,  754,875  buck- 
wheat, 809,325  maize,  101,970  millet,  2,107,187  o.its,  13,359,.307 
potatoes,  38,500  pulse,  70,936  tons  of  beetroot,  206  tons  hemp,  196 


302 


S  A  O  —  S  A  P. 


tons  htim]isccd,  135,300  buslieU  colza-seed,  3177  tons  colza  oil.  In 
18S3  tlie  vintage  yielded  22,636,636  gallons  of  wine,  the  average 
qnautity  of  recent  years  being  21,809,018  gallons.  Tlie  red  wines 
of  Maconnais  (especially  tliosc  of  Thorins)  are  those  in  higliest 
repute ;  Pouilly  produces  the  best  white  wines.  The  industrial 
classes  are  represented  by  150,983  individuals.  The  coal-basin 
of  Crcusot,  tb"<!  si.xth  in  importance  in  France,  produced  in  1882 
1,269,783  tons.  A  pit  at  Bi)inac  is  3937  feet  deep.  Iron-oro  was 
extracted  in  1S82  to  the  amount  of  28,654  tons.  Slate,  limestone, 
building-stone,  millstones,  granite,  m.arble,  marl,  plaster,  bitu- 
minous schists,  peat,  kaolin,  manganese  (4360  tons  per  annum), 
and  certain  precious  stones  are  also  found  in  the  department.  T)ie 
most  celebrated  mineral  waters  are  those  of  Bourbon-Lancy,  six  out 
of  the  seven  springs  being  thermal.  They  are  strongly  saline, 
lletal-working  is  principally  carried  on  at  Creusot,  whicli,  with  its 
13,000  workmen  and  its  13  smelting  furnaces,  100  puddling  ovens, 
i  Be.-semer  apparatuses  and  4  Martin's  ovens,  &c. ,  produced  in 
1882  63,989  toils  of  iron  (965  tons  of  rails,  21,984  tons  of  sheet-iron) 
and  99,823  tons  of  steel  (72,085  tons  of  rails,  7056  tons  of  sheet- 
iron).  The  engine  works  produce  all  sorts  of  machines,  including 
about  100  locomotives.  The  Clialon  branch  works  turn  out  ships, 
boats,  bridges,  and  boilers.  Other  foundries  and  forges  in  the  de- 
partment produced  in  1882  175,113  tons  of  ca«t  iron  and  certain 
quantities  of  copper  and  bronze.  The  cotton  manufacture  employs 
14,000  spindles  and  2000  looms,  silk  2900 spindles  and  2500  hiuiil- 
looms,  wool-spinning  350  spindles.  Other  industrial  establish- 
ments are  potteries,  tile-works,  glass-works  (6,000,000  bottles  at 
^pinac  alone),  distilleries,  oil-works,  mineral-oil  works,  cooperages, 
tanneries,  flour-mills,  sugar-works — the  total  number  being  860 
with  1372  steam  engines  of  27,780  horse-power.  The  connnerce 
of  the  department,  especially  as  regards  its  exports,  deals  mainly 
with  coal,  metals,  machinery,  wine,  cattle,  bricks,  pottery,  glass. 
It  is  facilitated  by  five  n.avigable  streams  (181  miles), — Loire, 
Arroux,  SaOne,  Doubs,  Seille, — the  Canal  du  Centre  which  unites 
Chalon-sur-Saone  with  Digoin  on  the  Loire,  and  the  canal  from 
Roanne  to  Digoin  and  the  lateral  Loire  Canal,  both  following  the 
main  river  valley.  The  total  length  of  the  canals  is  90  miles. 
There  are  365  miles  of  national  road,  7098  of  other  roads,  and  487 
miles  of  railway.  Saone-et-Loire  forms  the  diocese  of  Autun  ;  it  is 
part  of  the  district  of  the  8th  corps  d'armee  (Bourges),  and  its  uni- 
versity is  that  of  Lyons.  It  is  divided  into  five  arrondissements, 
— Macon,  ChaIon-sur-Sa6ne,  Autun,  Charolles  (3350  inhabitants  in 
the  town),  Louhans  (4280), — 50  cantons,  and  539  communes  ;  the 
most  populous  commune  is  Creusot  (28,000  inhabitants,  16,000  in 
the  town).  Montceau-les-Mines  (4560)  is  also  a  mining  centre. 
Cluny  (3500)  is  celebrated  for  its  abbey,  now  occupied  by  the  nor- 
mal school  of  secondary  instruction,  and  ParAv-le-Monial  (300)  for 
its  pilgrimage. 

SAO  PAULO,  a  city  of  Brazil  capital  of  a  province  of 
the  same  name,  is  situated  on  the  north-western  slope  of 
the  Serra  do  Mar,  on  a  left-hand  tributary  of  the  Tiete,  a 
confluent  of  the  ParanA.  It  is  an  old  and  irregularly 
built  city,  with  some  picturesque  old  churches  and  con- 
vents. The  centre  of  the  provincial  railway  system,  86 
miles  distant  from  Santos  (q.v.),  its  seaport  on  the 
Atlantic  coast,  and  143  miles  from  Kio  de  Janeiro,  the  city 
has  developed  very  rapidly  within  recent  years.  One  of 
the  two  academies  of  law  which  Brazil  possesses  is  seated 
at  Sao  Paulo.  The  most  important  public  buildings  are 
the  cathedral,  the  provincial  governor's  and  the  bishop's 
palaces,  and  the  theatre.  A  ne,w  system  of  water-supply 
and  drainage  was  constructed  in  1879-80  by  English 
engineers  under  a  Brazilian  company.  The  population  of 
the  city  in  1879  numbered  about  35,000. 

Founded  by  the  Jesuits  as  a  college,  Sao  Paulo  was  made  a  town 
in  1560  instead  of  Santo  Andre,  destroyed  by  order  of  Mendo  de 
Sa.  In  1711  it  became  a  city,  in  1740  a  bishooric,  and  in  1823 
an  "  imperial  city. " 

SAO  PEDRO  DO  KIO  GRANDE  DO  SUL.  See  Eio 
Grande  do  Sul. 

SAPOR  (Shapur  or  Shahpuhr),  the  name  of  three 
SAsdnian  kings.     See  Persia,  vol.  sviii.  pp.  608-610. 

SAPPAN  WOOD  is  one  of  several  red  dyewoods  of 
commerce,  all  belonging  to  the  Leguminous  genus  Cxsal- 
pinia,  or  to  the  closely  allied  genus  Feltophorum.  It  is  a 
native  of  tropical  Asia  at.d  the  Indian  Archipelago,  but, 
as  it  is  one  of  the  most  esteemed  of  the  red  dyewoods,  its 
cultivation  has  been  promoted  in  the  West  Indies  and 
Brazil.  The  wood  is  somewhat  lighter  in  colour  than 
Brazil  wood  and  its  other  allies,  but  the  same  tinctorial 


principle,  brazilin,  appears   to  be   common    to   all.     Sed 
Brazil  Wood,  vol.  iv.  p,  241. 

SAPPHIRE,  a  blue  transparent  variety  of  corundum  of 
native  alumina.  It  differs,  therefore,  from  the  Oriental 
ruby  mainly  in  its  colour.  The  colour  varies  from  the 
palest  blue  to  deep  indigo,  the  most  esteemed  tint  being 
that  of  the  blue  cornflower.  It  often  happens  that  a 
crystal  of  sapphire  is  particoloured,  and  hence  a  fine  cut 
stone  may  derive  its  tiut  from  a  deep-coloured  portion  at 
the  back,  instead  of  being  uniformly  tinted  throughout- 
The  sapphire  is  dichroic,  and  the  colour  of  a  fine  velvety 
stone  may  be  resolved  by  means  of  the  dichroi-scope  into 
an  ultramarine  blue  and  a  yellowish-green.  The  origin 
of  the  blue  colour  of  the  sapphire  has  not  been  satis- 
factorily determined,  for,  although  oxide  of  cobalt  may 
produce  it,  and  is  invariably  used  for  colouring  imitations 
of  the  stone,  yet  the  presence  of  cobalt  is  not  always 
revealed  in  the  analysis  of  the  sapphire.  According  to 
lapidaries  the  hardness  of  the  sapphire  slightly  e.xceeds 
that  of  the  ruby,  and  it  is  therefore  the  hardest  known 
mineral,  excepting  diamond.  In  consequence  of  its  great 
hardness  it  was  generally  mounted  by  the  ancients  in  a 
partially  rough  state,  the  surface  being  polished  but  not 
cut.  Notwithstanding  its  hardness  it  has  been  occasion- 
ally  engraved  as  a  gem.  There  seems  no  doubt  that  the 
ancient  o-aTrcfxipo^,  as  well  as  the  sapphire  ("i'?P)  of  the 
Old  Testament  (Job  xxviii.  6),  was  our  lapis  lazuli,  while 
the  modern  sapphire  seems  to  have  been  known  under  the 
name  of  ia.Kii/$os  or  hyacintkns  (King). 

The  finest  sapphires  are  obtained  from  Ceylon,  where 
they  occur  with  other  gem-stones  as  pebbles  or  rolled 
crystals  in  the  sands  of  rivers.  The  sapphires  have 
generally  preserved  their  crystalline  form  better  than  the 
associated  rubies.  Some  of  the  slightly-cloudy  Ceylon 
sapphires  display  when  cut  en  cabochon  an  opalescent  star 
of,  six  rays,  whence  they  are  called  siar-sapphires  or 
asterias.  The  principal  localities  in  Ceylon  yielding  sap- 
phires are  Rakewana,  Eatnapura,  and  Satawaka.  A  few 
years  ago  sapphires  were  discovered  in  Siam  (in  the  pro- 
vince of  Battambong),  but  the  stones  from  this  locality 
are  mostly  dull  and  of  too  dark  a  colour.  In  Burmali 
they  occur  in  association  with  rubies,  but  are  much  les.s 
numerous.  They  have  also  been  recently  found  in  Pal- 
dar,  north  of  the  Chandrabagha  range.  The  sapphire  is 
widely  distributed  through  the  gold-bearing  drifts  of 
Victoria  and  New  South  Wales,  but  the  colour  of  the 
stones  is  usually  too  dark.  Some  of  the  finest  specimens 
have  come  from  the  Beech  worth  district  in  Victoria.' 
Coarse  sapphire  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States,  and  a  few  stones  fit  for  jewellery  have  been 
obtained  from  Corundum  Hill,  Macon  county,  North! 
Carolina,  and  from  the  other  localities  mentioned  under 
RtJBY.  The  sapphire  also  occurs  in  Europe,  being  found 
in  the  basalts  of  the  Rhine  valley  and  of  Le  Puy  in 
Velay,  but  not  sufficiently  fine  for  purposes  of  ornament. 
The  sapphire  has  been  artificially  reproduced  by  similar 
methods  to  those  described  in  the  article  Ruby.  ■ 

SAPPFO  (in  Attic  Greek  Sair^w,  but  called  by  herself 
*a7r<^6),  which  is  necessitated  by  the  metre  also  in 
AnthoL,  ix.  190,  though  Alcreus,  himself  an  ^olian  and 
her  contemporary,  calls  her  SaTr^w),  incomparably  the 
greatest  poetess  the  world  has  ever  seen,  was  a  native  of 
Lesbos,  and  probably  both  was  born  and  lived  at  Mytilene. 
For  the  idea  that  she  migrated  thither  from  Eresus  is 
merely  a  conjecture  to  explain  a  perfectly  imaginary  diflS- 
culty  caused  by  the  grammarians  who  invented  another 
Sappho,  a  courtesan  of  Eresus,  to  whom  to  ascribe  tha 
current  scandals  about  the  poetess.  She  was  the  daughter' 
of  Scamandronymus  and  Cleis,  of  whom  nothing  more  iq 
knomi,  _  The   epistle  of  Sappho   to  Phaon,   ascribed  t(\ 


S  A  II 


S  A  R 


303 


Ovid,  says  that  her  "pareut"  died  when  she  was  six  years 
old ;  if  Frag.  90  refers  to  Sappho's  own  mother,  which  is 
very  doubtful,  this  '"parent"  must  be  her  father.  Her 
date  cannot  bo  certainly  fixed,  but  she  must  have  lived 
about  the  end  of  the  7th  and  beginning  of  the  Ctli  cen- 
turies B.C.,  being  contemporary  with  Alcrcus,  StesicLorus, 
and  Pittacus,  in  fact  with  tbo  culminating  period  of  yEolic 
poetry.  But  of  her  life  very  little  else  is  known.  One 
of  her  brothers,  Charaxu.s,  who  was  engaged  in  the  wine- 
trade  between  Lesbos  and  Naucratis  in  Egypt,  fell  in  love 
there  with  a  courtesan  named  Doricha  and  surnanied  for 
her  beauty  Rbodopia,  whom  he  freed  from  slavery  and 
upon  whom  he  squandered  his  property.  Sappho  wrote 
an  ode  on  this,  in  which  she  severely  satirized  and  rebuked 
him.  Another  brother,  Lariclius,  was  public  cup-bearer  at 
Mytilene, — a  fact  for  which  it  was  necessary  to  be  tvycuj';, 
so  that  we  may  suppose  Sappho  to  have  been  of  good  family. 
For  the  rest  it  is  known  that  she  had  a  daughter,  named 
after  her  grandmother  Cleis,  and  that  she  had  some 
ptrtonal  acquaintance  with  Alcajus.  Ho  addressed  her 
in  an  ode  of  which  a  fragrant  is  preserved  :  "  Violet-weav- 
ing, pure,  sweet-smiling  Sappho,  I  wish  to  say  somewhat, 
but  shame  hinders  me.;,"  and  she  answered  in  another  ode  : 
"Hadst  thou  had  desire  of  aught  good  or  fair,  shame 
would  not  have  touched  thine  eyes,  but  thou  wouldst  have 
spoken  thereof  openly."  Further  than  this  everything  is 
enveloped  in  doubt  and  darkness.  The  well-known  story 
of  her  love  for  the  disdainful  Phaon,  and  her  leap  into  the 
sea  from  the  Leucadian  promontory,  together  with  that  of 
her  flight  from  Mytilene  to  Sicily,  which  has  been  con- 
nected with  her  love  for  Phaon,  rests  upon  no  evidence 
that  will  bear  examination.  Indeed,  we  are  not  even  told 
whether  she  died  of  the  leap  or  not.  All  critics  again  are 
agreed  that  Siiidas  was  simply  gulled  by  the  comic  poets 
when  he  tells  us  of  her  imaginary  husband,  Cercolas  of 
Andros.  The  name  of  Sappho  was  by  these  poets  con- 
sistently dragged  in  the  dirt,  and  both  the  aspersions 
they  cast  on  her  character  and  the  embellishments  with 
which  they  garnished  her  life  passed  for  centuries  as 
undoubted  history.  Six  comedies  entitled  Sappho,  and 
two  Fkaon,  were  produced  by  the  Middle  Comedy ;  and, 
when  we  consider,  for  example,  the  way  in  which  Socrates 
was  caricatured  by  Aristophanes,  we  are  justified  in  put- 
ting no  faith  whatever  in  any  accounts  of  Sappho  which 
depend  upon  such  authority,  as  most  of  our  accounts 
appear  to  do. 

VVelckcr'  was  the  first  to  examine  carefully  the  evidence 
upon  which  the  current  opinion  of  Sappho's  character 
rested.  He  found  it  easy  to  disprove,  iu  his  opinion,  all 
the  common  accusations  against  her  moral  character,  but 
unfortunately,  not  content  with  disproving  actual  state- 
ments, went  on  to  uphold  Sappho  as  a  model  of  feminine 
virtue.  Bergk  and  Mure  both  combated  his  views,  and  in 
the  Rheinischea  Museum  for  1857  may  bo  found  the 
issues  between  him  and  the  latter  clearly  stated  on  both 
aides,  unfortunately  with  con.siderable  ucrimon}'.  It  is 
plain  to  the  impartial  reader  that  both  of  the  controver- 
sialists have  gone  decidedly  too  far,  but  it  can  hardly  be 
denied,  however  much  wo  should  naturally  desire  to 
think  otherwise,  that  Mure  has  very  considerably  the  best 
of  it.  We  owe  thanks  to  Welcker  for  clearing  the  history 
of  Sappho  from  several  fictions,  but  further  than  this  it  is 
impossible  to  go ;  we  owe  thanks  to  Slurc  for  preferring 
truth  to  sentiment,  but  we  cannot  disregard  some  points 
of  Welckcr's  argument  so  com|iletoly  as  ho  does.  In  fact, 
the  truth  appears  to  bo  that  SapiOio  was  not,  as  the  Attic 
comedy  represented  her,  a  woman  utterly  abandoned  to 
vico,   and   only   distinguished   among   the   corrupt    com- 

'  Happho  von  cincin  herrscheniitn  VuniHhcil  Uefreyt,  G«ttingun, 
1816. 


nuinity  of  Lesbos  by  exception?.!  immorality  and  the  gift 
of  song, — that  indeed  she  was  not  notoriously  immoral  at 
all,  but  no  worse  and  perhaps  better  than  the  standard  of 
her  age  and  country  required.  This  seems  clearly  indi- 
cated by  the  epithet  uyi'a,  with  which  Alca:>us  addressed  her. 
On  the  other  hand,  not  merely  tradition  but  the  charactci 
of  her  extant  fragments,  with  the  other  evidence  adduced 
by  Jlure,  constrain  us  to  resign  the  pleasant  dream  oi 
Welcker,  K.  O.  Jliiller,  and  their  followers, — an  ideal  and 
eminently  respectable  head  of  a  poetic  school,  with  a 
matronly  regard  for  her  pupils,  who  meant  by  her  own 
poems  anything  but  what  .she  said,  and  wa.s  more  careful 
to  inculcate  virtue  than  unlimited  indulgence  in  passion. 

To  leave  this  disagreeable  question,  we  will  next  indicato 
briefly  all  that  is  known  of  her  position  in  Lesbos.  Sho, 
was  there  the  centre  of  a  brilliant  society  and  head  of  a 
great  poetic  school,  for  poetry  in  that  age  and  place  was 
cultivated  as  assiduously  and  apparently  as  successfully 
by  women  as  by  men.  Her  most  famous  pupils  wera 
Erinna  of  Telos  and  Damophyla  of  Pamphylia.  IJosides 
them  we  know  the  names  of  Atthis,  Telesip|)a,  Megara, 
Gongyla,  Gyrinna,  Dica,  Mnasidica  Eunica,  and  Anactoria, 
to  whom  the  second  ode,  cts  fpwfiivav,  is  said  to  have  been 
addressed.  The  names  also  of  two  of  her  rivals  are  pre- 
served— Andromeda  and  Gorgo ;  but  whether  they  also 
pre-sided  over  similar  schools  or  not  is  very  doubtful,  aa 
that  idea  of  them  depends  on  the  authority  of  Maximua 
Tyriu.s,  which  is  quito  worthless  on  this  point. 

In  antiquity  the  fame  of  Sappho  rivalled  that  of 
Hcmer.  She  was  called  "the  poetess,"  as  he  was  called 
"the  poet."  Ditferent  writers  style  her  "the  tenth 
Muse,"  "the  flower  of  the  Graces,"  "a  miracle,"  " the 
beautiful,"  the  last  epithet  referring  to  her  writings,  not 
her  person,  which  is  said  to  have  been  small  and  dark. 
Her  poems  were  arranged  in  nine  books,  on  what  principle 
is  uncertain  ;  she  is  said  to  have  sung  them  to  the  ilixo- 
Lydian  mode,  which  she  herself  invented.  Tks  few 
remains  which  have  come  down  to  us  amply  testify  to 
the  justice  of  the  praises  lavished  upon  Sappho  by  the 
ancients.  The  perfection  and  finish  of  every  line,  the 
correspondence  of  sense  and  sound,  the  incomparable  com- 
mand over  aU  the  most  delicate  resources  of  verse,  and  the 
exquisite  symmetry  of  the  complete  odes  raise  her  into  tho 
very  first  rank  of  technical  poetry  at  once,  while  her 
direct  and  fervent  painting  of  passion,  which  caused 
Longinus  to  quote  the  ode  to  Anactoria  as  an  example  of 
the  sublime,  has  never  been  since  surpassed,  and  only 
approached  by  Catullus  and  in  tho  Vita  Knova.  Her 
fragments  also  bear  witness  to  a  profound  feeling  for  .tho 
beauty  of  nature ;  wo  know  from  other  sources  that  she 
had  a  peculiar  delight  in  flowers,  and  especially  in  the 
rose.  Tho  ancients  also  attributed  to  her  a  considerable 
power  in  satire,  but  in  hexameter  verse  they  considered 
her  inferior  to  her  pupil  Erinna. 

Tlio  frai^mcnts  of  S-Tpplio  linvo  been  all  prcscrvcil  liy  other 
authors  incidentilly.  An  independent  fr.igmcnt,  ascrilied  to  licr 
by  Blnss  but  rcjcL-ted  by  Ecrgk  and  of  very  doubtful  authenticity, 
lias  been  discovered  on  a  papyrus  in  tho  Eftyplinn  museum  at 
Berlin  (see  lihcin.  Mns.  for  1880,  ]>.  287  ;  rergk,  vol.  iii.  p.  704) ; 
but  oven  if  really  Iicra  it  is  too  frn;;inentary  to  bo  of  nny  vaUio. 
Tho  best  edition  of  Sanplio  is  to  bo  found  in  HcrgU's  Poclnc  Li/riei 
Omeci,  vol.  iii.,  4th  oil.,  Lcipsic,  1882.  Tho  only  scpnrali-  edition 
and  tlio  only  complcio  tmuslatiou  in  Kn;;lisli  is  tliat  of  .Mr  Wbarlou 
(London,  1885),  in  wliicli  it  is  unfortunately  inipossiblo  for  tho 
gcneial  reader  to  pl.aco  nuicli  reliance.  (J.  A.  I'L. ) 

SARABAND  (Ital.  Sarahnndd,  Zarahnnda  ;  Fr,  Snm- 
hande),  a  slow  dance,  generally  believed  to  havo  been 
imported  from  Spain  in  the  earlier  half  of  tho  ICth  cen- 
tury, though  attempt-H  ha»o  sonietinu'S  been  nindo<  to 
trace  it  to  an  Eastern  origin.  Tho  etymology  of  the  word 
is  viry  uncertain.  Tho  most  probable  account  is  that  the 
dano«  was  uamed  after  its  inventor — a  celebrated  dancer 


304 


S  A  K  — 8  A   R 


of  Seville,  called  Zarabanda.  During  the  IGth  and  17th 
centuries  the  saraband  was  exceedingly  popular,  alike  in 
Spain,  France,  Italj-,  and  England.  Its  music  was  in 
^triple  time — generally  with  three  minims  in  the  bar — and 
almost  always  consisted  of  two  strains,  each  beginning 
upon  the  first  beat,  and  most  frequently  ending  on  the 
second  or  third.  !Many  very  fine  examples  of  it  will  be 
found  among  the  Suites  and  Partitas  of  Handel  and 
J.  S.  Bach  ;  but  by  far  the  finest  we  possess  is  that  which 
Handel  first  composed  for  his  overture  to  Almira,  and 
afterwards  adapted  to  the  words  "Lascia,  ch'io  pianga," 
in  Rinaldo. 

SARACENS  was  the  current  designation  among  the 
Christians  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages  for  their  Moslem 
enemies,  especially  for  the  Moslems  in  Europe.  In  earlier 
times  the  name  of  Saraceni  was  applied  by  Greeks  and 
Romans  to  the  troublesome  nomad  Arabs  of  the  Syro- 
Arabian  desert  who  continually  harassed  the  frontier  of 
the  empire  from  Egypt  to  the  Euphrates.  It  is  easy  to 
understand  how,  after  Islam,  the  name  came  to  be  extended 
to  the  Moslem  enemies  of  the  empire  in  general,  but  no 
satisfactory  explanation  has  been  given  of  the  reason  why 
the  Romans  called  the  frontier  tribes  Saracens.  It  is 
most  natural  to  suppose  that  they  adopted  some  name  of  a 
tribe  or  confederation  and  used  it  in  an  extended  sense, 
just  as  the  Syrians  called  all  these  northern  nomads  by  the 
name  of  the  tribe  of  Tayyi'.  The  common  derivation  from 
the  Arabic  sharkt,  "  eastern,"  is  quite  untenable.  Springer 
suggests  that  the  word  may  be  simply  shorakd,  "allies." 

SARAGOSSA.     See  Zaeagoza. 

SARAKHS.     See  Persia,  vol.  xviii.  p.  618. 

SARAN,  or  Saeun,  a  British  district  in  the  lieutenant- 
governorship  of  Bengal,  lying  between  25°  40'  and  26° 
38'  N.  lat.  and  83°  58'  and  85°  14'  E.  long.  It  forms  one 
t)f  the  north-western  districts  of  the  Patnd  division  in  the 
Behar  province,  and  coijiprises  an  area  of  2622  square 
miles.  SAran  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  district  of 
Qorakhpur  in  the  North-Western  Provinces,  on  the  east 
by  the  Bengal  districts  of  Champaran  and  Tirhut,  on  the 
south  by  the  Ganges,  separating  it  from  ShAhdbAd  and 
PatnA  districts,  and  on  the  west  by  Gorakhpur.  It  is  a 
Vast  alluvial  plain,  possessing  no  mountains,  and  scarcely 
any  hill  or  even  undulations,  but  with  a  general  inclina- 
tion towards  the  south-east,  as  indicated  by  the  flow  of 
the  rivers  in  that  direction.  The  rivers  and  watercourses 
are  very  numerous,  few  tracts  being  better  supplied  in  this 
respect.  The  principal  rivers  besides  the  Ganges  are  the 
Gandak  and  GhagrA,  which  are  navigable  throughout  the 
year.  There  is  little  or  no  waste  land,  and  the  district 
has  long  been  noted  for  the  high  state  of  its  cultivation. 
Sdran  is  beautifully  wooded ;  mango  trees  are  very 
numerous  ;  and  it  yields  large  crops  of  rice,  besides  other 
cereals,  tobacco,  opium,  indigo,  cotton,  and  sugar-cane. 
Though  possessing  no  railways  or  canals,  the  district  is 
■well  providect  with  roads.  There  is  very  little  jungle  ; 
large  game  is  not  met  with,  but  snakes  are  very  numerous. 
SAran  is  subject  to  blight,  flood,  and  drought ;  its  average 
annual  rainfall  is  45  inches.  The  administrative  head- 
quarters are  at  Chhapra. 

The  census  of  18S1  returned  the  poiiUation  ai  2,280,382 
.(1,083,565  males  and  1,196,817  females);  Himlus  numbeied 
2,010,958,  Mohammedans  269,142,  and  Christians  282.  The  ].f>pu- 
lation  is  entirely  agricultural ;  there  are  only  three  towns  with  more 
than  10,000  inhabitants,  viz.,  Clihapra  (51,670),  Scwan  (13,319),  and 
Revelganj  (12,493).  Mauul'actures  are  few  and  of  littls  account ; 
the  principal  are  indigo,  siigar,  brass-work,  pottery,  saltpetre,  and 
cloth.  The  commerce  of  Saran  consists  cliiefly  in  the  e.xport  of  raw 
produce,  of  which  the  chief  articles  are  oil-seeds,  indigo,  sugar,  and 
grain  of  all  sorts  except  rice  ;  the  imports  consist  principally  of 
rice,  salt,  and  European  piece-goods.  Revelganj  is  the  chief  trading 
mart  The  gross  revenue  of  the  diftrict  in  1883-84  amounted  to 
«-203.734.  of  which  tho  laud  coutribu*   '  <'.122,B12.    Saran  formerly 


constitutect  one  districi  wuri  Champaran.  The  revenue  areas  of  tho 
two  districts  were  not  finally  separated  until  1866,  but  the  magis- 
terial juiisdictious  ivore  first  divided  in  1837. 

SARAPIS.     See  Serapis. 

SARATOFF,  a  government  of  south-eastern  Russia,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  lower  Volga,  having  Penza  and 
Simbirsk  on  the  north.  Samara  and  Astrakhan  on  the  east, 
and  the  Don  Cossacks,  Vor:)nezh,  and  Tamboff  on  the 
west.  The  area  is  32,624  square  miles,  and  the  popula- 
tion (1882)  2,113,077.  The  government  has  an  irregular 
shape ;  and  a  narrow  strip,  140  miles  long  and  from  20  to 
45  miles  wide,  extending  along  the  Volga  as  far  south  as 
its  Sarepta  bend,  separates  from  the  river  the  territory  of 
the  Don  Cossacks.  Saratofi  occupies  the  eastern  part  o." 
the  great  central  plateau  of  Russia,  which  gently  slopes 
towards  the  south  so  as  imperceptibly  to  merge  into  the 
steppe  region ;  its  eastern  slope,  deeply  cut  into  by  ravines, 
abruptly  falls  towards  the  Volga.  As  the  higher  parts  of 
the  plateau  range  from  700  to  900  feet  above  the  sea, 
while  the  Volga  flows  at  an  elevation  of  only  20  feet  at 
Khvatynsk  in  the  north,  and  is  48  feet  beneath  sea-level 
at  Sarepta,  the  steep  ravine-cut  slopes  of  the  plateau  give 
a  billy  aspect  to  the  banks  of  the  river.  In  tho  south, 
and  especially  in  the  narrow  strip  above  mentioned,  the 
country  assumes  the  characteristics  of  true  elevated  steppes, 
intersected  with  waterless  ravines. 

Every  geological  formation  from  the  Carboniferous  up  to 
the  Sliocene  is  represented  in  Saratoff ;  the  older  ones  are, 
however,  mostly  concealed  under  the  Cretaceous,  whose 
fossiliferous  marls,  flint-bearing  clay.s,  and  iron-bearing 
sandstones  cover  broad  areas.  The  Jurassic  deposits  sel- 
dom make  their  appearance  from  beneath  them.  Eocene 
sands,  sandstones,  and  marls,  rich  in  marine  fossils  and  in 
fossil  wood,  extend  over  large  tracts  in  the  east.  The 
boulder-clay  of  the  Finland  and  Olonetz  ice-sheet  penetrates 
in  Saratoff  as  far  south-east  as  the  valleys  of  the  Medvye- 
ditsa  and  the  Sura  ;  while  extensive  layers  of  loess  and 
other  deposits  of  the  Lacustrine  or  Post-Glacial  period 
appear  in  the  south-east  and  elsewhere  above  the  Glacial 
deposits.  Iron-ore  is  abundant ;  chalk,  lime,  and  white 
pottery  clay  are  extracted  to  a  limited  degree.  The  mineral 
waters  at  Sarepta,  formerly  much  visited,  have  been  super- 
seded in  public  favour  by  those  of  Caucasu.s. 

Saratoff  is  well  watered,  especially  in  the  north.  The 
Volga,  from  1  to  7  miles  in  width,  separates  it  from 
Samara  and  Astrakhan  for  a  length  of  500  miles ;  its 
tributaries  are  but  small,  except  the  Sura,  which  ri.ses  in 
Saratoff  and  serves  for  the  northward  transit  of  timber. 
The  tributaries  of  the  Don  are  more  important ;  tho  upper 
Medvyeditsa  and  the  Khoper,  which  both  have  a  .south- 
ward course  parallel  to  tlie  Volga  and  water  Saratoff  each 
for  about  200  miles,  are  navigated  notwithstanding  tlieir 
shallows,  ready-made  boats  being  brought  in  separate  pieces 
from  the  Volga  for  that  purpose.  The  llovla,  which  flows 
in  the  same  direction  into  the  Don,  is  separated  from  the 
Volga  only  by  a  strip  of  land  15  miles  wide;  Peter  I- 
proposed  to  utilize  it  as  a  channel  for  connecting  the  Doi> 
with  the  Volga,  but  the  idea  was  never  carried  out,  and 
the  two  rivers  are  now  connected  by  the  railway  (52  miles) 
from  Tsaritsyn  to  Kalatch  which  crosses  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  Saratoff. 

Lakes  and  marshes  occur  only  in  a  few  river- valleys. 
The  region  is  rapidly  drying  up,  and  the  forests  diminish- 
ing. In  the  south,  about  Tsaritsyn,  where  the  hills  were 
densely  covered  with  them  a  few  centuries  ago,  they  have 
almost  wholly  disappeared.  In  the  north  they  still  cover 
more  th.an  a  third  of  the  surface,  the  aggregate  area  under 
wood  being  reckoned  at  2,661,000  acres.  The  remainder 
is  distributed  as  follows  -.—arable  land,  11,509,000  acres  ; 
prairies    and    pasture    lands,     3,799,000;     uncultivabie. 


SARATOFF 


30a 


'2,(r49,800.  Such  is  the  scarcity  of  timber  that  the 
peasants'  houses  are  made  of  clay,  the  corner  posts  and 
door  and  window  frames  being  largely  shipped  from  the 
wooded  districts  of  the  middle  Volga.  The  climate  is 
severe  and  quite  continental.  The  average  yearly  tempera- 
tures are  41°-5  at  Saratoff  {January,  12°-4  ;  July,  71°  5) 
and  44°4  at  Tsaritsyn  (January,  IS^-a  ;  July,  74°-6).  The 
average  range  of  temperature  is  as  much  as  119°.  The 
Volga  is  frozen  for  an  average  of- 162  days  at  Saratoff  and 
153  days  at  Tsaritsyn.  Thevsoil  is  very  fertile,  especially 
in  the  north,  where  a  thick  sheet  of  black-earth  covers  the 
plateaus ;  sandy  clay  and  salt  clay  appear  in  the  south. 

The  population  is  very  various,  emigrants  from  all  parts  of  Russia 
being  mixed  with  Finnish  and  Tartar  stems  and  with  German 
colonists.  •  The  Great  Russians  constitute  75  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation, Little  Russians  7  percent.,  Germans  7,  Mordvinians  (J,  and 
Tartars  3'5  per  cent.  The  Tcluivashes  may  number  about  11,000, 
Mescheriaks  about  3000,  and  Poles  about  5000.  All  are  unequally 
distributed,  Little  Russians  being  more  numerous  in  the  districts  of 
Atkarsk,  Batashoff,  Tsaiitsyn,  and  Kamyshin  (18  to  13  per  cent.), 
the  Mordvinians  in  Kuznetsk  and  Petrovsk  (16  per  cent),  and  the 
Germans  in  Kamyshin  (40  per  cent.).  The  immigration  oftlie 
Germans  took  place  in  1763-1765,  and  their  wealthy  colonies  have 
the  aspect  of  minor  West-European  towns  (see  Samara). 

Only  285,140  of  the  population  reside  in  ten  towns,  the 
remainder  (1,827,937)  being  distributed  over  5602  villages,  of 
which  some  have  from  5000  to  12,000  inhabitants,  and  no  less  than 
150  reckon  more  than  2000.  The  annual  mortality  is  42  per  1000 
(1882),  but  this  high  figure  is  more  than  compensated  for  by  the 
births,  which  in  tlie  same  year  were  51  per  1000.  The  chief 
occupation  is  agriculture.  More  than  one  half  of  the  arable  land 
(6,210,000  acres)  was  under  crops  in  1S81.  In  1384  the  returns 
were  rye,  3,374,000  quarters  (1,608,300  in  1883) ;  wheat,  850,700  ; 
barley,  103,400  ;  oats,  1,657,700  (2,432,700  in  1883)  ;  and  various, 
764,400.  Drought,  and  sometimes  also  noxious  insects,  cause  great 
fluctuations  in  the  haruest ;  but  nevertheless  almost  every  season 
leaves  a  considerable  balance  of  corn  for  export.  Oil-yielding  plants 
are  also  cultivated  ;  linseed  in  all  districts  except  Tsaritsyn  ; 
mustard,  both  for  grain  and  oil,  extensively  about  Sarepta  and  in 
the  Kamysldn  district  ;  and  sunflower  (140,000  quarters)  in  the 
Borthem  districts.  Gardening  is  a  considerable  source  of  income 
around  Saratoff,  Volsk,  Atkarsk,  and  Kamyshinl  The  ■molokau  dis- 
senters have  great  plantations  of  water-melons,  melons,  pumpkius, 
&c.  The  peasants  of  Saratoff  are  no  better  olf  than  those  of  the 
other  governments  of  south-east  Russia  (see  Sajiara).  Years  of 
scarcity  are  common,  and  invariably  mean  ruin  for  the  peasants. 
Cattle-breeding,  formerly  a  large  source  of  income,  is  rapidly  falling 
off.  Between  1877  and  1882  there  was  a  decrease  of  271,000  head, 
and  murrain  swept  away  large  numbers  of  cattle  in  1883. 

Manufactures  are  developing  but  slowly,  the  chief  of  them,  those 
dealing  with  animal  produce,  being  checked  by  the  falling  off  in 
cattle-breeding.  The  6500  industrial  manufacturing  establishments 
of  Saratoff  employed  an  aggregate  of  only  17,500  workmen,  with  an 
annual  production  of  but20,973,500  roubles  (£2,097,350)  in  18S2. 
The  most  considerable  were — cottons,  £17,200  ;  woollen  cloth, 
£64,480  ;  tanneries,  £85,830  ;  fallow,  Eoap,'  wax-candles,  flour, 
£1,217,800  ;  oils,  £125,360  ;  distilleries,  £255,780  ;  iron,  £15,390  ; 
and  machinery,  £37,195.  Various  petty  trades  are  rapidly  develop- 
ing among  the  peasantry.  Shipbuilding  is  carried  on  in  the  Volga 
villages ;  wooden  vessels  and  implements  are  made  in  the  north, 
and  pottery  in  several  villages ;  and  quite  recently  the  fabrication  of 
lead-pencils  has  been  added  at  Puturlinovka.  Very  many  peasants 
have  still  every  year  to  leave  their  hoaies  in  scare'.,  of  work  on  the 
Volga  and  elsewhere.  An  active  trade  is  carried  on  by  the  mer- 
chants of  the  chief  towns, — com,  hides,  tallow,  oils,  being  exported ; 
the  merchants  of  Saratoff,  moreover,  are  intermediaries  in  the  trade 
of  south-east  Russia  with  the  central  provinces.  The  chief  ports 
are  Saratoff,  TsaritsjTi,  Kamyshin,  and  Khvalynsk 

Saratoff  is  divided  into  10  districts,  the  chief  towns  of  which  and 
their  populations  in  1882were  as  follows: — Saratoff  (11 2,430  inh.il)it- 
ants);  Atkar.sk  (7010);  Batashoff  (10,090);  Kamy.'^hin  (14,400); 
Khvatynsk  (17,650);  Kuznetsk  (17,930);  Petrovsk  (15,020);  Ser- 
dobsk  (10,360);  Tsaritsyn  (31,220);  and  Volsk  or  Voljsk  (34,930). 
The  German  colony  of  Sarepta,  although  without  municipal  insti- 
tutions, is  a  lively  little  town  with  5650  inhabitants,  which  carries 
on  an  active  trade  in  mustard,  woollen  cloth,  and  various  manufac- 
tured wares.  Dubovka  (13,450  inhabitants)  derives  it)  importance 
from  its  traffic  with  the  l)ou  ;  tho  villagts  Samoilovka  in  the  district 
of  Bahashoff  and  Koloyar  in  Volsk  have  caeli  more  than  11,000 
Inhabitants  ;  Balauda  and  Arkadak  are  important  grain-inarkots. 

The  district  of  Saratoff  has  been  inhabited  since  at  least  the 
Neolithic  Poiiod;  its  inhabitants  of  a  later  ujioch  have  left  numerous 
bronze  remains  in  the  kurgatis,  but  the  question  of  thoir  ethnological 
positiou  is  stiU  unsettled.     In  the  8th  and  flth  centuries  tlie  half- 

21—12 


nomad  Burtases  peopled  the  territory  and  recognized  the  authority 
of  the  Khazar  princes.  Whether  the  Burtases  were  the  ancestors 
of  the  Mordvinians— as  some  ethnologists  are  inclined  to  admit — 
has  not  yet  been  determined.  .  At  the  time  of  the  Mongolian  inva- 
sion, the  Tartars  took  possession  of  the  territory,  and  one  of  their 
settlements  around  the  khan's  palace  at  Urek,  10  miles  from  Sara- 
toff, seems  to  have  had  some  importance,  as  well  as  those  about 
Tsaritsyn  and  Dubovka.  The  incursions  of  the  Crimean  Tartars 
devastated  the  country  about  the  15th  century,  and  after  the  fall  of 
Kazaii  and  Astrakhan  the  territory  was  annexed  to  Moscow.  Sara- 
toff and  Tsaritsyn,  both  protected  by  forts,  arose  in  the  second  half 
of  the  16th  century;  but  the  forests  and  deep  ravines  of  the  terri- 
tory continued  for  two  centuries  more  to  give  shelter  to  numerous 
bands  of  squatters,  Raskolniks,  and  runaway  serfs,  who  did  not 
recognize  the  authority  of  Moscow ;  they  sometimes  robbed  the 
caravans  of  boats  on  the  Volga  and  were  ready  to  support  the  insur- 
rections both  of  Razin  and  of  the  impostors  of  the  18th  century. 
Dmitrievsk  (now  Kamyshin)  and  Petrovsk  were  founded  about  tho 
end  of  the  17th  century,  and  a  palisaded  wall  was  erected  between 
the  Volga  and  the  Don,  while  other  lines  of  military  posts  were 
kept  in  the  north  and  west.  A  special  "voisko"  of  Volga  Cossacks 
was  founded  in  1731,  but  as  they  also  joined  the  rebellions  they 
were  soon  transferred  to  the  Terek.  Regular  colonization  may  be 
said  to  have  begun  only  at  the  end  of  the  18th  century,  when 
Catherine  II.  called  back  the  runaway  dissenters,  invited  German 
colonists,  and  ordered  her  courtiers  1;o  settle  here  their  serfs, 
deported  from  central  Russia.  In  this  way  the  population  of  the 
lieutenancy,  which  extended  also  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Volga, 
reached  640,000  in  1777.  It  exceeded  one  million  in  1817.  In 
1851  the  territory  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Volga  was  transferred  to 
the  new  Samara  government.  (P.  A.  K. ) 

SAEATOFF,  capital  of  the  above  government,  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Volga,  532  miles  by  rail  to  the 
south-east'  of  Moscow,  has  become  one  of  the  most  import- 
ant cities  of  eastern  Russia,  and  ranks  among  the  very  few 
Russian  titles  which  have  more  than  100,000  inhabitants. 
It  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the  side  of  hills  which  come 
close  down  to  the  Volga.  One  of  these,  the  Sokolova  Hill 
(560  feet)  is  liable  to  frequent  landslips,  which  are  a  con- 
tinual source  of  danger  to  the  houses  of  poorer  inhabitants 
at  its  base.  The  terrace  on  which  Saratoff  is  built  being 
intersected  by  two  ravines;  the  city  is  divided  into  three 
parts  ;  the  outer  two  may  be  considered  as  suburbs.  A 
large  viUage,  Pokrovskaya,  with  about  20,000  inhabitants, 
situated  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Volga,  though  in  the  ' 
government  of  Samara,  is  in  reality  a  suburb  of  Saratoff. 
Apart  from  this  suburb,  Saratoff  had'  in  1882  a  jiopulation 
of  112,430  (49,660  in  1830,  and  69,660  in  1859).  It  is 
better  built  than  many  towns  of  central  Russia.  Its  old 
cathedral  (1697)  is  a  very  plain  structure,  but  the  new 
one,  completed  iu  1825,  is  fine,  and  has  a  striking  cam- 
panile. The  theatre  and  the  railway  station  are  also  fine 
buildings.  The  streets  are  mde  and  regular,  and  there  are 
several  broad  squares.  A  new  fine-art  gallery  was  erected 
in  1884  by  the  Russian  painter  Bogoluboff,  who  has  be- 
queathed to  the  city  his  collection  of  modern  pictures  and 
of  various  objects  of  art.  A  school  of  drawing  and  the 
l)ublic  library  are  in  the  same  building,  which  has  received 
the  name  of  "  Radistcheff's  Museum"  (ir;  memory  of  Eadia- 
tcheff,  the  author  prosecuted  by  Catherine  11). 

Agriculture  and  gardening  are  still  the  support  of  a  section  of 
the  population,  who  rent  land  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city. 
The  culture  of  the  sunflower  deserves  special  mention.  The  local 
manufacturing  establishments  do  not  keep  pace  with  the  rapidly 
increasing  trade,  and  their  aggregate  production  cannot  bo  esti- 
mated at  moro  than  £450,000.  The  distilleries  are  first  in  imiwrt- 
nncc;.neil  come  the  manufactures  of  liqucUra  (£160,000),  nour- 
mills  (about  £40,'000),  oil-works  (£56,000),  and  tobacco-factories 
(about  £40,000).  The  city  has  not  only  a  trade  in  com,  oil, 
hides,  tallow,  woollen  cloth,  wool,  fruits,  and  various  raw  produce 
exported  from  S.iniara,  but  also  a  trade  in  salt  from  Crimea  and 
Astrakhan,  which  is  iu  tho  hands  of  the  Samara  merchants,  and  in 
iron  from  tho  Urals  and  wooden  wares  from  tho  upper  Volrai 
governments.  Saratoff  also  supplies  south-eastern  Russia  witJi 
manufactured  articles  and  grocery  Wares  imported  from  central 
Russia.  Tho  tratllc  of  the  port  was  estimated  at  about  6,700,000 
roubles  in  1882.  Tho  shallowness  of  tho  Volga  op|>Obitc  the  town, 
and  tho  immonso  shoals  along  its  right  bank  are,  howcrur,  a  great 
<lrawback.  Vast  sand-banks,  which  formerly  lay  above  the  city, 
have  gradually  shiltod  their  poiitioo,  and  it  is  supposed  that  in  : 


806 


S  A  R  -  S  A  R 


few  years  Saratoff  will  be  situated  on  a  shoal  about  1  mile  wide. 
In  1882  and  1883  steamers  were  compelled  to  discbarge  cargoes 
50  miles  below  Saratoff  or  at  the  Pokrovskaya  suburb  on  the  left 
bank, — so  that  a  branch  railway  for  conveying  the  cargoes  of  the 
steamers  has  now  been  constructed  south  of  the  city. 

The  town  of  Saratoff  was  founded  at  the  end  of  the  16th  century, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Volga,  some  seven  miles  above  the  present 
site,  to  which  it  was  removed  about  1605.  The  place  it  now 
occupies  (Sarytau,  or  Yellow  Jlountain)  has  been  inhabited  from  a 
remote  antiquity.  Although  founded  for  the  maintenance  of'order 
in  the  Volga  region,  Saratoff,  which  was  not  fortified,  was  several 
times  pillaged  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries.  Razin  took  it,  and 
his  followers  kept  it  until  1671;  the  insurgent  Cossacks  of  the  Don 
under  Butaviu  and  Nekrasoff  pillaged  it  in  1708  and  Pugatcheff 
in  1774.  After  being  placed  under  Kazan  and  later  under  Astra- 
khan, it  became  the  chief  town  of  the  Saratoff  government  in  1797. 

SARATOGA  SPRINGS,  a  village  of  the  United  States, 
whose  mineral  waters,  apart  from  any  charm  of  situation, 
have  rendered  it  one  of  the  most  fashionable  of  summer 
resorts.  It  lies  in  the  east  of  Saratoga  county,  New  York, 
186  miles  by  rail  north  of  New  York  city,  on  a  level 
plateau  in  the  valley  of  the  Hudson,  not  far  from  the 
junction  of  this  river  with  the  stream  discharging  from 
Saratoga  Lake.  The  number  and  size  of  its  hotels  (some 
of  which  are  among  the  largest  in  the  world  and  can 
accommodate  upwards  of  1000  guests)  and  the  large 
influx  of  wealthy  and  fashionable  visitors,  bringing   its 


Hotels  II  ^<>  c  3. 

1  Conffresj  SaTL 
z  Uniujj  Sua** 

7  CoZumMolv 


to  Co'up'ef*  Spnj*^ 

11  Cohanhian/  » 

12  Smsrir*         , 

1*  UrTijTn,  ^ 

15  Barmllom  « 

6  aoifuT^n/  ^ 

17  IhffKJtnj'V  , 

18  lUJ,  . 

19  Star'  ^ 

20  Wa^hm^tffn,^ 
n  StiacF: 


Plan  of  Saratoga  Springs. 

population  up  to  30,000,  render  Saratoga  Springs  anything 
rather  than  a  "village."  Iti  resident  inhabitants  even  num- 
bered 8421  in  1880  and  the  township  contained  10,820. 
There  are  Presbyterian,  Baptist,  Methodist,  Episcopal,  and 
Roman  Catholic  churches,  a  large  town-hall,  a  high  school 
and  other  educational  institutions,  a  fire  department  build- 
ing, a  circular  railway,  and  numerous  private  mansions. 
Congress  Park  was  laid  out  in  1875-6.  In  July  and 
August  the  racecourse  of  the  Saratoga  Racing  Association 
attracts  the  best  patronage  of  the  American  turf. 

The  Indians  seem  at  an  early  date  to  have  known  of  the  medi- 
cinal virtues  of  the  High  Piock  Spring,  and. in  1767  Sir  William 
Johnson,  carried  thither  by  a  party  of  Mohawks,  was  restored  to 
health  by  drinking  its  waters.  General  Schuyler  cut  a  road  through 
the  forest  from  Schuylerville,  and  in  1784  erected  the  first  frame 
house  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  springs.  Hotels  began  to  be 
built  about  1815.  New  springs  have  from  time  to  time  been 
discovered,  and  their  number  has  also  been  increased  by  boring, 
so  that  now  there  are  28  in  all.  They  rise  in  a  stratum  of  Potsdam 
sandstone  underlain  by  Laurentian  gneiss,  &c.,  and  reach  the 
surface  by  passing  through  a  bed  of  blue  clay.  All  are  charged 
with  carbonic  acid  gas.    The  following  are  among  the  most  notable : 


— Congress  Spring  in  Congress  »Park,  discovered  in  1792  (chloride 
of  sodium,  bicarbouates  of  lime  and  magnesium) ;  Washington  or 
Champagne  Spring. (1806) ;  Columbian  Spring  (1806);  Hathorn 
Spring  (1868)  ;  Pavilion  Spring  (1839)  ;  Putnam  Spring ;  Geyser 
Spring  (bored  in  1870  to  a  depth  of  140  feot  and  spouting  25  feet 
into  the  air) ;  Glacier,  spouting  spring  (bored  in  1871  to  300  feet); 
Flat  Eock  Spring,  known  as  early  as  1774,  but  lost,  and  only 
recovered  in  1884.  The  water  from  several  of  the  springs  is  largely 
bottled  and  exported.  The  Geyser  Spring  (IJ  miles  S.W.)  and 
White  Sulphur  Spriug  and  Eureka  Spring  (1 J  miles  E.)  are  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  accompanying  plan. 

SARAWAK,  a  territory  in  the  north-west  of  Borneo, 
which,  reclaimed  from  piracy  and  barbarism  by  the  energy 
of  Sir  James  Brooke  {q-v.),  was  converted  into  an  inde- 
pendent and  prosperous  state.  With  an  area  estimated  at 
from  35,000  to  40,000  square  miles,  it  has  a  population  of 
about  250,000.  The  coast  extends  from  Tanjong  Datu, 
a  prominent  cape  in  2°  3'  N.  lat.,  northwards  to  the 
frontier  of  Brunei  in  3°  10' — a  distance  in  a  straight  line  of 
about  280  miles,  but,  following  the  sinuosities,  about  400 
miles.  Inland  the  boundaries  towards  the  Dutch  territory 
are  hypothetically  determined  by  the  line  of  watershed 
between  the  streams  flowing  north-west  and  those  flowing 
east-south-east  and  south-west,  but  the  frontier  districts 
are  to  a  considerable  extent  unexplored.  Towards  the 
coast  there  are  tracts  of  low  alluvial  land ;  and  some  of 
the  rivers  reach  the  sea  by  deltas  out  of  all  proportion  to 
the  length  of  their  course.  The  surface  of  the  country 
soon,  however,  begins  to  rise  and  to  be  diversified  with 
irregular  hills,  sometimes  of  rounded  sandstone,  some- 
times of  picturesque  and  rugged  limestone.  The  Bongo 
Hills,  in  the  residency  of  Sarawak,  are  about  3000  feet 
high;  and  along  the  frontier,  where  the  Seraung  Mountains, 
the  Klinkong  Mountains,  the  Batang  Lupar  Mountains, 
&c.,  are  supposed  to  form  more  or  less  continuous  ranges, 
there  are  altitudes  of  from  4000  to  8000  feet.  In  some 
of  the  limestone  mountains  there  are  caves  of  enormous 
extent  (a  detailed  account  will  be  found  in  Boyle,  Adven- 
tures among  the  D yaks  of  Borneo,  1865).  The  Rejang  is 
the  largest  river  in  Sarawak.  Its  sources  are  only  120  or 
130  miles  directly  inland  near  Mount  Lawi,  Mount  Marud 
(8000  feet),  and  Gura  Peak  ;  but  it  flows  obliquely  south- 
west fol:  350  miles,  and  the  principal  branches  of  its 
delta  (the  Eyan  river  and  the  Rejang  proper)  embrace 
a  territory  of  1600  square  miles  with  a  coast-line  of  60 
miles.  In  their  upper  course  the  headwaters  have  a  rapid 
descent,  and  none  of  them  are  navigable  above  Balleh 
where  the  Rejang  is  deflected  westward  by  the  accession  of 
the  Balleh  river.  Left-hand  tributaries  from  a  low  line 
of  hills  to  the  south — the  Katibas,  Nymah,  Kanowit,  and 
Kajulan  rivers — continue  to  swell  the  main  stream ;  but 
there  are  no  tributaries  of  any  importance  from  the  right 
hand,  the  country  in  that  direction  being  drained  directly 
seawards  by  a  number  of  short  rivers — the  Oya,  Mukah, 
Balinean,  Tatau,  and  Bintulu, — of  which  the  first  three  rise 
in  the  Ulat-Bulu  Hills  (3600  feet).  At  the  apex  of  the 
Rejang  delta  lies  the  village  and  government  of  Sibu,  and 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Rejang  branch  is  the  important  village 
and  shipping-port  of  Rejang.  Passing  over  the  small  river 
basins  of  the  Kalukah  and  the  Saribas  we  reach  the  Batang 
Lupar,  which  ranks'  next  to  the  Rejang,  and  is  navigable 
for  large  vessels  as  far  as  Liu':;ga,  about  30  miles  from  its 
mouth — the  bar  having  3i  fathoms  water  at  high  tide. 
The  value  of  the  navigable  portion  of  the  Batang  Lupar 
is,  however,  greatly  lessened  by  the  formidable  bores  to 
which  it  is  subject ;  they  begin  about  three  days  before 
full  moon  and  change,  and  last  about  three  days,  rushing 
up  the  river  with  a  crest  about  6  feet  high  for  a  distance 
of  60  miles.  In  several  of  the  other  rivers  a  similar  ph»- 
nomenon  is  observed.  The  broad  mouth  of  the  Batang 
Lupar  opens  in  the  angle  where  the  coast,  which  has  run 
nearly  north  and  south  from  the  delta  of  the  Rejang,  turns 


S  A  R  — S  A  R 


B07 


abrnptly  west ;  and  all  the  rivers  which  reach  the  sea 
between  this  point  and  Tanjong  Datu — the  Sadong,  the 
Samarahan,  the  SarAwak  (with  its  tributaries  the  Senna, 
the  Samban,  the  Poak,  Ac),  the  Lundu,  are  short. 

The  minerjil  wealth  of  Sarawak  is  not  unimportant.  Gold 
vsshing  lias  long  been  carried  on  iu  the  central  residency,  though 
aot  with  more  than  moderate  success  ;  and  more  recently  a  fairly 
prolific  gold-field  has  been  opened  iu  the  neighbourhood  of  Marup, 
oil  the  Batang  Lupar,  where  there  is  a  flourishing  Chinese  settle- 
ment. Of  much  greater  value  are  the  antimony  ores  which  occur 
more  especially  in  the  district  of  the  headstreams  of  the  Sarawak, 
iJi  the  most  various  localities,  occasionally  as  dykes  iu  situ,  but 
more  frequently  in  boulders  deep  in  the  clayey  soil,  or  perched  on 
tower-like  summits  and  craggy  pinnacles,  accessible  only  by 
ladders.  Those  rich  deposits  have,  however,  been  largely  exhausted, 
and  no  new  ones  have  been  discovered  in  other  parts  of  the  terri- 
tory, so  that  the  Borneo  Company  (which  has  the  monopoly  of  this 
and  other  minerals  in  the  country)  has  been  tempted  to  ereet  local 
Ifurnaces  to  reduce  the  poorer  qualities  of  ore  and  the  refuse  of  the 
mines  to  regulus  on  the  spot.  A  deposit  of  cinnabar  was  dis- 
covered by  Jlr  Helms  in  1867,  at  Tegora,  at  the  foot  of  the  Bongo 
Mountains,  but  no  other  occurrence  of  this  ore  of  quicksilver  in  the 
territory  has  yej  been  reported.  In  1876  quicksilver  was  exported 
to  the  value  of  108,050  dollars,  and  in  1879  to  70,620.  Coal  has 
been  worked  for  many  years  at  the  government  mines  of  Simuniui., 
on  the  banks  of  a  right-hand  affluent  of  the  Sadong ;  and  there 
is  known  to  exist  at  Silantek  up  the  Lingga  river  (a  left-hand 
affluent  of  the  Batang  Lupar)  a  very  extensive  coal-field,  whose 
products,  still  intact,  could  be  brought  down  for  shipment  at 
Lingga  by  a  railway  of  some  18  miles  in  length.  Diamonds  are 
occasionally  found,  and  copper,  manganese,  and  plumbago  have 
been  discovered,  but  not  in  paying  quantities. 

Like  the  rest  of  Borneo,  Sarawak  is  largely  covered  with  forest 
and  jungle.  The  bilian  or  ironwood  is  not  only  used  looilly  but 
exported,  especially  from  the  Batang  Lupar  district,  to  China, 
where  it  is  highly  valued  as  a  house-building  and  furniture  timber. 
Gutta-percha,  indi,a-rubber  (gutta-susu),  and  birds'  nests  are  also 
exported,  but  in  diminishing  quantities  ;  and  their  place  is  being 
taken  by  gambier  and  pepper,  the  cultivation  of  which  was  intro- 
duced by  the  rajah.  Gambier  figured  at  20, -161  piculs  in  the 
exports  of  1881  and  at  22,432  in  1884,  and  pepper  at  28,807 
piculs  in  1881  and  43,490  in  1884.  The  territory  of  Sarawak  is 
said  to  furnish  more  than  half  the  sago  produce  of  the  world,  and 
most  of  it  is  grown  on  the  marshy  banks  of  the  Oya,  Mukah,  and 
other  rivers  of  the  northern  residency  of  Sarawak  to  the  distance  of 
about  20  miles  inland.  The  total  value  of  the  exports  of  Sarawak 
in  1884  was  1,145,248  dollars  (1,071,558  from  Kuching),  that  of 
the  imports  1,083,255  dollars.  Natuna  and  Dutch  vessels  are  the 
most  numerous  in  the  shipping  returns. 

The  government  is  an  absolute  monarchy — the  present  rajah 
being  the  nephew  of  Sir  James  Brooke.  The  rajah  is  assisted  by  a 
supreme  council  of  six,  consisting  of  two  chief  European  residents 
and  four  natives,  nominated  by  himself ;  there  is  also  a  general 
council  of  fifty,  which  meets  once  every  three  years  or  oftener  if 
required.  For  admiuistrativo  purposes  the  country  is  divided  into 
eight  districts  corresponding  to  the  number  of  principal  river 
basins.  Three  chief  districts  are  presided  over  by  European  officers. 
The  military  force — some  250  men — is  under  the  control  of  an 
English  commandant.  There  is  also  a  small  police  force,  and  the 
Government  possesses  a  few  small  steam  vessels.  The  civil  service  is 
regularly  organized,  wth  pensions,  kc.  The  revenue  is  in  a  satisfac- 
tory Rtate,  showing  64,899  dollars  to  the  good  in  the  period  between 
1875  and  1884.  In  1884  the  revenue  was  276,269  dollars  and  the 
expenditure  289,291.  Koman  Catliolics  and  Protestants  both  have 
mi.sstona  in  Sarawak  ;  and  the  English  bishop  of  Singapore  and 
Laliuan  is  also  styled  bishop  of  Sarawak.  The  population  consists 
of  Malays,  Chinese,  Land  Dyaks,  Sea  Dyaks,  and  Miianows-  "With- 
out the  chinaman,"  says  the  rajah  {/'all  Mall  Gazettr,  19th  Septem- 
ber, 1883)  "  wo  can  do  nothing."  When  not  allowed  to  form  secret 
societies  he  is  easily  governed,  and  this  he  is  forbidden  to  do  on  j>ain 
of  death.  The  Dyaks  within  the  territory  have  given  up  head- 
hunting. Tlio  Miianows,  who  live  in  the  northern  districts,  have 
adopted  the  Malay  dress  and  in  many  cases  have  become  Moham- 
niouans ;  they  are  a  quiet,  contented,  and  laborious  people.  Slavery 
still  prevails  in  Sarawak,  but  arrangements  are  made  for  its  entire 
abolition  in  1888.  Kuching,  the  capital  of  Sarawak,  on  the  Sarawak 
river,  is  a  place  of  12,000  inhabitants  and  is  steadily  growing. 

History. — In  1839-40  Sar.wak,  the  most  southern  provime  of  tho 
tultanate  of  Brunei,  was  in  rebellion  against  the  tyranny  of  the 
governor,  Pangeran  Makota,  and  Muda  Hassim  had  been  sent  to 
restore  order.  The  insurgents  held  out  at  Balidah  or  Blidah  fort 
in  the  Siniawan  district,  and  there  Jamea  Brooke  first  took  part  in 
the  affairs  of  the  territory.  By  his  assistance  the  insurrection  was 
suppressed,  and  on  September  24th  he  was  appointed  chief  of  Sara- 
wak.    lnI84S  Captain  Keppel  and  Mr  Brooke  expelled  tho  pirates 


from  the  Saribas  river  and  in  ,1844  they  defeated  those  on  the 
Batang  Lupar,  to  whom  Makota  had  attached  himself.  In  1849 
another  severe  blow  was  struck  by  the  destruction  of  Sirib  Sahib'a 
fort  at  Patusan.  The  Chinese,  who  had  begun  to  settle  in  the 
country  about  1850  (at  Ban,  Bidi,  &c. ),  made  a  violent  attempt 
to  massacre  the  English  and  seize  tho  government,  but  they  were 
promptly  and  severely  crushed  after  they  had  done  havoc  at 
Kuching.  During  Sir  James  Brooke's  absence  in  England  (1857- 
1860)  his  nephew  Captain  J.  Johnson  (who  had  taken  the  name 
Brooke,  and  is  generally  called  Captain  Brooke)  was  left  in  author- 
ity ;  but  a  quarrel  afterwards  ensued  and  Sir  James  Brooke  was  in 
1868  succeeded.by  Charles  Johnson  (or  Brooke),  a  younger  nephew. 
Tlie  independence  of  Sarawak  had  been  recognized  after  much 
controversy  by  England  in  1863  and  previously  by  the  United 
SUtes. 

See  Charles  Brooke,  Ten  Teart  in  Sardtrak,  18C6  ;  Gertnide  L.  Jacob,  The  Knja 
of  Sardmat,  1876  ;  Spenser  St  John,  Li/e  in  the  Forests  of  the  Far  East,  ISG'i, 
and  Life  of  Sir  James  Brooke,  18iy  ;  Helms,  Pioneering  in  llie  Far  East,  1S82; 
".Votes  on  Sardwuk,"  In  Proc.  Roy,  Qeogr.  9oc.,  1881,  by  W.  M.  Crocker. 

SAKDANAPALUS  -wa?,  .according  to  the  account  of 
Ctesias  (preserved  by  Diodorus,  23  sq.),  the  last  king  of 
Nineveh,  and  he  is  described  in  terms  that  have  made  his 
name  proverbial  as  the  type  of  splendid  and  luxurious 
effeminacy.  Ctesias's  story  cannot  be  called  historical; 
but  the  name  Sardanapalus  seems  to  be  a  corruption  of 
Assurbanipal  (see  voL  iii.  p.  188). 

SARDINE (C/wpea/JiVc/iarc^Ms).  SeePiLCHARD.  Another 
of  the  Clupeidse  (G.  scomhrina)  is  the  "oil-sardine"  of  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  Indian  Peninsula. 

SARDINIA  (Ital.  Sardegna,  Fr.  Sardaigne,  Span. 
Gerdc.ua,  called  by  the  ancient  Greeks  'IxvoCo-o,  from  a 
fancied  resemblance  to  the  print  of  a  foot),  an  island  in  the 
Jlediterranean,  about  140  miles  from  the  west  coast  of 
Italy,  of  which  kingdom  it  forms  a  part.  It  is  separated 
from  the  island  of  Corsica  by  the  Strait  of  Bonifacio, 
which  is  about  7|  miles  wide,  and  only  about  50  fathoms 
deep.  Sardinia  lies  between  8°  4'  and  9°  49'  E.  long., 
and  extends  from  38°  55'  to  41°  16'  N.  lat.  The  length 
from  Cape  Teiilada  in  the  south-west  to  Cape  Longo  Sardo 
in  the  north  is  about  160  miles,  the  breadth  from  Cape 
Comino  to  Cape  Caccia  about  68  miles.  The  area  of  the 
island  is  9187  square  mile.s, — that  of  the  department  (com- 
partimento),  including  tho  small  islands  adjacent,  being 
9294  square  miles.  It  ranks  sixth  in  point  of  size  among 
the  islands  of  Europe,  coming  next  after  Sicily. 

The  greater  part  of  the  island  is  mountainous,  especially 
in  the  east,  where  the  mountains  stretch  almost  continu- 
ously from  north  to  south,  and  advance  close  up  to  the 
coast.  The  elevations,  however,  ai'e  not  so  high  as  in  the 
sister  island  of  Corsica.  The  culminating  point  is  ilonte 
Gennargentu,  which  rises,  about  22  miles  from  the  east 
coast,  almost  exactly  on  the  parallel  of  40°  N.,  to  the 
height  of  6250  feet,  and  is  consequently  little  more  than 
two-thirds  of  the  height  of  the  chief  peaks  of  Corsica. 
On  the  east  side  the  principal  breach  in  the  continuity  of 
the  mountains  occurs  in  the  north,  where  a  narrow  valley 
opening  to  the  east  at  the  Gnlf  of  Terranova  cnts  ofi  the 
mountains  of.  Limpara  in  the  extreme  north-east.  The 
western  half  of  the  island  has  more  level  land.  The  prin- 
cipal plain,  that  of  the  Campidano,  stretches  from  south- 
east to  north-west,  between  tho  Gulf  of  Cagliari  and  that 
of  Oristano,  and  nowhere  attains  a  greater  elevation  than 
250  feet.  At  both  ends  it  sinks  to  a  much  lower  level, 
and  has  a  number  of  shallow  lagoons  encroaching  on  it 
from  the  sea.  In  the  corner  of  the  island  situated  to  the 
south-west  of  the  Campidano  there  are  two  small  isolated 
mountains  rising  to  tho  height  of  from  3000  to  4000  feet, 
which  are  of  importance  as  containing  the  chief  mineral 
wealth  of  the  -island.  A  small  valley  runs  between  thorn 
from  the  southern  end  of  the  Campidano  to  Iglesiaa,  tho 
mining"  centre  of  Sardinia.  NoHh  of  tho  Unlf  of  Oristanw 
mountains  again  appear.  The  extinct  Tolcano  of  Wonte 
Ferru  there  rise*  to  tho  height  of  4400  feet,  and  tho 
Btreams  of  basalt  which  have  isiued   from  it  in  former 


308 


SARDINIA 


ages  form  the  ridge  or  saddle,  about  2000  feet  high,  con- 
necting this  mountain  with  the  highland  area  on  the  east. 
Still  further  north  a  trach}'tic  plateau,  intersected  by 
numerous  deep  nver  valleys,  occupies  a  considerable  tract, 
advancing  up  to  the  plain  of  Sassari  on  the  north  coast 


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/r^  Guir  ct 


Cf.ncfin\ 


CUantg> 


CUbano 


TaTtmma 


rC  S^/rtua^fcUo 


aPietro  ItHca^ 

v. 


1  Cof&glijri    VcCirfcoMra 


C.Teulada 


MEDITERRANE/tN 


tA 


Map  of  Sardinia. 

The  rivers  are  numerous  but  short.  The  principal  is 
the  Oristano,  which  enters  the  gulf  of  the  same  name  on 
the  west  coast. 

Geologically  the  island  is  composed  mainly  of  granite 
and  other  crystalline  rociis.  Granite  predominates  espe- 
cially in  the  east,  and  the  mountains  of  that  part  of  the 
island  were  apparently  at  one  time  continuous  with  the 
similarly  constituted  mountains  of  Corsica.  Granitic 
spurs  likewise  extend  to  the  south-west,  and  appear  in  the 
capes  of  Spartiveoto  and  Teulada.  Altogether  this  rock 
is  estimated  to  cover  one-haLf  of  the  entire  surface.  In 
the  west  of  the  island  the  principal  crystalline  rocks  are 
porphyritic  in  structure ;  sedimentary  deposits  are  com- 
paratively unimportant,  and  such  as  are  present  are  mainly 
either  of  very  ancient  or  of  recent  geological  date.  Silurian 
formations  attain  their  most  considerable  development  in 
the  south-west  round  I^lesias,  where  there  occurred  the 
contemporaneous  porphyritic  outpourings  containing  the 
most  numerous  mineral  veins  of  the  island.  Between  the 
deposits  of  Silurian  and  those  of  Cretaceous  times  there 
are  none  of  any  consequence  except  a  few  patches  of 
Devonian  round  the  slopes  of  Gennargentu,  interesting  as 
containing  some  beds  of  true  coal.  The  members  of  the 
Cretaceous  system  occupy  considerable  tracts  in  the  south- 
west, east  (round  the  Gulf  of  Orosei),  and  north-west  (in 
the  mountains  of  Nurra),  and  a  smaller  area  in  the  south- 
west (in  the  island  of  San  Antioco).  Tertiary  formations 
•re  still  more  largely  developed.     They  cover  the  whole 


plain  of  the  Campidano,  the  west  coast  opposite  iue  islan<i 
of  San  Antioco,  and  the  narrow  valley  in  the  north-east 
already  mentioned.  The  basalts  of  Monte  Ferru  are  also 
of  Tertiary  date,  and  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  till 
that  epoch  that  Sardinia  formed  a  single  island. 

In  variety  of  mineral  wealth  the  southern  half  of 
Sardinia  is  the  richest  province  of  Italy,  and  it  standij 
second  in  the  annual  value  of  its  mineral  producto.  Tha 
chief  minerals  are  sulphates  of  lead  more  or  lesHlrgenti- 
ferous  (galena),  sulphates  and  silicates  of  zinc,  ordinary 
iron  pyrites,  sulphates  of  iron  and  copper,  of  antimony, 
and  of  arsenic,  besides  cobalt,  nickel,  and  silver.  The  coal 
on  the  flanks  of  Gennargentu  is  of  good  enough  quality  to 
furnish  a  valuable  fuel,  and  is  found  in  sufficiently  thick 
seams  to  be  workable  if  only  the  means  of  transport  were 
present,  but  its  situation  is  such  as  to  render  it  of  no 
economical  importance.  In  the  Tertiary  deposits  of  the 
south-west  there  are  some  veins  of  manganese  ore,  and 
also  some  beds  of  lignite  which  are  worked  as  a  source  of 
fuel  for  local  use.  The  mineral  wealth  of  Sardinia  was 
known  in  ancient  times,  and  mines  were  worked  both  by 
the  Carthaginians  and  the  Romans.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  they  were  for  'the  most  part  neglected,  but  the 
industry  was  revived  in  modern  times,  and  has  been  greatly 
developed  in  recent  years.  Upwards  of  70  mines  have 
now  been  opened,  most  of  them  in  the  district  of  which 
Iglesias  is  the  centre,  but  a  few  near  the  southern  part  of 
the  east  coast,  where  JIuravera  is  the  chief  town.  The 
mines  are  mostly  of  argentiferous  lead,  silver,  zinc,  and 
iron.  The  ores  are  mainly  exported  in  the  raw  state,  only 
the  inferior  sorts  being  smelted  in  the  island.  Among 
other  mineral  products  are  building  stones  -  (granite, 
marble,  <tc.),  alabaster,  and  salt. 

The  climate  of  Sardinia  is  similar  to  that  of  the  rest  of 
the  Mediterranean  region,  and  the  southern  half  of  the 
island  shares  in  the  nearl^  rainless  summers  characteristic 
of  the  southern  portions  of  the  ^Mediterranean  peninsulas. 
At  Cagliari  there  are  on  an  average  only  seven  days  on 
which  rain  falls  during  June,  July,  and  August.  Through- 
out the  island  these  months  are  the  driest  in  the  year,  and 
hence  vegetation  on  the  lower  ground  at  least  is  generally 
at  a  standstill  during  that  period,  and  shrubs  with  broad 
leathery  leaves  fitted .  to  withstand  the  drought  (the  so- 
called  maqnis)  are  as  characteristic  here  as  in  Corsica  and 
on  the  mainland.  Winter  is  the  rainiest  season  of  the 
year  ;  but  the  heat  and  drought  of  summer  (mean  tempera- 
ture 95°  F.)  make  that  the  most  unpleasant  of  the  seasons, 
while  in  the  low  grounds  the  prevalence  of  malaria  renders 
it  a  most  unhealthy  one,  especially  for  visitors.  Autumn, 
which  is  prolonged  into  December,  is  the  most  agreeable 
season ;  there  is  then  neither  heat  nor  cold,  nor  mist  nor 
fever,  and  at  that  period  birds  of  passage  begin  to  immi- 
grate in  large  numbers. 

The  agi-icultui-al  products  of  the  island  are  greatly  inferior  to 
wliat  might  be  expected  in  view  of  the  natural  fertility  of  the 
soil.  Two  causes'are  assigned  for  this.  The  first  is  the  minute 
subdivision  of  the  land,  which,  as  in  Corsica,  is  carried  to  such 
an  extent  that  where  an  owner  has  as  much  as  100  acres  his 
property  is  divided  into  25  or  30  lots  surrounded  by  parcels  of  land 
belonging  to  other  owners,  lu  such  circumstances  it  is  neither 
possible  to  apply  adequate  capital  to  the  cultivation  of  the  ground, 
nor  for  the  owners  to  acquire  the  requisite  capital.  The  second 
cause  is  the  malaria  which  renders  certain  districts  possessed  of  a 
fertile  soil  quite  uninhabitable  ;  and  this  second  cause  can  be 
remedied  only  when  *  lemedy  has  been  found  for  the  first,  for,  as 
the  malaria  is  undoubtedly  one  cause  of  diminished  cultivation,  it  is 
equally  certain  that  want  of  cultivation  is  one  of  the  causes  of  the 
malaria.  In  angient  times  Sardinia  was  one  of  the  granaries  of 
Rome  ;  now  cereals  take  a  comparatively  unimportant  place  among 
the  exports,  and  this  export  is  balanced  by  a  considerable  import 
of  the  same  commodity.  The  chief  products  of  agriculture  are 
wheat,  barley,  and  beans,  the  last  furnishing  an  important  element 
of  the  food  of  the  people.  Olives  run  wild  in  many  places,  and 
are  grown   in  sufficiemt  abundance  to   meet   the  local  demand. 


SARDINIA 


30^ 


lAlmouds,  oranges,  and  citrons  are  also  largely  cultivated,  and  the 
oranges  of  Saa  Vitu,  near  Muravera,  and  of  Milis,  a  few  miles  to 
the  north  of  Oristauo,  are  noted  for  their  excellence  ;  the  white 
wines  of  the  banks  of  the  Oristano  are  of  good  repute  ;  and  among 
other  products  of  the  island  are  mulberries,  tobacco,  madder,  and 
hemp,  forests  of  oak,  cork-oak,  firs,  and  pines,  though  greatly 
reduced  in  extent,  still  cover,  it  is  said,  about  one-fifth  of  the 
surface.  The  rearing  of  live-stock  receives  more  attention  than 
agriciUtute  proper.  No  artificial  pasture-grasses  are  grown,  but 
the  natural  pastures  beside  the  numerous  rivers  yield  abundance 
of  food,  except  during  the  dry  season,  when  the  horses,  asses, 
cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  have  to  content  themselves  with  straw, 
some  dried  beans,  and  a  little  barley.  Most  attention  is  bestowed 
on  horses.  At  one  time  the  Sardinian  Government  endeavoured 
to  keep  a  stud  on  tho  island  for  rearing  horses  for  the  Pied- 
montese  cavalry,  but  the  persons  employed  (natives  of  the  main- 
land) were  unable  to  withstand  the  malaria.  There  are  some 
large  private  establishments  for  the  rearing  of  horses,  however, 
and  the  tending  of  live-stock  generally  forms  so  important  a  part 
of  the  occupations  of  the  people  that  animals  ranlc  next  after 
minerals  among  the  exports  of  the  island.  Of  the  wild  animals, 
the  wild  sheep  known  as  the  musimon,  or  European  mufflon, 
formerly  an  inhabitant  of  all  the  mountains  of  the  Mediterranean 
peninsidas  and  islands,  and  now  confined  to  Sardinia  and  Corsica, 
is  the  most  interesting.  Among  the  noxious  animals  are  scorpions 
and  tarantulas. 

The  lagoons  near  the  coast  on  the  south  and  vrest  abound  in 
mullets,  eels,  mussels,  and  crabs,  which  are  caught  in  great 
numbers  by  the  natives,  while  the  fisheries  round  Sardinia,  as  round 
Corsica,  are  in  the  hands  of  Italians  from  the  mainland.  The 
anchovy,  sardine,  and  coral  fisheries  are  all  lucrative.  The  coral 
is  said  to  be  of  excellent  quality,  and  is  exported  to  the  markets 
ef  Genoa  and  Marseilles. 

The  external  commerce  of  the  island  has  nearly  trebled  itself  in 
the  twenty-live  years  185C-81,  the  imports  and  exports  each  amount- 
ing in  the  latter  year  to  about  £1, 500, 000  (about  £2,  4s.  per  head  of 
population).  This  increase  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  development  of 
the  mining  industry,  ores  making  up  nearly  one-third  of  the  total 
value  of  the  exports.  Live  animals  make  up  about  a  fourth  of  the 
total  value,  and  cereals,  which  come  next  in  order,  about  one- 
seventh.  The  chief  imports  are  cotton  and  other  manufactures  and 
colonial  products.  The  inland  trade  has  been  greatly  promoted 
witldn  the  last  fifty  years  by  the  construction  of  roads  and 
railways.  Before  1828  there  were  no  roads  at  all  in  the  island  ; 
the  tracks  which  existed  could  be  traversed  only  on  foot  or  on 
horseback.  But  upwards  of  1,500  miles  of  national  and  provincial 
roads,  all  well  made  and  well  kept,  have  since  then  been  con- 
structed. Of  railways,  introduced  since  1870,  there  are  now  265 
miles  in  all  (equal  to  about  1  mile  of  railway  for  every  34  square 
miles  of  surface). 

For  administrative  purposes  Sardinia,  like  tho  rest  of  Italy,  is 
divided  into  provinces  and  circles  {circondarii).  The  foUowiug 
table  gives  the  names  of  these  divisions  with  the  population  accord- 
ing to  the  last  cen.sus  (end  of  1881) : — 


Circles. 

Communes. 

Population.' 

Clvcles. 

Communes. 

Population. 

CaBliari 

70 
24 
48 

106 

lr,3,336 
77,373 
64,816 

125,110 

Sassarl 

24 
20 
S3 
81 
9 

88,312 
43,6-24 
60,794 
41,103 
28,444 

Alf;)iero..«^... 

Onstano 

Prov.  Cagllarl 

Ozleil  

Templo 

Prov.  Saiaari 

267 

420,635 

107 

261,307 

The  whole  population  of  the  department  is  thus  682,002,  equal 
to  about  74  to  the  square  mile,  Sardinia  being  the  least  populous 
of  all  tho  great  divisions  of  the  kingdom,  in  which  tho  average 
density  is  255  to  the  square  mile.  The  population  is,  hcwovor, 
Increasing  at  a  rather  more  rapid  rate  than  on  the  mainland. 
Between  1871  and  1881  it  increased  by  about  46,000,  or  7'18  per 
cent,  while  the  average  rate  of  increase  throughout  the  kingdom 
was  only  6  16  per  cent. 

Tho  inhabitants  of  Sardinia  are  a  hardy  race,  of  about  middle 
height,  and  of  dark  complexion.  They  are  little  accustomed  to  hard 
worlc,  but  this  is  one  oi^  tho  consequences  of  the  backward  state  of 
their  civilization  and  of  the  impediments  already  indicated  to  the 
development  of  tho  resources  of  the  island.  Education,  as  in 
many  other  parts  of  Italy,  is  very  far  behind,  notwithstanding  tho 
law  which  makes  elementary  education  compulsory ;  but  here,  as 
throughout  tho  kingdom,  it  is  rapidly  extending.  In  1880-81 
only  37,197  children,  or  less  than  ono-eighteonth  of  tho  popula- 
tion, were  in  attendance  at  the  elementary  schools,  but  this 
number  was  double  what  it  had  been  in  1801-C2.  At  Cagliari 
there  is  a  university,  attended  by  from  300  to  400  students.  _ 

'The  people  are  lively  in  their  disposition,  fond  of  music  and 
poetry,  remarkably  hospitable,  and  strong  in  their  family  attnch- 
menta>  With  this  last  trait,  however,  is  connected  the  chief  blot 
on  their  charactiyr — their  addiction  to  tho  practice  of  tho  vendctUi, 


which  prevails  here  as  in  Corsica,  and'  according  to  which  a^ 
outrage  on  one's  honour  is  wiped  out  in  blood,  and  the  cause  o^ 
one  member  of  a  family  is  taken  up  by  the  rest,  so  that  the  death 
of  one  victim  leads  to  the  sacritice  of -many  others.  But  the 
practice  is  said  to  be  becoming  every  day  more  rare,  and  never  to 
be  resorted  to  except  in  case  of  serious  olfence. 

Tho  capital  of  the  island  is  Cagliari,  but  Sassari  in  the  north 
has  an  equally  large  populiition  (about  34,000).  The  other  chief 
towns  are  Tempio,  '  Alghcro,  Jglesias,  and  Oristano.  Cagliari, 
Alghero,  and  Castel  Sardo  are  fortified. 

The  antiquities  of  the  island  are  numeroas  and  of  peculiar 
interest.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  are  the  monuments  called 
nurhnys  (variously  spelled  also  nuraghe,  nuraghi,  kc,),  of  which 
there  are  upwards  ot  3000  scattered  over  the  island.  They  are 
round  structures  having  the  form  of  truncated  cones,  and  are 
generally  built  of  the  hardest  materials  the  island  supplies  (granite, 
basalt,  trachyte,  limestone,  &c.).  The  stone  is  roughly  hewn  into 
largo  blocks,  which  are  laid  in  regular  horizontal  courses  but  not 
cemented.  The  blocks  in  the  lower  courses  are  sometimes  mora 
than  three  feet  in  length.  Entrance  is  obtained  by  a  very  low 
opening  at  the  base  to  an  inner  chamber  ;  and,  when  there  are  two 
or,  as  in  some  cases,  three  stories,  these  are  connected  by  means  of 
a  spiral  staircase.  The  origin  and  use  of  these  structures  are  both 
matters  of  speculation.  The  rarit)-  of  human  remains  in  them  is 
against  the  idea  that  they  were  used  as  tombs,  while  the  absence 
of  any  relics  pertaining  to  a  religious  ceremonial  is  equally  adverse 
to  .the  supposition  that  they  were  used  as  temples.  Next  to  tho 
nurhags  the  most  interesting  of  the  remains  of  antiquity  are  tho 
so-called  tombs  of  the  giants,  which  appear  to  have  been  actually- 
used  as  places  of  burial,  although,  as  the  name  given  to  them  indi- 
cates, their  dimensions  are  greatly  in  excess  of  those  of  the  human 
body.  Besides  these  there  are  tombs  the  structure  of  which  leads 
to  the  belief  that  they  must  be  relics  of  an  Egyptian  colony. 

Bislonj. — According  to  Prof.  Crespi,  of  tho  university  of 
Cagliari,  the  tombs  just  referred  to  are  not  tb.e  only  signs  of  an 
eariy  Egyptian  settlement  in  the  island  of  Sardinia.  Various 
remains  are  said  to  prove  beyond  doubt  that  Egyptians  must  hav» 
founded  at  least  two  colonies  in  very  remote  times— one  at  the 
ancient  tovm  of  Tharrus  on  the  small  peninsula  of  San  Marco  at 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of  Oristano,  and  the  other  at 
Caralis,  the  present  Cagliari.  But  even  before  the  Egyptians 
Prof.  Crespi  believes  that  the  Phojnicians  had  esUblished  a  colony 
on  the  small  island  of  San  Antioco,  and  had  built  there  the  town 
of  Sulcis,  the  ruins  of  which  are  stUl  to  be  seen  near  the  town  of 
San  Antioco.  Of  Phoenicians  and  Eg>'ptians,  however,  there  are 
no  trustwortiy  historical  records,  and  the  first  settlers  whoso  arrival 
is  historically  accredited  were  the  Carthaginians,  who  succeeded 
in  making  themselves  masters  of  the  island  under  Hasdrubal  in 
512  B.o.  The  island  remained  in  Carthaginian  hands  for  upward.* 
of  two  hundred  and  seventy  years,  and  then  passed  into  those  of  the 
Komans,  who  took  advantage  of  the  war  in  which  Carthago  was 
involved  with  her  mercenary  troops  after  the  close  of  the  First 
Punic  War  to  seize  the  island  (238  B.C.).  Thenceforward  tho 
island  remained  in  possession  of  the  Romans  till  near  the  fall  «f 
the  empire  of  the  West,  when  Sardinia  also  began  to  sufl^cr  from 
the  ravages  of  tho  northern  hordes  by  which  Italy  was  at  that 
time  overrun  and  the  empire  of  the  Wtst  overthrown.  About 
the  middle  of  the  5th  century  the  island  was  occupied  by  the 
Vandals  under  Genseric,  but  in  the  first  half  of  the  following 
century  these  -were  expelled  by  Belisarius.  Very  soon  after, 
however,  Goths  succeeded  the  Vandals,  and  after  these  had  ia 
their  turn  been  driven  out  by  Narses  tho  natives  managed  to 
expel  tho  Komans  and  to  achieve  their  independence  (665).  Tito 
Sardinians  thereupon  elected  tho  leader  in  the  revolt  against  Rome 
king  of  the  island,  and  by  him  the  island  was  divided  into  th« 
four  grand-judicatures  of  Cagliari,  Arborea,  Torres,  and  Gallura. 
Tho  grand-justices  or  rulers  of  these  four  divisions  continued  to 
retain  a  considerable  amount  of  power  during  a  large  part  of  tho 
Jliddlo  Ages.  But  from  tiie  early  part  of  the  Sth  century  down 
to  the  middle  of  the  11th  their  inlUunce  w,as  greatly  impaired  by 
repeated  inroads  of  the  Saracens,  who  landed  now  on  one  coast  now 
on  another,  and  kept  tho  inhabitants  in  a  constant  state  of  alarm. 
Tliis  state  of  matters  was  at  last  put  an  end  to  by  the  Genoese  ami 
Pi.sans,  who,  acting  under  the  sanction  of  tlio  pope,  deapntclii'd  a. 
fleet  against  that  of  tho  Saracens.  A  battle  ensued  in  the  Bay 
of  Cagliari ;  the  Saracens  were  completely  defeated,  and  tho  allies 
landed  on  the  island  (1050).  Very  soon  the  Pisaus  adroitly  mannged 
to  rid  themselves  of  the  Genoese,  and  to  gain  possession  of  almost 
the  entire  island,  deposing  the  grand-justices  of  Cagliari,  Torres,  and 
Galhira.  With  the  Pi.sans  the  greater  part  of  tho  island  remained) 
till  1325  when  tho  pope  gave  Sardinia  to  tho  king  of  Aragon,  who 
combined  with  tho  gi-and-ju.stice  of  Arborea  to  drive  out  the  former 
rulers.  But,  this  being  accomplished,  war  soon  broko  out  betwc<^ 
tho  two,  and  numerous  successes  were  gained  by  tho  grand:juslicrf 
Marian  IV.  and  his  daughter  Elconora  acting  as  regent  on  behall 
of  her  son  Marion  V.,  a  minor.  Tlio  Aragoneso  Bcemed  to  bo  on' 
tho  yoint  of  being  driven  out  of  tho  island  when  Elconora  dicitot 


3xu 


iS  A  R  — S  A  R 


tlie  plagne  (14U3),  and  soon  after  the  whole  island  became  an 
Aragouese  (after  the  union  of  the  crowns  of  Aragon  and  Castile  a 
Spanish)  province.  It  remained  Spanish  till  the  treaty  of  Utrecht 
in  1713,  when  it  was  ceded  to  the  house  of  Austri;i,  by  which  in 
1720  it  was  handed  over  to  Victor  Amadeus  11.,  duke  of  Savoy,  iu 
exchange  for  the  island  of  Sicily.  Shortly  before  the  date  of  this 
acquisition  the  duke  of  Savoy  (see  Savoy)  had  had  the  title  of 
king  conferred  upon  him,  and  when  the  cession  of  Sardinia  took 

Elace  the  title  was  changed  to  that  of  king  of  Sardinia,     With  this 
ingdom  the  island  ultimately  became  merged  in  the  kingdom  of 
Italy. 

See  La  Marmora,  Voyage  in  Sarilai(jne  (Paris.  !d  ed.,  1837-57) ;  Koissard  de 
Bellet,  La  Sardaigne  a  vol  (toiseau  (Paris.  1884) ;  Robert  Tehnant,  Sardinia  and 
its  Resources  (Lon(Joiil885).  (G.  G.  C.) 

SARDIS  (at  2ap8cis),  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Lydia,  the  seat  of  a  conventus  under  the  Roman  empire, 
and  the  metropolis  of  the  province  Lydia  in  later  Roman 
and  Byzantine  times,  was  situated  in  the  middle  Hermus 
valley,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tniolus,  a  steep  and  lofty  spur 
of  which  formed  the  citadel.  It  was  about  20  stadia  (2i 
miles)  south  of  the  Hermus.  The  earliest  reference  to 
Sardis  is  in  the  Persx  of  iEschylus  (472  B.C.);  in  the 
Iliad  the  name  Hyde  seems  to  be  given  to  the  city  of  the 
Mseonian  {i.e.,  Lydian)  chiefs,  and  in  later  times  Hyde  was 
said  to  be  the  older  name  of  Sardis,  or  the  name  of  its 
citadel.  It  is,  however,  more  probable  that  Sardis  was 
not  the  original  capital  of  the  Mfeonians,  but  that  it  "be- 
came so  amid  the  changes  which  produced  a  powerful 
Lydian  empire  in  the  8th  century  n.c.  The  city,  but  not 
the  citadel,  vras  destroyed  by  the  Cimmerians  in  the  7th 
century,  by  the  Athenians  in  the  6th,  and  by  Antiochus 
the  Great  in  the  3d  century ;  once  at  least,  under  the 
emperor  Tiberius,  it  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake ; 
but  it  was  always  rebuilt,  and  continued  to  be  one  of  the 
great  cities  of  western  Asia  Minor  till  the  later  Byzantine 
time.  Its  importance  was  due,  first  to  its  military 
strength,  secondly  to  its  situation  on  an  important  high- 
way leading  from  the  interior  to  the  yEgean  coast,  and 
thirdly  to  its  commanding  the  wide  and  fertile  plain  of  the 
Hermus.  The  early  Lydian  kingdom  was  far  advanced  in 
the  industrial  arts  (see  L'i'DiA),  and  Sardis  was  the  chief 
seat  of  its  manufactures.  The  most  important  of  these 
trades  was  the  manufacture  and  dyeing  of  delicate  woollen 
stuffs  and  carpels.  The  statement  that  the  little  stream 
Paetolus  which  flowed  through  the  market-place  rolled 
over  golden  sands  is  probably  little  more  than  a  metaphor, 
due  to  the  wealth  of  the  city  to  which  the  Greeks  of  the 
6th  century  B.C.  resorted  for  supplies  of  gold;  but  trade 
and  the  practical  organization  of  commerce  were  the  real 
sources  of  this  wealth.  After  Constantinople  became  the 
capital  cf  the  East  a  new  road  system  grew  up  connecting 
the  provinces  with  the  capital.  Sardis  then  lay  rather 
apart  from  the  great  lines  of  communication  and  lost  some 
of  its  importance.  It  still,  however,  retained  its  titular 
supremacy,  and  continued  to  be  the  seat  of  the  metro- 
politan bishop  of  the  province.  It  is  enumerated  as  third, 
after  Ephesus  and  Smyrna,  in  the  list  ot  cities  of  the 
'j'hracesian  thema  given  by  Constantino  Porphyrogenitus 
in  the  10th  century  ;  but  in  the  actual  history  of  the  next 
four  centuries  it  plays  a  part  very  inferior  to  JIagnesia 
ad  Sipylum  and  Philadelphia,  which  have  to  the  present 
day  retained  ■  their  pre-eminence  in  the  district.  The 
Hermus  valley  began  to  suffer  from  the  inroads  of  the 
Seljuk  Turks  about  the  end  of  the  11th  century  ;  but  the 
succes.ses  of  the  Greek  general  Philocales  in  1118  relieved 
the  district  for  the  time,  and  the  ability  of  the  Comneni, 
together  with  the  gradual  decay  of  the  Seljuk  power,  re- 
tained it  in  the  Byzantine  dominions.  The  country  round 
Sardis  was  frequently  ravaged  both  by  Christians  and  by 
Greeks  during  the  13th  century.  Soon  after  1301  the 
Seljuk  emirs  overran  the  whole  of  the  Hermu,'5  and  Cayster 
valleys,  and  a  fort  on  the  citadel  of  Sardis  was  handed  over 
to  them  by  treaty.     Finally  in  1390  Philadelphia,  wliich 


had  for  some  time  been  an  independent  Christian  city, 
surrendered  to  Sultan  Bayazid's  mi.\cd  army  of  Ottoman 
Turks  and  Byzantine  Christians,  and  the  Seljuk  power  in 
the  Hermus  valley  was  merged  in  the  Ottoman  empire. 
The  latest  reference  to  the  city  of  Sardis  relates  its  capture 
(and  probable  destruction)  by  Timur  in  1402.  Its  site  is 
now  absolutely  de.serted,  except  that  a  tiny  village,  Sart, 
merely  a  few  huts  inhabited  by  semi-nomadic  Yuruks,  exists 
beside  the  Pactolus,  and  that  there  is  a  station  of  the  Smyrna 
and  Cassaba  Railway  a  mile  north  of  the  principal  ruins. 

The  ruins  of  Sardis,  sq  far  ns  they  are  now  visible,  are  chiefly  of 
the  Roman  time ;  but  probably  few  ancient  sites  would  more 
richly  reward  the  excavator  with  rcmiins  of  all  periods  from 
the  early  jire-Hellenic  time  downwards.  On  the  banks  of  the  Pac- 
tolus two  columns  of  a  teinple  of  the  Greek  period,  probably  the 
great  temple  of  Cybcle,  arc  still  standing,  iloip  than  one  attempt 
to  excavate  this  temple,  the  last  by  Mr  G.  Dennis  iu  1882,  have 
been  made  and  prematurely  brought  to  an  end  by  lack  of  funds. 
The  necropolis  of  the  old  Lydian  city,  a  vast  scries  of  mounds, 
some  of  enormous  si?o,  lies  on  the  north  side  of  the  Hermus,  four 
or  five  miles  from  Sardis,  a  little  south  of  the  sacred  lake  Coloe ; 
here  the  Mioiiian  chiefs,  sons,  according  to  Homer,  of  the  lake, 
were  brought  to  sleep  beside  their  mother.  The  series  of  monnds 
is  now  called  Bin  Tepe  (Thousand  ilounds).  Several  of  them 
have  been  opened  by  modern  excavators,  but  in  every  case  it 
was  found  that  treasure-seekers  of  an  earlier  time  had  removed 
any  articles  of  value  that  had  been  deposited  in  the  sepulchral 
chambers. 

SARDONYX,  a  ■  name  applied  to  those  varieties  of 
onyx,  or  stratified  chalcedony,  which  exhibit  white  layers 
alternating  with  others  of  red  or  brown  colour.  The 
brown  chalcedony  is  known  to  modern  mineralogists  as 
sard  &nd  the  red  as  carnelian.  The  simplest  and  commonest 
type  of  sardonyx  contains  two  strata, — a  thin  layer  of 
white  chalcedony  resting  upon  a  ground  of  either  carnelian 
cr  sard ;  but  the  sardonyx  of  ancient  writers  generally 
presented  three  layers^a  superficial  stratum  of  red,  an 
intermediate  band  of  white,  and  a  base  of  dark  brown 
chalcedony.  The  sardonyx  has  always  been  a  favourite 
stone  with  the  cameo-engraver,  and  the. finest  works  have 
usually  been  executed  on  stones  of  five  strata.  Such,  for 
instance,  is  the  famous  Carpegna  cameo,  in  the  Vatican, 
representing  the  triumph  of  Bacchus  and  Ceres,  and  re- 
puted to  be  the  largest  work  of  its  kind  ever  executed 
(16  inches  by  12).  When  the  component  layers  of  a 
sardonyx  are  of  fine  colour  and  sharply  defined,  the  stone 
is  known  in  trade  as  an  "  Oriental  sardonyx " — a  term 
which  is  used  without  reference  to  the  geographical  source 
whence  the  stone  is  obtained.  A  famous  ancient  locality 
for  sard  was  in  Babylonia,  and  the  name  of  the  stone 
appears  to  be  connected  with  the  Persian  word  sered, 
"yellowish  red,"  in  allusion  to  the  colour  of  the  sard. 
Pliny,  relying  on  a  superficial  resemblance,  derives  the 
name  from  Sardis,  reputed  to  be  its  original  locality.  The 
sardonyx  is  frequently  stained,  or  at  least  its  colour 
heightened,  by  chemical  processes.  Imitations  are  fabri- 
cated by  cementing  two  or  three  layers  of  chalcedonj' 
together,  and  so  building  up  a  sardonyx ;  while  baser 
counterfeits  are  formed  simply  of  paste.  See  Onyx,  vd. 
xvii.  p.  776. 

SARGASSO  SEA.     See  Atlantic,  vol.  iii.  pp.  20,  26. 

SARGON,  king  of  Assyria,  722-705  b.c.  (Isa.  xx.  1). 
See  Babylonia,  vol.  iii.  p.  187,  and  Israel,  vol  xiiL  p. 
412  sy. 

SARI.     See  MazandaeIn. 

SARJIATIANS  (Saupo/xdrat,  Xvp/Jjlrai,  Sarrau,ta3).  In 
the  time  of  Herodotus  (iv.  110-117)  the  steppes  between 
the  Don  and  the  Caspian  were  inhabited  by  the  Sau''oraatjB, 
a  nomadic  horse-riding  people,  whose  women  rode,  hunted, 
and  took  part  in  battle  like  the  men,  so  that  legend  (pre- 
sumably the  legend  of  the  Greek  colonists  on  the  Black 
Sea)  represented  the  race  as  descendants  of  the  Araazons 
by  Scythian  fathers.     It  is  recounted  both  by  Herodotus 


S  A  R  — S  A  R 


311 


and  by  Hippocrates  {De  Aer.,  17)  that  no  maiden  was 
allowed  to  marry  till  she  had  slain  a  foe  (or  three  foes), 
after  which  she  laid  aside  her  masculine  habits.  The 
Scythians,  we  are  told,  called  the  Amazons  OiopTraro,  which 
seems  to  be  an  Iranian  name  and  to  mean  "  lords  of  man," 
and  it  is  reasonable  to  think  that  the  word  was  applied  to 
the  Sarmatian  viragos  by  the  Scythians,  who  themselves 
kept  women  in  groat  subjection,  and  thus  expressed  their 
surprise  at  the  dominating  position  of  the  female  sex 
among  their  neighbours  beyond  the  Don.  But  in  spite 
of  the  difference  of  their  customs  in  this  point  Scythians 
and  Sarmatians  spoke  almost  the  same  language  (Herod. 
iv.  117),  and,  whatever  ditiiculty  still  remains  as  to  the 
race  of  the  Scythians,  their  language  and  religion  are  now 
generally  held  to  have  been  of  Iranian  character  (see 
Scythia).  That  the  Sarmatians,  at  least,  were  of  ^Median- 
origin  is  the  express  opinion  of  Diodorus  (ii.  43)  and  Pliny. 
From  their  seats  east  of  the  Danube  the  Sarmatians  at 
a  later  date  moved  westward  into  the  lands  formerly 
Scythian,  one  branch,  the  "  transplanted  "  lazyges  (I.  ^cra- 
vaurai)  being  settled  between  the  Danube  and  the  Theiss 
at  the  time  of  the  Dacian  wars  of  Rome,  while  other 
Sarmatian  tribes,  such  as  the  Maitae  on  the  eastern  shores 
of  Lake  ilaiotis  and  the  Roxolani  between  the  Don  and 
the  Dnieper,  ranged  over  the  steppes  of  .southern  Russia. 
The  country  of  Sarmatia,  however,  as  that  term  is  used  for 
example  by  Ptolemy,  means  much  more  than  the  lands  of 
the  Sarmatians,  comprising  all  the  eastern  European  plain 
from  the  Vistula  and  the  Dniester  to  the  Volga,  whether 
inhabited  by  nomad  Sarmatians,  by  agricultural  Slavs  and 
Letts,  or  even  by  Finns.  This  Sarmatia  was  arbitrarily 
divided  into  an  Asiatic  and  a  European  part,  east  and  west 
of  the  Don  respectively. 

SARNO,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Salerno, 
30  miles  east  of  Naples  by  rail,  lies  at  the  foot  of  the 
Apennines  near  the  sources  of  the  Sarno,  a  stream  con- 
nected by  canal  with  Pompeii  and  the  sea.  Besides  the 
cathedral,  a  basilica  erected  in  1625  at  some  distance  Irora 
the  city,.  Sarno  has  several  interesting  churches  and  the 
ruins  of  a  mediaeval  castle.  Paper,  cotton,  silk,  linen,  and 
Lemp  are  manufactured.  The  population  of  the  town  in 
1881  was  11,115.  Previous  to  its  incorporation  with  the 
domains  of  the  crown  of  Naples,  Sarno  gave  its  name  to  a 
countship  held  in  succession  by  the  Orsini,  Cappola, 
Suttavilla,  and  Colonna  families. 

SARPJ,  PiETRO  (1 552-1 G23),  was  born  at  Venice, 
August  14,  1552,  and  was  the  son  of  a  small  trader,  who 
left  him  an  orphan  at  an  early  age.  Quiet,  serious, 
devoted  to  study,  endowed  with  great  tenacity  of  applica- 
tion and  a  prodigious  memory,  the  boy  seemed  born  for  a 
monastic  life,  and,  notvyithstanding  the  opposition  of  his 
relatives,  entered  the  order  of  the  Servi  di  Maria,  a  minor 
Augustinian  congregation  of  Florentine  origin,  at  the  age 
of  thirteen.  He  assumed  the  name  of  Paolo,  by  which, 
with  the  epithet  Servita,  he  was  always  known  to  his  con- 
temporaries. In  1570  he  sustained  no  fewer  than  three 
hundred  and  eighteen  theses  at  a  disputation  in  Mantua, 
with  such  applause  that  the  duke  attached  the  youthful 
divine  to  bis  service  by  making  him  court  theologian. 
Sarpi  spent  four  years  at  Mantua,  applying  himself  with 
the  utmost  zeal  to  mathematics  and  the  Oriental  languages. 
Ho  there  made  the  acquaintance  of  Olivo,  formerly  secre- 
tary to  a  papal  legato  at  the  council  of  Trent,  from  whom 
he  learnccl  much  that  ho  subsequently  introduced  into  his 
Hislori/.  After  leaving  Mantua  for  some  unexplained 
reason,  ho  repaired  to  Milan,  whcro  ho  enjoyed  tho  pro- 
t«ctioa  of  Cardinal  Borromeo,  another  authority  in  tho 
council,  but  was  soon  transferred  by  his  superiors  to 
iVanice,  as  professor  of  philosophy  at  tho  Servile  ccavcnt. 
In  1579  he  waa  sent  to  Romo  oa  business  counecteii  with 


the  reform  of  his  order,  which  occupied  him  several  years, 
and  brought  him  into  intimate  relations  with  three 
successive  popes,  as  well  as  the  grand  inquisitor  and  other 
persona  of  influence.  The  impression  which  the  papal 
court  made  upon  him  may  be  collected  from  his  sub- 
sequent history.  Having  successfully  terminated  the 
affairs  entrusted  to  him,  he  returned  to  Venice  in  158S, 
and  passed  tho  next  seventeen  years  in  quiet  study, 
occasionally  interrupted  by  the  part  he  was  compelled  to 
take  in  the  internal  disputes  of  his  community.  In  1601 
he  was  recommended  by  the  Venetian  senate  for  the  small 
bishopric  of  Caorle,  but  the  papal  nuncio,  who  wished  to 
obtain  it  for  a  protiigo  of  his  own,  informed  the  pope 
that  Sarpi  denied  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  had 
rrtitroverted  the  authority  of  Aristotle.  An  attempt  to 
procure  another  small  bishopric  in  the  following  year  also 
failed,  Clement  VIII.  professing  to  have  taken  umbrage 
at  Sarpi's  extensive  correspondence  with  learned  heretics, 
but  more  probably  determined  to  thwart  the  desires  of  the 
liberal  rulers  of  Venice.  The  sense  of  injurj-,  no  doubt, 
contributed  to  exasperate  Sarpi's  feelings  towards  the 
court  of  Rome,  but  a  man  whose  master  passions  were 
freedom  of  thought  and  love  of  country»could  not  have 
played  any  other  part  than  he  did  in  the  great  contest 
which  was  impending.  For  the  time,  however,  he 
tranquilly  pursued  his  studies,  writing  those  notes  on 
Vieta  which  establish  his  proficiency  in  mathematics,  and 
a  metaphysisal  treatise  now  lost,  which,  if  Foscarini's 
account  of  it  may  bo  relied  upon,  anticipated  the  sensa- 
tionalism of  Locke.  -  His  anatomical  pursuits  probably 
date  from  a  somewhat  earlier  period.  They  illustrate  his 
versatility  and  thirst  for  knowledge,  but  are  far  from 
possessing  the  importance  ascribed  to  them  by  thi  affection 
of  his  disciples.  His  claim  to  have  anticipated  Harvey's 
discovery  rests  on  no  better  authority  than  a  memorandum, 
probably  copied  from  Caesalpinus  or  Harvey  himself,  with 
whom,  as  well  as  with  Bacon  and. Gilbert,  ho  maintained  a 
correspondence.  The  only  physiological  discovery  which 
can  be  safely  attributed  to  him  is  that  of  the  contractility 
of  the  iris.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  his 
treatises  on  scientific  subjects  are  lost,  and  only  known 
from  imperfect  abstracts. 

The  prudent  Clement  died  in  March  1605;  and  after 
one  ephemeral  succession  and  two  very  long  conclaves 
Paul  V.  assumed  the  tiara  with  tho  resolution  to  strain 
papal  prerogative  to  tho  uttermost.  At  the  same  time 
Venice  was  adopting  measures  to  restrict  it  still  further. 
The  right  of  the  secular  tribunals  to  take  cognizance  of 
the  offences  of  ecclesiastics  had  been  asserted  in  two 
remarkable  cases ;  and  the  scope  of  two  ancient  laws  of 
the  city  of  Venice,  forbidding  tho  foundation  of  churches 
or  ecclesiastical  congregations  without  tho  consent  of  the 
state,  and  the  acquisition  of  property  by  priests  or 
religious  bodies,  had  been  extended  over  tho  entire 
territory  of  tho  republic.  In  January  160G  tho  papal 
nuncio  delivered  a  brief  demanding  tho  unconditional  sub- 
mission of  the  Venetians.  The  senate  ha.'ing  promised 
protection  to  all  ecclesiastics  who  should  in  this  emergency 
aid  tho  republic  by  their  counsel,  Sarpi  presented  a  memoir, 
pointing  out  that  tho  threatened  censures  might  bo  met  in 
two  ways, — de  facto,  by  prohibiting  their  publication,  and 
dejiire,  by  an  appeal  to  a  general  council.  Tho  document 
was  received  with  universal  a])plause,  and  Sarpi  was 
ill!  mediately  made  canonist  and  theological  counsellor  to 
tho  republic.  When  in  tho  following  April  tho  last  hopes 
of  accommodation  wore  dispelled  by  Paul's  cxcommunica^ 
tion  of  tho  Venetians  and  his  attempt  to  lay  thoio 
dominions  under  an  interdict,  Sarpi  entered  with  tht 
utniojt  energy  into  tho  controversy.  He  prudtutly  began 
by  roFublishing   the   anti-papal  opinions  of   the   famoo» 


312 


S  A  E  P  I 


canonist    Gerson.      In    an    anonymous    traco    published 
shortly  afterwards  {Rispoeta   di  vn  J)ottore  in  Teologia) 
he  laid  down  principles  which  struck  at  the  very  root  ot 
the  pope's  authority  in    secular  things.     This  book    was 
promptly  put  upon  the  Index,  and  the   republication  of 
Gerson  was  attacked  by  Bellarmine  with  a  severity  Which 
obliged  Sarpi  to  reply  in  an  Apologia.     The  Considerazioni 
mile  Censure  and  the  Trattato  dell'  Interdetlo,  the  latter 
partly  prepared  under  his  direction  by  other  theologians, 
speedily  followed.     Numerous  other  pamphlets  appeared, 
inspired  or   controlled  'by  Sarpi,  who    had    received    the 
further  appointment  of  censor  over  all   that  should   be 
written  at  Venice  in  defence  of  the  republic.     His  activity 
registers  the  progress  of  mankind,  and  forms  an  epoch  in 
the  history  of  free  discussion.     Never  before  in  a  religious 
controversy  had  the  appeal  been  made  so  exclusively  to 
reason  and  history ;   never  before  had  an  ecclesiastic  of 
his  eminence  maintained  the  subjection  of  the  clergy. to 
the   state,    and    disputed    the   pope's    right    to    employ 
spiritual     censures,     except     under     restrictions     which 
virtually  abrogated    it.     In  so  doing    he   merely   gave 
expression  to  the  convictions  which  had  long  been  silently 
forming  in  the  breasts  of  enlightened  men,  and  this,  even 
more   than   his   learning  and   acuteness  as   a   disputant, 
insured  him  a  moral  victory.     Material  arguments  were  no 
longer  at  the  pope's  disposal.     The  Venetian  clergy,  a  few 
religious  orders  excepted,  disregarded   the  interdict,   and 
discharged  their  functions  as  usual.     The  Catholic  powers 
refused  to  be  drawn  into  the  quarrel.     At  length  (April 
1607)  a  compromise  was  arranged  through  the  mediation 
of  the  king  of  France,  which,  while  salving  over  the  pope's 
dignity,  conceded  the  points  at  issue.     The  great  victory, 
however,  was  not  so  much  the  defeat  of  the  papal  preten- 
sions as  the  demonstration  that  interdicts  and  excommuni- 
cations had  lost  their  force.     Even  this  was  not  wholly 
satisfactory  to   Sarpi,  who   longed   for  the  toleration  of 
Protestant  worship  in  Venice,  and  had  hoped  for  a  separa- 
tion from  Rome  and  the  establishment  of  a  Venetian  free 
church  by  which  the  decrees  of  the  council  of  Trent  would 
have  been  rejected,  and  in  which  the   Bible  would  have 
been  an  open  book.     But  the  controversy  had  not  lasted 
long  enough   to   prepare   men's  minds   for    so    bold    a 
measure.     The  republic  rewarded  her  champion  with  the 
further  distinction  of  state   counsellor   in  jurisprudence, 
and,  a  unique  mark  of  confidence,  the  liberty  of  access 
to   the  state   archives.      These   honours   exasperated   his 
adversaries   to    the    uttermost ;    and    after    citations   and 
blandishments  had  equally  failed  to  bring  him  to  Rome 
he  began  to  receive  intimations  that  a  stroke  against  him 
was  preparing  in    that  quarter.     On    October  5  he   was 
attacked  by  a  band  of  assassins  and  left  for  dead,  but  the 
wounds  were  not  mortal.     The  bravos  found  a  refuge  in 
the  papal  territories.     Their  chief,  Poma,  declared  that  he 
had  been  moved  to  attempt  the  murder  by  his  zeal  for 
religion,  a  degree  of  piety  and  self-sacrifice  which  seems 
incredible  in  a  bankrupt  oil-merchant.     "  Agnosco  stylum 
Curiae  Romanse,"  Sarpi  himself  pleasantly  said,  when  his 
surgeon    commented    upon    the    ragged    and    inartistic 
character  of  the  wounds,- and  the  justice  of  the  observa- 
tion is  as  incontestable  as  its  wit.     The  only  question  can 
be  as  to  the  degree  of  complicity  of  Pope  Paul  V.,  a  good 
man  according  to   his  light,  but  who  must  have  looked 
upon   Sarpi  as   a   revolted  subject,  and  who  would  find 
casuists  enough  to  assure  him  that  a  prince  is  justified  in 
punishing  rebels  by  assassins  when  they  are  beyond  the 
reach  of  executioners. 

The  remainder  of  Sarpi's  life  was  spent  peacefully  in 
nis  cloister,  though  plots  against  him  continued  to  be 
formed,  and  he  occasionally  spoke  of  taking  refuge  in 
England.     When  not  engaged  in  framing  state  papers,  he 


devoted  himself  to  scientific  studies,  and  *ound  time  lot 
the  composition  of  several  works.     A  Machiavellian  tract 
on  the  fundamental  maxims  of  Venetian  policy  (Opinione 
come  dehba  governarsi  la  repubblica  di  Venezia),  used  by  hia 
adversaries  to  blacken  his  memory,  though  a  contemporary 
production,  is  undoubtedly  not  his.     It  has  been  attributed 
to  a  certain  Gradenigo.     Nor    did   he  complete  a    reply 
which  he  had  been  ordered  to  prepare  to    the  Squiiinio 
della  Liherth  Veneta,  which  he  perhaps  found  unanswerable^ 
In  1610  appeared  his  History  of  Ecdesias'ical  Benefices, 
"in  which,"  says  Eicci,  "he  purged  the  church  of  the  de- 
filement introduced  by  spurious  decretals."    In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  assailed  another  abuse  by  his  treatise  on  the 
right  of  asylum  claimed  for  churches,  which  was  imme- 
diately placed  on  the  Index.     In  1615  a  dispute  between 
Ihe  A^enetian  Government  and  the  Inquisition  respecting 
the  prohibition  of  a  book  led  him  to  write  on  the  history 
and  procedure  of  the  Venetian  Inquisition;  and  in  1619 
his  chief  literary  work,  the  History  of  ihe  Covncil  of  Trent, 
was  printed  at  London  under  the  name  of  Pietro  Soav& 
Polano,  an  anagram  of  Paolo  Sarpi  Veneto.     The  editor, 
Marco  Antonio  de  Dominis,  has  been  accused  of  falsifying 
the  text,  but  a  comparison  with  a  MS.  corrected  by  Sarpi 
himself  shows  that  the  alterations  are  both  unnecessary 
and  unimportant.     This  memorable  book,  together  with 
the  rival  and  apologetic  history  by  Cardinal  Pallavicini, 
is   minutely  criticized   by  Ranke  (History  of  the  Popes, 
appendix  No.  3),  who  tests  the  veracity  of  both  writers  by 
examining  the  use  they  have  respectively  made  of  their 
MS.  materials.     The   result  is  not   highly  favourable  to 
either,  nor  wholly  unfavourable  ;  neither  can  be  taxed  with 
deliberate  falsification,  but  both  have  coloured  and  sup- 
pressed.    They  write  as  advocates  rather  than  historians. 
Each  had  access  to  sources  of  information  denied  to_  the 
other ;  so  that,  although  it  may  be  true  in  a  sense  that  tho 
truth  lies  between  them,  it  cannot  be'  attained  by  taking 
the  middle  way  between  their  statements.     Ranke  rates 
the  literary  qualities  of  Sarpi's  work  very  highly.      "  Sarpi 
is  acute,  penetrating,  and    sarcastic ;   his  arrangement  is 
exceedingly   skilful,  his   style   pure  and   unaffected.     In 
power  of  description  he  is  without  doubt  entitled  to  the 
second  place  among  the    modern  historians   of  Italy.     I 
rank   him  immediately  after    Machiavelli."     Sarpi    never 
acknowledged  his  authorship,  and  baffled  all  the  efforts  of 
the  Prince  de  Conde  to  extract  the  secret  from  him.     He 
survived  the  publication  four  years,  dying  on  January  15, 
1623,  labouring  for  his    country  to    the    last.     The  day 
before  his  death  he  had  dictated  three  replies  to  questions 
on  affairs  of  state,  and  his   last  words  were  "  Esto  per- 
petua."      His   posthumous  History  of  the  Interdict   was 
printed   at  Venice   the  year  after   his   death,  with   the 
disguised  imprint  of  Lyons. 

Sarpi's  services  to  mankind  are  nowaeknowledged  by  all  except  the 
most  extreme  Ultramontane  partisans  ;  and  of  his  general  character 
it  is  enough  to  say  that  even  theological  hatred  has  been  unable  to  fix 
the  least  personal  imputation  upon  him.  To  the  highest  qualitiea 
of  the  scholar,  the  statesman,  and  the  patriot  he  added  charity,  mag- 
nanimity, and  disinterestedness.  The  only  point  onVhich  liis  con- 
duct may  be  thought  to  require  apology  is  the  reserve  in-wLich  be 
shrouded  his  religious  opinions.  Great  light  has  been  thrown  upon 
his  real  belief  and  the  motives  of  his  conduct  by  the  letters  ofChris- 
toph  von  Dohna,  envoy  of  Christian,  prince  of  Anhalt,  to  Venice,  pub- 
lished by  Jloritz  Eitter  in  the  Bricfc  und  Aden  '^itr  Gcschichtc  dea 
drcissigjahrigcn  Kricgcs,  \o\.  ii.  (Munich,  1874).  Sarpi  told  Dohna 
that  he  greatly  disliked  saying  mass,  and  celebrated  it  as  seldom 
as  possible,  but  that  he  was  compelled  to  do  so,  as  he  would  other- 
wise  seem  to  admit  the  validity  of  the  papal  prohibition,  and  thus 
betray  the  cause  of  Venice.  Tliis  supplies  the  key  to  his  whole 
behaviour;  he  was  a  patriot  first  and  a  "religious  reformer  after- 
wards. He  was  most  anxious  to  obtain  liberty  of  Protestant  worship 
at  Venice,  but  scarcely  proceeded  beyond  good  wishes,  partly  from 
prudence,  partly  from  being  " rooted "  in  what.  Diodati  described 
to  Dohna  as  "  the  most  dangerous  maxim,  that  God  does  not 
regard  c.\ternals  so  long  as  the  mind  and  heart  arc  right  before 


!S  A  R  —  S  A  11 


313 


Him."  "  It  is  of  little  avail, "acWsDioJati,  "todispntc  with  him, 
for  all  blows  fall  iiietrcctnally  upon  the  sweetness  ;inii  maturity  of 
affections  and  spirit  wliicli  raise  him  above  well  ni;;li  every 
tmntion."  Sarpi  haj  aiiotlicr  inaxim,  whidi  lie  thus  fonnulated  to 
Dohna  :  " Lcfatsitd  noii  dico  inai  mni,  ma  la  verilA  non  a  v/ituno." 
It  must  further  bo  considered  that,  though  SarpI  ailniiicd  tlic 
English  prayer-book,  he  was  neitlier  Anglican,  Luthcnui,  nor 
Calvinist,  and  might  have  found  it  di/licult  to  accommodate 
himself  to  any  ProtestantThurch.  On  the  wliole,  the  opinion  of  Le 
Courayer,  "qu'  il  etnit  Catholique  en  gros  et  iiuelnue  fois  Protestant 
en  detail,"  seems  not  altogether  groundless,  tliougn  it  can  no  lon<;er 
be  accepted  as  a  satisfactory  summing  up  of  the  question.  His 
discoveries  in  natural  science  have  been  overrated,  but  his  scientific 
Rttainments  must  have  been  great.  Galileo  would  not  have  wasted 
his  time  in  corresponding  with  a  man  from  whom  he  could  learn 
nothing ;  and,  though  Sarpi  did  not,  as  has  been  asserted,  invent 
the  telescope,  he  immediately  turned  it  to  practical  account  by 
constructing  a  map  of  the  moon. 

Sai'pi's  life  was  wiitten  by  lils  enthualastl?  disciple,  Father  Fulgenzio  Micanzio, 
vliose  work  does  honour  to  liis  heart,  but  is  both  lucagrc  and  uncritical. 
niariehl-Glovlnl's  modern  bioci-aithy  (ISJG)  is  greatly  marrefl  by  digressions,  but 
Is  on  tlie  wliole  the  most  satisfactory  exrjint.  tlioueli  inferior  in  S'mie  re^peers  to 
that  by  Mlsi  Arabella  Geoigina  Campbell  tlSb;'),  a  labour  of  love,  enriched  by 
numerous  references  to  .^ISS.  unknown  to  Bianclii-Gio\  ini.  The  numerous  mis- 
piints  whlcb  disficurc  the  Lnglish  edition  of  this  work  liave  been  corrected  in 
an  Italian  translation.  T.  A.  lioUope's  Paul  the  Pope  and  Paul  the  Friar  (1861) 
Is  In  the  main  a  mere  abstract  of  Bianchl-Giovini,  but  adds  a  spirited  account  of 
the  conclave  of  Paul  V.  'ilie  incidents  of  the  Venetian  dispute  from  day  to  day 
arc  related  In  the  contcmporaiy  di.iiies  published  by  Enrico  Comet  (Vienna, 
iW9).  Giusto  Foiitanini's  Storia  Arcana  de'la  Vila  di  Pietro  Sarpi  (ISCJ),  a 
bitter  libel,  Is  nevei-theiess  Important  for  the  letiers  of  Saipl  it  contains,  as 
Orlselini's  Memorie  Anedote  (1760)  is  fium  the  author's  access  to  S.irpis  un. 
published  writings,  afterwards  unfortunately  destroyed  by  tira  Koscarlni's 
ihslory  cf  Venetian  Literature  is  important  on  the  same  account.  Sarpi's 
memoirs  on  state  affairs  remain  in  tiie  Venetian  archives.  Ponions  of  his 
correspoDdence  have  been  piloted  at  various  times,  and  inedlted  letters  fioin 
him  are  of  frequent  oceuiTence  in  public  libraries.  The  King's  Library  in  tlie 
lliitish  .Museum  has  a  valuable  collection  of  tracts  la  the  Interdict  controversy, 
formed  by  Consul  Smith.  (R.  G.) 

SAERAZIN,  Jacqites  (1 588-1 G60),  French  painter, 
born  at  Xoycn  in  1588,  was  a  pupil  of  the  father  of 
Simon  Guillain,  but  he  tvent  to  Rome  at  an  early  age  and, 
•worked  there  under  a  Frenchman  named  Anguille.  Start- 
ing thus,  Sarrazin  speedily  obtained  employment  from 
Cardinal  Aldobrandini  at  Frascati,  Tvhere  he  won  the 
friendship  of  Domenichino,  with  whom  he  afterwards 
■woriied  on  the  high  altar  of  St  Andrea  della  Valle.  His 
return  to  Paris,  where  he  married  a  niece  of  Simon  Vouet's, 
was  signalized  by  a  series  of  successes  which  attracted  the 
notice  of  Sublet  des  Noyers,  who  entrusted  to  him  the 
work  by  which  Sarrazin  is  best  known,  the  decoration  of 
the  great  portal  and  dome  of  the  western  faijade  of  the 
interior  court  of  the  Louvre.  The  famous  Caryatides  of 
the  attic  show,  especially  in  the  way  in  which  the  shadows 
are  made  to  tell  as  points  of  support,  the  profound  and 
intelligent  study  of  Michelangelo's  art  to  which  Sarrazin 
had  devoted  all  the  time  he  could  spare  from  bread- 
winning  whilst  in  Rome.  He  now  executed  many  commis- 
sions from  the  queen  and  from  all  the  chief  personages  of 
the  daj',  devoted  much  time  to  painting,  and  was  an  active 
promoter  of  the  foundation  of  the  Academy.  The  mauso- 
leum for  the  heart  of  the  Prince  do  Cond6  in  the  Jesuit 
church  of  the  Rue  Saint  Antoine  was  his  last  considerable 
work  (see  Lenoir,  Musee  des  Monuments  Fran^ais,  v.  5);  he 
died  3d  December  1660,  whilst  it  was  in  progress,  and  the 
crucifix  of  the  altar  was  actually  completed  by  one  of  his 
pupils  named  Gros. 

SARSAPARILLA,  a  popular  alterative  remedy,  prepared 
from  the  long  fibrous  roots  of  several  species  of  the  genus 
Umilax,  indigenous  to  Central  America,  and  extending  from 
the  southern  and  western  coasts  of  Mexico  in  the  north 
to  Peru  in  the  south.  These  plants  grow  in  swampy 
forests  seldom  visited  by  European  traveller.'?,  and,  being 
dioecious  and  varying  much  in  the  form  of  leaf  in  different 
individuals,  they  are  but  imperfectly  known  to  botanists, 
only  two  species  having  been  identified  as  yet  with  any 
degree  of  certainty.  These  arc  Smilax  iifficinnlis,  Klh.,  and 
S.  medica,  Schlecht.  and  Cham.,  which  yield  respectively 
the  so-called  "Jamaica"  and  the  Mexican  varieties.  The 
introduction  of  sarsnparilla  into  European  medicine  dates 
<rom  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,     ilonardes,  a  jihysi- 

21-1 2» 


cian  of  Seville,  records  that  it  was  brought  to  that  city 
from  New  Spain  about  1536-45,  that  a  better  sort  soon 
afterwards  came  from  Honduras,  and  that  an  excellent 
variety  of  a  darker  colour,  and  consisting  of  larger  roots, 
was  subsequently  imported  from  Guayaquil.  Sarsaparilla 
must  have  come  into  extensive  use  soon  afterwards,  for 
Gerard,  about  the  close  of  the  century,  states  that  it  was 
imi)ortod  into  England  from  Peru  in  great  abundance. 

When  boiled  in  water  the  root  affords  a  da.k  extractive 
matter,  the  exact  nature  of  which  has  not  been  determined; 
the  quantity  of  extract  yielded  by  the  root  is  used  as  a 
criterion  of  its  quality.  Boiling  alcohol  extracts  from  the 
root  a  neutral  substance  in  the  form  of  crystalline  prisms, 
which  crystallize  in  scales  from  boiling  water.  This  body, 
which  is  named  parillm,  is  allied  to  the  saponin  of  quillaia 
bark,  from  which  it  differs  in  not  exciting  sneezing.  The 
presence  in  the  root  of  starch,  resin,  and  oxalate  of  lime  is 
revealed  by  the  use  of  the  microscope.  Sarsaparilla  is 
chiefly  used  in  medicine  in  the  form  of  decoction  and  fluid 
extract.  It  is  regarded  by  many  as  a  valuable  alterative 
and  diaphoretic  in  chronic  rheumatism,  syphilis,  and 
various  skin  diseases,  but  by  others  as  possessing  little  if 
any  remedial  value.  It  is  frequently  prescribed  in  com- 
bination with  powerful  medicines,  such  as  iodide  of 
potassium  or  bichloride  of  mercury. 

The  varieties  of  sarsaparilla  met  witlTiQ  commerce  at  present  arc 
the  following  : — Jamaica,  Lima,  Honduras,  Guatemala,  Guayaquil, 
and  Mexican.  Of  these  the  first-named  is  the  most  highly  esteemed, 
as  yielding  the  largest  amount  of  extract,  viz. ,  from  33  to  44  per 
cent. ;  it  is  the  only  kind  admitted  into  the  British  pharmacopoeia. 
On  the  Continent,  and  more  especially  in  Italy,  the  varieties  having 
a  white  starchy  bark,  like  those  of  Honduras  and  Guatemala,  aro 
preferred.  "Jamaica  "sarsaparilla  is  not  produced  there, but  derives 
its  name  fiom  the  fact  that  Jamaica  was  at  one  time  the  emporium 
for  sarsaparilla,  which  was  brought  thither  from  Honduras,  New 
Spain,  and  Peru.  Sarsaparilla  is  grown  to  a  sm:ill  extent  in  Jamaica, 
und  is  occasionally  exported  thence  to  the  London  market  in  small 
quantities,  but  its  orange  colour  and  starchy  bark  are  so  different  in 
appearance  from  the  thin  reddish-brown  bark  of  the  genuine  drug, 
that  it  does  not  meet  with  a  ready  sale.  The  Jamaica  sarsaparilla 
of  trade  is  collected  on  the  Cordilleras  of  Chiriqui,  in  that  part  of 
the  isthmus  of  Panama  which  adjoins  Costa  Rica,  where  the  plant 
yielding  it  grows  at  an  elevation  of  4000  to  8000  feet,  and  is 
brought  down  to  Boca  del  Toro  on  the  Atlantic  coast  for  shipment. 
It  is  met  with  in  commerce  in  the  form  of  hanks  about  18  inches 
long  and  4  inches  in  diameter,  loosely  wound  round  with  a  long 
root  of  the  same  drug.  The  root  bark  is  of  a  reddish-brown  colour, 
thin  and  shrivelled,  and  there  is  an  abundance  of  rootlets,  which  are 
technically  known  by  the  name  of  "beard."  Lima  sarsaparilla 
resembles  the  Jamaica  kind,  but  the  roots  are  of  a  paler  brown 
colour,  and  are  formed  into  cylindrical  bundles  of  similar  length, 
but  only  about  2i  inches  in  diameter.  Honduras  sarsaparilla 
occurs  in  the  form  of  cylindrical  rolls  about  30  inches  long  and  4 
or  more  in  diameter,  closely  wound  round  with  a  long  root  so  aa  to 
form  a  neat  bundle.  The  roots  arc  less  wrinkled,  and  the  bark  is 
whiter  and  more  starchy,  than  in  the  Jamaica  kind.  It  is  exported 
from  Belize  to  the  extent  of  about  10,000  lb  annually.  Guatemala 
sarsaparilla  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Honduras,  but  has  a  moro 
decided  orange  hue,  aud  the  bark  shows  a  tendency  to  split  off. 
Guayaquil  sarsaparilla  is  obtained  chiefly  in  the  valley  of  Alausi, 
on  the  western  side  of  the  equatorial  Andes.  The  roots  are  roughly 
packed  in  large  bales  and  are  not  made  into  separatu  hanks,  and  th« 
chump  orrootstock  is  often  allowed  to  remain  attached  to  the  roots. 
The  bark  is  thick  and  furrowed,  and  of  a  pale  fawn  colour  internally ; 
the  rootlets  are  few,  and  the  root  itself  is  of  larger  diameter  than  in 
the  other  kinds.  Sometimes  there  is  attached  to  the  rootstock  a 
portion  of  stem,  which  is  round  and  not  prickly,  differing  in  thcso 
respects  from  that  of  Smilax  officinalis,  which  is  square  and  prickly. 
Mexican  sarsaparilla  also  is  not  made  up  into  hanks,  but  is  packed 
in  straight  lengths  of  about  3  feet  into  bales,  the  chump  and  por- 
tions of  an  angular  but  not  squaro  stem  being  frequently  atUched 
to  tho  roots.  The  latter  arc  slender,  shrivelled,  aud  nearly  devoid 
of  rootlctn.  Thiti  k  id  of  sarsaparilla  is  collected  on  tho  eastern 
iilopc  of  the  Jfcxican  Andes  throughout  tho  year,  and  is  tho  pro- 
duce of  Smilax  medka,  Schlecht.  and  Cham.  , 

Tho  collection  of  sarsaparilla  root  is  a  very  tedious  business  ;  I 
sin"Ie  root  takes  an  Indian  half  a  day  or  sometimes  even  a  day  and 
a  linlf  to  unearth  it.  Tho  roots  extend  horizontally  in  the  grountj 
on  all  sides  for  about  0  feet,  and  from  tluso  the  earth  has  to  be 
carefully  scraped  away  and  other  roots  cut  through  where  such 
come  across  them.     A  plant  four  years  old  will  yield  10  lb  of  freab 


314 


S  A  R  —  S  A  K 


i'oot,  and  a  wcH-jrrown  one  from  32  to  64  ft,  but  more  than  h.ilf  the 
iveij;lit  is  lost  in  drying.  TliCnjorc  slemlcr  roots  aic  souurally  left, 
niicl  tlie  stciii  is  cut  down  nrar  to  tlic  gronnd,  tlio  crown  of  llic  root 
bcinfc  covcnxl  with  leaves  and  eartli.  Tluis  treated,  tljc  [dant  rou- 
tinncs  to  grow,  and  roots  may  again  lie  cnt  from  it  after  tlie  lapse 
of  two  years,  but  the  yield  will  bo  smaller  and  the  roots  more 
slender  and  less  starchy.  In  some  varieties,  as  the  Ouavariiiil  and 
Mexican,  the  wliole  plant,  inehiding  the  rootstock.  is  pulled  up.  The 
Indians  are  guided  iu  their  selection  of  roots  by  the  number  of  stems 
arising  from  the  roots,  by  the  thinness  of  the  leaves,  and  the  close- 
ness with  which  the  stem  is  beset  with  prickles. 

In  several  species  of  Smi/ax  the  roots  become  thickened  here  and 
there  into  large  tuberous  swellings  4  to  6  inches  long,  and  ono  or 
two  inches  in  thickness.  These  tubers  form  a  conside}able  article 
of  trade  iu  Cliina.  but  are  used  to  a  limited  extent  only  on  the 
Continent,  under  the  name  of  China  root,  although  introduced  into 
Europe  about  the  same  time  as  sarsaparilla.  China  root  is  obtained 
both  in  Cliina  and  India  from  Smilnx  rjlnlra  and  S.  lancexftil in, 
lioxburgh,  and  S.  China,  L.  A  similar  root  is  yielded  by  S. 
prscudo-Chinn,  L.,  and  S.  tamiwidcs  in  the  United  States  from  New 
Jersey  southwards  ;  by  S.  balbisiana,  Kth.,  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
by  S.  Japiccvirja  and  S.  S'jringoidcs,  Griseb.,  and  S.  Brasilicnsis, 
Sprcng.,  in  .South  America.  All  these  are  used  as  an  alterative 
remedy  in  the  localities  where  they  grow.  The  amount  of  China 
root  exported  to  Europe  from  Canton  in  1872  was  only  51,200  lb, 
although  in  the  same  year  as  much  as  ], 307,733  lb  was  exported 
from  the  city  of  Hankow  to  other  Chinese  ports.  In  1882  Bombay 
imported  from  China  945  cwts.  of  the  root.  The  name  of  Indian 
sarsaparilla  is  given  to  the  roots  of  Uemidcsmns  indu:iis,  R.  Br.,  an 
Asclepiadaceous  plant  indigenous  to  India.  These  roots  are  readily 
distinguished  from  those  of  true  sarsaparilla  by  their  loose  cracked 
bark  and  by  their  odour  and  taste,  recalling  those  of  melilot. 

SARTHE,  a  department  of  the  north-west  region  of 
France,  formed  in  1790  out  of  tbe  eastern  part  of  JIaine, 
29  communes  of  Anjou,  and  portions  of  Perche.  Situated 
between  47°  35'  and  48°  30'  N.  lat.,  and  between  0°  25' 
W.  and  0°  55  E.  long.,  it  is  bounded  N.  by  the  depart- 
ment of  Orne,  N.E.  by  Eure-et-Loir,  E.  by  Loir-et-Cher,  S. 
by  Indre-et-Loire  and  JIaine-et-Loire,  and  W.  byMayenne. 
The  Sarthe,  a  sub-tributary  of  the  Loire,  flows  in  a  south- 
westerly direction  through  the  department ;  and  the  Loir, 
which  along  with  the  Sarthe  joins  the  Mayenne  to  form  the 
Maine  above  Angers,  traverses  its  southern  borders.  The 
fCeneral  slope  of  the  country  is  from  north  to  south-west. 
While  the  highest  point  (on  the  boundary  towards  Orne)  is 
3115  feet,  the  lowest,  where  the  Loir  leaves  the  depart- 
ment, is  only  65.  The  hills  that  separate  the  streams  rise 
as  they  advance  north-eabt  into  Perche,  or  north-west  into 
what  are  magniloquently  called  the  Alpes  Mancelles  (1080 
feet  high).  The  Sarthe  flows  past  Le  Mans  and  Sabl^,  re- 
ceiving the  Merdereau  and  the  Vfegre  from  the  right,  and 
the  Orne  and  the  Huisne  from  the  left.  The  Loir  passes  La 
Fleche,  and  along  its  chalky  banks  caves  have  been  hollowed 
out  which,  like  those  along  the  Cher  and  the  Loire,-  serve  as 
dwelling-houses  and  stores.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
differs  but  slightly  from  that  of  Paris.  There  are  in  the 
year  145  days  of  rain  (with  12  of  snow),  56  of  frost,  180  of 
fogs,  20  of  hail,  and  14  of  storm.  The  rainfall  is  about 
24  inches,  or  rather  below  the  average  for  France. 

Of  a  total  surface  of  1,533,760  acres,  982,635  acres  in  the  depart- 
inent  are  arable,  198,517  underwood,  190,176  in  meadows  and  grass, 
42,000  in  moors,  and  22,284  in  vineyards,  la  1881  the  live  stock 
comprised  61,400  horses,  6524  asses  or  mules,  182,195  cattle, 
49,373  sheep  (wool-clip  83  to  84  tons),  79,737  pigs,  24,369  goats, 
12,898  hives  (76  tons  of  honey,  21^  tons  wax).  Poultry  (capons, 
geese,  kc.)  form  one  of  the  most  renmnerative  products  of  the  de- 
partment, which  sends  yearly  to  Paris  250,000  fowls  and  100,000 
geese,  and  consumes  or  disposes  of  10,000,000  eggs.  The  horses 
are,  like  those  of  Perche  [perchcrons),  famous  for  speed  combined 
with  strength.  There  are  three  distinct  districts  :• — the  corn  lands 
to  the  north  of  the  Sarthe  and  the  Huisne  ;  the  moorlands,  partly 
jtlanted  with  pine,  between  those  two  streams  and  the  Loir  ;  and 
the  wine-growing  country  to  the  south  of  the  Loir.  In  1883  the 
grain  crop  yielded  2,813,387  bushels  of  wheat,  951,039  of  meslin, 
714,248  of  rye,  2,317,760  of  barley,  1,993,049  of  oats,  30,880  of 
iimize,  and  59,630  of  buckwheat;  and  there  were  9,536,312  bushels 
of  potatoes  and  92,021  of  beans,  pease,  kc,  81,064  tons  of  beetroot, 
4794  tons  of  hemp,  and  6  of  llax.  In  1884  cider  was  produced  to 
the  extent  of  10,473,114  gallons  (average  quantity  l)er  annum  in 
pi-evious    years  8,628,444  gallons),  and  wine  to  4,347,134  gallons 


(average  qnantity  3,883,330).  Fodder  was  growTi  to  the  .amount 
of  . "SI, 110  tons;  and  there  were  considenble  supplies  of  chesliiuts 
and  hazel  nuts — Chateau  du  Loir  being  the  principal  market  for  the 
former.  From  the  forests,  which  consist  mainly  of  oaks,  witch-elms, 
chcs'tnut-trces,  jiiries,  ami  beeches,  material  is  drawn  to  the  value 
of  £140,000.  The  .agriculturt  of  the  district  ha.s  made  great  pro- 
gri-.-.s  through  the  opening  up  of  roads,  improvements,  draining, 
and  irrigatiDU.  Besides  mines  of  anthraciC  and  coal  (21,205  tons 
in  1832),  iron-ore,  marble,  freestone,  slate,  .Tiillstones,  clay,  marl, 
lime,  tulleau  (a  kind  of  white  dialky  tull),  magnesia,  and  peat  are 
all  worked.  The  stajde  industry  is  the  weaving  of  hemp  and  Hax 
(3395  spindles,  4400  looms,  400  being  jiower-looms).  The  cotton 
manufacture  ranks  nest  (8700  spindles,  185  looms,  of  which  100  are 
liowcr-looms),  while  the  woollen  manufacture  employs  only  350 
spindles  and  161  looms.  In  the  paper-mills  569  workmen  aie 
engaged,  and  the' value  of  the  paper  and  canlboard  produced  was 
£180,880  in  1881.  Iron-foundiies,  copper  and  bell  foundries, 
potteries,  tile-works,  glass-works  and  stained  glass  manufactoiies, 
cumcrics,  engine  and  carriage  factories,  wire-gauze  factories,  flour- 
mills,  and  distilleries  are  a)so  carried  on  ;  and  altogether  about 
256  steam-engines  with  2480  horse-power  are  employed  in  those 
establishments.  The  commerce  of  the  departmcut  is  facilitated  by 
99  miles  of  navigable  river  (Sarthe  and  Loir),  250  miles  of  national 
roads,  6707  miles  of  other  roads,  and  352  miles  of  railway. 

With  its  438,917  inhabitants  (1881)  Sarthe  has  exactly  the 
average  density  of  popuhition  in  France.  From  1801  (380, 82i) 
to  1866  (465,615)  the  number  w.as  on  the  increase,  but  since  that 
date  there  has  been  a  decline.  The  department  forms  the  dioccje 
of  Le  Mans,  lias  its  court  of  appeal  at  Angers,  and  its  university 
authorities  at  Caen,  and  constitutes  part  of  the  territory  of  the 
fourth  corps  d'armic  with  its  headquarters  at  Le  Jlans.  The  four 
arrondissemcntsare  named  from  Le  Mans,  thechief  town;  La  Fie' he 
(9424  inhabitants),  famous  for  its  prytanee  militaire  ;  Mami  rs 
(6070  inhabitants)  ;  and  St  Calais  (3600).  There  are  33  cantaiis 
and  387  communes.  Sable  (6000  inhabitants)  contains  a  ca-tle 
built  for  Colbert  by  Mansart ;  aud  hard  by  was  the  celebrated 
Benedictine  abbey  of  Solesmes. 

SARTI,  Giuseppe  (1729-1802),  musical  theorist  er.d 
composer,  was  born  at  Faenza,' Italy,  December  1,1729, 
educated — according  to  the  best  accounts — by  I'aJre 
Martini,  and  appointed  organist  of  the  cathedral  cf 
Faenza  before  the  completion  of  his  nineteenth  year. 
Resigning  his  appointment  in  1750,  Sarti  devoted  himself 
with  ardour  to  the  study  of  dramatic  music,  and  in 
1751  produced  his  first  opera,  Pompeo,  with  great  success. 
His  next  works,  II  Re  Pastore,  Medonie,  Demofooiite,  anil 
L'Olinipiade,  assured  him  SO  brilliant  a  reputation  that 
in  1753  King  Frederick  V.  of  Denmark  invited  him  to 
Copenhagen,  with  the  appointments  of  hofkapellmeister 
and  director  of  the  opera.  In  1765  he  travelled  to  Italy 
for  the  purpose  of  engaging  some  new  singers ;  and  mean- 
while the  death  of  King  Frederick  put  an  end  for  the  time 
to  his  engagement.!  Jjg  ^^^^  recalled  to  Copenhagen  in 
1768,  and  for  some  j'ears  enjoyed  an  extraordinary  amount 
of  court  favour ;  but,  though  he  carefully  abstained  from 
politics,  the  disasters  from  which  both  court  and  country  so 
cruelly  sufl'ered  at  this  critical  period  gradually  undermined 
his  position,  and  in  1775  he  was  banished  from  Denm.-irk 
in  disgrace.  During  his  residence  in  Copenhagen  Sarti 
composed  a  great  number  of  operas,  most  of  which  were 
fairly  successful,  though  few  survived  the  epoch  of  their 
production.  On  his  return  to  Italy  in  1775  he  was 
appointed  director  of  the  Ospedaletto — the  most  imporiant 
music  school  in  Venice ;  this  post,  however,  he  relinquished 
in  1779,  when,  after  severe  competition,  he  was  elected 
maestro  di  cappella  at  the  cathedral  of  Milan.  Here  he 
e.xercised  his  true  vocation, — composing,  in  addition  to  at 
least  twenty  of  his  most  successful  operas,  a  vast  quantity 
of  sacred  music  for  the  cathedral,  and  educating  a  nuinber 
of  clever  pupils,  the  most  distinguished  of  whom  was- 
Cherubini,  who  was  never  weary  of  singing  his  praises  as 
the  most  accomplished  musician  and  first  teacher  of  the  age. 
In  1784  Sarti  was  invited  by  the  empress  Catherine 
II.  to  St  Petersburg.     On  his  way  thither  he  stopped  at 

^  It  wait  probal)ly  during  this  temporary  suspension  of  duty  that  be 
made  the  attempt  to  cstabiisli  himself  in  London,  but  failed  to  obtaiu 
a  bearing  at  the  Kind's  Theatre. 


S  A  R  — S  A  R 


315 


Vienna,  •where  the  emperor  Joseph  IT.  received  him  with 
marked  favour,  and  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Mozart.  He  reached  St  Petersburg  in  1785,  and  at  once 
took  the  direction  of  the  opera,  for  which  ho  composed 
many  new  pieces,  besides  some  very  striking  sacred  music, 
including  a  T?  Deum  for  the  victory  at  Otchakoff,  in 
which  .he  introduced  the  firing  of  real  cannon.  He 
remained  in  Russia  seventeen  years ;  but  by  the  end  of 
that  time  his  health,,was  so  broken  by  the  climate  that 
he  solicited  permissioti  to  return.  The  empress  and  her 
successor  Paul  I.  had  then  been  some  time  dead ;  but  the 
emperor  Alexander  dismissed  Sarti  with  all  possible  honour, 
and  he  quitted  the  country  in  1802  with  a  liberal  pension 
and  letters  of  nobility  granted  to  him  by  the  empress 
Catherine.  His  most  successful  operas  in  Russia  were 
Armida  and  Olega,  for  the  latter  of  which  the  empress 
herself  wrote  the  libretto.  Sarti  did  not  live  to  reach 
Italy,  but  died  at  Berlin,  July  28,  1802. 

There  can  be  no  donbt  that  Cherubini  owed  much  of  hia  stupen- 
dous learning  to  the  judicious  teaching  of  Sarti,  who  ■ffaa  an 
accomplished  mathematician  and  physicist  as  well  as  a  musician, 
Mid  whose  works,  if  they  lack  the  impress  of  true  genius,  show 
extraordinary  talent,  and  are  marked  throughout  by  faultless  taste, 
combined  with  technical  skill  of  the  highest  order. 

SAIITO,  Andrea  del  (1487-1531).  This  celebrated 
painter  of  the  Florentine  school  was  born  in  Gual- 
fonda,  Florence,  in  1487,  or  perhaps  1486,  his  father 
Agnolo  being  a  tailor  {sarto)  :  hence  the  nickname  by 
which  the  son  is  constantly  designated.  The  family, 
though  of  no  distinction,  can  be  traced  back  into  the  14th 
century.  Vannucchi  has  constantly  been  given  as  the  sur- 
name,— according  to  some  modern  writers,  without  any 
authority,  but  it  seems  rather  difficult  to  accept  this 
dictum.  There  were  four  other  children  of  the  marriage. 
In  14-94  Andrea  was  put  to  work  under  a  goldsmith. 
This  occupation  he  disliked.  He  took  to  drawing  from 
his  master's  models,  and  was  soon  transferred  to  a  skilful 
woodcarver  and  inferior  painter  named  Gian  Barile,  with 
whom  he  remained  until  1498.  Barile,  though  a  coarse- 
grained man  enough,  would  not  stand  in  the  way  of  the 
advancement  of  his  promising  pupil,  so  he  recommended 
him  to  Piero  di  Cosimo  as  draughtsman  and  colourist. 
Piero  retained  Andrea  for  some  years,  allowing  him  to 
study  from  the  famous  cartoons  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and 
Michelangelo.  Finally  Andrea  agreed  with  his  friend 
Francia  Bigio,  who  was  somewhat  his  senior,  that  they 
would  open  a  joint  shop ;  at  a  date  not  precisely  defined 
they  took  a  lodging  together  in  the  Piazza  del  Grano. 
Their  first  work  in  partnership  may  probably  have  been 
the  Baptism  of  Chriot,  done  for  the  Florentine  Com- 
pagnia  dello  Scalzo,  a  performance  of  no  great  merit,  the 
beginning  of  a  series,  all  the  extant  items  of  which  are  in 
monochrome  chiaroscuro.  Soon  af  tsrwards  the  partner-ship 
was  dissolved.  Fica  150i)  to  1514  the  brotherhood  of 
the  Servi  employed  Andrea,  as  well  as  Francia  Bigio  and 
Andrea  Feltrini,  the  first-n^med  undertaking  in  the  portico 
of  the  Annunziata  three  frescos  illustrating  the  life  of  the 
founder  of  the  order,  S.  Filippo  Ecnizzi.  Ho  executed 
them  in  a  few  months,  being  endowed  by  nature  with 
remarkable  readiness  and  certainty  of  hand,  and  unhesitat- 
ing firmness  in  his  work,  although  in  the  general  mould  of 
Iiis  mind  ho  was  timid  and  diffident.  The  subjects  are 
(he  Saint  Sharing  his  Cloak  with  a  Leper,  Cursing  some 
Gamblers,  and  Restoring  a  Girl  possessed  with  a  Devil. 
The  second  and  third  works  excel  the  first,  and  are 
impulsive  and  able  performances.  These  paintings  mot 
with  merited  applause,  and  gained  for  their  author  the 
pre-eminent  title  "  Andrea  senza  errori "  (Andrew  the 
unerring), — the  correctness  of  the  contours  being  parti- 
cularly admired.  After  these  subjects  the  painter  pro- 
ceeded with  two  others — the  Death  of  St  Philip,  and  the 


C!hildren  Cured  by  Touching  his  Garment, — all  the  five 
works  being  completed  before  the  close  of  1510.  The 
youth  of  twenty-three  was  already  in  technique  about  the 
best  fresco-painter  of  central  Italy,  barely  rivalled  by 
Raphael,  who  was  the  elder  by  four  years.  Michelangelo's 
Sixtine  frescos  were  then  only  in  a  preliminary  stage. 
Andrea  always  worked  in  the  simplest,  most  typical,  and 
most  trying  method  of  fresco — that  of  painting  the  thing 
once  and  for  all,  without  any  subsequent  dry-touching. 
He  now  received  many  commissions.  The  brotherhood  of 
the  Servi  engaged  him  to  do  two  more  frescos  in  the 
Annunziata  at  a  higher  price ;  he  also  painted,  towards 
1512,  an  Annunciation  in  the  monastery  of  S.  Gallo. 

The  "Tailor's  Andrew"  appears  to  have  been  an  easy- 
going plebeian,  to  whom  a  modest  position  in  life  and 
scanty  gains  were  no  grievances.  As  an  artist  he  must 
have  known  his  own  value ;  but  he  probably  rested  content 
in  the  sense  of  his  superlative  powers  as  an  executant, 
and  did  not  aspire  to  the  rank  of  a  great  inventor  or 
leader,  for  which,  indeed,  he  had  no  vocation.  Ho  led  a 
social  sort  of  life  among  his  compeers  of  the  art,  was 
intimate  with  the  sculptor  Rustici,  and  joined  a  jolly 
dining-club  at  his  house  named  the  Company  of  tha 
Kettle,  also  a  second  club  named  the  Trowel.  At  one 
time,  Francia  Bigio  being  then  the  chairman  of  tha 
Kettle-men,  Andrea  recited,  and  is  by  some  regarded  aa 
having  composed,  a  comic  epic,  "The  Battle  of  the  Mica 
and  Frogs" — a  rechauffe,  as  one  may  surmise,  of  tha 
Greek  Balrachomyomachia,  popularly  ascribed  to  Homer. 
He  fell  in  love  with  Lucrezia  (del  Fede),  wife  of  a  hatter 
named  Carlo  Recanati ;  the  hatter  dying  opportunely,  the 
tailor's  son  married  her  on  26th  December  1512.  She 
was  a  very  handsome  woman,  a,nd  has  come  down  to  us 
treated  with  great  suavity  in  many  a  picture  of  her  lover- 
husband,  who  constantly  painted  her  as  a  Madonna  and 
otherwise;  and  even  in  painting  other  women  ho  made 
them  resemble  Lucrezia  in  general  type.  She  has  been 
much  less  gently  handled  by  Vasari  and  other  biographers. 
Vasari,  who  was  at  one  time  a  pupil  of  Andrea,  describes 
her  as  faithless,  jealous,  overbearing,  and  vixenish  with 
the  apprentices.  She  lived  to  a  great  age,  surviving  her 
second  husband  40  years. 

By  1514  Andrea  had  finished  his  last  two  frescos  in 
the  court  of  the  Servi,  than  which  none  of  his  works  was 
more  admired — the  Nativity  of  the  Virgin,  which  shows 
the  influence  of  Leonardo,  Domenico  Ghirkndajo,  and 
Fra  Bartolommeo,  in  effective  fusion,  and  the  Procession 
of  the  Magi,  intended  as  an  amplification  of  a  work  by 
Baldovinetti ;  in  this  fresco  is  a  portrait  of  Andrea  him- 
self. He  also  executed  at  some  date  a  much-praised  Head 
of  Christ  over  the  high  altar.  By  November  1515  he  had 
finished  at  the  Scalzo  the  allegory  of  Justice,  and  the 
Baptist  Preaching  in  the  Desert, — followed  in  1517  by 
John  Baptizing,  and  other  subjects.  Before  the  end  of 
1516  a  Picta.  of  his  composition,  and  afterwards  a 
Madonna,  were  sent  to  the  French  Court.  These  were 
received  with  applause ;  and  the  art-loving  monarch 
Francis  1.  suggested  in  1518  that  Andrea  should  come  to 
Paris.  Ho  journeyed  thither  towards  June  of  that  year, 
along  with  his  pupil  Andrea  Sguazzella,  leaving  his  wife 
in  Florence,  and  was  very  cordially  received,  and  for  tho 
first  and  only  time  in  his  life  was  handsomely  remunerated. 
Lucrezia,  however,  wrote  urging  his  return  to  Italy.  The 
king  assented,  but  only  on  tho  understanding  that  his 
absence  from  IVance  was  to  bo  short ;  and  he  entrusted 
Andrea  with  a  sum  of  money  to  be  expended  in  purchas- 
ing works  of  art  for  his  royal  patron.  The  temptation  of 
having  a  goodly  amount  of  pelf  in  hand  proved  too  mucli 
for  Andrea's  virtue.  Ho  spent  tho  king's  moiity  and 
some  of  his  own  in  building  a  house  for  himself  in  Flnr- 


316 


S'  A  IS  —  IS   A.  S 


enoe.'"  This  necessarily  brought  him  into  bad  odour  with 
Francis,  ■who  refused  to  be  appeased  by  some  endeavours 
which  the  painter  afterwards  made  to  reingratiate  him- 
self. No  serious  punishment,  however,  and  apparently  no 
grave  loss  of  professional  reputation  befell  the  defaulter. 

In  1520  he  resumed  work  in  Florence,  and  executed 
the  Faith  and  Charity  in  the  cloister  of  Lo  Scalzo.  These 
were  succeeded  by  the  Dance  of  the  Daughter  of  Herodias, 
the  Beheading  of  the  Baptist,  the  Presentation  of  his  Head 
to  Herod,  an  allegory  of  Hope,  the  Apparition  of  the 
Angel  to  Zacharias  (1523),  and  the  monochrome  of  the 
Visitation.  This  last  was  painted  in  the  autumn  of  1524, 
»fter  Andrea  had  returned  from  Luco  in  Mugello, — to 
which  place  an  outbreak  of  plague  in  Florence  had  driven 
him,  his  wife,  his  step-daughter,  and  other  relativas.  In 
1525  he  painted  the  very  famous  fresco  named  the 
Madonna  del  Sacco,  a  lunette  in  the  cloisters  of  the  Servi ; 
this  picture  (named  after  a  sack  against  which  Joseph  is 
represented  propped)  is  geiieraJly  accounted  his  master- 
piece. Ilis  final  work  at  Lo  Scalzo,  1526,  was  the  Birth 
of  the  Baptist,  executed  with  some  enhanced  elevation  of 
style  after  Andrea  bad  been  diligently  studying  Michel- 
angelo's figures  in  the  sacristy  of  S.  Lorenzo.  In  the 
follovring  year  he  completed  at  S.  Salvi,  near  Florence,  a 
celebrated  Last  Supper,  in  which  all  the  personages  seem 
to  be  portraits.  This  also  is  a  very  fine  example  of  his 
style,  though  the  conception  of  the  subject  is  not  exalted. 
It  is  the  last  monumental  work  of  importance  which 
Andrea  del  Sarto  lived  to  execute.  He  dwelt  in  Florence 
thioughout  the  memorable  siege,  which  was  soon  followed 
1>y  an  infectious  pestilence.  He  caught  the  malady, 
struggled  against  it  with  little  or  no  tending  from  his  wife, 
who  held  aloof,  and  died,  no  one  knowing  much  about  it  at 
the  moment,  on  22d  January  1531,  at  the  comparatively 
early  age  of  forty-three.  He  was  buried  unceremoniously 
in  tha  church  of  the  ServL 

Varioua  portraits  painted  by  Andrea  are  regarded  as  likenesses 
of  himself,  but  this  is  not  free  from  some  doubt.  One  is  in  the 
London  National  Gallery,  an  admirable  half-figure,  purchased  in 
1862.  Another  is  at  Alnwick  Castle,  a  young  man  about  twenty 
years  of  age,  with  "his  elbow  on  a  table.  Another  at  Panshanger  may 
perhaps  represent  in  reality  his  papil  Domcnico  Conti.  Another 
youthful  portrait  is  in  the  Pfflzi  Gallery,  and  the  Pitti  Gallery 
contains  more  than  one.  Among  his  more  renowned  vforks  not 
already  specified  are  the  following.  The  Virgin  and  Child,  with 
St  Francis  and  St  John  the  Erangelist  and  two  Angels,  now  in  the 
Uffizi,  painted  for  the  church  of  S.  Francesco  in  Florence  ;  this  is 
termed  the  Madonna  di  S.  Francesco,  or  Madonna  delle  Arpie, 
from  certain  figures  of  harpies  which  are  decoratively  introduced, 
and  is  rated  as  Andrea's  masterpiece  in  oil-painting.  The  altar- 
piece  in  the  UtBzi,  painted  for  the  monastery  of  S.  Gallo,  the 
Fathers  Disputing  on  the  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity — Sts  Augustine, 
Dominic,  Francis,  Lawrence,  Sebastian,  and  Mary  Magdalene — 
a  very  energetic  work.  Both  these  pictures  are  comparatively 
early — towards  1517.  The  Charity  now  in  the  Louvre  (perhaps 
the  only  painting  which  Andrea  executed  while  in  France).  The 
Pieti,  in  the  Belvedere  of  Vienna ;  this  work,  as  well  as  the 
Charity,  shows  a  strong  Michelangelesque  influence.  At  Poggio 
a  Caiano  a  celebrated  fresco  (1621)  representiug  Julius  Cjesar 
receiving  tribute,  various  figures  bringing  animals  from  foreign 
lands— a  striking  perspective  arrangement ;  it  was  left  unfinished 
by  Andrea,  and  was  completed  by  Alessandro  Allori.  Two  very 
remarkable  paintings  (1523)  containing  various  incidents  of  the^ 
life  of  the  patriarch  Joseph,  executed  for  the  Borgherini  family. 
In  the  Pitti  Gallery  two  separate  compositions  of  the  Assump- 
tion of  the  Virgin,  also  a  fine  Pieti.  In  the  Madrid  Museum 
the  Virgin  and  Child,  with  Joseph,  Elizabeth,  the  infant  Baptist, 
and  an  Archangel.     In  the  Louvre  the  Holy  Family,  the  Baptist 

feinting  upwards.  In  the  Berlin  Gallery  a  portrait  of  his  wife, 
n  Panshanger  a  fine  portrait  named  Laiuo.  The  second  picture 
in  the  National  Gallery  ascribed  to  Andrea,  a  Holy  Family,  is  by 
some  critics  regarded  as  the  work  rather  of  one  of  his  scholars— 
■we  hardly  know  why.  A  very  noticeable  incident  in  the  life  of 
Andi-ea  del  Sarto  relates  to  the  copy,  which  he  produced  in  1523, 
of  the  portrait  group  of  Leo  X.  by  Raphael  ;  it  is  now  in  the 
Naples  Museum,  the  original  being  in  the  Pitti  Galk-ry.  Ottaviano 
de'  Medici,  .  the  owner  of  the  original,  waa  solicited  by  Duke 
Frederick  II.  of  Mantna  to  present  it  to  iiitu.     Unwilling  t9  part 


with  so  great  a  pictorial  prize,  and  unwilling  also  to  disoblige  the 
duke,  Ottaviano  got  Andrea  to  make  the  copy,  which  was  con- 
signed to  the  duko  as  being  the  original.  So  deceptive  was  tho 
imitation  that  even  Giulio  Romano,  who  had  himself  manipulated 
the  original  to  some  extent,  was  completely  taken  in  ;  and,  ou 
showing  the  supposed  Raphael  years  afterwards  to  Vasari,  who 
knew  the  facts,  he  could  only  be  undeceived  when  a  private  mark 
on  the  canvas  was  named  to  him  by  Vasari,  and  brought  under 
his  eye.  It  was  Michelangelo  who  had  introduced  Vasari  in'1524 
to  Andrea's  studio.  He  is  said  to  have  thought  very  highly  of 
Andrea's  powers,  saying  on  onp,  occasion  to  Raphael,  "Tliere  is 
a  little  fellow  in  Florence  who  ■will  bring  sweat  to  your  brow 
if  ever  he  is  engaged  in  great  works." 

Andrea  had  true  pictorial  style,  a  very  high  standard  of  correct- 
ness, and  an  enviable  balance  of  executive  endowments.  The  point 
of  technique  in  which  he  excelled  least  was  perhaps  that  of  dis- 
criminating the  varying  textures  of  different  objects  and  surfaces. 
There  is  not  much  elevation  or  ideality  in  his  works — much  more 
of  reality.  His  chiaroscuro  is  not  carried  out  according  to  strict 
ruU,  but  is  adjusted  to  his  liking  for  harmony  of  colour  and  fused 
tone  and  transparence  ;  in  fresco  more  especially  his  predilection 
for  varied  tints  appears  excessive.  It  may  be  broadly  said  that  his 
taste  in  colouring  was  derived  mainly  from  Fra  Bartolommeo,  and 
in  form  from  Michelangelo  ;  and  his  style  partakes  of  the  Venetian 
and  Lombard,  as  well  as  the  Florentine  and  Roman — some  of  his 
figures  are  even  adapted  from  Albert  Diirer.  In  one  way  or  other 
he  continued  improving  to  the  last.  In  drawing  from  nature,  his 
habit  was  to  sketch  very  slightly,  making  only  such  a  memorandum 
as  sufficed  to  work  from.  The  scholars  of  Andrea  were  very 
numerous  ;  but,  according  to  Vasari,  they  were  not  wont  to  stay 
long,  being  domineered  over  bv  his  wife  ;  Pontormo  and  Domenico 
Puligo  may  be  mentioned. 

In  our  account  of  Andrea  del  Sarto  we  have  followed  tlie  main  lines  of  tlie 
narrative  of  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  supplemented  by  Vasari,  Laczi,  and  others. 
There  are  biographies  by  Biadi  (1329)  and  by  VoQ  Reumont,  (W.  M.  It.)   ' 

SASANIANS.     See  Peesia. 

SASINE.     See  Seisin. 

SASSAEI,  the  chief  town  of  the  northern  province  of 
the  island  of  Sardinia  (Italy),  is  situated  in  the  midst  of 
orange  and  olive  groves  at  a  height  of  650  feet  above 
the  sea,  12i  miles  from  Porto  Torres,  on  the  railway  to 
Chilivani,  a  junction  on  the  main  line  from  Terranova  to 
Cagliari.  Till  about  1860-65  it  was  surrounded  by  a  high 
wall  built  in  the  14th  century  and  strengthened  by  twenty- 
six  large  square  towers  from  60  to  80  feet  high.  The 
castle  dates  from  1327-1331.  Originally  built  in  the 
first  half  of  the  15th  century,  when  the  see  of  Turris 
(Porto  Torres)  was  removed  to  Sassari,  the  cathedral  was 
restored  in  1531  and  received  a  new  facade  in  the  18th 
century.  The  city  besides  contains  a  municipal  palace,  re- 
built since  1820,  an  episcopal  palace  dating  originally  from 
the  13th  century,  and  a  university  (faculties  of  law  and 
medicine,  with  87  students  in  1881-2)  founded  T)y  Philip 
in.  of  Spain  in  1617,  as  well  as  barracks,  law  courts, 
hospitals,  and  asylums.  There  is  a  white  marble  fountain 
— Fonte  di  Rosello — on  the  east  side  of  the  town,  sur- 
mounted by  a  statue  of  St  Gavinus,  patron  saint  of  the 
city,  and  from  this  source  water  is  still  hawked  about  the 
streets,  though  waterworks  have  recently  been  constructed 
by  the  municipality  at  a  cost  of  upwards  of  £60,000. 
Most  of  the  streets  are  narrow  and  tortuous,  and  vehicles 
are  generaUy  drawn  by  oxen.  Sassari  is  separated  by  a 
low  and  swampy  stretch  of  country  from  its  port  at  Porto 
Torres — a  village  on  the  site  of  Turris  Libisonis,  Colonia 
Julia,  with  a  basilica  of  the  11th  century  (S.  Gavino)  and 
the  ruins  of  a  temple  of  Fortune  now  called  Palazzo  del 
Ee  Barbaro.  The  population  of  the  city  ■was  22,945  is 
1862,  and  31,596  in  1881. 

Sassari  appears  in  the  archives  of  the  monastery  of  San  Pietro  di 
Silki  in  1118  as  Tathari,  and  the  local  pronunciation  is  still  Tatari. 
In  1291  the  town  was  declared  an  independent  republic,  and  a  very 
liberal  code  of  laws  was  published  in  1316  (edited  by  Don  Pasquale 
Tola,  Cagliari,  1850).  Sassari  was  sacked  by  the  FrcDch  in  1527, 
and  in  1796  the  Sardinian  popular  party  seized  the  city,  expelled 
the  viceroy,  and  dismantled  the  castle  and  "  palaces." 

SASSEEAM,  a  subdivision  of  the  ShdhAbdd  district, 
Bengal,  India,  between  24°  31'  and  25°  23'  N.  lat,  and 
between  83°  33'  and  84°  30'  E.  long.,  wi^h  an  area  of  1493 


S  A  T  — S  A  T 


317 


Bquaie  miles,  and  a  population  in  1881  of  .519,207  (males 
253,757,  females  205,450).  This  subdivision  consists  of 
four  thanahs  or  stations,  viz.,  SAsserdm,  lOiargar,  Dhan- 
gilon,  and  Dehree.  The  thanah  of  Sdsserdm  has  an  area 
of  691  square  miles,  and  a  population  (1881)  of  155,760 
(75,031  males,  80,729  females).  It  contains  the  tomb  of 
the  Afghan  Sher  Shah,  vrho  conquered  IJumajoin,  and 
subsequently  became  emperor  of  Delhi. 

SATALI,  ADAiiA,  or  Andauyeh,  one  of  the  principal 
towns  on  the  south  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  giving  the  ndme 
of  Gulf  of  Adalia  to  the  great  bay  which  the  ancients 
styled  Mare  Pamphylicum.  Arranged  like  a  Greek  theatre 
round  the  harbour,  it  presents  an  unusually  picturesque 
appearance  against  its  background  of  mountains ;  and  it 
is  enclosed  by  a  triple  wall  of  modern  construction, 
strengthened  by  a  ditch  and  square  towers.  Beveral  of 
the  mosques  and  churches,  seventeen  in  number,  are  of 
interest,  and  contain  remains  of  Eoman  work.  The 
population  was  estimated  by  Spratt  at  13,000,  of  whom 
3000  were  Greeks.  Though  the  physical  changes  produced 
on  this  part  of  the  coast  by  the  tufaceous  deposits  of  the 
rivers  render  the  ancient  descriptions  quite  inapplicable  to 
the  present  town,  there  is  little  doubt  that  Satali  not  only 
preserves  the  name  but  occupies  the  site  of  Attaleia,  which 
was  founded  by  Attalus  II.  Philadelphus,  king  of  Perga- 
mum,  and  became  one  of  the  principal  cities  of  PamphyLia. 
At  an  early  date  it  was  the  see  of  a  Christian  bishop. 

SATAJRA,  or  Sattabah,  a  British  district  in  the  central 
division  of  the  Bombay  presidency,  India,  between  16°  50' 
and  18°  10'  N.  lat.  and  73°  45'  and  75°  E.  long.  It  has 
an  area  of  4988  square  miles, 'and  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  river  Nira  and  the  states  of  Bhor  and  Phaltan, 
on  the  east  by  Sholapur  district,  on  the  south  by  the 
Varna  river  separating  it  from  Kolhapur  and  Sangli 
states,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Sahyidri  mountains,  which 
separate  it  from  the  Concan  districts  of  Kolabd  and 
Katndgiri.  The  Sitdra  district  contains  two  main  systems 
of  hills,  the  Sahyidri  range  and  its  offshoots,  and  the 
Mah4d£o  range  and  its  offshoots ;  the  former  runs  through 
the  district  from  north  to  south,  and  the  Mahddeo  range 
starts  about  10  miles  north  of  MahAbaleshwar  and  stretches 
east  and  south-east  across  the  whole  breadth  of  the 
district.  The  Mahddeo  Hills  are  bold  and  abrupt,  present- 
ing in  many  cases  bare  scarps  of  black  rock  and  looking  at 
a  distance  like  so  many  hill  fortresses.  Within  the  limits 
of  SAtira  are  two  river  systems — the  Bhima  system  in  a 
small  part  of  the  north  and  north-east,  and  the  Kistna 
system  throughout  the  rest  of  the  district.  (See  Kistna.) 
The  hill  forests  have  a  large  store  of  timber  and  firewood. 
The  whole  of  SdtAra  falls  within  the  Deccan  trap  area; 
the  hills  consist  of  trap  intersected  by  strata  of  basalt 
and  topped  with  laterite,  while,  of  the  different  soils  on 
the  plains,  the  commonest  is  the  black  loamy  clay  con- 
taining carbonate  of  lime.  This  is  a  very  fertile  soil,  and 
■when  well  watered  is  capable  of  yielding  heavy  crops. 
Sdtdra  district  contains  some  important  irrigation  works, — 
including  the  Kistna  Canal,  open  for  35  miles.  In  some 
o*  the  western  parts  of  the  district  the  average  annual 
rainfall  exceeds  200  inches ;  but  on  the  eastern  side  water 
is  scanty,  the  rainfall  varying  from  40  inches  in  SAtdra 
town  to  less  than  1 2  inches  in  some  places  farther  east; 
There  is  no  railway,  but  the  West  Deccan  Railway,  which 
is  in  course  of  construction,  will  put  the  district  into  com- 
munication with  Poena  and  Belgaum,  and  will  run  through 
Sitdra  for  about  100  miles.  Tlio  tigor,  panther,  bear, 
and  sambhar  deer  arc  found  in  the  west  near  the  SahyAdris, 
and  the  hyama,  wolf,  leopard,  and  smaller  game  in  the  east. 

According  to  tlio  \asi  cnnsus  returns  (1881)  tho  population  of 
Bntara  district  waa  1,062,360  (632,625  males  and  629,825  females). 
Uindua  numbered  1,008,918,  Moliammodans  86,712,  and  ChrUtiaaa 


886.  Fonr  towns  had  more  than  10,000  inhabitants,— Satira  ls»» 
below),  AVai  11,676,  Karad  10,778,  Tasgaon  10,206.  About  two-, 
tliirds  of  the  Hindus  consist  of  Kunbis  and  Mahrattas,  who  during 
the  period  of  Mahratta  ascendency  furnished  the  bulk  of  tW 
armies  ;  and  the  Mdvlas,  who  formed  Shivdji's  best  soldiers,  were 
dra\VTi  from  the  hill  tribes  of  Satdra  district.  Agriculture  supports 
more  than  three-fourths  of  the  people  ;  tho  soil  is  fertile,  and 
juar  forms  the  staple  food  ;  rice  is  grown  in  the  western  valleys, 
and  in  tho  south  and  east  cotton  is  raised.  In  1882-83,  of 
1,384,255  acres  held  for  tillage,  270,244  were  fallow  or  under  grass, 
while  of  the  remaining  1,114,011  acres  39,757  were  tmco  cropped; 
cereals,  consisting  chiefly  of  joar  and  bajra,  occupied  898,206  acr«s, 
pulses  159,211  acres,  oil-seeds  42,001  acres,  and  miscellaneous 
crops  the  remainder.  Besides  blankets  and  coaise  cotton  cloth  tlie 
chief  exports  are  giain,  tobacco,  oil-seeds,  chillies,  molasses,  and  a 
little  raw  cotton  ;  the  imports  are  piece-goods,  hardware,  salt,  and 
dates.  The  gross  revenue  of  the  district  in  1883-84  amounted  to 
^£268, 779,  of  which  the  land  contributed  £228,749. 

On  the  overtlirow  of  the  Jadhav  dynasty  in  1312  the  district 
passed  to  the  Mohammedan  power,  which  was  consolidated  in  tiie 
reign  of  the  Bahmani  kings.  On  the  fall  of  the  Bahmanis  towards 
the  end  of  the  15th  century  each  chief  set  up  for  himself  until  tho 
Bijapur  kings  finally  jisserted  themselves,  and  under  these  kings 
the  Mahrattas  arose,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  an  independent 
kingdom  with  Satara  as  its  capital.  Intrigues  and  lUssensions  in 
the  palace  led  to  the  ascendency  of  the  peshwas,  who  removed  the 
capital  to  Poona  in  1 749,  and  degraded  the  raja  of  Sitdra  into  the 
position  of  a  political  prisoner.  The  war  of  1817  closed  the 
career  of  the  peshwas,  and  the  British  then  restored  the  titular 
raja,  and  assigned  to  him  the  principality  of  Satdra.  In  conse- 
quence of  political  intrigues,  he  was  deposed  in  1839,  and  hij 
brother  was  placed  on  the  throne.  This  prince  dying  without 
male  heirs,  the  state  was  resumed  by  tho  British  Government. 

SATAEA,  chief  town  and  headquarters  of  the  above 
district,  is  situated  in  17°  41'  25"  N.  lat.  and  74°  2'  10" 
E.  long.,  immediately  below  a  remarkably  strong  hill  fort, 
on  the  summit  of  a  smaU,  steep,  rocky  lull.  It  takes  its 
name  from  the  seventeen  walls,  towers,  and  gates  which 
the  Satdra  fort  was  supposed  to  possess.  With  a  height 
of  2320  feet  above  sea-level,  SAtira  is  about  60  miles 
from  the  coast,  and  69  miles  south  of  Poona.  Since  the 
death  of  the  last  raja  in  1848  the  population  has  con- 
siderably decreased;  still  SitAra  contained  in  1881  some 
28,601  inhabitants  (14,558  males  and  14,043  females). 

SATIN-WOOD,  a  beautiful  light-coloured  hard  wood 
having  a  rich  silky  lustre,  sometimes  finely  mottled  or 
grained,  i-he  produce  of  a  large  tree,  Chloroxyloii,  Swidenia, 
native  of  India  and  Ceylon.  A  similar  wood,  known  under 
the  same  name,  is  obtained  in  tho  West  Indies,  the  tree 
yielding  which  is  said  to  be  Maba  guianensis.  Satin- 
wood  was  in  request  for  rich  furniture  about  the  end  of 
the  18th  century,  the  fashion  then  being  to  ornament  panels 
of  it  with  painted  medallions  and  floral  scrolls  and  borders. 
Now  it  is  used  for  inlaying  and  small  veneers,  and  most 
largely  in  covering  the  backs  of  hair  and  clothes-brushes 
and  in  making  small  articles  of  turnery. 

SATIRE.  Satire,  in  its  literary  aspect,  may  be  defined 
as  the  expression  in  adequate  terms  of  the  sense  of  amuse- 
ment or  disgust  excited  by  the  ridiculous  or  unseemly, 
provided  that  humour  is  a  distinctly  recognizable  element, 
and  that  the  utterance  is  invested  with  literary  form.  With- 
out humour,  satire  is  invective ;  without  literary  form,  it  ia 
mere  clownish  jeering.  It  is  indeed  exceedingly  difficult  to 
define  the  limits  between  satire  and  the  regions  of  literary 
sentiment  into  which  it  shades.  Tho  lofty  ethical  feeling 
of  a  Johnson  or  a  Carlylo  borders  it  on  tho  one  hand,  the 
witty  sarcasm  of  a  TaUeyrand,  rancorous  or  good-natured, 
on  tho  other ;  but,  however  exalted  the  satirist's  aims,  or 
amiable  his  temper,  a  basis  of  contempt  or  dislike  is  the 
groundwork  of  his  art.  This  feeling  may  be  diverted  from 
the  failings  of  man  individual  to  the  feebleness  and  imper- 
fection of  man  universal,  and  tho  composition  n)ay  still  be  a 
satire  ;  but  if  tho  clement  of  scorn  or  sarcasm  were  entirely 
eliminated  it  would  become  a  sermon.  That  this  oipressic-u 
of  aversion  is  of  tho  essence  of  satire  appears  from  tlic  fact 
that  the  literary  power  which,  tho  more  it  is  exerted  upua 


318 


S  A  T  I  H  E 


grave  and  elevated  subjects,  removes  them  furtlier  and 
further  from  the  domain  of  satire  can  confer  satiric  dig- 
hity  upon  the  most  scurrilous  lampoon.  The  distinction 
between  the  intellectual  form  and  the  raw  material  of 
■  satire  is  admirably  illustrated  by  a  passage  in  an  accom- 
tlished  novelist.  The  clever  young  lady  happening  to 
compare  a  keen  and  bright  person  to  a  pair  of  scissors,  her 
unrefined  companion  is  for  the  moment  unable  to  under- 
Btand  how  a  human  being  can  resemble  a  piece  of  cutlery ; 
but  suddenly  a  light  breaks  in  upon  her,  and,  taking  up  a 
broken  pair  of  scissors  from  the  table,  she  imitates  the 
halting  gait  of  a  lame  lady,  declaring  that  Mrs  Brown 
resembles  that  particular  pair  of  scissors  to  the  life.  The 
first  interlocutor  could  have  been  satirical  if  she  would; 
the  second  would  if  she  could.  The  nice  and  delicate  per- 
ception of  the  former  type  of  character  may  be  fairly  driven 
into  satire  by  the  vulgarity  and  obtuseness  of  the  second, 
as  in  the  case  of  Miss  Austen  ;  and  it  may  be  added  that 
the  general  development  of  civilization,  repressing  high- 
handed wrongs  against  which  ridicule  is  no  defence,  and 
encouraging  failings  which  can  be  effectually  attacked  in 
no  other  manner,  continually  tends  to  make  satire  /nore 
congenial  to  the  amiable  and  refined,  and  thus  exalt  its 
moral  tone  and  purpose. 

The  first  exercise  of  satire  was  no  doubt  sufficiently 
•coarse  and  boisterous.  It  must  have  consisted  in  gibing 
at  personal  defects  ;  and  Homer's  description  of  Thersites, 
the  earliest  example  of  literary  satire  that  has  come  down 
to  us,  probably  conveys  an  accurate  delineation  of  the 
first  satirists,  the  carpers  and  fault-finders  of  the  clan. 
The  character  reappears  in  the  heroic  romances  of  Ireland, 
and  elsewhere ;  and  it  is  everywhere  implied  that  the 
licensed  backbiter  is  a  warped  and  distorted  being,  readier 
with  his  tongue  than  his  hands.  The  verdict  of  unso- 
phisticated man  on  satire  is  clearly  that  it  is  the  offspring 
of  ill-nature ;  to  redeem  and  dignify  it  by  rendering  it  the 
instrument  of  morality  or  the  associate  of  poetry  was  a 
development  implying  considerable  advance  in  the  literary 
art.  The  latter  is  the  course  adopted  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, where  the  few  passages  approximating  to  satire, 
Buch  as  Jotham's  parable  of  the  bramble  and  Job's  ironical 
address  to  his  friends,  are  embellished  either  by  fancy  or 
by  feeling.  An  intermediate  stage  between  personal  ridi- 
cule and  the  correction  of  faults  ard  follies  feeems  to  have 
been  represented  in  Greece  by  the  3Iargites,  attributed  to 
Homer,  which,  while  professedly  lampooning  an  individual, 
practically  rebuked  the  meddling  sciolism  impersonated  in 
him.  In  the  accounts  that  have  come  down  to  us  of  the 
writings  of  Archilochus,  the  first  great  master  of  satire 
(about  700  B.C.),  we  seem  to  trace  the  elevation  of 
the  instrument  of  private  animosity  to  an  element  in 
public  life.  Though  a  merciless  assailant  of  individuals, 
Archilochus  was  also  a  distinguished  statesman,  naturally 
for  the  most  part  in  opposition,  and  his  writings  seem,  to 
have  fulfilled  many  of  the  functions  of  a  newspaper  press. 
Their  extraordinary  merit  is  attested  by  the  infallible 
judgment  of  Quintilian  eight  hundred  years  after  their  com- 
position; and  Gorgias's  comparison  of  them  with  Plato's 
persiflage  of  the  Sophists  proves  that  their  virulence  must 
have  been  tempered  by  grace  and  refinement.  Archilochus 
abo  gavB  satiric  poetry  its  accepted  form  by  the  invention 
of  the  iambic  trimeter,  slightly  modified  into  the  scazonic 
metre  by  his  successors."  Simonides  of  Amorgus,  about  a 
generation  later,  and  Hipponax,  a  century  later  still,  were 
distinguished  like  Archilochus  for  the  bitterness  of  their 
attacks  on  individuals,  with  which  the  former  combined  a 
strong  ethical  feeling,  and  the  latter  a  bright  active  fancy. 
All  three  were  restless  and  turbulent,  aspiring  and  discon- 
tented, impatient  of  abuses  and  theoretically  enamoured 
of  liberty;   and  the  loss  of  their  writings,  which  would 


have  thrown  great  light  on  the  politics  as  well  as  the 
manners  of  Greece,  is  exceedingly  to  be  lamented.  With 
Hipponax  the  direct  line  of  Greek  satire  is  interrupted ; 
but  two  new  forms  of  literary  composition,  exceedingly 
capable  of  being  rendered  the  vehicles  of  satire,  almost 
simultaneously  make  their  appearance.  Fable  is  first 
heard  of  in  Asiatic  Greece  about  this  date ;  and,  although 
its  original  intention  does  not  seem  to  have  been  satirical, 
its  adaptability  to  satiric  purposes  was  soon  discovered 
and  turned  to  account.  A  far  more  important' step  was 
the  elevation  of  the  rude  fun  <  i  rustic  merrymakings  to  a 
literary  status  by  the  evolution  of  the  drama  from  the 
Bacchic  festival.  The  means  had  now  been  found  of  ally- 
ing the  satiric  spirit  with  exa'ted  poetry,  and  their  union 
was  consummated  in  the  person  of  a  poet  who  combined 
humour  with  imagination  in  a  degree  never  again  to  be 
rivalled  until  Shakespeare.  Every  variety  of  satire  is 
exemplified  in  the  comedies  of  Aristophanes ;  and  if  he 
does  not  rank  as  the  first  of  satirists  it  is  only  because  he 
is  so  much  beside.  Such  affluence  of  poetical  genius  could 
not  be  perpetual,  any  more  than  the  })eculiar  political  and 
social  conditions  which  for  a  time  made  such  fearless  and 
uncontrolled  satire  possible.  Through  the  haU-way  house 
of  mythological  parody  the  comedy  of  public  life  passes 
into  the  comedy  of  manners,  metrical  still,  but  approxi- 
mating more  closely  to  prose,  and  consequently  to  satire 
on  its  own  side  of  the  line  which  it  is  convenient  if  not 
strictly  logical  to  trace  between  dramatists  and  ordinary 
satiric  writers.  The  step  from  Menander  to  Lucilius  is 
not  a  long  one,  but  it  was  not  destined  to  be  taken  by  a 
Greek. 

A  rude  form  of  satire  had  existed  in  Italy  from  an  early 
date  in  the  shape  of  the  Tescennine  verses,  the  rough  and 
licentious  pleasantry  of  the  vintage  and  harvest,  which, 
lasting  down  to  the  16th  century,  inspired  Tansillo's 
Vendemmiatore.  As  in  Greece,  these  eventually,  about  364 
B.C.,  were  developed  into  a  rude  drama,  originally  intro- 
duced as  a  religious  expiation.  This  was  at  first,  Livy 
tells  us  (vii.  2),  merely  pantomimic,  as  the  dialect  of  the 
Tuscan  actors  imported  for  the  occasion  was  not  under- 
stood at  Rome.  Verse,  "  like  to  the  Fescennine  verses  in 
point  of  style  and  manner,"  was  soon  added  to  accompany 
the  mimetic  action,  and,  with  reference  to  the  variety  of 
metres  employed,  these  probably  improvised  compositions 
were  entitled  Saturx,  a  term  denoting  miscellany,  and 
derived  from  the  satura  lanx,  "a  charger  filled  with  the 
first-fruits  of  the  year's  produce,  anciently  offered  to 
Bacchus  and  Ceres."  The  Romans  thus  had  originated 
the  name  of  satire,  and,  in  so  far  as  the  Fescennine  drama 
consisted  of  raillery  and  ridicide,  possessed  the  thing  also; 
but  it  had  not  yet  assumed  a  literary  form  among  them. 
Livius  Andronicus  (240  B.C.),  the  fir^t  regular  Latin  dra- 
matic poet,  appears  to  have  been  little  more  than  a  trana- 
lator  from  the  Greek.  Satires  are  mentioned  among  the 
literary  productions  of  Ennius  (200  B.C.)  and  Pacuvius  (170 
B.C.),  but  the  title  rather  refers  to  the  variety  of  metres 
employed  than  to  the  genius  of  the  composition.  The  real 
inventor  of  Roman  satire  is  Caius  Lucilius  (148-103  B.C.), 
whose  Saiirx  seem  to  have  -been  mostly  satirical  in  the 
modern  acceptation  of  the  term,  while  the  subjects  of  some 
of  them  prove  that  the  title  continued  to  be  applied  to 
miscellaneous  collections  of  poems,  as  was  the  case  even 
to  the  time  of  Varro,  whose  "  Saturae  "  included  prose  as 
well  as  verse,  and  appear  to  have  been  only  partially 
satirical.  The  fragments  of  Lucilius  preserved  are  im- 
fortunately  very  scanty,  but  the  verdict  of  Horace,  Cicero, 
and  Quintilian  demonstrates  that  he  was  a  very  consider- 
able poet.  It  is  needless  to  dwell  on  compositions  so 
universally  known  as  the  Satires  of  Lucilius's  successor 
Horace,  in  whose  hands  this  class  of  composition  received 


SATIRE 


310 


an  entirely  new  development,  becoming  genial,  playful, 
and  persuasive.  "Arch  Horace  strove  to  mend."  The 
didactic  element  preponderates  still  more  in  the  philo- 
sophical satires  of  I'ersius,  the  propagandist  of  Stoici.sm, 
a  writer  whose  intensity,  dramatic  gift,  obscurity,  and 
abruptness  render  him,  like  the  ]!ro\vning  and  Meredith 
of  our  own  day.s,  the  lu.xury  of  the  few  and  the  despair  of 
the  many.  Yet  another  form  of  satire,  the  rhetorical,  was 
carried  to  the  utmost  limits  of  excellence  by  Juvenal,  the 
first  example  of  a  great  tragic  satirist.  Nearly  at  the 
same  time  Martial,  iniiiroving  on  earlier  Eoman  models 
now  lost,  gave  that  satirical  turn  to  the  epigram  which  it 
only  exceptionally  possessed  in  Greece,  but  has  ever  since 
retained.  The  brevity,  pregnancy,  and  polish  of  the 
Latin  tongue  were  never  more  felicitously  exemplified 
than  by  this  gifted  writer.  About  the  same  time  another 
variety  of  satire  came  into  vogue,  destined  to  become  the 
most  important  of  any.  The  ililesiijn  tale,  a  form  of 
entertainment  probably  of  Eastern  origin,  grew  in  the 
bands  of  Petronius  and  Apulcius  into  the  satirical 
romance,  immensely  widening  the  satirist's  field  and 
exemjjting  him  from  the  restraints  of  metre.  Petronius's 
"Supper  of  Trimalchio"  is  the  revelation  of  a  new  vein, 
never  fully  worked  till  our  days.  As  the  novel  arose  upon 
the  ruins  of  the  epic,  so  dialogue  sprung  vip  upon  the  wreck 
of  comedy.  In  Lucian  comedy  ajipcars  adapted  to  suit  the 
exigencies  of  an  age  in  which  a  living  drama  had  become 
imjiossible.  Lucian's  position  as  a  satirist  is  something 
new,  and  could  not,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  have  been 
occuiiicd  by  any  of  his  predecessors.  For  the  first  time 
since  the  origin  of  civilization  society  felt  apprehensive  of 
imi)ending  dissolution,  and  its  fears  found  an  interpreter 
in  the  Sophist  of  Samosata,  "the  Voltaire  of  pag'anism," 
an  universal  censor  and  mocker,  devoid  of  the  Christian's 
liopc  of  general  renovation,  and  unable  to  foresee  the  new 
social  order  which  the  barl)arian  conquest  was  destined  to 
create.  Next  to  his  wit,  Lucian's  special  note  is  his  sturdy 
love  of  truth  and  demand  for  genuineness  in  all  things. 
AVith  him  antique  satire  expires  as  a  distinct  branch  of 
literature, — though  mention  should  be  made  of  the  sar- 
casms and  libels  with  which  the  jiopulation  of  Egypt  were 
(for  centuries  accustomed  to  insult  the  Roman  conqueror 
and  his  parasites.  An  exceedingly  curious  specimen,  a 
denunciation  of  the  apostate  poet  Hor-Uta — a  kind  of 
TIgyptian  "  Lost  Leader  " — composed  under  Augustus,  has 
recently  been  published  by  JI.  lievillout  from  a  demotic 
papyrus.  _ 

It  is  highly  interesting  to  remark  how,  after  the  great 
deluge  of  barbarism  lias  begun  to  retire,  one  form  of 
.satire  after  another  peeps  forth  from  the  receding  flood, 
the  order  of  development  being  determined  by  the  circum- 
stances of  time  and  place.  In  the  Byzantine  empire, 
indeed,  the  link  of  continuity  is  unbroken,  and  such 
raillcly  of  abuses  as  is  jjossiblo  under  a  despotism  finds 
vent  in  the  pale  copies  of  Lucian  published  in  Ellissen's 
Aiuifrl.tcH.  The  first  really  imiiortant  .satire,  however, 
is  a  product  of  AVestern  Euroiio,  recurring  to  the  primitive 
form  of  fable,  uiioii  which,  nevertheless,  it  constitutes  a 
decided  advance.  Ritjivird  the  Fox,  a  genuine  expression 
of  the  shrewd  and  homely  Teutonic  mind,  is  a  hmdinark 
in  literature.  It  gave  the  beast-epic  a  development  of 
vhich  the  ancients  Jiad  not  dreamed,  and  showed  how 
cutting  ridicule  could  bo  conveyed  in  a  form  diflicult  to 
resent.  About  the  same  lime,  probably,  the  popular 
instinct,  ])erliaps  deriving  a  hint  from  llabliinical  litera- 
ture, fa.shioML'd  Morolf,  the  prototype  of  Sanclio  I'anza,  the 
incarnation  of  sublunar  mother-wit  contrasted  with  tlio 
♦itarry  wisdom  of  Solomon  ;  and  the  Till  Ev/(iispic;/cl  is  a 
liipdred  Teutonic  creation,  but  later  and  less  significant, 
fci'i/.i  I'liiwj.'.iuHn,  the  next  great  work  of  the  clas.'*^  adapts 


the  apocalyptic  machinery  of  monastic  and  anchoritic  vision 
to  the  purposes  of  satire,  as  it  had  often  before  been  adapted 
to  those  of  ecclesiastical  aggrandizement.  The  clergy  were 
scourged  with  their  own  rod  by  a  poet  and  a  Puritan 
too  earnest  to  be  urbane.  Satire  is  a  distinct  element  in 
Chaucer  and  Boccaccio,  who  nevertheless  cannot  be  ranked 
as  satirists.  The  mock-heroic  is  successfully  revived  by 
Pulci,  and  the  political  songs  of  the  14th  and  15th  cen- 
turies attest  the  diffusion  of  a  sense  of  humour  among  the 
people  at  large.  The  Eenaissance,  restoring  the  knowledge 
and  encouraging  the  imitation  of  classic  models,  Sharpened 
the  weapons  and  enlarged  the  armoury  of  the  satirist. 
Partly,  perhaps,  because  Erasmus  was  no  poet,  the 
Lucianic  dialogue  was  the  form  in  the  ascendant  of  his 
age.  Erasmus  not  merely  employed  it  against  supersti- 
tion and  ignorance  with  infinite  and  irresistible  pleasantry, 
but  fired  by  his  example  a  bolder  wTiter,  untrammelled 
by  the  dignity  of  an  arbiter  in  the  republic  -of.  letters. 
The  ridicule  of  Ulrie  von  Hutten's  Epistolx  Obsciirot-um 
Virorum  is  annihilating,  and  the  art  there  for  the  first 
time  fully  exemplified  though  long  previously  introduced 
by  Plato,  of  putting  the  ridicule  into  the  mouth  of  the 
victim,  is  perhaps  the  most  deadly  shaft  in  the  quiver  of 
sarcasm.  It  was  afterwards  used  with  even  more  pointed 
wit  though  with  less  exuberance  of  humour  by  Pascal,  the 
first  modern  example,  if  Dante  may  not  be  so  classed,  of  a 
great  tragic  satirist.  Ethical  satire  is  vigorously  represented 
by  Sebastian  Brant  and  his  imitator  Alexander  Barclay ; 
but  in  general  the  metrical  satirists  of  the  age  seem  tame  in 
comparison  with  Erasmus  and  Hutten,  though  including  the 
great  name  of  Jlachiavelli.  Sir  Thomas  More  cannot  be 
accounted  a  satirist,  but  his  idea  of  an  imaginarj'  common- 
wealth embodied  the  germ  of  much  subsequent  satire.  In 
the  succeeding  period  politics  take  the  place  of  literature 
and  religion,  producing  in  France  the  Satyre  Menippee, 
elsewhere  the  satirical  romance  as  represented  by  the 
Aryenis  of  Barclay,  which  may  be  defined  as  the  adaptation 
of  the  style  of  Petronius  to  state  affairs.  In  Spain,  where 
no  freedom  of  criticism  existed,  the  satiric  spirit  took 
refuge  in  the  novela  picai-esca,  the  prototype  of  Le  Sage 
and  the  ancestor  of  Fielding ;  Quevedo  revived  the  niedi- 
ajval  device  of  the  vision  as  the  vehicle  of  reproof ;  and 
Cervantes's  immortal  work  might  be  classed  as  a  satire 
were  it  not  so  much  more.  About  the  same  time  wo 
notice-  the  appearance  of  direct  imitation  of  the  Roman 
satirists  in  English  literature  in  the  writings  of  Donne, 
Hall,  and  Jlarston,  the  further  elaboration  of  the  mock- 
heroic  by  Tassoni,  and  the  culmination  of  classical  Italian 
.satire  in  Salvator  Rosa.  The  prodigious  development  of 
the  drama  at  this  time  absorbed  much  talent  that  would 
otherwise  have  been  devoted  to  satire  proper.  Most  of 
the  great  dramatists  of  the  IVth  century  were  more  or 
less  satirists,  Molicre  perhaps  the  most  consummate  that 
ever  existed ;  but,  with  an  occasional  exception  like 
Les  Precuuscs  Ridicules,  the  range  of  their  works  is  too 
wide  to  admit  of  their  being  regarded  as  satires.  The 
next  great  example  of  unadulterated  satire  is  Butler'.s 
J/iit/llirns,  and  pcrhaiis  one  more  truly  representative  of 
satiric  aims  and  methods  cannot  easily  be  fo«nd.  At  the 
same  jicriod  dignified  political  .satire,  bordering  on  invec- 
tive, received  a  great  development  in  Andrew  Jlarvell's 
Aduices  to  a  Puinter,  and  was  .shortly  afterwards  carried 
to  perfection  in  Dryden's  Alisalom  and  Arliitopfiel ;  while 
the  light  literary  parody  of  which  Aristo|>hnncs  had  given 
the  pattern  in  his  assaults  on  Euripides,  and  which 
Shakespeare  had  handled  somewhat  carelessly  in  the 
Midiiimmer  Ni:/lit's  Dnnm,  was  cfi"cctivcly  revived  in  the 
duke  of  Buckingham's  lifhrarml.  In  Franco  Boilcau  was 
long  held  to  have  attained  the  iirpltm  Ultra  of  the  Horatian 
stylo  in  satire  and  of  the  mock-heroic,  but  Pope  was  soou 


320 


S  A  T  — S  A  T 


to  show  that  further  progress  was  possible  in  both.     The 
polish,  point,  and  concentration  of    Pope  remain    unsur- 
passed, as  do  the  amenity  of  Addison  and  the  daring  yet 
severely  logical  imagination  of  Swift;  while  the  History 
of  John  Bull  and  the  Pseudoloyia  place  their  friend  Arbuth- 
not  in  the  first  rank  of  political  satirists.    The  18th  cectury 
was,  indeed,  the  age  of  satire.     Serious  poetry  had  for  the 
time  worn  itself  out ;  the  most  original  geniuses  of  the  age, 
Swift,  Defoe,  and  Richardson,  are  decidedly  prosaic,  and 
Pope,  though  a  true  poet,  is  less  of  a  poet  than  Dryden. 
In  process  of  time  imaginative  power  revives  in  Goldsmith 
and  Rousseau ;  meanwhile  Fielding  and  Smollett  have  fitted 
the  novel  to  be  the  vehicle  of  satire  and  much  beside,  and 
the  literary  stage  has  for  a  t.iiue  been  almost  wholly  en- 
grossed by  a  colossal  satirist    a  man  who  has  dared  the 
universal  application  of  Shaftesbury's  maxim  that  ridicule 
is  the  test  of  truth.     The  world  had  never  before  seen  a 
satirist  on  the  scale  of  Voltaire,  nor  had  satire  ever  played 
such  a  part  as  a  factor  in  impending  change.     The  parallel 
with  Lucian  is  in  some  respects  very  close.    Toleration  was 
Voltaire's  idol,  as  truth  was  Lucian's ;  and  thus,  aiming 
more  than  his  predecessor  at  the  practical  reformation  of 
manners  and  institutions,  his  work  was  less  purely  negative. 
He  was  nevertheless  a  destroyer,  and  as  utterly  out  of 
sympathy  with  the  positive  spirit  of  science  for  which  he 
was  preparing  the  way  as  Lucian  could  possibly  be  with 
Goths  or  Christians.     As  a  master  of  sarcastic  mockery  he 
is  unsurpassed ;  his  manner  is  entirely  his  own ;  and  he  is 
one  of  the  most  intensely  national   of   writers,  notwith- 
standing his  vast  obligations  to  English  humorists,  states- 
men, and  philosophers.     English  humour  also  played  an 
important  part  in  the  literary  regeneration  of  Germany, 
where,  after  Liscow  and  Rabener,  direct  imitators  of  Swift 
and  the  essayists,  Lessing,  imbued   with   Pope  but   not 
mastered  by  him,  showed  how  powerful  an  auxiliary  satire 
can  be  to  criticism, — a  relation  which  Pope  had  somewhat 
inverted.     Another  great  German  writer,  Wieland,  owes 
little  to  the  English,  but  adapts  Lucian  and  Petronius  to 
the  18th  century  with  playful  if  somewhat  mannered  grace. 
Kortum's  Johsiad,  a  most  humorous  poem,  innovates  suc- 
cessfully upon   established   models   by  making  low  life, 
instead  of  chivalry,  the  subject  of  burlesque.     Goethe  and 
Schiller,  Scott  and  Wordsworth,  are  now  at  hand,  and  as 
imagination  gains   ground   satire  declines.     Byron,  who 
in   the   18th   century  would   have  been   the   greatest  of 
satirists,  is  hurried  by  the  spirit  of  his  age  into  passion 
and  description,  bequeathing,  however,  a  splendid  proof 
of  the  possibility  of  allying  satire  with  sublimity  in  his 
Vision  of  Judgment.     Moore  gives  the  epigram  a  lyrical 
turn  ;  Bdranger,  not  for  the  first  time  in  French  literature, 
makes  the  gay  chanson  the  instrument  of  biting  jest;  and 
the   classic   type  receives   fresh  currency  from  Auguste 
Barbier.     Courier,  and  subsequently  Cormenin,  raise  the 
political  pamphlet  to  literary  dignity  by  their   poignant 
wit.     Peacock  evolves  a  new  type  of  novel  from  the  study 
of  Athenian  comedy.     Miss  Edgeworth  skirts  the  confines 
of  satire,  and  Miss  Austen,  the  most  refined  and  delicate 
of  aU  observers  of  manners,  seasons  her  novels  with  the 
most  exquisite  satiric  traits.     Washington  Irving  revives 
the  manner  of  The  Spectator,  and  Tieck  brings  irony  and 
persiflage  to  the  discussion  of  critical  problems.    Two  great 
satiric  figures  remain, — one  representative  of  his  nation, 
the  other  most  difficult  to  class.     In  all  the  characteristics 
of  his  genius  Thackeray  is  thoroughly  English,  and  the 
faults  and  follies  he  chastises  are  those  especially  charac- 
teristic of  British  society.     Good  sense  and  the  perception 
of  the  ridiculous  are  amalgamated  in  him;  his  satire  is  a 
thoroughly  British  article,  a  little  over-solid,  a  little  wanting 
in  finish,  but  honest,  weighty,  and  durable.    Posterity  wUl 
go  to  him  for  the  humours  of  the  age  of  Victoria,  as  they 


go  to  Addison  for  those  ot  Anne's.      But  Heine  hardly 
belongs  to  any  nation  or  country,  time  or  place.     He  ceased 
to  be  a  German  without  becoming  a  Frenchman,  and  a  Jew 
without  becoming  a  Christian.     Only  one  portrait  really 
suits  him,  that  in  Tieck's  allegorical  tale,  where  he  is  repre- 
sented as  a  capricious  and  mischievous  elf ;  but  his  song 
is  sweeter  and  his  command  over  the  springs  of  laughter 
and  tears  greater  than  it  suited  Tieck's  purpose  to  acknow- 
ledge.   In  him  the  satiric  spirit,  long  confined  to  established 
literary  forms,  seems  to  obtain  unrestrained   freedom  to 
wander  where  it  will,  nor  have  the  ancient  models  been 
followed   since   by  any  considerable   satirist   except  the 
Italian  Giusti.     The  machinery  employed  by  Moore  was 
indeed  transplanted  to  America  by  Russell  Lowiell,  whose 
Biglow  Papers  represent  perhaps  the  highest  moral  level 
yet  attained  by  satire.     In  no  age  has  the  spirit  of  satire 
been  so  generally  diffused  as  in  the  19th  century,  but  many 
of  its  eminent  writers,  while  bordering  on  the  domains  of 
satire,  escape  the  definition  of  satirist-.     The  term  cannot 
be  properly  applied  to  Dickens,  the  keen  observer  of  the 
oddities  of  human  life ;  or  to  George  Eliot,  the  critic  of 
its  emptiness  when  not  inspired  by  a  worthy  purpose ;  or 
to  Balzac,  the  painter  of  French  society ;  or  to  "Trollope, 
the  mirror  of  the  middle  classes  of  England.     If  Sartor 
Eesarfus  could  be'  regarded  as  a  satire,  Carlyle  would  rank 
among  the  first  of  satirists ;  but  the  satire,  though  very 
obvious,  rather  accompanies  than  inspires  the  composition. 
The  number  of  minor  satirists  of  merit,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  legion,  and  but  few  can  be  mentioned  here.     Poole,  ia 
his  broadly  farcical  Little  Pedlington,  has  rung  the  changes 
with  inexhaustible  ingenuity  on  a  single  fruitful   idea: 
Jerrold's  comedies  sparkle  with  epigrams,  and  his  tales  and 
sketches  overflow  with  quaint  humour ;  Mallock  has  made 
the  most  of  personal  mimicry,  the  lowest  form  of  satire ; 
Samuel  Butler  holds  an  inverting  mirror  to  the  world's  face 
with  imperturbable  gravity;  Courthope  reproduces  the  airy 
grace  and  sonorous  melody  of  the  Attic  comedy ;  and  the 
anonymous  writer  of  the  "  Barnum  "  Christmas  number  of 
Truth  has  resuscitated  with  equal  effect  its  reckless  fua 
and  personality.     One  remarkable  feature  of  the  age  is 
the  union  of  caricature  with  literature  to  a  degree  incon- 
ceivable before  the  improvements  in  wood-engraving.     AU 
large  capitals  now  have  their  comic  illustrated  journals, 
destined  for  the  most  part  to  be  the  marvels  and  stumbling- 
blocks  of  posterity.     Punch,  however,  has  become  almost 
a  national  institution,  and  has  fostered  the  genius  of  two 
pictorial  satirists  of   the  first  rank.   Leech  and   Tenniel. 
The  present  tendencies  of  the  civilized  world  seem  highly 
favourable  to  the  influence  of  satire  as  a  factor  in  human 
affairs,  but    unfavourable   to   the   production   of    satiric 
masterpieces.     Satire  is  the  inevitable  concomitant  of  free- 
dom of  speech,  which  must  continue  to  prevail  and  diffuse 
itself  unless  checked  by  military  or  socialistic  despotism. 
But  as  the  privilege  of  the  many  it  is  less  likely  to  be  the 
resource  of  the  few ;  and  it  may  happen  that  the  press, 
dealing  with  follies  of  the  day  as  they  arise,  will  more  and 
more  forestall  the  satire  that  springs  from  meditation  and 
study.    The  principal  security  is  the  originality  and  robust- 
ness of  true  satiric  genius,  which,  having  defied  prisons  and 
scaffolds  in  the  past,  may  find  the  means  of  eluding  public 
impatience  and  .satiety  in  the  future.  (r.  g.) 

SATRAP.     See  Peesia,  vol.  xviii.  pp.  569,  583. 
SATURN,  an  ancient  Italian  god,  whom  the  Romans, 
and  till  recently  the  moderns,  identified  with  the  Greek 
god  Cronus. 

L  Cronus  was  tne  youngest  of  the  Titans,  the  children 
of  Sky  (Urauiis)  and  Earth  (Gaea).  Besides  the  Titans, 
Sky  and  Earth  had  other  children,  the  Cyclopes  and  the 
Hundred-banders.  When  the  Cyclopes  and  the  Hundred- 
handera  proved  troublesome,  Sky  thrust  them  back  into 


SATURN 


321 


tlietiosom  of  Enrfli.  Tliis  vexed  Earth,  and  ebo  cMcd  on 
ber  sons  to  avenge  licr  on  tlieir  Tatlier  Sky.  Tbey  all 
shrank  from  tlio  deed  save  Cronus,  who  waylaid  and  muti- 
lated his  father  with  a  sickle  or  curved  sword.  From 
the  drops  of  blood  which  fell  to  the  earth  sprang  tho 
Furies  and  the  Giants.  Cronus  now  reigned  in  room  of 
Sky.  His  wifo  was  Khea,  who  was  also  his  sister,  being 
a  daughter  ot  Sky  and  Earth.  Sky  and  Earth  had  fore- 
told to  Cronus  that  he  would  be  deposed  by  one  of  his  own 
children,  so  he  swallowed  them  one  after  another  as  soon 
as  they  were  born.  Thus  he  devoured  Ilestia,  Dcmeter, 
Hera,  Hades,  and  Poseidon.  But  when  Rhea  had  brought 
forth  'Acua,  the  youngest,'  she  wrapped  up  a  stone  in 
swaddling  clothes  and  gave  it  to  Cronus,  who  swallowed  it 
instead  of  the  babe.  When  Zeus,  who  had  been  hidden  in 
Crete,  grew  up,  he  gave  his  father  a  do.se  which  compelled 
hira  to  disgorge  first  the  stone  and  then  the  children  whom 
be  had  swallowed.  The  stone  was  preserved  at  Delphi  ; 
every  day  it  was  tnointed  and  on  festivals  it  was  crowned 
with  wool.  Zeus  and  his  brothers  now  rebelled  against 
Cronus,  and  after  a  ten  years'  struggle  they  were  victorious. 
Cronus  and  the  Titans  were  thrust  down  to  Tartarus,  where 
they  were  guarded  by  the  Hundrcd-handers.  According 
to  others,  Cronus  was  removed  to  the  Islands  of  the  Blest, 
where  he  ruled  over  the  departed  heroes,  judging  them  in 
conjunction  with  Rhadarnanthus.  Plutarch  {De  Def.  Orac.\ 
18)  mentions  a  story  that  the  dethroned  monarch  of  the 
gods  slept  on  an  island  of  the  northern  seas  guarded  by 
Briareus  and  surrounded  by  a  train  of  attendant  divinitves. 
The  reign  of  Cronus  was  supposed  to  have  been  the  happiest 
time  of  the  world,  the  golden  age,  when  men  lived  like 
pods,  free  from  toil  and  grief  and  the  weakness  of  old  age 
(for  death  was  like  sleep);  and  the  earth  too  brought  forth 
abundantly  without  cultivation.  There  are  few  traces  of 
the  worship  of  Cronus  in  Greece.  Pausanias,  in  his  descrip- 
tion of  Greece,  mentions  only  one  temple  of  Cronus ;  it 
stood  at  the  foot  of  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  and  was 
sacred  to  Cronus  and  Rhea  jointly.  The  Athenians  cele- 
brated an  annual  festival  in  his  honour  on  the  12th  of 
Hecatomba;on.  A  mountain  at  Olympia  was  called  after 
him,  and  on  its  tojf  annual  sacrifices  were  ofiered  to  him 
at  the  spring  equinox. 

The  idea  tliat  Cronus  was  tho  god  of  time — an  idea  which 
appears  in  antiquity— seems  to  have  arisen  from  a  simple  confusion 
between  tlie  wurih  Cronus  and  Chronus  ("time";  C  urtius  derives 
Cronus  from  the  root  kra,  meaning  "to  accomplish  "  Cronus 
may  perhaps  have  been  a  god  of  some  aboriginal  half-savage  tribe 
which  the  Greeks  conquered  Hence  the  savage  traits  in  his 
legend,  his  conquest  by  Zeus,  and  the  scanty  traces  of  his  worship 
in  Greece  Tho  myth  of  the  mutilation  of  Sky  by  Cronus  may 
be  a  particular  form  of  the  widespread  story  of  tho  violent  separation 
of  Sky  and  Earth  by  one  of  their  children  (compare  Mythology). 
Other  forms  of  this  myth  are  found  in  New  Zealand,  India,  and 
China  Parallels  to  the  swallowing  and  disgorging  incident  are  to 
be  found  in  the  folk-lore  of  Bushmen  Kalfres,  Basutos,  Indians  of 
Guiana,  and  Eskimo. 

2  Saturn  and  Lia  wife  Ops  were  amongst  the  oldest 
deities  of  ancient  Italy.  He  is  said  to  have  had  an  altar 
at  the  foot  of  the  Capitol  before  Rome'  was  founded. 
Saturn  was  a  god  of  agriculture,  his  name  being  derived 
from  serere,  "  to  sow."  The  identification  of  Saturn  with 
Cronus  gave  rise  to  the  legend  that  after  his  deposition  by 
Zeus  (Jupiter)  Saturn  wandered  to  Italy,  where  he  ruled 
as  king  in  the  golden  age  and  gave  the  name  Saturnia  to 
the  country.  Janus,  another  of  the  most  ancient  gods  of 
Italy,  is  said  to  have  welcomed  him  to  Rome,  and  here  he 
settled  at  the  foot  of  the  Capitol,  which  was  called  after 
him  tho  Saturnian  Hill.  His  temple  stood  at  the  a,scent 
from  tho  Forum  to  the  Capitol  and  was  one  of  tho  oldest 
buildings  in  Rome,  but  the  eight  remaining  columns  of 

'  So  Hesioil.  But  according  to  Homer  ZeuB  woa  tho  eldest  of  thn 
children  of  Cronus  and  Rhea. 


the  temple  probably  formed  a  portion  of  a  new  tem])le 
built  in  the  imperial  times.  The  image  of  Saturn  in  this 
temple  had  woollen  bands  fastened  round  its  feet  all  the 
year  through,  except  at  tho  festival  'of  the  Saturnalia ; 
the  object  of  the  bands  was  probably  to  detain  the  deity. 
Similarly  there  was  a  fettered  image  of  Enyalius  (the  War 
God)  at  Sparta,  and  at  Athens  the  image  of  Victory  had  no 
wings,  lest  she  might  fly. away.  The  mode  of  sacrifice  at 
this  temple  was  in  so  far  peculiar  that  tho  head  of  the 
sacrifice  was  bare  as  in  the  Greek  ritual,  instead  of  beiug 
covered,  as  was  the  usual  Roman  practice.  Legend  said 
that  the  Greek  ritual  was  introduced  by  Hercules,  who  at 
the  same  time  abolished  the-  human  sacrifices  previously 
offered  to  Saturn.  Others  said  that  the  rule  had  been 
observed  by  the  Pelasgians  before.  Under  or  behind  tie 
temple  was  the  Roman  treasury,  in  which  the  archives  as 
well  as  the  treasures  of  the  state  were  preserved.  Dionj-sius 
Halicarnensis  {Ant.  Horn.,  i.  34)  tells  that  there  were  many 
sanctuaries  of  Saturn  in  Italy  and  that  many  towns  and 
places,  especially  mountains,  were  called  after  him.  The 
oldest  national  form  of  verse  was  known  as  the  Saturnian. 
Like  many  other  figures  in  Roman  mythology,  Saturn  is 
said  to  have  vanished  at  last  from  earth.  His  emblem  was 
a  sickle.  The  substitution  of  a  great  scythe  for  the  sickle, 
and  the  addition  of  wings  and  an  hour-glass,  are  modern 
Ops  ("plenty  "),  wife  of  Saturn,  was  an  earth-goddess,  as 
appears  from  the  custom  observed  by  her  suppliants  of 
sitting  and  carefully  touching  the  earth  while  they  made 
their  vows  to  her.  As  goddess  of  crops  and  the  harvest 
she  was  called  Consiva,  and  under  this  came  had  a  sanctuary 
at  Rome,  to  which  only  the  Vestals  and  the  priest  were 
admitted.  As  Saturn  was  identified  in  later  times  with 
Cronus,  so  was  Ops  with  Rhea.  Another  godde.ss  mentioned 
as  wife  of  Saturn  was  Lua,  a  goddess  of  barrenness.  She 
was  one  of  the  deities  to  whom  after  a  victory  the  spoils 
of  tho  enemy  were  sometimes  dedicated  and  turned. 

Saturialia. — This,  the  great  festival  of  Stturn,  was  celebrated 
on  tht)  19th,  but  after  Caesar's  reform  of  ihe  calendar  on  the  17th, 
of  December.  Augustus  decreed  that  the  17th  should  be  sacred  to 
Saturn  and  the  19tb  to  Opa,  Henc«l'ot«uid  it  appears  that  tho 
17th  and  18th  were  devoted  to  the  Saturnalia,  and  the  19th  and 
20tb  to  the  Opalia,  a  festival  of  Ops.  Caligula  added  a  fifth  day, 
"the  day  of  yonth"  (dies  juveiiatis),  dcvi,ted  no  doubt  to  tha 
sports  of  the  young.  But  in  popular  usage  the  festival  lasted  seven 
days.  The  time  was  one  of  general  icy  uud  mirth.  The  wooUea 
fetters  were  taken  from  the  feet  of  the  image  of  Saturn,  and  each 
man  offered  a  pig.  During  the  festival  schooU  were  closed;  no 
war  was  declared  or  battle  fought;  no  punishitcz-t  was  inllicted. 
In  place  of  the  toga  an  undress  garment  was  worn.  Distinctions 
of  rank  were  laid  aside  :  slaves  sat  at  table  with  thrir  masters 
or  were  actually  waited  on  by  them,  and  the  utmost  freed^jin 
of  speech  was  allowed  them.  Gambling  with  dice,  at  other  tiinis 
illegal,  was  now  permitted  and  practised."  All  classes  exchanged 
gifts,  the  commonest  being  wax  tapera  and  clay  dolls.  These  dolls 
were  especially  given  to  chilurcn,  and  the  makers  of  them  held  a 
regular  fair  at  this  time.  Varro  thought  that  these  dolls  repre- 
sented original  sacrifices  of  human  beings  to  the  infernal  gcj. 
There  certainly  was,  as  we  have  seen,  a  tradition  that  hunii.a 
sacrifices  were  once  offered  to  Saturn,  and  tho  Greeks  and  Ruuiuns 
gave  the  name  of  Cronus  and  Saturu  to  a  particularly  cruel  I'ha'- 
nician  Baal,  to  whom,  e.g.,  children  were  sacrificed  at  Carthuge. 
The  Cronus  to  whom  human  sacrifices  are  said  to  have  been 
offered  in  Rhodes  was  most  probably  a  Baal,  for  there  are  iin- 
mistakablo  traces  of  Phceniciau  worship  in  lihodes.  It  rouy  ba 
conjectured  that  the  Saturnalia  was  originally  a  celebration  of  tho 
winter  solstice.  Hence  tho  legend  that  it  was  instituted  by 
liomulus  under  the  name  of  the  Brumalia  (iriima  — winter  solstice). 
The  pcominenco  given  to  candles  at  the  fes.ival  points  to  tha 
custom  of  making  a  new  fire  at  this  time  Tho  custom  of  soIcniDly 
kindling  fires  at  the  summer  solstice  (Eve  of  St  John)  has  prerailcil 
in  most  parts  of  Europe,  notably  in  Germany,  and  there  are  trncea 
(of  whii.h  the  yule-log  is  one)  of  the  observance  of  a  similar  custom 
at  the  winter  scjistice.  In  ancient  Mexico  a  new  fire  was  kindled, 
amid  great  rejoicings,  at  the  end  of  every  [wriod  of  fifty-two  years. 

Tho  designation  u(  tho  planets  by  the  names  of  gods  is  at  least  as 

'  It  is  curious  to  lind  a  similar  rule  with  a  similar  oxccptioD  Id 
Neiial.    Sco  11.  A.  Oldlleld,  Sktichtt/rom  A'ejxil,  vol.  ii.  lip.  363  w. 

XXL  —  41.,    ^ 


322 


S  A  T  —  S  A  U 


old  as  the  4tli  century  B.C.  Tho  first  certain  mention  of  the  star 
of  Cronus  (Saturn)  is  in  Aiistotle  (Metaphysics,  p.  1073b,  35).  The 
name  also  occurs  in  i\\&Epinomis  (p.  987d),  a  dialogue  of  uncertain 
date,  wi-oDgly  ascribed  to  Plato.  In  Latin,  Cicero  (1st  century  B.C. ) 
is  the  tirat  author  who  speaks  of  the  planet  Saturn.  I'he  applica- 
tion of  the  name  Saturn  to  a  day  of  the  week  [Salurni  dies,  Saturday) 
!s  first  found  in  TibuUus  (i.  3,  18).  (J.  G.  FR.) 

SATYR.  In  ancient  Greek  mytliology  tLe  satyrs  were 
spirits,  Lalf-liuman  lialf-bestial,  that  haunted  the  •woods 
and  mountains,  companions  of  Pan  and  Dionysus.  Fancy 
represented  them  as  strongly  built,  with  flat  noses,  pointed 
ears,  and  the  tails  of  horses  or  goats.  They  were  a  rpguisli 
and  wanton  but  faint-hearted  folk,  lovers  of  wine  and 
women,  ever  roaming  the  wild  to  the  music  of  pipes  and 
cymbals,  castanets  and  bagpipes,  dancing  with  the  nymphs 
or  pursuing  them,  striking  terror  into  men,  whose  cattle 
they  killed  and  whose  women  they  made  love  to.  In  the 
earlier  Greek  art  they  appear  as  old  and  ugly,  much  like 
wild  apes ;  but  in  later  art,  especially  in  works  of  the 
Attic  school,  this  savage  character  is  softened  into  a  more 
youthful  and  graceful  aspect.  There  is  a  famous  statue 
supposed  to  be  a  copy  of  a  work  of  Praxiteles,  representing 
a  graceful  satyr  leaning  against  a  tree  with  a  flute  in  his 
hand.  In  Attica  there  was  a  species  of  drama  known  as 
the  Satyric  drama;  it  parodied  the  legends  of  gods  and 
heroes,  and  the  chorus  was  composed  of  satyrs.  Euripides 's 
play  of  the  Cyclops  is  the  only  extant  example  of  this  kind 
of  drama.  The  symbol  of  the  shy  and  timid  satyr  was 
the  hare.  In  some  districts  of  modern  Greece  the  spirits 
known  as  Calicantsars  offer  points  of  resemblance  to  the 
ancient  satyrs ;  they  have  goats'  ears  and  the  feet  of  asses 
or  goats,  are  covered  with  hair,  and  love  women  and  the 
dance.  The  herdsmen  of  Parnassus  believe  in  a  demon  of 
the  mountain  who  is  lord  of  hares  and  goats. 

In  the  Authorized  Version  of  Isa.  xiii.  21,  xxxiv.  14  the  word 
"satyr"  is  used  to  render  the  Hebrew  si'trhn,  "hairy  ones."  A 
kind  of  demon  or  supernatural  being  kno\Tn  to  Hebrew  folk-lore 
as  inhabiting  waste  places  is  meant ;  a  practice  of  sacrificing  to 
the  si'irim  is  alluded  to  in  Lev.  xvii.  7,  where  E.  V.  has  "devils." 
They  cbrrespond  to  the  "shaggy  demon  of  the  mountain-pass" 
(azabb  al-'akaba)  of  old  Arab  siijieTstition.  But  the  satyrs  of  the 
gloomy  Semitic  deserts,  faith  in  which  is  not  yet  extinct,  are  much 
more  terrible  than  those  of  Greece. 

SAUL,  son  of  Kish,  king  of  Israel.  (See  Israel,  vol. 
xiii.  p.  403  sq.)  The  name  of  Saul's  father  Kish  (t^'p) 
seems  to  be  identical  with  the  Arabic  proper  name  and  god- 
name  Kais. 

SAUMAISE.     See  Sauiasius. 

SAUilAREZ,  James  Saumahez  or  Satjsmaeez,  Baeox 
DE  (1757-1836),  English  admiral,  was  descended  from  an 
old  family,  and  was  born  at  St  Peter  Port,  Guernsey,  11th 
March  1757.  Many  of  his  ancestors  had  distinguished 
themselves  in  the  naval  service,  and  he  entered  it  as  mid- 
shipman at  the  age  of  thirteen.  For  his  bravery  at  the 
attack  of  Charleston  in  1775  on  board  the  "  Bristol "  he 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant,  and  he  was  pro- 
moted commander  for  his  gallant  services  off  the  Dogger 
Bank,  5th  August  1781,  when  he  was  wounded.  In  com- 
mand of  the  "  RusseU,"  he  contributed  to  Rodney's  victory 
over  De  Grasse,  12th  April  1782.  For  the  capture  of 
"La  Reunion,"  a  French  frigate,  in  1793  he  received  the 
honour  of  knighthood.  TVhile  in  command  of  a  small 
squadron  he  was  on  5th  June  1794  attacked  by  a  superior 
French  force  on  the  way  from  Plymouth  to  Guernsey,  but 
by  his  seamauohip  and  coolness  succeeded  in  gaining  a 
safe  anchorage  in  the  harbour  of  that  island.  After  being 
promoted  to  the  "Orion"  of  74  guns  in  1795,  he  took 
part  in  the  defeat  of  the  French  fleet  off  L'Orient,  22d 
June,  distinguished  himself  in  the  battle  of  Cape  St 
Vincent  in  February  1797,  and  was  present  at  the  blockade 
of  Cadiz  from  February  1797  to  April  1798,  and  at  the 
battle  of  the  Nile,  1st  August  1798,  where  he  was 
wounded.     On  his   return   from  Egypt  he   received  the 


command  of  the  "  Caesar,"  84  guns,  with  orders  to  watch 
the  French  fleet  off  Brest  during  the  winters  of  1799  and 
1800.  In  1801  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral 
of  the  blue,  was  created  a  baronet.,  and  received  the 
command  of  a  small  squadron  which  was  destined  to  watch 
the  movements  of  the  Spanish  flaot  at  Cadii.  To  prevent 
a  fleet  of  British  merchantmen  from  falling  into  the  hands 
of  the  enemy,  he  engaged  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets, 
which  outnumbered  his  own  small  squadron  by  two  to  one, 
inflicting  on  them  a  severe  defeat  with  a  loss  of  3000  men. 
Regarding  this  achievement  Lord  Nelson  remarked  that 
"a  greater  action  was  never  fought."  For  his  services 
Saumarez  was  rewarded  with  the  order  of  the  Bath,  and  he 
also  received  the  freedom  of  the  city  of  London,  together 
v.ith  a  magnificent  sword.  In  1803  he  received  a  pension 
of  .£1200  a  year.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Russia 
in  1809  he  was  entrusted  with  the  command  of  the  Baltic 
fleet,  and  in  recognition  of  his  services  Charles  XIII.  of 
Sweden  bestowed  on  him  the  grand  cross  of  the  military 
order  of  the  Sword.  At  the  peace  of  1814  he  attained 
the  rank  of  admiral;  and  in  1819  he  was  made  rear- 
admiral,  in  1821  vicfe-admiral  of  Great  Britain.  He  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  de  Saumarez  in  1831,  and 
died  at  Guernsey,  9th  October  1836. 

Sec  Memoirs  of  Admiral  Lord  de  Saumarez,  by  Sir  Join  Koss 
2  vols.,  1838. 

S.AUJMUR,  a  town  of  France,  at  the  head  of  an 
arrondissement  in  the  department  of  Maine-et-Loire,  is 
situated  on  an  island  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Loire,  38 
miles  south-west  of  Tours,  and  27  miles  south-east  of  Angers. 
A  large  metal  bridge  connects  the  Tours-Angers  railway 
with  that  of  Montreuil-Bellay  by  which  Saumur  communi- 
cates with  Poitiers  and  Niort.  Two  stone  bridges  (755 
and  905  feet  long)  also  unite  the  town  on  the  island  with 
the  two  banks  of  the  river.  Several  of  the  Saumur 
churches  are  interesting.  St  Pierre,  of  the  12th  century, 
has  a  17th-century  fagade  and  a  Renaissance  nave;  and 
Notre  Dame  cf  Nantilly  (often  visited  by  Louis  XI.)  has  a 
remarkable  though  greatly  damaged  facade,  a  doorway  and 
choir  of  the  12th  century,  and  a  nave  of  the  lUh.  Both 
these  churches  contain  curious  tapestries,  and  in  the  latter, 
fixed  in  the  wall,  is  the  copper  cross  of  Gilles  de  Tyr, 
keeper  of  the  seals  to  St  Louis.  St  Jean  is  s  charming 
little  building  in  the  Angsvine  Gothic  style.  Notre  Dame 
of  Ardiliers,  of  the  16th  century,  was  enlarged  in  the 
following  century  by  Richelieu  and  Madame  de  Jlontespan. 
The  town-house  is  an  elegant  16th-century  edifice;  and 
the  whole  town  is  rich  in  graceful  and  interesting  examples 
of  the  best  period  of  French  domestic  architecture.  The 
castle,  built  between  the  11th  century  and  the  13th,  and 
remodelled  in  the  16th,  is  used  as  an  arsenal  and  powder 
magazine.  There  is  also  an  interesting  almshouse,  with  its 
chambers  in  part  dug  out  in  the  rock.  The  cavalry  school, 
founded  in  1768,  and  after  various  interruptions  reorganized 
in  1824  and  1853,  has  at  the  present  time  (1886)  400 
pupils,  of  whom  125  are  ofiicers.  Other  establishments 
are  a  public  library,  a  museum  of  natural  history  and 
local  Roman  and  Celtic  antiquities,  a  horticultural  garden, 
with  a  school  of  vines  in  which  eight  hundred  kinds  of 
grapes  are  cultivated.  Saumur  carries  on  a  large  trade  in 
sparkling  white  wines  grown  in  the  neighbourhood,  as  well 
as  in  brandy,  grain,  flax,  and  hemp  ;  and  it  manufactures 
enamels  and  rosaries.  The  population  in  1881  was  13,439 
(14,186  in  the  commune). 

Tlie  Saumur  caves  along  the  Loire  and  on  both  sides  of  the 
valley  of  the  Thouet  (a  left-hand  tributary)  must  have  been  occupied 
at  a  very  remote  period.  Tlie  Tour  du  Trone  (9th  century)  served 
as  a  place  of  refuge  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  surrounding  district 
during  foreign  invasions,  and  became  the  nucleus  of  a  monastery 
built  by  monks  escaped  from  St  Florent  le  Vieil.  On  the  same 
site  rose  tho  castle  of  Saumur  two  hundred  years  later.  The  town 
fill  into  the  bands  of  Foulques  Nerra,  duke  of  Anjou,  in  1025,  an<l 


o 


A  U  —  S  A  U 


32a 


mssc^l  in  the  13t1i   rcntary  into  the  jiossession  ot   the   kings  of  | 
Froncc,  to  whoni  it  r.  in;iiniit  tuiiitantly  faithful.     The    English  , 
failed  to  capture  it  during  all  the  coursu  of  the  Hundred  Ycais'  ! 
War.     After  tho  Rcfonuation  the  town  became  the  inetropofis  of  { 
Protestantism   in  France  and  the  seat  of  a  theological  seminary, 
illustrated  by  many  distinguished  names.    The  school  of  Saumur, 
as  opposed  to  that  of  Sedan,  represented  the  more  liberal  side  of 
French  Protestantism  (Cameron,  Amyraut,  &c.).     In  1623  the  forti- 
fications were  dismantled  ;  and  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes 
reduced  the  population  from  25,000  to  6000. 

SAUNDERSON,  Nicholas  (1682-1739),  mathema- 
tician, was  born  at  Thurlstone,  Yorkshire,  in  January  1682. 
When  about  a  year  old  he  lost  his  sight  through  small- 
pox ;  but  this  did  not  prevent  him  from  acquiring,  by  the 
help  of  kind  friends,  a  good  knowledge  of  Latin  and 
Greek,  and  pursuing  w-ith  assiduity  and  success  the  study 
of  mathematics.  In  his  twentj'-fifth  year  he  commenced 
lecturing  in  Cambridge  on  the  principles  of  the  Newtonian 
philosophy,  and,  though  he  was  cot  a  member  of  any  of 
the  colleges,  tho  university  authorities  placed  no  impedi- 
ment in  his  way.  In  November  1711  he  was  selected  to 
succeed  ^Vhiston,  the  Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics 
in  Cambridge,  after  having  had  the  degree  of  master  of 
arts  conferred  upon  him  to  render  him  eligible  for  the 
appointment.  He  was  created  doctor  of  laws  in  1728  by 
command  of  George  II.,  and  in  1736  was  admitted  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  died  of  scurvy  on  the 
19th  of  April  1739. 

Saunderson  possessed  the  friendship  of  many  of  the  eminent 
mathematicians  of  the  time,  such  as  Newton,  Halley,  Do  Moivre, 
Cotes,  and  for  the  first  of  these  he  entertained  a  profound  venera- 
tion. Whetlier  from  an  inflexible  love  of  truth,  or  irom  a  motive 
less  exalted,  he  was  accustomed  to  speak  his  sentiments  regarding 
persons  very  freely,  and  friends  as  well  as  enemies  were  criticiJed 
without  reserve.  As  is  frequently  the  case  mth  the  blind,  his 
senses  of  hearing  and  touch  were  extraordinarily  acute,  and  he  could 
carry  on  mentaliy  long  aud  intricate  arithmetical  or  algebraical  cal- 
culations. Ho  devised  for  his  own  use  a  palpable  arithmetic,  an 
account  of  which  is  given  in  his  elaborate  Elements  of  Algebra  (2 
vols.  4to,  Cambridge,  1740),  which  he  did  not  live  to  publish.  Ofhis 
other  writings,  prepared  for  the  use  of  his  pupils,  the  only  one  which 
has  been  published  is  The  Method  of  Fluxions  (1  vol.  8vo,  London, 
1766).  At  the  end  of  this  treatise  there  is  given,  in  Latin,  an 
explanation  of  the  principal  propositions  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's 
philosophy. 

SAURIANS.     See  Reptiles. 

SAURIN,  Jacques  (1077-1730),  one  of  the  group  of 
great  French  preachers  of  tho  17th  century  (see  Feanck, 
vol.  vs..  p.  662),  was  boru  at  Nimes  on  January  6th 
1677,  studied  at  Geneva,  settled  in  London  in  1701  as 
one  of  the  pastors  of  the  Walloon  church,  and  died  at  The 
Hague,  on  December  30,  1730,  whither  he  had  gone  to 
defend  himself  before  the  synod  against  a  trumped-up 
charge  of  heterodoxy.  Besides  collections  of  Sermons,  on 
miscellaneous  texts,  he  wrote  Discours  sur  Us  evenemenis 
ks  plus  memorables  du  Vieux  et  du  Nouveau  Testament 
(Amsterdam,  1720-28),  a  work  which,  as.  continued  by 
Beausobre  and  Roques,  became  popular  under  the  name 
of  Saurin's  Bible. 

SAUROPSIDA.  This  name  was  introduced  by  Huxley 
in  h\%  Introduction  to  the  Classification  of  Animals,  1869, 
to  designate  a  province  of  the  Yertebrata  formed  by 
the  union  of  the  Aves  with  the  Reptilia.  In  his  Elements 
of  Comparative  Anatomy,  1864,  he  had  used  tho  terra 
"Sauroids"  for  the  same  province.  The  five  divisions  of 
the  Vertebrata — Pisces,  Amphibia,  Reptilia,  Aves,  and 
Mavimalia — are  all  distinctly  definable,  but  their  relations 
to  one  another  differ  considerably  in  degree.  The 
Amphibia  are  more  similar  to  tho  Pisces  than  to  any  of 
tho  other  divisions,  and  the  Aves  are  closely  allied  to 
the  Reptilia,  and  thus  three  provinces — Ichthyopsida, 
Sauropsida,  and  Mammalia — are  formed. 

The  characters  which  distingui.sh  tho  Sauropsida,  tint  i^,  which 
«ro' common  to  birds  and  reptiles,  and  not  found  combined  in 
the   other  claasos.  bava  been  thuii  Buiuniarizcd  by  Iluxluy  : — uo 


branchiae  at  anv  period  of  existence  ;  a  well-developed  amnion  aud 
allantois  present  in  the  eiubrvo  ;  a  mandible  conqioscd  ot  many 
bones  and  articulated  to  tho  skuU  by  a  quadr.ite  bone  ;  Iiucliati4 
blood-corpuscles  ;  uo  separate  parnsphcnoid  bono  in  tho  skull  ; 
and  a  single  occipital  condyle.  In  addition  to  these  princiiKil 
characteis,  others  exist  which  aro  found  in  all  biids  and  reptiles, 
but  are  not  exclusively  confined  to  them.  Tho  oviduct  is  always  a 
MuUeriau  duct  separate  from  the  ovary  and  opening  from  tho 
body  cavity.  The  adult  kidney  is  a  metanephros  with"  sepa.-atu 
ureter  ;  the  niesonephros  and  mesonephric  duct  become  in  the  .idiilt 
male  the  efferent  duct  of  the  testis.  The  intestine  and  tho  repro- 
ductive and  urinary  ducts  open  into  a  common  cloaca.  There  is 
usually  an  exoskelcton  in  the  form  of  scales, ;  in  the  birds  the  scale* 
take  the  form  of  feathers.  There  aro  two  aortic  arches  in  reptiles, 
in  birds  only  one,— the  right.  The  heart  is  usu;dly  trilocular, 
becoming  quadrilocular  in  crocodiles  and  birds.  In  .ill  the  cgg^ 
are  meroblastic  and  large,  possessing  a  large  quantity  of  yolk  ;  in 
all  the  egg  is  provided  in  the  oviduct  with  a  layer  of  albunu-n 
and  outside  this  with  a  horny  or  calcareous  shell.  In  a  few  cases 
tho  egg  is  hatched  in  the  oviduct,  but  in  these  cases  there  is  no 
intimate  connexion  between  the  embryo  and  the  walls  of  the  duct.  - 
Fertilization  takes  place  internally,  occurring  at  the  upper  end  01 
the  oviduct  previously  to  the  deposition  of  the  albiuninous  layer 
and  egg  shell. 

Comparative'  anatomy  clearly  shows  that  birds  are 
reptiles  which  have  become  specialized  in  adaptation  to 
the  function  of  flight.  This  conclusion  has  been  con- 
firmed in  the  most  surprisingly  complete  manner  by  the 
discovery  of  fossil  forms  intermediate  between  birds  and 
reptiles.  Two  points  of  sp'ecialization  in  addition  to  the 
transformation  of  the  fore  limbs  into  wings  are  conspicuous 
in  birds, — the  reduction  of  the  tail  aud  the  absence 
of  teeth.  Archxopteryx  is  a  flying  feathered  animal  -n-ith 
a  long  reptilian  tail.  In  the  Rocky  Mountain  region 
numerous  toothed  birds  have  been  recently  discovered, 
and  have  been  studied  and  described  in  a  masterly  fashion 
by  Prof.  0.  C.  Marsh.  These  forms  belong  to  the 
Mesozoic  period.     For  further  details  see  Reptiles  and 

BiKDS. 

SAUSSURE,  Horace  Benedict  de  (1740-1799),  one 
of  Switzerland's  most  celebrated  physicists,  was  born  in 
Geneva  on  February  17,  1740.'  His  youth  was  passed 
at  his  father's  farm,  where  he  early  acquired  a  love  for 
the  study  of  nature.  Following  the  e.xample  of  his 
father  and  of  his  uncle  Charles  Bonnet,  with  whom  ho 
was  associated  in  a  research  on  tho  leaves  of  plants,  ho 
devoted  himself  at  first  to  botany.  Thus  he  was  led  to 
make  the  acquaintance  of  Haller,  who  was  not  long  iu 
discerning  aud  appreciating  his  rare  powers  as  an  observer. 
In  1762,  when  only  twenty-two  years  of  age,  Saussure  was 
elected  to  the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Geneva,  where,  along 
with  another  professor,  he  taught  logic  and  physics  alter- 
nately. But  his  natural  leanings  were  ail  towards  the 
study  of  external  nature  ;  and  he  took  advantage  of  all 
available  opportunities  of  travelling  to  thoroughly  explore 
the  mountains,  valleys,  and  lakes  of  his  native  land,  and 
to  visit  those  of  foreign  countries,  with  the  view  of  widen- 
ing and  deepening  his  conception  of  the  constitution  of 
the  world.  The  Society  of  Arts  of  Geneva  was  founded 
by  Saussure  in  1772,  and  in  1774,  at  the  invitation  of  tho 
Government,  he  elaborated  a  jilan  for  the  reform  of  tho 
system  of  teaching  in  his  native  town ;  but  this  was  too 
radical  in  its  nature  to  be  adopted.  In  1786  he  resigned 
his  professorship  to  his  friend  and  fellow-ji'orker  Pictet. 
While  honouring  his  country  by  his  devotion  to  laborious 
scientific  investigations,  ho  exhibited-  his   patriotism   by 

'  His  father,  Nicolas  de  Saussure  (1709-00),  mi  agriculturist  of 
unusually  liberal  opinions  and  wiJu  sympathies,  when  a  young  man  had 
applied  himself  to  literary  pursuits,  and  especially  to  tho  study  of 
writings  bciring  on  farming.  Ho  resided  all  hi.i  lifo  at  his  farm  of 
Coiicliis,  on  tho  Arve,  near  Geneva.  Ah  a  member  of  tho  council  of 
Two  Huiulred  he  took  part  In  public  affairs.  Most  of  his  writingii 
wore  of  u  practical  charact«-,  bearing  on  the  growth  and  diseases  of 
grain  and  other  farm  produce.  His  last  work,  On  Fire,  the  Prinei/^le 
of  Ficundily  in  Plants  and  of  Ftrlility  in  the  £urtK,  published  lu 
i7b2,  won  niQru  spcaulative  in  its  nature. 


324 


S  A  U  —  S  A  V 


untiring  diligence  in  the  exercise  of  his  duties  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  council  of  Two  Hundred,  and  afterwards  of 
the  National  Assembly.  In  consequence  of  over-exertion 
in  this  work  his  health  began  to  fail  in  1794  ;  but,  although 
deprived  of  the  use  of  his  limbs,  he  continued  to  revise  the 
concluding  volumes  of  his  great  work  on  Alpine  physio- 
graphy, which  were  published  in  1796.  Latterly  his  mind 
became  enfeebled,  and  when  he  was  offered  a  chair  of 
philosophy  by  the  French  Government  in  1798  he  had 
lapsed  into  a  condition  of  partial  imbeciUty.  He  died 
on  January  22,  1799,  at  the  age  of  fifty-nine,  leaving 
two  sons  and  a  daughter. 

Tbo  Alps  formed  the  centre  of  Saussure's  investigations.  They 
forced  themselves  on  his  attention  as  the  grand  key  to  the  'true 
theory  of  the  earth  ;  but,  as  year  by  year  his  mass  of  facts ' 
assumed  ever-growing-  dimensions,  his  generalizations  became 
^  more  guarded,  until  finally  lie  came  to  consider  a  simple  recording 
of  observations  as  the  only  justifiable  course.  As  a  young  man  he 
had  roamed  in  search  of  plants  through  many  remote  valleys  and 
over  the  "montagnes  maudits"  as  his  unappreciative  fcUow- 
dwellers  by  the  lakes  called  the  snow-capped  summits  around 
them.  It  had  been  his  dream,  he  says,  since  he  was  twenty  to 
ascend  Mont  Blanc  ;  and  he  accomplished  the  feat  on  3d  August 
1787.  This  was  the  second  time  that  the  ascent  of  that  mountain, 
until  then  deemed  inaccessible,  was  made  in  that  year. 

Saussure  found  among  the  Alps  opportunity  for  studying 
geology  in  a  manner  never  previously  attempted.  The  inclination 
of  the  strata,  the  nature  of  the  rocks,  the  fossils,  and  the  minerals 
received  his  closest  attention.  He  acquired  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  chemistry  of  the  day,  watching  for  the  brilliant  series  of 
discoveries  and  the  improvements  in  processes  of  analysis  that 
brought  the  science  into  such  dazzling  prominence  during  the  last 
quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century  ;  and  he  applied  all  to  the  study 
of  minerals,  water,  and  air.  Saussure's  geological  observations 
made  him  a  firm  believer  iu  the  Neptunian  theory  :  he  regarded 
all  rocks  and  minerals  as  deposited  from  aqueous  solution  or 
Buspeusion,  and  in  view  of  this  he  attached  much  importance  to 
the  study  of  meteorological  conditions.  He  carried  barometers 
and  boiling-point  thermometers  to  the  summits  of  the  highest 
mountains,  and  estimated  the  relative  humidity  of  the  atmosphere 
at  different  heights,  its  temperature,  the  strength  of  solar  radiation, 
the  composition  of  air  and  its  transparency.  Then,  following  the 
precipitated  moisture,  he  investigated  the  temperature  of  the  earth 
at  all  depths  to  which  he  could  drive  his  thermometer  staves,  the 
course,  conditions,  and  temperature  of  streams,  rivers,  glaciei-s,  aud 
lakes,  even  of  the  sea.  He  invented  a  great  number  of  instnmieuts 
for  these  purposes,  tested  them,  and  investigated  the  theory  of 
their  action.  The  most  beautiful  and  complete  of  his  subsidiary 
researches  is  described  in  the  Essai  siir  VHygromelrie,  published  in 
1783.  In  it  he  records  experiments  made  with  various  forms  of 
hygi'ometer  in  all  climates  and  at  all  temperatures,  and  supports 
the  claims  of  his  hair-hygrometer  against  all  others.  He  invented 
and  improved  many  kinds  of  apparatus,  including  the  magneto- 
meter, the  cyanometer  for  estimating  the  blueness  of  the  sky, 
the  diaphanometer  forjudging  of  the  clearness  of  the  atmosphere, 
the  anemometer,  and  the  mountain  eudiometer.  His  modifica- 
tions of  the  thermometer  adapted  that  instrument  to  many 
purposes :  for  ascertaining  the  temperature  of  the  air  he  used 
one  with  a  fine  bulb  hung  in  the  snade  or  whirled  by  a  string, 
the  latter  form  being  converted  into  an  evaporometer  by  inserting 
its  bulb  into  a  piece  of  wet  sponge  and  making  it  revolve  in  a 
circle  of  known  radius  at  a  known  rate  ;  for  experiments  on  the 
earth  and  in  deep  water  he  employed  large  thermometers  wrapped 
in  non-conducting  coatings  so  as  to  render  them  extremely  sluggish, 
and. capable  of  long  retaining  the  temperatvu-e  once  they  had 
attained  it.  By  the  use  of  these  instruments  he  showed  that  the 
bottom  water  of  deep  lakes  is  uniformly  cold  at  all  seasons,  and 
that  the  annual  heat  wave  takes  six  months  to  penetrate  to  a 
depth  of  30  feet  in  the  earth.  He  recognized  the  immense  advan- 
tages to  meteorology  of  high-level  observing  stations,  and  when- 
ever it  was  practicable  he  arranged  for  simultaneous  observations 
being  made  at  different  altitudes,  for  as  long  periods  as  possible. 
It  is  perhaps  as  a  geologist  that 'Saussure  worked  most;  he  ex- 
amined all  the  formations  he  met  with  much  care  and  exact- 
ness ;  and  although  his  ideas  on  matters  of  theory  were  in  many 
cases  very  erroneous  ho  was  instrumental  in  greatly  advancing  that 
science. 

Saussure's  work  is  collected  and  summarized  in  his  four  large 
volumes  of  Voyages  dans  les  Alpcs.  This  book  is  arranged  in  the 
form  of  a  narrative  of  the  author's  various  journeys,  interspersed 
with  accounts  of  tho  observations  made  and  descriptions  of  the 
apparatus  employed.  At  the  end  there  is  a  long  list  of  "  agenda," 
or  subjects  tor  investigation,  which  he  anticipated  would  throw 
light  on  the  theory  cf  the  earth.     These  agenda  are  of  value  a.s 


exhibiting  not  only  the  scope  and  definite  focussing  of  S.aiisBnrc'8 
mind  but  his  almost  prophetic  furcsiglit,  since  .subsequent  scientiliD 
work  has  advanced  in  each  dc|iartmcnt  very  nearly  on  the  liiioa 
tlieiu  I.ud  down. 

His  life  was  written  by  Scnebier  In  JSMl.  by  Cinicr  for  the  fltof/rnj'fiU 
Universfllc.  and  by  Dc  Cantlolle  In  Uecade  Philoiofhique,  No.  iv.,  translated  in 
tlie  Philosophical  Magazine,  [i.J  iv.  96 

SAUSSURE,  Nicolas  Theodore  de  (1767-1845), 
eldest  son  of  Horace  Benedict  de  Saussure,  was  born  on 
October  14,  1767,  at  Geneva,  and  is  known  chiefly  for 
his  work  on  the  chemistry  of  vegetable  physiology.  Ho 
was  a  shy  man,  who  lived  quietly  and  avoided  society ; 
yet  like  his  ancestors  he  was  a  member  of  the  Genevan 
representative  council,  and  gave  much  attention  and 
thought  to  public  affairs.  He  took  a  deep  interest  in  the 
improvement  of  education,  but  deprecated  the  introduc- 
tion of  science  teaching  into  schools,  on  the  ground  that  it 
would  divert  the  children's  minds  from  the  study  of  tha 
classical  languages  and  mathematics.  He  latterly  became 
more  of  a  recluse  than  ever,  and  died  in  April  1845. 

When  a  young  man  Nicolas  Theodore  accompanied  his  father  iu 
the  Alpine  journeys  and  assisted  him  by  the  careful  determination 
of  many  physical  constants.  He  was  attracted  to  chemistry  by 
Lavoisier's  brilliant  conceptions,  but  he  did  not  become  great  as  an 
originator.  He  took  a  leading  share  in  the  rapid  succession  of 
improvements  which  rendered  the  processes  of  ultimate  organic 
analysis  trustworthy.  He  fixed  the  composition  of  ethylic  alcohol, 
ether,  aud  some  other  commonly  occurring  substances,  thereby 
advancing  the  knowledge  of  pure  chemistry.  He  also  studied  fer- 
mentation, the  conversion  of  starch  into  sugar,  and  many  other 
processes  of  minor  importance.  The  greater  number  of  his  35 
published  papers  deal  with  the  chemistry  and  physiology  of  plants, 
the  nature  of  soils,  and  the  conditions  of  vegetable  life.  Thesa 
were  published  under  the  title  Kecherdics  Chiiniqucs  siir  la  Vegeta- 
tion, and  were  acknowledged  to  display  remarkable  ability, 

SAVAGE,  Richard  (1697-1743),  a  mediocre  poet  and 
notorious  literary  character  of  the  time  of  Pope,  associated 
with  Pope  in  the  publication  of  the  Ihinciad.  He  had 
nearly  reached  the  end  of  his  career  when  Johnson  went 
up  to  London,  made  his  acquaintance,  and  was  fascinated 
by  his  vivacity  and  knowledge  of  the  world.  After  his 
death,  Johnson  gave  his  romantic  history  of  himself  in 
one  of  the  most  elaborate  and  best  of  the  Lives  of  tlie 
Poets — a  fine  example  of  the  great  moralist's  searching 
analysis  and  tolerant  judgment  of  eccentric  character. 
Johnson  apparently  accepted  Savage's  account  of  himself 
and  his  strange  persecution  by  his  alleged  mother,  the 
countess  of  Macclesfield,  without  hesitation,  describing 
her  as  a  "wretch  who  had,  without  scruple,  proclaimed 
herself  an  adulteress,  and  who  had  first  endeavoured  to 
starve  her  son,  then  to  transport  him,  and  afterwards  to 
hang  him."  Boswell  was  less  credulous,  made  inquiries 
after  his  cautious  manner  in  various  quarters,  and  inai- 
cated  pretty  clearly  that  he  considered  Savage  an  impostor, 
although  he  could  not  explain  whj',  if  the  unnatural  story 
were  not  true,  the  countess  could  have  allowed  it  to  be 
put  three  times  in  print  unchallenged  during  her  lifetime 
(see  Boswell's  Life,  chap.  v.).  After  Boswell,  Malone  and 
I3indley  nibbled  at  the  paradox,  but  it  was  not  subjected 
to  thorough  examination  till  1858,  when  Mr  Moy  Thomas 
discovered  the  original  manuscript  depositions  in  the 
earl  of  Macclesfield's  divorce  suit  at  Doctors'  Commons, 
and  also  the  proceedings  in  the  House  of  Lords.  The 
results  of  Mr  Thomas's  researches,  prosecuted  with  rare 
acuteness  and  industry,  appeared  in  Notes  and  Queries, 
November  and  December  1858.  To  Johnson's  Life 
and  these  papers  the  reader  may  be  referred  for  the 
strange  story  and  the  elaborate  and  complete  exposure  of 
its  inconsistencies  and  improbabilities.  The  conclusiou 
which  Boswell  hinted  at,  but  was  prevented  by  his  rever- 
ence for  Johnson  from  expressing,  that  Savage  was  an 
impostor,  is  irresistible. 

SAVANNAH,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  the  capital 
of  Chatham  c^  tuty,  Georgia,  and  the  Largest  city  in  tb 


S  A  V  —  S  A  V 


325 


State,  is  situated  on  the  right  or  southern  bank  of  the 
Savannah  river,  12  miles  in  a-  straight  line  and  18  miles 
by  water  from  the  oceau.  By  rail  it  is  104  miles  soiuh- 
west  of  Charleston,  S.C.  Stretching  about  three  miles 
along  tho  river,  opposite  Hutchinson's  Island,  and  extend- 
ing inland  li  miles,  Savannah  has  an  area  of  3J  square 
miles.  The  site  is  partly  formed  by  a  bold  bluff  of  sand 
about  a  mile  long,  which  lies  40  feet  above  low-water 
mirk,  ending  abruptly  at  either  extremity,  but  "slopes 
inland  for  several  miles  with  a  very  gentle  and  regular 
declivity."  Though  laid  out  in  parallelograms,  Savannah 
has  less  than  usual  of  the  monotony  of  system,  no  fewer 
than  twenty-four  small  public  parks  or  gardens  being  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  city,  and  most  of  its  streets  being 
well  shaded  with  trees.  In  the  south  is  Forsyth  Park 
(30  acres),  with  a  fountain  after  the  model  of  that  in 
the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  Paris,  and  a  monument  to  the 
Memory  of  the  Confederate  slain.  Johnson  Square  con- 
tains a  Doric  obelisk,  in  memory  of  General  Nathaniel 
Greene  and  Count  Pulaski,  the  corner  stone  of  which  was 
laid  by  Lafayette  in  1825;  and  in  Monterey  Square,  on 
the  spot  where  PuLski  fell  in  1779,  rises  a  more  elaborate 
monument — a  statue  of  Liberty  displapng  the  national 
banner,  on  the  top  of  a  marble  shaft  55  feet  high.  The 
focus  of  commercial  life  in  Savannah  is  the  so-called  Bay, 
a  narrow  street  built  at  the  foot  of  the  river  bluff,  with  its 
top  stories  opening  on  the  liigher  level  behind.  ,  Among 
the  more  conspicuous  buildings  are  tho  custom-house  and 
post  office,  the  city  exchange,  the  court-house,  Oglethorpe 
United  States  barracks,  Chatham  academy,  St  Andrew's 
hall,  the  library  hall  of  the  Georgia  Historical  Society,  the 
Savannah  medical  college,  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral, 
and  St  John's  Episcopal  church.  Besides  being  the 
second  cotton  port  in  the  States,  Savannah  has  a  large 
trade  in  rice,  timber,  resin,  and  turpentine,  the  value  of 
its  exports  being  829,850,275  in  1873,  and  $21,527,235 
in  1880.  Planing  mills,  foundries,  and  flour-mills  are  the 
chief  industrial  establishments.  The  harbour  has  in  Tybee 
Roads  a  depth  of  31  feet  and  38  feet  at  mean  low  and 
high  water,  and  the  bar  19  and  26  feet.  •  The  population, 
5195  in  1810,  was  15,.312  in  1850,  28.235  in  1870,  and 
30,709  (15,654  coloured)  in  1880. 

Savannah,  was  settlerl  iu  February  1733  under  General  Ogle- 
thorpe. A  British  attack  in  1776  was  repulsed  ;  but  it  was  cap- 
tured i  1  1778,  and  though  the  French  ana  American  forces  made 
an  attempt  to  recover  it  in  1779  it  was  held  by  the  British  till  July 
1783.  The  first  session  of  the  legislature  of  tho  State  was  held 
in  Savannah  *in  January  1784.  A  city  charter  was  granted  iu 
1789.  A  great  fire  in  1796  and  another  in  1820  did  damage  to 
the  amount  of  81,000,000  and  $4,000,000  respectively.  During 
tho  Civil  War  Savannah  was  held  by  tho  Confederates  ;  but  it  was 
ultimately  captured  by  General  Sherman  on  21st  December  1864 

SAVARY,  Anne  Jean  Marie  Renb  (1774-1833),  duke 
of  Rovigo,  was  born  at  Marcq,  in  the  canton  of  Grandpr6 
and  department  of  Ardennes,  on  26th  April  1774.  He 
was.  educated  at  the  college  of  St  Louis  in  Metz,  where  he 
gained  a  scholarship.  When  a  youth  of  sixteen  he  became 
a  volunteer  in  a  cavalry  regiment.  His  first  military  ex- 
periences were  with  the  army  of  the  Rhine  under  C'ustine ; 
he  distinguished  himself  under  Moreau  and  Firino,  and  by 
1797  had  reached  the  rank  of  major.  In  the  next  year, 
under  Dcsaix,  he  took  part  in  tho  Egyptian  expedition, 
and  ho  followed  the  same  genei-al  in  the  second  Italian 
campaign,  and  at  tho  great  battle  of  Marengo  (Mlh  Juno 
1800).  Ho  had  by  this  time  attracted  tho  favourable 
notice  of  Napoleon,  who  detected  not  only  his  soldierly 
powers  but  his  singular  gifts  in  the  region  of  diplomacy 
and  intrigue.  For  Savary  the  i)lans  and  will  of  Napoleon 
formed  a  law  which  obliterated  every  other,  and  in  pre- 
sence of  which  political  and  moral  scruple  Lad  no  place. 
So  early  as  1800,  while  only  twenty-six  years  of  a(,'e,  Lo 
vad  appointed  a  colonel  and  tho  commander  of  that  legion 


which  was  afterwards  to  form  the  picked  bodyguard  of 
the  emperor.  In  1803  ho  was  general  of  brigade,  and  in 
1804  he  was  charged  with  the  execution  of  the  Due 
d'Enghien.  Savary  in  his  Memoirs  (published  in  Paris  in 
1828,  8  vols.  8vo)  avows  that  all  he  did  was  to  convey 
to  Vincennes  a  letter  whose  contents  he  did  not  know, 
and  early  next  morning,  in  obedience  to  the  orders  of  a 
superior  officer,  to  have  the  duke  shot.  The  other  side  of 
the  story  is  that  he  knew  all  about  it, — that  of  set  purpose, 
and  in  order  to  prevent  an  appeal  to  Napoleon's  clemency, 
he  hastened  the  execution  ;  and  it  is  certain  that,  unlike  a 
man  merely  under  orders,  he  himself  went  straight  to 
Bonaparte  to  report  the  death.  Savary  was  the  hand 
which  Napoleon  employed  in  the  delicate  negotiations 
with  the  emperor  Alexander  about  the*  time  of  tho  battle 
of  Austerlitz  in  1805.  At  Jena  in  1-806  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  successful  pursuit  of  the  retreating  Prus- 
sians ;  he  rendered  signal  service  by  the  siege  of  Hameln, 
which  he  forced  to  capitulate  on  20th  November ;  and, 
finally,  the  severe  defeat  which  he  inflicted  upon  tho 
Russian  forces  at  Ostrolenka,  on  16th  February  1807, 
was  his  crowning  victory.  Among  other  honours  and 
rewards,  he  received  a  pension  of  20,000  francs.  After 
the  peace  of  Tilsit  he  was  despatched  to  St  Petersburg ; 
but  shortly  thereafter — the  Napoleonic  scheme  for  tho 
crown  of  Spain  being  now  apparently  complete — he  was 
recalled,  was  created  duke  of  Rovigo,  and  started  for 
Madrid.  His  deceitful  intrigue  was  soon  successful,  and 
Joseph  Bonaparte  ascended  the  Spanish  throne.  From 
1808  to  1810  he  was  again  beside  Napoleon  in  the  many 
and  changing  scenes  of  his  exploits ;  but  on  the  8th  of 
June  of  the  latter  year  France  itself,  now  fully  alive  to 
the  vast  and  mysterious  power  he  had  learned  to  wield, 
was  startled  by  his  appointment  as  successor  to  Fouch6 
in  the  ministry  of  police.  His  administration,  however, 
was  not  a  success.  After  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon, 
he  desired  to  accompany  his  master  to  St  Helena,  bub 
this  was  refused,  and  he  was  imprisoned  at  Malta.  Ha 
escaped  thence  to  Smyrna,  thereafter  wandered  about  the 
east  of  Europe,  and  finally  embarked  for  England,  which 
he  reached  in  1819.  Three  years  before  he  had  been 
condemned  to  death,  by  default ;  and,  learning  this,  ho 
proceeded  to  Paris  to  clear  himself  of  the  sentence,  in 
which  he  succeeded,  being  also  reinvested  wth  his  rank 
and  dignities.  He  retired  to  Rome,  where  he  remained 
till  1831,  when  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of 
the  African  army,  and  entrusted  with  the  administration 
of  Algeria.  His  duties  were  successfully  performed,  but 
he  returned  in  March  1833  in  weak  health  to  Paris,  where 
he  died  on  tho  2d  of  June. 

SAVIGLIANO,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  tho  province  ol 
Cuneo,  31  i  miles  by  rail  south  of  Turin,  lies  in  a  plain 
between  the  Maira  and  the  ^lellea  (head-streams  of  tho  Po) 
1081  feet  above  the  sea.  It  still  retains  some  traces  ol 
its  ancient  walls,  demolished  in  1707,  and  has  a  fine  col- 
legiate church  (Sant'  Andrea,  dating  at  least  from  the  11th 
century,  but  in  its  present  form  comparatively  modern), 
a  triumphal  arch  erected  in  honour  of  the  marriage  of  Victor 
Amadous  I.  with  Christine  of  France,  and  in  tho  Taffini 
palace  paintings  by  tho  16th-century  local  artist  Giovanni 
Mollineri  (Mulinari,  11  Caraccino).  Savigliano  has  long 
been  a  placo  of  considerable  industrial  activity;  ita 
modern  manufactures  comprise  paper,  silk,  and  beer.  Tha 
population  was  9932  in  1881  (commune  17,150). 

First  mentioned  in  981  as  Villa  Savilliani,' Savigliano  appears  in 
tho  12th  century  as  a  member  of  tho  Lombard  league.  Its  name 
pcipctually  crops  u|«  in  tho  history  of  Piedmont  and  Sitvoy.  It  was 
besieged  and  taken  bythcduko  of  Savoy  in  1347  and  agniain  1367; 
ond  in  tho  IClh  ond  17th  centuries  it  suffered  severely  from  French 
garrisons.  Charles  Enunanuel  I.  died  in  16?0  ot  Savigliano,  whcrti 
tho  Piedmontcso  seuato  had  met  to  oacapo  tho  pestilence. 


S26 


S  A  V  I  G  N  Y 


SAVIGNY,  Friedeich  Cakl  von  (1779-1861),  was 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  on  February  21,  1779. 
He  was  descended  from  an  ancient  family,  which  figures 
in  the  history  of  Lorraine,  and  which  derived  its 
name  from  the  castle  of  Savigny  near  Charmes  in  the 
valley  of  tlie  Moselle.  When  Lorraine  passed  into  the 
possession  of  France,  his  family  attached  itself  to  Ger- 
many, and  his  ancestors  filled 'important  official  posts  in 
Nassau  and  other  German  states.  His  great-grandfather 
wrote  a  work,  La  Dissolution  de  la  Reunion,  as  a  protest 
against  the  conquests  of  Louis  XIV. ;  his  grandfather  was 
"  Kegierungsdirector  "  at  Zweibriicken,  and  his  father  was 
a  noble  of  the  empire  and  "  Kreisgesandter "  of  several 
princes  of  the  diet  of  the  circle  of  the  Upper  Rhine. 
His  father,  Carl  Ludwig  von  Savigny,  died  in  1791,  his 
mother  in  1792,  and  he  was  brought  up. and  educated  by 
his  guardian,  Herr  von  Neurath,  assessor  of  the  Eeichs- 
kammergericht  or  imperial  chamber  at  Wetzlar,  a  master 
of  the  "  Staatsrecht "  of  the  time. 

In  1795  Savigny  went  to  study  at  Marburg,  and 
derived  great  advantage,  as  is  gratefully  recorded  by 
Lim,  from  the  teaching  and  friendship  of  Professors  Weis 
and  Bauer.  For  six  months  he  studied  at  Gottingen.  It 
is  noted  as  a  curious  circumstance  that,  though  Hugo,  the 
great  civilian,  was  there  lecturing,  Savigny  did  not  attend 
his  course.  He  suffered  much  for  two  or  three  years  from 
ill-health,  Savigny  visited,  after  the  fashion  cf  German 
students,  Jena,  Leipsic,  and  Halle;  and  he  returned  to 
Marburg,  where,  on  December  31,  1800,  he  took  his 
doctor's  degree.  His  itfaugural  dissertation  was  entitled 
De  Concursu  Delictorum  Formali.^  At  Marburg  he  lectured 
as  privat-docent  on  criminal  law,  the  pandects,  the  law  of 
succession,  obligations,  and  the  methodology  of  law.  In 
1803  he  published  his  famous  treatise.  Das  Recht  des 
Besitzes,  or  the  right  of  possession.  It  was  at  once  hailed 
by  Thibaut  as  a  masterpiece ;  jurists  recognized  that  the 
old  uncritical  study  of  Roman  law  was  at  an  end.  It 
quickly  obtained  a  European  reputation,  and  still  remains 
a  prominent  landmark  in  the  history  of  jurisprudence.  It 
was  the  fountain-head  of  a  stream  of  literature  which  has 
not  yet  ceased  to  flow.  Austin,  no  partial  judge,  pro- 
nounced it  to  be  "  of  all  books  upon  law,  the  most  con- 
summate and  masterly."  In  1804  Savigny  married  Kuni- 
gunde  Brentano,  the  sister  of  Bettina  von  Arnim  and 
Clemens  Brentano  the  poet.  In  that  year  he  visited 
Paris,  chiefly  with  a  view  to  make  researches  in  the 
National  Library  into  the  life  of  the  jurist  Cujas,  whom 
he  greatly  admired.  In  a  letter  to  be  found  in  his  miscel- 
laneous works  he  explains  the  ground  of  his  admiration. 
"  Dans  I'histoire  de  la  jurisprudence  moderne,  il  n'y  a  pas 
d'dpoque  plus  brilliante  que  celle  du  16°"  sifeole.  C'est 
alora  que  la  science  du  droit  eut  v^ritablement  un  grand  et 
noble  caractfere  qu'elle  n'a  pas  retrouve  depuis/'  A  story 
not  without  significance  as  to  his  character  relates  to  this 
period  of  his  life.  On  his  way  to  Paris,  a  box  containing 
papers  in  which  were  the  results  of  laborious  researches 
was  stolen  from  his  carriage.  He  bore  the  loss  with 
squanimity,  and  managed  with  the  assistance  of  Jacob 
Grimm,  his  wife,  and  one  of  her  sisters  to  do  much  to  re- 
pair the  loss. 

In  1808  he  was  appointed  by  the  Bavarian  Government 
ordinary  professor  of  Roman  law  at  Landshut,  where  he 
remained  a  year  and  a  half,  and  where  he  left  many 
pleasant  memories.  In  1810  he  was  called,  chiefly  at  the 
instance  of  William  von  Humboldt,  to  Berlin  to  fill  the 
chair  of  Roman  law,  and  assist  in  organizing  the  new 
university.     One  of  his   services  was  to  create,  in  con- 

'  The  object  of  Ms  investigation  is  thus*  described :  "  Delicta 
eoncurrere  dicuntur,  ubi  de  pluribiis  legum  violationibus,  quariun 
nonnisi  unus  est  reus,  iu  eodem  judicio  puniend5s  agitur." 


nexion  with  the  law  faculty,  a  "  Spruch-Colleglum,"  or 
university  court,  competent  to  deal  with  cases  remitted  to 
it  by  the  ordinary  courts ;  and  he  took  an  active  part  in 
its  labours.  This  was  the  busiest  time  of  his  life.  Uc 
was  engaged  in  lecturing,  in  the  government  of  the  uni- 
versity (of  which  he  was  the  third  rector),  and  as  tutor  to 
the  crown  prince  in  Roman,  criminal,  and  Prussian  law. 
Not  the  least  important  consequence  of  his  residence  in 
Berlin  was  his  friendship  with  Niebuhr  and  Eichhorn. 
In  1814  appeared  his  pamphlet  Vom  Bervf  tinstrer  Zi.it 
fiir  Gesetzgebung  und  Ruchtstvissenschaft.  It  was  a  protest 
against  the  demand  for  codification,  and  in_  particular 
against  the  extension  of  the  Code  Napolijon  to  Germany. 
Fired  with  the  hope  that  a  day  of  resurrection  for  the 
national  life  of  Germany  was  at  hand,  Thibaut  had  written 
a  pamphlet  urging  the  necessity  of  forming  a  code  for 
Germany.  Savigny  wrote  a  reply,  in  which  were  laid 
down  some  principles  with  which  wise  advocates  of  codi- 
fication might  well  agiee.  "I  regard,"  he  said,  "the  law 
of  each  country  as  a  member  of  its  body,  not  as  a  garment 
merely  which  has  been  made  to  please  the  fancy,  and  can 
be  taken  off  at  pleasure  and  exchanged  for  another."  He 
laid  stress  upon  the  connexion  of  the  present  and  the 
past  and  the  consequent  limitations  of  the  power  of  legis- 
lation. But  in  the  course  of  his  argument  he  confounded 
the  errors  of  codifiers  in  France,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  and 
especially  the  defects  in  the  Code  Napoleon,  ^vith  the 
necessary  incidents  of  codification.  Put  at  its  highest,  his 
argument  comes  to  little  more  than  others  had  before 
crudely  expressed  by  saying,  "  We  are  not  wise  enough  to 
compose  a  code."  ^ 

In  1815  he  founded,  with  Eichhorn  and  Goschen,  the 
Zeitschrift  fur  geschickiliche  Recht sioissenscJiaft,  the  organ 
of  the  new  historical  school,  of  which  he  was  the  represen- 
tative. In  1816,  while  on  his  way  to  Rome  as  envoy  of 
Prussia,  Niebuhr  made  at  Verona  the  celebrated  dis- 
covery of  the  lost  text  of  Gaius.  He  communicated  to 
Savigny  the  fact,  and  also  his  conjecture  that  it  was  the 
work  of  Ulpian.  Savigny  made  known  the  discovery  to 
the  world  in  an  article  in  the  Zeitschrift,  and  pointed  out 
Gaius  as  the  real  author.  Goschen,  Bekker,  and  HoU- 
weg  actually  deciphered  the  manuscript;  but  there  if 
some  truth  in  Hugo's  saying,  "  Without  Savigny  one 
would  not  have  had  Gaius." 

The  record  of  the  remainder  of  Savigny 's  life  consists  of 
little  else  than  a  list  of  the  merited  honours  which  he 
received  at  the  hands  of  his  sovereign,  and  of  the  works 
which  he  published  with  indefatigable  activity. 

In  1815  appeared  the  first  volume  of  his  GescMchie  des 
Romischen  Rechts  im  Mitlelalter ;  the  last  did  not  appear 
untU  1831.  This  work,  to  which  his  early  instructor, 
Weis,  had  first  prompted  him,  was  originally  intended  to 
be  a  literary  history  of  Roman  law  from  Irnerius  to  the 
present  time.  His  design  was  in  some  respect  narrowed ; 
in  others  it  was  widened.  He  saw  fit  not  to  continue  the 
narrative  beyond  the  16th  century,  when  the  separation  of 
nationalities  disturbed  the  foundations  of  the  science  of 
law.  His  treatment  of  the  subject  was  not  merely  that  of 
a  bibliographer ;  it  was  philosophical.  It  revealed  the  con- 
tinuity in  the  history  of  Roman  law ;  and  it  was  an  emphatic 
protest  against  the  habit  of  viewing  the  law  of  a  nation  as  an 
arbitrary  creation,  not  connected  with  its  history  and  con- 
dition. It  was  the  parent  of  many  valuable  works  which 
continued  Savigny's  investigations.'  In  1817  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  the  commission  for  organizing  the 
Prussian  provincial  estates,  and  also  a  member  of  the 
department  of  justice  in  the  Staatsrath,  and  in  1819  ha 

'  See  Austin's  criticisms  in  Lectures,  ii.  698. 
^  See  Von  Mohl's  Staatswissenschafl,  vol.  iii.  p.  55.     For  a  soma> 
what  less  favourable  view,  see  Gans's  VermisMe  Schri/ten, 


S  A  Y  —  S  A  V 


327 


became  a  member  of  tbe  supreme  court  of  cassation  and 
revision  for  the  Rhine  Provinces.  In  1820  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  commission  for  revising  the  Prussian  rode. 
In  1822  a^  serious  nervous  illness  attacked  Savignj',  and 
compelled  him  to  seek  relief  in  travel.  He  always  con- 
sidered that  he  had  benefited  much  by  the  homoeopathic 
treatment  of  Dr  Necker,  and  he  remained  a  firm  believer 
in  homoeopathy.  In  1835  he  began  his  elaborate  work 
on  the  modern  system  oi  Roman  law.  The  eighth  and  last 
volume  appeared  in  18-19. 

In  March  1842  he  ceased  to  perform  his  duties  as 
professor  in  order  to  become  "Grosskanzler"  of  Prussia; 
and  in  that  position  he  carried  out  several  important  law 
reforms  in  regard  to  bills  of  exchange  and  divorce  (a 
subject  on  which  he  had  meditated  much).  He  held  that 
office  until  1848,  when  he  resigned,  not  altogether  to  the 
regret  of  Ids  friends,  who  had  seen  his  energies  with- 
drawn from  jurisprudence  without  being  able  to  flatter 
themselves  that  he  was  a.  great  statesman.  In  1850,  on 
the  occasion  of  the  jubilee  of  his  obtaining  his  doctor's 
degree,  appeared  in  five  volumes  his  Vermischie  Schriften, 
consisting  of  a  collection  of  his  minor  works  published 
between  1800  and  1844.  This  event  gave  rise  to  much 
enthusiasm  throughout  Germany  in  honour  of  "  the  great 
master  "  and  founder  of  modern  jurisprudence.  Professor 
Scheurl,  in  his  EinU/e  Worte  iiber  Savigny,  notes  the  fact 
that  on  the  31st  of  October  Luther  first  revealed  to  the 
world  the  light  of  evangelical  truth,  and  Savigny  on  that 
day  began  his  work  as  a  law  reformer.  In  1853  he  pub- 
lished his  treatise  on  Obligations,  a  supplement  to  his 
system  of  moderu  Roman  law.  Savigny  died  at  Berlin  on 
October  25,  18G1.  His  son,  Carl  Friedrich  von  Savigny, 
born  September  19,  1814,  was  Prussian  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  1849.  He  represented  Prussia  in  important 
diplomatic  transactions,  especially  in  18GC,  and  died 
February  11,  1875. 

>  In  the  liistory  of  jurisprudence  Savigny's  great  works  are  the 
Rcchi  cUs  Besitzes  and  the  Bcruf  unscrer  Zcit  fiir  Gcsch{iebimg, 
The  former  marked  an  epoch  in  jurisprudence.  Prof,  lliering 
says:  "With  the  Sec/U  des  Besitzes v:as  the  juridical  method  of  the 
Romans  regained,  and  modern  jurisprudence  born."  It  marked  a 
great  advance  both  in  results  and  method,  and  it  rendered  obsolete 
a  large  literature.  Savigny  sought  to  prove  that  in  Roman  law 
possession  had  always  reference  to  usucapion  or  to  interdicts, 
that  it  is  not  a  right  to  continue  in  possession,  but  to  immunity 
from  violence,  and  that  possession  is  based  on  the  consciousness  of 
unlimited  power.  These  and  other  propositions  were  maintained 
with  great  acutenesa  and  unequalled  ingenuity  in  interpreting 
and  harmonizing  the  Roman  jurists.  The  book  also  seeks  to  solve 
the  problem  of  general  interest,  common  to  almost  every  system 
of  jurisprudence,  why  possession,  rightful  or  wrongful,  as  distin- 
guished from  property,  should  bo  protected.  This  general  problem 
suffers  by  being  almost  solely  discussed  with  reference  to  Roman  law. 
His  leading  principle,  that  every  "  exercise  of  force  "  is  illegal,  is 
not  incontestible,  and,  if  true,  it  does  not  clear  up  tlie  wliolo 
problem.  The  attempt  to  treat  the  historical  accidents  of  Roman 
law  as  juridical  necessities  is  the  weak  side  of  a  work  in  other 
respects  masterly  ;  and  there  is  a  difBculty  in  understanding 
Austin's  eulogy  that  it  was  of  all  books  he  knew  "  the  least  alloyed 
with  error  and  imperfection."  The  con'-oversy  which  has  beet 
carried  on  in  Germany  by  Ihering,  Baron,  Gans,  and  Bruns 
shows  that  many  of  Savigny's  conclusions  liave  not  been 
accepted.'  Tho  Bcruf  uuserer  Zeil  expresses  the  idea,  un- 
fajniliar  in  1814,  that  lav/  is  part  and  parcel  of  national  life,  and 
combats  tho  notion,  too  much  assumed  by  French  jurists,  espe- 
cially in  last  century,  and  countenanced  in  practice  by  Bentham, 
that  law  might  bo  arbitrarily  imposed  on  a  country  irrespective  of 
its  state  of  civilization  and  past  history.  Of  even  greater  value 
than  his  services  in  founding  or  consolidating  "  the  liistcrical  school 
of  jurisprudence"  is  tho  emphatic  recognition  in  his  works  of  the 
fact  that  tho  practice  and  theory  of  jurisprudence  cannot  be 
divorced  without  injury  to  both.  Writing  at  a  time  when  the 
influence  of  Hegel  was  in  tho  ascendant,  and  in  a  city  where  he 
was  ofTicial  philosopher,  Savigny  was  not  curried  away  by  meta- 
physical theories.  In  all  his  wntings  there  is  not  a  word  betraying 
acquaintance  with  the  labours  of  his  great  contemporary,  Bentlium; 
■got  had  Bentham  more  than  the  ninst  superfii-ml  knowledge  of 
'  See  Windscheid,  Lehrbuch  ttfs  /'anttektenrcchis^  i.  439. 


him  (see  Gans's  raicWickc  auf  Pcrsonen).  Perhaps  a  study  of  both 
would  do  more  than  anything  else  to  aid  in  the  constniction  of  a 
true  science  of  jurisprudence,  consisting  neither  of  platitudes  and 
logomachies  nor  of  a  worthless  catalogue  of  legal  curiosities.   (J.  Mt.) 

SAVILK     See  Halifax,  vol.  xi.  p.  386. 

SAVILE,  Sra  Hexuy  (1 549-1 G22),  a  learned  English- 
man, was  the  second  son  of  Henry  Savile,  and  was  bom 
at  Over  Bradley,  near  Halifax,  Yorkshire,  30th  November 
1549.  He  entered  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  whence  he 
was  elected  to  Merton  College  in  1561,  where  he  took  his 
degree  in  Arts  and  was  chosen  fellow.  After  graduating 
M.A.  in  1570,  he  voluntarily  read  lectures  on  mathematics 
in  the  university.  He  was  proctor  in  1575  and  1576, 
travelled  on  the  Continent  collecting  MSS.  in  1578,  and 
on  his  return  was  tutor  to  Elizabeth  in  Greek  and  mathe- 
matics. He  was  warden  of  !Merton  College  from  1585 
until  his  death,  and  in  1596  was  chosen  provost  of  Eton 
College.  He  was  offered  preferment  by  James  I.  after  his 
accession  in  1G04,  but  would  accept  nothing  more  than 
the  honour  of  knighthood.  After  the  death  of  his  son 
Henry  he  devoted  his  fortune  to  the  promotion, of  learn- 
ing. In  1619  he  founded  lectures  on  mathematics  z.cA 
astronomy  at  Oxford,  and  he  also  made  various  other 
benefactions  to  the  university,  including  the  foundation  of 
a  mathematical  library  for  the  i)rofessors,  and  the  gift  of 
several  rare  MSS.  and  printed  books  to  tlie  Bodleian. 
He  died  at  Eton  College  19th  February  1622,  and  i^aa 
buried  in  the  chapel  there.  In  recognition  of  his  great 
services  to  the  university,  a  public  speech  and  verses  were 
made  in  his  praise,  which  were  soon  afterwards  published 
under  the  title  Ultima  Linea  Savilii. 

Savile  was  held  in  the  highest  esteem  by  all  the  learned  of  his 
time.  He  published  Four  Books  of  the  Histories  of  Cornelius 
Tacilus,  and  the  Life  of  Agricola,  with  A'otcs,  dedicated  to  Queen 
Elizabeth  (1581) ;  A  View  of  Certain  Military  Matters,  or  Ccnn- 
mentarics  coiicerning  Roman  Warfare  (1598) ;  Rerum  Anglieanim 
Seriptores  post  Bedam  (1596) ;  an' excellent  edition  of  Ohrysostom, 
8  vols.  (1613);  Mathcmatieal  Lectures  on  Euclid's  Elements  (1621); 
and  Oratio  coram  Eliznhclhn  L'egina  Omnia  liahita  anno  1592 
(1658).  In  1618  ha  published,  with  a  Life,  Bradwardin's  work 
Dc  Causa  Dei  contra  Pclagium  et  de  Virtnte  Causanim ;  and  he 
translated  into  Latin  King  James's  Apology  for  the  Oalh  of  Alle- 
giance.'' He  also  left  several  manuscripts  written  by  order  of  Kinfl 
James,  all  of  which  are  in  the  Bodleian  library. 

SAVINGS  BANKS  (Fr.  causes  d'epargne;  Germ.  Spar- 
Icassen)  are  institutions  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  small 
deposits  of  money  and  investing  them  for  the  benefit  of 
tho  depositors  at  compound  iutcrest.  They  are,  in  genorali 
managed  by  benevolent  persons,  who  seek  no  remunerti- 
tion  for  their  services.  They  originated  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  18th  century — a  period  marked  by  a  great  advance 
in  the  organization  of  provident  habits  in  general  (see 
Friendly  Societies).  They  had  been,  however,  one  of 
the  many  excellent  projects  suggested  by  Daniel  Defoe  in 
1697.  The  earliest  institution  of  the  kind  in  Europe  was 
one  established  at  Brunswick  in  1765  ;  it  was  followed  in 
1778  by  that  of  Hamburg,  which  still  exists,  in  1786  by 
one  at  Oldenburg,  in  1790  by  one  at  Loire,  in  1702  by 
that  of  Basel,  in  1794  by  one  at  Geneva,  which  had  bnt  a 
short  existence,  and  in  1796  by  one  at  Kiel  in  Holstein. 
In  Great  Britain,  in  1797,  Jeremy  Bentham  revived  De- 
foe's suggestion  under  tho  name  of  "Frugality  Banks," 
and  in  1799  tho  Rev.  Joseph  Smith  put  it  in  action  at 
Wendover.  This  was  followed  in  1801  by  the  addition  of 
a  savings  bank  to  tho  friendly  society' which  jMrs  Priscilla 
Wakefield  had  established  in  1798.  Savings  banks  were 
shortly  after  established  in  London,  Bath,  Ruthwoll  in 
Dumfriesshire,  Edinburgh,  Kelso,  ITawick,  Southampton, 
and  many  other  places.  By  1817  they  had  become 
numerous  enough  to  claim  the  attention  of  the  legislature, 
and  Act.i  of  Parliament  were  pas.sed  for  their  mnnagcmenti 
and  control.  Their  progress  in  the  Unilwl  Kingdom  Hitio0 
I  that  date  is  shown  by  the  following  statement : — 


328 


SAYINGS      BANKS 


Year 

ending 

Nov. 

20. 

ropnlation. 

Number  of 
Depofiitora. 

Percent- 
age of 
Popula- 
tion. 

Amnnnt  of 
Deposits. 

Per  Head 
of 

Population. 

1821 

1831 
1841 
1851- 
,1861 

20,893,584 

24,028,584 
26,730,929 
27,390,629 
28,927,485 

Not  known 

■  429,400 

841,204 

1,161,838 

1,609,102 

2" 
3 
4 
6 

£ 
4,740,188 
14,698,635 
24,636,971 
30,445,568 
41,542,219 

£    s.  d. 
0     4     6 
0  12     3 

0  18     4 

1  2     3 
18     9 

From  this  date  the  progress  of  the  post  office  savings 
banks  has  also  to  be  brought  into  account,  statistics  of 
which  have  already  been  given  under  Post  Office  : — 


Population. 

NumBer  of  Depositors.' 

Percent- 
age of 
Popula- 
tion. 

Tear. 

Trustee 
Saving  Banks. 

■    Post  OfBce 
Savings  3anks. 

Total. 

1871 
1881 
,1834 

31,845,379 
'35,241,482 

1,404.078 
1,532,486 
1,582,474 

1,303,492 
2,607,612 
3,333,675 

2,707,570 
4,140,098 
4,916,149. 

Si- 

12 

Amount  of  Deposits. 

Per  Head 
of  Popula- 
tion. 

Per  De- 
positor. 

I 

Trustee 
Savings  Banks. 

Post  OEBee 
Savings  Banks. 

Total. 

'l87l 
'IS8I 
^1884 

£ 
38,820,458 
44,137,855 
45,840,887 

£ 

'17,025,004 
36,194.495 
44,773,773 

£ 
55,845,462 
80,332,350 
90,614,660 

£    s.    d. 

1  15     0 

2  5     7 

£ 

21 
19 
18 

On  the  24th  April  1886  the  funds  in  the  hands  of  the 
National  Debt  Commissioners  on  account  of  trustee  savings 
banks  were  £46,102,515,  and  post,  office  savings  banks 
.£4^,881,896,  a  total  of  £96,044,41 1. 

To  these  maybe  added  the  cash  and  assets  in  the  hands 
of  the  banks,  and  the  postmaster-general,  which  at  the 
beginning  of  the  previous  year  amounted  to  £764,804,  and" 
also  the  following  investments  in  stock  on  account  of 
depositors  : — trustee  savings  bank,  £729,522  ,  post  office 
savings  bank,  £2,626,928  ;  total,  £3,356,450  ;— making 
the  aggregate  funds  belonging  to  depositors  in  sayings 
banljs  more  than-£100,000,000. 

The  largest  sa-vings  bank  in  the  United  Kingdom  is 
that  at  Glasgow,  as  shown  by  the  following  table  of  the 
21  principal  banks  : — 


Glasgow 

Liverpool 

Manchester 

Edinburgh 

St  Martin's  Place,  Lo»lon  .... 
BloomfielJ  Street,  London... 

Exeter 

Sheffield '. 

Finsbury,.  London 

Newcastle-on-T)'nG 

Preston 

HuU 

Nottingham 

Leeds : 

Bristol 

Devonport 

Bloomsbury,  London 


Banks  with  less  capital  but  a 
large  number  of  depositors- 
Aberdeen 

Dundee 

Marylebone,  liondon 

Leicester 


Deposits  on 

20th  Novera- 

ter  1884. 


'  £ 

656,607 
080,788 
858,468 
412,547 
351,839 
263,577 
,054,001 
957,164 
885,195 
776,188 
653,875 
628,903 
607,708 
572,209 
539,695 
623,154 
521,615 


19,374,183 


396,151 
474,089 
301,713 
826  296 


20,872,382    797,433 


Deposit 

Accounts 

Open. 


127,651 
80,667 
68,162 
59,970 
29,999 
65,301 
'34,217 
S2,3S9 
31,880 
21,998 
19,561 
■27,597 
22,811 
24,322 
14,168 
18,995 
•23,532 


703,220 

32,068 
22,119 
20,895 
18,531 


Number  of 
Transactions 
in  the  Year. 


523,322 

336,281 

210,828 

232,375 

38,350 

104,311. 

35,230 

74,150 

97,386 

40,952 

54,871 

82,414 

40,114 

83,433 

29,286 

23,675 

39,438 


2,0i6,416 


36,380 
81,753 
23,773 
36,141 


2,224,463 


From  tliis  table  some  interesting  conclusions  rimy  bo  drawn 
as  to  the  operations  of  savings  banks  in  the  larger  towns. 
These  21  banks  have  together  more  than  50  per  cent,  oi 
the  depositors,  niore  than  45  per  cent,  qf  the  deposits, 
and  more  than  65  per  tent,  of  the  transactions  of  all  the 
411  savings  banks  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  progress  of  savings  banks  and  the  largo  amount 
that  the  deposits  have  now  reached  are  evidence  of  the 
general  fitness  of  the  organization  for  its  purpose.  So  far 
as  regards  trustee  savings  banks,  the  provisions  of  the 
Acts  of  1817  are  still  to  a  great  extent  the  same  as  those 
by  which  they  are  now  regulated,  though  the  law  has 
been  frequently  amended  in  matters  of  detail,  tvcd  twice 
(1828  and  1863)  consolidated.  Its  main  feature  is  the 
requirement  that  the  whole  of  the  funds  should  be  invested 
with  the  Government  through  the  Commissioners  for  the 
Reduction  of  the  National  Debt.  The  local  management 
of  the  banks  has  been  left  entirely  to  the  trustees,  who 
are  precluded  from  receiving  any  remuneration  for  their 
services  or  raakirig'  any  profit.  They  are,  however, 
required  to  furnish  the  commissioners  with  periodical 
returns,  of  their  transactions.  This  blending  of  private 
management  with  state  control  has  had  many  advantages 
in  knitting  together  class  and  class,  and  in  many  places 
the  voluntary  trustees  and  managers  have  been  able  to 
render  real  service  to  the  depositors  in  various  ways.  A 
new  savings  bank  requires  for  its  establishment  the  con- 
sent of  the  National  Debt  Commissioners  and  the  certi- 
ficate of  the  registrar  of  friendly  societies  to  its  rules; 
but  since  the  opening  of  the  post  ofSce  savings  banks  in 
1861  few  have  been  established,  and  many  old  savings 
banks  have  been  closed,  not  being  able  to  offer  to  their 
depositors  the  same  advantages  as  the  liew  system.  The 
savings  banks,  which  numbered  640  in  1861,  have  thus 
been  reduced  to  411,  and  their  capital  has  been  maintained 
rather  by  the  accumulation  of  interest  than  by  fresh 
deposits. 

The  legislation  of  1317,  among  other  inducements  to  thrift,' 
offered  that  of  a  bounty  to  the  savings  bank  depositor  in  the 
shape  of  a  rate  of  interest  in  e.tcess  of  that  given  to  the  ordinary 
public  creditor,  or — which  is  the  same  thing — in  excess  of  that 
which  could  be  earned  by,  the  investment  of  the  deposits  in  tha 
purchase  of  Government  stock.  The  interest  offered  in  the  first 
instance  was  3d.  per  day,  or  £4,  lis.  3d.  per  cent,  per  annum  ; 
and  that  rate  continued  to  be  grantea  until  the  passing  of  the  Act 
ot  1828  (9  Geo.  IV.  c.  92).  That  Act.  reduced  the  rato  of  interest 
allowed  to  the  trustees  of  savings  banks  to  2id.  per  day,  or  £3, 
16s.  Oid.  per  annum,  and  prohibited  them  from  allowing  more  to 
their  depositors  than  2Jd.  per  day,  or  £3,  8s.  S^d.  per  annum, 
requiring  them  to  pay  the  surplus,  if  any,  into  a  separate  fund 
held  by  the  National  Debt  Commissioners,  but  bearing  no  interest. 
In  1844  the  interest  to  trustees  was  further  reduca  to  2d.  per 
day,  or  £3,  5s.  per  cent,  the  maximum  to  be  allowed  to  depositors 
being  fi.xed  at  £3,  Os.  lOd.  Finally,  in  1880  the  interest  to  trus- 
tees has  been  reduced  to  £3,  and  that  to  depositors  to  £2,  15s. 

The  result  of  the  bonus  on  thrift  offered  by  the  earliei  statntea 
was  a  loss  to  the  state,  which  ought  to  have  been  made  good  by 
an  annual  vote.  Between  1817  and  1828  the  diffeience  between 
the  interest  credited  and  that  earned  amounted  to  £744,863  ;  and 
this  led  to  the  reduction  in  the  rate  of  interest  effected  by  the  Act 
of  the  latter  year.  The  deficiency,  instead  of  being  paid  off,  was 
allowed  still  "to  accumulate,  and  as  the  price  of  stock  rose  and  the 
deposits  increased  fresh  deficiencies  arose,  so  that  by  1844  the 
deficiency,  which  would  have  been  IJ  millions  by  the  mere 
accumulation  of  interest  on  the  previous  £744,363,  bad  become 
£3,179,930.  The  reduction  of  interest  in  1844  was  about  enough 
to  make  the  fund  self-supporting,  though  savings  banks  are  always, 
as  Mr  Scratchley  cleatly  shows,  liable  to  loss  from  the  fact  that 
deposits  are  in  excess  when  the  funds  arc  high  and  withdrawals 
when  they  are  low  ;  but  the  past  deficiency  was  still  allowed  to 
accumulate,  and  it  was  not  till  1880  that  the  plan  was  adopted 
of  voting  the  deficiency  every  year.  Had  the  accumulated  defi- 
ciency been  then  liquidated,  there  would  have  been  no  necessity 
for  an  annual  vote.  The  bad  political  economy  of  the  legislators 
of  1817  has  left  us  this  legacy  of  annual'  deficits.  Had  they 
provided  the  bounty  at  their  own  expense  instead  of  that  of 
their  descendants,  there  would  have  been  little  to  bo  said 
against  it 


SAVINGS      BANKS 


329 


Tlie  offer  of  a  bonus  on  thrift  was  of  necessity  accompanied  by 
provisions  to  guard,  against  its  being  used  by  otbcrs  than  the 
classes  it  was  intended  to  encourage.  This  was  done  by  limiting 
the  amount  that  each  depositor  sliould  be  permitted  *<>  FY  '"• 
In  the  first  instance,  in  England  the  limit  was  fiml  at  £100  for 
the  first  year,  and  £50  a  year  afterwards.  In  1824  these  limits 
were  reduced  to  £50  for  the  first  year,  £30  a  year  afterwards,  and 
£200  ill  the  whole.  In  1828  the  limit  was  adopted  which  still 
remains  in  force  of  £30  a  year  or  £150  in  the  whole,  allo«<^;l  b/ 
addition  of  interest  to  increase  to  £200  but  no  /"•tbev.  Attempts 
have  been  frequently  made  to  raise  the  annual  limit  to  ^--O  but 
have  always  been  defeated.  This  is  to  be  regretted,  for  the  limit 
is  of  doubtful  utility,  now  that  the  rate  of  interest  has  been  so 
reduced  as  to  prevent  loss  to  the  state.  It  is  withm  the  common 
experience  of  savings  banks  managers  that  persons  come  to  deposit 
an  amount  exceeding  £30  and  are  disappointed  when  they  find 
they  cannot  do  so.  The  Act  of  1882,  perni.tting  investment  lu 
Government  stock,  may  diminish  the  mischief. 

With  the  view  of  showing  to  what  extent  savings  banks  are 
used  by  the  classes  for  which  they  were  intended,  a  return  was 
published  for  the  year  1852,  showing  (as  nearly  as  could  be  ascer- 
tained) the  number  of  depositors  belonging  to  various  occupations, 
and  the  amount  of  their  deposits,  as  follows  :— ^ 


Depositors.      Deposits.    |  Avcioge. 


Tradesmen  and  their  assistants,  small 
farmers,  clerks. mechanics,  and  artisans 
not  desclibed  as  journeymen,  and  their 

Domestic  nervaiits,  charwomen,  nurses, 

and  laundresses — 

Minors  having  accounts  In  their   own 

names,  Including  apprentices 

Labourers,  fann  servants,  journeymen 

mechanics,  and  their  wives 

Females    described    only    as    married 

women,  widows,  or  spinsters 

Dressmakers,  milliners,  shopwomen,  and 

female  artisans •■ 

Trust  accounts  (principally  for  minors), 

Including  all  joint  accounts 

Soldiers,    sailors,    boatmen,    fishermen, 

policemen,    letter    carriers,    revenue 

offlcers,  pensioners,  railway  men,  and 

their  wives • -■ 

Persons  engaged  In  education,  male  and 

female V"*:*';; ',""1 

Gentlemen,    persons     of     Independent 

means,  professional   men,  and  their 

Miscellaneous,  and  persons  without  any 
given  description 


Total., 


296,407 
557,711 

182,636 

1.52,057 

138,858 

24,850 

22,347 

21,525 
10,497 

20,961 
60,289 


£8,144,206 
6,907,388 
2,420,195 
4,354,080 
4,»e7,458 
680,202 
417,786 

739,248 
327,795 

679,528 
1,394,351 


1,188,147 


£29,908,237 


£27 
27 
13 
29 
29 
23 
19 

31 
31 

28 
23 


Not  two  per  i-.nt.  of  the  deposits,  therefore,  either  in  number 
or  amount,  are  made  by  classes  whom  it  may  be  supposed  it  was 
the  intention  of  the  legislature  to  exclude.  . 

When  a  person  comes  with  his  first  deposit  to  a  savings  bank 
he  is  required  to  sign  a  declaration,  setting  forth  his  name, 
address  and  occupation,  that  he  desires  to  become  a  depositor  on 
his  own  account,  and  that  ho  has  no  money  in  any  other  savings 
bank  If  th'is  declaration  be  not  true,  the  deposits  are  liable  to 
be  forfeited  ;  but  it  is  to  be  feared  that  few  depositors  take  the 
trouble  to  read  what  they  are  signing,  or  think  much  about  the 
meaning  of  it.  '  If  the  depositor  cannot  write,  the  actuary  of  tho 
savin "s  bank  will  usually  ask  him  a  few  questions,  such  as  his 
ace  mother's  maiden  name,  &c.,  which  may  tend  to  identify  him, 
OT  defeat  any  attempt  to  personate  him  for  the  purpose  of  .with- 
drawal The  enactment  that  deposits  are  to  be  forfeited  if  the 
declaration  bo  false  was  qualified  in  18G3  by  a  provision  that  the 
forfeiture  should  not  bo  enforced  unless  in  the  opinion  of  the 
appointed  barrister  (now  the  solicitor  to  tho  treasury)  tho  deposits 
had  been  made  with  a  fraudulent  intention. 

Tho  consequence  of  tho  determination  by  tho  solicitor  to  tho 
treasury  that  tho  deposits  have  been  made  with  the  "fraudulent 
intention  which  the  Act  contemplates  is  out  of  all  proportion  to 
the  nature  of  tho  offence  committed,  being  in  fact  the  forfeiture  of 
all  tho  deposits.  Tho  prohibition  of  double  deposits  arose  when 
tho  sUtc  was  granting  a  rate  of  interest  greater  than  that  which 
it  earned  upon  tho  investment  ol  the  money,  and  it  has  no«  ceased 
itohave  any  real  reason  whatever,  tho  rate  of  interest  being  less 
than  earned.  Tho  intention  to  "defraud"  now  means  merely 
the  intention  to  eva.le  a  restriction  that  has  ceased  I)  be  necessary, 
not  an  intention  to  deprive  anybody  of  niiything  that  belongs  to 
him  If  it  be  thought  desirable  to  sanction  by  tlio  infliction  of  a 
penalty  the  law  that  these  institutions  should  bo  used  on  y  for 
the  s.avin"s  of  the  j.oorer  classes,  tho  loss  of  Inteicst  would  ho  a 
sufficient  if  not  an  extravagant  penalty,  without  forfeiture  of  tho 
principal.  Indeed,  tho  present  excessive  penalty  ha.s,  in  one  ro- 
{uarkablo  case,  defeated  iUelf.  This  was  tho  caso  of  a  depositor 
in  an  Irish  savings  bank,  who  invested  in  fictitious  names  the  sura 
of  £2000.     The  solicitor  to  tho  treasury  felt  compelled  to  declare 


that  these  deposits  were  made  with  a  fraudulent  intention.  -  Tha 
rcistrar  in  Ireland  felt  bound  to  act  on  this  determination,  and 
refused  to  award  payment  of  tho  deposits.  The  High  Court  of 
Justice  and  the  Court  of  Appeal  refused  to  grant  a  mandamus  for 
the  law  would  not  assist  a  wrongdoer.  But  parliament  itselt 
voted  £1000,  or  half  the  amount  of  the  forfeiture,  the  legislature 
thus  providing  a  remedy  for  an  injustice  it  had  itself  committed. 
Another  curious  case  was  that  of  a  young  woman,  the  daughter  ot 
a  postmaster,  who  in  order  that  her  father  might  be  provided 
with  funds  to  meet  business  claims  as  they  became  due,  purloined 
money  from  him  and  invested  it  in  false  names  in  the  post  othce 
savings  bank  kept  at  his  house.  In  tlii.  case,  the  postmaster  him- 
self not  being  the  guilty  party,  no  forfeiture  took  place. 

Anion"  the  benefits  conferred  by  the  legislature  upon  depositors 
in  savin's  banks  has  been  that  of  exemption  from  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  ordinary  courts  of  law  in  cases  of  dispute  with  the  trustees. 
By  the  Acts  of  1817  disputes  were  to  be  settled  by  arbitration. 
Bv  that  of  1828  the  barrister  appointed  to  certify  the  rules  of  the 
savings  banks  (then  and  until  his  death  in  1870  Mr  John  Tidd 
Pratt)  was  made  umpire  in  case  of  difference  of  opinion  between 
the  arbitr.itors.  By  that  of  1844  the  arbitrators  were  abolished, 
and  an  ori-rinal  and  final  jurisdiction  was  conferred  upon  the 
barrister  By  an  Act  of  1876  the  functions  of  the  barrister  m  this 
respect  were  conferred  upon  the  registrar  of  friendly  societies. 
This  in  effect  makes  no  change  in  the  law,  for  the  offices  of  barrister 
and  registrar  have  been  always  held  by  the  same  person.s.  As  early, 
as  1832  it  was  determined  in  the  case  of  Crisp  v.  Sir  Henry, 
Bunbury  that  the  effect  of  these  enactments  is  to  oust  the  juris; 
diction  of  all  the  superior  courts  of  law  and  equity,  and  the  author- 
ity of  that  decision  has  never  been  shaken  or  even  doubted.  * 

Since   1876   the   registrar   of  friendly   societies   has  ?nade  147  JnrWbC 
awards  in  cases  of  disputes  with  savings  banks,  in  addition  to  169  J^^^^ 
on  disputes  with  the  post  office  savings  bank.     As  the  writer  of 
the  present  article  is  one  of  the  two  persons  in  whom  this  jurisdic- 
tion is  vested  for  England,  he  hopes  he  may  be  excused  for  express- 
inc   the   opinion  that  its  exercise   has   been   highly  beneficial  to 
depositors  in  savings  banks.     The  costs  of  the  award  are  limited 
bv  treasury  warrant  to  a  few  shilling.s,  never  exceeding  £1.     Ihe 
procedure  is  simple  and  elastic,  and  the  results  are  believed  to  be 
Satisfactory.     The   central   office,    acting  as  registrar,  determines 
law  and  fact,  and  adjusts  all  the  equities  of  each  case      Reference 
to  the  index   to  the  registrar's  decisions  aiipeiulcd   to   the   chiet 
registrar's  report  for  1883,  or  to  Mr  Forbes's  useful  work  w-iU  show, 
that  many  interesting  questions  of  law  have  had  to  be  determined 
wiUi  regard  to  so  small  a  matter  as  the  ownership  of  a  saving? 

bank  deposit.  .  .     .     i   j-   „  n»i«A 

Questions  between  husband  and  wife  as  to  property  including  0th* 
deposits  In  savings  banks  are  now.  under  the  Married  W  omen  s  p^o^a- 
Property  Act,  settled  by  the  judges  of  county  courts.     Where  a  sion*. 
depositor,  as  often  happens,  is  of  illegitimate  birth   a  specia   pro- 
vision is  made  by  the  Savings  Bank  Act  in  favour  of  his  relatives 
to  whom  the  solicitor  to  the  treasury  may  award  his  deposits.     It 
is  open  to  any  depositor  to  nominate  a  person  to  whom  the  amount 
due  to  him  at  his  death  shaU  be  payable,  provided  it   does  not 
exceed  £100  and  the  nominee  is  not  an  olhcer  or  servant  ot   the 
bank,   unless  indeed  such  officer  or    servant  is  related  to  the 
depositor.     This  privilege,  derived  from  the  Provident  >omina- 
tious  and   Small    Intestacies    Act   passed    in    1883,   is    not    yet 
sufficiently  known  to  the  bulk  of  deposUors,  and  has  not  been  used 
to  any  large  extent,  but  may  bo  expected  in  time  to  become  very 
valuable.     It  is  an  extension  of  a  Privilege  enjoyed  by  members  of 
friendly  societies  since  1855,  and  also  by  industrial  and  provident 
societies  and  trade  unions.  ,         •         s,     i      ;„   th^t -b^^a.  k' 

A  painful  chapter  in  tho  history  of  savings  banks  is  thatFraudab 
occupied  by  the  frauds  of  actuaries,  which  have  caused  losses  to  actnvus 
depositors  of  not  less  than  £150,000.     It  too  often  happens  that 
where   the   only  .supervision   is  that  of  honorary  «fl>?'--f  •  »  P""! 
servant  may  commit  frauds  unchecked  over  a  long  period  of  time 
I,  the  caso^of  a  savings  bank  at  Rochdale,  £71,715  was  stolen  by 
te  actuary,  and  £37,433  of  this  loss  had   to   bo   borne   by  the 
depositor"^'  In  one  at' Dublin  the  loss  was  £56  000,  and  ">  -e  at 
Tralee   £36,000.     These   unhappy  events  must  have  (?'•<;''">  J^J** 
couraged   the   poor,  and  chcckcf   tho  progress  of  savmgs  banks 
There  is,  however,  the  compensating  fact  that  the  saving  made 
by  tho   people  of   Rochdale  since   1849.  when  the  savmjP   l»"k 

there   w^   closed,  have   Uken   tho  moro   f^^.-'f,'"  .f'"^'-^''°.?„^ 
promoting  the  great  co-operative  cnterpri-scs  of  that  tow  n      ha>inra 

mnks  valuable  and  important  as  their  benefit.,  arc,  are  still  only 
,^ma"y  teachers  of  p'rovidence,  and  it  is  we  1  for  the  >vorkma»  U> 
learn  not  merely  to  s-ivc  money  but  to  employ  his  savings  to  advan- 
ta^!  Tho  stringent  legislation  a.s  to  audit  of  186  has  diminished 
frauds  on  savings  banks,  and  they  are  now  rarely  hoard  o   ' 

In  connexion  with  savings  banks,  and  as  auxiliaries  to  thorn   >uo 
penny  banks.     An  ordinary  savings  bank  wUl  not  accept  a  deposit 


1  since  (ho  above  was  written  tho  disclosure  of  triads  of  long  «Un«lng  In  Uw 
CartlHf  savings  bank  hiJ  taken  oUcc. 


330 


SAVINGS      BANKS 


of  less  than  Is.  (or  m  some  cases  5s.)- on  account  of  the  expense 
of  management.     It  seems  to  Iiave  occurred   to  Dr  Chalmers   to 
supplement   the  work   of  the   Edinburgh  Old   Savings   Bank   by 
establishing  in  a  Free  Church  congregation  in  Edinburgh  a  bank 
managed  entirely  by  voluntary  agency,  in  which  a  deposit  of  Id. 
or  6d.,  or  any  sum-not  exceeding  10s.,  would  be  received.     When 
the  deposit  amounted'  to  £1,  the  owner  was  requested  to  transfer 
It   to  the   savings  bank,  and  the   funds   were  invested  with  the 
savings  bank  to  the  extent  of  £100  a  year  or  £300  in  the  whole. 
Similar  banks,  called  "territorial  savings  banks,"  were  established 
m   other   congregations.     An    organization   of  penny   banks   has 
existed  in  Glasgow  for  thirty  years,  and  another  has  been  set  on 
foot  in  Liverpool  by  the  exertions  of  Mr  T.  Banner  Newton,  the 
ablo.actuary  of  the  savings  bank  there.     On  20th  November  1885 
there    were    173.  such    banks   open   in    Liverpool,    with    17,492 
depositors.     When  a  deposit  reaches  £1   it  is  transferred   to  the 
depositor's  credit  in  the  Liverpool  Savings  Bank.     The  amounts 
thus  transferred  were  £56,122,  and  £8432  remained  to  the  credit  of 
depositors  in  the  penny  banks.     The  transactions  of  the  year  num- 
bered 677,686  and  amounted  to  £42,194.    .  Penny  banks  require  no 
certificate  from  the  registrar  or  other  legal  organization,  but  if  they 
desire  to  deposit  more  than  the  limit  above  mentioned  the  per- 
mission of  the  National  Debt  Commissioners  must  first  be  obtained. 
Savings  banks  for  the  army  were  estabKshed  in  1842,  and-  are 
uow  regulated  by  Acts  of  Parliament— 22  and  23  Vict,  c  20  (1859), 
26  and  27  Vict.  c.  12  (1863),  for  the  Royal  Navy  and  Marines  by 
29  and  30  Vict,  c   43  (1866),  and  for  seamen  generally  by  17  and 
18- Vict.  c.  104,  §  180  (1S54),  18  and  19  Vict.  c.  91,  §  817  (1856), 
and  19  and  20  Vict.  c.  41  (1856).  .  Into  these,  or  indeed  into  any 
trustee  or  post  office  savings  bank,  seamen's  wages  may  be  paid 
under  allotment  notes  by  43  and  44  Vict.  c.   16,  g  S  and  sell.  1 
(1880).    •  The  amounts  in  the  hands  of  the  National  De.bt  Commis- 
sioners belonging  to  depositors  in  savings  banks  of  tliese  various- 
classes  at  23d  September  1885'  were  ; — 

Military  savings  banks £285,631 

Naval  savings  banks -. 175,445 

Seamen's  savings  banks .,. 138,816 

Total £599,892 

Voluntary  savings  banks,  unconnected  with  the  Government, 
have  also  been  established,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the 
Yorkshire  Penny  Bank  and  the  National  Penny  Bank.  The 
depositors  in  these  rely  solely  on  the  character  of  the  persona  by 
whom  they  are  managed,  and  in  some  institutions  of  the  kind 
have  met  with  severe  disappointment  in  consequence.  As  they 
are  under  no  responsibility  to  the  state,  these  institutions  make  no 
returns  to  parliament,  and  no  trustworthy  information  as  to  the 
extent  of  their'operations  can  be  given. 

The  railway  companies,  which  are  private  corporations  em- 
powered by  special  Acts  of  Parliament,  have  in  several  cases 
availed  themselves  of  these  Acts  to  take  power  for  establishing 
savings  banks  for  the  benefit  of  their  servants.  .  The  Manchester, 
Shef&jld,.and  Lincolnshire  Railway  Savings  Bank  has  been  estab- 
lished 25  years,  and  has  2443  depositors,  whose  accounts  amounted 
on  31st  March  J8S5  to  £249,282  ;  its  transactions  for  the  year  were 
-^£66,702  deposits,  £33,756  withdrawals,  in  number  26,696.  Six 
other  railway  companies  have  submitted  the  rules  of  their  savings 
banks  to  the  registrar  of  friendly  societies  in  pursuance  of  their 
private  Acts,  and  the  aggregata  of  their  annual  returns  for  the 
year  1884-5  is  as  follows  :- 

Deposits  during  the  year....; £171,248 

Repayments.. £111,399 

Balance  dne  to  depositors £661,177 

Number  of  depositors 8,729 

Increase  during  the  year  ....'. 749 

Number  of  transactions  (estimated) 61,621 

Interest  credited £24,033 

la  addition,  five  other  banks  had  been  established  by  railway 
companies  without  reference  to  the  registrar,  and  these  in  1876 
received  £72,506  deposits  and  had  4120  depositors.  The  total 
deposits  in-railway  savings  banks  mav  therefore  be  estimated  at  a 
million  sterling. 

Brilish  Colonics. — The  thirteen  savings  banks  in  the  colony  of 
Victoria  had  on  the  3d  December  1882  a  capital  of  £1,970,855. 
In  the  following  year,  however,  the  withdrawals  exceeded  the 
deposits,  reducing  the  deposits  to  £1,785,990.  The  number  of 
depositors,  however,  has  steadily  increased  from  24,187  in  1873  to 
70,364  in  1883.  Of  these  39,404  were  males  and  30,950  females ; 
1018  dejiositors  had  balances  over  £200,  amounting  to  £407,932. 
The  transactions  of  the  year  1883  were— deposits,  £1,357,678; 
-withdrawals,  £1,610,576.  The  deposits  in  the  post  office  savings 
banks  of  Victoria  also  reached  their  highest  amount  in  18S2,  when 
they  were-£l, 150,391,  falling  in  1883  to  £1,032,132.  In  them 
also  the  number  of  depositors  has  steadily  increased  from  34,360 
'  -For  tola  iuiorniBtloii  wo  are  Indebted  to  the  aattior.'les  o[  tbo  National  Debt 

OfflOC.  { 


i 


in   1873   to  65,735  in   1883.      Their  transactions  for  the.  year 

1883  were— deposits,  £724,028  ;  withdrawals,  £842,288.  Taking 
the  two  classes  of  savings  banks  together,  the  number  of  deposttora 
on  31st  December  1883  was  136,089,  the  amount  of  capital 
£2,818,122,  and  tho  average  for  eacTi  depositor  £20;-  Ha.  The 
number  of  depositors  per  cent,  of  the  population  was  15.  The 
rate  of  interest^iven'to  depositors  is  4  per  cent  The  savings 
bank  of  Melboiiine  al»ne"  had,  on  the  3'Oth  June  1885,  deposits 
amounting-  to  £1,225,753,  belonging  to  68,129  depositors.  The 
transactions  averaged  1073  per  diem. 

.In  New  South  Wales,  tho  depositors  in  June  1883  were  66,604 
or  8  per  cent  of  the  population,  and  the  deposits  £2,805,856  or 
£42  per  depositor;  the  rate  of  interest  being  4  per  cent,  in  the 
post  office  saviiiOT  bank  and  6  and  6  per  cent,  in  other  banks. 

In  Queensland  the  depositors  were  26,642  or  10  per  cent,  of  the 
population,  and  the  deposits  £1,086,685  or  £41  per  depositor,  the 
rates  of  interest  being  4  and  5  per  cent. 

In  South  Australia  the  depositors  were  46,388  or  nearly  16  per 
cent,  of  the  population,  and  the  deposits  £1,500.249  or  £32  per 
depositor,  the  rate  of  interest  being  4i  per  cent. 

In  Western  Australia,  on  the  31st  December  1882,  tSere  were 
1904  depositors  or  6  per  cent,  of  the  population,  having  £24  838 
deposits  or  £13  each. 

In  Tasmania  the  depositors  in  June  1883  were  17,231  or  14  per 
cent,  of  the  population,  and  their  deposits  £380,343  or  £22  each, 
the  rate  of  interest  being  3i  per  cent,  in  the  postal  banks,  and 
slightly  higher  in  tho  general  savings  bank. 

In  New  Zealand  the  depositors  were  69,966  or  13  per  cent,  of 
the  population  ;  and  their  deposits  £1,687,739  or  £24  each.  The 
rate  ofinterest  is  from  4  to  5  per  cent. 

The  general  total  for  the  Australian  coloniesis  365,828  depositora 
or  12  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  £10,804,145  deposits, 
-which  is  £23  on  the  average  for  each  depositor. 

In  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  according  to  a  paper  read  at  the  Gonads.' 
Montreal  meeting  of  the  British  Association  by  Mr  J.  C.  Stewart, 
the  old  esUblished  savings  banks  in  the  cities  of  Montreal  and 
Quebec  have  £2,000,000  sterling,  belonging  to. 42,297  depositors  ; 
tho  post  office  savings  banks  established  in  1868  have  £2,650,000,' 
belonging  to- 66,682  depositors;  and  the  chartered  banks' also 
receive  deposits  on  the  savings  bank  system. 

United  -Stofes.— According  to  the  report  for  1884  of  Mr  Henry  W.  United, 
Cannon,  coraptrollerof  thecurrency,  therewere  on  the  30thNovember  Statee.' 
1882  in  tho  United  States  of  America  forty-tw'o  savings  banks,  with 


.-..         .,,,,.        -     ,  ,  savings  L,„„„„ 

with  cajntal  had  increased  from  twenty-six  to  forty-two,  but  their 
capital  had  diminished  20  per  cent.,  while  their  deposits' had 
increased  16  per  cent.  On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  savings 
banks  without  capital  had  diminished  from  .691  to  625,  but  their 
deposits  had  iiicrcased  14  percent.  Of  the  aggregate  deposits,  the 
422  savings  banks  in  the  New  England  States  held  £87,500,000,  ■ 
the  179  in  the  Middle  States  £98, 500,0.00, 'the  9  in  the  Southern 
States  £660,000,  and  the  57  in  the  Western  States  and  Territories 
£14,000,000.  In  the  latter  two.groups  the  banks  with  and  with- 
out capital  are  nearly  equal  in  number  and  in  the  amount  of 
deposits  ;  in  the  former  two  groups  banks  with  capital  are  the 
excejition,  bei-3/T  only  one  in  sixty  o'  the  whole. 

Savings  banks  in  the  United  States  ditfer  from  those  in  the 
United  Kingdom  in  the  manner  in  which  their  funds  are  invested, 
not  being  limited  to  Government  securities.  Thus,  of  the  200 
millions  sterlihg  of  deposits  only  46  millions  was  invested  in 
United  States  bonds,  viz..  New  England,  £6,900,000;  Middle 
States,  £35,800,000 ;  Western,  States,  £400,000 ;  Pacific  States  and 
Territories,  £2,900,000. 

.  A  statement  of  the  aggregate  resources  and  liabilities  of  636 
savings  banks  in  1884  (£236,000,000)  is  furnished,  showing  :— 

Deposits , £215,000,000' 

Surplus  fund 17,000,000 

Undivided  profits. 3,000,000 

Other  liabilities , 1.000,000 

Provided  for  as  follows : —  ' 

Loans  on  real  estate 72  000  000" 

Loans  on  personal  and  collateral  security •     28,000,000 

United  States  bonds ■ 89000080 

State,  municipal,  and  other  bonds  and  stocks ii.OOO.OOO 

Railroad  bonds  and  stocks _ 10,0uo|o00 

Bank  stock , 8,OOo|oOO 

Real. estate 7,000,000 

Other  assets 14,000,000 

Due  from  banks 11,000,000 

Cash... 8,000,000 

According  to  the  report  of  the  comptroller  for  1885  (which  has 
r-jached  us  since  the  above  was  written),  the  deposits  have  in- 
c-f^btid  during  the  year  to  £'220,000,000,  and  the  total  assets  tit 
£240,000,000. 


S  A  V— S  A  V 


331 


In  New  England  the  depositors  number  36  in  every  100  of  the 
nopulation,  and  tlie  average  amount  of  each  account  is  XG6,  or  £24 
for  eacii  individual  if  distributed  over  the  entire  pop-  'ation.  In 
IJew  York  State  the  deposits  would  give  £17  per  head  if  distributed 
in  like  manner. 

V    The  followius  tabic  gives  for  each  State  the  number  of  depositors, 
and  the  amount  and  avrrage  of  deposits,  iu  1885  :- 


SUte.                    1  Depositors,   j       Deposits.       |       Average. 

106,000      £6,500,000 
121,000        8,700,000 

39,000        2,200,000 

826,000  1    52,500,000 

116,000  1    10,200,000 

252,000       18,100,000 

1,165,000       87,400,000 

87,000         4.800,000 

£62 
72 
57 
63 
88 
71 
75 
55 
52 
73 
20 
62 
48 
53 

142 

Massachusetts 

Xew  Jerscv 

136,000 
78,000 

7,000 
35,000 

9,000 

7,000,000 

5,700,000 

100,000 

2,500,000 

400,000 

600,000 

11,700,000 

DistVkt  of  Columbia.,.. 
Ohio       

12,000 

82,000 

3,071,000     218,400,000 

71 

Brazil. — The  savings  banks  of  the  empire  of  Brazil  have  been 
made  instniments  in  the  gradual  extinction  of  slavery  in  that 
country.  Since  1871  e.acli  slave  is  allowed  certain  hours  a  week  to 
labour  for  his  own  benefit,  and  when  his  earnings  deposited  in  the 
savings  bank  amount  to  a  given  sum  the  remainder  of  the  price 
of  his  emancipation  is  provided  by  the  state  out  of  public  funds. 
The  children  of  slave  mothers,  who  since  1871  have  been  born  free, 
are  also  encouraged  to  place  their  earnings  in  school  savings  banks. 
Dy  a  law  passed  on  the  14th  August  1885,  immediate  enlVanchise- 
racnt  at  the  cost  of  the  state  is  conferred  upon  slaves  employed  in 
agricultural  establishments,  ujion  condition  of  their  remaining 
with  the  master  at  fixed  wages  for  five  years  and  paying  half  the 
■wages  into  the  savings  bank  towards  repayment  of  the  price  paid 
for  their  freedom. 

CoiUiiieni  of  Eur:'pe. — In  several  of  the  countries  of  Europe 
savings  banks  have  been  established  and  are  nourishing.  In 
Prussia  the  first  savings  bank  was  founded  by  the  municipality 
of  Berlin  in  1828.  In  1838  they  were  taken  under  the  supervision 
of  the  Government.  Their  formation  has  been  rnuch  aided  by  an 
association  called  the  "Central  Union"  for  the  good  of  the 
industrious  classes.  A  great  variety  of  investments  is  permitted. 
In  1874  there  were  979  banks,  having  2,059,000  depositors  and 
£49,315,000  of  deposits,  being  a  little  over  £2  per  head  of  the 
population.  Besides  savings  banks,  there  are  the  credit  banks 
established  by  the  late  Herr  Scliultz-Dclitzsch,  which  perform  a 
similar  function. 

In  France  79  per  cent,  of  the  deposits  are  invested  in  the  public 
debt,  on  which  interest  at  the  rale  of  4  per  cent,  is  guaranteed, 
but  the  savings  banks  are  private  institutions;  19  percent,  are 
invested  in  mortgages  and  2  per  cent,  on  municipal  securities. 
Post  oBico  savings  banks  also  exist.  The  average  amount  of 
each  deposit  account  is  smaller  than  in  England,  79  per  cent,  of 
tho  deposits  being  under  £20  as  against  63  jier  cent.  The  follow- 
ing statement  shows  the  progress  of  savings  banks  in  Franco  since 
their  first  regulation  by  law  iu  1835  : — 


Number 

Per 

Per 

of  Dunks.'    Number  of 

cent,  of 

Amount  of 

llcnd  of 

Incluillnp    Depositors. 

Popula- 

Deposits. 

Populn- 

branches.) 

tion. 

lion. 

£ 

S.     (I. 

3Ut  Dec.  1840 

430 

351,808 

1 

7,095,293 

4     0 

„        1850 

640 

565,995 

2 

6,572,738 

3     1 

18C0 

638 

1,218,122 

3 

15,054,184 

8     3 

„        1870 

1121 

2,079,141 

6 

25,280,000 

„        1878 

1320 

3,173,721 

9 

40,040,656 

22    0 

The  depositors  now  number  nearly  five  millions.  Savings  Imnka 
were  greatly  all'ccted  by  the  Revolution  of  1848  and  by  the  Fianco- 
Ocrinan  War.  Previous  to  the  former  event,  the  dc])osiU  had  risen 
on  3l3t  December  4845  to  £15,822,164,  falling  on  31st  DiTcmber 
1849  aa  low  as  jt:2,965,802.  In  the  caily  part  of  1870  they  had 
risen  to  £28,809,000  or  15s.  for  every  individual  of  the  po])ulalion. 
The  separation  of  Alsaco  and  Lormino  reduced  tlio  deposits. 
Postal  savings  banks  were  established  in  1875,  but  only  ns 
mixiliarics  of  the  ordinary  savings  banks  ;  school  savings  banks, 
mainly  through  the  enlightened  c.vcrtions  of  M.  dn  Malarco,  were 
commenced  in  1874.  Tliesonie  now  cHlablislird  in  23,222  siliools, 
have    488,674    dei>ositora    and   £4.M,4ii2    deposit".     A    national 


postal  savings  bank  was  instituted  on  9tli  April  1881,  and  was 
extended  to  Corsica  on  1st  March  1882  and  to  Algeria  and  Tunis 
from  1st  April  1884.  On  31st  December  1883  it  had  already 
374,970  depositors  and  £3,097,200  deposits.  The  Paris  savings 
bank  had  on  31st  December  1882  440,728  depositors  and 
£3,513,433  deposits. 

In  Italy,  at  the  end  of  1872,  282  savings  banks  were  in  existence, 
of  which  142  were  principal  banks  and  the  rest  branches.  With 
two  exceptions,  all  are  managed  without  profit  to  the  ]iromotcr« 
or  guarantors.  In  1825  there  were  11  savings  banks  iu  which 
£103,000  had  been  deposited  ;  in  1850  the  deposits  amounted 
to  £1,600,000,  and  in  1872  to  £17,860,000,  belonging  to  676,327 
depositors.  Of  these  funds,  21  per  cent,  was  invested  on 
mortgage,  10  per  cent,  only  in  tho  public  debt,  11  per  cent,  in 
obligations  of  local  authorities,  12  per  cent,  in  shares  and  bonds 
of  companies,  16  per  cent,  in  bills  of  exchange,  15  per  cent,  in 
loans  on  public  funds  and  commercial  securities,  11  per  cent,  in 
cun-ent  accounts,  and  4  per  cent,  otherwise.  The  average  rate  of 
interest  allowed  to  depositors  is  4i  per  cent.  The  transactions  of 
the  year  were— deposits  £7,911,000,  withdrawals  £6,514,000.  The 
system  of  school  savings  banks  has  been  adopted  in  many  com- 
munes. In  addttion,  deposits  are  made  in  popular  banks  and 
other  establishments  of  credit,  and  post  office  savings  banks  have 
also  been  established. 

In  Denmark  savings  banks  are  private  institutions,  but  must 
not  be  managed  for  profit,  nor  invest  in  foreign  securities ;  and 
they  are  required  to  make  annual  returns  to  Government.  In 
1860  the  amount  of  deposits  was  £3,221,000;  by  1871  it  had 
increased  to  £6,651,031,  and  by  31st  March  1881  to  £12,707,521. 
The  savings  banks  have  increased  in  number  during  the  ten  years 
from  188  to  446,  and  the  depositors  from  285,991  to  492,296. 
Twenty-six  banks  have  more  than  £100,000  deposits.  The  oldest 
and  largest  is  that  of  Copenhagen,  established  1st  May  1820, 
Saving  £2,320,892  deposited,  which  has  increased  from  £832,874 
iu  the  ten  years.  The  number  of  depositors  has  increased  from 
one  in  six  to  one  in  four  of  the  population,  and  the  deposits  fron; 
£3,  14s.  8d.  to  £6,  93.  per  head  of  the  population.  The  transac- 
tions of  the  year  ending  Slst  March  1881  were— deposits  £8,141,627; 
withdrawals  £6,702,470.  Of  the  deposit  accounts,  74  per  cent. 
are  under  £23  and  15  per  cent,  above  £23  and  under  £43.  One 
half  of  the  funds  are  invested  on  mortgage.  The  reserve  funds  of 
the  banks  hnd  increased  in  ten  years  from  £226,329  to  £665,597.   ■ 

The  following  are  statistics  of  savings  banks  in  other  Europeaij 
countries  as  published  by  the  Italian  Government  a  few  years  ago  :-i 


Country. 

Population. 

Number 

of 
Banks. 

Number  of 

Deposit 
Accounts  on 
1st  January. 

Amount  ol     ^ 
Deposits  on 
1st  January. 

Belgium  (1874) 

Austria  (1874)  (Cis- 

Leithan  provinces) 

Hungary  (1873) 

Saxony  (1872) 

Thuringia  (1873).... 
Mecklenburg  (1872) 

Hamburg  (1874) 

Ilremen  (1873) 

Lubeck(1873) 

Bavaria  (1869) 

Wurtcmberg  (1874) 

Baden  (1874) 

Alsace  and  Lorraine 

(1872) 

■  5,336,000 

21,366,000 

15,417,000 

2,556,000 

899,000 

657,000 

370,000 

135,000 

52,000 

4,824,000 

1,818,000 

1,461,000 

1,549,000 
3,679,000 
4,297,000 
1,750,000 
2,669,000 

66,408,000 
1,838,000 

10 

275 

282 

156 

7 

31 

8 

4 

2 

260 

121 

99 

240 

271 
262 
312 

36 

132,000 
1,269,000 

617,000 
33,000 
91,000 
81,000 
48,000 
14,000 

279,000 

141,000 

41,000 

99,000 

663,000 

220,000 

642,000 

71,000 
18,000 

£2,610,000 

53,931,000 

15,209,000 

11,445,000 

1,897,000 

1,072,000 

1,616,000 

1,404,000 

138,000 

2,490,000 

2,766,000 

4,142,000 

283,000 

1,127,000 

6,035,000 

6,201,000 

11,681,000 

73.';.000 
346,000 

Holland  (1872) 

Sweden  (1873) 

Norway  (1873) 

Switzeriand  (1872).. 
Ru.ssia  (1872)  (cer- 
tain governments 

Finland  (1872) 

126,881,000 

2376 

4,159,000 

123,928,000 

M.  do  Malarce  has  obtained  for  the  Dirtimiwiire  da  Financa 
some  more  recent  statistics,  tho  details  of  which  have  ndt  yet 
reached  us,  but  from  information  he  has  been  so  gomi  ns  to  com- 
muuioate  wo  infer  an  increase  in  deposits  during  the  Inst  10  years 
in  twelve  European  states  of  £123,000,000, — making  tho  aggregate 
of  saving;!  bank  doiwsits  for  all  countries,  ns  far  ns  ascertained, 
£725,000,000.  (E.  W.  B.) 

SAVOIE,  a  dcjiartmcnt  of  sotitli-easfcrn  France,  formed 
in  18G0  of  tho  cli.-itricts  of  Upper  Savoy,  Savoy  proper, 
'I'nrcntaisc,  and  Mniiricnne,  which  formed  tho  southern 
I'urt  of  (be  jirovinee  of  .Savoy  in  the  icingdom  of  Sardinia. 


'332 


S  A  V  0  I  E 


Situated  betwefen  45°  5'  and  45°  55'  N.  lat.  and  between 
6°  37'  and  7°  6'  E.  long.,  it  is  bounded  N.  by  the  departs 
ment  of  Haute-Savoie,  N.W.  by  Ain,  yv.  by  Isere,  S.  by 
Hautes-Alpes,  aud  S.E.  and'  E.  by  Piedmont  (Italy),  the 
limits  for  the  most  part  consisting  of  ridges  of  the  Alps, 
and  on  the  N.W.  being  determined  by  the  Khone  and  its 
affluents  the  Fier  and  the  Guier.  ■  The  highest  point  in 
the  Vanoise  group  of  mountains  is  12,668  feet  above  the 
aea,  while  the  Rhone  leaves  the  department  at  a  height  of 
695  feet,  and  the  Is^re  about  800. '  Some  details  in  regard 
to  the  orography  will  be  found  under  Alps  {q.v.).  The 
Is^re  flows  east  and  west  through  the  Tarentaise  valley  by 
BourgSt  Maurice,  Moutiers,  AlbertvUle,  and  Montmelian; 
its  principal  tributary  the  Arc  flows  along  the  Maurienne 
valley  used  by  the  Mont  Ceriis  Railway.  The  lake  of 
Bourget  discharges  into  the  Rhone  by  the  Saviferes  canal. 
The  climate  of  the  department  varies  according  to  altitude 
and  exposure.  At  Chambery  and  Aix-les- Bains  the  average 
temperature  is  a  little  lower  than  that  of  Paris,  but  the 
rainfall  is  about  65  inches  per  annum,  and  this  amount 
goes  on  increasing  as  the  higher  regions  are  reached. 

With  a  total  area  of  1,423,254  acres,  Savoy  comprises  434,921 
acres  of  uncultivated  ground,  239,700  acres  of  arable,  205,105  in 
forests,  172,980  in  meadows,  27,183  in  vineyards.  More  than  the 
half  of  the  inhabitants  (194,704  out  of  266,438). are  engaged  in 
agriculture.  In  1831  there  were  in  the  department  97,487  cows, 
19,328  oxen,  2570  horses,  3156  asses,  4207  mules,  98,826  sheep, 
(40  tons  of  wool),  19,428  pigs,  25,527  goats.  About  1,870,000,000 
gallons  of  milk  are  produced  and  2463  tons  of  butter  and  5911 
tons  of  cheese  are  manufactured,  of  a  total  value  of  £500-,  000.  From 
the  19,600  beehives  were  obtained  in  1881  87  tons  of  honeyjind 
16  of  wax.  The  grape  ripens  up  to  an  altitude  of  2625  feet,  and  is 
cultivated  to  an  altitude  of  3940.  Several  growths  of  Savoy  are  in 
great  repute  and  the  vineyards  were  (before  the  invasion  of  the 
phylloxera)  one  of  the  most  important  producfs  of  the  department. 
Tobacco  is  -also  cultivated.  In  18S3  the  crops  comprised  wheat, 
404,665  bushels  ;  meslin,  104,500  ;  rye,  679,663  ;  bailey,  212,883  ; 
buckwheat,  20,641;  maize,  245,245;  oats,  723,067;  potatoes, 
1,244,603  ;  pulse,  54,120  ;  chestnuts,  72,036  ;  beetroot,  14,040  tons  ; 
tobacco,  350  tons  ;  hemp,  585  tons  ;  colza-seed,  284  tons  ;  hemp- 
seed,  195  tons  ;  wine,  3,895,496  gallons  (annual  average  4,128,520 
gallons) ;  cider,  137,258  gallons  (average  69,058  gallons).  Not- 
withstanding deplorable  clearances,  Savoy  still  possesses  consider- 
able woods  of  pine,  larch,  beech,  &c.  The  chestnut,  of  which  the 
finest  specimens  are"  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Aix-les- Bains,  grows, 
as  do  also  the  walnut  and  hazel,  to  a  height  of  3600  feet,  the 
oak  to  3900,  the  elm  and  the  ash  to  4250,  the  fir  to  4900,  aud  the 
pine  to  7200.-  The  department  contains  one  of  the  richest  deposits 
of  spathic  iron  in  Europe,  and  the  Creusot  Company  employs  700 
hands  in  working  it.  Argentiferous  lead  and  copper  have  also 
been  occasiBnally  worked.  The  Maurienne  and  the  Tarentaise  are 
rich  in  anthracite;  and  yielded  in  1882  16.687  tons  of  fuel.  Peat 
covers  1413  acres,  with  a  thickness  varying  from  8  inches  to  8  feet, 
and  there  are  rich  beds  of  different  kinds  of  marble,  fifty-two 
quarries  of  building  stone,  and  quarries  of  limestone,  plaster, 
cement,  and  slate,  as  well  as  deposits  of  black  lead,  jet,  asbestos, 
talc,-  mica,  ochre,  sulphate  of  baryta,  zinc,  antimony,  arsenic, 
manganese,  titanium,  sulphur.  The  department  is'  particularly 
rich  in  mineral  waters,  and  the  most  famous,  those  of  Aix-les- 
Bai;k'  (hot  sulphurous)  were  frequented  in  the  time  of  the  Romans. 
The  waters  at  Marlioz  in  the  neighbourhood  are  sulphurous  or 
alkaline  (iodine,  bromine).  Those  of  Challes  near  Chambery  rank 
among  the  most  powerful  of  the  natural  sulphurous  waters.  The 
Salins-Moutiers  waters  in  the  Tarentaise  are  hot,  saline,  and  rich 
ill  various  minerals  ;  the  hot  springs  of  Brides-Jes-I5ains  in  the  same 
region  are  rich  in  the  sulphates -of  soda  and  calcium.  Silk  is  the 
leading  object  of  industry  in  the  department  (31  tons  of  cocoons  in 
18S3).  The  windin"  of  the  cocoons,  the  milling  of  the  silk  (3500 
"  tavalles  "  and  spindles),  and  the  weaving  of  the  silk-fabrics  (803 
looms,  55  b*^ing  hand-looms)  employ  more  than  1700  workmen, 
and  the  goods  manufactured  are  valued  at  £380,000.  Chambery 
produces  71,000  yards  of  high-class  gaiize,  3000  yards  of  velvet, 
13,000  yards  of  handkerchiefs,  and  some  800,000  yards  of  taffetas 
and  various  other  silk  stuffs.  Linen  manufactures  employ  400 
looms,  woollen  manufactures  1850  spindles.  The  peasants  manu- 
facture about  125,000  yards  of  coarse  wooUeu  stuffs  from  their 
home-grown  wool.  The  blast  furnaces  and  iron-works  produced  in. 
1881  176  tons  of  manufactiu-ed  iron.  Taiiueries,  paper-mills,  ^apcr- . 
pulp  factories,  brick-works,  saw-mills,  flour-mills,  &c.,  are  all  of 
some  importance  in  the  department,  which  counts  altogether  sixty- 
one  establishments  with  steam-engines  of  (aggregate)  271  horse 
power.     The  number  of  inhabitants  engaged  iu  industrial  purauits 


!  is  24,482,  in  coinmerce  H,016.  Coal,  skins,  cotton,"  provisions 
are  imported  ;  cattle,  cheese,  butter,  wood,  stones,  and  various 
building  materials,  mineral  waters,  silk  stuffs,  tanned  leather,  and 
paper  are.  exported.  There  are  204  miles  of  national  roads,  2518 
miles  of  other  roads,  and  150  miles  of  railroad.  The  population 
was  266,438  in  1881.  The  department  forms  thq  three  dioceses  of 
Chambery  (archbishopric),  Moutiers,  and  St  Jean-de-Maurienne  ; 
the  court  of  appeal  and  university  academy  are  at  Chambery,  and 
the  headquarters  of  the  corps  d'armee  to  which  it  belongs  (the 
14th)  are  at  Grenoble.  There  are  four  arrondissements, — Chambery 
(16,000  inhabitants  in  the  town),  Albertville  (5000),  Moutiers 
(2000),  St  Jean-de-Maurienne  (3000),— 29  cantons,  and  328  com- 
munes. Aix-les-Bains  (4741),  owing  to  its  hot  springs,  is  the  most 
important  place  in  the  department. 

SAVOIE,  Haute-,  a  frontier  department  of  France, 
formed  in  1860  from  the' old  provinces  of  Genevoia, 
Chablais,  and  Faucigny,  which  constituted'  the  northern 
half  of  the  duchy  of  Savoy  in  the  kingdom,  of  Sardinia. 
Situated  between  45°  40'  and  46°  25'  N.  lat.  and  between 
5*  50'  and  7*  2'  E.  long.,  it  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Lake  of 
Geneva,  E.  by  the  Valais  canton,  S.E.  by  the  duchy  of 
Aosta  (Italy),  S.  and  S.W.  by  the  department  of  Savoie, 
'W.  by  the  department  of  .Ain,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  Rhone,  and  N."W.  by  the  canton  of  Geneva. 
Almost  everjrwhere  except  in  the  last  direction  the 
boundaries  are  natural.-  The  greater  portion  of  the  depart- 
ment is  occupied  by  mountains  usually  under  8000  fset  in 
height;  but  it  includes  Mont  Blanc  (15,781  feet),- 'while 
the  confluence  of  the  -Fier  with  the  Rhone  is  only  950  feet 
above  the  sea.  •  The  streams  are  torrential,  and  they  all 
join  the  Rhone. either  directly  or  by  the  Lake  of  Geneva 
or  the  Isere.  Most  important  is  the  Arve  which  crosses 
the  department  from  south-east  to  north-west  from  Mont 
Blanc  to  Geneva  by  Chamonix,  Sallanches,  and  Bonneville, 
receiving  from  the  right  the  Giffre  and  from  the  left  the 
•Borne.  The  Dranse  falls  into  the  Lake  of  Geneva 
between  Evian  and  Thonon.  Direct  tributaries  of  the 
Rhone  are  the  Usses  and  the  Fier,  the  outflow  of  the 
Lake  of  Annecy.  Passing  M^gfeve,  to  the  south-west  of 
Chamonix,  the  Arly  goes  to  the  Isfere.  A  remarkable 
variety  of  climate  is  produced .  by  this  differences  of 
altitude  and  exposure ;  it  is  mildest  on  the  banks  of  the 
Lake  of  Geneva.  Annecy  has  a 'moderate  temperature, 
lower  than  that  of  Paris ;  but  some  parts  of  the  shores  of 
the  lake,  well  sheltered  aind.  having  a  good  exposure,  form 
health  resorts  even  in  ■winter.  •  The  rainfall  on  the  Lake 
of  Geneva  hardly  exceeds  24  inches  ;  it  is  three  times  as 
heavy  in  the  mountains. 

Of  the  total  area  of  1,066,229  acres  345,959  acre's  are  arable, 
214,990  woodland,  132,206  uncultivated,  95,880  pasturage,  91,432 
meadows,  21,252  vineyards.  The  live  stock  in  1880  comprised 
9774  horses,  93,171  cows  or  heifers,  11,272  calves,  18,769  pigs, 
25,331  goats,  33,000  sheep  (wool-clip  41  tons),  21,525  hives  (104 
tons  of  honey,  38  of  wax).  Cheese  is  produced  to  the  value  of 
£220,000,  and  butter  to  £132,000.  .  The  harvest  in  1883  iBcluded 
—wheat,  1,472,381  bushels;  meslin,  196,510;  rye,  190,503.  Far 
1880  the  returns  'were — barley,  136,043  busli£ls ;  buckwheat, 
88,178;  maize,  10,928;  oats,  793,721;  potatoes,  8,730,800;  pulse, 
42,607;  chestnuts,  66,462;  besides  beetroot,  hemp,  flax,  and  colza. 
In  1883  the  vintage  was  3,221,834  gallons,  the  average  for  1873- 
1882  being  3,199,570,  and  cider  was  produced  to  the  amount  of 
767,922  gallons  (average  742,808).  Tobacco  is  successfully  grown 
in  a  part  of  the  department  (Rumilly).  Though  much  of  the  wood 
has  Been  cut  down,  Haute-Savoie  still  contains  fine  pine  forests 
below  7200  feet  of  altitude,  and  fir,  larch,  and  beech  woods  below 
6000  feet,  the  limit  of  the  elm  and  ash  being  4250,  and  that  of  the 
oak  4000.  Splendid  walnuts  and  chestnuts  are  to  be  found  as 
liigh  up  as  2950  feet  and  hazels  as  high  as  3600.  Argentiferous  lead 
oris  and  copper,  iron,  and  manganese  ores  exist,  but  are  not  much 
worked.  About  1000  tons,  of  anthracite  and  lignite  were  raised  in 
1882,  and  12,405  tons  of  asphaltic  limestone.  Jasper  and  other 
beautiful  mai-ble,  freestone  largely  used  in  the  buildings  of  Lyons 
and  Chambery,  limestone,  and  slates  are  all  quarried.  Mineral 
waters  of  various  kinds  abound  (Amphion  and  Evian,  chalybeate ; 
St  Gervais  at  the  foot  of  Mont  Blanc,  hot,  sulphurous,  and  chaly- 
beate ;  Menthon,  sulphurous ;  La  Caille,  hot,  sulphurous).  Cotton 
manufacture  is  carried  oh  at  Annecy,  where  one  establishment  has 
20.000  spindles,  600  gower-looms,  and  100  hand-looms,  employing 


S  A  V  —  S  A  V 


333 


$00  workers.  Some  600,000  or  600,000  yards  of  silk  stuffs  are 
woven  througliout  the  departniciit  by  poino  850  workers  ;  and 
wool-spinning  and  wool  manufactures  arc  also  carried  on.  In  the 
iron  industry  1921  tons  of  cast-iron  and  1956  tons  of  niallcablo 
iron  were  manufactured  in  1882.  Clock-making,  taught  in  two 
special  schools,  employs  2000.  hands.  Tanneries,  paper-mills, 
tile-works,  and  flour-mills  are  numerous  About  two-thirds  of  the 
cantons  have  the  ailvantage  of  belonging  to  the  neutral  customs 
zone — that  is,  have  the  right  of  introducing  foreign  goods  duty  free, 
with  the  exception  of  powder  and  tobacco.  Coal,  cotton,  metals, 
and  provisions  are  imported;  cheese,  cattle,  timber,  leather, 
asphalt,  building  stone,  and  calico  are  exported.  The  national 
roads  make  a  total  of  19-3  miles,  other  roads  3100  miles,  and  the 
railways — Annccy  to  Aix-les- Bains  and  to  Annemasso,  on  the  line 
from  Bellegarde  to  Evian— 96  miles.  With  its  274,087  inhabitants 
(1881),  who  all  speak  French  and  are  almost  exclusively  Roman 
Catholics,  Haute-Savoie  is  only  about  one-tenth  below  the  average 
density  of  France.  It  forms  the  diocese  of  Annecy;  the  court 
of  appeal  and  the  university  academy  are  at  Chambc'ry,  and 
the  department  is  included  in  the  14th  corps  d'armee  district 
(Grenoble).  Thpre  are  4  arrondissements— Annecy  (population  of 
town  11,000),  Bonneville  (2270),  St  Julien  (1500),  and  Tboncn 
(5440),— 28  cantons,  aud  314  communes. 

SAVONA,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Genoa, 
2.5J  miles  west  of  tliat  town,  and  91  miles  south  of  Turin 
by  rail,  is  after  Genoa  and  Nice  the  most  important  of  the 
cities  of  the  Riviera.  The  greater  part  of  the  town  is  now 
modern,  consisting  of  handsome  gardens,  boulevards,  and 
well-paved  broad  streets  lined  with  massive  arcades  and 
substantial  houses,  built  in  enormous  square  blocks  from 
fou"  to  five  stories  high.  It  is  surrounded  with  green-clad 
hills  and  luxuriant  orange  groves.  On  the  Rock  of  St 
George  stands  the  castle  built  by  the  Genoese  in  1542,  now 
used  as  a  military  prison.  The  cathedral  (1589 -1604)  is 
4  late  Renaissance  building  with  a  dome  of  modern  con- 
struction. In  the  Cappella  Sistina  stands  the  magnificent 
tomb  erected  by  Sixtus  IV.  to  his  parents.  Facing  the 
cathedral  is  the  Delia  Rovere  palace  erected  by  Cardinal 
Giulio  della  Rovere  (Julius  U.)  as  a  kind  of  university, 
and  now  occupied  by  the  prefecture,  the  post-ofBce,  and 
the  courts.  San  Domenico  (or  Giovanni  Battista)  built 
by  the  Dominican.s,  occupies  the  site  of  the  very  ancient 
church  of  Sant'  Antonio  Abate.  Several  of  the  churches 
have  paintings  of  some  merit,  and  there  is  a  municipal 
picture-gallery  occupying  part  of  the  extensive  buildings 
of  the  civil  hospital  of  St  Paul.  The  Teatro  Chiabrera, 
erected  in  1853  in  honour  of  the  lyric  poet  Chiabrera,  who 
was  born  in  Savona,  and  is  buried  there  in  the  church  of 
San  Giacomo,  has  its  facade  adorned  with  statues  of 
Alfieri,  Goldoni,  Metastasio,  and  Rossini.  The  town-house 
(with  the  public  library  founded  by  the  bishop  of  Savona, 
Maria  di  Mari,  in  1840),  the  episcopal  palace,  and  the 
harbour  tower  surmounted  by  a  colossal  figure  of  the 
Virgin  also  deserve  mention.  As  early  as  the  12th 
century,  the  Savonese  built  themselves  a  sufficient 
harbour ;  but  in  the  IGth  century  their  rivals  the  Genoese, 
fearing  that  Francis  I.  of  France  intended  to  make  it  a 
great  seat  of  Mediterranean  trade,  rendered  it  useless  by 
sinking  at  its  mouth  vessels  filled  with  large  stones.  The 
modern  harbour,  dating  from  1815,  has  since  1880  been 
provided  with  a  dock  excavated  in  the  rock,  986  feet  long 
460  wide  and  2.3  feet  deep ;  and  other  extensions  are  in 
progress.  In  1884  1012  vessels  (319,462  tons)  entered 
and  988  (346,337  tons)  cleared — the  steamers  being 
respectively  298  (273,237  tons)  and  294  (270,953).  The 
opening  of  the  railway  to  Bra  (1878)  at  once  gave  Savona 
an  advantage  over  Genoa  as  a  port  for  su|)plying  Turin 
and  Piedmont.  A  large  import  trade  has  since  grown  up, 
especially  in  coals  (300,000  tons  from  Great  Britain  and 
Franco),  which  can  be  loaded  directly  from'the  ship  into 
the  trucks.  The  exports  are  confined  to  the  products  of 
the  local  industries,  fruit,  hoop-staves,  ic.  The  potteries 
which  have  been  long  established  at  Savona  export  their 
lartlienware  to  all   parts  of  Italy ;  and  tbcro  aro  glasii. 


works,  soap-works,  and  ono  of  the  largest  iron-foundries 
in  North  Italy.  Shipbuilding  is  also  carried  on.  The 
population  of  the  commune,  which  includes  the  suburbs 
of  Fornaci,  Lavagnola,  Legino  and  Zinola,  and  San 
Bernardo,  was  19,611  in  1801  and  20,014  in  1881,  that 
of  the  city  at  the  latter  date  being  19,120.    •  , 

Savona  is  the  Snvo  where,  according  to  Livy,  JIago  stored  his 
booty  in  the  Secon<l  Punic  War.  In  1191  it  bought  up  the  teni- 
torial  claims  of  the  Marquises  Del  Canetto.  Its  whole  history 
is  that  of  a  long  struggle  against  the  preponderance  of  Genoa.  lu 
1746  it  w.xs  captured  liy  the  king  of  Sardhiia,  but  it  was  restored 
to  Genoa  by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapellc.  Columbus,  wbow 
anccstoi-s  came  from  Savona,  gave  the  name  of  the  city  to  ono  of 
the  first  islands  he  discovered  in  the  West  Indies. 

SAVONAROLA,  Girolamo  (1452-1498).  The  roll  of 
Italian  great  men  contains  few  grander  names  than  that 
of  Savonarola,  and  the  career  of  this  patriot-priest,  re- 
former, and  statesman  is  one  of  the  strangest  pages  of 
Italy's  history.  Amid  the  splendid  corruptions  of  the 
Italian  Renaissance  he  was  the  representative  of  pure 
Christianity,  the  founder  and  ruler  of  an  ideal  Christian 
republic,  and,  when  vanquished  by  the  power  of  Rome, 
suffered  martyrdom  for  the  cause  to  which  his  life  had 
been  dedicated.  His  doctrines  have  been  the  theme  of 
interminable  controversies  and  contradictory  judgments. 
He  has  been  alternately  declared  a  fanatic  bent  on  the 
revival  of  mediaeval  barbarism  and  an  enlightened  pre- 
cursor of  the  reformation,  a  true  Catholic  prophet  and 
martyr  and  a  shameless  impostor  aud  heretic.  It  is 
enough  to  say  here  that  his  best  biographers  and  critics 
give  satisfactory  proofs  that  he  was  chiefly  a  reformer  of 
morals,  who,  while  boldly  denouncing  Papal  corruption^ 
preserved  an  entire  belief  in  all  the  dogmas  of  the  Romaa 
Catholic  Church. 

Girolamo  Savonarola  was  born  at  Ferrara  21st  September 
1452,  the  third  child  of  Michele  Savonarola  and  his  wife 
Klena  Bonaccossi  of  Mantua.  His  grandfather,  Michele 
Savonarola,  a  Paduan  physician  of  much  repute  and 
learning,  had  settled  in  Ferrara  at  the  invitation  of  the 
reigning  marquis,  Nicholas  III.  of  Este,  and  gained  a 
large  fortune  there.  The  younger  Jlichele  was  a  mere 
courtier  and  spendthrift,  but  Elena  Savonarola  seems  to 
have  been  a  woman  of  superior  stami).  She  was  tenderly 
loved  by  her  famous  son,  and  his  letters  prove  that  she 
retained  his  fullest  confidence  through  all  the  vicissitudes 
of  his  career. 

Girolamo  was  a  grave  precocious  child,  with  an  early 
passion  for  learning.  He  was  guided  in  his  first  studies 
by  his  wise  old  grandfather  the  physician  ;  and,  in  the  hope 
of  restoring  their  fallen  fortunes,  his  parents  intended 
him  for  the  same  profession.  Even  as  a  boy  he  had  in- 
tense pleasure  in  reading  St  Thomas  Aquinas  and  the 
Arab  commentators  of  Aristotle,  was  skilled  in  the  subtle- 
ties of  the  schools,  wrote  verses,  studied  music  and  design, 
and,  avoiding  society,  loved  solitary  rambles  on  the  banks 
of  the  Po.  Grass-grown  Ferrara  was  then  a  gay  and 
bustling  town  of  100,000  inhabitants,  its  jn-inco  Bcrso 
d'Este  a  most  magnificent  potentate.  To  the  mystic  young 
student  all  festivities  were  repulsive,  and  although  reared 
in  a  courtier-household  he  early  asserted  his  individuality 
by  his  contempt  for  the  pomp  and  glitter  of  court  life. 
At  the  ago  of  nineteen,  however,  he  had  as  yet  no  thought 
of  renouncing  the  world,  for  ho  was  then  passionately  in 
love  with  the  child  of  a  friendly  neighbour,  a  Strozzi 
exiled  from  Florence.  His  suit  was  repulsed  with  disdain  ; 
no  Strozzi,  ho  was  told,  might  stoop  to  wed  a  Savonarola, 
This  blow  probably  decided  his  career,  but  he  endured 
two  years  of  misery  and  mental  conflict  before  resolving 
to  abandon  his  medical  studies  and  devote  himself  to 
(Jod's  service.  He  was  full  of  doubt  and  self-distrust; 
disgust  for    the  world  did  not   seem  to  him  a  BufGi'.icQt 


334 


SAVON  AK  OLA 


qualification  for  the  religious  life,  and  iiis  daily  prayer 
was,  "Lord!  teach  me  the  way  my  soul  should  walk." 
But  in  1474  his  doubts  were  dispelled  by  a  sermon  heard 
at  Faenza,  and  his  way  was  clear.  Dreading  the  pain  of 
bidding  farewell  to  his  dear  ones,  he  secretly  stole  away  to 
Bologna,  entered  the  monastery  of  St  Domenico  and  then 
acquainted  his  fa^her  with  his  reasons  for  the  step.  The 
■world's  wickedneys  was  intolerable,  Lc  wrote ;  through- 
out Italy  he  beheld  vice  triumphant,  virtue  despised. 
Among  the  papers  he  had  left  behind  at  Ferrara  was  a 
treatise  on  "Contempt  of  the  World,"  inveighing  against 
the  prevalent  corruption  and  predicting  the  speedy 
vengeance  of  Heaven.  His  novitiate  was  marked  by  a 
fervour  of  humility.  He  sought  the  most  menial  offices, 
and  did  penance  for  his  sins  by  the  severest  austerities. 
'According  to  contemporary  writers  he  was  worn  to  a 
shadow. 

All  portraits  of  this  extraordinary  man  are  at  first 
sight  almost  repulsively  ugly,  but  written  descriptions 
tell  us  that  his  gaunt  features  were  beautified  by  an 
expression  of  singular  force  and  benevolence.  Luminous 
dark  eyes  sparkled  and  flamed  beneath  his  thick,  black 
brows,  and  his  large  mouth  and  prominent  nether  lip 
were  as  capable  of  gentle  sweetness  as  of  power  and  set 
resolve.  He  was  of  middling  stature,  dark  complexion, 
had  a  nervous  system  of  exceeding  delicacy  aud  the 
sanguineo-bilious  temperament  so  often  associated  with 
genius.  His  manners  were  simple,  his  speech  unadorned 
and  almost  homely.  His  splendid  oratorical  power  was  as 
yet  unrevealed ;  but  his  intellectual  gifts  being  at  once 
recognized  his  superiors  charged  him  with  the  instruction 
of  the  novices,  instead  of  the  humbler  tasks  he  had  wished 
to  fulfil.  He  passed  six  quiet  years  in  the  convent,  but 
his  poems  written  during  that  period  are  expressive  of 
Surning  indignation  against  the  increasing  corruptions' of 
the  church  and  profoundest  sorrow  for  the  calamities  of 
tds  country. 

-  In  1482  he  reluctantly  accepted  a  mission  to  Feri-ara,  and, 
tegarding  earthly  affections  as  snares  of  the  evil  one,  tried 
to  keep  aloof  from  his  family.  His  preachings  attracted 
slight  attention  there,  no  one — as  he  later  remarked — 
being  a  prophet  in  his  own  land.  An  outbreak  of 
hostilities  between  Ferrara  and  Venice,  fomented  by  Pope 
Sixtus  rV.,  soon  caused  his  recall  to  Bologna.  Thence  he 
was  despatched  to  St  Mark's  in  Florence,  the  scene  of  his 
future  triumph  and  downfall. 

Lorenzo  the  Magnificent  was  then  (1482)  at  the  height 
of  his  power  and  popularity,  and  the  Florentines,  dazzled 
by  his  splendour  and  devoted  to  pleasure  and  luxury, 
'S'ere  docOe  subjects  to  his  rule.  At  first  Savonarola  was 
enchanted  ■with  Florence.  Fresh  from  the  gloom  of 
Bologna,  sickened  by  the  evils  wrought  on  Italy  by  the 
scandalous  nepotism  of  the  pope,  and  oppressed  by  some 
natural  human  anxiety  as  to  his  reception  in  a  strange 
city,  the  gaiety  and .  charm  of  his  novel  surroundings 
lifted  a  weight  from  his  snul.  His  cloister,  sanctified  by 
memories  of  St  Antonine  and  adorned  with  the  inspired 
paintings  of  Frh.  AngeUco,  eeemed  to  him  a  fore-court  of 
heaven.  But  his  content  speedily  changed  to  horror. 
The  Florence  streets  rang  vrith  Lorenzo's  ribald  songs  (the 
"  canti  carnascialeschi ") ;  the  smooth,  cultured  citizens 
were  dead  to  all  sense  of  religion  or  morality ;  and  the 
spirit  of  the  fashionable  heathen  philosophy  had  even 
infected  the  brotherhood  of  St  Mark.  la  1483  Savonarola 
was  Lenten  preacher  in  the  church  of  St  Lorenzo,  but  his 
plain,  earnest  exhortations  attracted  few  hearers,  while  all 
the  world  thronged  to  Santo  Spirito  to  enjoy  the  elegant 
rhetoric  of  Frii  Mariano  da  Genazzano.  DiscoujageJ  by 
this  failure  in  the  pulpit,  Savonarola  now  devoted  himself 
NO  teaching  in  the  convent,  but  his  zeal  for  the  eaivalion 


of  the  apathetic  townsfolk  was  soon  to  stir  him  to  fr-esh 
efforts.  Convinced  of  being  divinely  inspired,  he  had 
begun  to  see  vision.s,  and  discovered  in  the  Apocalypse 
symbols  of  tlie  heavenly  vengeance  about  to  overtake  this 
sin-Jadeu  people.  In  a  hymn  to  the  Saviour  composed  at 
this  time  he  gave  vent  to  his  prophetic  dismay.  The 
papal  chair  wais  now  filled  by  Innocer.t  Vin.,  whose  rule 
was  even  more  infamous  than  that  of  his  predecessor 
Sixtus  IV. 

Savonarola's  first  success  as  a  preacher  was  gained  at 
St  Gemignano  (1484-85),  but  it  was  only  at  Brescia  in 
the  following  year  that  his  power  as  an  orator  was  fully 
revealed.  In  a  sermon  on  the  Apocalypse  he  shook  men's 
souls  by  his  terrible  threats  of  the  wrath  to  come,  and 
drew  tears  from  their  eyes  by  the  teuder  pathos  of  his 
assurauces  of  divine  mercy.  A  Brescian  friar  relates  that 
a  halo  of  light  was  seen  to  flash  round  his  head,  and  the 
citizens  remembered  his  awful  prophecies  when  in  1512 
their  town  was  put  to  the  sack  by  Gaston  de  Foix. 

Soon,  at  a  Dominican  council  at  Eeggio,  Savonarola  had 
occasion  to  display  his  theological  learning  and  subtlety. 
The  famous  Pico  della  Mirandola  -n-as  particularly 
impressed  by  the  friar's  attainments,  and  is  said  to  have 
urged  Lorenzo  de'  Jledici  to  recall  him  from  Lorabardy. 
When  Savonarola  returned  to  Florence  in  1490,  his  fame 
as  an  orator  had  gone  there  before  him.  The  cloister 
garden  was  too  small  for  the  crowds  attending  his 
lectures,  and  on  the  1st  August  1490  he  gave  his  first 
sermon  in  the  church  of  St  Mark.  To  quote  his  own 
words,  it  was  "a  terrible  sermon,"  and  legend  adds  that 
ho  foretold  he  should  preach  for  eight  years. 

Aud  now,  for  the  better  setting  forth  of  his  doctrines,  to 
silence  pedants,  and  confute  malignant  misinterpretation, 
he  published  a  collection  of  his  writings.  These  proved 
his  knowledge  of  the  ancient  philosophy  he  so  fiercely 
condemned,  and  showed  that  no  ignorance  of  the  fathers 
caused  him  to  seek  inspiration  from  the  Bible  alone.  The 
Triumph  of  Vie  Cross  is  his  principal  work,  but  everything 
he  ^vrote  was  animated  by  the  ardent  spirit  of  piety 
evidenced  in  his  life.  Savonarola's  sole  aim  was  to  bring 
mankind  nearer  to  God. 

In  1491  he  was  invited  to  preach  in  the  cathedral,  Sta 
Maria  del  Fiore,  and  his  rule  over  Florence  may  be  said 
to  begin  from  that  date.  The  anger  and  uneasiness  of 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici  gave  testimony  to  his  power.  Five  of 
the  leading  men  of  Florence  were  sent  to  urge  him  to 
moderate  his  tone,  and  in  his  own  interest  and  that  of  his 
convent  to  show  more  respect  to  the  head  of  the  state. 
But  Savonarola  rejected  their  advice.  "  Tell  your  master," 
he  said  in  conclusion,  "  that,  albeit  I  am  a  humble  stranger, 
he  the  lord  of  Florence,  yet  I  shall  remain  and  he  deparL" 
Afterwards,  in  the  presence  of  many  witnesses,  he  fore- 
told that  stupendous  changes  impended  over  Italy, — that 
Lorenzo,  the  pope,  and  the  king  of  Naples  were  all  near 
unto  death. 

In  the  July  of  the  same  year  he  was  elected  prior  of  St 
ilark's.  As  the  convent  had  been  rebuilt  by  Cosirao,  and 
enriched  by  the  bounty  of  the  Jtedici,  it  was  considered 
the  duty  of  the  new  superior  to  present  his  homage  to 
Lorenzo.  Savonarola,  however,  refused  to  conform  to  the 
usage.  His  election  was  due  to  God,  not  Lorenzo ;  to 
God  alone  would  he  promise  submission.  Upon  this  the 
sovereign  angrily  exclaimed  :  "  This  stranger  comes,  to 
dwell  in  my  house,  yet  will  not  stoop  to  pay  me  a  visit." 
Nevertheless,  disdaining  to  recognize  the  enmity  of  a  mere 
monk,  he  tried  various  conciliatory  measures.  All  were 
rejected  by  the  unbending  prior,  who  even  refused  to  let 
hi',  convent  profit  by  Lorenzo's  donations.  The  Magnifico 
then  sought  to  undermine  his  popularity,  and  Fr.*!  Mariano 
was  employed  to  attack  him  f<^om  the  pulpit.     But  the 


SAVONAROLA 


335 


fieacber's  scandalous  accusations  missed  their  mark,  and 
nisgusted  his  hearers  without  hnrtiog  his  rival.  Savon- 
arola took  up  the  challenge ;  his  eloquence  prevailed,  and 
Fri  Mariano  was  silenced.  But  the  latter,  while  feigning 
indifference,  was  thenceforth  his  rancorous  and  determined 
foe. 

In  April  1492  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  was  on  his  dealh- 
ted  at  CareggL  Oppressed  by  the  weight  of  his  crimes, 
he  needsd  some  assurance  of  divine  forgiveness  from 
trustier  lips  than  those  of  obsequious  courtier.s,  and 
summoned  the  unyielding  prior  to  shrivo  his  soul. 
Savonarola  reluctantly  came,  and,  after  hearing  the  agitated 
confession  of  the  dying  prince,  offered  absolution  upon 
three  conditions.  Lorenzo  asked  in  what  they  consisted. 
First,  "  You  must  repent  and  feel  true  faith  in  God's 
mercy."  Lorenzo  assented.  Secondly,  "You  must  give  up 
your  ill-gotten  wealth."  This  too  Lorenzo  promised,  after 
some  hesitation  ;  but  upon  hearing  the  third  clause,  "  You 
must  restore  the  liberties  of  Florence,"  Lorenzo  turned  his 
face  to  the  wall  and  made  no  reply.  Savonarola  waited  a 
few  moments  and  then  went  away.  And  shortly  after_lus 
penitent  died  unabsolved. 

Savonarola's  influence  now  Kpidly  increased-  Many 
adherents  of  the  late  prince  came  over  to  his  side, 
disgusted  by  the  violence  and  incompetency  of  Piero  de' 
Medici's  rule.  All  state  affairs  were  mismanaged,  and 
Florence  was  fast  losing  the  power  and  prestige  acquired 
under  Lorenzo.  The  same  year  witnessed  the  fulfilment 
of  Savonarola's  second  prediction  in  the  death  of  Inno- 
cent VIII.  (July  1492) ;  men's  minds  were  full  of 
anxiety,  and  the  scandalous  election  of  Cardinal  Borgia  to 
the  papal  chair  heralded  the  climax  of  Italy's  woes.  The 
friar's  utterances  became  more  and  more  fervent  and 
impassioned.  Patriotic  solicitude  combined  with  close 
study  of  Biblical  prophecies  had  stirred  him  to  a  pious 
frenzy,  in  which  he  saw  visions  and  believed  himself  the 
recipient  of  divine  revelations.  It  was  during  the  delivery 
of  one  of  his  forcible  Advent  sermons  that  he  beheld  the 
celebrated  vision,  recorded  in  contemporary  medals  and 
engravings,  that  is  almost  a  symbol  of  his  doctrines.  A 
hand  appeared  to  him  bearing  a  flaming  sword  inscribed 
with  the  words :  "  Gladius  Domini  supra  terram  cito  et 
velociter."  He  heard  supernatural  voices  proclaiming 
mercy  to  the  faithful,  vengeance  on  the  guilty,  and  mighty 
cries  that  the  wrath  of  God  was  at  hand.  Then  the  sword 
bent  towards  the  earth,  the  sky  darkened,  thunder  pealed, 
lightning  flashed,  and  the  whole  world  was  wasted  by 
famine,  bloodshed,  and  pestilence.  It  was  probably  the 
noise  of  these  sermons  that  caused  the  friar's  temporary 
removal  from  Florence  at  the  instance  of  Piero  de'  Medici. 
He  was  presently  addressing  enthusiastic  congregations  at 
Prato  and  Bologna.  •  In  the  latter  city  his  courage  in 
rebuking  the  wife  of  Bentivoglio,  the  reigning  lord,  lor 
interrupting  divine  service  by  her  noisy  entrance  neaily 
cost  him  his  life.  Assassins  were  sent  to  kill  him  in  his 
cell ;  but  awed,  It  is  said,  by  Savonarola's  words  and 
demeanour  they  fled  dismayed  from  his  presence.  At  the 
close  of  his  last  sermon  the  undaunted  friar  publicly 
announced  tlio  day  and  hour  of  his  departure  from 
Bologna ;  and  his  lonely  journey  on  foot  over  the  Apennines 
wu  safely  accomplished.  He  va»  rapturously  welcomed 
by  the  community  of  St  Mark's,  and  at  once  proceeded  to 
re-establish  the  discipline  of  the  order  and  to  sweep  away 
all  abuses.  For  this  purpose  he  obtained,  after  much 
difficulty,  a  [(apal  brief  emancipating  the  Dominicans 
of  6t  Jlark  from  the  rule  of  the  Lombard,  vicars  of 
that  order.  He  thus  became  an  independent  author- 
ity, no  longer  at  the  command  of  distant  Euperiors. 
Thoroughly  reorganizing  the  convent,  he  relegated  many 
gf  the  brethren  to  a  quieter  retreat  outside  the  city,  only 


retaining  in  Florence  those  Best  fitted  to  aid  in  intellectual 
labour.  To  render  the  convent  self-supporting,  he  opened 
schools  for  various  branches  of  art,  and  ])romotcd  the 
study  of  Oriental  languages.  His  efforts  were  completely 
successful ;  the  brethren's  enthusiasm  was  fired  by  their 
superior's  example  ;  religion  and  learning  made  equal  pro- 
gress ;  St  Mark's  became  the  most  popular  monastery  in 
Florence,  and  many  citizens  of  noble  birth  flocked  thither 
to  take  the  vows. 

Meanwhile  Savonarola  continued  to  denounce  the 
abuses  of  the  church  and  the  guilt  and  corruption  of  man- 
kind, and  thundered  forth  predictions  of  heavenly  wrath. 
The  scourge  of  war  was  already  at  hand,  for  in  1494  the 
duke  of  Milan  demanded  the  aid  of  France,  and  King 
Chariest  VUL  brought  an  army  across  the  Alps.  Piero  do' 
Medici,  maddened  with  fear,  and  forgetting  that  hitherto 
Florence  had  been  the  firm  friend  of  France,  made  alli&nco 
with  the  Neapolitan  sovereign  whose  kingdom  was  claimed 
by  Charlesi  Then,  repenting  this  ill-judged  step,  he 
hurried  in  person  to  the  French  camp  at  Pietra  Santa,  and 
humbled  himself  before  the  king.  And,  not  content  with 
agreeing  to  all  the  latter's  demands,  he  further  promised 
large  sums  of  money  and  the  surrender  of  the  strongholds 
of  Pisa  and  Leghorn. 

This  news  drove  Florence  to  revolt,  and  the  worst 
excesses  were  feared  from  the  popular  fury.  But  even  at 
this  crisis  Savonarola's  influence  was  all-powerful,  and  a 
bloodless  revolution  was  effected.  Piero  Capponi's  declara- 
tion that  "  it  was  time  to  put  an  end  to  this  baby  govern- 
ment "  was  the  sole  weapon  needed  to  depose  Piero  da' 
Medici.  The  resuscitated  republic  instantly  sent  a  fresh 
embassy  to  the  French  king,  to  arrange  the  terms  of  his 
reception  in  Florence.  Savonarola  was  one  of  the  envoys, 
Charles  being  kno^vn  to  entertain  the  greatest  veneration 
for  the  friar  who  had  so  long  predicted  his  coming  and 
declared  it  to  be  divinely  ordained.  He  was  most  respect- 
fully received  at  the  camp,  but  could  obtain  no  definite 
pledges  from  the  king,  who  was  bent  on  first  coming  to 
Florence.  During  Savonarola's  ab.senco  Piero  de'  Medici 
had  re-entered  the  city,  found  his  power  irretrievably  lost, 
and  been  contemptuously  but  peaceably  expelled.  It  is  a 
proof  of  the  high  esteem  in  which  Savonarola's  convent 
was  held  that,  although  the  headquarters  of  the  victorious 
popular  party,  Piero's  brother.  Cardinal  Medici,  entrusted 
to  its  care  a  large  share  of  the  family  treasures. 

Returning  full  of  hope  from  Pietra  Santa,  Savonarola, 
might  well  have  been  dismayed  by  the  distracted  state  of 
public  affairs.  There  was  no  Government,  and  revolted 
Pisa  was  secretly  favoured  by  the  monarch  who  was 
knocking  at  the  gates  of  Florence,  f  Nevertheless,  with 
the  aid  of  Capponi,  ho  guided  the  bewildered  city  safely 
through  these  critical  days.  Charles  entered  Florence  on 
the  17th  November  1494,  and  the  citizens'  fears  evaporated 
in  jests  on  the  puny  exterior  of  the  "threatened  scourge." 
But  the  exorbitance  of  his  demands  soon  showed  that  ho 
came  as  a  foe.  All  was  agitation ;  disturbances  arose, 
and  serious  collisioa  with  the  French  troops  seemed 
inevitable.  The  signory  resolved  to  bji  rid  of  their 
dangerous  guests ;  and,  when  Charles  threatened  to  sound 
his  trumpets  unless  the  sums  exacted  were  paid,  Cajiponi 
tore  up  the  treaty  in  his  face  and  made  the  momorablo 
reply:  "Then  we  will  ring  our  bells."  The  monarch 
was  cowed,  accepted  moderate  terras,  and,  yielding  to 
Sa\onaroU's  remonstrances,  left  Florence  on  the  24th 
November. 

The  city  was  now  free  but  in  the  utmost  disorder,  its 
commerce  ruined,  its  treasury  dniiued.  After  seventy 
years'  Eubjection  to  the  Jledici  it  had  forgotten  the  nit  k{ 
self-government,  and  felt  the  need  of  a  strong  guiding 
hand.     So  the  citizens  turned  to  the  patriot  monk  whoso 


336 


SAVONAROLA 


words  had  freed  them  of  King  Charles,  and  Savonarola 
became  the  lawgiver  of  Florence.  The  first  thing  done 
at  his  instance  was  to  relieve  the  starving  populace  \vithin 
and  without  the  walls  ;  shops  were  opened  to  give  work 
to  the  unemployed  ;  all  taxes,  especially  those  weighing 
on  the  lower  classes,  were  reduced  ;  the  strictest  admini- 
stration of  justice  was  enforced,  and  all  men  were  exhorted 
to  place  their  trust  in  the  Lord.  And,  after  much  debate 
as  to  the  constitution  of  the  new  republic,  Savonarola's 
iufluence  carried  the  day  in  favour  of  Soderini's  proposal 
of  a  universal  or  general  government,  with  a  great  council 
on  the  Venetian  plan,  but  modified  to  suit  the  needs  of 
the  city.  The  Florentines'  love  for  their  great  preacher 
-was  enhanced  by  gratitude  on  this  triumphant  defence  of 
their  rights.  The  great  council  consisted  of  3200  citizens 
of  blameless  reputation  and  over  twenty-five  years  of  age, 
a  third  of  the  number  sitting  for  six  months  in  turn  in 
the  hall  of  the  Cinquecento  expressly  built  for  the  pur- 
pose. There  was  also  an  upper  council  of  eighty,  which 
in  conjunction  with  the  signory  decided  all  questions  of 
too  important  and  delicate  a  nature  for  discussion  in  the 
larger  assembly.  These  institutions  were  approved  by  the 
people,  and  gave  a  fair  promise  of  justice.  Savonarola's 
programme  of  the  new  government  was  comprised  in  the 
following  formula: — (1)  fear  of  God  and  purification  of 
manners ;  (2)  promotion  of  the  public  welfare  in  pre- 
ference to  private  interests ;  (3)  a  general  amnesty  to 
political  offenders ;  (4)  a  council  on  the  Venetian  model, 
but  with  no  doge.  At  first  the  new  machinery  acted 
■well ;  the  public  mind  was  tranquil,  and  the  war  with 
Pisa — not  as  yet  of  threatening  proportions — was  enough 
to  occupy  the  Florentines  and  prevent  internecine  feuds. 

Without  holding  any  official  post  in  the  commonwealth 
he  had  created  the  prior  of  St  Mark's  was  the  real  head  of 
the  state,  the  dictator  of  Florence,  and  guarded  the  public 
weal  with  extraordinary  political  wisdom.  At  his  instance 
the  tyrannical  system  of  arbitrary  imposts  and  so-called 
voluntary  loans  was  abolished,  and  replaced  by  a  tax  of 
ten  per  cent,  (la  decima)  on  all  real  property.  The  laws 
and  edicts  of  this  period  read  Hke  paraphrases  of 
Savonarola's  sermons,  and  indeed  his  counsels  were  always 
given  as  addenda  to  the  religious  exhortations  in  which  he 
denounced  the  sins  of  his  country  and  the  pollution  of  the 
church,  and  urged  Florence  to  cast  ofi  iniquity  and  become 
a  truly  Christian  city,  a  pattern  not  only  to  Rome  but  to 
the  world  at  large.  His  eloquence  was  now  at  the  flood. 
Day  by  day  his  impassioned  words,  filled  with  the  spirit 
of  the  Old  Testament,  ■wrought  upon  the  minds  of  the 
Florentines  and  strung  them  to  a  pitch  of  pious  emotion 
never  before — and  never  since — attained  by  them.  Their 
fervour  was  tco  hot  to  be  lasting,  and  Savonarola's  un- 
compromising spirit  roused  the  hatred  of  political  adver- 
saries as  well  as  of  the  degraded  court  of  Rome.  Even 
row,  when  his  authority  was  at  its  highest,  when  his  fame 
filled  the  land,  and  the  vast  cathedral  and  its  precincts 
lacked  space  for  the  crowd-^s  flocking  to  hear  him,  his 
enemies  were  secretly  preparing  his  downfall. 

Pleasure-loving  Florence  was  completely  changed.  Ab- 
juring pomps  and  vanities,  its  citizens  observed  the  ascetic 
regime  of  the  cloister ;  half  the  year  was  devoted  to 
abstinence  and  few  dared  to  eat  meat  on  the  fasts  ordained 
by  Savonarola.  Hymns  and  lauds  rang  in  the  streets 
that  had  so  recently  echoed  with  Lorenzo's  dissolute  songs. 
Both  sexes  dressed  with  Puritan  plainness ;  husbands  and 
wives  quitted  their  homes  for  convents ;  marriage  became 
an  awful  and  scarcely  permitted  rite ;  mothers  suckled 
their  own  babes ;  and  persons  of  all  ranks — nobles,  scholars, 
end  artists — renounced  the  world  to  assume  the  Dominican 
robe.  Still  more  wonderful  was  Savonarola's  influence 
over  children,  and  their  response  to  his  appeals  is  a  proof 


of  the  magnetic  power  of  his  goodness  and  purity. "  Hd 
organized  the  boys  of  Florence  in  a  species  of  sacred 
militia,  an  inner  republic,  with  its  own  magistrates  and 
officials  chargsd  with  the  enforcement  of  his  rules  for  the 
holy  life.  It  was  with  the  aid  of  these  youthful  enthu- 
siasts that  Savonarola  arranged  the  religious  carnival  of 
1496,  when  the  citizens  gave  their  costliest  possessions  in 
alms  to  the  poor,  and  tonsured  monks,  crowned  ■with 
flowers,  sang  lauds  and  performed  wild  dances  for  the 
glory  of  God.  In  the  same  spirit,  and  to  point  the 
doctrine  of  renunciation  of  carnal  gauds,  he  celebrated 
the  carnival  of  1497  by  the  famous '"  burning  of  the 
vanities"  in  the  Piazza  della  Signoria.  A  Venetian 
merchant  is  known  to  have  bid  22,000  gold  florins  for  the 
doomed  vanities,  but  the  scandalized  authorities  not  only 
rejected  his  offer  but  added  his  portrait  to  the  pile. 
Nevertheless  the  artistic  value  of  the  objects  consumed 
has  been  greatly  exaggerated  by  some  writers.  There  is 
no  proof  that  any  book  or  painting  of  real  merit  was 
sacrificed,  and  Savonarola  was  neither  a  foe  to  art  nor  to 
learning.  On  the  contrary,  so  great  was  his  respect  for 
both  that,  when  there  was  a  question  of  selling  the  Medici 
library  to  pay  that  family's  debts,  he  saved  the  collection 
at  the  expense  of  the  convent  purse. 

Meanwhile  events  were  taking  a  turn  hostile  to  the 
prior.  Alexander  VI.  had  long  regretted  the  enfranchise 
mcnt  of  St  Mark's  from  the  rule  of  the  Lombard 
Dominicans,  and  now,  having  seen  a  transcript  of  one  of 
Savonarola's  denunciations  of  his  crimes,  resolved  to 
silence  this  daring  preacher  at  any  cost.  Bribery  was  tha 
first  weapon  employed,  and  a  cardinal's  hat  was  held  ouS 
as  a  bait.  But  Savonarola  indignantly  spurned  the  offer, 
replying  to  it  from  the  pulpit  with  the  prophetic  words : 
"is^o  hat  will  I  have  but  that  of  a  martyr,  reddened  vdth 
my  ovra  blood." 

So  long  as  King  Charles  remained  in  Italy  Alexander's 
concern  for  his  own  safety  prevented  all  vigorous  measures 
against  the  friar.  But  no  Borgia  ever  forgot  an  enem/. 
He  bided  his  time,  and  the  transformation  of  sceptical 
Florence  into  an  austerely  Christian  republic  claiming  the 
Saviour  as  its  head  only  increased  his  resolve  to  crush 
the  man  who  had  Tvrought  this  marvel.  The  potent  duke 
of  Milan,  Ludovico  Sforza,  and  other  foes  were  labouring 
for  the  same  end,  and  already  in  July  1495  a  papal  brief 
had  courteously  summoned  Savonarola  to  Rome.  In  terms 
of  equal  courtesy  the  prior  declined  the  invitation,  nor 
did  he  obey  a  second,  less  softly  worded,  in  September. 
Then  came  a  third,  threatening  Florence  with  an  interdict 
in  case  of  renewed  refusal.  Savonarola  disregarded  the 
command,  but  suspending  his  sermons  went  to  preach 
for  a  while  in  other  Tuscan  cities.  But  in  Lent  his 
celebrated  sermons  upon  Amos  were  dehvered  in.  the 
duomo,  and  again  he  urged  the  necessity  of  reforming  the 
church,  striving  by  ingenious  arguments  to  reconcile  re- 
bellion against  Alexander  with  unalterable  fidelity  to  tie 
Holy  See.  All  Italy  recognized  that  a  mortal  combat  was 
going  on  between  a  humble  friar  and  the  head  of  the 
church.  ^Vhat  would  be  the  result  ?  Savonarola's  voice 
was  arousing  a  storm  that  might  shake  even  the  power  of 
Rome !  Alive  to  the  danger,  the  pope  knew  that  his  foe 
must  be  crushed,  and  the  religious  carnival  of  1496 
afforded  a  good  pretext  for  stronger  proceedings  against 
him.  The  threatened  anathema  was,  for  some  reason, 
deferred,  but  a  brief  uniting  St  Mark's  to  a  new  Tuscan 
branch  of  the  Dominicans  now  deprived  Savonarola  of  his 
independent  power.  However,  in  the  beginning  of  1 497 
the  Piagnoni  were  again  in  office,  with  the  prior's  staunch 
friend,  Francesco  Valori,  at  their  head.  In  March  the 
aspect  of  aflfairs  changed.  The  Arrabbiati  and  the 
Medicean    faction    merged    political   differences    in    their 


SAVONAROLA 


337 


«ommon  hatred  to  Savonarola.'  Piero  do'  SfeJici'a  fresh 
attempt  to  re-enter  Florence  failed ;  nevertheless  liis 
followers  continued  their  intrigues,  and  party  spirit  in- 
creased in  virulence.  The  citizens  were  growing  weary 
of  the  monastic  austerities  imposed  on  them,  and  Alexander 
foresaw  that  his  revenge  was  at  hand. 

A  signory  openly  hostile  to  Savonarola  took  office  in 
Iffay,  and  on  Ascension  Day  his  enemies  ventured  on  active 
insult.  His  pulpit  in  the  duomo  was  defiled,  an  ass's 
skin  spread  over  the  cushion,  and  sharp  nails  fi.xed  in  the 
board  on  w^hich  he  would  strike  his  hand.  The  outrage 
was  discovered  and  remedied  before  the  service  began ; 
and,  although  the  Ar^^bbiati  half  filled  the  church  and 
even  sought  to  attempt  his  life,  Savonarola  kept  his  com- 
posure and  delivered  a  most  impressive  sermon.  But  the 
incident  proved  the  bitterness  and  energy  of  his  foes,  and 
the  signory,  in  feigned  anxiety  for  the  public  peace,  be- 
sought him  to  suspend  his  discourses.  Shortly  afterwards 
the  threatened  bull  of  excommunication  was  launched 
against  him,  and  Fr.\  Mariano  was  in  Eome  stimulating 
the  pope's  wrath.  Savonarola  remained  undaunted.  •  The 
sentence  was  null  and  void,  he  said.  His  mission  was 
divinely  inspired ;  and  Alexander,  elected  simoniacally  and 
laden  with  crimes,  was  no  true  pope.  Nevertheless  the 
reading  of  the  bull  in  the  duomo  with  the  appropriate, 
terrifying  ceremonial  made  a  deep  impression  on  the 
Florentines.  And  now,  the  Arrabbiati  signory  putting 
no  check  on  the  Compagnacci,  the  city  returned  to 
the  wanton  licence  of  Lorenzo's  reign.  But  in  July 
Savonarola's  friends  ^ere  again  in  power  and  did  their 
best  to  have  his  excommunication  removed.  Meanwhile 
party  strife  was  stilled  by  an  outbreak  of  the  plague. 
The  priof  of  St  Mark's  used  the  wisest  precautions  for  the 
safety  of  his  two  hundred  and  fifty  monks,  .sustained  their 
courage  by  his  own,  and  sent  the  younger  men  to  a  country 
retreat  out  of  reach  of  contagion.  During  this  time 
Rome  was  horror-struck  by  the  mysterious  murder  of  the 
young  duke  of  Gandia,  aud.vthe  bereaved  pope  mourned 
his  son  with  the  wildest  grief.  Savonarola  addressed  to  the 
pontiff  a  letter  of  condolence,  boldly  urging  him  to  bow 
to  the  will  of  Heaven  and  repent  while  there  was  yet  time. 

The  plague  ended,  Florence  was  plunged  in  fresh 
troubles  from  Medicean  intrigues,  and  a  conspiracy  for 
the  restoration  of  Picro  was  discovered.  Among  the  five 
leading  citizens  concerned  in  the 'plot  was  Bernardo  del 
Nero,  a  very  aged  man  of  lofty  talents  and  position.  The 
gonfalonier,  Francesco  Valori,  used  his  strongest  influence 
to  obtain  their  condemnation,  and  all  five  were  put  to 
death.  It  is  said  that  at  least  Bernardo  del  Nero  would 
have  been  spared  had  Savonarola  raised  his  voice,  but, 
although  refraining  from  any  active  part  against  the 
prisoners,  the  prior  would  not  ask  mercy  for  them.  This 
silence  proved  fatal  to  his  popularity  with  moderate  nien, 
gave  new  adherents  to  the  Arrabbiati,  and  whetted  the 
fury  of  the  pope,  Sforza,  and  all  potentates  well  disposed 
to  the  jNIedici  faction.  Ho  was  now  interdicted  from 
preaching  even  in  his  own  convent  and  again  summoned 
to  Pionie.  As  before,  the  mandate  was  disobeyed.  He 
refrained  from  public  preaching,  but  held  conferences  in 
St  Mark's  with  large  gatherings  of  his  disciples,  and  defied 
the  interdict  on  Christmas  Day  by  publicly  celebrating 
mass  and  heading  a  iirocession  through  the  cloisters. 

The  year  1408,  in  which  Savonarola  was  to  die  a 
martyr's  death,  opened  amid  seemingly  favourable  auspices. 
The  Piagnoni  were  again  at  the  head  of  the  .'.late,  and  by 
their  request  the  prior  resumed  his  sermons  in  the  duomo, 
while  his  dearest  disciple,  Frii  Domenico  Buonvicini,  fided 
the  pul[iit  of  St  Lorenzo.  Scaffoldings  had  to  be  erected 
to  accommodate  ;~avonarola'.'i  congregation,  and  the  Arrab- 
biati could  ouly  vent   their  spite  by  noisy  riots  on   the 

21— io 


piazza  outside  the  cathedral.  For  the  last  time  the 
carnival  was  again  kept  with  strange  religious  festivities, 
and  many  valuable  books  and  works  of  art  were  sacrificed 
in  a  second  bonfire  of  "  vanities."  But  menacing  briefs 
poured  ii:  from  Rome;  the  iiope  had  read  one  of 
Savonarolt. s  recent  sermons  on  Exodus;  the  city  itself 
was  threatened  with  interdict,  and  the  Florentine  ambas- 
sador could  barely  obtain  a  short  delay.  Now  too  the 
Piagnoni  quitted  office ;  the  new  signory  was  less  friendly,' 
and  the  prior  was  persuaded  by  his  adheients  to  retire  to 
St  Slark's.  There  he  continued  to  preach  with  unabated 
zeal ;  and,  since  the  women  of  Florence  deplored  the  loss  of 
his  teachings,  one  day  in  the  week  was  set  apart  for  them. 
The  signory  tried  to  conciliate  the  pope  by  relating  the 
wonderful  spiritual  effects  of  their  preacher's  words,  but; 
Alexander  was  obdurate.  The  Florentines  pust  either 
silence  the  man  themselves,  or  send  him  to  be  judged  by 
a  Roman  tribunal. 

Undismayed  by  personal  danger,  Savonarola  resolved  to 
appeal  to  all  Christendom  against  the  unrighteous  pontiff, 
and  despatched  letters  to  the  rulers  of  Europe  adjuring 
them  to  assemble  a  council  to  condemn  this  antipope. 
The  council  of  Constance,  and  the  deposition  of  John 
XXII  I.,  wero  satisfactory  precedents  still  remembered  by 
the  world.  Om  of  these  letters  being  intercepted  and 
sent  to  Rome  by  the  duke  of  Milan  (it  is  said)  proved  fatal 
to  the  friar.  The  papal  threats  were  now  too  urgent  to  be 
disregarded,  and  the  ciwed  signory  entreated  Savonarola 
to  put  an  end  to  his  sermins.  He  reluctantly  obeyed,  and 
concluded  his  last  discouri;e  with  the  tenderest  and  most 
touching  farewell.  Perhaps  he  foresaw  that  he  should- 
nnyer  agalu  address  Lis  flock  tVom  the  pulpit. 

The  Government  now  hoped  that  Alexander  would  be 
cppeaSed  and  Florence  allowed  to  breathe  freely.  But) 
although  silenced  the  prophet  was  doomed,  and  the  folly 
of  his  disciples  precipitated  his  fate.  A  creature  of  the 
Arrabbiati,  a  Franciscan  friar  named  Francesco  di  Puglia, 
challenged  Savonarola  to  prove  the  truth  of  his  doctrines 
by  the  ordeal  of  fire.  At  first  the  prior  treated  the  pro^ 
vocation  with  merited  contempt,  but  unfortunately  hi9 
too  zealous  disciple  Fri  Domenico  accepted  the  challenged 
And,  when  the  Franciscan  declared  that  he  would  enter 
the  fire  with  Savonarola  alone,  Frh,  Domenico  protested 
his  willingness  to  enter  it  with  any  one  in  defence  of  hia 
master's  cause.  So,  as  Savonarola  resolutely  declined  the 
trial,  the  Franciscan  deputed  a  convert,  one  GiuUano  dei 
Rondinelli,  to  go  through  the  ordeal  with  Fri  Domenico. 
There  were  long  preliminary  disputes.  Savonarola,  per- 
ceiving that  a  trap  was  being  laid  for  him,  discountenanced 
the  "e.xperimcnt"  until  over-persuaded  by  his  disciple's 
prayers.  Perhaps  because  it '  was  a  mere  reduclio  ad 
ahsurdmn  of  his  dearest  beliefs,  he  was  strangely  perplexed 
and  vacillating  with  regard  to  it.  With  his  firm  convic- 
tion of  the  divinity  of  his  mission  he  sometimes  felt 
assured  of  the  triumphant  issue  of  the  terrible  ordeal. 
Alternately  swayed  by  impassioned  zeal  and  the  prompt- 
ings of  reason,  his  calmer  judgment  was  at  last  overborne 
by  the  fanaticism  of  his  followers.  Aided  by  the  signory, 
which  was  playing  into  the  hands  of  Rome,  the  Arrabbiati 
and  Compagnacci  pressed  the  matter  on,  and  the  way  was 
now  clear  for  Savonarola's  destruction. 

On  the  7th  April  1198  an  immense  throng  gathered  in 
the  Piazza  dtlla  Signoria  to  enjoy  the  barbarous  sight. 
Two  thick  banks  of  combustibles  forty  yards  long,  with  a 
narrow  space  between,  had  been  erected  in  front  of  the 
palace,  and  five  hundred  soldiers  kept  a  wide  circle  clear 
of  the  crowd.  .Some  writers  aver  that  the  piles  were 
charged  with  gunpowder.  ■  Not  only  the  square  but  every 
window,  balcony,  or  housetop  commanding  a  glimpse  of 
it   wus   filled    with   eager    spectators.     The    Dominicans 


838 


Savonarola 


6:0m  one  side,  the  Franciscaus  from  the  other,  marched  in 
solemn  procession  to  the  Loggia  dei  Lanzi,  which  had  been 
divided  by  a  hoarding  into  two  separate  compartments. 
The  Dominicans  were  led  by  Savonarola  carrying  the 
host,  vfhich  he  reverently  deposited  on  an  altar  prepared 
in  his  portion  of  the  loggia,  and  when  FrJi  Domenico  was 
seen  to  kneel  before  it  the  Piagnoni  burst  into  a  song  of 
praise.  The  magistrates  signalled  to  the  two  champions 
to  advance.  Fra  Domenico  stepped  forward,  but  neither 
Rondinelli  nor  Frk  Francesco  appeared.  The  Franciscans 
began  to  urge  fantastic  objections.  The  Dominican's 
vestments  might  be  bewitched,  they  said.  Then,  when  he 
promptly  changed  them  for  a  friar's  robe,  they  pretended 
that  his  proximity  to  Savonarola  had  probably  renewed 
the  charm.  He  must  remove  the  cross  that  he  wore. 
He  again  complied, — was  ready  to  fulfil  every  condition  in 
order  to  enter  the  fire.  But  fresh  obstacles  were  suggested 
by  the  Franciscans,  and,  when  Savonarola  insisted  that  his 
champion  should  bear  the  host,  they  cried  out  against  the 
sacrilege  of  exposing  the  Redeemer's  body  to  the  flames. 
All  was  turmoil  and  confusion,  the  crowd  frantic.  And, 
although  Rondinelli  had  not  come,  the  signory  sent 
angry  messages  to  ask  why  the  Dominicans  delayed  the 
trial  .  Meanwhile  the  Arrabbiati  stirred  the  public  dis- 
content and  threw  all  the  blame  on  Savonarola.  Some 
Compagnacci  assaulted  the  loggia  in  order  to  kill  nim, 
bnt  were  driven  back  by  Salviati's  band.  The  foreign 
soldiery,  fearing  an  attack  on  the  palace,  charged  the 
excited  mob,  and  the  tumult  was  temporarily  checked. 
It  was  now  late  in  the  day,  and  a  storm  shower  gave  the 
authorities  a  pretext  for  declaring  that  heaven  was  against 
the  ordeal.  The  crafty  Franciscans  slipped  away  un- 
observed, but  Savonarola  raising  the  host  attempted  to 
lead  his  monks  across  the  piazza  in  the  same  solemn  order 
as  before.  On  this  the  popular  fury  burst  forth.  De- 
frauded of  their  bloody  diversion,  the  people  were  wild 
with  rage.  FrJi  Girolamo's  power  was  suddenly  at  an  end. 
These  Florentines  •  who  had  worshipped  him  as  a  saint 
turned  on  him  with  rabid  hate.  Neither  he  nor  his 
brethren  would  have  lived  to  reach  St  JIark's  but  for  the 
devoted  help  of  Salviati  and  his  men.  They  were  pelted, 
stoned,  and  followed  with  the  vilest  execrations.  Against 
the  real  culprits,  the  dastardly  Franciscans,  no  anger  was 
felt ;  the  zealous  prior,  the  prophet  and  lawgiver  of 
Florence,  was  made  the  popular  scapegoat  Notwith- 
standing the  anguish  that  must  have  filled  his  heart,  the 
fallen  man  preserved  his  dignity  and  calm.  Mounting 
his  own^pnlpit  in  St  Mark's  he  quietly  related  the  events 
of  the  day  to  the  faitliful  assembled  in  the  church,  and 
then  withdrew  to  his  cell,  while  the  mob  on  the  square 
outside  was  clamouring  for  his  blood. 

The  nest  morning,  the  signory  having  decreed  the 
prior's  banishment,  Francesco  Valori  and  other  leading 
Piagnoni  hurried  to  him  to  concert  measures  for  his  safety. 
Meanwhile  the  Government  decided  on  his  arrest,  end  no 
sooner  was  this  made  public  than  the  populace  rushed  to 
the  attack  of  the  convent.  The  doors  of  St  Mark's  were 
hastily  secured,  and  Savonarola  discovered  that  his 
adherents  had  secretly  prepared  arms  and  munitions  and 
were  ready  to  stand  a  siege.  The  signory  sent  to  order 
all  laymen  to  quit  the  cloister,  and  a  special  summons  to 
Valori,,^  After  some  hesitation  the  latter  obeyed,  hoping 
by  his  influence  to  rally  all  the  Piagnoni  to  the  rescue. 
But  he  was  murdered  in  the  street,  and  his  palace  sacked 
by  the  mob.  The  monks  and  their  few  remaining  friends 
made  a  most  desperate  -defence.  In  vain  Savonarola 
besought  them  to  lay  down  their  arms.  Frk  Benedetto 
tiie  painter  and  others  fought  like  hon»,  while  some  hnrled 
tiles  on  the  assailants  below.  When  the  church  was  finally 
(termed  Savonarola  ^s  seen  praying  at  the  eltar.  and  Fr^  , 


Domenico,  armed  with  an  enormous  candlestick,  guarding 
him  from  the  blows  of  the  mob.  Profiting  by  the  smoke 
and  confusion  a  few  disciples  dragged  their  beloved 
master  to  the  inner  library  and  urged  him  to  escape  by 
the  window.  He  hesitated,  seemed  about  to  consent, 
when  a  cowardly  monk,  one  JIalatesta  Sacramoro,  cried  out 
that  the  shepherd  should  lay  down  his  life  for  his  flock. 
Thereupon  Savonarola  turned,  bade  farewell  to  the  brethren, 
and,  accompanied  by  the  faithful  Domenico,  quietly 
surrendered  to  his  enemies.  Later,  betrayed  by  the  same 
Malatesta,  Fr?i,  Siivestro  was  also  seized.  Hustled, 
insulted,  and  injured  by  the  ferocious  crpwd,  the  prisoners 
were  conveyed  to  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  and  Savonarola  was 
lodged  in  the  tower  cell  which  had  oiice  harboured  Cosimo 
de'  Medisi. 

Now  came  an  exultant  brief  from  the  pope.  His  weU- 
beloved  Florentines  were  true  sons  of  the  church,  but  must 
crown  their  good  deeds  by  despatching  the  criminals  to 
Rome.  Sforza  was  equally  rejoiced  by  the  news,  and  the 
only  potentate  who  could  have  perhaps  saved  Savonarola's 
life,  Charles  of  France,  had  died  on  the  day  of  the  ordeal 
by  fire.  Thus  another  of  the  friar's  prophecies  was  verified, 
and  its  fulfilment  cost  him  his  sole  protector. 

The  result  of  the  trial  was  a  foregone  conclusion.  The 
signory  refused  to  send  their  prisoners  to  Rome,  but  they 
did  Rome's  behests.  Savonarola's  judges  were  chosen  from 
his  bitterest  foes.  Day  after  day  he  was  cruelly  tortured, 
and  in  jus  agony,  with  a  frame  weakened  by  constant 
austerity  and  the  mental  strain  of  the  past  months,  he 
made  every  admission  demanded  by  his  tormentors.  But 
directly  he  was  released  from  the  rack  he  always  withdrew 
the  confessions  uttered  in  the  delirium  of  pain.  And,  these 
being  too  incoherent  to  serve  for  a  legal  report,  a  false 
account  of  the  friar's  avowals  was  drawn  up  and  published 
instead  of  his  real  words. 

Though  physically  unable  to  resist  torture,  Savonarola't 
clearness  of  mind  returned  whenever  he  was  at  peace  in 
Ills  cell.  So  long  as  writing  materials  were  allowed  him 
he  "employed  himself  in  making  a  commentary  on  the 
Psalms,  in  which  he  restated  all  his  doctrines.  His  doom 
was  fixed,  but  some  delay  was  caused  by  the  pope's 
unwillingness  to  permit  the  execution  in  Florence^  Alex- 
ander was  frantically  eager  to  see  his  enemy  die  in  Rome. 
But  the  signory  remained  firm,  insisting  that  the  falsa 
prophet  should  suffer  death  before  the  Florentines  whom 
he  had  so  long  led  astray.  The  matter  was  finally  com- 
promised. A  second  mock  trial  was  held  by  two  apostolic 
commissioners  specially  appointed  by  the  pope.  One  of  the 
new  judges  was  a  Venetian  general  of  the  Dominicans,  the 
other  a  Spaniard.  Meanwhile  the  trial  of  Brothers 
Domenico  and  Siivestro  was  still  in  progress.  The  former 
remained  nobly  faithful  to  his  master  and  himself.  No 
extremity  of  torture  could  make  him  recant  or  extract  a 
syllable  to  Savonarola's  hurt ;  he  steaxifastly  repeated  his 
belief  in  the  divinity  of  the  prior's  mission.  Frk  Siivestro 
on  the  contrary  gave  way  at  mere  sight  of  the  rack,  and 
this  seer  of  heavenly  visions  o\\Tied  himself  and  master 
guilty  of  every  crime  laid  to  their  charge. 
'  The  two  commissioners  soon  ended  their  task.  They 
had  the  pope's  orders  that  Savonarola  was  to  die  "even 
were  he  a  second  John  the  Baptist."  On  three  snccessiva 
days  they  "examined"  the  prior  with  worse  tortures  than 
before.  But  he  now  resisted  pain  better,  and,  although 
more  than  once  a  promise  to  recant  was  extorted  from 
him,  he  reasserted  his  innocence  when  unbound,  crying  out, 
"  My  God,  1  denied  Thee  for  fear  of  pain."  On  the  evening 
of  May  22  sentence  of  death  was  pronounced  on  him  and 
Jiis  two  disciples.  Savonarola  listened  unmoved  to  the 
awful  words,  and  then  quietly  resumed  his  interrupted 
devotions.     Fik  Domenico  exulted  in  the  thought  of  dying 


S  A  V  — S  A  y 


330 


iby  Ma  master's  side  ;  Fri  Silvestro,  on  the  coatrary,  raved 
jrith  despair. 

The  only  favour  Savonarola  craved  before  dea,tli  was  a 
short  interview  \Vith  his  fellow  victims.  This,  after  long 
debate,  tho  signory  unwillingly  granted,  and  meanwhilo  a 
monk  was  sent  to  shrive  all  the  three.  Tho  memorable 
meeting  took  place  in  the  hail  of  the  Cinqueceuto.  During 
their  forty  days  of  confinement  and  torture  each  one  had' 
bcf.a  told  that  the  others  had  recanted,  and  the  false  report 
of  Savonarola's  confession  had  been  shown  to  the  two  monks. 
Tuo  three  were  now  face  to  face  for  the  first  time.  Fri 
Domenico's-loyalty  had  never  wavered,  and  the  weak  SUves- 
tro's  enthusiasm  rekindled  at  sight  of  his  chief.  .  Savonarola 
prayed  with  the  two  men,  gave  them  his  blessing,  and  ex- 
horted them  by  the  memory  of  -their  Saviour's  crucifbdon  to 
submit  meekly  to  their  fate.  Midnight  was  long  past  when 
Savonarola  was  led  back  to  his  cell.  Jacopo  Niccolini,  one 
of  a  religious  fraternity  dedicated  to  consoling  tho  last 
hours  of  condemned  men,  remained  with  him.  Spent  with 
weakness  and  fatigue  he  asked  leave  to'  rest  his  head  on 
his  companion's  lap,  and  quickly  fell  into  a  quiet  sleep. 
As  Niccolini  tells  us,  the  martyr's  face  became  serene  and 
smiling  as  a  child's.  On  awaking  he  addressed  kind  words 
to  the  compassionate  brother,  and  then  prophesied  that  dire 
calamities  would  befall  Florence  during  the  reign  of  a  popo 
named  Clement.  The  carefully  recorded  prediction  -was 
verified  by  the  siege  of  1529. 

The  execution  took  place  the  next  morning.  A  scaffold, 
connected  by  a  wooden  bridge  ■mth.  the  magistrates' 
rostrum,  had  been  erected  on  the  spot  where  the  piles  of 
the  ordeal  had  stood.  At  one  end  of-  the  platform  was  a 
huge  cross  with  faggots  heaped  at  its  base.  As  the 
prisoners,  clad  in  penitential  haircloth,  were  led  across- 
the  bridge,  wanton  boys  thrust  sharp  sticks  between  the 
planks  to  wound  their. feet.  First  came  the  ceremonial 
of  degradation.  Sacerdotal  robes  were  thrown  over  the 
victims,  and  then  roughly  stripped  off  by  two  Dominicans, 
the  bishop  of  Vasona  and  the  prior  of  Sta  Maria  Novella. 
To  the  bishop's  formula,  "  I  separate  thee  from  the  church 
militant  and  the  church  triumphant,  "  Savonarola  replied 
in  firm  tones,  "  Not  from  the  church  triumphant ;  that  Li 
beyond  thy  power."  By  a  refinement  of  cruelty  Savonarola 
was  the  last  to  sufier.  His  disciples'  bodies  ailready 
dangled  from  the  arms  of  the  cross  before  he°was  hung  on 
th£  centre  beam.  Then  the  pile  was  fired.  For  a  moment 
the  wind  blew  the  flames  aside,  leaving  tho  corpses 
untouched.  "  A  miracle,"  cried  the  weeping  Piagnoni ; 
but  then  the  fire  leapt  up  and  ferocious  yells  of  triumph 
rang  from  tho  mob.  At  dusk  tho  martyrs'  remains  were 
collected  in  a  cart  and  thrown  into  the  Arno. 

Savonarola's  party  •jvas  apparently  annihilated  by  his 
death,  but,  when  in  1529-30  Florence  was  exposed  to  the 
horrors  predicted  by  him,  the  most  heroic  defenders  of  his 
beloved  if  ungrateful  city  were  Piagnoni  who  ruled  their 
lives  by  his  precepts  and  revered  hia  memory  as  that  of  a 
saint. 

Savonarola's  writiugs  may"  be  classed  in  three  cafcggrios: — (1) 
immeiou')  sermons,  coilcctea  mainl'y  by  Lorenzo  Violi,  ono  of  his 
most  enthusiastic  hearers;  (2)  an  immense  number  of  devotional 
nnd  moral  essays  and  some  theological  works,  of  which  Jl  Trionfo 
iklla  Crocc  is  the  chief;  (3)  a  few  uhort  poems  a;nd  a  political 
trcatisB  on. the  government  of  Florence.  Although  his  faith  in 
tliw  dogmas  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  never  Bwervcd,  his 
strenuous  protests  against  papal  corruptions,  his  reliance  on  the 
lUble  as  his  surest  guide,  and  his  intense  moral  cflTnoatncfia  un- 
doubtedly connect  Savonarola  with  the  movcmant  that  heralded 
the  Reformation. 

See  Rudelbach,  Hieronymui  Savonarola  und  tetnt  2cit,  aut  dm  Quellm 
aorgettelU  (1PR5);  Knrl  Mclcr,  GiroJamo  Saconarofa,  nus  yrotifnthrtli  hand- 
icliri/ilichen  Quellen  dariettellt  (1930);  Padro  Vlnccnio  Mnrclicio,  Sloria  dl  S. 
Marco  dl  Firentt  (185.'i),  F.  T.  Pcrrcns,  Jirime  Sntonarola,  la  tic,  in  firMt- 
tai.oiu.  III  icrill  (l«'i.1),  R.  R.  Jloddcn,  The  Ll/e  and  itailyrJo.,l  of  Olnlamo 
Surunarola,  ttc.  (1854);  Uartolommco  Aluarono,  Vita  dt  I'rh  a  ronimo  ShtonJ 
aroJa  (1657):  Fasquulo  Vltlavi,  La  S'orta  dt  Otvotan\o  Savonarola  e  dc'  9uoi 
tt,npt  (J58»).  ft-  V.) 


SAVOY.  The  history  of  the  house  of  Savoy  shows. in  a 
striking  manner  how  the  destinies  of  a  nation  may  depend 
on  the  fortunes  of  a  princely  family.  During  eight  centu- 
ries, and  through  all  changes  of  fortune,  the  ptinces  of 
Savoy  have  kept  one  end  steadily  in  view,  and,  in  the 
words  of  Charles  Emnianuel  III.,  have  "  treated  Italy  as 
an  artichoke  to  be  eaten  leaf  by  leaf."  The  ambitions  of 
princes  and-  the  interests  of  the  people  have  fortunately 
tended  in  the  samo  direction,  and  their,  work  is  now  per- 
fected in  the  glory  of  their  house  and  the  freedom  of  the 
state. 

The  descent  of  Humbert  the  Whitehanded,  the  founder 
of  the  family,  is  uncertain,  but  he  was  most  probably  a  son 
of  Amadeus,  the  great-grandson  of  that  Boso  of  Provence 
(879)  who  was  father  of  the  emperor  Louis  the  Blind. 
In  rewardr  for  services  rendered  to  Eudolph  III.  of  Aries, 
Humbert  obtained  from  him  in  1027  the  bounties  of 
Savoy  and  Maurienne,  and  from  the  emperor  Conrad  the 
Salic  Chablais  and  the  Lower  Valais.  ;  His  territories, 
therefore,  all  lay  on  the  north-western  slopes  of  the  Alps. 
On  his  death  in  10-18  he  was  succeeded  i)erhaps  by  his 
eldest  son  Amadeus  I.,  but  eventually  by  his  fourth  soh 
Otho,  who,  by  his  marriage  with  Adelaide,  sole  heiress  of 
the  marquis  of  Susa,  obtained  the  counties  of  Turin  and 
the  Val  d'Aosta',  and  so  acquired  a  footing  ia  the  valley  of 
the  Po.  His  wife's  rank,  too,  as  marchioness  made  the 
family  guacdiaris  of  the  frontier  by  authority  of  the  king 
of  Italy,  as  theyhad  been  before  by  possession  of  territory, 
and  was  the  foundation  of  their  subsequent  power  as 
"warders"  of  the  Alps.  Otho  was  succeeded  in  1060  by 
his  son  Amadeus  II.,  who  maintained  a  judicious  neutral- 
ity between  his  brother-in-law  tho  emperor  Henry  IV.  and 
the  pope.  In  reward  for -his  mediation  between  them  he 
obtained  from  the  former  after  Cahossa  the  province  of 
Bugey. .  The  accession  of  his  son  Humbert  II;  in  1080 
brought  fresh  increase  of  territory  in  the  valley  of  the 
Tarantaise,  and  in  1091  this  prince  succeeded  to  the  dig- 
nities of  his  grandmother  Adelaide,  when  he  assumed  the 
title  of  prince  of  Piedmont.  AmalBos  HI.-  came  to  the 
fhrone  in  1 103,  and  in  1 1 11  his  states  were  created  counties 
of  the  empire  by  Henry  V.  On  his  way  home  from  the 
crusades  in  1149  Amadeus  died  at  Nicosia,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  sou  Humbert  III.  '  This  prince  did  not 
follow  the  example  of  Amadeus  II,  but  took  the  part  of 
the  pope  against  Barbarossa,  who  accordingly  ravaged  his 
territories  until  Humbert's  death  in  1188.  The  guardians 
of  his  son  Thomas  acted  more  discreetly,  and  reconciled 
their  ward  and  the  emperor.  He  remained  Ghibelline  all 
his  life,  and  received  from  Henry  VI.  accessions  of  territory 
in  Vaud,  Bugey,  and  Valais,  with  the  title  of  imperial  yicat 
in  Piedmont  and  Lombardy.  Ho  was  followed  in  1233 
by  Amadeus  IV.,  whoso  wife  was  the  beautiful  Cecilia  of 
Beaux,  surnamed  Passe  Rose.  A  campaign  against-  tlie 
inhabitants  of  Valais  epded  in  the  ann6.xation  of  their 
district,  and  his  support  of  Frederick  II.  against  the  pope 
caused  the  ^erection  of  -Chatlais  and  Aosta  into  a  duchy. 
In  1253  his  son  Boniface  .  succeeded  to  his  states  at  the 
age  of  nine,  but,  after- giving  proofs  of  his  valour  by  defeat- 
ing the  troops  of  Charles  of  Anjou  before  Turin,  he  mtu 
taken  prisoner  and  dipd  of  grief  (1263). 

The  Salic  law  now  came  into  operation  for  the  first  time, 
and  Peter,  tho  uncle  of  Botiiface,  was  called  to  the  throne. 
This  prince,  on  tho  marriage  of  bis  nieces  Eleanor  and  Sancha 
of  Pi-ovcnce  with  Henry  III.  of  England  and  Richard, 
earl  of  Cornwall,  had  visited  England,  where  ho  ht^d  been 
created  earl  of  Richmond,  and  built  a  palace'  ia  London 
afterwards  called  Savoy  House.  His  brothers  Boniface 
and  \Yilliaiii  were  also  appointed,  tho  former  to  the  see  of 
Canterbury,  and  tho  latt«r  to  the  presidency  of  tho  council. 
In  return  he  recognised  tho  claims  of  Richwrd  to  the  Impe- 


340 


SAVOY 


Genealogical  Table  ofjjie  Bouse  of  Sav»y. 
mnrBERT  =  ancili 

the  White-handed, 

5th  itl  descent  from 

Boson  of  Provence 

(879),  d.  10J8. 


&MADZCS  I.  (?' 


OTHbs'XSelalde,  di'.  and  heiress  of  Oderlc  Jlaiift^Ji 
d.  1060.  I  marquis  of  Susa,  i.  1091. 


AuADEcs  n.,  d.  lOSO. 
HoMBEET  71.,  the  Fat,  d.  1103. 


iertha= 


Bertha =empar»r  Uem?  IV« 


^AjIADECS  III. ; 

d.  1140. 


: Mathilda,  dr.  of 
Guigncs  VI.  of  Alton. 


Alicc=Louis  VI.  of  France, 
or  Adelaide 


I 


Humbert  IIT.  =4  wives. 
the  Saint,  d.  11  S3,  j 


MutIiUda=:A&onso  Heniiques, 
1st  king  of  Foitugol. 


I 

<5LU>Eijs  IV.  =  C&ilc  de  Beaux, 


Thomas  =  Beatiiee  of  Geneva. 
1177-1233.  =  Margaret  of  Faucigny, 


U97-12J3. 


"  Passe-Rose." 


I 
Thomas  =  Joan  of  Flanders. 
1199-1259.  =Beatrlcedinesehi. 


I 
PETEn  =  Agne3  0f 
eail  of    Faucigny. 

Hichnnond, 

1203-1268. 


BONITACE, 
1244-1263 


Thomas. 


Pnatp  I.  =  Alice  of 
1208-1285.      Meranla. 


Boniface, 
archbishop  of 
Canterbuiy, 

d.  1270. 


Beatrice  =  naymonjl 
B^reng«v 

IV.  of 
Provenea 


AMiDEOsV.sSibylla.  Beatrice=Gny 

the  Great,    I  =Mary  of  Brabant.  Vkooe. 

1249-1323. 


Eleanor 
=  Henry  in. 
of  England. 


Sancha 
=  Rlch.,  «arl 

of  Corawaii. 


Margaret 
cS.  Louis 
of  France. 


Beatrica 
=  Charle» 
of  Anjooi 


tWnp,  prince 
of  Achala. 


EDuia, 


£DWAi!n  =  Blanche  of 
Ihe  Liberal,  1  Burgundy. 
1284-1329. 


Joan: 


;  John  III. 
of  Brittany. 


AT3roN=Tolande  of 
the  Peaceful,  I  Montferrato. 
1291-1343. 

AMABEns  VI.  =  Bonne  de 
the  Green  Count,  I  Bourbon. 
1333-13S3. 


Anne  =  Andronlcii3  III., 

I      emperor  of 
Constantinople. 

John 
Falieologas^' 


AjiADcns  VII.  = 

the  Red  Count, 

1360-1391. 


:  Bonne  de  Berry. 


AUADEC3  VIII.  =  Mary  of  Burgtudy. 
the  first  duke,  after- 
wardi  Pope  Felix  v., 
1383-1450. 

Louis=  Anoe  ot  Lmignano, 

1402-1465.  I 


AaADEcs  IX.  =  Yolande,  dr.  ot 
1436-1472.    I    Charles  VII. 
of  France. 


r — 

rBILl'BERTl. 

146S-14S2. 


Philip  II.^Marguet  of  BoiU'bon=Claudlne  de  Penthi^vre. 

of  Bresse,  I        " 

1438-1497. 


Charles  I. 
14;8-1469. 


= Blanch*  o{ 

I  Montferrato. 


FijiUBEBT  n.=To)anda 
1180-1S(H.  dr.  ot  Chas.  I. 


CnAlti.ES  II. 
1438-1496. 


Tolande. 


LODUeaCbarles  ot         Chablea  UL  =  Beatrice  of 
I  Angoulfeme.  the  Good,     I    PortngaL 

I  14S6-1553. 

Francis  I.  | 

otFruioe.        Eujuntel  PHiLiBEBT=Margaret,  dr.  of 

the  hon-headed,      |  Francis  I.  of  France., 


Philip,  fonndef 
of  the  hoOM 
of  Nemoura, 


1528-1680. 


ChABLES  EMMANtTEL  I. 

the  Great,  1562-1630. 


=  Catherine,  dr.  ot 
!  Flillip  II.  ot  Spain. 


ViCTon  Amadecs  I.  =  Christira,  dr.  of 
1537-1637.         I      Henry  IV. 
of  France, 


Thomas  Francis = Mary  ot  Bouilwn. 
of  Savoy-Cavignano,  I 
1696-1656. 


Fltncis  Hvaclnth, 
•1632-1638. 


ClIAKI.ES  ESPIANL'EL  11.= 
1034-1O76. 

Victor  Amadeus  H.  = 

king  of  Sardinia, 
1606-1732,  abd.  1730. 


i  Mary  of 
Savoy-Nemours. 

Mary  of  Orleans. 

gd.  dr.  of  Clias.  I. 

of  Englon*!. 


CuABLES  Emmanuel  111.  =  Anne  of  Sulzbaclt, 
1701-1773.  I   and  two  others. 


ViCTOE  Amadecs  III.  =  JIarlo  Antoinette 
1727-1796.  I  ot  Spain. 


Cmmanuel  Phillbert= 
1631-1709. 


Ange  Cathartna 
d'Este. 


EnmM  lUiiiice 

1633-1708. 


Victor  Amadous  =  Victoria  Franceses 
1690-1766.       I  of  Savoy. 


Louis  Victor= Christina  ot  Hesse. 
1721-   ?        I 


Victor  Amadeu3  =  Mary  Josephine 
1743-1780.       I  of  Lorralne-Arraagnac. 


Prtnce 
1663-1736, 


=0lynipli 
I  Mancinl) 


Harys  Prince  d» 
1749-1792.    LambaUe'. 


I  i  I 

Charles  Emmandkl  IV.,    Victor  Emmanitel  I.     Charles  Felix, 
1751-1820,  abd.  1802.        1759-1824,  abd.  1820.  1766-18SL 


Charles  Emmanuel  =  Marv  Christina 
1770-1800.  I     of  Saxony. 


Charles  Albert  = 
1798-1849. 


Maria  Theresa 
of  Tuscany. 


Victor  Euuanitel  n.  =  Adelaide,  dr.-  of 
■  the  first  king  of  Italy,  |  Ai-cliduke  Ralner 
1820-1S78.  of  Austria. 


Potllda  =  Prince  Napoleon. 
».  1S43. 


Humbert  I.  sMaiy  of  Savoy. 
b.  1844.  ^ 


AmadeuS,  6.  1845. 
king  ot  Spain,  18711-73, 


Maria  Pla  < 
6. 1847, 


Louis, 

Ung  ot  Portugal. 


SAVOY 


341 


vial  tbronc,  and  received  from  liim  Kyburg  iu  tho  diocesa 
of  Lausanne,  cojivouieiuly  near  to  the  couuiy  of  Conova, 
whichhad'  been  ■willed,  to  liiia  by  the  last  count.  But  thit 
increase  of  territory  only  brought  new  anxieties,  for  Peter's 
ehort  reiga  was  occupied  in  reducing  refractory  vassals  to 
obtdience.  At  his  death  in  12G8  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Pmup 'I.,  who  died  in  1285,  when  their  nephew 
AiiADEus  V.  C!>mo  to  the  throne.  This  prince,  surnamed 
the  Great,  unitid  Baug6  and  Bressc  to  liis  states  jn  right 
olhis  wife  Sibylla,  aud  later  on  Lower  Faucigny  and  part 
of  Geneva,  For  his  second  wife  he  iriarried  Mary  of  Bra- 
baat,  sister  of  the  emperor  Henry  VIL,  from  whom,  in' 
reward  for  his  services  in  North  Italy,  he  received  the 
eeigneury  of  Aosta.  His  life  was  passed  in  continual  and 
victorious  warfare,  and  one  of  his  last  exploits  was  to  force 
the  Turks  to  raise  the  siege  of  Rhodes.  In  commemoration 
of  his  victory  it  is  said  that  he  substituted  for  the  eagles 
id  his  arms  the  letters  F.E.R.T.  (Fortitudo  ^us  Ekodmn 
tmuit).  He  died  in  1323  while  making  preparations  for  a 
campaign  in  'aid  of  Lis  nephew,  the  emperor  of  the  East. 
His  son  Edwaed  succeeded  him,  and,  dying  in  1329,  was 
follgwed  by  his  brother  Aymon.  This  prince  died  in  1343, 
when  his  son  Amadeus  VI.  ascended  the  throne.  His 
reign  wasj'  -like  his  grandfather's,  a  series  of  petty  wars, 
from  which  he  came  out  victorious  and  with  extended  terri- 
tory, until,  accompanying'  Louis  of  Anjou  on  his  expedition 
against  Naples,  he  died  there  of  the  plague  (1383).  The 
reiga  of  his  son  Amadeus  VIL  promised  to  be  as  glorious 
8,3  those  of.  his  ancestors,  but  it  was  cut  short  by  a  fall 
from  his  horse  in  1391.  Before  his  death,  however,  he 
had  received  "the  allegiance  of  Barcelonnette,  Ventimiglia, 
Vill'afranca',  and  Nice,  so  gaining  access  to  the  .Mediter- 
ranean. , 

His  son 'Amadeus  VTIT.  now  came  to  the  throne,  under 
(he-guardianship  of  his  grandmother  Bonne  de  Bourbon. 
On  attainirig  his  majority  he  first  directed  his  efforts 
to  strengthening '  his  'power  in  the  outlying  provinces, 
and  in  this  ha.  was  particularly  successful.  The  states 
of  Savoy  now  extended  from  the  Lake  of  Geneva  to  the 
Mediterranean,  and  from  the  Saone  to  the  Sesia.  Its 
prince '  had  therefore  considerable  power,  and  Amadeus 
threw  all  the  weight  of  this  on  the  side  of  the  emperor. 
Sigismund  was  not  ungrateful,  and  in  1416  erected  the 
counties  of  Savoy  and  Piedmont  into  duchies.  At  this 
time  too  the  duke  recovered  the  fief  of  Piedmont,  which 
had  been  granted  to  Philip,  prince  of  Achaia,  by  Amadeus 
iV.,  and  his  power  was  thus  thoroughly  consolidated.  -The 
county  of  Vercelli  afterwards  rewarded  him  for  joining 
the  league  against  the  duke  of  Jlilan,'but  in  1434  a  plot 
igainst  his  life-made  him  put  into -execution  a  plan  he  had 
!ong -formed  of  retiring  to  a  monastery.  .He  accordingly 
Inade  his  son'  Louis  lieuteiiant-general  of  the  dukedom, 
and  assumed  the  habit  of  the  Icnights  of  S.  JIaurice,  a 
military  order'  he  had  founded  at  the  priory  of  Eipaille. 
But  he  was  not  destined  to  find  the  repose  he  sought. 
The  prelates  assembled  at  the  council  of  Basel  voted  the 
deposition  of  Pope  Eugenlus  IV.,  and  elected  Amadeus  in 
bis  place.  Felix  V.,  as  he  was  now.  called,  then  abdicated 
^8  dnkedora  definitively,  but  without  much,  gain  in  tcin- 
^ral  honours,,  for  tho  schism  continiiod  until  tho  death 
jf  Eugcnius  in  1447,  shortly  after  which  it  'was  healed 
5y  the  honourable  submission  of  Felix  to  Nicholas  V. 
The  early  years  of  Louis's  reiga  were  uncjer  tho  guidartco 
if  hia  father,  and  peace  and  prosperity  blessed  his  people  ; 
)Ut  he  aftcrward.s  made  an  allianco  with  tho  dauphin 
(rhich  brought  him  into  tonflict  with  Charles  VLI.  of 
Prance,  though  a  lasting  reconciliation  was  soon  effected. 
Hia  sou  Amadeus  IX.  succeeded  in  1465,  but,  though  his 
rirtues  led  to  hia  beatification,  his  bodily  HufTcrings  made 
4iro  assign  tho'regcncy  to  his  wife  Yolande,  a  dauglilcr'of 


Charles  VII.  Ho  died  in  147-3,  when  his  son  I'HiiiBEiii 
I.  (iucceedcd  to  tho  throne  and  to  his  share  in  the  contests 
of  Yolande  with  Jier  brother  and  brothers-in-lorw,  who  tri^ 
to  deprive  their  nephew  of  his  rights.  His  reign  lasted  only 
ten  years,  when  ho  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Chaeles 
I.  This  prince  raised  for  a  timo  by  his  valour  the  droop- 
ing fortunes  of  his  house,  but  ho  died  in  1489  at  tho  age  of 
thirty-one,  having  inherited  from  his  aunt,  Chai-lotto  of  Lu- 
signano,  her  pretensions  to  the  titular  kingdoms  of  Cyprus, 
•  Jerusalem,  and  Armenia.  He  -was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Charles  IL,  an  infant,  who,  dying  in  1496,  was  followed 
by  Philip  II.,  brother  of  Amadeus  IX.  He  died  in  1497, 
leaving. Philibert  n.,  who  succeeded  him,  and  Chaeles 
IIL,  ■\vho- ascended  the  throne  on  his  brother's  death  ill 
1504.  In  spite  of  himself  Charles  was  drawn  into  .the 
wars  of  the  period,  for  in  the  quarrel  between  Francis  I. 
and  the  pope  he  could  not  avoid  espousing  the  cause  of 
his  nephew.  Bat  the  decisive  victory  of  Francis  at  Mari- 
gnano  gave,  tho  duke,  tliij  opportunity  of  negotiating  the 
conference  af  Bologna  which  led  to  the  conclusion  of 
peace  iti  1516,  So  far  well,  but  Charles  was  less  fortunate 
in  the  part  he  took  in  the  wars  between  Francis  I.  and 
Charles  V.,  the  brother-in-lav?  of  his  -wife.  Ho  tried. to 
maintain  a  strict  neutrality,  but  hia  attendance  at  the 
emperor's  coronat.ioa  at  Bologna  in  1530  was  imperative 
in  his  double"  character  of  kinsman  and  vassal.  The  visit 
was  fatal  to  him,  for  he  was  rewarded  with  the  county  of 
Asti,  and  this  so  displeased  the  French  king  that,  on  the 
revolt  of  Geneva  to  Protestantism  in  1532,  Francis  sent 
;  help  to  tho  citizens.  Bern  and  Freiburg  did  likewise, 
and.  so  ejcpelled  the  duke  from  Lausanne  and  Vaud, 
Charles  now'  sided  definitely  with  the  emperor,  and 
Francis  at  once  raised  some  imagbary  claims  to  his  states. 
On  their  rejection  tho  French  army  .marched  into  Savoy, 
and,  finding  the  pass  of  Susa  uiifortified,  descended  on 
Piedmont  and  seized  Turin  (1536).  Charles  V,  came  ,to 
the  aid  of-his  ally,  and  invested  the  city,  but,  being  him- 
self hard  pressed,  was  obliged  to  make  peace.  ,Fran09 
kept  Savoy,  and  the  emperor  occupied  Piedmont,  so  that 
only  Nice  remained  to  the  duke.  On  the  resumption  of 
hostilities  in  1541  Piedmont  again  suffered.  Jn  1544  the 
treaty  of  Crespy  restored  his  states  to  Charlfcs,  but  the 
terms  were  not  cajried  out  and  he  died  of  grief  in  1553. 
His  only  surviving  son  -Emmanuel  Philibert  succeeded 
to  the  rights  but  not  the  domains  of  his  ancestors.  Since 
1536  he  had  attached  himself  to  the  Bervice  of  the  emperor, 
and  had  already  given  promise  of  a  brilliant  career.  On 
tho  abdication  of  Charles  V,  tho  duke  was  appointed 
governor  of  the  Low  Countries,  and  in  1557  the  victory  of 
St  Quentin  marked  him  as  one  of  the  firat  generals  of  hi« 
time.  Such  services. could  not  go  unrewarded,  and  tho 
peace  of  Cateau-Cambresis  restored  him  his'  states,  with 
certain  exceptions  still  to  be  held  by  France  and  Spain. 
One  of  the  conditions  of  tho  treaty  also  provided  for  the 
marriago  of  tho  duko  with  tho  lovely  and  accomplished 
Margaret  of  France,  sister  of  Henry  K.  The  evacuation 
of  tho  places  held  by  them  was  faithfully  carried  out  by 
the  contracting  powers,  and  Emmanuel  Philibert  occupied 
himself  iu  strengthening  his  military  and  naval  forces, 
until  his  death  in  1580  prevented  the  execution  of  the 
ambitious  designs  ho  had  conceived.  His  son  Charles 
Emmanuel  I.,  cailfid  the  Great,  being  prevented  by  Ueury 
III,  from  retaking  Geneva,  throw  in  his  lot-  with  Spain, 
and  in  1590  invaded  Proyonco  and  was  received  by  tho 
citizens  of  Aix,  His  intention  was  doubtless  to  revive  the 
ancient  kingdom  of  Aries,  but  his  plans  were  frustrated  hy 
tho  accession  of  Henry  IV,  to  the  throne  of  France,  Aftcc 
effc<iting,  with  Ucnry  an  ezcliaoge  of  Brease  and  Bagey 
for  the  marquisato  of  Saliizzo  lio  kept  up  an  intermittent 
war   with    him    until   1009,   when,   diBgusted   with   th<' 


342 


S  A  V  -  S  A  W 


behaviour  of  Spain,  he  made  a  treaty  with  France  against 
Philip.  But  he  could  not  remain  faithful  for  long,  and, 
siding  first  with  one  and  then  with  the  other,  he  found 
himself  in  almost  the  same  straits  as  his  grandfather, 
when  death  put  an  end  to  his  ambitions  and  failures  in 
1 630.  The  first  care  of  his  son  Victor  Amadeus  was  to 
free  himself  from  the  double  burden  of  his  enemy  and  his 
ally,  so  he  concluded  peace  in  1631.  In  1635,  however, 
Richelieu  determined  to  drive  the  Spaniards  out  of  Italy, 
and  offered  the  duke  the  alternatives  of  war  or  Milan.  He 
gave  but  a  half-hearted  assent  to  the  schemes  of  France, 
and,  without  gaining  Milan,  died  in  1637,  leaving  by  his  wife 
Christina  of  France  Francis  Hyacinth,  a  minor,  who  orJy 
survived  till  the  following  year,  and  C'haeij:s  Ejimajjixel 
XL,  whose  legitimacy  was  unfortunately  rather  doubtful. 
The  regency  of  Christina  resembled  that  of  Yolande  in  the 
same  need  for  guarding  her  son's  interests  against  the 
pretensions  of  his  uncles,  Louis  XIII.  and  the  princes 
of  Savoy.  But  fortune  favoured  her,  and  on  the  duke's 
reaching  his  majority  in  1648  the  wars  of  the  Frondo 
occupied  all  the  attention  of  Mazarin.  The  brunt  of  the 
conflict  with  Spain  consequently  fell  upon  Savoy,  and 
was  borne  not  ingloriously  until  the  conclusion  of  peace. 
Charles  Emmanuel  occupied  the  remaining  part  of  his  reign 
in  repairing  the  ravages  caused  by  twenty-four  years  of 
warfare,  and  died  in  1675,  leaving  an  only  son,  Victor 
Ajuadeus  II.,  whose  minority  was  as  peaceful  as  his  father's 
had  been  the  reverse.  He  married  Mary  of  Orleans,  the 
daughter  of  Henrietta  of  England,  and  consequently  the 
legitimate  heiress  to  the  English  cro\vn  on  the  death  of 
Anne  and  on  the  exclusion  of  the  Pretender.  For  a  time 
he  united  with  Louis  XIV.  in  persecuting  the  Protestants, 
but  the  overbearing  behaviour  of  his  ally  made  him  join 
the  coalition  of  Aiigsburg  in  1690.  His  campaign  against 
Louis  was  carried  ou  with  varying  results  until  1695,  when 
he  accepted  proposals  of  peace.  This  defection  led  to  the 
peace  of  Rj'swick  in  1697,  and  in  reward  he  received  from 
Louis  the  territories  then  occupied  by  France.  In  1700 
he  sided  with  France  against  Austria,  but,  an  extension  of 
territory  in  the  Milanese  not  being  granted  by  Louis,  he 
went  over  to  the  enemy  in  1703.  The  generalship  of  his 
relative  Prince  Eugene  proved  too  much  for  the  French, 
and  in  1 706  they  were  defeated  before  Turin  and  driven 
across  the  frontier.  The  peace  of  Utrecht  afterwards  con- 
firmed the  duke  in  the  possession  of  the  places  granted  on 
his  joining  the  coalitiou,  including  the  long-coveted  Mont- 
ferrato,  and  endowed  him  besides  with  the  crown  of  Sicily. 
Austrian  inflaenc3s  now  replaced  Spanish  in  the  peninsula, 
and  Charles  VI.  persuaded  him  to  exchange  his  kingdom 
for  that  of  Sardinia.  This  was  accordingly  effected  in 
1 720  by  the  treaty  of  Madrid,  and  afterwards  proved  the 
very  salvation  of  the  house  of  Savoy.  In  1730  the  king 
abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son,  in  order  to  marry  the 
countess  of  San  Sebastian,  at  whose  instigation  he  after- 
wards tried  to  regain  the  crown,  but  he  died  in  1732. 

Chaeles  Emjianctel  III.  continued  his  father's  intrigues 
to  obtain  possession  of  Milan,  and  joined  th«  league  of 
Frajice  and  Spain  against  Austria  in  1732.  But  he  used 
the  victories  of  the  allied  forces  over  the  imperialists  in 
such  a  half-hearted  way  that  it  seemed  as  if  he  did  not 
wish  to  break  finally  with  Austria.  In  the  end  he  only 
gained  from  the  treaty,  %vhich  he  signed  in  1739,  the 
Novarese  and  Tortona,  instead  of  Milan.  The  death  of 
Charles  VI.  in  1740  gave  him  the  chance  of  expelling  the 
Anstriata  from  Italy,  but,  though  he  at  first  claimed  Milan 
from  Maria  Theresa,  he  ended  iu  1742  by  espousing  her 
cause.  The  complete  defeat  of  the  Frehch  in  1747  led  to 
the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  by  which  Charles  Emmanuel 
received  the  Upper  Novarese  and  Vigevano,  after  which 
he  remained  at  peace  until  his  death  in  1773.     His  son 


VicTOE  Amadeus  III.  succeeded  him,  and  devoted  the' 
early  years  of  his  reign  to  the  improvement  of  the  admin- 
istration and  the  reorganization  of  his  army.  The  time 
soon  came  for  him  to  use  the  weapon  he  had  created,  and 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  in  France  he  headed 
the  coalition  of  Italian  princes  against  her.  The  house  of 
Savoy  thus  assumed  the  headship  of  Italy,  but  for  the  time 
without  much  gain,  for  Napoleon's  brilliant  victories  of 
1796  ended  in  the  peace  of  Paris,  by  which  Savoy,  along 
with  Nice,  was  given  to  France.  Victor  Amadeus  died 
shortly  afterwards,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Charles 
Emmanuel  IV.  The  fever  of  the  Revolution  spread  to 
Piedmont,  and  in  1798  nothing  was  left  to  the  king  but  to 
retire  to  Sardinia.  In  1802  he  abdicated  in  favour  of  hia 
brother,  Victor  Emmanuel  L,  who,  in  his  island  kingdom,' 
protected  by  the  English  fleet,  became  the  symbol  of  the 
coalition  against  France.  The  king  returned  to  Turin  ia 
1814,  and  in  the  follovring  year  took  possession  agaia 
of  Savoy.  The  anti-revolutionary  measures  which  werel 
adopted  by  the  Italian  princes  on  their  return  caused  al 
spirit  of  rebellion  to  spring  up  among  their  subjects.  The 
freedom  of  the  individual  and  the  unity  of  the  nation  thus 
came  to  be  considered  objects  to  be  attained  at  one  and  tlie 
same  time.  The  influence  of  Austria  was  paramount  in 
the  Peninsula,  but  an  insurrection  broke  out  at  Turin  in 
1820  demanding  war  with  her,  and,  rather  than  embroil 
himself  both  with  his  people  and  with  Austria,  Victor 
Emmanuel  abdicated  in  favour  of  his  brother,  Charles 
Felix.  The  general  insurrection  was  suppressed,  and  for 
the  next  few  years  Italy  suffered  everything  possible  at  the 
hands  of  various  petty  princes,  whose  fears  and  weakness 
left  them  no  weapon  but  persecution.  In  1831  Charles 
FelLs  died  without  issue,  and  in  him  the  elder  branch  of 
the  family  ended.  He  was  succeeded  by  Charles  Albert,' 
of  the  line  of  Savoy-Carignano,  which  was  founded  by 
Thomas  Francis,  son  of  Charles  Emmar>uel  the  Great,  and 
grandfather  of  Pi-ince  Eugene.  The  first  care  of  Charles 
Albert  was  to  reorganize  his  military  and  naval  forces  in 
readiness  for  the  conflict  with  Austria  which  he  foresaw. 
At  the  same  time  he  put  down  the  conspiracies  which 
would  have  forced  his  hand,  among  which  the  most  famous 
was  that  of  Mazzini  and  Ramorino  in  1834.  The  French 
revolution  of  1848  fanned  the  embers  of  Italian  patriotism, 
and  Charles  Albert,  without  any  aid,  began  the  Wai  of 
Independence.  Victory  at  first  followed  his  arms,  but  he 
was  defeated  at  last  by  the  Austrians  at  Custozza.  In  the 
next  year  he  was  again  driven  into  war  with  the  Anstrians, 
and,  after  his  defeat  at  Novara,  he  abdicated  in  favour  of 
his  son,  VftTOR  Emmanuel  II.  From  this  point  the 
history  of  the  house  of  Savoy  has  been  told  in  the  article 
Italy  (vol.  xiii.  pp.  489  sq.).  (h.  b.  b.) 

SAVOY.  For  the  French  departments  of  Savoy  and 
Upper  Savoy  see  Savoie  and  Savole,  Hautb-. 

SAW.     See  Saws. 

S.4WANTWXrI,  or  Sawuntwaerie,  a  native  state 
forming  the  southern  part  of  the  Concan  division  of  the 
Bombay  presidency,  India,  and  lying  between  15°  37'  and 
16°  16'  N.  lat.  and-  between  73°  36'  and  74°  21'  E.  long. 
It  has  a  total  area  of  about  900  square  miles,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  north  and  west  by  Ratuagiri  district,  on 
the  east  by  the  Sahyddri  Mountains,  and  on  the  south  by 
the  Portuguese  territory  of  Goa.  The  general  aspect  of  tlw 
country  is  strikingly  picturesque.  Its  surface  is  broken 
and  rugged,  interspersed  with  densely-wooded  hills ;  in  the 
valleys  are  gardens  and  groves  of  cocoa-nut  and  betel-nut 
palms.  SiwantwAri  has  no  rivers  of  any  considerable 
size ;  the  chief  streams  are  the  Karli  on  the  north  and  the 
Terekbol  on  the  south,  both  navigable  for  small  craftv 
The  climate  is  humid  and  relaxing,  with  an  average  annual 
rainfall   of   over    130   inches.     The   forests  and  wooded 


S  A.    V— S  A  W 


343 


slopes  of  the  SakyAdris  contaiu  large  numbers  of  wild 
animals,  including  the  tiger,  panther,  leopard,  bear, 
hyaena,  i-c.  Snakes  and  other  reptiles  also  abound.  The 
state  possesses  no  railway ;  but  there  is  an  etccllent  trunk 
toad  through  th^  territory. 

The  census  of  188lTetumed  thd  population  of  Sa-svintwM  at 
174,433  (males  86,061,  females  88,372) ;  Hindus  numbered  166,080, 
^lohammedans  3970,  and  Christians  4213.  Agriculture  supports 
tie  greater  part  of  the  population.  The  staple  product  is  rice, 
Imt  excepting  rice  none  but  the  coarsest  grains  and  pulses  are 
Taised,  both  soil,  which  is  stony,  and  climate  being  against  the 
cultivation  of  wheat  and  other  superior  grains  ;  oilseeds,  hemp,  and 
pepper  are  also  grown.  The  gross  revenue  of  the  state  in  1 883-84 
amounted  to  about  £34,000.  Before  the  establishment  of 
Portuguese  power  (1510)  Sdwantwari 'was.the  liighway  of  a  great 
traffic  ;  but  during  the  16th  and  17th  centuries  trade,  suffered 
■lach  from  the  rivalry  of  the  Portuguese,  and  in  the  disturbances 
•f  the  18th  century  it  almost  entirely  disappeared.  Since  the 
Gstablishment  of  order  under  the.  British  (1819),  trade  has  con- 
siderably developed.  The  present  chief  being  a  hiinor,  the  ad- 
ministration has  been  in  the  hands  of  the  British  since  1869. 

SAW-FISH".     See  Rat,  toL  xx.  p.  299. 

SAW-FLIES  {Tenlhredinidx).  This  subdivision  of  the 
Symenoptera  is  characterized  by  possessing  a  sessile 
abdomen  which  hides  the  base  of  the  posterior  legs.  The 
antennae  vary  -in  their  structure  and  in  the  number  of 
their- joints.  _  The  ovipositor  is  modified  to  form  two  saws, 
■^ich  when  at  rest  lie  in  a  sheath  formed  of  two  valves. 
The  larvffi  resemble  caterpillars,  but  may  be  distinguished 


Tamip  Saw-FIy  (Athalia  spinarum).     Saw-FIy  (magnified,  with  lines 
to  left  showing  natural  size),  cc  t«rpi)lars,  pupa,  and  piqia-case. 

by  their  greater  number  of  legs ;  usually  9  to  11  pairs 
are  present.  When  alarmed  they  have  the  habit  of 
rolling  themselves  up  in  a  spiral  fashion  •  some  also  dis- 
charge a  thin  fluid  from  lateral  pores  situated  above  the 
apiracles.  The  females  place  their  eggs  in  small  incisions 
made  by  means  of  their  saws"  in  the  crft  parts  of  leaves. 
Usually  one  egg  is  placed  in  each  el'i..  flome  species 
merely  attach  their  egg.s  in  strings  to  the  exterior  of  the 
leaves.  With  each  incision  a  drop  of  fluid  is  usually 
excreted,  which  serves  to  excite  a  flow  of  sap  to  the 
wounded  part.  The  egg  is  said  to  absorb  this  sap,  and  so 
to  increase  in  size.  One  genus  (Nematux)  alone  forms 
galls.  These  occur  in  the  young  leaves  of  the  willow,  a 
tree  which  the  true  gall-flies  do  not  attack.  Jfematvs 
ventricosua  resembles,  the  bees  aud  wasps  in  the  fact  that 
the  parthenogenetic  ova  produce  only  males ;  as  a  rule  in 
the  animal  kingdom  the  absence  of  fertilization  resolta  in 
the  production  of  females. 

The  injury  which  the  saw-flies  inflict  upon  crops  or 
young  •  trees  is  alujost  entirely  brought  about  by  the 
voracious  habits  of  the  larvae.  These  possess  well  devel- 
oped mouth-appcndagc.1,  by  means  of  which  they  gnaw 
tlieir  way  out  of  the  leaf  in  which  they  Lave  been  Latched, 
and  then  eat  it.  In  this  way  the  Turnip  Saw-Fly  {Ai/ialia 
spinarum),  not  to  be  confused  with  the  Turnip  Fly  {I'hyllo- 
iret'a  nemorum),  attacks  the  leaves  of  the  turnip,  often 
completely  consuming  the  leafage  of  acres  at  a  time  The 
Ffne   Saw-FIy  {Lophyrua  pini)  causea  great   damage   to 


plantations  of  young  Scotch  firs,  devouring  the  buds, 
the  leaves,  and  even  the  bark  of  the  young  shoots.  Other 
species  infest  currant  and  gooseberry  bushes,  consuming 
the  soft  parts  of  the  leaves,  and  leaving  only  the  tough 
veins.  The  only  effectual  remedy  in  most  cases  is  to  col- 
lect and  kill  the  larvrc  when  they  first  appear.  Syringing 
the  affected  parts  with  hot  water  or  tobacco  water  is  also 
recommended. 

SAWS.  Blades  of  steel  with  serrated  edge?  have  been 
used  from  time  immemorial  to  rend  or  divide  substances 
of  various  kinds,-  including  metals  and  stone  ;  biit  the 
principal  modern  use  of  the  saw  is  to  'divide  wood. 
Modern  saws  are  of  the  finest  skeel,  but  the  ancients  used 
bronze  saws,  and  among  uncivilized  nations  saws  have 
been  made  with  flakes  .of  flint  imbedded  in  a  wooden 
blade,  and  held  in  place  by  means  of  bitumen  (see 
Grirashaw,  Eistory,  d-c,  of  Saws),  while  obsidian  has  been 
used  by  the  Mexicans,  and  shark's  teeth  and  even  notched 
shells  form  the  saws  of  certain  savage  islanders.  The 
pyramid-builders  in  Egypt  cut  granite  and  other  hard 
stones  by  means  of  bronze  saws  set  ^^ith. jewels  (see 
vol.  XX.  p.  124). 

Space  would  fail  to  describe  minuteiy  the  vau-ious 
adaptations  of  the  saw  to  mechanical  uses.  It  is  indispens- 
able to  the  carpenter,  the  furniture-manufacturer,  the  watch- 
maker, and  mapipulator  of  metals.  It  is  one  of  the  niost 
trustworthy  tools  of  the  surgeon's  case,  while  without  it 
the  dentist  would  of  necessity  drop  back  to  the  barbarous 
customs  of  a  past  century.  Iron,  horn^  pearl,  india-rubber, 
and  the  thousand  and  one  conveniences  of  civUized  life  are 
dependent  upon  this  useful  instrument,  which  is  but' an 
exaggeration  after  all  -of  the  sharpest  of  knives,  whose 
edge  when  examined  under  the  microscope  exhibits  an 
array  of  .saw  teeth  so  minute  as  to  present  a  smooth  plane 
to  the  unassisted  eya  As  the  chief  use  of  the  tool  is  to 
saw  wood,  the  enormous  timber  industry  of  America  haa 
given  an  impelvis  to  the  improvement  of  the  saw  and  its 
manufacture,  which  has  no  jiarallel  elsewhere. 

Saws  may  be  classiiied  as  (1)  straight  (reciprocating  in  action), 
having  a  flat  blade  and  straight  edge,  making  a  plane  cnt,  or  (2) 
circular  or  disk-like,  cutting  at  right  angles  to  the  motion,,  or  (3) 
cylindrical  or  barrel-shaped,  with  a  convex  edge  cutting  parallel 
to  its  axis,  or  (4)  band-saws,  being  a  continuous'  ribbon-  Or  band 
running  upon  an  upper  and  lower  pulley,  m.iking  a  plane  or  onrred 
cut,  with  a  straight  edge  parallel  to  the  axis  of  motion- '  The  oldest 
and  comnionost,  with  the  widest  range  of  adaptabilit}',  is  tho 
straight  saw,  with  reciprocating  rectilinear  blade.  In  this  cla.ss 
is  included  the  ordinary  hand-saw  with  its  varying  range  of  uses 
from  fine  to  coarse  and  from  rip  to  crosscut,  and  *ith  teeth  of 
forms  as  various  as  are  the  different  duties  which  it  i?  calculated 
to  perform.  The  teeth  are  long  or  short,  cutting  one  way  or  both 
ways  according  to  the  '.'  pitch  or  "  set  "  wlvich  may  be  given, 
and  vhich  should  be  adapted  to  both  the  kind  and  character  o( 
the  timber  to  bo  sawn.  The  "pitch"  of  a  saw-tooth  is  the  angle 
of  the  point  wth  reference  to  the  blade,  and  is  found  hy  sub- 
tracting the  back  angle  from  the  front,  60'  bein"  the  generic  angla 
of  saw-teeth,  which,  however,  may  be  varionslv  placed.  From 
the  smallest  hnnd-sftw  to  tho  largest  "  mill-saw ''  the  same  general 
rules  apply.  In  the  largest  saws  of  this  class  may  be  named  th'e 
"pit-saw,"  used  in  tho  earliest  manufactures  of  Inmber'or  timber, 
and  worked  by  ono  person  standing  over  tho  log  and  drawing 
upward  while  another  in  the  pit  below  follows  with  tho-downward 
or  cutting  thrust.  From  tho  pit-saw  wo  advunoeto  the  "gate-saw" 
nsed  in  tho  carlior  adaptation  of  motive  power  to  the  cutting  of 
timWer,  thence  to  tho  "nniley-saw,"*  suspended  \rilhout  strain 
npon  a  pitman  beneath,  having  its  upper  end  hnng  in  slide* 
pendent  from  a  heavy  beam  above.  These  saws  ni\i9t  of  necessity 
ne  thick,  to  sustain  tho  heavy  thrusts  which  they  arc  expected  to 
endure,  and  ara consequently  of  "heavy  ga^ige,"  this  being  b.aiio<l 
upon  the  different  sizes  of  wire,  tho  largi'st  gaugo  icprosentiiig  th« 


'  According  to  somo  writers  tlio.  term  "nnilcy"  (or  ninloy)  U  de- 
rived from  the  German  "MuHlBiij^o,"  mlll-.i«w,  but,  as  thi«  form  o( 
saw,  i»h«a  intro<luced,  differed  only  fi\)ui  llio  ordinary  niill-taws  long 
in  uhe  in  tho  manner  in  which  it  was  hung  (free  from  strain),  the 
name  may  have  been  given  to  signify  "liomlera,"  indicating  th« 
ahsonre  of  tho  pouderoiis  gate  wliieh  wua  tho  essential  feature  o( 
strained  aawe. 


344 


SAWS 


thinner  Hade  ;  e.g.,  a  4-gaugc  saw  is  mucli  thicker  than  an  8-gaugc, 
&c.  From  tlie  necessity  for  more  rapid  production  grew  the  gang- 
saw,"  a  modification  of  the  gate,  difroring  from  it  onlj'  in  length 
and  thickness  (less  than  one-third  the  thickness  of  the  ordinary 
gate-saw  and  but  about  two  thirds  its  leno;th).  A  large  number  of 
these,  varying  from  2  to  40,  are  strained  in  a  gate  or  frame,  at 
such  distances  apart  as  the  thickness  of  lumber  demands,  and  the 
log  is  wholly  made  into  boards  in  one  operation.  Of  the  recipro- 
cating class  of  saws  is  the  "  cross-cut,"  used  for  cutting  across  the 
grain  of  the  timber  or  wood  to  bo  converted  into  shorter  lengths. 
The  length,  breadth,  "pitch,"  and  "set"  of  saws  vary  according 
to  the  use  which  is  to  be  made  of  them  and  the  kind  of  timber 
which  is  to  be  manipulated.  In  a  cross-cut  saw  the  cutting  edge 
Btrikes  the  fibre  at  right  angles  to  its  length,  and  while  its  pitch  is 
but  slight  (if  any)  it  must  sever  "from  each  side  before  dislodging 
the  sawdust.  "A  slitting  or  ripping  saw  has  the  cutting  edge 
pbout  at  a  right  angle  to  the  iibre  of  the  wood,  severing  it  in  one 
piece, — the  throatof  the  tooth  wedging  out  the  piece."  In  slitting 
saws  the  "rake "  is  all  in  front,  in  the  cross-cut  on  the  side. 

The  circular  saw  is  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  its  introduc- 
tion dating  from  1790,  when  Brunei  first  announced  the  principle. 
At  tir«t  only  circular  saws  of  small  diameter  were  used  ;  but,  from 
tlie  small  "buzz-saw"  of  the  watchmaker  and  fine  metal  worker, 
or  the  ripping  saw  of  the  planing-niill  or  carpenter  shop,  where 
small  diameters  have  to  be  divided,  the  circular  saw  has  passed 
to  the  saw-mill,  where,  in  diameters  of  from  12  to  30  inches,  it  is 
the  needful  instrument  for  edging  or  ripping  the  lumber  which 
drops  from  the  log  in  an  imperfect  condition,  requiring  finer 
manipulation  to  prepare  it  for  market ;  or  in  diameters  of  from 
40  to  84  inches  it  may  be  found  as  the  main  saw  of  the  mill  for 
rending  the  logs  as  they  come  from  the  forest  into  shapes  and 
sizes  adapted  for  the  various  purposes  of  the  builder.  It  is  capable 
of  dividing  logs  into  boards  one  inch  thick  or  upwards  at  as  high 
a  rate  as  60,000  superficial  feet  in  a  day  of  twelve  hours,  while 
pt  straight  (muley  or  gate)  saw  would  give  only  6000  to  8000  feet. 
In  the  chief  lumber  sections  of  the  LTnited  States  saws  of  60 
inches  diameter  are  in  most  common  use  ;  upon  the  Pacific  coast 
saws  of  8  feet  diameter  arc  not  unknown.  Attempts  to  work  large 
circular  saws  in  nests  or  g.ings  have  not  hitherto  proved  successful, 
but  three,  four,  or  five  saws  of  30  inches  diameter  hang  on  a  single 
shaft  or  "  arbor "  may  be  used  to  trim  and  divide  the  boards  or 
planks  thrown  off  from  a  log. 

Barrel  saws,  for  the  manufacture  of  staves  for  barrels,  pails,  or 
tubs,  are  in  the  form  of  a  straight-sided  barrel  with  both  heads 
removed,  and  the  stave  ends  of  one  head  serrated. 

For  the  manufacture  of  veneers,  where  valuable  timber  is  to  be 
economically  manipulated,  we  have  the  segment-saw,  constructed 
by  bolting  segments  of  saw-blades  upon  the  outer  rim  of  a  cast- 
iron  centre,  forming  a  circular  saw  of  the  desired  diameter,  but 
with  a  cutting  edge  of  so  light  a  gauge  as  to  waste  but  little  of  the 
»»luablo  timber  to  be  sawed,  the  cast-iron  centre  iusuring  the 
tequisitc  stilTness  and  strengtli.  With  these  saws  veneers  scarcely 
thicker  than  a  sheet  of  paper  may  be  cut,  the  width  being  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  log ;  such  sawa  are  often  from  80  to  100 
inches  in  diameter. 

Circular  saws  of  the  laiger  size  are  oflen  constmcted  'vith 
"  inserted  "  tooth.  A  disk  of  steel  of  suitable  size,  having  slots  cut 
in  its  periphery  of  the  exact  size  and  shape  of  the  tooth  which 
is  to  be  inserted,  may  have  these  teeth  removed  as  often  as  the 
wear  upon  thorn  may  reriuire,  without  reducing  the  diameter  of 
the  plate.  The  teeth  of  lumber  saws  have  to  be  sharpened  with 
the  lile  at  least  three  or  four  times  in  twelve  hours'  work,  and  a 
saw  of  five  feet  in  diameter  is  rapidly  reduced  in  size  with  a  great 
loss  of  cfiiciency.  In  the  insert  tooth  plate  new  teeth  cost 
only  about  three  cents  (l^d.)  each,  and  the  saw  plate  remains  of 
its  original  diameter.  .Inserted  teeth  are  of  vaiious  forms  and 
shapes,  from  that  of  the  ordinary  saw  tooth,  held  in  place  by  a 
rivet  at  the  root  of  the  tooth,  to  a  "chisel  point  "held  by  an 
ingenious  system  of  wedging. 

33and-saws  have  for  many  y  j  -rii  been  used  for  continnouB  and 
htVid  cutting  in  the  planing  mill  or  other  wood -working  estab- 
lishment, where  scrolls  or  fancy  lines  ,Tnd  curves  were  to  bo 
followed,  reciuiring  great  nexihility  of  the  saw-blade.  Of  late,  and 
notably  within  the  past  two  years  (1884-85),  successful  endeavours 
have  been  made  to  adapt  them  to  lumber  manufacture.  The 
band-saw  -i^  a  continuous  Hade  o_r  ribbon  running  over  pulleys 
above  and  below,  forming  a- "steel  belt"  whose  serrated  ed"e  is 
always  "in  the  cut."  These  saws  are  usually  from  a  half  incn  in 
widtii  (for  shop  work)  to  six  and  eight  inches  wide  for  the  heavier 
work  of  the  saw-mill,  and  in  the  latter  have  a  cutting  capacity  of 
from  30,000  to  40,000  superficial  feet  in  twelve  hours.  They  are 
extremely  thin  (usually  16-gauge),  and  the  kerf  produced  is  so 
much  less  than  that  of  the  oprigbt  or  the  circular  that  a  saving  of 
ftt  least  20  per  cent  of  timber  is  claimed  in  their  use. 

Saw»  aaeil  by  surgeons,  butchers,  and  in  all  branches  of  manu- 
facture are  but  modifications  of  one  of  the  varieties  above  described, 
{aid  do  not  demand  more  extended  description. 


Saw-Mills  are  factories  for  tho  conversion  of  forest  trea 
into  lumber  and  timber.  Tho  earlie.st  form  of  saw-mil\ 
■was  unquestionably  the  saw-pit,  still  found  in  a  modified 
form  in  sliipbuildera'  yards,  the  log  being  raised  on  trestle 
horses  instead  of  ono  of  the  sawyers  being  sunk  in  the  pit. 
Saws  were  run  by  windmill-power  as  early  as  the  13tli 
century  ;  and  the  use  of  water-power  soon  followed.  The 
primitive  water  saw-mill  consisted  of  a  wooden  pitman 
attacjied  to  the  shaft  of  the  water-wheel,  the  log  to  be 
sawed  being  placed  on  rollers  sustained  by  a  framework 
over  the  wheel,  and  being  fed  forward  oa  the  rollers  by 
means  of  levers  worked  bj'  hand.  Good  authorities  roentioa 
saw-mills  running  by  water-power  in  Germany  as  early  aa 
1322.  In  1C63  an  attempt  to  establish  a  mill  in  England 
was  abandoned  owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  sawyers, 
and  no  further  attempt  was  made  till  1768,  when  a  mill  was 
erected  at  Limehouse,  but  was  soon  destroyed  by  a  mob. 
North  America,  with  its  vast  forests,  may  be  aptly  termed 
the  home  of  saw-mills.  As  early  as  163i  a  saw-mill  was' 
erected  at  the  falls  of  the  Piscataqua,  near  the  line  divid- 
ing Maine  from  New  Hampshire.  This  was  no  doubt  the 
pioneer  of  the  vast  array  of  mills  which  subsequently 
made  Maine  famous  as  a  lumber-producing  State  for  many 
years.  From  about  the  same  date  several  mills  were 
erected  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  America,  a  description 
of  ono  being  that  of  all.  In  these  mUls  the  saw  was 
attached  by  a  long  pitman  from  the  wheel  shaft  to  a 
ponderous  gate,  running  in  wooden  slides  upon  two  heavy 
posts,  crossed  above  by  a  beam  connecting  the  two  sides 
of  the  mill-frame.  Tlie  mill-carriage  on  which  the  log  lay 
was  pushed  towards  the  saw  by  a  rack  and  pinion,  &c., 
moved  by  a  feed-wheel.  The  daily  capacity, of  these  mills 
was  from  500  to  1500  superficial  feet.  The  first  great 
improvement  upon  this  class  Of  mills  was  in  the  introduc- 
tion of  two  or  more  sawo  to  the  gate,  the  general  character 
of  the  methods  lemaining  the  same.  With  the  demand 
for  more  rapid  production  came  improvements  in  the 
*'  gang "  feature,  and  the  wonder  of  the  age  was  the 
"Yankee  gang,"  so  arranged,  by  placing  half  the  saws 
facing  in  one  direction  and  the  other  half  in  the  opposite, 
that  two  logs  were  .worked  up  in  one  movement  of  the 
carriage,  or,  as  in  the  "  slabbing  "  gang,  the  outsides  or 
slabs  were  cut  from  one  log,  which  was  then  turned  upon 
its  flattened  sides  to  the  other  set  of  saws  which  cut  it 
into  boards.  The  "stock"  gang,  "pony"  gang,  "slab- 
bing "  gang,  and  "  Yankee  "  gang  are  favourites  with 
saw-mill  proprietors,  because  of  the  uniform  character  of 
the  lumber  produced,  and  the  saving  of  timber  realized 
from  the  use  of  saws  of  scarcely  one-third  the  thickness  of 
the  gate,  faiuley,  or  circular. 

Gang-saws  are  seldom  thicker  than  14-gauge,  and  are  success- 
fully worked  at  18-gange,  making  a  saw-kerf  or  waste  of  bet 
J  inch,  whereas  the  ordinary  gate,  muley,  or  cu'cular  .takes  ys 
inch.  The  muley  was  introduced  later  than  the  gang,  and.  was 
received  with  great  favour,  entering  into  more  general  use  be- 
cause of  its  comparative  cheapness  and  adaptability  where  the 
sawyer  had  not  to  deal  with  largo  quantities  of  lumber.  Tho 
muley  mill  dispensed  with  the  ponderous  gate'  and  heavy  posts 
of  the  saw-frame.-  While  the  lower  portion  of  the  mill  iJ 
arranged  much  as  in  tho  use  of  the  -gate-saw,  with  tho  addition 
of  necLSsaiy  slides,  the  npper  end  of  the  saw  is  guided  in  a 
strong  iron  frame  pendeut  from  tho  weigh-beam  overhead.  Oa 
each  side  of  this  frame  ai'e  slides  iu  which  are  placed  boxes, 
attached  by  a  noddle  pin  and  strap  to  the  upper  end  of  the 
saw,  keeping  the  tool  in  line  with  the  cut,  and  the  cutting  is 
accouiplished  wholly  by  the  downward  thrust,  the  motion  of 
the  crank  beneath  impartiug  a  forward  motion  to  the  blade  ia 
its  cutting  fuuctions  and  a  retreating  motioa  aa  it  rises  from  tho 
cut.  By  an  ingenious  arrangement  of  the  slides  au  increased 
oscillation  may  be  imparted,  the  object  being  to  cause  the  sav^ 
teeth  to  bug  the  timber  closer  on  the  downward  or  catting  thrust, 
and  to  recede  and  run  clear  of  the  timber  on  the  upward  motion, 
thus  decreasing  tho  friction,  lluley-saws  are  usually  run  at  M 
speed  of  300  revolutions  of  the  driving  wheel  per  niinnte,  an^ 
1  the  dnily  capacity  may  be  stated  at  about  £000  superficial  feet 


SAWS 


345 


Water-power  was  used  almost  cxclosively  in  saw-mills  until  1835, 
after  which  year  steam  was  rapidly  substituted,  until  at  the  present 
time  it  is  as  difficult  to  find  a  water-power  saw-mill  as  it  is  to  find 
a  gate  or  muley. 

>The  use  of  the  circular  as  the  main  saw  of  a  mill  is  of  compara- 
tively recent  origin,  the  experimental  point  in  its  introduction 
having  been  passed  only  about  the  year  1855.  Since  that  time  it 
has  rapidly  reached  the  highest  efficiency.  Driven  by  engines 
of  from  25  to  100  horse-power  the  circular  saw-mill,  under  proper 
management,'  turns  out  from  20,000  feet  per  day  for  smaller  to 
50,000  and  60,000  feet  per  day  for  larger  mills,  in  addition  to 
running  the  doublc-edgers  and  trimming  saws,  requisite  for 
trimming  off  the  rough  edges  and  bad  ends  of  tuo  lumber 
produced. 

The  modern  saw-mill  stands  upon  the  banlo  of  a  river  or  pond, 
iat  an  elevation  usually  of  twelve  feet  from  the  level  of  the  land  to 
the  saw-floor.  The  logs  are  floated  from  the  forest  (often  many 
hundred  miles  distant  from  the  mill)  down  the  river,  in  lengths  as 
desired.  Piling  driven  at  convenient  'distances  in  the  water 
serves  to  hold  the  long  pieces  of  timber,  whicli,  secured  to  the 
piles  by  heavy  chains,  form  a  strong  "  boom,"  floating  into 
which  the  logs  are  penned  or  "  boomed  "  until  required.  From 
the  rear  end  of  the  mill,  at  the  second  story  or  saw-floor,  a  "jack 
ladder  "  is  constructed  of  heavy  timber,  the  lower  ends  resting  in 
the  bottom  of  the  stream  upon  a  bed  of  timber  heavily  weighted. 
Upon  the  sides  of  the  jack  ladder  are  laid  ribbons  of  iron  forming 
a  track  for  the  log  car,  which,  strongly  constructed  and  with  its  top 
cross  sections  or  "bunks"  heavily  studded  with  ^-headed  bolts, 
is  run  under  tho  water  at  a  depth  to  allow  the  log  to  float  over  it 
in  such  manner  that,  as  the  cnain  running  to  the  "  bull- wheel  " 
in  tho  mill  is  wound  up,  the  spikes  of  the  car  catch  upon  tho 
nndcr-sido  of  the  log  or  logs,  which  thus  load  themselves  and  are 
hauled  up  tho  incline  to  tho  mill  floor.  Here  tlicy  are  rolled  upon 
skids  leading  to  the  saw-carriage,  and  are  soon  running  rapidlv 
their  course  of  manufacture.  Loaded  upon  the  "  head-blocks,*' 
by  a  quick  motion  of  a  lever  upon  the  standard,  the  "setter " 
inserts  an  iron  "dog,"  which  holds  the  log  firmly  in  place  ready 
for  advancing  to  the  saw.  This  is  accomplished  by  one  of  several 
methods: — (1)  by  rack  and  pinion  worked  by  "cone  feed,"  in 
which  a  belt  is  moved  upon  two  parallel  cones  to  impart  a  more 
rapid  or  a  slower  motion  to  tho  pinion  shaft ;  (2)  by  "rope  feed," 
a  repe,  usually  of  wire,  being  attached  to  each  end  of  the  mill 
carriage,  and  passing  over  pulleys  in  the  floor  to  a  drum  beneath, 
so  arranged  as  to  be  under  control  of  the  sawyer  in  its  feeding 
movement  or  in  reversal  to  "gig"  the  carriage  back  to  its  first 
position  ;  or  (3)  by  "steam  feed."  This  is  the  more  modem  and 
rapid  means  employed,  and  is  sometimes  termed  "  lightning  feed," 
A  steam  cylinder  of  8  or  10  inches  diameter  is  laid  upoj  the  floor  of 
the  mill  beneath  the  saw-carriage,  its  piston  connecting  with  the 
carriage.  Steam  being  admitted  to  tho  driving  end  of  the  cylinder 
(the  length  of  which  is  according  to  the  length  of  timber  to  be 
sawed,  sections'  being  added  or  removed  at  pleasure)  the  saw 
carriage  is  driven  with  lightning  speed,  both  in  the  cutting  feed 
and  reversing  "  gig.  "  Thirty  ordinary  cuts  per  minute,  on 
12  inches  feed  to  the  revolution  of  the  saw,  may  be  attained 
with  this  adaptation.  As  the  limit  of  capacity  for  work  with  a 
circular  saw  is  practically  the  ability  of  the  operators  to  remove 
the  lumber,  60,000  to  70,000  feet  per  day  is  no  unusual  cut, 
while  a  rate  of  100,000  feet  per  day  has  been  maintained  (for  a 
short  period)  by  a  single  circular.  The  lumber  as  it  drops  from 
tho  saw  falls  upon  "  live  rolls,"  a  series  of  iron  or  wooden  rollers 
connected  by  chain  belts,  which  cany  it  within  reach  of  the 
"edger,"  who  rapidly  passes  thKt  portion  v/liich  requires  "  edging  " 
er  splitting  through  the  "doublc-cdger,"  to  a  carriage  or  truck 
on  which  it  is  p<ished  to  tho  piling  ground,  or,  in  some  mills,  to 
another  series  of  live  rolls  which  take  it  to  tho  front  of  the 
"trimmer,"  an  ingenious  arrangement  of  table,  beneath  which 
are  several  saws  which  advance  or  recede  at  the  operator's  pleasure, 
cutting  the  lumber  to  even  and  uniform  lengths,  or  trimming  ofl" 
such  defects  as  may  exist  in  the  end  of  the  piece.  Ordinary 
lengths  arc  12,  14,  16,  and  18  feet,  and  by  use  of  the  trimmer  all 
superfluous  ends  are  removed,  leaving  each  piece  of  uniform  length 
with  its  fellows.  Tho  wasto  of  tho  log,  consisting  o£  tho 
"  slabs "  and'  edgings,  are  carefully  goiio  over,  and  such  as  aro 
suitable  for  that  purpose  go  to  the  "latli"  machines,  where  they 
ere  cut  into  strips  four  feet  in  length,  3  inch  thick,  and  IJ  inches 
wide  for  lath  and  plaster  work.  In  the  sawing  of  logs,  imperfec- 
tions' are  often  discovered  in  tlie  timber,  unfitting  it  for  ordinary 
uses  and  in  many  mills  it  is  customary  to  saw  such  timber  into 
•'  cants  "  of  usually  six  inches  thickness.  These  canU  aro  turned 
over  to  a  "butting  saw,"  where  they  aro  cut  into  lengths  of  10 
inches  (in  some  localities  18  inches)  and  turned  over  to  the  shingle 
mill  to  be  manufactured  into  shingles.  Shingles  are  tanering  pieces 
i  inch  thick  at  one  end,  and  A  inch  at  tlie  other,  and  are  used  as 
l  roof  covering  in  lieu  of  slating  or  tiles.  They  arc  laid  in  uniform 
cotrses,  witli  41  to  5  inches  of  tho  butt  end  laid  to  the  v,-eathcr, 
are  good  for  from  20  to  30  years'  wear  upon  a  roof.      An 


adjunct  to  the  circular  saw  is  often  found  in  a  top  or  upper  saw, 
overhanging  the  main  circular  a  little  in  advance  of  its  track,  for 
tfie  purpose  of  enabling  larger  logs  to  be  handled  than  the  diameter 
of  an  ordinary  circular  will  permit.  Tho  upper  saw  cuts  into  tho 
top  of  the  log  in  a  line  witli  the  cut  of  the  lower  or  main  saw, 
thus  increasing  tho  depth  of  tho  cut.  In  California,  where  logs  of 
8  and  10  feet  diameter  are  not  unusual  (larger  logs  being  quartered 
by  the  use  of  gunpowder  or  other  explosive,  timber  as  much  as  20 
and  even  25  feet  in  diameter  being  found  in  the  redwood  forests), 
an  ingenious  arrangement  of  four  saws  placed  one  higher  than  the 
other,  some  horizontal  and  others  vertical,  permits  the  handling  of 
huge  trees  which  until  recently  were  not  considered  available. 
A  thoroughly  modem  saw-mill  embraces  all  which  has  been  said 
regarding  the  circular,  with  the  addition  of  the  "gang"  feature, 
for,  while  a  majority  of  the  saw-mills  of  JTorth  America  aro  single 
"circulars,"  many  of  them  have  a  rotary  upon  each  side  of  the 
mill  floor,  the  log-jack  being  in  the  centre  of  the  building  rolling 
its  logs  either  to  the  sght  hand  or  the  left.  The  larger  mills 
have  in  addition  to  ITie  rotaries  from  one  to  four  gangs.  In 
thcso  cases  the  log  usually  goes  first  to  the  circular,  where  tho 
slabs  of  two  sides  are  removed,  leaving  a  flat  cant,  which  is  then 
transferred  to  the  gangs.  These  mills  are  fully  equipped  witk  aU, 
the  modem  patent  improvements.  The  logs  aro  drawn  from  the 
water  by  an  endless  chain  running  in  a  V-shaped  lo^  slide,  the 
chains  being  provided  either  with  spikes  or  concave  chairs  which 
hold  the  log  from  slipping  back.  One  log  follows  the  other  in 
endless  succession.  On  its  arrival  at  the  log  deck  on  the  mill  floor, 
the  manipulation  of  a  lever  causes  an  arm  or  arms  to  rise  through 
the  floor  against  the  side  of  the  log,  which  is  partially  raised  and 
thrown  with  considerable  force  up6n  the  skids  leading  to  the  saw 
carriage.  When  one  log  has  been  s.awed,  another  is  loaded  by  the 
sim[ile  touch  of  a  lever  in  tlie  hands  of  the  sawyer,  causing  arpis 
to  rise  in  the  skids  under  the  log,  which  is  thrown  upon  the 
carriage  ready  for  the  saw.  When  tbe  first  slab  has  been  removed, 
the  sawyer's  touch  of  a  lever  brings  through  the  floor  the  "  nigger," 
a  piece  of  strong  timber,  iron-bound  and  with  sharp  teeth  or  spikes 
protruding  from  its  front  face.  Its  motion  tends  slightly  forward 
as  it  advances  to  a  height  of  five  or  six  feet  abova  the  floor,  its 
spiked  surface  catching  tho  side  or  face  of  the  log,  turning  it 
instantly  to  any  desired  position.  If  the  log  is  simply  to  be 
"canted"  for  tho  gang  the  two  opposite  sides  or  slabs  are 
removed,  and  as  the  last  cut  is  complete  a  hook  thrown  over  the 
rear  end  of  the  cant  prevents  its  return  with  the  saw  carriage  and 
it  drops  upon  rolls  which  move  it  so  far  out  of  the  way  of  tho 
returning  carriage  with  its  fresh  load  as  is  necessary  to  start  "it  in 
an  opposite  direction  to  the  gang  which  is  to  complete  its  manu- 
facture. Until  now,  and  until  it  shall  emerge  from  the  gang,  no 
hand  of  man  has  necessarily  touched  the  log.  Machinery  guided 
by  human  intelligence  has  done  all  tho  work.  WTien  the  log 
reached  the  carriage  it  was  dogged,  not  with  the  old-fashioned 
lever  dog  driven  by  a  mallet,  but  by  the  simple  movement  of  a 
lever.  It  was  brought  to  its  proper  position  before  the  saw  by 
nicely  adjusted  set  works,  which  graduated  its  position  to  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch.  After  the  slab  was  removed,  if  another  cut  was 
required  the  same  set  works  moved  it  forward  v.ith  lightning 
quickness,  leaving  it  at  the  exact  point,  to  a  nicety,  requisite  for 
the  production  of  just  the  thickness  desired  for  the  next  piece. 
From  the  water  to  the  pile  in  the  miUyard  hands  have  necessarily 
been  employed  in  actual  handling  of  the  product  only  at  the  edger 
and  the  trimmer,  and  in  assorting  the  qiialities  upon  the  tram-car 
which  removes  it  from  the  mill.  Machinery,  guided  by  linmaa 
intelligence,  has  done  all  the  heavy  work.  A  mill  answering  closely 
to  our  description  was  lecently  burned  at  Bay  City,  Michigan, 
the  yearly  production  of  which  for  several  years  past  has  been 
40,000,000  feet  of  lumbir,  besides  shingles,  lath,  pickets,  &c.,  cut 
from  tho  slabs  and  waste.  The  total  production  of  tho  saw- 
mills of  tho  United  States  appro.\iniate3  26,000,000,000  feet 
annually. 

Tho  "  band  "  saw-uiill  is  rapidly  working  its  way  into  publio 
favour  hecauso  of  tho  economy  attending,  its  use.  The  band  saw  is 
a  long  ribbon  of  steel,  six  to  eight  inches  in  width,  running  over 
large  pulleys  above  and  below,  tho  upper  pulley  running  almost 
vertically  above 'the  lower,  tlio  saw  acting  as  a  belt  between  tho 
two  and  as  the  driving  power  to  tlio  upper  wheel.  Theso  saws 
are  very  thin  and  have  a  manufacturing  capacity  of  from  30,000  to 
40,000  feet  per  day,  with  the  consumption  of  25  to  40  per  cent  less 
power  than  is  required  for  the  ordinary  circular  saw  of  tho  same 
daily  capacity  for  work.  Tho  main  advantage  found  in  tho  uso  of 
the  uanci-saw  is  in  the  saving  of  timber  (20  per  cent.).  Tho  sot 
works  do  not  dilfer  from  those  of  rotary  niill.i,  and  either  cone, 
rope,  or  steam  feed  may  bo  used  in  connexion  with  it. 

A  useful  adjunct  to  tho  many  sawmills,  which  produce  mors 
wastes  than  can  bo  consumed  in  raising  tho  necessary  steam,  is  the 
"slab-burner"  or  "hell,"  a  large  circular  brick  furnaco  often  60 
feet  in  height  by  25  feet  internal  diameter,  erected  conveniently 
near  the  saw-mill,  into  which  by  chain  carriers  leading  to  an 
opening  at  a  lalBci^nt  height  from  tho  bottom,  tho  sawdust. 


i^l— K'-» 


346 


S  A  X  — S  A  X 


bJgings,  worthless  slabs,  and  debris  of  the  mill  are  conveyed,  to  be 
destroyed  by  fire. 

ShinyU  Mills.'— k  standard  shingle  is  four  inches  wide,  and  all 
computations  of  tiuantity  are  based  upon  that  width,  although  the 
individual  shingle  may  do  six  or  eight  inches  wide  or  as  much  as 
18  inches,  iu  the  latter  case  counting  i\  shingles.  A  shingle  mill 
differs  from  a  saw-mill  iu  the  adaptations  of  machinery.  Saws  of 
16-gaugc,  40  inches  in  diameter,  are  most  commonly  employed. 
In  cases  where.shingle  manufacture  is  carried  on  in  connexion  with 
the  saw-mill,  the  process  of  preparing  the  blocks  has  already  been 
described.  A  majority  of  the  shingles  mani.- jctured,  however,  are 
made  iu  mills  built  for  the  special  purpose.  Logs  suitable,  usually 
of  a  medium  cjuality,  arc  placed  before  a  "  bolting  "  or  "  drag  " 
saw,  which  severs  them  into  the  reiiuircd  length.  The  block  is 
then  stripped  of  its  baric  and  sap  by  spUttin"  off  a  section  of  the 
outer  circumference  to  the  heart  wood,  witli  axes  ;  it  is  next 
quartered,  and  the  inside  section  of  heart,  which  is  never  sound, 
removed ;  and  then  it  goes  to  the  machiuo  for  manufacture.  The, 
machines  are  sometimes  horizontal,  sometimes  vertical,  but  all 
work  upon  the  same  principle;  viz.,  that  of  a  tilting  table,  allowing 
a  thick  butt  and  a  thin  point  to  be  alternately  taken.  The  shingles 
as  they  drop  from  the  saw  are  rough-edged,*  and  require  to  be 
"jointed,"  generally  upon  a  rapidly  revolving  wheel,  upon  the  face 
of  which  are  secured  four  well-balanced  knives,  which,  as  the 
shingle  is  pressed  again.'5t  them,  cat  away  tlie  imperfect  edge  with 
great  rapidity,  leaving  a -straight  smooth  edge,  which  when  laid 
upon  a  roof  makes  a  good  joint  with  its  fellows.'  The  edging  or 
jointing  process  is  often  performed  with  small  saws  in  place  of  the 
vliccl-jointer.  The  shingles  arc  usually  packed  in  bunches  con- 
taining the  equivalent  of  one  quarter  thousand  4-inch  pieces,  and 
are  more  used  for  roof  covering  than  any  other  material  iu  the 
United  States  or  Canada.  (G.  W.  H.) 

SAXE,  Maueice,  Comte  de  (1696-1750),  marshal  of 
France,  was  the  natural  son  of  Augustus  II.  of  Saxony 
and  the  countess  Aurora  of  Konigsmark.      An  entry  in 
the  parish  registers  of  Goslar  shows  tliat  he  was  born  in 
that  town,   28th   October  1696.     In   1698  tlie  countess 
sent  him  to  Warsaw  to  his  father,  who  had  been  elected 
king  of  Poland  the  previous  year,  but  on  account  of  the 
unsettled  condition  of  the  country  the  greater  part  of  his 
youth  was  spent  outside  its  limits,  a  yearly  income  being 
assigned  him.     This  enforced  separation  from  his  father 
made  him  more  independent  of  his  control  than  he  would 
otherwise  have  been,  and  had  an  important  effect  on  the 
character  of  his  future  career.     At  the  age  of  twelve  he 
was  present,  under  the  direction  of  the  count  of  Scliulen- 
burg,  in  the  army  of  Eugene,  at  the  sieges  of  Tournay  and 
Mens  and  tlie  battle  of  Malplaquet,  but  the  achievements 
ascribed  to  him  in  this  campaign  are  chiefly  fabulous.     A 
proposal  to  send  him  at  the  close  of  it  to  a  Jesuit  college 
at   Brussels  was  relinquished  on  account  of  the  strong 
protests  of  his  mother ;  and,  returning  to  the  camp  of  the 
allies. in  the  beginning  of  1710,  he  displayed  a  courage  so 
impetuous  as   to   call   forth  from   Eugene   the   friendly 
admonition  not  to  confound  rashness  with  valour.     After 
receiving  in  1711  formal  recognition  from  his  father,  with 
tlie  rank  of  count,  he  accompanied  him  to  Pomerania,  and 
m  1712  he  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Stralsund.     As  he 
grew  up  to  manhood  ho  was  seen  to  bear  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  his  father,  both  in  person  and  character.     His 
grasp  wa^  so  powerful  that  he  could  bond  a  horse-shoe 
with  his  Jiand,  and  to  the  last  his  energy  and  endurance 
were  unsubdued  by  tluj  sevdro  bodily  illnesses  resulting 
fiom   his   many   excesses.      The    impetuosity   noted   by 
Eugene  manifested  itself  in  his  private  life  in  a  dissolute- 
ness only  slightly  tempered  by  his  generosity  and  good 
humour.     In  his  military  career  during  liis  mature  years 
It  was  Indicated  only  in  his  blindness  to  danger  and  his 
unmoved  calm  amidst  the  blackest  lowerings  of  misfor- 
tune, for  it  was  tempered  by  the  "vigilance,  forethought, 
sagacious  precaution"  which  Carlyle  notes  as  "singular  in 
80  dissolute  a  man."     In   1711a  marriage  was  arranged 
between  him  and  one  of  the  richest  of  his  father's  subjects, 
the    Countess  von   Loeben,   but  her  iuimcnse  fortune  he 
dissipated  so  rapidly  that  he  was  soon  heavily  in  debt, 
and,  having  given  her  more  serious  grounds  of  complaint 


against  him,  he  consented  without  deience  to  an  annul- 
ment of  the  marriage  in  1721.  Meantime,  after  serving 
in  a  campaign  against  the  Turks  in  1717,  he  had  in  1719 
gone  to  Paris  to  study  mathematics,  and  jn  1720  obtained 
the  office  of  "  mar^chal  de  camp."  In  1725  negotiations 
were  entered  into  for  his  election  as  duke  of  Courland,  at 
the  instance  of  the  duchess  Anna  Ivanovna,  who  offered 
him  her  hand.  He  was  chosen  duke  in  1726,  but  declin- 
ing marriage  with  the  duchess^  found  it  impossible  to 
resist  her  opposition  to  his  claims,  although,  with  the 
assistance  of  £30,000  lent  him'  by  the  French  actress 
Adrienne  Lecouvreur,  his  relations  with  whom  form  the 
subject  of  the  drama  of  that  name  by  Scribe  and 
Legouvc,  published  in  1849,  he  raised  a  force  by  which 
he  maintained  his  authority  till  1727,  when  he  withdrew 
and  took  up  his  residence  in  Paris.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  in  1734.  he  served  under  Marshal  Berwick, 
and  for  a  brilliant  exploit  at  the  siege  at  PhiUppsburg  he 
was  in  August  named  lieutenant-general.  It  was,  how- 
ever, with  the  opening  of  the  Austrian  Succession  War  in 
1741  that  he  first  rose  into  prominence.  In  command 
of  a  division  forming  the  advance  guard  of  an  army  sent 
to  invade  Austria,  he  on' the  19th  November  surprised 
Prague  during  the  night,  and  took  it  by  assault  before  the 
garrison  were  aware  of  the  presence  of  an  enemy,  a  coup 
de  main  which  at  once  made  him  famous  throughout 
Europe.  After  capturing  on  the  19th  April  1742  the 
strong  fortress  of  Eger,  he  received  leave  of  absence,  and 
went  to  Russia  to  push  his  claims  on  the  duchy  of  Cour- 
land, but  obtaining  no  success  returned  to  his  command. 
His  exploits  had  been  the  sole  redeeming  feature  in  an 
unsuccessful  campaign,  and  on  26th  March  1743  his 
merits  were  recognized  by  his  promotion  to  be  marshal 
of  France.  In  1744  he  was  chosen  to  command  the 
expedition  to  England  in  behalf  of  the  Pretender,  Which 
assembled  at  Dunkirk  but  did  not  proceed  farther.  After 
its  abortive  issue  he  received  an  independent  command  in 
the  Netherlands,  and  by  dexterous  manoeuvring  succeeded 
in  continually  harassing  the  superior  forces  of  the  enemy 
without  risking  a  decisive  battle.  In  the  foUovrfng  year 
he  made  a  rapid  march  on  Tournay,  and,  when  the  allies 
sent  an  army  of  60,000  under  the  duke  of  Cumberland 
to  its  relief,  gave  them  battle  11th  May,  without 'relaxing 
the  siege,  from  a  strongly  entrenched  position  ai,  Fonte- 
noy.  The  contest  raged  from  early  morning  till  two 
o'clock,  when,  by  a  charge  at  a  critical  moment  which 
annihilated  a  column  of  the  enemy,  fortune  was  decided  in 
his  favour.  During  the  battle  he  was  unable  on  account 
of  dropsy  to  sit  on  horseback  except  for  a  few  minutes, 
and  was  carried  about  in  a  wicker  basket.  In  recognition 
of  his  brilliant  achievement  the  king  conferred  on  him  the 
castle  of  Chamford  for  life,  and  in  April  1746  he  was 
naturalized.  The  campaign  of  1746  was  signalized  by 
the  capture  of  Antwerp  on  the  1st  June,  the  capture  of 
Namur  in  September,  and  the  total  rout  of  Prince  Charles 
at  Eaucoux  11th  October.  Having  on  the  12th  January 
1747  been  made  marshal-general,  he  in  the  following 
campaign  won  the  victory  of  Lawfeldt  over  the  duke  of 
Cumberland,  and  on  ICth  September  he  stormed  Bergen-op- 
zoom.  In  May  1 '/  48  he  captured  Maestricht  after  a  month's 
siege.  After  the  peace,  lie  lived  in  broken  health  chiefly  at 
Chamford,  and  he  died  there  30th  November  1750. 

ll.iurice  de  Saxe  was  the  author  of  a  work  on  military  science, 
Mcs  liivcrics,  described  by  Carlyle  as  "a  strange  military  farrago, 
dictated,  as  I  should  think,  under  opium,"  published  posthumously 
in  1757  (last  ed.,  Paris,  1877).  His  LcUrcs  ct  Mimoircs  Choisis 
appeared  iu  1794.  Many  previous  errors  io- former  biographies 
were  corrected  and  additional  information  supplied  in  Carl  von 
AVeber's  Morilz,  Graf  von  Sachsen,  Marsc'/iall  <ion  Frankreich,  iiach 
arcluvalischcn  Quellcn  (Leipsie,  1863),  and  in  Taillandier's  Maurice 
lie  Saxf,  iliide  hisiorique  d'apris  Ics  doci,mcnls  des  Archives  de 
Dixsdc  (1865).     See  also  Carlyle's  Frederick  the  Srcai. 


S  A  X  — S  A  X 


347 


SAXE-ALTE>n3miG  (Germ.  SacJisenrAltcnhirr,),  a 
Uuchy  in  Tlmiingia,  and  an  independent  member  of  the 
German  empire,  consists  of  two  detaclicd  and  almost  equal 
parts,  separated  from  each  other  by  a  portion  of  Ecuss 
(junior  line),  and  bounded  on  the  S.  and  \V.  by  the  grand- 
dachy  of  Sa\e- Weimar-Eisenach,  on  theN.  by  Prussia,  and 
on  the  E.  by  the  kingdom  of  Saxony.  There  arc  in  addi- 
tion 12  small  exclaves.  The  total  area  is  •''10  square  miles 
(about  half  the  size  of  Cheshire  in  England),  of  which  254 
are  in  the  east  or  Altenburg  division  and  25G  in  the  west 
or  Saal-Eiscnberg  division.  Tlie  former  district,  traversed 
by  the  most  westerly  offshoots  of  the  Erzgebirge  and 
watered  by  the  Pleisse  and  its  tributaries,  foi'ms  an  undu- 
lating and  fertile  region,  containing  some  of  the  richest 
*gricultural  soil  in  Germany.  The  western  district,  through 
which  the  Saale  flows,  is  rendered  hilly  by  the  beginnings 
of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  and  in  some  measure  makes  up 
by  its  fine  woods  for  the  comparatively  poor  soil.  The 
mineral  wealth  of  Saxc-Altenburg  is  scanty;  lignite,  the 
diief  mineral,  is  worked  mainly  in  the  eastern  district. 
>  AccorJing  to  the  returns  for  1883,  581  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
duchy  was  occupied  by  arable  land,  and  274  P^r  cent,  by  forests, 
of  which  four-fifths  were  coniferous.  Tlie  chief  crops  were  rye 
(42,317  acres,  yielding  20,412  tons),  oats  (36,807  acres,  22,996 
tons),  barley  (21,390  acres,  13,912  tons),  wheat  {17,490  acres, 
9724  tons),  and  potatoes  (19,870  acres,  113,209  tons).  The  cattle- 
raising  and  horse-breeding  of  the  duchy  are  of  considerable  import- 
ance, lu  1883  the  duchy  contained  9934  horses,  60,335  cattle, 
20,996  sheep,  46,387  pigs,  and  12,420  goats.  About  35  per  cent. 
of  the  population  are  directly  supported  by  agriculture.  The 
manufactures  of  the  duchy  are  very  varied,  but  none  is  of  any  great 
importance  ;  woollen  goods,  gloves,  hats,  porcelain  and  earthen- 
ware, and  wooden  articles  are  the  chief  products.  Trade  in  these, 
and  in  horses,  cattle,  and  agricultural  produce,  is  tolerably  brisk. 
The  chief  seats  of  trade  and  manufacture  are  Altenburg  the 
capital  (29,422  inhabitants  in  1885),  Ronneburg  (5485  inhabitants 
in  1880),  SchmoUn  (6394),  GosaDitz(4949),  and  Meuselwitz  (3402) 
in  the  Altenburg  diiTsion  ;  and  Eisenburg  (6277),  Roda  (3465), 
and  Kahla  (2999)  in  the  Saal-Eisenburg. division.  Besides  these 
there  are  the  tonus  of  Lucka  (1505)  and  Orlamiinde  (1461),  and 
449  villages,  of  which  Russdorf  (1781),  in  an  exclave,  is  the 
largest. 

Next  to  the  two  principalities  of  Reuss,  Saxe-Altenburg  is  the 
most  densely  peopled  part  of  Thuringia,  In  1880  the  population 
was  155,036,  or  304  per  square  mile.  Of  these  154,187  were 
Protestants,  741  Roman  Catholics,  33  Jews,  and  75  of  other  sects. 
The  population  in  1885,  according  to  a  provisional  return  of  the 
census  of  that  year,  was  161,129.  In  the  west  division  the  popu- 
lation (49,788)  is  wholly  Teutonic,  but  iu  the  oast  (111,341)  there 
is  a  strong  Wtndish  or  Slavonic  element,  still  to  be  traced  in  the 
peculiar  manners  and  costume  of  the  country-people,  though  these 
arc  gradually  being  given  up.  The  farmers  and  peasant-proprietors 
of  the  east  division  (.M  ten  burger  D.uiern)  are  an  industrious  and 
well-to-do  class,  but  like  similar  classes  in  other  countries  they  are 
said  to  be  avaricious  and  puise-proud.  Their  holdings  are  Bei.iom 
divided  ;  a  custom  corresponding  to  Borough-Enqusu  (.y.f.), 
tliou''h  not  supported  by  law,  obtains  among  them  ;  and  sometimes 
the  elder  brothers  are  employed  by  the  youngest  as  servants  ou  the 
paternal  farm.  The  destitution  to  which  the  disinheiited  children 
are  often  reduced  by  this  custom  is  seriously  prejudicial  to  morality. 
The  Altenburg  peasants  are  pleasure-loving,  and  in  spite  of  their 
avarice  are  said  to  gamble  for  very  high  stakes,  especially  at  the 
complicated  card-game  of  "  skat,"  now  uiiiveisal  in  Germany,  which 
many  believe  to  have  been  invented  here. 

Saxe- Altenburg  is  a  limited  hereditary  monarchy,  its  constitu- 
tion resting  on  a  law  of  1831,  subsequently  modilied.  The  diet 
consists  of  30  members,  elected  for  3  years,  of  whom  9  are  returned 
by  the  highest  taxpayers,  9  by  the  towns,  and  12  by  the  country 
districts.  The  franchise  is  enjoyed  by  all  males  over  25  years  of 
age  who  pay  taxes.  The  duke  has  considerable  powers  of  initiative 
and  veto.  The  government  is  carried  on  by  a  ministry  of  three 
members,  of  whom  two  administer  justice  and  finance  respectively, 
and  the  third  all  the  otlier  departments  of  homo  and  foreign  affairs. 
The  budget  for  1884-86  estimated  the  yearly  income  at  il'/7,180 
and  the  yearly  cspcnditure  at  i:i25,530.  The  Altenburg  troops 
are  united  with  the  contingents  of  Schwarzburg,  Uudolstadt,  and 
the  two  Kcusses  to  form  the  7th  Thuringian  infantry  regiment  of 
the  imperial  army.  Saxe-Altuuburg  has  ouo  vote  in  the  Heiohstag 
jnd  one  in  the  federal  council. 

After  the  comiuost  of  the  Wends,  the  present  Altenburg  district 
became  an  imperial  possession,  lying  partly  in  the  I'leisscngau  and 
partly  in  Ihu  Voiytlaud,  while  tho  west  district  wo3  dividodamong 


a  number  of  small  nobles.      The  margrave  of  Saxony  obtained 

Sermancnt  possession  of  Altenburg  about  1329,  and  the  west 
ivision  was  also  early  incorporated  with.  )iis  dominions.  Kotli 
districts  were  among  ilie  lands  assigned  to  the  Ernestine  line  oX 
the  house  of  Saxony  by  the  convention  of  Wittenberg  iu  1547 
(see  S.\xo.vv).  From  1003  till  1672  there  existed  an  independent 
duchy  of  Altenburg ;  but  in  1826,  when  the  present  divisioo 
into  the  four  Saxon  duchies  was  made,  both  Altenburg  and  Eisen- 
burg belonged  to  Gotlia.  Duke  Frederick,  who  exchanged  Saxc- 
Ilildburghausen  for  the  present  duchy  of  Saxe-Altenbr.rg  in  1826, 
was  the  founder  of  tho  reigning  line.  A  constitution  was  granted 
in  1831  in  answer  to  popular  commotion ;  and  greater  concessions 
were  extorted  by  more  threatening  disturbances  in  J848.  The 
second  duke  (Joseph)  abdicated  in  1848  in  fflvonr  of  his  brother 
George.  Under  Ernest,  who  succeeded  his  father  as  fourth  duka 
in  1853,  a  period  of  violent  reaction  set  in,  so  that  even  now  the 
constitution  is  considerably  less  liberal  than  it  wa?  in  1S49.  In 
1873  the  long-disputed  question  as  to  the  public  domains  was 
settled,  two-thirds  of  these  being  now  regarded  as  belonging  to  the 
duke  in  Jidcicommissum  and  in  lien  of  a  civil  list. 

SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA  (Germ.  Sachsen-Kohurg- 
Goiha),  a  duchy  in  Thuringia,  and  an  independent  member 
of  the  German  empire,  consists  of  the  two  formerly 
separate  duchies  of  Coburg  and  Gotha,  whicli  lie  at  a 
distance  of  1 4  miles  from  each  other,  and  of  eight  small 
scattered  exclaves,  the  most  northerly  of  which  is  70  miles 
from  the  most  southerly.  The  total  area  is  760  sqnaro 
miles  (about  2  square  miles  more  than  the  county  of  Surrey 
in  England),  of  which  217  are  in  Coburg  and  543  in 
Gotha.  The  duchy  of  Coburg  is  bounded  on  the  S.E.,  S., 
and  S.W.  by  Bavaria,  and  on  the  other  sides  by  Saxe-. 
Meiningen,  which,  with  part  of  Prussia,  separates  it  from 
Gotha.  The  considerable  exclave  of  Kdnigsberg  in 
Bavaria,  10  miles  south,  belorgs  to  Coburg.  _  Lying  ou 
the  south  slope  of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  and  in  tha 
Franconian  plain,  this  duchy  is  an  undulating  and  fertile 
district,  reaching  its  highest  point  in  the  Senichshohe 
(1716  feet)  near  Mirsdorf.  Itsstreams,  the  chief  of  whick 
are  the  Itz,  Steinach,  and  Eodach,  all  find  their  way  into 
the  Main.  The  duchy  of  Gotha,  more  than  twice  the  size 
of  Coburg,  stretches  from  the  south  borders  of  Prussia 
along  the  northern  elopes  of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  the 
highest  summits  of  which  (Grosse  Beerberg,  3225  feet; 
Schneekopf,  3179  feet;  Inselberg,  2957  feet)  rise  within' 
its  borders.  Tho  more  open  and  level  district  on  the 
north  is  spoken  of  as  the  "open  country  "  ("das  Land") 
in  contrast  to  the  wooded  hills  of  the  "  forest "  ("der 
Wald  ").  The  Gera,  IlorseJ,  Unstrut,  and  ether  streama 
of  this  duchy  flow  to  tho  Werra  or  to  the  Saale. 

In  both  duchies  tho  chief  industry  is  agriculture,  which  employs 
33  per  cent,  of  tho  entire  population.  According  to  the  retnma 
for  1883,  53i  per  cent,  of  the  area  was  occupied  by  arable  land,  10 

Fer  cent,  by  meadow-land  and  pasture,  and  30  per  cent,  by  forest, 
a  the  same  year  tho  chief  crops  were  oats  (43,715  acres,  "yielding 
19,229  tons),  barley  (37,387  acres,  20,143  tons),  rj'o  (29,077  acres, 
12,048  tonsj.'wheat  ^24,255  acres,  9,272  tons),  and  potatoes  (24,546 
acres,  116,695  tons).  A  small  quantity  of  hemp  and  fiax  is  raised 
(less  than  1000  acres  of  each),  but  a  considerable  quantity  of  frnit 
and  vegetables  is  annually  produced.  Cattle-brectUng  is  au  im- 
portant resource,  especially  in  the  valley  of  the  Itz  in  Coburg.  In 
1883  the  two  duchies  contained  8187  horses,  58,196  cattle,  73,249 
sheep,  51,549  pigs,  and  27,015  goats.  The  mineral  wealth  of  Saie- 
Coburg-Gotha  is  insigniflcant ;  small  quantities  of  coal,  lignite, 
ironstone,  millstone,  &c.,  are  annually  raised.  There  arc  also  salt- 
works and  some  deposits  of  potter's  clay. 

Tho  manufactures  of  the  duchies,  especially  in  tho  monntainona 
parts  loss  favourable  for  agriculture,  are  tolerably  brisk,  but  there 
1.S  no  largo  industrial  centra  iu  tlu)  country.  Iron  goods  and 
machinery,  safes,  class,  cartlienivare,  chemicals,  and  wooden 
articles,  uicluding  largo  quantities  of  toys,  are  produced ;  and 
various  branches  of  textile  industry  are  carried  on.  Ruhla  (two- 
fifths  of  which  is  situated  in  Saxe-Wcimar-Eiseuach)  is  famous  for 
its  meerschaum  pipes  and  cigar-holders,  which  are  exported  to  all 
parts  of  tho  world;  and  tho  maps  of  IVrthes's  geographical  institute 
at  Gotha  may  also  bo  reckoned  among  tho  national  products.  Coburg 
(15,791  inhabitants  in  1881)  and  Gotha  (28, 100  in  1885)  are  the  chief 
towns  of  tho  duchies,  to  which  they  respectively  give  name  ;  the 
latter  is  tho  capital  of  tho  united  duchy.  There  are  seven  otLar 
small  towns,  aud  320  villngci  and  )>amlcts.     Tho  village  of  Fried- 


348 


S  A  X— S  A  X 


richroda  and  Ruhla  and  the  luselberg  aud  Schueekopf  and  other 
picturesque  points  annually  attract  an  increasing  number  of  sum- 
mer visitors  and  tourists.  Neudietendorf  or  Gnadenthal  is  a 
Moravian  settlement  founded  in  1742. 

The  population  in  1880  was  194,716,  or  258  per  square  mile,  of 
■whom  56,728  (261  per  square  mile)  were  iu  Coburg  and  137,988 
(254  per  square  raUe)  in  Gotha.  In  the  former  duchy  the  people  be- 
long to  the  Franconian  and  in  the  latter  to  the  Thuringian  branch 
cf  the  Teutonic  family.  In  1880  there  were  192,025  Lutherans, 
2062  Roman  Catholics,  490  Jews,  and  139  others.  In  1885  the 
-population  was  198,717,-67,355  in  Coburg  and  141,362  in  Gotha. 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  is  a  limited  hereditary  monarchy,  its  con- 
stitution resting  on  a  Uw  of  1852,  modified  in  1874.  For  its  own 
immediate  affairs  each  duchy  has  a  separate  diet  (in  Coburg  of  11, 
in  Gotha  of  19  members) ;  but  in  more  important  and  general 
matters  a  common  diet,  formed  of  the  members  of  the  separate 
diets,  meeting  at  Coburg  and  Gotha  alternately,  exercises  authority. 
The  members  are  elected  for  four  years  ;  the  franchise  is  extended 
to  all  male  taxpayers  of  twenty -five  years  of  age  and  upwards.  The 
ministry  has  special  departments  for  each  duchy,  but  is  under  a 
common  president.  In  finance  the  duchies  are  also  separate,  the 
budget  in  Coburg  being  voted  for  a  terra  of  six  years,  and  in  Gotha 
for  four  yeai's.  After  long  disputes  between  the  duke  and  the 
Government  a  compromise  was  effected  in  1855,  by  which  the 
greater  part  of  the  public  lands  is  regarded  as  a,  fideicommissum  in 
the  possession  of  the  reigning  duke,  while  the  income  from  the  rest 
is  regarded  as  state-revenue.  There  are  thus  two  budgets  for  each 
duchy.  The  annual  income  of  the  public  lands  in  Coburg  is 
estimated  for  the  period  1886-92  at  £20,700,  and  the  expenditure 
at  £11,900  ;  in  Gotha  (period  1886-90)  the  same  source  is  estimated 
to  yield  £102,621  and  to  cost  .£61,996; — together  producing  a 
surplus  of  £49,425,  of  which  the  duke  receives  £29,700  and  the 
state-treasury  £19,725.  The  annual  state-revenue  in  the  same 
periods  was  estimated  for  Coburg  at  £51,520,  or  £2246  more  than 
the  estimated  expenditure,  and  in  Gotha  at  £106,020,  or  £2244 
more  than  the  expenditure.  Besides  the  civil  list  the  duke  of 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  enjoys  a  very  large  private  fortune,  amassed 
jchiefiy  by  Ernest  I.,  who  sold  the  principality  of  Lichtenberg  to 
SE^ussia  in  1834  for  an  annual  payment  of  £12,000.  The  congress 
«f  Vienna  had  bestowed  the  principality  upon  him  in  recognition 
of  his  services  iu  1813.  The  house  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  is 
directly  connected  with  five  of  the  royal  houses  of  Europe,  and  the 
actual  rulers  or  the  heirs  of  three  kingdoms  trace  their  descent 
from  it.  The  succession  is  hereditary  in  the  male  line ;  and  by 
,Vhe  deed  of  succession  of  1855  the  heir  to  the  throne  is  the  duke 
Vf  Edinburgh,  nephew  of  the  present  duke. ' 

History. — The  elder  line  of  Saxe-Coburg  was  founded  in  1680  by 
Albert,  the  second  son  of  Ernest  the  Pious.  On  his  dying  child- 
less in  1699,  however,  the  line  became  extinct,  and  his  possessions 
became  the  sulyect  of  vehement  contention  amongst  the  other 
Saxon  houses,  until  they  were  finally  distributed  at  the  end  of  the 
18th  century.  The  present  reigning  family  is  the  posterity  of 
John  Ernest,  the  seventh  son  of  Ernest  the  Pious,  who  originally 
ruled  in  Saxe-Saalfeld.  His  two  sons,  ruling  in  common,  acquired 
possession  of  Coburg,  and,  changing  their  residence,  styled  them- 
selves dukes  of  Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld.  Dnder  the  son  and  successor 
of  the  survivor  (who  introduced  the  nrinciple  of  primogeniture), 
lErnest  Frederick  I.  (1764-1800),  the  land  was  plunged  into 
bankruptcy,  so  that  an  imperial  commission  was  appointed  on  his 
death  to  manage  the  finances.  The  measures  adopted  to  redeem 
the  country's  credit  were  successful,  but  imposed  so  much  hardship 
on  the  people  that  a  rising  took  place,  which  had  to  be  quelled 
I  with  the  aid  of  troops  from  the  electorate  of  Saxony.  The  duke- 
Francis  Frederick  Antony  died  in  December  1806,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Ernest  III.  (1806-1844),  although  the  country 
"was  occupied  by  the  French  from  1807  until  the  peace  of  Tilsit  in 
1816.  In  the  redistribution  of  the  Sa.xon  lands  in  1826,  Ernest 
resigned  Saalfeld  to  Meiningen,  receiving  Gotha  in  exchange  and 
assuming  the  title  of  Ernest  I.  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.  The  line  of 
Saxe-Gotha  had  been  founded  in  1680  by  the  eldest  son  of  Ernest 
the  Pious,  and  had  become  extinct  in  1825.  When  Ernest  II. 
(b._  1818)  succeeded  iu  1844  both  the  public  finances  and  the 
private  fortune  of  the  ducal  family  (see  above)  were  flourishing. 
In  his  reign  various  liberal  reforms  have  been  achieved,  and  the 
union  of  the  duchies  has  been  made  closer. 

SAXE-MEININGEN  (Germ.  Saclnen-Meiningen),  a 
duchy  in  Thuringia,  and  an  independent  member  of  the 
German  empire,  consists  chiefly  of  an  irregular  crescent- 
shaped  territory,  which,  with  an  average  breadth  of  10 
miles,  stretches  for  over  80  miles  along  the  south-west  slope 
of  the  Thuringian  Forest.  The  convex  side  rests  upon  the 
duchy  of  Coburg,  and  is  in  part  bounded  by  Bavaria, 
while  the  concave  side,  turned  towards  the  north,  contains 
portions  of  four  other  Thivingian  states  and  Prussia  be- 


tween its  horns,  which  are  46  miles  apart.  The  districts 
of  Kranichfeld,  15  miles  north-west,  and  Hamburg,  22 
miles  due  north  of  the  eastern  horn,  together  with 
number  of  smaller  scattered  exclaves,  comprise  74  of  the 
953  square  miles  now  belonging  to  the  duchy  (about  the 
size  of  county  Down  in  Ireland).  The  snrface  on  the 
whole  is  hilly,  and  is  partly  occupied  by  ofEshoots  of  the 
Thuringian  Forest ;  the  highest  summits  are  the  Kieserle 
(2851  feet)  and  the  Bless  (2834  feet).  The  chief  streams 
are  the  Werra,  which  traverses  the  south  and  east  of  thri 
duchy,  and  various  tributaries  of  the  Main  and  the  Saale, 
80  that  Saxe-Meiniugen  belongs  to  the  basins  of  the  thrctf 
great  rivers  Weser,  Rhine,  and  Elbe. 

The  soil  is  not  very  productive,  although  agiiculture  flourisho* 
in  the  valleys  and  on  the  level  ground  ;  grain  has  to  be  imported 
to  meet  the  demand.  In  1883  only  41  '8  per  cent  of  the  total 
area  (in  1878,  41  '6)  was  devoted  to  agiiculture,  while  meadow  land 
and  pasture  occupied  11  per  cent.  The  chief  grain  crops  in  1883 
were  rye  (44,442  acres,  yielding  16,112  tons),  oats  (42,447  acres, 
17,343  tons),  wheat  (25,252  acres,  9033  tons),  and  barley  (19,015 
1  acres,  94,456  tons).  The  cultivation  of  potatoes  is  very  general 
^  (31,006  acres,  143,327  tons).  Tobacco,  hops,  and  flax  (in  1883, 
997  acres)  are  also  raised.  The  Werrathal  and  the  other  fertiU 
valleys  produce  large  quantities  of  fruit.  Sheep  and  cattle  raising 
is  a  tolerably  important  branch  of  industry  throughout  the  duchy ; 
horses  are  bred  in  Kamburg.  In  1883  Saxe-Meiuingen  contained 
5174  horses,  66,733  cattle,  58,940  sheep,  45,136  pigs,  and  26,817 
goats.  The  extensive  and  valuable  forests,  of  which  76  per  cent 
are  coniferous  trees,  occupy  41 '9  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area. 
Nearly  one  half  of  the  forests  belong  to  the  state  and  about  one- 
third  to  public  bodies  and  institutions,  leaving  little  more  than 
a  sixth  for  private  o\vners.  The  mineral  wealth  of  the  duchy  ii 
not  inconsiderable.  Iron,  coal,  and  slate  are  the  chief  minerals 
worked.  There  are  salt-works  at  Sahungen  and  Suiza,  the  formet 
the  most  important  in  Thuringia ;  and  the  mineral  water  oi 
Friedrichshall  is  well  known.  The  manufacturing  industry  of 
Saxe-Meiningen  is  very  active,  especially  in  the  districts  of  Sonne' 
berg,  Grafenthal,  and  Saalfeld.  Iron  goods  of  various  kinds,  glass 
end  pottery,  school-slates,'  marbles,  &c.,  are  produced  ;  the  abund- 
ant timber  fosters  the  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  woodeii  articles, 
especially  toys  ;  and  textile  industry  is  also  carried  on  to  a  slight 
extent. 

'  The  capital  of  the  duchy  is  Meiningen  (iu  1881  11,227  inhab* 
itants).  Of  the  sixteen  other  towns  (Salzungen,  Wasungen, 
Hildburghausen,  Eisfeld,  Sonneberg,  Saalfeld,  Pbssneck,  Kamburg, 
&c.)  none  has  so  many  as  10,000  inhabitants.  There  are  392 
villages  and  hamlets.  In  1880  the  population  was  207,075  (217 
per  square  mile),  of  whom  30  per  cent.  lived  in  communities  o( 
more  than  2000.  As  in  the  other  Saxon  duchies  the  population  is 
almost  exclusively  Lutheran  ;  in  1883  202,970  belonged  to  that 
confession,  2274  were  Roman  Catholics,  204  of  other  Christian  sects, 
and  1627  Jews. 

Saxe-JIeiningen  Is  a  limited  monarchy,  its  constitution  resting 
on  a  law  of  1829,.  subsequently  modified.  The  diet,  elected  for  six 
years,  consists  of  H  members,  of  whom  4  are  elected  by  the  Jargest 
landowners,  4  by  those  who  pay  the  highest  personal  taxes,  and  16 
by  the  other  electors.  The  franchise  is  enjoyed  by  all  domiciled 
males  over  twenty-five  years  of  age  who  pay  at  least  a  minimum  of 
taxes.  The  government  is  carried  on  by  a  ministry  of  five,  with 
departments  for  the  ducal  house  and  foreign  affairs,  home  affairs, 
justice,  education  and  public  worship,  and  finance.  The  returns 
of  tlie  state-lands  and  the  ordinary  state-revenue  are  treated  in 
separate  budgets.  The  estimate  for  the  period  1884-86  puts  the 
annual  income  from  the  former  at  £105,340  and  the  annual  ex- 
penditure at  £77,915,  while  the  annual  income  and  expenditure 
of  the  latter  are  balanced  at  £145,148.  Half  of  the  surplus  ot 
£27,425  is  credited  to  each  fund.  The  duke's  civil  list  of  £19,714 
(394,286  marks)  is  paid  out  of  the  returns  from  the  state-lands,  at 
one  time  in  the  possession  of  the  reigning  house.  Saxe-Meiningen 
has  one  vote  in  the  federal  council  and  sends  two  deputies  to  the 
reichstag. 

The  original  territory  of  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen,  founded 
in  1680  by  Bernhard,  third  son  of  Ernest  the  Pious,  consisted  of 
what  is  now  the  western  horn  of  the  duchy,  from  Henneberg 
northwards.  Bernhard  was  succeeded  in  1706  by  his  three  sons  ; 
but  by  1746  the  only  survivor  was  the  youngest,  Antony  Ulrich, 
who  reigned  alone  untU  his  death  in  1763.  The  duchy  had  mean-' 
while  been  considerably  increased  in  extent ;  but  contentions  and 
petty  wars  with  the  other  Saxon  principalities  on  questions  of 
mheritance,  the  extravagance  of  the  court,  and  the  hardships  of 
the  Seven  Years'  War  plunged  it  into  bankruptcy  and  distress.  A 
happier  time  was  enjoyed  under  Charlotte  Amalie,  Antony's  wife, 
who  r'lled  as  regent  for  her  two  sons  Charles  (1775-1782)  and  Geoi;g8 


S  A  X  — S  A  X 


349 


^J82-1803),  and  also  under  tliese  princes  themselves.  George, 
■who  had  introduced  the  principle  of  primogeniture,  was  succeeded 
by  his  infant  son  Bernhard  Erich  Freuod,  born  in  1800.  Tlie  war 
with  France  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  mth  its 
attendant  quartering  of  troops,  conscription,  and  levies  of  money, 
joined  with  cattle-disease  and  scanty  harvests  iu  onco  more 
plunging  the  country  into  distress,  from  which  it  but  slowly  re- 
covered. Bernhard  had  already  spontaneously  granted  a  liberal 
constitution  to  his  subjects  in  182-t,  when  large  additions  (530 
square  miles)  consenuent  upon  the  redistribution  of  the  Saxon 
lands  in  1826  more  than  doubled  his  possessions  and  rendered  re- 
organization necessary.  Among  the  additions  to  Saxe-Meiningen 
were  the  duchy  of  Hildburghauscn  (whence  the  full  title  of  the 

f)resent  duchy  is  Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghausen),  which  had  been 
ounded  in  1680  by  Ernest,  the  shxth  sou  of  Ernest  the  Pious;  the 
.principality  of  Saalfeld,  which,  founded  by  John  Ernest,  Ernest's 
iseventh  son,  in  1680,  had  been  united  to  Coburg  in  1735  ;  and  the 
districts  of  Themar,  Kranichfeld,  Kamburg,  and  other  smaller 
territories.  Saxe-Meiniugen,  like  the  other  Saxon  duchies,  entered 
the  Confederation  of  tlie  Khine  in  1806  ;  but  in  1866,  unlike  its 
neighbours,  it  declared  for  Austria  in  the  war  against  Prussia.  The 
land  was  at  once  occupied  by  Prussian  troops,  and  Bernhard 
abdicated  (September  1866)  in  favour  of 'his  son  George,  who  made 

Fcaco  with  Prussia  and  entered  the  North  German  Confederation. 
n  1871  the  dispute  which  had  lasted  since  1826  between  the  duke 
and  the  diet  as  to  the  respective  rights  of  each  to  the  state-lands 
was  terminated  by  a  compromise. 

SAXE-WEBIAE-EISENACH  (Germ.  Sachen-Weunar- 
iHsenadt),  the  largest  of  the  Thuringian  states,  is  a  grand- 
duchy  and  a  member  of  the  German  empire.  It  consists 
of  the  three  chief  detached  disi;ricts  of  AYeimar,  Eisenach, 
and  Neustadt,  and  twenty-four  scattered  exclaves,  of 
■which  Allstedt,  Oldisleben,  and  Ilmenau  belonging  to 
Weimar,  and  Ostheim  belonging  to  Eisenach,  are  the  chief. 
The  first  and  last  named  of  these  exclaves  are  70  miles 
apart;  and  the  most  easterly  of  the  other  exclaves  is  100 
miles  from  the  most  westerly.  The  total  area  of  the 
grand-duchy  is  1387  square  miles  (or  slightly  larger  than 
Wiltshire  in  England),  of  •which  678  are  in  Weimar,  4G5 
in  Eisenach,  and  244  in  Neustadt. 

The  district  of  Weimar,  ■which  is  at  once  the  largest 
division  and  the  geographical  and  historical  kernel  of  the 
grand-duchy,  is  a  roughly  circular  territory,  situated  on 
the  plateau  to  the  north-east  of  the  Thuringian  Forest. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  E.  by  Prussia,  on  the  S.  and 
W.  .by  the  Schwarzburg  Oberherrschaft  and  detached 
portions  of  Saxe-Altenburg,  and  lies  23  miles  east  of  the 
nearest  part  of  Eisenach,  and  7  miles  north-west  of  the 
nearest  part  of  Neustadt.  The  exclaves  of  Allstedt  and 
Oldisleben  lie  in  Prussian  territory  10  miles  to  the  north 
and  north-^west  respectively  ;  Ilmenau  as  far  to  the  south- 
west. The  surface  is  undulating  and  destitute  of  any 
striking  natural  features,  although  the  valleys  of  the 
Saalo  and  Ilm  are  picturesque.  The  Kickelhahn  (2825 
feet)  and  the  Hohe  Tanno  (2641  feet)  rise  in  Ilmenau ; 
but  the  Grosser  Kalm  (1814)  near  Pfimda,  in  the  extreme 
south,  is  the  highe.st  point  in  the  main  part  of  Weimar. 
The  broad-based  Ettersburg  (1519  feet),  a  part  of  which 
is  known  as  "4Ierder'a  Hill  "after  the  poet,  rises  on  the 
Ilm  plateau,  near  Ettensburg,  where  Schiller  finished  his 
Maria  Stuart.  The  Saalo  flows  through  the  east  of  the 
district,  but,  although  the  chief  river  hydrographically,  it 
yields  in  fame  to  its  tributary  the  Ilm.  The  Unstrut  joins 
the  Saale  from  Oldisleben  and  Allstedt.  The  chief  towns 
are  Weimar,  the  capital,  on  the  Ilm ;  Jena,  ■with  the  common 
university  of  the  Thuringian  states,  on  the  Saale;  and 
Apolda,  the  "  Manchester  of  Weimar,"  to  the  west. 

Eisenach,  the  second  district  in  size,  and  the  first  in 
point  of  natural  beauty,  stretches  in  a  narrow  strip  from 
north  to  south  on  the  extreme  western  boundary  of 
Thuringia,  and  includes  parts  of  the  church  lands  of  Fulda, 
of  Hesse,  and  of  the  former  countship  of  Ilcnncberg.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  W.  by  Prussia,  on  the  S.  by 
Bavaria  (which  also  surrounds  the  exchvo  of  Ostheim), 
and  on  the  E.  by  Saxc-Meiniugon  and  Saxc-Gotha.     The 


nortn  is  occupied  by  the  rounded  hills  oi  the  Thuringian 
Forest,  while  the  Pihon  Jlountains  extend  into  the 
southern  part.  The  chief  summits  of  the  former  group, 
which  is  more  remarkable  for  its  fine  forests  and  pictur- 
esque scenery  than  for  its  height,  are  the  Wartburg  Hill 
(1355  feet),  the  north-western  termination  of  the  sj-stcm, 
Ottowald  (2103  feet),  Wachstein  (1801  feet),  Eingberg 
(2106  feet),  Hohe  Vogelheid  (2378  feet),  and  the  Glockner 
(2211  feet).  Among  the  Khon  Slountains  in  Eisenach 
the  loftiest  summits  are  the  Elnbogen  (2677  feet),  Bayer- 
berg  (2359  feet),  Hohe  Pain  (2375),  and  the  Glaserbcrg 
(2231  feet).  The  chief  river  is  the  Werra,  which  flows 
across  the  centre  of  the  district  from  east  to  west,  and 
then  bending  suddenly  northwards,  re-enters  from  Prussia, 
and  traverses  the  north-eastern  parts  in  an  irregular 
course.  Its  chief  tributaries  in  Eisenach  are  the  Horsel 
and  the  Ulster.  Eisenach  is  the  only  town  of  importance 
in  this  division  of  the  grand-duchy. 

Neustadt,  the  third  of  the  larger  divisions,  is  distin- 
guished neither  by  picturesque  scenery  nor  historical 
interest.  It  forms  an  oblong  territory,  about  24  miles 
long  by  16  broad,  and  belongs  rather  to  the  hilly  district 
of  the  Voigtland  than  to  Thuringia.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  Eeuss  (junior  line)  and  Saxe-Altenburg,  on  the  W. 
by  Saxe-JIeiniugen  and  a  Prussian  exclave,  on  the  S.  by 
the  two  Eeuss  principalities,  and  on  the  E.  by  the  kingdom 
of  Saxony.  The  Kesselberg  (1310  feet)  near  the  town  of 
Neustadt  is  the  chief  eminence.  This  district  lies  in  the 
basin  of  the  Saale,  its  chief  streams  being  the  White 
Elster,  the  Weida,  and  the  Orla.''~J^eustadt.iA.uma,  and 
Weida  are  the  principal  towns.' 

Agriculture  forms  the  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabiFants  in  all 
parts  of  the  duchy,  though  in  Eisenach  and  Ilmenau  a  large 
proportion  of  the  area  is  covered  witli  forests.  ^  According  to  the 
returns  for  1883,  56  "3  per  cent,  of  the  entire  sifrface  was  occupied 
by  arable  land,  25'8  per  cent,  by  forests,"  8 '8^ by  pasture  and 
meadow-land,  and  4'1  per  cent,  by  buildings,  roads,  and  water. 
Only  5  per  cent,  was  unproductive  soil  or:  uiooflaud.  These 
figures  indicate  that  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach  has  nearly  as  large  a 
percentage  of  arable  land  .as  Saxe-Altenburg,  and,  notwithstanding 
the  extensive  woods  in  Eisenach  and  Ilmenau,  a  lower  ju-oportion 
of  forest  than  any  other  Thuringian  state.  In  1883  the  chief  grain 
crops  were  oats  (80,682  acres,  yielding  38,271  tons),  barley  (78,067 
acres,  45,2-19  tons),  rye  (72,607  acies,  29,006  tons),  and  ■wheat 
(47,732  acres,  19,949  tons).  About  50,000  acres  were  planted  with 
potatoes,  yielding  237,627  tons,  or  nearly  4  per  cent,  per  acre  less 
than  the  average  of  the  iive  years  immediately  preceding.  All  the 
grain  crops  were  slightly  above  the  average  of  the  same  period. 
The  79,405  acres  devoted  to  hay  produced  98,910  tons.  Among 
the  other  crops  were  beetroot  for  sugar  (8602  acres),  flax  (1300 
acres),  and  oil-yielding  plants  (4562  acres).  Fruit  grows  in  abund- 
ance, especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jena,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Gleisse,  and  on  the  lower  Ilm ;  1070  acres,  mostly  on  the  banks  of 
the  Saale,  were  occupied  with  vines.  Of  the  forests  38.'5  per  cent, 
are  deciduous  and  61 '5  per  cent,  coniferous  trees  ;  fully  a  half  of 
the  former  are  beeches.  The  greater  part  of  the  forests  .belong  to 
tlie  Government.  Cattle-raising  is  carried  .on  to  a  considerable 
extent,  especially  in  Eisenach  and  Neustadt,  while  the  sheep- 
farming  centres  in  Weimar.  The  grand-ducal  stud-farm  in  Allsteilt 
maintains  the  breed  of  horses.  In  1883  the  duchy  contained  17,271 
horse-s,  110,092  cattle,  145, 442 sheep,  101, 443  pigs,  and  41, 291  goats. 
Although  iron,  copper,  cobalt,  and  lignite  are  worked,  the  mmeral 
wealth  is  trilling.     Salt  is  also  worked  at  dilTcrent  places. 

The  manufacturing  industries  in  the  grand-duchy  are  consider- 
able; thoy  employ  37'3  per  cent,  of  the  population.  The  most 
important  is  the  textile  industry,  which  centres  iu  Apolda,  and 
employs  more  than  20,000  hancis  throughout  the  country.  Iht 
production  of  woollen  goods  (stockings,  cloth,  underclothing)  forms 
the  leading  branch  of  the  industry;  but  cotton  and  linen 
weaving  nnd  y.irn-spinning  are  also  carried  on.  Largo  quantities 
of  earthenware  and  erockery  are  made,  especially  at  Ilmenau.  The 
microsQopes  of  Jena,  the  scientific  instruments  (thcrmometars, 
barometers,  kc.)  of  Ilmenau,  and  the  pipes  and  cigar-holdora  of 
Ruhla  (partly  in  Gotha)  are  well  known.  Leather,  Jiaper,  glass, 
cork,  and  tobacco  are  amonp  the  less  prominent  manufactures. 
Tlieio  are  numeroun  breweries  in  the  duchy.  The  volume  o( 
trade  is  not  very  great,  althounh  some  of  the  productions  (chiefly 
those  first  mentioned)  arc  cx|iortciI  all  over  Europe,  and  in  Bomf 
cases  to   other  contiuouts  as  wcU.     The  chi<-r  imports,  bfsid» 


350 


S  A  X  — S  A  X 


colonial  goods,  are  wool  for  tlie  manufaclurcs,  hides,  coal,  meei-  ' 
Echaum  (from  Smyrna  and  Vienna),  ambei\  horn,  &c.     Eisenach 
and  Weimar  ore  tlio  chief  scats  of  trade. 

The  population  in  18S0  was  309,577,  or  223  per  sqnare  mile,  of 
■whom  297,735  were  Lutherans,  10,267  Roman  Catliolics,  327 
Christians  of  otlier-sects,  and  1248  Jews.  The  Thuiingiau  and 
Francouian  branches  of  the  Teutonic  family  arc  both  represented 
in  the  duchy.  According  to  tlie  employment  census  of  1882, 
agriculture,  forestry,  and  lisliing  sujiportcd  135,200  or  44  per  cent, 
of  the  pojiulation;  industrial  pursuits,  114,835  or  37'3  per  cent. ; 
trade,  23,939  fir  ^^S  per 'cent.;  service,  40S6  or  13  per  cent.; 
official,  military,  and  professional  employments,  16,066  or  5'2  per 
cent.;  while  13,597  persons  or  4"4  per  cent,  made  no  returns. 

Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach  is  a  limited  hereditary  monarchy,  and 
vras  the  first  state  in  Germany  to  receive  a  liberal  constitution. 
This  was  granted  in  1816  by  Charles  Augustus,  the  patron  of 
Goetho,  and  was  revised  in  1850.  The  diet  consists  of  one  chamher 
Avith  thirty-one  members,  of  whom  one  is  chosen  by  the  nobility, 
four  by  owners  of  land  worth  at  least  £1 50  a  year,  five  by  those  who 
derive  as  much  from  other  sources,  and  twenty-one  by  tlie  rest  of 
the  inhabitants.  The  diet  meets  every  three  years  ;  the  deputies 
are  elected  for  six  years.  Tlie  franchise  is  enjoyed  by  all  domi- 
ciled citizens  over  twenty-five  j-ears  of  age.  The  government  is 
carried  on  by  a  ministry  of  three,  holding  the  portfolios  of  finance, 
of  home  and  foreign  affairs,  and  of  religion,  education,  and  justice, 
with  which  is  combined  the  ducal  liouseliold.  The  budget  for  tlie 
finance-period  18S4-86  estimated  the  yearly  inoomo  at  £308,586  and 
the  yearly  expenditure  at  about  £1500  less.  The  public  debt  is  more 
than  covered  by  the  active  capital.  The  ducal  house  receives  a 
civil  listoF  £46,500.  The  Sajie-Weimar  family  is  the  oldest  branch 
of  the  Ernestine  line,  and  hence  of  the  whole  Sa.xon  house.  By 
treaties  of  succession  the  grand-duke  is  the  next  heir  to  the  throne 
of  Saxony,  should  the  present  Albertiae  line  become  extinct.  He 
is  entitled  to  the  predicate  of  "roj'al  highness."  By  a  treaty  with 
Prussia  in  1867,  which  afterwards  became  -the  model  for  similar 
treaties  between  Prussia  and  other  Thuringian  states,  the  troops  of 
the  grand-duchy  were  incorporated  ^ith  the  Prussian  army. 

In  early  times  Weimar,  with  the  surrounding  district,  belonged 
to  the  counts  of  Orlamiinde,  and  from  the  end  of  the  10th  century 
until  1067  it  was  the  seat  of  a  line  of  counts  of  its  own.  It 
afterwards  fell  to  the  landgrave  of  Thuringia,  and  in  1440  passed 
into  the  possession  of  Frederick  the  Mild,  elector  of  Saxony. 
Involved  after  the  convention  of  Wittenberg  (1547)  in  the  com- 
plicated and  constantly  shil'ting  succession  arrangements  of  the 
Ernestine  dukes  of  Saxony,  who  delayed  the  introduction  of 
primogeniture,  Weimar  does  not  emei'ge  into  an  independent 
historical  position  until  1640,  when  the  brothers  AVUliam,  Albert, 
and  Ernest  the  Pious  founded  the  principalities  of  Weimar, 
Eisenach,  and  Gotha.  Eisenach  fell  to  Weimar  in  1644,  and, 
although  the  principality  was  onco  more  temporarily  split  into 
the  lines  Saxe-Welmar,  Saxe-Eisenach  (1672-1741),  and  Saxe- 
Jena  (1672-1690),  it  was  again  reunited  under  Ernest  Augustus 
(1728-1748),  who  secured  it  against  future  subdivision  by  adopting 
tho  principle  of  primogeniture.  His  son  of  the  same  name  who 
succeeded  died  in  1758,  tivo  yeara  after  lus  marriage  with  Anna 
Amalia  of  Brunswick.  Ne.xt  year  the  duchess  Amalia,  although 
not  yet  twenty  years  old,  was  appointed  by  the  emperor  regent  of 
the  principality  and  guardian  of  her  infant  son  Charles  Augustus 
(1758-1828).  The  reign  of  the  latter,  who  assumed  the  govern- 
ment in  1775,  is  the  most  brilliant  epoch  in  the  history  of  Saxe- 
Weimar.  A  gifted  and  intelligent  patron  of  literature  and  art, 
Charles  Augustas  attracted  to  his  court  the  leading  authors  and 
scholars  of  Germany.  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Herder  were  members 
of  the  illustrious  society  of  the  capital,  and  the  university  of  Jena 
became  a  focus  of  light  and  learning,  so  that  the  hitherto  obscure 
little  state  attracted  the  eyes  of  all  Europe.^  The  war  with  France 
was  fraught  with  danger  to  the  continued  existence  of  the  princi- 
pality, and  after  the  battle  of  Jena  (October  14,  1806)  it  was  mainly 
the  skilful  management  of  the  -duchess  Louise  that  dissuaded 
Napoleon  from  removing  her  husband  from  among  tho  reigning 
princes.  In  1807  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach  entered  the  Confederation 
of  the  Rhine,  and  was  promoted  from  a  principality  (Furstenthum) 
to  a  duchy  (Herzogthum).  In  the  following  campaigns  it  suffered 
greatly  ;  and  in  1815  the  congress  of  Vienna  recompensed  its 
ruler  with  an  addition  to  his  territory  of  660  square  miles  (includ- 
ing most  of  Nenstadt)  with  77,000  inhabitants,  and  with  the  title 
of  grand-duke  (Grossherzog).  On  the  restoration  of  peace  Charles 
Augustus  redeemed  his  promise  of  granting  a  liberal  constitution 
(1816).  Freedom  of  the  press  was  also  granted,  but  after  the 
festival  of  the  Wartburg  in  1319  it  was  seriously  curtailed.  ^  Charles 
Frederick  (1828-1853)  continued  his  father's  policy,  but  his  reforms 

^  An  article  on  Saie-Weimar-Eisenach  would  hardly  be  complete 
without  Goethe's  famous  lines  : — 

'*  Klein  1st  unter  den  Fursfen  Gennanleus  fi-elUcli  der  melne, 

Kurz  iind  Bchmal  1st  sein  Land,  massig  nur  was  cr  veiinag; 

A'bcv  FO  wendo  nnPh  innen.  so  wende  nnch  aussen  die  Krafte 

Jedcr,  da  wiii'  e*"  Post  Dciitactiei  mlt  Deutactien  zu  sein." 


were  neither  thorough  enough  nor  rapid  enough  to  avert  politicn! 
commotion  in  1848.  A  popular  ministry  received  power,  and 
numerous  reforms  were  carried  through.  Reaction  set  in  undef 
Charles  Alexander,  who  succeeded  his  father  in  1853,  and  the  union 
of  the  state-lands  and  crown-lands  was  repealed,  though  both  were 
appointed  to  remain  under  the  same  public  management.  lu  18(>6 
the  grand-duchy  joined  Prussia  against  Austria,  although  its 
troopis  were  then  garrisoning  towns  in  the  Austrian  interest ;  later 
it  entered  the  North  German  Confedcr.ition.  Tho  press  restric- 
tions were  removed  in  1868  and  the  tendency  of  recent  legislation 
has  been  liberal.  (F.  MD.) 

SAXIFRAGE  (Saxi/ra</a),  a  genus  of  plants  which 
gives  its  name  to  the  order  of  which  it  is  a  member. 
There  are  nearly  200  species  distributed  in  the  temperate 
and  arctic  parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  frequently  at 
considerable  heights  on  the  mountains.  Tliey  are  mostly 
herb'  with  perennial  rootstocks,  leaves  in  tufts,  or,  on  the 
flower-stalks,  scattered.  The  arrangement  of  the  flowers 
is  very  various,  as  also  are  the  size  and  colour  of  the 
flowers  themselves.  They  have  a  calyx  with  a  short  tube, 
five  petals,  ten  (or  rarely  five)  stamens  springing,  like  the 
petals,  from  the  edge  of  the  tube  of  the  calyx.  The  pistil 
is  partly  adherent  to  the  calyx-tube,  and  is  divided  above 
into  two  styles.  The  ovules  are  numerous,  attached  to 
axile  placentas.  The  seed-vessel  is  capstdar.  Many  species 
are  natives  of  Britain,  some  alpine  plants  of  great  beauty 
(5.  oppositi folia,  S.  nivalis,  <S'.  aizoides,  <tc.),  and  others, 
like  <S'.  granulate,  frequenting  meadows  and  low  ground, 
while  S.  tridadylites  may  be  found  on  almost  any  dry  waJL 
Many  species  are  in  cultivation,  including  the  Bergenias  or 
Megaseas  with  their  large  fleshy  leaves  and  copious  panicles 
of  rosy  or  pink  flowers,  the  numerous  alpine  species,  such 
as  S.  pyramidalis,  S.  Cotyledon,  &.C.,  with  tall  panicles 
studded  with  white  flowers,  and  many  others. 

SAXO  GRAMMATICUS,  the  celebrated  Danish  his- 
torian and  poet,  belonged  to  a  family  of  warriors,  his 
father  and  grandfather  having  served  under  king  Valdemar 
I.  (d.  1182).  He  himself  was  brought  up  for  the  clerical 
profession,  entered  about  1180  the  service  of  Archbishop 
Absalon  as  one  of  his  secretaries,  and  remained  with  him 
in  that  capacity  until  the  death  of  Absalon  in  1201.  At 
the  instigation  of  the  latter  he  began,  about  1185,  to  write 
the  history  of  the  Danish  Christian  kings  from  the  time 
of  Sven  Estridsdn,  but  later  Absalon  prevailed  on  him  to 
write  also  the  history  of  the  earlier,  heathen  times,  and  to 
combine  both  into  a  great  work,  Gesia  Danorum.  The 
archbishop  died  before  the  work  was  finished,  and  there- 
fore the  preface,  written  about  1208,  is  dedicated  to  his 
successor  Archbishop  Andreas,  and  to  King  Valdemar  II. 
Nothing  else  is  known  about  Saxo's  life  and  person ;  a 
chronicle  of  1265  calls  him  ".  mirae  et  urbanje  eloquentiae 
clericus  ;"  and  an  epitome  of  his  work  from  about  1340  de- 
scribes him  as  "egregius  gramraaticus,  origine  Sialandus;" 
that  he  was  a  native  of  Zealand  is  probably  correct,  inas- 
much as,  whereas  he  often  criticizes  the  Jutlanders  and 
the  Scanians,  he  frequently  praises  the  Zaalanders.  The 
surname  of  "  Grammaticus "  is  probably  of  later  origin, 
scarcely  earlier  than  1500,  apparently  owing  to  a  mistake. 
The  title  of  "  provost  (dean)  of  Eoskilde,"  given  him  in 
the  16th  century,  is  also  probably  incorrect,  the  historian 
being  confounded  with  an  older  contemporary,  the  provost 
of  the  same  name.  Saxo,  from  his  apprenticeship  as  the 
archbishop's  secretary,  had  acquired  a  brilliant  but  some- 
what euphuistic  Latin  style,  and  wrote  fine  Latin  Verses, 
but  otherwise  does  not  seem  to  have  had  any  very  great 
learning  or  extensive  reading.  His  models  of  style  were 
Valerius  Maximus,  Justin,  and  Martianus  Capella,  especi- 
ally the  last.  Occasionally  he  mentions  Bede,  Dudo,  and 
Paulus  Diaconus,  but  does  not  seem  to  have  studied  them 
or  any  other  historical  works  thoroughly,  and  he  neither 
understands  nor  is  interested  in  scientific  research,  in  gene- 
ral history,  or  even  in  chronology.     He  wrote  because  he 


S  A  X  — S  A  X 


35; 


Jid  not  like  his  countrymen  to  be  behind  other  nations 
through  the  want  of  an  historian,  and  because  he  wished 
to  perpetuate  the  record  of  the  exploits  of  the  Danes.  His 
Bources  are  partly  Danish  traditions  and  old  songs,  partly 
the  statements  of  Archbishop  Absalon,  partly  the  accounts 
of  Icelanders,  and,  lastly,  some  few  earlier,  but  scanty, 
eonrces,  being  lists  of  Danish  kings  and  short  chrcnicles, 
■which  furnished  him  with  some  reliable  chronological  dates. 
He  considered  traditions  as  history,  and  therefore  made  it 
his  chief  business  to  recount  and  arrange  these,  by  the  help 
of  the  lists  of  the  kings,  into  a  connected  whole.  His 
work,  therefore,  is  a  loosely  connected  series  of  biographies 
of  Danish  kings  and  heroes ;  he  dwells  with  predilection 
an  those  periods  during  which  Danish  kings  were  said  to 
have  made  great  conquests,  and  he  represents  these  con- 
querors as  the  paragons  of  their  times. 

The  first  nine  books  comprise  "Antiquity,"  that  is,  traditions  of 
kings  and  heroes  of  the  half-mythical  time  up  to  about  950, 
Hero  we  have  traditions  about  Fredfrode,  about  Amleth  (Hamlet) 
and  Fenge,  about  Kolf  Krake,  Hadding,  the  giant  Starkatlier, 
Harald  Hildetann,  and  Kagnar  Lodbrok.  In  this  earlier  history 
Saxo  has  also  embodied  myths  of  national  gods  who  in  tradition 
had  become  Danish  kings,  for  instance,  Balder  and  Hother,  and  of 
foreign  heroes,  likewise  incorporated  in  Danish  history,  as  the 
Gothic  Jarmunrik  (A.  S.  Eormenn'c),  the  Anglian  Vermund  (.\.  S. 
Garmund)  and  Uffe  (A.  S.  Offa),  the  German  Hedin  and  Hild,  &c. 
Frequently  the  narrative  is  interrupted  by  translations  of  poems, 
which  Saxo  has  used  as  authentic  sources,  although  they  are  often 
only  a  few  generations  older  than  himself.  In  the  later  books 
(x.-xvi.)  of  his  work  he  follows  to  a  greater  e.\tent  historical 
accounts,  .and  the  more  he  approaches  his  own  time  the  fuller  and 
the  more  trustworthy  his  relation  becomes  ;  especially  brilliant  is 
his  treatment  of  the  history  of  King  Valdemar  and  of  Absalon. 
But  his  patriotism  often  makes  him  partial  to  hi3  countrymen,  and 
his  want  of  critical  sense  often  blinds  him  to  the  historical  truth. 

Saxo's  work  was  widely  read  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  several 
extracts  of  it  were  made  for  smaller  chronicles.  It  was  published 
for  the  first  time,  from  a  MS.  afterwards  lost,  in  Paris,  1514,  by 
the  Danish  humanist  Christiern  Pedersen  ;  this  edition  was 
reprinted  at  Basel,  1534,  and  at  Frankfort,  1576.  Of  later  editions 
may  be  mentioned  that  of  Stephen  Stephanius,  Soro,  1644,  that  of 
C.  A.  Klotz,  Leipsic,  1771,  and  that  of  P.  E.  Muller  and  J.  M. 
Vekchow,  Copenhagen,  1839.  No  complete  MS.  any  longer  exists; 
yet  of  late  small  fragments  have  been  found  of  three  MSS.  The 
most  remarkable  of  these  is  the  fragment  found  at  Angers,  in 
France,  written  shortly  after  1200,  perhaps  by  Saxo  himself  or 
under  his  superintendence ;  here  several  corrections  are  found 
above  the  lines,  showing  how  the  author  varied  and  polished  his 
Latin  style. 

SAXON    DUCHIES.     For   the   four  Saxon  duchies, 

SaXE-AlTENBURG,  SAXE-COBtmG-GoTHA,  SAXE-MEINrNGEN, 

and  Saxe-Weimae-Eisenach,  see'  those  headings. 

SAXONS,  Law  of  the.     See  Salic  Law. 

SAXONY  is  the  name  successively  given  in  German 
history  to  a  mediaeval  duchy  in  northern  Germany,  to  a 
later  electorate  which  afterwards  became  the  present 
kingdom  of  Saxony  (described  belov/),  and  to  a  ducal 
province  of  Prussia.  The  last  was  formed  directly  out  of 
part  of  the  second  in  1815,  but  the  connexion  between  the 
first  and  second,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  present  article, 
is  neither  local  nor  ethnographical  but  political. 

The  Saxons  (Lat.  Saxones,  Ger.  Saclisen),  a  tribe  of  tho 
Teutonic  stock,  are  first  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  as  occupy- 
ing the  southern  part  of  the  Cimbrian  peninsula  between 
the  Elbe,  Eider,  and  Trave,  the  district  now  known  as 
Holstein.  Tho  name  is  most  commonly  derived  from 
"  sahs,"  a  short  knife,  though  some  authorities  explain  it 
as  meaning  "  settled,"  ii  contrast  to  the  Suevi  or  "  wander- 
ing" people.  By  tho  end  of  the  3d  century,  when  wo 
hear  of  a  "Saxon  Confederation"  embracing  the  Cherusci, 
Chauci,  and  Angrivarii,  and  perhaps  corresponding  to  tho 
group  of  tribes  called  Ingsevones  by  Tacitus,  tho  chief  seat 
of  the  nation  had  been  transferred  south  of  tho  Elbe  to 
the  lands  on  both  sides  of  tho  Weser  now  occupied  by 
Oldenburg  arid  Hanover.  Tho  Saxons  wore  one  of  tho 
moat  warlike  and  advfinturoii.1  of  the  Teutonin   peoples, 


and  they  not  only  steadily  extendea  the  borders  of  theii 
home,  but  made  colonizing  and  piratical  excursions  by 
sea  far  and  wide.  In  287  they  assisted  the  Menapian 
Carausius  to  make  himself  master  of  Romanized  Britain, 
where  he  assumed  the  title  of  Augustus ;  and  on  the 
Continent  they  came  into  collision  with  the  Eomaii  empire 
under  both  Julian  and  Valentinian,  the  latter  of  whom  de- 
feated them  in  373  so  far  south  as  Deutz,  opposite  Cologne. 
Their  settlehients  along  the  coast  of  France  extended  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Loire,  and,  though  these  were  soon  absorbed 
by  the  Franks,  their  expeditions  to  England  finally  resulted 
in  the  foundation  of  lasting  kingdoms  (Essex,  Sussex^ 
AVessex)  (see  England,  vol.  viii.  pp.  268  sq.)}  About 
the  beginning  of  the  5tli  century  part  of  the  Flemish  coast 
became  known  as  the  Litus  Saxonium,  from  the  settlements 
of  this  people.  The  Saxons  who  remained  in  Germany 
(Alt-Sachsen  or  Old  Saxons)  gradually  pushed  their  borders 
further  and  further  until  they  approached  the  Rhine,  and 
touched  the  Elbe,  the  North  Sea,  and  the  Harz  Jlountains. 
In  531  they  joined  their  neighbours  the  Franks  in  a  suc- 
cessful expedition  against  the  Thuringians,  and  received 
as  their  spoil  the  conquered  territory  between  the  Harz  and 
the  Unstrut.  Their  settlements  here  were,  however,  forced 
to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  Franks,  and  from 
this  period  may  be  dated  the  beginning  of  the  long  strife 
between  these  two  peoples  which  finally  resulted  in  th« 
subjugation  of  the  Saxons.  During  the  reigns  of  the 
weak  Merovingiau  kings  who  succeeded  Lothair  I.  on  the 
Frankish  throne,  the  Saxons  pushed  into  northern  Thur- 
ingia,  afterwards  known  as  the  Alt-Mark.  Pippin  the  Short 
obtained  a  temporary  advantage  over  them  in  753  and 
imposed  a  tribute  of  three  hundred  horses,  but  their  final 
conquest  w^as  reserved  for  Charlemagne.  At  this  time  the 
Saxons  did  not  form  a  single  state  uncler  one  ruler,  but 
were  divided  into  the  four  districts  of  Westphalia  to  the 
west  of  the  Weser,  Eastphalia  chiefly  to  the  east  of  that 
river,  Engern  or  Angria  along  both  banks,  and  Nordal- 
bingia  in  Holstein.  The  gaus  were  independent,  each  having 
an  caldorraan  of  its  own ;  and  they  only  combined  in  time 
of  war  or  other  emergency  to  choose  a  herzog,  or  common 
leader.  The  people  were  divided  into  the  "  frilinge  "  or 
"frone,"  who  possessed  the  land,  the  "liti"  or  "lazzi,"  a 
semi-freed  class,  and  ■  the  serfs,  who  had  no  rights.  The 
"edilinge"  were  the  chiefs,  but  had  no  political  advantages 
over  the  "frilinge."  Their  religion  was  a  simple  type  of 
northern  heathenism.  See  Germany,  vol.  x.  pp.  473  and 
477  sq. 

In  772  Charlemagne,  induced  partly  by  a  desire  to 
protect  his  kingdom  from  the  incursions  of  hostile  neigh- 
bours and  partly  by  a  proselytizing  spirit,  began  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  Saxons.  Tho  war,  waged  on  both  sides 
with  the  utmost  ferocity,  lasted  in  a  scries  of  campaigns 
with  but  brief  intervals  for  thirt^'-ono  years.  Repeatedly 
conquered  and  baptized,  the  Saxons  rose  again  and  again  in 
revolt  as  soon  as  Charlemagne  withdrew  his  troops,  throw 
off  their  forced  allegiance  to  Christianity,  and  under 
various  leaders,  of  whom  Wittekind  or  Widukind  is  tho 
most  famous,  struggled  fiercely  to  regain  their  independ- 
ence. Charlemagne  was  too  strong  and  his  measures  too 
relentless.  On  one  occasion  ho  butchered  4.")00  captives 
in  cold  blood,  as  a  r.vengo  and  a  warniiig.  Wittekind 
surrendered  and  was  baptized  in  785;  and  after  what  is 
called  tho  Second  Sa.xon  War,  which  broke  out  in  792, 
resistance  died  away  about  803.    Tho  Saxons  were  allowed 

>  Though  the  Saxons  were  not  the  flrst  to  elTert  tlio  founaation  of  a 
Teutonic  kinRdom  in  England,  they  wore  tho  lirst  to  «tt«nipt  it;  on.l 
hence  their  nnma  was  applied  (oa  it  still  io)  by  tho  Cc  tic  mluib.tanU 
of  the  British  islands  to  all  Teutonic  .elUers.  A  dimllar  eoii««l  use 
of  the  name  survi-es  in  Transylvania,  where  the  Oerman  inhabilanU 
are  caUed  "Saxons,"  although  only  a  amall  proportion  of  them  Iraco 
their  descent  from  tho  Saxon  branch  of  the  Tcutonio  tamiiy. 


352 


SAXONY 


[histoev. 


a  considerable  amount  of  freedom  by  their  sagaciooB  con- 
queror. The  firBt  Capitulare  Saxonicum,  issued  at  Pader- 
born  in  788,  while  very  strict  in  maintaining  Christianity 
and  in  punishing  all  rebellion,  confirmed  a  great  number 
of  Saxon  customs  and  laws.  After  803  thi  laws  were 
made  milder,  and  no  tribute  except  tithes  was  demanded. 
"The  people  lived  according  to  their  former  laws,^  under 
grafs  appointed  by  Charlemagne ;  various  bishoprics  were 
founded,  of  which  Osnabriick  (783),  Verden  (786),  and 
Bremen  (787)  are  tho  earliest ;  and  tranqailli^  was  still 
further  secured  by  transplanting  colonies  of  Saxons  to  other 
parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  introducing  Frankish  colonies 
to  take  their  pkce  in  Saxony.  The  land  now  gradually 
became  an  integral  portion  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks.^ 
Under  Louis  the  German,  to  whom  Saxony  had  fallen  at 
the  treaty  of  Verdun  in  843,  it  was  harassed  by  the  inroads 
of  the  Normans  and  Slavs  on'either  side,  and,  in  order  to 
cope  with  these,  herzogs  or  diikes  were  appointed  about 
850  to  keep  the  Saxon  Mark,  a  narrow  territory  in 
Nordalbingia,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Elbe.  These 
herzogs,  remembering  their  predecessors  or  their  ancestors 
(Ludolf,  the  first  duke  of  Saxony,  is  said  to  have  been  a 
descendant  of  Wittekind),  rapidly  extended  their  power 
beyond  the  mark  over  the  rest  oi  Saxony,  and  thus 
founded  the  powerful  duchy  of  Saxony.  Otto  the  Illus- 
trious, who  succeeded  his  brother  Bruno  as  duke  in  880, 
added  Thuringia  to  the  duchy,  and  attained  such  a  pitch 
of  power  that  he  was  offered  the  crown  of  Germany  in  911. 
He  refused  the  honour  on  the  score  of  old  age,  but  his  son 
Henry  the  Fowler  accepted  it -in  919,  and  founded  the  line 
of  Saxon  emperors  which  expired  with  Henry  II.  the  Pious 
in  1024.  Otto  the  Great,  son  of  Henry  I.,  bestowed  the 
duchy  of  Saxony  upon  Hermann  Billing  oi'  Billung,  in 
whose  family  it  remained  till  1106.  The  power  and  in- 
fluence of  Saxony  during  this  period  depended  partly  on 
the  favour  of  the  emperors,  but  chiefly  on  the  sagacity  and 
energy  of  the  successive  dukes.  The  Saxons  were  hostile 
to  the  Franconian  emperors  who  succeeded  the  Saxon 
house,  and  in  1073  they  rose  in  revolt  against  Henry  IV. 
They  were  at  first  successful,  but  in  1075,  at  the  battle 
of  Langensalza,  they  were  defeated  by  the  emperor.  The 
rebels  were  severely  punished,  though  Otto  of  Nordheim, 
one  of  their  leaders,  was  made  administrator  of  the  duchy. 
Taking  advantage  of  Henry  IV. 's  troubles  with  the  pope, 
they  again  rebelled  and  espoused  the  cause  of  Eudolf  of 
Swabia;  but  in  1087,  on  the  resignation  of  Hermann  of 
Luxemburg,  whom  they  had  chosen  king,  they  made  peace 
once  m^re"  with  the  emperor,  Magnus  jvas  the  last  duke 
of  the  Billing  line.  The  emperor  Henry  V.  now  (1106) 
presented  the  lapsed  duchy  to  Lothair,  count  of  Supplin- 
hurg,  who  rapidly  became  the  most  powerful  prince  in 
Germany,  and  in  1125  was  placed  on  the  imperial  throne 
by  the  influence  of  the  papal  party.  Two  years  after  his 
elevation  he  assigned  the  duchy  of  Saxony  to  his  power- 
ful son-in-law  Henry  the  Proud,  who  was  already  duke  of 
Bavaria  and  had  inherited  the  private  possessions  of  the 
Billings  in  Saxony,  in  right  of  his  mother,  who  was  a 
daughter  of  Magnus.  Henry  had  aspired  to  be  emperor 
in  1138,  and  his  successful  rival  Conrad  III.,  wishing  to 
reduce  his  power,  alleged  that  it  was  unlawful  for  one 
prince  to  hold  two  duchies,  and  ordered  him  to  resign 
Saxony.  On  his  refusal,  the  emperor  immediately  de- 
clared both  duchies  to  be  forfeited.  Henry  died  before 
the   ensuing  war  was   ended,  and   Conrad   compromised 

'  The  Lex  Saxonum,  19  titles  of  which  have  survived,  was  reduced 
to  writing  under  Charlemagne      See  under  Samc  Law. 

-  The  Heliand  (Saviour),  a  religiona  poem  ascribed  to  an  imknown 
Baxon  poet  of  the  9th  century,  is  often  rited  as  a  proof  of  the  rapid 
ChristianizatLou  of  the  Saxoiia.  It  is  &l£o  almost  the  oulj  nlic  of 
tliB''  dialect. 


matters  by  appointing  his  opponent's  young  son,  after- 
wards known  as  Henry  the  Lion,  to  the  duchy  of  Saxony, 
compensating  Albert  the  Bear,  the  former  imperial  candi- 
date, with  the  independence  of  the  North  Mark  of  Saxony, 
afterwards  called  Brandenburg  (see  Prussia,  vol.  ix.  p.  2). 
In  1165  Henry  received  Bavaria  from  his  cousin  and  per- 
sonal friend  the  emperor  Frederick  Bairbarossa,  and  thus 
became  second  only  to  the  emperor  in  power.  He  added 
considerably  to  the  extent  of  Saxony  by.  conquest  among 
the  Wends,  east  of  the  Elbe,  where  the  boundary  had 
always  been  a  fluctuatiag  one.  But  Henry  was  not  only 
powerful,  he  was  also  arrogant,  and  incurred  the.  jealousy 
of  the  other  princes,  so  that,  when  he  quarrelled  with  the 
emperor  and  his  lands  were  declared  forfeited  in  1180,  he 
had  no  allies  to  assist  him  in  his- resistance.  Westphalia, 
the  principal  part  of  Saxony,  went  to  the  archbishop  of 
Cologne,  the  Saxon  Palatinate  to  the  landgrave  of  Thur- 
ingia, and  other  portions  to  other  princes.  A  small  district 
round  Lauenburg,  north  of  the  Elbe,  was  assigned  with 
the  title  of  duke  of  Saxony  to  Bernhard  of  Ascania,  son 
of  Albert  the  Bear.  Henry  was  reduced  to  submission 
in  1181 ;  but  his  duchies  could  not  be  restored,  and  he 
was  forced  to  content  himself  with  Brunswick  and  Lijne- 
burg.  The  duchy  of  Saxony  was  never  restored  in  tho 
old  sense,  in  which  it  had  been  one  of  the  four  principal 
duchies  of  the  empire,  and  embraced  the  territories  now 
occupied  by  WeslphaUa,  Oldenburg,  Hanover,  the  Harz, 
and  parts  of  Mecklenburg  and  Holstein.  The  new 
creation  never  rose  to  any  importance.  Bernhard  of 
Ascania  (1181-1212),  before  his  accession  as  duke  of 
Saxony,  had  held  Anhalt  and  Wittenberg,  to  the  south- 
east of  Saxony,  and  separated  from  it  by  the  Mark  of 
Brandenburg;  and  when  his  grandsons  John  and  Albert II. 
divided  their  inheritance  in  1260  the  latter  placed  his 
seat  at  Wittenberg,  and  two  tiny  duchies  arose — ^^Saxe- 
Lauenburg  and  Sase-Wittenberg.  Saxe-Lauenburg  was 
now  the  only  part  of  the  great  duchy  which  retained  the 
name;  while  Saxe- Wittenberg,  the  nucleus  of  the  later 
electorate,  transferred  the  name  to  entirely  new  soil. 
Both  duchies  claimed  the  electoral  privileges,  including 
the  office  of  grand  marshal  (Erzmarschall),  which  had 
belonged  to  the  original  duke  of  Saxony,  but  the  Golden 
Bull  of  1356  confirmed  the  claims  of  Wittenberg.  Rudolph 
II.  (about  1370)  is  the  first  duke  who  formally  styles 
himself  elector  (prmceps  elector).  The  small  electorate 
was  ipade  stiU  smaller  in  1411  by  the  formation  of 
Anhalt  into  a  separate  principality.  In  1422  the  Ascaniaa 
line  became  extinct  with  Albert  III.,  and  in  1423  the 
emperor  Sigismund  conferred  their  lands  and  titles  upon 
Frederick,  margrave  of  Meissen,  and  landgrave  of  Thur- 
ingia, to  whom  he  was  deeply  indebted  both  for  money 
and  assistance  in  the  Hussite  wars.  The  new  and  more 
honourable  style  of  elector  of  Saxony  superseded  Frede- 
rick's other  titles,  and  the  term  Saxony  gradually  spread 
ovetall  his  other  possessions,  which  included  the  country 
now  known  under  that  name.  The  early  history  of  the 
electorate  and  kingdom  of  Saxony  is  thus  the  early  history 
of  the  Mark  of  Meissen,  the  name  of  which  now  lingers 
only  in  a  solitary  town  on  the  Elbe.^ 

•  '  A  different  and  considerably  later  use  of  the  name  Saxony  may  be 
conveniently  mentioned  here,  for,  though  not  based  upon  any  political 
or  ethnographical  considerations,  it  is  frequently  referred  to  in  German 
history.  When  Maximilian  (1493-1619)  formed  the  ten  great  im- 
perial administrative  circles,  that  part  of  the  empire  to  the  east  of  the 
VVeser  and  north  of  the  Erzgebirge  was  divided  between  the  circles  of 
Lower  and  Upper  Saxony.  The  former,  occupying  the  north-west  of 
this  territory,  included  the  Harz  principalities,  Magdeburg,  Brunswick, 
Mecklenburg,  Bremen,  and  Holstein;  the  latter,  besides  Thuringia, 
the  electorate  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg,  embraced  the  conquered 
Slavonic  lands  to  the  east  and  nortli,  including  Lusatia  and  Pome- 
rania.  Th'j  lands  wluch  still  preserve  the  name  of  Saxony  arc  thus 
all  within  the  himU  of  these  circles. 


SAXONi== 


Hole  u>  Cfllovmog 
Saxm  Duiliui  I  I"      I        I        L 


V_j^— 


_^ 


# 


H 


HISTORY.] 


SAXONY 


353 


Among  the  mountains  of  Lusatia,  in  the  south  of  the  Saxon 
province  of  Bautzen,  there  exist  to  this  day  about  50,000  Wends, 
possessing  characteristics  and  speaking  a  language  of  their  own. 
These  curious  people  are  the  relics  of  a  vast  Slavonic  horde  which, 
appearing  on  the  borders  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Hermunduri  or 
Thuringians  about  the  4th  century,  pressed  into  their  territories  on 
the  downfall  of  that  kingdom  in  the  6th  century,  and  settled 
themselves  between  the  Spree  and  the  Saale.  They  were  known 
as  the  Sorbs  or  Sorabi,  and  the  country,  which  included  the  whole 
of  the  modern  kingdom  of  Saxony,  was  called  Sorabia.  AVarlike 
and  persistent,  their  influence  has  never  been  obliterated,  and, 
though  conquered,  their  stock  has  neither  been  exterminated  nor 
absorbed.  Tliey  were  skilled  in  agriculture  and  cattle-breeding, 
and  soon  improved  the  fertile  soil  of  their  new  ?ettlements.  Some 
writers  aje  disposed  to  recognize  their  influence  in  the  strong  bent 
to  agricultural  and  industrial  pursuits  which  has  ever  since 
characterized  the  inhabitants  of  this  part  of  Germany  ;  and  less 
doubtful  tr.ireS  have  been  left  in  the  popular  superstitions  and 
legends,  and  in  the  local  names.  For  more  than  a  hundred  years 
after  their  first  collision  with  the  German  kingdom  the  Sorbs 
repulsed  all  attacks,  but  in  928  Henry  the  Fowler,  the  first  Saxon 
emperor,  crossing  the  Elbe,  devastated  the  land  of  the  Dalc- 
ininzians,  and  built  the  strong  castle  of  Misnia  or  Meissen,  which 
thenceforward  formed  the  centre  of  a  gradually  increasing  mark 
against  the  heathen.  For  two  hundred  years  the  office  of  margrave 
of  Meissen  was  not  hereditarj',  but  in  1123  Count  Conrad  of  AVettiii 
obtained  the  succession  for  his  house,  and  founded  a  line  of  princes 
whose  descendants  still  occupy  the  throne.  It  is  said,  though  on 
very  doubtful  grounds,  that  Conrad  was  a  scion  of  the  family  of  the 
old  Saxon  hero  Wittekind.  In  1156,  when  Conrad  abdicated  and 
Bet  the  pernicious  example  of  dividing  his  lands  among  his  sons, 
his  possessions  extended  from  the  Neisse  and  the  Erzgebirge  to  the 
Harz  and  the  Saale.  During  these  two  centuries  the  state  of  the 
country  had  but  slowly  improved.  The  Sorbs  had  been  reduced 
to  a  condition  of  miserable  serfdom,  and  the  best  land  was  in  the 
hands  of  Frankish  peasants  who  had  been  attracted  by  its  fertility. 
Agriculture  was  encouraged  by  the  ecclesiastics,  especially  by  Bishop 
'Benno,  who  occupied  the  see  of  Jleissen  (founded  in  961)  about  the 
time  of  the  conquest  of  England  by  the  Normans.  In  the  reign  of 
Otto  the  Kich  (115('-1190)  tlie  first  silver  mines  were  discovered,  and 
the  famous  miniug  town  of  Freiberg  founded.  Trade  also  received 
its  first  encouragement ;  the  great  fairs  of  Leipsic  were  protected  ; 
and  roads  were  made  and  towns  fortified  with  the  produce  of  the 
mines.  Otto's  grandson,  Henry  the  Illustrious  (1221-1283),  whote 
mother  Jutta  was  a  Thuringian  prinfess,  reunited  most  of  Conrad's 
lands  by  inheriting  part  of  Thuringia  (the  rest  went  to  the  duke  of 
Brabant)  and  the  Pk-issnerland,  as  the  district  on  both  banks  of  the 
upper  course  of  the  Pleisse  was  called.  Ho  too  lost  the  chance  of 
founding  a  magnificent  kingdom  in  the  heart  of  Germany,  by  sub- 
dividing his  territories,  which  stretched  in  a  compact  mass  from 
the  Werra  to  the  Oder  and  from  the  mountains  of  Bohemia  to  the 
Harz.  The  consequences  of  this  policy  of  subdivision,  which  was 
foUawed  by  his  successors,  were  bitter  family  fends  and  petty  ware, 
seriously  har.ipering  the  development  of. the  country.  Frederick 
the  Grave  (1324-1347)  was  the  last  prince  of  the  house  of  Wettin 
■who  was  sole  ruler  of  all  the  ancestral  lands  of  his  house.  The  next 
powerful  figure  is  Frederick  the  Warlike,  who  became  margrave  in 
1381.  Besides  the  Mark  he  possessed  the  Osterland,  the  territory 
to  the  north-west  of  the  present  kingdom,  stretching  from  the  Saale 
at  Vt'eis-senfels  to  the  Elbe  at  Torgau,  and  embracing  the  plain  of 
Leipsic.  Frederick,  in  whose  reign  the  university  of  Leipsic  was 
founded,  had  acquired  his  surname  by  his  energetic  support  of 
Sigismund,  especially  in  the  Hussite  wars.  As  we  have  seen,  that 
emperor's  desire  to  attach  to  himself  so  powerful  an  ally  led  him 
to  bestow  the  vacant  electoral  duchy  of  Saxe. Wittenberg  upon  the 
margrave  in  1423.  Despite  the  troublous  state  of  public  affairs, 
the  internal  prosperity  of  the  land  had  steadily  advanced,  tlost 
of  the  chief  towns  had  by  this  time  been  founded, — Leipsic,  Erfuit, 
Zwickau,  and  Freiberg  being  the  most  conspicuous.  Chemnitz 
had  begun  its  textile  industry.  The  condition  of  the  peasants  was 
still  far  below  that  of  the  burghers  of  the  towns  ,  many  of  tlieiu 
were  mere  serfs.  The  church  retained  the  liigh  pitcli  of  power 
whidi  it  had  early  attained  in  Meissen,  and  rchgioiis  institutions 
were  numerous  all  over  the  most  fertile  districts.  In  spite  of  fresh 
discoveries  of  silver,  the  pecuniary  wants  of  the  j)rjn<:es  had  to  bo 
occasionally  supplied  by  ct)ntributions  called-" Ijcdes"  from  the 
nobles  and  ecclesiastics,  who  woio  summoned  from  time  to  time  to 
meet  in  a  kind  of  diet. 

Frederick's  new  dignities  as  elector,  combined  with  his 
personal  quaiitic.'*,  now  made  him  one  of  tlio  iiinst  powerful  I 
princes  in  Germany ;  had  the  principic  of  primogeniture 
been  estabii.shed  in  the  country  as  ho  left  it,  Sa.itony  and 
not  Brandenburg  might  have  boon  the  leading  power  in 
the  empire  to-day.'  Ho  died  in  1428,  just  in  time  to 
escape  tho  grief  of  seeing  his  lands  cruelly  ravaged  by 


the  Hussites  in  1429  and  1430.  The  division  of  territory 
between  his  two  sons,  Frederick  the  Jlild  (1428-1464) 
and  William,  once  more  called  forth  destructive  internecine 
wars  (the  "  Briiderkrieg"),  in  which  the  former  for  a  time 
forgot  his  surname.  It  was  in  1455,  during  this  war, 
that  the  knight  Kunz  von  Kaufungen  carried  into  execu- 
tion his  bold,  though  only  momentarily  successful,  plan 
of  stealing  the  two  ^-oung  sons  of  the  elector  Frederick. 
Ernest  and  Albert,  the  two  princes  in  question,  succeeded 
to  their  father's  possessions  in  1464,  and  for  twenty  years 
ruled  peacefully  in  common.  The  land  rapidly  prospered 
during  this  respite  from  war.  Trade  made  great  advances, 
encouraged  by  an  improved  coinage,  which  was  one  of  the 
consequences  of  the  silver  discoveries  on  the  Schneeberg. 
Several  of  the  powerful  ecclesiastical  principalities  were  at 
this  time  held  by  members  of  -the  Saxon  electoral  house,  so 
that  the  external  influence  of  the  electorate  corresponded 
to  its  internal  prosperity.  Matters  were  not  suffered  to 
continue  thus.  The  childless  death  of  their  uncle  William 
in  1482  bequeathed  Thuringia  to  the  two  princes,  and  the 
younger  Albert  insisted  upon  a  division  of  the  common 
possessions.  In  August  1485  the  Partition  of  Leipsic  took 
place,  which  resulted  in  the  foundation  of  two  Sa.xon  lines, 
the  Ernestine  'and  the  Albertine.  The  lands  were  never 
again  united.  Ernest  divided  the  lands  into  two  portions, 
and  Albert  chose.  Apart  from  the  electoral  duchy  of 
Wittenberg,  which  necessarily  went  to  Ernest  as  the  elder 
brother,  the  lands  were  divided  into  Thuringia,  half  of  the 
Osterland,  and  Xaumburg  and  the  Yoigtland  on  the  one 
hand,  and  Jleissen  aud  the  remaining  parts  of  eastern 
Saxony  on  the  other.  To  Ernest's  deep  chagrin,  Albert 
chose  Jleissen,  the  old  ancestral  lands  of  the  Wettins. 
The  former  only  survived  his  vexation  a  year. 

The  electorate  remained  at  first  with  the  Ernestine  line. 
Ernest  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Frederick  the  Wiso 
(1486-1525),  one  of  the  most  illustrious  princes  in 
German  history.  Under  his  rule  Saxony  was  perhaps  the 
most  influential  member  of  the  German  empire  ■;  and  on 
tho  death  of  Maximilian  the  imperial  crown  itself  was 
offered  to  him,  but  he  vindicated  his  character  by  refus- 
ing it.  In  this  reign  Saxony  became  the  cradle  of  the 
Reformation.  The  elector's  wise  tolerance  and  subsequent 
protection  and  hearty  support  of  Luther  are  well  known 
to  every  reader.  He  is  said  to  have  remained  unmarried 
out  of  love  to  his  brother  John,  who  succeeded  him.  He 
died  during  the  horrors  of  tho  Peasants'  War.  John 
(1525-1532)  w«s  an  even  more  enthusiastic  favourer  of 
the  Reformed  doctrines,  and  shared  the  leadership  of  the 
Schmalkald  League  with  Philip  of  Ilesse.  His  son,  John 
Frederick  tho  Slagnanimous  (1532-1547),  might  with 
equal  propriety  have  been  surnamed  the  Unfortunate. 
He  took  part  in  the  Schmalkald  War,  but  in  1547  was 
captured  at  !MUhlberg  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  and 
forced  to  sign  the  capitulation  of  Wittenberg.  This  deed 
transferred  the  electorate  and  nearly  all  the  Saxon  lands  to 
tho  Albertine  line,  whose  astute  representative  had  taken 
the  imperial  side.  Only  a  few  scattered  territories  in 
Thuringia  were  reserved  for  John  Frederick's  sons,  and  on 
these  were  afterwards  founded  the  Ernestine  duchies  of 
Weimar,  Gotha,  ifec.  For  the  second  time  in  the  history 
of  tho  Sa.xon  electorate,  the  younger  lino  on  a  division 
Ultimately  secured  the  highest  dignity,  for  the  Wittenberg 
iino  had  been  junior  to  tho  Lauenberg  line.  The  Albert- 
ine lino  IS  now  tho  royal  line  of  Saxony.- 

Tho  Albertine  Maurice  became  elector  after  tho  capitula- 
tion of  Wittenberg.  Ho  wa.s  tho  grandson  of  tho  founder  of 
his  house,  and  had  been  preceded  on  the  tlirono  of  Meissen 
by  his  uncle  George  (1500-1539)  and  by  his  father  Henry 
(1539-1541).  George  was  a  zealous  Roman  Catholic, 
and  had  vainly  endeavoured  to  stem  the  Reformation  in 


354 


SAXONY 


[histoe*. 


his  dominions ;  Henry  was  an  equally  devoted  Protestant. 
Maurice  (ISil-lSSS')  was  also  a  Protestant,  but  he  was 
too  astute  to  permit  his  religion  to  blind  him  to  his 
political  interests.  His  ruling  liiotive  seems  to  have  been 
ambition  to  increase  his  personal  power  and  the  consequence 
of  his  country.  He  refused  to  join  the  Schmalkald  League 
with  the  other  Proteptant  princes,  and  made  a  secret  treaty 
with  the  emperor  instead.  By  invading  the  Ernestine 
lands  in  John  Frederick's  absence  during  the  Schmalkald 
War,  he  forced  that  prince  to  return  hastily  from  the 
Danube,  and  thus  weakened  the  army  opposed  to  the 
emperor.  Though  he  was  compeUed  to  retreat  hefore  his 
indignant  and  surprised  kinsman,  his  fidelity  to  the 
pmperor  was  rewarded,  as  we  have  seen,  at  the  capitulation 
of  Wittenberg.  All  the  lands  torn  from  the  Ernestines 
were  not,  however,  assigned  to  Maurice  ;  he  was  forced  to 
acknowledge  the  suzerainty  of  Bohemia  over  the  Voigtland 
and  the  Silesian  duchy  of  Sagan,  and  to  renounce  his 
own  superiority  over  the  Reuss  dominions.  The  Eoman 
Catholic  prelates  were  moreover  reinstated  in  the  three 
great  bishoprics  of  Meissen,  Merseburg,  and  Naumburg- 
Zeitz.  Recognizing  as  a  •Protestant  sovereign  that  the 
best  alliance  for  securing  his  new  possessions  was  not 
with  the  Roman  Catholic  emperor  but  with  the  other  Pro- 
testant princes,  Maurice  now  began  to  withdraw  from  the 
former  'and  to  conciliate  the  latter.  In  1552,  suddenly 
marching  against  the  emperor  at  Innsbruck,  he  extorted 
from  him  the  peace  of  Passau,  which  accorded  religious 
freedom  throughout  Germany.  Thus,  at  the  close  of  his 
life  (he  died  of  a  wound  in  battle  in  1553),  Maurice 
came  to  be  regarded  as  the  champion  of  German  national 
and  religious  freedom.  Amid  the  distractions  of  outward 
affairs,  Maurice  had  not  neglected  the  internal  interests  of 
Saxony.  To  the  already  conspicuous  educational  advant- 
ages in  the  country  he  added  the  three  grammar  schools 
(Fiirstenschulen)  at  Pforta,  Grimma,  and  Meissen ;  and  for 
administrative  purposes,  especially  for  the  collection  of 
the  taxes  which  had  now  become  practically  annual,  he 
divided  the  country  into  the  four  "  circles "  of  the 
Electorate,  Thuringia,  Leipsic,  and  Meissen.  In  1542  the 
first  coal  mine  was  opened.  Over  two  hundred  convents 
were  suppressed  in  Saxony;  Leipsic,  Wittenberg,  Jena,  and 
Erfurt  had  each  a  university ;  books  began  to  increase, 
and  the  Saxon  dialect  became  the  ruling  dialect  of  German 
in  virtue  of  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible.  Augustus 
I.  (1553-1586),  brother  of  Maurice,  was  one  of  the  best 
domestic  rulers  that  Saxony  ever  had.  He  increased 
the  area  of  the  country  by  the  "circles  "  of  Neustadt 
and  the  A^oigtland,  and  by  parts  of  Henneberg  and 
the  silver-yielding  Mansfeld,  and  he  devoted  his  long 
reign  to  the  development  of  its  resources.  He  visited  all 
parts  of  the  country  himself,  and  personally  encouraged 
agriculture  ;  he  introduced  a  more  '  economical  mode  of 
mining  and  smelting  silver  ;  he  favoured  the  importation 
of  finer  breeds  of  sheep  and  cattle  ;  and  he  brought  foreign 
weavers  from  abroad  to  teach  the  Saxons.  Under-  him 
lace-making  began .  on  the  Erzgebirge,  and  cloth-making 
flourished  at  Zwickau.  He  was  the  first  to  fortify  the 
Konigstein,  the  one  fortress  in.  modern  Saxony,  and  he 
bviilt  other  castles.  With  all  his  virtues,  however, 
Augustus  was  an  intolerant  Lutheran,  and  used  very  severe 
means  to  exterminate  the  Calvinists  ;  in  his  electorate 
4\e'  is  said  to  have  expelled  one  hundred  and  eleven 
Ca'vinist  preachers  in  a  single  month.  Under  his  son 
Chri.Hian  I.  (1586-1591)  the  chief  power  was  wielded 
by  the  chancellor  CreU,  who  strongly  favoured  Calvinism, 
but,  when  Christian  II.  (1591-1611)  came  to  the  throne  a 
mere  child,  CreU  was  sacrificed  to  the  Lutheran  nobles. 
The  duke  of  Weimar  was  made  regent,  and  continued  the 
persecution  of  crypto-Calvinism,  in  spite  of  the  breach  with 


the  Reformed  imperial  diet  which  this  course  involved 
Christian  II.  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  John  George  I. 
(1611-1656),  under  whom  the  country  was  devastated  by 
the  Thirty  Years'  War.  John  George  was  an  amiable  but 
weak  prince,  totally  unfitted  to  direct  the  fortunes  of  a 
nation  in  time  of  danger.  He  relused  the  proffered  crown 
of  Bohemia,  and,  when  the  Bohemian  Protestants  elected  a 
Calvinist  prince,  he  assisted  the  emperor  against  them 
with  men  and  money.  The  Restitution  Edict,  however,  in 
1629,  opened  his  eyes  to  the  emperor's  projects,  and  he 
joined  Gustavus  Adolphus.  Saxony  now  became  the 
theatre  of  war.  The  first  battle  on  Saxon  soil  was  fought 
in  1631  at  Breitenfeld,  where  the  bravery  of  the  Swedes 
made  up  for  the  flight  of  the  Saxons.  Wallenstein 
entered  Saxony  in  1632,  and  his  lieutenants  Hoik  and 
GaUas  plundered,  burned,  and  murdered  through  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  land.  After  the  death  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus  at  the  battle  of  Liitzen,  not  far 
from.  Leipsic,  in  1632,  the  elector,  who  was  at  heart  an 
imperialist,  detached  himself  from  the  Swedish  alliance, 
and  in  1635  concluded  the  peace  x>f  Prague  with  the 
emperor.  By  this  peace  he  was  confirmed  in  the 
possession  of  Upper  and  JjOwer  Lusatia,  a  district  of  180 
square  miles  and  half  a  million  inhabitants,  which  had 
already  been  pledged  to.  him  as  a  reward  for  his  services 
against  the  Bohemians.  Lusatia  had  once  belonged  to 
Conrad  of  Jleissen,  whose  descendants,  however,  had  lost 
it  to  Brandenburg  at  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century. 
Saxony  had  now  to  suffer  from  the  Swedes  a  repetition  of 
the  devastations  of  Wallenstein.  No  other  country  in 
Germany  was  so  terribly  scourged  by  this  terrible  war. 
Immense  tracts  were  rendered  absolutely  desolate,  .and 
whole  villages  vanished  from  the  map ;  the  people  were 
tortured  to  reveal  their  treasures,  or  from  wanton  brutal- 
ity ;  famine  was  followed  by  plague ;  civilization  was 
thrown  back  and  barbarism  revived.  In  eight  years  the 
population  sank  from  three  to  one  and  a  half  millions. 
When  the  war  was  at  length  ended  by  the  peace  of 
Westphalia  in  164S,  Saxony  found  that  its  influence  had 
begun  to  decline  in  Germany.  Its  alliance  with  the 
Catholic  party  deprived  it  of  its  place  at  the  head  of 
the  Protestant  German  states,  which  was  now  taken  by 
Brandenburg.  John  George's  will  made  the  decline  cf 
the  electorate  even  more  inevitable  by  detaching  from  it 
the  three  subsidiary  duchies  of  Saxe-Weissenfels,  Saie- 
Merseburg,  and  Saxe-Zeitz  in  favour  of  his  yo'uuger  sous. 
By  1746,  however,  these  lines  were  all  extinct,  and  their 
possessions  had  returned  to  the  main  line.  Saxe- 
Neustiidt  was  a  short-lived  branch  from  Saxe-Zeitz,  extinct 
in  1714.  The  next  three  electors,  who  each  bore  the  namo 
of  John  George,  had  uneventful  reigns.  The  first  made 
some  efforts  to  heal  the  wounds  of  his  country ;  the  second 
wasted  the  lives  of  his  people  in  foreign  wars  against  tbo 
Turks  ;  and  the  third  was  the  last  Protestant  elector  of 
Saxony.  John  George  IV.  was.  succeeded  by  his  brother 
Frederick  Augustus  I.,  or  Augustiis  the  Strong  (1694— 
1733).  This  prince  was  elected  king  of  Poland  as 
Augustus  II.  in  1697,  but  any  weight  which  the  royal  tir^o 
might  have  given  him  in  the  empire  was  more  tbiu 
counterbalanced  by  the  fact  that  he,  though  the  ruler  of  aa 
almost  exclusively  Protestant  electorate,  became  a  Roman 
Catholic  in  order  to  qualify  for  the  new  dignity.  Ths 
connexion  with  Poland  was  disastrous  for  Saxony.  In 
order  to  defray  the  expenses  of  his  wars  with  Charles  XIL, 
which  resulted  from  his  Polish,  policy,  Augustus  pawned 
and  sold  large  districts  of  Saxon  territory,  while  he  drained 
the  electorate  of  both  men  and  money.  For  a  year  before 
the  peace  of  Altranstiidt  in  1 706,  when  Augustus  gave  up 
the  crown  of  Poland,  Saxony  was  occupied  by  a'  Swedish 
army,  which  had  to  be  supported  at  an  expense  of  twenty- 


s  A.x  o  jS[  r 


H13T0RY.J 

three  million  thalers. '  The  wars  and  extravagance  of  the 
elector -king,  who  regained  the  Polish  crown  in  1 709,  are 
said  to  have  cost  Saxony  a  hundred  million  tbalers.     From 
this    reign  dates   the  privy  council  (Geheimes  Kabinet), 
which  lasted  till  1630.     The  caste  privileges  of  the  estates 
(Stande)  were  increased  by  Augustus,  a  fact  which  tended 
to  alienate  them  more  from  the  people,  and  so  to  decrease 
their  power.     Bottger  made  his  famous  discovery  in'  1710, 
and  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  was  begun  at  Mei.ssen, 
and   iu   this   reign   the   Moravian   Brethren  made   their 
settlement  at  llerrnhut  (1722).     Frederick  Augustus  II. 
(1733-1763),  who  succeeded  his  father  in  the  electorate, 
and   was  afterwards  elected  to  the   throne  of  Poland  as 
Augustus  III.,  was  an  indolent  prince,  wholly  nnder  the 
influence  of  Graf  von  Brilhl.     Brlihl  was  an  incompetent 
statesman  and  an  extravagant  financier,  who  yet 'contrived 
to  amass  large  sums  for  his  private  purse.     Under  his  ill- 
omened  auspices  Saxony  sided  with  Prussia  in  the  First 
Eilesian   War,  and  with   Austria   in  the  other  two.     It 
gained  nothing  in  the  first,  lost  much  in  the  second,  and 
ia  the  third,  the  Seven  Years'  War  (1756-1763),  again 
became  the  scene  of  war  and  suffered  renewed  miseries. 
The  country  was  deserted  by  its  king  and  his  minister,  who 
retired    to  Poland.     By  the  end  of   the  war  it  had  lost 
90,000  men  and  a  hundred  million  thalers  j  its  coinage 
was  debased  and  its  trade  ruined ;  and  the  whole  country 
was  in  a  state  of  frantic  disorder.     The  elector  died  seven 
months  after  liis  return  from  Poland  ;  Eriilil   died  twenty- 
three  days  later.     The  elector's  sen  and  successor,  Frederick 
Christian,  survived  his  father  only  two  months,  leaving 
a  son,  Frederick  Augustus   III.  (1763-1827),  a   boy  of 
thirteen.     Pnnce  Xaver,  the  elector's  uncle,  was  appointed 
guardian,  and  he  set  himself  to  the  sorely-naeded  work  of 
healing   the  wounds  of  the  country.     The  foundation  of 
the  famous  school  of  mining  at  Freiberg,  and  the  improve- 
ment of  the  Saxon  breed  of  sheep  by  the  importation  of 
merino  sheep  from  Spain,  were  due  to  his  care.     Frederick 
assumed  the  government  in  1768,   and  in  his  long  and 
eventful  reign,  which  saw  the  electorate  elevated  to  the 
dignity  of  a  kingdom,  though  deprived  of  more  than  half 
its  area,  he  won  the  surname  of  the  Just.     As  he  was  the 
first   king  of   Saxony,   he   is   usually    styled    Frederick 
Augustus  I.     The  first  ten  years  of  his  active  reign  passed 
in    peace    and    quiet ,    agriculture,    manufactures,    and 
industries  were   fostered,  economical  reforms  instituted ; 
and  the  heavy  public  debt  of  forty   million  thalers   was 
steadily  reduced.     In  1770  torture  was  abolished.     When 
the   Bavarian   succession   fell  open   in    1777,    Frederick 
Augustus  joined  Prus.sia  in  protesting  against  the  absorp- 
tion of  Bavaria  by  the  Austrian  emperor,  and  Saxon  troops 
took  part  in  the   bloodless  "potato-war."     The  elector 
commuted  his  claims  in  right  of  his  mother,  the  Bavarian 
princess  Maria  Antonia,  for  six  million  florins,  which  he 
spent  chiefly  in  rcdooming  Saxon  territory  that  had  been 
pawned  toother  German  states.     When  Saxony  joined  the 
Furstenbund  in  1785,   it  had  an  area  of  15,185  square 
miles  and  a  population  of  nearly  2,000,000,  but  its  various 
parts  had  not  yet   been  combined  into  a  homogeneous 
whole,  for  the  two  Lusatias,  Querfurt,  Hcnneberg,  and  the 
ecclesiastical  foundations  of   Naumburg   and   Mcrseburg 
had  each  a  separate  diet  and  government,  independent  of 
the  diet  of   the  electorate   proper.     In    1791    Frederick 
declined  the  crown  of  Poland,  although  it  was  now  offered 
as  hereditary -even  in  the  female  line.     Ho  remembered 
how  unfortunate  for  Saxony  the  former  Polish  connexion 
had  boon,  and  he  mistrusted  the  attitude  of  Ku.ssia  towards 
the    proffered  kingdom.     Next  year   saw    the    lioginning 
of  the    great  struggle   between   Franco    and    Germany. 
Frederick's    conduct     throughout     was     iwrlmjis     more 
ipuaiUanimous  than   self-seeking,  but  it  entailed  its  own 


35? 


punishment.  His  first  policy  was  one  of  selfish  abstention, 
and  from  1793  until  1796,  when  he  concluded  a  definite 
treaty  of  neutrality  with  France,  he  limited  his  contribution 
to  the  war  to  the  bare  contingent  due  from  him  as  a  prince 
of  the  empire.  When  war  broke  out  in  1606  against 
Napoleon,  22,000  Saxon  troops  shared  the  defeat  of  the 
Prussians  at  Jena,  but  the  elector  immediately  afterwards 
snatched  at  Napoleon's  offer  of  neutrality,  and  abandoned 
his  former  ally.  At  the  peace  of  Posen  (11th  December 
1806)  Frederick  entered  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine^ 
assuming  the  title  of  king  of  Snxony,  and  promising  a 
contingent  of  20,000  men  to  Napoleon. 

No  change  followed  in  the  internal  sffairs  of  the  new 
kingdom,  except  that  Roman  Catholics  were  admitted  to 
equal  pri\'ilege3  with  Protestants,  its  foreign  policy  was 
dictated  by  the  will  of  Napoleon,  of  whose  irresistibility 
the  king  was  too  easily  convinced.'  In  1807  his  sub- 
mission was  rewarded  with  the  ducliy  of  Warsaw  and  the 
district  of  Cottbus,  though  he  had  to  (surrender  some  of 
his  former  territory  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Westphalia. 
The  king  of  Saxony's  faith  in  Napoleon  ^va!^  momentarily 
shaken  by  the  disasters  of  the  Eussioa  campaign,  in  whici 
21,000  Saxon  troops  had  shared,  and  in  1813  he  began  to 
lean  towards  an  alliance  with  Austria.  Napoleon's  victory 
at  Liitzen  (May  2,  1813),  however,  suddenly  restored  all  his 
awe  for  that  great  general,  and  the  Saxon  king  and  the 
Saxon  army  were  once  more  at  the  disposal  of  the  Fren:;h, 
After  the  battle  of  Bautzen,  Napoleon's  headquarters 
were  successively  at  Dresden  and  Leifslo.  During  the 
decisive  battle  at  the  latter  town  in  October  1813,  the 
popular  Saxon  feeling  was  displayed  by  tho  desertion  of 
the  Saxon  troops  to  the  side  of  the  allies.  Frederick 
was  taken  prisoner  in  Leipsic,  and  the  government  of  his 
kingdom  was  assumed  for  a  year  by  the  Ru.'sians,  who 
promptly  turned  its  resources  against  its  late  French  ally 
Saxony  was  now  regarded  as  a  conquered  counh-y.  Nothing 
but  Austri  «'s  vehement  desiie  to  keep  a  powcrf id  ntighbour 
at  a  distance  from  her  boundaries,  preserved  it  from  being 
completely  annexed  by  the  Prussians,  who  had  succeeded 
the  Russians  in  tho  government  As  it  was,  the  congress 
of  Vienna  assigned  the  northern  portion,  consisting  of  7i:00 
square  miles,  with  864,404  inhabitants  to  Prus.-slft,  leaving 
5790  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  1,182/74-4  to 
Frederick,  who  was  permitted  to  retain  his  royal  ll^le 
He  was  forced  to  acquiesce  in  the  dismemberment  of  Lis 
kingdom,  and  to  console  himself  with  the  reflexion  that  hie 
share,  though  the  smaller  half,  was  richer,  more  populous, 
and  more  beautiful  than  the  other. 

From  the  pnitition  in  1815  to  the  war  of  1866  the  hisfory  of 
Saxony  is  mainly  n  nanative  of  the  slow  crowth  ofconstitulionaliam 
and  ropular  liberty  within  its  limits.  Its  influence  on  tliB  j^eneral 
iiistorv  of  Europe  ceased  when  the  old  Gci-man  enipira  was  dis- 
solved. In  the  new  empire  it  is  too  completely  overehadowcd  by 
Prussia  to  ha.v»  any  oujectivo  importance  by  itself.  Frcdoncli 
lived  twelve  years  after  the  diviuion  of  his  kingdom.  Tho  com 
mercial  and  induBtrial  interests  of  tho  country  continued  to  bo 
fostered,  but  only  a  few  of  tho  most  unavoidable  political  roforms 
were  granted,  'llie  fact  that  some  of  these  had  not  been  sranted 
before  is  more  significant  than  that  they  wore  granted  now 
Religious  equality  was  extended  to  the  Reformed  Church  in  1818, 
and  the  separate  diet  of  Upper  Lusatia  abolishec^.  Frederick 
Augustus  was  succeeded  by  nis  8e)it«agenarian  brotlior  Antonj 
(1827-1836),  to  tho  great  disappointment  of  tho  iwopio,  who  had 
expected  a  more  liberal  era  under  Princo  Frederick  AukusIuk,  the 
king's  nephew.  Antony  announced  his  intention  of  following  tli* 
lines  laid  down  by  hisprcdecessor.  He  accorded  at  lii-st  only  a 
few  Jrifling  reforms,  which  wore  far  from  removing  tho  poiiulv 
discontent,  while  he  retained  the  unpopular  minister  F.insicilcl  and 
continued  tho  encouragement  of  the  Uomnn  Catholics.  The  old 
feudal  arrangement  of  the  diet,  with  its  inconvenient  divisions, 
was  retained,  and  tho  privy  council  continued  to  be  the  depository 
of  power.  An  active  opposition  began  to  mnko  it.self  evident  in  tho 
diet  and  in  tho  press,  and  in  1830  riots  in  LcipKio  and  Dresden 
iinnressed  the  king  with  tlipr  necessity  of  concession.  Einsiodel  wa» 
cosQiorod,  Trince  Frcdcrkk  Augustus  assumed  as  co-rcjieut,  and  • 


356 


SAXONY 


[history. 


ponstitution  promised.  After  consultation  wll'a  the  diet  the  king 
ipromulgated  a  new  constitution  on  September  4, 1831,  which  is  the 
basis  of  the  present  government.  An  offer  from  Metternich  of 
Austrian  arms  to  repress  the  discontent  by  force  had  been  refused. 
The  feudal  estates  were  replaced  by  two  chambers,  largely  elective, 
and  the  privy  council  by  a  responsible  iniuistry  of  si.x  departments. 
Beruhard  von  Lindenau  was  the  head  of  the  first  responsible 
cabinet,  and  the  first  constitutional  assembly  sat  from  January  27, 
1833,  till  October  30,  1834.  While  Sa.\ouy's  political  liberty 
pvas  thus  enlarged,  its  commerce  and  credit  were  stimulated  by  the 
construction  of  railways.  Antony  had  died  in  1836,  and  Frederick 
Augustus  11.  (1836-18.54)  became  sole  king.  Growing  interest  in 
politics  produced  dissatisfaction  with  the  compromise  of  1831,  and 
the  liberal  opposition  grew  in  numbers  and  influence.  The  burn- 
ing questions  were  the  publicity  of  legal  proceedings  and  the 
freedom  of  the  press  ;  and  on  these  the  Government  sustained  its 
first  crushing  defeat  in  the  lower  or  second  chamber  in  1842. 
Lindenau  resigned  in  1843.  Religious  considerations  as  to  the 
recognition  of  the  t5erma'n  Catholics  and  a  new  constitution  for  the 
Protestant  Church  began  to  mingle  with  purely  political  questions, 
and  Prince  John,  as  the  supposed  head  of  the  Jesuit  party,  was 
in^ulted  at  a  review  of  the  communal  guards  at  Leipsic  in  1845. 
The  military  rashly  interfered,  and  several  innocent  spectators 
were  shot.  The  bitterness  which  this  occun'ence  provoked  was 
intensified  by  a  political  reaction  which  was  initiated  about  the 
same  time  under  A'on  Konneritz.  Warned  by  the  sympathy 
excited  in  Saxony  by  the  revolutionary  events  at  Paris  in  1848, 
the  king  dismissed  his  reactionary  ministry,  and  a  liberal  cabinet 
took  Its  place  in  March  1848.  The  disputed  points  were  now 
conceded  to  the  country.  The  privileges  of  the  nobles  were 
curtailed  ;  the  administration  of  justice  was  put  on  a  better  foot- 
ing ,  the  press  was  unshackled  ;  publicity  in  legal  proceedings  was 
granted  ;  trial  by  jury  was  introduced  for  some  special  cases  ;  and 
the  German  Catholics  were  recognized.  The  feudal  character  of 
the  first  chamber  was  abolished,  and  its  Inembers  made  mainly 
elective  from  among  the  highest  tax-payers,  while '  an  almost 
universal  suffr.-ige  was  introduced  for  the  second  chamber.  The 
first  demand  of  the  overwhelmingly  democratic  diet  returned  under 
this  reform  bill  vas  that  the  king  should  accept  the  Frankfort 
constitution.  Frederick,  alleging  the  danger  of  acting  without  the 
concurrence  of  Prussia,  refused,  and  dissolved  the  diet^  A  public 
demonstration  at  Dresden  in  favour  of  the  Frankfort  constitution 
was  prohibited  as  illegal  on  May  2,  18i9.  This  at  once  awoke  the 
popular  fury.  The  mob  seized  the  town  and  barricaded  the  streets  ; 
'.Dresden  was  almost  destitute  of  troops ;  and  the  king  fled  to  the 
'Konigstein.  The  rebels  then  proceeded  to  appoint  a  provisional 
Government,  consisting  of  Tzschirner,  Heubner,  and  Todt,  though 
Jhe  true  leader  of  the  insurrection  was  the  Russian  Bakunin. 
Meanwhile  Prussian  troops  had  arrived  to  aid  the  Government,  and 
after  two  days'  fierce  street  fighting  the  rising  was  quelled.  The 
bond  ivith  Prussia  now  becarne  closer,  and  Frederick  entered  with 
Prussia  and  Hanover  into  the  temporary  "alliance  of  the  three 
kings."  He  was  not  sincere,  however,  in  desiring  to  exclude  Austria, 
And  in  1850  accepted  the  invitation  of  that  power  to  send  deputies  to 
Frankfort.  The  first  chamber  immediately  protested  against  this 
step,  and  refused  to  consider  the  question  of  a  pressing  loan.  The 
king  retorted  by  dissolving  the  diet  and  summoning  the  old 
estates  abolished  in  1848.  When  a  quorum,  with  some  difficulty, 
was  obtained,  another  period  of  retrograde  legislation  set  in.  The 
constitution  of  the  chambers  has  never  been  restored  to  the  basis 
of  1848.  The  king  himself  was  carried  away  mth  the  reactionary 
current',  .and  the  people  remained  for  the  time  indifierent.  Von 
Beust  became  minister  lot  both  home  and  foreign  aflairs  in  1852, 
and  under  his  guidance  tl.^  policy  of  Saxony  became  more  and 

Eore  hostile  to  Prussia  and  friendly  to  Austria.  Saxony  was  not, 
)wever,  able  to  withdraw  from  the  customs  union,  which  indeed 
lifcrred  the  very  highest  benefit  on  its  trade  and  manufactures. 
The  sudden  death  of  the  king,  by  a  fall  from  his  carriage  in 
Tyrol,  left  the  throne  to  his  brother  John  (1854-1873),  a  learned 
and  accomplished  prince,  whose  name  is  known  in  German 
literature  as  a  translator  and  annotacor  of  Dante.  His  brother's 
ministers  kept  thefr  portfolios,  but  their  views  gradually  be- 
came somewhat  liberalized  with  the  spirit  of  the  times.  Beust, 
however,  still  retained  his  federalistic  and  philo-Austrian  views. 
When  war  was  declared  between  Prussia  and  Austria  in  1866, 
Saxony  declined  the  former's  oflfcr  of  neutrality,  and,  when  a 
Prussian  force  crossed  the  border,  the  Saxon  army  under  the  king 
and  the  crown  prince  joined  the  Austrians  in  Bohemia.  The 
entire  kingdom,  with  the  solitary  exception  of  the  Konigstein,  was 
occupied  by  the  Prussians.  On  the  conclusion  of  peace  Saxony 
lost  no  territory,  but  had  to  pay  a  war  indemnity  of  ten  million 
thalers,  and  was  compelled  to  enter  the  North-German  Confedera- 
tion. Its  army  and  its  postal  and  telegraph  system  were  placed 
under  the  control  of  Prussia,  and  its  representation  at  foreign 
courts  was  entrusted  to  the  Prussian  embassies.  Beust  was  forced 
to  resign  ;  and  liberal  measures  in  both  church  and  state  were 
■clively  carried   through.     John  was  succeeded   in    1873    by  his 


elder  son  Albert  (bom  1828),  who  had  won  distinction  as  a  general 
in  the  wars  of  1866  and  1870.  Under  this  prince  the  general 
course  of  politics  has  presented  .nothing  of  special  importance, 
except  perhaps  the  steady  spread  of  the  doctrines  of  social 
democracy,  which  has  flourished  especially  in  Saxony.  As  a 
loyal  member  of  the  new  German  empire.  Saxony  has  gradually 
transferred  its  sympathies  from  its  old  ally  Austria  to  its  new 
leader  Prussia.  In  1877  Leipsic  was  chosen  as  the  seat  of  the 
supreme  court  of  law  for  the  empire. 

The  political  history  of  the  parts  of  Saxony  left  by  the  capitula- 
tion of  Wittenberg  to  the  Ernestine  line,  which  occupy  the  region 
now  generally  styled  Thuringia  (Thiiringen),  is  mainly  a  recital 
of  partitions,  reunions,  redivisions,  and  fresh  combinations  of 
territory  among  the  various  sons  of  the  successive  dukes.  -  The 
principle  of  primogeniture  was  not  introduced  untU  the  end  of  the 
17th  century,  so  that  the  Protestant  Saxon  dynasty,  instead  of 
building  up  a  single  compact  kingdom  for  itself,  has  split  Into 
four  petty  duchies,  of  no  political  influence  whatever.  In  1547 
the  ex-elector  John  Frederick  the  Magnanimous  was  allowed  to 
retain  Weimar,  Jena,  Eisenach,  Gotha,  Henneherg,  and  Saalfeld. 
Altenburg  and  a  few  other  districts  were  added  to  the  Ernestine 
possessions  by  the  treaty  of  Naumburg  in  1554,  and  other  addi- 
tions were  made  from  other  sources.  John  Frederick,  who  had 
retained  and  transmitted  to  his  descendants  the  title  of  duke 
of  Saxony,  forbade  his  sons  to  divide  their  inheritance  ;  but  his 
wishes  were  respected  only  until  after  the  death  of  his  eldest  son 
in  1565.  The  two  survivors  then  founded  separate  jurisdictions  at 
Weimar  and  Coburg,  though  arrangements  were  made  to  exchange 
territories  every  three  years.  In  1596  Saxe-Coburg  gave  off'  the 
branch  Saxe-Eisenach  ;  and  in  1603  Saxe- Weimar  gave  off  Saxe- 
Altenburg,  the  elder  Weimar  line  ending  and  the  younger  begin- 
ning with  the  latter  date.  By  1638  Weimar  had  absorbed  both 
Coburg  and  Eisenach  ;  Altenburg  remained  till  1672.  John,  duko 
of  Sa.xe- Weimar,  who  died  in  1605,  is  regarded  as  the -common 
ancestor  of  the  present  Ernestine  lines.  In  1640  his  three  surviving 
sons  ruled  the  duchies  of  Weimar,  Eisenach,  and  Gotha.  Eisenach 
fell  in  in  1644  and  Altenburg  in  1672,  thus  leaving  the  dukes  of 
Saxe-Weimar  and  Saxe-Gotha  to-  become  the  ancestors  of  tho 
modern  ruling  houses.  Saxe-Weimar  was  still  repeatedly  divided  ; 
in  1668  a  Saxe-Marksuhl  appears,  and  about  1672  a  Saxe-Jena  and 
a  new  Saxe-Eisenach.  All  these,  however,  were-extinct  by  1741, 
and  their  possessions  returned  to  the  main  line,  which  had  adopted 
the  principle  of  primogeniture  in  1719.  The  present  grand-duchy 
of  Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach  is  separately  noticed. 

Saxe-Gotha  was  even  more  subdivided  ,  and  the  climax  was 
reached  about  1680,  when  Gotha,  Coburg,  Meiningen,  Romhild, 
Eisenberg,  Hildburghausen,  and  Saalfeld  were  each  the  capital  of 
a  duchy.  By  the  beginning  of  1825  only  the  first  three  of  these 
and  Hildburghausen  remained,  the  lands  of  the  others  having 
been  divided  after  much  quarrelling.  In  that  year  the  Gotha  line 
expired,  and  a  general  redistribution  of  the  lands  of  the  "  Nexus 
Gothanus,"  as  this  group  of  duchies  was  called,  was  arranged  on 
12th  November  1826.  'The  duke  of  Hildburghausen  gave  up  his 
lands  entirely  for  Altenburg  and  became  duke  of  Saxe-Altekedrg  ; 
the  duke  of  Coburg  exchanged  Saalfeld  for  Gotha  and  became  duke 
of  Saxe-Cobfkg-Gotha  ;  and  the  duke  of  Saxe-Meiningex 
received  Hildburghausen,  Saalfeld,  and  some  other  territories,  and 
added  Hildburghausen  to  his  titled  These  duchies  are  separately 
noticed.     See  also  Thubingia. 

Geogbapht  and  Statistics. 

The  kingdom  of  Saxony,  the  history  of  which  has  been  traced 
above,  is  the  third  constituent  of  the  German  empire  in  point -a£ 
population,  and  the  fifth  in  point  of  area.  With  the  exception 
of  the  two 'small  exclaves  of  Ziegelhein  in  Saxe-Altenburg  and 
Leibschwitz  on  the  borders  of  Reuss,  Saxe-Weimar,  and.  Saxe- 
Altenburg,  it  forms  a  compact  whole  of  a  triangular  shape, 
its  base  extending  from  north-east  to  south-west,  and  its  apex 
pointing  north-west.  .  It  lies  between  50"  10'  and  51°  29'  N.  lat. 
and  between  11°  53'  and  15°  4'  E.  long.  The  total  area  is  5789 
square  miles  (about  half  the  size  of  Belgium),  or  27  per  cent,  of 
the  entire  empire  ;  its  greatest  length  is  130  miles,  and  its  greatest 
breadth  93  miles.  ■  Its  frontiers  have  a  circuit  of  760  miles.  On 
the  south  it  is  bounded  by  Bohemia,  on  the  west  by  Bavaria  and 
the  Thuringian  states,  and  on  the  remaining  sides  by  Prussia. 
Except  on  the  south,  where  the  Erzgebirge  forms  at  once  the  limit 
of  the  kingdom  and  of  the  empire,  the  boundaries  are  entirely 
political.  For.  administrative  purposes  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  is 
divided  into  the  four  districts  of  Bautzen  in  the  south-east,  Dresden 
in  the  north-east,  Leipsic  in  tho  nnrth-west,  apd  Zwickau  in  the 
south-west. 

Physical  Features.  — Saxony  belo'ngs  almost  entirely  to  the  central 
mountain  region  of  Germany,  only  tho  districts  along  the  north 
border  and  around  Leipsic  descending  into  the  great  North- 
European  plain.  The  average  elevation  of  tho  country  is  not; 
however,  great ;  and  it  is  more  properly  described  as  hilly  than  a^ 
mountainous.   The  ordinary  estimates  return  otie-fifth  of  the  area  fN 


GEOGKAPHV   AND   STATISTICS.] 


SAXONY 


357 


"^S". -The'^clt"!  of  Saxony  ia  generally  healthy.  It  is 
mUdertIn  the  valCof  the  Elbe,  Mulde,  and  Pleisse,  and  severest 
"  the  Erzgebirge,  where  the  district  near  Johanngeorgenstadt  ^ 
known  aXon  Siberia.  The  average  Wf^^.\^^^.'\^,^, 
central  Germany  as  a  whole,  vanes  rom  4S^  to  60  Fahr  m  the 
FlhB  vallev  the  mean  in  summer  is  from  62  to  b4  ,  ana  in  w'"^';' 
1^  -f^n"-  in  the  Erzeebir-re  the  mean  temperature  in  summer  is 
?rom  55°  to  57°   and  fn  w  S?er  23°  or  24°.     The  Erzgebirge  is  also 

|^j^t"si.rrir^at^SS^n^r;:;;L^ 
^ra^i;S?KhdLi^^\^S^^-:^ 

providing  f°^„f  «7'°"  bVconsUlered  the  dawn  of  modern  Saxon 

s;'>»,Kr^»,.£.  «^:  *>■'- ;r.t;s 


the  Sebirge  and  in  the  Voigtland.  Sheep-farming  has  cons  der- 
Iblv  declined  within  the  last  few  decades,  as  in  most  park,  ot 
Sern  Germrny.  WhUe  other  classes  of  domestic  ammals  have 
retained  very  much  the  same  proportion  to  the  number  of  the 
human  po^u^ation,  sheep  have 'decreased  from  one  to  eve  y  ^x 
inhibitants  in  1861  to  one  to  every  twenty  in  1883.  In  lib.)  i'  , 
reLnt  Pr  uce  Xaver  imported  300  merino  sheep  >om  Spain,  and 
o^fmproved  the  native  breed  by  thie  new  strain  that  Saxon  sW 
wpre  eacerlv  imported  by  foreign  nations  to  improve  then  tlocks, 
TT  "Saxon  eTectoral  wool"  bicame  one  of  the  lest  brands  in  the 
market  The  h?gh  level  was  not  long  maintained;  flock-mastei-s 
Tan  to  pay  mo?e  attention  to  quantity  than  to  oual.ty  of  wool 
I     ^d\he  Uon  -01  has  -oydingb;    eter^tel^  InJ868^no 

^roltarklt'^'o^'f  SaLli";;  otXh  Leipsic  and  Dresden  a.  t,3 
L-  r  ;„  iR«i  nnlv  276  843  lh«.  were  offered.  bwine  lurnisu 
f  V  rV  Urge' proSion'of  the  flesh-diet  of  the  people.  Geese 
^boun'd  pa?ticJlar^y  round  Leipsic.  and  ^^  UPP^^,,^,"f„^^i^P^  g^t 
»li(Mit  Rautzen  Bee-keeping  flounshes  on  tbe  heatns  on  tne  ngm 
tank  of  the  E  be  ;  in  1883  there  were  63,756  bee-hives  in  Saxony 
Game  L  not  now 'very  abundant;  hares  and  partndges  are  shot  In 

''^i'?':s'S-Vhe%rell'"f 'saxony  are  extensive,  and  have  long 
been  well'  cared  for  both  by  Government  and  by  pmate  propnetors. 

Tier  rent   of  the  total  belongs  to  Government. 

^  mnercds-rhe  mineral  wealth  of  Saxony  is  very  considerable! 

an/  ^  mines  a,'  among  the  oldest  in  Germany     f  vejwas  r^^ 

IrkeV^  l^/xo^'^^iiteYn^  prSrab^t  6  pe^ctt  ^^£^ 

dTstrict^  -Freiberg,  where  silver  and  lead  are  the  chief  products  ; 
iCb^rg,  where^tin  is  mainly  raised;  Schneeberg  yielding 
S':\'ickel,    and    -nstone ;   and      ohanngeorg^^^^^^^^^^ 

Tllsronfy  I'o^ofX  ewele't  o  VaUon.   employing' 8616 

SLi!^iri=nKHn=^59 

£■^14  916  Coal  is  found  principally  in  t«o  helds,— one  near 
fwi  icau  and  the  other  in  tL  circle  of  Dresden.  Brown  coa  or 
lignite  i;  found  chiefly  in  the  north  and  "«I,th-west    b^t  not  ^n 

shows  the  output  in  tons  since  the  years  named  :-    


1870 
18S0 
1883 


Mines 


242 
189 
166 


Hands. 


16,811 
19,626 
20,136 


Coal. 


2,608,705 
3,622,007 
4,088,484 


Lignite. 


506,687 
590,119 
648,044 


Anthracite. 


346 
345 
280 


Value^ 


£1,083,625 
1,363,780 
1,510,863 


Peat  is  especially  abundant  on  the  Erzgebirge.    Immenso  Wantitics 

Sovfd"l343  hands      Fin    porcelain  clay  occurs  near  lleisscn 
anIcJarser  varieties  elsewhere!^    A  few  precious  atones  are  found 
amon°  the  southern  mountains.     Saxony  has  no  Balt-m.neS 

r    f    .   ■         Ti.o    rviitral-Euronean    position    of    Saxony    nas 

po  cy  of  the  rulers  of  tho  country,  ''a]^"  "'»  ^  .  ^  aKriculturc, 
Fts  commercial  and  industrial  resources^  „J:uUtio",,1^y  far  U.; 
which  supports  -Jb""'  20,P",  ";"t^.°/,  '^Saxony  carri-s  on  26  per 
most  important  industry  is  tl'»  t«*.''*;  (trmanv  a  share  far  m 
cent,  of  the  whole  textile  >ndu«'[y  '»  p;"-™;'*  ;hich  has  mo« 
excess  of  its  proportionate  W  '.^''u  carr  esin  iTper  cent.,  and 
than  nine  times  as  many  .nhabtanl,.  carr   s  o^       1^^^^^   ^^  ^^ 

no  other  state  more  than  8  P^^-^^'i^j^^y  in  1882,  by  far  th. 
population   were    '"P''KJ''    '"  "^',VtV„"  cent  Reuss  (altorer  Linic), 


358 


SAXONY 


[geography  and  STATISTIC4 


Sianufacfure  are  Zwickau,  Cliemnitz.  Glancban,  Meeraiie.  and 
Hohenstein  in  the  south  of  Zwickau,  and  Camenz,  Pulsuitz,  and 
Bischofswerda  in  the  north  of  Dresden.  The  centro  of  the 
cotton  manufacture  (especially  of  cotton  hosiery)  is  Cliemnitz ; 
cotton-muslins  are  made  throughout  the  Voigtiaiid,  ribbons  at 
Pulsuitz  and  its  neighbourhood.  Woollen  cloth  and  buckskin  are 
woven  at  Camenz,  Bischofswerda,  and  Grossenhain,  all  in  the 
north-east,  woollen  and  half  woolleu  underclothing  at  Chemnitz, 
Glauchau,  Meerane,  and  Keichenbach  ;  while  Bautzen  and  Limbach 
produce  woollen  stockings.  Linen  is  manufactured  chiefly  in  the 
mountain3  of  Lusatia,  where  the  looms  are  still  to  some  e.xteut 
found  in  the  homes  of  the  weavers.  The  coarser  kinds  only  are  now 
made,  owing  to  the  keen  English  competition  in  the  finer  varieties. 
Damask  is  produced  at  Gross-Schonau  and  Neu-Schonau.  Lace- 
making,  discovered  or  introduced  by  Barbara  Uttmanu  in  the 
latter  lialf  of  the  16th  century,  and  now  fostered  by  Govern- 
meiit  schools,  has  long  been  an  important  domestic  industry  among 
the  villages  of  the  Erz  Mountains.  Straw-plaiting  occupies  6000 
hands-  ou  the  mountain  slopes  between  Gottleuba  and  iLockwiti 
Waxcloth  is  manufactured  at  Leipsic,  and  artificial  flowers  at 
Leipsic  and  Dresden.  Stoneware  and  earthenware  are  made  at 
Chemnitz,  Zwickau,  Bautzen,  and  Jleissen,  porcelain  ("  Dresden 
china ")  at  Meissen,  chemicals  in  and  near  Leipsic.  Dobein, 
Werdau,  and  Lossnitz  are  the  chief  seats  of  the  Saxon  leather 
trade  ;  cigars  are  very  extensively  made  in  the  towu  and  district 
of  Leipsic,  and  hats  and  pianofortes  at  Leipsic,  Dresden,  and 
Chemnitz.  Paper  is  made  chiefly  in  the  west  of  the  kingdom,  but 
does  not  keep  pace  with  the  demand.  Machinery  of  all  kinds  is 
produced,  from  the  sewing-machines  of  Dresden  to  the  steam- 
locomotives  and  marine-engines  of  Chemnitz.  The  last-named 
place,  though  the  centre  of  the  iron-manufacture  of  Saxony,  has  to 
import  every  pound  of  iron  by  railway.  The  leading  branch  is  the 
machinery  used  in  the  industries  of  the  country — mining,  paiier- 
inaking,  and  weaving.  The  very  large  printing  trade  of  Leipsic 
encourages  the  manufacture  of  printing-presses  in  that  city.  lu 
.1883-84  Saxony  contained  744  active  breweries  and  6S3  distil- 
'leries.  The  tendency  iu  this  branch  of  industry  is  to  extinguish 
the  smaller  establishments,  and  to  form  large  joint-stock  com- 
panies. The  smelting  and  refining  of  the  metal  ores  is  also  an 
important  industry.  The  chief  smelting  works,  at  Freiberg, 
employed  1377  hands  in  1883. 

Trade. — Leipsic,  with  its  famous  and  still  fi-eqnented  fairs,  is 
the  focus  of  the  trade  of  Saxony.  The  fnr  ti-ade  between  eastern 
and  western  Europe  and  the  book-trade  of  Germany  centi-o  here. 
Chemnitz,  Dresden,  Plauen,  Zwickau,  Zittau,  and  Bautzen  are  the 
other  chief  commercial  cities.  The  principal  exports  are  wool, 
woollen,  cotton,  and  linen  goods,  and  the  other  produce  of  the 
factories  and  of  the  mines. 

Communication. — The  roads  of  Saxony  are  numerous  and  good. 
In  1S83  there  were  2304  miles  of  road  in  the  kingdom.  Saxony 
Was  the  first  German  state  to  encourage  and  develop  a  railway 
system,  and,  although  at  first  private  enterprise  led  the  w-ay,  the 
Saxon  lines  are  now  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  Gorern- 
toent.  The  first  railway,  between  Leipsic  and  Althen,  was  opeued 
oil  jVpril  24,  1837.  In  1837  there  were  9  miles  of  state  railway  ; 
in  1840,  71  miles  ;  in  1S50,  250  ;  in  1870,  6S5  ;  in  ISSO,  1184  ; 
and  in  1884,  1365  miles,  which,  together  \rith  75  miles  of  private 
line,  mostly  worked  by  the  state,  employed  21,400  hands.  There 
(ire  no  canah  in  Saxony,  and  the  only  navigable  river  is  the  Elbe. 
.  Population. — In  1880  the  population  of  Saxony  was  2,972,805,  or 
Si  per  c-ont.  of  the  total  population  of  the  German  empire,  on  27 
[ler  cent,  of  its  area.  The  provisional  returns  of  the  census  of  1885 
i^aVj  a  population  of  3,179,168.  With  the  exception  of  the  free 
towns,  Saxony  is  the  most  densely  peopled  member  of  the  emjiire, 
Aid  its  population  is  increasing  at  a  more  rapid  rate  than  is  the 
kse  in  a»y  of  the  larger  German  states.  In  1880  Saxony  had  51 3 -5 
Jihabitaiits  per  sr(uare  mile,  nearly  three  times  as  many  as  Bavaria ;  ■ 
Prussia  had  202-8,  and  the  average  for  the  empire  was  2167. 
ilore  than  half  (56  per  cent.)  of  the  people  live  in  communities  of 
ver  2000  inhabitants.  The  following  table  shows  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  poi>ulation  among  the  four  administiative  districts.  It 
Rill  be  noticed  that  the  industrial  distiict  of  Zwickau  is  the  most 
densely  peopled. 


9  ;  the  birth-rnte  is  43,  and  the  death-rate  30  per  thousand.  Tha 
annual  increase  of  the  population,  on  the  average  of  the  five  years 
between  1875  aud  1880,  is  at  the  rate  of  1-48  jier  cent.  Tha 
death-rate  in  Saxony  is  the  highest  in  Germany,  but  its  birth-rate 
is  also  the  highest,  except  in  the  small  state  of  Reuss  (.-ilterer 
Linie).  In  1883,  out  of  132,209  births,  16,990,  or  12-8  per  cent, 
were  illegitimate,  and  4935,  or  37  per  cent.,  were  still-born,  and 
these  rates  represent  tolerably  accurately  the  average  of  the  last 
few  years.  In  the  relative  number  of  suicides  (311  ]ier  1,000,000 
inhabitants)  Saxony  ranks  highest  among  the  European  states  (see 
Jiorselli,  IiU.  ScL  Sci:,  voh  x.xxvi.).  In  1884  1114  persons,  of 
whom  861  were  males,  committed  suicide.  In  the  same  year  17,706 
persons  were  punished  as  vagrants. 

The  preponderating  industrial  activity  of  Saxony  fosters  the 
tendency  of  the  population  to  concentrate  in  towns ;  with  the 
exception  of  the  free  towns  and  Anhalt,  no  German  state  has  so 
large  a  proportion  of  urban  population,  i.e.,  inhabitants  residing  in 
communities  of  2000  persons  and  upwards.  In  the  empire  as  a 
whole  41-4  per  cent,  of  the  population  is  urban  in  this  sense  ;  in 
Saxony  the  proportion  rises  to  56-6  per  cent.  The  largest  townsaro 
Dresden  (245,515  inhabitants),  the  capital  since  the  middle  of  the 
lethcentury,  Leipsic  (170,076),  andChemiiitza]0,693).  Eighteen 
other  town.s,  cliiolly  iu  the  manufacturing  district  of  Zwickau,  have 
over  10,000  inhabitauts,  and  thirty-five  between  5000  and  10,000. 
The  main  results  of  the  iudustrial  census  of  1882,  which  shows  an 
increase  of  population  since  1880  of  42,000,  are  summarized  in  the 
following  table,  which  gives  the  luimber  of  persons  (including  wives, 
families,  and  dependants)  supported  by  the  several  occupations,  and 
the  percentage  of  the  total  population : — 
I 


Occupations. 

Persons, 

Percentage. 

1.  Agriculture,  forestry,  and  fishing 

2.  Industrial  pursuits 

602,378 
1,695,895 
360,675 
53,584 
148,361 
153,929 

20 

56-2 

12 
17' 
6     •• 
5-1 

3.  Trade 

4.  Domestic  servants  and  general  labourers 

5.  Official, military, andprofcssional classes 

6.  Not  returned  under  any  occupation .. . 

District. 

Population. 

Area  in 
Square  .Miles. 

Arerape  per 
Sqnare  3Iilc. 

BautzeiL 

351,326 

808,512 

707,826 

1,105,141 

953 

1675 
1377 

1784 

868-6 
4827 
614-0 
619-4 

Leipsic 

Zwickau 

The  growth  of  the  population  since  1815,  when  the  kingdom 

received  its  present  limits  has  been  as  follows: — in  1815,1,178,802: 

in  1-S30,  1,402,066;  in  1840,  1,706,275;  in  1864,  2,344,094;   and 

in  1875,  2,7li0,586 

.  Th«  Bomber  of  jan-iages  per  1000  inhabitants  is  between  8  and 


The  people  of  Saxony  are  chiefly  of  pure  Teutonic  stock  ;  a  pre- 
portion  are  Germanized  Slavs,  and  in  the  south  of  Bautzen  there 
are  still  about  50,000  M'ends,  who  retain  their  peculiar  customs  and 
language.  In  some  villages  near.  Bautzen  hardly  a  word  of  German 
is  spoken. 

Religiom  Stallslics. — About  97  per  ce»t.  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Saxony  are  Protestants  ;  between  6000  and  7000  are  Jews,  and  the 
remainder,  inclnding  the  royal  family,  are  mostly  Roman  Catholics. 
According  to  the  religious  census  of  1880,  2,886,806  were  Evangeli- 
cals, 74,333  Roman  Catholics,  1467  German  Catholics,  620  AngR- 
cans,  453  Greek  Catholics,  6518  Jews,  and  339  "others."  The 
Evangelical-Lutheran  or  State  Church  had  1130  pastors  and  1393 
places  of  worship  in  1884.  Its  head  is  the  minister  "  de  evangelicis  " 
so  long  as  the  king  is  Roman  Catholic  ;  and  its  management  ia 
vested  in  tlie  Evangelical  Consistory  at  Dresden.  Its  representative 
assembly,  consisting  of  twenty-nine  clcrgj-men  and  thirty-five  lay- 
men is  called  a  synod  (Smiode).  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has 
enjoyed  the  patronage  of  the  reigning  family  since  1697,  though  it 
was  the  peace  of  Posen  (1806)  which  placed  it  on  a  level  with  the 
Lutherans.  By  the  peace  of  Prague,  which  transferred  Upper 
Lusatia  to  Saxony  iu  1635,  stipulations  were  made  in  favour  of  the 
Roman  Catholics  of  that  region,  who  are  ecclesiastically  in  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  cathedral  chapter  of  St  Peter  at  Bautzen,  the  dean 
of  which  has  ex  officio  a  seat  in  the  first  chamber  of  the  diet.  The 
other  districts  are  managed  by  an  apostolic  vicariate  at  Dresden,' 
under  the  direction  of  the  minister  of  public  worship.  Two  nun- 
neries iu  Bautzen  are  the  onlj"  conventual  establishments  in  Saxon}', 
and  no  others  may  be  founded.  Among  the  smaller  religious  sects 
tlio  MoHAViAN  BnETHRE.v  [q.v.),  whose  chief  seat  is  at  Herrnhut, 
arc  pel  liaps  the  most  interesting.  In  1868  civil  rights  were  declared 
to  be  independent  of  religious  confession. 

Education.  — Saxony  claims  to  bo  one  of  the  most  highly  educated 
countries  in  Europe,  and  its  foundations  of  schools  and  universities 
were  among  the  eavliest  in  Germany.  Of  the  four  universities 
founded  by  the  Saxon  electors  at  Leipsic,  Jena,  'Wittenberg,  and 
Erfurt,  only  the  first  is  included  in  the  present  kingdom  of  Saxony. 
It  is  second  only  to  Berlin  in  the  number  of  its  students.  The 
endowed  schools  (Fiirstenschulen)  at  Meissen  and  Grimma  have 
long  enjoyed  a  high  reputation.  Besides  these  there  are  12  other 
g)-mnasia,  13  realschulen  of  the  first  class,  and  19  of  the  second 
class,  the  organization  of  which  resembles  that  already  described  in 
detail  under  Pr.ussiA.  There  are  nearly  4000  elementary  and  pre- 
paratory schools  ;  and  education  is  compulsory.  Of  8856  recruits 
iu  1883-84  only  13  ("15  per  cent.)  were  unable  to  read  and  write. 
Saxony  is  particularly  well-equipped  with  technical  schools,  the 
textile  industries  being  especially  fostered  by  numerous  schools  of 
weaving,  embroidery,  lace-making,  kc.  ;  but  the  mining  academy 
0 1  Freiberg  and  the  school  of  forestry  at  Tharandt  are  probably  tw> 


PEUSSIAJf  SAXONY,} 


SAXONY 


359 


taost  widely  known.     The  conservatory  of  music  at  Leipsic  enjoys  [ 
e  world-wide  reputation  ;  not  leas  the  art-collections  at  Dresden. 

Constitution. — Saxony  is  a  constitutional  monarchy  and  a 
member  of  the  German  empire,  with  four  votes  in  the  federal 
council  and  twenty-three  in  the  reichstag.  The  constitution  rests 
on  a  law  promulgated  on  4th  September  1S31,  and  subsequently 
at'.ended.  The  crown  is  hereditary  in  the  Albcrtine  Saxon  line, 
with  reversion  to  the  Ernestine  line,  of  which  tlic  duke  of  Saxe- 
Weimar  is  now  the  head.  The  king  enjoys  a  civil  list  of  2,9i0,000 
marks  or  £1-17,000,  while  the  apanages  of  the  crown,  including 
the  payments  to  the  other  members  of  the  royal  house,'  amount  to 
£15,670  more.  The  legislature  (Standeversammlung)is  bicameral, — 
the  constitution  of  the  co-ordinate  chamber's  being  finally  settled 
by  a  law  of  1868  amending  tho  enactment  of  1831.  The  first 
chamber  consists  of  the  adult  princes  of  the  blood,  five  hereditary 
members  from  among  the  nobility,  representatives  of  tho  Lutheran 
and  Roman  Catholic  Churches,  a  representative  of  Leipsic  university, 
twelve  representatives  of  proprietors  with  landed  jiroperty  of  an 
annual  value  of  at  least  £1:"J0,  elected  for  life,  and  ten  representa- 
tives of  the  same  class  nominated  for  life  by  l^ie  crown,  the  chief 
magistrates  of  the  eight  principal  towns,  and  five  other  life 
members,  chosen  without  any  restrictions  by  the  king.  The 
second  chamber  consists  of  thiity-five  members  from  the  towns  and 
forty-five  from  tlie  country,  elected  for  six  years.  All  male  cil  ^ens 
twenty-five  years  )ld  and  upwards  who  pay  one  thaler  (3s.)  per 
annum  in  taxes  have  the  suffrage  ;  and  all  above  thirty  years  of 
age  who  pay  10  thalers  in  annual  taxes  are  eligible  as  members  of 
the  diet  The  chambers*iust  be  convened  at  least  once  every  two 
years  ;  and  extraordinary  meetings  take  place  at  every  change  of 
ruler  and  on  other  special  occasions.  One-third  of  the  members  of 
the  second  chamber  retire  at  tho  end  of  every  period  of  t\vo  years. 
With  the  exception  of  the  hereditary  and  some  of  the  ex-officio 
members  of  the  first  chamber,  tlie  members  of  the  diet  are  entitled 
to  an  allowance  (12s.)  for  their  daily  expenses,  as  well  as  their 
travelling  expenses.  The  executive  consists  of  a  responsible  min- 
istry (Gesammtministerium),  with  the  six  departments  of  justice, 
finance,  home  affairs,  war,  public  worship  and  education,  and 
foreign  affairs.  The  minister  of  the  royal  household  does  not 
belong  to  tho  cabinet.  The  constitution  also  provides  for  the 
formation  of  a  kind  of  privy  council  (Staatsrath),  consisting  of  the 
cabinet  ministers  ind  other  members  appointed  by  the  king. 

For  administrative  purposes  Saxony  is  divided  into  four 
Krcishauptmannschaften  or  governmental  deparmients,  subdivided 
into  fifteen  Amts'jauptmannschaften  and  one  hundred  and  sixteen 
Aemtor.  The  cities  of  Dresden  and  Leipsic  form  departments  by 
thomselvs.  The  supreme  court  of  law  for  both  civil  and  criminal 
cases  is  the  Oberlandes-Gericht  at  Dresden,  subordinate  to  which 
are  seven  other  O'lrts  in  the  other  principal  towns  and  one  hundred 
and  five  inferior  tribunals.  The  German  impel  ial  code  was  adopted 
by  Saxony  in  1879     Leipsicis  the  seat  of  the  imperial  supreme  court. 

Finance  — Tho  Saxon  financial  period  embraces  a  space  of  two 
years.  For  1884-5  the  "ordinary"  budget  showed  an  income  of 
£3,496,000,  balanced  by  the  expenditure,  which  included  a  reserve 
funl  of  £29,40).  The'  chief  sources  of  income  were  taxes 
(£1.377,293,  including  £899,975  of  direct  taxes),  state-railways 
(£1,3!')7,890;,  and  the  public  forests  and  domains  (£359,171), 
Lotteries  brought  in  £232,270,  and  tho  royal  porcelain  manu- 
facture £17,500  The  chief  expenditure  was  on  the  interest 
(£1,135,681)  ani  sinking  fund  (£410,000)  of  the  national  debt. 
The  "  extraordinary  "  budget,  applying  exclusively  to  public  works, 
showed  an  income  and  expenditure  tallying  at  £882,800.  The 
national  debt,  incurred  almost  wliol'y  in  making  and  buying 
railways,  amounted  on  let  January  1885  to  £32,670,300,  mostly 
paying  interest  at  tho  rate  of  4  per  cent. 

Army. — The  Saxon  army  is  modelled  on  that  of  Prussia.  It 
forms  the  12th  army  corps  in  the  imperial  German  army,  and  con- 
sists of  tho  ^3rd  and  2Uh  divisions,  with  lieadi|uartcr3  at  Dresden 
and  Leipsic  respectively.  On  its  peace-fooling  the  Saxon  contingent 
includes  20,500  infantry,  4180  cavalry,  and  3000  artillery  ;  in  war 
it  has  75,800  infaiitiy,  6680  cavalry,  and  8050  artillery. 

ThR  sliiUiitica]  Information  In  tho  abovo  article  has  hrv-n  <1prlvc(l  chlrfly  from 
the  Ka'eJidar  unU  ttaltititclifi  Jatiitmch  Jur  das  Koniciftich  Sadism  (l>rt'S(ien, 
I87G-8C)  onct  the  ZeiCsfhr{.ft  da  Kuiiiglie/tai  SiicAsi.--rli£n  stalistisc/iert  Bureau 
(l>re»(l(!n,  lfi5.',-8-'>).  The  SlnntxfiaitdbijcU  .fUr  dan  Koitigreich  Sacltun  is  an 
annual  otnclu)  rp^istor.  Enf^clhitrdt's  Valerlandsi-iinde /lir  Schtile  uriti  Uatts  im 
KSaiifrcicli  fiaelitrn  (Dl-e^tlcn,  3d  cd.  hy  I'latlic,  1877)  conl.'ilns  a  coinprehcnKivo 
account  of  tho  ciiuniiy  auU  its  rcsoui-coa;  and  Jiuntcl's  Jtaiftbuch  t/tr  Gto'jrajiliia 
(Ucfpsic,  78S1)  cl'-arly  .siiminnrlzes  the  jirlncipiil  pi.lnts.  Tlio  standaid  hi.stury  of 
Saxony  Is  Uuttiffci's  Gesrfiicfitc  dfs  Kitrxtatits  mnf  h'6niqreicfi$  Sacfisrnn  (3  vols., 
Gottm,  3d  ed.,  edited  and  continued  by  Finthc,  l,<t':7-73).  Uriindr.<»'s  Grundii^a 
der  Sachtiscln:n  Ct'srhiclilc  (L«ilisic,  lii(JD)  is  a  succinct  but  sonicwiftit  dry  sum- 
mary. Otlicr  Icaditif;  \vuvi<s  on  tho  subjects  aio  Grulscticl,  O'tw'ii.hu  dea 
Sacltfischcn  Staats  wut  Voikt  (H  vols.,  Leipsic,  2d  wl.,  continiit*'l  hy  Pulnu, 
1862-63);  Mcynert.  OrichicMf  df  Sdrhtlsclim  Volts  {i  vols.,  Lfi;>i.i;,  18aa-35) ; 
Hcinrich,  Sachsische  Oesckichte  (2  vols.,  ix<lpslc,  l.HlO-r.');  and  WoLise,  (irscMchte 
di:r  Kurfaclisiic/ifil  Utaattn  (7  vols.,  Lclytslc,  18Ui-r:).  The  pulillctiliun  of  tiio 
Codfx  Dip'iumaticut  Saxoniiv lifoix  was  bcf;un  In  1SC4  under  tiic  CJU'o  of  tlcrsdorf, 
and  Ims  Itecn  continued  under  Pos^o  and  EmeriBch.  I'oMe  liiin  also  publi^iicd 
I'ie  itai-kqrafai  von  Meissm  vnd  dal  Ilaus  Wettin  bh  tit  Konrad  dcm  Wrc,M(ii 
(L.eipsic.  lfj*il);  and  Emcrisch  is  tho  editor  of  tho  AViis  Archiv  fiir  fitiefuitc/i4 
CachkhU  (Leiiislc,  0  vols.),  wiiicli  contains  full  Informaliun  as  to  woiks  on  tho 


history  cf  the  country.  Weber's  older  Arthiw  far  die  SdchiUrhe  GachUhtt 
appeared  in  1£C4  sq.;  and  a  still  older  periodical  publication  oo  the  snMcct  la 
Von  Biaun'a  S/onnlttclicr  Atiszug  aus  dtr  Gesehichte  des  Kvr-  vr.d  Furattichtn 
Basses  Sachsens  (6  vols.,  LaDftensalza.  1778-81).  Sea  also  Tutsduuann's  Altat 
tur  CeschMde  der  Suctituchm  IMtidtr  (Orlmma,  1862).  (F.  MU.) 

SAXONY,  Pkus.sia.v  (Germ.  Provinz  Sachsen),  one  of 
the  central  provinces  of  the  kingdom  of  Prussia,  consists 
mainly  of  what  was  formerly  the  northern  part  of  the 
kingtJom  of  Saxony  (ceded  to  Prussia  in  1815),  but  also 
comprises  the  duchy  of  I^Iagdeburg,  the  Altmark,  and 
other  districts,  the  connexion  of  vhich  with  Prussia  is  of 
earKer  date.  The  area  of  tho  province  is  9750  et^uare 
miles.  On  the  W.  it  is  bounded  by  Hesso-Nassau, 
Uanover,  and  Brunswick,  on  the  X.  by  Hanover  and 
Brandenburg,  on  the  E.  by  Brandenburg  and  Silesia,  and 
on  the  S.  by  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  and  the  smal] 
Thuringian  states.  It  is,  however,  very  irregular  in  form, 
entirely  surrounding  parts  of  Brunswick  and  the  Tlruringian 
states,  and  itself  possessing  several  "exclaves,"  while  the 
northern  portion  of  the  province  is  abnost  entirely  severed 
from  the  southern  by  tire  ducliy  of  Anhalt.  The  major 
part  of  the  province  is  flat  and  belongs  to  the  great  North- 
German  plain,  but  the  western  and  south-western  districts 
are  hilly,  including  parts  of  the  Harz  (with,  the  Brocken, 
3il7  feet)  and  the  Thuringian  Forest  1  About  nine- 
tenths  of  Prussian  Saxony  belongs  to  the  system  of  the 
Elbe,  the  chief  feeders  of  which  within  the  province  are  the 
Saale  and  the  Mulde,  but  a  small  district  on  the  'vvest  drains 
into  the  'Weser.  The  saltwater  lakes  between  Halle  and 
Eisleben  are  the  only  lakes  of  the  kind  in  Prussia. 

Saxony  is  on  the  whole  the  most  fertile  province 
of  Prussia,  and  excels  all  the  other.?  in  its  produce  of 
wheat  anti  beetroot  sugar  (as  well  as  in  salt,  brown  coal, 
and  copper),  but  the  nature  of  its  soil  is  very  vmcq'ual. 
The  best  crop-producing  districts  lie  near  the  base  of  the 
Harz  Mountains,  such  as  the  "  JIagdeburger  Borde "  and 
the  "  Goldene  Aue,"  and  rich  pasture  lands  occur  in  tho 
river  valleys,  but  the  sandy  plains  of  the  Altmark,  in  the 
north  part  of  the  province,  yield  but  a  scanty  return  for 
the  husbandman's  toil. 

Of  the  total  area  of  the  provinco  CI  per  cent,  is  occupied  by 
arable  land,  13  per  cent  by  meadows  and  pastures,  and  20'5  per 
cent,  by  forests.  'Wheat  and  rye  are  raised  in  such  abundance  as 
to  allow  of  a  considerable  export,  while  the  other  grain  crops  meet 
the  local  demand.  The  beetroot  for  sugar  is  grown  chiefly  iu  the 
district  to  the  north  of  tho  Harz,  as  far  as  the  Ohie,  ami  on  the 
banks  of  tho  Saale  :  and  the  amount  of  sugar  produced  (upwards 
of  400,000  tons  in  1883-84)  is  nearly  as  much  as  that  of  all  the 
rest  of  Prussia  together.  Flax,  hops,  and  seeds  for  oil  are  also 
cultivated  to  some  extent,  and  large  quantities  of  excellent  fruit 
are  grown  at  the  foot  of  tho  Harz  and  in  the  valleys  of  tho  Uustrut 
and  the  Saale.  The  market-gardening  of  Erfurt  is  well-known 
throughout  Germany.  'Wine,  of  itidillerent  quality,  is  produced 
in  tho  vicinity  of  Nanmburg.  S.iiony  is  comiiaratively  poor  in 
timber,  though  there  are  some  fine  forests  in  the  Harz  aiul  other 
hilly  districts.  Cattle-rearing  is  carried  on  with  success  in  tho 
river  valleys,  and  more  goats  are  met  'with  hero  than  in  any  other 
part  of  Prussia.  The  live-stook  census  for  1883  gave  tho  following 
figures  :— horses,  182,455;  cattle,  624,973;  sheep,  l,S90,9ir);  pigs, 
719,027  ;  goat?,  261,2-.25.  (Compare  tli4  tables  under  Pkussia, 
vol.  XX.  p.  14.) 

Tho  ])rincipal  undergronnd  wealth  of  Prussian  Saxony  consists 
of  its  salt  and  its  brown  coal,  of  both  of  which  it  possesses  larger 
stores  than  any  other  part  of  tho  German  cni)>irc.*  Tho  rock-salt 
mines  and  brine  springs  (the  chief  of  which  are  at  Stafsfurt, 
Schbnebeck,  ll.dlc,  &c.)  produced  in  1883-4  no  less  than  20t".,000 
tons  of  salt,  while  tho  annual  output  of  brown  coal  amounts  to 
about  8  million  tons,  or  moiu  than  tho  entire  yiehl  of  tho  rest  of 
Geiinany.  Prussian  .Saxony  also  possesses  three-fourths  of  tlio 
wealth  of  Germany  in  copper,  tho  yield  in  1SS3  ainonnling  to  M. 1,000 
tons  of  ore  and  11,000  tons  of  tho  pure  metal.  The  cop|«'r.  niin«« 
are  found  chiefiy  in  tho  Harz  tlistrict  The  other  minemi  resources 
include  silver  (one-third  of  tho  total  Gernuin  yield),  pit-coa], 
pyrites,  alum,  piaster  of  'Paris,  sulphur,  alabaster,  and  several 
varieties  of  good  building-stone.  Numerous  mineral  springs  occur 
in  the  Hnrz.  •■ 

In  addition  to  the  prodnction  of  sugar  already  noted,  tho  most 
important  industrie.i  are  tho  manufactures  of  cfnth,  leather,  iroiK 
and  Bleel  wares  (chielly  at  Suhl  and  iiuuimctda),  Fpirits  (Nord- 


360 


S  A  Y  — S  A  Y 


hausen),  chemicals  (Stassfurt),  and  starch.  Beer  is  also  brewed 
extensively  in  Prussian  Saxony,  where  the  annual  Consumption 
per  head  (107  quarts)  is  considerably  in  excess  of  the  average  for 
the  kingdom.  Trade  is  much  facilitated  by  the  great  watenvay  of 
the  Elbe,  as  well  as  by  a  very  complete  system  of  railways.  The 
chief  articles  are  wool,  gcain",  sugar,  salt,  lignite,  and  the  principal 
manufactured  products  named,above. 

••  The  population  of  the  province  of  Saxony  In  1880  was  2,312,007, 
including  2,154,663  Protestants,  145,518  Roman  Catholics,  and 
6700  Jews  ;  in  1885,  according  to  provisional  census  returns,  the 
population  was  2,427,968.  The  great  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  are 
of  unmixed  German  stock,  but  many  of  those  in  the  east  part  of 
the  province  have  Wendish  blood  in  their  veins.  The  province 
belongs  to  the  more  thickly  populated  parts  of  Germany,  the  aver- 
age being  237  persons  to  the  square  mile,  and  the  ratio  of  the  urban 
population  to  the  rural  is  about  as  44  to  54.  The  occupation 
census  of  1882  gives  the  following  percentages  for  the  different 
classes  of  the  population  :— agricultural,  36  78;  industrial,  3518  ; 
trade,  8'15;  domestic  servants  and  day  labourers,  8"70;  official  and 
professional,  5 '12. 

..  Prussian  Saxony  is  divided  into  the  three  government  districts 
of  Magdeburg,  Merscburg,  and  Erfurt.  Magdeburg  is  the  most 
important  town  and  the  headquarters  of  an  army  corps,  but  the 
fprovincial  chambers  meet  at  Merseburg.  The  province  sends 
Jwenty  members  to  the  reichstag  and  thirty-eight  to  the  Prussian 
house  of  representatives.  The  religious  control  of  the  district  is 
m  the  hands  of  a  consistory  at  Magdeburg;  the  Roman  Catholics 
belong  to  the  diocese  of  Paderborn.  The  university  of  Halle  holds 
k  high  rank  among  German  seats  of  learning,  and  the  other  educa- 
tional requirements  of  the  province  are  adequately  provided  for. 
The  illiterate  recruits  of  this  province  in  1883-4  numbered  only 
13  out  of  a  total  of  7868,  equivalent  to  0'17  per  cent.  The  prin- 
cipal towns  are  Magdeburg  (about  150,000  inhabitants,  including 
Neustadt  and  Buckau),  Halle  (81,869),  Erfurt  (58,007),  Halberstadt 
(34,048),  Nordhausen,  Muhlhausen,  and  Aschersleben. 
1  The  history  cf  fhe  present  Prussian  province  of  Saxony  as  such 
dates  only  from  1815,  and  is,  of  cotu-se,  merely  of  local  interest. 
The  previous  history  of  its  constituent  parts,  of  considerable  more 
Interest  and  importance,  must  be  sought  for  under  the  various 
headings  that  will  suggest  themselves,  such  as  Saxos'T  (siiprn), 
Prussia,  MAODEBtrRO,  Erfurt,  &c.  It  is,  however,  worth  noting 
that  the  province  comprises  the  Altmark  or  old  North  Mark  that 
formed  the  kernel  of  the  Prussian  state  (see  Prussia,  vol.  rx.  p. 
2),  and  also  the  old  bishoprics  on  the  Elbe  and  Saale,  from  which 
as  a  centre  the  Christianization  of  Germany  mainly  spread.  And 
the  leading  position  of  this  part  of  Germany  in  promoting  the 
Reformation  should  also  be  remembered. 

SAT,  Jean  Baptiste  (1767-1832),  an  eminent  French 
political  economist,  was  born  at  Lyons  5tli  January  1767. 
His  father,  Jean  fitienne  Say,  was  of  a  Protestant  family 
which  had  originally  belonged  to  Nimes,  but  had  removed 
to  Geneva  for' some  time  in  consequence  of  the  revocation 
of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  Young  Say  was  intended  to 
follow  a  commercial  career,  and  was  accordingly  sent,  with 
his  brother  Horace,  to  England,  and  lived  first  at  Croy- 
don, in  the  house  of  a  merchant,  to  whom  he  acted  as 
clerk,  and  afterwards  at  London,  where  he  was  in  the 
service  of  another  employer.  When,  on  the  death  of  the 
latter,  he  returned  to  France,  he  was  employed  in  the 
office  of  a  life  assurance  company  directed  by  Claviere, 
afterwards  known  in  politics.  It  was  Claviere  who  called 
his  attention  to  the  Wealth  of  Nations,  and  the  study  of 
that  work  revealed  to  him  his  vocation.  His  first  literary 
attempt  was  a  pamphlet  on  the  liberty  of  the  press,  pub- 
lished in  1789.  He  worked  under  the  celebrated  Mira- 
beau  on  the  Courrier  de  Provence.  Jn  1792  he  took  part 
as  a  volunteer  in  the  campaign  of  Champagne;  in  1793 
he  assumed,  in  conformity  with  the  Revolutionary  fashion, 
the  pre-name  of  Atticus,  and  became  secretary  to  Claviere, 
then  finance  minister.  He  married  in  1793  Mile.  Deloche, 
daughter  of  a  former  avocaf  an  consell;  the  young  pair 
were  greatly  straitened  in  means  in  consequence  c£  the 
depreciation  of  the  assignats.  From  1794  to  1800  Say 
edited  a  periodical  entitled  Ln  Decade  ph'dosophique,  lit- 
ieraire,  et  politique,  in  which  he  expounded  the  doctrines 
of  Adam  SmitL  He  had  by  this  time  established  his 
reputation  as  a  publicist,  and,  when  the  consular  govern- 
ment was  established  in  the  year  VIII  (1799),  he  was 
selected  as  one  of  the  hundred  members  of  the  tribunate. 


and  resigned,  in  consequence,  the  direction  of  the  Decade. 
He  published  in  1800  Olbie,  ou  Essai  sur  les  moyem  dt 
reformer  les  mxurs  d!une  nation. 

In  1803  appeared  his  principal  work,  the  Traite  <f 
£conomie  Politiqtce.  In  1804,  having  shown  his  unwilh 
ingness  to  sacrifice  his  convictions  for  the  purpose  of 
furthering  the  designs  of  Napoleon,  he  was  removed  fr^oi 
the  office  of  tribune,  being  at  the  same  time  nominated 
to  a  lucrative  post,  which,  however,  he  thought  it  his 
duty  to  resign.  He  then  turned  to  industrial  pursuits, 
and,  having  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  processes  of 
the  cotton  manufacture,  founded  at  Auchy,  in  the  Pas 
de  Calais,  a  spinning-mill  which  employed  four  or  five 
hundred  persons,  principally  women  and  children.  He 
devoted  his  leisiu-e  hours  to  the  improvement  of  his 
economic  treatise,  which  had  for  some  time  been  out  of 
print,  but  which  the  censorship  did  not  permit  him  to 
republish;  and  in  1814  he  availed  himself  (to  use  his  own 
words)  of  the  sort  of  liberty  arising  from  the  entrance  of 
the  allied  powers  into  France  to  bring  out  a  second  edition 
of  the  work,  dedicated  to  the  emperor  Alexander,  who  had 
professed  himself  his  pupiL  In  the  same  year  tlie  French 
Government  sent  him  to  study  the  economic  condition  of 
Great  Britain.  The  results  of  his  observations  during  his 
journey  through  England  and  Scotland  appeared  in  a  tract 
De  VAngleterre  et  des  Anglais ;  and  his  conversations  with 
distinguished  men  in  those  countries  contributed,  he  tells 
us,  to  give  greater  correctness  to  the  exposition  of  prin- 
ciples in  the  third  edition  of  the  Traite,  which  appeared 
in  1817.  A  chair  of  industrial  economy  was  founded  for 
him  in  1819  at  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  ia 
which  he  lectured  with  ability  and  success.  In  1831  ha 
was  made  professor  of  political  economy  at  the  College  de 
France.  He  published  in  1828-30  his  Cours  Complet 
d'£conomie  Politiqrie  pratique,  which  is  in  the  main  an 
expansion  of  the  Traite,  with  practical  applications.  In 
his  later  years  he  became  subject  to  attacks  of  nervous 
apoplexy,  which  increasingly  reduced  his  strength.  He 
lost  his  wife,  to  whom  he  was  fondly  attached,  in  January 
1830 ;  and  from  that  time  his  health  constantly  declined. 
When  the  revolution  of  that  year  broke  out,  he  was  named 
a  member  of  the  council-general  of  the  department  of  the 
Seine,  but  found  it  necessary  to  resign  that  position. 
He  died  at  Paris  16th  November  1"832,  leaving  behind 
him  a  well-earned  reputation  for  private  worth  and  polit- 
ical integrity. 

Say  was  essentially  a  propagandist,  not  an  originator.  His  great 
service  to  mankind  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  disseminated  throughout 
Europe  by  means  of  the  French  language,  and  popularized  by  his 
clear  and  easy  style,  the  economic  doctrines  of  Adam  Smith.  It 
is  true  that  his  French  panegyrists  (and  he  is  not  himself  frea 
from  ccnsvire  on  this  score)  are  unjust  in  their  estimate  of  Smith  as 
an  expositor  ;  they  give  false  or  exaggerated  ideas  of  his  obscurity, 
his  prolixity,  and  his  want  of  method  ;  and  they  accordingly  extol 
too  highly  the  merits  of  Say.  Those  merits  are,  however,  real 
and  considerable  ;  his  writings  were  without  doubt  very  effective 
in  diliusing  throughout  Continental  Europe  a  taste  for  economic 
inquiry  and  a  knowledge -of  its  principal  results.  On  the  side  of 
the  philosophy  'of  science  Say  is  weak  ;  bis  observations  on  that 
subject  are  usually  commonplace  or  superficial.  Thus  he  accepts 
the  shallow  dicttun  of  Condlllac  that  toute  science  se  riduit  d  uiu 
laiirjue  bienfaitc.  He  recognizes  political  economy  and  statistics 
as  alike  sciences,  and  represents  the  distinction  between  them  as 
having  never  been  made  before  him,  though  he  quotes  what  Smith 
had  said  of  political  arithmetic.  Whilst  always  deserving  the 
praise  of  honesty,  sincerity,  and  independence,  he  is  very  inferior 
to  his  great  predecessor  in  breadth  of  view  on-  moral  and  political 
questions.  In  his  general  conception  of  human  affairs  there  is  a 
tendency  to  regard  too  exclusively  the  material  side  of  things, 
which  made,  him  pre-eminently  the  economist  of  the  French  liberal 
lourgemsie  ;  thus  Storch  justly  censures  the  levity  with  which  he 
doubts  the  necessity  of  a  public  religious  ciritus,  suggesting  that 
enbghtened  nations  might  dispense  with  it  "aa  the  Pacific  islanders 
do  "  He  is  inspired  with  the  dislike  and  jealousy  of  Governments 
so  often  felt  and  expressed  by  thinkers  formed  in  the  social 
atmosphere  of  tne  last  century.     Soldiers  are  for  him  not  merely 


S  ,C  A  —  S  C  A 


361 


hnproductiTO  labourers,  as  Smith  called  them  ;  they  arc  rather 
"destructivo  labourers."  "A  nation  might,"  hcsays,  "strictly 
•peaking,  subsist  without  a  poTcmment,  each  profession  exchang- 
ing the  fiiiits  of  its  laboiii-s  with  the  products  of  the  labours  of 
Others," — a  rem^ik  which  bcti'ays  the  notion  tliat  economic  coin- 
cides with  social  life.  Taxes  are  uncompensated  payments  ;  they 
are  plagues  like  hail,  war,  or  depredation  ;  they  may  fitly  bo 
described  as  of  the  natui«  of  robbery.  AVhen  he  snye,  "  Loi'squ' 
on  vous  vend  un  privilege,  comme  le  droit  do yhasso,  ou  Beulen;out 
de  poi'td'annes,ou  vous  volo  votro  droit  naturel  d'etre  armo  pourlo 
VDUs  vendre  aprcs  I'avoir  vole,"  we  see  that  we  arc  still  in  the  region 
of  tho^iu  naturm,  which  lies  at  the  basis  of  all  the  old  economics. 
Say  is  considered  to  liave  brought  out  tlie  imiiortauce  of  capital 
OS  a  factor  in  production  more  distinctly  than  tlie  English  econo- 
mists, who  unduly  emphasized  labour.  The  special  doctrines  most 
commonly  mentioned  as  due  to  him  are — (1)  tliat  of  "immaterial 
products,"  and  (2)  what  is  called  his  "theoria  des  doboucht's." 
Obiecting,  as  Germain  Gamier  had  dono  before  him,  to  Smith's 
well-known  distinction  between  prodnctivo  and  unproductive 
labour,  ho  maintains  that,  production  consisting  m  tliu  creation  or 
addition  of  a  utility,  all  useful  labour  is  productive.  Ho  is  thus 
led  to  recognize  immaterial  jnoducts,  whoso  characteristic  (juality 
is  that  they  are  consumed  immediately  and  are  incapable  of  accumu- 
lation ;  under  this  head  are  to  bo  ranged  the  scrtnces  rendered 
either  by  a  person,  a  capital,  or  a  portion  of  land,  as,  e.g.,  the 
advantages  deiived  from  medical  attendance,  or  from  a  hired  house, 
or  from  a  beautiful  view.  But  in  working  out  the  consequences  of 
this  view  Say  is  not  free  (as  Storch  has  shown)  from  obscurities 
and  inconsistencies  ;  and  by  his  comprehension  of  these  immaterial 
l)roducts  within  the  domain  of  economics  he  is  confirmed  in  the 
eirnr  of  regaixling  that  science  as  filling  the  whole  sphere  which 
really  belongs  to  sociology.  His  "theorie  des  debouches"  amounts 
to  this,  that,  proaucts  being,  in  last  analysis,  purchased  only  with 
pioducts,  the  extent  of  tho  markets  (or  cutlets)  for  home  products 
IS  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  foreign  productions ;  when  the 
eale  of  any  commodity  is  dull,  it  is  because  there  is  not  a  sufficient 
number,  or  rather  value,  of  other  commodities  produced  with  which 
it  could  be  purchased.  Another  proposition  on  which  Say  insists 
is  that  every  value  is  consumed  and  is  created  only  to  be  consumed. 
Values  can  therefore  be  accumulated  only  by  being  reproduced  in 
the  course  or,  as  often  happens,  by  the  very  act  of  consumption  ; 
hence  his  disiinction  between  reproductive  and  unproductive  con- 
sumption. We  find  in  him  other  corrcctious  or  new  presentations 
of  viewB  previously  accepted,  and  some  aseful  suggestions  for  the 
improvement  of  nomenclature. 

Sny'B  writings  occupy  vols.  Ix.-xil.  of  GnlTtftomlnS  CoUection  des  Principaux 
i.'eonoiiiintri.  AmonK  tlicm  are,  in  addition  to  lliose  already  mentioned, 
Cal^hl6ine  cV  E^anomie  PoHtiquc,\%\5\  Petit  Volume  contoiaiit  ijiicJijuesaper^t/s 
o«  J/ommci  el  de  la  Sorteli',  Lettres  a  ifallhua  iur  diffcrem  steels  d'  Economie 
Potilique,  1?20,  Epitome  des  Prineipes  de  V  Economie  Politi<jite,  1831.  A 
volume  of  Melanges  et  Conrspondance  was  publislicd  pnstliuniously  by  Cliarlea 
Comtc,  antlior  of  tliG  Traite  de  Legislation,  wlio  was  his  son-in-law.  To  the 
above  must  be  added  an  addition  of  Storch's  Cours  (T  Sconojiiie  Pclitigue,  wiiicil 
Say  publNhcd  In  1823  without  Storcii's  authorization,  Willi  notes  enibodjing  a 
''critique  am^rc  et  viiulente,"  a  proceedlnT  which  Storcli  justly  resenletL 

The  last  cdilion  of  tiie  Traits  d'  Ecoiiomie  l*oIitique  wliicli  appeared  during  the 
life  of  the  author  was  the  5th(18L'fi);  tho  Oth,  with  tlie  author's  tiuai  coriecllons, 
was  cilltcd  by  the  eldest  son,  Horace  tmile  Say,  himself  kpown  as  nn  economist. 
In  1840.  The  woik  was  tninslsted  Into  English '' from  tlio  4lh  edition  of  tho 
French  "  by  C.  It.  Prlnscp  (IS'JI),  Into  Gcrinitn  by  Liidwig  Ilclnricli  von  Jakob 
(1307)  and  by  C.  Ed.  Moistadt  (1818,  and  18.30), and,  as  Say  himself  Informs  us, 
into  Spanish  by  Jostf  Queypo.  The  Cours  rf'  Economie  Politique  pratique,  from 
which  Slorstadt  ha3  given  extracts,  was  translated  Into  German  by  Mn:.  Stlrncr 
(1845).  Tho  Cat^chisme  and  Iho  Petit  Volume  have  also  been  translated  into 
soveial  Eui-opeon  languages.  An  English  veraioa  Of  the  Lettres  d  Mufthus 
appears  In  vol.  xvll.  of  the  Pamphleteer,  1821.  (J.  K.  I.) 

SCALA  NOVA,  Scala  Nuova,  or  (Turkish)  Kusn- 
ADASsi,  also  known  as  New  Ephesus,  a  harbour  on  the 
west  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  in  tho  vilayet  of  Aidin,  opposite 
the  island  of  Samos.  Before  tho  opening  of  the  Smyrna- 
Aidin  railway  its  excellent  roadstead  was  largely  fre- 
quented by  vessels  trading  with  the  Anatolian  coast,  and 
it  has  often  been  proposed  to  connect  it  with  this  system 
by  a  branch  line,  and- thus  enable  it  to  compete  with 
Smyrna  as  a  trading  centre.  The  po|)ulation  is  estimated 
at  7000  to  10,000,  of  whom  about  3000  are  Greeks. 

SCALIGEll.  For  some  account  of  the  great  Delia 
Scala  (Lat.  Scalif/er)  family,  the  jccader  is  referred  to  the 
article  Verona.  The  name  has  also  been  borne  by  two 
scholars  of  extraordinary  eminence  in  tho  world  of  letters. 

I.  Jdlitjh  C^sar  Scaligkr  (1484-1558),  so  di.stin- 
guished  by  his  learning  and  talents  that,  according  to  De 
Thou,  no  one  of  the  ancients  could  bo  placed  above  hira  and 
the  age  in  which  he  lived  could  not  show  his  equal,  was, 
according  to  his  own  account,  a  scion  of  tho  illustrious 
house  of  La  IScala,  for  a  huudiod  and  fif t\  years  princes  of 


Verona,  and  was  born  in  1484  at  the  castle  of  La  P.occa 
on  the  Lago  de  Garda.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he  vrai 
presented  to  his  kinsman  the  emperor  Maximilian,  and 
placed  by  him  among  his  pages.  He  remained  for 
seventeen  years  in  the  service  of  the  emperor,  following 
him  in  liis  expeditions  through  half  Europe,  and  distin- 
guishing himself  no  less  by  personal  bravery  as  a  soldier 
tLan  by  military  skill  as  a  captain.  Eut  he  was  unmind- 
ful neither  of  letters,  in  which  ho  had  the  most  eminent 
scholars  of  the  day  as  his  instructors,  nor  of  art,  which  he 
studied  with  considerable  success  under  Albert  Diirer. 
In  1512  ho  fought  at  the  battle  of  Eavenina,  ^^here  his 
father  and  elder  brother  were  killed.  He  there  displayed 
prodigies  of  valour,  and  received  the  highest  honours  of 
chivalry  from  his  imperial  cousin,  the  emperor  conferring 
upon  him  with  his  own  hands  the  spurs,  the  c.jllar,  and 
the  eagle  of  gold.  But  this  was  the  only  reward  he 
obtained  for  his  long  and  faithful  devotion.  He  left  the 
service  of  Maximilian,  and  after  a  brief  employment  by 
another  kinsman,  the  duke  of  Ferrara,  he  decided  to  quit 
the  military  life,  and  in  1514  entered  as  a  student  at  the 
university  of  Bologna.  He  determined  to  take  holy 
orders,  in  the  expectation  that  he  would  become  in  due 
time  cardinal,  and  then  be  elected  pope,  when  he  would 
wrest  from  the  Venetians  his  principality  of  Verona,  of 
which  the  republic  had.  despoiled  his  ancestors.  But, 
though  he  soon  gave  up  this  design,  he  remained  at  the 
university  until  1519.  The  next  sis  years  he  passed  at 
the  castle  of  Vico  Nuova,  in  Piedmont,  as  a  guest  of  the 
family  of  La  Piovire,  at  first  dividing  his  time  between 
military  expeditions  in  the  summer,  in  which  he  achieved 
great  successes,  and  study,  chiefly  of  medicine  and 
natural  -history,  in  the  winter,  until  a  severe  attack  of 
rheumatic  gout  brought  his  military  career  to  a  close. 
Henceforth  his  life  was  wholly  devoted  to  study.  In 
1525  he -accompanied  M.  A.  de  la  Eovfere,  bishop  of 
Agen,  to  that  city  as  his  physician.  Such  is  the  outline 
of  his  own  account  of  his  early  life.  It  was  not  until 
some  time  after  his  death  that  the  enemies  of  his  son  iirst 
alleged  that  ho  was  not  of  the  family  of  La  Scala,  but 
was  tho  son  of  Benedetto  Bordone,  an  illuminator  or 
schoolmaster  of  Verona ;  that  he  was  educated  at  Padua, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D. ;  and  that  his  story  of 
his  life  and  adventures  before  arriving  at  Agen  was  a 
tissue  of  fables.  It  certainly  is  supported  by  no  other 
evidence  than  his  own  statements,  some  of  which  are 
inconsistent  with  well-ascertained  facts. 

The  remaining  thirty-two  years  of  his  life  were  passed 
almost  wholly  at  Agen,  in  the  full  light  of  contemporary 
history.  They  were  without  adventure,  almost  without 
incident,  but  it  was  in  them  that  ho  achieved  so  much 
distinction  that  at  his  death  in  1558  he  had  tho  highest 
scientific  and  literary  reputation  of  any  man  in  Europe. 
A  few  days  after  his  arrival  at  Agen  he  fell  in  love  witli  a 
charming  orphan  of  thirteen,  Andiette  de  la  Roque  Lobejac. 
Her  friends  objected  to  her  marriage  with  an  unknown 
adventurer,  but  in  1528  he  had  obtained  so  much  success 
as  a  physician  that  the  objections  of  her  family  were  over- 
come, and  at  forty-five  lie  married  Andiette,  who  was  then 
sixteen.  Tho  marriage  proved  a  complete  success ;  it  was 
followed  by  twenty-nine  years  of  almost  uninterrupted 
happiness,  and  by  the  birtli  of  fifteen  children. 

A  charge  of  heresy  in  1638,  of  which  ho  was  acquitted 
by  his  friendly  .judges,  one  of  whom  was  his  friend  Arnoul 
Le  Ferron,  was  almost  tho  only  event  of  interest  during 
these  twenty-nine  years,  except  the  publication  of  his 
books,  and  the  quarrels  and  criticisms  to  which  they  gave 
rise. 

In  1531  ho  printed  ins  first  oration  against  Enismns,  in 
defence  of  Cicero  and  the  Oiceronians.     It  is  a  piece  of 


362 


SCALIGER 


vigorous  invective,  displaying,  like  all  his  subsequent 
writings,  an  astonisliing  knowledge  and  command  of  the 
Latin  language,  and  much  brilliant  rhetoric,  but  full  of 
vulgar  abuse,  and  completely  missing  the  point  of  the 
Ciceroniames  of  Erasmus.  The  writer's  indignation  at 
finding  it  treated  with  silent  contempt  by  the  great  scholar, 
who  thought  it  was  the  work  of  a  personal  enemy — Aleander 
— caused  him  to  write  a  second  oration,  more  violent, 
more  abusive,  with  more  self-glorification,  but  with  less 
real  merit  than  the  first.  The  orations  were  followed  by 
a  prodigious  quantity  of  Latin  verse,  which  appeared  in 
successive  volumes  in  1533,  1534,  1539,  1546,  and  1574; 
of  these,  a  friendly  critic,  Mr  Pattison,  is  obliged  to 
approve  the  judgment  of  Huet,  who  says  :  "  par  ses  poesies 
brutes  et  informes  Scaliger  a  deshonore  le  Parnasse  ;■"  yet 
their  numerous  editions  show  that  they  commended  them- 
selves not  only  to  his  contemporaries  but  to  succeeding 
scholars.  A  brief  tract  on  comic  metres  (De  Comicis 
Dimensionibus)  and  a  work  De  Causis  Lingtise  Latinx-, — 
the  earliest  Latin  grammar  on  scientific  principles,  and 
following  a  scientific  method— were  his  only  other  purely 
literary  works  published  in  his  lifetime.  His  Poetics  was 
left  unpublished,  and  only  appeared  in  1561  after  his 
death.  With  many  parado.'ies,  with  many  criticisms 
which  are  below  contempt,  and  many  indecent  displays  of 
violent  personal  animosity, — especially  in  his  reference  to 
the  unfortunate  Dqlet,  over  whose  death  he  gloated  with 
brutal  malignity, — it  yet  contains  much  acute  criticism, 
and  shows  that  for  the  first  time  a  writer  had  appeared 
who  had  formed  an  adequate  idea  of  what  such  a  treatise 
ought  to  be,  and  how  it  onght  to  be  written. 

But  it  is  as  a  philosopher  and  a  man  of  science  that, 
J.  C.  Scaliger  ought  to  be  judged.  His  tastes  were  for 
metaphysics  and  physics  rather  than  for  literature. 
Classical  studies  he  regarded  as  an  agreeable  relaxation 
from  severer  pursuits.  Whatever  the  truth  or  fable  of  the 
first  forty  years  of  his  life,  he  had  certainly  been  a  most 
close  ■  and  accurate  observer,  and  had  made  himself 
acquainted  with  many  curious  and  little-known  pheno- 
mena, which  he  had  stored  up  in  a  most  tenacious  memory, 
and  which  he  was  able  to  make  use  of  with  profit.  His 
scientific  writings  are  all  in  the  form  of  commentaries,  and 
it  was  not  until  his  seventieth  year  that  (with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  brief  tract  on  the  De  Insomniis  of  Hippocrates) 
fie  felt  that  any  of  them  were  sufficiently  complete  to  be 
given  to  the  world.  In  1556  he  printed  his  Dialogue  on 
the  De  Plantis  attributed  to  Aristotle,  and  in  1557  his 
Exercitatione's  on  the  work  of  Cardan,  De  Subtilitate.  His 
other  scientific  works,  Commentaries  on  Theophrastus's 
Historry  of  Plants  and  Aristotle's  History  of  Animals,  he 
left  in  a  more  or  less  unfinished  state,  and  they  were  not 
printed  until  after  his  death.  They  are  all  marked  by 
the  same  characteristics  :  arrogant  dogmatism,  violence  of 
language,  irritable  vanity,  a  constant  tendency  to  self- 
glorification,  which  we  expect  to  find  only  in  the  charlatan 
and  the  impostor,  are  in  him  combined  vrith  extensive  real 
knowledge,  with  acute  reasoning,  with  an  observation  of 
facts  and  details  almost  unparalleled.  He  displays  every- 
where what  Naude  calls  "  an  intellect  teeming  with  heroic 
thought."  But  he  is  only  the  naturalist  of  hisown  time. 
That  he  anticipated  in  any  manner  the  inductive  philo- 
sophy cannot  be  contended ;  his  botanical  studies  did  not 
lead  him,  like  his  contemporary  Gesnet,  to  any  idea  of  a 
natural  system  of  classification,  and  he  rejected  with  the 
utmost  arrogance  and  violence  of  language  the  discoveries 
of  Copernicus.  In  metaphysics  and  in  natural  history 
Aristotle  was  a  law  to  him,  and  in  medicine  Galen,  but 
he  was  not  a  slave  to  the  text  or  the  details  of  either.  He 
has  thoroughly  mastered  their  'principles,  and  is  able  to 
see  when  his  masters  are  not  true  to   themselves.     He 


corrects  Aristotle  by  himself.  He  is  in  that  stage  of 
learning  when  the  attempt  is  made  to  harmonize  the 
^vritten  word  with  the  actual  facts  of  nature,  and  the 
result  is  that  his  works  have  no  real  scientific  value. 
Their  interest  is  only  historical.  His  Exercitationes  upon 
the  De  Stibtilitate  of  Cardan  (1557)  is  the  book  by  which 
Scaliger  is  best  known  as  a  philosopher.  Its  numerous 
editions  bear  witness  to  its  popularity,  and  until  the  final 
fall  of  Aristotle's  physics  it  continued  a  popular  text-book; 
as  late  as  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  an 
elaborate  commentary  upon'it  was  published  by  Sperling, 
a  professor  at  Wittenberg.  We  are  astonished  at  the 
encyclopaedic  wealth  of  knowledge  which  the  Exercitationes 
display,  at  the  vigour  of  the  author's  style,  at  the  accuracy 
of  his  observations,  but  are  obliged  to  agree  with  Naudo 
that  he  has  committed  more  faults  than  he  has  discovered 
in  Cardan,  and  with  Nisard  that  his  object  seems  to  be  to 
deny  all  that  Cardan  affirms  and  to  affirm  all  that  Cardan 
denies.  Yet  it  is  no  light  praise  that  writers  like  Leibnitz 
and  Sir  William  Hamilton  recognize  J.  C.  Scaliger  as  the 
best  modern  exponent  of  the  physics  and  metaphysics  of 
Aristotle.     He  died  at  Agen  21st  October  1558. 

2.  Joseph  Justus  Scaxiger  (1540-1609),  the  great- 
est scholar  of  modern  times,  was  the  tenth  child  and 
third  son  of  Julius  Caesar  Scaliger  and  Andiette  de  la 
Roque  Lobejac  (see  above).  Born  at  Agen  in  1540,  he 
was  sent  when  twelve  years  of  age,  with  two  younger 
brothers,  to  the  college  of  Guienne  at  Bordeaux,  then 
under  the  direction  of  Jean  Gelida. ,  An  outbreak  of  the 
plague  in  1555  caused  the  boys  to  return  home,  and  for 
the  next  few  years  Joseph  was  his  father's  constant  com- 
panion and  amanuensis.  The  composition  of  Latin  verse 
was  the  chief  amusement  of  JuUus  in  his  later  years,  and 
he  daily  dictated  to  his  son  from  eighty  to  a  hundred 
lines,  and  sometimes  more.  Joseph  was  also  required 
each  day  to  write  a  Latin  theme  or  declamation,  but  in 
other  respects  he  seems  to  have  been  left  to  his  own 
devices.  The  Latin  verse  of  Julius,  faulty  as  it  is  in  all 
that  constitutes  poetry,  yet  displays  a  more  extensive 
knowledge  of  the  Latin  language,  and  a  greater  command 
of  its  resources,  than  is  to  be  found  in  the  verse  of 
any  of  his  contemporaries ;  and  this  co'nstant  practice  in 
writing  and  reading  or  speaking  Latin,  under  the  super- 
vision of  one  who  knew  the  language  thoroughly,  was 
probably  the  foundation  of  Joseph's  Latin  scholarship. 
But  the  companionship  of  his  father  was  worth  more  to 
him  than  any  mere  instruction.  He  learned  from  JuUua 
what  real  knowledge  was,  and  that  it  did  not  consist 
in  discussions  on  words  and  pTirases ;  and  to  his  father  he 
owed  it  that  he  was  not  a  mere  scholar,  but  something 
more — an  acute  observer,  never  losing  sight  of  the  actual 
world,  and  aiming  not  so  much  at  correcting  tests  as  at 
laying  the  foundation  of  a  science  of  historical  criticism. 

In  1558,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  he  proceeded  to  Paris, 
and  spent  four  years  at  the  university  there.  Of.  his  life 
at  Paris  we  know  but  little.  Hitherto  he  had  not  studied 
Greek.  Now  he  felt  that  not  to  know  Greek  was  to  know 
nothing.  It  was  in  the  literature  of  Greece  that  he  .must 
look;  for  the  true  key  of  antiquity,  and  he  forthwith  began 
to  attend  the  lectures  of  Turnebus.  But  after  two  months 
he  found  out  his  mistake.  He  had  much  to  learn  before 
he  could  be  in  a  position  to  profit  by  the  lectures  of  the 
greatest  Greek  scholar  of  the  time.  He  shut  himself ,  up 
in  his  chamber,  and  determined  to  teach  himself.  He 
read  Homer  in  twenty-one  days,  and  then  went  through 
all  the  other  Greek  poets,  orators,  and  historians,  forming 
a  grammar  for  himself  as  he  went  along.  From  Greek, 
at  the  suggestion  of  Postel,  he  proceeded  to  attack 
Hebrew,  and  then  Arabic;  of  both  he  acquired  a  respect- 
able knowledge,  though  not  the  critical  mastery  which  io 


SCALIGER 


353 


poesessed  in  Latin  and  '(}res3c  The  name  of  Dorat  then 
stood  as  high  as  that  of  Turnebus  as  a  Greek  scholar,  and 
far  higher  as  a  professor.  He  has  left  nothing  to  justify 
his  reputation  as  a  scholar ;  but  as  a  teacher  he  un- 
doubtedly possessed  the  highest  qualifications.  He  ■was 
able  not  only  to  impart  knowledge,  but  to  kindle  enthu- 
siasm for  his  subject  in  the  minds  of  his  hearers  and 
pupils.  It  was  to  Dorat  that  Scaliger  owed  the  home 
which  he  found  for  the  next  thirty  years  of  his  life.  In 
1563  the  professor  recommended  him  to  Louis  de 
Chastaigner,  the  young  lord  of  La  Roche  Pozay,  as  a 
companion  in  his  travels.  A  close  friendship  sprung  up 
between  the  two  young  men,  which  remained  unbroken 
till  the  death  of  Louis  in  1595.  The  travellers  first  pro- 
ceeded to  Rome.  Here  they  found  Muretus,  who,  when 
at  Bordeaux  and  Toulouse,  had  been  a  great  favourite 
and  occasional  visitor  of  Julius  C^sar  at  Agen.  Muretus 
soon  recognized  Scaliger's  merits,  and  devoted  himself  to 
making  his  stay  at  Rome  as  agreeable  as  possible,  intro- 
ducing him  to  all  the  men  that  were  worth  knowing. 
After  visiting  a  large  part  of  Italy,  the  travellers  passed 
to  England  and  Scotland,  taking  as  it  would  seem  La 
Roche  Pozay  on  their  way,  for  Scaliger's  preface  to  his 
first  book,  the  Conjectanea  in  Varronem,  is  dated  there  in 
December  1564.  Scaliger  formed  an  unfavourable  opinion 
of  the  English.  Their  inhuman  disposition,  and  inhos- 
pitable treatment  of  foreigners,  especially  impressed  him. 
He  wus  also  disappointed  in  finding  few  Greek  manu- 
scripts and  few  learned  men.  It  was  not  until  a  much 
later  period  that  he  became  intimate  with  Richard 
Thompson  and  other  Englishmen.  In  the  course  of  his 
travels  he  had  -become  a  Protestant.  His  father,  though 
he  lived  and  died  in  the  communion  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,  had  been  suspected  of  heresy,  and  it  is  probable 
that  Joseph's  sympathies  -were  early  enlisted  on  the  side 
of  Protestantism.  On  his  return  to  France  he  spent  three 
years  with  the  Chastaigners,  accompanying  them  to  their 
different  chateaux  in  Poitou,  as  the  calls  of  the  civil  war 
required  their  presence.  In  1570  he  accepted  the  invita- 
tion of  Cujas,  and  proceeded  to  Valence  to  study  juris- 
prudence under  the  greatest  living  jurist.  Here  ho  re- 
mained three  years,  profiting  not  only  by  the  lecturds  but 
even  more  by  the  library  of  Cujas,  which  filled  no  less 
than  se-ven  or  eight  rooms  and  included  five  hundred 
manuscripts. 

The  mas.»acre  of  St  Bartholomew — occurring  as  he  was 
about  to  accompany  the  bishop  of  Valence  on  an  embassy 
to  Poland — induced  him  with  other  Huguenots  to  retire 
to  Geneva,  where  he  was  received  with  open  arms,  and 
■was  appointed  a  professor  in  the  academy.  He  lectured 
on  the  Qrganon  of  Aristotle  and  the  De  Finihus  of  Cicero 
with  much  satisfaction  to  the  students  but  ■with  little  to 
himself.  Ho  hated  lecturing,  and  was  bored  to  death 
with  the  importunities  of  the  fanatical  preachers ;  and  in 
1574  ho  returned  to  France,  and  made  his  homo  for  the 
next  twenty  years  in  the  chateau.^  of  his  friend  the  lord  of 
La  Roche  Pozay.  Of  his  life  during  this  period  we  have 
for  the  first  time  interesting  details  and  notices  in  the 
Lellres  frani;aises  inedites  de  Joseph  Scaliger,  edited  by  M. 
Tamizey  de  Larroque  (Agen,  1881),  a  volume  which  adds 
much  to  our  knowledge  of  Scaliger's  life.  Constantly 
moving  from  chateau  to  chateau  through  Poitou  and  the 
Limousin,  as  the  exigencies  of  the  civil  ■war  required, 
occasionally  taking  his  turn  as  a  guard 'when  the  chateau 
was  attacked,  at  least  on  one  occasion  trailing  a  pike  on  an 
expedition  against  the  Leaguers,  with  no  access  to  libraries, 
and  frequently  separated  even  from  liis  own  books,  his  life 
during  this  period  seems  in  one  aspect  most  junsuited  to 
study.  He  had,  however,  what  so  few  contemporary 
srhclars  possessed — leisure,  and  freedom  from  pecuniary 


cares.  In  general  he  could  devote  his  whole  time  to 
study ;  and  it  was  during  this  period  of  his  life  that  he 
composed  and  published  the  books  which  showed  how  far 
he  was  in  advance  of  all  his  contemporaries  as  a  scholar 
and  a  critic,  and  that  with  him  a  new  school  of  historical 
criticism  bad  arisen.  His  editions  of  the  Calalecta  (1574), 
of  Festus  (1576),  of  Catullus,  Tibullus,  and  Propertiua 
(1577),  are  the  work  of  a  man  who  writes  not  only  books 
of  instruction  for  learners,  but  ■who  is  determined  himselt 
to  discover  and  communicate  to  others  the  real  meaning; 
and  force  of  bis  author.  Discarding  the  trivial  remaria 
and  groundiesg  suggestions  which  we  find  in  the  editions 
of  nearly  cU  his  contemporaries  and  predecessors,  he  fint 
laid  down  and  applied  sound  rules  of  criticism  and 
emendation,  and  changed  textual  criticism,  from  a  Eene« 
of  haphazard  and  frequently  baseless  guesses,  into  a 
■"  ratipnal  procedure  subject  to  fixed  laws"  (Pattison). 
But  these  works,  while  proving  Scaliger's  right  to  the 
foremost  place  among  his  contemporaries  as  far  as  Latin 
scholarship  and  criticism  were  concerned,  did  not  go  beyond 
mere  scholarship.  It  vras  reserved  for  his  edition  of 
Manilius  (1579),  and  his  Be F/nendaf tone  Temporum  (1583), 
to  revolutionize  all  the  received  ideas  of  the  chronology  of 
ancient  history, — to  show  for  the  first  time  that  ancient 
chronology  was  of  the  highest  importance  as  a  corrector 
as  well  as  a.  supplement  to  historical  narrative,  that 
ancient  history  is  not  confined  to  that  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  but  also  comprises  that  of  the  Persians,,  the 
Babylonians,  and  the  Egyptians,  hitherto  neglected  as 
absolutely  worthless,  and  that  of  the  Jews,  hitherto  treated 
as  a  thing  apart  and  too  sacred  to  be  mixed  up  with  the 
others,  and  that  the  historical  narratives  and  fragments 
of  each  of  these,  and  their  several  systems  of  chronology, 
must  be  carefully  and  critically  compared  together,  if  any 
true  and  general  conclusions  on  ancient  history  are  to  be 
arrived  at.  It  is  this  which  constitutes  his  true  glory, 
and  which  places  Scaliger  on  so  immeasurably  higher  an 
eminence  than  any  of  his  contemporaries.  Yet,  whUe  the 
scholars  of  his  time  admitted  Lis  pre-eminence,  neither 
they  nor  thosp  who  immediately  followed  seem  to  have 
appreciated  his  real  merit,  but  to  have  considered  his 
emendatory  criticism,  and  his  skill  in  Greek,  as  constitut- 
ing his  claim  to  special  greatness.  "  Scaliger's  great 
works  in  historical  criticism  had  overstepped  any  power 
of  appreciation  which  the  succeeding  age  possessed " 
(Pattison).  His  commentary  on  Manilius  is  really  a 
treatise  on  the  astronomy  of  the  ancients,  and  it  forms 
an  introduction  to  the  De  Emendatione  Temporum,  in  ■which 
Be  examines  by  the  light  of  modem  and  Copernican 
science  the  ancient  system  as  applied  to  epochs,  calendars, 
and  computations  of  time,  shomng  upon  what  principles 
they  ■were  based. 

In  the  remaining  twenty-four  years  of  his  life  he  at 
once  corrected  and  enlarged  the  basis  which  he  had  laid 
in  the  De  Emendatione.  With  incredible  patience,  some- 
times with  a  happy  audacity  of  conjecture  which  itself  is 
almost  genius,  ho  uucceeded  in  reconstructing  the  lost 
Chronicle  of  Eusobius — one  of  the  most  precious  remains 
of  antiquity,-  and  of  tho  highest  value  for  ancient 
chronology.  This  ho  printed  in  IGOG  in  his  Thesaurus 
Temporum,  in  which  he  collected,  restored,  and  arranged 
every  chronological  relic  extant  in  Greek  or  Latin.  ,  In 
1590  Lipsius  retired  from  Lcydon,  where  for  twelve  years 
lie  had  been  professor  of  Roman  history  and  antiquities. 
The  university  and  its  protectors,  tho  states-general  of 
Holland  and  tho  prince  of  Orange,  resolved  to  obtain 
Scaliger  as  his  successor.  Ho  declined  their  offer.  He 
haled  the  thought  of  lecturing,  and  there  ■were  those 
among  his  friends  who  erroneously  believed  that  with 
the  success  of  Henry  IV.    learning  would  flourish,  and 


364 


SOALIGER 


Protestantism  be  no  bar  to  distinction  and  advancement. 
The  invitation  was  renewed  in  the  most  gratifjring  and 
flattering  manner  a  year  later.  Scaliger  would  not  be 
required  to  lecture.  Tlie  university  only  wished  for  hia 
presence.  He  woald  be  in  all  respects  the  master  of  hia 
time.  This  offer  Scaliger  provisionally  accepted.  About 
the  middle  of  1593  he  started  for  Holland,  where  he 
passed  the  remaining  thirteen  years  of  his  life,  never 
returning  to  France.  His  reception  at  Leyden  was  all 
that  he  cooid  wisL  A  handsome  income  was  assured  to 
him.  He  was  treated  with  the  highest  consideration. 
His. rank  as  a  prince  of  Verona  was  recognized.  Placed 
midway  between  The  Hague  and  Amsterdam,  he  was  able 
to  obtain,  besides  the  learned  circle  of  Leyden,  the  advant- 
ages of  the  best  society  of  both  these  capitals.  For 
Scaliger  was  no  hermit  buried  among  his  books ;  he  was 
fond  of  social  intercourse  with  persons  of  merit  and 
intelligence,  and  was  himself  a  good  talker. 

For  the  first  seven  years  of  his  residence  at  Leyden  his 
reputation  was  at  its  highest  point.  His  literary  dictator- 
ship was  unquestioned.  It  was  greater  in  kind  and  in 
extent  than  that  of  any  man  since  the  revival  of  letters — 
greater  even  than  that  of  Erasmus  had  been.  From  his 
throne  at  Leyden  he  ruled  the  learned  world,  and  a  word 
from  Kim  could  make  or  mar  a  rising  reputation.  The 
electric  force  of  his  genius  drew  to  him  aU  the  rising 
talent  of  the  republic.  He  was  surrounded  by  young 
men  eager  to  listen  to  and  profit  by  his  conversation,  and 
he  enjoyed  nothing  better  than  to  discuss  with  them  the 
books  they  were  reading,  and  the  men  who  wrote  them, 
and  to  open  up  by  his  suggestive  remarks  the  true 
methods  and  objects  of  philological  and  historical  study. 
Hfl  encouraged  Grotius  when  only  a  youth  of  sixteen  to 
ndit  Capella;  the  early  death  of  the  younger  Douza  be  wept 
as  that  of  a  beloved  son  ;  Daniel  Heinsius,  from  being 
his  favourite  pupil,  became  his  most  intimate  friend. 
But  Scaliger  had  made  numerous  enemies.  He  hated 
ignorance,  but  he  hated  still  more  half  learning,  and  most 
of  all  dishonesty  in  argument  or  in  quotation.  Himself 
the  soul  of  honour  and  truthfulness,  with  a  single  aim  in 
all  his  writings,  namely,  to  arrive  at  the  truth,  he  had  no 
toleration  for  the  disingenuous  arguments,  and  the  Tuis- 
Statements  of  facts,  of  those  who  wrote  to  support  a  theory 
or  to  defend  an  unsound  cause.  Neither  in  liis  conversa- 
tion nor  in  hia  writings  did  he  conceal  his  contempt  for 
the  ignorant  and  the  dishonest.  His  pungent  sarcasms  were 
soon  carried  to  the  ears  of  the  persons  of  whom  they  were 
uttered,  and  his  pen  was  not  less  bitter  than  his  tongue. 
He  resembles  his  father  in  his  arrogant  tone  towards 
those  whom  he  despises  and  those  whom  he  hates,  and 
he  despises  and  hates  all  who  differ  from  him.  He  is 
conscious  of  his  power  as  a  literary  dictator,  and  not 
always  sufficiently  cautious  or  sufficiently  gentle  in  its 
exercise.  Nor,  it  must  be  admitted,  was  Scaliger  always 
right.  He  trusted  much  to  his  memory,  which  was 
occasionally  treacherous.  His  emendations,  if  frequently 
happy,  were  sometimes  absurd.  In  laying  the  foundations 
of  a  science  of  ancient  chronology,  he  relied  sometimes 
upon  groundless,  .sometimes  even  upon  absurd  hypotheses, 
frequently  upon  an  imperfect  induction  of  facts.  Some- 
times he  misunderstood  the  astronomical  science  of  the 
ancients,  sometimes  that  of  Copernicus  and  Tycho  Brahe. 
And  he  was  no  mathematician.  But  his  enemies  were  not 
merely  those  whose  errors  he  had  exposed,  and  whose 
hostility  he  had  excited  by  the  violence  of  his  language. 
The  results  of  his  system  of  historical  criticism  had  been 
adverse  to  the  Catholic  controversialists,  and  to  the 
authenticity  of  many  of  the  documents  upon  which  they 
ha'd  been  accustomed  to  rely.  The  Jesuits,  who  aspired 
to    be    the   expounders  of  antiquity,   the   source   of   all 


scholarship  and  criticism,  perceived  that  the  writings  and 
authority  of  Scaliger  were  the  most  formidable  barrier  to 
their  claims,  It  was  the  day  of  conversions.  Muretm 
in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  professed  the  strictest  ortho- 
doxy ;  Lipsius  had  been  reconciled  to  the  Church  of  Home ; 
Casaubon  was  supposed  to  be  wavering ;  but  Scaliger  was 
known  to  be  hopeless,  and  as  long  as  his  supremacy  was 
unquestioned  the  Protestants  had  the  victory  in  learning 
and  scholarship.  A  determined  attempt  must  be  made,  if 
not  to  answer  his  criticisms,  or  to  disprove  his  statements, 
yet  to  attack  him  as  a  man,  and  to  destroy  his  reputatiot. 
This  was  no  easy  task,  for  his  moral  character  was  ab- 
solutely spotless. 

After  several  scurrilous  attacks  by  the  Jesuit  party,  in 
which  coarseness  and  violence  were  more  conspicuous  than 
ability,  in  1607  a  new  and  more  successfiil  attempt  was 
made.  Scaliger's  weak  point  was  his  pride.  Brought,  up 
by  his  father,  whom  he  greatly  reverenced,  in  the  belief 
that  he  was  a  prince  of  Verona,  he  never  forgot  this  him- 
self, nor  suffered  it  to  be  forgotten,  by  others.  Naturally 
truthful,  honourable,  and  virtuous  in  every  respect,  he 
conceived  himself  especially  bound  to  be  so  on  account  of 
his  illustrious  ancestry.  In  1594,  in  an  evil  hour  for  his 
happiness  and  his  reputation,  he  published  his  Epist6la  de 
Vetustaie  et  Splendore  Geniis  Scaligera:  et  J.  C.  Scaligeri 
Vita.  In  1607  Caspar  Seioppius,  then  in  the  service  of 
the  Jesuits,  whom  he  afterwards  so  bitterly  libelled, 
published  his  Scaliger  Jlypobolimxus  ("The' Supposititious 
Scaliger"),  a  quarto  volume  of  more  than  four  hundred 
pages,  written  with  consummate  ability,  in  an  admirable 
and  incisive  style,  with  the  entire  disregard  for  truth 
which  Seioppius  always  displayed,  and  with  all  the  power 
of  that  sarcasm  in  which  he  was  an  accomplished  master 
Every  piece  of  gossip  or  scandal  which  could  be  raked 
together  respecting  Scaliger  or  his  family  is  to  be  found 
there.  The  author  professes  to  point  out  five  hundred  lies 
in  the  Epistola  de  Vetustaie  of  Scaliger,  but  the  main 
argument  of  the  book  is  to  show  the  .falsity  of  hia 
pretensions  to  be  of  the  family  of  La  Scala,  and  of  the 
narrative  of  his  father's  early  life,  and  to  hold  up  both 
father  and  son  to  contempt  and  ridicule  as  impudent 
impostors.  "  No  stronger  proof,"  says  Mr  Pattison,  "  can 
be  given  of  the  impressions  produced  by  this  powerful 
philippic,  dedicated  to  the  defamation  of  an  individual, 
than  that  it  has  been  the  source  from  which  the  biography 
of  Scaliger,  as  it  now  stands  in  our  biographical  collections, 
has  mainly  flowed.''  To  Scaliger  .the  blow  was  crushing. 
Whatever  the  case  as  to  Juhus,  Joseph  had  undoubtedly 
believed  himself  a  prince  of  Verona,  and  in  his  Epistola 
had  put  forth  with  the  most  perfect  good  faith,  and 
without  inquiry,  all  that  he  had  heard  from  his  father  as 
to  his  family  and  the  early  life  of  Julius.  It  was  this 
good  faith  that  laid  the  way  for  his  humiliation.  His 
Epistola  is  full  of  blunders  and  mistakes  of  fact,  and, 
relying  partly  on  his  own  memory  partly  on  his  father's 
good  faith,  he  has  not  verified  one  of  the  statements  of 
Julius,  most  of  which,  to  speak  most  favourably,  are 
characterized  by  rhodomontade,  exaggeration,  or  inaccuracy. 
He  immediately  wrote  a  reply  to  Seioppius,  entitled 
Confutatio  Fabidx  Burdomim.  It  is  written,  for  ScaiigeiJ 
with  unusual  moderation  and  good  taste,  but  perhaps  for 
that  very  reason  had  not  the  success  which  its  author 
wished  and  even  expected.  In  the  opinion  of  the  highest 
and  most  competent  authority,  Mr  Pattison,  "as  a 
refutation  of  Seioppius  it  is  most  complete"';  but  there  are 
certainly  grounds  for  dissenting,  though  with  diffidence, 
from  this  judgment.  Scaliger  undoubtedly  shows  that 
Seioppius  has  committed  more  blunders  than  he  has 
corrected,  that  his  book  literally  bristles  with  pure  lies 
and    baseless   calumnies  ;   but   be.  does     not   succeed  Ib 


S  C  A  — S  C  A 


365 


adducing  a  single  proof  either  of  his  father's  descent  from 
the  La  Scala  family,  or  of  any  single  event  narrated  by 
Julius  as  happening  to  himself  or  any  member  of  his 
family  prior  to  his  arrival  at  Agen.  Nor  does  he  even 
attempt  a  refutation  of  what  seems  reHlly  to  be  the  crucial 
point  in  the  whole  controversy,  and  which  Scioppius  had 
proved,  as  far  as  a  negative  can  be  proved, — namely,  that 
William,  the  last  prince  of  Verona,  had  no  son  Nicholas, 
the  alleged  grandfather  of  Julius,  nor  indeed  any  son  who 
could  have  been  such  grandfather.  But  whether  complete 
or  not,  the  Confutaiio  had  no  success  ;  the  attack  of  the 
Jesuits  was  successful,  far  more  so  than  they  could  possibly 
have  hoped.  Scioppius  was  wont  to  boast  that  his  book  had 
killed  Scaliger.  It  certainly  embittered  the  few  remaining 
months  of  his  life,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  mortifi- 
cation which  he  suffered  may  have  shortened  his  days.  The 
Confutaiio  was  his  last  work.  Five  months  after  it  a[>- 
peared,  "on  the  21st  of  January,  1609,  at  four  in  the 
morning,  he  fell  asleep  in  Hcinsius's  arms.  The  aspiring 
spirit  ascended  before  the  Infinite.  The  most  richly  stored 
intellect  which  had  ever  spent  itself  in  acquiring  know- 
ledge was  in  the  presence  of  the  Omniscient"  (Pattison). 

Of  Joseph  Scaliger  the  only  biography  in  any  way  adequate  is 
that  of  Jacob  Bernaya  (Berlin,  1855).  It  was  reviewed  by  the 
late  Mark  Pattison  in  an  excellent  article  iu  the  Quarterly  Review, 
vol.  eviii.  (1860).  Itr  Pattison  had  made  many  MS.  collections 
for  a  life  of  Joseph  Scaliger  on  a  much  more  extensive  scale, 
which  it  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  he  left  unfinished,  and  in  too 
fragmentary  a  state  to  be  published.  The  present  writer  has  had 
access  to  and  made  much  use  of  these  MSS.,  which  include  a  life 
of  Julius  Ciesar  Scaliger  written  some  years  since.  For  the  life 
of  Joseph,  besides  the  recently  published  lettefs  above  referred 
to,  the  two  old  collections  of  Latin  and  French  letters  and  the 
two  Scaligerana  are  the  most  important  sources  of  information. 
For  the  life  of  Julius  Ciesar  the  letters  edited  by  his  son,  those 
subsequently  published  in  1620  by  the  President  do  Maussac,  the 
Scaligerana,  and  his   own    writings,  which   are   full  of  autobio- 

nhical  matter,  are  the  chief  authorities.  M.  De  Bourousse  de 
jre'.s  i:iude  iur  Jules  Cisar  de  Lcscale  (Agen,  1860)  and  M. 
Magen's  Documents  sur  Julius  Caesar  Scaliger  et  sa  famille  (Agen, 
1873)  add  important  details  for  the  lives  of  both  father  and  son. 
The  Uvea  by  M.  Charles  Nisard^^that  of  Julius  in  Les  Gladiateurs 
de  la  Rf-puhlique  des  Zettres,  and  that  of  Joseph  in  Le  Triumvirat 
LitUraire  au  seiziime  siicle — are  equally  unworthy  of  their  author 
and  their  subjects.  Julius  is  simply  held  up  to  ridicule,  while 
the  life  of  Joseph  is  almost  wholly  based  on  the  book  of  Scioppius 
and  the  Scaligernna.  A  complete  list  of  the  works  of  Joseph  will 
te  found  in  his  life  by  Bernays.  (R.  C.  C.) 

SCAMMONY.  Under  this  name  the  dried  juice  of  the 
root  of  Convolvulus  Scammonia,  L.  (aKa/jLuivia),  is  used  in 
medicine.^  It  appears  to  have  been  known  to  the  Greeks 
as  early  as  the  3d  century  B.C.,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  one  of  the  medicines  recommended  to  Alfred  the 
Great  by  Helias,  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  {Cockayne  Leech- 
doms,  vol.  ii.  pp.  xxiv.,  289,  175;  273,  281).  The  scam- 
mony  plant  is  a  native  of  the  countries  of  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Mediterranean  basin,  growing  in  bushy  waste 
places,  from  Syria  in  the  south  to  the  Crimea  in  the  north, 
:ts  range  extending  westward  to  the  Greek  island.s,  but 
not  to  northern  Africa  or  Italy.  It  is  a  twining  perennial, 
bearing  flowers  like  those  of  Convolvulus  arvensis,  and 
having  irregularly  arrow-shaped  leaves  and  a  thick  fleshy 
root  The  drug  is  collected  principally  in  A.sia  Minor,  and 
near  Aleppo  in  Syria,  although  a  little  is  obtained  from  the 
neighbourhood  of  Mount  Carniel  and  the  Lake  of  Tiberias. 
The  principal  places  o*  export  are  Smyrna  and  Aleppo 
(Scanderooii),  but  the  drug  often  bears  in  commerce  the 
name  of  the  district  v.hcro  it  was  collected,  e.;/.,  Brous.sa, 
Angora,  itc.  Formerly  Aleppo  scammony  was  considered 
the  best  and  commanded  the  highest  price,  but  at  present 
the  purest  article  comes  from  Smyrna.  The  very  variable 
quality  of  the  drug  has  led  to  the  use  of  the  rosin  prepared 
directly  from  the  root,  which  affords  it  to  the  extent  of  tih 

V  It  was  formerly  called  diagrydion,  probably  from  Sefxpu,  a  tear, 
IB  allosiaa  to  the  manner  the  juico  oxados  from  the  lncisu<l  root 


per  cent.,  and  an  establishment  for  its  manufacture  was 
founded  at  Broussa  in  1870.  The  dried  root  is  also 
exported  to  England,  and  the  resin  prepared  from  it 
there.  By  purification  the  resin  can  be  obtained  almost 
white.  The  crude  resin  obtained  from  the  root,  being 
free  from  gum,  does  not  present  a  milky  appearance 
■when  rubbed  with  a  wetted  finger,  and  is  thus  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  the  natural  product. 

Scammony  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  safe  but  energetic 
purgative,  and  is  frequently  prescribed  in  combinatioa 
with  calomel  and  colocynth.  Its  medicinal  activity  is 
due  to  the  resin  scammonin,  which  is  also  called  jalapin 
from  its  occurrence  in  the  root  of  the  male  jalap  (Ipomiea 
orizabensis),  and  of  Tampico  jalap  (/.  simulans)  (see  Jaxap). 
The  export  of  scammony  from  Smyrna  in  1881  was  only  97 
boxes,  valued  at  £544,  the  amount  having  decreased  of  late 
years  owing  to  the  increased  export  of  the  root  from  Sjrria. 
More  than  half  of  this  quantity  was  taken  by  England, 
about  one-fourth  by  France,  and  the  remainder  by  Italy, 
America,  and  Austria. 

The  drug  is  obtained  from  the  root  by  slicing  off  obliquely  one 
or  two  inches  from  the  crown  and  allowing  the  milky  juice  which 
exudes  to  drain  into  a  small  shei'l  (generally  that  of  a  freshwater 
mussel),  which  is  inserted  in  the  root  just  below  the  base  of  the 
incision.  To  prevent  the  juice  from  becoming  soiled,  the  earth  is 
scraped  away  so  as  to  leave  exposed  four  or  five  inches  of  the  root. 
The  shells  are  collected  in  the  evening  and  their  contents  emptied 
into  a  copper  or  leathern  vessel, — the  scrapings  from  the  surface  of 
the  root,  consisting  of  partially  dried  tears,  being  added.  On  the 
average,  about  one  drachm  is  afforded  by  each  incision;  a  plant  four 
years  old  may  give  two  drachms  ;  in  rare  cases  as  much  as  twelve 
drachms  has  been  obtained  from  arsingle  large  root.  The  collection 
usually  takes  place  when  the  plant  is  in  flower  towards  th«  end  of 
summer.  The  product  of  different  roots  naturally  varies  in  quality, 
and  the  peasants  therefore,  on  arrival  at  their  homes,  render  it 
uniform  by  mixing  it  with  a  knife.  It  is  then  spread  out  in  the 
air  to  dry.  Sometimes  the  gathering  of  several  days  is  allowed  to 
accumulate,  and  then  moistened,  kneaded,  and  made  up  into  cakes. 
During  the  drying  it  appears  to  undergo  a  kind  of  fermentationr 
which  gives  the  drug  a  slightly  porous  appearance  and  dark  colour. 
Frequently  it  is  adulterated  by  adding  40  per  cent,  of  flour  and 
earthy  matter.  It  then  assumes  a  paler  colour  and  opaque  appear- 
ance, and  loses  its  brittleness.  This  adulterated  article  is  known  as 
"  skilip,"  and  the  pure  article  as  "virgin  "  scammony.  The  latter 
is  met  with  in  the  form  of  flattened  pieces  half  an  inch  or  more  in 
thickness,  with  a  blackish,  resinous  fracture,  thin  fragments  being 
translucent.  Externally  it  is  often  covered  with  a  greyish  powder. 
The  odour,  when  a  piece  is  freshly  broken,  is  cheesy;  when  chewed, 
it  leaves  an  acrid  sensation  in  the  throat.  Scammony  of  good 
quality  .'.nould  yield  to  ether  80  to  90  per  cent,  of  resin;  the  remain- 
der consists  of  gum  and  mineral  matter. 

SCANDERBEG,  i.e.,  Iskander  (Alexander)  Bey,  is 
the  Tuckish  name  and  title  of  George  Castriota,  the 
youngest  son  of  John  Castriota,  lord  of  an  hereditary  prin- 
cipality in  Albania.  He  was  born  about  the  year  1 404, 
and  as  a  boy  was  sent  as  a  hostage  to  the  Ottoman  court, 
where  he  was  brought  up  as  a  Mohammedan  for  the 
Turkish  military  service.  He  early  distinguished  himself 
as  a  soldier  and  received  high  promotion  under  Amurath 
II.  In  1443  he  was  of  the  expedition  against  the  Mag- 
yars, but  shortly  after  taking  the  field  he  hoard  of  his 
father's  death  and  resolved  to  strike  a  blow  for  freedom. 
Availing  himself  of  the  opportunity  afforded  by  John 
Hunyady's  defeat  of  the  Turks  at  Nish,  he  forced  from 
the  principal  secretary  of  the  sultan  a  firman  making  him 
governor  of  Oroya,  his  native  town,  and  forthwith  left  the 
camp  with  300  Albanian  horsemen.  Once  master  of  the 
place,  he  abjured  Islam  and  proclaimed  his  independence. 
The  Albanians  soon  recognized  him  as  their  head,  and 
flocked  to  his  standard,  and  pa.sha  after  pasha  was  vainly 
sent  to  cru.'ih  him.  Amurath  II.  in  person  unsuccessfully 
besieged  him  in  1450,  and  Mohammed  II.  found  it  neces- 
sary to  grant  him  favourable  terms  of  peace  in  1461. 
Instigated  by  the  legates  of  Pius  II.  and  the  nmbas-sadora 
of  the  Venetian  republic,  Scanderbcg  again  proclaimed 
war  in   1404,  aud  at  least  was  succoasful  in  repelling  the 


366 


S  G  A  — a  (J  A 


Bultan,  who  tad  invaded  Albania.  He  died  in  January 
1467  at  Alessio,  leaving  an  infant  son  named  John,  whom 
be  commended  to  the  caio  of  the  Venetians.  After  a  twelve 
years'  war,  the  Turkslinally  gained  possession  of  Croya,  the 
representatives  of  Scanderbeg  settling  in  Calabria. 

SCANDEROON  (IscandeeOn),  of  Alkxandretta,  lies 
girdled  by  green  hills  on  the  picturesque  bay  of  the  same 
name,  the  ancient  Sinus  Issictis,  at  the  extreme  north 
of  the  Syj'""  '•oftat,  where  it  forms  an  angle  with  that  of 
Asia  Minor.  Alesandretta  succeeded  an  older  town  ol 
Alexandria  (Little  Alexandria),  founded  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  but  does  not  perhaps  occupy-quite  the  same  site. 
The  harbour  is  the  best  on  the  Syrian  coast,  and  steamers 
call  at  it  regularly,  but  the  town  is  scourged  with  fever 
and  has  only  some  2500  inhabitants,  mainly  Greek 
Christians.  It  is  the  port  of  Aleppo,  and  would  naturally 
be  the  port  of  an  "Euphrates  railway." 

SCANDINAVIAN  LANGUAGES.  By  this  expres- 
sion we  understand  the  closely  allied  languages  which  are 
and  have  been  spoken  by  the  Germanic  population  ia 
Scandinavia,  and  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  countries  that 
ha»e  beea  wholly  or  partially  peopled  from  it  At  present 
the  territory  of  these  languages  embraces— ^Sweden,  except 
the  most  northerly  part  (Lapland  and  inland  parts  of' 
Vesterbotten,  where  Finnish  and  Lappish  exclusively  or 
chiefly  prevail);  certain  islands  and  districts  on  the  coast 
of  western  and  southern  Finland,  as  well"  as  Aland;'  a 
small  tract  on  the  coast  of  Esthonia,  where  Swedish  is 
spoken,  as  it  is  also  to  some  extent  in  the  Esthonian  islands 
of  Dago, 'Nargo,  Nukko,  Ormso,  and  Rago;-  Gammal- 
svenskby  ( "  Galsvenskbi ")  in  southern  Russia  (govern- 
ment .of  Kherson),'  a  village  colonized  from  Dago ;  the 
Livonian  island-  of  Runo,''  where  Swedish  is  spoken,  as  it 
formerly  was  on  the  island  of  Osel;  Norway,  except 
certain  regions  in  the  northern  part  of  the  country, 
peopled  by  Finns  and  Lapps  (diocese  of  Tromso) ;  Den- 
mark, with  the  Faroes,  Iceland,  and  Greenland,  where, 
however,  Danish  is  only  spoken  by  a  very'  small  part  of 
the  population;  the  northernmost  part  of  Schleswig';  and, 
finally,  several  Scandinavian  colonies  in  the  United  States 
of  North  America.  Scandinavian  dialects  have  besides 
been  spoken  for  varying  periods  in  the  following  places  : 
Norwegian  in  certain  parts  of  Ireland  (800-1300  a.d.) 
and  northern  Scotland,  in  the  Isle  of  Man,-  the  Hebrides 
(800-1400,  or  longer),  the  Shetland  Islands  (800-1800), 
and  the  Orkneys  (800-1800);=*  Danish 'in  the  whole  of 
Schleswig,  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  England  (the 
"Danelag"),  and  in  Normandy  (900-1000,  or  a  little 
longer)  ;6  Swedish  in  Russia  (from  the  end  of  the  9th  to 
the  beginning  of  the  11th  century).'^  At  what  epoch  the 
Germanic  population  settled  in  Scandinavia  we  cannot  as 
yet  even  approximately  decide.  It  is  quite  certain,  how- 
ever, that  it  already  existed  there  before  the  Christian 
era, — nay,  most  probably  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the 
so-called  Stone  Age  (three  thousand  years  before  Christ). 

'  See  A.  O. '  Freudentbal,  Om,  Si'enska  allmog'emalet  i  Njfitmd, 
1870;  tJAer  den  Niirjiesdiahct,  UTS. 

-  A.  0.  Freudentbal,  Vpphjsningar  om  RirrS-  cch  WichterpaTmAlel, 
1S75  ;  H.  Vendell,  LaiU-  und  Formtchre  der  Schwedisclien Mundarten 
i'l  den  Kirchspklcn  Ormso  mid  Nukkii,  1881. 

'  H. 'Vendell,  "Om  och  fiin  Gammalsvenskby"  (Finsk  Tidskrifl, 
1882).  ■>  H.  Vendeli,  Runooiilcls  Ijud-  och/ormlara,  1SS2-6. 

'J.  J.  A,  'Worsaae,  Minder  oni  dc  Danske  eg  Jfordma.'ndene  i 
England,  Skotland,  eg  Irhtnd,  1851  ;  A.  t^aurensen  and  K.  J. 
Lyngby,  "Om  sproget  paa  Hjaltlandsoerne"  {Ann.  f.  Nord.  Oldkynd,, 
1860) ;  P.  A.  Munch,  Samlede  Afhandiingcr,  iii.,  iv.,  1875-76. 

»  'Worsaae,  I.e.;  J.  C.  H.  R.  Steeustrup,  Danelfig,  1882;  Es. 
Tegner,  "Norrman  eller  Danskar  i  Normandie,"  and  "Ytterligare 
om  de  nordiska  ortnamnen.i  Normandie  "' (^Vorrfi'sft  Tidskrift,  1884). 

'  'V.  Thomson,  Ryska  rikeis  grundlaggning  genom  Skandinaverna, 
1882  {Tlie  Relations  between^  Ancient  Russia  and  Scandinavia, 
1877) ;  S.  Bugge,  "Oldsvenske  name  i  Rusland"  (Arkiv/or  Aordisk 
Filoloni,  ii.  1885). 


If  this  view  be  correct,  the  Scandinavian  languages  hase 
had  an  existence  of  more  than  four  thousand  years.* 
But  we  do  not  know  anything  about  tbeni  during  the 
period  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  It  is  onfy  from  that 
epoch  we  can  get  any  information  concerning  the  language 
of  the  old  Scandinavians,  which  seems  by  that  time  not 
only  to  have  spread  over  Denmark  and  great  parts  of 
southern  and  middle  Sweden  and  of  (southern)  Norway, 
but  also  to  have  reached  Finland  (at  least  Ny)«.nd)  and 
Esthonia.  In  spite  of  its  extensiori  over  this  con'^iderable 
geogi-aphical  area,  the  language  appears  to  have  bees 
fairly  homogeneous  throughout  the  whole  territory.  Con- 
sequently, it  may  be  regarded  as  a  uniform  langu'ige,  the 
mother  of  the  younger  Scandinavian  tongues,  and  accord- 
ingly has  been  named  the  primitive  Scandinavian  'umai^ 
disk)  language.  The  oldest  sources  of  our  knowledge  of 
this  tongue  are  the  words  which  were  borrowed  touring 
the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  (some  of  them 
perhaps  even  earlier)  by  the  Lapps  from  the  inhab  tents 
of  central  Sweden  and  Norway,  and  by  the  Finns  from 
their  neighbours  in  Finland  and  Esthonia,  and  wbidb 
have  been  preserved  i-n  Finnish  and  Lappish  down  to  our 
own  days.8  These  borrowed  words,  denoting  chiefly 
utensils  belonging  to  a  fairly  advanced  stage  of  culture, 
amount  to  several  hundreds,  with  a  phonetie  form  of  a 
very  primitive  stamp  ;  as  Finn,  ierva  (0.  Sw.  tisera,  Germ. 
tlieer),  tar;  oiVo  (O.  Sw.  ar),  oar;  l-ansa  (O.  H.  G.  kansa), 
pnople ;  ■  napakaira  {O.  H.  G.  nabager,  O.  Sw.  navar), 
auger;  nukla  (Got.  nc\ila,  O.  Sw.  nal),  needle;  ansas  (Got 
ans,  O.  Sw.  as),  beam ;  Lapp  sajet  (Got.  saian,  O.  Sw. 
so),  sow ;  garves  (O.  H.  G.  garavjer,  O.  Sw.  gor),  finished ; 
divres  (O.  Sax.  diuri,  0.  Sw.  dyr),  dear ;  saipo  (O.  H.  G. 
s«ifa,  Sw.  sapa),  soap.  These  words,. with  those  mentioned 
by  contemporary  Roman  and  Greek  authors,  are  the  oldest 
existing  traces  of  any  Germanic  language.  Wrested  from 
their  context,  however,  they  throw  but  little  light  on  the 
nature  of  the  original  northern  tongue.  But  a  series  of 
linguistic  monuments  have  come  down  to  us  dating  from 
the  end  of  the  so-called  early  Iron  Age  (about  450  a.d.), — 
the  knowledge  and  the  use  of  the  oldest  runic  alphabet 
(with  twenly-four  characters)  having  at  that  period  been 
propagated  among  the  Scandinavians  by  the  southern 
Germanic  tribes.  In  fact  we  still  possess,  preserved  down 
to  our  own  times,  primitive  northern  runic  inscriptions, 
the  oldest  upon  the  utensils  found  at  Tkorsbjerg,  dating 
back  to  about  300  a.d.'",  which,  together  with  the  MS. 
fragments  of-Ulfila's  Gothic  translation  of  the  Bible, 
about  two  hundred  years  later  in  date,  constitute  tl« 
oldest  veritable  monuments  of  any '  Germanic  tongue. 
These  runic  inscriptions  are  for  the  most  part  found  on 
stone-monuments  (sometimes  on  rocks)  and  bracteates  (gold 
coins  stamped  on  one  side  and  used  for  ornaments),  aa 
well  as  on  metallic  and  wooden  utensils,  weapons,  and 
ornaments.'^  Up  to  this,  time  there  have  been  -discovered 
more  than  one  hundred,  but  of  these  only  about  one-talf 
give  us  any  information  concerning  the  language,  and 
most  of  them  are  only  too  short  The  longest  one,  the 
stone-monument  of  Tune,  in  south-eastern  Norway,  con- 
tains only  sixteen  words.  Their  language  is  somewhat 
later  in  character  than  that  of  the  oldest  words  borrowed 
by  the  Lr^pps  and  Finns:  accented  e,  f-jr  example,  ia 
already  changed  into  a  (cf.  mariR  —  Goth,  mers,  renowned ; 
but  the  Fjnn.  borrowed  word  nekla  =  Goth,  nepla,  needle), 
and  the  yoiced  «  into  a  kindi  of  r  (cf.  dagaiC=  Goth,  daas, 

^  O.   Moiitelius,    "Cm   v4ra  forfaders    invandring  tiJl   Norden'* 
{Nordisk  Tidskri/t,  1884). 

'  W.  Thomsen,  Ueber  den  Einfluss  der  Qerm.  Sprachen  avf  dit 
FiTinisch-Lappischen,  1870. 

'"  O.  NonieMwa,  Die  KultuTSchwedens  in  vorchriatliche'r.Zeit,  1885. 
•  "  See  the  plates  in  G.  Stephens's  HanctOook  or'  Old  J/ort/tern  liunif 
Monuinents,  1884. 


«OAiSDINAVIAN     LANGUAGES 


367 


day  ;  but  Finn,  armas  =  Goth,  ar^,  ijoor).  On  tho  other 
hand,  in  all  essential  matters  it  is  much  earlier  in  character 
than  the  language  of  contemporary  Gothic  manuscripts, 
and  no  doubt  approaches  more  nearly  than  any  Germanic 
idiom  the  primitive  form  of  the  Germanic  tongue.  For 
the  sake  of  compaiison,  we  give  a  Gothic  translation  of  one 
of  the  oldest  of  the  primitive  Scandinavian  inscriptions, 
that  on  the  golden  horn  of  Galle/nus,  fonnd  on  the. Danish- 
German  frontier,  and  dating  from  about  400  a.d.  : — 

Scand.:  ek  nuwAOAjsrii^.  holtingaT?.  hoi'.na.  tawido; 

Goth.:  ikhUugasis.  hulliggs.  haiirn.  lamida ; 

Engl. :  I,  Hlewagastia,  son  of  Holta,  made  tho  horn ; 

as   well   as  the   inscription    on   the  stone-monument   of 
Jiirsbdrg  in  western  Sweden,  which  is  at  least  a  hundred 
years  later : — 
Scand.  ;  ttbilB  ErrE.     H-VRAbana/^  wrr  iah  ek  erilaJJ  auNoiS 

WAKITU  ;  » 

Goth.  :  ufar  hila,  hrains  witjah  ik  airih  rUnds  wrUu; 
Engl.;  In  memoryof  Hitaa,  "VVe  both,  HarabauaK  and  I  ErilaR, 
WTote  tho  runes. 
Although  -very  brief,  and  not  yet  thoroughly  inter- 
preted,^ these  primitive  Scandinavian  inscriptions  are 
nevertheless  sufficient  to  enable  us  to' determine  with  some 
certainty  the  relation  which  the  language  in  which  they 
are  written  bears  to  other  languages.  Thus  it  is  proved 
that  it  belongs  to  the  Germanic  family  of  the  Indo-Euro- 
pean stock  of  languages,  of  which  -it  constitutes  an  inde- 
pendent and  individual  branch.  Its  nearest  relation  being 
the  Gothic,  these  two  branches  are  sometimes  taken 
together  under  the  general  denomination  Eastern  Germanic, 
as  opposed  to  the  other  Germanic  idioms  (German,  English, 
Dutch,  <kc.),  which  are  then  called  Wesleiti  Germanic. 
The  most  essential  point  of  correspondence  between  the 
Grothic  and  Scandinavian  branches  is  the  insertion  in  certain 
cases  of  gg  before  w  and  j  (<jgj  iu  Gothic  was  changed 
into  ddj),  as  in  gen.  plur.  0.  H.  G.  zweiio,  0.  EngL  iuiega 
(two),  compaied  with  O.  Icel.,  O.  Norvv.  tvcggja,  O.  Sw., 
0.  Dan.  tviggja;,  Goth,  twaddje  ;  and,  still,  iu  Germ,  treu, 
Engl,  true,  compared  with  Sw.,  Norw.,  Dan.  (ri/gg,  IceL 
tryggr,  Goth,  triggws.  However,  even  iu  the  primitive 
Scandinavian  age  the  difference  between  Gothic  and 
Scandinavian  is  aiore  clearly  marked  than  the  resem- 
blance ;  thus,  for  example — just  to  hint  onlj'  at  some  of 
the  oldest  and  most  essential  differences — Goth.  nom.  sing. 
ending  in  -s  corresponds  to  primitive  Scandinavian  -or,  -in. 
(as  Goth,  dags,-  day,  gasis,  guest  =  Scand.  dagaii,  gastiR) ; 
Goth.  gen.  sing,  in  -is  to  Soand.  -as  (as  Goth,  dagis,  day's  = 
Scand.  dagas) ;  Goth.  dat.  bing.  in  -a  to  Scand.  -e  (as  Goth. 
haurna,  corn  =  Scand.  hirnt) ;  Goth.  1st  pers.  sing.  pret. 
in  -da  to  Scand.  -do  (as  Goth,  tainda,  did  =  Scand.  tawido). 
As  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  so-called  later  Iron 
Ago  (about  700  A.D.)  tho  primitive  Scandinavian  language 
had  undergone  a  considerable  ti-ansformation,  as  is  proved 
for  example  by  the  remarkable  runic  stone  at  Istaby  in 
the  south  of  Sweden,  with  the  inscription — 

AF^TR      HARIWUL^F.^-     UAJjUWUL^F.?!!    HAEEU'wUL^FliJ   W^^UAIT 
HUNA/i  JjAIAiJ  ; 

Engl.:  In  E«mory  of  HariwuUn,  Ilujimf uUb',, son  of  Heruwulfa, 
wrote  tlicBc  runes. 

Here,  e.g.,  wo  find  nom.  sing,  in  -aft  changed  into  -r  (cf. 
/ia]>uwv(a/R  with  Itoltingan  on  the  golden  horn),  and  the 
plural  ending  -or  into  -an  {cf.  rnnaR  with  runoR  on  tho 
Jiirsbarg-siune).  At  the  beginning  of  tho  so-called  Viking 
Period  (about  800  a.d.)  the  Scandinavian  language  seoraa 
to  have  undergone  an  extraordinarily  rapid  development, 
which  in  a  comparatively  short  time   almost  completely 

•  For  tlie  iutuipretntions  wo  aio  piiuciiially  Indebted  to  Prof.  S. 
Bugge'a  ingeuious  invt'»ti,';ntions,  who  in  1865  satisfaclorily  R;ie- 
ceedcd  ID  decipbrrin;;  tlio  iiiscriptiou  of  the  golden  horn,  and  by  this 
means  gamed  a  flxcd  starting-point  for  further  rcHearcbei.  A  short 
Mview  of  their  most  important  rcaiilt!)  is  given  by  F.  Burg,  Die  Mltrcn 
Ifordiachcn  Jiiineninschr\ften,  1880. 


transformed    its  character.      This  change   is    especially 
noticeable  in  the  drppping  of  unaccented  vowels,  and  in  the 
introduction  of  a  certain  vowel  harmony  of  different  kinds 
("  Umlaut.",  vowel  changes,  caused  by  a  following  t  (J)  or  u 
(ic),  as  Icvosti  for  kudiSi,  poem,  and  "Brechung",  as  healpa 
instead  of  heljxt,  to  help),  different  as^milations  of  conson- 
ants (as  //,  nn  for  Ip,  n\> ;  II,  iin,  rr,  and  ss  for  /k,  nE,  m,  and 
sr),  dropping  of  w  before  o  and  u  (as  orS,  ulj'r  for  woif^,  word, 
wuI/r,  wolf),  simplified  inflexion  of  the  verbs,  a  new  passive 
formed  by  means  of  affixing  the  reflexive  pronoun  sik  to  the 
active  form  (as  haUa-sk,  to  call  one's  self,  to  be  called),  &c. 
At   this  epoch,  therefore,  the  primitive    jcandinavian 
language  must  be  considered  as  no  longer  existing.     The 
next  two  centuries  form  a  period  of  transition  as  regards 
the-  language  as  well  as  the  alphabet  which  .it  employed 
We  possess  some  inscriptions  belonging  to  this  period  in 
whicli  the  old  runic  alphabet  of  twenty-four  characters  is 
still  used,  and  the  language  of  which  closely  resembles 
that  of  the  primitive  Scandinavian  monuments,  as,  for 
example,  those  on  the  stones  of  Slentoften  and  Bjorketorp, 
both  from  southern   Sweden,    probably    dating  from  the 
10th  century,  and  being  the  longest  inscriptions  yet  found 
with  the  old  runic  alphabet     On  the  other  hand,  inscrip- 
tions have  come  down  to  us  dating  from  about  the  middle 
of  the  9th  century,   in  which  the  later  and  exclusively 
Scandinavian  alphabet   of  sixteen  characters  has  almost 
completely  superseded  the  earlier  alphabet,  from  which  it 
was  developed,  while  the  language  not  only  differs  widely 
from  the  original  Scandinavian,  but  also  exhibits  dialec- 
tical peculiarities  suggesting  the  existence  of  a  Danish- 
Swodish  language  as  opposed  t'>  Norwegian,  as  the  form 
ruulf  on  the  stone  at  Flcmluse  in  Denmark,  which  in  a 
Norwegian   inscription  would  '".ave  been  written  hruulf 
corresponding   to    Erolf  in    Old   Norwegian    literature. 
These   differences,    however,   are   unimportant,   and    the 
Scandinavians  still  considered  their  language  as  one  and 
the  same  throughout  Scandinavia,  and  named  it  Dcmsk 
tunga,  Danish  tongue.     But  when  Iceland  was  colonized 
at  tho   end   of  the   9th  and  the  beginning  of  the   10th 
century,  chiefly  from  western  Norway,  a  separate  (western) 
Norwegian  dialect  gradually  sprang  up,  at  first  of  course 
only  differing  slightly  from-  the  mother-tongue.     It  was 
not  until    the  introduction  of  Christianity  (about    1000 
.\.D.)  that  the  language  was    so  ifar  differentiated  as  to 
enable  us  to  distinguish,  in  runic  inscriptions  and  in  the 
literature  which  was  then  arising,  four  different  dialects, 
which  have  ever  since  existed  as  the  four  literary  lan- 
guages— Icelandic,  Norwegian,  Swedish,'  and  Danish.     Of 
these  the  latter  two,  often  comprehended  within  the  name 
of  Eastern  Scandinavian,  as  well  as  the  former  two.  Western 
Scandinavian,  or,  to  use  the  Old  Scandinavians'  own  name, 
Norrrjint  mdl,  Northern  tongue,  are  very  nearly  i-olated  to 
each  other.     The  most  important  differences  between  the 
two  branches,  as  seen  in  the  oldest  preserved  documents, 
are  the  following : — (1)  In  E.  Scand.  far  fewer  cases  of 
"  Umlaut,"  as  vdri,  W.  Scand.  vdi-i,  were  ;  land,  W.  Scand. 
lond  (from  landu),  lands;  (2)  E.  Scand.  " Btechung "  of 
i  into  iu  (or  to)  before  ng(w),  nk(u'),  as  siungx,  W.  Scand. 
syngva  (from  singwa),  to  sing;  (3)  in  E.  Scand.  mp,  nk, 
nt  are  in  many  cases  not  assimilated  into  pp,  kk,  tt,  as 
kntmpen,  W.  Scand.  kroppenn,  shi-unkcn ;  snkia;  W.  Scand. 
d-'iJa,  widow  ;  bant,  W.  Scand.  bait,  ho  bound  ;.  (4)  in  E. 
Scand.  the  dative  of  tho  definite  plural  enda  in  -oiiien  instead 
of  W.  Scan.d.  -onom,  as  in  liandonun,  hi^ndowjin,  (to-l  the 
hands ;  {h)  in  E.  Scand.  tho  simpliricuiiou  of  tho  verbal 
inflexional  endings  is  far  further  alvunctd,  and  tho  passive 
ends  in  -s  for  -sk,  as  in  kailxs,  W.  Scaud.  kaltask,  to  be 
called     In  several  of  these  points,  and  indeed  geuunilly 
speaking,  tho  AVestern  Scandinavian  languages  have  pr» 
served  tho  more  primitivo  form.s,  cls  muj  ba  soon  in  the 


368 


SCANDINAVIAN     LANGUAGES 


oldest  Eastern  Scandinavian  runic  inscriptions,  dating  from 
a  period  before  the  beginning  of  tlie  literature,  as  well  as  in 
many  modern  Eastern  Scandinavian  dialects.  For,  having 
regard  to  the  Scandinavian  dialects  generally,  we  must 
adopt  quite  a  different  classification  from  that  indicated  by 
the  dialects  which  are  represented  in  the  literature.  We 
now  pass  on  to  review  the  latter  and  their  history. 

I.  Icelandic— In  ancient  times  Icelandic  was  by  far  the  most 
important  of  the  Scandinavian  languages,  in  form  aa  well  as  in 
literature.  To  avoid  ambiguity,  the  language  before  tlio  Reforma- 
tion (about  1530-40)  is  often  called  Old  Icelandic. 

1.  Old  Icelandic  was  spoken  not  only  in  Iceland,  but  ;.lso  in  Green- 
land, where  Icelandic  colonists  lived  for  a  lengthened  period  (983- 
about  1400).     Our  knowledge  of  its  character  is  r.lmost  exclusiveh' 
derived  from  the  remarkably  voluminous  literature.'  dating  from 
the  middle  of  the  12th  century,  and  written  in  the  iatin  alphabet, 
adapted  to  the  special  requirements  of  this  lan{;uii£e.     Notlun<'  is 
preserved  of  older  runic  literature.  =     Indeed,  Old  Icelandic  pos- 
sesses only  very  few  runic  monuments  (about  forty),  all  of  them 
almost  worthless  from  a  philological  point  of  view.     The  oldest 
the  inscription  on  the  church  door  of  Val}.j6fsta3r,  dates  from  the  ■ 
beginning  of  the  13th  centurv,'  and  is   consequently  later  than 
the  oldest  preserved  manuscripts*  in  the  Latin  alphabet,  some  of 
which  .are  as  old  as  the  end  of  the  12th  century.     A  small  frao-- 
nient  (Cod.  AM.  237,  fol.)  of  a  Book  of  Homilies  (of  which  a  sho?t 
specimen  is  given  below)  is  considered  the  oldest  of  all.     About 
contemporary  with  this  is  the  oldest  part  of  an  inventory  entitled 
lUxjkjahoUs  vidldage.    From  about  1200  we  possess  a  fragment  (Cod. 
Reg.  old  sign.  1812)  of  the  only  existing  Old  Icelandic  glossary,, 
and  from  the  first  years  of  the  13th  century  the  Stockholm  Book  of 
Bomilies  (Cod.  Holm.  15,  4to),  which  from  a  philological  point  of 
view  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  chiefly  oa  account  of  its  very 
accurate  orthography,  which  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  indica- 
tion of  quantity;  froni  the  early  part  of  the  same  century  comes 
the  fragment  (Cod.  AM.  325,  2,  4to)  entitled  ^.^rtp  ("abridgment" 
of  the  history  of  Norway),  probably  a  copy  of  a  Norwegian  original, 
also  orthographically  imj/ortant.    Among  later  manuscripts  we  may 
mention,  as  philologicall  f  interesting,  the  Annates  Regii  (Cod.  Reg. 
2087)  from  the  beginning  of  the  14th  centurv,  orthographically  of 
great  italue ;  the  rich  manuscript  of  miscellanies,  Ha^iksbik  (Codd. 
AM.   371,  544,  675,  4to),  a  great  part  of  which  is  written  with 
Haukr  Eriendsson's  (tl334)  own  hand;  and,  above  all,three  short 
essays,  in  wjiich  some  Icelanders  have  tried  to  write  a  grammatical 
and  oithographical  treatise  on  their  own  mother-tonguQ,  all  three 
appearing  as  an  appeudi.^c  to  the  manuscripts  of  the  Prose  Edda. 
The  oldest  and  most  important  of  these  essays  (preserved  in  the 
Cod   Worm  from  about  1330)  is  by  an  unknown  author  of  about 
115  ,  and  is  probably  intended  to  be  a  continuation  of  a  lost  woi'k 
of  the  first  grammarian  of  Iceland,  poroddr  Riinameistari   (who 
flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the  12th  century) ;  the  second  (the 
oldest  known  manuscript  of  which  is  preserved  in  the  Cod.  Ups  ,  c 
1290)  IS  perhaps  the  work  of  the  famous  Snorri  Sturioson  (tl241) ; 
the  third  (the  oldest  manuscript  in  Cod.  AM.  748,  4to,  of  the  be»in- 
?i'?S-^^  *"<'jl^t'>  century)  is  by  Snorri's  nephew  dlafr  Hvitaskald 
(tl239),  and  is  no  doubt  based  partly  upon  forodd's  work  above 
mentioned,  partly  and.  chiefly  upon  Priscian  and  Donatus.s 

The  oldest  form  of  the  Icelandic  language  is,  however,  not  pre- 
served m  the  above-mentioned  earliest  manuscripts  of  the  end  of 
the  12th  century,  which  are  written  in  the  language  of  their  own 
age  but  in  far  later  ones  of  the  13th  century,  whicff  contain  poems 
bythe  oldest  Icelandic  poets,  such  as  the  renowned  EgiU  Skalla- 
giimson  (about  930)  and  the  unknown  authors  of  the  so-called 
Edda  songs.  In  spite  of  the  late  date  of  the  manuscripts,  the 
metrical  form  has  been  the  means  of  preserving  a  good  deal  of  the 
ancient  language.^  But,  as  already  remarked,  during  the  10th  and 
nth  centuries  this  dialect  difl-ers  but  little  from  Norwegian,  though 
in  the  12th  this  is  no  longer  the  case. 

We  may  here  contrast  a  specimen  of  the  above-mentioned  oldest 
Icelaudic  manuscript  (from  the  end  of  the  12th  century)  with  an 
almost  contemporary  Norwegian  one  (Cod.  AM.  619;  see  below) •- 


clMo''^^f!broll'^'',T  ?'  ""  "'""'-"^^  '^ai'^1  hitherto  is  elven  by  Th.  Mobiu8, 
Sc£  ir  ■""  ,^=''^:!*/.<"-"'"  "■'  JforvegUorum  stalls  MeJm,  1856,  and  Ter- 
iT.lV  ii:  •.  «""'<"'"'"cftm  tind  atlnorwegischm  .  .  .   von  ISSS   bis   1S?9 

erschienmen  Sclin/len,'i,SSO.     Compare  Iceland; 

oJ^ndU'edtm'  fortW^'evninger"  (in  O.^  Aarb^ger  for  NorMsk 

'bC/'lS^-  1^3,.',';%"'?"'  I«l''"<"=  manuscripts  (to  Hbout  1230,  Is  given 
Dy  J.  UoSory  in  the  Oott.  Oel.  Am.,  IPSi,  p  478  jj 

Prt!ti™l';°';?i.T'J''  "'  'Jl"  """'  in.^OTUM  Old  Icelandic  manuscripts  (and  their 
/wSi  "^'f '^?  «<^<^'»-'S'''K  to  subjects,  is  Eiven  by  O.  Brenner,  AlLrdisclus 
A^tZf:^J^-,\\A^-  V"'  P'i"cipal  collection,  of  manuscripis  are-I,  the 
.i,?il?i^?-  /'V->  '"  Copenliaffen,  founded  by  Ami  Magnusson  (tl730)-  '' 
tuTa  anTn.'  "  vk"*."'  Library  (Rck.)  in  Copenhagen,  founded  by  TO.  Torfius 
or  l,°\^?  nryn  (ilfr  Sveinsson  (t  1674);  3,  the  Delagardian  collection  (Delag. 
SL  Vl  ;  °'  Upsala,  founded  In  1651  by  Magnus  Gabriel  da  la  Gardie;  4    the 

igg^nlluQlnS'''r  ^"°'™'''   '°"°'''*  ^^■'"^''  ""^^    <'°  '*^^^  ^d  Jdn 


■  J  "  >at.  es  J\'brw.— En  Jiat  er  '  Engl.— And  thiiia' 
vitanda,  at  allt  ma  vitanda,  at  allt  .ma  to  be  known  that  all 
andlega  merkiasc  oc  andlega  merkiasc  oo  that  is  needed  for 
lyllasc  1  OSS,  pat  es  fyllasc  i  03,->at  er  the  decoration  of  the 
til  Icirkio  biinings  til  kirkiu  bunings  church  or  the  service- 
efa  Jiionosto  J>«if  at  c3a  til  )»iouasto  [jarf  may,  .spiritually  be 
haua  cf  ver  liuom  at  hafa,  af  ver  lifum  found  and  imitated 
sva  hreinlega  at  vur  sva  rsinlega,  at  ver  within  ns,  if  we  live 
sem  verjier  at  callasc  sem  vciSir  at  kallasc  so  cleanly  that  we  are 
go>s  mustere.  guCs  mysteri.  worthy  to  be  caUed 

God's  temple. 
Apart  from  the  fact  that  the  language  is,  generally  speaking  archaic 
we  find  in  the  Icelandic  text  two  of  the  oldest  and  most  essential 
characteristics   of  Icelandic  as  opposed  to  Norwegian,  viz.     the 
more  complete  vowel  assimilation  (piono.ito,  \>ionasto ;  cf.  also'co 
Icel.  kollo\iom,  Nor\v.  kallaSum,  we  called)  and  the  retention  of 
initial  h  before  )■  (hreinlega,  nviulega),  I,  and  n.  -  Other  difier- 
ences,  some  of  which  occur  at  this  period,  others  a  little  later  are— 


Icel.  dsema,  hcyra,  Norw.  and  oldest  Icel.  dfima.,  to  deem,  h^yra,  to 
hear) ;  Icel.  termination  of  2nd  plur.  of  verbs  in  -S  (b)  or  -t  but 
Norw.  often  in  -r  (as  Icel.  takiiS,  -t,  Norw.  takir,  you  toke).  These 
pints  may  be  suflieient  to  characterize  the  language  of  the  earlier 
'classical"  period  of  Icelandic  (about  1190-1350).  At  the  middle  of 
the  13th  century  the  written  language  undergoes  material  changes 
owing  in  a  great  measure,  no  doubt,-  to  the  powerful  influence  of 
Snorri  Sturioson.  Thus  in  unaccented  syllables  i  now  appears  for 
older  e,  and  u  (at  first  only  when  followed  by  one  or  more  con- 
sonants belonging  to  the  same  syllable)  for  o  ;  the  passive  ends  in 
■z  for  -sk.  The  other  differences  from  Norwegian,  mentioned  above 
as  occurring  later,  are  now  completely  established.  With  the  be^nn- 
uing  of  the  14th  century  there  appear  several  new  linguistic  phelio- 
mena  :  a  m  is  inserted  between  iinal  r  and  a  preceding  consonant 
(as  inrikur,  mighty) ;  f  (pronounced  as  an  open  o)  passes  into  o 
(the  character  o  was  not  introduced  till  the  16th  century),  or  before 
.ng,  nk  into  au(as  lgng,figU,  pronounced  laung,fi6ll);  e  before  ng, 
nk  passes  into  ei ;  a  little  later  i  passes  into  ie,  and  the  passive 
changes  its  termination  from  -s,  oldest  -sk,  tuto  -zt  (or  -zst)  (as  in 
kallazl,  to  be  called).  The  post-classical  period  of  Old  Icelandic 
(1350-1530),  which  is,  from  a  literary  point  of  view,  of  but  little 
impoi-tance,  already  shows  marked  differences  that  are  character- 
istic of  Modern  Icelandic  ;  as  early  as  the  15th  century  we  find  ddl 
for  II  and  rl  (as  falla,  pronounced  fiddla,  to  fall),  ddn  for  nn  and 
rn  (as  horn,  pron.  hoddn,  horn) ;  about  the  year  1500  lie  after  h 
passes  into  to,  in  ether  positions  to  V6  (as  hvelpr,  pron.  xoolpur, 
whelp;  i-rcm,  pron. /;»or?i.,  mill),  etc. 

Although  dialectical  difl'erences  are  not  altogether  wanting,  they  Dialedi 
do  not  occur  to  any  great  extent  in  the  Old  Icelandic  literary  ~ 
language.  Thus,  in  some  manuscripts  we  find  ft  replaced  ty  fst 
(oft,  ofst,  often) ;  in  manuscripts  from  the  western  part  of  the  island 
there  appears  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries  a  tendency  to  change 
If,  rf  into  lb,  rb  {tolf,  tolb,  twelve  ;  porf,  pnrb,  want),  &c.  To  what 
extent  the  language  of  Greenland  differed  from  that  of  Iceland  we 
cannot  judge  from  the  few  rivaio  monuments  which  have  come 
down  to  us  from  that  colony. 

Apart  from  the  comparatively  inconsiderable  attempts  at  •  a 
grammatical  treatment  of  Old  Icelandic  in  the  Middle  Ages  which 
we  have  mentioned  above,  grammar  as  a  science  can  only  be  said 
to  have  commenced  in  the  1 7  th  century.  The  first  grammar,  written 
by  the  Icelander  Runolphus  Jonas  (tl654),  dates  from  1651.  Hia 
contemporary  and  compatriot  Gudmund  Andrese  (tl654)  compiled 
the  first  dictionary,  which  was  not,  however,  edited  till  1683  (by  the 
Dane  Petriis  Resenius,  tl688).  The  first  scholars. who  studied 
Old  Icelandic  systematically  were  H.  K.  Raak  (1787-1832),  whose 
■works  ^  laid  the  fcundation  to  our  knowledge  of  the  language,  and 
his  great  contemporary  Jac.  Grimm,  in  whose  Dcxitsehe  Grammatik 
(1819  sq.)  particular  attention  is  paid  to  Icelandic'  Those  who 
since  the  time  of  Rask  and  Grimm  have  principally  deserved  weli 
of  Icelandic  grammar  are — the  ingenious  and  learned  Norwegian 
P.  A.  Munch,  1863,'  to.  whom  we  really  owe  the  normalized 
orthography  that  has  hitherto  been  most  in  use  in  editing  Old 
Icelandic  texts;  the  learned  Icelander  K.  Gislason,  whose  .works 
are  chiefly  devoted  to  phonetic  researches  ;^  the  Daiiish  scholars 
K.  J.  Lyngby  (+1871),  the  author  of  an 'essay  '  which  is  of  funda- 
mental importance^in  Icelandic  orthography  and  phonerics,  and 
L.  F.  A.  Wimmer,  who  has  rendered  great  services  to  the  study  of 
the  etymology.'"  The  latest  Icelandic  grammar  is  by  the  Swede 
Ad.   Noreen."     As  lexicographers  the  first  rank   is  held  by  the 


^  E.g.,  Veiledning  til  det  Islartdsie  sprog,  1811  ;  iB  a  new,  much  ijnproved 
Swedish  edition,  Anvisning  til  Isldndikan,  1818. 

7  Fornsirmiskdiis  och  Foiitnorskam  spr^byggnad,  1849,  and  (along  with  C.  R. 
Unger)  Norronasprogets  gramma/ik,  1847. 

*  Especially  Umfrumparta  tslenzkrar  tungu  ifomSld,  1846. 

*  Den  OfdnorSiske  udcale,  1861.  10  Fomnordisk  formlCrft,  lS7*i  . 

11  Altisldndi&che  und  altnoruegische  QraiAmat\t.  itnter  .Serticta^^S 'w W  <^ 
Umordischen,  1884. 


SOANDINxiVIAN      LANGUAGES 


369 


tcelanders  Sv.  Egilssou  (tl852),'  G.  Tigfusson,'  and  J.  forkola 
son,^  and  tho  Norwegian  J.  Fritzner.* 

2.  Modem  Icelandic  is  generally  dated  from  tho  introduction  of 
the  Keformation  into  Iceland;  the  book  lirst  printed,  tho  New 
Testament  of  ISiiO,  may  be  considered  .a3  tho  earliest  Modern 
Icelandic  document.  Although,  on  account  of  the  exceedingly 
conservative  tendency  of  Icelandic  orthography,  the  language  of 
Modern  Icelandic  literature  still  seenis  to  be  almost  identical  with 
the  language  of  tho  17th  century,  it  t-as  in  reality  undcrgono  a 
constant  and  active  development,  an.d,  phonetically  regarded,  has 
changed  considerably.  Indeed,  energetic  efforts  to  bring  about  an 
orthography  moro  in  accordance  with  phonetics  were  made  during 
the  years  1835-47  by  the  magazine  entitled  Fjolnir,  where  wo  find 
such  authors  as  Jonas  Hallgrimsson  and  Konr.  Gislason ;  but  these 
attempts  proved  abortive.  Of  more  remarkable  etymological 
changes  in  Modern  Icelandic  we  may  note  the  following  : — already 
about  the  year  1550  the  passive  termination  -zt  {-zst)  passes  into 
the  till  then  very  rare  termination  -st  (as  in  kallasl,  to  be  called) ; 
y,  a,  and  cy  at  the  beginning  of  tho  17th  century  coincided  with  i,  I, 
and  ei  ;  the  long  vowels  d,  m,  and  6  have  passed  into  the  diph- 
thongs av,  (at  least  about  1650),  ai  (about  1700),  ou  (as  mat, 
language,  mcela,  to  speak,  st6ll,  chair) ;  g  before  i,  j  is  changed 
into  dj  (after  a  consonant)  or  j  (after  a  vowel), — e.g.,  liggia, 
to  lie,  eigi,  not;  jn  certain  other  cases  g  has  passed  into 
gw  or  w, — e.g.,  Idgur,  low,.  Ijiiga,  to  lie';  initial  g  before 
n  is  silent, — e.g.,  {g)naga,  to  gnaw;  fa  has  passed  into  lin, — 
e.g.,  knilr,  knot;  ps,  2>t  into/s,  fl;  bb,  dd,  gg  are  pronounced 
as  bp,  dt,  gk,  and  II,  rl,  nn,  rn,  now  in  most  positions  (not, 
iowever,  before  d,  t,  and  s,  and  in  abbreviated  names)  as  dll,  din,— 
iBsfjall,  mountain,  bjorn,  bear ;  /before  n  is  now  pronounced  as  bp, — 
'as  krafn,  raven,  &c.  Both  in  vocabulary  and  syntax  we  find  early, 
e.g.,  in  the  lawbook  Jdnsh6k,  printed  in  1578(-80),  Danish  exercis- 
ing an  important  influence,  as  might  be  expected  iiom.  political 
circumstances.  In  the  18th  century,  however,  we  meet  with 
purist  tendencies.  As  one  of  the  leading  men  of  this  century  may 
be  mentioned  the  poet  Eggert  Olafsson  (tl768),  whosa  poems 
were  not  printed  till  1832.  Worthy  of  mention  in  the  history 
of  Modern  Icelandic  language  are  the  learned  societies  which 
ai)poared  in  the  same  century,  of  which  tho  first,  under  tho  name 
of  "  Hi56syuilega,"  was  established  in  1760.  At  this  time  archaic 
tendencies,  going  back  to  tlie  Old  Icelandic  of  the  13th  and  14th 
centuries,  were  continually  gaining  ground.  In  our  ceutary  tho 
following  have  won  especial  renown  in  Icelandic  literature : — ■ 
Jjjarne  forarcnseu  (tl841),  Iceland's  greatest  lyric  poet,  and  Jonas 
Hallgrimsson  (t  1845),  perhaps  its  most  prominent  prose-author  in 
modern  times." 

Tho  dialectical  differences  in  Modern  Icelandic  are  comparatively 
trifling  and  chiefly  phonetic.  Tho  Westland  dialect  has,  for 
.  example,  , preserved  the  Old  Icelandic  long  a,  while  the  other 
dialects  have  changed  it  to  tho  diphthong  au  j  in  the  Northland 
dialect  initial  kn  is  preserved,  in  the  others  changed  into  hn  ;  in 
the  northern  and  western  parts  of  the  island  Old  Icelandic  hv 
appears  as  kv,  in  a  part  of  south-castCm  Iceland  as  x>  in  the  other 
dialects  as  xw,— «.?.i  hvclpr,  whelp.  As  a  rinrtter  of  curiosity  it  may 
bo  noted  that  on  the  western  and  eastern  coasts  traces  are  found  of 
a,  French-Icelandic  language,  which  arose  from  tho  long  sojourn  of 
French  fishermen  there. 

Owing  to  the  exclusive  interest  taken  in  the  ancient  language; 
but  little  attention  is  given  even  now  to  tho  grammatical 
treatment  of  Modern  Icelandic.  Some  notices  of  the  language 
of  tho  17th  century  may  be  obtained  from  tho  above-mentioned 
grammar  of  Runolphus  Jonas  (1651),  and  for  tho  language 
of  tho  18th  from  Rask's  grammatical  works.  For  the  language  of 
our  own  time  there  is  hardly  anything  to  refer  to  but  N.  FriSriks- 
son's  works,  islcndc  mdlmynda.lijsing,  1861,  and  Skjjrlng  hinna 
almennu  m&l/rarSialegu  hugmynda,  1864,  which,  however,  lire 
not  especially  devoted  to  tho  modem  stato  of  philology ;  compare 
also  B.  Mamijsson  Olson's  valuable  paper  "  Zur  neuisliindisclicii 
Grammatik  (Oermania,  xxvii.,  1882).'  A  dictionary  of  merit 
was  that  of  Bjorn  Halldorsen"(+1794),  crtiwJ  in  1814  by  Rask. 
Cleasby-Vigfusson'a  dictionary  mentioned  above  also  pays  somo 
attention  to  tho  modem  language.  A  really  convenient  Modern 
Icelandic  dictionary  is  still  wanting,  the  dcsittoratuin  ieiiig  Only 
partly  supplied  by  K.  Gisl.ason's  excellent  Danish-Icelandic  Donsk 
oiiStMk  mcd  /sUnzkum  bl^ii    Um,  1851. 

li.  NoRWEOtAN  OR  NoRtfe.— 'The  0?fi  JVorwi-rjrMsra  language  (till 
the  Reformation)  was  not,  like  tho  modern  language,  conlined  to 
Norway  nud  tho  Faroes,  but  was,  as  already  stated,  for  some  time 

1  Lexicon  poeticum,  1854-^10. 

2  An  Iretandic-Enyliih  Dictionary,  baaod  On  tho  MS.  coUoctlons  of  tho  lato 

ii.Clca8bj,I8ll»-74. 

•  Jiupplemfnt  tit  Iitandtke  ordb^tger,  1876  nud  1879-85. 

*  Ordboij  over  del  Qamte  Sorike  tprog,  18*12-67 ;  now  ed.,  1883  tq, 

»  See  n.  ArpI,  "Inlniids  ynRro  llloratur  och  sin  jk"  (SprSkvelenUtaplltia  tail- 
tkapcis  /dihandlingar.  1883-8:.). 

"  Noilccs  of  tho  .Moiicin  li:fland1c  pronuDclation  nro  alM  to  ho  found  !n 
H.  SweefB  Handbook  of  /'hotu'lici,  1877,  Chr.  VldHtocn's  0;}tptningcr  otn  Jiuyde- 
maatene  i  Hat-danger,  1885.  ind  U.  Arpt'M  abovo-quolod  paper. 


spoken  in  parts  of  Ireland  and  tho  north  of  Scotland,  the  Isle  of 
Man,  the  Hebrides,  Shetland,  and  Orkney  (in  the  last  two  groups 
of  islands  it  continued  to  survive  down  to  modern  times),  aud  also 
in  certain  parts  of  wtstci  n  .Sweden  as  at  present  defined  (Bohuslan, 
S.irna  in  Dalarna,  J^initland,  and  Haijedalen). 

Our  knowledge  of  it  is  due  only  in  a  small  measure  to  runic 
inscriptions,'  for  these  are  comparatively  few  in  number  (a 
little  moro  than  one  humlrcd)  and  of  trifling  importance  from  a 
philological  point  of  view,  especially  as  they  almost  wholly  belong 
to  the  period  between  1050  and  1350,*  and  consequently  are 
contemporary  with  or  at  least  not  much  earlier  tlian  the  carliust 
literature.  Tho  whole  literatuit)  preserved  is  written  in  tho  Latin 
alphabet.  The  earliest  manuscripts  arc  not  much  later  than  the 
oldest  Old  Icelandic  ones,  and  of  the  greatest  interest.  On  the 
V  hole,  however,  the  earliest  Norwegian  literatui  e  is  in  quality  as  well 
as  in  quantity  incomparably  inferior  to  the  Icelandic.  It  amounts 
merely  to  about  a  score  of  different  works,  and  of  these  but  few  are 
of  any  literary  value.  A  small  fragment  (Cod.  AM.  655,  4to, 
Fragm.  ix.,  A,  b,  o),  a  collection  of  legends,  no  doubt  MTitten  a 
little  before  1200,  is  regarded  as  tho  earliest  extant  manuscript. 
From  the  very  beginning  of  the  13th  century  we  have  the 
Norwegian  Book  of  Hmniliea  (Cod.  AM.  619,  4to)  and  several 
fragments  of  law-books  (tlio  older  Gula\)ingslaw  and  the  oldet 
Ei'SsimpingsIaw).  The  chief  manuscript  (Cod.  AM.  243B. ,  fol.) 
of  the  principal  work  in  Old  Norwegian  literature,  the  Sjicculum 
RujaU,  or  Konungsskuggsjd  ("Mirror  for  Kings'"),  is  a  little  later. 
Of  still  later  manuscripts  the  so-called  legendary  Olafssaga  (t'od. 
Delag.  8,  fol.),  from  about  1250,  deserves  mention.  The  masses  of 
charters  which — occurring  throughout  the  whole  Middle  Ago  of 
Norway'  from  tho  beginning  of  the  13th  century — afford  nmch 
information,  especially  concerning  the  dialectical  differences  of  the 
language,  are  likewise  of  great  philological  importance. 

As  in  Old  Icelandic  so  in  Old  Norwegian  we  do  not  find  the 
most  primitive  forms  in  tho  oldest  JISS.  that  have  come  down 
to  us ;  for  that-  purpose  wo  must  recur  to  somewhat  tlatcr  od«^ 
containing  old  poems  from  times  as  remote  as  the  days  of  Biage 
Boddason  (the  beginning  of  the  8th  century)  and  J'jdColfr  of  Hvin 
(end  of  tho  same  century).  It  has  already  been  stated  that  tho 
language  at  this  epoch  differed  so  little  from  other  Scandinavian 
dialects  that  it  could  scarcely  yet  bo  called  by  ajdistinctive  name, 
and  also  that,  as  Icelandic  separated  itself  from  the  Norwegian 
mother-tongue  (about  900),  the  difference  between  the  t\vo  languagea 
was  at  first  infinitely  small— as  far,  of  course,  as  tho  literary 
language  is  concerned.  From  the  13th  century,  however,  they 
exhibit  more  marked  differences  ;  for,  while  Icelandic  develops  to 
a  great  extent  independently,  Nor-vvcgian,  owing  to  geographical 
and  -political  circumstances,  is.  considerably  influenced  by  the 
Eastern  Scandinavian  languages.  The  most  imiiortant  differences 
between  Icelandic  and  Norwegian  at  the  epoch  of  tho  oldest  MSS. 
(about  1200)  have  already  been  noted.  The  tendency  in  Norwegian 
to  retain  the  use  of  the  so-called  li-Umlant  has  already  been 
mentioned.  On  tho  other  hand,  there  appears  in  Norwegian  in 
tho  13th  century  another  kind  of  vowel-assimilation,  almost 
unkuo\vn  to  Icelandic,  the  vowel  in  terminations  being  in  some 
degree  influenced  by  the  vowel  of  tho  preceding  syllable.  Thus, 
for  instance,  wo  fine"  in  some  manuscripts  (as  the  above-mentioned 
legendary  Olafssaga)  that  the  vowels  e,  o  and  long  a,  m,  0  are 
followed  in  terminatious  by  e,  o ;  i,  «,  y,  and  short  <i,  ffi,  f(,  on 
tho  other  hand,  by  i,  u, — as  in  bfincr,  prayers,  ko7un;  women  ;  but 
liSir,  times,  tungur,  tongues.  The  same  fact  occurs  in  certain 
Old  Swedish  manuscripts.  When  Norway  had  been  united  later 
with  Sweden  under  ono  crown  (1319)  wo  meet  pure  Suecisma 
in  tlio  Norwegian  literary  language.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
14th  century  exhibits  several  differences  from  the  old  language'": 
rl,  rn  are  sometimes  assimilated  into  H,  nn, — as  kail  (elder  kav  ), 
man,  konn  (Jccrn),  corn,  prestanncr  (prestarnir),  tho  priests ;  i 
passes  into  y  before  r,  I, — as  hyr^r  (hirlSir),  shepherd,  lykyl  {lykill), 
key  ;  final  -r  after  a  consonant  is  changed  into  -er  or  -eer,  sometimes 
only  -c,  -le,  — as  hestcr  (hcslr),  horse  ;  bfikcr  {b&kr),  books  ; '  the 
names  YoUcifier  i\>orleifr),  GuiSlmifa:  (GMlcifr).  About  the 
beginning  of  tho  15th  century  initial  kv  occurs  for  old  hv  (not, 
however,  in  pronouns,  which  take  k-v  only  in  western  Norway),  as 
tlic  local  name  QvitesciS  (livitr,  white).  During  the  15th  century, 
Norwiiy  being  united  with  Denmark,  and  at  intervals  also  with 
Sweden,  a  great  many  Danisms  aud  a  few  Suecisms  are  im- 
ported into  tlio  language.  As  Suf cisras  wo  m,ay  mention  the  ter- 
mination -in  of  tho  2d  pcrs.  plur.  instead  of  -I'r,  -i'fi  (as  vilin,  you 
will),  the  pronounjai  instead  oiek,  I.  Tho  most  important  Danism* 

7  For  thc«o  MO  Mpoclally  Nlcolnyscn.  Koriki  fomlerninger,  iaoJ-«6. 
.  8  Iho  0Wi:»I.  nm  llioso  on  tho  Viil.lhy-  (Larrlk)  »nd  Slrnnd-  (Aafjord)  alono*. 
both  from  pnKan  timoH.     Iho  intent  runo-ntones  ore  from  tho  end  of  tho  Hth 
century.    OwlnK  to  Intluonco  of  tho  lovncd  auch  ilonM  appear  again  In  tho  ITlh 
century,  e.g.,  In  Telennirl'.en. 

»  On  the  Old  NorwcKlan  maniueripla  »eo  tho  workacltod  lanolea4,  0,  paROuiSS; 
for  tho  lltCTnluro  hitherto  edited  boo  nolo  I.  pOKO  .1fi». 

'•  The  preaent  writer  la  Indebted  to  rrof.  Juli.  .Storrn  lor  Um  followlUK  remnrka 
i>n  the  hlnlnry  ut  tho  NorwcKl""  hinnuago  and  lU  dialecu  during  tho  14th  aoit 
16th  cent  ui  lea. 


n-ii 


370 


SCANDINAVIAN      LANGUAGES 


«re  the  following :  b,  d,  and  g  are  substituted  for  p,  I,  and  k, — as  iu 
the  local  names  Nabfi  (earlier  Napa),  Tvedm  socrii  (fveita  sdkn)  ;  -a 
in  terminations  passes  into  -e, — as  h0re  {/ifii/m),  to  hciii;sfighe{sM-ja), 
to  seek  ;  single  Danish  words  are  introduced, — asjc/c  (ek),  I,  se  (yd), 
to  see  ;  sp0rge  (spyrja),  to  ask,  &c.  Towards  the  end  of  the  lliddlo 
Ages  the  Danish  influence  shows  an  immense  increase,  which 
marks  the  gradual  decline  of  Norwegian  literature,  until  at  last 
Norwegian  as  literary  language  is  completely  supplanted  by 
Danish.  During  the  15tli  century  Norway  has  hardly  any  litera- 
ture except  charters,  and  as  early  as  the  end  of  that  century  by  far 
the  greatest  number  of  these  are  written  in  almost  pure  Danish.  In 
the  16th  century,  again,  charters  written  in  Norwegian  occur 
only  as  rare  exceptions,  and  from  the  Reformation  onward,  when 
the  Bible  and  the  old  laws  were  translated  into  Danish,  not 
into  Norwegian,  Danish  was  not  only  the  undisputed  literary 
language  of  Norway,  but  also  the  colloquial  language  of  dwellers 
in  towns  and  of  those  who  had  learned  to  read.  For  the  rise  iu 
recent  times  of  a  new  Norwegian  language,  employed  in  literature 
and  spokeo  by  the  educated  classes,  see  p.  373. 

Dialectical  ditferences,  as  above  hinted,  occur  in  great  number 
in  the  Norwegian  charters  of  the  13th,  14th,  and  15th  centuries. 
Especially  marked  is  the  difference  between  the  language  of 
western  Norway,  which,  in  many  respects,  shows  a  development 
parallel  to  that  of  Icelandic,  and  the  language  of  eastern  Norway, 
which  exhibits  still  more  striking  correspondences  with  contem- 
porary Old  Swedish.  The  most  remarkable  characteristics  of  the 
eastern  dialects  of  this  epoch  are  the  following  : — a  is  changed  into 
a  in  the  pronouns  pxnn,  this,  ^mt,  that,  and  the  particle  \iier,  there 
(the  latter  as  early  as  the  13th  century),  and  later  on  (in  the  14th 
century)  also  in  terminations  after  a  long  root  syllable, — as  sendm, 
to  send,  h0yrss,  to  hear  (but  gera,  to  do,  Dita,  to  know) ;  ia  passes 
(as  in  Old  Swedish  and  Old  Danish)  into  iss — as  himrta  (Icel.  hjarta), 
heart;  ?/ sometimes  passes  into  iu  before  r,  ?, — as  Murder,  shep- 
herd, lykiul,  key,  instead  of  hyrSir,  lykyl  (older  still,  hirfSir, 
lykill;  see  above,  p.  369);  final  -r  after  a  consonant  often  passes 
into  -ar,  sometimes  only  into  -a, — as  prcstar  (j>restr),  priest,  b^kar 
(b^kr),  books,  dat.  sing.  brfSSa  (ir^Sr),  (to  a)  brother  ;  tl  passes 
into  tsl,  si,  -as  lisla  {lilla),  (the)  little,  the  name  Atslc,  Asle  (Atle) ; 
rs  gives  a  "thick"  s-sound  (written  Is), — as  Bxrdols,  genitive  of 
the  name  £erg\i6rr ;  7id,  Id  are  assimilated  into  nn,  II, — as  bann 
(band),  band,  the  local  name  Westfoll  ( Vesifold) ;  and  (as  far  back 
as  the  I3th  century)  traces  occur  of  the  vowel  assimilation, 
"tiljsevning,"  that  is  so  highly  characteristic  of  the  modern  Nor- 
wegian dialects, — as  voko,  vukii,  for  vaku,  (Icel.  vfko,  -u),  accusative 
singular  of  vaka,  wake,  mykyll  for  mykill,  much.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  characteristics  of  the  western  dialects  may  be  noted  the 
following  : — final  -r  after  a  consonant  passes  into  -ur,  -or, — as  vdur 
(veir),  winter,  rettur  (rittr),  right,  aftor  (a/tr),  again  ;  si  passes  into 
il,  — as  syilla  (spsla),  charge  ;  Au  is  changed  into  kv  also  in  pronouns, 
'^^s  kver  (hverr),  who,  kvassu  {hversu),  how. 

This  splitting  of  the  language  into  dialects  seems  to  have 
continued  to  gain  ground,  probably  Avith  greater  rapidity  as  a 
Norwegian  literary  language  no  longer  existed.  Thus  it  is  very 
likely  that  the'present  dialectical  division  was  in  all  essentials  accom- 
plished about  the  year  1600  ;  for,  judging  from  the  first  work  on 
Norwegian  dialectology,'  the  S0ndfjord  (Western  Norway)  dialect  at 
least  possessed  at  that  time  most  of  its  present  features.  A  little 
clog-calendar  of  the  year  1644  seems  to  prove  the  same  regarding  the 
Valders  (Southern  Norway)  dialect.  How  far  the  Old  Norwegian 
dialects  on  the  Faroes,  in  Ireland  and  Scotland,  on  the  Scottish 
islands,  and  on  the  Isle  of  Man  differed  from  the  mother-tongue  it 
is  impossible  to  decide,  on  account  of  the  few  remnants  of  these 
dialects  which  exist  apart  from  local  names,  viz.,  some  charters 
(from  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century  onward)  from  the  Faroes - 
and  Orkneys,^  and  a  few  runic  inscriptions  from  the  Orkneys  (thirty 
in  number)*  and  the  Isle  of  Man  (fourteen  in  number).'  These 
runic  inscriptions,  however,  on  account  of  their  imperfect  ortho- 
graphy, throw  but  little  light  on  the  subject.  Of  the  Orkney  dialect 
we  know  at  least  that  initial  hi,  hn,  Arstill  preserved  A  in  the  13th 
century, — that  is,  two  hundred  years  longer  than  in  Norway. 

Old  Norwegian  grammar  has  hitherto  always  been  taken  up 
in  connexion  with  Old  Icelandic,  and  confined  to  notes  and  appen- 
dices inserted  in  works  on  Icelandic  grammar.  A  systematic 
treatise  on  Old  Norwegian  grammar  is  still  wanting,  with  the 
exception  of  a  short  work  by  the  Danish  scholar  N.  M.  Petersen 
(t  1862),^  which,  although  brief  and  decidedly  antiquated,  deserves 
all  praise.  A  most  valuable  collection  of  materials  exists,  how- 
ever, in  the  Norwegian  charters,  carefully  and  accurately  edited  by 
the  Norwegian  scholars  Chr.  Lange  (tl861)  and  C.  E.  Unger,'  and 
in  a  few  texts  edited  with  diplomatic  accuracy.* 

*  Chr.  Jensen's  Ifor$k  dictionarium  eUer  glosebog,  1646. 

2  See  Diplomatarium  Norvegicum  voL  i.  n.  689  and  591. 

3  See  Bipl.  Norv.,  i.  n.  308. 

*  See  P.  A.  Munch,  Snmlede  nftiandlinger,  Iv.  516  sq.    - 
»  See  Munch,  Saml.  afh.,  lil.  181  sq. 

«  Det  Damke,  Norske,  og  Scenste  sprogs  historic,  part  il.  pp.  1-9G  (ed.  1830). 

7  Diplomatarium  Norvegicum,  1857  sg.;  10  vols,  have  aheaUy  appeared. 

P  Compare  the  prefaces  to  A'igfUssun's  ediliun  of  ihe  Eyrbyy^asaga  (18C4), 


III.  Swedish. — The  Pre-Refonnation  language  is  called  Old 
Swedish. 

1.  Old  Swedish. — The  territory  of  the  Old  Swedish  compre- 
hended—(1)  Sweden,  except  the  most  northerly  part,  where 
Lappish  (and  Fiunish  ?)  was  spoken,  the  most  southerly  (Sklue, 
Halland,  and  Blekinge — see  below,  p.  373),  and  certain  parts  of 
western  Sweden  (see  above,  p.  3C9) ;  (2)  extensive  maritime  tracts 
of  Finland,  Esthonia,  and  Livonia,  with  their  surrounding  islands; 
and  (3)  certain  places  in  Russia,  where  Swedish  was  spoken 
for  a  short  time.  The  oldest  but  also  the  most  meagre  sources 
of  our  knowledge  of  Old  Swedish  are  those  words,  almost  ex- 
clusively personal  names  (nearly  one  hundred),  which  were 
iatroduced  into  the  Russian  language  at  the  foundation  of 
the  Russian  realm  by  Swedes  (in  862),  and  which  are  for  the 
most  part  somewhat  influenced  by  Russian  phonetic  laws,  pre- 
served in  two  Russian  documents  of  the  yeare  912  and  945,' — as 
Igor  (0.  Sw.  Ingvar),  Rurllc  {Sr0rikr),  Olcg  {Hialge,  secondary 
form  of  Hclge),  Olga  (Hialga,  Helga).  Of  about  the  same  date, 
but  of  an  infinitely  greater  variety,  are  the  runic  inscriptions, 
amounting  iu  number  to  about  two  thousand,  which  have  been 
found  cut  on  stones  (rtirely  wood,  metal,  or  other  materials)  almost 
all  over  Sweden,  though  they  occur  most  frequently  (about  half 
of  the  total  number)  in  the  province  of  Uppland,  next  to  which 
come  Sbdermanland,  Ostergotland,  and  Gotland,  with  about  two 
hundred  each.  For  the  most  part  they  are  tombstones  or  monu- 
ments in  memory  of  deceased  relatives,  rarely  public  notices. 
Their  form  is  often  metrical,  in  part  at  least.  Most  of  them  are 
anonymous,  in  so  far  that  we  do  not  know  the  name  of  the  engraver, 
though,  as  a  rule,  the  name  of  the  man  who  ordered  them  is 
recorded.  Of  the  engravers  named,  about  seventy  in  number,  thei 
three  most  productive  are  Ubir,  Bali,  and  Asmundr  Karasun,  all 
three  principally  working  in  Upland;  the  first-mentioned  name  is' 
signed  on  about  forty,  the  others  on  nearly  twenty  stones  each. 
These  inscriptions  vary  very  much  in  age,  belonging  to  all  centuries 
of  Old  Swedish,  but  by  far  the  greatest  number  of  them  date  from 
the  11th  and  12th  centuries.  From  heathen  times — as  well  as 
from  tho  last  two  centuries  of  the  Middle  Ages — we  have  com- 
paratively few.  The  oldest  are  probably  the  Ingelstad  inscrip^ 
tion  in  Ostergotland,  and  the  Gursten  one  found  in  tho  north; 
of  Smiland."  The  rnne  stone  from  Eok  in  Ostergotland  prob-l 
ably  dates  from  the  first  half  of  the  10th  century.  Its  inscripJ 
tion  surpasses  all  the  others  both  in  length  (more  than  ona 
hundred  and  fifty  words)  and  in  the  importance  of  its  contents,! 
which  are  equally  interesting  as  regards  philology  and  the  history 
of  culture  ;  it  is  a  fragment  (partly  in  metrical  form)  of  an  Old! 
Swedish  heroic  tale."  From  about  the  year  1000  we  possess  tha 
inscriptions  of  Asmundr  Karasun,  and  from  about  1050  the  so-called 
Ingvar  monuments  (about  twenty  in  number),  erected  most  of  them 
in  Sodermanland,  in  honour  of  the  men  who  fell  in  a  great  war  in 
eastern  Europe  under  the  command  of  a  certain  Ingvar  ;  the  stones 
cut  by  Bali  belong  to  the  same  period.  Somewhat  later  are  the 
inscriptions  cut  by  Ubir,  and  about  contemporary  with  them,  viz.,' 
from  the  beginning  of  the  12th  century,  is  the  remarkable 
inscription  on  the  door-ring  of  tho  chnrch  of  Forsa  iu  Helsingland, 
containing  the  oldest  Scandinavian  statute "  now  preserved,  as 
well  as  other  inscriptions  from  the  same  province,  written  in  a 
particular   variety  of  the  common   runic  alphabet,   the   so-called. 

staflosa"  (staffless,  without  the  perpendicular  staff)  runes,  as  the* 
long  genealogical  inscription  on  the  Malstad-stone.  The  inscrip> 
tions'^  of  the  following  centuries  are  of  far  less  philological  interest, 
because  after  the  13th  century  there  exists  another  and  more  fruit- 
ful source  for  Old  Swedish,  viz.,  a  literature  in  the  proper  sense  of 
the  word,  which  was  only  in  a  limited  degree  written  in  runes. 
Of  the  runic  literature  hardly  anything  has  been  preserved  to  oui 
days,'*  while  the  literature  in  the  Latin  letters  is  both  in  quality 
and  extent  incomparably  inferior  to  Old  Icelandic,  though  it, 
at  least  in  quantity,  considerably  surpasses  Old  Norwegian.  In 
age,  however,  it  is  inferior  to  both  of  them,  beginning  only  in 
the  13th  century.  The  oldest  of  the  extant  manuscripts  is  a 
codex  of  the  Older  Vcslgotahiw  (Cod.  Holm.  B  59),  written  about 
the  year  1290,  aud  philologically  of  the  greatest  importance. 
Not  much  later  is  a  code.x  of  the  Uplandslaio  (Cod.  Ups.  12)  ol 
the  year  1300.  Of  other  works  of  value  from  a  philological  point 
of  view  we  only  mention  a  codex  of  the  Sodcrtnantmlaw  (Cod. 
Holm.   B  53)  of  about  1330,  the  two  manuscripts  containing  s 


Kcyser's  a  Unper's  editions  of  the  legendary  Ota/ssaga  (1849),  and  Barlaami 
Saga  ok  Josaphats  (1851),  Ungoi's  ed.  of  ])idrekssaga  (1853),  and  Til.  Mubiua'i 
essay  Vcher  die  allnordisehc  Sprache,  pp.  15-18  (1872). 

9  See  V.  Thoinsen,  Rijska  rikcts  grvndUtggning,  especially  p.  114  sq.',  S 
Bugge,  "  Oldsvenske  navne  i  liuslund"  (Arkiv  f.  Noid.  Filol.,  ii.). 

•"  Kindly  communicated  by  Prof.  S.  Bitgac. 

It  See  S.  Ilugce,  '-Tolkning  af  runeindskriften  pa  Rokstcnen"  [Antiqvariii 
Tidikriftf.  Siierige,  v.,  1878). 

12  Sec  S.  BucKC.  Runeindskriften  paa  ringen  i  Forsa  Kirke,  1877. 

t3  For  the  runic  inscriptions  in  gi  ncral.  sec  above  all  J.  G.  Liljegrcn,  Runnft 
kunder,  1833;  J.  Gdraiisson,  BautH,  1750;  H.  Dybcck.  Svcnska  runitrkuiider* 
185.5-59,  and  Sverikes  runurkunder,  1800-7C  ;  and  the  Journals  of  the  antiquariflq 
societies  in  Sweden. 

"  See  L.  F.  Lefflec,  "  Fornsvciiska  runhandskriftcr  "  (.Vorc/ist  riiiitri^  18791 


SCANDIJNAVIAN      LANGUAGES 


371 


collection  of  legends  generally  named  Cod.  Bureanus  (written  a 
little  after  1350)  and  Cod.  BUdslcnianus  (between  1420  and  1450), 
and  the  great  Oxenstieinian  manuscript,  which  consists  chiefly  of 
a  collection  of  legends  written  for  the  most  part  in  1385.  The 
very  numerous  Old  Swedish  charters,  from  1343  downwards,  are 
also  of  great  importance.* 

Old  Swedish,  during  its  earliest  pre-litcrary  period  (900-1200), 
retains  quite  as  original  a'  character  as  contemporary  Old  Icelandic 
and  Old  Norwegian.  The  first  part  of  the  inscription  of  the  Rbk- 
stonc  running  thus — 

AFT  UAilU])  STAXTA  llUN,ViJ  JjAJJ  IN  UARIK  FAj)!  FAJ)LH  AFT 
FAIKI4.N  SUNTJ,' 

and  probably  pronounced — 

reft  Wimod  stjnda  riinar  JxjeR  ;  en  'Warenn  faSe  faSeR  ictlt 
faeighi.in  sunn, 
would,  no  doubt,  hare  had  the  same  form  in  contemporary 
Icelandic,  except  the  last  word,  which  would  probably  have  had 
the  less  original  form  sun.  The  formal  changes  of  the  Swedish 
language  during  this  period  are,  generally  sjieaking,  such  as  appear 
about  the  same  time  in  all  the  members  of  the  group, — as  the  change 
of  soft  R  into  common  r  (t!ie  Rbk-stoue  runa^,  later  runar,  runes  ; 
this  appeared  earliest  after  dental  consonants,  later  after  an  accented 
vowel),  and  the  change  of  6|>  into  st  (in  the  10th  century  rais'^i,  later 
reisti,  raised);  or  they  are,  at  least,  common  to  it  witli  Norwegian, 
— as  the  dropping  of  h  before  I,  n,  and  r  (in  the  10th  century  hranr, 
younger  ror,  cairn),  and  the  changing  of  nasal  vowels  (the  long 
ones  latest)  into  non-nasalized.  A  very  old  specific  Swedish  charac- 
teristic, however,  is  the  splitting  np  of  i  into  iu  before  nt/w,  nkio, — 
as  siunga,  to  sing,  siunka,  to  sink,  from  primitive  Scandinavian 
singwan,  sinkwan  (Iccl.-Norw.  syngva,  sikkva).  But  the  case  is 
altogether  different  during  what  we  may  call  the  classical  period  of 
Old  Swedish  (1200-1350),  the  time  of  the  later  runic  inscriptions 
and  the  oldest  literature.  During  this  period  the  language  i^  already 
distinctly  separate  from  the  (literary)  Icelandic-Nonvegiau  (though 
not  yet  from  Danish).  The  words  of  the  Older  Vcslgolalaw — 
FALSER  KLOCK^  NIDER  I  HOVOji  MAKNI,  BOTl  BOPCN  MARCHtTM 
J)RIM,  F.N  HAN^  FAR  3AK.a  AF — ' 

rwould  in  contemporary  Icelandic  be — 

fellr  klukka  niSr  i  hofuiS  manni,  baeti  s6kn  morkum  Jirim, 
cf  haun  faer  bana  af. 
These  few  words  exhibit  instances  of  the  following  innovations  in 
Swedish  : — d  is  inserted  between  II  (nn)  and  a  following  r  (as  h 
between  m  and  I,  r,  and  p  between  m  and  t,  n, — as  hambrar,  Icel. 
hamrar,  hammers,  sampt,  Icel.  samt,  together  with);  an  auxiliary 
vowel  is  inserted  between  final  r  and  a  preceding  consonant ;  a  iu 
terminations  is  often  changed  into  »  ;  a  ««  in  the  final  syllable 
causes  no  change  of  preceding  (i;  the  present  tense  takes  the 
vowel  of  the  infinitive  (and  the  preterite  subjunctive  that  of  preterite 
indicative  plural).  Other  important  changes,  appearing  at  the  same 
time,  but  probably,  partly  at  least,  of  a  somewhat  older  date, 
are  the  following : — all  diphthongs  are  contracted  (as  ogha,  Icel. 
auga,  eye  ;  droma,  Icel.  dr0yma,  to  dream;  stcn,  Icel.  sleinn, 
stone — traces  of  which  we  find  as  early  as  the  12th  century);  ^ 
has  passed  into  k  (as  /cnjE,  Icel.  kne,  knee) ;  ia  into  iie,  as  in 
Eastern  Norwegian  (as  himrta,  IceL  hjarta,  heart) ;  iu  into  y 
after  r,  and  a  con.sonant  +1  {as  Jlygha,  Icel.  fljnga,  to  fly);  the 
forms  of  the  tliiee  persdns  singular  of  verbs  have  assimilated 
(except  in  the  so-caUed  strong  preterite);  the  2d  pers.  plur. 
ends  in  -in  for  -iS,  tmd  the  passive  voice  in  -s  for  the  earlier 
•sk;  the  dat  plur.  of  substantives  with  suffixed  article  ends  in 
•umin  (Icel.  -onoin,  as  sunuviin,  sunmievi,  to  the  sons).  The 
transition  to  the  14th  century  is  marked  by  important  changes  : — 
short  y,  e.g.,  passed  into  6  in  many  positions  (as  diir  for  dyr, 
door,  &c.),  and  the  forms  of  the  dative  and  the  accusative  of 
pronouns  gradually  became  the  same.  The  number  of  borrowed 
words  is  as  yet  very  limited,  and  is  chiefly  confiiied  to  ecclesiastical 
words  of  Latin  and  Greek  origin,  introduced  along  with  Christian- 
ity (as  kors,  cross,  href,  epistle,  skoli,  school,  pj xskr,  priest,  ainwsa, 
alms).  At  the  middle  of  the  14th  century  the  litcraiy  language 
undergoes  a  remarkable  reform,  doveloiiing  at  the  same  time  to  a 
"rikssprik,"  a  uniform  language,  common  to  the  whole  country. 
The  chief  characteristics  of  this  later  Old  Swedish  arc  the  follow- 
ing:— the  long  a  has  passed  into  d  (that  is,  nn  open  0),  and  io 
(except  before  rrf,  rl)  into  to  (as  siii,  sea,  lake);  at  the  same 
time  there  appears  a  so-called  law  of  vowel  balance,  according 
to  which  the  vowels  i  and  u  are  always  found  in  terminations 
after  a  sliort  root  syllable,  and — at  least  when  no  consonant  fol- 
lows— e  and  0  after  a  long  one  (as  Oudi,  to  God,  til  salu,  for  sale, 
but  i  gar]ic,  in  the  court,  for  visso,  assuredly) ;  g  and  k  {ek)  before 

'  Tlio  Old  Swedisi  monumcTitfl  arc  for  the  mont  pnrt  publlithcd  In  thefollowInK 
collections: — Svmska  fomskrifttiilhkapeti  lamtitigar,  84  partii,  1H4-J-84:  C.  J. 
ScW>-ter,  Scmling  i\f  BvtrigM  gamta  layar,  vols,  i.-vll,  nnd  x.-xll.,  1SS7-(]D ; 
tvtnskt  Diplomatarium,  6  vols.,  ISL'D-TR,  nt-w  ncrlr*,  2  vols.,  1876-84. 

*  In  memory  of  Wiini<Sd  thcM  nines  stand ;  nnd  Warenn,  hia  father,  wrote 
tbtiin  In  memory  of  his  son,  (by  destiny)  condemned  to  death. 

*  If  the  boll  fall  down  on  anybody's  head,  the  partab  payinflnoof  threemarits 
fehould  bo  did  from  It. 


palatal  vowels  are  softened  into  dj  and  tj  (sij) ;  U  and  t  in  unac- 
cented svllables  often  pass  into  gh,  dh  (as  Svcrighe  for  Sverike, 
Sweden,  'lUedh  for  litcl,  a  little);  the  articles  pwn  (or  hin),  the,  and 
(a  little  later)  at,  a,  come  into  use  ;  the  dual  pronouns  vanish;  the 
relative  ler,  that,  is  changed  with  suyn;  the  present  particiiile  takes  a 
secondary  form  in  -s  (as  gangandcs,  beside  gangande,  going).  A 
little  later  the  following  changes  appear  : — a  short  vowel  is  length- 
ened before  a  single  consonant,  first  when  the  consonant  belongs 
to  the  same  syllable  (as  hat,  hate),  aftenvards  also  when  it  belongs 
to  the  following  one  (as  hala,  to  hate) ;  an  auxiliary  vowel  is  in- 
serted between  Z  or  ji  and  a  preceding  consonant  (as  ga  vcl,  gable,  bken,  . 
desert) ;  short  i,  ending  a  syllable,  passes  into  c  (as  leva,  to  live) ; 
Ih  passes  into  t;  a  new  conjugation  is  formed  which  has  no  infini- 
tive termination,  but  doubles  the  sign  of  the  preterite  (as  ho,  bodde, 
bolt,  to  dwell,  dwelt,  dwelt).  Owing  to  the  political  and  com- 
mercial state  of  the  country  the  language  at  this  period  is  deluged 
with  borrowed  words  of  Low  German  origin,  mostly  social  and 
industrial  terms,  such  as  the  great  number  of  verbs  in  -era  (e.g., 
hanlcra,  to  handle),  the  substantives  in  -cri  {roveri,  robbery),  -iyina 
(forstinna,  princess),  -het  (fronihet,  piety),  be-  {betula,  to  pay), 
and  a  great  many  others  {klcn,  weak,  snuika,  to  taste,  graver,  big, 
ptmg,  purse,  iukl,  discipline,  bruka,  to  use,  tvist,  quarrel,  stovd.hoot, 
arbcta,  to  work,  frokoster,  lunch,  &c. ).  Owing  to  the  political  cir- 
cumstances, we  find  towards  the  end  of  the  period  a  very  powerful 
Danish  influence,  which  extends  also  to  phonetics  and  etymology, 
so  that,  for  example,  nearly  all  the  terminal  vowels  are  supplanted 
by  the  uniform  Danish  e,  the  hard  consonants  y,  I,  khy  b,  d,  g  aa 
in  Danish,  the  second  person  plural  of  the  imperative  ends  in  -er, 
beside  -en  (as  tagher,  for  older  takin). 

Dialectical  diflerences  inco^testably  occur  in  the  runic  inscrip- 
tions as  well  as  in  the  literature  ;  in  the  former,  however,  most  of 
them  are  hidden  from  our  eyes  by  the  character  of  the  writing, 
which  is,  from  a  phonetic  point  of  view,  highly  unsatisfactory, 
indicating  the  most  difl'erent  sounds  by  the  same  sign  (for  exam- 
iilc,  0,  u,  y,  and  0  are  denoted  by  one  and  the  same  rune) ;  in  the 
literature  again  they  are  reduced  to  a  mininmm  by  the  awakening 
desire  to  form  a  uniform  literary  language  for  the  whole  country, 
and  by  the  literary  productivity  and  consequent  predominant 
influence  of  certain  provinces  (as  Ostergotland).  This  question, 
moreover,  has  not  hitherto  been  investigated  with  suificient  care.* 
Only  one  distinct  dialect  has  been  handed  down  to  us,  that  of  the 
island  of  Gotland,  which  differs  so  essentially  from  the  Old  Swedisli 
of  the  mainland  that  it  has  with  good  reason  been  characterized,  under 
the  name  Forngutniska,  as  in  a  certain  sense  a  separate  language.  FomgrrS 
Materials  for  its  study  are  very  abundant' :  on  one  hand  we  niska. 
possess  more  than  two  hundred  runic  inscriptions,  among  them  a 
very  remarkable  one  of  the  12th  or  13th  century,  counting  upwards 
of  three  hundred  runes,  cut  on  a  font  (now  in  Aakirkeby  on  the 
island  of  Bornholm),  and  representing  the  life  of  Christ  in  a  series 
of  pictures  and  words  ;  on  the  other  hand  a  literature  has  been  pre- 
served consisting  of  a  runic  calendar  from  1328,  the  law  of  the 
island  (from  about  1350),  a  piece  of  traditional  history,  and  a 
guUd  statute.  The  language  is  distinguished  from  the  Old  Swedish 
of  the  mainland  especially  by  the  following  characteristics  : — the 
old  diphthongs  are  preserved  {e.g.,  auga,  eye,  droyma,  to  dream, 
slain,  stone),  and  a  new  triphthong  has  arisen  by  the  change  of  j(i 
into  iau  (as  fiiauga,  to  fly) ;  the  long  vowels  e,  ce,  6,  have  passed 
into  i,  e,  y  (as  kni,  knee,  mela,  to  speak,  dyma,  to  deem) ;  short 
0  rarely  occurs  except  before  r,  being  in  other  positions  changed  into 
u;  w  ia  dropped  before  r  (as  raijn,  wrath) ;  the  genitive  singular 
of  feminines  in  -a  ends  in  -«r  for  -u  (as  kirkiur,  of  the  church). 
Owing  to  the  entire  absence  of  documentary  evidence  it  is  impos- 
siijlc  to  determine  how  far  the  dialects  east  of  the  Baltic,  wliich  no 
doubt  had  a  separate  individuality,  differed  from  the  mother- tongue. 

The  first  to  pay  attention  to  the  study  of  Old  Swedish  «  was  the 
Swedish  savant  J.  Buraius  (tl652),  who  by  several  works  (from 
15U9  onwards)  called  attention  to  and  excited  a  lively  interest  in 
the  runic  monuments,  and,  by  his  edition  (1634)  of  the  excellent 
Old  Swedish  work  Um  Ulyrilsi  Konuiiga  ok  IloJ)tinga,  in  Old 
Swedish  literature  also.  His  no  longer  extant  Specimen  Primarim 
Lingum  Scantziana:  gave  but  a  very  short  review  of  Old  Swodidi 
inflexions,  but  is  remarkable  as  the  first  essay  of  its  kind,  and  is 
perhaps  the  oldest  attempt  in  modern  times  at  a  grammatical  treat- 
ment of  any  old  Germanic  language.  The  study  of  runes  was  very 
popular  in  the  17th  ccnturj';  M.  Celsius  (+1670)  deciphered  the 
"stafllcss"  runes  (see  above,  p.  870),  and  .T.  Hadorph  (+Hil<3),  who 
also  did  good  work  in  editing  Old  Swedisli  toxtii,  co)iiod  more  than 
a  thousand  runic  inscriptions.  During  the  Iblli  century,  again. 
Old  Swedish  was  almost  completely  neglected  ;  but  in  the  present 
century  the  study  of  runes  has  been  well  reiirescnted  by  tlio  col- 
lection of  tho  Swede  Liljegrun  (+1837)  and  by  the  Norwegian  3. 

« SoeMiwrlnlly  K.  .1. 1.j-nebv,  AMqu.  TidUr.,  18&8-M,  pp.  »43 1».  and  MO  m^; 
J.  E.  Hydnrisl,  fir.  BrrSirIt  la^r.  It.  U..1  «o.;  L.  F.  LelUor,  Om  r-omUudtt.lBn, 
pii.  37  I./,,  65,  70 ;  S.  Bunire,  IturtrindUri/Ua  fra  Fvria.  p.  41)  tor.  A.  KodE, 
Biuditr  i  ronurenik  Ijuilara.  I.,  1S«2,  pp.  65  »».,  144  iv-,  IM  tq.,  S38. 

»  Soo  C.  Save.  OuCniita  urkundrr,  ISiO;  J.  O.  IJljenren,  RiMurkund/r.  IMS. 

•  .See  A.  Noreen,  "Ajwrcn  d«  I'hlatolra  da  la  aclenco  llugalitlquo  SiiddolaaJ 
(£«JViu/on,ll.,  1883). 


372 


SCANDINAVIAN      LANGUAGES 


Bugge's  ingenious  interpretation  .and  grammatical  treatment  of 
some  of  the  most  remarkable  inscriptions.  Old  Swedish  literature 
has  also  been  made  the  object  of  grammatical  researches.  A  first 
outline  of  a  history  of  the  Swedish  language  is  to  be  found  in 
the  work  of  N.  M.  Petersen  (1830)  mentioned  above  (p.  370),  and 
a  scheme  of  an  Old  Swedish  grammar  iu  P.  A.  Hunch's  essay, 
Foriisiooiskans  och  Fornnorskaiis  sprakhyggnad  (1849) ;  but  Old 
Swedish  grammar  was  never  treated  as  an  independent  branch  of 
science  until  the  appearance  of  J.  E.  Rydqvist's  (t  1877)  monu- 
mental ViorV.  Svciiska  sprdkds  lagar  (in  6  vols.,  1850-83),  which 
was  followed  in  Sweden  by  a  whole  literature  on  the  same  subject. 
Thus  phonetics,  which  were  comparatively  neglected  by  Rydqvist, 
have  been  investigated  with  great  success,  especially  by  L.  F. 
Leffler  and  A.  Kock  ;  while  the  other  parts  of  grammar  have  been 
treated  of  above  all  Ijy  K.  F.  SoderwaU,  the  chief  of  contemporary 
Old  Swedish  scholars.  His  principal  work,  Ordbok  ofvcr  Svc-nska 
mcdeltidsspr&ket{l8Si  sq.),  nowin  coui'se  of  publication,  gives  the  list 
of  words  in  the  later  Old  Swedish  language,  and — taken  along  with 
the  Ordbok  till  saifilingen  af  Sveriges  gamla  lagar  (1877),  by  C.  J. 
Schlyter,  the  well-known  editor  of  Old  Swedish  texts,  which  con- 
tains the  vocabulary  of  the  oldest  literature — it  worthily  meets  the 
demand  for  an  Old  Swedish  dictionary.  An  Old  Swedish  grammar, 
'answering  the  requirements  of  modern  philology,  is  still  needed.* 

2.  Modern  Swedish. — The  iSrst  complete  translation  of  the  Bible, 
edited  in  1541  by  the  brothers  Olaus  and  Laurentius  Petri,  and 
generally  called  the  Bible  of  Gustavus  I. ,  may  be  regarded  as  the 
earliest  important  monument  of  this.  Oiving  to  religious  and  poli- 
tical circumstances,  and  to  the  learned  influence  of  humanism,  theo- 
logical and  historico-political  works  preponderate  in  the  Swedish 
literature  of  the  following  period,  which  therefore  affords  but 
scanty  material  for  philological  research.  It  is  not  until  the 
middle  of  the  17th  century  that  Swedish  literature  adequately 
exemplifies  the  language,  for  at  that  period  literature  first  began 
to  be  cultivated  as  a  fine  art,  and  its  principal  representatives,  such 
as  Stiemhielm,  Columbus,  and  Spegel,  were  in  reality  the  first  to 
study  it  as  a  means  of  expression  and  to  develop  its  resources. 
Amongst  the  authors  of  the  18th  century  we  have  to  mention  in 
the  first  place  Dalin,  who  was  to  some  extent  the  creator  of  the 
prose  style  of  that  epoch  ;  while  of  the  end  of  the  century  Kellgren 
and  Bellman  are  the  most  noteworthy  examples,  representing  the 
higher  and  the  more  familiar  style  of  poetry  respectively.  The 
languag*  of  the  19th  century,  or  at  any  rate  of  the  middle  of  it,  is 
test  represented  in  the  works  of  Wallin  and  Tegner,  which,  on 
account  of  their  enormous  circulation,  have  had  a  greater  influence 
fhan  those  of  any  other  authors. 

As  to  the  language  itself  the  earliest  Modem  Swedish  texts,  as 
(Gustavus  I.'s  Bible,  diff'er  considerably  from  the  latest  Old  Swedish 
'6nes.^  We  find  a  decided  tendency  to  exterminate  Danisms  and 
reintroduce  native  and  partially  antiquated  forms.  At,  the  same 
time  there  appear  several  traces  of  a  later  state  of  the  language: 
all  genitives  (singular  and  plural),  e.g.,  end  in  -s,  which  in  earlier 
times  was  the  Proper  ending  of  only  certain  declensions.  In  spite 
of  the  archaistic  efforts  of  many  writers,  both  in  forjns  and  in  voca- 
bulary, the  language  nevertheless  underwent  rapid  changes  during 
the  16th  and  17th  centuries.  Thus  sj  and  slj  (original  as  well  as 
derived  from  sk  before  a  palatal  vowel)  assimilate  into  a  simple  sh- 
sound  ;  dj  (original  as  well  as  derived  from  g  before  a  palatal  vowel), 
at  least  at  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  dropped  its  d-sound  (com- 
pare such  spellings  as  diufwer,  giditar,  envogi,  for  jufver,  udder, 
jattar,  giants,  eiivoxji,  envoy) ;  hj  passes  into  j  (such  spellings  are 
found  as  jort  for  hjort,  hart,  and  hjdrpe  for  jdrpe,  hazel  grouse) ; 
b  and  p  inserted  in  such  words  as  himblar,  heavens,  Jiambrar, 
hammers,  jdmpn,  even,  sampt,  together  with  (see  above,  p.  371),  are 
dropped  ;  the  first  person  plural  of  the  verb  takes  the  form  of  the 
third  person  (as  m/ara,foro,  for  vi/arom,  forom,  we  go,  went);  by 
the  side  of  the  pronoun  /,  you,  there  arises  a  secondary  form  Ji'i, 
in  full  use  in  the  spoken  language  about  1650  ;  the  adjective 
gradually  loses  all  the  case-inflexions  ;  in  substantives  the  nomin- 
ative, dative,  and  accusative  take  the  same  form  as  early  as  the 
middle  of  the  17th  century  ;  in  the  declension  with  suffixed  article 
the  old  method  of  expressing  number  and  case  both  in  the  substan- 
tive and  the  article  is  changed,  so  that  the  substantive  alone  takes 
the  number-inflexion  and  the  article  alone  the  case-ending ;  neuter 
substantives  ending  in  a  vowel,  which  previously  had  no  plural 
ending,  take  the  plural  ending  -n,  some  -er, — as  bi-n,  bees,  bageri-cr, 
bakeries.  About  the  year  1700  the  Old  Swedish  inflexion  may,  in 
general,  be  considered  as  almost  completely  given  up,  although  a 
work  of  such  importance  in  the  history  of  the  language  as  Charles 
XII. 's  Bible  (so-called)  of  1703  (edited  by  Bishop  J.  Svedberg), 
by  a  kind  of  conscious  archaism  has  preserved  a  good  many  of  t>io 
old  forms.  To  these  archaistic  tendencies  of  certain  authors  at  the 
end  of  the  17th  century  wo  owe  the  great  number  of  Old  Swedish 
and  Icelandic  borrowed  words  then  introduced  into  the  language, — 

'  A.  Noreen  haa  an  Old  Swedish  grammar  in  preparation. 

'  Tbe  printed  characters  are  also  considerably  ^clianged  by  the  introduction 
of  the  new  letters  S  (with  the  transl.  of  the  New  Testament  of  1526),  and  o,  S 
(b«th  already  In  tfae  first  print  in  Swedish  of  1495)  for  aa^  le,  ^. 


as /ag'cr,  fair,  hdrja,  to  ravage,  later,  manners,  snilU,  genius,  tdma^ 
girl,  tima,  to  happen,  &c.  In  addition  to  this,  owing  to  humanistic 
influence,  learned  expressions  were  borrowed  from  Latin  during  the 
whole  16th  and  17th  centunes  ;  and  from  Ge'rman,  chiefly  at  the 
Reformation  and  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  numberless  words 
were  introduced, — as  sprak,  langtiage,  tapper,  \iTa.ve,prakt,  magnifi- 
cence, hurlig,  brisk,  kc. ;  among  these  may  be  noted  especially  a 
great  number  of  words  beginning  in  an-,  er-,  for-,  and  ge-.  Owing 
to  the  constantly  increasing  political  and  literary  predominance  ol 
France  French  words  were  largely  borrowed  in  the  17th  century,  and 
to  an  equally  great  extent  in  the  18th  ;  such  are  affdr,  business, 
respekt,  respect,  ialang,  talent,  cbarmant,  charming,  &c.  In  the  19th 
century,  again,  especially  about  the  middle  of  it,  we  anew  meet 
with  conscious  and  energetic  efforts  after  purism  both  in  the  forma- 
tion of  new  words  and  in  the  adoption  of  words  from  the  old 
language  (jid,  diligence,  iruila,  to  speak, /yZA-nij,  battle-array,  &c.), 
and  from  the  dialects  (bliga,  to  gaze,  fiis,  flake,  skrabbig,  bail,  &c. ). 
Consequently,  the  present  vocabulary  differs  to  a  very  great  extent 
from  that  of  the  literature  of  the  17th  century.  As  for  the  sounds 
and  grammafical  forms,  on  the  other  hand,  comparatively  few 
important  changes  have  taken  place  during  the  last  two  centuries. 
In  the  18th  century,  however,  the  aspirates  dh  and  gh  pns^ed  into 
d  and  g  (after  I  and  r  into  j), — as  lag  for  lagh,  law,  briid  for  brbdh, 
bread  ;  liv  passed  into  v  (in  dialects  already  about  tlie  year  1600), — 
as  i'a?pfor  hvalpcr,  whelp  ;  Ij  likewise  into  j, — thus  Ijusler,  leister, 
occurs  written  juster.  In  our  time  rd,  rl,  m,  rs,  and  rt  are  passing 
into  simple  sounds  ("supradental"  d,  I,  n,  s,  and  (),  while  tb« 
singular  of  the  verbs  is  gradually  supplanting  the  plural.  A 
vigorous  reform,  slowly  but  firmly  carried  on  almost  uniformly 
during  all  -periods  of  the  Swedish  language,  is  the  throwing  back 
of  the  principal  accent  to  the  beginning  of  the  word  in  cases  where 
previously  it  stood  nearer  the  end,  a  tendency  that  is  characteristie 
of  all  the  Scandinavian  languages,  but  no  doubt  especially  of 
Swedish.  In  the  primitive  Scandinavian  age  the  accent  was 
removed  in  most  simple  words';  the  originally  accented  syllable, 
however,  preserved  a  musically  high  pitch  and  stress.  Thus  there 
arose  two  essentially  different  accentuations, — the  one,  with  un- 
accented final  syllable,  as  in  Icel.  stlgr  (Gr.  cTtlxf's),  thou  goest, 
the  comparative  betre  {ef.  Gr.  rdaaiiiv  from  rax^s),  better,  the 
other,  with  secondary  stress  and  high  pitch  on  the  final,  as  in  Icel. 
pret.  plur.  buSom  (Sanskr.  bubudhimd),  we  bade,  part.  pret.  bitenn 
(Sanskr.  bhinnds),  bitten.  The  same  change  afterwards  took  place 
in  those  compound  words  that  had  the  principal  accent  on  the 
second  member,  so  that  such  contrasts  as  Gernlan  urthcil  and 
crthellcn,  were  ^adually  brought  into  conformity  with  the  former 
accentuation.  At  the  present  jday  it  is  quite  exceptionally  (and 
chiefly  in  borrowed  words  of  later  date)  that  the  principal  accent 
in  Swedish  is  on  any  other  syllable  than  the  first,  as  in  lekdmen, 
body,  vdlslgna,  to  bless. 

The  scientific  study  of  Modem  Swedish  '  dates  from  Sweden's  The 
glorious  epoch,  the  last  half  of  the  17th  century.  The  fii-st  regular  studir- 
Swedish  grammar  was  written  in  1684  (not  edited  till  1884)  in  Modem 
Latin  by  Er.  AuriviUius  ;  the  first  in  Swedish  is  by  N.  Tiallman,  Swaaiab 
1696.  Nothing,  however,  of  value  was  produced  before  the  great 
work  of  Rydqvist  mentioned  above,  which,  although  chiefly  dealing 
with  the  old  language,  throws  a  flood  of  light  on  the  modern  also. 
Among  the  works  of  late  years  we  must  call  special  attention  to 
the  researches  into  the  history  of  the  language  by  K.  F.  SoderwaU,'' 
F.  A.  Tamm,"  and  A.  Kock."  But  little  study,  and  that  only  in 
isolated  parts,  has  been  devoted  to  the  grammar  of  the  modem 
language,  if  the  advanced  state  of  philology  is  considered.  A 
good  though  short  abstract  is  given  in  H.  Sweet's  essay  on 
"Sounds  and  Forms  of  Spoken  Swedish"  {Traits.  Phil.  Soc,  1877- 
79).  Attempts  to  construct  a  dictionary  were  made  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury, the  earliest  being  the  anonymous  Variarum  Rerum  Voeabuli 
cum  Sueca  Interprctatimie,  in  1538,  and  the  Synonymonim  Libclhii 
by  Elavus  Petri  Helsingius,  in  1687,  both  of  which,  howevev, 
followed  German  originals.  The  first  regular  dictionary  is  by 
H.  Spegel,  1712 ;  and  in  1769  Joh.  Ihre  (t  1780),  probably  the 
greatest  philological  genius  of  Sweden,  published  his  Glossariwn, 
Sviogoticum,  which  stUl  remains  the  most  copious  Swedish 
dictionary  in  existence.  In  the  present  century  the  diligent 
lexicographer  A.  F.  DaLin  has  published  several  useful  works.  At 
present  the  Swedish  Academy  has  in  preparation  a  gigantic  dic- 
tionary on  about  the  same  plan  as  Dr  Murray's  New  English 
Dietionary  ;  there  will  also  appear  as  soon  as  possible  a  complete 
list  (with  grammatical  and  etymological  notes),  drawn  up  by  A. 
Andersson,  Ad.  Noreen,  and  F.  A.  'Tamm,  of  the  words  in  use  in 
the  pesent  language.  The  char.acteristic  differences  between  the 
Swedish  literary  language  used  in  Finland  and  that  of  Sweden 
are  exhibited  in  the  Fiiuk  Tidskrift,  vol.  xix.  pts.  5,  6,  1885 
("Studierpl  Svensk  sprikbotten  i  Finland,"  by  Karl  Lindstrom).  i 

3  See  A.  Noreen.   "Aper?u,"  Ac;  H.  Hemlund,  Forilag  och  atgdrdtr  tilt 
Svenska  si-ri/tsprakets  regterande,  1883. 

4  Hujvudepokema  afSvenska  sprakets  utbildning,  1870 
*  Several  essays  on  the  borrowed  words  In  Swedish. 

6  Sprakhistoriska  undersokningar  om  .Svensk  al-cent,  1.,  1878, 11.,  1884-A. 


WGANDINAVIAN     LANGUAGES 


373 


lY.  Danish,  like  Swedish,  is  divided  into  the  two  great  Pre- 
and  Post-Refonnation  epochs  of  Old  and  Modern  Danish. 

1.    Old  Danish.— 1\ie  teriitory   of   Old    Danish   included  not 
only   the  present  Denmark,  but  also  the  southern   Swedish  pro- 
vinces  of  Halland,   Sk4ne,    and   Wekinge,    the  whole  of  Schlus- 
■wig,  and,    as  stated  above,  for  a   short  period  also  a  great  part 
of  England,  and  Normandy.     The  oldest  monuments  of  the  Ian- . 
guage   arc  runic  inscriptions,  altogether  about  250  in   number.' 
The  oldest  of  them  go  ax  far  back  as  to  the  beginning  of  the  9th 
century,  tlio   Suoldelev-stone   for  instance  on   Sealand,    and  the 
neml0se-stone  on   Fiinen.     From   about  the   year   900   date   the 
very  long  inscriptions  of  Tryggevielde  (Sealand)  and  Glavcudrup 
(Fvinen) ;   from   the   10th   century   we    have   tho   stones   of  Jael- 
linge  (Jutland),  in  memory  of  two  of  the  oldest  historical  kings 
of  Denmark  (Gorm  and  Harald) ;  while  from  about  1000  we  have 
a  stone   at   Dannevirke   (Schleswig),  raised   by  the   conqueror  of 
England,  Sven  Tjugusk.xgg.     Relics  of  about  tho  same  age  are  the 
■words  that  were  introduced  by  the  Danes  into  English,  the  oldest 
of  which  date  from  tlie  end  of  tho  9th  century,  tho  time  of  tho 
first  Danish  settlement  in  England  ;  most  of  these  are  to  be  found 
in  the  early  English  work  Ormulum.^    No  Danish  literature  arose 
before   the  13tli  century.     The  oldest  manuscript  that  has  come 
down  to  us  dates  from  the  end  of  that  century,  written  in  runes 
and  containing  the  law  of  Skine.     From  about  the  year  1300  we 
possess  a  manuscript  written  in  Latin  characters  and  containing 
Valdemar's  and  Erik's  laws  of  Sealand,  the  Flensborg  manuscript 
of  the  law  of  Jutland,  and  a  manuscript  of  the  municipal  laws  of 
"Flensborg.  '  These    three    manuscripts   represent    three    different 
Ralects.  dialects,— that,  namely,  of  Skine,  Halland,  and  Blekinge,  that  of 
Sealand  and  the  other  islands,  and  that  of  Jutland  and  Schleswig. 
There   existed   no  uniform   literary  language   in   the  Old  Danish 
period,  although  some  of  the  most  important  works  of  the  16th 
century,  such  as  Michael's  Pocvis  and  the  Rhymed  Chronicle  (the 
first  book  printed  in  Danish,  in  1495),  on  account  of  their  excellent 
diction,  contributed  materially  to  the  final  preponderance  of  their 
dialect,  that  of  Sealand,  towards  the  Reformation, 
rem  of      As  to  the  form  of  the  language,  it  hardly  differs  at  all  during 
l>>»laii.   the  period  between  800  and  1200  A.D.  from  Old  Swedish.     It  is 
pi«g<s-      only  in  the  oldest  literature  that  we  can  trace  any  marked  differ- 
ences; these  are  not  very  important,  and  are  generally  attributable 
to  tho  fact  that  Danis'u  underwent  a  little  earlier  the  same  changes 
that  afterwards  took  place  in  Swedish  (e.g.,  h  in   hv  and  hj  in 
Danish  was  mute  as  early  as  tho   end  of  the  14th  century  ;   cf. 
p.  372,  above).     The  laws  rel'erred  to  above  only  agree  in  differing 
from  the  Swedish  laws  in   the  following  points:— the  nominative 
ilready  takes  the  form  of  the  accusative  (as  kalf,  calf,  but  Old  Sw. 
nom.  K-nlver,  ace.  kalf) ;  the  second  person  plural  ends  in  -se  (as 
tepsc,  but  Old  Sw.  kiipin,  you  buy)  ;  rn  the  subjunctive  no  differ- 
ences are  expressed  between  persons  and  numbers.     Among  them- 
selves, on  tlie   contrary,  they  show  considerable  differences  ;  the 
law  of  Sk&ne  most  nearly  corresponds  with  tho  Swedish  laws,  those 
of  Sealand   keep  the   middle   place,    while   the  law  of    Jutland 
exhibits  the  most  distinctive  individuality.     The  Sklne  law,  e.g., 
retains   the   vowels   a,  i,  u  in   terminations,  which  otherwise  in 
Danish  have  become  uniformly  m  ;  the  same  law  inserts  b  and  d 
between  certain   consonants  (like  Old  Sw.;  see  p.  371),  has  pre- 
served the  dative,  and  in  the  present  tense  takes  the  vowel  of  the 
infinitive ;  the  law  of  Jutland,  again,  does  not  insert  b  and  d,  and 
has   dropped  the  dative,  while  the  present  tense  (undergoing  an 
"  Umlaut")  has  not  always  accepted  the  vowel  of  the  infinitive;  in 
all  three  characteristics  the  laws  of  Sealand  nuctuate.     After  1350 
We  meet  an  essentially  altered  language,  in  which  we  must  first  note 
the  change  of  k,  p,  t  after  a  vowel  into  g,  b,  d  (as  lag,  roof,  l^be,  to 
run,  sdr,  to  eat) ;  Ih  passes  into  t  (as  ting,  thing),  gh  into  w  (as  law 
for  lagh,  guild)  and  into  i  (as  vci  for  wagh,  way) ;  hi,  nd  are  pro- 
nounced like  a,  nil  ;  s  is  the  general  genitive  ending  in  singular 
and   plural,    &,c.     Tho  vocabulary,    which    in   earlier   times  only 
borrowed  a   few  and   those  mostly   ecclesiastical   words,  is   now 

chiefly  owing  to  tho  predominant  influence  of  tho  Hanse  towns — 

inundated  by  German  words,  such  as  those  beginning  with  be-, 
bi;  gc;  for;  and  und-,  and  ending  in  -bed,  and  a  great  number 
of  others,  iis  blive,  to  become,  ske,  to  happen,  /ri,  free,  hrig,  war, 
bitxcr.  pantaloons,  gnnske,  quite,  &c. 

An  Old  Danish  grammar  is  still  wanting,  and  tho  preparatory 
studies  which  exist  are,  although  excellent,  but  few  in  number, 
beiu"  chiefly  essays  by  the  Danes  K.  J.  Lyngby  and  L.  F.  A. 
■Wiinmer  w'ith  N.  M.  Petci-sen's  treatise  Del  Danskc,  Norske,  og 
Svcnskc  noogs  hi^orie,  vol.  i.  (1829),  one  of  tho  first  w'orks  that 
paid  any  attention  to  Old  Danish,  which  till  then  had  been  com- 
i.lef elv  iic'leeted.  A  dirtionnrv  on  a  large  scnlo  covering  the  whole 
of  Old  Danish  literature,  except  tho  very  oldest,  by  O.  ha  kar, 
has  been  in  course  of  publication  since  18S1 ;  older  and  wimUer  u 
Chr.  Molbech's  Dausk  Olossarium  (18!;7-6C)^ 

Wlnmu'i'  •■  lliuiONki  inon.  Oprlndil.c  •  (Aarb^ntr/or  Xoijdt  (If  I""''?*'  '■, '"J^' 
i  s"e  i.  1), lu'  •■  X ".ilLcho  Ubnwlirtcr  Im  Orrmulura '■  y<i«;-/lraun.  .  Ar((, di«, 
X,  16S4> 


2.  Modern  Danish.— the  first  important  monument  of  this  is  the 
translation  of  tho  Bible,  by  Chr.  Pedersen,  Peder  Palladius,  and 
others,  the  so-called  Christian  Ill.'s  Bible  (1550),  famous  for  the 
unique  purity  and  excellence  of  its  language,  the  dialect  of  Sealand, 
then  incontestably  promoted  to  be  the  language  of  the  liingdom. 
The   first  secular  work  deserving  of  the   same  praise  is  Vedel  a 
translation' of  Saxo   (1575).     Tho  succeeding  period  untU   1750 
offers  but  few  works  in  really  good  Danish  ;  as  perfcctlv  classical, 
however,  we  have  to  mention  the  so-called  Christian  V.'s  Law  of 
Denmark  (1683).     For  the  rest,  humanism  has  stamped  a  highly 
Latin-French  character  on   the   literature,  striking  even   in  tho 
works  of  the  principal  Svriter  of  this  period,  Holbcrg.     But  about 
the  year  1750  there  begins  a  new  movement,  characterized  by  a 
reaction  against  tho  language  of  the  preceding  period  and  purist 
tendencies,  or,  at  least,  efforts  to  enrich  the  language  with  new- 
formed  words  (not  seldom  after  the  German  pattern),  as  omkreds, 
periphery,  selvsteendighed,  independence,  valgsprog,  devise,  digter, 
poet.     The  leading  representatives  of  these  tendencies  were  Eilschow 
and   Sneedorf.     From   their  time   tianish   may  be  said   to  have 
acquired  its  present  essential  features,  though  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  several  later  authors,  as  J.  Ewald  and  Ohlensehliiger,  have 
exercised  a  considerable  influence  on  the  poetical  style.     As  the 
most  important  differences  between  the  grammatical  forms  of  the 
18th  and  19th  centuries  on  one  hand  and  those  of  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries  on  the  other  may  be'  noted  the  following  : — most  neuter 
substantives  take  a  plural  ending  ;  those  ending  in  a  vowel  form 
their  plural  by  adding  -r  (as  rigcr,  for  older  ngc,  plural  of  rige, 
kingdom),  and  many  of  those  ending  in  a  consonant  by  adding  -t 
(as  huse  for  hits,  of  hus,  house) ;  substantives  ending  in  -ere  drop 
their  final  -e  (as  dommcr  for  dommerc,  .judge) ;  the  declension  wit^ 
suffixed  article  becomes  simplified  in  the  samo  way  as  in  Swedish 
(see  above,  p.  372) ;  the  plural  of  verbs  takes  the  singular  form  (as 
drak  for  drukke,  we  drank) ;  and  the  preterite  subjunctive  is  snjy 
planted  bj  "itie  infinitive  (as  mr  for  vaarc,  were).     'The  first  Modem 
D.inish  grammar  is  by  E.  Pontoppidan,  1668,  but  in  Latin  ;  the  q^^^. 
first  in  Danish  is  by  the'  famous  Peder  Syv,  1685.     The  works  of  ma-.iL»J 
the   self-taught    J.    H0jsgaard   {e.g.,   Acccntuerct    og    raisonnerel  treat 
grammatica,  1747)  possess  great  merit,  and  are  of  especial  import-  "ne'i' 
ance  as  regards  accent  and  syntax.     The   earlier  part  of   this 
century  gave  us  Rask's  grammar  (1830).     A  thoroughly  satisfactory 
Modern  Danish  grammar  does  not  exist ;  perhaps  the  best  is  that 
by  Th.   Miibius   (1871).     The   vocabulary  of  the  16th   and  17th 
centuries  is  collected  in  Kalkar's  Ordbog,  mentioned  above,  that  of 
the  18th    and    19th    centuries    in    the  voluminous  and  as  yet 
unfinished    dictionary    of   Videnskabernas    Selskab,   and    in    C. 
Molbech's  Z)a7wt  ort/ioj  (2d  ed.  1859).^ 

As    already  mentioned   (p.    370),  Danish   at   the  Reformation  Dano- 
became  the  language  of   tne  literary  and   educated    classes  of  Nor- 
Norway  and    remained    so    for   three    hundred   years,    although  v/e^ian 
it  cannot  be  denied  that  many  Norwegian  authors  even  during 
this  pe.-iod  wrote  a  language  with  a  distinct  Norwegian  colour, 
as  for  instance  tho  prominent  prose-stylist  Peder  Clausspin  Friis 
(tl614),  the  popular  poet  Peder  Dass  (t  1708),  and,  in  a  certain 
degree,  also  the  two  literary  masters  of  the  18th  century,  Hol- 
berg  and   "Wessel.      But  it  is  9nly  sinco   1814,  when  Kon,vay 
gained  her   independence,   that  'we  can  clearly  perceive  the  so- 
called  Dano-Norwcgian  gradually  developing  as  a  distinct  offshoot 
of   the   general  Danish   language.      The   first  representatives    of 
this    new  language   are   the  writer   of  popular   life   M.    Hansen 
(+  1842),  tho  poet  H.  'Wergeland  (t  1845),  and  above  all  the  tale- 
wiiter  P.  C.  Asbj^rnsen  (t  1885).     In  our  own  days  it  has  been 
further  developed,  especially  by  the  great  poets  Ibsen-and  Bj0rnson 
and  the  noveli.st  Lie  ;  and  it  has  been  said,  not  without  reason,  to 
have  attained  its  classical  perfection  in  the  works  of  the  first-named 
author.     This  language   differs  from   Danish   particularly   in  its 
vocabulary,  having  adopted  'very  many  Norwegian  provincial  words 
(COOO  to  7000),  less  in  its  inflexions,  but  to  a  very  great  extent 
in   its  pronunciation.     Tho  most  striking  difTerences  in  thii  re- 
spect Bi-e  the  following :— Norwegian  p,  i,  k  answer  to  Danish  o, 
(/,  g  in  cases  where  they  are  of  later  dato  (seo  above), — as  Ifipc, 
Danish  Ifihc,  to  run,  liUn,  D.  liden,  little,  bnk,  D.  bag,  bock) ;  to 
Danish  k,  g  before  palatal  vowels  answer  Norwegian /y,  j  ;  r  (point- 
trill,  not  back-trill  as  in  Danish)  is  assimilated  in  some  way  with 
following  t  (d),  I,  n,  and  .i  into  so-called  supradcntal  sounds  (see 
p.  372) ;  both  the  primitive  Scandinavian  systems  of  accentuation 
aro  still  kept  separate  from  a  musical  point  of  view,  in  onposition 
to  tho  monotonous  Danish.     There  aro  several  other  clmraetor- 
istics,   nearly  all   of  which    are    points  of    correspondence  with 
Swedish..*    DanoNorwegian  is  grammatically  treated  by  J.  Lttkl* 
(Mndenmanlels  formlirrf,  18C5),  K.  Knud-sen  {Dansk-I<orsk  s]tng- 
lech;  1850),  and  K.  Crekko  (Didrqg  til  Dansk-A'orskcns  lydlarr, 
1881),  and  others. 

At  tho  middle  of  this  century,  however,  far  njore  advanoed  pro- 
tensions  were  urged  to  an  iji'lcpcndeiit  Norwegian  language.     By 

>  Soo  Uudvig)  W(lmniei),    "Dct  Dannko  Sproc."  In  Xordidt  ConMraaMoiu- 
(«x<iton,  SU  od.,  1R95  ;  T.  StiDm,  Dantt  lllrralur/iiilorie,  M  od.    1878. 
«  SCO  J   A.  Luulull.  "  Kor»kt  ilirik  "  (NoriUit  TldUrl/l,  I  .<8J). 


374 


S  C  A  —  S  C  A 


flic  study  of  the  Modern  Norwegian  dialects  and  their  mother 
language,  Old  Norwegian,  the  eminent  philologist  J.  Aasen  was  led 
to  undertake  the  bold  project  of  constructing,  by  the  study  of  these 
two  sources,  and  on  tlie  basis  ofhis  native  dialect  (S^ndmjire), 
I  Norwegi.in-Norwegiap  ("  Norsk-Norsk  ")  language,  the  so-called 
•'Landsmal."  In  1853  he  exhibited  a  specimen  of  it,  and,  thanks 
to  such  excellent  writers  as  Aasen  himself,  the  poets  0.  Vinje  and 
K.  Janson,  and  the  novelist  A.  Garborg,  as  well  as  a  zealous  pro- 
pagandism  of  the  society  "  Det  Norske  Samlag  "  (founded  in  1868), 
there  has  since  arisen  a  valuable  though  not  very  large  literature 
in  the  "Landsm&l."  But  it  is  nowhere  spoken.'  Its  grammatical 
structure  and  vocabulary  are  exhibited  in  Aasen's  Ifofslc  gi-am- 
matik,  1864,  and  Norsk  ordbog,  1873. 

Scandinavian  Dialects.  —As  above  remarked,  the  Scandinavian 
dialects  are  not  grouped,  so  far  as  their  relationship  is  concerned, 
as  might  be  expected  judging  from  the  liter- 
ary languages.  Leaving  out  of  account  the 
Icelandic  dialects  and  those  of  the  Faroes, 
each  of  which  constitutes  a  separate  group, 
the  remainder  may  he  thus  classified  :" — 
(1)  West-NoTioegian  Dialects, — spoken  on 

the  western  coast  of  Norway  between 

Christiansand  and  Molde. 
'^(2)  North -Scnndinavian, — tlie  remaining 

Norwegian  and  the  Swedish  dialects 

of  Vestmanland,  Dalama,  Norrland, 

Finland,  and  Eussia. 

(3)  The  dialects  on  the  island  of  Gotland. 

(4)  Middle-Swedish, — apoken  in  the  rest 

of  Sweden,  except  the  southernmost 

parts  (No.  5). 
((6)  South-Scandinaman, — spoken   in  the 

greater  part  of  Smlland  and  Halland, 

the  whole  of  Sklne,  Blekinge,   and 

Denmark,  and  the  Danish-speaking 

part  of  Schleswig.      This   group   is 

distinctly  divided  into  three  smaller 

groups, — the    dialects    of    soutliern 

Sweden  (with   the   island  of  Born- 
holm),  of  the  Danish  islands,  and  o£ 

Jutland  (and  Schleswig). 
The  study  of  the  Modem  Scandinavian 
.dialects  has  been  very  unequally  prosecuted. 
(Hardly  anything  has  been  done  towards  the 
investigation  of  the  Icelandic  dialects,  while 
those  of  the  Faroes  have  been  studied  chiefly 
by  Hammershaimb.  The  Norwegian  dialects 
have  been  thorouglily  examined  by  Aasen, 
whose  works  give  a  gener.^1  account  of  them ; 
while  in  our  own  days  Joh.  Storm,  above  all, 
displays  an  unwearying  activity,  especially 
in  the  minute  investigation  of  their  phonetic 
constitution,  to  which  Aasen  had  piid  but 
scant  attention.  '  The  Substance  of  these 
researches  in  the  Norwegian  dialects  has  re- 
Scently  been  presented  in  a  magazine,  called 
\Norvegia,  of  which  the  first  volume  is  in 
course  of  publication  ;  it  employs  an  alpha- 
let  invented  by  Storm.  For  the  study  of 
Danish  dialects  but  little  has  been  done, 
Molbech'a  Dialed- Lexicon  of  1841  being  very 
deficient.  The  Schleswig  dialect,  on  the  con- 
trary, has  been  admirably  treated  of  by  E. 
Hagerup  (1854)  and  K.  J.  Lyngby  (1858). 
'At  present  two  important  works  are  in  pre-  [v  ^ 

paration, — H.  F.  Feilberg's  great  dictionary  ^k^ 
of  the  dialect  of  Jutland,  and  J.  C.  Espersen's .  x^^ 
of  the  dialect  of  Bornholm.  There  is  no 
country  in  which  the  dialects  have  been  and 
are  studied  with  greater  zeal  and  more  fruit- 
ful results  than  in  Sweden'  during  the  last 
hundred  and  fifty  years.  Archbishop  E. 
Benzelius  the  younger  (+1743)  made  collec- 
tions of  dialect  words,  and  on  his  work  is 
baaed  the  dialectical  dictionary  of  Ihre  of  1766.  An  excellent 
work  considering  its  age  is  S.  Hof's  Dialeclus  Veslrogothiea,  1772. 
The  energy  and  zeal  of  C.  Save  (essays  on  the  dialects  of  Gotland 
and  Dalarrie)  inspired  these  studies  with  extraordinary  animation 
at  the  middle  of  the  19th  century  ;  in  1867  J.  E.  Rietz  published  a 
voluminous  dialect  dictionary  ;  the  number  of  special  essays,  too, 
increased  yearly.    From  1872  so-called  "  landsmilsforeningar  "  (dia- 

^SeeJ.Stonn,  "Det  Norske  maalstrffiv"  (Nordisk  Tidskri/l,  187Sj. 

*  See  J.  A.  Lundell,  "  Ora  de  Svenska  folkmAlens  frandskaper " 
(A  ntropologiska  Sektioncns  Tidskrift,  1880). 

'3ee  J.  A.  Lundell,  "Ofversikt  af  de  senaste  ftrtiondenas  vark- 
eamhet  for  kannedom  ora  folkmal "  {Svenska  Landsm&len,  i.,  1880), 


Icct  societies)  were  founded  among  the  students  at  the  universities  of 
Upsala,  Lund,  and  Hclsingfors  (.at  Upsala  alone  13),  for  a  systematic 
and  thorough  investigation  of  dialects.  'Wo  liuil  remarkable  progress 
in  scientific  method— especially  with  regard  to  phonetics — iu  the 
constantly  increasing  literature ;  special  mention  maybe  made  of  the 
detailed  descriptions  of  the  dialects  of  Vannland,  Gothind,  and 
Dalama  by  Ad.  Noroen,  and  A.  F.  Frcudenthal'snionogmphson  tho 
Finnish  and  Esthonian  Swedish  dialects.  Since  1879  the  Swedish 
dialect  societies  have  published  a  magazine  on  a  coniiuchensive  plau, 
De  Svenska  Landsmalcn,  edited  by  J.  A.  Lundell,  wlio  has  invented 
for  this  purpose  an  excellent  phonetic  alphabet  (partially  based  on 
C.  J.  Suudevall's  work  Om 2>honctiska  hoksliifvcr,  1855).,    (A.  NO.)  - 

SCARBOROUGH,  a  parliamentary  borough  of  England, 
frequently  called  "  the  Queen  of  Watering  Places,"  situ- 


J  3u4o'.nii.w  E3nf 


1.  Old  Town  Han. 

2.  Custom  House. 
."!.  Old  Post  Office, 
4.  Market  Hall. 


5.  News  Room. 
G.  Theatre  Royal. 

7.  PoHce  Station. 

8.  Museum. 


Plan  of  Scarborough. 

9.  St  Mary's  Church. 

10.  Christ  Do. 

11.  St  Thomas'  IJo, 

12.  Independ't  Do. 


13  Rom.  Cath.Ch.    1 

14.  Post  Office. 

15.  York    City    and 
County  Bank,    j 


1C.  Savings  Bank. 

17.  Sea-Bathing    In- 

firmaiy. 

18.  Theatre 


ated  on  the  east  coast  of  Yorkshire,  in  the  North  Riding, 
40  miles  from  York,  and  between  54°  15'  0"  and  54°  1 7'  1 5" 
N.  lat.  and  0°  22'  25"  and  0°  26'  24"  W.  long.  Its  two 
parts,  north  and  south,  each  with  a  fine  stretch  of  sand 
and  bay,  are  divided  by  a  rocky  promontory  300  feet  above 
the  sea,  on  which  stand  the  remains  of  the  castle.  The 
cliff  is  much  exposed  to  denudation  by  the  sea,  which  has 
been  proceeding  during  the  present  century  at  the  rate  of 
1  yard  in  1 7  years.  The  plateau  forming  the  castle  yard 
in  1190,  according  to  William  of  Newbureh,  comprised  60 


S  C  A  — S  C  A 


375 


acres,  but  it  is  not  now  more  than  17  acres  10  perches,  or 
43  acres,  including  store  yards,  dykes,  and  holms.  The 
first  castle  was  built  in  the  Anglo-Norman  period,  and  is 
referred  to  as  being  in  decay  in  1154 — a  fact  which 
throws  back  its  origin  earlier  than  1136,  the  date  assigned 
for  its  erection  by  William  Lo  Gros,  earl  of  Albemarle 
and  Holderness,  its  first  known  governor.  The  list  of  its 
governors  stretches  from  that  date  to  1832.  The  streets 
of  the  older  part  of  the  town,  immediately  south  of  the 
castle  hill,  come  down  to  the  sea,  but  the  newer  parts  of 
the  south  as  well  as  the  north  side  are  built  upon  rising 
ground.  A  deep  valley  (]?amsdale)  which  divides  the 
south  side  is  bridged  from  St  Nicholas  Cliff  to  the  South 
Cliff.  The  approach  by  rail  ia  through  the  upper  part  of 
this  valley,  by  the  side  of  which  there  is  a  marsh  known  as 
the  Mere.  The  town  is  thus  situated  in  a  kind  of  basin, 
which  opens  out  to  the  north  towards  extensive  and  lofty 
moorland  ranges.  The  modern  period  of  its  history  dates 
from  1G20,  when  Mrs  Farren,  a  lady  resident,  first  discovered 
its  mineral  springs.  The  town  contained  30,504  inhabi- 
tants in  1881,  but  during  the  season,  which  lasts  from 
May  to  October,  its  population  is  augmented  by  from  ten 
to  twenty  thousand  visitors,  for  whose  convenience  there 
is  increasingly  ample  accommodation.  The  Grand  Hotel, 
fronting  the  sea  on  the  south  bay,  stands  on  St  Nicholas 
Cliff,  at  the  north  side  of  the  Rarasdale  valley,  and  is 
one  of  the  largest  in  England.  An  aquarium  (1877) 
stands  beneath  the  Cliff  Bridge,  and  close  by  is  the 
museum,  a  Roman-Doric  rotunda,  built  in  1828.  The 
spa  saloon,  opened  in  1800,  contains  a  hall  in  the  Italian- 
Renaissance  stylo,  a  theatre,  and  refreshment  rooms. 
There  is  a  promenade  in  front  protected  by  a  sea  wall. 
The  south  spring  is  aperient  but  contains  some  iron,  while 
the  north  or  chalybeate  spring  is  more  tonic  in  its  pro- 
perties. The  waters,  however,  are  seldom  taken  now,  the 
to«Ti  being  mainly  frequented  for  the  sea-bathing.  The 
grounds  of  the  present  spa  are  tastefully  laid  out.  A 
foreshore  road,  made  in  1878  by  the  corporation,  and 
shortly  to  be  extended  round  the  castle  cliff  to  the  north 
side,  makes  an  excellent  drive  or  psomenade.  The  north 
side  has  fine  sands,  a  hoist,  and  a  promenade  pier,  but  is 
not  so  attractive  as  the  south  side,  nor  are  the  houses 
there  of  so  gbod  a  character  and  style.  The  salubrity  of 
Scarborough  is  attested  by  its  vital  statistics.  The  mean 
annual  mortality  from  1873  to  1882  was  18-4  per  1000. 
The  death-rate  from  consumption  in  all  England  is  2-4 
per  1000 ;  amongst  the  indigenous  population  of  Scar- 
borough from  ,1873  to  1882  it  was  17  per  1000.  Tho 
mean  annual  temperature  is  47 '9  Fahr.  In  December, 
January,  and  February  it  is  only  0'6°  colder  than  Brighton, 
whilst  in  the  summer  months  Brighton  is  3'C  warmer. 

The  town  is  a  royal  borough,  its  charter  of  incorpora- 
tion dating  from  1161.  It  returned  two  members  to 
parliament  from  1283  to  1885,  when  one  of  tho  seats  was 
taken  away.  The  limits  of  the  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary boroughs  coincide, — tho  area  being  2348  acres, 
the  population  24,259  in  1871  and  30,504  in  1881. 

Shipbuilding,  salt-manufacture,  amf  knife-making  wero  formerly 
common,  but  tho  only  craft  now  remaining  is  jct-mamifactuio. 
The  fishing  trado  is,  however,  very  considerable.  Disputes  about 
dues  for  tho  old  pier  and  tho  nsh-titho  occupy  n  conspicuous 
place  in  tho  town  records  ;  tho  pier  seems  to  have  suffered 
"rcatly  in  tho  various  sieges  to  wliich  tho  town,  after  it  was  walled, 
oecamo  exposed.  Tho  old  town-hall  in  St  Nieliolas  Street,  tho 
new  town-hall  in  Castlo  Road,  the  market-ball  in  St  rielen's 
Square,  in  tho  Tuscan  stylo,  and  tho  new  post  ofhco  in  Huntriaa 
Row  arc  conspicuous  amongst  tho  iiublic  buildings.  There  are 
two  theatres.  Of  tho  monastic  buildings  belonging  to'thcCroy 
Friars,  Dominicans,  and  Carmelites  thcro  aro  no  remains,  but  tho 
parish  church  of  St  Mary,  conspicuously  situated  on  a  mound  to 
tho  south  of  Castlo  Hill,  occupies  tho  sito  of  tho  old  Cistcrcioa 
monastery.  The  old  church  was  made  tho  sito  of  a  battery  in  tho 
eiege  of  tho  castle  in  ISH,  and  ono  of  its  towers  fell  in  16&().    Tho 


restoration  of  the  present  building  took  place  in  1850-  Thero  are 
other  churches  and  chapels  of  a  much  more  recent  date,  including 
a  Roman  Catholic  church.  Tho  racccoui'su  is  on  the  top  of  a  hill, 
commanding  fine  views  of  the  inoore  and  of  the  sea. 

Tho  old  name  of  the  town  was  written  Sknrdeburgo.  It  is  not 
mentioned  in  Domesday  Book,  but  it  wns  probably  waste,  as  Tostii 
count  of  North  nmberland,  had  ravaged  and  burnt  it  some  tin>» 
previously.  Tliorklcn  inontious  it  as  having  been  ravaged  by 
Adelbrecht,  king  of  Northumberland,  and  by  Harold  Hardrads. 
Douglas,  the  Scottish  chief,  also  burnt  it  in  1318.     Henry  II.  com- 

yelled  the  count  of  Aumale  to  surrender  the  .astle  iu  11S5.  King 
ohn  visited  tho  cattle  in  1206  and  1216,  aud  thn  "house  and 
castle  of  Scarborough"  arc  mentioned  in  1223.  '\Mien  not  used  as 
a  temporary  royal  residence  tho  castle  was  a  royal  prison.  In 
1312  the  carl  of  Pembroke  besieged  it,  and  in  the  Pilgrimage 
of  Grace  insurrection  (1556)  it  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  bj 
Sir  Robert  Aske.  A  detailed  survey  of  it,  made  in  1538,  is 
still  e.\tant,  the  castle  yard  ai^d  land  therein  described,  with  tlu 
buildings,  corresponding  with  a  survey  made  in  1839.  It  waS 
again  besieged  in  1644-45  and  in  1648.  In  1655  George  For  the 
Quaker  was  imprisoned  in  tho  castle.  In  1645  the  town  was 
captured  by  assault,  and  in  later  years  its  inhabitants  wero  raueli 
impoverished  by  military  exactions  aud  expenses.  A  view  of  the 
town  and  castle  in  1485  is  still  ext.ant.  The  precise  d.ite  when  the 
town-walls  were  dismantled  is  not  known.  In  1730  Daniel  Defoe, 
writing  from  the  place,  said:  "The  town  is  well-built,  pleasant, 
and  populous,  and  we  found  a  great  deal  of  company  here,  drink- 
ing the  waters,  who  have  not  only  come  from  tho  north  of  England 
but  from  Scotland." 

See  llntory  of  Scarborough  Spaw,  1679;  Gent's  History  of  Scarborough,  1736; 
HIndeiwcll'3  History  of  Scarboroug/t,  1793;  Cole^a  JScarbrough  Worlfiies,  1820; 
Conslilution  and  Byelaios  of  tfic  Corporation  of  Scarbroufih,  1827  ;  Sricf  History 
of  St  Mary's,  Scarbrough,  1845  ;  The  Geology  of  JSearbrough,  by  C.  Fox  Strang- 
ways,  1S80 ;  Flora  of  Scarbrough,  by  G.  llasser,  1881 ;  and  Scarborough  as  a 
Health  Jiesorl,  by  A.  Uaviland,  1883. 

SCARLATTI,  Alessandeo  (1659-1725),  composer  of 
sacred  and  dramatic-  music,  was  born  at  Trapani  in  Sicily 
in  1659,  and  became  in  early  youth  a  pupil  of  Carissimi. 
In  1680  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden  appointed  him  her 
maestro  di  cappella,  and  commissioned  him  to  write  his 
first  opera,  L'Onesth  ndV  Amove,  for  performance  at  her 
palace  in  Rome.  In  1693  he  produced  his  first  oratorio, 
I  Dolori  di  Maria  sempre  Vergine.  In  tho  following  year 
he  was  appointed  maestro  di  cappella  to  tho  viceroy  of 
Naples,  and  from  that  time  forward  his  works  multiplied 
with  astonishing  rapidity,  his  time  being  spent  partly  in 
Naples  and  partly  in  Rome,  where  he  entered  tho  service 
of  Cardinal  Ottoboni,  as  private  maestro  di  cappella.  His 
prodigious  fertility  of  invention  did  not,  however,  tempt 
him  to  write  carelessly.  On  tho  contrary  he  did  his  best 
to  neutralize  the  evil  caused  by  ^the  founders  of  the 
monodic  school,  whose  insane  hatred  of  counterpoint  and 
form  reduced  their  dramatic  music  to  the  dreary  level-  of 
monotonous  declamation.  He  was  by  far  the  most  learned 
contrapuntist  of  his  age ;  and  it  was  to  this  circumstance 
that  his  compositions  owed  their  resistless  power.  More- 
over, his  sense  of  form  was  as  just  as  his  feeling  for 
harmony,  and  to  this  ho  was  indebted  for  tho  originality 
of  many  of  his  finest  conceptions.  He  has  been  credited 
with  two  very  important  inventions — accompanied  recita- 
tive and  tho  da  capo.  That  ho  really  did  invent  tho  first 
there  is  very  little  doubt.  Instances  of  tho  latter  have 
been  found  of  earlier  date  than  most  of  his  works,  but  he 
was  certainly  the  first  to  bring  it  into  general  use.  He 
also  struck  out  ideas  in  his  orchestral  accompaniments 
which  must  have  seemed  bold  indeed  to  tho  musicians  of 
tho  period,  using  ohbli'jalo  passages  and  other  combina- 
tions previously  unknown,  and  introducing  ritomilli  and 
sinfonie  with  excellent  effect.  In  1707  Scarlatti  was 
appointed  j)rincipal  maestro  di  cappella  at  Santa.  Maria 
Maggiore,  aud  soon  afterwards  ho  was  invested  by  the 
pope  with  tho  order  of  the  Golden  Spur,  with  which 
Gluck  and  Mozart  were  afterwards  honoui-od.  He  resigned 
his  a|)pointmcnt  after  two  years'  service,  and  died  at  Naples 
October  24,  1725. 

Very  few  of  Scarlatti's  works  have  been  published.  His  ooin- 
positions  include  IIG  operas  (41  only  of  which  aro  now  known  to 
exist,  aud  thcso  only  in  MS.),  200  mosses  9  oratorios,  moro  than 


376 


S  O A  — S  C  A 


SOO  cantstasj  and  famamarabls  niuiner  pieces,  hAh  eacred  and 
aeenlar.  M33.  of  three  ot  his  operas,  Gerone,  II  Flavio  Cuniberto, 
and  La  Tiodora  Augusta,  are  ..preserved  ia  the  library  of  Christ 
Ohnrch,  Oxford ;  and  II  Prigioniero  Fortunatfl  forais  part  of  ths 
'^Dragonetti  CoUaction  "  in  tne  British  Museum. 

SCARTiATTI,  Domenico  (1683-1757),  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  bom  at  Naples  in  1683,  and  studied  mnsio 
first  trader' Ms  father  and  then  nnder  Gasparini.  He 
began  his  career  by  composing  a  few  operas,  among  them 
Amleto,  produced  at  .Borne  in  1715,  and  remarkable  as  the 
eafliest  known  attempt  to  pose  Shakespeare's  hero  as  the 
prima  nomo  of  a  dramma  per  la  mtisica.  But  his  real 
strength  lay  in  the  excellence  of  bis  performances  on  the 
harpsichord  and  organ.  During  Handel's  first  sojourn  in 
Italy  in  1708-9  D.  Scarlatti  was  invited  to  a  trial  of  skill 
■with  him  On  both  instruments  at  the  palace  of  Cardinal 
Ottoboni,  and  all  present  decided  that  the  harpsichord 
performances  terminated  in  a  drawn  battle,  though  Handel 
had' 3.  decided  advantage  on  the  organ.  The  justice  of 
the  verdict  cannot  be  doubted ;  for,  whenever  Scarlatti  was 
afterwards  praised  for  his  organ-playing,  he  used  to  cross 
himself  devoutly  and  say,  "  You  should  hear  Handell " 

On  the  death  of  Bai  in  1715  D.  Scarlatti  was  appointed 
maestro  di  cappella  of  St  Peter's  in  Rome.  In  1719 
he  conducted  the  performance  of  his  Naixiso  at  tha 
King's  Theatre  in  London,  and  in  1721  he  played  with 
great  success  in  Lisbon.  He  then  returned  to  Naples; 
but  in  1729  he  was  invited  to  Mwlrid,  with  the  appoint- 
ment of  teacher  to  the  princess  of  Asturias,  and  remained 
there  twonty-five  years,  returning  in  1754  to  Naples, 
where  he  died  in  1757. 

D.  Scarlatti's  conipositions  for  the  harpsichord  are  almost  in- 
numerable,  and  many  of  them  hare  been  published.  In  the 
character  of  their  technique  they  are  infinitely  in  advance  of  the 
age  in  which  they  were  written  and  played  ;  and  many  of  them  are 
diificnlt  enough  to  tiix  the  powers  of  the  best  performers  of  the 
present  day 

SCARLET  FH\rES  and  Scablatin-a  are  names  applied 
indifferently  to  an  acute  infectious  disease,  characterized 
by  high  fever,  accompanied  with  sore  throat  and  a  diffuse 
red  rash  upon  the  skin.  This  fever  appears  to  have  been 
first  accurately  described  by  Sydenham  in  1676,  before 
which  period  it  had  evidently  been  confounded  with  small- 
piO£  and  measles. 

In  connexion  -with  the  causation- of  this  fliaease,  the 
following  points  hive  been  ascertained.  (1)  it  is  a  highly 
contagious  malady,  the  infective  material  being  one  of 
the  most  subtle,  diffuse,  and  lasting  known  in  feveis.  It 
would  seem  that  the  disease  is  communicable  from  an 
M,rly  period  of  its  occurrence,  all  through  -its  progress, 
and  especially  during  convalescence  when  the  process  of 
desquamation  ia  proceeding,-  and  when  the  shed-ofi 
epidermis  which  contains  the  germs  of  the  disease  in  great 
abundance  is  apt  to  be  inhaled,  to  become  attached  to . 
articles  of  clothing,  to  find  entrance  into  food,  or  to  be 
transmitted  in  other  ways  to  healthy  persons.  (2)  It 
is  a  disease  for  the  most  part  of  early  life,  youag  children 
bemg  specially  susceptible ;  but  adults  may  also  suffer  if 
they  have  not  bad  this  fever  in  childhood.  (3)  It  occurs 
both  in  isolated  cases  (sporadically)  and  in  epidemics. 
^4>  One  attack  in  general,  although  not  alvrays,  confers 
immunity  from  a  second.  (5)  Certain  constitutional 
conditions  act  as  predisposing  causes  favouring  the 
development  of  the  fever.  Thus,  wiere  overcrowding 
prevails,  and  where,  the  hygienic  state  of  chUdren  is  ill 
attended  to,  the  disease  is  more  likely  to  prevail  and 
spread,  and  to  assume  unfavourable  forms.  Further,  in 
the  puerperal  state  in  women  there  appears  to  be  a  special 
susceptibility  to  suffer  in  a  dangerous  manner  should  there 
be  exposure  to  the  infection  of  the  fever.  As  to  the 
nature  of  the  infecting  agent,  nothing  positive  is  known, 
although'  from-  the  analogy   of   similar   diseases   it   is 


probable    that    specJflo    mlmj-otganJanis    ot   g^mw    aro 
concerned  in  its  production. 

The  period  of  incubation  in  scarlet  fever  (that  is,  tbd 
time  elapsing  between  the  reception  of  the  poison  and  the 
development  of  symptoms)  appears  to  vary.    Sometimes  h 
would  seem  to  be  as  short  as  one  or  two  days,  bnt  in  most 
instances  it  is  probably  about-  a  week.    The  invasion  of 
this  fever  is  generally  sndden  and  sharp,  consisting  in 
rigors,  vomiting,  and  sore  throat,  together  with  a  rapid 
rise  of  temperature  and  increase  in  the  pulse.     Occasionally, 
especially  in  young  children,  the  attack  is  ushered  in  by  con- 
vulsions.  These  premonitory  sjmptoms  usually  continue  fo^ 
about  twenty-four  hours,  when  the  characteristic  eruption 
makes  its  appearance.     It  is  first  seen  on  the  neck,  chest, 
arms,  and  hands,  but  quickly  spreads  all  over  the  body, 
although  it  is  not  distinctly  marked  on  the  face.    This  rash 
consists  of  minute  thickiy-set  red  spots,  which  coalesce  to 
form  a  genera)  difiuse  redness,  in  appearance  not  unlike  that 
produced  by  the  application  of  mustard  to  the  skin.    In 
some  instances  the   redness  is  accompanied  with   small 
vesicles  containing  fluid.     In-  ordinary  cases   the  rash 
comes  out  completely  in  about  two  days,  when  it  begins 
to  fade,  and  by  the  end  of  a  week  from  its  first  appearance 
it  is  usually  gone     The  severity  of  a  case  is  in  some 
degree  measured  by  the  copiousness  and  brilliancy  of  the 
rash,  except  in  the  malignant  varieties,  where  there  may 
be  little  or  no  eruption.     The  tongue,  which  at  first  was 
furred,  becomes  about  the  fourth  or  fifth  day  denuded  of 
its  epithelium  and  acquires  the  peculiar   "  strawberry ' 
appearance  characteristic  of  this  fever.     The  interior  of 
the  throat  is  red  and  somewhat  swollen,  especially  the 
uvula,  soft  palate,  and  tonsils,  and  a  considerable  amount 
of  secretion  exudes  from  the  inflamed  surface.     There,  is 
also  tenderness  and  slight  swelling  of  the  glands  under  the 
jaw.    In  favourable  cases  t^e  fever  departs  with  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  eruption  and  convalescence  sets  in  with 
the  commencement  of  the  process  of  "desquamation"  or 
peeling  of  the  cuticle,  which  first  shows  itself  about  the 
neck,  and  proceeds  slowly  over  the  whole  surface  of  tb« 
body.    Where  the  skin  is  thin  the  desquamation  is  in  the 
form  of  fine  branny  scales;  but  where  it  is  thicker,  aa 
about  the  hands  and  feet,  it  comes  off  in  large  pieces, 
which  sometimes  assume  the  form  of  casts  of  the  fingers  or 
toes.    The  duration  of  this  process  is  variable,  but  it  is 
rarely  complete  before  the  end  of  six  or  eight  weeks,  and 
not  unfrequently  goes  on  for  several  weeks  ■  beyond  that 
period.     It  is  during  this  stage  that  complications  are  apt 
to  appear,  particularly  those  due  to  cold,  such  as  inflam- 
mation of  the  kidneys ;  and  all  throughout  its  continuance 
there  ia  the  further  danger  of  the  disease  being  communi- 
cated to  others  by  the  cast-off  epidermic  scales. 

Scarlet  fever  shows  itself  in  certain  well-marked 
varieties,  of  which  the  following  are  the  chief : — 

1.  ScarlcUina  Simplex  is  the.  most  common  fonn ;  in  tliis  tha 
symptoms,  both  local  and  general,  are  moderate,  and  tbi  case  usually 
runs  a  favourable  course.  It  is  always,  however,  to  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  duration  and  the  infsctiveness  of  the  disease,  in- 
cluding its  eouvalescence,  are  uiuniluenoed  by  the  mildness  of  the 
attack.  In  some  rare  instances  it  would  seem  that  the  evidences 
of  the  disease  are  S6  slight,  as  regards  both  fever  and  rash,  that  they 
escape  observation  and  only  become  known  by  the  patient  subse- 
quently suffering  from  some  of  the  complications  associated  with  it. 
In  such  cases  the  name  latent  scarlet  fever  (searlatina  latens)  is 
applied. 

_  2.  Scarlatina  Anginosa  is  a  more  severe,  form  of  the  fever,  par« 
ticularly  as  regards  the  threat  symptoms.  The  rash  may  be  well 
marked  or  not,  but  it  is  often  slow  m  developing  and  in  subsiding. 
There  is  intense  inflammation  of  the  throat,  the  tonsils,  uvulae  and 
soft  palate  being  swollen  and  iJcerated,  or  having  upon  them  mem- 
branous patches  not  unlike- those  of  diphtheria,  while  externally 
tli6  gland  tissues  in  the  neck  are  enlarged  and  indurated  and  not 
nnfreqnently  become  the  seat  of  abscesses.  There  is  difBculty  in 
opening  the  mouth  ;  en  acrid  discharge  exudes  from  th^  nostrils 
andexoorio'as  the  Una :  and  the  countenance  is  pale  and  waxy- 


SCARLET      FEVER 


377 


looking.  This  form  of  the  disease  is  marked  by  great  prostration  of 
strcnytli,  and  it  is  much  more  frequently  fatal  than  the  preceding. 
3.  iicarlatina  Maligna  is  the  most  serious  form  of  all.  Tlie 
malignancy  may  be  variously  displayed.  •  Thus  a  casa  of  scarlatina 
angiuosa  may  acquire  such  a  severe  character,  both  as  to  throat 
and  general  symptoms,  as  rapidly  to  produce  profound  exhaustion 
and  death.  But  the  typically  malignant  forms  are  those  in  which 
the  attack  sets  in  with  great  violence  and  the  patient  sinks  from 
the  very  Crst.  In  such  instances  the  rash  either  does  not  come 
out  at  all  or  is  of  the  slightest  amount  and  of  livid  rather  than 
scarli^t  appearance,  while  the  throat  symptoms  are  often  not 
prominent.  Death  in  such  cases  may  take  place  in  from  twenty- 
four  to  forty-eight  hours,  and  is  frequently  preceded  by  great  eleva- 
tion oS  the  temperature  of  the  body  and  by  delirium,  coma,  or 
other  nervous  symptoms.  A  further  example  of  a  malignant  form 
is  occasionally  observed  in  cases  where  the  rash,  which  had 
previously  been  well-developed,  suddenly  recedes,  and  convulsions 
or  other  nervous  phenomena  and  rapid  death  supervene. 

The  complications  and  effects  of  scarlet  fever  are,  as 
already  indicated,  among  the  most  important  features  in 
this  disease,  and,  although  their  occurrence  is  exceptional, 
they  appear  with  sufficient  frequency,  and  are  of  such  a 
nature,  as  ought  to  make  the  medical  attendant  carefully 
watch  every  case  for  any  of  their  early  indications.  The 
most  common  and  serious  of  these  is  inflammation  of  the 
kidneys,  which  may  arise  during  any  period  in  the  course 
of  the  fever,  but  is  specially  apt  to  appear  in  the  con- 
-alescence,  while  desquamation  is  in  progress.  Its  onset 
is  sometimes  announced  by  a  return  of  feverish  symptoms, 
accompanied  with  vomiting  and  pain  in  the  loins;  but 
in  a  large  number  of  instances  it  occurs  without  these 
and  comes  on  insidiously.  One  of  the  most  prominent 
symptoms  is  slight  swelling  of  the  face,  particularly  of  the 
eyelids,  which  is  rarely  absent  in  this  complication.  If  the 
urine  is  examined  it  will  probably  be  observed  to  be 
diminished  in  quantity  and  of  dark  smoky  or  red  appear- 
ance, duo  to  the  presence  of  blood ;  while  it  will  also 
be  found  to  contain  a  large  quantity  of  albumen.  This, 
together  with  the  microscopic  examination  which  reveals 
the  presence  of  tube  casts  containing  blood,  epithelium, 
&c.,  testifies  to  a  condition  of  acute  inflammation  of  the 
kidney  (glomerular  and  tubal  nephritis).  In  favourable 
cases  these  symptoms  may  soon  disappear,  but  they  may 
on  the  other  hand  prove  extremely  serious, — the  risks 
being  the  siippression  of  urine,  ■  leading  to  urasmic 
poisoning  and  causing  convulsions  which  may  terminate 
fatally,  or,  further,  the  rapid  development  of  general 
dropsy,  and  death  from  this  cause.  Although  thus  a 
very  formidable  complication,  it  is  yet  one  which  is 
amenable  to  treatment,  and  by  the  prompt  and  judicious 
application  of  remedies  lives  may  often  be  saved,  even  in 
desperate  circumstances.  Occasionally  this  condition  does 
not  wholly  pass  off,  and  consequently  lays  the  foundation 
for  Bricht's  Disease  (q.v.).  Another  of  the  more  common 
complications  or  results  of  scarlet  fever  is  suppuration  of 
the  ears,  due  to  the  extension  of  the  inflammatory  process 
from  the  throat  along  the  Eustachian  tube  into  the  middle 
ear.  This  not  unfrequently  leads  to  permanent  ear- 
discharge,  with  deafness  from  the  disease  affecting  the 
inner  ear  and  temporal  bone,  a  -jundition  implying  ti 
degree  of  risk  from  its  proximity  to  the  brain.  Other 
maladies  affecting  the  heart,  lungs,  pleura,  itc,  occasionally 
arise  in  connection  with  scarlet  fever,  but  they  are  of  less 
common  occurrence  than  those  previously  mentioned. 
Apart,  however,  from  such  definite  forms  of  disease  there 
may  remain  as  the  result  of  scarlet  fever  simply  a  general 
weakening  of  health,  which  may  render  the  patient  delicate 
and  vulnerable  for  a  long  time. 

In  the  treatment  of  scarlet  fever,  one  of  the  first  requiro- 
rr,ents  is  the  isolation  of  the  case,  with  the  view  of  prevent- 
ing the  .spread  of  the  disease.  In  large  houses  this  may  be 
possible,  but  in  most  instances  it  can  only  be  satisfactorily 
accontplished  by  sending  away  those  other  members  of  tho 


family  who  have  not  suffered" from -the ' fever.  The 
establishment  in  many  large  towns  of  hospitals  for  infec- 
tious diseases,  which  provide  accommodation  for  patients  of 
all  classes,  affords  the  best  of  all  opportunities  for  thorough 
isolation.  In  large  familifes,  where  few  or  none  of  the 
members  have  had  the  disease,  the  prompt  removal  of  a 
case  to  such  an  hospital  will  in  many  instances  preveni 
the  spread  of  the  fever  through  the  household,  as  well  as 
beyond  it,  and  at  the  same  time  obviate  many  difficulties 
connected  with  the  cleansing  and  purification  of  the 
house,  which,  however  carefully  done,  may  still  leave 
remaining  some  risk  in  the  case  of  a  fever  the  contagious 
power  of  which  is  so  intense. 

When,  however,  the  patient  is  treated  at  home,  the  sick 
room  should  contain  only  such  furniture  as  may  be  re- 
quired, and  the  attendants  should  come  as  little  as  possible 
in  contact  with  other  members  of  the  household.  Should 
other  children  be  in  the  house,  they  should  be  kept  away 
from  school  during  all  the  time  that  the  risk  of  infection 
continues.  The  possibility  of  the  fever  being  communi- 
cated by  letters  sent  from  the  sick  room  should  not  be 
forgotten  by  those  in  attendance.  Disinfectants,  such  as  car- 
bolic acid,  Condy's  fluid,  &c.,  may  be  used  freely  in  the  room 
and  passages,  and  all  body  or  bed  clothes  when  removed 
should  be  placed  at  once  in  boiling  water,  or  in  some  disin- 
fecting fluid.  In  convalescence,  with  the  view  of  preventing 
the  transmission  of  the  desquamated  cuticle,  the  inunction 
of  the  body  with  carbolized  oil  (1  in  40)  and  the  frequent 
use  of  a  bath  containing  soda  are  to  be  recommended. 

All  books,  toys,  &c.,  used  by  tho  patient  during  the 
illness  should  be  carefully  destroyed  or  given  to  fever 
hospitals,  as  their  preservation  has  frequently  been  known 
to  cause  an  outbreak  of  the  disease  at  a  subsequent  tima' 
With  respect  to  the  duration  of  the  infective  period,  it 
may  be  stated  generally  that  it  is  seldom  that  a  patient 
who  has  suffered  from  scarlet  fever  can  safely  go  about 
before  the  expiry  of  eight  weeks,  while  on  the  other  hand 
the  period  may  be  considerably  prolonged  beyond  this, 
the  measure  of  the  time  being  the  completion  of  the  pro- 
cess of  desquamation  in  every  portion  of  the  surface  of 
the  bod}  As  to  general  management  during  tho  progress 
of  the  fever, — in  favourable  cases  little  is  required  beyond 
careful  nursing  and  feeding.  The  diet  all  through  the 
fever  and  convalescence  should  be  of  light  character,  con^ 
sisting  mainly  of  milk  food.  Soups  may  be  taken,  but 
solid  animal  food  should  as  far  as  possible  be  avoided.' 
During  the  febrile  stage  a  useful  drink  may  be  made  by  a 
weak  solution  of  chlorate  of  i)Otash  in  water  (1  drachm  to 
the  pint),  and  of  this  the  patient  may  partake  freely.  In 
tho  more  severe  forms  of  the  disease,  where  the  throat  is 
much  affected,  the  application  with  a  brush  of  a  strong 
solution  of  Condy's  fluid  or  other  disinfectant,  such  as 
boroglyceride,  glycerine  of  carbolic  acid,  quinine,  ic,  may 
be  required,  or  gargling  with  these  substances  when  this 
can  be  done.  In  the  malignant  variety,  where  the  eruption 
is  not  appearing,  or  is  but  ill  developed,  stimulants  inter- 
nally, and  the  hot  bath  or  pack,  may  sometimes  afford  a 
chance,  or  the  hypodermic  use  of  pilocarpi^, — although  it 
must  be  confessed  that  in  such  cases  little  can  be  expected 
from  any  remedies.  The  treatment  of  tho  kidney  com- 
plication and  its  accompanying  dropsy  is  similar  to  that 
for  acute  Bright's  disease.  Depletion  by  leeching  or  cup- 
ping tho  loins,  and  tho  promotion  of  cutaneous  action  by 
a  hot  air  bath  or  a  hot  wet  pack,  or  by  pilocarpin,  are 
the  most  useful  measures,  and  will  often  succeed  in  saving 
life.  The  abscesses  of  the  neck  which  occa.sionally  occur  as 
complications  should  bo  opened  antiseptically,  while  the 
ear  disorders,  which  are  apt  to  continue  long  after  the 
termination  of  convalescence,  will  demand  tho  special 
attention  of  the  aurist.  (j.  o.  \.\ 


•2'- 


'  i*' 


378 


3  C  A  — S  C  E 


SCARRON,  Paul  (1610-1660),  poet,  dramatist,  novel- 
ist, and  husband  of  Sladamo  de  Maintenon,  was  born 
or  at  least  baptized  on  the  4th  July  1610.  His  father,  of 
the  same  name,  was  a  man  of  position,  and  a  member  of 
tho  parlement  of  Paris.  Paul  the  younger  (who  is  said 
to  have  quarrelled  with  his  stepmother)  became  an 
abbd,  was  not  ill-allowanced,  and  travelled  to  Rome  in 
1634.  He  returned  and  became  a  well-known  figure  in 
literary  and  fashionable  society.  A  wild  story  used  to 
bo  told  of  his  having  (when  in  residence  at  his  canonry 
of  Lc  Mans)  tarred  and  faathered  himself  as  a  carnival 
freak,  of  his  having  been  obliged  to  take  refuge  from 
popular  wrath  in  a  swamp,  and  of  his  consequent  deformity 
from  rheumatism.  The  simple  fact  seems  to  be  that  in 
1637  he  had  an  attack  of  fever  with  the  usual  sequelas  of 
rheumatic  attacks,  and  that  he  put  himself  into  the  hands 
of  a  quack  doctor.  This  at  least  is  how  Tallemant  tells 
the  story,  though  he  substitutes  a  less  creditable  disease 
for  fever.  What  is  certain  is  that  Scarron,  after  having 
been  in  perfect  health  for  nearly  thirty  years,  passed 
twenty  more  in  a  sta'"3  of  miserable  deformity  and  pain. 
His  head  and  body  were  twisted,  and  his  legs  became 
useless.  Nevertheless  he  bore  up  against  his  sufferings 
with  invincible  courage,  though  they  were  complicated  by 
his  inheriting  nothing  from  his  father,  and  by  the  poverty 
and  misconduct  of  his  sisters,  whom  he  supported.  For  a 
few  years  he  really  held  a  benefice  at  Le  Mans,  but  was 
then  in  no  case  to  play  pranks.  It  is  said,  however,  that 
here  he  conceived  the  idea  of  the  Roman  Comique  and 
wrote  the  drama  of  Jodclet,  which  gave  a  nickname  to  the 
actor  who  performed  it.  In  1646  he  returned  to  Paris 
and  worked  hard  for  the  booksellers,  from  the  name  of 
one  of  whom  he  is  said  to  have  called  literature  pleasantly 
his  "  marquisat  de  Quinet."  He  had  also  a  pension  from 
Mazarin  and  one  from  the  queen,  but  lost  both  from  being 
accused  of  "  Frondeur  "  sentiments.  The  most  singular 
action  of  his  life  remains  to  be  told.  In  his  early  years 
he  had  been,  as  hinted,  something  of  a  libertine,  and  a 
young  lady  of  some  family,  Celeste  Palaiseau,  had  openly 
lived  with  him,  But  in  1652,  sixteen  years  after  he  had 
become  almost  entirely  paralysed,  he  married  a  girl  of 
much  beauty  and  no  fortune,  Frangoise  or  Francine 
d'AubigntJ,  granddaughter  of  Agrippa  d'Aubign6,  after- 
wards famous  as  Madame  de  Maintenon.  Scarron's  house 
was,  both  before  and  after  the  marriage,  a  great  centre 
of  society,  despite  his  narrow  means.  Yet  only  the  most 
malignant  and  unscrupulous  libellers  of  the  future  favourite 
accuse  her  of  light  conduct  during  the  eight  years  of  her 
marriage  to  this  strange  husband,  and  the  well-informed 
author  of  the  Historielles  distinctly  acquits  her  of  any 
such.  But  Scarron,  who  had  long  been  able  to  endure 
life  only  by  the  aid  of  constant  doses  of  opium,  was  at 
length  worn  out,  and  died  on  the  6th  October  1660. 

Scanoii's  woik  is  very  abundant,  and,  written  as  it  was  under 
pressure  of  want  and  pain,  it  is  very  unequal.  The  piece  most 
famous  in  his  own  day,  his  Virgilc  Travcsii  (1648-53),  is  now 
thought,  and  not  unjustly,  a  somewhat  ignoble  and  unprofitable 
waste  of  singular  powers  for  burlesque.  But  the  Roman  t'mniquc 
(1651)  is  a  work  the  merit  of  which  can  be  denied  by  no  competent 
judge  who  has  read  it.  Unfiuished,  .ind  a  Uttle  desultory,  this 
history  of  a  troop  of  strolling  actors  is  almost  the  first  French 
novel,  in  point  of  date,  which  shows  real  power  of  painting 
manners  and  character,  and  is  singularly  vivid.  It  furnished 
Tlicophile  Gautier  with  the  idea  and  with  some  of  the  details  of 
his  Capilaiiic  Fracassc.  Scarrou  also  wrote  some  shorter  novels 
of  merit,  which  are  thought  to  have  inspired  Jloherc  and 
Sedaine.  Of  liis  plays  Jodclet  (1645)  and  Don  Japhct  d'Armenie 
(1653)  are  the  best.  Both  these  and  the  others  which  he  wrote 
arc  of  course  somewhat  antiquated  in  style,  but  with  Corneillc's 
Manlcur  they  stand  above  everything  else  in  comedy  before  Moliere. 
He  also  produced  many  miscellaueous  pieces. 

Scarron  is  generally  spoken  of  and  thought  of  as  a  representative 
writer  of  burlesque,  but  in  reality  he  possessed  in  abundance  the 
faculty  of  true  comedy.     Tho  most  complete  edition  of  his  works  is 


held  to  be  that  of  1737  (10  vols.,  Amsterdam),  but  his  more  celebrated 
pieces,  including  all  those  mentioned  above,  .have  been  frequently 
reprinted. 

SCAUP, — the  wild-fowler's  ordinary  abrmgment  of 
Scaup-Duck,  meaning  a  Duck  so  called  "  because  she 
feeds  upon  Scaup,  i.e.,  broken  shelfish,"  as  may  be  seen  in 
Willughby's  Omitholo(jy  (p.  365) ;  but  it  would  be  more 
proper  to  say  that  the  name  comes  from  the  "  Mussel- 
scaups,"  or  "  Mussel-scalps,'"  the  beds  of  rock  or  sand  on 
which  JIussels  {Myiilus  edulis,  and  other  species)  are 
aggregated, — the  Anas  marila  of  Linneeus  and  Fuligula 
marila  of  modern  systematic  writers,  a  very  abundant  bird 
around  the  coasts  of  most  parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere, 
repairing  inland  in  spring  for  the  purpose  of  reproduction, 
though  so  far  as  is  positively  kno^^^l  hardly  but  in  northern 
districts,  as  Iceland,  Lapland,  Siberia,  and  the  fur-countries 
of  America.  It  was  many  years  ago  believed  {Edin.  N. 
Philos.  Journal,  xx.  p.  293)  to  have  been  found  breeding 
in  Scotland,  but  assertions  to  that  eSect  have  not  been 
wholly  substantiated,  though  apparently  corroborated  by 
some  later  evidence  (Proc.  iV.  H.  Soc.  Glasgoio,  ii.  p.  121, 
and  Proc.  Pkys.  Soc.  Edinburgh,  vii.  p.  203).  The  Scaup- 
Duck  has  considerable  likeness  to  the  Pochaed  (vol.  xix. 
p.  252),  both  in  habits  and  appearance ;  but  it  much  more 
generally  afiects  salt-water,  and  the  head  of  the  male  is 
black,  glossed  with  green,  and  hence  the  name  of  "  Black- 
head," by  which  it  is  commonly  known  in  North  America, 
where,  however,  a  second  species  or  race,  smaller  than  the 
ordinary  one,  is  also  found,  the  Fuligula  affinis.  The  female 
Scaup-I)uck  can  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  Dunbird 
or  female  Pochard  by  her  broad  white  face,  (a.  n.) 

SCEPTICISM  signifies  etymologically  a  state  of  doubt 
or  indecision  in  the  face  of  different  mutually  conflicting 
statements  (o-Ke'jrro/nai,  I  consider,  reflect,  hesitate,  doubt). 
It  is  implied,  moreover,  that  this  doubt  is  not  merely  a 
stage  in  the  road  to  certainty  and  true  knowledge. 
The  provisional  suspense  of  judgment  recommended  by 
Descartes  and  others  as  the  true  beginning  of  philosophy 
is  no  more  than  a  passing  phase  of  the  individual's  mind 
in  his  search  for  truth.  But  the  doubt  of  the  sceptic  is 
professedly  the  last  result  of  investigation ;  it  is  the 
renunciation  of  the  search  for  truth  on  the  ground  that 
truth  or  real  knowledge  is  unattainable  by  man.  An 
account  of  the  chief  historical  appearances  of  scepticism 
and  its  different  motives  will  serve  to  illustrate  and  amplify 
this  statement,  and  will  lead  up  to  any  further  considera- 
tions of  a  general  nature.  At  the  outset,  and  in  general 
terms,  scepticism  may  be  summarily  defined  as  a  thorough- 
going impeachment  of  man's  power  to  know — as  a  denial 
of  the  possibility  of  objective  knowledge. 

Trust,  not  distrust,  is  the  primitive  attitude  of  the  mind.  HistorJ- 
What  is  put  before  us,  whether  by  the  senses  or  by  the  "=^1  "!• 
statements  of  others,  is  instinctively  accepted  as  a  veracious  P^*''*"'* 
report,  till  experience  has  proved  the  possibility  of  decep- 
tion. In  the  history  of  philosophy,  in  the  same  way, 
affirmation  precedes  negation ;  dogmatism  goes  before 
scepticism.  And  this  must  be  so,  because  the  dogmatic 
systems  are,  as  it  were,  the  food  of  scepticism ;  without 
them  it  would  be  without  motive,  without  a  basis  oper- 
andi. Accordingly,  we  find  that  sceptical  thought  did  not 
make  its  appearance  till  a  succession  of  positive  theories 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  real,  by  their  mutual  incon- 
sistency, had  suggested  the  possibility  that  they  might 
all  alike  be  false.  The  Sophistic  epoch  of  Greek  philo- 
sophy wi.s,  in  great  part,  such  a  negative  reaction  against 
the  luxui'iance  of  self-confident  assertion  in  the  nature 
philosophies  of  the  preceding  age.  Though  scepticism  aa 
a  definite  school  of  opinion   may  be  said,  in  accordance 

^  **  Scalp"  primarily  signiiies  a  shell;   cf.   Old  TivXz^  schelve  and 
Old  Ft.  escalope  (Skeat,  Ehjmol.  Dictionary,  p.  5281. 


SCEPTICISM 


J79 


\wit1i  oTd  preceSent,  to  date  only  from  tbe  time  of  Pyrrijo 
of  Elis,  there  can  be  no  donbt  that  the  main  currents  of 
Sophistic  thought  were  sceptical  in  the  wider  sense  of  that 
term.  The  Sophists .  Were  the  first  in  Greece  to  dissolve 
knowledge  into  individual  and  momentary  opinion  (Erota- 
^oras),  or  ditilectically  to  deny  the  possibility  o(  know- 
ledge (Gorgias).  In  these  two  examples  we  see  how  the 
weapons  forged  by  the  dogmatic  "phijosopters  to  assist  in 
the  eatabliahment  of  their  own  thesex  are  sceptically 
turned  against  philosophy  in  geneiul.  As  every  attempt 
to  rationalize  nature  implies  a  certain  process  of  criticism 
arid  interpretation  to  which  the  data  of  sense  are  subjected, 
and  in  which  they,  are,  as  it  were,  transcended,  the  a.nti- 
l;h<wis  of  reaf:on  and  sense  is  formulated  early  in  the 
history  of  speculation.  The  opposition,  being  taken  as 
alisolute,  implies  the  impeachment  of  the  veracity  of  the 
Buuses  in  the  interest  of  the  rational  truth  proclaimed  by 
tlie  philosophers  in  question.  Among  the  pre-Socratic 
niiture-philosophers  of  Greece,  Heraclitus  and  the  Eleatics 
are  the  chief  representatives  of  this  polemic  against  the 
"  lying  witness  "  of  the  senses. '  The  diametrical  opposi- 
tion of  the  grounds  on  which  the  veracity  of  the  senses  is 
impugned  by  the  two  philosophies  (viz.,  by  Heraclitus 
because  they  testify  to'  an  apparent  permanence  and 
identity  in  things,  by  the  Eleatics  because  they  testify  to 
an  apparent  multiplicity  and  change)  was  in  itself  Sugges- 
tive of  sceptical  reflexion.  Moreover,  although  these  philo- 
fophers  are  not  in  any  sense  themselves  sceptical,  their 
arguments  are  easily  susceptible  of  a  wider  application. 
Accordingly  we  find  that  the  arguments  by  which  Heraclitus' 
supported  his  theory  of  the  universal  flux  are  employed  by 
Protagoras  to  undermine  the  possibility  of  objective  truth, 
by  dissolving  all  knowledge  into  the  momentary  sensation 
or  persuasion  of  the  individual  The  idea  of  an  objective 
flux,  or  law  of  change  constituting  the  reality  of  things,  is 
abandoned,  and  subjective  points  of  sense  alone  reinain,,-^ 
which  is .  ta,ntan)ount  to  elimineting  the  real  from  human 
knowledge. 

Stiil  more  nneqnivocal  was  the  sceptical  nihilism  ex- 
pressed by  Gorgias  in  his  three  celebrated  theses  : — (1) 
nothing  exists ;  (2)  if  anything  existed,  it  would  be  un- 
knowable; (3)  if  anything  existed  and  were  knowable, 
the  knowledge  of  it  could  not  be  communicated.  The 
arguments  of  his  book,  "  Concerning  the  Non-existent,  or 
Nature,"  were  drawn  from  the -dialectic  which  the  Eleatics 
had  directed  against  the  existence  of  the  phenomenal 
world.  But  they  are  no  longer  used'  as  indirect  proofs  of 
a  universe  of  pure  and  uhitary  Being.  The  prominence 
given  by  ipost  of  the  Sophists  to  rhetoric,  their  cultiva- 
tion of  a  subjective  readiness  as  the  ^sential  equipment 
for  life,  their  substitution  of  persuasion  for  conviction,  all 
mark  the  sceptical  undertone  of  their  teaching.  This 
attitude  of  indiSerence  to  real  knowledge  passed  in  the 
younger  and  loss  reputable  generation  into  a  corroding 
moral  scepticism  which  recognized  no  good  but  pleasure 
and  no  right  but  might. 

What  Socrates  chiefly  did  was -to  recreate  the  instinct 
(or  truth  and  the  telief  in  the  possibility  of  its  attain- 
ment. The  scicntiGc  impulse  thus  commianicated  was 
eulficiont  to  drive  scepticism  into  the  background  during 
thtt  RTPAt  age  of  Greek  philosophy  (i.e.,  the  hundred  years 
preceding  Aristotle's  death,  323  b.o.).  The  "captiouB 
logic  of  iJ'e  Megaric  school, — in  whicjb  the  Eleatic  in- 
fluence was  strong, — their  devotion  to  eristic  and  the  elab- 
oration of  fallacies,  was  mdeed  in  some  cases  closely  related 
lo  sceptical  results.  The  school  bos  been  considered  with 
80lrt»  truth  to  form  a  connecting  link  with  the  l^tcr  scep- 
titio'i  just  as  the  contamporary'  Cynicism  and  Cyrenaicism 
n^fiv  bo  held  to  be  imperfect  preludes  to  Stoicism  and 
Elincureanism,     The  extreme  nominalism  of  soma  of  (be 


Cynics  alsov  who  denied  the  possibility  of  any  but  identical 

judgments,  must'  be  similarly  regarded  as  a  solvent  of 
knowledge.  But  with  these  insignificant  exceptions  it  holds 
true  that,  after  the  sceptical  wave  marked  by  the  Sophists, 
scepticism  does  not  reappear  till  after  the  exhaustion  of 
the  Socratic  impulse  in  Aristotle. 

The  first  .man  in  antiquity  whose  scepticism  gave  name 
to  his  doctrine  was  Pyrrho  of  Elis  (about  360-270  B.a). 
Pyrrho  proceeded  with  the  army  of  Alexander  the  Great 
as  far   as  India,  in   the  company   of  Anaxarchus,   the 
Democritean  philosopher.     He  afterwards  returned  to  his 
nati-se  city,  where  he  lived  in   poor  circumstances,  but< 
highly  honoured  by  his  fellow-citizens.     Pyrrho  himself 
left  no  writings,  and  the  accounts  of   hisdoctine  ai:e 
mainly  derived  from  his  pupil  Timon  of  Phlius  (about 
325-23.^  B.C.).    Timon  is  called  the  Sillographist,  from  hia 
satirical  poem  (Si'AAot),  in  which  all  the  jiilosophers  of 
Greece  are  held  up  to  ridicule,   with  the  exception  of 
Xenophanes,   who    honestly    sought,    pnd    Pyrrho,   who 
succeeded   in   finding,    the   truth-      Other   disciples    are 
mentioned  besides  Timon,  but  the  school  'was  short-lived, 
its  place  being  presently  taken  by  the  more  moderate  and 
cultured  doubt  of   the  New  Academy.      ZeUer  sums  up 
Pyrrho's  teaching  in  three  propositions : — We  know  nothing 
about   the   nature   of   things ;   henos  the .  right  attitude 
towards  them  is   to  ■withhold  judgment ;   the  necessary 
result  of  withholding  judgment  is  imperturbability.'     The 
technical  language  of  the  school  expresses  the  first  position 
by  the  word  aKaraK-rjipLa ;   things  are  wholly  incompre- 
hensible   or   inaccessible ;    against   every  statement   the 
opposite  may  be  advanced  with  equal  justice  (ia-oo-divtux 
xuiv  \6yusv).     The  sceptical  watchword  which  embodies  the 
second  position  is  tVo;^,  reserve  of  judgment,  or,  as  it  is 
put  by  Timon,  oiStv  /xoAAov,  that  is,  no  one  assertion  is 
truer  than  another.     This  complete  suspense  of  opinion  ha 
also  expressed  by  the  terms  ,appe.ij/La,  or  equilibrium,  and 
dc^acrio,  of  refusal  to  speak,  a^  well  as  by  other  expressions. 
The  Pyrrhonists  were  consistent  enough  to  extend  their 
doubt  even  to  their  own  principle  of  doubt..    They  thus 
attempted   to   make   their   scepticism   universal,  and  to 
escape  the  reproach  of  basing  it  upon  a  fresh  dogmatism. 
Mental  imperturbability  (aTa'paiia)  was  the  result  to  be 
attained  by   cultivating-  such-  a   frame  of  mind.-     The 
Happiness  or  satisfaction  of   the  individual  was  the  end 
wjbich  dominated  this  scepticism  as  well  as  the  contem- 
porary systems  of  Stoicism  and  Epicureanism,  and  all  three 
philosophies  place  it  in  tranquillity  or  self-centred  indif- 
ference.    Scepticism  withdraws'  the  individual  completely 
into  hipiseli  from  a  wodd  of  which  he  can  know  nothing. 
'It  is  inen's  opinions    or  unwarranted  judgments  about 
things,  sa'y  the  sceptics,  which  betray  them  into  desire, 
and  painful  effort,  and  disappointment.     From  all  this  a 
man  is  delivered  who  abstains  from  judging  one  state  to 
be   preferable  to  another.      But,  as  complete  inactivity 
would  have  been  synonymous  •with  death,  it  appears  •*» 
have  been  admitted  that  the  sceptic,  while  retaining  his 
consciousness  of  the  complete  uncertainty  enveloping  every 
step,  might  follow  custom  in  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life. 

The  scepticism  of  the  New  Academy  (or,  to  speak  more 
strictly,  of  the  Middle  Academy, .  under  Arccsilaus  nnd 
Carneades,  founders '  respectively  of  the  80<alled  second 
and  third'  Academies)  differed  very  little  from  that  of  the 
Pyrrhonists.  ,Th6  differences  asserted  by  later  writers  ojSi 
not  bo'rne  out  on  investigation.  But  the'  attitude  main- 
tained by  the  Academics  was  chiefly  that  of  a  negative 
criticism  of  the  views  of  others,  in  particuliir  of  the  some- 
what crude  and  imperious  dogmatiein  of  ■  the  Stoics.  They 
also,  in  the"  absence  of  certainty,  allowed  a  large  scope  to 
probability  as  a  motive  to  action,  and  defended  their 
doctrine  on  this  point  with  greater  care  and  skill.-    The 


380 


SCEPTICISM 


whole  position  was  stated  with  more  urbanity  and  cul- 
ture, and  was  supported,  by  Carneades  in  particular,  by 
argumentation  at  once  more  copious  and  more  acute.  It 
seems  also  true  that  the  Academics  were  less  overborne 
than  the  Pyrrhonists  by  the  practical  issue  of  their  doubts 
(imperturbability) ;  their  interest  was  more  purely  intel- 
lectual, and  they  had  something  of  the-  old  delight  in 
mental  esercitation  for  its  own  sake.  Arcesilas  or 
Arcesilaus  (about  315-240  B.C.)  made  the  Stoic  theory  of 
irresistible  impressions  (<f>avTa(riai  KaTaXrjTmKaC)  the  special 
object  of  his  attack.  Mere  irresistibleness  {KaTaK-rjipis), 
he  maintained,  is  no  criterion  of  truth,  since  fake' 
perceptions  may  equally  possess  this  power  to  sway  the 
mind.  He  seems  chiefly  to  have  supported  his  position  by 
adducing  the  already  weU-known  arguments  of  former 
philosophers  against  the  veracity  of  the  senses,  and  he 
evidently  held  that  by  these  arguments  the  possibility  of 
knowledge  in  general  was  suflSciently  subverted.  We  can 
know  nothing,  he  concluded, — not  even  this  itself,  that  we 
know  nothing.  He  denied  that  the  want  of  knowledge 
reduces  us  to  inaction.  Notions  influence  the  will 
immediately,  apart  from  the  question  of  their  truth,  and, 
in  all  questions  of  conduct,  probability  (to  evKoyov)  is 
our  sufiicient  guide,  as  it  is  our  highest  attainable 
standard.  It  is  stated  that  Arcesilaus  made  his  negative 
criticism  merely  a  preliminary  to  the  inculcation  of  a 
modified  Platonism.  But  tMs  account,  though  not  in 
itself  incredible,  is  not  borne  out  by  any  evidence  at  our 
disposal  The  theory  of  Carneades  (213-129  B.C.)  repre- 
seuts  the  highest  development  of  Academic  scepticism. 
The  dogmatic  system  which  Carneades  had  in  view  was 
that  of  Chrysippus,  the  Stoic,  whose  rpain  positions, 
whether  in  the  theory  of  knowledge,  in  morals,  or  in 
theology,  he  subjected  to  an  acute  and  thorough-going 
criticism.  As  to  the  criterion  of  truth,  Carneades  denied 
that  this  could  be  found  in  any  impression,  as  such;  fer  in 
order  to  prove  its  truth  an  impression  must  testify,  not 
-only  to  itself,  but  also  to  the  objects  causing  it.  We  find, 
however,  admittedly,  that  in  many  cases  we  are  deceived 
by  our  impressions ;  and,  if  this  is  so,  there  is  no  kind  of 
impression  which  can  be  regarded  as  guaranteeing  its  own 
truth.  According  to  his  own  examples,  it  is  impossible  to 
distinguish  objects  so  much  alike  as  is  one  egg  to-  another ; 
at  a  certain  distance  the  painted  surface  seems  raised,  and 
a  square  tower  seems  round;  an-  oar  in  water  seems 
broken,  and  the  neck-plumage  of  a  pigeon  assumes 
different  colours  in  the  sun ;  objects  on  the  shore  seem 
moving  as  we  pass  by,  and  so  forth.  The  same  applies, 
he  argued,  to  purely  intellectual  ideas.  Many  fallaeies 
cannot  be  solved,  and  we  cannot,  for  example,  draw  any 
absolute  distinction  between  much  end  little,  or,  in  short, 
between  any  quantitative  differences.  Our  impressions, 
therefore,  furnish  ns  with  no  test  of  truth,  and  we  can 
derive  no  aid  from  the  operations  of  the  understanding, 
which  are  purely  formal,  combining  and  separating  ideas 
■without  giving  any  insight  into  their  validity.  Besides 
this  general  criticism  of  knowledge,  Carneades  attacked 
the  cardinal  doctrines  of  the  Stoic  school,— their  doctrine 
of  God  and  their  proof  of  divine  providence,  from  the 
evidences  of  design  in  the  arrangements  of  the  univerbe. 
Many  of  his  arguments  are  preserved  to  us  in  Cicero's 
Academics  and  De  Natura  Deorum.  His  criticism  of  the 
contradictions  involved-  in  the  Stoic  idea  of  God  really 
constitutes  the  first  discussion  in  ancient  times  of  the 
personality  of  God,  and  the  difficulty  of  combining  in  ono 
conception  the  characters  of  infinity  and  individuality. 
As  a  positive  offset  against  his  scepticism,  Carneades 
elaborated  more  fully  the  Academic  theory  of  probability, 
for  which  he  employed  the  terms  l)u<^o-is  and  iriBayortj^. 
Being  necessarily  ignorant  of  the  relation  of  ideas  to  the 


objects  they  represent,  we  are  reduced  to  judging  them  by 
their  relation  to  ourselves,  i.e.,  by  their  greater  or  less 
clearness  and  appearance  of  truth.  Though  always  falling 
short  of  knowledge,  this  appearance  of  truth  may  be 
strong  enough  to  determine  us  to  action.  Carneades  recog- 
nized three  degrees  of  probability.  The  first  or  lowest 
is  where  our  impression  of  the  truthfulness  of  an  idea 
is  derived  simply  from  the  idea  itself ;  the  second  degree 
is  where  that  impression  is  confirmed  by  the  agreement 
of  related  ideas ;  if  a  careful  investigation  of  all  the 
individual  ideas  bears  out  the  same  conclusion,  we  have 
the  third  and  highest  degree  of  probability.  In  the  first 
case,  an  idea  is  called  probable  (Tn6a\nfj) ;  in  the  second, 
probable  and  undisputed  (Trt^av^  koI  aTrcpLcnrooTos) ;  in 
the  third,  probable,  undisputed,  and  tested  (iriOavij  k<u 
a.Trtpiairaaro';  k<u  vepuDScvfianrf).  The  scepticism  of 
Carneades  was  expounded  by  his  suc(tessor  Clitomachus, 
but  the  Academy  was  soon  afterwards  (in  the  so-called 
fourth  and  fifth  Academies)  invaded  by  the-  Eclecticism 
which  about  that  time  began  to  obliterate  the  distinctions 
of  philosophical  dottrine  which  had  hitherto  separated 
the  schools.  Cicero  also,  who  in  many  respects  was 
strongly  attracted  by  the  Academic  scepticism,  finally 
took  refuge  in  a  species  of  Eclecticism  based  upon  a 
docti-ine  of  innate  ideas,  and  on  the  argument  from  the 
consensus  gentium. 

The  later  scepticism — which  is  sometimes  spoken  of  aa 
the  third  sceptical  school — claimed  to  be  a  continuation  of 
the  earlier  Pyrrhonism,  .^nesidemus,  though  not  abso- 
lutely the  first  to  renew  this  doctrine,  is  the  first  of  whose 
doctrine  anything  is  known.  -He  appears  to  have  taught 
in  Alexandria  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 
Among  the  successors  of  .^nesidemus,  the  chief  names 
are  those  of  Agrippa,  whose  dates  cannot  be  determined, 
and  the  physician  Sextus  Empiricus  (about  200  a.d.), 
whose  'Pyrrhonic  Hypotyposes,  and  his  work  Adverms 
MatJiematicos,  constitute  a  vast  armoury  of  the  weapons  of 
ancient  scepticism.  They  are  of  the  utmost  value  as  an 
historical  record.  With  Saturninus,  the  pupil  of  Sextus, 
and  Favorinns,  the  grammarian,  ancient  scepticism  may 
be  said  to  disaf^ear  from  history.  What  speculative 
power  remained  was  turned  entirely  into  Neoplatonic 
channels.  To  jEnesidemUs  belongs  the  first  enumeration 
of  the  ten  so-called  tropes  {rpo-iroi),  or  modes  of  sceptical 
argument,  though  the  arguments  themselves  were,  of 
course,  current  before  his  time.  The  first  trope  appeals  to 
the  different  constitution  of  different  animals  as  involving 
different  modes  of  perception ;  the  second  applies  the 
same  argument  to  the  individual  differences  which  are 
found  among  men  ;  the  third  insists  on  the  way  in  which 
the  senses  contradict  one  another,  and  suggests  that  an 
endowment  with  more  numerous  senses  would  lead  to  a 
different  report  as  to  the  nature  of  things;  the  fourth 
argues  from  the  variability  of  our  physical  state  and 
mental  moods ;  the  fifth  brings  forward  the  diversities  of 
appearance  due  to  the  position  and  distance  of  objects ; 
the  sixth  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  we  know  nothing 
directly,  but  only  through  some  medium,  such  as  air  or 
moisture,  whose  influence  on  the  process  cannot  be  elimi- 
nated ;  the  seventh  refers  to  the  changes  which  the  sup- 
posed object  undergoes  in  quantity,  temperature,  colour, 
motion,  &c. ;  the  eighth  really  sums  up  the  thought  which 
underlies  the  whole  series,  when  it  argues  from  the  rela- 
tivity of  all  our  perceptions  and  notions ;  the  ninth  points 
out  the  dependence  of  our  impressions  on  custom,  the  new 
and  strange  impressing  us  much  more  vividly  than  the 
customary;  the  tenth  adduces  the  diversity  of  customs, 
manners,  laws,  doctrines,  and  opinions  among  men. 
^nesidemus  likewise  attached  the  notion  of  cause  at  con- 
siderable length,  but  neither  in  his  arguments  nor  in  the 


scepti- 
cism of 
sntiqoitj 


I 


Soeptica) 
tropes. 


JSCEPTICISM 


381 


I 


iin- 

irison 

icieiit 

id 

odern 

epti- 


nutnerous  objections  brought  against  the  notion  by  Sextus 
Emiiiricus  do  we  meet  with  the  thought  which  furnished 
the  nerve  of  modern  scepticism  in  Hume.  The  practical 
result  of  his  scepticism .  iEnesidemus  sought,  lilce  the 
Purrhonists,  in  aTapa^'a,  He  is  somewhat  strangely  said 
to  have  combined  his-  scepticism  with  a  revival  of  the 
philosophy  of  Heraclitiis ;  but  the  assertion  perhaps  rests, 
as  2eller  contends,  on  a  confusion.  To  Agrippa  is  attri- 
buted the  reduction  of  the  sceptical  tropes  to  five.  Of 
these,  the  first  is  based  on  the  discrepancy  of  human 
opinions ;  the  second  on  the  fact  that  every  proof  itself 
requires  to  be  proved,  which  implies  a  rcgressus  in. infini- 
tum ;  th6  tltird  on  the  relativity  of  our  knowledge,  which 
varies  according  to  the  constitution  of  the  percipient  and 
the  circumstances  in  which  he  perceives.  The  fourth  is 
really  a  completion  of  the  second,  and  forbids  the  assump- 
tion of  unproven  propositions  as -the  premises  of  an  argu- 
ment. It  is  aimed  at  the  dogmatists,  who,  in  order  to 
avoid  the  regressus  in  infinitum,  set  out  from  some  principle 
illegitimately  assumed.  The  fifth  seeks  to  show  that 
reasoning  is  essentially  of  the  nature  of  a  circnlus  in  pro- 
bando,  inasmuch  as  the  principle  adduced  in  proof  requires 
itself  to  be  supported  by  that  which  it  is  called  in  to  prove. 
.The  attack  made  in  several  of  these  five  tropes  upon  the 
possibility  of  demonstration  marks  this  enumeration  &s 
distinctly  superior  to  the  first,  which  consists  in  the  main 
of  arguments  derived  from  the  fallibility  of  the  senses. 
The  new  point  of  view  is  maintained  in  the  two  tropes 
which  were  the  result  of  a  further  attempt  at  generaliza^ 
tion.'  Nothing  is  self-evident,  says  the  first  of  these 
tropes,  for,  if  all  things  were  certain 'of  themselves^  men 
would  not  difEer  as  they  do.  Nor  can  anything  be  miade 
certain  by  proof,  says  the  second,  because  we  must  either 
arrive  in  the  process  at  something  self-evident,  which 
lis  impossible,  as  has  just  been  said,  or'  we  niast  involve 
ourselves  in  an  endless  regress. 

When  we  review  the  history  of  ancient  thought,  we 
find,  as  Zeller  puts,  it,  that  "  the  general  result  of  all 
sceptical  inquiries  lies  in  the  proposition,  that  every  asser- 
.tion  may  be  opposed  by  another,  and  every  reason  by 
reasons  equally  strong — in  the  la-oaOivua  twv  Xoywi'.  Or, 
as  the  same  thing  may  be  expressed,  what  all  sceptical 
proofs  come  back  to  is  the  relativity  of  all  our  ideas.     We 

of  can  never  know  the  nature  of  things  as  they  are,  but 
always  only  the  manner  in  -which  they  appear  to  us.  "The 
criterion  of  the  sceptic  is  the  appearance.     Not  even  his 

■ '  pwn  proof  can  claim  truth  and  universal  validity :  he  does 
not  assert;  he  only  seeks  to  relate  how  a  thing  strikes  him 
at  the  present  moment.  And  even  when  ho  expresses  his 
doubts  in  •  the.  form  of  universal  statements  they  are 
intended  fo  be  included  in  the  general  uncertainty  of 
knowledge"  (PJdl.  d.  Griec-hen,  iii.  2,  p.  58).  Both 
Zeller  and  Hegel,  it  may  be  added,  remark  upon  the 
difference  between  the  calm  of  ancient  scepticism  and  the 
perturbed  state  Of  mind  evinced  by  many  modem  sceptica 
Universal  doubt  was  the  instrument  which  the  sceptics  of 
antiquity  recommended  for  the  •attainment  of  complete 
peace  of  mind ;  rest  and  satisfaQtion  can  be  attained,  they 
say,  in  no  other  way.  By  the  moderns,  on  the  other 
hand,  doubt  is  portrayed,  for  the  most  part,  as  a  state  of 
unrest  and  painful  yearning.  Even  Hume,  in  various 
noteworthy  passages  Of  his  Treatise,  speaks  of  himself  as 
recovering  chcci  fulness  and  mental  tone  only  by  forgetful- 
ness  of  his  own  arguments.  His  state  of  universal  doubt, 
so  far  from  being  painted  as  a  desirable  goal,  is  described 
by  him,  as  a"majady"  or  as  "philosophical  melancholy 
•  Dnfl  delirium."  The  difference  might  easily  be. interpreted 
cither  as  a  ijign  of  sentimental  weakness  on  the  part  of  the 
(moderns  or  as  a  proof  of  tho  limitation  of  the  ancient 
sceptics  which  rendered  them  more  easily  satLsCed  In  tho 


absence  of  truth.  It  seems  to  prove,  at  all  events,  that 
the  ancient  sceptics  were  more  thoroughly  convinced  than 
their  modern  successors  of  the  reasonableness  of  their  own 
attitude.  But  whether  the  ancients  were  the  better  or 
the  worse  sceptics  on  that  account  is  a  nice  question 
which  need  not  be  decided  here.  It  may  be  doubted, 
however,  whether  the  thoroughgoing  philosophical  scepti- 
cism of  antiquity  has  any  exact  parallel  in  modern  ^Imes, 
with  the  single  exceptioti .  possibly  of  Hume's  Treatise  on 
Human  Nature.  ■  It  is  true  we  find  many  thinkers  who 
deny  the  competency  of  reason  when  it  ventures  in  any 
way  beyond  the  sphere  of  experience,  and-  such  men  are 
not  unfrequently  called  sceptics.  This  is  the  sense  in 
which  Kant  often  uses  the  term,  and  the  uJage  is  adopted 
by  others, — for  example,  in  the  following  definition  from 
JJehBTvie^s  ' History  of 'Philosophy: — ^^"The  principle  of 
scepticism  is 'universal  doubt,  or  at  least  doubt  with  regard 
to  the  validity  of  all  judgments  respecting  that  which  lies 
beyond  the  range  of  experience." '  The  last  characteristic, 
however,  is  not  enough  to  constitute  scepticism,  in  the 
sense  in  which  it  is  exemplified  in  the  ancient  sceptics. 
Scepticism,  to  be  complete,  must  hold  that  even  within 
experience  we  do  not  rationally  conclude  but  are  irration- 
ally induced  to  believe.  -  "  In  all  the  incidents  pf  life,"  as 
Hume  puts  it,  "  we  ought  still  to  preserve  our  scepticism. 
If  we  believe  that  fire  warms,  or  water  refreshes,  'tis  only 
because  it  costs  us  too  much'  pains  to  think  otherwise " 
(Treatise,  bk.  i.  iv.  7).  This  tone,  which  fairly  represents 
the  Sittitude  of  ancient  sceptics,  is  rare  among  the  moderns, 
at  least  among  those  vdio  are  professed  philosophers.  -  It 
is  more  easily  mii^xhed  in  the  unsystematic  utterances  of 
a  taan  of  the  world  like  Montaigne. 

One  form  of  scepticism,  however,  may  be  claimed  asSeeptl- 
an  exclusively  modern  growth,  .  namely,  philosophical  P™  ^ 
scepticism  in  the  interests  of  theological  faith.  These  J^^^^.^^ 
sceptics  are  primarily  Apologists.  Their  scepticism  is  not  of  f^jth. 
"  de  bonne  foy  " ;  it  is  simply  a  means  to  the  attainment  ■ 
of  a  further  -end.  They  find  that  the  dogmas  of ,  their 
church  have  often  been  attacked  in  the  name  of  reason, 
and  it  may  be  that  some  of  the  objections  urged  have 
proved  hard  to  rebut.  Accordingly,  in  an  access  of  pious 
rage,  as  it  were,  they  turn  upon  reason  to  retid  her.  They 
deny  her  claim  to  pronounce  upon  such  matters  ;  tbey  -go 
further,  and  dispute  her  prerogative  altogether.  They 
endeavour  to  show  that  she  is  in  contradiction  wl.,li  her- 
self, even  on  matters  non-theological,  and  that  everywhere 
this  much  vaunted  reason  of  man  (la  superbe  raisoa),iathQ 
creature  of  custom  and  circunastance.  "Thus  the  im- 
becility "  of  reason  becomes  their  warraint  for  the  rec^ptioa 
by  another,  organ — by  faith — of  that  to  which  reason 
had  raised  objections.  The  Greeks  had  no  temptation  to 
divide  man  in  two  in  this  fashion.  '^Vben  they  \s'ere 
sceptic^;,  their  scepticism  Lad  no  ulterior  motives ;  it  was 
an  end  in  itself.  But  this  line  of  argument  was  latent 
in  Christian  thought  from  the  time  when  St  Paul  epoke 
of  tho  "foolishness"  of  preaching.  TertuUiaii  fiercely 
re-echoed  the  sentiment  in  his  polemic  against  the  philo- 
sophers of  antiquity  : — "  Crucifixus  est  Dei  filius  ;  floo 
pudot,  quia  pudendum  est.  Et  mortuus  est  -Dei  filius; 
prorsus  credibile  est,  quia  ineptum  est.  Et  sepultus 
rcsurrexit ;  certum  est,  quia  impossibilo  est."  But,-  as 
Christianity  became  firmly  established.  Christian  writers ' 
became   more    tolerant  of  speculation ;   and,  instead  of 

^  Tills  turn  of  thought  is  not  confined,  however,  to  Christiin 
thinkers;  it  nppcars  also  iu  tbo  Arahiaa  philosophy  of  tho  East 
Al-  (ihazziH  {Alg.i7cl)  (1059-1111)  in  his  TahA/ot  al- Fildsi/a  ("The 
Collnpso  of  the  Philosophers ")  is  tbo  advocate  of  complete  pbilo- 
8oi)hical-6ccpticiftni  jn  tho  interests  of  orthodox  Mohammedanism— an 
orthodoxy  which  pas.icil,  however,  In  his  own  case  Into  a  spwrics  of 
mysticism.  Ue  did  his  work  of  destruction  so  thoronghly  that  Anbia:^ 
philosophy  died  out  afUr  bia  Urn*  in  the  land  of  it<  birth. 


382 


SCEPTICISM 


flaunting  tlie  irreconcileable  opposition  of  reason  and 
dogma,  they  laboured  to  reduce  tie  doctrines  of  the  church 
to  a  rational  system.  This  was  the  long  tasit  essayed  by 
Scholasticism;  and,  though  the  great  Schoolmen  "of  the 
13th  century  refrained  from  attempting  to  rationalize  such 
loctrines  as  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation,  they  were 
far  from  considering  them  as  essentially  opposed  to  reason. 
It  was  not  till  towards  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages 
that  a  sense  of  conflict  between  reason  and  revelation 
became  widely  prevalent  and  took  shape  in  the  essentially 
sceptical  theory  of  the  twofold  nature  of  truth.  Philo- 
sophical truth,  as  deduced  from  the  teaching  of  Aristotle, 
it  was  said,  directly  contradicts  the  teaching  of  the  church, 
■wliich  determines  truth  in  theology ;  but  the  contradiction 
leaves  the  authority  of  the  latter  unimpaired  in  its  own 
spliere.  It  is  difficult  to  believe  that  this  doctrine  was 
ever  put  forward  sincerely;  in  the  most  of  those  who 
professed  it,  it  was  certainly  no  more  than  a  veil  by  which 
they  sought  to  cover  their  heterodoxy  and  evade  its 
consequences.  Kightly  divining  as  much,  the  church 
condemned  the  doctrine  as  early  as  1276.  Nevertheless 
it  was  openly  professed  during  the  period  of  the  break 
^Tip  of  Scholastic  Aristotelianism.  Pomponatius,  the  Alex- 
andrist  of  Padua  {ph.  1525),  was  one  of  its  best  known 
advocates. 

,  The  typical  and  by  far  the  greatest  example  of  the 
Cliristian  sceptic  is  Pascal  (1G23-1662).  The  form  of  the 
Tenseca  forbids  the  attempt  to  evolve  from  their  detached 
utterances  a  completely  coherent  system.  For,  though  he 
■declares  at  times  "Le  pyrrhonisme  ect  le  vrai,"  "Se 
moquer  de  la  philosophic  c'est  vraiment  philosopher,"  or, 
again,  "  Humilicz-vous,  raison  impuissante,  taisez-vous, 
nature  imbecile,"  other  passages  might  be  quoted  in  wliich 
he  assumes  the  validity  of  reason  within  its  own  sphere. 
But  what  he  everywhere  emphatically  denies  is  the 
possibility  of  reaching  by  tht  unassisted  reason  a  satis- 
factory theory  of  things.  The  contradictions  which  meet 
ius  everywhere  are  summed  up  and  concentrated  in  the 
nature  of  man.  Man  is  a  hopeless  enigma  to  himself,  till 
he  sees  himself  in  the  light  of  revelation  as  a  fallen 
creature.  The  fall  alone  explains  at  once  the  nobleness 
and  the  meanness  of  humanity ;  Jesus  Christ  is  the  only 
solution  in  which  the  baffled  reason  can  rest.  These 
are  the  two  points  on  which  Pascal's  thought  turns. 
"There  is  nothing  which  is  more  shocking  to  our 
reason '"  than  the  doctrine  of  original  sin ;  yet,  in  his  own 
•words,  "  le  nceud  de  notre  condition  prend  ses  replis  et 
Bes  tours  dans  cet  abime;  de  sorte  que  I'homme  est  plus 
inc'oncevable  sans  ce  mystfere  que  ce  mystere  n'est  incon- 
cevable  h,  I'homme."  Far,  therefore,  from  being  able  to 
Bit  in  judgment  upon- the  mysteries  of  the  faith,  reason  is 
nnable  to  solve  its  own  contradictions  without  aid  from  a 
higher  source.  In  a  somewhat  similar  fashion,  in  the 
present  century,  Lamennais  (in  the  first  stage  of  his 
Bpeculations,  represented  by  the  E^sai  sur  I' Indifference  en 
Maticre  Eeligieuse,  1817-21)  endeavoured  to  destroy  all 
rational  certitude  in  order  to  establish  the  principle  of 
authority;  and  the  same  profound  distrust  of  the  power 
of  the  natural  reason  to  arrive  at  truth  ia  exemplified 
(though  the  allegation  has  been  denied  by  the  author)  ia 
the  writings  of  Cardinal  Newman.  In  a  different  direction 
and  on  a  larger  scale,  Hamilton's  philosophy  of  the  con- 
ditioned may  be  quoted  as  an  example  of  the  same  religious 
Bcepticism.  Arguing  from  certain  antinomies,  said  to  be 
inherent  in  reason  as  such,  Hamilton  sought  to  found 
theology  (m  great  part  at  least)  upon  our  nescience,  and 
to  substitute  belief  for  knowledge.  He  also  imitated 
Pascal  at  times  in  dilating  upon  the  "impotence"  and 
'  imbecility "  of  our  faculties ;  but,  as  with  Pascal,  this 
■was  rather  in  reference  to  their  incapacity  to  evolve  an  j 


"absolute"  system  than  to  their  veracity  in  the  ordinary 
details  of  experience.  The  theological  application  and 
development  of  Hamilton's  arguments  in  Mansel's  Bampton 
Lectures  On  thf  Limits  of  lidigious  Thottght  marked  a 
still  more  determined  attack,  in  the  interests  of  theology, 
upon  the  competency  of  reason. 

Passing  from  this  particular  vein  of  sceptical  or  semi 
sceptical  thought,  we  find,  as  we  should  ex-pect,  that  the 
downfall  of  Scholasticism,  and  the  conflict  of  philosophical 
theories  and  religious  confessions  which  ensued,  gave  a 
decided  impetus  to  sceptical  reflexion.  One  of  the  earliest 
instances  of  this  spirit  is  afforded  by  the  book  of  Agrippa 
of  Nettesheim  (1487-1535),  De  Incertitudine  et  Vanitate 
Scientiarum.  Sceptical  reflexion  rather  than  systematic 
Bcepticism  is  what  meets  us  ip  Michel  de  Montaigne 
(1533-1592),  though  the  elaborate  presentation  of  sceptical 
and  relativistic  arguments  in  his  "Apologie  de  Raimond 
Sebond  "  (Essais,  ii.  12),  and  the  emblem  he  recommends 
— a  balance  with  the  legend,  "  Que  scay-je  1 " — might 
allowably  be  adduced  as  evidence  of  a  more  thoroughgoing 
Pyrrhonism.  In  his  "tesmoynages  de  nostre  imbi5cillit6," 
he  follows  in  the  main  the  lines  of  the  ancients,  and  he 
sums  up  with  a  lucid  statement  of  the  two  great 
arguments  in  which  the  sceptical  thought  of  every  age 
resumes  itself — the  impossibility  of  verifying  our  faculties, 
and  the  relativity  of  all  impressions.^  The  argument  from 
the  mutability  of  opinions  and  customs  was  probably  the 
one  which  appealed  most  strongly  to  himself.  In  the 
concluding  lines  of  this  essay,  Montaigne  seems  to  turn 
to  "nostre  foy  chrestienne  "  as  man's  only  succour  from 
his  native  state  of  helplessness  and  uncertainty.  But 
undoubtedly  his  own  habitual  frame  of  mind  is  better 
represented  in  his  celebrated  saying — "  How  soft  and 
healthful  a  pillow  are  ignorance  and  incuriousness  .... 
for  a  well-ordered  head."  .  Jlore  inclined  than  Montaigne 
to  give  a  religious  turn  to  his  reflexions  was  his  friend 
Pierre  Charron  (1541-1G03),  who  in  his  book  De  la 
Sagesse  systematized  in  somewhat  Scholastic  fashion  the 
train  of  thought  which  we  find  in  the  Essais.  Francois 
Sanchez  (1562-1632),  professor  of  medicine  and  philo- 
sophy in  Toulouse,  combated  the  Aristotelianism  of  the 
schools  with  much  bitterness,  and  was  the  author  of  a  book 
with  the  title  Quod  nihil  scitur.  Of  more  or.  less  isolated 
thinkers,  somewhat  later  in  point  of  time,  who  wrote  in 
the  same  sceptical  spirit,  may  be  mentioned  the  names  of 
Francois  de  la  Mothe  le  Vayer  (1588-1672),  whose  Cinq 
Dialogues  appeared  after  his  death  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Orosius  Tubero ;  Samuel  Sorbi^re  (1615-1670),  %vho  trans- 
lated the  Ilypolyposes  Pyrrkonex  ©f  Sextus  Empiricus; 
Simon  Foucher  (1644-1696),  canon  of  Dijon,  who  wrote  a 
History  of  ike  Academics,  and  combated  Descartes  and 
Malebranche  from  a  sceptical  standpoint.  The  work  of 
Hieronymus  Hirnhaim  of  Prague  (1637-1679),  De  Typho 
Genens  Humani  sive  Scientiarum  Humanarum,  Inani  ae 
Ventoso  Tumore,  was  written  in  the  interests  of  revelation. 
Tliis  is  still  more  the  case  with  the  bitter  polemic  of 
Daniel  Huet  (1630-1721),  Censura  PIdlosophix  Carte- 
sianse,  and  his  later  work,  Traiie  Philosophique  de  la 
Fj.iblesse  de  V Esprit  Huraain.  The  scepticism  of  Joseph 
Glanvill  (1636-1680),  in  his  two  works  The  Vanity  of 
Dogmatizing  (1661)  and  Scepsis  Scientijica  (1665),  has  more 
interest  for  Englishmen.     Glanvill  was  not  a  sceptic  at  all 

'  "Pour  juger  des  apparencea  qua  nous  recevona  dea  subjects,  il, 
noua  fauldra  un  instrument  judicatoire ;  pour  verifier  cet  instnimeDt, 
il  noua  y  fault  de  la  demonstration  ;  pour  verifier  la  demonstration,  un 
instrument ;  noua  voyli  au  rouet  .  .  Finalement  il  n'y  a  aulcuua 
constante  existence,  ny  de  nostre  estre  ny  de  celuy  des  objects  ;  et 
nous,  et  nostre  jngement,  et  toutea  choses  mortelles,  vont  coulant  et 
roulant  sana  cesse  ;  ainsin,  il  ne  se  peult  estublir  hen  de  certain  de 
I'un  k  I'aultre,  et  le  jiigeant  et  le  juge  est&nt:j  <:a  continuelle  mutation, 
et  bransle  "  {£ssais,  Gamier,  i.  670). 


SCEPTICISM 


383 


points,  seeing  that  he  was  full  of  enthusiasm   for  tno 
advance  of  physical   science  and  for  the.  newly-founded 
Royal  Society.     But  he  attacked  unsparingly  the  Aristotel- 
ianism  of  the  schools,  which  was  still  dominant  at  Oxford. 
Against  this,  and. also  against  the  materialistic  dogmatism 
of  Hobbes,  he  invoked  the  weapona  of  scepticism ;  and  he 
was  led  by  his  own  arguments  to  query  "  whether  there  be 
any  science  in  the  sense  of  the  dogmatists."     He  based 
this  conclusion  partly  upon  the  ground  that  our  knowledge 
of  causes,  being  derived  simply  from  •'  concomitancy,"  is 
€ar  from  being  "  infallibly  conclusive."     "  The  causality 
itself,"    he    saj-8,   anticipating   Hume,    "is    insensible"; 
accordingly,  ."the  foundation  of  scientifical  procedure  is 
too   weak   for  so  magnificent  a  superstructure."     More 
celebrated  than  any  of  the  above  was  Pierre  Bayle  (1647- 
1706),  whose  scepticism  lay  more  in  his  keen  negative 
criticism  of  all  systems  and  doctrines  which  came  before 
him  as  literary  historian  than  in  any  theoretic  views  of 
his  own  as  to  the  possibility  of  knowledge.     Bayle  also 
paraded  the  opposition  between  reason  and  revelation  ;  but 
the  argument  in  his  hands  is  a  double-edged  weapon,  and 
when  he  extols  the  merits  of  Bubmissive  faith  his  sincerity 
is  at  least  questionable, 
a.       Home,  the  most  illustrious  and  indeed  the  typical  sceptic 
of  modern  times,  is  treated  at  length  in  a  s&parate  article. 
Here,  therefore,  it  is  only  necessary  to  point  out  shortly 
in  what  his  scepticism  consists.  '  It  is  sometimes  placed,  as 
we  have  seen  it  is  by  Kant,  in  his  distrust  of  our  ability 
and  right  to  pass  beyond  the  empirical  sphere.     But  the 
mere  denial  of  the  possibility  of  "  divinity  or  school  meta- 
physics," as  we  find  ,it  in  the  Inquiry,  combined  with  an 
apparent  confidence  in  "  experimental  reasoning  concern- 
ing  matter  of  fact  and  existence,"  does  not  constitute 
scepticism,     but    rather    what    would   now    be    called 
agnosticism  or  positivism.     It  is  essential  to  the  sceptical 
position  that  reajson  be  dethroned  within  experience  as 
well  as  beyond  it,  and   this  is   undoubtedly  the  ressiilt 
at  which  Hume  arrives  in  his  larger  and  more  thorough- 
going work.     More   generally,  therefore,  his  scepticism 
may  be  considered   to  lie  in  his   relation   to  preceding 
philosophy.     The  Treatise  is  a  reducHo  ad  ahsurdum  of 
the  principles  of  Lockianism,  inasmuch  as  these  principles, 
when  consistently  applied,  leave  the  structure  of  experience 
entirely  "  loosened "  (to  use  Hume's  own  expression),  or 
cemented  together  only  by  the  irrational  force  of  custom. 
Hume's  scepticism  thus  really  arises  from  his  thoroaghr 
going  empiricism.     Starting  with  "particular  perceptions" 
or  isolated  ideas  let  in  by  tho  senses,  he  never  advances 
beyond  these  "  distinct  existences."     Each  of  them  exists 
on  its  own  account ;  it  is  what  it  is,  but  it  contains  no 
reference  to  anything  beyond  itselL     The  very  notion  of 
objectivity  and  truth  therefore  disappears  ;  tho  Sdtein  or 
appearance  of  the  momeiit  is  the  only  reality,-    Hume's 
analysis  of  the  conceptions  of  a  permanent  world  and  a 
permanent  self  reduces  us  to  the  sensationalistic  relativism 
of  Protagoras.     He  expressly  puts  this  forward  in  variooB 
passages  as  the  conclusion  to  which  reason  conducts  na. 
The  fact '  that  the   conclusion   is   in   "  direct   and  total 
opposition  "  to  the  apparent  testimony  of  the  senses  is  a 
fresh  justification  of  philosophical  scepticism.     For,  indeed, 
scepticism  with  regard  to  the  senses  is  considered  in  the 
Inquiry  to  be  sufiiciently  justified  by  the  fact  that  they 
lead  us  to  suppose  "  an  external  universe  which  dependt 
not  on  our    perception."   whereas   "  this   universal  and 
primary  opinion   of  all    men   is  soon   destroyed    by  the 
slightest  philosophy."     Scepticism  with  regard  to  reason, 
on  the  other  hand,  depends  on  an  iniiight  into  the  irrational 
character  of  the  relation  which  we  chiefiy  erni)loy,  viz.,  that 
of  cause  and  effect.     It  is  not  a  real  relation  in  objects  but 
-rather  a  mental  habit  of  belief  engendered  by  frequent 


repetition  or  custom.  This  point  of  view  is  applied  ia 
the  Treatise  universally.  All  real  connexion  or  relation, 
therefore,  and  with  it  all  possibility  of  an  objective 
system,  disappears ;  it  is,  in  fact,  excluded  by  Hume  ab 
initio,  for  "the  inind  never  perceives  any  real. connexion 
among  distinct  existences."-  Belief,  however,  just  because 
it.  rests,  as  has  been  said,  on  custom  and  the  influence  of 
the  imagination,!  survives  such  demonstrations.  "  Nature," 
as  Hume  delights  to  reiterate,  "is  always  too  strong  for 
principle."  "Nature,  by  an  absolute  and  uncontrollable 
necessity,  has  determined  us  to  judge  as  well  as  to  breathe 
and  feeL"  The  true  philosopher,  therefore,  is  not  the 
Pyrrhonist,  trying  to  maintain  an  impossible  eqiiilibriiim 
or  suspense  of  judgment,  but  the  Academic,  yielding 
gracefully  to  the  impressions  or  maxims  which  he  finds,  aa 
matter  of  fact,  to  have  most  sway  over  himself.  "  I  may- 
nay,  I  must — yield  to  the  current  of  nature,  in  submitting 
to  my  senses  and  understanding ;  and  in  this  blind  suli 
mission  I  show  most  perfectly  my  sceptical  priiiciplcs,"  for, 
after  all,  "  if  we  believe  that  fire  warms  or  water  relreelie% 
'tis  only  because  it  costs-  us  too  much  pains  to  think  other- 
wise."' 

The  system  of  Kant,  or  rather  that  part  of  his  system 
expounded  in  the  Critique  of  Pure  Reason,  though 
expressly  distinguished  by  its  author  from  scepticism,  has 
been  included  by  many  writers  in  their  survey  of  sceptical 
theories.  The  difference  between  Kant,  with  his  system  of 
pure  reason,  and  any  of  the  thinkers  we  have  passed  in 
review  is  obvious ;  and  his  limitation  of  reason  to  the 
sphere  of  experience  suggests  in  itself  the  title  of  agnostic 
or  positivist  rather  than  that  of  sceptic.  Yet,  if  -we  go  a 
little  deeper,  there  is  substantial  justification  for  the  view 
which  treats  agnosticism  of  the  Kantian  type  as  essentially 
sceptical  in  its  foundations  and  in  its  results.  For  criticism 
not  only  limits  our  knowledge  to  a  certain  sphere,  but 
denies  that  our  knowledge  within  that  sphere  is  real ;  we 
never  know  things  as  they  actually  are,  but  only  as  they 
appear  to  us,  .  Our  knowledge,  in  Kant's  language,  does 
not  show  US  "the  inward  essence  of  the  object  iii  itself, 
but  only  the  relation  of  the  object  to  the  subject."  But 
this  doctrine  of  relativity  really  involves  a  .condemnation 
of  our  knowledge  (and  of  all  knowledge),  because  it  fails 
to  realize  an  impossible  and  self-contradictory  ideal.  Tho 
man  who  impeaches  the  knowing  faculties  because  of  the 
fact  of  relation  which  they  involve  is  pursuing  the 
phantom  of  an  apprehension  which,  as  Lotze  expresses  it^ 
does  not  apprehend  things,  but  is  itself  things ;  he  ia 
desinng  not  to  know  but  to  be  the  things  themselves.  If 
this  dream  or  prejudice  be  exploded,  then  the  scepticism 
originating  in  it — and  a  large  proportion  of  recent  sceptical 
thought  does  so  originate — loses  its  raison  cFStre.^  The 
prejudice,  hovrever,  which  meets  us  in  Kant  is,  in. a  some- 
what different  form,  the  same  prejudice  which  is  found  io 
the  tropes  of  antiquity — what  Lotze  calls  "  the  inadmissible 
relation  of  the  world  of  ideas  to  a  foreign  world  of  objects." 

•  '*  Belief  is  more  properly  aa  ttct  of  tho  soofliUvo  than  ol  tha 
cogitative  part  of  our  nature." 

"  Much  tlifl  same  conclusion  Is  reached  in  what  is  perhaps  tb« 
ablest  Enplish  cxijosition  of  pure  philosopliio  scepticism  suice  Hum* 
—Mr  Arthur  Bulfour's  Dcfmce  of  Philosophic  Doubt  (1879).  "The. 
reader  may  wish  to  know,"  says  Mr  Balfour,  "what  constltnto  tha 
'  claims  on  our  belief  which  I  assert  to  bo  possessed  alike  by  nclonce 
and  theology,  and  which  I  put  forward  as  tho  oolo  pr.ioticol  foiuida- 
tlou  ou  which  our  convicUous  lUtiniatcly  lost.  .  .  »  Wbntiver  they 
may  be,  tliey  aro  not  ruliouui  grounds  of  cufwiclion.  .  .  It  wonld 
Jw  more  proper  to  doscribo  them  oa  o  kind  of  inxeard  incUnativn  or 
imtmlse     (pp.  310-7). 

■  It  may  be  oe  well  to  add  that  tho  sceptical  side  of  Kantianism  ia 
maiuly  couflned  to  tho  Critii/tu  i/  J'tin  JUtaaon,  but  this «ide  of  KuDtia« 
thoUKlit  huH  been  most  widely  Inl.uentlal.  The  ivmarks  mode  above 
would  uot  ai'J>ly  to  the  coherunt  tiysU-iu  of  idoalliUD  which  luuy  b« 
evolved  from  Kant's  writings  and  which  many  would  conaldor  aloua 
tu  tlusurve  the  naiuu  of  KauUanlani  or  CriUdai" 


384 


S  C  E  — S  C  E 


For,  as  he  rightly  points  out,  whether  we  suppose  idealism 
or  realism  to  be  true,  in  neither  case  do  the  things  them- 
selves pass  into  our  kpowledge.  No  standpoint  is  possible 
from  which  we  could  compare  the  world  of  knowledge 
with  such  an  independent  world  of  things,  in  order  to 
judge  of  the  conformity  of  the  one  to  the  other.  But 
the  abstract  doubt  "whether  after  all  things  may  not 
be  quite  other  in  themselves  than  that  which  by  the  laws 
of  our  thought  they  necessarily  appear "  is  a  scepticism 
which,  though  admittedly  irrefutable,  is  as  certainly 
groundless.  No  arguments  can  be  brought  against  it, 
simply  because  no  arguments  can  be  brought  to  support 
it ;  the  scepticism  rests  on  nothing  more  than  the  empty 
possibility  of  doubting.  This  holds  true,  even  if  we  admit 
the  "  independent "  existence  of  such  a  world  of  things. 
But  the  independence  of  things  may  with  much  greater 
reason  be  regarded  as  itself  a  fiction  or  prejudice.  The 
real  "objective"  to  which  our  thoughts  must  show  con- 
formity is  not  a  world  of  things  in  themselves,  but  the 
system  of  things  as  it  exists  for  a  perfect  intelligence. 
Scepticism  is  deprived  of  its  persistent  argument  if  it  is 
seen  that,  while  our  individual  experiences  are  to  be 
judged  by  their  coherence  with  the  context  of  experience 
in  general,  experience  as  a  whole  does  not  admit  of  being 
judged  by  reference  to  anything  beyond  itself. 

.To  the  attack  upon  the  possibility  of  demonstration, 
inasmuch  as  every  proof  requires  itself  a  fresh  proof,  it 
may  quite  fairly  be  retorted  that  the  contradiction  really 
lies  in  the  demand  for  proof  of  the  self-evident,  on  which 
all  proof  most  ultimately  depend.  It  is  of  course  always 
possible  that  in  any  particular  case  we  may  be  deceived  ; 
we  may  be  assuming  as  self-evidently  true  what  is  in 
leality  not  so.  But  such  incidental  lapses  are  found  to 
correct  themselves  by  the  consequences  in  which  they 
involve  us,  and  they  have  no  power  to  shake  our  trust  in 
the  general  validity  of  reason.  It  may,  however,  be 
granted  that  the  possibility  of  lapse  throws  us  open  to  the 
objections,  ingenuous  or  disingenuous,  of  the  sceptic  ;  and 
,we  must  remain  exposed  to  them  so  long  as-  we  deal  with 
our  first  principles  as  so  many  isolated  axioms  or  intui- 
tions. But  the  process  of  self-correction  referred  to  points 
to  another  proof — the  only  ultimately  satisfactory  proof 
of  v/hich  first  principles  admit.  Their  evidence  lies  in 
their  mutual  interdependence  and  in  the  coherence  of  the 
■system  which  they  jointly  constitute. 

Of  a  scepticism  which  professes  to  doubt  the  validity 
of  every  reasoning  process  and  every  operation  of  all  our 
faculties  it  is,  of  course,  as  impossible  as  it  would  be 
absurd  to  offer  any  refutation.  Here,  as  Butler  incisively 
put  it,  "  we  can  go  no  further.  For  it  is  ridiculous  to 
attempt  to  prove  the  truth  of  those  very  perceptions 
whose  truth  we  can  no  otherwise  prove  than  by  other  per- 
ceptions of  exactly  the  same  kind  with  them,  and  which 
there  is  just  the  same  ground  to  suspect,  or  to  attempt  to 
prove  the  truth  of  our  faculties,  which  can  no  otherwise 
be  proved  than  by  means  of  those  very  suspected  faculties 
themselves."  This  absolute  scepticism,  indeed,  can  hardly 
be  regarded  as  more  than  empty  words ;  the  position 
which  they  would  indicate  is  not  one  which  has  ever 
existed.  In  any  case,  such  scepticism  is  at  all  times 
sufficiently  refuted  by  the  imperishable  and  justifiable 
trust  of  reason  in  itself.  The  real  function  of  scepticism 
in  the  history' of  philosophy  is  relative  to  the  dogmatism 
which  it  criticizes.  And,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  has  been 
seen  that  many  so-called  sceptics  were  rather  critics  of  the 
effete  systems  which  they  found  cumbering  the  ground 
'than  actual  doubters  of  the  possibility  of  knowledge  in 
general.  And  even  when  a  thinker  puts  forward  his 
doubt  as  absolute  it  does  not  follow  that  his  successors 
are  bound  to  regard  it  in  the  same  light.     The  progress 


of  thought  may  show  it  to  be,  in  truth,  relative,  as  when 
the  nerve  of  Hume's  scepticism  is  shown  to  be  his 
thoroughgoing  empiricism,  or  when  the  scepticism  of  the 
Critique  of  Pure  Reason,  is  traced  to  the  unwarrantabla 
assumption  of  things-in-themselves.  When  the  assump- 
tions on  which  it  rests  are  proved  to  be  baseless,  the  parti- 
cular scepticism  is  also  overcome.  In  like  manner,  the 
apparent  antinomies  on  which  such  a  scepticism  builds  will 
be  found  to  resolve  themselves  for  a  system  based  on  a 
deeper  insight  into  the  natm-e  of  things.  The  serioiiiS 
thinker  will  always  repeat  the  words  of  Kant  that,  ia 
itself,  scepticism  is  "  not  a  permanent  resting  place  for 
human  reason."  Its  justification  is  relative  and  its  func- 
tion transitional. 

Anthorities. — Ancient  scepticism  is  fully  treated  in  the  relativa 
parts  of  Zeller's  Philosophic  der  Gricchen,  with  which  may  be  com- 
pared Zimmermaun's  Darstcllung  d.  Pynhonischcn  Philosophie 
(1841),  and  Ueber  Ursprung  u.  Bcdeulung  d.  Pijrrh.  Phil.  (1843); 
Wachsmuth,  Dc  Timonc  Phliasio  (1859) ;  Geffers,  De  Arcesila 
(1849);  NorDian  MacColl,  Greek  Sceptics  from  Pyrrho  to  Sextua 
(1869) ;  Haas,  Dc  Philosophorum  Scepticorum  Succcssionihus  (1875). 
Among  other  works  may  be  mentioned  Staudlin,  Geichichte  nnd 
Geist  d.  Sceplicisnius,  vorzuglich  in  Rucksichl  avf  Moral  u.  Religion 
(1794);  Tafel,  Geschichte  d.  Sccpticismus  (1834);  E.  Saisset,  Le 
Scepticismc ;  ^nisidemc,  Pascal,  Kant  (1S75).  (A.  SK) 

SCEPTRE.  Though  the  sceptre  is  now  used  prin- 
cipally as  one  of  the  insignia  of  royalty,  the  word  origin- 
ally had  a  more  extended  meaning.  Among  the  early 
Greeks  the  crx^xTpov  was  simply  a  long  staff  used  by  aged 
men  (//.  xviii.  41C;  Herod.,  i.  196),  and  thus  camo  to 
be  used  as  a  sign  of  authority  by  officials  of  maty  kinds 
— ^judges,  military  leaders,  priests,  heralds,  and  others. 
It  is  frequently  represented  on  Greek  painted  vases  as  a 
long  staff,  tipped  with  metal  in  some  ornamental  lEtshion, 
and  is  borne  by  some  of  the  gods.  Among  the  Etruscans 
sceptres  of  great  magnificence  were  used  by  the  kings  and 
also  by  the  upper  orders  in  the  priesthood.  Many  repre- 
sentations occur  on  the  walls  of  the  painted  tombs  of 
Etruria.  Some  specimens  which  still  exist  are  among  the 
finest  examples  known  of  ancient  jewellery.  The  British 
Museum,  the  Vatican,  and  the  Louvre  possess  Etruscan 
gold  sceptres  of  the  most  minute  and  elaborate  workman- 
ship. Some  of  these  are  hollow  gold  batons,  about  nine 
to  twelve  inches  long  and  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  com- 
pletely covered  with  that  very  delicate  ornament  for 
which  the  Etruscan  goldsmiths  were  so  famed,  produced 
by  soldering  thousands  of  microscopically  minute  globules 
of  gold  arranged  in  rich  patterns  on  to  the  plain  gold 
cylinder  which  forms  the  ground.  One  magnificent  speci- 
men in  the  gold-ornament  room  of  the  British  Museum 
has  its  top  formed  like  a  flower,  with  outer  petals  of 
beaten  gold  and  an  inner  core  made  by  a  large  emerald ; 
it  is  of  the  greatest  beauty  both  in  workmanship  and 
design. 

The  sceptre  of  the  Eomacs,  like  most  of  their  insignia, 
of  rank,  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from  trie  Etruscans. 
An  old  and  more  Latinized  form  of  the  word  is  scipio 
(see  Liv.,  v.  41).  Under  the  republic  an  ivory  sceptre 
(scepirum  eburneum)  was  one  of  the  marks  of  consular 
rank.  It  was  also  used  by  victorious  generals  who  re- 
ceived the  title  of  ira'perator.^  and  this  use  still  survives 
in  the  modern  marshal's  baton.  In  Roman  paintings  the 
long  staff-like  sceptre  is  frequently  represented  in  the 
hands  of  Jupiter  and  Juno,  as  chief  of  the  gods. 

Under  the  empire  the  sceptrum  Avyusti  (Suet.,  Galba, 
i.)  was  specially  used  by  the  emperors.  It  was  often  of 
ivory,  tipped  with  a  gold  eagle  (Juv.,  Sat,  x.  43),  and  is 
frequently  shown  on  medallions  of  the  later  empire,  which 
have  on  the  obverse  a  half-length  figure  of  the  emperor, 
holding  in  one  hand  the  short  eagle-tipped  sceptre  and  in 
the  other  the  orb  surmounted  by  a  small  figure  of  Victory. 
The  older  staff-like  form  of  sceptre  still  survived  under 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


385 


the  name  hista  jmra ;  it  is  shown  on  the  reverses  of  matiy 
Ronian  coins  in  the  hand  of  deities  and  of  the  emperor  or 
empress,  though  originally  the  hastg,  pura  had  a  very 
different  use,  being  simply  a  mark  of  distinction  given  by 
Roman  generals  to  soldiers  who  had  shown  unusual 
bravery  (Tac,  Ann.,  iiL  21).  After  the  introduction  of 
Christianity  as  the  state  religion,  the  imperial  sceptre  was 
frequently  tipped  with  a  cross  instead  of  the  eagle,  though 
both  were  used.  All  through  the  Middle  Ages  both  these 
forms  survived,  and  sceptres  of  gold  studded  with  jewels 
were  used  by.  most  sovereigns  of  Europe.  The  gold 
sceptre  of  Charlemagne,  a  magnificent  specimen  of  early 
jeweller's  work,  still  exists  among  the  regalia  at  Vienna. 
Some  mediajval  sceptres  were  of  crystal  or  ivory  mounted 
in  gold.  Several  fine  ancient  examples  existed  among  the 
regalia  of  England  till  after  the  death  of  Charles  I.,  when 
the  whole  set  were  broken  up  and  melted  by  order  of  the 
Parliament. 

At  the  Kestoration,  four  new  sceptres  were  made  for  the 
coronation  of  Charles  11.  (see  Archmologia,  sxix.  p.  262); 
and.  these  still  exist  among  the  regalia,  in  the  Tower. 
They  are — (1)  the  so-called  St  Edward's  staff  of.  gold,  4 
feet  7  inches  long,  set  with  jewels,  and  surmounted  with 
a  cross  and  orb — a  copy  of  the  older  one  which  contained 
in  the  orb  a  fragment  of  the  true  cross  (this  sceptre  is 
borne  in  front  of  the  sovereign  during  the  processional 
part  of  the  ceremony  of  corona,tion) ;  (2)  a  gold  sceptre 
tipped  with  a  cross,  which  at  the  coronation  is  placed  in 
the  sovereign's  right  hand  by  the  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury ;  (3)  a  similar  sceptre  tipped  with  a  gold  dove,  which 
is  placed  in  the  sovereign's  left  hand  -^  (4)  a  small  gold 
jewelled  sceptre  for  the  queen  consort.  Nos.  (1)  and  (2) 
are  both  studded  with  diamonds.  In  addition  to  these  four, 
there  is  a  gold-mounted  ivory  sceptre,  which  was  made  for 
the  queen  of  James  II. ;  it  is  tipped  with  a  gold  dove  and 
is  studded  with  jewels, '  A  sixth  gold  sceptre  is  that  which 
was  made  for  the  queen  at  the  coronation  of  William  and 
Mary. 

Among  the  Scottish  regalia  at  Edinburgh  a  fine  15th- 
century  gold  sceptre  still  exists ;  and  others  of  the  same 
or  earlier  date  are  preserved  among  the  royal  insignia  of 
several  European  countries. 

SCHADOW,  a  distinguished  name  in  the  annals  of  Ger- 
man art. 

I.  JoHAJTN  GoTTFEiED  ScHADOW  (1764-1850),  an 
eminent  sculptor,  was  born  in  1764  in  Berlin,  whore  his 
father  was  a  poor  tailor.  His  first  teacher  was  an  inferior 
sculptor,  Tassaert,  patronized  by  Frederick  the  Great ;  the 
master  offered  his  daughter  in  marriage,  but  the  pupil 
preferred  to  elope  with  a  girl  to  Vienna,  and  the  father-in- 
law  not  only  condoned  the  offence  but  furnished  money 
wherewith  tp  visit  Italy.  The  young  man'  made  the  most 
of  advantages  which  in  those  days-  fell  to  the  lot  of  few  : 
he  gained  in  competition  a  prize  for  a  group  of  Perseus 
and  Andromeda ;  three  years'  study  in  Rome  formed  his 
style,' and  in  1788  he  returned  to  Berlin  to  succeed  his 
former  master,  Tassaert,  as  sculptor  to  the  conu  and 
secretary  to  the  Academy.  Prussia  in  rising  into  a  great 
kingdom  had  need  for  much  scu'pturo,  and  Schadow 
brought  timely  taient  ond  exceptional  training.  ■  Over 
half  a  century,  crowded  with  commissions,  he  persistently 
produced  upwards  of  two  hundred  works,  varied  in  stylo 
as  in  subjects.  Among  his  ambiti  )U8  efforts  are  Frederick 
the  Great  in  Stettin,  Bliicher  in  Rostock,  and  Luther  in 
Wittenberg.  His  portrait  statues  include  Frederick  the 
Great  playing  the  flute,  and  the  <'r<  wnprincess  Louise  and 

'  BotH  theM  sceptres  (or  rather  tlie  older  ones)  were  nhowii,  ono 
In  cao'k  hand  of  the  flno  bronze  efBgy  ot  I'^lward  \\\.  in  Wcstniinntcr 
Aboey,  but  as  o  rula  royal  cdlgiea  woro  roproaeutcd  with  only  ono 
«o«ptre. 


her  sister.  His  busts,  which  reach  a  total  of  more  than  one' 
hundred,  coniprise  seventeen  colossal  heads  in  the  Waihalla, 
Batisbon ;  from  the  life  were  modelled  Goethe,  Wieland, 
and  Fichte.  Of  church  monuments  and  meinorial  works 
thirty  are  enumerated ;  yet  Schadow  hardly  ranks  among 
Christian  sculptors.  He  is  claimed  by  classicists  and 
idealists :  the  quadriga  on  the  Brande'nburger  Thor  and 
the  allegorical  frieze  on  the  facade  of  the  Royal  Mint, 
both  in  Berlin,  are  judged  among  the  happiest  growths 
from  the  antique.  Fauns',  nymphs,  cupids,  and  figures  of 
fancy,  scattered  among  plain  portrait  work,  kept  alive  to  an 
advanced  &ge  early  associations  formed  in  Italy.  Schadow, 
as  director  .of  the  Berlin  Academy,  gave  proof  of  intellectual 
powers  which  made  him  a  leader  and  secured  many  and 
devoted  followers.  Personal  influence  he  extended  and 
fortified  by  his  books.  He  wrote  on  the  proportions  of 
the  human  figure,  on  national  physiognomy,  &c. ;  an^ 
many  volumes  by  himself  and  others  describe  and  illustrate 
his  method  and  his  work.  Ho  died,  full  of  honours,  at 
Berlin  in  1850. 

II.  RtmoLPg  ScHADCW  (1786-1822),  sculptor,  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Rome  in  1786.  His  father, 
who  returned  to  Berlin  in  17-88,  was  his  first  master. 
Rudolph  in  1810  obtained  the  pension  for  Rome  and 
received  kindly  help  from  Canova  and  Thorwaldsen.  Hii 
talents  were  versatile :  his  first  independent  work  .was  a 
figure  of  Paris,  and  it  had  for  its  companion  a  spinning  girl. 
Following  the  example  set  by  leading  German  artists 
then  settled  in  Rome,  he  exchanged  the  Protestant  for  thfi 
Catholic  faith,  and  gave  pledge  of  his  convictions  by  statue^ 
of 'John  the  Baptist  and  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  In  Eng. 
land  he  became  known  by  bas-reliefs  executed  for  the  duke 
of  Devonshire  and  for  the  marquis  of  Lansdo^Tio.  His 
last  composition,  commissioned  by  the. king  of  Prusria,  was 
a  colossal  group,  Achilles  with  the  Body  of  Penthesilea; 
the  .model,  universally  admired  for  its  antique  charactej 
and  the  largeness  Of  its  style,  had  not  been  carried  out 
in  marble  when  in  1822  the  artist  died  in  Rome. 

III.  Feiedeich    Wilhelm     Schadow    (1789-1862), 
painter,  born  in  1789  in  Berlin,  was  the  second  son  ol 
Johann  .Gottfried  Schadow  the  sculptor,  from  whom  he 
received  his  earliest  instruction.    In  1806-7  he  served  as  a 
soldier ;  in  1810  he  went  with  his  elder  brother  Rudolph  to 
Rome.     He  became  ono  of  the  leaders  among  the  German 
pre-Raphaelite  brethren  who  eschewed  classicism  and  the 
Italian  Renaissance  and  sought  to-'rebuUci   Jhristian  art 
on  the  principles  and  practice  of  early  and  purer  times. 
Following  the  example  of  Overbeck  and  others,  he  joined 
the  Catholic  Church,  and  held  that  an  artist  must  believe 
and  live  out  the  truths  he  essays  to  paint.     The  sequel 
showed  that  Schadow  was   qualified  to  shine  less  as  a 
painter   than  as  a  teacher  and  director.     The  IVussian 
consul.    General    Bartholdi,    befriended  his  young  com- 
patriots by  giving  them  a  commission  to. decorate  'svith 
frescos  a  room  24  feet  square  in  his  house  on -the  Pinci&n 
Hill.      The    artists   engaged   were   Schadow,   Cornelius, 
Overbeck,  and  Vcit ;  the  subject  selected  was  the  story  of 
Joseph   and  his  brethren,   and  ,two  scenes,   the   Bloody 
Coat  and  Joseph  in  Prison,  fell  to  the  lot  of  Schadow. 
These  well-studied  and  sound  wall-paintings  brought  re- 
nown to.  the  bretliren,  who  were  further  fortified  by  the 
friendship  of  Niebuhr  and  Bnnsen ;  the  former  writes — 
"They  are  all  men   of  talent,"  and  "Schadow  is  parti- 
cularly refined  and  intolloctual."    Schadow  was  in  1819 
appointed  professor  in  the  Berlin  Academj",  and  his  ability 
and  thorough  training  gained  devoted  d'isciples.     To  this 
period  belong-  pictures   for  clnirches.     In  1826  the  pro- 
fessor was  made  director  of  tho  Diisscldorf  Academy,  and 
so  highly  were  his  character  and  teachings  esteemed  that 
Bomo  of  tho  best  scholars  accompanied  liicir  master.     Tho 

X.\L  —  49 


386 


S  0  H  — S  C  H 


high  and  sacred  art  matured  in  Rome  Schadow  trans- 
planted to  Diisseldorf ;  he  reorganized  the  Academy,  which 
in  a  few  years  grew  famous  as  a  centre  of  Christian  art  to 
wiieh  pupils  flocked  from  all  sides.     In  1837  the  director 
selected,  at  request,  those  of  his  scholars  best  qualified  to 
decorate  the  chapel  of  St  Apollinaris  on  the  Ehine  with 
frescos,  which  when  finished  were  accepted  as  the  fullest 
and  purest  manifestation  of  the  Diisseldorf  school  on  its 
spiritual  side.     To    1842   belong  the  Wise  and  Foolish 
Virgins,  in  the  Stadel  Institute,  Frankfort;  this  large  and 
important  picture  is  carefully  considered  and  wrought, 
but  lacks  power.     Schadow's  fame  indeed  rests  less  on  his 
own  creations  than  on  the  school  he  formed ;  he  imparted 
to  others  nobility  of  conception,  beauty  of  form,  refine- 
ment and  delicacy  in  expression  and  execution.     Yet  the 
master  in  Diisseldorf  encountered  opposition:  a  reaction 
set  in  against  the-  spiritual  and  sacerdotal  style  he  had 
established;  a  younger  generation  rose  who  stigmatized 
his  system  as  narrow  and  bigoted ;  and  In  1859  the  party 
of  naturalism  and  realism  after  a  severe  struggle  drove  the 
venerable  director  from  his  chair.    Schadow  died  at  Diissel- 
dorf in  1862,  and.  a  monument  in  the  platz  which  bears 
his  name  was  raised  at  the  jubilee  held  to  commemorate 
his  directorate.  (j.  b.  a.) 

SCHAFARIK  (in  Bohemian  SafaSik),  Padi,  Joseph 
(1795-1861),  was  by  origin  a  Slovak,  and  was  born  in  1795 
at  Kobeljarova,  a  vUlage  of  northern  Hungary,  where  his 
father  was  a  Protestant  clergyman.     It  was  not  till  his 
sixteenth  year  that  any  enthusiasm  was  aroused  in  him  for 
the  language  and  literature  of  his  race.     At  this  time  an 
essay  of  Jungmann's  fell  into  his  hands,  and  at  once  gave 
a  direction  to  his  studies.      His  first  production  was  a 
volume  of  poems  in  Bohemian  entitled  The  Muse  of  Tatra 
with  a  Slavonic  Lyre,  published  at  Levocza  in  181 4.    After 
this  we  find  him  collecting  Slovak  songs.     In  1815  he 
began  a  course  of  study  at  the  university  of  Jena,  and  while 
there  translated  into  Czech  the  Clouds  of  Aristophanes 
and  the  Maria  Stuart  of  Schiller.     In  1817  he  came  to 
Prague  and  joined  the  literary  circle  of  which  Dobrovsky, 
Jungmann,  and  Hanka  were  memljers.     In  1819  he  was 
appointed  headmaster  of  the  high  school  at  Neusatz  (N'ovi 
Sad)  in  the  south  of  Hungary ;  he  remained  occupied  with 
the  duties  of  this  office  till  1833.     But  besides  his  educa- 
tional functions  he  busied  himself  with  the  study  of  Servian 
literature  and  antiquities,  and  acquired  many  rare  books 
and  manuscripts.     In  1826  his  GescMcJde  der  Slawischen 
Sprache  und  Lileratur  nach  alien  Mundarten  appeared  at 
Pesth.     This  may  truly  be  called  an  epoch-making  book 
in  the  history  of  Slavonic  studies.     It  was  the  first  attempt 
to  give  anything  like  a  systematic  account  of  the  Slavonic 
languages,  the  knowledge  of  which  was  at  that  time  in 
such  a  rudimentary  state  that  even  Scliafarik  is  not  able 
to  classify  properly   the    Bulgarian   language,   but  has 
grouped  it  with  Servian.     In  1833  appeared  his  Serbische 
Lesekomer  oder  historisch-h-iiischeBeleuchtnnff  derSerbischen 
Mundart,  and  in  1837  his  great  work  Slovanske  Starozitnosti 
("  Slavonic  Antiquities  "),  by  which  he  is  at  the  present  time 
best  known.     The  "  Antiquities  "  have  been  translated  into 
Polish,  Russian,  and  German,  and  we  are  promised  an 
English  version  shortly  from  the  pen  of  Mrs  Alexander 
Kerr.     This  valuable  work  was  enlarged  and  improved  in 
the.  second  edition,  which  appeared  among  the  collected 
works  of  Schafarik,  edited  by  JirelSek  after  the  author's 
death.    In  1840  he  published  in  conjunction  with  Palacky 
Die  altesten  Denknialer  der  Bokmischen  Sprache,  in  which 
he  defended  the  authenticity  of  those   Bohemian  docu- 
ments which  have  been  declared  spurious  by  some  scholars. 
In  the  year  1837   poverty  compelled  Lim  to  accept  the 
tmcongenial  office  of  censor  of  Czech  publications,  which 
he  almndoned  in   1847  on  becoming  custodiaa  of  the 


Prague  public  library.  In  1842  be  pub'ished  his  valuable 
work  Slovansky  Kdrodopis,  which  gives  a  complete  account 
of  Slavonic  ethnology.  In  1S48  he  was  made  professor  of 
Slavonic  philology  in  the  university  of  Prague,  but  resigned 
it  in  the  following  year,  probably  from  causes  in  some  way 
connected  with  the  political  troubles  of  that  period,  ri 
which  Prague  was  one  of  the  centres.  He  was  then  macle 
keeper  of  the  university  library,  in  which  office  he  con- 
tinued till  his  death  in  1861.  He  had  long  been  in  broken 
health, — his  pains  of  body  being  augmented  by  brain  dis- 
ease, which  had  been  brought  on  by  his  severe  literary 
labours  and  also  by  family  anxieties.  His  latter  days  were 
devoted  to  philology,  one  of  the  chief  subjects  treated  of  by 
him  being  the  antiquity  of  the  Glagolitic  alphabet,  about 
which  he  held  very  different  opinions  at  various  periods 
of  his  life.  He  was  also  for  some  time  conductor  of  the 
"  Journal "  of  the  Bohemian  Museum,  and  edited  the  firsf: 
volume  of  the  Vybor,  or  selections  from  old  Czech  writers, 
which  appeared  under  the  auspices  of  the  literary  society 
in  1845.  To  this  he  prefixed  a  grammar  of  the  Old 
Bohemian  language.  His  correspondence  with  Pogodin 
has  been  published  by  Prof.  Nil  Popoff.  of  Moscow  among 
the  letters  of  that  eminent  scholar. 

Schafarik  was  a  man  of  the  purely  literary  type, — an  indefatigable 
worker,  an  enthusiast,  and  a  sincere  patriot.  The  study  of  Slavonic 
philology  and  ethnology  has  advanced  since  his  time,  but  the 
greater  part  of  his  work  is  permanent  and  monumental,  besides 
his  collected  writings  (Scbrmti  Spisy),  which  were  reprinted  ai 
Prague  after  his  death  during  the  years  1S62-1S65,  a  posthumous 
work  by  him  also  made  its  appearance,  edited  by  J.  Jiiecek, 
Geschichte  der  Sildslawischen  Litcralur, 

SCHAFFHAUSEN",  in  area  (111-7  square  miles)  and 
actual    population    (38,348)   the    19th  and   in    relative 
density  of  population  the  7th  of  the  cantons  of  Switzer- 
land, forms  the  most  northern  angle  of  the  Swiss  territory, 
and  lies  on  the  right  or  German  side  of  the  Ehine,  which 
separates  it  from  the  catitons  of  Thurgau  and  Zurich.     It 
is  divided  into  three  distinct  portions  by  ^purs  of  the 
grand-duchy  of  Baden,   which   also  possesses  the    small 
enclave    of    Biisingen    on    the    Ehine.     Geologically  it 
belongs  for  the  most   part  to  the   Swal)ian  Jura,   and 
directly  or  indirectly  it  all  drains  to  the  Ehine,  which 
forms  its  famous  falls  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  chief 
town  (see  Ehine,  vol.  xx.  p.  519).     In  the  broad  straths 
of  the  Klettgau  vine-growing  and  agriculture  go  hand  in 
hand  (the  wines  of  Hallau  being  in  high  repute) ;   the 
more  elevated  districts  of  Eauden   and  Eeyat  (highest 
point  3040  feet  above  the  sea)  raise  the  grain-production 
of  the  canton  above  the  home  demand,  and  also  provide 
large  quantities  of  potatoes,  hemp,  and  fruit.     Under  a 
careful  regime  the  forests  are  recovering  from  a  state  of 
comparative  exhaustion.      The   Schafi'hausen    cattle  are 
partly  Swabiau  and  partly  Swiss  ;  Klettgau  has  a  special 
breed  of  pigs  of  its  own.     Manufacturing  industries  have 
their  best  development  at  Schailhausen-N'euhausen.     The 
population,  which  increased  from  35,300  in  1850  to  38,348 
in  1880,  is  almost  exclusively   of  German  speech  (230 
individuals  only  using  other  languages).     Protestants  are 
to  Eoman  Catholics  as  8  to  1  (33,897  and  4154);   the 
latter  are  attached  to  the  bishopric  of  Basel.     Schaffhausen 
has  been  a  member  of  ^he  Swiss  confederation  since  1501. 
By  the  new  constitution  of  1876  it  became  remarkably 
democratic.     The  great  council  consists  of  representatives 
of  the  people  elected  fo"  four  years  at  the  rate  of  one  for 
every  five  hundred  inhaoitants.     On  the  petition  of  any 
thousand  of  the  electors,  a  measure  may  be  introduced  t» 
the  chamber  or  eubmitt  ^d  to  the  direct  vote  of  the  citizens. 
The  five  members  of  the  administration  are  also  popularly 
elected.    Education  is  p^ll  endowed,  primary  education 
being  compulsory.     A  reformatory  for  destitute  children 
is  maintained  at  Friedeck,  near  Buck 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


387 


SCHAFFHAUSEi'?,  tiie  capi'oai  of  the  above  canton,  is 
aituated  on  the  bank  of  the  Rhine,  30^  miles  by  rail  west 
■of  Constance  acd  60  east  of  Basel,  and  communicates  by  a 
bridge  with  the  village  of  Feuerthalen  (1000  inhabitants) 
in  Zurich.  It  is  a  city  of  contrasts — mediieval  architec- 
ture of  the  true  Swabian  tj^e  and  modern  manufactures 
mingling  curiously  together.  The  cathedral,  formerly  the 
«hurch  of  the  abbey  of  AH  Saints  (Allerheiligen),  is  a 
massive  basilica  founded  in  1101  and  completed  in  1453; 
its  great  bell  (1486)  bears  the  inscription  Vivos  voco, 
Tnortuos  plango,  futgura  frango,  ■which  suggested  Schiller's 
"Song  of-  the  Bell"  and  the  opening  of  Longfellow's 
Golden  Legend.  On  the  Rebhiigel  above  the  town  rises 
the  castle  of  Munoth  (1564—1590)  with  bomb-proof  case- 
mates, and  a  tower  whose  top  is  reached  by  a  spiral  ascent 
up  which  one  can  ride  or  drive.  In  Herrenacker  Platz 
stands  the  Imthurneum,  a  building  erected  (1864)  and  pre- 
sented to  the  town  by  a  Swiss  citizen,  resident  in  London, 
for  the  "  promotion  of  aisthetic  and  scientific  culture  " ;  it 
contains  a  theatre,  concert-rooms,  ifec.  The  public  library 
(28,000  volumes)  possesses  the  printed  and  JIS.  collections 
of  Johann  von  Miiller,  who  was  born  at  SchaflFhausen  in 
1752,  and  his  monument  adorns  the  promenade  of  the 
Vescnstaub.  In  the  museum  is  preserved  the  famous 
Ifeszlerloch  "find."  Among  the  industrial  establishments 
of  the  city  and  vicinity  are  ironworks,  waggon  and  carriage 
factories,  woollen  and  cotton  factories,  breweries,  distilleries, 
and  champagne  factories.  The  population  of  the  commune 
was  10,303  in  1870  and  11,795  in  1880. 

Scliaffliausen  (Latinized  as  Sca/usia  or  Graecized  into  Proiatopolis) 
first  appears  in  the  9th  century,  and  had  abeady  attained  the  raniv 
of  an  imuerial  city  in  1264. 

SCHALCKEN",  Godfeied  (1643-1706),  genre  and  por- 
trait painter,  was  born  at  Dort  in  1643,  and  studied  under 
Van  Hoogstraten,  and  afterwards  under  Gerhard  Douw, 
whose  works  his  earlier  genre-pictures  very  closely  resemble. 
He  visited  England  and  painted  several  portraits,  of  which 
the  half-length  of  William  UI.,  now  in  the  Museum, 
Amsterdam,  is  a  good  example.  In  this  work  he  shows  an 
effect  of  candle-light,  which  he  also  introduced — frequently 
■with  fine  effect — in  many  of  his  subject-pictures.  These 
may  be  studied  in  the  collections  at  Buckingham  Palace, 
the  Louvre,  Vienna,  and  Dresden.  He  executed  several 
Scriptural  subjects — such  as  that  of  the  Wise  and  Foolish 
Virgins,  at  Munich — of  very  indifferent  merit.  He  died  at 
The  Hague  in  1706. 

SCHAMYL  (i.e.,  Sawjez),  prophet  and  hero  of  the 
Caucasian  mountaineers,  was  born  in  1 797.  See  Caucasus, 
voL  V.  p.  258.  After  his  defeat  and  capture-  he  passed 
ten  years  in  Russia,  where  he  was  well  treated.  In  1870 
he  went  on  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  died  at  Medina  in 
March  of  the  following  year. 

SCH^ySfDAU,  a  small  town  of  Saxony,  is  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
little  valley  of  the  Kirnitzsch;  21  miles  to  the  south-east 
of  Dresden,  and  4  miles  from  the  Bohemian  frontier.  Its 
position  in  the  heart  of  the  romantic  "Saxon  Switzer- 
land "  gives  it  an  importance  to  which  on  other  grounds 
it  is  not  entitled,  and  thousands  of  tourists  make  it  their 
headquarters  in  summer.  The  stationary  population  in 
1880  was  3301. 

SCHARNHORST,  Gbehabd  Johann  David  von 
li756-1813),  Prussian  general,  celebrated  as  the  author  of 
the  80-called  "  Kriimpersystem,"  or  shoit  service  system 
(see  voL  ii.  p.  594),  by  which  the  Prussian  nation  was 
prepared  for.  the  war  of  liberation,  was  a  Hanoverian  by 
birth,  and  served  in  the  Hanoverian  army  from  1778  to 
1801,  when  he  passed  into  Prussian  service,  and  soon 
became  the  leader  in  the  reconstructio  of  its  forces.  In 
the  war  with  France  in  1813  ho  accoi    janied  Bliicher  as 


chief  of  the  general  staff,  but  received  a  severe  wound  in 
the  first  battle  (Grossgorschen),  which  soon  after  was 
followed  by  his  death.  The  first  part  of  an  extensive  and 
important  biography  of  Scharnhorst  by  Lehmann  has 
recently  appeared  (Leipsic,  1886). 

SCHASSBURG  (Hung.  Segen-dr),  chief  town  of  the 
Transylvanian  county  of  Nagy-Kiikiillb,  Hungary,  stands 
on  the  river  Nagy-Kiikiillri.  24  miles  east-south-east  of 
Maros-Vdsdrhely,  in  46°  10'  K  lat.,  24°  47'  E.  long. 
It  consists  of  two  parts, — the  one  which  formerly  served 
as  a  fortress  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  and  the  other  in 
the  valley  below, — the  two  being  connected  by  a  covered 
passage.  Schiissburg  is  the  seat  of  various  public  offices 
and  of  a  district  court  of  justice ;  its  other  institutions 
include  a  Franciscan  convent,  a  Protestant  upper  gymna- 
sium, a  teachers'  institute  and  seminary,  two  savings 
banks,  a  free  library,  hospital,  barracks,  <fec.  As  a  station 
on  the  eastern  system  of  the  Hungarian  S^ato  Railways, 
Schassburg  has  a  good  woollen  and  linen  tfade,  as  well  as 
exports  of  wine  and  fruit.  Among  its  principal  buildings 
an  old  Gothic  church  and  the  lofty  town-hall  are  specially 
worthy  of  mention.  The  population  in  1884  amounted  to 
8810,  the  majority  being  Germans  (Saxons),  and  the 
-emainder  Roumanians  and  Hungarians. 

Schassburg  was  founded  by  Saxon  colonists  at  the  end  of  the  12th 
century  ;  its  Latin  name  was  Casinim  Sex.  The  most  important 
event  in  its  "m'story  ■ffas  the  battle  on  the  31st  July  1849,  iu  wiich 
the  Tl-j  Bgarian  army  under  Bern  was  defeated  by  the  ovenvheluiing 
numbers  of  tlie  Russian  General  Liiders.  The  great  national  poet, 
Petofi,  was  last  seen,  and  is  generally  believed  to  have  met  his  end. 
in  this  engagement. 

SCHAUJIBURG-LIPPE.     See  Lippe. 

SCHEELE,  Karl  Wilhelm  (1742-1786),  an  eminent 
chemist,  was  born  at  Stralsund,  the  capital  of  Pomerania, 
which  then  belonged  to  Sweden,  on  the  19th  December 
1742.  His  father  was  a  merchant,  and  Karl  Wilhelra  was 
the  seventh  of  a  family  of  eleven.  In  due  time  the  boy 
was  sent  to  school,  but  he  did  not  care  for  the  languages, 
and  as  he  showed  a  strong  taste  for  pharmacy  he  was 
apprenticed  at  the  age  of  fourteen  to  an  apothecary  in 
Gothenburg,  called  Bauch,  with  whom  he  stayed  for  eight 
years.  He  was  thoughtfid  and  silent,  and  very  punctual 
and  precise  in  discharge  of  his  duties.  His  spare  time  and 
great  part  of  his  nights  were  devoted  to  the  experimental 
examination  of  the  different  bodies  which  he  dealt  with, 
and  the  careful  study  of  the  standard  works  on  chemistry. 
By  these  means  ho  acquired  a  large  store  of  knowledge 
and  great  practical  skill  and  manipulative  dexterity.  In 
1765  he  removed  to  Malmo,  and  resided  for  five  years  ■with 
Kalstrom,  an  apothecary,  whence  ho  removed  to  Stockholm, 
to  Scharenberg,  also  an  apothecary.  WhUe  here  he  wrote 
out  an  account  of  his  experiments  with  cream  of  tartar,- 
from  which  he  had  isolated  tartaric  acid,  and  sent  it  to 
Bergman,  the  leading  chemist  in  Sweden.  Bergman  somn- 
how  neglected  it,  and  this  caused  for  a  time  a  reluctance 
on  Scheele's  part  to  become  acquainted  with  that  savant, 
but  the  paper,  through  the  instrumentality  of  Retzius,  ■was 
ultimately  communicated  to  tho  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Stockholm.  In  1771  Schecle  finished  an  elaborate  inquiry 
into  the  composition  of  the  beautiful  mineral  fluorspar, 
and  showed  that  it  consisted  of  lime  and  a  peculiar  acid 
which  he  called  fluor  acid.  He  mLsundcrstoo"^),  however, 
tho  true  character  of  tho  decomposition  he  had  effected, 
and  gave  an  erroneous  explanation  of  it.  His  experiments 
had  been  conducted  in  gloss  vessels,  and  ho  was  not 
aware  that  what  he  actually  got  was  the  fluo-silicic  acid. 
This  mistake  was  subsequently  pcintod  out  and  corrected 
by  some  other  chemists.  Ho  left  Stockholm  ii^  1773  aud 
took  up  his  residence  at  Upbala  Hero  he  made  the 
acquaintince  of  Gahn,  a.ssessor  of  mines  at  Fuhlun. 
through  whose  mediation  he  ^as  at  length  introduced  to 


388 


S  G  H 


Bergman ;  the  two  soon  became  excellent  friends.  In 
1774  Scheele  published  his  epoch-making  investigation 
into  the  black  oxide  of  manganese,  which  had  occupied 
him  for  two  or  three  years,  and  in  1775  his  memoirs  on 
benzoic  and  arsenic  acids.  In  the  same  >  v^ar  he  left  Upsala, 
in  order  to  settle  at  Kopiug,  a  small  place  at  the  western 
extremity  of  Lake  ilalar.  Having  heard'  that  an  apothe- 
cary's shop  was  vacant,  he  applied  for  it,  passed  a  brilliant 
examination  before  the  medical  college,  and  was  appointed. 
But,  instead  of  a  small  flourishing  business,  he  found  that 
he  had  to  face  confusion  and  debt.  Undismayed  he  set  to 
work,  introduced  order  and  some  prosperity,  and  in  two 
years  bought  the  business  from  the  widow  of  the  former 
proprietor.  During  this  unfortunate  period  Scheele  must 
have  worked  very  hard,  for  in  spite  of  debt  and  diffi- 
culties he  published  in'  1777  his  treatise  upon  Air  and 
Fire,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  books  in  the  whole  range 
of  chemical  ■  literature,  whether  its  originality,  its  close 
reasoning,  the  number  of  discoveries  which  it  contains,  or 
the  enormous  amount  of  experimental  work  it  represents 
be  considered.  About  this  time  Bergman  obtained  for 
him  from  the  Academy  a  grant,  Scheele^  appreciation  of 
which  was  shown  by  his  reserving  one-sixth  for  his  personal 
wants  and  devoting  the  remainder  to  his  experiments. 

Subsequent  to  this  period,  and  for  the  remaining  nine 
years  of  his  life,  the  only  events  to  be  recorded  are  the 
papers  which  he  composed.  Every  year  he  published  two 
or  three,  and  almost  every  one  contained  a  capital  dis- 
cpvery,  either  the  explanation  of  a  phenomenon  or  reaction 
previously  misunderstood  or  the  description  of  some  new 
compounds.  He  was  at  the  zenith  of  his  now  European 
fame  as  a  profound  chemist  and  unfailing  experimenter, 
and  in  the  best  years  of  his  life,  when  his  career  was 
suddenly  arrested.  The  common  account  is  that  his 
unremitting  work,  especially  at  night,  exposing  him  to 
cold  and  draughts,  induced  a  rheumatic  attack,  to  which  in 
the  course  of  a  couple  of  months  he  succumbed.  Possibly 
his  strength  had  been  exhausted  by  long  years  of  privation 
and  neglect  of  himself.  He  had  intended,  as  soon  aa  his 
circumstances  should  enable  him,  to  marry  the  vridow 
of  his  predecessor.  His  illness,  however,  increased  very 
fast,  and  it  was  on  his  death-bed'  that'  he  carried  out  his 
design  on  the  19th  May  1786.  Two  days  later  he  died, 
bequeathing  to  his  wife  what  property  he  had  acquired. 
He  was  only  forty-four  years  of  age. 

The  discoveries  with  which  Scheele  -  enriched  chemistry  are 
ntunerous  and  important.  Reference  has  been  already  made  to  the 
discovery  of  tartaric  acid  and  of  the  composition  of  fii)or-spar.  The 
analysis  of  manganese  oxide  in  1774  led  him  to  the  discovery  of 
chlorine  aild  o£  baryta  {terra  ponderosa;  as  it  was  called),  to  indi- 
vidualizing the  salts  of  manganese  itself,  inclnding  the  green  and 
purple  compounds  with  potash,  and  to  the  e.-cplanation  •  of  how 
manganese  colours  and  decolorizes  glass.  In  1775  he  showed  how  to 
prepare  benzoic  acid  by  precipitating  it  from  a  solution  in  lime,  and 
he  investigated  arsenic  acid  and  its  reactions  with  different  sub- 
stances, discovering  arseniuretted  hydrogen  and  the  green  colour 
"  Schoele's  green," — a  process  for  preparing  which  on  the  large  scale 
he  published  in  1778.  Other  researches  of  this  period  were  con- 
cerned with  the  nature  of  quartz,  clay,  and  alum,  and  with  an 
animal  concretion  or  calculus  from  which  lie  got  for  the  first  time 
nric  acid. 

The  treatise  on  ^t'r  a7i<i^t>eappearedinl777.  ■  It  is  unnecessary 
now  to  enter  into  Scheele's  argument,  for,  however  admirably  it 
be  worked  out,  it  started  from  an  erroneous  basis.and  it  is  equally 
impossible  in  limited  space  even  to  enumerate  the  experiments  and 
the  discoveries  which  fill  this  book,  and  -which  have  remained  as 
permanent  acquisitions  to  science  through  all.  subsequent  changes 
of  theory.  Among  the  most  important  of  these  is  his  demonstra- 
tion that  the  air  consists  mainly  of  two  gases, — one  which  supports 
the  burning  of  bodies,  the  other  which  prevents  it.  This  he  showed 
both  analytically  and  synthetically.  His  "empyreal,"  or  "fire-air," 
01-  oxygen,  he  obtaine'i  for  his  synthesis  from  acid  of  nitre,  from 
saltpetre,  from  black  orfde  of  manganese,  and  from  several  other 
bodies.  After  the  discovery  of  this  substance  Scheele  applied  it_  to 
account  for  a  great  number  of  actions,  and  especially  for  its  function 
in  respiration  and  the  growth  of  plants.     He  went  through  a  long 


-S  0  H 

series  of  actions,  seemingly  the  most  diverse  in  character,  trying  ta 
bring  them  under  one  general  law  and  making  at  every  step  the 
most  acute  and  far-reaching  observations  and  discovering  new 
compounds  and  new  reactions.  Thus  he  incidentally  made  and 
described  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas,  and  he  explained  the  chemical 
effect  of  light  upon  compounds  of  silver  and  other  substances. 

In  1778  he  proposed  a  new  method  of  making  calomel  and 
powder  of  ^  algaroth.  He  also  examined  a  mineral,  molybdxna 
niteiis,  which  had  been  snpposed  to  contain  lead,  but  which  he 
showed  was  quite  distinct,  and  he  got  from  it  molybdic  acid.  He 
demonstrated  in  1779  that  plumbago  consists  almost  solely  of 
carbon,  and  he  published  a  record  of  estimations  of  the  amount  of 
pure  air,  i.  e. ,  of  oxygen,  contained  in  the.  atmosphere,  which  he  had 
carried  on  daily  during  the  entire  year  of  lTt&.  In  1780  he  showed 
that  the  acidity  of  sour  milk  was  due  to  a  peculiar  acid,  now  called 
lactic  acid  ;  aud  from  milk  sugar,  by  boiling  it  with  nitric  acid,  he 
obtained  mucic  acid.  His  next  discovery,  in  1781,  was  the  com- 
position of  tungsten,  since  called  scheelite,  which  he  found  consisted 
of  lime  combined  with  a  peculiar  acid — tungstic  acid.  The  follow- 
ing year  he  examined  the  mode  of  producing  ether,  and  in  1783 
discovered  glycerin,  the  sweet  principle  of  fats  and  oils.  In  1782- 
17S3  appeared  a  research  which — of  all  those  Scheele  conducted — 
exhibits  his  experimental  genius  at  its  very  best.  By  a  wonderftll 
succession  of  experiments  he  showed  that  the  colouring  matter 
of  Prussian  blue  could  not  be  produced  without  the  presence  of  a 
substance  of  the  nature  of  an  acid,  to  which  was  ultimately  given 
the  name  of  prassic  icid.  He  showed  how  this  body  was  com- 
posed, described  its  properties  and  compounds,  and  mentioned  its 
smell  and  taste,  utterly  unaware  of  its  deadly  character.  Nothing 
but  a  study  of  Scheele's  own  memoir  can  give  an  adequate  notion 
of  the  manner  in  which'  he  attacked  aud  solved  a  problem  so 
difficult  and  complicated  as  this  was  at  the  period  in  the  history 
of  chemistry  .when  Scheele  lived.  In  17S4-S5-S6  he  returned 
to  the  subject  with  which  he  had  begun  his  career,  that  of  the 
vegetable  acids,  and  described  four  new  ones — citric,  malic,  oxalic, 
and  gallic  acids. 

The  preceding  is  a  bare  list  of  the  more  prominent  of  Scheele's 
discoveries,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  he  was  not  merely  the 
first  to  prepare  these  bodies,  but  that  he  made  fill  the  compounds  of 
them  possible  at  the'time  and  explained  the  conditions  under  which 
he  produced  them.  Notable  as  is  the  list,  and  of  supreme  im- 
portance as  are  most  of  the  bodies  themselves,  no  conception  can  be 
gathered  from- it  of  Scheele's  immense  power  of  experimental  re- 
search,— a  power  that  has  seldom,  if  ever,  been  surpassed.  His 
natural  endowments  were  cultivated  by  unwearied  practice  and  un- 
divided attention ;  for  scientific  work  was  at  once  his  occupation 
and  his  relaxation.  To  appreciate  this  fully  his  own  account  of 
his  researches  must  be  studied.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  his  dis- 
coveries were  not  made  at  haphazard,  but  were  the  outcome  of 
experiments  carefully  planned  to  substantiate  the  accuracy  of 
theoretical  views  at  which  he  had  arrived.  He  thus  saved  hipaself 
unnecessary  labour ;  his  experiments  tell  decisively  on  the  question 
at  issue,  and  he  reached  his  conclusions  by  the  shortest  and  simplest 
means.  At  the  same  time  he  left  nothing  in  doubt  if  experiment 
would  establish  it ;  he  grudged  uo  labour  to  make  the  truth  indis- 
putable ;  and  he  evidently  never  considered  his  work  complete 
about  any  body  unless  he  could  both  unmake  and  remake  it.  For 
him  chemistry  was  both  an  analytic  and  a  synthetic  science,  and  he 
shows  this  prominently  in  his  researches  on  Prussian  blue. 

His  accuracy,  qualitative  and  q^uantitative, — considering  his 
primitive  apparatus,  his  want  of  assistance,  his  place  of  residence, 
the  uudevelofed  state  of  chemical  aad  physical  science, — was  un- 
rivalled. The  work  he  ei;cuted  left  hardly  anything  to  be  added 
to  it :'  it  was  as  -thoroughly  done  as  it  was  in  the  power  of  an  all- 
conscientious  man  to  do.  The  one  aim  of  Scheele's  life — and  he 
never  .swerved  from  it — was  the  experimental  discovery  of  the 
truth  in  nature.  Like  many  other  short-lived  men  of  genius  ho 
compressed  into  his  few  years  en  amount  of  work  of  the  greatest 
originality  ;  but  how  he  managed  to  do  it  is  a  mystery  to  the  less- 
gifted.  .  Wiiat  he  might  have  achieved  had  he  lived  a  little  longer 
can  only  be  surmised;  but  it  may  be  supposed  that,  tmdcr  the 
newer  theory  of  combustion  to  which  he  himself  had  unwittingly 
contributed  so  much,  he  would  have  made  certainly  no  fewer  and 
no  less  important  discoveries  than  those  which. 'n^ere  the. outcome  of 
its  erroneous  predecessor. 

Scheele's  papers  appeared  first  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Swedish  Academy  of 
Sciences,  in  CreU's  jfeue  Entdcckungen  and  AnnaJen,  and  in  other  periodicate. 
A  list  of  them  is  (n^en  in  Fnchs's  Repertorium  der  c/iemischen  ZUteratur,  Jena, 
1806-1808;  in  Reuss's  Repertorium  Commcntationum,  TOl,  III.,  Giittincen, 
1803;  and  in  PoggeDdorfTs  Biographisch-Utcrarisches  BandwSrterbuch,  Leipsic. 
1SG3.  They  were  collected  and  published  in  French,  English,  Latin,  and  German  : 
Memoircs  de  Chymie,  2  vols..  Paris,  1785-83 ;  Chemical  Essays,  tiy  Thomas 
Beddoes,  1  Tol.,  London,  1T86 ;  Opuscula^  translated  by  Schafer,  edited  by 
Hebenstreit,  2  vols,,  Leipsic,  17S&-89;  ^mmtliche  Werke,  edited  by  Herrabstiidt, 
2  vols.,  Berlin,  1793.  The  Treatise  an  Air  and  Fire  appeared  In  German,  Upsala 
and  Leipsic,  1777,  and  again  in  1782  ;  in  English,  by  J.  K.  Forster,  London.  1780; 
in  French,  by  Dietrich,  "aria,  1781.  (J.  F.) 

SCHEFFER,  ry  (1 795-1858),  Dutch  painter,  who  ■was 
born  at  Dort  on.   ")th  February  1795,  repTesenta  the  senti- 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


389 


mental  phase  of  the  Romantic  movement  in  France. 
After  the  early  death  of  his  father,  a  poor  painter,  Ary 
was  taken  to  Paris  and  placed  in  the  studio  of  Guerin  by 
Lis  mother,  a  woman  of  great  energy  and  character.  The 
moment  at  which  Scheiler  left  Guerin  coincided  with  the 
commencement  of  the  Romantic  movement.  He  had 
little  sympathy  with  the  directions  given  to  it  by  either 
of  its  most  conspicuous  representatives,  Sigalon,  Dela- 
croix, or  Gericault,  and  made  various  tentative  efforts — 
Gaston  de  Foi.^  (1824),  Suliot  Women  (1827)— before 
he  found  his  own  path.  Immediately  after  the  exhibition 
of  the  last-named  work  he  turned  to  Byron  and  Goethe, 
selecting  from  Faust  a  long  series  of  subjects  which  had  an 
extraordinary  vogue.  Of  these,  we  may  mention  Margaret 
at  her  Wheel ;  Faust  Doubting ;  Margaret  at  the  Sabbat ; 
Margaret  Leaving  Church;  the  Garden  Walk;  and  lastly, 
perhaps  the  most  popular  of  all,  Margaret  at  the  Well. 
The  two  Mignons  appeared  in  1836;  and  Francesca  da 
Rimini,  which  is  on  the  whole  Scheffer's  best  work, 
belongs  to  the  same  period.  He  now  turned  to  religious 
subjects:  Christus  Consolator  (1836)  was  followed  by 
Christus  Remunerator,  the  Shepherds  Led  by  the  Star 
^1837),  The  Magi  Laying  Down  their  Orovras,  Christ  in 
the  Garden  of  Olives,  Christ  Bearing  his  Cross^  Christ 
Interred  (1845),  St  Augustine  and  Monica  (1846),  after 
which  he  ceased  to  exhibit,  but,  shut  up  in  his  studio,  con- 
tinued to  produce  much  which  was  first  seen  by  the  outer 
world  after  his  death,  which  took  place  at  Argenteuil  on 
the  15th  June  1858.  At  the  posthumous  exhibition  of 
his  works  there  fi(,-ured  the  Sorrows  of  the  Earth,  and  the 
Angel  Announcing  the  Resurrection,  which  he  had  left 
unfinished.  Amongst  his  numerous  portraits  those  of 
La  Fayette,  B^ranger,  Lamartiue,  and  Marie  Am^lie  were 
the  most  noteworthy.  His  reputation,  much  shaken  by 
this  posthumous  exhibition,  was  further  undermined  by 
the  sole  of  the  Paturle  Gallery,  which  contained  many  of 
hi»  most  celebrated  achievements ;  the  charm  and  facility 
of  their  composition  could  not  save  them  from  the  con- 
demnation provoked  by  their  poor  and  earthy  colour  and 
vapid  sentiment.  Scheffer,  who  married  the  widow  of 
General  Baudrand,  was  only  made  commander  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour  in  1848, — that  is,  after  he  had  wholly 
withdrawn  from  the  Salon.  His  brother  Henri,  born  at  The 
Hague  27th  September  1798,  was  also  a  fertile  painter. 

See  Vitet's  notice  prefixed  to  Bmcham's  publication  of  works  of 
A.  Scheffer ;  Etex,  Ary  Scheffer  ;  Mrs  Grote,  Life  of  A.  Scheffer ; 
Julius  Meyer's  Geschichte  der  franzbsischeii  Kunst. 

SCHELDT,  or  Schelde  (Ft.  Escaut,  Lat.  Scaldis,  O. 
Dutch  Schoude  or  Schouwe),  a  river  of  north-west  Europe, 
Ijelonging  for  75  miles  of  its  course  to  France,  137  to 
Belgium,  and  37  to  the  Netherlands.  Rising  at  a  height 
of  295  feet  above  the  sea,  in  a  small  lake  (7  square  miles) 
at  the  old  abbey  of  St  Martin,  near  Catelet,  in  the  French 
department  of  Aisne  (Picardy),  it  becomes  navigable  by 
the  junction  of  the  St  Quentin  Canal,  below  Catelet,  and 
passes  by  Cambray,  Denain  (where  it  receives  the  Selle), 
Valenciennes,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Roucllo,  Cond6,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Haisne  or  Henne,  and  Chateau  I'Abbaye,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Scarpe.  Entering  Belgium  between 
Mortagne  and  HoUain,  it  continues  by  Fontenoy,  Tournay, 
and  Oudenarde  to  Ghent,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Lys 
from  the  left,  and  by  the  canals  which  unite  this  town 
with  Sas  and  Bruges.  At  Ghent  tho  tide  rises  Z\  feet 
and  lasts  for  four  hours ;  and  it  would  ascend  much 
farther  were  it  not  for  sluices.  But  tho  river,  instead  of 
proceeding  straight  towards  tho  sea,  as  it  appears  to  have 
done  perhaps  as  late  as  tho  time  of  Cliarlomagno,  miikos 
a  great  bend  towards  the  east  to  Dendermonde  (the  mouth 
of  the  Dcnder)  and  Antwerp,  whence  it  again  turns  north- 
Trest  and  loses  itself  in  tho  estuaries  among  tho  islands  of 


Zealand.  The  whole  of  the  lowlands  to  the  north  of 
Ghent  are  so  intersected  with  canals,  and  the  natural 
channels  are  so  intermingled  with  those  partially  or 
entirely  artificial,  that  it  is  impossible  to  discover  with 
certainty  what  has  been  the  real  history  of  the  lower 
course  of  tho  Scheldt.*  The  Hont  or  Western  Scheldt,  the 
principal  estuary  by  which  nearly  all  Belgium  commerce 
is  conveyed,  was  probably  opened  up  by  a  stgrm  in  1173 
and  about  1058  must  have  been  a  mere  narrow  creek. 
The  Eastern  Scheldt,  which  then  received  most  of  tho 
river,  has  gradually  diminished  in  importance,  and  since 
the  construction  of  tho  railway  bridge  across  it  between 
the  mainland  and  South  Beveland  in  1867  has  become 
completely  obstructed  with  sands.  At  Antwerp  tho  depth 
at  high  water  is  49  feet. 

Between  1648  and  1792  the  Dutch  closed  the  mouths  of  tho 
Scheldt  against  foreign  commerce.  The  emperor  Joseph  of  Austria, 
at  that  time  ruler  of  Antwerp,  protested  against  this  action  in  1783, 
but  in  1784,  by  the  treaty  of  Foutainebleau,  he  recognized,  in  return 
for  concessions  of  territory  and  9^  million  florins,  the  right  of  tho 
Dutch  to  adiiero  to  the  terms  of  the  peace  of  Westphalia.  In 
1792  by  conquest  of  Dumouriez,  and  in  1795  by  treaty  between 
France  and  Holland,  the  Scheldt  was  declared  open.  During  the 
union  of  Holland  and  Belgium  the  question  naturally  lay  in 
abeyance.  When  Belgium  became  independent  (1839)  Holland  so 
far  resumed  her  exclusive  policy,  but  in  1863  the  dues  which  she 
was  allowed  to  levy  by  the  treaty  of  separation  were  capitalized  by 
Belgium  paying  17,141,640  florins,  a  sum  which  was  largely  repaid 
to  Belgium  by  twenty  other  countries  who  felt  they  had  an  interest 
in  the  free  navigation  of  the  Scheldt.  Great  Britain's  share  was 
8,782,320  francs. 

See  Vifqualn,  Des  Votes  Navigahtet  en  BeFffique,  1842  ;  Waurermans,  "Sur  l£3 
Variations  de  I'Escnut  au  XVI.  Bifecle,"  In  £nH.  de  la  Sac.  dt  Qiagr.  d^Anvfra,  TOl 
1.;  Raemdonck,  "L'Hist.  du  Cours  de  I'Escaut,"  and  Verstraete,  ''Cours  Primltif 
da  rEacaut,"  botti  in  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  Beige  de  Qeogr.,  -1878. 

SCHELLING,  Feiedeich  Wilhelm  Joseph  von 
(1775-1854),  a  distinguished  German  philosopher,  was 
born  on  27th  January  1775  at  Leonberg,  a  small  town  of 
Wiirtemberg,  otherwise  notable  as  scene  of  the  early  years 
of  Kepler's  life.  Through  both  parents  he  'was  connected 
with  families  of  distinction  in  the  Protestant  church  com- 
munity. His  father,  a  solidly  trained  scholar  of  Oriental 
languages,  was  called'in  1777  as  chaplain  and  professor  to 
the  cloister  school  of  Bebenhausen,  near  Tiibingen,  a  pre- 
paratory seminary  for  intending  students  of  theology  at 
Tiibingen.  Here  Schelling  received  his  earliest  education 
and  gave  the  first  evidences  of  what  afterwards  so 
eminently  distinguished  him,  remarkable  precocity  and 
quickness  of  intellect.  From  the  Latin  school  at  Niirtin- 
gen,  whither  he  had  been  sent  in  his  tenth  year,  ho  was 
returned  in  two  years  as  having  already  acquired  all  tho 
school  could  give  him,  and  his  father  with  regret  was 
compelled  to  allow  him  at  so  alfnormally  young  an  ago  to 
study  with  tho  seminarists  at  Bebenhausen.  In  1790, 
with  special  permission,  for  he  was  yet  three  years  under 
tho  prescribed  age,  Schelling  entered  the  theological 
seminary  at  Tubingen,  where  he  had  as  fellow  students, 
contemporary  as  scholars  though  elder  in  year.s  Hegel  and 
Holderlin.  The  character  and  direction  of  his  studies  may 
bo  gathered  sufficiently  from  tho  titles  of  the  essays  which 
for  various  purposes  wore  accomplished  during  tho  five 
years  of  his  student  career.  In  1792  ho  graduated  in  the 
philosophical  faculty  with  a  thesis  Anliquissimi  de  piima 
malorum  humanoruni  origine  philosophemads  explicattdi 
tentamen  criticum,  et  philosophicum ;  in  1793  he  contri- 
buted to  Paulus's  Memorahilien  a  paper  Ueber  Myf/ius, 
kislDrtsche  Sagen.,  vnd  Phl/osophcme  dcr  a/tt-sfen  Wdt ;  and 
in  1795  his  thesis  for  his  theological  degree  was  De 
Marcione  Paullinanim  epislolantm  fmendatore.  Tho  in- 
fluence of  these  early  studies  over  his  later  literary  career 

'  Bylandt,  Bolpairo,  Bonord,  and  Wauvermans  impugn,  and  Des 
Roches,  Vifqualn,  Van  Kaomilonck  and  Vcrstrneto  niaintnin,  tho 
existence  within  historic  times  of  a  direct  mala-rivcr  chamicl  froitk 
Ghent  northward  to  the  soa. 


390 


SCHELLING 


has  been  often  ejcaggerated,  but  doubtless  they  contributed 
to  strengthen  his  natural  tendency  to  dwell  rather  on  the 
large  historico-speculative  problems  than  on  the  difficulties 
of  abstract  thinking.  Before  the  date  of  his  last  essay 
noted  above,  a  new  and  much  more  important  influence 
had  begun  to  operate  on  him.  In  conjunction  with  some 
of  his  fellow-students  he  was  in  1793  .studying  the  Kantian 
system.  The  difficulties  or  imperfections  of  that  system 
he  claims  soon  to  have  perceived,  and  no  doabt  the  per- 
ception was  quickened  by  acquaintance  with  the  first  of 
those  writings  in  which  Fichte  put  forward  his  amended 
form  of  the  critical  philosophy.  The  "  Keview  of  jEneside- 
mus  "  and  the  tractate  On  the  Notion  of  Wissenschaftslehre 
found  in  Schelling's  mind  most  fruitful  soil  With 
characteristic  zeal  and  impetuosity  Schelling  had  no 
sooner  grasped  the  leading  ideas  of  Fichte's  new  mode  of 
treating  philosophy  than  he  threw  together  the  thoughts 
suggested  to  him  in  the  form  of  an  essiy,  which  appeared, 
under  the  title  Ueber  die  M'dglichJceit  einer  Forrader  Philo- 
sophie  iiber/taupl,  towards  the  end  of  179t.  There  was 
nothing  original  in  the  treatment,  but  it  showed  such 
power  of  appreciating  the  new  ideas  of  thfe  Fichtean 
method  that  it  was  hailed  with  cordial  recognition  by 
Fichte  himself,  and  gave  the  author  immediately  a  place 
in  popular  estimation  as  in  the  foremost  rank  of  existing 
philosophical  writers.  The  essay  was  followed  up  in  1795 
.by  a  more  elaborate  writing,  Vom  Ich  ah  Princip  der 
PhilosopMe^  oder  liber  das  Uilbedingte  im,  metiscklichen 
Wissen,  which,  still  remaining  within  the  limits  of  the 
Fichtean  idealism,  yet  exhibits  unmistakable  traces  of  a 
tendency  to  give  the  Fichtean  method  a  more  objective 
application,  and  to  amalgamate  with  it  Spinoza's  more 
realistic  view  of  things. 

The  reputation  so  quickly  gained  led  soon  to  its  natural 
result.  In  midsummer  1798  Schelling  was  called  as 
extraordinary  professor  of  philosophy  to  Jena,  and  thus 
stepped  into  the  most  active  literary  and  philosophical 
circle  of  the  time.  The  intervening  period  had  not  been 
unfruitful.  While  discharging  for  two  years  at  Leipsic 
the  duties  of  companion  or  tutorial  guardian  to  two 
youths  of  noble  family,  Schelling  had  contributed  various 
articles  and  reviews  to  Fichte  and  Niethammer's  Jovrnal, 
and  had  thrown  himself  with  all  his  native  irnpetuosity 
into  the  study  of  physical  and  medical  science.  From 
1796  date  t]iQ  Brief e  iiber  Dogmatisimis  imd  Kriticismtis, 
an  admirably  written  critique  of  the  ultimate  issues  of  the 
Kantian  system,  which  will  stUl  repay  study;  from  1797 
tne  essay  entitled  Neue  Deduction  des  Natvn-echts,  which 
to  some  extent  anticipated  Fichte's  treatment  in  the 
Grundlage  des  Naturrechts,  published  in  1796,  but  not 
before  Schelling's  essay  had  been  received  by  the  editors 
of  the  Journal.  The  reviews  of  current  philosophical 
literature  were  afterwards  collected,  and  with  needful 
omissions  ■  and  corrections  appeared  under  the  title  "  Ab- 
handlungen  zur  Erlauterung  des  Idealismus  der  Wissen- 
schaftslehre"  in  Schelling's  Philos.  Schrifien,  vol.  L,  1809. 
The  studies  of  physical  science  bore  rapid  fruit  in  the  Ideen 
2M  einer  Philosophie  der  Natur,  1797,  and  the  treatise  Von 
der  Weltsede,  1798,  the  drift  of  which  will  be  noted  later. 

Schelling's  professoriate  in  Jena  lasted  till  the  early 
part  of  1803.  His  lectures  were  extraordinarily  attrac- 
tive ;  his  productive  powers  were  at  their  best ;  and  the 
circumstances  of  his  surroundings  developed  forcibly  the 
good  and  evil  qualities  of  his  character.  Of  his  writings 
during  this  period  a  merely  chronological  notice  will  mean- 
while suffice.  In  1799  appeared  the  Erster  Entwurf  eines 
Systems  der  NaturphilosojMe,  with  an  independent  and  sub- 
sequent Einkitung;  in  1800  the  Si/stem,  des  transcenden- 
talen  Idealisms,  in  form  one  of  the  most  finished,  in 
Bubstanca  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  of  his  works;  in 


the  same  year,  in  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  spekvlative  Phyeikf 
edited  by  him,  "  AUgemeine  Deduction  des  dynamischen 
Processes  ";  and  in  1801  the  Darstellung  meines  St/stems  der 
Philosophie ;  in  1802,  in  the  yeue  Zeitsckr.fiir  spek.  Physik, 
the  "  Fernere  Darstellungen  aus  dem  System  der  Philo- 
sophie"; also  in  1802  the  dialogue  ^nmo  and  the  excellently 
written    Vorlesungen   iiber  die  Methode  des  akademischen 
Studiums.     In  conjunction  with  Hegel,  who  in  1801  at 
Schelling's  invitation  had  come  to   Jena,    he  edited  the 
Krili'sches  Journal  fiir  Philosophie,  the   greater   part  of 
which  was  written  by  HegeL     Eegarding  the  authorship 
of  certain  articles  in  the  volume  and  a  half  of  this  Journal 
a  discussion  of  no  great-  significance  has  arisen,  concerning 
which  perhaps  the  best  statement  is  that  by  Schelling's  son 
in  the  preface  to  vol.  v.  of  the  Sdnimtliche  Werke,  Abth.  L 
The  philosophical  renown  of  Jena  reached  its  culminat- 
ing point  during  the  years  of  Schelling's  residence  there, 
in  no  small  measure  through  the  imposing  force  of  his 
character  and  teaching.     Recognized  as  of  the  first  rank 
a,mong  living  thinkers  he  was  received  with  every  mark  (rf 
distinction,  and  his  intellectual   sympathies  soon  united 
him  closely  with  some  of  the  most  active  literary  tenden- 
cies of  the  time.     With  Goethe,  who  viewed  with  interest 
and  appreciation   the   poetical  fashion   of   treating  fact 
characteristic  of    the  Naturphilosophie,    he  continued  on 
excellent  terms,  while  on  the  other  hand  he  was  repelled 
by  Schiller's  less  expansive  disposition,   and  failed  alto- 
gether to    understand    the   lofty   ethical   idealism    that 
animated   his    work.      By    the    representatives    of    the 
Romantic  school,  then  in  the  height  of  their  fervour  and 
beginning  their  downward  course,  he  was  hailed  as  a  most 
potent  ally,  and  quickly  became  par  exrdlence  the  philo- 
sopher of  the  Romantic  type.     The  Schlegels  and  their 
friends,   who  had  found  at  least  one  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  Romantic  strain  in  Fichte,  had  begun  to  be  dis- 
satisfied with  the   cold  and  abstract  fashion  of  viewing 
nature  that  seemed  necessarOy  to  follow  from  the  notion 
of  the  Wissenschaftslehre,  and  at  the  same  time  the  deep- 
seated  antagonism  of  character  between  Fichte  and  the 
impetuous  litterateurs  of  the  Romantic  school  was  begin- 
ning to  be  felt.     In  Schelling,  essentially  a  self-conscious 
genins,  eager  and  rash,  yet  with  undeniable  power,  they 
hailed  a  personality  of  the  true  Romantic  type,  and  in  hi.'s 
philosophy  a  mode  of  conceiving  nature  adequate  to  the 
needs  of  poetic   treatment.     During  the  Jena  period  the 
closest  union  obtained  between  Schelling  and  those  who 
either  at  Jena  or  at  Berlin  carried   on .  warfare  for  the 
Romantic  idea.  .  With  August  Wilhelm  Schlegel'and  his 
gifted    wife   Caroline,-  herself   the    embodiment   of    the 
Romantic   spirit,  Schelling's  relations  were  of   the  most 
intimate  tind.     Personal  acquaintance  made  at  Dresden 
before   Schelling   began  his  ■  professorial   career  at   Jena 
rapidly  developed  into  a  warm  friendship,  to  which  circum- 
stances soon  gave  a  new  and  heightened  colour.     Caroline 
Schlegel,  a  woman  of  remarkable  rceptive  and  apprecia- 
tive power,  emotional  to  excess,  and  full  of  the  ardent  ill- 
balanced  sympathies  that  constituted  the  Romantic  tone, 
felt  for   Schelling  unbounded   admiration.     In    him  she 
found  the  philosophic  view  which  gave  completeness  and 
consistency  to  the  tumultuous  literary  and  personal  feel- 
ings that  animated  her,  and  she  was  not  less  attracted  by 
the  dominating  force  of  his  personal  character.     It  is  pro- 
bable that  in  the  early  stages  of  their  friendship  a  future 
marriage  between  Schelling  and  Caroline's  young  daughter, 
Auguste  Bohmer,  was,  if  not   definitely  understood,  yef 
vaguely  contemplated  by  both,  and  that  in  consequence 
neither   was  fully   aware   of   the  nature  of  the   feelings 
springing  up   between   them.      The   untimely  death   oi 
Aug-dste  in  the  summer  of  1800,  a  death  in  which  Schel 
ling's  rash  confidence  in  his  medical  knowledge  was  unfcr 


SCHELLING 


391 


tttuately  involved,  while  a  severe  blow  to  both,  drew  them 
Mtnch  more  closely  together,  and  in  the  following  year, 
/^  W.  Schlegel  having  removed  to  Berlin,  and  Caroline 
temairdng  in  Jena,  afiadre  so  developed  themselves  that 
qnietly,  amicably,  and  in  apparently  the  most  friendly 
manner,  a  divorce  was  arranged  and  carried  to  its  comple- 
tion in  the  early  summer  of  1803.  On  the  2d  June  of 
the  same  year  Sihelling  and  Caroline,  after  a  visit  to  the 
fonner's  father,  were  married,  and  with  the  marriage 
Schelling's  life  at  Jena  came  to  an  end.  It  was  full  time, 
for  Schelling's  undoubtedly  overweening  self-confidence 
and  most  arrogant  mode  of  criticism  had  involved  him  in 
a  series  of  virulent  disputes  and  quarrels  at  Jena,  the 
Stalls  of  which  are  in  themselves  of  little  or  no  interest, 
but  are  valuable  as  illustrations  of  the  evil  qualities  in 
Rchelling's  nature  which  deface  much  of  his  philosophic 
work.  The  boiling  fervour  which  the  Romanticists  prized 
is  deplorably  inefiective  in  the  clear  cold  atmosphere  of 
(ipecijation. 

A  fresh  field  was  found  in  the  newly-constituted  uni- 
uersity  of  Wiirzburg,  to  which  he  was  called  in  September 
1'803  as  professor  of  "  Naturphilosophie,"  and  where  ho 
ivjmained  till  April  1806,  when  the  Napoleonic  conquests 
(ompelled  a  change.  The  published  writings  of  this 
)ieriod  (PMlosophie  und Religion,  1804,  and  Ueber  das  Ver- 
hdliniss  des  Realen  -und  Idealen,  in  der  Natur,  1806),  and 
utill  more  the  unpublished  draft  of  his  lectures  as  con- 
llnued  in  volumes  v.  and  vi.  of  the  Sanimtliche  Werhe, 
exhibit  an  important  internal  change  in  his  philosophic 
views,  a  change  which  was  accentuated  by  the  open  breach 
on  the  one  hand  with  Fichte  and  on  the  othe*  hand  with 
Hegel.  Schelling's  little  pamphlet  Darlegung  des  wahren 
Verhdltnisses  der  Naturphilosophie  zur  verbesserien  Ficht- 
■ischen  Lehre  was  the  natural  sequel  to  the  difterence  which 
had  brought  the  correspondence  of  the  former  friends  to  a 
close  in  1803,  and  to  Fichte's  open  condemnation  in  the 
Gnmdziige  d.  gegenwart.  Zeilalters.  Hegel's  preface  to 
the  Phiinovienologie  des  Geistes  was  in  like  manner  the 
sequel  to  the  severe  treatment  which  in  his  Jena  lectures 
ho  had  bestowed  on  the  emptiness  of  the  Schellingian 
method,  and  with  the  appearance  of  that  work  correspond- 
ence and  friendship  between  the  two  ceased,  and  in 
Schelling's  mind  there  remained  a  deeply  rooted  sense  of 
injury  and  injustice. 

The  Wiirzburg  professoriate  had  not  been  without  its 
inner  trials.  SchelLing  had  many  enemies,  and  his  irre- 
ooncilable  and  lofty  tone  of  dealing  with  them  only 
increased  the  virulence  of  their  attacks.  He  embroiled 
himself  with  his  colleagues  and  with  the  Government,  so 
that  it  svas  doubtless  with  a  sense  of  reUef  that  he  found 
earternal  events  bring  his  tenure  of  the  chair  to  a  close. 
In  Munich,  to  which  with  his  wife  he  removed  in  1806, 
he  found  a  long  and  quiet  residence.  A  position  as  state 
ofiBcial,  at  first  as  associate  of  the  academy  of  sciences 
and  secretary  of  the  academy  of  arts,  afterwards  as 
secretary  of  the  philosophical  section  of  the  academy  of 
sciences,  gave  him  ease  and  leisure.  Without  resigning 
his  official  position  he  lectured  for  a  short  time  at  Stutt- 
gart, and  during  seven  years  at  Erlangen  (1820-27).  In 
1809  Caroline  died,  and  three  years  later  Schelling 
married  one  of  her  closest,  most  attached  friends,  Paulino 
Qotter,  in  whom  ho  found  a  true  and  faitliful  companion. 

During  the  long  stay  at  Munich  (18U0-1841)  Schel- 
ling's literary  activity  seemed  gradually  to  come  to  a 
standstill.  The  "Aphorisms  on  Naturphilosophie"  con- 
tained in  the  Jahrbikher  der  Medicin  als  Wissensrhafl 
(1806-8)  are  for  the  most  part  extracts  from  the  Wiirz- 
burg lectures ;  and  tho  Denhnal  der  Schrift  von  dai 
gSMicken  Dingen  des  Ilerm  Jaeobi  was  drawn  forth  by 
the  special  iucidcat  of  Jacobi's  work.     Tho  only  writinr; 


of  significance  is  tho  "  Philosophische  Unterauchungen  iiber 
das  Wesen  der  menschlichen  Freiheit,"  which  appeared  in 
the  Philosophische  Schriften,  vol.  i.  (1809),  and  which 
carries  out,  with  increasing  tendency  to  mysticism,  the 
thoughts  of  the  previous  work,  Philosophie  vnd  Religion. 
In  1815  appeared  the  tract  Ueber  die  GoUheilen  zu  Savio- 
thralce,  ostensibly  a  portion  of  the  great  work,  Die  Weltalter, 
on  which  Schelling  was  understood  to  be  engaged,  a  work 
frequently  announced  as  ready  for  publication,  but  of 
which  no  great  part  was  ever  written.  Probably  it  was 
the  overpowering  strength  and  influence  of  the  Hegelian 
system  that  constrained  Schelling  to  so  long  a  silence,  for 
it  was  only  in  ISS-l,  after  the  death  of  Hegel,  that,  in  a 
preface  to  a  translation  by  H.  Beckers  of  a  work  by  Cousin, 
he  gave  public  utterance  to  the  antagonism  in  which  he 
stood  to  the  Hegelian  and  to  lis  own  earlier  conceptions  of 
philosophy.  The  antagonism  certainly  was  not  then  a 
new  fact;  the  Erlangen  lectures  on  the  history  of  philosophy 
{Sdnimt.  Werke,  x.  124-5)  of  1822  express  the  same  in  a 
pointed  fashion,  and  Schelling  had  already  begun  the 
treatment  of  mythology  and  religion  which  in  his  view 
constituted  the  true  positive  complement  to  the  negative 
of  logical  or  speculative  philosophy.  Public  attention, 
which  had  been  from  time  to  time  drawn  to  Schelling's 
prolonged  silence,  was  pow.erfully  attracted  by  these 
vague  hints  of  a  new  system  which  promised  something 
more  positive,  as  regards  religion  in  particular,  than  the 
apparent  results  of  Hegel's  teaching.  For  the  appearance 
of  the  critical  writings  of  Strauss,  Feuerbach,  and  Bauer, 
and  the  evident  disunion  in  the  Hegelian  school  itself,  had 
alienated  the  sympathies  of  many  from  the  then  dominant 
philosophy.  In  Berlin  particularly,  the  headquarters  of 
the  Hegelians,  the  desire  found  expression  to  obtain 
officially  from  Schelling  a  treatment  of  the  new  system 
which  he  was  understood  to  have  in  reserve.  The  realiza- 
tion of  the  desire  did  not  come  about  till  1841,  when  the 
appointment  of  Schelling  as  Prussian  privy  councillor  and 
member  of  the  Berlin  Academy,  gave  him  the  right,  a 
right  he  was  requested  to  exercise,  to  deliver  lectures  in 
the  university.  The  opening  lecture  of  his  course  was 
listened  to  by  a  large  and  most  appreciative  audience ; 
and  thus,  in  the  evening  of  his  career,  Schelling  found 
himself,  as  often  before,  the  centre  of  attraction  in  the 
world  of  philosophy.  The  enmity  of  his  old  foe  H.  E.  G. 
Paulus,  sharpened  by  Schelling's  apparent  success,  led  to 
the  surreptitious  publication  of  a  verbatim  report  of  the 
lectures  on  the  philosophy  of  revelation,  and,  as  Schelling 
did  not  succeed  in  obtaining  legal  condemnation  and  sup- 
pression of  this  piracy,  he  in  1845  ceased  the  delivery  of 
any  public  courses.  No  authentic  information  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  new  positive  philosophy  was  obtained  till 
after  his  death  in  1854,  when  his  sons  began  the  issue  of 
his  collected  writings  with  the  four  volumes  of  Berlin 
lectures  : — vol.  i.,  Introduction  to  the  Philosophy  of  Mytho- 
logy (1856) ;  ii.,  Philosophy  of  Mythology  (1857);  iii.  and 
iv..  Philosophy  of  Revelation  (1858). 

"Whatovor  judgment  one  may  form  of  tho  total  worth  of  Schelling 
a3  a  philosonher,  hi3  placo  iii  tho  liistory  of  that  important  luovo- 
mciit  callej  generally  German  philoso^jhy  is  unmistakable  and 
assured.  It  happeueu  to  hira,  as  ko  huiiself  claimed,  to  tuiii  o 
pago  in  tlio  history  of  thought,  and  ono  cannot  ignore  tlio  uitiial 
advance  upon  his  predecessor  acliicvcd  by  him  or  the  brilliant 
fertility  of  tho  genius  by  which  that  acliievcment  w.is  aecomplisliod. 
On  tho  other  hand  it  is  not  to  bo  denied  that  Scbelling,  towliom  an 
unusually  long  period  of  activity  was  accorded,  nowlure  succeeds 
in  attaining  tlio  rounded  completeness  of  scientific  system.     Ilia 

fihilosophicarl  writings,  extended  over  more  tb.-ui  lialJ'  a  century, 
io  befor*  us,  not  as  parts  of  ono  whole,  but  as  tho  successive  mani- 
festations of  a  restless  highly  endowed  sj  irit,  striving  continuously 
but  unsueccssfull/  after  a  solution  of  its  own  pmblems.  Suet 
unity  us  thoy  possess  is  a  unity  of  tendency  and  endeavour ;  they 
are  not  parts  of  a  ■vliole,  and  in  sumo  resneets  the  linal  form  they 
■tisuuied  is  thu  least  satisfactory  of  all.     llcuco  it  has  como  about 


392 


SCHELLING 


thatSchelling  remains  for  the  pliilosoplac  stuaent  but  a  moment 
of  historical  value  in  the  development  of  thought,  and  that  hi» 
works  have   for   the  most  part   ceased   now  to   have   more   than 
historic   interest.      Throughout    his   thinking   bears   the   painful 
impress  of  hurry   incompleteness,  and  spasmodic  striving  after  an 
ideal   which   could   only    be   attained  by  patient,  labonous,  and 
methodic  effort.     Brilliant  contributions  there  are  without  doubt 
to  the  evolution  of  a  pWiosophic  idea,  but  no  systematic  fusion  of 
t  o".    n-^   .°  "V-,^*^  i^iot  unfair  to  connect  the  apparent  failings 
of  Schellings  philosophizing  with  the  very  nature  of  the  thinkw 
and   with   the   historical   accidents  of  his   career.     In    the  writ- 
ings of  his  early  manhood,  for  example,  more  particularly  those 
making  up  Naturphilosophie,  one  finds  in  painful  abundance  the 
evidences  of  hastily-acquired  knowledge,  impatience  of  the  hard 
labour  of  minute  thought,  over-confidence  in  the  force  of  individual 
genius,    and   desire   instantaneously   to   present   even   iu   crudest 
fashion   the. newest   idea   that   has    dawned   upon    the    thinker 
Schelling  was  prematurely  thrust  into  the  position  of  a  foremost 
productive   thinker  ;  and   when   the  lengthened  period   of  quiet 
meditation  was  at  last  forced  upon   him  there  unfortunately  lay 
Ijefore  him  a  system  which  achieved  what  had  dimly  been  involved 
m  his  ardent  and  impetuous  desires.     It  is  not  possible  to  acquit 
bchelling  of  a  certain  disingenuousness  in  regard  to  the  Hegelian 
philosophy ;  and  if  we  claim  for  him  perfect  disinterestedness  of 
view  we  can  do  so  on  y  by  imposing  on  him  the  severer  condem- 
nation  of  deficient  insight.  \ 

It  was  a  natural  concomitant  of  this  continuous  hurry  under 
which  Schellings  successive  efforts  at  constructive  work  were 
carried  out  that  ho  should  have  been  found  at  aU  stages  supporting 
himself  by  calling  to  his  aid  the  forms  of  some  other  system      Thf 

21ZT-  ^iT'  f  ^''  'l«^l'°P°"="t  might  without  injusiice  be 
characterized  by  reference  to  the.e  external  supports.     Thus  Fichte 


.  --7-"--  -J  ■— ^---"^v  iv^  ..ucoo  cALcruai  Bupporcs.  Tnusrichte 
Spinoza,  Jakob  Boehme  and  the  Mystics,  and  finally,  thogreat  Greek 
thinkerswith  their  Neoplatonic,  Gnostic,  and  Schdastic  commen- 
tetors,  give  resnectively  colouring  to  pa.ticular  works  in  which 
Schelling  unfo  as  himself.  At  the  same  time  it  would  be  unjust  to 
T^r.!Z\  Schellingas  merely  borrowing  from  these  external  sources. 
:„,»n  r  i^Z^,^  *\^'™  S''°"'°«  phUosophic  spirit  and  no 

small  measure  of  philosophic  insight.  Of  the  ptilosophic  afflatus 
he  was  in  no  want;  and  it  might  be  fairly  adied  that,  under  aU 
rff  '?'ff<^''<,^°=«f,.<'f  .exposition  which  seem  to  constitute  so  many 
ditiering  Schellingian  systems,  there  is  one  and  the  same  philo- 
sophic  effort  and  spirit  But  what  ScheUing  did  want  was  power 
towork  out  scientifically,  methodically,  the°ideas  with  whic?i  his 
spirit  was  filled  and  mastered.  Hence  he  could  only  find  expression 
for  himseU  in  forms  of  this  or  that  earlier  philosophy,  and  hence 
too  the  frequent  formlessness  of  his  own  thought,  tL  tendency  to 

^terLTs™  trgl^^Sgtr^"^  ^^^'  ""''''  '''•  ^'^'^^'^■ 

orpa^&^='Sr^J^°^;em^-g^\^S^: 
activity.  AVhether  one  adopts  as  basis  the  external  fortor  the 
oreign  mode  of  specu  ation  kid  under  contribution,  or  endeavours 
to  adhere  closely  to  inner  differences  of  view,  the  result  is  very 
much  the  same  There  is  one  line  of  speculat  ve  thought  in  the 
development  of  which  inevitable  problems  call  for  new  methods  of 
handling,  while  the  results  only  in  part  can  claim  to  hTve  a  olace 
accorded  to  them  in  the  history  ^f  philosophy.  It  TsL>  in 
fndtafiors  of^tf,"'"^'  development  4  tak^  fnto  ac^nnt  the 
momenta  In  hi  nl"^-  °^T1  ''=e"'^'"^  '*'  ""^^  significant 
-Twht  trfn  ^f  °^  ^^^.the  turning  points  seem  to  have  been 
-(1)  tlie  transition  from  Fichte's  method  to  the  more  obiective 
conception  of  nature,-the  advance,  in  other  wordr  to  Sr 
Philosopu,;  (2)  the  deanite  formulation  of  that  which  impUcltly 

viz  the  th"outeH''-^''^°.'^1  '^  }^  '^'^  °f  i\^«<.r;ZS; 
of  both  nahiri  „nH  '■'^r.'l'^'-  '"different,  absolute  substrftum' 
?3)  theon^ndHnn  f  '^"'l''  the  advance  to  Identmtsvhilosophie ; 
ffl  „vPi?°^l°fJ°''S^"^«  """d  positive  philosophy,  an  opposi 
tiou  which  IS  the  theme  of  the  Berlin  lectures,  but  the  germs  of 
which  may  be  traced  back  to  1804,  and  of  which  more  th^  the 
germs  are  found  in  the  work  on  f^edom  of  Tsog  Only  wha? 
alls  under  the  first  and  second  of  the  divisions  so  indicated  can  be 
said  to  have  discharged  a  function  in  developing  philosophy 'onlv 
so  much  constitutes  Schelling's  philosophy  pro^p£-  T  very'  S 
suffice.  *"^<=t«'-^"'=  f^^tufes  of  the  threa^tadU  S  lera 

{\)Iiat2irphilosopkie.-Th6  Fichtean   method  had  Btriven  to 
exhibit  the  whole  structure  of  reality  as  the  necessary  imXation 

^th  dangerous  cautio^T'?'''"^  '^'  "/'''^^  '^^  ""^^'^  ^'^"''°'=<i 
positively  as  int;,H,,i  \u°°  "''"^  fragments  of  dogmatism; 
posiuvely,  as  insisting  on  the  unity  of  philosophical  interpretation 


and  as  supplying  a  key  to  the  form  or  method  by  which  S  completed 
philosophic  system  might  he  constructed.  But  the  Fichtean  teach 
mg  appeared  on  the  one  hand  to  identify  too  closely  the  ultimate 
ground  of  the  universe  of  rational  conception  with  the  finite,  indi 
vidual  spirit  iind  on  the  other  hand  to  endanger  the  reality  of  th'a 
woild  of  nature  by  regarding  it  too  much  after  the  fashion  of  sub- 
fwtlL  f  T'/'-  ™'[^  moment,  though  necessitated,  in  the 
existence  of  the  finite  thinking  mind.  Jt  was  almost  a  natural 
consequence  that  Fichte  never  succeeded  in  amalgamating  with  his 
own  system  the  aesthetic  view  of  nature  to- which  the  Kritik  of 
hiloso'l  P"'"''''^  ^^  ^"  essential  component  iu  any  complete 
From    Fichte's  position  Schelling   started.     From   Fichte    he 

from  pilt'  ',  i  °-  %^'TP''*'''  T'^"'"  °f  philosophic  conception  ; 
from  Fichte  he  derived  the  formal  method  to  which  for  the  most 
part  he  continued  true.  The  earliest  writings  tended  gradually 
towards  the  first  important  advance.  Nature  must  not  fce  con- 
ceived as  merely  abstract  limit  to  the  infinite  striving  of  spirit  as 
a  mere  series  of  necessary  thoughts  for  mind.  It  must  be  that 
and  more  than  that.  It  must  have  reality  for  itself,  a  reality 
winch  stands  in  no  conflict  with  its  ideal  character,  a  reaUty  the 
inner  structure  of  which  is  ideal,  a  reality  the  root  and  spring  of 
which  IS  spint.  Nature  as  the  sum  of  that  which  is  objective, 
intelligence  as  the  complex  of  all  the  activities  making  up  self- 
consciousness,  appear  thus  as  e<5ually  real,  as  alike  exhibiting  ideal 
structure,  as  parallel  with  one  another.  The  philosophy  of  nature 
and  transcendental  philosophy  are  the  two  complementary  portions 
ol  philosophy  as  a  whole. 

Animated  with  this  new  conception  Schelling  made  his  hurried 
rnsn  to  Naturphilosophie,  and  with  the  aid  of  Kant  and  of  frag- 
mentary knowledge  of  contemporary  scientific  movements,  threw 
oft  in  quick  succession  the  Ideen,  the  Wellseeh,  and  the  Erstcr 
f-Mwurf.  NaluTphilosophie,  which  thus  became  an  historical  fact 
has  had  scant  mercy  at  the  hands  of  modem  science ;  and  un- 
doubtedly there  is  much  in  it,  even  in  that  for  which  Schellins 
alone  IS  responsible,  for  which  only  contempt  can  be  our  feelintr 
bcheflmg,  one  must  say,  had  neither  the  strength  of  thinking  nor 
the  acquired  knowledge  necessary  to  hold  the  balance  between  the 
abstract  treatment  of  cosmological  notions  and  the  concrete 
ninr^ff  rt  ^P-^"^!  =';'^°™-  His  efforts  after  a  construction  of 
flonri  f  ^f  ''^1  '"  themselves  and  gave  rise  to  a  wearisome 
flood  of  perfectly  useless  physical  speculation.  Yet  it  would  be 
unjust  to  Ignore  the  many  brilliaat  and  sometimes  valuable  thoughts 

thoughts  to  which  Schelling  himself  is  but  too  frequently  untrue 
Kegarded  merely  as  a  criticism  of  the  notions  with  which  scientific 
interpretation  proceeds,  these  writings  have  still  importance  and 
t^  r^;^'^f,^''""/'^  more  had  they  been  untainted  by  the  tendency 
to  hasty,  ill-considered,  a  priori  anticipations  of  nature. 

Nature  as  having  reaUty  for  itself,  forms  one  completed  whole. 
Its  manifoldness  IS  not  then  to  be  taken  as  excluding  its  funda- 
mental unity ;  the  divisions  which  our  ordinary  perception  and 
thought  introduce  into  it  have  not  absolute  validitf,  but  are  to  be 

rl'X^t  (•  T  *''"  ?"'r^'  f  '^^  ^'"S'«  formative  energy  or 
complex  of  forces  which  is  the  inner  aspect,  the  soul  of  nSture. 

.nil.  ^^-"i",  ^^^^'t:^^  "«  \'^  a  position  to  apprehend  and 
constructively  to  exlubit  to  ourselves  in  the  successive  forms  .which 
Its  developnaent  assumes,  for  it  ia  the  same  spirit,  though  uncoa- 
scious,  of  which  we  become  aware  iii  self-consciousness.     It  is  the 

Vf^]f^°\°^  TV'i,  ^?'  "  ^\^  ^"'"^ty  °^  >'^  f°™^  impe-^ed  upon 
it  from  without ;  there  is  neither  exterual  teleology  in  nature,  nor 
mechanism  m  the  narrower  sense.  Nature  is  a  whole  and  forms 
itse  f ;  withm  Its  range  we  are  to  look  for  no  other  than  natural 
explanations.  The  function  of  A'ai,;r^A.7o.opA,>  i^  to  exhibit  the 
1,  "^^^Pn^g'^S  from  the  real,  not  to  deduce  the  real  from  the 
ideal.  _  The  incessant  change  which  experience  brings  before  us.; 

^f  rfn?»''r"°f' Tv,'"?^-*''"  *^°"g''*  °f  "'^''y  ^  prolluctive  fo^ 
of  nature,  leaus  to  the  aU-important  conception  of  the  duality,  the 
polar  opposition  through  which  nature  expresses  itself  iu  its  vi-ied 
products..  The  dynamical  series  of  stages  in  nature  the  forZii 
which  the  Idea!  structure  of  nature  is  r°eali.ed,  are  matter  ™tS 

Thf  ^Tiu  Buh'  ^r'^r™'^^  ^^P^°^'^«  and'contrTctive'f^rce^ 
light._  with  Its  Buboidmate  processes, -magnetism,  electricity,  and 
chem.ca^  action;  organism  with  its  component  phases  of  reproduc- 
tion, irritability,  and  seueibility.i  r  i'  "  i<=i)iouui. 
Just  as  nature  exhibits  to  us  the  series  of  dynamical  stages  of 
processes  by  which  spirit  struggles  towards  consciousness  of  ttself 
so  the  world  of  intelligence  and  practicc'tho  world  of  mind,  exhibits 
the  series  of  stages  through  which  self-cousciousnesa  with  its 
inevitable  oppositions  and  reconciliations  develops  in  its  ideal 
form.  The  theoretical  side  of  inner  nature  in  its  successive  crades 
from  sensation  to  the  highest  form  of  spirit,  the  abstracting  Feason 
which  emphasizes  the  difference  of  subjective  and  objective  leaves 


1  TI.e  briefest  and  best  account  In  Scliellkig  himself  of  Natm-phitoKpiie  Is 
ttiat  contamed  in  the  EMeUu„g  zu  d„n  Erslif  £nlwur/ (S.  TV.,  Hi)      The  fn  fel? 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


393 


an  unsolved  problem  which  receives  satisfaction  ouly  in  the  prac- 
tical, the  individualizing  activity.  The  practical,  again,  taken  in 
conjunction  with  the  theoretical,  forces  on  the  question  of  the 
reconciliation  between  the  free  conscious  organization  of  thought 
and  the  apparently  necessitated  and  cnconscious  mechanism  of  the 
objective  world.  In  the  notion  of  a  teleological  connexion  and  in 
that  which  for  spirit  is  its  subjective  expression,  viz.,  art  and 
genius,  the  subjective  and  objective  find  their  point  of  union. 

(2)  Nature  and  spirit,  Nalurphilosophie  and  Transccndcntalphilo- 
Sophie,  thus  stand  as  two  relatively  complete,  but  complementary 
parts  of  the  whole.     It  was  impossible  for  Schelling,  the  animating 
principle  of  whose  thought  \vas  ever  the  reconciliation  of  dilfcrences, 
not  to  take  and  to  take  speedily  the  step  towards  the  conception  of 
the  uniting  basis  of  which  nature  and  spirit  are  manifestations, 
forms,  or  consequences.     For  this  common  basis,  however,  he  did 
not  succeed  at  first  in  finding  any  other  than  the  merely  negative 
expression   of  indifTereuce.      The  identity,    the    absolute,    which 
underlay  all  difference,,  all   the  relative,    is   to  be   characterized 
simply  as  neutrum,  as  absolute  jindifferentiated  self-equivalence. 
It  lay  in  the  very  nature  of  this  thought  that  Spinoza  should  now 
offer  liimself  to  Schelling  as  the  thinker  whose  form  of  presentation 
came  nearest  to  his  new  problem.     The  Varslellung  meines  Syslcrns, 
and  the  more  expanded  and  more  careful  treatment  contained  in 
the, lectures  on  System  der  gesammten  Philosophic  mid  der  Natter- 
fhilosophie  insbesonderc  given  in  Wiirzburg,  1804  (published  only 
in  the- Sdmmtlicfic  jyerkc,  vol.  vi.  p.   131-576),  are    thoroughly 
Spinozistic  in  form,  and  to  a  large  extent  in  substance.     They  are 
not  without  value,  indeed,  as  extended  commentary  on  Spinoza. 
With  all  his  efforts,  SohelHng  does  not  succeed  in  bringing  his 
conceptions  of  nature  and  spirit  into  any  vital  connexion  with  the 
primal  identity,  the  absolute  indifference  of  reason.    No  true  solution 
could  be  achieved  by  resort  to  the  mere  absence  of  distinguishing, 
differencing  feature.  ■  The  absolute  was  le/t  with  no  other  function 
than  that  of  removing  all  the  differences  on  which  thought  turns. 
The  criticisms  of  Fichte,  and  more  particularly  of  Hegel  (in  the 
"  Vorrede  "  to  the  Phanomenologie  des  Geistes),  point  to  the  fatal 
defect  in  the  conception  of  the  absolute  as  mere  featureless  identity. 
(3)  Along  two  distinct  lines  Schelling  is  to  be  found  in  all.  his 
later  wiitings   striving  to  amend  the  conception,  to  which  he  re- 
mained true,  of  absolute  reason  as  the  ultimate  ground  of  reality. 
It  was  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  give  to  this  absolute  a  cliar- 
Oder,  to  make  of  it  something  more  than  empty  sameness  ;  it  was 
necessary,  in  the  second  place,  to  clear  up  in  some  way  the  relation 
in  which  the  actuality  or  apparent  actuality  of  nature  and  spirit 
stood  to  the  ultimate  real.     Schelling  had  already  (in  the  Sijskm 
der  ges.  Phil.)  begun  to  endeavour  after  an  amalgamation  of  the 
Spinozistic  conception  of  substance  with  the  Platonic  view  of  an 
ideal  realm,  and  to  find  therein  the  means  of  enriching  the  bare- 
ness of  absolute  reason.     In  Bruno,  and  in  Philos.  u.  lUligion,  the 
same  thought  finds  expression.     In  the  realm  of  ideas  the  abso- 
lute finds  itself,  has  its  own  nature  over  against  itself  as  objective 
over  against  subjective,  and  thus  is  in  the  way  of  overcoming  its 
abstractness,  of  becoming  concrete.     This  conception  of  a  differ- 
ence, of  .an  internal  structure  in  the  absolute,  finds  other  and  not 
less   obscure   expressions   in  the    mystical    contributions   of    tlie 
Menschliche  Frciheil   and  in   the   scholastic   speculations  of  the 
Berlin  lectures  on  mythology.     At  the. same  time  it  connects  itself 
with  the  second  problem,  how  to  attain  in  conjunction  with  the 
abstractly  rational  character  of  the  absolute   an  explanation   of 
actuality.  Things, — nature  and  spirit, — have  an  actual  being.  They 
exist  not  merely  as  logical   consequence   or  development  of  the 
absolute,  but  have  a  stubbornness  of  being  in  them,  an  antagonistic 
feature  which  in  all  times  philosophers  have-been  driven  to  recog- 
nize, and  which  they  have  described  in  varied  fashion.     The  actu- 
ality of  thing!)  is  a  defection  fronr  the  absolute,  and  their  existence 
compels  a  reconsideration  of  our  conception  of  God.    There  must  be 
recognized  in  God  as  a  completed  actuality,  a  dim,  obscure  ground 
or  basis,  which  can  only  be  described  as  not  yet  being,  but  as  con- 
taining in  itself  tlie  impulse  to  oxtcrnalization,  to  existence.     It  is 
through  this  ground  of  Being  in  God  Himsi  If  that  wo  must  find 
explanation  of  that  independence  which  thing's  a  sert  over  against 
God.     And  it  is  easy  to  see  how  from  this  position  Schelling  was 
led  on  to  the  further  statements  that  not  in  the  rational  conception 
of  God  is  an  explanation  of  existence  to  be  found,  nay,  that  all 
rational  conception  extends  but  to  the  form,  and  touches  not  the 
real, — that  God  is  to  be  conceived  as  act,  as  will,  as  something  over 
and  above  the  rational  conception  of  the  divine.     Hence  the  stress 
laid  on  will  as  tho  realizing  factor,  in  opposition  to  tliought,  a 
.view  through  whicli  Scliuinng  connects  himself  with  Si'hopenhauer 
and  Von  Hartmann,  and  on  tho  ground  of  which  he  has  been 
recognized  by  the  latter  as  tho  reconciler  of  idealism  and  realism. 
Finally,  then,  there  emerges  tho  opjiosition  of  negative,  i.e.,  merely 
rational  philosophy,  and  jiosilive,  of  which  tho  content  is  tho  real 
evolution  of  the  divine  aa  it  has  taken  place. in  fact  and  in  history 
and  as  it  is  recorded  in  tho  varied  mythologies  and  religions  of  man- 
kind.    Not  much  satisfaction  can  bo  felt  with  tho  exposition  of 
either  as  it  appears  in  tlio  volumes  of  Berlin  lectures. 


Schelllng's  works  "ere  r,t,'.'.ttt^A  and  published  by  his  sons.  In  14  vols.,  iei(i-6I. 
For  the  life  good  materi«ls  ure  to  be  found  In  tho  tlirec  vols.,  Aut  ScMl\ii}'t 
Lcbm  in  Brie/en,  lStJ9-70,  In  which  a  biographic  sketch  of_the  philosopjier's 
early  life  is  Riven  by  hisson,/ind  in  Waitz,  A'aro/in^,  2to18.,1871  An  IntcrestinR 
little  work  is  Klaiber,  MolJfrtiii,  Hegel,  u.  Scftetling  in  i/iren  Scfiu&bischen  Jugend' 
jahrert  1877.  The  biography  in  Kuno  Fischer's  volume  la  complete  and  admir. 
able.  *Apart  from  the  exi^osl'tions  in  tho  larger  histoiies  of  modern  phllokopliy, 
in  MIcholet,  Eidmann,  WiUm,  and  Kuno  Fischer,  and  in  Haym's  Komautiicfie 
.S<rA«/«,val\iabIc  studies  are— R05Cnkran2,5cAtf//i»;7, 1643;  ^o&ck,  Scfu-flitiyuttddU 
Phitosophieder  Romantik,  2  vols.,  1853;  Franlz,  Sehe'Hng's positive PUilOiophie,  3 
vols.,  1879-80;  Watson,  Seltelting's  Transcendental  Idealism,  16S2.       (R.  AD.) 

SCHEilNITZ  (Hung.  Sdnuczhdnya),  a  mining  town  in 
the  Cis-Danubian  county  of  Hont,  Hungary,  lies  about  65 
miles  north  from  Budapest,  in  48°  .27'  N.  lat.,  18°  62'  E. 
long.,  on  an. elevated  site,  2300  feet  above  the  level  of  tho 
sea.  Its  institutions  include  a '  Roman  Catholic  and  a 
Protestant  gymnasium,  a  high  school  for  girls,  a  court  of 
justice,  a  hospital,  and  several  benevolent  and  scientific 
societies.  Schemnitz  owes  its  chief  importance  to  the  fact 
of  its  being  the  mining  centre  of  the  kingdom.  Con- 
nected with  this  local  industry  are  important  Government 
institutions,  such  as  various  mining  superintendencies,  a 
chemical  analytical  laboratory,  and  an  excellent  academy 
of  mining  and  forestry  (with  a  meteorological  observa- 
tory and  a  remarkable  collection  of  minerals),  attended 
by  pupils  from  all  countries  of  Europe  and  also  from 
America.  The  mines  are  chiefly  the  property  of  the  state 
and  the  corporation ;  the  average  yield  annually  is — 
gold,  232  ft;  silver,  45,000  lb;  lead,  11,000  cwt; 
copper,  180  cwt.  Iron,  arsenic,  i^rc,  to'the  value  of  about 
£150,000  are  also  produced.  There  are  also  flourishing 
potteries  where  well-known  tobacco  pipes  are  manufactured. 
With  Schemnitz  is  conjoined  the  town  of  BelabAnya  ;  their 
united  population  in  1884  was  15,265,  chiefly  Slovaks,  of 
whom  nearly  3000  were  engaged  in  mining. 

Schemnitz,  which  was  already  noted  for  its  mines  in  the  time  of 
the  Romans,  has  played  considerable  part  in  the  history  of  Hungary. 
The.  archives  of  the  town  contain  many  interesting  documents. 
After  the  Tartar  invasion  in  the  12th  centur)'  it  was  colonized  by 
Germans,  but  had  become  quite  Slavnnized  before  the  academy  of 
mining  was  founded,  by  Maria  Theresa  (1760).  The  school  of 
forestry  was  added  in  1809.  The  corporation  is  wealthy,  having 
received  special  commercial  privileges  from  the  crown  in  considera- 
tion of  pecuniary  aid  afforded  in  times  of  emergency. 

SCHENECTADY,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  county 
Beat- of  Schenectady  county.  New  York,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Mohawk  river,  17  miles  by  rail  north-west  of  Albany,  with 
which  it  is  also  connected  by  tho  Erie  Canal.  It  is  best 
known  as  the  seat  of  Union  College,  an  institution  founded 
in  1795  by  a  Union  of  several  religious  sects,  and  now 
possessed  of  large  endowments,  extensive  buildings,  and  a 
valuable  library,  and  along  with  the  Albany  medical  and 
law  schools,  itc,  forming  the  Union  University.  Besides 
manufacturing  locomotives,  iron  bridges,  and  agricultural 
implements,  Schenectady  has  shawl,,  hosiery,  carriage,  and 
varnish  factories.  The  population  was  9579  in  1860, 
11,026  in  1870,  and  13,655  in  1880. 

Occupying  the  site  of  one  of  the  council  groiinds  of  tho  Jlohawks, 
Schenectady  was  chosen  as  a  Dutch  tiading'  post  in  1620,  was 
chartered  in  1684,  and  became  d  borough  in  1/65  and  a  city  in 
1798.  In  1691  it  was  burned  by  the  French  and  Indians,  and 
eixty-threo  of  its  inhabitants  massacred. 

SCHETKY,  John  Alexander  (1785-1824),  a  younger, 
brother  of  J.  C.  Schetky  (see  below),  studied  medicine 
in  Edinburgh  university  and  drawing  in  the  T-fusteea' 
Academy.  As  a  military  surgeon  ho  served  with  di.stinc- 
tion  under  Lord  BecCsford  in  Portugal.  He  contributed 
excellent  works  to  tho  exhibitions  of  the  Royal  Aciidehiy 
-and  of  the  Water-Colour  Society,  and  cxeciited  sonic  of  tho 
illustrations  in  Sir  W.  Scott's  Provincial  Anti</uilics.  Ho 
died  at  Capo  Coa.st  Castle,  5th  September  1824,.  when- 
preparing  to  follow  Mungo  Park's  route  of  exploration. 

SCHETKY,  John  Christian  (1778-1874),  marine 
painter,  descended  from  an  old  Transylvanian  family,  was 
born  in  Edinburgh  on  tho  Ilth  of  August- 1778.  Ho 
studied  art  under  Alexander  Nasmyth,  and  after  baviui; 


B94 


S  C  H— S  C  H 


travelled  on  the  Continent  he  settled  in  Oxford,  and 
taught  for  six  years  as  a  drawing-master.  In  1808  he 
obtained  a  post  in  the  military  college,  Great  Marlow,  and 
three  years  later  he  received  a  congenial  appointment  as 
professor  of  drawing  in  the  naval  college,  Portsmouth, 
where  he  had  ample  opportunities  for  the  study  of  his 
favourite  marine  subjects.  From  1S3G  to  1855  he  held  a 
similar  professorship  in  the  military  college,  Addiscombe. 
To  the  Eoyal  Academy  exhibitions  he  contributed  at 
intervals  from  1805  to  1872,  and  he  was  represented  at 
the  Westminster  Hall  competition  of  18i7  by  a  large  oil- 
painting  of  the  Battle  of  La  Hogue.  He  was  marine 
painter  to  George  IV.,  William  IV.,  and  Queen  Victoria. 
Among  his  published  works  are  the  illustrations  to  Lord 
John  Manners's  Cruise  in  Scotch  Waters,  and  a  volume  of 
photographs  from  his  piatures  and  drawings  issued  in 
1867  under  the  title  of  Veterans  of  the  Sea,  He  died  in 
London,  on  the  28th  of  January  1874. 

One  of  his  be^t  worl-s,  tlie  Loss  of  the  Royal  Geori^e,  painted  in 
1840,  is  in  tlie  Ivationnl  Gallery,  London,  and  the  United  Service 
Club  possesses  another  important  marine  subject  from  liis  Lrush. 
Hia  memoir  by  his  daughter  was  published  in  1877. 

SCHEVENINGEN,  a  fishing  village  and  watering-place 
in  Holland,  on  the  North  Sea,  about  two  miles  fiom  The 
Hague,-  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  shaded  avenue 
with  a  tramway.  There  is  a  fine  sandy  beach  below  the 
line  of  dunes  that  separate  the  village  from  the  sea.  The 
terrace  crowning  the  dunes  serves  as  a  promenade.  Popu- 
lation in  1879,  7713.  Scheveningen  has  a  considerable 
herrmg  fleet  In  a  naval  engagement  off  the  coast  in 
1673  De  Euyter  defeated  the  combined  forces  of  the 
French  and  English. 

SCHIAVONETTI,  Luigi  (1765-1810),  engraver,  was 
born  at  Bassano  ia  Venetia,  on  April  1,  1765.  After 
having  studied  art  for  several  years  he  was  employed  by 
Testolini,  an  engraver  of  very  indifferent  abilities,  to 
execute  imitations  of  Bartolozzi's  works,  which  he  passed 
off  as  his  own.  In  1790  Testolini  was  invited  by 
Bartolozzi  to  join  him  in  England,  and,  it  having  been 
discovered  that  Sohiavonetti,  who  accompanied  him,  had 
executed  the  plates  in  question,  he  was  taken  by  Bartolozzi 
into  his  employment,  and,  having  greatly  improved  under 
his  instruction,  he  became  an  eminent  engraver  in  both  the 
line  and  the  dot  manner,  "developing  an  individual  style 
which  united  grandeur  with  grace,  boldness,  draughtsman- 
like  power,  and  intelligence  with  executive  delicacy  and 
finish."  Among  his  early  works  are  four  plates  of  subjects 
from  the  French  Eevokitiou,  after  Benazech.  He  also 
produced  a  Mater  Dolorosa  after  Vandyck,  and  Michel- 
angelo's cartoon  of  the  Surprise  of  the  Soldiers  on  the 
Banks  of  the  Arno.  From  1805  to  1808  he  was  engaged 
in  etching  Blake's  designs  to  Blair's  Grave,  which,  with  a 
portrait  of  the  artist  engraved  by  Schiavonetti  after  T. 
Phillips,  K.  A.,  were  pubhshed  in  the  last-named  year.  The 
etching  of  Stothard's  Canterbury  Pilgrims  was  one  of  his 
latest  works,  and  on  his  death  on  the  7th  of  June  1810 
the  plate  was  taken  up  by  his  brother  Niccolo,  and  finally 
completed  by  James  Heath. 

SCHIEDAM,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  South  Holland,  not  far  from  the  confluence  of  the 
Bchie  with  the  Maas,  3  miles  by  rail  from  Rotterdam.  It 
is  best  known  as  the  seat  of  a  great  gin  manufacture,  which, 
carried  on  ia  more  than  two  hundred  distilleries,  gives 
Employment  besides  to  malt-factories,  cooperages,  and  cork- 
eutting  establishments,  and  supplies  grain  refuse  enough 
to  feed  about  30,000  pigs.  Other  industries  are  ship- 
building, glass-blowing,  and  candle-moulding.  Schiedam, 
which  has  recently  been  growing  rapidly  towards  the  south- 
'»est  in  the  Nieuw-Frankenland,  is  not  behind  the  larger  of 
the  Netherlands  cities  in  the  magnificence  of  its  private 


residences,  but  none  of  its  public  buildings  are  of  much 
note.  It  is.  enough  to  mention  the  Groote  or  Jans-Kerk, 
with  the  tomb  of  Cornelis  Haga,  ambassador  to  Turkey, 
the  old  Pioman  Catholic  church',  the  synagogue,  the  town- 
house,  the  e.xchange,  the  Musis  Sacrum,  the  post  office 
(Blaauwhuis),  and  a  ruined  castle  (Huis  te  Riviere).  The 
population  of  the  commune  increased  from  9157  in  1811 
to  12,360  in  1840,  21,103  in  1875,  23,035  in  18S0,  and 
24,321  'in  1^84 ;  the  population  of  the  town  was  18,854 
in  1870. 

Schiedam,  which  first  appears  in  a  document  of  1264,  obtained 
privileges  from  Floris  V.  in  1275,  and  gradually  acriuired  im- 
portance as  a  commercial  town.  In  the  16th  century  it  liad'a  con- 
siderable share  in  the  herring  fishejy  and  carried  ou  salt-making, 
hrick-making,  and  weaving,  and  began  to  turn  its  attention  to  dis- 
tilling.    The  town  was  flooded  in  1775. 

SCHIEFNEE,  Feaxz  Axtox  (1817-1879),  Hnguist, 
was  born  at  Reval,  in  Russia,  on  the  ISth  July  1817. 
His  father  was  a  merchant  who  had  emigrated  from 
Bohemia  at  the  end  of  last  century.  He  received  hia 
education  at  the  grammar  school  of  his  native  place,  where 
also  his  subsequent  colleague,  the  celebrated  naturalist 
Karl  Ernst  von  Baer,  had  been  brought  up.  He  matricu- 
lated at  St  Petersburg  as  a  law  student  in  1836,  but  while 
qualifying  for  this  profession  he  pursued  with  keen  in- 
terest the  study  of  the  classics,  and  subsequently  devoted 
himself  at  Berlin,  from  1840  to  1842,  exclusively  to  Eastern 
languages.  On  his  return  to  St  Petersburg  in  1843  he 
was  employed  in  teaching  the  classics  in  the  First  Grammar 
School,  and  soon  afterwards  received  a  post  in  the  Imperial 
Academy,  where  in  1852  the  cultivation  of  the  Tibetan 
language  and  literature  was  assigned  to  him  as  his  special 
function.  Simultaneously  he  held  from  1860  to  1873  the 
professorship  of  classical  languages  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
theological  seminary.  From  1854  till  his  death  he  was  an 
extraordinary  member  of  the  Imperial  Academy.  He  died 
after  a  fortnight's  illness  on  the  16th  November  1879. 

Schiefner  made  his  mark  in  literary  research  in  three  directions. 
First,  he  contributed  to  the  Memoirs  and  BiiUctia  of  the  St 
Petersburg  Academy,  and  brought  out  independently,  a  number  of 
valuable  articles  and  larger  publications  ou  the '  lauguags  and 
literature,  of  Tibet.  Repossessed  also  a  remarkable  acquaintance 
with  ilongolian,  and  when  death  overtook  him  had  just  Unishcil 
a  revision  of  the  New  Testament  in  that  language  with  which  tb« 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  had  entrusted  him.  Further, 
he  was  one  of  the  greatest  authorities  on  the  phdology  and  ethnology 
of  the  Finnic  tribes.  He  edited  and  translated  the  great  Finnic  cpii; 
Kalcvala;  he  arranged,  completed,  and  brought,  out  in  twelve 
volumes  the  literary  remains  of  Alexander  Castren,  bearing  on  the 
languages  of  the  Samoj-edic  tribes,  the  Koibal,  Karagass,  Tuugusian, 
Biiiyat,  Ostiak,  and  Kottio  tongues,  and  prepared  several  valuable 
papers  on  Finnic  mythology  for  the  Imperial  Academy.  In  the  third 
place,  he  made  himself  the  exponent  of  recent  investigations  into 
the  languages  of  the  Caucasus,  which,  thanks  to  his  lucid  analyses, 
have  now  been  placed  within  reach  of  European  philologists.  Thus 
he  gave  a  full  analysis  of  the  Tush  language,  and  io  quick  succes- 
sion, from  Baron  P.  Uslar's  investigations,  comprehensive  papers 
ou  the  Awar,  Ude,  Abkhasian,  Tchetchenz,  Kasi-ICumuk,  Hurkanian 
and  Kiirinian  languages.  .He' had  also  completely  mastered  the 
Ossetic,  and  brought  out  a  number  of  translations  from  that 
language,  several  of  them  accompanied  by  the  original  text.  For 
many  of  his  linguisHcal  investigations  he  had,  with  as  much  tact 
as  patience,  availed  himself  of  the  presence  in  St  Petersburg  of 
natives  (soldiers  chiefly)  of  the  districts  on  the  languages  of 
which  he  happened  to  be  engaged.  The  importance,  however, 
of  the  vast  mass  of  linguistical  material  thus  opened  up  by  him, 
and  of  the  results  to  which  his  investigations  led,  has  not  yet 
been  fully  realized,  except  so  far,  perhaps,  as  his  numerous  con- 
tributions to  our  knowledge  of  Eastern  fables  are  concerned,  for 
which  branch  of  literature  he  evinced  throughout  his  works  a  keen 
appreciation. 

With  a  rare  philological  acumen,  which  with  equal  facility  grasped 
the  morphological  and  idiomatic  parts  of  a  language,  Schiefner 
combined  an  indefatigable  industry  and  a  love  of  research  which 
never  flagged.  He  visited  England  three  times  for  purposes  o( 
research, — in  1863, 1867,  and  1878, — when  he  endeared  himself  to  all 
who  were  brought  in  contact  with  him  by  his  modesty  and  single. 
heartedness,  his  animated  and  spirited  conversation,  and  his  uu- 
swerving  devotion  to  his  various  literary  pursuits. 


S  C  H--S  C  H 


395 


fhe  followlnK  Ust  of  hts' -worlts  ^3s  been  drawn  up  ftom  blosrrapUlcal  notices 
wlilcli  appeared  in  the  Attu'ii.i;uni  for  24Eli  Jimuary  IfeSO.  ami  In  the  BuHeUn  of 
the  St  I'eteiabui-K  Academy,  xxvi.  pp.  30-H -.—llrmerkuii^im  :um  Polcy'scm 
Tex*  des  Devimdhalnwa,  1S16 ;  Beitrliye  tur  Kriiik  des  litiartrihari  aus  C&ni'jad- ' 
^ara'i /*at/</Aa(f,  1847; -(with  A.  ■\Vcber),  Varix  Lcctioues  ad  liohlenii  tUitioiicm 
Bharlrihaiis  stnlentiarxivi  perttnmta,  1850;  Ueber  die  todi'clien  unit  r/ra  nmal-' 
i3C»en  Wcrke  dei  Tamljur,  IS  17;  Uebcr  India's  Doimerkeil,  1S4S  ;  Xachtrdg  -  euden 
von  0.  liohttingk  und  J.  Srhnidt  ver/ass'fn  yer:t:u-/tm^sfn  der  atif  Inditn  und 
Tibet  bfzuglichen  Handschriflen  und  JMzdncte  im  asiatischen  Museum  der  k. 
Akadnmie  der  Wissensdiafleii,  1843;  Mine  Itbetisehe  Lehmsbeschreibung  CAkya- 
munfs.  184S:  Ueber  dot  Werk  "Rgya  tcKer  rol  pa"  1848-50;  Tiljetischr  Sti/dlen, 
J»51-«4;  Ueber  eiiie  eigenlhtimliclie  Arfder  tibelUehcn  Composila,  IS56  ;  rcli«r 
fturatbezeiclinungen  im  Tibetisclien,  1377;  Ceber  die  Versrhlechtei-ungs-Perioden 
dv  ilenschheit  nach  budd/iislisrfter  Amc/tauuTVjsiceise,  1851;  BericfU  iiber  die 
neuesle  Buchersendung  aui  r,kin(j,Kil;  Dai  buddUisCisclie  Surra  der  42  Salie 
etna  dem  Tibttisehen  iiherselit,  1851;  ErgiijKungen  und  BerMlignngen  zu  J. 
^JSchmidt's  Ausgabe  des  Dianglun^  1652;  Ueber  das  Werk  '*  Hisloire  de  ta  vie  de 
Jliouen-thsang"  1853;  lieridit  iiber  die  uisscnschaflliche  Thdtigkeit  dfs  Urrrn 
Profusion  Wassi^jeiD,  1854.;  Cber  die  nepafisclien,  assamisehen,  und  cetjlonisehen 
AtHnzen  des  aaiatischen  Museums,  1854 ;  Ei7l  kteiner  licitrag  zur  mong^Iischen 
Fardographie,  \9TjG;  Spraefiliche  Bedenkeji  gegcn  dot  Monqolenthum  der  Skijthen, 
1S.J6  ;  Ikrieht  liter  Prof.  Wassiljew's  Werk  vber  den  Buddnismus,  185G  ;  l'tb<^r  die 
vnler  dem  yatnen  "  Geschichte  des  Ardshi  Bordshi  Chan,"  bekannte  mcngolische 
Marehensammlung,  1857;  Carminis  indict  Vimalapra^nottnra  ratnamdia  cersio 
liietica,  mil  deutscher  Uebcrselzuny,  IS.'JO;  Buddldstische  Triglotle,  1850;  U^'lier 
ein  indisclies  Krdlienorakel,  1950  ;  l/eb.r  die  hohen  ZaMcn  der  Duddliisttn,  1802; 
Jdselike's  Jiemuhungen  urn  eine  Mamtschri/t  des  Oesar,  18C8;  TaraiiatlLV  de 
doetrinx  buddhicx  in  India  pvopagalione  narratio  tibctica,  1608  (German.  IStJO); 
•Ueber  einige  morgenlandische  Fassungen  der  Rhampsinitsage,  I8C9 ;  Zur  buddhist- 
UcAen  Ap'okalyptik.  1874  ;  Ilharatx  responsa,  lib.  el  laline,  1874  ;  ilahakdtjtijand 
vnd  Kijnig  TcJtanda-pradjola,  1875;  Indisehe  Kiinstleranekdolen,  1875;  Iitdische 
Endlitungen,  187S-77  (an  KnRUslt  translation  of  these  by  W.  R.  3.  Ralston  ap- 
peared in  1S82);  Ueber  Vasubandhus  Gdlhdsangraha,  1378  ;  Ueber  eine  libelische 
Bandschrift  des  India  House,  1879  ;  Ueber  das  Donpo-Sitra.  1880 ;  Zar  Sanipo- 
mylht,  1S50;  KleiTie  ISeitrdge  lur  jiimiselien  ifijtholagie,  1352;  Zur  ehslnischen 
Mt/thologie,  1854 ;  Ueber  den  i/i/tfienge'ialt  der/inttisc/icn  Miirciwt,  18.55 ;  Ueber  die 
Beldensagen  der  minussin'ische'n  Taiarai,\^^^;  Heldaisagen, d:c.,rhttthmisch  bear- 
leitet,  I85i) ;  Zum  Myttius  vom  Welluntergange,  1859 ;  Ueber  die  ehstniscUe  Sage 
Torn  Kalewi'poeg,  18C0  ;  Zur  russischen  Heldensage,  1861  ;  Ueber  Kaleica  und  die 
Kaleuingcn,  1862 ;  Kalei-'ila,  deutsch  in  rhythmiseher  Form,  18.52 ;  Ueber  das 
T/iier  "tanas"  im  Jinnischen  Epos,  1848-49;  Die  Lieder  der  Woten,  melrit^ch 
tfftcrira^en,- 1856 ;  Ueber  das  Wort  " santpo"  im  finniselten  Epos,  1861;  Versuch 
einer osljakischen  Spraehlehre,  1849-18.56;  Grammatikund  WUrierverzeichnisse der 
jamojediscften  ^prachen,  18.54-1555;  Grundziige  einer  tungusischen  Spr^chlehre, 
1856;  Versuch  einer  burjdtischen  Sprachlehre,  1857  ;  Tersuch  einer  koibatischen 
und  karagassischcn  Sprachlehre,  1857;  Versuch  einer  jenieci'OStjakisclten  und 
kollisehen  Sprachlehre,  1856;  Das  IS-manatliche  Jahr  und  die  Monatsnamen  der 
Kibii'iiChen  Volker,  1856;  Ueber  die  Sprache  der  JukagirenflHo'D-^l;  Beitrdge  zur 
Kenntniss  der  tunjusischcn  Mundartcn,  1859;  Tungusische  Miscetlen,  1874;  Ccber 
die  von  G.  von  ilaydeU  gesammelten  tungusischen  Spracttprobcn,  1874;  A.  Czeka- 
vcteski' s  lungusisches  Wbrlerverzeichniss,  iS77 ;  Ueber  sibirische  EOjenthuniszeichen, 
185.5-1859;  Kurze  Charakteristikder  Thutzhsprache,  1854;  Versuch  tiberdie  Thusch- 
gpraelie,  1856;  Versuch  iiber  das  Aicarische,  18G2;  Ceber  Baron  Uslar's  neuere 
lin^uislische  Forschungcn,  18C3  ;  Versuch  iiber  die  Sprache  der  Uden,  18G3;  Aus- 
fiihriicher  Bericht  iiber  Baron  Uslar's  abchasische St udien,  1863  ;_Tsc/ictschenzisChe 
Studien,  1864;  Aus/tihrUchev Bericht  iiber  Baron  Uslar's  Kasikumiikische  Studien, 
1366;  Iliirkanische  Studien, 1^71;  Auarische  Studien,  IS~'2;  Kiirinische  Studien, 
1873;  Atearische  Textc,  1873;  Ossetisehe  Spruc/iieijrler,  1862;  Osselische  Tcxte, 
1863 ;  Zteci  osselische  Thiermdrchen,  1864 ;  Osselische  Sagen  und  Mdrchcn,  18G7. 

SCHILLER,  JoHANN  Chkistoph  Feiedeich  (1759- 
1805),  German  dramatist  and  poet,  was  born  at  Marbacb, 
in  Wiirtembcrg:,  on  tbe  lOtb  or  lltb  (probably  10th) 
November  1750.  Hi.s  grandfather  and  great-grandfather 
had  been  bakers  in  Bittenfeld,  a  village  at  the  point  where 
the  Hems  flows  into  the  Neckar ;  and  the  family  wa.s 
probably  descended  from  Jacob  Georg  Schiller,  who  wa|S 
born  in  Grosshoppach,  another  Swabian  vOlage,  in  1587. 
Schiller's  father,  Johann  Ka.?par  Schiller,  who  was  about 
thirty-six  years  of  age  when  his  son  was  born,  was  a  man 
of  remarkable  intelligence  and  energy.  In'  1749,  after  the 
"War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  in  which  lie  had  served  as 
a  surgeon  in  a  Bavarian  regiment  of  hussars,  ho  went  to 
visit  a  married  sister  at  Marbach,  a  little  town  on  the 
Neckar ;  and  here,  a  few  months  after  his  arrival,  he 
married  Elizabeth  Dorothea  Kodweiss,  a  girl  of  seventeen, 
the  daughter  of  the  landlord  of  the  inn  in  which  ho  had  a 
lodging.  She  had  great  sweetness  aiid  dignity  of  character, 
and  exercised  a  strong  influence  over  her  husband,  who, 
although  essentially  kind  and  thoroughly  honourable, 
was  apt  to  give  way  to  a  somewhat  harsh  and  imperious 
temper.  They  had  six  children,  of  whom  the  eldest, 
Christophinc,  was  born  eight  year?  after  their  marriage. 
Next  came  ■  Schiller,  and  after  him  were  born  four 
daughters,  of  whom  only  two,  Louisa  and  Nanette,  survived 
infancy. 

Until  Schiller  was  four  ysars  of  ago  his  mother  lived  with 
her  parents  in  Slarbach,  while  his  father  served  In  the 
Wiirtemberg  army,  in  which  he  gradually  rose  to  the  rank 
of  major.  In  1761  the  elder  Schiller  was  joined  by  his 
family  at  Lorch,  a  village  on  the  eastern  border  of  Wiirtem- 
berg, where  he  served  for  about  three  years  as  a  recruiting 
ofi^cer.     Afterwards  ho  was  transferred  to  Ludwigsburg, 


and  in  1775  he  was  made  overseer  of  the  plantations  and 
nursery  gardens  at  the  Solitude,  a  country  residence  of  the 
duke  of  Wiirtemberg,  near  Stuttgart  The  duties  of  this 
position  were  congenial  to  the  tastes  of  5Iajor  Schiller, 
and  he  became  widely  known  as  a  high  authority  on  the 
subjects  connected  with  his  daily  work. 

At  Lorch  Schiller  had  been  taught  by  the  chief  clergy- 
man of  the  village,  Pastor  Jloser,  whose  name  he  after- 
wards gave  to  one  of  the  characters  in  Die  Rnuher.  When 
the'  family  settled  in  Ludwigsburg  he  was  sent  to  the  Latin 
school,  which  ho  attended  for  six  years.  He  took  a  good 
place  in  the  periodical  examinations,  and  was  much  liked 
by  his  masters  and  fellow-pnpUs,  for  he  was  active,  intelli- 
gent, and  remarkable  for  the  warmth  and  constancy  of  his 
affections.  At  a  very  early  age  he  gave  evidence  of  a 
talent  for  poetry,  and  it  was  carefully  fostered  by  his 
mother,  who  was  herself  of  a.  poetic  temperament  His 
parents  intended  that  he. should  become  a  clergyman,  but 
this  decision  was  abandoned  at  the  request— practically  by 
the  order — of  the  duke  of  Wiirtemberg,  who  insisted  on 
his  being  sent  to  the  military  academy,  an  institution 
which  had  been  established  at  the  Solitude  for  the  training 
of  youths  for,  the  military  and  civil  services.  Schiller 
entered  this  institution  early  in  1773,  when  he  was 
between  thirteen  and  -fourteen  years  of  age,  and  he 
remained  in  it  until  he  was  twenty-one.  For  some  time 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  jurisprudence,  but  the 
subject  did  not  interest  him,  and  in  1775,  when  a  medical 
faculty  was  instituted  at  the  academy,  he  \v:as  allowed  to 
begin  the  study  of  medicine.  In  that  year  the  academy 
was  transferred  from  the  Solitude  to  Stuttgart. 

Schiller  was  often  made  wretched  by  the  harsh  and 
narrow  discipline  maintained  at  the  academy,  but  it  had 
no  permanently  injurious  effect  on  his  character.  With 
several  of  his  fellow-students  he  formed  a  lasting  friend- 
ship, and  in  association  with  them,  notwithstanding  the 
vigilance  of  the  inspectors,  he  was  able  to  read  many- 
forbidden  boolcs,  including  some  of  the  writings  of 
Rousseau,  Klopstock's  Messiah,  the  early  works  of  Goethe, 
translations  of  a  few  of  Shakespeare's  plays,  and  a  Gterman 
translation  of  Macpherson's  rendering  of  the  poems  of 
O.ssian.  Under  these  influences  he  became  an  ardent 
adherent  of  the  school  which  was  then  protesting 
vehemently  against  traditional  restrictions  on  indi- 
vidual freedom ;  and  he  contrived  to  make  opportunities 
for  the  expression,  in  more  or  less  crude  dramas  and 
poems,  of  his  secret  thoughts  and  aspirations.  For  about 
two  years  work  of  this  kind  was  interrupted  by  the  pres- 
sure of  professional  studies ;  but  in  the  last  year  of  his 
residence  at  the  academy  he  resumed  it  with  increased 
fervour.  In  this  j'ear  he  wrote  the  greater  part  of  Die 
Eauher,  the  most  {striking  passages  of  which  he  read  to 
groups  of  admiring  comrades. 

On  the  14th  December  1780  Schiller  was  informed 
that  ho  had  been  appointed  medical  ofllicer  to  a  grenadier 
regiment  in  Stuttgart,  aind  he  almost  immediately  began 
his  new  duties.  He  was  not  a  very  expert  doctor,  and  he 
was  too  passionately  devoted  to  literature  to  take  much 
trouble  to  excel  in  a  profe.ssion  which  ho  disliked.  DU 
E/iuher  was  soon  finished,-  and  in  July  17S1  it  was 
published  at  his  own  expense,  some  persons  of  his 
acquaintance  having  become  security  for  the  necessary 
amount.  This  famous  play  is  ill-constructed,  and  contains 
much  boyish  e.xtravagance,  but  it  is  also  full  of  energy 
and  revolutionary  feriour,  and  it  captivated  the  imagina- 
tion of  many  of  Schiller's  contemporaries.  Early  in  1782 
it  was  represented  at  the  Afnnnhcim  theatre,  and  it  was 
so  warmly  applauded  that  Schiller,  who  had  stolen  away 
from  Stuttgart  to  see  his  play,  began  to  think  it  might  ho 
possible  for  him  to  devote  liia  time  wholly  tc  the  work  of 


396 


SCHILLER 


a  dramatist.  By  and  by  he  was  persuaded  to  go  again  to 
Mannheim  without  leave ;  and  for  this  offence,  of  which 
the  duke  of  Wiirtemberg  was  inforrned,  ho  was  condemned 
to  two  weeks'  arrest.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was  per- 
emptorily forbidden  to  write  books,  or  to  held  communica- 
tion with  persons  who  did  not.  reside  in  Wiirtemberg. 
This  tyrannical  order-filled  him  with  so  much  indignation 
that  he  resolved  at  all  costs  to  secure  freedom,  and  on  the 
17th  September  1782,  accompanied  by  his  friend  Streicher, 
a  young  musician,  he  fled  from  Stuttgart. 

Schiller  had  now  before  him  a  time  of  much  distress 
and  anxiety.  In  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  he  finished 
Fiesco,  a  play  which  he  had  begun  at  Stuttgart ;  but 
Dalberg,  the  director  of  the  Mannheim  theatre,  declined 
to  put  it  on  the  stage,  and  the  unfortunate  poet  knew  not 
how  he  was  to  obtain  the  means  of  living.  At  the  same 
time  it  was  thought  probable  that  a  request  for  his 
extradition  might  be  addressed  to  the  elector  of  the 
Palatinate.  In  this  perplexity  Schiller  wrote  to  Frau  von 
Wolzogea,  a  friend  at  Stuttgart,  asking  to  be  allowed  to 
take  refuge  in  her  house  at  Bauerbach,  a  village  in  the 
Thuringian  Forest,  within  two  hours'  walk  of  Jleiningen. 
This  request  was  granted,  and  at  Bauerbach  Schiller 
remained  for  nearly  seven  months,  working  chiefly  at  the 
play  which  he  ultimately  called  Cabale  i/nd  Liebe  and  at 
Don  Carlos. 

In  July  1783  Schiller  returned  to  l^lannheim,  and  this 
time  he  obtained  from  Dalberg  a  definite  appointment  as 
dramatic  poet  of  the  Mannb^im  theatre.  Fiesco^  which 
was  soon  represented,  was  received  rather  coldly,  but  for 
this  disappoiatraent  Schiller  was  amply  compensated,  by 
the  admiration  excited  by  Cabale  vnd  Liebe.  These  two 
plays  express  essentially  the  same  mood  as  that  which 
prevails  in  Die  Rduba;  but  they  indicate  a  striking 
advance  in  the  mastery  of  dramatic'  methods.  This  is 
especially  true  of  Cabale  und  Liebe,  which  still  ranks  as 
one  of  the  most  effective  acting  plays  in  German  literature. 

In  addition  to  his  dramas  Schiller  wrote  a  good  many 
lyrical  poems,  both  before  and  during  his  residence  at 
Mannheim.  Few  of  these  pieces  rise  to  the  level  of  his 
early  plays.  For  the  most  part  they  are  excessively  crude 
in  sentiment  and  style,  while  in  some  his  ideas  are  so 
vague  as  to  be  barely  intelligible.  Perhaps  the  best  of 
them  are  the  poems  entitled  Die  Frenndschaft  and 
Ro^isseau,  both  of  which  have  the  merit  of  expressing 
thoughts  and  feelings  that  were  within .  the  range  of  the 
writer's  personal  experience. 

Schiller's  engagement  with  Dalberg  was  cancelled  in 
Angnst  1784,  and,  as  he  had  now  a  heavy  burden  of  debt, 
ie  thought  for  some  time  of  resuming  the  practice  of  his 
profession,  but  in  the  end  he  decided  to  try  whether  he 
could  not  improve  his  circumstances  by  issuing  a  periodi- 
fial,  Tlmlia,  to  be  written  wholly  by  himself.  This  plan 
he  accomplished,  the  first  number  being  published  in  the 
spring  of  178.5.  It  contained  the  first  act  of  Don  Carlos 
and  a  paper  on  "The  Theatre  as  a  Moral  Institution," 
which  he  had  read  on  the  occasion  of  his  being  admitted 
a  member,  of  the  German  Society,  a  literary  body  iu  ■ 
Mannheim,  of  which  the  elector  palatine  was  the  patron. 

Meanwhile,  he  had  been  corresponding  with  four 
ftdmirers  who  had  written  from  Leipsic  to  thank  him  for 
the  pleasure  they  had  derived  from  his  writings.  These 
friends  were  C.  G.Koimer,  K  F.  Huber,  and  Minna  and 
Dora  Stock.  Weary  of  incessant  struggle,  Schiller  pro- 
posed to  visit  them  ;  and  Korner,  the  leading  member  of 
the  party,  not  only  encouraged  him  in  this  design,  but 
readily  lent  him  money.  Accordingly,  in  April  1785 
Schiller  left  Mannheim,  and  for  some  months  he  lived  at 
Gohlis,  a  village  in  the  Rosenthal,  near  Leipsic.  In  the 
Mimmer  of  the  same  year  Korner  and  Minna  Stock  were 


married,  and  settled  in  Dresden,  taking  with  them  Dora, 
Minna's  sister.  Schiller  and  Huber  also  went  to  Dresden, 
and  Schiller  remained  there  nearly  two  years.  Almost 
every  day  he  spent  the  afternoon  and  evening  at  Korner's 
house,  and  he  derived  permanent  benefit  from  this  in- 
timate intercourse  with  the  kindest  and  most  thoughtful 
friends  he  had  ever  had.  WTiiie  in  Dresden,  he  published 
in  Thdia  several  prose  writings,  among  others  Philoso- 
p/iische  Brief e,  in  which  he  set  forth  with  enthusiasm  some 
of  his  opinions  about  religion,  and  a  part  of  the  Geister- 
seker,  a  romance,  which,  although  written  in  a  brilliant  style, 
was  so  imperfectly  planned  that  he  was  never  able  to  finish 
it.  He  also  issued  Doiir  Carlos,  which  he  completed  early 
in  1787.  A  considerable  interval  having  passed  between 
the  writing  of  the  earlier  and  that  of  the  later  parts  of  this 
play,  Don  Carlos  represents  two  different  stages  of  intel- 
lectual and  moral  growth.  It  lacks,  therefore,  unity  of 
desigQ  and  sentiment.  But  it  has  high  imaginative  quali- 
ties, and  the  Marquis  Posa,  through  whom  Schiller  gave 
utterance  to  his  ideas  regarding  social  and  political  progress, 
is  one  of  the  most  original  and  fascinating  of  his  creations. 
Posa  is  not  less  revolutionary  than  Karl  Jloor,  the  hero  ot 
Die  Rduber,  but,  while  the  latter  is  a  purely  destructive 
force,  the  former  represents  all  the  best  reconstructive 
energies  of  the  18th  century. 

In  July  1787  Schiller  went  to  Weimar,  where  be  was 
cordially  welcomed  by  Herder  and  Wieland.  For  several 
years  after  this  time  he  devoted  himself  almost  exclusively 
to  the  study  of  history,  and  in  1788  he  published  his 
Geschickte  des  Ab/alls  der  vereinigten  Niederlande  von  der 
Spanisc/ien  Eegienmg.  This  was  followed  by  a  number  of 
minor  historical  essays  (published  in  Thalia),  and  by  his 
GeschicMedes  dreissigjiihrigen,  Krieges,  which  appeared  in 
1792.  These  writings  secured  for  Schiller  a  high  place 
among  the  historians  of  his  own  time.  In  every  instance 
he  derived  his  materials  from  original  authorities,  and 
they  were  presented  with  a  freedom,  boldness,  and  energy 
which  made  them  attractive  to  all  classes  of  readers.  One; 
result  of  the  publication  of  his  history  of  the  revolt  of  the 
Netherlands  was  his  appointment  to  a  professorship  at  the 
university  of  Jena,  where  he  delivered  his  introductory 
lecture  in  May  1789.  He  lived  in  Jena  for  about  ten 
years,  and  during  that  time  frequently  met  Fichte,  Schel- 
ling,  the  two  Schlegels,  "Wilhelm  von  Humboldt,  and 
many  other  writers  eminent  in  science,  philosophy,  and 
literature. 

On  the  22d  of  February  1790  Schiller  married  Char- 
lotte von  Lengefeld,  whom  he  had  met  at  Pvudolstadt  about 
two  years  before.  She  was  of  a  tender  and  affectionate 
nature,  bright  and  intelligent,  and  Schiller  found  in  her 
love  and  sympathy  a  constant  source  of  strength  and 
happiness.  They  had  four  children,  the  eldest  of  whom 
was  born  in  1793. 

About  a  y^ar  after  his  marriage  he  was  attacked  by  a 
dangerous  illness,  and  from  this  time  he  was  always  in 
delicate  health,  suffering  frequently  from  paroxysms  of 
almost  intolerable  pain.  In  the  autumn  of  1793  he  went 
with  his  wife  to  Wiirtemberg  in  the  hope  that  his  natire 
air  might  do  him  good ;  and  he  did  not  return  to  Jena 
until  the  spring  of  the  following  year.  He  was  enabled 
to  obtain  this  period  of  rest  through  the  kindness  of  the 
hereditary  prince  of  Augiistenburg  and  the  minister  Count 
von  Schimmelmann,  who  had  jointly  begged  to  be  allowed 
to  place  3000  thalers  at  his  disposal,  to  be  paid  in  yearly 
instalments  of  1000  thalers.  Schiller  heartily  enjoyed  his 
visit  to  his  native  state,  where  he  had  much  pleasant  inter- 
course with  his  father,  mother,  and  sisters,  and  with  some  of 
bis  early  friends.  He  did  not  again  see  hisfather  andmother, 
the  former  of  whom  died  in  1796,  the  latter  in  1802. 

Tho  Geschickte  des  dreissigjiihrigen  Krieges  was  the  last 


SCHILLER 


397 


important  historical  work  written  by  Schiller.  He 
abandoned  history  in  order  to  study  philosophy,  which, 
under  the  impulse  communicated  by  Kani;,  was  then 
exciting  keen  interest  among  the  educated  classes  of 
Germany.  Schiller's  philosophical  studies  related  chiefly 
to  aesthetics,  on  which  he  wrote  a  series  of  essays,  some  of 
them  being  printed  in  Neue  Thalia  (issued  from  1792  to 
1794),  others  in  the  Horen,  a  periodical  which  he  began 
in  1794  and  continued  until  1798.  The  most  remarkable 
of  these  essays  are  a  paper  on  "  Die  Anmuth  und  Wiirde," 
a  series  of  letters  addressed  to  the  prince  of  Augustenburg 
on  "Die  asthetische  ^rziehung  des  Menschen,"  and  a 
treatise  on  "  Die  Naive  und  Sentimentalische  Dichtung." 
In  philosophical  speculation  Schiller  derived  inspiration 
mainly  from  Kant,  but  he  worked  his  way  to  many 
independent  judgments,  and  his  theories  have  exercised 
considerable  influence  on  those  German  writers  who  have 
dealt  with  the  ultimate  principles  of  art  and  literature. 
Goethe  was  of  opinion  that  in  "Die  Naive  und  Senti- 
mentalische Dichtung  "  Schiller  had  laid  the  foundation  of 
modern  criticism.  In  that  powerful  essay  the  vital  dis- 
tinction between  classical  and  romantic  methods  was  for 
the  first  time  clearly  brought  out. 

Schiller  had  been  introduced  to  Goethe  in  1788,  but 
they  did  not  begin  to  know  one  another  well  until  1794, 
when  Goethe  was  attracted  to  Schiller  by  a  conversation 
they  had  after  a  meeting  of  a  scientific  society  at  Jena. 
Afterwards  their  acquaintance  quickly  ripened  into  inti- 
mate friendship.  To  Schiller  Goethe  owed  what  he  him- 
self called  "a  second  youth,"  and  this  debt  was  amply 
repaid,  for  by  constant  association  with  the  greatest  mind 
of  the  age  Schiller  was  encouraged  to  do  full  justice  to  his 
genius.  Moreover,  his  intellectual  life  was  enriched  by 
new  ideas,  aud  he  was  led  by.  Goethe's  indirect  influence 
to  balance  his  speculative  judgments  and  idealistic  concep- 
tions by  a  keener  and  more  accurate  observation  of  the 
facts  of  ordinary  life. 

Durinrr  the  y fears  which  followed  his  departure  from 
Mannheim  Schiller  had  written  An  die  Freude,  Die  Gutter 
Griechenlande,  Die  Kiinstler,  and  other  lyrical  poems,  all 
of  which  are  of  very  much  higher  quality  than  the  poems 
of  his  earlier  period.  But  he  had  been  so  absorbed  by 
labours  of  a  different  kind  that  ho  had  had  little  time  or 
inclination  for  his  proper  work  as  a  poet.  Now,  stimu- 
lated by  intercourse  with  Goethe,  he  began  to  long  onco 
more  for  the  free  exercise  of  his  creative  faculty ;  and 
from  1794  he  allowed  no  year  to  pass  without  adding  to 
the  list  of  his  lyrical  writings.  Among  the  lyrics  pro- 
duced in  this  the  last  and  greatest  period  of  his  career  the 
foremost  place  belongs  to  the  Lied  von  der  Glocke,  but 
there  is  hardly  less  imaginative  power  in  Das  Ideal  und 
das  Leben,  Die  Ideate,  Der  Jpazicrganf/,  Der  Genius,  Die 
Eru'artung,  Das  Eleusische  Fest,  and  Cassandra.  Few  of 
Schiller's  lyrics  have  the  charm  of  simple  and  spontaneous 
feeling ;  but  as  poems  giving  expression  to  the  results  of 
philosophic  contemplation  the  best  of  them  are  unsur- 
passed in  modern  literature.  Schiller  had  a  passionate 
faith  in  an  eternal  ideal  world  to  which  the  human  mind 
has  access  ;  and  the  contrast  between  ideals  and  what  is 
called  reality  he  presents  in  many  different  forms.  In 
developing  the  poetic  significance  of  this  contrast  his 
thoughts  are  always  high  and  noble,  and  they  are  offered 
in  a  stylo  which  is  almost  uniformly  grand  and  melodious. 

In  1796  Schiller  'and  Goctho  together  wrote  for  the 
Musenalmanach  (an  annual  volume  of  poems,  issued  for 
several  years  by  Schiller)  a  series  of  epigrams .  palled 
Xenien,  each  consisting  of  ■  a  distich.  Most  of  them 
were  directed  against  contemporary  writers  whom  the 
poets  disliked,  and  much  animosity  was  excited  by  their 
sharply   satirical  tone.  .  A   higher   interest  attaches   to 


Votivtafeln,  another  series  of  epigrams,  written  at  the 
same  time  as  the  Xenien.  They  are  among  the  most 
suggestive  of  Schiller's  writings,  for,  as  he  explains  in  the 
introductory  epigram,  they  embody  truths  which  he  had 
found  helpful  in  the  experience  of  life.  Soon  after  finish- 
ing these  fine  poems  Schiller  began,  in  rivalry  with 
Goethe,  to  write  his  ballads,  which  surprised  even  his 
most  ardent  admirers  by  the  boldness  of  their  conceptions 
and  by  the  graphic  force  of  their  diction.  As  a  writer 
of  ballads  Goethe  yielded  the  palm  to  Schiller,  and  this 
judgment  has  been  confirmed  by  the  majority  of  later 
critics. 

Schiller  never  intended  that  Don  Carlos  should  be  his 
last. drama,  and  from  1791  he  worked  occasionally  at  a 
play  dealing  with  the  fate  of  Wallenstcin.  He  was  unable, 
however,  to  satisfy  himself  as  to  the  plan  until  1798, 
when,  after  consulting  with  Goethe,  he  decided  to  divide 
it  into  three  parts,  Wallensieins  Lager,  Die  Ficcolomini, 
and  Wallensteins  Tod.  Wallensteins  Lager  was  acted  for 
the  first  time  at  the  Weimar  theatre  in  October  1798,  and 
Die  Ficcolomini  in  January  1799.  In  April' 1799  all 
three  pieces  were  represented,  a  night  being  given  to  each. 
The  work  as  a  whole  produced  a  profound  impression,  and 
it  is  certainly  Schiller's  masterpiece  in  dramatic  literature. 
He  brings  out  with  extraordinary  vividness  the  ascendency 
of  Wallenstein  over  the  wild  troops  whom  he  has  gathered 
around  him,  and  at  the  same  time  we  are  made  to  see  how 
the  mighty  general's  schemes  must  necessarily  end  in  ruin, 
not  merely  because  a  plot  against  him  is  skilfully  pre- 
pared by  vigilant  enemies,  but  because  he  himself  is  lulled 
into  a  sense  of  security  by  superstitious  belief  in  his 
supposed  destiny  as  revealed  to  him  by  the  stars.  Wallen- 
stein is  the  most  subtle  and  complex  of  Schiller's  dramatic 
conceptions,  and  it  taxes  the  powers  of  the  greatest  actors 
to  present  an  adequate  rendering  of  the  motives  which 
explain  his  strange  and  dark  career.  The  love-story  of 
Mas  Ficcolomini  and  Thekla  is  in  its  own  way  not  less 
impressive  than  the  story  of  Wallenstein  with  which  it  is 
interwoven.  Max  and  Thekla  are  purely  ideal  figures, 
and  Schiller  touches  the  deepest  sources  of  tragic  pity  by 
his  masterly  picture  of  their  hopeless  passion  and  of  their 
spiritual  freedom  and  integrity.- 

Wallenstein  was  received  with  so  much  favour  that 
Schiller  resolved  to  devote  himself  in  future  mainly  to  the 
drama ;  and  in  order  to  bo  near  a  theatre — partly,  too, 
that  ho  might  have  more  fr.equent  opportunities  of  inter- 
course with  Goethe — he  transferred  his  residence,  in 
December  1799,  from  Jena  to  Weimar,  where  he  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life.  He  took  with  him  to  Weimar  three 
acts  of  Maria  Stuart,  and  early  in  the  summer  of  1800 
he  finished  it  at  Ettersburg,  a  country  house  of  the  duke 
of  Weimar.  The  technical  qualities  of  Maria  Sttiart  are 
of  tho  highest  order,  but  the  subject  does  not  seem  to 
have  interested  Schiller  very  deeply,  and  it  cannot  be  said 
either  that  the  characters  are  finely  conceived  or  that  the 
closing'  scenes  of  Queen  Mary's  life  are  presented  in  a 
truly  poetic  spirit.  In  his  next  play,  Die  Jvng/rau  von 
Orleans,  completed  about  a  year  afterwards,  Schiller  had  a 
more  congenial  theme,  and  tho  vigour  with  which  he 
handled  it  commanded  the  warm  admiration  of  Goethe. 
The  scenes  in  which  tho  maid  is  misled  by  her  passion  for 
Lionel  are  slightly  perplexing,  as  they  do  not  appear  to 
accord  with  tho  essential  qualities  of  her  character ;  but  in 
the  earlier  and  kter  parts  of  tho  i)lay  Schiller  displays 
splendid  dramatic  art  in  revealing  the  lofty  courage  and 
enthusiasm  with  which  she  fulfils  her  mission.  In  Die 
Brant  von  Me.%sina,  which  was  acted  for  tho  first  time  at 
tho  Weimar  theatre  in  March  1803,  Schiller  attempted  to 
combine  romantic  ond  classical  elements.  The  experiment 
is  not  perfectly  successful,  and  even  in  its  mcst  Btriking 


398 


S  0  H— S  C  H 


passages  the  play  is  remarkable  rather  for  brilliant  rhetoric 
than  for  pure  poetry.  His  last  original  drama.  Wilkelni 
Tell,  the  first  representation  of  which  took  place  in  March 
1804,  is  in  some  respects  greater  than  any  of  those  which 
preceded  it,  Wallenstein  excepted.  It  has  some  obvious 
faults  of  construction,  but  these  defects  do  not  seriously 
mar  the  impression  produced  by  its  glowing  picture  of  a 
romantic  and  truly  popular  struggle  for  freedom. 

Besides  his  complete  original  plays,  Schiller  left  some 
dramatic  sketches  and  fragments,  the  most  important  of 
which,  Demetrixis,  has  been  finished  in  Schiller's  manner  by 
several  later  writers.  He  also  produced  German  versions 
of  Macbeth,  of  Gozzi's  Txirandot,  of  two  comedies  by  Picard, 
and  of  PhPdre.  His  renderings  of  Picard's  comedies  are 
entitled  Der  Parasit  and  Der  Keffe  ah  Oukel. 

In  his  last  years  Schiller  received  many  tokens  of 
growing  fame.  In  1802  he  was  raised  to  noble  rank,  and 
in  1804  he  was  informed  that  if  he  pleased  he  might  be 
invited  to  settle  in  Berlin  on  advantageous  terms.  He 
went  with  his  family  to  the  Prussian  capital,  but  the  only 
result  of  the  negotiations  into  which  he  entered  was  that 
the  duke  of  Weimar,  alarmed  at  the  prospect  of  losing 
him,  doubled  his  salary  of  400  thalers.  His  health  was  at 
this  time  completely  undermined,  and  from  the  summer 
of  1804  work  was  often  rendered  impossible  by  serious 
illness.  On  the  evening  of  the  29th  April  1805  he 
returned  from  the  Weimar  theatre  in  a  state  of  high  fever, 
and  from  this  attack  he  was  unable  to  rall3'.  He  died  ou 
the  9th  May  1805,  in  his  forty-sLxth  year. 

Schiller  was  tall,  slight,  and  pale,  with  reddish  hair,  and 
eyes  of  an  uncertain  colour,  between  light-brown  and  blue. 
At  the  military  academy  he  acquired  a  manner  somewhat 
formal,  like  that  of  a  soldier  ;  but  in  carrying  on  conversa- 
tion that  interested  him  he  became  eager  and  animated. 
He  had  little  appreciation  of  humour,  and  even  in  the 
treatment  of-  subjects  which  he  made  his  own  he  was  apt 
to  recur  too  frequently  to  the  same  ideas  and  the  same 
types  of  character.  But  when  he  is  at  his  best  he  is 
excelled  among  the  poets  and  dramatists  of  Germany  only 
by  Goethe  in  the  power  with  which  he  expresses  sublime 
thoughts  and  depicts  the  working  of  ideal  passions.  As 
a  man  he  was  not  less  great  than  as  a  writer.  He  started 
in  life  with  high  aims,  and  no  obstacle  was  ever  formidable 
enough  to  turn  Jiim  from  paths  by  which  he  chose  to 
advance  to  his  goal.  Terrible  tis  his  phj'sical  sufferings 
often  were,  he  maintained  to  the  last  a  genial  and  buoyant 
temper,  and  those  who  knew  him  intimately  had  a  con- 
stantly increasing  admiration  for  his  patience,  tenderness, 
and  charity.  With  all  that  was  deepest  and  most  humane 
in  the  thought  of  the  18th  century  he  had  ardent 
sympathy,  and  to  him  were  due  some  of  the  most  potent 
of  the  influences  which,  at  a  time  of  disaster  and  humilia- 
tion, helped  to  kindle  in  the  hearts  of  the  German  people  a 
longing  for  a  free  and  worthy  national  life. 

There  have  been  many  editions  of  Schiller's  collected  works. 
The  first  was  issued  in  twelve  volumes  at  Stuttgart  and  Tiibingen 
in  1812-15,  the  editor  being  his  friend  C.  G.  Korner.  There  are 
also  a  good  many  volumes  of  Schiller's  correspoudeuce,  the  most 
interesting  being  his  correspondence  with  Goetlie.  Of  the  bio- 
,  graphics  of  SchUler,  Carlyle's — published  iu  1825 — was  one  of  the 
earliest.  See  also  SchiUcrs  Lcbcu,  by  Frau  von  Wolzogen,  SchiUT's 
sistcr-in-Iaw ;  SchilUrs  Lchcn,  by  Hoffmeister  (ejrtended  by  Yiehoff) ; 
Sehitlers  Lcbcn,  by  Boas  ;  SchiUcrs  Lchc'ii  7ind  Wa'ke,  by  Palleske  ; 
SuhiUers  Lcbcn,  by  H.  DUntzer ;  and  Schillsi;  by  J.  Sime  (in 
"  Foreign  Classics  for  English  Readers ").  '        (J.  SI. ) 

SCHINKEL,  Kael  Friedkich  (1781-1641),  architect 
and  painter,  and  professor  in  the  academy  of  hue  arts  at 
Berlin  from  1820,  was  born  at  Neuruppin,  in  Braudenbur^- 
on  March  13,  1781,  and  died  at  Berlin,  on  October  9,  1841. 
He  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  original  of  modern  German 
architects.  His  principal  buildings  are  in  Berlin  (q.v.) 
STd  its  neighbourhood.     T.liey  inc'ude  the  .Bauaksdetpio, 


■which  contains  a  museum  of  his  designs,  Ris  Sammlunf} 
archilcl-tomsclier  EiUioiirfe  {\%20-\?>W~  ;  3d  od.  1857-58) 
and  Werke  der  liiilteren  haulcunsl  (184.5-6  :  new  ed.  1874) 
exemplify  his  style. 

SCHIRJIER,  FitiEDEicn  Wilheui  (1802-1866),  land- 
scape artist,  was  bom  in  1802  in  Berlin.  As  a  youth  he 
painted  flowers  in  the  royal  porcelain  factory ;  afterwards 
he  became  a  pupil  of  F.  \X.  Schadow  in  the  Berlin 
Academy,  but  his  art  owed  most  to  Italj-.  His  first 
journey  across  the  Alps  was  taken  in  1827  ;  his  sojourn 
extended  over  three  years ;  he  became  a  disciple  of  his 
countryman  Joseph  Koch,  who  built  historic  laudsca[)e  on 
the  Poussins,  and  is  said  to  have  caught  inspiration  froni 
Turner.  In  1831  Schirmer  established  himself  in  Berlin  in 
a  studio  with  scholars  ;  in  1839  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  landscape  in  the  academy;  in  1845  he  again  visited 
Italy,  but  duties  soon  brought  him  back  to  Berlin.  Illness 
compelled  him  in  1865  to  seek  a  southern  clime ;  he  grew 
corse  in  Eome,  and  died  on  his  way  home  in  1866. 

Schirmcr's  phice  in  the  historj  of  art  is  distinctive  :  his  sketches 
in  Italy  were  more  than  trnnscripts  of  the  spots  ;  he  studied  nature 
witli  the  purpose  of  conijiosing  liistoric  aud  poetic  landscapes.  On 
the  completion  of  the  Ucrlin  iluscum  of  Autinuitics  camo  his 
opportunity  :  upon  the  walls  ho  jaintcd  classic  siti-s  aud  temples, 
aud  elucidated  the  collections  by  tlie  landscape  scenery  with  whieli 
they  were  historically  associated.  1 1  is  supreme  aim  at  all  times  was 
to'malce  his  art  the  poetic  interpretation  of  nature.  His  pictures 
appeal  to  the  iniiid  by  the  ide:is  they  embody,  bj'  beauty  of  form, 
harmony  of  line,  significance  of  lijjlit  aud  colour.  In  this  construc- 
tional landscape  German  critics  discover  "motive,''  *' inner  mean- 
ing," "the  subjcctivo,"  "the  ideal."  And  Sehirnicr  thns  fomieil 
a  school.  Nevertheless  at  times  lie  painted  poor  pictures,  partly 
because  he  deemed  technique  secondary  to  couccptiou. 

SCHIRMER,  JoHANN  WiLUELM  (1807-1863),  land- 
scape painter,  was  bom  in  1807,  at  Jiilich  in  lihenij^h 
Prussia.  This  artist,  only  a  namesake  of  the  preceding,  had 
similar  aim  and  career.  He  first  was  a  student,  and  subse- 
quently became  a  professor  in  the  academy  of  Diisseidorf. 
In  1854  he  was  made  director  of  the  art  school  at  Carlsruhe, 
where  in  1863  he  died.  He  travelled  and  sketched  in 
Italy,  and  aimed  at  historic  landscape  after  the  manner  of 
the  Poussins.  His  Biblical  landscapes  with  figures  are  held 
in  good  esteem. 

SCHIZOilYCETES,  aterm  proposed  by  Nageli  in  1857 
to  include  all  those  minute  organisms  known  as  Bacteria, 
Microphytes,  Microbes,  &c.,  and  allied  forms.  These  terms 
have  been  used  at  various  times  bj-  different  authors  with 
widely  different  meanings  in  detail,  but  it  is  now  agreed  that 
the 'Schizomycetes  are  minute  vegetable  organisms  devoid 
of  chlorophyll  and  multiplying  by  repeated  bipartitions. 
The}'  consist  of  single  cells,  which  may  be  spherical,  oblong, 
or  cj'lindrical  in  shape,  or  of  filamentous  or  other  aggre- 
gates of  such  cells.  True  spores  occur  in  several,  but  no 
trace  whatever  of  sexual  organs  exists.  From  their  mode 
of  growth,  division,  and  spore-formation  (in  part),  as  well 
as  their  habit  of  forming  deliquescent,  swollen  cell-wails, 
and  other  peculiarities,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  close 
alliance  between  the  Schizomycetes  and  certain  lower 
Alga:;  whence  both  groups  have  been  conjoined  under  the 
name  Schkophyta.  No  one  character  except  the  want  of 
chlorophyll — which  of  course  entails  physiological  differ- 
ences— separates  the  Scliizomycetes  from  other  Schizophyta ; 
morphologically  and  phylogenetically  the  two  groups  are 
united.  From  this  point  of  view  we  relegate  all  the  so- 
called  bacteria  which  contain  chlorophyll  {e.;/.,  Engelmann's 
Bacterium  cldorinuni.  Van  Tieghera's  D.  viride  and  Bacillus 
fiTcns,  Cohn's  Micrococcus  chlorinus,  kc.)  to  the  Algx. 

Schizomycetes,  then,  are  saprophytic  or  parasitic  Schizo- 
yhvta  devoid  of  chlorophyll,  though  they  may  secrete  other 
colouring  matters'.  In  size  their  cells  are  ooramonly  about 
0-001  mm.  (called  1  micro-millimetre  =  l^i)  in  diameter,  or 
from  two  to  five  times  that  lencth  -but  smaller. onealaiMf 


SCHIZOMYCETES 


399 


a  few  larger  are  known.  The  various  shapes  assumed  by 
the  cells  are  shown  in  fig.  1 ;  the  tilameutous  and  other 
aggregates  will  be  described  below. 


Iflo.  L— Typical  forms  of  Schizomycetes.  (After  Zopf.)  a,  Micrococcus;  b, 
Uacrococcus  or  •*  Monas " ;  c,  Bacterium  ;  d,  Bacillus ;  e,  Clostridium ;  /, 
Monas  okcnii;  g,  Leptothrix;  h,  i.  Vibrio;  k,  Spirillum;  I,  *^ Kpirucina"  (a 
£onn  of  Beggiatoa  alba);  in,  ^' Rpiromonas'^  (Wai-ming);  n,  Spirocheete;  c>, 
Cladothrix.    The  granules  in  b,  f,  and  I  are  particles  of  sulpliur. 

Schizomycetes  are  ubiquitous  as  saprophytes  in  still 
ponds  and  ditches,  in  running  streams  and  rivers,  and  in 
the  sea,  and  especially  in  drains,  bogs,  refuse  heaps,  and  in 
the  soil,  and  wherever  organic  infusions  are  allowed  to 
stand  for  a  short  time.  Any  liquid  (blocd,  urine,  milk, 
beer,  &o.)  containing  organic  matter,  or  any  solid  food- 
stuff (meat,  preserves,  vegetables,  &c.),  allowed  to  stand 
exposed  to  the  air  soon  swarms  ■with  bacteria,  if  moisture 
is  present  and  the  temperature  not  abnormal.  Though 
they  occur  all  the  world  over  in  the  air  and  on  the  surface 
of  exposed  bodies,  it  is  not  to  ba  supposed  that  they  are  by 
any  means  equally  distributed,  and  it  is  questionable 
whether  the  bacteria  suspended  in  the  air  ever  exist  in 
such  enormous  quantities  as  was  once  believed.  The 
evidence  to  hand  shows  that  on  heights  and  in  open 
country,  especially  in  the  north,  there  may  bo  few  or  even 
no  Sclmomycetes  detected  in  the  air,  and  even  in  towns 
their  distribution  varies  greatly  ;  sometimes  they  appear  to 
eziBt.in  minute  clouds,  as  it  were,  with  interspaces  devoid 
of  any,  but  in  laboratories  and  closed  spaces  where  their 
cultivation  has  been  promoted  the  air  may  be  considerably 
laden  with  them.  Of  course  the  distribution  of  bodies  so 
light  and  small  is  easily  influenced  by  movements,  rain, 
wind,  changes  of  temperature,  &c.  As  parasites,  certain 
Schizomycetes  inhabit  and  prey  upon  the  organs  of  men 
and  animals  in  varying  degrees,  and  the  conditions  for 
their  growth  and  distribution  are  then  very  complex. 
Plants  appear  to  bo  leas  subject  to  their  attacks, — possibly, 
as  has  been  suggested,  because  the  acid  Huids  of  the 
higher  vegetable  organisms  are  less  suited  for  the  develop- 
ment of  Schizomycetes;  nevertheless  some  are  known  to 
{>e  parasitic  on  plants.  Schizomycetes  exist  in  every,  part 
of  the  alimentary  canal  of  animals,  except,  perhaps,  where 
add  sscretions  prevail ;  these  are  by  no  means  necessarily 
Wop'iI     tiioiigli    hy  deitroying   the  teeth   for   instance. 


certain  forms    may  incidentally  be   the  forerunners  of 
damage  which  they  do  not  directly  cause.^ 

Little  was  known  about  these  extremely  minute  organ- 
isms before  1860.  Leeuwenhoek  •  figured  .Bacteria  as  far 
back  as  the  17th  century,  and  0.  P.  Miiller  knew  several 
important  forms  in  1773,  while  Ehrenberg  in  1830  had 
advanced  to  the  commencement  of  a  scientific  separation 
and  grouping  of  them,  and  in  1638  had  proposed  at  least 
sixteen  species,  distributing  them  into  four  genera.  Ov: 
modern  more  accurate  though  still  fragmentary  knowledge 
of  the  forms  of  Schizomycetes,  however,  dates  from  Cohn's 
brilliant  researches,  the  chief  results  of  which  were  puW 
lished  at  various  periods  between  1853  and  1872  ;  Cohn'^ 
classification  of  the  Bacteria,  published  in  1872  and  es^ 
tended  in  1875,  has  in  fact  dominated  the  study  of  thesd 
organisms  almost  ever  since.  Ho  proceeded  in  the  main 
on  the  assumption  that  the  forms  of  Hacteria  as  met  with 
and  described  by  him  are  practically  constant,  at  any  rate 
within  limits  which  are  not  wide  :  observing  that  a  minute 
spherical  Micrococcus  or  a  rod-like  BacilhiS  regularly  pro- 
duced similar  micrococci  and  bacilli  respectively,  he  based 
his  classification  on  what  may  be  considered  the  constancy 
of  forms  which  he  called  species  and  genera.  As  to  the 
constancy  of  form,  however,  Cohn  maintained  certain  reser- 
vations which  have  been  ignored  by  some  of  his  followers. 
The  fact  that  Schizomycetes  produce  .  spores  appears  to 
have  been  discovered  by  Cohn  in  1857,  though  it  was 
expressed  dubiously  in  1872;  these  spores  had  no  doubt 
been  observed  previously.  In  1876,  however,  Cohn  had 
seen  the  spores  germinate,  and  Koch,  Brefeld,  Pratzmowski, 
Van  Tieghem,  De  Bary,  and  others  confirmed  the  discovery 
in  various  species. 

The  supposed  constancy  of  forms  in  Cohn's  species  and 
genera  received  a  violent  shock  when  Lankester  in  1873 
pointed  out  that  his  Bacterium  rubescens  (since  named 
Beggiatoa  roseo-persiciiia,  Zopf)  passes  through  conditions 
which  would  have  been  described  by  most  observers  influ- 
enced by  the  current  doctrine  as  so  many  separate  "  species" 
or  even  "  genera," — that  in  fact  forms  known  as  Bacterium, 
Micrococcus,  Bacillus,  Leptothrix,  &.C.,  occur  as  phases  in 
one  life-history.  Lister  put  forth  similar  ideas  about  the 
same  time;  and  Billroth  came  forward  in  1874  with  the 
startling  view;  that  the  various  "form  species"  and  "form- 
genera"  are  only  different  states  of  one  and  the  same 
organism.  From  that  time  to  the  present  the  discussion 
as  to  the  limits  of  "  species  "  among  the  Schizomycetes  has 
been  maintained  ;  much  extravagance  has  resulted,  as  well 
as  valuable  additions  to  our  knowledge  of  the  forms. 
Klebs  (1875)  and  Niigeli  (1877)  upheld  similar  views  to 
those  suggested  by  Lankester ;  and  the  researches  of  Cien- 
kowski,  Zopf,  Kurth,  and  De  Bary  have  rendered  it  clear 
that  forms  employed  by  Cohn  to  define  genera  and  species 
(it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  Cohn  recognized  their 
provisional  nature)  occur  as  phases  in  one  and  the  same 
lifo-history.  Zopf  showed  (1882)  that  minute  spherical 
" cocci,"  short  rodlets  ("bacteria"),  longer  rodlets  ("ba- 
cilli"), and  fikmentous  ("  Icptothrk ")  forms  as  well  as 
curved  and  spiral  threads  ("  vibrio,"  "  spirillum"),  &c., 
occiir  as  vegetative  stages  in  ono  and  the  same  Schizomy- 
coto  (r/.  fig.  IG).  In  the  meantime,  while  various  observers 
were  building  up  our  knowledge  of  the  morphology  of  the 
Schizomycetes,  others  wcro  laying  the  foundations  of  what 
is  known  of  the  relations  of  these  organisms  to  fermcnta' 

^  See  Do  Bary,  Morphologie  und  Biologic  der  PiUe,  1884,  ant] 
Vorletungen  iibcr  Bacterial,  1885  ;  -Zopf,  Die  SpaltpUt,  Sil  ed., 
1885;  Cohn,  Deilr.  wr  Biol,  der  Pjl.,  lift.  2,  l»7fl;  Magiiin,  tea 
Baclfries,  1878  ;  Eurdon-Snnderson,  Qtutrl.  Jour.  Micros.  Se.,  1871  ; 
Tyndall,  Floating  Matter  of  the  Air,  1881  ;  Millet,  in  Cohn's  Beilr. 
air  Biol.,  iii.  Hft.  i.,  1879  ;  Pnstijur,  Jour,  de  Chim.  et  de  Phys., 
«er.  Iii.,  1862  ;  Miqucl,  Comples  Hendus,  1878,  »nd  Annuairs  de  tob- 
iCTVtttoire  de  Monisnur-it   IR7T  tq. 


400 


SGHIZOJMYCETFS 


tion  and  disease,  — that  ancient  Will-o'-the-wisp  "  spontane- 
ous generation "  being  revived  by  the  way.  When  Pas- 
teur in  1857  showed  that  the  lactic  fermentation  depends 
on  the  presence  of  an  organism,  it  was  already  known  from  . 
the  researches  of  Schwann  (1837)  and  Helmholtz  (1843) 
that  fermentation  and  putrefaction  are  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  presence  of  organisms  derived  from  the 
air,  and  that  the  preservation  of  putrescible  substances  de- 
pends on  this  principle.  In  1862  Pasteur  placed  it  beyond 
reasonable  doubt  that  the  ammoniacal  fermentation  of  urea 
is  due  to  the  action  of  a  minute  Schizomycete ;  in  186'1 
this  was  confirmed  by  Van  Tieghem,  and  in  1874  hy 
Cohn,  who  named  the  organism  Micrococcus  urese.  Pasteur 
and  Cohn  also  pointed  out  that  putrefaction  is  but  a 
special  case  of  fermentation,  and  before  1872  the  doctrines 
of  Pasteur  were  established  with  respect  to  Schizomycetes. 
Meanwhile  two  branches  of  inquiry  had  arisen,  so  to  speak, 
from  the  above.  In  the  first  place,  the  ancient  question 
of  "spontaneous  generation"  received  fresh  impetus  from 
the  difficulty  of  keeping  such  minute  organisms  as  bacteria 
from  reaching  and  developing  in  organic  infusions ;  and, 
secondly,  the  long-suspected  analogies  between  the  pheno- 
mena of  fermentation  and  those  of  certain  diseases  again 
made  themselves  felt,  as  both  became  better  understood. 
Needham  in  1745  had  declared  that  heated  infusions  of 
organic  matter  were  not  deprived  of  living  beings ;  Spal- 
lanzani  (1777)  had  replied  that  more  careful  heating  and 
other  precautions  prevent  the  appearance  of  organisms  in 
the  fluids.  Various  experiments  by  Schwann,  Helmholtz, 
Schultz,  Schroeder,  Dusch,  and  others  led  to  the  refutation, 
step  by  step,  of  the  belief  that  the  more  minute  organ- 
isms, and  particularly  bacteria,  arose  de  novo  in  the  special 
cases  quoted.  Nevertheless,  instances  were  adduced  where 
the  most  careful  heating  of  yolk  of  egg,  milk,  hay- 
infusions,  &c.,  had  failed, — the  boiled  infusions,  &c.,  turn- 
ing putrid  and  swarming  with  Schizomycetes  after  a  few 
hours. 

In  1862  Pasteur  repeated  and  extended  such  experi- 
ments, and  paved  the  way  for  a  complete  explanation  of 
the  anomalies;  Cohn  in  1872  published  confirmatory 
results  ;  and  it  became  clear  that  no  putrefaction  can  take 
place  without  Schizomycetes.  In  the  hands  of  Brefeld, 
Burdon-Sanderson,  De  Bary,  Tyndall,  Roberts,  Lister, 
and  others,  the  various  links  in  the  chain  of  evidence 
grew  stronger  and  stronger,  and  every  case  adduced  as 
one  of  "spontaneous  generation"  fell  to  the  ground  when 
examined.  No  case  of  so-called  "spontaneous  genera- 
tion "  has  withstood  rigid  investigation  ;  but  the  discussion 
contributed  to  more  exact  ideas  as  to  the  ubiquity, 
minuteness,  and  high  powers  of  resistance  to  physical 
agents  of  the  spores  of  Schizomycetes,  and  led  to  more 
exact  ideas  of  antiseptic  treatments.  Methods  were  also 
improved,  and  the  application  of  some  of  them  to  surgery 
at  the  hands  of  Lister,  Koch,  and  others  has  yielded  results 
of  the  highest  importance. 

Long  before  any  clear  ideas  as  to  the  relations  of 
Schizomycetes  to  fermentation  and  disease  were  possible, 
various  thinkers  at  different  times  had  suggested  that" 
resemblances  exist  between  the  phenomena  of  certain 
diseases  and  those  of  fermentation,  and  the  idea  that  a 
virus  or  contagiura  might  be  something  of  the  nature  of  a 
minute  organism  capable  of  spreading  and  reproducing 
itself  had  been  entertained.  Such  vague  notions  began 
to  take  more  definite  shape  as  the  ferment  theory  of 
Cagniard-Latour  (1828),  Schwann  (1837),  and  Pasteur 
made  way,  especially  in  the  hands  of  the  last-named 
savant.  From  about  1870  onwards  the  "germ  theory  of 
disease"  has  passed  into  acceptance.  Rayer  in  1850  and 
Davaine  had  observed  the  bacilli  in  the  blood  of  animals 
dead  of  anthrax  (splenic  fever),  and  Pnllender  discovered 


tbem  anew  in  1855.  In  1863,  imbued  with  ideas  derived 
from  Pasteur's  researches  on  fermentation,  Davaine  re- 
investigated the  matter,  and  put  forth  the  opinion  that 
the  anthrax  bacilli  caused  the  splenic  fever ;  this  was 
proved  to  result  from  inoculation.  Koch  in  1876  pub- 
lished his  observations  on  Davaine's  bacilli,  placed  beyond 
doubt  their  causal  relation  to  splenic  fever,  discovered  the 
spores  and  the  saprophytic  phase  in  the  life-history  of  the 
organism,  and  cleared  up  important  points  in  the  whole 
question  (figs.  10  and  ll).  In  1870  Pasteur  had  proved 
that  a  disease  of  silkworms  was  due  to  a  ferment-organism 
of  the  nature  of  a  Schizomycete  ;  and  in  1871  Oertel  showed 
that  a  Micrococcus  already  known  to  exist  in  diphtheria  is 
intimately  concerned  in  producing  that  disease.  In  1872, 
therefore,  Cohn  was  already  justified  in  grouping  together 
a  number  of  "  pathogenous  "  Schizomycetes.  Thus  arose 
the  foundations  of  the  modern  "germ  theory  of  disease"; 
and,  in  the  midst  of  the  wildest  conjectures  and  the  worst 
of  logic,  a  nucleus  of  facts  was  won,  which  has  since 
grown,  and  is  growing  daily.  Septicemia,  tuberculosis, 
glanders,  fowl-cholera,  relapsing  fever,  and  a  few  other 
diseases  are  now  brought  definitely  within  the  range  of 
biology,  and  several  other  contagious  and  infectious 
diseases  are  known  to  be  also  due  to  Schizomycetes. 

Other  questions  of  the  highest  importance  have  arisen 
from  the  foregoing.  A  few  years  ago  Pasteur  showed 
that  Bacillus  anihracis  cultivated  in  chicken  broth,  with 
plenty  of  oxygen,  and  at  a  temperature  of  42-43°  C.  lost 
its  virulence  after  a  few  "generations,"  and  ceased  to  kill 
even  the  mouse ;  Toussaint  and  Chaveau  confirmed,  and 
others  have  extended  the  observations.  More  remarkable 
still,  animals  inoculated  with  such  "attenuated"  bacilli 
proved  to  be  curiously  resistent  to  the  deadly  effects  of 
subsequent  inoculations  of  the  non-attenuated  form.  In 
other  words,  animals  vaccinated  with  the  cultivated  bacillus 
showed  immunity  from  disease  when  reinoculated  with 
the  deadly  wild  form.  The  questions  as  to  the  causes  and 
nature  of  the  changes  in  the  bacillus  and  in  the  host,  as  to 
the  extent  of  immunity  enjoyed  by  the  latter,  cSrc,  are  now 
burn.ng, — Metschnikoff's  recent  observations  (1884),  show- 
ing that  the  white  corpuscles  eliminate  the  bacilli  from  the 
blood,  being  one  of  the  most  startling  contributions  to 
the  answers. 

Another  burning  question  has  already  been  in  part 
touched  upon.  Experiments  have  shown  that  Schizomy- 
cetes are  pleomorphic ;  they  are  also  very  sensitive,  so  to 
speak,  to  the  influences  of  the  environment.  The  investi- 
gations of  Cohn,  Pasteur,  Koch,  Niigeli,  Kurth,  De  BaryJ 
and  others  leave  no  doubt  that  many  Schizomycetes  are 
sensibly  affected  by  the  media  in  which  they  are  cultivated : 
not  only  are  the  forms  modified,  but  also  the  physiological 
activity  varies  in  degree,  and  even  in  kind.  These  and 
similar  facts  seem  to  be  largely  responsible  for  recent  ideas 
as  to  the  possibility  of  being  able  to  cultivate  or  "  educate" 
certain  Schizomycetes.  One  case  only  need  be  referred 
to.  Bacillus  anihracis  and  B.  siihiilis  are  only  distinguish^ 
able  with  great  difficulty  morphologically  {cf.  figs.  10-12)  • 
the  former  is  parasitic  in  its  vegetative  stages,  the  latter 
is  always  a  saprophyte.  Now  D.  anihracis,  as  said,  can 
become  harmless  by  cultivation,  and  so  it  has  been  thought 
that  the  two  forms  were  convertible.  Buchner  even  went 
so  far  as  to  declare  that  he  had  transformed  B.  anihracis 
into  B.  sublilis,  i.e.,  that  the  differences  which  botanists 
detect  are  only  due  to  the  influence  of  the  environment  at 
the  time.  These  assertions  cannot  be  regarded  as  proved  : 
but  the  question  whether  harmless  forms  can  become  edm 
cated,  as  it  were,  to  a  parasitic  mode  of  life  within  period^ 
which  we  can  control  is  of  course  of  the  highest  importJ 
ance.  Such  are  a  few  of  the  questions  now  under  discusaion; 
together  with  others  as  to  the  mode  of  action  of  patho" 


SCHIZOMYCETES 


401 


genie  Schizomycetes,  as  to  the  nature  of  immunity,  and  as 
to  the  limitation  of  "species"  among  such  simple  forms.' 
ft  MoEPHOLOOY. — Sizes,  Forms,  Structure,  dec. — The  Schizo- 
mycetes  consist  of  single  cells,  or  of  filamentous  or  other 
groups  of  cells,  according  as  the  divisions  are  completed 
at  once  or  not.  While  some  unicellular  forms  are  less  than 
1/t  ('001  mm.)  in  diameter,  others  have  cells  measuring  4/* 
or  5/i  or  even  7/i  or  8/i  in  thickness,  while  the  length  may 
vary  from  that  of  the  diameter  to  many  times  that  measure- 
ment. In  the  filamentous  forms  the  individual  cells  are 
often  diflicult  to  observe  until  reagents  are  applied  {e.g., 
fig.  14),  and  the  length  of  the  rows  of  cylindrical  cells  may 
be  many  hundred  times  greater  than  the  breadth.  Simi- 
larly, the  diameters  of  flat  or  spheroidal  colonies  may  vary 
from  a  few  times  to  many  hundred  times  that  of  the  indivi- 
dual cells,  the  divisions  of  which  have  produced  the  colony. 
nn  ana  The  shape  of  the  individual  cell  (fig.  1)  varies  from  that  of 
actttm.  a  minute  sphere  to  that  of  a  straight,  curved,  or  twisted 
filament  or  cylinder,  which  is  not  necessarily  of  the  same 
diameter  throughout,  and  may  have  flattened,  rounded,  or 
even  pointed  ends.  The  rule  is  that  the  cells  divide  in 
one  direction  only — i.e.,  transverse  to  the  long  axis — and 
therefore  produce  aggregates  of  long  cylindrical  shape ; 
but  in  rarer  cases  iso-diametric  cells  divide  in  two  or 
three  directions,  producing  flat,  or  spheroidal,  t>r  irregular 
colonies,  the  size  of  which  is  practically  unlimited.  As  to 
the  structure  of  the  cell,  littla  more  can  be  said  than  that 
it  consists  of  a  mass  of  homogeneous  or  very  slightly 
granular  protoplasm,  with  a  pearl-like  lustre,  and  without 
vacuoles ;  this  is  enveloped  by  a  membranous  envelope, 
which  is  80  delicate  as  to  be  scarcely  perceptible.  In  the 
actively  vegetating  or  mobile  conditions  this  cell  wall 
appears  very  thin  and  sharp,  and  is  extremely  flexible  and 
elastic,  but  at  other  times  it  is  swollen  and  diflBuent,  fur- 
nishing the  intercellular  gelatinous  matrix  of  the  zoogloea 
condition  (fig.  3).  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  thin  envelope 
closely  applied  to  the  protoplasm  is  not  always  simply  the 
innermost  layer  of  a  very  difl3uent  covering,  which  is  con- 
tinuously thickening  and  throwing  off  its  outermost 
swollen  and  disorganized  lamellae.  The  facts  to  hand 
seem  to  show  that,  while  in  some  cases  .this  envelope 
consists  mainly  of  cellulose,  in  others  (zoogloea  of  Bacteria, 
e.g.)  it  contains  relatively  large  proportions  of  nitrogenous 
compounds.  In  some  cases  the  cell-walls  form  a  lamel- 
lated  sheath.  No  cuticularization  occurs,  nor  are  deposits 
of  lime  or  silex  known  in  the  cell  walls.  Colouring 
pigments,  however  (red,  yellow,  and  even  green  and  blue), 
are  sometimes  met  with,  and  a  rusty  or  brown  tinge  is  in 
some  cases  produced  by  the  precipitation  of  iron  oxides  in 
the  walls.  In  the  typical  Schizomycetes  the  protoplasmic 
contents  (which  are  said  to  consist  largely  of  a  peculiar 
substance  named  mycoprotein)  are  colourless,  or  more 
rarely  tinged  with  colouring  matters — bright  red,  yellow, 
Ac. — which  cannot  be  mistaken  for  chlorophyll.  The  few 
forms  described  as  containing  a  green  pigment,  allied  to 
or  identical  with  chlorophyll,  will  not  bo  considered  here, 
but  relegated  to  the  Algx.  The  occurrence  of  starch  or  a 
granulose-liko  substance  in  some  Bacteria  is  undoubted ; 
it  yields  a  deep  blue  colour  with  iodine  solutions),  is 
diffused  in  bands  or  patches,  and  arises  in  cases  where 

'  In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  compare  Nigeli,  Untersuehungen  UIkt 
niedere  Pilze,  1882  ;  Buchner,  ibid.,  and  in  Virch.  Arch.,  xci.,  1883  ; 
Nageli,  Theorie  der  OUhrung,  1879  ;  Chaveau  in  Comptes  Rendus, 
1879-1884  ;  Davaino,  ^id.,  1863-6#  and  1873  ;  E.  Ray  Lankestor, 
Quart.  Jour,  of  Micros.  Sc.,  1873  and  1876  (also  valuable  papers 
in  Q.  J.  it.  S.  from  1870  to  1884)  ;  Paatcur,  numerous  papers  in 
Comptes  Rendiu — especially  1862  and  1677 — and  in  Ann.  de  Chim. 
et  Phys.,  1868,  1862,  &c. ;  Koch  in  Cohn's  Beitr.,  ii.  Hft.  2,  1876  , 
Karth,  Bot.  Zdlung,  1883;  Schiitzonberger,  Fermentation,  1878; 
UetachnikoS,  Virch.  Arch.,  1884  ;  xVature,  various  papers  from  1871 
to  1878. 

21-15 


the  Schizomycete  is  nourished  by  a  matrix  which  does  not 
contain  starch.  Tn^cul  noticed  this  formation  of  amyloid 
substance  in  Clostridium,  Van  Tieghem  in  a  Spirillum- 
and  several  other  cases  are  known  ;  Ward  detected  starch 
in  a  Bacillus  found  in  decaying  coffee  seeds,  and  in  other 
media  devoid  of  starch.  In  the  filamentous  Schizomycetes 
(Beggiatoa,  e.g.)  are  found  extremely  minute  dark  gran- 
ules ;  Cramer  and  Cohn  have  shown  that  these  consist  of 
sulphur  in  fine  crystals  (fig.  14).  Oily  or  fatty  substances 
and  minute  granules  of  undetermined  nature  occur  in  the 
protoplasm,  but  no  nucleus  has  as  yet  been  discovered  in 
any  Schizomycete. 

Vegetative  Slates. — While  many  forms  are  fixed  to  a 
substratum,  others  are  free ;  and  in  certain  conditions 
single  cells  or  groups  may  be  motile.  In  some  cases  the 
movements  are  mere  oscillations,  in  others  there  are  rapid 
movements  of  translation,  sometimes  ascribed  to  the  action 
of  flagella  or  cilia ;  these  movements  are  of  course  not  to 
be  confounded  with  the  dancing  "  Brownian  motion " 
observed  in  the  case  of  all  such  minute  bodies  suspended 
in  fluids.  Cilia  have  now  been  described  in  some  of  the 
smallest  Bacteria  oy  several  good  observers  (Dallinger  and 
Drysdale,^  Cohn,  Koch,  Zopf),  though,  on  account  of  their 
extreme  fineness,  and  the  difficulty  of  fixing  them,  much 
discussion  has 
taken  place  as 
to  their  nature, 
functions,  origin, 
numbers,  and 
even  existence ; 
that  they  occur 
is  proved  by  the 
photographs,  but 
whether  they  are 
not  sometimes 
mere  filaments 
drawn  out  from 
the  cell-walla  is 
very  doubtful 
(figs.  2  and  12). 
While  some  Schi- 
zomycetes appear 
to  have  no  active 
stage,  and  many 
are  only  motile 
under  certain 
conditions    when 

swarming,  others  Fio.  '2.— Types  of  motDe  and  ciliated  forms  of  Schlio- 
mycetes.  (After  Zopf.)  1,  Microeoecu*  with  one 
clllum ;  2,  the  same  dividing ;  3,  group  of  Bwarminff 
macrocQCCi  of  Beggiatoa  roseo-persieina  (Bacterium 
t-vbescens  of  Lankestt-r) ;  4,  bacterlum-like  motile 
form  of  the  Bamo  ;  7,  8,  9,  and  10,  otlier  forms  of  the 
same  (8  Is  dividing) ;  6,  l)aclllus-llko  motJio  fonn 
(Koch) ;  (I,  motile  chain  of  hay  bacilli  (Brcfdd)— each 
terminal  rodlct  has  ono  clllum;  11,  tpU-illum  form 
with  one  clllum  at  each  end ;  12,  stouter  Bplrlllnm- 
Uko  form  with  two  cllla  at  each  end;  13,  "ophtdo- 
monas"  form  (Warming).  The  granules  !□  3,  4,  7,  8, 
0,  12,  and  Id  are  particles  of  Butphur. 


are  described  as 
possessing  two  or 
even  three  dis- 
tinctactiveforms. 
When  vigorously 
growing  and  di- 
viding, the  Schi- 
zomycetes as  a 
rule  present  certain  definite  forms,  which  aro  at  any  rate 
so  constant  under  constant  conditions  that  they  can  be 
figured  and  described  with  such  accuracy  md  certainty 
that  good  observers  have  regarded  them  as  fixed  species, 
or  at  least  as  "form-species"  or  "form-genera."  We  now 
know,  however,  that  many  Schizomycetes  pass  through 
several  such  phases,  and  we  may  therefore  regard  thera  in 
those  cases  as  "  vegetative  forms,"  which  pass  into  one 
another  too  gradually  to  admit  of  their  being  employed  oa 
sharply  distinctive  of  genera. 

As   the  chief   of  these   forms   may   be  mentioned  thn 
following  (see  fig.  1) : — 

•  Dallinger  and  Drysdale,  Monthly  Micros.  Jour.,  1875 


402 


SCHIZOMYCETE 


tiwri :  spherical  or  spheroidal  cells,  which,  according  to  their 
relative  (not  very  weD  defined)  sizes  are  spoken  of  as  Miero- 
cocd,  Macrococci,  and  perhaps  Manas  forms. 

Sods  ovrodlcls:  slightly  or  more  considerably  elongated  cells 
which  are  cylindrical,  biscuit-shaped,  or  somewhat  fusiform. 
The  cylindrical  forms  are  short,  i.e.,  only  three  or  four 
times  as  long  as  broad  {Bacterium),  or  longer  {Bacillus) ;  the 
biscuit-shaped  ones  are  Bacteria  in  the  early  stages  of  divi- 
sion.     Clostridia,  &c.,  are  spindle-shaped. 

Filaments  (Leptolhrix  forms\  really  consist  of  elongated  cylindri- 
cal cells  which  remain  united  end  to  end  after  division,  and 
they  may  break  up  later  into  elements  such  as  those 
described  above.  Such  lilaments  are  not  always  of  the 
same  diameter  tjiroughout,  and  their  segmentation  varies 
considerably.  They  may  be  free,  or  attached  at  one  (the 
basal  )  end.  A  distinction  is  made  between  simple  fila- 
ments {fg.,  Leptr,i.hrir>\  and  snch  as  exhibit  a  false  branch- 
ing (e.  jr.,  CladothHx). 

Curved  and  spiral  forms  A  ny  of  the  elongated  forms  described 
above  may  be  curved,  or  sinuons,  or  twisted  into  a  rorkscrew- 
like  spiral  instead  of  straight  If  the  sinuosity  is  slight  we 
have  the  Fiirioform;  if  pronounced,  and  the  spiral  wind- 
ing well  marked,  the  forms  are  k-nown  as  Spi-^Uum, 
Spirochmte,  ha.  These  and  similar  terms  have  been  applied 
partly  to  individual  cells,  but  more  often  to  filaments  con- 
sisting of  several  cells ;  and  much  confusion  has  arisen  from 
the  difficulty  of  defining  the  terms  themselves.  Various 
observers  have,  moreover,  described  particular  cases  where 
the  cells  or  cell-filaments  exhibit  irregularities  of  form  ; 
such  "  involution  forms,"  "torula  forms,"  &c.,  appear  to  be 
fairly  constant  in  some  cases. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  however,  certain  Schizomycetes  present 

"—"tes  in  the  form  of  plates,  or  solid  or  hollow  and  irregnlar 


Grwmih  and  Division. — Whatever  the  shape  and  size 
of  the  individual  cell,  cell-filament,  or  cell-colony,  tlio 
immediate  visible  re- 
sults of  active  nutrition 
are  elongation  of  the 
cell  and  its  division 
into  two  equal  halves, 
across  the  long  axis, 
by  the  formation  of  a 
septum,  which  either 
splits  at  once  or  re- 
mains   intact     for    a 


^imcteI?^'1f.?L°'*'r-  (A^"Zf'-)  A,  mixed  ioogIa»  fomd  83  a 
KonSn,  .„.??f  of  yegetoWe  infijions,  Ac;  It  consists  of  various  forms, 
and  contams  coca  (a)  and  rodlets,  in  series  (6 and  c),  *c.  ( x  540).  B, esg-shaped 
LaXsterV  ,h^i  ,  °/  "'^^"^o"  ro^eo-perUcima  (.Bacterium  rui^eicer,/ o( 
^tnlZh  eelatmous  swollen  walls  of  the  large  crowde.l  cocci  are  fused 
rx  «m  S"°i  «S'^""™'  '"'■elope.  C,  reticulate  zoo^lcea  of  the  same 
K  Bim  r  V  '  J  folonies  of  Mycmostoc  enveloped  in  diffluent  matrii 
5  iSi™,  '  ,°™"';'"^?  fmtjcose  zoogloea  of  Cladothrix  (shehtly  magnifica). 
to'tablfu!        ^*^«""n>  mtrismopedioides,  Zopf,  containing  cocci  ar.-anged 

Dc'^urrinl  rl°°''''-   P'^  "^y  ^  '^"^  to  the  successive  divisions 

'  w!,^^       T°  S  ■  t^""^"  P''"'^^  i"='<=^<i  «f  o°'y  across  th(  long  axis 

»oriXinL'-«  '^'sPi'«=«ments  of  the  cells  after  division  (as  in  the 
"ogioea  conditions,  &c.,  see  fig.  3). 


Fte.  4.— A,  branch  of  a  zoogloea  of  Cladothrix  dichotoma  (rf  flg.  3,  F)  x  MO 
(After  Zopf.)  It  contains  short  and  longer  tacillar  forms  {a  and  V)  leptothrix 
forms  (c).  some  of  which  are  curved  like  Vibrio  (d)  and  Spirillvm.  B  tha 
same,  but  the  rodlets  breaking  up  Into  coccL    (After  Zopf.)  ' 

shorter  or  longpr  time.     This  process  is  then  repeated, 

and  so  on.     In  the  first  case  the  separated  cells  assume 

the  characters  of  the 
■parent-cell      whose 

division    gave   rise 

to    them ;    in    the 

second  case  they 
form  filaments,  or, 
if  the  further  elon- 
gation and  divisions 
of  the  cells  proceed 
in  different  direc- 
tions, plates  or  sphe- 
roidal or  other- 
shaped  colonies.  It 
not  unfrequently 
happens,  however, 
that  groups  of  cells 
break  away  from 
their  former  con- 
nexion as  longer  or 
shorter  straight  or 
curved  filaments,  or 
as  solid  masses.  In 
some      filamentous^    ,    „^_     ,  c       ,      .■     .   o  v, 

c  i,  •      ,<<■         Fio.  6.— TVpes  of  Spore-formation  in  Schizomycetes} 

torms     this     'frag-  (Aiter  Zopf.)     a,  T.irious  stages  in  the  develop- 

moTitfati'nn  "         I'nfo  jaeiA  of  the  endogenous  spores  in  a  Oostridium 

iUBUWUDll             luto  (fla„7;^)_the  small  letteis  indicate  the  order.    B, 

multicellular  pieces  endogenous  spores  of  the  hay  bacillus.    C,  a  chain 

£              11     (  ^1  of  cocci  of  Leuconostoc  meienterioides,  vith  two 

or   eCjUal   lengtU   or  *•  resting  spores,"  i.e..  arthrosporcs.     (After  Van 

nearly  so   is   a   nor-  Tieghem.)    D,  a  motlle  rodlet  with  one  'ciiium  and 

,    "^    ,  with  a  spore  formed  inside.    E,  spore-formation  in 

mal      phenomenon,  riJrio-like  (c)  and  SpirHltm-like  (a,  b,  d)  SchlM- 

eaoh      nartiol      ^^^a  mycctcs.    F,  long  rod-like  form  containmg  a  spore 

edcn      partia,!     ma-  ^^^3^  ^^  ,^g  so-called  '•KopMenbacterten-  of 

ment  repeating  the  German  auHiors).  CFftn'o  form  with  spore.  (After 

^^^.1           A'  Prazraowski.)     H,  (Clostridium — one  cell  contains 

growtn,        aiVlSlOn,  two  spores  (Prazmowskl).    I,  Spirillum  containing 

and    fragmentation  ™*°7  spores  (a),  which  are  liberated  at  6  by  the 

1.   c        f  .c  n        If  breaking  up  of  the  parent  cells.    K,  germination  of 

as  oeiore  {CJ.  ngS.  15  the  spore  of  the  hay  bacillus  (B.  suMiVis),— the  azls 

and    \CA        Finnllv  ^f  growth  of  the  germinal  rodlet  is  at  right  anglea 

Y          J- luttuj,  to  the  long  axis  of  the  spore.    L,  germioation  oi 

such  filaments.  IDav  tvlTeot  eicstridiumbutvricum — the  ails  of  growtll 

break  up  into  their   "^"iJ":'*" '''""Se  long  aiis  of  the  spore. 
individual  cells,  forming  "  bacilli,"  "bacteria,"  or  "cocci"  as 
the  case  may  be.    By  these  means  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
cells  may  be  produced  in  a  few  hours,i  and,  according  to  the 

Brefeld  has  observed  that  a  bacterium  jnay  divide  once  every  hali 
hour,  and  its  progeny  repeat  the  process  in  the  same  time.  One 
bacterium  might  thus  prodtice  in  twenty-four  hours  a  number  oi 
segments  amounting  to  many  millions  of  millions. 


K 

0  0^ 

a      6 

0s  e 

«O00^ 
O 
0 

eg)  o 
e      6 

o          ° 

i 

SCHIZOMYCETES 


403 


q)ecies  and  the  conditions  (the  medium,  teniperature,  &c.), 
enormous  collections  of  isolated  cells  may  cloud  ihe  fluid  in 
which  they  are  cultivated,  or  form  deposits  below  or  films 
on    its    surface ;    ,       a  ,B  0 

valuable    charac-   \     *    .        .,  ' ,  *  ';*     ^' 
tersare  sometimes  °     •  ^   .       .  " 
obtained        from  •  i  '•  *,        •  •, 
these  appearances.  •    .  '•  ,        ^ 
When  these  dense         •  °  ^?*' 

"  swarms  "  of  ve- 
getative cells  be- 
come fixed  in  a  p,o.  e.— characteristic  groups  of  J/inocucci.  (After 
maf-riT  nf  tlipir  Cohn.)  A,  iHcrococcus  prodigioius.  B,  U.  vaccintp. 
luairLX.  ui  uueu  ^  i„„gia!a  stage  of  a  Miciococcus,  forming  a  closo 
own  swollen  con-  membrane  on  infasion— Pasteor's  Mycodenna.  (Very 
tigUOUS  cell-walls,      WgWy  magnified.) 

they  pass  over  into  a  sort  of  resting  state  as  a  so-called 
zoogloea  (fig.  3). 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  in  the  life- 
liistory  of  the  Schizomycetes  is  the  formation  of  this 
zoogloea  stage,  which  corresponds  to  the  "  palmelia  "  con- 
dition of  the  lower 
Alffm.  This  occurs 
as  a  membrane  on 
the  surface  of  the 
medium,  or  as  irre- 
gular clumps  or 
branched  masses 
(sometimes  several 
inches  across)  sub-  '$^ 
merged  in  it,  and  '^ 
consists  of  more  or 
less  gelatinous  ma- 
trix enclosing  in- 
numerable "  cocci," 
"  bacteria,"  or  other 

elements  of  the  fio.  i.—akocokus  uiivoihu. 
Bchizomycete 
cerned.  Formerly 
regarded  as  a  distinct  genus — the  natural  fate  of  all  the 
various  forms — the  zoogloea  is  now  known  to  be  a  sort 
of  resting  condition  of  the  Schizomycetes,  the  various 
elements  being  glued  together,  as  it  were,  by  their 
enormously  swollen  and  diffluent  cell-walls  becoming  con- 


.*■;■'■"'■*•.■.■,-'■.■..■.•. 


(After    Cohn.) 
-,Qj,_     forms  irregular  colonies  of   zoogloja   containing 
Innumerable  micrococci.    {ytC5.) 


Tio.  S.—BaeleHum  tcp/ll.  (After  Karth.)  A,  coU»  of  tho  lUamcntoM  (leplo- 
Ihrix)  stage  still  aclivcljr  (trowing.  B,  tijo  samo  colls  obscivcJ  a  few  hours 
latflr ;  the  fllamcnts  have  become  cut  up  Into  segments  by  septa,  the  segments 
Hparating  as  rodlets  {liaclCTia).  C,  tUo  same  colls  a  few  houis  later  still  •  the 
rodleta  broken  up  Into  yet  shorter  sctfmcnts  or  fo«i.    (x  740.)  * 

tiguous.  The  zoogtea  is  formed  by  active  division  of 
single  or  of  several  mother-cells,  and  the  progeny  appear 
to  go  on  secreting  the  cell-wall  aubetance,   which  then 


absorbs  many  times  its  volume  of  water,  and  remains  as  a 
consistent  matrix,  in  which  the  cells  come  to  rest.  The 
matrix — i.e.,  the  swollen  cell-walls — in  some  cases  consists 
mainly  of  cellulose,  in  ^     i     i 

others  chiefly  of  "  my-  !r^  ^%  \ 
coprotein,"  the  substance  ^ 
said  to  be  met  with  in  ct 
the  protoplasm  ;  the  mar  ^ 
trix  in  some  cases  is  ^ 
horny  and  resistent,  in  '■^M 
others  more  like  a  thick 
solution  of  gum.  It  is 
intelligible  from  the 
mode  of  formation  that 
foreign  bodies  may  be- 
come entangled  in  the 
gelatinous  matrix,  and 
compound  zoogloere  may 
arise  by  the  apposition  ^'o.  »■— -S^' 
of  several  distinct  forms, 
a  common  event  in  ma- 
cerating troughs  (fig.  3, 
A).  Characteristic  forms 
may  be  assumed  by  the 
young  zooglcea  of  differ- 
ent species, — spherical, 
ovoid,  reticular,  filament- 
ous, fruticose,  lamellar, 
&c., — but  these  vary  considerably  as  the  mass  increases  or 
comes  in  contact  with  others.  Older  zoogloeaa  may  precipi- 
tate oxide  of  iron  in  the  matrix,  if  that  metal  exists  in  snuall 
quantities  in  the  medium.  Under  favourable  conditions 
the  elements  in  the  zooglcea  again  become  active,  and  move 
out  of  the  matrix,  distribute  themselves  in  the  surrounding 
medium,  to  grow  and  multiply  as  before  (fig.  4).  If  the 
zoogloea  is  formed  on  a  solid  substratum  it  may  become  firm 
and  horny;  immersion  in  water  softens  it  as  described  above. 


Bacillus  megaterium.  (After  Da 
chain  of  motile  rodlets  sttU 
growing  and  dividing  {bacitli)\  b,  ft  pair  of 
bacilli  actively  growing  and  dividijig:  j>, 
a  rodlet  in  this  condition  (but  divided  into 
four  segments)  after  treatment  with  alco- 
holic iodine  solution ;  c,  d,  e,  /,  auccessire 
stages  in  the  development  of  the  spores  ;  r. 
a  rodlet  segmented  In  four,  each  segment 
containing  one  ripe  spore  ;  ^l,  q',  <?*,  early 
stages  in   the    germination    of    tlio  sporet 

i after  being  dried  several  days);  Aj,  A3,  i, 
',  1,  and  m,  successive  stages  In  the  germina- 
tion of  the  spore,  (a  x  250  \  all  the  rest 
X  600.) 


/\^ 


Fio.  \d.—BaciUui  anlhracU.  (After  Koch.)  A,  Bacilli  mingled  with  btood.' 
corpuscles  from  tho  blood  of  a  Guinea  pig  ;  aomo  of  llio  bacilli  dividing.  B, 
the  rodlets  after  tlirco  hours'  culture  In  a  drop  of  aqueous  humour.  They 
grow  out  into  long  lcplot/irix.]tko  liiameots,  whlcb  become  septate  later,  and 
spores  are  developed  in  the  segments,    (x  6S0.) 

Spores. — Spores  or  resting-cells  are  now  known  in  many 
Schizomycetes  (fig.  5).  They  may  be  formed  in  two  ways. 
In  Lenconostoc,  JJaclerium  zopfii,  Crenothrix,  Be<jgiatoa, 
and  Cladothrix  tho  spore  is  simjily  one  of  the  smallest 
segments  ("cocci")  into  which  tho  filament  at  lengtK 
breaks  up.  Do  .Bary  terms  such  forms  "  arthrosporous  " 
(cf.  figs.  8,  13,  14,  and  16).  In  others  tho  formation  of 
the  spore  ia  "  cndosporous "  (Do  Bary).  It  begins  with 
the  ap{>caranco  of  a  minute  granule  in  tho  protoplasm 
of  a  vegetative   cell ;  this  granule  enlarges,  and  in  *  few 


f404 


SGHIZOMYCETES 


ffl    S' 


lours  has  takeu  to  itself  all  the  protoplasm,  secreted  a 
dense  envelope,  and  is  a  ripe  ovoid  spore,  Smaller  than  the 
mother-cell,  and  lying  loosely  in  it  (c/.  figs.  9,  11,  and  12). 
In  the  case  of  the  simplest  and  most  minute  Schizomycetes 
{Micrococcus,  &c.)  no  definite  spores 
have  been  discovered  ;  any  one  of  the 
vegetative  micrococci  may  commence 
a  new  series  of  cells  by  growth  and 
division.  We  may  call  these  forms 
"  asporous,"  at  any  rate  provisionally. 

The  spore  may  be  formed  in  short 
or  long  segments,  the  cell-wall  of  which 
may  undergo  change  of  form  to  accom- 
modate itself  to  the  contents.  As  a 
rule  only  one  spore  is  formed  in  a  cell, 
and  the  process  usually  takes  place  in 
a  bacillar  segment.  In  some  cases  the 
spore-forming  protoplasm  gives  a  blue 
reaction  with  iodine  solutions.  The 
spores  may  be  developed  in  cells  which 
are  actively  swarming,  the  movements 
not  being  interfered  with  by  the 
process  (fig.  5,  D).  The  so-called 
"Kopfchenbacterien"  of  older  writers 
are  simply  bacterioid  segments  with 
a  spore  at  one  end,  the  mother  cell-wall 
having  adapted  itself  to  the  outline  of 
the  spore  (fig.  5,  F).  The  ripe  spores  fig.  ii.— a 
of  Schizomycetes  are  spherical,  ovoid, 
or  long-ovoid  in  shape,  and  extremely 
minute  {e.g.,  those  of  Bacilhis  suhtilis 
measure  0'0012  mm.  long  by  O'OOOG 
mm.  broad  according  to  Zopf),  highly 
refractive  and  colourless  (or  very  dark, 
probably  owing  to  the  high  index  of 
refraction  and  minute  size).  The  mem- 
brane may  be  relatively  thick,  and  even 
exhibit  shells  or  strata. 

The  germination  of  the  spores  has 
now  been  observed  in  several  forms 
with  care.  The  spores  are  capable  of 
germination  at  once,  or  they  may  be  kept  for  months  and 
even  years,  and  are  very  resistent  against  desiccation,  heat 
and  cold,  &c.  In  a  suitable  medium  and  at  a  proper  tem- 
perature the  germination  is  completed  in  a  few  hours.  The 
spore  swells  and  elongates,  and  the  contents  grow  forth  to  a 
Bell  like  that  which  produced  it,  in  some  cases  slearly  break- 
ing through  the  membrane,  the  remains  of  which  may  be 


u.  ii. — A,  Bacillus  art' 
IhracU,  (After  DeBary.) 
Two  of  the  long  filaments 
(B,  flR.  10),  In  which 
spores  ore  t)emg  de- 
veloped. The  specimen 
was  cultivated  in  hroth, 
and  the  spores  are  drawn 
a  little  too  small — they 
should  be  of  the  same 
diameter  transversely  as 
the  segmenls.  (x  600.) 
B,  Bacillus  sui>tilis. 
(After  Do  Bary.)  1, 
fragments  of  filaments 
with  ripe  spores^  2-5, 
successive  stages  in  the 
germination  of  the  spores, 
the  remains  of  the  spore 
attaclied  to  the  genainal 
rodlets.    (x  6000 


Pleomorphism. — As  already  stated,  some  Schizomycetes 
have  been  shown  to  present  as  vegetative  forms,  or  phases 
in  one  and  the  same  life-history,  "  cocci,"  "  bacteria," 
"  leptothrix-filaments,"  and  even  spiral  and  curved  forms 
known  as  "  spirillum,"  "  vibrio,"  &c.  On  the  other  hand, 
several  Schizomycetes  which  have  been  long  and  diligently 
investigated  by  the  best  observers  show  no  such  pleo- 
morphism. As  examples  of  the  latter  we  may  select 
Bacillus  megaterium  (fig.  9)  and  numerous  Micrococci 
which  produce  similar  cells  generation  after  generation. 
A  remarkable  example  of  a  pleomorphic  form  is  Clado- 
thrix  dichotoma  (fig.  16).  According  to  Zopf  this  species 
passes  successively  through  the  stages  known  as  "  coccus," 
"  bacterioid,"  "  bacillar,"  and  "  leptothrix,"  by  mere 
elongation  and  division  by  transverse  septa ;  the  observer 
named  declares  that  these 
simple  filaments  have  formerly 
received  generic  and  specific 
names   {LepUthrix   varasitica 

a 


Fio.  12.— Bacillus  tullilis.    (After  Strashurger).    A,  zooglffia  pellicio  (x  300). 
B,  motile  rodlets  ( X  1000).    C,  development  of  spores  (x  800). 

seen  attached  to  the  young  germinal  rodlet(figs.  5, 9,and  1 1); 
in  other  cases  the  surrounding  membrane  of  the  spore  swells 
and  dissolves.  The  germinal  cell  then  grows  forth  into  the 
forms  typical  for  the  particular  Schizomycete  concerned. i 


Fig.  13. 


rig.  14. 

a  to  e,  cocci  or  sporeb, — c,  rf,  and  e,  dividing ; 


'  CotiD,  Beitrage  zur  Biologic,  passim  ;  Zopf,  Die  Spaltspilze,  3d 
cd.,  1885;  De  Bary,  Morph.  und  Biol,  der  Pihe,  kc,  1884,  and 


Fig.  13. — CrenothTix  kUhniana. 
/to  n,  filamentous  stage.  The  filaments  vary  in  shape,  diameter,  &C.,  and  are 
fixed  below ;  at  <  to  n  is  seen  the  common  investing  sheath ;  m  and  i,  tba 
segments  separating  and  escaping ;  in  «  the  segments  divide  up  still  fmtber 
before  escaping  as  minute  cocct  or  spores — all  stages  of  division  are  seen. 
(x600.) 

Fig.  14. — Beggiatoa  alba.  (After  Zopf.)  1,  a  group  of  attached  filaments  (  x  640); 
2,  a  filament  breaking  up  ;  3,  4,  6,  portions  of  filaments  treated  with  methyl- 
violet  so  as  to  show  the  septa,  which  are  usually  obscured  by  the  sulphur 
granules  in  the  filaments ;  in  6  some  of  the  segments  are  tmdergoing  longi- 
tudinal as  well  as  transverse  diviaions  prior  to  forming  cocci  (spores);  6,  coed 
becoming  isolated  (x  900). 

and  L.  ochracea,  Kiitz.).  Certain  of  the  threads  then 
partially  break  up,  and  the  portions  become  slightly  dis- 
placed from  the  linear  series ;  these  portions  go  on  growing 
in  a  direction,  at  an  angle  with  the  previous  one,  but  atiU 
in  contact,  and  thus  produce  the  "false-branching"  to 
which  Cladothrix  owes  its  name.  Finally  the  filaments 
break  up  into  segments  corresponding  with  the  septa 
which  have  been  formed  across  them.  This  fragmentation 
is  peculiar  in  that  the  filaments  separate  first  into  shorter 
filaments,  then  into  rodlets,  and  finally  into  "cocci." 
Portions  of  the  filaments  or  branches  may  become  separated 
and  travel  with  a  gliding  movement,  or  even  become 
more  active  and  swarm  by  means  of  cilia.  Such  portions 
may  break  up  into  shorter  filaments  or  rods  which  also 

Vorlesungen,  iiber  Bacterien,  1885.  The  enormous  and  scattered 
literature  on  the  morphology  of  Schizomycetes  is  tbllected  to  a  great 
extent  in  the  works  cited. 


SCHIZOMYC£T£» 


405 


ewarm.  But,  in  addition  to  tliese  straight  and  more  or 
less  rigid  forms  (which,  it  will  be  noticed,  simulate  Ehren- 
berg  and  Cohn's  "genera  "  Micrococcus,  Bacterium,  Bacillus, 
and  Leptothrix  so  closely 
that  any  of  them  observed 
alone  would  undoubtedly 
have  been  formerly  placed 
apart  in  one  of  those  "  gene- 
ra "),  it  is  interesting  to  find 
that  some  of  the  filaments 
become  spirally  twisted  and 
simulate  Spirillum,  Spiro- 
c/ixte,  and  Vibrio,  the  dis- 
tinctions depending  on  the 
relative  length  and  thick- 
ness of  the  filament,  and  the 
closeness  or  steepness  of 
the  coils.  Jloreover  these 
twisted  filaments  also  break 
up  into  shorter  gliding  or 
ciliated  portions,  which  at 
length  fall  into  rodlets  and 
"cocci"  as  before. 

A  branched  zoogloea  form 
also   occurs,  and   this  con- j._^  j,  _^^^^  .^,„^  „,j„    (A,ter  zopf.) 

tains     cocci,    bacterium-like     Cm-ved  ana  spiral  forms.    C,  D,  separ- 
1       ■,,  1  £1  .        ated  spiraliy-wound  pieces,  which  ftro 

or  bacillar  rods,  or  filaments  ireakinB  up  stni  funher  m  ii.  e, 
resembline  Leptothrix  or  motile  tpirWum  form  with  a  ciiium  at 
„.,    .  !•        i       ■  each  end.    ( x  .540.) 

Vtorio  according  to  circum- 
stances. ■  In  Lankester's  Bacterium,  ruhescens  we  have  an- 
other species  which  is  variable  in  a  high  degree.  Many 
other  Schizomycetes  have  now  been  shown  to  be  more 
or  less  pleomorphic, 
and  the  researches  of 
Lankester,  Nageli, 
Zopf,  Miller,  Kurth, 
De  Bary,  and  others 
have  laid  the  foun- 
dation for  a  know- 
ledge of  the  .cir- 
cumstances which 
induce  the  changes 
in  form  referred  to  ; 
it  is  at  least  certain 
that  alterations  in 
the  nutritive  me- 
dium, in  the  quan- 
tity of  o-xygcn  at 
the  disposal  of  the 
organism,  and  in 
the  temperature, 
&c.,  play  their  part 
in  the  matter. 

It  by  no  means 
follows,  however, 
that  because  somo 
species  are  pleomor- 
phic all  must  bo  so, 
and  still  less  that  no 
species  of  Schizo- 
mycetes— or  only 
one — e.Kist  at  all ; 
those  who  deny  the 
existence  of  species 
among  the  Schizo- 
mycetes on  the  evi- 
dence to  hand  must, 
to  be  logically  consistent,  deny  the  existence  of  species 
altogether.  But  even  if  that  be  allowed,  somo  name  of 
simila':  iiUentlon  must  be  employed  to  denote  any  group 


Fio.  10. — Cladothrix  dichotoma.  A,  branched  plant, 
tiic  branches  in  part  spiral  and  of  tho  form  known 
as  Vibrio  (a)  or  Spirillum  {b)  (sllKlitly  maffnirtedj. 

B,  a  long  colled  branch  moru  hiifiily  ^muittilflud. 

C.  portion  of  branch  resembling  Spirillum  nt  ono 
end  and  Vibrio  at  tho  othel*.  D,  colled  bitinclics. — 
a,  not  Bcgmentcd  ;  b,  e,  segmented  Into  rodlets  and 
cocci.  E.  Spirocfiivti-Wkn  portions  bieaiiing  up  Into 
rodlets  and  cocci. 


of  organisms  which  within  our  experience  exhibit  periodic 
cal  repetitions  of  a  process  of  development,  i.e.,  all  th9 
individuals  of  successive  generations  go  through  tho  same 
phases  periodically.  It  matters  not  that  variations — ill- 
defined  deviations  from  an  average  or  "  type  " — occur  oa 
the  part  of  individuals  or  generations ;  the  periodically 
repeated  life-history  or  development  marks  what  w$  term 
a  species. 

The  difficulties  presented  by  sucli  minute  and  simple 
organisms  as  the  Schizomycetes  are  duo  partly  to  the  few 
"characters"  which  they  possess,  and  partly  to  the 
dingers  of  error  in  manipulating  them  ;  it  is  anything  but 
an  easy  matter  either  to  trace  the  whole  development  of  a 
single  form  or  to  recognize  with  certainty  any  one  stage 
in  the  development  unless  the  others  are  known.  This 
being  the  case,  and  having  regard  to  the  minuteness  and 
ubiquity  of  these  organisms,  we  should  be  very  careful  in 
accepting  evidence  as  to  the  continuity  or  otherwise  of  any 
two  forms  which  falls  short  of  direct  and  uninterrupted 
observation.  The  outcome  of  all  these  considerations  is 
that,  while  recognizing  that  the  "genera"  and  "species" 
as  defined  by  Cohn  must  be  recast,  we  are  not  warranted 
in  uniting  any  forms  the  continuity  of  which  has  not  been 
directly  observed ;  or,  at  any  rate,  the  strictest  rules  should 
be  followed  in  accepting  the  evidence  adduced  to  render  the 
union  of  any  forms  probable.^ 

Classification. — The  limits  of  this  article  prevent  our  ex- 
amining in  detail  the  system  of  classification  proposed  by  Cohn, 
or  the  modilications  of  it  followed  by  other  authorities.  Zopf,  r- 
in  the  third  edition  of  his  work  (1885),  proposes  a  scheme  based  on 
the  modern  views  as  to  the  pleomorphism :  we  must  refer  to  th«  ' 
original  for  the  details,  simply  remarking  that,  apart  from  tho  ex- 
treme views  accepted  l)y  the  author,  his  system  is  impracticable  to 
a  degree  and  recognized  by  him  as  provisional  only.  Indeed  any 
such  classification  must  be  provisional,  for  we  are  at  the  threshola 
only  of  a  knowledge  of  the  Schizomycetes. 

The  best  starting-point  for  a  modem  classification  of  these 
organisms  is  that  suggested  by  De  Bary — the  two  modes  of  forma- 
tion of  the  spores, — and  as  a  provisional  scheme,  and  simply  to 
facilitate  comparison  of  the  groups,  we  might,  perhaps  employ 
De  Bary's  two  groups,  and  a  third  one  to  include  those  simplo 
forms  which  show  no  trace  of  spore-formation.  JIany  gaps  exist,! 
and  many  changes  will  probably  have  to  bo  made.  Meanwhile  it 
might  be  advisable  to  classify  the  Schizomycetes  provisionally  aai 
follows : — 

Group  A.   AsporesB. 

There  are  no  spores  distinct  from  the  vegetative  cells. 

I.  CoccACEa;  (figs.  6  and  7). 

Genera:  1,  Micrococcu.i  {and.  Streptococctis) ;  2,  Sarcina  {a.ni. 
Zopf's  Mcrismo2icdia} ;  3,  Ascococcus. 

Group  B.   Arthrosporeffi  (Do  Bary). 
Tho  vegetative  cells  differ  in  shape,   size,   growth,   or  other 
characters  from  the  spores :  tho  latter  are  produced  by  segmenta- 
tion. 

II.  ARTUr.OBACTEBIACE.E. 

Genera:    4,    Bacterium    (fig.     8);    5,     Lcuconosloc ;    6, 
Spirochs-te  (?). 

III.  LEPTOTRlCnE.E. 

Genera:  7,   Crcnothrix  {5^.  18);  8,  Seggiatoa  (figs.  14  ant]/ 
15);  9,  Fhragmidothrix  {1.) ;  10.  LeptoOiTix. 

IV.  Cladotkiche*. 

Genus:  11,  Cladothrix  (6g.  10). 

Group  C.   Endosporeaa  (Do  Bary). 
Genera:   12  (figs.  9-12),  Sacilliin  (and   Clostridium);  13, 
Vibrio  (i);  14,  Spirillum  (at  least  m  i>art).' 

'  Ray  Lankester,  Quart.  Jour.  Slier.  Sc.,  1873  and  187t! ;  NiJgeU 
and  Buchner,  Niedere  Fitu,  1882;  Billroth,  Untersuchungen  iiber  dim 
Vcgelalionefarmm  der  Coccobacleria  teptica,  Berlin,  1874  ;  Klchs, 
mimorous  papers  in  Arckiv  /.  exp.  Pathol,  und  Pharmacol.  ;  Kurth,' 
Dot.  ZeiHmg,\iiZ;  Proimowaki,  jBi'o/.  CentrulblaU,\'i'H;  Zopf,  ifur 
Mori)h.  dcr  Spaltpjlnmm,  Leipsic,  1832;  Cicnkowaki,  Zur  ilorpho- 
logie  d.  Biictcricn,  1876. 

'  For  tho  (Iclinitions  of  the  genera  (and  apeciea)  tho  ivador  is  r«- 
feiTcd  to  tho  special  works,  capocially  those  rf  Zopf  aod  t)e  Bary; 
also  Winter-Rnbenhor«t,  Kryptngamcn  Flora— Pilxt,  1.,  1881  ;  Mill 
Grove,  Sj/nopsit  oj  the  Buctcria  and  reatt-i'ungi,  1884, 


406 


SCHIZOMYGETES 


Petbioloot — A3  in,  the  case  of  other  plants,  we  are  here 
concerned  with  the  functions  of  the  Schizomycetes  and  their 
relations  to  the  environment;  for  convenience,  the  subject  may  be 
treated  under  various  headings.  Limitation  of  snace  prevents  our 
doing  more  than  touch  lightly  upon  such  matters  as  the  action  of 
the  Schizomycetes  as  ferments,  and  their  relations  to' disease, 
though  both  subjects  belong  strictly  to  the  ohysiology  of  their 
nutnuon  and  actions  on  the  environment. 

mdrilion. —Having  no  chlorophyll,  the  Schizomycetes  of  course 
depend  on  other  organisms  for  their  carbonaceous  food;  and  are 
either  saprophytes— i.e.,  live  on  the  remains  of  dead  organism? - 
or  parasites— i.e.,  obtain  their 'food  direct  from  living  organisms, 
t-asteur,  Nageh,  and  others  have  shown  that  these  organisms  can 
derive  their  carbon  from  very  numerous  and  mdely  different 
organic  substances,  e.g.,  sugars  of  all  kinds,  mannite,  glycerine, 
tartaric  and  other  vegetable  acids, -ftc,  and  even  from  ethyl- 
alcohol,  benzoic,  salicylic,  and  carbolic  acids  to  some  extent. 
Carbonic,,  formic,  and  oxalic  acids,  cyanogen,  urea,  and  oxamide 
are,  however,  useless  for  this  purpose.  The  nitrogen  and  carbon 
together  may  be  obtained  from  leuciu,  asparagin,  methylamine, 
&c.,  or  the  nitrogen  alone  from  these  or  urea,  and  compounds  of 
ammonia  with  vegetable  acids  or  phosphorus.  The  best  nutritive 
substances  are  proteids  (peptones)  and  sugars  (glucoses) ;  others 
must  be  passed  over  here.  The  nature  of  the  particular  Schizo- 
mycete  has  to  be  studied  as  well  as  the  solution,  and  external 
agents  affect  the  matter  also.  Certain  minerals  are  of  course 
necessary,— sulphur,  phosphorus,  potassium  (or  rubidium  or 
tajsium),  and  calcium  (or  magnesium,  barium,  or  strontium)  being 
indispensable.  As  one  of  many  suitable  nutritive  sojutions  we 
may  select  the  following  : — 

Di-potassinm  phosphate 0'20  granun. 

Magnesium  sulphate ; 0'04 

Calcium  chloride....- 0'02 

Peptone 1 .00       " 

Water .V.'.'J..'.'.'.'.".'ibo-00       " 


Jor  other  solutions,  particulars  as  to  changes  of  coticentration,  &c 
and  the  peculiarities  of  different  Schizomycetes  ia  this  connexion, 
special  works  must  be  consulted. 

The  chief  sources  of  error  in  cultures  of  these  very  minute  forms 
are  the  introduction  of  spores,  he,  from  without  into  the  vessels 
and  on  the  instruments,  &c.,  and  the   difficulty  of  continuously 
observing  a  developing  individual  with  the  necessary  high  powers. 
iiumerous  errors  have  arisen  from  inferences  being  employed  to  fill 
up  gaps  in  life-histories   which  have  only  been  partly  observed 
The  first  object  of  the  cultivator,  then,  is  to  guarantee  the  purity 
of  his  materials,  instruments,  &c.,  and  then  to  keep  one  form  (or 
even  a  single  specimen)  under  observation  for  a  sufficiently  long 
period  and  under  suitable  conditions.      The  practical  difficulties 
are  enormous,  of  course,  and  are  very  rarely  entirely  overcome  for 
periods  at  all  long.     Here  again  we  must  refer  to  the  special  works 
lor  details  as  to  the  beautiful  and  refined  methods  now  devised  or 
employed  by  De  Bary,  Cohn,  Koch,  Brefeld,  Lister,  Nageli,  sad 
others,  calling  special  attention  to  the  gelatine  method  devised  by 
,  V  ittadmi  and  Brefeld  and  so  successfully  used  and  improved  by 
.Kocli.    .  Thoroughly  conducted  cultivations  should  decide  iu  what 
medium  the  Schiaomycete  flourishes  best,  and  how  it  behaves  in 
others,— what  vegetative  forma  it  presents   normaUy,   and  how 
changes  m  the  environment  affect  these.     They  should  also  decide 
the  characters  of  the  aggregates  or  colonies ;  at  what  temperatures 
germination,  growth,  division,  spore-formation,  &c.,  take  place  or 
cease,  and  so  on  ;   the. necessity  or  otherwise  of  free  oxygen  :  the 
■etiects  of  the  organism  on  its  substratum  or  medium— whether  it 
cause  fermentation,  or  putrefaction,  or  excrete  soluble  ferments 
and  so  on._    Moreover,  the  products  of  those  actions  should  be 
•xamined  in   detail.     Where   the    particular    Schizomycete   is  a 
parasite  (wholly  or  partially)  the  methods  of  culture  are  even  mol-e 
refined.     Here  the  fluids  or  tissues  of  the  host  must  be  regarded  as 
a  soil  m  which  (by  means  of  « inf«ction, "  "inoculation,"  &c.)  the 
observer  sows- the   spores  or    vegetative    cells  of  the    parasitic 
oiganism.     It  is  impossible  to  go  more  into  details  in  the  limits  of 
this  article,  however,  and  we  must  dismiss  the  subject  with  the 
remark  that,  having  re.gard  to  the  complexity  of  themed'ium  (e.g., 
blood)  and  the  organization  of  the  host,  the  difficulties  of  manipula- 
tion become  greater  than  ever. 

Tetnpemture.— Aa  with  other  plants,  so  with  the  Schizomycetes," 
their  various  functions,  e.g.,  germination,  growth,  division,  forma- 
bon  of  spores,  &c.,  can  only  be  carried  on  at  certain  temperatures  : 
the  best  average  temperature  is  about  35°  C. ,  but  the  optimum  may 
diirer  for  each  species  and  for  each  function.  The  same  is  generally 
teue  for  the  minimum  and  maximum  temperatures,  which  have  to 
bo  determined  separately  also.  Remarkable  phenomena  are  con- 
Eected  with  the  death-points  of  certain  Bacilli,  &c.  The  spores 
of  some  of  these  forms  have  been  frozen  for  days  or  weeks  without 
^"•"S'  n"^  ^°™®  ^^^  ^'^^^  *°  ^^'"^  resisted  temperatures  as  low  as 
100  L.,  or  even  lower:  it  appears  to  be  all  but  impossible  to  kill 
•ach  spores  by  cold.     High  tcm^-Aratures  are  more  fatal;  but  the 


spores  of  Bacilli  have  germinated  after  the  fluid  containing  theni 
was  boiled  for  an  hour,  and  even  a  temperature  of  110°  5.  and 
higher  has  befn  withstood.  The  vegetative  states  are  less  re- 
sistent ;  nevertheless  the  bacilli  of  anthrax  were  not  killed  b» 
heating  the  fluid  to  75-80°  for  an  hour  or  more.''  Speaking 
generally,  ripe  spores  are  most  resistent  and  germinating  ones 
least  so ;  dry  cells  or  spores  resist  extreme  temperatuies"°bettcr 
than  normally  saturated  ones.  Of  course  time  is  an  important 
factor;  and  other  conditions  also  afi'ect  the  matter,  e.g.,  sli-rhtly 
acid  media  are  more  fatal  than  neutral  or  feebly  alkaline  ones 
denser  less  so  than  thin  ones  (caiteris  paribus),  and  so  on.  ' 

To  illustrate  the  importance  of  these  facts  we  may  note  Tyn- 
dall's  method  of  "discontinuous  heating":  by  boiling  the  solu- 
tions containing  the  spores  for  5-10  minutes  daily  all  the  life  was 
destroyed  m  two  or  three  days,  though  an  exposure  of  an  hour  or 
more  to  a  temperature  of  100°  C.  did  not  kill  the  spores  if  not 
repeated.  The  explanation  is  that  the  spores  which  resist  the 
.firstor  second  short  boiling  have  time  to  begin  germinating  in 
the  interval,  and  they  then  succumb  at  once  when  the  liquid  ia 
again  boiled.' 

Light,  Eleclricity,  Gravitation,  &c.— The  relations  between  these 
and  the.functions  of  Schizomycetes  have  been  partlv  investigated, 
but  the  results- must  be  passed  over  here.  A  few"  of  the  higher 
genera  show  polarity— or  at  any  rate  difference  between  ha3e°and 
apex.  2  , 

Wectso/Cheiyiical  Agents.— Oxygen.—Pustear  showed  that,  while  Cher 
some  Schizomycetes  require  free  oxygen-  like  other  plants,  there  istr* 
are  some  which  need  none,  or  at  most  very  little— theextreme  case 
is  perhaps  still  doubtful ;  but  "  anaerobiotic  "  forms  like  £(T(n7Zj« 
■butyricus  stand  in  sharp  contrast  to  such  exquisitely  "aerobiotic" 
ones  SLS  Bacterium  accti.  Bacillus  subtilis,  &c.  A  few  are  known  to" 
flourish  best— or  at  any  rate  they  are  more  active— when  supplied 
with  oxygen  in  proportion  less  than  that  in  the  atmosphere. 
Engelmann  showed  that,  while  some  species  congregated  close  to  a 
bubble  of  au-,  others  collected  at  a  certain  distance  from  it,  and 
came  nearer  wlien  the  bubble  contained  less  oxygen.  The  same  ia 
true  for  the  same,  species  when  brought  near  an  Alga  which  is 
evolving  oxygen— the  aerobiotic  forms  collect  where  the  oxycen  is 
being  evolved  (in  the  yellow-red,  &c.,  of  the  spectrum).  ^Some 
Schizomycetes  are  powerful  deoxidizing  and  reducing  agents :  it 
has  already  been  stated  that  Bcggiatoa  deposits  pure  sulphur  in  its 
filaments.  Bacterium  accti  and  others,  on  the  contrary,  transfer' 
oxygen  in  large  quantities  to  the  medium  in  which  they  live,  an4 
the  carbon  in  that;  may  he  entirely  consumed.  Fermentation  once 
started  may  go  on  -n-ithout  free  oxygen  or  not  (according  to  'the 
particular  Schizomycete,  &c.),  but  it  is  necessary  at  the  commence- 
ment. Oxygen  is  of  course  necessarv  for  the  respii-ation  of  the 
growing  Schizoniycete.^ 

Water  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  life  and  growtn  ot  the 
Schizomycetes,  but  the  spores  (and  to  a  less  extent  the  vegetative 
cells)  of  some  can  resist  desiccation  for  long  periods  ;  ochrts  {e.g.; 
Bacterium  sopfii)  soon  die.  Those  of  Bacillus  subtilis  have  been 
kept  air-dry  for  years  ;  and  those  of  B.  anthracis  were  not  killed 
after  several  weeks  in  absolute  alcohol.  A  year  iu  .vater  failed 
to  kill  the  spores  of  B.  subtilis.  -Zooglo33  and  vegetative  cells 
of  some  resist  drying  for  some  time— how  long  is  uncertain. 
In  the  dry  state  spores  and  cells  are  disseminated  by  currents 
ofair:  how  far  spores  may  be  buried  and  still  retain  life  (carried! 
down  by  rain,  &c.)  is  uncertain.  The  importance  of  these  facts.' 
however,  is  obvious.*  "  ' 

Acids,  Poisons,  &c.— The  readernjust  be  referred  to  the  literature 
for  details  as  to  the  quantities  of  acids  and  other  products  of '  their 
own  decomposition  which  can  be  endured  by  given  Schizomycetes 
(see  especially  the  literature  on  fermentation  and  cultivation,  and 
J>li50  respecting  the  action  of  poisons,  antiseptics,  &c.).' 

Attraciion  toioards  Proteid  Food-Suhstances.—\io,c:iiin3.  have  loni 
been  known  to  swarm  around  pieces  of  organic  food-materials  bui 
although  Ehrenberg  and  Cohn  noticed  the  fact  it  was  not  investi- 
gated in  detail  untU  quite  recently.  Pfefler  finds  that  Bacteria 
and  Spirilla  are  attracted  in  a  definite  manner  towards  minute 
tubes  containing  exti-act  of  meat  or  solution  of  asparagin,  just  as 
he  finds  antherozoids  and  zoospores  of  various  kinds  attracted  by 
definite  substances  into  tubes  designed  to  imitate  archeconia.  For 
Pfeffer's  proofs  that  the  substances  mentioned  exert°a  specific 

^1  See  Cohn,  Beilr.  zur  Biot.  d.  ff.  I.  Hit  1  isy  il  Hft  2  187e"- 
Eida>r,,fl«7r.n;r^.W.,  I  Hft.  3  1875;  Biefeld,  Vnter>.  'iiber  SMmmelpiUf', 
In  ,  Tyndall,  F/oalmy  Matter  of  UU,  Air,  1881;  lioberts,  Phil.  Tram.,  ISli- 
Pastflur,  Ann.  de  Chimte,  1862.  '  • 

2  See  EnRelmami  UTilers.  am  d.  PliyiM.  Lab.  zu  UlrecU,  1882 ;  Cohn  and 
Mendelssohn  m  Beitr.  zur  Miot.  d.  Pf.,  111.  Hit.  1,  1879  ;  'pfeffeA  Pfianzm- 
P%sio;o5if,  ii.  p.  156,  1S81.  '    '"='"='■   -T/'anJ"""- 

»  See  Paateui-,  Compla  ttadM,  1861-02;  Naecli,  ThcorU  der  OlikHm .  1879- 
^fl^^'^'^^^f.ev,  Fermentalioti,  1876;  Engelmann,  /Jo<.  ZeUann,  1681  and 
1832;  Ptefler,/>;?anjrap*!/jio(o<7ie,  1881.  y.    '  <" 

•  See  Pasteur,  Comples  Rendus,  1883;  Kuith,  "Bacterium  zopfli,"  In  Dat 
Zeitung,  1883 ;  Brefeld,  Schimmelpilie,  iv. ;  see  also  the  literature  oa  -'-Ttrfti' 
tlon  and  occurrence  of  Schizomycetes. 

'  See  Woodheadand  Hare,  PaUtoloticat  Itiialogy,  1.,  1S85.  Further  litei-atum 
l8  there  quoted. 


SCHIZOMYCETES 


407 


attraction  on  the  organism  the  reader  is  rcrerrcd  to  his  treatise, 
"  Locomotorischo  Richtungsbewegungen  durch  chcmische  Kcizc,  • 
in  Untcrs.  aus  dcm  bot.  List,  rit  Tubingen,  i.  lift.  3,  1884 
Ferm-in-       Fervumtatioii  and  Futrrfaction.—The  growth  and  development 
Uiiua.      of  a  Schizomycete  in  any  organic  medium  results  in  a  breaking 
down  of  the  complex  food-materials  into  simpler  bodies,  wluc  i 
may  then  become  oxidized  and  still  further  decomposed.      Such 
processes   are  known  as  fermentation  m  the  wider  sense.     Ihe 
particular  kind  of  fermentation  depends  on  the  medium  and  on 
the  species  of  Schizomycete,  and  may  be  affected  by  other  circum- 
stances ■  as  the  process  goes  on  volatile  substances  may  escano  and 
others  remain  behind.    Where  proteid  substances  are  being  decom- 
posed  by  Schizomycetes    and  evil-smelling  gases  escape,  the  fer- 
mentation is  spoken  of  as  putrefaction ;  in  certain  cases   where 
intense  o^tidation  follows  and  still  further  consumes  the  products  of 
decomposition,  the  process  has  been  tcru'cd  eremocai.sis.     In  a  few 
instances  a  process  of  reduction  sets  in,  as  when  sulphur  salts  are 
decomposed  by  Bcqyiatoa.      The  theory  of  Feumf.ntatiox  (qv.) 
cannot  be  treated  in  detail  here,  but  it  is  important  to  note  that 
side  bv  side  with  the  actions  referred  to  another  kind  of  action 
may  go  on      Many  Schizomycetes  excrete  what  are  called     soluble 
ferments,"  which  are  capable  of  changing  proteuls  into  peptones, 
sugar  into  glucose,  and  so  on.     These  processes  of  inversion,  .tc, 
result  simply  in  an  alteration  of  the  proteid,  &c.,  from  the  non- 
diffusible   and  non-assimilable   con.lition    to    the    diffusible    and 
assimilable  one,  and  are  in  no  way  destructive  as  are  the  fermenta- 
tions described  above.     Nevertheless  it  is  the  custom  to  sjieak  of 
both  as  cases  of  fermentation  ;  the  one  series  of  changes  renders 
the  medium  less  and  less  capable  of  supporHng  life  at  every  stage, 
the  other  series  docs  not  do  so,  yet  the  same  name  is  frequently 
(riven  to  both  kinds  of  action.     It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  same 
Schizomycete  may  produce  a  different  fermentation  in  each  of  two 
different  media.     The  various  fermentations  are  distinguished  and 
valued  according  to  the  products  which  result ;  these  bye-products 
are  usually  injurious  to  the  fement  organism  as  they  accumulate, 
and  often  complicate  the  investigation. 

Of  important  fermentations  due  to  Schizomycetes  may  be  men- 
tioned those  concerned  in  the  making  of  vinegar  and  cheese,  in  the 
preparation  of  flax,  hemp,  &c.,  in  the  souring  and  diseases  of  beer, 
wines  &c.,  the  destruction  of  sugars,  preserved  food,  &c.  Others 
are  of  importance  in  the  soil,  and  in  the  destruction  of  organic 
matter  in  ponds,  rivers,  drains,  &c.  In  fact,  much  of  the  rauon 
d'itrc  of  sanitary  science  may  be  referred  here  ;  and  it  may  turn 
out  to  be  still  more  true  than  we  now  know  that  Schizomycetes  are 
important  in  agriculture.  .  ^  ,       ^i. 

In  pathology  the  changes  due  to  these  organisms  are  at  lengtn 
being  duly  recognized.  Apart  from  the  comparatively  harmless 
actions  of  those  forms  normally  existing  in  the  aluneutary  canal— 
Zepiothrix  aids-  in  the  decay  of  teeth,  &c.-it  is  now  certain  that 
some  invasions  are  dangerous.  The  injurious  effects  of  some 
Schizomycetes  when  introduced  into  open  wounds,  &c.,  against 
-which  the  brilliant  labours  of  Lister  have  been  so  successlully 
directed,  are  acknowledged  everywhere  ;  but  it  is  important  to 
recognize  tliat  on  tho  whole  the  diseases  due  to  organisms  m  the 
blood  depend  fundamentally  upon  changes  of  the  same  category  as 
those  referred  to.  Of  course  tho  fluids  of  a  living  body  present 
complicated  conditions,  and  the  action  of  a  pathogenous  Scliizo- 
mvcete  cannot  be  treated  and  studied  simply  as  a  typical  fermenta- 
tion; but,  although  the  conditions  presented  are  involved  and 
BpeciJ  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  common  principles  heat  the  base 
oT  all  the  phenomena,  and  that  the  fluids  of  the  diseased  organism 
must  be  treated,  so  to  speak,  as  fermentable  media. 

Numerous  other  fermentations  of  scientilic  interest  are  due  to 
Schizomycetes:  e.g.,  those  in  which  colours  are  formed,  certain 
cases  of  phosphorescence,  tho  ammoniacal  fermentation  of  urine, 

&c  * 

ScnizoMYCETKS  AND  DISEASE.— Tlie  nrescnce  of  Schizomycetes 
in  tho  blood,  tissues,  or  organs  of  animals  and  man  suffering  Irom 
certain  specific  diseases  is  admitted,  and  has  naturally  suggested 
tho  (lUcstion-Are  they  accompaniments  only  or  have  they  any 
causal  relations  to  the  disea-^icd  conditions?  Their  constancy  in 
eiven  cases  excluded  the  former  view.  Next  arose  the  discussion 
is  to  how  tho  causal  connexion  comes  about  and  in  what  it  consists, 
a  discussion  which  is  still  going  on  as  to  tho  details.  The  chief 
poiHts  now  established  may  bo  expressed  generally  somewhat  as 

follows.  ,  ..  -  J    c     -i. 

.    In  a  given  specific  disease,  due  to  tho  action  of  a  dclinite 
Schizomycete,   the  latter  may  bo  conceived  to  bo  injurious  in 

■  Wataoi.  Clicjmo,  Ar,ll,rptU  Surgery,  188S ;  DuclAnl,  Chlmic  BM2l<l»'.  "M  i 
riu  ••  Uebcr  SchlzomvccUiu-GUI.runKcn,"  Tnri.m>  pniKT.  In  llrr.  d  drulid,  cUm. 
0«;mc"«/(     187i    "il;    Lblcr,    PHarm.    Jour.,    1X77;     Nii«cll      W«rto   drr 

??,^r<;,.^n  18-0  •  Mu«Cluf  ••Ucb.r.t'  01ll.rm,K  ,1.-,  lfnrn,.on.."  In  l-fi^^: 
TloBliom,  "Budllus  Amyloboctcr,"  In  ComiiM  lundui,  1871). 


several  ways.     If  it  robs  the  blood  or  tissues  of  oxygen  or  of  any 
other  valuable  constituent,  or  if  its  activity  results  in  the  excre- 
tion of  poisonous  subsUnces  or  in  their  formation  as  products  of 
degradation  of  the  matrix,  or  if  it  simply  acts  more  or  less  as  a 
mechanical  obstruction  or  irritant,— in  any  of  these  cases  harm  may 
result  to  the  delicately  adjusted  organism  of  tho  host.     It  being 
known  that  Schizomycetes  act  thus  in  nutrient  pabula  outside  tho 
body,  their  rapid  growth  and  multiplication  inside  can  of  course 
only  be  explained  as  due  to  their  success  in  the  pabula  there  met 
with,  and  are  indications  that  they  produce  changcsT  there  which 
must  result  in  abnormality  so  far  as  the  host  is  concerned.     lM» 
does  not  end  the  matter,  however.     The  living  tissues  of  a  healthy 
animal  exert  actions  which  are  antagonistic  to  those  of  the  patatitjc 
invader  ;  and  it  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the  mere  admission  of 
a  Schizomvcete  into  an  animal  does  not  necessarily  cause  disonsB. 
Were  it  otherwise  it  is  dilficult  to  see  how  the  higher  orgtinune 
could  escape  at  all.      Schizomycetes  abound  all  over,  about  and 
around  us  ;   many,  of  course,  are  unable  to  live  in  the  fluids  of, 
the  bodv,  but  many  are  able  to  do  so.     Something  must  therefore  bo 
placed  to  the  action  of  tho  tissues  of  the  host,  which  when  healthy' 
con  "  resist "  the  attempts  of  a  Schizomycete  to  settle,  grow,  and 
multiply  with  fatal  elfect.     JIuch  can  undoubtedly  bo  explained 
by  this  stru<'"le  for  existence  between  the  cells  of  the  parasite  and 
those  of  the°healthy  tissues  invaded.     But  the  higher  organisms, 
a^ain    present  obstacles  of  other  kinds  to  the  lodgment  of  Schuo- 
niycetes :   ciliary  actions,  active  excretions,  isolating  processes  of 
tissue-formation,  &c.,  may  be  mentioned.     Thus  not  every  Schizo- 
mycete met  with  in  the  body  can  do  harm.  ,     ui     j 
But  even  when  a  Schizomj-cete  has  gained  access  to  the  blood- 
vessels, ljinph-passa','es,  &c.,  and  has  succeeded   in   establislung 
itself  and   multiplying,  there  are  other   facts  to  be   taken  int?^ 
account  before  we  dismiss  the  question  as  to  its  relations  to  disease.^ 
The  rapidity  of  its  growth  may  vary  according  to  many  circum- 
stances,—temperature,  oxidation,  &c.,— as  well  as  the  still  partiaUy 
obstructive  action  of  the  invaded  organism  ;  whether  the  parasit* 
excretes  a  poison,  or  simply  robs  the  host,  or  distributes  lujui'ious 
agents  of  any  kind,  it  is  clear  that  everything  which  favours  it 
aids  in  intensifying  its  action.     And  this  may  be  local  or  general 
also   according  to  complex  circumstances.     Of  course  sores,  open 
wounds,  &c.,  may  render  the  access  of  a  given  Schizomycete  very 
easy   and  pave  the  way  for  its  success  in  the  tissues,  &c.,  difrerent 
strata  of  which  may  be  exerting  less  and  less   resistance  to   its 
attacks.      The  study  of  this  subject   has  led  to  the  methods 
of  modern   surgery   devised   by   Uster.      It  may  he   mentioned 
that  Schizomycetes  which  produce  bad  effects  on  injured  or  dead 
tUsues  of  wounds  are  not  necessarily  able  to  live  m  the  healthy 
organism,  however  deadly  the  poisonous  products  of  their  actioa 
may  be  when  they  succeed  in  establishing  themselves.  _ 

All  these  and  many  other  facts,  then,  point  to  the  conclusion, 
that  the  mere  presence  of  a  Schizomycete  in  an  organ  or  tjssne, 
is  not  sufficient  proof  of  its  causal  relation  to  disease,  and  lead  ua 
to  the  following  requirements  to  be  satisfied  befora  any  such 
relation  can  be  admitted  (Koch) :— (1)  given  a  specific  disease  in 
which  a  definite  Schizomvcete  is  constantly  detected,  and  witti  a 
constant  disposition  with  respect  to  the  tissues,  organs  &c.,—thi8 
organism  should  be  absent  from  animals  free  from  the  disease  ;  {i) 
the  Schizomycete  should  be  cultivated  in  nutrient  media  outside 
tho  body,  kept  pure  for  several  "generations,"  and  obtained  in 
some  quantity  by  these  means  ;  (3)  inoculation  of  a  small  amount 
of  this  pure  cultivation  should  reproduce  tho  specific  disease  ma 
healthy  animal ;  (4)  the  same  foreign  elements  as  before  should 
be  clearly  detected  in  tho  tissues  of  the  now  diseased  subject,  and 
in  the  same  relations  as  before.  ,..•«•     ,»    .„j  ♦!,« 

The  satisfying  of  all  these  requirements  is  difficult,  and  trie 
necessity  of  overcoming  the  difficulties  has  led  to  what  may  almost 
bo  tenned  a  special  branch  of  medical  art.  At  the  same  time  the 
majority  of  the  principles  which  are  Iiere  becoming  recognized 
have  long  been  knomi  to  biolo;;ists,  and  especially  to  botanists 
and  there  are  still  numerous  indications  ot  a  want  of  botanical 
trainin-  on  the  part  of  writers  on  tliese  subjects.  It  is  unpossiblo 
here  to°even  mention  all  tho  methods  devised  for  staining,  prcpar^ 
iiig,  and  examining  tissues,  &c. ,  and  the  Schizomycotes  thoy  '^•'^"'?«. 
or  for  cultivating  these  minute  organisms  under  constant  condition! 
on  sterilized  potatoes,  bread-pnsto,  jelly,  blood-sernm,  &=•.  »'  '» 
animal  infusLs  or  fluids,  &c.  Some  of  the  more  ""l'"''»°* 
points  in  cultivation  have  already  been  referred  to      Ike  htore-. 

turo  must  be  consulted  for  further  details.' (.U.  M.  o.j 

«  Only  a  few  nutl.o.lIU-.  can  be  mcnilnncd  licr..  for  tll<^  Ulcniti.ro  «"  I^'^'f?"' 

Uuiiil.  Jour.  <tfMicr.  Ik.,  unil  ulhera. 


408 


S  C  H  —  S  G  H 


SCHLAGINTWEIT-SAKUNLUNSKT,  Hermann  von 
(1826-1882),  the  eldest  of  a  band  of  brothers,  all  more  or 
less  noted  as  scientific  explorers  or  students  of  foreign 
eountries,  sons  of  an  oculist  of  Munich.  Hermann  was 
tborn  on  the  13th  of  May  1826.  His  first  scientific  labours 
were  studies  in  the  Alps,  carried  on  between  1846  and 
1848  in  association  with  his  brother  Adolf  (born  January 
9,  1829).  The  publication  of  the  Studien  iiber  'die 
physikali$che  Geographie  der  Alpen  in  1850  founded  the 
JBcientific  reputation  of  the  two  brothers,  and  their  reputa- 
tion was  increased  by  their  subsequent  investigations  in 
the  same  field,  in  which  the  third  brother  Robert  (born 
Oct.  27,  1837)  also  took  part.  Soon  after  the  publication 
of  the  iVi?Me  Untersuchtmgen  iiber  die- phys.  Geog.  u.  Geol. 
der  Alpeii  (1854,  4to),  the  three  brothers  received,  on  the 
recommendation  of  Alex,  von  Humboldt,  a  commission 
from  the  East  India  Company  to  travel  for  scientific  pur- 
poses in  their  territory,  and  more  particularly  to  make 
observations  on  terrestrial  magnetism.  Their  explorations 
extended  over  the  period  1854-57,  during  which  they 
travelled,  sometimes  in  company,  sometimes'  separately, 
in  the  Deccan  and  in  the  region  of  the  Himalayas,  even 
prosecuting  their  investigations  beyond  the  frontiers  of 
the  Company's  territory  into  the  region  of  the  Karakorum 
and  Kuenlun  Mountains.  •  Hermann  and  Robert  were  the 
first  Europeans  who  crossed  the  latter  mountains,  and  it 
was  in  honour  of  that  achievement  that  the  former  had 
the  title  or  surname  of  Sakiinlunski  bestowed  upon  him 

Sin  1864).  The  two  returned  to  Europe  in  the  summer  of 
857,  but  Adolf,  who  remained  to  prosecute  his  explora- 
tions in  Central  Asia,  was  put  to  death  by  the  emir  of 
Kashgar  on  the  26th  of  August.  Between  1860  and  1866 
Hermann  and  Robert  published  in  four  volumes  the 
"  Results  of  a  Scientific  Mission  to  India  and  High  Asia." 
The  extensive  collections  of  ethnography  and  natural  history 
made  by  them  were  ultimately  deposited  in  the  Burg  at 
Nuremberg  through  the  intervention  of  the  king  of  Bavaria 
(May  1877).  Hermann  spent  the  last  years  of  his  life 
chiefly  in  literary  and  scientific  activity,  partly  at  Munich 
partly  at  the  castle  of  Jagernburg  near  Forchheim.  He 
died  at  Munich  on  the  19  th  of  January  1882. 

His  brother  Robert  was  appointed  professor  of  geography  at 
Giessen  iu  1864,  but  his  academical  labours  weYe  sometimes  inter- 
rupted by  travels,  especially  in  the  United  States,  which  furnished 
him  with  material  for  more  or  less  important  works.  He  died  at 
Giessen,  June  6,  1885.  Of  two  other  brothers,  one,  Edward  (bom 
March  23,  1831),  killed  in  battle  at  Kissingcn  in  1866,  made  him- 
Belf  known  by  an  account  of  the  Spanish  expedition  to  Morocco 
in  1859-60.  Emil  (born  July  7,  1835)  is  the  author  of  several 
learned  works  relating  to  India  and  Tibet 

SCHLANGENBAD.     See  Schwalbac^. 

SCHLEGEL,  August  Wilhelm  von  (1767-1845), 
German  poet,  translator,  and  critic;  was  born  on  the  8th 
September  1767  at  Hanover,  whfere  his  father,  J.  Adolf 
Schlegel,  was  a  pastor.  He  was  educated  at  the  Hanover 
gymnasium  and  at  the  university  of  Gottingen.  Having 
spent  some  years  as  a  tutor  in  the  house  of  a  banker  at 
Amsterdam,  he  went  to  Jena,  where  he  was  made  a  pro- 
fessor, and  received  from  the  duke  of  Weimar  the  title  of 
"Rath."  ■  Here  he  began  his  translation  of  Shakespeare, 
which  was  ultimately  completed,  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  Tieck,  by  Tieck's  daughter  Dorothea  and  Count 
Baudissin.  A  revised  edition  of  this  rendering,  which  is 
considered  one  of  the  best  poetical  translations  in  the 
German  language,  has  been  issued  by  the  German  Shake- 
speare society.  At  Jena  Schlegel  contributed  to  Schiller's 
periodicals  the  Horen  and  the  Musenalmanach ;  and  with 
his  brother  Friedrich  be  conducted  the  Athenmum,  which 
ranked  among  the  most  powerful  organs  of  critical  opinion 
in  Germany.  He  also  published  a  volume  of  poems,  and 
carried  on  a  rather  bitter  controversy  with  Kotzebue.     At 


this  time  the  two  brothers  wore  remarkable  for  the  vigour 
and  freshness  of  their  ideas,  and  .commanded  respect  as 
the  leaders  of  the  rising  Romantic  school.  In  1802 
Schlegel  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  delivered  lectures  on 
art  and  literature ;  and  in  the  following  year  he  issued 
Ion,  a  tragedy  in  the  antique  style,  which  gave  rise  to  a 
suggestive  discussion  on  the  principles  of  dramatic  poetry. 
About  the  same  time  appeared  his  Spanish  Theatre,  in 
which  he  presented  admirable  translations  of  five  of 
Calderon's  plays ;  and  in  another  volume  he  gave  transla- 
tions of  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  Italian  lyrics.  In  1807 
he  attracted  much  attention  in  France  by  an  essay  in  the 
French  language,  in  which  he  compared  Racine  with 
Euripides.  His  lectures  on  dramatic  art  and  literature, 
which  have  been  translated  into  most  European  languages, 
were  delivered  at  Vienna  in  1808.  Meanwhile  he  had 
been  travelling  in  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  other 
countries  with  JIadame  de  Stael,  who  owed  to  him  many 
of  the  ideas  which  she  embodied  in  her  work.  Be 
I'AUemagne.  In  1813  he  acted  as  the  secretary  of  the 
crown  prince  of  Sweden,  through  whose  influence  the 
right  of  his  family  to  noble  rank  was  revived.  Schlegel 
was  made  a  professor  at  the  university  of  Bonn  in  1818, 
and  daring  the  remainder  of  his  life  he  occupied  himself 
chiefly  with  Oriental  studies,  although  he  continued  to 
lecture  on  art  and  literature,  and  in  1828  he  issued  two 
volumes  of  critical  writings.  In  1823-30  he  published 
the  Indische  Biblioihek ;  and  as  separate  works  appeared 
(1823)  the  Bhagavad-GUa  with  a  Latin  translation,  and 
(1829)  the  Rdmdjana.  Schlegel  was  twice  married— first 
to  a  daughter  of  Prof.  Michaelis  of  Gottingen,  then  to  a 
daughter  of  Prof.  Paulus  of  Heidelberg.  Both  wives 
separated  from  him  soon  after  their  marriage.  He  died 
at  Bonn  on  the  12th  May  1845.  As  an  original  poet 
Schlegel  is  unimportant,  but  as  a  poetical  translator  ho 
has  rarely  been  excelled,  and  in  criticism  he  exercised  a 
strong  influence  by  the  emphasis  with  which  he  marked 
the  distinction  between  classical  and  romantic  literature. 
By  his  study  of  Sanskrit  he  helped  to  prepare  -the  way  for 
the  development  of  the  science  of  language. 

In  1846-47  Schlegel's  German  works  were  issued  in  twelve 
volumes  by  Bockijig.  There  is  also  an  edition  of  his  (Euvres, 
icrites  en  fran(;ais,  and  of  his  Opuscula  Latina. 

SCHLEGEL,  Johann  Elias  (1718-1749),  a  German 
dramatic  writer,  was  born  at  Meissen  on  the  28th  January 
1718.  He  was  educated  at  Schulpforta  and  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Leipsic.  In  1743,  having  finished  his  studies, 
he  became  private  secretary  to  his  relative.  Von  Spener, 
the  Saxon  ambassador  at  the  Danish  court.  Afterwards 
he  was  made  professor  extraordinary  at  the  academy  of 
Soroe,  where  he  died  on  the  13th  August  1749.  Schlegtl 
was  a  contributor  to  the  Bremischen  Beilrdg^,  and  for 
some  time,  while  he  was  living  in  Denmark,  he  edited  a 
weekly  periodical,  Der  Fremde.  He  was  also  known  as  a 
writer  of  clever  poetical  epistles.  Incomparably  his  best 
works,  however,  are  his  dramas,  wh,icli  did  much  to 
prepare  the  way  for  the  dramatic  achievements  of  Lessing, 
by  whom  his  genius  was  warmly  appreciated.  He  wrote 
two  lively  and  well-constrticted  comedies,  the  Triumph 
der  guten  Frauen  and  the  Stumme  Sckonheit,  the  latter  in 
alexa,ndrines,  the  former  in  prose.  Hermann  and  Kanut 
(in  alexandrines)  are  generally  considered  his  best 
tragedies. 

His  works  were  edited  after  'his  death  by  his  brother,  J.  H. 
Schlegel,  who  had  a  considerable  reputation  as  a  writer  on  Danish 
history.  Another  brother,  J.  Adolf  Schlegel,  an  eminent  preacher, 
and  author  of  some  volumes  of  verse,  was  the  father  of  August 
Wilhelm  and  Friedrich  von  Schlegel. 

SCHLEGEL,  Kael  Wilhelm  Feiedeich  von  (1772- 
1829),  known  chiefly  as  an  historian  of  literature,  was  the 
brother  of  August  Wilhelm  von  Schlegel.     He  was  bom 


IS  C  fl  — S  C  H 


409 


at  Hanover  on  the  10th  ilarcb  1772.  Having  studied  at 
Gottingcn  and  Leipsic,  he  attracted  some  attention  by  a 
book  on  the  Griechen  und  Rumer  (1797),  which  was 
praised  by  Heyne.  This  woric  was  soon  followed  by  his 
GeschicIUe  der  I'oesie  der  Griechen  und  Romer.  At  Jena, 
where  he  lectured  as  a  privat-docent  at  the  university,  he 
contributed  to  the  Atlienxum  many  striking  critical  articles, 
and  a  number  of  lyrical  poems  which  were  afterwards 
included  in  a  volume  entitled  Gedichte.  Here  also  he 
wrote  Lucinde,  an  unfinished  romance,  which  was  held  by 
some  of  the  best  of  his  contemporaries  to  be  of  a  deeply 
immoral  tendency,  and  Alarms,  a  tragedy,  in  which  he 
attempted  without  much  success  to  combine  romantic  and 
classical  elements.  In  1802  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
edited' JiMro/ia,  lectured  on  philosophy,  and  carried  on 
Oriental  studies,  some  results  of  which  he  embodied  in  a 
well-known  book,  Ueber  die  Sprache  und  Weisheit  der 
Indier.  In  1803  he  and  his  wife  joined  the  Roman 
Church,  and  from  this  time  he  became  more  and  more 
opposed  to  the  principles  of  political  and  religious  freedom. 
He  went  to  Vienna  in  1808,  and  in  the  following  year 
was  engaged  as  imperial  court  secretary  at  the  head- 
quarters of  the  archduke  Charles.  At  a  later  period  he 
was  for  some  time  councillor  of  legation  in  the  Austrian 
embassy  at  the  Frankfort  diet,  but  in  1818  he  returned 
to  Vienna.  Meanwhile  he  had  published  two  series  of 
fectures,  Ueber  die  neuere  Geschichte  (1811)  and  Geschichle 
der  alien  und  neiien  Literatur  (1815).  After  his  return 
to  Vienna  from  Frankfort  he  edited  Concordia,  and  began 
the  issue  of  his  Siimmtliche  Werke.  He  also  delivered 
lectures,  which  were  republished  iu  his  Pldlosophie  des 
Lebens  (1828)  and  in  his  Fhilosophie  der  Geschichte 
(1829).  He  died  on  the  11th  January  1829  at  Dresden, 
where  he  was  delivering  the  course  of  lectures  which 
appeared  in  1830  under  the  title  Philosuphische  Vorles- 
ungen,  insbeaoiidere  iiber  die  Fhilosophie  der  Sprache  und 
des  Worles.  His  own  collection  of  his  works  included  ten 
volumes,  and  to  this  number  five  volumes  were  added 
after  his  death.  A  permanent  place  in  the  history  of 
German  literature  belongs  to  Friedrich  Schlegel  and  his 
brother  August  AVilhelm  as  the  critical  leaders  of  the 
Romantic  school,  which  derived  from  them  most  of  its 
governing  ideas  as  to  the  characteristics  of  the  Sliddle 
Ages,  and  as  to  the  methods  of  literary  expression.  In 
their  writings,  too,  there  is  the  fullest  and  most  impres- 
sive statement  of  the  mystical  spiritual  doctrines  of  the 
Romantic  school.  Of  the  two  brothers,  August  Wilhelm 
did  the  highest  permanent  service  to  his  countrymen 
by  his  translations  from  Shakespeare  and  Calderon.  The 
best  of  Friedrich's  works  is  his  Geschichte  der  alten  utul 
veuen  Literatur,  in  which  was  presented  for  the  first  time 
«  systematic  account  of  the  development  of  European 
literature  as  a  whole. 

Friedrich  Sclilcgel's  wife,  Dorothea,  a  daughter  of  Moans  Jfen- 
ti'lssolin,  was  born  at  Berlin  about  llie  year  1770,  and  died  at 
Tr.iukfort  iu  1839.  Slio  w.os  un  eccentric  but  remarkably  clever 
uumiiu,  and  wrote  or  edited  several  works,  issued  by  her  husband, — 
tlie  untinislied  roinamo  Florctdiii  (1801),  the  fust  volume  of  tho 
&i:nmli'ii(t  romaniischcr  Vichlaiigcn  drs  Miltclallcrs  (2  vols.,  ISC'!), 
wul  Lullter  und  Mailer  (1805).  ]5y  her  first  marriage  she  had  a 
vm,  Philip  Voit,  wlio  became  one  of  tho  most  eminent  painters  of 
Uis  day  ni  Germany. 

SCHLEICHER,  August  (1821-18G8),  born  at  Meinin- 
jen  on  February  19,  1821,  studied  at  the  universities  of 
licipsicand  Tiibingcn,  became  extraordinary  professor  of 
philology  in  Trnguc  in  1850,  removed  to  Jena  as  ordinary 
l>rofessorin  1857,  and  died  there  December  6,  I8G8.  His 
»'orlc  is  characterized  in  the  article  Puilolouy,  vol.  xviii. 
V.  782. 

SCHLEIDEN,  Matthias  (1804-1881),  was  born  at 
ILuuLwa  in  1804.     Ho  stuUied  law  at  Heidolberg  and 

•Jl— 1.-* 


practised  as  advocate  In  Hamburg  till  1831,  but  net 
succeeding  he  studied  botany  and  medicine  at  Gcittingen 
and  Berlin,  and  graduated  in  Jena  in  1839,  where  be 
afterwards  became  professor  of  botany  (1846-50).  In 
1863  he  was  called  to  Dorpat,  but  resigned  the  following 
year  and  returned  to  Germany,  where  he  lived  as  a  private 
teacher.  He  died  at  Frankfurt  in  1881.  His  title  td 
remembrance  is  twofold.  Uniting  the  labours  of  two 
centuries  of  workers  in  vegetable  histology,  from  Malpighi 
and  Grew  to  Jlirbel  and  Robert  Brown,  he  proved  that  a 
nucleated  cell  is  the  only  original  constituent  of  the  plant 
embryo,  and  that  the  development  of  all  vegetable  tissues 
must  be  referred  to  such  cells,  thus  preparing  the  way  foi 
the  epoch-making  cell  theory  of  Schwann ;  and  his  Prin- 
ciples of  Scientific  Botany,  which  went  through  several 
editions  (1842-50),  did  much  to  shake  the  tyranny  of  th* 
purely  systematic  Linxiean  school,  whose  accumulations  ha 
was  accustomed  irreverently  to  describe  as  "  hay."  Despite 
a  certain  inability  to  criticize  and  verify  his  own 
hypotheses,  he  gave,  both  by  his  speculative  activity  and 
by  the  introduction  of  improved  technical  methods,  so 
vivid  an  impulse  to  the  younger  botanists  of  his  time  as 
to  have  earned  from  De  Bary  the  title  of  reformer  of 
scientific  botany.  His  botanical  labours  practically  ceased 
after  1850,  whenhe  entered  on  various  philosoohical  and 
historical  studies.     See  Schwaioj. 

SCHLEIERMACHER,  Friedrich  Daniel  Ernst 
(1768-1834),  theologian  and  philosopher,  was  ihe  son  of 
a  Prussian  army-chaplain  of  the  Reformed  confession,  and 
was  born  November  21,  1768,  at  Breslau.  In  his  fifteenth 
year  the  boy,  who  was  of  a  weak  constitution,  was  placed 
by  his  parents  in  a  Moravian  school  at  Niesky  in  Upper 
Lusatia,  and  two  years  later  in  the  seminary  of  the  same 
sect  at  Barby  near  Halle.  Here  Moravian  theology  proved 
inadequate  to  satisfy  the  deep  religious  needs  and  awak- 
ening intellect  of  the  youth.  It  was  particularly  the 
doctrines  of  eternal  punishment,  of  the  deity  and  the 
substitutionary  sufferings  of  Christ,  and  of  the  total 
corruption  of  human  nature  that  were  stumbling-blocks  to 
him.  He  was  also  unable  to  make  his  own  the  peculiar 
religious  experiences  of  his  Moravian  and  pietistic  teachers. 
The  efforts  of  his  strictly  orthodox  father  and  of  the  heads 
of  the  seminary  to  lead  him  to  crush  his  doubts  as  sinful, 
and  to  shun  modern  theology  and  literature,  tended  only  to 
strengthen  his  desire  to  explore  tho  great  world  of  know- 
ledge. Reluctantly  his  father  gave  him  permission  to  leave 
Barby  for  tho  university  of  Halle,  and  the  correspond- 
ence between  the  father  and  the  son  on  thi^  painful 
crisis  in  Friedrich's  life  supplies  a  striking  illustration  of 
a  typical  phase  of  distressing  modern  mental  history. 
When  Schleiermacher  entered  the  university  of  Hall* 
(1787)  tho  reign  of  pietism  there  had  ceased,  having  given 
way  to  the  rationalistic  philosophy  of  Wolf  with  the 
critical  theology  of  Semler,  though  the  new  philosophy  of 
Kant  was  rapidly  displacing  Wolf's.  As  a  student  ho 
pursued  an  independent  course  of  reading  and  neglected 
to  his  permanent  loss  the  study  of  the  Old  Testament  and 
the  Oriental  languages.  But  he  frequented  the  lectures  of 
Semler  and  of  J.  A.  Eberhard,  acquiring  from  tho  former, 
the  principles  of  an  independent  criticism  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  from  the  latter  his  lovo  of  Plato  and  Aristotla 
At  the  same  time  ho  studied  with  great  earnestness  the 
writings  of  Kant  and  Jacobi.  He  commenced  thus  early 
his  characteristic  habit  of  forming  his  opinions  by  the 
process  of  patiently  examining  and  weighing  tho  positions 
of  all  thinkers  and  parties.  Bat  with  the  receptivity  of 
a  great  eclectic  ho  combined  the  reconstructive  power:ol 
a  profoundly  original  thinker.  While  yet  a  student  he 
began  to  apply  ideas  gathered  from  the  Greek  philosopher* 
iu  a  rcconstructioa  of  Kant's  system.     At  tho  completion 


ilO 


S  C,H  LEIERMACHER 


>f  his  tbree  years'  course  at  Halle  he  obtained  through  the 
influence  of  the  court-chaplain  Sack  an  appointment  as 
private  tutor  in  the  family  of  Count  Dohna-Schlobitten, 
which  he  held  upwards  of  two  years,  developing  in  a  culti- 
vated and  ai'istocratic  household  his  deep  love  of  family 
and  social  life.  After  short  engagements  in  tuition  and 
as  locum  teneiis  to  a  clergyman  of  the  small  town  of 
Landsberg,  he  received  (179G)  the  appointment  of  chaplain 
to  the  Charite  Hospital  in  Berlin,  a  position  which  he  held 
nearly  six  years,  and  which  offered  no  scope  for  the 
derelopment  of  his  powers  as  a  preacher.  He  was  the 
more  induced  to  seek  the  satisfaction  of  his  mental  and 
spiritual  necessities  in  the  cultivated  society  of  Berlin,  and 
in  profound  philosophical  studies.  This  was  the  period  in 
which  he  was  constructing  the  framework  of  his  philoso- 
phical and  religious  system.  It  was  the  period  too  when 
he  made  himself  widely  acquainted  with  art,  literature, 
science,  and  modern  culture  generally.  He  was  at  that 
time  profoundly  affected  by  German  Komanticism,  as 
represented  by  his  friend  Friedrich  Schlegel,  and  it 
required  all  the  energy  of  his  moral  nature  and  the  force 
of  his  intellect  to  preserve  himself  from  its  moral  and 
mental  extravagances.  Of  this  his  Confidential  Letters  on 
Schlegel's  Lucinde  (1801),  as  well  as  his  perilous  relation 
to  Eleonore  Grunow,  the  wife  of  a  Berlin  clergj'man,  are 
proof  and  illustration.  Gradually  his  sound  moral  nature, 
his  deep  religiousness,  and  his  powerful  intellect  enabled 
him  to  emancipate  himself  entirely  from  the  errors  and 
weaknesses  of  a  transient  phase  of  mental  and  social 
history,  and  to  appropriate  at  the  same  time  the  elements 
of  truth  and  goodness  which  it  possessed  in  rich  measure. 
Komanticism  unlocked  for  him  the  divine  treasures  of  life 
and  truth  which  are  stored  in  the  feelings  and  intuitions  of 
the  human  soul,  and  thus  enabled  him  to  lay  the  founda- 
tions of  his  philosophy  of  religion  and  his  ethical  system. 
It  enriched  his  imagination  and  life  too  with  ideals  ancient 
and  modern,  which  gave  elevation,  depth,  and  colour  to  all 
his  thought.  Meantime  he  studied  Spinoza  and  Plato, 
and  was  profoundly  influenced  by  both,  though  he  was 
never  a  Spinozist ;  he  made  Kant  more  and  more  his 
master,  though  he  departed  on  fundamental  points  from 
him,  and  finally  remodelled  his  philosophy ;  with  some  of 
Jacobi's  positions  he  was  in  sympathy,  and  from  Fichte 
and  Schelling  he  accepted  ideas,  which  in  their  place  in  his 
system,  however,  received  another  value  and  import.  The 
literary  fruit  of  this  period  of  intense  fermentartion  and  of 
rapid  development  was'  his  "  epoch-making  "  book,  Reden 
uber  die  Religion  (1799),  and  his  "new  year's  gift"  to  the 
new  century,  the  Monologen  (1800).  In  the  first  book  he 
vindicated  for  religion  an  eternal  place  amongst  the  divine 
mysteries  of  human  nature,  distinguished  it  from  all 
current  caricatures  of  it  and  allied  phenomena,  and  de- 
scribed the  perennial  forms  of  its  manifestation  and  life 
in  mfefi  and  society,  giving  thereby  the  programme  of  his 
subsequent  theological  system.  In  the  Monologen  he 
ithrcw  out  his  ethical  manifesto,  in  which  he  proclaimed 
nis  ideas  as  to  the  freedom  and  independence  of  the  spirit, 
5ind  as  to  the  relation  of  the  mind  to  the  world  of  sense 
p,nd  imperfect  social  organizations,  and  sketched  his  ideal 
pf  the  future  of  the  individual  and  society.  In  1802,  to 
'Jiia  great  advantage  morally  and  intellectually,  Schleier- 
macher  exchanged  the  brilliant  circle  of  Berlin  Romanticists 
for  the  retired  life  of  a  pastor  in  the  little  Pomeranian 
town  of  Stolpe.  Here  he  remained  two  years,  which  were 
full  of  pastoral  and  literary  work,  as  well  as  rich  in 
personal  and  moral  progress.  He  relieved  Friedrich 
Schlegel  entirely  of  his  nominal  responsibility  for  the 
translation  of  Plato,  which  they  had  together  undertaken, 
and  regarded  the  completion  of  it  as  the  work  of  his  life. 
The  first  volume  was  published  in  ISO-t,  and  the  last  (the 


Repuhlic)  in  1828.  At  the  same  time  another  work,  Grund- 
linien  einer  Kritik  dcr  Lislierigen  Sittenle/ire  (1803),  th6 
first  of  his  strictly  critical  and  philosophical  productions, 
occupied  him.  This  work  is  a  severe  criticism  of  al! 
previous  moral  systems,  especially  those  of  Kant  and 
Fichte,  Plato's  and  Spinoza's  finding  most  favour ;  its 
leading  principles  are  that  the  tests  of  the  soundness  of  a 
moral  system  are  the  completeness  of  its  view  of  the  laws 
and  ends  of  human  life  as  a  whole  and  the  harmonious 
arrangement  of  its  subject-matter  under  one  fundamental 
principle ;  and,  though  it  is  almost  exclusively  critical 
and  negative,  the  book  announces  clearly  the  division 
and  scope  of  moral  science  which  Schleiermacher  sul>. 
sequently  adopted,  attaching  prime  importance  to  a 
"  Guterlehre,"  or  doctrine  of  the  ends  to  be  obtained  by 
moral  action.  But  the  obscurity  of  the  style  of  the  book 
as  well  as  its  almost  purely  negative  results  proved  fatal  tg 
its  immediate  success.  In  1804  Schleiermacher  removed 
as  university  preacher  and  professor  of  theology  to  Halle, 
where  he  remained  until  1807,  and  where  he  quickly 
obtained  a  reputation  as  professor  and  preacher,  and 
exercised  a  powerful  influence  in  spite  of  the  contradictory 
charges  of  his  being  an  atheist,  Spinozist,  and  pietist.  In 
this  period  he  wrote  his  dialogue  the  Wei/inachts/tie7-  (ISQG), 
a.  charming  production,  which  holds  a  place  midway  between 
his  Reden  and  his  great  dogmatic  work  the  Christtiche 
Glaube,  and  presents  in  the  persons  of  its  speakers  phases 
of  his  growing  appreciation  of  Christianity  as  well  as  the 
conflicting  elements  of  the  theology  of  the  period.  After 
the  battle  of  Jena  he  returned  to  Berlin  (1807),  was  soon 
appointed  pastor  of  the  Trinity  Church  there,  and  the 
next  year  married  the  widow  of  his  friend  Willich.  At 
the  foundation  of  the  Berlin  university  (1810),  in  which  he 
took  a  prominent  part,  he  was  called  to  a  theological  chair, 
and  soon  became  secretary  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  was  thus  placed  in  a  position  suited  to  his  powers 
and  in  domestic  and  social  surroundings  adapted  to  meet 
the  wants  of  his  rich  nature.  At  the  same  time  he 
approved  himself  in  the  pulpit  and  elsewhere  as  a  large- 
hearted  and  fearless  patriot  in  that  time  of  national 
calamity  and  humiliation,  acquiring  a  name  and  place  in 
his  country's  annals  with  Arndt,  Fichte,  Stein,  and  Scharn- 
horst.  He  took  a  prominent  part  too  in  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  Prussian  church,  and  became  the  most  powerful 
advocate  of  the  union  of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
divisions  of  German  Protestantism.  The  twenty-four 
years  of  his  professional  career  in  Berlin  were  opened  with 
his  short  but  important  outline  of  theological  study 
(Kurze  Darstellung  des  theologischen  Studiums,  1810),  in 
which  he  sought  to  do  for  theology  what  he  had  done  for 
religion  in  his  Reden.  'WoiXe.  he  preached  every  Sunday, 
he  also  gradually  took  up  in  his  lectures  in  the  university 
almost  every  branch  of  theology  and  philosophy — New 
Testament  exegesis,  introduction  to  and  interpretation 
of  the  New  Testament,  ethics  (both  philosophic  and 
Christian),  dogmatic  and  practical  theology,  church  history, 
history  of  philosophy,  psychology,  dialectics  (logic  and 
metaph3'sics),  politics,  pasdagogy,  and  aesthetics.  His  own 
materials  for  these  lectures  and  his  students'  notes  and 
reports  of  them  are  the  only  form  in  which  the  larger 
proportion  of  his  works  exist, — a  circumstance  which  has 
greatly  increased  the  difficulty  of  getting  a  clear  and 
harmonious  view  of  fundamental  portions  of  his  philo- 
sophical and  ethical  system,  while  it  has  efEectually 
deterred  all  but  the  most  courageous  and  patient  students 
from  reading  these  posthumous  collections.  As  a  preacher 
he  produced  a  powerful  effect,  yet  not  at  all  by  the  force 
of  his  oratory  but  by  his  intellectual  strength,  his 
devotional  .spirit,  and  the  philosophical  breadth  and  unity 
of  his  thought.     In  politics  he  was  an  earnest  friend  of 


SCHLEIERMACHEK 


411 


fiberty  and  progress,  and  in  the  period  of  reaction  which 
followed  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon  he  was  charged  by 
the  Prussian  Government  with  "  demagogic  agitation  "  in 
conjunction  with  the  great  patriot  Arndt.  At  the  same 
time  he  prepared  for  the  press  his  chief  theological  work 
Der  christliche  Glauhe  nack  den  Grundsatzoi  der  evarv- 
geliscken  Kirche  (1821-22 ;  2d  edition,  greatly  altered, 
1830-31).  The  fundamental  principle  of  this  classical 
work  is,  that  religious  feeling,  the  sense  of  absolute 
dependence  on  God  as  communicated  by  Jesus  Christ 
through  the  church,  and  not  the  creeds  or  the  letter  of 
Scripture  or  the  rationalistic  understanding,  is  the  source 
and  law  of  dogmatic  theology.  The  work  is  therefore 
eimply  a  description  of  the  facts  of  religious  feeling,  orof 
the  inner  life  of  the  soul  in  its  relations  to  God,  and 
these  inward  facts  are  looked  at  in  the  various  stages  of 
their  development  and  presented  in  their  systematic  con- 
nexion. The  aim  of  the  work  was  to  reform  Protestant 
theology  by  means  of  the  fundamental  ideas  of  the  Reden, 
to  put  an  end  to  the  unreason  and  superticiaUty  of  both 
supernaturalism  and  rationalism,  and  to  deliver  religion 
and  theology  from  a  relation  of  dependence  on  perpetually 
changing  systems  of  philosophy.  Though  the  work  added 
to  the  reputation  of  its  author,  it  naturally  aroused  the 
increased  opposition  of  the  theological  schools  it  was 
intended  to  overthrow,  and  at  the  sam&  time  Schleier- 
macher's  defence  of  the  right  of  the  church  to  fi-ame  its 
own  liturgy  in  opposition  to  .the  arbitrary  dictation  of 
the  monarch  or  his  ministers  brought  upon  him  fresh 
troubles.  He  felt  himself  in  Berlin  more  and  more 
isolated,  although  his  church  and  his  lecture-room  con- 
tinued to  be  largely  attended.  But  he  prosecuted  his 
translation  of  Plato  and  prepared  a  new  and  greatly 
altered  edition  of  his  Christliche  Glaube,  anticipating 
the  latter  in  two  letters  to  his  friend  Lucke  (in  the 
Studien  und  Kritiken,  1829),  in  which  he  defended  with  a 
masterly  hand  his  theological  position  generally  and  his  book 
in  particular  against  opponents  on  the  right  and  the  left. 
The  same  year  he  lost  his  only  son — a  blow  which,  he  said, 
"drove  the  nails  into  his  own  coffin."  But  he  continued 
to  defend  his  theological  position  against  Hengstenberg's 
party  on  the  one  hand  and  the  rationalists  Von  Colin  and 
D.  Schulz  on  the  other,  protesting  against  both  subscrip- 
tion to  the  ancient  creeds  and  the  imposition  of  a  new 
rationalistic  formulary.  In  the  midst  of  such  labours, 
and  enjoying  still  full  bodily  and  mental  vigoui-,  he  was 
carried  off  after  a  few  days'  illness  by  inflammation  of  the 
Inngs.  He  died  thinking  "the  profoundest  speculative 
ideas  which  were  one  with  his  deepest  religious  feeling," 
and  partaking  of  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper, 
February  12,  1834. 

Schleiermacher's  friend,  the  naturaust  and  poet  Steffens, 
tas  left  the  following  description  of  his  appearance  about 
the  beginning  of  the  century  : — "  Schleiermacher  was  of 
small  stature,  a  little  deformed,  yet  hardly  enough  to 
disfigure  him  ;  all  his  movements  were  animated,  and  his 
features  in  the  highest  degree  expressive;  a  certain  keen- 
ness in  his  glance  produced  [xirhaips  a  repellent  effect; 
indeed,  ho  api)eared  to  see  through  every  one;  his  face 
rather  long,  all  his  features  sharply  cut,  the  lips  firmly 
closed,  the  chiu  projecting,  the  eyes  animated  and  flashing, 
his  look  always  serious,  collected,  and  thoughtful." 

Schleiermacher's  Philosophical  System.— A  great  antithesis  lies 
at  tho  basis  of  all  thought  and  life — tliat  of  tho  roal  and  tho  ideal, 
of  organism,  or  sense,  and  intellect.  But  the  antithesis  is  not  abso- 
lute, for  in  life  and  being  both  elements  are  united— though  with- 
out its  presence  life  and  thouglit  would  bo  iuipossiblo.  In  tlio 
actii.il  world  tho  antithesis  appears  as  reason  and  nature,  in  each 
of  which,  however,  there  is  a  coinl)ination  of  its  two  elements — the 
ideal  and  tho  real,— tho  reason  having  a  preponderance  of  tlio  first 
and  nature  a  preponderance  of  the  second.  At  tho  basis  of  nature 
lies  universal  reason  as  its  organizing  principle,  and  ichen  reason 


becomes  a  conscious  power  in  man  it  finds  itscii  in  conflict  as  well 
as  in  harmony  with  external  nature.  Tlie  whole  effort  and  end  of 
human  thought  and  action  is  the  gradual  reduction  of  the  realm 
and  the  [lOwer  of  this  antithesis  in  the  individual,  the  race,  and 
the  world.  Though  the  antithesis  is  real  and  deep,  the  huniau 
mind  cannot  admit  its  absolute  nature  ;  we  are  compelled  to  sup- 
pose a  transcendental  reality  or  entity  in  which  the  real  and  the 
ideal,  being  and  thought,  subject  and  object,  are  one.  Conscious- 
ness itself  involves  tho  union  of  the  antithetic  elements,  and  prior 
to  moral  action  nature  is  found  organized  and  reason  manifested 
or  symbolized  therein.  We  are  ourselves  proofs  of  the  unity  of  the 
real  and  the  ideal,  of  thought  and  being,  for  we  are  both,  our  self- 
consciousness  supplying  the  expression  of  the  fact.  As  we, have  in 
ourselves  an  instance  of  the  identity  of  thought  and  being,  wo 
must  suppose  a  universal  identity  of  tho  ideal  and  real  behind  the 
antithesis  which  constitutes  the  world.  This  supposition  is  tho 
basis  of  all-knowledge,  for  thought  becomes  knowledge  only  when 
it  corresponds  to  being.  The  supposition  may  be  called  a  belief, 
but  it  is  so  only  in  the  sense  in  which  belief  appears  in  the  religious 
department,  where  it  is  the  ultimate  ground  of  all  action.  The 
supposition  is  the  basis  of  all  ethics,  for  without  the  conviction  of 
the  correspondence  of  thought  and  reality  action  would  be  fruitless 
and  in  the  end  impossible.  It  is  above  all  the  substance  of  religious 
feeling,  which  is  the  immediate  coiisciousness  of  tho  unity  of  the 
world,  of  the  absolute  oneness  behind  the  infinite  multiplicity  of 
contrasts  ;  indeed,  it  is  the  religious  conviction  of  the  unity  Which 
is  the  best  guarantee  of  the  truth  of  the  suppositions  of  philosophy. 
It  is  "  the  religious  consciousness  of  the  unity  of  the  intellectual 
and  physical  world  in  God"  which  is  to  overcome  the  scepticism  of 
the  critical  philosophy.  But,  though  this  unity  must  be  laid  down 
as  the  basis  of  knowledge,  it  is  absolute  and  transcendental.  lu 
contrast  with  tho  "world,"  as  the  totality  of  being  in  its  differen- 
tiation, this  absolute  unity,  or  God,  in  whom  the  real  as  manifold, 
and  the  spirit  as  one,  find  their  unifying  base,  by  its  very  natuixj 
is  unphenomenal,  indefinable,  and  inconceivable.  .  The  idea  is 
outside  the  boundary  of  thought,  though  its  necessary  postulate, 
and  it  is  no  less  inaccessible  to  religious  feeling,  though  it  is  its  life 
and  soul.  Neither  member  of  the  antithesis  of  the  real  ai}d  the  ideal 
must  be  conceived  as  producing  the  other  ;  they  are  both  equally 
e.iiistent  and  equally  constituent  elements  of  the  world ;  but  in  God 
they  are  one,  and  therefore  the  world  must  not  be  identified  with 
Him.  The  world  and  God  are  distinct,  but  correlative,  and  neither 
can  be  conceived  without  the  other.  The  world  without  God 
would  be  "chaos,"  and  God  without  the  world  an  empty  "phan- 
tasm." But  though  God  is  transcendent  and  unknowable  Ho  is 
immanent  in  the  world.  In  self-cousciousuess  God  is  present  as 
the  bails  of  tho  unity  of  our  nature  in  every  transition  from  an  act 
of  knowledge  to  an  act  of  will,  and  rice  versa.  As  far  as  man  is 
the  unity  of  the  real  and  the  ideal,  God  is  in  him.  He  is  also  in 
all  things,  inasmuch  as  in  everything  the  totality  of  the  world  and 
its  transcendental  basis  is  presupposed  by  virtue  of  their  being  and 
correlation.  The  unity  of  our  personal  Ufe  amidst  the  multiplicity 
of  its  functions  is  tho  symbol  of  God's  immanence  in  tho  worli 
though  we  may  not  conceive  of  the  Absolute  'as  a  person.  The 
idea  of  the  world  as  the  totality  of  being  is,  like  the  correlative 
idea  of  God,  only  of  regulative  value  ;  it  is  transcendent,  as  we 
never  do  more  than  make  approaches  to  a  knowledge  of  the  sum  of 
being.  The  ono  idea  is  tho  transcendental  termiuut  a  quo  and  the 
other  the.  transcendental  terminus  ad  qucm  of  all  knowledge.  But 
though  the  world  cannot  be  exhaustively  known  it  can  be  known 
very  extensively,  and  though  the  positive  idea  of  God  must  always 
rem.ain  unattainable  wo  are  able  to  reject  those  ideas  which  involve 
a  contradiction  of  the  postulate  of  tho  Absolute.  Thus  the  pan- 
theistic and  tho  theistic  conceptions  of  God  as  tho  supreme  power, 
as  the  first  cause,  as  a  person,  are  alike  unallowable,  since  they  all 
bring  God  within  the  sphere  of  antithesis  and  preclude  His  absolute 
unity.  On  the  other  hand,  the  world  can  be  known  as  the  realm 
of  antithesis,  and  it  is  the  cori-elative  of  God.  Though  He  may 
not  be  conceived  as  the  absolute  causo  of  tho  world,  tho  idea  of 
absolute  causality  as  symbolized  in  it  may  bo  taken  as  the  best 
approximate  expression  of  the  contents  of  the  religious  conscious- 
ness. The  unbroken  connexion  of  cause  and  elfect  throughout  the 
world  becomes  thus  a  manifestation  of  God.  God  is  to  bo  sought 
only  in  ourselves  and  in  the  world.  He  is  completely  immanent 
in  tho  universe.  It  is  impossible  that  His  causality  should  haveany 
other  sphere  than  the  world,  which  is  tho  totality  of  being.  "No 
God  without  a  world,  and  no  world  without  God."  The  divine  omni- 
potence is  quantitatively  rcprcsriitrd  bv  the  sum  of  tho  forces  of 
nature,  and  qualitatively  dislin^^'nished  iVom  tli<  m  only  as  tho  unity 
of  inlinito  causality  from  tho  multiplicity  of  i*»  finite  phenomena. 
Thronghont  tho  world — not  excepting  tlio  realm  of  mind — aheolato 
necessity  prevails.  As  a  whole  the  world  is  as  good  and  |ieKtct  as 
a  world  could  possibly  bo,  and  everything  in  it,  as  occupying  its 
necessary  placo  in  tho  whole,  is  Ulso  good,  cnl  being  only  the 
necessary  limitation  of  individual  being. 

Schleicrmuchar'a  psychology  takes  as  its  basis  the  phenomaual 
dualism  of  the  egfl  and  tho  non-ego,  and  regards  tho  life  of  man  as 


412 


S  C  H  L  E  I  E  K  M  A  C  H  E  li 


ihc   iuteraction  of  tlieso  elements  with  tlicir  iiiterpcnctiation  B3 
Its  lufiiHte  destination.      The   dualism  is  tlicrcfoic  not  absolute 
and,  though  present  in  man's  own   constitution   as  comiioscd  of 
body   and   soul,  is   relative  only  even   there.     The   ego  is   itself 
both  body  and  soul,— the  conjunction  of  b.ith  constitutes  it-  our 
,   organization     or  sense  mature  has  its  intellectual  element,  and  onr 
'   '."', ,,  "^'  '.''^  organic  element.     There  is  no  such  tliincr  as  "pure 
mind      or    ■  inire  body."     Tlie  one  general  functiou  of  the   e»o 
thought,  becomes  in  relation  to  the  non-ego  either  receptive  or  spSn- 
*aneous  action,  and  in  both  forms  of  action  its  organic,  or  sense  and 
Its  intellectual  energies  co-operate  ;  and  in  relation  to  man,  nature 
and  the  universe  the  ego  gradually  iinds  its  true  iiulividuality  by 
becoming  a^lwrt  of  them,  "every  extension  of  consciousness  being 
higher  lite.       The  specific  functions  of  the  ego,  as  determined  by  the 
relative  predominance  of  sense  or  intellect,  are  either  functions  of 
tiie  senses  (or  organism)  or  functions  of  the  intellect.     The  former 
faU   into  the  two  classes  of  feelings  (subjective)  and  perceptions 
l(objec.ive)  ;  the  latter,  according  as  the  receptive  or  the  spontaneous 
element  predommates,  into  cognition  and  volition.     In  cognition 
ibemg  is  the  object  and  in  volition  it  is  the  purpose  of  thon"°it  •  in 
the  hist  case  we  receive  (iu  our  fashion)  the  object  of  thou°ht  into 
ourselves ;  in  the  latter  we  plant  it  out  into  the  world.     Both  cogni- 
tion and  volition  are  functions  of  thought  as  well  as  forms  of  moral 
action.     Tt  is  in  those  two  functions  that  the  real  life  of  the  co  is 
manifested,   but   behind   them   is    self-consciousness    pcrinanr°ntlv 
present,  wmch  is  always  both  subjective  and  objective— conscious- 
ness of  ourselves  and  of  the  non-ego.     This  self-consciousness  is  the 
third  special  form  or  function  of  thought,— which  is  also  called 
feeling  and  immediate  knowledge.     In  it  we  cognize  our  own  inner 
life  as  affected  by  the  non-ego.-    As  the  non-ego  helps  or  hinders 
enlarges  or  limits,  our  inner  life,  we  feel  pleasure  or  pain.    .(Esthetic' 
moral,    and   religious   feelings  are   respectively   produced   by  the 
reception  into  consciousness  of  large  ideas,— nature,  mankind   and 
the  world  ;  those  feelings  are  the   sense  of  being  one  with  these 
vast   objects.     Religious  feeling  therefore  is   the  highest  form  of 
thought  and  of  life  ;  in  it  we  are  conscious  of  our  unity  with  the 
world   and   God  ;  it   is   thus   the   sense  of  absolute   dependence 
bchleiermacher  s  doctrine  of  knowledge  accepts  the  fundamental 
principle  of  Kant  that  knowledge  is  bounded  by  experience   but 
It  seeks  to  remove  Kant's  scepticism  as  to  knowledge  of  the  Diiia 
an  Sich,  or  Seiii,  as  Schleiermacher's  term  is.    The  idea  of  knowledge 
or   scientiac   thought   as  distinguished  from  the   passive  form  of 
thought— of  assthetics  and  religion— is  thought  which  is  produced 
by  ail  thinkers  in  the  same  form  and  which  corresponds  to  bein<r 
All   knowledge   takes   the   form  of  the   concept  (Bct/rif)   or  the 
judgment  (Urtheil),  the  former  conceiving  the  variety  of  beinc  as 
a  definite  unity  and  plurality,  and  the  latter  simply  connecting 
the  concept  with  certain,  individual  objects.     In  the  concept  there- 
fore the  intellectual  and  in  the  judgment  the  organic  or  sense 
element  predominates.     The  universal  uniformity  of  the  production 
of  judgments  presupposes  the  uniformity  of  our  relations  to  the 
outward  world,  and  the  uniformity  of  concepts  rests  similarly  on 
the  hkeness  of  our  lUward  nature.     This  uniformity  is  not  based 
on  the  sameness  of  .either  the  intellectual  or  the  organic  functions 
tlone.,  but   on   the  correspondence  of  the  forms  of   thought  and 
eensation  with  the  forms  of  being.     The  essential  nature  of  the 
concept  is  that  it  combines  the  general  and  the  special,  and  the 
same  combination  recurs  in   being;  in  being  the  systen>  of  sub- 
Btantial  or  permanent  forms  answers  to  the  .system  of  concepts  and 
the  relation  of  cause  and  effect  to  the  system  of  judgments    the 
Iiigher  concept  answering  to  "force"  and  the  lower  to  the  pheno- 
inena  of  force,  and  the  judgment  to  the  contingent  interaction  of 
things      The  sum  of  being  consists  of  the  two  systems  of  sub- 
Btantial,  forms  and  interactional  relations,  and  it  reappears  in  the 
form  of  concept  and  judgment,  the  concept  representing  being  and 
the  judgment  being  in  action.     Knowledge  has  under  both  forms 
the  same  object,  the  relative  difference  of  the  two  being  that  when 
the  conceptual  form  predominates  we  have  speculative  science  and 
when  the  form  of  judgment  prevails  we  have  empirical  or  historical 
science.     Throughout  the  domain  of  knowledge  the  two  forms  are 
found  in  constant  mutual  relations,  another  proof  of  the  funda- 
mental unity  of  thought  and  being  or  of  the  objectivity  of  know- 
iedge      It  13  obvious  that  Plato,   Spinoza,  and  Kant  had  contri- 
Juted  characteristic  elements  of  their  thought  to  this  .system,  and 
directly   or  indirectly  it   was  largely  indebted   to   Schelling  for 
fundamental  conceptions. 

Schleicrmachcrs  Ethics. —Sent  to  religion  and  theology  it  was 
to  the  moral  world,  of  which,  indeed,  the  phenomena  of  religion 
»nd  theo  ogy  were  in  his  systems  only  constituent  elements,  that 
tie  specially  devoted  himself  In  his  earlier  essays  he  endeavoured 
«o  pom  out  the  defects  of  ancient  and  modern  ethical  thinkers 
particularly  of  Kant  and  Ficlite,  Plato  and  Spinoza  only  iindini 
lavour  in  his  eyes.  He  failed  to  discover  in  previous  moral  systemi 
any  necessary  basis  in  thought,  any  completeness  as  regards  the 
plienomena  of  moral  action,  any  systematic  arrangement  of  its 
parts,  and  any  clear  and  distinct  treatment  of  specific  moral  acts 
vnd  relations.    Jiis   own   moral  system  is  an   attempt  to  supply 


theso  deficiencies.  It  connects  the  moral  world  by  a  dcductivi" 
process  with  the  fundninontal  idea  of  knowledge  and  bci,  '  i? 
olfcis  a  view  of  the  entire  world  of  human  action  which  at  .-.11  events 
aims  at  being  exhaustive;  it  presents  an  anan'-emciit  of  tlw 
matter  ol  the  science  which  tabulates  its  constituents  after  tho 
model  of  the  physical  sciences;  and  it  supplies  a  sharply  defined 
tieatment  ol  specific  moral  phenomena  in  their  relation  to  the 
fundamen  al  idea  of  human  life  as  a  whole.  Schleiennacher 
defines  ethics  as  the  theory  of  the  nature  of  the  reason  or  as 
the  scientific  treatment  of  the  ellects  produced  by  liuiuan  reason 
in  the  \yorld  of  nature  and  man.  As  a  theoretical  or  si.eculative 
science  It  IS  purely  descriptive  and  not  practical,  being  correlated 
0  1  the  one  hand  to  physical  science  and  on  the  other  to  historv  ^ 
Its  method  is  tho  same  as  that  of  j.hysical  science,  bcin"  dis- 
tinguished from  the  latter  only  by  its  matter.  The  outolo-ical 
basis  of  ethics  is  the  unity  of  the  real  and  the  ideal,  and" tho 
psychologu-al  and  actual  basis  of  the  ethical  process  is  the  tendency 
of  reason  and  nature  to  unite  in  the  form  of  the  complete  oigani/a- 
louo  the  latter  by  the  former.  The  end  of  the  ethical  process 
is  that  nature  (i.e.,  all  that  is  not  mind,  tho  Iniuian  body  as  well 
as  external  nature)  may  become  the  perfect  symbol  and  ors;an  of 
mind  Conscience,  as  the  subjective  expression  of  the  piesupposed 
Identity  of  reason  and  nature  in  their  bases,  guarantees  the 
?^,?.  -f^   i"7  f  °"''  T""^   voc=.tiou.     Nature   is  preordained  or 

^]]ul  T    ll  *r°""  '',"  '^''"''°  ^"'^  "''S""  °f ""'"'.  J"«'  «s  mind  is 
endowed  with  the  impulse  to  realize  this  end.     But  the  moral  law 
must  not  be  conceived  under  the  form  of  an  "imperative"  or  a 
bollcn    ■  It  differs  from  a  law  of  nature  only  as  being  descriptive 
ot  the  fact  that  it  ranks  the  mind  as  conscious  will,  or  zwcckdcnkend 
above  nature.     Strictly  speaking,  the  antitheses  of  good  and  bad 
and  of  free  and  necessary  have  no  place  in  an  ethical  system,  but ' 
simply  1,1  history,  which  is  obliged  to  compare  the  actual  with  tho 
Ideal,  but  as  far  as  the  terms  "good  "  and  "  bad  "  are  used  in  morals 
they  express  the  rule  or  the  contrary  of  reason,  or  the  harmony  or 
the  contrary  of  tho  particular  and  the  general.     The  idea  of  "  f/ee  " 
as  opposed  to  necessary  expresses  simply  the  fact  that  the  mind 
can  propose  to  itself  ends,  though  a  man  cannot  alter  his  own  nature 
In  contrast  to  Kant  and  Fichte  and  modern  moral  philosopher 
Schleiermacher  reintroduced  and  assigned  pre-eminent  importanc* 
to   the   doctrine   of  the  sumimtm  bonum,    or  highest  good      It 
represents  in  his  system  the  ideal  and  aim  of  the  eiTtire  litl  of  man 
supplying  the  ethical  view  of  the  conduct  of  individuals  in  relation 
to  society  and  the  universe,  and  therewith  constituting  a  philosophy 
of  historv  at  the  same  time.     Starting  with  tire  idea  of  the  highest 
gooil  and  of  Its  constituent  elements  (Giitcr),  or  the  chief  forms  of 
the  union  of  mind  and  nature,  Schleiermacher's  system  divides  itself 
into  the  doctrine  of  moral  ends,  the  doctrine  of  virtue,  and  the 
doctrine  o.  duties  ;  in  other  words,  as  a  development  of  the  idea  of 
the  subjection  of  nature  to  reason  it  becomes  a  description  of  the 
actual  forms  of  the  triumphs  of  reason,  of  the  moral  power  mani- 
.  Jested  therein,  and  of  the  specific  methods  employed.     Every  moral 
good  or   product  has  a  fourfold  character:  it  is   individual   and 
universal ;  it  is  an  organ  and  symbol  of  the  reason,  that  is,  it  is  the 
product  of  the  individual  with   relation  to  the  community    and 
represents  or  manifests  as  well  as  classifies  and  rules  nature.     The 
first  two  characteristics  provide  for  the  functions  and  rights  of  the 
individual  as  well  as  those  of  the  community  or  race.     Though  a 
moral  action  may  have  these  four  characteristics  at  various  degrees 
ot  strength,  it  ceases  to  be  moral  if  one  of  them  is  quite  absent. 
All  moral  products  may  be  classified  according  to  the  predominance 
ot  one  or  the  other  of  these  characteristics.     Universal  or-'anizing 
action  produces  the  forms  of  intercourse,  and  universal  symbolizini 
action  produces  the  various  forms  of  science  ;  individual  organiz- 
ing action  yields  the  forms  of  property  and  individual  symboliz- 
ing action  the  vaiious  representations  of  feeling,  all  these  constitut-' 
ing  the  relations,  the  productive  spheres,  or  the  social  conditions 
ot  moral  action.     Moral  functions  cannot  be  performed  by  the  indi- 
vidual m  isolation  but  only  in  his  relation  to  the  family,  the  state, 
the  school,  the  church,  and  society,— all  forms  of  human  life  which 
ethical  science  finds  to  its  hand  and  leaves  to  the  science  of  natural 
history  to  account  for.     The  moral  process  is  accomplished  by  the 
various  sections  of  humanity  iu  their  individual  spheres,  and  the 
doctrine  of  virtue  deals  with  the  reason  as   the  moral  power   in 
each  individual  by  which  the  totality  of  moral  products  is  obtained. 
Schleiermacher   classifies    the    virtues  under    the   two   forms    of 
Gesmnung  and  Fcrtigkeit,  the   first  consisting  of  the  pure  ideal 
element  in  action  and  the  second  the  form  it  assumes  in  relation 
to  circumstances,  each  of  the  two  classes  falling  respectively  into 
the  two  divisions  of  wisdom  and  love  and  of  intelligence  and  appli- 
cation.    In  his  system  the  doctrine  of  duty  is  the  description  of  the 
method  of  the  attainment  of  ethical  ends,  the  conception  of  duty 
as  an  imperative,  or  obligation,  being  excluded,  as  we  have  seen. 
No  action  fulfils  the  conditions  of  duty  except  as  it  combines  the 
three  following  antitheses  :  reference  to  the  moral  idea  in  its  whole 
extent  and  likewise  to  a  definite  moral  sphere ;  connexion  with  exist-l 
ing  conditions  and  at  the  same  time  absolute  personal  production ; 
the  fulfilment  of  the  entire  moral  vocation  every  moment  though 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


413 


It  can  only  be  done  in  a  definite  sphere.  Duties  are  divided  with 
Reference  to  the  principle  that  every  man  make  his  own  the  entire 
tnoral  problem  and  act  at  the  same  time  in  an  existing  moral 
society.  This  condition  gives  four  general  classes  of  duty  :  duties 
of  general  association  or  duties  with  reference  to  the  community 
\Rcchlspflichl),  and  duties  of  vocation  {Bernfspflicht)~'boi'\\  with  a 
Dnivcrsal  reference,  duties  of  the  conscience  (in  which  the  indi- 
vidual is  sole  judge),  and  duties  of  love  or  of  personal  association. 
It  was  only  the  first  of  the  three  sections  of  the  science  of  ethics 
■—the  doctrine  of  moral  ends — that  Schleiermacher  handled  with 
approximate  completeness  ;  the  other  two  sections  were  treated 
veiy  summarily.  In  his  Christian  Ethics  he  dealt  with  the  subject 
from  the  b^isis  of  the  Christian  consciousness  instead  of  from  that 
of  reason  generally ;  the  ethical  phenomena  dealt  with  are  the 
Same  in  both  systems,  and  they  throw  light  on  each  other,  while 
the  Christian  system  treats  more-  at  length  and  less  aphoristically 
the  principal  ethical  realities — church,  state,  family,  art,  science, 
and  society.  Rothe,  amongst  other  moral  philosophers,  bases  his 
system  substantially,  with  important  departures,  on  Schleier- 
macher's.  In  Beneice's  moral  system  his  fundamental  idea  was 
worked  out  in  its  psychological  relations. 

I-   Schleiermacher' s    JUligious   System. — From    Leibnitz,    Lessiug, 
Fichte,  Jacobi,  and  the  Romantic  school  he  had  imbibed  a  pro- 
found and  mystical  view  of  the  inner  depths  of  the  human  per- 
sonality.    The  ego,  the  person,  is  an  individualization  of  universal 
reason ;  and  the  primary  act  of  self-consciousness  is  the  first  con- 
junction of  universal  and  individual  life,  the  immediate  union  or 
marriage   of  the  universe  with  incarnated  reason.    'Thus  every 
person  becomes  a  specific  and  original  representation  of  the  uni- 
verse and  a  compendium  of  humanity,  a  microcosmos  in  which  the 
world  is  immediately  reflected.     While  therefore  we  cannot,  as  we 
Lave  seen,  attain  the  ide^  of  the  supreme  unity  of  thought  and 
being  by  either  cognition  or  volition,  we  can  find  it  in  our  own 
personality,  in  immediate  self-consciousness  or  (which  is  the  same 
in  Schleiermacher's  terminology)  feeling.     Feeling  in  this  higher 
sense  (as  distinguished  from     organic     sensibility,  Empfindunq), 
which  is  the  minimum  of  distinct  antithetic  consciousness,  the 
cessation  of  the  antithesis  of  subject  and  object,  constitutes  like- 
wise 'the  unity  of  our  being,  in  which  the  opposite  functions  of 
cognition  and  volition   have   their   fundamental   and  permanent 
background  of  personality  and  their  transitional  link.       Having 
its  seat  in  this  central  point  of  our  being,  or  indeed  consisting  in 
the  essential  fact  of  self-consciousness,  religion  lies  at  the  basis  of 
all  thought  and  action.     At  various  periods  of  his  life  Schleier- 
macher used  different  terms  to  represent  the  character  and  relation 
of  religious  feeling.     In  his  earlier  days  he  called  it  a  feeling  or 
intuition  of  the  universe,  consciousness  of  the  unity  of  reason  and 
nature,  of  the  infinite  and  the  eternal  within  the  finite  and  the 
temporal.     In  later  life  he  described  it  ns  the  feeling  of  absolute 
dependence,  or,  as  meaning  the  same  thing,  the  consciousness  of 
being  in  relation  to  God.     In  our  consciousness  of  the  world  the 
feelings  of  relative  dependence  and  relative  independence  are  found; 
we  are  acted  upon,  bat  we  also  react.     In  our  religious  conscious- 
ness the  latter  element  is  excluded,  and  everything  within  and 
without  us  is  referred  to  its  absolute  cause,  that  is,  God.     But, 
when  we  call  this  absolnte  canae  God,  the  name'atands  solely  as 
'indicating  the  unknown  source  of  our  receptive  and  active  existence ; 
on  the  one  hand  it  means  that  the  world  upon  which  we  can  react 
is  not  the  source  of  the  feeling,  on  the  other,  that  the  Absolute  is 
not  an  object  of  thought  or  knowledge.     This  feeling  of  absolute 
dependence  can  arise  only  in  combination  with  other  forms  of  con- 
sciousness.    We  derive  the  idea  of  a  totality  by  means  of  its  parts, 
and  the  transcendental  basis  of  being  comes  to  us  through  the  agency 
lof  individual  phenomena.     As  in  every  affection  of  our  being  by 
individual  phenomena  we  are  brought  into  contact  with  the  whole 
universe,  wo  are  brought  into  contact  with  God  at  the  same  time 
•■  ita  transcendental  cause.     This  religious  feeling  is  not  know- 
ledge in  the  strict  sense,  as  it  is  purely  subjective  or  immediate  ; 
but  it  lies  at  the  basis  of  all  knowledge.     As  immediate  know- 
ledge, however,  it  is  no  more  thai)  the  consciousness  of  the  unity 
of  the  world,   a  unity  which  ^x  never  be   reached  by  hninan 
inquiry.     Religious  truths,  such  as  the  determination  of  all  things 
by  God,  are  simply  the  implications  of  the  feeling  of  absolute 
dependence.      While  that  feeling  is  the  characteristic  of  religion 
generally,    this   assumes  various   forms  as   the   religions   of   the 
world.     The  so-called  natural  as  distinguished  from  positive  reli- 
gion, or  the  religion  of  rca-son,  is  a  mere  abstraction.    All  religions 
are  positive,  or  their  characteristics  and  value  are  mainly  deter- 
mined by  the  manner  in  which  the  world  is  conceived  and  imagined. 
But  these  varying  conceptions  with  their  religious  meaning  become 
religiously  produstivc  only  in  the  souls  of  religious  heroes,  who 
are  the  authors  of  new  reHgions,  mediators  of  the  religious  life, 
founders   of  religious   communities.      For  religion  is  essentially 
social.       It  everywhere  forms  churches,  whii-h  arc  the  necessary 
instruments  and  organs  of  its  highest  life.     The  specific  feature  of 
Christianity  is  its  mediatorial  element,  its  profound  feeling  cf  the 
■triving  of  the  finite  individual  to  reach  the  unity  of  the  iufiuito 


whoie,  and  its  conception  of  the  way  in  which  Deity  deals  with 
this  cfl'ort  by  mediatorial  agencies,  which  are  both  divine  and 
human.  It  is  the  religion  of  mediatorial  salvation,  and,  as 
Schleiermacher  emphatically  taught  in  his  riper  works,  of  salvation 
through  the  mediation  of  Christ ;  that  is,  its  possessors  are  con- 
scious of  having  been  delivered  by  Jesus  of  Nazareth  from  a  con- 
dition in  which  their  religious  consciousness  was  overridden  by  the 
sense-consciousness  of  the  world  and  put  into  one  in  which  it  domi- 
nates, and  everything  is  subordinated  to  it.  The  consciousness  of 
being  saved  in  this  sense  is  now  transmitted  and  mediated  by  the 
Christian  church,  but  in  the  case  of  Jesus,  its  originator,  ifwas  an 
entirely  new  and  original  factor  in  the  process  of  religious  develop- 
ment, and  in  so  far,  like  every  new  and  higher  stage  of  being,  a 
supernatural  revelation.  It  was  at  the  same  time  a  natural  attain- 
ment, in  as  far  as  man's  nature  and  the  universe  were  so  constituted 
as  to  involve  its  production.  The  appearance  of  the  Saviour  in 
human  history  is  therefore  as  a  divine  revelation  neither  absolntely 
supernatural  nor  absolutely  beyond  reason,  and  the  controversy  of 
the  18th  century  between  the  rationalists  and  supernaturalists  rests 
on  false  grounds,  leads  to  wrong  issues,  and  each  party  is  right  and 
wrong  (see  Rationalism).  As  regards  Christian  theology,  it  is  not 
its  business  to  formulate  and  establish  a  system  of  objective  truth, 
but  simply  to  present  in  a  clear  and  connected  form  a  given  body 
of  Christian  faith  as  the  contents  of  the  Christian  consciousness. 
Dogmatic  theology  is  a  connected  and  accurate  accovmt  of  the  doo- 
trine  held  at  a  particular  time  iu  a  given  sectionof  the  Christian 
church.  But  such  doctrines  as  constitute  no  integral  part  of  the 
Christian  consciousness — e.g.,  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity— must  be 
excluded  from  the  theological  system  of  the  evangelical  theologian. 
As  regards  the  relation  of  theology  and  philosophy,  it  is  not  one  of 
dependence  or  of  opposition  on  either  side,  but  of  complete  inde- 
pendence, equal  authority,  distinct  functions,  and  perfect  harmony. 
Feeling  is  not  a  mental  function  subordinate  to  cognition  or  voli- 
tion, but  of  equal  rank  and  authority;  yet  feeling,  cognition,  and 
volition  alike  conduct  to  faith  in  the  unknown  Absolute,  though 
by  different  paths  and  processes. 

The  marked  feature  of  Schleiermacher's  thought  in  every  dep.ort- 
ment  is  the  effort  to  combine  and  reconcile  in  the  unity  of  a 
system  the  antithetic  conceptions  of  other  thinkers.  He  is  real- 
istic and  idealistic,  individualistic  and  universalistic,  monistic  and 
dualistic,  sensationalist  and  intellectualist,  naturalist  and  super- 
naturalist,  rationalist  and  mystic,  gnostic  and  agnostic.  He  is 
the  prince  of  the  Vermiltlcr  in  philosophy,  ethics,  religion,,  and 
theology.  But  he  does  not  seek  to  reconcile  the  an'titheses  of 
thought  and  being  by  weakening  and  hiding  the  points  of 
difference  ;  on  the  contrary,  he  brings  them  out  in  their  sharpest 
outlines.  His  method  is  to  distinctly  define  the  opposing  elements 
and  then  to  seek  their  harmonious  combination  by  the  aid  of  a 
deeper  conception.  Apart  from  the  positive  and  jiermanent  value 
of  the  higher  unities  which  he  succeeds  in  establishing,  the  light 
and  suggestiveness  of  his  di-scussions  and  treatment  of  the  great 
points  at  issue  in  all  the  principal  fields  of  human  thought,  un- 
satisfactory as  many  of  his  positions  may  be  considered,  make 
him  one  of  the  most  helpful  and  instructive  of  modern  thinkers 
And,  since  the  focus  of  his  almost  universal  thought  and  inquiry  and 
of  his  rich  culture  and  varied  life  was  religion  and  theology,  he  must 
be  regarded  as  the  classical  representative  of  modern  ofl^ort  to 
reconcile  science  and  philosophy  with  religion  and  theology,  and 
the  modern  worid  with  the  Chrislian  church. 

Schlclenmctier'B  collected  works  h«»6  been  puWlshcJ  In  ttireo  '"'lo"' = 
I.  Theological,  IT.  Sermons,  III.  I'hllosorhlcal-ou<l  Hlsccllnncoui,  Berlin,  1M5--64, 
In  30  vols.  Of  lives  of  him  the  best  arc  his  own  <='>""V''^'^l';'''',*^,?'2'"Z' 
Eng.  transl.  by  RowRn);  I.,b,n  ScMritrmachfrS  by  \M  lu-lm  I'llthoy  ("o'- '■•  tj' 
period  from  17e8-lR04.  all  published  as  ycl)l  Fntdmh  SMeurmaclitr.mi 
Lebem.  «.  Char^kterWd,  by  D.  Schcnkcl  (Klbcrfeld,  ISGR).  Tho  acco»n«T«.a 
critiques  of  his  philosophy,  ethics,  and  thcolopy  avc  numerous:  ''°™^' <''.''  \"."'' 
valuable  arc-J.  Schaller,  VorU!u„g,n  ''':''\*"''f  ^''"5''*^  (''»''";,,'*'lt>  •,,^s4m 

Sleewart,  ••SchlclcmucheVs  Elkcnnt.d.slhcorlo  und  'I'™  'J^'^  J"?^  .'"J,,^'," 
Glaubenslehre,"  In  the  Jahrlh.  f.  Peui.  Thnl..  vol.  II.  pp.  ",07-3-''.  "i,^, "Ip  •,  , '^'■ 
"Schleiermacher's  Leh.e  von  der  Per.tinllchkclt  Gotte.  "  n  ^'<'JXL.^^.-. 
1B42,  pp.  2U3  J,.;  F.  Voi-liindcr,  SchMfrmacher  •  «""'"';" '""'""'K.IBSI). 
W,  Binder,  ScLiermarl„r,  Theclogic  mil  *>>"", tT°'^t'f:^Lr%J^\V^ 
(1870-78).  See  also  the  histories  of  philosophy  nnd  theolocy  by  '•'''"■  "''«;"'?■ 
Chalybajus,  Domcr,  and  Goss,  and  the  article  by  the  last-named  '"  H^"g°«' 
Encyklopddie.  '     '    ' 

SCHLESWIG  (Danish  Slesmg),  the  capital  of  the 
Prussian  province  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  is  situated  at 
the  west  end  of  tbo  long  narrow  arm  of  the  sea  called 
the  Schlei,  30  miles  to  the  north-west  of  Kiel.  lUe 
town  consists  mainly  of  a  single  street,  3 A  miles  long, 
forming  a  semicircle  round  the  Schlei,  and  is  divided  into 
the  Altstadt  (with  the  Holm),  the  Lollfuss,  and  the 
Fricdrichsberg.  The  principal  church  erected  as  a 
cathcdi-al  about  1100,  but  renewed  lu  the  Golh.c  stylo  in 
the  15th  century,  contains  a  very  fine  carved  oak  aitar- 
screen.    regardi.l    n.s  the   most    valuable  work   of  art  la 


41-1 


SCHLES  WIG 


Schleswig-Holstein.  Between  Friedrichsberg  and  LoUfuss 
is  the  old  chateau  of  Gottorp,  now  despoiled  of  its  art 
treasures  and  used  as  barracks.  The  former  commercial 
importance  of  the  town  has  disappeared,  and  the'Schlei 
now  affords  access  to  small  vessels  only.  Fishing  and  the 
manufacture  of. a  few  articles  of  common  use  are  the  chief 
occupations  of  the  inhabitants.  The  population  in  1S85 
was  15,187,  all  Protestants  except  about  250  Eoman 
CathoKcs  and  70  Jews. 

'  Se!ilcs\rig  (ancient  forms  SUcstliorp,  Slicoswic,  i.e.,  the  towm  or 
bay  of  tlie  Slia  or  Sclilei)  is  a  to\m  of  very  remote  origin,  and 
seems  to  liave  been  a  trading  place  of  considerable  importance  as 
early  as  the  9tli  century.  It  served  as  a  medium  of  commercial 
intercourse  between  the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic,  and  was  known 
to  the  old  Arabian  geographers.  Tlie  first  Christian  church  in  this 
district  was  built  here  by  Ansgarius  about  8D0,  and  it  became  the 
seat  of  a  bisliop  about  a  cintury  later.  The  town  also  became  the 
seat  of  the  dukes  of  Schleswig,  but  ils  commerce  gradually  dwindled 
owing  to  the  rivalry  of  Liilieck,  the  numerous  wars  in  which  the 
district  was  involved,  and  tlie  silting  up  of  the  SchJcL  At  the 
partition  of  1544  the  old  chateau  oi  Gottorp,  originally  built  in 
1160  for  the  bishop,  became  the  residence  of  the  ducal  or  Gottorp 
line  of  Scliieswig-Holstein,  which  remained  here  till  expelled  by 
Frederick  IV.  in  1713.  From  1731  to  1846  it  was  the  seat  of  the 
Danish  governors  of  the  duchies.  In  the  wa''s  of  1S4S  and  1864 
Schleswig  was  an  important  strategical  point  on  account  of  its 
proximity  to  the  Dauewerk,  and  was  occupied  by  tha  dilTatont 
contending  parties  in  turn.  It  has  been  tin.  capital  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein  since  its  incorporation  by  Prussia. 

To  the  south  of  Schleswig  are  the  scanty  remains  of  the  Danewcrk 
or  Danncwirke,  a  line  of  entrenchments  between  the  Schlei  and  the 
Treene,  believed  to  have  been  originally  thrown  up  in  the  9th 
century  or  even  earlier,  and  afterwards  repeatedly  strengthened  and 
enlarged.  After  the  union  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  it  lost  its 
importance  as  a  frontier  defence,  and  was  allowed  to  fall  into 
disrepair.  The  Danewerk  was  stormed  by  the  Prussians  in  1848, 
but  was  afterwards  so  greatly  extended  and  strengthened  by  the 
Danes  that  it  would  have  been  almost  impregnable  if  defended  by 
a  sufficient  number  of  troops.  In  the  war  of  1864,  however,  the 
Danish  army  was  far  too  small  for  this  task,  and  General  de  jleza 
abandoned  the  Danewerk  without  striking  a  blow,  a  step  which 
caused  deep  disappointment  to  the  Danes  and  led  to  the  dismissal 
of  the  general.     Since  then  the  works  have  been  entirely  levelled. 

SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN,  a  maritime  province  in 
the  north-west  of  Prussia,  formed  out  of  the  once  Danish 
duchies  of  Schlesvrig-Holstein  and  Lauenburg,  is  bounded 
on  the  ■  W.  by  the  German  Ocean,  on  the  N.  by  Jutland, 
on  the  E.  by  the  Baltic,  Liibeck,  and  Mecklenburg,  and 
on  the  S.  by  Mecklenbtu-g  and  the  lower  course  of  the 
Elbe  (separating  it  from  Hanover).  It  thus  consists  of 
the  southern  half  of  the  Cimbric  peninsula,  and'  forms  the 
cormecting  link  between  Germany  and  Denmark.  In 
addition  to  the  mainland,  which  decreases  in  breadth 
from  south  to  north,  the  province  includes  several  islands, 
the  most  important  being  Alsen  and  Fehmarn  in  the 
Baltic,  and  Rom,  Sylt,  and  Fohr  in  the  North  Sea. 
The  total  area  of  the  province  is  7280  square  miles, 
450  of  which  belong  to  the  small  duchy  of  Lauenburg 
in  the  south-east  corner,  while  the  rest  are  divided 
almost  equally  between  Holstein  to  the  south  of  the 
Eider  and  Schleswig  to  the  north  of  it.  From  north 
to  south  the  province  is  about  140  miles  long,  while  its 
^readth  varies  from  90  miles  in  Holstein  to  35  miles  at 
the  nan'ower  parts  of  Schleswig. 

Schleswig-Holstein  belongs  to  the  great  North-German 
plain,  of  the  characteristic  features  of  which  it  affords  a 
faithful  reproduction  in  miniature,  down  to  the  continua- 
tion of  the  Baltic  ridge  or  plateau  (see  Germany)  by  a 
range  of  low  wooded  hills  skirting  its  eastern  coast  and 
culminating  in  the  Bungsberg  (570  feet),  a  little  to  the 
north  of  Eutin.  ■  This  hilly  district  contains  the  most 
productive  land  in^  the  province,  the  soil  consisting  of 
diluvial  drift  or  boulder  clay.  The  central  part  of  the 
province  forms,  practically  a  continuation  of  the  great 
Mfiebufg  Heath,  and  its  thin  sandy  soil  is  of  little  use  in 
cultivation.     Alon^^the  west  .coast  .extends  the  'IMarsh- 


laud,"  a  belt  of  rich  alluvial  soil  formed  by  the  deposits  6t 
the  German  Ocean,  and  varying  in  breadth  from  five  to 
fifteen  miles.  It  is  sel'dom  more  than  a  few  feet  above 
the  sea-level,  while  at  places  it  is  actually  below  it,  and  it 
has  consequently  to  be  defended  by  an  extensive  system 
of  dykes  or  emba.  kments,  25  feet  high,  resembling  thoS 
of  Holland.  The  nore  ancient  geological  formations  are 
scarcely  met  with  in  Schleswig-Holstein.  The  contrast 
between  the  t..-o' coast-lines  of  the  province  is  very, 
marked.  The  Baltic  coast,  about  300  miles  in  length, 
has  generally  steep  .well-defined  banks  and  is  very  irregular 
itt  form,  being  pierced  by  numerous  long  and  narrow  fjords^ 
which  run  deep  into  the  interior  of  the  land  and  often  afford 
excellent  harbours.  "  The"  islands  "of  Alsen  and  Fehmani 
are  separated  from  the  coast  by  very  narrow  channels.' 
The  North  Sea  coast  (200  miles),  on  the  other  hand,  is  veiy^ 
low  and  flat,  and  its  smooth  outline  is  interrupted  only  by, 
the  estuary  of  the  Eider  and  the  peninsola  of  Eiderstedtj 
Dnnes  or  sand-hills,  though  rare  on  the  protected  main' 
land,  occur  on  Sylt  and  other  islands,  while  the  small 
unprotected  islands  called  "  Halligen  "  are  being  gradviallj 
washed  away  by  the  sea.  The  numerous  islands  on  the 
west  coast  probably  formed  part  of  the  peninsula  at  no 
very  remote  period,  and  the  sea  between  them  and  the 
mainland  is  very  shallow  and  full  of  sandbanks.  The 
climate  of  Schleswig-Holstein  is  mainly  determined  by 
the  proximity  of  the  sea,  and  the  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture, varying  from  45°  Fahr.  in  the  north  to  49°  Fahrj 
in  the  south,  is  rather  higher  than  is  usual  in  the  same 
latitude.  Bain  and  fog  are  frequent,  but  the  climate 
is  on  the  whole  very  heaJthy.  The  lower  course  of  the 
Elbe  forms  the  southern  boundary  of  Holstein  for  63 
miles,  but  the  only  river  of  importance  within  the  pro? 
vince  is  the  Eider,  which  rises  in  Holstein,  and  after  a 
course  of  120  miles  falls  into  the  North  Sea,  forming  an 
estuary  3  to  12  miles  in  breadth.  It  is  navigable  from  its 
mouth  as  far  as  Kendsburg,  and  the  waterway  betweea 
the  two  seas  is  completed  by  a  canal  from  Rendsburg  to 
Kiel  The  new  Baltic  Canal,  which  is  to  be  navigable  for 
large  vessels,  will  also  intersect  Holstein.  There  are 
numerous  lakes  in  north-east  Holstein,  the  largest  oil 
which  are  the  Ploner  See  (12  square  miles)  and  the  Selenten 
See  (9  square  miles). 

Of  the  total  area  of  the  province  58 '3  per  cent,  is  occupied  by 
tilled  land,  28 '5  per  cent  by  meadows  and  pasiures,  and  only  6'4 
per  cent,  by  forests.  The  ordinary  cereals  are  all  cultivated  with 
success  and  there  is  generally  a  considerable  surplus  for  exportation ; 
rape  is  grown  in  the  marsh  lands  and 'flax  on  the  east  coast,  while 
large  quantities  of  apples  and  other  fruit  are  raised  near  Altona  for 
the  Hamburg  and  English  markets.  In  1S83  the  province  contained 
156,534  horses,  727,505  cattle,  320,768  sheep,  268,061  pigs,  auJl 
42,580  goats.  The  marsh  lands  afford  admirable  pasture,  and  a, 
greater  proportion  of  cattle  (65  per  100  inhabitants)  is  reared  in, 
Schleswig-Holstein,  mainly  by  small  owners,  than  in  any  other 
Prussian  province.  Great  numbers  of  fat  cattle  are  exported  to 
England.  The  Holstein  horses  are  also  in  request,  but  sheep-j 
farming  is  comparatively  neglected.  Eee-keepirig  is  found  a 
productive  industry,  and  in  1883  the  province  possessed  113,83ft( 
hives.  The  hills  skirting  the  bajflkof  the  Baltic  coast  are  generally! 
pleasantly  wooded,  but  the  forests  are  nowhere  of  great  extent 
except  in  the  duchy  of  Lauenburg.  The  fishing  in  the  Baltic  ia 
productive  ;  Eckernforde  is  the  chief  fishing  station  in  Prussia.' 
The  oysters  from  the  beds  on  the  west  coast  of  Schleswig  ara! 
widely  known  under  the  misnomer  of  "Holstein  natives."  The 
mineral  resources  of  the  province  are  almost  confined  to  a  few  layei^ 
of  rock-salt  near  Segeberg.  The  manufacturing  industry  is  also 
insignificant  and  does  not  extend  much  beyond  the  large  towns,, 
such  as  Altona,  Kiel,  and  Flensburg.  The  shipbuilding  of  Kiel 
and  other  seaports  is,  however,  important ;  and  lace  is  made  by  the 
peasants  of  North  Sclileswig.  The  commerce  and  shipping  of 
Schleswig-Holstein,  stimulated  by  its  position  between  two  seas,  as 
well  as  by  its  excellent  harbours  and  waterways,  are  much  more 
prominent  than  its  manufactures.  Kiel  is  the  c^ief  seaport  of 
Prussia,  while  an  oversea  trade  is  also  carried  on  by  Altona  and 
Flensburg.  The  main  exports  are  grain,  cattle,  horses,  fish,  and 
oyster3^in  return  for  which  come  timber,  coal,  salt,  wine,  and. 


SCHLE  SWIG-HOLS  TEIN 


415 


calonial  produce.  The  trading  fleet  of  Schleswig-Holstcin  m  1834 
^nristei^of  713  vessels  (142%tearaers),  «'.th  a  totnl  l'"rthen  of 
VTm  tons  ;  more  than  half  the  ships  belonged  to  the  North 
lli'coast,  but  90  per  cent,  of  the  steamers  and  bo  per  cent,  of  the 
tonnage  must  be  credited  to  the  Bal"«-  197  lio   comnris- 

The  population  of  the  province  m  1880  was  1,12,  149   compm 
inel  111  383  Protestants,  890:!  Koraan  Catholics,  and  3522  Jews. 

Ten.    s"a1^sorbe"d  by  the  official  and  Pro"al  dasses    and     i 

of  the    ""''"«""'"?., ,,,7  tijpje  are  about  150,000  Danes  m  the 

^'"^"r^a/t^orScMg       Among   the   Geru^ans  the   prevalent 
north   part   "f  be  'leimg.      ^        h        ,  ■  ^^^  ^g^t  coast  of 

Ssw^^.:itS  n'h'sttLu<L'tout  30,000  i^ 

as  their  mother-tongue.  Itie  cniei  euu'.  „„  j  ti,p  .jreiience  of 
Schleswi-Holstein  is  the  university  of  Kiel;  and  the  excellence  01 

o  m^re7are  a  so  maintained.  The  province  sends  ten  members 
t  Kichstag  and  nineteen  to  the  Prussian  house  of  deputies. 
The  provincial  estates  meet  lu  Rendsburg.  Pimhric 

Alitor!/— The  history   of  the  southern   part    of    the  ^-imbne 
peSnsula'is  the  record'of  a  struggle  between  *«  0--^^^°%*^ 
Hermans   endin"  iu  the   meantime  in  favour  of  the  latter,     ine 
earTest  nhSts  of  whose  existence  we  have  any  trace  seem  to 
have  be«i  of  German  stock,  and  German  authorities  'Tiamtam  that 
ft  was  the  emigration  to  England  of  the  Jutes  and  Angles  that  fi.st 
cave  the  Scandinavian  or  Danish  element  scope  to  develop  m  the 
§tV.i,.f       In    the    earlv    part    of   the    ninth    century   we    find 
Chlremagie  in  c:nflict^vit'li  the  Danish  rulers  of  South  Jut  and  or 
Schleswi-'  and  establishing  a  "  Danish  mark  "between  the  Eider 
and  th"  Schlei.     Some  attempt  to  introduce  Chr.st.aiuty  w-as  also 
made  at  tM9  time  by  Bishop  Ansgarius,  but  it  was  not  till  the 
Sfddle^of  the  foUowin'g  century  that  the  "- "^^  "^''^f^V'^-S 
annroachina  to   general    acceptance.     In  1027   the   Uanisn   Kin„ 
ETtlie  English  Canute)  obtained  from  Conrad  the  recognition 
of  Scl  leswig's  inderendence  of  tlio  empire,  and   henceforth    the 
Eider   became    the  'recognized    boundary  .1??,  -^"  , f-™,-^  ^^^l^ 
•        Denmark  ("  EidoraRomani  terminus  imperii   ).    SchlesNug,  thougli 
a  dsh  province,  was   not  merged  in  tho  other   possessions   of 
Denmak,  but  enjoyed  a  cerUin  measure  of  independence   under 
the  r^te  of  viceroys  or  dukes  chosen  from  the  younpr  sons  of  the 
royal  houe      One  of  the  most  vigorous  of  these  rufers  was  Knud 
l7wml  (1115-1131)    who  extended  his   sway  over   the  Wcndish 
te  of  Wa4m   s  e  below)  and  held  it  as  a  fief  of  the  German 
cmp"re      I  e  wasthus  tho  first  ruler  of  Schksvng   to   hold   that 
«"^ulaV  double  relationship  to  the  kiug  of  Denmark  a^^^^^^^^^ 
empire  which  afterwards  became  so  important  a  f»=  "'^"/^^ '"'^"'y 
of  the  country.    Valdemar,  son  of  Knud.  became  king  "f -Den™^'  «;. 
:„d  KniX%ndson,  King  V.aldemar  •I-.,'°t  ^2      Thrtrm 
«;m>th  Jutland  or  Schlcsw  c  on  his  son  Abelm  1232.      llio  teims 
of  this  investment  afterlar^ds  became  a  fertile  sub  ect  of  dispute 
bteen?h:  dukes  and  the  crown,  the  i^^-^^rT^ZlTvl'Z 
held  their  land  as  an  hereditary  and  inalienable  fief,  while  the  kings 
aw  e    thauhc  fief  was  revocable  at  pleasure     Tho  dukes,  however. 
2f  ted  by  their  kinsmen,  tho  counts  of  Ho  stem,  succeeded  in 
^allhlim"  their   position   and   finally  remained   in   undisputed 
po"'  l-fio    ?f  tl.eir  duchy.     In  1326  Duko  Valdemar  V.  of  Schleswig 
rrSsd  to  the   throne  of  Denmark   through  the   influence  of 
hiTuncle  Com  t  Gerhard  of  Holstein,  to  whom  in  return  ho  ce,  ed 
is  duch;.     Valdemar  had  to  abdicate  in  1330  and  rt;ce.vod  his 
dm-lv  Im^k   acain,   granting,  however,   the  "  Constitutio  Valde- 
S^whlh  ensured  the  rightsof  eventual  succession  n  Schlosw.g 
totho' Holstein  counts.     TMs  compact  can.e  to  fraition  in  IJ/B. 
when  the  male  ducal  line  became  extinct,  and  Margaret  of  Denmark 
fonnallv    recognised    tho   union    of  tho   two   terntones  m    1380 
»™  .l^,.t1,  ghave  the  same  prince  ruling  over  Schleswig  and 
'■iTlion».;;^o(  Scl.lr.wlg  M  not  como  Into  general  u>n  for  U.U  p.rt  o(  tho 
Clmbric  p.nln°nla  until  tho  enrt  of  tho  lUh  f.nlury. 


Holstein,  holding  the.  first  aa  a  fief  of  the  Danish  crown  and  the 
"'Tr^t'o:^:fH:iSre^re^iU  union  with  ScW^^^^^^^ 

rti^^r^^  o?»::^=W^  s^ 

,.hom  it  was  divided  into  four  gaus  or  hundreds  -I^.  T^J^'^X 
7nv  1  on  the  west,  Holstein  proper  or  Holtsaten  (    men  ot  tne 
forest")  in  tbe  middle,  Wagria  on  the  east   \ud  Stormam  ou  the 
south      The  Nordalbingians  were  the  last  of  the  Saxons  to  be  sub- 
dued by  Charlemagne  (80  4),  who  gave  Wagria  to  his  Wendish  aUies 
the  Obotrito   and  estabUshed  a  Wendish  mark  on  their  fronUer  at 
the  kame  time  that  he  established  a  DanUhmark  on  the  Euler. 
TheXr  three  gaus  were  incorporated  with  the  duchy  .fSaxonT. 
Dithma^chenTeing  included  In  the  countship   of  Stade  wbi^ 
Holstoin   and   Stormarn  had  a  count  of   their  own       In   1110 
the  countship   of  Holstein   was  conferred   uuon   Adolphusl.    of 
Schaue^iburgf  who   founded  the  influential   fine  that   eventn.lly 
™led  over  IchleSwig-Holstein.     Wagria  was  ='dded  to  HoUt«n  by 
Adolohus  IL  about  1140.     In  the  beginning  of  the  ISth  ceutary 
fhoDanTsh  kings  extended  their  sway  over  all  German  t*rntor,  to 
the  north  of  the  Elbe,'  and  their  conquests  were  confirmed  by  aa 
■         ;,i  „.L(-  in  1214      This  state  of  afl^airs,  however,  was  of  no 
IZ  coitfJuanc"  an'd  Adolphus  III.  of  Holstein  succeeded  in  re- 
esXshng  hi  dependence  in  1225.     The  Ho  stein  famJy  now 
became     pfit    up  into    several    branch-lines,  ^  of    wluch   that    of 


Sbiul' proved  Ae"  mo^t^rastinfa^'Tm^rlant. "  A  ^.rghter 
of  this  line  married  Duke  Abel  0!  Schleswig,  and  the  Holstem 
counts  lent  faithful  aid  to  their  kinsmen  in  resisting  the  encroach- 
^nt?  iml  claims-  of  the  kings  of  Denmark.  In  the  distracted 
sUto  of  Denm  A  a  he  begfnning  of  the  .14th  centurv  Count 
G^rha^d  of  Mstein  became  the  practical  ruler  of  the  king<fom.  but 
preferred  to  place  the  crown  on  the  head  of  his  nephew  Valdemar 
Leeallv  speaiing,  Holstein  remained  a  mediate  fief  of  Saxony; 
bufwith  the  decline  of  the  Saxon  duchy  this  relationship  became 
obscued,  and,  when  the  Holstein  lands  were  created  a  Suchy  m 
1474   the  new  duke  held  his  lands  directly  from  the  emperor. 

In  1448  the  royal  line  of  Denmark  became  extinct  and  the 
crown  was  off-ered  to  Adolphus  VII.  of  Schleswig- Holstein  who 
refiTsed  it  for  himself  but  exerted  his  influence  to  secure  rt  for  his 
neSw  ChrTstian  ot  Oldenburg.  Adolphus  died,  in  1459  lea^ng 
no  sons  Christian  was  the  legal  heir  of  Schleswig,  but  his  claims 
to  Holstein  were  by  no  means  to  strong.  The  -tates  0  Schlesv^g^ 
Holstein  however,  decided  in  bis  favour  on  the  plea  that  the 
Siohe  "'could  not  be  separated,  and  exacted  from  him  a  confirma- 
Sn  0  thfs  indissoluble  c^onnex-ion.  It  was  also  formally  st^ulat^ 
that  the  duchies  should  never  bo  actually  incorporated  mth  the 
kingdom  of  Denmark,  while  the  hereditary  nature  of  the  fief  was 
g  ven  u^  and  the  estates  acquired  the  right  to  choose  i'^  their  duke 
fnv  one  of  Christian's  descendants.  This  Succession  Act  was  fte 
basis  of  the  union  of  the  two  duchies  for  the  next  four  hundred 
yea^s  and  the  practical  contradiction  between  their  own  inseparable 

?:nne.xTon  and^heir  feudal  duty  to  ,ii"«-';^XZd^  "  Schl  swi^- 
the  cause  and  the  explanation  of  the  comphcated      bchleswig 

"  Now'Xws'rseries  of  endless  shiftings,  divisions,  and  reunions 

of  thrtwo  duchies.     After  1580  the  various  collateral  hues  of  the 

Oldenbg    family  thus   formed    are   represented    by   two    mam 

branches -the  roval  or  Gliickstadt  line  and  the  Oottorp  or  duel 

Hnc        n  the\uvision  of  Schleswig-Holstein  between  those  two  no 

,^"  ard  was  paid  to  the  boundary  of  the  Eider  ;  each  of  them  ruled 

ov°r  detache^d  parts  of  both  duchies,  though  the  whole  of  Schlesw^^ 

w-K.   Still   under  the  sovereignty  of  Denmark  and   the   whole  01 

HolstciT^und  r  that  of  Germanyf    Pi-actically  Schleswig  came  to  be 

r  gard  d  1°^^^^^^^^  Denmark,  while  Holste.n's  connexron 

with  Germauv  preserved  for  it  a  flicker  of  independence.     In  HM 

Cma  k  be  ame  an  absolute  monarchy  and  the  principle  of  fern  J. 

"ion  was  acknowledged.     As  *"  ScWesw'g-Wstein  tl     ngM 

of  inheritance  was  confined  to  the  male  lino,  the  policy  of  DY'"'"," 

waL  vigorously  directed  towards  doin^  away  as  far  as  l'o^>bl«  «'t> 

all  separate  rights  in  the  duchy.  anS  to  gettmg  the   Got  to™  or 

ducal   portions   into  the   possession   of  the   crown.     This  poucy 

was   natoally   more  successful   in   Schleswig   than   in   Hof.t«D. 

Ld  in     721  Frederick  IV.  was  able  to  gain  the  guarantee  of  th. 

powers  for  the  incorporation  of  tho  whole  "f.  S^l''"7.'8  ^^  *^  *^' 

Ksh   monarchy.      He  had,  however,  to  give  up  I'ls  claim  to 

Holstein      ?n   17C2   tho  Holstcin-Gottorp  line  8»cc  ed^  Jo   tho 

^ThrSriod  from  1773  to  1846  was  one  of  peace  f^f^t";^,-}-"'^; 
with  cnLiderable  Progress  in  materiiU  prosperity.     Tho  fall  of  tha 

duool  lloljtcln.  »■•«  not  luliilucd  till  1«8S. 


416 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


German  empire  in  1806  released  Holsteiu  for  a  time  from  any  con- 
nexion with  a  power  outside  of  Denmark,  but  in  1815  tlie  lianisli 
monarch  had  to  enter  the  German  Confederation  for  Holstein  and 
for  the  recently  acquired  duchy  of  Lauenbubo  (^.u.)-  A  strong 
feeling  of  German  patriotism  gradually  arose  in  Holstein,  affecting 
part  of  Schleswig  also,  and  dissatisfaction  with  the  delay  of  the 
Danish  crown  in  recognizing  the  constitutional  rights  of  the  duchies 
led  to  the  events  forming  the  recent  history  of  Schleswig-Holstein. 
These  will  be  found  described  with  some  detail  in  the  articles 
Denmark  (vol.  vii.  pp.  88,  89)  and  Germany  (vol.  x.  pp.  507, 
509-612).  (J.  F.  M.) 

SCHLETTSTADT,  a  small  town  in  Lower  Alsace, 
stands  on  the  111,  26  miles  to  the  south  of  Strasburg.  It 
possesses,  two  fine  churches,  relics  of  a  period  of  former 
importance,  and  carries  on  manufactures  of  wire  gauze, 
and  a  considerable  trade  in  country  produce.  The  popu- 
lation in  1880  was  8979  (7755  Roman  Catholics),  showing 
a  slight  decrease  since  it  has  passed  into  German  hands. 

Sehlettstadt  is  a  place  of  very  early  origin,  and  became  a  free 
town  of  the  empire  in  the  13th  century.  In  the  15th  century  it 
was  the  seat  of  a  celebrated  academy,  founded  by  Agricola,  whicli 
contributed  not  a  little  to  the  revival  of  learning  in  this  part  of 
Germany;  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam  was  one  of  its  students.  In  1634 
the  town  came  into  the  possession  of  France,  and  it  was  afterwards 
fortified  by  Vauban.  It  offered  little  resistance,  however,  to  the 
Germans  in  1870,  and  the  fortifications  have  been  razed.  ■ 

SCHLOZER,  August  Lddwig  von  (1735-1809), 
German  historian,  was  born  at  Gaggstedt,  in  the  county 
of  Hohenlohe-Kirchberg,  on  the  5th  July  1735.  Having 
studied  at  the  universities  of  Wittenberg  and  Gottingen, 
he  went  in  1755  as  a  tutor  to  Stockholm,  and  afterwards 
to  Upsala ;  and  while  in  Sweden  he  wrote  in  the  Swedish 
language  aa  Essay  on  the  History  of  Trade  (1758). 
In  1759  he  returned  to  Gottingen,  where  he  began  the 
etudy  of  medicine.  Afterwards  he  went  to  St  Petersburg 
with  Miiller,  the  Russian  historiographer,  as  Miiller's 
literary  assistant  and  as  tutor  in  his  family.  Here 
Schlozer  learned  the  Russian  language  and  devoted  him- 
eelf  to  the  study  of  Russian  history;  and  in  1762  he 
was  made  an  adjunct  of  the  Academy  and  a  teacher  at 
the  Rasumovski  educational  institute.  A  quarrel  with 
Midler  placed  him  in  a  position  of  some  difficulty,  from 
which  he  was  happily  delivered  by  a  call  to  a  professor^ 
ship  at  the  university  of  Gottingen,  He  began  his 
career  at  Gottingen  in  1767,  and  soon  ranked  among  the 
foremost  historical  writers  of  his  day.  His  most  import- 
ant works  were  his  Allgemeine  tiordische  Geschickte  (1772) 
and  his  translation  of  the  Russian  chronicler  Nestor  to 
the  year  980  (1802-9).  He  awoke  much  intelligent 
interest  in  universal  history  by  his  Weltgeschickte  im 
Auszuge  und Zusammenhange  (1792-1801);  and  in  several 
works  he  helped  to  lay  the  foundations  of  statistical  science. 
He  also  produced  a  strong  impression  by  his  political 
writings,  the  Briefwechsel  (10  \ols.,  1776-82)  and  the 
'Staatsanzeigen  (18.  vols.,  1782-93).  In  1804  he  was 
ennobled  by  the  emperor  of  Russia.  He  withdrew  from 
active  life  in  1805,  and  died  on  the  9th  September  1809. 

See  Zermelo,  Jugusl  L-udu'ig  Schlozer  (1875),  and  Wesendonk, 
Die  Begriindung  der  ncueni  deutsdun  Gcschichtschreibimg  durch 
iialtercr  und  Schlozer  (1876).  Schlozer's  daughter,  Dorothea, 
l)orn  on  the  loth  August,  1770,  was  one  of  the  most  learned 
women  of  her  time,  and  received  in  1787  the  degree  of  doctor. 
Bhe  was  recognized  as  an  authority  on  several  subjects,  especially 
on  Russian  coinage.  After  her  marriage  with  Kodde,  the  burgo- 
(naster  of  Lubeck,  she  devoted  herself  to  domestio  duties.  She 
died  on  the  12th  July  1825.  Schlozer's  son  Christian  (born  1774, 
died  1831)  was  a  professor  at  Bonn,  and  published  uitifangsgriinSe 
der  Slaatswirthachafl  (1804-6)  and  his  father's  Oeffentliches  mid 
f^TOt-Ltben  ans  Origiiialurkuiiden  (1828). 

_  SCHMALKALDEN,  a  town  of  Prussia,'  in  the  pro- 
rince  of  Hesse-Nassau,,  lies  about  30  miles  to  the  south- 
tvest  of  Erfurt,  and  in  1885  contained  6788  inhabitants, 
chiefly  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  hardware,  articles. 
It  still  possesses  the  inn  in  which  the  important  Pro- 
testant League  of  Schmalkalden  or  Smalfcald  was  concluded 


in  1531,  and  also  the  house  in  which  the  articles  were 
drawn  up  in  1537  by  Luther,  ■  Melanchthon,  and  other 
Reformers.  See  Geemany,  voL  z.  p.  498,  and  Luthke, 
•vol.  rv.  p.  83. 

SCHNEIDEMUHL  (PoUsh  Pila),  a  small  town  ol 
Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Posen,  lies  on  the  Ciiddow,  45 
miles  north  of  Posen  and  140  miles  east  by  north  of 
Berlin.  It  is  a  railway  junction  of  some  importance, 
carries  on  a  trade  in  wood,  grain,  and  potatoes,  and  pos- 
sesses an  iron  foundry,  several  glass  works  and  machine- 
shops,  and  other  industrial  establishments.  In  1885  the 
population  was  12,259,  of  whom  7700  were  Protestants 
and  about  1000  Poles. 

SCHNORR  VON  KAROLSFELD,  Julius  (1794- 
1872),  of  a  family  of  artists,  was  born  in  1794  at  Leipsic, 
where  he  received  his  earliest  instruction  from  his  father, 
a  draughtsman,  engraver,  and  painter.  At  seventeen  he 
entered  the  Academy  of  Vienna,  from  which  Overbeck  and 
others  of  the  new  school  who  rebelled  against  the  old 
conventional  style  had  been  expelled  about  a  year  before. 
In  1818  he  followed  the  founders  of  the  new.  school  of 
German  pre-Raphaelites  in  the  general  pilgrimage  to  Rome. 
This  school  of  religious  and  romantic  art  abjured  modern 
styles  with  three  centuries  of  decadence,  and  reverted  to 
and  revived  the  principles  and  practice  of  earlier  periods. 
At  the  outset  an  effort  was  made  to  recover  fresco  painting 
and  "monumental  art,"  and  Schnorr  soon  found  oppor- 
tunity of  proving  his  powers,  when  commissioned  to 
decorate  with  frescos,  illustrative  of  Ariosto,  the'  entrance 
hall  of  the  Villa  Massimo,  near  the  Lateran.  His  fellow^ 
labourers  were  Cornelius,  Overbeck,  and  Veit.  His 
second  period  dates  from  1825,  when  he  left  Rome,  settled 
in  Munich,  entered  the  service  of  King  Louis,  and  trans- 
planted to  Germany  thfe  art  of  wall-painting  learnt  in 
Italy.  He  showed  himself  qualified  as  a  sort  of  poet- 
paipter  to  the  Bavarian  court;  he  organized  a  staff  of 
trained  executants,  and  set  about  clothing  five  halls  in  the 
new  palace  with  frescos  illustrative  of  the  Nibelungerdied. 
Other  apartments  his  prolific  pencil  decorated  with  scenes 
from  the  histories  of  Charlemagne,  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
and  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg.  These  vast  and  interminable 
compositions  display  the  master's  merits  and  defects  :  they 
are  creative,  learned  in  composition,  masterly  in  drawing, 
but  exaggerated  in  thought  and  extravagant  in  style. 
Schnorr's  third  period  is  marked  by  his  "Bible  Pictures" 
or  Scripture  History  in  180  designs.  The  artist  was  a 
Lutheran,  and  took  a  broad  and  unsectarian  view  which 
won  for  his  Pictorial  Bible  ready  currency  throughout 
Christendom.  The  merits  are  unequal :  frequently  the 
compositions  are  crowded  and  confused,  wanting  in 
harmony  of  line  ^d  symmetry  in  the  masses ;  thus  they 
suffer  under  comparison  with  Raphael's  Bible.  Chrono- 
logically speaking,  the  style  is  severed  from  the  simplicity 
and  severity  of  early  times,  and  surrendered,  to  the  florid 
redundance  of  the  later  Renaissance.  Yet  throughout  are 
displayed  fertility  of  invention,  academic  knowledge  with 
facile  execution ;  and  modern  art  has  produced  nothing 
better  than  Joseph  Interpreting  Pharaoh's  Dream,  the 
fleeting  of  Rebecca  and  Isaac,  and  the  Return  of  the 
Prodigal  Son.  The  completion  of  the  arduous  work  was 
celebrated  in  1862  by  the  artists  of  Saxony  with  a 
festival,  and  other  German  states  offered  congratulations 
and  presented  gifts.' 

Biblical  drawings  and  cartoons  for  frescos  formed  a 
natural  prelude  to  designs  for  church  windows.  The 
painter's  renown  in  Germany  secured  commissions  in  Great 
Britain.  Schnorr  made  designs,  carried  out  in  the  royal 
factory,  Munich,  for  windows  in  Glasgow  cathedral  and 
in  St  Paul's  cathedral,  London.  This  Munich  glasS 
provoked  controversy  :  mediievalista  objected  to  its  want 


S  C  H  —  S  C  H 


417 


of  lustre, 'and  stigmatized  the  windows  as  coloured  blinds 
and  iiicturc  transparencies.  But  the  opposing  party 
(claimed  for  these  modern  revivals  "  the  union  of  the  severe 
and  excellent  drawing  of  early  Florentine  oil-paintings 
With  the  colouring  and  arrangement  of  the  glass-paintings 
of  the  latter  half  of  the  16th  century."  Schnorr's  busy  life 
iplosed  at  Munich  in  1872. 

SCHOLASTICISM  is  the  name  usually  employed  to 
denote  the  most  typical  products  of  mediceval  thought. 
.The  final  disappearance  of  ancient  philosophy  may  be 
dated  aboXit  the  beginning  of  the  Cth  century  of  our  era. 
Boetius,  its  last  representative  in  the  West,  died  in  525, 
and  four  years  later  the  Athenian  schools  were  closed 
by  order  of  the  emperor  Justinian  Before  this  time 
Christian  thought  bad  already  been  active  in  the  fathers 
'of  the  church,  but  their  activity  had  been  entirely  devoted 
to  the  elaborating  and  systematizing  of  theological  dogmas. 
'Although  the  dogmas  unquestionably  involve  philosophical 
assumptions,  the  fathers  deal  with  them  throughout  simply 
as  churchmen,  and  do  not  profess  to  supply  for  them  a 
philosophical  or  rational  basis.  Only  incidentally  do  some 
of  them — like  Augustine,  for  example — digress  into  strictly 
philosophical  discussion.  After  the  centuries  of  intellectual 
darkness  during  which  the  settlement  of  the  new  races 
and  their  conversion  to  Christianity  proceeded  and  the 
foundations  of  the  modern  European  order  were  being 
laid,  the  first  symptoms  of  renewed  intellectual  activity 
appear  contemporaneously  with  the  consolidation  of  the 
empire  of  the  West  in  the  hands  of  Charlemagne.  That 
enlightened  monarch  endeavoured  to  attract  to  his  court 
the  be.'t  scholars  of  Britain  and  Ireland  (where  the 
classical  tradition  had  never  died  out),  and  by  imperial 
decree  (787)  commanded  the  establishment  of  schools 
in  connexion  with  every  abbey  in  bis  realms.  Peter  of 
Pisa  and  Alcuin  of  York  were  his  advisers  in  directing 
this  great  work,  and  under  their  fostering  care  the 
opposition  long  supposed  to  exist  between  godliness  and 
secular  learning  speedily  disappeared.  Besides  the  cele- 
brated school  of  the  Palace,  where  Alcuin  had  among  his 
hearers  the  members  of  the  imperial  family  and  the 
dignitaries  of  the  empire  as  well  as  talented  youths  of 
humbler  origin,  we  hear  of  the  ejjiscopal  schools  of  Lyons, 
Orleans,  and  St  Denis,  the  cloister  schools  of  St  Martin 
of  Tours,  I)!  Fulda,  Corbie,  Fontenelle,  and  many  others, 
besides  tue  older  monasteries  of  St  Gall  and  Reichenau. 
These  schools  became  the  centres  of  medieval  learning 
and  siicculation,  and  from  them  the  name  Scholasticism  is 
derived.  They  were  designed  to  communicate  instruction 
in  tne  seven  liberal  arts  which  constituted  the  educational 
curriculum  of  the  Middle  Ages — grammar,  dialectic,  and 
rhetoric  forming  the  trivium  of  arts  proiier,  while 
(eometry,  arithmetic,  astronomy,  and  music  constituted 
tne  quadrivium  of  the  sciences.  The  name  doHov  scholas- 
ticus  was  applied  originally  to  any  teacher  in  such  an 
ecclesiastical  gymnasium,  but,  as  the  study  of  dialectic  or 
logic  soon  became  the  object  of  absorbing  interest  to  the 
•best  intellects  of  the  time,  it  tended  to  overshadow  the 
|inore  elementary  disciplines,  and  the  general  acceptation 
of  "doctor"  came  to  be  one  who  occupied  himself  with 
the  teaching  of  logic  and  the  discussion  of  the  philo- 
sophical questions  arising  therefrom.  The  philosophy  of 
the  later  Scholastics  is  more  extended  in  its  scope  ;  but  to 
the  very  end  of  the  mcdiieval  period  philosophy  centres 
in  the  discussion  of  the  same  logical  i)rolilems  which  began 
to  agitate  the  teachers  of  the  9th  and  10th  centuries. 

Soholasticism  in  the  widest  sense  thus  extends  from  the 
fith  to  the  end  of  the  llth  or  the  lieginning  of  the  l.'ith 
century — from  Erigena  to  Occam  and  his  followers.  The 
belated  Scholastics  who  lingered  beyond  the  last-mentioned 
date  served  only  as  marks  for  the  oblo(piy  heaped  upon 


the  schools  by  the  men  of  the  new  time.  But,  although 
every  systematic  account  of  Scholasticism  finds  it  necessary 
to  begin  with  Erigena,  that  philosopher  if.  of  the  spiritual 
kindred  of  the  Ncoplatonists  and  Christian  mystics  rather 
than  of  the  typical  Scholastic  doctors.  In  a  few  obscuro 
writings  of  the  9th  century  we  find  the  beginnings  of  dis- 
cussion ujjon  the  logical  questions  which  afterwards  proved 
of  such  absorbing  interest ;  but  these  are  followed  by  the 
intellectual  interregnum  of  the  10th  century.  The  activity 
of  Scholasticism  is  therefore  mainly  confined  within  the 
limits  of  the  llth  and  the  14th  centuries.  It  is  clearly 
divisible  (by  circumstances  to  be  presently  explained)  into 
two  welj-markcd  periods, — the  first  extending  to  the  end 
of  the  12th  century  and  embracing  as  its  chief  names 
Roscellinus,  Anselm,  William  of  Champeaux,  and  Abelard,' 
while  the  second  extended  from  the  beginning  of  the  13th 
century  to  the  Renaissance  and  the  general  distraction  of 
men's  thoughts  from  the  problems  and  methods  of  Scho- 
lasticism. In  this  second  period  the  names  of  Albertus 
IMagnus,  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  Duns  Scotus  represent  (in 
the  13th  century  and  the  first  years  of  the  14th  century) 
the  culmination  of  Scholastic  thought  and  its  consolidation 
into  system. 

It  is  a  remark  of  Prantl's  that  tnere  is  no  such  thing  as 
philosophy  in  the  Jliddle  Ages ;  there  are  only  logic  and 
theology.  If  pressed  literally  the  remark  is  hypercritical, 
for  it  overlooks  two  facts, — in  the  first  place  that  the  main 
objects  of  theology  and  philosophy  are  identical,  though 
the  method  of  treatment  is  different,  and  in  the  second 
place  that  logical  discussion  commonly  leads  up  to  meta- 
physical problems,  and  that  this  was  pre-eminently  tho 
case  with  the  logic  of  the  Schoolmen.  But  the  saying 
draws  attention  in  a  forcible  way  to  tho  two  great  in- 
fluences which  shaped  medieval  thought — on  the  one  side 
the  traditions  of  ancient  logic,  on  the  other  the  system  of 
Christian  theology.  Scholasticism  opens  with  a  discussion 
of  certain  points  in  the  Aristotelian  logip ;  it  speedily 
begins  to  apply  its  logical  distinctions  to  the  doctrines  of 
the  church ;  and  when  it  attains  its  full  stature  in  Sf 
Thomas  it  has,  with  the  exception  of  certain  mysteries, 
ratiotialized  or  Aristotelianized  the  wlwle  churchly  system. 
Or  we  might  say  with  equal  truth  that  the  philosophy  of 
St  Thomas  is  Aristotle  Christianized.  It  is,  moreover,  tho 
attitude  of  the  Schoolmen  to  these  two  influences  that 
yields  the  general  characteristic  of  the  period.  Their 
attitude  throughout  is  that  of  interpreters  rather  than  of 
those  conducting  an  independent  investigation.  Arxl 
though  they  are  at  the  same  time  the  acutest  of  critics,' 
and  offer  the  most  ingenious  developments  of  the  original 
thesis,  they  never  step  outside  the  charmed  circle  of  tho 
system  they  have  inherited.  They  appear  to  contemplate 
the  universe  of  nature  and  man  not  at  first  hand  with 
their  own  eyes  but  in  the  glass  of  Aristotelian  formula;. 
Their  chief  works  are  in  the  shape  of  commentaries  upon 
the  writings  of  "  the  philosopher."'  Their  problems  and 
solutions  aliJte  spring  from  the  master's  dicta — from  the 
need  of  reconciling  these  with  one  another  and  with  the 
conclusions  of  Christian  theology. 

The  fact  that  the  channels  of  thought  during  the  ^liddle 
Ages  were  determined  in  this  way  by  the  external  influence 
of  a  twofold  tradition  is  usually  expressed  by  saying  that 
reason  in  tho  Middle  Age  is  subject  to  authority.  It 
has  not  tho  free  play  which  characterizes  its  activity  in 
Greece  and  in  the  philosophy  of  modern  times.  ^  Its  con- 
clusions are  predetermined,  and  tho  initiative  of  tho 
individual  thinker  is  almost  confined,  therefore,  to  formal 
details  in  the  treatment  of  his  thesis.  From  the  side  ol 
the  church  this  characteristic  of  the  period  is  nxi)refscd  in 
tho  saying  that  reason  has  its  proper  station  as  tho  liaod. 

'  Tlic  coiuiiioii  ili'<iguntioii  of  Ariblotic  in  tlic  MiiUllc  Ag' 

XXL  -  53 


418 


maid  of  faith  {andlla  fidei).     But  it  is  only  fair  to  add 
that  tliis   principle  of   the  subordination  of   the   reason 
wears   a  diflFerent   aspect   according   to    the  century  and 
writer  referred  to.     In  Scotus  Erigena,  at  the  beo-inninc 
of  the  Scholastic  era,  there  is  no  such  subordination  con° 
templated,  because  philosophy  and  theology  in  his  work 
are  in^implicit  unity.     According  to  his  memorable  expres- 
sion,     Conficitur  .inde  veram   esse  philosophiam   veram 
rehgionem,  conversimque   veram   religionem   esse  veram 
philosophiam     {De  Bmsione  Naturae,  i.  1).     Eeason  in  its 
own  strength  and  with   its  own   instruments   evolves  a 
grstem   of   the    universe   which   coincides,   according  to 
Engena,  with   the  teaching  of  Scripture.     For  Erio-ena 
therefore,  the  speculative  reason  is  the  supreme  arbiter 
(as  he  himself  indeed  expressly  asserts) ;  and  in  accordance 
with  its   results   the  utterances  of  Scripture  and  of  the 
church  have  not  infrequently  to  be  subjected  to  an  alle- 
gorical   or    mystical  interpretation.     But  this  is  only  to 
say  again  in  so   many  words   that   Erigena  is  more  of 
a  Neoplatonist  than   a    Scholastic.      In    regard   to  the 
Scholastics   proper.  Cousin  suggested   in   respect  of  this 
point  a  threefold  chronological  division,— at  the  outset  the 
absolute  subordination  of  philosophy  to  theology,  then  the 
period  of  their  alliance,  and  finally  the  beginning  of  their 
'  separation.     In  other  words,  we  note  philosophy  gradually 
extending  its  claims.     Dialectic  is,  to  begin  with,  a  merely 
secular  art,  and  only  by  degrees  are  its  terms  and  distinc- 
tions  applied   to   the   subject-matter   of   theology.     The 
early  results  of  the  appUcation,  in  the  hands  of  Berengarius 
and  EoscelUnus,  did   not   seem   favourable  to  Christian 
orthodoxy.     Hence  the  strength  with  which  a  champion 
of  the  faith  like  Anselm  insists  on  the  subordination  of 
reason.     To  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  and  many  other  con- 
servative churchmen   the  appUcation  of  dialectic  to  the 
things  of  faith  at  all  appears  as  dangerous  as  it  is  impious 
At  a  later  date,  in  the  systems  of  the  great  Schoolmen,  the 
rights  of  reason  are  fuUy  established  and  amply  acknow- 
ledged.    The  relation  of  reason  and  faith  remains,  it  is 
true,  an  external  one,  and  certain  doctrines— an  increasing 
number  as  time  goes  on— are  withdrawn  from  the  sphere 
of  reason.     But  with  these  exceptions  the  two  march  side 
by  side;    they  establish   by   different   means  the   same 
results.     For  the  conflicts  which  accompanied  the  first 
intrusion  of  philosophy  into  the  theological  domain  more 
profound  and  cautious  thinkers  with  a  far  ampler  appa- 
ratus of  knowledge  had  substituted  a  harmony.     "The 
constant  effort  of  Scholasticism  to  be  at  once  philosophy 
and  theology"!  seemed  at  last  satisfactorily  realized.     But 
this  harmony  proved  more  apparent  than  real,  for  the 
further  progress  of  Scholastic  thought  consisted  in  a  with- 
drawal of  doctrine  after  doctrine  from  the  possibility  of 
rational  proof  and  their  relegation  to  the  sphere  of  faith 
Indeed,  no  sooner  was  the  harmony  apparently  established 
by  Aquinas  than  Duns  Scotus  began  this  negative  criti- 
cism, which  IS  carried  much  farther  by  William  of  Occam 
But  this  IS  equivalent  to  a  confession  that  Scholasticism 
had  failed  in  its  task,  which  was' to  rationalize  the  doc- 
trines of  the  church.     The  two  authorities  refused  to  be 
reconciJed._    The  Aristotelian  form  refused  to  fit  a  matter 
for  which  It  was  never  intended  ;  the  matter  of  Christian 
theology  refused  to  be  forced  into  an  alien  form.     The 
Scholastic  philosophy  speedily  ceased  therefore  to  possess 
a  raxson  <Tetre,  and  the  spread  of  the  sceptical  doctrine  of 
a  twofo  d  truth  proclaims  the  destruction  of  the  fabric 
erected  by  mediajval  thought.     The  end  of  the  period  was 
thus  brought  about  by  the  internal  decay  of  its  method 
and  principles  quite  as  much  as  by  the  variety  of  external 
causes  which  contributed  to  transfer  men's  interests  to 
other  subjects. 


SCHOLASTICISM 


'  Milman's  Latin  Christianity,  ix.  101. 


But,  although  the   relation  of  reason  to  an  external  Scholaa- 
autliority  thus  constitutes  the  badge  of  medieval  thought  ticism 
It  would  be  m  the  last  degree  unjust  to  look  upon  Scholas-  ■""- 
ticism    as   philosophically   barren,    and    to    speak   as    if  Zrf« 
reason,    alter    an    interregnum    of    a    thou^nd    TJl^'"^ 
resumed  its  rights  at  the  Renaissance.     Such  langua-e 
was  excusable  in  the  men  of  the    Renaissance,   fighting 
the  battle  of  classic  form  and  beauty  and  of  the  many- 
sidedness  of  life  against  the  barbarous  terminology  and 
the  monastic  ideals  of  the  schools,  or  in  the  prota!?onists 
ot  modern  science  protesting  against  the  complete  absorp- 
tion  ot  human  talent  by  metaphysics— an  absorption  never 
witnessed  to  the  same  extent  before  or  since.     The  new  is 
never  just  to  the  old;  we  do  not  expect  it  to  be  so.     It 
belongs  to  a  later  and  calmer  judgment  to  recognize  how 
the  old  contained  in  itself  the  germs  of  the  new ;  and  a 
closer  study  of  history  is  invariably  found  to  diminish  the 
abruptness  of  the  picturesque  new  beginnings  which  furnish 
torth  our  current  divisions  of  epochs  aud  periods.     In  the 
schools  and  universities  of  the  Middle  Age  the  intellect  of 
tlie  semi-barbarous  European  peoples  had  been  trained  for 
the  work  of  the  modern  world.     It  had  advanced  from  a 
childish  rudeness  to  an  appreciation  of  the  subtlest  logical 
and  metaphysical  distinctions.     The  debt  which  modern 
philosophy  owes  to  the  Schoolmen  for  this  formal  training 
has  been  amply  acknowledged  even  by  a  writer  like  J  S 
MiU. .  But  we  may  go  further  and  say  that,  in  spite  of 
tiieu:  initial  acceptance  of  authority,  the  Scholastics  are  not 
the  antagonists  of  reason ;  on  the  contrary  they  fight  its 
battles.     As  has  often  been  pointed  out,  the  attempt  to 
establish  bi/  argument  the  authority  of  faith  is  in  reality 
the  unconscious  establishment  of  the  authority  of  reason 
Eeason,  if  admitted  at  all,  must  ultimately  claim  the  whole 
man.     Anselm's  motto.  Credo  -ut   inlelligam,  marks  weU 
the  distance  that  has   been  traversed   since  TertuUian's 
Lredo  quia  absurdum  est.     The  claim  of  reason  has  been 
recognized  to  manipulate  the  data  of  faith,  at  first  blindly 
and  immediately  received,  and  to  weld  them  into  a  system 
such  as  will  satisfy  its  o\vn  needs.     Scholasticism  that  has 
outhved  Its  day  may  be  justly  identified  with  obscurant- 
ism, but  not  so  the  systems  of  those  who,  by  their  mio-hty      ' 
mteUectual  force  alone,  once  held  aU  the  minds  of  Europe  in 
willing  subjection.     The  scholastic  systems,  it  is  true,  are 
not  the  free  products  of  speculation ;  in  the  main  they  are 
svmmx  theologies  or  they  are  modified  versions  of  Aristotle. 
But  each  system  is  a  fresh  recognition  of  the  rights  of 
reason,   and    Scholasticism    as   a   whole   may   be  justly 
regarded  as  the  history  of  the  growth  and  gradual  eman- 
cipation of  reason  which  was  completed  in  the  movements 
of  the  Renaissance  and   the  Eeformation.     Indeed,   the 
widemng  of  human  interests  which  then  took  place  is  not 
without  Its  prelude  in  the  systems  of  the  second  period  of 
bcholasticism.     The  complementary  sciences  of  theology 
and  philosophy  remain,  of  course,  the  central  and  dominat- 
ing interest ;  but  Albertns  Magnus  was  keenly  interested 
m  natural  science,  and  a  system  like  that  of  Aquinas  is  as 
wide  as   Aristotle's  in  its  range,   and  holds  no  part  of 
nature  to  lie  outside  its  inquiries. 

In  speaking  of  the  origin  of  Scholasticism— name  and 
thing— It  has  been  already  noted  that  medieval  specula- 
tion takes  Its  rise  in  certain  logical  problems.  To  be 
more  precise,  it  is  the  nature  of  "  universal  "  which  forms 
the  03ntral  theme  of  Scholastic  debate.  This  is  the  case 
almost  exclusively  during  the  first  period,  and  only  to  a 
less  extent  during  the  second,  where  it  reappears  in  a 
somewhat  different  form  as  the  difficulty  concerning  the 
principle  of  individuation.  Otherwise  expressed,  the 
question  on  which  centuries  of  discussion  were  thus 
expended  concerns  the  nature  of  genera  and  species  and 
their  relation  to  the  individual     Or  this.  Nominalists  and 


SCHOLASTlOIiS^I 


4VJ 


Realists  take  opposite  sides ;   and,  exclusively  logical  as 
the  point  may  at  first  sight  seem  to  be,  adherence  to  one 
side  or  the  other  is  an  accurate  indication  of  philosophic 
tendency.     The  two  opposing  theories  express  at  bottom, 
in  the  phraseology  of  their  own  time,   the  radical  d.ver- 
lence  of  pantheism  and  individualism -the  two  extremes 
between  which  philosophy  seems  pendulum-^vlse  to  oscil- 
late, and  which  may  be  said  still  to  await  their  perfect 
reconciliation.      First,   however,   we   must   examine    the 
form  which  this  question  assumed  to  the  first  mediaval  I 
thinkers,  and  the  source  from  which  they  derived  it.  _  A  , 
single  sentence  in  Porphyry's  Isagor/e  or     introduction    to  ^ 
ILcaleaories  of  Aristotle  furnished  the  text  of  the  pro-  | 
longed   discussion.     The  treatise  of  PfP'^.y'-y  .^^^'^„;"^S 
what  are  commonly  called  the  predicables,  ..e.,  the  notions  ] 
of  <renus,  species,  difl:erence,  property,  and  accident;  and  ^ 
he  mentions,  but  declines  to  discuss,  thevarious  theories 
that  have  been  held  as  to  the  ontological  import  of  genera 
and   species.      In   the  Latin   translation   o:   Boetius,  in 
which^alone  the  Isa^oge   was  then  known,  the  sentence  ! 
runs  as  follows  :— "  JIox  de  genenbiis  et  specieb us  il  ud 
Zdem  ;°ve  subsistant.   sive   in  solis  nudis  intellectibus 
Josita  sint,  sivesubsistentiacorporaha  ^^■it.f".;"«7^°[!^'^' 
et  utmrn  separata  a  sensibilibus  an  in  sensibi  ibus  posita  et 
•    circa  haec  consistentia,  dicere  recusabo ;  altiss.mum  enim 
negotium  est  hujusmodi  et  majoris  egens  i°q"^^lti°"is 
The  second  of   these  three  questions  may  be  safely  set 
aside     the   other   two   indicate  with  sufficient   clearness 
three   possible  positions   with   regard   to   universak     I 
may  be  held  that  tUey  exist  merely  as  conceptions  in  our 
minds  (in  solis  nudis  intellectibns) ;  this  is  Nominalism  or 
Conceptualism.     It   may  be  held,  in  opposition  to   the 
Nominalistic  view,  that  they  have  a  substantial  existence 
of  tbeir  own  {subsistcntia),  independent  of  their  existence 
in  our  thoughts.     But  EeaUsm,  as  this  doctrine  is  named, 
may  be  again  of  two  varieties,  according  as_  the  substan- 
tially existent  universals  are  supposed  to  exist  apart  from 
the  sensible  phenomena  {separata  a  sensMihns)  or  only  m 
and  with  the  objects  of  sense  as  their  essence  (xn  sensibMms 
\osita  H  circa  Lc  consistentia).    The  first  form  of  Realism 
^rresponds  to  the  Platonic  theory  of  the  transcendence  of 
the  ideas;   while  the  second  reproduces  the  Aristotelian 
doctrine  of  the  essence  as  inseparable  from  the  mdividual 
thing      But,  though  ho  implies  an  anlple  previous  treat- 
ment of  the  questions  by  philosophers.  Porphyry  gives  no 
references   to   the   dificrent   systems   of    which   such  dis- 
tinctions are  the  outcome,  nor  does  he  give  any  hint  of  hi 
own  opinion  on  the  subject,  definite  enough  though  tl  a 
was      He  simply  sets  the  discussion  aside  as  too  difficult 
for  a  preliminary  discourse,  and  not  strictly  rclevan    to  a 
purely  logical  inquiry.     Porphyry,  the  Neoplatonist    tl  e 
disciple  of  Plotinus,  was  an  unknown  personage  to  those 
early  students  of  the  Isagoge.     The  passage  V^^^^^^^^ ^^^l 
Ithem  a  mysterious  charm,  large  y  due  to  its  '^ola   on  and 
•to  their  ignorance  of  the  historic  speculations  which  sug- 
'gested  it      And  accordingly  it  gave  rise  to  the  three  grea 
doctrines  which  divided  the  medu^val  schoo  s -.-Iteali  m 
of  the  Platonic  type,  embodied  in  the  formula  umversaha 
ar^erem;  Realism  of  the  Aristotelian  iy^<,  umversaha  ^r, 
rrand  Nominalism,  including  Conceptualism,  expressed 
by  tbe  phrase  ^ivcrsalia  post  rem,  and  also  claiming  to  be 
based  upon  the  Peripatetic  doctrine. 

To  forma  proper  estimate  of  the  first  stage  of  Scholastic 
discussion  it\s  requisiteabove  all  things  to  lmxack.ar 
idea  of  the  appliances  then  at  the  disposal  o  the  writers. 
In  othe  words,  what  was  the  extent  of  their  knowledge 
if  «n  -etruhlosophy?  Thanks  to  the  researches  of 
1":  n  Id  o  h"J  i't  is  possible  to  answer  .^is  questio^ 
with  something  like  precision.  To  begin  with,  wo  know 
■^  I    till  the  13th  century  the  Middle  Age  was  ignorant 


of  Greek,  and  possessed  no  philosophical  works  ia  theii 
Greek    oridnal,    while   in    translations   their    stock    was 
UnTted  t^the'6V..,o,-^..   and  the  Be  f  fH— -  ° 
Aristotle  in  the  versions  of  Boetius,  and  the  2  unaus  oi 
PlaS   in  the  version  of  Chalcidius.     To  th-e  must  be 
added,    of    course,    Boetius's    translation    of    yorph>ry8 
Isagoge  already   referred  to.      The   whole  metaphysical, 
eth/cal,  and  physical  works  of  Aristotle  were  hus  unknown 
and  it  was  not  till  the  12lh  century  (after  the  yeai  1128) 
that  the  Analytics  and  the  Topics  became  accessible  to  the 
b'icians  of  the  time.     Some  general  information  as  to 
tlfe  Platonic  doctrines  (chiefly  in  a  Neopla  onic  garb    v^as 
obtainable  from  the  commentary  •^vlth  f^^^^  "fj^J'"^. 
(6th  cent.)  accompanied  his  translatio-.,  from  the  ^^ork  of , 
Apuleius  (2d  cent.)  De  Dogmate   Uaton,s,  and  indirectly 
from  the  commentary  of  MacroK-.(^.  400)  on  tlie^-'-"' 
Scipionisoi  Cicero,  and  from  the  writings  ot  St  Augustin^ 
As  aids  to  the  study  of  logic,  the  doctors  of  this  period 
possessed  two  commentaries  by  Boetius  on  the  Isagoge  {Ad 
Forplm-ium  a  Victonno  translaium  and  In  1  orpkyr^uvva 
sc?ranslatum),  two  commentaries  by^he  same  author  on 
the  De  Interpretatione  and  one  on  the  Categon.es,  as  well 
as  another,  mainly  rhetorical.  Ad  Cuermis  Topica  Jo 
these  are  to  be  added  the  following  original  treatises  o£ 
Boetius  -.-Introductio  ad  Categoricos  Syllogismos,  De  Syll^ 
gismo  Categorico,  De  Syllogismo  Hypotheiico  De  J)''^^}°^'> 
De  Definitione,  and  De  Differentiis  Topicu,  the  last  deahng 
almost  exclusively  with  rhetoric.     There  were  "1^°  '"  "•.'^"- 
lation  two  tracts  attributed  to  St  Augustine,  the  first  of 
which,  Frincipia  Dialecticae,  is  probably  his,  but  is  mainly 
grammatical   in   its  import.     The   other  tract,  known  as 
latcgoriae  Decern,  and  taken  at  first  for  a  trans  ation  of 
•Aristotle's  treatise,  is  really  a  rapid  ^^™'";^.  °  .  ;\,^^';^ 
certainly  does  not  belong  to  Augustine.     To   his  I'^t  there 
must  be  added  three  works  of  an  encyclopaedic  character, 
which  played  a  great  part  as  text-books  in   he  schools.    Of 
these  the  oldest  and  most  important  was  the  Saty.-'^n.oi 
Marcianus  Capella  (close  of  5th  century  ,  a  curious  medley 
of  prose  and  Allegorical  verse,  the  greater  P"|  °f  ^}"^J  "^ 
a  treatiseon  the  seven  liberal  arts,  the  f°;>^t^_^J°°k  deal  ng 
with  locric.     Similar  in  its  contents  is  the  work  of  Cassio- 
dorus  ('168-562),  De  Artibus  ac  Duciphms  Liberahum 
U^-arum,  of  whkh  the  third  work  referred  to,  the  Or^gmes 
of  Is^ore  of  Seville  {ob.  636),  is  little  more  than  a  r^ 
production.     The  above  constitutes  without  exception  the 
Ihole  material  which  the  earher  Middle  Age  had  at  its 

'^^  Thfgrandly  conceived  system  of  Erigena  (see  Eu.gena 
and  Mfsxicisl)  stands  by  itself  in  the  9th  cen^^  2, 
the   product   of  another-  age.     John   the  Scot   was   stiU 
a  quainted  with  Greek,  seeing  that  he  translated  the  wo  k 
o^the    pseudo-Dionysius;    and    his   fP-nlat.ve  ^n  U3 
achieved  the  fusion  of  Christian  doctrine   and   Ncopa- 
ton  c  thought    in  a    system  of   quite    remarkable    meta- 
physical coileteness.     It  is  the  only  complete  and  m^^^o- 
pendont  system  between  the  decline  of  ancient  thought 
Td  tt  .s/stem  of  Aquinas  in  the  13th  century,  i   indeed 
we  ought  not  to  go  further,  to  modern  times,  to  find  a 
parallc!       Erigena  pronounces  no  express  opinion  upon 
[h     question  which  was  even  then  beginning  to  occupy 
men's  minds;  but  his  Platonico-Chnstian  theory  of  the 
Eternal  Word  as  containing  in  Himself  the  exemplars  of, 
treated  things  is  equivalent  to  Uie  a-rtion  of  ««u...^a 
ante  rem.     His  whole  system,   indeed,  is  based  upon    ho 
"dca  of  the  divine  as  the  exclusively  real    of  which    ho 
world  of  individual  existence  is  but  the  theophany  ;    he 
<;nocial  and  the  individual  are  immanent,  therefore,  in, the 
general      And  hence  at  a  much  later  date  (in  the  begin- 
ning  of  the  13th  century)  hi.s  name  was  invoked  to  cover 
U,e   pantheistic  heresies   of  Amalnch  of  Bc.ia.     Er.gena 


420 


SCHOLASTICISM 


does  not  separate  his  Platonic  theory  of  pre-existent 
exemplars  frota  the  Aristotelian  doctrine  of  the  universal 
as  in  the  individuals.  As  Ueberweg  points  out,  his  theory 
ii  rather  a  result  of  the  transference  of  the  Aristotelian 
conception  of  substance  to  the  Platonic  Idea,  and  of  an 
identification  of  the  relation  of  accidents  to  the  substance 
in  which  they  inhere  with  that  of  the  individuals  to  the 
Idea  of  which,  in  the  Platonic  doctrine,  they  are  copies 
(Bist.  of  Philosopky,  i.  363,  Eng.  trans.).  Hence  it  may 
be  said  that  the  universals  are  in  the  individuals,  constitut- 
ing their  essential  reality  (and  it  is  an  express  part  of 
Erigena's  system  that  the  created  but  creative  Word,  the 
second  division  of  Nature,  should  pass  into  the  third  stage 
.of  created  and  non-creating  things);  or  rather,  perhaps, 
we  ought  to  say  that  the  individuals  exist  in  the  bosom 
of  their  universal.  At  all  events,  while  Erigena's  Realism 
is  pronounced,  the  Platonic  and  Aristotelian  forms  of  the 
doctrine  are  not  distinguished  in  his  writings.  Prantl  has 
professed  to  find  the  headstream  of  Nominalism  also  in 
Scotus  Erigena ;  but  beyond  the  fact  that  ho  discusses  at 
considerable  length  the  categories  of  thought  and  their 
mutual  relations,  occasionally  using  the  term  "  voces  "  to 
express  his  meaning,  Prantl  appears  to  adduce  no  reasons 
for  an  assertion  which  directly  contradicts  Erigena's  most 
fundamental  doctrines.  Jloreover  Erigena  again  and 
igain  declares  that  dialectic  has  to  do  with  the  stadia  of  a 
real  or  divine  classification: — "Intelligitur  quod  ars  ilia, 
quae  dividit  genera  in  species  et  species  in  genera  resolvit, 
quae  StaXeKTi/o;  dicitur,  non  ab  humanis  machinationibus 
sit  facta,  sed  in  ratura  rerum  ab  auctore  omnium  artium, 
quae  verae  artes  sunt,  condita  et  a.sapientibus  inventa  " 
(De  Divisione  Naturae,  iv.  4). 

The  immediate   influence  of  Erigena's  system  cannot 
have  been  great,  and  his  works  seem  soon  to  have  dropped 
out  of  notice  in  the  centuries  that  followed.     The  real 
germs  of  Realism  and  Nominalism,  as  they  took  shape  in 
mediaeval  thought,  are  to  be  found  in  the  9th  century,  in 
scattered  commentaries  and  glosses  (mostly  still  in  manu- 
script)  upon  the  statements   of   Porphyry  and   Boetius. 
tnfln-       Boetius    in    commenting    upon    Porphyry    had    already 
wtius.   started  the  discussion  as  to  the  nature  of  universals.     He 
is  definitely   anti-Platonic,    and   his    language  sometimes 
takes  even  a  nominalistic  tone,  as  when  he  declares  that 
the  species  is  nothing  more  than  a  thought  or  conception 
gathered  from  the  substantial  similarity  of  a  number  of 
dissimilar  individuals.     The  expression  "  substantial  simi- 
larity" is   still,    however,    sufiiciently  vague   to  cover   a 
multitude  of   views.     He  concludes  that  the  genera  and 
species  exist  as  universals  only  in  thought ;  but,  inasmuch 
as  they  are  collected  from  singulars  on  account  of  a  real 
resemblance,  they  have  a  certain  existence  independently 
of   the    mind,  but  not  an   existence  disjoined  from    the 
singulars  of   sense.       "Subsistunt   ergo    circa   sensibilia, 
intelliguntur  autem   praeter  corpora."     Or,  according   to 
the  phrase  which  recurs  so  often  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
"universale  intelligitur,  singulare  sentitur."     Boetius  ends 
by  declining  to  adjudicate  between  Plato  and  Aristotle, 
remarking  in  a  semi-apologetic  style  that,  if  he  has  ex- 
pounded Aristotle's   opinion  by  preference,  his  course  is 
justified  by  the  fact  that  he  is  commenting  upon  an  intro- 
duction to  Aristotle.-    And,  indeed,  his  discussion  cannot 
claim  to  be  more   than  semi-popular   in  character.     The 
point   in  dispute  has  not  in  his  hands  the  all-absorbing 
importance   it  afterwards  attained,    and  the  keenness  of 
later  distinctions  is  as  yet  unknown.     In  this  way,  how- 
ever, though  the  distinctions  drawn  may  still  be  compara- 
tively vague,   there   existed    in  the  schools  a  Peripatetic 
tradition  to  set  over  against  the  Neoplatonic  influence  of 
John  the  Scot,  and  amongst  the  earliest  remains  of  Scho- 
lastic thought  we  find  this  tradition  asserting  itself  some-  < 


what  vigorously. ""  There  were  Nominalists  before  Roscelj 
linus  among  these  early  thinkers. 

Alcuin,  the  first  head  of  the  school  of  the  Palace,  does 
nothing  more  in  his  Dialectic  than  abridge  Boetius  and 
the  other  commentators.  But  in  the  school  of  Fulda,  pre- 
sided over  by  his  pupil  Hrabanus  Maurus  (776-856),  there  Hrabanus 
are  to  be  found  some  fresh  contributions  to  the  discussion.  Maumi. 
The  collected  works  of  Hrabanus  himself  contain  nothing 
new,   but  in  some    glosses   on   Aristotle   and    Porphyry,  • 

first  exhumed  by  Cousin,  there  are  several  noteworthy 
expressions  of  opinion  in  a  Nominalistic  sense.  The 
author  interprets  Boetius's  meaning  to  be  "  Quod  eadem 
res  individuum  et  species  et  genus  est,  et  non  esse  univer- 
salia  individuis  quasi  quoddara  diversum."  He  also 
cites,  apparently  with  approval,  the  view  of  those  who 
held  Porphyry's  treatise  to  be  not  de  quinque  rebus, 
but  de  quitique  vocibus.  A  genus,  they  said,  is  essen- 
tially something  which  is  predicated  of  a  subject ;  but  a 
thing  cannot  be  a  predicate  {res  enim  non  praedicatur). 
These  glosses,  it  should  be  added,  however,  have  been 
attributed  by  Prantl  and  Kaulich,  on  the  ground  of  diver- 
gence from  doctrines  contained  in  the  published  works  of 
Hrabanus,  to  some  disciple  of  his  rather  than  to  Hrabanus 
himself.  Fulda  had  become  through  the  teaching  of 
the  latter  an  intellectual  centre.  Eric  or  Heiricus,  who  Eric 
studied  there  under  Haimon,  the  successor  of  Hrabanus, 
and  afterwards  taught  at  Auxerre,  wrote  glosses  on  the 
margin  of  his  copy  of  the  pseudo-Augustinian  Categoriae, 
which  have  been  published  by  Cousin  and  Haurdau. 
He  there  says  in  words  which  recall  the  language  of  Locke 
{Essay,  iii.  3)  that  because  proper  names  are  innumerable, 
and  no  intellect  or  memory  would  suffice  for  the  knowing 
of  them,  they  are  all  as  it  were  comprehended  in  the 
species  ("Sciendum  autem,  quia  propria  nomina  primum 
sunt  innumerabilia,  ad  quae  cognoscenda  intellectus  nuUus 
seu  memoria  sufficit,  haec  ergo  omnia  coartata  species  com- 
prehendit,  et  facit  primum  gradum ").  Taken  in  their 
strictness,  these  words  state  the  position  of  extreme 
Nominalism  ;  but  even  if  we  were  not  forbidden  to  do  so 
by  other  passages,  in  which  the  doctrine  of  moderate 
Realism  is  adopted  (under  cover  of  the  current  distinction 
between  the  singular  as  felt  and  the  pure  universal  as 
understood),  it  would  still  be  unfair  to  press  any  passage 
in  the  writings  of  this  period.  As  Cousin  says,  "  Realism 
and  Nominalism  were  undoubtedly  there  in  germ,  but 
their  true  principles  with  their  necessary  consequences 
remained  profoundly  unknown  ;  their  connexion  with  all 
the  great  questions  of  religion  and  politics  was  not  even' 
suspected.  The  two  systems  were  nothing  more  as  yet 
than  two  different  ways  of  interpreting  a  phrase  of' 
PorphjTy,  and  they  remained  unnoticed  in  the  obscurity 
of  the  schools.  ...  It  was  the  11th  century  which  gave 
Nominalism  to  the  world."  ^ 

Remi  or  Remigius  of  Auxerre,  pupil  of  Eric,  became 
the  most  celebrated  professor  of  dialectic  in  the  Parisian 
schools  of  the  10th  century.  As  he  reverted  to  Realism, 
his  influence,  first  at  Rheims  and  then  in  Paris,  was 
doubtless  instrumental  in  bringing  about  the  general 
acceptance  of  that  doctrine  till  the  advent  of  Roscellinus 
as  a  powerful  disturbing  influence.  "  There  is  one  genus 
more  general  than  tbe  rest,"  says  Remi  {a2md  Haureau, 
De  la  Philosophie  Scolastique,  i.  146),  "beyond  which  the 
intellect  cannot  rise,  called  by  the  Greeks  ova-la,  by  the 
Latins  essentia.  The  essence,  indeed,  comprehends  all 
natures,  and  everything  that  exists  is  a  portion  of  this 
essence,  by  participation  in  which  everything  that  is  hath 
its  existence."  And  similarly  with  the  intermediate 
genera.  "  Homo  est  multorum  hominum  substantiali.'j 
unitas."  Remigius  is  thus  a  Realist,  as  Haureau  remarks, 
'   Ouvragea  inedits  d'Abelard,  latrnii.,  p.  lxi*». 


.SCHOLASTICISM 


421 


not  so  much  in  tlio  sense  of  Plato  as  in  the  spirit  of 
Parmenides,  and  Haurcau  applies  to  this  form  of  llealism 
Bayle's  description  of  Kealism  in  general  as  "  le  Spinosisme 
non  developp6."  The  10th  century  as  a  whole  is  especially 
marked  out  as  a  dark  age,  being  partly  filled  with  civil 
troubles  and  partly  characterized  by  a  reaction  of  faith 
against  reason.  In  the  monastery  of  St  Gall  there  was 
considerable  logical  activity,  but  nothing  of  philosophical 
interest  is  recorded.  The  chief  name  of  tlie  century  is 
that  of  Gerbert  (died  as  Pope  Sylvester  II.  in  1003).  He 
studied  at  Auriilac  under  Otto  of  Clugny,  the  pupil  of 
Remigius,  and  later  among  the  Moors  in  Spain,  and  taught 
afterwards  himself  in  the  schools  of  Tours,  Fleury,  Sens, 
and  Rheims.  He  was  a  man  of  universal  attainments, 
but  only  his  treatise  De  Rationali  et  Ratione  uii  need  be 
mentioned  here.  It  is  more  interesting  as  a  display  of 
the  logical  acquirements  of  the  age  than  as  possessing  any 
di-ect  philo.sophical  bearing.  The  school  of  Chartres, 
foanded  in  990  by  Fulbert,  one  of  Gerbert's  pupils,  was 
di.stinguished  for'  nearly  two  centurie^  not  so  much  for  its 
dialectics  and  philosophy  as  for  its  humanistic  culture. 
The  account  which  John  of  Salisbury  gives  of  it  in  ■the 
firut  half  of  the  12th  century,  under  the  presidency  of 
Theodoric  and  Bernard,  gives  a  very  pleasant  glimpse  into 
the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Since  then,  says  their 
regretful  pupil,  "  less  time  and  less  care  have  been 
bestowed  on  grammar,  and  persons  who  profess  all  arts, 
liberal  and  mechanical,  are  ignorant  of  the  primary  art, 
without  which  a  man  proceeds  in  vain  to  the  rest.  For 
albeit  the  other  studies  assist  literature,  yet  this  has  the 
sole  privilege  of  making  one  lettered."' 

Hitherto,  if  dialectical  studies  had  been  sometimes 
viewed  askance  by  the  stricter  churchmen  it  was  not 
because  logic  had  dared  to  stretch  forth  its  hands  towards 
the  ark  of  God,  but  simply  on  the  ground  of  the  old 
opposition  between  the  church  and  the  world :  these 
secular  studies  absorbed  time  and  ability  which  might 
have  been  employed  for  the  glory  of  God  and  the  service 
of  the  church,  j  But  now  bolder  spirits  arose  who  did  not 
shrink  from  applying  the  distinctions  of  their  human 
wisdom  to  the  mysteries  of  theology.  It  was  the  excite- 
ment caused  by  their  attempt,  and  the  heterodox  con- 
clusions which  were  its  first  result,  that  lifted  these 
Scholastic  -disputations  into  the  central  position  which 
th«y  henceforth  occupied  in  the  life  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
And  wheroa.?,  up  to  this  time,  di-scussion  had  been  in  the 
main  of  a  purely  logical  character,  the  next  centuries 
show  that  peculiar  combination  of  logic  and  theology 
which  is  the  mark  of  Scholasticism,  especially  in  the 
period  before  the  13th  century.  For  reason,  having 
already  asserted  itself  so  far,  could  not  simply  be  put 
under  a  ban.  Orthodoxy  had  itself  to  put  on  the  armour 
of  reason  ;  and  so  panoplied  its  champions  soon  proved 
themselves  superior  to  their  antagonists  on  their  own 
battlefield. 

One  of  the  first  of  these  attacks  was  made  by 
Berengarius  of  Tours  (999-1088)  upon  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation  ;  he  denied  the  possibility  of  a  change 
of  substance  in  the  bread  and  wine  without  some  corre- 
sponding change  in  the  accidents.  Berengarius  had 
studied  at  Chartres,  where  his  exclusive  devotion  to 
dialectic  caused  Fulbert  more  than  once  to  remonstrate 
with  his  pupil.  According  to  tho  testimony  of  his  oppo- 
nent and  former  fellow-student,  Lanfranc,  ho  seems  even 
in  his  student  days  to  have  been  by  temperament  a  rebel 
against  authority.  "When  wo  were  in  the  schools 
together,"  says  Lanfranc,  "  it  was  your  part  always  to 
collect  authorities   against   the  Catholic  faith."      M.   de 

I  '  Mclalogicus,  i.  27,  quotccl  in  Poolo's  Jlluatraliotis  of  Medieval 
TluiUi/U. 


Rdmusat  characterizes  his  view  on  the  Eucharist  as  a 
specific  application  of  Nominalism  ("  un  nominalisme 
special  ou  restreint  i  une  seule  question").  More  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  progress  of  philosophical 
thought  was  the  tritheistic  view  of  the  Trinity  propounded 
by  Roscellinus  as  one  of  the  results  of  his  Nominalistic 
theory  of  knowing  and  being.  The  sharpness  and  one- 
sidedness  with  which  he  formulated  his  position  were  the 
immediate  occasion  of  the  contemporaneous  crystallization 
of  Realism  in  the  theories  of  Anselm  and  William  of 
Champeaux.  Henceforth  discussion  is  carried  on  with  a 
full  consciousness  of  the  differences  involved  and  the  issues 
at  stake ;  and,  thanks  to  the  heretical  conclusion  disclosed 
by  Roscellinus,  Realism  became  established  for  several 
centuries  as  the  orthodox  philosophical  creed.  Roscellinus 
{ob.  c.  1123)  was  looked  upon  by  later  times  as  the 
originator  of  the  sententia  vocnm,  that  is  to  say,  of  Nom- 
inalism proper.  Unfortunately,  we  are  reduced  for  a 
knowledge  of  his  position  to  the  scanty  and  ill-natured 
notices  of  his  opponents  (Anselm  and  Abelard).  From 
these  we  gather  that  he  refused  to  recognize  the  reality  of 
anything  but  the  individual ;  he  treated  "  the  universal 
substance,"  says  Anselm,  as  no  more  than  "  flatum  vocis," 
a  verbal  breathing  or  sound  ;  and  in  a  similar  strain  he 
denied  any  reality  to  the  parts  of  which  a  whole,  such  as 
a  house,  is  commonly  said  to  be  composed.  The  parts  in 
the  one  case,  the  general  name  or  common  attributes  in 
the  other,  are  only,  he  seems  to  have  argued,  so  many 
subjective  points  of  view  from  which  we  choose  to  regard 
that  which  in  its  own  essence  is  one  and  indivisible, 
existing  in  its  own  right  apart  from  any  connexion  with 
other  individuals.  This  pure  individualism, ,  consistently 
interpreted,  involves  the  denial  of  all  real  relation  what- 
soever ;  for  things  are  related  and  classified  by  means  of 
their  general  characteristics.  Accordingly,  if  these  general 
characteristics  do  not  posseiss  reality,  things  are  reduced 
to  a  number  of  characterless  and.  mutually  indifferent 
points.  It  is  possible,  as  Haurdau  maintains,  that  Roscel- 
linus meant  no  more  than  to  refute  the  untenable  Realism 
which  asserts  the  substantial  and,  above  all,  the  inde- 
pendent existence  of  the  universals.  Some  of  the  expres- 
sions used  by  Anselm  in  controverting  his  p6sition  favouB 
this  idea,  since  they  prove  that  the  Realism  of  Anselm 
himself  embraced  positions  discarded  by  tho  wiser  advo^ 
catos  of  that  doctrine.  Anselm  upbraids  Roscellinus,  fot 
example,  because  he  was  unable  to  conceive  whiteness 
apart  from  its  existence  in  something  white.  But  this  i» 
precisely  an  instance  of  the  hypostatization  of  abstrac- 
tions in  exposing  which  the  chief  strength  and  value  of 
Nominalism  lie.  Cousin  is  correct  in  pointing  out,  from 
the  Realistic  point  of  view,  that  it  is  one  thing  to  deny 
the  hypostatization  of  an  accident  like  colour  or  wisdom, 
and  another  thing  to  deny  tho  foundation  in  reality  of 
those  "  true  and  legitimatR  universals "  which  wo  under- 
stand by  tho  terms  genera  and  species.  "  Tho  human 
race  is  not  a  word,  or,  if  it  is,  wo  are  driven  to  assert  that 
there  is  really  nothing  common  and  identical  in  all  men — 
that  the  brotherhood  and  equality  of  the  human  family 
are  pure  abstractions,  and  that,  since  individuality  is  the 
sole  reality,  tho  solo  reality  is  difference,  that  is  to  say, 
hostility  and  war,  with  no  right  but  might,  no  duty  but 
interest,  and  no  remedy  but  despotism.  These  are  the 
sad  but  neccs.sary  consequences  which  logic  and  history 
impose  upon  Nominalism  and  Empiricism."^  It  i.s  not  for 
a  moment  to  bo  supposed  that  the  full  scope  of  his  doctrine 
was  present  to  tho  mind  of  Roscellinus  ;  but  Nominalism 
would  hardly  have  made  the  sensation  it  did  had  ita 
assertions  been  as  innocent  as  Haureau  would  make 
them.  Like  most  innovators,  Roscellinus  stated  his  posi- 
^  Ouvragea  inidiU  d' Abflardt  Introil.,  p.  cvi. 


422 


SCHOLASTICISM, 


tion  in  bold  language,  which  emphasized  his  opposition  to 
accepted  doctrines  ;  and  his  words,  if  not  his  intentions, 
involved  the  extreme  Nominalism  which,  by  making 
universality  merely  subjective,  pulverizes  existence  into 
detached  particulars.  And,  though  we  may  acquit  Roscel- 
linus  of  consciously  propounding  a  theory  so  subversive  of 
all  knowledge,  his  criticism  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
is  proof  at  least  of  the  determination  with  which  he  was 
prepared  to  carry  out  his  individualism.  If  we  are  not 
prepared  to  say  that  the  three  Persons  are  one  thing— in 
which  case  the  Father  and  the  Holy  Ghost  must  have 
been  incarnate  along  with  the  Son —  then,  did  usage  permit, 
be  says,  we  ought  to  speak  of  three  Gods. 

it  was  this  theological  deduction  from  his  doctrine  that 
drew  upon  Roscellinus  the  polemic  of  his  most  celebrated 
opponent,  Anselm  of  Canterbury  (103-3-1 109).  Roscel- 
linus appears  at  first  to  have  imagined  that  his  tritheistic 
theory  had  the  sanction  of  Lanfranc  and  Anselm,  and  the 
latter  was  led  in  consequence  to  compose  his  treatise  De 
Fide  Trinitads.  From  this  may  be  gathered,  in  a  some- 
what indirect  and  incidental  fashion,  his  views  on  the 
nature  of  universals.  "How  shall  he  who  has  not  arrived 
at  understanding  how  several  men  are  in  species  one  man 
comprehend  how  in  that  most  mysterious  nature  several 
persons,  each  of  which  is  perfect  God,  are  one  God  ?"  The 
manner  in  which  humanity  exists  in  the  individual  was  soon 
to  be  the  subject  of  keen  discussion,  and  to  bring  to  light 
diverging  views  within  the  Realistic  camp  ;  but  St  Anselm 
does  not  go  into  detail  on  this  point,  and  seems  to  imply 
that  it  is  not  surrounded  by  special  difficulties.  In  truth, 
tis  Realism,  as  has  just  been  seen,  was  of  a  somewhat 
uncritical  type.  It  was  simply  accepted  by  him  in  a  broad 
jway  as  the  orthodox  philosophic  doctrine,  and  the  doctrine 
jWhich,  as  a  sagacious  churchman,  he  perceived  to  be  most 
in  harmony  with  Christian  theology.  But  Anselm's  heart 
Vas  not  in  the  dialectical  .subtleties  which  now  began 
more  and  more  to  engross  the  schools.  The  only  logical 
treatise  which  he  wrote,  De  Grammatica,  falls  so  far 
below  the  height  of  his  reputation  that  it  leads  Prantl 
into  undue  depreciation  of  Anselm's  eminence  as  a  thinker. 
Anselm's  natural  element  was  theology,  and  the  high 
metaphysical  questions  which  are  as  it  were  the  obverse 
of  theology.  Haureau  calls  him  with  truth  "the  last  of 
the  fathers";  the  sweep  of  his  thought  recalls  St  Augus- 
tine rather  than  the  men  of  his  own  time.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  the  first  to  formulate  the  ontological  argument 
for  the  existence  of  God,  he  joins  hands  with  some  of  the 
profoundest  names  in  modern  philosophy.  This  celebrated 
argument,  which  fascinated  in  turn  Descartes,  Leibnitz, 
and  Hegel,  not  to  mention  other  names,  appears  for  the 
first  time  in  the  pages  of  Anselm's  Proslogium.  To 
Anselm  specially  belongs  the  motto  Credo  tit  intelligam,  or, 
as  it  is  otherwise  expressed  in  the  sub-title  of  his  Pros- 
loginm.  Fides  q^iaerens  intellectum.  "  His  method,  "  says 
Cousin  (p.  ci.),  "is  to  set  out  from  the  sacred  dogmas  as 
they  are  given  by  the  hand  of  authority,  and  without  at 
any  time  departing  from  these  dogmas  to  impregnate 
them  by  profound  reflexion,  and  thus  as  it  were  raise 
the  darkness  visible  of  faith  to  the  pure  light  of  philo- 
sophy." In  this  spirit  he  endeavoured  to  give  a  philo- 
sophical demonstration  not  only  of  the  existence  of  God 
but  also  of  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation,  which  were 
placed  by  the  later  Scholastics  among  the  "mysteries." 
The  Christological  theory  of  satisfaction  expounded  in 
the  Cur  Deus  Homo  falls  beyond  the  scope  of  the  present 
article.  But  the  Platonically  conceived  proof  of  the  being 
of  God  contained  in  the  Monologium  shows  that  Anselm's 
doctrine  of  the  universals  as  substances  in  things  (univer- 
salia  in  re)  was  closely  connected  in  his  mind  with  the 
thought   of   the    universalia   ante  rem,    the  exemplars  of 


perfect  goodness  and  truth  and  justice,'  by  participatioa 
in  which  all  earthly  things  are  judged  to  possess  these 
qualities.  In  this  way  he  rises  like  Plato  to  the  absoluta 
Goodness,  Justice,  and  Truth,  and  then  proceeds  in  Neo- 
platonic  fashion  to  a  deduction  of  the  Trinity  £is  involved 
in  the  idea  of  the  divine  Word. 

Besides  its  connexion  with  the  speculations  of  Anselm, 
the  doctrine  of  Roscellinus  was  also  of  decisive  influence 
within  the  schools  in  crystallizing  the  opposite  opinion. 
William  of  Charapeaux  is  reputed  the  founder  of  a 
definitely  formulated  Realism,  much  as  Roscellinus  is 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  Nominalism.  William  of 
Champeaux  (1070-1121)  was  instructed  by  Roscellinus 
himself  in  dialectic.  His  own  activity  as  a  teacher 
belongs  to  the  first  years  of  the  12  th  century.  He 
lectured  in  Paris  in  the  cathedral  school  of  Notre  Dame' 
till  the  year  11  OS,  when  he  retired  to  the  priory  of  St 
Victor  on  the  outskirts  of  Paris.  But  soon  afterwards,' 
unable  to  resist  the  importunities  of  his  friends  and  pupils; 
he  resumed  his  lectures  there,  continuing  them  till  his 
removal  to  the  see  of  Chalons  in  1113,  and  thus  laying 
the  foundation  of  the  reputation  which  the  monastery 
soon  acquired.  Unfortunately  none  of  the  philosophical 
works  of  William  have  survived,  and  we  are  forced  t» 
depend  for  an  account  of  his  doctrine  upon  the  statements 
of  his  opponent  Abelard,  in  the  Historia  Calomitatum, 
Mearum,  and  in  certain  manuscripts  discovered  by  Cousin. 
From  these  sources  it  appears  that  William  professed 
successively  two  opinions  on  the  nature  of  the  universals, 
having  been  dislodged  from  his  first  position  by  the  criti- 
cism of  Abelard,  his  quondam  pupil.  There  is  no  obscurity 
about  William's  first  position.  It  is  a  Realism  of  the 
most  uncompromising  type,  which  by  its  reduction  of 
individuals  to  accidents  of  one  identical  substance  seems 
to  tremble  on  the  very  verge  of  Spinozism.  He  taught, 
says  Abelard,  that  the  same  thing  or  substance  was 
present  in  its  entirety  and  essence  in  each  individual,  and 
that  individuals  differed  no  whit  in  their  essence  but  only 
in  the  variety  of  their  accidents.  "Erat  autem  in  ea 
sententia  de  communitate  universalium,  ut  eandem  essen- 
tialiter  rem  totam  simul  singulis  suis  inesse  adstrueret 
individuis,  quorum  quidem  nulla  esset  in  essentia  diver- 
sitas,  sed  sola  multitudine  accidentium  varietas."  Thus 
"  Socratitas "  is  merely  an  accident  of  the  substance 
"humanitas,"  or,  as  it  is  put  by  the  author  of  the  treatise 
De  Generihits  et  Speciehvs,^  "  Man  is  a  species,  a  thing 
essentially  one  (res  una  essentialiter),  which  receives  certain 
forms  which  make  it  Socrates.  This  thing,  remaining 
essentially  the  same,  receives  in  the  same  way  other  forms 
which  constitute  Plato  and  the  other  individuals  of  the 
species  man  ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  those  forms  which 
mould  that  matter  into  the  individual  Socrates,  there  is 
nothing  in  Socrates  that  is  not  the  same  at  the  same  time 
under  the  forms  of  Plato.  .  .  .  According  to  these  men, 
even  though  rationality  did  not  "exist  in  any  individual, 
its  existence  in  nature  would  still  remain  intact  "  (Cousin, 
Introduction,  &c.,  p.  cxx.).  Robert  Pulleyn  expresses  the 
same  point  of  view  concisely  when  he  makes  the  Realist 
say,  "  Species  una  est  substantia,  ejus  vero  individua 
multae  personae,  et  hae  multae  per-sonae  sunt  ilia  una 
substantia."  But  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  treating 
the  universal  as  substance  or  thing  are  so  insuperable,  and 
at  the  same  time  so  obvious,  that  criticism  was  speedily 
at  work  upon  William  of  Champeaux's  position.  He  had 
said  expressly  that  the  universal  essence,  by  the  addition 

'  This  treatise,  first  puWistied  hj  Cousin  in  his  Ouvrar/es  inedits 
(V Abelard,  was  attribnteU  by  him  to  Abelanl,  and  he  was  followed  in 
this  opinion  by  Haureau  ;  but  Prantl  adduces  reasons  which  seein 
satisfactory  for  believing  it  to  be  the  work  of  an  unknown  writer  of 
somewhat  later  date  (see  Prantl,  Oeaohichte  d.  Logik,  ii.  143). 


SCHOLASTICISM 


423 


of  the  individual  forms,  was  individualized  and  present 
secundum  totani  suam  quantitaiem  in  each  indiviiual.  But 
if  homo  is  wholly  and  essentially  present  in  Socrates, 
then  it  is,  as  it  were,  absorbed  in  Socrates ;  where  Socrates 
is  not,  it  cannot-  be,  consequently  not  in  Plato  and  the 
other  individua  hominis.  This  was  called  the  argument 
of  the  homo  Socraticus ;  and  it  appears  to  have  b^en  with 
the  view  of  obviating  such  time  and  space  difficulties, 
emphasized  in  the  criticism  of  Abelard,  that  William 
latterly  modified  his  form  of  expression.  But  his  second 
position  is  enveloped  in  considerable  obscurity.  Abelard 
says,  "Sic  autem  correxit  sententiam,  ut  deinceps  rem 
eamdem  non  essentialiter  scd  individualiter  diceret."  In 
other  words,  he  merely  sought  to  avoid  the  awkward  con- 
sequences of  his  own  doctrine  by  substituting  "  individu- 
aliter "  for  "essentialiter  "  in  his  definition.  If  we  are  to 
put  a  sense  upon  this  new  expression,  William  may  pro- 
bably have  meant  to  recall  any  words  of  his  which  seemed, 
by  locating  the  universal  in  tt^  entirety  of  its  essence  in 
each  individual  to  confer  upon  the  individual  an  inde- 
pendence which  did  not  belong  to  it — thus  leading  in  the 
end  to  the  demand  for  a  separate  universal  for  each 
individual.  In  opposition  to  this  Nominalistic  view, 
which  implied  the  reversal  of  his  whole  position,  William 
may  have  meant  to  say  that,  instead  of  the  universal  being 
multiplied,  it  is  rather  -the  individuals  which  are  reduced 
to-  unity  in  the  universal.  The  species  is  essentially  one, 
but  it  takes  on  individual  varieties '  or  accidents.  If, 
however,  we  are  more  ill-natured,  we  may  regard  the 
{Arase,  with  Prantl,  as  simply  a  meaningless  makeshift  in 
extremities ;  and  if  so,  Abelard's  account  of  the  subse- 
quent decline  of  William's  reputation  would  be  explained. 
But  there-is  in  some  of  the  manuscripts  the  various  read- 
ing of  "  indifferenter  "  for  "  individualiter,"  and  this  is 
accepted  as  giving  the  true  sense  of  the  passage  by 
Cousin  and  Kemusat  (Haur^au  and  Prantl  taking,  on 
different  grounds,  the  opposite  view).  According  to  this 
reading,  William  sought  to  rectify  his  position  ty  assert- 
ing, not  the  numerical  identity  of  the  universal  in  eaci: 
individual,  but  rather  its  sameness  in  the  sense  of  indis- 
tinguishable similarity.  Ueberweg  cites  a  passage  froa 
his  theological  works  which  apparently  bears  out  this 
view,  for  William  there  expressly  dfstinguislies  the  two 
senses  of  the  word  "same."  Peter  and  Paul,  be  says,  are 
the  same  in  so  far  as  they  are  both  men,  although  the 
humanity  of  each  is,  strictly  speaking,  not  identical  but 
similar.  In  the  Persons  of  the  Trinity,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  relation  is  one  of  absolute  identity. 

Whether  this  view  is  to  be  traced  to  William  or  not,  it 
b  certain  that  the  theory  of  "indifference"  or  "non- 
difi'erence"  [indifferenlia)  was  a  favourite  solution  in  the 
Realistic  schools  soon  after  his  time.  The  inherent  diffi- 
culties of  Kealism,-  brought  to  light  by  the  explicit  state- 
ment of  the  doctrine  and  by  the  criticism  of  Abelard,  led 
to  a  variety  of  attempts  to  reach  a  more  satisfactory 
formula.  John  of  Salisbury,  in  his  account  of  the  con- 
troversies of  these  days  {Metaloykus,  ii.  17)  reckons  up 
nine  different  views  which  were  held  on  the  question  of 
the  univcr^als,  and  the  list  is  extended  by  Prantl  (ii. 
118)  to  thirteen.  In  this  list  are  included  of  course  all 
shades  of  opinion,  from  ext»emo  Nominalism  to  extreme 
Bealism.  The  doctrine  of  indifference  as  it  appears  in 
later  writers  certainly  tends,  as  Prantl  points  out,  towards 
Nominalism,  inasmuch  as  it  gives  up  the  substantiality  of 
the  universals.  The  universal  consists  of  the  non-different 
elements  or  attributes  in  the  separate  individuals,  which 
Alone  exist  substantially.  If  we  restrict  attention  to  those 
non-different  elements,  the  individual  becomes  for  us  the 
species,  the  genus,  ifec;  evcryluing  depends  on  the  point  of 
view  from  which  we  regard  it.     "Nihil  omnino  est  praeter 


individuum,  sed  et  illud  aliter  et  aliter  attentum  species 
et  genus  et  generalissiinum  est."  Adelard  of  Bath  (whos€ 
treatise  De  Eodem  et  Diverso  must  have  been  written 
between  1105  and  1117)  was  probably  the  author  or  at  all 
events  the  elaborator  of  this  doctrine,  and  he  sought  by 
its  means  to  effect  a  reconciliation  between.  Plato  and 
Aristotle : — "  Since  that  which  we  see  is  at  once  genus 
and  species  and  individual,  Aristotle  rightly  insisted  that 
the  universals  do  not  exist  except  in  the  things  of  sense. 
But,  since  those  universals,  so  far  as  they  are  called  genera 
and  species,  cannot  bo  perceived  by  any  one  iu  their 
purity  without  the  admixture  of  imagination,  Plato  main- 
tained that  they  existed  and  could  be  beheld  beyond  the 
things  of  sense,  to  wit,  in  the  divine  mind.  Thus  these 
men,  although  in  words  they  seem  opposed,  yet  held  in 
reality  the  same  opinion."  Prantl  distinguishes  from  the 
system  of  indifference  the  "status"  doctrine  attributed 
by  John  of  Salisbury  t*  Walter  of  Mortagne  {oh.  1174), 
according  to  which  the  universal  is  essentially  united  to 
the  individual,  which  may  be  looked  upon,  e.g.,  as  Plato, 
man,  animal,  kc,  according  to  the  "status"  or  point  of 
view  which  we  assume.  But  this  seems  only  a  different 
expression  for  the  same  position,  and  the  same  may  doubt- 
less be  said  of  the  theory  which  employed  the  outlandish 
word  "maneries"  (Fr.  mmiiire)  to  signify  that  genera  and 
species  represented  the  different  ways  in  which  individuals 
might  be  regarded.  The  concessions  to  Nominalism 
which  such  views  embody  make  them  representative  of 
what  Haureau  calls  "  the  Peripatetic  section  of  tho  Realistic 
.school." 

Somewhat  apart  from  current  controversies  stood  the 
teaching  of  the  school  of  Chartres,  humanistically  nourished 
on  the  study  of  the  ancients.  Bernard  of  Chartres  {oh. 
1167),  called  by  John  of  Salisbury  "perfectissimus  inter 
Platonicos  seculi  nostri,"  taught  at  Chartres  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  12th  century,  when  W^illiam  was  still  lectur- 
ing at  St  Victor.  He  endeavoured,  according  to  John  of 
Salisbui-y,  to  reconcile  Plato  and  Aristotle ;  but  his 
doctrine  is  almost  wholly  derived  from  the  former  through 
St  Augustine  and  the  commentary  of  Cha^cidius.  The 
universalia  in  re  have  little  place  in-  his  thoughts,  which 
are  directed  by  preference  to  the  eternal  exemplars  as 
they  exist  in  the  supersensible  world  of  the  divine  thought. 
His  Megacosmus  and  Microcosmus  are  little  more  than  a 
poetic  gloss  upon  the  Timaeus.  William  of  Conches,  a 
pupil  of  Bernard's,  was  more  eclectic  in  his  views,  and, 
devoting  himself  to  psychological  and  physiological  ques- 
tions, was  of  less  importance  for  the  specific  logico-meta- 
physical  problem.  But  Gilbert  de  la  Porrde  (Gilbertus 
Porretanus,  or,  from  his  birthplace,  Poitiers,  also  called 
Pictaviensis,  1075-1154),  who  was  also  a  pupil  of  Bernard's, 
'  and  who  was  afterwards  for  about  twenty  years  chancellor 
of  the  cathedral  of  Chartres  before  he  proceeded  to 
lecture  in  Paris,  is  called  by  Haureau  the  most  eminent 
logician  of  tho  Realistic  school  in  the  12th  century  and 
the  most  profound  metaphysician  of  either  school.  The 
views  which  he  expressed  in  his  commentary  on  the 
pseudo-Boetian  treatise;  De  Tmiitate,  are  certainly  much 
more  important  than  the  mediatizing  systems  already 
referred  to.  The  most  interesting  part  of  the  work  is  the 
distinction  which  Gilbert  draws  between  tho  manner  of 
existence  of  genera,  and  species  and  of  substances  proper. 
He  distinguishes  between  the  quod  est  and  the  quo  est. 
Genera  and  species  certainly  exist,  but  they  do  not  exist 
in  their  own  right  as  substances.  ^VTiat  exists  as  a  sub- 
stance and  the  basis  of  qualities  or  forms  {<piod  est)  may 
bo  said  substare ;  tho  forms  on  tho  other  hand  bv  which 
such  an  individual  substance  exists  qualitatively  {quo  est) 
rahautunt,  though  it  cannot  bo  said  that  they  substant. 
Tht  intellect  collects  the  universal,  which  exists  but  not 


424 


SCHOLASTICISM 


as  a  substance  (est  sed  non  s^thifat),  from  the  jjrtrticulsT 
things  which  not  merely  are  (simi)  but  also,  as  subjects  (A 
accidents,  have  substantial  existence  {sKbstaTit)^  by  con- 
sidering only  their  substantial  similarity  or  conformity. 
The  universals  are  thus  forms  inherent  in  things — "  native 
forms,"  according  to  the  expression  by  which  Gilbert's 
doctrine  is  concisely  known.  The  individual  consists  of 
an  assemblage  of  such  forms ;  and  it  is  individual  because 
nowhere  else  is  exactly  such  an  assemblage  to  be  met 
with.  The  form  exists  concretely  in  the  individual  things 
{sensibilis  in  re  sensibili),  for  in  sensible  things  form  and 
matter  are  always  united.  But  they  may  be  conceived 
abstractly'  or  non-sensuously  by  the  mind  (sed  mente  con- 
cipitur  inseusibilis),  and  they  then  refer  themselves  as 
copies  to  the  Ideas  their  divine  exemplars.  In  God,  who 
is  pure  form  without  matter,  the  archetjrpes  of  material 
things  exist  as  eternal  immaterial  forms.  In  this  way 
Gilbert  was  at  once  Aristotelian  and  Platonist.  The  dis- 
tinctions made  by  him  above  amount  to  a  formal  criticism 
of  categories,  and  in  the  same  spirit  he  teaches  that  no 
one  of  the  categories  can  be  appUed  in  its  literal  sense  to 
God.  Gilbert  was  also  the  author  of  a  purely  logical  work, 
De  Sex  Principiis,  in  which  he  criticized  the  Aristotelian 
list  of  the  ten  categories,  drawing  a  distinction  between 
the  first  four — substance,  quality,  quantity,  and  relation 
{i.e.,  according  to  Gilbert,  indeterminate  or  potential  rela- 
tion)— which  he  ca!&&dL  formae  inhaei-entes,  and  the  remain- 
ing six,  which  he  maintained  belong  to  an  object  only 
through  its  actual  relation  to  other  objects  {respectu  alte- 
rius).  To  these  six,  therefore,  he  gave  the  name  oiformae 
assistentes.  This  distinction  was  adopted  in  all  the  schools 
.till  the^lGth  century,  and  the  treatise  Be  Sex  Pnndpiis 
jvas  bound  up  with  the  Isagoge  and  the  Categories. 
*b«l»rd.  But  by  far  the  most  outstanding  figure  in  the  contro- 
versies of  the  first  half  of  the  12th  century  is  Abelard 
(Petrus  Abaelardus,  also  called  Palatinus  from"  Pallet,  the 
place  of  his  birth,  1079-11-42).  Abelard  was  successively 
the  pupil  of  Roscellinus  and  William  of  Champeaux,  and 
the  contrast  between  their  views  doubtless  emphasized  to 
him  at  an  early  period  the  extravagances  of  extreme 
Nominalism  and  extrpme  Realism.  He  speedily  acquired 
a  reputation  as  an  unrivalled  dialectician,  the  name  Peri- 
pateticus  being  bestowed  upon  him  in  later  years  to  signify 
this  eminence.  Almost  before  he  had  emerged  from  the 
pupillary  state,  he  came  forward  in  public  as  the  acute 
and  vehement  critic  of  his  masters'  doctrines,  especially 
that  of  William  of  Champeaux,  whom  .Abelard  seems 
ultimately  to  have  superseded  in  Paris.  About  Abelard's 
own  system  there  is  far  from  being  perfect  unanimity  of 
opinion,  some,  like  Ritter  and  Erdmann,  regarding  it  as  a 
moderate  form  of  ReaEsm, — a  return  indeed  to  the  position 
of  Aristotle, — while  others,  like  Cousin,  R^musat,  Haur^au, 
and  Ueberweg,  consider  it  to  be  essentially  Nominalistic, 
only  more  prudently  and  perhaps  less  consistently  ex- 
pressed than  was  the  case  with  RoscelUnus.  His  position 
is  ordinarily  designated  by  the  name  Conceptualism, 
though  there  is  very  little  talk  of  concepts  in  Abelard's 
own  writings  ;  and  Conceptualism,  Haur^au  tells  us,  "  c'est 
le  nominalisme  raisonnable."  There  can  be  no  doubt,  at 
all  events,  that  Abelard  himself  intended  to  strike  out  a 
via  media  between  the  extreme  Nominalism  of  Roscellinus 
and  the  views  of  the  ordinary  Realists.  As  against  Realism 
he  maintains  consistently  Res  de  re  non  praedicatur ; 
genera  and  species,  therefore,  which  are  predicated  of  the 
individual  subject,  cannot  be  treated  as  things  or  sub- 
stances. This  is  manifestly  true,  however  real  the  facts 
may  be  which  are  designated  by  the  generic  and  specific 
names ;  and  the  positionjs  fully  accepted,  as  has  been  seen, 
by  a  Realist  like^Gilbert,  who  perhaps  adopted  it  first  from 
Abelard.     ^rfelard  also  perceived  that  Realism,  by  separ- 


ating the  universal  substance  from  the  forms  which  indi- 
vidualize it,  makes  the  universal  indifferent  to  these  forms, 
and  leads  directly  to  the  doctrine  of  the  identity,  of  all 
beings  in  one  universal  substance  or  matter — a  pantheism 
which  might  take  either  an  Averroistic  or  a  Spinozistic 
form.  Against  the  system  of  non-difference  Abelard  has 
a  number  of  logical  and  traditional  arguments  to  bring, 
but  it  is  sufficiently  condemned  by  his  fundamental 
doctrine  that  only  the  individual  exists  in  its  own  right 
For  that  system  still  seems  to  recognize  a  generic  sub- 
stance as  the  core  of  the  individual,  whereas,  according  to 
Cousin's  rendering  of  Abelard's  doctrine,  "  only  individuals 
exist,  and  in  the  individual  nothing  but  the  individual." 
The  individual  Socrates  may  be  said  to  be  made  Socrates 
by  the  form  Socraiitqs ;  now  "  the  subject  of  this  form 
is  not  humanity  in  itself  but  that  particular  part  of  human 
nature  which  is  the  nature  of  Socrates.  The  matter  in 
the  individual  Socrates  is  therefore  quite  as  much  indi- 
vidual as  his  form"  (p^clxxiv.).  Holding  fast  then  on 
the  one  hand  to  the  individual  as  the  only  true  substance, 
and  on  the  other  to  the  traditional  definition  of  the  genus 
as  that  which  is  predicated  of  a  number  of  individuals 
{quod  praedicatur  de  phtribus),  Abelard  declared  that  this 
definition  of  itaelf  condemns  the  Realistic  theory  ;  only  a 
name,  not  a  thing,  can  be  so  predicated, — not  the  name, 
however,  as  a.jiatns  vocis  or  a  collection  of  letters,  but  the 
name  as  used  in  discourse,  the  name  as  a  sign,  as  having 
a  meaning — in  a  word,  not  vox  but  sermo.  Sermo  est 
praedicabilis.  By  these  distinctions  Abelard  hoped  .to 
escape  the  consequences  df  extreme  Nominalism,  from 
which,  as  a  matter  of  history,  his  doctrine  has  been  dis- 
tinguished under  the  name  of  Conceptualism,  seeing  that 
it  lays  stress  not  on  the  word  as  such  but  on  the  thought 
which  the  word  is  intended  to  convey.  Moreover,  Abelard 
evidently  did  not  mean  to  imply  that  the  distinctions  of 
genera  and  species  are  of  arbitrary  or  merely  human 
imposition.  His  favourite  expression  for  the  universal  is 
"  quod  de  pluribus  natum  est  praedicari "  (a  translation  of 
Aristotle,  De  Inierpretaiione,  7),  which  would  seem  to 
point  to  a  real  or  objective  counterpart  of  the  products  of 
our  thought ;  and  the  traditional  definitions  of  Boetius, 
whom  he  frequently  quotes,  support  the  same  view  of  the 
concept  as  gathered  from  a  number  of  individuals  in 
virtue  of  a  real  resemblance.  'WTiat  Abelard  combats  is 
the  substantiation  of  these  resembling  qualities,  which 
leads  to  their  being  regarded  as  identical  in  all  the 
separate  individuals,  and  thus  paves  the  way  for  the 
gradual  undermining  of  the  individual,  the  only  true  and 
indivisible  substance.  But  he  modifies  his  Nominalism  so 
as  to  approach,  though  somewhat  vaguely,  to  the  position 
of  Aristotle  himself.  At  the  same  time  he  has  nothing 
to  say  against  the  Platonic  theory  of  universalia  ante 
rem,  the  Ideas  being  interpreted  as  exemplars,  existing  in 
the  divine  understanding  before  the  creation  of  things. 
Abelard's  discussion  of  the  problem  (which  it  is  right  to 
say  is  on  the  whole  incidental  rather  than  systematic)  is 
thus  marked  by  an  eclecticism  which  was  perhaps  the 
source  at  once  of  its  strength  and  its  weakness.  R^musat 
characterizes  his  teaching  as  displaying  "  rather  an  origin- 
ality of  talent  than  of  ideas,"  and  Prantl  says  that  in  the 
sphere  of  logic  his  activity  shows  no  more  independence 
than  that  of  perhaps  a  hundred  others  at  the  same  time. 
But  his  brilliant  ability  and  restless  activity  made  him  the 
central  figure  in  the  dialectical  as  in  the  other  discussions 
of  his  time.  To  him  was  indirectly  due,  in  the  main, 
that  troubling  of  the  Realistic  waters  which  resulted  in  so 
many  modifications  of  the  original  thesis  ;  and  his  own 
somewhat  eclectic  ruling  on  the  question  in  debate  came 
to  be  tacitly  accepted  in  the  schools,  as  the  ardour  of  the 
disputants  laegan  to  abate  after  the  middle  of  the  century. 


SCHOLASTICISM 


425 


Abelard'a  application  of  dialectic  to  theology  betrayed 
the  Nominalistic  basia  of  his  doctrine.  He  zealously 
combated  the'  Tritheism  of  Roscellinus,  but  his  own  views 
on  the  Trinity  were  condemned  by  two  councils  (a* 
Boissons  in  1121  and  at  Sens  in  1140).  Of  the  alterna- 
tives— three  Gods  or  una  ?•«— which  his  Nominalistic 
logic  presented  to  Roscellinus,  Koscellinus  had  chosen  the 
first;  Abelard  recoiled  to  the  other  extreme,  reducing  the 
three  Persons  to  three  aspects  or  attributes  of  the  Divine 
Being  (Power,  Wisdom,  and  Love).  For  this  he  was 
balled  to  account  by  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  (1091-1153), 
the  recognized  guardian  of  orthodoxy  in  France.  Bernard 
declared  that  he  "savoured  of  Arius  when  he  spoke  of  the 
(Trinity,  of  Pelagins  when  he  spoke  of  grace,  and  of  Nestorius 
vhen  he  spoke  of  the  person  of  Christ."  "While  he 
laboured  to  prove  Plato  a  Christian,  he  showed  himself  a 
heathen."  Nor  can  it  be  said  that  the  instinct  of  the 
saint  was  altogether  at  fault.  The  gepms  of  Rational- 
ism were  unquestionably  present  in  several  of  Abelard's 
opinions,  and  still  more  so,  the  traditionalists  must  have 
thought,  in  his  general  attitude  towards  theological 
questions.  "  A  doctrine  is  believed,"  he  said,  "  not 
because  God  has  said  it,  but  because  we  are  convinced  by 
reason  that  it  is  so."  "  Doubt  is  the  road  to  inquiry,  and 
by  inquiry  we  perceive  the  truth."  ("  Dubitando  enim  ad 
inquisitionem  venimus,  inquirendo  veritatem  percipimus.") 
The  application  of  dialectic  to  theology  was  not  new. 
Anselm  had  made  an  elaborate  employment  of  reason  in 
the  interest  of  faith,  but  the  spirit  of  pious  subordination 
which  had  marked  the  demonstrations  of  Anselm  seemed 
IJEnting  in  the  argumentations  of  this  bolder  and  more 
Jestless  spirit ;  and  the  church,  or  at  least  an  influential 
section  of  it,  took  alarm  at  the  encroachments  of  Rational- 
ism. Abelard's  remarkabld  compilation  Sk  et  Non  was 
not  calculated  to  allay  their  suspicions.  In  bringing 
together  the  conflicting  opinions  of  the  fathers  on  all  the 
ihief  points  of  Christian  dogmatics,  it  may  be  admitted 
ihat  Abelard's  aim  was  simply  to  make  these  contradic- 
iions  the  starting  point  of  an  inquiry -which  should  deter- 
mine in  each  case  the  true  position  and  via  media  of 
Christian  theology.  Only  such  a  determination  ceuld 
enable  the  doctrines  to  be  summarily  presented  as  a  system 
of  thought.  The  book  was  undoubtedly  the  precursor  of 
the  famous  Boohs  of  Sentences  of  Abelard's  own  pupil  Peter 
Lombard  and  others,  and  of  all  the  Summae  Theologiae  with 
■which  the  church  waa  presently  to  abound.  But  the  anti- 
nomies, as  they  appeared  in  Abelard's  treatise,  without 
their  solutions,  could  not  but  seem  to  insinuate  a  deep-laid 
Bcepticism  vrith  regard  to  authority.  And  even  the  pro- 
posal to  apply  the  unaided  reason  to  solve  questions 
which  had  divided  the  fathers  must  have  been  resented 
by  the  more  rigid  churchmen  as  the  rash  intrusion  of  an 
over-confident  Rationalism. 

Realism  was  in  the  beginning  of  the  12th  century  the 
dominant  doctrine  and  the  doctrine  of  the  church ;  the 
Nominalists  were  the  innovators  and  the  especial  repre- 
eentatives  of  the  Rationalistic  tendency.  In  order  to  see 
the  difference  in  this  respect  between  the  schools  we  have 
only  to  compare  the  peaceful  and  fortunate  life  of  William 
of  Champeaux  (who  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  St  Bernard) 
with  the  agitated  and  persecuted  existence  of  Roscellinus 
and,  in  a  somewhat  less  degree,  of  Abolard.  But  now 
the  greater  boldness  of  the  dialecticians  awakened  a  spirit 
of  general  distrust  in  the  exercise  of  rea-son  on  sacred 
subjects,  and  we  find  even  a  Realist  like  Gilbert  do  la 
Porrie  arraigned  by  Bernard  and  his  friends  before  a 
general  council  on  a  charge  of  heresy  (at  Rhoims,  1148). 
Though  Gilbert  was  acquitted,  the  fact  of  his  being 
brought  to  trinl  illustrates  the  growing  spirit  of  suspicion. 
Those  heresy -hunts  show  us  the  worst  side  of  St  Bernard, 


yet  they  are  iii  a  way  just  the  obverse  of  his  deep  mystical 
piety.  This  is  the  judgment  of  Otlo  of  Freising,  a  con- 
temporary : — "  He  was,  from  the  fervour  of  his  Christian 
religion,  as  jealous  as,  from  his  habitual  meekness,  he  was 
in  some  measure  credulous ;  so  that  he  held  in  abhorrence 
those  who  trusted  in  the  -wisdom  of  this  world  and  were 
too  much  attached  to  human  reasonings,  and  if  anything 
alien  from  the  Christian  faith  were  said  to  him  in  reference 
to  them  he  readiiy  gave  ear  to  it."  The  same  attitude  is 
maintained  by  the  mystical  school  of  St  Victor.  Hugo 
of  St  Victor  (1097-1141)  declares  that  "the  nncor- 
rupted  truth  of  things  cannot  be  discovered  by  reason- 
ing." The  perils  of  dialectic  are  manifold,  especially  in 
the  overbold  spirit  it  engenders.  Nevertheless  Hugo,  by 
the  composition  of  his  Summa  Sententiarum,  endeavoured 
to  give  a  methodical  or  rational  presentation  of  the  con- 
tent of  faith,  and  was  thus  the  first  of  the  so-called  Sum- 
mists.  Richard  of  St  Victor,  prior  of  the  monastery  from 
1162  to  1173,  is  still  more  absorbed  in  mysticism,  and  his 
successor  Walter  loses  his  temper  altogether  in  abuse  of 
the  dialecticians  and  the  Summists  alike.  The  Summists 
have  as  much  to  say  against  the  existence  of  God  as  for 
it,  and  the  dialecticians,  having  gone  to  school  to  the 
■pagans,  have  forgotten  over  Aristotle  the  way  of  salvation. 
Abelard,  Peter  Lombard,  Gilbert  de  la  Porr^e,  and  Peter 
of  Poitiers  he  calls  the  "four  labyrinths  of  France." 

This  anger  and  contempt  may  have  been  partly  justified  DecUn*  ^ 
by  the  discreditable  state  into  which  the  study  of  logic  °^  lopsJ 
had  fallen.  The  speculative  impulse  was  exhausted  which 
marks  the  end  of  the  11th  and  the  first  half  of  the  12th 
century, — a  period  more  original  and  more  interesting. in 
many  ways  than  the  great  age  of  Scholasticism  in  the  13th 
century.  By  the  middle  of  the  century,  logical  studies  had 
lost  to  a  great  extent  their  real  interest  and  application, 
and  had  degenerated  into  trivial  displays  of  ingenuity.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Summists  ^  occupied  themselves  merely 
in  the  systematizing  of  authorities.  The  mystics  held  aloof 
from  both,  and  devoted  themselves  to  the  practical  work 
of  preaching  and  edification.  The  intellect  of  the  age 
thus  no  longer  exhibited  itself  as  a  unity ;  disintegration 
had  set  in.  And  it  is  significant  of  this  that  the  ablest 
and  most  cultured  representative  of  the  second  half  of  the 
century  was  rather  an  historian  of  opinion  than  himself  a 
philosopher  or  theologian.  John  of  Salisbury  (Johannes  John  of 
Sarisberiensis)  was  educated  in  France  in  the  years  Salisburj-j 
1136-48 — in  Paris  under  Abelard  (who  had  then  returned 
to  Paris,  and  was  lecturing  at  St  Geneviive)  and  Robert  of 
Melun,  at  Chartres  under  WiUiam  of  Conches,  then  again 
in  Paris  under  Gilbert  de  la  Porr^e  and  Robert  PuUejni. 
The  autobiographical  account  of  these  years  contained  in 
his  Meta/officus  is  of  the  utmost  value  as  a  picture  of  the 
schools  of  the  time ;  it  is  also  one  of  tlie  historian's  chief 
sources  as  a  record  of  the  many-coloured  logical  views  of 
the  period.  John  was  a  man  of  affairs,  secretary  to  three 
successive  archbishops  of  Canterbury,  of  whom  Becket 
was  one.  He  died  in  1180  as  bishop  of  Chartres.  When 
a  pupil  there,  he  had  imbibed  to  the  full  the  love  of  class- 
ical learning  which  was  traditional  in  the  school.  An 
ardent  admirer  of  Cicero,  he  was  himself  the  master  of  an 
elegant  Latin  style,  and  in  his  works  he  often  appears 


'  Among  tlieso  may  be  mentioned  Rolicrt  Pullcjii  {ob.  1160), 
Poter  Lombard  (o6.  1164),  culled  tlio  ifagiater  Sententiarum,  -w-lioso 
-work  became  the  textbook  of  the  schools,  and  rcnmincd  so  for  cen- 
turies. Hundreds  of  commentaries  were  written  «]x)n  it.  Vcter^of 
I'oitiern,  the  pupil  of  Peter  tho  Lombunl,  nourished  about  1160-70. 
Other  nanws  are  Robert  of  Molun,  Huro  of  Amiens,  Stephen 
Langton,  and  William  of  Aujcerre.  More  important  is  Alain  do  Lillo 
(Alnnus  do  Insulis),  who  died  at  an  advanced  a^'O  in  1 203.  His  DeArlt 
sea  dc  Artiadis  Catlwlicni:  Fidri  is  a  .Summa  of  Christian  theology, 
but  with  a  greater  infusion  than  usual  of  philosophic*!  reasoning. 
Alauus  w-os  acquainted  with  tlio  celebrated  Lihrr  il«  Catint. 

X\l.  -  54 


426 


SCHOLASTIC. ISM 


more  as  a  cultivated  humanist  than  as  a  Scholastic 
divine.  His  PolicraHcus,  it  has  been  said,  "is  to  some 
extent  an  encyclopsedia  of  the  cultivated  thought  of  the 
middle  of  the  12th  century."  The  Metalof/inis  is  a 
defence  of  logic  against  those  who  despised  all  philo. 
sophical  training.  But  John  recoiled  from  the  idle 
casuistry  which  occupied  his  own  logical  contemporaries ; 
and,  mindful  probably  of  their  aimless  ingenuity,  he  adds 
the  caution  that  dialectic,  valuable  and  necessary  as  it  is, 
is  "  like  the  sword  of  Hercules  in  a  pigmy's  hand  "  unless 
there  be  added  to  it  the  accoutrement  of  the  other  sciences. 
Catholic  in  spirit  rather  than  dogmatic,  John  ranks  him- 
self at  times  among  the  Academics,  "  since,  in  those  things 
about  which  a  wise  man  may  doubt,  I  depart  not  from 
their  footsteps."  The  list  which  he  gives  of  tbings  which 
may  be  doubted  (quae  sunt  diibitabili-a  sapieTi'i)  is  at  once 
curious  and  instructive.  It  is  not  fitting  to  subtilize 
overmuch,  and  in  the  end  John  of  Salisbury's  solution  is 
the  practical  one,  his  charitable  spirit  pointing  him  in 
particular  to  that  love  which  is  the  fulfilling  of  the  law. 

The  first  period  of  Scholasticism  being  thus  at  an  end, 
there  is  an  interval  of  nearly  half  a  century  without  any 
Extension  noteworthy  philosophical  productions.     The  cause  of  the 
of  know-    new  development  of    Scholasticism  in   the   13th  century 
th'^^wo°rks  ^^^  the  translation  into  Latin  for  the  first  time  of  the 
of  Aris-     complete  works  of  Aristotle.     An  inventory  has  been  given 
totle.        of  the  scanty  stock  of  works  accessible  to  students  in  the 
9th  century.     The  stock  remained  unenlarged  till  towards 
the  middle  of  the  12  th  century,  when  the  remaining  trea- 
tises of  the  Orgmion  became  known.     Abelard  expressly 
states  that  he  knew  only  the  Categones  and  the  De  Inter- 
.pretatione ;  but  it  seems  from  passages  adduced  by  Prantl 
that  he  must,  before  the  date  of  his  Dialectica,  have  had 
some  indirect  and  hearsay  knowledge  of  the  contents  of  the 
other  treatises,  though  without  being  able  himself  to  con- 
sult a  copy.     The  books  made  their  way  almost  noiselessly 
into   the  schools.     In    1132  Adam  de   Petit-Pont,  it  is 
stated,   made  a  version  of  the  Prior  Analytics.     Gilbert 
de  la  Porr^e,  who  died  in  1154,  refers  to  the  Analytics  as 
currently  known.     His  disciple  Otto  of  Freising  carrfed  the 
Analytics,  the  Topica,  and  the  Soph.  Elenchi  from  France 
to    Germany,    probably  in    the    translation    of    Boetius. 
John  of  Salisbury  was  acquainted  with  these  and  also  with 
newer  and  more  literal  translations.     But,  while  the  fuller 
knowledge  of  the  ancient  logic  resulted  in  an  increase  of 
formal  acuteness,  it  appears  to  have  been  of  but  small 
benefit  to  serious  studies  till  there  was  added  to  it  a  know- 
ledge of   the  other  works  of  Aristotle.     This  knowledge 
came  to  the  Scholastics  in  the  first  instance  through  the 
medium    of   Arabian  philosophy.     (See  Aeabian  Philo- 
sophy.)    The  doctrines  and  tlie  works  of  Aristotle  bad 
been   transmitted  by  the   Nestorians   to  the  Arabs,   and 
among  those  kept  alive  by  a  succession  of  philosophers, 
first  in  the  East  and  afterwards  in  the  West.     The  chief  of 
these,  at  least  so  far  as  regards  the  influence  which  they 
exerted  on  mediseval  philosophy,   were  Avicenna,  Avem- 
pace,   and  Averroes.     The   unification    by   the   last-men- 
tioned of  Aristotle's  active  intellect  in  all  men,  and  his 
consequent   denial    of    individual    immortality   are    well 
known.     The  universal  human  intellect  is  made  by  him 
to  proceed  from  the  divine   by  a   series  of  Neoplatonic 
emanations.     In  the  course  of  the  12th  century  the  writings 
of  these  men   were  introduced  into  France  by  the  Jews 
of  Andalusia,    of  Marseilles,    and    Montpellier.     "  These 
^vritings    contained,"    says    Haureau,    "the    test   of    the 
Orgaiion,  the  Physics,  the  Jfetap/iysics,  the  Plhics,   the  Be 
Anima,    the  Parva   Katiiralia,    and  a  large    number   of 
other  treatises  of  Aristotle,   accompanied  by  continuous 
commentaries.     There  arrived  besides  by  the  same  channel  , 
the  glosses  of  Theophrastus,  of  Simplioius.  of  Alexander  | 


of  Aphrodisias,  of  Philoponus,  annotated  in  the  same  sense 
by  the  same  hands.  This  was  the  rich  but  dangerooa 
present  made  by  the  Mussulman  school  to  the  Christian  " 
(i.  382).  To  these  must  be  added  the  Neoplatonically 
inspired  Pons  Vilae  of  the  Jewish  philosopher  and  poet 
Ibn  Gebirol,  whom  the  Scholastics  cited  as  Avicebron  and 
believed  to  be  an  Arabian. 

By  special  command  of  Raimund,  archbishop  of  Toledo, 
the  chief  of  these  works  were  ti-anslated  from  the  Arabic 
through  the  Castilian  into  Latin  by  the  archdeacon 
Dominicus  Gonzalvi  with  the  aid  of  Johannes  Avendeath 
(  =  ben  David),  a  converted  Jew,  about  1150.  About 
the  same  time,  or  not  long  after,  the  Liber  de  Causis 
became  known — a  work  destined  to  have  a  powerful 
influence  on  Scholastic  thought,  especially,  in  the  period 
immediately  succeeding.  Accepted  at  first  as  Aristotle's, 
and  actually  printed  in  the  first  Latin  editions  of  his  works, 
the  book  is  in  reality  an  Arabian  compilation  of  Neo- 
platonic  theses.  Of  a  similar  character  was  the  pseudo- 
Aristotelian  Theologia  which  was  in  circidation  at  least  as 
early  as  1200. 

The  first  effects   of  this   immense  acquisition   of  newFlr»t 
material  were  markedly  unsettling  on  the  doctrinal  ortho-  effects  ot 
doxy  of  the  time.     The  apocryphal  Neoplatonic  treatises  J^*^"''^ 
and  the  views  of  the  Arabian  commentators  obscured  for  the 


first  students  the  genuine  doctrine  of  Aristotle,  and  the  13th 
century  opens  with  quite  a  crop  of  mystical  heresies.     The 
mystical  pantheism  taught  at  Paris  by  Amalrich  of  Bena 
(o6.  1207  ;  see  Amaleich  and  Mysticism),  though  based 
by  him  upon  a  revival  of  Scotus  Erigena,  was  doubtless 
connected  in  its  origin  mth  the  Neoplatonic  treatises  which 
now  become  current.     The  immanence  of  God  in  all  things' 
and  His  incarnation  as  tliq  Holy  Spirit  in  themselves  ao- 
pear  to  have  been  the  chief  doctrines  of  the  Amalricans. 
They   are   reported   to   have   said,  "  Omnia  unum,   quia 
quicqui(f  est  est  Deus."     About  the  same  time  David  "of 
Dinant,  in  a  book  De  Tomis  (rendered  by  Albertus  De 
Divisionibus),  taught  the  identity  of  God  with  matter  (or  the 
indivisible  principle  of  bodies)  and  nous  (or  the  indivisible 
principle  of  intelligences) — an  extreme  Realism  culminating 
in  a  materialistic  pantheism.      If  they  were  diverse,  he 
argued,  there   must   exist   above   them   some  higher  or 
common  element  or  being,  in  which  case-  this  would  be 
God,  nous,  or  the  original  matter.     The  spread   of  the 
Amahican  doctrine   led   to  fierce   persecutions,  and  the 
provincial  council  which  met  at  Paris  in  1209,  after  con- 
demning the  heresies  of  Amalrich  and  David,  expressly 
decreed  "  that  neither  the  books  of  Aristotle  on  natural 
philosophy,  nor  commentaries  on  the  same,  should  be  reatf, 
whether  publicly  or  privately,   at  Paris."     In   1215  thia 
prohibition  is  renewed  in  the  statutes  of  the  university  pf 
Paris,  as  sanctioned  by  the  papal  legate.     "  Et  quod  legant 
libros  Aristotelis  de  dialectica  tarn  veteri  quam  de  nova.  .-A 
Non  legantur  libri  Aristotelis  de  metaphysica  et  naturali 
philosophia,  nee  summa  de  iisdem."     Permission  is  thus 
given  to  lecture  on  the  logical  books,  both  those  which 
had  been  known  all  along  and  those  introduced  since  1125,' 
but  the  veto  upon  the  Physics  is  extended  to  the  Me^ 
physics  and  the  summaries  of  the  Arabian  commentators.' 
By  1231,  however,  the  fears  of  the  church  were  beginning 
to  be  allayed.  «  A  bull  of  Gregory  IX.  in  that  year  mak^ 
no  mention  of  any  Aristotehan  works  except  the  Physic 
As  these  had  been  "pi-ohibited  by  the  provincial  council 
for  specific   reasons."   they  are  not   to   fee  used   in   the 
university  "  till  such  time  as  they  have  been  examined  and 
purged  of  all  suspicion  of  errors."     Finally,  in  the  year 
1234,  we    find  the   university  officially  prescribing    how 
many  hours  are  to  be  devoted  to  the  explanation  of  tl* 
J/etapkysics  and  the  principal  physical  treatises  of  AristotS. 
These  dates  enable  us  to  measure  accuratelv  the  stages  by 


know- 
ledge. 


SCHOLASTICISM 


427 


•which  .tho  church  accomr.ioJated  itself  to,  and  as  it  were 
took  possessiou  of,  the  Aristotelian  philosophy.  Growing 
knov/ledge  of  ^Aristotle's  works  and  tho  multiplication  of 
translations  enabled  students  to  distinguish  the  genuine 
Aristotle  from  the  questionable  accompaniments  with 
which  he  had  made  his  first  appearance  in  Western  Europe. 
•Fresh  translations  of  Aristotle  and  Avorroos  had  already 
been  made  from  the  Arabic  by  Michael  Scot  and 
Hermannus  Alemannus,  at  tho  instance  of  the  emperor 
Frederick  II.;  so  that  the  whole  body  of  Aristotle's  works 
■was  at  hand  in  Latin  translations  from  about  1210  to  1225. 
Soon  afterwards  efforts  began  to  be  made  to  secure 
more  literal  translations  direct  from  the  Greek.  Robert 
Grosseteste  (ob.  1253)  was  one  of  the  first  to  stir  in  this 
matter,  and  he  was  followed  by  Albertus  Magnus  and 
Thomas  Aquinas.  Half  a  century  thus  sufficed  to  remove 
the  ban  of  the  church,  and  soon  Aristotle  was  recognized 
en  all,  hands  as  "the  philosopher"  ^jar  excellence,  the 
master  of  those  that  know.  It  even  became  customary  to 
•iiiw  a  parallel  between  him  as  the  praecursor  Chrisli  in 
naturalibw  and  John  tho  Baptist,  t\iQ  praec^irsor  Christi 
in  gratuitis. 

This  unquestioned  supremacy  was  not  yielded,  however, 
at  the  very  beginning  of  the  period.  The  earlier  doctors 
who  avail  themselves  of  Aristotle's  works,  while  bowing  to 
his  authority  implicitly  in  matters  of  logic,  are  generally 
found  defending  a  Christianized  Platonism  against  the 
doctrine  of  the  Metaplajsics.  So  it  is  with  Ale.xander  of 
Hales  {oh.  1245),  tho  first  Scholastic  who  was  acquainted 
with  the  whole  of  the  Aristotelian  works  and  the  Arabian 
commentaries  upon  them.  He  was  more  of  a  theologian 
than  a  philosopher ;  and  in  his  chief  work,  Summa  Uni- 
versae  Theologiae,  ho  simply  employs  his  increased  philo- 
sophical knowledge  in  the  demonstration  of  theological 
doctrines.  So  great,  however,  did  his  achievement  seem 
that  he  was  honoured  with  the  titles  of  Doctor  Irrefraga- 
bilis  and  Theologorum  ilonarcha.  Alexander  of  Hales  be- 
longed to  the  Franciscan  order,  and  it  is  worth  remarking 
that  it  was  the.  mendicant  orders  which  now  came  forward 
as  the  protagonists  of  Christian  learning  and  faith  and, 
as  it  were,  reconquered  Aristotle  for  the  church.  During 
the  first  half  of  the  13th  century,  when  the  university  of 
Paris  was  plunged  in  angry  feuds  with  tho  municipalitj', 
feuds  which  even  led  at  one  time  (1229)  to  tho  flight  of 
the  students  in  a  body,  the  friars  established  teachers  in 
their  convents  in  Paris.  After  the  university  had  settled 
its  quarrels  these  continued  to  teach,  and  soon  became 
formidable  rivals  of  the  secular  lecturers.  After  a  severe 
struggle  for  academical  recognition  they  were  finally 
admitted  to  all  the  privileges  of  the  university  by  a  bull 
of  Alexander  IV.  in  1253.  The  Franciscans  took  the  lead 
in  thi.s  intellectual  movement  with  Ale.xander  of  Hales 
and  Bonaventura,  but  the  Dominicans  were  soon  able  to 
boast  of  two  greater  names  in  Albert  tlie  Great  and 
Thomas  Aquinas.  Still  later  Duns  Scotus  and  Occam 
were  both  Franciscans.  Alexander  of  Hales  was  succeeded 
in  his  clio.u'  of  instruction  by  his  pupil  John  of  Rochelle, 
who  died  in  1271  but  taught  only  till  1253.  His  treatise 
De  Anima,  on  wliicli  Haurdau  lays  particular  stiess,  is 
interesting  as  showing  the  greater  scope  now  given  to 
psychological  discussions.'  This  was  a  natural  result  of 
acquaintance  with  Aristotle's  /)«  Anima  and  tho  numerous 
Greek  and  Arabian  comn^entaries  upon  it,  and  it  is 
observable  in  most  of  tho  writers  that  have  still  to  bo 
mentioned.  Even  tho  nature  of  the  univcrsals  is  no  longer 
discussed  from  a  purely  logical  or  metaphysical  point  of 
view,  but  becomes  connected  with  jjsychological  questions. 
And,  on  the  whole,  tho  widening  of  intellectual  interests  is 
the  chief  feature  by  which  tho  second  period  of  Scholasti- 
cism may  be  distinguished  from  the  first.     In  some  respects 


there  is  more  freshness  and  interest  in  the  speculations 
which  buret  forth  so  ardently  in  the'end  of  the  11th  and 
tho  first  half  of  tho  12th  century.  Albert  and  Aquinas 
no  doubt  stood  on  a  higher  level  than  Anselm  and  Abelard, 
not  merely  by  their  wider  range  of  knowledge  but  also  by, 
the  intellectual  massiveness  of  their  achievements ;  but  it 
may  be  questioned  whether  the  earlier  writers  did  not 
possess  a  greater  force  of  originality  and  a  keener  talent 
Originality  was  at  no  time  the  strong  point  of  the  iiiddle 
Ages,  but  in  the  later  period  it  was  almost  of  necessity 
buried  under  the  mass  of  material  suddenly  thrust  upon 
the  age,  to  bo  assimilated.  On  tho  other  hand,  the 
influence  of  this  new  material  is  everywhere  evident  in 
the  wider  range  of  questions  •n'hich  are  discussed  by  the 
doctors  of  tho  period.  Interest  is  no  longer  to  the  same 
extent  concentrated  on  the  one  question  of  tho  univcrsals. 
Other  questions,  says  Haurtiau,  are  "  placed  on  the  order 
of  the  day, — the  question  of  the  elements  of  substance, 
that  of  the  principle  of  individuation,  that  of  the  origin  of 
tho  ideas,  of  the  manner  of  their  existence  in  the  human 
understanding  and  in  the  divine  thought,  as  well  as 
various  others  of  cq-Jial  interest "  (i.  420).  Some  of  these, 
it  may  be  said,  are  simply  the  old  Scholastic  problem  in  a 
different  garb  ;  but  the  extended  horizon  of  which  Haurdau 
speaks  is  amply  proved  by  mere  reference  to  the  treatises 
of  Albert  and  St  Thomas.  They  there  seek  to  reproduce 
for  their  own  time  all  the  departments  of  the  Aristotelian 
sy.stem. 

John   of   Rochelle  was   succeeded   in    i253   by   John  Bon*- 
Fidanza,  better  known  as   Bonaventura  (1221-74),  who ''"'"» 
had  also  been  a  pujjil  of  Alexander  of  Hales.     But  the  fame 
of  "  the  Seraphic  Doctor  "  is  connected  more  closely  with 
the  history  of  mysticism  (see  Mysticism)  than  with. the 
main  stream  of  Scholastic  thought.     Like  his  master,  he 
defended  Plato — or  what  he  considered  to  be  the  Platonic 
theory — against  the  attacks  of  Aristgtle.     Thus  he   de- 
feuded  the  universalia  ante  rem  as  exemplars  existent  in 
tho  divine  intelligence,  and  censured  Aristotle's  doctrine 
of  the  eternity  of  the  world.     Among  the  earlier  teachers 
and  writers  of  this  century  we  have  also  to  name  William  WilUaraoi 
of  Auvergne  {ob.  1249),  whose  treatises  De  Universo  and  ■*-"''"B^ 
De  Anima  make  extensive  use  of  Aristotle  and  tho  Arabians, 
but  display  a  similar  Platonic  leaning.     Tho  existence  of 
intellections  in  our  minds   is,  he   maintains,  a  sufficient 
demonstration  of  the  existence  of   an  intelligible  world, 
just  as    tho   ideas  of   sense   are  sufficient  evidence  of   a 
sensible  world.     This  archetypal  world  is  the  Son  of  God 
and  true  God.     Robert  Grosseteste,  important  in  the  sphere  Groue- 
of  ecclesiastical  politics,  has    been  ah'eady  mentioned  as  *«'**• 
active  in  procuring  translations  of  Aristotle  from  the' Greek. 
Ho  also  wrote  commentaries  on  logical  and  physical  works 
of  Aristotle.     Jlichaol  Scot,  tho  renowned  wizard  of  popular  Mich»«l 
tradition,  earned  his   reputation  by  numerous   works  on  °*°*- 
astrology  and  alchemy.     His  connexion  with  philosophy 
was  chiefly  in  tho  capacity  of  a  translator.     Vincent  of 
Beauvais  {ob.  1 2G4)  was  tho  author  of  an  oncyclopajdic  svork 
called  Speculum  Ma^jus,  in  which,  without  much  independent 
ability,  he  collected  the  opinions  of  ancient  and  mediaeval 
writers    on    the    most    diverse    points,    tuanscribing    the 
fragments  of  tlieir  works  which  he  deemed  most  interesting. 

Albertus  Magnus  introduces  us  at  once  to  the  great  ago 
of  Scholasticism.  Born  in  Swabia  in  1 193,  ho  lived  to  tho 
great  age  of  eighty-seven,  dying  at  Cologne  in  1280.  Tho 
limits  of  his  life  thus  include  that  of  his  -still  greater  pupil 
Thomas  Aquinas,  who  was  born  in  1227  and  died  while 
still  comparatively  young  in  1274.  For  this  reason,  and 
because  the  system  of  Thomas  is  simply  that  of  Albert 
rounded  to  a  greater  completeness  and  elabgrated  in  parts 
by  tho  subtle  intellect  of  the  younger  man,  it  will  be  con-' 
vcnient  not  to  separate  the  views  of  master  and  scholar 


428 


SCHOLASTICISM 


except  where  their  differences  make  it  necessary  ;  and  in 
giving  an  account  of  their  common  system  it  will  be  well 
to  present  it  at  once  in  its  most  perfect  form.  Albert  was 
'  "the  first  Scholastic  who  reproduced  the  whole  philosophy 
of  Aristotle  in  systematic  order  with  constant  reference 
to  the  Arabic  commentators,  and  who  remodelled  it 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  ecclesiastical  dogma " 
(Ueberweg,  i.  436).  On  this  account  he  was  called  by 
his  contemporaries  "  the  Universal  Doctor."  But  in  Albert 
it  may  be  said  that  the  matter  was  still  too  new  and  too 
multifarious  to  be  thoroughly  mastered.  The  fabric  of 
knowledge  is  not  fitly  jointed  together  in  all  its  parts; 
the  theologian  and  the  philosopher  are  not  perfectly  fused 
into  one  Individual,  but  speak  sometimes  with  different 
voices.  In  St  Thomas  this  is  no  longer  so ;  the  fusion  is 
almost  perfect.  The  pupil,  entering  into  his  master's 
labours,  was  able  from  the  first  to  take  a  more  compre- 
hensive survey  of  the  whole  field ;  and  in  addition  he  was 
doubtless  endowed  with  an  intellect  which  was  finer, 
though  it  might  not  be  more  powerful,  than  his  master's. 
'Albert  had  the  most  touching  affection  for  his  distinguished 
'scholar.  When  he  went  to  Paris  in  1245  to  lecture  and  to 
'take  his  doctor's  degree,  his  pupil  accompanied  him ;  and, 
'on  their  return  to  Cologne,  Aquinas  taught  along  with  his 
master  in  the  great  Dominican  school  there.  At  a  later 
date,  when  Aquinas  proceeded  to  Paris  to  lecture  inde- 
'  pendently,  he  occupied  the  Dominican  chair  at  the  same 
titaie  that  Bonaventura  held  the  Franciscan  professorship. 
They  received  the  degree  of  doctor  in  the  same  year,  1257. 
Eivals  in  a  planner  though  they  were,  and  differing  on 
points  of  philosophy,  the  Angelic  and  Seraphic  Doctors  were 
united  in  friendship  and  Christian  charity. 
"  Mys-  The  monotheistic  influence  of  Aristotle  and  his  Arabian 
''*"®^  commentators  shows  itself  in  Albert  and  Aquinas,  at  the 
^^  ®  outset,  in  the  definitive  fashion  in  which  the  "mysteries" 
philo-  of  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation  are  henceforth  detached 
«ophy.  from  the  sphere  of  rational  or  philosophical  theology.  So 
(long  as  the  Neoplatonic  influence  remained  strong, 
attempts  were  still  made  to  demonstrate  the  doctrine  of 
,the  Trinity,  chiefly  in  a  mystical  sense  as  in  Erigena,  but 
also  by  orthodox  churchmen  like  Anselm.  Orthodoxy, 
■whether  Catholic  or  Protestant,  has  since  generally 
.adopted  Thomas's  distinction.  The  existence  of  God  is 
I  maintained  by  Albert  and  Aquinas  to  be  demonstrable  by 
ireason;  but  here  again  they  reject  the  ontological  argu- 
jnent  of  Anselm,  and  restrict  themselves  to  the  a  posteriori 
proof,  rising  after  the  manner  of  Aristotle  from  that 
'■which  is  prior  for  nis  {Trporfpov  irpo?  rj/xa^)  to  that  which 
is  prior  by  nature  or  in  itself  (-n-poTtpov  rfivcru).  God 
is  not  fully  comprehensible  by  us,  says  Albert,  because  the 
^nite  is  not  able  to  grasp  the  infinite,  yet  he  is  not  alto- 
gether beyond  our  knowledge ;  our  intellects  are  touched 
by  a  ray  of  his  light,  and  through  this  contact  we  are 
brought  into  communion  with  him.  God,  as  the  only 
Belf-subsistent  and  necessary  being,  is  the  creator  of  all 
things.  Here  the  Scholastic  philosophy  comes  into  con- 
flict with  Aristotle's  doctrine  of  the  eternity  of  the  world. 
Albert  and  Aquinas  alike  maintain  the  beginning  of  the 
■■world  in  time ;  time  itself  only  exists  since  the  moment  of 
this  miraculous  creation.  But  Thomas,  though  he  holds 
the  fact  of  creation  to  be  rationally  demonstrable,  regards 
the  beginning  of  the  world  m  time  as  only  an  article  of 
faith,  the  philosophical  arguments  for  and  against  being 
inconclusive. 

The  question  of  universals,  though  fully  discussed,  no 
longer  forms  the  centre  of  speculation.  The  great  age  of 
Scholasticism  presents,  indeed,  a  substantial  unanimity 
upon  this  vexed  point,  maintaining  at  once,  in  different 
eenses,  the  existence  of  the  universals  ante  rem,  in  re,  and 
post  rem.     Albert  and  Aquinas  both  profess  the  moderate 


Aristotelian  Eealism  which  treats  genera  and  species  onljl 
as    substantiae   secuiulae,  yet   as   really   inherent    in    tha 
individuals,  and  constituting  their  form  or  essence.     Thai 
universals,  therefore,  have  no  existence,  as  universals,  iri 
rerum  natura ;  and  Thomas  endorses,  in  this  sense,  thel 
polemic  of  Aristotle  against  Plato's  hypostatized  abitrac4 
tions.     But,  in  the  Augustinian  sense  of  ideas  immaneati 
in   the   divine   mind,  the  universal   ante  rem   may  well! 
be   admitted  as  possessing  real   existence.      Finally,  by] 
abstraction  from  the  individual  things  of  sense,  the  mind' 
is  able  to  contemplate  the  universal  apart  from  its  accom- 
paniments {animal  sine  Iiomine,  asino,  et  aliis  speciebus)  ; 
these  subjective  existences  are  the  universalia  post  rem  of  i 
the  Nominalists 'and  Conceptualists.     But  the  difficulties' 
which  embarrassed  a  former  age  in  trying  to  conceive  tha 
mode   in   which   the   universal   exists   in  the  individual 
reappear  in  the  systems  of  the  present  period  a?  the  pro- 
blem of  the  pirincipinm  indiuiduationis.     The   universal,  The 
as  the  form  or   essence   of   the   individual,  is  called  it?  princi] 
(fuidditas  (its  "what-ness"  or  nature);  but,  besides  pos- °^ '"^* 
sessing  a  general  nature  and  answering  to  a  general  defi- 
nition {i.e.,  being  a  "■U'hat"),  every  man,  for  e.xample,  is 
this  particular  man,  here  and  now.     It  is  the  question  of 
the  particularity  or  "this-ness"  {haecceitas,  as  Duns  Scotus 
afterwards  named  it)  that  embarrasses  the    Scholastics.! 
Albert  and  Aquinas  agree  in  declaring  that  the  principle 
of  iadividuation  is  to  be  found  in  matter,  not,  however,  in 
matter  as  a  formless  substrate  but  in  determinate  matter 
{materia  sir/nata),  which  is  explained  to  mean  matter  quan- 
titatively determined  in  certain  respects.     "The  variety        / 
of  individuals,"  says  Albert,  "depends  entirely  upon  the 
division  of  matter"  {individuorum  midtitudojit  omnis  per 
divisionem  rnateriae)  ;  and  Aquinas  says  "the  principle  of 
the  diversity  of  individuals  of  the  same  species  is  the 
quantitative  division  of  matter  "  (divisio  materiae  secundum 
qiiantitatem),  which  his  followers  render  by  the  abbreviated 
phrase  materia  quanta.     A  tolerably  evident  shortcoming 
of  such  a  doctrine  is  that,  while  declaring  the  quantitative 
determination  of  matter  to  be  the  individual  element  ioj 
the  individual,  it  gives  no  account  of  how  such  quantitative 
determination  arises.     Yet  the  problem  of  the  individual 
is  really  contained  in  this  prior  question  ;  for  determinate, 
matter  already  involves  particularity  or  this-ness.     This 
diSiculty  was  presently  raised  by  Duns  Scotus  and  the  real- 
istically-inclined opponents  of  the  Thomist  doctrine.    But,  as 
Ueberweg  points  out,  it  might  fairly  be  urged  by  AquinaA, 
that  ho  does  not  pretend  to  explain  how  the  individual  is 
actually  created,  but  merely  states  what  he  finds  to  be  an, 
invariable  condition  of  the  e:dstence  of  individuals.    Apart 
from   this  general   question,    a   difficulty  arises   on   th^ 
Thomist  theory  in  regard  to  the  existence  of  spirits  ok 
disembodied   personalities.     This   affects  first   of  all  the 
existence  of  angels,  in  regard  to  whom  Aquinas  admits  tha| 
they  are  immaterial  or  separate  forms  {fopnae  separatae)'. 
They  possess  the  principle  of  individuation  in  themselves; 
he  teaches,  but,  plurality  of  individuals  is  in  such  a  casf 
equivalent  to  plurality  of  species  {in  eis  tot  sunt  speciet 
qiiot   sunt    individua).      The    same    difficulty,    however, 
affects  the  existence   of  the  disembodied  human   spirit 
If  individuality  depends  in  matter,  must  we  not  conclude 
with  Averroes  that  individuality  is  extinguished  at  death, 
and  that  only  the  universal  form  survives  t     This  conclu- 
sion, it  is  needless  to  say,  is  strenuously  opposed  both  l)y 
Albert  and  Thomas.     Albert  wrote  a  special  treatise  2?« 
Uniiate  Inielledus  contra  Averroisias,  and  Thomas  in  his 
numerous  writings  is  even  more  explicit.     It  is  still  admis- 
sible, however,  to  doubt  whether  the  hateful  consequence 
does  not  follow  consistently  from  the  theory  laid  down. 
Aquinas  regards  the  souls  of   men,   like  the  angeb,  as 
immateiial  forms  ;  and  he  includes  in  the  soul-unit,  so  to- 


S  C  H  O  L  A.  S  T  I  C  I  IS  M 


429 


speak,  not  raerelj  the  nnima  rationalis  of  Aristotle,  but  also 
the  vegetative,  sensitive,  appetitive,  and  motive  functions. 
The  latter  depend,  it  is  true,  on  bodily  organs  during 
our  earthly  sojourn,  but  the  dependence  is  not  necessary. 
The  soul  is  created  by  God  when  the  body  of  which  it  is 
the  enteleehy  is  prepared  for  it.  It  is  the  natural  state 
of  the  soul  to  be  united  to  a  body  {Aninwe  ]i}-ii(s  con- 
venit  esse  unitam  corpori  quam  esse  a  corpore  separa- 
tam),  but  being  immaterial  it  is  not  aflFected  by  the  dis- 
solution of  the  body.  The  soul  must  be  immaterial  since 
it  has  the  power  of  cognizing  the  universal  ;  and  its  immor- 
tality is  further  based  by  St  Thomas  on  the  natural  longing 
for  unending  e.xistence  which  belongs  to  a  being  whose 
thoughts  are  not  confined  to  the  "  here  "  and  "  now,"  but 
are  able  to  abstract  from  every  limitation. 

Thomism,  which  was  destined  to  become  the  official 
philosophy  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  became  in  the 
first  instance  the  accepted  doctrine  of  the  Dominican 
order,  who  were  presently  joined  in  this  allegiance  by  the 
Augustinians.  The  Franciscan  order,  on  the  other  hand, 
early  showed  their  rivalry  in  attacks  upon  the  doctrines  of 
Albert  and  Aquinas.  One  of  the  first  of  these  was  the 
Reprehensorizim  sen  Correclorium  Fratris  Thouiae,  published 
in  1285  by  William  Lamarre,  in  which  the  Averroistic 
consequences  of  the  Thomist  doctrine  of  individuation  are 
already  pressed  home.  More  important  was  Richard  of 
lliddletown  (died  about  1300),  who  anticipated  many  of 

^ns       the   objections   urged  soon   after  him    by   Duns    Scotus. 

»tas.  This  renowned  opponent  of  the  Thomist  doctrine  was  born 
in  the  second  half  of  the  13tb  century,  and  after  achieving 
an  extraordinary  success  as  a  lecturer  in  Oxford  and  Paris 
died  at  an  early  age  in  the  year  1308.  His  system  is 
conditioned  throughout  by  its  relation  to  that  of  Aquinas, 
of  which  it  is  in  effect  an  elaborate  criticism.  ;  The  chief 
characteristic  of  this  criticism  is  well  expressed  in  the 
name  bestowed  on  Duns  by  his  contemporaries — Doctor 
Subtilis.  It  will  be  sufficient  therefore  to  note  the  chief 
points  in  which  the  two  great  antagonists  differ.  In 
general  it  may  be  said  that  Duns  shows  less  confidence  in 
the  power  of  reason  than  Thomas,  and  to  that  extent 
Erdmann  and  others  are  right  in  looking  upon  his  .system 
as  the  beginning  of  the  decline  of  Scholasticism.  For 
Scholasticism,  as  perfected  by  Aquinas,  implies  the  har- 
mony of  reason  and  faith,  in  the  sense  that  they  both 
teach  the  same  truths.  To  this  general  position  Aquinas, 
it  has  been  seen,  makes  several  important  exceptions  ;  but 
the  exceptions  are  few  in  number  and  precisely  defined. 
Scotus  extends  the  number  of  theological  doctrines  which 
are  not,  according  to  him,  susceptible  of  phUosophical 
proof,  including  in  this  class  the  creation  of  the  world  out 
of  nothing,  the  immortality  of  the  human  sou),  and  even 
the  existence  of  an  almighty  divine  cause  of  the  universe 
(though  he  admits  the  possibility  of  proving  an  ultimate 
cause  superior  to  all  else).  His  destructive  criticism  thus 
tended  to  reintroduce  the  dualism  between  faith  and 
reason  which  Scholasticism  had  laboured  through  cen- 
turies to  overcome,  though  Scotus  himself,  of  course,  had 
no  such  sceptical  intention.  But  the  way  in  which  he 
founded  the  leading  Christian  doctrines  (after  confessing 
his  inability  to  rationalize  them)  on  the  arbitrary  will 
of  God'  was  undoubtedly  calculated  to  help  in  the  work  of 
disintegration.  And  it  is  significant  that  this  primacy  of 
the  undetermined  will  (voIuhIhs  snjKrinr  hitdlectu)  was 
the  central  contention  of  the  Scotists  against  the  Thomist 
doctrine.  Voluntary  action.  St  Thomas  had  said,  is  action 
originating  in  .self  or  in  an  intei-nal  principle.  As  com- 
pared with  the  animals,  which  are  immediately  determined 
to  their  en'ds  by  the  instinct  of  the  moment,  man  deter- 
mines his  own  course  of  action  freely  after  a  certain  pro- 
cess of  rational  comparison  {ex  coUadone  quadam  ratimiu). 


It  is  evident  that  the  freedom  here  spoken  of  is  a  freedom 
from  the  immediacy  of  impulse— a  freedom  based  upon 
our  possesBio.T  of  reason  as  a  power  of  comparison,  memory, 
and  forethought.  Nothing  is  said  of  an  absolute  freedom 
of  the  will ;  the  will  is,  on  the  contrary,  subordinated  tq 
the  reason  in  so  far  as  it  is  sup[)Osed  to  choi-)se  what 
reason  pronounces  good.  Accordingly,  the  Thomist 
doctrine  may  be  described  as  a  moderate  determinism. 
To  this  Scotus  opposed  an  indeterminism  of  the  extremest 
type,  describing  the  « il!  as  the  possibility  of  determining 
itself  motivelessly  in  either  of  two  opposite  senses.  Trans- 
ferred to  the  divine  activity,  Thomas's  doctrine  led  him  to 
insist  upon  the  perseitus  boui.  The  divine  will  is,  equally 
with  the  human,  subject  to  a  rational  determination  ;  God 
commands  what  is  good  because  it  is  good.  Scotus,  on 
the  other  hand,  following  out  his  doctrine  of  the  will, 
declared  the  good  to  be  so  only  Ijy  arbitrary  imposition. 
IP  is  good  because  God  willed  it,  and  for  no  other  reason  ; 
had  He  commanded  precisely  the  opposite  course  of  con- 
duct, that  course  would  have  been  right  by  the  mere  fact 
of  His  commanding  it.  Far  removed  from  actuality  as 
such  speculations  regarding  the  priority  of  intellect  or  will 
in  the  Divine  Being  may  seem  to  be,  the  side  taken  is  yet 
a  sure  index  of  the  general  tendency  of  a  philosophy. 
Aquinas  is  on  the  side  of  rationalism,  Scotus  on  the  side 
of  scepticism. 

While  agreeing  wth  Albert  and  Thomas  in  maintaining 
the  threefold  existence  of  the  universals.  Duns  Scotua 
attacked  the  Thomist  doctrine  of  individuation.  The  dis- 
tinction of  the  universal  essence  and  the  individualizing 
determinations  in  the  individual  does  not  coincide,  he 
maintained,  with  the  distinction  between  form  and  matter. 
The  additional  determinations  are  as  truly  "form"  as  the 
universal  essence.  If  the  latter  be  spoken  of  as  quidditas, 
the  former  may  be  called  haecceitas.  Just  as  the  genus 
becomes  the  species  by  the  addition  of  formal  determina- 
tions called  the  difference,'  .so  the  species  becomes  the 
individual  by  the  addition  of  fresh  forms  of  difference. 
As  animal  becomes  homo  by  the  addition  of  hvmanitas,  so 
fiomo  becomes  Socrates  by  the  addition  of  the  qualities 
signified  by  Soa-atitas.  It  is  false,. therefore,  to  speak  of 
matter  as  the  principle  of  individuation  ;  and  if  this  is  so 
there  is  no  longer  any  foundation  for  the  Thomist  view 
that  in  angelic  natures  every  individual  constitutes  a 
species  apart.  Notwithstanding  the  above  doctrine,  how- 
ever, Scotus  holds  that  all  created  things  possess'  both 
matter  and  form — the  soul,  for  example,  possessing  a 
matter  of  its  own  before  its  union  with  the  body.  But 
the  matter  of  spiritual  beings  is  widely  different  from  the 
matter  of  corporeal  things.  In  his  treatment  of  the  con- 
ception of  matter.  Duns  shows  that  he  inclined  much 
more  to  the  Realism  which  makes  for  pantheism  than  was 
the  case  with  the  Aristotelianism  of  Thomas.  A  perfectly 
formless  matter  {materia  prima)  was  regarded  by  him  aa 
the  universal  substratum  and  common  element  of  all  finite 
existences.  He  expressly  intimates  in  this  connexion  his 
acceptance  of  Avicebron's  position.  Et/o  autem  ad  pon- 
tionem  Avicehronis  redeo,  that  is,  to  the  Neoplatonieally 
conceived  Fons  Vitae  of  the  Jew  Gebirol. 

In  the  end  of  the  13th  century  and  the  beginning  of  the 
Hth  the  Thomists  and  Scotists  divided  the  philo.sophical 
and  theological  world  between  them.  Among  the  Thomists 
may  be  named  John  of  Paris,  ^Egidius  of  Lossincs  (wrote  in 
1278),  Bernard  of  Trilia  (1210-92),  and  Peter  of  Auvergne. 
More  important  was  /Kgidius  of  Colouna  (1247-1316), 
general  of  the  Augustinian  order,  surnamcd  Doctor  Fiinda- 
tissimus  or  Fiinddmenlarius.  Ilcrvivus  Natalis  {ob.  1323) 
and  Thomas  Bradwardine  {oh.  1319)  were  determined  oppo- 
nents of  Scolism.  Siger  of  Brabant  and  Gottfried  of  Fon- 
taines,  chancellor  of  the  uaivoisity  of  Paris,  taught  Thomism 


430 


SCHOLASTIC, ISM 


at  the  Sorbonne ;  and  through  Humbert,  abbot  of  Prulli, 
the  doctriae  won  admission  to  the  Cistercian  order.  Among 
the  disciples  of  Duns  Scotus  are  mentioned  John  of  Bas- 
3olis,  Franciscns  de  Mayronis  {oh.  1327))  Antonius  Andreas 
lob.  c.  1320),  John  Dumbletou  and  Walter  Burleigh 
(1275-1357)  of  Oxford,  Nicokus  of  Lyra,  Peter  of  Aquila, 
and  others.  Henry  Goethals  or  Henry  of  Ghent  (Hen- 
ricus  Gandavensis,  1217-93),  surnamed  Doctor  Solennis, 
occupied  on  the  whole  an  independent  and  pre-Thomist 
position,  leaning  to  an  Augustinian  Platonism.  Gerard  of 
Bologna  {ob.  1317)  and  Raoul  of  Brittany  are  rather  to  be 
ranked  with  the  Thomists.  So  also  is  Petrus  Hispanus 
(died  1277  as  Pope  John  XX i.),  who  is  chiefly  important, 
however,  as  the  author  of  the  much-used  manual  Sunv- 
mulai  Logicales,  in  which  the  logic  of  the  schools  was 
expanded  by  the  incorporation  of  fresh  matter  of  a  semi- 
grammatical  character.  Petrus  Hispanus  had  predecessors, 
however,  in  William  of  Shyreswood  (died  1219  as  chan- 
cellor of  Lincoln)  and  Lambert  of  Auierre,  and  it  has 
been  hotly  disputed  whether  the  whole  of  the  additions 
are  not  originally  due  to  the  Byzantine  Synopsis  of  Psellus. 
By  far  the  greatest  disciple  of  Aquinas  is  Dante  Alighieri, 
in  whose  Divina  Commedia  the  theology  and  philosophy 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  as  fixed  by  Saint  Thomas^  have 
received  the  immortality  which  poetry  alone  can  bestow. 
Two  names  stand  apart  from  the  others  of  the  century — 
Kaymond  LuUy  (1231-1315)  and  Roger  Bacon  (1214- 
94).  The  Ars  Magna  of  the  former  professed  by  means  of 
a  species  of  logical  machine  to  give  a  rigid  demonstration 
of  all  the  fundamental  Christian  doctrines,  and  was 
intended  by  its  author  as  an  unfailing  instrument  for  the 
conversion  of  the  Saracens  and  heathen.  Pioger  Bacon 
■was  rather  a  pioneer  of  modern  science  than  a  Scholastic, 
and  persecution  and  imprisonment  were  the  penalty  of 
his  opposition  to  the  spirit  of  his  time. 

The  last  stage  of  Scholasticism  preceding  its  dissolution 
is  marked  by  the  revival  of  Nominalism  in  a  militant 
form.  This  doctrine  is  already  to  be  found  in  Petrus 
Aureolus  (ob.  1321),  a  Franciscan  trained  in  the  Scotist 
doctrine,  and  in  William  Durand  of  St  Pourgain  (ob. 
1-332),  a  Dominican  who  passed  over  from  Thomism  to 
his  later  position.  But  the  name  with  which  the  Nominal- 
ism of  the  11th  century  is  historically  associated  is  that 
''TUiac  '  of  the  "Invincible  Doctor,"  William  of  Occam  (ob.  1347), 
©r  Occam.  ^]jQ^  as  the  author  of  a  doctrine  which  came  to  be  almost 
universally  accepted,  received  from  his  followers  the  title 
Venerahilis  Inceptor.  The  hypostatizing  of  abstractions 
is  the  error  against  which  Occam  is  continually  fighting. 
His  constantly  recurring  maxim — known  as  Occam's  razor 
— is  Entia  non  sunt  multiplicanda  praeier  necessitatem.  The 
Eealists,  he  considers,  have  greatly  sinned  against  this 
maxim  in  their  theory  of  a  real  universal  or  common 
element  in  all  the  individuals  of  a  class.  From  one 
abstraction  they  are  led  to  another,  to  solve  the  difiicul- 
ties  which  are  created  by  the  realization  of  the  first. 
Thus  the  great  problem  for  the  Realists  is  how  to  derive 
the  individual  from  the  universal  But  the  whole  inquiry 
moves  in  a  world  of  unrealities.  Everything  that  exists, 
by  the  mere  fact  of  its  existence,  is  individual  (Quaelibet 
res,  eo  ipso  quod  est,  est  kaec  res).  It  is  absurd  therefore  to 
seek  for  a  cause  of  the  individuality  of  the  thing  other 
than  the  cause  of  the  thing  itself.  The  individual  is  the 
only  reality,  whether  the  question  be  of  an  individual 
thing  in  the  external  world  or  an  individual  state  in  the 
world  of  mind.  It  is  not  the  individual  which  needs 
explanation  but  the  universal.  Occam  reproaches  the 
"modern  Platonists"  for  perverting  the  Aristotelian 
doctrine  by  these  speculations,  and  claims  the  authority 
of  Aristotle  for  his  own  Nominalistio  doctrine.  The  uni- 
versal is  not  anything  really  existing  j  it  ia  a  terminus  or 


predicable  (whence  the  followers  of  Occam  were  at  first 
called  Terminists).  It  is  no  more  than  a  "  mental  con- 
cept signifying  univocally  several  singulars."  It  is  a 
natural  sign  representing  these  singulars,  but  it  has  no 
reality  beyond  that  of  the  mental  act  by  which  it  is  pro- 
duced and  that  of  the  singulars  of  which  it  is  predicated. 
As  regards  the  existence  (if  we  may  so  speak)  of  the  uni- 
versal in  mente,  Occam  indicates  his  preference,  on  the 
ground  of  simplicity,  for  the  view  which  identifies  the 
concept  with  the  actus  intelligendi  ("une  modality  pas- 
sagfere  de  I'ame,"  as  Haur^au  expresses  it),  rather  than 
for  that  which  treats  ideas  as  distinct  entities  within  the 
mind.  And  in  a  similar  spirit  he  explains  the  universalia 
ante  rem  as  being,  not  substantial  existences  in  God,  but 
simply  God's  knowledge  of  things — a  knowledge  which  is 
not  of  universals  but  of  singulars,  since  these  alone  exist 
realiter.  Such  a  doctrine,  in  the  stress  it  lays  upon  the 
singular,  the  object  of  immediate  perception,  is  evidently 
inspired  by  a  spirit  differing  widely  even  trom  the 
moderate  Realism  of  Thomas.  It  is  a  spirit  which  dis- 
trusts abstractions,  which  makes  for  direct  observation, 
for  inductive  research.  Occam,  who  is  still  a  Scholastic, 
gives  us  the  Scholastic  justification  of  the  spirit  which  had 
already  taken  hold  upon  Roger  Bacon,  and  which  was  to 
enter  upon  its  rights  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries. 
Moreover,  there  is  no  denying  that  the  new  Nominalism 
not  only  represents  the  love  of  reality  and  the  spirit  of 
induction,  but  also  contains  in  itself  the  germs  of  that 
empiricism  and  sensualism  so  frequently  associated  with 
the  former  tendencies.  St  Thomas  had  regarded  the 
knowledge  of  the  universal  as  an  intellectual  activity 
which  might  even  be  advanced  in  proof  of  the  immortality 
of  the  soul.  Occam,  on  the  other  hand,  maintains  in  the 
spirit  of  Hobbes  that  the  act  of  abstraction  does  not  pre- 
suppose any  activity  of  the  understanding  or  will,  but  is 
a  spontaneous  secondary  process  by  which  the  first'  act 
(perception)  or  the  state  it  leaves  behind  {liabitus  derelictus 
ex  prima  arfM  =  Hobbes's  "decaying  sense")  is  naturally 
followed,  as  soon  as  two  or  more  similar  representations 
are  present. 

In  another  way  also  Occam  heralds  the  dissolution  of 
Scholasticism.  The  union  of  philosophy  and  theology  is 
the  mark  of  the  Middle  Ages,  but  in  Occam  their  sever- 
ance is  complete.  A  pupil  of  Scotus,  he  carried  his 
master's  criticism  farther,  and  denied  that  any  theological 
doctrines  were  rationally  demonstrable.  Even  the  exist- 
ence and  unity  of  God  were  to  be  accepted  as  articles  of 
faith.  The  Centiloquium  Theologicum,  which  is  devoted 
to  this  negative  criticism  and  to  showing  the  irrational 
consequences  of  many  of  the  chief  doctrines  of  the  church, 
has  often  been  cited  as  an  example  of  thoroughgoing 
scepticism  under  a  mask  of  solemn  irony.  But  if  that 
were  so,  it  would  still  remain  doubtful,  as  Erdmann 
remarks,  whether  the  irony  is  directed  against  the  church 
or  against  reason.  On  the  whole,  there  is  no  reason  to 
doubt  Occam's  honest  adhesion  to  each  of  the  two  guides 
whose  contrariety  he  laboured  to  display.  None  the  less 
is  the  position  in  itself  an  untenable  one  and  the  parent  of 
scepticism.  The  principle  of  the  twofold  nature  of  truth  ^ 
thus  embodied  in  Occam's  system  was  unquestionably 
adopted  by  many  merely  to  cloak  their  theological  unbelief; 
and,  as  has  been  said,  it  is  significant  of  the  internal  dis- 
solution of  Scholasticism.  Occam  denied  the  title  of  a 
science  to  theology,  emphasizing,  like  Scotus,  its  practical 
character.  He  also  followed  his  master  in  laying  ftress  on 
the  arbitrary  will  of  God  as  the  foundation  of  moiClity. 


^  This  principle  appeared  occasionally  at  an  earlier  date,  for  exam- 
ple in  Simon  of  Tournay  about  1200.  It  was  expressly  censured  \>\ 
Pope  John  XXI,  in  1276.  But  only  in  the  period  following  Oo«&m 
did  It  become  a  current  doctrine, 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


431 


/  Nominalism  was  at  first  met  by  the  opposition  of  the 
church  and  the  constituted  authorities.     In  1339  Occam's 
treatises  were  put  under  a  ban  by  the  university  of  Paris, 
and  in  the  following  year  Nominalism  was  solemnly  con- 
demned.     Nevertheless   the  new  doctrine  spread   on  all 
hands.     Dominicans  like  Armand  de  Beauvoir  (ob.  1334) 
and   Gregory  of  Rimini  accepted  it.     It  was   taught  in 
Paris  by  Albert  of  Saxony  (about  1350-GO)  and  Marsilius 
of  Inghen  (about  1364-77,  afterwards  at  Heidelberg),  as 
■well  as  by  Johannes  Buridanus,  who  was  rector  of  the  uni- 
versity as  early  as  1327.     We  find,  however,  as  late  as 
.,1473  the  attempt  made  to  bind  all  teachers  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Paris  by  oath  to  teach  the  doctrines  of  Realism  ;  but 
this  expiring  effort  was  naturally  ineffectual,  and  from  1481 
onward  even  the  show  of  obedience  was  no  longer  exacted. 
Pierre  d'Ailly  (1350-1425)  and  John  Gerson  (Jean  Charlier 
de  Gerson,  1363-1429),  both  chancellors  of  the  university 
of  Paris,  and  the  former  a  cardinal  of  the  church,  are  the 
chief  figures  among  the  later  Nominalists.     Both  of  them, 
however,    besides   their    philosophical    writing.s,    are   the 
authors  of  works  of  religious  edification  and  mystical  piety. 
They  thus  combine  temporarily  in  their  own  persons  what 
was  no  longer  combined  in  the  spirit  of  the  time,  or  rather 
they  satisfy  by  turns  the  claims  of  reason  and  faith.     Both 
are  agreed  in  placing   repentance  and   faith   far  above 
philosophical  knowledge.     They  belong  indeed  (Gerson  in 
particular)   to   the   history   of  mysticism   rather  than  of 
Scholasticism,   and   the   same   may   be   said   of    another 
cardinal,  Nicolaus  of  Cusa  (1401-64),  who  is  sometimes 
reckoned  among  the  last  of  the  Scholastics,  but  who  has 
more  afiBnity  with  Scotus  Erigena  than  with  any  inter- 
vening teacher.     The  title    "last  of  the  Scholastics"  is 
commonly  given   to    Gabriel    Biel,   the   summarizer    of 
Occam's  doctrine,   who  taught  in  Tubingen,  and  died  in 
the  year  1495.     The   title  is  not  actually   correct,  and 
might  be  more  fitly  borne  by  Francis  Suarez,  who  died  in 
1617.     But    after   the   beginning   of   the    15th   century 
Scholasticism  was  divorced  from  the  spirit  of  the  time, 
and  it  is  useless   to  follow  its  history  further.     As  has 
been  indicated  in  the  introductory  remarks,  the  end  came 
both    fr6m  within    and  from  without.     The  harmony  of 
reason  and  faith  had  given  place  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
dual   nature  of  truth.     While   this  sceptical   thesis  was 
embraced  by  philosophers  who  had  lost  their  interest  in 
religion,  the  spiritually  minded  sought  their  satisfaction 
more  and  more   in   a  mysticism   which  frequently  cast 
itself  loose  from^  ecclesiastical  trammels.     The  14th  and 
15th  centuries  were  the  groat  age  of  German  mysticism, 
and  it  was  not  only  in  Germany  that  the  tide  set  this  way. 
Scholasticism   had   been   the   expression   of  a    universal 
church  and  a  common  learned  language.     The  university 
of  Paris,   with  its  scholars  of  all  nations  numbered  by 
thousands,   was  a   symbol   of   the   intellectual   unity   of 
Christendom ;  and   in    the   university  of   Paris,  it   may 
almost  be  said.  Scholasticism  was  reared  and  flourished 
and   died.     But   the   different   nations   and   tongues    of 
modem  Europe  were  now  heginnirig  to  assert  their  indi- 
viduality, and  men's  interests  ceased  to  bo  predominatingly 
ecclesiastical.     Scholasticism,  therefore,  which  was  in  its 
essence  ecclesia.stical,  had  no.  longer  a  proper  field  for  its 
activity.     It  was  in  a  manner  deprived  of  its  accustomed 
subject-matter   and    died   of    inanition.     riiilo.sophy,   as 
Haur^au  finely  says,  was  the  passion  of  the  13th  century; 
but  in  the  15th  humanism,  art,  and  the  beginnings  of 
science  and  of  practical  discovery  were  busy  creating  a 
new  world,  which  was  destined  in  due  time  to  give  birth 
to  a  new  philosophy. 

'  Authorities. — Besides  tlio  ntltncroiis  works  denlinf;  with  intli- 
Tidual  philosophers,  the  chief  histories  of  Scholnsticisni  are  those 
of  Haur&u  iDe  la  Philosophic  Scolastique,  2  voU.,  1850;  revised 


aud  expanded  in  1870  as  Bistoire  de  la  Phil.  Scot.),  Eaulich 
{Gcschiehle  d.  schol.  Philosophic)  and  Stbckl  {Gesch.  der  Phil,  dca 
Mittclaltcrs).  Supplementary  details  are  given  in  Haurtau's 
Singulnriiis  Pfistoriqucs  ct  Lilt&raircs,  1801,  and  io  R.  L.  Poole's 
Jlluslmlions  of  the  History  of  Mediaeval  Thmght  (1884).  The 
accounts  of  medii-cval  thought  given  by  Rittcr,  Erdniann,  and 
Ucberweg  in  their  general  histories  of  philosophy  are  exceedingly 
good.  There  arc  also  notices  of  the  leading  systems  in  ililman's 
History  of  Latin  Christianity;  and  the  same  writers  are  considered 
from  the  theological  side  in  many  works  devoted  to  theology^ond 
the  history  of  dogma.  Jourdain's  Recherches  Critiques sxir  I' Aged 
I'Originedes  Traductions  Latiticsd'Aristote  (Paris,  1819  ;  2d  edition, 
1843),  Rousselot's  £tudm  sur  la  Philosophic  dans  le  MmjcnAge 
(1840-42),  Cousin's  Introduction  to  his  Ouvrages  inidits  d' Abilard 
(1836),  and  Prantl's  Oeschiehte  dcr  Logik  im  Abendlande  (4  vols., 
1855-70)  are  invaluable  aids  in  studying  the  history  of  mcdiajvaj 
thought.  (A.  SE.) 

SCHOMBERG,  Frederick  Ajkmand,  Duke  of  (c. 
1619-1690),  marshal  of  France  and  English  general,  was 
descended  from  an  old  family  of  the  Palatinate,  and  was 
born  about  1619.  He  began  his  military  •  career  under 
Frederick  Henry,  prince  of  Orange,  and  after  his  death  in 
16&9  entered  the  service  of  France,  acquiring  ultimately 
a  reputation  as  a  general  second  only  to  that  of  Turenne 
and  the  prince  of  Conde.  In  Paris  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Charles  II.,  who  according  to  his  own  account 
"admitted  him  to  great  familiarities  with  him."  In  1660 
he  was  sent  to  Portugal,  and  on  his  way  thither  passed 
through  England  to  concert  with  Charles  measures  for 
supporting  that  country  in  the  contest  with  Spain.  For 
'his  services  to  Portugal  he  was  in  1668  made  a  grandee, 
and  received  a  pension  of  £5000  a  year.  In  1673  he  was 
invited  by  Charles  to  England,  with  the  view  of  taking 
command  of  the  army,  but  so  strong  was  the  general 
sentiment  against  the  appointment  as  savouring  of  French 
influence  that  it  was  not  carried  into  effect.  He  therefore 
again  entered  the  service  of  France,  and  after  his  capture  of 
Bellegarde,  29th  July  1675,  received  the  rank  of  marshal. 
In  subsequent  campaigns  he  continued  to  add  to  his 
reputation  until  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  (22d 
October  1685)  compelled  him  as  a  Protestant  to  quit  his 
adopted  country.  Ultimately  he  was  chosen  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  forces  of  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  and 
with  the  elector's  consent  he  joined  the  prince  of  Orange 
on  his  expedition  to  England  in  1688,  as  second  in  com- 
mand te  the  prince.  The  following  year  he  was  made  a 
knight  of  the  Garter,  created  successively  baron,  marquis, 
and  duke,  and  received  from  the  House  of  Commons  a 
vote  of  £100,000.  In  August  be  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  expedition  to  Ireland  against  James 
II.  After  capturing  Carrickfergus  he  marched  unopposed 
through  a  country  desolated  before  him  to  Dundalk,  but, 
as  the  bulk  of  his  forces  were  raw  and  undisciplined  as 
well  as  inferior  in  numbers  to  the  enemy,  he  deemed  it 
imprudent  to  risk  a  battle,  and  entrenching  himself  at 
Dundalk  declined  to  be  drawn  beyond  the  circle  of  his 
defences.  Shortly  afterwards  pestilence  broke  out,  and 
when  he  retired  to  winter  quarters  in  Ulster  his  forces  were 
in  a  more  shattered  condition  than  if  they  had  sustained 
a  severe  defeat.  At  the  same  time  competent  authorities 
were  agreed  that  the  policy  of  masterly  inactivity  which 
he  pursued  was  the  only  one  open  to  him.  In  the  spring 
he  began  the  campaign  with. the  capture  of  Chnrlcmont, 
but  no  advance  southward  was  mado  until  the  arrival  of 
William.  At  the  Boync  (July  1,  1690)  Schomberg  gave 
his  opinion  against  the  determination  of  William  to  crosa 
the  river  in  face  of  the  opposing  army.  In  the  Imltlo  ho 
held  command  of  the  centre,  nnd,  while  riding  through  the 
river  without  his  cuirass  to  rally  his  men,  was  .surrounded 
by  a  band  of  Irish  horsemen  nnd  met  instantaneous  death. 
Ho  was  buried  in  St  Patrick's  onthodral,  Dublin,  where 
there  is  a  monument  to  hiin,  with  a  Latin  inscription  by 
Dean  Swift.     Schomberg  was  generally  regarded  in  Eng- 


fi32 


s  c  H  — s  c  n 


land  with  great  respect,  and  His   manners   ana  bearing 
rendered  him  universally  popular. 

SCHONBEIN,  Cheistian  Feiedrich  (1799-1868), 
from  1828  professor  of  chemistry  at  Basel,  is  known  as 
the  discoverer  of  Ozone  (q-v.). 

SCHONEBECK,  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Elbe,  9  miles  above  Magdeburg.  It  contains 
manufactories  of  chemicals,  machinery,  percussion  caps, 
starch,  white  lead,  and  various  other  articles,  but  is  chiefly 
noted  for  its  extensive  salt  springs  and  works,  which  pro- 
duce about  70,000  tons  of  salt  per  annum.  Large  beds 
of  rock-salt  also  occur  in  the  neighbourhood,  in  which 
shafts  have  been  sunk  to  a  depth  of  more  than  1200  feet. 
There  is  a  harbour  on  the  Elbe  here,  and  a  brisk  trade  is 
carried  on  in  grain  and  timber.  •  In  1885  Schbnebeck  con- 
tained 13,316  inhabitants  (including  the  adjoining  com- 
munities of  Salze,  Elmen,  and  Frobse,  about  20,000). 

SCHONEBERG,  a  so-called  Prussian  "  village,"  in  the 
province  of  Brandenburg,  is  now  really  a  suburb  of  Berlin, 
which  it  adjoins  on  the  south-west.  It  contains  the  royal 
botanic  garden,  a  large  maison  de  sant6,  and  manufactories 
of  paper  collars,  enamels,  railway  rolling-stock,  and  chem- 
icals. The  population  in  1880  was  11,180.  The  founda- 
tion of  Alt-Schoneberg  is  ascribed  to  Albert  the  Bear' 
(12th  century),  while  Neu-Schoneberg  was  founded  by 
Frederick  the  Great  in  1750'  to  accommodate  some 
Bohemian  weavers,  exiled  for  their  religion  (cf.  Rixdoef). 

SCHONGAUER,  or  Shoen,  Martin  (1450-c.  1488), 
the  most  able  engraver  and  painter  of  the  early  German 
school  His  father  was  a  goldsmith  named  Casper,  a 
native  of  Augsburg,  who  had  settled  at  Colmar,  where  the 
chief  part  of  Martin's  life  was  spent^  Schongauer  estab- 
lished at  Colmar  a  very  important  school  of  engraving,  out 
of  which  grew  the  "  little  masters  "  of  the  succeeding  gene- 
ration, and  a  large  group  of  Nuremberg  artists.  As  a 
painter,  Schongauer  was  a  pupil  of  the  Flemish  Roger  Van 
der  Weyden  theElder,  and  his  rare  existing  pictures  closely 
Resemble,  both  in  splendour  of  colour  and  exquisite  minute- 
ness of  execution,  the  best  works  of  contemporary  art  in 
Flanders.  Among  the  very  few  paintings  which  can  with 
certainty  be  attributed  to  him,  the  chief  is  a  magnificent 
altarpiece  in  the  church  of  St  Martin,  at  Colmar,  repre- 
senting the  Virgin  and  Child,  crowned  by  Angels,  with  a 
background  of  roses — a  work  of  the  highest  beauty,  and 
large  in  scale,  the  figures  being  nearly  life  size.  The  Colmar 
Museum  possesses  eleven  panels  by  his  hand,  and  a  small 
panel  of  David  with  Goliath'^  Head  in  the  Munich  Gallery 
is  attributed  to  him.  The  miniature  painting  of  the  Death 
of  the  Virgin  in  the  English  National  Gallery  is  probably 
the  worn  of  some  pupil.^  In  1488  Schongauer  died  at 
Colmar,  according  to  the  register  of  St  Martin's  church. 

The  main  work  of  Schongauer's  life  was  the  production  of  a 
]arge  number  of  most  highly  finished,  and  beautiful  engravings, 
which  were  largely  sold,  not  only  in  Germanyj  but  also  in  Italy 
and  even  in  England.  In  this  way  his  influence  was  very  widely 
extended.  Vasari  speaks  of  him  with  much  enthusiasm,  aud  says 
that  Michelangelo  copied  one  of  his  engravings — the  Trial  of  St 
Anthony.'    Schongauer  was  known  in  Italy  by  the  names  "  Bel 


'  The  date  of  Schongauer's  birth  is  usually  given  wrongly  as  c.  1420; 
he  was  really  bora  about  thirty  years  later,  and  i$  mentioned  by  A. 
Diirer  as  being  a  young  apprentice  in  1470.  His  portrait  in  the 
Munich  Pinakothek  is  now  known  to  be  a  copy  by  Burgkmair,  painted 
after  1510,  from  an  original  of  1483, — not  1453  as  has  been  sup- 
posed. The  date  of  Schongauer's  death,  1499,  written  on  the  back 
of  the  panel  by  Bargkmair  is  obviously  a  blunder ;  see  Hensler  in 
Naumann's  Archiv,  1867,  p.  129,  and  Wurzbacb,  M.  Schongauer, 
Vienna,  1880.  These  contradict  the  view  of  Goutzwiller,  in  his 
Martin  Schongaiier  el  son  £coU,  Paris,  1876.  Cf.  Schnaase,  "Gesch. 
M.  SchoDgauers,"  in  the  Mittheil.  der  K.  K.  Commission,  1863,'No.  7. 
^  Another  painting  of  the  same  subject  in  the  Doria  Palace  in 
Rome  (usually  attributed  to  DUrer)  is  given  to  Schongauer  by  Crowe-  ' 
and  Cavalcaselle,  Flemish  Painters,  London,.  1872,  p.  359;  but  the 
•xecution  is  not  equal  to  .Schongauer's  wonderful  touch. 
^  •  An   interesting  example  of  Schongauer's  popularity  in   Italy  is 


Maiiiuo''  and  "Jiavtino  d'Anversa."  His  subjects  are  always 
religious  ;  more  than  130  priuts  from  copper  by  his  hand  ni-e  still 
known,  and  about  100  more  are  the  production  of  his  bolte^a* 
Most  of  his  pupils'  plates  as  well  as  his  own  are  signed  M-f-S. 
Among  the  most  beautiful  of  Schongauer's  engravings  are  the 
scries  of  the  Passion  and  the  Death  and  Coronation  of  the  Vii-gin, 
and  the  series  of  the  Wise  and  Foolish  Virgins  ;  as  much  as  £420 
lias  been  given  for  a  fine  state  of  the  Coronation  plate.  All  are 
remarkable  for  their  miuiature-like  treatment,  their  brilliant  touch, 
and  their  chromatic  force.  Some,  such  as  the  Death  of  tho  Virgin 
aud  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  are  richly-filled  compositions  of 
many  figures,  treated  with  much  largeness  of  style  in  spite  of  their 
minute  scale.  Though  not  free  from  the  mannerism  of  his  age  aud 
countrj',  Schongauer  possessed  a  rare  feeling  for  beauty  aud  for 
dignity  of  pose  j  and  in  technical  power  over  his  graver  and  copper 
plate  he  has  never  been  surpassed. 

The  British  Museum  possesses  a  fine  collection  of  Schongauer's 
prints.  Fine  facsimiles  of  his  engravings  have  been  produced  by 
Amand-Durand  with  text  by  Duplessis,  Paris,  1881. 

SCHOOLCRAFT,  Henry  Rowe  (1793-1864),  a  North- 
American  traveller,  ethnologist,  and  author,  was  born  28th 
March  1793  at  Watervliet  (how  called  Guilderland),  Albany 
county,  New  York,  and  died  at  Washington  lOth  December 
1864.  After  studying  chemistry  and  mineralogy  at  college 
he  had  several  years'  experience  of  their  practical  applica- 
tion, especially  at  a.  glass-factory  of  which  his  father  was 
manager,  and  in  1817  published  his  Vitreology.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  appointed  to  the  Geological  Survey 
of  Missouri  and  Arkansas,  and  in  1819  he  published  his 
View  of  the  Lead  Mines  of  Missowi.  Soon  after  he  accom- 
panied General  Cass  as  geologist  in  his  expedition  to  the 
Lake  Superior  copper  region,  and  evinced  such  capacity  for 
good  exploring  work  on  the  frontier  that  in  1823  he  was 
appointed  "  agent  for  Indian  afEairs."  He  then  married 
the  granddaughter  of  an  Indian  chief ;  and  during  several 
years'  official  work  near  Lake  Superior  he  acquired  a  vast 
fund  of  accurate  information  as  to  the  physique,  language, 
social  habits,  and  tribal  institutions  of  the  American  natives. 
From  1828  to  1832  Schoolcraft  was  an  acti%'e  member  of  the 
Michigan  legislature,  during  the  same  period  delivering  leoi 
tures  on  the  grammatical  structure  of  the  Indian  language] 
which  procured*him  the  gold  medal  of  the  French  Institute: 
In  1832  also,  when  on  an  embassy  to  some  Indians,  he  ascer- 
tained the  real  source  of  the  Mississippi  to  be  Lake  Itasca. 

Previous  to  1832  he  had  published  Travels  in  the  Central  Por^ 
lions  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  in  1839  appeared  his  Algi* 
Researches,  containing  "  Memoirs  of  a  Residence  of  Thirty  Years 
with  the  Indian  Tribes,"  and  also,  notably,  "  The  Myth  of  Hia- 
watha and  other  Oral  Legends," — probably  the  first  occurrence  ol 
the  name  immortalized  (in  1855)  in  Longfellow's  poem.  School- 
craft's literary  activity  was  indeed  remarkable,  since,  besides  bis 
ethnological  writings,  he  composed  a  considerable  quantity  ol 
poetry  and  several  minor  prose  works,  especially  Notes  on  Vie 
Iroquois  (1848),  Statistics  of  the  Six  Nations  (1845),  Scenes  and 
Adventures  in  the  Ozark  Mountains  (1853).  His  principal  boolt,' 
Historical  and  Statistical  Informatimi  respecting  the  Indian  Tribes 
of  tlie  United  States,  illustrated  with  386  well-executed  pla  .es  from' 
original  drawings,  was  issued  under  the  patronage  of  Congress  in 
six  quarto  volumes,  from  1851  to  1857.  It  is  a  vast  mine  ol 
ethnological  researches  as  to  the  Red  Men  of  America,  systemati-- 
cally  arranged  and  fully,  if  not  exhaustively,  detailed, — describing 
not  only  their  origin,  history,,  and  antiquities,  but  the  physical 
and  mental  "  type,  '  the  tribal  characteristics,  the  vocabulary  an3 
gi-ammar,  the  religion  aud  mythology.  Schoolcraft's  diplomatic 
work  on  the  Indian  frontier  was  important, — more  than  sixteen 
millions  of  acres  being  added  to  the  States'  territory  by  means  of 
treaties  which  he  negotiated. 

SCHOOLS.  •  See  Edocation,  Blind,  Deaf  and  Dumb,; 
CoNSEEVATOEY,  Ac,  and  the  relative  sections  of  the  articles 
on  individual  countries  and  states. 

given  by  the  lovely  Faenza  plate  in  the  British  Museum,  on  which  is 
painted  a  copy  of  Martin's  beautiful  engraving  of  the  Death  of  the 
Virgin;  see  Pottery,  vol  xii.  p.  627. 

*  See  Bartsch,  Peintre  Oraveur,  and  Willshire,  Ancient  Prints,  best 
edition  of  1877.  According  to  a  German  tradition  Schongauer  was 
the  inventor  of  printing  from  metal  plates  ;  he  certainly  was  one  of 
the  first  who  brought  the  art  to  perfection.  See  an  interesting  article 
by  Sidney  Colvin  in  the  Jahrbuch  der  k.  preussischen  Kunstsammtung 
vi.  D.  69   Berlin,  1885. 


433 


I 


SCHOOLS     OF    PAINTING 


«u>lnE  nPHE  word  «  school "  as  applied  to  paintmgi  jg  ^gcd  tvith 
X     various  more  or  less  comprehensive  meanings.     In 
«*oo!-"  its  voidest  sense  it  includes  all  the  painters  of  one  country, 
i>l  every  date— as,  for  example,  " the  Italian  school."     In 
its  narrowest  sense  it  denotes  a  group  of  painters  who  all 
worked  under  the  influence  of  one  man,— as,  for  example, 
^the  school  of  Eaphael."    In  a  third  sense  it  is  applied  to 
Jhe  painters  of  one  city  or  province  who  for  successive 
,    >eneration8  worked  under  some  common  local  influence, 
ind  with  some  general,  similarity   in  design,  colour,   or 
technique,— as,  for  example,  "  the  Florentine  school,"  "  the 
'Jmbrian    school"      For  many  reasons   the   existence  of 
well -defined  schools  of  painting  is  now  almost  whoUy  a 
thin"  of  the  past,  and  the  conditions  under  which  the 
modern  artist  gains  his  education,  finds  his  patrons,  and 
carries  out  his  work  have  little  in  common  with  those 
which  were  prevalent  throughout  the  Jliddle  Ages.   Painters 
in  the  old  times  were  closely  bound  together  as  fellow- 
members  of  a  painters'  guild,  with  its  clearly  defined  set  of 
roles  and  traditions  ;  moreover,  the  universal  system  of 
apprenticeship,  whicli  compelled  the  young  painter  to  work 
for  a  term  of  years  in  the  botteffa  or  studio  of  some  estab- 
Ushedfreedman  of  the  guild,  frequently  caused  the  impress 
of  the  genius  of  one  man  to  be.  very  clearly  stamped  on  a 
large  number  of  pupils,  who  thus  all  picked  up  and  fre- 
quently retained  for  life  certain  tricks  of  manner  or  peculi- 
arities of  method  which  often  make  it  difficult  to  distinguish 
the  authorship  of  a  special  painting.^     The  strong  similar- 
ity which  often  runs  through  the  productions  of  several 
artists  who  had  been  fellow-pupils  under  the  same  master 
was   largely   increased   by   the   fact   that   most   popular 
painters,  such  as  Botticelli  or  Perugino,  turned  out_  from 
their  botteghe  many  pictures  to  which  the  master  himself 
contributed  little  beyond  the  general  design,— the  actual 
execution  being  in  part  or  even  wholly  the  work  of  pupils 
or  paid  assistants.     It  was  not  beneath  the  dignity  of  a 
great  painter  to  turn  out  works  at  different  scales  of  prices 
to  suit  rich  or  poor,  varying  from  the  well-paid-for  altor- 
piece  given   by   some  wealthy   donor,   which  the  master 
would  paint  wholly  with    his   own  hand,   down  to    the 
humble  bit  of  decorative  work  for  the  sides  of  a  wedding 
cassone,  which  would  be  left  entirely  to  the  'prentice  hand 
of  a  pupil.     In  other  cases  the  heads  only  in  a  picture 
would  be  by  the  master  himself  or  possibly  the  whole_  of 
the  principal  figures,  the  background  and  accessories  being 
left  to  assistants.     The  buyer  sometimes  stipulated  in  a 
carefully  drawn  np  contract'  that  the  cartoon  or  design 
should  be  wholly  the  work  of  the  master,  and  that  he 
should  himself  transfer  it  on  to  the  wall  or  panel.     It  will 
thus  be  seen  how  impossible  it  is  always  to  dec'de  whether 
a  picture  should  be  classed  as  a  piece  of  6c    jW  work  or 
as  a  genuine  production  of  a  noted  master ;  and  this  will 
explain  the  strange  inequality  of  execution  which  is  so 
striking  in  many  of  the  works  of  the  old  masters,  especially 
the  Italians.    Among  the  early  Flemish  and  Dutch  painters 
this  method  of  painting  docs  not  appear  to  havo  been  so 
largely  practised,  probably  because  they  considered  minute 
perfection  of  workmanship  to  be  of  paramount  importance. 

1.  Italian. 

Tn  Italy,  as  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  the  Byzantir.o 
school  of  painting  was  for  many  centuries  universally 
preyalent,^  and  it  was  not  till  quite  the  end  of  the  13th 

■  For  classical  painting,  see  AR(?H.EOLoaT.  vol.  ii.  p.  343  sq.  ;  see 
also  Fresco,  Mokal  Decoration,  Tempera,  ami  the  artitlw  on 
separate  painters. 

=  Tills  is  especially  the  case  witli  the  muucroni  pupils  of  Perugino. 

3  See  Moral  Decoration,  vol.  xvii,  )>.  13  ««. 

21-16 


century  that  one  man  of  extraordinary  talent — Giotto — 
broke  through  the  long-established  traditions  and  inaugu- 
rated the  true  Renaissance  of  this  art.  According  to  Vasari, 
it  was  Cimabue  who  first  ceased  to  work,  in  the  Byzantine 
manner:  but  the  truth  is  that  his  pictures,  though  certainly 
superior  to  those  of  his  predecessors,  are  thoroughly  charac- 
teristic specimens  of  the  Byzantine  style.  Ghiberti,  in  his 
Commentary  (a  century  earlier  than  Vasari's  work),  with 
greater  accuracy  remarks  that  both  Duccio  of  Siena  and 
Cimabue  worked  in  the  Byzantine  manner,  and  that  Giotto 
was  the  first  who  learnt  to  paint  with  naturalistic  truth. 

In  the  12th  and  the  early  part  of  the  13th  century  Pisa 
and  Lucca  were  the  chief  seats  of  what  rude  painting  then  ex- 
isted in  Italy.  A 


numberofworks 
of  this  date  stUl 
exist,       chiefly 
painted     Cruci- 
fixions    treated 
in  the  most  con- 
ventional     By- 
zantine manner. 
Giunta   Pisano, 
who  was  paint- 
ing in  the  first 
half  of  the  13th 
century,  was  a 
little     superior 
to  the  otherwise 
dead    level    of 
hieratic  conven- 
tionalism.     He 
is  said  to  have 
been  Cimabue's 
master.  .  In  the 
14th      century 
painting  in  Pisa 

was  either  Flor-  pio.  l.— Centre  of  a  triptych,  by  Duccio  di  BuoniD- 
entine  or  Sien-  segna, — the  Madonna  with  Angels,  and,  above, 
ese  in  style.  David   and   six   Prophets.      (National   Gallcrj, 

No  city,  not     London.)  ^  ^  gjensj 

even  Florence,  was  so  fertile  as  Siena  in  native  painters 
during  the  13th  and  14th  centuries.  The  earliest,  work- 
ingbeforel300, 
did  not  emanci- 
pate themselves 
from  the  old 
Byzantine  man- 
nerism ;  Guido 
da  Siena,  Duc- 
cio (see  fig. 
1)  and  Segna 
di  Buoninsegna 
possessed  many 
of  the  peculi- 
arities of  the 
old  school, — its 
rigid  attitudes, 
its  thin  stiff 
folds,  and  its 
greenish  sha- 
dows in  the 
flesh  tints.  In 
the  first  half  of 
thol 4th  century 


Fio. 


2.— M«aonnii,  by  Cimabue.     (N»lioB»l 

a  number  of  very  able  painters  were  carrying  on  at  Siena  a 
parallel  development  to  that  which  Giotto  had  inaugurated 


434 


SCHOOLS     OF     PAINTING 


at  Florence ;  chief  among  them  vrere  Simone  di  Martino, 
Lippo    Memmi,    and    especially    Ambrogio   Lorenzetti,   a 


Fio.  3. — Fresco  in  the  church  bf  Sauta  Croce,  Florence,  by  Giotto— 
the  Disciples  of  St  Francis  discovering  the  Stigmata  on  his  Body. 

painter  of  both  panels  and  large  frescos,  which  show  rich 

and  noble  imaginative  power  and  much  technical  skill.    It 

is      important      to 

note  that  Ambrogio 

and  probably  other 

painters  of  his  time 

were,   like  the   ear 

lier   Pisan   Niccola, 

beginning  to  study 

tha  then    rare    ex 

Bmples   of    classical 

sculpture.  Ghiberti, 

in  his  Commentary, 

speaks  with   enthu  „      .      ^  ,..,,.., 

•  r  iu     1,        i     rIG.  4. — Fresco  over  a  door  m  the  cloister  of 

siasm  of  the  beauty  (he  convent  of  S.  Marco  at  Florence,  by  Fra 
of  an  antique  statue  Angelico— Christ  meeting  St  Domeuie  and 
which  he  knew  only     St  FrancLs. 

from  a  drawing  by  Ambrogio  Lorenzetti.  In  the 
second  half  of  the  14th  century  Siena  produced  a  large 


Fig.  5. — Picture  on  canvas  in  the  Uffizi,  Florence,  by  Botticelli^the 
Birth  of  Venus. 

number  of  more  mediocre  painters ;  but  these  were  suc- 
ceeded by  an  abler  generation,  among  whom  the  chief  were 


Fig.  6. — ^The  Annunciation,  by  Lippo  Lippi.     (National  Gallery.) 
perhaps  Sano  di  Pietro  and  Matteo  di  Giovanni,  vhose 
grand  altarpiece  (No.  1155),  recently  acquired,  is  one  of 


the  glories  of  the  English  Xational  Gallery, 
cellent  masters  were 
working  at  Sienri 
throughout  the  15th 
century  and  even 
later;  the  last  names 
of  any  real  note  are 
those  of  'Peruzzi  an 
Beccafumi.  Soflj- 
ma,  though  he.settls:  ! 
in  Siena  in  1501, 
does  not  belong  tu 
the  school  of  Siena  ; 
his  early  life  was 
passed  at  Milan, 
chiefly  vmder  the 
influence  of  Da 
Vinci.  His  talent 
was  developed  at 
Eome  among  the  fol- 
lowers of  Raphael.    ^ 

On  the  whole  the  Fic.  7.  —Portrait  head,  by  Ghirlandaio,  from  Florence, 
Florentine        school      °°^  °f  ^'^  frescos  in  the  retro-choir  of  S. 
surpasses  in  import-     ^^^"^  ^"°'''"^'  *'  Florence, 
ance  all  others  throughout  Italy.      Cimabue,  though  he 


Fig.  8. — The  so-called  School  of  Pan,  by  Signorelli,  the  most  beautiful 
of  his  easel  pictures.  '  (Berlin  Gallery.) 

did  not  emancipate  himself  from  the  Byzantine  manner, 
was  a  painter  of  real  i 

genius  (see  fig.   2).  ^J'       ^  ...       rl^fj 

Giotto     is     perhaps     '        "^  "  -««»       ..ir-.^ 

the  most  important 
painter  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  develop- 
ment of  art,  for 
during  the  whole  of 
the  14th  century 
the  painters  of  Flor- 
ence may  be  said 
to  have  been  his 
pupils  and  imitators 
(see  fig.  3).  Orcag- 
na  alone  developed 
rather  a  different 
line,  more  richly  de- 
corative in  style  and 
brighter  in  colour, — 
a  link  between  the 
art  of  Giotto  and 
that  of  Siena.  In  the 

15th    century     Flor-Fio.  9.— Fresco  of  Isaiah,  by  Michelangelo, 

ence  reached  its  pe-       fr°"  ^^^  ™""  "^  ">«  ^istine  Cli.'.pel. 
riod  of  highest  artistic  splendour  and  develotiftd  an  almost 


SCHOOLS     OF     PAINTING 


435 


naturalistic  school,  ubich  appears  to  have  been  inaugurated 
by  Masolino  and  Masaccio.     Some  few  painters,  such  as 
Fra  Angelico  (see  fig.  4)  and  his  pupil  Benozzo  Gozzoli, 
produced  more  purely  sacred  and  decorative  work,  follow- 
ins  the  lead  of  Orcagna.     As  Baron  Rumohr  has  pointed 
out,  the  main  bulk  of  the  Florentine  15th-century  painters 
may  be  divided  into  three  groups  with  different  character- 
istits       The  first,   including  Masolino,   Masaccio,   Lippo 
Lippi,  Botticelli,  Filippino  Lippi,  and  their  pupils,  aimed 
especiaUy  at  strong  action,  dramatic  force,  and  passionate 
expression  (see  figs.  5  and  6).      The  second,  including 
Baldovinetti,       Ros- 
selli,       Ghirlandaio, 
and   his   pupils,   are 
remarkable  for  real- 
istic truth  and  vigor- 
ous individuality  (see 
fig.  7).    To  the  third 
belong  Ghiberti,  who 
began  lifaas  a  painter, 
Pollaiuolo,!     Verroc- 
chio,  and  his  pupils 
Leonardo    da    Vinci 
and  Lorenzo  di  Credi, 
— a  group  largely  in- 
fluenced by  the  prac- 
tice of  the  arts  of  the 
goldsmith    and    the 
sculptor.     Signorelli, 
■whose    chief    works 
are   at   Orvieto   and 
Monte  Oliveto  near^ „ 

Siena  was  remark- Fio.  10.— Baptism  of  Christ,  by  Piero  della 
able    for    his    know-  Fraucesca.     (National  Gallery. ) 

ledge  and  masterly  treatment  of  the  nude  (see  fig.  8), 
and  had  much  influence  on  the  early  development  of 
Michelangelo,  whose  gigantic  genius  in  later  life  produced 
the  most  original  and  powerful  works  that  the  modern 
world  baa  seen  (see  fig.  9).  Andrea  del  Sarto  was  one 
of  the  last  artists  of  the  golden  age  of  painting  in 
Florence ;  the  soft  bearuty  of  his  works  is,  however,  often 
marred  by  a  monotonous  mannerism.  To  him  are  wrongly 
attributed  many  paintings  by  PuLigo  and  other  scholars, 


16th  century  the  Umbrian  school  producedmany paintefB 
of   great  importance 
grouped     around     a 
number  of    different 
centres,  such  as  Gub- 
bio,  where  Ottaviano 
Nelli  lived;  San  Se- 
verino,  with  its  two 
Lorenzos ;   Fabriano, 
famed    for   its    able 
masters      Allegretto 
Nuzi  and  Gentile  da 
Fabriano  ;     Foligno,   -^^ 
whence  Niccolo  took  ^^j7^ 
his  name;  and  above 
all  Borgo  San  Sepol- 
cro,  where  Piero  della 
Francesca  was  bom. 
Piero  was  one  of  the 
most  charming  of  all 
painters  for  his  deli- 
cate  modelling,  ten- 
der colour,  and  beauty 
of  expression  (see  fig. 
10).  His  masterpiece, 
a  large  altar-painting 
of  the  Ikladonna  en- 
throned, with  stand- 
ing saints  at  the  side 

andin  frontakneeling  p,^„ 

portrait  of  Duke  Fed-  pjg,  12,— Centre  of  triptych,  by  Peragino, 
erigo  da  Montefeltro,      painted  for  the  Certosa  near  Pavia.     f"Na 

in  the  Brera  gallery,    tional  Gallery.) 


I'iO.  11. The  Adorotion  of  the  Shepherds,  by  Fioienzo  di  Lorenzo. 

(Gallery  at  Perugia. ) 

•wto  imitated  bis  style  with  various  degrees  of  closeness. 
The  16th  ccntary  in  Florence  was  a  period  of  the  most 
rapid  decline  and  was  for  long  chiefly  remarkable  for  its 
feeble  caricatures  of  >Iichelangelo's  inimitable  style. 

Between  the  end  of  the  14th  and  the  beginning  of  the 
>  It  is  interesting  to  note  how  Ant.  PoUaiuolo's  fine  ilpuie  of  St 
Sebastian  in  the  National  Gallery  (London)  resembles  the  statue  of  the 
same  s.iint  )»>  Lucco  /:i>ti'i>dral  by  Matteo  Civitale. 


Flo.  13.— The  Madonna  between  St  Jol  i  " '  ag- 

daleue,  by  Andrea  Mantegno,  on  cai...-.      ,  :■■) 

is,  strange  to  say,  attributed  to  bis  pupil  Fra  Camovftl^' 
'  The  attribution  of  tliis  magnificent  picture  to  Fra  Camov^o  itmU 
wholly  on  a  watemeut,  evidenUy  erroneous,  of  Pungileoni ;  and  heuce 
many  other  works  hy  Piero,  such  as  the  St  Michael  in  the  NatLonal 
Gallery,  are  ^VT0ngly  Riven  to  Caruovnle.  It  is  doubtful  T^•hethc^  any 
genuine  picture  by  the  latter  is  now  known  ;  if  the  Brera  picture  T»er« 
really  by  him  he  would  not  only  bo  greater  than  his  ma«tcr  Pioro,  bul 
would  be  one  of  the  chief  painlcra  of  tUo  15lh  century. 


436 


SCHOOLS     OF      FAINTING 


■  Gentile  da  Fabriano  worked  in  tbe  purely  religious" and 
richly  decorative  style  that  characterized  Fra  Angelico  at 
Perugia.  Fiorenzo  di  Lorenzo  (see  fig.  11)  and  Bonfigli 
prepared  the  way  for  Perugino  (see  fig.  12)  and  his  pupils 
Pinturicchio,  Raphael,  Lo  Spagna,  and  others.  Tinioteo 
Viti  was  another  Unibrian  painter  of  great  ability,  whose 
portrait  by  Piaphael  in  black  and  red  chalk  is  cue  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  drawings  in  the  Print  Room  of  the 
British  Museum. 

The  Paduau  school  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  great 
name  of  Andrea  Mantegna,  the  pu]nl  of  Squarcione  ;  hi 
firm  and  sculpturesque  draw- 
ing is  combined  with  great 
beauty  of  colour  and  vigor- 
ous expression  (see  fig.  13). 
His  pupil  ^lontagna  also 
studied  under  Gian.  Bellini 
at  Venice.  Andrea  JIantegna 
influenced  and  was  influenced 
by  the  Venetian  school ;  to 
him  are  attributed  many  of 
the  early  paintings  of  his 
brother-in-law  Gian.  Bellini, 
such  as  the  Vatican  PietJi,  and 
other  works  more  remarkable 
for  vigour  than  for  grace. 
Areuo.  The  school  of  Arezzo  was  f$l 
early  in  its  development. 
Margaritone,  who  is  absurdly 
overpraised  by  his  fellow - 
townsman  Vasari,  was  an 
artist    of    the    most    feeble 

abilities.       In    the    Uth  cen- pj^,    i4._  Centre  of  retable,   by 

tury  Arezzo  produced  such  Crivelli,  1476.  (National  Gal- 
able  painters  as  Spinello  di  kry.) 
Luca,  Niccolo  di  Gerini,  and  Lorenzo  di  Bicci.  In  the 
15th  century  it  possessed  no  native  school  worth  re- 
cording. 
Yaoioe.  Venice  did  not  come  into  prominence  till  the  15th  cen- 
tury ;  the  Vivarini  ijmily  of  !Murano  were  at  work  about 
the  middle  of  it,  and  PC''    '     "  "  i 

were  perhaps  influ- 
enced by  the  Ger- 
man style  of  a  con- 
temporary painter 
from  Cologne,  known 
as  Johannes  Aleman- 
nus,  who  had  settled 
in  Venice.  Some 
years  later  the  tech- 
nical methods  of 
Flanders  were  intro- 
duced by  Antoncli  I 
of  Messina,  who  is 
said  to  have  learnt 
the  secret  of  an  oil 
medium  from  the 
Van  Eycks.i  Cri- 
velli, an  able  though 
mannered  painter  of 

the  second    half    of  Fig.  15.— Portrait  o;  .  uo,  by  Gian. 

tjie     15th     century,  Bellini.      (National  Gallery.) 

iihered  to  an  earlier  type  than  his  contemporaries  (see 
i5g.   14).      Gian.  Bellini   is  one  of   the  chief  glories  of 


the  Venetian  school  (see  fig.  15);  as  are  also  in  a  seconi. 
ary    degree   his  brother   Gentile  and   his   pupil  Vittore 


*  Aiitouello  certainly  possessed  technical  knowledge  beyond  that  of 
liis  contemporaries  iu  Venice,  namely,  that  of  glazing  in  transparent 
oil  colours  over  a  tempei-a  ground,  and  he  roust  either  in  Italy  or  in 
riandei-s  have  come  in  contact  with  some  painter  of  the  Flemish 
>«hool  ;  many  of  the  chief  t'lemish  [lainters  visited  Italy  in  the  15th 
ceatary. 


riG.  Iti. — So-calkd  Sacred  and  Profane  Love,  by  Titian. 
(Borghese  Gallery,  Rome.) 

Carpaccio.-  In  the  following  century  Venice  possessed  a 
school  which  for  glory  of  colour  and  technical  power  has 
never  been  rivalled, 
though  it  soon  lost" 
the  sweet  religious 
sentiment  of  the  ear- 
lier Venetians.  The 
chief  names  of  this 
epoch  are  Palma 
Vecchio,  Giorgione, 
Titian  (see  fig.  16), 
and  Lorenzo  Lotto, 
— the  last  a  magnifi- 
cent portrait  painter, 
a  branch  of  art  in 
which  Venice  occu- 
pied the  highest 
rank.  In  the  16th 
century  Tintoretto 
and  Paul  Veronese 
were  supreme  (see 
fig.  17).  In  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries 
Venice  produced 
some  fairly  good 
work. 


Fio. 


17. — Various  saints,  by  Paul  Veronese.' 
(Brera  Gallery,  Jlilan.)  ' 

The  Brescian  school  has  bequeathed  two  very  illustrious 
names, — Moretto  and  his  pupil  Moroni,  both  portrait 
painters  of  extraordinary  power  during  the  16th  century 
(see  fig.  18).  Mo- 
retto also  painted 
some  fine  larg^ 
altar-pieces,  remark- 
able for  their  deli- 
cate silver  -  grey 
tones  and  refined 
modelling.  Eo- 

manino  was  an  ex- 
tremely able  painter 
of  frescos  as  well  as 
of  easel  pictures. 

The     school     of 
Verona,    which    e.x- 
isted  from  the  13th 
to  the  17th  century, 
contains  few  names 
of  highest   import- 
ance; except  that 
Pisanello,  the  chj> 
were  painters  of  the     Fic.  18. — Portnit  of  a  Tailor,  by  ikronL 
end  of  the  1 5th  and  (National  Gallery. ) 

tlie  early  part  of  the  16th  century,  as  Domenico  and  Fran- 
cesco Jlorone,  Bonsignori,  Girolamo  dai  Libri,  and  Cavaz- 

*  It  should  be  noted  that  there  are  a  large  number  of  forged  signa- 
tures of  Gian.  Bellini,  many  of  them  attached  to  their  o^vn  pictures 
by  hvs  pupils,  such  as  Catena  and  KondinellL 


SCHOOLS     OF      PAINTING 


437 


sola.  Paul-'VeroQese,  though  at  first  he  painted  in  his 
native  town,  soon  attached  himself  to  the  Venetian  school. 
Ferrara  possessed  a  small  native  school  in  the  15t)i  and 
16th  centuries,  Cosimo  Tura,  Ercole  Grandi,  Dosso  Dossi, 
and  Garofalo  being  among  the  chief  artists.  The  paintings 
of  this  school  are  often  vigorous  in  drawing,  but  rather 
mannered,  and  usuallv  somcwliat  hard  in  colour.     After 


Fio.  19. — Pieta,  by  Francia.     (National  Gallery.) 
1470  there  was  an  intimate  connexion  between  the  schools 
of  Ferrara  and  Bologna. 

The  Bologna  school  existed,  though  not  in  a  very  char- 


.■<'^SS'j^^ 


--Af^  ' 


-Ei;ce  Homo,  by 
(National  Gal- 


tdeha 

I 

rms. 


acteristic  form,  in  the  14th  century. 
Trancia  and  Lorenzo  Costa  of  Fer- 
rara were  its  chief  painters  at  thi; 
end  of  the  15th  century  (see  fi,L'. 
19).  It  was,  however,  in  the  16tli 
and  17th  centuries  that  BologDri 
took  a  leading  place  as  a  school  oi 
Italian  painting,  the  beginning  ol 
which  dates  from  about  1480,  when 
several  able  painters  from  Ferrara 
settled  in  Bologna.  The  three  Car-  "^ 
acci,  Guido  (see  fig.  20),  Domeni- 
chino,  and  Guercino  were  the  most  Fio.  20.- 
admired  painters  of  their  time,  and  ^^^^°' 
continued  to  be  esteemed  far  be- 
yond  their  real  value  till  about  the  middle  of  the  19th 
century.  Since  then,  however,  the  strong  reaction  in 
favour  of  earlier  art  has  gone  to  the  other  extreme,  and 
the  real  merits  of  the  Bolognese  school,  such  as  their 
powerful  drawing 
and  skilful  though 
visibly  scholastic 
composition,  are  now 
usually  overlooked. 

Both  Modena  and 
Parma  possessed  me- 
diocre painters  in  the 
14th  and  15th  cen- 
turies. In  the  L6th 
Correggio  and  his 
pupil  Parmigiano 
attained  to  a  very 
high  degrte  of  popu- 
larity. Correggio, 
who  was  largely  in- 
fluenced by  the  Fcr- 
rara-Bologna  school, 
is  sometimes  weak  i 
drawing  and  affect' 
in  comiwsition,  ■  but 
will  always  be  es- 
teemed for  the  rich 
softness  of  his  model- 
ling and  the  delicate  Fio.  21.— The  Education  of  Cupid,  by  Cor- 
pearlytonoofhisflesh  •^BPO-    (National  Gallery. ) 

imts.    Fig.  21  is  an  excellent  example  of  hia  style,  though 
■ruuch  injured  by  repainting. 


The  small  school  of  Cremona  occupies  only  a  subordi-  Creu.  i 
nate  position.     Boccaccino  was  its  ablest  painter  ;  his  rare 
works  are  remarkable  for  conscientious  finish,  combined 
with  some  provincial  mannerism. 

In  the  15th  and  early  part  of  the  16th  century  Milan  MUif 
had  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant schools  in  Italy. 
Its  first  member  of  any 
note  was  Vincenzo  Fop- 
pa,  who  was  painting 
in  1457  and  was  the 
founder  of  the  early 
school.  Ambrogio  Bor- 
gognone  (born  c.  1455) 
was  an  artist  of  great 
merit  and  strong  reli- 
gious sentiment.  He 
followed  in  the  foot- 
steps of  Foppa,  and  his 
pictures  are  remarkable 
for  the  cahn  beauty  of 
the  faces,  and  for  their 
delicate  colour  (see  fig. 
22),  which  recalls  the 
manner  of  Piero  della 
Francesca.       Leonardo  | 

da  Vinci,  though  trained  Fig.   22.— Tlie    Mystic   Marriage  of  St 
in  Florence,  may  be  said      Catherine  of  Alexandria  and  St  Cather- 
to     have     created     the      i^e  of  Siena  to  Clirist,  by  Ambrogio 
later    Milanese    school.      Bor^ognone.     (National  Gallery.) 
Fig.  23  shows  one  of  the  very  few  pictures  by  his  hand 
which  still  exist.     The  marvellous  and  almost  universal 
genius   of    Leo- 
nardo caused  his 
influence   to    be 
powerfully      ex- 
tended, not  only 
among    his    im- 
mediate   pupils, 
but  also  among 
almost    all    the 
Lombard    pain: 
ers   of   his   o\\ 
and  the  succeed- 
ing   generation,  j 
His   closest  fol- 
lowers were  Sa-I 
laino,  Luini,  Ce-j 
sare    da    Sesto,  [ 
Beltraffio,      and  I 
Marco      d'Oggi-l 
ono,    and    in    ai 
lesser  degree  An 
drca         Solai 
Gaudenzio    1 
rari,     and      ^ 
doma,  who  inti    L 
duced  a  newstylcIT 

of  painting  into  I'''"-  28.-T1..-  ^  ,,.  ,    ,   i  r    i  ,.  i 

~.   '  c.  1     •  nardo  da  \  lucL     (^atwuul  0.i.I'jo-; 

Siena.       Solano 

also  studied  in  Flanders,  and  in  Venice  under  Gian.  Bel- 
lini, so  that  a  curiously  composite  stylo  is  visible  in  some 
of  his  magnificent  portraits  (see  fig.  1\).  Most  of  the 
pictures  and  many  drawings  usually  attributed  to  Da  V  inci 
are  really  the  work  of  his  pupils  and  imitators.  Luini, 
in  his  magnificent  frescos,  was  one  of  the  la.st  painter^ 
who  preserved  the  religious  dignity  and  Himplicity  of  the 
older  mediaeval  schools.  Fresco  painting  was  practised 
by  the  Milanese  after  it  had  been  generally  abandoned 
elsewhnrc. 


^to, 


438 


SCHOOLS     OF     PAINTING 


r  G      4  — Fo  t 
Senator,    by 


t  ol  a  \  e  et  in 
Andrea    Solano. 


(National  Gallery ) 


Rome  L'lS  always  been  reinarknble  for  its  absence  of 
native  talent  in  any  of  the 
finfi  arts,  and  nearly  all  the  ^^ 
members  of  the  so-called 
Roman  school  cams  from 
other  cities.  This  school  at 
fir.st  consisted  of  the  per 
£onal  pupils  of  Raphael  — 
Fran.  Penni,  Da  Imola,  &iu 
lie  Eomano,  and  Del  Va^a 
Sassoferrato  and  Carlo  2Ia 
ratta  were  feeble  but  ven 
popular  painters  in  the  17  th 
century. 

The  early  history  of  the 
Neapolitan  school  is  mostly 
mythical ;  it  had  no  indi 
vidual  existence  till  the  16th 
century,  and  then  chiefly 
in  the  person  of  Caravaggio.  Dm-ing  the  loth  cen- 
tury inany  works  of  the  \"an  Eycks  and  other  Flemish 
painters  were  imported  itito  Naples ;  some  of  these 
vera  afterwards  claimed  by  the  vanity  of  nativp  writers 
as  paintings  by  early  'Nciiolitin  titi^ts,  foi  whom  una 
ginaiy  names  and  hi^ 
tories  were  invented 
The  Spaniard  Riber-i 
fcalvator  Rosa,  an  1 
Giordano  wei'e  its  chi  i 
members  in  the  17th 
jceutrary. 

2.  Go'man. 

It  was  especially  at 
Cologne  in  Westphalia 
and  iu  the  Rhine  pro 
vinces    generally    that 
German    painting    wa»  ; 
developed   at  an  early 
time.     \A''illiani  of  Col    j 
egue,  who  died  about 
1378,    painted     panels 
with  much  delicjcy  and 
richness  of  colour  (see 
fig.  2i>).     A  luunber  of 
large  and  highly  finished 
altarjiieces  were  painted    Fig.  25. — bt  Vei-ouica,  by  \\  illinm  of 
iu  thisjiart  of  Germany  '       Cologue.  •  (Xatioual  Gallery.) 
dm-ing  the  15th  century,  but  the  names  of  rcry  few  of  the 
painters  of  that  time  ^ 
are  known.     Ai'tist.s 
such  as  Schongauer, 
Von  Meckencn,  Cra- 
rach,  .  and      others 
Vere  more  at  home 
in  the  engraving  of 
copper  .  and     wood 
than.in  painting,  and , 
to  some  extent   the 
same  might  be  said 
cf  Albert  Diirer,  an 
artist  of  the  highest  fij', 
and  most  varied  ta- 
lents, who  especially 
excelled  as  a  portrait 
painter '(see  fig.  20). 
The  llans  Holbeins, 
father-    and  son,   es-   Fig.  26.— Portrait  of  a  Senator,  by  Albert 
pocially    the     latter,;  ^"'■^•-     (N'-'tion-'^l  Gnll.ry.) 

attained  the  hij;hest  rank  as   portrait  painters ;  nothing 


'ncss  and   exnuisite  work 


can   exceed   the  vi'-'d  t- 
manship  of  the  por 
traits  by  the  younger 
Holbein  (see  fig.  27), 
who  also  painted  very 
beautiful       religion^ 
pictures.      Since   hio 
time     Germany    ha-s    ^ 
produced    few    note 
worthy  j  ainters.     In 
the      19th     century 
Overbeckwas  remark 
able  for  an  attempt  -^ 
to   revive    the    long  ^"^^ 
dead  religious  spirit    '^' 
in  painting,  and  he '. 
attained  much  popu- 
larity, which.however, 
has  nowalmo.3twholly 
died  away. 

3.  Flemisli. 
Hubert    and    Jan 

van  Eyck,   who  were  Fig.  27.— Portrait^ofa^  Uuknown  Lady,  Tjy 

painting  at   the   be-  " —    — 

j,inning  of   the  15th 
highest  rank ;    with 
their  unrivalled  tech- 
nical skill,  their  ex- 
quisite finish,  and  the 
splendour    of     their 
colour,  they  produced 
\^  orks  which  in  some 
respects     even    sur- 1 
1  assed  those  of  any  i 
of  the  Italian  paint- 
ers.      Probably    no  | 
other     artists     everl 
lavished    time    and  | 
I  atient  labour  quite! 
to  the  same   extent  | 
to    which    Jan   van! 
Eyck  did  upon  some  [ 
of    his   works,   sui-li  f 

as  the  Arnolfini  and  i'lu.  2S.— roitrait,  by  Jan  van  Eycl. 
other  portraits  in  the  JXational  GaDery.) 

National  Gallery  (see  fig.  28),  and  the  Madonna  with  tha 


Holbein.     (The  Hague  Gallery. ) 
centur}',  were  artists  of  the  verj 


1433 


Fia  29. — Tlie  Eutoinbnicnt  of  Clirist,  by  Van  der  Weydeii  tne     <1W 
painted  iu  tempera  oil  luipriiiied  liueii.     (Natiou.al  Gallery.) 

kneeliii^'  Donor  in  the  Louvre.     This  last  is  one  of  thi 


SCHOOLS      OF      PAINTING 


439 


loveliest  pictures  in  tlie  vorUl,  Uth  as  a  figure  painting 
and  from  its  exquisite  miniatiu-e  landscape  and  town  in 
the  distance,  all  glowing  with  the  warm  light  of  the  setting 
sun.  The  elder  N'an  der  Weyden  was  a  most  able  pupil  of 
the  Van  Ejxks ;  he  occasionally  practised  a  very  ditierent 
technical  method  from  that  usually  employed  in  Flanders,— 
that  is  to  say,  he  painted  in  pure  tempera  colours  on  un- 
ptimed  linen,  tlie  flesh  tints  especially  bemg  laid  on  ex- 
tremely thin,  so  that  the  texture  of  the  linen  remains 
unhidden.  Other  colours,  such  as  a  smalto  blue  used  for 
draperies,  ave  applied  in  greater  body,  and  the  whole  is 
left  uncovered  by  any  varnish.  A  very  perfect  examjUe 
of  this  exists  in  the  National  Gallery  (see  fig.  29).  The 
special  method  used  i^^ 
with  such  success  by  fe-  •--- 
the  Van  Eycks  and  '??^ 
their  school  was  to 
paint  the  whole  pic- 
ture carefully  in  tem 
pera  and  then  t 
glaze  it  over  in  traiv 
parent  oil  colours ; 
the  use  of  oil  ^  as  a 
medium  was  com 
mon  in  the  13tli 
century  and  eve 
earlier  (see  Mctra 
Decoration).  T- 
the  school  of  th 
Van    Eycks    belon,- 

a  number   of    othei  ^^_^^^^_^ 

very  talented  paint-  Fio.  30.— St  Mary  M.igdalene,  attributed  to 
era,  who  inherited  the  younger  Vau  der  Weyden.  (National 
much  of  their  mar-     GaUery.) 

vellous  delicacy  of  finish  and  richness  of  colour ;  the  chief 
of  these  were  Memling,  Van  der  Meirc,  and  the  younger 
Van  der  Weyden,  to  whom  is  attributed  No.  654  in  the 
National  Gallery  (see  fig.  30).  The  colour  of  this  lovely 
picture  is  magnificent  beyond  all  description.  Quintin 
Matsys  (ilassys)  and 


ter 


Gheerardt  David  also 

produced    works    of 

great  beauty  and  ex- 
traordinary    finished 

execution.^ 

At  the  beginning 
smiih  of  the  16th  century 
'         Flemish  art  began  to^ 

lose  rapidly  in  vigour, 

a  weaker  style  being 

substituted  under  the 

influence  of  Italy.  To 

this     period     belong 

Mabuse,  Van  Orley, 

and  Patinir,  who  ai>- 

pear    to    have    been 

special    admirers    of 

Raphael's  latest' man- 
ner. In  the  latter  half 

of  the  century  Antonij 

Mor,  usually  known  Fio.  „l.-Portrait  by  KubcnB.  "noj"  ■"  ^^o 
iS  Antonio  Moro,  was    "  CLapeau  de  PoiL       (Nafonal  Gulleo..) 

a  portrait   painter  of   the  very  highest  rank.      A  por- 

'"  1  Elaborate  directions  for  i.alntinj  in  oil  are  given  by  the  Gcrmaii 
monk  Theophilus  (&/«.<.  dh:  art.,  i.  37.  88).  who  vxote  m  the  12th 

'■^"'Though  the  elder  V,in  der  Weydeu  Bnd  other  Flemish  paiiitor.  of 
Us  ti.ne  visited  Italy,  the  It.aliau  style  of  painting  appears  to  have 
Sid  ve  y  li  tie  intlue„«  on  their  vigoron,  work,.  The  weaker  Fenu,l. 
Iwh.Jr.  of  the  16th  century,  oa  the  contrar,-,  were  close  .m.tator,  of 
lu    Italians  and  produced  pictures  of  a  rather  feebly  pretty  tyi«. 


trait  of  Queen  llarj-  of  England  at  Madrid,  and  one  of  a 
youth  of  the  Farnese  family  at  Parma,  are  real  masterpiece^ 
of    portraiture.      H'  " 


spent  some  time  iij 
England.  The  Breu- 
ghel family  in  the 
16th  and  17  th  cen- 
turiesproduced  feeble 
works  finished  with 
microscopic  detail. 
Rubens  and  his  pupil 
Vandyck  in  the  17th 
century  were  among 
the  greatest  portrait 
painters  the  worM 
has  ever  seen  (sc 
figs.  31  and  32),  an. 
had  many  able  fol- 
lowers  on   the   Con-  __ 

tinent    and    in    Eng- Fig.  32.-Portrait  of  Cornelius  Van  der  Geest, 
.      ,  °    by  Vandyck  or  Rubens.  (National  Gallery.) 

4.  Dutch. 
This  school  was  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  painters  of 
genre  subjects,  often  treated  with  a  very  ignoble  realism, 
especially  by  the  various  members  of  the  Teniers  family- 
Rembrandt,  the  greatest  painter  of  the  school,  developed 
a  quite  original  style,  remarkable  for  the  force  -'^own  ia 
his  effective  treatment 
of  light  and  shade. 
The  vigorous  life  and 
technical  skill  shown 
in  some  of  his  por- 
traits have  never  been 
surpassed  (see  fig. 
33).  As  a  rule,  how- 
ever, he  cared  but 
little  for  colour,  and 
used  the  etching 
needle  with  special 
enjojonent  and  dex- 
terity. Terburg,  Ger- 
hard Dou(Douw),  and 
Wouwermanhad  more 
sense  of  beauty,  and 
worked  with  the  most 
miniature  -  like  deli- 
cacy. Another  school  i  tt  1 1,  j 
exceUed  in  landscape,  especially  Ruysdael  and  HobbemS 
(see  figs.  34  and  35).     Vandevelde  was  remarkable  foi 


Fio.  33.— Portrait  of  an  Old  Womanj  bj 
Rembrandt.     (National  Gallery.) 


Fio.  34.- ,   ■     .        . 

his  sea-pieces,  and  Paul  Potter  for  quiet  pa.'^toral  sccnu, 
■with  exquUitely  painted  cattle.      Throughout  the  l.t; 


440 


SCHOOLS      OF      PAINTING 


century  tne  painters^of  the  Dutch  school  far  outnumbered 


Fig.  33. — \*ie\v  of  Middelhaiuis  in  HoUaud.  by  Hobbema. 
(Natioual  Gallery.) 

those  of  any  other,  and  many  of  them  reached  a  very  fair 
average  of  skill. 
5.  Spanish. 
The  early  Spanish 
painters  of  the  loth 
and    16th    centuries 
Avore   merely    feeble 
imitators  of  Italian 
art.    Many  of  them,  ■ 
^uch    as    Juan    de 
Juanes,    studied    in 
Italj'.     Kibalta  and 
Zurbaran   were   per- 
haps the    first   able 
artists  J»''^"ho     deve- 
loped   ,a     national 
(Style,    ^'The  latter  is 
remarkable    for    his 
paintings  of  monks  ; 
fig.  36  shows  one  of   , 
the    best    examples.  /;r' 
His  large  altarpieces   i 
are    less    successful 
Velazquez,  one  of  the 
greatest   masters   of 
ekilful  execution  the 
•world  has  seen,  was  alike  great  in  portraiture  (see  fig.  37) 

and  in  large  figun    --,  ,  ,_^;.^j-__^,^^,g^^ 

subjects.'    His  eai'i  "" "  "'"""='=■     ■ 

religious  paintings, 
executed  under  the 
influence  of  Eibalta, 
are  far  inferior  to 
his  later  works,  the 
best  of  which  are 
dt  Madrid.  Murillo 
is  usually  rather  un- 
dervalued ;  ■  he  was 
very  unequal  in  his 
Work,  and  is  we 
represented  nowhere 
except  at  Seville. 
No  words  can  de- 
scribe the  exquisite 
religious  beauty  and  | 
pathos  of  his  great  ^ 
picture  of  Christ  on  ^'°-  37— '■'rtrait  of  Pluhi.  IV.  of  Sj-aiu,  by 

the    Cross    bending 


Fig.  36. — Franciscan  Friar,  by  Zurbaran. 
(X.ilional  Gallery.) 


19th  century,  was  an  arti.st  of  great  power,'  haunted  Uj 
a  hideous  imagination.  '.  Fortuny,  a  very  clever  younjj 
painter,  who  died  in  Rome  in  1874,  was  remarkable  for 
his  daring  use  of  the  most  brilliant  colour,  with  which  his 
jiictures  are  studded  like  a  mosaic,  t.  His  success  has 
caused  him  to  have  countless  imitators,  most  of  whom 
reproduce  the  faults  rather  than  the  merits  of  his  work. 
His  influence  on  modern  Continental  art  has  been  very 
great. 

6.    French. 

French  art,  like  that  of  Spain,  was  almost  wholly  under 
Italian  influence  during  the  15th  and  16th  centuries. 
Nicolas  Poussin,  in  the  Nth  century,  was  the  fir^t  to 
develop  a  native  style,  though  he  was  much  influenced  by 
Titian.  His  best  works  are  bacchanalian  scenes,  of  whicli 
one  of  the  finest  is  in  the  National  Gallery  (see  fig.  38). 


Fio.  38. — Bacchanalian  Scene,  by  ^■icol.^s  Poussin.  (Natioual  Gallery.) 
\ATien  at  his  best  his  flesh  painting  resembles  that  ol 
Titian,  but  it  is  frequently  marred  by  unpleasant  hot 
colouring.  Claude  Lorrain  is  remarkable  for  his  beauti- 
ful and  imaginative  landscapes, — often  wanting  in  a  real 
study  of  nature  (see  fig.  39).     His  finest  works  are  in 


Velazquez. 


'lown  to  embrace  St  Francis. 


(Natioual  Gallery, 
Goya,  who  lived  into  the 


Fig.  39. — Landscape,  by  C'Liude  Loa.<iu. 
England  (see  p.  445).  Throughout  the  18th  century  the 
French  school  was  very  prolific,  but  shared  the  mediocrity 
of  the  age,  the  corruption  and  artificiality  of  which  im, 
[iresscd  themselves  strongly  on  the  painting  of  the  time. 
The  most  popular  artists  of  that  century  were  Watteau, 
Boucher,  Greuze,  Claude  Vernet,  Fragonard,  and  David, 
the  reviver  of  the  pseudo-classic  style.  In  the  first  Lali 
of  the  19th  century  Prud'hon,  Ingres,  Horace  Vernet,  and 
Delaroche — artists  of  only  moderate  merit — were  in  great 
repute,  and  more  deservedly  the  very  brilliant  landscape 
painter  Rousseau.  Millet,  tliough  little  valued  during  his 
lifetime,  is  now  highly  aiii>rcciated.     Regnault,  a  very  able 


SCHOOLS     OF     PAINTING 


441 


painter,  who  while  yet  young  was  killed  at  tha  siege  of 
Paris  in  1871,  belongs  to  the  latest  development  of  French 
art.  At  present  (1886)  Paris  possesses  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant school  of  art  existing,  and  French  painters  on  the 
■whole  are  supreme  in  power  of  drawing  and  in  technical 
skill.  Unhappily  these  great  merits  are  often  counter- 
balanced by  false  sentimentalism  or  excessive  realism,  and 
especially  by  gross  sensuality.  Art  in  France — that  is,  in 
Paris — is  now  in  a  state  of  the  most  prolific  activity,  and 
is  branching  out  into  new  and  startling  phases,  such  as  the 
impressionist  style,  in  which  form  is  suppressed  for  the 
sake  of  colour,  and  the  naturalist  school,  which  leans  rather 
to  what  is  ugly  or  even  loathsome ;  to  the  latter  belong 
some  of  the  technically  ablest  painters  alive.'  As  in  Spain 
and  Italy,  the  influence  of  Fortuny  is  strong  in  Paris,  and 
Parisian  influence  now  extends  very  widely,  as  the  licole 
des  Beaux-Arts  is  resorted  to  by  art  students  from  all 
countries  except  Germany. 

7.  Brilix/i. 

The  modern  Bri- 
tish ^  school  begin - 
with  the  painters  of 
miniature  portraits 
in  the  16th  and  17  th 
centuries,  amon^' 
whom  the  earliest 
were  Nicholas  Hil 
Hard  and  Isaac  Oli 
Ter,  artists  o*  some 
note  in  the  reigil  of 
.Elizabeth.  Many 
very  beautiful  minia- 
tures were  produced 
by  them  and  by  the 
younger  Peter  Oli- 
ver, who  rose  into 
celebrity  under 

fhe    Commonwealth,  pjg  '4o.-Portrait  of  Dr  Jobusou,  by  Rey- 
Other'  able    portrait      nolds.     (National  Gallerj-.     A  replica  of 
paintefS  of  the  17th      this  exists  in  Pembroke  College,  Oxford.) 
centiuy  were  the  Scotch  Jamesone,  a  pupil  of  Rubens, 
William  Dobson,  a  " 
pupil  of  Vandyck.^ 
and  Samuel  Cooper; 
but  the  chief  court 
painters    after    the 
Restoration  were  the 
Flemish    Sir    Peter 
Lely  and  Sir  God- 
frey Kneller,  whose 
influence  on  art  in 
England  was  disas- 
trous.      The    18th 
century      produced 
many  painters  of  the 
highest    merit,     as 
Hogarth,  who  stands 
unrivalled  as  a  cari- 
caturist and  moral- 
ist, Reynolds  and  his 

rival  Gainsborough,  Fia.  41.— fonraii  oi  Wis  si.ldotn,  by  Gaini- 
notable    among   the  borough.    (Natioual  Gallery.) 

chief    portrait   painters   of   the   world   (see    figs.   40   and 

'  A  few  years  ago  a  gold  niednl  was  won  at  the  Salon  by  a  picture 
of  this  class, — a  real  masterpiece  of  technical  skill.  It  represented 
Job  m  an  emaciated  old  man  covered  with  ulcers,  carefully  studied 
In  the  Paris  hospitals  for  skin  diseases. 

*  For  mediaeval  painting  in  England,  see  MuiUL  Decoiution,  vol. 
Kvii.  p.  45. 

>  Vondyck  llrediand  worked  In  England  from  1632  to  1641. 

21-16' 


41),  and  Richard  Wilson,  the  founder  of  the  English  school 
of  landscape,  the  chief  artistic  speciality  of  the  country. 
The  three  brothers  Smith  of  Chichester.  Gainsborough, 
and  later  in  the 
century  John  (Old) 
Crome  of  Norwich 
and  James  Ward, 
were  all  landscape 
painters  of  great 
ability.  England  has 
since  the  18th  cen- 
tury been  specially 
famed  for  its  school 
of  water-colour  paint- 
ers, of  which  Paul 
Sandby  was  one  of 
the  founders;  he  was 
followed  by  ^Mieat- 
ley,  Webber,  Girtin, 
and  Prout.  Sir  Henry 
Raeburn  was  a  Scot- 
tish portrait  painter 
of  the  highest  rank 

(see     fig.     42),     but  Fi&.42.— Portrait  ofKev.  Arch.  Alison,  by  Sir 
was     far      less      ad-    H.  Eaebum.     (SationalPorcruit  Gallery.) 
mired  in  England  than  the  very  feeble  Lawience.     Little 
can   be  said    in    favour   of    many  of '  the    most   ix)pular 


.«•-*-.  ?^- 


Fio.  43. — The  Temeraire  towed  to  her  last  Moorings,  by  Turner. '' 
(National  Gallerj.) 

painters  of  that  time,  as  West,  Barry,  Fuseli,  North- 
cote,  and  Shee,  who  practised  what  was  considered 
the  highest 

branches  of  art, 
such  as  histori- 
cal painting. 
William  Blake; 
in  spite  of  his 
wonderful  poet- 
ical and.  ima- 
ginative power, 
lived  and  died 
with  very  inade- 
quate recogni- 
tion. To  the  first 
half  of  the  19th 
century  belong 
Turner,  the 

greatest  of  all 
landscape  paint- 
ers (see  fig.  43), 
and  his  very 
able  contempo- 
raries Constable, 


^-.-.-.jf^ 

k 

.  ..^'i  '-:?=  '>^^''^^^K                jH 

^^^1 

^^^.i^^p^ir-c-'j^^^k^  S! 

1^1 

'3;                ^m            ifllB 

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Flc.  44. — Portrait,  b)  Dante  Gabnul  ivoswui. ' 

J.  J.  Chalon,  Copley  Fielding,  and  Stan- 


442 


SCHOOLS      OF      PAINTING 


field.  Scotland  produced  two  of  the  chief  painters  of 
this  time — Sir  William  Allan  and  Sir  David  Wilkie. 
Mulready  was  a  fine  draughtsman,  skilful  in  composition, 
but  weak  in  colour.  Etty's  scholastic  drawing  recalls  the 
merits  and  faults  of  the  Bolognese  school,  and  he  is 
frequently  very  fine  in  colour.  Eastlake  was  weal:  in 
drawing  and  feeble  in  composition.  Sir  Edwin  Landseer 
excelled  in  anirijal  painting,  especially  in  his  rendering  of 
the  texture  of  hair  and  fur,  but  was  frequently  rather 
harsh  in"  colour  and  commonplace  in  motive.  David 
Roberts  is  worthy  of  note  for  his  very  clever  water- 
colours  of  architectural  scenes,  J.  F.  Lewis  for  his  ex- 


quisitely finished  Oriental  subjects,  and  J.  S.  Raven  for  his 
grand  and  imaginative  landscapes,  which,  however,  are  very 
little  known.  Dante  Gabriel  Eossetti  (see  fig.  44),  who 
died  in  1882,  was  one  of  the  chief  painters  of  the  century, 
both  for  the  richness  of  his  colouring  and  for  his  strong 
poetical  imagination ;  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Pre-Raphaelite  "  brotherhood  "  (see  Eossetti),  whose  rise, 
development,  and  widespread  influence  on  painting  ia 
Britain  have  been  the  chief  artistic  events  in  this  century, 
and  have  produced  a  few  I3ainters  whose  earnestness  of 
purpose  and  originality  of  power  give  them  a  foremost 
and  absolutely  unique  position  in  modern  Europe. 


List  of  Paintees. 
The  following  lists  give  the  chief  painters  classified  according  to  their  schools  la  chronological  order.' 


1,  Italian  Schools.^' 

(i.)  Lucca  and  Pisa. 

Lotliariu!5  and  Ranuccius  of  Lucca, 

knowu    only  from   a   document,  a 

treaty  witli  Pisa,  signed  by  them  in 

1223. 
Bohaveiitura  Berlinghieri,3  11.1235-41. 
Enrico  of  Pis.T.  inioiatureiJ,  fl.l238. 
Mareo  Berliiiyhieri,  miniatures  in  a  MS. 

Diljle,  (1.1200. 
Boronn  Berlingliieri,  several  pniciflxe*, 

fl.l240!14. 

Deodati  Orlandi  of  Lucca,  fI.12SS-1301. 

GiuntA  Pisano,  fii'st  half  of  lath  cen- 
tury. 

Tnrino  Vanni,  second  half  of  14th  cen- 
tury. 
The   names   of  many  other   Pisan 

painters  of  tlie  later  part  of  the  13th 

(^ntury  are  recorded  in  documents,  but 

no  paintings  by  them  are  known  to 

ejiist. 

(ii.)  Siena.* 

Gnido  da  Siena,  tl.l220. 

Diotisalvi,  fl.l2:0. 

Duccio  di  Buoiiinsegna,  fl.1300. 

Ii«gna  di  Buonlnsegna,  fl  1305. 

Bimone  di  Martino,  c.l2So-c.l344. 

Lippo  Memmi,  d.c.l357. 

9ei-na,  tLearly  14tb  century. 

Pietro  LorenzelU,  n.l320-c.l343. 

Anibrogio  Lorenzetti,  Pietro'fl  brother, 

fl.1330,  d.c.l34S. 
Kicoolo  di  Segna,  fl.l343. 
Jacopo  di  Mino,  fl.l342. 
Lippo  Vanni,  fl.lS5D-f.l378. 
Niccolo  di  Buonaccorso,  fl.l350-SS. 
Bartolo  di  Fredi,  fl.1353-1410. 
Luca  di  Tomme,  11.1367. 
Paolo  di  Giovanni,  fi.l3S0. 
Meo  da  Siena,  fl.l3S0. 
Taddeo  dl  Bartolo,  1363.1422. 
"Andrea  dl  Bartolo,  fl.l380,  <L14SS.' 
Gregorio  Cecchi,  H.HOO. 
Jllartino  di  Bartolomeo,  fl.1403,  d.l433. 
Domenico  di  Bartolo,  d.l449. 
Stefano  di  Giovanni,  fl.l42S,  d.l450. 
Giovanni  di  Paolo,  KH03-1483. 
Sano  di  Pietro,  1406-81. 
Lorenzo  di  Pietro  (VecchietU),  1410- 

SO,  better  known  as  a  sculptor. 
Matteo  di  Giovanni,  1420-95.       .   , 
Benvenuto  di  Giovanni,  1436-1518. 
Francesco  di  Giorgio.  h.l439. 
Nero'ccio  di  Landi,  1447-1500. 
Pietro  di  Domenico,  1457-150i. . 
Bernardino  Fungai,  1460-1516. 
Andrea  di  Niccolo,  1460-1529. 
Girolamo  di  Benvenuto,  1470-1554. 
Giacomo  Pacchiarotto,5  b.1474. 
Girolamo  del  Pacchia,5  1477  to  after 

1521.  ■        


1  When  the  years  of  a  painter's  birth 
and  death  are  unkno\\-n,  fl.  for  "flour- 

ished"  is  put  before  the  date,  which 
s  taken  either  from  existing  dated  pic- 
^res  or  from  docmnentai-y  records. 

2  Of  recent  years  a  more  careful 
jearch  for  documents  relating  to  Italian 
^rt  has  done  much  to  correct  the  dates 
pf  many  painters'  lives  ;  hence  in  many 
taaes  the  years  of  a  painter's  birth  and 
(leath  given  in  the  following  list  differ 
^om, those  in  most  preWous  works  on 
the  subject. 

3  The  three  Berlingliieri  were  of  a 
Milanese  family,  but  worked  mostly 
»t  Lucca. 

<  Most  TalnaW«  Bssistance  in  the 
Vepanitiou  of  this  list  of  Sienese 
hainters  was  given  by  Mr  C.  Fairfax 
llurrav. 

, »  The  works  of  tliesc  two  painters  are 
lre(iuently  confoumled ;  a  caromolithO' 


Glov.  Ant  Bazzi  (Sodoma),  1477-1549  ; 

thouyli  not  of  the  Sienese  school,  he 

had  much  infiuejice  on  the  Sienese 

painters  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th 

centnry. 
Baldassare  PerU2zi,  14S1-15S7. 
Domenico      Micliarino     (Beccafumi), 

14St>.1360. 

The  most  important  Sienese  painters 
during  the  second  halt'  of  the  16tb  and 
the  17th  centuries  were  Arcangiolo 
Salimbeni,  Alessandro  Casolani,  Pietro 
Savi,  Ventura  Salimbeni,  Francesco 
Vanni,  Francesco  Rustici,  Rutilio 
Manetti,  Astolfo  Petrazzi,  and  Raf- 
faello  Vanni. 0 

(iii.)  FloreMe. 
Andrea  Tafl,  1213-V1294  (Vasari). 
Coppo  di  Marcovaldo,  fi. 1261-75. 
Gaddo  Gaddi,  1239-1312  (according  to 

Vasan). 
Giovanni  Gualtieri   (Cimabue),   1240- 

J1202. 
Giotto  di  Bondone,  1276-1.337. 
Taddeo  Gadd:  ?  1300  to  after  1366. 
Puccio   Capanna,  first   half  of  14th 

century. 
Buonamico  Christx>fani  (Bufialmacco), 

first  half  otUth  century. 
Giovanni  Jacobi  da  Milano,  fl.l365. 
Giottino  (real  name  doubtful),  first  half 

of  14th  century. 
Jacopo  Landiui,  C.1310-C.1390. 
Agnolo  Gaddi  (son  of  Taddeo  Gaddi), 

14th  century. 
Andrea  Orcagna,  C.1316-c.l37fi,  and  his 

brothers  Liouardo?  (fl.1332-47)  and 

Jacopo. 
Francesco  Traini,  chief  of  Orca^na's 

pupils,  fl. 1341-45. 
Antonio  Longlii(Veneziano),  fl. 1370-87. 
Gherardo  Stamina,  1354,  d.  after  1406. 
GiLliano   a  Arrigo  (Pesello),   1367   to 

aft«r  1427. 
Tominaso  di  Fini  (Masolino),  b.l383. 
Lorenzo  Monaco,  fl.1404-13. 
Fra  Angelico  (Guido  di  Vicchio),  1387- 

1455. 
Andrea  del  Castagno,  1390-1457. 
Paolo  Uccello,  c.1396-1475. 
Tommaso  di  S.  Giovanni  (Masaccio), 

1402-29. 
Fra  Lippo  Lippi,  c.1412-69. 
Francescodi  Peserio(Pesellino),1422  57. 
Alesso  Baldovinetti,  1422-99. 
Domenico  Veneziano,  fl.l43S,  d.l461. 
Benozzo  Gozzoli,  1424,  d.  after  1485. 
Andrea  Verrocchio,  1432-C.14S8. 
Antonio  Pollaiuolo,  1433-98. 
Cosimo  Rosselli,  1439-1507. 
Luca   Signorelli   (Da  Cortona),   1441- 

1523 ;  his  principal  pupil  was  Giro- 
lamo Genga,  1476-1551. 
Pietro  Pollaiuolo,  l-y3,  d.  before  1496. 
Sandro  Botticelli,  1447-1515. 
Domenico  Bigordi  (Ghirlandaio),  1449- 

04.    His  works  were  closely  imitated 

by  his    pupil   and   brother-in-law 

Bastiano  Mainardi.  ' 
Lorenzo  di  Credi,  1459-i;37.    His  chief 

scholar  was  Sogliani,  1492-1544. 
Filippino  LippI,  1460-1504. 
Piero  di  Cosimo,  1462-1521. 
RaffaeUino  del  Garbo,  1466-1524. 
Francesco  Oranacci,  1469-1543. 
Giuhano  Bugiardini,  1471-1554. 
Mariotto  Albertinelli,  1474-1515. 
Fra  Bartolomeo  della  Porta,  1475-1517. 


graph  of  a  fresco  by  Pacchia— a  scene 
from  the  life  of  St  Catherine---has  been 
published  by  the  Ai-undel  Society  as 
being  from  a  work  of  Pacchiarotto. 

6  See  Lanzi,  Painting  in  Italy,  B..lia's 
ed.,  vol.  i.  p.  290. 

7  Wrongly  called  Bernardo  by  Vasari. 


Michelangelo  Buonan-oti,  1475-1564. 
Francesco     di     Cristofano     (Francia 

Eigio),  1482-1525. 
Ridolfo  Ghirlandaio,  1483-1560. 
Andrea    del    S.^rto,    14S7-1531.      His 

scholar  Puligo  closely  imitated  his 

style. 
Jacopo  Carucci  da  Pontonno,  1494- 

1557. 
Oiulio  Clovio  of  Dalmatia,  miniaturist, 

1498.1578. 
Angelo  Bronzino,  1602-72. 
Slarcello  Venusti,  d.c.l5S0. 
Daniele  da  Volterra,  1509-66. 
Francesco  de'  Rossi  (called  Del  Salvi- 

ati),  1510-63. 
Giorgio  Vasari,  art  historian,  1512-74. 
Alessandro  Allori,  1535-1607. 
Orazio  Lomi  de'  (Sentileschi,  1562-1846. 
Cristoforo  Allori,  1577-1621. 
Carlo  Dolci,  1616-86. 

The  other  Florentine  painters  of  the 
later  part  of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries 
are  of  little  importance. 

(iv.)  I7mbria. 
Oderisio  of  Gubbio,  miniaturist  (Dante, 

Par.,  xi.  79),  fl.!264.c.l299.      ■ 
Guido   Palmerucci   (GubbioX    1280-i;. 

1345. 
AUegi-etto  Nuzi,  11346-85. 
Gentile  da  Fabriano,  b.  betTVeen  1S60 

and  1370,  d.l450. 
Ottaviano  Nelll,  fl.t41(>-84. 
Lorenzo  da  San  Severiuo,  b.l374,  fl. 

1400. 
Piero  Borghese  (Delia  FrancSsca),  c. 

1415  to  after  1494. 
Fra  Carnovale,  pupil  of  P.  Borghese, 

second  half  of  15th  century. 
Benedetto  Eonflgli,  fl. 1450-96. 
Niccolo  of  Foligno,8  fl.1458-99. 
Lorenzo  da  San  Severino  the  younger, 

fl.1480-96. 
Melozzo  da  Forli,  1438-94. 
Fioreuzo  di  Lorenzo,  fl. 1470-99. 
Giovanni    Santi  (father  of  Baphael)^ 

pupil  of  Melozzo  da  Forli,  d.l494. 
Pietro  Vannucci  (Perugino),  1446-1524. 
Bernardino    di    Betto   (Pinturicchio), 

1454-1513. 
Marco  Palmezzano  of  Forli,  c.1456,  d. 

after  1537. 
Andrea  Alorigi  (L'lngegtio),  fl.l4S4. 
Lodovico  Angeh,  fl.1481-1506. 
Giovanni  di  Pietro  (Lo  Spagna),  fl.1503, 

d.  in  or  before  1530. 
Giaanicola  Manni,  fl.l493,  d.1544. 
Timoteo  Viti.  1469-1523. 
Raphael  Sanzio,  1483-1520  ;  belonged  to 

the  Perugian  school  only  during  the 

first  few  years  of  his  career. 

Less  important  Urnbrian  painters  of 
the  15th  century  were  Giov.  Boccati, 
Giiolamo  di  Giovanni,  Matteo  da 
Gualdo,  Bartolomeo  di  Tommaso,  and 
Pietro  Antonio,  also  a  number  of  third- 
rate  painters  who  belonged  to  the 
school  of  Perugino. 

(v.)  Padtta, 
Guarieuto,  fl.1316-65. 
Justus  of  Padua  (Giusto  Giovanni),  c. 

13301100,  apparently  a  follower  of 

Giotto. 
Francesco  Squarcioue,  1394-1474. 
Or*gurio   Schiavone,   second   half  of 

15th  century. 
Andrea Mantegna,1431 -1506.    Hischief 

pupils  were  his  son  Francesco  (b.  e. 

1470,  died  after  1517),  Carlo  (called) 

del  Mantegna,  Giov.  Fran.  Carotto, 

and  FranceSco  Bonsignori  of  Verona 

(1455-1519). 

8  Wrongly  called  Alunno  by  Vasari. 


Bartolomeo  Montagna  (fl.l487,  d.lSSSX 
a  pupil  of  Mantegna  and  Gian.  Bel- 
lini, founded  a  school  at  Vicenza,  to 
which  belonged  Giovanni  Speranza 
and  Benedetto  Montagna,  the  latter 
an  able  engraver. 

(\i.)  Arezzo. 
Margaritone  di  Magnano^  (according 

to  Vasari),  1216-93. 
Mantano  di  Arezzo,  fl.1305-10. 
Jacopo  di  Casentino,  C.1310-C.1390. 
Spinello  di  Luca  (Aretino),  chief  pupil 

of  Casentino, lo  c.1330-1410. 
Niccolo  di   Pietro   Gerini,  d.  before 

1389.    His  son  Lorenzo  was  also  a 

painter. 
Lorenzo  di  Bicci,  fl.1370-1409. 
Parri  Spinelli,  earlv  15th  century, 
Bicci  di  Lorenzo,  tl  1420,  d.l452. 
Bartolomeo  della  Gi-tta,c.l410-91.    His 

pupils  Domenico  Fecori  and  Niccolo 

8oggi  were  men  of  but  little  talent. 

(vii.)  Venice. 
Niccolo  Semitecolo,  fl. 1351-1400. 
Lorenzo  Veneziano,  fl.1357-79. 
Stefano  Venezi.ano,   fl. 1369-81. 
Jacobello  del  Fiore  fl.  1400-39. 
Johannes     Alemannus,    probably    of 

Cologne,  fl.l440  sq. 
Jacopo  Bellini,  13S5-1470;  and  his  two 

sons — 
Gentile  Bellini  (1421-1507)  and 
Giovanni    Bellini    (14'26-1516).      Gio- 
vanni's closest  imitator  was  Niccolo 

Kondinelli. 
Giovanni  Vivarini  of  5Iurano,fl.l440-47. 
Antonio  Vivarini,  fl. 1440-70. 
Bartolomeo  Vivarini,  fl. 1459-98. 
Alvise  Vivarini,  fl. 1464-1503. 
Antonello  da  Messina,  C.1444-C.149S. 
Carlo  Crivelli,  fl.l468  to  after  1600. 
Mansueti,  fl.1494-1500. 
Vittore  Carpaccio,  c.1450  to  after  1522. 

Bis  chief  pupil  was  Lazzaro  Seba^- 

tianl. 
Marco  Marziale,  fl.1495-1507. 
Marco  Basaiti,  fi. 1470-1520. 
Francesco  Toi  bido  (Moro),  1466-1546. 
Vicenzo  Catena,  fl.H95,  d.  after  1531, 
Cima  da  Conegliano,  fl. 1469-1517. 
Macrino  d'Alba,  fl.l498-I508. 
Bartolomeo  Veneziano,  fl.c.1605-30. , 
Marco  Belli,  fl.l511.  . 
Francesco  Bissolo,  fl. 1500-28. 
Pellegrino  da  San  Daniele,  c.1465-1547. 
Andrea  Previtali,  fl.l506.  d.l52S. 
Lorenzo  Lotto,  c.1476-1555. 
Giorgio   Barbarelli  (Giorgioue),  1477- 

1511. 
fiziano  Vecellio,  1477-1576. 
Jacopo  Palma  (Vecohio),  1480-1528. 
Giov.  Ant.  Licinio  (Pordenone),  148S- 

1539. 
Sebastiano  Luciani  (Del  Piombo),  148S- 

1547. 
Girolamo  da  Treviso.  1497-1544. 
Bonifacio.    There  were  three  paintcra 

of  this  name,— Bonifacio  of  Verona, 

d.l540;  another  Veronese  Bonifacio, 


9  Margaritone,  a  very  bad  painter, 
much  overpraised  by  Vasari,  belongs 
really  to  no  special  school ;  his  works 
are  ulterior  to  contemporary  and  earlier 
paintings  of  the  Byzantine  school.  The 
National  Gallery  possesses  an  ugly  but 
interesting  example  of  his  work,  signed 
"Margarif  de  Aritio."  Some  other 
painters  born  at- Arezzo  belong  to  th« 
Florentine  school,  among  them  Giorgio 
Vasari,  a  very  feeble  imitator  cf  ilictel- 
angelo. 

ly  These  two  painters  belong  rather 
to  the  Florentine  school.  — " 


d.l553,  both  pupils  of  Palma-Veccliio, 
and  a  Venetian,  nho  was  painting 
after  1579,  probably  a  soa  of  one  of 
Uie  elder  Bouifacios. 
Girolamo  da  Santacroce,  fl,  1520-43. 
Paris  Bonlone,  1600-71. 
Jacopo  da  Ponte  (Bassano),-  1510-92. 

Four  of  bis  80118  wore  painl«Ts< 
Jacopo  Bobusti  (Tintoretto),  1612-94. 
Beraardino  da  Pordenone,  1&20-70. 
Andrea  Schiavone,  152'2-S2. 
Paolo  CajTliari  (VeroneseX  152&-88. 
BattisU  Eelotli.  c.1532-92. 
Jacopo  Falrau  (Giovane),  1644-162S. 
Aicssandro  Varotari(Pudovanino),lJ90- 

1650. 
Sebastiano  Bicci,  1660-1734. 
Giov.  Batt.  Tiepolo,  16M-1770. 
Antouio  Canale  (Canaletto),  1697-1768. 
Francesco  Zuccherelli,  1702-93. 
Franc«6co  Guai-di,  1712-93. 
Bernardo  Bellotto,  1720-80,  nephew  of 
Canaletto  and  a  close  imitfltior  o£  iii^ 
style. 

(vili.)  Brescia. 
Vincenzo  Foppa,  ti.l450-d6  (see   also 

Milan) 
"Vinceiizo  ClvercWo  of  Crema,  fl.1495- 

1540. 
Rora\-ante  FerramoLi,  end  of  15th  cent. 
Girolamo   Roinani  (H   Bomaniao),  c. 

1486 -c  1666.' 
Girolamo  Savoldo,  C.14S7  to  after  1540. 
Alessandro  Buonviciiio(Moretto),  149S- 

1565. 
Giov.  Batt  Moroni  of  Bergamo,  cl525- 
78.  ■ 

Ox.)  Veroncu 
Tarone  da  Verona,  fl.l360. 
Altichiero  da  Ze\io  and  Giacomo  degli 
Avanzi,    14th   century.      The  other 
Veronese  painters  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury were  of  little  artistic  power. 
■VittorePisano(Pisanello),  138i)-c.l455. 
His  chief  pupils  were  Stefano  da 
Ze\io,  Giovanni  Oriolo,  and  Bono  of 
Ferrara  (3,?e  Ferrara). 
Domenico  Morone,  d.  after  1503. 
Liberale  da  Verona,  1451-1536. 
Francesco  Bonsiguari,  14.05-1519. 
Niccolo  Glolftno,  0.1465  to  after  15?9. 
Francesco  Morone,  1473-1529. 
Girolamo  dal  Libri,  1474-1556. 
Paolo  Morando  (Cavazzoki),  1486-1522. 
Paolo    Veronese    ayd    his   imitator 
Battista  Zelotti,  a  native  of  Verona, 
belong  rather  to  the  Veuotian  schooL 

(x.)  Ferrara. 
Cosimo  Tora,  1490-?  1496. 
Francesco  Cossa,  latter  part  of  15th 

century.- 
Bono  da  Ferrara,  fl.l461,  pupil  of  Pia- 

anello. 
Francesco  Bianchi,  c. 1445-1510. 
a^ole  Grandii  (or  Roberti),  c.1445,  d. 

before  1513. 
Giovanni  Oriolo,  fl.1449  to  after  1461, 

pupil  of  Pisanelto. 
Lorenzo  Oosta,  1 460-1535,  belongs  rather 

■to  the  Bolognese  school. 
Gian.  Battista  Bartucci, '9.0.1506. 
DoBso  DoBsi,  1480-1550.    His  brotlier 

Gianbattiirta"wa3  also  a  painter. 
Lodovico  Mazzolino  da  Ferrara,  1478- 

Y1580. 

Francesco  Zaganelll  da  OotigDola,  fl. 

1B0&-18,  and  hie  brother  Bernardino. 

Bcnvenuto  Tislo  (Garofalo),  1431-1559. 

Giovanni  Battista  Bcnvenuti  (L'Orto- 

lano),  early  part  of  16th  century. 
Girolamo  Carpi,  1561-56. 


KOOLS     OF      P.AINTING 


443 


Guido  Reni,  1375-ll)42. 
Francesco. Albani,  1578-1660. 
Domenico    Zampiert    (DomenichiBo), 

16S1-1041. 
Francesco  Barbleri  (QnercinoX  1591- 

1066. 
Guido  Cagnaccio,  1601-81. 
Pier  Fran.  Mola,  1612-68. 
Elisabetta  Sirani,  1638-6S.' 


(xl)'Bologn(u' 
Guido  da  Bologna,  fl.ll77. 
Ventura,  fl.  1197-1217. 
tJreone,  fi.1226-48.2 
yitale  da  Bologna,  fl.I320.S0. 
lippo  Dalmaail,  I1.1S76  to  after  1410. 
BImone  (called)  de'  Oroclflsal,  fl.l37a 
GUcouio  degli  Avanzi,  fl,  later  part  of 

14th    tentury,    alao    classed    with 

Vel*onese  school. 
Jacopo  di  Paolo,  early  15th  century. 
Hu-co  Zoppo,  fl. 1471-98. 
Fjftncesco    Ralbolini   (called    Francla 

after  hia  muster)  c.1450-1617. 
Lorenzo  Costa  of  Ferrara,  1460-1535. 
Francesco  Primaticclo,  1604-70. 
Ijodovtco  Caraccl,  1555-1619. 
Agostino  Caraocl.  1658-1601. 
Amiibalo  Caraccl,  1500-1609. 


(xii.)  Jl/odeia  and  Parma. 
Tommaso  da  Jlodena,  fl.1350-60.' 
Barnabo  da  Modena,  11.1360-80. 
Bartolomeo  Grossi,  11.1402. 
Jacopo  Loschi,  fl.c.HOO. 
Cristoforo  Caselli,  fl.l499. 
Lodovico  da  Parma,  pupil  of  Francia 

of  Bologna,  eaily  16th  century. 
Mazzuola,    three    brothers,    Michele, 

Pierilai-io,  and  Filippo,  early  16th 

century. 
Antonio  Allegri  (CoiTCggio),  1493-1534, 

closely  connected  with  the  Ferrara 

schooL, 
Francesco     Mazzuola     (Parmigiano), 

1504-40.     His  pupil   Girolamo   Slaz- 

zuola  closely  imitated  his  works. 

.(siii.)  Cremana, 
Francesco  Tacconi,  fl. 1464-90. 
Altobello  Jlelone,  fl.1515-20. 
Boccaccio  Boccaccino,  fl.l496,  d.l525. 
Giulio  Campi,  1600-J2. 

(xiv.)  Milan. 
Vincenzo  /Foppa,  fl.  1450 -66  (see  aUo 

Brescia). 
Ambrogio  Bevilncqna,  fl.l48S. 
Vincenzo  Civerchio(see  Brescia),  closely 
connected  with  early  Milanese  school. 
Francesco  Biaiichi  (II  Frare),  1447-1510. 
Bernardo  Zenalo  da  Treviglio,  d.  after 

1521. 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  1452-1519.    To  his 
school  belong  Bernardino  Luini  (c. 
1470  to  after  1530),   Sodoma  (1477- 
1549),  Andrea  da  Solario  (c'  145S  to 
after  1515),  and  more  directly  Gian. 
Pietrino,  Ambrogio  Preda,  Cesare  da 
Sesto  (1480-1621),   Marco  d'Oggiono 
(c.  1470-1549),  Andrea  Salaino,  and 
Giov.  Ant.  Beltrafiio  (1467-1616X 
Ambrogio  da  Posoano  (Borgognone),  c. 
1455-1523  ;  his  two  brothers  were  his 
pupils  and  assistants. 
Bartolomeo   Snartii  (Bramantino)  (fl. 

1495-1529)  and 
Gaudenzio  Ferrari  (1485-1549)  were  also 
inBuenced  by  Leonardo.     Ferrari's 
chi'if  pupils  were  : — 
Bernardino  Lanini  (<;.1508-i!.1578)  and 
Giov.  Paolo  Lomazzo,  the  Milanese 
art  historian,  -whose  Trattato  iMla 
Pintura  was  publislied  in  1584.    Am- 
brogio Figino  was  an  able  scholar  of 
Lomazzo,  together  with  Cristoforo 
Ciocca. 
Ercolo  Procacclni,  1620-90.  • 
Bernardino  Campi,  1022-90.  . 
Cainillo  Procaccini,  1546-1626. 
Giov.  Batt.  Crespi,  1557-1633. 

A    number    of    inferior    Milanese 
tMmtera  lived  In  the  iqth  centuiy.^ 

(xv.)  Eo7)ie. 
Eaphaol  Sanzio,  14S3-1520,  who  in.  his 
early  youth    belonged    first  to  the 
Perugian  and  then  bJ  the  norentine 
school,  was  the  fonnder  of  the  so- 
called  lloman  school,, wliicll  at  first 
'    con.sisted  alifio.st  wholly  of  his  pupils. 
Giov.  Fran.  Penni  (U  FattoreX.  1468- 

1528. 
Innocenzo  da  Imola,  1490.1549. 
Polidoro  da  Carav.iKgio,  1495.1543.* 
Giulio  PippI  do'  Giannuzzi  (Eomano), 

1498-1546. 
Perino  del  Vaga,  1500-47. 
Federigo  Barocci,  1523-1612. 
Cesare  d'Arpino,  1567-1040. 
Bartolomeo  Bchedone,  1550-1016. 
Giov.  Lanfranco,  1581-1647. 
Bart.  Manfrcdi,  1581-1617. 
rietro  da  Cortona,  1590-1669. 
Andrea  Sacchl,  1593-1601. 
Glanbattista  Salvi  (SaBSofoitato),  1C05- 


1  As  Comm.  Morelll  has  pointed  out, 
Orandi'a  signature  and  the  date  1531  on 
■  picture  of  the  Entombraent,  formerly 
tn  the  Borgheae  gallery  In  Rome,  ore 
•  forgery,— Orandi  really  haTlng  died 
l<Hig  before ;  it  may,  however,  bo  by 
tbe  younger  painter  of  the  same  name. 

«  See  Malvoaia,  Felaina  PittrUx, 
Pologoa,  1678. 


Carlo  Maratta,  1625-1713. 
Paolo  Panninl,  1691-1704. 

(xvi.)KapUt.' 

Tlio  namc.<i  of  Slinono  Napoletano, 
Colantonio,  and  other  native  painters 
who  were  eiinponed  to  have  worked  in 
the  14th and  l.'.th contnde9appo«rto bo 
those  of  wholly  mythical  pereonaoea. 
Michelangelo  da  Caravagglo  1&6(I.1609. 
Glu.wppe  Rlbora  (Lo  Spagialetto),  J688- 

?iari6. 
Anlello  Falcone,  1594-1065. 


Salvator  Eosa,  1615-73. 
Luca  Giordano,  1632-1705. 

2.  German  School. 
Wilhelm    of    Herle    or    William    of 

Cologne,  fl.l358,  d.c.l378. 
Steplieu  Lochner,  fl.1442,  d.l451. 
Master  o*f  Llesborn,  fl.l465. 
jnchael  Wohlgemuth,  1434-1519. 
Mastsr  ot  the  Ly^'ersberg  Passion,  fl. 

1463-80. 
Israel  von  Meckcneii,  c.1440-1503 
Martin  Schougauer,  1460  <-S8. 
Matthias  Grunewald,  c.1460  to  after 

15'29. 
Master  Chi-istophonls,  fl.1500-10. 
Master  of  the  Death  of  the  Virgin,  fl. 

1515,  d.l566. 
Hans, Holbein  the  elder,  c.1460-1623, 

and  his  brother  Sigmuud  Holbeiu,  c. 

1465  to  after  1540. 
Albrecht  Dm-er,  1471-1528. 
Lucas  Cranaoh,  1472-1553. 
Hans  Burckmair,  1473-1531. 
Hans  Fuss  (Von  Kulmbach),  pupd  of 

A.  Durer,  d.c.l522. 
Albrecht  Altdorfer,  b.  before  1480-1533. 
Hans  Leonhard  Schaufelin,  1490-1540.  ■ 
Hans  Holbein  the  yoimger,  1497-1543. 
Hans  Sebald  Beham,  1500-50,  and  his 

brother  Barthel  Beham,  1502-C.1540. 
Heinrich  Aldegrever,  1502-58. 
Virgil  SoUs,  1514-62. 
Lucas  Cranach  the  younger,  1515-86. 
Jost.  Amman,  1531-91. 
Heinrich  Golzius,  1558-1617. 
Johann  Rottenhammer,  1564-1623. 
Adam  Elshaimer,  1674-1620. 
Joachim  von  Sandrart,  1606-88. 
Balthasar  Denner,  1685*147. 
Christ.  Will.  Ernst  Dietrich,  171.2-74. 
Anton- Raphael  Mengs,  1728-73. 
Peter  von  Cornelius,  1783-1867. 
Johann  Fried..  Overbeck,  1739-1869. 
Fried.  Wil.  von  Schadow,  1789-1862. 
Julius  Sohnorr,  1794-1872. 
WiUielm  von  Kaulhach,  1805-74. 
Karl  Fried.  Lessing,  1803-80. 

3.  Flemish  School. 
Melchior  Brocderlam,  fl.l382-c.l400. 
Hubert  van  Eyck,  b.cl366,  d.aftcrl426. 
Jan    van    Eyck,  younger   brother  of 

Hubert,  d.  after  1440. 
Margaret  van  Eyck,  a  younger  sister 

of  the  above,  died  soon  alter  Hubert. 
Petrus  Christus,  a  pupil  ot  the  Van 

Evcks,  fl.  1447-71. 
Dierick  Bouts,  c.1391.1475. 
Roger  van  der  Weydeu  the  elder,  c. 

1400-64. 
Gerard  van  der  MeiiB,  c.1410  to  after 

1474; 
Hans  Memling,  c.1430,  d.  before  149.5. 
Roger  van  del  Weyden  the  younger,  c. 

1150-1529.  ■  ,      „. 

Huso  van  der  Goes,  fl.l467,  d.l488 
Justus  of  Ghent,  fl.1451-70. 
Gheerardt  David,  c.1455-1523. 
Quintm  Matsys,  1466-1531. 
Jin  Gcssart  de  Mabuse,  1470-1632. 
Bernard  van  Orley,  1470-1641. 
Jan  Slustert,  1474-1556. 
Henri  do  Bles,  1430-0.1550. 
Joachim  da  P.atinir,  b.  between  1485 
•    and  1490,  d,  1624. 
Jan  van  Schorecl,  1495-1562. 
Michiel  Ooxcie,  1499-1592. 
Lambert  Lombard  (SustcrmannX  IjOC 

to  after  1560.  ,      „      „r   .i 

Marinus  van '  Eomerswalo,  n.l63j  to 

■after  1557. 
Pieter  Pourbus,  1510-83.       ,  „  „  ,_ 
Antong  Mor  (Antonio  Moro),  1512-77. 
Pieter  Breughel,  c.1520-69. 
Paul  Bril,  1556-1624 
Pieter  Breughel,  1504-1637. 
Peter  Paul  Eubena,  1577.1640. 
Frana  Snyders,  1579-1657. 
Kasper  de  Crayer,  1582.1609. 
David  Toniers,' 1582-1649 
Jan  (called   ''Velvet")  Breughel,   c. 

1MB 'C.  1042. 
JacobJordaena,  1593-1678. 
Lucas  van  Udeu,  1595-1672. 
Anton  Vandyek,  1699-1641. 
Adriaan  van  Utrecht,  1599-1652. 
Philippe  'le  CImnipaigue,.1602-7i. 
Jan  van  Es.sen,  1600.05. 
Jan  Fyt,  1009-01. 

David  Tonlers  the  younger,  1610-94. 
Jacobus  van  Artois,  1613  to  after  1084. 
Gonzales  Coquea,  1614-84.  ,   ,  . 

Pieter  van  der  Faes  (Sir  Peter  Lely), 
1618-80. 


Abraham  Teniers,  1629-.1. 
Geranl  de  Laii-esse,  1641-1711. 
Jean  Francois  Hillet,  1642-80. 
Cornelia  Huysmans,  1IH8-172,. 
Jan  van  Bloemeii,  H»'M740. 

A  large  numV«r  of  Flenush  painters, 
many  ot  them  pupils  of  Rubens,  Uved 
in  the  J7th  century,  but  they  are  <X 
little  iraportance. 


>  Bee  Lanzl,  Ilkt.  of  Paintittg,  Bulin's 
ed.,  U.  p.  4M<4. 


.  4.  IhUch  School. 
Albert  van  Ouwater,  early  part  of  litb 

centuiT. 
Gerard  of  Haarlem,  end  of  150i  century. 
Ilieronymus  van  Aeken,*c.l4G0-15W. 
Lucas  (Jacobsz)  van  Leydiui,  1494- 16tt. 
Jan  van  Schoreel,  1495-1562. 

Marten  van  Hecmskerck  (M9S-1S7*), 
Coruelis  van  Haarlem  (1562-16S8),  Cor- 
nelis  van  Poelenburg  (15SS-1867)  ud 
Gerald    van    Honthorst  (1592 -?!««», 
though  Dutch  by  hirtli,  ware  tMbla 
imitators  of  Italian  schools. 
Plains  Hals,  1584-1666.. 
'Anoraas  de  Keyser,  C.1595-cl660. 
CorneUs  Janssen,  c.1596-1665. 
Jan  van  Goyen,  1596-1056. 
Jan  de  Heem,  1603-50. 
Albert  Cuyp,  1606-91. 
Rembrandt  van  Rijn  or  EyO,  16Qt-W. 
Emanuel  de  Witte,  1607-92. 
Jan  Wynants,  d.  after  1074. 
Gerhard  Terburg,  1006-81. 
Sa'ioiron  Koning,  1609-68. 
Jan  Both  c.1610-56,  and  his  yonflgar 

brother  Andries  Both; 
Adrian  van  Ostade,  1610-85. 
Ferdinand  Bol,  lGll-61. 
Bart,  van  der  Heist,  1613-"a 
Gerhard  Don,  1613-75, 
Aart  van  der  Neer,  c.1619  to  after  IVJQ. 
Philip  de  Koninck,  1619-89. 
Philip  Wouwerman,  16J9-68. 
Jan  Battista  Weenix,  1621-60. 
Isaac  van  Ostade,  1621-49. 
Gerbrandt  van  der  Bokhout,  1621-74. 
Nicholas  Berchera,  1024-83. 
Paul  Potter,  1025-54. 
Jacob  Ruysdael,  16'25-81.- 
Jan  Steen,  1626-79. 
Karel  Dujardin,  1630-78.  ■ 
Gabriel  Metsu,  1630  to  after  16ff7. 
Ludolf  Backhuizen,  1631-1709. 
Nicholas  Maes,  1632-93. 
Pieter  de  Hooch,  1632-81. 
Jan  van  der  Meer,  1632-95. 
WiUem  Vandevelde  the  younger,  1633- 

1707. 
Jan  Vandez    (iipcUe,  c.1635  to  after 

1680.  .  . 

Frans  van  Miens  the  elder,  •1835-81. 
His  sons  Jan  and'Willem  were  boQi 
painters. 
MeleWor  de  Hondecoeter,  1630-95. 
Jan  Hackacrt,  c.1636-1708.     . 
Jan  van  der  Heyden,  1637-1713. 
Meindert  Hobberaa,  1638-1709. 
Adrian.  Vandevelde,  1639-72. 
Gaspard  Nctscher,  1639-84.  ■ 
Daniel  Mytens  the  youftgor,  (.1644 

<:.1688. 
Jau  WeeniY,  1044-1719. 
Jan  van  Huchtenburg.  1646-1738. 
Van  der  Plaas,  li'Ml7-ir04. 
Wil.  van  Mieris,  1062-1744. 
J,Hn  van  Huysum,  1632-1749. 
Frans  van  Mieris  the  younger,  l«a»- 

1763. 
Jan  van  Os,  174.4-lSOS. 

A  laige  number  of  mostly  thirtl-rate 
painters  existed  in  the  ICth  and  17tli 
centuries. 

5.  Spanish  School. 
Antonio  del  Ilincon,  M46-1500. 
Alonso  Benigucte,  1480-1601. 
Luis  de  Vargas,  1502-68. 
Juan  de  Juancs  (Vicente  Jcones),  150ft- 

79.     Hie  chief  pui'il  \\-as  Borras. 
Luis  de  Morales,  c.  1510-86. 
Alonso  Sanchez  Coelln,  cl612-9a 
Gasper  Becerra,  1620-70. 
Francisco  de  Ribalta,  r.1550-1828. 
Jnande  las  R..ila<,  I.)r,s-I025. 
Fi-ancisco  Pacher.i,  l.',71.I»>',4. 
Francisco   do    Hcnera    the  older,  k 

1570,  and  liis  sou  kuawu  as  Fna- 

Cisco  "'El  Mozo." 
Eugenio  Taxes  r.77.ir.42. 
Juan  de  !;     .  *-8. 

^.Hioa. 
,,  r.«»-io«). 

'C,  I5'.'V-105<J. 


'  4  Not  1420,  as  li  usually  suppoaad. 
Schongaucr  is  mentioned  ny  A.  Ddrar 
as  being  a  young  apprentice  in  1470. 

5  The  Tenleni,  fliough   Flemish   by 
birth    and    education,     beluoti    inam 
I  Closely  to  the  Uuteb  nchooL 


Francisc 

D 

Fl 

E-s|  ■'. 

Al.  '       '  \f^ 

JuA'i  '■:. 

Barl*)loi; 

Juan  do  ^  1. 

Clnu.ltit  (■.<  u...  t.'o..-.^*. 

Krancli^o  Goya,  1746-1838, 

Uarkuo  Fortuny,  1831-74. 


la,  lfll«*i. 
:  lUo,  1IS18-3X, 


444 


SCHOOLS     OF     PAINTING 


6.  Ft-eiuh  School. 
■BenSj  king  of  Anjgu,  1408-60,  learned 

painting  in  Italy,  and  is  said  to  have 

practised  the  art  in  France. 
iJean  Fouquet,  b.  between  1415  and  1420, 

belongs  also  to  the  Italian  school. 
Jean  Clouet  of  Tours,  fl.l480;  his  son 

Jean  Clouetthe  younger,  c.1485-1545, 

and  grandson  Franqois  Clouet  (Janet). 
Jean  de  Gounaont,  fl.l557. 
Jean  Cousin,  C.1500-c.l589. 
ADibvoise  Dubois,  1543-1015. 
Antoine  te  Xain,  and  his  brother  Louis. 

fl.1829-77, 
Simon  Vouet,  1590-1649. 
Franqois  Perrier,  1590-1656. 
Nicolas  Poussin,  1594-1665. 
Jacques  Stella,  1596-1657. 
Jacques  Blanchard,  1000-S8. 
Valentin  deBoullongne,  1600-34.- 
Claude  Gelee  (norrain),  1600-S2. 
■Charles  Antoine  Dufresnoy,  1611-65. 
Pierre  Mignard  (Le  Romain),  1612-05. 
Caspar  Dughet  (called  Poussin  after 

his  brother-in-law  Nicolas),  1B13-75. 
Bustache  le  Sueur,  1616-55. 
S^bastien  Bourdon,  1616-71. 
Charles  le  Brun,  1619-90. 
Jacques  Courtois  (Le  Bourguignon), 

1621-76. 
Jean  Jouvenet,  1644-1717. 
Jean  Baptiste  Santerre,  1651-l"17i 

Inferi )  >  French  .painters  who  worked 
in  the  17tft  and  IStn  centuries  were  the 
BouUongij   (father    and  two    sons), 
Nicolas     *e    LargilliSre,     Hyacinthe 
Rigaud,  Dilcolas  Lancret,  Pierre  Sub- 
leyras,  Carl  van  Loo,  Claude  V^met, 
and  Madame  le  Brun. 
Antoine  Wattcau,  16S4-1721. 
Jean  Baptiste  Pater,  1699-1736. 
Frangois  B<5ucher,  1704-70. 
Jean  Baptiste  Greuze,  1725-1805. 
Jean  Honore  Fragonard,  1732-1806. 
Jacques  Louis  David,  1748-1S25.     He 
carried  to  its  highest  point  the  dull 

Jseudoclassic  style  inaugurated  by 
oseph-Morie  Vien\  1716-1809. 
Many  other  painters  of  fourth-rate 
talent  worked  and  obtained  much  popu- 
larity throughout  the  ISth  century. 
Pierre  Paul  PrudTion,  175S-1823. 
Prangois  Marius  Granet,  1775-1849, 
Jean  Augustin  Ingres,  1780-1867. 
Horace  Vemet,  1789-1863. 
Theodore  (Jiricault,  1791-1824. 
Leopold  Robert,  1794-1835. 
Ary  Scliefler,  1795-1858. 
Paul  Delaroche,  1797-1856. 
Eugiue  Delacrobc,  1799-1863. 
Alexandre  Gabriel  Deeamjis,  1803'60i 
Theodore  Rousseau,  1312-67. 
Jean  Frangois  Millet,  1814-75, 
Henri  Eegnault,  1843-71.  I 


7.  British  School. 

Nicholas   HiUiard,    1547-1619  (minia- 
turist). 
Isa.ao  Oliver,  1555-1617  (miniaturist). 
Geor»e  Jamesone,  1586-1644,  pupil  of 

Rubens  (portraits). 
Peter  Oliver,  1601-60  (mtniaturist). 
Robert  Walker,  d.c.l660  (portraitsl 
Samuel  Cooper,  1609-72  (portraits). 
John  Hoskins,  d.l664  (po;-tiaits). 
William  Dobson,  1610-16,  follower  "of 

Vaudyck. 
Isaac  Fuller,  d.l672  (portraits). 
Henry  Stone,  1616-53  (portraits). 
Robert  Stleater,  1624-80  (portraits): 
Henry  Anderton,   1630  to  after   1665 

(portraits). 
John  BUey,  1646-91  (portraits). 
Sir  Peter  Lely,  came  to  England  in  1641. 
Sir   Godfrey  Kneller,  1646-1723  (por- 
traits). ^^ 
John  GreenhiU,  1649-76  (portraits). 
John  Michael  Wright,  c.l655-170a 
Jonathan  Richardson,  1665.1745  (por- 
traits). 
Charles  Jervas,  1675-1739  (portraits). 
Sir  James  Thomhill,  1676-1734-  (wall 

decoration). 
William  Aikinan,  1682-1731. 
William  Hogarth,  1697-1764  (satirist). 
S.  Scott,  d.l772. 

Francesco   Zuccarelli,    1701-88   (land- 
scape). 
Thomas  Hudson,  1701-79,  Reynolds's 

master. 
James  Wootton,  d.lT65  (animals). 
Three  brothers   Smith  of  Chichester, 

1707-66  (landscape^ 
Francis  Hayman,  1703-66. 
Allan  Ramsay,  1709-84. 
Richard   Wilson,  1713-82,  founder  of 

the  English  school  of  landscape. 
Sir  Joshua   EeynoWs,    1723-92   (por- 
traits). 
George  Stubbs,  1724-1806  (animals). 
Francesco    Bartoloza,   1725-1815  (en- 
graver). 
Francis  Cotes,  1725-70. 
Paul  Sandby,  1725-1809  (water-eolour). 
Thomas    Gainsborough,  1727-88  (por- 
traits and  landscape) 
Nathaniel  Hone,  1730-84  (miniatures). 
Nathaniel  Dance,  second  half  of  18th 

century. 
Joseph  Wright  of  Derby,  1734-97  (m'ght 

scenes). 
George  Romney,  1734-1802  (portraits). 
Johann  Zoffany,  1735-1810. 
John  Singleton  Copley,  1737-1815. 
Benjamin  West,  1738-1820. 
Richard  Cosway,1741J-1821  (miniatures). 
Angelica    Kanfmann,    1741.1807   (por- 
traits). 
Hackert,  1741.1800  (water-colour). 


James  Barry,  .1741-1806. 
Hemy  Fuseli,  1741-1825. 
Maiy  Moser,  1744-1819  (flower  pamter). 
David  Allan   1744-96.. 
James  Northcote,  1746-1831. 
F.  Wheatley,  1747-1801  (water-colour). 
John  Smith,  1750-1812  (wafer-colour). 
Robert  Smirke,  1752-1845. 
John  Webber,  1752-93  (water-colour). 
John  Cozens,  1752-99  (water-colour). 
Thomas  Bewick,   1753-1828  (wood-em- 
graver). 
Sir  George  Beaumont,  1753-1827  (por- 
traits). 
Sir  William  Beechey,  1753-1839. 
Henry  Bone,  1755-1834  (mioiatoies  oo 

enamel). 
Gilbert  Stuart,  1755-1828. 
Thomas  Stothard,  1755-1SS4. 
Sir  Henry   Haebum,   1756-1823   (mr- 

traits).  ^^ 

James  GiUray,  1757.1815  (caricaturist). 
William  Blake,  1757-1 S28  (poetry). 
T.  Rowlandson,  1757-1827  (caricaturist). 
John  Hoppner,  1 759-1310, 
John  Opie,  1761-1807. 
Edward  Bird,  1762-1819. 
Samuel  Woodforde,  1763-18H 
George  Morland,  1764-1804  (animals). 
N.  Pococke,  1765-1821. 
John  (Old)  Crome,  1769-1821,  founder 

of  the  Norwich  school  of  landscape 
Sir  Thomas  Lawrence,  1769-1830  (por- 
traits). 
H.  Howard,  1769-1847. 
James  Ward,  1769-1859  (landscapeV 
Thomas  Phillips,  1770-184.5. 
Sir  Martin  Shec,  1770-1850. 
(Seorce  Clint,  1770-1854. 
H.  W.  Williams,  1773-1829  (classical 

buildingsX 
Henry  Thomson,  1773-1843. 
Thomas  Girtin,  1773-1S02  (landscape). 
Thomas  Hargreaves,  1775-1846  (minia- 
tures). 
Joseph  Mallord  William  Turner,  1775- 

1851. 
John  Constable,  1776-1837  (landscape). 
John  Varley,  1777-1842  (water-colour). 
John  James  Chalon,  1777-1854  (land. 

scape). 
John    CHiristian    Schetky,    1778-1874 

(marine). 
John  Jackson,  1778-1831  (landscape). 
William     Payne,     fl.l7S6-90    (water- 
colour). 
John  ThTDmson,  1778-1840. 
James  Laurent  Agasse  cf  Geneva,  c. 

1779-1S46. 
Sir  Augu.'itus  Callcott,  1779-1844. 
Andrew  Wilson,  1780-1848. 
Alfred  Chalon,  1780-lS60(wat«r-<!OlourX 
J.  8.  Cotman,  1760-1843  (water-colour)i 
John  Simpson,  1782-1847. 
Sir  William  Allan,  1782-1850(portraits). 


C.  Wild,  1782-1835  (water-colour).- 
Thomas  Uwins,  1782-1857. 
De  Wint,  1783-1849  (water-colour). 
Samuel  Prout,  1783-1825  (water-coloorj. 
Sir  David  WiUde,  17851841.  . 

.W.  Hilton,  1786-1839. 
B.  R.  Haydon, 1786-1846. 
WiU.  Mulready,  I7S6-1863. 
A.  Fraser,  1786-1865. 
<»eorge  Jones,  1786-1869. 
William  Etty,  1787-1849. 
Copley  Welding,  1787-1855  (landscape). 
Sir  J.  Watson  Gordon,'1788-lS64. 
W.  Collins,  1788-1847. 
John    Martin,   1788-1854  (imaginativ* 

landscape). 
Sir  John  Gordon,  1790-1865. 
H.  P.  Briggs,  1792-1844. 
John  Lincel.  b  1792. 
Francis  Dauby,  1793-1861. 
David  Cox  (senior),  1793-1858  (water 

Coloui'), 

Sir  Charles  Eastlake,  1793-1865. 

G.  S.  Newton,  1794-1835. 

C.  R.  Leslie,  1794-1859. 

J.  P.  Herring,  1795-1865. 

Dand  Roberts,  1796-1864  (architectup* 

and  landscape). 
Clarkson    Stanlield,    1798-1867   (land- 
scape). 
James  Holland,  1800-70. 
(Jeorge    Cattermole,    1800-68    (water. 

colour). 
William  Simson,  18(10-47  (water-colour! 
E.  P.  Bonington,  1801-28. 
Sir  Edwin  Landseer,  1802-73  (animals). 
George-Lance,  1802-64  (still  life). 
Sir  Francis  Grant,  1803-78. 
Horatio    Macculloch,    1805-S7    (land- 
scape). 
Sir  Daniel  Maene«,  1806-82. 
William  Dyce,  1806-64. 
Sir  George  Harvev,  1806-76. 
John   Fred.  Lcwia,  180ft-76  (Oriental 

scenes). 
Tljomas  Dilncan,  lSCr-45. 
Joseph  Nash,  1807-78  (architecture). 
Aaron  Penley,  1807-70  (water-colour). 
Thomas  Creswick,  1811-69  (landscape). 
Edw.  WiU.  Cooke,  1811-80  (marine) 
Daniel  Maclise,  1811-70. 
Will.   James  Mnller,   1812-46  (water- 
colour), 
William  Brodle,  1815-81. 
James  Drummond,  1816-77. 
A.  L.  Ega,  ISlti-eS. 
John  Phillip,  1817  67. 
Thos.  Seddon,  182I-56(Pre-Baphaelite), 
Samuel  Bough,  1822-78  (landscape). 
Thos.     Leeson     Eowbothim,     1823-75 

(water-colour) 
Dante  Gabriel  Eoasettl,  1328-82  (Pre- 
Raphaelite). 
John   Samuel  Eaven,   1829-77  (land- 
scape). 


tTatic 
Lend 


The  following  list  gives  some  indication  of  the  manner 
In  which  the  existing  pictures  of  various  schools  are  distri- 
buted among  the  chief  galleries  of  Europe. 
l  The  National  Gallery,  London,  contains  for  its  size  a  very  large 
,  number  of  highly  important  pictures  of  the  Italian  schools,  many 
-.  of  them  signed  and  dated  ;  in  fact,  as  a  representative  collection, 
embracing  as  it  does  well-chosen  specimens  of  every  school  and  in- 
cluding many  paintings,  of  very  rare  masters,  it  is  hardly  surpassed 
by  any  gallery  in  .the  world.  Though  weak  in  paintings  of  Giotto 
and  his  school,  it  possesses  many  early  Sienese  pictures  of  great 
interest  and  exceptional  importance  (see  fig.  1),  and  a  collection 
unrivalled  out  of  Italy  of  the  works  of  the  best  Florentine  painters 
of  the  15th  century,  as  Paolo  UcceUo,  Lippo  Lippi,  Pollaiuolo, 
Signorelli,  BotticeUj,  .Lorenzo  di  (Jredi,  and  others  (see  fig.  6). 
Of  the  very  few  existing  easel  pictures  by  PisaneUo'  the  National 
Gallery  contains  one  (signed),  St  George  and  St  AnthcJny.  The 
portrait  by  Andrea  del  Sarto  is  one  of  his  finest  works,— full  ci  life 
*nd  expression  and  rich  in  tone.     In  addition  to  a  large  painting 

on  canvas  of  the  school  of  Michelangelo — Leda  and  the  Swan  - the 

National  Gallery  possesses  two  unfinished  pictures,  a  Madonna  and 
Angels  and  an  Entombment  of  Christ,  both  of  which,  in  spite  of 
many  adverse  criticisms,  appear  to  be  genuine  works  of  Michel, 
angelo,  the  former  in  his  early,  the  latter  in  his  later  manner— a 
very  remarkable  possession  for  one  gallery,  seeing  that  the  only 
other  genuine  easel  painting  by  him  is  the  circular  panel  of  the 
Madonna  in  the  tribune  of  the  Ufiizi  (Florence).  No  four  pictures 
couM  better  represent  Raphael's  highly  varied  manners  than  the 
mmiaftn-e  Knight's  Dream,  the  Ansidei  Madonna,  the  St  Catherine, 
and  the  Garvagh  Madonna,  whic?»  in  the  dates  of  their  execution 

\  Some  sm^ll  panels  attributed  to  Pisanello  in  Rome  and  elsewhere  are  of 
very  doubtful  genuineness. 

>  Not  exhibited ;  it  is  probably  a  pupil's  copy  of  the  martle  group-ot  the 
«B»  subject  designed  bjr  Michelangelo, 


PlCTUBE  GaLLEEIES  OP  ElTBOPE. 


cover  nearly  the  whole  of  his  shon  working  life.     In  the  Venetian 
school  the  National  Gallery  is  almost  uniivaUed :  it  contains  a 
large  number  of  fine  examples  of  Crivelli  (see  fig.  14),— Venice  not 
possessmg  one  ;  two  rare  panels  by  Marziale,  loth  signed  and  dated 
(1500  and  1507);   the  finest  specimens  of  Giovanni  BeUinl  (see 
trg.  15)  and  his  school  which  exist  out  of  Venice  ;  one  of  Titian's 
noblest  works,— the  Ariadne  and  Bacchus,  finished  in  1523  for  tha 
duke  of  Ferrara,  together  with  two  other  fine  pictures  of  earK«r 
date  ;  and  the  masterpiece  of  Sebastiano  del  Piombo,  his  Raising  of. 
Lazarus,  partly  designed  by  Michelangelo.     The  smaller  schoofi  of 
terrara  and  Cremona  are  weU  represented  by  examples  of  nearly 
aU  their  chief  painters.    Of  the  Umbrian  school  the  gaUerv  pos- 
sesses two  or  rather  three  important,  though  much  in.jiS-ed,  panels 
by  Piero  deUa  Franceses  (see  fig.  10),  a  fine  picture  by  Fiorenzo  di 
Lorenzo,  as  weU  as  one  of  Perugino's  best  works,  the  triptvch  from 
the  Certosa  near  Pavia  (see  fig.  12),  and  other  paintings' by  him. 
(:orreggio  is  represented  by  three  fine  pictures,  classical  and  re- 
ligious, specimens  of  unusual  excellence  (see   fi<r    21)       Of  the 
Bolognese  school  there  are  three  works  by  FraScia,  (Jne  si<Tied 
(see  fig  19),  and  specimens  of  the  painters  of  the  later  School  — 
Annibale  Caracci,  Guido  (see  fig.  20),  and  others.     Paul  Veronese's 
Dream  of  St  Helena  and  the   gioup  of  portraits  of  the  Pisani 
Jamily,  arranged  as  the  scene  of  the  family  of  Darius  before  Alex- 
ander,  are  among  his  finest  works.     The  three  pictures  by  Lotto 
ai-e  excellent  examples  of  his  supreme  talents  in  portraiture  :  and 
no  collection  outside  Brescia  and  Bergamo  is  so  rich  in  the  noble 
Twrtrait  pictures  of  Moretto  and  his  pupil  Moroni     Leonardo  da 
Vmci  (the  rarest  of  the  great  masters)  is  represented  by  a  very 
beautiful  picture  ^  which  appears  to  have  been  partly  finished  by 
3  In  addition  to  the  strong  internal  evidence  In  favour  of  this  picture  beine 
at  least  in  ^  a  genuine  work  of  Da  Vinci,  it  is  expresslv  mentioned  as  beine 
by  him  m  the  Tratlaio  delta  Fittura  (U.  17  and  iv.  1),  written  by  the  Milane^ 
Lomazzo  before  1584.    TJie  painting  was  then  in  the  church  of  S.  Francesco  nt 
Milan,  where  it  remained  till  1796.  ••"'.ra™  h> 


SCHOOLS      OF     PAINTING 


445 


apnpn ;  with  slight  alterations  it  is  the  same  in  design  as  the 
Vierge  aux  Rochere  in  the  Louvi-e  (see  fig.  23).  Leonardo's  use 
of  almost  mounchromatic  colouring  dillers  strongly  from  tlie  style 
of  ids  pufils  and  imitators  Luini,  ■  Andrea  da  Solario  (sea  fig.  24),_. 
and  Bultraflio,  all  of  whom  are  represented  by  cxuL-llcnt  and' 
characteristic  examples.  Of  the  earlier  Milanese  school  the  gal- 
lery contains  two  magnificent  examples  by  Ambrogio  Borgognona, 
— the  Marriage  of  St  Catherine  especially  being  a  worlc  of  the 
liighest  importance  and  beauty  (see  fig.  22).  The  gallery  possesses 
tare  examples  of  the  early  German  masters  (see  lig.  25,  by  William 
of  Cologne),  though  it  is  weak  in  the  works  of  the  later  Germans, 
as  Albert  Diirer,  who  is  represented  only  by  one  portrait,  which  is 
mgned  (see  fig.  26),  and  Hans  yolbcin  the  youuger,  who  is  totally 
absent  except  for  the  noble  portrait  lent  by  the  duke  of  Norfolk.' 
'The  colU'ttion  is,  ho\rever,  unusually  rich  in  fine  examples  of  early 
Flemish  art, — of  the  Van  Eycks  and  their  school  (see  Eg.  28).  The 
portrait  of  Jean  ArnoUini  and  bis  wife  (signed  and  dated)  is  one  Of 
Jan  van  Eyck's  noblest  works  on  a  stuall  scale, — only  surpassed, 
perhaps,  by  the  Madonna  and  Worshipper  in  the  Louvre.  The  En- 
tombment of  Christ  by  Van  der  Weydenthe  elder  (see  fig.  29),  the 
three  or  more  examples  of  Memling,  the  Exhumation  of  St  Hubert 
by  Dierick  Bouts,  the  Reading  Magdalene  by  Van  der  Weyden  the 
younger  (see  fig.  30),  and  the  Saints  and  Donor  by  Gheerardt  David 
are  aU  unrivalled  examples  of  these  great  painters.  The  dtlicate 
little  panel  of  the  Maciouna  by  Margaret  van  Eyck  is  a  work  of 
nncb  interest.  The'  later  Flemish  and  Dutch  schools  are  etjually 
well  represented,  especially  by  a  number  of  noble  portraits  by  Rem- 
ttandt  (see  fig.  33),  Rubens,  and  Vandyck  ;  a  portrait  of  an  old 
Woman,  the  "  Chapeau  de  Foil,"  and  the  portrait  of  Van  der  Geest 
(wioiigly  called  Gevartius)  are  among  the  finest  works  of  these  three 
masters  (see  figs.  31  and  32).  Hobbema,  Ruysdael,  Do  Hooge, 
Wouwerman,  and  others  of  their  school  are  very  richly  Tcpresfnted 
(see  figs.  34  and  35).  Of  the  Spanish  school  the  National  Gallery 
contains  an  excellent  portrait  head  of  Philip  IV.  (see  fig.  37)  by 
Velazquez,  a  full-length  of  the  same  king,  not  wholly  by  his  hand, 
and  also  two  pictures  of  sacred  subjects  and  a  curious  boai'-hn'nting 
scene  of  mucn  interest,  but  of  inferior  beauty.  The  examples  of 
Murillo,  like  most  out  of  Seville,  are  but  third-rate  specimens  of 
his  pqw'er  The  Kneeling  Friar  as  an  example  of  Zurbarau's  work 
is  unrivalled  cither  in  Spain  or  out  of  it  (see  fig.  36).     Among  the 

£icture3  of  the  French  school  a  number  of  fine  landscapes  by  Claude 
lOrrain  and  a  very  masterly  Bacchanalian  Scene  by  Nicolas  Poussin 
are  the  most  notable  (see  figs.  38  and  39).  The  English  school  is 
hardly  represented  in  a  manner  worthy  of  the  chief  national  collec- 
tion, but  it  is  supplemented  by  a  large  number  of  fine  paintings  in 
the  South  Kensington  Museum..  The  chief  treasures  in  this  branch 
possessed  by  the  National  Gallery  are  Hogarth's  series  of  "  Marriage 
a  la  Mode,"  some  noble  portraits  by  Reynolds  and  Gainsborough, 
and  an  unrivalled  collection  of  Turner's  works  of  all  periods  (see 
figs.  40,  41,  and  43). 
bamplon  The  royal  gallery  at  Hampton  Court  (London),  among  a  large 
PoorL  number  of  inferior  paintings,  contains  some  of  gi-eat  value,  especially 
the  Baptism  of  Christ,  an  early  work  of  Francia,  a  most  magnificent 
portrait  of  Andrea  Odoni  by  Lor.  Lotto,  both  signed,  and  a  portrait 
of  a  youth  attributed  to  Raphael.  The  chief  treasure  of  the  palace 
is  the  grand  series  of  decorative  paintings  (nine  in  number)  execut»d 
in  tempera  on  canvas  by  Andrea  Mantegna  in  1485-92  for  the  duke 
of  Mantua,  but  much  injured  by  repainting.  The  equally  celebrated 
cartoons  designed  by  Raphael  for  tapestry  to  decorate  the  Sistine 
Chapel  are  now  moved  to  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  Tlio 
gallery  also  possesses  several  fine  examples  of  Tintoretto,  many 

food  Flemish  and  Dutch  pictures,  some  small  but  fine  examples  of 
lolbein  and  his  school,  and  a  number  of  historically  interesting 
works  by  English  painters  of  the  17th  century.     The  portrait  of 
a  Jewish  Rabbi  by  Rembrandt  is  one  of  his  finest  works, — a  perfect 
Uastcrpiece  of  portraiture. 
tihtrr  The  Dulwich  gallery  is  especially  rich  in  works  of  the  Dutch 

Bnglish  school,  and  contains  some  noble  portraits  by  Gainsborough  and 
jallanes.  Reynolds,  as  well  as  an  interesting  early  work  by  Raphael, — tho 
prcddla  with  seven  small  subjects  painted  in  1504  as  part  of  the 
larij'c  altarpicce  for  the  monastery  of  St  Anthony  in  Perugia  ;  tho 
mam  part  of  this  largo  retable,  which  is  the  property  of  tho  heirs 
of  the  duke  of  Ripalda,  has  been  for  fiiany  years  deposited  but  not 
exhibited  in  tho  National  Gallery.  The  National  Portrait  Gallery* 
•t  Kensington  contains  many  paintings  of  difTtrcnt'schools  which 
are  valuable  both  as  works  of  art  and  from  their  interest  as  portraits. 
Tlic  Royal  Academy  has  placed  in  tho  attics  of  I3urlington  House 
Its  valuable  collection  of  diploma  pictures,  and  in  an  adjoining 
room  a  few  treasures  of  earlier  art,  among  them  a  largo  cartoon 
of  the  JIadonna  and  St  Anne  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci, — similar  iu 
♦ubject  to,  but  different  in  design  from,  an  unfinishccl  picture  by 
him  in  the  Louvre,  and  a  cojiy  of  hi"  Ccnacolo  at  Milan  by  Ins 
lupil  Marco  d'Oggiono,  of  priceless  value  now  that  tho  original 
on  utter  wreck.     In  tho  same  room  is  a  very  bcautifiil  but  uu- 

.  1  Engluid  giDcrall;  fa,  howcrer,  v«ry  ricli  Iu  the  worki  of  Bolbttn,— chiefly 
BortralU. 
*  Koir  ttioportrOl'  noTtd  to  Belhnal  Orecn. 


r 


finished  pied  of  sculptare  by  Michelangelo,  a  circnkr-xelicf  of  tho 

Madonna. 

England  is  especially  rich  in  collections  of  drawings  by  the  old 
masters.  The  chief  are  those  in  the  British  Museum,  m  the.Tavlor 
Buildings  at  0.\ford,  and  iu  the  possession  of  the  Queen  and  of  Mr 
Malcolm  of  Poltalloch.  Among  the  collection  in  Windsor  Castls 
are  eighty-seven  portraits  in  rod  chalk  by  Holbein,  all  of  wwideiful 
beauty.  The  celebrated  "  Liber  Veritatis,"  a  collection  of  original 
drawings  by  Claude  Lorrain,  is  in  the  possession  of  the  duke  of 
Devonshire  at  Chatswoith.  In  Buckingliam  Palace  is  a  fine  collec- 
tion of  paintings  of  the  Flemish  and  I)ut*;h  schools.  An  almost 
incredibly  large  number  of  fine  paintings  of  all  schools  are  scattered 
throughout  the  private  galleries  of  Britain  ;  an  acconnt  of  the  chief 
of  these  is  given  by  Dr  Waagcn,  Treasures  of  Art  in  Britain,  London, 
1854.  But  many  of  the  collections  described  by  Dr  Waagen  havo 
since  been  moved  or  dispersed;  the  Peel  and  Wynn  Ellis  pictures  have 
been  purchased  by  the  National  Gallery,  which  has  also  acquired 
important  pictures  from  tho  sales  of  the  Eastlake,  Barker,  Novar, 
Hamilton,  and  Blenheim  collections.  The  laigest  private  galleries 
which  still  exist  in  England  arc  those  of  the  Juke  of  Westminster 
(Grosvenor  House),  the  duke  of  Sutherland  (Stafford  House),  •  tho 
earl  of  Ellesmere  (ijridgewater  House),  aud  the  marquis  of  Exeter 
(Burghley  House).  The  public  gallery  at  Liverpool  contains  some 
very  impottant  Italian  pictnres,  as  does  also  the  grOTring  collection 
in  Dublin.  The  Edinburgh  National  Galleiy  possesses  a  few  speci- 
mens of  early  masters,  among  them  part  of  the  great  altarpiece  by 
the  unknown  "  Master  of  Liesbom,"  apictnre  of  St  Hubert  by  the 
"Master  of  Lyversberg;"  some  fine  Dutch  pictures,  and  Gains- 
borough's masterpiece,  tlie  portrait  of  the  Hon.  JIrs  Graham,  to- 
gether vrilh  many,  examples  of  the  excellent  perti-aits  by  Da\'id 
Allan  and  Sir  Henry  Raeburn.  In  the  palace  of  Holyiood  is  pre- 
served a  very  beautiful  altarpiece,  with  portraits  of  James  III.  and 
his  queen  and  other  figures.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  painted 
about  1480  by  Van  der  Goes  of  the  school  of  the  Van  Eycks.  Eng- 
land is  especially  rich  in  the  finest  examples  of  Nicolas  Poussin 
and  Claude  Lorrain ;  the  paintings  by  the  latter  in  Grosvenor  House, 
the  National  Gallery,  and  elsewhere  in  the  country  are  unrivalled 
by  those  of  any  foreign  gallery. 

The  Louvre  is  rich  in  works  of  nearly  all  schools,  and  especially  Loutw, 
in  fine  examples  of  Signorelli,  Mantegna,  Raphael,  Titian,  Paul 
Veronese,  Correggio,  and  the  later  Bolognese  painters.  Its  chief 
glory  is  the  possession  of  some  of  the  very  rare  works  of  DaVinci,^ 
La  Vierge  aux  Rochers,  the  Virgin  and  St  Anne,  and  the  wonder- 
ful portraits  of  Mona  Lisa  and  La  belle  Ferronni6re.  It  is  chiefly 
weak  in  examples  of  the  earlier  Venetian  painters,  not  possessing 
a  single  genuine  work  by  Giovanni  Bellini.  It  contains  some  very 
beautiful  frescos  by  Botticelli  and  by  Luini,  and  the  finest  work 
of  Murillo  which  exists  out  of  Seville,— the  Virgin  in  Glory.  The 
later  Flemish  and  Dutch  schools  are  well  represented  :  the  small 
painting  of  the  Virgin  with  a  kneeling  Worshipper  by  Jan  van 
Eyck  ia  one  of  the  loveliest  pictures  in  tho  world  ;  but  the  Louvre 
is  othemHse  deficient  in  paintings  of  his  school.  The  portraits  by 
Holbein,  Rubens,  and  Vandyck  are  of  great  importance.  In  the 
French  school  the  Lou\Te  is  of  course  unrivalled  :  the  paintings  of 
Nicolas  Poussin  and  Claude  Lorrain  are  the  best  among  them  ;  but 
the  general  average  of  merit  is  very  low.  The  Louvre  also  possesso* 
a  mngnificent  collection  of  drawings  by  the  old  masters. 

The  Berlin  gallery,  now  rapidly  being  added  to,  contains  a  large 
number  of  very  important  Italian  pictures  ;■  among  them  l«  Big- 
norelli's  finest  easel  picture  (see  fig.  8), — a  classical  scene  with  Pm 
and  other  nude  figures  playing  on  pipes,  a  masterpiece  of  powerful 
drawing.  Tho  gallery  is  more  especially  rich  in  works  of  the 
German,  Flemish,  and  iDutcb  schools,  including  six  panels  from  the 
large  altarpiece  of  the  Adoration  of  the  Lamb  at  Ghent  bj;  Hubert 
and  Jan  van  Eyck.  'The  Dresden  gallery  is  mainly  rich  in  paint- 
ings of  the  Flemish  and  Dutch  schools,  but  also  contains  some  Sn« 
'Italian  jiictuies.  Raphael's  Madonna  di  San  Sisto  is  the  chief  j^lorj 
of  the  collection,  together  with  many  fmo  examples  of  Giorgione, 
Palma  Vccchio,  Titian,  Paul  A'eronese,  and  Corregpio,  and  a  nunil>ei 
of  works  of  the  later  Bolognese  school.  The  gallery  is  especially 
remarkable  for  its  genuine  examples  of  that  very  rare  mastei 
Giorgione.  The  Pinakothek  at  Munich  possessM  noine  ^ood  Italio 
pictures,  among  them  four  by  Raphael  and  a  number  of  fine  Titiana 
It  contains  a  large  collection  of  German,  Dutch,  and  Flemish  paint 
ings,  with  a  number  of  fine  portraits  by  Albert  Diirer  and  Yandvck. 
It  is  especially  rich  in  works  of . Lucas  Cranach  the  elder,  of  lletn- 
ling,  of  Roger  van  tier  Weydon,  of  Wohlgenuith,  and  of  Rembrandt.' 
The  Cassel  gallery  is  mainly  rich  in  Flemish  and  Dutch  piuntinc*. 


paintings  of  great  interest  ta  <be  student  of  early  German  art 
"■      lieived        '■'  ' .--'.--•-•-  .-  - 


Th. 


rich  in  workt 


Tho  Small  Wallraf-Richartz  Museum  at  Cologne  contains  a  fen 

"■Ty 
lere  tialhry  at  Vienna  is  exceptionally  ; 
of  tho  Venetian  school,  especially  of  I'alma  Vccchio,  Titian,  taJ 
Paul  Veronese.  Holbein,  Rubens,  VaiAlyck,  and  other  mtater*  n 
tho.  Flem:<!h  and  Dutch  schools  are  richly  renreeented.  Vienn 
also  contains  some  large  private  galleries,  chfelly  rich  in  Tltminl 

>  A  mnit  valualilc  mtiloKue  of  t)ir  Uunlcb  i>ktarts,  wtH  Uliutntad  wHk 
plioiu^raphH,  Lfts  rvcantly  ttcii  publlahfU. 


446 


SCHOOLS      OF     PAINTING 


khd  Dutcli  pichires,  and  a  magnificent  collection  of  di-awings  by 
»Id  masters.  The  Budapest  gallery  (Esztevhazy  collection)  contains 
luany  fine  Venetian  and  some  Florentine  pictiues,  with  a  large 
tumber  of  Flemish  and  Dutch  works. 

The  Gallery  of  the  Hermitage  at  St  Petersburg  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  important  in  Europe  ;  though  weak  in  pictures  of 
the  early  Italian  schools,  it  contains  fine  examples  of  Luini,  Raphael, 
Titian,  Paul  Veronese,  and  the  Bolognesc  school,  and  is  extraordi- 
narily rich  in  paintings  by  Mnrillo,  Rembrandt,  Rubens,  ^'andyck, 
and  the  later  Flemish  and  Dutch  schools  generally. 

The  many  galleries  of  Belgium  and  Holland  are  mostly  rich  in 
the  works  of  local  schools.  Antwerp  possesses  the  masterpieces  of 
Rubens  and  many  fine  examples  of  his  pupil  Vandyck.  The  church 
of  St  Bavon  at  Ghent  contains  the  masterpiece  of  the  Van  Eycks, 
the  main  part  of  a  large  altarpiece  in  many  panels  with  the  Adora- 
tion of  the  Lamb  as  the  central  subject ;  this  is  only  rivalled  in 
point  of  size  and  beauty  by  the  Fountain  of  Salvation  painted  by 
Jan  van  Eyck  about  1432,  and  now  in  the  museum  of  the  Santis- 
Binia  Trinidad  at  Madrid.  Among  the  many  fine  Flemish  and 
Dutch  pictures  in  the  museum  at  The  Hague  is  a  half-length  of 
»ii  un-known  lady  by  Holbeiin,  which  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
portraits  in  the  world  (see  fig.  27). 

The  gallery  of  Madrid  is  in  some  respects  imriTalled  both  from 
its  widely  representative  character— at  least  as  regards  the  later 
schools — and  from  the  number  of  exceptional  masterpieces  which 
it  contains  ;  it  possesses,  however,  very  few  specimens  of  Italian 
art  earlier  than  1500.  In  the  works  of  "the  later  Italian  masters  it 
is  very  rich,  possessing  four  important  works  by  Raphael, — the 
Madonna  called  La  Perla  (once  at  Hampton  Court  in  the  collection 
of  Charles  I. ),  the  A'irgin  of  the  Fish,  the  Virgin  of  the  Rose,  and 
Christ  on  His  way  to  Calvary  {Lo  Spasimo).  No  other  galleiy  con- 
tains so  many  fine  specimens  of  Titian's  paintings ;  it  includes  a 
scene  of  Bacchus  at  Naxos,  with  a  nude  sleeping  figure  of  Aria.dne 
in  the  foreground,  the  companion  to  the  magnificent  Ariadne  in 
the  English  National  Gallery,  but  surpassing  it  in  beauty  and  per- 
fection of  preservation.  The  third  picture  of  the  trio  painted  for 
the  duke  of  Ferrara  is  also  at  Madrid  ;  it  is  known  as  the  Sacrifice 
to  Fecundity,  and  consists  of  a  large  group  of  nude  infants  sporting 
or  sleeping,  a  perfect  miracle  for  its  wealth  of  colour  and  mirivalled 
flesh  painting.  In  addition  to  these  wonderful  pictures  there  are 
some  splendid  portraits  by  Titian,  and  many  of  his  later  works, 
showing  a  sad  decadence  in  his  old  age.  The  gallery  also  contains 
many  important  works  of  Paul  Veronese  and  others  of  the  Venerian 
school,  and  a  very  fine  collection  of  Flemish  and  Dutch  pictures, 
including  a  number  of  noble  portraits  by  Antonio  Moro,  Rubens, 
and  Vandyck,  together  with  some  of  Claude  Lorrain's  best  land- 
scapes. In  the  Spanish  schools  the  Madrid  gallery  is  unrivalled  ; 
it  contains  a  number  of  poor  but  interesting  paintings  by  Juan  de 
Juanes,  the  best  collection  of  the  works  of  Ribera  (Spagnoletto),  and 
the  chief  masterpieces  of  Velazquez.  It  is  in  Madrid  alone  that  the 
greatness  of  Velazquez  can  be  fully  realized,  just  as  the  marvellous 
talents  of'Murillo  are  apparent  only  in  Seville.  Among  the  many 
wonderful  paintings  by  Velazquez  in  this  gallery  the  chief  are  the 
Crucifixion,  the  Tapestry  Weavere  [Las  Eilanderas),  the  Surrender 
of  Breda  {Las  Latizas),  the  Drinking  Peasants  {Los  Borradios),  the 
portTait  group  known  as  Las  Meniiias,  and  many  magnificent  por- 
traits. The  galler)-  also  contains  a  number  of  Zurbaran's  works, 
aaid  many  by  Murillo,  none  of  which  are  among  his  finest  paintings. 
The  best  picture  by  MuriUo  at  Madrid  is  the  scene  of  St  Elizabeth 
of  Hungary  tending  the  Lepers,  preserved  in  the  Academia  de  San 
Fernando.  Seville  alone  contains  the  real  masterpieces  of  Muiillo, 
a  very  unequal  painter,  who  produced  a  lar^e  number  of  third-i-ate 
works,  such  as  are  to  be  seen  in  many  of  the  chief  galleries  of  Europe, 
but  who  at  his  best  deserves  to  rank  with  the  greatest  painters  of 
the  world.  It  is  impossible  to  describe  the  wonderful  rich  tone, 
the  intense  pathos,  and  the  touching  religious  feelin"  of  such 
pictures  as  the  Crucified  Christ  embracing  St  Francis,  or  the  appari- 
tion of  the  Infant  Saviour  to  St  Anthony  of  Padua,  in  the  Se\^lle 
gallery,  and  the  larger  composition  of  the  latter  scene  in  the 
cithedral.  Other  very  noble  works  by  Murillo  exist  in  the  monastic 
•hurch  of  La  Caridad.  The  Seville  gallery  also  contains  several  of 
Zurbaran's  chief  pictures,  and  some  by  other  painters  of  the  Spanish 
school.  The  other  chief  galler^'  of  Spain,  that  at  Valencia,  contains 
a  nunrvber  •(  weak  but  historically  interesting  pictures  of  early 
Siranish  artists, — feeble  imitations  of  the  style  of  Francia  and  other 
Italian  painters.  It  possesses  also  many  pictures  by  Ribalta  and 
other  later  and  unimportant  masters  of  the  Valenciau  school. 

The  Vatican  Gallery,  though  not  large,  contains  a  very  large  pro- 
portion of  important  pictures,  such  as  a  portrait  group  in  fresco 
by  Melozzo  da  Forli,  tne  unfinished  monocnromatic  paiiiting  of  St 
Jei-ome  by  Da  Vinci,  the  finest  of  Raphael's  early  works, — the 
Coronation  of  ttie  Virgin,  the  Madonna  di  Foligno,  and  the  Trans- 
figuration. The  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  by  Pinturicchio  is  one  of 
hia  best  panel  pictures,  and  a  portrait  of  a  Doge  by  Titian  a  master- 
piece of  portraiture.  The  Last  Communion  of  St  Jerome  by  Do- 
mcnichino  is  his  finest  work.  The  chapel  of  San  Lorenzo,  painted 
ty  Fra  Angelico  (see  FiESOLE),  the  Appartamenti  Borgia  by  Pintu- 


ricchio, the  slanze  by  Raphael,  and  the  Sistinc  Chapel  by  Michel. 
angelo  are  described  in  the  articles  on  tliese  paintei-s.  The  Capitol 
contains  but  few  works  of  much  merit ;  the  chief  aje  a  very  beauti- 
ful series  of  frescos  of  Apollo  and  the  Muses  in  separate  panels,  life- 
size,  by  some  painter  of  the  school  of  Perugino,  probably  Lo  Spagna  ; 
they  are  remarkable  for  grace  of  drawing  and  extreme  delicacy  of 
colour.  The  Rape  of  Europa,  by  Paul  Veronese,  is  a  fine  replica  of 
that  in  the  doge's  palace  at  \'euicc.  The  gallei^  also  contains  some 
of  the  chief  works  of  Guercino  and  Giiido  and  a  verj'  noble  portrait 
by  Velazquez.  The  Borghese  Gallery  is  perhajM  the  most  imjiortaut 
private  collection  in  the  world.     It  is  rich  in  Florentine  pictures  ^ 

of  the  15th  century,  and  possesses  the  celebrated  Entombuicnt  by 
Raphael,  A  small  panel  of  St  Stephen  by  Francia  (signed)  is  of 
imusual  beauty  and  interest, — very  highly  finished  and  niagnificeat 
in  colour  ;  it  seems  to  show  the  influence  of  Jau  van  Eyck  ;  it  is 
one  of  Francia's  earliest  works,  and  is  very  far  superior  to  those  of 
his  later  style.  The  great  glory  of  the  gallery  is  the  (so-caUed) 
Sacred  and  Profane  Love  by  Xitian  (see  fig.  16),  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  pictures  ill  the  world  both  for  design  and  colour,  and  a 
marvel  for  its  rich  wann  rendering  of  flesh  ;  it  appears  to  he  a 
portrait  of  the  same  lady  repeated  twice, — nude  and  drapciL  It 
belongs  to  a  somewhat  earlier  period  than  the  bacchanal  trio  in 
Madrid  and  London.  This  galleiy  contains  also  oue  of  Vandyck'a 
finest  portraits,  that  of  Catherine  de'  Jledici,  and  other  excellent 
portraits  of  the  Venetian  school.  The  Danae  by  Correggio  is  an 
interesting  example,  very  weak  in  drawing,  but  remarkable  for  the 
fine  pearly  tones  of  the  flesh.  The  Corsini  Gallery,  now  the  property 
of  the  municipality  of  Rome,  contains  some  good  panels  by  Fra 
AngcUco,  but  is  mainly  strong  only  in  the  later  ISologncse  paintings. 
It  also  possesses  a  rich  collection  of  early  Italian  engi-a^"iiigs.  Tho 
Doria  Gallery  is  large,  but  contains  only  a  small  pro]>ortioii  of  valu- 
able pictures.  Some  paiutings  by  Niccolo  Rondinelli  are  of  much 
interest ;  they  show  him  to  have  been  an  able  pupil  and  close 
imitator  of  Giov.Tnni  Bellini,  to  whom  many  paintings  in  various 
galleries  are  attributed  which  are  really  the  work  of  pupils.  A 
beautiful  Madonna  in  the  Doria  Palace  by  Rondinelli  has  a  carlcUino 
inscribed  with  Bellini's  name.  The  chief  treasures  of  this  collection 
are  the  portraits  of  two  Venetians  sttribnted  to  Raphael,  and  that 
of  Pope  Innocent  X.  by  Velazi]nez, — the  latter  a  marvel  of  dashing 
and  almost  too  skilful  execution.  There  is  also  a  fine  portrait  of 
Andrea  Doria  by  Sebastiano  del  Piombo,  well  modelled,  but  rather 
wanting  in  colour.  The  Sciarra-Colonna  Palace  contains  a  few  good 
pichires,  among  them  a  very  fine  portrait  of  a  violin-player  by 
Raphael,  and  a  graceful  painting  of  Modesty  and  Vanity  by  Luini, 
attributed  to  Da  Vinci,  as  is  often  the  case  with  Lnini's  pictures. 
The  Colonna,  Barberini,  and  other  private  galleries  of  Rome  contain 
but  little  that  is  noteworthy.  The  church  of  S.  JIaria  sopra  Jlinerva 
contains  some  splendid  frescos  by  Lippo  Lippi ;  some  of  Pintu- 
ricchio's  chief  frescos  are  in  the  churches  of  S.  Maria  del  Popolo  and 
S.  Maria  in  Ara  Cceli ;  and  the  monasteiy  of  S.  Onofrio  possesses  a 
very  lovely  fresco  of  the  JIadonna  and  a  kneeling  Donor,  attributed 
to  Da  Vinci, — probably  a  pupil's  work. 

The  Florentine  Accademia  delle  Belle  Arti  contains  a  most  vain-  Floie'' 
able  collection  of  early  Florentine  and  other  15th-century  pictures, 
including  the  finest  panel  picture  by  Gentile  da  Fabriauo, — the 
Adoration  of  the  Magi, — araxe  example  of  Verrocchio,  partly  painted 
by  his  pupil  Da  Vinci,  some  magnificent  examples  of  Botticelli, 
good  specimens  of  Fra  Angelico,  Ghiilandaio,  Signorelli,  Lippo 
Lippi,  Fra  Bartolomeo,  and  a  gioup  of  saints  by  Andrea  del  Sarto, 
one  of  his  best  works.  The  magnificent  galleries  in  the  UfBzi  and 
Pitti  Palaces  contain  an  unrivalled  collection  of  the  great  Florentine 
painters  of  all  dates.  In  the  UiBri  are  several  fine  paintings  by 
Raphael, — the  JIadonna  del  Cardellino,  a  portrait  of  Julius  II.,  and 
an  exquisitely  finished  head  of  an  unknown  lady.  Among  the 
many  fine  examples  by  Titian  is  his  portrait  of  a  nude  lady  reclining 
(Danae), — a  most  wonderful  work.  In  the  same  room  (La  Tribuna) 
is  the  circular  panel  of  the  Madonna  and  St  Joseph,  an  early  work 
by  Michelangelo,  showing  the  influence  of  Signorelli.  Many  of 
Botticelli's  finest  works  are  in  this  galler}-,  and  the  I'flizi  also 
possesses  an  almost  unrivalled  collection  of  di-awings  by  Italian 
painters  of  all  dates.  The  Pitti  Palace  contains  some  of  the  chief 
works  of  Raphael, — the  early  JIadonna  del  Gran  Duca,  and  por- 
traits of  Angelo  Doni  and  his  wife,  the  portraits  of  Cardinal  Bibiena 
and  Leo  X.  (in  his  later  manner),  the  Madonna  della  Seggiola,  and 
the  miniature  Vision  of  Ezekiel.  The  portrait  of  a  nun,  attributed 
to  Da  Vinci,  but  probably  the  work  of  a  pupil,  is  a  work  of  extra- 
ordinary finish  and  refinement.  The  Magdalen  and  the  lady's 
portrait  (La  Bella)  by  Titian  are  among  his  best  works.  Both 
these  collectio..s  contain  some  good  Flemish  and  Dutch  pictures. 
In  the  church  of  San'a  Croce  are  the  chief  works  ofGiotto,  in  S. 
Maria  Novella  the  best  pictures  of  Orcagna  and  Ghirlandaio,  and 
in  the  monastery  of  S.  Marco  the  principal  frescos  of  Fra  Angelico. 
Some  of  the  chief  frescos  of  Spinello  Aretino,  much  repainted,  exist 
in  the  sacristy  of  S.  Miniato,  and  the  most  importaiit  frescos  of 
Andrea  del  Sarto  are  in  the  church  of  S.  Anuunziata.  i 

The  small  galleries  at  Perugia  and  Siena  are  of  great  interest  for' 
their  collections  of  rare  works  by  painters  of  the  local  schools.    Th^ 


s  c 


HOOLS      OF     PAINTING 


447 


OTiaU  collection  at  Pisa  also  possesses  some  cuno^s  early  paneh  b) 
Wa   painters  ;  in  the  church  of  S.  Caterina  is  a  magmhcent  altai- 
S  by  Fran.  Trami,  Orcagna's  chief  pupO.     At  Prato  are  the 
iLest  frescos  of  Lippo  Lippi.    The  gallery  at  Bologna  contams  some 
^Fraicia's  chief  Vorks.tTe  St  Cecilia  of  Raphael   and  a  number 
of  examples  of  the  Caracci  and  others  of  the  later  Bolognese  school. 
Paraa  i^  specially  rich  in  the  works  of  Correggio  and  Varim^ano  : 
^haoiravthe  CTcat  frescos  by  the  former  in  the  cathedral  have 
)m^oS-^Li1v  Mrished.     The  small  collection  at  Fcrrara  possesses 
?ntofstlng  eLmp"  s  of  paiuUngs  of  the  local  school      Brescia  and 
Beri^^are  very  rich  tn  fine  works  of  Moretto  and  Moroni   and 
also^^sLs  a  number  of  fine  Venetian  paintings  of  various  dates. 
Padua  hTsbn?  a  smaU  and  unimportant  gallery  but  the  town  is 
rich  Ui  fiescos  by  Giotto.  Altichiero,  and  Jacopo  Avanz,   and  most 
noble  fresras  by  Andrei  Mantegna.     Mantua  also  conUms  some 
Srand  frescos  by  Mante<?ia  in  tie  Castello  di  Corti   and  a    argo 
Sit^  of  showy  and  cleverly  toecuted  wa^l  and  ceiling  paintings 
^v^uUo  Romano  in  the  Palazzo  del  Te.    The^ Verona  gaflcry  con- 
tons  Jome  few  good  examples  of  the  local  scl^ool.     The  church  of 
SZeiX  possesses  a  magnificent  altavpiece  by  Mantegna  ;  and  m 
I   AnXsL  is  the  wreck  of  a  fine  fresco  of  St  George  and  the 
ri.o'^n  hv  Pisanello      The  Ticenza  collection  contains  little  of 
?aTn*fcxce^ptsorego  d  examples  of  Bart,.   Montagna      The  Turin 
I^Dery  possesses  a  few  good  pictures,  especiaUy  some  fine  panels  by 
fottiJerti  and  splendid  portraits  by  Vandyck.     Many  of  Vandyck  3 
toest  works  exi  t  in  the  various  palaces  of  Senoa.  ,  The  large  gaUery 
a^Nai^es  contains  an  unusual  proportion  of  bad  pictures  ;  there  are 
however,  some  fine  works  of  Titian  and  some  interesting  examples  of 
the  elrlY  Flemish  school  which  have  been  m  Naples  ever  since  the 
1 5th  century .    The  only  painting  of  much  importance  in  the  gaUery 
at  Palenno  Is  a  very  beautiful  triptych  of  the  school  of  Van  Wcfc 
^  VeS  Extraordinarily  rich  i^  the  works  of  ts  own  sehool.  ^nth 
the  exception  of  those  of  CriveDi,  who  is  completely  absent      The 
torks  if  Venice  of  the  Bellini  fainil/,  of  Carpacoio  and  others  of 
G°an    Bellini's  pupils,  of  Titian,  Tintoretto    and  Paul  Veronese, 
are  among  the  cliiff  glories  of  the  world.     The  Grimani  breviary 
ii  thrdole's  library.^contains  a  very  beautiful  series  of  miniature 
•Dictures  of  the  school  of  MeniUng.     ,  „<■  „,„f„ 

^  The  Brera  Gallery  at  Milan  contains  a  large  number  of  master- 
Tiieces  especiaUy  of  the  Lombard  and  Venetian  sehoo  s,  among 
Se^'th^  cbef  work  of  Gentile  BeUini,  St  Mark  at  A  exandria 
tZ  unrivalled  portraits  by  Lorenzo  Lotto,  an^  ^e^y^ -?»'- 
examples  of  Jloretto's  religious  paintings.  One  ot  its  greatest 
?^£^ares  is  the  altarpiece  paintetf  for  the  duke  of  Montefeltro  by 
pfero  della  Francesck.  and  wi-ongly  attributed  to>is  mfj^^ 
Carnovale.  The  celebrated  SiiosaTizio  is  the  most .  important  work 
of Xphael,  executed  wholly  under  the  influence  of  Perugiuo  The 
calk™  is  especially  rich  in  works  of  tke  pupils  and  imitators  of 
feon^rdo  and  oUier  MUanese  painters.  The  Biblioteca  Ambrogiana 
contains  some  priceless  dra^-ings  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  a  large 
number  of  his'autograph  MSS.,  selections  from  which  bave  been 
BuSed  by  Dr  Richter,  London,  188^.  Another  important  MS.- 
If  m  Vincifrom  the  sime  library,  the  Codice  Atlaniico. ,  is  now 
(18861  in  course  of  piibUcation  in  Rome  in  Its  entirety  _ 

This  very  scanty  sketch  of  the  contents  of  the  chief  galleries  of 
Europe  will  give  some  notion  of  the  places  where  the  works  of 
r^ci^  schools  and  masters  can  best  be  studied.  In  some  cases 
tfcre  IS  but  Uttle  choice  :  the  greatness  of  Giotto  can  only  be  ful  y 
realized  in  Florence  and  Padua,  of  Carpaccio  and  Tintoretto  m 
Venke.  of  Signorelli  at  Orrieto  and  Monte  Oliveto,  of,  F™  Apge  ico 
in  Florence,  of  Correggio  in  Parma,  of  Velazctuez  in  Madiid.  aUd 
''?Jt'^n%rt/<?1Jt«.vI«ed.i-P.n,T,«o  OEKmuLLV.-Agincourt  J7«oi« 
Mr^rl  ParTi  1811  Is!  Bel,  School,  of  Paintino.  Londoi,,  1842^  Blanc,  if.5- 
^L  Jj.  Kntr'f,  d/mutS  to  ecola,  Paris,  -1848-76 ;  Buchanan.  .J/cmoiis  of 
torn  da  «™^"  «"i5"™p¥;Crt  OakHe  dM  PeMrts,  Paris.  1822 ;  Daryl, 
^wII'JA,  or  Pa?n««rrLondot  W"^"^™  "'  ^'''"""'''  ^r'- 

^m.U^i^\^^tn^a^^TofPalktU<!.  «1.  ca.,  London.  1874  ,  Gorllng, 

VHntres  CUibres  Paris,  1810-21 ;  Menard,  mttoirt  da  Beauz-Artt,  Paris,  1878  , 

SL  Pelnlure  Paris.  1881 ;  Btendhal,  HitMri  dt  la  Pclnlurf,  Paris,  1860  ;  ^8 
K  T\^ompZi,nS'dbook  to  Pict^r*  G<ilUries  of  Euro,,.,  ^  '"iv-L™*""..  1|«^ 
Woraum.  Wl3(Jrv,^Pain((nff,  Ixjndon,  1847,  ami  fw>o*>Y''f"'"?.18M,Eekl 

Hotho  CescV  der  chrisUkhcn.  Maltrel,  Stuttgart,  1873 ;  Areona,  -&<"»«''*« 
Icok°'dePelntZ,,  Berlin,  1768;  Hobbes,  J-i^(i,r<.,Co(kc  or'.  Sfanimi, -London, 
K;  Bryan?  DUiionary'of  PaMer,.  London,  !«?  :  ^Ivet  WrI  o„  Hta(.  d« 
pVi..r«,  Paris,  1855;  Cartach,  Ptinire  1""»>'^  l'""""' ""^z'^' J,  ""'T'a  ?,"?;• 
lindon,  1854-57  ;  Rebro.  KumlgcKhiMe  *,i  JAHcloJ/fr.  Leipslo,  1B86.  Eim,v 
C^ombcde  Rom..  ParU.,  1852-67  ;  D^B""'!' «°™'^f  ('^tSL'^^^'Ki 
IIU,  century  MS. 'EpHTiKia  r^t  furyp«i.^i«%,  on  the  blCTotlc  rale,  of  ByMn- 
♦ll^.rtvVavet  iaP«U!»r»Cftra  .n^.nC/rl^r,/,  Paris,  1870;  Carter,  .Sprdm.n. 
yinI^St.n^Spain»».7.  lx>mlon,lH12;  Pown.ll,  "Ancient  l-.i.,tin8 


in  Encland  "  in  jiriiimoiogia,  ii.  p.  141,  and  other  papers  in  the  Mine  pnliU«- 
?on  •  the  W;LrM,»JS«,  publish^  by  the  fccietv  o'/'t'S'XV^ 
valuable  reproductions  of  the  Uth-century  ''»11-P<';''*1"S%'"  l^^^PrfvL 
Chapel,  Westminster,  •^vhich  are  now  destroyed,  except  a  '"""".K^^f^^f ' 
British  Museum  :  many  articles  on  medieral  Minting  occur  in  the  \  olam.a  ol 
the  Jn-S.oiofli«i  .^ouT^uii,  and  in  the  /-roeee-iiis.  of  many  other  aoceties  in 
Engtodlnd  abr<ad.    iTAiiiK  Schools  oienerallt. -Crowe  and  Oavalcaselle 
m^ryof  Painting  i.l  Italy,  London,  18*4-««.  »"*  "i'^/-' ■'^."t'"'' '  r;fl^„- 
ll<Uy  1871 ;  Woermann  and  Woltmann,  History  of  Painting,  ed.  by  S.  Colvui, 
London,  1880;   Kugler,  Handbook  »/ ''«j"«'W.  Lo^do",  1874 ;  Lanzu  »ori. 
viUoTioi,  Florence,  ISSi ;  Rosini,  Storio  delta  PiKuro  Italiam,  Pwa,  l«»»;f '  . 
feumohr,  Ualitnisc\<  Forxhungtn.  Berlin,  1830-81 ;    Fyrster    2>ntnu>b  flit 
NaUni^  Leipsic,  1870-73 ;  Dohme,  Kunit  vnd Kunatltr llaL,  Berlin,  18(8 ;  BOICU- 
hardt.  Tlu  Cicerone,  best  ed.  London,  1679  :  Coindet,  Bialoirt  dc  la  P""^"  «^ 
ItaXie    Paris,  18*1  ;  Liiblie,  Gach.  der  ital.  MaUrei,  Stuttgart,  18r78 ;  Ottley, 
lUdidil  School,  London,  1823  ;  W.  B.  Sootfc,  Pictures  6y  /la«<in  Waster.,  London; 
1876  •  Mre  Jameson,  Early  Italian  Painters,  London,  1858  ;  Symonds,  K«MK»i 
sow  in  Italy  (Fine  Arts),  London,  1877  ;  Tytler,  Old  J/Mter.  and  their  P''*""?. 
London,  1873  ;  Bemasconi.  Storia  d.  filtvra  mliana,  Pisa,  1864  ;  CKment,  I» 
Petelare  Itflienne,  Paris,  1857  (on  early  paintere);  PascoU,  File  d^P^^ 
Rome,  1786;  Poynt«r,  Painting; Early  Christian,  ic,  small  handbcwk,  LondM, 
1882-  L.  Scott,  RenaissaiKe  in  Italy,  small  handbook  London,  1883;  KJ<M"'> 
Ilalim  Art  in  the  National  Galhry,  London,  1883  ;  Prizzoni,  f . ■^.<<' /j^^i 
ndla.  Gal.  Nat.  di  Londra,  Milan,  1880,  publlibed  m  the  Arch u>io  Stona  <Ji 
MiUino;  Eeisct,  in  the  Gaz.  des  B.-Artstor  1877,  gives  a  valuable  scrt«^ 
articles  entitled  "  Une  Visitc  aux  Muecos  di  Londres    ;  MoreUi,  Italian  MaOtrt 
in  German  Galleries,  trans.,  London,  1883,  and  hi»  valuable  scries  of  articles  on 
tSeB^?ghese  Gallery  in  LutzoWs  ZcitschriA  Jiriildende  Kunst.    This  very  obi. 
art  critic,  who  also  writes  under  the  name  of  "  Lermobeff,    has  developed  » 
somewhat  new  system  of  criticism,  based  on  minute  observation  of  the  J^ 
in  which  each  painter  treated  details,  such  as  the  hand  and  ear,-m  most  ca»M 
(according  to  STorelli)  a  safer  guide  than  the  genera  impression  ^nvt-dfron 
the  wholl  effect  or  spirit  of  a  picture,  and  less  nusleadmg  than  a  judgment 
fomid  from  tech^cai  pecnUarities  ;  the  Comm.  MoreUi,  aided  by  a  good  tnow- 
edle  of  the  documentary  history  of  art,  has  thus  been  enabled  to  give  ba-ok  to 
thei  right  au?hoi^  many  paiiti"gs  "W'l'  for  long  have  been  wrongly  naincd 
Italian  Speo.ai.  Schools. -Bordiga,  Ojicre  del  Gaud.  ■^";™".  M'^"', J,^'*' 
Pagaii  U  Pitture  di  Modena,  Modena,  1770 ;  Vednanl,  P.«ort,  dc.,  Madmeti 
Modena    1662;  Zaist,  PMori  .Craiwncsi,  Cremona,  1774;  GraseUl,  iJioj.  del 
fitfoHCnmoi^Bi,  Cremona,  1827  ;  Arco,Z).Ite  Arti  di  J>fan(o.«  Mantua.  18^ 
6S;  Codde,  Bi.io.wrio  dci  Pilloni  Mant^-ani,  Mantua,  IM' l/"?"..  ^' ^  "^ 
PiKori  Veronesi,  Verona,  1718 ;   Fern,  Pttton  Miancsi.  Rome,  l^f,  •  f '?;,^. 
da  VimA  et sou tcole,  Paris,  1855  ;  Moschini,  La Pitlurain  Padoia,  Padna  1S26  , 
Moni  PiCe  Par^n^i,  Parn.a,  1809;  o'ff6.  Vita  dd  Parmioanino,  Larma, 
r78lTLeon  ,Vi««re  di  Correggio,  Modeixi  IS-Jl ;  PungileonI,  f' «"!2".« ''"'f.Y 
di  Correggio  Ps^nai,  1817-21 ;  Malvasia,  ft(si>utPi(  rice,  Bologna,  lCj8;  BarottI, 
Pitture  di  Fcrrara.  Fcrrara,  1770 ;  Laderchi.  La  PMara  Fcrraresc.  Fenara,  1856  , 
Baniffaldi,  Vitedei  FMori-Fcrraresi;TeTT^a;  Mesnard,  in  Pemlure  d.  Siemit, 
Paris  1878  -Delia  Valle,  UUtre  Sanesi,  Venice,  17S2Sfl.;  Lasiuio,  P./lurj     .  . 
dfS™  Florence,  1825    Milanesi,  Bo™men(t  delV  Arte  Senrse  1858  ;  BouUier, 
tirtWriUierParis.  1870  ;  W.  B.  bcott,  Pic(KrM  fry  Venetian  Painters,^  London, 
wfs    SSulitmrKsrJst,  London,  1879,  .S<oa«  o/ remce,  1856,  an^  C.id.  (o 
vriniiial  Pictures  at  Venice,  1878.;  Zanetti,  Sioria  d.  Fittura  Veneziarji,  Venice, 
1771  •■  LoiSurr*  dei  PiHori  Veneriani.  Venice,  1762  j  Ridolfl  .A/ara»ii;  ;e  <Wl' 
ilrt/VeniS^  1648;  Verci,  Pittm-i,*c.,  diDassano,  Vemce,  1775  :  Tassl,  »  .(e(i« 
Piili,l,lc^BergaimscU,  BerEamo,  1793  ;  Chiz3ola.  Pi"""  diBrmxa,  Brescm. 
Soi-    Caltri,    Vita  di  Franda,  Bologna,   1812,   and  Vila,  di  Fran.  Barbien 
(Ouercino)   1808;  Ratti,.  Pilhiia,  <fc.,  in  Gemva,  Genoa,  1780    PascoL,  VxU 
^SfpuZi,  £c.,Perugini,  Rome    1732;  JIariotti.  ieli.re  P«(jM.e  Pm-fl.«, 
■peruEia  1788  ;  FioriUo,  Cwcft.  der  Malcrei  in  Toxana  Berlin,  1850  ;  WarchMe, 
Srti)o«^.ilM;vi,FloVence,lS15;  Bicci  Wm.diM.toocto/^^^^^^^^ 

_         .      .     ..     .     ....    J     4..i,-  j^n„  Bf^v,-/.  W)   iMY-/iij/T    Mflpprata.  1834;   Doiaeniol. 


1  ForturtberU»t.ofauthorlU<a8«itJ..vuioaB  artlolei.on  the  separat.  painters. 


Viudei  Pittori  Nofoletani,  Naples,  1840-46, -not  trnst^vorthy  m  its  account  of 
Burrosed  «arly  Neapolitan  painters  ;  Crowe  and  Cavalca-selle,  We  oj  Titian, 
London  1878,  and  Life  of  Raphael,  1380-85  ;  VIscher,  L.  Signorelh  md  dieUal. 
lle,u,ismni:e  Leipsic,  1S79.  German,  Fleotsb,  and  Dltcb  Schools.— Bode, 
fr^rSmXndSeSohule,  Leipsic,  1871,  DieKii^lstUr  rou  Ba«W.»  1872  anl 
Gcsck.  derhollMidisclienMalerel,U&i;  Diirger,  Etudes mirk4 Fan  res  IMlani^is, 
Paris  1869  •  Burnet,  ftmbraiidtaiui  his  IVorks,  London,  1659 ;  fcchelteina,  JIt'm. 
Ijrand,  h:deimring,  ic,  Amsterdam,  11S45  ;Fairholt,  Hmncs,  £c  of  the  BkW. 
Paiiil^rs,  LondoD,.1871 ",  E,  Gower,  Figure  Pavilers  of  Holland  London,  1880  , 
Havard  L'Art  HoUandais,  Paris,  1870,  and  Ristoire  de  la  PeiniureHollandaise, 
Paris  188"-  Kramm,  iemiis  tu  ICcrfan  dcrffoiiniidisc/ic  iCawtehifders  Amstcr- 
dim  'l857-c'4  ;  Bathgeber.  Aniialen  der  ■niederldndiachen  Materei,  Qotha,  1842- 
44  ■  Renouvier,  Les  Pcimtres  de  i'/lftcienne  Ecole  Ilollandaisc,  Pans,  16o7  ;  \  an 
Ma'nder  Le  Litire  des  Peinlres,  Pm-ls,  1884  ;  Eiegel,  B«(r«strur'ni«dfr(un<iwcA<» 
KuTstgc'sckichU,  Berlin,  1882;   Van    Eynden,  C«cA«A;n«  (ter  ™(<!rW«J. 

.ScftiWcrt„>u.(,  Amsterdam,  1842 ;  Y^o^''-/'<^'<'''f'^S?^'-'^''\'''''i'±'^;^S'- 
18T4  •   Van  (»ool,  Nieuwe   Schoiiburg   der  Ku)atschild«rs,  Amsterdam,  1858 . 

H6th'o.G«o'i.  ■*'•*'"'<«'«''«"''''"*'■'""<'•  ^''''''■"'T?t'^'^*''''r1'.L^!°ir'''"' 
Ya  Vie  des  Peintres  Flamands,  Paris,  1758-64;  Dehaisnes,  J.ArtChrit.y^ 
Fland'e  DouaJ  1860:  F6tls,  Le>  AHistes  Edges,  Brus^ela,  1867;  Fromentin, 
l2  mines  d- autre foii,  Paris,  1876;  Sainl^Gennais  Guide  d.  Tc^lmia  t,^ 
AUemande  lic  Paris,  1841 ;  Hiris,  Histoire  de  Vtcole  Flamande,  Brwse  s, 
^"r  HousSye,S(redeia  Peinh-r,  Flaniand.ic  Paris,  1866;  M.cluds, 
Let  Peintres Brugeois,  Brussels,  1840,  Bistoirede  la  Peinture  Flamande^  <f  j.,  184, , 
l"i  V&cotedAriver,  Paris,  1877  ;  Potvin,  LArl  ftairuimi.  Pans,  18«S  ;  Roos«8 
c;c*^dr.»fXitaie.lntoWpfns,Munlchl3S0;  Stanley  Prm^^^^^^ 
Dutch  and  Flemish  Schools, -London,  1855  ;  Uead,  «nndJ>ooto/Pnm(N.!^,  G^minn, 
Fl'misTandDitlch,  Loodon,  1846  ;  Waagen,  Die  dculsclien  und  niedertanduchet 
Iw"  --I."  1  sSg^t,  1862  ;  Kugler  Wdtoo;:  of  PainUng  ^jl  «1;.  LondoD. 
1874  ;  Crowe  and  Cavalc-aselle,  Earlj,  Ple.nby'a/n(e™,  Ix,ndon^b72  J.  Sm^^^ 
CntaLaue  of  IVorks  of  Dutch,  Flemish,  and  French  Pamlerx,  London,  lir.'V-4«,, 
t^S,L-AcmdLiaTedesca,  Nuremlx.rg  1675-79 ;  lindau,  /,"«•' 'jj';''^ 
Ti;™i»   1R61  •  Heller   Crancu:h't  Lebinund  Werke,  Nuremberg,  lb04  :  wiuiaen, 

smmmmmm 

and  others   Grsch.  der  drnltchen  Kunsl.  Berlin,  1881)  .  w.   "  ,*^?"v '""*"» 
Ma.kr.,  llljndon,  1879.     Mootrn  Oeiuiaj.  ScBOOL«.-BounJol,  i  Arl  eXrW«»  et 


448 


S  C  H^S  G  fl 


VtcohAltemande,  Paris,  1836;  Ormoa,  Peter  vm  CorneUus,  ic,  Berlin,  1S66; 
R&nzoni,  ^faUreiin  IVien,  Vienna,  1879;  Riegel,  Cesch.  aer  dcutschen  JCmtsi, 
Hanover,  1876 ;  Wustioann,  Gexk.  der  Malerei  in  Lnpzig,  Leipaic,  1879 ; 
Schasler,  Die  WanOgemdlde  von  Kaulbuchs^  Berlin,  1854;  Peclit,  Deutsche 
Kiimtler,  Nordiingeo,  1877-81 ;  Lelxner,  Die  moderne  Kurtst,  Berlin,  1878 : 
Rosenberg,  Gesch.  der  viod.  Kunst,  Leipsic,  1SS2.  Spanish  School. — Head, 
Sandbook  of  Faulting  (Si)Atiifih\  London,  1847  ;  Stirling,  Anmd.^  of  the  Artists  of 
Spain,  London,  1848,  and  Veias/piez  and  Jiis  H'oria,  1855 ;  O'Neii,  Dictionary  of 
Spanish  Painters,  Londun,  1S33  ;  Montecuccoli.  Storia  della  Pittura  m  Ispagna, 
Modena,lS41;  Cumberland,  £m(>.e)!f  Patii(«r3t)t Spain,  London,  1782  ;  Laforge, 
Des  Arts  en  Espagne,  Lyons,  1S59;  W.  B.  Scott,  Mv.rillo  i.i,d  the  Spanish  School, 
London,  1S72,  Curtis,  MnriUo  and  Vclasquei,  London,  1SS3;  Davies,  Life  o/ 
ilfuriiiq,  London,  1819;  Viardot,  lo  Princtpaiu  Peintres  de  i'Espagne,  Paris. 
1839;  Eneebl,  has  diferentes  Escuelits  de  Fintura,  Madrid,  1823;  .Vlalpica,  El 
Arte  de  la  Fintura,  Madrid,  1S74  ;  Bermudez,  Dicionario  de  las  Bellas  Arteseil 
Etpaila,  Madrid,  ISOO ;  Robinson^  Furlj/  Portyigueie  Painting,  Bungay,  1S66 ; 
■Da\iUier,  Mariano  Fortuny,  sa  Vie,  tf'c,  Paris,  1S75.  French  School. — Mrs 
M.  Fattison,  Renaissance  of  Art  in  Franct,  1879  ;  La  Cha\1gnerle,  Dictionnuire 
dt  I'^cole  Fran^ise,  Paris,  1883;  B^raud,  Anmdes  de  VEcole  Fran^ais&,  Paris, 
1897 ;  Berger,  L'tootm  Fran<;aise,  Paris,  1879 ;  Dufour,  Peintres  Parisiens 
mil  XIV  ft  XV  Sikles,  Paris,  1S79 ;  Farrocel,  Annalet  dt  la  Feinltu-e,  Paris, 
1862 ;  De  Saint-Germain,  Trots  Siicles  de  la  Peinture  en  France,  Paris,  180.S ; 
Laborde,  Renaissance  des  Arts  a  la  Coar  de  France,  Paris,  I850-S5 ;  Ooncoort, 
VArt  dans  le  XVlllme  Si'fcfe,  Paris,  1880-84.  Moders  French  Schooi — 
Chesneau,  LaPeintnre  Fran^aise  an  XlXme  Silde.  Paris,  1862;  Claretie,  L'Art 
Francis  Contemporain,  Paris,  1876 ;  Pesquidoux,  VArt  au  XlXme  Sikle, 
Paris,  1881  ;  Jourdan,  Les  Peintres  Frani^ais,  Paris,  1859;  Laforge,  La  Peinture 
m  France,  Paris,  185«;  Laurent-Pichat,  L'Aj^  en  France.  1559;  Leclercq, 
L'&ole  FroHfaiet,  Parts,  1881 ;  Merson,  La  Peinture  en  France,  1861 ;  Me^er, 
Gesch.  der  mod.  franzosischen  Malerei,  Ijeipsic,  1867  ;  Rosenberg,  Gesch.  der 
mod.  Kunst,  Lefpstc,  18*4;  Wuribach,  Die  finmosischea  italer,  Stnftgart, 
1879.  British  School.— Graves,  Dictionary  qf  British  Artists  from  1700  to 
ISSO,  LoBdofi,  1881 ;  Redgrare,  Painters  qf  the  English  School,  London,  1866, 


and  Dictionary  of  Artists  (English),  1878;  W.  B.  Scott,  Our  BHiuh  landscai 
Painters,  London,'1872 ;  Shepherd,  Brilia*  School  oj  Painting.  London  ISSO* 
■Walpole,  Anecdotes  of  Painting  in  Enqlimd,  London,  1861;  Woddersn'oon  /. 
Srome  and  his  U'orki,  Norwicli,  185S ;  Chesneau,  La  Peinture  Anglaise,  Paris. 
1882;  Clayton,  English  Femule  Artists,  London.  1876;  CnhninghamTtfres  p) 
British  Painters  ed.  Mrs  Heaton,  1879;  Dallaway,  Painting  in  England, 
London,  1S49;  Hannay  and  others,  Worlds  of  Boaarth,  London,  1860;  Hoare, 
Academic  Annals  of  Painting,  London,  1S05-9  ;  Dumas,  Modem  Artists,  Paris, 

1883  ;  Ru&kia,  Modern  Painters,  London,  1851-60  ;  Our  Living  Painters  (anon  ), 
London,  1S59  ;  Monlihouse,  Masterpieces  of  English  Art,  London,  166S  ;  Britton 
Fine  Arts  of  the  English  School,  Loudon,  1812  ;  Broclt-Amold,  Gainsborough  and 
Heynolds,  London,  1881  ;  Leslie  and  Taylor,  Life  and  Times  of  Reynolds,  London, 
1S65;  Conway,  Reynolds  and  Cainsborcvgh,  London.  1886.  Eably  Treatises 
ON  Paintino.— Theophilus,  Dirersari/m  A -(ij/m  ScAerfuia,  trans.,  London,  1847- 
Cennino  Cenninl,  Trattato  della  Pittura,  ti-ans.,  together  with  other  early  docu- 
ments on  painting  by  Mrs  Merrifleld,  Treatises  on  Painting,  London,  1S4S* 
Eastlakc,  Materials  for  History  of  Oil  Painting,  1847-Gtl ;  the  Commentary  of 
Lorenzo  Ghilwrti,  containing  a  short  history  of  Florentine  art,  has  been  pub- 
lished (in  French)  l>y  Perkins,  Ghiberti  et  son  icoh,  Paris,  1836;  Filaretn^' 
■Trattato  delV  Architetiura,  d-c,  ^rritten  at  Florence,  1464,  Pretiosa  Margarita, 
edited  by  Aldus,  Venice,  1540  ;  Da  Vinci,  Trattato  della  Piaura,  Bologna,  IMJ, 
and  selections  from  forty-two  autograph  MSS.  at  Milan,  edited  by  Richter, 
London,  1883;  Loraazzo,  Trattato  d.  Pittura,  Milan,  1584;  Vasari,  Vite  del 
Pittori,  first  complete  edition,  Florence,  1568,  best  edition  by  Milanesi,  Flor- 
ence, 1878-S2;  Mnrellj,  A'oiiria  d'Opere  dt  Disegno  .  -  .  scritta  da  un  Anonimo 
(a  work  of  the  10th  century) ;  Bassano,  1800.  best  edition  by  Frizzoni,  Bologna, 

1884  ;  Bellori,  Vite  dei  Pittori,  Rome,  1072  ;  Ridolfl,  Maraviglie  delf  Arte,  Venice, 
1648;  Baldiuucci,  Professori  del  Disegno,  Florence,  1081-88;  Du  Presnoy,  .^rt 
of  Painting,  London,  1695;  Van  Lairesse,  Art  of  Painting,  trans.,  London; 
1738  ;  Piles,  Divers  Ouvrages  sur  la  Peinture,  Paris,  1755.  For  the  bibliograp'hT 
of  painting,  see  Weigel,  Kunstcatalog,  Leipsic,  1633  and  follomng  years  ;  ana 
Beuinont,  Notizie  biUiograJicIie  dei  Lavori  fubl. .in  Gennania  tratt.  d.  Utile  Arii, 
Florence,  1847-63.  (J.  H.  M.) 


SCHOPENHAUER,  Arthitb  (1788-1860),  was  born 
in  Dautzic  (117  Heiligen-Qeist  Strasse)  on  22d  February 
1788.  Doomed  for  the  first  thirty  years  of  his  career  to  find 
Lis  works  ignored  with  galling  silence,  he  came,  from  the 
year  1845  onwards,  to  be  looked  np  to  by  a  scanty  but 
devoted  following  as,  what  he  himself  claimed  to  be,  the 
founder  of  the  first  true  philosophy.  Historical  criticism 
has  done  much  to  dispel  his  pretensions  to  originality,  and 
logical  examination  has  demonstrated  the  incongruities 
lurking  in  his  system.  But  the  fact  of  his  dominant  influ- 
ence on  contemporary  thought  remains  tindiminished  after 
every  such  disparaging  analysis.'  He  consoled  himself  for 
the  neglect  of  his  own  generation  by  the  assurance  that 
his  would  be  .the  philosophy  of  the  future.  His  ideas, 
recommended  by.  the  mastery  of  language  and  triUiance  of 
illustration  which  entitle  him  to  a  first  class  in  literature, 
have  become  the  burden  of  much  of  our  current  speculation, 
and  have  leavened  to  an  unusual  extent  the  view  of^  life 
and  of  the  universe  •which  animates  the  average  educated 
world  and  finds  expression  in  literary  art. 

His  father,  Heinrich  Floris  Schopenhauer,  the  youngest 
of  a  family  to  which  the  mother  had  brought  the  germs 
of  mental  malady,  was  a  man  of  strong  vrill  and  originality, 
vehement  and  resolute  in  the  extreme,  and  so  proud  of 
the  independence  of  his  native  town  that  when  Dantzic 
in  1793  surrendered  to  the  Prussians  he.  and  his  whole 
establishment  withdrew  to  Hamburg.  The  mother  of  the 
future  philosopher  was  Johanna  Henrietta  Trosiener. 
Both  parents  belonged  to  the  mercantile  aristocracy,  the 
bankers  and  traders,  of  Dantzic.  Johanna,  who  at  the 
age  of  twenty  accepted  a  husband  of  forty,  was  as  yet 
undeveloped  in  character ;  and  perhaps  he  hoped  that  her 
want  of  love,  which  ehd  did  not  conceal,  might  be.  com- 
pensated by  the  community  of  tastes  and  interests  which, 
under  his  guidance,  would  grow  up  between  them.  But 
the  radical  rift  in  the  wedded  heart  could  not  be  stopped 
up  by  a  merely  intellectual  cement.  ■  The  two  childrtju  of 
the  marriage,  Arthur  bom  in  1788  and  Adele  in  1796, 
bore  (according  to  the  theory  of  the  former')  the  penalty 
of  their  parents'  incompatibilities.  While  they  iiilierited 
from  their  mother  a  high  degree  of  Intelligence  and  literary 
style,  they  were  burdened  by  an  abnormal  urgency  of 
desire  and  capacity  for  suffering,  which  no  doubt  took 
different  phases  in  the  man  and  the  woman,  but  linked 
them  together  in  a  common  susceptibility  to  ideal  pain. 

In  the  summer  of  1787,  a  year  after  the  marriage,  the 


»  Die  Well  aU  W'ille,  u.  c.  43. 


elder  Schopenhauer,  whom  commercial  experiences  had 
made  a  cosmopolitan  in  heart,  took  his  young  wife  on  a 
tour  to  western  Europe.  It  had  been  his  plan  that  the 
expected  child  should  see  the  light  in  England,  but  the 
intention  was  frustrated  by  the  state  of  his  wife's  health, 
and  they  had  to  beat  a  hasty  retreat  homewards  in  early 
winter.  The  name  of  Arthur,  given  to  the  child  in  St 
Mary's  at  Dantzic,  was  chosen  becaus'?  it  remains  the  same 
in  English,  French,  and  German.  The  first  five  years  of 
his  life  Arthur  spent  under  the  care  of  his  mother,  chiefly 
in  their  country  house  at  Oliva,  about  4  miles  west  of 
Dantzic.  There,  at  the  foot  of  the  prettUy  wooded  sand- 
hills which  look  out  upon  the  dim  Baltic,  the  young 
mother  enjoyed  a  hfe  of  leisure,  dissipating  the  long  solitary 
hours  with  her  horses,  the  gondola  on  the  pond,  the  foun- 
tains, and  the  lambs,  or  with  the  French  novels  her  husband 
put  amply  at  her  disposal  It  was  only  on  Saturday  and 
Sunday  that  he  would  quit  his  office  in  town  and  come 
down,  generally  in  company  with  a  friend  or  two,  to  get 
a  glimpse  of  his  wife  and  son.  The  latter  was  often  taken 
on  a  visit  for  weeks  to  the  manor-house,  between .  Dantzic 
and  the  sea-coast,  where  liis  maternal  grandparents  lived. 
After  1793  the  father  never  set  foot  in  his  old  home;  but 
Johanna  was  allowed  every  fcur  years  to  revisit  the  scenes 
of  her  youth. 

During  the  twelve  years  they  had  their  home  at  Ham-  Ham- 
burg (1793-1805)  the  Schopenhauers  made  frequent  ex- ^"'•8 
cursions.  The  year  after  his  sister's  birth  Arthur  was  P*"°^ 
taken '  by  his  father  to  France,  and  left  for  two  years 
(1797-99)  as  a  boarder  with  M.  Gregoire,  a  merchant  of 
Havre,  and  friend  -of  the  Hamburg  house.  The  boy, 
formed  a  fast  friendship  with  his  host's  son,  Anthime,_ 
and  grew  so  familiar  with  French  that  by  the  end  of  his 
sojourn  he  had  almost  forgotten  his  mother-tongue.'  The 
youthful  friends  lost  sight  of  each  other  for  long  years ; 
and  when  the  Frenchman  sought  to  renew  their  corre- 
spondence in  the  evening  .of  life  they  found  that  they  had 
drifted  far  asunder ;  and  unworthy  suspicions  led  Schopen- 
hauer to  dismiss  his  old  comrade  in  abrupt  silence.  Arthur 
returned  alone  by  sea  to.  Hamburg,  and  for  the  next  four 
years  had  but  indifferent  .training.  TThen  he  reached  the 
age  of  fifteen  the  scholarly  and  literary  instincts  began  to 
awaken,  and  he  became  anxious  to  be  initiated  into  the 
fraternity  of  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences.  But  his  father, 
steeped  in  that  old  pride  of  caste  which  looks  down  upon 
the  artist  and  the  writer  of  books  as  mere  means  or  instru- 
ments to  decorate  and  diversify  the  life  of  business,  was 
unwilling  a  sou  of  his  should  worship  knowledge  and  trutk 


SCHOPENHAUER 


449 


as  ^ids  \n  themsbkes.  '  Accordingly  he  offered  his  son  the 
choice  between  iho  classical  school  and  an  excursion  to 
England  A  boy  of  fifteen  could  scarcely  hesitate.  In 
1803  the  Schopbnhauers  and  their  son  set  out  on  a 
lengthened  tour,  oi  which  Johanna  has  given  an  account, 
to  Holland,  England,  France,  and  Austria.  Six  months 
were  spent  in  England,  and  Arthur,  while  his  parents 
proceeded  as  far  as  Scotland,  was  left  for  a  few  weeks  as 
a  boarder  with  a  Rev.  Mr  Lancaster  at  Wimbledon.  He 
found  English  ways  dull  and  precise  and  the  religious 
observances  exacting ;  and  his  mother  had— not  for  the 
last  time— to  talk  seriously  with  him  on  his  unsocial  and 
wilful  character.  Perhaps  the  part  of  the  tour  which  gave 
him  most  pleasure  was  the  last,— a  solitary  pedestrian 
Stroll  along  the  ridge  of  the  Kiesengebirge,  just  before  he 
joined  his  mother  at  Dantzic,  September  1S04,  where  he 

svas  confirmed.  ,  ,   „^  ,  i       i 

■At  Hamburg  in  the  beginning  of  lb05  he  was  placed 
in  the  office  of  a  merchant  called  Jenisch.     He  had  only 
been  there  for  three  months  when  his  father,  who  had  shown 
symptoms  of  mental  alienation,  fell  or  threw  himself  from 
an  elevated  opening  of  his  warehouse  into  the  canal.     After 
his  death  the  young  widow  (still  under  forty)  got  affairs 
wound  up,  and,  leaving  Arthur  at  Hamburg,  proceeded 
with  her  daughter  Adele  in  the  middle  of  1806  to  Weimar, 
where  she  arrived  only  a  fortnight  before  the  tribulation 
Vhich  followed    the  victory  of   Napoleon  at  Jena.     At 
Weimar  her  talents,  hitherto  held  in  check,  found  an  atmo- 
sphere to  slimulate  and  foster  them  ;  her  .esthetic  and 
literary  tastes  formed  themselves  under  the  influence  of 
Goethe  and  his  circle,  and  her  little  salon  gained  a  certain 
celebrity.     Ai'thur,   meanwhile,   was  left  at  his  desk  m 
Hamburg,  cursing  his  prosaic  lot,  and  smuggling  literature 
under  the  ledger  ;  the  hot  blood  of  youth  was  turning  his 
thoa"hts  to  morbid  cynicism,  and  his  easy-rainded  mother 
alarmed  at  his  discontent,  adopted  the  advice  of  her  friend 
Fernow,  and  offered  him  a  release  from  the  loathed  task- 
work.    He  hastened  to  make  up  lost  ground,  and  at  the 
a"e  of  nineteen  began  to  decline  mensa  with  Doering  at 
Gotha.      But  the  wantonness  and  restiveness  which  he 
had  "i  jwn  familiar  with  in  the  lax  schooling  of  the  world 
would  not  let  him  alone  :  he  allowed  his  satirical  pen  to 
play  on  one  of  the  teachero  of  the  grammar-school,  and  pro- 
fessional etiquette  required  Doering  to  dismiss  Ms  pupil. 
After  a  plain  but  gentle  rebuke  for  his  folly,  his  mother 
settled  him  at  Weimar— not  in  her  own  house,  for,  as  she 
told  him,  she  v/as  content  to  know  that  he  was  well  and 
could  dispense  with  his  company— but  with  the  Greek 
scholar  Passow,  who  superintended  liis  classical  studies. 
This  time  he  made  so  much  progress  that  in  the  course  of 
two  years  he  became  a  tolerable  scholar,  and  read  Greek 
and  Lniin  with  fluency  and  interest. 
tiniver.       In  1809  his  mother  handed  over  to  him  (aged  twenty- 
•ity         one)  the  third  part  of  the  paternal  estate,  a  sum  of  19,000 
«»reci.     thalers,  which,  being  invested  in  good  securities,  yielded 
him  from  the  first  a  yearly  income  of  more  than  1000 
thalers  =  £150.    Possessed  of  this  fair  patrimony,  Schopen- 
hauer in  October  1809  entered  the  university  of  Gottingen, 
with  a  clear  plan  of  acquiring  all  that  machinery  of  know- 
ledge which  schools  can  give.     The  direction  of  his  philo- 
sophical reading  was  fixed  by  the  advice  of  Professor  G. 
E  Schulzo  to  study,  especially,  Plato  and  Kant.     For  the 
former  he  soon  found  himself  full  of  reverence,  and  from 
the  latter  he  acquired   the  standpoint  of  modern   philo- 
gophv      The  names  of  "  Plato  the  divine  and  the  marvel- 
lous Kant"  are  conjunctly  invoked  at  the  beginning  of  his 
earliest  work.     But  neither  the  formal   exercises  of  the 
class-room  nor  the  social  and  hygienic  recreations  which 
he  did  not  fail  to  combine  with  them  filled  his  hours  to 
me  exclusion  of  the  ideas  which  began  to  formulate  them- 


selves in  hira.     Contempt  for  the  superficiality  of  human 
life  settled  itself  more  and  more  deeply  in  his  heart,  with 
the  sense  of  a  bitterness  tainting  the  vc-y  source  of  being, 
and  the  perception  that  the  egoism  of  individuals  seeks 
for  nothing  better  than  to   push  on   the  load  of  misery 
from  one  to  another,  instead  of  making  an  effort  to  re- 
duce the  burden.     These  pessimistic  reflexions  (which  his 
mother  found  eminently  uysocial)  were  naturally  concomi- 
tant with  groundless  nervous  terrors;  sudden  panics  would 
dash  over  his  mind,  and  even  in  those  days  he  had  begun 
to  keep  loaded  weapons  always  ready  at  his  bedside.     As 
a  philosopher  has  said,  "the  sort  of  philosophy  we  choose 
depends  on  the  sort  of  people  we  are ;  for  a  philosoidiical 
system  is  not  a  dead  bit  of  furniture :   it  draws  its  life 
from  the  soul  of  the  man  who  has  it."     He  was  a  man  of 
few  acquaintances,  amongst  the  few  being  Bunsen,  the 
subsequent  scholar-diplomatist,  and  Bunsen's  pupil,  W.  C. 
Astor,  the  son  of  Washington  Irving's  millionaire  hero. 
Even  then  he  found  his  trustiest  mate  in  a  poodle,  and  its 
bearskin  was  an  institution  in  his  lodging.     Yet,  precisely 
because  he  met  the  world  so  seldom  in  easy  dialogue,  he 
was  unnecessarily  dogmatic  in  controversy  ;  and  many  a 
bottle  of  wine  went  to  pay  for  lost  wagers.     But  he  had 
made  up  his  mind  to  be  not  an  actor  but  an  onlooker  and 
critic  in  the  battle  of  life ;  and,  when  Wieland,  whom  he 
met  on  one  of  his  excursions,  suggested  doubts  as  to  the 
wisdom  of  his  choice,  Schopenhauer  replied,   "Life  is  a 
ticklish  business ;  I  have  resolved  to  spend  it  in  reflecting 
upon  it." 

After  two  years  at  Gottingen,  he  took  two  years  at 
Berlin   where  the  university  had  been  founded  only  four 
years  before.     Here  also  he  dipped  into  divers  stores  of 
learning,  notably  classics  under  Wolf.      In  philosophy  he 
heard   Fichte  and  Schleiermacher.       Between  1811    and 
1813  the  lectures  of  Fichte  (subsequently  published  from 
his  notes  in  his  Nachrjelassene  Werke)  dealt  with  what  he 
called  the  "facts  of  consciousness"  and  the  "theory  of] 
science,"  and  struggled  to  present  his  final  conception  of 
philosophy.     These  lectures  Schopenhauer  attended,— at 
first,  it  is  allowed,  with  interest,  but  afterwards  with  a  spirit 
of  opposition  which  is  said  to  have  degenerated  into  con^ 
tempt,  and  which  in  after  years  never  permitted  him  to  re- 
fer to  Fichte  without  contumely.     Yet  the  words  Schopen-^ 
hauer  then  listened  to,  often  with  bafiled  curiosity,  certainly 
helped  to  give  direction  to  the  current  of  his  speculation. . 
Schopenhauer  did  not  find  the  city  of  intellect  at  all  to 
his  mind,  and  was  lonely  and  unhappy.     One  of  his  inter- 
ests was  to  visit  the  hospital  La  Charity  and  study  the 
evidence  it  afforded  of  the  interdependence  of  the  moral 
and  the  physical  in  man.     In  the  early  days  of  1813  sym- 
pathy with  the  national  enthusiasm  against  the  French 
carried  him  so  far  as  to  buy  a  set  of  arms;  but  ho  stopped 
short  of  volunteering  for   active  service,   reflecting  that 
Napoleon  gave  after  all  only  concentrated  and  untram- 
melled utterance  to  that  self-assertion  and  lust  for  more 
life  which  weaker  mortals  feel  but  must  perforce  disguise. 
Leaving  the  nation  and  its  statesmen  to  fight  out  their 
freedom,  ho  hurried  away  to  Weimar,  and  thence  to  the 
quiet  Thuringian  town  of  Rudolstadt,  where  in  the  inn 
Zum  Ritta;  out  of  sight  of  soldier  and  sound  of  drum,  he 
wrote,  helped  by  books  from  tho  Weimar  library,  his  essay 
for  tho  degree  of  doctor  in  philosophy.      On  the  -d  ot 
October  1813  he  received  his  diploma  from  Jena  ;  and  in 
the  same  year  from  the  press  at  Kudolstadt  there  was 
published— without  winning  notice  or  readers— his  first, 
book,  under  tho  title  Utbcr  dU  vicrfache  Wurid  des  SaUes 
vom  zurckUndcn  Grundf,  in  U8  pages  Svo. 


Schoncnhaucr'a  ,nonograph  On  the  Fourfold  IM  of  .">'.^»- 
ciple  of  Sufficient  /•..«<.«  urRcl  thai,  in  ais.-UM.ng  tho  pr.nc.plc  of 
aocee^ary  connexion,  philosophon.  had  faUcd  to  JUtinguisl,  bctwcou 


450 


SCHOPENHAUER 


loason  as  ground  of  belief  and  reason  as  cause  of  a  fact  Tlie  prin- 
tciple  gives  expression  to  the  law  that  notliing  singular  and  uncon- 
nected can  be  an  object  for  us  but  only  as  fornjing  part  in  a  system. 
This  law  has  four  main  roots,  according  to  the  four  classes  of  objects, 
in  each  of  which  a  special  form  of  connexion  prevails.  Tliese 
objects  are — (1)  real  objects  of  perception,  where  the  relation  of 
cause  and  effect  requires  eacli  state  to  be  dcpendeut  on  its  ante- 
te<leut ;  (2)  propositions,  which  are  tied  together  as  premises  and 
jjonclusions  ;  (8)  the  formal  conditions  of  perceiition.  viz.,  space  and 
time,  where  each  part  is  intuitively  seen  to  be  in  reciprocal  depend- 
ence on  every  other ;  (4)  voluntary  agents,  where  the  law  of  motiva- 
tion prescribes  the  de])endence  of  action  upon  the  idea  of  an  object 
presented  to  the  character  of  the  agent.'  ilodifyiiig  the  Kantian 
theory,  that  things  are  mental  projections,  lie  emphasizes  the  intel- 
lectual operation  which  elevates  sensatiou  to  perception.  The  feeling 
of  alteration  in  an  organ  is  taken  by  the  intellect,  whose  one 
category  is  causality,  to  refer  to  a  real,  i.e.,  material  object  which 
generates  the  change  in  oui-  body.  Kut  the  reference  is  an  intuitive 
interpretation  of  a  felt  modification  in  the  organism.  Hence  the 
important  place  assigned  to  the  human  body  :  it  is  the  first  of 
objects,  the  "immediate  object,"  the  means  by  which  all  other 
objects  .come  within  consciousness.  As  a  perpetual  correlative  of 
external  perceptions,  the  body  further  serves  as  an  instrument  for 
separating  phantasm  from  fact.  To  detect  and  scare  away  hallucina- 
tion we  have  only  to  realize  the  presence  of  our  bodies.  In  dealing 
^th  motives  Schopenhaner  touches  upon  the  relation  between 
Tolition  and  cognition.  The  ego— which  is  the  subject  that  knows 
- — is  a  mere  correlative  to  the  known  object :  object  perceived  and 
subject  perceiving  are  not  two  things,  but  one,  perpetually  dividing 
itself  into  two  pobs  ;  and  what  are  called  the  several  faculties  of 
the  ego  are  only  am  inference  or  a  refle.x  fi-oni  the  several  classes 
of  mental  object.  The  "  I  "  in  "  I  know  "  is  already  the  implication 
and  virtual  presence  of  knowledge.  But  the  "I  will"  is  a  new 
feet,— the  revelation  of  another  aspect  of  the  world,  the  first  fact 
of  inner  and  real  existence.  In  this  perception  there  is  given  us 
the  unity  of  the  volitional  self  with  the  knowing  subject ;  and  this 
identity  of  the  "I  "  who  "  will "  with  the  "I"  who  "know"  is  in 
Schopenhauer's  words  the  mii-acle  par  excellence  'das  Wander  kut' 
iioXW,  %  43). 

;  In  November  1813  Scliopenhauer  returnea  to  Weimar, 
and  for  a  few  montlis  boarded  with  bis  mother.  But  the 
strain  of  daily  association  was  too  much  for  their  antagon- 
istic natures.  The  mother  felt  herself  genee  in  the  pre- 
sence of  a  disputatious  and  gloomy  son ;  she,  missed  the 
ease  of  her  emancipated  life ;  and  her  friends  found  their 
movements  watched  by  a  suspicious  eye,  which  was  ready 
to  surmise  evil  in  the  open  and  light-hearted  style  of 
housekeeping.  In  short,  his  splenetic  temper  and  her 
Kaptnre  volatility  cuhninated  in  an  open  rupture  In  May  1814. 

mi^Ir  ^^°^  ^^^^  ^'"^®  *'^'  ^°'"  ^'^^'^^  '"  ■'^^^  Schopenhauer  never 
saw  his  mother  again.  It  was  during  these  few  months  at 
Weimar,  however,  that  he  made  some  acquaintances  de- 
stined to  influence  the  subsequent  course  of  his  thought. 
Conversations  with  the  Orientalist  F.  Mayer  directed  his 
studies  to  the  philosoiAical  speculations  of  ancient  India. 
In  1808  Friedrich  Schlegel  had  in  his  Language  and  Wis- 
dom of  the  Old  Hindus  brought  Bralimanical  philosophy 
within  the  range  of  European  literature.  Still  more  in- 
structive for  Schopenhauer  was  the  imperfect  and  obscure 
Xatin  translation  of  tlie  Uponishads  which  in  1801-2 
Anquetil  Duperron  had  published  from  a  Persian  version 
of  the  Sanskrit  original.  Another  friendship  of  the  same 
period  had  more  palpable  immediate  effect  but  not  so  per- 
manent. This  was  with  Goethe,  who  succeeded  in  securing 
liis  interest  for  those  investigations  on  colours  on  which  he 
was  himself  engaged.  Schopenhauer  took  up  the  subject 
in  earnest,  and  the  result  of  his  reflexions  (and  a  few  ele- 
mentary observations)  soon  after  appeared  (Raster  1816) 
■as  a  monograph,  Ueber  das  Sehen  iind  die  Farben.  The 
essay,  which  must  be  treated  as  an  episode  or  digression 
from  the  direct  path  of  Schopenhauer's  development,  due 
to  the  potent  deflecting  force  of  Goethe,  was  written  at 
Dresden,  to  which  he  had  transferred  his  abode  after  the 

I  '  This  classification  Schopeuhauersubsequentlymodified, ^substitut- 
ing for  the  first  and  fourth  a  graduated  scale  rising  from  cause  proper 
<in  hiorgauic  nature)  to  stimulus  (in  vegetative  life)  aud  motive  (iu 
41ie  auinial  world),  tlie  last  again  beiug  either  iutuitive  motive,  as  in 
the  lower  auiuials,  or  ratiou.al  motive,  as  iu  m.an. 


rupture  with  his  mother.  It  had  been  sent  in  MS.  to 
Goethe  in  the  autumn  of  1815,  who,  finding  in  it  a  trans- 
formation rather  than  an  expansion  of  his  own  ideas,  in- 
clined to  regard  the  author  as  an  ooDonent  rather  than  aa 
adherent. 

The  pamphlet  begins  by  re-stating  with  reference  to  sight  the 
general  theory  that  perccjition  of  an  objective  world  rests  upon  an 
instinctive  causal  postulation,  which  even  when  it  misleads  still 
remains  to  haunt  us  (instead  of  being,  like  errors  of  reason,  open 
to  extirpation  by  evidence),  and  proceeds  to  deal  with  physiological 
colour,  i.e.,  with  colours  as  felt  (not  perceived)  modifications  of  the 
action  of  the  retina.  First  of  all,  the  distinction  of  white  and 
black,  with  their  mean  point  in  grey,  is  referred  to  the  activity 
or  inactivity  of  the  total  retina  in  the  graduated  presence  or 
absence  of  fiijl  light.  Further,  the  eye  is  endowed  with  polarity, 
by  which  its  activity  is  divided  into  two  parts  qualitatively  dis- 
tinct. It  is  this  circumstance  which  gives  rise  to  the  phenomenon 
of  colour.  All  colours  are  complementary,  or  go  in  pairs;  each- 
pair  makes  up  the  whole  activity  of  the  retina,  and  so  is  equivalent 
to  white  ;  and  the  two  partial  activities  are  so  connected  that  when 
the  first  is  exhausted  the  other  spontaneously  succeeds.  Such  pairs 
of  colour  may  be  regarded  as  infinite  in  number  ;  but  there  are 
three  pairs  which  stand  out  prominently,  ami  admit  of  easy  expres- 
sion for  the  ratio  in  which  each  contributes  to  the  total  action. 
These  are  red  and  green  (each  =  i),  orange  and  blue  (2:1),  and 
yellow  and  violet  (3  :  1).-  This  theory  of  complementary  colours 
as  due  to  the  polarity  in  the  qualitative  action  of  the  retina  is 
followed  by  some  criticism  of  Newton  and  the  seven  colours,  by 
an  attempt  to  explain  some  facts  noted  by  Goethe,  and  by  some 
reference  to  the  external  stimuli  which  cause  colour. 

The  grand  interest  of  his  life  at  Dresden  was  tne  com- 
position of  a  work  which  should  give  expression  in  all  its 
aspects  to  the  idea  of  man's  nature  and  destiny  which  had 
been  gradually  forming  within  him.  Without  cutting 
himself  altogether  either  from  social  pleasures  or  from  art, 
he  read  and  took  notes  with  regularity.  More  and  mor« 
he  learned  from  Cabanis  and  Helvetius  to  see  in  the  will 
and  the  passions  the  determinants  of  intellectual  life,  and 
in  the  character  and  the  temper  the  source  of  theories  and 
beliefs.  The  conviction  was  borne  in  upon  him  that  scien- 
tific explanation  could  never  do  more  than  systematize  and 
classify  the  mass  of  appearances  which  to  our  habit-blinded 
eyes  seem  to  be  the  reality.  To  get  at  this  reality  and  thus 
to  reach  a  standpoint  higher  than  that  of  aetiology  was  the 
problem  of  his  as  of  all  philosophy.  It  is  only  by  such  a 
tower  of  specidation  that  an  e.scape  is  possible  from  the 
spectre  of  materialism,  theoretical  and  practical;  and  so, 
says  Schopenhauer,  "the  just  and  good  must  all  have  this 
creed  :  I  believe  in  a  metaphysic."  The  mere  reasonings 
of  theoretical  science  leave  no  room  for  art,  and  practical 
prudence  usurps  the  place  of  morality.  The  higher  life  of 
ffisthetic  and  ethical  activity — the  beautiful  and  the  good 
— can  onlj-  be  based  upon  an  intuition  which  penetrates 
the  heart  of  reahty.  Towards  the  spring  of  1618  the  work 
was  nearing  its  end,  and  Brockhaus  of  Leipsic  had  agreed 
to  publish  it  and  pay  the  author  one  ducat  for  every  sheet 
of  printed  matter.  But,  as  the  press  loitered,  Schopen- 
hauer, suspecting  treachery,  wrote  so  rudely  and  haughtily 
to  the  publisher  that  the  latter  bioke  off  correspondence 
with  his  client.  In  the  end  of  1818,  however,  the  book 
appeared  (with  the  date  1819),  in  725  pages  8vo,  with  the 
title  Die  Welt  als  Wille  vnd  Vorstellung,  in  four  books, 
with  an  appendix  containing  a  criticism  of  the  Kantian 
philosophy. 

Tlie  first  book  of  The  World  as  Will  and  Idea  resumes  tne  argu- 
ment of  the  earlier  work,  that  all  objects  are  constituted  by  intel- 
lectual relations,  describable  as  forms  of  the  causal  principle.  As 
so  apprehending  a  world  of  objects,  man  is  said  to  possess  in- 
telligence (Verstand),  the  perception  of  individual  sequences  and 
coexistences.  It  is  a  faculty  he  shares  with  the  animals,  and  by  its 
means  the  world  presents  itself  as  an  endless  number  of  objects  in 
space  and  time  bound  together  by  necessary  laws  of  causality.  But 
man  has  also  the  power  of  reason  (  Vcrnunft),  by  which  he  generalizes,' 
the  vehicle  of  this  generalization  being  language.     By  means  of 

'  Iu  this  doctrme,  so  far  as  the  facts  go,  Schopenhauer  is  indeUed 
to  a  paper  by  R.  Waring  Darwin  in  voL  Ixxvi.  -of  the  Transaction  cf 
the  Philosophical  Society.  , 


SCHOPENHAUER 


451 


ttaTBUagc  ana  reasoning  he  rises  out  of  the  animal  immcisiou  in  the 
brescnt  an>l  is  able  to  anticipate  the  future.  Ho  foniis  general 
Ideas  and  thus  can  preserve  and  communicate  abstract  knowledge 
But  i-eason,  tliough  its  "laws  of  thought"  have  a  formal  tivUh  of 
their  own,  has  no  independent  value  either  as  thcorclKal  or  as 
practical  In  the  former  aspect  it  gives  rise  toscieutilic  knowledge 
il-the  knowledge  of  facts  and  sequences  not  m  their  suigle  occur- 
'rences  but  as  instances  of  a  general  law.  By  means  of  the  gene.^l 
truths  thus  airived  at  we  can  deduce  or  prove.  But  a  proof  is,  alter 
all  only  a  means  of  slio«-ing  the  disputatious  that  something  which 
thev  deny  is  inseparably  bound  up  with  somctuii"  they  admit. 
It  is  a  mistake,  therefore  to  substitute  for  the  ocular  demonstratiou 
of  which  "cometry  is  susceptible  a  syUogistio  reasoning  which  may 
compa  a&ent  but  cannot  inspire  insight,  lingular  raponence^ 
W  the  true  workers  which  support  the  luxury  of  general  ideas,  and 
Reasoning  cannot  claim  to  be  more  than  a  re-arrangement  of  pro- 
ducts froui  other  fields.  „,....,  <•    t     "• 

Reason  is  enually  important  and  equally  limited  as  a  factor  in 
conduct.  It  enables  us,  as  it  were,  to  lead  a  second  life,  giuded 
by  general  principles  and  not  by  single  appetitions.  Such  a  life  is 
wliat  is  caUed  a  life  according  to  reason,  typified  in  the  ideal  of  the 
fetoic  sa"e  The  wise  man  carries  out  the  items  of  conduct  accord- 
in"  toTlreueral  plan  and  is  superior  to  the  impulses  of  the  moment. 
Bat  here  too  the  general  rests  upon  the  particular ;  a  systematic 
lappiuess,  takes  the  place  of  single  and  confiicting  pleasures,  but 
'still  can  only  justify  itself  by  procuring  pleasure.  Thus,  unless 
there  be  a  new  perception  of  life's  meaning,  reasoning  cannot 
make  a  man  virtuous,  it  can  only  make  him  prudent ;  it  tells  him 
how  to  reckon  mth  his  natural  character,  but  it  cannot  show  hmi 
how  to  amend  it.  .,     ,       ,..       i-i   • 

Book  ii.  is  an  attempt  to  name  that  residual  reality  which  is  pic- 
jupposed  but  not  explained  in  every  scientific  explanation,  whether 
atiological  or  morphological.     The  key  is  found  in  the  conscious- 
ness of  ourselves  is  exerting  wilL     AVhat  to  the  inner  conscious- 
ness is  volition  is  to  the  outer  perception  a  bodily  movement 
And  as  each  act  of  voUtLon  is  perceived  in  a  bodily  motion  so  will 
as  a  whole  is  by  us  perceived  as  body.     This  consciousness  that  my 
tody  is  my  will  objectified-my  will  translated  into  terms  of  scen- 
ic apprehcn.ion-^is  the  "philosonhical  ti'uth"  of  truths.     And, 
mneralizin"  this  truth,  we  conclude  that,  as  our  corporeal  franie 
^  the  visibUity  of  our  mode  of  will,  so  evei-jtliing  is  some  grade 
S  the  objectiiieation  of  the  wUI.     While  the  aetiology  of  science 
account?  for  the  familiar  complex  by  a  simpler  and  more  abstract 
Dhasc,  philosophy  uses  the  cleai-er  aud  more  conspicuous  instance 
toexplaSo  the  more  rudimentary.     The  law  of  motivation  is  taken 
as  a  key  to  open  the  incomprehcnsibiUty  of  mere  causation,  and  in 
the  store  we  presume  a  feeble  analogue  of  whattt-.;  kuow  as  wiU. 
The  wiU  as  such,  apart  from  its  objectiScation  in  animals,  knows 
nothing  of  motives,  which,  though  they  explain  the  special  circum- 
stancest presuppose  the  underiying  and  origiuative  force.    Iso  doubt 
afelse   dea  of  simplicity  has  often  led  theorists  to  reduce  all  sciences 
L  the  last  resort  to  applied  mathematics,  in  which  the  mysterious 
somethin.'  called  force  was  eliminated  and  on  y  the  forms  of  space 
and  time  and  motion  left.     But,  though  it  is  doubtless  possible  to 
reduce  the  list  of  original  forces,  we  cannot  get  ni  of  an  inexplic- 
able activity.     Hence  the  original  force  or  wiU  is  bcyondthe  range 
of  causality ;  every  cause  is  only  an  "occasional  cause,    and  but 
states  the  temporal  conditions  of  operation  of  the  eternal  energy. 
WhUe  each  several  act  has  an  aim,  the  coUective  will  has  none. 

The  numerical  dilferences  of  objects  do  not  touch  the  underlying 
activity      It  is  felt  in  one  oak  as  much  as  in  a  milhon,  for  timo 
and  space  are  only  semblance  for  (animal)  intelligence.    And  there- 
fore, instead  of  wondering  at  the  uniformity  pervading  the  in- 
stances of  any  objectification  of  will,  we  should  remember  that  the 
wiU-force  operating  in  all  is  the  same,  and  reveals  its  inner  identity 
in  the  comiuoa  law.     For  the  same  reason  the  adaptations  of  the 
parts  of  an  organic  body  or  of  one  organic  body  to  another  are 
mly  the  consequences  of  the  unity  of  will.     Just  as  the  series  of 
actions  throughout  a  life  are  only  the  utterances  of  one  onginal 
character,  and  so  intrinsically  iut(!rdependent,   so  the  grades  of 
obiectification  in  natuie  are  the  expression  of  one  identical  will. 
Tvhich  forms  the  conditions  of  existence  as  well  as  the  living  creatures 
accommodating  themselves  to  thein.     Will,  which  appears  in  is 
lowest  grade  of  objectification  as  the  physical  forces  ol  inoigamc 
Mture,  rises  in  the  vegetative  world  to  a  peculiar  symmthe  ,c 
response  to  the  stimulation  by  external  circumstances   an.l  in  the 
Sal  worid  produces  for  itself  a  snocial  organ,  the  bra.n,  which 
Jesses  the  power  of  presenting  unier  the  lonl.s  of  ^'•"«°  ^"f^  ": 
tellect  that  ol\jeetive  manifestation  of  will  which  we  call  the  woild 
S  our  experience.     With  the  existence  of  the  anima)  brain,  lie 
world  emerged  into  time  and  space.     It  ^yas  a  step  neccss  tatcd  by 
Zerowinf  complexity  of  typo  in  the  will-products,  which  could 
neither  ex  si  nor  preserve  theh'  kind  witUout  this  new  instrumei.t 
wh    1  subsUtu^eJ  conscious  adaptation  for  unconscious  fcleology^ 
In  this  strange  mythology  by  which  S''^"!-"'-"";:]'     ^cv  r 
mvstei-v  of  creation  wo  see  the  magic  worid  of  will,  wtawt^  c^tr 
Sghe^complexitius  of  material  existence,  brought  at  length  by. 


sticss  of  circumstances  to  forge  a  material  organ  which  sliows  the 
scnsc-woild  as  the  objectificaliou  of  the  will.  In  tliis  one  material 
or^au  the  wiU  has  come  to  see  itself  expanded  into  a  complicated 
orSer  of  time  and  place.  But  at  firet  the  brain  and  its  function, 
kJiowledge,  are  solely  employed  in  the  service  of  the  will. 

Book  iii.  shows  how  the  intellect  is  emancipated  from  this  bond- 
ago  to  the  will     AVhcu  we  contemplate  an  object  simply  for  its  own 
sake,  forgetting  everything  and  ourselves  even  in  the  vision,  thou 
what  we  have  before  us  is  no  longer  one  thing  among  many  but  a 
tj-iie,  not  one  of  a  class  but  an  ultimate  individuality,  not  a  par- 
ticular bnt  au  adequate  embodiment  of  the  uuivei-saL     Instead  of 
the  general  concept  or  class-notion  wo  have  the  Platonic  "idea" — 
one  image  into  which  all  the  essential  life  of  the  object  has  been 
concentrated.      To  realize  this  individual  which  has  not  cutercd 
into  the  bonds  of  individuation^  this  universal  which  is  not  a  mere 
•'enus  but  the  eternal  truth  of  the  individual,  is  the  province  of 
genius.     The  man  of  genius,  neglecting  the  search  for  relationships 
between  things— unpractical  and  to  practical  judgment  sometimes 
scerain"  to  have  a  touch  of  mad  uess— instead  of  seeking  to  classify 
a  thingor  find  out  what  it  is  for,  looks  at  it  for  its  own  sake  and 
sees  tlTe  one  type  or  ideal  which  is  seeking  for  expression  in  its 
various  and  contiqgeut  manifestations.     Such  genius  begets  ait. 
Yet  so  much  at  least  of  genius  is  in  all  men  that  they  can  follow 
where  the  artist  leads  and  see  tluough  his  eyes.     Everything  as 
thus  coutcmplated  disinterestedly  for  its  own  sake  and  lu  its  per- 
manent significance  is  beoutirul.     Yet  one  thing  is  more  beautiful 
than  another.     For  there  are  objects  which  more  than  others  facili- 
tate the  quiescence  of  desire  and  present  to  us  their  permanent 
character  mthout  suggesting  or  stimulating  appetite.     The  sense 
of  sifht  is  more  independent  than  others  ot  associations  of  desire, 
the  past  and  distant  purer  from  self-interest  than  the  present 
Those  objects  are  specially  beautiful  where  the  significant  idea  is 
most  cleariy  presented  in  the  indi\-idual  form.      Indeed,  when  a 
certain  effort  is  rcquu-ed  to  keep  out  of  sight  the  general  beanns 
of  the  object  on  the  wiU,  then  the  object,  where  the  perceptiou  of 
genius  still  sees  the  perfect  type  in  the  single  form,  is  called  sublmie. 
The  scvei-al  arts  fall  naturally  into  an  order  which  rises  from  the 
passive  enjojTiieiit  in  the  contemplation  of  inoi-ganic  forces  to  the 
acHve  percepriou  of  will  in  its  most  complex  types.     Architecture 
seeks  in  works  dedicated  to  human  use  to  give  expression  to  tb» 
fundamental  featui-es  of  physical  force,  e.y.,  cohesion,  weight   &c., 
and  to  that  end  it  intensifies  the  appearance  of  strain  by  refusing 
the  forces  an  easy  and  immediate  lajjse  into  their  natural  tendency. 
In  short,  it  seeks  to  show  resistance  visible.     Sculpture  presents 
the  beauty  and  grace  of  the  human  form,  i.e.,  the  "  idea    of  that 
form  as  a  whole  and  iu  the  single  movements.     Here  the      idea 
is  not  derived  by  comparison  and  abstraction  of  observed,  lorms ; 
but  we,  as  ourselves  the  will  seeking  manifestation,  anticipate  by 
our  ideal  the  meaning  of  the  imperfect  phases  and  lay  down  au 
a  priori  canon  of  beauty.     While  sculpture  gives  expression  to  the 
more  generic  type  iu  figure  and  motion,  painting  aims  at  repro- 
sentin^  action.     But  even  historical  pictures  seek  in  a  pvcn  scene 
to  present  not  the  historical  importance  of  the  action  but  its  per- 
manent meaning.     Poetry,  which  uses  an  arrangement  of  general, 
concepts  to  convey  an  "idea,"  or  moulds  realit)-  out  of  abstractions, 
gives  us  the  central  and  abidmg  truth  vyhich  history- usually  du- 
fipates  in  a  host  of  particulars  and  relations      In  b7";P°; ''">.''';' 
individual  subject  of  will  presents  himself  as  the  subject  of  artistic 
perception :  his  own  experience  is  displayed  "^  .O'P'f ' ''"^'^'^ "f  K 
In  ti-n"cdv  the  truth  shown  is  the  inner  couQict  at  the  ver)  root  ol 
the  will.     The  hero  is  exhibited  as  brought  to  see  the  aimlessness 
of  all  will  ;  and  by  suffering  he  learns  resignation.     Mnsic,  uulilie 
Uio  other  arts,  is  an  image"  of  the  movement  of  will  "ol  y^t  "^ 
iectified  !  and  in  its  elements  aud  harmonies  we  have  a  para  let  to 
ihe  stogU  and  complexities  of  the  actual  worid.     Hence  tho  ex- 
planation of  music  would  be  a  philosophy  of  the  \™rld. 
^  But  art,  though  it  affords  au  interval  of  rest  from  the  drudgery 
of  wiU.seiVice.  Tannot  claim  to  be  more  than  a  ^^"f'^"'  '^V;"'j: 
tion.     Book  iv.  indicates  a  surer  way  of  release.     It  '^""'"J?/" 
that  our  life  is  tho  phenomenon  of  the  Nrill,-a  phenomenon  which, 
b  Is  at  birth  and  en.ls  at  death,  and  of  which  every  -"^  --"t  >;"' 
mfria!  birth  an.l  a  partial  death.     But  the  cessation  of  the  indi- 
vidual I  fe  is  not  an  annihilation  of  the  wiU  ;  our  essential  U-mg  u. 
n  h^trctible.      The  manifestarioi.  of  the  will  u,  human   life  u. 
sp  ca    out  and  disposed  in  an  endless  multitude  of  actions.     Ex- 
ner  enco  sums  up  these  in  a  single  formula  -the  maxim  of  our 
em  .rical  character  ;  and  that  result  itself  is  the  type  or  idea  M 
reveals  the  one  unilterable  utterance  of  will,  which  is  the  mtel- 
iLiblo   character.'      It  is   this  immemorial  act  which   fixes  wi. 
eScrU  chara^^         ^v-hich  gives  tho  consistency  and  regularity 
of  'on    act,     Vc«.'«o«  diJur._     Cluinactcr  is  K-en   by  an  ante- 


phenomena  ac  ) ;  it  is  not  acquired.  If  in  one  sense  we  can  sp,«k 
of  aT"ncnuired  character,"  wo  mean  thenby  that  wo  now  under. 
Stan  what  manner  of  men  wo  arc,  that  wo  Wvo  learned  the  U-st 
ami  worst  orourselves.     But.  Uiough  the  character  is  given  one. 

1  iio  t.niia  «iv  borrowed  from  KanV 


452 


SCHOPENHAU   ER 


for  all  in  the  beginning,  knowledge  is  not  useless.  AVe  can  learn 
to  adopt  new  means  though  the  end  of  will  remains  unaltered.  It 
is  this  new  knowledge  wliich  canseg  repentance,  when  we  see  we 
have  adopted  undue  nieth.-xls  to  attain  our  aim.  The  survey  of  the ' 
phenomena  of  life  in  the  light  of  their  principle  shows  that  all  life 
is  a  ceaseless  battle  for  existence  between  individuals,  that  happi- 
ness is  ouly  negative,  viz.,  a  relief  from  pain,  that  life  is  a  tragedy. 
But  the  natural  man,  hnmei-sed  in  the  sense  of  life,  plays  the  egoist 
as  if  he  were  the  centre  of  existence  and  the  will  to  life  spoke 
in  him  alone.  In  such  a  spirit  he  not  merely  acts  as  if  affirming 
liis  own  -will  to  life,  but  as  if  ho  denied  that  of  others.  He  com- 
mits injustice.  The  sense  of  wrong-doing,  he  may  feel,  is  the  wit- 
ness of'  consciousness  to  the  identity,  between  himself  and  others  ; 
it  is  the  appearance  oi  moral  law  and  gives  rise  to  that  sense  of 
-Tight  which  is  the  beginning  of  ethics.  But  for  the  most  part  ■ 
practical  reflexions  note 'only  the  evils  caused  by  egoism,  and  induce 
the  sufferers  to  form  a  law  to  produce  by  repression  the  same  results 
AS  .morality  attains  by  stimulation.  Thus  penal  law,  as  opposed  to 
Tnoral  law,  aims  only  at  checking  intiusione  upon  the  rights  of 
others,  and  the  whole  political  organization  is  only  an  instrument 
for  cheeking  egoism  by  egoism,  for  making  each  seek  the  welfare 
of  all  because  it  includes  his  own.  Its  justice  is  temporal ;  it  adds 
an  additional  pain  by  legislative  machinery,  with  a  view  to  the 
■welfare  of  the  greater  nuniber. 

But  there  is  another  and  an  eternal  justice.  Here  there  is  no 
eeparation  of  time  and  place  between  the  wrongdoer  and  the 
■sufferer.  This  eternal  justice  reveals  itself  to  him  who,  having 
seen  through  ' '  ihe  veil  of  Maya, "  has  found  that  in  the  world  of 
truth  the  divLsious  between  individuals  fall  away,  and  that  he  who 
does  wrong  to  aaother  has  done  the  wrong  to  his  own  self.  The 
persuasion  of  this  doctrine  of  eternal  justice  is  so  ingrained  in 
human  nature  that  we  welcome  the  punishment  that  overtakes  the 
victorious  evildoer.  Similar  lessons  are  hidden  in  the  myths  of 
transmigration  of  sonls.  The  secret  sense  that  the  pains  of  others' 
are  in  'reality  not  alien  constitutes  tlie  torments  of  remorse  whicii 
visit  the  wicked.  The  good  man,  on  the  contrary,  who  has  been 
brought  to  see  through  the  veil  of  individuality  into  the  unity  of 
all  being,  will  not  merely  practise  justice, — he  will  be  animated  by 
■  a  nniversal  benevolence.  Instead  of  ipus  or  the  blind  lust  of  life 
(seen  at  its  strongest  in  sexual  appetite),  he  has  learned,  by  means 
of  self-knowledge,  that  dvoi-i)  which  is  pitying  love,  or  carilas 
generis  humani. 

Such  benevolence  only  alleviates  the  misery  of  others.  It  Elimi- 
nates in  self-sacrifice,  which  is  carried  out  by  voluntary  and  com- 
plete chastity,  by  utter  poverty,  by  mortification,  by  fasting,  and 
fast  of-  all  by  death.  Such  a  course  of  life,  however,  is  seldom 
taught  by  instruction  alone,  and  the  broken  will  generally  comes 
only  where  a  mighty  shock  of  giief  reveals  the  inevitable  pain  of 
existence  and  brings  a  quietive  to  thelust  of  life.  Yet  the  victory 
over  the  will  to  life  is  not  attained  once  for  all ,  the  supremacy 
must  be  retained  by  8  career  of  asceticism.  Such  ascetics,  in  whom 
the  will  to  life  was  deadened  and  the  body  remained  as  a  mere 
empty  semblance,  were  the  saints  and  mystical  devotees  of  all  ages. 
They  had  crucified  the  flesh  with  its  affections  and  lusts.  Their 
will  had  been  emancipated  from  the  bondage  to  which  in  life  it  was 
subject,  had  been  released  from  the  objectirtcation  in  corporeity  and 
restored  to  its  original  infinity.  In  such  saints  alone  has  the  essen- 
tial freedom  of  the  will  appeai'ed  on  the  temporal  scene,  but  appeared 
only  to  destroy  the  old  Adam  and  bring  in  the  new  bii'th.  By  the 
lively  knowledge  of  the  truth  of  things  the  will  has  denied  itself, 
■has  passed  into  a  stage  where  the  objective  world  is  as  if  it  were 
not, — the  stage  which  was  when  ivill  as  yet  had  not  gone  forth  to 
objectify  itself  in  a  world  and  when  knowledge  had  not  yet  mirrored 
the  reality  in  an  idea,  when,  in  short,  nothing  was. 

]>"g  before  the  work  had  come  to  the  hands  of  the 
public,  Schopenhauer  had  rushed  off  to  Italy  and  ex- 
changed the  labours  of  giving  the  gospel  of  renunciation 
a  metaphysical  basis  for  the  gaiety  of  southern  life  and 
the  influences  of  classic  art.  At  Venice,  where  he  first 
Jingered  for  a  while,  he  found  himself  a  fellow-denizen 
with  Lord  Byron  j  but,  except  for  a  solitary  chance  when 
his  jealousy  was  stirred  by  the  outspoken  admiration  of 
his  fair  Venetian  companion  for  the  handsome  Briton  who 
rode  past  them  on  the  Lido,  the  two  insurgent  apostles  of 
Ihe  Wdtschmerz  never  came  across  each  other's  path.  At 
Rome,  where  he  passed  the  depth  of  winter,  he  saw  the 
first  copies  of  his  book.  It  found  him  in  assiduous  attend- 
ance on  the  art  galleries,  the  opera,  and  theatre — turning 
from  the  uncongenial  cpmpanionship  of  his  romantic  coun- 
trymen and  gladly  seizing  every  chance  of  conversing  in 
English  with  Englishmen.  In  March  1819  he  had  gone 
as  far  aa  Naples  and  Psestum,     On  his  way  homewards 


he  was  startled  by  receiving  at  Milan  a  Idtter '  f rom  Ma 
sister  announcing  that  in  consequence  of  the  failure  of  the 
Dantzic  house  a  large  pai-t  of  his  own  and  his  mother's 
and  nearly  the  whole  of  his  sister's  fortune  were  endangered. 
This  change  of  circumstances  was  a  heavy  blow  to  the 
ladies,  and  he  himself  was  almost  induced  by  the  mischance 
to  qualify  himself  to  teach  in  the  university  at  Heidelberg 
in  July  1819.  But  he  sternly  refused  the  compromise  of 
seventy  per  cent,  offered  by  the  insolvent  firm,  and  was  so 
angrily  suspicious  with  hie  sister  who  accepted  it  that  he 
ceased  to  correspond  with  her  for  about  fourteen  years. 
Fortunately  his  determined  and  skilful  assertion  of  his 
rights  was  crowned,  after  a  long  dispute,  with  success. 
He  recovered  the  whole  debt,  receiving  in  principal  and 
interest  the  sum  of  9400  thalers. 

After  some  stay  at  Dresden,  hesitatmg  between  fixing 
himself  as  university  teacher  at  Gottingen,  Heidelberg, 
or  Berlin,  he  finally  chose  the  last-mentioned.  In  his  ex- 
amination before  the  faculty  {disputatlo  pro  venia  leyend^ 
he  enjoyed  what  he  reckoned  the  satisfaction  of  catching 
up  Hegel  (who  had  just  been  appointed  professor)  in  a  lax 
use  of  a  technical  term  ("animal"  for  "organic"  functions). 
And  in  his  first  and  only  course  of  lectures  he  had  the 
further  satisfaction  of  selecting  as  his  hours  the  same  times 
(12  to  1  on  Jlonday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday)  as  Hegel 
had  taken  for  his  principal  class.  This  cpurse  on  the  first 
principles  of  philosophy  or  knowledge  in  general,  given  in 
the  summer  of  1820,  was  not  a  success, — indeed  did  not 
reach  its  natural  end,  and,  though  the  notice  of  lecture  was 
repeated  during  his  stay  in  Berlin  up  to  1831,  the  lecttire- 
room  knew  hun  no  more.  Brilliant  as  he  was  in  powers  ol 
lummous  illustration  and  characteristic  as  is  his  style,  he 
was  wanting  in  the  patient  exposition  of  a  subject  for  its 
own  sake  and  not  as  the  field  for  exemplifying  a  favourite 
thesis.  The  result  of  his  experiences  in  1820-21,  which| 
he  attributed  to  Hegelian  intrigues,  was  to  intensify  hia, 
suspicions  of  his  colleagues,  one  of  whom,  F.  E.  Beneke 
(another  alleged  victim  to  Hegel's  jealousies),  he  accused  of 
garbled  quotations  in  his  review  oi  The  World  as  Will  and. 
Idea.  Except  for  some  attention  to  physiology,  the  first 
two  years  at  Berlin  were  wasted.  In  May  1822  he  set 
out  by  way  of  Switzerland  for  Italy.  After  spending  the 
winter  at  Florence  and  Rome,  he  left  in  the  spring  of  1823 
for  Munich,  where  he  stayed  for  nearly  a  year,  the  prej» 
of  illness  and  isolation.  When  at  the  end  of  this  wretched 
time  he  left  for  Gr.stein,  in  May  1824,  he  had  almost  en- 
tirely lost  the  hearing  of  his  right  ear.  Dresden,  which  he 
reached  in  August,  no  longer  presented  the  same  hospitable 
aspect  as  of  old,  and  he  was  reluctantly  dra^Mi  onwards  to 
Berlin  in  May  1825. 

The  place  had  unpleasant  associations  of  many  kinds, 
but  one  disagreeable  incident  of  his  former  stay  now  re- 
turned to  him  in  a  judicial  award  of  pains  and  penalties. 
One  day,  about  a  year  after  his  first  settlement  in  Berlin, 
on  12th  August  1821,  on  returning  to  his  lodging  he  found 
three  women  standing  in  the  passage  in  front  of  his  room 
door.  The  event  had  annoyed  him  before,  and  his  land- 
lady had  promised  it  should  not  occur  again.  On  this 
occasion  accordingly  Schopenhauer  ordered  them  out  of 
what  he  held  to'  be  his  own  "  stair-head,"  walked  into  his 
room,-  and  emerged  in  a  few  minutes  with  hat  and  stick  a& 
he  had  entered.  One  of  the  women  was  still  on  the  spot, 
— a  semptress,  forty-seven  years  old,  a  friend  of  the  land- 
lady, and  occupant  of  a  small  chamber  adjacent  to  that  of 
Schopenhauer.  This  person  he  ejected;  and  when  she 
returned  to  pick  up  a  piece  of  cloth  (there  stood  a  chest  of 
drawers  belonging  to  her  in  the  passage)  he  put  her  forcibly 
out  again,  upon  which  she  fell  with  a  shriek,  that  alarmed 
the  house.  Next  day  she  lodged  an  action  against  lim 
for  per^^oual  injuries  j  and,  after  a  vuiety  of  opposing  deei- 


SCHOPENHAUER 


453 


Bions,  the  final  issue  was  in  1826  to  award  the  complainant 
compensation  (with  five-sixths  of  costs  and  a  small  sum  for 
medical  expenses)  to  the  amount  of  a  quarterly  aliment 
of  fifteen  thalers,  which  sum  she  received  till  her  death, 
fifteen  years  afterwards. 

The  six  years  (1825-31)  at  Berlin  were  a  dismal  period 
in  the  life  of  Schopenhauer.  In  vain  did  he  watch  for  any 
sign  of  recognition  of  his  philosophic  genius.  Hegelianism 
reigned  in  the  schools  and  in  literature  and  basked  in  the 
sunshine  of  authority.  It  was  a  bad  time  for  an  inde- 
pendent thinker  who  ignored  the  state  and  the  yearlong 
alliance  between  philosophy  and  theology.  Thus  driven 
back  upon  himself,  Schopenhauer  fell  into  morbid  medita- 
tions, and  the  world  which  he  saw,  if  it  was  stripi)ed  naked 
of  its  disguises,  lost  its  proportions  in  the  distorting  light. 
Tlie  sexual  passion  had  a  strong  attraction  for  him  at  all 
times,  and,  according  to  his  biographers,  the  notes  ho  set 
down  in  English,  when  he  was  turned  thirty,  on  marriage 
and  kindred  topics  are  unfit  for  publication.  He  had  in 
cpeoing  manhood  been  so  fascinated  by  a  Weimar  actress 
that  he  declared  he  would  take  ier  to  his  home  though  he 
found  her  breaking  stones  on  the  roadside.  Later  years 
had  nipped  the  freshness  of  his  enthusiasm,  and  casual 
experiences  generated  an  overweening  misogyny,  which, 
while  allowing  zvoman  her  place  in  the  natural  economy, 
regarded  the  lady  as  the  invention  of  a  false  civilization. 
Yet  in  the  loneliness  of  life  at  Berlin  the  idea  of  a  wife  as 
the  comfort  of  gathering  age  sometimes  rose  before  his 
mind, — only  to  be  driven  away  by  cautious  hesitations  as 
to  the  capacity  of  his  means,  and  by  the  shrinking  from 
the  loss  of  familiar  liberties.  He  continued  his  bachelor- 
dom,  and  found  consolation  in  less  onerous  associations. 
At  home  he  tuned  his  flute ;  he  dined,  and  it  might  be 
conversed,  with  his  fellow-guests  at  the  Hotel  de  Russie ; 
he  read  for  hours  at  the  royal  library,  and  gave  his  even- 
ings to  the  theatres.  But  he  wrote  nothing  material.  In 
1828  he  made" inquiries  about  a  chair  at  Heidelberg;  and 
in  1830  he  got  a  shortened  Latin  version  of  his  physio- 
logical theory  of  colours  inserted  in  the  third  volume  of  the 
Scriptores  Ophthalmologici  Minores  (edited  by  Radius). 

Another  pathway  to  reputation  was  suggested  by  some 
remarks  he  saw  in  the  seventh  number  of  the  Foreign 
Revicto,  in  an  article  on  Damiron's  French  Philosophy  in 
the  19th  Century.  With  reference  to  some  statements  in 
the  article  on  the  importance  of  Kant,  he  sent  in  very 
fair  English  a  letter  to  the  writer,  offering  to  translate 
Kant's  principal  works  into  English.  He  named  his 
wages  and  enclosed  a  specimen  of  his  work.  His  corre- 
spondent, Francis  Haywood,  made  a  counter-proposal 
•which  so  disgusted  Schopenhauer  that  he  addressed  his 
next  letter  to  the  publishers  of  the  review.  When  they 
again  referred  him  to  Hayivood,  ho  applied  to  Thomas 
Campbell,  then  chairman  of  a  company  formed  for  buy- 
ing up  the  copyright  of  meritorious  but  rejected  works. 
Nothing  came  of  this  application.^  A  translation,  of  selec- 
tions from  the  works  of  Balthazar  Gracian,  which  was 
published  by  Frauenstiidt  in  1862,  seems  to  have  been 
made  about  this  time.^ 

In  the  summer  of  1831  cholera  .raged  at  Berlin,  and 
Schopenhauer  fled  to  Frankfort.  About  a  year  later  ho 
adjourned  to  Mannheim.  But  after  eleven  months'  ex- 
perience of  the  latter  he  decided,  from  a  carefully  weighed 
list  of  comparative  advantages,  in  favour  of  Frankfort. 
And  there,  accordingly,  for  the  rest  of  his  life  he  remained. 
He  resumed  correspondence  with  his  sister,  who  was  liv- 
ing with  her  mother  in  straitened  circumstances  at  Bonn. 

'  It  was  not  till  1841  tbat  a  translation  of  Kont'a  Kritik  in  English 
appeared. 

'  He  also  projoctea  a  translation  of  Huino'g  Esaaya  and  wrote  a 
preface  for  it^ 


At  first  the  good  people  of  Frankfort  knew  him,  not  as 
the  celebrated  philosoph(ir,  but  as  the  son  of  the  famous 
Johanna  Schopenhauer,^  and  as  the  companion  of  a  familiar 
poodle.  The  day  had  not  yet  risen  when,  as  he  had  pro- 
phesied to  his  mother  (who  joked  at  his  book  on  "  four- 
fold root "  as  smelling  of  the  apothecary),  his  works  would 
be  read  of  all,  and  hers  only  be  used  by  the  grocer  to 
wrap  his  goods  in.  The  sense  of  unappreciated  work, 
aggravated  by  ill  health  and  by  pecuniary  worry  about 
his  Dantzic  property,  sank  deep  into  a  heart  that  was  yearn- 
ing for  outward  recognition.  He  seemed  to  see  around 
him  none  but  enemies,  a  world  mainly  filled  with  knaves 
and  fools,  where  a  true  man  was  rarer  than  an  honest 
woman,  and  where  the  very  touch  of  society  was  so  periloos 
that  irony  and  reserve  were  imposed  on  every  one  who  re- 
tained his  self-respect.  In  ,  solitude  he  devoured  his  owii 
soul.  At  the  hotel  table  a  stranger  might  occasionally  be 
drawn  into  listening  to  his  vigorous  monologue ;  but  it 
was  seldom  he  was  thus  encouraged  to  discourse.  Ground- 
less fears  of  hidden  dangers  made  him  see  himself  and 
every  other  independent  genius  the  aim  of  a  conspiracy  of 
vulgar  charlatans.  He  would  never  entrust  his  neck  to 
the  barber's  hand ;  and  he  succeeded  in  secreting  his 
valuables  so  thoroughly  that  some  of  them  were  after  his 
death  recovered  only  after  much  search. 

Ever  since  the  publication  of  The  World  as  Will  and 
Idea  he  had  silently  waited  for  some  response,  to  his 
message.  He  had  uttered  the  word  he  felt  himself 
charged  to  utter.  As  the  years  passed  he  noted  down 
every  confirmation  he  found  of  his  own  opinions  in  the 
writings  of  others,  and  every  instance  in  which  his  views 
appeared  to  be  illustrated  by  new  researches.  Full  of  the 
conviction  of  his  idea,  he  saw  everything  in  the  light  of 
it,  and  gave  each  «j}er<;u  a  place  in  his  alphabetically 
arranged  note -book.  Everything  he  published  in  later 
life  may  be  called  a  commentary,  an  excursus,  or  a 
scholium  to  his  main  book ;  and  many  of  them  are 
decidedly  of  the  nature  of  commonplace  books  or  collec-- 
tanca  of  notes.  But  along  with  the  accumulation  of  his 
illustrative  and  corroborative  materials  grew  the  bitter- 
ness of  heart  which  found  its  utterances  neglected  and 
other  names  the  oracles  of  the  reading  world.  The 
gathered  ill-humour  of  many  years,  aggravated  by  the 
confident  assurance  of  the  Hegelians,  found  vent  at  length 
in  the  introduction  to  his  next  book,  where  Hegel's  works 
are  described  as  three-quarters  utter  absurdity  and  one- 
quarter  mere  paradox, — a  specimen  of  the  language  in 
which  during  his  subsequent  career  he  used  to  advert  to 
his  three  predecessors  Fichte,  Schelling,  but  above  all 
Hegel.  This  work,  with  its  wild  outcry  against  the  philo- 
sophy of  the  professoriate,  was  entitled  Ueh'er  den  Willen  in 
dcr  Natur,  and  was  published  in  1836. 

The  eight  essays  whicli  go  under  the  title  of  The  Will  in  Nature 
seek  to  allow  that  his  theory  has  the  unique  distinction  of  finding 
in  physical  soienco  testimony  to  its  metaphysical  doctrines  that 
will  is  the  primary  basis  of  all  nature  and  intellect  a  derivativa 
jihenomcnon.  Often  a  trivial  similarity  of  phrases  serves  to  establish 
in  his  judgment  an  agreement  of  radical  view.  In  the  second  cs.<iay 
ho  argues  for  the  origin  of  animal  organization  from  will,  pointing 
out  how  in  growing  creatures  the  tendency  to  use  an  organ  apiwars 
before  the  organ  itself  is  formed,  and  maintaining  tbit,  instead  of 
seeking  the  protoplasm  of  tho  animal  kingdom  in  a  mere  lump  of 
vitalized  matter,  to  be  moulded  by  external  conditions,  wo  should 


'  Johanna  Scliopeuhaucr  (17G6-1838)  was  in  her  Any  an  authored 
of  some  reputation.  Besides  editing  tlio  memoirs  of  Kcniow,  aha 
published  Notes  on  Travels  in  Eitr/laud,  &olland,  auil  Soulliern  Franc* 
( 1 8J3-1 7) ;  Johann  van  Eyek itnd  his  Successors (]  823);  three  roniancoa, 
Oabriele  (1819-20),  Die  Tanle  (1823),  and  Siihmia  (1828),  besides 
some  shorter  tales.  These  novels  teach  tho  moral  of  renunciation 
{Enlmguny).  Her  daughter  Adelo  (1796-1849)  sccuis  to  have  had  a 
brave,  tender,  and  unsatisfied  licnrt,  and  lavished  on  her  brother  «■ 
alTection  ho  sorely  tried.  She  also  was  an  authoress,  publishing  ia 
1844  a  volume  of  llatis-,  Wnld;  tinci  FetJ-Miihrchtn,  full  of  quaint 
poetical  conceits,  and  in  184S  Anna,  a  novel,  in  two  vols. 


454 


SCHOPENHAUER 


Two 
Jfam 
Prob- 
tests  of 
Ethics. 


Jook  for  it  in  tlic  immemorial  act  of  ivill  which  is  the  timeless 
origin  of  living  beings.  The  third  essay  represents  the  intellect — 
or  "the  worhl  as  idea  " — as  having  its  origin  in  the  narrow  partition 
which  in  men  and  animals  is  interposed  between  the  stimulation 
of  a  cause  and  the  reaction  which  supervenes.  From  this  realistic 
standpoint  intellect  seems  an  interloper  in  nature,  an  accident 
associated  with  the  fortunes  of  man,  and  made  victorious  in  the 
genius  which  can  behold  the  world  "  in  maiden  meditation,  fancy- 
free."  The  fourth  essay  traces  the  grades  of  disproportion  between 
cause  and  effect  from  inorganic  to  organic  nature.  Where  there 
is  causality  there  is  will ;  but  for  us  the  more  obviously  the  one 
shows  itself  tlie  less  is  tlie  other  remarked.  Another  paper  seeks 
to  connect  animal  magnetism  (mesmerism,  hypnotism)  and  magic 
with  the  doctrine  that  in  each  of  us  the  whole  undivided  will  re- 
tains its  miraculous  potency. 

In  1837  Schopenhauer  sent  to  the  committee  entrusted 
Xrith  the  execution  of  the  proposed  monument  to  Goethe 
at  Franlifort  a  long  and  deliberate  expression  of  his  views, 
in  general  and  particular,  on  the  best  mode  of  carrj'ing 
out  the  design.  But  his  fellow-citizens  passed  by  the 
remarks  of  the  mere  -nTiter  of  books.  More  weight  was 
natui-ally  attached  to  the  opinion  he  had  advocated  in 
his  early  criticism  of  Kant 'as  to  the  importance,  if  not 
the  superiority,  of  the  first  edition  of  the  Kritik ;  in  the  col- 
-lected  issue  of  Kant's  works  by  Rosenkranz  and  Schubert 
in  1838  that  edition  was  put  as  the  substantive  text,  with 
supplementary  exhibition  of  the  diflferences  of  the  second. 

In  1841  he  published  under  the  title  Die  beiden  Grund- 
probleme  del'  Ethik  two  essays  which  he  had  sent  in 
1838-39  in  competition  for  prizes  offered.  The  first  was 
in  answer  to  the  question  "  Whether  man's  free  will  can 
be  proved  from  self-consciousness,"  proposed  by  the  Nor- 
■wegian  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Drontheim.  His  essay 
was  awarded  the  prize,  and  the  author  elected  a  member 
of  the  society.  But  proportionate  to  his  exultation  in 
this  first  recognition  of  his  merit  was  the  depth  of  his 
mortification  and  the  height  of  lis  indignation  at  the 
result  of  the  second  competition.  He  had  sent  to  the 
Danish'  Academy  at  Copenhagen  in  1839  an  essay  "On 
the  Foundations  of  Morality"  in  answer  to  a  vaguely 
•worded  subject  of  discussion  to  which  they  had  invited 
candidates.  His  essay,  though  it  was  the  only  one  in 
competition,  was  refused  the  prize  on  the  grounds  that  he 
had  failed  to  examine  the  chief  problem  {i.e.,  whether  the 
basis  of  morality  was  to  be  sought  in  an  intuitive  idea  of 
right),  that  his  explanation  was  inadequate,  and  that  he 
had  been  wanting  in  due  respect  to  the  sinmni  jMlosopJu 
of  the  age  that  was  just  passing.  This  last  reason,  while 
probably  most  effective  with  the  judges,  only  stirred  up 
more  fiu-iously  the  fury  in  Schopenhauer's  breast,  and  his 
preface  is  bne  long  fulmination  against  the  ineptitudes 
and  the  charlatanry  of  his  lete  noire,  Hegel. 

In  the  essay  on  the  freedom  of  the  mil  Schopenhauer  shows 
that  the  deliverance  of  self-consciousness,  "I  can  do  what  I  will," 
is  a  mere  statement  of  our  physical  freedom,  or  the  sequence  of 
outward  act  upon  inner  resolve,  in  the  absence  of  physical  restraint. 
"The  statement  of  self-consciousness  concerns  the  will  merely  a 
parte  post,  the  question  of  freedom,  on  the  contrary,  a  parte  ante." 
Self-consciousness  throws  no  light  ou  the  relation  of  volition  to  its 
antecedents.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  turn  to  the  objects  of  the 
outer  senses,  we  find  that  it  is  part  and  parcel  of  their  very  nature 
to  be  not  free  but  necessitated,  governed,  in  short,  by  the  principle 
of  causation.  But  in  the  ascending  scale  of  causation  cause  and 
effect  become  more  and  more  heterogeneous,  their  connexion  more 
unintelligible.  This  is  seeu  in  motivation,  especially  where  the 
motives  are  not  immediate  perceptions  but  general  abstract  ideas. 
It  is  in  the  possibility  of  a  conflict  of  motives  that  man's  freedom 
of  choice  consists.  But,  because  we  can  by  a  feat  of  abstraction 
keep  an  image  of  one  course  of  action  before  us  and  neglect  the 
other  concrete  conditions  of  behaviour,  there  grows  up  an  illusion 
that  the  mere  initial  solicitation  or  velleity  might,  if  we  pleased, 
become  actual  will.  Hence  the  delusion  thrt  we  are  free  to  will 
and  not  to  wUl.  StOl  the  necessitating  cau^e  or  motive  is  only 
the  rule  under  which  the  real  force  or  radical  will  operates.  In 
this  radical  will  consists  our  being,  and  on  it  action  is  consequent: 
operari  sequitnr  esse.  By  our  original  character  acting  in  certain 
circumstances  of  motive  our  actions  are  inevitably  determined. 
But  the  sense  of  responsibility  for  our  conduct  is  not  altogether  a 


delusion.  It  is  really  a  responsibility  for  our  character,  which  we 
have  gradually  learned  experimentally  to  know,  and  which  so' 
known  serves  as  a  court  of  appeal  against  single  actions,  or,  in' 
other  words,  becomes  a  conscience.  That  character  is  the  supra- 
temporal  action  of  that  will  \vliich  we  and  all  things  are.  Thus 
this  question  of  the  freedom  of  the  vn]\,  which  is  "a  touchstone 
for  distinguishing  the  profound  from  the  superficial  thinker,"  is 
solved  by  the  Kantian  distinction  of  empirical  and  transcendental 
world.     In  the  words  of  Malebranche,  "  La  liberte  est  un  mystere." 

The  essay  ou  the  foundation  of  morality  is  an  attempt  to  present 
tlie  fundamental  fact  of  the  moral  consciousness  and  to  show  Its 
metaphysical  bearings.  It  includes  a  lengthy  criticism  of  Kant's 
system  of  ethics  as  only  the  old  theological  morality  under  a 
disguise  of  logical  formula.  Kant,  according  to  liis  critic,  tliough 
he  struck  a  severe  blow  at  eudamonism,  made  the  mistake  of 
founding  ethics  on  ideas  of  obligation  and  respect,  which  are 
meaningless  apart  from  a  positive  sanction.  His  categorical  im- 
perative is  attributed  to  reason, — a  power  which  we  only  know  as 
human,  but  which  Kant  regards  as  more  than  human  and  borrows 
from  the  "rational  psychology,"  which  itself  had  received  it  from 
theology.  The  moral  spring  should  he  a  reality  and  a  fact  of 
nature,  whereas  Kant  seeks  it  in  the  subrilties  of  general  ideas, 
forgetting  that  reasoning  is  one  thing  and  virtue  another.  And, 
when  Kant  has  to  illustrate  the  application  of  his  rule  for  discover- 
ing the  categorical  imperative,  he  is  forced  to  have  recourse  to  con- 
siderations of  self-interest. 

After  this  examination,  Schopenhauer  preludes  his  exposition  by 
the  sceptical  survey  of  so-called  virtuous  actions  as  due  in  the  vast 
majority  of  instances  to  other  than  moral  motives,  and  by  a  dis- 
integration of  the  average  conscience  into  equal  parts  of  fear  of 
man,  superstition,  prejudice,  vanity,  and  custom.  The  mainspring 
of  human  action  (as  of  animal)  is  egoism,  supplemented  by  the 
hatred  or  the  malice  which  arises  through  egoistic  conflicts.  But, 
though  these  are  the  predominant  springs  of  conduct,  there  are 
cases  of  unselfish  kindness.  It  is  in  sympathy,  or  in  our  as  it  were 
substitutiug  ourselves  for  another  who  is  in  pain,  that  we  find  the 
impulse  which  gives  an  action  a  truly  moral  value.  The  influence 
of  sympathy  has  two  degrees  :  either  it  keeps  me  back  from  doing 
wrong  to  others,  and  in  this  sense  leads  to  justice  as  a  moral  -viitae 
(whereas  civil  justice  prevents  from  suffering  wiong) ;  or  sympathy 
may  carry  me  ou  to  positive  kindness,  to  philanthropy  or  love  of 
the  human  kind.  It  is  on  sympathy — the  feeling  of  one  identical 
nature  under  all  the  appearance  of  multiplicity — that  the  two  car- 
dinal virtues  of  justice  and  benevolence  are  based.  Schopenhauer 
notes  especially  that  his  principle  extends  to  the  relation  between 
man  and  animals,  and  that  a  mistaken  conception  of  human  dignity 
has  been  allowed  to  hide  the  fundamental  commimity  of  animal 
natui'e. 

In  184:4  appeared  the  second  edition  of  The  World  as 
WUl  and  Idea,  in  two  volumes.  The  first  volume  was 
a  slightly  altered  reprint  of  the  earlier  issue ;  the  second 
consisted  of  a  series  of  chapters  forming  a  commentary 
parallel  to  those  into  which  the  original  work  was  now 
first  divided.  The  longest  of  these  new  chapters  deal  with 
the  primacy  of  the  will,  with  death,  and  with  the  meta- 
physics of  sexual  love.  But,  though  only  a  small  edition' 
was  struck  off  (500  copies  of  vol.  i.  and  750  of  vol.  ii.), 
the  report  'of  sales  which  Brockhaus  rendered  in  1846 
was  unfavourable,  and  the  price  had  afterwards  to  be 
reduced.  Yet  there  were  faint  indications  of  coming 
fame,  and  the  eagerness  with  which  each  new  tribute 
from  critic  and  admirer  was  welcomed  is  both  touching 
and  amusing.  From  1843  onwards  a  jurist  named  F. 
Dorguth  had  trumpeted  abroad  Schopenhauer's  name. 
In  1844  a  letter  from  a  Darmstadt  lawyer,  Joh.  Angus 
Becker,  asking  for  explanation  of  some  diiEculties,  began 
an  intimate  correspondence  which  went  on  for  some  time 
(and  which  was  published  by  Becker's  son  in  1883).  But 
the  chief  evangelist  (so  Schopenhauer  styled  his  literary 
followers  as  distinct  from  the  apostles  who  published  not) 
was  Frauenstadt,  who  made  his  personal  acquaintance  in 
1846.  It  was  Frauenstadt  who  succeeded  in  finding  a 
publisher  for  the  Parerga  und  Paralipomena,  which 
appeared  at  Berlin  in  1851  (2  vols.,  pp.  465,  531).  Yet 
for  this  bulky  collection  of  essays,  philosophical  and 
others,  Schopenhauer  received  as  honorarium  only  ten  free 
copies  of  the  work.  Soon  afterwards,  Dr  E.  O.  Lindner-, 
assistant  editor  of  the  Vossiscke  Zeituwj,  began  a  series  of 
Schopenhauefite  articles.    Amongst  them  may  be  reckoned 


SCHOPENHAUER 


455 


a  tmnslation  by  Mrs  Lindner  of  an  article  by  John  Osen- 
ford  which  appeared  in  the  Westminster  Review  for  April 
1853,  entitled  "Iconpclasm  in  German  Philosophy,"  being 
an  outline  of  Schopenhauer's  system.     In  1854  Frauen- 
8tadt'3  Letters  on  the  Schopenluiuerean  Philosophy  showed 
that  the  new  doctrines  were  become  a  subject  of  discus- 
sion,— a  sUte  of  things  made  still  more  obvious  by  the 
university  of  Leipsic  offering  a  prize  for  the  best  exposi- 
tion and  examination  of  the  principles  of  Schopenhauer's 
gysteui.      Besides   this,  the  response  his  ideas  gave  to 
popular  needs  and  feelings  was  evinced  by  the  numerous 
correspondents  who  sought  his  advice  in  their  difficulties. 
And  for  the  same  reason  new  editions  of  his  works  were 
called  for, — a  second  edition  of  his  degree  dissertation  in 
1847,  of  his  Essay  on  Colours  and  of  The  Will  in. Nature 
in  1854,  a  third  edition  of  The  World  as  Will  and  Idea  in 
1859,  andin  1860  a  second  edition  of  The  Main  Problems 
of  Ethics. 
jbDven-       In  these  later  years  Schopenhauer  had  at  length  realised 
tionil      j^iiat  peace  which  can  be  given  in   the  world ;  he  had 
•°^'      become  comparatively  master  of  himself.      His  passions 
^d"  hiT   had  slackened  their  strain,   and  he  was  no  longer  the 
posi-      victim  of  unavailing  regrets.     As  a  youth  he  had  known 
"oirtic      none  of  those  ties  which  give  the  individual  an  esprit  de 
•f""'     corps,  a  sense  of  community  which  he  never  quite  loses. 
"^'       Wandering  about  from  place  to  place  throughout  Europe, 
with   no   permanent,  home    sweetened   by _  the   different 
phases  of  family  affection,  with  no.  reminiscences  of  com- 
radeship in  schoolboy  days,  with  no  sentiment  of  the 
dues  of  nationality,  Schopenhauer  is  the  fitter  interpreter 
of  that  modern  cosmopolitanism  which  disdains  the  more 
special  ties  of  common  life  and  mutual  obligation  as  being 
obstacles  to  free  development.     In  exaggerated  self-con- 
sciousness, he  looks  down  upon  the  common  herd  who 
live  the  life  of  convention  and  compromise,  and  puts  the 
supreme  value  on  that  higher  intellectual  life  which  leisure 
and  means  permit  him  to  enjoy.     A  subtler  egoism,  which 
emancipates  itself  from  the  lusts  and  the  duties  of  the 
world,  takes  the  place  of  the  vulgar  self-seeking  of  the 
multitude   and   of   the   self-devotion   of   the.  patriot   or 
philanthropist.    To  such  a  mind  the  friction  of  professional 
duties  seems  irksome :  the  bonds  of  matrimony  and  the 
duties   incumbent   on   social    membership   are   so   many- 
checks  on  freedom  of  thought  and  resolution.     The  indi- 
vidualist  recognizes   none   of  those   minor   morals   and 
parochial  or  provincial  duties  which  appropriate  three- 
fourths  of  our  conduct.      In  the  wide  universe  he  sees 
himself  and  others,  none  more  akin  to  him  than  another, 
beings  not  bound  by  external  ties,  and  united  only  in  the 
fundamental  sameness  of  their  inner  nature.     To  ordinary 
mortals,  absorbed  in  "  the  trivial  round,  the  common  task," 
the  links  that  bind  individuals  are  forged  by  the  petty 
ordinances  and   observances  of  society.      But  to  those 
whom  temper  and  circumstances  have  denied  local  and 
partial  associationship,  the  craving  for  totality  is  so  keen 
that  it  makes  them  seek  their  higher  country  in  that  far- 
off  world  (strangely  called  "  intelligible  ")  where  their  per- 
sonality disappears  in  the   one   being  of   the   universe. 
Thus  wide  is  the  antagonism  between  the  eudiemonisra 
of  civilization,   with  aspirations  towards   perfecting  our 
homes  and  bodies,  so  that  in  all  things  comfort  may  be 
established,  and  the  pessimistic  asceticism  of  Schopen- 
hauer, which  sees  the  perfection  of  life  not  in  the  abun- 
dance of  those  things  which  wo  eat  and  drink  and  where- 
with we  are   clothed   but  in  a  deadening  of  passion,  a 
negation  of  the  would-livc-and-enjoy,  and  an  existence  in 
a  calm  ecstasy  of  beatific  vision,  of  knowledge  not  abstract 
but  lively  intuition.     It  is  this  protest  of  Schojpenhaucr 
against  the  vanity  of  the  aims  prescribed  by  conventional 
civilization  and  enlightenment  which  ha»  gained  him  some 


of  those  ardent  followers  who  find  in  his  doctrine  thai 
religion  of  which  they  stand  in  need.  _ 

It  is  a  religion  which  owns  no  conneidon  with  theism 
or  pantheism.  Unlike  Spinoza  and  Hegel  and  the  other 
leaders  of  modern  speculation,  Schopenhauer  disdains  the 
shelter  of  the  old  theology.  His  religion  is  cosmic  and 
secular ;  it  finds  its  saints  in  Buddhist  and  Christian 
monasticism,  in  Indian  devotees  and  19th-century  "beaii- 
tiful  souls,"  and  holds  the  one  to  be  no  nearer  or  mora 
impressive  as  an  example  than  the  other.  Of  Judaism 
he  has  no  good  to  say  :  its  influence  on  Christianity  has 
been  pernicious.  The  new  faith  is  a  ministry  of  art  and 
of  high  thinking,  which  may  be  rendered  by  all  those  who 
by  plain  li-ving  and  unselfish  absorption  in  the  great  mean- 
ing and  typal  forms  of  the  world  have  slain  the  root  of 
bitterness  that  constantly  seeks  to  spring  up  within  them. 
It  is  far  from  being  a  worship  of  the  blind  force  which  lies 
at  the  back  of  phenomena  :  it  is  a  "  re-implication  "  of  the 
individual  into  the  abscflute  from  which  life  has  separated 
him.  Each  seeker  after  this  reunion  is  himself  (when  he 
has  learnt  wisdom  by  experience  and  self-restraint)  the  very 
being  who  has  become  allthings ;  and  if  the  "  cosmic  \vill " 
may  be  termed  God  (an  impossible  identification)  then  he 
knows  God  more  intimately  than  he  knows  anything  else. 
And  here  if  anywhere  it  may  be  said,  "  He  serveth  best 
who  loveth  best  all  things  both  great  and  small."  Yet 
love  in  this  creed  is  second  to  knowledge ;  the  odi  pro- 
fanum  vulgus  of  the  misanthrope  is  heard  from  the  soli- 
tary's shrine,  and  instead  of  the  service  of  humanity  we 
have  the  contemplation  of  the  eternal  forms,  and  the  ele- 
vation to  that  world  where  self  ceases  to  be  separated  from 
other  selves,  and  where,  in  .the  ultimate  ecstasy  of  know- 
ledge, all  things  positive  and  definite  disappear  and  there 
is  a  being  which  the  sensuous  soul  of  man  fails  to  dis- 
tinguish from  non-being. 

It  is  often  said  that  a  philosophic  system  cantiot  beBeUtiw 
rightly  understood  without  reference  to  the  character  and  of  *''« 
circumstances  of  the  philosopher.  The  remark  finds  ample  ^  j,**^ 
application  in  the  case- of  Schopenhauer.  The  conditions ^q  j,iy 
of  his  training,  which  brought  him  in  contact  with  thesj-stei^ 
realities  of  life  before  he  learned  the  phrases  of  scholastic 
language,  give  to  his  words  the  stamp  of  self-seen  truth 
and  the  clearness  of  original  conviction.  They  explain  at 
the  same  time  the  naivet6  which  set  a  high  price  on  the 
products  his  own  energies  had  turned  out,  and  could  not 
see  that  what  was  so  original  .to  himself  might  seem  less 
unique  to  other  judges.  Pre-occupied  with  his  own  ideas, 
he  chafed  under  the  indifference  of  thinkers  who  had  grown. 
hlase  in  speculation  and  fancied  himself  persecuted  by  a. 
conspiracy  of  professors  of  philosophy.  It  is  not  so  easy 
to  demonstrate  the  connexion  between  a  man's  life  and 
doctrine.  But  it  is  at  least  plain  that  in  the  case  of  any 
philosopher,  what  makes  him  such  is  the  faculty  he  has, 
more  than  other  men,  to  get  a  clear  idea  of  what  he  himself 
is  and  does.  More  than  others  he  leads  a  second  life  in 
the  spirit  or  intellect  alongside  of  his  life  in  the  flesh, — 
the  life  of  knowledge  beside  the  life  of  will.  It  is  inevi- 
table that  ho  should  be  especially  strnck  by  the  points  in 
which  the  sensible  and  temporal  life  comes  in  conflict  with 
the  intellectual  and  eternal.  It  was  thus  that  Schopenhauer 
by  his  oym  experience  saw  in  the  primacy  of  the  will  the 
fundamental  fact  of  his  philosophy,  and  found  in  the  en- 
grossing interests  of  the  selfish  <>(U9  the  perennial  bin' 
drances  of  the  higher  life.  For  his  absolute  individualism, 
which  recognizes  in  the  state,  the  church,  the  family  only 
.so  many  superficial  and  incidental  provisions  of  human 
craft,  the  means  of  relief  was  ab.sorption  in  the  infcllortual 
and  purely  ideal  aims  which  prepare  the  way  for  the  CM«a- 
tion  of  temporal  individuality  altogether.  But  theory  i» 
one  thing  and  practice  another ;  and  ho  will  often  lay  most 


456 


SCHOPENHAUER 


stress  on  the  •  theory  who  is  most  conscious  of  defects  in 
the  practice.  It  need  not  therefore  surprise  us  that  the 
man  who  formulated  the  sum  of  virtue  in  justice  and  bene- 
volence was  unable  to  be  just  to  his  own  kinsfolk  and 
reserved  his  compassion  largely  for  the  brutes,  and  that 
the  delineator  of  asceticism  was  more  than  moderately 
sensible  of  the  comforts  and  enjoyments  of  Ufe. 

Having  renounced  what  he  would  call  the  superstitions 
of  duty  to  country,  to  kindred,  and  to  associates,  except 
in  so  far  as  these  duties  were  founded  on  contract  (and 
that,  according  to  him,  all  duties  imply),  it  was  natural 
that  he  should  take  steps  to  minimize  that  friction  which 
he  so  easily  excited,  and  which  had  induced  his  voluntary 
exile  from  the  arena.     His  regular  habits  of  life  and  care- 
ful regard  to  his  own  health  remind  us  of  the  conduct  of 
the  bachelor  Kant.    He  would  rise  between  seven  and  eight 
both  summer  and  winter,  sponge  himself,  bathing  his  eyes 
carefully,  sit  down  to  coffee  prepared  by  his  own  hands, 
and  soon  get  to  work.    He  was  a  slow  reader.    The  classics 
were  old  friends,  always  revisited  with  pleasure.     He  only 
read  original  works — the  classics  of  pure  literature — avoid- 
ing all  books  about  books,  and  especially  eschewed  the  more 
modern  philosophers.     Hume  in  English  and  Helv6tius  and 
Chamfort  in  French  he  found  to  his  mind  in  their  sceptical 
estimates  of  ordinary  virtue.     Mystical  and  ascetic  writ- 
ings, from  Buddhism  and  the  U]M>iishads  to  Eckhart  and 
the  DeutscJa  Theologie,  commended  themselves  by  their  in- 
sistence on  the  reality  of  tho  higher  life.     Their  example 
of  will-force  drew  his  favourable  notice  to  the  phenomena 
of  mesmerism,  just  as  his  sjTiipathy  with  the  lower  brethren 
of  man  made  him  an  interested  observer  of  a  young  orang- 
outang shown  at  Frankfort  in  1834.     He  was  familiar  -nith 
several  literatures,  English  certainly  not  the  least.     The 
names  of  Shakespeare,  Scott,  Byron,  Calderon,  Petrarch, 
Dante,  are  frequent  in  his  pages.     AVhat  he  read  he  tried 
to  read  in  the  original, — or  anyv.here  but  in  a  German  trans- 
lation.    Even  the  Old  Testament  ho  found  more  impress- 
ive in  the  Septuagint  version  than  in  Luther's  rendering. 
The  hour  of  noon  brought  cessation  from  his  contempla- 
tions, and  for  half  an  hour  he  solaced  himself  on  the  flute. 
At  one  o'clock  he  sat  down  to  dinner  ia  his  inn,  and  after 
pinner  came  home  for  an  hour's  siesta.     After  some  light 
reading  he  went  out  for  a  stroll,  alone,  if  possible  country- 
wards,  with  cane  in  hand,  cigar  lit,  and  poodle  following. 
Occasionally  he  would  stop  abruptly,  turn  round  or  look 
back,  mutter  something  to  himself,  so  as  to  leave  on  the 
passer-by  the  impression  that  he  was  either  crack-brained 
or  angry.     Like  Kant,  he  kept  his  lips  closed  on  principle. 
His  walk  over,  he  retired  to  the  reading-room  and  studied 
ihe'Tiiius, — for  he  had  been  always  somewhat  of  an  Anglo- 
maniac,  and  had  learnt  this  habit  of  English  life  from  his 
father.     In  winter  ie  would  sometimes  attend  the  opera. 
Between  eight  and  nine  he  took  supper,  with  a  half-bottle 
of  light  wine  (he  avoided  his  country's  beer),  at  a  table  by 
himself. 

With  his  low  estimate  of  the  average  human  being,  his 
Eynipathies  were  aristocratic.  He  left  the  bulk  of  his 
fortune  to  an  institution  at  Berlin  for  the  benefit  of  those 
who  had  suffered  on  the  side  of  order  during  the  revolu- 
tionary struggles  of  1848-49.  But  in  so  doing  it  was  not 
his  sympathy  with  kings  but  his  recognition  of  the  merits 
of  public  security  which  gave  the  motive  to  his  actions. 
With  all  his  eulogy  of  voluntary  poverty,  he  did  not  agree 
to  being  deprived  of  his  property  by  the  malice  or  cupidity 
of  others,  and  fears  of  the  loss  of  his  means  haunted 
him  not  less  keenly  than  other  imaginary  terrors, — the 
fancied  evils  distracting  him  no  less  perhaps  than  would 
have  done  those  domestic  and  civil  obligations  from  which 
he  endeavoured  to  hold  himself  free.  The  Nemesis  of  his 
social  lAchete  fell  upon  him;  and,  like  all  solitaries,  he 


gave  an  exaggerated  importance  to'trifles,  which  the  sweep 
of  business  and  customary  duty  clear  away  from  the 
ordinary  man's  memory. 

It  .was  not  till  he  was  fifty  years  of  age  that  he  set  up 
rooms  and  furniture  of  his  own.  These  abodes  he  changed 
at  Frankfort  about  four  times,  living  latterly  on  tho 
street  which  runs  along  the  Main.  On  the  mat  in  his 
chamber  lay  his  jxradle, — latterly  a  brown  dog,  which  had 
succeeded  the  original  white  one,  named  Atma  (the  World- 
Soul),  of  which  he  had  been  especially  fond.  These  dogs 
had  more  than  once  brought  him  into  trouble  with  his 
landlord.  In  a  corner  of  the  room  was  placed  a  gilt 
statuette  of  Buddha,  and  on  a  table  not  far  off  lay 
Duperron's  Latin  translation  of  the  UpanisJiads,  which 
served  as  the  prayer-book  from  which  Schopenhauer  read 
his  devotions.  On  the  desk  stood  a  bust  of  Kant,  and  a 
few  portraits  hung  on  the  walls.  The  philosopher's  person 
was  under  middle  size,  strongly  built  and  broad-chested, 
with  small  hands.  His  voice  was  loud  and  clear ;  his 
eyes  blue  and  somewhat  wide  apart ;  the  mouth  full  and 
sensuous,  latterly  becoming  broad  as  his  teeth  gave  way. 
The  high  brow  and  heavy  under-jaw  were  the  evidence  of 
his  contrasted  nature  of  ample  intellect  and  vigorous  im- 
pulses. In  youth  lie  had  light  curly  hair,  whereas  his 
beard  in  manhood  was  of  a  slightly  reddish  tint.  He 
always  dressed  carefully  as  a  gentleman,  in  black  dress- 
coat  and  white  necktie,  and  wore  shoes.  In  his  later  years 
his  portrait  was  taken  more  than  once,  and  by  several 
artists,  and  his  bust  was  modelled  somewhat  to  his  own 
mind  in  1859.  Reproductions  of  these  likenesses  have 
made  familiar  his  characteristic  but  unamiable  features. 

In  1854  Richard  Wagner  sent  him  a  copy  of  the  Ring 
of  the  Kihelung,  with  some  words  of  thanks  for  a  theory 
of  music  which  had  fallen  in  with  his  own  conceptions. 
Three  years  later  he  received  a  visit  from  his  old  college 
friend  Bimsen,  who  was  then  staj-ing  in  Heidelberg.  On 
his  seventieth  birthday  congratulations  flowed  in  from 
many  quarters.  In  April  18G0  he  began  to  be  affected 
by  occasional  difficulty  in -breathing  and  by  palpitation 
of  the  heart.  Another  attack  came  on  in  autumn  (9th 
September),  and  again  a  week  later.  On  the  evening  of 
the  18th  his  friend  and  subsequent  biographer,  Dr 
Gn  inner,  sat  with  him  and  conversed.  On  the  morning 
of  the  21st  September  he  rose  and  sat  down  alone  to 
breakfast ;  shortly  afterwards  his  doctor  called  and  founS 
him  dead  in  his  chair.  By  his  will,  made  in  1852,  with  a 
codieU  dated  February  1859,  his  projjerty,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  some  small  bequests,  was  devised  to  the  above- 
mentioned  institution  at  Berlin.  Gwinner  was  named 
executor,  and  Frauenstadt  was  entrusted  with  the  care  of 
his  manuscripts  and  other  literary  remains. 

The  philosophy  of  Schopenhauer,'  like  almost  every  system  of  the  Phflo- 
19th  century,  can  hardly  be  understood  without  reference  to  the  sophy 
ideas  of  Kant.     Anterior  to  Eant  the  gradual  advance  of  idealism  from 
had  been  tlie  most  conspicuous  feature  in  philosophic  speculation.  Kant  to 
That  the  direct  objects  of  knowledge,  the  realities  of  experience,  Schopeia 
were  after  all  only  our  ideas  or  perceptions  was  the  lesson  of  every  hauer. 
thinker  from  Descartes  to  Hume.     And  this  doctrine  was  generally 
understood  to  mean  that  human  thought,  limited  as  it  was  by  its 
own  weakness  and  acquired  habits,  could  hardly  hope  to  cope  suc- 
cessfully with  the  problem  of  apprehending  the  real  things.     The 
idealist  position  Kant  seemed  at  first  sight  to  retain  with  an  even 
stronger  force  than  ever.     But  it  is  darkest  just  before  the  dawn  ; 
and  Kant,  the  Copernicus  of  philosophy,  had  really  altered  the 
aspects  of  the  doctrine  of  ideas.     It  was  his  purpose  to  show  that 
the  forms  of  thought  (which  he  sought  to  isolate  from  the  peculi- 
arities incident  to  the  organic  body)  were  not  merely  customary 
means  for  licking  info  convenient  shape  the  data  of  perception,  but 
entered  as  underlying  elements  into  the  constitution  of  objects, 
making  experience  possible  and  determining  the  fundamental  struc- 
ture of  nature.     In  other  words,  the  forms  of  knowledge  were  the 
main  factor  in  making  objects.      By  Kant,  however,  these  forms 
are  generally  treated  psychologically  as  the  action  of  the  several 
faculties  of  a  mind.     Behind  thinking  there  is  the  thinker.     Bu$ 


SCHOPENHAUER 


457 


&  his  successors,  from  Ficlite  to  Hegel,  this  axiom  of  the  plain  man 
is  set  aside  as  anticjuated.  Thought  or  conception  tt-ithout  a  sub- 
ject-agent appears  as  the  piincipie, — thought  or  thinking  in  its 
universality  without  any  individual  substrata  in  which  it  is  em- 
bodied :  ri  vof'w  or  kAtjjis  is  to  be  substituted  for  yoDs.  This  is  the 
step  of  advance  which  is  reiuired  alike  by  Fichte  when  he  asks  his 
reader  to  rise  from  the  empirical  ego  to  the  ego  which  is  subject- 
object  (i.e.,  neither  and  both),  and  by  Hegel  when  ho  tries  to  sub- 
stitute the  JSegriff  or  notion  for  the  Vorsiellung  or  pictorial  concep- 
tion. As  spiritism  asks  us  to  accept  such  suspension  of  ordinary 
mechanics  as  permits  human  bodies  to  float  through  the  air  and 
part  without  injury  to  their  membei-s,  so  the  new  philosophy  of 
Kant's  immediato  successors  requires  from  the  postulant  for  initia- 
tion willingness  to  reverse  his  customarv  beliefs  in  quasi-material 
subjects  of  tliought.  ,   ,     .    ,    ,         , .  .     , 

But,  besides  removing  tue  psychological  slag  which  clung  to 
Kant's  ideas  from  their  matrix  and  presenting  reason  as  the  active 
principle  in  the  formation  of  a  universe,  his  successors  carried  out 
with  lar  more  detail,  and  far  more  enthusiasm  and  historical  scope, 
lis  principle  that  in  reason  lay  the  a  priori  or  the  anticipation  of 
the  world,  moral  and  physical.  Not  content  with  the  barren  asser- 
iion  that  the  understanding  makes  nature,  and  that  we  can  construct 
science  only  on  the  hypothesis  that  there  is  reason  in  the  world, 
they  proceeded  to  show  how  the  thing  was  Mtnally  done.  But 
to  do  so  they  had  first  to  brush  away  a  stone  of  stHmbling  which 
Kant  had  left  in  the  way.  This  was  the  thing  as  it  is  by  itself 
anH  apart  from  our  knowledge  of  it, — the  something  which  we 
kiibw,  when  and  as  we  know  it  not.  This  somewhat  is  what  Kant 
calls  a  limit-concept.  It  marks  only  that  we  feel  our  knowledge  to 
1)6  inadequate,  and  for  the  reason  that  there  may  be  another  species 
of  sensation  than  ours,  that  other  beings  may  not  be  tied  by  the 
special  laws  of  our  constitution,  and  may  apprehend,  as  Plato  says, 
Tjy  the  soul  itself  apart  from  the  senses.  But  this  limitation,  say 
the  successors  of  Kant,  rests  upon  •  a  misconception.  The  sense  of 
inadequacy  is  only  a  condition  of  growing  knowledge  in  a  being 
subject  to  the  laws  of  space  and  time ;  and  the  very  feeling  is  a 
proof  of  its  implicit  removal.  Look  at  reason  not  in  its  single 
temporal  manifestations  but  in  its  eternal  operation,  and  then  this 
nniversal  thought,  which  may  be  called  God,  as  the  sense-condi- 
tioned reasoij  is  called  man,  becomes  the  very  breath  and  structure 
of  the  world.  Thus  in  the  true  idea  of  things  there  is  uo  irreduc- 
We  residuum  of  matter :  mind  ia-the  Alpha  and  Omega,  at  once 
the  initial  postulate  and  the  final  truth  of  reality. 

In  various  ways  a  reaction  arose  against  this  absorption  of  every- 
thing in  reason.  In  Fichte  himself  the  source  of  being  is  primeval 
activity,  the  groundless  and  incomprehensible  deed-action  {That- 
Sar-dluiU))  of  the  absolute  ego.  The  innermost  character  of  that 
ego  is  a»  infinitude  in  act  and  effort.     "Tlie  will  is  the  living 

grinciplt  Of  reason,"  he  says  again.  "  In  the  last  resort,"  says 
cheUing  (1809),  in  his  Inquiries  into  tlie  Nature  of  Human  Freedom, 
"there  is  no  other  being  but  will.  Wolleii  ist  Ursein  (will  is 
primal  being) ;  and  to  this  alone  apply  the  predicates  fathomless, 
eternal,  independent  of  time,  self- affirming. ''  It  is  unnecessary 
to  multiply  instances  to  prove  that  idealism  was  never  without  a 
jorotcst  tuat  there  is  a  heart  of  existence,  life,  will,  action,  which 
is  presupposed  by  all  knowledge  and  is  not  itself  amenable  to  ex- 
planation. We  may,  if  we  like,  call  this  element,  which  is  assumed 
as  the  basis  of  all  scientific  method,  irrational, — will  instead  of 
reason,  feeling  ratlier  than  knowledge. 

It  13  under  the  banner  of  this  protest  against  rationalizing 
idealism  that  Scliopenhauer  advances.  But  what  marks  out  his 
amiaiDent  is  its  pronounced  realism.  He  fights  with  the  weapons 
of  physical  doctrine  and  on  the  basis  of  the  material  earth.  _  He 
knows  no  reason  but  the  human,  no  intelligence  save  what  is  ex- 
iiibited  by  the  animals.  Ho  kno\v3  that  botb  snimala  and  men 
have  come  into  existence  within  assignable  limits  of  time,  and  that 
there  was  an  anteriojr  age  wlicu  no  eye  or  car  gathered  tho  life  of 
tlie  universe  into  perceptions.  Knowledge,  therefore,  with  its 
Vehicle,  the  intellect,  is  dependent  upon  tlio  existence  of  certain 
Tierve-organs- located  in  an  animal  system;  and  its  function  is 
originally  only  to  present  an  imago  of  the  interconnexions  of  the 
manifestations  external  to  tho  individual  organism,  and  so  to  give 
to  tho  iiiiliviilual  in  a  partial  and  reflected  form  that  feeling  with 
other  things,  or  innate  sympathy,  which  it  loses  as  organization 
becomes  more  complex  and  cnaractoristic.  Knowledge  or  intellect, 
therefore,  is  only  the  surrogate  of  that  moro  intimate  unity  of 
feeling  or  will  which  is  tho  underlying  reality— the  principle  of  all 
existence,  the  essence  of  all  manifestations,  inorganic  and  organic. 
And  the  jierfectiou  of  reason  is  attained  when  man  has  transcended 
tliose  limits  of  individuation  in  which  his  knowledge  at  fir.'it  pre- 
sents him  to  himbolf,  whc  ii  by  art  ho  has  risen  from  single  objects 
to  universal  types,  and  by  snllering  and  sacrifice  has  penetrated 
Txihopen-  to  that  innermost  sanctuary  where  the  enlhauasia  of  consciousness 
hauer       is  leached, — the  blessedness  of  eternal  repose, 

and  Her-      In  substantials  the  theory  of  .Schopenhauer  may  bo  com,wd 
bcrt  with  a  more  prosaic  sUtemcnt  of  Jlr  Hcrb«rt  Spencer  (modirnuing 

"ipeucer    Hume).     All  psychical  states  may,  according  to  bim,  l?o  treated  a» 


incidents  of  the  correspondence  between  the  organism  and  its  en- 
vironment. In  this  adjustment  the  lowest  stage  is  taken  by  reflex 
action  and  instinct,  where  tho  change  of  the  organs  is  purely 
automatic.  As  the  external  complexity  increases,  this  automatic 
regularity  fails  ;  there  is  only  an  mcipient  excitation  of  the  nerves. 
This  feeble  echo  of  the  full  response  to  stimulus  is  an  idea,  which 
is  thus  only  another  word  for  imperfect  organization  or  adjustment. 
But  gradually  this  imperfect  correspondence  is  improved,  and  the 
idea  passes  over  again  into  the  state  of  unconscious  or  organic 
memory.  Intellect,  in  short,  is  only  the  consequence  of  insufficient 
response  between  stimulus  and  action.  Where  action  is  entirely 
automatic,  feeling  does  not  exist.  It  is  when  the  excitation  is 
partial  only,  when  it  does  nbt  inevitably  and  immediately  appcalr 
as  action,  that  wo  have  the  appearance  of  intellect  in  the  gap.  The 
chief  and  fundamental  difference  between  Schopenhauer  and  Mr 
Spencer  lies  in  the  refusal  of  the  latter  to  give  this  "adjustment" 
or  "automatic  action"  the  name  of  will.  Will  according  to  Mr 
Spencer  is  only  another  aspect  of  what  is  reason,  memory,  or  feel- 
ing,— the  diflcrence  lying  in  tho  fact  that  as  will  the  nascent  ex- 
citation (ideal  motion)  is  conceived  as  passing  into  complete  or  full 
motion.  But  he  agrees  with  Schopenhauer  in  basing  conscious- 
ness, in  all  its  forms  of  reason,  feeling,  or  will,  upon  "automatic 
movement, — psychical  change,"'  from  which  consciousness  emerges 
and  in  which  it  disappears. 

What  Schopenhauer  professed,  therefore,  is  to  have  dispelled  Mahr 
the  claims  of  reason  to  priority  and  to  demonstrate  the  relativity  tendcn- 
and  limitation  of  science.  Science,  he  reminds  us,  is  based  on  final  ciesof  hie 
inexplicabilities  ;  and  its  attempts  by  theories  of  evolution  to  find  system, 
an  historical  origin  for  humanity  in  rudimentary  matter  show  a 
misconception  of  the  problem.  In  the  successions  of  material 
states  there  can  nowhere  be  an  absolute  firet.  The  true  origiii  of 
man,  as  of  all  else,  is  to  be  sought  in  an  action  which  is  everlasting 
and  which  is  ever  present :  nee  te  qumsiveris  extra.  There  is  a  source 
of  knowledge  within  us  tiy  which  we  know,  and  more  intimately 
than  we  can  ever  know  anything  external,  that  we  will  and  feel. 
That  is  the  first  and  the  highest  knowledge,  the  only  knowledge 
that  can  strictly  be  called  immediate  ;  and  to  ourselyes  we  as  the 
subject  of  wOl  are  truly  the  "immediate  object."  It  is  in  this 
sense  of  will — of  will  without  motives,  but  not  without  .conscious- 
ness of  some  sort— that  reality  is  revealed.  Analogy  and  experi- 
ence make  us  assume  it  to  be  omnipresent.  It  is  a  mistake  to  say 
will  means  for  Schopenhauer  only  force.  It  means  a  great  deal 
more  ;  and  it  is  his  contention  that  what  the  scientist  calls  force 
is  really  will  In  so  doing  he  is  only  following  the  line  predicted 
by  Kant'  and  anticipated  by  Leibnitz.  If  we  wish,  said  Kant,  to 
"ive  a  real  existence  to  the  thing  in  itself  or  the  noumcnon  we  can 
only  do  so  by  investing  it  with  the  attributes  found  in  our  own 
internal  sense,  viz.,  with  thinking  or  something  analogous  thereto. 
It  is  thus  that  Fechner  in  his  "  day- view  "  of  things  sees  in  planto 
and  planets  the  same  fundamental  "soul"  as  in  us— that  is,  "ono 
simple  being  which  appears  to  none  but  itself,  in  us  as  elsewhere 
wherever  it  occurs  self-luminous,  dark  for  every  other  eye,  at  the 
least  connecting  sensations  in  itself,  upon  which,  as  the  grade  of 
soul  mounts  higher  and  higher,  "there  is  constructed  the  conscious- 
ness of  higher  and  still  liii^her  relations.',' '  It  is  thus  that  I^tze 
declares'  that  "behind  the  tranquU  surface  of  matter,  behind  its 
rigid  and  regular  habits  of  behaviour,  we  are  forced  to  seek  the 
glow  of  a  hidden  spiritual  activity."  So  Schopenhauer,  but  in  a 
way  all  his  own,  finds  the  truth  of  things  in  a  ^viU  which  is  indeed 
unaffected'  by  conscious  motives  and  yet  cannot  be  separated  from 
some  faint  analogue  of  non-intellectual  consciousness. 

In  two  ways  Schopenhauer  has  influenced  tho  world.     He  has 
sho^vn  with  unusual  lucidity  of  expression  how  feeble  is  the  spou' 


fd'eaThave  ori'giimrforce  of  "tlidr' own."  This  creed  of  naturalism 
sTan^crous,  and  it  may  be.  true  that  t^«  ?«,'«™'?'",'^  J'' .'S 
often  Regenerates  into  cynicism  and  a  cold-blooded  denial  that, 
there  is  any  virtue  and  any  truth.  But  in  the  cra.sh  of  es  abl  shed 
creeds  and  the  spread  of  political  indifl-crentism  and  social  disin- 
tcCTation  it  s  probably  wise,  if  not  always  agieeable,  to  Uy  bare 
tirwoimds  un'der  which  h.'.manity  suffers,  f^-^gh  Pnde  woiild 
prompt  their  concealment.  But  Schopenhauer's  theorylias  another 
prompt  ineu^  daringly  realistic,  it  is  no  less  audacious  in  its  deal- 
m  TTio  second  afpect  of  his  influence  is  the  doctrine  of  red.mp- 
S  of  the  soul  fronr  its  sensual  bonds,  e^^^y  he  medium  of  art 
and  second  by  the  path  of  renunciation  and  ascetic  hfe.  It  niBy 
bo  difficu  t  in  each  ca.so  to  draw  tho  line  between  «)cml  duty  and 
in,l Wklual  TOrCion  But  Schopenhauer  reminds  us  tl.at  the 
w^fl  eof  s^'e^  s^emporal  an5  suberdinato  f". .»""  to  b. 
Allowed  toXarf  the  fiUl  realization  of  our  ideal  being.  Mani 
d iXTb  undoubtedlv  to  join  in  tho  common  Bcrvice  o?  sentient 

1  KriM  (Traiii.  An«l.>,  by.  II.   Appundli. 

a  Vtbir  dU  SuU'\fns<,  P-  ».  Le^«'^"*^- 

•  itUmkomut,  voL  L  p.  «08  (2d  til.). 


458 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


ieings  ;  but  his  final  goal  is  to  rise  aB^ve  the  toils  and  comforts  of 
the  visible  creature  into  the  vast  bosom  of  a  peaceful  Nirvana. 

Bibliography. — The  works  oP  Schopenhauer  were  published  after  his  death 
ty  J.  Frauenstadt  ia  6  volumes  (Leipsic,  1874).  Besides  these,  several  papers 
and  aphoriams  appeared  in  1834.  Aus  Schopehhauer's  handschri/tliclicm  yoihcass, 
by  the  same  editor.  The  be~*  biography  of  Schopenhauer  is  that  b>  Gwinncr  , 
second  and  mu<Jh  enlarged  eaition  in  187S.  See  also  Frauenstadt  and  Lindner, 
Arthur  SchopeiUiauer  ;  von  ihm;  iiber  ihn  (1863);  O.  Busch,  A.  ScftopotAflu^r 
(1378) ;  K.  Peters,  Schopenhauer  als  Fhiioaoph  (1880),  and  h'illenguxU  Knd  Weit- 
wilU  (1SS3) ;  and  Koeber,  Schopenhauer's  Erlosungslehre  (1S81).  A  list  of  works 
Dn  Schopenhauer  is  given  by  Balan,  Schopenhauer-Literutur  (1880).  See  also 
Pessimism.    „ (W.  W.) 

SCHKOTER,  JoHANN  HiEEO>~TMtrs  (1745-1816), 
amateur  astronomer,  principally  known  by  Lis  physical 
observations  of  the  moon  and  planets  (see  Obskevatoky, 
ander  Lilienthal). 

SCHUBERT,  Franz  Peter  (1797-1828),  composer  of 
Tocal  and  instrumental  music,  was  born  at 'Vienna  3 1st 
January  1797.  For  the  foundation  of  his  general  educa- 
tion he  was  indebted  to  his  father,  a  schcK)lmaster  in  the 
Xeopoldstadt ;  but  the  1  'eaiity  of  his  voice  attracted  so 
much  attention  that  in  1808  he  was  received  into  the 
choir  of  the  imperial  chapel,  and  during  the  five  years 
■which  followed  he  was  taught  to  sing  and  to  play  the 
xiolin  in  the  choristers'  school  called  the  "Convict.'' 
No  attempt  seems  to  have  been  made  to  teach  him  com- 
position, but,  through  the  kind  intervention  of  an  older 
chorister,  he  was  supplied  with  music-paper,  and  thence- 
forward he  wrote  ince.'^santly,  as  his  fancy  dictated,  with- 
out any  help  whatever,  always  carefully  signing  and  dating 
lis  MSS.,  which  extend  back  as  far  as  1810.  When  his 
voice  broke  in  1813  Schubert  left  the  "Convict,"  and, 
to  avoid  the  conscription,  taught  for  three  years  in  his 
father's  school.  This,  however,  in  nowise  damped  his  zeal 
for  composition.  Even  at  this  early  period  his  invention 
was  inexhaustible  and  the  rapidity  of  his  pen  almost  in- 
credible. In  1815  he  composed  2  symphonies,  5  operas, 
and  no  less  than  137  songs  (67  of  which  have  been  pub- 
lished), besides  a  multitude  Oi  other  important  pieces. 
Yet  SO  little  was  his  genius  appre(riated  that  when  in  1816 
he  applied  for  an  appointment  at  a  Government  music 
school,  with  a  salary  equal  to  about  twenty  guineas  a  year, 
he  was  rejected  as  "  imperfectly  qualified." 

In  1818  Count  Johann  Eszterhazy  secured  the  services 
of  Schubert  as  resident  teacher  of  music  to  his  daughters, 
tor  one  of  whom  .the  young  composer  has  been  supposed 
— on  very  insufficient  authority — to  have  entertained  a 
TomantiC;  and  of  course  utterly  hopeless,  afiection.      The 
appointraent  was  of  great  importance  to  him,  for  he  was 
poor,  almost  to  starvation ;  yet  it  led  to  no  permanent 
improvement  in  his  prospects :   in  fact  his  life  was  one 
long  bitter  disappointment  from  beginning  to  end-     He 
wrote  on,  year  after  year,  producing  music  of  indescribable 
beauty  in   such   enormous   quantities  that  but   for  the 
dated   MSS.  we  should   refuse  to   believe  the  accounts 
transmitted  to  us  by  his  biographers.     He  wrote  because, 
■when  his  genius  inspired  him  with  an  idea,  he  could  not 
refrain.     Yet  he  scarcely  ever  looked  at  his  compositions 
after  they  were  finished,  and  very  rarely  heard  any  of  them 
performed.     Very  little  of  his  dramatic  music  was  given 
to  the  world.     Two  little  ope;-ettas — Die  ZtnUingshrUd^r 
and  Die  ZauherJiarfe — barely  escaped  failure  in  1820;  and 
the  beautiful  incidental  music  to  Madame  von  Chezy's 
Rosaniwxde  survived  but  two  representations  in  1823.     Of 
iis  greater  operas  not  one  was  placed  upon  the  stage  dur- 
ing his  lifetime.  ■   With  his  songs  he  was  more  fortunate. 
Many  of  them  were  published,  and  their  fresh  bright  melo- 
dies were  irresistible.     They  were  produced  by  hundreds, 
and   with   a   rapidity   bordering    upon    the  miraculous. 
Among  the  MSS.  seven  or  eight  may  be  found  dated  on 
the  same  day ;  yet  even  in  these  he  never  repeated  him- 
self :  every  one  was  the  resuU  of  a  new  inspiration,  'com- 
mitted to  paper  at  the  moment  of  conception,  laid  aside 
immediately  afterwards,  and  so  completely  forgotten  that 


he  has  been  known  to  ask  who  was  the  composer  of  one  of 
his  own  Lieder  not  very  long  after  he  had  composed  it. 
And  this  wonderful  facility  of  production  led  to  no  un- 
worthy form  of  treatment.  The  original  MS.  of  Hark, 
Hark,  the  Lark  was  written  at  a  "beer-garden,"  on  the 
back  of  a  bill  of  fare,  the  moment  after  the  composer  had 
read  the  words  for  the  first  time ;  and  there  are  strong 
reasons  for  believing  that  Who.  is  Sylvia  ? — one  of  the 
most  perfectly  finished  songs  on  record— and  Come,  thou 
Monarch  of  the  Vine,  were  produced  on  the  same  occasion. 
But  the  success  of  the  songs  did  not  make  Schubert  a 
prosperous  man.  All  his  life  long  he  suffered  from  grind- 
ing poverty.  Though  he  received  an  actual  commission 
to  write  his  greatest  dramatic  work,  Fierabrag,  for  the 
court  theatre  at  Vienna,  it  was  rejected  in  1824  for  the 
weakness  of  its  libretto.  Once,  and  once  only,  a  chance 
seemed  open  to  him.  He  was  accepted  in  1826  as  a  candi- 
date for  the  vacant  post  of  conductor  to  the  court  theatre, 
and  requested  to  compose  some  music  as  a-  test  of  his 
powers.  At  the  rehearsal  the  part  he  had  designed  for 
the  prima  donna  was  found  too  trying  for  her  voice,  and 
he  was  requested  to  alter  it.  "  I  wiU  alter  nothing,"  '•aid 
Schubert ;  and  his  refusal  to  listen  to  reason  cost  him  the 
coveted  appointment. 

Of  Schubert's  ten  symphonies  not  one  made  its  mark 
during  his  lifetime ;  yet  the  stamp  of  genius  is  upon  these 
as  plainly  as  upon  his  songs.  It  is  true  that  in  works  of 
large  dimensions  genius  loses  half  its  power  if  imsupported 
by  learning ;  and  Schubert  was  not  learned  enough  to  turn 
his  inspiration?  to  the  best  account.  His  ideas  came  so 
quickly  that  th4  knowledge  he  possessed  was  not  sufficient 
to  enable  him  to  arrange  them  in  that  perfect  order  which 
forms  the  chief  charm  of  the  symphonies  of  Mozart  and 
Beethoven.  And  the  same  element  of  weakness  is  dis- 
cernible in  his  sonatas  and  other  long  pieces  of  chamber 
music  But  these  are  all  true  works  of  genius,  preciou 
and  imperishable. 

It  was  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  under  his  heavy 
trials  Schubert's  health  failed  rapidly.  After  recovering 
from  more'than  one  serious  attack  of  illness,  he  was  seized 
with  a  sudden  access  of  delirium  while  at  supper  on  13th 
October  1828;  and  oh  19th  November  he  died,  leaving 
behind  him  a  few  clothes  and  other  possession.s,  which  were 
ofiicially  valued  at  sixty-three  Vienna  florins  ( =£2,  10s.). 
His  grave  at  the  Ortsfriedhof,  bought  by  the  scanty  savings 
of  his  brother  Ferdinand,  lies  within  a  few  feet  of  that  of 
Beethoven. 

Schubert's  works,  now  (1886)  in  course  of  publication  in  a  com- 
plete series  by  ilessrs  Breitkopf  &  Hartel  of  Leipsic,  include  18 
dramatic  pieces,  8  sacred  compositions,  10  symphonies,  24  piano- 
forte sonatas,  a  vast  collection  of  songs,  of  which  457  are  already 
published,  and  a  multitude  of  other  works  which  are  too  numerous 
to  mention. 

SCHULTENS.  Three  Dutch  Orientalists  of  this  name 
have  an  honourable  place  among  the  scholars  of  the  18th 
century.  The  first  and  most  important,  Albert  Schdxtens 
(1686-175Q),  was  born  at  Groningen  in  1686.  He  studied 
for  the  church  at  Groningen  and  Leyden,  applying  him- 
self specially  to  Hebrew  and  the  cognate  tongues.  His 
dissertation  on  The  Use  of  Arabic  in  the  Interpretation  of 
Scripture  (1706)  indicates  the  point  of  view  which  pre- 
vailed vrith  the  school  of  Arabists  of  which  he  was 
founder,  and  which  differentiates  his  aims  from  those  of 
Eeiske  (q.v.).  After  a  visit  to  Reland  in  Utrecht,  he 
returned  to  Groningen  (170S);  then,  having  taken  his 
degree  in  theology  (1709),  he  again  went  to  Leyden,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  study'of  the  MS.  collections  there 
till  in  1711  he  Became  pastor  at  Wassenaer.  Parochial 
work  was  little  to  his  taste,  and  in  1713  he  took  the 
Hebrew  chair  at  Franeker,  which  he  held  tiU  1729,  when 
he  was  transferred  to  Leyden  as  rector  of  the  collegium. 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


459 


theoln^ieum,  or  seminary  for  poor  students.  From  1732 
till  his  death  (at  Leydcn  on  26th  January  1750)  he  was 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  Leyden.  Schultens  was 
the  chief  Arabic  teacher  of  his  lime,  and  in  some  sense  a 
restorer  of  Arabic  studies,  but  he  differed  from  Keiske  and 
De  Sacy  in  mainly  regarding  Arabic  as  a  handmaid  to 
Hebrew.  His  chief  work  was  to  vindicate  the  value  of 
comparative  study  of  the  Semitic  tongues  against  those 
who,  like  Gousset,  regarded  Hebrew  as  a  sacred  tongue 
with  which  comparative  philology  has  nothing  to  do.  Schul- 
tens, on  the  other  hand,  certainly  went  much  too  far  in  his 
appeals  to  Arabic  for  the  interpretation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment ;  the  la'ws  of  comparative  Semitic  philology  were  not 
yet  known,  so  that  the  comparison  of  roots  was  often  guess- 
work, and  the  value  of  the  exegetical  tradition  in  Hebrew 
was  not  accurately  determined.  Hence  he  did  not  leave  so 
much  of  permanent  value  for  Hebrew  grammar  and  lexico- 
graphy as  might  have  been  expected  from  his  learning;  but 
the  systematic  illustration  of  phrases  and  modes  of  thought 
from  Arabic  literature,  e.g.,  in  his  Liber  Jobi,  has  a  higher 
value,  which  has  been  too  much  overlooked  in  the  reaction 
against  the  extravagances  of  the  school  he  founded.^ 

Albert's  son,  Joun  James  Schultens  (1716-1778), 
became  professor  at  Herbom  in  1742,  and  afterwards  suc- 
ceeded to  Lis  father's  chair.  He  was  in  turn  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Hi^-BY  AujEsr  SoHtrLTE:f?3  (1749-1793),  a  man 
of  great  parts,  who,  however,  left  comparatively  little 
behind  him,  Lanng  succumbed  to  excessive  work  ■while 
preparing  an  edition  of  Meldani,  of  which  only  a  part 
appeared  posthumously  »,1''95) 

SCHULTZE,  Max  Johann  Siegmitot)  (1825-1874), 
German  microscoj  ic  anatomist,  was  born  at  Freiburg  in 
Breisgau  (Baden)  on  25th  March  1825.  He  studied  at 
Qreifswald  and  Berlin,  and  was  appointed  extraordinary 
professor  at  Halle  in  1854  and  five  years  later  ordinary 
professor  of  anatomy  and  histology  at  Bonn.  He 
died  at  Bonn  16th  January  1874.  His  contributions  to 
biology  were  numerous  and  varied.  He  founded  and 
edited  the  important  Archiv  fur  milcroslcopische  Anaiomie, 
to  which  he  contributed  many  papers,  and  advanced  the 
subject  generally,  by  refining  on  its  technical  methods. 
He  also  contributed  to  the  knowledge  of  the  Protozoa  (see 
FoEAMiNTFERA,  Peotozoa).  He  wiU  bc  longest  remem- 
bered, however,  by  his  reform  of  the  cell  theory.  "Uniting 
Dujardin's  conception  of  animal  sarcode  with  Vou  Mohl's 
of  vegetable  protoplasma,  he  pointed  out  clearly  their 
identity,  and  included  them  under  the  common  name  of 
protoplasm.  Ho  thus  reorganized  the  theory  as  established 
by  Schwann,  diminished  the  importance  of  the  cell-wall 
and  nucleus,  and  laid  down  the  modern  definition  of  the 
cell  as  "  a  nucleated  mass  of  protoplasm  with  or  without  a 
cell-wall "  (see  Protopiasm  and  Schw.vnn).  An  obituary 
notice  of  Schultze  is  given  in  Arck.  mikr.  Anal.,  1875. 

SCHUMACHER,  Heinrich  Christian  (1780-1850), 
astronomer,  born  at  BramstcJt  in  llolstcin,  3d  September 
1780,  was  director  of  the  Mannheim  observatory  from 
1813  to  1815,  and  then  became  professor  of  astronomy 
in  Copenhagen.  From  1817  he  directed  the  triaugulation 
of  Holstcin,  to  which  a  few  years  later  was  added  a  com- 
plete geodetic  survey  of  Denmark ;  the  latter  was  left  in- 
complete by  Schumacher,  but  was  finished  after  his  death. 
For  the  sake  of  the  survey  an  observatory  was  established 
at  Altona  (see  Observatory)  and  Schumacher  resided 
there  permanently,  chiefly  occupied  with  the  publication 

1  A-  SchullcDH's  cliief  works  are  Origitus  Uebrmm(l  vols.,]  724, 1738), 
2d  cd.,  17C1,  with  the  De  de/ectibus  litigua  Ilcbran  (1st  cd.,  17^1)  j 
Com.  on /oi,  1737  ;  Com.  on  Proverbs,  \T ii  ;  IIcl)rcw  graminar  (//u(i- 
iutiones),  1737  ;  Veins  el  rfgia  via  Ilebrniznndi,  173S;  Monwnenta 
«<i/s<iora /Iraium  (1710— extracts  from  Nowairi,  Mns'udi.  Ac);  ed. 
of  Beha-cd-din's  Life  of  Sidadin ;  his  Opera  Minora  (1769)  oad  « 
Sylloge  Disscrtationum  (1772,  177S)  api)eurcd  postliumoiuly. 


of  Ephemerides  (11  parts;  1822-32)  and  of  the  journal 
Aslronomischt  NachriclUen,  of  which  he  lived  to  edit  thirty- 
one  volumes,  and  which  still  continues  to  be  the  principal 
astronomical  journal.  Schumacher  died  at  Altona  on  28th 
December  1850. 

SCHUiyLANN,  Robert  (1810-1856),  musical  critic  and 
composer,  was  born  at  Zwickau,  Saxony,  on  8th  June 
1810.  In  deference  to  his  mother's  wisli,  he  made  a  pre- 
tence of  studying  for  the  law,  until  he  had  completed  his 
twentieth  year ;  but  in  reality  he  took  so  little  pains  to 
acquaint  himself  with  the  mysteries  of  jurisprudence  and 
so  much  to  master  the  technical  difliculties  of  the  piano- 
forte that  when  the  day  of  examination  drew  near  it  was 
evident  that  he  could  not  hope  to  pass  with  credit.  His 
mother  therefore  wisely  ga^e  up  her  cherished  project, 
and  in  the  summer  of  1830  permitted  him  to  settle  for  a 
time  La  Leipsic  that  be  might  receive  regular  instruction 
from  Friedrich  Wieck,  the  most  accomplished  and  success- 
ful teacher  of  the  pianoforte  then  living  in  North  Germany. 
Under  Wieck's  superintendence  Schumann  would  doubt- 
lessly have  become  a  pianist  of  the  highest  order  had  ho 
not  endeavoured  to  strengthen  the  third  finger  of  his  right 
hand  by  some  mechanical  contrivance  the  secret  of  which 
he  never  clearly  explained.  But  the  process  failed  most 
signally,  and  the  hand  became  so  hopelessly  crippled  that 
the  young  artist  was  compelled  to  give  up  all  thought  of 
success  as  a  performer  and  to  devote  himself  thenceforward 
to  the  study  of  composition,  which  he  cultivated  diligently 
under  the  guidance  of  Heinrich  Dom. 

This  change  of  purpose  led  him  to  direct  his  attention 
to  subjects  connected  with  the  higher  branches  of  art 
which  he  had  previously  very  much  neglected.  Moreover, 
it  gave  him  time  and  opportunity  for  the  development  of 
a  peculiar  talent  which  he  soon  succeeded  in  turning  to 
exceUent  account, — the  talent  for  musical  criticism.  His 
first  essays  in  this  direction  appeared  in  the  form  of  con- 
tributions to  the  AUgemeine  mvsikalische  Zeitung ;  but  in 
1834  he  started  a  journal  of  his  own,  entitled  Die  Neue 
Zeitschrift  fur  Musik,  and  to  this  from  time  to  time  he 
contributed  critiques  of  the  most  profound  character,  some- 
times openly  written  under  his  own  name,  sometimes 
ostensibly  emanating  from  an  imaginary  brotherhood  called 
the  Bavickbund,  the  members  of  which  were  living  men 
and  women,  Schumann's  most  intimato  friends,  though  the 
society  itself  existed  only  in  his  own  fertile  imagination. 
His  time  was  now  fully  occupied.  He  composed  with  in- 
exhaustible ardour,  and  by  the  exercise  of  his  extraordi- 
nary critical  faculty  struck  out  for  himself  new  paths,  which 
he  fearlessly  trod  without  a  thought  of  the  reception  hia 
works  were  likely  to  meet  with  from  the  public.  'The  habit 
of  passing  a  just  judgment  upon  the  works  of  others  led 
him  to  judge  his  own  productions  ■with  relentless  severity; 
and  it  may  be  safely  said  that  he  was  harder  upon  himself 
than  upon  any  candidate  for  public  favour  whose  attempts 
he  was  called  upon  to  criticize. 

Schumann's  first  great  orchestral  work  was  his  S;/mphony 
in  B\>,  produced  in  1841, — the  year  after  his  marriage  with 
Clara  Wicck,  now  so  well  kno^vn  to  the  world  as  Madame 
Clara  Schumann,  the  accomplished  pianistc,  to  whose  fault- 
less interpretation  of  her  husband's  works  wo  are  indebted 
for  our  fullest  appreciation  of  their  inherent  beauty. 
Another  symphony,  in  D  minor,  and  an  orchestral  over- 
ture, scherzo,  and  finale,  appeared  in  the  same  year ;  and 
from  this  time  forward  works  on  an  equally  grand  acalo 
appeared  in  rajiid  succession,  culminating  with  his  first 
and  only  oi)cra,  Cenovcvu,  which,  though  coin]>Ictcd  in  1848, 
was  not  produced  until  1850.  In  1843  Schumann  was 
appointed  professor  of  composition  iu  Mendcl.ssohii's  newly 
founded  conservatory  of  music  at  Leipsic.  Two  ycnrs  after 
Mcndclssolm's  death  ho  endeavoured  to  obtain  the  appoint- 


460 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


ment  of  director  of  the  Gewandhaus  concerts,  but  was 
rejected  in  favour  of  J.  Rietz.  In  1850  he  was  invited  to 
Dtisseldorf  as  musical  director — a  post  in  which  Mendels- 
sohn had  greatly  distinguished  himself  many  years  pre- 
viously. Schumann  re'.ained  this  until  1853,  when  his 
mental  powers  began  to  decline  rapidly  through  a  disease 
of  the  brain  from  which  he  had  long  suflFered,  and  of 
which  he  died  at  Endenich,  near  Bonn,  29th  July  1856. 

Schumann's  position  in  the  history  of  German  music  is  very 
important  and  marks  the  last  stage  but  one  of  its  progress  towards 
its  present  condition.  His  style  was  very  advanced  and  strikingly 
original.  His  published  works  include  one  opera,  four  symphonies, 
fire  o\'ertures,  a  series  of  scenes  from  Faust,  and  other  choral  and 
orchestral  works  WTitten  on  a  very  extensive  scale,  and  a  large 
nuantity  of  songs,  pianoforte  pieces,  and  othiT  smaller  works  of  the 
flighest  excellence  and  beauty. 

SCHWABE,  Samuel  Heinp.ich  (1789-1875),  German 
Mnateur  astronomer,  was  born  on  25th  October  1789  at 
Dessau,  where  he  died  on  11th  April  1875;  he  observed 
the  sun-spots  regularly  from  1826  and  pointed  out  (in 
1843)  the  periodicity  in  the  number  of  these  objects. 

SCHWALBACH,  or  Langenschwalbach,  a  favourite 
German  health  resort,  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Hesse- 
ffassau,  is  pleasantly  situated  in  the  deep  valley  of  the 
Miinzenbach  near  its  junction  with  the  Aar,  12  miles  north- 
west from  Wiesbaden,  with  which  it  has  regular  communi- 
cation by  diligence.  Besides  a  large  kursaal,  the  town 
has  four  churches,  a  synagogue,  a  real  school,  and  a  higher 
fcchoo!  for  girls.  The  three  principal  springs,  which  are 
largely  impregnated  in  varying  proportions  with  iron  and 
carbonic  acid  (compare  Mineral  Waters),  are  connected 
by  promenades.  The  permanent  population  of  the  town 
was  2811  in  1880,  and  the  number  of  visitors  reaches 
about  5000  annually. 

About  4  J  miles  to  the  south  of  Schwalbach  is  Schlangen- 
BAD  (360  inhabitants),  the  thermal  springs  of  which  are 
efficacious  in  nervous  complaints  and  attract  about  2000 
visitors  (chiefly  ladies)  everv  yeai"  The  water  is  used 
externally  only. 

SCHWANN,  Theodor  (1810-1882),  author  of  the  cell 
theory  in  physiology,  was  born  at  Neuss  in  Rhenish  Prussia 
on  7th  December  1810.  His  father  was  a  man  of  great 
mechanical  talents;  at  first  a  goldsmith,  he  afterwards 
founded  an  important  printing  establishment.  Schwann 
inherited  his  father's  mechanical  tastes,  and  the  leisure 
of  his  boyhood  was  largely  sp'enl  In  constructing  little 
machines  of  all  kinds.  He  studied  a>-  the  Jesuits'  college 
in  Cologne  and  afterwards  at  Bonn,  wher^.  he  met  Johannes 
Miiller,  in  whose  physiological  experiments  he  soon  came 
to  assist.  He  next  went  to  Wiirzburg  tc  continue  his 
medical  studies,  and  thence  to  Berlin  to  graduate  in  1834. 
Here  he  again  met  Miiller,  who  had  been  mean\''hile  trans- 
lated to  Berlin,  and  who  finally  persuaded  him  to  enter 
on  a  scientific  career  and  appointed  him  assistan.*--  at  the 
anatomical  museum.  Schwann  in  1838  was  called,  to  the 
chair  of  anatomy  at  the  Roman  Catholic  university  of 
Louvain,  where  he  remained  nine  years.  He  then  vent 
as  professor  to  Liege,  where,  in  spite  of  brilliant  offe-s 
from  many  German  universities,  he  led  a  very  qtiiet  un 
eventful  life,  broken  only  by  the  international  commemora-  ' 
tion  of  the  fortieth  anniversary  both  of  his  professoriate 
and  the  publication  of  his  magnum  ojms,  till  his  death  on 
11th  Januarj'  1882.  He  was  of  a  peculiarly  gentle  and 
amiable  character  and  remained  a  devout  Catholic  through- 
out his  hfe. 

It  was  durin"  the  four  years  spent  under  the  influence  of  Miiller 
at  lierlin  that  all  Scnwann's  really  valuable  vrork  was  done.  Miiller 
was  at  this  time  preparing  his  great  book  on  phvsiology,  and' 
ticliwann  assisted  him  in  the  experimental  woi'k  required.  His 
attention  being  thus  directed  to  the  nervous  and  muscular  tissues, 
DMides  making  such  histological  discoveries  as  that  of  the  envelope 
01  the  nerve-fibres  which  now  bears  his  name,  he  initiated  those 
reoearclies  m  muscular  coutraetility  since  so  elaborately  worked 


out  by  Du  Bois  Reymond  and  otheia      He  waa  thus  the  first  of 

Miiller's  pupils  who  broke  with  the  traditional  vitalism  and  worked 
towards  a  physico-chemical  explanation  of  life.  Miiller  also  directed 
his  attention  to  the  process  of  digestion,  which  Schwann  showed 
to  depend  essentially  on  the  presence  of  a  ferment  called  by  him 
pepsin,  thus  not  only  practically  bringing  the  subject  up  to  its 
modern  state  but  preparing  for  the  subsequent  advances  in  medical 
treatment  made  by  Eoberts.  Schwann  also  examined  the  question 
of  spontaneous  generation,  which  h*  aided  greatly  to  disprove,  and 
in  the  course  of  his  experiments  discovered  the  organic  nature 
of  yeast.  His  theory  of  fermentation  was  bitterly  attacked  and 
ridiculed  by  Liebig,  but  has  been,  after  the  lapse  of  a  quarter  of  a 
century,  triumphantly  confirmed.  In  fact  the  whole  germ  theory 
of  Pasteur,  as  well  as  the  antiseptic  application  of  Lister,  is  thus 
traceable  to  the  influence  of  Schwann.  Once  when  dining  with 
Schleiden,  in  1837,  the  coilversation  turned  on' the  nuclei  of  vege- 
table cells.  Schwann  remembered  having  seen  similar  stractures 
in  the  cells  of  the  notochord  (as  had  been  shown  by  Miiller)  and 
instantly  seized  the  importance  of  connecting  the  two  phenomena.' 
The  resemblance  was  confirmed  without  delay  by  both  observers, 
aud  the  results  soon  appeared  in  the  famous  Microscopic  Investiga- 
tions on  the  Accordaiice  in  the  Structure  and  Growth  of  Plants  and 
Animals  (Berlin,  1839  ;  trans.  Sydenham  Society,  1847),  and  the 
cell  theory  (see  Mokphology)  was  thus  definitely  constituted.— In 
the  course  of  his  verifications  of  the  cell  theory,  in  which  he  traversed 
the  whole  field  of  histology,  he  proved  the  cellular  origin  and  de- 
velopment of  the  most  highly  differentiated  tissues,  nails,  feathers, 
enamels,  &c.  Although  mistaken  in  his  view  of  the  origin  of  new 
cells,  his  generalization  at  once  became  the  foundation  of  all  modern 
histology,  and  in  the  hands  of  Virchow  (whose  cellular  pathology 
is  an  inevitable  deduction  from  Schwann)  has  afforded  the  means 
of  placing  modern  pathology  on  a  truly  scientific  basis. 

An  exceUent  account  of  Schwann's  life  and  work  is  that  by  Won  Vtiiirlai 
(Li^ge,  1884).  ' 

SCHWANTHALER,  Ludwio  Michael  (1802-1848)7 
German  sculptor,  was  born  in  Munich  on  26th  August 
1 802.  His  family  had  been  known  in  TjtoI  by  its  sculptors 
for  three  centuries;  young  Ludwig  received  his  earliest 
lessons  from  his  father,  and  the  father  had  been  instructed 
by  the  grandfather.  The  last  to  bear  the  name  wr,s  Xaver, 
who  worked  in  his  cousin  Ludwig's  sttidio  and  survived 
till  1854.  For  successive  generations  the  family  lived  by 
the  carving  of  busts  and  sepulchral  monuments,  and  from 
the  condition  of  mechanics  rose  to  that  of  artists. 

From  the  Mimich  gjTunasium  Schwanthaler  passed  as 
a  student  to  the  Munich  academy;  at  first  he  purposed 
to  be  a  painter,  but  afterwards  reverted  to  the  plastic  arts 
of  his  ancestors.     His  talents  received  timely  encourage- 
ment by  a  commission  for  an  elaborate  silver  service  for 
the  king's  table.      Cornelius  also  befriended  him;   the 
great  painter  was  occupied  on  designs  for  the  decoration 
in  fresco  of  the  newly  erected  Glyptothek,  and  at  his 
suggestion  Schwanthaler  was  employed  on  the  sculpture 
within  the  halls.     Thus  arose  between  painting,  sculpture, 
and  architecture  that  union  and  mutual  support  which 
characterized  the  revival  of  the  arts  in  Bavaria.     Schwan- 
thaler in  1826  went  to  Italy  as  a  pensioner  of  King  Louis, 
and  on  a  second  visit  in  1832  Thorwaldsen  gave  him 
kmdly  help.     His  skill  was  so  developed  that  on  his  return 
he  was  able  to  meet  the  extraordinary  demand  for  sculp- 
ture consequent  on   King  Louis's  passion  for   building 
new  palaces,  churches,  galleries,  and  museums,  and  he 
became  the  fellow-worker  of  the  architects  Klenze,  Gartner, 
anc  Ohlmiiller,  and  of  the  painters  Cornelius,  Schnorr, 
and  Hess.    Owing  to  the  magnitude  and  multitude  of  the 
plastic  products  they  turned  out,  over-pressure  and  haste 
m  design  and  workmanship  brought  down  the  quality  of 
the  <^rt.     The  works  of  Schwanthaler  in  Munich  are  so 
manj  and  miscellaneous  that  they  can  only  be  briefly  indi- 
cated. ■  The  new  palace  is  peopled,  with  his  statues  :  the 
throne-voom  has  twelve  imposing  gilt  bronze  figures  10  feet 
high  J  the  same  palace  is  also  enriched  with  a  frieze  and 
with  siindry  other  decorations  modelled  and  painted  from 
his  drawings.    The  sculptor,  like  his  contemporary  painters, 
received  help  from  trained  pupils.    The  same  prolific  artist 
also  furnished  the  old  Pinakothek  with  twenty-five  marbles,. 
commemorative  of  as  many  great  painters:  Ukftwiae  h» 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


461 


snpplied  a  composition  for  the  pediment  of  the  exhibition 
building  facing  tlie  Glyptothck,  and  executed  sundry 
figures  for  the  public  library  and  tlic  hall  of  the  marshals. 
Sacred  art  lay  outside  his  ordinary  routine,  yet  in*  the 
churches  of  St  Ludwig  and  St  Mariahilf  he  gave  proof  of 
the  widest  versatility.  The  lluhmcshallc  afforded  further 
gauge  of  unexampled  power  of  production ;  hero  alone  is 
work  which,  if  adequately  studied,  might  have  occupied  a 
lifetime;  ninety-two  metopes,  and,  conspicuously,  the  giant 
figure  of  Bavaria,  60  feet  high,  rank  among  the  brldest 
feats  of  physical  force.  A  short  life  of  forty-six  years 
did  not  permit  serious  undertakings  beyond  the  Bavarian 
capital,  yet  time  was  found  for  the  groups  within  the  north 
pediment  of  the  Walhalla,  Ro-tisbon,  and  also  for  numerous 
portrait  statues,  including  those  of  Mozart,  Jean  Paul 
Richter,  Goetiie,  and  Shakespeare.  Schwanthalcr  died  at 
Munich  in  1818,  and  left  by  will  to  the  Munich  academy 
all  his  models  and  studies,  which  now  form  the  Schwan- 
thalcr Museum.  The  sculptor's  stylo  may  be  designated 
as  romantic-classic  or  modern-antique,  and  its  conventional 
ideal  stands  far  removed  from:  the  schools  of  naturalism 
and  of  realism. 

SCirWARZ,  or  Scht^aetz,  CmtisTLiif  Feiedrich 
(1726-1798),  Protestant  missionary  to  India,  was  born  on 
8th  October  1726  at  Sonnenburg,  in  the  electorate  of 
Brandenburg,  Prussia.  After  attending  the  grammar 
school  of  his  native  town  and  an  academy  at  Kiistrin,  he 
in  174G  entered  the  university  of  Halle.  Having  learned 
Tamil  to  assist  in  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  that  lan- 
guage, he  was  led  to  form  the  intention  of  becoming  a 
missionary  to  India.  He  received  ordination  at  Copen- 
hagen on  the  8th  August  1749,  and,  after  spending  some 
time  in  England  to  acquire  the  English  language,  embarked 
early  in  1750  for  India,  and  arrived  at  Triobinopoly  on 
the  30th  July.  Tranquebar  was  for  some  time  his  head- 
quarters, but  be  paid  frequent  visits  to  Tanjore  and  Tri- 
chinopoly,  and  in  1766  removed  to  the  latter  place.  Here 
he  acted  as  chaplain  to  the  garrison,  who  erected  a  church 
for  his  general  use.  In  1769  he  secured  the  friendship 
of  the  rtyah  of  Tanjore,  who,  although  he  never  embraced 
Christianity,  afforded  him  every  countenance  in  his  mis. 
sionary  labours.  Shortly  before  his  death  he  committed 
to  Schwarz  the  education  of  his  adopted  son  and  successor. 
In  1779  Schwarz  undertook,  at  the  request  of  the  Madras 
Government,  a  private  embassy  to  Hyder  All,  the  chief  of 
Mysore.  When  Hyder  invaded  the  Caruatic,  Schwarz 
was  allowed  to  pass  through  the  enemy's  encam[micut 
without  molestation.  After  twelve  years  in  Trichiuopoly 
he  removed  to  Tanjore,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  Ho  died  on  13th  February  1798.  Schwarz's 
direct  success  in  making  converts  exceeded  that  of  any 
other  Protestant  missionary  in  India,  in  addition  to  which 
he  succeeded  in  winning  the  esteem  of  Mohammedans  and 
Hindus.  The  rajah  of  Tanjore  erected  a  monument,  exe- 
cuted by  Flaxman,  in  the  mission  church,  in  which  he  is 
represented  as  grasping  the  hand  of  the  dying. missionary 
and  receiving  his  benediction.  A  splendid  monument  to 
Schwarz  by  Bacon  was  placed  by  the  East  India  Company 
in  St  Mary's  church  at  Madras. 

Seo  litmaim  of  Scbwar:;,  with  a  eketcli  of  liiii  lifo,  1826 ; 
Jfemoirs  of  Lift  and  Corrtspondence,  by  U.  N.  Pesnon,  1831,  8d 
ed.  1839  ;  Life,  by  II.  N.  I'earaon,  1855. 

SCnWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT,  a  small  Thuringian 
principality  and  an  independent  member  of  the  German 
empire,  shares  with  Schwarr.burg-Sondcrshau.sen  the  posses- 
sions al  the  old  houso  of  Schwarzlmrg,  con.sisting  of  the 
upper  barony  (OI)erherr8cLaft)  in  Tliuringia,  on  the  Ocra, 
Ilm,  and  Saale,  and  the  lower  barony  (Ifntorherrscliaft), 
an  isolated  district  on  the  Wii>per  and  Hcllio,  about  25 
milM  to  the  north,  lurroandod  bv  the  Prussian  province 


of  Sasony.    See  plate  V.    As  the  dignity  of  pnnee  is 
held  in  virtue  of  the  Oberhcrrschaft  alone,  a  share  of  both 
baronies  was  given  to  each  sub-line  of  the  main  house.    The 
total  area  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  is  363  square  miles, 
of  which  283  are  in  the  upper  and  80  in  the  lower  barony ; 
the  chief  towns  in  the  former  district  are  lludolstadt  (8747 
inhabitants),  the  capital,  and  Blankenburg  (1889),  and  in 
the  latter  Frankenhausea  (4985).     Both  baronies  are  hilly, 
but  no  great  height  is  any^N-here  attained.     The  scenery  of 
the  Thuringian  portion  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  attracts 
many  visitors  annually,  the  most  beautiful  spots  being  the 
gorge  of  the  Schwarza  and  the  lovely  circular  valley  in 
which  the  village  of  Schwarzburg  nestles  at  the  foot  of  a 
curiously  isolated  hill,  crowned  by  the  ancient  castle  of  the 
princely  line.     Cattle-rearing  and  fruit-growing  flourish  in 
the  lower  barony,  while  the  upper  barony  is  finely  wooded. 
Of  the  whole  country  44  per  cent,  is  under  forest  (mainly 
coniferous  trees),  and  41  per  cent,  is  devoted  to  agricul- 
ture.     The  chief  grain  crops  are  rye,  oats,  and  barley,  but 
in  1883  thrice  as  much  ground  was  occupied  by  potatoes 
as  by  all  these  three  together.    The  live-stock  returns  in 
1883  showed  19,831  cattle,  39,024  sheep,  19,544  pigs, 
14,420  goats,  and  2813  horses.     Agriculture  and  forestry 
support  about  35  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  mining 
and  cognate  jndustiies  about  10  per  cent.     Trade  and 
manufactures  are  insignificant ;  iron,  lignite,  cobalt,  aliim, 
and  vitriol, are  among  the  mineral  productions.     In  1880 
the  population  was  80,296  (an  increase  of  1779  since  1875), 
or  about  221  to  the  square  mile.    Of  these  79,832  were 
Protestants. 

Schwarzburg-Budolstadt  is  a  limited  hereditary  sovereignty,  its 
constitution  resting  on  laws  of  1854  and  1870,  though  »  diet  lias 
met  at  intervals  since  1816.  The  present  diet  consists  of  sixteen 
members  elected  for  six  years,  four  chosen  by  the  highest  taxpayers, 
the  others  by  general  election.  The  diet  must  be  summoned  every 
three  years.  The  budget  for  1885-87  estimated  revenue  and  ex. 
penditure  each  at  £101,210  ;  £57,670  was  the  estimated  income 
from  the  public  lands  acd  forests.  The  public  debt  was  £230,350. 
The  troops  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  have  been  incorporated  with 
the  Prussian  army  since  the  convention  of  1867.  The  principality 
has  one  vote  in  the  Reichstag  and  one  in  the  federal  council. 

Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  is  the  cadet  branch  of  the  family.  In 
1710  the  count  was  made  a  prince,  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  ol 
the  elector  of  Saxony,  altliough  he  was  prevented  from  taking  hia 
seat  in  the  imperial  college  until  1754.  The  principality  entered 
the.Confederatiou  of  the  Rhine  in  1807  and  the  German  League  in 
1815.  In  1819  it  redeemed  the  Prussian  elauns  of  auperionty  by 
surrendering  portions  of  its  territory. 

SCHW^VRZEURG-SONDERSHAUSEN,  a  small  Thur- 
ingian principality  and  an  independent  member  of  the 
German  empire,  shares  the  old  Schwarzburg  lands  with 
Schwarzburg-Rudohitadt,  as  explained  in  the  preceding 
article.  Its  total  area  is  333  .square  miles,  of  which  133 
are  in  the  upper  and  200  in  the  lower  barony.  The  chief 
towns  are  Arnstadt  (10,516  inhabitants),  which  at  one 
time  gave  name  to  a  line  of  counts,  in  the  latter  district, 
and  Sondershausen  (6110),  the  capital,  in  the  former.  The 
general  description  of  the  nature  and  resources  of  Schwarz- 
burg-Rudolstadt applies  also  to  this  principality,  except 
that  58  per  cent,  of  the  whole  is  devoted  to  agriculture 
and  30  per  cent,  to  forests,  only  about  two-fifths  of  which 
are  coniferous  trees.  The  chief  crojis  are  oats,  barley, 
wheat,  and  rye ;  but  here  also  by  far  the  most  land  is  planted 
with  potatoes.  In  1883  the  principality  contained  21,205 
cattle,  64,276  sheep,  22,884  pigs,  11,372  goats,  and  4284 
horses.  About  39  per  cent,  of  the  poimlalion  are  sup. 
ported  by  agriculture  and  forestry,  and  about  5  ])cr  cent, 
by  mining.  In  1 880  the  jiopulatiori  was  71,107  (an  increa-sa 
of  3627  since  1875),  or  about  213  to  the  squaro  mile.  01 
these  70,450  were  Protestants. 

Schwarzburg-Sonder.slmusen  is  a  limited  liorcditary  soyorcignty^ 
its  constitution  resting  on  a  law  of  IHfi?.  The  iliet  coimiits  of  fiv<^ 
representatives  elected  by  the  higlioHt  taxtmyors,  five  by  gnnonj 
olectioD,  and  not  more  thin  five  noroinalod  for  life  by  tbo  prJHcv 


462 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


The  first  tcn_  inem'Bers  are  elected  for  four  years,  which  is  also  the 
financial  period.  There  is  a  ministry  with  five  departments — for 
the  prince's  household,-  domestic  atfairs,  finance,  'cluirclies  and 
schools,  and  justice.  The  budget  for  each  year  in  the  period 
1884-87  estimated  the  income  at  £112,475  and  the  expenditure  at 
£1000  less.  Tlie  public  debt  in  1885  was  £199,625.  The  troops 
of  Schwarzburg-Sondershauseu  have  been  incorporated  with  the 
Prussian  army  by  convention  since  18C7.  The  principality  has 
one  vote  in  the  Keichsta"  and  one  in  the  federal  council. 

The  house  of  ScliwarzLurtj  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  noblest  in 
Germany  ;  and  tradition  traces  its  descent  fi-om  ■\Vitikind  and  the 
kings  of  the  Franks.  Its  historical  ancestors  were  the  counts  of 
Kiiferuburg,  from  whom  the  counts  of  Schwarzburg  sprang  about 
the  beginning  of  the  13th  century.  The  name  Giinther  became 
the  distinctive  name  for  the  members  of  this  house  (corresponding 
to  Heinrich  in  the  Reuss  family),  the  various  Giinthers  being  a° 
first  distinguished  by  numbers  and  afterwards  by  prefi.xed  names. 
Vai-ious  subdivisions  and  collateral  lines  were  formed,  but  by  1599 
all  were  extinct  but  the  present  two.  Count  Giinther  XL.,  who 
died  in  1552,  was  the  last  common  ancestor  of  both  lines.  Schwarz- 
barg-Sondershansen  is  the  senior  line,  although  its  possessions  are 
the  smaller.  In  1697  the  count  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
imperial  prince  by  the  emperor  Leopold  I.  The  prince  had  to  pay 
7000  thalers  to  the  elector  of  Saxony  and  3500  to  the  duke  of 
Saxe-Weimar,  and  numerous  disputes  arose  in  connexion  with  the 
superiorities  thus  indicated.  In  1807  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 
entered  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  and  became  a  sovereign 
state.  In  1816  it  joined  the  German  League,  and  redeemed  with 
portions  of  its  territory  all  rights  of  superiority  claimed  by  Prussia. 
Its  domestic  government  has  gradually,  though  not  very  quickly, 
improved  since  that  time,— the  oppressive  game-laws  in  particular 
having  been  abolished.  A  treaty  of  mutual  succession  was  made 
between  the  two  families  in  1713. 

SCHWARZENBEKO,  Karl  Philipp,  Prince  or  (1771- 
1820),  Austrian  field-marshal,  was  born  on  15th  April  1771 
at  Vienna.  He  fought  in  1789  under  Lacy  with  distinc- 
tion against  the  Turks  and  became  major  in  1792.  In 
the  French  campaign  of  1793  he  held  command  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  advanced  guard  under  the  duke  of  Coburg, 
and  in  1794  his  impetuous  charge  at  the  head  of  a  cavalry 
regiment  greatly  contributed  to  the  victory  of  Cateau- 
Cambresis.  After  the  battle  of  Wiirzburg  in  September 
1796  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  in 
1/99  to  that  of  field-marshal  in  command  of  a  division. 
At  the  defeat  of  Hohenlinden  in  1800  his  promptitude  and 
courage  saved  those  under  his  command  from  being  sur- 
rounded and  taken  prisoners.  In  the  war  of  1805  he 
held  command  of  a  division  imder  General  Jlack,  and 
when  Ulm  capitulated  to  Napoleon  in  October  he  cut  his 
way  through  the  hostile  lines' with  some  cavalry  regiments. 
At  the  special  request  of  the  emperor  Alexander  he  under- 
took an  embassy  to  St  Petersburg  in  1808,  but  two  days 
before  the  battle  of  Wagram  he  arrived  in  the  camp  and 
assumed  command  as  general  of  the  cavalry.  After  the 
peace  of  Vienna  he  was  sent  to  Paris  to  negotiate  a  marriage 
between  Napoleon  and  the  duchess  Maria  Louisa.  From 
this  time  he  secured  Napoleon's  special  confidence  and 
esteem,  and  at  his  request  took  command  of  the  Austrian 
auxiliary  corps  in  the  Russian  campaign.  In  August  he 
received  the  command  of  the  seventh  or  Saxon  army  corps ; 
after  gaining  some  slight  advantages  over  the  Eussians, 
he  was  compelled  to  retreat  before  superior  forces  to  the 
duchy  of  Warsaw,  where,  according  to  instructions  from 
Napoleon,  he  remained  for  some  months  inactive  at  Pultusk. 
In  1813  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  allied 
forces,  and,  after  defeating  Napoleon  at  Leipsic  in  October, 
carried  the  campaign  to  a  successful  issue  by  entering  Paris 
lu  March  1814.  On  the  conclusion  of  the  war  he  became 
president  of  the  Aulic- Council.  He  died  from  paralysis 
at  Leipsic  on  15th  October  1820. 

See  Prokesch-Osten,  Dcnktoiirdigkciten  aus  dem  Leien  des  Feld- 
marscluiU's  FiXrskn  ScJiwarzcnbcrg,  Vienna,  1823;  Berger,  Das 
Furstcnhans  Schwarzcnhercj,  Vienna,  1S66. 

SCHWEGLER,  Albekt  (1819-1857),  historical,  philo- 
sophical, and  theological  writer,  one  of  the  first  and  most 
distinguished  of  the  pupils  of  F.  C.  Baur  and  of  the  dei 
minores  of  the  Tubingen  school.     He  was  bora  at  Michel- 


bach  in  "Wiirtemberg  ou  10th  Febraary  1819,  the  son  of 
a  country  clergj-man,  and  entered  the  university  of  Tubin- 
gen in  1836  as  a  student  of  theology,  though  with  a  pre- 
dominant liking  for  classical  philology.  Under  Baur's 
influence  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  ecclesiastical 
history,  and  his  first  work  was  Der  Montan-ismus  u.  die 
christliche  Kirche  des  2ten  Jahrhunderts  (1841),  in  which 
he  was  the  first  to  point  out  that  Montanism  was  much 
more  than  an  isolated  outbreak  of  eccentric  fanaticism  in 
the  early  church,  though  he  introduced  fresh  misconcep- 
tions by  connecting  it  -n-ith  Ebionitism  as  he  conceived 
the  latter.  This  work,  with  other  essays,  brought  Schwegler 
into  conflict  with  the  authorities  of  the  church,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  gave  up  theology  as  his  professional 
study  and  chose  that  of  philosophy.  In  1843  he  com- 
menced in  the  Tiibingen  university  the  career  of  a  teacher 
(privat-docent)  of  philosophy  and  classical  philology,  and 
in  1848  was  made  extraordinary  professor  of  the  latter 
subject  and  soon  after  ordinary  professor  of  history.  His 
death  took  place  on  6th  January  -1857. 

His  principal  theological  work  was  Das  nachapostolische  ZcUalkr 
(2  vols.,  1846).  It  was  this  book  which  first  put  before  the  world, 
with  Schwegler's  characteristic  boldness  and  clearness,  the  results 
of  the  critical  labours  of  the  earlier  Tiibingen  school  in  relation  to 
the  fii'st  development  of  Christianity.  Carl  Schwarz  says  of  it, 
"  This  work — full  though  it  was  of  youthful  exaggerations  and  pro- 
vocations, partisan  as  it  was  in  its  line  of  argument,  untrue  and 
abstract  as  its  contrast  of  Paulinism  and  Petrinism  was,  aud  arbi- 
trary as  was  its  use  of  those  party  names — produced  nevertheless  by 
its  masterly  literary  form  (which  reminds  us  of  Strauss),  and  by  its 
easy  handling  and  presentation  of  all  the  important  data,  a  power- 
fid  impression,  and,  although  in  many  points  of  detail  it  is  out  of 
date,  ,it  may  still  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  '  standard  works  '  of  the 
school."  Schwegler  published  also  an  edition  of  the  Clementine 
Homilies  (1847),  and  of  Eusebius's  Eccltsiastieal  History  (1852). 
In  the  department  of  philosophy  we  have  an  edition  of  the  Meta- 
physics of  Aristotle,  with  a  translation  and  commentary  (4  vols., 
1847-48),  the  well-known  sketch  of  the  History  of  Philosophy 
(1848),  and  a  postliumous  Gesehichte  der  Griech.  Fhilosophie  (1859). 
In  history  he  commenced  a  Jlomische  Gesehichte  (vols,  i.-iii.,  1853- 
68,  2d  ed.,  1869),  which  he  brought  down  only  to  the  laws  of 
Licinius. 

SCHWEIDNITZ,  a  manufacturing  and  trading  town 
of  Lower  SUesia  in  Prussia,  is  pictiu-esquely  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Weistritz,  28  miles  south-west  of 
Breslau.  Well  built,  with  wide  streets,  the  town  contains 
several  old  churches  (one  of  which  has  a  tower  338  feet 
high)  and  an  ancient  toT\Ti-house  with  a  tower  130  feet 
high.  The  sui-rounding  country  is  fertile  and  highly 
cultivated,  and  the  large  quantities  of  flax  and  hemp  there 
raised  encourage  an  active  weaving  industry  in  the  town. 
Beetroot  for  sugar,  grain,  and  fruit  are  also  gi-own.  The 
manufacture  of  furniture,  leather  gloves,  machinery  and 
tools,  carriages,  nuts  and  screws,  needles,  and  other  hard- 
ware goods  is  carried  on.  The  beer  of  Schweidnitz  has 
long  been  famous  under  the  name  of  "  Schwarze  Schops," 
and  in  the  16th  century  it  was  exported  as  far  as  Italy. 
Schweidnitz  is  the  chief  grain  market  of  the  district.  The 
population  in  1885  was  23,775  (an  increase  of  6  per  cent, 
since  1880);  in  1816  it  was  10,046. 

Schweidnitz,  dating  from  about  the  11th  century,  received  town 
rights  in  1250.  About  1278  it  became  the  capital  of  a  principality, 
with  an  area  of  935  square  miles,  which  belonged  to  Bohemia  from 
1353  till  1741,  when  it  passed  into  the  possession  of  Prussia.  Tho 
"  Polerei  of  Schweidnitz  "  is  the  name  given  to  the  riotous  revolt 
of  the  town,  in  1520-22,  against  a  royal  edict  depriving  it  of  the 
right  of  coining  its  own  money.  The  town  w-as  four  times  besieged 
and  taken  in  the  Seven  Years'  War ;  and  in  1807  it  was  captured 
by  the  French,  who  demolished  the  fortiticatious.  In  1816  new- 
works  wereTaised,  but  in  1864  they  were  converted  into  a  nublic 
park. 

SCHWEINFUIIT,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Lower 
Franconia  in  Bavaria,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Main,  22  miles  north-east  of  Wiirzburg.  The  Renaissance 
town-house  in  the  spacious  market-place  dates  from  1570  ; 


S  C  H  — S  C  H 


463 


it  contains  a^llbtary  and  &  collection  of  antiquities.  St 
John's  church  is  a  Gothic  edifice  with  a  lofty  tower ;  St 
Salvator's  was  built  about  1720.  Schwoinfurt  is  well 
furnished  with  benevolent  and  educational  institutions, 
including  a  gymnasium  founded  by  GuStavus  Adolphus. 
The  Slain  is  here  spanned  by  two  bridges.  The  chief 
manufacture  is  paint  ("Schweinfurt  green"  is  a  well-knov,-n 
brand  in  Germany),  introduced  in  1809  ;  but  beer,  sugar, 
machinery,  soapand  other  drysalteries,  straw-paper,  vinegar, 
&c.,  are  also  produced.  Cotton-spinning  and  bell-founding 
are  carried  on;  and  the  !Main  supplies  water-power  for 
numerous  saw,  flour,  and  other  mills.  Schweinfurt  carries 
on  an  active  trade  in  the  grain,  fruit,  and  wine  produced 
in  its  neighbourhood,  and  it  is  the  seat  of  an  important 
sheep  and  cattle  market.  Riickert  the  poet  (d.  1860)  was 
born  here  in  1788.  The  population  in  1880  was  12,601, 
of  whom  one-fourth  were  Roman  Catholics. 

Schweinfurt  is  mentioned  in  790,  and  in  the  lOtU  century  was 
the  seat  of  a  margrave.  It  fell  later  to  the  counts  of  Henneoerg  ; 
but,  receiving  town  rights  In  the  13th  century,  it  maintained  its 
independence  as  a  free  imperial  city  with  few  interruptions  until 
1803,  when  it  passed  to  Bavaria.  Assigned  to  tlie  grand-duke  of 
W'irzburg  in  1810,  it  wa«  restored  to  BavariR.  in  1814.  In  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  it  was  occupied  by  Gustavus  Adoljihus,  who 
wected  fortifications,  remains  of  which  are  still  extant. 

SCnWELM,  a  town  of  Westphalia,  in  Prussia,  is  situated 
on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  22  miles  east  of  DiisSeldorf 
and  27  north-east  of  Cologne.  Lying  close  to  the  Harkort 
iron  and  sulphur  mines,  within  the  populous  and  rich 
mineral  district  on  the  lower  Rhine,  it  carries  on  iron- 
founding,  wire-drawing,  and  the  manufacture  of  machinery 
of  various  kinds,  besides  an  active  trade  in  iron,  steel,  and 
brass  goods.  Scarcely  less  important  are  its  manufactures 
of  ribbons,  damask,  cord,  and  paper.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood are  chalybeate  springs,  resorted  to  by  invalids.  The 
population  in  1880  was  12,127,  one-foui-th  of  whom  were 
Roman  Catholics.  Schwelm  is  said  to  have  existed  as 
early  as  1085,  though  it  did  not  receive  town- rights  until 
1590. 

SCHWENKFELD,  Cabpae  .(1490 -1561),  of  Ossing,  as 
he  called  himself  from  his  property  at  this  place  in  the 
principality  of  Licgnitz  in  Silesia,  one  of  the  first  and 
noblest  representatives  of  Protestant  mysticism  in  the  16th 
century,  was  bom  in  11 90.  He  was  of  noble  descent,  and 
acquired  at  Cologne  and  other  universities  an  education 
greatly  superior  to  that  possessed  by  most  noblemen  of  his 
time.  After  leaving  the  university  he  served  in  various 
minor  courts  of  Silesia,  finally  entering  the  service  of  the 
duke  of  Liegnitz,  over  whom  his  influence  was  great. 
Though  he  was  educated  as  a  strict  Catholic,  the  writings 
of  Tauler  and  Luther  produced  a  profound  impression  upon 
him,  60  that  in  1522  he  visited  Wittenberg,  where  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Carlntadt  and  Thomas  Jliinzor,  spirits 
destined  to  be  more  congenial  to  him  than  Luther  himself. 
On  his  return  to  Liegnitz  he  joined  in  an  active  propaga- 
tion of  the  principles  of  the  Reformation  in  the  principality 
and  in  Silesia.  But  very  early  Schwenkfeld  uttered  warn- 
ings against  the  abuse  of  the  doctrine  of  ju.stification  by 
faith.  The  Protestant  controversy  as  to  the  Eucharist 
(1524)  revealed  liis  disagreement  with  Luther  on  that 
critical  point.  He  sought  to  establish  a  via  media  between 
the  doctrines  of  Luther  and  Zwingli,  and  vainly  hoped  to 
obtain  for  it  Luther'a  acc«ptanco.  He  as  vainly  sought 
to  secure  Luther's  adoption  of  a  strict  rule  of  church  discip- 
line, after  the  manner  of  the  Moravian  Brethren.  Mean- 
while the  Anabaptists  obtained  a  footing  in  Silesia,  and 
suspicions  of  Schwenkfcld's  sympathy  with  them  wore 
aroused.  Letters  and  writings  of  his  own  (1527-28) 
proved  him  to  hold  strongly  anti-Lutheran  heresies,  and 
both  Catholics  and  Lutherans  urged  the  duke  of  Liegnitz 
to  dismiss  him.  .  Uo  voluntarily  left  Liegnitz  iu  15:29  and 


took  np  his  abode  at  Strasburg  for  five  years  amongst  the 
numerous  Reformed  clergy  there.    In  1533,  in  an  important- 
synod,  hs  defended  against  Bucer  the  principles  of  religious 
freedom  as  well  as  his  own  doctrine  and  life.     But  the 
heads  of  the  church  carried  the  day,  and,  in  consequence 
of  the  more  stringent  measures  adopted  against  dissenters; 
Schwenkfeld  left  Strasburg  for  a  time.     While  residing  ia 
various  cities  of  south  Germany  he  kept  up  a  wide  corre- 
spondence with  the  nobility  particularly,  and  in  Wiirtem- 
berg  propagated  his  views  personally  at  their  courts.     Ia 
1535  a  sort  of  compromise  was  brought  about  between 
himself  and  the  Reformers,  he  promising  not  to  disturb  the 
peace  of  the  church  and  they  not  to  treat  him  as  a  dis- 
turber.    The  compromise  was  of  only  short  duration.     His 
theology  took  a  more  distinctly  heterodox  form,  and  the 
publication  (1539)  of  a  book  in  proof  of  his  most  charac^- 
teristic  doctrine — the  deification  of  the  humanity  of  Christ 
— led  to  the  active  persecution  of  him  by  the  Lutherans  and 
his  expulsion  from  the  city  of  Ulm.     The  next  year  (1540) 
he  published  a  refutation  of  the  attacks  upon  his  doctrine 
with  a  more  elaborate  exposition  of  it,  under  the  title 
Grotse  Confession.     His  book  was  very  inconvenient  to  the 
Protestants,  as  it  served  to  emphasize  the  diiTerences  be- 
tween the  Lutherans  and  Zwinglians  as  regarded  the  Eucha,- 
rist  at  a  moment  when  efiforts  were  being  made  to  reconcile 
them.    An  anathema  was  accordingly  issued  from  Schmal- 
kald  against  Schwenkfeld  (together  with  Sebastian  Franck); 
his  books  were  placed  on  the  Protestant  "  inckx  " ;  and  he 
himself  was  made  a  religioxis  outlaw.     From  that  time  ho 
was  hunted  from  place  to  place,  though  his  wide  connexions 
with  the  nobility  and  the  esteem  in  which  he  was  held  by 
numerous  followers  and  friends  provided  for  him  secure 
hiding-places  and  for  his  books  a  large  circulation.     An 
attempt  in  1543  to  approach  Luther  only  increased  the 
Reformer's  hostility  and  rendered  Sohwenkfeld's  situation 
still  more  precarious.      He.  and  his  followers  withdrew 
from  the  Lutheran  Church,  declined  its  sacraments,  and 
formed  small  societies  of  kindred  views.     He  and  they 
were  frequently  condemned  by  Protestant  ecclesiastical 
and  political  authorities,  especially  by  the  Government  of 
Wiirtemberg.     His  personal  safety  was  thereby  more  and 
more  imperilled,  and  he  was  imable  to  stay  in  any  place 
for  more  than  a  short  time.     At  last,  in  his  seventy-second 
year,  he  died  at  Ulm,  on  10th  December  1561,  surrounded 
by  attached  friends  and  declaring  undiminished  faith  in  his 
views. 

Schwenkfeld  left  behind  him  a  sect  (who  were  called  subsSqnently 
by  others  Schweukfeldians,  but  who  called  tliemselves  "Confessor* 
of  tiio  Glory  of  Christ ")  and  numerous  %vritings  to  pprppt"»t<<  bis 
ideas.  His  writings  were  partially  collected  in  four  folio  volume*, 
the  first  of  which  was  published  in  the  year  1664,  containing  hi» 
principal  thwl>.>gii'.al  works.  Erbkam  states  that  his  uni)imted 
writings  would  make  more  than  another  four  folios.  His  odlierent* 
wore  to  be  found  at  his  death  scattered  throughout  Germany.  In 
Silesia  they  formed  a  distinct  sect,  which  has  lasted  until  our  own 
times.  In  llic  17th  century  they  were  associated  with  the  followers 
of  Jacob  Bohmo,  and  were  undisturbed  until  1708,  when  an  inquiry 
was  made  as  to  their  doctrines.  Iu  1720  a  commission  of  Jesuits 
was  despatched  to  Silesia  to  convert  them  by  force.  Most  of  them 
fled  from  Silesia  into  Saxony,  and  thonco  to  Holland,  England,  and 
North  America.  Frederick  the  Great  of  Tnissia,  when  he  seized 
Silesia,  extended  his  protection  to  thoso  who  remained  in  that 
pronnce.  Thoso  who  h.-id  fled  to  Philadeliihia  in  I'onnsvlTani* 
formed  a  small  comniuuity  under  the  name  of  Si;hwcnkfeldiiuis  ; 
and  Zinzcndoif  and  Rpaugonberg,  when  tlioy  visited  the  United 
States,  endeavoured,  but  with  little  success,  to  convert  them  to 
their  views.  This  community  still  exists  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
according  to  informntinu  obtained  from  their  minlil<M-»  by  Robert. 
Barclay  they  consisted  in  1875  of  two  conprogatioiis  of.'iOO  monibcrs, 
with  three  mcefing-liouses  and  six  mini.itors.  Their  views  appear 
to  bo  substantially  those  of  the  English  Society  of  Kriends.  So* 
Robert  Har'clav'a  Inrur  Life  of  tht  UflifioM  Socieliea  <ff  the  Oom- 
monmallJi,  London,  187S,  pp.  226-247. 

Sdnvcnkfcl.t's  mysticism  was  tlio  cause  of  his  divcmnce  from 
FrotcatoQt  ortbodoiy  and  Iho  tcvl  of  his  peculiar  religious  and 


464 


S  C  H  — S  C  E 


theological  position.  It  led  him  to  oppose  the  Lutheran  view  of 
the  value  of  the  outward  means  of  grace,  such  as  the  ministry  of 
the  word,  baptism,  the  Eucharist,  He  regarded  as  essential  a  direct 
and  immediate  participation  in  the  grace  of  the  glorified  Christ, 
and  looked  on  an  observance  of  the  sacraments  and  religious  ordi- 
nances as  immaterial.  He  distinguished  between  an  outward  word 
of  God  and  an  inward,  the  former  being  the  Scriptures  and  perish- 
able, the  latter  the  divine  spirit  and  eternal.  In  his  Christology  he 
departed-  from  the  Lutheran  and  Zwinglian  doctrine  of  the  two 
natures  by  insisting  on  what  he  called  the  VergoUung  cUs  Fleisches 
Christi,  the  deification  or  the  glorification  of  the  flesh  of  Christ 
The  doctrine  was  his  protest  against  a  separation  of  the  human 
and  the  divine  in  Christ,  and  was  intimately  connected  with  his 
mystical  view  of  the  work  of  Christ.  He  held  that,  though_Christ 
was  God  and  man  from  His  birth  from  the  Virgin.  He  only  attained 
His  complete  deification  and  glorification  by  His  ascension,  and 
that  it  is  in  the  estate  of  His  celestial  FergoUung  or  glorification 
that  He  is  the  dispenser  of  His  divine  life  to  those  who  by  faith 
become  one  with  Him.  This  fellowship  with  the  glorified  Christ 
rather  than  a  less  spiritual  trust  in  His  death  and  atonement  is  with 
him  the  essential  thing.  His  peculiar  Christology  was  based  upon 
profound  theological  and  anthropological  ideas,  which  contain  the 
germs  of  some  recent  theological  and  Christological  speculations. 

See  Amoldt,  Kircken-  und  Ketser-Bistorie (Fr^n'kfoTt,  ed.  1700)  ;  Salig,  Historie 
der  Augsburg.  Confession  ;  Erbkam,  Gesch,  der  prot.  Sekten  (1S48) ;  Doraer,  Gesch, 
d.  prot.  Theol.  (1867);  also  Erbkara's  article  in  Herzog's  Healencyklopadie, 
Robert  Barclay's  work  quoted  above,  and  Beard's  Bibberl  Lecturer  (1883). 

SCHWERIN,  tte  capital  and  one  of  the  most  attractive 
cities  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Mecklenburg- Schwerin,  is 
prettily  situated  at  the  south-west  corner  of  the  Lake  of 
Schwerin  (14  miles  long  and  3|  miles  broad),  110  miles 
aorth-west  of  Berlin.  The  town  is  closely  surrounded  and 
hemmed  in  by  a  number  of  lakelets,  with  high  and  in 
some  cases  well -wooded  banks;  and  the  hilly  environs 
are  occupied  by  meadows,  woods,  and  pretty  vUlas.  The 
old  and  new  towns  of  Schwerin  were  only  united  as  one 
city  in  1832  ;  and  since  that  date  the  suburb  of  St  Paul 
and  another  outer  suburb,  known  as  the  Vorstadt,  have 
grown  up.-  Though  Schwerin  is  the  oldest  town  in 
Mecklenburg,  its  aspect  is  comparatively  modern, — a  fact 
due  to  destructive  fires,  which  have  swept  away  most  of 
the  ancient  houses.  The  most  conspicuous  of  the  many 
fine  buildings  is  the  ducal  palace,  a  huge  irregularly  penta- 
gonal structure  with  numerous  towers  (the  highest  236 
feet),  built  in  1844-57  in  the  French  Renaissance  style. 
It  stands  on  a  small  round  island  between  Castle  Lake 
and  the  Lake  of  Schwerin,  formerly  the  site  of  a  Wendish 
fortress  and  of  a  later  medieval  castle,  portions  of  which 
have  been  skilfully  incorporated  with  the  present  building. 
The  older  and  much  simpler  palace;  the  opera-house, 
rebuilt  after  a  fire  in  1882  ;  the  Government  buildings, 
erected  in  1825-34  and  restored  in  1865  after  a  fire;  and 
thelnuseum,  in  the  Greek  style,  finished  in  1882,  all  stand 
in  the  "old  garden,"  an  open  space  at  the  end  of  the 
bridge  leading  to  the  new  palace.  Among  the  other 
secular  buildings  are  the  palace  of  the  heir-apparent  (built 
in  1779  and  re.stored  in  1878),  the  large  arsenal,  the  ducal 
stables,  the  gymnasium,  the  town-house,  the  artillery- 
barracks,  the  military  hospital,  &c.  The  cathedral  was 
originally  consecrated  in  1248,  though  the  present  building 
— a  brick  structure  in  the  Baltic  Gothic  style,  with  an 
unfinished  tower — dates  for  the  most  part  from  the  15th 
century.  Since  1837  Schwerin  has  been  once  more  the 
residence  of  the  grand-duke,  and  the  seat  of  government 
and  of  various  high  tribunals, — a  fact  which  has  had  con- 
siderable influence  on  the  character  of  the  town  and  the 
tone  of  its  society.  Neither  the  manufacturing  industry 
nor  the  trade  of  Schwerin  is  important.  In  1885  the  popu- 
lation was  32,031 — including  about  700  Roman  Catholics 
and  400  Jews — an  increase  of  6"4  per  cent,  since  1880. 

Schwerin  is  mentioned  as  a  Wendish  stronghold  in  1018,  its 
name  (Zwaiin  or  Swarin)  being  a  Slavonic  word  equivalent  to  "game- 
preserve.  "  The  Obotrite  p'rince  Niclot,  whose  statue  is  placed  above 
the  portal  of  the  palace  as  the  ancestor  of  the  present  reigning 
family,  had  his  residence  here.  The  town,  founded  in  1161  by 
Henry  the  Lion  in  opposition  to  this  pagan  fortress,  received  town- 


rights  in  1167.  From  1170  to  1624  it  gave  name  to  a  bishopric; 
and  it  was  also  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Schwerin,  which  forms 
the  western  part  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Mecklenburg- Schwerin. 
Destructive  &res,  the  hardships  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  the 
removal  of  the  court  to  Ludwigslust  in  1756  seriously  depressed 
the  town.  It  owes  its  revival  and  many  of  its  chief  buildings  to 
the  giand-duke  Paul  Frederick  (1837-42),  to  whom  a,  statue  by  Eauch 
was  erected  iu  1859. 

SCHWIND,  MoEiTZ  VON  (1804-1871),  a  painter  of  the 
romantic  school,  was  born  in  Vienna  in  1804.  He  received 
rudimentary  training  and  led  a  joyous  careless  life  in 
that  gay  capital ;  among  his  companions  was  the  musician 
Schubert,  whose  songs  he  illustrated.  In  1828  he  removed 
to  Munich,  and  had  the  advantage  of  the  friendship  of 
the  painter  Schnorr  and  the  guidance  of  Cornelius,  then 
director  of  the  academy.  In  1834  he  received  the  com- 
mission to  decorate  King  Louis's  new  palace  with  wall 
paintings  illustrative  of  the  j^oet  Tieck.  He  also  found  in 
the  same  palace  congenial  sport  for  his  fancy  in  a  "  Kinder- 
fries";  his  ready  hand  was  likewise  busy  on  almanacs,  &c., 
and  by  his  illustrations  to  Goethe  and  other  writers  he 
gained  applause  and  much  employment.  In  the  revival  of 
art  in  Germany  Schwind  held  as  his  own  the  sphere  of 
poetic  fancy.  To  him  was  entrusted  in  1839,  in  the  new 
Carlsruhe  academy,  the  embodiment  in  fresco  of  ideas 
thrown  out  by  Goethe ;  he  decorated  a  villa  at  Leipsic 
v-ith  the  story  of  Cupid  and  Psyche,  and  further  justified 
his  title  of  poet-painter  by  designs  from  the  Niebdungen- 
lied  and  Tasso's  Gerusalemme  for  the  walls  of  the  castle  of 
Hohenschwangau  in  Bavarian  Tyrol.  From  the  year  1844 
dates  his  residence  in  Frankfort ;  to  this  period  belong 
some  of  his  best  easel  pictures,  preeminently  the  Singers' 
Contest  in  the  Wartburg  (1846),  also  designs  for  the 
Goethe  celebration,  likewise  numerous  book  illustrations. 
The  conceptions  for  the  most  part  are  better  than  the 
execution.  In  1847  Schwind  returned  to  Munich  on  being 
appointed  professor  in  the  academy.  Hight  years  later 
his  fame  was  at  its  height  on  the  completion  in  the  castle 
of  the  Wartburg  of  wall  pictures  illustrative  of  the  Singers' 
Contest  and  of  the  History  of  Elizabeth  of  Hungary.  The 
compositions  received  universal  praise,  and  at  a  grand 
musical  festival  to  their  honour  Schwind  himself  played 
among  the  violins.  In  1857  appeared  his  exceptionally 
mature  "cyclus"  of  the  Seven  Ravens  from  Grimm's 
fairy  stories.  In  the  same  year  he  visited  England  to 
report  officially  to  King  Louis  on  the  Manchester  art 
treasures.  And  so  diversified  were  his  gifts  that  he  turned 
his  hand  to  church  windows  and  joined  his  old  friend 
Schnorr  in  designs  for  the  painted  glass  in  Glasgow  cathe- 
dral. Towards  the  close  of  his  career,  with  broken  health 
and  powers  on  the  wane,  he  revisited  Vienna.  To  this 
time  belong  the  "cyclus"  from  the  legend  of  Meluslne  and 
the  designs  commemorative  of  chief  musicians  which  de- 
corate the  foyer  of  the  new  operarhouse.  Cornelius  writes, 
"  You  have  here  translated  the  joyousness  of  music  into 
pictorial  art."  Schwind's  genius  was  lyrical;  he  drew 
inspiration  from  chivalry,  folk-lore,  and  the  songs  of  the 
people ;  his  art  was  decorative,  but  lacked  scholastic  train- 
ing and  technical  skill.  Schwind  died  at  Munich  in  1871, 
and  his  body  lies  in  the  old  Friedhof  of  the  same  town. 

SCHWYZ,  one  of  the  forest  cantons  of  Switzerland, 
ranking  fifth  in  tho  confederation.  It  extends  from  the 
upper  end  of  the  Lake  of  Zurich  on  the  north  to  the  middle 
reach  of  the  Lake  of  Lucerne  on  the  south  ;  on  the  west  it 
touches  at  Kiissnacht  the  northern  arm  of  the  latter  lake, 
and  at  .Arth  the  Lake  of  Zug,  while  on  the  east  it  stretches 
to  the  ridges  at  the  head  of  the  Muottathal,  "which  divide 
it  from  Glarus.  Its  total  area  is  350"7  square  miles,  of 
which  254'9  are  classed  as  "productive  land"  (193'3  of 
this  being  pasture  or  arable  land)  and  95'3  as  "unpro- 
ductive land"  (glaciers  and  lakes  occupying  21  squara 


s  C  I  — S  C  I 


465 


miles).  The  highesc  point  is  the  Grieseltstock  or  Faulen 
(9200  feet) ;  the  summit  of  the  Kigi  (Rigi  Kulm)  is  also 
within  its  limits.  In  1880  the  population  (nearly  equally 
divided  between  the  two  sexes)  was  51,235,  an  increase 
of  3530  since  1870.  The  only  towns  of  any  size  are 
Einsiedeln  (population,  8401)  and  the  capital,  Sch\\'}-z 
(6543).  German  is  the  mother-tongue  of  49,631  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  there  is  an  Italian  colony  of  1377.  The 
Koman  Catholics  number  50,266,  the  Protestants  but 
954.  Till  1814  the  canton  formed  part  of  the  diocese  of 
Constance  ;  since  that  time  it  is  practically  (though  not 
formally)  included  in  that  of  Chur.  Besides  a  monastery 
of  Capuchin  friars  and  four  nunneries,  the  canton  boasts 
of  the  great  Benedictine  abbey  of  Einsiedeln,  which  grew 
up  round  the  cell  of  the  hermit  St  Jlcinrad  (d.  863) ;  it 
received  its  first  charter  in  946  from  Otho  I.,  and  contains 
a  black  statue  of  the  Virgin,  which  attracts  about  150,000 
pilgrims  annually.  In  Schwyz  primary  education  is  free 
and  compulsory,  the  state  also  giving  grants  in  aid  of 
secondary  instruction.  The  population  are  mainly  engaged 
in  pastoral  occupations,  the  chief  article  of  export  (largely 
to  north  Italy)  being  a  special  breed  of  cattle,  which  enjoys 
a  very  high  reputation  in  the  confederatioiu  The  only 
railways  in  the  canton  are  the  portion  of  tho  St  Gotthard 
line  between  Kiissnacht,  Immensee,  and  Sisikon,  and»  the 
line  from  Arth  to  the  summit  of  the  Rigi. 

The  valley  of  Schw)-z  first  appears  in  history  in  970.  Later  a 
community  of  free  men  is  found  settled  at  the  foot  of  tho  Mythen, 
possessing  common  lands  and  subject  only  to  the  count  of  the  Zurich 
gaii,  as  the  representative  of  tho  emperor ;  from  the  Hapsburgs 
Steinen  in  1269  and  Arth  (completely)  in  1354  bought  their  free- 
dom and  became  part  of  the  free  community  of  Schwyz.  The  early 
history  of  Schwyz  consists  mainly  of  struggles  vrith  the  abbey  of 
Einsiedeln  about  riglits  of  paswre.  In  1240  the  inhabitants 
obtained  from  Frederick  II.  the  "  Reichsfreiheit,"  i.e.,  direct  depend- 
ence on  the  emperor,  being  thus  freed  from  tho  Hapsburg  counts 
of  tho  Zurich  gau.  In  l-2(3  tho  younger  branch  of  the  house  of 
Hapsburg  sold  all  its  property  and  riglits  in  tho  valley  to  the  elder 
branch,  which  a  few  months  later  obtained  the  empire,  and  In  April 
1291  bought  the  rights  of  the  Alsatian  abbey  of  llurbach  over 
Lucerne.  Schwyz  took  tho  lead  in  making  the  famouB  league  of 
1st  August  1291  with  tho  neighbouring  districts  of  Uri  and  Unter- 
walden,  for  which  its  position  and  the  free  spirit  of  its  inhabitants 
specially  fitted  it.  An  attack  by  Schwyz  on  Einsiedelii  was  the 
excuse  for  the  Austrian  invasion  which  on  15th  November  1315  was 
gloriously  beaten  back  in  Morgarten  Pass.  In  the  history  of  tho 
league  Schwyz  was  always  to  the  front,  so  that  its  name  in  a  dialectal 
form  (Sohft'ciz)  was  ajiplied  by  foreigners  from  tho  14th  century 
onwards  to  the  league  as  a  wliole,  though  it  formed  part  of  its  formal 
style  only  from  1803.  Soon  after  the  victory  ofSempach  (1386) 
the  men  of  Sclnvyz  be"an  to  extend  their  borders.  In  1394  they 
acquired  tho  town  of  Kinsiedeln  (becoming  in  1397,  and  finally  in 
1434,  the  "  protectors  "  of  the  great  abbey)  and  in  1402  Kussnacht, 
wliile  in  1412-37  they  won  the  "March,"  and  in  1440  Wollerau  and 
Pf  affikon, — all  on  or  near  tho  Lake  of  Zurich.  All  these  districts 
were  governed  by  Schwyz  as  subjects,  not  as  equals  or  allies,  supremo 
■power  resting  with  the  "  Landsgemeindo  "  (or  assembly  of  all  citizens 
of  full  age)  of  Schwyz,  which  is  first  mentioned  in  1294.  Schwyz 
joined  the  other  forest  cantons  in  opposing  tho  Reformation,  and 
took  part  in  tho  battle  of  Cappel  (1531),  in  which  Zwingli  felL  In 
1586  it  became  a  member  of  the  Golden  or  Borromoan  League,  formed 
to  continue  tho  work  of  Charles  Borromco  in  carrying  out  tho 
eounler-Rcrormation.  In  1793  Schwyz,  including  Gcrsau  (free  sinco 
1390),  formed  part  of  tho  "Tell  gau"  or  "Riipubliquo  Telliane," 
set  up  by  ttie  French,  which  a  week  later  gave  way  to  tlio  "  Helvetic 
republic,"  though  tho  free  men  offered  a  valiant  resistance  under 
Aloyi  Kedin".  In  1799  it  was  the  scene  of  the  disastrous  retreat 
from  Altdorf  to  Glarus  made  over  tlie  Kinzigkulm  and  Pragel 
Passes  by  tho  liussians  under  Suwaroff  in  face  of  the  French  army. 
Schwyz  steadily  resisted  all  proposals  for  tho  revision  of  the 
federal  constitution  of  1815,  joinca  tho  league  of  Sarnon  in  1832, 
nnd,  when  religious  disputes  had  further  complicated  matters,  tho 
"  Sondcrbund  '  (1843  and  1845),  which  wu  only  pat  down  by  tho 
war  of  November  1847.  Tho  constitution  of  1848  was  revised  In 
1855, 1876  (when  membership  of  onoof  tho  twcnty-nino  "Gemcindo" 
ol  communes  became  the  political  qualification),  and  1884. 

SCIACCA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  tho  province  of  Oirgonti, 
Sicily,  58  miles  south-east  of  Castolvctrano.(Sclinus)  and 
37  north-west  of  Giigenti,  lies  on  tho  south  coast  on  a  utccp 

21-17 


rocky  decline,  and  with  its  walls  and  castles  has  from  a 
distance  an  imposing  appearance.  -The  cathedral  was 
founded  in  1090  by  Julia  de  Hauteville,  daughter  of  Roger 
I.,  ^ho  had  presented  her  with  the  lordship  of  Sciacca  on 
her  marriage  with  Perollo;  and  two  other  churches,  S. 
Salvadore  and  S.  Maria  delle  Giummare,  date  from  the 
same  period.  In  the  cliffs  are  excavated  granaries  in  which 
under  the  Spanish  viceroys  the  grain  used  to  be  stored 
under  Government  control.  To  the  east  of  the  town,  at 
the  foot  of  Monte  S.  Calogero,  are  the  hot  wells  (sulphur- 
ous and  saline)  of  Sciacca ;  and  the  steam  that  breaks 
forth  from  the  top  of  the  hill  seems  to  have  been  used  (as 
it  still  is)  for  vapour  baths  from  a  remote  (possibly 
Phoenician)  period.  The  population  was  21,451  (22,195 
including  Marina)  in  1881. 

Sciacca  was  the  birthplace  of  Tommaso  Fazello  (1498-1570),  tha 
historian  of  Sicily.  In  the  15th  century  it  was  the  scene  of  a  ter- 
rible feud  between  the  Perollos  (lords  of  Sciacca)  and  the  counts 
of  Luna. 

SCIATICA.     See  Neusalgia,  vol.  xvii.  p.  364. 

SCILLY  ISLES,  a  group  of  islands,  about  forty  in 
number,  in  the  county  of  Cornwall  (see  vol.  vi.  plate  IX.), 
England,  are  situated  about  25  miles  west  by  south  of 
Land's  End  and  40  west  from  Lizard  Point,  in  50°  N.  lat. 
and  6°  W.  long.  They  are  composed  wholly  of  granite, — 
outliers  of  the  granite  highlands  of  Cornwall.  There  are 
some  metalliferous  veins  or  lodes,  but  none  that  could  ever 
have  yielded  much  iron.  On  account  of  the  mild  climate 
the  vegetation  is  remarkably  luxuriant.  The  mean  average 
temperature  in  winter  is  about  45°  and  in  summer  about 
58°.  Fuchsias,  geraniums,  and  myrtles  attain  an  immense 
size,  and  aloes,  cactus,  and  the  prickly  pear  grow  in  the 
open  air.  The  inhabitants  devote  their  attention  principally 
to  the  cultivation  of  early  potatoes  for  the  London  market. 
Asparagus  and  other  early  vegetables,  as  well  as  flowers^ 
are  also  largely  cultivated.  Lobsters  are  caught  and  sent 
to  London,  but  the  fishing  industry  is  of  comparatively 
minor  importance. 

The  total  area  of  tho  islands  is  3560  acres,' with  a  population  in 
1871  of  2090,  and  in  18S1  of  2320,  including  276  persons  on  board 
vessels.  The  inhabited  islands  are  St  Mary's  (area  about  1600 
acres),  Tresco  (700),  St  Martin's  (550),  St  Agnes  (350),  and  Bryher 
(300)  Tho  principal  town,  Hugh  Town  in  St  Mary's,  occupies  a 
sandy  peninsula  crowned  by  the  height  called  the  Garrison,  with 
Star  Qastle,  erected  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth.  It  possesses  a  harbour 
and  pier  with  a  roadstead  afibrding  anchorage  for  large  vessels.  Tho 
coast-line  is  wild  and  picturesque,  with  precipitous  headlands  and 
many  extensive  caves.  On  Tresco  there  ore  remains  of  an  abbey  ; 
and  St  Agnes  has  a  lighthouse  72  feet  in  height.  On  the  islands 
there  are  numerous  rude  pillars  and  circles  of  stones,  similar  to  those 
in  Cornwall. 

Tho  Scilly  Isles  are  probably  the  Cassilerides  or  "Tin  Islands" 
of  tho  Greeks  (see  vol.  xviii.  p.  806).  The  islands  were  granted  in 
936  by  Athelstan  to  the  monks  settled  at  Tresco,  but  on  tho 
endowment  of  tho  abbey  of  Tavistock  the  greater  portion  of  them 
'Vere  included  amongst  its  possessions.  In  tho  reigu  of  Elizabeth 
they  wcri3  divided  amongst  several  proprietors.  During  the  Civil 
War  Hugh  Town  held  out  for  tho  king,  and  in  1645  afforded  shelter 
lor  a  time  to  Piince  Charles  until  he  escaped  to  Jersey.  In  .1649 
they  wore  taken  possession  o(  by  Sir  ,Tohn  Gienvillo,  a  Roj-alist,  who 
made  use  of  them  as  a  convenient  shelter,  wiiencc  he  issued  to  sweep 
tho  nciglibouring  seas,  until  in  1651  ho  \v.as  forced  to  surrender  to  a 
fleet  under  Blake  and  Sir  John  Ayscue.  In  ancient  timos  a  frequent 
haunt  of  pirates,  the  islands  were  afterwards  notorious  for  smuggling. 
On  the  suppression  of  smuggling  Mr  Augustus  J.  Smith  did  mucii 
to  introduco  order  and  encourago  habits  of  industry  amongst  tho 
inhabitants. 

SCINDE.     See  Sind. 

SCIO,  tho  Italian  name  of  an  island  on  the  west  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  called  by  Ihe  Greeks  Chios  (jj  Xi'os,  's  Tt; 
Xio)  and  by  tho  Turks  Saki  Adasi;  the  soft  pronunciation 
of  X  before  t  in  Modem  Greek,  approximating  to  sh,  caused 
Xio  to  bo  Italianized  as  Scio.  Scio,  which  is  about  30 
miles  long  from  north  to  south,  and  varies  in  breadth 
from  8  to  15  miles,  is  divided  into  a  larger  northern  part 
and  a  smaller  southctn  part,  called  respectively  ajMnomfria 


466 


S  C  I  — S  C  I 


and  katomeria.  The  island  is  rugged  and  well  deserves 
the  epithet  "  craggy  "  (n-atTraAoecro-a)  applied  to  it  in  the 
Homeric  hymn.  The  southern  part  is  less  rocky  than 
the  northern,  and  the  wealth  of  the  island  is  concentrated 
there.  Tlie  figs  of  Chios  were  noted  in  ancient  times,  but 
'wine  and  gum  mastic  have  always  been  its  most  important 
products.  The  climate  is  almost  perfect,  the  atmosphere 
delightful  and  healthy;  oranges,  olives,  and  even  palms 
grow  freely.  The  finest  wine  was  grown  on  the  north- 
western coast,  in  the  district  called  by  Strabo  Ariusia,  and 
was  known  in  Italy  as  vinum  Arvisium.  The  population 
of  Chios  has  always  been  far  greater  than  its  resources 
could  feed;  the  people  have  therefore  been  forced  to  import 
the  necessaries  of  life  in  exchange  for  their  ■«-ine  and  mastic 
and  fruit,  and  alike  in  ancient  and  modern  times  they  have 
been  known  as  merchants  and  traders.  Pottery  of  Chios 
and  Thasos  was  exported  to  Illyria  (Strab.,  p.  317)  and 
doubtless  elsewhere  ;  it  formed  or  contained  the  cargo  of 
outward-bound  trading  ships.  Thasian  ware  is  familiar  in 
museums,  where  the  stamped  handles  of  Thasian  amphoroe 
have  been  collected  in  thousands ;  but  no  pottery  has  yet 
been  identified  as  of  Chian  manufacture.  An  incidental 
proof  of  the  importance  of  Chian  handicrafts  lies  in  the 
fact  that  early  in  the  7th  century  B.C.  Glaucus  of  Chios 
discovered  the  process  of  soldering  iron,  and  the  iron  stand 
of  a  large  crater  whose  parts  wexe  all  connected  by  this 
process  was  constructed  by  him,  and  preserved  as  one  of  the 
most  interesting  relics  of  antiquity  at  Delphi.  The  long 
line  of  Chian  sculptors  in  marble,  Bupalus  and  Athenis,  sons 
of  Archermus,  son  of  Micciades,  son  of  Melas,  bears  witness 
to  the  fame  of  Chian  art  in  the  period  660  to  540  B.C. 
The  Winged  Victory  of  !Micciades  and  Archermus,  which 
was  dedicated  at  Delos,  is  still  preserved, — the  most  im- 
portant attested  work  extant  of  archaic  Greek  art.  Marble 
quarries  also  were  worked  in  the  island.  In  literature 
the  chief  glory  of  Chios  was  the  school  of  epic  poets 
called  HomeridiB,  who  carried  on  and  gave  an  Ionic  tone 
to  the  traditional  art  of  the  older  .^olic  bards.  Cinjethus 
is  said  to  have  written  the  Homeric  Hymn  to  Apollo  of 
Delos,  and  is  believed  by  some  modern  critics  to  have  exer- 
cised great  influence  on  the  text  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey. 
The  Chian  recension  of  these  poems  (Xi'a"EK8ocris)  was  in 
later  times  one  of  the  standard  texts.  Ion  the  tragic  poet, 
Theopompus  the  historian,  and  other  writers  maintained  the 
position  of  Chios  in  literature  daring  the  classical  period. 

The  chief  city  of  Chios  has  always  borne  the  same  name  as  the 
island.  It  is  situated  near  the  middle  of  the  eastern  coast,  aud  at 
the  present  day  contains  about  17,000  iiihabitants.  A  theatre  and 
a.  temple  of  Athena  Poliuchus  e.^ted  iu  the  ancient  city.  About 
6  miles  north  of  the  city  tliero  is  a  curious  monument  of  antiquity, 
commonly  called  "the  school  of  Homer";  it  is  a  very  ancient 
sanctuai'y  of  Gybele,  ydt\\  an  altar  and  a  figure  of  the  goddesswith 
her  two  lions,  cut  out  of  the  native  rock  on  the  summit  of  a  liilh 
On  the  west  coast  there  is  a  monastery  of  great  wealth  with  a 
church  founded  by  Constantino  IX.  (10-12-54).  Starting  from  the 
city  and  encompassing  the  island,  one  passes  in  succession  the  pro- 
montory Posidium  ;  Cape  PhauK,  the  southern  extremity  of  Chios, 
with  a  harbour  and  a  temple  of  Apollo  ;  Notium,  probably  the 
south-western  point  of  the  island  ;  Laii,  opposite  the  city  of  Chios, 
where  the  island  is  narrowest ;  the  town  Bolissus  (now  Volisso), 
the  home  of  the  Homerid  poets  ;  Metena,  the  north-western  point  ;■ 
the  wine-gi'owing  district  Ariusia  ;  Cardamyle  (now  Cardhamili) ; 
the  north-eastern  promontory  was  probably  named  Phlium,  and 
the  mountains  that  cross  the  northern  part  of  the  island  Pelina!U3 
or  Pellensus.  The  situation  of  the  small  towns  Leuconium, 
Delpliiniiim,  Caucasa,  Ccela,  and  Polichne  is  uncertain  ;  probably 
most  of  them  were  in  the  southern  part.  The  island  is  subject  to 
earthquakes  ;  a  very  destructive  shock  occurred  in  March  18S1. 

The  history  of  Chios  is  very  obsciure.  According  to  Pherecydes, 
the  original  inhabitants  were  Leleges,  while  according  to  other 
accounts  Thessalian  Pelasgi  possessed  the  island  before  it  became 
an  Ionian  state.  The  name  .ffithalia,  common  to  Chios  and  Lemnos 
in  very  early  time,  suggests  the  original  existence  of  a  homogeneous 
population  iu  these  and  other  neighbouring  islands.  (Enopium,  a 
mythical  hero,  son  of  Dionysus  or  of  Rhadamanthus,  was  an  early 
kiiig  of  Ohios.     Hi.s  successor  in  the  fourth  generation,  Hector, 


united  the  island  to  the  Ionian  confederacy  (Pausan.,  viL  4),  though 
Strabo  (p.  633)  implies  an  actual  cjnquest  by  Ionian  settlers.  Tnc 
name  Hector  aud  tlic  fountain  Helene  (piobably  at  the  modem 
Thelena  in  the  nortli)  might  ba  tupectcd  in  the  isbud  of  the 
HomeridiB.  The  regal  government  was  at  a  later  time  exchanged 
for  an  oligarchy  or  a  democracy,  but  notliing  is  Icnown  as  to  the 
manner  and  date  of  the  change.  As  in  most  other  states  of  Greece, 
tyrants  sometimes  ruled  in  Chios;  the  namss  of  Amphiclus  and 
Polytecnus  are  mentioned.  The  early  relations  of  Olios  with  other 
states  are  very  obscure,  but  it  seems  to  have  been  an  ally  of  jMiletus, 
and  to  have  been  at  enmity  with  the  Phocoio-Samian  alliance,  to 
which  the  neighbouring  Erythne  belonged.  The  same  fom  of  the 
Ionian  dialect  was  spoken  in  Chios  .and  in  Erythra. 

When  the  Persians  appe.ircd  on  the  Ionian  coast  Chios  willingly 
submitted,  refused  to  their  old  enemies  the  Phoca:an.s,  who  were 
fleeing  from  the  Persian  yoke,  a  refuge  on  their  islands  (Ennssae, 
and  even  surrendered  the  Lydian  fugitive  Pactyes  in  defiance  of 
all  religious  scruples.  Strattis,  tyrant  of  Cbios,  followed  Darius 
in  his  Scythian  expedition.  ■  The  Chians  joined  in  the  Ionian 
rebellion  against  the  Persians  (500-495)  and  supplied  100  shins. 
After  the  Persian  victory  at  Lade  the  isUud  <va,<!  most  severely 
treated,  the  towns  and  temples  burned,  and  many  of  the  people 
ensl-vved.  At  Salamis  (180)  the  Chian  ships,  led  by  the  tjTant 
Strattis,  served  in  the  Persian  fleet.  Aftjr  the  battle  of  Mycalc 
(479)  the  island  became  free  and  a  democratic  government  no  doubt 
took  the  place  of  the  t)Tanny.  Chios  was  the  most  powerful  state 
after  Athens  in  the  Dcii;'!i  confederacy,  and  it  was  an  ally  on  equal 
terms  of  the  Athenian  empire,  paying  no  -tribute,  but  furnishing 
ships  in  case  of  war.  It  remained  a  faithful  ally  of  the  Athenians 
till  the  year  412,  when,  encouraged  by  the  weakness  caused  in 
Athens  by  the  Sicilian  disasters,  it  joined  the  Lacediemonians.  Its 
fleet  then  consisted  of  fifty  ships.  The  Athenians  defeated  them 
in  three  battles,  at  Bolissus,  Phana;,  and  Leuconium,  but  could  not 
reconquer  the  island.  Finding  the  Spartan  hegemony  more  op- 
pressive than  the  Atlienian,  Chios  returned  to  the  Athenian  con- 
nexion in  394,  but  soon  afterwards  deserted  and  joined  the  Thebans. 
In  the  wars  of  Alexander  tlie  Great,  Memnon,  supported  by  the 
oligarchical  party,  held  the  island  for  the  Persians.  It  was 
afterwards  involved  in  the  rapid  vicissitudes  of  Ionian  history, 
falling  under  the  power  of  various  dynasties  among  the  diadochi. 
In  the  Mithradatic  wars  it  fiivoured  the  Roman  alliance,  and  the 
king's  general  Zenobius  fined  the  island  2000  talents  and  carried 
off  a  great  number  of  the  population  into  slavery  iu  Pontus.  It 
had  many  centuries  of  peaceful  prosperity  under  Roman  and 
Byzantine  rule.  The  Genoese  held  it  from  the  14th  century  till 
in  1566  the  Turks  conquered  it  aud  the  third  great  Chian  disaster 
and  massacre  occurred.  Except  for  a  brief  Venetian  occupation  in 
1694,  Chios  has  remained  in  Turkish  hands  till  the  present  day. 
A  fourth  massacre  afilicted  the  island  in  1822,  when  the  Turks 
repressed  *vith  fire  and  sword  the  attempted  Greek  insurrection. 
Till  this  terrible  event  the  island  was  ruled  very  leniently  by  the 
Turks  ;  the  internal  government  was  left  in  the  hands  of  five 
archons,  three  Greek  aud  two  Catholic,  while  two  resident  Turkish 
officials  represented  the  sultan  and  received  through  Wie  archons 
the  stipulated  tribute.  (W.  M.  RA. ) 

SCIPIO.  The  Scipios,^  a  memorable  name  in  Eoman 
history,  were  a  branch  of  the  ancient  and  noble  family  of 
the  Cornelii.  It  was  in  Rome's  wars  with  Carthage  that 
they  made  themselves  specially  famous. 

1.  PuBLixrs  Cornelius  Scipio,  the  father  of  the  Elder 
Africanus,  was  the  first  Roman  general  to  encounter 
Hannibal  in  battle.  He  was  consul  in  218  b.c,  the  first 
year  of  the  Second  Punic  War,  and,  having  Spain  for  his 
province,  he  went  with  an  army  to  Massilia  (Marseilles) 
with  the  view  of  arresting  the  Carthaginian's  advance  on 
Italy.  raUing,  however,  to  meet  his  enemy,  he  hastened 
back  by  sea  to  Cisalpine  Gaul,  leaving  his  army  under  the 
command  of  his  brother  Cneius  Scipio,  who  was  to  harass 
the  Carthaginians  in  Spain  and  hinder  them  from  support- 
ing Hannibal.  In  a  sharp  cavalry  engagement  in  the 
upper  valley  of  the  Po,  on  the  Ticinus,  he  was  defeated 
and  severely  wounded,  and  it  is  said  he  owed  his  life  to 
the  bravery  of  his  son,  then  a  mere  stripling.  Again,  in 
the  December  of  the  same  year,  he  witnessed  the  complete 
defeat  of  the  Eoman  army-on  the  Trebia,  his  coUeague 
Sempronius  having  insisted  on  fighting  contrary  to  his 
advice.  But  he  still  retained  the  confidence  of  the  Roman 
people,  since  his  term  of  command  was  extended,  and  wc 
find  him  with  his  brother  in  Spain  in  the  following  year, 

*  The  name  means  a  "  stick  "  or  "  stalf. " 


S  C  I  P  I  o 


467 


winning  victories  over  the  Carthaginians  and  strengthen- 
ing Rome's  hold  on  that  country,  till  212  or  211.  The 
details  of  these  campaigns  are  not  accurately  known  to  us, 
but  it  would  seem  that  the  ultimate  defeat  and  death  of 
the  Scipios  were  due  to  the  desertion  of  the  Celtiberi, 
bribed  by  Hasdrubal,  Hannibal's  brother. 

2.  PUBLIUS  COENELITJS  SCIPIO  AfKICANXTS  THE  ElDI^S. 

After  having  been  present  at  the  disastrous  battles  of  the 
Ticinus,  the  Trebia,  and  Cannse,  and  having  after  that  last 
crushing  defeat  had  the  spirit  to  remonstrate  vrith  several 
Roman  nobles  -who  advocated  giving  up  the  struggle  and 
quitting  Italy  in  despair,  Scipio,  at  the  age  of  twenty-fpur, 
offered  to  take  the  command  of  the  Roman  army  in  Spain 
the  year  after  his  father's  death.  The  people  already  had 
an  intense  belief  in  him,  and  he  was  unanimously  elected. 
All  .Spain  west  of  the  Ebro  was  in  the  year  of  nis  arrival 
(210)  under  Carthaginian  control,  but  fortunately  for  him 
the  three  Carthaginian  generals,  Hasdrubal  (Hannibal's 
brother),  Eaidnibal  the  :on  of  Gisgo,  and  Mago  (also 
Hannibal's  brother),  were  not  disposed  to  act  in  concert. 
Scipio  was  thus  enabled  to  surprise  and  capture  New 
Carthage,  the  headquarters  of  the  Carthaginian  power  in 
Spain,  liwui  wLi.h  hn  obtained  a  rich  booty  of  war  stores 
and  supplica,  wlih  a  particidarly  good  harbour.  The  native 
Spanish  tribes  now  became  friendly,  and  Scipio  found  use- 
ful allies  among  them.  In  the  following  year  he  fought 
Hasdrubal  somewhere  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Guadal- 
quivir, but  the  action  could  hardly  have  been  a  decisive  one, 
as  soon  afterwards  the  Carthaginian  crossed  the  Pyrenees 
at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army  on  his  way  to  Italy. 
Next  year  another  battle  was  fought  in  the  same  neigh- 
bourhood, and  Scipio's  success  appears  to  have  been  suffi- 
ciently decided  to  compel  the  Carthaginian  commanders. 
to  fall  back  on  Gades,  in  the  south-western  comer  of  Spain. 
The  country  was  now  for  the  most  part  under  Roman  influ- 
ence, a  result  <^ne  even  more  to  the  statpsmanlike  tact  of 
Scipio  than  to  his  military  ability.  With  the  idea  of 
striking  a  blow  at  Carthage  in  Africa,  the  Roman  general 
paid  a  short  visit  to  the  Numidian  princes,  Sj-phax  and 
Masinissa,  but  at  the  court  of  Syphax  he  was  foiled  by  the 
presence  of  Hasdrubal,  the  son  of  Gisgo,  whose  daughter 
Sophunisba  was  married  t/i  the  Numidian  chief.  On  his 
return  to  Spi'n  So.ipio  had  to  quell  a  piutiny  which  had 
broken  out  among  his  troops.  Hannibal's  brother  Mago 
had  meanwhile  sailed  for  Italy,  and  Scipio  himself  Ln  206, 
after  having  established  the  Roman  ascendency  in  Spain, 
gave  up  tiii  nomuiuiid  and  returned  to  Rome  to  stand  for 
the  consulship,  to  which  he  was  unanimously  elected  the 
following  year,  the  province  of  Sicily  being  assigned  to 
him.  By  this  time  Hasdrubal  with  his  army  had  perished 
on  the  Metaurus,  and  Hannibal's  movements  were  restricted 
to  the  south-western  extremity  of  Italy.  For  Rome  the 
worst  part  of  the  struggle  was  over.  The  war  was  now 
to  be  transferred  by  Scipio  from  Italy  to  Africa.  Ee  was 
himself  eagerly  intent  on  this,  and  his  great  name  drew  to 
him  a  number  of  volunteers  from  all  parts  of  Italy.  There 
was  but  ono  obstacle :  the  old-fashioned  aristocracy  of 
Rome  did  not  like  him,  as  his  taste  for  splendid  living 
and  -Greek  culture  was  particularly  ulTciisivo  to  them. 
A  party  in  the  senate  would  have  recalled  him,  but  tiib 
popular  enthusiasm  was  too  strong  for  thcni.  A  commis- 
sion of  inquiry  was  sent  over  to  .Sicily,  and  it  found  that 
he  was  at  the  head  of  rfwell-equipped  fleet  and  army.  At 
the  commissioners'  bidding  he  sailed  in  204  from  Lilybxura 
(Marsala)  and  landed  on  the  coast  of  Africa  near  Utica. 
Carthago  meanwhile  had  secured  the  fricnd^jhip  of  the 
powerful  Numidian  chief  Syphax,  whoso  advance  com- 
pelled Scipio  to  raise  the  siege  of  Utica  and  to  entrench 
himself  on  the  shore  between  that  placs  and  Carthage. 
Next  year  be  surprised  and  utterly  defeated  Syphax  and 


drove  the  Cartnaginian  army  out  of  the  field.  There  was 
an  attempt  at  negotiation,  but  the  war  party  prevailed 
and  Hannibal  was  recalled  from  Italy.  The  decisive 
battle  was  fought  near  the  Numidian  town  of  Zama  in  202 
and  ended  in  Hannibal's  complete  defeat. .  Peace  was  con- 
cluded wth  the  Carthaginians  in  the  following  year  on 
terms  which  strictly  confined  their  dominion  to  a  compara- 
tively small  territory  in  Africa,  almost  annihilated  theii 
fleet,  and  exacted  a  heavy  war  contribution.  In  fact,  the 
independence  of  Carthago  was  destroyed,  and  it  became 
simply  a  rich  commercial  city.  The  old-fashioned  and 
narrow-minded  aristocrats  who  were  in  sympathy  with  thi 
"  delenda  est  Carthago  "  policy  subsequently  announced  by 
Cato  thought  these  terras  too  lenient ;  but  Scipio  was  too 
great  and  too  generous  a  man  to  lend  himself  to  the  base 
work  of  utterly  extinguishing  an  ancient  and  noble  centre 
of  civilization.  Rome  was  now  perfectly  safe  from  attack. 
It  was  a  great  Mediterranean  power;  Spain  and  Sicily 
were  Roman  provinces,  and  the  north,  of  Africa  was  under 
a  Roman  protectorate.  Such  was  the  end,  after  seventeen 
years,  of  the  Second  Punic  War.  Scipio  was  welcomed 
back  to  Rome  with  the  surname  of  Africanus,  and  he  had 
the  moderation  and  good  sense  to  refuse  the  many  honours 
which  tl:  3  people  would  have  thrust  upon  him.  For  some 
years  he  lived  quietly  and  took  no  part  in  politics.  In  190 
his  brother  Lucius  Scipio  was  consul  and;  on  the  under- 
standing that  he  should  have  the  benefit  of  the  military 
skill  and  experience  of  Africanus,  he  was  entrusted  with 
the  war  in  Asia  against  Antiochus.  The  two  brothers 
brought  ^he  war  to  a  conclusion  by  a  decisive  victory  at 
Magnesia  in  the  same  year.  Meanwhile  Scipio's  political 
enemies  had  gained  ground,  and  on  their  retiun  to  Rome 
a  prosecution  was  started  against  Lucius  on  the  ground  of 
misappropriation  of.  moneys  received  from  Alitiochus.  As 
Lucius  was  in  the  act  of  producing  his  account-books  his 
brother  wrested  them  from  his  hands,  tore  them  in  pieces, 
and  flung  them  on  the  floor  of  the  senate-house.  He  was 
then  himself  accused  of  having  been  bribed  by  Antiochus, 
but  he  reminded  his  accusers  that  the  day  was  ill  chosen,  aa 
it  happened  to  be  the  anniversary  of  his  great  victory  over 
Hannibal  at  Zama.  There  was  an  outburst  of  enthusiasm, 
and  Scipio  was  once  again  the  hero  and  the  darling  of  the 
Roman  people,  who,  it  is  said,  crowded  round  him  and 
followed  him  to  the  Capitol.  After  aU,  however,  he  ended 
his  days,  as  a  voluntary  exile  in  all  probability,  at  Litemum 
on  the  coast  of  Campania,  dying,  it  would  seem,  in  183, 
the  year  of  Hannibal's  death,  when  a  little  above  fifty 
years  of  age.  Scipio's  wife  was  jEmUia,  daughter  of  the 
.(Emilius  Panllus  who  fell  at  Cann®  and  who  was  the  father 
of  the  conqueror  of  Macedonia.  By  her  he  had  a  daughter, 
Cornelia,  who  became  the  mother  of  the  two  famous 
Gracchi. 

Spain,  Kortnem  Africa,  tha  so-called  province  of  Asia,  were  added 
to  Koine's  dominion  during  his  life.  Scipio  lived  to  see  Rome 
dovclop  fiom  a  merely  Itiliua  power  to  bo  in  fact  tho  mistress  of 
tlie  world,  and  he  himself  greatly  contributed  to  this  result. 
Amon;5  Rome's  great  generals  wo  must  rank  lilni  after  Cajsar.  Ho 
knew  iiow  to  plan  a  campaign  as  well  as  how  to  fight  n  battle,  and 
ha  had  tho  faculty  of  inspiring  his  soldiers  with  confidence  and 
enthusiasm.  Ho  never  had  to  make  head  against  such  tremendous 
dilbcultics  as  his  great  aiitafjonist,  and  his  achievement..!,  gieat  as 
they  were,  must  bo  distinctly  ranked  lieneath  tho  marvillous  sue- 
oeawwof  Hannibal.  Still  tho  story  was  told  that,  in  a  conversation 
between  tho  two  generals  at  tho  court  of  Antiochus,  Hannibal,  who 
had  named  Alexander  as  tho  first  and  I'yrrhus  as  tho  second  among 
military  commanders,  conf.-sr.ed  that  had  ho  beaten  Sripio  ho  should 
li«vo  put  hi::iaelf  boforo  ( itiicr  of  them.  It  seomi  to  bo  at  any  rata 
certain  that  tho  two  gr.'at  men  respected  and  admired  each  other, 
and  it  is  much  to  Scipio's  credit  that  ho  witlistooil  tho  mean  porse- 
c.jtioci  with  which  tho  Uoman  senate  followed  up  tho  Carthaginian. 
It  may  bo  that  ho  had  rather  too  miirh  aristocratic  haiUnir  for  a 
st-.tcsman  in  time  of  peace,  but  ng.aini-t  this  wo  must  set  tho  iilcising 
fact  that  ho  was  a  man  of  great  intellectual  culture  and  could  speak 
end  writo  Orcck  just  as  well  aa  his  uatiro 'Latin.     Ho  wrote  his 


468 


S  C  i  — s  c  o 


own  meinoirs  in  Greet  "ITiere  must  incleed  have  Ibeen  a  wonderful 
charm  about  the  man,  and  there  was  a  belief  that  he  was  a  special 
favourite  of  heaven  and  held  actual  communication  with  the  gods. 
It  is  quite  possible  too  that  he  himself  honestly  shared  tliis  belief ; 
SJid  so  it  wasthat  to  hla  political  opponents  he  could  be  harsh  and 
arrogant  and  towards  others  singularly  gracious  and  oympathetic. 
For.  a  time  he  enjoyed  a  populariiy  at  Rome  which  no  one  but 
Cssar  ever  attained.* 

3.  PuBLius  CoENEiiius  Scipio  Ateicanus  the 
rotTNGER. — This  Scipio,  also  one  of  Rome's  greatest 
generals,  was  the  younger  son  of  iEmilius  Paullus,  and 
Ee  fought  when  a  youth  of  seventeen  by  his  father's  side 
at  Pydna,  168, — the  battle  which  decided  the  fate  of 
Macedonia  and  made  northern  Greece  subject  to  Rome. 
He  was  adopted  by  the  eldest  son  of  Scipio  Afncanus  the 
Elder,  and  from  him  took  the  name  Scipio  with  the  surname 
Africanus.  In  151,  a  time  of  defeat  and  disaster  for  the 
Romans  in  Spain,  which  as  yet  had  been  but  very  imper- 
fectly subjugated,  he  served  with  credit  in  that  country  and 
obtained  an  influence  over  the  native  tribes  similar  to  that 
which  the  elder  Scipio,  his  grandfather  by  adoption,  had 
acquired  nearly  sixty,  years  before  him.  In  the  next  year  an 
appeal  was  made  to  him  by  the  Carthaginians  to  act  as 
arbiter  between  them  and  the  Numidian  prince  Masinissa, 
who,  backed  up  by  a  party  at  Rome,  was  incessantly 
encroaching  on  Carthaginian  territory.  Rome's  policy  in 
Africa  was  to  hold  the  balance  between  Masinissa  and 
Carthage,  and,  when  it  was  seen  that  Carthage,  as  the  result 
of  several  years  of  peace,  was  again  becom^ing  a  prosperous 
and  powerful  city,  there  grew  up  a  feeling  at  Rome  that  the 
Numidian  king  must  be  supported  and  their  old  rival 
thoroughly  humihateJ.  Marcus  Cato  and  his  party  would 
hear  of  no  compromise ;  Carthage,  they  said,  must  be  de- 
stroyed if  Rome  was  to  be  safe.  It  was  easy  to  find  a 
pretext  for  war  in  the  disputes  between  Carthage  and 
Masinissa.  In  149  war  was  declared,  and  the  Cartha- 
ginians felt  it  to  be  a  life-and-death  struggle  :  every  man 
and  every  woman  laboured  to  the  uttermost  for  the  defence 
of  the  city  with  a  furious  enthusiasm.  The  Roman  army, 
in  which  Scipio  at  first  served  in  a  subordinate  capacity, 
was  utterly  baffled.  In  the  following  year  he  was  elected 
consul,  while  yet  under  the  legal  age,  for  the  express 
purpose  of  giving  him  the  supremo  command.  After  two 
years  of  desperate  fighting  and  splendid  heroism  on  the 
part  of  the  defenders,  the  famished  garrison  could  no 
longer  hold  the  walls:  Carthage  was  captured,  and  the 
ruins  of  the  city  were  burning  for  seventeen  days ;  Rome 
decreed  that  the  place  should  be  for  ever  desolate.  On 
his  return  to  Rome  Scipio  became  the  subject  of  violent 
political  attacks,  against  which  he  successfully  defended 
himself  in  speeches  (no  longer  extant)  that  ranked  as 
brilliant  specimens  of  oratory.  In  134  he  was  again 
consul,  with  the  province  of  Spain,  where  a  demoralized 
Roman  army  was  vainly  attempting  the  conquest  of 
Numantia  on  the  Douro.  Scipio,  after  devoting  several 
months  to  the  discipline  of  his  troops,  reduced  the  city 
by  blockade.  The  fall  of  Numantia,  which  was  utterly 
destroyed  in  133,  established  the  Roman  dominion  iu  the 
province  of  Hither  or  Nearer  Spain,  the  eastern  portion  of 
that  country.  Rome  meanwhile  was  shaken  by  the  great 
political  agitation  of  the  Gracchi,  whose  sister  Sempronia 
was  Scipio's  wife.  Scipio  himself,  though  not  in  sympathy 
with  the  extreme  men  of  the  old  conservative  party,  was 
decidedly  opposed  to  tie  schemes  of  the  Gracchi.  "  Justly 
slain  "  (jure  c.<  sum;  Is  said  to  have  been  his  answer  to  the 
tribune  Carbo,  who  asked  him  before  the  people  what  he 
thought  of  the  death  of  Tiberius  Gracchus.  This  gave  dire 
offei  je  to  the  popular  party,  which  was  now  led  by  his 
bitterest  foes.  Soon  afterwards,  in  129,  he  was  found 
dead  in  bed  on  the  morning  of  a  day  on  which  he  had  in- 
tended to  make  a  speech  on  a  point  cormected  with  the 


agrarian  proposals  of  the  Gracchi,-^"  a  victim  of  politicA^ 
assassination  "  Mommsen  confidently  pronounces  him.  The 
mystery  was  never  cleared  up,  and  there  were  political 
reasons  for  letting  the  matter  drop. 

The  Younger  Scipio,  great  general  and  great  man  as  he  was,  is 
for  ever  associated  with  a  hideous  work  of  destruction  at  Carthage, 
which  we  feel  he  might  have  done  more  to  avert.  Yet  he  was  a 
man  of  culture  and  refinement ;  he  gathered  round  him  such  men 
as  the  Greek  historian  Folybius,  the  philosopher  Pauaetius,  and  the 
poets  Lucilius  and  Terence.  And  at  the  same  time,  according  to 
Polybius  and  Cicero,  he  had  all  the  good  sterling  virtues  of  an  old- 
fashioned  Roman,  and  steadily  set  his  face  against  the  increasing 
Inxury  and  extiavagance  of  his  day.  As  a  speaker  he  seems  to  have 
been  no  less  distinguished  than  as  a  soldier.  He  spoke  remarkably 
good  and  pure  Latin,  and  he  particularly  enjoyed  serious  and  intel- 
lectual conversation.  There  seems  to  have  been  nothing  mean  or 
grasping  about  him.  After  the  capture  of  Carthage  he  gave  back  to 
the  Greek  cities  of  Sicily  the  works  of  art  of  which  Carthage  had 
robbed  them.  He  did  not  avail  himself  of  the  many  opportunities 
he  must  have  had  of  amassing  a  fortune.  Though  politically 
opposed  to  the  Gracchi,  he  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  a  foe  to  the 
interests  of  the  people.  He  was,  in  fact,  a  moderate  man,  in 
favour  of  conciliation,  and  he  was  felt  by  the  best  men  to  be  a 
safe  political  adviser,  while,  as  often  happens  in  such  cases,  he 
could  not  help  offending  both  parties. 

4.  Scipios  are  continually  appearing  in  Roman  history 
in  more  or  less  prominent  positions  down  to  the  time  of  the 
empire.  One  of  them,  Scrpio  Nasica  (Nasica  denoting  an 
aquiline  nose),  contemporary  of  the  Younger  Africanus,  in- 
stigated the  murder  of  Tiberius  Gracchus,  whom  the  people 
were  bent  on  re-electing  (133)  to  the  tribuneship.  Though 
he  was  pontifex  maximus  at  the  time,  the  senate,  to  save 
him,  had  to  get  him  away  from  Rome,  and  he  left  never  to 
return,  dying  soon  afterwards  in  Asia.  (w.  j.  b.) 

SCIRE  FACIAS,  in  English  law,  is  a  judicial  writ 
founded  upon  some  record  directing  the  sheriff  to  make  it 
known  (scire  fadas)  to  the  party  against  whom  it  is 
brought,  and  requiring  the  latter  to  show  cause  why  the 
party  bringing  the  writ  should  not  have  the  advantage  of 
such  record,  or  why  (in  the  case  of  letters  patent  and 
grants)  the  record  should  not  be  annulled  and  vacated. 
Proceedings  in  scire  facias  are  regarded  as  an  action,  and 
the  defendant  may  plead  his  defence  as  in  an  action.  The 
writ  is  now  of  little  practical  importance ;  its  prmcipal 
uses  are  to  compel  the  appearance  of  corporations  aggregate 
iu  revenue  suits,  and  to  enforce  judgments  agamst  share- 
holders in  such  companies  as  are  regulated  by  the  Com- 
panies Clauses  Act,  1845,  or  similar  private  Acts,  and 
against  garnishees  in  proceedings  in  foreign  attachment 
in  the  lord  mayor's  court.  Proceedings  by  scire  facias  to 
repeal  letters  patent  for  inventions  were  abolished  by  the 
Patents,  Designs,  and  Trademarks  Act,  1883,  and  a  petitioa 
to  the  court  substituted. 

SCOPAS.     See  Aech.eology,  vol.  ii.  p.  360. 

SCORESBY,  WiuJAai  (1789-1857),  English  arctic 
explorer  and  physicist,  was  born  near  Whitby,  Yorkshire, 
on  5th  October  1789.  His  father,  also  named  WiUiam, 
who  achieved  distinction  as  an  arctic  whaler,  was  the  son 
of  a  farmer  near  Crompton,  Lancashire,  where  he  was  born| 
on  3d  May  1760.  He  went  to  sea  when  he  was  twenty 
years  of  age,  and  became  one  of  the  most  prominent  and 
successful,  as  well  as  daring,  of  arctic  whale-fishers.  In 
1823  he  retired  with  an  ample  competency,  and  died  in 
1829.  Young  Scoresby  made  his  first  voyage  with  his 
father  to  Greenland  in  1800,  when  he  was  only  eleven 
years  of  age.  On  his  return,  up  to  1803,  he  diligently 
pursued  his  education,  acquiring- a 'very  fair  knowledge  of 
mathematics  and  navigation.  From  1803  he  was  hia 
father's  constant  companion  to  the  whale-fishery.  On 
25th  May  1806,  as  chief  officer  of  the  "Resolution,"  he 
succeeded  in  reaching  81°  30'  N.  in  19°  E.  long.,  the  farthest 
point  north  attained  by  any  navigator  up  to  that  date.  On 
his  return,  during  the  following  winter,  Scoresby  attended 
the  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry  classes  in  Edinburgh 


s  c  o  — s  c  o 


469 


university,  as  he  did  a^ain  in  1S09,  wnen  lie  added  several 
other  subjects.  In  his  voyage  of  1807  he  commenced,  as 
in  all  subsequent  voyages  he  continued,  the  study  of  the 
meteorology  and  natural  history  of  the  polar  regions; 
among  the  earlier  results  are  his  oi-i?;inal  observations  on 
snow  crystals.  In  1809  Professor  Jameson  of  Edinburgh 
brought  Scoresby's  arctic  papers  before  the  Wernerian 
Society  of  that  city,  of  which  he  was  at  once  elected  a 
member.  Soon  after  attaining  his  majority,  in  1811, 
Scoresby  was  promoted  to  the  command  of  the  "  Resolu- 
tion," and  in  the  same  year  married  the  daughter  of  a 
shipbroker.  In  1813  he  changed  the  "Resolution"  for 
the  "  Esk,"  in  both  vessels  bringing  home  large  and  pro- 
fitable captm-es.  In  his  voyage  of  1813  Scoresby  ascer- 
tained that  the  temperature  of  the  polar  ocean  is  warmer 
at  considerable  depths  than  it  is  on  the  surface.  Each 
subsequent  spring  found  Scoresby  in  search  of  whales,  and 
no  less  eagerly  of  fresh  additions  to  scientific  knowledge. 
His  letters  of  this  period  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks  no  doubt 
gave  the  first  impulse  to  the  modern  search  for  the  north- 
west passage.  In  1819  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  among  other  papers  of 
the  year  was  one  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  of 
London  through  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  "On  the  Anomaly  in 
the  Variation  of  the  Magnetic  Needle,"  touching  upon  a 
subject  of  the  first  scientific  importance.  In  1820 
appeared  Scoresby's  History  and  Description  of  the  Arctic 
Regions,  in  which  he  gathers  up  the  results  of  his  own 
observation,  as  well  as  those  of  previous  navigators,  and 
which  still  remains  a  standard  authority.  In  his  voyage  of 
1822  to  Greenland,  among  other  scientific  work,  Scoresby 
surveyed  400  miles  of  the  east  coast,  between  69°  30' 
and  72°  30'  N.,  with  so  much  accuracy  that  the  Govern- 
ment expeditions  of  the  ncct  year  wore  unable  to  make 
any  substantial  correction,  although  they  attempted  to 
ignore  his  work.  This  was  the  last  of  Scoresby's  arctic 
voyages.  On  his  return  he  found  his  wife  dead,  and  this 
event,  acting  upon  his  naturally  pious  spirit  along  with 
other  influences,  decided  him  to  enter  the  church.  After 
two  years  of  residence  in  Cambridge,  he  in  1825  was 
ordained  and  on  Nth  July  was  appointed  curate  of  Bass- 
ingby.  ileantime  had  appeared  at  Edinburgh,  in  1823, 
his  Journal  of  a  Voyar/e  to  the  Northern  Whale-Fishery, 
including  Researches  and  Discoveries  on  the  EaMern  Coast 
of  Greenland.  The  faithful  and  successful  discharge  of  his 
clerical  duties  at  Bassingby,  in  the  mariners'  chapel  at 
Liverpool,  at  Exeter,  and  at  Bradford  did  not  prevent 
Scoresby  from  taking  as  much  interest  in  science  as  he  did 
during  his  whaling  voyages.  In  1821  the  Royal  Society 
elected  him  a  fellow,  and  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences  an 
honorary  corresponding  member.  From  the  first  he  was 
an  active  member  and  official  of  the  British  Association,  to 
which  he  made  several  imiwrtant  contributions,  one  being 
"  An  Exposition  of  some  of  the  Laws  and  Phenomena  of 
Magnetic  Induction."  To  the  progress  of  terrestrial  mag- 
netism especially  Scoresby  is  recognized  as  having  largely 
contributed.  Of  the  sixty  papers  which  follow  his  name 
in  the  Royal  Society  list  many  are  more  or  less  connected 
with  this  department  of  research.  But  his  observations 
extended  into  many  other  departments,  including  certain 
branches  of  optics.  In  order  to  obtain  additional  data 
for  his  theories  on  magnetism  he  Miadc  a  voyage  to  Aas- 
tralia  in  1850,  the  results  of  which  were  published  in  a 
posthumous  work, — Journal  of  a  Voyage  to  Anstralia  for 
Magnclical  Research,  edited  by  Archibald  Smith  (1859). 
He  made  two  visits  to  America,  in  ISll  and  1848  ;  on  his 
return  home  from  the  latter  visit  he  made  some  valuable 
observations  on  the  height  of  Atlantic  waves,  the  results 
of  which  were  given  to  the  British  Association.  Scoresby 
interested  himself  much  in  social  questions,  especially  the 


improvement  of  the  condition  of  factory  operatives.  '  He 
also  published  numerous  works  and  pai)ers  of  a  religious 
character,  a  list  of  which,  as  well  as  of  his  many  scientific 
papers,  is  appended  to  the  Life  of  William  Scoresby  by  his 
nephew,  Dr  R.  E.  Scoresby -Jackson  (1861).  In  1850  he 
published  a  work  on  the  Franklin  expedition,  urging  the 
prosecution  of  the  search  for  the  missing  ships,  and  giving 
the  valuable  results  of  his  own  experience  in  arctic  naviga- 
tion. Scoresby  was  twice  married  after  the  death  of  his 
first  wife, — to  Jliss  Elizabeth  Fitzgerald  in  1828,  and  in 
1849  to  Miss  Georgina  Kerr.  After  his  third  marriage 
Scoresby  built  a  villa  at  Torquay,  where  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life,  and  where  he  died,  21st  March  1857.' 
He  was  a  man  of  simple  but  deep  piety,  amiable,  cheerful, 
and  guileless. 

SCORPION.     See  Arachnida,  vol.  ii.  p.  281  sq. 

SCOT,  ilicHAEL,  whose  fame  as  a  magician  has  sur- 
rounded his  history  with  legend,  is  sometimes  claimed  by 
the  Italians  as  a  native  of  Salerno  and  by  the  Spaniards 
as  a  native  of  Toledo ;  but  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  th* 
Scottish  origin  to  which  his  name  testifies.  Scottish  tradi- 
tion is  unanimous  in  identifying  him  with  Sir  Michael 
Scot  of  Balwoarie  in  Fifeshire,  but  the  ascertainable  dates 
place  some  difficulties  in  the  way  of  this.  The  traditional 
date  of  Scot's  birth  is  1190,  but  this  does  not  harmonize 
well  \\\\.]\  the  embassy  to  Norway  attributed  to  Sir  Michael 
Scot  in  1290.  Some  accordingly  have  fixed  the  date  o( 
his  birth  approximately  as  1214,  but  apparently  without 
any  further  reason  than  is  afforded  by  the  supposed  date  ol 
his  death  in  1291.  But  Jourdain  *  refers  to  certain  manu- 
script translations  of  Scot's  which  are  expressly  dated 
"1217  at  Toledo."  This  would  accord  fairly  well  with 
the  date  1190,  the  translations  being  executed  by  Scot 
soon  after  the  conclusion  of  his  student  period.  Scot  is 
said  to  have  studied  at  Oxford,  whence  he  proceeded,  as 
was  usual,  to  Paris,  then  the  centre  of  medieval  learning, 
devoting  himself  especially  to  philosophy  and  mathematics. 
Du  Boulay,  the  historian  of  the  university  of  Paris,  adds 
that  he  received  the  degiee  of  doctor  of  theology  and  ac- 
quired a  brilliant  reputation  in  that  faculty.  There  is  no 
evidence  of  this,  however,  in  his  writings.  At  Toledo, 
where  he  also  studied,  Scot  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
Arabic.  It  is  not  likely  that  his  knowledge  extended  to 
Greek  and  the  other  Eastern  tongues  mentioned  by  the 
earlier  bibliographers.  His  knowledge  of  Arabic  was 
sufficient  to  open  up  to  him  the  Arabic  versions  of  Aris- 
totle and  the  multitudinous  commentaries  of  the  Arabians 
upon  them,  with  which  Western  Christendom  had  only 
lately  become  acquainted  in  Latin  translations  (see  Scho- 
lasticism). It  also  brought  him  into  contact  with  tho 
original  works  of  Avicenna  and  Avcrroes.  His  own  first 
work  was  done  as  a  translator.  He  was  one  of  the  savants 
whom  Frederick  II.  attracted  to  his  brilliant  court,  and  at 
the  instigation  of  the  emperor  he  superintended  (along 
with  Hcrmannus  Alemannus)  a  fresh  translation  of  Aris- 
totle and  the  Ai-abian  commentaries  from  Arabic  into 
Latin.  There  exist  translations  by  Scot  himself  of  the 
Jlisioria  Animaliwn,  the  De  Aiiima,  and  De  Ca'lo,  along 
with  tho  commentaries  of  Avcrroes  upon  them.  This 
connexion  with  Frederick  and  Avcrroes — both  of  evil 
reputation  in  the  Middle  Ages — doubtless  contributed  to 
the  formation  of  the  legend  which  soon  envelojicd  Michael 
Scot's  name.  His  own  books,  however,  dealing  as  they 
do  almost  exclusively  with  astrology,  alchemy,  and  tho 
occult  sciences  generally,  are  mainly  responsible  for  liia 
popular  reputation.  The  chief  of  these  occordmg  to  the 
more  critical  views  of  recent  investigators  are  Su/.>er  Aue- 
iorcm  Spherte,  printed  at  Bologna  in  1495  and  at  Venice 
in  1631  ;  De  Sole  et  Luna,  printed  at  Straaburg,  1622, 
•  Rcchercha  mr  Its  aiici«nii«  tradiuliom  Latina  d'Arutott,  p.  188. 


470 


S  C  0  — S  C  O 


in  tlie  Theairum  Chimicum,  and  containing  more  alchemy 
than  astronomy,  the  sun  and  moon  being  taken  as  the 
images  of  gold  and  silver ;  De  Cldromantia,  an  opuscule 
often  published  in  the  15th  century;  and,  perhaps  best 
known  of  all.  Be  Physiognomia  ei  de  Hominis  Procreatioiie, 
which  saw  no  fewer  than  eighteen  editions  between  1477 
and  1660.  This  treatise  is  divided  into  three  books,  of 
which  the  first  deals  with  generation  according  to  the 
doctrine  of  Aristotle  and  Galen,  the  second  mth  the  signs 
by  which  the  character  and  faculties  of  individuals  may 
be  determined  from  observation  of  diflerent  parts  of  the 
bod)'.  The  Physiognomia  (which  also  exists  in  an  Italian 
translation)  and  the  Super  Audorem,  Spherx  expressly  bear 
that  they  were  undertaken  at  the  request  of  the  emperor 
Frederick.  To  the  above  List  should  be  added  certain 
treatises  in  manuscript,— Z**  Sigriis  Planetarum ;  Co7itj-a 
Averrhoem  in  Meteora ;  Ifo(i/ia  Coni-inctionis  Mundi  Ter- 
restris  cum  Ccelesti,  ei  de  Dejlnitione  uiriitsque  Mundi ;  De 
Prsesagiis  Stellarum  et  Elementarihus.  Michael  is  said  to 
have  foretold  (after  the  double-tongued  manner  of  the 
ancient  oracles)  the  place  of  Frederick's  death,  which  took 
place  in  1250.  The  Italian  tradition  makes  Scot  die  in 
Sicily  not  long  afterwards,  stating  that  he  foretold  the 
manner  of  his  own  death.  Jourdain  is  inclined  to  agree 
with  this  approximate  date,  observing  that  Scot  is  spoken 
of  by  Albert  the  Great  as  if  he  were  already  dead,  and 
that  Vincent  of  Beauvais  (d.  c.  1268)  quotes  him  with  the 
epithet  "vetus."  But  the  generally  received  tradition 
makes  him  return  by  way  of  England  (where  he  was  re- 
ceived with  much  honour  by  Edward  I.)  to  his  native 
country.  The  ordinary  account  gives  1291  aa  the  date  of 
Scot's  death.  According  to  one  tradition  he  was  buried 
at  Holme  Cultram  in  Cumberland  ;  according  to  another, 
which  Sir  Walter  Scott  has  followed  in  the  Lay  of  the 
Last  Min&trel,  in  Melrose  Abbey.  In  the  notes  to  that 
poem,  of  which  the  opening  of  the  wizard's  tomb  forms 
the  most  striking  episode,  Scott  gives  an  interesting  ac- 
count of  the  various  exploits  attributed  by  popular  belief 
to  the  great  magician.  "In  the  south  of  Scotland  any 
work  of  great  labour  and  antiquity  is  ascribed  either  to 
the  agency  of  Auld  !Michael,  of  Sir  William  Wallace,  or 
the  devil."  He  used  to  feast  his  friends  with  dishes 
brought  by  spirits  from  the  roj'al  kitchens  of  France  and 
Spain  and  other  lands.  His  embassy  to  France  alone  on 
the  back  of  a  coal-black  demon  steed  is  also  celebrated,  in 
which  he  brought  the  French  monarch  to  his  feet  by  the 
effects  which  followed  the  repeated  stamping  of  his  horse's 
hoof.  Other  powers  and  exploits  are  narrated  in  Folengo's 
Macaronic  poem  of  Merlin  Coccaius  (1595).  But  Michael's 
reputation  as  a  magician  was  already  fixed  in  the  age  im- 
mediately following  his  own.  He  appears  in  the  Inferno 
of  Dante  (canto  xx.  115-117)  among  the  magicians  and 
soothsayers — • 

"  Queir  altro,  che  ne'  fianchi  e  cosi  poco, 
Michele  Scottq  f ii ;  che  veramente 
Delle  magiche  frode  seppe  il  giuoco. " 

He  is  represented  in  the  same  character  by  Boccaccio,  and 
is  severely  arraigned  by  John  Pico  de  Mirandola  in  his 
work  against  astrology,  while  Naude  finds  it  neceseary  to 
defend  his  good  name  in  his  Apologia  pour  les  grands  per- 
sonnages  faussement  accuses  de  maqie. 

SCOT,  Eeginaid  {c.  1538-1599),  was  the  son  of  Eichard. 
third  son  of  Sir  John  5' 'ot  of  ScotshaO,  Smeeth  (Kent), 
studied  at  Hart  Hall  in  Oxford,  and  afterwards  lived  in 
studious  retirement  at  Smeeth,  dpng  in  1599.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  very  remarkable  book.  The  Discoverie  of 
Witchcraft,  the  object  of  which  was  to  put  an  end  to  the 
cruel  persecution  of  witches,  by  showing  that  "  there  will 
be  found  among  our  Witches  only  two  sorts ;  the  one  sort 
i^ng  such  by  imputation,  as  so  thought  of  by  others  (and 


these  are  abused  and  not  abusers),  the  other  by  acceptation, 
as  being  willing  so  to  be  accounted,  and  these  be  mccr 
Coseners."  This  thesis  is  worked  out  in  sixteen  books, 
with  great  learning  and  acuteness,  in  a  spirit  of  righteous 
indignation  against  the  witchmongers.  Scot  was  far  in 
advance  of  his  time,  and  his  book,  of  which  the  first 
edition  appeared  in  15S-1,  was  burned  by  order  of  King 
James  I.  The  book  is  still  interesting,  not  only  as  having 
anticipated  Bekker  by  a  century,  but  for  the  great  mass 
of  curious  details  as  to  every  branch  of  so-called  witchcraft 
which  it  contains.  It  also  takes  up  natural  magic  and 
.conjuring  at  considerable  length  (bk.  xiii.),  and  contains 
an  argument  against  "  alchymistry  "  (bk.  xiv.). 

Scot  also  published  in  1574  A  pcrjiic  Flatforme  q,  a  Sopiie 
Garden  (3d  ed.  157S),  which  is  noteworthy  as  having  originated 
the  cultivation  of  tlie  hop  in  England.  A  second  edition  of  the 
XiwcoDcric  appeared  in  1651  and  a  third  in  1665;  the  latter  con- 
tained nine  new  chapters,  prefixed  by  an  anonymous  hand  to  bk. 
XV.  of  the  Biscoreric,  and  the  addition  of  a  second  book  to  the 
"Discourse  concerning  Angels  and  Spirits." 
See  B.  Nicholson's  Scot's  Discovert/  of  JVitchcra/C,  London,  18S6. 

SCOTER,  a  word  of  doubtful  origin,  perhaps  a  variant 
of  "  Scout,"  one  of  the  many  local  names  shared  in*com- 
mon  by  the  Guillemot  (vol.  xi.  p.  262)  and  the  Razorbill 
(vol.  XX.  p.  302),  or  perhaps  primarily  connected  with  Coot 
(vol.  vi.  p.  341),^  the  English  name  of  the  Anas  nigra  of 
Linnceus,  which  with  some  allied  species  has  been  justifiably 
placed  in  a  distinct  genus,  (Edemia  (often  misspelt  Oidemia) 
— a  name  coined  in  reference  to  the  swollen  appearance  of 
the  base  of  the  biU.     The  Scoter  is  also  very  generally 
known  around  the  British  coasts  as  the  "  Black  Duck " 
from  the  male  being,  with  the  exception  of  a  stripe  of 
orange  that  run.s  down  the  ridge  of  the  bill,  wholly  of  that 
colour.     In  the  representative  American  form,  (E.  ovieri- 
cana,  the  protuberance  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  black  in  the 
European  bird,  is  orange  as  well.     Of  all  Ducks  the  Scoter 
has  the  mo.st  marine  habits,  keeping  the  sea  in  all  weathers, 
and  rarely  resorting  to  land  except  for  the  purpose  of  breed- 
ing.   Even  in  summer  small  flocks  of  Scoters  may  generally 
be  seen  in  the  tideway  at  the  mouth  of  any  of  the  larger 
British  rivers   or  in  mid-channel,  while  in  autumn  and 
winter  these  flocks  are  so  increased  as  to  number  thousands 
of  individuals,  and  the  water  often  looks  black  with  them. 
A  second  species,  the  Velvet^Duck,  OH.  fusca,  of  much  larger 
size,  distinguished  by  a  white  spot  under  each  eye  and  a 
white  bar  on  each  wing,  is  far  less  abundant  than  the  for- 
mer, but  examples  of  it  are  occasionally  to  be  seen  in  com- 
pany with  the  commoner  one,  and  it  too  has  its  American 
counterpart,  (E.  velvetina ;  while  a  third,  only  known  as  a 
straggler  to  Europe,  the  Surf-Duck,  (E.  perspicillata,  with 
a  white  patch  on  the  crown  and  another  on  the  najje,  and  a 
curiously  particoloured  bill,  is  a  not  uncommon  bird  in 
North-American  waters.     All  the  species  of  (Edemia,  like 
most  other  Sea-Ducks,  have  their  true  home  in  arctic  or. 
subarctic  countries,  but  the  Scoter  itself  is  said  to  breed 
occasionally  in  Scotland  (Zoologist,  s.s.  p.  1867).      The 
females  display  little  of  the  deep  sable  hue  that  charac- 
terizes their  partners,  but  are  attired  in  soot-colour,  varied, 
especially  beneath,,  with  brownish  white.     The  flesh  of  all 
these  birds  has  an  exceedingly  strong  taste,  and,  after 
much  controversy,  was  allowed  by  the  authorities  to  rank 
as  fish  in  the  ecclesiastical  dietary  (cf.  Graindorge,  Traits 
de  I'oi-iginedes  Macreuses,  Caen,  1680;  and  Correspond- 
ence  of  John  Ray,  Ray  Soc.  ed.,  p.  148). 

'  In  the  former  case  the  derivation  seems  to  be  iiom  the  0.  Fr. 
Escouie,  and  that  from  the  Latin  uv^ndlure  (comp.  Skeat,  Klymol. 
Dictionary,  p.  533),  but  in  tlie  latter  from  the  Dutch  Koet,  which  i.i 
said  to  be  of  Celtic  e.vtractiou— cicii'ar  (np.  cit.,  p.  134).  The  French 
Macreuse,  possibly  from  the  Latin  moxer,  indicating  a  bird  that  may 
be  eaten  in  Lent  or  on  the  fast  days  of  the  Roman  Church,  is  of  double 
signification,  meaning  in  the  south  of  France  a  Coot  and  in  the  north  a 
Scoter.  By  the  wild-fowlers  of  parts  of  North  America  Scoters  aro 
commonly  called  Coots. 


471 


SCOTLAND 

PART  I.— HISTORY. 


T,  Roman  Period. — The  first  certain  lines  of  the  history 
of  Scotland  were  written  by  the  Ri^mans.  Their  account 
of  its  partial  conquest  and  occupation  for  more  than 
three  hundred  years  gives  the  earliest  facts  to  which 
fised  dates  can  be  assigned.  The  invasion  commenced 
by  Julius  Caesar  reached  in  Agr'cola's  last  campaign 
limits  never  afterwards  exceeded.  It  was  in  the  last  year 
of  Vespasian's  life  that  JuliUS  A^ricola,  tje  ablest  general 
bred  in  his  camp,  came  to  command  the  army  in  Britain. 
Landing  in  midsummer  78,  he  at  once  commenced  a  cam- 
paign against  Wales.  In  his  second  campaign  he  passed 
the  Solway  and,  defeating  the  tribes  of  Galloway,  introduced 
rudiments  of  Roman  civilization  in  the  district  whore  Ninian 
taught  the  rudiments  of  Christianity  three  centuries  later. 
T'ois  was  the  first  conquest  within  modern  Scotland.  Two 
main  roads,  of  which  traces  can  still  be  seen,  mark 
his  advance  :  the  western,  from  Carlisle  through  Dumfries 
and  Lanark,  extends  across  the  Clyde  to  Camelon  on  the 
Carron ;  and  the  eastern,  from  Bremenium  (High  Rie- 
chester)  in  Northumberland,  passes  through  Roxburgh 
and  Lothian  to  the  Forth  at  Cramond.  Next  year  Agri- 
cola  subdued  unknown  tribes,  reached  the  estuary  of  the 
Tay,  and  occupied  camps  at  various  points  of  csntral 
Scotland,  in  the  future  shires  of  Stirling  and  r'erth. 
Traces  of  them  are  still  visible  at  Bochastle  near  Ciillandt 
Dalginross  near  Comrie,  Fendoch  on  the  Almond,  Invei- 
almond  at  the  junction  of  the  Almond  with  the  Tay  near 
Perth,  Ardargie  on  the  north  of  the  Ochils,  and  the  great 
camp  at  Ardoch  south  of  Crieff.  The  fourth  year  of  his 
command  was  devoted  to  the  construction  of  a  line  of  forts 
between  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde.  This  barrier,  strength- 
ened by  a  wall  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,  guarded 
the  conquests  already  made  against  the  Caledonians — the 
general  Latin  name  of  the  northern  tribes  of  the  forests 
and  mountains,  the  Highlanders  of  later  times" — and,  in 
connexion  with  camps  already  occupied  in  the  lowlands  of 
Perthshire,  formed  the  base  for  further  operations.  In 
the  fifth  year  Agricola  crossed  the  Clyde,  and,  without 
making  any  permanent  conquest  on  the  western  mainland, 
viewed  from  Cantyre  the  coast  of  Ireland.  Statements 
by  one  of  its  chiefs  as  to  the  character  and  factions  of  that 
country,  whose  ports  were  already  known  to  Roman  mer- 
chants, led  to  the  opinion  communicated  to  Tacitus  by 
Agricola,  that  with  a  single  legion  and  a  few  auxiliaries 
he  could  reduce  it  to  subjection.  The  number  of  legions 
in  the  Roman  army  of  Britain  was  fixed  at  five,  besides 
auxiliaries  and  cavalry, — a  total  of  perhaps  50,000  men. 
The  resistance  of  northern  Britain  explains  why  the  easier 
conquest  was  not  undertaken.  A  year  was  required  to 
explore  the  estuaries  of  the  Forth  and  the  Tay  with  the 
fleet.  The  absence  of  camps  indicates  that  no  attempt 
was  made  to  conquer  the  peninsula  of  Fife,  .perhaps  a 
separate  kingdom ;  and  Agricola  prepared  to  advance 
against  the  Caledonians.  Two  years'  fighting,  although 
Tacitus  chronicles  only  an  assault  on  the  advanced  camp  of 
the  IXtli  legion  (at  Lintrose  (?)  near  Coupar  Angus),  passed 
before  the  final  engagement  knoivn  in  history  as  the  battle 
of  the  Grampians  (84).  It  was  i)robably  fought  in  the  hilly 
country  of  the  Stormont  near  Blairgowrie,  the  Celts  descend- 
ing from  strongholds  in  the  lowest  spurs  of  the  Grampians 
and  attacking  the  Romans,  whoso  camp  Jay  near  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Isla  and  the  Tay.  It  decided  that  the  Roman 
conquest  was  to  stop  at  the  Tay.  Galgacus,  the  Caledonian 
leader,  was,  according  to  the  Roman  historian,  defeated ; 
but  in  the .  following  winter  Agricola  retreated  to .  the 


camps  between  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde,  while  the  fleet  78.131. 
was  sent  round  Britain.  Starting  probably  from  the 
Furth  and  rounding  the  northern  capes,  it  returned  after 
establishing  the  fact,  already  suspected,  and  of  so  much 
consequence  in  future  history,  that  Britain  was  an  island, — 
planting  during  its  progress  the  Roman  standard  on  the 
Orkneys,  which  had  for  several  centuries  been  known  by 
report,  and  sighting  Shetland,  the  Thule  of  earlier  navi- 
gators. Agricola,  with  one  legion — probably  the  IXth, 
which  had  suffered  most — was  now  recaUed  by  Domitian. 

The  absence  of  any  notice  of  Britain  for  twenty  years 
implies  the  cessation  of  further  advances, — a  change  of 
policy  due  to  the  reverses  in  the  Dacian  War  and  the 
(inancial  condition  of  the  empire 

The  indefatigable  Hadrian  came  to  Britain  (120)  with 
the  Vlth  legion,  named  Victrix,  which  replaced  the  IXth. 
He  began,  and  his  favourite  general  Aulus  Plautorius 
Nepos  completed,  between  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne  near 
Newcastle  and  the  Solway  near  Carlisle,  the  great  wall 
of  stone  (see  Hadrian,  Wall  of),  about  80  miles  in 
length,  16  feet  high,  and  8  feet  thick,  protected  on 
the  north  by  a  trench  34  feet  wide  and  9  deep,  with 
two  parallel  earthen  ramparts  and  a  trench  on  the  south, — 
proving  the  line  required  defence  on  both  sides.  Massive 
fragments  of  the  wall,  its  stations,  castles,  and  protecting 
camps,  with  the  foundation  of  a  bridge  over  the  North 
Tyne,  may  be  still  seen.  It  was  garrisoned  by  the  Vlth 
legion,  and  by  the  Xlth  and  XXth,  which  remained 
throughout  the  whole  Roman  occupation.  The  conquests 
of  Agricola  in  what  is  modern  Scotland  were  for  a  time 
abandoned.  Hadrian's  wall  was  the  symbol  of  the  strength 
of  Rome,  and  also  of  the  valour  of  the  northern  Britons, 
There  must  have  been  a  stubborn  resistance  to  induce  the 
conquerors  of  the  world  to  ,set  a  limit  to  their  province, 
though'  the  roads  through  the  wall  showed  they  did  not 
intend  this  limit  to  be  permanent.  The  first  step  had 
been  taken.  The  country  between  the  Tyne  and  Solway 
and  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  including  the  southern  Lowlands 
of  Scotland,  was  now  within  the  scope  of  Roman  history,  if 
not  yet  of  Roman  civilization.  The  country  north  of  the  last 
two  rivers  remained  barbarous  and  unknown  under  its  Celtic 
chiefs.  Hadrian  had  thus  resumed  the  task  of  Agricola, 
in  one  of  the  rapid  campaigns  by  which  he  consolidated 
the  empire  through  visits  to  itsmost  distant  parts ;  but  it 
is  doubtful  whether  he  passed  beyond  the  wall,  which 
continued  to  separate  the  Romans  from  the  barbarians; 
In  the  reign  of  his  successor,  Antoninus  Pius,  LoUius 
Urbicus  recovered  the  country  from  the  wall  of  Hadrian 
to  the  forts  of  Agricola,  and  built  an  earthen  rampart 
about  half  the  length  of  the  southern  wall,  20  feet  high 
and  24  thick,  protected  on  the  north  by  a  trench  40  feet 
wide  and  2()  deep.  It  was  known  later  as  Grim  or 
Graham's  dyke.  Remains  may  yet  be  seen  between 
Carridon  near  Borrowstounness  on  the  Forth  and  West 
Kilpatrick  on  the  Clyde,  with  forts  either  then  or  subi 
scquently  erected  at  intermediate  stations,  connected  by  « 
military  road  on  the  south  of  the  wall. 

About  this  pciiod  Plolemy  composed,  tho  first  geography  of  th* 
world,  illnstrated  by  maps — probably  constructca  poniewhat  lator 
— of  Ireland  and  Britain,  still  called  Albion.'  South  of  modem 
Scotland  the  plan  and  description  of  the  diiitnnces  are  gcDcrall] 
accurate,  but  north  of  the  Sohvay  (Ituno!  .£stuarium)  and  thi 
AVear  (?  Vcdra)  the  inland  is  figured  as  lying  west  and  cast  instatt 

*  His  information  must  have  come  from  Koiuan  officers,  who,  vf 
knoiv,  studied  this  braucb  of  the  military  art,  as  maps  havo.bo«) 
found  painted  on  the  porticos  of  their  villas. 


472 


SCOTLAND 


[histort. 


of  north  and  south.  Learned  ingenuity  corrects  this  error  and,  by 
other  raodificatious  and  the  use  of  a  few  points  deemed  certain, 
applies  the  names  of  Ptolemy  to  places  on  the  map  of  modern 
Scotland.  But  the  certain  points  are  almost  confined  to  the  Clyde 
(Glotta  Jilstuarium),  the  Forth  (Bodcra  .ffistuarium),  the  Tay  (Tava 
.Sstuarium),  and  perhaps  the  Wear  (Vedra)  and  the  Nith  (Novius), 
the  Caledonian  Wood  (Caledonia  Silva),  and  the  Orkneys  (Orcades). 
Even  if  the  other  identifications  were  clear,  it  would  not  add  much 
to  our  knowledge  of  ancient  Scotland.  The  names  of  Ptolemy  are 
names  on  his  map  and  in  books  only.  No  tribe  (except  the 
Caledonii),  no  town,  uo  river  (except  the  Forth  and  Clyde  and 
Tay),  no  island  (except  the  Orkneys),  was,  so  far  as  wo  know, 
called  before  or  since  by  the  names  which  there  appear.  No  in- 
scription or  coin  confirms  them.  No  mountains  in  this  land  of 
mountains  are  to  be  found  on  the  plan  of  the  geographer.  Etymo- 
logical conjecture,  after  allowance  for  mispronunciation  and  errors 
of  transcribers,  fails  to  reconcile  the  names  of  Ptolemy  with  the 
oldest  names  of  Celtic  origin  still  retained  by  the  rivers  and  hiUs. 
Yet  the  attempt  represents  the  highest  knowledge  embodied  in 
writing  to  which  the  Romans  attained  of  this  distant  and  disputed 
part  of  the  empire,  for  the  Itineraries,  except  the  forged  one  attri- 
buted to  Richard  of  Cirencester,  stop  at  Hadrian's  wall.  His 
treatise  remained  until  the  revival  of  learning  the  only  written 
geographical  description  of  the  country  from  which  the  learned 
could  picture  northern  Britain.  With  all  its  imperfections  and 
mistakes,  it  conveyed  in  rough  outline  the  figure  of  a  country  to 
the  west  of  the  European  continent,  to  the  north  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Britain,  to  the  east  of  Ireland,  surrounded  by  the 
German  Ocean,  the  Northern  Ocean,  and  the  Irish  Channel,  with 
told  promontories  and  many  rivers  (several  tidal),  peopled  by 
various  tribes,  its  towns  chiefly  on  the  rivers  or  the  coast,  and  in 
its  centre  the  vast  forest  to  which  the  Caledonians  gave  or  from 
which  they  received  their  name,  itself  the  northern  part  of  the 
largest  British  island,  with  groups  of  smaller  isles  lying  off  its 
northern  and  western  shores.  This  region  was  unknown  to  Ca;sar 
and  imperfectly  known  to  Tacitus, — the  only  writer  of  the  first 
century  to  whom  we  can  resort.  Yet  the  description  of  the 
Britons  by  the  greatest  historical  genius  of  Rome,  based  on  the 
account  of  one  of  its  greatest  generals,  attempts  a  discrinfination 
between  the  Celtic  tribes  first  and  those  afterwards  conauered, 
which  may  perhaps  be  applied  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  no'th  as 
coAtrasted  with  those  of  the  south  of  Britain. 

"Whether  the  inhabitants  of  Britain  were  indigenous  or 
foreigners,  being  barbarian,  they  did  not  take  the  trouble  to 
inquire.  The  different  character  of  their  bodily  appearance  in 
different  parts  of  the  island  gave  rise  to  arguments.  The  red  h?ir 
and  big  limbs  of  the  natives  of  Caledonia  point  to  a  German  origin. 
The  coloured  faces  of  the  Silures,  their  hair  generally  plaited,  and 
Spain  being  opposite  give  credit  to  the  opinion  that  the  ancient 
Iberi  had  migrated  and  occupied  these  settlements.  Those  nearest 
the  Gauls  were  like  them,  whether  on  account  of  the  enduring  force 
of  descent  or  the  position  of  the  sky  determining  in  lands  adjoin- 
ing the  character  of  the  races.  On  a  general  view  it  is  credible 
that  the  Gauls  occupied  the  neighbouring  island.  You  may  detect 
the  same  sacred  rites  and  superstitions.  There  is  not  much 
difference  in  their  language.  Tliere  is  the  same  daring  in  demand- 
ing, the  same  fear  in  declining  danger.  The  Britons  exhibit 
greater  fierceness,  as  a  long  peace  has  not  yet  softened  them.  For 
we  have  heard  that  the  Gauls  also  were  distinguished  in  war,  until 
sloth  came  with  ease  and  valour  was  lost  with  freedom.  This 
too  has  been  the  case  with  the  Britons  formerly  conquered.  The 
rest  remain  what  the  Gauls  were.  Their  strength  is  in  their  foot ; 
some  tribes,  however,  fight  also  from  chariots.  The  noble  drives  ; 
his  followers  are  in  front.  Formerly  they  obsyed  kings.  Now 
they  are  distracted  by  parties  and  factions  amongst  their  chiefs, 
and  the  want  of  common  counsel  is  most  useful  to  us.  An  agree- 
ment between  two  or  three  states  to  resist  a  common  danger  is 
rare  ;  so  while  they  fight  singly  the  whole  are  defeated." 
I  In  the  account  of  the  battle  o'f  the  Grampian  Mount  and  the 
speech  of  Galgacus  there  is  little  that  is  local  or  individual.  What 
Jhe  Celtic  diief  said  in  an  unknown  tongue  can  scarcely  have  been 
literally  interpreted  to  the  Romans.  The  historian  trained  in 
oratoiy  embodies  in  Latin  eloquence  the  universal  sentiments  of 
freedom.  It  may  be  thought,  however,  that  the  soil  and  air  of 
Scotland  favour  independence  of  action  and  thought,  and  that  the 
words,  whether  of  Tacitus  or  of  Galgacus,  contain  an  unconscious 
prophecy  of  passages  in  its  future  annals  and  traits  in  the  char- 
acter of  its  people  not  yet  obliterated.  In  the  first  century  of  the 
Christian  era  Scotland  was  the  scene  of  events  which  belong  to 
universal  history. 

The  necessity  of  the  walls  of  Hadrian  and  Antonine  to 
I  protect  the  Koman  province  soon  appeared.     It  is  doubt- 
ful how  long  or  during  what  intervals  the  country  between 
them  remained  subject.     Few  coins  of  emperors  later  than 
Antonine  have  been  found  to  the  north  of  Hadrian's  wall. 


In  the  reign  of  Aurelius,  the  philosophic  emperor,  war  waa 
not  encouraged ;  but  Calphurnius  Agricola  had  to  be  sent 
(161)  as  legate  and  propraetor  to  Britain  to  prevent  incur- 
sions of  the  northern  tribes.  In  that  of  Commodus  a 
more  formidable  invasion  passed  the  wall,  but  Ulpius 
Marcellus  drove  back  the  Britons  and  repaired  it,  gaining 
for  Commodus  the  title  of  Britannicus.  While  Septimiua 
Severus  was  removing  rivals  from  his  path,  his  legate, 
Virius  Lupus,  _purchased  peace  (201)  from  the  Meatae,  a 
tribe  of  central  Scotland  now  first  named,  who  along  with 
the  Caledonii  supersede  the  older  designations  of  Tacitua 
and  Ptolemy  for  the  population  in  the  vicinity  and  to  the 
north  of  Antonine's  wall,  until  in  the  latter  half  of  the  4th 
century  the  Picts  and  Scots  appear.  Seven  years  latett 
(208)  Severus,  with  his  sons  CaracaUa  and  Geta,  came,Seven«i 
like  Edward  I.  in  his  last  campaign,  worn  out  in  bodylfruji^ 
but  not  in  spirit,  to  Britain.^  After  repairing  the 
breaches  in  Hadrian's  wall  he  not  only  reconquered  tho^ 
country  between  it  and  the  wall  of  Aitonine,  which  he 
restored,  but,  passing  beyond  the  steps  of  Agricola, 
carried  the  Roman  eagles  to  the  most  northern  points 
they  reached.  The  traces  of  Roman  roads  from  Falkirk 
to  Stirling,  through  Strathearn  to  Perth,  thence  through 
Forfar,  Mearns,  and  Aberdeen  to  the  Moray  Firth,  and 
of  Roman  camps  at  Wardykes  (Keithock),  Raedykea 
(Stonehaven),  Norman  Djkes  (on  the  Dee),  and  Raedykea 
on  the  Ythan  belong  to  this  period  and  represent  an 
attempt  to  subdue  or  overawe  the  whole  island.  The 
historian  Dion  does  not  conceal  the  failure  of  the  enter- 
prise, which  he  ascribes  to  the  illnSss  that  terminated  in 
the  death  of  Severus  at  York  (211).  He  adds  a  little  to 
our  knowledge  of  the  Caledonians  by  describing  the 
painting  of  their  bodies  with  forms  of  animals,  their  scanty 
clothing  and  iron  ornaments,  their  arms — a  sword,  small 
shield,  and  spear,  without  helmets  or  breastplates — their 
chariots,  and  their  mode  of  warfare  by  rapid  attack  and  as 
rapid  retreat  to  the  foie&t  and  the  marsh.  Being  without 
towns,  they  lived  on  the  produce  of  herds  and  the  chase, 
not  on  fish,  though  they  had  plenty.  Their  mode  ol 
government  he  calls  democratic,  doubtless  fronl  the  absence 
of  any  conspicuous  king  rather  than  of  chiefs. 

From  the  death  of  Severus  to  the  accession  of  Constan  Consta* 
tius  Chlorus,  a  period  of  nearly  a  century,  the  history  c:  ''"^  '^ 
northern  Britain  is  unknown.  In  the  first  (305)  of  th(  ure  of 
two  years  of  his  reign  Constantius  defeated  the  tribet  Koman* 
between  the  walls  called  by  Euraenius  the  Panegyrist 
"  the  Caledonians  and  other  Picts," — a  name  now  first 
heard,  and  by  this  association  identified  with  the  Caledo- 
nians. Next  year  Constantius  died  at  York ;  and  for 
more  than  fifty  years  a  veil  is  again  drawn  over  northern 
Britain.  It  was  during  this  period  that  Constantine  was 
converted  to  Christianity,  which  his  father  Constantius 
had  favoured  during  the  persecutions  ,of  Diocletian.  So 
rapid  was  the  progress  of  the  church  in  the  British 
province  that  only  ten  years  after  the  martyrdom  of  St 
Alban  Celtic  bishops  of  York,  London,  and  Caerleon — 
probably  the  place  of  that  name  on  the  Usk — were  present 
at  the  council  of  Aries.  In  360  the  Scots  are  for  the 
first  time  named,  by  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  who  records 
their  descent  along  with  the  Picts  upon  the  Roman  pro- 
vince in  terms  which  imply  that  they  had  before  passed 
the  southern  wall.  Four  years  later  the  .Picts,  Saxons, 
Scots,  and  Attacotts  are  said  by  the  same  writer  to  have 
caused  the  Britons  perpetual  anxiety ;  but  Theodosius, 
father  of  the  emperor  of  the  same  name,  repulsed  them 

'  Papinian,  the  great  jurist,  then  administered  justice  at  York. 
Whether  the  RcTman  law  so  introduced  survived  in  any  part  of  modero 
England  is  a  problem  not  yet  solved  ;  it  certainly  did  not  beyond  the 
■wall.  The  Roman  substratum  of  Scottish  law  was  of  later  origin, 
derived  chiefly  from  the  canon  law  of  the  church. 


f.UiLV  I.KLT1U  PERIOD.] 


SCOTLAND 


473 


and  recovered  the  countiy  between  the  -walls,  -n-t'ch 
became  (368)  a  fifth  province  of  Britain,  called  in  honour 
of  the  reigning  emperor  Valentia.  It  remained  eo  for  a 
very  brief  space:  the  revolt  of  jraximus  (391),  which 
reduced  the  Roman  troops  tatwo  legions,  led  to  fresh  raids 
of  the  Picts  and  Scots.  A  legion  sent  by  Stilicho  drove 
them  back  to  the  northern  wail.  But  it  was  soon  recalled, 
and  the  garrisons  were  permanently  removed  prior  to  409. 

•  The  Roman  empire  in  Britain  left  widely  (UfTerent  results  in  the 
'southern  and  in  the  northern  portions  of  the  island.  The  fonner 
■became  an  organized,  and  in  the  centres  of  population  a  civilized 
province,  in  whicli  Latin  was  spoken  by  the  educated,  the  arts 
cultivated,  Roman  law  administered,  and  Christianity  introduced. 
The  latter,  with  the  partial  exception  of  the  district  south  of 
Antonine's  wall,  remained  in  the  possession  of  barbarous  heathen 
races,  whose  customs  had  altered  little  since  Roman  WTitcrs 
described  them  as  similar  to,  though  ruder  than,  those  of  the  Celts 
in  Gaul  before  its  conquest.  The  condition  of  the  population  be- 
tween the  walls  was  probably  intermediate  between  that  of  the 
southern  provincial  Britons  and  that  of  the  nortlicrn  savages  of 
the  same  original  Celtic  stock,  more  nearly  resembling  the  latter, 
perhaps  not  unlike  the  condition  of  the  people  of  Wiiles,  which 
the  Romans  in  like  manner  ovenan,  but  could  not  hold,  or  of 
Afghanistan  as  compared  with  British  India.  No  Roman  towns 
existed,  and  only  one  or  two  villas  have  been  found  north  of 
York,  and  quite  near  to  that  place.  Tho  camp,  the  altar,  the 
septilchral  monument,  possibly  a  single  temple  (the  mysterious 
Arthur's  Oven  or  Julius  s  Hof  on  the  Carron,  now  destroyed,  but 
described  by  Boecc  and  Buchanan  and  figured  by  Camden),  tho 
stations  along  the  wall,  the  roads  with  their  milestones,  a  number 
of  coins  (chictly  prior  to  the  2d  century),  and  a  few  traces  of  baths 
are  the  only  vestiges  of  Roman  occupation  in  this  part  of  Britain. 
So  completely  had  Britain  passed  beyond  the  serious  attention  of 
the  emperor  of  the  Fast  that  in  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century 
Belisarius,  Justinian's  general,  sarcastically  ottered  it  to  tho  Goths 
in  exchange  for  Sicily  ;  while  Procopius,  the  Byzantine  historian, 
has  nothing  to  tell  of  it  except  that  a  wall  was  built  across  it  by 
the  ancients,  the  direction  of  which  he  supposes  to  have  been  from 
north  to  south,  separating  the  fruitful  and  populous  east  from  the 
ban'en  serpent -haunted  western  district,  and  the  dtrange  fable  that 
its  natives  were  excused  from  tribute  to  the  kings  of  the  Franks  in 
return  for  the  service  of  ferrying  the  souls  of  the  dead  from  the 
mainland  to  the  shores  of  Britain. 

mu  or  2.  Early  Celtic  Period  to  Union  of  Picts  and  Scots  by 
iritDDs.  J^enneth  Macalpine. — It  is  to  the  Celts,  the  first  known 
inhabitants  of  Britain,  that  our  inquiry  next  turns.  This 
people  were  not  indigenous,  but  came  by  sea  to  Britain. 
A  conjecture,  not  yet  proved,  identifies  as  inhabitants  of 
Britain  before  the  Celts  a  branch  of  the  race  now  repre- 
sented in  Europe  only  by  the  Basques.  Amongst  many 
names  of  British  tribes  in  Latin  writers  three  occur;  two 
with  increasing  frequency,  as  the  empire  drew  rear  its 
close  —  Britons,  Picts,  and  Scots  —  denoting  distinct 
branches  of  the  Celts.  Britain  was  the  Latin  name  for 
the  larger  islarfd  and  Britons  for  its  inhabitants ;  Albion, 
a  nioro  ancient  title,  has  left  traces  in  English  poetry, 
and  in  the  old  name  Alba  or  Albany  for  northern  Scot- 
land. The  Britons  in  Roman  times  occupied,  if  not  the 
whole  island,  at  least  as  far  north  as  the  Forth  and  Clyde. 
Their  language,  British,  called  later  Cymric,  survives  in 
modern  Welsh  and  the  Breton  of  Brittany.  Cornish, 
which  became  extinct  in  the  17th  century,  was  a  dialect 
of  the  same  speech.  Its  extent  northwards  is  marked  by 
the  Cumbraes — the  Inlands  of  Cymry  in  the  Clyde — and 
Cumberland,  a  district  originally  stretching  from  tho  Clyde 
to  the  Mersey. 

The  Picts,  a  Latin  name  for  the  northern  tribes  who 
•  preserved  longest  the  custom  of  painting  their  bodies, 
called  themselves  Cruithne.  Their  original  settlements 
appear  to  have  been  in  tho  Orkneys,  the  north  of  Scot- 
land, and  the  north-east  of  Ireland — the  modern  counties 
of  Antrim  and  Down.  They  spread  in  Scotland,  before  or 
fchortly  after  the  Romans  left,  as  far  south  as  the  Pentland 
Hills,  which,  like  tho  Pentland  Firth,  arc  thought  to  pre- 
serve their  name,  occupied  Fife,  and  perhaps  left  a  de- 
tachment in  GaSJowoy.     Often  crossing,  probably  somo- 

21-17' 


times  using,  the  deserted  wall  of  Hadrian,  they  caused  it 
to  acquire  their  name, — a  name  of  awe  to  the  provincial 
Britons  and  their  English  conquerors.  Their  language, 
though  Celtic,  is  still  a  problem  difficult  to  solve,  as  so  few 
worcb  have  been  preserved.  Its  almost  complete  absorp- 
tion in  that  of  the  Gaels  or  Scots  suggests  that  it  did  not 
differ  widely  from  theirs,  and  with  this  agrees  the  fact 
that  Columba  and  his  followers  had  little  difficulty  in 
preaching  to  them,  though  they  sometimes  required  an 
interpreter.  Some  philologists  believe  it  to  have  been 
more  allied  to  Cymric,  and  evea  to  the  Cornish  variety; 
but  the  proof  is  inconclusive. 

The  Scots  came  originally  to  Ireland,  one  of  whosd 
names  from  the  6th  to  the  13th  century  was  Scotia; 
Scotia  Major  it  was  called  after  part  of  northern  Britain 
in  the  11th  century  had  acquired  the  same  name.  Irish 
traditions  represent  the  Scots  as  Milesians  from  Spain. 
Their  Celtic  name  Gaidhil,  Goidel,  or  Gael  appears  more 
akin  to  that  of  the  natives  of  Gaul.  They  had  joined  the 
Picts  in  their  attack  on  the  Roman  province  in  the  4th 
century,  and  perhaps  had  already  settlements  in  the  west 
of  Scotland ;  but  the  transfer  of  the  name  was  due  to  the 
rise  and  progress  of  the  tribe  called  Dalriad,  which  migrated 
from  Dalriada  in  the  north  of  Antrim  to  Argyll  and  the 
Isles  in  the  beginning  of  tho  6th  century.  Their  language, 
Gaidhelic,  was  the  ancient  form  of  the  Irish  of  Ireland 
and  the  Gaelic  of  the  Scottish  Highlanders.  No  clear 
conclusion  has  been  reached  as  to  the  meaning  of  Briton,' 
Cruithne,  Scot,  and  Gael. 

The  ordpf  of  the  arrival  of  the  three  divisions  of  xne' 
Celtic  race  and  the  extent  of  the  islands  they  occupied  are 
uncertain.  Bede  in  the  beginning  of  the  8th  century  gives 
the  most  probable  account. 

"  This  island  at  the  present  time  contains  five  nations,  tho  Angles, 
Britorjs,  Scots,  Piets,  and  Latins,  each  in  its  own  dialect  cultivat- 
ing one  and  the  same  sublime  study  of  divine  truth.  .  .  .  Tho 
Latin  tongue  by  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  has  become  common  to 
all  the  rest.  At  first  this  island  had  no  other  inhabitants  but  th6' 
Britons,  from  whom  it  derived  its  name,  and  who,  carried  over  into 
Britain,  as  is  rcjjoried,  from  Armorica,  possessed  themselves  of  tha 
southern  parts.  When  they  had  made  themselves  masters  of  Iho 
greatest  part  of  the  island,  beginning  at  the  south,  the  Picts  from 
Bcytlua,  as  is  rtpir^d,  putting  to  sea  in  a  few  long  ships,  were 
driven  by  the  winds  beyond  the  shores  of  Britain,  and  arrived  on 
the  northern  coast  of  Ireland,  where,  finding  the  nation  of  tho  Scots, 
they  begged  to  be  allowed  to  settle  among  them,  but  could  not 
succeed  in  obtaining  their  request.  The  Scots  answered  that  tho 
island  could  not  contain  them  both,  but  '  we  can  Rive  you  eood 
advice  what  to  do  :  we  know  there  is  another  island  not  far  from 
ours,  to  the  east,  which  we  often  see  at  a  distance,  when  the  days 
are  clear  If  you  go  thither  you  will  obtain  a  settlement;  or,  if^ny 
siiould  cppose,  you  shall  have  our  aid.'  The  Picts  accordingly, 
sailing  over  into  Britain,  began  to  inhabit  the  northern  part  of  the 
island.  In  process  of  time  Britain,  after  the  Britons  and  Picts, 
received  a  third  nation,  tho  Scots,  who,  migrating  from  Ireland 
under  their  leader  Renda,  either  by  fair  mciins  or  force  secured 
those  settlements  amongst  the  Picts  which  they  still  possess." 
"  There  is,"  he  .snys  in  another  passage,  "a  very  large  estuary  of  the 
sea  which  formerly  divided  tlie  nation  of  tho  Picts  from  the  Britons, 
which  gulf  runs  from  the  west  far  into  the  land,  where  to  this  day 
stands  tho  strong  city  of.  the  Britons  called  Alclyth.  Tho  Scots 
arriving  on  the  north  side  of  tho  estuary  settled  themselves  there 
as  in  their  own  country." 

This  statement  in  its  main  points  (apart  from  tho 
country  from  which  tho  Picts  are  said  to  have  come)  is 
confirmed  by  Latin  authors,  in  whose  meagre  notices  the 
Picts  appear  before  the  Scots  are  mentioned,  and  both 
occur  later  than  the  Britons ;  by  tho  legends  of  the  three 
Celtic  races ;  by  tho  narratives  of  Gildaa  and  Ncunius,  tho 
only  British  Celtic  historians,  tho  Irish  Aiinah,  and  tho 
Pictish  Chronicle.  It  is  in  harmony  with  the  facts  con- 
tained in  tho  Life  of  Columba,  written  in  tho  7th  century, 
but  based  on  an  earlier  Life,  by  ono  of  his  sueccssorsj 
Cumine,  abbot  of  lona,  who  may  have  seen  Columba,  and 
must  have  known  persons  who  had.  Tho  northern  Britain 
brought  before  us  in  connexion  with  Columba  in  tho  latUi 


474 


SCOTLAND 


[history. 


half  of  the  6th  century  is  peopled  by  Cruithne  or  Picts  in 
the  north  and  central  Highlands,  having  their  chief  royal 
fort  on  the  Ness,  and  by  Scots  in  Argyll  and  the  Isles,  as 
far  north  as  lona  and  on  the  mainland  Drumalban,  the 
mountain  ridge  which  separates  Argyll  from  Perth  and 
Inverness ;  there  is  a  British  king  ruling  the  south-west 
from  the  rock  on  the  Clyde  then  known  as  Alclyth  or 
Alclyde,  now  Dumbarton  :  and  Saxony,  under  Northum- 
brian kings,  is  the  name  given  to  the  district  south  of 
;he  Forth,  including  the  eastern  Lowlands,  where  by  this 
time  Angles  had  settled.  The  scarcity  of  Celtic  history  i 
belonging  to  Scotland  indicates  that  its  tribes  were  less 
civilized  than  their  Irish  and  Welsh  kin. 

It  is  in  the  records  of  the  Christian  church  that  we  first 
touch  historic  ground  after  the  Piomans  left.  Although 
the  legends  of  Christian  superstition  are  almost  as  fabu- 
lous as  those  of  heathen  ignorance,  we  can  follow  with 
reasonable  certainty  the  conversion  of  the  Scottish  Celts. 
Three  Celtic  saints  venerated  throughout  Scottish  history 
— Ninian,  Kentigern,  Columba — Patrick,  the  patron  saint 
of  Ireland,  David,  the  patron  saint  of  Wales,  and  Cuthbert, 
the  apostle  of  Lothian  and  patron  saint  of  Durham,  be- 
longing to  the  Celtic  Church,  though  probably  not  a  Celt, 
mark  the  common  advance  of  the  Celtic  races  from 
(heathenism  to  Christianity  between  the  end  of  the  4th 
and  the  end  of  the  6th  century.  The  conversion  of  Scot- 
land in  the  time  of  Pope  Victor  I.  in  the  2d  century  is 
unhistoric,  and  the  legend  of  St  Rule  (Regulus)  having 
brought  the  relics  of  St  Andrew  in  the  reign  of  Constan- 
tius  from  Achssa  to  St  Andrews,  where  a  Pictish  king 
built  a  church  and  endowed  lands  in  his  honour,  is,  if 
historical  at  all,  antedated  by  some  centuries.  There  is 
no  proof  that  amongst  the  places  which  the  Piomans  had 
not  reached,  but  which  had  accepted  Christianity  when 
TertuUian  WTOte,  there  was  any  part  of  modern  Scotland  ; 
iiut,  as  Christian  bishops  from  Britain  without  fixed  local- 
ity begin  to  appear  in  the  4th  century,  possibly  the  first 
'.onverts  in  Scotland  had  been  made  before  its  close. 
.  Ninian  (q.v.),  the  son  of  a  British  chief  in  Galloway  already 
Christian,  after  converting  or  reforming  his  countrymen— one  of 
3iis  converts  being  Tudivalla,  king  of  Alclyde  (?  Tothael,  father  of 

'  Ot  the  three  hranches  of  the  Celts  which  appear  as  the  first  known 
inhabitants  of  Scotland  the  native  records  are  scanty  and  of  late  date. 
Respecting  the  Britons  nothing  remains  except  ^he  History  of  Gildas 
in  the  6th  and  that  of  Nennius  in  the  9th  century,  of  which  very 
small  parts  relate  to  Scotland  ;  the  poems  of  Aneurin  and  Taliessin, 
commonly  called  Welsh  bards,  but  perhaps  natives  of  Strathclyde  ; 
the  lives  of  saints  ;  and  a  fragment  of  criminal  law,  common  to  them 
ind  the  Scots,  preserved  at  the  time  of  its  suppression  by  Edward  I. 

Dealing  with  the  Picts  there  is  a  Latin  Chronicle  of  the  10th  cen- 
tury and  additions  of  later  date,  containing  a  valuable  list  of  kings 
in  their  orni  language,  and  the  entries  in  the  Book  of  Deer  of  the  gifts 
to  that  monastery  by  the  Pictish  mormaers  (chiefs)  of  Buchan  ;  but 
the  earliest  of  these  is  in  an  old  form  of  Gaelic. 

The  Scots  are  noticed  in  the  Life  of  Columba,  ..iie  Duan  Albanacn 
of  the  11th  century,  a  LatiJi  Chronicle  of  the  12th  ceetury,  a  few 
poems  treating  of  their  origin  and  migration,  later  Latin  tracts  de- 
scribing their  settlement  in  Scotland,  and  the  lives  of  saints,  not 
written  in  their  existing  form  till  the  12th  century.  But  a  consider- 
oble  amount  of  legendary  material,  chiefly  consisting  of  additions  to 
pr  glosses  on  the  earlier  sources,  nas  been  collected.  \Vlien  all  is  told, 
Scotland  has  nothing  to  compare  with  the  Irish  Annals  and  the  Welsh 
Triads,  whose  fulness  of  detail  and  fabulous  antiquity  in  the  early 
portions  raise  suspicious  as  to  the  later  which  are  perhaps  undeserved. 
jt  has  no  equivalent  to  the  collection  of  laws  contained  in  the  Senchas 
ilor  or  Kain  Patrick  of  Ireland  and  tlie  Dimetian  and  Venedotiau 
codes  of  Wales,  where,  in  the  midst  of  a  crowd  of  minute  customs 
implying  a  long  settlement  in  western  lands,  there  are  traces  of  others 
that  seem  to  have  come  with  the  Celts  from  their  far-off  Eastern  birth- 
place. From  these  sources — especially  from  the  Irish  Annals,  and  in 
particular  the  Annals  of  Tigernach,  who  died  in  lOSS,  the  Synchronisms 
of  Flann  Mainistreach,  who  died  in  1056,  the  Annals  of  Innisfallcn, 
compiled  in  1215,  and  of  Ulster,  compiled  in  149S,  but  from  older 
authorities — the  dearth  of  proper  Scottish  material  has  been  supple- 
mented ;  but  this  source  of  information  has  to  be  used  with  caution. 
The  whole  materials  are  collected  in  the  Chronicles  of  the  Picts  and 
&ofa,  edited  by  Mr  Skenj  for  the  lord  clerk  register  of  Scot'""'' 


Rydderick  Hael)— and  organiiing  a  diocese,  went  as  a  missionary 
to  the  southern  Picts,  who  lived  amongst  or  near  the  mountains 
north  of  the  Foi  th  and  Clyde  in  the  modern  counties  of  Stirling, 
Perth,  and  Forfar.  His  fame  grew  with  the  church,  and  as  far 
north  as  Shetland,  as  far  south  as  Westmoreland  and  Northumber- 
land, churches  were  dedicated  in  his  name.  His  wonder-working 
relics  in  the  shrine  of  Candida  Casa  (at  Whithorn  =  in  Galloway) 
became  an  object  of  pilgiimage  for  more  than  a  thousand  years. 
Three  other  missionaries  belong  to  the  period  between  Kinian  and 
Kentigern,  his  successor  amongst  tlie  Britons  of  the  west :  PallaJius 
sent  to  the  Christians  in  Ireland  by  Pope  Celcstine,  died  at  Fordouii 
in  Mearns  labouring  amongst  the  Picts,  and  his  disciples  Serf  and 
Ternan  converted  respectively  the  Picts  of  Fife  and  those  of  the 
lowlands  of  .•Aberdeen.  IvF,.nth;ei'..v  (q.v.)  of  Strathclyde  was  sup- 
ported by  Rydderick  or  Roderick,  called  Hael  ("  the  Liberal  ")  from 
his  bounty  to  the  church.  Columba  visited  Kentigern  at  the 
cemetery  of  Kinian,  on  the  Jlolcndinar  Burn,  where  courtesies  were 
interchanged  between  these  representatives  of  the  two  branches  of 
the  Celtic  Church  in  western  Scotland,  shortly  before  the  British 
bishops  declined  at  the  meeting  at  St  Augustine's  oak  to  submit  to 
the  Roman  missionary  who  had  converted  the  Saxons  of  southern 
England.  Jocelyn  of  Furncss  states  that  Kentigern  was  at  Rome 
seven  times  and  obtained  the  privilege  of  being  the  pope's  vicar 
free  from  subjection  to  any  nietropolitaji.  The  prince  of  Cumbria 
is  even  said  to  have  acknowledged  his  precedency.  These  are 
inventions  of  a  later  age  ;  but  the  large  possessions,  extending  over 
the  whole  western  kingdom,  conferred  by  Rydderick,  and  after  a 
long  lapse  of  time  found  by  the  inquest  of  David  I.  when  prince 
of  Cumbria  to  have  belonged  to  the  see,  may  be  historical.  He 
died  about  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century,  and  a  long  period  of 
darkness  hides  the  British  kingdom  and  church  of  Strathclyde. 
St  Patrick  (q.v.),  succeeding  where  P.illadius  failed,  Christianized 
Ireland  in  the  middle  of  the  5th  century.  A  passage  in  his  Con- 
fession, if  all  of  it  applies  to  Scotland,  seems  to  prove  the  existence 
of  the  church  in  Scotland  for  two  generations  belbie  Patrick's  birth, 
and  the  allowance  during  these  of  marriage  to  the  clergy. 

Scotland  gave  Patrick  to  Ireland,  and  Ireland  returned  the  gift  in  Coltia 
Columba.  A  rare  good  fortune  has  preserved  in  Adamnan's  Life  the 
tradition  of  the  acts  of  the  greatest  Celtic  saint  of  Scotland,  and  a 
picture  of  the  monastic  Celtic  Church  in  the  6th  and  7th  centuries, 
—an  almost  solitary  fragment  of  history  between  the  last  of  the 
Roman  and  the  first  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  historians.  Born  in  521 
at  Gartan  in  Donegal,  Columba  {q.v. )  spent  his  boyhood  at  Doiro 
Eithne  near  Gartan,  his  youth  at  Moville  on  Strangford  Lough 
under  Abbot  Finian,  called  the  foster-father  of  the  Irish  saints  from 
the  number  of  his  disciples.  Here  lie  was  ordained  deacon,  and, 
after  completing  his  education  under  Gemmian,  a  Christian  bard, 
at  the  monastery  of  Clonard,  he  received  priest's  orders.  In  561  ho 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Culdrevny  (in  Connaught),  when  the 
chiefs  of  the  Hui  Neill  (Dalriad  Scots),  his  kindred,  defeated 
Diarmid  (Diarmait),  a  king  of  eastern  Ireland  Excommunicated 
by  the  synod  of  Teltown  in  Jleath,  the  countiy  Of  Diarmid,  for  his 
share  in  the  battle — according  to  one  account  fought  at  his  instance 
— and  moved  by  missionary  zeal,  he  crossed  two  years  afterwards 
the  narrow  sea  which  separates  Antrim  from  Argyll  with  twelve 
companions  and  founded  tlie  monastery  of  loiia  (Hy),  on-the  little 
island  to  the  west  of  JIulI,  given  him  by  his  kinsman  Con^ll.  Tho 
Dalriad  Scots,  who  had  settled  in  the  western  islands  of  Scotland 
and  in  Lorn  early  in  the  6th  century,  were  already  Christians  ;  but 
Columba  soon  after  visited  the  Pictisli  king  Brude,  the  son  of 
JIailochon,  at  Craig  Phadrich,  the  isolated  hill  fort  on  the  Ness, 
wdioni  he  converted,  and  from  whom  he  received  a  confirmation  of 
Conall's  grant.  Columba,  on  the  deatlf  of  Conall,  gave  the  sanction 
of  religion  to  the  succession  of  his  cousin  Aidan,  and  at  the  council 
of  Drumceat  in  Derry  obtained  the  e.xcmption  of  the  Dalriads  of 
lona  from  tribute,  though  they  were  still  bound  to  give  military 
service  to  the  Irish  king,  the  head  of  the  Hui  Ncill.  He  frequently 
revisited  Ireland  and  took  part  in  its  wars  :  the  militant  spirit  is 
strongly  marked  in  his  character  ;  but  most  of  his  time  was  devoted 
to  the  administration  of  his  nionastery  of  lona,  and  to  the  planting 
of  other  churches  and  religious  liou-cs  in  the  neighbouring  isles  and 
mainland,  till  his  death  in  597.  None  of  the  remains  now  found 
in  almost  every  island — not  even  those  in  lona  itself— date  fioni 
his  time,  when  wood  was  still  used  for  building.  But  the  original 
foundations  of  the  churches  of  Skye  and  Tiree  were  his  work  ;  thoso 
extending  from  Bute  and  Cantyre— on  Islay,  Oronsay,  Colonsay, 
Jtull,  Eigg,  Lewis,  Harris,  Benbecula,  and  even  the  distant  St 
Kilda— to  Loch  Arkaig  on  the  northern  mainland  of  Scottish 
Dalriadaare  to  be  ascribed  to  him  or  his  immediate  followers  or 
successors  in  the  abbacy,  as  well  as  those  in  tho  country  of  tho 
Picts,  from  the  Orkneys  to  Deer  in  Buchan.  The  churches  wdiich 
received  his  ame  farther  south  were  later  foundations  in  his  honour. 
The  most  ce'ebrated  of  his  disciples  were  Baithcnc,  his  successor  as 
abbot ;  Jlachar,  to  whom  the  church  of  Aberdeen  traces  its  origin  ; 

-  In  a  cave  at  Glassertnn  rude  c.osses  incised  on  stone — proljabl- 
•,  font— and  theleuers  8ANCTNI.  P.  (?)  have  recently  been  foun^I. 


EAKLY  CELTIC  PERIOD.] 


IS  C  O  T  L  A  W  D 


475 


Cormac,  the  navigator,  the  lirst  missionary  to  the  Orkneys,  who 
perhaps  reached  the  Faroes  and  Iceland ;  and  Drostan,  the  founder 
of  the  Scottish  monastery  of  Deer.  ,„,      ,  ,.,      . 

Tlio  character  of  the  Celtic  Church  of  Columba  was,  hko  its 
mother  church  in  Ireland,  modified  by  migration  to  a  country  only 
in  small  part  Christian.  It  was  a  missionary  church,  not  diocesan 
but  monastic,  mth  an  abbot  who  was  a  presbyter,  not  a  bishop, 
for  its  head,  though  the  office  of  bishop  for  ordination  existed,  and 
bishops  were,  in  freland  at  least,  more  numerous  than  in  the  later 
church.  It  spread,  not  by  the  erection  of  parishes  and  the  care 
of  parwhial  clergy,  but  by  the  reproduction  of  similar  inonasteries, 
the  homes  of  those  who  adopted  a  religious  life,  the  only  schools 
in  an  age  of  war.  It  preferred  islands  for  its  monasteries  for 
safety,  and,  in  the  case  of  some  of  its  members,  who  pniight,  in 
the  language  of  those  times,  "  a  desert  in  the  ocean,"  as  hermitages 
where  tney°miglit  live  and  die  apart  from  the  world.  But  these 
mn  exceptions.  The  idea  of  the  Celtic  monastery  was  that  of  a 
Christian  celibate  society.  Its  inmates  regarded  themselves  as 
being,  and  often  were,  mem  here  of  a  family  or  clan,  preserving  the 
customs  of  their  race  so  far  as  consistent  with  celibacy  and  religious 
discipline.  Of  eleven  succes.sors  of  Columba  as  abbot  nine  were  of 
his  kin.  The  rule,  though  its  confession  is  primitive,  adapted  to 
an  infant  and  isolated  church  planted  in  a  heathen  world,  did  not 
differ  greatly  from  that  of  later  orders.  Implicit  obedience  to  the 
superior,  poverty,  chastity,  hospitality,  were  the  chief  precepts. 
The  observance  of  Easter  according  to  the  ancient  cycle,  the  use  of 
the  semicircular  instead  of  the  coronal  tonsure,  and  a  peculiar  ritual 
fov  mass  and  baptism  were  its  chief  deviations  from  the  practice  of 
the  catholic  churcli  as  Sited  by  the  council  of  Nice,  to  which  it 
yielded  in  the  beginning  of  the  8th  century  ;  frequent  prayer,  the 
iii""ing  of  psalms  and  hymns,  the  reading  of  Scripture,  the  copying 
anif  illuminating  of  JISS.,  the  teaching  of  children  and  no\'ices, 
and  the  labour  to  provide  and  prepare  the  necessary  food  (the  ser- 
vice of  women  being  excluded)  were  the  occupations  of  the  monks. 
A  similar  conventual  system  of  which  St  Bridget,  abbe»s  of  Kilaarc, 
was  foundress  enlisted  the  fervour  of  her  sex,  and  had  followers  in 
Darlugdach,  abbess  of  Kildare,  who  founded  Abemethy,  in  JEbha 
at  Coldingham,  and  in  Hilda  at  Lindisfarne.  It  was  a  form  of 
Christianity  fitted  to  excite  the  wonder  and  gain  the  affection  of 
the  heathen  amongst  whom  the  monks  came,  practising  as  well  as 
preaching  the  self-denying  doctrine  of  the  cross.  The  religion  of  the 
Celts  is  a  shauo^vy  outline  on  the  page  of  history.  Notices  of  idols 
are  rare.  They  had  not  the  art  necessary  for  an  ideal  representa- 
tion of  the  human  form,  though  they  learnt  to  decorate  the  rude 
atone  monuments  of  an  earlier  age  with  elaborate  tracery.  They 
liad  no  temples.  The  mysterious  circles  of  massive  stones,  with 
no  covering  but  the  heavens,  may  have  served  for  places  of  worship, 
as  well  as  memorials  of  the  more  illustrious  dead.  The  names  of 
gods  are  conspicuously  absent,  though  antiquaries  trace  the  worship 
of  the  Sun  in  the  Beltane  fires  and  other  rites  ;  but  in  tho  account 
of  their  adversaries  wo  read  of  demons  whom  they  invoked. 
Divination  by  rods  or  twigs,  incantations  or  spells,  strange  rites 
connected  with  the  elements  of  water  and  of  fire,  "choice  of  weather, 
lucky  times,  the  watching  of  the  voice  of  birds,"  are  mentioned 
as  amongst  the  practices  of  the  Druids,  a  priestly  casto  re-ered 
for  superior  learning  and,  if  we  may  accept  C.-esar  as  an  authority, 
Jiighly  educated.  This,  rather  than  fetish  or  animal  worship, 
appears  to  have  been  their  cult.  It  was,  so  far  as  scanty  indi- 
cations allow  a  generalization,  by  an  cm])irical  knowledge  of  tho 
minor  ana  secondary  rather  than  the  greater  phenomena  of  nature 
tiiat  the  Druids  of  Britain  and  Ireland  exercised  influence, — 
the  tempest  and  its  elements — wind  and  rain  and  snow,  thunder 
and  lightning — rather  than  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  Whatever 
its  precise  form,  this  religion  made  a  feeble  resistance  to  the  Chris- 
tian, taught  by  the  monks,  with  learning  drawn  from  Scripture 
and  some  acqu-iintance  with  Latin  as  well  as  Cliristiau  literature, 
and  enforced  oy  the  example  of  a  pure  lifii  and  the  hope  of  a  future 
world.  Tlie  charms  of  music  and  poetry,  in  which  tho  Celt  de- 
lighted, were  turned  to  sacred  use.  Columba  was  a  protector  of 
ttx»  btLtdn, — himself  a  bard. 

"  It  Is  not  with  tho  *  screed'  our  destiny  Is, 
Wor  with  the  bird  on  the  top  of  the  twig, 
Nor  with  tho  tnink  of  a  knotted  tree, 
•  Nor  with  a  'acadan'  hand  in  hand. 

I  adore  not  the  voice  of  birds. 

Nor  the  '  screod '  nor  destiny  nor  lots  In  this  world, 

Nor  n  son  nor  cluince  nor  woman  : 

My  Druid  is  Christ  th»)  Son  of  God, 

Christ,  Son  of  JUiy,  the  Great  Abbot, 

Tho  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost." 

Adamnan  relates  miracles  of  Columba  scarcely  abovo  tho  level 
of  the  practices  of  tho  Driiids.  But  superstition  is  not  vantjuishcd 
by  superstition.  Celibacy  was  a  protest  against  the  promuicuous 
intercourse  for  which  Christian  fathers  conucmn  tho  Celts.  Kasts 
and  vigils  contrasted  with  the  gross,  perhaps  cannibal,  practices 
still  in  use.  Tlio  intense  faith  in  ChrisI,  of  Uvea  auch  as  Patrick's 
and  Columba's,  won  tho  victory  of  tho  cross. 


When  we  pass  to  civil  history  our  knowledge  is  restricted 
to  a  li.st  of  names  and  battles ;  but  the  labours  of  recent 
scholars  allow  a  brief  account  of  the  Celtic  races  from  the 
end  of  the  6th  to  their  union  in  the  middle  of  the  9th 
century,  in  part  hypothetical,  yet  a  great  advance  on  the 
absolute  blanli  which  made  historians  of  the  18th  century 
decline  the  task  in  despair. 

The  Britons,  whose  chief  king  had  ruled  at  Alclyde, 
were  separated  from  their  fellow-countrymen,  tlie  Cymry  in 
Wales,  shortly  after  Columba's  death  by  the  rapid  advance 
of  the  Anglian  kingdom  of  Nortnumberland,  founded  in  the 
middle  of  the  6th  century  by  Ida  of  Bamborough.  One  of 
his  successors,  Ethelfred,  struck  the  blow,  completed  by  the 
wars  of  the  next  k'Tig,  Edwin,  which  severed  modern  Wales 
from  British  Cumbria  and  Strathclyde.  Even  Mona,  the 
holy  isle  of  both  heathen  and  Christian  Britons,  became 
Anglesey,  the  island  of  the  Angles.  A  later  incursion 
towards  the  end  of  the  century  reached  Carlisle  and  sepa- 
rated the  kingdom  of  Alclyde,  which  had  for  its  boundary 
the  Catrail  or  Picts'  trench  between  Peel  Fell  and  Gala- 
shiels, from  English  Cumbria  (Cumberland  south  of  the 
Solway),  and  reduced  for  a  short  time  Strathclydo  to  a 
subject  province.  When  Bede  wrote  in  731  an  Anglian 
bishopric  had  been  established  at  Whithorn,  which  con- 
tinued till  803.  The  decline  of  the  Northumbrian  king- 
dom in  the  8th  century  enabled  the  kings  of  Strathclyde  to 
reassert  their  independence  and  maintain  their  rule  within 
a  restricted  district  more  nearly  answering  to  the  valley 
of  the  Clyde,  and  in  Galloway,  in  which  there  are  some 
faint  indications  of  a  Pictish  population,  till  it  was  united 
to  the  kingdom  of  Scone  by  the  election  of  Donald,  brother 
of  Constantine  II.,  king  of  the  Scots,  to  its  throne. 

Df  the  Scots  of  Dalriada  somewhat  more  is  known. 
Their  history  is  interwoven  with  that  of  the  Picts  and 
meets  at  many  points  that  of  the  Angles  of  Northumber- 
land, who  during  the  7th  and  the  beginning  of  tho  8th 
century,  when  their  kings  were  the  greatest  in  Britain, 
endeavoured  to  push  their  boundaries  beyond  the  Forth 
and  the  Clyde.  The  history  of  this  kingdom — see  Nokth-  North- 
QMBERLAND  (KINGDOM  of) — forms  part  of  that  of  Scot-  "uprj.* 
land  during  these  centuries.  It  planted  in  Lothian  (q.v.)  maoj. 
the  seed  from  which  the  civilization  of  Scotland  grew. 
To  an  early  period  of  the  contest  between  tho  Angles  and 
the  Britons,  and  to  the  country  between  the  Forth  and  the 
Tweed  and  Solway,  perhajis  belong  the  battles  magnified  bj 
successive  poets  who  celebrated  tho  hero  of  British  mct'i- 
aival  romance.  Whether  these  battles  were  really  fought 
in  southern  Scotland  and  on  the  borders,  and  Arthur's  Seat 
was  one  of  his  strongholds,  still  "  unknown  is  tho  grave 
of  Arthur."  Before  Edwin's  death  (633)  his  kingdom 
extended  to  the  Forth,  and  the  future  capital  of  Scotland 
received  the  name  of  Edwinsburgli  from  him  in  place  of 
the  Mynyd  Agncd  and  Dunedin  of 'the  British  and  Gaelic 
Celts.  During  the  reign  of  Oswald  (635-642)  tho  North- 
umbrians were  reconverted  by  Aidan,  a  monk  whom 
Oswald  summoned  from  lona,  and  who  became  monastic 
bishop  of  Lindisfarne— a  southern  lona — from  which  tho 
Celtic  form  of  the  Christian  church  spread  amongst  tho 
Anglos  of  the  north  and  east  of  England,  until  tho  council 
of  Whitby  and  tho  election  of  Wilfrid  to  the  sec  of  York 
restored  the  Koman  ritual  and  diocesan  episcopacy,  wheu 
Colman,  their  Celtic  bishop  at  Lindisfarne,  retired  with 
his  monks  to  lona.  Oswald's  brother  Oswy  extended  tho 
dominion  of  Northumberland  over  a  portion  of  the  country 
c'  tho  northern  Picts  beyond  tho  Forth.  In  his  reign  lived 
CuTUBEiiT  (q.v.),  the  apostle  of  Lothian,  where  tho  monas- 
tery of  St  yEbba  at  Coldingham,  tho  church  on  the  Bass, 
tho  three  churches  of  St  Baldrcd  at  Auldham,  Tynning- 
hnme,  and  Preston,  and  tlie  sanctuary  of  Wedalo  (Stow) 
kept  alivo  the  memory  of  tho  Celtic  Church.     His  name 


476 


S  C  O  T  L  A  JN  D 


[histoey. 


18  preserved  in  St  Cuthbert's  cturch  at  Edinburgh  and  in 
iKirkcudbright.  To  the  same  period  belong  two  inscrip- 
tions, the  earliest  records  of  Aiglian  speech,  one  on  the 
cross  of  Bewcastle  in  Cumberland,  commemorating  Alfred,' 
a  son  of  Oswy,  the  other,  taken  perhaps  from  a  poem  of 
Caedmon,  at  Ruthwell  in  Dumfries.  Neither  the  Tweed  nor 
the  Solway  was  at  this  period  a  line  of  division.  Oswy 
■was  succeeded  by  his  son  Egfrid  (685),  against  whom  the 
Picts  successfully  rebelled;  and  the  Scots  and  a  considerable 
part  of  the  Britons  also  recovered  their  freedom.  Anglian 
bishops,  however,  continued  to  hold  the  see  of  Whithorn 
during  the'  whole  of  the  8th  century.  The  Northumbrian 
kings,  more  successful  in  the  west  than  in  the  east, 
gradually  advanced  from  Carlisle  along  the  coast  of  Ayr, 
and  even  took  Alclyde.  In  what  is  now  England  their 
power  declined  from  the  middle  of  the  8th  century  before 
the  rise  of  Mercia.  Shortly  before  the  commencement  of 
the  9th  century  the  descents  of  the  Danes  began,  v/hich 
led  to  the  conflict  for  England  between  them  and  the 
Saxons  of  Wessex.  The  success  of  the  latter  under  Alfred 
and  his  descendants  transferred  the  supremacy  to  the 
princes  of '  the  southern  kingdom,  who,  gradually  advanc- 
ing northwards,  before  the  close  of  that  century  united 
all  England  under  their  sceptre. 

Before  its  fall  Northumberland  produced  three  great 
men,  the  founders  of  English  literature  and  learning, 
though  two  of  them  wrote  chiefly  in  Latin, — Caadmon,  the 
monk  of  Whitby,  the  first  English  poet ;  Bede,  the  monk 
cf  Jarrow,  the  first  English  historian ;  and  Alcuin,  the 
monk  of  York,  whose  school  might  have  become  the  first 
English  university,  had  he  not  lived  in  the  decline  of 
Northumbrian  greatness  and  been  attracted  to  the  court 
cf  Charlemagne.  It  is  to  this  early  dawn  of  talent  among 
the  Angles  of  Northumberland  that  England  owes  its 
name  of  the  land  of  the  Angles  and  its  language  that  of 
English.  The  northern  dialect  spoken  by  the  Angles  was 
the  speech  of  Lothian,  north  as  well  as  south  (in  North- 
umberland) of  the  Tweed,  and  was  preserved  in  the 
broad  Scotch  of  the  Lowlands,  while  modern  English  was 
formed  from  the  southern  dialect  of  Alfred,  Chaucer,  and 
WyclLflfe.  This  early  Teutonic  civilization  of  the  lowland 
district-  of  Scotland,  in  spite  of  the  Danish  wars,  the 
Celtic  conquest,  and  border  feuds,  never  died  out,  and 
it  became  at  a  later  time  the  centre  from  which  the 
Anglo-Saxon  character  permeated  th'e  whole  of  Scotland, 
without  suppressing,  as  in  England,  the  Celtic.  Their 
union,  more  or  less  comjilete  in  different  districts,  is,  after 
the  difference  in  the  extent  of  the  Koman  conquest,  the 
second  main  fact  of  Scottish  history,  distinguishing  it 
from  that  of  Englajid.  Both,  to  a  great  degree,  were 
the  result  of  physical  geography.  The  mountains  and 
arms  of  the  sea  repelled  invaders  and  preserved  longer 
the  ancient  race  and  its  customs. 

It  is  necessary,  before  tracing  the  causes  which  led  to 
the  union  of  races  in  Scotland,  to  form  some  notion  of 
northern  Scotland  during  the  century  preceding  Kenneth 
Macalpine,  during  which — the  light  of  Adamnan  and  Bede 
being  withdrawn — we  are  left  to  the  guidance  of  the 
Pictish  Chronicle  and  the  Irish  Annals.  The  Picts  whom 
Columba  converted  appear  to  have  been  consolidated  under 
a  single  monarch.  Brude,  the  son  of  Mailochon,  ruled 
from  Inverness  to  lona  on  the  west  and  on  the  north  to  the 
Orkneys.  A  sub-king  or  chief  from  these  islands  appears 
at  his  court.  The  absence  of  any  other  Pictish  king,  the 
recejjtion  of  the  Columbite  mission  in  Buchan  under 
Drostan,  a  disciple  of  Columba,  and  perhaps  Columba 
himself,  the  foundation  of  the  church  of  Mortlach  near 
Aberdeen  by  Machar,  another  of  his  disciples,  favour  the 
conclusion  that  the  dominion  of  Brude  included  Aberdeen  as 
iwell  as  Moray  and  Ross.    Its  southern  limits  are  unknown. 


The  Picts  1  of  Stirling,  Perth,  and  Forfar,  corresponding 
to  Strathearn  and  Menteith, — Athole  and  Gowrie,  Angus 
and  Mearns,  had  been  already  converted  by  Ninian  in  the 
5th  century — may  have  already  come  under  a  single  king 
ruling  perhaps  at  Abernethy,  with  mormaers  under  him. 
It  seems  certain  that  Abernethy  was  earlier  than  Dun- 
keld  a  centre  of  the  Celtic  Church  distinct  from  lona,  and 
the  seat  of  the  first  three  bishops  of  Scotland.  Its  round 
tower  cannot  be  safely  ascribed  to  an  earlier  date  than 
the  9th  century,  but  may  have  been  preceded  by  a  church 
dedicated  to  St  Bridget  either  in  the  5th  by  Nechtan 
Morbet,  or  in  the  6th  century  by  Garnard,  son  of  Donald, 
a  later  Pictish  king.  Although  there  exists  a  complete 
list  of  the  Pictish  kings  from  Brude,  son  of  Mailochonj 
to  Brude,  son  of  Ferat,  conquered  by  Kenneth  Macalpine. 
and  of  the  Scots  of  Dalriada  from  Aidan  (converted  by 
Columba)  to  Kenneth  Macalpine,  with  their  regnal  years, 
it  is  only  here  and  there  that  a  figure  emerges  suffi- 
ciently distinct  to  enter  history.  Parts  of  these  lists,  are 
fictitious  and  others  doubtful,  nor  do  we  know  over  what 
extent  of  countrj'-  the  various  monarchs  ruled.  Qf  the 
figures  more  or  less  prominent  amongst  the  Pictish-  kings 
are  'Brude,  the  son  of  Derili,  the  contemporary  of  Adam- 
nan,  who  was  present  at  the  synod  of  Tara  when  the  law 
called  Kain  Adamnan,  freeing  women  from  military 
service,  was  adopted,  and  who  died  in  706,  being  then 
styled  king  of  Fortren.  Nechtan,  another  son  of  Derili, 
was  the  contemporary  of  Bede,  wb.O  gi\'es  (710)  the  letter  of 
Ceolfrid,  abbot  of  Wearmouth,  to  him  when  he  adopted  the 
Roman  Easter  and  the  tonsure.  Six  years  later  Nechtan 
expelled  the  Columbite  monks  from  his  dominions.  They 
retired  to  Dalriada,  as  their  brethren  in  Nc  rthumberland 
had  done  when  a  similar  change  was  made  by  ©swy. 
Nechtan  also  asked  for  masons  to  build  a  church  in  the 
Roman  style,  to  be  dedicated  to  St  Peter,  and  several 
churches  in  honour  of  that  ajDostlc  were  founded  within 
Lis  territory.  Shortly  after,  Egbert,  an  Anglian  monk, 
persuaded  the  community  of  Hy  (lona)  itself  to  conform, 
but  too  late  to  lead  to  the  union  of  the  churches  of  the 
Scots  and  the  Picts,  which  were  separated  also  by  political 
causes. 

Fifteen  years  later  the  greatest  Pictish  monarch,  Angus  Angus 
MacFergus,   after  a  contest  with  more  than   one  rival,  *'*"- 
gained   the   supremacy,  which   he  held  for  thirty  years  ^''^^^ 
(731-761).     In  revenge  for  the  capture  of  his  son  Brude 
by  Dungal,  son  of  Selvach,  king  of  the  Dalriad  Scots,  he 
attacked  Argyll,  and  laid  waste  the  whole  country,  destroy- 
ing Dunnad  (?  on  Loch  Crinan),  then  the  capital,  burnt 
Creich  (in  Mull),  and  put  in  chains  Dungal  and  Feradach, 
the  sons  of  Selvach.     He  next  conquered  (739),  and  it  is 
said  drowned,  Talorgan,  son  of  Drostan,  king  of  Athole, 
one  of  his  rivals,  and,  resuming  the  Dalriad  war,  reduced 
the  whole  of  the  western  Highlands.     The  Britons  of 
Strathclyde  were  assailed   by  a  brother  of  Angus,  who 


'  But  there  had  been  a  time  when  not  one  but  several  Pictish  kings 
ruled  the  northern  and  central  districts  of  Scotland,  and  of  this  we 
have  perhaps  a  trace  in  the  Pictish  legend  according  to  -which 
Cruithne,  the  eponj-mus  of  the  race,  had  seven  sons, — Cait,  Cee, 
Ciric,  Fib,  Fidach,  Fotla,  Fortren.  Conjecture  identifies  five  of  these 
names  witli  districts  known  in  later  history, — Cait  with  Caithness, 
Ciric  -with  Mearns  (Magh  Circen,  the  plain  of  Cine),  Fib  with  Fife, 
Fotla  with  Athole  (Athfotla),  Fortren  with  southern  Perthshire,  con- 
necting it  with  a  division  of  the  same  county  in  a  tract  of  the  12th 
century.  (Comp.  plate  VI.)  Six  of  the  divisions — Angus  and  Jlearns, 
Athole  and  Gowrie,  Strathearn  --.ud  Menteith,  Fife  and  Fortreive,  Mai 
and  Buchan,  Moray  and  Ross — ifairly  correspond  to  districts  after- 
wards ruled  by  the  Celtic  mormaers  of  Angus,  Athole,  Strathearn, 
Fife,  Mar,  and  Moray;  Caithness  in  the  9th  century  became  Norse, 
.and  a  new  earl  (of  March)  was  introduced  from  the  south  of  the 
Forth.  They  correspond  also  to  seven  great  earldoms  of  Scotland, 
which  appear  with  more  or  less  distinctness  on  several  occasions  in 
the  reigns  of  the  AIe.\anders.  This,  at  least,  is  a  highly  iugeoiouo 
theory,  but  not  certain  history. 


lABLY  CELTIC  PERIOD.] 


SCOTLAND 


477 


fell  in  battle  at  ISIugdocli  in  Stirling  5  and  Angus,  with 
his  ally  Ecbert,  king  of  Northumberland,  retaliated  by 
burning  Alclyde  (756).  About  this  time  (752)  Coilin 
Droighteach  (the  Bridgemaker),  abbot  of  lona,  removed 
most  of  the  relics  of  his  abbey  to  Ireland,  and  this  is  the 
most  probable  date  of  the  legend  of  the  relics  of  St  An- 
drew being  brought  from  Patras  to  St  Andrews,  where 
the  oons  of  a  Pictish  king,  Hungus  (Angus  MacFergus), 
who  was  absent  in  Argyll,  or,  according  to  another  ver- 
sion, Hungus  himself,  dedicated  Kilrighmont  (St  Andrews) 
and  the  district  called  the  Boar's  Chasu  to  St  Andrew. 
The  ascription  of  the  foundation  to  an  earlier  king  of  the 
same  name  in  the  4th  century  was  due  to  the  wish  to  give 
the  chief  bishopric  of  Scotland  an  antiquity  greater  than 
lona  and  Glasgow,  greater  even  than  Canterbury  and  York. 
After'  the  death  of  Angus  !MacFergus  no  king  is  connected 
■with  any  event  of  importance  except  Constantino,  son  of 
Fergus  (died  820),  who  is  said  to  have  founded  tht  church 
of  Dunkeld, — 226  years  after  Garnard,  son  of  Donald, 
founded  Abernethy.  This  fact,  though  the  earlier  date 
is  not  certain,  points  to  the  Perthshire  lowlands  as  having 
been  for  a  long  time  the  centre  of  the  chief'  Pictish  mon- 
archy.- Probably  Scone  was  during  this  period,  as  it  cer- 
tainly became  afterwards,  the  political  capital ;  and  the 
kings  latterly  are  sometimes  called  kings  of  Fortren.  If 
60,  the  chief  monarchy  under  the  pressure  of  the  Norse 
attacks  had  passed  south  from  Inverness,  having  occupied 
perhaps  at  various  times,  Dunottar,  Brechin,  Forfar,  Fort- 
eviot,  and  Abernethy  as  strongholds ;  but  it  is  not  possible 
to  say  whether  there  may  not  have  Qontinued  to  be  inde- 
pendent Pictish  rulers  in  the  north. 
\j  The  annals  of  Dalriada  are  even  more  perplexing  than 

i«i8  o'  those  of  the  Picts  after  the  middle  of  the  6th  century, 
ti.  There  is  the  usual  Ust  of  kings,  but  they  are  too  numer- 
ous, and  iheir  reigns  are  calculated  on  an  artificial  system. 
The  forty  kings  from  Fergus  MacEarc  to  Fergus  MacFerch- 
ard,  who  would  carry  the  date  of  the  Scottish  settlement 
back  to  three  centuries  at  least  before  the  birth  of  Christ, 
have  been  driven  from  the  pale  of  history  by  modem  cri- 
ticism. The  date  of  the  true  settlement  was  that  of  the 
later  Fergus,  the  son  of  Earc,  in  503.  From  that  date 
down  to  Selvach,the  king  who  was  conquered  by  Angus 
MacFergus  about  730,  the  names  of  the  kings  can  be 
given  with  reasonable  certainty  from  Adamnan,  Bede,  and 
the  Irish.  Annals.  But  the  subsequent  names  in  the  Scot- 
tish chronicles  are  untrustworthy,  and  it  is  an  ingenious 
conjecture  that  somd  may  have  been  inserted  to  cover  the 
century  following  730,  during  which  Dalriada  is  supposed 
to  have  continued  under  Pictish  rule.  This  view  is  not 
free  from  its  own  difficulties.  It  is  hard  to  explain  how 
Kenneth  Macalpine,  called  by  all  Scottish  records  a  Scot, 
though  in  Irish  Annals  styled  (as  are  several  of  his  succes- 
sors) king  of  the  Picts,  succeeded  in  reversing  the  conquest 
of  Angus  MacFergus  and  establishing  a  Scottish  line  on 
the  throne  of  Scone,  in  the  middle  of  the  9th  century. 
This  difficrdty  is  supposed  to  be  solved  by  the  hypothesis 
that  Kenneth  was  the  son  of  a  Pictish  father,  Alpine,  but 
of  a  Scottish  mother,  and  was  entitled  to  the  crown  by  a 
peculiarity  of  Pictish  law,  which  recognized  descent  by 
the  mother  as  the  test  of  legitimacy.  The  records  which 
speak  of  the  destruction  of  the  Picts  are  treated  as  later 
inventions,  and  it  is  even  doubted  whether  the  connexion 
between  Alpine  and  Kenneth  and  the  older  race  of  Dalriad 
kings  is  not  f  nt.itious.^ 

'  The  airave  statement  is  a  brief  ontlino  of  the  reconstraction  of  this 
i)eriod  of  Scottish  history  <luo  to  two  scholars  vrho  have  done  more 
than  any  others  to  elucidate  it,  Fallicr  Innes  and  Mr  Skene.  Their 
negative  criticism,  which  destroys  tJie  fahrie  reared  by  a  succession  of 
historians  from  Fordun  or  his  contiuuator  Bowmakcr  to  Buchanan,  i» 
a  masterly  work,  not  likely  to  be  superseded.  WTiellier  the  constrit- 
'tive  part  will  stand  is  sot  certain,  but  it  explains  many  of  the  fact*. 


Whatever  may  be  the  solution  ultimately  reacned  as  to  75^^67 
Kenneth  Macalpine's  antecedents,  his  accession  represents  p/^'^'l, 
a  revolution  which  led  by  degrees  to  a  complete  union  of  Scots, 
the  Picts  and  Scots  and  the  establishment  of  one  kingdom 
— at  first  called  Albania  and  afterwards  Scotia — which 
included  all  Scotland  north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde, 
except  Caithness,  Sutherland,  Orkney  and  Shetland  (the 
northern  isles  or  Nordreyar),  the  Hebrides  (the  southern 
isles  or  Sudreyar),  and  Man ;  these  fell  for  a  time  into 
the  hands  of  the  Norsemen.  This  revolution  had  two 
causes  or  concomitants,  one  religious  and  the  other  poli- 
tical. Kenneth  Macalpinc  in  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign 
(851)  brought  the  reUcs  of  St  Columba  from  lona  to  a 
church  he  built  at  Dunkeld,  and  on  his  death  he  was 
buried  at  lona.  A  little  earlier  the  Irish  Culdees,  then  in 
their  first  vigour,  received  their  earliest  grant  in  Scotland 
at  Loch  Leven  from  Brude,  one  of  the  last  kings  of  the 
Picts,  and  soon  found  their  way  into  all  the  principal 
Columbite  monasteries,  of  which  they  represent  a  reform. 
The  Irish  monastic  system  did  not  yet  give  place  to  the 
Roman  form  of  diocesan  episcopacy.  The  abbot  of  Dun- 
keld succeeded  to  the  position  of  the  abbot  of  lona  and 
hold  it  until  the  beginning  of  the  10th  century,  giving 
ecclesiastical  sanction  to  the  sovereign  at  Scone,  as 
Columba  had  done  in  the  case  of  Aidan.  As  early  as  the 
beginning  of  the  8th  century,  however,  a  Pictish  bishop  of 
Scotland  appears  at  a  council  of  Rome,  and  he  had  at 
least  two  successors  as  sole  bishops  or  primates  of  the 
Celtic  Church  before  dioceses  were  formed.  Scotland 
north  of  the  firths  thus  remained  at  a  lower  stage  of 
church  organization  than  England,  where  a  complete  system 
of  dioceses  had  been  established  m"  great  part  answering 
to  the  original  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms  or  their  divisions, 
with  Canterbury  and  York  at  their  head  as  rivals  for  the 
primacy.  But  the  Celtic  clergy  who  now  conformed  to 
the  Roman  ritual  preserved  some  knowledge  of  the"  Latin 
language,  and  a  connexion  with  Rome  as  the  centre  of 
Latin  Christianity,  which  was  certain  to  result  in  the 
adoption  of  the  form  of  church  government  now  almost 
universal.  The  other  circumstance  which  had  a  powerful 
influence  on  the  foundation  of  the  monarchy  of  Scone  and 
the  consolidation  of  the  Celtic  tribes  was  the  descent  on 
all  the  coasts  of  Britain  and  Ireland  of  the  Norse  and 
Danish  vikings.  The  Danes  chiefly  attacked  England  from  yikini 
Northumberland  and  along  the  whole  east  and  part  of  the''<»i<i*- 
southern  seaboard;  the  Norsemen  attacked  Scotland, 
especially  the  islands  and  the  north  and  west  coasts,  going 
as  far  south  as  the  Isle  of  Man  and  the  east  and  south  of 
Ireland.  It  had  now  become  essential  to  the  existence 
of  a  Scottish  Celtic  kingdom  that  its  centre  should  be 
removed  farther  inland.  Argyll  and  the  Isles,  including 
lona,  were  in  the  path  of  danger.  No  monk  would  have 
now  chosen  island  hornes  for  safety.  In  787  the  first 
arrival  of  the  viking  ships  is  noticed  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle.  'Sotno  years  later  the  Irish  Annals  mention  that 
all  "  the  islands  of  Britain  were  wasted  and  much  harassed 
by  the  Danes."  Amongst  these  were  Lindisfarno,  Rathlin 
oS"  Antrim,  lona  (794),  and  Patrick's  island  near  Dublin 
(798).  lona  was  thrice  plundered  between  802  and  826, 
when  Blathmac,  an  abbot,  was  killed.^  A  poem  composed 
not  long  after  the  event  states  that  the  shrine  of  Columba 
was  one  of  the  objects  in  search  of -which  the  Norsemen 
came,  and  that  it  was  concealed  by  the  monks.  It  was  to 
preserve  the  relics  from  this  fate  that  some  of  them  were 
transferred  by  Droighteach,  the  last  abbot,  to  Ireland  and 
others  by  Kenneth  to  Dunkeld.  For  half  a  century  the 
vikings  were  content  with  plunder,  but.iii  the  middle  of 
the  9th  they  bcgaji  to  form  settlements.  In  849  Olaf  thei 
White  established  himself  at  Dublin  ds  king  of  Hili  Itot; 
ID  867  a  Danish  kingdom  was  set  up  in  NorthUmbrrland ; 


478 


S  C  O  T  L  A.N  D 


[msTOEY. 


and  Harold  the  Fairhaired,  who  in  872  became  sole  king 
of  Norway,  soon  after  led  an  expedition  against  the  vikings, 
who  had  already  seized  Orkney  and  Shetland,  and  estal> 
lished  an  earldom  under  Rognwald,  earl  of  Ma3ri,  whose 
son  Hrolf  the  Ganger  conquered  Normandy  in  the  begin- 
ning  of    the    next    century.     The   position    of   Scotland, 
therefore,  when  Kenneth  united  the  Picts  and  Scots  was 
this:  central  Scotland  from  sea  to  sea  —  Argj'U  and  the 
Isles,  Perthshire,  Angus  and  Mearns,  and  Fife — was  under 
the  dominion  of  the  king  who  had  Scone  for  his  capital ; 
the  south-west  district — the  valley  of  the  Clyde,  Ayr, 
Dumfries,  and  Galloway — was  under  a  British  king  at 
Dumbarton ;  the  south-east  district  or  Lothian  was  part 
of  "Saxon  or  Sassenach  Land," — the  general  Celtic  name 
for  the  country  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  but  now  owing  to 
the  divided  state  of   Northumberland  held  by  different 
lords ;  the  north  of  Scotland  was  under  independent  Celtic 
chiefs,  as  Jforay  and  Mar,  or  already  occupied  by  Norse- 
men, as  Caithness,  Orkney  and  Shetland,  and  the  Hebrides. 
The  whole  Celtic  population  was  Christian  ;  but  the  Norse 
invaders  were  still  heathen.      Their  religion  was  similar 
t(>  that  of  their  Anglo-Sa.xon  kin,  of  a  type  higher  than 
the  paganism  of  the  Celts.    It  resembled  the  Celtic  indeed 
ill  the  absence  or  infrequency  of   idols,  but  a   complex 
mythology  peojiled  heaven  with  gods — Woden  and  Thor, 
F/eya  and  Balder,  and  others  of  inferior  rank — devised 
legends  of   the   origin  of   earth   and  man,  Valhalla  the 
Jiero's  paradise,  and  a  .shadowy  hell  for  all  who  were  not 
heroes.     Some  of  its  legends  are  coloured  from  Christian 
sources,  and  underneath  the  mythology  may  be  detected 
a  ruder  and  more  ancient  superstitious  belief  in  omens  and 
divination, — a  nature-worship  more  like  that  of  the  Celts.. 
But  it  is  the  later  form  which  represents  the  Norse  character 
as  it  was  when  it  came  into  contact  with  the  nations  of 
Britain, —  its  daring  defiance  of  man  and  the  gods,   its 
struggle  with,  yet  in  the  end  its  calm  acceptance  of,  the 
decrees  of  fate.     The  Norsemen  both  at  home  and  in  their 
colonies   in   Scotland   embraced   Christianity  under   Olaf 
Tryggvason  in  the  end  of   the  10th  century  ;  but  along 
with    Christianity  they  retained  the    old  heathen   senti- 
ments and  customs,   which,  like  their  language,  mingled 
with  and  modified  the  Celtic  character  on  the  western  but 
far  more  on  the   northern  coasts  and  islands,  wher^  the 
population  was  largely  Norse.     A  strain  neither  Celtic  nor 
Teutonic  nor  Norman  occasionally  meets  us  in  Scottish 
history :  it  is  derived  from  the  blood  or  memory  of  the 
Norse  vikings. 

3.  Later  Celtic  Period:  Grovitli  of  the  Kingdom  of  Scone 
from  Kenneth  Macaipine  to  Malcolm  Canmore. — During 
this  period,  though  the  Celtic  annals  are  still  obscure,  we 
can  trace  the  united  Celtic  kingdom  growing  on  all  sides 
under  Kenneth's  successors, — southward  by  the  conquest 
of  Lothian  on  the  east  and  by  the  union  of  the  Strath- 
clyde  kingdom  on  the  west,  and  for  a  time  by  holding 
English  Cumbria  under  the  English  kings,  and  northw^ard 
by  the  gradual  incorporation  of  Angus,  Mearns,  Moray, 
and  possibly  the  southern  district  of  Aberdeen.  Kenneth 
Macalpine's  reign  of  sixteen  years  (844-860)  was  a  time  of 
incessant  war.  He  invaded  Saxony  (Lothian)  six  times, 
burnt  Dunbar,  and  seized  Melrose  (already  a  rich  abbey, 
though  on  a  different  site  from  the  Cistercian  foundation  of 
David  I.),  while  the  Britons  (of  Strathclyde)  burnt  Dun- 
blane and  the  Danes  wasted  the  land  of  the  Picts  as  far  as 
Cluny  and  Dunkeld.  After  they  left  Kenneth  rebuilt  the 
church  of  Dunkeld  and  replaced  in  it  Columba's  relics.  He 
died  at  Forteviot  and  was  buried  at  lona. 
Donaldl.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Donald  I.  (861-863), 
who,  with  his  people  the  Gaels,  established  the  laws  of  Aed, 
son  of  Eachdach,  at  Forteviot.  Aed  was  a  Dalriad  king  of 
the  8th  century  ;  but  the  contents  of  his  laws  are  unknown. 


Perhaps  tanistry,  by  which  the  successor  to  the  king  was 
elected  during  his  life  from  the  eldest  and  worthiest  of 
his  kin,  usually  a  collateral  in  preference  to  a  descendant, 
was  one  feature,  for  it  certainly  prevailed  amongst  the 
Irish  and  Scottish  Gaels.     The  ne.xt  king,  who  succeeded 
in  accordance  with  that  custom,  Avas  Constantino  I.  (863-  Consti 
877),   son  of   Kenneth.      His   reign   was   occupied   with '"«'  ' 
conflicts  with  the  Norsemen.     Olaf  the  Wiite,  the  Norse 
king  of  Dublin,  laid  waste  the  country  of  the  Picts  and 
Britons   year   after  year,   and   in    870    reduced  Alclyde, 
the  British  capital ;  but,  as  he  disappears  from  history,  he 
probably  fell  in  a  subsequent  raid.     He  is  said  to  have 
married  a  daughter  of  Kenneth,  and  some  claim  in  her 
right  may  account  for  his  Scottish  wars.     In  the  south  the 
Danish  leader   Halfdan  devastated   Northumberland  and 
Galloway;  while  in  the  north  Thorsten  the  Red — a  son  of 
Olaf  by  Audur,  the  wealthy  daughter  of  Ketil  Flatnose 
(called  Finn,  "the  Fair,"  by  the  Celts),  a  Norse  viking  of 
the  Hebrides,  who  afterwards  went  to  Iceland  and  figures 
ill  the  sagas — conquered  the  coast  of  Caithness  and  Suther- 
land as  far  as  Ekkials  Bakki  (the  Oikel).     But  he  was 
killed  in  the  following  year.     Constantine  met  with  the 
same  fate  at  a  battle  at  Inverdovat  in  Fife  in  877,  at  the 
hands  of  another  band  of  northern  marauders.     His  death 
led  to  a  disputed  succession.     His  heir,  according  to  the 
custom  of  tanistry,  was  his  brother  Aodh,  who  was  kiUed 
by  his  own  people  after  a  year.     Eocha,  the  son  of  Run, 
a  king  of  the  Britons,  claimed  in  right  of  his  mother,  a 
daughter  of  Kenneth,  according  to  the  Pictish  law,  and 
governed  at  first  along  with  Ciric  or  Grig,  his  tutor ;  then  Grig 
Grig  ruled  alone,  until  they  were  both  expelled  from  the 
kingdom  and  Donald  II.,  son  of  Constantine,  came  to  the 
throne  (889).     The  Pictish  Chronicle  reports  that  during 
the  government  of  Grig  the  Scottish  Church  was  freed 
from  subjection  to  the  laws  of  the  Picts  (meaning  probably 
from  liability  to  secular    service).     Grig  is  also  said  to 
have  subdued  all  Bernicia  and  "almost  Anglia,"  a  state- 
ment which  if  confined  to  the  north  of  the  Northumbrian 
kingdom  is  not  improbable,  for  it  had  then  fallen  into 
anarchy  through  the  attacks  of  the  Danes.     The  church 
of  Ecclesgreig  near  Montrose  possibly  commemorates  Grig 
and  indicates  the  northward  extension  of  the  monarchy  of 
Scone.     In  the  reign  of   Donald  II.   (889-900),   son  ofDonaU 
Constantine    I.,    Scotland   was    again    attacked    by   the  I'- 
Norsemen.     Sigurd,    the   Norse   earl   of   Orkney,  seized 
Caithness,  Sutherland,  Ross,  and  part   of   Moray,  where 
he  built  the  fort  of  Burghead,  between  the  Findliorn  and 
the  Spey.     Farther  south  the  Danes  took  Dunottar,  where 
Donald  was  slain.    Aiter  his  time  the  name  of  the  kingdom 
of  Soone  was  no  longer  Pictavia,  but  Albania  or  Alba,  a 
more  ancient  title  of  northern  Scotland,  perhaps  resumed 
to  mark  the  growth  of  the  Scottish-Pictish  monarchy  in 
the  central  and  eastern  Highlands. 

Donald  II.  was  followed  by  Constantine  II.  (900-940),  Oouit.-. 
son  of  Aodh  and  grandson  of  Kenneth,  and  his  long  reign  is  <*■»  'I 
a  proof  of  his  power.  He  was  the  greatest  Scottish  king, 
as  Angus  MacFergus  had  been  the  greatest  of  the  pure 
Pictish  race.  In  the  first  part  of  it  his  kingdom  was  still 
beset  by  the  Norsemen.  In  his  third  year  they  wasted 
Dunkeld  and  all  Alba.  Next  year  they  were  repulsed  in 
Strathearn.  In  his  8th  year  Rognwald,  the  Danish  king 
of  Dublin,  with  earls  Ottir  and  Oswle  Crakaban,  ravaged 
Dunblane.  Six  years  later  the  same  leaders  were  de- 
feated on  the  Tyne  (?  in  East  Lothian)  by  Constantine, 
who  had  been  summoned  to  assist  Eldred,  lord  of  Bam- 
borough.  Ottir  was  slain,  but  Rognwald  escaped  and 
reappears  some  years  later  as  king  of  Northumberland. 
This  is  a  battle  whose  site  and  incidents  are  told  in  a  con- 
flicting manner  by  different  chronicles ;  but  it  appears  . 
certain  that  Constantine  saved  his  dominions  from  further 


LATEE'  CELTIC  PERIOD.] 


SCOTLAND 


479 


serious  attacks  by  the  vikings.  Ue  had  now  to  meet  a 
more  fonnidable  foe,— the  West  Saxons,  whose  kings,  the 
descendants  of  Alfred,  were  steadily  moving  northwards. 
[n  spite  of  his  wars,  Constantine  found  tune  m  the  early 
part  of  his  reign  for  two  important  reforms,— one  Cccle- 
siasti  al,  the  other  civil.  In  his  sLxth  year  (906)  he,  along 
with  Cellach,  bishop  of  St  Andrews— the  first  of  twelve 
Cell'  bishops  of  Scotland— swore  on  the  HiU  of  Faith 
at  P  •  me  (906)  that  "ihe  laws  and  discipline  of  the  faith,  and 
the  rights  of  the  churches  and  the  gospel,  should  be  pre- 
ser .  ed  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  Scots."  This  obscure 
notice  of  the  Pictish  Chronicle  indicates  the  establishment 
or  restoration  of  the  Scottish  Church,  which  the  Pictish 
kings  had  oppressed,  to  an  equality  with  that  of  the  Pictish. 
As  a  sign  of  the  union  the  crozier  of  St  Columba,  called 
Cathbuadth  ("victory  in  battle"),  was  borne  before  Con- 
stantino's armies.  Two  years  later,  on  the  death  of 
Donald,  king  of  the  Britons  of  Strathclyde,  Constantine 
procured  the  election  of  his  own  brother  Donald  to  that 
kin;':dom.  Though  he  thus  strengthened  church  and  state, 
Alfred's  successors  were  too  powerful  for  him.  The  Anfjlo- 
SartM  Chronicle  records  of  Edward  the  Elder,  that  in  924, 
having  built  a  fort  at  Bakewell,  in  the  Peak  of  Derbyshire, 
"the  king  and  nation  of  the  Scots,  Rognwald  the  North- 
umbrian and  others,  and  also  the  king  of  the  Strath- 
clyde Welsh  and  his  people,  chose  him  for  father  and 
lord."  His  son  Athelstan  is  related  by  the  same  authority  to 
have  subjugated  all  the  kings  in  the  island,  amongst  whom 
are  mentioned  by  name  Howell  king  of  the  west  Welsh, 
Constantine  king  of  the  Scots,  Owen  king  of  Gwent,  and 
Eldred  of  Bamborough,  who  "  made  peace  with  oaths  at 
Emmet  and  renounced  every  kind  of  idolatry."  These 
entries  are  not  beyond  suspicion.  The  Peak  was  a  distant 
point  for  the  Scottish  king.  Rognwald,  the  Northumbrian, 
died  in  920,  according  to  the  Irish  Annals.  Howell  and 
Constantine  were  already  Christians  and  could  not  have 
then  renounced  idolatry.  If  there  is  any  truth  in  the  sub- 
mission of  the  Scots  to  Edward  the  Elder  it  did  not  last, 
for  some  years  later  the  Chronicle  states  that  Athelstan 
went  into  Scotland  with  a  land  and  sea  force  and  ravaged 
a  great  part  of  it.  A  league  of  the  northern  kings  against 
Athelstan  was  dispersed  (937)  by  his  great  victory  at 
Brunanburgh  (■?  Wendun,  between  Aldborough  and  Knares- 
borough,  according  to  Skene).  The  forces  allied  against 
him  were  those  of  Constantine,  his  son-in-law  Olaf,  son 
of  Sitric  (called  also  the  Red),  and  another  Olaf,  son  of 
Godfrey,  from  Ireland,  besides  the  Strathclyde  and  north 
Welsh  kings.  For  Athelstan  there  fought,  in  addition  to 
his  own  West  Saxons,  the  Mercians  and  some  mercenaries 
from  Norway,  amongst  them  Egil,  son  of  Skalagrim,  the 
hero  of  a  famous  Icelandic  saga.  No  greater  slaughter  had 
been  known  since  the  Anglo-Saxons,  "proud  war-smiths," 
as  their  poet  calls  them,  overcame  the  Welsh  and  gained 
England.  A  son  of  Constantine  was  slain,  four  kings, 
and  seven  earls.  Constantine  himself  escaped  to  Scot- 
land, where  in  old  age  ho  resigned  the  crown  for  the 
tonsure  and  became  abbot  of  the  Culdcos  of  St  Andrews. 
Athelstan  died  two  years  after  Brunanburgh,  but  before 
his  death  granted  Northumberland  to  Erik  Blood3'-Axe, 
son  of  Harold  Haarfagr,  who  was  almost  immediately 
expelled  by  the  Irish  Danes.  Athelstan,  even  ufter  so 
great  a  victory,  <!ould  not  annex  Northumberland,  much 
less  Scotland,  to  his  dominions. 

Constantino's  successor,  Malcolm  t  (943-9.^.1),  son  of 
Donald  U.,  began  his  reign  by  invading  Moray  and  killing 
Ccllach,  its  chief  king.  Meantime  tho  Danish  kings  of 
Dublin  had  been  endeavouring  to  maintain  thoir  hold  on 
Northumberland  with  the  aid  of  the  Cumbrians,  whoso 
country  they  had  already  settled,  and  in  this  attempt  tho 
two  Olafs  had  a  temporary  success;  but  Eadmund,  the 


successor  of  Athelstan,  expelled  Olaf,  son  of  Sitric,  from' 
Northumberland,  and  in  the  following  year,  to  prevent  the 
Cumbrians  from  again  aiding  the  Danes,  he  "harried 
Cumberland  and  gave  it  all  up  to  Malcohn,  king  of  Scota, 
on  condition  that  ho  should  be  his  fellow-wo'-ker  both  on 
sea  and  land."  This  was  the  same  policy  which  led  his 
fatlier  to  call  in  the  aid  of  Erik  Bloody-Axe.  The  kmgs 
of  Wessex  wisely  granted  what  they  could  not  hold  to  the 
best  northern  warrior,  Celt  or  Scandinavian,  under  con- 
ditions which  acknowledged  more  or  less  strictly  their 
supremacy.  The  Cumbria  so  granted  was  the  country 
south  of  the  Solway  to  the  Dee,  but  it  may  also  have 
included  Strathclyde,  for  at  this  period  Strathclyde  Waelas 
and  Cumbrians  are  frequently  used  as  equivalent  names. 
Malcolm  lent  no  aid  to  Erik  Bloody-Axe,  when  in  the 
reign  of  Eadred  he  tried  (949)  to  recover  Northumberland, 
but  he  joined  his  brother-in-law  Olaf,  Sitric's  son,  in  an 
expedition  with  the  same  object,  when  they  laid  waste 
the  country  as  far  south  as  the  Tees.'  Three  years  later 
Erik  again  returned,  and  finally  drove  Olaf  back  to  Ire- 
land, where  he  founded  the  kingdom  of  Dublin,  which 
lasted"  till  the  battle  of  Clontarf.  Malcolm  died  fighting 
either  against  the-  men  of  Mearns  or  of  Moray.  Three 
kings  followed  (954-971),— Indulf,  son  of  Constantine, 
Duff,  son  of  Malcohn,  Colin,  son  of  Indulf ;  in  the  reign 
of  Indulf  the  Northumbrians  evacuated  Edinburgh,  which 
thenceforward  was  Scottish  ground.  A  Saxon  burgh,  a 
fort,  perhaps  a  town,  was  now  for  the  first  time  within 
the  Celtic  kingdom. 

Kenneth  II.  (971-995),  son  of  Malcohn,  soon  after  hisKeno^ .. 
accession  made  a  raid  on  Northumberland  as  far  south  as 
Cleveland.  The  statement  of  two  English  chroniclers 
(John  of  Wallingford  and  Henry  of  Huntingdon),  that 
Lothian  was  ceded  to  him  by  Eadgar  on  condition  of 
homage,  and  that  the  people  should  still  use  the  language 
of  the  Angles,  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  or 
any  Scottish  chronicle.  Nor  is  it  easy  to  believe  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  as  amplified  by  Florence  of  Worce- 
ster, that  Kenneth  was  one  of  the  kings  who  rowed 
Eadgar  on  the  Dee  in  sign  of  homage.  At  this  time,  in 
the  north  and  west,  the  Orkney  earls  were  ■all-powerful, 
and  Kenneth  was  occupied  with  contests  nearer  his  own 
territory, — especially  with  the  mormaer  of  Angus,  whose 
grandson,  through  his  daughter  Fenella,  he  slew  at  Dun- 
sinane,  and  in  revenge  for  which  he  was  himself  treacher- 
ously killed  at  Fettercairn  in  Mearns  by  FeneUa,  whoso 
name  is  still  preserved  in  the  traditions  of  that  district. 
The  foundation  of  the  church  at  Brechin  is  attributed  to 
this  king. 

Kenneth  was  followed,  as  ho  had  been  preceded,  by 
insignificant  kings,— Constantine,  son  of  Colin,  and  Ken- 
neth, son  of  Dull-.  His  son,  Malcolm  11.(1005-34),  gained  MalcoliD 
the  throne  by  the  slaughter  of  his  predecessor  Duff  at  »■ 
Monzievaird,  and  at  once  turned  his  arms  southwards;  but 
his  first  attempt  to  conquer  northern  Northumberland  was 
repelled  by  Ethclred,  sou  of  Waltheof,  its  earl,  who  de- 
feated him  at  Durham.  About  the  .same  time  Sigurd, 
earl  of  Orkney,  having  defeated  Finlay,  mormaer  of  Moray, 
became  ruler,  according  to  tho  Norse  saga,  of  "Ross  and 
Moray,  Sutherland  and  the  dales  "  of  Caithness.  He  had 
conflicts  with  other  Scottish  chiefs,  but  apijcars  to  havo 
made  terms  with  the  kings  of  both  Norway  and  Scotland, 
—with  Olaf  Tryggvason  by  becoming  Christian  and  with 
Malcolm  by  marrying  his  daughter.  He  fell  at  Clontarf 
(1014),  the  memorable  battle  near  Dublin,  by  which  Brian 
Boru  and  his  son  Murcadh  defeated  tho  Dani.sh  kings  in 
lielaiul  and  restored  a  Celtic  dynn.'ity.  Malcolm  conferred 
the  earldom  of  Caithness  on  his  grand.son  Thorlinn,  thef 
infant  sou  of  Sigurd  ;  and  Sigurd's  Orkney  earldom  fell  to 
his  sons,  Somerlcd,  Brusi,  and  Eiuar ;  while  Moray  agaia 


480 


SCOTLAND 


[histoev. 


came  into  the  possession  of  a  Celtic  mormaer,  Firlay,  who 
is  called  king  of  Alba  by  one  of  the  Irish  chronicles,  and 
the  Hebrides  probably  into  that  of  a  Norse  earl,  Gilli, 
from  whom  they  were  afterwards  recovered  by  Thorfinn. 
While  the  Celts  of  Ireland  were  thus  expelling  the  Danish 
invaders  and  in  Scotland  there  was  divided  possession,  the 
result  of  compromise  and  of  intermarriage,  England  fejl 
under  the  domiuion  of  the  Danish  kings  Sweyn  and 
Canute.  Canute  committed  Northumberland  to  Erik,  a 
Dane,  as  earl ;  but  Eadulf  Cudel,  a  weak  brother  of  the 
brave  Oswulf  and  son  of  Waltheof,  the  Anglian  earl,  still 
retained  the  northern  district  as  lord  of  Bamborougb. 
Profiting  by  the  distracted  state  of  northern  England, 
Malcolm  again  invaded  Northumberland  with  Owen  of 
Cumbria,  called  the  Bald,  and  by  the  victory  of  Carham 
(1018)  near  Coldstream  won  Lothian,  which  remained 
from  that  time  an  integral  part  of  Scotland.  Canute, 
on  his  retm-n  from  a  pilgrimage  to  Kome,  is  said  by 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  to  have  gone  to  Scotland, 
where  Malcolm  and  two  other  kings,  Jlaelbeth  and  Jeh- 
marc,  submitted  to  him,  but  he  held  Scotland  for  only  a 
little  while.  Maelbeth  is  supposed  to  be  Macbeth,  then 
mormaer  of  Moray,  afterwards  king,  and  Jehmarc,  a  Celtic 
or  Scandinavian  chief  in  ArgyU.  The  hold  which  Canute, 
who  was  trying  to  grasp  Norway^  and  Denmark  as  well  as 
Jlngland,  had  upon  northern  Britain  must  have  been 
slender  as  well  as  short;  but  the  acknowledgment  of  the 
supremacy  of  so  great  a  king,  was  natural.  At  his  death 
his  overgrown  empire  fell  to  pieces,  and  Scotland  was 
left  to  itself.  Two  years  before  JIalcohn  II.  died.  His 
conquest  of  Lothian  perhaps  led  to  the  new  name  of 
Scotia  (now  generally  applied  to  his  kingdom),  which 
was  to  become  its  permanent  name.  The  Scotland  he 
governed  still  had  its  centre  at  Scone,  but  included  besides 
the  original  Pictish  district  of  Perthshire,  Angus  and 
Mear;is,  Fife,  the  southern  district  of  Aberdeen,  and 
Lothian,  his  own  conquest,  while  Moray  and  western 
Ross,  and  perhaps  Argyll  and  the  Isles,  owned  his  suze- 
rainty. But  the  Norse  earl,  Thorfinn,  at  this  time  held 
the  Orkneys,  Caithness,  Sutherland,  and  the  Hebrides. 
Whether  a  Cumbrian  king  still  ruled  Strathclyde  and 
Galloway  is  doubtful.  After  Owen  the  Bald,  who  fought 
at  Carham,  the  nest  king  mentioned  is  Duncan,  son  of  the 
grandson  and  the  successor  of  Malcolm.  Malcolm  II.  was 
liberal  to  the  church,  as  we  know  from  his  gifts'  to  the 
church  of  Deer ;  but  the  foundation  of  Jlortlach  (Banff- 
shire), the  future  see  of  Aberdeen,  belongs  to  the  reign  of 
Malcolm  Canmore.  The  laws  attributed  to  him  are 
spurious,  introducing  into  the  Celtic  kingdom  a  fully  deve- 
loped feudalism,  which  was  not  known  in  England,  still 
less  in  Scotland,  till  after  the  Conquest.  As  he  left  no 
male  heir,  Malcolm's  death  led  to  a  doubtful  succession 
and  a  perplexed  period  of  Scottish  history. 

The  Scottish  historians  and  the  Norse  sagas  can  with 
difficulty  be  reconciled.  Little  light  can  be  got  from 
either  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  or  the  L'ish  Annals. 
Shakespeare  seized  the  weird  story  of  Macbeth,  as  told 
by  Boece  and  translated  in  Holinshed,  and  history  can 
hardly  displace  the  tragedy,  so  true  to  the  dark  side  of 
human  nature,  by  the  meagre  outline  at  its  command. 
This  outline  is  supported  by  authentic  evidence,  and  agrees 
with  the  situation  which  existed  between  the  death  of  Mal- 
colm II.  and  the  accession  of  Malcolm  Canmore. 

Malcolm  II.  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson  Duncan 
(1034-40),  son  of  his  daughter  Bethoc  and  Crinan,  a  lay 
or  secular  abbot  of  Dunkeld  ;  but  his  right  was  probably 
from  the  first  contested  by  Thorfinn,  who  had  become  the 
most  powerful  of  the  Norse  earls.  If  the  Orkney  saga 
could  be  relied  upon,  he  had  as  many  as  eleven  earls  or 
mormaers- subject  to  him,  and  a  modem  but  unsafe  in- 


terpretation of  one  passage  extends  his  dominion  as  far 
as  Galloway.  Duncan,  after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  on 
Durham,  turned  his  arms  to  the  north  to  check  the  further 
advance  of  his  kinsman,  but  was  defeated  on  the  Pentland 
Firth.  Moddan.  whom  he  had  tried  to  set  up  as  earl  of 
Caithness,  was  burnt  in  his  own  house,  and  Duncan  him- 
self was  killed  at  Bothgownan  near  Elgin  by  Macbeth,  his 
own  general.  Macbeth  was  son  of  Finlay,  mormaer  of 
Moray,  and  his  wife  Gruoch  was  daughter  of  Boete,  son  of 
Kenneth  II.;  thus  he  had  a  possible  pretension  to  the 
crown  if  it  could  descend  by  females.  But  his  real  posi- 
tion appears  to  have  been  that  of  a  successful  general 
asserting  the  independence  of  the  northern  Celts  against 
Duncan,  who  by  his  marriage  with  the  daughter  of  Earl 
Siward,  the  Northumbrian  earl,  had  shown  the  tendency 
to  unite  Saxon  with  Celtic  blood  which  was  followed 
by  his  son  JiIalcoLm  (III.)  Canmore.  Macbeth  reigned 
seventeen  years  (1040-57).  He  was,  as  far  as  records 
state,  an  able  'monarch,  who  succeeded  in  repelling  the 
attacks  of  Siward  on  behalf  of  his  grandson,  who  showed 
liberality  to  the  church,  as  the  foundation  of  himself 
and  his  wife  at  Loch  Leven  testify,  sent  money  for  the 
poor  to  Lome,  and  possibly  went  with  it  on  a  pilgrim- 
age ;  but  he  fell  at  last  in  the  battle  of  Lumphanan  in 
Jlar,  where  the  young  Malcolm  was  aided  by  Tostig,  son 
of  Godwine,  the  great  West  Saxon  earl  who  had  become 
earl  of  Northumberland.  A  few  months  .later,  Lulach, 
the  son  of  Gillecomhain,  a  former  mormaer  of  Moray,  who 
had  continued  the  war,  and  is  nominally  counted  a  king, 
though  called  fatuous,  was  slain  at  Essie  in  Strathbogie 
(N.W.  Aberdeen),  ^nd  Malcolm  Canmore  became  king. 
With  his  reign  a  new  and  clearer  era  of  the  history  of 
Scotland  commences. 

The  Scottish  Gaels  had  proved  themselves  capable  of  govern-  Mon- 
ment.     The  united  monarchy  of  Scone  lasted  for  two  centuries  in  archj  ?: 
spite   of  its  powerful  neighbours,   but  it  was  dependent  almost  Scoue. 
entirely  on  the  attachment  of  the  clans  to  their  chiefs  and  of  the 
wliole  race  to  the  hereditary  king.     It  was  traditional,  not  consti- 
tutional, with  some  accepted  customs,  otherwise  it  could  not  have 
held  together,  but  mth  little  settled  law  and  no  local  government. 
It  wanted  the  elements  of  civil  life,  for  it  had  no  organized  to\viis 
or  assemblies  of  the  people.     There  was  little  commerce  or  trade. 
Cattle  and  siieep  were  the  chief  commodities  and  the  medium  of 
exchange.     There  is  no  trace  of  an  independent  coinage.     Chris- 
tianity had  not  yet  leavened  the  whole  population,  though  the 
monasteries   were   centres   of  light  within  limited  circles.      The 
Celtic  character,   alien   to  set  and  quick  forms  of  business,  was  Celtic 
alive  to  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination,  oratory,  and  song.      Its  and 
cardinal  defect  was  a  light  regard  for  truth.     Its  chief  Wrtue  was  Anglo- 
devotion  to  a  leader,  whetlier  priest,  chief,  or  king.     The  Christian  Saxon 
Anglo-Saxons  of  the  Lothians,  the  Norsemen,  only  recently  and  charact( 
half  converted,  in  the  islands  of  the  north  and  west,  brought  qualities 
and  customs  into  the  common  stock  of  the  future  Scottish  people 
which  were  wanting  to  the  Celts.    The  Anglo-Saxon  in  his  original 
home,  as  in  Britain  the  inhabitant  of  the  plain — "the  creeping 
Saxon,"  as  he  was  called  by  an  Irish  bard — developed  in  the  house 
and  the  town  a  better  regulated  freedom, — the  domestic  and  civic 
virtues.     His  imagination,  even  his  poetry,  had  a  touch  of  prose, 
but  he  possessed  the  prosaic  qualities  of  plain  speech,  common 
sense,  and  truth, — the  essence  of  trust.     The  contact — for  it  was  a 
contact,  not  a  conquest — with  this  race  was  of  the  highest  value 
to  the  Scottish  nation  of  the  future.      The  Kormans  introduced 
new  elements,  the  spirit  of  chivalry  and  the  too  rigid  bonds  of  the 
feudal  law.      The   changes  due  to  these  new  elements  began  in 
Scotland  in  the  reign  of  Malcolm  Canmore,  and  were  completed  in 
those  of  his  descendants.     The  Scottish  Celtic  kingdom  became 
gradually  civilized  under   Saxon  and   Norman  influences,   whilo 
retaining  its  native  vigour.     The  result  was  the  establishment  of 
the  independence  of  Scotland  within  its  present  bounds  during  the 
prosperous  reigns  of  the  Alexanders  (1107-1285). 

4.  Transition  from  a  Celtic  to  an  Anglo-Norman  Feudal 
2ronarchy :  Malcolm  Canmore  and  his  Descendants. — 
Malcolm  Canmore  (1058-93)  spent  his  boyhood  in  Cum- 
bria, his  youth  at  the  court  of  Edward  the  Confessor  of 
England.  He  was  by  race  only  half  a  Celt,  for  his 
mother  was  an  Anglo-Dane,  sister  of  Earl  Siward.  The 
court  which  helped  to  form  his  character  was  already  sul> 


CANMOEE  TO  ALEXANDER  JU.j 


SCOTLAND 


481 


ject  to  Nonnan  influence.  The  Cf  nfessor,  like  Canmore, 
had  been  educated  in  exile,  at  the  Norman  court,  and 
favoured  the  Normans.  Though  the  course  of  events  led 
Malcolm  to  ally  himself  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  royal  house, 
the  Anglo-Saxon  and  Anglo-Norman  periods  of  Scottish 
history  were  not,  as  in  England,  separated  by  several 
centuries,  but  were'nearly  contemporaneous.  If  Malcolm, 
Edgar,  and  the  first  Alexander  may  be  regarded  as  Scoto- 
Saxoi  David  I.  and  his  successors  were  truly  Scoto-Nor- 
•man  feudal  monarchs.  Apart  from  tho  customs  and 
lan.i-'uage  of  Lothian,  which  descended  from  Anglian  North- 
umberland, Scotland  received .  scarcely  any  pure  Saxon 
institutions.  Those  it  did  receive  have  a  mixed  Saxon 
and  Norman  imprint.  There  were  no  tithings,  wapen- 
takes, or  hundreds,  no  trial  by  compiirgation,  no  frank- 
pledge. No  witenagemot  or  folkmotes  preceded  the  great 
council  which  became  parliament.  In  short,  the  system 
of  government  we  call  the  Anglo-Saxon  constitution  never 
existed  in  Scotland,  although  the  court  of  the  four  southern 
burghs  and  the  customs  of  tho  towns  of  Lothian  copied 
from  those,  of  Newcastle,  and  a  similar  association  of 
burghs,  the  Hanse  of  Aberdeen,  of  which  there  are  faint 
traces  in  the  north,  had  a  Teutonic  origin.  And  .some 
traces  cf  Anglo-Saxon  criminal  law  are  to  be  found  in  the 
early  Scottish  cnarters. 

Canmore  ascended  the  throne  n058)  not  long  before 
England  was  subjugated  by  William  the  Conqueror. 
Tho  only  recorded  event  of  his  reign  prior  to  the  Conquest 
was  his  quarrel  with  Tostig,  his  "  sworn "  brother,  when 
he  made  a  raid  south  of  the  Tweed  and  violated  the  pRace 
of  St  Cuthbert  by  ravaging  Lindisfarne.  The  early  years 
of  his  reign  were  devoted  to  establishing  his  rule  in  the 
•northern  districts,  where  his  marriage  to  Ingebiorg,  widow 
of  Earl  Thorfinn,  related  by  tie  Norse  but  not  the  Scottish 
•Writers,  may  have  aided  him.  Ingebiorg,  already  old,  can- 
not have  long  survived  the  union,  nor  is  the  fact  of  the 
marriage  certain.  The  victory  of  Hastings  brought  to 
tho  Scottish  court  as  refugees  Edgar  Atheling,  grandson 
of  Edmund  Ironside,  and  his  three  sisters.  Their  father, 
Edward,  had  found  shelter  in  Hungary  in  the  reign  of 
Canute  and  married  an  Hungarian  princess.  The  eldest 
daughter  of  the  marriage,  ^Margaret,  became  the  wife 
(1068)  of  JIalcolm  Canmore.  Her  virtues  more  than  his 
wars  make  his  reign  an  epoch  of  Scottish  history.  This 
alliance  and  the  advance  of  the  Conqueror  on  North- 
umberland in  the  third  year  of  his  reign  rendered  a 
collision  inevitable.  Malcolm  twice  harried  Northumber- 
land during  the  reign  of  the  Conqueror  with  the  view  of 
restoring  the  Atheling.  In  the  interval  between  these 
expeditions  William  retaliated  by  invading  Scotland  as  far 
as  Abernethy,  where  ho  forced  Malcolm  to  do  homage. 
After  the  second  he  sent  his  son  Robert,  who  reached 
Falkirk ;  but  ho  returned  without  having  accomplished 
anything,  except  that  he  built  Newcastle  as  a  frontier 
fortress.  In  this  reign  Northumberland  itself  was  never 
realty  subdued,  and  William  laid  waste  the  district  between 
the  Humber  and  tho  Tecs  as  a  barrier  against  the  northern 
Angles  and  Danes.  After  the  Conqueror's  death  Malcolm 
prepared  for  war,  but  peace  wa.s  mado  before  ho  had  left 
Lothian,  and  he  again  took  an  oath  of  homage.  Next  year 
William  Rufus  .succeeded  in  reducing  Cumbria  south  of  tho 
Solway,  then  held  by  Dolphin,  lord  of  Carlisle,  a  vassal 
of  Malcolm,  rebuilt  the  castle  of  Carli.sle,  and  made  the 
adjoining  country  for  the  first  time  English.  Ho  then 
summoned  Malcolm  to  Gloucester ;  but  the  meeting  ended, 
like  others  when  a  summons  to  do  homage  at  a  distance 
from  the  border  was  sent  to  the  kings  of  Scotland,  in 
settling  both  in  a  more  hostile  attitude.  Malcolm  on  his 
return  raised  his  whole  forces  for  the  last  expedition  of 
his  life,  in  v.hich  he  was  slain  (1093)  in  an  ambuscade 


near  Alnwick  by  Morel  of  Bamborough.  He  left  to  his 
successor  a  kingdom  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Tweed, 
the  Cheviots,  and  the  Solway,  though  there  was  much 
debatable  land  along  the  borders,  and  the  English  king 
claimed  Lothian  as  successor  of  the  Northumbrian  Angles, 
while  the  Scotch  claimed  English  Cumberland  as  a  de- 
pendency dating  from  the  grant  of  Eadgar.  Malcolm's 
defeat  of  the  mother  of  Maelsnechtan,  son  of  Lnlach  and 
mormaer  of  Moray,  is  the  only  event  recorded  to  indicate 
that  his  relations  with  the  Celtic  population  were  not 
peaceful,  but  the  materials  are  too  scanty  to  mtke  it  clear 
how  far  the  northern  chiefs  asserted  their  independence. 
The  foundation  of  Mortlach  by  Malcolm  is  proof  that  the 
Aberdeen  lowlands  at  least  were  within  his  dominion. 

The  brightest  side  of  Malcolm's  reign  was  the  reform 
due  to  Margaret.  Her  life  by  Theodoric,  a  monk  c| 
Durham,  or  her  confessor,  Turgot,  though  coloured  by  par- 
.tiality  for  a  good  woman,  the  patron  of  the  church,  bears 
the  marks  of  a  true  portrait.  The  miraculous  element  m 
the  lives  of  the  Celtic  saints,  diminished  but  still  present 
in  Bede,  disappears.  The  chief  changes  in  the  Celtic 
Church  efiected  by  Margaret  with  the  aid  of  monks  sent 
by  Lanfrauc  from  Canterbury  were  the  observance  of  Lent, 
the  reception  of  the  Eucharist  at  Easter,  which  had  fallen 
into  neglect,  the  use  of  the  proper  ritual  in  the  mass,  the 
prohibition  of  labour  on  the  Lord's  day,  and  of  Marriage 
betv.-een  persons  related  by  afnnity.  She  restored  lona, 
long  desecrated,  founded  the  church  of  Dunferinline  in 
commemoration  of  her  marriage,  and  protected  the  hermits, 
still  common  in  the  Scottish  Church.  Her  severe  fasts  and 
her  liberality  to  the  sick  and  aged  are  especially  noted. 
She  washed  the  feet  of  the  poor  and  fed  children  with, 
food  she  had  prepared,  procured  freedom  for  captives,  and 
on  either  side  of  the  ferry  called  Queensferry  after  her 
she  erected  hostelries  for  pilgrims.  Nor  did  her  piety 
lead  her  to  neglect  domestic  duties.  The  ruJc  manners 
of  the  Celtic  court  were  refined  by  her  example.  The 
education  of  her  children,  her  chief  care  in  her  hu.iband's 
frequent  absence,  was  rewarded  by  the  noble  character  of 
the  saintly  David  and  the  good  Queen  Maiftle.  Shu  did 
not  long  survive  her  husband :  hearing  of  his  death  she 
thanked  the  Almighty  for  enabling  her  to  bear  such  soitow, 
to  cleanse  her  from  sin,  and  after  receiving  the  sacrament 
died  praying.  The  chapel  on  the  castle  rick  at  Edinburgh, 
erected  in  her  memory,  is  the  oldest  building  now  existing 
in  Scotland,  with  the  exception  of  the  meagre  ruins  of  tho 
Celtic  Church  in  the  western  Highlands. 

After  Malcolm's  death  there  was  a  fierce  contest  for  the 
crown  (1093-97),  which  showed  tnat  the  union  of  Celtic 
and  Saxon  blood  was  not  yet  complete  in  the  royal  house, 
much  less  in  the  nation.  Before  the  corpse  of  Margaret 
could  be  removed  to  Dunfermline  for  burial,  Donald  Bain,  iioimid 
brother  of  Malcolm  Canmore,  besieged  the  castle,  and  ^  "• 
its  removal  was  only  accomplished  under  cover  of  mist. 
Donald,  who  had  the  support  of  the  Celts  and  the  custom 
of  tanistry  in  favour  of  hia  claim,  was  king  nominally  at 
least  six  months,  when  ho  was  expelled  by  Duncan,  son  of 
Malcolm  and  Ingebiorg,  assisted  by  an  English  force,  in 
which  there  were  Normans  as  well  as  Saxons ;  but  his 
tenure  was  equally  short,  and  Donald,  aided  by  Edmund, 
tho  only  degenerate  son  of  Malcolm  and  Margaret,  who 
slew  his  half-brother  Duncan,  again  reigned  three  years. 
This  was  tho  last  attempt  of  tho  Celts— though  partial 
risings  continued  frequent — to  maintain  a  king  of  their 
race  and  a  kingdom  governed  according  to  their  customs. 
Edgar  Atheling,  who  had  become  reconciled  to  tho  Norman 
king,  led  an  army  into  Scotland  and  by  a  hard-fought 
battle  disitossesscd  Donald  and  restored  his  eldest  nephew, 
Edgar,  to  his  father's  throne. 

The  reign  of  Edgar  (10'J7-1107)  was  unimportant.    Its 

XXL  —  6i 


482 


SCOTLAND 


chief  event  was  the  cession  of  the  Sudreyar  or  islands  on 
the  west  coast  to  the  Norse  king  Magnus  Barefoot,  who 
also  conquered  Man  and  Anglesea.    The  terms  of  the  treaty 
which,  after  two  expeditions,  he  extorted  from  Edgar  were 
that  every  island  was  to  be  his  between  which  and  the 
mainland  a  helm-bearing  ship  could  pass,  and  by  carryin" 
one  across  the  mainland  he  included  Cantyre.     Magnus  n-as 
kaied  in  Ulster;  but  the  Hebrides  remained  in  theliands  of 
the  Norse  kings  or  lords,  and  acknowledged  their  sway  till 
the  battle  of  Largs  ( 1 2  G  3).    Their  cession  was  the  necessary 
price  for  the  consolidation  of  the  Scottish  monarch-^  in  the 
south  of  the  kingdom.    Edinburgh  was  the  capital  of  Edgar, 
a  circumstance  which  marked  the  removal  of  the  centre 
of  the  kingdom  to  its  southern  and  Saxon  district.     His 
standard  had  been  blessed  at  Durham  when  he  recovered 
the  crown,  and  it  was  to  Durham  or  Dunfermline,  where 
he  was  buried,  that  his  benefactions  were  made.     lona  had 
passed  into  the  hands  of  Magnus,  but  he,  being  a  Christian, 
respected  its  sanctity.    Scone  was  henceforth  only  the  scene 
of  the  coronation  ceremony. 
Alexan-       Edgar,  dying  childless.'  was  succeeded  6y  his  brother 
••Jerl'      Alexander  I.  (1107-24).     Educated  by  his  mother,  and 
:,fter  her  death  in  England,  Alexander,  like  his  brothers, 
brought  to  the  government  of  Scotland  Saxon  combmed 
with  Norman  culture.     The  singular  will  by  which  Edgar 
left  Cumbria  to  his  younger  brother  David  was  not°to 
Alexander's  taste;  but  the  support  which  the  Saxon  popu- 
lation and  the  Norman  barons,  now  beginning  to  hold 
land  in  that  district,  gave  to  David  forced  his  brother  to 
acquiesce  in  the  division  of  the  kingdom.     It  was  now 
restricted   to   Lothian,  Merse,  and   the   country  beyond 
the  firths,  as  far  as  Mar  and  Buchan.     His  hold  of  Moray 
and  Boss,  Sutherland  and  Caithness,  must  have  been  rather 
as  suzerain  than  as  sovereign ;  the  mainland  of  Argyll  was 
now  or  soon  after  in  the  possession  of  Somerled,  ancestor 
o'l  the  lords  of  the  Isles;  the  northern  isles  (Nordreyar)  as 
vrell  as  the  Sudreyar  remained  Norse.    The  chief  towns  of 
Alexander  were  Edinburgh,  Stirling,  Inverkeithing,  Perth, 
and  Aberdeen.    At  Scone  he  founded  a  monastery  for  canons 
of  St  Augustine;  but  St  Andrews  was  still  the  sole  Scottish 
bishopric.     Alexander  married  SibyUa,  a  natural  daughter 
of  Henry  I.^  of  England,   and  secured  peace  with„  that 
country.     His  only  recorded  war  was  with  the'  men  of 
Mearns  and  Moray,  who  surprised  him  at  Invergowrie. 
He  pursued  them  to  the  Moray  Firth,  where  a  signal 
victory  (1114)  gained  for  him  the  epithet  of  "The Fierce." 
The  change  from  the  Celtic  to  the  Roman  form  of  church 
government  commenced  by  his  mother  and  his  brother 
Edgar   was    continued.      Ansehn    congratulated   him   on 
his   accession,  and  asked   protection  for  monks  sent  to 
Scotland  at  Edgar's  request.     On  the  death  of  Fothad, 
the  last  Celtic  bishop  of  St  Andrews,  Alexander  procured 
the  election  of  Turgot,  his  mother's  confessor  and  prior 
of  Durham.      His   consecration  was  delayed  through  a 
dispute  between  Canterbury  and  York,  and,  having  failed 
to  efi"ect  the  anticipated  reforms,  he  went  back  to  Dur- 
ham. _  On  his  death  Eadmer,  a  monk  of  Canterbury  and 
ehiomcler  of  note,  was  selected  for  the  office  by  Ralph 
archbishop  of  Canterbury.     The  choice  was  confirmed  by 
the  clergy  and  people ;  but  a  quarrel  with  Alexander  as  to 
his  investiture  led  to  his  return  to  Canterbury.     Robert, 
prior  of  Scone,  became  bishop  in  the  year  of  Alexander's 
death,  but  his  consecration  also  had  to  be  put  off.     These 
clispntes  as  to   the   consecration  and    investiture  of   the 
bishop   of   St    Andrews    turned    on    the    rival   claims  of 
Canterbury  and  York  to  be  the  metropolitan  of  Scotland, 
and  the  refusal  of  Alexander  to  cede  the  independence  of 
the  Scottish  Church,  though  anxious  for  an  English  monk 
to  organize  the    diocese.     National  feeling  was   already 
strong  m  Scotland,  even  in  a  king  with  English  sympathies. 


[nisTOEy. 


Without  the  aid  of  Turgot  or  Eadmer,  Alexander  himself 
laid  the  foundation  of  diocesan  episcopacy.  The  first 
bishops  of  Dunkeld  and  Moray  date  from  his  reign,  and 
the  first  parish  on  record,  Ednam  in  Roxburghshire.  At 
Inchcolm,  as  well  as  Scone,  he  introduced  the  canons 
regular  of  Augustine,  and  on  an  island  of  Loch  Tay  a 
cell  from  Scone  was  built  in  memory  of  his  -wife  Sibylla. 
He  restored  the  "Boar's  Chase"  to  St  Andrews  and 
increased  the  endo'mnents  of  Dunfermline.  The  oflSces 
of  chancellor,  constable,  and  sheriff  also  now  appear ;  and 
the  mormaers  of  the  Celtic  districts  are  designed  as  earls 
{comites)  in  one  of  his  charters.  The  transition  from  the 
Celtic  to  the  feudal  monarchy  had  begun.  Alexander  was 
aJearned  monarch,  like  his  father-m-law  Henry  Beauclerk, 
pious  and  friendly  to  the  church,  but  severe  to  his 
subjects. 

David  L  (1124-53),  the  youngest  son  of  Malcolm  and  David  i 
Margaret,  became  king  at  the  ripe  age  of  forty-four.  He 
had  been  trained  at  the  court  of  Henry  I.  and  his  sister 
Matilda,  so  that  "  his  manners  were  polished  from  the  rust, 
of  Scottish  barbarity."  After  Edgar's  death  he  served  an 
apprenticeship  for  the  royal  office  as  earl  or  prince  of 
Cumbria,  where  his  power  was  little  short  of  regal.  He 
married  a  Saxon,  the  daughter  of  Waltheof,  earl  of 
Northumberland,  widow  of  Simon  de  St  Li2,  Norman 
earl  of  Northampton,  and  his  friends  and  followers  were 
chiefly  Norman.  His  marriage  brought  him  the  earldom 
of  Huntingdon,  and  he  was  guardian  of  the  earldom  of 
Northampton  during  his  stepson's  minority,  so  that  he 
entered  into  feudal  relations  with  the  Norman  king  oi 
England.  In  the  government  of  his  principality  he  sue 
ceeded  in  reducing  a  wild  part  of  Scotland  into  order, 
using  for  this  purpose  the  agency  of  the  church. 

Ihehistoryof  the  church  in  Strathclyde  since  Kentigern's  Eccljsi 
deaA  is  obscure.     The  records  of  York  claim  the  consecra-  astical 
tion  of  a  bishop  of  Glasgow  in  the  middle  of  the  1 1th  and  '^'^ 
another  at  the  commencement  of  the  12th  century;  but 
they  areunknovra  in  the  records  of  Glasgow,  and  were 
perhaps  invented  to  support  the  metropolitan  claim  of 
York  over  that  see.     Glasgow  certainly  was  restored  after 
some  considerable  lapse  in  the  person  of  John,  the  tutor  ol 
David,  who  at  his  request  was  consecrated  by  Pone  PascL-U 
IL    This  was  a  parallel  step  to  the  summons  of  Turgot  and 
Eadmer  to  St  Andrews,  but  David,  like  Alexander,  main- 
tained the  independence  of  his  own  bishopric,  and,  though 
pope  after  pope  seqt  letters  and  legates 'exhorting  obedienco 
to  York,  neither  John  nor  his  successors  yielded  it.    A  new- 
see  erected  at  Carlisle  by  Henry  I  and  the  restoration  of 
Whithorn  by  Henry  II.,  both  subject  to  York,  were  counter 
measures  on  the  part  of  the  English  sovereigns.     The 
independence  of  the  Scottish  from  the  EngKsh  Church 
(with  the  exception  of  Galloway  and  some  places  of  Lothian 
stiO  under  Durham)  thus  asserted  by  the  rulers  of  Scotland 
was  of  great  moment  in  its  subsequent  history,  and  was 
promoted  by  the  liberality  of  David  and  his  brothers.    The 
mquest  by  David's  order  by  which  the  land  of  the  see  of 
Glasgow  was  made  may  refer  to  ancient  possession,  but  it 
had  the  effect  of  a  new  grant.  Its  extent — covering  lands  i)i 
the  dales  of  the  Clyde,  Tweed,  Teviot,  Aunan,  Nith,  and  in 
Ayrshire— corresponds  to  the  district  of  Cumbria  under 
David  and,  with  slight  deviations,  to  the  future  diocese  of 
Glasgow.     ■nTiile  David's  province  did  not  include  all  of 
ancient  Cumbria,  it  did  include  some  parts  of  ancient 
Lothian,   the   future  shires  of  BerT\'ick,   Roxburgh,   and 
Selkirk.     Th.e  Cumbrian  nobles  were  a  mixed  class, — 
somp  Saxon  and  others  Norman.     There  were  few  of  pure 
Celtic  blood. 

Three  years  after  his  accession  David  was  present  at  the 
council  of  London,  where,  along  w;th  the  Enghsh  barons,  he 
swore  to  accept  his  niece  Matilda  as  the  successor  of 


CAiraiOEE  TO  ALEXANDER  HI.] 


SCOTLAND 


483 


ilenry  I.,  •who  had  lost  his  only  son  by  the  shipwreck  of 
the  "  White  Ship."  Soon  after  a  rising  of  Scottish  Celts 
under  a  natural  son  of  Alexander  and  Angus,  a  grandson  of 
the  mormaer  of  Sloray,  was  defeated  at  Stracathro  (Forfar) 
by  David's  troops  in  his  absence  in  England,  and  four  years 
later  another  under  Wimund,  who  pretended  to  be  Malcolm 
MacHeth,  a  chief  in  Ross,  aided  by  Somerled  of  ^Vrgyll, 
who  had  acquired  some  of  the  adjacent  isles,  was  put 
down  by  Wimund's  capture.  The  death  of  Henry  I.  and 
the  claim  of  Stephen  to  the  English  throne  led  to  the 
invasion  of  England  by  David,  in  support  of  Matilda, 
with  an  •  army  drawn  from  all  parts  of  his  kingdom, 
— the  men  of  GaUoway,  Cumbria,  Teviotdale,  Lothian, 
Lennox,  the  Isles,  Scotia  (the  country  south  of  the  Forth 
or  Scots  Water),  and  Moray.  Their  defeat  at  the  battle 
of  the  Standard  at  Cuton  Moor  (1138)  near  Northallerton 
by  the  barons  of  northern  England  was  due  to  the  want  of 
discipline  of  the  men  of  Galloway,  and,  though  signal,  was 
not  decisive.  At  Carlisle  peace  was  made  on  condition  that 
David's  son  Henry  should-  hold  Northumberland  as  an 
earldom  under  Stephen,  ■with  the  exception  of  the  castles  of 
Bamborough  and  Newcastle.  David  gave  hostages,  but 
retained  Carlisle  and  Cumberland  without  any  condition  of 
Iiomage.  Two  years  later,  when  Matilda  seized  London, 
David  joined  her ;  but  she  was  unable  to  maintain  her 
advantage.  David  was  forced  to  return  to  Scotland,  and 
did  not  agaia  engage  in  active  hostilities  against  Stephen. 
TTjg  death  was  preceded  by  that  of  his  only  son ;  but 
his  power  was  ^  firm  that  he  procured  the  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  grandson  Malcolm,  a  boy  of  twelve,  as  successor 
to  the  Scottish  crown,  while  William,  his  younger  grandson, 
succeeded  to  Northumberland  and  the  English  fiefs  his 
father  had  held. 
Diocesan  The  comparative  peace  of  nis  last  twelve  years  gave 
•*d  David  opportunity  for  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  organiza- 
*"  .  tion  of  the  kingdom.  He  found  three  and  left  nine 
Lion  of  bishoprics,  adding  to  St  Andrews,  Moray,  and  Dunkeld 
<iagdom.  the  new  sees  of  Glasgow,  Brechin,  Dunblane,  Aberdeen 
(transferred  from  Mortlach),  Boss,  and  Caithness.  Closely 
connected  with  their  establishment  was  the  suppression  of 
the  Celtic  Culdees  at  Dunkeld.  St  Andrews,  and  Loch 
Leven,  and  perhaps  also  at  Dunblane  and  Dornoch,  where 
canons  regiUar  of  St  Augustine  became  the  chapters  of  the 
bishop.  The  abbeys,  chiefly  Cistercian,  which  he  founded 
•were  Holyrood,  Newbattle,  ilelrose,  Jedburgh,  Kelso, 
Cambuskenneth,  Urquhart,  and  Kinloss.  He  added  to  the 
endowments  of  his  father  and  mother  at  Dunfermline,  and 
so  lessened  the  crown  lands  that  James  I.  called  him 
"a  sore  saint  for  the  crown."  The  division  into  dioceses 
stimulated  the  formation  of  parishes  endowed  by  the 
bishops  or  by  the  lords  of  the  manor ;  but  the  first  steps 
of  the  parochial  division  of  Scotland  arc  obscure.  .  The 
diocesan  episcopate  now  included  the  whole  of  Scotland 
except  what  was  held  by  the  Norsemen,  who  had  bishops 
of  their  own  for  the  Orkneys  and  the  western  isles, 
subject  to  the  metropolitan  of  Dronthcim.  It  preceded 
the  civil  division  into  sheriffdoms,  which  also  began  in 
this  reign,  but  took  a  longer  period  to  complete.  The 
Celtic  chiefs  in  the  north  and  in  Galloway  were  as  yet  too 
powerful  to  allow  royal  officers  to  hold  courts  within  their 
territory,  and  regalities  with  the  full  rights  of  the  crown 
in  matters  of  justice  were  more  lavishly  gra  ited  in  Scotland 
than  in  England,  where  tiioy  were  confned  to  the  few 
palatine  earls  or  bishops  on  the  border.  The  feudal  system 
in  Scotland,  erroneously  antedated  to  the  reign  of  Malcolm 
IT.  or  Malcolm  Canmore,  really  took  root  in  that  of  David. 
The  king  administered  justice  ii?  person.  Tlio  great  judicial 
oflBcerof  state,  the  justiciar,  who  went  circuits  in  tlic  king's 
lame,  appears  either  in  tliis  or  the  preceding  reign ;  so 
^ho  do  the  seneschal  or  steward  of  the  royal  household 


and  the  chamberlain  who  collected  the  ro3'al  revenues.  H27-116& 
The  tenure  of  land  by  charter,  of  which  there  are  a  few 
examples  by  Edgar  in  favour  of  Durham  and  by  Alexander 
I.  in  favour  of  Scone,  now  became  common.  The  charters 
of  David  to  the  abbey  of  Hol)Tood,  to  Robert  Bruce  of 
Annandale,  and  others  are  in  the  regular  style  of  the 
Norman  chancery.  There  are  also  instances  of  subordinate 
grants  by  subjects,  which  the  king  confirms.  Tliough  no 
charter  to  a  burgh  is  extant,  David  refers  to  Edinburgh, 
•  Perth,  and  Stirling  as  his  burghs.  The  inquest  in  favour  of 
the  sec  of  Glasgo\v  is,  by  the  verdict  of  those  best  acquainted 
with  the  facts,  similar  to  the  Norman  inquest.  The  laws 
of  the  four  burghs  of  Lothian — Berwick,  Roxburgh, 
Edinburgh,  and  Stirling — are  records  of  customs  existing 
in  this  reign,  while  a  variety  of  other  laws  called  assize^ 
chiefly  relating  to  tolls  and  matters  of  criminal  jurispru- 
dence. Were  the  legislative  acts  of  the  king,  assisted  by  the 
council  of  his  great  nobles.  The  beginning  of  the  feudal 
system  in  Scotland  was  invigorated  by  the  personal  character 
of  David.  The  absence  of  any  large  body  of  settled  Celtic 
or  Saxon  customs  gave  full  play  to  its  assimilative  influence. 
In  the  reigns  which  followed  Scotland  became  a  purer 
example  of  a  feudal  state  than  England,  where  a  large 
number  of  Teutonic  customs  contributed  to  form  the 
common  law.  A  few  of  these  found  their  way  into  Scotland, 
chiefly  through  the  burghs  or  the  medium  of  Norman 
charters,  in  vhich  they  had  been  incorporated.  But  the 
Scottish  common  law  was  in  the  main  derived  from  tlie 
Roman  code  through  the  canon  law,  and  not  from  Anglo- 
Saxon  customs.  Though  never  canonized  by  the  church, 
this  great  monarch,  for  his  faithful  cdministration  of 
justice  and  the  purity  of  his  domestic  life,  was  deemed  a 
saint  by  the  people. 

David's  grandson  and  successor  Iilaicoim  IV.  (1154-65),  Malcolm 
called  "  The  Slaiden,"  died  too  young  to  leave  a  permanent  I^- 
impression.  A  rising  by  Somerled,  lord  of  the  Isles,  and 
the  sons  of  Malcolm  MacHeth,  mormaer  of  Moray,  was 
suppressed  in  the  early  years  of  his  reign,  and  peace  was 
made  with  Somerled  in  1158.  A  treaty  by  which  Malcolm 
surrendered  Northumberland  and  Cumberland  to  Henry  II., 
and  his  following  that  king  (who  knighted  him  at  Tours) 
in  an  expedition  to  Toulouse,  led  to  the  revolt  of  the 
earl  of  Strathearn  with  five  other  chiefs.  This  brought 
him  suddenly  home.  An  attempt  to  take  him  by  surprise 
at  Perth  failed,  and  next  year  he  succeeded  in  reducing 
Moray  and  Galloway,  whose  earl,  Fergus,  had  also  taken 
advantage  of  his  absence.  Moray  was  occupied  by  foreign 
settlers  (1160),  amongst  whom,  besides  Norman  barons, 
were  Flemings, — a  race  fitted  to  civilize  a  new  country  by 
their  industry.  It  is  to  this  settlement  that  the  permanent 
subjection  of  Moray  to  the  Scottish  kings,  and  perhaps  the 
peculiar  dialect  and  character  of  the  inhabitants  of  that 
part  of  Scotland,  were  due.  Four  years  later  Somerled 
again  attacked  the  west  coast,  but  was  defeated  and  slain 
at  Renfrew,  when  the  isles  south  of  Ardnamurchan,  which 
he  had  won  from  Godred  the  Black,  son  of  Olaf,  king  of 
Man,  were  divided  amongst  his  sons  Dugall,  Reginald,  and 
Angus.  Next  year  (1165)  the  young  king  himself  died  at 
Jedburgh.  While  ho  was  reproached  for  yieldir.g  too  nmch 
to  the  powerful  ]!!nglis"  monarch,  his  service  abroad  enabled 
him  to  obtain  the  nece  sary  experience  to  contend  with  iho 
Celtic  chiefs.  The  reduction  of  Galloway  and  Moray  more 
tian  compensated  for  the  loss  of  the  earldoms  in  northern 
England,  the  possession  of  which  by  the  Scottish  king 
must  have  been  precarious.  Before  his  death  Ruto  had 
been  taken  by  the  steward  of  Scotland, — the  first  footing 
the  Scotch  got  on  tlie  larger  isles,  but  it  was  afterwarda 
recovered  by  the  Norwegian  king  Haco  and  restored  to 
Ruari,  a  descendant  of  Reginald. 

Malcolm,  dying  childless — though  ho  bad  an  Illegitimato 


484 


SCOTLAND 


[iiiSTOin . 


ii«5-i2i5  son  ^^0  predeceased  him — ■was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
William'  William  the  Lion  (1165-1214).  His  reign,  the  longest  of 
tbe  Lion.  ^  Scottish  monarch,  though  not  so  uniformly  successful 
as  that  of  his  grandfather,  was  an  important  era  in  Scottish 
history.  It  is  divided  into  nearly  equal  portions  by  the 
accession  of  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion.  The  first  consists  of 
the  war  with  Henry  II.,  in  which  William  was  captured 
(1175),  and  this  made  him  the  subject  of  the  English  king 
for  fourteen  years.  In  the  second  he  recovered  his  in- 
dependence, and,  resuming  the  task  of  his  predecessor, 
consolidated  the  Scottish  kingdom  in  the  north  and  west. 
William  commenced  his  reign  by  taking  part  in  the  war 
with  France  as  vassal  of  Henry  II.  for  the  fief  of  Hunting- 
don ;  but,  being  disappointed  of  the  promised  restoration 
of  the  northern  earldoms,  he  entered  into  negotiations  with 
Louis  VII.  of  France.  This  memorable  event  is  the  first 
authentic  conne.xion  between  Scotland  and  France,  and  was 
afterwards  antedated  by  a  fiction  to  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne. Dictated  by  the  situation  of  the  two  countries, 
equally  exposed  to  danger  from  the  power  of  England  under 
the  Angevin  or  Plantagenet  kings,  the  alliance  between 
France  and  Scotland  continued  with  few  breaks  until  the 
close  of  the  16th  century,  and  even  in  the  17th  and  18th 
•was  relied  upon  by  the  last  of  the  Stuarts.  France  proved  a 
broken  reed  to  the  Scottish  kings ;  but  the  intercouise 
between  the  two  countries  brought  the  Scottish  people, 
■when  war  with  England  after  the  close  of  the  14th  century 
shut  them  out  from  the  advancing  civilization  of  that 
country,  into  contact  ■with  the  chivalrous  manners  of  the 
court  and  the  learning  of  the  schools  of  France  during  the 
best  period  of  French  history.  Nothing  came  of  the  alliance 
at  this  time,  and  two  years  later  William  and  his  brother 
David,  in  whose  favour  he  resigned  the  earldom  of  Hunting- 
don, attended  the  coronation  (during  his  father's  life)  of  the 
younger  Henry  at  Windsor.  That  ill-judged  step  and  the 
murder  of  Becket  led  to  a  domestic  revolution,  and  William, 
tempted  by  the  promise  of  the  earldom  of  Northumberland, 
joined  the  j-oung  king  against  his  father  (1173).  He  failed 
in  the  sieges  of  Wark  and  Carlisle,  and  nest  year  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Alnwick  by  Kanulph  de  Glanville  and  sent  by 
Henry's  order  to  Falaise  in  Normandy.  To  procure  his 
release  he  made  a  treaty  with  Henry  by  which  he  became 
his  vassal  for  Scotland  and  all.  his  other  territories.  The 
Scottish  Church  then  for  the  first  and  last  time  owned 
subjection  to  that  of  England.  This  treaty  settles  the 
disputed  question  of  the  Scottish  homage.  It  was  only  by 
conquest  and  the  captivity  of  its  king  that  such  terras 
could  be  obtained.  To  secure  the  observance  of  the  treaty 
the  four  burghs  of  Scotland  were  to  be  placed  in  Henry's 
hands  and  hostages  given  till  their  delivery.  The  ambiguous 
terms  of  the  clause  as  to  the  church  enabled  the  Scottish 
bishops  to  refuse  obedience  to  the  see  of  York,  and, 
Canterbury  having  advanced  a  rival  claim,  Henry,  not 
displeased  to  see  ecclesiastics  quarrel,  allowed  the  Scottish 
bishops  to  leave  the  council  of  Norham  ■svithout  ackno^nledg- 
ing  it.  The  foundation  of  the  abbey  of  Arbroath  in  memory 
of  Becket,  whom  he  had  known  at  Henry's  court,  was  abnost 
the  only  endowment  of  William.  At  home  he  put  down 
revolts  in  Galloway,  Boss,  and  Caithness.  A  long  dispute 
■with  successive  popes  as  to  the  see  <  '  St  Andrews  afforded 
a  signal  example  of  the  perseverance  of  William.  He  also 
procured  a  distinct  acknowledgment  of  the  independence  of 
the  Scottish  Church  and  its  immediate  subjection  to  Rome 
alone,  which  Henry  II.,  now  approaching  the  calamitous 
end  of  his  reign,  could  not  prevent ;  nor  was  he  able  to 
enforce  payment  of  the  Saladin  tax  from  the  Scottish 
bishops.  Immediately  after  Henry's  death  Richard  Cceur 
de  Lion,  moved  by  the  necessity  of  money  for  the  crusades, 
consented  for  a  payment  of  10,000  marks  to  the  abrogation 
of  the  treaty  of  Falaise  (1189)  as  having  been  extorted 


from  William  when  a  captive,   and  restored  Scotland's 
ancient  marches. 

The  second  part  of  William's  reign  was  occupied  with  Intei-a»l 
internal  affairs.  Richard's  absence  and  John's  disputes  affu"- 
with  the  pope  and  his  own  barons  gave  a  relief  from 
English  war.  The  raising  of  the  ransom  tried  the  re- 
sources of  Scotland,  and  was  met  by  an  aid  from  the 
clergy  and  barons.  Risings  by  Harold,  earl  of  Caithness, 
and  his  son  Torphin  (1197),  and  another  by  Guthred 
(1211),  a  descendant  of  the  mormaer  of  Ross,  were 
quelled.  The  birth  of  a  son  strengthened  William's  throne, 
fie  at  one  time  contemplated  an  invasion  of  England,  for 
which  John's  weakness  afforded  a  good  opportunity,  but 
desisted,  it  is  said,  in  consequence  of  a  vision,  perhaps 
remembering  his  own  age  and  that  of  his  heir.  The 
proposed  erection  by  John  of  a  castle  at  Tweedmouth  to 
overawe  Berwick  led  to  a  rupture ;  but,  after,  protracted 
negotiations  and  threats,  a  treaty  was  made  (1209)  by  which 
William  agreed  to  pay  15,000  marks.  John  was  to  procure 
suitable  matches  for  his  two  daughters,  and  Tweedmouth 
was  not  to  be  rebuilt.  The  barons  promised  at  a  council  in 
the  following  year  to  raise  10,000  and  the  burghs  GOOD 
marks.  This  is  the  first  mention  of  a  contribution  by  the 
burghs  to  a  feudal  aid.  William  was  their  great  benefactor, 
as  Henr}'.the  Fowler  in  Germany  and  Richard  in  England  : 
many  of  their  charters  date  from  his  reign.  Legislation 
continued  in  the  form  of  assizes,  which  required  the  sanction 
of  agieat  council.  As  in  England,  the  necessity  of  raising 
money  first  gave  rise  to  municipal  rights  a<d  to  facilities  for 
some  discussion  of ,  public  affairs  in  what  afterwards  gre^w 
to  be  the  parliament.  This  assembly  was  still  the  ciiria 
regis  of  the  vassals  of  the  king,  and  the  Scottish  parlia- 
ment never  lost  marks  of  its  origin.  William  died  at 
Stirling  in  1214  in  the  seventy-second  year  of  his  age. 
The  lion  rampant,  which  he  took  for  his  seal,  became  his 
epithet,  and  represents  his  chivalrous  and  determined 
character.  He  set  the  example,  which  his  son  and  grand- 
son followed,  of  cultivating  friendly  relations  with  the 
English  sovereign,  and  his  efforts  to  maintain  the  inde- 
pendence of  Scotland  were  rewarded  by  internal  peace.  It 
was  only  in  the  outlying  districts  that  risings  had  now  to 
be  feared.  The  number  of  shires  where  the  king's  sheriff, 
frequently  (by  a  policy  wise  at  the  time,  but  afterwards 
dangerous)  the  chief  baron  of  the  district,  administered 
justice  at  the  head  towns  increases,  and  this,  as  well  as 
the  growth  of  trade,  brought  into  prominence  the  burghs, 
each  with  a  royal  castle  where  the  king  in  his  frequent 
progresses  held  his  court,  and  if  needful  summoned  the  ' 
great  council  of  his  realm.  The  chief  burghs  whose 
charters  date  from  this  reign  are  Perth,  Aberdeen,  Inver- 
ness, Dumfries,  Lanark,  Irvine,  Ayr,  Forfar,  Dundee, 
Arbroath,  ^Montrose,  Inverurie,  Kintore,  Banff,  Cullen,  and 
Nairn.  Their  number  and  sites,  spread  over  the  whole 
country,  mark  a  settled  policy  and  the  progress  of  the 
kingdom  in  the  arts  of  peace.  A  new  diocese — ►Argyll 
— was  founded  by  separation  from  Dunkeld,  to  which 
John  the  Scot,  then  bishop,  .sent  his  chaplain  as  knowing 
Gaelic;  and,  though  the  Hebrides  were  still  Norse,  this 
was  a  step  towards  the  complete  organization  of  the 
church  and  to  the  extension  of  the  kingdom  which  fol- 
lowed in  the  next  two  reigns,  when  the  Isles  also  were 
added  (1266)  tc  Scotland. 

Alexander  II.  (1214-49),  son  of  William,  was  crovmec 
at  Scone  in  his  seventeenth  year,  in  time  to  take  part  in 
the  great  struggle  in  England  for  Magna  Charta,  whicli 
had  reached  its  crisis.  He  sided  with  the  English  baxons 
who  made  an  agreement  by  which  Carlisle  and  the  countj 
of  Northumberland  were  to  be  given  to  Alexander.  la 
fulfilment  of  his  part  he  besieged  Norbam,  whil'3  the 
barons  inserted  in  Magna  Charta  a  clause  by  which  John 


CANMORJE  TO  AIJ:XANDEB  Ul.] 


SCOTLAND 


485 


promised  to  render  to  Alexander  what  was  his  right  with 
reference  to  the  marriage  of  his  sisters  and  his  kingdom 
unless  the  charters  of  his  father  William  authorued  other- 
wise, and  this  was  to  be  decided  by  the  judgment  of  hi^ 
peers  in  the  curia  regis.      The  position  of  the  Scottish 
king  as  one  of^he  English  barons  in  whose  favov^  Magna 
Charta  was  gCnted  is  pregnant  evidence  of  the  fact  that 
he  was  not,  like   John,  Henry  III,  and  Edward  La 
Dionarch  with  imperial  tendencies   the  adv-ersary  of  the 
richts  of  the  barons  and  the  people.     The  Scottish  kings 
in  thi'.  century  and   Bruce   in  the   nest  were  pop^xlar 
Bovereigns,  and  their  memory  supported  the  crown  when 
it  was  worn  by  less  worthy  successors.     Next  year  John 
broke  the  charter,  reduced  by  the  aid  of  mercenaries  the 
northern  counties  of  England,  and,  advancing  into  Scot- 
land, stormed  Berwick  and  burnt  Roxburgh  Haddington 
and  Dunbar.     On  his  return  he  pillaged  Coldingham  and 
Bet  fire  to  Berwick.      Alexander   retaliated  by  wasting 
En-land  as  far  as  Carlisle,  which  town,  but  not  the  castle 
he  took  in  the  autumn  ;  then,  marching  to  Dover,  he  did 
homage  to  Louis,  the  son  of  Philip  Augustus,  ^hom  the 
EncUsh  barons  had  chosen  as  king.     Next  year  (1 2 1  < )  he 
a?ain  invaded  England,  but  made  peace  with  Henry  IlL, 
which  was  confirmed  three  years,  later  at  York    Alexander 
agreed  to  restore  Carlisle,  do  homage  for  his  English  fiefs, 
and  obtain  release  from  the  excommunication  which  the 
pope  had  declared  against  the  barons  and  their  aUies. 
Henry  promised  to  give  Alexander  one  of  his  sisters  in 
marriage  and  to  procure  suitable  husbands  for  the  Scottish 
princesses.      Accordingly,  Alexander  married  Joan,  the 
'Ider  daughter  of  John,  while  Margaret,  his  sister,  b^ 
rame  the  wife  of  Hubert  de  Burgh,  earl  of  Kent,  and 
JsabeUa  of  Roger  Bigod,  carl  of  Norfolk,  both  nobles  who 
iook  a  prominent  part  in  the  Barons  War.   These  aUiances 
rendered  the  peace  with  England  more  secure,  and  aUowed 
Alexander  to  devote  himself  to  the   reduction  of  the 
periodical  msurrections  of  the  Celtic  and  Norse  chiefs  on 
jus  northern  and  western  borders.      He  reduced  Argyll 
(12''2)  which  he  created  a  sheriffdom,  and  forced  John, 
earl'of 'Caithness,  to  surrender  part  of  his  lands  and  pay 
compensation  for  his  share  in  the  burning  of  Adam,  its 
bishop    The  wisdom  of  his  settlement  of  Argyll  was  proved 
by  the  inhabitants  repelling  an  attack  by  Haco,  the  Norse 
king     He  was  equaUy  successful  in  quelUng  the  risings  of 
two  chiefs  of  the  same  name,  GiUescop.  one  in  the  west 
the  other  in  Moray.     Five  years  later  (1230)  a  disputed 
succession  in  Galloway  gave  him  the  opportunity  of  chas- 
tising that  turbulent  province  and  dividing  it  among  three 
co-heiresses.     The  faU  of  Hubert  de  Burgh  and  the  suc- 
cession of   Peter  des  Roches  to  the  chief  place  in  the 
council  of  Henry  IH.  changed  the  attitude  of  that  king 
towards  Scotland,  but  Otho,  the  papal  legate,  preserved 
peace  by  a  compromise  of  the  rival  clauns.     A  httle  more 
than  a  year  after  the  death  of  his  wife  Joan  without  issue, 
Alexander  married  Mary  de  Couci,  daughter  of  a  French 
noble  house,  which  counted  itself  the  equal  of  kings,  and 
Alexander  III.,  the  child  of  the  marriage,  was  betrothed 
when  an  infant  of  a  year  old  to  Margaret,  daughter  of 
Henry  IlL      Two  years  later  (1244)  a  serious  rupture, 
fomented  by  Walter  Bisset,  a  Scottish  exile,  and  caused 
by  a  projected  alliance  of  Alexander  with   France  and 
the  erection  of  casUes  on  the  border,  was  averted  bv  the 
treaty  of  Newcastle,  by  which  the  kings  C'f  England  and 
Scotland  bound  themselves  not  to  make  alLanees  with  the 
enemies  of   each  other.      The  last  year  of  his  l.fc  wus 
occupied  in  putting  down  a  second  rising  in  Gallow.^y, 
and  in  preparing  for  an  expedition  agam.st  Haco,  with 
the  view  of  annexing  the  Hebrides ;  but  he  died  of  fever 
at  Kerrera,  in  the  Bay  of  Oban,  whUe  mustering  his  fleet. 
These  expeditions,  all  euccesaful,  are  proof  of  tne  acUve 


character  of  the  king,  who  must  have  been  called  Peace- 
ful "  because  he  preserved  peace  with  England,  for  he^  waa 
in  fact  a  warlike  monarch,  enforcing  the  feudal  levy,  ^J,*' 
according  to  Matthew  Paris,  amounted  in  his  time  to  10,000 
horse  and  100,000  foot,  and  extending  the  feudal  civil 
government.  Like  his  predecessors,  he  was  a  benefactor 
of  the  church,  especially  of  the  new  mendicant  orders, 
whose  monasteries  were  founded  in  all  the  principal  towns. 
The  most  important  of  his  statutes  were  the  substitution 
of  trial  by  jury  for  the  ordeals  of  fire  and  water,  and  the 
regulation  of  trial  by  battle,  with  provision  for  tne  casi 
of  women  and  the  clergy.  He  was  deemed,  like  David,  8 
protector  of  the  poor.  , ,     , 

Alexander  HI.  (1249-85)  was  only  eight  years  old  when 
his  father  died.     A  succession  of  contests  for  the  regency 
between  a  party  of  nobles  who  favoured  EngUsh  influence 
and  a  national  party  was  the  consequence.     The  formei 
tried  to  delay  the  coronation  on  the  pretence  that  the 
young  prince  was  not  a  knight;   but  Comyn,  earl  ol 
Menteith,  baffled  them  by  the  proposal  that  the  bishop 
of  St  Andrews  should  perform  both  ceremonies.      Ihe 
rehearsal  of  his  descent  from  the  Celtic  line  of  kings  was 
made,  according  to  a  custom  becoming  old-fashioned,  for 
the   last  time  by  a  Highland   sennachy,  to  please  the 
Gaelic  subjects,  while  the  translation  of  the  corpse  of  fat 
Jlargaret  into  a  precious  shrine  at  Dunfermline  was  cal- 
culated to  have  a  similar  effect  in  the  Lowlands.     Henry 
III    had  asked  the  pope  to  declare  the  coronation  illegal 
without  his  consent,  but  the  pope  refused.    Foiled  in  this 
Henry  celebrated  at  York  the  nuptials  of  his  daughter  ajid 
the  youn^  king,  whom  he  asked  to  render  homage  for  his 
kingdom     The  reply  that  he  had  not  come  to  answer  such 
a  question  and  must  advise  with  his  counsellors  mphed 
that  he  had  counsellors  little  likely  to  grant  it.     About 
this  time  Durward  the  justiciar  and  Robert  the  chan- 
cellor were  dismissed,  and  the  earl  of  IMenteith  held  the 
chief  power  for  five  years.     A  secret  mission  of  Simon  de 
Montfort  led  to  the  earl  of  March,  Durward,  and  other 
nobles  seizing  the  young  king  and  queen,  and  at  a  meeting 
with  Henry  at  Kelso  the  Comyns  and  their  supporters  were 
removed  from  office  (1255)  and  other  regents  appointed. 
Two  years  later  the  bishop  of  St  Andrews  got  the  pope  to 
excommunicate  Durward  and  the  English  regents,     ^ext 
year  a   compromise   was   effected   and   a  joint   regency 
appointed,   consisting   of  the   queen    dowager    and    her 
husband,  the  earl   of   Menteith  and  Durward,  and  the 
supporters  of  both  parties.     When  Alexander  was  nearly 
of  a^e  the  earl  of  Menteith  died,  whereupon  the  king  took 
the   government    into   his  own    hands   (1261).     Henry, 
engaged  in  the  dispute  with  his  barons,  could  not  interfere 
Alexander  at  once  resumed  his  father's  project  for  the  Bed^ctio. 
reduction  of  the  Hebrides  ;  but  Haco,  the  Norwegian  king,  ^,^^^ 
forestaUed  him  by  invading  Scotland  when  a  storm,  which  j,,^ 
dispersed  his  fleet,  and  the  loss  of  the  battle  of  Largs  12G3) 
forced  him  to  retire  to  the  Orkneys,  where  he  died.    Magnus 
Olafson,   king  of   Man,    the    chief    Norse   feudatorj-    a 
descendant  of  Godred  the  Black,  submitted  to  Alexander 
and  although  some  of  the  islands  held  out  they  were  reduced 
by  the  earls  of  Buchan  and  Mar  and  Alan  Durward      At 
last  Magnus,  the  son  of  Haco,  concluded  a  treaty  at  I  crth 
(1206),  by  which  he  surrendered  Man  and  the  •'^"''■■eyar 
for  a  payment  of  4000  marks  and  an  annual  rent  of  100 ; 
the  rights  of  the  bishop  of  Drontheim  were  reserved.    1  rom 
tills  ♦ime  the  western  isles  were  subject  to  Scotland.     At 
tho  parliament  of  1284,  which  settled  the  crown  on  the 
Maid    of    Norway,   their   great    nobles,    descendant    oj 
Somerlcd,  attended  as  vassals,  and  the  subsequent  revolt* 
(of  which  there  were  many)  were  instigated  by  the  Eng.isb 
king  who  found  useful  allies  in  the  chiefs  of  the  Islea. 
In  the  Barons  Var  Alexander  aided  his  falhcr-in-la-v.  on 


486 


SCOTLAND 


[histoey; 


whose  side  three  Scottish  barons,  John  Comyn,  Robert 
Bruce,  and  John  Baliol,  fought  at  Lewes,  where  the  first  two 
were  taken  prisoners.  In  the  matter  of  the  incependence 
of  his  kingdom  Alexander  was  as  firm  as  his  predecessors, 
and  would  not  aUow  Henry  himself  or  the  legate  Ottobon 
to  collect  within  it  a  tithe  for  the  crusade  which  the  pope 
had  guaranteed  to  the  English  king.  On  the  accession  of 
Edward  I  (1272)  Alexander  attended  his  coronation,  but 
neither  then  nor  six  years  later,  when  specially  summoned 
to  Westminster,  would  he  do  homage  for  Scotland.  The 
closing  years  of  Alexander  were  saddened  by  domestic 
losses.  His  wife  died  in  1273,  his  younger  son  David  in 
1281.  His  only  daughter,  Margaret,  married  two  years 
before  to  Erik  of  Norway,  and  his  elder  son,  Alexander, 
both  died  in  1283.  The  following  year  the  estates  at 
Scone  recognized  the  succession  of  Margaret,  the  Maid  of 
Norway ;  but  Alexander,  in  hope  of  a  male  heir,  married 
Joleta,  daughter  of  Count  de  Dreux.  At  the  festivities  in 
Jedburgh  in  honour  of  the  marriage  a  ghostly  figure  in  the 
masque  was  deemed  an  omen  of  the  king's  death,  which 
followed  from  a  fall  near  Kinghorn  (1285).  The  prosperity 
of  Scotland  in  his  reign  was  celebr^.ted  in  one  of  the  earliest 
verses  preserved  in  the  Scottish  dialect — 

"  Quhen  Alysander  cure  kyng  was  dede, 

That  Scotland  led  in  luve  and  le, 
Away  wes  sons  of  ale  and  brede, 

Of  wyne  and  wax,  of  gamyn  and  gle, 
Oure  gold  was  changed  into  lede. 

Cryst,  born  into  virginite, 
Succour  Scotland  and  remede 

That  sted  in  Ids  perplexitie." 

Under  the  wise  rule  of  three  kings,  extending  over 
more  than  a  century — a  circumstance  rare  in  that  age — 
Scotland  attained  a  degree  of  weUbeing  before  unknown, 
which  did  not  return  till  the  18th  century.  The  extent  of 
the  revenue  is  attested  by  the  returns  of  the  sheriffs  to  the 
chamberlain  and  by  the  accounts  of  the  tax  which  Boiamund 
de  Vicci,  the  pope's  representative,  levied  from  the  clergy  for 
the  crusade.  Berwick,  the  chief  Scottish  port,  was  likened 
to  Alexandria,  and  attained  an  importance  it  never  recovered 
after  its  union  with  England.  Its  customs  were  reckoned 
as  equal  to  a  third  of  those  of  all  jiugland, — a  statement 
hardly  credible  till  we  remember  that  the  trade  of  Britain 
was  chiefly  with  France  and  Flanders,  and  that  a  harbour 
for  small  craft  was  sufficient.  The  personal  character  and 
bravery  of  these  kings  subdued  the  turbulence  of  the 
outlying  districts  and  kept  in  check  the  ambition  of  th^ 
nobles.  The  bounds  of  the  kingdom  were  almost  as  they 
now  are,  and  the  name  of  Scotland  permanently  passed  to 
the  whole  country  south  as  well  as  north  of  the  Forth. 
In  spite  of  differences  of  race,  the  unity  of  the  nation  had 
been  secured,  and  its  independence  was  acknowledged  by 
the  pope  and  other  sovereigns  ;  the  English  alone  kept  up 
a  nominal  claim  to  rights  which  had  for  short  periods  been 
held  by  Canute  and  the  Conqueror,  and  for  longer  by  the 
second  Henry,  until  they  were  abandoned  by  the  treaty 
of  Canterbury.  But  now  all  was  to  be  changed.  Three 
eenturies  of  war,  though  diminishing  in  intensity  as  time 
went  on,  display  heroic  character,  but  imply  an  amount  of 
suffering .  to  the  people  which  cannot  be  told.  Perhaps  a 
contest  between  the  two  proud  nations  which  shared  Britain 
was  inevitable,  yet  the  reigns  of  the  Alexanders  suggest  a 
different  possibility.  That  the  contest  came  when  it  did 
was  due  to  the  disputed  succession  on  the  death  of  Mar- 
garet, the  Maid  of  Norway.  This  gave  to  the  ambition  of 
Edward  I.  an  opportunity  to  reduce  the  whole  island  to 
Ms  sway,  which  he  was  quick  to  seize. 

S.  War  of  Independence  ;  from  Death  of  Alexander  III. 
to  Accession  of  House  of  Stuart. — The  Maid  of  Norway, 
whose  right  was  at  once  acknowledged  (for  Scotland,  like 
England,  knew  no  Salic  law),  waq  not  to  weflr  the  crown. 


A  regency  administered  the  kingdom  for  five  years  aftnr 
Alexander's  death.  A  conference  at  Salisbury  between 
commissioners  of  Erik  of  Norway,  Edward  I.,  three  of  the 
regents,  and  Biuce,  lord  of  Annandale,  agreed  that  Margaret 
should  be  sent  home  nnbetrothed.  Her  marriage  to  Ed- 
ward's son,  for  which  a  dispensation  had  been  got  from 
Rome,  was  sanctioned  by  an  assembly  at  Brigham  near 
Roxburgh  (18th  July  1290),  in  a  treaty  which  made  anxious 
provision  for  the  independence  of  Scotland.  This  country 
was  to  remain  tree,  and,  saving  the  right  of  the  king  of 
England  in  the  marches  or  elsewhere,  separate  from  Eng- 
land by  its  la^vful  bounds.  No  parliament  was  to  sit,  and 
no  Scottish  suit  to  be  tried,  out  of  Scotland.  Edward  con- 
firmed this  treaty  by  oath  ;  but  the  death  of  Margaret  in 
the  Orkneys  rendered  it  abortive.  To  prevent  an  armed 
contest  for  the  crown,  Fraser,  bishop  of  St  Andrews,  invited 
Edward  to  intervene,  and  certain  Scottish  nobles  made  a 
similar  request.  He  accordingly  summoned  the  Scottish 
estates  to  meet  him  on  10th  May,  and  the  English  parlia- 
ment on  3d  June  1291,  at  Norham  near  Berwick.  Whencompet> 
the  Scots  came  Edward  refused  to  judge  the  cause  of  the  {,' "tween 
Scottish  succession  unless  his  title  as  superior  of  Scotland  Bruce 
was  admitted.  After  some  delay  the  barons  and  clergy  fjafjoi. 
gave  the  admission,  as  also  did  the  claimants — no  fewer 
than  thirteen — but  the  representatives  of  the  commons 
withheld  any  such  acknowledgment.  The  court  for  the 
decision  of  the  cause  was  then  appointed.  Forty  members 
were  named  bj'  Baliol  and  as  many  by  Bruce,  between  whom 
the  competition  really  lay,  while  Edward  chose  twenty-four. 
On  the  following  day  the  competitors  agreed  that  sasine  of 
the  kingdom  should  be  given  to  Edward ;  a  week  later 
the  regent  surrendered  the  kingdom  of  Scotland  and  the 
keepers  the  chief  castles  into  his  hands  as  lord  paramount. 
He  restored  possession  after  adding  several  Englishmen 
to  the  regency.  After  another  adjournment  the  com- 
petitors put  in  their  claims.  Three  descendants  of  David, 
earl  of  Huntingdon,  brother  of  William  the  Lion — all 
English  barons,  though  one,  Bruce,  had  large  estates  in 
Scotland — were  alone  serious.  John  Baliol  claimed  as 
grandson  of  David's  eldest  daughter  Margaret,  wife  of 
Alan,  lord  of  Galloway ;  Robert  Bruce  as  son  of  David's 
second  daughter,  wife  of  the  lord  of  Annandale ;  while 
David  de  Hastings,  grandson  of  the  third  daughter  Ada, 
contended  that  the  kingdom  was  partible.  This  last  ques- 
tion was  postponed  until  the  claims  of  Baliol  and  Bruce  had 
been  considered.  After  two  long  adjournments  it  was  at 
last  decided  (14th  October  1292)  that  the  case  was  to  be 
ruled  by  the  law  of  the  kingdom  applicable  to  titles  of 
earldoms,  baronies,  and  other  indivisible  inheritances,  and 
"  that  by  this  law  in  every  heritable  succession  the  more 
remote  by  one  degree  descended  from  the  eldest  sister 
was  preferable  to  the  nearer  in  degree  from  the  second." 
Edward  accordingly  decided  (17th  November  1292)  in  BaMot 
favour  of  Baliol.  Two  days  afterwards  the  regents  were  Eag* 
ordered  to  give  sasine  to  Baliol ;  the  day  following  he 
swore  fealty  to  Edward  at  Norham  ;  ten  days  after  he  was- 
crowned  at  Scone ;  within  a  month  he  did-  homage  to  Ed- 
ward at  Newcastle. 

The  judgment  was  just,' according  to.  the  principles  of 
feudal  law  afterwards  fixed,  though  then  imperfectly  estab- 
lished, in  favour  of  primogeniture ;  the  acknowledgment 
of  the  suzerainty  of  Edward  was  a  different  matter.  In 
the  course  of  the  proceedings  Edward  obtained  from  the 
cathedrals  and  religious  houses  of  Etigland  retm-ns  of 
homage  by  Scottish  kings.  No  such  returns  were  asked 
from  Scotland.  Those  from  England  recited  the  well 
known  cases  of  isolated  conquest  followed  by  homage  to 
Saxon,  Danish,  and  Norman  kings,  Edward  the  Elder  and 
Athelstan,  Canute  and  the  two  Williams,  and  the  treaty 
of  Falaise  by  which  WiUiam  the  Lion  surrendered  the 


WAB  OF  rNDEPEJJDEXCE.] 


SCOTLAND 


487 


independence  of  Scotland.  They  ignored  the  treaty  of 
Canterbury  by  which  it  was  restored,  the  clause  of  Magna 
Charta  relating  to  Scotland  and  the  rights  of  its  king, 
the  refusal  of  the  last  two  Alexanders  to  render  homage 
for  their  kingdom,  and  the  treaty  of  Brigham  by  which 
Edward  had  acknowledged  the  independence  of  Scotlp.nd. 
One  result  of  the  submission  to  the  English  king  over- 
looked by  the  eager  competitors,  but  not  by  the  lawyers 
\iho  advised  Edward,  immediately  emerged.  An  appeal 
was  soon  taken  from  the  court  of  Baliol  to  the  court  of  his 
superior  at  Westminster.  Baliol  referred  in  vain  to  the 
express  clause  in  the  treaty  of  Brigham  that  no  Scottish 
suit  was  to  be  tried  beyond  Scotland ;  Edward  replied  this 
was  an  appeal  from  his  own  officers  during  the  interregnum, 
but  asserted  his  right  to  hear  appeals  in  'all  cases.  Other 
appeals  followed,  and  Baliol  weakly  surrendered  his  claim 
to  independent  jurisdiction.  Shortly  afterwards  (October 
1293)  he  was  himself  summoned  to  Westminster  as  defend- 
ant in  a  suit  by  Macduff,  son  of  the  earl  of  Fife.  Declin- 
ing to  appear,  Lo  was  condemned  for  contempt,  and  three 
ot  ins  principal  castles  were  ordered  to  be  seized.  He  again 
yielded  and  promised  to  attend  next  parliament.  There 
could  be  no  longer  doubt  what  had  been  the  effect  of  suV;- 
mitting  the  dispute  as  to  the  crown  to  Edward,  instances 
of  homage  had  not  been  difficult  to  find ;  but  -he  records 
might  be  ransacked  in  vain  for  an  example  of  what  would 
now  become  frequent, — the  adjudication  by  the  court  of 
the  English  king  on  the  rights  of  Scotsmen.  The  exe- 
cution of  this  decision  by  force  in  Scotland  carried  with 
it  at  no  distant  date  the  subjection  of  the  kingdom. 
Baliol  quitted  Westminster  suddenly  ih  1294  to  escape 
service  in  the  Gascony  war.  By  yielding  in  the  question 
of  appeal  he  had  lost  the  confidence  of  the  Scottish  barons. 
In  the  parliament  of  Scone  a  councu  was  appointed  to  con- 
trol him,  and  all  fiefs  held  by  Englishmen  were  forfeited. 
In  the  following  year  he  formed  an  alliance  against  Eng- 
land with  the  French  king,  and  his  son  was  promised 
the  daughter  of  that  king's  nephew,  the  count  of  Anjou, 
in  marriage.  The  Scottish  army  headed  by  six  earls  then 
invaded  England,  but  was  repulsed  at  Carlisle  (28th  March 
1 296),  and  Edward,  leaving  his  French  campaign,  at  once 
raarched  northwards.  Before  the  end  of  March  1296  he 
fitormed  Berwick.  While  there  the  abbot  of  Arbroath 
brought  him  a  renunciation  of  Baliol's  homage.  Dunbar 
was  taken  soon  afterwards  by  the  earl  of  Surrey;  Rox- 
burgh, Jedburgh,  and  Edinburgh  fell  before  the  end  of 
.Tune;  Stirling,  Perth,  and  Scone  surrendered  without  a 
blow.  At  this  time  no  Scottish  tovm  was  walled  and  no 
resistance  could  be  made  against  the  English  feudal  levy 
led  by  such  a  general  as  Edward.  In  the  churchyard  of 
Stracathro  in  Forfar  Baliol  renounced  his  alliance  with 
France,  and  a  few  days  afterwards  (10th  July)  sm:rendered 
Scotland  to  Anthony  Beck,  bishop  of  Durham.  Edward 
marched  as  far  as  Elgin,  but  it  was  a  conquest  of  Baliol, 
not  of  Scotland.  This  impotent  monarch  was  carried 
captive  with  his  son  to  London  and  vanishes  from  Scottish 
history.  He  died  at  one  of  his  French  fiefs  twenty  years 
afterwards,  never  having  attempted  to  regain  the  kingdom, 
tin  his  homeward  march  Edward  took  and  recorded  in  the 
]tagman  Kolls  the  homage  of  the  Scottish 'nobility,  and 
( arried  to  Westminster  the  sacred  stone  of  Scone,  on  which 
the  Celtic  monarchs  had  been  crowned,  and  the  black  rood 
of  Margaret,  the  hallowed  relic  of  the  Saxon  lino.  Surrey 
was  appointed  guardian,  Sir  Hugh  Cressingham  treasurer, 
find  William  Ormsby  justiciar  of  Scotland ;  tho  nobles 
were  treated  with  lenity  ai'd  tho  bisho])*  bribed  by  tho 
privilege  of  bequeathing  their  movables  like  their  English 
brethren.  The  most  important  result  of  tho  campaign 
was  the  capture  and  fortification  of  Berwick.  Tiiat  city, 
the  key  to  the  Lothians,  was  the  commercial  capital; 


and  Scotland  was  left  without  one  until  the  rise,  after  the 
union,  of  Glasgow  and  the  mercantile  centres  of  the  Clyde. 
When  the  fortunes  of  Sec  (.land  were  at  the  lowest,  when 
the  country  was  deserted  by  the  king,  and  its  nobles  and 
clergy  were  making  terms  with  the  conqueror,  Wallace, 
the  man  of  tho  people,  appeared.  The  second  son  of  Sir 
Malcolm  Wallace  of  Elderslie  near  Paisley,  his  name  in- 
dicates a  remote  Celtic  origin  from  a  Welsh  or  Cambrian 
stock.  In  the  spring  of  1297,  in  revenge  for  the  murder 
of  his  wife,  Wallace  slew  Hazelrig,  sheriff  of  Ayr,  and 
burned  Lanark.  Collecting  a  band  of  foilowers  animated 
with  like  patriotism,  and  aided  by  a  single  noble.  Sir 
William  Douglas,  he  surprised  and  drove  Ormsby,  the 
justiciar,  from  Scone  and  Beck,  the  bishop  of  Durham, 
from  Glasgow.  Some  of  the  barons,  headed  by  James  the 
Steward,  joined  him,  and  Wallace  and  Douglas  carried 
everything  before  them  in  Lennox  and  Galloway, — dis- 
tricts more  favourable  to  the  national  cause  than  Lothian. 
The  nobles  feU  away  from  Wallace  almost  as  soon  as  Percy 
.appeared  at  the  head  of  an  English  force,  and  Douglas^  the 
Steward,  Bruce  the  future  king,  and  others  capitulated  at 
Irvine  (9th  July  1297).  Wallace,  while  engaged  in  the 
siege  of  the  castle  of  Dundee,  heard  that  Surrey  and  Cress- 
ingham were  advancing  on  Stirling,  and  he  raarched  to  its 
relief.  There  at  the  bridge  over  the  Forth  near  Cambus- 
kenneth  he  won  his  most  famous  victory  (11th  September). 
The  English  were  totally  routed  and  Cressingham  was 
killed.  The  disparity  of  numbers  was  great,  for  the 
English  had  50,000  foot  and  1000  horse,  against  at  most 
40,000  foot  and  only  180  horse.  The  generalship  of 
Wallace,  who  tempted  his  adversary  to  cross  the  bridge  in 
his  face  and  held  his  troops  in-  hand  until  the  moment  of 
the  charge,  vfon  the  day,  the  first  in  which  a  feudal  army 
was  beaten  by  light-armed  peasants.  Wallace  attempted 
to  organize  the  kingdom  he  had  won.  Ho  assumed  the 
title  of  guardian  of  the  realm  in  name  of  the  Lord  John 
(Baliol),  and  associated  with  himself  Sir  Andrew  Moray  of 
Bothwell,  son  of  the  only  baron  who  stood  by  him  and 
who  fell  in  the  battle.  He  held  the  nobles  in  awe,  while 
he  rewarded  his  adherents.  The  grant  (fortunately  pre- 
served) of  the  office  of  constable  of  Dundee  to  Alexander 
Scrymzeour  can  scarcely  have  been  a  solitary  one.  He 
introduced  better  discipline  in  the  army,  and  tried  also 
to  revive  trade.^  Shortly  after  the  battle  of  Stirling 
Wallace  carried  the  war  as  far  as  Hexham,  whose  monks 
he  protected.  That  he  penetrated  farther  south  and  won 
the  favour  of  Eleanor,  Edward's  wife,  is  one  of  the  romantic 
additions  to  his  scanty  history  in  the  poem  of  Blind  Harry. 
Edward  recognized  tho  crisis  and,  leaving  Flanders,  sent 
a  force  before  him  under  Pembroke,  following  in  person 
at  the  head  of  80,000  foot  and  10,000  horse.  For  a  brief 
space  success  attended  Wallace,  who  defeated  the  English 
in  Fife  and  Ayr ;  but  the  bishop  of  Durham  retook  tho 
castle  of  Dirleton,  and  Edward  himself,  by  the  victory  of 
Falkirk  (22d  July  1298),  in  which  the  nobles  again  proved 
false  to  tho  popular  cause,  reversed  that  of  Stirling. 
Wallace  took  refuge  in  Franco,  and,  although  the  French 
king  at  Amiens  ofTored  to  surrender  him,  he  was  soon  re- 
leased and  provided  with  a  safe  conduct  to  the  pope. 
Papers  found  on  him  when  captured  show  that  ho  received 
similar  letters  from  ITaco  of  "Norway  and  Baliol.  Whether 
ho  went  to  Rome  is  not  certain,  but  ho  may  have  been 
one  of  the  Scots  who  at  this  time  induced  Boniface  Vlll. 
to  claim  tho  superiority  of  Scotland.  Tho  claim  was  in- 
dignantly repelled  by  the  English  barons  at  tho  parliament 
of  Lincoln ;  Edward,  however,  tliought  it  prudent  to  lay 
before  tho  pope  a  statement  in  which  he  advanced  not  only 

'  A  letter  from  him  nml  Moray  to  ttio  ciliMns  of  Liibeck  und 
Hamburg  who  Eym)iathizo(l  with  tho  ScottUh  commons  has  been  found 
in  the  archivca  of  Uambitrg. 


488 


SCOTLANL 


[history. 


the  instances   of  homage  collected  for  use  at   Norham 
but  the  fable  of  Brute  the  Trojan,  from  whose  eldest  son 
Locrinus  he  claimed  descent,  and  therefore  superiority 
over  the  Scottish  kings  sprung  from  AJbanactus  the  second 
as  well  as  those  of  Wales  descended  from  Camber  the  third. 
Baldred  de  Bisset,  the  Scottish  commissioner  at  Rome, 
in  his  answer  admitted  the  pope's  right,  but  replied  to 
Edward's  fiction  by  another  as  bold, — the  descent  of  the 
Scots  from  Scota,  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh.    A  more  solid 
argument  was  founded  on  the  treaty  of  Brigharo.     The 
pope  delayed  judgment,  and  in  1302  suddenly  changed 
sides  and  exhorted  the  Scots,  by  several  bulls,  to  submit. 
Edward  had  not  waited  for  this  sanction ;  the  period  be- 
tween the  battle  of  Falkirk  and  the  taking  of  Stirling  was 
a  continuous  and  bloody  struggle.    In  person  he  laid  waste 
Galloway  and  took   Caerlaverock  (1300);  in  1302,  his 
general  Sir  John  Segrave,  having  fought  a  battle  of  doubt- 
ful issue  with  Comyn  and  Fraser  at  Koslin,  Edward  re- 
turned (1303),  marched  as  far  as  Caithness,  and  reduced 
the  whole  east  of  Scotland  by  the  capture  of  Stirling  (24th 
January  1304).     Scotland  was  subdued,  yet  Wallace  lived, 
and  we  catch  glimpses  of  him,  in  the  woods  of  Dunferm- 
line, in  the  forest  of  Ettrick,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Lanark.     A  price  was  set  on  his  head,  and  at  last  he 
was  betrayed  by  a  servant  of  Sir  John  de  Menteith  near 
Glasgow  and  taken  to  London,  where,  after  a  mock  trial 
in  Westminster  Hali,  he  received  the  traitor's  doom  (23d 
August  1305),  though  he  denied  with  truth  that  he  had 
taken  any  oath  to  Edward, 
Settle-         This  time  Edward,  in  order  to  make  the  conquest  of 
ment  of  Scotland  permanent,  proceeded  to  incorporate  it  in  the 
MoHand  empire  of  England.     With  apparent  fairness  an  assembly 
ward  I.    ^^^  summoned  to  Perth  to  elect  ten .  representatives  to 
attend  a  parliament  at  Westminster  to  treat  of  the  affairs 
of  Scotland.     Nine  commissioners  came  to  London,  where 
they  were  associated  with  twenty  Englishmen.     The  result 
was  the  "  Ordinacio  facta  per  dorainum  regem  pro  stabili- 
tate  terrse  Scotice"  (1305).     Though  never  fully  carried 
out.  this  document,  on  the  model  of  similar  ordinances  for 
Wales  and  Ireland,  discloses  Edward's  designs.     English 
nobles  were  appointed  to  administer  the  government  of 
the  country,  and  eight  justices  to  administer  the  law.     The 
law  and  usages  of  Scotland  (except  those  of  the  Brets  and 
Scots,  which  were  abrogated)  were  to  be  observed  in  the 
meantime ;  but  the  lieutenant  (John  of  Brittany,  the  king's 
nephew)  and  council  were  to  amend  what  was  contrary  to 
God  and  reason,  or  in  case  of  difficulty  refer  to  Edward  at 
Westminster.     The  whole  country  was  divided  into  sheriff- 
doms, the  sheriffs  being  removable  at  the  discretion  of  the 
lieutenant.     The  office  of  coroner,  more  important  then 
than  now,  was  also  regulated ;  certain  persons  were  nomi- 
uated  constables  of  the  chief  castles;  and  many  nobles 
were  fined  and  others  banished.     Bruce  (the  competitor's 
grandson)  was  ordered  to  put  Kildrummy  Castle  (Aberdeen) 
in  charge  of  an  officer  for  whom  he  should  be  responsible. 
The  ordinance  was  suitable  to  its  object, — moderate,  even 
humane.     The  banishment  of  the  nobles  was  limited  as  to 
time.     Kelief  was  given  in  the  payment  of  fines.     Many 
old  officers  were  continued.     Edward's  aim  at  this  time 
was  to  pacify  the  country  he  had  conquered,  to  put  down 
resistance,  but  to  encourage  submission;     It  is  as  wrong 
to  call  him  a  tyrant  as  Wallace  a  rebel :  the  one  was  a 
statesman  king  with  imperialist  aims,  the  other  a  patriot 
leader  with  keen  popular  sympathies.   The  king  triumphed; 
but  before  his  death  his  well-laid  plans  were  shattered : 
Scotland  again  rose  in  arms,  and  this  time  the  nobles  joined 
the  people,  under  tha  leadership  of  Eobert  the  Bruce. 

The  position,  as  well  as  the  character,  of  Bruce  con- 
trasted with  that  -of  Wallace.  Instead  of  being  a  cadet  of 
the  ordinary  landed  gentry,  Bruce  represented  a  family  in 


which  for  more  than  two  centuries  the  purest  Norman 
blood  had  flowed.  The  English  branch  of  Skelton  in 
Cleveland  and  the  Scottish  branch  of  Annandale  divided 
their  large  possessions ;  but  those  of  the  latter  sufficed  to 
make  its  head  one  of  the  most  powerful  nobles  in  Scotland, 
who  still  retained,  as  so  many  did,  English  fiefs.  More 
than  one  of  his  ancestors  had  intermarried  with  the  royal 
house  of  Scotland  (see  Kobekt  the  Bruce,  vol.  xx.  p.  592). 
On  his  father's  death  Bruce  succeeded  to  Annandale.  He 
held  besides  several  manors  in  England.  During  the  early 
part  of  the  War  of  Independence,  like  many  barons  with 
conflicting  interests,  he  had  -wavered,  sometimes  supporting 
Wallace,  more  frequently  the  English  king. '  In  1303-4  he 
assisted  Edward  in  the  preparation  for  the  siege  of  Stirling. 
He  had  been  consulted  with  regard  to  the  ordinance  of 
1305.  But  there  were  already  signs  of  mutual  distrust. 
The  provision  in  the  ordinance  as  to  Kildrummy  shows 
that  Edward  was  aware  special  precautions  had  to  be 
taken  to  secure  the  loyalty  of  Bruce,  and  on  11th  June 
1304  Bruce  secretly  met  near  Cambuskenneth  Lamberton, 
bishop  of  St  Andrews,  and  entered  into  a  bond  referring 
to  future  dangers  from  Edward.  Of  all  the  Scottish  clergy 
Lamberton  had  been  most  friendly  to  Wallace,  and  this 
bond  was  a  linlc  between  the  two  periods  of  the  War  of 
Independence  and  their  leaders.  Bruce  had  attended  at 
Westminster  when  the  ordinance  was  settled,  but  left  sud- 
denly, arriving  at  Dumfries  on  the  seventh  day.  There 
he  met  in  the  church  of  the  Friars  Jlinor  John  (the  Red) 
Comyn  of  Badenoch,  Baliol's  nephew,  and  slew  him  before 
the  high  altar  (10th  February  1306).  The  die  was  cast, 
and  indecision  vanished  from  the  character  of  Bruce. 
CoUecting  his  adherents  at  Lochmaben  and  Glasgow,  he 
passed  to  Scone,  where  he  was  crowned  by  the  bishop  of 
St  Andrews.  It  at  first  seemed  likely  that  a  saying  of 
his  wife  would  prove  true, — that  he  was  a  summer  but 
would  not  be  a  winter  king.  His  defeat  at  Methven  ^19tii 
June  1306)  was  followed  by  another  at  Strathfillan  (11th. 
August),  and  Bruce  took  refuge  in  the  island  of  Rathliu 
(off  Antrim,  Ireland).  The  tales  of  his  hairbreadth  escapes, 
his  courage  and  endurance  in  all  changes  of  fortune,  were 
gathered  by  Barbour  from  the  mouths  of  the  people,  who 
followed  the  life  of  their  champion  with  the  keenest  in- 
terest. Meanwhile  Edward  came  north  and  gave  a  fore-' 
taste  of  his  vengeance.  But  his  severity  strengthened  the 
party  of  Bruce,  which  grew  daily.  All  classes  now  made, 
with  few  exceptions,  common  cause  against  the  enemy  of 
all.  Edward's  death  at  Burgh-on-Sands  (7th  June  1307)  at  - 
once  changed  the  whole  aspect  of  the  invasion.  Edward  U. 
wasted  in  the  ceremony  of  a  funeral  and  the  diversions  of 
a  youthful  court  the  critical  moment  of  the  war.  Bruce 
seized  his  opportunity,  and  by  the  close  of  1313  Berwick 
and  Stirling  alone  remained  English.  The  independence 
of  Scotland  was  finally  determined  by  the  ever-memorable 
victory  of  Bannockburn  (24th  June  1314). 

Bruce  reigned  fifteen  years  after  Bannockburn  and  (if 
the  Irish  expedition  of  his  brother  Edward  be  left  out  of 
account)  with  almost  uninterrupted  success.  On  his  return 
from  Ireland  he  reduced  Berwick  (March  1318)  and  con- 
verted it  from  an  English  to  a  Scottish  frontier  town.  His 
recognition  by  the  pope  was  followed  by  the  acknow- 
ledgment of  Flanders  and  France;  and  the  long  truce 
which  Edward  II.  had  been  forced  to  agree  to  before  his 
death  became  in  the  neV  reign  a  formal  treaty  known  as 
that  of  Northampton  (AprU  1328).  By  its  leading  article 
"  Scotland  according  to  its  ancient  boimds  in  the  days  of 
Alexander  III.  shall  remain  to  Robert,  king  of  Scots,  and 
his  heirs,  free  and  divided  from  England,  without  any  sub- 
jection, servitude,  claim,  or  demand  whatsoever."  In  pur- 
suance of  another  article  Johanna,  Edward's  sister,  was 
married  to  David,  the  infant  son  of  Bruce,  at  Berwick  on 


WAE  Of  INDEPESDEN'CE.] 


SCOTLAND 


489 


12th  July.     As  an  administra.or  and  legislator  he  showed 
an  ability  not  inferior  to  that  which  in  his  earlier  years 
he  had  manifested  as  a  warrior  and  a  general.    He  obtaijied 
from  the  estates  a  settlement  of  the  succession,  reformed 
abuses  in  the  feudal  law,  regulated  the  courts,  providing 
equal  justice  fpr  poor  and  rich,  and  framed  strict  Acts 
a<'ainst  sedition.      He  also  encouraged  trade,  especially 
shipbuilding,  foreseeing  its  future  importance  to  Scotland. 
Never  off  his  guard,  amongst  his  most  anxious  legislative 
provisions  are  those  relating  to  the  defence  of  the  kingdom, 
—arming  all  able-bodied  men,  prohibiting  exports  of  arms, 
fortifying  the  towns  and  castles  on  the  borders,  arranging 
signals  to  give  notice  of  invasion.     Though  attacked  by 
leprosy  contracted  in  his  campaigns,  he  remained  active  to 
the  last, — a  monarch  such  as  occurs  only  once  in  many 
centuries,  brave,  liberal,  wise,  and  pious,  like  the  English 
Alfred,  the  darling  of  the  nation  he  had  delivered.     (For 
fuller  details,  see  Kobeet  the  Bruce,  vol.  xx.  p.  594  sq:) 
The  wise  provision  that  Bruce  made  for  the  regency 
secured  the  peaceful  succession  of  his  son  David  II.  (1329- 
70),  who  was  the  first  Scottish  king  anointed  at  his  coro- 
nation,— a  privilege  conceded  to  Bruce  in  a  bull  which 
reached  Scotland  after  his  death.     According  to  the  ideas 
of  the  age  this  placed  the  Scottish  king  on  an  equality 
with  the  sovereigns  of  Europe.     The  War  of  Independence 
quickened  the  sentiment  of  Scottish  nationality,  and  left 
the  country  poorer  in  wealth  but  richer  in  spirit.     The 
memories  of  Wallace  and  of  Bruce  educated  the  people  and 
produced  in  the  next  generation  their  earliest^  literature. 
England,  unconscious  of  the  benefit,  gained  by  its  own  de- 
feat.   But  for  the  resistance  of  the  Scots  it  might  have  be- 
come earlier  than  France  a  centralized  feudal  monarchy. 
The  distinct  character  of  the  Scots — a  blend  of  the  Celt, 
Saxon,  Norseman,  and  Norman— strengthened  by  variety 
the  collective  force  of  Britain.     The  loss  which  must  be 
balanced  against  the  gain  was  the  bitter  hatred  between 
two  races  of  kindred  origin  withiu  one  narrow  isle,  which 
for  centuries  retarded  the  progress  of  both,  especially  of  the 
smaller  kingdom. 

The  almost  contemporaneous  reigns  of  David  H.  and 
Edward  III.  reversed  the  position  of  the  two  countries : 
Scotland  had  now  one  of  its  feeblest  and  England  one  of  ■ 
its  most  powerful  kings.     Had  not  the  love  of  liberty 
become  the  life-blood  of  both  nobles  and  commons  in  Scot- 
land it  must  have  succumbed  in  the  desperate  struggle. 
After  the  death   of   Robert,   Randolph,  earl  of  Jloray, 
•  governed  with  wisdom  and  vigour  for  three  years.     On  his 
death  the  estates  chose  Donald,  earl  of  Mar,  another  nephew 
of  Bruce,  whom  he  had  passed  over,  foreseeing  his  inca- 
pacity.   Encouraged  by  the  divisions  of  the  nobles,  Edward, 
son  of  John  Baliol,  with  the  barons  who  had  lost  their  land 
by  espousing  the  English  side,  suddenly  landed  at  Kinghorn. 
Nine  days  after  his  election,  Mar  was  met  and  worsted  by 
Baliol  on  Dupplin  Muir(llth  August  1.332),  where  Mar  him- 
self and  many  nobles  were  slain.     Baliol  was  crowned  at 
Scone;  but  Perth  was  immediately  retakqn,  and  Baliol,  hav- 
ing been  defeated  at  Annan  by  the  young  earl  of  Moray,  left 
Scotland.     Next  year  Edward  came  with  a  largo  army  to 
his  support  and  defeated  at  Ilalidon  Hill  (20tli  July  1333), 
chiefly  through  the  .skill  of  the  archers,  the  Scots  led  by 
Archibald  Douglas,  lord  of  Galloway,  who  was  now  regent. 
Berwick  capitulated  and  Baliol  surrendered  it  to  England, 
pledging  in  addition  the  castles  of  the  Lothians,  including 
Edinburgh  and  Linlithgow,  in  security  for  an  annual  tribute 
of  X2000.     Like  his  grandfather,  Edward  IIL  made  a  new 
ordinance  for  the  government  of  Scotland,  but  his  officers 
never  obtained  possession  of  theif  posts.    Meantiino  David 
and  his  queen  fled  to  Franco,  where  they  remained  seven 
years.     Fortunately  for  Scotland  a  now  race  of  patriotic 
leaders  appeared  :  Moray  of  Bothwell  handed  'do«  u  the 


traditions  of  Wallace  and  Bruce,  while  Robert  the  Steward, 
Douglas  the  knight  of  Liddesdale,  and  Sir  Alexander 
Ramsay  of  Dalhousie  sustained  the  fame  of  Bruce,  Ran- 
dolph, and  Douglas.  The  attraction  of  a  French  campaign 
with  the  crown  of  France  as  prize  prevented  Edward  from 
ever  using  his  whole  force  against  Scotland,  and  a  French 
fleet  made  a  diversion  by  attacking  the  Channel  Islands 
and  threatening  the  Isle  of  Wight.  Edward  retaUated  by 
assuming  the  title  of  king  of  France,  and  after  two  years' 
preparation  invaded  that  country  from  Flanders.  The 
armies  met  at  Vironfosse  (26th  September  1339),  where 
David  of  Scotland  was  present.  Never  was  the  pomp  of 
chivalry  seen  in  greater  splendour,  but  the  first  act  of  the 
Hundred  Years'  War,  which  seemed  'destined  to  make 
French  and  English  eternal  enemies  and  French  and 
Scots  perpetual  allies,  passed  mthout  a  blow. 

Two  years  later  the  recovery  of  the  Scottish  castles  and 
the  repulse  of  Salisbury's  attempt  on  Dunbar  made  it  safe 
for  David  to  return  to  Scotland,  which  Baliol  had  aban- 
doned.   Though  scarcely  eighteen,  he  assumed  the  govern- 
ment (30th  March  1342).     Before  his  arrival  Edinburgb 
had  fallen,  and   next  year  Roxburgh  was  taken  by  Sir 
Alexander  Ramsay,  whom  David  unfortunately  rewarded 
by  the  sheriffdom  of  Teviotdale,   which   the  knight  of 
Liddesdale  claimed,  and  Ramsay,  seized  by  treachery,  was 
starved   to  death   at   the  Hermitage  •  by   the   knight   of 
Liddesdale,  who   entered   into    correspondence   with    the 
English  king,  and  dishonoured  his  name  of  the  "  Flower  of 
Chivalry."     Bullock,  an  ecclesiastic  who  had  risen  to  the 
office  of  chamberlain   under   Baliol  and   transferred  his 
services  to  David,  met  the  same  fate  at  the  hands  of  the 
king  on  a  suspicion  of  treason.      Other  signs  of  weak 
government  were  not  wanting.     On  the  conclusion  of  a 
brief  truce,  David,  tempted  by  Edward's  absence,  invaded 
England  in  spite  of  the  dtfeciion  of  some  of  his  chief 
nobles,  and  was  defeated  at  Neville's  Cross  (17th  October 
1346)  near  Durham  by  the  archbishop  of  York  and  the 
northern  barons,  the  king  aTid  several  of  his  nobles  being 
taken  prisoners.     The  rigour  of  David's  captivity  (which 
lasted  eleven  years)  was  relaxed  so  far  as  to  allow  him  to 
return  frequently  to  Scotland  and  try  to  persuade  the 
people  to  raise  his  ransom,  which  the  English  king  urgently 
required.    Though  Baliol  was  still  acknowledged  as  nominal 
king  by  Edward,  he  resided  in  Galloway,  while  Robert  the 
Steward,   elected   regent ,  in  the   name  of   David,  really 
governed.     At  length  by  the  treaty  of  Newcastle  (13th 
July    1354)   David's    ransom   was  agreed  on,   sufficient 
hostages  being  taken  for  its  payment.     Next  year  the 
French  king  resumed  the  Scottish  war  by  sending  Engine 
de  Garancierc  with  men,  money,  and  arms.    Several  border 
engagements    followed,    but   Edward,   advancing   to   the 
frontier,  took   Berwick,   and  obtained   from  his  puppet 
Baliol  an  absolute  surrender  of  the  Scottish  kingdom  for 
an  annuity.     He  ravaged  the  Lothians  in  the  raid  called 
tho   Burnt  Candlemas,   but  failed   really  to  reduce  the 
country.     Edward's  victory  over  the  French  at  Foitiers, 
in  which  many  Scots  were  slain,  forced  the  Scottish  parlia- 
ment to  grant  tho  terms  dictated  by  tho  English  kiiig^ 
Peace  was  finally  concluded  by  the  treaty  of  Berwick  (3d 
October  1357),  and  confirmed  at  Scone,— the  ransom  being 
raised  and  the  condition  as  to  hostages  made  more  severe 
David  at  once  returned  to  Scotland.  .  But  his  eyuipathiea 
had  become  English;  ho  revisited  that  country  almost 
every  year,  and  it  required  all  the  strength  of  the  Scottish 
estates  to  prevent  the  son  of  Bruce  from  making  ft  surrender 
of  his  kitigdom  more   ignominious  than   Baliol'a.      Tho 
enormous  ransom  pressed  hard  on  so  poor  a  country.     An 
attempt  to  induce  Franco  to  resume  the  war  failed,  and 
David,  like  a  debtor  dealing  with  a  inoncylendor,  had  to 
renew  his  bills  at  usury.     Nogoliativ.ns  for  tbi.s  puriwse 

XXI.  —  62 


490 


SCOTLAND 


[history. 


f565-1390.  Vv-ent  on  till  1365,  when  a.truce  for  four  years  was  agreed 
to.  Edward  and  David  latterly  devise."^  schemes  for  pay- 
ment by  another  process, — the  transfer  of  the  crown  at 
David's  death  to  an  English  prince.  At  the  parliament 
of  Scone  David  proposed  that  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence, 
should  be  recognized  as  his  heir ;  but  the  estates  replied 
with  one  voice  that  no  Englishman  should  rule  Scotland, 
and  renewed  the  settlement  of  the  succession  by  Bruce  on 
Robert  the  Steward.  Hatred  of  foreign  aggression  and 
the  weakness  of  the  king  enabled  the  Scottish  barona  to 
play  a  part  similar  to  that  taken  by  the  nobles  of  England 
in  the  -eigns  of  John  and  Henry  III.,  and  obtain  guarantees 
for  the  constitution  by  limiting  the  monarchy.  Such  was 
probaoly  the  origin  of  the  committees  of  parliament  (at  a 
later  date  ■  turned  to  an  opposite  use)  for  legislation  and 
for  judicial  business  which  first  appear  in  1367, — the 
statutes  for-  the  more  regular  administration  of  justice, 
purity  of  the  coinage,  and  the  revocation  of  the  grants«of 
royal  revenues  and  estates.  It  was  expressly  declared 
that  no  attention  was  to  be  paid  to  the  royal  mandate 
when  contrary  to  law.  About  this  period  David  entered 
into  a  secret  agreement  with  Edward,  pronlising  in  return 
for  a  remission  of  the  ransom  to  settle  the  crown  on  him 
failing  heirs  of  his  own  body,  but  the  public  negotiations 
for  its  payment  went  on.  IJa  the  same  year  his  marriage 
with  his  second  wife,  Margaret  Logie,  a  daughter  of 
Drummond,  a  lesser  baron,  led  to  a  revolt.  He  quelled  it 
and  threw  the  st<>ward  and  at  least  one  of  his  sons  into 
prison,  making  lavish  grants  to  Margaret  and  her  relatives. 
Her  influence  did  not  last  long,  as  she  was  supplanted  in 
the  king's  favour  by  Agnes  of  Dunbar.  Margaret  was 
divorced  by  the  Scottish  bishops,  for  what  cause  is  not 
known,  and,  though  her  appeal  to  the  pope  succeeded, 
David  did  not  survive  the  decision.  He  died  on  21st 
February  1370,  childless,  and  the  succession  opened  to 
Robert,  son  of  Bruce's  daughter  Marjory,  the  first  of  the 
Stuarts  who  were  to  govern  Scotland  for  the  next  two 
centuries. 

6.  House  of  Stuart  from  Robert  II.  to  Jaraes  IV. — The 
descent  of  the  house  of  Stuart  is  traced  from  Walter  Fitz 
Alan,  a  Norman,  steward  of  David  I.  His  estates  were  in 
Renfrew,  to  which  Alexander,  the  fourth  steward,  added 
Bute  by  marriage.  Walter,  the  sixth  steward,  was  scarcely 
one  of  the  chief  nobles ;  but  hi.'  prowess  in  the  War  of  In- 
dependence gained  him  the  hand  of  the  daughter  of  Bruce. 
Robert  II.  was  their  only  son.  Such  was  the  prosperous 
record  of  the  family  before  it  ascended  the  throne.  Its 
subsequent  history  presents  a  series  of  tragedies  of  which 
that  of  Mary  Stuart  is  only  one,  though  the  most  famous. 
■While  the  fate  of  kings  excites  the  imagination,  history 
must  trace  the  growth  of  the  nation  and  the  slow  changes 
which  transformed  the  bulk  of  the  Scottish  people  from 
loyal  subjects  to  bitter  enemies  of  their  native  kings  and 
its  kings  from  patriots  to  tyrants. 

Robert  II.  (1370-90),  already  fifty-four,  continued  rather 
than  commenced  his  governnient  on  the  death  of  David  II., 
for  he  had  been  twice  regent  during  David's  exile  and  cap- 
tivity. He  did  not  ascend  the  throne  without  opposition, 
but  the  memury  of  Bruce  was  too  fresh  to  admit  of  his 
settlement  being  put  aside.  The  earl  of  Douglas,  whose 
great  estates  on  the  border  made  him  more  formidable  as 
a  competitor  than  his  claim  by  descent  from  a  daughter  of 
David,  earl  of  Huntingdon,  was  conciliated  by  the  mar- 
riage of  the  king's  daughter  Isabella  to  his  son  and  by  his 
own  appointment  as  justiciar  south  of  the  Forth  and  warden 
of  the  eastern  marches.  This  impediment  removed,  the 
coronation  proceeded,  and  it  was  followed  by  a  public  de- 
claration of  the  settlement  of  the  crown  on  Robert's  son 
John,  earl  of  Carrick,  at  his  father's  death.  A  still  more 
explicit  settlement  was  made  two  year?  afterwards  on  the 


king's  sons  by  his  first  marriage  witli  Elizabeth  More, — 
John  earl  of  Carrick,  Robert  earl  of  Fife,  and  Alexander 
lord  of  Badenoch  ;  and  failing  them  on  those  of  his  second 
with  Euphemia  Ross, — David  earl  of  Stratheam  and 
Walter  his  brother.  A  question  as  to  the  legitimacy  of 
the  children  by  Elizabeth  More  rendered  this  declaration 
necessary.  The  first  fourteen  years  of  Robert's  reign 
passed  with  scarcely  anything  worthy  of  record.  The  king, 
whose  portrait  is  drawn  by  Froissart  as  a  man  "not  valiant, 
with  red  bleared  eyes,  who  would  rather  lie  still  than  ride," 
left  the  cares  of  government  to  his  sons,  especially  the 
second.  •  England,  after  the  death  of  Edward  HI.  (1377), 
was  occupied  with  the  necessary  arrangements  for  a  new 
reign  and  with  the  rising  of  Wat  Tyler  (1381).  Th^ 
absence  of  any  movement  in  Scotland  similar  to  this  or 
the  French  Jacquerie  perhaps  indicates  a  better  relation 
between  the  peasantry  and  the  upper  classes ;  but  a  third 
estate  of  the  commons  was  as  yet  unknown  in  Scotland. 
John  of  Gaunt,  who  had  invaded  Scotland  the  year  before, 
now  took  refuge  there  and  was  hospitably  received  in 
Edinburgh  tUl  the  young  Richard  II.,  by  putting  down 
the  rising,  made  it  safe  for  him  to  return.  This  visit  led 
to  the  first  entrance  into  the  northern  kingdom  of  the 
principles  of  WickHffe  and  the  LoUards,  whom  Gaunt 
favoured.  The  French,  still  anxious  to  incite  the  Scots 
to  attack  England,  sent  a  small  party  of  free  lances,  who 
landed  at  Montrose  and  were  allowed  to  make  a  raid  on 
their  own  account.  They  were  followed  by  John  de  Vienne 
•vnth  1000  men-at-arms  and  many  followers.^  The  licence 
of  the  French  knights  did  not  promote  good  feeKng ;  but 
the  interest  of  the  two  countries  prevented  a  rupture. 
After  the  French  left  the  Scots  made  another  raid  into 
Northumberland,  in  retaliation  for  an  expedition  in  which 
Richard  H.  wasted  the  Lothians.  Three  years  later,  imder 
the  earl  of  Douglas,  they  attacked  Newcastle,  but  were 
repulsed.by  Henry  Percy,  who,  true  to  his  name  of  Hotspur, 
in  order  to  recover  his  pennon,  pursued  them  to  near  Redes- 
dale,  about  20  miles  from  .their  own  border,. and  fought 
the  battle  of  Otterburn  (1388).  Douglas  himself  fell,  but 
the  victory  went  to  the  dead  man,  for  young  Percy  and 
his  brother  were  taken  captive,  and  the  bishop  of  Durham 
would  not  venture  to  intercept  the  retreat  of  the  Scots. 
In  1388,  Robert's  inactivity  increasing  and  his  son  the  earl 
of  Carrick  being  disabled  by  a  kick  from  a  horse,  the  earl 
of  Fife  was  chosen  regent  by  the  estates  under  condition 
of  annually  accounting  to  them  for  his  administration. 
In  April  1390  his  father  died.  His  prosperous  reign  rather 
than  any  personal  quality  except  an  easy  disposition  gained 
Robert  the  praise  of  Wyntoun,  who,  writing  under  his 
son,  prays  God  to  give  Imn  grace 

"  To  govern  and  uphold  the  land 

In  na  war  state  nor  he  it  ^nd. 

For  qnhen  his  fadyr  erdyt  was 

Of  Scotland  was  na  part  of  land 

Out  of  Scottys  mennys  hand, 

Outwith  Berwick,  Roxburgh,  and  Jedburgh 

This  prayor  was  only  partially  fulfilled.  The  English  did 
not  acquire  more  of  Scotland,  but  the  border  war  was  not 
so  successful,  and  the  royal  house  was  the  scene  of  tragic 
events  which  thieaieued  to  change  the  order  of  succession. 
Robert  HI.  (1390-1406)— for  under  that  name  the  earl 
of  Carrick  was  crowned  to  avoid  the  hated  name  of  John, 


'  Froissart  gives  a  vivid  account  of  tlie  poverty  of  the  country  and 
the  rudeness  of  its  people.-  "The  people  set  little  upon  the  distinc- 
tion of  their  houses  and  said  shortly  bow  with  three  or  four  poles  they 
■would  make  them  again.  Edinburgh,  though  the  king  kept  there  his 
chief  residence  and  it  is  Paris  iu  Scotland,  is  not -like  Toumay  or  Val- 
enciennes, for  in  all  the  to^ni  there  are  not  4000  houses."  The  mep 
Vienne  brought  with  him  had  to  be  lodged  in  Dunfermline,  Kelso,  Dal- 
keith, Dunbar.  On  his  return  he  was  .".sked  by  the  young  king  Charles 
VI.  how  he  fared  ;  he  said  he  had  raiher  be  count  of  Savoy  or  Artosf 
than  king  of  Scotland. 


8TUABT3  'j.'0  JAltES  IV.] 


SCOTLAND 


491 


— was  even  less  active  than  his  father.  He  is  "briefly  but 
truly  described  by  an  historian  as  a  good  man  but  not  a 
good  king.  He  scarcely  reigned,  for  the  regency  of  his 
brother  continued  after  his  accession  till  it  was  succeeded 
for  a  few  years  by  that  of  Robert's  son,  on  whose  death 
the  earl  of  Fife  again  became  regent.  There  was  a  truce 
with  England  for  nine  years,  during  which  the  irrepres- 
sible love  of  fighting  had  to  satisfy  itself  within  Scotland. 
The  king's  younger  brother,  Alexander,  called  the  Wolf  of 
Badenoch,  who  had  been  created  earl  of  Buchan,  quarrelled 
^vith  the  bishup  of  Elgin  and  burnt  his  cathedral.  The 
Wolf  and  his  sons  were  constantly  engaged  in  private  wars. 
The  earl  died  in  1394,  but  his  son  Alexander  continued 
to  defy  the'  law,  which  the  Government  was  too  weak  to 
enforce  in  the  northern  Highlands.  Policy  was  used  to 
suppress  the  violence  of  the  clans.  Such  seems  the  ex- 
planation of  the  combat  between  thirty  of  the  Clan  Kay 
and  as  many  of  the  Clan  Chattan  before  the  king  on  the 
North  Inch  of  Perth,  which  ended  in  the  slaughter  of 
nearly  all  the  combatants  on  both  sides.  In  the  council 
or  parliament  of  1398  a  change  was  made  in  the  Govern- 
ment due  to  the  gencial  distrust  of  Fife  and  the  rising 
spirit  of  the  earl  of  Carrick,  the  king's  eldest  son.  The 
form  of  it  was  a  compromise.  The  young  prince  was 
made  lieutenant  for  three  years,  but  with  the  advice  of  a 
council,  of  whom  his  uncle  Fife  was  one ;  they  were  created 
dukes  of  Rothesay  and  Albany  lespectively,  the  first  of 
that  title  in  Scotland.  Other  acts  of  this  council  were 
designed  to  restrain  the  monarchy  by  constitutional  laws. 
Parliament  was  to  meet  annually.  The  king,  if  accused 
of  misgovernment  or  breach  of  law,  might,  "  to  excuse  his 
defaults,"  arraign  his  ofiicers  before  the  councU.  No  one 
•was  to  ride  through  the  country  with  more  followers  than 
he  could  pay  for.  The  grant  of  £11,000  for  the  common 
•weal  and  profit  of  the  kingdom  by  the  three  estates — 
barons,  clergy,  and  burghs — was  made  under  protest  that 
it  was  not  to  be  a  precedent,  and  the  burghs  stipulated 
that  in  future  they  were  not  to  pay  more  than  under 
Robert  II.  In  the  follo'wing  year  the  revolution,  took 
p!ac?  in  England  which  led  to  the  deposition  aind  death 
of  Ri.hard  II.  and  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  An  im- 
postor who  had  assumed  the  name  of  Richard  took  refuge 
in  th<s  Hebrides  and  was  received  at  the  Scottish  court. 
The  expedition  of  Henry  to  Scotland  (1400),  partly  due 
to  this,  ■was  also  prompted  by  the  desire  to  distinguish  a 
new  reign  and  by  the  invitation  of  the  earl  of  March, 
indignant  .  ;  the  preference  given  to  the  daughter  of 
Douglas  over  his  own  as  wife  for  Rothesay.  Reviving  the 
old  claim  of  feudal  superiority,  which  was  now  supported 
by  the  forged  charters  of  Hardyng  as  well  as  the  fictions 
of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  Heniy  cited  Robert  to  do  homage 
at  Newcastle,  and,  on  his  failing  to  appear,  marched  to 
Edinburgh.  Rothesay  successfully  defended  the  capital, 
and  Henry  was  suddenly  recalled  by  the  rising  of  Owen 
Glendower  and  the  Percies.  Next  year  (1401)  occurred 
the  death  of  Rothesay  by  starvation  at  Falkland,  where 
he  had  been  committed  by  his  father  at  Albany's  instance 
on  account  of  his  bad  government  and  dissolute  conduct. 
The  declaration  of  the  council  at  Edinburgh,  which  acquitted 
Albany  of  all  concern  in  the  death,  was  enough  for  the 
nloment,  but  in  after  times,  like  Bothwell's  acquittal,  a 
corrobt)ration  of  guilt.  Tho  last  years  of  Robert  wtre 
clouded  by  private  and  public  misfortune.  His  queen, 
Annabella  Drummond,  his  son-in-law,  the  carl  of  Douglas, 
and  Trail,  bishop  of  St  Andrews,  one  of  the  wisest  of  his 
council,  died  within  a  short  interval.  Tho  son  of  Douglas, 
though  brave,  was  unequal  to  tho  task  of  holding  the 
border  against  tho  Percies  and  the  carl  of  March,  and  so 
constantly  lost  battles  that  he  was  called  Archibald  Tync- 
marf.     The  Scots  were  signally  defeated  at  Nisbet  Muir 


(14th  September  1402)  in  Merse  and  at  Homildon  Hill  1390-1. 
near  Wooler  by  Percy,  where  the  slain  and  prisoners  equalled 
the  number  at  Otterburn.  Nor  could  order  be  maintained 
within  Scotland  itself,  of  which  the  forcible  marriage  of 
the  countess  of  Mar  by  Alexander,  a  bastard  of  the  Wolf 
of  Badenoch,  was  an  example.  Afraid  of  Albany,  and 
warned  by  the  fate  of  Rothesay,  Robert  sent  his  remaining 
son  James  to  France  (1405);  but  the  ship  in  which  he 
sailed  was  taken  by  an  English  cruiser,  and  the  future  king 
was  a  prisoner  in  England  for  nineteen  years.  This  last 
blow  broke  the  weak  heart  of  Robert,  who  died  at  Dun* 
donald  and  was  buried  at  Paisley.  Though  his  reign  was 
inglorious,  tho  tradition  of  the  War  of  Independence  still 
warmed  the  heart  of  the  nation  and  produced  the  earliest 
■writers  in  Scottish  literature, — Barbour,  Fordun,  and  Wyn^^ 
toun.     The  Bruce  of  Barbour  became  the  national  epic. 

The  year  after  Robert's  death  the  first  martyr  in  Scot-| 
land,  James  Resby,  an  English  priest,  was  burnt  at  Perth 
by  Albany,  who  is  described  by  Wyntoun  as  "  a  constant 
Catholic."  Resby  was  condemned  at  the  instance  of  Laur- 
ence of  Lindores,  called  the  Inquisitor  of  Scotland,  for  forty 
theses  from  the  books  of  WickliS"e.  The  Lollard  doctrines 
continued  to  be  secretly  held  by  a  small  sect,  chiefly  in  the 
west.  Knox  traces  the  descent  of  the  first  Scottish  Re- 
formers— the  Lollards  of  Kyle — from  WickJifie  and  Hus. 
This  religious  movement  was  destined  to  exercise  a  pro- 
found influence  on  the  history  of  Scotland.  The  time 
when  the  church  was  a  civilizing  and  purifying  power  was 
passing  away.  Its  enormous  wealth,  a  contrast  to  its  early 
poverty,  its  developed  so  different  from  its  primitive  doc- 
trine, celibacy,  and  the  confessional  in  a  lax  society,  that 
was  no  longer  moved  by  the  fervour  of  a  new  faith,  pro- 
duced a  corruption  which  forced  itself  on  minds  of  a 
reforming  tendency.  Catholicism  allowed  no  place  for 
individual  reformers,  and  their  protests,  often  carried  to 
extremes,  were  deemed  attacks  upon  the  church  itself, 
which  became  (unwillingly  on  the  part  of  its  best  friends) 
the  defender  of  its  ■^vorst  abuses.  From  first  to  last  in 
Scotland  the  movement  was  popular,  though  not  at  first 
democratic.  It  did  not  at  all  or  only  to  d  slight  extent 
change  through  political  causes  as  in  England. 

Though  he  was  a  captive,  the  right  of  James  I.  (1 406-37). Jamw 
on  his  father's  death  was  at  once  acknowledged  by  a  general- 
council  held  at  Perth  ;  but  the  appointment  of  Albany  as 
governor  boded  ill  for  his  return.  He  held  the  oflice  Albany 
thirteen  years,  administering  it  till  his  death  so  as  to  con-  >^enc7 
cilialo  all  classes  and  pave  the  ■way  to  his  own  accession 
to  the  throne,  which  would  have  been  Lis  by  right  had 
the  young  king  died.  The  recovery  of  Jedburgh  (1408), 
long  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  gave  the  regent  an  easy 
opportunity  of  popularity.  It  was  decided  by  a  general 
council  that  its  walls  should  be  razed  and  the  expense 
defrayed  by  a  poll  tax,  but  Albany  refused  to  burden  the 
people  and  paid  it  out  of  the  royal  customs.  Next  year 
Albany  and  Douglas  (now  released  from  captivity  in  Eng- 
land) entered  into  a  bond  of  alliance.  With  tho  earls  of 
JIarch  and  !Mar  and  others  similar  engagements  were 
made ;  but  Douglas,  who  had  acquired  the  lands  of  March, 
which,  however,  were  now  restored,  had  to  bo  conciliated 
by  a  grant  of  Lochmabcn  and  Annandale,  the  patrimony 
of  tho  Bruces.  The  more  independent  nobles  of  the  north 
could  not  bo  so  easily  gained,  and  Donald,  lord  of  the 
Isles,  disappointed  in  a  claim  to  the  earldom  of  Ross,  ini 
vadfcd  Aberdeenshire  with  a  great  host,  whoso  defeat  by 
tho  earl  of  l^Iar  at  llarlaw  (17th  Jlay  1412)— the  Otter- 
burn  of  northern  ballads — was  followed  by  tho  capture  of 
Dingwall,  his  chief  castio  on  tho  mainland,  and  his  final 
defeat  at  Lochgilphead. 

The  first  Scottish  university — St  Andrews — was  founded 
by  bulls  granted  a  year  later  at  tho  instance  of  James  and 


192 


SCOTLAND 


[histoey. 


;  Bishop  Wardlaw,  who  had  been  his  tutor.  The  higher 
education  had  already  been  to  some  extent  supplied  by 
cathedral  and  monastic  schools ;  but  Scots  who  sought  a 
complete  curriculum  had  to  resort  to  Oxford  or .  Paris. 
One  of  their  number,  Major,  expresses  his  wonder  that 
the  Scottish  prelates  had  not  earlier  thought  of  a  national 
university.  That  now  founded  was  destined  to  play  an 
important  part  in  promoting  the  Reformation  and  along 
Vdth  the  later  universities  in  civilizing  Scotland. 

Little  of  note  occurred  during  the  remaining  years  of 
Albany's  regency.  His  futile  siege  of  Roxburgh  (1415), 
soon  abandoned,  got  the  name  of  the  Fool's  Raid.  Greater 
credit  attended  the  Scottish  arms  in  France,  where  the 
earls  of  Douglas,  Bnchan,  and  Wigtown  won  battles  for 
the  French  king,  and  lands  and  honour  for  themselves  ;  but 
the  defeats  of  Crevant  and  Verneuil  effaced  the  honours  of 
Beauge  (in  Anjou),  and,  though  the  remnant  of  the  Scots 
remained  as  the  king's  bodyguard,  no  considerable  num- 
ber of  troops  from  Scotland  afterwards  went  to  France. 
Albany  died  at  Stirling  in  his  eightieth  year  (3d  September 
1419).  His  son  !Murdoch  assumed  the  regency  as  if  heredi'- 
tary;  but,  himself  indolent  and  with  lawless  sons,  he  did 
tot  retain  the  influence  of  his  father.  In  1423  ambassadors 
sent  by  the  Scottish  parliament  to  England  at  last  arranged 
terms  for  the  return  of  James  from  his  long  exile  (12th 
Slay  1423). 
£duca-  Exile  had  its  uses,  and,  except  at  the  beginning  and 
tion  of  again  after  the  accession  of  Henry  V.,  his  captivity  had 
James  I.  ^^^  heen  rigorous.  Sir  John  Pelham  was  his  governor, 
and  he  was  instructed  in  Latin  grammar,  oratory,  and 
poetry,  as  well  as  in  bodily  exercises, — wrestling  and  the 
use  of  the  spear.  Though  distinguished  for  physical 
strength,  his  bent  was  to  the  Muses,  and  he  became  pro- 
ficient in  dancing,  music,  and  poetry.  Buchanan  blames 
this  taste  as  carried  beyond  what  became  a  king,  but  no- 
thing in  his  after  life  showed  he  was  ever  led  by  amuse- 
ments to  neglect  graver  studies..  When  thirty  he  was 
taken  by  Henry  V.'to  France  with  the  view  of  detaching 
the  Scottish  allies  of  the  dauphin,  but  refused  to  be  made 
a  tool  of,  saying  he  had  as  yet  no  kingdom  and  they  owed 
Jiim  no  allegiance.  He  proved  his  soldiership  by  the  capture 
of  Dreux.  On  his  return  to  England  he  married  (11th 
February  1423)  Johanna  Beaufort,  daughter  of  the  earl  of 
Somerset  and  grand-daughter  of  John  of  Gaunt.  In  the 
Kingis  Qulmir  he  describes  his  love  at  first  sight  in  the 
language  of  his  master  Chaucer,  but  with  original  genius. 
The  marriage  facilitated  his  release,  wliich  was  negotiated 
for  a  sum  of  60,000  marks.  He  confirmed  the  treaty  at 
Melrose  and  was  crowned  with  his  bride  at  Scone  (21st 
May  1423)  by  Wardlaw. — Albany,  as  earl  of  Fife,  placing 
him  on  the  throne. 

He  lost  no  time  in  addressing  himself  to  the  task  of 
restoring  the  royal  authority  and  the  obedience  to  the  law 
which  the  long  regency  had  weakened.  From  this  time 
dates  the  conflict  between  the  king  and  the  nobles, — the 
latter  not  maintaining,  as  in  England,  constitutional  rights, 
but  contending  for  exorbitant  privileges.  The  experiment 
of  government  without  a  king  had  been  tried  too  long  not 
to  make  those  who  had  exercised  unrestrained  power  desire 
its  continuance.  The  nature  of  the  country— divided  by 
rivers,  mountains,  and  arms  of  the  sea — the  absence  of 
great  cities  and  the  number  of  strong  castles,  the  close  con- 
nexion of  the  principal  nobles  by  marriage  and  bonds  of 
alliance,  Ihe  large  jurisdiction  within  their  territories,  the 
clanship  not  only  in  the  Highlands  and  on  the  borders 
but  in  some  measure  throughout  the  whole  country,  which 
aade  fidelity  to  the  chief  a  natural  duty,  strengthened  the 
aristocracy  and  weakenpd  the  crown.  The  sovereign  had  to 
rely  on  the  people  and  the  clergy,  on  foreign  alliances,  on  the 
influence  due,  partly  to  the  virtues  of  his  predecessors,  partly 


to  the  magic  which  in  that  age  encircled  the  name  of  king. 
The  first  parliament  of  James  at  Perth  passed  quietly, 
but  with  indications  of  a  policy  long  meditated  and 
now  to  be  put  into  operation.  One  Act  forbade  private  Jjune* 
war ;  another  imposed  the  penalty  of  forfeiture  of  life  and  *»<'  f* 
goods  for  rebellion ;  and  a  third  directed  an  inquest  by  '"'^'•< 
the  sherifi'  what  lands  "pertain  to  the  king  or  has  per- 
tained "  in  the  time  of  the  last  three  kings  and  in  whose 
hands  they  now  are.  The  choice  of  the  pri\-y  council  was 
significant.  It  was  headed  by  Lauder,  bishop  of  Glasgow, 
who  had  negotiated  the  king's  release,  but  none  of  the 
greater  nobles  were  included.  In  their  stead  appear  an 
unusual  number  of  minor  gentry,  some  holding  high  ofiices. 
The  parliament  held  at  Perth  in  the  following  year  was 
the  scene, of  a  coup  dJetat  (12th  March).  Albany,  hk 
younger  son  Alexander,  Alan  of  Otterburn  his  secretary, 
and  Sir  John  Jlontgomery  were  seized  on  one  day,  an& 
immediately  after  Isabella,  Albany's  wife,  whose  father 
the  earl  of  Lennox,  had  already  been  arrested.  The  onb 
one  of  Albany's  kin  still  at  large,  his  youngest  son  James, 
made  a  short  resistance,  burnt  Dumbarton,  and  slew  the 
Red  Stuart  of  Dundonald,  the  king's  uncle,  but,  being 
hotly  pursued,  fled  to  Ireland.  Parliament,  at  an  adjourned 
sitting  at  Stirling,  proceeded  to  the  trial  of  Albany  and 
his  adherents,  which  was  held  with  feudal  solemnity  before 
an  assize.  Albany,  his  two  sons,  and  Lennox  were  con- 
demned and  executed  on  the  Heading  Hill.  Clemency 
was  shown  to  those  who  had  not  been  his  intimate  sup- 
porters. Historians  are  divided  as  to  the  policy  or  neces- 
sity for  such  severity.  But  it  secured  its  immediate  object; 
it  was  felt  that  Scotland  had  again  a  king  to  defend  hL« 
rights.  James  for  twelve  years  carried  out,  not  without 
murmurs,  but  without  successful  opposition,  his  projects 
of  reform. 

Foreign   states  recognized  his  power.     At  the  request  James> 
of  the  Flemish  estates  Middelburg  was  restored  as  the''"'^'P> 
market  for  Scottish  trade;    in  return  the  privileges   ofP°''°^" 
the  Scots  were  guaranteed  and  Flemish  merchants  under- 
took to  raise  part  of  James's  ransom..  Flemish  artisans 
and  mf nufacturers  settled  in  -Scotland.'   More  than  one 
embassy  passed  to  and  from  Rome  with  regard  to  the 
afiairs  of  the  Scottish  Church,  which  James,  while  strictly 
repressing    heresy   (a   Bohemian    doctor,   Crawar,    being 
burnt  as  a  disciple   of   Hus),   showed   his   intention  of 
reforming.     The  new  pope  Martin  V.  had  put  an  end. to 
the  schism.     The  bitter  enemy  of  the  English  king  on 
account  of  the  regulations  which  cidminated  in  the  Statute 
of  Praemunire,  he  welcomed  James's  advances.     James, 
while  showing  his  attachment  to  the  church  by  founding 
a  Carthusian  monastery  at  Perth  and  a  Franciscan  in 
Edinburgh,  asserted  his  right  to  remedy  abuses  of  the 
ecclesiastical  courts,  and  addressed  a  letter  to.  the  Bene-, 
dictine  and  Augustinian  monks  reproaching  them  for  laxity. 
To  Erik  of  Norway  he  sent  an  embas.sy  and  obtained  a 
commutation  of  the  arrears  due  for  the  Hebrides  under 
the  treaty  of  Largs.     A  marriage  between  the  dauphin 
and  Jlargaret,  his  infant  daughter,  previously  arranged, 
was  celebrated  shortly  before  his  death.     He  thus  estab- 
lished friendly  relations  with  the  Continent,  and,  though 
his  position  as  regards  England  could  not  be  the  same, 
the   truce  was   only  twice   broken  towards  the  end  of 
his  reign — by  a  raid  of  the  English,  who  were  defeated 
at  Peferden  (1425)  by  the  earl  of  Angus,  and  his  own 
attempt  to  recover  Roxburgh.     During  the  fourteen  years 
of  his  actual  reign  James  held  thirteen  parliaments,  prov- 
ing his  desire  to  obtain  the  support  of  the  nation  in  his 
reforms.    In  1426  he  introduced  the  session,  a  royal  court 
for  civil  causes  sitting  in  the  principal  to-rnis,  to  provide 
the  justice  too  often  denied  in  the  baronial  courts.     Next 
year  he  summoned  a  parliament  to  Inverness — an  unusual 


»rUAETS  TO  JAMES  IV.] 


SCOTLAND 


493 


jobjuM-  place  of  meeting — for  the  purpose  ot  restoring  the  peace 
i)'^«h-      '^^  ^^^  Highlands.      Its  records  are  lost ;  but  the  chief 
Adda,      event  was  the  seizure  of  Alexander,  earl  of  Ross,  lord  of 
the  Isles,  and  his  mother,  along  with  as  many  as  forty 
chiefs.     Two  were  beheaded  and  a  third  hanged,  but  most 
of  them,  including  the  lord  of  the  Isles,  after  a  short  im- 
prisonment, were  released.     Hoss  at  once  raised  the  stan- 
dard of  rebellion  ajid  burnt  Inverness,  but  was  defeated  by 
James  at  Lochaber,  where  the  clans  Cliattan  and  Cameron 
deserted  to  the  royal  side.     On  the  Sunday  following  the 
former  killed  in  a  church  the  whole  of  the  latter  clan  who 
were  present.     Another  internecine  conflict  took  place  in 
Caithness  seven  years  afterwards.     Such   private   feuds, 
traditional  amongst  the  Celts,  were  one  cause  of  the  success 
of  James  and  of  the  ultimate  subjugation  of  the  Highlands. 
So  completely  was   the   power  of   the  lord  of    the  Isles 
broken  that  he  came  as  a  .sujipliant  and  placed  his  sword 
in  the  king's  hands  at  Holyrood.     His  life  was  spared,  but 
he  was  confined  to  Tantallon  castle.     In  a  iiarliament  held 
later  in  the  same  year  at  Perth  an  Act  was  passed  for  the  re- 
presentation of  the  shires  and  the  election  of  a  speaker;  but 
this  imitation  of  the  English  House  of  Commons  was  not 
acted  on.  .The  Scottish  parliament  continued  to  sit  in  one 
chamber  of  lords,  clergy,  and  commons,  and  it  was  only  in 
the  reign  of  James  V.  that  representation  of  the  shires  was 
admitted.     The  following  parliament  (li2S)  provided  that 
an  oath  of  fealty  should   be   taken  to  the  queen  by  all 
persons  succeeding  to  lands  or  dignities,  which  shows  that 
James  knew  the  danger  of  his  policy.     In  1429  an  Act  was 
passed  for  the  lu-otection  of  the  tillers  of  the  ground,  who 
were  not  to  be  removed  for  a  year,  and  provisioii  was  made 
for  arming  all  landowners  and  burgesses.     The  birth  of 
twins — Alexander,  who  died  young,  and  James,  afterwards 
king — strengthened  the  king's  position  by  interposing  two 
lives  besides  his  own  against   any  attempt  at  revolution. 
Two  years  later  Donald  Balloch,  a  kinsman  of  the  lord  of 
the  Isles,  renewed  the  rebellion  ;  but,  though  he  defeated 
Mar  and  Caithness,  on  the  approach  of  James  himself  he 
tied  to  Ireland. 

In  1434  the  king  applied  the  statute  of  his  first  parlia- 
ment as  to  the  resumption  of  lands  to  which  no  sufficient 
title  could  be  shown.  The  estates  of  the  carl  of  March 
were  forfeited  on  the  ground  that  Albany  had  exceeded 
his  power  in  restoring  them.  He  was  created  earl  of 
Buchan  with  the  intention  no  doubt  of  removing  him  from 
ihe  border  and  conciliating  him  for  his  loss.  The  death 
in  1435  of  A,lexander  Stuart,  earl  of  Mar,  led  to  the  lapse 
jf  that  earldom  to  the  crown  on  account  of  his  bastardy, 
and  the  following  year  the  earldom  of  Strathearn  was  re- 
sumed on  the  ground  that  it  was  a  male  fee  and  did  not 
pass  to  the  wife  of  Patrick  Graham,  the  heir-female.  It 
was  bestowed  in  life-rent  on  the  king's  uncle,  the  earl  of 
Athole,  and  Malise,  the  son  of  Patrick  Graham,  was  made 
earl  of  Mentcith.  This  assertion  of  right  en  the  part  of  the 
king  to  deal  with  the  estates  of  the  nobles  though  fortified 
V>y  legal  documents  and  recognized  possession  was  certain 
to  make  enemies.  It  is  more  .surprising  that  James  so 
long  succeeded  in  maintaining  his  authority  than  that  he 
at  last  perished  for  doing  .so;  but  he  had  the  people  on  his 
side.  In  the  summer  of  1436  he  was  obliged  to  relinquish 
the  siege  of  lloxburgh  owing  to  the  barons'  refusal  of 
support.  In  October  when  the  forfeiture  of  Strathearn 
was  made'  in  a  parliament  at  Edinburgh,  Sir  Robert 
Graham,  uncle  and  tutur  of  the  young  heir  JIalisc,  de- 
nounced the  king  in  the  boldest  terms  and  urged  the 
barons  to  seize  his  person ;  but,  failing,  ho  was  banished 
from  the  court.  As  in  other  cases,  this  leniency  was  not 
requited.  In  his  Highland  retreat  Graham  formed  a  con- 
spiracy with  Atholc,  the  king's  uncle,  who  aimed  at  the 
crown,  and  Sir  Robert  Stuart,  Athole'i  grandson.     James 


was  to  sjicnd  Christmas  at  Perth.  Before  he  crossed  the 
Forth  he  was  warned  by  an  old  Highland  woman  that  if 
he  passed  he  would  never  return.  She  tried  unsuccessfully 
to  get  access  to  him  again  at  the  Dominican  monastery  at 
Perth,  where  he  lodged.  At  midnight,  when  he  was  half 
undressed,  Graham  with  300  men  surrounded  the  monas- 
tery. Their  apjiroach  was  heard  ;  but  it  Avas  found  tlint 
the  bolts  had  been  removed  by  trcaclierj'.  James  was 
hastily  concealed  in  a  vault  underneath  the  room.  Before 
the  conspirators  entered  a  brave  attempt  was  made  by 
Catherine  Dougla.s,  one  of  the  queen's  maid.s,  to  bar  the 
door  with  her  arm,  but  the  fragile  obstacle  broke  and 
Graham  burst  in.  The  fall  of  another  of  the  maids  into 
the  vault  discovered  the  king,  who  fought  fiercely  for  his 
life.  The  queen  was  wounded  in  trying  to  save  him,  ful- 
filling an  unconscious  prophecy  of  the  Kin'jis  Qiihair.  At 
last,  after  killing  two  of  his  assailants,  he  fell,  overcome  by 
numbers  (February  1437).  Vengeance  speedily  overtook 
the  murderers,  who  had  made  no  provision  to  follow  up  their 
deed.  Within  a  month  they  were  all  executed  in  a  manner 
exceeding  even  the  barbarous  usages  of  the  time.  James 
was  buried  in  the  Carthusian  monastery,  where  his  doul>- 
let  was  long  kept  as  a  relic  and  seen  by  the  people  with 
veneration.  Such  was  the  sad  fate  of  the  best  of  the  Stuarts, 
— a  king  in  advance  of  his  age  and  too  rapid  in  his  reforms. 

James  II.  (1437-60),  an  infant  of  six,  called  "  Fiery-face  "  Jatoei 
from  a  red  stain  on  one  cheek,  was  crowned  at  Holyrood  "■ 
five  weeks  after  his  father's  death,  and  there  commenced 
one  of  the  long  minorities  which  the  early  deaths  of  the 
Stuart  kings  made  common,  and  during  which  history  is 
chiefly  occupied  with  the  contest  for  the  person  of  the 
king.  These  have  been  truly  represented  as  weakening 
the  royal  authority.  The  possession  of  power  rendered  the 
nobles  impatient  of  restraint  and  accustomed  to  licence ; 
but  they  had  also  a  reverse  effect.  When  the  monarch 
succeeded  he  was  received  w-ith  favour  by  the  people  as 
a  deliverer  from  the  oppression  of  the  barons,  too  often 
potty  tyrants.  A  rule  of  law  allowing  him  to  revoke  grants 
in  his  minority  was  often  used  with  great  effect.  On  the 
whole,  monarchy,  in  spite  of  the  weakness  and  vices  of  the 
kings,  was  popular  in  Scotland  until  the  Reformation  and 
the  fatal  chain  of  events  in  which  Jlary  was  involved  in- 
troduced a  democratic  tendency,  which  grew  under  the  bad 
government  of  her  successors.  The  nobles,  though  their 
word  was  law  with  their  kinsmen  and  retainers,  were  .seldom 
favourites  of  the  people.  Archibald,  fourth  earl  of  Douglas,  Straggles 
the  greatest  of  the  Scottish  nobility  and  duke  of  Touraine  ^"^  ■*• 
in  France,  was  lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom  from^™*^^" 
James's  accession  till  his  own  death  the  year  after  ;  but  Sir 
William  Crichton,  master  of  the  household  of  James  I., 
who  was  keeper  of  the  castle  of  Edinburgh,  whore  tho 
young  king  was  detained,  appears  to  have  exercised  the 
chief  power.  Shortly  after  the  death  of  Douglas  James'3 
mother  carried  otJ'  her  son,  on  the  pretext  of  a  jjilgrimage, 
to  Stirling,  of  which  Sir  Alexander  Livingstone  of  Callander 
was  governor.  Livingstone  laid  siege  to  Edinburgh,  but; 
made  terms  with  Crichton,  who  became  chancellor.  Tho 
alternate  struggles  and  reconciliations  of  these  rivals  con- 
tinued till  James  was  fourteen,  when  he  favoured  Douglas 
(the  eighth  earl)  in  order  to  free  himself  from  their  control. 
This  was  a  time  of  civil  or  rather  of  jirivate  wars.  The 
only  contemporary-chronicle  marks  almost  every  year  with 
tho  seizure  of  a  castle  or  a  party  fight.  Douglas  brought 
tho  carl  of  Crawford  and  his  retainers  from  the  Highlands, 
who  ravaged  tho  estates  of  tho  bishop  of  St  Andrews,  and 
himself  besieged  Edinburgh  castle.  The  castlo  surrendered; 
but  Crichton,  one  of  tho  adroit  statesmen  who  rise  aftei 
every  fall,  continued  chancellor,  and  soon  after,  by  ncgotiat 
ing  tho  marriage  of  James  witli  Mary  of  Guclders  (1448). 
ensured  his  favour  with  the  court.     Shortly  after  the  cela 


494 


SCOTLAND 


[histoet. 


bration  of  this  marriage  Livingstone,  now  chamberlain, 
with  many  of  Ms  kindred  and  friends,  was  suddenly  arrested 
land  tried  before  a  parliament  at  Edinburgh ;  two  were  exe- 
cuted, and  the  others,  including  the  chamberlain,  attainted 
and  placed  in  strict  ward  in  Dumbarton.     Douglas  and 
Crichton  received  part  of  the  forfeited  estates.     James  was 
fchiefly  advised  at  this  period  by  Bishop  Kennedy,  whose 
Counsel  was  the  old  one  of  "  divide  et  impera."     He  now 
determined  to  do  to  the  more  powerful  Douglas  as  he  had 
done  to  the  Livingstones.     The  earl  had  shown  no  modera- 
tion in  prosperity.     His  revenue  and  retainers  equalled 
those  of  the  king  :  1000  horsemen  were  his  ordinary  train, 
p,nd  he  attended  the  king's  marriage  with  five  times  that 
number.     His  courts  on  the  borders  were  almost'  parlia- 
ments.    In  the  year  of  jubilee  (1450)  he  went  to  Rome 
with  a  large  suite.     On  his  return  he  visited  the  new 
king  of  England,  Edward   IV.     At   the  parliament   of 
Edinburgh   (1451)   he  submitted  to  the  king's  mercy, 
and  at  the   request  of   the  queen  and  estates  received 
a  regrant  of  his  lands   and   honours.     He  was  already 
suspected  of  treason,  and  had  in  fact  renewed  a  secret 
Dond  with  the  earls  of   Crawford   and  Eoss,  the  most 
powerful    nobles    in    the    north,   which    threatened    the 
royal  authority.     James  felt  a  crisis  had  come  and  sum- 
moned Douglas  to  StirUng  at  Shrovetide.    There  the  young 
king,  in  violation  of  hospitality  and  a  safe  conduct  which 
he  had  given  the  earl,  when  Douglas  refused  to  break  the 
bond  with  the  other  earls,  struck  him  with  his  knife  and 
killed  him  (21st  February  1452).i   An  appeal  to  arms  neces- 
sarily followed.     Douglas's  brother.  James,  the  ninth  earl, 
came  to  Stirling  and  burnt  great  part  of  the  town.     But 
the  clergy  and  commons  and  other  nobles,  some  even  of 
Douglas's  own  kin,  not  sorry  at  the  fall  of  one  who  over- 
lopped  them,  stood  by  the  king.     Parliament  sanctioned 
James's  act  and  declared  Douglas  had  deserved  death.     At 
length,  after  repeated  struggles,  Crawford  was  defeated  at 
the  Muir  of  Brechin  and  Douglas  fled  to  England.     His 
estates  were  of  course  forfeited.     The  lordship  of  Douglas 
■was  granted  to  Angus.    Ettrick  Forest  and  Galloway  were 
annexed  to  the  crown.     Some  years  later  Douglas  made 
another  desperate  effort  against  James,  but  after  wasting 
Merse  was  totally  defeated  by  Angus  (1458).2   The  energy 
of  James  in  visiting  all  parts  of  his  kingdom  was  con- 
spicuous during  the  last  period  of  his  reign.     The  good 
relations  with  the  French  and  other  Continental  courts  con- 
tinued.   With  England — one  brief  interruption  excepted — 
peace  had  been  preserved  during  the  reign  of  Henry  "VT. 
Henry  even  agreed  to  restore  Roxburgh  and  Berwick  to 
Scotland  in  return  for  assistance  against  the  duke  of  York. 
When  Henry  was  taken  prisoner  at^Northampton,  his  queen 
and  her  young  son  fled  to  Scotland^  and  James  was  called  ■ 
on  to  fulfil  his  engagements.     He  laid  siege  to  Roxburgh, 
V/hich  for  more  than  a  century  had  defied  his  predecessors, 
and  after  a  stout  resistance  it  was  taken  ;  but  James  did 
not  live  to  enjoy  the  triumph.     When  inspecting  the  dis- 
charge of  a  new  gun  it  burst,  and  he  was  killed  (3d  August 
1460).     He  had  not  reached  his  thirtieth  year. 
-    His  reign  had  been  singularly  fortunate,  for  he  succeeded 
(where  his  father  failed)  in  restoring  the  royal  authority  and 
reducing  the  power  of  the  nobles.     This  may  have  been 

^  The  origin  of  two  graai  families  dates  from  the  fall  of  Douglas. 
Sir  James  Hamilton  of  Caclzow  deserted  liis  kinsman  for  the  king  and 
received  large  gi  ants  of  laud  and  the  king's  daughter  as  wife.  Sip 
Waltei-  Scott  of  Ivirlturd  .ind  Buccleacli,  a  border  chief,  was  similarly 
rewarded.  These  were  the  ancestors  of  tlie  dukes  of  Hamilton  and 
Buccleuch. 

'  111  the  uext  reign  along  with  the  Idng's  banished  brother,  Albany, 
he  made  a  daring  raid  on  Lochmabeu,  but  being  takeu  prisoner  he 
ended  his  days  as  a  monk  .at  Liudores.  A  saying  attributed  to  him, 
'If  a  man  cannot  better  be,  he  may  be  a  monk,"  was  a  sicn  of  the 
qhange  of  timiis  since  Celtic  kings  were  proud  to  assume  the  cowl. 


partly  due  to  the  counsels  of  Kennedy,  bishop  of  St 
Andrevrs,  and  Crichton ;  but  James  showed  skill  in  govern- 
ment and  vigour  in  war,  though  the  murder  of  Douglas  has 
left  a  stain  on  his  character.  The  crown  was  richer  at  his 
death  than  it  had  been  since  the  time  of  Alexander 
in.,  by  many  forfeitures  secured  from  alienation  by 
the  Act  of  Annexation  (1455,  c.  41).  The  royal  pre- 
rogative was  strengthened  by  the  first  statute  defining 
treason  (1449,  c.  25).  Provision  was  made  for  the  execu- 
tion of  criminal  justice  by  the  king,  his  justiciar,  and 
sheriffs,  and  of  civil  justice  by  the  session.  Stringent  rules 
were  laid  do-n-n  against  violent  spoliation  of  lands  and 
goods  (1449,  c.  30).  The  coinage  ..was  regulated,  an 
attempt  made  to  preserve  its  standard,  and  to  prohibit 
export  of  gold  and  silver  (1451,  c.  23).  Towards  the  end 
of  the  reign,  when  war  with  England  was  impending, 
statutes  were  passed  for  the  defence  of  the  borders,  giving 
the  king  more  direct  control,  and  declaring  that  the  office 
of  warden  should  not  be  hereditary.  The  progress  of  agri- 
culture was  furthered  by  the  famous  Act  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  feu  farm,  an  existing  form  of  tenure  becoming 
more  common,  and  another  giving  fixity  of  tenure  to  leases 
until  the  expiry  of  their  terms  notmthstanding  alienation 
of  the  lands.  There  were  also  many  minor  laws  which 
had  for  their  object  the  welfare  of  the  people.  Though 
the  legislation  of  James  II.  was  not  so  large,  it  wa§ 
perhaps  as  important  as  that  of  James  I. 

On  the  Sunday  after  his  father's  death  James  Ifl. 
(1460-88)  was  crowned  at  Kelso.    A  regency  was  formed 
consisting  of  the  queen,  Kennedy,  and  ibthers.  •  A  parlia- 
ment followed  at  Edinburgh,  which  was  blamed  by  the 
nobles  for  leaving  so  much  power  in  the  hands  of  a  woman; 
but  there  was  a  fuU  appointment  to  the  offices  of  state, 
and,  though  Slary  of  Guelders  aimed  at  more  than,  the 
guardianship  of  her  son,  it  does  not  appear  that  she  really 
exercised  royal  authority.      After  the  defeat  of  Towton 
(29th  March  1461),  Henry  VT.  and  his  queen  took  refuge 
in  Scotland.     In  return  for  their  reception  and  in  hope  of 
further  aid,  Henry  surrendered  Berwick  (23d  April)  to  the 
Scottish  king,  in  whose  hands  it  remained  till  its  final 
annexation  to  England  at  the  close  of  the  reign.     Edward 
IV.  retaliated  by  a  treaty  (13th  February  1462)  with  the, 
banished  earl  of  Douglas,  the  earl  of  Eoss,  lord  of  tin; 
Isles,  and  Donald  Balloch,  by  which  Douglas  was  to  bij 
restored  to  his  estates,  and  the  whole  country  north  of  the 
Forth  divided  between  the  two 'Highland  chiefs.     George, 
earl  of  Angus,  who  had  risen  on  the  ruins  o'f  the  house  of 
Douglas,  made  a  counter-league  with  Henry  VI.,  by  which 
he  was  promised  an  English  dukedom  and  valuable  lands 
bptween  Trent  and  Humber,  but  was  to  preserve  hisalle- 
giance  to  the  Scottish  king.     These  were  paper  promises, 
and  all  that  came  of  them  were  an  ineffectual  rising  in  the 
north  and  the  relief  of  Alnwick,  which  had  been  besieged 
by  the  Yorkists.     Next  year  the  Lancastrian  cause  having 
received  a  fatal  blow  by  the  defeat  of  Hexham,  a  singular 
offer  by  Edward  IV.  to  marry,  the  queen  dowager  of  Scot- 
land— one  of  the  many  schemes  of  the  king-maker,  earl  of 
Warwick — was  frustrated  by  her  death  or  perhaps  by  the 
discovery  of  an  intrigue  with  Adam  Hepburn  of  Hales, 
whose  wife  was  alive.    Kennedy,  who  had  the  chief  control 
of  Scottish  affairs,  negotiated  the  release  of  Alexander,  the 
king's  brother,  who  had  been  taken  by  an  English  cruiser, 
and  secured  a  truce  between  England  and  Scotland  for 
fifteen  years.   He  understood  the  nature  of  his  countrymen 
better  than  any  man,  and  was  always  ready  to  give  coimsel 
in  parliament,  while  his  learning,  especially  in  the  civil 
law,  made  him  respected  by  foreign  powers,      When  he 
died  the  country  wept  for  him  as  for  a  parent. 

Before  his  death  a  plot  had  been  formed  which  threw 
the  yonng  king  into  different  hands.  ,  Amongst  the  barons 


STtTAETS  TO  J.UIES  IV.] 


SCOTLAND 


495 


laseDd-  who  received  office  at  the  commencement  of  the  reign 
ncy  of  one  of  the  foremost  was  Robert  Boyd  of  Kilmarnock,  the 
Joyl-  justiciar.  Boyd  determined  to  play  the  part  of  Livingstone 
in  the  last  reign,  and  usurp  the  supreme  power  by  seizing 
the  person  of  the  king.  Bonds  with  this  object  were 
entered  into  between  him,  Fleming  of  Cumbernauld,  Lord 
Kennedy,  a  brother  of  the  bishop,  and  others.  While 
holding  a  court  at  Linlithgow  James  was  carried  off  to 
Edinburgh  by  Boyd.  Kennedy  made  a  feint  to  save  him 
■by  seizing' his  bridle,  but  was  overpowered;  perhaps  the 
attempt  was  real,  for  Kennedy  afterwards  separated  from 
the  Boyds.  In  parliament  Boyd  went  through  the  form  of 
asking  pardon  of  the  young  king  in  presence  of  the  estates, 
and  was  immediately  entrusted  with  the  custody  of  the 
royal  person  (October  U66)  and  that  of  his  brothers  Albany 
and  Mar,  as  well  as  the  fortresses  of  the  kingdom.  Next 
year  he  was  made  chamberlain,  which  gave  him  control  of 
the  revenue.  The  marriage  of  his  son  Thomas,  created  earl 
of  Arran,  with  the  king's  sister  Mary,  marked  the  height 
of  his  ambition.  The  fall  of  Boyd,  as  sudden  as  his 
rise,  whom  with  his  brother  Alexander  James  at  first 
favoured,  was  due  to  the  same  cause  as  that  of  Livingstone, 

the  king's  marriage  and  his  desire  when  major  to  assert 

his  independence.      Negotiations  for  an  English  match 
having  fallen  tniough,  an  alliance  with  a  Norwegian  prin- 
cess was  determined  on,  and  an  embassy  sent  to  Norway 
by  parliament.    Christian  of  Denmark  and  Norway  readily 
assented.     He  promised  his  daughter  a  dowry  of  6u,00(> 
florins,  besides  a  surrender  of  the  claim  of  arrears  of  the 
annual  payment  for  the  Hebrides.     But,  as  it  was  incon- 
venient to  pay  the  dowry,  both  the  Orkneys  and  the 
Shetlands  were  mortgaged  to  Scotland,  and  have  remained 
ever  sin-'f  under  the  Scottish  crown.     Two  years  later 
(Julv  1469)  the  princess  Margaret  arrived  in  Scotland, 
when  the  marriage  took  place.     Arran  on  1ii.=.  arrival  at 
Leith  with  the  king's  bride  received  a  message  from  his 
mie  warning  him  that  James  had  conceived  a  great  hatred 
against  him;  accordingly  he  fled  to  Denmark.     In  the 
parliament  his  father  and  his  uncle,  Sir  Alexander  Boyd, 
were  attainted.     The  chamberlain  saved  himself  by  flight ; 
Sir  Alexander  was  executed.     The  specific  charge  made 
was  the  seizure  of  the  king's  person  ;  but  a  general  clause 
had  reference  to  the  immense  estates  they  had  annexed. 
The  kinrv's  sister,  divorced  from  Arran,  was  married  to 
Lord  Hamilton,  who  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  a  family 
whose  head  more  than  once  aspired  to  the  crown. 

The  refusal  of  parliament  in  1473  to  sanction  the  pro- 
posed passage  of  James  to  France,  to  aid  Louis  XI.  agaiiist 
Charles  the  Bold,  on  the  score  of  the  expense  and  risk,  was 
the  first  indication  of  the  difference  between  the  king  and 
the  nobility  which  led  to  the  disasters  of  the  close  of  his 
reign.     The  parliament  of  1476  tonka  bolder  step.     At 
its  adjournment  it  committed  its  whole  powers  to  certain 
members,  of  whom  the  duke-  of  Albany  and  the  earl  of 
Mar,  the  king's  brothers,  were  the  principal,— a  measure 
which  indicated  a  want  of  conffdcncc  in  the  king.     He 
had  shown  himself,  like  Louis  XL,  disposed  to  govern  by 
new  men  who  owed  their  elevation  to  himself,— a  policy 
which  alienated  the  ttrist/^rracy      Of  these  favourites  the 
chief  were  Robert  Cochrane,  originally,  it  was  said,  a 
mason,  who  proved  himself  a  skilful  architect ;  Roger,  an 
English  musician ;  and  Andrews,  a  physician,  who  dealt 
in  astrology, — all  able  to  gratify  tastes  of  James.     There 
were  besides  a  few  young  men  of  birth  who  gained  favour 
by  flattery  or  ether  arts.     Cochrane  became  all  powerful 
and  disgusted  the  nobles  by  sumptuousncss  and  arrogance, 
and  the  people  by  debasing  the  coin.     Ho  succeeded,  it 
was  reported,  by  relatinj^  a  prophecy  that  a  lion  should  be 
devoured  by  its  whelps,  in  producing  i«  the  king's  mind 
an  aversion  to  his  brothers,  whoso  characters  and  knightly 


accomplishments  made  them  popular.     James  seized  Marl4C6-1488 
and  sent  him  to  Craigmillar  castle.     He  soon  after  died 
(1479)  in  Edinburgh  under  circumstances  which  gave  rise 
to  suspicion  of  foul  play.     The  gift  to  Cochrane  of  the 
vacant  earldom  or  its  revenues  strengthened  the  suspicion 
of  his  complicity.    Albany,  committed  to  Edinburgh  castle 
(1480),  escaped  to  Dunbar  and  thence  to  France.      He 
there  married  Anne  de  la  Tour  d'Auvergne,  whose  son  was 
the  regent  Albany  in  the  reign  of  James  V.     Failing  to 
induce  Louis  to  do  more  than  urge  his  restoration,  two 
years  afterwards  he  quitted  France  and  at  ioiheringay 
entered  into  a  treaty  (1482)  with  Edward  IV.,  by  which, 
ia  return  for  the  empty  title  of  Alexander  IV.,  he  owned 
the  subjection  of  the  country  to  England  and  made  other 
humiliating  promises.    Supported  by  the  earl  of  Gloucester 
and  the  exiled  earl  of  Douglas,  Albany  laid  siege  to  Ber- 
wick, while  James  collected  his  forces  on  the  Boroughmuir 
of  Edinburgh  and  advanced  to  Lauder.     There  the  chief 
nobles,    indignant   at   the   favour    suov»ii   to   Cuf.hrane, 
mutinied,  and,  led  by  Angus,  who  then  acquired  his  name 
of  "  Bell  the  Cat."  seized  Cochrane  and  some  of  the  other 
favourites  .of  James  and  hanged  them  before  his  eyes. 
Berwick  fell  and  was  never  afterwards  recovered  by  the 
Scots.      The  nobles,  distrusting  Angus,  who  had  made 
secret  terms  with  Albany  and  the  English  king,  were 
induced  by  Schivas,   the  archbishop  of  St  Andrews,  to 
effect  a  reconciliation  between  the  king  and  his  -brother, 
who  received  the  vacant  earldom  of  IMar  and  for  a  little 
became  chief  minister.      A  parliament  in  December  ap- 
pointed Albany  lieutenant-general,  but  his  continued  in- 
trigues with  the  English  king  being  discovered  he  was 
attainted  for  treason  and  fled  to  England  (14S3),  and 
thence  to  France.    James  had  now  a  brief  period  of  peace, 
during  which  the  revolutions  in  England  freed  him  from 
the  danger  of  war  in  that  quarter.     New  matrimonial 
projecis  were  tried.     It  was  proposed  that  the  prince  of 
Scotland  should  marry  a  niece  of  Richard  III.,  Anne  de  la 
Pole,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Suffolk,  and  after  Richard's 
deposition  a  marriage  with  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward 
IV.,  was  suggested.     On  the  death  of  Queen  [Margaret 
James  himself  made  an  offer  for  the  hand  of  the  widow  of 
Edward  IV.     Snch  proposals,  though  abortive,  were  signs 
of  a  better  understanding  between  the  two  countries,^  or 
at  least  between  their  sovereigns.     AVhen  the  rebellion 
broke  out  in  the  following  year  the  nobles  and  James 
accused  each  other   of  treasonable  correspondence  with 
England,  but  no  assistance  was  got  by  either,  for  England 
was  still  scarcely  released  from  its  own  civil  war.    In  1487 
the   greater  part  of   the  Scottish    barons  rose  in  arms. 
James  had  abandoned  himself  to  another  favourite.  Sir 
John  Rainsay,  whose  life  had  been  spared  at  Lauder.    The 
chiefs  of  the  party  were  the  earls  of  Angus  and  Argj-ll, 
Blackadder,  bishop  of  Glasgow,  and  the  Homes  and  Hei>- 
burns,  powerful  -barons  on  the  border.      Having  seized 
the  person  of  the  young  prince,  whom  they  already  desig- 
nated king,  they  pretended  to  act  in  his  name.     James 
retreated  to  Aberdeenshire,  for  the  northern  barons  still 
adhered  to  him.     Father  and  son,  at  the  head  of  their 
respective  forces,  first  met  at  Blackness  (May  MSS)on  the 
Forth,  where  a  pacification  was  agreed  to  on  terms  which 
showed  the  king's  party  was  tiie  weaker.     In  the  following 
month  tho  rebellion  was  renewed  and  the  king  was  slain 
at  Sauchio  (11th  June),  within   sight  of   I'.annockburn. 
Ho  was  buried  at  Cainbuskenneth,  being  only  thirty-five 
years  of  age.     He  did  not  fall,  like  his  father,  through 
tho  strength  of  tho  nobles,  for  they  were  much  divided, 
and  he  cominenccd  his  iiidcpcndeiit  reign  master  of  tho 
situation.     The  Wars  of  the  Roses  gave  liim  an  oppor- 
tunity, which  ho  missed,  of  stronglhoning  his  kingdom  in 
relation  to  England,  whose  monarchs  adontcd  a  new  attitude 


496 


SCOTLAND 


[msTOEr, 


towards  Scotland  from  that  of  the  Plantagenets, — seeking 
alliance  rather  than  war.  His  own  weakness,  his  love  of 
favourites  and  of  money,  his  passion  for  music  and  art — 
perhaps  inherited  from  his  grandfather,  but  carried  to  ex- 
cess and  not  counterbalanced  by  the  qualities  of  a  states- 
man and^  general — proved  his  ruin.  The  rebellions,  first 
that  of  his  brother,  then  that  in  the  name  of  his  son,  were 
fatal  precedents  in  the  reign  of  Mary  Stuart. 

James  IV.  (1488-1 5 1 3)  was  already  sixteen  when  crowned 
at  Scone.     His  reign  is  an  interlude  in  the  record  cf  almost 
constant  battles,  murders,  and  executions  with  which  Scot- 
tish history  abounds.     There  were  not  wanting  causes  of 
offence  between  England  and  Scotland,  but  the  politic 
Henry  VII.  avoided  war  and  effected  what  previous  kings 
had  failed  in  the  marriage  between  the  royal  houses.   James, 
a  popular  monarch,  succeeded  better  than  any  of  his  pre- 
decessors and  successors  in  keeping  on  good  terms  with 
a!l  classes.     His  -^ourt  was  one  of  splendom-  for  a  small 
country ;  indeed  Scotland,  almost  for  the  first  time,  pos- 
sessed a  court  which  set  the  fashion  of  civilization  and 
culture.     The  death  of  James  III.,  instead  of  exciting  the 
lorror  awakened  by  the  death  of  James  I.,  was  treated 
with  indifferer  :e,  almost  as  a  relief.     The  chief  offices  of 
state  were  distributed  amongst  the  supporters  of  the  young 
king.     Tiie  first  business  of  the  parliament,  which  met  in 
Edinburgh,  was  the  treason  trials.     The  persons  put  on 
their  trial  were  not  those  \vho  fought  against  but  those 
who  supported  the  late  king.     Several  were  condemned, 
but  prudently  treated  with  great   leniency.      AJl  were 
charged  with   correspondence  with   England  as  well   as 
with  their  presence  at  the  field  of  Stirling'(Sauchie).    There 
followed  a  curious  transaction  called  in  the  records  "  the 
debate  and  cause  of  the  field  of  Stirling," — the  first  debate 
iii  a  Scottish  parliament  of  which  we  have  any  account. 
The  result  was  a  unanimous  resolution  "  that  the  slaughter 
committed  in  the  field  of  Stirling,  when  our  sovereign 
lord's  father  happened  to  be  slain,  was  due  entirely  to  the 
fault  of  him  and  his  privy  councO  divers  times  before  the 
said  field."     There  was  not  a  single  execution.     Heritable 
ofiicers  who  had  fought  against  the  prince  were  only  sus- 
pended, not  deposed,  and  the  heirs  of  those  slain  were  by 
special  grace  admitted  to  their  estates.     The  only  person 
who  felt  compunction  was  the  young  king.     His  frequent 
pilgi'images  and  an  iron  belt  he  wore  were  due  to  his  re- 
morse for  his  father's  death.     The  leniency  of  James  was 
rewarded  by  the  loyalty  of  the  nobility,  except  a  few 
northern  barons  headed  by  Lennox  and  Huntly,  and  these, 
after  being  defeated  by  James  in  the  follo\ving  year,  were 
also  treated  wth  clemency.      The  only  trace  of  rebellion 
during  his  reign  was  a  secret  intrigue  between  Henry  VII. 
and  Angus,  who  succeeded  to  the  traditionary  policy  of 
the  Douglases. 

A  determined  effort  was  made  by  parliament  to  put 
Hown  robbery  and  theft  by  special  commissions  to  certain 
lords  who  were  to  be  responsible  for  different  districts.  It 
was  provided  that  the  king  in  person  should  attend  the 
justice  air  (eyre),— a  provision  which  James  acted  upon.  A 
new  toaster  of  the  mint  was  appointed  to  restore  the  purity 
of  the  coinage. .  The  penalty  of  treason  was  to  be  imposed 
on  those  who  purchased  benefices  from  Rome.  An  active 
spii-it  of  reform,  a  desire  to  remedy  the  evils  of  the  late 
reign,  was  displayed  by  both  the  king  and  his  advisers. 
The  personal  character  of  James  showed  itself  in  a  liberal- 
ity contrasting  with  his  father's  avarice,  and  in  a  love  of 
chivalrous  display  encouraging  tournaments  and  martial 
exercises,  as  well  as  in  the  care  of  the  na^^y. 

From  the  time  of  Bruce  we  hear  of  ships  and  shipbuild- 
ing, natural  in  a  country  with  so  large  a  seaboard;  Scottish 
merchantmen  now  began  to  make  distant  voyages,  and 
their  ships,  half  privateers,  half  traders,  were  commanded 


and  manned  by  sailors  who  were  a  match  for  those  of  any 
country.  The  most  famous  commander.  Wood  of  Lar^o 
with  the  "Flower"  and  the  "Yellow  Carvel,"  cleared  The 
Forth  of  English  pirates.  Stephen  Bull,  an  English 
captam,  promised  to  take  Wood  dead  or  alive,  but  was 
captured  himself;  James  sent  him" back  to  Henry  VIII. 
vnth  a  chivalrous  message  that  the  Scots  could  now  fight 
by  sea  as  well  as  land.  Wood  was  made  one  of  the  king's 
council.  By  his  advice  James  built  the  "Great  St  Michael" 
for  a  crew  of  300  and  1000  men-at-arms,^  It  exhausted 
all  the  woods  in  Fife  except  Falkland,  and  cost  £30,000. 
The  king's  policy  was  not  confined  to  building  ships  of 
war :  every  town  was  to  have  vessels  of  at  least  20  tons. 
The  navy  was  for  the  protection  of  trade,  to  which  the 
national  instinct  pointed  as  a  source  of  wealth. 

The  marriage  of  James  early  attracted  the  attention  of 
parliament,  and  embassies  were  sent  to  foreign  courts  to 
seek  a  suitable  spouse ;  but  James  had  formed  a  connexion 
with  Lady  Margaret  Drummond,  and  could  not  be  per- 
suaded to  a  political  alliance.      The  chief  events  of  his 
reign  prior  to  his  marriage  to  Margaret  Tudor  were  his  ex- 
peditions to  the  north-east  and  the  western  Highlands.    He 
adopted  with  the  chiefs  a  similar  policy  to  that  which  had 
succeeded  with  the  barons,  attaching  them  to  his  person 
by  gifts,  offices,  and  favours,  and  committing  to  them  the 
suppression  of  crime.     In  1496  the  impostor  Perkin  War- 
beck  came  to  Scotland  and  was  recognized  by  James,  who 
gave  him  his  kinswoman,  Catherine  Gordon,  daughter  of 
the  earl  of  Funtly,  called  for  her  beauty  the  White  Rose, 
in  marriage.  •  Raids  were  twice  made  across  the  border  on 
his  behalf,  but  there  was  only  one  engagement  of  any  con- 
sequence, at  Dunse  (1497),  and  an  unsuccessful  siege  of 
Melrose.     Henry  VII,  whose  talent  lay  in  diplomacy,  ap-  Jamea's 
preached  the  Scottish  king  with  the  tempting  offer  of  the  man-iaga 
hand  of  his  daughter  Margaret.     Commissioners  met  to '"  '*'=^''' 
consider  this  at  Jedburgh,  and,  though  James  refused  to  lu"!' 
give  up  Perkin  Warbeck,  a  truce  was  arranged,  and  Perkin 
left  Scotland.     The  marriage  of  James  and  Margaret  was 
soon  afterwards  agreed  to  and  a  peace  concluded.     The 
papal  dispensation  was  procured  in  1500,  but  the  final 
treaty  was  not  ratified  till  two  years  later  (8th  August 
1502).     Some  of  Henry's  counsel lofs  sought  to  dis.suada 
him  from  the  marriage,  for  if  his  son  Henry  died  James 
would  be  nest  in  succession  to  the  English  throne ;  but  he 
replied  that  if  so'  Scotland  would  be  an  accession  to  Eng- 
land and  not  the  reverse,  recalling  the  example  of  Nor- 
mandy and  England.    Margaret,  a  girl  in  her  fourteenth 
year,  made  a  triumphal  progress  to  Scotland,'  where  she 
was  received  with  pomp ;  but  the  marriage  was  one  of 
policy,  and  the  young  wife  was  discontented  with  her  new 
country  and  her  husband.     Their  court  as  it  is  painted 
in  the  poems  of  Dunbar  was  merry,  but  not  moral.     The 
licence  which  prevailed  and  was  tolerated  by  the  church  was 
shown  by  the  elevation  of  one  of  the  king's  bastards  by 
Jane  Kennedy  to  the  archbishopric  of  St  Andrews  when 
a  youth  of  eighteen.     Others  received  rich  benefices,  and 
Jane  Kennedy  herself  married  the  earl  of  Angus.    Scottish 
history  during  the  six  years  after  the  king's  marriage  was 
uneventful. 

Henry  VIL's  death  (1509)  changed  the  relations  between 
Scotland  and  England.  Henry  VIIL  had  not  liked  his 
sister's  siar'riage,  and  his  refusal  to  deliver  to  her  a  legacy 
of  jewels  left  by  his  father  led  to  a  coolness.  The  mutual 
attacks  of  English  and  Scottish  privateers  and  border  frays 
increased  the  bad  feeling.  Andrew  Barton's  ship  the 
"Lion,"  after  an  obstinate  conflict,  in  which  Barton  was 
killed,  was  seized  (1512)  in  the  Downs  by  the  sons  of 
Howard,  the  English  high  admiral,  and  James's  request 
for  redress  was  mef  with  the  contemptuous  answer  that 
kings  should  not  dispute  as  to  the  fate  of  pirates.    But  it 


ilETORMATIOS.] 


SCOTLAND 


497 


rac 
of 

KBlV. 


was  Henry's  Continental  policy  which  in  the  end  provoked 
the  war.     The  struggle  in  Italy  between  Louis  XII.  and 
Pope  Julius  II.  gave  hini  an  opportunity,  and  he  allied  hini- 
'self  with  the  latter  and  invaded  France.     He  attempted 
before  leaving  England  to  secure  peace  with  Scotland  by 
promising  to  redress  its  grievances.     But  James  had  re- 
newed the  old  alliance  with  France,  and  the  only  answer 
iriven  to  the  first  embassy  in  1512  was  an  offer  to  mediate 
between  France  and  England.      In  1513  the  message  was, 
that  if  Henry  passed  to  France  war  would  not  be  declared 
without  a  herald  being  sent.     The  French  queen  (Anne  of 
Brittany)  had  given  James  a  ring  with  a  substantial  sub- 
sidy, and  he  had  already  made  up  his  mind  for  war.     Like 
Henry,  be  longed  to  win  his  spurs.     Henry  went  to  France 
in  June,  and  soon  after  his  arrival  at  the  camp  at  Terouanne, 
the  Scottish  Lord  Lyon  brought  the  threatened  declaration 
of  war  ( 1 1  th  August  1 5 1 .5).     The  grounds  stated  were  the 
seizure  of  Scotsmen  on  the  borders,  the  refusal  of  Margaret's 
legacy,  and  the  death  of  Barton.     No  time  was  lost  by 
James' in  carrying  the  declaration  into  effect ;  but  the  war 
was  disliked  by  the  nation.     The  earl  of  Arran,  sent  with 
the  fleet  to  aid  the  French,  sailed  instead,  in  defiance  of 
orders,   to  Carrickfergus.     James  himself  called  out  the 
whole' land  force  contrary  to  the  advice  of  his  council, 
mustering  at  the  Boroughmuir  100,000  men  according  to 
English  accounts— probably  exaggerated,  but  doubtless  as 
large  an  army  as  had  been  seen  in  Scotland.     Crossing 
the' border,  he  took  Norham,  Wark,  and  Ford.     At  the 
last  of  these  castles  the  wife  of  Heron,   the  proprietor, 
then  a  prisoner  in  Scotland,  beguiled  James  by  her  beauty, 
causing  him   to  waste  several   days  and   betraying  his 
♦novements  to  the  enemy.     In  the  conduct  of  the  battle 
(9th  September  1513)  which  followed  he  committed  almost 
every  fault  a  general  could  commit, — neglecting  to  engage 
when  the  enemy  were  crossing  the  'Till,  allowing  himself  to 
be  outflanked  by  Surrey,  who  got  between  him  and  the 
Scottish  border,  abandoning  his  strong  position  on  the  hill 
of  Flodden,  and  finally  exposing  his  own  person  on  foot  in 
the  centre  of  the  fight.     Some  Scottish  writers  claim  that 
the  battle  was  a  divided  success  and  that  the  total  number 
af  English  killed  was  greater;  but  Hall,  an  exact  chronicler, 
says  12,000  Scots  fell  and  only  1500  Engli.sh,  as  appeared 
from   the  book   of  wages  when   the  soldiers  were   paid. 
What  made  Flodden  so  great  a  disaster  was  the  quality 
of  the  Scottish  loss.     The  king  himself,  his  son,  the  arch- 
bishop of  St  Andrews,  two  bishops,  two  abbots,  twelve 
carls,  and  fourteen  lords,  besides  many  knights  and  gentle- 
men, were  left  on  the  field.     There  was  scarcely  a  noble 
•family    which    did    not   mourn    some   of    its    members. 
Surrey  did  not  follow  up  his  victory  by  invading  Scot- 
land, since  his  object  was  gained :  the  diversior.by  the  Scots 
in  favour  of  France  was  at  an  end.     Scotland  was  again 
left  \vith  an  infant  king,  scarcely  more  than  a  year  old. 

The  character  of  James  IV.  was  on  the  surface.  An 
excellent  observer,- the  Spanish  ambassador  Ayala,  notes 
his  good  looks  and  agreeable  manners,  his  knowledge  of 
languages  and  history,  his  respect  for  the  service  of  the 
^hurch  and  its  priests,  his  liberality  and  courage,  "  even 
more  than  a  king  should  have,  not  taking  the  least  care  of 
himself,"  his  bad  generalship,  "  beginning  to  fight  before  he 
had  given  his  orders,"  and  his  wise  statesmanship,  deciding 
nothing  without  counsel,  but  acting  according  to  his  own 
judgment,  which  was  generally  right. 

The  reign  of  James  fell  within  the  era  of  the  revival 
of  learning,  and  Scotland,  though  late,  camo  within  the 
circle  of  the  intellectual  which  preceded  the  religious  refor- 
mation. It  was  common  for  Scottish  scholars  to  complete 
their  education  and  sometimes  to  remain  teaching  in  the 
nniversities  of  Franco.  One  of  these,  Elphinstone,  bishop 
of  Aberdeen,  who  founded  its  universitv,  brought  another, 

21  -1  ^ 


Hector  Boece,  the  historian,  to  be  first  principal  of  King's 
College,  Aberdeen.  James  himself  engaged  Erasmus  as 
tutor  to  his  son,  the  future  archbishop.  Two  other  Scotsmen 
passed  to  Paris  in  the  beginning  of  the  next  reign,  John 
Major  and  his  pupil  Buchanan,  who  brought  back' less  of 
the  critical  but  more  of  the  Eeforming  spirit.  These  and 
other  learned  men  neglected  a  reform  as  essential  as  any, — 
the  use  of  the  mother-tongue  in  their  writings,  and  the 
nclect  has  lessened  their  fame ;  but  it  had  its  exponents 
in^Dunbar,  Henryson,  Sir  David  Lyndsay,  and  Gavin 
Douglas.  The  printing  press  also  found  its  way  to  Edin- 
burgh, and  Chepman  and  Myllar  published  their  first  broad- 
sheets with  works  of  Dunbar,  Douglas,  and  the  remains  of 
the  older  poetry  (see  p.  540  sq.  below). 

7.   The  Reformation,  its  Antecedents  and  Consequences. — 
James  V.  (1513-42),  scarcely  eighteen  months  old  when  he 
succeeded,  was  at  once  crowned  at  Scone,  where  a  par- 
liament met,  chiefly  attended  by  the  clergy.     The  queen 
dowager  was  appointed  regent, — a  secret  message,  however, 
being  sent  to  John,  duke  of  Albany,  to  come  from  France 
and  assume  the  regency.    The  son  of  the  exiled  brother  of 
James  III.,  Albany  had  by  his  marriage  to  his  cousin,  the 
heiress  of  De  la  Tour  d'Auvergne,  become  a  great  noble -in 
France,  where  he  held  the  office  of  high  admiral,  and  neither 
he  nor  the  French  king,  Louis  XII.,  was  willing  that  he 
should  quit  France.     The  Sieur  de  la  Bastie  came  as  his 
representative.     The  precipitate  marriage  of  the  queen, 
four  months  after  the  birth  of  a  posthumous  child,  to  the 
young  earl  of  Angus,  and  a  dispute  as  to  the  see  of  St 
Andrews,  to  which  Margaret  appointed  Gavin  Douglas  the 
poet,  her  husband's  kinsman,  although  Hepburn  the  prior 
had  been  chosen  by  the  chapter,  led  the  Scottish  estates  to 
renew  their  request  that  Albany  should  come  to  Scotland. 
He  arrived  at  Dumbarton  on  18th  May  1515  and  was  at 
once  appointed  regent.     The  queen  refused  to  give  up  herRcgeasj 
son,  but  Albany  besieged  Stirling  and  forced  her  to  sur-of 
render.     Her  new  husband  fled  to  Fiance,  and  Margaret  ^"^"r 
first  to  Dacre,  warden  of  the  marches,  and  then  to  her 
brother's   court,   where   she   was  joined  by  Angus.     At 
Harbottle  in  Northumberland,  on  her  journey  south,  she 
bore   a    daughter,    Margaret    Douglas,    afterwards   Lady 
Lennox,  Darnley's  mother.    Henry  VIII.  asked  the  Scottish 
parliament  to  remove  Albany  from  the  regency,  but  was 
met  with  a  decided  refusal ;  for,  though  a  party  of  nobles, 
especially  the  border  barons  Lord  Hume,  the  chamberlain, 
and  his  brother,  were  opposed  to  him,  he  was  supported 
by   the    nation.     The   young   duke    of    Ross,    Margaret's 
younger  son,   having  died   suddenly,  Albany   procured  a 
declaration  from  parliament  that  Boss's  elder  half-brother 
was   illegitimate    and    himself   next   heir   to   the   crown. 
Hume    and   his   brother   were    seized    and    executed   at 
Edinburgh  (2Gth  October  1516).     These  events  aroused 
suspicion  that  Albany  aimed  at  the  crown ;  but  the  suspicion 
appears  to  have  been  unfounded.     His  tastes  were  French  ; 
hence  ho  quickly  tired  of  trying  to  govern  Scotland,  and 
in  autumn  obtained  w-ith  difficulty  leave  of  absence  for  four 
months.     Before  Ica.ing  he  put  Dumbarton,  Dunbar,  and 
Inchgarvie  (in  the  Forth)  in  charge  of  French  garrisons 
under  De  la  Bastie,  who  held  the  post  of  warden  of  fho 
marches ;  but  a.i  interim  regency  was  appointed.    Margaret 
now  returned  to  Scotland  ;  but  she  was  not  permitted  to 
take  part  in  the  government.     Shortly  after  his  arrival  in 
Franco    Albany   negotiated    tho    treaty  of    Rouen    (20lh 
August)  by  which  an  alliance  between  Franco  and  Scotland 
was  agreed  on  against  England,  and  a  promise  fjiven  that 
tho  Scottish  king  should  marry  a  daughter  of  Francis  I., 
or  if  that  failed  another  French  princess.     In  September 
De   la   Bastie  was  murdered  near  Dunbar  by  Hume  of 
Wcdderburn  with  tho  connivance  of  Dacrc.     Tho  perpe- 
trators were  forfeited,  but  never  brought  to  justice,  although 


498 


SCOTLAND 


[history. 


Arran,  who  succeeded  to  the  office  of  warden,  was  sent  for 
that  purpose.  The  absence  of  a  supreme  authority  gave 
free  scope  to  the  licence  of  the  nobles. 

A  serious  rising  in  the  Highlands  to  support  the  claim 
of  Macdonald  of  Lochalsh  to  the  lordship  of  the  Isles  lasted 
for  several  years,  till  the  death  of  the  claimant  and  the 
vigour  of  the  earl  of  Argyll,  the  head  of  a  house  now  rising 
into  pre-eminence,  led  to  its  suppression.     The  chief  dis- 
turbances arose  from  the  ambition  of  Angus ;  Archibald, 
his  uncle,  was  chosen  provost  of  Edinburgh ;  his  brother 
William  seized  the  priory  of  Coldingham ;  his  uncle  Gavin, 
though  he  failed  to  secure  the  primacy,  retained  the  see  of 
Dunkeld.    Angus  was  supported  by  the  earls  of  Crawford, 
Erroll,  and  Glamis,  by  Forman,  archbishop  of  St  Andrews, 
and  most  of  the  other  bishops,  except  James  Beaton,  arch- 
bishop of  Glasgow  and  chancellor.     The  English  warden, 
Dacre,  was  also  on  his  side  and  tried  by  intrigue  and 
bribery  to  foment  dissension  and  prevent  Albany's  return. 
The  opposite  faction  was  headed  by  Arran,  Lennox,  Eglin- 
ton,  Cassilis,  Scrapie,  the  bishop  of  Galloway,  and  the 
chancellor.    Scotland  was  thus  divided  between  an  English 
party,  strongest  in  the  east,  and  a  French  party,  chiefly  in 
the  west.    Their  disputes  reached  a  crisis  in  a  street  fight  in 
Edinburgh,  which  got  the  name  of  "Cleanse  the  Causeway  " 
(30th  April  1520),  in  which  Angus  drove  Arran  out  of  the 
tovni  and  seized  the  castle.    Sir  i?atrick  Hamilton,  a  brother 
of  Arran,  was  slain  by  Angus, — an  injury  never  forgiven. 
Meantime  Margaret  quarrelled  with  her  husband,  and, 
though    there    was  a    temporary  reconciliation,    mutual 
accusations  of  infidelity  were  too  well  grounded  to  oermit 
.  of  its  being  permanent. 
Supre-         Next  year  Albany  returned  and  the  queen,  who  had  been 
macy  of  jn  secret  correspondence  with  him,  entrusted  him  with  the 
^^'    custody  of  the  young  king.     Henry  VIII.  again  requested 
the  Scottish  parliament  to  expel  Albany ;  but  they  again 
refused,  and  Angus  made  terms  with  Albany  on  condition 
that  he  should  himself  withdraw  to  France.     War  was 
now  declared  between  England  and  Scotland  .(1522) ;  but, 
although  Albany  advanced  with  a  large  army  as  far  as 
Carlisle,  he  was  persuaded  by  Dacre  to  a  month's  truce  and 
soon  after  went  back  to  France,  leaving  the  king  in  charge 
of  a  regency  of  which  Beaton,  Arran,  Huntly,  and  Argj'll 
were  the  leaders.     Albany  returned  in  the  following  year 
and  again  with  a  large  force  invaded  England,  but  failed  to 
take  Wark,  while  Surrey,  the  English  commander,  ravaged 
the  border.     This  failure  lost  Albany  his  credit  with  the 
Scots.     In  1524  he  went  to  France  on  condition  that  if 
he  did  not  come  back  before  31st  August  his  regency 
should  end.     He  never  returned,  and  during  his  absence 
Margaret  carried  off  her  son  from  Stirling  to  Edinburgh, 
where,  although  only  a  boy  of  twelve,  he  was  declared 
king.     Angus  made  an  agreement  with  Wolsey  to  support 
the  English  interest ;  and  at  a  parliament  in  Edinburgh 
Albany's  regency  was  declared  at  an  end  (12th  February 
•1525),  and  Angus  and  Beaton  obtained  possession  of  the 
king's  person  and  governed  in  his  name.     The  queen,  who 
had  now  openly  broken  ^vith  her  brother,  in  vain  appealed 
to  France  and  Albany.    The  French  were  occupied  with  the 
war  against  the  emperor ;  but  she  obtained  from  James 
Beaton,  now  archbishop  of  St  Andrews,  a  divorce  from 
Angus  and  married  Henry  Stuart,  son  of  Lord  Avondale, 
creating  him  Lord  Methven. 

For  three  years  Angus  retained  the  supreme  power  and 
fiUed  aU  offices  with  his  adherents.  Beaton,  with  whom  he 
quarrelled,  was  required  to  resign  that  of  cliancellor,  and 
Angus  nominated  himself  as  his  successor.  The  indignant 
nobles  made  unsuccessful  attempts  to  seize  the  person  of 
the  king,  who  at  last,  on  23d  May  1528,  effected  his  escape 
from  Falkland,  riding  at  night  to  Stirling,  ^.here  he  was 
welcomed  by  the  governor.    Before  parliameia  met  a  pro- 


clamation forbade  any  Douglas  to  remain  in  the  capital,  asstm 
A  new  mmistry  was  appointed  with  Gavin  Dunbar,  now  tion  o 
archbishop  of  Glasgow,  who  had  been  the  king's  tutor,  as  ^"^^"^ 
chancellor  J  Cameron,  abbot  of  Holyrood,  as '.reasurer ;  andj"°' 
the  bishop  of  Dunkeld  as  privy  seal.     The  Douglases' were  *""' 
attainted  and  their  estates  divided  amongst  the  nobles  of 
the  opposite  faction.     A  truce  was  made  with  England  for 
five  years.     During  the  minority  and  duress  of  James  the 
Scottish  nobility  became  accustomed  to  bribes  either  from         ' 
England  or  France.    The  French,  to  which  the  higher  clergy 
belonged,  were  in  the  ascendant  at  the  court  of  the  youn^ 
king,  who  naturally  felt  ill-will  towards  the  Douglases  and 
leant  on  Albany,  and  after  a  time  on  Cardinal  David  Beaton, 
bishop  of  Mirepoix  in  France  and  nephew  of  the  archbishop 
of  St  Andrews,  whom  he  afterwards  succeeded.     Beaton 
was  the  Wolsey  of  Scotland ;  but  James  V.  was  not  Henry 
VIIL,  and  the  ambition  of  the  great  prelate  was  baffled, 
not  by  the  king,  but  by  the  nation.     Three  months  before 
the  king's  escape  Patrick  Hamilton  (q.v.),  abbot  of  Feme, 
was  burnt  for  heresy  at  St  Andrews. 

James,  only  seventeen  when  he  gained  his  independence 
(1528),  showed,  like  other  Stuarts,  activity  in  government, 
and  the  fourteen  years  of  his  actual  rule,  while  not  marked 
by  outstanding  events,  were  a  period  of  renewed  order  and 
prosperity.  He  first  turned  to  the  borders,  where  constant 
wars  with  England  had  bred  a  race  of  lawless  freebooters. 
By  the  severity  of  his  measures  he  succeeded  in  doing  what 
Angus  and  his  predecessors  had  in  vain  tried  to  do.  The 
borders  continued  till  the  union  to  trouble  the  ministers  of 
the  law ;  but  the  clans  who  lived  by  plunder  and  blackmail 
were_  first  really  broken  by  the  expedition  of  James  V. 
But  it  was  not  only  borderers  who  required  to  be  taught 
that  a  king  was  again  on  the  throne :  Argyll,  who  had 
sought  to  make  himself  independent,  was  deprived  of  his 
lieutenancy  and  imprisoned^  Bothwell,  the  father  of 
Mary's  husband,  was  beheaded  for  the  favour  he  showed 
the  borderers ;  and  the  estates  of  the  earl  of  Crawford  were 
forfeited.  James  made  a  progress  through  the  Highlands 
and  was  sumptuously  entertained  by  the  earl  of  Athole. 
\Miile  criminal  justice  was  strictly  enforced,  a  step  was  at 
last  taken  to  organize  a  central  civil  court,(15th  May  1532), 
which  had  been  a  settled  plan  of  the  kings  since  James  I. 
The  College  of  Justice  or  Court  of  Session  was  founded  in 
Edinburgh  by  the  influence  of  Albany  with  the  pope, — 
funds  being  got  from  the  bishops'  revpnues  for  the  payment 
of  the  judges.  Of  the  fifteen  judges  eight,  including  the 
president,  were  to  be  clergy,  and  the  barons  were  conciliated 
by  the  anomalous  office  of  extraordinary  lords.i 

The  relations  between  James  and  Henry  Vin.  continued 
hostile  and  there  were  mutual  raids  till  peace  was  concluded 
in  1534.  Henry  was  then  at  the  critical  point  of  his 
divorce  from  Catherine  of  Aragon  and  anxious  to  secure 
an  ally.  France  and  Spain  were  also  competing  for  the 
favour  of  the  Scottish  monarch,  and  Charles  V.  proposed  a 
marriage  with  Mary  of  Portugal  But  he  had  already 
indicated  a  preference  for  a  French  alliance,  selecting  Mary^ 
daughter  of  the  due  de  Vendume.  The  pope  addressed 
James  as  defender  of  the  faith,  a  title  Henry  VIII.  had 
forfeited.  The  clergy  by  Beaton's  advice  granted  him  a 
large  allowance  out  of  their  revenues.  These  inducements 
and  the  influence  of  Beaton  and  Dunbar,  the  two  arch- 
bishops, kept  James  firm  in  his  attachment  to  the  old 
church,  in  spite  of  the  temptation  which  Henry  held  out 
in  its  endowments  and  of  the  satires  in  which  Sir  David 


'  There  were  already  signs  of  the  small  beginning  of  the  profession 
of  lay  lawyers  who  were  to  play  an  important  part  in  Scottish  afl'airj 
in  tlie  17lli  and  18th  centuries.  The  establishment  of  a  settled  system 
of  justice,  independent  alike  of  the  baronial  and  ecclesiastiual  courts, 
vas  a  much  needed  reform;  but  the  latter  still  retained  their  consia- 
torial  jurisiiiction. 


:> 


c 


BEFORIIATION.] 


SCOTLAND 


499 


Lyndsay,  his  old  tutor,  and  Buchanan,  the  tutor  of  one  of 
his  bastards,  exposed  its  abuses.     In  1537  he  went  to 
France  to  see  his  bride,  but,  falling  in  love  with  Madeleine, 
daughter  of  Francis  I.,  obtained  her  hand  instead.     After 
an  absence  of  nine  months  he  returned ;  but  tho  young 
queen  died  within  a  few  weeks  after  landing.    The  following 
year  he  married  lilary,  dowager  duchess  of  Longuevillo, 
daughter  of  Claude  of  Lorraine,  duke  of  Guise.    Next  year 
(1539)  Henry  made  another  attempt  to  gain  James  through 
■his  envoy  Sir  Ealph  Sadler,  but;  though  the  succession  to 
tho  English  crown  in  the  event  of  Prince  Edward's  death 
■was  held  out  as  a  bait,  James  remained  unmoved.    In  1 540 
tho  king  made  a  voyage  round  Scotland,— the  firet  circum- 
navigation of  his  dominions  by  a  Scottish  sovereign.     The 
Irish"  are  said  to  have  offered  him  their  crown,  and  the 
barons  of  the  north  of  England,  whose  sympathies  were 
Catholic,  were  inclined  to  favour  him.    The  position  was 
perilous  for  Henry,  many  of  whose  subjects  still  remained 
Catholics  at  heart.     He  made  a  last  attempt  to  induce 
James  to  meet  him  at  York,  but  tho  Scottish  king  would 
not  go  so  far  across  the  border.     Henry  now  ordered  the 
inarches  to  be  put  in  a  state  of  war,  and  Sir  James  Bowes, 
accompanied  by  Angus  and  Sir  George  Douglas,  crossed 
the  border,  but  was  defeated  in  Teviotdale  by  Huntly  and 
Home.    The  duke  of  Norfolk  advanced  with  a  large  force, 
and,  efforts  to  avert  war  having  failed,  James  assembled 
the  whole  Scottish  army  and  marched  to  Fala  on  tho 
Lammermuirs,  where  he  was  reluctantly  obliged  to  disband 
lis  force  through  the  refusal  of  the  nobles  to  go  farther ; 
they  even  thought  of  repeating  the  tragedy  of  Lauder,  but 
could  not  agree  as  to  the  victims.     James  raised  a  smaller 
force  and  gave  the  command  of  it  to  Oliver  Sinclair,  whose 
promotion  was  ill  received  by  the  barons.     Their  discord 
allowed  an  easy  victory  to  Dacre,  who  routed  them  as  they 
[      .,-were  passing  over  Solway  Moss  (25th  November  1542), 
I        taking  Sinclair  and  several  of  the  leaders  prisoners.     The 
I       inews,  brought  to  James  at  Caerlaverock,  together  with 
the  disaffection  of  the.  nobles,  broke  his  heart.     A  ■  few 
■weeks  later  at  Falkland  he  heard  of  the  birth  of  Mary 
Stuart,  but  the  news  brought  him  no  comfort.    His  saying, 
"  The  crown  came  with  a  lass  and  will  go  with  a  lass,"  has 
passed  into  history,  although  the  prophecy  was  not  fulfilled. 
Outwardly  his  reign  had  been,  with  the  exception  of  the 
closing  scene,  successful.    He  had  restored  order  along  the 
twrders,  and  put  down  all  attempts  of  the  nobles  against 
tis  person.    He  had  maintained  the. church,  supporting  the 
bishops  by  severe  laws  against  heresy.     He  had  secured  by 
nis  marriage  the  alliance  of  France  and  was  on  good  terms 
with  other  Continental  states.    His  powerful  neighbour  had 
not  succeeded  in  wresting  any  land  from  Scotland.    He  was, 
like  his  father,  a  popular  king,  mingling  with  the  people  in 
their  sports,  and  respected  because  of  his  strict  administra- 
tion of  justice.     But  his  foreboding  was  not  without  cause. 
The  power  of  the  nobles  had  only  been  restrained,  not  de- 
stroyed.   Tho  Aristocracy  had  too  many  heads  to  be  cut  off 
by  one  or  several  blows.    The  principles  of  tho  Reformation 
were  gradually  spreading  in  spite  of  the  attempts  to  stifle 
them,  and  tho  infant  to  whom  he  left  the  crown  had  to 
encounter  rebellion- at  home  and  the  hostility  of  England, 
not  the  less  dangerous  that  she  was  heir  to  tho  English 
crown  and  its  rulers  veiled  their  hatred  of  her  by  professions 
of  friendship.     Knox  describes  James  as  "  a  blinded  and 
most  vicious  king."     Buchanan,  who  knew  him  better,  is 
more  fair,  ascribing  his  faults  to  his  time  and  bad  education 
and  doing  justice  to  tho  qualities  which  made  himloved  by 
the  people, 
iry  Mary  Stuart  was  deemefl  queen  of  Scotland  from  Hth 

>»rt.    December  1512  till  29th  July  1567,  when  her  son  James 
'  >  VL  was  crowned  in  her  stead.    This  period  of  a  quarter  of 
a  century  is  more  crowded  with  events  than  any  other  part 


of  tne  Scottish  annals,  except  the  Tfar  of  Independence.  153* 
It  was  tho  epoch  of  the  Reformation,  and  it  became  a 
question  of  European  as  well  as  national  importance  which 
side  Scotland  woidd  take.     Closely  connected  with  the 
religious  question  was  the  political,  affecting  the  union  of 
Scotland  and  England.     The  life  of  Mary,  who  united  the 
personal  charm  of  her  race  and  its  evil  fortune,  adds  tragic 
interest  to  the  national  history.    It  falls  into  three  parts, — 
from  her  birth  to  her  return  from  France  as  the  young 
widow  of  Francis  II.  in  1561  ;  from  her  arrival  in  Scotland 
till  her  flight  in  1568;  and  from  her  arrival  in  England 
till  her  execution  in  1687;  but  only  the  second  of  these 
enters  into  the  direct  current  of  Scottish  history.    During 
the  first  Scotland  was  under  the  regency,  first  of  Arran,  then 
of  Mary  of  Guise.    It  was  rumoured  that  Cardinal  Beaton 
forced  James  V.  on  his  deathbed  to  sign  a  will  naming  him 
regent,  or  had  forged  such  a  document ;  but  the  principaf 
nobles  proclaimed  the  earl  of  Arran  heir-presumptive  to  Kepacrf 
the  crown,  governor  of  the  realm,  and  tutor  to  the  queen,  of.Anw 
and  this  was  confirmed  by  parliament  in  the  following 
spring.    Beaton  was  thrown  into  prison,  but  soon  released. 
The  death  of  James  suggested  to  Henry  a  new  scheme  for 
the  annexation  of  Scotland  by  the  marriage  of  the  infant 
heiress  to  his  son  Edward,  and  he  released  the  nobles  taken 
at  Solway  Moss  on  easy  terms  under  an  assurance  that  they 
would  aid  him.     Angus  and  his  brother  George  Douglas 
also  returned  to  Scotland  from  their  long  exile  on  the  same 
promise.    Sir  Ralph  Sadler,  one  of  the  ablest  English  resi- 
dents at  the  Scottish  court — half  envoys,  half  spies — was 
sent  to  conduct  the  negotiations.     Arran  wae  tempted  to 
favour  the  marriage  by  the  offer  of  the  princess  Elizabeth     , 
for  his  son  and  the  government  north  of  the  Forth.     But 
the  queen  dowager,  though  she  pretended  not  to  be  averse 
to  it,  and  Beaton  did  all  they  could  to  counteract  Hcnr/a 
project.     One  part  of  it,  the  immediate  delivery  of  Mary 
and  the  principal  castles  to  the  English  king,  was  specially 
objected  to.     A  mutual  alliance  between  the  two  kingdoms 
was  agreed  to  on  1st  July  1543,  and  Mary  Avas  to  be  sent 
to  England  when  ten  years  old.-    Soon  after  a  party  of  the 
nobles  opposed  to  the  match  got  possession  of  the  young 
queen  and  removed  her  to  Stirling.     The  English  treaty 
was  ratified  by  parliament ;  but  Beaton  and  his  partisans 
did  not  attend,  and  a  few  days  later  the  regent,  as  Sadler 
expresses  it,  revolted  to  tho  cardinal.     It  was  evident  that 
the  assured  lords,  though  in  English  pay,  were  not  U)  be 
relied  on,  and  Henry  resolved  on  war.     His  first  act — Warwitb 
the  seizure  of  Scottish  merchantmen  in  English  port-s —  ^j'H' 
roused  the  patriotic  feeling  of  Scotland.     Before  the  close 
of  the  year  the  Scottish  estates  declared  tho  treaty  with 
England  null  and  renewed  the  old  league  with  France. 
Lord  Lisle  was  sent  with  a  fleet  to  tho  Firth  of  Forth, 
along  with  Hertford  (afterwards  the  protector  Somerset) 
as  commander  of  the  army,  and  Leith  was  sacked  and 
Edinbutgh  burnt,  though  the  castle  held  out     Lisle  on 
his  voyage  home  raragcd  the  ports  of  the  Forth,  while 
Hertford  destroyed  the  towns  and  \al!ngca  of  .the  Lothians, 
aided  by  the  Engliah  wardens,  who  made  a  raid  across  tho 
border.      Hertford  returned  tho  following  year  and  de- 
stroyed the  abbeys  of  Kelso,  Jedburgh,  Jlclroso,  Dryburgli, 
Roxburgh,  and  Coldinghani,  besides  many  castles,  market- 
towns,  and  villages.     Such  barbarous  warfare  renewed  the 
memory  of  the  War  of  Independence  and  tho  intense  hatred 
of  England,wliich  had  greatly  abated.     Lennox  and  Glen- 
cairn  alone  of  the  nobles  sided  with  the  English,  and  the 
Reformers  saw  with  regret  tho  nation  driven  to  a  Froncb 
alliance  a.s  at  least  preferable  to  English  cnnquost. 

Beaton  at  this  tinio  really  governed,  imposing  his  will 
on  the  vacillating  repent  and  .stornly  repressing  hore^. 
George  Wishart,  the  chief  preacher  of  the  Reformers,  Tfas 
seized,  found  guilty  of  eighteen  articles  of  heresy,  mostly 


500 


SCOTLAND 


[histoky. 


taken  from  Calvin,  and  burnt  at  St  Andrews.  The  war 
of  religion,  now  openly  declared,  could  not  be  carried  on 
without  bloodshed  on  both  sides.  Beaton  was  assassinated 
less  than  three  months  after  Wishart's  death  in  his  own 
castle  by  Norman  Leslie  and  other  young  men,  some  with 
private  grievances,  all  desiring  to  avenge  Wishart.  The 
effect  was  adverse  to  the  Reformers.  Leslie  and  his  asso- 
ciates, joined  by  a  few  others,  of  whom  Knox  was  one, 
being  shut  in  the  castle,  held  it  for  a  short  time  against 
the  regent,  but  we'-Q  ^orced  to  surrender  to  Strozzi,  the 
French  admiral. 

The  death  of  Henry  VIIL  (1547)  did  not  put  a  stop  to 
the  war  with  England.  The  protector' Somerset  proved  to 
be  an  implacable  enemy,  and,  partly  to  strengthen  his 
position  as  regent,  determined  to  strike  a  more  signal 
blow.  Invading  Scotland  simultaneously  with  a  large  fleet 
and  army,  he  defeated  the  Scottish  regent  at  Pinkie  (18th 
September  1547),  took  Edinburgh,  and  placed  garrisons  in 
several  castles.  Scotland  had  suffered  no  such  reverse 
since  Flodden.  The  progress  of  the  capital  was  throwji 
back  at  least  a  century ;  scarcely  a  building  remains 
prior  to  the  date  of  his  savage  raids.  Somerset  was  not 
in  a  position  to  follow  up  his  advantage,  for  he  had  to 
return  home  to  counteract  intrigues.  The  young  queen 
was'  sent  from  Dumbarton  in  the  following  summer 
(August  1548)  to  the  court  of  France,  where  she  was 
brought  up  with  the  children  of  Henry  II.  by  Catherine 
de'  Medici.  Before  she  went  a  French  force  had  been  sent 
to  Scotland,  .and  in  the  camp  at  Haddington  the  estates 
had,  by  a  majority  led  by  the  regent  and  queen  dowager, 
agreed  to  Mary's  betrothal  to  the  dauphin.  The  regent 
was  promised  the  dukedom  of  Chastelherault  in  return 
for  his  part  in  the  treaty.  For  two  years  a  fierce  inter- 
mittent war  continued  between  England  and  Scotland ; 
but  the  former  country  was  too  much  engaged  in  home 
affairs  and  the  French  war  to  send  a  large  force,  and  the 
Scots  recovered  the  places  they  had  lost  except  Lauder. 
The  issue  of  the  French  war  was  also  adverse  to  the 
English,  who  were  forced  to  agree  to  the  treaty  of  Bou- 
logne (24th  Llarch  1550),  in  which  Scotland  was  included. 
In  September  the  queen  dowager  went  to  France  and  ob- 
taiined  the  transfer  of  the  regency  from  Arran  to  herself. 
On  her  return,  Arran  not  being  prepared  lo  rehnquish  his 
office,  she  proved  herself  a  skilful  diplomatist,  gaining  over 
the  nobles  by  promises  and  the  people  by  abstaining  from 
persecution  of  the  Keformers.  A  single  execution — that 
of  Adam  Wallace,  "  a  simple  but  very  zealous  man  for  the 
new  doctrines" — took  place  in  1550  under  the  sanction  of 
Archbishop  Hamilton,  natural  brother  of  Arran,  who  had 
succeeded  Beaton ;  but  that  prelate,  whose  natural  dis- 
position was  towards  compromise,  authorized  a  Catechism 
in  1552  which  minimized  the  distinctions  in  doctrine  be- 
tween the  church  and  the  Reformers,  and  was  conspicuous 
for  omitting  all  reference  to  the  supremacy  of  the  pope. 
At  this  time  a  large  section  of  the  clergy  and  people  were 
still  wavering,  and  the  necessity  of  retaining  them  by 
moderation  and  reform  was  evident.  The  death  of  Edward 
VI.  and  the  accession  of  Mary  in  1553  had  an  important 
influence  on  the  progress  of  the  Scottish  Reformation.  The 
Scottish  Reformers  who  had  taken  refuge  in  England  had 
to  escape  persecution  by  returning  home  or  going  abroad, 
and  the  powgrful  preaching  of  Harlaw,  Willock,  and  Knox, 
who  ca.-ne  to  Scotland  towards  the  end  of  1555,  promoted 
the  new  doctrines. 

In  the  spring  of  1554  the  queen  dowager  at  last  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  from  the  reluctant  Arran  a  surrender 
of, the  regency.  Mary, had  how  attained  her  twelfth  year 
and  a  nomination  by  her  of  her  liother  as  tutor  gave  the 
form  of  law  to  what  was  really  the  act  of  tlie  queen  dowager, 
th«  French  king,  and  the  nobility.   The  people  acquiesced, 


for  all  classes  were  tired  of  a  governor  whose  chief  object 
was  money.  His  actual  'investiture  in  the  French  dukedom 
removed  any  scruples  in  relinquishing  a  dangerous  dignity. 
For  the  next  six  years  the  queen  dowager  was  regent  and 
conducted  the  government  with  such  prudence  that  her 
real  aims  were  only  seen  through  by  the  most  penetrating. 
Knox  has  been  accused  of  a  harsh  opinion  of  her;  but 
the  upshot  of  her  policy  if  successful  would  have  been  to 
subject  Scotland  to  France  and  to  that  party  in  France  so 
soon  to  be  the  relentless  persecutors  of  the  Reformers. 
She  knew  well  how  to  bide  her  time,  to  yield  when  re- 
sistance was  impolitic,  to  hide  her  real  object,  but  this 
she  pursued  with  great  tenacity  of  purpose.  A  variety 
of  circumstances  favoured  her, — the  condition  of  England 
under  Jlary  Tudor,  the  ill-will  Arran  had  incurred,  the 
absence  of  any  leading  noble  who  could  attempt  to  seize 
the  supreme  power,  the  safety  at  the  French  court  of  her 
daughter,  in  whose  name  she  governed,  and  the  knowledge 
of  her  adopted  country  acquired  by  long  residence.  Yet 
her  first  step  was  a  mistake  so  serious  as  to  have  well- 
nigh  provoked  revolution.  In  appointments  to  offices 
she  showed  such  preference  for  her  own  countrymen  as 
created  intense  jealousy  on  the  part  of  the  Scottish  nobility, 
and  would  probably  have  led  to  open  action  but  for  the 
fact  that  many  Scotsmen  got  offices  and  pensions  from  the 
French  king.  The  new  regent  applied  herself  at  once  to 
the  perennial  work  of  every  Scottish  Government,  the  re- 
pression of  disorder  in  the  Highlands,  and  first  Huntly, 
afterwards  Argyll  and  Athole,  were  sent  to  Argyll  and  the 
Isles ;  but  the  presence  of  royalty  was,  as  had  before  been 
found,  the  best  remedy,  and  she  made  next  year  a  circuit 
in  person  with  more  success  than  any  of  her  lieutenants. 
Under  the  advice  of  her  French  counsellors  she  now  garri- 
soned Dunbar  with  French  soldiers  and  built  a  fort  at 
Eyemouth  (1556).  She  even  ventured  to  propose  to  levy 
a  tax  for  the  maintenance  of  a  standing  army ;  but  the 
remonstrance  of  300  barons,  headed  by  Sir  John  Sandi- 
lands,  forced  her  to  abandon  a  project  so  fatal  in  that  age 
to  liberty.  Next  year,  at  the  instigation  of  the  French 
king,  she  endeavoured  to  force  the  country  into  an  English 
war.  No  time  could  have  been  worse  chosen,  for  com- 
missioners from  England  and  Scotland  had  actually  met 
at  Carlisle  to  adjust  differences  between  the  two  countries. 
The  Scottish  barons  refused  to  fight,  and  from  that  date. 
Bishop  Lesley  notes,  the  queen  regent  could  never  agree 
with  the  nobility,  and  sundry  of  them  sought  by  all  means 
to  raise  sedition  against  her  and  the  French. 

In  the  parliament  at  the  close  of  the  year  commis-  Mary 
sioners  were  appointed  to  go  to  France  for  the  marriage  ™^l^ 
between  !Mary  and  the  dauphin.  Their  instructions  were  daup 
to  obtain  a  promise  from  both  to  observe  the  Uberties  and 
privileges  of  Scotland  and  its  laws,  and  a  ratification  of  the 
Act  passed  in  1548,  when  it  was  first  proposed  to  send  the 
young  queen  to  France.  The  contract  of  marriage  pro- 
vided that  their  eldest  son  was  to  be  king  of  France  and 
Scotland  and  the  eldest  daughter  (should  there  be  no  son) 
queen  of  Scotland,  to  be  given  in  marriage  by  the  joint 
consent  of  the  king  of  France  and  the  Scottish  estates. 
In  the  event  of  her  husband's  death  Mary  was  to  be  free 
to  stay  in  France  or  return  to  Scotland.  The  marriage 
was  solemnized  at  Notre  Dame-on  24th  July  1558.  But 
prior  to  the  public  contract  a  secret  arrangement  had  been 
made,  by  which  Mary,  in  three  several  deeds,  made  over 
the  kingdom  of  Scotland  to  the  king  of  France  and  his 
heirs  if  she  died  childless,  assigned  to  him  possession  of 
the  kingdom  until  he  was  reimbiu^ed  in  a  million  piecea 
of  gold  for  her  entertainment  in  France,  and  declared  that, 
whatever  documents  she  might  afterwards  sign  by  decree 
of  parliament,  this  arrangement  expressed  her  genuine  in- 
tention.    After  the  return  of  the  commissioners  the  crown. 


yETORMATION.] 


SCOTLAND 


501 


matrimonial,  with  the  title  of  king,  was  granted  by  parlia- 
inent  to  the  dauphin. 

7?hile  statesmen  were  occupied  with  the  queen's  mar- 
l^age  the  Reformation  had  been  steadily  advancing.  Knox 
laboured  incessantly,  preaching  in  Edinburgh  ten  days  in 
succession  and  making  rapid  visits  to  the  central  and  west- 
em  shires.  He  attracted  to  his  side  representatives  of  the 
nobility  and  gentry,  and  had  much  support  in  the  towns. 
The  earl  of  Glencairn,  Lord  Lome,  Lord  James  Stuart, 
the  future  regent,  and_  the  laird  of  Dun,  John  Erskine, 
in  Angus  were  amongst  his  earliest  followers,  as  well  as 
niany  of  the  tradesmen  and  artisans.  Knox  now  openly 
Penounced  attendance  at  mass  as  idolatrous  and  began  to 
hdminister  the  Lord's  Supper  after  the  manner  of  the  Swiss 
Keformers.  He  was  summoned  to  Edinburgh  on  a  charge 
of  heresy ;  but,  though  he  kept  the  day,  the  proceedings 
■were  dropped.  Shortly  after  he  was  again  summoned,  but 
meanwhile  had  accepted  a  call  from  Geneva.  Li  his  absence 
he  was  condemned  for  heresy  and  burned  in  effigy  at  the 
market  cross  of  Edinburgh.  •  Though  absent,  he  continued 
the  master-spirit  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland,  and  as 
the  result  of  his  exhortations  Argyll,  Glencairn,  Morton, 
Lord  Lome,  and  Erskine  of  Dun  drew  up  a  bond  (3d 
December  1557)  to  "defend  the  whole  congregation  of 
Christ  and  every  member  thereof  .  .  .  against  Satan  and 
all  wicked  power,"  themselves  forsaking  and  renouncing 
"the  congregation  of  Satan  with  aU  the  superstition, 
abomination,  and  idolatry  thereof."  This  was  the  first 
of  many  bonds  or  covenants  in  which,  borrowing  the  old 
form  of  league  amongst  the  Scottish  nobility,  the  Lords  of 
Congregation  applied  it  to  the  purposes  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. They  afterwards  passed  resointiona  that  prayers 
should  be  read  weekly  in  all  parishes  by  the  curates 
publicly,  with  lessons  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
and  that  doctrine  and  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures 
should  be  used  privately  in  quiet  houses  until  God  should 
move  the  prince  to  grant  public  preaclung  by  faithful 
ministers.  Argyll  at  once  acted  upon  the  resolutions  and 
•protected  John  Douglas,  formerly  a  Dominican,  his  chap- 
lain, who  preached  at  Castle  Campbell  in  spite  of  the 
remonstrance  of  Archbishop  Hamilton.  That  prelate  next 
took  a  fatal  step.  Walter  Jlyln,  parish  priest  of  Lunan 
near  Montrose,  an  old  man  of  eighty-two,  was  burnt  for 
heresy  at  St  Andrews  (8th  April  1558).  He  was  the 
last  Protestant  martyr  in  Scotland.  The  total  number 
of  deaths  was  small,  it  is  believed  twenty  in  all ;  but  many 
people  were  banished  or  forced  to  leave  the  country  and 
many  fined,  while  none  were  allowed  freedom  of  worship. 
Immediately  after  the  death  of  Myln  there  began,  says 
Knox,  "a  new  fervencie  amongst  the  whole  people." 
Gathering  courage  from  the  popular  feeling,  the  Lords  of 
Congregation  presented  petitions  in  rapid  succes.sion  to  the 
regent.  •  The  first  laid  before  her  prayed  "  that  it  might  be 
lawful  to  meet  in  public  or  in  private  for  common  prayer 
in  the  vulgar  tongue,  to  interpret  at  such  meetings  hard 
places  in  Scripture,  and  to  use  that  tongue  in  administer- 
ing baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper";  in  reply  permission 
•was  granted  to  preach  in  private  and  to  administer  the 
sacraments  in  the  vulgar  tongue.  The  second  presented 
at  the  meeting  of  parliament  prayed  for  a  suspension  of 
all  Acts  against  heretics  until  a  general  council,  that  copies 
of  the  accusation  and  depositions  should  bo  given  to  all 
persons  accused  of  heresy,  that  the  accused  should  be 
allowed  themselves  to  interpret  any  words  charged  as 
Leretical,  and  should  not  be  condemned  unless  found 
guilty  of  teaching  contrary  to  Scripture.  "  The  regent," 
Knox  remarks,  "  spared  not  amiable  looks  and  good 
words,"  but  suffered  the  parliament  to  be  dissolved  (2d 
March  1557)  without  any  answer.  In  the  spring  a  synod 
met  in  Edinburgh  and  a  third  petition  waa  laid  before  it, 


praying  that  the  canons  should  be  enforced  against  clergy 
who  led  scandalous  lives,  that  there  should  be  preach- 
ing on  every  Lord's  day  and  on  holidays,  that  no  priests 
should  be  ordained  unless  able  to  read  the  Catechism 
distinctly,  that  prayer  should  be  in  the  vulgar  tongue, 
that  the  mortuary  dues  and  Easter  offerings  should  ba 
optional,  and  that  the  consistorial  process  should  be  re- 
formed.- Another  point  was  included  according  to  Lesley, 
—that  bishops  should  be  elected  with  the  consent  of  tha 
laity  of  the  diocese  and  priests  with  that  of  their  parish- 
ioners. The  synod  replied  that  they  could  not  fliapense 
with  Latin  in  public  prayer  as  appointed  by  the  church, 
and  that  the  canon  law  must  be  observed  as  to  elections 
of  bishops  and  pric-sts.  On  other  matters  they  were  pre- 
pared to  make  concessions,  and  passed  thirty-four  canons 
in  the  spirit  of  the  council  of  Trent  directed  to  the  due 
investigation  and  punishment  of  immorality  of  the  clergy 
and  the  inspection  of  monasteries,  better  provision  foi 
preaching  by  bishops  and  priests,  the  remission  of  mortuary 
dues  to  the  very  poor;  and  the  recognition  of  the  sacrament 
of  baptism  as  administered  by  the  Reformers.  A  short 
exposition  of  the  mass  was  to  be  published.  The.se  con 
cessions  proved  the  necessity  for  reform  ;  but,  as  they  were 
silent  on  the  principal  points  of  doctrine,  as  well  as  on  thfe 
more  radical  reforms  in  church  government,  they  could  not 
be  accepted.  Tlie  time  of  compromise,  if  compromise  had 
ever  been  practicable  between  Rome  and  Geneva,  to  which 
the  Scottish  Reformers  adhered,  was  now  past.  Two  eventa 
had  occurred  before  the  synod  separated  which  hastened 
the  crisis.  On  17th  November  1558  the  death  of  ilary 
Tudor  once  more  placed  on  the  English  throne  a  sovereigu 
inclined  to  favour  the  ReformatiorL  in  ilay,  during  tha 
sittings  of  the  sjmod,  Knox  returned  to  Scotland  and  the 
Scottish  Reformers  once  more  had  a  determined  leader. 

The  regent  issued  about  Easter  (1559)  a  proclamation  Stmggla 
forbidding  any  one  to  preach  or  administer  the  sacraments  tetweea 
without  authority  of  the  bishops.  •  Wiilock  and  other  lead-  Z^^^q^ 
ing  preachers  having  disregarded  it  were  summoned  to  and  Mart 
Stirling  on  10th  May.  Their  adherents  assembled  in  great  of  Guisa* 
numbers,  but  mostly  unarmed,  at  Perth,  a  town  zealous 
for  the  Reformed  opinions.  Erskine  of  Dun  went  from 
there  as  a  mediator  to  the  regent  at  Stirling;  she  pro- 
mised, but  in  vague  terms,  that  she  would  take  some 
better  order  •with  the  ministers  if  their  supporters  did  not 
advance.  Notwithstanding  they  wore  outlawed  for  not 
appearing  on  the  day  of  trial.  Next  day,  when  the  news 
reached  Perth,  Knox  preached  his  first  public  sermon 
(11th  May)  since  his  return,  inveighing  against  "idolatry." 
Hardly  had  he  ended  when  a  priest  began  mass  and  opened 
the  tabernacle  on  the  high  altar.  A  young  man  called 
out,  "This  is  intolerable  that,  when  God  by  His  Word  hath 
plainly  damned  idolatry,  we  shall  stand  and  see  it  used." 
The  priest  struck  the  youth,  who  retaliated  by  throwing  a' 
stone,  which  broke  an  image.  From  this  spark  the  fire 
kindled..  The  people  destroyed  the  images  in  the  church 
and  then  proceeded  to  sack  the  monasteries.  The  example 
of  Perth  was  followed  at. many  other  places.  The  regent 
could  not  remain  passive  when  the  Congregation  was 
sanctioning  such  action.  But  her  position  was  one  of 
grave  difficulty.  Her  main  support  was  from  France,  and, 
though  she  had  adherents  amongst  the  Scottish  nobility, 
Argyll  and  Lord  James,  who  were  still  with  her  at  Stirling, 
were  really  committed  to  the  Congregation.  What  course 
the  new  queen  of  England  would  take  was  still  luiccrtain. 
On  11th  M.ay  the  regent  advanced  towards  Ptrth,  but  the 
arrival  of  Glencairn  with  2500  men  from  the  west  to' aid 
the  Congregation  led  to  a  compromise,  of  which  the  t^rms 
were  these :  both  parties  were  to  dislmnd  their  troops ; 
Perth  was  to  be  left  open  to  the  regent,  but  no  French 
troops  were  to  come  within  3  miles;  the  inhabitants  wor^ 


502 


SCOTLAND 


[history. 


not  to  be  called  upon  to  answer  for  their  recent  conduct ; 
and  all  controversies  were  to  be  reserved  for  parliament. 
The  Congregation,  however,  remained  distrustful ;  Knox 
openly  preached  that  the  treaty  would  only  be  kept  till 
the  regent  and  her  Frenchmen  became  the  stronger,  and 
before  leaving  Perth  the  Lords  of  Congregation  entered 
into  a  new  bond  for  mutual  defence.  Tiie  regent  entered 
Perth  the  day  they  left  (29th  May),  accompanied  by  the 
duke  of  Chastclherault  and  a  bodyguard  of  French  as  well 
as  Scottish  troops  paid  by  French  money.  The  deposition 
of  the  proTOj^t  in  favour  of  a  Papist  and  the  occupation  of 
the  town  by  these  troops  were  deemed  breaches  of  the 
agreement^  and  Argyll  and  Lord  James  now  joined  the 
Reformers  and  took  the  lead  in  their  proceedings.  Their 
numbers  increasing,  the  regent  felt  unable  to  retain  Perth, 
and  quitting  it  marched  south,  followed  by  the  army  of 
the  Congregation,  to  which  she  abandoned  Stirling,  Lin- 
lithgow, and  Edinburgh,  taking  refuge  at  Dunbar.  The 
only  conflict  was  at  the  Muir  of  Cupar,  where  a  small  force 
sent  to  save  St  Andrews  was  quickly  dispersed  by  the 
superior  numbers  of  its  opponents.  It  was  made  a  condi- 
tion of  a  truce  that  no  Frenchman  ahouid  be  left  in  Fife. 
The  Reformers  occupied  Edinburgh  for  a  few  weeks,  but 
were  obliged  to  abandon  it  upon  new  terms  of  truce  in- 
tended to  preserve  the  status  quo.  Both  parties  were 
engaged  in  negotiations  for  active  assistance,  the  one  from 
Franco  and  the  other  from  England.  The  regent  had 
been  daily  expecting  reinforcements,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  troops  about  this  time  landed  at  Leith,  which 
Jbey  began  to  fortify. 

In  the  end  of  June  Kirkaldy  of  Grange  began  a  corre- 
spondence, afterwards  continued  by  Knox,  with  Cecil,  Percy, 
ind  Sir  Herbert  Croft.  Their  scheme  was  far-reaching. 
The  young  earl  of  Arran,  though  brought  up  in  France,  had 
become  Protestant,  and  if  he,  the  heir-presumptive  to  the 
Scottish  crown,  were  married  to  Elizabeth  the  union  of  the 
two  countries  would  be  secured  along  with  the  Reforma- 
tion. This  would  be  a  counter-stroke  to  the  union  of 
France  and  Scotland  under  a  Catholic,  which  almost  at 
the  moment  became  for  a  brief  time  an  accomplished  fact, 
by  the  daujihin  succeeding  as  Francis  II.  to  the  French 
crown  on  the  death  of  his  father.  The  policy  of  the 
Guises,  who  continued  to  contfol  the  Government  under 
the  new  king,  almost  forced  Elizabeth  in  this  direction. 
M;try  quartered  the  arras  of  England  with  those  of  Scot- 
land, implying  denial  of  Elizabeth's  right  both  as  illegiti- 
mate and  as  a  heretic.  But  Elizabeth  knew  the  value 
both  of  her  hand  and  of  the  state,  which,  thanks  to  the 
ability  of  her  ministers,  was  daily  becoming  more  loyal. 
She  had  special  cause  for  hesitating  to  ally  herself  with 
the  Lords  of  Congregation.  Knox  had  offended  her  by  his 
vehement  U/asts  against  the  Eer/iment  of  Women,  which, 
though  primarily  aimed  against  the  Catholic  queens,  ad- 
mitted no  exception  in  favour  of  a  Protestant.  Nor  could 
Knox  even  when  supplicating  aid  adopt  the  courtier's 
language  to  which  Elizabeth  was  accustomed.  She  was 
really  afraid  of  the  revolutionary  principles  of  some  of  the 
Reformers,  which  seemed  to  threaten  the  throne  as  well  as 
the  altar.  Jloreover,  Arran,  who  came  secretly  to  the 
English  court,  did  not  please  her,  and  there  was  an  end  of 
the  matrimonial  part  of  the  scheme.  The  rest  of  it  would 
probably  al.>io  have  miscarried  but  for  the  consummate 
statesmanship  of  Cecil,  who  saw  where  the  interest  of 
England  lay.  In  August  1 559  Sadler  was  sent  with  £3000 
to  the  assistance  of  the  Scottish  Protestants.  Another 
supply  followed,  but  was  intercepted,  and  in  January  1560 
a  treaty  was  agreed  to  at  Berwick  between  Elizabeth  and 
the  Lords  of  Congregation,  to  whom  the  duke  of  Chastcl- 
herault had  now  gone  over.  The  Scots  engaged  not  to 
enter  into  an   allia-iw   willi  France,   and   to  defend   the 


country  against  French  aggression.  Elizabeth  was  to 
support  Scotland  by  an  army,  but  no  place  of  strength 
was  to  be  left  in  English  hands.  If  any  were  taken  from 
the  French  they  were  to  be  razed  or  retained  by  the  Scots. 
The  Scots  were  to  assist  England  if  attacked  by  France, 
and  to  give  hostages  for  fulfilment  of  the  treaty.  Next 
spring  an  English  army  under  Lord  Grey  crossed  the  Tweed 
(28th  March  1560),  met  the  forces  of  the  Congregation  at 
Prestonpans,  and  invested  Leith,  in  which  the  Freilch  were 
also  blockaded  by  sea.  The  regent  had  taken  refuge  in 
Edinburgh  castle,  and  here  on  10th  June  she  died  of  dropsy. 
She  had  been  deserted  gradually  by  almost  all  her  Scottish 
adherents.  The  last  to  go  was  Maitland  of  Lethington, 
the  most  talented  but  also  the  most  cunning  of  the  Scottish 
statesmen.  His  desertion  was  the  sign  of  a  lost  cause. 
Even  some  of  the  higher  clergy  now  conformed.  Lord 
Erskine  almost  alone  remained  faithful.  The  regent's 
own  courage  never  failed,  and,  though  she  received  a  visit 
from  the  leaders  of  the  Congregation  and  consented  to  see 
Willock,  she  died  a  firm  Catholic.  Her  misfortunes  an<^ 
her  conciliatory  policy  during  her  long  struggles  to  main- 
tain the  French  connexion  with  Scotland  have  gained  heir 
a  lenient  judgment  even  from  Protestants,  all  save  Knox, 
whose  personal  animosity  is  palpable,  though  his  view  of 
her  policy  is  correct. 

Her  death  removed  the  chief  obstacle  to  peace,  which  Treats 
the  English  and  the  French  courts  had  for  some  time  de-^'"" 
sired,  and  the  treaty  of  Edinburgh  was  concluded  on  8th  ™^  " 
Jidy  1560  upon  terms  favourable  to  Scotland.  The  mili- 
tary forces  of  both  France  and  England  were  to  evacuate 
Scotland,  except  a  certain  number  of  French,  who  were  to 
remain  in  Inchkeith  and  Dunbar.  Leith  and  Eyemouth 
were  to  be  dismantled ;  Mary  and  Francis  were  to  abstain 
from  using  the  arms  of  England.  By  separate  articles 
certain  concessions  were  granted  to  the  nobihty  and  people 
of  Scotland  showing  the  length  to  which  the  limitation  of 
the  monarchy  was  carried.  No  French  or  other  soldiers 
were  to  be  brought  into  the  realm  unless  in  the  event  of 
an  invasion  and  only  with  the  consent  of  the  estates. 
Neither  peace  nor  war  was  to  be  made  without  their  con- 
sent. A  council  of  twelve  (seven  chosen  by  the  king  and 
queen  and  five  by  the  estates  out  of  twenty-four  selected 
by  the  estates)  were  to  govern  the  kingdom  during  the 
absence  of  Mary  and  Francis.  The  chief  officers  of  the 
crown  were  to  be  natives.  An  Act  of  oblivion  was  to  be 
passed  for  all  Acts  since  6th  March  155S.  Neither  the 
nobles  nor  any  other  persons  were  to  assemble  in  arms  ex- 
cept in  cases  provided  by  the  law.  The  duke  of  Chastcl- 
herault and  his  son,  Arran,  and  all  other  Scots  were  to  be 
restored  to  their  French  estates.  With  matters  of  religion 
the  deputies  refused  to  deal ;  but  envoys  were  to  be  sent 
to  the  king  and  queen  to  lay  before  them  the  state  of 
affairs,  particularly  those  last  mentioned. 

Before  parliament  met  an  important  step  towards  a  new 
organization  of  the  church  was  taken.  Superintendents, 
some  lay,  others  clerical,  were  appointed  for  Lothian,  Glas- 
gow, Fife,  Angus,  Mearns,  Argj'U,  and  the  Isles.  The 
principal  ministers  of  the  Congregation  were  planted  in  the 
chief  towns, — Knox  receiving- Edinburgh  as  his  charge. 
The  convention  parliament  which  assembled  on  10th  July 
and  began  its  business  on  1st  August  1560  was  the  Reforma- 
tion parliament  of  Scotland.  Like  Henry  VIII.'s  famous 
parliament,  its  work  .tas  thorough.  It  not  merely  reformed 
abuses  but  changed  the  national  creed  and  acconjplished 
more  in  one  than  the  English  parliament  di'd  in  three 
sessions.  The  parliament  was  the  most  numerous  yet  held 
in  Scotland,  being  attended  not  only  by  nearly  all  the 
nobility  but  by  some  bishops  and  an  unusually  large  num- 
ber of  lesser  barons  or  landed  gentry,  reiireseiitatives  of 
the  burghs.      Its  statutes  never  received  the  roval  assent. 


lEFOKilATION.] 


SCOTLAND 


503 


but  were  continued  by  the  first  parliament  after  Mary's 
deposition.  On  18th  August  the  Confession  of  Faith 
received  the  sanction  of  the  estates.  On  the  24th  an  Act 
was  passed  declaring  that  the  bishop  of  Eoine  had  no  juris- 
diction or  authority  within  the  realm.  Another  rescinded 
all  Acts  passed  since  James  I.  contrary  to  God's  word ; 
and  a  third  prohibited  the  mass  or  baptism  according  to 
the  Roman  rite,  and  ordained  strict  inquisition  against  all 
persons  contravening  the  statute.  The  form  of  church 
government  was  not  explicitly  altered.  The  archbishop 
of  St  Andrews,  and  Dunkeld  and  Dunblane  alone  of  the 
bishops,  are  said  to  have  voted  against  the  Confession,  and 
Athole,  Somerville,  Caithness,  and  Bothwell  alone  of  the 
nobles.  The  whole  power  of  the  state  was  at  this  time 
in  the  hands  of  the  party  of  the  Reformation  and  resist- 
ance was  useless.  The  Confession  of  Faith,  the  corner- 
stone of  the  new  policy  both  in  church  and  state,  was  drawn 
Tip  by  Knox  and  five  other  ministers,  but  revised  by  the 
more  moderate  Reformers  Lethington  and  .Winram.  The 
power  of  the  civil  magistrate  \<'as  declared  in  terms  which 
indicate  the  revLsion  of  Lethington  rather  than  the  original 
draft  of  Knox.  Its  language  is  certainly  such  as  monarchs 
had  been  little  accustomed  to,  though  the  expression  is 
not  so  blunt  as  Knox  used  in  preaching  and  conversation. 
Kings,  princes,  and  magistrates  in  free  "cities  are  declared 
to  be  tliose  to  whom  the  reformation  of  religion  "  chiefly 
and  most  principally  appertains."  They  are  themselves  to 
be  judged  by  God,  being  appointed  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  true  reh'gion  and  suppression  of  idolatry.  Resistance 
to  them,  but  only  when  vigilant  in  the  execution  of  their 
■oflSce,  is  declared  sinful. 

The  same  persons  who  had  prepared  the  Confession 
■were  entrusted  with  the  composition  of  a  code  of  ecclesi- 
astical polity,  and  a  draft,  after  being  first  laid  before  the 
convention  ■  of  1560,  was  submitted  as  revised  to  that  of 
the  following  year.  This  First  Hook  of  Ditcrpiine  was  not 
■universally  approved  •  several  of  its  provisions,  especially 
those  relating  to  church  estates  and  their  application  to 
the  support  of  the  ministry,  the  relief  of. the  poor,  and 
the  furtherance  of  education,  were  little  to  the  taste  of  the 
jlobility,  and  it  was  never  sanctioned  by  the  estates  or  fully 
acted  on.  Other  parts  of  it  were,  however,  embodied  in 
the  Second  Book  of  Discipline,  which  became  the  law  of 
the  Reformed  Church.  It  remains  a  metnorial  of  the  far- 
lighted  views  of  Knox,  its  author ;  and  the  verdict  of 
posterity  has  l)een  in  his  favour  and  against  the  nobles  who 
prevented  its  being  carried  out.  See  Peesbytkeianism, 
vol.  xix.  p.  C79  sq. 

The  death  of  Francis  11.  (6th  December  1560)  materially 
altered  the  political  situation.  The  much  feared  subordi- 
nation of  Scotland  to  France  was  at  last  averted.  Mary 
Stuart,  only  nineteen,  was  young  enough  to  be  influenced 
by  a  new  husband  and  new  responsibilities.  Her  character 
"Was  not  yet  known,  but  her  relations  with  Catlicrine  de' 
Medici  were  not  friendly,  and  there  was  Utile  doubt  that 
ehe  would  take  advantage  of  the  provision  in  her  marriage 
articles  and  return  to  Scotland.  Sir  John  Sandilands's 
mission  to  France  to  procure  the  royal  sanction  to  the  treaty 
of  Edinburgh  and  the  Acta  of  tjie  Ueforniation  parliament 
must  have  been  unpalatable,  and  ho  was  not  favourably  re- 
ceived. Before  she  left  Franco  Mary  was  visiUi^i  bj-  envoys 
■of  the  opposite  parties  into  which  Scotland  was  divided. 
Le«loy,  ofEcial  of  Aberdeen,  afterwards  bishop  of  Ross, 
and  her  valiant  defender,  was  sent  by  the  Catliolic  lords 
«ind  bishops  with  a  sjiecial  nic.-.!«ige  from  Iluntly,  urging 
her  to  conio  to  Aberdeen,  where  an  army  of  20,000  men 
would  bi)  at  h(!r  disposal.  But  Iluntly  had  not  proved 
trustworthy  during  the  regency  and  Mary  rtjcctcd  an  offer 
which  would  liavc  plunged  the  kingdom  in  war  from  the 
foment  slm  Inuded.     The  very  day  after  she  had  seen 


Lesley  her  brother  Lord  James,  who  had  been  isent  by 
the  Lords  of  Congregation,  met  her  at  St  Dizier.  She 
received  him  favourably,  but  declined  to  ratify  the  treaty 
till  she  consulted  her  council.  An  attempt  was  made  to 
capture  Mary  on  her  way  to  Scotland ;  but,  sailing  from 
Calais  on  14th  August,  she  landed  at  Leith  on  the  19th. 
She  was  accompanied  by  three  uncles  and  a  considerable 
suite,  including  Castebiau  the  historian,  Brant6me  the 
memoir  writer,  and  the  poet  Chastelard.i 

On  her  return  to  Scotland  Mary  showed  herself  disposed 
to  conciliate  the  Reformers  provided  she  was  allowed  the 
exercise  of  her  own  faith.  TMs  had  been  guaranteed  her 
by  Lord  James.  His  near  kinship  to  the  queen  at  a  time 
when  the  stain  of  bastardy  was  less  regarded,  and  his  close 
relation  with  the  Reformers,  made  him  necessary  to  both 
and  gave  him  an  influence  which  his  eminent  prudence 
ased  for  tlie  gobd  of  the  nation,  but  with  an  eye  to  his 
o^vn  advantage.  •  Without  thrusting  himself  too  promi- 
nently forward,  he  led  the  pri^-y  council  (ably  sujiportcd  by 
Lethington;,  and,  without  the  name,  was  in  fact  prim^ 
minister.  The  title  of  Mar,  and,  when  that  was  reclaimed 
by  the  heir  of  the  Erskines,  of  Moray  or  Muhe a v  (r/.v. ),  with 
its  large  territories,  gave  him  the  designation  by  which  he 
is  best  kno^ni,  as  well  as  great  wealth,  which  he  dispersed 
by  means  not  well  explained.  But  the  leaven  of  another 
influence  than  that  of  the  statesman  was  now  at  work  in 
Scottish  politics.  This  was  embodied  in  John  Knox,  the  ktio 
most  representative  Scotsman  since  Wallace.  The  first  *'|^| 
Sunday  after  Mary's  arrival  the  mob  tried  to  interrupt 
mass  at  Holyrood,  and  Moray  had  himself  to  keep  the 
chapel  door  to  prevent  its  being  broken.  "His  best  ex- 
cuse was,"  says  Knox,  "that  he  wald  stop  all  Scotchmen 
to  enter  into  the  mass."'  Next  Sunday  Knox  preached  in 
Edinburgh  against  idolatry.  '•  One  mass  was  more  fearful 
to  him,"  ha  said,  "than  20,000  armed  enemies."  Little 
likely  as  such  sentiments  were  to  please  the  young  queen, 
a  meeting  between  her  and  the  preacher  was  arranged  by 
Moray,  the  only  third  party  present.  On  the  matter  of 
religion  he  was  unbending,  yet  not  more  so  than-  Mary, 
His  judgment  of  the  queen's  character  was,  "  If  there  be 
not  in  her  a  proud  mind,  a  crafty  spirit,  and  an  inrturata 
heart  against  God  and  His  truth  my  judgment  failcth  me.'' 
In  1562  Huntly,  the  chief  Romanist  in  the  north,  who 
ofl'ered  to  have  the  mass  said  in  three  counties,  rebelled, 
being  indignant  at  the  grant  to  Moray  of  an  earldom  whosa 
estates  he  then  held.  Mary,  accompanied  by  her  brotherJ 
made  a  progress  in  the  north,  where  Iluntly  was  defeatea 
and  slain  at  Corrichie,  his  elder  son  being  imprisoned,  hi^ 
second  beheaded,  and  the  lands  of  Huntly,  of  his  kinsmao 
the  earl  of  Sutherland,  and  other  barons  of  the  house  of 
Huntly  forfeited.  On  her  return  to  Edinburgh  Mary  agaia 
mot  Kuox  at  Holyrood.  He  rebuked  her  for  dancing  and 
other  frivohties,  advised  her  to  attend  the  public  sermons, 
and  told  her  that  it  was  not  his  duty  to  leave  his  studiis 
in  order  to  wait  at  her  chamber  door.  There  were  other 
interviews,  in  one  of  which  (April  1563)  only  Mary  seemed 
to  yield  a  little.  She  was  anxious  to  use  his  influence  to 
quiet  a  threatened  rising  in  the  west,  and  to  heal  a  quarrel 
between  her  half  sister  the  countess  of  ArgjU  and  het 
husband.  Knox  promised  his  aid,  but  required  in  return 
that  the  penal  laws  should  be  enforced  against  the  Papists. 
This  Mary  agreed  to,  and  ber  promise  was  also  apiiarm.-tO 
kept.  Hamilton,  archbishop  of  St  Andrews,  and  forty 
seven  other  persons  wore  prosecuted  for  hearing  confesicrt 

'  Tho  Btory  of  Mnry  Stiinrt,  wliirli  now  apprnnchcs  hy  mpiil  steps  ib 
climax,  lias  been  toM  by  Mr  Swinburne  (see  Mart,  vol.  xv.  p.  694  sj. ) 
and  a  poet  may  regard  liuDian  cliuracter  in  a  manner  dilTercnt  now 
tli(!  liistorian,  —  inleiprttiiig  molircs  and  drawing  conclusions  »  .ini 
liistory,  wlioRo  view  is  limited  by  evidence,  cannot  rcncb.  Here  onlj 
tlie  lending  fncts  in  ber  pergonal  story  can  bo  stated  BO  far  aa  Ihoj 
n'fect  tlic  course  of  Scottisb  hiiitory. 


504 


SCOTLAND 


[HIS'iORY. 


13C67.  and  celebrating  the  mass.  Yet  Knox's  comment  in  Lis 
^  History  is,  "  This  conference  we  have  inserted  to  let  the 
■world  see  how  Marie  queen  of  Scotland  can  dissemble,  and 
how  that  she  could  cause  men  to  think  that  she  bore  no 
indignation  for  any  controversy  in  religion,  while  that  yet 
in  her  heart  was  nothing  but  venom  and  destruction,  as 
short  after  that  did  appear."  She  was  in  fact  corre- 
sponding with  her  uncle  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine,  with  the 
pope,  with  Philip  II.,  testifying  her  steadfast  attachment 
to  Papacy  and  her  desire  to  restore  the  Catholic  faith.  At 
a  last  conference  Knox  remonstrated  against  her  marriage, 
then  thought  imminent,  with  a  Papist,  claiming  the  right 
of  a  subject  "  to  speak  out  on  this  topic  which  so  nearly 
concerned  the  commonwealth,"  remaining  unmoved  by  the 
last  argument  of  a  woman,  which  he  savagely  describes  as 
"  howling  and  tears  in  greater  abimdance  than  the  matter 
required."  Nothing  but  perusal  of  the  conversations  can 
bring  before  us  this  pregnant  passage  of  history — the  abase- 
ment of  the  Scottish  monarchy  before  the  religious  de- 
mocracy— of  the  woman  forced  to  dissemble  and  weep  be- 
fore the  stern  man  believing  he  delivered  a  message  from 
God  to  the  head  of  a  corrupt  court.  Something  was 
allowed  to  Knox's  sincere  outspokenness.  He  moved 
men  and  women  alike  by  words  which,  like  Luther's,  go 
straight  to  the  realities  of  life.  He  is  the  typical  Scottish 
divine  framed  on  the  model  of  the  Hebrew  prophets,  and 
often  reproduced  in  weaker  copies.  The  Reformation  in 
Scotland,  in  both  its  strength  and  its  weakness,  was  his 
work  more  than  that  of  any  other  man.  The  Presbyterian 
form  of  government,  of  which  his  friend  Calvin  was  the 
author,  was  introduced  by  Knox  from  Geneva  and  con- 
tinued for  long  to  enforce  discipline,  first  by  censure  and 
then,  if  need  be,  by  excommunication  and  temporal  punish- 
ment, entirely  in  his  spirit. 
Mary"!!  Not  only  to  Knox  and  the  Eefonners  but  to  all  classes 
"laniag*  the  question  of  the  day  was  the  queen's  marriage.  Apart 
w  J>am-  £j.pjjj  jjgj.  ^jeauty,  her  political  position  rendered  her  hand 
of  importance  t'^  the  balance  of  power.  It  held  not  only 
the  dowry  of  France  and  the  possession  of  Scotland  but  a 
claim,  which  might  be  at  any  moment  asserted,  to  the 
English  crown.  She  avowed  her  inclination  to  marry, 
and  indeed  she  required  a  man  to  put  her  in  possession  of 
her  kingdom.  Don  Carlos,  the  archduke  of  Austria,  son 
of  Philip  of  Spain,  Charles  IX.  of  France,  the  kings  of 
Denmark  and  of  Sweden,  the  archduke  Charles,  second 
son  of  the  emperor,  were  all  passed  in  review  but  rejected. 
Elizabeth  pressed  the  claim  of  her  favourite  Leicester, — a 
project  supported  by  Cecil  and  Moray.  In  the  end  the 
fair  face  and  fine  figure  of  her  young  cousin  Henry  Stuart, 
Lord  Darnley,  carried  the  day.  A  party  of  the  Scottish 
nobles — Athole,  himself  a  Stuart,  Morton,  Cra^vford,  Eglin- 
ton,  and  Cassilis — favoured  the  alliance.  David  Eizzio, 
the  queen's  foreign  secretary,  who  already  had  great  in- 
fluence with  her,  promoted  it.  Bat  it  was  her  own  act, 
the  most  dangerous  of  many  false  steps  in  her  life.  Shortly 
before  the  marriage  (29th  July  1565)  Moray  attempted 
to  seize  Darnley  and  the  queen  as  they  rode  from  Perth 
to  Callendar  near  Falkirk.  When  it  was  accomplished  he 
rose  in  arms  with  the  duke  of  Chastelherault,  the  head  of 
Ihe  Hamiltons,  Argyll,  and  Rothes ;  but  Mary  with  a  large 
force  pursued  them  from  place  to  place  in  the  Roundabout 
Haid,  from  the  neighboi-rhood  of  Edinburgh  through  Fife, 
where  she  levied  fines,  and  finally  to  Dumfries,  from  which 
Moray  fled  to  England.  He  hid  been  secretly  but  not 
vigorously  supported  by  Elizabeth,  who,  when  she  heard 
of  his  flight,  recalled  her  orders  to  Bedford,  then  on  the 
marches,  to  place  troops  at  the  disposal  of  the  insurgents. 
Mary  still  retained  some  of  the  popularity  of  a  young  queen, 
and  fostered  it  by  an  apparent  desire  to  humour  the  Re- 
iormer&      For  the  first  time  she  attended  a  Protestant 


sermon.  But  the  consequences  of  a  union  between  a  high- 
spirited  woman,  active  in  mind  and  body  beyond  her  sex 
and  years,  with  a  vain  and  dissolute  youth  were  soon  seen. 
His  alienation  from  the  queen,  the  murder  of  Rizzio,  with 
the  intrigues  that  preceded  and  followed  it,  the  rapid 
growth  of  Bothwell's  influence,  the  pitiable  vacillations  of 
Darnley,  and  his  murder  at  Kirk  of  Field  (10th  February  Mutds 
1567)  have  been  sketched  in  the  article  Mary  (vol.  xv.  otl>«i 
p.  596  sq.).  The  authors  of  the  last  crime  were  Bothwell,  **'* 
\<ho  devised  it,  and  his  servants,  who  executed  it.  Their 
confessions  leave  no  doubt  of  their  own  guilt.  Who  were 
their  accomplices  has  from  that  day  to  this  been  debated 
without  conclusive  answer.  The  great  controversy  is 
whether  the  nobles  with  Moray  at  their  head  had  bound 
themselves  to  support  Bothwell,  as  he  and  Mary  after-' 
wards  declared,  or  whether  ilary,  possessed  with  passioa 
for  Bothwell  and  hate  of  Darnley,  herself  instigated  her 
husband's  murder.  Some  have  thought  both  the  queca 
and  the  nobles  were  implicated.  The  casket  letters,  alleged 
to  have  been  found  in  a  cofi'er  that  was  given  to  Mortoa 
by  Dalgleish  when  intrusted  with  it  by  Sir  James  Balfour 
for  its  delivery  to  BothweU,  must  be  left  out  in  any  fair 
examination  of  this  question.  The  mode  of  their  recovery 
and  their  production,  first  partially  and  secretly  before 
Elizabeth's  commissioners  at  York,  then  with  apparent  but 
not  real  publicity  at  Westminster  (for  Mary's  counsellors 
were  not  allowed  to  see  them),  their  contents,  so  different 
from  her  known  writings,  and  the  disappearance  of  tha 
originals  render  their  evidence  inadmissible.  ^\Tiat  weighs 
most  against  Mary  is  her  subsequent  conduct,  explicablo 
only  in  favour  of  innocence  if  she  was  absolutely  in  Both- 
well's power  from  the  time  of  the  murder  to  the  defeat  of 
Carberry, — an  hypothesis  not  borne  out  by  facts.  Though 
Lennox  and  his  wife  urged  that  the  murderers  be  brought 
to  justice,  there  was  delay  till  13th  April,  when  Bothwell 
was  at  last  brought  before  an  assize.  The  trial  was  a 
sham,  and  his  acquittal  on  the  pretence  that  there  was  no 
accuser  could  deceive  no  one. 

The  strange  wooing  which  commenced  when  Darnley  was  Marj*! 
just  buried,  if  not  before,  was  continued  by  the  seizure  of  re'atio 
JIary  by  Bothwell  near  Cramond  and  her  captivity  in  hbr  gj,^ 
own  castle  of  Dunbar — a  pretence  according  to  her  adver-  „gij^ 
saries,  an  opportunity  for  an  outrage  from  which  marriage 
was  the  oidy  escape  according  to  her  defenders — at  last 
culminated  in  the  marriage  at  sis  in  the  morning,  at  Holy- 
rood,  on  the  15th  of  May  1567.  It  was  the  month  when 
wicked  women  marry,  said  the  people,  writing  Ovid's  lina 
on  the  Tolbooth  walls.  Before  it  took  place  she  created 
Bothwell  duke  of  Orkney,  and  pardoned  him  for  any 
violence.  She  also  wrote  in  palliation  of  his  conduct  to 
the  French  king.  His  divorce  from  Lady  Jane  Gordon 
had  been  hurried  through  both  the  bishops'  court  and  that 
of  the  Protestant  commissijries, — in  the  former  on  the  falsa 
pretence  that  there  had  been  no  papal  dispensation  for  his 
marriage  to  one  of  near  kin,  and  in  the  latter  on  the  ground 
of  adultery.  Mary  had  been  more  than  once  warned  of 
the  consequences  of  such  a  marriage  by  Lord  Herries,  by 
the  faithful  MelviUe,  and  by  Craig,  the  minister  who,  with 
the  utmost  reluctance,  proclaimed  the  banns.  It  was  an 
act  which  required  no  warning.  She  had  no  alternative,' 
urge  her  vindicators,  to  save  her  honour,  and  her  tears  oa 
the  morning  of  marriage  are  proof  that  she  was  forced ;  but 
the  more  scrupulous  admit  she  should  have  preferred  death 
to  union  with  a  man  she  must  at  least  have  known  was 
not  clear  of  Damley's  murder.  Her  enemies  said  then,  and 
historians  who  take  their  side  repeat,  that  it  was  the  mad- 
ness of  a  passion  she  could  not  resist.  The  view  most 
consistent  with  the  facts  seems  to  be  that  she  accepted, 
not  without  fits  of  remorse,  the  service  of  the  strongest 
sword  at  her  disposal  on  the  only  terms  on  which  aha 


BEFORMATIOX.] 


SCOTLAND 


505 


could  obtain  it.  But,  if  jrarj'  cannot  be  acquitted  of 
the  degree  of  complicity  implied  in  accepting  the  conse- 
quences of  the  murder,  many  of  the  leading  nobles  were 
involved  in  equal  guilt.  Oa  19th  April  a  bond  asserting 
Bothwcll's  innocence  and  urging  Mary  to  marry  him  had 
been  signed  at  Ainslie's  tavern,  not  only  by  Bothwell's 
few  friends,  but  by  "a  great  part  of  the  lords."  Most  of 
those  who  signed  had  in  the  parliament  just  concluded  re- 
ceived grants  of  land  or  remission  of  forfeiture,  and  it  is 
urged  by  Marj^'s  defenders  that  they  were  bribed  to  acqui- 
esce in  Bothwell's  designs.  When  the  bond  was  after- 
wards put  in  evidence  against  them  their  plea  was  that 
they  had  been  forced  to  sign  it  by  Bothwell.-  It  is  con- 
tended on  Mary's  behalf  that  with  so  many  of  the  nobles 
committed  to  approval  of  the  marriage  she  had  no  one  on 
whom  to  rely.  There  is  something  in  this  argument;  but 
it  does  not  meet  the  point — Why  did  she  rely  on  Bothweli? 
That  a  scheme  was  arranged  before  Darnley's  murder  to 
entrap  her  into  this  marriage,  in  order  to  pave  the  way 
for  her  deposition,  and  that  the  casket  letters  were  faljri- 
cated  to  clench  her  guilt,  has  been  suggested ;  but  the 
facts  necessary  to  prove  so  deep  a  train  of  conspiracy 
are  wanting.  The  two  Scotsmen  who  almost  alone  main- 
tained the  character  of  honest  men,  Kirkaldy  of  Grange 
and  Sir  James  Melville,  who  were  so  far  from  being  un- 
friendly to  Mary  that  they  ultimately  espoused  her  cause, 
believed  that  she  was  a  willing  victim  and  threw  herself 
into  Bothwell's  arms.  The  narrative  in  her  own  despatch 
to  the  bishop  of  Dunblane  does  not  allege  that  she  was 
forced,  but  only  that  "he  partlie  extorted  and  partUe 
obtained  our  promise  to  take  him  as  our  husband." 

The  leading  nobles  were  not  disposed  to  accept  a  new 
master  in  Bothwell,  whose  vices,  unlike  those  of  Darnley, 
were  coupled  with  a  strong  instead  of  a  weak  character. 
They  kept  jealous  possession  of  the  young  prince,  placed 
in  the  custody  of  Mar  in  Stirling  ;  and,  when  a  muster  was 
called  to  enforce  order  on  the  border,  secretly  collected 
their  forces  to  act  against  instead  of  for  the  queen  and 
her  husband.  Within  a  month  of  her  marriago  she  was 
met  at  Carben-y  Hill,  near  Musselburgh  (15th  June  1567), 
by  a  force  of  the  confederate  lords,  headed  by  Morton  and 
,y  a  Glencairn,  Euthven  and  Lindsay.  Mary,  after  a  fruitless 
miner,  attempt  at  mediation  by  Du  Croc,  the  French  ambassador, 
and  an  offer  equally  vain  by  Bothwell  to  decide  the 
issue  by  single  combat,  surrendered  to  Kirkaldy.  Both- 
well  rode  off  to  Dunbar  with  a  few  followers,  and  Mary 
■was  conducted  to  Morton's  camp.  Once  in  their  hands, 
the  lords  treated  her  as  a  prisoner,  and  confined  her  at 
Lochlevcn  Castle,  where  she  was  forced  to  abdicate,  sur- 
rendering the  crown  in  favour  of  her  son  and  committing 
the  regency  during  the  minority  to  Moray.  The  young 
king  was  crowned  at  Stirling  on  29th  July.  The  prudent 
Moray,  who  had  kept  out  of  the  way  in  France  while  these 
events  were  transacted  in  Scotland,  now  returned  and  was 
installed  as  regent  (•22d  August).  Mary  remained  prisoner 
in  Loch  Leven  for  nearly  a  year.  After  her  escape  on  2d 
May  1568  the  duke  of  Chastelherault  and  other  Catholic 
nobles  rallied  round  her  standard ;  but  on  1 3th  May  Moray 
and  the  Protestant  lords  met  her  forces  at  Langsido 
near  Glasgow,  and  the  issue  of  tiiat  battle  forced  her 
to  fly  to  England,  where  she  placed  herself  (19th  May)  in 
the  hands  of  Lord  Lo\vther,  governor  of  Carlisle,  recalling 
Elizabeth's  promises  of  protection.  Mary,  however,  found 
Uiat  she  was  really  a  prisoner.  Like  Baliol,  she  disappears 
personally  from  the  field  of  Scottish  history ;  but  her  life 
in  e.xile,  unlike  his,  was  spent  in  busy  plots  to  recover 
her  lost  throne.  It  became  clear  as  time  went  on  that 
she  placed  her  whole  reliance  on  the  Catholic  minority  and 
foreign  aid;  oven  iu  prison  she  was  a  menace  to  Elizabeth 
and  ready  to  plot  flg^i^st  her  as  an  enemy.     The  Pro- 

•21--1S' 


testant  party  increased  in  Scotland  until  it  became  a 
majority  almost  representative  of  the  whole  nation  ;  even 
her  own  son  when  he  came  to  hold  the  sceptre,  little  in- 
clined as  he  was  to  accept  Presbyterian  principles,  regarded 
her  as  a  revolutionary  element  fortunately  removed.  Hei 
knowledge  of  Babington's  plot  for  the  invasion  of  England 
is  proved,  though  her  assent  to  the  death  of  Elizabeth 
is  still  an  open  question.  By  her  will,  confirmed  by 
her  last  letters,  she  bequeathed  the  crown  of  Scotland  and 
her  claim  to  that  of  England  to  Philip  II.  The  letters 
contain  this  modification  onlj',  that  her  son  was  to  have 
an  opportunity  of  embracing  the  Catholic  faith  under  the 
guardianship  of  Philip  to  save  his  own  throne.  There  was 
no  such  reservation  as  regards  that  of  England.  The 
Armada,  from  whose  overthrow  date  the  fall  of  Spain  and 
the  rise  of  Britain  as  the  chief  European  power,  was  due 
to  the  direct  instigation  of  Mary  Stuart. 

^Meantime,  in  Scotland,  four  I'egencies  rapidly  succeeded 
each  other  during  the  minority  of  James.  The  deaths  by 
violence  of  two  regents,  Moray  and  Lennox,  the  suspicion 
of  foul  play  in  the  death  of  the  third,  JLar,  and  the  end 
scarcely  less  violent  because  preceded  by  a  trial  of  the 
fourth,  Morton,  mark  a  revolutionary  period  and  the  im- 
possibility of  the  attempted  solution  by  placing  the  govern- 
ment in  the  hands  of  the  most  powerful  noble.  Heredi- 
tary royalty,  not  the  rule  of  the  aristocracy,  was  still 
dominant  in  Scottish  politics  and  a  regency  was  an 
experiment  already  disparaged  in  the  preceding  reigns. 
Moray,  said  Sir  J.  Melville,  "  wa."  and  is  called  the  good  Morny-t.' 
regent,"  mingling  with  this  praise  only  the  slight  qualifi-  jg,""" 
cation  that  in  his  later  years  he  was  apt  to  be  led  by 
flatterers,  but  testifying  to  his  willingness  to  listen  to 
Melville's  own  counsels.  This  epithet  bestowed  by  the 
Protestants,  whose  champion  he  was,  still  adheres  to  him  ; 
but  only  partisans  can  justify  its  use.  He  displayed  great 
proiuptness  in  bafSing  the  schemes  of  Mary  and  her  party, 
suppressed  with  vigour  the  border  thieves,  and  ruled  with 
a  firm  hand,  resisting  the  temptation  to  place  the  crown 
on  his  own  head.  His  name  is  absent  from  many  plots 
of  the  time.  He  observed  the  forms  of  personal  piety, — 
possibly  shared  the  zeal  of  the  Reformers,  while  he  moder- 
ated their  bigotry.  But  the  reverse  side  of  his  character 
is  proved  by  his  conduct.  He  reaped  the  fruits  of  the 
conspiracies  which  led  to  Rizzio's  and  Darnley's  murders. 
He  amassed  too  great  a  fortune  from  the  estates  of  the. 
church  to  be  deemed  a  pure  reformer  of  its  abuses.  He 
pursued  his  sister  with  a  calculated  animosity  which  would 
not  have  spared  her  life  had  this  been  necessary  to  his  end 
or  been  favoured  by  Elizabeth.  The  mode  of  production 
of  the  casket  letters  and  the  false  charges  added  by 
Buchanan,  "  the  pen "  of  Moray,  deprive  Moray  of  any 
reasonable  claim  to  have  been  an  honest  accuser,  zealous 
only  to  detect  guilt  and  to  benefit  his  country.  The 
reluctance  to  charge  Mary  with  complicity  in  the  murder 
of  Darnley  was  feigned,  and  his  object  was  gained  when 
he  was  allowed  to  table  the  accusation  without  being  forced 
to  prove  it.  Mary  remained  a  captive  under  suspicion  of 
the  gravest  guLIt,  while  Moray  returned  to  Scotland  to  rule 
in  her .  'ead,  supported  by  nobles  who  had  taken  part  in  the 
steps  wli.-li  ended  in  Bothwell's  deed.  Jloray  left  London 
on  12th  January  1509.  During  the  year  between  liis 
return  and  his  death  several  events  occurred  for  which  he 
has  been  censured,  but  which  were  necessary  f'^^r  his  secur- 
ity,— the  betrayal  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk  and  of  the  secret 
plot  for  the  liberation  of  Mary  to  Elizabeth,  the  imprison- 
ment in  Loch  Leven  of  the  carl  of  Northumberland,  who 
after  the  failure  of  his  rising  in  the  north  of  England  had 
taken  refuge  in  Scotland,  and  the  charge  brought  again.sC 
Maitland  of  Lethinglon  of  complicity  in  Darnley's  murder. 
Lethington  was  committed  to  custody,  but  rescued  bw 


506 


SCOTLAND 


[history. 


(Kirkaldy  of  Grange,  who  held  the  castle  of  Edinburgh, 
and  while  there  "the  chameleon,"  as  Buchanan  named 
Maltland  in  his  famous  invective,  contrary  to  the  nature 
of  that  animal,  gained  over  those  in  the  castle,  including 
Kirkaldy.  Moray  was  afraid  to  proceed  with  the  charge 
on  the  day  of  trial,  and  Kirkaldy  and  Maitland  became 
partisans  of  the  queen.  The  castle  was  the  stronghold 
of  the  queen's  party, — being  isolated  from  the  town  and 
able  to  'hold  out  against  the  regent  who  governed  in  the 
name  of  her  son.  This  defection  was  mourned  over  by 
the  Reformers.  Kjiox,  with  the  self-confidence  which 
marked  his  character,  sent  from  his  deathbed  to  Kirkaldy 
a  message  of  warning  that  "  neither  the  craggy  rock  in 
■which  he  confided,  nor  the  carnal  wisdom  of  the  man 
[Maitland]  whom  he  esteemed  a  demi-god,  nor  the  assist- 
■  ance  of  strangers,  should  preserve  him  from  being  disgrace- 
fully dragged  to  ignominious  punishment."  It  has  been 
suspected  that  Maitland  and  Kirkaldy  were  cognizant  of 
the  design  of  Hamilton  of  Bothwellhaugh  to  murder  Moray, 
for  he  had  been  with  them  in  the  castle.  This  tas  been 
ascribed  to  private  vengeance  for  the  ill-treatment  of  his 
■wife ;  but  the  feud  of  the  Hamiltons  with  the  regent  is 
the  most  reasonable  explanation.  As  he  rode  through 
Linlithgow  Moray  was  shot  (2.3d  January  1570)  from  a 
■window  by  Hamilton,  who  had  made  careful  preparation 
for  the  murder  and  his  own  escape.  Moray  was  buried  in 
the  south  aisle  of  St  GOes  Cathedral,  Edinburgh,  amid  gen- 
eral mourning.  Knox  preached  the  sermon  and  Buchanan 
furnished  the  epitaph,  both  unstinted  paneg3rrics.  His 
real  character  is  as  difficult  to  penetrate  as  that  of  Mary. 
It  is  easy  for  the  historian  to  condemn  the  one  and  praise 
the  other  according  to  his  own  religious  or  political  creed. 
It  is  nearer  truth  to  recognize  in  both  the  graces  and 
talents  of  the  Stuart  race,  which  won  devoted  foUower.i, 
but  to  acknowledge  that  times  in  which  Christian  divines 
approved  of  the  murder  of  their  enemies  were  not 
likely  to  produce  a  stainless  heroine  or  faultless  hero, 
indeed  necessitated  a  participation  in  deeds  which 
would  be  crimes  unless  they  can  be  palliated  as  acts  of 
civil  war.  Let  us  absolve,  if  we  can,  Moray  and  Mary  of 
Darnley's  blood.  It  remains  indisputable  that  Mary  ap- 
proved of  Moray's  assassination  and  that  Moraj  would  have 
sanctioned  Mary's  death. 

Moray  was  succeeded  in  the  regency  by  Lennox,  Darnley's 
father,  the  male  nearest  of  kin  to  the  futiu'e  sovereign,  but 
really  the  nominee  of  Elizabeth.  His  brief  tei-m  of  office 
was  marked  by  the  renewal  of  the  English  war  under  Sussex 
•and  other  generals,  which  made  the  queen's  cause  again  the 
more  popular.  Lennox,  another  victim  of  violence,  was 
slain  (3d  September  im)  in  a  hasty  attack  by  one  of  the 
Hamiltons  on  Stirling,  from  which  Morton,  the  real  head 
of  the  Protestant  party,  who  at  first  had  Iseen  taken  and 
threatened  with  the  same  fate,  barely  escaped.  Mar,  who 
had  all  along  held  the  custody  of  the  young  king,  was  now 
chosen  regent  and  held  the  post  for  a  year,  when  he  died 
(28th  October  1572).  During  his  regency  the  civil  war 
between  the  queen's  and  the  king's  party  continued. 
An  English  intrigue  was  carried  on  with  great  mystery, 
and  never  brought  to  a  point,  by  Eandolph  and  Killigrew 
to  deliver  Mary  to  the  regent  that  she  might  be  tried 
within  her  own  dominions.  On  the  death  of  Mar,  Morton, 
who  had  been  the  most  powerful  noble  during  the  last 
regency,  at  length  reached  the  object  of  his  ambition  by 
being  elected  regent.  On  the  day  of  Morton's  election 
Knox  died.  He  was  "one,"  said  Morton,  "who  never 
feared  the  face  of  man."  If  we  condemn  his  violent 
language  and  bitter  spirit,  it  is  just  to  remember  that  he 
Iiveu  durmg  tne  rea  ii^c.':  vf  the  struggle  bet\Yeen  Rome 
and  the  Reformation,  and  diea  bel.^re  illc  triumph  of  the 
Jatter  in  Scotland  was  secure.     He  had  felt  the  thongs  of 


the  galleys  and  narrowly  escaped  the  stake.  The  massacre 
of  St  Bartholomew  spread  consternation  throughout  Pro- 
testant Europe  just  before  his  last  illness.  Mary  and 
Philip  of  Spain  were  still  plotting  for  the  destruction  of 
all  he  held  vital.  His  scheme  for  the  reformation  of  the 
church  and  application  of  its  revenues  was  in  advance  not 
of  his  own  time  only.  He  contemplated  free  educatiou 
for  children  of  the  poor  who  really  required  such  aid, — 
a  gi-aduated  system  of  parish  schools,  burgh  schools,  and 
uuiversities,  which  would  have  forestalled  the  most  recent 
educational  reform.  While  he  -introduced  Presbyterian 
government  by  kirk -sessions,  presbyteries,  synods,  and 
general  assembly  and  opposed  even  a  modified  Episcopacy, 
he  saw  the  advantage  of  the  superintendence  of  districts 
by  the  more  learned  and  able  clergj'.  While  he  insisted 
on  the  preaching  of  the  Word  and  the  administration  of 
the  sacraments  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  his  liturgy  shows  his  • 
favour  for  forms  of  public  prayer.  Knox's  first  wife  was 
English,  and  two  of  his  sons  took  orders  in  the  Church  of 
England.  Scottish  Presbyterianism  had  not  yet  been 
hardened  by  persecution  into  a  hatred  of  prelacy  as  bitter 
as  that  of  Popery.  It  meant  separation  from  Rome,  but 
inclined  to  union  with  England,  and  the  question  of  the 
form  of  church  government  was  still  open. 

Morton,  like  his  predecessor,  favoured  the  Episcopal 
order,  and,  acting  upon  a  compromise  agreed  to  at  Leith, 
a  modified  Episcopacy  was  restored.  The  bishops  appointed 
were  declared  subject  to  the  king  in  temporal  and  to  the 
church  and  general  assembly  in  spiritual  matters,  and  were 
to  have  the  same  jurisdiction  as  the  superintendents.  The 
assembly  of  Perth  protested  against  the  use  of  certain 
ecclesiastical  titles,  but  passed  over  that  of-  bishop.  Most 
of  the  clergy  sanctioned,  though  with  reluctance,  the  ap^ 
pointment  of  bishops  in  the  hope  of  retaining  their  re- 
venues. The  people  called  them  "  tulchan  "  bishops,  from 
the  straw  counterfeit  used  to  rob  the  calf  of  its  mother's 
milk.  Almost  the  whole  church  property  remained  in  the 
hp,nds  of  the  landedr  proprietors,  Moray  in  the  first  instance 
and  afterwards  Morton  receiving  a  lion's  share.  Araricc 
was  Morton's  besetting  sin.  In  other  respects  he  was  an 
energetic  and  capable  ruler.  He  effected  at  Perth,  with 
the  aid  of  Elizabeth's  envoy,  a  pacification  wth  Huntly. 
Chastelherault,  and  the  Catholic  nobles  who  supported 
Mary.  Only  the  castle  of  Edinburgh  held  out,  and  this, 
aided  by  English  artillery,  heisucceeded  in  taking  after  a. 
brave  resistance  by  Kirkaldy  and  Lethington.  Kirkaldy 
and  his  brother  were  executed  at  the  cross  of  Edinburgh. 
Lethington  escaped  their  fate  in  what  Melville  calls  "  the 
Roman  maimer," — at  his  own  hands,  perhaps  by  poison. 
The  death  of  the  bravest  and  the  ablest  Scotsman  of  that 
age  put  an  end  to  the  last  chance  of  Mary's  restoration 
by  native  support.  Morton,  now  without  a  rival,  restored 
order  in  the  borders,  and  when  an  encounter  occurred 
between  the  English  and  Scottish  borderers  called  the  Raid 
of  the  Redswyre  his  prudence  prevented  it  becoming  & 
national  conflict.  He  appointed  a  commission  for  the 
reform  of  the  law, — a  far-sighted  scheme,  often  at- 
tempted but  always  stopping  short  of  success,  to  codify 
the  law,  which  several  Continestal  states,  notably  Denmark, 
about  this  period  engaged  in.  The  time  was  not  ripe  for 
a  change  which,  now  that  it  is,  remains  unaccomplished. 
But,  while  all  seemed  to  favour  Morton,  there  were  under- 
currents which  combined  to  procure  his  fall.  The  Presby- 
terian clergy  were  alienated  by  his  leaning  to  Episcopacy, 
and  all.  parties  in  the  divided  church  by  his  seizure  of 
its  estates.  Andrew  Melville,  who  had  succeeded  to- 
the  leadership  of  Knox,  was  more  decided  than  Knox 
against  any  departure  from  the  Presbyterian  model,  and 
refused  to  be  won  by  a  place  in  his  household.  Hia 
expensive  buildings  at  Dalkeith,  which  got  the  name  of 


BEFOEMATIOX.] 


SCOTLAND 


507 


the  Lion's  Den,  roused  the  jealousy  of  the  nobles.  The 
arrcigance  of  his  favourite?  exceeded  his  own.  The  com- 
mons were  disgusted  by  a  depreciation  of  the  coinage. 
The  powerful  earl  of  Argj-ll,  incensed  by  the  recovery 
from  his  wife,  the  widow  of  Moray,  of  some  of  the  crown 
jewels,  and  Athole,  a  Stuart  and  Roman  Calholic,  united 
with  Alexander  Erskine,  govern6r  of  Stirling,  who  now 
had  the  custody  of  the  young  k' jg,  in  a  league  which 
received  so  much  support  that  Morton  bent  before  the 
storm  and  ofifered  to  resign.  The  king,  whose  education 
had  been  forced  by  Buchanan,  now  barely  twelve  years  of 
age,  nominally  assumed  the  government,  but  was  directed 
by  a  council  of  nobles  headed  by  Athole  as  chancellor. 
Morton  surrendered  the  castle  of  Edinburgh,  the  palace 
of  Holyrood,  and  the  royal  treasures,  retiring  to  Loch 
Leven,  where  he  busied  himself  in  laying  out  gardens. 
But  his  ambition  could  not  deny  itself  another  stroke  foi- 
power.  Aided  by  the  young  earl  of  Mar,  he  got  possession 
of  Stirling  castle  and  the  person  of  the  king.-  Civil  war 
was  avoided  only  by  the  influence  of  Bowes,  the  English 
ambassador.  A  nominal  reconciliation  was  effected,  and 
a  parliamen.t  at  Stirling  introduced  a  new  gqvernment. 
Morton,  who  secured  an  indemnity,. was  president  of  the 
council,  but  Athole  remained  a  privy  councillor  in  an  en- 
larged council  with  representatives  of  both  parties.  Shortly 
afterwards  Athole  died,  of  poison  it  was  said,  and  suspicion 
pointed  to  Morton.  His  retui-n  to  power  was  brief,  and 
the  only  important  event  was  the  prosecution  of  the  two 
Hamiltons,  the  abbots  of  Arbroath  and  Paisley,  who  still 
supported  Mary  and  saved  their  lives  by  flight  to  England. 
The  struggle  \vith  the  Presbyterian  clergy  continued.  The 
Second  Book  of  Discipline  had  been  presented  to  the  king 
before  he  assumed  office,  and,  althougn  the  general  assembly 
ih  1580  condemned  Episcopacy  absolutely,  parliament  did 
not  sanction  the  condemnation.  The  final  fall  of  Morton 
came  from  an  opposite  quarter.  In  September  1579  Esm6 
Stuart,  Lord  D'Aubigny,  the  king's  cousin,  came  to  Scot- 
land from  France,  gained  the  favour  of  James  by  his 
courtly  manners,  and  received  the  lands  and  earldom  of 
Lennox,  the  custody  of  Dumbarton  castle,  and  the  office 
of  chamberlain.  One  of  his  dependants,  Captain  James 
Stuart,  s6n  of  Lord  Ochiltree  and  brother-in-law  of  Knox, 
had  the  daring  to  accuse  Morton  at  a  meeting  of  the  council 
in  Holyrood  of  complicity  in  the  murder  of  Darnley,  and 
he  was  at  once  committed  to  custody.  Some  months  later 
Morton  was  condemned  by  an  assize  for  having  taken  part 
in  that  crime,  and  the  verdict  was  justified  by  his  con- 
fession that  Bothwell  had  revealed  to  him  the  design, 
although  ho  denied  participation  in  its  execution.  He 
was  executed  by  the  Maiden — a  guillotine  he  had  himself 
brought  from  England — on  2d  June  1581. 
ueuiioz  Froin  December  1580  to  August  1582  the  government 
'amis  *"■■'  '"  *'^®  hands  of  Lennox  and  Stuart,  now  captain  of 
«tuait  the  guard, — a  small  force  which  the  estates  had  reluctantly 
•agents,  allowed  the  king  to  protect  his  person.  Their  jealousy 
threatened  but  never  reached  an  open  rupture.  Stuart  was 
rewarded  by  the  gift  first  of  the  tutory,  then  of  the  earldom 
of  Arran  in  April  1581.  Lennox  was  created  duko,  a,  title 
seldom  granted  in  Scotland.  Their  aim,  carefully  concealed 
by  nominal,  adherence  to  the  Protestant  faith,  appears  to 
have  been  the  a.ssociation  of  Mary  with  her  son  in  the 
government,  a  breach  with  England,  the  renewal  of  the 
league  with  France,  and  tlie  restoration  of  the  Roman 
Church.  The  nobles,  bribed  by  oftice  or  the  .spoils  of  the 
church,  were  men  of  too  feeble  character  to  resist,  but 
the  Presbyterian  ministers  were  made  of  stronger  metal. 
Illegal  banishment  of  the  contumacious  clergy  and  arbitrary 
orders  of  council  were  followed  by  a  rising  against  Epis- 
copacy. The  proclamation  of  an  extrnordinnry  ( linmbcrlain 
air — an  itinerant  court  of  justice — to  bo  held  by  Lennox 


at  Edinburgh  on  27  th  August  precipitated  the  coup  d'etat  of 
the  Ra.'d  of  Ruthven,  which  took.the  usual  form  of  Scottish 
revolutions, — the  seizure  of  the  king  and  the  transfer  of 
power  to  his  captors.  When  on  a  visit  (22d  August  1582) 
to  the  earl  of  Gowrie,  son  of  his  mother's  foe  Lord  Ruthven, 
at  his  castle  of  Hunting  Tower  near  Perth,  the  earl  his  host, 
Mar,  the  master  of  Glamis,  and  others,  taking  advantage 
of  the  absence  of  Lennox  and  Arran,  surrounded  the  castle 
with  armed  men  and  triade  James  a  prisoner,  though  still 
ostensibly  treating  him  us  king.  Arran,  returning  to  Perth 
with  Qnly  two  followers,  ^tos  seized  and  put  in  prison 
Lennox,  after  taking  refuge  in  the  castle  of  DumbartoOt 
fled  to  France,  where  he  died  in  disgrace  with  the  Catjiolics.- 
because  he  had  conformed  to  the  Protestant  doctrine. 

The  government  was  .for  ten  months  in  the  hands  of  a 
new  council,  of  which  Gowrie  as  treasurer  was  the  h3ad. 
There  was  no  parliament,  but  a  convention  at  Holyrooil 
ratified  the  consequences  of  the  Raid  of  Ruthven.  A 
declaration  was  extorted  from  the  king  condoning  his 
capture ;  but  James,  no  longer  a  boy,  chafed  under  the 
tutelage  of  the  Protestant  nobles  and  the  admonitionsjof 
the  Protestant  ministers.  Iii  June  of  the  following  year 
he  escaped  from  Falkland  to  St  Andrews,  which  was  held 
by  Colonel  Stewart.  Arran  was  recalled,  the  Raid  of  Reaction 
Ruthven  declared  treason,  Gowrie  executed,  and  the  chief  in  favoui 
Protestant  lords  banished.  Melville  and  other  ministers  co^mJ?. 
found  it  necessary  to  fly  to  England.  A  parliament  con- 
firmed the  supremacy  of  Arran,  who  was  created  chan- 
cellor, and  the  forfeiture  of  the  chief  persons  implicated 
in  the  Ruthven  Raid.  The  king's  power  was  declared  to 
extend  over  all  estates  and  subjects  within  the  realm  ;  all 
jurisdictions  not  approved  by  parliament  and  all  assemblies 
and  conventions  T^athout  the  king's  licence  were  discharged. 
A  commission  was  granted  to  Patrick  Adamson,  archbishop 
of  St  Andrews,  and  other  bishops  for  trying  ecclesiastic*! 
causes,  and  a  form  of  judgment  was  established  for  depriv- 
ing ministers  of  their  benefices  for  worthy  causes.  A 
declaration  was  required  to  be  siibscribod  by  all  beneficed 
men — ministers,  readers,  masters  of  colleges  and  schools — 
acknowledging  their  submission  to  the  king  and  obedience 
to  their  ordinary  bishop  or  superintendent  appointed  by 
him,  under  pain  of  forfeiture.  A  few  subscribed  uncondi- 
tionally, others  with  the  qualification,  "nccordiJig  to  the 
Word  of  God";  but  a  largo  number  declined,  and  sufifeitid 
the  penalty.  Early  in  1585  Adamson  issued  a  paper  de- 
claring the  king's  supremacy  in  matters  ecclcsiastiqaj,' 
defending  the  restoration  of  bishops,  and  announcing  the 
king's  intention  that  the  bishops  should  hold  .synods  twice 
a  year,  that  general  assemblies  should  bo  allowed  provided 
they  had  his  sanction,  but  that  no  jurisdiction  was  to  be 
exercised  by  presbyteries,  This  document,  which  cut  at 
the  root  of  the  I'resbyterian  system  and  was  a  formal 
declaration  in  favour  of  tho  royal  supremacy  and  Episco- 
pacy, was  met  with  vehement  protests  by  Melville  and  the 
exiled  ministers. 

Mcantinio  a  series  of  intrigues  went  on  between  the 
English  and  Scottish  courts.  Elizabeth,  while  osten- 
sibly favouring  the  exiles,  disliked  their  political  principles. 
James  and  Arran,  instead  of  leaning  on  the  pajmcy  as 
Mary  did,  had  shown  signs  of  accepting  a  solution  of  th<i 
problem  of  church  government  more  like  that  of  England 
than  of  Geneva.  There  was  here  ground  for  a  conipromiso 
of  tho  religious  controversy  which  political  reasons  niado 
so  desirable.  Accordingly  Lord  llunsdon,  a  favourite 
courtier  of  Elizabeth,  met  Arran  near  Berwick  in  tho 
autumn,  when  it  was  arranged  that  the  master  of  Gray, 
then  a  follower  of  Arran  end  personal  favourite  of  James, 
should  go  to  London  In  October.  At  his  instance  Elizabeth 
removed  the  banished  Scottish  lords  and  ministers  from 
Newcastle  to  London.     But  Gray  was  playing  his  own 


:508 


SCOTLAND 


[histobt? 


'game,  and  his  suggestions  that  tbese  lords  might  return 
to  Scotland,  and  that  the  alliance  with  England  should  be 
carried  out  by  their  aid  and  his  own  influence  independ- 
ently of  Arran,  were  taken  up  by  the  queen,  who  had  no 
personal  liking  for  AiTan,  and  ultimately  effected.  Eliza- 
beth sent  Wotton  to  Scotland,  who  w'on  the  confidence  of 
James,  to  whom  he  promised  a  pension  of  £5000  a  year, 
and  while  openly  negotiating  with  Arran  secretly  plotted 
with  Gray  for  his  downfall.  A.  mutual  league  between 
England  and  Scotland  against  the  Catholics,  called  "  the 
Bond  anent  the  True  Religion,"  was  agreed  to  by  a  con- 
vention of  estates  in  July  1585. 

This  was  a  turning-point  in  the  life  of  James  and  in  the 
history  of  Scotland.  The  choice  was  made  between  France 
and  England,  Romanism  and  Protestantism.-  It  was  not 
likely  to  be  reversed  when  with  Elizabeth's  declining  years 
the  crown  of  England  was  thrown  into  the  balance.  The 
day  before  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  Arran  was  at  the 
request  of  Elizabeth's  envoy  put  in  strict  ward,  under  the 
pretext  that  he  had  been  privy  to  the  death  of  Lord 
Russell,  son  of  the  earl  of  Bedford,,  in  a  border  fray,  and 
he  only  escaped  at  the  price  of  his  estates  and  honours. 
In  November  the  banished  lords — Angus,  Mar,  the  master 
of  Glamis — returned,  and  along  with  them  the  two  Hamil- 
tons ;  and,  aided  by  Gray,  they  seized  the  person  of  the 
king,  the  castle  of  Stirling,  and  assumed  the  government. 
The  alliance  with  England  was  finally  ratified  at  Berwick 
by  Randolph.  James,  at  the  instigation  of  Gray,  wrote  a 
harsh  letter  to  his  mother ;  and  at  the  instance  of  Eliza- 
beth he  allowed  George  Douglas,  who  had  been  concerned  in 
Darnley's  murder,  to  return  to  Scotland.  •  The  exiled  Pro- 
testant ministers  were  restored  to  their  livings  ;  but  James 
was  resolute  in  maintaining  Episcopacy  and  enforcing  the 
laws  against  all  who  denied  the  royal  supremacy.  Adam- 
son  was  indeed  forced  by  a  general  assembly  to  disclaim 
any  authority  as  archbishop  not  allowed  by  God's  Word, 
and  an  Act  was  passed  again  dividing  Scotland  into  presby- 
teries, but  the  king  refused  to  subject  the  bishops  to  their 
jurisdiction.  Jiary,  deserted  by  her  son,  now  allowed 
herself  through  her  immediate  confidants,  especially  her 
secretaries  Nau  and  Curie,  to  take  an  active  though  secret 
part  in  the  Jesuit  plots  which  embraced  both  Scotland 
and  England  in  their  ramifications.  That  which  had  for 
its  aim  the  assassination  of  Elizabeth  was  discovered  by 
Walsingham's  spies,  and,  though  forgery  was  resorted  to, 
it  is  difficult  to  doubt  that  Mary  was  cognizant  of  the 
design.  The  trial  at  Fotheringay  could  have  but  one  result 
under  a  statute  according  to  which  any  attempt  against 
the  queen's  life  was  treason  in  the  person  for  whom  it  was 
made  as  well  as  in  the  actual  perpetrators.  The  execu- 
tion (8th  February  1587)  of  Mary  naturally  roused  the 
anger  of  the  Catholic  powers  and  some  indignation  in 
Scotland,  which  James  professed  to  share;  yet  he  did 
nothing  but  expostulate.  In  truth  his  own  crown  was 
threatened  by  the  same  enemies.  Mary  had  disinherited 
Lim  in  favour  of  Philip  of  Spain,  unless  he  adopted  the 
Catholic  faitli.  The  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada  by  the 
sovereign  and  people  of  both  countries  was  felt  to  be  a 
providential  deliverance.  Nothing  could  have  served  better 
to  efiace  the  memory  of  Mary  and  extinguish  pity  for  her 
fate.  The  fall  of  Gray,  who  was  tried  and  condemned  for 
treachery  during  his  English  embassy  and  for  correspond- 
ence with  Catholic  princes,  left  James,  now  of  full  age, 
without  what  was  almost  a  necessity  to  his  weak  nature, 
— a  favourite,  though  Sir  Johu  Maitland,  a  younger  brother 
of  Lethington,  was  secretary  and  exercised  the  chief  influ- 
ence in  the  government.  Advantage  was  taken  of  the 
royal  majority  to  pass  an  Act  annexing  to  the  crown 
all  church  lands  under  certain  limited  reservations.  But, 
as  all  prior  grants  to  lay  impropriators  were  saved,  and 


the  king  was  still  allowed  to  grant  feus  of  church  lands,' 
the  nobles  and  landed  gentry  really  profited  most  by  this 
measure,  which  gave  a  parliamentary  title  to  their  estates 
derived  from  the  church  and  the  hope  of  future  spoils. 
The  Act  was  accompanied  by  a  general  revocation  of  all 
gifts  made  during  the  king's  minority  or  by  Mary  after 
his  accession.  Another  statute  of  constitutional  import- 
ance renewed,  and  for  the  first  time  carried  into  effect, 
the  law  of  James  I.  by  which  the  lesser  barons  in  the 
counties  were  excused  from  personal  attendance  and  allowed 
to  send  representatives  to  parliament.  This  was  a  check 
on  the  nobles  who  had  hitherto  almost  exclusively  attended 
and  ruled  parliament.  It  was  the  first  and  only  large 
deviation  of  the  Scottish  parliament  from  the  feudal  model 
of  the  curia  regis. 

Projects  for  the  king's  marriage  had  been  on  foot  at  an 
earlier  period ;  but  at  last  the  choice  fell  upon  Anne  of 
Denmark.  Elizabeth  opposed  the  match ;  but  James,  per- 
haps tempted  by  the  oifer  to  surrender  the  Danish  claim  to 
Orkney  and  Shetland,  perhaps  also  not  unwilling  to  show 
he  could  choose  for  himself,  was  married  to  Anne  by  proxy. 
Anne  set  sail  for  Scotland,  but  was  driven  back  by  a  storm. 
Accordingly  James  himself  went  to  claim  his  bride,  when 
the  actual  marriage  was  at  once  celebrated  at  Copenhagen, 
where  ho  spent  the  winter.  It  was  a  political  advantage 
both  to  the  king  and  Scotland  to  form  a  coimexion  with 
a  kingdom  which,  though  small,  stood  comparatively  high 
at  that  time  in  Europe,  and  was  completely  independent 
both  of  England  and  of  France.  After  the  king's  return 
the  Presbyterian  party  was  in  the  ascendant.  It  has  been 
doubted  whether  the  favour  shown  to  it  by  James  at  this 
time  was  genuine,  but  without  reason.  He  had  been 
married,  and  the  queen  was  crowned,  by  Robert  Bruce, 
a  leading  minister,  for  whom  he  had  a  personal  liking 
Shortly  before  going  to  Denmark  James  had  published  a 
tract  interpreting  the  Apocalypse  in  the  well-known  Protest- 
ant sense.  Notwithstanding  the  failure  of  the  Armada^ 
the  air  was  still  full  of  Jesuit  intrigues  and  Spanish  plots. 
At  no  moment  of  his  life  was  James  less  inclined  toward* 
the  English  form  of  the  Reformation,  which  he  described 
in  a  celebrated  speech  as  retaining  the  superstition  of  the 
mass  "without  the  liftings."  A  severe  blow  was  given 
to  Episcopacy  in  Scotland  by  Archbishop  Adamson  shortly 
before  his  death  retracting  in  a  published  confession  his 
writings  against  Presbyterianism.  In  1592  parliament,  led 
according  to  James  Melville  by  Llaitland,  now  Lord  Thirle- 
stane  and  chancellor,  re-established  Presbyterian  church 
government.  General  assemblies  were  to  meet  once  a 
year,  and  provincial  assemblies  or  synods,  presbyteries, 
and  sessions  were  confirmed.  The  Act  of  1584  conferring 
jurisdiction  on  bishops  was  rescinded,  but  there  was  no 
formal  abrogation  of  the  office.  The  assembly  had  asked 
for  the  repeal  of  the  Act  of  Annexation  of  1587,  but  this 
was  not  conceded.  The  landed  interests  were  too  powerful 
to  allow  of  the  Reformed  Church  receiving  the  patrimony 
of  its  predecessor.  Shortly  after  the  termination  of  the 
parliament  the  discovery  of  the  plot  of  "the  Spanish 
blanks  "  showed  that  the  danger  of  a  Catholic  rising  and 
foreign  invasion  was  real.  The  conspiracy  proved  abor- 
tive, and  two  of  its  chief  promoters  (Huntly  and  Erroll) 
left  Scotland  ;  on  their  return  three  years  later  they  publicly 
renoimced  Catholicism  and  conformed  to  the  Protestant 
faith. 

From  tne  king's  majority  to  his  accession  to  the  English 
throne,  his  relations  to  the  nobles  on  the  one  hand  and  to 
the  Presbyterian  party  led  by  the  ministers  on  the  other 
require  to  be  kept  in  view  as  giving  the  key  to  a  singularly 
confused  and  changing  course  of  events.  After  the  death 
of  Thirlcstane  in  1595,  the  king  had  to  rely  on  his  own 
counsel,  of  the  value  oi  which  he  had  an  overweening 


Re-estal» 
lishmenl 
of  P res- 
byte  riajfc 
ism. 


Kela. 

tionay 

cliaiclii 

and 

state.. 


BEFORMATIOS.] 


SCOTLAND 


509 


opinion.    He  had  studied  the  theory  of  kingcraft  and  wrote 
the  Basilkon  Doron  expounding  it.     He  fancied  that  he 
really  governed,  while  he  was  in  fact  drawn  this  way  or 
that  by  the  contending  forces  which  emerged  in  this  revolu- 
tionary epoch.    In  spite  of  occasional  displays  of  resolution, 
Lis  character  was  at  bottom  weak.     It  was  the  destiny 
vhich  conducted  him  to  the  English  throne  that  saved  him 
from  the  dangers  of  his  situation  in  Scotland.     A  noble- 
man, who,  although   only  connected  by  his  mother  with 
Marj''3  Bothwell,  seemed  to  inherit  the  reckless  daring  of 
Ids  predecessor  in  the  title,  thrice  attempted  and  once  for 
a  short  time  succeeded  in  seizing  the  royal  person  and 
assuming  the  reins  of  government.     But  James,  who  was 
not  with^out  adroitness  in  baffling  plotters  by  arts  similar 
to  their  own,  escaped  from  his  custody.      Towards  the 
Catholic  lords  his  policy  was  not  to  proceed  to  extremities, 
but  to  keep  them  in  hand  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  extreme 
Protestant  party.     He  prudently  allowed  the  finances  to 
be  managed  after  Thirlestane's  death  by  a  committee,  called 
He        from  its  number  the  Octavians,  on  which  both  Catholics 
Octa-      and  Protestants  acted, — Seton,  afterwards  Lord  Dunferm- 
"""•      line,  the  president  of  the  session,  and  Lindsay  of  Balcarres 
bemg  the  leading  members.     With  their  advice  James  set 
himseH  against  any  measures  which  the  Protestant  minis- 
ters proposed  for  the  restoration  or  increase  of  the  revenues 
of  the  church.     It  was  this  critical  point  of  money,  the 
assertion  of  the  royal  supremacy  in  spiritual  matters,  and 
the  favour  the  king  showed  to  the  Catholics  which  led  to 
the  quarrel  between  him  and  the  ministers.     At  a  conven- 
tion of  the  estates  at  Falkland  and  then  more  strongly 
as  one  of  a  deputation  sent  by  the  ministers  from  Cupar, 
Andrew  Melville,  in  the  spirit  and  manner  of  Knox,  made 
his  well-known  speech  to  "God's  silly  vassal"  on  the  two 
kingdoms  and  the  two  kings.    Although  James,  frightened 
by  this  vehement  language,  made  promises  that  he  would 
do  nothing  for  the  Catholic  lords  till  they  had  made  terms 
with  the  church,  it  was  impossible  that  a  quarrel,  whose 
roots  were  so  deep,  as  to  the  limits  of  the  royal  authority 
and  jurisdiction  in  matters  ecclesiastical  could  be  appeased. 
Neither  party  to  it  could  see  how  far  each  overstepped  the 
bounds  of  reason.     The  king  was  blind  to  the  right  of 
freedom  of  conscience  which  Protestantism  had  established 
as  one  o*  its  first  principles.     Melville  and  the  ministers 
were  equally  blind  to  the  impossibility  of  any  form  of 
monarchy  yielding  to  the  claim  that  the  members  of  an 
ecclesiastical  assembly  should  use  the  name  of  Christ  and 
the  theory  of  His  headship  over  the  church  to  give  them- 
selves absolute  power  to  define  its  relations  to  the  state. 
Other  occasions  quickly  arose  for  renewing  the  controversy. 
A  violent  sermon  by  Black  at  St  Andrews  gave  a  favour- 
able opportunity  to  James  of  invoking  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  privy  council,  and  the  preacher  was  banished  nortli  of 
the  Tay.     Soon  afterwards  a  demand  made  on  the  king 
in  consequence  of  a  sermon  of  another  minister,  Balcan- 
quhal,  and  a  speech  of  Bruce,  the  king's  former  favourite, 
that  he  should  dismiss  the  Octavians,  led  to  a  tumult  in 
Edinburgh,  which  gave  James  a  pretext  for  leaving  the 
town  and  removing  the  courts  of  justice  to  Linlithgow. 
Supported  by  the  nobles,  ho  returned  on  New-Year's  Day 
1597,  received  the  submission  of  the  town,  levying  a  severe 
fine  before  he  would  restore  its  privileges  as  a  corporation 
and  withholding  from  it  the  right  of  electing  its  own  magis- 
trates or  ministers  without  the  royal  consent.    Emboldened 
by  this  success,  James  now  addressed  himself  to  the  diffi- 
cult problem  of  church  and  state.     He  did  not  yet  feel 
strong  enough  to  restore  Episcopacy,  perhaps  had  not  quite 
determined  on  that  course.     The  ingenious  scheme  due  to 
Lindsay  of  Balcarres  was  fallen  on  of  introducing  repre- 
sentatives of  the  church  into  parliament  without  naming 
th'-m  bishops.      This  would  have  the  twofold  effect  of 


diminishing  the  authority  of  the  general  assemblies  and  IMS-HPi 
of  conferring  on  parliament  a  competency  to  deal  with 
matters  ecclesiastical.     Parliament  in  1597  passed  an  Act 
that  all  ministers  promoted  to  prelacies  (i.e.,  bishoprics  or 
abbacies)  should  have  seats  in  parliament,  and  remitted  to 
the  king  with  the  general  assembly  to  determine  as  to  the 
office  of  such  persons  in  the  spiritual  policy  and  govern- 
ment of  the  kirk.    Accordingly  James  summoned  succes- 
sive assemblies  at  Perth  and  Dundee,  where  there  were  two 
sessions  in  1597,  and  finally  at  Montrose  in  1600,  selecting 
those  tovnis  in  order  to  procure  a  good  attendance  from 
the  north,  always  more  favourable  to  royalty  and  Episco- 
pacy and  less  under  the  influence  of  the  Edinburgh  clergy. 
By  this  and  other  manoeuvres  he  obtained  some  concessions, 
but  not  all  that  he  desired  (see  PEESBYTERiiNiSM,  voL  sis. 
pp.  681-682).    It  was  the  Gowrie  conspiracy  (5th  August 
1600)  whose  failure  gave  him  the  courage  and  the  ground 
for  finally  abandoning  the  Presbyterians  and  casting  in  his 
lot  with  the  bishops.     Repeated  investigations  at  the  time 
and  since  cannot  be  said  to  have  completely  cleared  up  the 
mystery  of  this  outrage.     The  most  probable  solution  was 
afforded  by  the  discovery  several  years  afterwards  of  a  corre- 
spondence between  Gowrie  and  Logan  of  Restalrig  which 
pointed  to  the  seizure  of  the  person  rather  than  the  murder 
of  James  as  the  object  of  the  plot.     Slore  important  than 
this  object,  which  failed,  was  the  sequel.     The  Ruthvens, 
who  were  chiefly  implicated,  were  amongst  the  most  promi- 
nent of  the  Protestant  nobility,  and  the  Presbyterian  minis- 
ters with  few  exceptions  refused  to  accept  James's  own 
account  of  what  had  happened,  confirmed  though^  it  was 
by  depositions  of  various  noblemen  who  were  with  the 
king  at  the  time.    They  even  insinuated  that  the  plot  had 
not  been  by  but  against  Gowrie  at  the  king's  instance. 
Although  James  by  arguments  and  threats  at  last  extorted 
an  acknowledgment  of  the  truth  of  his  account  from  all  the 
aiinisters  except  Bruce,  who  was  deprived  of  his  benefice 
and  banished  for  his  contumacy,  the  insijilt  and  the  injuri- 
ous suspicions  were  never  forgiven. 

In  October,  with  the  consent  of  the  convention  of  estates;' 
he  appointed  three  bishops  to  vacant  sees,  and  they  sat 
in  parliament,  though  as  yet  without  any  place  iu  the 
government  of  the  church,  which  was  still  Presbyterian, 
and  with  no  sanction  of  course  from  the  assembly  or  the  V 
ministers.     James  had  to  assume  the  English  crown  before  Union  o| 
Episcopacy  could  really  be  restored.     This  crisis  of  his^'>|l'«l' 
career  was  not  long  dehiyed.     Already  Elizabeth's  death  ^^^^^ 
was  being  calculated  on,  and  her  courtiers  from  Cecil  croons.' 
downwards  were  contending  for  the  favour  of  her  heir. 
She  died  on  24th  March  1603  and  James  was  at  once  pro- 
claimed her  successor  in  accordance  with  her  own  declara 
tion  that  no  minor  person  should  ascend  her  throne  but 
her  cousin  the  king  of  Scots.     Leaving  Edinburgh  on  5th 
April,  James  reached  London  on  6th  May,  being  every- 
where received  wth  acclamation  by  the   people.      Thus 
peacefully  at  a  memorable  epoch  in  the  history  of  Europe 
was  accomplished  the  union  of  South  and  North  Britaha. 
Often  attempted  in  vain  by  conquest,  it  was  now  attoined 
in  a  manner  soothing  the  pride  of  the  smaller  country, 
without  at  first  exciting  the  jealousy  of  the  larger,  whos* 
interest  was,  as  Henry  VII.  prophesied,  sure  to  predominate. 
To  James  it  was  a  welcome  change  from  nobles  who  had 
threatened  his  liberty  and  life,  and   from  ministers  who 
withstood  his  will  and  showed  little  respect  for  his  penson 
or  office,  to  the  courtier  statesmen  of  England  trained  by 
the  Tudors  to  reverence  the  monarch  ns  all  but  absolute,  ^ 
and  a  clergy  bound  to  recognize  him  ns  their  head.     To  Advan-., 
Scotland,  a  poor  country,  and  its  inhabitants,  poor  also  J."i«'  "„ 
but  enterprising  and  eager  for  new  careers,  it  opened  pro-" 
spccts  of  national  prosperity  which,  though  not  at  once," 
were  ultimately  realized.     It  was  an  immediate  sain  that 


510 


SCOTLAND 


border  wars  and  English  and  French  intrigues  were  at  aji 
end.  This  more  than  counterbalanced  the  loss  of  the  court, 
a  loss  which  probably  favoured  the  independent  develop- 
ment of  the  nation.  For  the  present  no  change  was  made 
in  its  constitution,  its  church,  or  its  laws.  The  Eeforuia- 
tion  had  continued  the  work  of  the  War  of  Independence. 
Scotland  no  longer  consisted  only  of  the  prelates,  the 
nobles,  and  the  landed  gentry.  The  commons,  imperfectly 
represented  in  parliament  by  the  burghs,  not  yet  wealthy 
enough  to  bo  powerful,  had  found  a  voice  in  the  assemblies 
»f  the  church  and  leaders  in  its  ministers  and  elders. 

Superstition  did  not  fall  with  the  fall  of  the  church  of 
Rome  nor  lioenco  with  the  decline  of  the  nobility.    Kather, 
both  took  new  forms  of  extreme  virulence  and  threatened 
to  impede  the  national  progress ;  but  both  wore  exposed 
to  the  light  of  public  discussion  and  the  growth  of  public 
opinion.     The  contact  with  the  more  cultured  south  was 
of  immense  value.    Scotland,  now  beginning  to  iise  in  the 
services  of  the  church,  in  the  proceedings  of  the  courts, 
and  in  printed  bocks  the  vulgar  tongue,  which  differed 
only  as  a  dialect  from  that  of  England,  was  admitted 
to  the  freedom  of  the  noblest  language  and  literature  in 
Europe,  then  in  its  primo.     The  arts  which  increase  the 
convenience  and  pleasure  of  daily  life  spread  northward 
with  the  increase  cf  wealth.     Science,  starting  on  a  new 
method  taught  by  the  great  English  philosopher,  was  intro- 
duced and  after  a  time  eagerly  prosecuted.     Commerce, 
for  which  the  Scots  had  a  natural  aptness,  found  new 
fields.     And  all  these  benefits  were  procured  without  any 
sacrifice  of  the  independent  spirit  which  had  been  derived 
from   their  forefathers.      Even  the  separate  intercourse 
with  the  Continent — with  France,  German}',  Holland,  and 
Scandinavia — from  which  Scotland  had  already  received 
so  much  advantage,  though  not  quite  so  intimate  with 
France  as  before,  continued.     But  before  the  blessings  of 
the  union  could  be  fully  realized  a  century  was  to  inter- 
vene, which  at  times  seemed  to  hide  if  not  to  bury  them, 
— ^a  century  of  civil  war  and  religious  controversy.     At 
the  moment  when  James  ascended  the  throne  and  pro- 
claimed the  virtues  of  peace  it  required  no  far-sighted 
observer  to  discern  elements  of  discord  which  might  at 
any  moment  burst  in  storm.      To  hold  Papal  Ireland, 
Episcopal  England,  and  Presbyterian  Scotland  united  unde^ 
one  sceptre  was  a  task  of  infinite  difficulty,  not  lessened 
because  in  each  there  was  a  minority  who  dissented  strongly 
from  the  prevailing  opinion  as  to  church  government  and 
doctrine.     The  sudden  separation  from  Itome  gave  birth 
to  every  variety  of  religious  opinion,  and  Scotland  became 
even  more  than  England  a  land  of  sects.    The  constitution 
of  the  civil  government  was  a  problem  not  yet  solved.    In 
England  the  Tudor  sovereigns  had  sapped  the  principles  of 
the  parliamentary  constitution  established  in  the  times  of 
the  Plantagenets,  and  fortunately  recorded  in  writings  which 
could  not  be  forgotten.     In  Scotland  such  principles  had 
naver  yet  been  practically  adopted.     Ireland  was  ruled  as 
A  dependency  on  the  principle  of  subjection. 

At  this  point  in  the  treatment  of  some  historians  the 
history  of  Scotland  ends.  Juster  views  now  prevail. 
Neither  the  union  of  crowns  nor  of  parliaments  really 
closes  the  separate  record  of  a  nation  which  retained  sepa- 
rate laws,  a  separate  church,  a  separate  system  of  education, 
and  a  well-marked  diversity  of  character.  But  a  great 
part  of  the  subsequent  history  of  Scotland  is  necessarily 
included  in  that  of  Great  Britain,  and  has  been  treated 
under  England  (q.v.).  Considerations  of  space  and  pro- 
portion make  it  necessary  that  what  remains  should  be 
told  even  more  rapidly  than  the  narrative  of  what  preceded 
the  accession  of  James  to  the  English  throne.  James 
during  the  first  half  of  his  reign  as  sovereign  of  Great 
Britain  allowed  himself  to  be  mainly  guided  by  Robert 


[msTORr. 


Cecil,  Lord  Salisbury,  the  sou  of  Burghley,  an  iiereditary 
statesman  of  great  ability  as  an  administrator.     But  on 
two  subjects  closely  connected  with  Scotland  the  king  had 
decided  opinions  of  his  own.     He  desired  to  see  Scotland 
bound  to  England,  not  merely  by  the  union  of  the  crowns 
but  by  a  union  of  the  parliaments  and  laws,  and  if  not  an 
immediate  an  ultimate  union  of  the  churches.     He  was 
equally  determined  that  tlie  church  in  both  countries  should 
combine  a  moderate  Protestant  doctrine— a  via  media  be- 
tween Rome  and  Geneva  — with   Episcopal  government 
Both  desires  were  founded  on  prudent  policy  and  might 
possibly  have  been  accomplished  by  a  stronger  and  wiser 
monarch.     But  the  former  was  opposed  by  the  jealousy  of 
England  and  the  pride  of  Scotland.     The  latter  could  not  ' 
bo  accomplished  in  Scotland  without  force,  so  deep  were 
the  roots  which  Presbyterianisra  had  struck.     James  at- 
tempted to  carry  both  measures  in  a  manner  calculated 
to  raise  rather  than  to  overcome  opposition.     The  union 
scheme  was  brought  before  his  first  English  parliament, 
and  commissioners  were  appointed  to  treat  with  the  Scottish 
commissioners  nominated  somewhat  reluctantly  by  the  par- 
liament of  Perth.     The  commissioners  met,  but  differences 
at  once  emerged  on  the  topics  of  freedom  of  trade  between 
the  two  countries,  to  which  the  English  were  averse,  and 
the  acceptance  of  the  laws  of  England,  which  the  Scots 
objected  to.      Two  important  points  were  carried  by  a 
declaration  of  the  law  rather  than  agreement  of  the  com- 
missioners,— that  subjects  born  in  either  country  after  the 
accession  (post  nati)  should  have  the  full  privileges  of  sub- 
jects and  not  be  deemed  aliens,  and  that  those  born  before 
should  bo  capable  of  denization  and  so  of  inheriting  or 
acquiring  land  in  England,  though  not  of  political  rights  or 
offices.     The  English  parliament  of  1607,  however,  refused 
to  sustain  the  decision  of  the  Exchequer  Chamber  in  favour 
of  the  post  nati,  although  it  consented  to  abolish  the  lawa 
which  treated  Scotland  as  an  enemy's  country  and  mad& 
arrangements  for  the  extradition  of  criminals.     The  reli- 
gious  or  ecclesiastical  question  was  first  brought  to  a  point 
in  England  at  the  Hampton  Court  conference,  which  met 
on  14th  January  1604,  in  which  trifling  concessions  were 
made  to  the  Puritans,  chiefly  as  to  the  observance  of  Sunday 
and  the  removal  of  the  Apocrypha  from  the  Authorized 
Versien.    In  Scotland  Episcopacy  was  restored  by  a  series  j.      ^^ 
of  steps  which  were  gradual  only  for  the  purpose  of  over-  Hsffmeix* 
coming  opposition,  not  because  James  hesitated  as  to  the  co^mt 
end  in  view.     At  length  the  parliament  of  1612  repeated 
the  Act  of  1592,  so  that  Episcopacy  was  now  once  more 
established  in  Scotland  by  law,  but  contrary  to  the  wish 
of  the  majority  of  the  nation  and  under  circumstances 
which  made  it  the  symbol  of  absolute  government.    Whilo 
thus  resolute  in  favour  of  Episcopacy,  James  showed  no 
sign  of  leaning  to  the  Roman  Church,  although  etForts  to 
convert  him  had  been  made  at  an  earlier  period  in  Scot- 
land.     The  Armada,   now  followed   by  the  Gunpowder 
Plot,  convinced  him  that  he  had  nothing  to  hope  for  from 
the  Papists  but  open  war  or  secret  con.spiracy. 

After  the  death  of  Cecil  James  gave  way  to  that  influence 
of  favourites  to  which  he  had  shown  himself  prone  in  his 
younger  vears ;  but  in  the  afi'airs  of  Scotland,  which  pro- 
duced much  trouble  and  little  profit,  Somerset  and  Buck- 
ingham took  no  interest  and  James  was  his  own  master. 
After  an  absence  of  fourteen  years  he  visited  his  native 
country.  He  had  promised  to  return  every  three  years, 
but  the  business  and  pleasures  of  the  English  court  detained 
him.  His  main  object  was  to  carry  out  still  further  the 
uniformity  of  the  church,  in  which  the  bishops'  had  not 
succeeded  in  establishing  the  same  service  as  in  England. 
This  object  was  apparently  attained  in  1618  by  the  adoj>- 
tion  of  the  Five  Articles  of  Perth  (see  vol.  xix.  p.'  682), 
but  at  the  cost  of  sowing  the  seed  of  religious  war.    From. 


LATEE  STDAB'.:8.] 


S  (J  U    i   -L  A  S    D 


511 


this  time  to  James's  death  little  occurred  worthy  of  note 
in  the  history  of  Scotland.  A  parliament  in  1621,  held 
under  the  marquis  of  Hamilton  as  commissioner,  confirmed 
the  Five  Articles,  though  by  a  majority  that  is  narrow 
when  the  power  of  the  king  in  a  Scottish  parliament  is  kept 
in  view,  and  only  on  an  assurance  from  the  commissioner 
that  no  further  ecclesiastical  innovations  would  be  proposed. 
It  also  introduced  a  new  mode  of  electing  the  Lords  of  the 
Articles,  which  practically  gave  the  whole  influence  to  the 
bishops,  the  nominees  of  the  crown.  As  this  body  prepared 
the  entire  business  of  a  parliament  in  which  there  was  no 
power  of  bringing  in  Bills  by  private  members,  this  was  a 
long  step  in  the  direction  of  absolute  government.  James, 
in  fact,  declared  in  one  of  his  speeches  to  the  English  parlia- 
ment that,  according  to  the  Scottish  constitution,  he  was 
aaster  of  its  whole  proceedings,  ^vith  the  absolute  power 
of  initiative  as  well  as  of  veto.  His  declaration  was  an  ex- 
aggeration, for  there  wore  well-known  precedents  of  the 
estates  passing  laws  without  the  royal  assent ;  but  the 
Scottish  constitution  was  in  a  fluid  state  without  the 
guarantee  of  written  charters  or  clearly  defined  rules  as  to 
the  refusal  of  supplies,  and  above  all  without  an  independ- 
ent House  of  Commons  to  represent  the  wishes  of  the 
people  and  demand  redress  for  their  grievances.  The  only 
part  of  the  policy  of  James  on  which  it  is  possible  to  look 
back  with  satisfaction  was  that  which  concerned  coloniza- 
tion, then  called  "plantation."  This  gave  an  outlet  to  the 
increasing  population,  while  it  advanced  the  civilization 
of  the  (Countries  to  which  the  settlers  went.  The  earliest 
of  these  schemes,  the  "  plantation  "  of  the  Hebrides  by  a 
number  of  gentlemen  of  Fife  called  "undertakers,"  had 
comparatively  little  effect,  but,  apart  from  it,  some  progress 
was  made  in  introducing  order  and  law  in  the  Highlands 
and  islands,  where  the  people  were  still  in  a  serai-barbarous 
condition.  More  important  was  the  plantation  of  Ulster, 
chiefly  by  Scottish  farmers,  whose  descendants  still  retain 
a  Scottish  dialect  and  a  Presbyterian  church.  But  as  an 
augury  of  the  future  the  colonization  of  Nova  Scotia, 
though  attempted  in  an  arbitrary  manner,  was  of  the 
greatest  consequence.  It  was  a  commencement  of  the 
great  migration  to  the  New  World  across  the  Atlantic  and 
to  the  other  colonial  possessions  cf  Great  Britain,  in  which, 
equally  to  their  own  profit  and  that  of  the  empire,  the 
Scottish  nation  in  the  two  following  centuries  was  to  play 
50  great  a  part.  On  22d  March  1625  James  died,  leaving 
to  his  son  Charles  a  burden  of  government  heavier  tlian 
when  he  had  himself  undertaken  it.  His  apparent  success 
in  carrying  to  a  further  point  the  absokito  and  arbitrary 
principles  of  the  Tudor  sovereigns  scarcely  concealed  the 
real  failure.  Ireland,  with  difficulty  kept  down,  was  not 
really  subdued.  The  parliament  of  England  had  given 
unmistakable  signs  that  it  was  only  waiting  an  opportunity 
to  restoi'c  the  constitution  on  the  old  basis.  The  religious 
and  political  instincts  of  the  Scottish  nation,  suppressed 
by  force,  wore  gathering  strength  to  reassert  tliemselves 
if  necessary  by  revolutionary  methods.  An  exhausted  ex- 
chequer, which  James  had  attomiited  to  fill  by  monopolies, 
and  by  the  sale  of  offices  and  honours  and  so-called  bene- 
volences, added  to  the  other  difficulties  of  carrying  on  the 
government,  but  was  fortunately,  as  in  the  time  of  the 
Plantagenets,  to  afford  the  occasion  for  maintaining  the 
constitutional  struggle. 

8.  Period  of  Civil  Wars,  Charles  I.  to  Revnhdijnn. — 
Eight  years  after  his  accession  Charles  I.  revisited  Scotland 
(1633).  During  these  ho  had  pursued  his  father's  policy. 
No  Scotticd)  parliament  sat,  though  a  nominal  one  was 
adjourned  annually  between  1628  and  1633.  'No  general 
assembly  met,  but  the  restoration  of  Episcopacy  and  the 
uniformity  of  the  churches  were  steadily  prosecuted  by 
COjfal  influence  and  the  exercise  of  the  royivl  jircrogativo. 


In  spite  of  the  opposition  of  a  convention  of  the  estates,  1605?I637, 
which  nearly  ended  in  bloodshed,  the  king  carried  out  the 
resumption  of  tithes  for  the  benefit  of  the  clergy  from  their 
lay  impropriators.  The  revocation  in  1625  of  all  grants  in  Ecclesi- 
prejudice  of  the  crown,  whether  before  or  after  the  Act  of '"^'^**' 
Annexation  of  1587,  was  superseded  by  a  new  measure,  „,„» 
ratified  by  parliament  in  1633,  declaring  the  terms  on 
which  the  tithes  might  still  be  acquired  and  valued  by  the 
heritors.  Few  measures  have  been  of  greater  iniportanco 
in  their  bearing  on  Scottish  history.  The  revocation 
alienated  the  nobles  and  landed  gentry,  who  dreaded  that 
when  so  much  had  been,  still  more  might  be,  taken  from 
their  profits  in  the  Reformation.  The  new  valuation  left 
the  parochial  clergy  in  the  position  of  a  poor  class,  with 
interests  antagonistic  to  the  gentry,  whose  income  waa 
diminished  whenever  the  ministers  attempted  to  raise  their 
scanty  stipends.  The  loyalty  for  which  the  Scots  had 
been  distinguished  had  received  a  shock  by  the  removal 
of  the  court,  and  this  was  a  second  and  more  serious 
blow.  Yet  when  Charles  came  to  Edinburgh  and  received 
the  cro'wn  at  Holyrood  (18th  Juno  1633)  he  was  well  re- 
ceived. The  disaffection  still  lay  beneath  the  surface. 
Although  the  Five  Articles  of  Perth  were  not  rigidly  en- 
forced, all  the  court  could  do  was  done  to  introduce  the 
most  obnoxious, — the  practice  of  kneeling  at  the  com- 
munion, which  Presbyterians  deemed  a  relic  of  the  mass. 
The  question  of  a  liturgy  was  not  allowed  to  rest.  It 
was  brought  before  the  Scottish  bishops  in  1629  ;  their 
draft  was  submitted  to  Laud,  who,  detecting  in  it  Low 
Church  doctrine  as  to  baiUism  and  traces  of  Kno.x's  BoQk 
of  Common.  Order,  refused  his  approval  and  advocated  the 
introduction  of  the  English  Prayer  Book,  by  which  uni- 
formity would  be  secured.  Though  this  was  not  yet  at- 
tempted, Charles  took  the  same  view  as  the  zealous  and^ 
ambitious  churchman  who  was  now  his  guide  in  ecclesi- 
astical matters.  When  he  came  to  Scotland  Laud  was  in 
his  suite,  and  the  coronation  was  conducted  with  a  ritual 
which  "had  great  fear  of  iubiinging  of  Popery."  Edin-^ 
burgh  was  created  a  bishopric.  The  parliament  over  which 
Charles  presided  passed  thirty-one  Acts,  "  not  three  of' 
which,"  says  a  contemporary,  but  were  most  "hurtful  to' 
the  liberty  of  the  subject."  One  in  particular  declared 
in  a  large  .«ense  the  royal  prerogative,  and  by  an  ill-omened 
conjunction  gave  the  king  power  to  regulate  the  apparel  of 
churchmen.  It  was  di.^puted  in  parliament  whether  this 
Act  was  carried,  but  the  presence  of  the  king,  who  took 
notes  of  the  votes,  overawed  opposition.  About  a  yeal 
after  Charles  left  Scotland  the  trial  of  Lord  Balmerino, 
which  grew  out  of  the  Acts  of  this  parliament,  gave  the 
first  impulse  to  the  Scottish  revolution.  That  nobleman, 
who  had  possessed  a  copy  of  a  [jetition  protesting  against 
the  Acts  then  carried,  was  tried. under  the  old  Acts  against 
leasiiig-making  or  sedition  and  condemned  by  a  majority 
of  one  upon  a  single  charge, — that  of  not  revealing  the 
l^etition  and  its  author  (JIaich  1635).  Although  Charles 
respited  the  capital  sentence,  the  'londemuation  deeply 
stirred  the  people,  who  saw  almost  the  only  mode  of  con- 
stitutional redress,  that  liy  petition,  declared  illegal  and 
iin  act  capable  of  innocent  interpretation  treated  as  a 
heinous  crime.  Before  the  trial  the  appointment  of  Si)ct- 
tiswoode  as  chancellor,  the  first  ecclcsiastio  who  held  iLo 
office  since  the  Refonnation,  and  the  adniis.sion  of  nine 
bishops  to  the  privy  council,  increased  the  disaffection.  In 
1630  the  Hook  of  Cunotts,  ratified  by  the  king  the  year 
before,  was  published  at  Aberdeen,  containing  the  most 
distinct  assertion  of  the  royal  supremacy  and  a  complete 
Episcopal  organization. 

At  last  on  Sunday,  23d  July  1637,  the  much-dreaded  Jmroduc- 
liturgy,  the  use  of  which  had  been  enjoined  by  the  C'tnoiis ''»°  "' 
and  announced  on  the  preceding  Siuiday,  was  iutro<luccd  "^^'' 


512 


SCOTLAND 


[historv. 


S37-l"e39.'  in  the  service  of  St  Giles  Cathedral,  Edinburgh.  For  the 
^most  part  a  transcript  of  the  English  Prayer  Book,  it 
deviated  slightly  in  the  direction  of  the  Koman  ritual. 
Its  use  provoked  an  uproar,  of  which  the  stool  flung  at  the 
dean  by  a  woman,  Jenny  Geddes  or  Anne  Mein,  was  the 
symbol,  and  brought  the  service  to  a  close, — Lindsay,  the 
bishop,  being  with  difficulty  saved  from  the  violence  of  the 
mob.  A  similar  riot  took  place  in  Greyfriars  church,  where 
the  bishop  of  Argyll  attempted  to  use  the  book.  There 
had  been  no  such  tumult  since  the  Keformation.  The 
privy  council  arrested  a  few  rioters,  but  suspended  the  use 
of  the  service  book  until  the  king's  pleasure  was  known, 
and  when  Laud  at  the  king's  request  wrote  that  its  use- 
should  be  continued  no  one  dared  to  read  it  in  Edinburgh  or 
throughout  Scotland  except  in  a  few  cathedrals.  Meantime 
numerous  supplications  against  it  and  the  Canons,  joined 
■with  accusations  against  the  bishops,  were  sent  to  Charles. 
.His  only  answer  was  the  removal  of  the  courts  and  privy 
council  to  Linlithgow  and  an  order  to  all  ministers  who 
signed  the  supplications  to  leave  Edinburgh.  There  fol- 
lowed fresh  supplications  and  protests,  in  which  some  of 
the  nobility,  especially  Kothes,  Balmerino,  Loudon,  Slon- 
trose,  and  a  prominent  la^vyer,  Johnston  of  Warriston, 
joined  with  the  ministers.  Hope,  the  king's  advocate, 
secretly  favoured  them.  Traquair,  a  leading  member  of 
the  privy  council,  went  to  London  to  press  on  Charles  an  J 
Laud  the  gravity  of  the  situation  ;  but,  though  ambiguous 
concessions  were  made,  the  king  and  his  advisers  were 
determined  to  insist  on  the  service  book.  In  a  proclama- 
tion issued  at  Stirling  (20th  February  1638)  the  king  as- 
sumed the  responsibility  of  its  'introduction ;  but  the  op- 
position was  too  powerful  to  be  put  down  by  words.  Its 
organization,  begun  by  commissioners  headed  by  llothes, 
continued  in  committees  of  the  nobles,  lesser  barons, 
ft*  ministers,  and  burghs,  was  now  called  "  the  Tables  "  from 

€«»TenaDt.  those  in  the  Parliament  House,  where  they  sat  sometimes 
sepai-iitely,  sometimes  collectively,  and  formed  a  standing 
assembly  which  defied  the  king's  council.  The  Covenant, 
prepared  by  Alexander  Henderson,  leader  of  the  ministers, 
and  Johnston  of  Warriston,  was  revised  by  Eothes,  Loudon, 
and  Balmerino,  and  accepted  by  upwards  of  two  hundred 
ministers  who  had  gathered  in  Edinburgh.  It  was  signed 
at  Greyfriars  church  on  1st  Slarch  1638,  first  by  many 
of  the  nobles  and  gentry,  then  by  three  hundred  ministers 
and  a  great  multitude  of  the  people.  Copies  were  at  once 
despatched  throughout"  the  country,  and  with  few  excep- 
tions, chiefly  in  St  Andrews  and  Aberdeen,  it  was  accepted 
by  all  ranks  and  classes.  Its  form  was  suggested  by  the 
bonds  for  material  aid  of  which  Mary's  reign  had  given 
so  many  examples,  but  the  new  name  pointed  to  a  Biblical 
origin,  and  the  parties  were  not  the  nobles  and  their 
retainers  but  God  and  His  people.  While  nominally 
professing  respect  for  the  royal  oflSce,  it  was  entered  into, 
as  it  anxiously  reiterated,  for  "the  defence  of  the  true 
religion  (as  reformed  from  Popery)  and  the  liberties  and 
laws  of  the  kingdom."  The  spirit  in  which  it  was  signed 
was  that  of  a  religious  revival.  Many  subscribed  with 
tears  on  their  cheeks,  and  it  was  commonly  reported  that 
some  signed  with  their  blood.  Charles  could  not  relish 
a  movement  which  opposed  his  deepest  convictions  as  to 
church  government  and  under  the  form  of  respect  repudi- 
ated his  supremacy;  but,  destitute  of  power  to  coerce  the 
Covenanters,  he  was  compelled  to  temporize.  Hamilton 
as  his  commissioner  offered  to  withdraw  the  service  book 
and  Booh  of  Canons,  to  give  up  the  Court  of  High  Com- 
mission, and  to  allow  the  Articles  of  Perth  to  remain  in 
abeyance.  A  new  confession  called  the  "  negative,"  framed 
on  that  of  1580,  and  a  new  covenant  mlled  tue  "  king's,"  on 
the  model  of  one  drawn  in  15S0,  which  bound  the  signers 
oiily  to  stand  by  the  king  in  suppressing  Papists  and 


promoting  the  true  religion,  were  devised,  but  failed  tv 
satisfy  even  the  least  zealous  Covenanters. 

An  assembly  at  last  met  in  Glasgow,  over  which  Hamilton  Asseih. 
presided,  with  faint  hope  that  matters  might  still  be  accom-  biy  ot 
modated.  Hamilton  had  orders  to  dissolve  it  if  it  proved  Glasgon 
to  be  intractable.  The  members  had  been  choseu  by  the 
influence  of  the  Tables,  according  to  a  mode  invented  iii 
1597.  Three  ministers  represented  each  presbytery  and 
an  elder  the  laity  of  the  dis'  :ict.  The  burghs  also  sent  re- 
presentatives. The  Covenanters  had  declared  their  inten- 
tion of  prosecuting  the  bishops,  and  a  libel  laid  before  the 
presbytery  of  Edinburgh  was  read  in  the  churches.  Charlea 
on  his  side  announced  that  he  challenged  the  mode  of 
election  and  would  not  allow  the  prosecutions.  He  was 
already  preparing  for  war.  At  the  first  sitting  Alexander 
Henderson  was  chosen  moderator,  and  Johnston  of  Warri. 
ston  clerk.  In  spite  of  the  commissioner's  attempt  to  raise 
the  question  of  the  validity  of  elections.,  the  assembly  d»j 
clared  itself  duly  constituted.  A  letter  from  the  bishops 
was  read  declining  its  jurisdiction,  and  the  commissioner, 
while  offering  rediESS  of  grievances  and  that  bishops  should 
be  responsible  to  future  assemblies  of  clergy,  declared  that 
the  present  assembly  was  illegal  in  respect  of  the  admission 
of  lay  representatives.  Discussion  was  useless  between  a 
commissioner  and  an  assembly  whose  power  to  act  he 
;  denied.  He  accordingly  dissolved  it  in  the  name  of  the 
king  and  left  Glasgow ;  but  this  only  stinmlated  its  mem- 
bers. It  annulled  the  pretended  assembhes  between  1606 
and  1628,  condemned  the  service  book,  Book  of  Canons, 
Booh  of  Ordinances,  and  the  High  Commission  Court,  de- 
posed the  bishops  on  separate  libels  which  set  forth  various 
acts  of  immorality  or  crime,  many  of  which  were  false, 
declared  Episcopacy  to  have  been  abjured  in  1580,  and  con- 
demned the  Five  Articles  of  Perth.  It  concluded  its  month's 
labours  by  restoring  Presbyterian  church  government. 

The  distance  from  such  an  assembly  to  the  field  of  arms  Appeal, 
was  short,  and  on  7th  June  1639  the  army  of  the  Cove-toar(nv 
nanters  under  Alexander  Leslie,  a  general  trained  in  the  '^ 
service  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  met  the  royal  troops  led  by 
the  king  at  Dunse  Law.     Charles,  though  slightly  superior 
in  numbers,  had  an  undisciplined  army  and  no  money  to 
maintain  it,  while  Leslie  had  trained  officers  and  troops 
animated  by  religious  zeal.     Their  colours  were  stamped 
with  the  royal  arms,  and  the  motto  "  For  Christ's  Crown 
and  Covenant "  in  golden  letters.     Councils  of  war  as  well 
as  religious  meetings  were  held  daily,  and  the  militant 
fervour  of  the  Covenanting  troops  steadily  rose.     Charles 
declined  to  engage  such  an  army  and  general,  and  by  the 
Pacification  of  Berwick  (18th  June)  both  parties  agreed  to 
disband,  and  Charles  to  issue  a  declaration  that  all  ecclesi- 
astical matters  should  be  regulated  by  assemblies,  and  all 
civil  by  parliament  and  other  legal  courts.    On  1st  August 
a  free  general  assembly  was  to  be  held  at  Edinburgh,  and 
on  the  20th  a  free  parliament  in  which  an  Act  of  Oblivion 
was  to  be  passed.     The  assembly  met  as  appointed  and, 
without  explicitly  conforming,  re-enacted  the  principal  re- 
solutions of  that  of  Glasgow,  and  declared  that  the  Covenant 
should  be  subscribed  by  every  one  in  ofiice  and  authority. 
Before  it  separated  it  condemned  the  Large  Declaration, 
a  pamphlet  by  Balcanquhal,  dean  of  Durham,  published  in 
the  king's  name,  which  gave  an  adverse  narrative  of  recent 
events  in  Scotland.     The  parliament  effected  little  legis- 
lation, but  showed  its  disposition  by  abolishing  Episcopacy 
and  reforming  the  election  of  the  Lords  of  the  Articles, 
of  whom  eight  were  henceforth  to  be  chosen  by  the  nobles, 
lesser  barons,  and  burghs  respectively.     The  predominance 
of  the  king  and  the  church  was  thus  removed  from  the  body 
which  initiated  all  legislation.     Charles  had  beforehand 
determined  not  to  sanction  the  abolition  of  Episcopacy, 
and   the   parliament   was   prematurely   adjourned   (14th. 


Later  stuaets.] 


SCOTLAND 


513 


November)  ■without  tlie  royal  assent  to  its  Acts.     It  was 
svident  that  the  struggle  between  the  king  and  the  Scots 
would  be  renewed,  and  both  parties  reluctantly  had  re- 
course to  allies  whose  choice  showed  tbeir  sense  of  the  crisis. 
Charles  summoned  an  English  parliament ;  but  the  three 
weeks'  session  of  the  Short  Parliament  was  spent  in  a  vain 
attempt  to  obtain  redress  for  its  own  grievances.      It 
separated  without  granting  supplies,  and  the  king  had  to 
depend  on  private  loans.     The  Scots  negotiated  with  the 
French  king;  butEichelieu  prevented  the  unnatural  alliance 
of  the  Catholic  king  and  the  Covenanters.    The  Scots  took 
the  first  step  in  the  war.    The  army  under  Leslie  crossed  the 
Tweed  and,  forcing  the  passage  of  the  Tyne  at  Newburn, 
occupied  Newcastle.    Charles,  who  had  his  headquarters  at 
York,  paralysed  by  the  want  of  money  and  new  demands 
to  summon  an  English  parliament,  was  driven  to  accept  a 
truce  at  Kipon  (2d  September  1640),  under  which  the 
Scottish  army  was  to  -receive  a  subsidy  to  relieve  the 
northern  counties  from  contributions.      Parliament  was 
summoned  to  Westminster  for  3d  November ;  but  its  first 
act  was  the  impeachment  of  Strafford.     Until  a  pledge 
■was  giv^  by  his  death  that  Charles  would  recognize  the 
limits  of  monarchy,  the  Parliamentary  leaders  thought  it 
safer  that  the  Scots  should  hold  the  north  of  England. 
Peace  was  concluded  by  the  Act  immediately  following 
that  of   Strafford's  attainder,   by  which   £300,000  was 
ordered   to  te  raised  as  "friendly  assistance  and  relipf 
.  promised  to  our  brethren  in  Scotland." 
.-■.irles's      The  king  now  made  up  his  mind  to  re^visit  Scotland, 
c'lases-    hoping  there  to  find  a  way  out  of  his  English  troubles. 
theSort    ■^^  ^^"^  received  a  letter  from  Monteose  {q.v.),  urging  him 
to  come  and  gain  the  Scots  by  a  moderate  •  policy.     He 
came  to  Edinburgh  early  in  August  1641  and  a  parliament 
(net  under  his  presidency,  when  he  not  only  ratified  the 
Acts  substituting  a  Presbyterian  for  the  Episcopal  form 
of  church  government  but  sanctioned  important  reforms. 
The  Lords  of  the  Articles  were  in  future  to  bo  elected  by 
each  of  the  three  estates  separately,  the  burghs  taking  th.e 
place  of  the  bishops ;  the  Court  of  High  Commission  was 
abolished ;  arbitrary  proclamations  were  prohibited ;  the 
officers  of  state  and  the  judges  were  to  be  chosen  with  the 
advice  of  parliament ;  and,  following  an  English  Bill,  parlia- 
ment was  to  meet  every  third  year.     During  his  stay  in 
Scotland   occurred   "the  Incident," — still  spoken   of  as 
mysterious  by  historians,  some  of  whom  liken  it  to  the 
English  incident  of  the  arrest  of  the  five  members.     Argyll 
and  Hamilton  had  led  the  party  which  carried  all  the 
measures  of  this  parliament.     Montroso  had  been  com- 
mitted to  the  castle  by  the  estates  before  the  arrival  of 
Charles  on  ^a  charge  of  plotting  against  Argyll  by  false 
accusations  to  the  king.     From  his  prison  he  renewed  his 
charges  against  both  Aigyll  and  Hamilton,  whom  he  accused 
of  treason.     Charles  about  this  time  unwisely  attended 
parliament  -with  an  unusual  guard  of  500  men,  which  gave 
Hamilton  and  Argyll  a  pretext  for  asserting  that  their  lives 
were  in  danger  and  to  quit  Edinburgh.     They  soon  re- 
■'tumed  and  a  favourable  committee  of  investigation  let  the 
matter  drop.     Argyll  was  now  more  powerful  than  ever. 
In  November  the  king  returned  to  London,  which  became 
during  the  next  year  the  centre  of  the  eyents  which  led  to 
the  Civil  War. 

The  progress 'of  the  Civil  War  belongs  to  English  history. 
Here  only  the  part  taken  by  the  Scots  can  be  stated.  They 
were  now  courted  by  king  and  Parliament  alike.  The 
campaign  of  1642-43  under  Essex  proved  indecisive,  and 
the  Parliament  sent  commissioners  headed  by  Sir  Heniy 
Vane  to  Edinburgh  in  the  autumn  of  1643,  who  agreed 
to  the  "  Solemn  League  and  Covenant,"  already  acccjited 
by  the  Scottish  assembly  and  parliament,  and  now  ratified 
by  the  English  parliament  and  the  assembly  of  'divines 


at  Westminster.  This  memorable  document,  whose  name 
showed  its  descent  from  the  National  Covenant,  bound  the 
parties  to  it  "  to  preserve  the  Reformed  Church  in  Scot- 
land and  effect  the  reformation  of  that  in  England  and 
Ireland  in  doctrine,  -worship,  discipline,  and  government 
according  to  the  Word  of  God  and  the  example  of  the  best 
Reformed  Churches."  But  the  alliance  with  the  Scottish 
Covenanters  did  not  produce  the  advantage  expected  from 
it.  The  victory  of  Marston  Moor  was  due  to  Cromwell  and 
his  Ironsides,  who  were  Puritans  and  Independents.  The 
Scots,  who  formed  the  centre  of  the  Parliamentary  army, 
were  repulsed.  In  the  autumn,  although  the  Scots  took 
Newcastle,  the  king  gained  ground  in  the  west,  where 
Essex,  the  general  who  represented  the  Presbyterians, 
narrowly  escaped  capture.  Next  year  Montrose,  in  the 
brilliant  campaign  on  which  his  military  fame  rests,  made 
a  formidable  diversion  in  the  Highlands.  With  dazzling 
rapidity,  at  first  supported  only  by  a  handful  of  followers, 
but  gathering  numbers  -with  success,  he  erected  the  royal 
standard  in  Dumfries;  then,  passing  to  the  Highlands,  after 
the  victory  of  Tippermuir  he  took  Perth,  and  defeated 
Lord  Lewis  Gordon  at  the  Bridge  of  Dee.  Next,  after 
ravaging  the  county  of  Argyll,  he  marched  to  Inverness, 
but  returned  to  defeat  Argyll  at  Inverlochy,  won  further 
victories  at  Auldearn  near  Nairn  and  Alford  on  the  Don, 
and  by  that  of  Kilsyth  appeared  to  have  recovered  Scot- 
land for  Charles.  The  fruit  of  all  these  victories  was  lost 
by  his  defeat  at  Philiphaugh  (13th  September  1644)  by 
Leslie.  Meantime  Charles  had  lost  the  battle  of  Naseby; 
and  next  year  was  forced  to  take  refuge  at  Newark  with 
Leslie,  whom  he  had  created  earl  of  Leven.  As  the  result 
of  his  surrender  he  ordered  Montrose,  who  was  again  raising 
the  Royalists  in  the  Highlands,  to  lay  down  his  arms ;  and 
the  Scottish  army  in  England,  no  longer  on  good  te^m^s 
■with  the  Parliament,  returned  to  Newcastle,  that,  being 
nearer  hpme,  it  might  dictate  the  terms  of  its  services. 
Here  it  remained  eight  months,  during  which  a  strenuous  Charlas 

o  +  fomrtf  T^TQc  mnrlo  +r»  fnrpp  OlinrlpQ  fn  npppnf.  tliA  Or»vpnflnf"_  ^  S  negO 


attempt  was  made  to  force  Charles  to  accept  the  Covenant. 
Alexander  Henderson  argued  the  matter  ■with  him  in  a 


negiv 
tiationa 
with  th* 


singularly  temperate  correspondence.  But  the  king  was  scots. 
bound  to  Episcopacy  by  hereditary  sentipient  and  personal 
conviction.  Another  negotiation  was  going  on  at  the  same 
time  between  the  Scottish  army  and  the  English  Parlia- 
ment for  arrears  of  pay.  On  30th  January  1646  they 
surrendered  the  king  to  the  English  commissioners,  the 
question  of  pay  having  been  settled  by  the  receipt  of 
£200,000  a  few  days  before  and  a  like  sum  a  few  days 
after  that  date.  There  was  no  express  condition  which 
bound  the  two  circumstances  together,  but  their  concur- 
rence cannot  have  been  accidental. 

In  his  captivity  Charles  renewed  his  negotiations  ■with 
the  Scottish  estates,  over  which  Hamilton  had  now  ac- 
quired influence,  and  a  compromise  was  at  last  agreed  to 
at  Newport  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  by  which  he  promised  to 
confirm  the  League  and  Covenant  by  Act  of  Parliament 
to  establish  Presbyterianism  and  the  Westminster  Confes- 
sion, which  as  well  as  the  Directory  had  been  adopted  by 
the  Scottish  parliament  for  three  years.  After  that  period 
it  was  to  be  fixed  by  the  king  and  parliament  what  form 
of  church  government  was  most  agreeable  to  the  Word  of 
God,  and  this  after  consultation  with  the  assembly  was  to 
bo  established.  The  Scots  consented  that  in  the  meantime 
the  Covenant  should  not  bo  enforced  on  those  who  Lad 
conscientious  scruples,  and  that  the  king  might  continue 
to  use  the  English  service.  The  Covenanters  who  accepted 
these  terms,  and  who  formed  the  most  moderate  section, 
received  the  name  of  Engagcra.  Relying  on  the  promised 
support  from  Scotland,  Charles  rejected  the  proposals  of 
the  English  Parliament.  That  body  had  now  broken  with 
the  ai-mj',  in  which  the  Independents  and  Cromwell  were 

XXL  —  6  s 


514 


SCOTLAND 


[history. 


(647-1^54.  fast  acquiring  supremacy.  Their  division  afforded  an 
opportunity  for  renewing  the  war,  and  Hamilton  invaded 
England  in  the  following  year,  but  was  routed  at  Preston 
(17th  August  1648)  by  Cromwell.  A  party  led  by  Argyll 
had  opposed  the  compromise  with  Charles  effected  by 
Hamilton.  They  were  chiefly  strong  in  the  south-west, 
and  in  the  autumn  of  this  year  a  band  of  them  raised  by 
Lord  Eglinton  marched  to  Edinburgh  and  were  met  by 
Argyll,  who  put  himself  at  their  head.  Their  numbers 
had  risen  to  6000,  a  sufficient  force  to  give  them  supreme 
influence  over  the  Government.  It  was  from  this — the 
"Whiggaraore"  raid — that  the  name  of  Whigs  took  its 
rise.  The  meeting  of  estates  now  resolved  to  renew  the 
Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  and  by  an  Act  called  the 
Act  of  Classes  removed  from  the  courts  and  all  places  of 
public  trust  those  who  had  accepted  the  "late  unlawful 
engagement."  The  English  Parliament  at  this  point  took 
an  exactly  opposite  course  and  showed  signs  of  conciliation 
with  the  king ;  but  the  frustration  of  its  action  by  the 
energetic  policy  of  CromweU  was  quickly  followed  by  the 
trial  and  execution  of  the  king.  Hamilton,  who  had  been 
taken  after  Preston,  soon  after  shared  the  same  fate.  " 
Ciarles  The  death  of  Charles  altered  in  a  moment  the  relations 
II. 's  ao-  oetween  England  and  Scotland.  In  the  former  Cromwell 
lorcovr  ^°^^"iQ  ^'1  powerful,  while  in  the  latter  the  moderate 
nant.  '  Presbyterians  attached  to  the  principle  of  monarchy  and 
the  hereditary  line  at  once  proclaimed  Charles  II.  Charles 
II.  had  been  brought  up  with  difierent  views  of  royalty 
from  those  of  the  Covenanters,  and  Scotland  was  not  pre- 
pared to  accept  a  king  except  on  its  own  terms.  A  com- 
mission from  the  estates  and  from  the  assembly  was  at  once 
sent  (March  1649)  to  The  Hague,  where  the  young  king 
was.  Charles  promised  to  maintain  the  government  of 
Scotland  in  church  and  state  as  settled  by  law,  and  particu- 
larly the  Covenant,  Confession  of  Faith,  and  Presbyterian 
system,  but  declared  that  he  could  not  impose  tjie  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant  on  England  an4  Ireland  without  the 
consent  of  their  parliaments.  The  commissioners  returned 
dissatisfied  with  this  answer  and  with  the  presence  at  court 
of  Montrose,  by  whom  it  had  probably  been  framed.  But 
in  October  Ormonde's  Irish  expedition  failed,  and  Crom- 
well, already  master  of  England,  had  reduced  Ireland  by 
force  of  arms ;  both  parties  felt  inclined  to  renew  the 
treaty.  At  length  it  was  agreed  that  Charles  should  be 
accejjted  as  king  on  condition  of  his  subscribing  the 
Covenant,  establishing  Presbyterian  church  government 
and  worship,  sanctioning  the  Acts  of  Parliament  passed  in 
his  absence,  and  putting  in  force  the  law  against  Catholics. 
In  return  he  stipulated  for  the  free  exercise  of  his  royal 
authority,  the  security  of  his  person,  and  the  aid  of  a 
Scottish  array.  The  treaty  was  closed  in  these  terms  on 
9th  May  1650,  and  early  in  June  Charles  set  sail  for 
Scotland.  On  the  voyage  he  was  forced  to  consent  to 
further  conditions  which  the  Scottish  parliament  ordered 
the  commissioners  to  impose,  in  particular  tq  exclude  from 
his  court  all  persons  within  the  first  and  second  classes  of 
the  Acts  of  1646  and  1649,  and  to  keep  the  duke  of 
Hami'ton,  brother  of  the  late  duke,  and  certain  other 
persons  out  of  Scotland.  On  Sunday,  23d  June;  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Spey  he  subscribed  the  Covenant  and  landed. 
Whilst  Charles  was  negotiating  with  the  commissioners, 
the  expedition  of  Montrose,  which  he  had  encouraged  but 
afterwards  disowned,  had  come  to  an  end  by  the  capture 
of  its  gallant  leader  in  Caithness.  He  was  executed  in 
Edinburgh  a  month  before  Charles  reached  Scotland. 

Alarmed  at  the  prospect  of  another  Scottish  invasion, 
Cromwell  with  wonderful  rapidity  transferred  his  forces 
ftom  Ireland,  and  within  a  month  after  Charles  landed 
.crossed  the  Tweed  and  advanced  to  Edinburgh.  Baffled 
in  all  attempts  against  the  town  by  the  tactics  of  David 


Leslie,  the  nephew  of  Leven,  he  was  forced  from  want  of 
supplies  to  retire.  His  retreat  was  nearly  cut  oft",  but  he 
gained  an  unexpected  victory  at  Dunbar  (3d  September 
1650)  over  that  able  general,  who  had  been  induced  by 
the  over-confidence  of  the  ministers  in  his  camp  to  descend 
from  the  Doon  Hill  and  attack  the  English  on  level  ground- 
So  complete  was  the  defeat  that  the  south  of  Scotland  fell 
into  Cromwell's  hands.  Meantime  Charles  had  attempted 
to  escape  from  the  restraints  of  the  Presbyterian  camp  by 
"the  Start,"  as  it  was  called,  from  Perth  to  Clova,  where 
he  hoped  to  raise  the  loyal  Highlanders ;  but,  not  getting 
the  support  expected,  he  returned.  In  the  beginning  of 
next  year,  after  renewing  his  subscription  to  the  Covenant 
and  submitting  to  the  imposition  of  a  day  of  fasting  and 
humiliation  on  account  of  the  sins  of  his  family,  he  was 
crowned  at  Scone  on  1st  January  1651.  Argyll,  still  the 
leader  of  the  Covenanters,  placed  the  crown  on  his  head, 
a  circumstance  which  he  recalled  when  he  lost  his  own. 
The  invasion  of  England  was  novf  determined  on,'  and, 
Cromwell  having  been  unable  to  intercept  the  royal  army, 
it  advanced  as  far  as  Worcester.  Here,  after  effecting  a 
junction  with  Fleetwood,  Cromwell  with  a  much  smaller 
force  routed  the  king's  army  on  the  anniversary  of  Dun- 
bar. Charles  had  a  hairbreadth  escape  from  capture,  and 
after  many  adventures  crossed  from  Brighton  to  France. 
The  last  great  battle  of  the  Civil  War  placed  England  in 
the  hands  of  the  army  and  its  general. 

Scotland  offered  more  resistance ;  but  Monk,  whora 
Cromwell  had  left  in  command,  stormed  Dundee  and  terri- 
fied the  other  towns  into  submission.  Although  a  nominal 
union  was  proclaimed  and  Scotland  was  allowed  members 
in  the  English  parliament,  it  was  really  governed  as  a 
conquered  country.  In  1653  the  general  assembly  was 
summarily  dissolved  by  Colonel  Cotterel.  Next  year 
Monk  was  sent  by  the  Protector  to  quell  a  Koyalist  rising, 
which,  first  under  the  earl  of  Glencairn  and  afterwards 
under  Middleton,  a  soldier  of  fortune,  began  to  show  head 
in  the  Highlands.  Monk,  as  usual,  carried  out  effectually 
the  work  he  was  sent  for  and,  partly  by  an  indemnity  which 
many  leading  Royalists  accepted  and  partly  by  the  defeat 
of.  Middleton  at  Lochgarry  (25th  July  1654),  reduced 
the  Highlands.  He  also  dispersed  the  general  assembly, 
which  made  another  attempt  to  sit."  Strong  forts  were 
built  at  Leith,  Ayr,  Inverness,  and  Glasgow,  and  Monk 
vdth.  an  army  of  10,000  men  garrisoned  the  country.  A 
council  of  state,  containing  only  two  Scottish  members,  was 
appointed,  but  matters  of  importance  were  referred  to 
CromweU  and  his  English  council.  The  administration  of 
justice  was  committed  to  four  English  and  three  Scottish 
judges  in  place  of  the  Court  of  Session,  with  the  view  of 
introducing  English  law.  The  use  of  Latin  in  legal  writs 
was  abolished.  A  sequestration  court  to  deal  with  the 
forfeited  estates  sat  at  Leith.  A  separate  commission 
was  issued  for  the  administration  of  criminal  justice,  end 
theft  and  highway  robbery  were  stringently  inquired  into 

With  the  view  of  procuring  forces  for  the  expedition,  a  reconcilia- 
tion was  effected  between  the  Royalists  aud  the  more  moderate  Cove- 
nanters by  a  resolution  to  the  effect  that  all  persons  not  excommunicated 
sliould  be  allowed  to  serve  in  the  army.  This  new  party,  now  called 
"  Resolutioners,"  was  practically  the  same  as  that  formerly  knoira  as 
the  "  Engagers."  A  minority,  on  the  other  hand,  became  known  as  the 
"Protestors"  or  "Remonstrants"  (compare  vol.  xix.  p.  683).  This 
division  of  the  Covenanters  into  a  moderate  and  an  extreme  section 
continued  throughout  the  whole  of  the  17th  century.  The  Engagers 
and  Resolutioners  were  the  ancestors  of  the  "Established  Presbyterian 
Church  ;  the  Protestors  or  Remonstrants  of  the  Seceders  or  Dissenting 
churches,  each  of  which  maiatained  with  unabated  confidence,  however 
small  its  numbers,  that  it  was  the  true  church  of  Scotland,  the  only 
church  really  faithful  to  the  Covenant  and  Christ  as  the  head  of  the 
church.  Both  parties  for  long  regarded  Episcopalians  and  Romanists 
alike  as  "malignants,"  standing  without  the  pale  of  the  church,  with, 
whom  no  compromise  could  be  made. 


lATEE  STTJ.VKTS.] 


SCOTLAND 


516 


and  punished.     In  the  church  the  Presbyterian  form  of 
service  and  the  system  of  presbyteries  and  synods  vorc 
allowed  to  continue,  but  the  stipends  of  ministers  depended 
on  their  being  approved  by  a  commission  appointed  by 
Cromwell.     Justices  of  the  peace  were  introduced  for  local 
business.     Free  trade  and  an  improved  postal  system  be- 
tween the  two  countries  were  established.    The  universities 
•were  visited.     In  all  departments  of  government  there  was 
rigour  and  tho  spirit  of  reform,  so  that  it  was  admitted 
even  by  opponents  that  the  eight  years  of  Cromwell's 
usurpation  wero  a  period  of  peace  and  prosperity.     There 
was  undoubtedly  one  exception.     The  taxation  was  severe. 
A  land-tax  of  £10,000  a  month,  afterwards  reduced'  to 
£6000,  and  levied  upon  the  valued  rent  under  a  valuation 
of  Charles,  far  exceeded  any  subsidy  before  granted  to  the 
crown.     Customs  and  also  excise  duties,  recently  intro- 
duced from  England,  were  diligently  levied ;  so  also  were 
the  rents  of  the  crown  and  bishops'  lauds.     Altogether  it 
was  estimated  that  a  revenue  of  £l-i3,000  was  collected  in 
Scotland.     But  this  had  to  be  supplemented  by  an  equal 
sum  from  England  to  meet  an  expenditure  of  £286,000. 
As  nearly  the  whole  was'  spent  in  Scotland  and  the  burden 
of  taxation  fell  on  the  upper  classes,  the  nation  generally 
did  not  feel  it  so  much  as  might  have  been  expected.     It 
was  a  maxim  of  Cromwell's  policy  to  improve  the  condition 
of  the  commons,  and  in  one  of  his  last  speeches  he  claimed 
in  memorable  words  to  have  effected  this  in  Scotland.     In 
this  respect  the  Commonwealth  and  protectorate  continued 
the  political  effect  of  the  Reformation.     The  commonalty 
for  the  first  time  since  the  War  of  Independence  acquired 
a  consciousness  of  its  existence  and  hope  for  the  future. 
Cromwell,  like  foimcr  powerful  rulers,  aimed  at  uniting 
Scotland  with  England,  but  his  proposals  in  this  direction 
■were  premature.    To  Barebones's  Parliament  (1653),  which 
met  after  tho  dissolution  of  the  Long  Parliament,  five 
Scottish  members  were  summoned,  there  being  134  from 
England,  Wales,    and   Ireland.      By  the  Instrument   of 
Government  and  an  ordinance  following  on  it,  Scotland 
was  granted  30,  while  England  bad .  400  members ;  but 
only  20  Scottish  attended  the  parliament  of  1654,  and 
care  was  taken  by  Jlonk  that  they  should  be  men  attached 
to  Cromwell's  interest.     When  in  his  second  parliament 
in  1656  he  tried  the  experiment  of  a  House  of  Lords, 
three  Scotsmen  weto  summoned,  the  quota  of  members  to 
the  Commons  remaining  as  before.     Cromwell'?  idea  of 
a  parliament  was  an  assembly  to  ratify,  not  to  discuss,  his 
measures,  and  this,  like  his  other  parliaments,  was  speedily 
dissolved.     Had  it  continued  the  Scottish  representatives 
would  have  had  little  weight.     Scotland  continued  to  bo 
governed  by  the  council  of  state.     On  the  death  of  the 
Protector  his  son  Richard  was  proclaimed  his  successor 
In  Scotland  as  well  as  in  England,  and  30  members  were 
again  re.nincd  to  tho  new  parliament,  which,  however, 
■was  almost  immediately  afterwards  dissolved:     The  Re- 
storation soon  followed,  though  in  Scotland  there  was  no 
need  of  it,  for  Charles  II.  was  already  king.     However 
beneficial  tho  rule  of  Crora^-ell  may  bo  deemed,  it  had  a 
fatal  defect  in  the  eyes  of  a  people  proud  of  their  freedom. 
It  was  imposed  and  maintained  by  force.     His  death  and 
the  restoration  of  the  ancient  lino  of  kings  wero  looked  on 
as  a  deliverance  from  oppression. 

The  hopes  of  tho  Scots  from  Charles  II.  wero  doomed  to 
speedy  disappointment.  So  far  from  being  grateful  for 
the  supjiort  they  had  given  him  in  adversity,  he  looked 
back  with  disgust,  as  his  grandfather  Iiad  done,  on  the 
time  when  he  was  under  tho  yoke  of  the  Presbyterian 
ministers.  Cromwell  had  .<iho\vn  tho  possibility  of  govern- 
ing Scotland  by  military  force  and  of  raising  a  consider- 
able revenue  from  it,  and  Charles  took  advantage  of  both 
lessons.     From  this  date  rather  than  from  tho  earlier  or 


later  union  Scottish  history  assumes  a  prQ'rincial  character. 
Scotland  was  governed  without  regard  to  its  interest  or 
■wishes  according  to  the  royal  pleasure  or  the  advice  of  the 
nobles  who  for  the  time  had  the  ear  of  the  king.   The  power 
6f  the  clergy  had  been  broken  by  Cromwell's  policy^and 
their  own  divisions.     Tho  party  of  the  Eesolutioners  or 
moderate  Presbyterians,  some  of  whom  now  leant  to  Episco- 
pacy, and  the  party  of  the  Remonstrants  were  still  irrecon- 
cilable, and  their  mutual  hatred  rendered   the  task  of 
government  easier.     The  burghs  were  not  yet  sufEciently 
organized  to  be  a  power  in  the  state,  and  the  nobles 
again  resumed  their  old  position  as  leaders  with  no  rivals, 
for  the  bishops  were  shorn  of  their  revenues  and  dependent 
on  royal  favour.    For  the  first  two  years  after  the  Restora- 
tion the  government  of  Scotland  was  in  the  hands  of 
Middleton,  who  had  been  created  an  earl.      The  measures 
of  retaliation  were  few  but  signal.     Argyll  was  tried  and 
beheaded  on  a  charge  of  treason,  which  could  not  have 
been  established  but  for  the  treachery  of  Jlonk,  who  gave 
up  private  Jetters  written  to  him  when  they  both  were  sup- 
porting the  Commonwealth.     Guthrie,  a  leading  minister 
of  the  Remonstrants,  was  hanged.    Johnston  of  Warrjston, 
two  years  later,  was  brought  back  from  France  apd  exe- 
cuted.     No   hesitation  'n-as   sho'wn   as   to  the   mode  of 
governing  Scotland.     Parliament,  under  the  presidency  of 
Middleton,  passed  the  Rescissory  Act,  annulling  the  Acts 
of  all  parliaments  since  1640,  declaring  the  Covenant  no 
longer  binding,  and  imposing  an  oath  on  aU  persona  in 
office,  not  only  of  allegiance  but  of  acknowledgment  of 
the  royal  prerogative  restored  in  all  its  fulness  over  all 
persons  and  in  all  causes.     In  August  Lauderdale,  whoRestor** 
acted  as  secretary  for  Scotland  in  London,  wrote  to  the  *'°^  °' 
privy  council  announcing  the  royal  intention  to  restore  ^'*'^°* 
Episcopacy,  and,  regardless  of  his  oath,  Charles  sanctioned 
this  by  the  first  Act  of  the  parliament  of  1662.     James 
Sharp,  minister  of  Crail,  who  had  been  sent  on  behalf  of 
the  Resolutioners  to  Charles  before  his  return,  allowed 
himself  to  be  easily  converted  to  Episcopacy  and  wag  re- 
warded by  his  appointment  as  archbishop  of  St  Andrews ; 
his  example  was  followed  by  other  ministers  of  the  same 
party.     But  the  majority  and  all  the  Remonstrants  stood 
firm ;  350  ■were  deprived  of  their  livings,  each  of  which 
became  a  centre  of  disafTection  towards  the  Government, 
while^  their  attachment  to  tho  Covenant  was  every  day 
strengthened  by  persecution.     Tho  Covenant  and  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant  were  declared  unlawful  oaths,  and 
all  persons  speaking  or  writing  against  the  royal  supre- 
macy in   matters   ecclesiastical  were   incapacitated"  from 
office.     Middleton  had  tho  immediate  responsibility  for 
these  measures,  and  tho  condemnation  and  forfeiture  of 
tho  ne\y  earl  of  Argjdl,  whose  estates  he  coveted,  under 
tho  old  law  against  leasing-niaking  increased  the  hatred 
with  which  he  was  regarded.     His  fall  was  due  to  an 
attempt  to  supplant  his  rival  Lauderdale  by  the  Act  of 
Billeting,  under  which  the  Scottish  parliament  named  by 
ballot  twelve  persons  with  Lauderdale  at  their  head  as 
incapable  of  holding  public  office.     This  and  other  Acts, 
were  carried  out  without  the  previous  consent  of  Charles; 
Lauderdale  persuaded  Charles  that  his  personal  authority 
was  in  danger,  and  Middleton  was  called  to  court  and  sent 
as  governor  to  Tangier,  where  ho  soon  after  died.     The 
carl  of  Rothes  was  now  appointed  commissioner,  hut  tho 
chief  influence  was  in  the  hands  of  Lauderdale,  who  con- 
tinued to  act  as  Scottish  secretary  in  London. 

The  change  in  its  rulers  brought  no  relief  to  Scotland. 
The  declaration  that  tho  Covenants  were  illegal  oaths  ■was 
re-enacted  and  imposed  on  all  persons  in  office  who  had 
not  yet  taken  it.  The  old  mode  of  electing  the  Lords  of 
tho  Articles,  which  placed  the  election  in  tho  hands  of  tho 
bishops,  the  nominees  of  the  king,  was  restored.     Sharp, 


516 


SCOTLAND 


[HISTOBTi 


1664-I63lr  not  warned  by  the  fate  of  Laud,  procured  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Court  of  High  Commission  to  enforce  the  laws 
against  ecclesiastical  offenders.  Fines  were  imposed  on 
all  who  absented  themselves  from  their  parish  churches 
or  attended  the  sermons  of  the  deposed  ministers.  Sir 
James  Turner  was  sent  by  the  privy  council  to  the  western 
shires  to  prevent  conventicles  and  field  preaching  and  to 
enforce  the  law  as  to  conformity ;  and  his  exactions,  with 
the  burden  o/  maintaining  his  soldiers  quartered  upon  all 
persons  suspected  of  favouring  the  ousted  ministers,  led 
to  risings  in  Galloway,  Clydesdale,  and  Ayr.  With  their 
ministers  and  a  few  of  the  gentry  at  their  head  the 
Covenanters  marched  to  Edinburgh,  but  were  defeated 
at  Kullion  Green  in  the  Pentlands  by  Dalziel,  a  Scottish 
officer  whom  Charles  had  recalled  from  the  service  of  the 
czar.  The  executions  which  followed,  and  especially  that 
of  Hugh  M'Kail,  a  young  and  enthusiastic  preacher,  sank 
deeply  into  the  spirit  of  the  people.  He  was  the  first 
martyr  of  the  Covenant  as  Wishart  had  been  of  the  Re- 
formation. The  use  of  torture,  before  this  rare,  now  be- 
came frequent,  and  bonds  of  law-burrows  were  WTested 
from  their  original  use  to  compel  the  principal  landowners 
to  be  sureties  for  the  peace  of  the  whole  district.  Large 
fines  continued  to  be  extorted  from  all  persons  who  re- 
fused to  conform  to  the  ecclesiastical  laws.  Next  year 
a  change  in  the  Scottish  administration,  the  cause  of  which 
is  not  well  exjslained,  but  which  was  probably  due  to  the 
fall  of  Clarendon  and  the  rise  of  the  Cabal  ministry,  led  to 
Policy  of  a  milder  but  undecided  policy  in  Scotland.  Lauderdale, 
indol-  one  of  the  Cabal,  still  directed  Scottish  affairs,  but  Rothes 
*""*'■  and  Sharp  were  treated  as  responsible  for  the  rising  in  the 
west  and  suspended.  An  indemnity  was  offered  to  all  who 
would  appear  before  the  council  and  subscribe  bonds  to 
keep  the  peace.  A  rash  attempt  to  assassinate  Sharp  in 
Edinburgh  prevented  this  policy  from  being  adhered  to  in 
1668  ;  but  it  was  renewed  in  the  following  year.  An  in- 
dulgence was  granted  which  allowed  the  deposed  ministers 
who  had  lived  peaceably  to  return  to  their  manses  and 
glebes,  and  to  receive  such  a  stipend  as  the  privy  council 
might  allow.  The  grace  of  this  concession  was  undone  by 
a  severe  Act  against  conventicles.  It  favoured  a  con- 
ciliatory policy  that  schemes  for  union  were  in  the  air. 
Leighton,  the  good  bishop  of  Dunblane,  proposed  a  union 
of  the  churches  upon  the  basis  that  the  bishops  were  no 
longer  to  exercise  jurisdiction,  but  to  act  only  as  perpetual 
moderators  of  presbyteries,  subject  to  censure  by  the  synods, 
and  that  ministers  should  be  ordained  by  the  bishops,  but 
with  consent  of  the  presbyters.  There  was  a  meeting  at 
Holyrood  with  some  of  the  leading  ministers,  but  they 
would  listen  to  no  compromise.  The  name  of  bishop  was 
hateful  whatever  were  his  functions.  It  may  be  doubted 
whether  Charles  and  his  English  advisers  would  have 
submitted  to  a  curtailment  of  the  bishop's  ofiice  and 
dignity.  The  subject  of  the  union  of  the  kingdoms  was 
again  brought  forward  in  the  parliament  of  1669,  to  which 
Lauderdale  was  sent  as  commissioner ;  and  though  it 
was  not  well  received  commissioners  were  appointed  in 
the  following  year,  who  went  to  London  in  autumn  to  dis- 
cuss with  English  commissioners  certain  specified  points 
proposed  by  the  king.  After  several  meetings  the  con- 
ference broke  up  in  consequence  of  a  demand  by  the 
Scottish  members  that  Scotland  should  have  the  same 
number  of  members  in  the  united  as  in  its  own  parliament. 
The  arbitrary  government  favoured  by  the  want  of  a  settled 
constitution  in  Scotland  was  more  to  the  taste  of  the  king 
and  his  advisers.  Lauderdale  openly  boasted,  as  James 
VT.  had  done,  that  nothing  could  be  proposed  in  the  Scot- 
tish parliament  except  what  the  king  through  the  Lords  of 
the  Articles  approved.  The  "indulgence"  entirely  failed  of 
the  desired  effect.     The  ministers  who  took  advaftitage  of 


it  were  despised  by  the  people,  who  continued  to  attend 
the  conventicles.  In  1672  an  Act  was  passed  punishing 
preachers  at  such  conventicles  with,  death  and  imposing 
fines,  imprisonment,  and  exile  for  having  children  baptized 
by  deprived  ministers  and  for  absence  for  three  Sundays 
from  the  parish  church.  In  1675  letters  of  intercommua 
ing  were  issued  against  about  a  hundred  of  those  who 
attended  the  conventicles,  both  ministers  and  laymen,  for- 
bidding their  friends  and  relations  to  have  any  dealings 
with  them  under  the  same  penalties  as  if  they  had  them- 
selves been  present  at  the  conventicles.  In  1678  Mitchell,- 
a  fanatical  preacher,  who  had  ten  years  before  attempted 
the  life  of  Sharp  and  mortally  wounded  the  bishop  of 
Orkney,  was  tried  and  executed.  The  feeling  of  the  times, 
and  the  cruel  manner  in  which  a  confession  had  beea 
wrung  from  him  by  torture,  led  to  his  being  regarded  as 
a  martyr.  Prior  to  this  year  17,000  persons  had  suffered 
fines  or  imprisonment  for  attending  conventicles.  A  host 
of  10,000  men,  chiefly  Highlanders,  was  quartered  in  the 
western  shires  in  order  to  force  the  landowners  who  favoured 
the  Covenanters  to  enter  into  bonds  of  law-burrows. 

It  appears  to  have  been  the  design  of  Lauderdale,  Eisini 
who  still  governed  Scotland  absolutely  through  the  privy  1879. 
council  (no  parliament  having  been  summoned  since 
1674),  to  force  the  Scots  to  rebel.  "When  I  was  onca 
sajnng  to  him,"  relates  Burnet,  "'Was  that  a  time  to  drive 
them  into  a  rebellion  1 ' '  Yes,'  said  he,  '  would  to  God  they 
would  rebel  that  he  might  bring  over  an  army  of  Irish 
Papists  to  cut  their  throats.' "  One  part  of  his  wish  was 
speedily  fulfilled.  In  1679  the  rebellion  so  long  smoulder- 
ing broke  out.  The  murder  of  Sharp  (3d  May)  by  Hack- 
ston  of  RathiUet  and  a  small  band  of  Covenanters  was 
followed  by  a  stiU  more  stringent  proclamation  against 
field  conventicles,  which  were  declared  treasonable,  and  the 
possession  of  arms  was  prohibited.  This  severity  provoked  a 
rising  in  the  west.  A  small  party  led  by  Hamilton,  a  youth 
educated  by  Bishop  Burnet  at  Glasgow,  who  had  joined 
the  Cbvenanters,  burnt  at  Rutherglen  the  statutes  and 
acts  of  privy  council  on  the  anniversary  of  the  Restoration, 
and  being  allowed  to  gather  numbers  defeated  Graham 
of  Claverhouse  at  Loudon  HUl  (1st  June).  The  duke  of 
Moimiouth,  the  favdurite  natural  son  of  Charles,  sent  with 
troops  from  England  to  suppress  the  rising,  'gained  an  easy 
victory  at  Both  well  Bridge  (2  2d  June).  His  desire  was  to 
follow  it  up  by  a  policy  of  clemency,  and  a  new  indvdgence 
was  issued,  but  its  effect  was  counteracted  by  Lauderdale. 
All  officers,  ministers,  and  landowners,  as  well  as  those  who 
had  taken  part  in  the  rising  and  did  not  surrender  within 
a  short  space,  were  excepted  from  the  indulgence.  Several 
preachers  were  executed  and  many  persons  sent  to  the 
colonies,  while  fines  and  forfeitures  multiplied.  A  new 
and  fiercer  phase  of  the  rebellion  was  originated  by  CargiU 
and  Cameron,  two  preachers  who  escaped  at  Bothwell 
Bridge,  and,  assembling  their  followers  at  Sanquhar,  pub- 
lished a  declaration  renouncing  allegiance  to  Charles  as  a 
perjured  king.  They  were  soon  surprised  and  Cameron  was 
killed,  but  CargUl  continued  to  animate  his  followers,  called 
the  "Society  Men"  or  "Cameronians,"  by  his  preaching,  and 
at  a  conventicle  at  Torwood  in  Ayrshire  excommunicated 
the  king,  the  duke  of  York,  Lauderdale,  and  Rothes. 

The  duke  of  York,  who  had  become  a  Roman  Catholic 
during  his  residence  abroad,  was  now  sent  to  Scotland, 
partly  to  avoid  the  discussion  raised  by.  his  conversion  as 
to  his  exclusion  from  the  succession.  During  a  short  stay 
of  three  months  he  astonished  the  Scots  by  the  mildness  of 
his  administration,  but  on  his  ret'am  in  the  following  year 
he  revealed  his  true  character.  The  privy  council  renewed 
its  proclamations  against  conventicles  and  increased  the 
fines,  which  were. levied  by  the  sheriff  or  other  magistrate 
under  the  pain  of  liability  if  they  were  remiss  in  their 


XATER  STUARTS.] 


SCOTLAND 


517 


exaction.  Military  commissions  were  issued  to  Claver- 
house  and  other  officers  in  the  southern  and  western  shires 
empowering  them  to  quarter  their  troops  on  recusants  and 
administer  martial  law.  Torture  was  freely  resorted  to  hy 
the  privy  council  and  tho  duke  himself  took  pleasure  in 
■witnessing  it.  A  parliament  summoned  in  1681,  after 
passing  a  general  Act  against  Popery  to  lull  suspicion,  pro- 
ceeded to  declare  the  succession  to  be  in  the  ordinary  line 
of  blood  and  unalterable  on  account  of  difference  of  religion 
ly  any  future  law.  The  Test  Act  was  then  carried,  not 
without  many  attempts  to  modify  it.  Its  ambiguous  and 
contradictory  clauses  make  it  an  admirable  instrument  of 
tyranny,  a  shelter  for  the  lax  and  a  terror  to  the  upright 
conscience.  It  was  at  once  enforced,  and  Argyll,  who  de- 
clared he  took  it  only  so  far  as  it  was  consistent  with  itself 
and  the  Protestant  religion,  was  tried  and  condemned  to 
death  for  treason,  but  escaped  from  prison  to  Holland. 
Dalrymple,  the  president  of  the  Court  of  Session,  and  many 
leading  Presbyterian  ministers  and  gentry  followed  his  ex- 
ample, and  found  a  hospitable  refuge  in  the  republic  which 
first  acknowledged  toleration  in  religion.  They  there  met 
a  similar  band  of  English  exiles.  The  next  two  years  were 
spent' in  plots,  of  which  the  centre  was  in  Holland,  with 
branches  in  London  and  Edinburgh.  The  failure  of  the 
Kye  House  Plot  in  1683  led  to  the  execution  of  Eussell  and 
Sidney  and  the  arrest  of  Spence,  a  retainer  of  Argyll, 
Carstares,  Baillie  of  Jerviswood,  and  Campbell  of  Cess- 
nock,  Against  Campbell  the  proof  of  complicity  failed,  and 
Spence  and  Carstares,  though  cruelly  tortured,  revealed 
BOthing  of  moment.  Baillie,  however,  was  condemned  and 
executed  upon  slender  proof.  The  Cameronians,  who  kept 
alive  in  remote  districts  the  spirit  of  rebellion,  were  treated 
with  ruthless  cruelty.  Although  doubt  has  been  cast  on 
the  death  of  Brown  the  carrier,  shot  down  in  cold  blood  by 
Claverhouse,  and  the  Wigto\yn  martyrs,  two  poor  women 
tied  to  a  stake  and  drowned  in  the  Bay  of  Luce,  the  account 
of-  Wodrow  has,  after  a  keen  discussion,  been  sustained  as 
"accurate.  The  conduct  of  the  Government  in  Scotland 
■gained  for  this  period  tho  name  of  the  "  Killing  Times." 

The  shortreign  of  James  VII.  is  the  saddest  period  in  the 
history  of  Scotland.  He  .succeeded  in  the  brief  space  of 
three  years  in  fanning  the  revolutionary  elements  in  both 
England  and  Scotland  into  a  flame  which  he  was  powerless 
to  quench.  He  declined  to  take  the  Scottish  coronation 
oath,  which  contained  a  declaration  in  favour  of  the 
church  then  established.  A  submissive  parliament  held 
(28th  April  1685)  under  the  duke  of  Queensberry  as  com- 
missioner not  only  overlooked  this  but  expressed  its  loyalty 
in  terms  acknowledging  tho  king's  absolute  supremacy. 
The  excise  was  granted  to  the  crown  for  ever  and  the  land- 
tax  to  James  for  life.  The  law  against  conventicles  was 
even  extended  to  those  held  in  houses,  if  five  persons  be- 
sides the  family  attended  domestic  worship ;  while,  if  the 
meeting  was  outside  the  house,  at  the  door  or  windows,  it 
•waa  to  bo  deemed  a  field  conventicle,  punishable  by  death. 
The  class  of  persons  subject  to  the  test  was  enlarged. 
Undeterred  or  provoked  by  these  terrors  of  tho  law,  Argyll 
made  a.  descent  upon  tho  western  Highlands  and  tried  to 
raise  his  clansmen,  but,  being  badly  supported  by  tho 
ofiBcers  under  > him,  liis  troops  were  dispersed  and  he 
himself  taken  prisoner,  when  he  was  brought  to  Edinburgh, 
condemned,  and  executed  under  his  former  sentence.  Next 
year  Perth  tho  lord  chancellor,  Mclfort  his  brother,  and 
.the  earl  of  Moray  became  converts  to  tho  Popish  faith. 
The  duke  of  Queensberry,  who  did  not  follow.their  example, 
■was  enabled  only  by  the  most  servilo  submission  in  other 
points  to  the  r6yal  wishes  to  save  himself  and  his  party  in 
the  privy  council  from  dismissal.  James  sent  a  letter  to 
parliament  offering  free  trade  with  England  and  an  indem- 
nity for  political  offences,  in  return  for  which  it  was  required 


that  the  Catholics  should  be  released  from,  the  test  and  the 
penal  laws.  But  the  estates  refused  to  be  bribed.  Even  the 
Lords  of  the  Articles  declined  to  propose  a  repeal  of  the 
Test  Act.  The  burghs  almost  for  the  first  time  in  a  Scottish 
parliament  showed  their  independence.  The  refractory 
parliament  was  at  once  adjourned  and  soon  after  dissolved, 
and  James  had  recourse  in  Scotland  as  in  England  to 
the  dispensing  power.  Under  a  pretended  prerogative  ho 
issued  a  proclamation  through  the  privy  council,  granting 
a  full  indulgence  to  the  Romanists,  and  by  another  deprived 
the  burghs  of  the  right  of  electing  magistrates.  A  more 
limited  toleration  was  granted  to  Quakers  and  Presby- 
terians, by  which  they  were  allowed  to  worship  according  to 
their  consciences  in  private  houses.  This  was  followed 
by  a  second  and  a  third  indulgence,  which  at  last  gave  full 
liberty  of  worship  to  the  Presbyterians  and  was  accepted 
by  most  of  their  ministers ;  but  the  laws  against  field  con- 
venticles continued  to  be  enforced.  In  February  1688 
Kenwick  was  executed  under  them  at  Edinburgh.  A 
band  of  his  followers,  including  women  and  children,  were 
marched  north  and  imprisoned  with  great  cruelty  in 
Dunnottar. 

Meantime  the  rapid  series  of  events  which  led  to  the  R«toW» 
Revolution  in  England  had  reached  its  climax  in  the  trial  t'O"  «£► 
and  acquittal  of  the  seven  bishops.  William  of  Orange,  who  JTj"'* 
had  long  watched  the  progress  of  his  father-in-law's  tyranny, 
saw  that  the  moment  had  come  when  almost  all  classes  in 
England  as  well  as  Scotland  would  welcome  him  as  a 
deliverer.  But  the  Revolution  was  differently  received 
in  each  part  of  the  United  Kingdom.  In  England  there 
was  practically  no  opposition;  in  Catholic  Ireland  it  was 
established  by  force.  Scotland  was  divided.  The  Catholics, 
chiefly  in  the  Highlands,  and  the  Episcopalians  led  by  their 
bishops  adhered  to  James  and  formed  the  Jacobite  party, 
which  kept  up  for  half  a  cfentury  a  struggle  for  the 
principle  of  legitimacy.  The  Presbyterians — probably  the 
most  numerous,  certainly  the  most  powerful  party,  especi- 
ally in  the  Lowlands  and  burghs — supported  the  new  settle- 
ment, which  for  the  first  time  gave  Scotland  a  constitu- 
tional or  limited  monarchy.  .  Shortly  before  his  flight 
James  had  summoned  his  Scottish  troops  to  England ;  but 
Douglas,  brother  of  the  duke  of  Queensberry,  their  com- 
mander-in-chief, went  over  to  William.  Claverhouse,  now  Pacific*. 
Viscount  Dundee,  the  second  in  command,  who  had  the  ''O"  of 
spirit  of  his  kinsman  Montrose,  after  in  vain  urging  James  f'"'?*^ 
to  fight  for  his  crown,  returned  to  Scotland,  followed  by 
.some  thirty  horsemen.  In  Edinburgh  the  duke  of  Gordon 
still  hold  the  castle  for  James,  while  the  convention  parlia- 
ment, presided  over  by  the  duke  of  Hamilton,  was  debating 
on  what  terras  the  crown  should  ho  offered  to  William. 
Dundee  passed  through  Edinburgh  unmolested,  and  en- 
couraged Gordon  to  hold  out,  while  he  himself  gathered 
tho  Highland  chiefs  round  his  standard  at  Lochaber. 
Mackay,  a  favourite  general  of  Willian),  sent  to  oppose 
him,  was  defeated  at  Killiecrankie  (29th  July  1689), 
where  the  spirited  leadership  of  Dundee  and  the  dash  of 
the  Highlanders'  attack  gained  the  day ;  but  success  waa 
turned  into  defeat  by  a  bullet  which  killed  Dundee  almost 
at  the  moment  of  victory.  No  successor  appeared  to  take 
his  place  and  keep  the  chiefs  of  the  clans  together.  The 
Cam-fonians,  organized  into  a  regiment  under  Clclond, 
repulsed  Cannon,  tho  commander  of  the  Highland  army,  at 
Dunkcld,  and  tho  success  of  Livingston,  who  defeated  tho 
remnant  under  Cameron  and  Buchan  at  tho  Haughs  of 
Cromdale  on  the  Spey,  ended  tho  short  and  desultory  warj 
The  castle  of  Edinburgh  had  been  surrendered  a  month 
before  tho  battle  of  Killiecrankie.  Three  fort.s,  at  Fort 
William,  Fort  Augustus,  and  Inverno.?s,  sufficed  to  keen  tho 
Highlands  from  rising  for  the  next  two  reigns. 

Meantime  the  convention  parliament'in  Edinburgh  hoif 


laiid& 


518. 


SCOTLAND 


[histort; 


caxried  the  necessary  .measures  for  the   transfer  of  the 
government  of  Scotland  to  William  and  Mary.     It  declared 
in  bolder  terms  than  the  English  parliament  that  James 
had  forfeited  the  crown  and  that  the  throne  was  vacant. 
The  fifteen  articles  which  contained  the  reasons  for  this 
resolution  were  included  in  a  Declaration  and  Claim  of 
Right,— a  parallel  to  the  English  Declaration  and  Bill  of 
Eights.     Besides  the  declarations  against  the  Papists  with 
v.hich  it  commenced — that  no  Papist  could  be  king  or 
queen,  that  proclamations  allowing  mass  to  be  said,  Jesuit 
schools  and  colleges  to  be  erected,  and  Popish  books  to  be 
printed  were  contrary  to  law — it  detailed  each  of  the  un- 
constitutional acts  of  James  and  jJronounced  it  contrary 
to  law.      This   formidable   list   included    imposing  oaths 
without  the  authority  of  parliament ;  grants  without  the 
consent  of  parliament ;  employing  officers  of  the  army  as 
judges  throughout  the  kingdom;  imposing  exorbitant  fines; 
imprisoning  persons  without  expressing  the  reason,  and 
delaying  trials;  forfeiture  upon  insufficient  grounds,  especi- 
ally that  of  Argyll ;  the  nomination  by  the  king  of  the 
magistrates  of  burghs ;  sending  of  royal  letters  to  courts 
of  justice  mth  reference  to  pending  cases  ;  granting  pro- 
tections for  debt ;  forcing  the  lieges  to  depone   against 
themselves  in  capital  crimes ;  the  use  of  tcrture  without 
evidence  in  ordinary  crimes ;  quartering  of  an  army  in 
time  of  peace  upon  any  part  of  the  kingdom ;  the  use  of 
law'-burrows  at  the  king's  instance;  putting  garrisons  in 
private  houses  in  time  of  peace  without  the  consent  of  the 
owners  and  of  parliament ;  'and  fining  husbands  for  their 
■wives.    It  closed  with  asserting  that  Prelacy  and  the  superi- 
ority of  any  office  in  the  church  above  presbyters  were 
insupportable  grievances  and  ought  to  be  abolished,  and 
that  it  was  the  right  and  privilege  of  subjects  to  protest 
to  parliament  for  "remeid"  of  law  and  to  petition  the  king, 
and  that  for  redress  of  grievances  it  was  necessary  parlia- 
ment should  frequently  be  called,  with  freedom  of  speech 
secured  to  members.    As  a  conclusion  from  these  premises 
the  estates  resolved  that  William  and  JIary  should  be  de- 
"slai     -king  and  queen  of  Scotland  during  their  lives,  but 
witn  the  right  of  exercising  regal  power  in  William  alone 
as  long  as  he  lived.     After  their  death  the  crown  was  to 
pass  to  the  heirs  of  the  queen's  body,  and  failing  her  to 
Anne  of  Denmark  and  her  heirs,  failing  whom  to  the  heirs 
of  William.     Commissioners  were  despatched  to  London 
*M  present  the  declaration  and  statement  of  grievances  and 
take  the  royal  oath  to  the  acceptance  of  the  crown  on  their 
terms.    This  was  done  at  Whitehall  in  the  following  March 
(1689);  but  William,  before  taking  the  oath,  required  an 
assurance  that  persecution  for  religious  opinion  was  not 
intended  and  made  a  declaration  in  favour  of  toleration. 
nia  gov.       By  desire  of  William  the  convention  was  superseded  by 
^Ts^ot'  *  parliament  which  met  in  June ;  but,  with  the  exception 
*uid.       ^^  ^"  ^'^^  abolishing  Prelacy,  it  transacted  no  business  of 
,  importance.     The  parliament  of  1690  was  more  fruitful. 
It  abolished   the  committee  of  the   Articles,   which  had 
I'.ecome  an  abuse  inconsistent  with  the  freedom  of  parlia- 
ment, and,  while  it  retained  a  committee  on  motions  and 
overtures  in  its  place,  declared  that  the  estates  might  deal 
with  any  matter  without  referring  it  to  this  committee. 
The  Act  of  Supremacy  was  rescinded.  '   The  Presbyterian 
ministers  dep.ised  since  1661  were  restored  and  the  West- 
minster Confession  approved,  though  not  imposed  as  a  test 
except  on  professors.     With  more  difficidty  a  solution  was 
found  for  the  question  of  church  government.    The  Presby- 
terian Church  was  re-established  with  the  Confession  as 
its  formula,  and  patronage  was  placed  in  the  heritors  and 
elders  with  a  small  compensation  to  the  patrons.     These 
prudent  measures  were  due  to  the  influence  of  Carstares, 
the   chief   advisSr   of  William    in    Scottish    ecclesiastical 
ijuatters.     He  was  not. so  well  advised  in  the  conduct  of 


the  civil  government  by  the  fl:aster  of  Stair,  who  became 
sole  secretary  for  Scotland.  The  proclamation  for  calling 
out  the  militia  may  have  been  a  necessary  precaution,  but 
it  raised  much  opposition  amongst  the  landed  gentry,  and' 
the  militia  was  not  then  embodied.  Tlie  massacre  of  the  Glenc 
Macdonalds  at  Glencoe  by  Campbell  of  Glenlyon  was  con- 
trary to  the  spirit  of  the  indenmity  oflered  to  the  Hi'^h- 
landers.  While  the  treachery  with  which  it  was  executed 
may  be  attributed  to  Glenlyon,  it  was  too  plainly  provp., 
before  the  committee  of  incpiry  which  the  Scottiih  parlia- 
ment insisted  on  that  it  had  been  designed  by  Stair  and 
Breadalbano,  and,  now  that  the  whole  documents  have  been 
published,  it  is  also  proved  that  it  had  been  sanctioned  bj 
William.  It  was  intended  to  strike  terror;  but  its  partial 
success  was  dearly  bought,  for  it  kept  alive  the  Jacobite 
disaffection  and  gained  for  it  much  sympathy.  The  unfair  j)„i 
treatment  of  the  Scots  in  the  matters  of  free  trade  asid 
navigation,  in  which  the  new  Government  appeared  to  follow 
the  policy  of  Charles  rather  than  that  of  Cromwell,  and 
acted  with  an  exclusive  regard  to  the  prejudices  and  sup- 
posed interests  of  England,  reached  a  climax  in  the  abandon^ 
ment  of  the  Scottish  settlement  at  Darien  when  attacked 
by  the  Spaniards.  The  over-sanguine  hopes  of  Paterson 
and  the  Scottish  colonists  and  capitalists  who  supported, 
his  enterprise,  so  suddenly  transformed  into  a  financial 
disaster  overwhelming  to  a  poor  country,  accompanied  by 
the  loss  of  many  lives,  embittered  the  classes  on  whicli 
the  Revolution  settlement  mainly  depended  for  its  support,' 
It  was  the  anxious  wish  of  William  to  have  effected  the 
legislative  union;  but,  although  he  twice  attempted  it, 
the  last  time  a  month  before  his  death,  the  temper  of  the 
English  parliament  and  of  the  Scottish  people  appeared  to 
give  small  chance  of  its  realization. 

9.  The  Union  and  its  Consequences. — The  reign  of  Anne,  Uuion 
so  far  as  it  relates  to  Scotland,  centred  in  the  accomplish-  P£>rlia-, 
ment  of  the  union.  In  spite  of  the  disparity  of  num- """'-'•' 
bers,  both  nations  now  met  to  treat  on  equal  terms.  Still 
there  were  grave  difficulties,  and  it  required  all  the  wisdom 
of  the  ministers  of  the  early  years  of  Anne,  aided  by  the 
glory  of  Marlborough's  arms,  to  overcome  national  preju- 
dices and  secure  an  object  plainly  for  the  benefit  of  both. 
The  memories  of  Glencoe  and  Darien  and  the  refusal  of 
equal  rights  of  trade  led  the  Scottish  parliament,  the  year 
after  Anne's  accession,  to  pass  an  Act  of  Security,  by  which, 
if  the  queen  died  without  issue,  the  Scottish  estates  were 
to  name  a  successor  from  the  Protestant  descendants  of 
the  royal  line ;  but  the  successor  to  the  English  crown 
was  expressly  excluded  unless  there  were  "such  conditions 
of  government  settled  and  enacted  as  may  secure  the 
honour  and  sovereignty  of  the  crowTi  and  kingdom,  the 
freedom,  frequency,  and  power  of  parliament,  the  reli- 
gious freedom  and  trade  of  the  nation  from  English  or  any 
foreign  influence."  Political  economy  had  not  yet  taught 
the  reciprocal  advantage  of  free  trade,  and  the  English 
jealousy  of  Scottish  traders  was  iiytense.  An  incident 
about  this  time  warned  the  English  ministers  that  Scot- 
land might  easily  revert  to  its  old  attitude  of  enmity.  A 
Scottish  ship  of  the  African  or  Darien  Company  haviiig 
been  seized  in  the  Thames  at  the  suit  of  the  English  East 
India  Company,  the  "Worcester,"  an  English  East  India- 
man,  was  taken  in  the  Forth  by  way  of  retaliation,  and 
Green,  its  captain,  with  two  other  officers,  was  executed 
at  Leith  on  a  charge  of  piracy  insufficiently  proved.  An 
attempt  had  been  already  made  to  complete  the  union  by 
a  commission,  which  sat  from  10th  November  1702  to  3ci 
February  1705;  but  this  miscarried  through  the  refusal 
to  grant  free  trade  between  the  kingdoms.  But  again  in 
1705  the  English  parliament  sanctioned  the  appointment 
of  other  commissioners,  and  new  officers  of  state  were 
nominated  for  Scotland  with  the  express  purpose  of  press-. 


■UNION.] 


SCOTLAND 


519 


ing  the  scheme  forward  in  the  Scottish  parliament.  Though 
opposed  on  contrary  grounds  by  the  Jacobites  and  the 
party  of  Fletcher  of  Salton,  the  Scottish  ■  ministry  of 
Queensberry  succeeded,  by  the  aid  of  a  third  party  nick- 
named the  "Squadrone  Volante,"  in  getting  the  consent 
of  parliament  to  the  appointment  of  commissioners  by  the 
crown.  The  Act  expressly  excepted  the  church  from  the 
matters  with  which  the  commission  was  to  deal.  The  com- 
missioners, thirty-one  from  each  country,  met  at  Whitehall 
on  16th  April  and  concluded  their  sitting.";  on  23d  July. 
The  nomination  by  the  crown  had  secured  persons  anxious 
to  accomplish  the  union ;  experience  had  disclosed  the 
cause  of  former  failures,  and  the  commissioners  were  guided 
by  the  statesmanship  of  Somers.  It  Lad  been  recognized 
from  the  first  that  the  only  settlement  of  the  ecclesiastical 
question  possible  was  to  leave  to  each  country  its  own 
church  It  was  wisely  decided  to  treat  the  law  and  tlie 
courts  in  the  same  manner.  These  two  subjects  being  re- 
moved from  the  scope  of  the  treaty  narrowed  the  debates 
to  four  main  points, — the  succession,  trade,  taxation,  and 
iLe  composition  of  the  future  parliament.  The  Scottish 
commissioners  yielded  on  the  first,  the  English  on  the 
second,  and  the  remaining  two  wore  adjusted  by  a  skilful 
compromise.  The  chief  articles  of  the  treaty  were  the 
settlement  of  both  crowns  according  to  the  English  Act  of 
Succession  on  Anne  and  her  descendants,  and  failing  them 
on  the  electress  Sophia  and  the  Hanoverian  line ;  the 
establishment  of  free  trade  between  England  and  Scotland, 
and  the  admission  of  the  Scots  to  equal  privileges  as  regards 
trade  with  other  countries  •  the  national  debt  and  taxation 
were  adjusted  by  the  imposition  on  Scotland  of  a  moderate 
share  (£48,000)  of  the  land-tax,  of  which  England  was 
still  to  bear  £200,000,  and  there  was  to  be  a  uniform 
rate  of  custom  and  excise,  Scotland  being  compensated 
by  an  equivalent  of  about  £400,000  for  becoming  liable 
to  a  proportion  of  the  English  national  debt,  which  already 
amounted  to  £16,000,000;  forty -five  representatives  of 
Scotland  were  to  be  admitted  to  the  House  of  Commons 
and  sixteen  elected  peers  to  the  House  of  Lords.  Although 
the  terms  were  on  the  whole  favourable  to  Scotland,  their 
announcement  was  received  wth  dissatisfaction,  especially 
in  Edinburgh.  The  loss  was  immediate,  from  the  aboli- 
tion of  an  independent  parliament,  the  reduction  of  the 
capital  to  a  provincial  town,  and  the  increase  of  taxation 
to  pay  the  growing  national  debt.  The  gain  was  in  the 
future  and  in  part  doubtful.  No  one  contemplated  the 
rapid  and  enormous  extension  of  trade.  A  proud  people 
was  unwilling  to  admit  the  advantage  consequent  upon 
free  intercourse  with  a  country  in  which  wealth  and  civiliza- 
tion were  more  widespread.  It  had  a  natural  attachment 
to  its  o^vn  institutions,  though  these  were  loss  popular 
than  the  English.  It  feared  that,  notwithstanding  the 
most  solemn  guarantee,  neither  its  church  nor  its  laws 
could  resist  the  influence  of  a  country  so  much  larger  and 
more  populous,  in  which  henceforth  was  to  bo  the  sole  seat 
of  government,  and  that  much  of  its  wealth  and  talent 
•would  be  attracted  to  the  south  and  become  English.  The 
last  parliament  of  Scotland  was  preceded  by  a  stormy  agita- 
tion against  the  union,  and  began  its  session  with  numcr- 
»U8  addresses  praying  that  the  treaty  should  not  be  ratified, 
rwhile  none  were  presented  in  its  favour.  The  popular 
feeling  was  emijodied  in  the  speeches  of  Lord  Belhaven 
from  a  sentimental  and  patriotic  point  of  view,  and  .of 
Fletcher  of  Salton,  who  represented  the  democratic  or  re- 
publican element  latent  in  a  portion  of  the  nation.  But 
common  .sense  aided  by  ministerial  influence  prevailed. 
The  vote  on  the  first  article  was  prudently  taken  with  a 
proviso  that  it  was  to  bo  dependent  on  the  rest  being 
carried,  but  it  really  decided  the  fate  of  the  measure.  The 
Government  commanded  a  large  majority  of  the  peers, 


perhaps  more  amenable  to  influence.  They  were  accused 
by  the  Jacobites  of  being  bribed,  but  the  sums  received  in 
name  of  payment  of  arrears  of  pension  and  of  debts  were 
too  small  to  justify  the  charge.  The  lesser  barons  or 
county  members  and  the  representatives  of  the  burghs 
were  nearly  equally  divided  ;  but  there  was  a  majority  of 
four  of  each  of  these  estates  in  favour  of  the  article.  The 
whole  estates  voted  together  and  the  total  majority  ■was 
thirty-five.  This  was  increased  when  the  last  vote  was 
taken  to  41,  the  numbers  being  110  for  and  69  against, 
and  the  Act  of  Ratification  to  take  efi'ect  from  l.st  May 
1707  was  carried.  The  Presbyterian  Church  received  as 
additional  guarantee  in  an  Act  passed  for  "securing  the 
Protestant  religion  and  the  Presbyterian  Establishment." 

In  the  English  parliament  there  was  less  serious  opposi- 
tion, proceeding  chielly  from  the  High  Church  party,  which 
was  conciliated  by  an  Act  for  the  security  of  the  Church 
of  England.  On  6th  March  1707  the  Scottish  and  English 
Acts  ratifying  the  union  received  the  royal  assent. 

Two  Acts  of  the  British  parliament  naturally  followed  Legisla- 
tho  Act  of  Union.  The  Scottish  privy  council  was  abol- 1'°°  ""^' 
ished  in  1708.  A  secretary  of  statp.  for  Scotland  continued  oq**^|J1 
until  1746  to  manage  the  Scottish  department  in  London  ; 
but  the  lord  advocate,  the  adviser  of  the  crown  on  all 
legal  matters  both  in  London  and  Edinburgh,  gradually 
acquired  a  large,  and  after  the  suppression  of  the  office  of 
the  Scottish  secretary  a  paramount  influence  in  purely 
Scottish  affairs,  though  he  was  nominally  a  subordinate 
of  the  home  secretary.^-  In  1709  the  law  of  treason  was 
assimilated  to  that  of  England,  being  made  more  definite 
and  less  liable  to  extension  by  construction  in  the  criminal 
courts.  In  the  later  years  of  Anne,  when  after  the  fall  of 
!Marlborongh  power  passed  from  the  Whig  to  the  Tory 
jiarty,  two  statutes  were  passed  of  a  different  character. 
Patronage  was  restored  in  the  Presbyterian  Church  not- 
withstanding the  protests  of  the  assembly,  and  proved  a 
fertile  source  of  discord.  A  limited  toleration  Act  in  favour 
of  the  Episcopalians,  permitting  them  to  worship  in  private 
chapels,  was  opposed  by  the  Presbyterians  but  carried. 

With  the  union  of  the  parliaments  Scotland  lost  its  other 
legislative  independence.  Its  representation  in  the  British  results  of 
parliament  for  more  than  a  century,  based  on  the  freehold  "^j^^°^ 
franchise  in  the  counties  and  in  the  burghs  controlled  by  j^ji'd 
town  councils,  which  were  close  corporations,  was  a  repre- 
sentation of  special  classes  and  interests  rather  than  of  the 
nation.  It  almost  appeared  as  if  the  prophecy  of  Belhaven 
would  be  accomplished  and  there  would  be  an  end  of  an 
old  song.  But  Scottish  histoiy  was  not  destined  yet  to 
end.  The  character  of  the  people,  though  their  language 
and  manners  gradually  became  more  like  those  of  Eng- 
land, remained  distinct.  They  retained  a  separate  church 
and  clergy.  Independent  courts,  and  a  more  cosmopolitan 
system  of  law  opened  a  liberal  profession  and  afforded  a 
liberal  education  to  youthful  ambition.  A  national  system 
of  parish  schools,  burgh  schools,  and  universities,  though 
inadequately  endowed  and  far  from  reaching  the  ideal  of 
Knox  and  Melville,  gave  opportunities  to  the  lower  as  well 
as  the  higher  classes  of  receiving  at  a  small  cost  an  educa- 
tion suited  for  jiractical  uses  and  tho  business  of  everyday 
life.  The  Scot  had  been  from  the  earliest  times  more  in- 
clined to  travel,  to  migrate,  to  colonize  than  the  English- 
man, not  that  he  had  a  less  fervent  love  of  home,  but  a  soil 
comparatively  poor  made  it  necessary  for  many  to  seek 
their  fortune  alnoad.  This  tendency  which  had  led  Scottish 
monks,  soldiers,  and  jirofessors  to  embrace  foreign  service, 
now  found  new  openings  in  trade,  commerce,  colonial  enter- 
prise in  America,  tho  East,  and  tho  West  Indies,  in  the 
southern  hemisphoro  and  tho^xplo^otiono^  unknow-n  parts 

>  1^  IHsr.  n  si'cretary  for  Scotland  w«  •gain  nppoluted  with  ^ 
separate  office  «t  Dover  Uoum.  London. 


520 


tJ  GOTLAND 


[histoet. 


of  the  globe.  Accustomed' to  poverty,  Scottish  emigrants 
acq  'ired  habits  of  frugality,  industry,  and  perseverance, 
and  were  rewarded  by  success  in  most  of  their  undertak- 
ings. Nor,  if  war  be  regarded  as  necessary  to  the  continued 
lexistence  of  a  nation,  was  it  altogether  absent,  but  the 
cause  with  which  the  name  of  Scotland  became  identified 
was  the  losing  one.  The  two  rebellions  proved  the  devoted 
loyalty  which  still  attached  many  of  the  Highland  clans, 
the  Catholics,  and  some  of  the  Episcopalians  to  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Stuarts.  But  that  in  1715,  preceded  by  an 
abortive  attempt  in  1708,  was  put  down  by  a  single  battle; 
Sheriffmuir,  if  it  could  scarcely  be  claimed  as  a  victory  by 
Argyll,  led  to  the  speedy  dispersal  of  the  clans  which  had 
gathered  round  the  standard  of  Mar.  Thirty  years  later 
the  romantic  rising  of  the  Highlanders  under  the  Young 
Pretender  found  the  Government  unprepared.  Once  more 
for  a  brief  .space  Holyrood  was  a  royal  court.  The*  defeat 
of  Cope  at  Prestonpans  and  the  rapid  march  of  the  Scottish 
atmy,  slightly  reinforced  by  Catholics  from  the  northern 
and  midland  shires  of  England,  to  Derby,  by  which  it  cut 
off  the  duke  of  Newcastle's  forces  from  the  capital,  made 
London  tremble.  Divided  counsels,  the  absence  of  any  able 
leader,  and  the  smallness  of  their  number  (not  more  than 
5000)  prevented  the  daring  policy  of  attacking  London, 
which  Charles  himself  favoured,  and  a  retreat  was  deter- 
mined on.  It  was  skilfully  effected,  and  on  26th  December 
the  little  army,  which  had  left  Edinburgh  on  31st  October 
and  reached  Derby  on  4th  December,  arrived  in  Glasgow. 
It  was  not  favourably  received,  the  south-west  of  Scotland 
"being  the  district  least  inclined  to  the  Stuarts,  and  it 
marched  on  Stirling  to  assist  Lord  John  Drummond  and 
Lord  Strathallan,  who  had  commenced  its  siege,  which 
General  Hawley  threatened  to  raise.  His  defeat  at  Falkirk 
•was  the  last  success  of  the  Jacobites.  The  duke  of  Cum- 
berland was  sent  to  command  the  royal  forces,  and  Charles 
Hdward  was  forced  by  Lord  George  Murray  and  the-  High- 
land chiefs  to  abandon  the  siege  of  Stii-Hng  and  retreat 
to  Inverness.  He  was  at  once  pursued  by  the  duke,  and 
Lis  defeat  at  Cullodec  (loth  April  1746)  scattered  his 
followers  and  compelled  him  to  seek  safety  in  flight  to  the 
Hebrides,  from  which,  after  five  months'  wanderings,  he 
escaped  to  France.  The  last  rebellion  within  Great  Britain 
was  put  down  with  severity.  Many  soldiers  taken  in  arms 
were  shot  and  no  consideration  was  shown  to  the  wounded. 
The  chief  ofiicers  and  even  some  privates  taken  prisoners 
"vere  tried  and  executed  at  various  places  in  the  north  of 
England.  The  earls  of  Cromarty  and  Kilmarnock  and  Lord 
Balmerino  were  reserved  for  the  judgment  of  their  peers 
in  London,  and  having  pleaded  guilty  were  beheaded  at 
Tower  Hill.  The  crafty  Lovat,  who  had  avoided  appearing 
in  arms,  but  was  really  at  the  bottom  of  the  rising,  though 
he  pretended  to  serve  both  sides,  was  the  last  to  suflfer. 
An  Act  of  indemnity  was  passed  a  few  weeks  after  his 
execution.  But  effective  measures  were  taken  to  prevent 
any  renewal  of  the  rebellion.  The  estates  and  titles  of  all 
who  had  been  privy  to  it  were  forfeited.  An  Act  was  passed 
prohibiting  the  use  of  arms  and  the  Highland  dress ;  and 
the  aboUticn  of  the  military  tenure  of  ward-holding,  un- 
fortunately preserved  at  the  union,  rooted  out  the  remnants 
of  feudal  and  military  power  till  then  left  in  the  hands  of 
the  nobles  and  chiefs.  These  changes  in  the  law  had  the 
willing  consent  of  the  Lowland  and  burghal  population  in 
Scotland,  to  whom  the  lawless  and  freebooting  habits  of 
the  Highlanders  had  been  a  cause  of  frequent  loss  and 
constant  alarm.  Somewhat  later  the  masterly  policy  of 
Pitt  enlisted  the  Scottish  Celts  in  the  service  of  the  crown 
by  forming  the  Highland  regiments.  The  recollection  of 
Glencoe  and  Culloden  was  forgotten  after  the  common 
victories  of  the  British  arms  in  India,  the  Peninsula,  and 
TVaterloo.    In  one  direction  the  Jacobite  cause  survived 


its  defeat.  Poetry  seized  on  its  romantic  incidents,  ideal 
ized  the  young  prince  who  at  least  tried  to  win  his  father's 
crown,  satirized  the  foreign  and  German,  the  Whig  and 
Covenanting,  elements  opposed  to  the  Stuart  restoration, 
and  substituted  loyalty  for  patriotism.  Self-sacrifice  and 
devotion  to  a  cause  believed  right,  though  deserted  by 
fortune  (qualities  rare  amongst, the  mass  of  any  nation), 
dignified  the  Jacobites  like  the  cavaliers  with  some  o\ 
the  nobler  traits  of  chivalry,  and  the  Jacobite  ballads 
have  their  place  in  literature  as  one  of  the  last  expiring 
notes  of  mediasval  romance.  Music  and  tradition  fortu- 
nately preserved  their  charm  before  the  cold  hand  of  history 
traced  the  sad  end  of  Charles  Edward,  the  pensioner  of 
foreign  courts,  wasting  his  declining  years  in  ignoble  plear 
sures.  It  might  be  hard  to  say  whether  the  first  Hanover- 
ians or  the  last  Stuarts  least  deserved  that  men  should  fight 
and  die  for  them ;  but  the  former  represented  order,  pro- 
gress, civil  and  religious  liberty;  the  latter  we're  identified 
with  the  decaying  legend  of  the  divine  right  of  kings  and 
the  claim  of  the  Eoman  Church  not  merely  to  exclusive 
orthodoxy  but  to  temporal  power  and  jurisdiction  inconsist- 
ent with  the  independence  of  nations  and  freedom  of  con- 
science. Although  a  larger  minority  in  Scotland  than  ia 
England  clung  to  the  traditions  of  the  past,  an  overwhelm- 
ing majority  of  the  nation,  including  all  its  progressive 
elements,  were  in  favour  of  the  new  constitution  and  the 
change  of  dynasty. 

During  tte  remaining  half  of  the  18th  century  and  the  commence- 
ment of  the  19th  a  period  of  prosperity  was  enjoyed  by  Scotland, 
and  the  good  effects  of  the  anion,  intercepted  by  the  rebellions, 
became  visible.  The  Scottish  nation,  ivithout  losing  its  indivi- 
duality, was  stimulated  by  contact  and  friendly  rivalry  with  ita 
English  neighbour  ia  the  arts  of  peace..  It  advanced  in  intcl' 
lectual  as  well  as  material  respects  more  than  in  any  part  of  iti 
previous  histoVy.  It  became,  through  commerce,  manufactures, 
and  improved  agriculture,  a  comparatively  rich  instead  of  a  poor 
country.  Skilful  engineering  made  the  Clyde  a  successful  com- 
petitor with  the  Thames  and  the  Mersey,  and  Glasgow  became  one 
of  the  most  populous  cities  in  Great  Britain.  The  industrial  arts 
made  rapid  proOTess,  and  the  fine  arts  began  to  flourish.  The  art 
of  saving  capital  and  using  it  as  a  source  of  credit  was  reduced  to  a 
system.  Banks,  not  unknown  in  other  countries  and  at  an  earlier 
date,  are  in  their  modern  form  a  Scottish  invention.  Besides  those 
uhich  sprang  up  in  Scotland  itself,  the  national  b'.nks  of  England 
and  France  owed  their  origin  to  two  Scotsmen.  A  safe  system  of 
life  insurance  represented  tie  provident  habits  and  business  talents 
of  the  nation.  Adam  Smith  shares  with  the  French  economists  the 
honour  of  founding  political  economy  as  the  science  of  the  wealth  oi 
nations.  Mental  phOosophy  became  a  favourite  study,  and  a  dis- 
tinctively Scottish  school  produced  thinkers  who  deeply  influenced 
the  later  systems  of  the  Continent.  The  history  not  of  Scotland 
only  but  of  England  and  some  portions  of  that  of  Europe  were 
written  by  Scotsmen  in  works  equal  to  any  existing  before  Gibbon. 
The  dawn  of  the  scientific  era  of  the  19th  century  was  foreshadowed 
by  Scottish,  men  of  science,  the  founders  of  modern  geology, 
chemistry,  anatomy,  physiology,  and  the.  practice  of  mediciae.  In 
Scotland  was  made  the  first  of  the  great  line  of  discoveries  in  the 
practical  application  of  science  by  the  use  of  steam  as  a  motive- 
power.  The  same  period — so  varied  were  its  talents — gave  birth  to 
two  Scottish  poets,  of  world-wide  fame.  Burns  expressed  the 
feelings  and  aspirations  of  the  people  ;  Scott  described  both  in 
verse  and  prose  their  history  and  the  picturesque  scenes  in  which 
it  had  been  transacted.  During  the  last  half-century  tne  material 
progress  continued,  but  the  intellectual  was  too  brilliant  to  last.' 
The  preponderating  influence  of  England  even  threatened  to  extin- 
guish native  Scottish  genius  by  centralizing  the  political  and  social 
life  of  the  island  n  the  English  capital.  Only  two  changes  of 
importance  occurreds,  The  political  institutions  of  Scotland  wer« 
reformed  by  a  series  cf  Acts  which  placed  the  franchise  on  a  broadei 
basis  and  made  the  representation  of  the  people  real.  The  Estab- 
lished Church,  already  weakened  by  secessions,  was  further  divided 
by  a  disruption  largely  due  to  the  ignorance  of  political  leaders  as 
to  the  deep-seated  aversion  of  the  nation  to  any  interference  with 
the  independence  of  the  church,  especially  in  matters  of  patronage. 
Educational  reform  has  also  in  recent  years  raised  the  standard  of 
the  universities  and  schools  without  injuring  their  popular  character 
While  it  would  be  incorrect  to  say  that  Scotland  has  had  no  inde- 
pendent history  iince  the  union,  that  history  must  be  chieC?  read  in 
the  annals  of  its  church,  its  law,  and  its  literature.  Its  political 
existence  has  been  absorbed  in  that  of  Great  Britain.        (M.  M.) 


^ 


• 


c 


GSOLOGY.j 


SCOTLAND 

PART   II.— PHYSICAL  FEATURES. 


521 


Scotland  forms  the  nortbern  portion  of  Great  Britain  and  is 
divided  from  England  by  the  rivers  Sark,  Liddell,  and  Kcrsliope 
(an  affluent  of  the  Liddell),  the  Cheviot  Hills,  the  river  1  need,  and 
the  liberties  of  Berwick.  The  mainland  lies  between  58  40  30  (at 
Dunnet  Head,  Caithness)  and  54°  38'  N.  lat.  (Mull  of  Galloway)  and 
1°  45'  30"  (Peterhead)  and  6°  14'  W.  long.  (Ardnamurchan  Point, 
ArTvUshire)..  Including  the  islands,  the  extreme  N.  lat.  is  60 
61'  30"  (Outsack,  Shetland)  and  the  extreme  W.  long.  8  35  30 
(St  Kilda).  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south,  from  Durness 
in  Sutherland  to  Burrow  Head  in  Wigtownshire,  is  272  miles,  and 
the  greatest  breadth  from  east  to  west,  from  Peterhead  in  Aber- 
deenshire to  Applecross  in  Ross-shire,  is  155,  while  the  narrowest 
part  from  Grangemouth  in  Stirlingshire  to  Bowling  in  Dumbarton- 
shire is  only  30i  miles  -mde.  The  total  area  in  1881,  according  to 
the  Ordnance  Survey,  was  19,777,490  acres  or  30,902  square  miles, 
—the  area  of  foreshore  being  310,413  acres  or  485  square,  miles, 
of- water  403,846  acres  or  631  square  miles,  and  of  land-surface 
19,063,231  acres  or  29,786  square  miles.  But  of  the  water  area 
the  acreage  included  under  lakes  and  rivers  respectively  has  not 
been  ascertained.' 

Geology. 

In  the  article  Geology  (vol.  x. )  descriptions  will  be  found  of  most 
of  the  geological  formations  of  Scotland.  All  that  need  therefore 
be  inserted  nere  is  a  succinct  summary  of  these  formations  with 
references  to  the  pages  of  that  article  where  fuller  details  are  given. 
irobasan  The  oldest  rocks  of  Scotland  and  of  the  British  Islands,  known 
lookg-  as  Arclia;an,  consist  chiefly  of  gneiss  (Fundamental,  Lewisian, 
Hebridian),  which  varies  from  a  coarsely  crystalline  granitoid  mass 
to  fine  schist.  The  coarse  varieties  are  most  abundant,  intermingled 
■with  bands  of  hornblende-rock,  hornblende-schist,  pegmatite,  eurite, 
mica-.schist,  sericite-schist,  and  other  schistose  accompaniments. 
In  a  few  places  limestone  has  been  observed.  No  trace  of  any 
organism  has  ever  been  detected  in  any  of  these  rocks.  Over  wide 
areas,  particularly  on  the  mainland,  the  bands  of  gneiss  have  a 
general  north-west  trend  and  undulate  in  fiequent  plications  with 
variable  inclination  to  north-east  and  south-west.  The  largest 
tract  of  Archaean  rock  is  that  which  forms  almost  the  whole  of  the 
Outer  Hebrides,  from  Barra  Head  to  the  Butt  of  Lewis.  Other  areaj 
more  or  less  widely  separated  from  each  other  run  down  the  western 
^rta  of  Sutherland  and  Ross,  and  are  probably  continued  at  least 
as  far  as  the  Island  of  Rum.  How  far  Archcean  rocks  reappear  to 
the  east  of  this  western  belt  has  not  yet  been  ascertained. 

Above  the  Archajan  gneiss  lies  a  series  of  red  and  chocolate-coloured 
sandstones,  conglomerates,  and  breccias  (Cambrian  or  Torridon 
sandstone),  which  form  a  number  of  detached  areas  from  Cape  Wrath 
down  the  seaboard  of  Sutherland  and  Ross,  across  Skye,  and  as  far 
as  the  Island  of  Rum  (Geology,  vol.  x.  p.  330).  They  rise  into 
prominent  pyramidal  mountains,  which,  as  the  stratification  is 
usually  almost  horizontal,  present  in  their  terraced  sides  a  singular 
contrast  to  the  neighbouring  heights,  composed  of  higlily  plicated 
crystalline  schista.  In  the  Torridon  district  these  sandstones  can 
be  seen  towering  bed  above  bed  to  a  height  of  about  4000  feet,  and 
their  thickness  is  still  peater.  They  have  not  yet  yielded  any 
recognizable  fossil ;  their  geological  age  is  accordingly  doubtful, 
though  from  their  relation  to  the  overlying  fossiliferous  rocks  and 
from  their  own  lithological  characters  they  hava  with  much  prob- 
ability been  classed  with  the  Cambrian  system  of  Wales.  They 
are  hot  met  with  anywhere  else  in  Scotland  than  iu  the  north-west 
Highlands. 

Rocks  belonging  to  the  Silurian  system  occur  in  two  distinct 
regions  and  in  two  very  strongly  contrasted  conditions.  They 
constitute  nearly  the  whole  of  the  southern  uplands  (Geoloqy, 
.vol.  X.  pp.  333,  337).  In  that  belt  of  country  they  consist  for  tho 
most  part  of  grcywacke,  grit,  shale,  and  other  sedimentary  rocks, 
but  in  tho  south-west  of  Ayrshire  they  include  some  thick  lenti- 
cular bands  of  limestone.  They  have  been  thrown  into  many  plica- 
tions, the  long  axes  of  which  run  in  a  general  north-easterly  direction. 
It  is  this  structure  which  has  determined  tho  trend  of  tho  southern 
uplands.  Tho  plications  of  tho  Highlands  and  the  chief  disloca- 
tions of  tho  country  have  followed  the  same  general  direction,  and 
hence  tho  parallelism  and  north-easterly  trend  of  tho  main  topo- 
graphical features.  Abundant  fossils  in  certain  parts  of  the  Silurian 
rocks  have  shown  that  representatives  of  both  ttie  I,owcr  and  Upper 
divisions  are  present.  By  far  tho  larger  part  of  tho  uplands  belongs 
to  the  former.  Tho  Upper  Silurian  shales  and  sandstones  appear 
only  along  the  northern  and  southern  margins. 

In  tho  north-west  Highlands  tho  Cambrian  red  sandstones  are 
overlain  unconformably  by  several  hundred  feet  of  wliito  quartzite 
with  annelid  tubes,  followed  by  fossiliferous  limestones  and  shales 
(Geology,  vol.  x.  p.  333).  The  abundant  fossils  in  thcHo  strata 
prove  them  to  bo  of  Lower  Silurian  age.  It  was  believed  by 
Mnrchison  that,  as  these  Silurian  strata  dip  conformably  below 
various  schists  which  spread  eastwards  into  the  rest  of  tho  High- 
lands, they  demonstrate  tho  crystalline  rocks  of  tho  Highlands  to 


be  of  later  than  Silurian  age.  Recently,  however,  the  structure  of 
Sutherland  has  been  investigated  anew  with  minute  care  and  the 
result  is  to  show  that  the  schists  believed  to  overlie  the  Silurian 
strata  conformably  have  been  really  pushed  over  them  and  consist 
in  part  of  the  Archoean  gneiss.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  from 
the  mouth  of  Loch  ErriboU  on  the  north  coast  of  Sutherland  south- 
wards to  the  Isle  of  Skye,  a  distance  of  more  than  100  miles,  a  gigantic 
system  of  earth-movements  has  taken  place,  whereby  the  Silurian, 
•Cambrian,  and  Archaean  rocks  have  been  crumpled,  inverted,  dis- 
located, and  have  pushed  over  each  other.  In  some  places  the  hori- 
zontal displacement  of  these  shifted  masses  has  been  not  less  than 
10  miles.  So  intense  has  been  the  shearing  of  the  rocks  that  their 
original  structure  has  in  many  places  been  entirely  destroyed. 
They  have  acquired  a  new  schistosity,  which  is  in  a  general  sense 
parallel  with  the  bedding  of  the  Silurian  rocks  to  the  west  of  the 
line  of  disturbance.  Hence  the  apparent  conforniability  of  the 
schists  overlying  these  rocks.  The  total  thickness  of  rccogn;zable 
Silurian  strata  is  about  2000  feet.  The  rocks  that  overlie  them  to 
the  east  of  the  line  of  disturbance  in  Sutlierland  and  Ross  are  fine 
flaggy  schists,  quite  unlik^any  part  of  the  Archreaii  gneiss  and  often 
strangely  suggestive  of  altered  sandstones.  AVhat  are  their  true 
age  and  history  remains  still  to  be  determined.  There  can  be  no 
doubt,  however,  that  they  have  acquired  their  present  schistosity 
since  the  Lower  Silurian  period,  •and  hence  that  the  present  condi- 
tion of  the  metamorphic  rocks  of  the  central  Highlands  docs  not 
go  back  to  Archiean  time.  That  portions  of  the  Archaean  series 
may  have  been  pushed  up  in  different  parts  of  the  Highlands  is 
quite  conceivable.  But  that  much  of  the  Highlands  consists  of 
altered  sedimentary  rocks  like  those  of  the  Silurian  uplands  admits 
of  no  question.  The  solution  of  this  difficult  but  intcicstiiig 
problem  has  the  most  important  bearing  upon  the  theory  of  mcta- 
morphism,  but  it  can  only  be  attained  by  patient  and  laborious 
mapping  of  the  ground  such  as  is  being  prosecuted  by  tho  Geo- 
logical Survey. 

As  Scotland  is  the  typical  European  Tegion  for  the  Old  Red  Old  Red 
Sandstone  a  full  account  of  this  series  of  rocks  has  already  been  Sand- 
given  in  the  arricle  Geology  (vol.  x.  pp.  343,  344).  These  rocks  sIod". 
are  grouped  in  two  divisions.  Lower  and  Up]ier,  both  of  which 
appear  to  have  been  deposited  in  lakes.-  The  Lower,  with  its  abun- 
dant intercalated  lavas  and  tufls,  extends  continuously  as  a  broad 
belt  along  the  northern  margin  of  the  midland  v.TlIey,  reappears  iu 
detached  tracts  along  the  southern  border,  i«  found  again  on  the 
south  side  of  the  uplands  in  Berwickshire  and  the  Cheviot  Hills, 
occupies  a  tract  of  Lome  in  Argyllshire,  and  on  tha  north  side  of 
the  Highlands  underlies  most  of  the  low  ground  on  both  sides  of 
the  Moray  Firth,  stretches  across  Caithness  and  through  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  Orkney  Islands,  and  is  prolonged  into  Shetland.  The 
Upper  Old  Red  Sandstone  covers  a  more  restricted  space  in  most 
of  the  areas  just  mentioned,  its  chief  development  being  on  the 
flanks  of  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  southern  uplands,  where  it 
spreads  out  over  the  Lanimermuir  Hills  and  the  valleys  of  Berwick- 
shire and  Roxburghshire. 

The  areas  occujiied  by  Carboniferous  rocks  are  almost  entirely  Carboa- 
restricted  to  the  midland  valley,  but  they  are  also  to  bo  found  iferons. 
skirting  the  southern  .uplands  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tweed  to 
that  of  the  Nith.     Tho  subdivisions  of  this  important  system,  its 
coal-fields  and  igneous  rocks,  have  been  described  in  tlie  article 
Geology, (vol.  x.  pp.  346;  348,  349). 

Rocks  assignable  to  the  Permian  system  occupy  only  a  few  small  PermioB- 
areas  in  Scotland.  Extending  from  Cumbeihiiul  under  the  Solway 
Firth,  they  fill  np  the  valley  of  the  Kith  for  a  few  niiles'north  of 
Dumf^i'ies,  and,  reappearing  again  in  the  same  valley  a  little  faither 
north,  run  up  ilio  narrow  valley  of  tho  Carron  Water  to  the  I.owtlicr 
Hills.  Other  detached  tracts  of  similar  rocks  rover  a  oonsidcrabh; 
space  in  Annandale,  one  of  them  ascending  the  deep  defile  at  thr 
head  of  that  valley.  Another  isolated  patch  occurs  among  tin- 
Lead  Hills;  and  lastly,  a  considerable  space  in  the  heart  of  the 
Ayrshire  coalfield  is  occupied  by  Permian  rocks.  Throughout 
these  separate  basins  tho  prevailing  rock  is  a  red  sand.stone,  vnritil 
in  tho  narrow  valleys  with  intercalated  masses  of  breccia  (0  i;oi.(in v, 
vol.  X.  p.  351).  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  valleys  in  wliicli 
these  patch«B  of  red  rocks  lio  already  existed  in  I'crmian  time. 
They  seem  then  to  have  been  occupied  by  small  lakes  or  inlets, 
not  unlike  fjords.  Numerous  amnhiliian  tracks  havo  been  loiinJ 
in  the  red  sandstone  of  Annandale  and  also  near  Dumfries,  but 
r.o  other  traces  of  tho  life  of  tho  time.  One  of  tho  most  inteivsting 
features  of  the  Scottish  development  of  the  Permian  systini  is  the 
oceurrenco  of  intercalated  hands  of  contempoinneously  cruplinl 
volcanic  rocks  in  the  Carron  Water,  Nithsdalo,  and  Ayinliiro.  1  lir 
actual  vents  which  were  tho  sites  of  tho  small  voh  anoes  still  reinniii 
distinct,  and  tho  erupted  lavas  form  high  ground  in  the  midillo  of 
Ayrshi.-e.  ... 

The  Tria.ssic  system  appears  to  ho  only  feebly  Kprcscnted  in  Triasstll 
Scotland.     To  this  division  of  the  geological  record   are  assigned' 
tho  yellow  sandstones  of  Elgin,  which  have  yielded  remains  of  rep'' 

XXI    —  66 


522 


SCOTLAND 


I  PHYSICAL 


tiles,  but  which  at  the  same  time  cannot  be  satisfactorily  separated 
from  similar  underlying  strata  which  contain  Upper  Old  Red 
Sandstone  fishes.  There  occur  also  lielow  the  Lias  on  some  parts 
of  the  west  coast  unfossiliforous  red  sandstones,  conglomerates,  and 
breccias  which  may  possibly  belong  to  the  same  system.  These 
rocks  attain  their  greatest  tnickness  at  Gruinard  Bay  on  the  west 
coast  of  Ross,  where  tliey  must  be  several  hundred  feet  thick.  On 
the  cast  side  of  the  country,  where  so  many  fragments  of  the  Second- 
ary rocks  occur  as  boulders  in  the  glacial  deposits,  a  large  mass  of 
strata  was  formerly  exposed  at  Linksfield  near  Elgin  containing 
Jbssils  which  appear  to  show  it  to  belong  to  the  Rhatic  beds  at 
the  top  of  the  Trias.  But  it  was  not  in  place,  and  was  almost 
certainly  a  mass  transported  by  ice.  Khcetic  strata  no  doubt  exist 
in  situ  at  no  great  distance  under  the  North  Sea. 

The  Jurassic  system  is  well  represented  on  both  sides  of  the 
Highlands.  Along  tlie  east  coast  of  Sutherland  good  sections  are 
exposed  showing  tlic  succession  of  strata.  Among  these  the  Lower 
and  Middle  Lias  can  be  identified  by  their  fossils.  The  Lower 
Oolite  is  distinguished  by  the  occurrence  in  it  of  some  coal-seams, 
one  of  which,  ih,  feet  in  lliickness,  has  been  worked  at  Brora.  The 
Middle  Oolite  consists  mostly  of  sandstones  with  bands  of  shale 
and  limestones  and  includes  fossils  which  indicate  the  English 
horizons  from  the  Kellaways  Rock  up  to  the  Coral  Rag.  The 
lower  part  of  the  Kimmcridgc  Clay  is  probably  represented  by  sand- 
stones and  conglomerates,  forming  the  highest  beds  of  the  series 
in  Sutherland.  On  the  west  side  of  the  Highlands  Jurassic  rocks 
are  found  in  many  detached  areas  from  the  Shiant  Isles  to  the 
southern  shores  of  JIull.  Over  much  of  this  region  they  owe  their 
]ireservation  in  great  measure  to  the  mass  of  lavas  poured  over 
them  in  Tertiary  time.  They  have  been  uncovered,  indeed  only 
at  a  comparatively  recent  geological  date.  They  comprise  a  con- 
secutive series  of  deposits  from  the  bottom  of  the  Lias  up  to  the 
Oxford  Clay.  The  Lower  Middle  and  Upper  Lias  consist  chiefly  of 
shales  and  shelly  limestones,  with  some  sandstones,  well  seen  along 
the  shores  of  Broadford  Bay  in  Skye  and  in  some  of  the  adjacent 
islands.  The  Lower  Oolites  are  made  up  of  sandstones  and  shales 
Avith  some  limestones,  and  are  overlaid  by  several  hundred  feet  of 
an  estuarine  series  of  deposits  consisting  chiefly  of  thick  white 
sandstones,  below  and  above  which  lie  shales  and  shelly  limestones. 
These  rocks  form  a  prominent  feature  underneath  the  basalt  terraces 
of  the  east  side  of  Skye,  Raasay,  and  Eigg,  ^  They  form  the  highest 
members  of  the  Jurassic  series,  representing  probably  some  part  of 
the  Oxford  clay.  The  next  Secondary  rocks  (Cretaceous)  succeed 
them  unconformably. 
Creta-  Rocks  belonging  to  the  Cretaceous  system  undoubtedly  at  one 

ceous.  time  covered  considerable  areas  on  both  sides  of  the  Highlands,  but 
they  have  been  entirely  stripped  off  the  eastern  side,  while  on  the 
western  they  have  been  reduced  to  a  few  fragmentary  patches, 
which  have  no  doubt  survived  because  of  the  overlying  sheets  of 
basalt  that  have  protected  them.  Some  greenish  sandstones  con- 
taining recognizable  and  characteristic  fossils  are  the  equivalents 
of  the  Upper  Greensand  of  the  south  of  England.  These  rocks 
are  found  on  the  south  and  west  coasts  of  Mull  and  on  the  west 
coast  of  Argyllshire.  They  are  covered  by  white  sandstones  and 
these  by  white  chalk  and  marly  beds,  which  represent  the  Upper 
Chalk  of  England.  Enormous  numbers  of  flints  and  also  less 
abundant  fragments  of  chalk  are  found  in  glacial  deposits  border- 
ing the  Morny  Flrtli.  These  transported  relics  show  that  the 
Chalk  must  once  have  been  in  place  at  no  great  distance,  if  indeed 
it  did  not  actually  occupy  part  of  Aberdeenshire  and  the  neigh- 
bouring counties. 
Basaltic  Above  the  highest  Secondary  rocks  on  the  west  coast  come 
plateaus,  terraced  plateaus  of  basalt,  which  spread  out  over  wide  areas  in 
Skye,  Eigg,  Mull,  and  Morven,  and  form  most  of  the  smaller  islets 
of  the  chain  of  the  Inner  Hebrides  (Geology,  vol.  x.  p.  362).  Thcse_ 
plateaus  are  composed  of  nearly  horizontal  sheets  of  basalt— col um-^' 
nar,  amorphous,  or  amygdaloidal — which  in  Mull  attain  a  thick- 
ness of  more  than  3000  feet.  They  are  prolonged  southwards  into 
Antrim  (Ireland),  where  similar  basalts  overiying  Secondary  strata 
cover  a  large  territoiy.  Occasional  beds  of  tuff  are  intercalated 
among  these  lavas,  and  likewise  seams  of  flue  clay  or  shale  which 
have  preserved  the  remains  of  numerous  land-plants.  The  presence 
of  these  fossils  indicates  that  tlie  eruptions  were  subaerial,  and  a  com- 
parison of  them  with  those  elsewhere  found  among  older  Tertiary 
strata  shows  that  they  probably  belong  to  what  is  now  called  the 
Oligoccne  stage  of  the  Tertiary  series  of  formations,  and  therefore 
that  the  basalt  eruptions  took  place  in  early  Tertiary  time.  The 
volcanic  episode  to  which  these  plateaus  owe  their  origin  was  one  of 
the  most  important  in  the  geological  history  of  Great  Britain.  It 
appears  to  have  resembled  in  its  main  features  those  remaikable  out- 
pourings of  basalt  which  have  deluged  so  many  thousand  square 
miles  of  the  western  territories  of  the  United  States.  The  eruptions 
were  connected  with  innumerable  fissures  up  which  the  basalt  rose 
and  from  numerous  points  on  which  it  flowed  out  at  the  surface. 
Thes?  fissures  with  the  basalt  that  solidified  in  them  now  form  the 
vastassemblageofdykes  which  cross  Scotland,  the  north  of  England, 
and  the  north  of  Ireland  (Geology,  vol.  x.  f.   312).     That  the 


volcanic  period  was  a  prolonged  one  is  showr.  by  the  great  denuda- 
tion of  the  plateaus  before  the  Inst  eruptions  took  place.  In  the  Isle 
of  Eigg,  for  example,  the  basalts  had  already  been  deeply  eroded  by 
river-action  and  into  the  river-course  a  current  of  glassy  lava  (pitch- 
stone)  flowed.  Denudation  has  continued  active  ever  since,  and  uo^v, 
owing  to  greater  hardness  and  consecjuent  power  of  resistance,  tho 
glassy  lava  stands  up  as  the  prominent  and  picturesque  ridge  of 
tiic  Scuir,  while  the  basalts  which  foi'merly  rose  high  above  it  have 
been  worn  down  into  terraced  declivities  that  slope  away  from  it 
to  the  sea.  A  remarkable  feature  in  the  volcanic  i)henomena  was 
the  disruption  of  the- basaltic  plateaus  by  large  bosses  of  gabbro 
and  of  various  granitoid  rocks.  These  intrusive  masses  now  tower 
into  conspicuous  groups  of  hills, — the  Coolins  in  Skye,  the  moun- 
tains of  Rum  and  ilull,  and  the  rugged  heights  of  Ardnamurehan. 

Under  the  Post-tertiary  division  come  the  records  of  the  Ice  Age, ; 
when  Scotl.ind  was  buried  under  sheets  of  ice  which  ground  down,  | 
striated,  and  polished  the  harder  rocks  over  the  whole  country  and 
left  behind  them  the  widespread  accumulations  of  clay,  gravel,  .ami 
sand  known  as  glacial  deposits.  The  nature  of  the  evidence  and 
the  deductions  drawn  from  it  have  been  already  stated  (Geoloc.v, 
vol.  X.  pp.  365-3S8).  The  youngest  geological  formations  are  tho 
raised  beaches,  viver-terraces,  lake-deposits,  peat-mosses,  and  other 
accumulations,  which  are  related  to  the  present  configuration  of  tho 
country  and  contain  remains  of  the  plants  and  animals  stUl  living 
on  its  surface  (Geology,  vol.  x.  pp.  256,  290,  369). 

Physical  Fe.vtlt.es. 

The  physical  features  of  Scotland  may  be  best  realized  by  regard- 
ing the  country  as  composed  of  three  distinct  belts  of  territory, 
diti'ering  from  each  other  in  their  geological  structure  and  cou- 
sequently  presenting  striking  contrasts  in  their  scenery. 

1.  The  Highlands,  for  convouieuce  of  description,  are  here  re-  jjig 
garded  as  embracing  all  that  part  of  the  country  which  lies  west  High 
and  north  of  a  line  drawn  along  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  and  thence  lands 
diagonally  in  a  north-easterly  direction  from  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Clyde  to  the  east  coast  at  Stonehaven.  Nearly  the  whole  of  this 
region  is  high  giouud,  deeply  trenched  with  valleys  and  penetrated 
by  long  arms  of  the  sea.  The  only  considerable  area  of  lowland 
lies  in  the  north-eastern  counties,  embracing  the  eastern  part  of 
Aberdeenshire  and  the  northern  parts  of  BantV,  Elgin,  and  Nairn, 
kAlong  boih  sides  of  the  Moray  Firth  a  strip  of  lower  land  intervenes 
between  the  foot  of  the  hills  and  the  sea,  while  farther  north  the 
county  of  Caithness  is  one  wide  plain,  which  is  prolonged  into  the 
Orkney  Islands.  Seen  from  beyond  its  southern  margin,  the  area 
of  the  Highlands  presents  a  well-defined  chain  of  hills,  which  rise 
abruptly  from  the  plains  of  the  Lowlands.  This  is  best  obsci'vcd, 
in  Strathmore,  but  it  is  also  conspicuous  in  the^'stuary  of  the  Clyde, 
where  the  low  hills  on  the  south  contrast  well  with  the  broken  line 
of  nigged  mountains  to  the  north.  From  any  of  the  islands  of  tho 
chain  of  tho  Inner  Hebrides  the  Highlands  along  their  western  sea- 
front  rise  as  a  vast  ranipart,  indented  by  many  winding  fjords  an  J 
rising  up  to  a  singularly  uniform  general  level,  which  sinks  hero 
and  there  and  allows  glimpses  to  be  had  of  still  higher  summits  ia 
the  interior.  The  northern  margin  is  hardly  less  striking  wheii 
looked  at  from  the  Moray  Firth,  or  from  the  plains  of  Caithness  a" 
Orkney.         * 

From  a  commanding  summit  in  the  interior  the  Highlands  are  High* 
seen  to  differ  from  a  mountain  chain  such  as  the  Alps,  not  merely  land 
in  their  inferior  elevation,  but  essentially  in  their  configuration  and  nviun- 
structure.  They  are  made  up  of  a  succession  of  more  or  less  nearly  taius, 
parallel  confluent  ridges,  which  have,  on  the  whole,  a  trend  from 
north-east  to  south-west.  These  ridges  are  separated  by  lonjitudinal 
valleys,  and  each  of  them  is  likewise  furrowed  by  transverse  valleys. 
The  portions  of  ridge  thus  isolated  rise  into  what  are  termed 
mountains.  But  all  the  loftier  eminences  in  the  Highlands  are 
only  higher  parts  of  ridges  along  which  their  geological  structure 
is  prolonged.  It  is  singular  to  observe  howthe  general  average  of 
luc!  of  the  summits  of  the  ridges  is  maintained.  From  some  points, 
of  view  a  mountain  may  appear  to  tower  above  all  the  surrounding 
country,  but,  looked  at  from  a  suflicicnt  distance  to  take  in  its 
environment,  it  may  be  found  not  to  rise  much  above  tlu-  general 
uniformity  of  elevation.  There  are  no  gigantic  dominant  masses 
that  must  obviously  be  due  to  some  special  terrestrial  disturbance. 
A  few  apparent  exceptions  to  this  statement  rise  along  the  western 
seaboard  of  Sutherland,  in  Skye,  ami  elsewhere,  hut  an  examination 
of  their  structure  at  once  explains  tho  reason  of  their  proniiucucc 
and  confirms  the  rule. 

The  general  surface  of  the  Highlands  is  rugged.  The  rocks  pro- 
ject in  innumerable  bosses  and  crags,  which  roughen  tho  sides  and 
crests  of  the  ridges.  The  forms  and  colours  of  these  roughnesses 
depend  on  the  nature  of  the  rock  underneath.  Where  the  latter 
is  hard  and  jointed,  weathering  into  large  quadrangular  blocks, 
the  hills  are  more  especially  distinguished  for  the  gnarled  bossy 
character  of  their  declivities,  as  may  be  seen,  in  Ben  Ledi  and  tlm 
chain  of  heights  to  the  north-east  of  it  formed  of  massive  grits  ajid 
mien  cliists.  Where,  on  the  other  hand,  the  rock  decays  into 
sr.i:,ller  debris,  the  hills  are  apt  to  assume  smoother  contours,  as  in 


FEATURES.] 


SdOTLAND 


523 


the  slate  hills  that  run  from  the  Kyles  of  Bute  to  Loch  Lomond. 
Wherever  any  mass  of  rock  occurs  differing  much  from  those 
»ound  it  in  its  power  of  resisting  decomposition  it  atiects  tho 
scenery,  rising  into  a  prominence  where  it  is  durable,  or  sinking 
into  lower  ground  whore  it  is  not.  This  relation  between  relative 
destructibility  and  external  configuration  is  traceable  in  cvciy  fart 
of  Scotland,  and  indeed  may  bo  rcgirded  as  the  law  that  has  mainly 
determined  tho  present  topogr.ipliy  of  tho  country. 

The  Hi-llilands  are  separated  into  two  completely  disconnected 
and  in  some  respects  contrasted  i-cgions  by  the  remarkable  line 
of  the  Great  Glen,  which  runs  from  Loch  Linnho  to  Inverness.  In 
the  northern  portion  the  highest  ground  rises  along  the  west  coast, 
mounting  steeply  from  tho  sea  to  an  average  height  of  perhaps 
between  2000  and  3000  feet.  Tho  waterehed  conseijuently  keeps 
close  to  the  Atlantic  eeabnard,  indeed  in  some  places  it  is  not  more 
than  a  mile  and  a  half  distant  from  the  beach.  From  these  heights, 
which  c». ch  the  first  downpour  of  the  western  rains,  tho  ground 
falls  eastwards,  but  with  numerous  heights  that  prolong  the  moun- 
tainous character,  to  the  edge  of  the  North  Sea  and  tlio  lino  of  tlio 
Great  Glen.  The  best  conception  of  the  difference  in  the  general 
level  on  the  two  ."sides  of  tho  watershed  may  be  obtained  by  observ- 
ing the  contrast  between  the  lengths  of  their  streains.  On  the 
western  side  the  drainage  is  poured  into  tho  Atlantic  Ocean  after 
flowing  only  a  few  miles,  while  on  the  eastern  side  it  has  to  run  at 
least  30  or  40.  At  tlie  head  of  Loch  Nevis  the  western  stream  is 
only  3  miles  long  ;  that  which  starts  from  tho  eastern  side  has  a 
course  of  some  IS  to  the  Great  Glen.  Throughout  the  northern  or 
north-western  region  a  general  uniformity  of  feature  characterizes 
the  scenery,  betokening  even  at  a  distance  the  general  monotony 
in  the  structure  of  tlio  underlying  schists.  But  tho  sameness  is 
relieved  along  the  western  coast  of  Sutherland  and  Ros.i  by  singular 
groups  of  cones  and  stacks  (to  be  aftenvards  referred  to),  and  farther 
south  by  tho  terraced  plateaus  and  abrupt  conical  hills  of  Skye, 
Bum,  and  Mull.  Tho  valleys  run  for  the  most  part  in  a  north-v.-*st 
and  south-east  direction,  and  this  is  also  generally  true  of  the 
sea  lochs. 

The  south-eastern  region  of  the  Highlands,  being  more  diversi- 
fied in  geological  structure,  presents  greater  contrasts  of  scenery. 
lu  the  hrst  place,  its  valleys  chiefly  run  in  a  south-west  and  north- 
east direction  and  so  also  do  most  of  the  lakes  and  sea  lochs.  This 
feature  is  strikingly  exhibited  in  the  western  part  of  Argyllshire. 
But  there  are  also  numerous  and  important  transverse  valleys,  of 
which  that  of  the  Garry  and  Tay  is  the  most  conspicuous  example. 
Again,  the  watershed  in  this  region  is  arranged  somewhat  differ- 
ently. It  first  strikes  eastward  round  tho  head  of  Loch  Laggan 
and  then  swings  southward,  pursuing  a  sinuous  course  till  it 
emerges  from  the  Highlands  on  the  east  side  of  Loch  Lomond. 
But  the  streams  flowing  westward  are  still  short,  while  those  that 
run  north-east  and  east  have  long  courses  and  drain  wide  tracts  of 
high  ground.  The  Tay  in  particular  pours  a  larger  body  of  water 
into  the  sea  than  any  other  river  in  preat  Britain.  Moreover,  tho 
occurrence  of  many  bosses  of  granite  and  other  eruptive  rocks  gives 
rise  to  various  interniptions  in  the  monotonous  scenery  of  tho 
crystalline  schists  which  constitute  tho  greater  part  of  the  country. 
But  a  marked  contrast  may  bo  traced  between  the  configuration  of 
tho  northeastern  district  and  the  other  parts  of  this  region.  In 
that  area  tlio  Grampians  rise  into  wide  flat-topped  heights  or 
elevated  moors  often  over  8000  and  sometimes  exceeding  4000  feet 
in  height  and  bounded  by  steep  declivities  or  not  hifrcr|ucntly  by 

Jirecipicos.  Soon  from  an  eminence  on  their  surface,  these  plateaus 
ook  like  fragments  of  an  original  broad  tableland,  which  has  been 
trenched  into  segments  by  the  formation  of  tho  transverce  and 
longitudinal  valleys.  Farther  to  tho  south'- west  in  Perthshire, 
Inverness-shire,  and  Argyllshire,  they  give  place  to  tho  ordinary 
hummocky  crested  ridges  of  Highland  scenery,  somo  summits  on 
•which,  however,  exceed  4000  feet  in  elevation.  For  the  probable 
moaning  of  this  transition  from  broad  flat-topped  heights  to  narrow 
crests  and  isolated  peaks,  see  below  (pp.  525-526). 

Besides  the  principal  tracts  of  low  ground  in  tho  Highlands 
already  rcforroa  to,  there  occur  numerous  long  but  narrow  stripe 
of  flat  land  in  tho  more  important  valleys.  Kach  strath  and  glen 
is  usually  provided  with  a  floor  of  detritus  which,  spread  out  be- 
tween the  bases  of  tho  bounding  hitls,  has  been  levelled  into 
meadow-land  by  tho  rivers,  and  lurnishcs  as  a  rule  tho  only  arable 
ground  in  each  district. 

2.  Tho  southern  ujjlands  form  tho  most  southerly  of  tho  three 
transverse  belts  in  bcottish  topography.  E.itonding  from  St 
Patrick's  Channel  to  St  Abb's  Head,  they  constitute  a  wolldofined 
belt  of  hilly  ground,  but  present  a  striking  contrast  to  the  scenery 
of  tho  Highlands  The  rocks  which  underlie  them  consist  almost 
wholly  of  Silurian  grits,  gi-cywackes,  and  shales,  which  have  been 
greatly  plicated,  tho  general  axis  of  the  folds  running  larallel  with 
that  of  tho  whole  belt,  or  from  eouth-wcst  to  north-east.  These 
uplands,  though  much  less  elevated  than  tlia  Highlands  (their 
highest  point  is  not  more  than  2764  feet  above  the  sea),  rise  with 
scarcely  less  abruptness  above  the  lower  tracts  that  bound  them. 
Their  noith-westeru  margin  for  the  most  part  springs  boldly  above 


tho  fields  and  moorlands  of  tho  midland  valley,  and  its  boundary 
for  long  distances  continues  remarkably  straight.  Their  southern 
and  south  eastern  limits  are  in  general  less  prominently  defined, 
except  to  the  west  of  the  Nith,  where  they  plunge  into  tho  sea. 
Between  the  Solway  Firth  and  the  Cheviot  Hills  they  pass  under 
a  line  of  high  and  picturesqnt  escarpments  which  nins  from 
Birrcnswark  in  a  north-east  direction.  In  Berwickshire,  however, 
they  again  tower  boldly  above  tho  plain  of  the  Merse.  These  up- 
lands are  distinguished  above  all  by  tho  amoothness  of  their  sur- 
face. They  may  bo  regarded  an  a  rolling  tableland  or  moorland, 
traversed  by  innumerable  valleys  which  with  gentle  verdant 
declivities  conduct  tho  drainage  to  the  soa.  This  character  is 
impressively  seen  from  tho  heights  of  Twoedsmuir.  'Wide  mossy 
moors,  lying  2000  feet  or  more  above  the  sea  and  sometimes  level 
as  a  racecourse,  spread  out  on  all  sides.  Their  continuity,  how- 
ever, is  interrupted  by  numerous  intervening  valleys  which  separate 
them  into  detached  flat-topped  hills.  Unlike  tho'Highlands,  these 
southern  heights  comparatively  seldom  present  precipices  of  naked 
rock.  Where  the  rock  projects  it  more  usually  appears  in  low 
crags  and  knoUs,  from  which  long  tuails  of  grey  or  purple  debris 
descend  the  slopes  till  they  aro  lost  among  the  grass.  Hence, 
besides  being  smooth,  the  uplands  aro  pre-eminently  verdant^ 
They  form  indeed  excellent  pastnrc-land,  while  the  alluvial  flats 
in  the  valleys  and  even  some  of  the  lower  slopes  of  the  hills  are 
fitted  for  corn  and  green  crops. 

This  uniformity  of  external  aspect  is  doubtless  traceable  to  the  Their 
prevalence  of  the  same  kind  of  rocks  and  the  same  geological  struc-  geo- 
turo.  The  Silurian  greywackes  and  shales  that  underlie  almost  logical 
tho  whole  of  these  uplands  weather  generally  into  small  angular  stnictuw 
debris,  and  at  a  tolerably  uniform  rate  of  disintegration.  But 
slight  differences  may  readily  be  detected  even  where  no  feature 
interferes  in  a  marked  way  with  the  general  monotony.  The  bauds 
of  massive  grit  and  coarse  grcywacke,  for  example,  break  up  into 
larger  blocks  and  from  their  greater  hardness  aro  apt  to  project 
above  tho  general  surface  of  the  other  and  softer  rocks.  Hence 
their  line  of  trend,  which  like  that  of  all  the  other  strata  is  in  a 
north-easterly  direction,  may  be  followed  from  hill  to  hill  even  at 
a  distance  by  their  more  craggy  contours.  Only  in  the  higher 
tracts  of  these  uplands  ore  any  rugged  features  to  be  seen  that 
remind  one  of  tho  more  savage  character  of  Highland  scenery.  In 
tho  heights  of  Hartfell  (2651  feet)  and  Whitecoomb  (2695),  whence 
the  Clyde,  Tweed,  Annan,  and  Moffat  Water  descend,  the  high 
moorlands  have  been  scarped  into  gloomy  corrics,  with  crags  and 
talus-slopes,  which  form  a  series  of  landscapes  all  the  more  striking 
from  the  abrupt  and  unexpected  contrast  they  present  to  everj-thing 
around  them.  In  Galloway,  also,  the  highest  portions  of  the  up- 
lands have  acquired  a  ruggedness  and  wildness  more  like  those  of 
tho  Highlands  than  any  other  district  in  the  south  of  Scotland. 
For  this,  however,  there  is  an  obvious  geological  reason.  In  that 
region  the  Silurian  rocks  have  been  invaded  by  largo  bosses  of 
granite  and  have  undergone  a  variable  amount  of  metamorphism 
which  has  in  some  places  altered  them  into  hard  crystalline  schists. 
These  various  rocky  masses,  presenting  great  differences  in  their 
powers  of  resisting  decay,  havo -yielded  unequally  to  disintegration  : 
tho  harder  portions  project  in  rocky  knolls,  crags,  and  cliils,  while 
the  softer  parts  have  been  worn  down  into  more  flowing  outlines. 
The  highest  summit  in  the  south  of  Scotland — Merrick  (2764  feet) 
— consists  of  Silurian  strata  much  altered  by  proximity  to  the 
granite,  while  the  rest  of  tho  more  prominent  heights  (all  in 
Kirkcudbrightshire)  — Rinns  of  Kclls  (2668  feet),  Cnirnsmoro  of 
Carsjihairn  (2612),  and  Cairnsmore  of  Fleet  (2331)— are  formed  of 
granite. 

Tho  watershed  of  the  southern  uplands  is  of  much  interest  in  Water- 
relation  to  their  geological  history.  It  runs  from  the  mouth  of  slied  of 
Loch  Ryan  in  a  sinuous  north-easterly  direction,  keeping  near  the  souOieni 
northern  limit  of  the  region  till  it  roaches  tho  basin  of  tho  Nith,  uplands., 
whoro  it  quits  the  uplands  altogether,  descends  into  the  lowlands 
of  Ayrshire,  and,  after  circling  round  tho  headwaters  of  the  Nith, 
strikes  south-eastwards  across  half  tho  breadth  of  tho  uplands, 
then  sweeps  north  and  caetw.^rds  between  the  basins  of  the  Clyde, 
Tweed,  and  Annan,  and  then  through  tho  moors  that  surround 
the  sources  of  the  Ettrick,  Toviot,  and  Jed,  into  the  Cheviot  Hills. 
Hero  again  tho  longest  slope  is  on  tho  oast  side,  where  tho  Tweed 
bears  tho  whole  drain.igo  of  that  side  into  tho  sen.  Although  the 
rocks  throughout  tho  southern  uplands  havo  a  persistent  uortli-ea.st 
and  south-west  strike,  and  though  this  trend  is  api>nrent  in  the 
bands  of  more  rugged  hills  that  mark  tho  outcrop  of  hard  grits 
and  greywackes,  nevertheless  geological  structuio  lias  been  much 
less  effective  in  determining  the  ^ines  of  ridgo  and  valloy  than  in 
the  Highlands.  On  tho  soutlicrn  sido  of  tho  watershed,  in  Dumfries- 
siiiro  and  Galloway,  tho  valleys  run  generally  transversely  from 
north-west  to  southeast.  But  in  tho  eastern  half  of  tho  uplands 
tho  valleys  do  not  appear  to  havo  any  relation  to  tlio  geological 
structuro  of  tho  grouml  undonieath. 

3.  Between  tho  two  bolts  of  high  ground  lio  tho  broad  lowlands  Ccntnl 
of  central  Scotland,  or  tho  midland  valley,  bounded  on  the  north  lowlacdj. 
side  by  tho  range  of  heights  that  extends  from  tho  mouth  of  the 


©24 


SCOTLAND 


PHYSICAL 


Clyd?  to  Stonehaven,  on  the  south  side  by  the  pastoral  uplands 
that  stretch  from  Girvan  to  Dunbar;  The  simplest  conception  of 
the  general  aspect  and  structure  of  this  important  part  of  the  king- 
dom is  obtained  by  regarding  it  as  a  long  trough  of  younger  rocks 
let  down  by  parallel  dislocations  between  the  older  masses  of  the 
high  grounds  to  the  south  and  north.  The  lowest  of  these  younger 
rocks  are  the  various  sedimentary  and  volcanic  members  of  the  Old 
Red  Sandstone.  These  are  covered  by  the  successive  formations  of 
the  Carboniferous  system.  The  total  thickness  of  both  these  groups 
of  rock  cannot  be  less  than  30,000  feet,  and,  as  most  of  'hem  bear 
evidence  of  having  been  deposited  in  shallow  water,  it  is  manifest 
that  they  could  only  have  been  accumulated  during  a  prolonged 
period  of  depression.  The  question  arises  whether  this  depression 
affected  only  the  area  of  the  midland  valley  itself,  or  whether  it 
extended  also  over  the  regions  to  the  north  and  south.  Materials 
do  not  yet  exist  for  a  definite  answer  to  this  question ;  but  so  far 
as  the  evidence  now  before  us  goes  there  is  ground  for  the  infer- 
ence that,  while  the  depression  had  its  maximum  along  the  line 
of  the  lowlands,  it  also  involved  some  portion  at  least  of  the  high 
grounds  on  either  side.  In  other  words,  the  Old  Red  Sandstone 
and  Carboniferous  rocks,  though  chiefly  accumulated  in  the  broad 
lowland  valley,  crept  also  over  some  part  at  least  of  the  hills  on 
either  side,  where  a  few  outliers  are  left  to  tell  of  their  former  ex- 
tension. The  central  Lowlands  of  Scotland  are  thus  of  great  geo- 
logical antiquity.  During  and  since  the  deposition  of  the  rocks 
that  underlie  them  the  tract  has  been  the  fcene  of  repeated  ter- 
restrial disturbances.  Long  dislocations,  running  like  the  ridges 
of  the  Highlands  and  the  southern  uplands  from  south-west  to 
north-east,  have  sharply  defined  its  northern  and  southern  margins. 
By  other  fractures  and  unequal  movements  of  upheaval  or  depres- 
sion portions  of  the  older  rocks  have  been  brought  up  ;vithin  the 
bounds  of  the  younger,  and  areas  of  the  younger  have  been  enclosed 
by  the  older.  On  the  whole,  these  terrestrial  distui'bances  have 
followed  the  same  prevalent  north-easterly  trend,  and  hence  a 
general  tendency  may  be  observed  among  the  main'  ridges  and 
valleys  to  run  in  that  du-ection.  The  chains  of  the  Ochil,  Sidlaw, 
Pentland,  Renfrew,  Canipsie,  and  Fintry  Hills,  and  the  valleys  of 
Strathmore,  Firth  of  Tay,  and  the  basin  of  llidlothian,  may  be 
cited  as  examples.  But,  undoubtedly,  the  dominaLt  cause  in  the 
determination  of  the  topographical  prominences  and  depressions  of 
the  district  has  beeu  the  relative  hardness  and  softness  of  the  rocks. 
Almost  the  whole  of  the  eminences  in  the  Lowlands  consist  of  hard 
igneous  rocks,  forming  not  only  chains  of  hills  like  those  just 
referred  to  and  others  in  Ayrshire  and  Lanarkshire,  but  isolated 
crags  and  hills  like  those  of  Stirling  Castle,  Edinburgh  Castle,  and 
others  conspicuous  in  the  sceneiy  of  Fife  and  the  Lothianf. 

Of  the  three  chief  valleys  in  the  central  Lowlands  two,  those  of 
the  Tay  and  the  Forth,  descend  from  the  Highlands,  and  one,  that 
of  tho  Clyde,  from 'the  southern  uplands.  Though  on  the  whole 
transverse,  these  depressions  furnish  another  notable  example  of  that 
independence  of  geological  structure  already  mentioneih 

We  now  proceed  to  consider  the  leading  physical  features  of  the 
country  with  especial  reference  to  theii'  distinctive  aspects  and  their 
respective  modes  of  origin  Though  an  eminently  hilly  country, 
Scotland  is  not  dominated  by  any  leading  mountain  chain  on 
which  all  the  other  topographical  features  are  dependent.  Its 
leading  features  are  not  the  monotonous  ridges  of  the  high  grounds 
but  the  valleys  that  have  been  opened  through,  them.  If  these 
valleys  were  filled  up,  the  high  grounds  would  once  more  become 
what  they  probably  were  at  first,  elevated  plains  or  plateaus,  with 
no  strongly  marked  features, — no  eminences  rising  much  above  nor 
hollows  sinkiiig  much  below  the  general  surface. 

Valleys. — Even  apart  from  any  knowledge  of  their  origin,  the 
valleys  of  the  country  are  thus  seen  to  be  its  fundamental  topo- 
graphical element,  and  to  deserve  the  first  consideration  in  any 
attempt  to  describe  and  explain  its  physical  features.  The  longi- 
tudinal vaUeys,  which  run  in  the  same  general  direction  as  the 
ridges — that  is,  north-east  and  south-west — have  had  their  trend 
defined  by  geological  strncture,  such  as  a  line  of  dislocation  (the 
Great  Glen),  or  the  plications  of  the  rocks  (Lochs  Ericht,  Tay,  and 
Awe,  and  most  of  the  sea  lochs  of  Argyllshire).  Tho  transverse 
valleys  run  north-west  or  south-east  and  are  for  the  most  part  in- 
dependent of  geological  structure.  The  valley  of  the  Garry  and 
Tay  crosses  the  strike  of  all  the  Highland  rocks,  traverses  the  great 
fault  on  the  Highland  border,  and  finally  breaks  through  the  chain 
of  the  Ochil  Hills  at  Perth.  The  valley  of  the  Clyde  crosses  the 
strike  of  the  Silurian  plications  in  the  southern  uplands,  the 
boundary  fault,  and  tho  ridges  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone,  and 
pursues  its  north-westerly  course  across  the  abundant  and  often 
.  powerful  dislocations  of  the  Carboniferous  system. 
©ngin  of  That  valleys  are  essentially  due  to  erosion  and  not  to  dislocation 
Scottish  or  subsidence  of  the  earth's  surface  is  a  fact  which  has  now  been 
Ttlieys,  demonstrated  by  so  overwhelming  a  mass  of  evidence  from  all  parts 
of  the  globe  that  it  may  be  accepted  as  one  of  the  axioms  of  geology. 
The  plications  of  the  earth's  crust  which  folded  the  rocks  of  the 
Highlands  and  southern  uplands  not  improbably  upraised  above  the 
.-ea  a  series  of  longitudinal  ridges  having  a  general  north-easterly  I 


direction.  The  earliest  rain  that  fell  upon  these  ridges  would  run 
08'  them,  first  in  transverse  watercourses  down  each  snort  slope  and 
then  in  longitudinal  depressions  wherever  such  had  been  formed 
during  the  terrestrial  disturbance.  Once  chosen,  the  pathways  of 
the  streams  would  be  gradually  deepened  and  widened  into  valleys. 
Hence  the  valleys  are  of  higher  antiquity  than  the  mountains  that 
rise  from  them.  The  mountains  in  fact  have  emerged  out  of  the 
original  bulk  of  the  land  in  proportion  as  the  valleys  have  been 
excavated.  The  denudation  would  continue  so  long  as  the  ground 
stood  above  the  level  of  the  sea  ;  but  there  have  been  prolonged 
periods  of  depression,  when  the  ground,  instead  of  being  eroded,  lay 
below  the  sea-level  and  was  buried  sometimes  under  thousands  of 
feet  of  accumulated  sediment,  which  completely  filled  up  and 
obliterated  the  previous  drainage-lines.  AVhen  the  land  reappeared 
a  new  and  independent  series  of  valleys  would  at  once  begin  to  ba 
eroded ;  and  tho  subsequent  degradation  of  these  overlying  sedi- 
ments might  reveal  portions  of  the  older  topography,  as  in  the  casa 
of  the  Great  Glen,  Lauderdale,  and  other  ancient  valleys.  But  tho 
new  drainage-lines  have  usually  little  or  no  refereuce  to  the  old 
ones.  Determined  by  the  inequalities  of  surface  of  the  overlying 
mantle  of  sedimentary  material,  they  would  be  wholly  independent 
of  the  geological  structure  of  the  rocks  lying  below  that  mantle. 
Slowly  sinking  deeper  and  deeper  into  the  land,  they  might  event- 
ually reach  the  older  rocks,  but  they  would  keep  in  these  the  lines 
of  valley  that  they  had  followed  in  the  overlying  deposits.  Iii 
process  of  time  the  whole  of  these  deposits  might  be  denuded  from, 
the  area.  The  valleys  would  then  be  seen  running  in  utter  dis- 
regard of  the  geological  structure  of  the  rocks  around  them,  and 
there  might  even  remain  no  trace  of  the  younger  formations  on 
which  they  began  and  which  guided  their  excavation.  This  is 
probably  the  explanation  of  the  sti'iking  independence  of  geological 
structure  exhibited  by  the  Tweed  and  the  Nith. 

Among  the  valleys  of  Scotland  certain  prevailing  characteristics Geoeral 
have  been  recognized  in  the  popular  names  bestowtd  upon  them,  charac- 
"SLraths"  are  broad  (expanses  of  low  ground  between  bounding  "^'"'* 
hills  usually  traversed  by  one  main  stream  and  its  tributaries, — 
Strath  Tay,  Strath  Spey,  Strath  Conon.  The  name,  however,  has 
also  been  applied  to  wide  tracts  of  lowland  which  embrace  portions 
of  several  valleys,  but  are  defined  by  lines  of  heights  oneithei'  side ; 
the  best  example  is  afforded  by  Strathmore — the  "  great  strath  " — 
between  tlie  southern  margin  of  the  Highlands  and  the  line  of  the 
Ochil  and  Sidlaw  Hills.  This  long  and  wide  depression,  though  it 
looks  like  one  great  valley,  strictly  speaking,  includes  portions  of 
the  valleys  of  the  Tay,  Isla,  Korth  Esk,  and  South  Esk,  all  of 
which  cross  it.  Elsewhere  in  central  Scotland  such  a  wide  depres- 
sion is  known  as  a  "howe,"  as  in  the  Howe  of  Fife  between  the 
Ochil  and  Lomond  Hills.  A  "  glen  "  is  usually  a  narrower  and 
steeper-sided  valley  than  a  strath,  though  the  names  have  not 
always  been  applied  with  discrimination.  Most  of  the  Highland 
valleys  are  true  glens.  The  liills  rise  rapidly  on  either  side,  some- 
times in  grassy  slopes,  sometimes  in  rocky  bosses  and  precipitous 
clifi's)  while  the  bottom  is  occupied  by  a  flat  platform  of  alluvium 
through  which  a  stream  meanders.  Frequently  the  bottom  of  some 
part  of  the  valley  is  occupied  by  a  lake.  In  the  south  of  Scotland 
the  larger  streams  flow  in  wide  open  valleys  called  "dales,"  as  ia 
Clydesdale,  Tweeddale,  Teviotdale,  Liddisdale,  Eskdale,  Nithsdale. 
Tho  strips  of  alluvial  land  bordering  a  river  are  known  as  "haughs," 
and  where  in  estuaries  they  expand  into  wide  plains  they  are  termed 
"carses."  The  carses  of  the  Forth  extend  seawards  as  far  as  Bor- 
rowstounness  and  consist  chiefly  of  raised  beaches.  The  Carse  of 
Gonrie  is  the  strip  of  low  ground  intervening  between  th*  Firth  of 
Tay  and  the  line  of  hills  that  stretches  from  Perth  to  Dundee. 

River-gorges  are  characteristic  features  in  many  of  the  valleys  of 
Scotland.  In  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  they  are  particularly  promi- 
nent where  that  formation  has  lain  in  the  pathway  of  the  streams 
sweeping  down  from  the  Highlands.  In  the  basin  of  the  Moray 
Firth  some  fine  examples  may  be  seen  on  the  Nairn  and  Findhom, 
while  on  the  west  side  of  the  Cromarty  Fii'th  some  of  the  smalt 
streams  descending  from  the  high  grounds  of  the  east  of  Ross-shiro 
have  cut  out  defiles  in  the  conglomerate,  remarkable  for  their  deptli 
and  narrowness.  On  the  south  side  of  the  Highlands  still  more 
notable  instances  of  true  "caiions"  in  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  are 
to  be  seen  where  the  Ericht,  Isla,  and  North  Esk  enter  that  fonna- 
tion.  The  well-known  gorge  in  which  the  Falls  of  Clyde  are 
situated  is  the  best  example  in  the  midland  valley.' 

Types  of  Mountain  and  Sill. — AVhile  the  topography  of  the 
country  is  essentially  the  result  of  prolonged  denudation,  we  may 
reasonably  infer  that  the-oldest  surfaces  likely  to  be  in  any  measure 
preserved  or  indicated  are  portions  of  some  of  the  platforms  of 
erosion  which  have  successively  been  produced  by  the  wearing  away 
of  the  land  do\vn  to  the  sea-leveL  Relics  of  these  platforms  seem 
to  be  recognizable  both  in  the  Highlands  and  among  the  southern 
uplands.  Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  remarkable  flat- 
topped  moorlands  which  in  the  eastern  Grampians  reach  heights 


1  For  the  principal  rivers,  the  Tay,  Spey,  Forth,  ClyJe,  and  TwceJ,  see  th« 
separate  articles,  and  for  the  Dee  (Aberdeen,  Kirkcud bright),  ic,  see  article* 
on  the  respective  counties. 


VEATUEES.] 


SCOTLAND 


525 


of  3000  to  4000  foet  above  the  sea.  Their  most  familiav  example 
perhaps  is  tlie  toji  of  Lochiiagar,  wheie  wlien  the  level  of  3500  feet 
lias  been  gaiiicil  the  traveller  fiiiJs  himself  on  a  broad  undulating 
moor,  more  than  a  mile  and  a  half  long,  sloping  gently  southwards 
towards  Glen  JIuick  and  terminating  on  the  north  at  the  edge  of  a 
range  of  ijrinito  precipices.  The  top  of  Ben  JIacdui  stands  upon 
nearly  a  square  mile  of  moor  exceeding  4000  feet  in  elevation. 
Theso  mountains  lie  within  granite  areas ;  but  not  less  striking 
«xanipU-i  may  bo  found  among  the  schists.  Tiie  mountains  at  the 
head  of  Glen  Esk  and  Glen  Isla,  for  instance,  sweep  upward  into  a 
broad  moor  some  3000  feet  abcve  the  sea,  the  more  prominent  parts 
of  which  have  received  special  names, — Driesh,  Jlayar,  Tom  Buidhe, 
Tolmount,  Cairn  ua  Glasha.  It  would  hardly  be  au  exagg6ration 
to  say  that  there  is  more  level  gi'ound  on  the  tops  of  these  moun- 
tains than  in  areas  of  corresponding  size  in  the  valleys  below. 
That  these  high  plateaus  are  planes  of  cro!;ion  is  shown  by  their 
independence  of  geological  stiiicture,  tho  upt\mied  edges  of  the 
Terliciil  and  contorted  schists  having  been  abiuptly  shorn  off  and 
the  granite  having  been  wasted  and  levelled  along  its  exposed  sur- 
face. Tliey  look  like  fragments  of  the  original  tableland  of  erosion 
out  of  whirh  the  present  valley-systems  of  the  Highlands  have 
been  carvecL  Among  the  southern  uplands  traces  of  a  similar 
tableland  of  erosion  are  in  many  places  to  be  detected.  The  top 
of  Broad  Law  in  Peeblesshire,  for  example,  is  a  level  moor  com- 

Jn-ising  between  300  and  400  acres  above  the  contour  line  of  2,';00 
set  and  lying  upon  tlie  uptui-ned  edges  of  the  greatly  denuded 
Silurian  grits  and  shales.  An  instructive  example  of  the  simil.ir 
<lcstruction  of  a  much  younger  platform  is  to  be  found  in  the  ter- 
raced plateaus  of  Skye,  Eigg,  Canna,  Muck,  Jlull,  and  Morven, 
which  are  portions  of  ^vhat  was  probably  originally  a  continuous 
plain  of  basalt.  Though  dating  back  only  to  older  Tertiary  time, 
this  plain  has  been  so  decjily  trenched  by  the  forces  of  denudation 
that  it  has  been  reduced  to  mere  scattered  fragments.  Thousands 
of  feet  of  basalt  have  been  worn  away  from  many  parts  of  its  sur- 
face ;  deep  and  wide  valleys  have  been  carved  out  of  it;  and  so 
onorraously  has  it  been  wasted  that  it  has  been  almost  entirely 
stripped  from  wide  tracts  which  it  formerly  covered  and  where  only 
scattered  outliers  remain  to  prove  that  it  once  existed. 

It  is  a  curious  fact,  to  which  allusion  has  already  been  made, 
th.at  broad  flat-topped  mountains  are  chiefly  to  be  found  in  the 
eastern  parts  of  the  country.  Traced  westwards  these  forms  gradu- 
ally give  place  to  narrow  ridges  and  crests.  No  contrast,  for  in- 
stance, can  be  greater  than  that  between  the  wide  elevated  moors 
of  the  eastern  Grampians,  and  the  crested  ridges  of  western  Inver- 
ness-shire and  Argyllshire — Loch  Honrn,  Glen  Nevis,  Glencoe — 
or  that  between  the  broad  uplands  of  Peeblesshire  and  the  preci- 
pitous heights  of  Galloway.  No  satisfactory  reason  for  these  con- 
trasts can  be  found  in  geological  structure  alone.  Perhaps  the  key 
to  them  is  to  be  sought  mainly  in  differences  of  rainfall.  The 
■western  mountains,  exposed  to  the  fierce  dash  of  the  Atlantic  rains, 
sustain  the  heaviest  and  most  constant  precipitation.  Their  sides 
are  scamcil  w  ith  torrents  which  tear  down  the  solid  rock  and  sweep 
its  detritus  into  the  glens  and  sea  lochs.  The  eastern  heights,  on 
the  other  hand,  experience  a  less  rainfall  and  consequently  a  dimi- 
nished rate  of  erosion.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  present 
Sreponderance  of  rainfall  in  the  west  lias  persisted  for  an  enormous 
uration  of  time. 

Regaiding  tho  existing  flat-topped  heights  among  the  eastern 
Grampians  as  representing  what  may  have  been  the  general  char- 
acter of  the  surface  out  of  which  the  present  Highlands  have  been 
carved,  wo  can  trace  cveiy  step  in  the  gradual  obliteration  of  tho 
tablelanil  and  in  the  formation  of  tho  most  rugged  and  individual- 
ized forms  of  isolated  mountain.  In  fact,  in  journeying  westwards 
aci-oss  the  tops  of  the  Highland  mountains  wo  pass,  as  it  were,  over 
successive  stages  in  the  history  of  tlic  origin  of  Highland  scenery. 
Tho  oldest  tyjies  of  form  lie  on  the  east  side  and  the  newest  on  the 
west.  From  tho  larger  fragments  of  the  denuded  tableland  we 
advance  to  ridges  with  narrow  tops,  which  pass  by  degrees  into 
shaiT)  rugged  crests.  The  ridges,  too,  are  more  and  more  trenched 
until  they  become  groups  of  detached  hills  or  nmuntnins.  In  tho 
progress  of  this  erosion  full  scope  has  been  aflbrded  for  the  modifica- 
tion of  form  jiroduceil  by  variations  in  geological  structure.  Each 
ridge  and  mountain  has  been  cut  into  its  shape  by  denudation, 
but  its  actual  outlines  have  been  determined  by  the  nature  of  tho 
rocks  and  the  manner  in  which  they  have  yielded  to  decay.  Every 
distinct  variety  of  rock  h.as  impressed  its  own  characlers  upon  the 
landscapes  in  which  it  plays  n  part.  Hence,  amid  tho  monotonous 
succession  of  ridge  beyonil  ridge  and  valley  alter  valley,  consider- 
able diversity  of  iletail  has  resulted  from  the  varying  composition 
and  grouping  of  the  rocks. 

The  process  by  which  the  ancient  tablelands  of  tho  country  have 
been  trenched  into  tho  present  system  of  valleys  and  confluent 
ridges  is  most  instructively  displayed  among  the  higher  mountains, 
Tvlierc  erosion  proceevls  nt  an  acceleratctl  pace.  The  long  "screes" 
or  talus-slopes  at  the  foot  of  every  crag  and  elin"bear  witness  to  tho 
continual  w.Tsto  of  tho  mountain  sides.  The  headwaters  of  a  river 
cut  into  tho  slopes  of  tho  parent  hill.     Each  valley  is  conacqiieutly 


lengthened  at  the  expense  of  the  mountaiu  frovn  which  it  descends. 
Where  a  number  of  small  torrents  converge  in  a  steep  mountain 
recess,  they  cut  out  a  crescent -shaped  hollow  or  half- cauldron, 
which  in  the  Scottish  Highlands  is  known  as  a  "cony."  Whether  Corri* 
the  convergent  action  of  the  streams  has  been  the  solo  agency  con-  and 
cerned  in  the  erosion  of  these  striking  concavities,  or  whether  snow  B'ea*- 
and  glacier-ico  may  have  had  a  share  in  the  task,  is  a  question  that 
cannot  at  present  be  satisfactorily  solved.  No  feature  in  Highland 
scenery  is  more  characteristic  than  the  corries,  and  in  none  can  the 
influence  of  geological  structure  be  more  instructively  seen.  Usu- 
ally the  upper  part  of  a  cony  is  formed  by  a  crescent  of  naked  rock, 
from  which  long  trails  of  debris  descend  to  the  bottom  of  the  hollow. 
Every  distinct  variety  of  rock  has  its  own  type  of  cony,  the  pecu- 
liarities being  marked  both  in  the  details  of  the  upper  cliffs  and 
crags  and  in  the  amount,  form,  and  colour  of  the  screes.  The 
Scottish  corries  have  been  occupied  by  glaciers.  Hence  their 
bottoms  are  generally  well  ice-worn  or  strewn  over  with  moraine 
stufl'.  Not  infrequently  also  a  small  tarn  fills  up  the  bottom, 
ponded  back  by  a  moraine.  It  is  in  theso  localities  that  we  can 
best  observe  the  last  relics  left  by  the  retreat  of  the  glaeiere  that 
once  overspread  the  country.  Among  these  high  grounds  also  tho 
gradual  narrowing  of  ridges  into  sharp,  narrow,  knife-edged  crests 
and  the  lowering  of  these  into  cols  or  passes  can  be  admirably 
studied.  Where  two  glens  begin  opposite  to  each  other  on  the 
same  ridge,  their  corries  are  gradually  cut  back  until  only  a  sharp 
crest  separates  them.  This  crest,  attacked  on  each  front  and  along 
the  summit,  is  lowered  with  comparative  rapidity,  until  in  the  end 
merely  a  low  col  or  pass  may  separate  the  heads  of  the  two  glens. 
The  various  stages  in  this  kind  of  demolition  are  best  seen  wlierc 
the  underlying  rock  is  of  gi'anite  or  some  similar  material  which 
jiossesses  considerable  toughness,  while  at  the  same  time  it  is 
apt  to  be  split  and  splintered  by  means  of  its  numerous  trans- 
verse joints.  The  granite  mountains  of  Anan  furnish  excllent 
illustrations. 

Where  a  rock  yields  with  considerable  uniformity  in  all  directions  Forma-^ 
to  the  attacks  of  the  weather  it  is  apt  to  assume  conical  forms  in  tion 
the  progress  of  denudation.     Sometimes  this  uniformity  is  attained  of  mom^ 
by  a  general  disintegration  of  the  rock  into  fine  debris,  which  rolls  tain 
down  the  slopes  in  long  screes.     In  other  cases  it  is  secured  by  the  coaea. 
intersection  of  joints,  whereby  a  rock,  in  itself  hard  and  durable, 
is  divided  into  small  angiilar  blocks,  which  are  separated  by  the 
action  of  the  elements  and  slide  down  the  declivities.     In  many 
instances  the  beginning  of  the  formation  of  a  cone  may  be  detected 
on  ridges  which  have  been  deeply  trenched  by  valleys.     The  smaller 
isolated  portions,  attacked  on  all  sides,  have  broken  up  under  the 
influence  of  the  weather.     Layer  <ifter  layer  has  been  stripped  from 
their  sides,  and  the  flat  or  rounded  top  has  been  naiTowed  until  it  has 
now  become  the  apex  of  a  cone.     The  mountain  Schiehallien  (3647 
feet)  is  a  noble  instance  of  a  cone  not  yet  freed  from  its  parent  ridge. 
Occasionally  a  ridge  has  been  carved  into  a  series  of  cones  united  at 
their  bases,  as  in  the  chain  of  the  Pentland  Hills.     A  further  stage 
in  denudation  brings  us  to  isolated  groups  of  cones  completely 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  rocks  among  which  they  once  lay 
buried.     Such  gioups  may  be  carved  out  of  a  continuous  band  of 
rock  which  extends  into  the  regions  beyond.     The  Paps  of  Jura, 
for  instance,  rise  out  of  a  long  belt  of  quartzite  which  stretches 
through  the  islands  of  Isla,  Jura,   and  Scarba.      In  many  cases, 
however,  the  groups  point  to  tho  existence  of  some  boss  of  rock  of 
greater  durability  than  those  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood,  as 
in  the  Cuchullins  and  Red  Hills  of  Skye  and  the  giou^iof  granite 
cones  of  Ben  Loyal,  Sutherland.     Tho  most  impressive  lorm  of  soli- 
tary cone  is  that  wherein  after  vast  denudation  a  thick  overlying 
formation  has  been  reduced  to  a  single  outlier,  such  as  Jlorven  in 
Caithness  and  the  two  Ben  Griams  in  Sutherland,  and  still  luoro 
strikingly  the  pyramids  of  red  sandstone  on  the  western  margin  of 
Sutherland  and  Ross-shire.     The  horizontal  stratification  of  some 
of  these  masses  gives  them  a  curio«isly  architectural  asjicct,  w  hioli 
is  further  increased  by  tho  eflcct  of  tho  numerous  vertical  joint/ 
by  which  the  rock  is  cleft  into  buttresses  and  recesses  along  tli 
fronts  of  the  precipices  and  into  pinnacles  and  finials  along  tlr 
summits.     Solitary  or  grouped  pyramids  of  rod  sandstone,  risiuj 
to  heights  of  between  3000  and  4000  feet  above  the  sea,  are  men 
rtuinants  of  a  once  continuous  sheet  of  red  sandstone  that  spread 
far  and  wide  over  the  western  Highlands. 

Stratified  rocks  when  they  have  not  been  much  disturbed  from 
their  original  npproxinijto  horizontality  weather  into  what  arc 
called  "escarpments," — lines  of  clilf  or  steep  biuik  marking  tho 
edge  or  outcrop  of  harder  bands  which  lie  upon  softer  or  more 
easily  eroded  I.aycrs.  Such  clilfs  ma^  run  for  many  miles  across  a 
country,  rising  one  above  another  into  lofty  terraced  hills.  lu 
Scotland  tho  rocks  have  for  tho  most  part  been  so  dislocated  and 
di.sturbe4  as  to  prevent  tho  foimation  of  continuous  escarpments, 
and  this  interesting  form  of  rockscenory  is  cou.sequently  almost 
entirely  absent,  except  locally  and  for  the  most  part  on  a  compaia- 
tively  small  scale.  Tho  most  extensive  Scottish  escarpments  are 
found  among  the  igneous  rocks.  M'here  lava  has  been  piled  up  in 
successive  aearly  horizontal  sheets,  with  occasional  layers  of  tutC 


526 


!S  ("  O  T  L  A  K   D 


[physical 


or  other  softer  rock  between  tliem,  it  offers  coiuUtions  peculiarly 
favourable  for  the  formation  of  escarpments.  In  the  \*iJe  basalt 
plateaus  of  the  Inner  Hebrides  these  couJitions  have  been  mani- 
fested on  a  "reat  scale.  The  Carboniferous  lavas  of  the  Canipsie 
and  Fiutiy  Hills  and  of  the  south  of  Dumfriesshire  and  Roxbargh- 
shire  likewise  rise  in  lines  of  bold  escarpment. 

Lalces. — These  important  features  in  the  landscapes  of  Scotland 
present  the  general  characters  of  the  water-basins  so  profusely 
scattered  over  the  nortliemi  parts  of  Europe  and  North  America. 
They  may  be  classified  in  four  groups,  each  of  which  has  its  own 
I>eculiar  scenery  and  a  distinct  mode  of  origin — (1)  glen  lakes,  (2) 
rock-tarns,  (3)  moraine-tarns,  (4)  lakes  of  the  plains. 

(1)  Glen  lakes  are  those  which  occupy  portions  of  glens.  They 
are  depressions  in  the  valleys,  not  clue  to  mere  local  heaping  up  of 
detritus,  but  true  rock-basins,  often  of  great  depth.  Much  discus- 
sion lias  arisen  as  to  their  mode  of  origin.  They  have  boon  re- 
garded as  caused  by  special  subsidence  of  their  areas,  open  fissures' 
of  tlie  ground,  general  depression  of  the  central  part  of  each 
mountain  district  from  which  they  radiate,  and  by  the  erosive 
iction  of  glacier  ice.  That  they  are  not  open  fissures  and  cannot 
be  explained  by  any  general  subsidence  of  a  neighbouring  region  is 
now  generally  admitted.  That  glaciers  have  occupied  the  glens 
where  these  lakes  exist  and  have  worn  downi  the  rocks  along  the 
sides  and  bottom  cannot  be  doubted,  but  whether  the  ice  would  be 
capable  of  eroding  hollows  so  deep  as  many  of  these  lakes  is  a 
question  which  has  been  answered  with  equal  confidence  affirma- 
tively and  negatively.  On  the  otiier  hand,  to  suppose  that  each 
of  these  hollows  has  been  caused  by  a  special  local  subsidence  would 
involve  a  complex  series  of  subterranean  disturbances,  for  which 
some  better  evidence  than  the  mere  existence  of  the  basins  is  re- 
quired. Under  any  circumstances  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  lakes 
must  be  of  recent  geological  date.  Any  such  basins  belonging  to 
the  time  of  the  plication  of  the  cr3'staUine  schists  would  have  been 
filled  up  and  effaced  long  ago.  So  rapid  is  the  infilling  by  the 
torrents  which  sweep  down  detritus  from  the  surrounding  heights 
that  the  present  lakes  are  being  visibly-  diminished,  and  they 
cannot,  therefore,  be  of  high  geological  antiquity.  It  is  worthy 
of  remark  that  the  glen  lakes  are  almost  wholly  confined  to  the 
western  half  of  the  Highlands,  where  they  form  the  largest  sheets 
of  fresh  water.  Hardly  any  lakes  are  to  be  seen  east  of  a  line 
drawn  from  Inverness  to  Perth.  West  of  that  line,  however,  they 
abound  in  both  the  longitudinal  and  the  transverse  valleys.  The 
most  remarkable  line  of  them  is  that  W'hich  fills  up  so  much  of  the 
Great  Glen.  Loch  Ness,  the  largest,  is  upwards  of  20  miles  long, 
p.bout  IJ  miles  broad,  and  not  less  than  774  feet  deep  in  the 
deepest  part.  Tins  geeat  depression  exceeds  the  general  depth 
reached  by  the  floor  of  the  North  Sea  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  opposite  shores  of  the  Continent.  Other  important  longitudinal 
lakes  are  Lochs  Tay,  Awe,  Ericht,  and  Shiel.  The  most  pictur- 
esque glen  lakes,  however,  lie  in  transverse  valleys,  which  bein" 
cut  across  the  strike  of  the  rocks  present  greater  variety,  and 
usually  also  more  abruptness  of  outline.  Lochs  Lomond,  Kati'ine, 
and  Lubnaig  in  the  southern  Highlands,  and  Lochs  Maree  and 
More  in  the  north,  are  conspicuous  examples. 
Rock-  (2)  Rock- tarns  are  small  lakes  lying  in  rock-basins  on  the  sides 

tarns.       of  mountains  or  the  summits  of  ridges,  and  on  rocky  plateaus  or 
plains.     Unlike  the  glen  lakes,  they  have  no  necessary  dependence 
upon  lines  of  valley.     On  the  contrary,  they  are  scattered  as  it 
were  broadcast  over  the  districts  In  which  they  occur,  and  are  by 
far  the  most  abundant  of  all  the  lakes  of  the  country.     Dispersed 
over  all  pai-ts  of  the  western  Highlands,  they  are  most  numerous 
in  the  north-west,  especially  in  the  Outer  Hebrides  and  in  the  west 
.fcf  Ross-shiro  and  Sutherland.     The  surface  of  the  Archrean  gneiss 
as  so  thickly  sprinkled  with  them  that  many  ti'acts  consist  almost 
as  much  of  water  as  of  land.    They  almost  invariably  lie  on  strongly 
ice-worn  platforms  of  rock.     Their  sides  and  the  rocky  islets  which 
Idiversify  their  surface  have  been  powerfully  glaciated.    They  cannot 
be  due  to  either  fracture  or  subsidence,  but  are  obviously  hollows  pro- 
duced by  erosion.  They  have  accordingly  with  much  probability  been 
assigned  to  the  gouging  action  of  the  sheets  of  land-ice  by  which 
the  general  glaciation  of  the  country  was  efi'ected.    In  the  southern 
uplands,  owing  probably  to  the  gi'eater  softness  and  uniformity  of 
texture  among  the  rocks,  rock-tarns  are  comparatively  infrequent, 
except  in  Galloway,  where  the  protrusion  of  gi'anite  and  its  associated 
metamorpliisra  have  given  rise  to  conditions  of  rock -structure  more 
like  those  of  the  Highlands.     Over  the  rocky  hill-ranges  of  the 
central  Lowlands  rock-tarns  occasionally  make  their  appearance. 
.  (3)  Jloraine-tarns — small  sheets  of  water  ponded  back  by  some 
of  the  last  morainss  shed  by  the  retreating  glaciei's — are  confined 
to  the  more  mountainous  tracts.     Among  the  southern  uplands 
many  beautiful  e.\amples  may  be  seen,  probably  the  b6st  known 
and  certainly  one  of  the  most  picturesque  being  the  wild  lonely 
Loch  Skene  Jj'ing  in  a  recess  of  Whitecoomb  at  the  head  of  the 
lloffat  Water.     Others  are  sprinkled  over  the  higher  parts  of  the 
valleys  in  Galloway.    None  occur  in  the  central  Lowlands.     In  the 
Higldands  they  may  be  counted   by  hundreds,   nestling  in  the 
Vottoms  of  the  corries.     In  the  north-western  counties,  wTiere  the 


glaciers  continued  longest  to  descend  to  the  sca-lcvcl,  lakes  retained 
by  nior.iine-barriers  mny  be  found  very  little  above  the  sea. 

(4)  The  lakes  of  tlie  plains  lie  in  hollows  of  the  glacial  detritus 
which  is  strewn  so  thickly  over  the  lower  grounds.  As  these 
hollows  were  caused  by  original  iiregular  deposition  rather  than 
by  erosion,  they  have  no  intimate  relation  to  the  present  drainage- 
lines  of  the  country.  The  lakes  vaiy  in  size  from  mere  pools  up  to 
wide  sheets  of  water  several  square  miles  in  area.  As  a  rule  they 
are  shallow  in  proportion  to  their  extent  of  surface.  Though  stiU 
sufiiciently  numerous  in  the  Lowlands,  they  were  once  gi'eatly 
more  so,  for,  partly  from  natural  causes  and  partly  by  artificial 
means,  they  have  been  made  to  disappear.  The  largest  sheets  of 
ficsh  water  in  the  midland  valley  are  of  this  class,  as  Loch  Leveu 
and  the  Lake  of  Jlenteith. 

Coasl-Linc. — The  eastern- and  western  seaboards  of  Scotland 
present  a  singular  contrast^  The  former  is  indented  by  a  series  of 
broad  arms  of  the  sea,  but  is  otherwise  tolerably  unbroken.  The 
land  slopes  gently  down  to  the  margin  df  the  sea  or  to  the  edge  ot 
cliffs  that  have  been  cut  back  by  the  waves.  The  shores  are  for 
the  most  part  low,  with  few  islands  in  front  of  them,  and  cultivation 
comes  down  to  the  tide-line.  The  western  side  of  the  country,  on 
the  contrary,  is  from  end  to  end  intersected  with  long  narrow  sea 
lochs  or  fjords.  The  land  shelves  down  rapidly  into  the  sea  and  is 
fronted  by  chains  and  groups  of  islands.  This  contrast  has  some- 
times been  erroneously  referred  to  greater  erosion  by  the  waves  on 
the  western  than  on  the  eastern  coast.  The  true  explanation, 
however,  must  be  sought  in  the  geological  stnicture  of  the  land. 
.The  west  side  of  Scotland,  as  we  have  seen,  has  been  more  deeply 
eroded  than  the  eastern.  The  glens  are  more  numerous  there  and 
on  the  whole  deeper  and  narrower.  -Many  of  them  are  prolonged 
under  the  sea  ;  in  other  words,  the  narrow  deep  fjords  which  wind 
so  far  into  the  land  are  seaward  continuations  of  the  glens  which 
emerge  from  their  upper  ends.  The  presence  of  the  sea  in  these 
fjords  is  an  accident-  If  they  could  be  raised  out  of  the  sea  they 
would  become  glen.n,  with  lakes  filling  up  their  deeper  portions. 
That  this  has  really  been  their  history  can  hardly  admit  of 
question.  They  are  submerged  land-valleys,  and  as  they  iMn  down 
the  whole  western  coast  they  show  that  side  of  the  country  to  have 
subsided  to  a  considerable  depth  beneath  its  former  level.  The 
Scottish  sea  lochs  must  bo  viewed  in  connexion  with  those  of 
western  Ireland  and  of  Norway.  The  whole  of  this  north-western 
coast-line  of  Europe  bears  witness  to  recent  submergence.  The  bed 
of  the  North  Sea,  which  at  no  distant  date  in  geological  history  was 
a  land  surface  across  which  plants  and  animals  migrated  freely  intfi 
Great  Britain,  sank  beneath  the  sea-level,  while  the  Atlantic  ad . 
vauced  upon  the  Avestern  margin  of  the  continent  and  filled  the  sea 
ward  ends  of  what  had  previously  been  valleys  open  to  the  sun.  No  . 
improbably  the  amount  of  subsidence  was  greater  towards  the  west 

Nearly  the  whole  coast-line  of  Scotland  is  rocky.  On  the  eas  { 
side  of  the  country,  iudeed,  the  shores  of  the  estuaries  are  gener. 
ally  low,  but  the  land  between  the  mouths  of  these  inlets  is  mor  > 
or  less  precipitous.  On  the  west  side  the  coast  is  for  the  most  part 
either  a  steep  rocky  declivity  or  a  sea-wall,  though  strips  of  lowc  r 
ground  are  found  in  the  bays.  The  sea-cliffs  everywhere  vary  in 
their  characters  according  to  the  nature  of  the  rock  out  of  which 
they  have  been  carved.  At  Cape  Wrath  precipices  nearly  300  feet 
high  have  been  cut  out  of  the  Archjean  gneiss.  The  varying  tex  • 
ture  of  this  rock,  its  irregular  foliation  and  jointing,  and  its  rami- 
fying veins  of  pegmatite  conspii'e  to  give  it  very  unequal  powers  of 
resistance  in  different  parts  of  its  mass.  Consequently  it  project ; 
in  irregular  bastions  and  buttresses  and  retires  into  deep  reccssej 
and  tunnels,  sho\ring  eveiywhere  a  rnggedness  of  aspect  which  ii 
eminently  characteristic.  In  striking  contrast  to  these  precipices 
are  those  of  the  Cambrian  red  sandstone  a  few  miles  to  the  east. 
Vast  vertical  walls  of  rock  shoot  up  from  the  waves  to  a  height  of 
600  feet,  cut  by  their  perpendicular  joints  into  quadrangular  piers 
and  projections,  some  of  which  even  stand  out  alone  as  cathedral- 
like islets  in  front  of  the  main  cliff.  The  sombre  colouring  is 
relieved  by  lines  of  vegetation  along  the  edges  of  the  nearly  flat 
beds  which  project  like  vast  cornices  and  serve  as  nesting-places 
for  crowds  of  sea-fowl.  On  the  west  side  of  the  country  the  most 
notable  cliffs  south  from  those  of  Cape  Wrath  and  the  Cambrian 
sandstones  of  Sutherland  are  to  be  found  among  the  basaltic  islands, 
particularly  in  Skye,  where  a  magnificent  range  of  precipices  rising 
to  1000  feet  bounds  the  western  coast-line.  The  highest  cliffs  in 
the  country  are  found  among  the  Shetland  and  Orkney  Islands. 
The  sea-waU  of  Foula,  one  of  the  Shetland  group,  and  the  western 
front  of  Hoy  in  Orkney  rise  like  walls  to  heights  of  1100  or  120O 
feet  above  the  waves  that  tunnel  their  base.  Caithness  is  one  wide 
moor,  terminating  almost  everywhere  in  a  range  of  sea-precipices 
of  Old  Red  Sandstone.  Along  the  eastern  coast-line  most  of  the 
cliffs  are  formed  of  rocks  belonging  to  the  same  formation.  Begin- 
ning at  Stonehaven,  an  almost  unbroken  line  of  precipice  varying 
up  to  200  feet  in  height  runs  southwards  to  the  mouth  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Tay.  The  southern  uplands  plunge  abruptly  into 
the  sea  near  St  Abb's  Head  in  a  noble  range  of  precipices  300  to. 
rOO  feet  in  height,  and  on  the  western  side  the  same  high  ground»^ 


FEATURES.] 


SCOTLAND 


terminate  in  a  long  broken  line  of  sea-wall,  which  begins  at  the 
Tiiouth  of  Loch  Ryan,  extends  to  the  Mull  of  Galloway,  and  re- 
appears again  in  tlic  southern  headlands  of  Wigtown  and  Kirkcud- 
bnjrht.  One  of  the  nio?t  picturesque  features  of  the  Scottii-li  sca- 
clills  is  the  numerous  "stacks"  or  columns  of  rock  which  durin" 
the  demolition  and  recession  of  the  precipices  have  been  isolnted 
and  left  standing  amidst  the  wavts.  These  remnant*  attain  their 
moit  colossal  size  and  height  on  the  clitfs  of  Old  Red  Sandstone. 
Thus  the  Old  Man  of  Hoy  in  Orkney  is  a  huge  column  of  yellow 
sandstone  between  400  and  500  feet  high,  forming  a  conspicuous 
landmark  in  the  north.  The  const  of  Caithness  abounds  in  out- 
stnnding  pillars  and  obelisks  of  flagstone. 

Tho  low  sliores  on  the  west  coast  are  not  infrequently  occupied 
by  sand-dunes.  Such  accumulations  fringe  the  western  margin  of 
North  and  South  Uist,  and  are  found  in  many  bays  from  the  north 
of  Sutherland  to  the  coast  of  Ayrshire.  They  are  more  abundant 
Oil  tlie  east  coast,  especially  on  tho  shores  of  Aberdeenshire,  between 
the  mouths  of  the  two  Esks,  on  botli  sides  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Firth  of  Tay,  and  at  various  places  in  tlie  Firth  of  Forth.  Raised 
»ca-beachos  likewise  play  a  part  in  the  const  scenery  of  tho  country. 
These  alluvial  terraces  form  a  strip  of  low  fertile  land  "between  the 
edge  of  the  sea  and  tho  rising  ground  of  the  interior,  and  among 
the  western  fjords  sometimes  supply  tho  only  arable  soil  in  their 
neighbourhood,  their  fiat  gi'een  surfaces  presenting  a  strong  con- 
trast to  the  brown  and  barren  moors  that  rise  from  then).  Jlost 
of  tl\o  seaport  towns  of  the  country  stand  upon  platfonns  of  raised 
lieach.  Considerable  deposits_  of  mud,  silt,  and  sand  are  accumu- 
lating in  most  of  the  estuaries.  In  the  Tay,  Forth,  and  Clyde, 
where  important  h.arbours  are  situated,  oonsideralile  e.\pense  is  in- 
volved in  dredging  to  remove  the  sediment  continually  brought 
down  from  tho  laud  and  carried  backward  and  forward  by  the  tides. 
Wide  alluvial  flats  are  there  e.'^posed  at  low  water. 

While  no  islands  except  mere  solitary  rocks  like  May  Island, 
the  Bass  Rock,  and  Inchkeith  diversify  the  eastern  seaboard,  the 
western  side  of  Scotland  presents  a  vast  number,  varying  in  size 
from  Buch  extensive  tracts  as  Skye  down  to  the  smallest  sea-stack 
or  skeny.  Looked  at  in  the  broadest  way,  these  numerous  islands 
may  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  two  gi'oups  or  series, — the  Outer 
and  the  Inner  Hebrides.  The  Outer  Hebrides,  extending  from 
BaiTa  Head  to  the  Butt  of  Lewis,  consist  of  a  continuous  chain  of 
islands  composed  (with  the  exception  of  a  small  tract  in  the  east 
of  Le\ris)  entirely  of  Archaian  rocks.  Jlost  of  the  ground  is  low, 
rocky,  and  plentifully  dotted  over  with  lakes ;  but  it  rises  into 
mountainous  heights  in  Harris,  some  of  the  summits  attaining 
elevations  of  2600  feet.  The  general  trend  of  this  long  belt  of 
islands  is  north-north-east.  The  Inner  Hebrides  form  a  much  less 
definite  group.  They  may  be  regarded  as  beginning  with  the 
Shiant  Isles  in  tho  Minch  and  stretching  to  the  southern  headlands 
of  Isla,  the  most  important  members  being  Skye,  Mull,  Isia,  Jura, 
Rum,  Eigg,  Coll,  Tiree,  and  Colonsay.  The  irregularity  of  this 
fringe  of  islands  has  no  doubt  been  in  chief  measure  brouglit  about 
by  Its  remarkable  diversity  of  geological  structure.  Archaau 
gneiss,  Cambrian  sandstone,  Silurian  quartzite,  limestone,  and 
schist,  Jurassic  sandstone  and  limestone,  Cretaceous  sandstone, 
and  Tertiary  basalts,  ga'bbros,  and  granitic  rocks  all  enter  into  the 
composition  of  the  islands. 
[bihi.  AVitliin  tho  limits  of  this  article  it  is  only  possible  to  allude  to 

encw.  o/  some  of  the  more  important  influences  of  the  topogi'aphy  on  the 
topo-  history  of  the  inhabitants.  How  powerfully  tho  configuration  of 
jrjiphy  the  country  affects  tho  climate  is  shown  in  the  remarkable  diff'erence 
»n  between  the  rainfall  of  tho  mountainous  west  and  of  tho  lowland 

inhabit-  cast.  '  This  diifcronco  has  necessarily  affected  tho  character  and 
mis.  employments  of  tho  people,  leading  to  the  development  of  agricul- 
ture on  the  one  side  and  the  raising  of  sheep  and  cattle  on  the  other. 
Tho  fertile  low  grounds  on  tho  east  have  offered  fac  ilities  for  the 
invaaionn  of  Romans,  Noraentcn,  and  English,  while  the  moun- 
tainous fastnesses  of  tho  interior  and  the  west  have  served  as 
secure  retreats  for  the  older  Celtic  population.  While,  therefore, 
Teutonic  people  have  spread  over  the  one  area,  the  enrlier  race  has 
to  this  day  maintained  its  ground  in  the  other.  Not  only  tho 
external  configuration  but  tho  internal  geological  strucfiirc  of  tho 
country  has  profoundly  influenced  tho  progress  of  tho  inhabitants. 
In  the  Highlands  no  mineral  wealth  has  been  discovered  to  stimulate 
the  industry  of  the  natives  or  to  attract  the  labour  and  cnmfnl  of 
strangers.  These  tracts  remain  still  as  of  old  sparsely  inliabitcd 
and  given  over  to  tho  breeding  of  stock  and  tho  pursui*.  of  game. 
In  the  Lowlands,  on  tho  other  hand,  rich  stores  ol  coal,  iron,  lime, 
and  other  minerals  have  been  found.  Tho  coal-fields  have  gradually 
drawn  to  tlicm  an  ever-increasing  share  of  the  population.  Villages 
and  towns  have  there  sprung  recently  into  existence  and  have  rapidly 
increased  in  size,  JIanufactures  havo  been  developed  and  conimcrco 
has  nilvanced  with  accelerated  pace.  Other  influences  havo  of  course 
,  cuntributcd  largely  In  the  development  of  tho  country,  but  amoi.g 

them  all  tho  chief  pluco  must  undoubtedly  be  a9.sigired  to  that  fortu- 
nate geological  structure  which,  amid  the  revolutions  of  the  past,  has 
preserved  in  the  centre  of  Scotland  those  fields  of  coal  and  ironstone 
which  arc  the  foundations  of  the  national  industry.         (A.  CE.) 


527 

Cliiiiatc.— In  considering  the  climate  of  Scotland  the  first  place 
must  be  assigned  to  tho  temperature  of  the  various  districts  during 
the  months  of  the  year,  it  being  this  which  gives  the  chief  charac- 
teristics of  climate  and  not  the  mean  temperature  of  the  whole  year. 
Thus,  while  the  annual  temperatures  of  the  west  and  east  coasts  are 
nearly  equal,  the  summer  and  winter  temperatures  are  very  different. 
At  Portree  (on  cast  coast  of  Skye)  the  mean  temperatures  of  January 
and  July  are  39°  and  6d'-8,  Avhereas  at  Perth  they  are  37'-5  and  59°-0. 
The  prominent  feature  of  the  isothermuls  of  the  winter  months  is 
their  north  and  south  direction,  thus  pointing  not  to  the  sun  but 
to  the  warm  waters  of  the  Atlantic  as  the  more  powerful  inflnenco 
in  determining  the  Scottish  climate  at  this  season  through  the 
agency  of  the  prevailing  westerly  winds.  The  Atlantic  is  in  truth  a 
vast  repository  of  heat,  in  which  tho  higher  temperature  of  summer 
and  that  of  more  southern  latitudes  are  treasured  up  against  the 
rigours  of  winter  ;  and  in  exceptionally '  cold  seasons  the  ocean 
protects  all  places  in  its  more  immediate  neighbourhood  against  the 
severe  frosts  which  occur  in  inland  situations.  While  this  influ- 
ence of  tho  ocean  is  felt  at  all  seasons,  it  is  most  strikingly  sceu 
in  winter  ;  and  it  is  more  decided  in  proportion  as  the  locality  is 
surrounded  by  the  warm  waters  of  the  Atlantic.  At  Edinburgh 
the  temperature  is  27''0  and  at  Lerwick  32''-5  higher  than  would 
otherwise  be  the  case  :  ii>  other  words,  but  for  the  amelioi-ating 
influence  of  the  Atlantic  the  temperature  of  Edinburgh  in  mid- 
winter would  only  be  12°'5  and  of  Lerwick  7°'5,  or  such  winters  as 
characterize  the  climates  of  Greenland  and  Iceland.  The  inflnenco 
of  the  North  Sea  is  similarly  apparent,  but  in  a  less  degree.  Along 
the  whole  of  the  eastern  coast,  from  the  Pentland  Firth  southwards, 
temperature  is  higher  than  what  is  found  a  little  inland  to  the  west. 
The  lowest  temperature  yet  observed  in  the  British  Isles  was  -16°'0, 
which  occurred  near  Kelso  in  December  1879.  -In  summer,  every- 
where, latitude  for  latitude,  temperature  is  lower  in  the  west  than 
in  the  east  and  inland  situations.  In  winter  the  inland  climates 
aro  the  coldest,  but  in  summer  the  wannest.  The  course  of  the 
isothermal  lines  at  this  season  is  very  instructive.  Thus  the  lino 
of  59°  passes  from  the  Sohvay  directly  northwards  to  tlie  north  of 
Pcrthsliiro  and  thence  curves  round  eastwards  to  near  Stonehaven. 
From  Teviotdalo  to  the  Grampians  temperature  falls  only  one 
degree  ;  but  for  the  same  distance  farther  northwards  it  falls  thrco 
degrees.  Tho  isothermal  of  60°  marks  off  tho  districts  whero  tho 
finer  cereals  are  most  successfully  raised.  This  distribution  of  tlic 
temperature  shows  that  the  influence  of  the  Atlantic  in  moderating 
the  heat  of  summer  is  very  gi-cat  and  is  felt  a  long  way  into  tho 
interior  of  the  country.  On  tho  other  hand,  the  high  lands  of 
western  districts  by  robbing  tho  westerly  winds  of  their  moisture, 
and  thus  clearing  tho  skies  of  eastern  districts,  exercise  an  equally 
striking  effect  in  the  opposite  direction, — in  raising  the  temperature. 

There  is  nearly  twice  as  much  wind  from  the  south-west  as  from 
the  north-east,  but  the  proportions  vary  greatly  in  different  months. 
Tho  south-west  prevails  most  from  July  to  October,  and  again  from 
December  to  February  ;  accordingly  in  these  months  the  rainfall  in 
heaviest.  These  are  the  summer  and  winter  portions  of  the  year, 
and  an  important  result  of  the  prevalence  ol  these  winds,  with 
their  accompanying  rains,  which  are  coincident  with  tlie  annual 
extremes  of  temperature,  is  to  imprint  a  more  stiictly  insuiai 
character  on  the  Scottish  climate,  by  moderating  tho  heat  ol 
summer  and  tho  cold  of  winter.  TIio  northeast  winds  acquire 
their  greatest  frequency  from  March  to  June  and  in  November, 
which  are  accordingly  the  driest  portions  of  the  year. 

Tho  moHUtainoHs  regions  of  Scotland  aro  mostly  massed  in  the 
west  and  lie  generally  north  and  south,  or  appro.ximately  pcrpeu. 
diculnr  to  the  rain-bringing  winds  from  the  Atlantic.  Ilence  tli« 
westerly  winds  aro  turned  out  of  their  horizontal  course,  and, 
being  thrust  up  into  the  higher  regions  of  tho  atmosphere,  their 
temperaturo  is  lowered,  when  the  vapour  is  condensed  into  cloud 
and  deposits  in  rain  the  water  they  can  no  longer  hold  in  sus- 
pension. Thus  tho  climates  of  tho  west  aro  essentially  wet.  On 
the  other  hand,  tho  climates  of  the  cast  aro  dry,  because  the  surfaeo 
is  lower  and  more  level  ;  and  the  breezes  borne  thither  from  tho 
west,  being  robbed  of  most  of  their  superabundant  moiiturc  in  cross- 
ing the  western  hills,  aro  therefore  drier  and  precipitate  a  greatly 
diminished  rainfall.  It  thus  happens  that  the  driest  climates  in 
tho  east  aro  those  which  havo.  to  south-westwards  tho  broadest 
extent  of  mountainous  ground,  ajid  that  tho  wettest  cnstom  climates 
aro  tliooo  which  aro  least  protected  by  high  lands  on  tho  west. 
Tho  breakdown  of  tho  .watershed  between  tho  Firths  of  Clyde  and 
Forth  exposes  southern  Perthshire,  tho  counties  of  Clackmannan 
and  Kinross,  and  nearly  tho  whole  of  Fife  to  tho  clouds  and  raiiia  of 
the  west,  and  their  climates  arc  consequently  wetter  than  Ihoso  of 
any  other  of  the  eastern  slopes  of  tho  country.  The  drickt  >  liniatcs 
of  the  cast,  on  the  other  hand,  are  in  T^vecadalo  about  Ki  Iso  and 
Jedburgh,  the  low  grounds  of  East  Lothian,  and  those  on  tho  Moray 
Firth  from  Elgin  round  I"  Dornoch.  In  these  districts  the  annual 
rainfall  for  tho  twenty-four  years  ending  1S83  was  about  26  inches, 
ivliereas  over  extensive  breadths  in  the  west  it  exceeds  100  inches, 
ill  Olcncroo  being  nearly  130  inches  and  on  Ibo  top  of  Bon  Ncvia 
160  inches.  fA.  B.) 


528 


S.C  O  T  L  A  N_D 


[statistics. 


PART  III.— STATISTICS. 


Popiija-        Popnlntion  ;   X'ital  oiid  Social  Slatisth-s. — At  the  eiul  of  tlic  15th 
Sion  cditiiiy  it  is  supposed  tliat  the  population  of  Scotlaud  did  not 

exceed  500,000,— Edinburgh  having  about  20,000  inhabitants, 
followed  by  Pcith  with  .about  9000,  and  Aberdeen,  Dundee,  and 
St  Andrews  each  with  about  4000.  By  the  time  of  the  Union  in 
1707  it  is  supposed  to  have  reached  1,000,000,  while  according 
to.  the  returns  furnished  by  the  clergy  to  Dt  AVehster  in  1755  it 
was  1,265,380.  At  the  time  of  the  first  Government  census  in 
ISOl  it  had  reached  1,603,420.  The  increase  through  all  the 
succeeding  decades  has  been  continuous,  though  fluctuating  in 
.amount,  and  in  1881  it  had  reached  3,735,573  (males  1,7P9,475, 
females  1,936,098),  —  an  increase  within  the  eighty  years  of  132 
per  cent.  During  the  same  period  the  pojndation  of  England  and 
AVales  had  increased  192  per  cent.,  while  the  population  of 
Ireland,  owing  to  a  rapid  decrease  since  1841,  does  not  now  diPTer 
mvatly  from  what  it  was  at  the  beginning  of  the  century.  The 
following  table  (I.)  gives  the  areas  of  the  various  counties  and  of 
the  whole  of  Scotland,  the  population  in  1871  and  18S1,  the  num- 
ber of  persons  to  the  square  mile  of  land  surface  in  the  latter  year, 
and  the  increase  or  decrease  per  cent,  between  1871  and  1881 : — 


Aberileeu  

ArKjU     

Avr 

Banff 

Berwick 

Bute    

C.iitliiiess 

Clackinaunaii  . 
Ditiiibartoii   ... 

Ditiiifl'ies   

E.linbuigll  ... 
Elgin  or  Moray 

File 

Forfar 

Haddingtou  . . , 

lineines.'i 

Kiiicaidiue    ... 

Kinross  

Kirkcudbright. 

Lanark  

LinliUigow    . . . 

Nairn 

Orkney  and 

Shetland    ... 

Peebles  

Perth 

Renfrew 

Ross  and    Cro 

marty 

Roxburgh 

Selkirk  

Stirling 

Sutherland  . . . 
Wigtown    

Total  


Area  in 

Acres. 


1,202,093 

2,134,274 

730.2C2 

413,791 

297,161 

143,997 

44S,Sli7 

31.876 

172,077 

705,940 

234,920 

312,346 

323,427 

509,851 

179,142 

2,707,078 

243,195 

49,812 

610,343 

508,803 

81,113 

127,900 

635,332 

227,609 

1,004,690 

162,428 

2,078,896 
428,464 
166,524 
298,579 

1,359,840 
327,900 


19,f77,490 


Population. 


244,603 
75,679 

200,800 
02,023 
30,480 
16,977 
39,992 
23.747 
68,857 
74,803 

328,379 
43,128 

100,735 

237,567 
37,771 
88,015 
34,030 
7,193 
41,659 

705,339 
40,905 
10,225 

02,882 

12,330 

127,703 

210,947 

80,955 
49,407 
18,572 
98,218 
24,317 
38,830 


267,990 
76,408 

217,519 
62,736 
35,392 
17,657 
38,865 
25.630 
75,333 
76,140 

389,164 
43,788 

171,931 

260,300 
38,602 
90,454 
34,404 
6,697 
42,127 

904,412 
43.510 
10,455 

61,749 
13,822 
129.007 
263,374 

78,547 
53,442 
25,564 
112,443 
23,370 
SS,611 


3,735,573 


Pop.  per 

Sq.  Mile, 

1881. 


137 

24 
193  •. 

PS 


81 

+  4-00 

57 

-   2S2 

539 

+  8-14 

S12 

+27-99 

72 

+  1-78 

1075 

+  13-51 

9'* 

+  1-53 

349 

+  6-96 

304 

+12-12 

142 

+  1-94 

22 

+  2-7- 

90 

-  0-48 

92 

-   6-96 

47 

+  0-64 

1026 

+  18-17 

863 

+  6-21 

58 

+  2-25 

Orkney    So 

+  2-46 

Shetland  54 

-  6-02 

39 

+12-10 

61 

+  0  97 

1075 

+21-40 

25 

-  2-97 

SO 

+  8-17 

9!> 

+3705 

251 

+  14-43 

12 

-   3-89 

79 

-  0-50 

125 

+  11-18 

Increase , 
or  ! 
Decrease 
p^'v  cent. ' 
1871-1881. 


9-56 
1-04 
8-32 
1-15 
3-00 


Table  II.  (see  below)  affords  a  comparison  of  the  numbei-s  of  the 
population  in  1861,  1871,  and  1881  as  grouped  in  towns,  villages, 
and  rural  districts.  The  returns  do  not  afford  a  means  of  comparison 
between  earlier  years  than  those  given.  A  striking  fact  deserving 
of  mention  is  that  in  every  county  in  Scotland  the  population 
increased  between  1801  and  1841,  the  increase  teing  '-jore  than 


10  per  cent,  in  each  county,  with  the  exception  of  Argyll,  Pertli, 
and  Sutherland.  The  census  returns  for  these  years  do  not 
supply  materials  for  an  accurate  estimate  as  to  the  increase  of 
the  purely  rui-al  or  agricultural  population,  but  it  must  have  been 
considerable.  Between  1841  and  1881  the  following  counties 
declined  in  population:  —  Argyll,  Inverness,  Kinross,  Perth,  Ross 
and  Cromarty,  Sutherland,  and  Wigtown, — all  chiefly  agricultural, 
and  five  of  then)  in  the  Highlands,  -where  much  of  the  lanil 
was  held  by  crofteis.  Only  one  county,  Kinross,  has  a  smaller 
population  in  1881  than  in  1801.  Between  1851  and  1881  the 
island  population,  chiefly  crofteis,  decreased  by  4863,  and  the  rural 
population  between  1861  and  1881  by  125,583.  In  the  following 
Highland  counties  the  diminution  in  rural  population  between  1861 
and  1881  was  as  follows  :— Argyll  from  60,109  to  46,081,  Caithnes.-* 
from  28,279  to  24,309,  Inverness  from  74,439  to  67,355,  Perth  from 
69,480  to  57,016,  Ross  and  Cromarty  from  59,147  to  49,882,  and 
Sutherland  from  21,560  to  18,696.  In  the  total  population  of" 
Scotland  the  rate  of  increase  was  considerablj'  less  between  1841  aad 
1881  than  during  the  first  forty  years  of  the  century, — 425  to  62'9 
per  cent.  The  rates  per  cent,  of  increase  in  the  several  decades 
from  1801  have  been  as  follows  :— 12-27, 15-82,  13-04,  10-82,  10-25, 
6, 9-72,  and  IMS.  The  high  rate  of  increase  between  1871  and  1831 
■was  due  to  an  exceptional  briskness  of  trade,  and  unless  it  has  been 
maintained  (which  is  not  probable)  the  estimate  of  the  registrar- 
general,  which  makes  the  poptdation  in  1885  number  3,9Ci7,736, 
must  be  regarded  as  much  too  sau^iine.  Table  III.  (see  below) 
gives  the  population  of  the  eight  largest  towns  of  Scotland  at 
decennial  periods  since  1801.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  each  of 
these  towns  has  maintained  its  place,  iu  the  "eight,"  although 
several  towns  now  tread  closely  on  the  heels  of  Perth,  whose  rata 
of  progi-ess  with  that  of  Paisley  has  lagged  greatly  behind  that  ol' 
the  other  si.-;. 

\Vhile  in  England  and  Wales  the  number  of  persons  to  the  square 
mile  in  1881  was  452  and  in  Ireland  159,  in  Scotland  the  number 
was  only  125.  The  small  density  of  Scotland  is  due  chiefly  to  the 
large  proportion  of  mountainous  land.  In  the  north-western  coun- 
ties the  density  was  only  23  to  the  square  mile,  in  the  northern  34, 
in  the  west  midland  68,  in  the  southern  63,  ivhile  in  the  north- 
eastern it  was  115,  iu  the  cast  midland  149,  in  the  south-eastern 
299,  and  in  the  south-w-esteru — Renfrew,  Ayr,  and  Lanark — 614. 
Table  IV.  (see  p.  529)  shows  by  the  excess  of  births  over  deaths  the 
increase  that  should  have  taken  place  between  1861  and  1871,  and 
between  1871  and  1881  (but  for  the  balance  of  emigration  over 
immigration),  compared  with  the  actual  increase,  the  grouping  hein^ 
into  towns  with  over  25,000  inhalntants,  towns  between  10,000  and 
25,000,  towns  under  10,000  and  above  2000,  aud  rural  districts.  It 
is  impossible  to  make  a  comparison  between  1801  and  1881  inasmuch 
as  the  proportion  of  large  aud  small  towns  and  rural  districts  has 
varied.  It  must  also  be  explained  that  in  comparing  1861  and 
1871  the  census  of  1861  is  taken  as  the  authority  for  the  grouping 
and  in  comparing  1871  and  ISSl  the  census  of  1871.  This  table 
shows  in  both  decades  an  actual  increase  in  the  large  and  in 
the  principal  towns  greater  than  that  resulting  from  excess  of 
births  over  deaths.  It  is  the  result  not  only  of  migration  from 
the  small  tow-ns  and  rural  districts  but  of  the  immigration  of 
English,  Irish,  and  foreigners,  and  the  return  of  natives  of  Scotland 
from  abroad.  By  a  comparison  with  Table  II.  it  will  be  observed 
that  the  increase  in  the  rural  districts  between  the  decades  in  Table 
IV.  occurs  only  in  the  villages,  and  a  closer  examination  of  Table 
IV.  further  shows  that  any  seeming  increase  is  really  delusive,  and 
arises  from  the  fact  that  there  is  no  provision  for  the  increase  iu 


Taple  II. 


Groups. 

Total  Population. 

Increase  d-  Decrease, 
ISOl  to  1871. 

Increase  or  Decrease, 
1871  to  ISSl. 

Percentajje 
to  Total  Population. 

ISOl. 

1S71. 

1881. 

Actual. 

Percentage. 

+20-76 
+  13-90 
-  7  69 

Actual. 

Percentage. 

1861. 

1871. 

ISSl. 

01-75 
11-99 
26-26 

1,616,134 

339,740 

1,100,420 

1,951,704 

380,993 

1,021,321 

2,306,852 
447,884 

•180,837 

+335,570 
+  47,253 
-   85,099 

+  355,148 
+  00.891 
-    40,434 

+18-20 
+  15-73 
-   3-96 

.52-78 
11-00 
30-13 

58-09 
11-52 
30-3-J 

Rural  d istricts  .*. 

Scotlaud 

3,002,294 

3  360  OlS        i        3  7.^.'-.  .S7a 

+297,724 

+  9-72 

+375,555 

+  11-18 

100  OO 

10000 

10000 

-,.--,-.- 

Tabie  HI. 


Name. 

ISOl. 

1811. 

i?:i. 

1831. 

ISU. 

132,977 
25,984 

261,004 
63,288 
64,629 
48,203 
36,109 
20,407 

1851. 

1861. 

I87I. 

Eilinburgh ) 
Leith          ;  

81,404 

77,058 
20,992 
27,396 
25,058 
17,190 
16,338 

101,492 

103.224 
34.640 
31,058 
29,461 
18,750 
16,064 

130,331 
140,432 
43,821 
J2.1-20 
88il02 
21,719 
13,197 

(  136,548 
1    25,855 
193,030 
60,081 
4S,0-.'6 
4ti,222 
27,0K2 
19,233 

160,302 
30,Si9 

329,097 
71,973 
78,931 
47,952 
36,689 
23,835 

108,121 
33,6-23 

394,864 
73,805 
90,417 
47,400 
42,093  - 
25.2,0 

196,979 
44,2S0 

477,150 
SS,108 

118,977 

Aberdeen    

48.240 

Greenock     

Piu-th   

57,140 
25,535 

1881. 

Estimate 
18S-.. 

228,357 

250.610 

-  69,48.5 

63,414 

551,415 

519,965 

105,189 

113,213 

I40,2.-i9 

l5'.',S--;8 

55,638 

.59,108 

00,704 

73,695 

28,930 

31,32! 

STATISTICS.] 


SCOTLAND 


529 


tation- 
lity. 


the  number  of  small  towns."  Thus  acconlins  to  the  grouping  of 
1871  the  rural  population  of  1871  was  nearly  28,000  less  than  the 
rural  population  of  1861  according  to  the  grouping  of  1861.  It 
is  from  the'  villages  and  small  tonus  that  the  large  towns  are 
principally  recruited,  the  purely  rural  population  preferring  as  a 
rule  to  emigrate.  ,     ,.r,      ,      ,■    ,„», 

Table  V.  shows  the  nationalities  of  the  people  of  Scotland  in  1871 
and  1881,  with  the  nationalitijs  in  1881  in  those  burghs  which 
had  a  population  of  10,000  and  upwards :— 


Nationalities. 

Scotland  1871. 

Scotlac 

I  ISSl. 

Burghs  ISSl. 

Number. 

Per- 
centage 
to  Pop. 

Number. 

Per- 
centage 
to  Pop. 

Number. 

Per- 
centage 
to  Pop. 

3,061,531 

207,770 

69,401 

9,740 

6,0C8 

4,C9S 

1,0S1 

729 

91-117 
6-IS4 
2-065 
0-290 

0-151 
0140 
0-032 
0-021 

3,397,759 

218,745 

90,017 

12,874 

7,024 

6,399 

1,606 

949 

90-957 
5-856 
2-410 
0345 

0-188 
0-171 
0-048 
0025 

1,429,012 

141, 6M 

51,402 

7,768 

4,954 

4,171- 

882 

645 

87-116 
8-634 
3-134 
0--173 

0-254 
0-302 
0  054 
0033 

Irish         

Enclish         

Britisli  colonials.. 

British      subjects 

from  abroad  — 

Foreignera    

Welsh    

From  ChaDnel  Isles 

Totals    

3,360,018 

100-000 

3,735,573 

100-000 

1,640,300 

100000 

This  table  indicates  not  merely  an  actual  but  a  proportional  in. 
crease  in  non-natives,  there  being  an  actual  increase  but  a  pro 
portionai  decrease  of  natives  of  Ireland,  and  both  an  actual  and  a 
proportional  increase  of  natives  of  England.  Over  the  whole  of 
Scotland  the  proportion  of  non-natives  is  a  little  over  9  per  cent., 
-while  in  the  burghs  it  is  nearly  13  per  cent.  The  number  of 
persons  of  Scottish  birth  in  Ireland  in  1831  ivas  22,328,  and  in 
England  it  was  253,528, —  a  total  in  the  two  countries  of  275,856. 
Ou  the  other  hand,  the  natives  of  the  two  countries  in  Scotland 
in  1881  were  together  308,762,  so  that  there  is  a  smaller  migra- 
tion from  Scotland  to  these  countries  than  from  these  countries  to 
Scotland. 

The  following  table  (VI.)  shows  the  emigration  of  persons  of 
Scottish  origin  from  the  United  Kingdom  at  various  periods 
since  1853 : — 


Tears 

1853.55 

1850-00 

1861-65 

1866-70 

1871-75 

1876-80 

1881-85 

1853-85 

Emigrants 

62,514 

69,010 

62,461 

85,621 

96,055 

70,696 

133,527 

568,790 

Ital 


Comparing  1856-60  with  1881-85  it  will  be  seen  that  the  number 
of  emigrants  has  more  than  doubled, — an  increase  of  course  propor- 
tionately much  greater  than  the  population.  There  are  no  statistics 
as  to  the  number  of  immigrants  into  Scotland ;  and  the  significance 
9f  Table  VI.  is  further  lessened  by  the  fact  that  it  includes  persons 
■who  may  have  been  for  some  time  resident  in  England  or  Ireland,  or 
who  may  have  been  born  there  of  Scottish,  parentage,  and  also  sup- 
plies no  information  regarding  emigration  to  the  Continent.  Only 
the  principal  ports,  moreover,  are  included  in  the  return. 

The  male  population  in  1881  was  1,799,475,  au  increase  since 
tatistics.  1871  of  12-2  percent. ;  the  female  population  1,936,098,  an  increase 
of  only  10-2  per  cent.  Since  1811,  when  there  were  118-6  females  to 
every  100  males,  the  proportion  has  been  continuously  diminishing, 
and  in  1881  it  was  107-6,  but  still  gi-eater  than  prevails  either  in 
England,  which  was  105-5,  or  in  Ireland,  which  was  104-3.  The 
proportion  differs  greatly  in  different  counties,  being  as  high  as 
134-71  in  Shetland,  chielly  on  account  of  the  number  of  males  at 
sea.  In  Scotland  the  ])roportion  of  female  births  is  smaller  than 
that  of  male  births :  in  1885  it  was  100  to  105  ;  and  males 
preponderate  in  the  population  up  till  the  age  of  twenty-five, 
clearly  showing  that  the  excess  of  females  is  due  to  male  emigra- 
tion or  the  greater  mortality  of  male  occupations.    The  percentage 


of  illegitimato  to  the  total  number  of  births  in  1855  wa.s  7-8, 
and  reached  its  ma.\imum  in  1865,  when  it  was  10-2,  while  in 
1885  it  was  8-46.  It  is  much  higher  in  the  lowland  rural 
districts  than  in  the  Highland  rural  districts,  and  lowest  in  tho 
large  towns.  The  percentages  of  births,  deaths,  and  marriages 
to  population  in  the  annual  reports  of  the  registrar-general  are  in 
a  great  degree  misleading,  inasnmch  as  the  estimated  population 
generally  differs  greatly  from  the  actual.  They  place  it,  how-ever, 
beyond  doubt  that  the  greatest  birth,  maniage,  and  mortality 
rates  are  iu  the  town  districts,  that  the  smallest  birth  and  marriage 
rates  are  in  the  insular  districts,  after  which  come  the  mainland 
rural  districts,  and  that  the  mortality  is  not  so  high  in  the  insular 
rural  as  in  the  mainland  rural  districts.  Table  VII.  (see  below) 
gives  the  percentage  of  single,  married,  and  widowed  to  the  total 
of  each  sex  in  Scotland,  England  and  Wales,  and  Ireland  respect-, 
ively  in  1881. 

The  number  of  blind  persons  in  Scotland  in  1881  was  3158! 
(males  1550,  females  1602),  the  proportion  to  the  total  population, 
being  1  in  1182  (males  1156,  females  1208) ;  the  proportion  in  1871 
w-as  1  in  1112.  The  deaf  and  dumb  in  1881  numbered  2142  (males 
1149,  females  993),  the  proportion  to  the  total  population  being  1 
in  every  1744  as  against  1  in  every  1610  in  1871.  The  number  of 
lunatics  was  returned  as  8406  (males  3939,  females  4467)  or  1  in 
every  444  of  the  total  population,  the  proportion  in  1871  being  1 
in  every  494.  In  addition  to  this  there  w-ere  6991  imbeciles  (males 
2896,  females  3095),  or  1  to  every  623  of  the  population,  the  pro- 
portion in  1871  being  1  in  every  727. 

Table  VIII.  gives  a  classification  of  the  population  according  to  OccupM 
occupations  in  1871  and  1881 : —  tioDS, 


Classes  of  Occupation. 

1871. 

1881. 

Per  cent,  of  Total  Pop. 

1871. 

1881. 

1.  Professional  

2.  Domestic    

3.  Commercial    

4.  Agricultural 

5.  Industrial  

6.  Unproductive   

72,911 
159,403 
114,094 
270,008 
751,281 
1,991,721 

96,103 
176,565 
13^,126 
269,537 
932,053 
2,126,569 

2-17 
4-74 
8-41 
8-04 
22-36 
69-28 

2-57 
4-73 

8-54 
7-21 
24-97 
66-93 

It  should  be  explained  that  the  apparent  diminution  iu  the  pro-  P.iuper* 
portion  of  the  unproductive  class  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  ism. 
that  in  1871  paupers  were  returned  in  this  class,  whereas  in  1881 
they  were  returned  under  the  occupation  at  w-hich  they  used  to 
w-ork.  The  increase  in  the  proportion  of  the  professional  and 
commercial  classes  is  at  least  a  slight  indication  of  higher  average 
prosperity,  but  this  is  more  conclusively  established  by  the  fact 
that  the  number  of  paupers  has  for  many  years  been  steadily  on 
the  decline,  tho  proportion  being  now  (18S0)  only  2-4  of  the 
population.  The  average  cost  of  maintenance  is,  however,  on  the 
increase,  owing  entirely  to  tho  increased  cost  of  the  maintenance  of 
the  lunatic  poor. 

Crime,  like  pauperism,  is  also  steadily  declining,  as  is  shown  Crim« 
by  Table  IX. :— 


OfTCDCCS. 

Average. 

18S4. 

Total. 

1836- 
40. 

1851- 
55. 

1875- 
79. 

ISSO- 
84. 

Males. 

Females. 

751 
630 

1676 
47 
120 
260 

1014 
632 

1916 
62 
109 
247 

881 
520 

1102 
122 
44 
112 

838 
624 

030 
89 
43 

122 

905 
616 

649 
62 
86 
82 

75 
80 

262 
8 
0 
7 

980 
695 

911 
60 
42 
89 

Against  property  with  violence 
Against  property  without  vio- 

Against  property,  malicious.. 

3390 

3880 

2781 

2661 

2239 

438 

2677 

Table  IV. 


Groups.' 

Population  according  to 
Grouping  in  1861. 

Population  according  to 
Grouping  in  1871. 

Births 
1861-71. 

Deaths 
1861-71. 

Births 
1871-81. 

Deaths 
1871-81. 

,'  Increase  or  Decrease 
\    from  1861  to  1871. 

Increase  or  Decrease 
from  1871  to  1881. 

1861. 

1871. 

1871. 

1881. 

Actual. 

Excess 
of  Births 

over 
Deaths. 

Actual. 

Excess 
of  Births 

over 
Deaths. 

Prtncipal  towns 

Large  towns    ....... 

Small  towns    

Rural  districts    .... 

Scotland  

884,955 

254,030 

602,833 

1,420,476 

3,002,294 

1,008,656 
810,165 
640,807 

1,440,490 

1,193,940 

827,734 

090,958 

1,141,386 

1,411,630 
888,707 
700,708 

1,144,444 

876,866 
103,619 
190,128 
450,288 

274,511 

68,709 

116,147 

247,700 

429,679 
150,095 

293,220 
301,367 

290,286 
94,498 
171,485 
203,200 

+183,001 
+  66,135 
+  37,974 
+  20,014 

+  102,345 
+  84,750 
+  74,981 
+202,510 

+  217,,W6 
+  01,003 
+  93,838 
+     3,0.'-8 

+  133,394 
+  65,697 
-1-121,735 
+  168.167 

.8,360,018 

8,360,018 

3,736,678 

1,120,791 

706,190 

1,234,351 

705,408 

+207,724 

+414,595 

+378,666 

+4«8,88S 

Table  VII. 


Bexes. 

Scotland. 

England  and  Wales. 

Ireland. 

Single. 

Married. 

Widowed. 

Single. 

Married. 

Widowed. 

Single. 

Married. 

WIdowwL 

06-281 
02-864 

80-441 

28-057 

8-278 
8-189 

61  -932 
60-226 

84-028 
83-282 

B-440 
7-40a 

03-442 

27 -.'.01 
20-970 

a -785 

e-6«9 

21-19 


530 


SCOTLAND 


[statistics 


Oe&ds.  Communication. — In  the  12tli  century  an  Act  was  passed  provid- 
ing that  the  highways  between  raarket-towns  should  be  at  least 
20  feet  broad.  Over  the  principal  rivers  at  this  early  period  there 
were  bridges  near  the  most  populous  places,  as  ove:'  the  Dee  near 
Aberdeen,  the  Eslc  at  Brechin,  the  Tay  at  Perth,  and  the  Forth 
near  Stirling.  Until  the  16th  century,  however,  traffic  between 
distant  places  was  carried  on  chiefly  by  pack-horses.  The  first 
stage-ooach  in  Scotland  was  that  which  ran  between  Edinburgh 
and  Leith  in  1610.  In  1658  there  was  a  fortnightly  stage-coach 
between  Edinburgh  and  London,  but  afterwards,  it  would  appear 
to  have  been  discontinued  for  many  years.  Separate  Acts  en- 
joining the  justices  of  the  peace,  and  afterwards  along  with 
them  the  commissioners  of  supply,  to  take  measures  for  the 
maintenance  of  roads  were  passed  in  1617,  1669,  1676,  and 
1686.  These  provisions  had  reference  chiefly  to  what  afterwards 
came  to  he  known  as  "statute  labour  roads,"  intended  primarily 
to  supply  a  means  of  communication  within  the  several  parishes. 
They  were  kept  in  repair  by  the  tenants  and  cotters,  and,  when 
their  labour  was  not  sufficient,  by  the  landlords,  who  were  required 
to  "  stent "  (assess)  themselves,  customs  also  being  sometimes  levied 
at  bridges,  ferries,  and  causeways.  By  separate  local  Acts  the 
"statute  labour"  was  in  many  cases  converted  into  a  payment 
called  "conversion  money,"  and  the  General  Eoads  Act  of  1845 
made  the  alteration  universal.  By  the  Koads  and  Bridges  (Scotland) 
Act  of  1878  the  old  organization  for  the  management  of  these  roads 
■was  entirely  superseded  in  1883.  The  Highlands  had  good  (mili- 
tary) roads  earlier  than  the  rest  of  the  country.  The  project,  begun 
in  1725,  took  ten  years  to  complete,  and  the  roads  were  afterwards 
kept  in  repair  by  an  annual  parliamentary  grant.  In  the  Lowlands 
the  main  lines  of  roads  have  been  constructed  under  the  Turnpike 
Acts,  the  earliest  of  which  was  obtained  in  1750.  Originally  they 
were  maintained  by  tolls  exacted  from  those  who  used  them ;  but 
this  method  was — after  several  counties  had  obtained  separate 
Acts  for  its  abolition — superseded  throughout  Scotland  in  1883 
by  the  general  Act  of  1878,  providing  for  the  maintenance  of  all 
classes  of  roads  by  assessment  levied  by  the  county  road  trustees. 

3sials.  Scotland  possesses  two  canals  constructed  primarily  to  abridge 
the  sea  passage  round  the  coast, — the  Caledonian  and  the  Crinan. 
The  Caledonian  Canal,  extending  from  south-west  to  north-east, 
a  distance  of  60  miles  along  the  line  of  lochs  from  Loch  Linnho 
on  the  west  coast  to  the  Moray  Firth  on  the  east  coast,  was 
begun  in  1803,  opened  while  yet  unfinished  in  1822,  and  com- 
pleted in  1847,  the  total  cost  being  about  £1,300,000.  Constructed 
originally  to  aff'ord  a  quicker  passage  for  ships  to  the  east  coast  of 
Scotland  and  the  coasts  of  Europe,  it  has,  owing  to  the  increased 
size  of  vessels,  ceased  to  fulfil  this  purpose,  its  chief  service  having 
been  in  opening  up  a  picturesque  route  for  tourists,  assisting  local 
trade,  and  affording  a  passage  for  fishing  boats  between  the  east 
and  west  coasts.  The  Crinan  Canal,  stretching  across  the  Mull  of 
Cantyre  from  Loch  Gilp  to  Jura  Sound,  a  distance  of  9  miles,  and 
admitting  the  passage  of  vessels  of  200  tons  burden,  was  opened  in 
1801  at  a  cost  of  oter  £100,000.  The  principal  boat  canals  are  the 
Forth  and  Clyde  or  Great  Canal,  begun  in  1798,  between  Grange- 
mouth on  the  Forth  and  Bowling  on  the  Clyde,  a  distance  of  30J 
miles,  with  a  branch  to  Port  Dundas,  making  the  total  distance 
S3|  miles  ;  the  Union.Canal  between  Edinburgh  and  the  Forth  and 
Clyde  Canal  at  Port  Dundas,  near  Glasgow,  completed  in  1822  ;  and 
the  Monkland  Canal,  completed  in  1791,  connecting  Glasgow  with 
the  Monkland  mineral  district  and  communicating  with  a  lateral 
branch  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal  at  Port  Dundas.  Several 
other  canals  in  Scotland  have  been  superseded  by  railway  routes. 

B«U-  The  first  railway  in  Scotland  for  which  an  Act  of  Parliament 

ireys,  was  obtained  was  that  between  Kilmarnock  and  Troon  (9j  mUes), 
opened  in  1812,  and  of  course  worked  by  horses,  A  similar  rail- 
way, of  which  the  chief  source  of  profit  was  the  passenger  traffic, 
was  opened  between  Edinburgh  and  Dalkeith  in  1831,  branches 
being  afterwards  extended  to  Leith  and  Musselburgh.  By  1840 
the  length  of  the  railway  lines  in  Scotland  for  which  Bills  were 
passed  was  191 J  miles,  the  capital  being  £3,122,133.  The  chief 
railway  companies  in  Scotland  are  the  Caledonian,  formed  in  1845, 
total  capital  in  1884-85  £37,999,933 ;  the  North  British,  of  the  same 
date,  total  capital  £32,821,526  ;  the  Glasgow  and  South-Western, 
formed    by   amalgamation    in    1850,    total   capital   £13,230,849  ; 


the  Highland,  formed  by  amalgamation  in  1865,  total  capital 
£4,445,316;  and  the  Great  North  of  Scotland,  1845,  total  capital 
£4,869,983.  The  management  of  the  small  branch  lines  belonging 
to  local  companies  is  generally  undertaken  by  the  larger  companies. 
By  1849  there  were  795  miles  of  railway  in  Scotland.  The  follow- 
ing table  (X.)  shows  the  progress  since  1857  (see  also  Railway, 
voh  XX.  pp.  226-230) :— 


Year. 

rasscngpis. 

.2      w    . 

Receipts 
from 
Goods 
Trains. 

TotaL 

First 
Class. 

Second 
Class. 

Third  and 
Mixed 
Classes. 

Total. 

1857 
1874 
1884 

1243  1,823,642  2,180,284 
2700  4,261,473  3,769,485 
2999|4,711,600  2,715,932 

10,729,677 
30,189,934 
46,877,642 

14,733,503 
38,220,892 
54,305,074 

£ 

916,697 

2,350,693 

2,931,737 

£             £ 
1,684,781  2,601,478 
3,884,424  6,235,017 
4,426,023  7,357,760 

Agriculture. — Table  51.  shows  the  divisions  of  land  as  regards 
ownership  according  to  the  return  (the  latest)  of  1873  : — 


"S   . 

-3    . 

c  ^ 

fei= 

■2a 

Gross 

^^^ 

Ownei'S  Iioldiss 

each 

.°S 

Annual 

^< 

6  s 

r<- 

Value. 

> 
< 

hi 

£ 

£    s. 

Less  than  1  acre 

113,005 
9,471 

28,177 
29,327 

5,800,046 
1,433,106 

205  17 
4S  17 

•1 

More  than  1  acre  and  less  than  10. . 

■>          10 

50.. 

3,469 

77,619 

843,471 

10  17 

•4 

60 

100.. 

1,213 

86,483 

380,345 

4    8 

•5 

..         100                „ 

600.. 

2,307 

656,372 

1,674,775 

3    0 

2-9 

„         600 

1,000.. 

626 

482,741 

1,263,524 

2    3 

3-1 

„      1,000 

2,000.. 

696 

835,242 

1,179,756 

1    8 

4-4 

„      2,000 

6,000. . 

687 

1,843,378 

1,946,507 

1     1 

9-7 

„      5,000               „ 

10,000.. 

250 

1,726,869 

1,043,519 

0  12 

9-1 

„    10,000               „ 

20,000.. 

159 

2,150,111 

965,166 

0    9 

11-3 

„    20,000               „ 

60,000. . 

103 

3,071,728 

945,914 

0    6 

16-2 

„    50,000 

100,000.. 

44 

3,026,616 

588,788 

0    4 

16-0 

100,000  and  upwards  .. 

24 

4  931  884 

623,148 
10,740 

0  s 

26*1 

11 
11 

'i,147 

18,940,694 

Total  

132,136 

18,098,804 

1    0 

100-0 

Scotland,  as  compared  with  either  England  or  Ireland;  is  em- 
phatically a  country  of  large  proprietors.  Taking  the  population 
of  1871  as  the  basis  of  comparison,  a  little  over  3'9  per  cent,  of  the 
population  of  Scotland  have  a  share  in  the  ownership  of  the  soil, 
the  proportion  in  England  and  Wales  being  about  5  per  cent. ,  while 
in  Ireland  it  is  only  about  17.  On  an  average  each  owner  in 
England  possesses  33  acres,  in  Scotland  143,  and  in  Ireland  293. 
AVhUe  in  Ireland,  however,  only  a  little  over  one-lialf  of  the  number 
of  proprietors  possess  less  than  1  acre,  and  in  England  about  five- 
sevenths,  this  class  in  Scotland  amounted  to  about  five-sixths  of  the 
whole.  Tliey  possessed  only  •!  per  cent,  of  the  total  area,  the  re- 
inaining  99'9  being  possessed  by  19,131  persons,  while  171  persons 
held  58'3,  and  68  persons  42'1.'  \Vhereas  in  England  1  and  in 
Ireland  only  3  proprietors  held  upwards  of  100,000  acres  each, 
in  Scotland  there  were  24  persons  who  each  held  more  than  this 
amount,  and  together  they  possessed  26'1  per  cent,  of  the  total 
area.  The  excessive  size  of  the  properties  of  Scotland  may  be 
partlj;  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  a  large  proportion  of  the 
land  is  so  mountainous  and  unproductive  as  to  be  unsuitable  for 
division  into  small  properties  ;  but  t^-o  other  causes  have  also 
powerfully  co-operated  with  this,  viz.,  the  wide  territorial  authority 
exercised  by  some  of  the  lowland  _,  nobles,  as  the  Scotts  and 
Douglases,  and  such  powerful  Highland  nobles  as  the  Argylls  and 
Breadalbanes,  and  the  stricter  law  of  entail  introduced  by  the  Act 
of  1685  (see  Entail,  vol.  viii.  p.  452).  The  largest  estates  are 
thus  in  the  hands  of  the  old  hereditary  families.  The  almost 
absolute  power  anciently  melded  by  the  landlords,  who  within 
their  own  territories  were  lords  of  regality,  tended  to  hinder  in- 
dependent agricultural  enterprise,  and  it  was  not  till  after  the 
abolition  of  hereditary  jurisdictions  in  1748  that  agriculture  in 
Scotland  made  any  real  progress. 

The  following  table  (XII.)  gives  a  classification  of  the  holdings 
of  Scotland  in  1875' and  1880  :— 


Years. 

60  Acres  and 
under. 

From  50  to  100 
Acres. 

From  100  to  300 
Acres. 

From  300  to  600 
Acres. 

From  500  to  1000 
Acres. 

Above  1000  Acres.               Total. 

Number. 

Area  in 
Acres. 

Number. 

Area  in 
Acres. 

Number. 

Area  in 
Acres. 

Number. 

Area  in 
Acres. 

Number. 

Area  in 
Acres. 

Ntimber. 

Area  in 
Acres. 

Number. 

Area  in 
Acres. 

1875 
1880 

66,311 
55,280 

660,356 
653,295 

9878 
9726 

697,620 
721,844 

11,823 
12,348 

1,930,081 
2,082,914 

1067 
2007 

729,885 
750,295 

691 
661 

427,478 
418,050 

126 
79 

109,675 
114,293 

80,796 
80,101 

4,611,095 
4,741,296 

It  will  be  observed  that  nearly  one-half  of  the  total  area  of  the  hold- 
'ngs  is  occupied  by  those  possessing  from  100  to  300  acres  each.  The 
lioldings  over  300  acres  are  generally  sheep  farms,  and  it  is  to  the 
enterprise  of  the  medium  class  of  holders  that  the  agricultural 
iprogress  of  Scotland  is  chiefly  due.  A  society  of  improvers  in 
the  knowledge  of  agriculture  was  founded  in  1723,  but  ceased  to 


exist  after  the  Rebellion  of  1745  ;  and  the  introductiou  of  new  and 
improved  methods,  where  not  the  result  of  private  enterprise,  has 
been  chiefly  associated  with  the  efforts  of  the  Highland  Society, 
instituted  in  1783,  and  latterly  known  as  the  Highland  and  Agri- 
cultural Society.  A  great  stimulus  was  also  afi'orded  in  the  ba- 
,  ginning  of  the  19th  century  by  the  high  prices  obtained  during  the 


STATISTICS.] 


SCOTLAND 


531 


wnd  Continental  wars,  and,  although  pciiods  of  occasional  severe  dcpres- 
ord  anc  eion  have  occuiTed  since  then,  not  only  has  the  science  of  afnicufturo 
Bnant.  continued  rapidly  to  advance  but  the  position  of  the  largo  farmer 
has  until  witliin  recent  years  been  one  of  increasing  prosperity. 
The  system  of  nineteen  years'  lease  had  proved,  as  regards  both 
agricultural  progress  and  the  interests  of  tlie  farmer,  a  much  superior 
arrangement  to  tlie  system  of  yearly  tenancy  so  largely  prevailin" 
in  England  ;  but  it  was  conjoined  with  customs  and  modilied  by 
conditions  which  during  the  period  of  agricultural  distress  prevail- 
ing since  1872  have  caused  the  relations  between  landlord  and 
tenant  to  become  severely  strained.  The  more  prominent  "riev- 
onces  of  the  farmer  were  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  sufficient  com- 
pensation for  improvements,  the  inconveniences  resulting  from  the 
law  of  hyputhec  (see  Hypothec,  vol.  xii.  p.  598),  aud  the  hardships 
Bulfcrcd  from  the  existence  of  the  game  laws.  -  Hypotliec  was 
nbolished  in  1879,  except  as  regards  the  Act  of  Sederunt ;  aground 
^me  Act  was  passed  in  1880;  and,  succeeding  the  report  of  the 
Juke  of  Kiclimond's  commission  in  1882,  the  Agricultural  Holdings 
Act  was  passed  in  1S83,  containing  provisions  for  securing  to  the 
tenant  control  in  the  disposition  of  his  lease,  and  also  compensation 
for  improvements  ;  but  already  it  is  evident  that  these  reforms 
have  failed  to  meet  the  difficulties  created  by  the  altered  conditions 
of  things,  due  to  tlie  increasing  scarcity  of  laud,  and  the  import- 
»tion  of  foreign  produce. 
While  the  relations  bcnveen  the  landlord  and  the  lar^e  fanner 

cannot  be  regarded  as  sortisfactory,  the  difficulties  of  the  ?rofters 

small  holders  now  chiefly  to  be  found  in  the  western  Highlands 
and  the  islands  to  tlie  north  and  west  of  Scotland— have  reacheil 
a  more  acute  stage.  The  crofter  system  prevailing  in  Orkney  and 
Shetland — described  in  the  article  on  those  islands— has  a  totally 
ditferent  origin  from  that  prevailing  in  the  Highlands.  On  account 
of  the  ancient  relations  between  the  Highlander  and  his  chief,  the 
inheritance  is  claimed  by  the  Highland  crofters  of  an  inalienable 


right  to  security  of  tenure  ;  but  when  the  old  fcud.al  system  of  tlio 
Highlands  w.is  su<ldcnly  abolished  after  the  Rebellion  of  1745  no 
legal  steps  were  taken  for  the  recognition  of  this  right,  and  from 
tli«  beginning  of  the  19th  century  wholesale  clearances  of  tenants 
were  carried  out  in  many  districts  even  by  the  heirs  of  the  old 
Highland  chiefs.  In  the  words  of  the  report  of  the  crofters  com- 
mission of  1884  . -—"Tlie  crofter  of  the  present  time  has  througli 
prist  evictions  been  conlincd  within  narrow  limits,  sometimes  on 
inferior  land  and  exhausted  soil.  Ho  is  subject  to  nrbitrai-y 
augmentations  of  money  rent,  he  is  without  security  of  tenure,  and 
has  only  recently  received  the  concession  of  com]iensatioii  for  im- 
provements." The  crofters  in  Scotland  arc  now  estimated  to 
number  40,000  families  or  200,000  persons,  and  many  of  them  sup- 
port themselves  p:irtly  by  fishing.  In  the  struggle  for  existence 
tlicy  have  had  to  contend  against  the  tendency  towards  the  creation 
of  large  farms,  the  demand  for  sporting  estates,  the  desire  of 
landlords  to  escape  the  burden  of  poor  rates,  and  the  fact  that 
they  have  absolutely  no  choice  as  regards  the  conditions  imposed 
on  them  by  the  landlord.  In  Jlarch  1883  a  commission  was  ap- 
pointed  to  inquire  into  the  condition  of  the  cottei-s  and  croftei-s  in' 
the  Highlands  and  islands  of  Scotland  ;  this  commission,  gave  in 
its  report  in  1884,  and  an  Act  based  on  their  recommendations  was 
•massed  in  1886. 

Notwithstanding   the    unsatisfactory  condition   of  .igriculturai  Distriblf 
afl'airs  in  Scotland  at  present,  there  is  no  country  in  the  world  tion  of 
where  farming  is  prosecuted  with  more  skill  and  enterprise.     On  cropv 
account  of  the  great  variety  of  soil  and  climate  the  methods  in' 
operation  difl'er  greatly  in  different  districts,  and  for  special  details 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  articles  on  the  several  counties.     Tho 
following  table  (XIII. )  shows  the  cultivated  area  and  the  areas  under 
each  kind  of  ciop  in  different  years,  with  tho  proportion  of  the  acreago 
under  each  kind  of  crop,  kc,  to  every  1000  acres  of  cultivated  lan4 
for  1885  in  Scotland,  England,  and  Ireland  :— 


Yearly  Aver.iges. 


Total  acreage  under  crops,  bare  fallow,  and  grass 

Permanent  pasture  I 

Arable  land *( 


Acres. 
4,430,375 


1,036,8U 
3,333,531 


( 


Cora  crops — 

Wheat  

Barley  or  bero 

Oats  

Rye    

Beans    

Pease 


154,298 

227,083 

1,011,480 

8,135 

23,711 

2,307 


1S71-75. 


Acres. 
4,1C0,S25 


1,084,983 
3,475,842 


122,513 
252,105 
1,007,339 
10,480 
20,748 
2,332 


Total  nnder  com  crops 

Green  crops- 
Potatoes  

TurnipB  and  swedes 

Mangold  j 

Carrots 

CabUgo,  kohl-rabi,  and  rape 
Vetches,  &c 


1,397,977 


Total  under  green  crops  . 


Gmsses  under  rotation 

Flax  

Hops 

Fallow 


170,978 

400,508 

944 

904 

3,441 

14,529 


681,454 


1,248,747 

1,417 

1 

54,289 


1,421,515 


167,880 
603,709 
1,748 
1,043 
4,656 
14,7S0 


693,821 


1,338,106 
731 


■"SSO. 


Acres. 
4,738,127 


1,159,353 
3,578,774 


73,970 

264,120 

1,037,254 

7,333 

19,977 

1,227 


1SS5. 


Acres. 
4,S45,S05 


Average  per  1000  Acres  1SS5. 


Scotland. 


Acres. 
1000 


1,220,000 
3,025,803 


55,155 

237,472 

1,040,285 

7,005 

23,135 

1,7J0 


11 

49 

210 


1,403,887         I        1,370,802 


187,001 

4SJ,9S7 

1,822 

1,,393 

5,473 

15,705 


697,446 


148,904 

434,213 

1,405 

1,200 

5,833 

18,083 


31 

100 


England. 


Acres. 
1000 


492 
008 


95 
70 
CO 

2 
16 

D 


650,919 


1,455,745 
182 


1,571, 


23,208 


14 

59 

14 

1 


Ireland. 


Acres. 
1000 


673 
327 


11 

67 

1 


63 
20 


110 


3 

21 


134 
7 


The  earliest  year  inclu.led  in  tliis  tiible  (1867)  is  the  date  at  which 
the  agricultural  statistics  began  to  bo  collected  and  published  by 
the  Board  of  Trade.  The  work  previous  to  this  had  been  under- 
taken by  tho  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland,  but 
^hei^  returns  were  necessarily  less  complete  and  accurate.  The 
Murn  for  1857,  for  example,  gives  tho  anablo  acreago  ("acreage 
under  a  rotation  of  crops'')  as  3,776,572  ;  but  this  is  clearly  too 
iTOUch,  as  it  exceeds  that  of  1885,  and  since  1867  there  has  been 
«  gradual  increase.  Only  a  little  over  one-fourth  of  tho  area  of 
Scotland  is  cultivated,  while  in  England  only  one-fourth  is  left 
uncultivated.  It  must,  however,  be  taken  into  consideration 
that  in  tho  agricultural  returns  "permanent  pasture"  docs  not 
iincludo  tho  mountainous  districts  which  form  such  a  large  por- 
tion of  tho  surface  of  Scotland,  where  heaths  and  natural  grasses 
occupy  tho  soil  and  yield  a  scanty  herbage  for  sheep  and  cattle. 
In  the  return  "permanent  pasture"  is  represented  as  occupying 
an  area  little  more  than  a  third  as  largo  as  that  occupied  by 
arable  land,  while  in  England  tho  two  areas  aro  pretty  nearly 
Mual,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  pasturage  plays  a  much  more  im- 
Iportant  part  in  tho  economy  of  the  Scottish  than  of  the  English 
farmer.  It  will  bo  observed  that  as  regards  the  main  divisions 
of  arable  land  tho  total  arcaa  under  both  corn  crops  and  gieen 
crops  have  been  slightly  decreasing,  while  thero  has  been  a 
considerable  increase  in  the  area  under  rotation  grasses.  Tho  fol- 
lowing table  (XIV.)  shows  tho  yield  of  tho  principal  crops  in 


1857,  1884,  and  1885,  with   the   avera; 
last  two  years  : — 


0   yield  per  acre   in   tli» 


Wheat     .. 
Barley    . . 

Oats    

Beans  > 
r».-ase  J  ■ 
Turnips  .. 
Potatoes.. 


6,154,980 
7,230,207 
32,710,703 

1,037,700 

6,090,109 
430,408 


2,348,201 

7,001, 209 
30,713,321 
J  705,393 
I  38,551 
7,532,779 
9S6,S03 


1,893,,501 
8.24',, 820 
33,407,127 
,  709,577 
'  87,404 
8,49(1,189 
603,.V.'3 


Average  per  Acre 
1835. 


1884. 


3417 

34  •27 
3510 
32 '23 
24-74 
15-53 
6  02 


34-33 
S4-7J} 

srs.i 

30-67 
31-41 
15-30 
"J  SO 


^ ...».^..  vu,,,  u,  ,.v,,ii3u,  uiiiy  uc  reiniracil 

iroximatcly  correct.  Tho  average  yield  of  both  wheat  and 
is  higher  than  that  of  England,  while  the  average  yield  ol 
ats  and  potatoes  is  lower,  which  may  be  accounteif  for  by  the 


This  table  being  founded  on  estimates  can,  of  course,  only  be  regarded 
ns  approximately  correct.  Tho  average  yield  of  both  wheat  and 
barley  is  h"' —  »>.,.»«     . 

both  oats  

fart  that  tho  first  two  crops  occupy  the'  best  soils  of  Scotland] 
while  tho  last  two  occupy  every  variety  of  soil  in  the  country! 
\yheat  is  grown  chiefly  in  tho  sea-coast  districts  and  the  fertile 
nvcr-valleys.  Tho  area  under  wheat  has  declined  more  than  t 
half  since  1867,  tho  combined  causes  of  this  being  wet  seasons  and 
increased  foreign  competition.  Barley,  for  which  the  distillcrio? 
keep  up  a  steady  demand,  and  oats,  the  staple  crop  of  tho  conntrw 
have  rather  increased  in  area  since  1867.  The  area  under  potatocv 
a  very  uncerUin  cro^i— haa  rather  declined  within  recent  Je4r8,  mul 


532 


SCOTLAND 


[statistics. 


that  under  turnips  has  considerably  declined,  partly  owing  to  the 
increased  use  of  artificial  stuffs  in  cattle-feeding.  The  following 
table  (XV.)  shows  the  number  of  live  stock  in  different  years,  with 
the  average  number  to  every  1000  acres  of  cultivated  land  in  1885 
in  Scotland  and  England  : — 


Yearly  Average. 

ISSO. 

1885. 

Average 

per  1000 

Acres  18S5. 

1SG7-70. 

1871-75. 

Scot- 
land. 

Eng- 
land. 

Horses  (including  ponies)— 
Used  solely  for  agricultural 

138,564 
134,307 

136,689 
41,963 

141,332 
52,681 

141,522 
46,770 

29 
10 

SO 
13 

Unbroken  horses  and  mares 
kept  for  breeding 

1172,871 

178,652 

194,013 

188,292 

89 

43 

74 

43 

72 

Cattle- 
Cows  and  heifers  in  milk  or 

380,509 

249,541 
392,330 

392,252 

267,920 
467,165 

837,195 

258,967 
453,124 

419,210 

260,505 
496,289 

87 

54 
102 

243 

Other  cattle— two  years  old 

and  above . . 

,,        under  two  years 

TotaLcattle 

Sheep- 
One  y«r  old  and  above 

1,022,336 

1,127,337 

1,099,286 

1,176,004 

189 

407 
269 

4,532,835 

4,735,008 
2,426,114 

4,651,116 
2,420,972 

4,560,430 
2,396,762 

941 

495 

Totalsheep , 

Pigs  : 

6,937,977 
153,959 

7,161,122 

7,072,088 

6,957,198 

1436 

676 

166,148 

120,925 

150,984 

SI 

82 

Deer 

forests, 
game, 

kc. 


This  table  does  not  indicate  any  constant  decrease  or  increase  in 
any  of  the  classes  of  live  stock.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  average 
number  of  cattle  to  the  acreage  of  cultivated  land  in  Scotland  is 
about  a  third  more  than  in  England,  and  of  sheep  more  than  double 
as  many  ;  but  the  number  of  pigs  in  England  is  more  than  double 
as  many  to  the  acreage  of  cultivated  land  as  it  is  in  Scotland,  and 
.the  number  of  horses  is  greater.  The  special  breeds  of  horses  in 
Scotland  are  the  Shetland  ponies,  the  Highland  ponies,  and  the 
Clydesdale  draught  horses,  the  latter  originally  bred  in  the  Clydes- 
dale district  from  crossing  with  Flemish  stallions  imported  about 
the  beginning  of  the  18th  century.  The  breeds  of  cattle  include 
the  Ayrshire,  which,  since  they  are  chiefly  noted  for  their  yield  of 
milk,  and  are  specially  adapted  for  dairy  farms  (which  prevail 
especially  in  the  south-west  of  Scotland),  have  in  a  great  measure 
supplanted  the  Galloway  in  their  native  district,  except  where  these 
are  kept  for  feeding  purposes ;  the  polled  Angus  or  Aberdeen,  fair 
milkers,  but  chiefly  valuable  for  their  beef-making  qualities,  and 
on  this  account,  as  well  as  their  hardihood,  in  especial  favour  in 
the  north-east  of  Scotland,  where  the  art  of  cattle-feeding  has 
reached  its  greatest  perfection  ;  and  the  west  Highland  breed, 
noted  for  their  long  horns,  their  shagginess,  the  decided  character 
of  their  various  colours — black,  red,  dun,  cream,  and  brindle — 
and  their  power  of  thriving  on  wild  and  heathy  pasture.  The 
special  breeds  of  sheep  are  the  fine-woolled  breed,  peculiar  to  Shet- 
.land  ;  the  blackfaced,  native  to  the  Highland  districts ;  and  the 
Cheviots,  native  to  the  range  of  hills  of  that  name,  and  now  the 
favourite  breed  in  the  south  of  Scotland,  although  border  Leicesters 
and  other  English  breeds,  as  well  as  a  variety  of  crosses,  are  kent 
for  winter  feeding  on  the  lowland  farms. 

The  area  under  orchards  as  returned  on  4th  June  1855  was  1892 
acres  and  under  nursery  gsounds  1654.  Orchards,  chiefly  for  apples, 
ire  most  numerous  in  the  Carse  of  Gowrie  and  the  neighbourhood 
of  Perth,  and  along  the  banks  of  the  Clyde  above  Hamilton. 
The  area  under  woods  in  1812  was  907,695  acres,  of  which  501,469 
acres  were  natural ' woods  and  406,226  planted;  by  1872  it  had 
declined  to  734,490,  but  by  1881  (i.e.,  by  the  latest  return)  it  had 
increased  to  829,476,  the  principal  increase  having  been  in  Aberdeen, 
Perth,  and  Inveiness,  the  counties  where  the  growth  of  woods  is 
largest.     The  Board  of  Trade  returns  do  not  distinguish  between 

Elanted  and  natural  woods,  but  it  is  well  known  that  large  cuttings 
ave  been  made  in  the  indigenous  forests  of  the  Highlands,  while 
at  the  same  time  considerable  attention  has  been  paid  within  the 
present  century  to  the  growth  of  plantations  in  the  Lowlands,  partly 
as  a  covert  for  game  ;  the  science  of  forestry  has  made  great  ad- 
vances within  recent  years  owing  to  the  encouragement  and  guid- 
ance of  the  Scottish  Arboricultural  Society,  established  iu  1654, 
«nd  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society.  The  modern  planta- 
tions are  formed  chiefly  of  Scotch  fir  with  a  sprinkling  of  larch. 
On  the  botany  of  Scotland  H.  C.  Watson's  Topographical  Botany 
(1883)  may  be  consulted. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  crofters  commission,  the  area  under 
deer  forests  in  Scotland  is  1,975,209  acres,  or  about  one-tenth  of  the 
whole  area  of  the  country.  The  species  of  deer  peculiar  to  the 
Scottish  Highlands  is  the  red  deer ;  the  fallow  deer  is  not  uncommon 

1  These  figures  \re  for  1870  only. 


in  the  Lowlands,  especially  in  the  hilly  south-western  districts.  The 
grouse  moors  of  Scotland  occupy  a  much  more  extensive  area,  and  arc 
also  much  more  widely  distributed,  while  they  supply  sport  to  a 
much  greater  number  of  pei'snns.  Ptarmigan  and  blackcock  are 
abundant  in  many  districts ;  and  pheasants  and  partridges,  as  well 
as  hares,  are  carefully  preserved  on  many  estates  in  the  cultivated 
districts.  Rabbits  are  common  throughout  the  whole  country.  Fox- 
hunting is  a  fashionable  sport  in  most  of  the  Lowland  counties ;  but 
otter-hunting  has  almost  died  out.  The  bear,  wolf,  and  beaver,  at 
one  time  common  in  Scotland,  have  become  extinct.  The  last  wolf, 
it  is  said,  was  killed  by  Sir  Ewen  Cameron  of  Lochiel  in  1680.  Th« 
wild  cat  is  still  to  be  found  in  the  Highlands,  and  the  polecat,  ermine, 
and  pine  marten  exist  in  considerable  numbers.  The  golden  eagle 
and  the  white-tailed  eagle  tenant  the  wilder  mountainous  districts, 
but  other  larger  birds  of  prey,  as  the  osprey  and  the  kite,  arc 
becoming  scarce.  In  all  there  are  more  than  300  species  of  birds 
in  Scotland,  including  a  great  variety  of  water-fowl  in  the  sea 
and  inland  lochs. 

Fisheries. — Details  regarding  the  Scottish  fisheries  will  he  found  Fisheri! 
under  Fisheries  (vol.  Ix.  pp.  257-262).  The  former  Board  of  AVhite 
Herring  Fishery  was  abolished  in  1882  and  the  Fishery  Board  of 
Scotland  established,  which  has  devoted  more  systematic  attention 
to  the  collection  of  statistics  and  the  general  encouragement  of  the 
.industry.  In  1856  the  herring  and  deep-sea  fisheries  engaged  only 
about  30,000  persons  in  Scotland,  but  in  1884  they  employed  directly 
or  indirectly  103,804  persons,  while  the  total  estimated  produce 
in  1884  was  valued  at  £3,351,848, — the  value  of  cured  fish  being 
£2,279,614  (herrings,  £2,121,346;  cod,  ling,  and  hake  dried, 
£149,407;  ditto  pickled,  £8861);  ofwhite  fish  sold  fresh,  £716,295 
(haddocks,  £300,712  ;  herrings,  £150,720;  cod,  ling,  and  hake, 
£97,443;  torsk  and  saithe,  £10,481;  whitings,  £32,808;  sprats, 
£5232  ;  mackerel,  £5286  ;  turbot,  £9363  ;  holibut,  £17,624  ; 
flounders,  £47,723  ;  skate,  £14,17  ;  soles  and  other  flat  fish, 
*'24,727);  of  shell-fish,  £80,939  ;  and  of  salmon,  £275,000.. 

Mining  Indtistries. — The  chief  sources  of  the  mineral  wealth  ofCo:li 
Scotland  are  coal  and  iron,  which  are  generally  found  in  convenient 
juxtaposition.  ■  The  principal  coal-fields  are  described  under  Coal 
(vol.  vi  p.  52  sq.).  The  privilege  of  digging  coal  in  the  lands  of 
Pittencrieff  was  conferred  by  charter  on  the  abbot  and  convenft 
of  Dunfermline  in  1291,  and  at  a  very  early  period  the  monks  of 
Newbattle  Abbey  dug  coal  from  surface-pits  on  the  banks  of  the 
Esk.  .^neas  Sylvius  (afterwards  Pope  Pius  II.),  who  visited 
Scotland  in  the  15th  century,  refers  to  the  fact  that  the  poor 
people  received  at  the  church  doors  a  species  of  stone  which  they 
burned  in  place  of  wood  ;  but,  although  the  value  of  coal  for  smith's 
and  artificer's  work  was  early  recognized,  it  was  not  generally 
employed  for  domestic  purposes  till  about  the  close  of  the  16th 
century.  In  1606  an  Act  was  passed  binding  colliers  to  perpetual 
service  at  the  works  at  which  they  were  engaged,  and  their  full 
emancipation  did  not  take  place  till  1799.  An  Act  was  passed  in 
1843  forbidding  the  employment  of  childreh  of  tender  years  and 
of  women  in  underground  mines.  According  to  the  census  of  1851, 
the  number  of  persons  engaged  in  connexion  with  coal-mining  was 
36,973  males  and  358  females  (the  latter  employed  above  groundX 
and  in  1881  the  numbers  were  53,340  and  401.  According  to  tho 
mineral  statistics  of  1885  there  were  69,425  persons  employed  in 
tho  coal-mines  of  Scotland, — 45,082  in  the  western  and  24,343  in 
the  eastern  district.  The  output  within  twenty  years  has  been 
more  than  doubled.  In  1854  it  was  7,488,000  tons,  by  1866  it  had 
increased  to  12,034,638,  and  in  1884  it  was  21,186,688. 

The  rise  of  the  iron  industry  in  Scotland  dates  from  the  establish-  Iron. 
ment  in  1760  of  the  Carron  ironworks  near  Falkirk.  The  number 
of  persons  employed  in  iron-mining  in  1851  was  7648,  and  in  iron 
manufacture  13,296  ;  and  by  1881  the  numbers  had  increased 
respectively  to  10,473  and  38,309.  The  total  output  of  iron  ore 
and  ironstona  in  Scotland  in  1884  was  1,885,376  tnns,  valued  at 
£854,416,  less  than  the  estimated  amount  in  1858,  which  was 
2,312,000  tons,  valued  at  £750,000.  There  has  been  no  increase  in 
the  manufacture  of  pig-iron  since  about  1866.  The  imports  of  iron 
ore  were  356,380  tons  in  1883,  valued  at  £359,918,  and  in  1884 
406,007  tons,  valued -at  £356,451.  The  production  of  pig-iron 
increased  with  great  rapidity  after  the  introduction  of  railways. 
In  1796  the  quantity  produced  was  18,640  tons,  and  in  1830  only 
37,500  ;  in  1840  it  had  risen  to  241,000,  in  1845  to  475,-000,  in  1865 
to  1,164,000  ;  but  in  1884  it  was  only  988,000,  the  industry  being- 
confined  to  Ayrshire,  Fifeshire,  and  Lanarkshire.  The  iron-mills 
and  forges  in  operation  are  confined  to  the  last  county,  there  being 
in  1884  22  works,  334  puddling  furnaces,  and  82  rolling  mills.  In 
1884  there  were  63  open-hearth  steelworks  in  operation,  of  which 
46  were  in  Glasgow,  10  in  Holytown,  4  in  Motherwell,  and  3  in 
Wishaw,  the  quantity  made  in  1884'being  208,650  tons; 

Since  about  the  years  1850-55  shale-mining  has  become  an  im- 
portant industry,  especially  in  Linlithgowshire  and  Midlothian, 
the  total  quantity  raised  in  Scotland  in  1884  being  1,469,649  tons, 
valued  at  £370,024.  Lead  ore  is  worked  at  Abington  in  Lanark- 
shire and  Wanlockhead  in  Dumfriesshire  ;  the  dressed  lead  ore 
obtained  amounts  to  4327  tons,  valued  at  £34,997,  and  yielding 


STATISTICS.] 


SCOTLAND 


533 


8219  tons  of  lead  and  20,011  onnces  of  silver.  The  amount  of  fire- 
%  clay  dug  in  1884  was  463,294  tons,  valued  at  £56,237.-  Stone  quarry- 
ing, especially  of  granite,  sandstone,  flagstone,  slate,  and  limestone, 
is  extensively  carried  on,  but  the  returns  of  the  several  amounts 
raised  annually  are  incomplete.  The  number  of  persons  engaged 
in  quarries  in  1881  was  13,742,  and  the  value  of  the  materials  raised 
in  1884  was  estimated  at  jei,030,650.  The  principal  granite  works 
occur  in  Aberdeenshire  and  Kirkcudbrightshire,  while  freestone 
quarries  are  common  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  Lowland 
district,  although  whinstone  also  is  frequently  used  for  building 
purposes.  Large  quantities  of  paving  stones  are  exported  from 
Caithness  and  Forfarshire,  and  there  are  very  extensive  slate-quarries 
at  Ballachulish  and  other  places  in  Argj-llshire. 

Manu/aclures. — Although  a  company  of  woollen  weavers  was 
incorporated  by  the  town  council  of  Edinburgh  in  1475,  the  cloth 
■worn  by  the  wealthier  classes  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century  was  of  English  or  French  manufacture,  the  lower  classes 
wearing  "  coarse  cloth  made  at  home,"  in  the  fashion  still  prevailing 
in  tho  remoter  districts  of  the  Highlands.  In  1601  seven  Flemings 
were  brought  to  Edinburgh  by  commissioners  from  the  bnrghs  to 
instruct  the  people  in  the  manufacture  of  serges  and  broadclotli,  and 
eight  years  later  a  company  of  Flemings  was  established  in  the 
Canongate  (Edinburgh)  for  the  manufacture  of  cloth  under  tho 
special  protection  of  the  king ;  but,  notwithstanding  also  the 
establishment  in  1681  of  an  English  company  for  the  manufacture 
of  woollen  fabrics  near  Haddington,  the  industry  for  more  than 
fifty  years  after  this  made  very  tardy  progress  in  the  country.  In 
fact  its  importance  dates  from  the  introduction  and  improvement 
of  machinery  in  the  19th  century.  The  most  important  branch  of 
the  trade,  that  of  tweeds,  first  began  to  attract  attention  shortly 
after  1830  ;  though  still  having  its  principal  seat  in  the  district 
from  which  it  taKcs  its  name,  including  Galashiels,  Hawick,  In- 
nerleithen, and  Selkirk,  it  extends  to  a  large  number  of  towns 
throughout  Scotland,  especially  to  Aberdeen,  Elgin,  Inverness, 
Stirling,  Bannockburn,  and  Paisley.  The  chief  sent  of  the  hosiery 
trade  is  Hawick,  Carpet  manufacture  has  had  its  principal  seat 
in  Kilmarnock  since  1817,  but  is  also  carried  on  in  Aberdeen,  Ayr, 
Bannockburn,  Glasgow,  Paisley,  and  other  towns.  Tartans  are 
largely  manufactured  in  Tillicoultry,  Bannockburn,  and  KUmarnock, 
and  shawls  and  plaids  are  largely  manufactured  in  several  towns. 
In  1850  there  were  in  Scotland  188  woollen  and  worsted  factories, 
■with  233,533  spindles  and  247  power-looms,  employing  10,210 
persons.  Twenty -eight  years  later  (1878)  the  total  number  of 
factories  was  246,  in  which  there  were  559,021  spinning  spindles, 
62,013  doubling  spindles,  and  6284  power-looms,  the  number  of 
persons  employed  being  22,667,  of  whom  10,083  were  males  and 
12,584  females. 
Iiinen  The  manufacture  of  cloth  from  flax  is  of  very  ancient  date  in 

•nd  jote  Scotland,  and  towards  tho  close  of  the  16th  century  Scottish  linen 
cloths  were  largely  exported  to  foreign  countries,  besides  having  an 
extensive  sale  in  England.  Regulations  in  regard  to  the  manufacture 
were  passed  in  1641  and  1661.  In  a  petition  presented  to  the  privy 
council  in  1684,  complaining  of  the  severe  treatment  of  Scotsmen 
selling  linen  in  England,  it  was  stated  that  12,000  persons  were 
engaged  in  the  manufacture.  Through  the  intercession  of  the 
secretary  of  state  with  the  king  these  restrictions  were  removed. 
To  further  encourage  the  trade  it  was  enacted  in  1686  that  the 
bodies  of  all  persons,  with  the  exception  of  poor  tenants  and  cotters, 
should  be  buried  in  plain  linen  only,  spun  and  made  within  the 
kingdom.  The  Act  was  repeated  in  1693  and  1695,  and  in  the 
former  year  another  Act  was  passed  prohibiting  the  export  of  lint. 
and  permitting  its  import  free  of  duty.  At  the  time  of  the  Union 
the  annual  amount  of  linen  cloth  manufactured  in  Scotland  is 
supposed  to  have  been  about  1,600,000  yards.  Tho  Union  gave 
a  considerable  impetus  to  the  manufacture,  ns  did  also  the. 
establishment  of  tho  Board  ef  Manufactures  in  1727,  which  applied 
an  annual  sum  of  £2650  to  its  encouragement,  and  in  1729 
established  a  colony  of  French  Protestants  in  Edinburgh,  on  tho 
site  of  the  present  Picardy  Place,  to  teach  the'spinning  and  weaving 
of  cambric.  From  Ist  November  1727  to  1st  November  1728  tho 
amount  of  linen  cloth  stamped  in  Scotland  was  2,183,978  yards, 
valued  at  £103,312,  but  by  the  year  ending  1st  November  1771  it 
had  increased  to  13,672,548  yards,  valued  at  £632,389,  during  tho 
year  ending  1st  November  1798  to  21,297,059,  valued  at  £850,405, 
and  by  the  year  ending  Ist  November  1822,  when  the  regulations 
as  to  tho  inspection  and  stamping  of  linen  ceased,  to  36,263,530 
yards,  valued  at  £1,396,296.  The  counties  in  which  the  mr.nufaeturo 
IS  now  most  largely  carried  on  are  Forfar,  Perth,  Fife,  Kinross, 
and  Clackmannan,  but  Aberdeen,  Renfrew,  Lanark,  Edinburgh, 
and  Ayr  aro  also  in  a  considerable  degree  associated  with  it. 
Dundee  is  the  principal  seat  of  tho  coarser  fabrics,  Dunfermline 
•of  the  table  and  other  finer  linens,  while  Paisley  is  widely  known 
for  its  sewing  threads.  The  allied  industry  of  juto  ia  tho  staple 
industry  of  Dundee.  Tho  number  of  persona  employed  in  tho 
flax-factories  of  Scotland  in  1837  was  15,462.  Tho  following  table 
(XVI.)  gives  particulars  of  these  factories  for  tho  years  1856,  1867, 
Uidl878:— 


Years. 

Factories. 

Spindles. 

Power- 
Looms. 

Persona 
emi>loyed. 

SpiDDing.  1   Doubling. 

1856 

iso; 

1S7S 

168 
1!'- 
1J5 

278,304 

487,i79 

205,063      1       18,405 

4,011 
19,i»17 
16,753 

31,722 
77,165 
.6,47tf 

Principally  owing  to  foreign  competition,   the  linen  manufacture 
has  witliin  recent  years  been  in  a  very  languid  condition. 

The  first  cotton-mill  in  Scotland  was  built  at  Rothesay  by  an 
English  Company  in  1778.  It  was  soon  afterwards  acquired  by 
David  Dale,  who  was  the  agent  in  Scotland  for  Arkwright,  and 
had  the  invaluable  aid  of  his  counsel  and  advice.  Dale  also  estab- 
lished cotton-factories  in  1785  at  New  Lanark,  afterwards  so  closely 
associated  ■with  the  socialistic  schemes  of  his  son-in-law,  Robert 
Owen,  and  thus  laid  tho  foundation  of  the  industry  in  the  two 
counties,  Lanark  and  Renfrew,  which  are  now  its  principal  seats 
in  Scotland.  Nine-tenths  of  the  cotton -factories  of  Scotland  are 
now  concentrated  in  Glasgow,  Paisley,  and  the  neighbouring  towns, 
but  the  industry  extends  into  other  districts  of  the  west  of  Scotland 
and  is  also  represented  in  the  counties  of  Aberdeen,  Perth,  and 
Stirling.  The  following  table  (XVII.)  gives  particulars  for  1850. 
1861,  1875,  and  1885  :t- 


Tears. 

Factories. 

Spindles. 

Power 
Looms. 

Persons 
employed. 

1850 

168 
163 
06 

147 

1,683,093 
1,915,398 
1,711,214 
1,149,514 

23,564 
80,110 
29,171 
29,684 

34,825 
41,237 
6.5,652 
87,167 

ISlil 

1875 

1835 

For  further  particulars  regarding  the  manufacture  in  Scotland,  see 
Cotton,  vol.  vi.  pp.  501-503. 

Silk  is  manufactured  in  Paisley  and  Glasgow,  but  the  industry  Silk,  &tt 
is  of  minor  importance,  employing  only  about  600  persons.     Floor- 
cloth is  manufactured  at  Kirkcaldy,  where  also  the  first  linoleum 
factory  in  Scotland  was  established  in  1877. 

Next  to  textile  fabrics,  the  most  important  manufacture  in  Whisky 
Scotland  is  that  of  whisky,  in  which  it  has  Ireland  for  its 
only  competitor.  Distillation  was  introduced  into  Scotland  from 
England,  but  by  1771  largo  quantities  of  spirits  were  sent  to 
England  from  Scotland.  The  legal  manufacture  of  whisky  was 
greatly  checked  in  the  19th  century  by  occasional  excessive  ad- 
vances in  the  rates  of  duty,  but  after  the  reduction  to  2s.  4Jd.  per 
gallon  in  1823  the  number  of  licensed  distillers  rapidly  increased, 
while  illegal  distillation  became  much  less  common.  The  following 
table  (XVIII.)  shows  the  number  of  gallons  made  in  various  years 
since  1824  : — 


Tear. 

Gallons. 

Tear. 

Gallons. 

Tear. 

Gallons. 

1824 
1840 

6,108,873 
9,032,358 

1865 
1865 

11,283,036 
18,445,752 

1878 
1884 

17,670.460 
20,104,962 

Ale  was  a  common  beverage  in  Scotland  as  early  as  the  12th  Beer^ 
century,  there  being  one  or  more  brew-houses  attached  to  every 
religious  house  and  barony.  So  important  was  the  use  of  the  bever- 
age even  in  tho  beginning  of  the  18th  century  that  a  threatened 
imposition  of  a  tax  on  malt  in  1725  led  to  serious  riots  in  Glasgow 
and  a  proposal  to  rc])cal  the  Union,  Though  ale  has  been  sujier- 
seded  by  whisky  as  the  nationtl  beverage,  Scotland  still  possesses 
several  large  breweries,  and  Edinburgh  ales  vie  in  repute  with  those 
of  Burton-on-Trent.  The  number  of  barrels  charged  with  duty  in 
Scotland  in  1886  was  1,237,323,  tho  number  in  England  being 
24,519,173. 

The  first  sugar-refinery  in  Scotland  was  erected  in  1765  in  Miscali 
Greenock,  where  the  industry  made  rapid  progress  and  has  still  laueou|» 
its  principal  seat,  although  it  is  extensively  carried  on  in  Lcith  indus- 
and  in  a  lesser  degree  in  Glasgow  and  Dundee.     Glass-making,  trio\ 
introduced  in  1610  by  Sir  John  Hay  at  Wemyss  in  Fife,  is  now  of 
considerable  importance,  Edinburgh  being  celebrated  for  the  liner 
branches  of  tho  manufacture.      A  paper-mill  was  erected  in  1675  at 
Dairy  Mills  on  the  Water  of  Lcith,  in  which  French  workmen  were 
employed  to  give  instruction,  with  the  result,  as  was  reported  by  tho 
owners,  that  "grey  and  blue  paper  was  produced  much  finer  than 
ever  was  done  before  in  the  kingdom."   Tho  most  important  scat  of 
tho  industry  is  now  Valleyfieldnear  Penicuik,  where  it  wa.s  intro- 
duced in  1709.     Edinburgh  has  .sinco  tho  time  of  the  Halinntynes 
enjoyed  a  widely-extended  famo  for  tho  excellence  and  beauty  of  its 
printing.     Tho  other  manufactures  prevailing  in  dilferent  parts  oi 
Scotland,  such  as  those  of  leather,  soap,  enrtlienwaro  and  hardwaroj 
carriages,  and  tho  various  implements  and  utensils  in  general  use^ 
do  not  call  for  special  characterization. 

Commerce  anl Shipping. — That  Srotlanil  had  a  considerable  trade 
with  foreign  countries  at  a  very  early  period  may  b«  inferred  from 
tho  importation  of  rich  dresses  by  Malcolm  III.  and  tho  enjoy, 
ment  of  Oriental  luxuries  by  Alexander  I.  David  I.  receives  tho 
special  praise  of  Fordun  for  enriching  "the  ports  of  his  kingdom 
with  foreign  merchandise."     In  the  13th  century  the  Scots  had 


534 


SCOTLAND 


I  STATISTICS. 


acquired  a  considerable  celebrity  in  shipbuilding  ;  and  a  powerful 
Freu'-h  baron  had  a  ship  specially  built  at  Inverness  in  1249  to 
convey  him  and  his  vassals  to  the  Holy  Land.  The  principal  ship- 
owners at  this  peiiod  were  the  clergy,  who  embarked  the  wealth  of 
their  religious  houses  in  commercial  enterprises.  Definite  state- 
ments regarding  the  number  and  tonnage  of  shipping  arc,  however, 
lackin"  till  the  16th  century.  From  two  reports  printed  by  the 
Scottish  Eurgh  Record  Society  in  1S81,  it  appears  that  the  number 
of  vessels  belonging  to  the  principal  ports— Leith,  Dundee,  Glasgow, 
Kirkcaldy,  and  Montrose— in  1656  was  58,  the  tonnage  being  3140, 
and  fliat  by  1692  they  had  increased  to  97  of  5905  tons.  These 
figures  only  represent  a  portion  of  the  total  shipping  of  the  king- 
dom. At  the  time  of  the  Union  in  1707  the  number  of  vessels 
was  215  of  14,485  tons.  The  following  table  (XIX.)  gives  the 
numbers  for  various  years  from  1850  : — 


is:o. 

isr.o. 

1          1S70. 

1          I 884. 

.Vo. 

Tons. 

No.      Tons. 

1  No. 

Tjns. 

1  No. 

Tons. 

Sailing  vessels 
Steam  vessels 

Total    .... 

3432 
109 

401, 3M 
30,827 

3172     552,212 
314  1    71,579 

2715 
,    5S2 

727,942 
209,142 

'2005 
1403 

34flS 

827,295 
800,750 

3C01 

522,222 

3480  i  623,701 

,3297 

937,084 

1,694,075 

Table  XX.  shows  the  progress  of  the  coasting  and  foreign  trade 
since  1855: — • 


Tear. 

Cn.-isting. 

Colonial  and  Foreign. 

Total.                I 

Entered. 

Cleared. 

Entered.   |    Cleared. 

Entered. 

Cleared. 

1855 
18S0 
18S4 

1,903,552 
6,023,853 
7,107,230 

2,057,936 
5,091,136 
0,098,938 

608,078 
2,700,915 
3,073,501 

840,150 
3,001,897 
3,638,423 

3,631,030 
9,329,708 
10,240,791 

2,898,056 
8,093,033 
9,737,301 

Table  XXI.  shows  the  great  expansion  of  the  foreign  and  colonial 
trade  since  1755: — 


Year. 

Imports. 

Exports. 
£535,576 

Tear. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

1755 

£464,411 

1825 

£4,994,304 

£5,842,296 

17-90 

1,083,837 

1,235,405 

1851 

8,921,108 

6,016,110 

1795 

1,203.520 

970,791 

1874 

31,012,730 

17,912,932 

1800 

2.212,790 

2,340,009 

ISSO 

34,997,052 

18,243,078 

1815 

3,447,853 

6,997.709 

1SS4 

30,600,238 

20,322,355 

The  value  of  the  imports  into  Scotland  is  only  about  a  tenth  of 
that  of  England,  but  this  does  not  represent  the  proper  proportion 
of  foreign  imports  used  or  consumed  in  Scotland,  as  large  quantities 
find  their  way  to  Scotland  from  England  by  rail, — nearly  all  the 
tea,  for  example,  consumed  in  Great  Britain  being  imported  iuto 
London,  while  various  otjher  ports  have  almost  a  monopoly  of 
certain  other  imports.  Reckoning  by  the  conibiaed  value  of  their 
imports  and  exports,  the  principal  ports  of  Scotland  are  Glasgow, 
Leith,  Greenock,  Dundee,  Grangemouth,  and  Aberdeen,  in  the  order 
named,  but  for  particulars  regarding  the  trade  of  these  and  other 
poits  reference  must  be  made  to  the  articles  on  the  several  towns. 

For  many  of  the  most  important  imjirovements  in  the  coustruc- 
tion  of  ships,  especially  steam  vessels.  Great  Britain  is  indebted  to 
the  enterprise  and  skill  of  the  Clyde  shipbuilders.  From  th<?^ime 
of  the  construction  by  Mr  Robert  Napier  of  the  steamers  for  the 
Cunard  line,  formed  ia  1840,  the  shipbuildei-s  on  the  Clyde  have 
enjoyed  an  unrivalled  reputation  for  the  construction  of  large  ocean 
steamers,  both  as  regards  mechanical  appliances  and  the  beauty 
and  convenience  of  the  internal  arrangements.  Shipbuilding  is 
also  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent  at  Dundee,  Leith,  and 
Aberdeen,  and  to  a  certain  degree  at  most  of  the  ports  of  the  king- 


d^.m,  but  within  recent  years  the  industry  has  been  in  a  very 
iiuctu.atiiig  condition,  the  tonnage  of  the  vessels  construtt.-d  aimu-  ^ 
ally  varying  between  l&SO  and  1SS5  from  a  little  over  100,000  to 
nearly  300,000. 

Nalimud  IFcallJi. — The  immense  increase  in  the  wcalla  ofXatioBi 
Scotland  within  the  last  200  years  is  suHiciently  proved  by  :iie  fact  wealfh 
that,  while  in  1674  the  valued  rent  was  only  £3,656,408  Scots  or 
£304,700  sterling,  the  gross  annual  value  of  the  hnd  according  to 
the  estimate  in  the  return  of  1873  was  £18,698,804,  or  more  t°han 
sixty  times  as  much,  and  about  fifteen  times  as  great  as  the 
proportional  increase  of  population.  This  increase  is  of  course 
partly  duo  to  agricultural  improvements  and  partly  to  the  discoveiy 
and  devciopment  of  the  mineral  wealth  in  coal  and  iron,  but  it  may 
also  be  accounted  for  by  the  smaller  representative  value  of  money, 
and  by  the  fictitious  increase  in  rents  in  towns,  which  does  not 
represent  an  increase  in  absolute  value.  The  annual  value  of  real 
property  assessed  for  income-tax  under  schedule  A  in  1843  was 
£9,481,000  ;  the  average  value  for  the  three  years  ending  5th  April 
1883  was  £16,995,718,  and  for  the  j-ear  ending  5th  April  1884  the 
value  was  £17,066,705.  For  the  year  ending  5tli  April  1857  the 
amount  of  property  and  income  charged  with  duty  was  £22,563,238  ; 
and  during  the  following  twenty-five  years  it  was  more  than  doubled,' 
the  average  amount  for  the  three  years  ending  5th  April  1883  bein  » 
£48,069,765,  and  for  the  year  ending  5th  April  18S4  £49,600,348? 
This  is  less  than  a  tenth  of  that  for  the  United  Kingdom.  The 
total  amount  of  money  lying  in  deposit  in  savings  banks  in  18S4 
was  £7,709,471,— about  a  seventh  part  of  the  whole  amount 
deposited  in  the  savings  banks  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Notice  of 
the  rise  and  progress  of  banking  in  Scotland  will  be  found  under 
B.4XKIN-G  (vol.  iii.  pp.  332-336).  The  total  paid-up  capita!  of  the 
Scottish  banks  at  the  dates  of  balance  iu  1885  was  £9,052,000  and 
their  total  liabilities  £107,882,595. 

i^f^jica^ion.— Notices  of  the  existence  of  schools  in  the  principal  Element 
towns  occur  as  early  .as  the  13th  century.  They  were  under  theary 
supervision  of  the  chancellor  of  each  d'iocese  and  were  chiefly  sclnoU- 
devoted  to  studies  preparatory  for  the  church.  Previous  to  the 
Reformation  schools  for  general  education  were  attached  to  many 
religious  houses.  In  the  First  Book  of  Discipline,  1560,  a  com- 
prehensive  scheme  of  general  education  was  projiounded,  but  neither 
this  proposal  nor  an  Act  passed  in  1616  by  the  privy  council  for  the 
establishment  of  a  school  in  every  parish  was  carried  into  effect ; 
and  the  system  of  parochial  schools  which  prevailed  till  the  passing 
of  theEdueation  Act  of  1872  really  dates  from  the  Act  of  'William 
and  Mary  in  1696  providing  for  the  maintenance  of  a  school  in 
every  parish  at  the  cost  of  the  heritors.  The  various  religious 
secessions  in  Scotland  led  to  the  founding  of  a  large  number  of 
denominational  and  subscription  schools,  and  at  the  Disruption  in 
1843  the  Free  Church  made  provision  for  the  supply  of  secular 
education  as  well  as  religious  instruction  to  its  adherents.  The 
Education  Act  of  1872  abolished  the  old  management  of  the  parish 
schools,  and  provided  for  the  creation  of  districts  under  the  manage- 
ment  of  school  boards  elected  for  three  years  by  the  ratepayers, 
male  and  female.  These  boards  have  the  power  to  levy  rates  for 
the  maintenance  and  erection  of  schools  for  primary  instruction, 
elect  the  teachers,  and  enforce  the  clause  in  regard  to  compulsory 
attendance.  The  maintenance  of  schools  is  also  aided  by  a  Govern- 
ment grant,  and  the  salary  of  the  teacher  is  paid  partly  by  school 
fees  and  partly  by  a  grant  dependent  upon  the  result  of  the  examina- 
tion of  the  scholars  by  the  Government  inspector,  the  school  board 
having  the  power,  however,  to  make  their  own  terms  with  the 
teacher.  Denominational  schools  are  permitted  to  receive  a  Govern- 
ment grant.  The  following  table  (XXII.)  shows  the  proportion 
of  persons  in  the  receipt  of  education  in  Scotland  in  1861  1871 
andlSSl:—  ' 


Tear. 


1861 
1871 
1881 


Population  at  different  Ages. 


0-5  years.  5-15  years.  15  and  above.      Total. 


417,259 
455,620 
610,591 


085,912 
770,871 
855,015 


1,959,123 
2,127,527 
2,309,907 


3,052,294 
3,300,018 
3,735,573 


Persons  in  Receipt  of  Education. 


0-5  years.  5-15  years.  15  and  above.       Total. 


8,666 
10,025 
14,152 


439,388 
541,995 
675,314 


19,002 
22,101 
30,033 


407,056 
674,121 
720,099 


Percentages  to  the  Population  at  each  Age. 


0-5  years. 


5-15  years. 


2-03 
219 
2-77 


64  05 
69-77 
78-98 


15  and  above. 


0  96 
104 
1-29 


Total. 


15-25 
17-09 
19-28 


Particulars  iu  regard  to  schools  under  school  board  management 
are  given  in  the  following  table  (XXIII.) : — 


1 

il 

II 

School 
Places. 

Expentli- 

turc  per 
Scliolar  on 

Average 
Attenilaitce. 

tjcliolar.s 
Examined 
in  Higher 

Subjects. 

II 

u 

1875 
18S4 

£551,140 
938,223 

314,104 
458,121 

391,538, 
035,072 

27^0 
3131 

£1  15    Pi'  12,953 
2    1    5J'   61,429 

3811 
6220 

129 
1012 

4262 
3629  1 

All  the  training  colleges  for  teachers  in  board  schools  are  connected 
with  religious  denominations— three  with  the  Established  Church, 
three  \vith  the  Free  Church,  and  one  with  the  Episcopal  Church. 

As  early  as  the  14th  century  some  of  the  burghs  had  grammar- 
schools  partly  under  the  control  of  the  magistrates.     In  1496  an 


Act  was  passed  enjoining  the  attendance  at  the  schools  of  the  eldest 
sons  of  barons  and  freeholders  untU  "they  be  founded  in  perfect 
Latin,  and  thereafter  to  remain  at  the  schools  of  arts  and  law" 
(where  ecclesiastics  were  trained).  The  grammar  or  burgh  schools 
enjoyed  a  monopoly  of  teaching  certain  branches,  and  private 
schools  were  frequently  prohibited  as  interfering  with  their  rights.' 
Grammar-schools  were  chiefly  devoted  to  instruction  in  Latin,  and. 
the  course  usually  extended  to  five  years.  According  to  the  report 
of  the  education  commissioners,  the  number  of  burgh  schools  in 
1867  was  twenty-six.  By  the  Act  of  1872  their  management  was 
transferred  to  the  school  board,  but  they  were  excluded'from  parti- 
cipation in  the  school  fund,  and  uo  provision  was  meda  for  their 
inspection.  The  Act  of  1878  authorized  certain  grants  of  mon.y, 
and  contained  certain  provisions  for  inspection,  which,  however, 
have  been  practically  inoperative.  The  Educational  Endowments 
Act  of  1882  provides  for  a  more  comprehensive  scheme  for  the 


BTATIST1C8.1 


SCOTLAND 


535 


promotion  of  secondary  education,  and  also  for  a  scheme  of 
systematic  inspection.  These  educational  endowments — the  result 
of  private  bequest — yield  an  annual  income  of  £176,000,  and,  on 
account  of  the  changed  conditions  of  society,  the  primary  objects 
of  the  donors  were  in  a  great  degree  frustrated  by  the  manner  in 
•which  they  were  being  administered.  Some  of  the  best  secondary 
schools  in  Scotland  are  under  the  management  of  trustees.  For 
the  four  universities  of  Scotland  (St  Andrews,  Aberdeen,  Glasgow, 
and  Edinburgh)  see  the  articles  on  these  cities,  also  Universities. 
University  College  in  Dundee  and  Anderson's  College  in  Glasgow 
have  similar  courses  of  instruction  to  the  universities,  but  possess 
EO  power  to  grant  degrees  and  receive  no  Government  aid.  A 
notice  of  the  various  medical  schools  aud  scientific  colleges  will  be 
found  in  the  articles  on  the  towns  in  which  they  are  situated. 

Religion. — For  an  historical  account  of  the  more  important 
religious  denominations  of  Scotland  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
articles  Scotland,  Chuhch  of,  Free  Church  of  ScoTL.tND, 
United  Pkesbyteriajn  Church,  and  Pkesbtterianism.  The 
tulk  of  the  population  is  Presbyterian,  and  the  following  table 
{XXIV.)  gives  particulars  reported  in  1S85  regarding  the  Church  of 
Scotland  and  other  churches  originated  by  secessions  from  it  at 
Tarious  times,— the  "  contributions  "  indicating  the  amounts  raised 
ty  the  churches  for  all  purposes,  and  of  course  excluding  the 
endowments  of  the  Established  Church  :— 


Church  of 
Scotland. 

Free 
Church. 

U.P. 

Church. 

Evancr. 
Union. 

Original 
Seceders. 

Reformod 
Presby. 

CoDgrcgations . . 

Members  

Contributions  .. 

1,479 

605,201 
£366,431 

1,067 

829,541 

£626,028 

643 

177,617 

£387,355 

87 

13,210 

£21,760 

27 

8249 

£5609 

12 

1037 

£2592 

Othei 
icno- 
[uina- 
tiouj. 


Parlia- 
mentary 
repre- 
senta- 
tion. 


aw. 


The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  327  "  churches,  chapels,  and 
stations," — the  estimated  population  connected  with  it  being  over 
340,000.  The  Episcopal  Church  in  Scotland  has  about  250  churches 
with  80,000  members  (of  all  ages)  and  nearly  30,000  communi- 
cants. The  churches  in  connexion  with  the  Congregational  Union 
number  101,  73  of  which  report  a  membership  of  10,869,  the  money 
raised  for  all  purposes  in  1834-85  being  £23,027.  The  Baptist 
Union  has  88  churches  with  9683  members ;  and  the  Wesleyau 
Methodists  have  26  "circuits"  \vith  4653.  There  are  a  few  other 
religious  denominations,  such  as  the  Primitive  Methodists,  the 
Catholic  Apostolic  Church,  and  the  Glassites,  but  the  member- 
ship of  each  is  comparatively  small. 

Government,  Law,  and  Local  Administration. — By  the  Act  of 
Union  in  1707  Scotland  ceased  to  have  a  separate  parliament  and 
its  government  was  assimilated  to  that  of  England.  In  the 
parliament  of  Great  Britain  its  representation  was  fij^ed  at  sixteen 
peers  (the  same  number  as  at  present)  elected  by  the  peei;?  of 
Scotland  at  each  new  parliament,  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and  at 
forty- five  members  in  the  Houso  of  Commons, — the  counties 
returning  thirty  and  the  burghs  fifteen.  The  power  of  the  sove- 
reign to  create  new  Scottish  peerages  lapsed  at  the  Union,  and  their 
number  has  already  diminished  by  nearly  one-half.  By  the  Reform 
Act  of  1832  the  number  of  Scottish  representatives  in  the  Commons 
was  raised  to  fifty-three,  the  counties  under  a  slightly  altered 
arrangement  returning  thirty  members  as  before,  and  the  bm'ghs, 
reinforced  by  the  erection  of  various  towns  into  parliamentary 
burghs,  twenty-three  the  second  Reform  Act  (1868)  increased 
the  number  to  sixty,  the  universities  obtaining  representation  by 
two  members,  while  three  additional  members  were  assigned  to  the 
counties  and  two  to  the  burghs  ;  by  the  Redistribution  of  Seats  Act 
of  18S5  an  addition  of  six  members  was  made  to  the  representation 
of  the  counties  and  six  to  that  of  tho  burghs,  the  total  representation 
being  raised  to  seventy-two.  Tho  management  of  Scottish  business 
in  parliament  has  since  1885  been  under  the  charge  of  tho  secretary 
for  Scotland. 

At  tho  Union  Scotland  retained  its  old  system  of  law  and  legal 
administration,  a  system  modelled  on  that  of  France  ;  but  since  the 
Union  tho  laws  of  England  and  Scotland  have  been  on  many 
points  assimilated,  the  criminal  law  of  tho  two  countries  being 
now  practically  identical,  although  the  methods  of  procedure  are 
in  many  respects  different.  The  Court  of  Session,  as  the  supreme 
court  in  civil  causes  is  called,  dates  from  1532,  and  was  formed 
on  the  model  of  the  parlemont  of  Paris  ;  it  is  held  at  Edinburgh, 
the  capital.  Since  tlie  Union  it  lias  undergone  certain  modilica- 
tions.  It  consists  of  thirteen  judges,  acting  in  an  Inner  and 
an  Outer  House.  Tho  Inner  Houso  has  two  divisions,  with  four 
judges  each,  the  first  being  presided  over  by  tho  lord  president 
of  the  whole  court,  and  the  second  by  tho  lord  justice  clerk.  In 
the  Outer  House  five  judges,  called  lords  ordinary,  sit  in  separaie 
courts.  Appeals  may  be  made  from  the  lords  ordinary  to  cither 
of  the  divisions  of  tho  Inner  Houso,  and,  if  tho  occasion  demands, 
tho  opinion  of  all  tlio  judjjes  of  the  Court  of  Session  may  bo 
called  for  ;  but  whether  this  be  done  or  not  the  decision  is  re- 
garded as  a  decision  of  the  Court  of  Session.  Appeals  may  bo 
made  from  tho  Court  of  Session  to  the  Houso  of  Lords.  Tho  lord 
justice  general  (lord  president),  tho  lord  justice  clerk,  and  five  otlicr 


judges  form  the  High  Court  of  Justiciary,  instituted  in  1672,  fok 
criminal  eases,  which  sits  at  Edinburgh  for  the  trial  of  cases  from 
the  three  Lothians  and  of  cases  referred  from  the  circuit  courts. 
The  latter  meet  for  the  south  at  Jedburgli,  Dumfries,  and  Ayr| 
for  the  west  at  Glasgow,  Inveraray,  and  Stirliii" ;  and  for  the  north 
at  Perth,  Aberdeen,  Dundee,  and  Inverness.  The  law  agents  who 
undertake  cases  to  be  decided  before  the  supreme  courts  are  eithel 
solicitors  before  the  supreme  courts  or  writers  to  the  signet,  th« 
latter  of  whom  possess  certain  special  privileges.  The  lawyet 
authorized  to  plead  before  the  supreme  courts  is  termed  an  ad' 
vocate.  The  principal  law  officer  of  the  crown  is  the  lord  advocate, 
who  is  assisted  by  tho  solicitor-general  and  by  advocates-depute. 
The  lord  advocate  has  since  1885  ceased  to  have  the  charge  of 
Scottish  business  in  the  House  of  Commons.  See  Advocate,  vol. 
i.  178.  The  subordinate  legal  courts  and  officials  are  described 
under  the  next  heading. 

The  largest  administrative  area  is  that  of  the  county,  but  fol 
purposes  of  registration  Scotland  is  partitioned  into  eight  divisions, 
to  each  of  which  an  examiner  for  inspection  of  registers  is  appointed 
by  the  registrar-general ;  and  for  the  carrying  out  of  the  provisions 
of  the  Lunacy  Acts  it  is  divided  into  twenty-two  districts.  .  Regis- 
tration counties  date  from  the  Act  of  1854  providing  that  for  pur' 
poses  of  registration  the  areas  of  the  counties  may  be  altered.  For 
the  purposes  of  the  General  Police  Act  of  1862  part  of  the  area  of 
one  county  may  also  be  brought  into  the  area  of  another.  Certain, 
counties  have  been  united  for  parliamentary  or  other  purposes,  and 
certain  others  have  been  divided  for  parliamentary  purposes,  while 
others  again  for  certain  administrative  purposes  retain  their  old. 
subdivisions,  Lanark  for  assessment  purpgscs  being  still  divided  into 
wards.  The  civil  counties  were  originally  synonymous  either  with 
sheriffdoms  or  stewartries.  Stewartries  ceased  with  the  abolition  ol 
hereditary  jurisdictions  in  1748,  but  Kirkcudbright  still  retains  tha 
designation.  The  office  of  sheriff,  which  formerly  implied  a  much 
less  limited  authority  than  at  present,  was  in  existence  in  the  reign 
of  David  I.,  when  the  greater  part  of  the  kingdom  was  divided  into 
twenty-five  sheriffdoms.  In  tho  latter  part  of  the  13th  centurj 
they  numbered  thirty -four.  The  counties  now  number  thirty-threa 
of  which  Ross  and  Cromarty  constitute  one,  while  Edinburgh  is  t 
"county  of  a  city."  The  highest  county  dignitary  is  the  lord 
lieutenant,  the  office  being  instituted  in  1782.  He  is  nominated  by 
the  crown,  holds  office  for  life,  except  in  cases  of  misconduct 
represents  the  crown  in  military  matters,  recommends  for  com- 
missions of  tho  peace,  holds  the  position  of  high  sheriff,  and  is  t 
member  of  the  police  committee.  Practically,  however,  the  office 
is  little  more  than  honorary,  and  the  real  administration  of  countj 
affairs  is  in  the  hands  of  commissioners  of  supply,  who  were  originally 
appointed  to  apportion  and  collect  tho  national  revenue,  but  who  now 
regulate  the  land-tax.  control  tho  county  police,  raise  the  militia, 
and  levy  rates  to  meet  the  county  expenditure.  In  1878  an  Act 
was  passed  for  the  creation  of  road  trustees,  who  have  the  power  to 
levy  rates  for  the  maintenance  throughout  tho  county  of  roads  and 
bridges  (see  p.  630  above).  Tho  practical  aumini.stratiou  of  the  law 
in  the  county  is  under  the  control  of  the  sheriff.  See  Sheriff. 
A  large  proportion  of  his  duties  are,  however,  delegated  to  tie 
sheriil'-substitute.  At  one  time  tho  functions  of  the  sheriff- principil 
were  confined  to  one  county,  but  by  an  Act  passed  in  1856  it  wt_^ 
arranged  that  as  sheriffdoms  fell  vactint  certain  counties  should  ba 
grouped  into  districts,  each  under  tho  control  of  one  sheriff-princi- 
pal, and  in  1870  this  arrangement  was  further  modified  and  ex- 
tended. The  sheriff-clerk,  appointed  by  the  crown,  has,  under  the 
Ballot  Act  of  1872,  tho  charge  of  ballot  papers  in  connection  with 
the  parliamentary  elections,  and  is  custoa  rotulorum.  The  public 
prosecutor  for  counties  is  the  procurator -fiscal,  who  takes  tha 
initiative  in  regard  to  suspected  cases  of  sudden  death,  although 
in  this  respect  the  law  of  Scotland  is  less  strict  than  that  of  Englond. 
Justices  of  the  peace,  who  are  unpaid  and  require  no  speci.al  qualifi- 
cation, but  who,  as  they  aro  recommended  by.tho  lord-lieutenant, 
are  generally  persons  of  position  in  the  county,  exercise  a  certain 
subordinate  jurisdiction.  Their  office  expires  on  tho  demise  of  tho 
crown.  In  every  commission  of  the  peace  certain  public  offiiials 
are  included.  Tho  justices  of  tho  peace  hold  quarter  sessions,  take 
affidavits  and  declarations  (such  as  declarations  of  marriage),  sign 
warrants,  tnr  petty  criminal  cases  (such  especially  as  poaching  and 
assault),  and  regulate  public-house  licences.  Under  lioRouoii  (yoL 
iv.  pp.  63-64)  will  bo  tound  an  account  of  the  history  and  constitu- 
tion of  tho  thr(;o  classes  of  ancient  burghs  in  Scotlond, — royal 
burghs,  burghs  of  regality,  and  burghs  of  barony  Police  burgh^ 
which  may  include  any  of  tho  other  classes  of  burghs,  arc  formed 
of  those  places  which  liavo  adopted  the  General  Police  and  Improve, 
ment  Acts  (13  aud  14  Vict.  c.  33  and  26  and  26  Vict.  c.  101).  They 
aro  governed  by  iiolico  commissioners,  who  hnvo  power  to  rcgulata 
ail  sanitary  matters.  They  may  includo  more  than  ono  of  tha 
other  burghs  and  may  extend  into  another  county.     Under  the 


mprovcment  Act  (25  and  26  Viet.  c.  101)  most  of  tlio  burghs  with 
-ver  7000  inhabit.-ints  maintain  their  own  police.  Tho  parliament- 
ary burghs  do  not  now  includo  all  tho  royal  burghs  and  includa 
various  other  to^vna  in  addition  to  them.     Tho  number  of  royal 


536 


SCOTLAND 


[CHDECH. 


barghs  is  seventy,  and,  as  was. to  be  expected,  while  some  since 
their  formation  have  enormously  increased  in  population  and  wealth, 
others  have  so  declined  or  made  so  little  progress  that  they  now 
rank  only  as  villages.  In  1881  there  were  ten  royal  burghs  which 
had  less  than  1000  inhabitants  each  and  four  which  had  less  than 
500  each,  Karlsferry  (Fife)  haring  only  286.  Under  the  Public 
Health  Act  of  1867,  amended  in  1879,  the  erection  of  urban  and 
rural  sanitary  districts  was  provided  for.  The  corporation  of  the 
burghs  is  formed  of  the  provost  (or  lord  provost),  bailies,  and 
councillors.  Bailie  courts  are  held  in  the  burghs  for  the  trial  of 
minor  offences.  The  civil  parish  or  parish  quoad  omnia,  origin- 
ally the  ecclesiastical  parish  or  area  subject  to  one  cure  of  souls,  is 
a  division  of  the  county  for  registration  of  births,  deaths,  and 
marriages  and  for  poor  law  administration.  The  boundaries  are 
determined  by  the  boundaries  of  the  estates  which  appear  to  lie  in 
the  parisli,  but  may  be  altered  by  consent  of  proprietors  holding 
the  major  value  of  the  property  in  it.  For  all  sanitary  purposes 
the  areas  of  burghs  are  removed  from  those  of  the  parishes,  and 


certain  civil  parishes  may  be  classed  as  burghal,  landward,  and 
mixed.  Under  Graham's  Act  (7  and  8  Vict.  c.  44)  a  parish  quoad, 
sacra  may  be  erected  on  the  application  of  persons  who  have  built 
and  endowed  a  church.  For  administrative  purposes  the  oldest 
parish  organization  is  that  of  the  heritors  or  laudownei-s,  who  art 
required  to  provide  and  maintain  a  church,  churchyard,  manse, 
and  church  glebe,  and,  before  the  passing  of  the  Education  Act  ia 
1872,  had  to  maintain  the  parochial  school.  _  In  1579  the  powei 
was  granted  them  of  assessment  for  poor  relief,  but  in  IBOO  the 
kirk-session  was  united  with  them  for  these  purposes.  This  organiza- 
tion still  exists  in  those  parishes,  now  very  few  in  number,  which 
have  not  adopted  the  Poor  Law  Amendment  Act  of  1S45  ;  this  Act 
provides  for  the  constitution  of  a  parochial  board  composed  of 
nominees  of  the  kirk-session  and  a  proportion  (3f  persons  elected 
by  the  ratepayers.  Under  the  Education  Act  of  1872  the  county 
is  divided  into  school-board  districts,  whose  area  corresponds  with, 
the  civil,  or  the  quoad  sacra,  or  landward,  or  burghal  parish  (sea 
p.  534  above).  (T.  F.  H.) 


Index. 


Administration,      local, 

555. 
Agricola,  471. 
Agriculture,  530. 
Albany,  dukes   of,  491, 

41)7. 
Alexander  I.,  482. 
„       II.,  4S4. 
„       in.,  485. 
Angiis,  earls  of,  495,  493. 
Angus  MacFergus,  476. 
Area,  521,  523. 
Argyll,  earls  of,  613,  517. 
Arran,  earl  of,  493  sa. 
Baliol,  4SS. 
Bannockbnm,  4S8. 
Beatons,  49S. 
Berwick,  treaty  of,  489. 
Books  of  DUcipline,  603, 

534. 
Bothwell  Bridge.  51«. 
Bothwell,  earl  of,  604. 
Boundaries,  521. 
Boyd  of  Kilinamock,  495. 
Brigham,  treaty  of,  48G, 
Britons  of  Strathclyde, 

473,  475  sq. 
Bruce,  competitor,  486. 
Bruce,  Robert,  488-439. 
flrunanbuTgh,  479. 
Burghs,  4^4,  635. 
Cambuskennetb,  437. 
Canals,  630. 
Celtic  Church,  475. 
Celts,  473,  480. 
Charles  I.,  511. 
„      II.,  514. 
Cbastelherault,  duke  of, 

£02  sq. 


Civil  War,  613. 

Climate,  627. 

Coast-line,  526. 

Cochrane,  495. 

Colonization,  611,  518." 

Coluuiba,  474,  475. 

Commerce    and     trade, 
492,  496,  634. 

Confession  of  Faith,  603. 

Congregation,   Lonis  of, 
601  sq. 

Coastantlne  I.,  478. 
II.,  478. 

Constantius,  472. 

Conversion  to  Christian- 
ity, 474. 

Court  uf  Session,  493,  535. 

Covenant,  512. 

Covenanters,  persecution 
of,  515  sq. 

Crichton,  William,  493. 

Crofters,  531. 

Cromwell's  invasion,  514. 

Crops,  531. 

Culloden,  520. 

Cuthbert,  475. 

Dalriada,  473  sq.,  477. 

Damley,  504. 

David  I.,  482. 
„     II„  489. 

David,  earl  of  Hunting- 
don, 484,  486. 

Donald  1.,  478. 
„     II.,  478. 

Douglas,  487  sq.,  491,  494. 

Dunbar,  battle  of,  514. 

Duncan,  480. 

Ecclesiastical      liistory, 
482,  501  sq. 


Edgar,  481. 

Edinburgh,  treaty  of,  502. 
Education,  634. 
Emigration,  529. 
Episcopacy,  507,  510. 
Falaise,  treaty  of,  484. 
Falkirk,  487. 
Fisheries,  532. 
Flodden,  497. 
Forests,  532. 
France,    relations  with, 

489  sq. 
Game,  &c.,  532. 
Geography,  471,  522  sq. 
Geology,  521  sq. 
Glasgow,    assembly    of, 

512. 
Glencoe,  618. 
Glens,  625. 
Government,  535. 
Gowrie  conspiracy,  509. 
Hadrian,  471,  472. 
Halidon  Hill,  489. 
Hastings,  the  competitor, 

486. 
Highlands,    pacification 

of,  517. 
Highlands,  physical  fea- 
tures of,  622-523. 
Highlands,    subjugation 

of,  493. 
Huntly,  498. 
Inhabitants,  early,  472. 
lona,  474  sq. 
Islands,  627. 
Isles,  reduction  of,  435. 
Jacobite  risings,  520. 
James  I.,  491. 

„     II.,  493. 


James  III.,  494. 
„      IV.,  496. 
v.,  497. 
„      VI.,  607  sq. 
■  „    VII.,  517. 
Kennedy,  bishop,  494. 
Kenneth  1.  (Macalpine), 
477-478. 
„       II.,  479. 
Kentigern,  474. 
Killiecrankie,  517. 
Kirkaldy  of  Orange,  502. 
Knojt,  500  sq.,  603,  606. 
Lakes,  626. 

Largs,  battle  of,  482, 4S5. 
Lauderdale,  615. 
Law,  488,  535. 
Lennox,  regents,  506,  507. 
Liturgy,  introduction  of, 

511. 
Livingstone,  493. 
Lothian,  conquest  of,  480. 
Lowlands,  central,  523. 
Macbeth,  480. 
Maitland  of  LetbingtoD, 

602. 
Halcolm  I.,  479. 
„       II.,  479. 
,,     III.      (Canmore), 

480. 
„      rV.,  483. 
Manufactures,  533. 
Mar,  regent,  506. 
Margaret,  Maid  of  Nor- 
way, 4S6. 
Margaret,  sister  of  the 

Atheling,  481. 
Mai^aret  Tudor,  496. 
Mary  of  Guelders,  494. 


Mary  ot  Guise,  600. 

Mary  Stuart,  409  sq. 

]\relville,  Andrew,  606. 

Melville,  Sir  James,  605. 

Middleton,  615. 

Minerals,  532. 

Monk's    administration, 
614. 

Montrose,  513. 

Moray,  regent,  605  sq. 

Morton,  regent,  506. 

Jlountains,  622,  624. 

Nationalities,  529. 

Neville's  Cross,  489. 

Newcastle,     treaty 
489. 

Ninian,  474. 

Norsemen   in   Scotland, 
477  sq.,  462. 

Northampton,  treaty  of, 
488. 

Northumbrian 
macy,  475. 

Occupations,  529. 

Octavians,  609. 

Otterburn,  490. 

0\™ership  of  soil,  530. 

Parliamentary        repre- 
sentation, 635. 

Pauperism,  629. 

Picts,  473  sq.,  476  sq. 

Pinkie,  500. 

Population,  628. 

Presbj'terianisra,  604  sq. 

Pretenders,  620. 

Eailways,  630. 

Beformation,  497,  601. 

Religion,  535,  636. 

Rivers,  624. 


of. 


snpre- 


Roads,  471,  472,  530. 

Robert  I.,  488. 
„  II.,  490. 
,,    in.,  490. 

Romans  in  Scotland,  471- 

Ruthven,  P.aid  of,  507.    • 

St    Andrews,    bishopric 
of,  474,  477,  4S3. 

Sauchie,  ':95. 

Scone,  monarchy  of,  477^ 
480. 

Sects  of  Dahiada,  473, 
477. 

Severus,  472. 

Sheriff,  4S3,  635. 

Shipping,  &c.,  633-534. 

Solemn  League  and  Co- 
venant, 613. 

Southern  uplands,  623. 

Statistics,  528  sq. 

Stirling,  494,  4;'6,  607. 

Stuart,  Lord  James,  re- 
gent, 601,  507. 

Stuarts,  490-520. 

Tacitus,    on  ancient  ia*, 
habitants,  472.  ' 

Trade    and    commerce^ 
492,  496,  534. 

Union  of  crowns,  509. 

Union    of    parliaments, 
516,  618. 

Valleys,  origin  of,  524. 

Vitiil  statistics,  629. 

■Wallace,  487-488. 

"Wall  of  Antoninus,  471. 
„     ,,  Hadrian,  471. 

Wealth,  national,  534. 

■William  IIL,  517. 

William  the  Lion,  484. 


SCOTLAND,  Church  of.  In  the  article  Peesby- 
TEElANissi  the  history  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  was 
brought  down  to  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  and  the 
story  of  the  secessions  of  1733  and  1751  was  there  told. 
We  take  up  here  the  church's  history  at  the  beginning  of 
the  "  Moderate  "  rule.  Her  annals  during  the  next  three- 
quarters  of  a  century  are  singularly  uneventful.  In  close 
alliance  ■with  the  state,  she  increases  in  power  and  dignity, 
and  becomes  the  home  of  letters  and  philosophy.  But 
there  is  no  great  movement  of  a  theological  nature,  no 
striking  religious  development  to  lend  her  popular  interest. 

The  strength  of  the  church  as  well  as  her  tendency  to 
moderation  arose  in  great  part  out  of  the  political  circum- 
stances of  the  early  part  of  the  18th  century.  Presbytery, 
being  loyal  to  the  house  of  Hanover,  while  Episcopacy  was 
Jacobite,  enjoyed  the  royal  favour  and  was  treated  as  a 
firm  ally  of  the  Government.  The  Patronage  Act  of  1712 
threw  the  filling  up  of  parishes  into  the  hands  of  those 
well-affected  to  the  Government,  and  the  example  of  the 
mode  of  patronage  practised  iu  England  may  have  tended 
to  promote  a  disregard  of  the  religious  feelings  of  the 
people.  The  effect  on  the  clergy  was  to  encourage  them 
to  seek  the  friendship  of  the  landed  gentry  and  to  regard 
the  higher  rather  than  the  lower  orders  of  society  as  their 
natural  allies,  so  that  they  were  at  the  same  time  led  to 
liberal  ways  of  thinking  and  rendered  largely  indepehdent 
sf  their  congregations. 


It  is  remarked  by  Dr  Hill  Burton,  and  Carlyle  repeats  the  Period 
remark,  that  ■"  Scots  dissent  never  was  a  protest  against  the  r^tg  ®" 
principles  of  the  church,  but  always  tended  to  preserve  the  ascend 
old  principles  of  the  church,  whence  the  Establishment — by  ^°'^^' 
the  progress  of  enlightenment  as  some  said,  by  deterioration- 
according  to  others — was  lapsing."    The  secessions  carried 
off  the  more  fervent  elements ;  yet  enough  of  the  old  leaven' 
always  remained  to  exert  a  powerful  influence.    Thus,  while 
the  church  as  a  ■whole  was  more  peaceful,  more  courtly,  more 
inclined  to  the  friendship  of  the  world  than  at  any  former 
time,  it  contained  two  well-marked  parties,  in  one  of  which 
these  characteristics  of  the  religion  of  the  18th  century  ■were 
more  marked  than  in  the  other.    The  Moderate  party,  which, 
maintained  its  ascendency  till  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century,  and  impressed  its  character  on  the  church,  sought 
to  make  the  working  of  the  church  in  its  different  parts  as 
systematic  and  regular  as  possible,  to  make  the  assembly 
supreme  and  enforce  respect  for  its  decisions  by  presbj'tei  ies, 
and  to  render  the  judicial  procedure  of  the  church  as  exact 
and  formal  as  that  of  the  civil  courts.     The  popular  party, 
regarding  the  church  less  from  the  side  of  the  Government, 
had  less  sympathy  ■with  the  progressive  movements  cf  the' 
age,  and  desired  greater  strictness  in  discipline.     The  main 
subject  of  dispute  arose  at  first  from  the  exercise  of  patron- 
age.   Presbyteries  in  various  parts  of  the  country  were  still 
disposed  to  disregard  the  presentations  of  lay  patrons,  and 
to  settle  the  men  desired  by  the  people ;  but  legal  decihiona 


CHURCH.J 


SCOTLAND 


537 


Lad  shown  that  if  they  acted  in  this  way  their  nominee, 
■B'hile  legally  minister  of  the  parish,  could  not  claim  the 
stipend.  To  the  risk  of  such  sacrifices  the  church,  led  by 
the  Moderate  party,  refused  to  expose  herself.  By  the  new 
policy  inaugurated  by  Dr  Robertson,  which  led  to  the  second 
secession,  the  assembly  compelled  presbyteries  to  give  effect 
to  presentations,  and  in  a  long  series  of  disputed  settlements 
the  "  call,"  though  still  held  essential  to  a  settlement,  was 
less  and  less  regarded,  until  it  was  declared  that  it  was  not 
necessary,  and  that  the  church  courts  were  bound  to  induct 
any  qualified  presentee.  The  substitution  of  the  word  "con- 
currence" for  "call"  about  1764  indicates  the  subsidiary 
and  ornamental  light  in  which  the  assent  of  the  parishioners 
was  now  to  be  regarded.  The  church  could  have  given  more 
■weight  to  the  wishes  of  the  people  ;  she  professed  to  regard 
patronage  as  a  grievance,  and  the  annual  instructions  of  the 
assembly  to  the  commission  (the  committee  representing  the 
assembly  till  its  next  meeting)  enjoined  that  body  to  take 
advantage  of  any  opportunity  which  might  arise  for  getting 
rid  of  the  grievance  of  patronage,  an  injunction  which  was 
not  discontinued  till  178-i.  It  is  not  likely  that  any  change 
in  the  law  could  have  been  obtained  at  this  period,  and  dis- 
regard of  the  law  might  have  led  to  an  exhausting  struggle 
with  the  state,  as  was  actually  the  case  at  a  later  period. 
Still  it  was  in  the  power  of  the  church  to  give  more  weit;ht 
than  she  did  to  the  feelings  of  the  people  ;  and  her  working 
of  the  patronage  system  drove  large  numbers  from  the 
Establishment.  A  melancholy  catalogue  of  forced  settle- 
ments marks  the  annals  of  the  church  from  1749  to  1780, 
and  wherever  an  unpopular  presentee  was  settled  the  people 
quietly  left  the  Establishment  and  erected  a  meeting-house. 
In  1763  there  was  a  great  debate  in  the  assembly  on  the  pro- 
gress of  schism,  in  which  the  popular  jsarty  laid  the  whole 
blame  at  the  door  of  the  Moderates,  while  the  Moderates 
rejoined  that  patronage  and  Moderatism  had  made  the 
church  the  dignified  and  powerful  institution  she  liad 
come  to  be.  In  17G4  the  number  of  meeting-houses  was 
120,  and  in  1773  it  had  risen  to  190.  Nor  was  a  conciliatory 
attitude  taken  up  towards  the  scceders.  The  ministers  of 
the  Relief  desired  to  remain  connected  with  the  Establish- 
ment, but  .were  not  suffered  to  do  so.  Those  ministers 
■who  resigned  their  parishes  to  accept  calls  to  Relief  con- 
gregations, in  places  where  forced  settlements  had  taken 
place,  and  who  miglit  have  been  and  claimed  to  bo  recog- 
nized as  still  ministers  of  the  church,  were  deposed  and 
forbidden  to  look  for  any  ministerial  communion  with  the 
clergy  of  the  Establishment.  Such  was  the  policy  of  the 
Moderate  ascendency,  or  of  Principal  Robertson's  adminis- 
tration, on  this  vital  subject.  It  had  the  merit  of  success 
in  so  far  as  it  completely  established  itself  in  the  church. 
■The  presbyteries  ceased  to  disregard  presentations,  and  lay 
patronage  came  to  be  regarded  as  part  of  the  order  of  things. 
But  the  growth  of  dissent  steadily  continued  and  excited 
alarm  from  time  to  time;  and  it  may  be  questioned  whether 
the  peace  of  the  church^was  not  purchased  at  too  high  a 
price.  The  Moderate  period  is  justly  regarded  as  in  some 
respects  the  most  brilliant  in  the  history  of  the  church. 
Her  clergy  included  many  distinguished  Scotsmen,  of  whom 
an  account  is  given  under  their  respective  names.  See 
Eeid  (Thomas),  Campbell  (George),  Ferguson  (Adam), 
Home  (John),  Blair  (Hugh),  Robertson  (William),  and 
Erskine  (.lohn).  The  labours  of  these  men  were  not 
mainly  in  theology ;  in  religion  the  ago  was  one  not  of 
advance  but  of  rest ;  they  gjiined  for  tho  church  a  great 
and  widespread  respect  and  Inllucnco. 

Another  salient  feature  of  the  ^Moderate  policy  was  the 
consolidation  of  discipline.  It  is  frecpiently  asserted  that 
discipline  was  lax  at  this  period  and  that  ministers  of 
scandalous  lives  were  allowed  to  continue  in  their  charges. 
Jt  cannot,  however,  bo  shown  that  tho  leaders  of  tho  church 


at  this  time  sought  to  procure  the  miscarriage  of  justice 
in  dealing  with  such  cases.  That  some  offenders  ■ft'cre 
acquitted  on  technical  grounds  is  true;  it  was  insisted 
that  in  dealing  with  the  character  and  status  of  their 
members  the  church  courts  should  proceed  in  as  formal 
and  punctilious  a  manner  as  civil  tribunals  and  should 
recognize  the  same  laws  of  evidence,  in  fact,  that  tho 
same  securities  should  exist  in  the  church  as  in  the  state 
for  individual  rights  and  liberties. 

The  religious  state  of  the  Uighlands,  to  which  at  the 
period  of  the  Union  the  Reformation  had  only  very  par- 
tially penetrated,  occupied  the  attention  of  the  church  dur- 
ing the  whole  of  th.c  18th  century.  In  1725  the  gilt  called 
the  "royal  bounty"  was  first  granted, — a  subsidy  amounting 
at  first  to  £1000  per  annum,  increased  in  George  IV.'s  reign 
to  £2000,  and  continued  to  the  present  day  ;  its  original 
object  was  to  assist  the  reclamation  of  the  Highlands  from 
Roman  Catholicism  by  means  of  catechists  and  teachers. 
The  Society  for  Propagating  Christian  Knowledge,  incor- 
porated in  1709,  with  a  view  partly  to  the  wants  of  the 
Highlands,  worked  in  concert  with  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
setting  up  schools  in  remote  and  destitute  localities,  while 
the  church  promoted  various  schemes  for  the  dissemination 
of  the  Scriptures  in  Gaelic  and  the  encouragement  of  Gaelic 
students.  In  consequence  of  these  efforts  Roman  Catho- 
licism now  lingers  only  in  a  few  islands  and  glens  on  the 
west  coast.  In  these  labours  as  well  as  in  other  directions 
the  church  was  sadly  hampered  by  jiovcrty.  The  need  of  an 
increase  in  tho  number  of  parishes  was  urgently  felt,  and, 
though  chapels  began  to  be  built  about  179U,  tliey  were  pro- 
vided only  in  wealthy  places  by  local  voluntary  liberality  ; 
for  the  supply  of  the  necessities  of.poor  outlying  districts  no 
one  as  yet  looked  to  any  agency  but  tho  state.  In  every  part 
of  the  country  many  of  the  ministers  were  miserably  poor; 
there  were  many  stipends,  even  of  important  parishes,  not 
exceeding  £40  a  year;  and  it  was  not  till  after  many  debates 
in  the  assembly  and  appeals  to  the  Government  that  an  Act 
was  obtained  in  1810  which  made  up  the  poorer  livings  to 
£150  ayear  by  a  grant  from  the  public  exchequer.  The 
churches  and  manses  were  frequently  of  tho  most  miseraole 
descri|ition,  if  not  falling  to  decay. 

With  the  close  of  the  18th  century  a  great  change  passed 
over  the  spirit  of  the  church.  The  new  activity  which 
sprang  up  everywhere  after  the  French  Revolution  pro- 
duced in  Scotland  a  revival  of  Evangelicalism  which  has 
not  yet  spent  its  force.  Moderatism  had  cultivated  the 
ministers  too  fast  for  the  people,  and  the  church  had 
become  to  a  largo  extent  more  of  a  dignified  ruler  than  a 
spiritual  mother.  About  this  time  the  brothers  Robert 
and  James  Ilaldane  devoted  tliem.solves  to  the  work  of  pro-Tlie  HiIb 
moting  Evangelical  Christianity,  James  making  missionary  <Jau«*« 
journeys  throughout  Scotland  and  founding  Sunday  schools  • 
and  in  1798  the  eccentric  preacher  Rowland  Hill  visitc.! 
Scotland  at  their  request.  In  tho  journals  of  these  evan- 
gelists dark  pictures  are  drawn  of  the  religious  state  of  tho 
country,  though  their  censorious  tone  detracts  greatly  from 
their  value ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  tho  ell'orts  of  tho 
Ilaldanes  brought  about  or  coincided  with  a  quickening 
of  the  religious  sinrit  of  Scotland.  Tho  assembly  of  1799 
passed  an  Act  forbidding  the  admission  to  tho  puliiita  of 
laymen  or  of  ministers  of  other  churches,  and  issued  a 
manifesto  on  Sunday  schools.  These  Acts  helped  greatly  to 
discredit  the  Moderate  party,  of  whoso  siiint  they  were  tho 
outcome;  and  that  ])arty  further  injured  their  standing 
in  tho  country  by  attacking  Leslie,  afterwards  Sir  Joha 
Leslie,  on  frivolous  grounds,— a  i>hrasc  ho  had  used  about 
Hume's  view  of  causation — when  he  applied  for  the  chair  of 
mathematics  in  Edinburgh.  In  this  dispute,  ■\\hich  made 
a  great  sensation  in  tho  counlrj',  tho  popular  jiarty  success- 
fully defended  Leslie,  and  thus  obtained  the  sympathy  of 


21—1!)* 


538 


SCOTLAND 


[CHUHCH. 


the  enligbtened  portion  of  the  community.  In  1810  the 
Christian  Insti-uctor  began  to  appear  under  the  editorship 
of  Dr  Andrew  Tliomson,  a  churchman  of  vigorous  intellect 
and  noble  character.  It  was  an  ably  written  review,  in 
which  the  theology  of  the  Haldanes  asserted  itself  in  a 
somewhat  dogmatic  and  confident  tone  against  all  unsound- 
ness and  Jloderatism,  clearly  proclaiming  that  the  former 
things  had  passed  away.  The  question  'of  jjluralities  began 
to  be  agitated  in  1813,  and  gave  rise  to  a  long  struggle, 
in  which  Dr  Chalmers  took  a  notable  part,  and  which 
terminated  in  the  regulation  that  a  university  chair  or 
principalship  should  not  be  held  along  with  a  parish  which 
was  not  close  to  the  university  seat. 

The  growth  of  Evangelical  sentiment  in  the  church,  along 
with  the  example  of  the  great  missionary  societies  founded 
in  the  end  of  the  18th  and  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century,  led  to  the  institution  of  the  various  missionary 
schemes  still  carried  on,  and  their  history  forms  the  chief 
part  of 'the  history  of  the  church  for  a  number  of  years. 
The  education  scheme,  having  for  its  object  the  plant- 
ing of  schools  m  destitute  Highland  districts,  came  into 
existence  in  1824.  The  foreign  mission  committee  was 
formed  in  1825,  at  the  instance  of  Dr  Inglis,  a  leader  of 
the  iloderate  party;  and  Dr  Duff  went  to  India  in  1829 
as  the  first  missionary  of  the  Church  of  Scotland.  The 
church  extension  committee  v.-as  first  appointed  in  1828, 
and  in  1834  it  was  made  permanent.  The  colonial  scheme 
Vas  inaugurated  in  1836,  and  the  Jewish  mission  in  1838, 
^kl'Cheyne  and  Andrew  Bonar  setting  out  in  the  following 
year  as  a  deputation  to  inquire  into  the  condition  of  the 
Jews  in  Palestine  and  Turkey  and  on  the  Continent  of 
Church  Europe.  Of  these  schemes  that  of  church  extension  has 
«^«"-  most  historical  importance.  It  was  originally  formed  to 
"?"  collect  information  regarding  the  spiritual  wants  of  the 
country,  and  to  apply  to  the  Government  to  build  the 
churches  found  to  be  necessary.  As  the  population  of  Scot- 
land had  doubled  since  the  Reformation,  and  its  distribution 
had  been  completely  altered  in  many  counties,  while  the 
number  of  parish  churches  remained  unchanged,  and  meet- 
ing-houses had  only  been  erected  where  seceding  congrega- 
tions required  them,  the  need  for  new  churches  was  very 
great.  The  application  to  Government  for  aid,  however, 
proved  the  occasion  of  a  "  Voluntary  controversy,"  which 
raged  with  great  fierceness  for  many  years  and  has  never 
completely  subsided.  The  union  of  the  Burgher  and.the 
Antiburgher  bodies  in  1820  in  the  United  Secession — both 
Laving  previously  come  to  hold  Voluntary  principles — 
added  to  the  influence  of  these  principles  in  the  country, 
■while  the  political  excitement  of  the  period  disposed  men's 
minds  to  such  discussions.  The  Government  built  forty- 
two  churches  in  the  Highlands,  providing  them  with  a 
slender  endowment ;  and  these  are  still  known  as  parlia- 
mentary churches.  Under  Dr  Chalmers,  however,  the 
church  extension  committee  struck  out  a  new  line  of  action. 
That  great  philanthropist  had  come  to  see  that  the  church 
could  only  reach  the  masses  of  the  people  effectively  by 
greatly  increasing  the  number  of  her  places  of  worship  and 
abolishing  or  minimizing  seat-rents  in  the  poorer  districts. 
In  his  powerful  defence  of  establishments  against  the 
voluntaries  in  both  Scotland  and  England,  in  which  his 
ablest  assistants  were  those  who  afterwards  became,  along 
with  him,  the  leaders  of  the  Free  Church,  he  pleaded 
that  an  established  church  to  be  effective  must  divide  the 
country  territorially  into  a  large  number  of  small  parishes, 
so  that  every  corner  of  the  land  and  every  person,  of  what- 
ever class,  shall  actually  enjoy  the  benefits  of  the  parochial 
machinery.  This  "  territorial  principle  "  the  church  has 
steadily  kept  in  view  ever  since.  With  the  view  of  realizing 
this  idea  he  appealed  to  the  church  to  provide  funds  to 
build  a  large   number  of   new  churches,  and  personally 


carried  his  appeal  throughout  the  country.  By  1835  he 
had  collected  £65,626  and  reported  the  building  of  sixty- 
two  churches  in  connexion  with  the  Establishment.  The 
keenness  of  the  conflict  as  it  approached  the  crisis  of  184$ 
checked  the  liberality  of  the  people  for  this  object,  but  by 
1841  £305,747  had  been  collected  and  222  churches  built. 

The  zealous  orthodoxy  of  the  church  found  at  this  period 
several  occasions  to  assert  itself.  M'Leod  Campbell,  min- 
ister of  Piow,  was  deposed  by  the  assembly  of  1830  for 
teaching  that  assurance  is  of  the  essence  of  faith  and  that 
Christ  died  for  all  men.  He  has  since  been  recognized  as 
one  of  the  profoundest  Scottish  theologians  of  the  19th 
century,  although  his  deposition  has  never  been  removed. 
The  same  assembly  condemned  the  doctrine  put  forth  by 
Edward  Irving,  that  Christ  took  upon  Him  the  sinful  nature 
of  man  and  was  not  impeccable,  and  Irving  was  deposec'/ 
five  years  later  by  the  presbytery  of  Annan,  when  the  out- 
burst of  supposed  miraculous  gifts  in  his  church  in  London 
had  rendered  him  still  more  obnoxious  to  the  strict  censures 
of  the  period.  In  1841  Wright  of  Borthwick  was  deposed 
for  a  series  of  heretical  opinions,  which  he  denied  that  he 
held,  but  which  were  said  to  be  contained  in  a  series  of 
devotional  works  of  a  somewhat  mystical  order  which  he 
had  published. 

The  influence  of  dissent  also  acted  along  with  the  rapidly  DisrapJ 
rising  religious  fervour  of  the  age  in  c^uickening  in  the  t'O"  »') 
church  that  sense  of  a  divine  mission,  and  of  the  right  and  ^*^^" 
power  to  carry  out  that  mission  without  obstruction  from 
any  worldly  authority,  which  belongs  to  the  essential  con- 
sciousness of  the  Christian  church.  An  agitation  against 
patronage,  the  ancient  root  of  evil,  and  the  formation  of 
an  anti-patronage  society,  helped  in  the  same  direction. 
The  Ten  Years'  Conflict,  which  began  in  1833  with  the 
passing  by  the  assembly  of  the  Veto  and  the  Chapel 
Acts,  is  treated  in  the  article  Free  Chuech  of  Scotland. 
It  is  not  therefore  necessary  to  dwell  further  in  this  place 
on  the  consequences  of  those  Acts.  The  assembly  of  1843, 
from  which  the  exodus  took  place,  proceeded  to  undo  the 
Acts  of  the  church  during  the  preceding  nine  years.  The 
Veto  was  not  reisealed  but  ignored,  as  having  never  had 
the  force  of  law;  the  Strathbogie  ministers  were  recog- 
nized as  if  no  sentence  of  deposition  had  gone  forth  against 
them.  The  protest  which  the  moderator  had  read  before 
leaving  the  assembly  had  befen  left  on  the  table;  and  an 
Act  of  Separation  and  deed  of  demission  were  received 
from  the  ministers  of  the  newly  formed  Free  Church,  who 
were  now  declared  to  have  severed  their  connexion  with 
the  Church  of  Scotland.  The  assembly  addressed  a  pastoral 
letter  to  the  people  of  the  country,  in  which,  while  declin- 
ing to  "admit  that  the  course  taken  by  the  seceders  was 
justified  by  irresistible  necessity,"  they  counselled  peace 
and  goodwill  towards  them,  and  called  for  the  loyal  support 
of  the  remaining  members  of  the  church. 

Two  Acts  at  once  passed  through  the  legislature  in 
answer  to  the  claims  put  forward  by  the  church.  The 
Scottish  Benefices  Act  of  Lord  Aberdeen,  1843,  gave  the 
people  power  to  state  objections  personal  to  a  presentee, 
and  bearing  on  his  fitness  for  the  particular  charge  to^ 
which  he  was  presented,  and  also  authorized  the  presbytery 
in  dealing  with  the  objections  to  look  to  the  number  andj 
character  of  the  objectors.  Sir  James  Graham's  Act,  1844,; 
provided  for  the  erection  of  new  parishes,  and  thus  created.  ■ 
the  legal  basis  for  a  scheme  under  which  chapel  ministers  ■ 
mijht  become  members  of  church  courts. 

The  Disruption  left  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  a  sadly  Develop 
maimed  condition.     Of  1203  ministers  451  left  her,  andm^n'o' 
among  tbese  were  many  of  her  foremost  men.     A  third  of  ^-^^^^y^. 
her  membership  is  computed  to  have  gone  with  them.     In  since 
Edinburgh  many  of  her  churches  were  nearly  empty.    The  1843. 
Gaelic-speaking  population  of  the  northern  counties  com- 


IBDRCH.] 


SCOTLAND 


539 


pletely  deserted  her.  All  her  missionaries  left  her  but 
one.  She  had  no  gale  of  popular  enthusiasm  to  carry  her 
forward,  representing  as  she  did  not  a  newly  arisen  principle 
but  the  opposition  to  a  principle  which  she  maintained  to 
be  dangerous  and  e.xaggerated.  For  many  years  she  had 
much  obloquy  to  endure.  But  she  at  once  set  herself  to 
the  task  of  filling  up  vacancies  and  recruiting  the  mission- 
ary staff.  A  lay  association  was  formed,  which  raised  large 
sums  of  money  for  the  missionary  schemes,  so  that  their 
income  was  not  allowed  seriously  to  decline.  The  good 
works  of  the  church,  indeed,  were  in  a  few  years  not  only 
continued  but  extended.  All  hope  being  lost  that  parlia- 
ment would  endow  the  new  churches  built  by  the  church 
'  extension  scheme  of  Dr  Chalmers,  it  was  felt  that  this 
also  must  be  the  work  of  voluntary  liberality.  Under  Dr 
James  Robertson,  professor  of  church  history  in  Edinburgh, 
one  of  the  leading  champions  of  the  Jloderate  policy  in  the 
Ten  Years'  Conflict,  the  extension  scheme  was  transformed 
into  the  endowment  scheme,  and  the  church  accepted  it  as 
her  duty  and  her  task  to  provide  the  machinery  of  new- 
parishes  where  they  were  required.  By  185i  30  new 
parishes  had  been  added  at  a  cost  of  £130,000,  and  from 
this  time  forward  the  work  of  endowment  proceeded  still 
more  rapidly.  In  1860  61  new  parishes  had  been  endowed, 
in  1870  150,  in  1876  250,  while  in  1886  there  were  351. ^ 
In  1843  the  number  of  parishes  was  924.  Of  42  parlia- 
mentary churches  existing  at  that  time  40  have  been 
erected  into  parishes  quoad  sacra ;  hence  the  total  number 
of  parishes  in  Scotland  at  midsummer  1886  was  1315. 
By  the  Poor  Law  Act  of  1845  parishes  were  enabled  to 
remove  the  care  of  the  poor  from  the  minister  and  the 
kirk-session,  in  whom  it  was  formerly  vested,  and  to  appoint 
a  parochial  board  with  power  to  assess  the  ratepayers. 
The  Education  Act  of  1872  severed  the  ancient  tie  con- 
necting church  and  school  together,  and  created  a  school 
board  having  charge  of  the  education  of  each  parish.  At 
that  date  the  Church  of  Scotland  had  300  schools,  mostly 
in  the  Highlands.  The  church,  however,  continues  to 
carry  on  normal  schools  for  the  training  of  teachers  in 
Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Aberdeen. 
)oli-  In  1874  patronage  was  abolished.  The  working  of  Lord 
n  of  Aberdeen's  Act  had  given  rise  to  many  unedifying  scenes 
''■'"'  and  to  lengthy  struggles  over  disputed  settlements,  and  it 
was  early  felt  that  some  change  at  least  was  necessary  in 
the  law.  The  agitation  on  the  subject  went  on  in  the 
assembly  from  1857  to  1809,  when  the  assembly  by  a 
large  majority  condemned  patronage  as  restored  by  the 
Act  of  Queen  Anne,  and  resolved  to  petition  parliament 
for  its  removal.  The  request  was  granted,  and  the  right 
of  electing  parish  ministers  was  conferred  on  the  congrega- 
tion ;  thus  a  grievance  of  old  standing,  from  which  all  the 
ecclesiastical  troubles  of  a  century  and  a  half  had  sprung, 
was  removed  and  the  church  placed  on  a  thoroughly  demo- 
cratic basis.  This  Act,  combined  with  various  efforts  made 
within  the  church  for  her  improvement,  has  secured  for  the 
Scottish  Establishment  a  large  measure  of  popular  favour, 
and  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  she  has  grown 
rapidly  both  in  numbers  and  in  influence.  This  revival  is 
largely  duo  on  the  one  hand  to  the  improvement  of  her 
worship  which  began  with  tho  efforts  of  Dr  Robert  Lee 
(1804-18G8),  minister  of  Old  Greyfriar.s,  Edinburgh,  and 
professor  .of  Biblical  criticism  in  Edinburgh  university. 
By  introducing  into  his  church  a  printed  book  of  prayers 

I  *  Tlioso  branches  of  tho  church  extension  Rchcmo  which  dealt  witli 
church  building,  and  with  tho  opening  of  new  missions  to  meet  tlio 
wants  of  increasing  populations,  were  taken  up  by  a  now  department, 
called  tlio  homo  mission  scheme.  The  home  mission  as  the  pioneer 
in  opening  up  new  fields  of  labour,  and  tho  endowment  scheme  which 
nndern  permanent  the  religious  centres  that  tho  mission  has  founded, 
are  both  traceable  to  Dr  Chalmers. 


and  also  an  organ  Dr  Lee  stiixed  up  vehement  controversies 
in  the  church  courts,  which  resulted  in  the  recognition  of 
the  liberty  of  congregations  to  improve  their  worship.  A 
church  service  society,  having  for  its  object  the  study  of 
ancient  and  modern  liturgies,  with  a  view  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  forms  of  prayer  for  public  worship,  was  founded  in 
1865;  it  has  published  five  editions  of  its  "Book  of 
Common  Order,"  which,  though  at  first  regarded  with 
suspicion,  is  now  recognized  as  a  useful  and  respected  ad-  ' 
junct.  Church  music  has  been  cultivated  and  improved 
in'  a  marked  degree ;  a  fine  collection  of  hymns  has  been 
introduced  to  supplement  the  psalms  and  paraphrases. 
And  architecture  lias  restored  the  larger  churches  from 
their  disfigurement  by  partition  walls  and  galleries — 
though  much  still  remains  to  be  done  in  this  way — and 
has  erected  new  churches  of  a  style  favourable  to  devotion. 

The  fervour  of  the  church  has,  on  the  other  hand,  found 
a  channel  in  the  operations  of  a  "  Committee  on  Christian 
Life  and  AYork,"  appointed  in  1869  with  the  aim  of  exercis- 
ing some  supervision  of  tho  work  of  the  church  throughout 
the  country,  stimulating  evangelistic  efforts,  and  organizing 
the  labours  of  lay  agents.  This  committee  publishes  a 
magazine  of  "Life  and  Work,"  which  has  a  circulation  of 
about  100,000,  and  has  lately  been  seeking  to  organize 
young  men's  guilds  in  conne.xion  with  congregations.  It 
was  to  reinforce  this  element  of  the  church's  activity,  as 
well  as  to  strengthen  her  generally,  that  Mr  James  Baird 
in  1873  made  the  munificent  gift  of  £500,000.  This  fund 
is  administered  by  a  trust  which  is  not  under  the  control 
of  the  church,  and  the  revenue  is  used  mainly  in  aid  of 
church  building  and  endowment  throughout  the  country. 

The  church  has  greatly  increased  of  late  years  in  liberal- 
ity of  sentiment,  and  there  has  been  no  deposition  for' 
heresy  since  1843.  A  volume  of  Scotch  Sennons  pub-' 
lished  in  1880  by  ministers  holding  liberal  views  brought 
out  the  fact  that  the  church  would  not  willingly  be  led 
into  such  prosecutions.  An  agitation  on  the  part  of  the 
Dissenters  for  disestablishment  sprang  up  afresh  after  the 
passing  of  the  Patronage  Act  and  has  continued  ever  since; 
while  a  counter-movement  was  represented  by  a  Bill,  intro- 
duced into  parliament  in  1886  to  declare  the  spiritual 
independence  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  which,  if  success- 
ful, would,  it  was  understood,  have  opened  the  way  for  a 
reunion  of  the  Presbyterian  bodies.- 

Clmrch  Membership.— The  Church  of  Scotland  has  now  (1886)Statistli 
1315  parishes,  160  non-parochial  churches,  and  121  preaching  and  of  mtta3 
mission  stations,  in  all  1596  charges.  The  number  of  presbyteries  bersUij^' 
is  84,  and  there  are  16  provincial  synods.  The  general  assembly  Jjc. 
consists  of  252  clerical  and  118  lay  members  elected  by  presbyteries, 
with  73  representatives  of  royal  burghs  and  universities,  and  4 
representatives  of  churches  abroad,  in  all  447  members.  In  1873 
tho  number  of  communicants  as  returned  to  parliament  in  1874  was 
460,526;  in  18/3  tho  number  as  returned  to  parliament  in  1879 
W.13  515,786  ;  in  1883  tho  number  returned  to  the  assembly  of 
1884  was  543,969  ;  in  1885,  564,435.  The  professors  of  divinity  at 
the  four  Scottish  universities  must  he  ministers  of  the  church,  and 
students  aspiring  to  tho  ministry  are  rcqaircd  to  attend  one  of  tho 
divinity  halls  of  tho  universities  for  three  sessions,  after  an  arts 
course  of  three  years.  A  large  number  of  ministers  of  the  rliurcli 
are  employed  elsewhere  than  in  Scotland.  The  Church  of  Scotland 
in  England  consists  of  16  charges.  There  are  31  thaplains  minis-_ 
tering  to  Presbyterians  in  the  army  and  navy,  15  of  these  being' 
stationed  in  India.  Tho  foreign  mission  employs  15  ordained  ami 
11  unordained  European  missionaries,  with  a  largo  number  of  native 
agents,  in  India,  East  Africa,  and  China.  Tho  Jewish  mission  em- 
ploys 6  ordained  ministers,  with  other  agents,  at  Constantinople, 
Smyrna,  Salonica,  IJcyrout,  and  Alexandria.  Tho  colonial  com- 
mittee supplies  religious  ordinances  to  emigrants  from  Scotland  in 
India,  Fiji,  Cyprus,  Mauritius,  Ceylon,\and  tho  West  Indies,  besidci 
assisting'Prcsbytcrian  colleges  in  Canada  and  Australia.  A  minisfef 
of  tho  church  presides  over  a  Scots  church  of  old  standing  at  Amster- 
dam. Two  lectureships  have  been  founded  in  recent  limes  in  con-, 
nexionwith  thocliurch — onobyMr  James  Baird  (already  mentioned),  I 

'  For  the  period  since  1843  tho  most  useful  book  is  Dr  Story's 
Life  o/Vr  n^bcrl  La,  1870. 


540 


SCOTLAND 


[literature. 


Ihe  other- by  Mr  John  Croall  of  Southfield— and  these  have  already 
produced  several  notable  contributions  to  Scottish  theology. 

An  association  for  augumenting  the  smaller  livings  was  formed 
\n  1866,  and  the  church  now  has  a  smaller  livings  scheme,  which 
aims  at  bringing  up  to  £200  a  year  all  livings  that  fall  below  that 
sum.  Such  numbered  311  in  1885 ;  and  the  sum  distributed  among 
them  was  £8537,  which,  however,  was  £5000  short  of  the  sum  neces- 
sary to  accomplish  fully  the  desired  object. 

In  the  following  details  of  the  income  of  the  church  we  give  first 
the  value  of  her  endowments  and  then  some  figures  showing  the 
growth  of  her  voluntary  liberality. 

I  Means  from  Endowments. — (1)  From  a  parliamentary  return  OD- 
tained  in  1874  the  church  is  seen  to  derive  from  teinds,  includ- 
ing the  value  of  manses  and  glebes,  the  annual  sum  of  £289,413. 
Augmentations  have  been  obtained  since  that  date  amounting  to 
iipv.ards  of  £10,000,  but  the  fiars  prices  have  declined  during  the 
same  period  by  nearly  25  per  cent.,  so  tliit  the  total  amount  so 
derived  has  not  increased.  The  unexhausted  teinds  amounted  in 
1880  to  £134,413.  (2)  The  exchequer  pays  to  190  poor  parishes 
and  to  42  Highland  churches,  from  church  property  in  the  hands 
of  the  crown,  £17,040.  (3)  From  local  sources  the  church  derives 
£23,501.  (4)  The  endowments  raised  by  the  church  for  342  new 
parishes  amount  to  £42,500.  The  totil  endowments,  not  counting 
church  buildings,  amount  to  £383,041. 

Means  from  Voluntary  Liberality.— 1h^  following  table  (I. )  gives 
a  Tiew  of  the.  financial  progi'ess  of  certain  of  the  schemes  of  the 
church  since  the  secession  : — 


Year. 

Foreign 
Mission. 

Education. 

Colonial 
Sclieme. 

Jewish 
Mission. 

Home 
Mission. 

1842 

£6,74S 

£3630 

£3,763 

£4293 

1845 

8,572 

3688 

2,481 

1867 

£2.615 

1850 

6,047 

4019 

2,707 

2472 

3,567 

1855 

3,712 

4406 

3,060 

2619 

3,866 

1860 

4,873 

4487 

8,223 

2804 

4,858 

1865 

6,822 

4952 

3,696 

8299 

6,389 

1870 

7,754 

8245 

4,634 

4101 

■      7,082 

1875 

3,315 

9035 

8,371 

6644 

11,163 

1880 

16,270 

.. 

11,674 

4715 

16,604 

1885 

13,346 

•• 

4,750 

.5123 

9,450 

No  attempt  was  made  until  1873  to  collect  statistics  of  the  whole 
iiberality  of  the  church ;  and  changes  introduced  from  time  to  time 
in  the  mode  of  stating  the  various  sums  make  it  impossible  to  give 
B  complete  comparative  statement  since  that  date.  The  following 
table  (II.)  shows  the  amount  at  quinquennial  periods  down  to  1885, 
the  church-door  collections  and  seat-rents  probably  affording  the 
most  accurate  indication  of  the  general  progress  of  the  body.  The 
building  operations  of  wlUch  the  values  are  given  include  only  such 
building  as  is  the  result  of  voluntary  effort.  Under  the  head  of 
"general  church  objects"  are  included  the  collections  for  missions, 
for  small  livings,  aged  and  infirm  ministers,  zenana  missions,  &c. 
These  figures  do  not  include  income  from  trust  funds  or  endow- 
ments ;  they  state,  what  was  given  in  the  year  referred  to.  A 
number  of  objects  of  liberality  are  not  included  in  the  table. 


Tear. 

Church-door 
Collections. 

Seat 
Eenta. 

Church 

or  Manse 

Building  or 

Repairs. 

General 

■    Church 

Objects. 

Other 
Objects. 

Total 

1872 
1877 
1882 
1885 

£41,561 
65,827 
76,399 
80,887 

£35,225 
63,094 
69,859 
63,197 

£31,851 
69,800 
67,134 
59,395 

51,520 
60,110 

£27,224 
64,572 
61,253 
61,739 

£255,350 
373,715 
385,061 
374,576 

The  following  sums  were  raised  during  the  thirteen  years  1872- 
84  : — congregational  and  charitable  purposes,  £1,462,091 ;  support 
of  ordinances  and  supplement  of  stipends,  £233, 406 ;  education 
(exclusive  of  sums  raised  for  training  colleges),  £161,931  ;  home 
mission  work,  £358,543  ;  church  building,  £737,775 ;  endowment 
of  new  parishes,  £486,693  ;  foreign  mission  work,  £376,523  ;  total, 
£3,816,962.  Mr  James  Baird's  gift  is  not  included  in  this  state- 
ment. (.A.  M*.) 

SCOTLAND,  LiTEEATUEE  OF.  Literature  in  Scotland, 
as  distinct  from  England,  dates  from  the  time  of  Columba 
i'(g'.t'.).  Adamnan,  abbot  of  lona,  wlio  in  690  wrote  in 
1  Latin  the  life  of  his  predecessor,  may  be  regarded  as  the 
first  author  that  Scotland  produced.  Iir  addition  to  his 
biography  of  St  Columba,  a  long  extract  from  a  work  of 
his  on  the  "  Holy  Places  "  is  incorporated  by  Bede  in  his 
Ecclesiastical  History.  The  greater  part  of  Scotland  was 
at  that  time  inhabited  by  a  Celtic  population  and  the  period 
from  the  7th  to  the  13th  century  has  left  but  few  literary 
remains  (see  Celtic  Literature,  vol.  v.  p.  313).  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  13th  century  what  may  be  called  the 
ancient  literary  language  of  Scotland  was  used  in  the  dis- 
trict between  the  Humber  and  the  Forth  and  coastwi&e  as 


far  north  as  Aberdeen.  Its  earliest  writer  is  Thomas  of 
Ercildoune,  or  Thomas  the  Rhymer,  who  reached  the  height 
of  his  fame  in  1280.  The  fairy  tale  or  romance  that  bears 
his  name  may  be  regarded  as  the  earliest  example  of 
romance  poetry  in  Britain.  Nearly  contemporary  with 
the  Rhymer  were  two  other  distinguished  Scots,  Michael 
Scot  (q^.v.)  and  John  of  Duns,  or  Duns  Scotus  {q.v.),  both 
of  whom,  however,  wrote  in  Latin.  Three  Arthurian 
romances  taken  from  Anglo-Norman  sources  relating  to 
Sir  Gawain,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  knights  of  the 
Round  Table,  seem  to  have  been  composed  about  the  end 
of  the  13th  century.  These  were — Syr  Gaioayn  and  the 
Grene  Knyclit,  the  Knightly  Tale  of  Golagros  and  Gawayne, 
and  the  Au'utyrs  of  Arthur  at  the  Tenieivathelyne.  Sir 
Gawain's  exploits  were  so  popular  in  the  south  of  Scotland 
that  he  was  claimed  by  the  people  as  one  of  their  own 
chieftains  and  called  the  lord  of  Galloway.  The  Aion/yrs 
of  Arthur,  or  the  adventures  of  King  Arthur  at  the  Tern- 
wadling,  a  small  lake  near  Carlisle,  and  the  Pystil  of  Sweie 
Susan,  a  version  of  the  apocryphal  story  of  Susanna,  are 
supposed  to  have  been  the  productions  of  Sir  Hew  of 
Eglintoun  about  that  period.  The  Tail  I  of  Eauf  Coihear, 
in  which  the  adventures  of  the  emperor  Charlemagne  in 
the  house  of  a  charcoal-burner  named  Ralph  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Paris  are  related  with  much  poetic  humour, 
and  the  fairy  tale  of  Orfeo  and  Sezirodis  were  written  in 
the  early  part  of  the  14  th  century  and  were  very  popular 
in  Scotland  in  former  times. 

The  War,  of  Independence  gave  a  new  impetus  to  Scot-' 
tish  nationality  and  produced  a  corresponding  effect  on  the 
literature  of  the  country.  The  £riis,  or  metrical  account 
of  the  deeds  of  Robert  Bruce,  was  written  by  John  Bar-  Barbom 
BOUR  (q.v.),  archdeacon  of  Aberdeen,  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  l4th  century.  To  him  we  owe  a  translation  of  a 
mediaeval  romance  on  the  Trojan  War,  nearly  3000  lines 
in  length,  and  a  large  collection  of  metrical  lives  of  saints, 
which,  after  being  long  preserved  in  manuscript,  have  re- 
cently been  printed  by  Dr  Horstmann.  About  this  time 
was  compiled  the  first  formal  history  of  Scotland  by  John 
of  FoEDUN  (q.v.),  which  was  written  in  Latin  and  brought  Forduii. 
down  to  the  death  of  David  I.  He,  however,  left  materials 
for  the  completion  of  the  work,  the  last  date  of  which  is 
1385.  In  1441  a  continuation  of  it  was  made  by  Walter 
Bower  or  Bowmaker.  The  whole  work  was  then  styled  Bower, 
the  Scotichronicon,  and  brings  the  history  of  Scotland  down 
to  1437.  A  metrical  history  was  written  between  1420 
and  1424  by  Andrew  of  Wyntoun,  a  canon  regular  of  StWyn-, 
-Andrews  and  prior  of  St  Serf's  Inch  in  Loch  Leven.  This  to'-m. 
work,  known  as  the  Orynynale  Cronyhil  of  Scotland,  is  pre- 
faced by  an  account  of  the  human  race  from  the  creation, 
and,  although  for  the  most  part  its  verse  is  homely  and 
dull,  its  author  occasionally  describes  stirring  incidents 
with  considerable  power.  The  beautiful  poem  of  James  I.  Jamfls  J 
called  The  Kingis  Quhair,  written  about  this  period,  was 
far  in  advance  of  the  contemporary  metrical  chronicles. 
It  possesses  a  Inelody  of  verse  imknown  before  and  gives 
the  king  a  conspicuous  place  in  early  Scottish  literature. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  also  written  A  Ballad  of  Good 
Counsel  and  a  song  On  Absence;  but  two  poems,  Christis 
Kirh  of  the  Grene  and  Peblis  to  ihe  Play,  believed  to  have 
been  his  composition,  have  been  recently  shown  by  the 
Rev.  W.  W.  Skeat  to  be  by  some  other  early  poet.  An 
allegorical  poem  called  the  Buhe  of  the  Hoidat  was  written 
about  1450  by  Sir  Richard  Holland,  an  adherent  of  the 
noble  family  of  Douglas.  It  is  a  warning  against  pride, 
exemplified  by  the  owl,  decked  out  in  the  splendour  of 
borrowed  feathers,  compelled  on  account  of  his  insolence 
to  resume  his  original  form.  The  poem  displays  some 
inventive  and  descriptive  power,  though  marred  by  its 
alliteration.     The'  exploits  of  Sir  William  Wallace  found 


LTTERATUEE.J 


SCOTLAND 


641 


Blind      about  1460  a  worthy  chronicler  in  Henry  the  Minstrel,  or 
flarrj-.     Blind  Harry,  wlio,  born  with  such  a  serious  defect,  must 
be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  individuals 
recorded  in  the  annals  of  literature.    His  well-known  poem, 
■which  bears  the  name  of  his  hero,  is  in  versification,  ex- 
pression, and  poetic  imagery  a  remarkable  production  for 
Henry-    that  period.     The  grave  and  thoughtful  poetry  of  Robert 
•on.        Hexeyson  ((i-v.),  notary  public  and  preceptor  in  the  Bene- 
dictine convent  at  Dunfermline,  who  flourished  about  1470 
contrasts  favourably  with  that  of  his  English  contempo- 
raries.    His  Testament  of  Cresseid  was  often  incorporated 
in  the  old  editions  of  the  works  of  Chaucer,  to  whose 
poetry  it  is  not  inferior.     His  Rohene  and  Ma/.yne  is  the 
earliest  specimen  of  pastoral  poetry  in  tjio  Scottish  lan- 
guage.    These,  with  his  Fables  and  other  works,  entitle 
him  to  a  high  place  amongst  the  early  Scottish  poets. 
Nearly    coeval    with    Henryson    was    Sir    Gilbert    Hay, 
chamberlain  to  Charles  VI.  of  France,  who  made  several 
translations    from    the  works  of   French  authors.      One 
of  these,  taken  from  a  popular  French  romance  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  extends  to  upwards  of  20,000  lines.     A 
long  anonymous  poem   called  Ciariodus  belongs  to  this 
period.     It  is  a  romance  founded  on  a  French  original, 
the  more  material  incidents  of  which  are  supposed  to  have 
happened  at  the  English  court.     It  abounds  with  illustra- 
tions of  the  manners  and  customs  peculiar  to  the  age  of 
chivalry.     Being  nearly  3000  lines  in  length,  it  is,  like  the 
last-mentioned,  an  extensive  specimen  of  the  language  and 
versification  of  the  time.     The  Thrie  Tales  of  the  Thrie 
Preistis  of  Peblis  (1490),  the  authorship  of  which  is  un- 
known, are  moral  tales  possessing  considerable  freshness. 
As  a  fragment  of  an  old  version  of  them  occurs  in  the 
Asloan  MS.,  written  in  1490,  they  must  have  existed  long 
before  the  edition  printed  by  Henry  Charteris  in  1603,  in 
which  form  only  they  are  now  accessible.     The  Ledger  of 
Andrew  Halyburton,  conservator  of  the  privileges  of  the 
Scottish  nation  in  the  Netherlands,  1492-1503,  is  a  valu- 
able source  of  information  regarding  the  early  trade  of 
Scotland. 

The  close  of  the  15th  century  exhibited  a  consider- 
able growth  of  literary  ability  in  the  writings  of  William 
(nnbar.  DtJNB.^R  (j.r.)  and  his  contemporaries.  His  works  were 
so  highly  esteemed,  at  the  time  lie  wrote  that  he  was  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  '=  the  makar  "  or  poet-laureate  of  Scot- 
land. Such  of  Dunbar's  writings  as  have  come  down  to 
the  present  time  are  of  a  miscellaneous  character,  in  which 
there  is  much  power  of  description  and  command  of  verse. 
The  Thistle  and  the  Rose  and  the  Golden  Targe  are  excel- 
lent specimens  of  his  poetic  power.  His  satirical  poems, 
such  as  the  Twa  Mariit  Wemen  and  the  Wedo  and  the  Flyt- 
ing  with  Kennedie,  contain  much  coarse  humour.  Seven 
of  his  poems  were  the  first  specimens  of  Scottish  typo- 
graphy, having  been  jirinted  by  Chepman  and  Myllar  at 
Edinburgh  in  1508,  followed  in  1509  by  the  well-known 
Breviary  for  the  church  of  Aberdeen.  A  humorous  poem 
called  the  Freiris  of  Benoik  has  been  attributed  to  Dunbar 
and  is  usually  printed  with  his  works.  Contemporary  with 
Dunbar  were  a  number  of  minor  Scottish  poets,  of  whoso 
works  only  a  few  specimens  have  come  down  to  the  present 
time.  These  were  Walter  Kennedie,  with  whom  ho' had 
his  "flyting"  or  poetical  contest.  Sir  John  Kowll,  Quintyne 
Shaw,  Patrick  Johnestoun,  Merscir,  James  Afllek,  and 
others.i  The  most  classical  of  the  Scottish  jiorts  was  Gawyn 
or  Gavin  Dooglas  {q.v.),  bishop  of  Dunkcld,  whose  great 
literary  work  was  the  translation  of  the  yEneid  of  Vergil 
into  Scottish  verse.     To  each  book  he  prefixed  a  prologue; 

'  Keunedic  wrote  The  Praise  of  Aige  nnd  Tlu  Paasioun  of  ChnU ; 
RowU,  The  Cimuig  on  ihr  SUilarii  ufAis  Fowtu ;  Shaw,  Advice  to  a 
Courtier  ;  Johnestoun,  The  Three  Dfid  Powis ;  Merscir,  PerrcU  in 
Parantours  ;  and  Afllek,  The  Qiuiir  qfjelouay. 


the  one  before  the  twelfth  is  an  admirable  descriptive  poem 
of  the  beauties  of  May.  His  Palice  of  Honour  and  Kyng 
Hart,  two  allegorical  poems,  are  able  productions,  the  latter 
of  which  is  full  of  dramatic  vigour.  Contemporary  with 
Douglas  was  Sir  David  Lyndsay  (q.v.),  Lyon  king-of-arms  Sir 
in  the  feign  of  James  V.,  who  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  Divi* 
popular  of  the  early  Scottish  poets.  His  J/onarchie,  or  L""*"* 
ane  Dialog  hetuij:  Experience  and  ane  Courteour  of  tlie 
Miserahyl  Estait  of  the  Warld  gives  a  short  survey  of 
sacred  and  classical  history  which  rendered  it  very  popular 
in  its  time.  His  Satire  of  the  Thrie  Estaitis  is  a  skilfully 
written  attemjjt  to  reform  the  abuses  of  the  period,  especi- 
ally those  of  the  church.  While  some  of  its  characters 
recite  long  and  erudite  political  speeches,  he  introduces 
interludes  of  a  farcical  kind  suited  to  the  tastes  of  the 
times.  This  work  may  be  considered  the  first  dramatic 
effort  of  any  British  author.  In  his  Testament  of  S'fdit 
Jleldrum  he  relates  the  adventures  of  his  hero  with  much 
poetic  fire.  Ivndsay's  other  poems  consist  of  appeals  to 
the  king  for  advancement  and  some  jcu.t:  (Fespril  of  no 
great  length.  One  of  the  best  scholars  and  teachers  of  this 
period  was  John  Jlajor  or  JIair,  a  native  of  Haddington, 
who  was  principal  of  St  Salvator's  College,  St  Andrews. 
Besides  being  the  author  of  learned  commentaries  on 
Aristotle,  he  WTOte  a  well-known  work,  De  historia  gentis 
Bcotorum  libri  se.c,  printed  in  1521.  Another  Scottish 
author  that  wrote  in  Latin  with  considerable  elegance  was 
Hector  Boece  (q.v.),  principal  of  King's  College,  Aberdeen.  Boec*' 
His  great  work,  Historia  gentis  Scotornm  a  jjrima  gentis 
origine,  was  published  in  Paris  in  1526.  It  was  translated 
into  Scottish  by  John  Bellenden,  archdeacon  of  Moray, 
under  the  title  of  the  Hystory  and  Croniklis  of  Scotland, 
printed  at  Edinburgh  in  1536.  Bellenden  also"  translated 
the  first  five  books  of  Livy  into  Scottish.  The  Chronicle 
of  Boece  was  versified  in  Scottish  in  1531-35  by  William 
Stewart,  a  descendant  of  the  first  earl  of  Buchan.  It  was 
written  by  command  of  Margaret,  sister  of  Henry  VIII.  of 
England,  for  the  instruction  of  her  son,  the  youthful  James 
V.  A  Latin  poem  of  much  merit,  entitled  De  animi  Iran- 
quillitate,  was  published  in  1543  by  Florence  AVilson,  master 
of  Carpentras  School.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  and 
displays  much  variety  of  knowledge,  while  its  Latinity  has 
long  been  celebrated.  In  an  anonymous  work,  written  ia 
1548  or  1549,  and  called  the  Complaynt  of  Scotland,  the 
author  deplores  the  calamities  to  which  Scotland  was  then 
subject.  These  are  stated  to  be  the  wrongs  done  to  the 
Scottish  labourers  at  the  hands  of  the  landholders  and  the 
clergy,  the  difliculties  with  England,  and  the  treachery  of 
the  Scottish  nobility.  The  work  is  valuable  as  affording 
a  glimpse  of  the  literature  then  popular  in  Scotland,  some 
pieces  of  which  are  no  longer  to  be  found, — such  as  The 
Tayle  of  the  Reyde  Eyttyn  [red  giant]  vith  the  Thre  Heydes,] 
The  Tayl  of  the  Volfe  of  the  Varldis  End,  The  Tayl  of  the, 
Giantis  that  eit  Quyk  Men,  The  Tayl  of  the  thrie  futtiC 
Dog  of  Norroway,  and  Robyn  Hude  and  Litil  Jhone. 

In  1552  there  was  printed  at  St  Andrews  a  Catechism, 
that  is  to  say  ane  Commone  <tnd  Catholike  Instructioun  of 
the  Christian  People  in  Materis  of  our  Catholike  Faith  and 
Religioun,  written  by  John  Hamilton,  archbishop  of  St 
Andrew.s,  the  last  primato  of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  in 
Scotland.  The  poems  of  Sir  Richard  Maitland,  which  are 
of  a  somewhat  satirical  kind,  are  valuable,  as  they,  like 
those  of  Lyndsay,  contain  much  information  about  the 
abuses  of  the  time  (1560),  such  as  the  oppressive  conduct  of 
the  landholders,  vexatious  lawsuits,  and  the  depredation^ 
of  the  Border  thieves.  Sir  Richard  deserves  the  thanka 
of  posterity  for  the  large  manuscript  collection  of  ])(>cm« 
by  Scottish  outhors  which  ho  and  his  doughter  formed,' 
and  which  is  now  preserved  in  the  Pcpysian  Library,  »t 
Magdalene  College,   Cambridge.      The  name  of   Geor^g* 


542 


SCOTLAND 


B»nna-      Bannat3me  is  inseparably  connected  ■with  the  history  of 
'y°«'         Scottish  poetry,  as  in  15G8  he  too  formed  an  extensive 
collection  of  Scottish  poetry  which  is  certainly  the  most 
valuable  now  extant.     It  was  written  by  him  at  Edin- 
burgh in  the  time  of  the  plague,  when  the  dread  of  in- 
fection confined  him  closely  at   home.      The  Bannafyne 
.  MS.  now  preserved  in  the  Advocates'  Library  extends  to 
800  pages  folio,  and  includes  several  of  Bannatyne's  own 
poems,   of  which  the  two  most  considerable  are  of   an 
amatory  character.     The  works  of  Alexander  Scott,  con- 
sisting principally  of  love  poems,  embrace  also  a  spirited 
account  of  a  Jousting  beiwix  Adamson  and  Sym  at  thfe 
Drum,  a  place  a  little  to  the  south  of  Edinburgh.     The 
author,  who  was  one  of  the  rnost  elegant  poets  of  this 
period,  has  sometimes  been  called  the  "Scottish  Anacreon." 
Two  poems  of  some  merit  —  the  Praises  of  Wemen  and 
the  Miseries  of  a  Puir  Scalar — were  WTitten  by  Alexander 
A.rbuthnot,  principal  of  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  about 
1570.     A  poem  of  considerable  length,  called  the  Sege  of 
the  Castell  of  Edinhwgh,  published  in  1573,  was  by  Robert 
Semple,  who  also  wrote  an  attack  on  Archbishop  Adamson, 
called  the  Legend  of  the  Bishop  of  Sand  Androis  Lyfe. 
Rollind,     To  this  period  belong  two  poems  of  considerable  length — 
the  Court  of  Venus  (1575),  an  imitation  of  the  Police  of 
Honour  of  Gawyn  Douglas,  and  the  romance  of  the  Seaveii 
Seages  (1578),  a  Scottish  version  of  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable mediaeval  collections  of  stories  belonging  to  the 
same  class  as  the  Arabian  Nights,  in  which  one  single 
story  is  employed  as  a  means  of  stringing  together  a  multi- 
tude of  subsidiary  tales.     These  poems  were  written  by 
John  Rolland,  notary  in  Dalkeith.     One  of  the  best  Latin 
Bnchanan.  scholars  that  modern  Europe  has  produced  was  George 
Buchanan  {q.v.),  who  flourished  in  the  middle  of  the 
16th  century.     He  wrote  several  Latin  tragedies  and  an 
unrivalled  translation  of  the  Psalms.     His  De  jure  regni 
apud  Scotos  was  composed  to  instruct  James  YI.,  to  whom 
he  had  been  tutor,  in  the  duties  belonging  to  his  kingly 
oflttce.    His  last  and  most  important  labour  was  his  History 
of  Scotland,  originally  printed  in  1582,  of  which  seventeen 
Lyndsay    editions  have  appeared.      An  excellent  specimen  of  the 
ancient  vernacular  language  is  the  Chronicle  of  Scotland 
by  Robert  Lyndsay  of  Pitscottie.     It  includes  the  period 
from  1436  to  the  marriage  of  Mary  to  Darnley  in  1565. 
Although  its  aiithor  was  a  simple-minded  and  credulous 
man,  he  describes  events  of  which  he  was  an  eye-witness 
with  circumstantiality  and  great  prolixity  of  detail.     An- 
other historical  work  of  greater  importance  was  the  Be 
Lesley.       origine,  moribus,  et  rebus  gestis  Scotorum  (1578)  by  John 
Lesley,  bishop  of  Ross.     A  translation  of  this  work  made 
by  Father  James  DalrjTiiple,  a  religious  in  the  Scottish 
cloister  of  Ratisbon,  1596,  is  in  course  of  publication  by 
the  Rev.  Father  E.  B.  Cody  for  the  Scottish  Text  Society. 
Lesley  also  wrote  in  Scottish  a  History  of  Scotland  from 
the  death  of  James  I.  in  1436  to  the  year  1561.     This 
work,  intended  for  the  perusal  of  Mary  while  in  captivity 
in  England,  is  written  in  an  elegant  style.     The  bishop 
was  the  champion  of  that  unfortunate  queen,  and  in  1569 
wrote  a  Defence  of  the  Honour  of  Marie  Queue  of  Scotland 
and  Dowager  of  France,  with  a  declaration  of  her  right, 
title,  and  interest  to  the  succession  of  the  crown  of  England. 
The  Reformation  exerted  a  considerable  influence  on 
Scottish  literature.    Amongst  the  earliest  Protestant  writers 
•     of  the  country  may  be  mentioned  Alexander  Ales  or  Alesius, 
a  native  of  Edinburgh,  who  published  several  controversial 
works  and  commentaries  on  various  parts  of  the  Bible. 
But  the  most  eminent  promoter  of  the  reform  was  John 
Knox  {q.v.),  who  ■n-rote  several  controversial  pamphlets  and 
some  religious  treatises  ;  his  great  work  was  the  History 
of  the  Eeformation  of  Religion  in  Scotland,  first  printed  in 
1586.    One  of  the  principal  opponents  of  Knox  was  Ninian 


«f  Pit- 
scottie, 


Winzet,  a  priest  of  considerable  ability  and  one  familiar  Winze 
with  the  scholastic  learning  of  the  age.     He  began  life  as 
master  of  Linlithgow  school   and   subsequently  became 
abbot  of  St  James's  at  Ratisbon.     He  wrote  several  tracts 
in  which  he  strenuously  recommended  the  observance  of 
certain  popish  festivals.     In  1562  he  published  )iia  Buke 
of  Four  Scoir  Thrie  Questions  tucking  Doctrine,  Ordour,  and 
Maneris  projMnit  to  the  Prechouris  of  the  Protestaniis  in 
Scotland  and  deliverit   to   Jhone  Knox  the  20th  day  of 
February  1662.     The  writings  of  James  VI.,  who  was  a 
man  of  scholarly  attainments,  embrace  several  works  bo'th 
in  poetry  and  prose.     His  earliest  production,  published 
in  1584,  when  he  was  only  eighteen,  was  the  Essayes  of 
a  Prentice  in  tlu.  Divine  Art  of  Poesie.     This  was  followed 
by  his  poetical  Exercises  at   Vacant  Houres  {\f)^\).     He 
also  wrote  a  great  many  sonnets   and  a  translation  of 
the  Psalms.     His  prose  vorks  are  Dsemonologie  (1597), 
Bao-cAiKoi'  Aujpo;'  (1599),   Counterblast  to  Tobacco,  Para- 
phrase on  Pevelation,  Latu  of  Free  Monarchies,  &c.    Among 
the  Scottish  poets  who  frequented  his  court  were  William 
Fowler,  the  elegant  translator  of  the  Triumphs  of  Petrarch, 
and  Stewart  of  Baldinnies  (Perth),  a  translator  of  Ariosto. 
Both  these  poets  ■oTote  other  works  which  exist  in  MS., 
but  are  still  unpublished.    The  zeal  of  Sir  David  Lyndsay 
and  others  for  the  reformation  of  the  church  initiated  a 
religious  revival,  and  in  1597  was  published  the  collection 
known  as  Ane  CompendioiLs  Booke  of  Godly  and  Spiritual 
Sangs  for  avoiding  of  Sinne  and  Harlotrie.     This  very 
curious  work  is  attributed  to  John  and  Robert  Wedder- 
burn,  the  latter  of  whom  was  vicar  of  Dundee.    A  number 
of  religious  poems  were  written  about  the  end  of  the  16th 
century  by  James  Melville,  minister  of  Anstruther,  after- 
wards of  Kilrenny,  both  in  Fife.     His  Morning   Vision, 
printed  in   1598,  consists  of  paraphrases  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  the  Shorter  Catechism,  and  the  Ten  Command- 
ments.   He  also  WTOte  the  Black  Bastel,  a  lamentation  over 
,the  Church  of  Scotland,  which  is  dated  1611.     Another 
religious  poet  was  James  Cockburn,  a  native  of  Lanark- 
shire, who  wrote  Gabriel's  Sahitation  to  Marie  (1605),  and 
some  other  poems  not  destitute  of  merit.     An  eminent 
theological  writer  of  this  era,  Robert  Rollock,  first  principal 
of  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  wrote  many  commentaries 
on  the  Scriptures  which  show  extensive  learning.     Most 
are  in  Latin ;  but  one  or  two  are  in  the  Scottish  language. 
A  very  popular  poem,  the  Cherrie  and  the  Slae,  first  printed  Mont- 
by  Waldegrave  at  Edinburgh  in  1597,  afterwards  went  e«™"i 
through  many  editions.     Its  author  was  Alexander  Mont- 
gomerie,  who  also  wrote  some  translations  of  the  Psalms 
and  the   Flyting  betioixt  Montgomerie  and  Polwarth,  in 
imitation  of  Dunbar's  Flyting  tirith  Kennedie.     In  1599 
was  published  an  interesting  volume  of  poems  written  by 
Alexander  Hume,  entitled  Hynmes  or  Sacred  Songs,  ivherein 
the  Eight  Use  of  Poesie  may  be  espied.    One  is  on  the  defeat 
of  the  Spanish  Armada.     To  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century  belongs  a  comedy  in  rhyming  stanza,  the  authorship 
of  which  is  imknown, — Ane  verie  Excellent  and  Delectabill 
Treatise  intitulit  Philotus,  qvhairin  toe  may  perceive  the  Greit 
Inconveniences  thatfcdlis  out  in  the  Marriage  betuix  Aige  and 
Youih  (1603).    Its  versification  is  easy  and  pleasant,  and 
its  plan  a  nearer  approximation  to  the  modern  drama  than 
the  satire  of  Lyndsay.     In  the  same  year  appeared  the 
poems  of  Sir  William  Alexander  (q.v.),  earl  of  Stirling. 
One,  called  Doomsday,  or  the  Great  Day  of  the  Lord's  Judg-  WJBw 
menf,  consists  of  1 1,000  verses.    His  Monarchicke  Tragedies,  ^^ 
four  in  number,  were  not  intended  for  representation  on 
the  stage.     His  exhortation  or  Parxnesis  to  Prince  Henry 
(1604)  is  his  best  poem.     He  also  wrote  Recreations  mth 
the  Muses  (1637),  which  is  of  a  somewhat  philosqjhical 
character.     One  of  the  most  distinguished  writers  of  this 
era  was  William  Detjmmond  (q.v.)  of  Hawthornden,  who 


S  C  0  — s  c  o 


543 


published/owns,  amorous,  funerall,  divine,  pastorall  (161G), 
and  Flowers  of  Zion,  or  Spiritual  Poems  (1623).  He  also 
wrote  a  History  of  Scotland  during  the  Reigns  of  the  Five 
Jameses  (1655),  some  political  tracts,  and  the  Cypress 
Grove,  a  moral  treatise  in  prose.  As  a  writer  of  sonnets 
he  has  always  been  highly  esteemed.    Nearly  contemporary 

.  with  Drummond  was  Patrick  Hannay,  a  native  of  Gallo- 
way, who  seems  to  have  followed  James  to  England.  He 
jiuhlished  his  poems  in  1622,  the  principal  of  which  are 
Fhilomela  the  Nightingale  and  Sheretiine  and  Mariana. 
Ho  occupies  a  favourable  position  amongst  the  minor 
Scottish  poets.  After  the  removal  of  the  Scottish  court 
to  London  and  the  union  of  the  crowns  in  1603,  the  old 
language  began  to  be  considered  as  a  provincial  dialect ; 
and  the  writers  subsequent  to  Drummond,  who  was  the 
first  Scottish  poet  that  wrote  well  in  English,  take  their 
places  amongst  British  authors. 

To  the  short  sketch  above  given  may  be  added  a  notice  of  the 
early  Scottish  writers  on  mathematics,  philosophy,  jurisprudence, 
and  medicine.  In  mathematical  science  the  name  of  Joannes 
Sacro  Bosco  (John  Holywood  or  Holybush)  may  be  mentioned,  as 
he  is  believed  to  have  been  a  native  of  Nithsdale  and  a  canon  of 
the  monastery  of  Holywood,  from  which  he  took  liis  name.  He 
flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century,  and  his  treatise 
Dc  Splura  Mundi  was  very  generally  taught  in  colleges  and  schools. 
The  system  of  astronomy  and  the  other  mathematical  treatises  of 
James  Bassantie,  who  taught  at  Paris  about  1560  with  much  success, 
were  celebrated  In  their  time.  The  greatest  of  the  Scottish  mathe- 
maticians, however,  was  John  Napier  (q.v.)  of  Merchiston,  who 
wrole  on  various  kindred  subjects,  and  in  1614  astonished  tlie 
world  by  his  discovery  of  logarithms.  In  philosophy,  besides  tlio 
voluminous  works  of  Duns  Scotus  and  John  Jlajor  already  men- 
tioned, various  learned  commentaries  on  Aristotle,  of  which  Scottish 
philosophy  then  almost  entirely  consisted,  were  published  by 
Robert  Balfour,  principal  of  the  college  of  Guienne ;  by  John  Kuther- 
ford,  professor  of  philosophy  at  St  Andrews  (under  whom  Admirable 
Crichton  was  a  pupil) ;  and  by  James  Cheyne,  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Douai.     In  jurisprudence  a  celebrated  treatise  on  the  Feudal 

'  Law  was  written  by  Sir  Thomas  Craig  about  1603.  It  was  not, 
however,  published  till  about  half  a  century  after  his  death,  as  the 
printing  of  any  treatise  on  the  law  of  Scotland  while  ho  lived  seems 
to  have  been  considered  as  out  of  the  question.  Commentaries  on 
some  of  the  titles  of  the  Pandecls  of  Justinian,  and  a  treatise  De 
Potestate  Papse  (1.609),  in  opposition  to  the  usurpation  of  temporal 
power  by  the  pope,  were  written  by  William  Barclay,  professor  of 
law  in  the  university  of  Angers.  Another  early  legal  work  was  a 
treatise  On  the  Connexion  Ictiveen  Government  and  Religion,  by 
Adam  Blackwood,  judge  of  the  parlement  of  Poitiers,  who  was  the 
antagonist  of  Buclianan  and  a  stienuous  defender  of  JIary  queen 
of  Scots.  In  medicine  the  principal  early  Scottish  works  were 
written  by  Duncan  Liddcll,  a  native  of  Aberdeen,  wdio  in  1605 
published  at  Helmstadt  his  Disputationes  medicinalcs,  containing 
the  theses  or  disputations  maintained  by  himself  and  his  pupils 
from  1592  to  1606.  He  also  published  other  works,  whii-h  contain 
an  able  digest  of  the  medical  learning  of  his  age.  Henry  Blackwood, 
dean  of  faculty  to  the  college  of  physicians  at  Paris,  wrote  various 
treatises  on  medicine,  of  which  a  list  will  be  found  in  Mackenzie's 
Lives  of  the  Scottish  IV^riters,  but  which  arc  now  only  historirally 
interesting.  (J.  S.M.) 

SCOTT,  David  (1806-1849),  historical  painter,  was  born 
at  Edinburgh  in  October  1806,  and  studied  uniler  his  father, 
Robert  Scott,  an  engraver  of  repute  in  the  city.  For  a 
time  in  hi.s  youth  he  occupied  himself  with  the  burin ; 
but  he  soon  turned  his  attention  to  original  work  in  colour, 
and  in  1828  he  exhibited  his  first  oil  picture,  the  Hopes  of 
Early  Genius  di.spelled  by  Death,  which  was  followed  by 
Cain,  Nimrod,  Adam  and  Eve  singing  their  Morning 
Hymn,  Sarpcdon  carried  by  Sleep  and  Death,  and  other 
subjects  of  a  jroetic  and  imaginative  character.  In  1829 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Scottish  Academy,  and  in 
1832  visited  Italy,  where  ho  spent  more  than  a  year  in 
study.  At  Home  ho  executed  a  largo  .symbolical  painting, 
entitled  tho  Agony  of  Di.scord,  or  the  Hou.sehold  Gods 
Destroyed.  On  his  return  to  Scotland  ho  continued  the 
strenuous  and  unwearied  practice  of  his  art ;  but  his  pro- 
ductions were  too  recondite  and  abstract  in  subject  ever  to 
become  widely  popular,  while  tho  defects  and  exaggerations 
of    their  draftsmanshio   repelled   connoi.sscur.s.      So   tho 


gravity  which  had  always  been  characteristic  of  the  artist 
passed  into  gloom ;  he  shrank  from  society  and  led  a 
secluded  life,  hardly  quitting  Lis  studio,  his  luind  con- 
stantly occupied  with  the  great  problems  of  lifo^  and  oi 
his  art.  The  works  of  his  later  years  include  Yasco  da 
Gama  encountering  the  Spirit  of  the  Storm,  a  pictiire— 
immense  in  size  and  most  powerful  in  conception — finished 
in  1S42,  and  now  preserved  in  the  Trinity  House,  Leith  | 
the  Duke  of  Gloucester  entering  the  AVater  Gate  of  Calais 
(1841),  an  imijressive  .sulject,  more  complete  and  bar 
monious  in  execution  than  was  usual  with  the  artist ;  the 
Alchemist  (1838),  Queen  Elizabeth  at  the  Globe  Theatre 
(1840),  and  Peter  the  Hermit  (1845),  remarkable  for  their 
varied  and  elaborate  character-painting ;  and  Ariel  and 
Caliban  (1837)  and  the  Triumph  of  Love  (1846),  distin- 
guished by  their  beauty  of  colouring  and  depth  of  poetic 
feeling.  The  most  important  of  his  religious  subjects  are 
the  Descent  from  the  Cro-ss  (1835)  and  the  Crucifixion — 
the  Dead  Fusing  (1844).  In  addition  to  his  works  in 
colour  Scott  executed  several  remarkable  scries  of  designs. 
Two  of  these — the  Jlouograms  of  JIan  and  the  illustra- 
tions to  Coleridge's  Ancient  Mariner — were  etched  by  his 
own  hand,  and  published  in  1831  and  1837  respectively, 
while  his  subjects  from  the  Pilgrim's  Progress  and  Xichol's 
Architecture  of  the  Heavens  were  issued  after  his  death. 
Among  his  literary  productions  are  five  elaborate  and 
thoughtful  articles  on  the  characteristics  of  the  Italian 
masters,  published  in  Blachvood's  Maga:ine,  1839  to  1841, 
and  a  pamphlet  on  British,  French,  and  German  Painting, 
1841.  He  died  in  Edinburgh  on  the  5th  of  March_1849. 
As  a  colourist  David  Scott  occupies  a  high  place  in  the 
Scottish  school,  but  the  most  distinctive  merit  of  his  works 
lies  in  the  boldness  of  their  conception  and  their  imagina- 
tive and  poetic  power. 

See  AV.  B.  Scott,  jl/c»!0i)-  o/  Darid  Scott,  P^.S.A.  (1850),  and 
J.  JI.  Gray,  David  Scott,  U.S.A.,  and  his  Works  (1884). 

COTT,  Sir  George  Gilbert  (1811-1878),  one  of  the 
most  successful  ecclesiastical  architects  of  the  19th  century, 
was  born  in  1811  at  Gawcott  near  Buckingham,  where  his 
father  was  rector;  his  grandfather  was  Thomas  Scott 
(1747-1821),  the  well-known  commentator  on  the  Bible. 
In  1827  young  Scott  was  apprenticed  for  four  years  to  an 
architect  in  London  named  Edmeston,  and  at  the  end  of 
hi.<»  pupildom  acted  as  clerk  of  the  works  at  the  new 
Fishmongers'  Hall  and  other  buildings  in  order  to  acquire 
a  knowledge  of  the  practical  details  of  his  profession.  In 
Edmeston's  office  ho  became  acquainted  with  a  fellow- 
pupil,  named  lloflfat,  a  man  who  po.ssessed  considerable 
talents  for  the  purely. business  part  of  an  architect's  work, 
and  the  two  entered  into  partnership.  In  1834  they 
were  appointed  architects  to  the  union  workhouses  of 
Buckinghamshire,  and  for  four  years  were  busily  occupied 
in  building  a  number  of  cheap  and  ugly  unions,  both  there 
and  in  Northamptonshire  and  Lincolnshire.  In  1838 
Scott  built  at  Lincoln  his  first  church,  won  in  an  oi)en 
competition,  and  this  was  quickly  followed  by  six  others, 
all  very  poor  buildings  without  chancels;  that  was  a 
period  when  church  building  in  England  had  reached  its 
very  lowest  point  both  in  style  and  in  iioverty  of  construc- 
tion. About  1839  his  enthusiasm  was  aroused  by  somf 
of  tho  eloquent  writings  of  Pugin  on  mcdiasval  architect 
ure,  and  by  tho  various  papers  on  ecclesiastical  subjects 
published  by  the  Camden  Society.  These  opened  a  new 
world  to  Scott,  and  he  thenceforth  studied  and  imitated 
the  architectural  styles  and  princijiles  of  tho  Middle  Ages 
with  the  utmost  zeal  and  [latient  care.  Tho  first  ros«flt  of 
this  new  study  was  his  design  for  tho  Martyrs'  Memorial 
at  Oxford,  erected  in  1840,  a  clever  adaptation  of  the  lato 
13th-century  crosses  in  honour  of  Queen  Eleanor.  From 
that  time  Scott  became  the  chiof  ecclesiastictlrarrliitact  in 


544 


SCOTT 


England,  and  in  tlie  nest  twenty-eigUt  years  completed 
an  almost  incredibly  large  number  of  new  cliurches  and 
"restorations,"  the  fever  for  ^vhich  was  fomented  by  the 
Eccle.siological  Society  and  the  growth  of  ecclesiastical 
feeling  in  England. 

In  1844  Scott  won  the  first  premium  in  the  competition 
for  the  new  Lutheran  church  at  Hamburg,  a  noble  building 
with  a  very  lofty  spire,  designed  strictly  in  the  style  of  the 
1 3th  century.  In  the  following  year  his  partnership  with 
IMoffat  was  dissolved,  and  in  1847  Scott  was  employed  to 
renovate  and  refit  Ely  cathedral,  the  first  of  a  long  series 
of  English  cathedral  and  abbey  churches  which  passed 
through  his  hands.  In  1851  Scott  visited  and  studied  the 
architecture  of  the  chief  to^ras  in  northern  Italy,  and  in 
1855  won  tlie  competition  for  the  town-house  at  Hamburg, 
designed  after  the  model  of  similar  buildings  in  nortTi 
Germany.  In  spite  of  his  having  won  the  first  prize, 
another  architect  was  selected  to  construct  the  building, 
siter  a  very  inferior  design.  In  1856  a  competition  was 
l.eld  for  designs  of  the  new  Government  offices  in  London  ; 
Lcott  obtained  the  third  place  in  this,  but  the  work  was 
afterwards  given  to  him  on  the  condition  (insisted  on  by 
Lord  Palmerston)  that  he  should  make  a  new  design,  not 
Gothic,  but  Classic  or  Kenaissance  in  style.  This  Scott 
very  unwillingly  consented  to  do,  as  he  had  little  sympathy 
witli  any  styles  but  those  of  England  or  France  from  the 
13th  to  the  15th  century.  In  1862-63  he  was  employed  to 
design  and  construct  the  Albert  Memorial,  a  very  costly 
and  elaborate  work,  in  the  style  of  a  magnified  13th-century 
reliquary  or  ciborium,  adorned  with  many  statues  and  re- 
liefs in  bronze  and  marble.  On  the  partial  completion  of 
this  he  received  the  honour  of  knighthood.  In  1866  he 
Mmpeted  for  the  new  London  law-courts,  but  the  prize  was 
idjudged  to  his  old  pupil,  G.  E.  Street.  In  1873,  owing 
to  illness  caused  by  overwork,  Scott  spent  some  time  in 
Rome  and  other  parts  of  Italy.  The  mosaic  pavement 
which  he  designed  for  Durham  cathedral  soon  afterwards 
was  the  result  of  his  study  of  the  13th-century  mosaics  in 
the  old  basilicas  of  Eome.  On  his  return  to 'England  he 
resumed  his  professional  labours,  and  continued  to  work 
almost  without  intermission  till  his  short  illness  and  death 
in  1878.  .  He  was  buried  in  the  nave  of  Westminster 
Abbey,  and  an  engraved  brass,  designed  by  G.  E.  Street, 
was  placed  over  his  grave.  In  1S3S  Scott  married  his 
cousin,  Caroline  Oldrid,  who  died  in  1870  ;  they  had  five 
sons,  two  of  whom  Lave  taken  up  their  father's  profession. 

Scott's  architectural  works  were  more  numerous  than  those  of 
any  other  arcliitoct  of  tlie  century;  unfortunately  for  his  fame,  he 
undertook  .far  more  than  it  was  possible  for  him  reaily  to  design  or 
supervise  ivith  thought  and  care.  He  carried  out  extensive  works 
of  repair,  refuruishing,  and  restoration  in  tlie  following  buildings  : 
—the  cathedrals  of  Ely,  Hereford,  Lichfield,  Salisbury,  Chichester, 
Durham,  St  David's,  Bangor,  St  Asaph,  Chester,  Gloucester,  Ripon, 
Worcester,  Exeter,  Rochester,  the  abbeys  of  Westminster,  St  Albans, 
Tewkesbury,  and  countless  minor  churches.  He  also  built  the  new 
Government  offices  (India,  Foreign,  Home,  and  Colonial),  the  Mid- 
land Railway  terminus  and  hotel,  and  a  large  number  of  private 
houses  and  other  buildings.  His  style  was  (with  the  one  exception 
of  the  Government  offices)  a  careful  copy  of  architectuial  periods 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  used  with  a  profound  knowledge  of  detail,  but 
without  much  real  inventive  power,  and  consequently  rather  dull 
and  uninteresting  in  effect.  As  a  "restorer"  of  ancient  buildings  he 
was  guilty  of  an  immense  amount  of  the  most  iirepai-able  destruc- 
tion, but  any  other  architect  of  his  generation  would  probably  have 
done  as  much  or  even  more  harm.  While  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  Scott  hSld  for  many  years  the  post  of  professor  of  archi- 
tecture, and  gave  a  long  series  of  able  lectures  on  mediaeval  styles, 
which  were  published  in  1879.  He  wrote  a  work  on  Domestic 
ArchiUclurc,  and  a  volume  of  Personal  and  Professional  Recollections, 
which,  edited  by  his  eldest  son,  was  published  in  1879,  and  also  a 
large  number  of  articles  and  reports  on  many  of  the  ancient  build- 
ings with  which  he  had  to  deal.  Owing  to  his  numerous  pupils, 
amoDg  whom  have  been  many  leading  architects,  his  influence  was 
for  some  time  very  widely  spread  ;  but  it  is  now  rapidly  passing 
•  iiway,  mainly  owing  to  the  growing  reaction  against  the  somewhut 


nari'ow  medievalism  of  which  he,  both  in  theory  and  uractice.  w?.? 
the  chief  exponent. 

SCOTT,  JoHX.     See  Eldon,  Earl  of. 

SCOTT,  ^IicHAEL.     See  Scot,  JIichael. 

SCOTT,  Sir  Walter  (1771-1832),  poet  ana  novelist, 
was  born  at  Edinburgh  on  15th  Angust  1771.  His  peili- 
gree,  in  which  he  took  a  pride  that  strongly  influenced  th& 
course  of  his  life,  may  be  given  in  the  words  of  his  owik 
fragment  of  autobiography.  "  Jly  birth  was  neither  dis- 
tinguished nor  sordid.  According  to  the  prejudices  of  my 
country  it  was  esteemed  gentle,  as  I  was  connected,  though 
remotely,  with  ancient  families  both  by  my  father's  and 
mother's  side.  Jly  father's  grandfather  was  Walter  Scott, 
well  known  by  the  name  of  Beardie.  He  was  the  second 
son  of  Walter  Scott,  first  laird  of  Raeburn,  who  was  third 
son  of  Sir  AVilliam  .Scott,  and  the  grandson  of  Walter  Scott, 
commonly  called  in  tradition  Avid  Watt  of  Harden.  I 
am  therefore  lineally  descended  from  that  ancient  chief- 
tain, whose  nair.e  I  have  made  to  ring  in  many  a  ditty, 
and  from  his  fair  dame,  the  Flower  of  Yarrow, — no  bad 
genealogy  for  a  Border  minstrel." 

Scott's  desire  to  be  known  as  a  cadet  »f  tte  house  of 
Harden,  and  his  ruling  passion — so  disastrous  in  its 
ultimate  results — to  found  a  minor  territorial  family  of 
Scotts,  have  been  very  variously  estimated.  He  himself, 
in  a  notice  of  John  Home,  speaks  of  pride  of  family  as- 
"natural  to  a  man  of  imagination,"  remarking  that,  "in 
this  motley  world,  the  family  jiride  of  the  north  country 
has  its  effects  of  good  and  of  evil."  Whether  the  good  or 
the  evil  preponderated  in  Scott's  own  ca^e  would  not  be 
easy  to  determine.  It  tempted  him  into  coiu'ses  that 
ended  in  commercial  ruin ;  but  throughout  his  life  it  was 
a  constant  spur  to  exertion,  and  in  his  last  years  it  proved 
itself  as  a;  working  principle  capable  of  inspiring  and  main- 
taining a  most  chivalrous  coiiception  of  duty.  If  the 
ancient  chieftain  Aidd  Watt  was,  according  to  the  anecdote 
told  by  his  illustrious  descendant,  once  reduced  in  the 
matter  of  live  stock  to  a  single  cow,  and  recovered  his 
dignity  by  stealing  the  cows  of  his  English  neighbours, 
Professor  Veitch  is  probably  right  in  holding  'that  Scott's. 
Border  ancestry  were,  as  a  matter  of  literal  fact,  sheep- 
farmers,  who  varied  their  occupation  by  "  lifting "  sheep 
and  cattle,  and  whatever  else  was  "neither  too  heavy 
nor  too  hot.''  The  Border  lairds  were  really  a  race  of 
shepherds  in  so  far  as  they  were  not  a  race  of  robbers. 
Professor  Veitch  suggests  that  Scott  may  have  derived 
from  this  pastoral  ancestry  an  hereditary  bias  towards  the 
observation  of  nature  and  the  enjoyment  of  open-air  life. 
He  certainly  inherited  from  them  the  robust  strength  of 
constitution  that  carried  him  successfully  through  so  many 
exhausting  labours.  And  it  was  his  pride  in  their  reaf 
or  supposed  feudal  dignity  and  their  rough  marauding 
exploits  that  first  directed  him  to  the  study  of  Border 
history  and  poetry,  the  basis  of  his  fame  as  a  poet  and 
romancer.  His  father,  a  writer  to  the  signet  (or  attorney) 
in  Edinburgh — the  original  of  the  elder  Fairford  in  Bed- 
e/auntlet — was  the  first  of  the  family  to  adopt  a  town  life 
or  a  learned  profession.  'Uis  mother  was  the  daughter  of 
Dr  Rutherford,  a  medical  professor  in  the  university  of 
Edinburgh,  who  also  traced  descent  from  the  chiefs  of 
famous  Border  clans.  The  ceilings  of  Abbotsford  display 
the  arms  of  about  a  dozen  Border  families  with  which 
Scott  claimed  kindred  through  one  side  or  the  other.  Hifi 
father  was  consjiicuous  for  methodical  and  thorough  in- 
dustry ;  his  mother  was  a  wcman  of  imagination  and  cul- 
ture. The  son  seems  to  have  inherited  the  best  qualities 
of  the  one  and  acquired  tha  best  qualities  of  the  other. 

The  details  of  his  early  education  are  given  with  greal; 
precision  in  his  autobiography.  Stuart  Mill  was  not  more 
minute  in  recording  the  various  circumstances  that  shaped 


SCOTT 


545 


his  habits  of  mind  and  work.  We  learn  from  himself  the 
'secret — as  much  at  least  as  could  be  ascribed  to  definite  ex- 
traneous accident— of  the  "  extempore  speed  "  in  romantic 
composition  against  which  Carlyle  protested  in  his  famous 
review  of  Lockhart's  Life  of  Scott >  The  indignant  critic 
assumed  that  Scott  wrote  "  without  preparation  " ;  Scott 
himself,  as  if  he  had  foreseen  this  cavil,  is  at  pains  to  show 
that  the  preparation  began  with  his  boyhood,  almost  with 
his  infancy.  The  current  legend  when  Carlyle  wrote  his 
essay  was  that  as  a  boy  Scott  had  been  a  dunce  and  an 
idler.  With  a  characteristically  conscientious  desira  not  to 
set  a  bad  example,  the  autobiographer  solemnly  declares 
that  he  was  neither  a  dunce  nor  an  idler,  and  explains  how 
the  misunderstanding  arose.  His  health  in  boyhood  was 
uncertain ;  -  he  was  consequently  irregular  in  his  attend- 
ance at  school,  never  became  exact  in  his  knowledge  of 
Ditin  syntax,  and  was  so  belated  in  beginning  Greek  that 
out  of  bravado  he  resolved  not  to  learn  it  at  all. 

Left  very  much  to  himself  throughout  his  boyhood  in 
the  matter  of  reading,  so  quick,  lively,  excitable,  and  un- 
certain in  health  that  it  was  considered  dangerous  to 
press  him  and  prudent  rather  to  keep  him  back,  Scott 
began  at  a  very  early  age  to  accumulate  the  romantic 
lore  of  which  he  afterwards  made  such  splendid  use.  As 
a  child  he  seems  to  have  been  an  eager  and  interested 
listener  and  a  great  favourite  with  his  elders,  apparently 
having  even  then  the  same  engaging  charm  that  made 
him  so  much  beloved  as  a  man.  Chance  threw  him  in 
the  way  of  many  who  were  willing  to  indulge  his  delight 
in  stories  and  ballads.  Not  only  his  own  relatives — the 
old  women  at  his  grandfather's  farm  at  Sandyknowe,  his 
aunt,  under  whose  charge  he  was  sent  to  Bath  for  a  year, 
his  mother — took  an  interest  in  the  precocious  boy's  ques- 
.tions,  told  him  tales  of  Jacobites  and  Border  worthies  of 
his  own  and  other  clans,  but  casual  friends  of  the  family 
— such  as  the  military  veteran  at  Prestonpans,  old  Dr 
Blacklock  the  blind  poet.  Home  the  author  of  Douglas, 
Adam  Ferguson  the  martial  historian  of  the  Roman 
republic — helped  forward  his  education  in  the  direction 
in  which  the  bent  of  his  genius  lay.     At  the  age  of  six 

'  L.itest  eilitiou  in  10  vols.  fcap.  8vo,  Eiliiiburgli,  184"--18. 

'  Dr  Charles  Crcigliton  supplies  us  with  the  foUowiug  medical  note 
on  Scott's  early  illness  : — "Scott's  lameness  was  owing  to  an  arrest  of 
growth  in  the  right  leg  in  infancy.  When  he  was  eighteen  mouths  oM 
he  hail  a  feverisli  attack  lasting  three  days,  at  the  end  of  which  time 
it  was  found  that  he  Miail  lost  the  power  of  his  right  log,' — i.e.,  tlie 
child  instinctively  declined  to  move  the  ailiug  member.  'The  malady 
was  a  swelling  at  the  ankle,  and  either  consisted  iu  or  gave  rise  to 
arrest  of  the  bone-forming  function  along  the  growing  line  of  cartilage 
which  connects  the  lower  epipliysis  of  each  of  the  two  leg-bones  with 
its  shaft.  In  his  fourth  year,  when  he  had  otherwise  recovered,  the 
leg  remained 'much  shrunk  and  coutracted.'  The  limb  would  have 
been  blighted  very  much  more  if  tho  arrest  of  giowtli  had  taken  place 
at  the  upper  epiphysis  of  tlie  tibia  or  tho  lower  epiphysis  of  the  femur. 
The  narrowness  and  peculiar  depth  of  Scott's  head  point  to  some  moro 
general  congenital  error  of  bone-making  allieil  to  rickets  but  certainly 
not  the  same  as  that  m.ahidy.  Tho  vault  of  the  skull  is  the  typical 
'  scaphoid '  or  boat-shaped  formation,  due  to  premature  union  of  tho  two 
parietal  bones  along  the  .sagittal  suture.  When  tho  bones  of  tho  cranium 
arv!  universally  alfocted  with  that  arrest  of  growth  along  their  formative 
edges,  the  sutures  bccorue  prematurely  fi.\cd  ami  ofTaicd,  no  that  the 
Vain-case  cannot  expand  in  any  direction  to  accommodate  the  growing 
Drain.  This  universal  synostosis  of  tho  cranial  bones  is  what  occurs  in 
the  case  of  niieroccphnlous  idiots.  It  happened  to  me  to  show  to  an 
eminent  French  anthropologist  a  specimen  of  a  miniaturo  or  micro- 
cephalic skull  preserved  in  tho  Cambrirlge  museum  of  anatomy  ;  tho 
French  savaiil,  holding  up  tho  skull  and  pointing  to  the  '  sc.iphoid '  vault 
of  the  crown  and  the  elfaced  sagilt.al  suture,  cxclaimod  '  Voili\  Walter 
Scott  I '  Scott  had  fortunately  escaped  tho  early  closure  or  arrest  of 
growth  at  other  cranial  sutures  than  tho  sagittal,  so  that  tho  growing 
brain  couhl  make  room  for  itself  by  forcing  up  tho  vault  of  tho  skull 
boilily.  When  his  head  was  ojieued  after  dcatli,  it  was  observed  that 
'the  brain  was  not  large,  and  the  cranium  thinner  than  it  is  usually 
found  to  be.'  In  favour  of  the  theory  of  congenital  liability  it  hu  to 
be  said  that  lie  was  tho  ninth  of  a  family  of  whom  the  flmt  six  died 
ju  '  very  early  youth.' " 


he  was  able  to  define  himself  as  "a  virtuoso,"  "one  who 
wi.shes  to  and  will  know  everything."  At  ten  his  collec- 
tion of  chap-books  and  ballads  had  reached  several  volumes, 
and  he  was  a  connoi.s.seur  in  various  readings.  Thus  ho 
took  to  the  High  School,  Edinburgh,  when  he  was  .strong 
enough  to  be  put  in  regular  attendance,  an  unusual  store 
of  miscellaneous  knowledge  and  an  unusually  quickened 
intelligence,  so  that  his  master  "  pronounced  that,  though 
many  of  his  schoolfellows  understood  the  Latin  better, 
Gualterus  Scott  was  beliind  few  in  following  and  enjoying' 
the  author's  meaning." 

Throughout  his  school  days  and  afterwards  when  ho 
wa.s  apprenticed  to  his  father,  attended  university  classes, 
read  for  the  bar,  took  part  in  academical  and  professional 
debating  societies,  Scott  steadily  and  ardently  pursued 
his  own  favourite  studies.  His  reading  in  romance  and 
history  was  really  study,  and  not  merely  the  indulgence 
of  an  ordinary  schoolboy's  promiscuous  appetite  for  excit- 
ing literature.  In  fact,  even  as  a  schoolboy  he  special- 
ized. He  followed  the  line  of  overpowering  inclination  ; 
and  even  then,  as  he  frankly  tells  us,  "fame  was  the 
spur."  He  acquired  a  reputation  among  his  schoolfellows 
for  out-of-the-way  knowledge,  and  also  for  story-telling, 
and  he  worked  hard  to  maintain  this  character,  which 
compensated  to  his  ambitious  spirit  his  indifferent  distinc- 
tion in  ordinary  school-work.  The  youthful  "  virtuoso," 
though  he  read  ten  times  the  usual  allowance  of  novels 
from  the  circulating  library,  was  carried  by  his  enthusiasm 
into  fields  much  less  generally  attractive.  He  was  still  a 
schoolboy  when  he  mastered  French  sufficiently  well  to 
read  through  collections  of  old  French  romances,  and  not 
more  than  fifteen  when,  attracted  by  translations  to  Italian 
romantic  literature,  he  learnt  the  language  in  order  to  read 
Dante  and  Ariosto  in  the  original.  This  willingness  -to 
face  dry  work  in  the  pursuit  of  romantic  reading  afTord.s 
a  measure  of  the  strength  of  Scott's  passion.  In  one  of  the 
literary  parties  brought  together  to  lionize  Burns,  when 
the  peasant  poet  visited  Edinburgh,  tho  boy  of  fifteen 
was  the  only  member  of  the  company  who  could  tell  tho 
source  of  some  lines  affixed  to  a  picture  that  had  attracted 
the  poet's  attention, — a  slight  but  significant  evidence 
both  of  the  width  of  his  reading  and  of  the  tenacity  of 
his  memory.  The  same  thoroughness  appears  in  another 
little  circumstance.  He  took  an  interest  in  Scottish  family 
history  and  genealogy,  but,  not  content  with  the  ordinary 
sources,  he  ransacked  the  MSS.  preserved  in  the  Advocates' 
Library.  By  tho  time  he  was  one  and  twenty  ho  had 
acquired  such  a  reputation  for  his  skill  in  deciphering  old 
manuscripts  that  his  assistance  was  soucht  by  professional 
antiquaries. 

This  early,  assiduou.s,  unintermittent  study  was  tho 
main  secret,  over  and  above  his  natural  gifts,  of  Scott's 
extempore  speed  and  fertility  when  at  last  ho  found  forms 
into  which  to  pour  his  vast  accumulation  of  historical  and 
romantic  lore.  He  was,  as  he  said  himself,  "  like  an 
ignorant  gamester  who  keeps  up  a  good  hand  till  ho 
knows  how  to  play  it."  That  ho  had  vaguo  thought  i 
from  a  nnuh  earlier  period  than  is  commonly  supposed 
of  playing  tho  hand  some  day  is  extremely  probable,  if, 
as  he  tells  us,  tho  idea  of  wTi'ting  romances  first  occurred 
to  him  when  ho  read  Cervantes  in  tho  original.  This  was 
long  before  ho  was  out  of  his  teens ;  and,  if  vm  add  that 
his  leading  idea  in  his  first  novel  was  to  depict  a  Jacobitic 
Don  Quixote,  we  can  seo  that  there  was  probably  a  long 
interval  between  tho  first  conception  of  Waverlty  and  the 
ultimate  completion. 

Scott's  ])rcparation  for  painting  tho  life  of  past  times  was 
probably  much  less  unconsciously  such  than  his  cijunlly 
thorough  preparation  for  actin;^  -la  the  painter  of  Scottish 
manners  r.nd  character  in  all  grades  of  .society.     With  all 

X.\I.  -   6Q 


546 


SCOTT 


the  extent  of  his  reading  as  a  schoolboy  and  a  young  man 
he  was  far  from  being  a  cloisteral  studen\  absorbed  in  his 
books.  In  spite  of  his  lameness  an'l  nis  serious  illnesses 
in  youth,- his  constitution  was  naturally  robust,  his  dis- 
jjosition  genial,  his  spirits  high :  he  was  always  well  to 
the  front  in  the  fights  and  frolics  of  the  High  School,  and 
a  boon  companion  in  the  "high  jinks"  of  the  junior  bar. 
The  future  novelist's  experience  of  life  was  singularly  rich 
and  varied.  While  he  lived  the  life  of  imagination  and 
scholarship  in  symi^athy  with  a  few  choice  friends,  he  was 
brought  into  intimate  daily  contact  with  many  varieties  of 
real  life.  At  home  he  had  to  behave  as  became  a  member 
of  a  Puritanic,  somewhat  ascetic,  well-ordered  Scottish 
household,  subduing  his  own  inclinations  towards  a  more 
graceful  and  comfortable  scheme  of  living  into  outward  con- 
formity with  his  lather's  strict  rule.  Through  his  mother's 
family  he  obtained  access  to  the  literary  society  of  Edin- 
burgh, at  that  time  electrified  by  the  advent  of  Burns, 
full  of  vigour  and  ambition,  rejoicing  in  the  possession  of 
not  a  few  widely  known  men  of 'letters,  philosophers, 
historians,  novelists,  and  critics,  from  racy  and  eccentric 
Monboddo  to  refined  and  scholarly  Mackenzie.  In  that 
society  also  he  may  have  found  the  materials  for  the 
manners  and  characters  of  St  Ronan's  Well.  From  any 
tendency  to  the  pedantry  of  over-culture  he  was  effectually 
saved  by  the  rougher  and  manlier  spirit  of  his  professional 
comrades,  who,  though  they  respected  belles  lettres,  would 
not  tolerate  anything  in  the  shape  of  affectation  or  senti- 
mentalism.  The  atmosphere  of  the  Parliament  House  (the 
Westminster  Hall  of  Edinburgh)  had  considerable  influence 
on  the  tone  of  Scott's  novels.  His  peculiar  humour  as  a 
story-teller  and  painter  of  character  was  first  developed 
among  the  young  men  of  his  ovm  standing  at  the  bar. 
They  were  tie  first  Vnature  audience  on  which  he  experi- 
mented, and  seem  often  to  have  been  in  his  mind's  eye 
when  he  enlarged  his  public.  From  their  mirthful  com- 
panionship by  the  stove,  where  the  briefless  congregated 
to  discuss  knotty  points  in  law  and  help  one  another  to 
enjoy  the  humours  of  judges  and  litigants,  "  Duns  Scotus  " 
often  stole  away  to  pore  over  old  books  and  manuscripts 
in  the  library  beneath  ;  but  as-  long  as  he  was  with  them 
he  was  first  among  his  peers  in  the  art  of  providing  enter- 
tainment. It  was  to  this  market  that  Scott  brought  the 
harvest  of  the  vacation  rambles  which  it  was  his  custom 
to  make  every  autumn  for  seven  years  after  hia  call  to 
the  bar  and  before  his  marriage.  He  scoured  the  country 
in  search  of  ballads  and  other  reHcs  of  antiquity ;  but  he 
found  also  and  treasured  many  traits  of  living  manners, 
many  a  lively  sketch  and  story  vith  which  to  amuse  the 
brothers  of  "  the  mountain  "  on  his  return.  His  staid 
father  did  not  much  like  these  escapades,  and  told  him 
bitterly  that  he  seemed  fit  for  nothing  but  to  be  a  "  gangrel 
scrape-gut."  But,  as  the  companion  of  "his  Liddesdale 
raids"  happily  put  it,  "he  was  mahin'  himsell  a'  the  time, 
but  he  didna  ken  maybe  what  he  was  about  till  years  had 
passed :  at  first  he  thought  o'  little,  I  daresay,  but  the 
queerness  and  the  fun." 

We  may  as  well  dispose  at  once  of  Scott's  professional 
career.  His  father  intended  him  originally  to  follow  his 
own  business,  and  he  was  apprenticed  in  his  sixteenth 
year ;  but  he  preferred  the  upper  walk  of  the  legal  pro- 
fession, and  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  faculty  of 
advocates  in  1792.  He  seems  to  have  read  hard  at  law 
for  four  years  at  least,  but  almost  from  the  first  to  have 
limited  his  ambition  to  obtaining  some  comfortable  appoint- 
ment such  as  would  leave  him  a  good  deal  of  leisure  for 
literary  pursuits.  In  this  he  was  not  disappointed.  In 
1799  he  obtained  the  oflSce  of  sherifi'-depute  of  Selkirk- 
shire, with  a  salary  of  £300  and  very  light  duties.  In 
1806  he  obtained  the  reversion  of  the  oflSce  of  clerk  of 


session.  It  is  sometimes  supposed,  from  the  immense 
amount  of  other  work  that  Scott  accomplished,  that  this 
ofiice  was  a  sinecure.  But  the  duties,  which  are  fully 
described  by  Lockhart,  were  really  serious,  and  kept  him 
hard  at  fatiguing  work,  his  biographer  estimates,  for  at 
least  three  or  four  hours  daily  during  six  months  out  of 
the  twelve,  while  the  court  was  in  session.  He  discharged 
these  duties  faithfully  for  twenty-five  years,  during  the 
height  of  his  activity  as  an  author.  He  did  not  enter  on 
the  emoluments  of  the  office  till  1812,  but  from  that  time 
he  received  from  the  clerkship  and  the  sheriffdom  combined 
an  income  of  £1600  a  year,  being  thus  enabled  to  act  in 
his  literary  undertakings  on  his  often-quoted  maxim  that 
"literature  should  be  a  staff  and  not  a  crutch." 

Scott's  profession,  in.  addition  to  supplying  him  with  a 
competent  livelihood,  supplied  him  also  with  abundance 
of  opportunities  for  the  study  of  men  and  manners.  Char- 
acters of  all  types  and  shades  find  their  way  into  courts  of 
law.  The  wonder  is  that  so  much  technical  drudgery  did 
not  crush  every  particle  of  romance  out  of  him  ;  but  such 
was  the  elasticity  and  strength  of  his  powers  that  this 
daily  attendance  at  the  transaction  of  affairs  in  open  court 
face  to  face  with  living  men — under  a  strain  of  attention 
that  would'have  exhausted  an  ordinary  man's  allowance  of 
energy — seems  rather  to  have  helped  him  in  giving  an 
atmosphere  of  reality  to  his  representations  of  the  life  of 
the  past. 

It  was  not,  however,  as  a  prose  writer  that  he  was  first 
to  make  a  reputation.  The  common  notion  is  that  gcott, 
having  made  a  reputation  as  a  poet,  was  led  to  attempt 
romances  in  prose  by  a  chance  impulse,  hitting  upon  the 
new  vein  as  if  by  accident.  The  truth  seems  rather  to 
be  that,  as  it  is  his  prose  romances  which  give  the  fullest 
measure  of  his  genius,  so  the  greater  part  of  his  early  life 
was  a  conscious  or  unconscious  preparation  for  writing 
them  ;  whereas  his  metrical  romances,  in  every  way  slighter 
and  less  rich  and  substantial,  were,  comparatively  speak- 
ing, a  casual  and  temporary  deviation  from  the  main  pur- 
pose of  his  life.  According  to  his  own  account,  he  was 
led  to  adopt  the  medium  of  verse  by  a  series  of  accidents. 
The  story  is  told  by  himself  at  length  and  with  his 
customary  frankness  and  modesty  in  the  Essay  on  Imita- 
tions of  the  Ancient  Ballad,  prefixed  to  the  1830  edition 
of  his  Border  Minstrelsy,  and  in  the  1830  introduction  to 
the  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel.  The  first  link  in  the  chain 
was  a  lecture  by  Henry  Mackenzie  on  German  literature, 
delivered  in  1788.  This  apprized  Scott,  who  was  then  a 
legal  apprentice  and  an  enthusiastic  student  of  French  and 
Italian  romance,  that  there  was  a  fresh  development  of 
romantic  literature  in  German.  As  soon  as  he  had  the 
burden  of  preparation  for  the  bar  off  his  mind  he  learnt 
German,  and  was  profoundly  excited  to  find  a  new  school 
founded  on  the  serious  study  of  a  kind  of  literature  his 
own  devotion  to  which  was  regarded  by  most  of  his  com- 
panions with  wonder  and  ridicule.  We  must  remember 
always  that  Scott  quite  as  much  as  Wordsworth  created 
the  taste  by  which  he  was  enjoyed,  and  that  in  his  early 
days  he  was  half -ashamed  of  his  romantic  studies,  and 
pursued  them  more  or  less  in  secret  with  a  few  intimates. 
\VTiile  he  was  in  the  height  of  his  enthusiasm  for  the  new 
German  romance,  Mrs  Barbauld  visited  Edinburgh,  and 
recited  an  English  translation  of  Burger's  Lenore.  Scott 
heard  of  it  from  a  friend,  who  was  able  to  repeat  two  lines — 
"  Tramp,  tramp,  across  the  land  they  speed  ; 
Splash,  splash,  across  the  sea  !  " 

The  two  lines  were  enough  to  give  Seott  a  new  ambition. 
He  could  write  such  poetry  himself !  The  impulse  was 
strengthened  by  his  reading  Lewis's  Monk  and  the  ballads 
in  the  German  manner  interspersed  through  the  work.. 
He  hastened  to  procure  a  copy  of  Biirger,  at  once  executeq 


SCOTT 


547 


translations  of  several  of  his  ballads,  published  two  of  them 
in  a  thin  quarto  in  1796  (his  ambition  being  perhaps 
quickened  by  the  unfortunate  issue  of  a  love  all'air),  and 
■was  much  encouraged  by  the  applause  of  his  friends.  Soon 
after  he  met  Lewis  personally,  and  h's  ambition  was  con- 
firmed. "  Finding  Lewis,"  he  says,  "  in  possession  of  so 
much  reputation,  and  conceiving  that  if  I  fell  behind  him 
in  poetical  powers,  I  cofisiderably  exceeded  him  in  general 
information,  I  suddenly  took  it  into  my  head  to  attempt 
the  style  of  poetry  by  which  he  had  raised  himself  to 
fame."  Accordingly,  he  'composed  Glenfinlas,  The  Eve  of 
St  John,  and  the  Graij  Brother,  which  were  published  in 
Lewis's  collection  of  Tales  of  Wonder.  But  he  soon  be- 
came convinced  that  "  the  practice  of  ballad-writing  was 
out  of  fashion,  and  that  any  attempt  to  revive  it  or  to 
found  a  poetical  character  on  it  would  certainly  fail  of 
success."  His  study  of  Goethe's  Got:  von  Berlichiwjen,  of 
which  he  published  a  translation  in  1799,  gave  him  wider 
ideas.  Why  should  he  not  do  foV  ancient  Border  manners 
what  Goethe  had  done  for  the  ancient  feudalism  of  the 
Rhine  1  He  had  been  busy  since  his  boyhood  collecting 
Scottish  Border  ballads  and  studying  the  minutest  details 
of  Border  history.  He  began  to  cast  about  for  a  form 
which  should  have  the  advantage  of  novelty,  and  a  subject 
•which  should  secure  unity  of  composition.  He  was  en- 
gaged at  the  time  preparing  a  collection  of  the  Minstrelsy 
of  the  Scottish  Border.  The  first  instalment  was  published 
in  1802 ;  it  was  followed  by  another  next  j-ear,  and  by  an 
edition  and  continuation  of  the  old  romance  of  Sir  Tristram; 
and  Scott  was  still  hesitating  about  subject  and  form- for 
a  large  original  work.  It  seems  probable  from  a  conversa- 
tion recorded  by  Gillies  that  he  might  have  ended  by 
casting  his  meditated  picture  of  Border  manners  in  the 
form  of  a  prose  romance.  But  chance  at  last  threw  in  his 
■way  both  a  suitable  subject  and  a  suitable  metrical  vehicle. 
He  had  engaged  all  his  friends  in  the  hunt  for  Border 
ballads  and  legends.  Among  others,  the  countess  of  Dal- 
keith, wife  of  the  heir-apparent  to  the  dukedom  of  Buccleuch, 
interested  herself  in  the  work.  Happening  to  hear  the 
legend  of  a  tricksy  hobgoblin  named  Gilpin  Horner,  she 
asked  Scott  to  write  a  ballad  about  it.  He  agreed  with 
delight,  and,  out  of  compliment  to  the  lady  who  had  given 
this  command  to  the  bard,  resolved  to  connect  it  with 
the  house  of  Buccleuch.  The  subject  grew  in  his  fertile 
imagination,  till  incidents  enough  had  gathered  round  the 
goblin  to  furnish  a  framework  for  his  long-designed  picture 
of  Border  manners.  Chance  also  furnished  him  with  a  hint 
for  a  novel  scheme  of  verse:  Coleridge's  fragment  of 
Christabel,.  though  begun  in  1797 — when  he  and  Words- 
worth were  discussing  on  the  Quantock  Hills  the  prin- 
ciples of  such  ballads  as  Scott  at  the  same  time  was  recit- 
ing to  himself  in  his  gallops  on  Musselburgh  sands — was 
not  pubhshed  till  1816.  But  a  friend  of  Scott's,  Sir  John 
Stoddart,  had  met  Coleridge  in  JIalta,  and  had  carried 
homo  in  his  memory  enough  of  the  unfinished  poem  to 
convey  to  Scott  that  its  metre  was  the  very  metre  of  which 
he  had  been  in  search.  Scott  introduced  still  greater 
variety  into  the  four-beat  couplet ;  but  it  was  to  Christabd 
that  he  owed  the  suggestion,  as  one  lino  borrowed  whole 
and  many  imitated  rhythms  testify. 

The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel  appeared  in  January  180.5, 
and  at  once  became  widely  popular.  It  sold  more  rapidly 
than  poem  had  over  sold  before.  Scott  was  astonished  at 
his  own  success,  although  he  expected  tliat  "  the  attempt 
to  return  to  a  more  simple  and  natural  style  of  poetry  was 
likely  to  be  welcomed."  Many  things  contributed  to  the 
extraordinary  demand  for  the  Lay.  First  and  foremost, 
no  doubt,  we  must  reckon  its  simplicity.  After  the 
abstract  themes  and  abstruse,  elaborately  allusive  style  of 
the  18th  century,   the  public  were  glad  of   verse  that 


could  be  read  with  ease  and  even  with  exhilaration,  versa 
in  which  a  simple  interesting  story  was  told  with  brilliant 
energy,  and  simple  feelings  were  treated  not  as  isolated 
themes  but  as  incidents  in  the  lives  of  individual  men 
and  women.  The  thought  was  not  so  profound,  the  line.f 
were  not  so  polished,  as  in  The  Pleasures  of  Memory  or 
The  Pleasures  of  Hope,  but  the  "  light-horseman  sort  of 
stanza"  carried  the  reader  briskly  over  a  much  more 
diversified  country,  tljjough  boldly  outlin.ed  and  strongly 
coloured  scenes.  No  stanza  required  a  second  reading ; 
you  had  not  to  keep  attention  on  the  stretch  or  pause 
and  construe  laboriously  before  you  could  grasp  the 
writer's  meaning  or  enter  into  his  artfully  condensed 
sentiment.  To  remember  the  pedigrees  of  all  the  Scotts, 
or  the  names  of  all  the  famous  chiefs  and  hardy  retainers 
"  whose  gathering  word  was  Bellenden,"  might  have  pe- 
quired  some  effort,  but  only  the  conscientious  reader  need 
care  to  make  it.  The  only  puzzle  in  the  Lom  was  the 
goblin  page,  and  the  general  reader  was  absolved  from  all 
trouble  about  him  by  the  unanimous  declaration  of  the 
critics,  led  by  Jeffrey  in  the  Edinburgh  Eevieu;  that  he 
was  a  grotesque  excrescence,  in  no  way  essential  to  the 
story.  It  is  conimonly  taken  for  granted  that  Scott 
acquiesced  in  this  judgment,  his  politely  ironic  letter  to 
Miss  Seward  being  quoted  as  conclusive.  This  is  hardly 
fair  to  the  poor  goblin,  seeing  that  his  story  was  the 
germ  of  the  "poem  and  determines  its  whole  structure ; 
but  it  is  a  tribute  to  the  lively  simplicity  of  the  Lay  that 
few  people  should  be  willing  to  take  the  very  moderate 
ariouiit  of  pains  necessary  to  see  the  gobHn's  true  position 
in  the  action.  The  supernatural  element  was  Scott's  most 
risky  innovation.  For  the  rest,  he  was  a  cautious  and 
conservative  reformer,  careful  not  to  offend  established 
traditions.  He  was  far  from  raising  the  standard  of  re- 
bellion, as  Wordsworth  had  done,  against  the  great  artistic 
canon  of  the  classical  school 

"  True  art  is  nature  to  advantage  dressed." 

To  "  engraft  modern  refinement  on  ancient  simplicity," 
to  preserve  the  energy  of  the  old  ballad  without  its  rudeness 
and  bareness  of  poetic  ornament,  was  Scott's  avowed  aim. 
He  adhered  to  the  poetic  diction  against  which  Words- 
worth protested.  His  rough  Borderers  are  "dressed  to 
advantage "  in  the  costume  of  romantic  chivalry.  The 
baronial  magnificence  of  Branksome,  Deloraine's  "shield 
and  jack  and  acton,"  the  elaborate  ceremony  of  the  com- 
bat between  the  pseudo-Deloraine  and  Musgrave,  are 
concessions  to  the  taste  of  the  18th  century.  Further,  ho 
disarmed  criticism  by  putting  his  poem  into  the  mouth 
of  an  ancient  minstrel,  thus  pictorially  emphasizing  the 
fact  that  it  was  an  imitation  of  antiquity,  and  provid- 
ing a  scapegoat  on  whose  back  might  be  laid  any  remain- 
ing sins  of  rudeness  or  excessive  simplicity.  And,  while 
imitating  the  antique  romance,  he  was  careful  not  to 
imitate  its  faults  of  rambling,  discursive,  disconnected 
structure.  He  was  scrupulously  attentive  to  the  classical 
unities  of  time,  place,  and  action.  The  scene  never 
changes  from  Branksome  and  its  neighbourhood  ;  the  time 
occupied  by  the  action  (as  he  pointed  out  in  his  preface) 
is  three  nights  and  three  days ;  and,  in  spite  of  ail  that 
critics  have  said  about  the  suoerlluity  of  the  goblin  page, 
it  is  not  difficult  to  trace  unity  of  intention  and  regulor 
progressive  development  in  the  incidents. 

'The  success  of  the  Lar  decided  finally,  if  it  was  not 
decided  already,  that  lite  aturo  was  to  be  the  main  busi- 
ness of  Scott's  life,  and  hu  [)rocccdcd  to  arrange  his  affairs 
accordingly.  It  would  have  been  well  for  his  ci  mfort,  if 
not  for  his  fame,  had  ho  adhered  to  his  first  plan,  which 
was  to  buy  a  small  moun(nin-farm  near  Bowhill,  with  the 
proceeds  of  8ome  property  left  to  him'  by  an  uncle,  and 


548 


s  c  6  T  r 


divide  his  year  between  this  and  Edinburgh,  wnere  he 
had  good  hopes,  soon  afterwards  realized,  of  a  salaried 
appointment  in  the  Court  of  Session.  This  would  have 
given  him  ample  leisure  and  seclusion  for  literature, 
while  his  private  means  and  oflBcial  emoluments  secured 
him  against  dependence  on  his  pen.  He  would  have  been 
laird  as  well  as  sheriff  of  the  cairn  and  the  scaur,  and 
as  a  man  of  letters  his  own  master.  Since  his  marriage 
in  1797  with  Miss  Charpentier,  daughter  of  a  French 
refugee,  his  chief  residence  had  been  at  Lasswade,  about 
six  miles  from  Edinburgh.  But  on  a  hint  from  the  lord- 
lieutenant  that  the  sheriff  must  live  at  least  four  months 
in  the  year  within  his  county,  and  that  he  was  attending 
more  closely  to  his  duties  as  quartermaster  of  a  mounted 
company  of  volunteers  than  was  consistent  with  the 
proper  discharge  of  his  duties  as  sheriff,  he  had  moved 
his  household  in  1804  to  Ashestiel.  TMien  his  uncle's 
bequest  fe^  in,  he  determined  to  buy  a  small  property  on 
the  banks  of  the  Tweed  within  the  limits  of  his  sheriffdom. 
There,  vrithin  sight  of  Newark  Castle  and  Bowhill,  he 
proposed  to  live  like  his  ancient  minstrel,  as  became  the 
bard  of  the  clan,  under  the  shadow  of  the  great  ducal 
head  of  the  Scotts.  But  this  plan  was  deranged  by  an 
accident.  It  so  happened  that  an  old  schoolfellow,  James 
Ballantyne,  a  printer  in  Kelso,  whom  he  had  ah-eady  be- 
friended, transplanted  to  Edinburgh,  and  furnished  with 
both  work  and  money,  applied  to  him  for  a  further  loan. 
Scott  declined  to  lend,  but  offered  to  join  him  as  sleeping 
partner.  Thus  the  intended  purchase  money  of  Broad- 
meadows  became  the  capital  of  a  printing  concern,  of 
which  by  degrees  the  man  of  letters  became  the  over- 
wrought slave,  milch-cow,  and  victim. 

When  the  Lay  was  off  his  hands,  Scott's  next  literary 
enterprise  was  a  prose  romance— a  confirmation  of  the 
argument  that  he  did  not  take  to  prose  after  Byron  had 
"  bet  him,"  as  he  put  it,  in  verse,  but  that  romance  writing 
was  a  long-cherished  purpose.  He  began  Waverley,  but 
a  friend  to  whom  he  showed  the  first  chapters — which  do 
not  take  Waverley  out  of  England,  and  describe  an  educa- 
tion in  romantic  literature  very  much  like  Scott's  own — 
not  unnaturally  decided  that  the  work  was  deficient  in 
interest  and  unworthy  of  the  author  of  the  Lay.  Scott 
accordingly  laid  Waverley  aside.  We  may  fairly  conjec- 
ture that  he  would  not  have  been  so  easily  diverted  had 
he  not  been  occupied  at  the  time  with  other  heavy  publish- 
ing enterprises  calculated  to  bring  grist  to  the  printing 
establishment.  His  active  brain  was  full  of  projects  for 
big  editions,  which  he  undertook  to  carry  through  on  con- 
dition that  the  printing  was  done  by  Ballantyne  &  Co., 
the  "  Co."  being  kept  a  profound  secret,  because  it  might 
have  injured  the  lawyer  and  poet  professionally  and  socially 
to  be  known  as  partner  in  a  commercial  concern.  Between 
1806  and  1812,  mainly  to  serve  the  interests  of  the  firm, 
though  of  course  the  work  was  not  in  itself  unattractive  to 
him,  Scott  produced  his  elaborate  editions  of  Dryden, 
Swift,  the  Somers  Tracts;  and  the  Sadler  State  papers. 
Incidentally  these  laborious  tasks  contributed  to  his  pre- 
paration for  the  main  work  of  his  life  by  extending  his 
knowledge  of  English  and  Scottish  history. 

Marmion,  begun  in  November  1806  and  published  in 
February  1808,  was  written  as  a  relief  to  "graver  cares," 
though  in  this  also  he  aimed*at  combining  with  a  romantic 
story  0,  solid  picture  of  an  historical  period.  It  was  even 
more  popular  than  the  Lay.  Scott's  resuscitation  of  the 
four-beat  measure  of  the  old  '  gestours  "  afforded  a  signal 
proof  of  the  justness  of  their  instinct  in  chopsing  this 
vehicle  "or  their,  vecitations.  The  four-beat  lines  of  Mar- 
mion tojk  possessioii  of  the  pubL'o  like  a  kind  of  madness  : 
they  not  only  clung  to  the  memory  but  they  would  not 
keep  off  the  tongue  :  people  could  not  help  spouting  them 


m  solitary  places  and  muttering  them  as  they  walked 
about  the  streets.  The  critics,  except  Jeffrey,  who  may 
have  been  offended  by  the  pronounced  politics  of  the  poet, 
were  on  the  whole  better  pleased  than  with  the  Lay. 
Their  chief  complaint  was  with  the  "  introductions "  to 
the  various  cantos,  which  were  objected  to  as  vexatiously 
breaking  the  current  of  the  story.^ 

The  triumphant  success  of  Marmion,  establishing  him 
as  facile  princeps  among  living  poets,  gave  Scott  such  a 
heeze,  to  use  his  own  words,  "  as  almost  lifted  him  off.  his 
feet."  He  touched  then  the  highest  point  of  prosperity 
and  happiness.  Presently  after,  he  was  irritated  and 
tempted  by  a  combination  of  little  circumstances  into  the 
great  blunder  of  his  life,  the  establishment  of  the  publish- 
ing house  of  John  Ballantyne  &  Co.  A  coolness  arose 
between  him  and  Jeffrey,  chiefly  on  political  but  partly 
also  on  personal  grounds.  They  were  old  friends,  and 
Scott  had  written  many  articles  for  the  Eevieio,  but  its 
political  attitude  at  this  time  was  intensely  unsatisfactory 
to  Scott.  To  complete  the  breach,  Jeffrey  reviewed  Mar- 
mion in  a  hostile  spirit.  A  quarrel  occurred  also  between 
Scott's  printing  firm  and  Constable,  the  publisher,  who 
had  been  the  principal  feeder  of  its  press.  Then  the 
tempter  appeared  in  the  shape  of  LIurray,  the  London 
publisher,  anxious  to  secure  the  services  of  the  most  popular 
litterateur  of  the  day.  The  result  of  negotiations  was  that 
Scott  set  up,  in  opposition  to  Constable,  "  the  crafty,"  "  the 
grand  Napoleon  of  the  realms  of  print,"  the  publishing 
house  of  John  Ballantyne  &  Co.,  to  be  managed  by  a 
dissipated  and  swaggering  little  tailor,  whom  he  nicknamed 
"  Eigdumfuunidos "  for  his  talents  as  a  mimic  and  low 
comedian.  Scott-  interested  himself  warmly  in  starting 
the  Quarterly  Review,  and  in  return  Jlurray  constituted 
Ballantyne  &  Co.  his  Edinburgh  agents.  Scott's  trust 
in  Eigdumfuunidos  and  his  brother,  "  Aldiborontiphos- 
cophornio,"  and  in  his  own  power  to  supply  all  their  defi- 
ciencies, is  as  strange  a  piece  of  infatuation  as  any  that  ever 
formed  a  theme  for  romance  or  tragedy.  Their  devoted 
attachment  to  the  architect  of  their  fortunes  and  proud 
confidence  in  his  powers  helped  forward  to  the  catastrophe, 
for  whatever  Scott  recommended  they  agreed  to,  and  he 
was  too  immersed  in  multifarious  literary  work  and  pro- 
fessional and  social  engagements  to  have  time  for  cool 
examination  of  the  numerous  rash  speculative  ventures 
into  which  he  launched  the  firm. 

The  Lady  of  the  Lake  (May  1810)  was  the  first  great 
publication  by  the  new  house.  It  was  received  with 
enthusiasm,  even  Jeffrey  joining  in  the  chorus  of  applause. 
It  made  the  Perthshire  Highlands  fashionable  for  tourists, 
and  raised  the  post-horse  duty  in  Scotland.  But  it  did 
not  make  up  -to  Ballantyne  tS:  Co.  for  their  heavy  invest- 
ments in  unsound  ventures.  The  Edinburgh  Annual 
Register,  meant  as  a  rival  to  the  Ediiiburgh  Revieiv,  though 
Scott  engaged  Southey  to  write  for  it  and  wrote  for  it 
largely  himself,  proved  a  failure.  In  a  very  short  time 
the  warehouses  of  the  firm  were  fiUed  with  unsaleable 
stock.  By  the  end  of  three  years  Scott  began  to  write  to 
his  partners  about  the  propriety  of  "reefing  sails."'  But 
apparently •  he  was  too  much  occupied  to  look  into  the 
accounts  of  the  firm,  and,  so  far  from  understanding  the 
real  state  of  their  affairs,  he  considered  himself  rich  enough 
to  make  his  first  piu-chase  of  land  at  Abbotsford.  But  he 
had  hardly  settled  there  in  the  spring  of  1812,  and  begun 
his  schemes  for  building  and  planting  and  converting  a 
bare  moor  into  a  richly  ■viood^A  pleasaunce,  than  his  busmess 
troubles  began,  and  he  found  himself  harassed  by  fears  of 
bankruptcy.     Eigdiunfunnidos  concealed  the  situation  as 


•  See  Mr  Hfittons  Scott,  in  English  Men  .of  Letters  Series,  p.  56, 
for  a  good  defence  of  these  introductions.  Scott  advertised  thera 
originally  as  a  seoarate  publication. 


SCOTT 


549 


long  as  Tie  could,  but  as  bill  after  bill  came  due  he  was 
©bilged  to  make  urgent  application  to  Scott,  and  the  truth 
was  thus  forced  from  him  item  by  item.  He  had  by  no 
means'  revealed  all  when  Scott,  who  behaved  with  admir- 
able good-nature,  was  provoked  into  remonstrating,  "  For 
Leaven's  sake,  treat  me  as  a  man  and  not  as  a  milch-cow." 
The  proceeds  of  Rokeby  (January  1813)  and  of  other  labours 
of  Scott's  pen  were  swallowed  up,  and  bankruptcy  was 
inevitable,  when  Constable,  still  eager  at  any  price  to  secure 
Scott's  services,  came  to  the  rescue.  With  his  help  three 
crises  were  tided  over  in  1813. 

It  was  in  the  midst  of  these  ignoble  embarrassments 
that  Scott  opened  up  the  rich  new  vein  of  the  Waverley 
novels.  He  chanced  upon  the  manuscript  of  the  opening 
chapters  of  WaverUy,  and  resolved  to  complete  the  story. 
Four  weeks  in  the  summer  of  1814  sufficed  for  the  work, 
and  Waverley  appeared  without  the  author's  name  in  July. 
Many  plausible  reasons  might  be  given  and  have  been 
given  for  Scott's  resolution  to  publish  anonymously.  The 
quaintest  reason,  and  possibly  the  main  one,  though  it  is 
^ardly  intelligible  now,  is  that  given  by  Lockhart,  that  he 
considered  the  writing  of  novels  beneath  the  dignity  of  a 
grave  clerk  of  the  Court  of  Session.  WTiy  he  kept  up  the 
myst'fication,  though  the  secret  was  an  open  one  to  all  his 
Edinburgh  acquaintances,  is  more  easily  understood.  He 
enjoyed  it,  and  his  formally  initiated  coadjutors  enjoyed 
it ;  it  relieved  him  from  the  annoyances  of  foolish  compli- 
ment ;  and  it  was  not  unprofitable, — curiosity  about  "  the 
Great  Unknown  "  keeping  alive  the  interest  in  his  works. 
The  secret  was  so  well  kept  by  all  to  whom  it  was  de- 
finitely entrusted,  and  so  many  devices  were  used  to  throw 
conjecture  off  the  scent,  that  even  Scott's  friends,  who  were 
certain  of  the  authorship  from  internal  evidence,  were 
occasionally  puzzled.  He  kept  on  producing  in  his  own 
name  as  much  work  as  seemed  humanly  possible  for  an 
official  who  was  to  be  seen  every  day  at  his  post  and  as 
often  in  society  as  the  most  fashionable  of  his  professional 
brethren.  His  treatises  on  chivalry,  romance,  and  the 
drama,  bv^ides  an  elaborate  work  in  two  volumes  on  Border 
5«tiquities,  appeared  in  the  same  year  with  Wavevley,  and 
his  edition  of  Swift  in  nineteen  volumes  in  the  same  week. 
The  Lord  of  the  Isles  was  published  in  January  1815  ;  Guy 
Manneriny,  written  in  "six  weeks  about  Christmas,"  in 
I'ebruary  ;  Paul's  Letters  to  his  Kimfolk  and  The  Field  of 
Waterloo  in  the  same  year.  Harold  the  Dauntless,''-  not  to 
wf-ntion  the  historical  part  of  the  Annual  lie^ister,  appeared 
in  th'^  same  year  vnth  The  Antiquary,  The  Black  Dwarf,  and 
Old  Mortality  (181G).  No  wonder  that  the  most  positive 
interpreters  of  internal  evidence  wore  mystified.  It  was 
not  as  if  he  had  buried  himself  in  the  country  for  the 
summer  half  of  the  year.  On  the  contrary,  he  kept  open 
house  at  Abbotsford  in  the  fine  old  feudal  fashion  and 
•was  seldom  without  visitors.  His  own  friends  and  many 
strangers  from  a  distance,  with  or  without  introductions, 
sought  him  there,  and  found  a  hearty  hospitable  country 
laird,  entirely  occupied  to  all  outward  a|ipearance  with 
local  and  domestic  business  and  sport,  building  and  plant- 
ing, adding  wing  to  wing,  acre  to  acre,  plantation  to 
plantation,  with  just  leisure  enough  for  the  free-hearted 
entertainment  of  his  guests  and  the  cultivation  of  friendly 
relations  with  his  humble  neighbours.  How  could  such  a 
man  find  time  to  write  two  or  three  novels  a  year,  besides 
what  was  published  in  his  own  name?  Even  the  few 
intimates  who  knew  how  early  he  got  up  to  prepare  his 
packet  for  the  printer,  and  had  some  idea  of  the  extra- 
ordinary power  that  ho  had  acquired  of  commanding  his 
faculties  for  the  utilization  of  odd  moments,  must  have 


'  Tliis  imcrn,  like  tlio  Bridal  of  Trio-main,  did  not  bcnr  liis  name 
on  tlio  title-page,  but  the  authorship  was  an  ojien  secret,  although  ho 
tried  to  eucouroge  the  idea  that  the  author  woa  hu  Irieud  Erskiue. 


wondered  at  times  whether  he  had  not  inherited  the  arts 
of  Lis  ancestral  relation  Michael  Scot,  and  kept  a  goblin 
in  some  retired  attic  or  vault. 

Scott's  fertility  is  not  absolutely  unparalleled ;  the  late 
Mr  TroUope  claimed  to  have  surpassed  him  in  rate  as  well 
as  total  amount  of  production,  having  also  business  duties 
to  attend  to.  But  in  speed  of  production  combined  «ith 
variety  and  depth  of  interest  and  weight  and  accuracy  of 
historical  substance  Scott  is  still  unrivalled.  On  his 
claims  as  a  serious  historian,  which  Carlyle  ignored  in  his 
curiously  narrow  and  splenetic  criticism,  he  was  always, 
with  all  his  magnanimity,  peculiarly  sensitive.  A  certain 
feeling  that  his  antiquarian  studies  were  undervalued  seems 
to  have  haunted  him  from  his  youth.  It  was  probably 
this  that  gave  the  sting  to  Jeffrey's  criticism  of  Jfamiion, 
and  that  tempted  him  to  the  somewhat  questionable  pro- 
ceeding of  reviewing  his  own  novels  in  the  Quarterly  upon 
the  appearance  of  Old  Mortality.  He  was  nettled  besides 
at  the  accusation  of  having  treated  the  Covenanters  un- 
fairly, and  wanted  to  justify  himself  by  the  production  of 
historical  documents.  In  this  criticism  of  himself  Scott 
replied  lightly  to  some  of  the  familiar  ol\jections  to  his 
work,  such  as  the  feebleness  of  his  heroes,  Waverley,  Ber- 
tram, Lovel,  and  the  melodramatic  character  of  some  of 
his  scenes  and  characters.  But  he  argued  more  seriously 
against  the  idea  that  historical  romances  are  the  enemies 
of  history,  and  he  rebutted  by  anticipation  Carlyle's  ob- 
jection that  he  wrote  only  to  amuse  idle  persons  who  like 
to  lie  on  their  backs  and  read  novels.  His  apologia  is 
worth  quoting.  Historical  romances,  he  admits,  have 
always  been  failures,  but  the  failure  has  been  due  to  the 
imperfect  knowledge  of  the  writers  and  not  to  the  species 
of  composition.  If,  he  saj's,  anachronisms  in  manners 
can  be  avoided,  and  "  the  features  of  an  ago  gone  by  can 
be  recalled  in  a  spirit  of  delineation  at  once  faithful  and 
striking,  .  .  .  the  composition  itself  is  in  every  point  of 
view  dignified  and  improved ;  and  the  author,  leaving 
the  light  and  frivolous  associates  with  whom  a  careless 
observer  would  be  disposed  to  ally  him,  takes  his  seat  on 
the  bench  of  the  historians  of  his  time  and  country.  In 
this  proud  assembly,  and  in  no  mean  place  of  it,  we  are 
disposed  to  rank  the  author  of  these  works.  At  once  a 
master  of  the  great  events  and  minute  incidents  of  history, 
and  of  the  manners  of  the  times  he  celebrates,  as  distin- 
guished from  those  which  now  prevail,  the  intimate  thus 
of  the  living  and  of  the  dead,  his  judgment  enables  him 
to  separate  those  traits  which  are  characteristic  from  those 
that  are  generic ;  and  his  imagination,  not  loss  accurate 
and  discriminating  than  vigorous  and  vivid,  presents  to 
the  mind  of  the  reader  the  manners  of  the  times,  and  in- 
troduces to  his  familiar  acquaintance  the  individuals  of 
the  drama  as  they  thought  and  spoke  and  acted."  This 
defence  of  himself  shows  us  the  ideal  at  which  Scott 
aimed,  and  which  he  realized.  He  was  not  in  the  least 
unconscious  of  his  own  excellence.  He  did  not  hesitate 
in  this  review  to  comiiaro  himself  with  Shakespeare  in 
respect  of  truth  to  nature.  "The  volume  which  this 
author  has  studied  is  the  great  book  of  nature.  He  has 
gone  abroad  into  the  world  in  quest  of  what  the  world 
will  certainly  and  abuiulanth-  supply,  but  what  a  man  of 
great  discrimination  alone  will  find,  and  a  man  of  the  very 
highest  genius  will  alone  depict  after  ho  has  discovered  it. 
The  characters  of  Shakespeare  are  not  more  exclusively 
human,  not  more  perfectly  men  and  women  as  they  live 
and  move,  than  those  of  this  mysterious  author." 

The  immense  strain  of  Scott's  double  or  quadruple  life 
as  sheriflfand  clerk,  hospitable  laird,  poet,  novelist,  and  mis- 
cellaneous man  of  letters,  publisher  and  juinter.  though 
the  prosperous  excitement  sustained  him  for  a  time,  soon 
told  upon  Lis  LcaltL.     Early  iu  1817  began  a  series  of 


550 


SCOTT 


attacks  of  agonizing  cramp  of  the  stomach,  which  recurred 
at  short  intervals  during  more  than  two  years.  But  his 
appetite  and  capacity  for  work  remained  unbroken.  He 
made  his  first  attempt  at  play- writing  ^  as  he  was  recover- 
ing from  the  first  attack ;  before  the  year  was  out  he  had 
completed  Hob  Roy,  and  within  six  months  it  was  followed 
by  The  Heart  of  Midlothian,  v.-hich  by  general  consent 
occupies  the  highest  rank  among  his  novels.  The  Bi-ide 
of  Lammermoor,  The  Legend  of  Montrose,  and  Ivanhoe 
were  dictated  to  amanuenses,  through  fits  of  suflfering  so 
acute  that  he  could  not  suppress  cries  of  agony.  Still  he 
would  not  give  up.  'When  Laidlaw  begged  him  to  stop 
dictating  he  only  answered,  "Nay,  Willie,  only  see  that 
the  doors  are  fast.  I  would  fain  keep  aU  the  cry  as  well 
as  the  wool  to  ourselves ;  but  as  to  giving  over  work,  that 
can  only  be  when  I  am  in  woollen." 

Throughout  those  two  years  of  intermittent  ill-health, 
which  was  at  one  time  so  serious  that  his  life  was  despaired 
of  and  he  took  formal  leave  of  his  family,  Scott's  semi- 
public  life  at  Abbotsford  continued  as  usual, — swarms  of 
visitors  coming  and  going,  and  the  rate  of  production  on 
the  whole  suffering  no  outward  and  visible  check,  all  the 
world  wondering  at  the  novelist's  prodigious  fertility.  Mr 
Euskin  lately  put  forward  the  opinion  that  there  is  a 
distinct  falling  off  in  the  quality  of  Scott's  work  traceable 
from  the  time  of  his  first  serious  illness,  arguing  as  a  proof 
of  the  healthiness  of  Scott's  organization  that  "  he  never 
gains  anything  by  sickness ;  the  whole  man  breathes  or 
faints  as  one  creature ;  the  ache  that  stiffens  a  limb  chills 
his  heart,  and  every  pang  of  the  stomacli  paralyses  the 
brain."  Yet,  when  the  world  was  not  aware  of  the  state 
of  the  novelist's  health,  and  novel  after  novel  was  received 
without  any  abatement  of  enthusiasm,  but  rather  with 
growing  wonder  and  admiration,  no  critic  was  acute  enough 
to  detect  this,  and  it  is  somewhat  unfortunate  for  the 
theory  that  Mr  Ruskin  has  mistaken  the  date  of  Scott's 
first  illness  and  included  among  the  masterpieces  produced 
in  perfect  health  Rob  Roy  and  The  Heart  of  Midlothian, 
both  composed  through  recurrent  fits  of  intense  bodily 
pain.  The  first  of  the  series  concerning  which  there  were 
murmurs  of  dissatisfaction  was  The  Monastery,  which  was 
the  first  completed  after  the  re-establishment  of  the  author's 
bod.ily  vigour.  The  failure,  such  as  it  was,  was  due  rather 
to  the  subject  than  the  treatment,  and  The  Abbot,  in  which 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots  is  introduced,  was  generally  hailed 
as  fully  sustaining  the  reputation  of  "the  Great  Unknown." 
Eenilworth,  The  Pirate,  The  Fortunes  of  Nigel,  Peveril  of 
the  Peal;  Quentin  Durward,  St  Ronan's  Well,  Redgauntlet, 
followed  in  quick  succession  in  the  course  of  three  years, 
and  it  was  not.  till  the  last  two  were  reached  that  the  cry 
that  the  author  was  writing  too  fast  began  to  gather 
volume.  St  Ronan's  Well  was  very  severely  criticized  and 
condemned.  And  yet  Mr  Leslie  Stephen  tells  a  story  of 
a  dozen  modern  connoisseurs  in  the  Waverley  novels  who 
agreed  that  each  should  write  down  separately  the  name 
of  his  favourite  novel,  when  it  appeared  that  each  had 
without  concert  named  St  Ronan's  Well.  There  is  this 
certainly  to  be  said  for  Si  Ronan's,  that,  in  spite  of  the 
heaviness  of  some  of  the  scenes  at  the  "hottle"  and  the 
artificial  melodramatic  character  of  some  of  the  personages, 
none  of  Scott's  stories  is  of  more  absorbing  or  more  bril- 
liantly diversified  interest.  Contradictions  between  con- 
temporary popular  opinion  and  mature  critical  judgment, 
as  well  as  diversities  of  view  among  critics  themselves, 
rather  shake  confidence  in  individual  judgment  on  the 

'  The  Doom  ofDemrgoU.  This  and  his  subsequent  dramatic  sketches, 
Macduff's  Cross,  Htdidon  Hill,  and  The  Ayrshire  Tragedy,  were  slight 
compositions,  dashed  off  in  a  few  days,  and  afford  no  measure  of  what 
Scott  might  have  done  as  a  dramatist  if  he  bad  studied  the  conditions 
of  stage  re;)resentatioa 


vexed  but  not  particularly  wise  question  which  is  the  best' 
of  Scott's  novels.  There  must,  of  course,  always  be  in- 
equalities in  a  series  so  prdonged.  The  author  cannot 
always  be  equally  happy  in  his  choice  of  subject,  situation, 
and  character.  Naturally  also  he  dealt  first  with  tho 
subjects  of  which  his  mind  was  fullest.  But  any  theory 
of  falling  ofif  or  exhaustion  based  upon  plausible  general 
considerations  has  to  be  qualified  so  much  when  brought 
into  contact  with  the  facts  that  very  little  confidence  can 
be  reposed  in  its  accuracy.  The  Fortunes  of  Nigel  comes 
comparatively  late  in  the  series  and  has  often  been  blamed 
for  its  looseness  of  construction.  Scott  himself  always 
spoke  slightingly  of  his  plots,'  and  humorously  said  that 
he  proceeded  on  Mr  Bayes's  maxim,  "  'What  the  deuce  is 
a  plot  good  for  but  to  bring  in  good  things  1 "  Yet  so  com- 
petent a  critic  as  Mr  Hutton  has  avowed  that  on  the  whole 
he  prefers  The  Foi-tunes  of  Nigel  to  any  other  of  Scott's 
novels.  An  attempt  might  be  made  to  value  the  novels 
according  to  the  sources  of  their  materials,  according  as 
they  are  based  on  personal  observation,  documentary 
history,  or  previous  imaginative  literature.  On  this  prin- 
ciple Ivanhoe  and  The  Tales  of  the  Crusaders  might  be 
adjudged  inferior  as  being  based  necessarily  on  previous 
romance.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact  Scott's  romantic  char- 
acters are  vitalized,  clothed  with  a  verisimilitude  of  life, 
out  of  the  author's  deep,  wide,  and  discriminating  know- 
ledge of  realities,  and  his  observation  of  actual  life  was 
coloured  by  ideals  derived  from  romance.  He  wrote  all 
his  novels  out  of  a,  mind  richly  stored  with  learning  of  all 
kinds,  and  in  the  heat  of  composition  seems  to  have  drawn 
from  whatever  his  tenacious  memory  supplied  to  feed  the 
fire  of  imagination,  without  pausing  to  reflect  upon  the 
source.  He  did  not  exhaust  his  accumulations  from  one 
source  first  and  then  turn  to  another,  but  from  first  to  last 
drew  from  all  as  the  needs  of  the  occasion  happened  to 
suggest. 

Towards  the  close  of  1825,  after  eleven  years  of  briUiant 
and  prosperous  labour,  encouraged  by  constant  tributes  of 
admiration,  homage,  and  affection  such  as  no  other  literary 
potentate  has  ever  enjoyed,  realizing  his  dreams  of  baronial 
splendour  and  hospitality  on  a  scale  suited  to  his  large 
literary  revenues,  Scott  suddenly  discovered  that  the 
foundations  of  his  fortune  were  unsubstantial.  He  had 
imagined  himself  clear  of  all  embarrassments  in  1818, 
when  all  the  unsaleable  stock  of  John  Ballantyne  &  Co. 
was  bargained  oflf  by  Rigdum  to  Constable  for  Waverley 
copyrights,  and  the  publishing  concern  was  wound  up. 
Apparently  he  never  informed  himself  accurately  of  the 
new  relations  of  mutual  accommodation  on  which  the  print- 
ing firm  then  entered  with  the  great  but  rashly  speculative 
publisher,  and  drew  UberaUy  for  his  own  expenditure 
against  the  undeniable  profits  of  his  novels  without  asking 
any  questions,  trusting  blindly  in  the  solvency  of  his  com- 
mercial henchmen.  Unfortunately,  "  lifted  off  their  feet " 
by  the  wonderful  triumphs  of  their  chief,  they  thought 
themselves  -exempted  like  himself  from  the  troublesome 
duty  of  inspecting  ledgers  and  balancing  accounts,  till  the 
crash  came.  From  a  diary  which  Scott  began  a  few  days 
before  the  first  rumours  of  financial  difficulty  reached  hiin 
we  know  how  he  bore  from  day  to  day  the  rapidly  unfolded 
prospect  of  unsuspected  liabilities.  "Thank  God,"  was 
his  first  reflexion,  "I  have  enough  to  pay  more  than  20s. 
in  the  pound,  taking  matters  at  the  worst."  But  a  fevr 
weeks  revealed  the  unpleasant  truth  that,  owing  to  the 
way  in  which  Ballantyne  <fe  Co.  ■were  mixed  up  with  Con- 
stable &  Co.,  and  Constable  vrith  Hurst  &  Robinson,  the 
failure  of  the  London  house  threw  upon  him  personal 
responsibility  for  £130,000. 

How  Scott's  pride  rebelled  against  the  dishonour  of 
bankruptcy,  bow  he  toUed  for  the  rest  of  his  Ui&  to  deaV 


S  C  0  — S  C  R 


551 


off  this  enormous  debt,  declining  all  offers  of  assistance 
and  asking  no  consideration  from  his  creditors  except  time, 
and  how  nearly  he  succeeded,  is  one  of  the  most  familiar 
chapters'    in   literary  history,   and  would   be  one  of  the 
saddest  were  it  not  for  the  heroism  of  the  enterprise.     His 
wife  died  soon  after  the  struggle  began,  and  he  suffered 
other  painful  bereavements ;  but,  though  sick  at  heart,  he 
toiled  on  indomitably,  and,-  writing  for  honour,  exceeded 
even  his  happiest  days  in  industrious  speed.     If  he  could 
have  maintained  the  rate  of  the  first  three  years,  during 
which  he   completed    Woodstock,  three   Chronicles  of  the 
Canongate,  The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth,  Anne  of  Geierstein, 
the  Life  of  Napoleon  (involving  much  research,  and  equal 
in  amount  to  thirteen  novel  volumes),  part  of  .his  History 
of  Scotland,  the  Scottish  scries  of  Tales  of  a  Grandfather, 
besides  several  magazine  articles,  some  of  them  among  the 
most  brilliant  of  his  miscellaneous  writings,  and  prefaces 
and  notes  to  a  collected  edition  of  his  novels, — if  he  could 
have  continued  at  this  rate  he  might  soon  have  freed  him- 
self from  all  his  encumbrances.     The  result  of  his  exertions 
from  January  1826  to  January  1828  was  nearly  £40,000 
for  his  creditors.     Bui  Ihe  terrific  labour  proved  too  much 
even  for  his  endurance.     Ugly  sjTuptoms  began  to  alarm 
his  family  in   1829,  and  in  February  of  1830  he  had 
his   first  stroke  of  paralysis:     Still   he  was   undaunted, 
and  not  all  the  persuasions  of  friends  and  physicians  could 
induce  him  to  take  rest.     "During  1830,"  Mr  Lockhart 
says,  "  he  covered  almost  as  many  sheets  with  his  MS.  as 
in  1829,"  the  new  introductions  to  a  collected  edition  of 
his  poetry  and  the  Letters  on  Demonolorjy  and   Witchcraft 
being  amongst  the  labours  of  the  year.     He  had  a  slight 
touch  of  apoplexy  in  November  and  a  distinct  stroke  of 
paralysis  in  the  following  April ;  but,  in  spite  of  these 
warnings  and  of  other  bodily  ailments,  he  had  two  more 
novels,  Count  Robert  of  Paris  and  Castle  Dangerous,  ready 
for  the  press  by  the  autumn  of  1831.     He  would  not 
yield  to  the  solicitations  of  his  friends  and  consent  to  try 
rest  and  a  change  of  scene,  till  fortunately,  as  his  mental 
powers  failed,  he  became  possessed  of  the  idea  that  all  his 
debts  were  at  last  paid  and  that  he  was  once  more  a  free 
man.     In  this  belief  he  happily  remained  till  his  death. 
When  it  was  known  that  his  physicians  recommended  a 
sea  voyage  for  his  health,  a  Government  vessel  was  put  at 
his  disposal,  and  he  cruised  about  in  the  Mediterranean 
and  visited  places  of  interest  for  the  greater  part  of  a  year 
before  his  death.     But,   when  ho  felt  that  the  end  was 
near,  he  insisted  on  being  carried  across  Europe  that  he 
might  die  on  his  beloved  Tweedside  at  Abbotsford,  where 
he  expired  on  21st  September  1832.     He  was  buried  at 
Dryburgh  Abbey  on  26th  September  following. 

A  complete  list  of  Scott's  works  is  given  in  tbu  Catalogue  of  Scott 
Exhibition,  JS71,  EJinburgli,  1872.  The  standard  biography  of 
Scott  is  that  by  Lockhart  referred  to  above ;  see  also  Allan,  Life 
ofScoU,  Edinburgh,  1834. 

SCOTT,  WiLUAM.     See  Stowell,  Lord. 

SCOTT,  WiNFiELD  (1786-1866),  American  general, 
was  born  near  Petersburg,  Virginia,  13th  June  1786, 
the  grandson  of  a  Scottish  refugee  from  the  field  of 
'Culloden.  He  was  a  student  at  William  and  Mary 
College  in  1805,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Rich- 
mond, Virginia,  in  1807.  One  of  the  sudden  war  excite- 
mepts  of  the  time  changed  the  course  of  his  life,  and  ho 
obtained  a  captain's  commission  in  the  United  States 
army  in  1808.  He  served  on  the  Niagara  frontier 
thraughout  the  war  of  1812-1.^,  and  became  one  of  its 
leading  figures,  rising  rapidly  through  all  the  grades  of 
the  service  to  that  of  major-general,  which  was  then  the 
highest.  Among  other  curious  testimonials  to  his  valour 
and  conduct,  he  received  from  Princeton  College  in  1814 
the  honorary  degree  of  doctor  of  laws,  a  distinction  on 


which  he  never  ceased  to  look  with  peculiar  satisfaction. 
In  1841  he  became  the  senior  major-general  of  the  army, 
and  in  1855,  after  he  had  passed  out  of  political  life,  the 
exceptional  grade  of  lieutenant-general  was  created  for 
him.  His  most  noteworthy  military  achievement  was 
his  conduct  of  the  main  campaign  against  Mexico  in  1847. 
Landing  (9th  March)  at  Vera  Cruz  with  but  5500-men, 
he  fought  his  way  through  a  hostile  country  to  the  capital 
city  of  Mexico,  which  he  captured  14th  September,  thereby 
practically  ending  the  war.  His  service,  however,  was 
not  confined  to  the  army ;  from  1815  until  1861  he  was 
the  most  continuously  prominent  public  man  of  the 
country,  receiving  and  justifying  every  mark  of  public 
confidence  in  his.  integrity,  tact,  and  reasonableness.  At 
a  time  (1823)  when  duelling  was  almost  an  imperative 
duty  of  an  ofiicer,  he  resisted  successfully  the  persistent 
efibrts  of  a  brother  officer  (Andrew  Jackson)  to  force  him 
into  a  combat ;  and  the  simple  rectitude  of  his  intentions 
was  so  evident  that  he  lost  no  ground  in  public  estimation. 
In  1832,  when  ordered  to  Charleston  by  President  Jackson, 
during  the  "nullification"  troubles,  he  secured  evdry  advan- 
tage for  the  Government,  while  his  skilful  and  judicious 
conduct  gave  no  occasion  to  South  Carolina  for  an  out- 
break. In  like  manner,  in  the  Black  Hawk  Indian 
troubles- of  1832-33,  in  the  Canadian  "Patriot  War  "of 
1837-38,  in  the  boundary  dispute  of  1838  between  Maine 
and  New  Brunswick,  in  the  San  Juan  difiiculty  in  1859, 
wherever  there  was  imminent  danger  of  war  and  a  strong 
desire  to  keep  the  peace,  all  thoughts  turned  instinctively 
to  Scott  as  a  fit  instrument  of  an  amicable  settlement, 
and  his  success  always  justified  the  choice.  Such  a  career 
seemed  a  gateway  to  political  preferment,  and  his  position 
was  strengthened  by  the  notorious  fact  that,  as  he  was  a 
Whig,  the  Democratic  administration  had  persistently  tried 
to  subordinate  his  claims  to  those  of  officers  of  its  own 
party.  In  1852  his  party  nominated  him  for  the  presi- 
dency; but,  though  his  services  had  been  so  great  and 
his  capacity  and  integrity  were  beyond  question,  he  had 
other  qualities  which  counted  heavily  against  him.  He 
was  easily  betrayed' into  the  most  egregious  blunders  of 
speech  and  action,  which  drew  additional  zest  from  his 
portly  and  massive  form  and  a  somewhat  pompous  cere- 
moniousness  of  manner.  He  destroyed  his  chances  of 
"election  in  the  North.  The  Southern  Whigs,  believing 
him  to  be  under  the  influence  of  the  Seward  or  anti-slavery 
wing  of  the  party,  cast  no  strong  vote  for  him,  and  he  v;as 
overwhelmingly  defeated  in  both  sections,  completing  the 
final  overthrow  of  his  party.  In  1861  he  remained  at  the 
head  of  the  United  States  armies,  in  spite  of  the  secession 
of  his  State,  until  November,  when  he  retired  on  account 
of  old  age  and  infirmities.  After  travelling  for  a  time  in 
Europe,  he  published  in  1864  his  autobiography,  a  work 
which  reveals  the  strong  and  weak  points  of  his  character, 
— his  integrity  and  comjjlute  honesty  of  purpose,  his  inclina- 
tion to  personal  vanity,  his  rigid  precision  in  every  jwintof 
military  precedent  and  etiquette,  and  his  laborious  affecta- 
tion of  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  Idles  tetlres.  Ho 
died  at  West  Point,  New  York,  29th  May  1866. 

The  Autohiographtj  of  Lieutenanl-Qctural  Winjidd  Scott,  LL.D.,' 
in  two  volumes,  gives  the  facts  of  his  career  at  length.  For  his 
defeat  in  1852,  see  Von  Hoist's  ConsliliUional  History,  vol.  iv.  p. 
171  of  the  original,  p.  200  of  the  English  translation. 

SCOTUS.  See  Duns  Scotus  and  Scholasticism.^ 
SCRjVNTON,  a  city  of  tbo  United  States,  capital  of 
Lackawanna  county,  Pennsylvania,  on  a  plateau  at  the 
junction  of  the  Roaring  Brook  and  the  Lackawanna  river, 
162  miles  north  of  Philadelphia.  It  is  the  centre  of  the 
great  coal  mining  district  in  the  country  and  the  Rcat  of  a 
largo  number  of  iron  and  steel  work.s,  roUingmilla,  blost- 
fuTDAccs,  ic,  -nji  eztensive  factories  for  the  production  of 


552 


S  C  R  — S  C  R 


Tails,  locomotives,  mining  machinery,  steam-boilera,  stoves, 
carriages,  edge-tools,  &c.  A  public  library,  a  theatre, 
an  academy  of  music,  a  hospital,  a  public  hall,  a  driving 
park,  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  a  home  for  tihe  friend- 
less, and  a  museum  of  Indian  stone  relics  are  among  the 
more  prominent  features  of  the  place.  The  population  was 
9223  in  1860,  35,092  in  1870,  and  45,850  in  1880. 

Slocum  Farm,  as  the  site  was  called  subsequent  to  1798,  saw  its 
first  blast-furnace  erected  in  1840  by  George  and  Selden  Scranton, 
who  soon  added  a  roIling-miE  and  the  manufacture  of  rails.  The 
opening  of  the  railway  in  1856  gave  a  great  stimulus  to  the  new 
town  (1854),  which  obtained  a  city  charter  in  1866.  It  is  divided 
into  twenty-one  wards,  of  which  the  4th,  5th,  6th,  14th,  15th,  and 
18th  are  known  as  Hyde  Park,  the  1st,  2d,  and  3d  as  Providence. 

SCREAilER,  a  bird  inhabiting  Guiana  and  the  Amazon 
-valley,  so  called  in  1781  by  Pennant  {Gen.  Birds,  p.  37) 
"  from  the  violent  noise  it  makes," — the  Pdlamedea  comuta 
of  Linnfeus.  First  made  knoven  in  1648  by  Marcgrave 
under  the  name  of  "  Ahhima,"  it  was  more  fully  described 
and  better  figured  by  BufFon  under  that  of  Eamichi,  stLU 
applied'  to  it  by  French  writers.  Of  about  the  size  of  a 
Turkey,  it  is  remarkable  for  the  curious  "  horn  "  or  slender 
caruncle,  more  than  three  inches  long,  it  bears  on  its  crown, 
the  two  sharp  spurs  with  which  each  wing  is  armed,  and 
its  elongated  toes.  Its  plumage  is  plain  in  colour,  being 
of  an  almost  uniform  greyish  black  above,  the  space  round 
the  eyes  and  a  ring  round  the  neck  being  variegated  with 
white,  and  a  patch  of  pale  rufous  appearing  above  the 
carpal  joint,  while  the  lower  parts  of  the  body  are  white. 
Closely  related  to  this  bird  is  another  first  described  by 
Linnaeus  as  a  species  of  Parra  (Jacana,  vol.  xiii.  p.  531), 
to  which  group  it  certainly  does  not  belong,  but  separated 
therefrom  by  Illiger  to  form  the  genus  Chauna,  and  now 
known  as  C.  chavaria,  very  generally  in  English  as  the 
"  Crested  Screamer,"  ^  a  name  which  was  first  bestowed  on 
the  Seriema  (q.v.).  This  bird  inhabits  the  lagoons  and 
swamps  of  Paraguay  and  Southern  Brazil,  where  it  is  called 
"  ChajA  "  or  "  6haka,"  and  is  smaller  than  the  preceding, 
-wanting  its  "  horn,"  but  having  its  head  furnished  with  a 
dependent  crest  of  feathers.  Its  face  and  throat  are  white, 
to  which  succeeds  a  blackish  ring,  and  the  rest  of  the 
lower  parts  are  white,  more  or  less  clouded  with  cinereouo. 
According  to  Mr  Gibson  (Ibis,  1880,  pp.  165,  I6'»),  its 
nest  is  a  light  construction  of  dry  rushes,  having  its  founda- 
tion in  ihe  water,  and  contains  as  many  as  sis  eggs,  which 
are  white  tinged  with  buff.  The  young  are  covered  with 
down  of  a  yellowish  brown  colour.  A  most  singular  habit 
possessed  by  this  bird  is  that  of  rising  in  the  air  and  soar- 
ing there  in  circles  at  &n  immense  altitude,  uttering  at 
intervals  the  very  loud  cry  of  which  its  local  name  is  an 
imitation.  From  a  dozen  to  a  score  may  be  seen  at  once 
so  occupying  themselves.  The  young  are  often  taken  from 
the  nest  and  reared  by  the  people  to  attend  upon  and  de- 
fend their  poultry,  a  duty  which  is  faithfully  ^  and,  owing 
to  the  spurs  with  which  the  Chaka's  wings  are  armed, 
successfully  discharged.  Another  very  curious  property 
of  this  bird,  which  was  observed  by  Jacquin,  who  brought 
it  to  the  notice  of  Liimseus,^  is  its  emphysematous  condi- 
tion,— there  being  a  layer  of  air-cells  between  the  skin  and 
the  muscles,  so  that  on  any  part  of  the  body  being  pressed 
a  crackling  sound  is  heard.  In  Central  America  occurs 
Another  species,  C.  derbiana,  chiefly  distinguished  by  the 
darker  colour  of  its  plumage.  For  this  a  distinct  genus, 
Ischyromis,  was  proposed,  but  apparently  vrithout  neces- 
sity, by  Reichenbach  {Syst.  Avium,  p.  xxi.). 

The  taxonomic  position  of  the  Palamedeidx,  for  all  will 

*  Under  this  name  its  curious  habits  have  been  well  described  by 
Mr  W.  H.  Hudson  {Oentleman's  Magazine,  Sept.  1885,  pp.  280-287). 

'  Hence  Latham's  name  for  this  species  is  "  Faithful  Jacana," — he 
supposing  it  to'  belong  to  the  genus  in  which  Linnsus  placed  it. 

"Tacta  manu  cutis,  sub  pennis  etiam  lanosa,  crepat  obique  for- 
ater"  ISi/st.  Nat:,  ed.  12,  i.  p.  260). 


allow  to  the  Screamers  the  rank  of  a  Family  at  least,  has 
been  much  debated,  and  cannot  be  regarded  as  fixed.  Their 
Anserine  relations  were  pointed  out  by  Prof.  Parker  in  the 
Zoological  Proceedings  for  1863  (pp.  511-518),  and  in  the 
same  work  for  1867  Prof.  Husley  placed  the  Family  among 
his  Chenomorphse;  but  this  view  was  contravened  in  1876 
by  Garrod,  who  said,  "  The  Screamers  must  have  sprung 
from  the  primary  avian  stock  as  an  independent  offshoot 
at  much  the  same  time  as  did  most  of  the  other  important 
families."  Accordingly  in  1880  'isix  Sclater  regarded  them 
as  forming  a  distinct  "  Order,"  Palamedeee,  which  he,  how- 
ever, placed  next  to  the  true  Anseres,  from  the  neighbour- 
hood of  which,  as  has  been  already  stated  (OENiTHOLOCfY, 
vol.  xviii.  p.  47),  the  present  'writer  thinks  the  Palamedeidat 
can  hardly  be  removed.  (a.  n.) 

SCREW.  The  screw  is  the  simplest  instrument  for 
converting  a  uniform-  motion  of  rotation  into  a  uniform 
motion  of  translation  (see  Mechanics,  vol.  xv.  p.  754). 
Metal  screws  requiring  no  special  accuracy  are  generally 
cut  by  taps  and  dies.  A  tap  is  a  cylindrical  piece  of  steel 
having  a  screw  on  its  exterior  -with  isharp  cutting  edges ; 
by  forcing  this  with  a  revol'ving  motion  into  a  hole  of  the 
proper  size,  a  screw  is  cut  on  its  interior  forming  what  is 
known  as  a  nut  or  female  screw.  The  die  is  a  nut  with 
sharp  cutting  edges  used  to  screw  upon  the  outside  of 
round  pieces  of  metal  and  thus  produce  male  screws.  More 
accurate  screws  are  cut  in  a  lathe  by  causing  the  carriage 
carrying  the  tool  to  move  uniformly  forward,  thus  a  con- 
tinuous spiral  line  is  cut  on  the  uniformly  revolving  cylinder 
fixed  between  the  lathe  centres.  The  cutting  tool  may  be 
an  ordinary  form  of  lathe  tool  or  a  revolving  saw-like  disk. 
(See  Machine  Tools,  vol.  xv.  p.  153.) 

Errors  of  Screws. — For  scientific  purposes  the  screw  must  be  so 
regular  that  it  moves  forward  in  its  nut  exactly  the  same  distance 
for  each  given  angular  rotation  around  its  axis.  As  the  mountings 
of  a  screw  introduce  many  errors,  the  final  and  exact  test  of  its 
accuracy  can  only  be  made  when  It  is  finished  .^nd  set  up  for  use. 
A  large  screw  can,  however,  be  roughly  examined  in  the  following 
manner.  (1)  'See  whether  the  surface  of  the  threads  has  a  perfect 
polish.  The  more  it  departs  from  \his,  and  approaches  the  rough 
torn  surface  as  cut  by  the  lathe  tool,  the  worse  it  is.  A  perfect 
screw  has  a  perfect  polish.  (2)  Mount  upon  it  between  the  ceiitres 
of  a  lathe  and  the  slip  a  short  nut  which  fits  perfectly.  If  the  nut 
moves  from  end  to  end  with  equal  friction,  the  screw  is  unifonn  in 
diameter.  If- the  nut  is  long,  unequal  resistance  m^  b'e  due  to 
either  an  error  of  run  or  a  bend  in  the  screw.  (3)  Fix  a  microscope 
on  the  lathe  carriage  and  focus  its  single  cross-hair  on  the  edge  of 
the  screw  and  parallel  to  its  axis.     If.  the  screw  runs  true  at  every 

Eoint,  its  axis  is  straight.  (4)  Observe  whether  the  short  nut  runs 
om  end  to  end  of  the  screw  without  a  wabbling  motion  when  the 
screw  is  turned  and  the  nut  kept  from  revolving.  If  it  wabbles 
the  screw  is  said  to  be  drunk.  One  can  see  this  error  better  by 
fixing  a  long  pointer  to  the  nut,  or  by  attaching  to  it  a  mirror  and 
observing  an  image  in  it  with  a  telescope.  The  following  experi- 
ment will  also  detect  this  error.  (5)  Put  upon  the  screw  two  well- 
fitting  and  rather  short  nuts,  which  are  kept  from  revolving  by 
arms  bearing  against  a  straight  edge  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the 
screw.  Let  one  nut  carry  an  arm  whieli  supports  a  microscope 
focused  on  a  line  ruled  on  the  other  nut.  Screw  this  combination 
to  diflerent  parts  of  the  screw.  If  during  one  revolution  the 
microscope  remains  in  focus,  the  screw  is  not  drunk ;  end,  if  the 
cross-hairs  bisect  the  line  in  every  position,  there  is  no  error  of  run. 

Making  Accurate  Screws. — To  produce  a  screw  of  a  foot  or  even 
a  yard  long  with  errors  not  exceeding  roVirth  of  an  inch  is  not 
difficult.  Professor  'William  A.  Rogers  of  Harvard  observatory 
ha."  invented  a  process  in  which  the  tool  of  the  lathe  while  cutting 
the  screw  is  moved  so  as  to  counteract  the  errors  of  the  lathe 
screw.  The  screw  is  then  partly  ground  to  get  rid  of  local 
errors.  But,  where  the  highest  accuracy  is  needed,  we  must  resort 
in  the  case  of  screws,  as  in  all  other  cases,  to  grinding.  A  long  solid 
nut,  tightly  fitting  the  screw  in  one  position,  cannot  be  moved 
freely  to  another  position  unless  the  screw  is  very  accurate.  If 
grinding  material  is  applied  and  the  nut  is  constantly  tightened, 
it  will  grind  out  all  errors  of  run,  drunkenness,  crookedness,  and 
irregularity  of  size.  The  condition  it  that  the  nut  must  be  long, 
rigid,  and  capable  of  beisg  tightened  as  the  grinding  proceeds ; 
also  the  screw  must  be  groimd  longer  than  it  will  finally  be  needed 
so  that  the  imperfect  ends  may  be  removed. 

The  following  process  will  produce  a  screw  suitable  for  rulio'' 


S  C  R— S  G  K 


553 


gratings  fir  optical  purnoses.  Suppose  it  is  our  purpose  to  produce 
a  screw  which  is  finally  «  bo  9  inches  long,  not  including  bearings, 
and  IJ  inches  in  diameter.  Select  a  bar  of  soft  Bessemer  steel, 
■which  has  not  the  hard  spots  usually  found  in  cast  steel,  about  13 
inches  in  diameter  and  30  long.  Put  it  between  lathe  centres  and 
turn  it  down  to  1  inch  diameter  every^vhere,  except  about  12  inches 
in  the  centre,  where  it  is  left  a  little  over  IJ  inches  in  diameter  for 
cutting  the  screw.  Now  cut  the  screw  wifb  a  triangular  thread  a 
little  sharper  than  60%  Above  aU,  avoid  a  fine  screw,  using  about 
20  threads  to  the  inch. 

The  grinding  nut,  about  11  mcnes  long,  has  now  to  be  made.    Fig. 
1  represents  a  section  of  the  nut,  which  is  made  of  brass,  or  better 
d       d 


Fio.  1. — Section  of  grinding  nut. 

of  Bessemer  steel.  It  consists  of  four  segments, — a,  a,  which  can 
bo  drawn  about  the  screw  by  two  collars,  b,  b,  and  the  screw  c. 
Wedges  between  the  segments  prevent  too  great'  pressure  on  the 
screw.  The  final  clamping  is  effected  by  the  rings  and  screws,  d, 
d,  which  enclose  the  flanges,  e,  of  the  segments.  The  screw  is  now 
placed  in  a  lathe  and  surrounded  by  water  whose  temperatiu'e  can 
DO  kept  constant  to  1°  C,  and  the  nut  placed  pn  it.  In  order  th^t 
the  weight  of  the  nut  may  not  make  the  ends  too  small,  it  must 
either  bo  counterbalanced  by  weights  hung  from  a  rope  passing 
over  pulleys  in  tho  ceiling,  or  the  screw  must  be  vertical  during 
the  wnole  process.  Emery  and  oil  seem  to  be  the  only  available 
grinding  materials,  though  a  softer  silica  powder  might  bo  used 
towards  the  end  of, tho  operation  to  clean  off  the  emery  and  prevent 
futare  wear.  Now  grind  the  screw  in  the  nut,  making  the  nut 
pass  backwards  and  forwards  over  the  screw,  its  whole  range  being 
nearly  20  inches  at  first  Turn  the  nut  end  for  end  every  ten 
minutes  and  continue  for  two  weeks,  fiually  making  the  range 
of  the  nut  only  about  10  inches,  using  finer  washed  emery  and 
moving  tho  lathe  slower  to  avoid  heating.  Finish  with  a  fine  silica 
powder  or  rouge.  During  tho  process,  if  the  thread  becomes  too 
blunt,  recut  the  nut  by  a  short  tap  so  as  not  to  change  the  pitch  at 
any  point.  This  must  of  course  not  be  done  less  than  five  days 
before  the  finish.  Now  cut  to  tho  proper  length ;  centre  again  in 
the  lathe  under  a  microscope  ;  and  turn  the  bearings.  A  screw  so 
ground  has  loss  errors  than  from  any  other  system  of  mounting. 
The  periodic  error  especially  will  be  too  small  to  bo  discovered, 
though  tho  mountings  and  graduation  and  centering  of  tha  head 
will  introduce  it;  it  must  therefore  finally  be  corrected. 

.Mounting  of  Screws. — Tho  mounting  must  bo  devised  most  care- 
fully, and  is  indeed  more  dilficult  to  make  without  error  than  tho 
screw  itself.     Tho  principle  which  should  be  adopted  is  that  no 
workmanship  is  perfect ;  tho  design  must  make  up  for  its  imper- 
fections.    Tnus  tno  screw  can  never  bo  made  to  run  tiue  on  its 
bearings,  and  hence  the  device  of  resting  one  end  of  the  carriage 
on  the  nut  must  bo  rejected.     Also  all  rigid  connoiion  between 
the  nut  and  tlie  carriage  must  be  avoided,  as  the  s  row  can  never 
be  adjusted  parallel  to  the  ways  on  which  tlio  carrb  ;o  rests.     For 
many  purposes,  such  as  ruling  optical  giatings,  tho  carriage  must 
move  accurately  forward  in  a  straight  line  as  far  as  tha  horizontal 
plane  is  concerned,  while  a  little  curvature  in  the  vertical  piano 
produces  very  littlo  effect.     Thcso  conditions  can  bo  satisfied  by 
making  tho  ways  V-shapcd  and  grinding  with  a  grinder  somewhat 
shorter  than  tho  ways.     By  constant  reversals  and  by  lengthening 
or  shortening  tho  stroke,  they  will  finally  become  nearly  perfect. 
The  vertical  curvature  can  bo  sufficiently  tested  by  a  sliort  carriage 
carrying  a  delicate  spirit  level.     Another  and  very  efficient  form 
of  ways  is  V-shaped  with  a  flat  top  and  nearly  vertical  sides.     Tho 
Qarriago  rests  on  tho  flat  top  and  is  held  by  springs  against  ono  of 
the  nearly  vertical  sides.     To  iletermino  with  accuracy  whether 
tho  ways  arc  straight,  fi:c  a  flat  piece  of  glass  on  tho  carriago  and 
rule  a  lino  on  it  by  moving  it  under  a  diamond  ;  reverse  and  rule 
another  lino  neat'  the  first,  and  measure  the  distance  apart  at  tho 
centre  and  at  the  two  ends  by  a  micrometer.    If  tho  centre  measure- 
ment is  equal  to  the  mean  of  tho  two  end  ones,  the  line  is  straight. 
This  is  better  than  tho  method  with  a  mirror  mounted  on  tho 
carriago  and  a  telescope.     Tho  screw  itself  must  rest  in  bearings, 
and  tho  end  motion  be  prevented  by  a  point  bearinjij  against  its  flat 
end,  which  is  protected  oy  hardenea  steel  or  a  flat  diamond.    Collur 
bearings  introduce  periodic  errors.    The  secret  of  success  is  so  to 


design  tne  nut  and  its  connexions  as  to  eliminate  all  adjustments  of 
the  screw  and  indeed  all  imperfect  workmanship.  The  connexion 
must  also  bo  such  as  to  give  means  of  conecting  any  residual 
periodic  errors  or  errors  of  run  which  may  be  introduced  in  tha 
mountings  or  by  the  wear  of  the  machine. 

The  nut  is  shown  in  fig.  2.  It  is  made  in  two  haives,  of  \VTonght 
iron  filled  with  boxwood  or  lignum  vita;  plugs,  on  which  the  screw 
is  cut.  To  each  half  a  long  piece  of  sheet  steel  is  fixed  which  beai-a 
against  •  a  guiding 
edge,  to  bo  describe' 
presently.  The  two 
halves  are  held  to  the 
screw  by  springs,  so 
that  each  moves  for- 
ward almost  indepen- 
dently of  the  other. 
To  join  the  nut  to  the 
carriage,  a  ring  is  attached  to  the  latter, 
vertical  and  which  can  turn  round  a 
The  bars  fixed  midway  on  tho  two  halves 
against  this  ring  at  points  90"  distant 
Hence  each  half  does  its  share  independ- 
otlicr  in  moving  the  carriage  forwar<I. 
parallelism  between  tho  screw  and  tho 
tricity  in  tho'  screw  mountings  thus 
the  forward  motion  of  the  carriage.  The 
which  tho  steel  pieces  of  the  nut  rest  can 
form  as  to  correct  any  small  error  of  run 
the  screw.  Also,  by  causing  it  to  move 
forwards  periodically,  the  periodic  error 
mountings  can  be  corrected. 

In  makin"  gratings  for  optical  purposes 
error  must  be  very  perfectly  eliminated, 
odic  displacement  of  the  lines  only  one 
inch  from  their  mean  position  will  pro 
in  the  spectrum,' 


whose  plane  is 
vertical  axis, 
of  the  nut  bear 
from  its  axis, 
ently  of  the 
Any  want  of 
ways  or  eccen- 
scarcely  affects 
guide  against 
be  made  of  such 
I ,  duo  to  wear  of 
j  backwards  and 
of  the  head  and 


I  tha        periodic 

J:  since  the  peri- 
millionth  of  an 
* 'g-  2'  duce  "  ghosts  " 
Incleed  this  is  t'he  most  sensitive  method  of 
detecting  the  existence  of  this  error,  and  it  is  practically  impos- 
sible to  mount  the  most  perfect  of  screws  without  introducing  it. 
A  very  practical  method  of  determining  this  error  is  to  rule  a 
short  grating  with  very  long  lines  on  a  piece  of  common  thin 
plate  gl.ass  ;  cut  it  in  two  with  a  diamond  and  superimpose  the 
two  halves  with  the  rulings  together  and  displaced  sideways  over 
each  other  one-half  tho  pitch  of  the  screw.  On  now  loqking  at 
the  plates  in  a  proper  light  so  as  to  have  the  spectral  colours 
show  through  it,  dark  lines  will  appear,  which  are  wavy  if  there 
is  a  periodic  error  and  Straight  if  there  is  none.  By  measuring  tha 
comparative  amplitude  of  the  waves  and  the  distance  apart  of  two 
lines,  tho  amount  of  the  periodic  error  can  be  determined.  The 
phase  of  the  periodic  error  is  best  found  by  a  series  of  trials  after 
setting  tho  connector  at  the  proper  amplitude  as  determined  above. 

A  machine  properly  made  as  above  and  kept  at  a  constant 
temperature  should  bo  able  to  make  a  scale  of  6  inches  in  length, 
with  errors  at  no  point  exceeding  Tnii'inny*''  of  an  inch.  When, 
however,  a  grating  of  that  length  is  attempted  at  the  rate  of  14,000 
lines  to  the  inch,  four  days  and  nights  aro  req'uired  and  the  result  is 
seldom  perfect,  possibly  on  account  of  tho  wear  of  the  machine  or 
changes  of  temperatui'o.  Gratings,  however,  less  than  3  inches 
long  are  easy  to  make.  (H.  A.  R.) 

SCRIBE,  AtJousTiN  EuofeNE  (1791-1861),  the  most 
popular  playwright  of  Franco,  was  born  at  Paris  on  '24th 
December  1791,  and  died  there  on  20th  February  1861. 
His  father  was  a  silk  merchant  and  he  was  well  educated", 
being  destined  for  the  bar.  But,  having  a  real  gift  for 
the  theatre  (a  gift  which  unfortunately  was  not  allied  with 
sufficient  literary  power  to  make  his  works  •  last),  ho  very 
soon  broke  away  from  profes-sional  study  and  at  tho  age 
of  twenty  produced,  in  collaboration,  as  is  common  in 
France,  the  first  of  a  series  of  dramas  which  continued  for 
fifty  years.  Les  Dervis  (1811)  is  usually  cited  as  the  first 
play  in  which  ho  took  a  hand,  though,  as  for  some  time  ho 
did  not  .sign  his  work,  identification  is  somewhat  difficult. 
He  achieved  no  di"'Mict  success  till  1816,  when  J7w«  Suit 
de  Garde  Katioiwtf  made  him  in  a  way  famous.  Thence- 
forward his  fertility  was  unceasing  and  its  results  pro- 
digious. There  may  bo  In  existence  a  complete  list  of 
Scribe's  works,  but  wo  have  never  seen  any  that  pretended 
to  be  such.     Ho  wrote  every  kind  of  drama — vaudevilles, 

1  In  a  machine  made  by  the  present  writer  for  ruling  gratings  the 
periodic  error  is  entirely  duo  to  tho  groduntion  and  centering  of  the 
head.  Tho  uncorrected  periodic  error  from  this  cause  displaces  the 
lines  rntiVinitb  of  an  Inch,  which  is  auflicient  to  entirely  ruin  all  grating* 
made  without  correctiDg  it.  ■——-, 

XXL  —  70 


554 


S  C  R  — S  C  R 


comedies,  tragedies,  opera-libretti.  To  one  theatre  alone 
he  is  said  to  have  furnished  more  than  u  hundred  pieces. 
But  his  life  was  entirely  uneventful,  and  his  election  to 
the  Academy  in  1834  is  almost  the  only  incident  which 
deserves  chronicling.  It  ought .  to  be  said  to  Scribe's 
credit  that,  although  he  was  the  least  original  of  writers 
and  was  more  an  editor  of  dramas  than  a  dramatist, 
although  he  was  for  many  years  an  object  of  the  bitterest 
envy  to  impecunious  geniuses  owing  to  his  pecuniary 
success,  and  although  he  never  Tias  pleased  and  never  can 
please  any  critic  who  applies  purely  literary  tests,  his 
character  stands  very  high  for  literary  probity  and  mdeed 
generosity.  He  is  said  in  some  cases  to  have  sent  sums  of 
money  for  "cop5Tight  in  ideas"  to  men  who  not  only  had 
not  actually  collaborated  with  him  but  who  were  unaware 
that  he  had  taken  suggestions  from  their  work.  His 
industry  was  untiring  and  his  knowledge  both  of  the 
mechanism  of  the  stage  and  of  the  tastes  of  the  audience 
was  wonderful.  Nevertheless  he  hardly  deserves  a  place 
in  literature,  his  style  being  vulgar,  his  characters  common- 
place, even  his  plots  lacking  power  and  grasp.  He  wrote 
a  few  novels,  but  none  of  any  mark.  The  best  known  of 
Scribe's  pieces  after  his  first  successful  one  are  Une  Ckatne 
(1842),  Le  Verre  (TEau  (1842),  Adrienne Lecouvreur  (ISiQ), 
and  the  libretti  of  many  of  the  most  famous  operas  of 
the  middle  of  the  century,  especially  those  of  Auber  and 
Meyerbeer. 

SCRIBES.     See  Iseam,,  vol.  xiii.  p.  419. 

SCRIVENER'S  PALSY.     See  Cramp,  vol.  vi.  p.  543. 

SCROFULA  or  Struma  (formerly  knovni  in  England 
as  "king's  evil,"  from  the  belief  that  the  tpuch  of  the 
sovereign  could  effect  a  cure^),  a  constitutional  morbid 
condition  generally  exhibiting  itself  in  early  life,  and 
characterized  mainly  by  defective  nutrition  of  the  tissues 
and  by  a  tendency  to  inflammatory  affections  of  a  low  type 
with  degenerative  changes  in  their  products.  The  subject 
has  been  considered  in  most  of  its  features  under  Patho- 
logy (vol.  xviii.  p.  405),  and  only  a  further  brief  reference 
is  here  necessary.  Scrofula  may  be  either  inherited  or 
acquired.  Heredity  is  of  all  causes  the  most  potent,  and 
naturally  operates  with  greater  certainty  where  both  parents 
possess  the  taint.  As  in  aU  hereditary  diseases,  however, 
the  liability  may  be  scarcely  perceptible  for  one  or  two 
generations,  but  may  then  reappear.  Other  causes  refer- 
able to  parentage  may  readily  produce  this  constitutional 
state  in  children,  as  weakness  or  ill  health  in  one  or  both 
parents,  and,  as  seems  probable,  marriages  of  consanguinity. 
But,  apart  altogether  from  hereditary  or  congenital  influ- 
ences, the  scrofulous  habit  is  frequently  developed,  especi- 
ally in  the  young,  by  such  unfavourable  hygienic  conditions 
as  result  from  overcrowded,  cold,  and  dark  dwellings,  in- 
sufficient and .  improper  food,  exposure,  and  debauchery. 
Even  among  the  old  in  such  circumstances  the  evidences 
of  scrofula  may  be  seen  to  present  themselves  where  before 
they  had  been  absent. 

There  ^e  two  well-marked  types  of  the  scrofulous  con- 
Btitution  to  be  often  observed,  especially  among  the  young. 
In  the  one  the  chief  features  are  a  fair  complexion  with 
delicate  thin  skin,  blue  eyes,  dilated  pupils,  long  eyelashes, 
soft  muscles,  and  activity  of  the  circulatory  and  nervous 
system ;  while  in  the  other  the  skin  is  dark,  the  features 
heavy,  the  figure  stunted,  and  all  the  functions,  physical 
and  mental,  inactive.  In  many  instances,  however,  it  will 
be  found  that  both  types  are  more  or  less  mixed  together 
in  one  individual.  Tlie  manifestations  of  scrofula  generally 
alppear  in  early  life,  and  are  often  exhibited  in  young 

'  This  guperstitioa  can  be  traced  back  to  the  time  of  Edward  the 
Confessor  in  England,  and  to  a  much  earlier  period  in  France.  Samuel 
Johnson  was  touched  by  Queen  Anne  in  1712,  and  the  same  pre-' 
logative  of  royalty  "jfas  exercised  by  Prince  Charles  Edward  in  1745. 


children  during  the  first  dentition  by  inflammatory  skin 
eruptions  of  obstinate  character  on  the  face  and  other 
parts ;  later  on  in  youth  there  appear  glandular  swellings 
either  externally,  as  on  the  neck,  or  affecting  the  gland 
structures  of  the  chest  or  abdomen,  while  at  the  same 
time  mucous  membranes  and  bones  may.become  implicated. 
The  distinctive  features  of  the  scrofulous  inflammatory 
affections  are  their  tendency  to  chronicity  and  to  suppura- 
tive and  degenerative  changes,  the  affected  parts  either 
healing  slowly  with  resulting  disfigurement,  as  on  the  neck,  • 
or  continuing  to  retain  traces  of  the  products  of  the  i 
diseased  action,  which  may  set  up  serious  disturbanxie  of/ 
the  health  at  some  future  time.  Further,  the  scrofulous 
constitution  always  influences  the  duration  and  progress  of 
any  disease  from  which  the  individual  may  suffer,  as  well 
as  its  results.  Thus  in  pneumonia,  to  which  the  scrofulous 
would  seem  to  be  specially  liable,  the  products  of  the 
inflammation  are  not  readily  absorbed  as  in  previously 
healthy  persons,  but,  remaining  in  the  lung-tissues,  are 
apt  to  undergo  caseous  degenerative  changes,  which  may 
issue  in  phthisis  (see  Pneumonia  and  Phthisis)..  The 
ciSnnexion  of  scrofula  with  tubercle  is  pointed  out  in  the 
article  Pathology  (loc.  cit.). 

Scrofula  may  under  favourable  circumstances' tend  to 
improvement  as  age  advances,  and  it  occasionally  happens 
that  persons  who  in  early  life  showed  unmistakable  evi- 
dences of  this  condition  appear  ultimately  to  outgrow  it, 
and  become  in  all  respects  healthy  and  vigorous.  The 
treatment  is  essentially  similar  to  -  that  described  for 
rickets  or  phthisis,  and  is  partly  preventive  and  partly 
ctirative.  It  consists  mainly  in  hygienic  measures  to  pro- 
mote the  health  and  nutrition  of  the  young,  and  of  suitable 
diet,  tonics,  <fec.,  where  evidences  of  the  disease  have 
declared  themselves.     See  Rickets,  Phthisis. 

SCRUB-BIRD,  the  name  (for  want  of  a  better,  since  it 
is  not  very  distinctive)  conferred  upon  the  members  of  an 
Australian  genus,  one  of  the  most  curious  ornithological 
iypes  of  the  many  furnished  by  that  country.  The  first 
examples  were  procured  by  the  late  Mr  Gilbert  between 
Perth  and  Augusta  in  West  Australia,  and  were  described 
by  Gould  in  the  Zoological  Society's  Proceedings  for  1844 
(pp.  1,  2)  as  forming  a  new  genus  and  species  under  the 
name  of  Atrichia  clamosa,  the  great  peculiarity  observed 
by  that  naturalist  being  the  absence  of  any  bristles  around 
■the  gape,  in  which  respect  alone  it  seemed  to  differ  from 
the' already  known  genus  Spkeimra.  In  March  1866  Mr 
Wilcox  obtained  on  the  banks  of  the  Richmond  river  on 
the  eastern  side  of  Australia  some  other  examples,  which 
proved  the  existence  of  a  second  species,  described  by  Mr 
Ramsay  in  the  Proceedings  for  that  year  (pp.  438-440)  as 
A.  rufescens  .  but  still  no  suspicion  of  the  great  divergence 
of  the  genus  from  the  ordinary  Passerine  type  was  raised, 
and  it  was  generally  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  Maluridx 
or  Australian  Warblers.  However,  the  peculiar  formation 
of  the  sternum  in  Atrichia  attracted  the  present  writer's 
attention  almost  as  soon  as  that  of  A.  clamosa  was  exhibited 
in  the  museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons,  and  at  his  re- 
quest Mr  Ramsay  a  little  later  sent  to  the  museum  of  the 
university  of  Cambridge  examples  in  spirit  of  A.  rufescens, 
which  shewed  a  common  structure.  One  of  the  sternal 
peculiarities  was  noticed  by  Mr  Sclater  {Ibis,  1874,  p.  191, 
note);  and  in  the  present  work  (Birds,  iii.  p.  741)  the 
Scrub-birds  were  declared  to  form  a  distinct  Family, 
Atrichiidse,  standing,  so  far  as  was  known,  alone  with  the 
Lyre-birds  (see  vol.  xv.  p.  115)  as  "abnormal  Passeres." 
iluch  the  same  view  was  also  taken  the  next  year  by  Garrod, 
who,  in  the  Proceedings  for  1876  (pp.  516,  518,  pi.  Iii. 
figs.  4-7),  further  dwelt  on  the  taxonomic  importance  of 
the  equally  remarkable  characters  of  the  sj/ringeal  muscles 
exhibited  alike  bv  Menura  and  Atrichia,  which  he  accord- 


s  c  u  — s  c  u 


555 


ingly  placed  together,  in  a  division  of  the  Acromyodian 
Passeres,  differing  from  all  the  rest  and  since  recognized,  as 
has  been  <;aid  (Oexithology,  vol.  xviii.  pp.  40,  41),  by  Mr 
Sclater  as  a  Sub-order  Pseudoscines.  A  detailed  anatomical 
description  of  Atrichia  has,  however,  yet  to  bo  given,  aud  a 
comparison,  of  many  other  Australian  types .  is  needed  ^ 
before  it  can  be  certainly  said  to  have  no  nearer  ally  than 
Menum.     Both  the  known  .^necies  of  Scrub-bird  are  about 


West-Australian  Scrub- uird  [Atrichia  clamosa). 
the  size  of  a  small  Thrush — A.  clamosa  being  the  larger  of 
the  two.  This  species  is  brown  above,  each  feather 
barred  with  a  darker  shade;  the  throat  and  belly  are 
reddish  white,  and  there  is  a  large  black  patch  on  the 
breast;  while  the  flanks  are  brown  and  the  lower -tail- 
coverts  rufous.  •  A.  mfescens  has  the  white  and  black  of 
the  fore-parts  replaced  by  bro'wn,  barred  much  as  is  the 
upper  plumage.  Both' species  are  said  to  inhabit  the 
thickest  "scrub"  or  brushwood  forest;  but  little  has  been 
ascertained  as  to  their  mode  of  life  except  that  the  males 
are  noisy,  imitative  of  the  notes  of  other  birds,  and  given 
to  violent  gesticulations.  The  nest  and  eggs,  seem  never 
to  have  been  found,  and  indeed  no  example  of  the  female 
of  either  species  is  kno^^^l  to  have  been  procured,  whence 
that  sex  may  be  inferred  to  escape  observation  by  its  in- 
conspicuous appearance  and  retiring  habits.  (a,  n.) 

SCUDERY  is  the  name  of  a  family  which  is  said  to 
have  been  of  Italian  origin  and  to  have  transferred  itself  to 
Provence,  but  which  is  only  knowii  by  the  singular  brother 
and  Mster  who  rcp're.=<ented  it  during  the  17th  century. 

Georges  DE  Scud^ry  (lGOl-166"),  the  elder  of  the  pair, 
■was  born  at  .Havre,  whither  his  father  had  moved  from 
Provence,  in  1601.  •  He  served  in  the  army  for  some  time, 
and,  though  in  the  vein  of  gasconading  which  was  almost 
peculiar  to  him  he  no  doubt  exaggerated  his  services,  there 
seems  little  doubt  that  he  was  a  stout  soldier.  But  he  con- 
ceived a  fancy  for  literature  before  he  was  thirty,  and  during 
the  whole  of  the  middle  of  the  century  he  was  one  of  the 
most  characteristic  figures  of  Paris.  Dcs])itc  his  own  merit, 
which  was  not  inconsiderable,  and  his  sister's,  which  was 
more,  he  was  unlucky  in  his  suits  for  preferment.  Indeed 
from  some  stories  told  by  men  not  his  friends  ho  seems  to 
have  hurt  his  own  chances  by  independence  of  spirit.  He 
received,  however,  the  governorship  of  the  fortress  of  Notre 
Dame  de  la  Garde  near  Marseilles  in  1643,  and  in  1650 
was  elected  to  "the  Academy.     Long  before  he  had  made 

'  Forbes  showed  that  Ortdonyx  (vol.  zviij.'  p.  62)  did  not  belong 
to  the  group  oa  at  oxk  time  supposed. 


himself  conspicuous  by  a  letter  attacking  Corneille's  Cid, 
which  he  addressed  to  that  body.  He  was  himself  an 
industrious  dramatist,  L'Amour  Tyvannirjue  being  the  chief 
piece  which  (aud  that  only  partially)  has  escaped  oblivion. 
His  other  most  famous  work  was  the  epic  of  Ataric  (1654). 
He  lent  his  name  to  his  sister's  first  romances,  but  did  little 
beyond  correcting  the  proofs.  His  death  occurred  at  Paris 
on  14th  May  16G7.  Scudery's  swashbuckler  affectations 
(he  terminates  his  introduction  to  the  works  of  Thiophile 
de  Viaud  by  something  like  a  challenge  in  form  to  any  one 
who  does  not  admit  the  supremacy  of  the  deceased  poet), 
the  bombast  of  his  style,  and  his  various  oddities  have 
been  rather  exaggerated  by  literary  gossip  and  tradition. 
Although  probably  not  quite  sane,  he  had  soine  poetical 
power,  a  fervent  love  of  literature,  a  high  sense  of  honour 
and  of  friendship. 

His  sister  Madeleine  (1607-1701),  born  also  at  Havre 
in  1607,  was  a  writer  of  much  more  ability  and  of  a  much 
better  regulated  character.  She  was  very  plain  and  had 
no  fortune,  but  her  abilities  were  great  and  .she  was  very 
well  educated.  Establishing-  herself  at  Paris  with  her 
brother,  she  was  at  once  admitted  to  the  Rambouillet  coterie, 
afterwards  established  a  .salon  of  her  own  under  the  title 
of  the  Societe  dii  Saniedi,  and  for  the  last  half  of  the  17th 
century,  under  the  pseudonjon  of  "Sapho"  or  her  own 
name,  was  acknowledged- as  the  first  blue-stocking  of  France 
and  of  the  world.  Her  celebrated  novels,  Artamcne  ou  le 
Grand  Cyrus,  Clelie,  Ibrahim  ou  I'llhtslre  Bassa,  Almahide, 
and  others  are  kno-svn  by  quotation  to  every  one,  and  were 
the  delight  of  all  Europe,  including  persons  of  the  wit  and 
sense  of  Madame  de  ScH'igntS.  Bat  for  at  least  a  century 
and  .a  half  they  have  lain  unread,  and  their  immense  length 
has  often  been  satirized  even  by  porsons.well  read  in  letters 
with  the  term  "folio,"  when  in. fact  they  were  originally 
issued  in  batches  of  small  octavos,  sometimes  (allowing  for 
two  parts  to  each  volume)  running  to  a  score  or  so. 
Neither  in  conception  nor  in  execution  will  they  bear 
criticism,  as  wholes.  With  classical  or  Oriental  personages 
for  nominal  heroes  and  heroines,  the  wh61e  language  and 
action  are  taken  from  the  fashionable  ideas  of  the  time, 
and  the  personages  can  be  identified  either  really  or  colour- 
ably  with  Mademoiselle  de  Scudery's  contemporaries.  The 
interminable  length.^  of  the  stories  is  made  out  by  endless 
conversations  and,  as  far  as  incidents  go,  chiefly  by  suc- 
cessive abductions  of  the  heroines,  conceived  and  related 
in  the  most  decorous  spirit,  for  Mademoiselle  de  Scudery 
is  nothing  if  not  decorous.  Nevertheless,  although  the 
books  can  hardly  now  be  read  through,  it  is  still  possible 
to  perceive  their  attraction  for  the  wits,  both  mule  and 
female,  of  a  time  which  certainly  did  not  lack  wit.  In 
that  early  day  of  the  novel  prolixity  did  not  repel 
"Sapho"  had  really  studied  mankind  in  her  contempo- 
raries and  knew  how  to  analyse  and  describe  their  characters 
with  fidelity  and  point.  She  was  a  real  mistress  of  con- 
versation, a  thing  quite  new  to  the  age  at  least  as  far  as 
literature  was  concerned,  and  proportionately  welcome. 
She  could  moralize — a  favourite  employment  of  the  time— 
with  sense  and  propriety,  and  the  purely  literary  meriU 
of  the  style  which  clothed  the  whole  were  considerable. 
Madeleine  survived  her  brother  more  than  thirty  years 
(srxindal  says  that  she  was  not  sorry  to  bo  relieved  rrom 
his  humours),  and  in  her  later  days  published  numerous 
volumes  of  conversations  (to  a  great  extent  extracted  from 
her  novcl.s)  and  short  moral  -writings.  Dryden  says  that  ho 
had  heard  of  an-  ijitention  on  her  part  to  tran.slate  the 
Canterbury  Tahs,  and  it  is  not  impossible.  She  never 
lost  cither  her  renown  or  her  wits  or  her  good  sense,  and 
died  at  Paris  on  2d  Juno  1701.  It  is  unfortunate  and 
rather  surprising  that  no  one  has  recently  attempted  an 
anthology  from  her  immense  work. 


556 


SCULP  TUBE 


THE  present  article  is  confined  to  the  sculpture  of  the 
Middle  Ages  and  modem  times ;  classical  sculpture 
has  been  already  treated  of  under  Aech^ology  (Class- 
ical), vol.  ii.  p.  343  sq.,  and  in  the  articles  on  the  several 
individual  artists. 

In  the  4th  century  A.D.,  under  the  ride  of  Constantine's 
successors,  the  plastic  arts  in  the  Roman  Tvorld  reached 
the  lowest  point  of  degradation  to  which  they  ever  fell. 
Coarse  in  workmanship, .  intensely  feeble  in  design,  and 
utterly  without  expression  or  life,  the  pagan  sculpture  of 
that  time  is  merely  a  dull  and  ignorant  imitation  of  the 
work  of  previous  centuries.  The  old  faith  was  dead,  and 
the  art  which  had  sprung 
from  it  died  with  it.  In 
the  same  century  a  large 
amount  of  sculpture  was 
produced  by  Christian 
workmen,  which,  though 
it  reached  no  very  high 
standard  of  merit,  was  at 
least  far  superior  to  the 
pagan  work.  Although 
it  shows  no.  increase  of 
technical  skUl  or  know- 
ledge of  the  human  form, 
yet  the  mere  fact  that  it 
■was  inspired  and  its  sub- 
jects supplied  by  a  real 
living  faith  was  quite 
sufficient  to  give  it  a 
vigour  and  a  dramatic 
force  which  raise  it  ses- 
thetically  far  above  the 
expiring  efforts  of  pagan- 
ism. Fig.  1  shows  a  very 
fine  Christian  relief  of 
the  4th  century,  with  a 
noble  figure  of  an  arch- 
angel holding  an  orb  and 
a  sceptre.  It  is  a  leaf  from 
an  ivory  consular  dip- 
tych, inscribed  at  the  top 
AEXOY  IIAPONTA  ELA.I 
llAQCON  THN  AITIAN, 
"Eeceive  these  presents 
and  having  learnt  the  oc- 
casion ..."  A  number 
of  large  marble  sarco- 
phagi are  the  chief  exist- 
ing specimens  of  this  early 
Christian  sculpture.  In 
general  design   they  are 


Fig.  1. — Relief  ia  ivory  of  tlie  4th 
century.     (British  Museum.) 


close  copies  of  pagan  tombs,  and  are  richly  (decorated 
outside  with  reliefs.  The  subjects  of  these  are  usually 
scenes  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  From  the 
former  those  subjects  were  seletted  which  were  supposed 
to  have  some  typical  reference  to  the  life  of  Christ : 
the  Meeting  of  Abraham  and  Melchisedec,  the  Sacrifice 
of  Isaac,  Daniel  among  the  Lions,  Jonah  and  the  Whale, 
are  those  which  most  frequently  occur.  Among  the  New 
Testament  scenes  no  representations  occur  of  Christ's 
Buflferings  ;i  the  subjects  chosen  illustrate  His  power  and 
beneficence :  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  the  Triumphal 
Entry   into  Jerusalem,  and  many  of   His  miracles   are 

^  A  partial  exception  to  this  rule  is  the  scene  of  Christ  before 
("ilate,  which  sometimea  occurs. 


frequently  repeated.  The  Vatican  and  Lateran  museums 
are  rich  in  examples  of  this  sort.  One  of  the  finest  in  the 
former  collection  was  taken  from  the  crypt  of  the  old 
basilica  of  St  Peter ;  it  contained  the  body  of  a  certain 
Junius  Bassus,  and  dates  from  the  year  359. ^  Many 
other  similar  sarcophagi  were  made  in  the  provinces  of 
Rome,  especially  Gaul ;  and  fine  specimens  exist  in  the 
museums  of  Aries,  MarseiUes,  and  Aix ;  those  found  in 
Britain  are  of  very  inferior  workmanship. 

In  the  5th  century  other  plastic'  works  similar  in  style 
were  still  produced  in  Italy,  especially,  reliefs  in  ivory 
(to  a  certain  extent  imitations  of  the  later  consular 
diptychs),  which  were  used  to  decorate  episcopal  thrones 
or  the  bindings  of  MSS.  of  the  Gospels.  The  so-called 
chair  of  St  Peter,  stiU  preserved  (though  hidden  from  sight) 
in  his  great  basilica,  is  the  finest  example  of  the  former 
class ;  of  less  purely  classical  style,  dating  from  about  550, 
is  the  ivory  throne  of  Bishop  Masimianus  in  Eavenna 
cathedral  (see  fig.  2).     Anofher  very  remarkable  work  of 


FiQ.  2. — Reliefs  itt  ivory  of  the  Baptist  and  the  Four  Evangelists  in 
front  of  the  episcopal  throne  of  Maximianus  in  Ravenna  cathedral. 

the  5th  century  is  the  series  of  small  panel  reliefs  on  the 
doors  of  S.  Sabina  on  the  Aventin^  Hill  at  Rome.  They 
are  scenes  from  Bible  history  carved 
in  wood,  and  in  them  much  of  the 
old  classic  style  survives.^ 

In  the  6th  century,  under  the  By- 
zantine influence  of  Justinian,  a  new 
class  of  decorative  sculpture  was  jJro- 
duced,  especially  at  Eavenna.     Sub- 
ject reliefs  do  not  often  occur,  but 
large  slabs  of  marble,  formiag  screens, 
altars,   pulpits,   and   the    like,  were 
ornamented  in  a  very  skilful  and  ori- 
ginal way  with  low  reliefs  of  graceful 
vine-plants,  with  peacocks  and  other 
birds   drinking  out   of   chalices,  all 
treated  in   a  very  able  and   highly  Fig.  3. — Sixth -century 
decorative   manner   (see   fig.  3   and     "=*?''*'  ^^°'^  ^-  '^''^» 
the  upper  band  of  fig.  2).     Byzan-     »' i^^^™^- 
tium,  however,  in  the  main,  became  the  birthplace  and 


"  See  Dionysius,  Sac.  Vat.  Bos.  Cryp.,  and  Bunseu,  Besch.  d.  Stadt 
Rom,  1840. 

'  Various  dates  have  been  assigned  to  these  interesting  reliefs  by 
different  archseologists,  but  the  costumes  of  the  figures  are  strong 
evidence  that  they  are  not  later  than  the  5th  century. 


BYZAXTINE.] 


SCULPTURE 


557 


Beat  of  all  the  mediaeval  arts  soon  after  the  tronsference 
thither  of  the  headquarters  of  the  empire.  The  plastic 
arts  of  Byzantium  were  for  a  while  dominated  by  the 
survival  of  the  duU  classic  art  of  the  extreme  decadence, 
but  soon  fresh  life  and  vigour  of  conception  were  gained 
by  a  people  who  were  not  without  the  germinating  seeds 
of  a  new  aesthetic  development.  The  bronze  statue  of  St 
Peter  in  his  Roman  basilica  is  an  early  work  which  shows 
some  promise  of  what  was  to  come  in  the  far-off  future ; 
though  classical  in  its  main  lines  and  stiff  in  treatment, 
it  possesses  a  simple  dignity  and  force  which  jvere  far 
beyond  the  powers  of  any  mere  cop)-ist  of  classic.^sculp- 
ture.'  Very  early  in  the  5th  or  6th  century  a  school  of 
decorative  sculpture  aro.se  at  Byzantium  which  produced 
■work,  such  as  carved  foliage  on  capitals  and  bands  of  orna- 
ment, possessed  of  the  very  highest  decorative  power  and 
executed  with  unrivalled  spirit  and  vigour.  The  early 
Byzantine  treatment  of  the  acanthus  or  thistle,  as  seen  in 
the  capitals  of  S.  Sophia  at  Constantinople,  the  Golden 
Gate  at  Jerusalem,  and  many  other  buildings  in  the  East, 
Las  never  since  been  surpassed  in  any  purely  decorative 
sculpture ;  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  how  it  grew  out 
of  the  dull  and  lifeless  ornamentation  which  covers  the 
degraded  Corinthian  capital  used  so  largely  in  Eoman 
buildings  of  the  time  of  Constantine  and  his  sons.  It 
■was,  however,  especially  in  the  production  of  Metal- wore 
{q.v.)  that  the  early  Byzantines  were  so  famous,  and  this 
notably  in  the  manipulation  of  the  precious  metals,  which 
■were  then  used  in  the  most  lavish  way  to  decorate  and 
furnish  the  great  churches  of  the  empire.  This  extended 
use  of.  gold  and  silver  strongly  influenced  their  sculpture, 
even  when  the  material  was  marbl'e  or  bronze,  and  caused 
an  amount  of  delicate  surface-ornament  to  be  used  which 
was  sometimes  injurious  to  the  breadth  and  simplicity  of 
their  reliefs.  For  many  centuries  the  art  of  Byzantium, 
at  least  in  its  higher  forms,  made  little  or  no  progress, 
mainly  owing  to  the  tyrannical  influence  of  the  church  and 
its  growing  suspicion  of  anj'thing  like  sensual  beauty.  A 
large  party  in  the  Eastern  Church  decided  that  all  repre- 
sentations of  Christ  must  bo  "wthout  form  or  comeliness," 
and  that  it  was  impious  to  carve  or  paint  Him  with  any 
of  the  beauty  and  nobility  of  the  pagan  gods.  Jloreover, 
the  artists  of  Byzantium  were  fettered  by  the  strictest  rules 
as  to  the  proper  way  in  which  to  portray  each  sacred  figure : 
every  saint  had  to  be  represented  in  a  certain  attitude,  with 
one  fixed  cast  of  face  and  arrangement  of  drapery,  and  even 
in  certain  definitely  prescribed  colours.  No  deviation  from 
these  rules  was  permitted,  and  thus  stereotyped  patterns 
•were  created  and  followed  in  the  most  rigid  and  conventional 
manner.  Hence  in  Byzantine  art  from  the  6th  to  the  12th 
century  a  miniature  painting  in  an  illuminated  MS.  looks 
like  a  reduced  copy  of  a  colossal  glass  mosaic;  and  no 
design  had  much  special  relation  to  the  material  it  was 
to  be  executed  in :  it  was  much  the  same  whether  it  was 
intended  to  be  a  large  relief  sculptured  in  stone  or  a  minute 
piece  of  silver-work  for  the  back  of  a  textus. 

Till  about  the  12th  century,  and  in  some  places  much 
later,  the  art  of  Byzantium  dominated  that  of  the  whole 
Christian  world  in  a  very  remarkable  way.  From  Russia 
to  Ireland  and  from  Norway  to  Spain  any  given  work  of 
art  in  one  of  the  countries  of  Europe  might  almost  equally 
well  have  been  designed  in  any  other.  Little  or  no  local 
peculiarities  can  be  detected,  except  of  course  in  the  methods 
of  execution,  and  even  these  were  wonderfully  similar 
everywhere.  The  dogmatic  unity  of  the  Catholic  Church 
and  its  great  monastic  system,  with  constant  interchange 
of  monkish  craftsmen  between  one  country  and  another. 


'  There  is  no  ground  for  the  popular  impression  that  this  is  an 
antique  statue  of  Jupiter  transformed  into  that  of  St  Peter  by  the 
addition  of  the  keys. 


were  the  chief  causes  of  this  widespread  monotony  of 
style..  An  additional  reason  was  the  unrivalled  technical 
skill  of  the  early  Byzantines,  which  made  their  city  widely 
resorted  to  by  the  artist-craftsmen  of  all  Europe, — the 
great  school  for  learning  any  branch  of  the  arts. 

The  extensive  use  of  the  precious  metals  for  the  chief 
works  of  plastic  art' in  this  early  period  is  one  of  the  reasons 
why  so  few  examples  still  remain, — their  great  intrinsic 
value  naturally  causing  their  destruction.  One  of  the 
most  important  existing  examples,  dating  from  the  8th 
century,  is  a  series  of  colossal  wall  reliefs  executed  in  hard 
stucco  in  the  church  of  Cividale  (Friuli)  not  far  from  Trieste. 
These  represent  rows  of  female  saints  bearing  jewelled 
crosses,  crowns,  and  wreaths,  and  closely  resembling  in  cos- 
tume, attitude,  and  arrangement  the  gift-bearing  mosaic 
figures  of  Theodora  '^nd  her  ladies  in  S.  Vitale  at  Ravenna. 
It  is  a  striking  instance  of  the  almost  petrified  state  of 
Byzantine  art  that  so  close  a  similarity  should  be  possible 
between  works  executed  at  an  interval  of  fully  two  hundred 
years.  Some  very  interesting  small  plaques  of  ivory  in 
the  library  of  St  Gall  show  a  still  later  survival  of  early 
forms.  The  central  relief  is  a  figure  of  Christ  in  Itlajesty, 
and  closely  resembles  those  in  the  colossal  apse  mosaic  of 
S.  Apollinare  in  Classe  and  other  churches  of  Ravenna ; 
while  the  figures  below  the  Christ  are  survivals  of  a.  still 
older  time,  dating  back  from  the  best  eras  of  classic  art. 
A  river-god  is  represented  as  an  old  man  holding  an  urn, 
from  which  a  stream  issues,  and  a  reclining  female  figure 
with  an  infant  and  a  cornucopia  is  the  old  Roman  Tellus 
or  Earth-goddess  with  her  ancient  attributes.- 

It  will  be  convenient  to  discuss  the  sculpture  of  the 
mediaival  and  modern  periods  under  the  heads  of  the  chief 
countries  of  Europe. 

England. — During  the  Saxon  period,  when  stone  build- 
ings were  rare  and  even  large  cathedrals  were  built  of 
wood,  the  plastic  arts  were  mostly  confined  to  the  use  of 
gold,  silver,  and  gilt  copper.  The  earliest  existing  speci-  OiurcV 
mens  of  sculpture  in  stone  are  a  number  of  tall  churchyard  ^"^ 
crosses,  mostly  in  the  northern  provinces  and  apparently  ''^'*°*' 
the  work  of  Scandinavian  sculptors.  One  very  remarkable 
example  is  a  tall  monolithic  cross,  cut  in  sandstone,  in  the 
churchyard  of  Gosforth  in  Cumberland.  It  is  covered 
with  rudely  carved  reliefs,  small  in  scale,  which  are  of 
special  interest  as  showing  a  transitional  state  from  the 
worship  of  Odin  to  that  of  Christ.  Some  of  the  old  Norse 
symbols  and  m^  ths  sculptured  on  it  occur  modified  and 
altered  into  a  semi-Christian  form.  Though  rich  in  decora- 
tive effect  and  with  a  graceful  outline,  this  sculptured  cross 
shows  a  very  primitive  state  of  artistic  development,  as  do 
the  other  crosses  of  this  class  in  Cornwall,  Ireland,  and. 
Scotland,  which  are  mainly  ornamented  with  those  ingeni- 
dusly  intricate  patterns  of  interlacing  knotwork  designed 
so  skilfully  by  both  the  early  Norse  and  the  Celtic  races.* 
They  belong  to  a  class  of  art  which  is  not  Christian  in  its 
origin,  though  it  was  afterwards  largely  used  for  Christian 
puiposes,  and  so  is  thoroughly  national  in  style,  quite  free 
from  the  usual  widespread  Byzantine  influence.  Of  special 
interest  from  their  early  date — probably  the  11th  century 
— are  two  large  stone  reliefs  now  in  Chichester  cathedral, 
which  are  traditionally  said  to  have  come  from  the  pre- 
Norman  church  at  Selsey.  They  are  thoroughly  Byzantine 
in  st3'le,  but  evidently  the  work  of  some  very  ignorant 
sculptor;   they  represent  two  scenes  in   the  Raising  of 

^  On  early  and  raeJiieval  sculpture  in  ivory  consult  Gori,  Thesa\tru4 
Vcterum  fjiptijchorum,  Florence,  1769  ;  Wcstwooil,  Di]>lychs  o/ConsiiU^ 
London,  1802;  Didron,  Inwyes  ouvranla  du  Louvrt,  Paris,  1871; 
MaskcU,  Jvoria  in  the  South  Kensington  Mtueum,  London,  1372  ; 
Wiesdor,  Diptychon  Quirinianum  tu  Brescia,  OdttingtD,  1868 ; 
Wyalt  and  Ohlfield,  Sculpture  in  Ivory,  London,  1856. 

'  See  O'Neill,  Sculptured  Crosttt  «f  It 


''Ireland,  Loudon,  1867. 


558 


SCULPTURE 


[EJfGLlSa 


OLazarus  ^ ;  the  figures  are  stiff,  attenuated,  and  ugly,  the 
pose  very  awkward,  and  the  drapery  of  exaggerated 
Byzantine  character,  with  long  thin  folds.  To  repre- 
sent the  eyes  pieces  of  glass  or  coloured  enamel  were 
inserted ;  the  treatment  of  the  hair  in  long  ropelike 
twists  suggests  a  metal  rather  than  a  stone  design  (see 
Eg.  4). 


Fig.  i. — Relief  of  Christ  at  tlie  tomb  of  Lazarus,  uow  in  Cliichester 
catliedral ;  llth  century,  Byzantine  style. 

During  the  Norman  period  sculpture  of  a  very  rude  sort 
(■was  much  used,  especially  for  the  tympanum  reliefs  over 
the  doors  of  churches.  Christ  in  Majesty,  the  Harrowing 
of  Hell,  and  St  George  and  the  Dragon  occur  very  fre- 
quently. Reliefs  of  the  zodiacal  signs  were  a  common 
decoration  of  the  richly  sculptured  arches  of  the  12th 
century,  and  are  frequently  carved  with  much  power.  The 
later  Norman  sculptured  ornaments  are  very  rich  and 
spirited,  though  the  treatment  of  the  human  figure  is  still 
.very  weak.^ 

The  best-preserved  examples  of  monumental  sculpture 
'^of  the  12th  century  are  a  number  of  effigies  of  knights- 
templars  in  the  round  Temple  church  in  London.^  They 
are  laboriously  cut  in  hard  Purbeck  marble,  and  much  re- 
semble bronze  in  their  treatment;  the  faces  are  clumsy, 
and  the  whole  figures  stiff  and  heavy  in  modelling ;  but 
they  are  valuable  examples  of  the  military  costume  of  the 
time,  the  armour  being  purely  chain-mail.  Another  effigy 
in  the  same  church  cut  in  stone,  once  decorated  with  paint- 
ing, is  a  much  finer  piece  of  sculpture  of  about  a  century 
later.  The  head,  treated  in  an  ideal  way  with  wavy  curls, 
has  much  simple  beauty,  shomng  a  great  artistic  advance. 
\  Another  of  the  most  remarkable  effigies  of  this  period  is 
that  of  Robert,  duke  of  Normandy  (d.  1134),  in  Gloucester 
cathedral,  carved  with  much  spirit  in  oak,  and  decorated 


'  One  of  tliese  reliefs  is  imperfect  and  has  been  clumsily  mended 
with  a  fi-agment  of  a  third  relief,  now  lost. 

=  In  Norway  and  Denmark  during  the  11th  and  12th  centuries 
carved  omariient  of  the  very  highest  merit  was  produced,  especially 
the  framework  round  the  doors  of  the  wooden  churches  ;  these  are 
formed  of  large  pine  planks,  sculptured  in  slight  relief  with  dragons 
and  interlacing  foliage  in  grand  sweeping  curves, — perfect  masterpieces 
of  decorative  art,  fuU  of  the  keenest  inventive  spirit  and  originality. 

'  See  Richardson,  Monumental  Effigies  of  the  Temple  Cliurch, 
l»ndon,  1843. 


•nith  painting  (fig.  5).  Most  rapid  progress  in  all  the! 
arts,  especially  that  of  sculpture,  was  made  in  Enjrland 
in    the    second 

half  of  the  1 3th  >^<2^^^^Vr?^HHiQ^\ 

and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  14th 
centurv,  large- 
ly   under    the    ■-?-S«s,'»,a*.J'»*: 

patronage  of  Fig.  5.— Effigy  in  oak  of.ttobert,  duke  of  Nor- 
HenryIII.,who  maudy,  iu  Gloucester  cathedral;  once  painted 
employed     and    'and  gilt. 

handsomely  rewarded  a  large  number  of  English  artists,' 
and  also  import.ed  others  from  Italy  and  Spain,  though 
these  foreigners  took  only  a  secondary  position  among 
the  painters  and  sculptors  of  England.  The  end  of 
the  13th  century  was  in  fact  the  culminating  period' 
of  English  art,  and  at  this  time  a  very  high  degree  ofj 
excellence  was  reached  by  purely  national  means,  quite 
equalling  and  even  surpassing  the  general  average  of  aft, 
on  th6  Continent,  except  perhaps  in  France.  Even  Niccola 
Pisano  could  not  have  surpassed  the  beauty  and  technical 
excellence  of  .the  two  bronze  effigies  in  Westminster  Abbey 
modelled  and  cast  by  William  Torell,  a  goldsmith  and 
citizen  of  London,  shortly  before  the  year  1300.  These 
are  on  the  tombs  of  Henry  III.  and  Queen  Eleanor,  and 
though  the  tomb  itself  of  the  former  is  an  Italian  work) 
of  the  Cosmati  school,  there  is  no  trace  of  foreign  influence" 
in  the  figures.  At  this  time  portrait  effigies  had' not  come 
into  general  use,  and  both  figures  are  treated  in  an  ideal 
way.**  The  crowned  head  of  Henry  III.,  with  noble  well- 
modelled  features  and  crisp  wavy  curls,  resembles  the  con- 
ventional royal  head  on  English  coins  of  this  and  the 
following  century,  while  the  head  of  Eleanor  is  of  re- 
markable, almost  classic,  beauty,  and  of  great  interest  as 
showing  the  ideal  type  of  the  13th  century  (see  fig.   6). 


Fio.  6.  — Head  of  the  efEgy  of  Queen  Eleanor  in  Westminster  Abbey  ; 
bronze  gilt,  by  William  Torell. 

In  both  cases  the  drapery  is  well  conceived  in  broad  sculp- 
turesque folds,  graceful  and  yet  simple  in  treatment.  The 
casting  of  these  figures,  which  was  effected  by  the  cire 
perdue  process,  is  technically  very  perfect.  The  gold  em- 
ployed for  the  gilding  was  got  from  Lucca  in  the  shape 
of  the  current  florins  of  that  time,  which  were  famed  for 
their  purity.  Torell  was  highly  paid  for  this,  as  well  as 
for  two  other  bronze  statues  of  Queen  Eleanor,  probably 
of  the  same  design. 

Much  of  the  fine  13th-century  sculpture  was  used  to 
.decorate  the  facades  of  churches.  The  grandest  example 
is  the  west  end  of  WeUs  cathedral,  of  about  the  middle  of 
the  century.  It  is  covered  with  more  than  600  figures  inj 
the  round  or  in  relief,  arranged  in  tiers,  and  of  varying 
sizes.  The  tympana  of  the  doorways  are  filled  with  reliefs, 
and  above  them  stand  rows  of  colossal  statues  of  kings  and 
queens,  bishops  and  knights,  and  saints  both  male  and 

*  The  effigy  of  King  John  in  Worcester  cathedral  of  about  1216  is 
an  exception  to  this  rule  ;  though  rudely  executed,  the  htad  appean 
to  he  a  portrait. 


SNGLISH.] 


S  C  U  L  P  T  U  K  E 


559 


female,  all  treated  very  skilfully  with  nobly  arranged 
drapery,  and  graceful  heads  designed  in  a  thoroughly 
architectonic  vay,  with  due  regard  to  the  main  lines  of 
the  building  they  arc  meant  to  decorate.  In  this  respect 
the  early  medieval  sculptor  inherited  one  of  the  great 
merits  of  the  Greeks  of  the  best  period :  his  figures  or 
reliefs  form  an  essential  part  of  the  design  of  the  building 
to  which  they  are  affixed,  and  are  treated  in  a  subordinate 
manner  to  their  architectural  surroundings — very  different 
from  the  sculpture  on  modern  buildings,  which  usually 
looks  as  if  it  had  been  stuck  up  as  an  afterthought,  and 
frequently  by  its  violent  and  incongruous  lines  is  rather 
an  impertinent  excrescence  than  an  ornament.^  Peter- 
borough, Lichfield,  and  Salisbury  cathedrals  have  fine 
examples  of  the  sculpture  of  the  13th  century:  in  the 
chapter-house  of  the  last  the  spandrels  of  the  wall-arcade 
are  filled  with  sixty  reliefs  of  subjects  from  Bible  history, 
all  treated  with  much  grace  and  refinement.  To  the  end 
of  the  same  century  belong  the  celebrated  reliefs  of  angels 
in  the  spandrels  of  the  choir  arches  at  Lincoln,  carved  in 
a  large  massive  way  with  great  strength  of  decorative 
effect.  Other  fine  reliefs  of  angels,  executed  about  1260, 
exist  in  the  transepts  of  Westrainster  Abbey;  being  high 
from  the  ground,  they  are  broadly  treated  without  any 
high  finish  in  the  details.^ 

It  may  here  be  well  to  say  a  few  words  on  the  technical  methods 
employed  in  the  execution  of  raedi.-eval  sculpture,  which  in  the 
main  were  very  similar  in  England,  France,  and  Germany.  When 
bronze  was  used — in  England  as  a  rule  only  for  the  effigies  of  royal 
r^rsons  or  the  richer  nobles— the  metal  was  cast  by  the  delicate 
_ir«  perdue  process,  and  the  whole  surface  of  the  figure  was  then 
thickly  gildei  At  Limoges  in  France  a  large  number  of  sepulchral 
effigies  were  produced,  especially  between  1300  and  1400,  and  ex- 

Eorted  to  distant  places.  These  were  not  cast,  but  were  made  of 
ammered  (repoussi)  plates  of  copper,  nailed  on  a  wooden  core  and 
richly  decorated  with  champleve  enamels  in  various  bright  colours. 
■We-stminster  Abbey  possesses  a  fine  example,  executed  about  1300, 
in  the  effigy  of  William  of  Valence  (d.  1296).'  The  ground  on 
which  the  faguro  lies,  the  shield,  the  border  of  the  tunic,  the  pillow, 
and  other  parts  arc  decorated  with  these  enamels  very,  minutely 
treated.  The  rest  of  the  copper  was  gilt,  and  the  helmet  was  sur- 
rounded with  a  coronet  set  with  jewels,  which  are  now  missing. 
One  royal  effigy  of  later  date  at  Westminster,  that  of  Henry  V.  (d. 
1422),  was  formed  of  beaten  silver  fixed  to  an  oak  core,  with  the 
exception  of  the  head,  which  appears  to  have  been  east.  The 
whole  of  the  silver  dis.ippeared  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  and 
nothing  now  remains  but  the  rough  wooden  core ;  hence  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  silver  was  decorated  with  enamel  or  not ;  it 
■yias  probably  of  English  workmanship. 

In  most  cases  stone  was  used  for  all  sorts  of  sculpture,  being 
decorated  in  a  very  minute  and  elaborate  way  with  gold,  silver, 
and  colours  applied  over  the  whole  surface.  In  order  to  give  addi- 
tional richness  to  this  colouring  the  surface  of  the  stone,  often 
even  in  the  case  of  external  sculpture,  was  covered  with  a  thin 
skin  of  gesso  or  fine  plaster  mixed  with  size  ;  on  this,  wliilo  still 
soft,  and  over  the  drapery  and  other  accessories,  very  delicate  and 
minute  patterns  were- stamped  with  wooden  dies  (see  Mukal  De- 
COP.ATION,  fig.  17),  and  upon  this  the  gold  and  colours  were  applied; 
thus  the  gaudiness  and  monotony  of  flat  smootli  surfaces  covered 
with  giUing  or  bright  colours  were  avoided.*  In  addition  to  this 
the  borders  of  drapery  and  other  parts  of  stone  statues  were  fre- 
quently ornamented  with  crystals  and  false  jewels,  or,  in  a  more 
laborious  way,  with  holes  and  sinkings  filled  with  polished  metallic 
foil,  on  which  very  minute  patterns  were  painted  in  transparent 
varnish  colours  ;  the  whole  was  then  protected  from  the  air  by 
■small  pieces  of  transparent  glass,  carefully  shaped  to  the  right  size 
and  fixed  over  the  foil  in  the  cavity  cut  in  the  stone.    It  is  difficult 


'  The  sculpture  on  the  new  Paris  opera-house  is  a  striking  instance 
of  this  ;  and  so,  in  a  small  way,  ore  the  statues  in  the  new  reredos  of 
Westminster  khhey  and  Gloucester  cathedral. 

'  '  On  the  whole,  Westminster  possesses  the  most  completely  repre- 
sentative collection  of  English  mediaeval  sculpture  in  an  uubrolceu 
succession  from  the  13th  to  the  16lh  century. 

'  Other  eiEgies  from  Limoges  were  Imported  into  England,  but  no 
other  example  now  exists  in  the  country. 

*  In  the  modem  attempts  to  reproduce  the  mediicval  polycliromy 
these  delicate  surface  reliefs  have  been  omitted  ;  hence  the  painful  re- 
ffults  of  such  colouring  as  tliat  in  Notre  Dame  and  the  Sainto  Cliapollo 
in  Paris  and  many  other  "restored"  churches,  especially  in  »aD70 
and  Qermany. 


now  to  realize  the  extreme  splendour  of  this  gilt,  painted,  and 
jewelled  sculpture,  as  no  perfect  example  exist-s,  though  in  many 
cases  traces  remain  of  all  these  processes,  and  show  that  they  were 
once  very  widely  applied.'  The  architectural  surroundings  of  tho 
figures  were  treated  in  tho  same  elaborate  way.  In  the  14th  cen- 
tuiT  in  England  alabaster  came  into  frequent  use  for. monumental 
sculpture ;  it  too  was  decorated  \rith  gold  and  colour,  though  in 
some  cases  the  whole  surface  does  not  appear  to  have  been  so 
treated.  In  his  wide  use  of  coloured  decoration,  as  in  other  re- 
spects, the  mediaeval  sculptor  came  far  nearer  to  the  ancient  Greek 
than  do  any  modern  artists.  Even  the  use  of  inlay  of  coloured 
glass  was  common  at  Athens  during  the  5th  century  B.C., — as, 
lor  example,  in  the  plait-band  of  some  of  the  marble  b.ises  of  the 
Erechthenm, — and  five  or  six  centuries  earlier  at  Tirj-ns  and 
Jlyceiii?. 

Another  niarerial  much  used  by  mediieval  soulpto.s  was  wood, 
though,  from  its  perishable  nature,  comparatively  few  early  ex- 
amples survive;'  the  best  specimen  is  the  figure  of  George  de 
Cantelupe  (d.  1273)  in  Abergavenny  church.  This  was  decorated 
with  gesso  reliefs,  gilt  and  coloured  in  the  same  way  as  the  sto"-*. 
The  tomb  of  Prince  John  of  Eltham  (d.  1334)  at  Westminster  Is  a 
very  fine  example  of  the  early  use  of  alabaster,  both  for  the  re- 
cumbent effigy  and  also  for  a  number  of  small  figures  of  mourners 
all  round  the  arcading  of  the  tomb.  These  little  figures,  well  pre- 
served on  the  side  which  is  protected  by  the  screen,  are  of  very 
great  beauty  and  are  executed  with  the  most  delicate  minuteness  ; 
some  of  the  heads  are  equal  to  the  best  contemporary  work  of  the 
son  and  pupils  cif  Niccola  Pisano.  The  tomb  once  had  a  high 
stone  canopy  of  open  work — arches,  canopies,  and  pinnacles, — a  class 
of  architectural  sculpture  of  which  many  extremely  rich  examples 
exist,  as,  for  instance,  tho  tomb  of  Edward  II.  ai  Gloucester,  the 
De  Spencer  tomb  at  Tewkesbury,  and,  of  rather  later  style,  the 
tomb  of  Lady  Eleanor  de  Ptrcy  at  Beverley.  This  last  is  remark- 
aide  for  the  great  richness  and  beauty  of  its  sculptured  foliage, 
which  is  of  the  finest  Decorated  period  and  stands  unrivalled  hy 
any  Continental  example. 

In  England  purely  decorative  carving  in  stone  reached  Four, 
it.s  highest  point  of  excellence  about  the  middle  of  the  teenth 
14th  century, — rather  later,  that  is,  than  the  best  period  "'^'''' ■ 
of  figure  sculpture.     WooD-aujviNO  {q.v.),  on  the  other 
hand,  reached  its  artistic  climax  a  full  century  later  under 
the  influence  of  the  fully  developed  Perpendicular  style. 

The  most  important  effigies  of  the  14th  century  are  those  EffigB 
in  gilt- bronze  of  Edward  III.  (d.  1377)  and  of  Kichard 
II.  and  his  queen  (made  in  1395),  all  at  Westminster.  They 
are  all  portraits,  but  are  decidedly  inferior  to  the  earlier 
work  of  William  Torell.  The  effigies  of  Eichard  II.  and 
Anne  of  Bohemia  were  tho  work  of  Nicolas  Broker  and 
Godfred  Prest,  goldsmith  citizens  of  London.  Another 
fine  bronze  effigy  is  at  Canterbury  on  the  tomb  of  the 
Black  Prince  (d.  1376);  though  well  cast  and  with  care- 
fully modelled  armour,  it  is  treated  in  a  somewhat  dull 
and  conventional  way.  Tho  recumbent  stone  figure  of  Lady 
Arundel,  with  two  angels  at  her  head,  in  Chichester  cathe- 
dral is  remarkable  for  its  calm  peaceful  pose  and  the  beauty 
of  the  drapery.  A  very  fine  but  more  realistic  work  is 
tho  tomb  figure  of  William  of  Wykeham  (d.  1404)  in  th-i 
cathedral  at  Winchester.  Tho  cathedrals  at  Eocheste", 
Lichfield,  York,  Lincoln,  Exeter,  and  many  other  eccleflr 
astical  buildings  in  England  are  rich  in  examples  of  Htlii 
century  sculpture,  used  occasionally  with  great  profusio* 
and  richness  of  effect,  but  treated  in  strict  subordiuati-)"? 
to  tho  architectural  background. 

Tho  finest  piece  of  bronze  .sculpture  cf  too  loin  century 
is  the  effigy  of  Richard  Beauchamp  (d.  1439)  in  his  family 
chapel  at  Warwick, — a  noble  portrait  figaro,  richly  de 
corated  with  engraved  ornaments.  Tho  modelling  and 
casting  were  done  by  William  Austen  of  London,  and  the 
gilding  and  engraving  by  a  Nethcrlanda  goldsmith  who 

'  On  tho  tomb  of  Aymer  da  Vajenc6  (J.  1320)  at  Westminster -a 
good  deal  of  the  stamped  gesso  and  coloured  decoration  is  visible  on 
close  inspection.  -One  of  the  cavitic  of  tho  base  retains  a  fragment  cA 
glajis  covering  the  painted  foil,  still  brilliant  and  jowcl-liUe  in  cflect. 

"  The  South  Kensington   Museum  possesses  a  niagni'iccnt  colossal 

wood  figure  of  an  angel,  not  EnRlinh,  but  Italian  work  of  the  14th 

century.     A  large  stone  .statue  of  about  tho  same  date,  of  French  work- 

Min  ishlp,  in  the  same  muscvm  is  a  most  valuohle  example  of  the  lUft 

'  <\f  'tani|ied  gesso  aud  inlay  of  painted  and  glazed  foil. 


560 


SCULPTUKE 


[ENGLISH; 


Six- 
teenth 
century. 


Torri- 
giano. 


had  settled  in  London,  named  Bartholomew  Lambespring, 
assisted  by  sever'a'  other  skilful  artists. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  sculpture  in  Eng- 
land was  entering  upon  a  period  of  rapid  decadence,  and 
to  some  extent  had  lost  its  native  individuality.  The 
finest  series  of  statues  of  this  period  are  those  of  life-size 
high  up  on  the  walls  of  Henry  VII.'s  chapel  at  West- 
minster and  others  over  the  various  minor  altars.  These 
ninety-five  figures,  which  represent  saints  and  doctors  of 
the  church,  vary  very  much  in  merit :  some  show  German 
influence,  others  that  of  Italy,  while  a  third  class  are,  as 
it  were,  "  archaistic  "  iinitatidns  of  older  English  sculpture^ 
(see  fig.  7).  In  some  cases  the  heads 
and  general  pose  are  .graceful,  and 
the  drapery  dignified,  but  in  the 
main  they  are  coarse  both  in  design 
and  in  workmanship  compared  with 
the  better  plastic  art  of  the  1 3th  and 
14th  centuries.  This  decadence  of 
English  sculpture  caused  Henry  VET. 
to  invite  the .  Florentine  Torrigiano 
(U72?-1522)  to  come  to  England 
to  model  and  cast  the  bronze  figures 
for  his  own  magnificent  tomb,  which 
still  exist  in. almost  perfect  preserva- 
tion. The  recumbent  effigies  of 
Henry  VII.  and  his  queen  are  fine 
specimens  of  Florentine  art,  well 
modelled  with  life-like  portrait  heads 
and  of  very  fine  technique .  in  the 
casting.'  The  altar-tomb  on  which 
the  effigies  lie  is  of  black  marble, 
decorated  with  large  medallion  re- 
liefs in  gilt  bronze,  each  with  a  pair 
of  saints — the  patrons  of  Henry  and 
Elizabeth  of  York — of  very  graceful 
desigii;  The  altar  and  its  large  bal-  fjq.  7._statue  (life-size) 
dacchino  and  reredos  were  the  work  of  St  Thomas  of  Canter- 
of  Torrigiano,-  but  were  destroyed  ^^^y  i°  Henry  VII.'s 
durmg.^the  17th  century  The  f.^rricmyTotZf "' 
Teredos  had  a  large  relief  of  the 
Eesurrection  of  Christ  executed  in  painted  terra-cotta,  as 
were  also 'a  life-sized  figure  of  the  dead  Christ  under  the 
altar-slab  and  four  angels  on  the  top  angles  of  the  bal- 
dacchino ;  a  number  of  fragments  of  these  figures  have 
recently  been  found  in  the  "  pockets  "  of  the  nave  vaulting, 
where  they  had  been  thrown  after  the  destruction  of  the 
reredos.  Torrigiano's  bronze  effigy  of  Margaret  of  Eich- 
mond  in  the  south  aisle  of  the  same  chapel  is  a  very 
skilfijl  but  too  realistic  portrait,  apparently  taken  from  a 
cast  of  the  dead  facs  and  hands.  Another  terra-cotta  effigy 
in  the  EoUs  chapel  is  also,  from  internal  evidence,  attri- 
buted to  the  same  able  Florentine.  Another  talented 
Florentine  sculptor,  Benedetto  da  Maiano,  was  invited  to 
England  by  Cardinal  Wolsey  to  make  his  tomb ;  of  this 
only  the  marble  sarcophagus  now  exists  and  has  been  used 
to  hold  the  body  of  Admiral  Nelson  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 
Another  member  of  the  same  family,  named  Giovanni,  was 
the  sculptor  of  the  colossal  terra-cotta  heads  of  th'e  Cresars 
affixed  to  the  walls  of  the  older  part  of  Hampton  Court 
Palace. 

During  the  troublous  times  of  the  Eeformation  sculpture, 
like  the  other  arts,  continued  to  decline.  Of  17th-century 
monumental  effigies  that  of  Sir  Francis  Vere  (d.  1G07)  in 
■the  north  transept  at  Westminster  is  one  of  the  best, 
though  its  design — a  recumbent  effigy  overshadowed  by 
a  slab  covered  with  armour,  upborne  by  four  kneeling 

'  There  were  once  no  less  than  107  statues  in  the  interior  of  this 
•chapel,  besides  a  large  number  on  the  exterior ;  see  J.  T.  Micklethwaite 
in  Archmologia,  vol.  xlvil.  pL  z,-xii. 


figures  of  men-at-arms — is  almost  an  exact  copy  of  the 
tomb  of  Engelbert  II.  of  Vianden-Nassau.'^  The  finest 
bronze  statues  of  this  centur}'  are  those  of  Charles  Villiers, 
duke  of  Buckingham  (d.  1634),  and  his  wife  at  the  north- 
east of  Henry  VII.'s  chapel.  The  effigy  of  the  duke,  in 
rich  armour  of  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  lies  with  folded 
hands  in  the  usual  medieval  pose.  The  face  is  fine  and 
well  modelled  and  the  casting  very  good.  The  allegorical 
figures  at  the  foot  are  caricatures  of  the  style  of  Michel- 
angelo, and  are  quite  devoid  of  merit,  but  the  kneeling 
statues  of  the  duke's  children  are  designed  with  grace  and 
pathos.  A  large  number  of  very  handsome  marble  and 
alabaster  tombs, were  erected  throughout  England  during 
the  17th  century.  The  effigies  are  poor  and  coarse,  but 
the  rich  architectural  ornaments  are  eflective  and  often 
of  beautiful  materials,  alabaster  being  mixed  with  various 
richly  coloured  marbles  in  a  very  skilful  way.  Nicholas 
Stone  (d.  1647),  who  worked  under  the  supervision  of  Inigo 
Jones,  appears  to  have  been  the  chief  English  sculittor  of 
his  time.  The  De  Vere  and  A'illiers  monuments.are  usually 
attributed  to  him.^  One  of  the  best  public  monuments 
of  London  is  the  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Charles  I.  at 
Charing  Cross,  which  was  overthrown  and  hidden  during 
the  protectorate  of  Cromwell,  but  replaced  at  the  Eestora- 
tion  in  1660.  It  is  very  nobly  modelled  and  was  pro- 
duced under  Italian  influence  by  a  French  sculptor  called 
Hubert  Le  Sceur  (d.  1670).  The  standing  bronze  statue 
of  James  II.  behind  the  Whitehall  banqueting  room,  very| 
poorly  designed  but  well  executed,  was  the  work  of  Grihling 
Gibbons  (1648-1721),  a  native  of  Holland,  who  was  chiefly 
famed  for  his  extraordinary  skill  in  carving  realistic  fruit 
and  flowers  in  pear  and  other  white  woods.  Many  rich 
and  elaborate  works  of  his  exist  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford, 
at  Cambridge,  Chatsworth,  and  several  other  plac'es  iii 
England.  In  the  early  part  of  the  18th  century  he  worked 
for  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  and  carved  the  elaborate  friezes 
of  the  stalls  and  screens  in  St  Paul's  Cathedral  and  in 
other  London  churches. 

During  the  18th  century  English  sculpture  was  mostly  in  Eight 
the  hands  of  Flemish  and  other  foreign  artists,  of  whom  <^™''' 
Koubiliac  (1695-1762),  Schcemakers"(1691-1773),  and'^*'"'^ 
Eysbrack  (1694-1770)  were  the  chief.  The  ridiculous 
custom  of  representing  Englishmen  of  the  18th  and  19th 
centuries  in  the  toga  or  in  the  armour  of  an  ancient 
Roman  was  fatal  alike  to  artistic  merit  and  eikonic  truth  ; 
and  when,  as  was  often  the  case,  the  periwig  of  the  Georgian 
period  was  added  to  the  costume  of  a  Eoman  general  the 
effect  is  supremely  ludicrous.  Nollekens  (1737-1823),  a 
pupil  of  Scheemakers,  though  one  of  the  most  popular 
sculptors  of  the  18th  century,  was  a  man  of  very  little  real 
ability.''  John  Bacon  (1740-1799)  was  in  some  respects 
an  abler  sculptor.  John  Flaxman''  (1755-1826)  was  in 
England  the  chief  initiator  of  the  classical  revival.  For 
many  years  he  worked  for  Josiah  Wedgwood,  the  potter, 
and  designed  for  him  an  immense  number  of  vases  covered 
with  delicate  cameo-hke  reliefs.  Jlany  of  these,  taken 
from  antique  gems  and  sculpture,  are  of  great  beauty, 
though  hardly  suited  to  the  special  necessities  of  fictile 
ware.  Flaxman's  large  pieces  of  sculpture  are  of  less 
merit,  but  some  of  his  marble  reliefs  .are  designed  with 
much  spirit  and  classic  purity.  His  illustrations  in  outline 
to  the  poems  of  Homer,  .^schylus,  and  Dante,  based  on 
drav^ings  on  Greek  vases,  have  been  greatly  admired,  but 


^  See  Arendt,  ChAleau  de  Vianchn,  Paris,  1884. 

^  The  Villiers  monument  is  evidently  the  work  of  two  sculptors 
working  in  very  opposite  styles. 

*  An  interesting  .iccount  of  many  English  sculptors  of  this  time  is 
given  by  Smith,  A'ollekens  and  fits  Time,  London,  1829. 

^  See  Flaxman,  Lectufes  at  ihcRoyul  Aaidemy,-  London,  1829.  His 
designs  on  a  small  scale  are  the  best  of  his  works, — as,  for  example,  th« 
S'lver  shield  of  Achilles  covered  with  delicate  and  graceful  reliefs. 


aNGIISH.] 


SCULPTURE 


561 


tliey  are  unfortunately  much  injured  by  the  use  of  a  thicker 
outline  on  one  side  of  the  figures,— an  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  give  a  suggestion  of  shadow.  Flaxman's  best  impil  was 
"Baily  (1788-1867).  chiefly  celebrated  for  his  nude  marble 
figure  of  Eve. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  19th  century  the  preva- 
lence of  a  cold  lifeless  pseudo-classic  style  was  fatal  to 
individual  talent,  and  robbed  the  sculpture  of  England  of 
all  real  vigour  and  spirit.  Francis  Chantrey  (1782-1841) 
produced  a  great  quantity  of  sculpture,  especially  sepulchral 
■monuments,  which  were  much  admired  in  spite  of  their 
very  limited  merits.  Allan  Cunningham  and  Henry  Weekes 
■worked  in  some  cases  in  conjunction  with  Chantrey,  who 
-was  not  -wanting  in  technical  skill,  as  is  shown  by  his 
clever  marble  relief  of  two  dead  woodcocks.  John  Gibson 
(1790-1866)  was  perhaps  after  Flasman  the  most  success- 
ful of  the  English  classic  school,  and  produced  some  works 
•of  real  merit.  He  strove  eagerly  to  revive  the  poly- 
chromatic decoration  of  sculpture  in  imitation  of  the  cir- 
ciimlitio  of  classical  times.  His  Venus  Victrix,  shown  at 
the  exhibition  in  London  of  1862  (a  work  of  about  six 
jears  earlier),  was  the  first  of  his  coloured  statues  which 
attracted  much  attention.  The  prejudice,  however,  in 
favour  of  white  marble  was  too  strong,  and  both  the 
popular  verdict  and  that  of  other  sculptors  were  strongly 
adverse  to  the  "  tinted  Venus."  The  fact  was  that  Gibson's 
colouring  was  timidly  applied  :  it  was  a  sort  of  compromise 
between  the  two  systems,  and  thus  his  sculpture  lost  the 
special  qualities  of  a  pure  marble  surface,  without  gaining 
the  richly  decorative  effect  of  the  polychromy  either  of  the 
Oreeks  or  of  the  mediaeval  period.^  The  other  chief  sculp- 
tors of  the  same  very  inartistic  period  were  Banks,  the 
elder  Westmacott  (who  modelled  the  AchiUes  in  Hyde  Park), 
R.  Wyatt  (who  cast  the  equestrian  statue  of  Wellington, 
lately  removed  from  London),  Macdowell,  Campbell,  Mar- 
shall, and  Bell. 

During  the  last  hundred  years  a  large  number  of  hono- 
rary statues  have  been  set  up  in  the  Houses  of  Parliament, 
"Westminster  Hall  and  Abbey,  and  in  other  public  places  in 
London.  Most  of  these,  though  modelled  as  a  rule  with 
some  scholastic  accuracy,  are  quite  dull  and  spiritless, 
and,  whUst  free  from  the  violently  bad  taste  of  such  men 
■as  Bernini  or  Roubiliac,  they  lack  the  force  and  vigorous 
criginality  which  go  far  to  redeem  what  is  offensive  in  the 
sculpture  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries.  The  modern 
public  statues  of  London  and  elsewhere  are  as  a  rule 
tamely  respectable  and  quite  uninteresting.  One  brilliant 
exception  is  the  Wellington  monument  in  St  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral, probably  the  finest  plastic  work  of  modern  times.  It 
■was  the  work  of  Alfred  Stevens  (1817-1875),  a  sculptor  of 
the  highest  talent,  who  lived  and  died  almost  unrecognized 
by  the  British  public.  The  commission  for  this  monu- 
ment was  given  to  Stevens  after  a  public  competition ;  and 
he  agreed  to  carry  it  out  for  £20,000, — a  quite  inadequate 
sum,  as  it  afterwards  turned  out.  The  greater  part  of  his 
life  Stevens  devoted  to  this  grand  monument,  constantly 
harassed  and  finally  worn  out  by  the  interference  of 
Government,  want  of  money,  and-  other  difficulties. 
Though  he  completed  the  model,  Stevens  did  not  live  to 
see  the  monument  sot  up, — perhaps  fortunately  for  him, 
as  it  has  been  placed  in  a  small  side  chapel,  where  the 
effect  of  the  whole  is  utterly  destroyed,  and  its  magnificent 
bronze  groups  hidden  from  view.  The  monument  consists 
of  a  sarcophagus  supporting  a  recumbent  bronze  effigy  of 
the  duke,  over  which  is  an  arched  marble  canopy  of  lato 
Renaissance  style  on  delicately  enriched  shafts.     At  each 


*  Gibson  bequeathed  his  fortune  and  the  models  of  his  chief  works 
•to  the  Royal  Academy,  where  the  latter  are  now  crowded  in  an  upper 
joora  adjoining  the  Diploma  Gallery.  See  Lady  Eaatlako,  Li/e  o/ 
Oibson,  London,  1870. 

21—20 


end  of  the  upper  part  of  the  canopy  is  a  large  bronze  group, 
one  representing  Truth  tearing  the  tongue  out  of  the  mouth 
of  Falsehood,  and  the  other  Valour  trampling  Cowardice 
under  foot  (see  fig.  8).     The  two  virtues  are  represented 


Fio.  8. — Bronze  group  by  Alfred  Stevens  from  the  Wellingtofi 

mouumcut. 

by  very  stately  female  figures  modelled  with  -wonderful 
beauty  and  vigour ;  the  vices  are  two  nude  male  figures 
treated  in  a  very  massive  way.  The  whole  is  composed 
with  griat  skill  and  largeness  of  style.  The  vigorous 
strength  and  sculpturesque  nobility  of  these  groups  recall 
the  style  of  Michelangelo,  but  they  are  far  from  being  a 
mere  imitation  of  him  or  any  other  master.  Stevens's 
work  throughout  is  original  and  has  a  very  distinct  char- 
acter of  its  own.  He  also  designed  an  equestrian  statue 
of  the  duke  to  stand  op  the  summit  of  the  monument,  but 
in  its  present  cramped  position  there  is  not  sufficient  room 
for  this.2  Owing  to  the  many  years  he  spent  on  this  one 
work  Stevens  did  not  produce  much  other  sculpture.  In 
Dorchester  House,  Park  Lane,  there  is  some  of  his  work, 
especially  a  very  noble  mantelpiece  supported  l\v  nude 
female  caryatids  in  a  crouching  attitude,  modelled  with 
great  largeness  of  style.  Ho  also  designed  mosaics  to  fill 
the  spandrels  under  the  dome  of  St  Paul's.  The  value  of 
Stevens's  work  is  all  the  more  conspicuous  from  the  feeblci 
ness  of  most  of  the  sculpture  of  his  contemporaries. 

In  the  present  generation  there  are  some  signs  of  the 
development  of  a  better  state  of  the  plastic  arts.  A  bronze 
statue  of  an  Athlete  struggling  with  a  Python,  by  Sir 
Frederick   Leighton,   is  a  work   of  great  merit,  almost 

'  Tlie  great  merit  of  this  work  can  now  only  be  teen  at  the  South 
Kensington  Museum,  which  possesses  Sto»en»'«  models  and  (on  a  email 
scale]  his  design  for  the  whole  monument. 


562 


SCULPTURE 


^FfiEJS"Cg 


■vorthy  to  rank  mtli  the  best  examples  of  any  period,  and 
remarkable  for  a  profound  knoTvledge  of  human  anatomy 
(see  fig.  9).  ■.Unfortunately  the  real  cire  2^n-due  process 
for  metar casting  is  seldom  practised  in  England,  and  this 


•4 

TlQ.  9. — Bronze  statue  of  an  athlete  ancl  pytton,  uy  du-  Viederiok 
Leigliton,  P.R.A.,  ia  tlie  South  Kensington  Museum. 

statue,  as  well  as  all  other  oronze  works  produced  in  Eng- 
land, suffers  much  from  the  disagreeable  surface  -which 
results  from  the  rude  method  of  forming  the  moulds  in 
sand.  The  colossal  bronze  Hons  in  Trafalgar  Square,  de- 
signed by  Sir  Edwin  Landseer,  are  a  melancholy  esample 
of  tiiis.i 

France. — During  the  12th  and  13th  centuries  the  sculp- 
ture of  France  was,  on  the  whole,  the  finest  in  the  -world, 
and  was  there  used  in  the  greatest  profusion.  The  fagades 
of  large  cathedrals  -were  completely  covered  -\vitli  sculptured 
reliefs  and  thick-set  rows  of  statues  in  nich  The  whole 
of  the  front  was  frequently  one  huge  -composition  of  statu- 
ary, with  only  sufficient  purely  architectural  work  to  form 
a  background  and  frame  for  the  sculptured  figures.  A 
-west  end  treated  like  that  of  Wells  cathedral,  -nhich  is 
almost  unique  in  England,  is  not  uncommon  in  France. 
Even  the  shafts  of  the  doorways  and  other  architectural 
accessories  were  covered  -with  minute  sculptured  decora- 
tion,— the  motives  of  which  were  often,  especially  dm-ing 
the  1 2th  .century,  obviously  derived  from  the  metal-work 
of  shrines  and  reliquaries  studded  -with  rows  of  jewels.  The 
west  fagade  of  Poitiers  cathedral  is  one  of  the  richest  ex- 
amples ;  it  has'  large  surfaces  covered  with  foliated  carving 


1  On  English  sculpture,  see  Carter,  Specimens  of  Ancient  Sculpture, 
London,  1780 ;  Aldis,  Sculpture  of  Worcesfc}-  Cathedral,  Loudon,  1874 ; 
CockereU,  Iconography  of  ^rells  Cathedral,  Oxford,  1851;  Stothard, 
Monumental  Effigies  of  Britain,  London,  1817  ;  Westmacott,  "Sculp- 
ture in  -Westminster  AbbejV  iu  Old  London  (pub.  by  Archaeological 
iustitute),  1866,  p-  159  sq.;  G.  G.  Scott,  Gleanings  from  Vl'estjninstcr, 
London,  1862  ;  Colling  Art  Foliage,  London,  1S65,  -n-ith  good  ex- 
amples of  mediaeval  decorative  sculpture  ;  W.  B.  Scott,  British  School 
of  Sculpture,  London,  1872;  W.  M.  Rossetti,  "British  Sculpture,"  in 
Frasei's  Mag.,  April  1861 ;  many  good  illustrations  of  English  mediseTal 
Bculptnre  are  scattered  throughout  the  volumes  of  Archceohgia,  the 
Archeological  Journal,  and  other  societies'  "Proceedings." 


ally  designed  to  snit  vertical 
lines  of  columns  behind ;  all 
once  covered  with  painting  and 
gold. 


and  rows  of  colossal  statues,  both  seated  and  standing, 
reaching  high  up  the  front  of  the  church.     Of  the  same 
century  (the  r2th),  but  rather  later  in  date,  is  the  very 
noble  sculpture  on  the  three  western  doors  of  Chartres 
cathedral,  with  fine  tympanum 
reliefs    and    colossal    statues  s 
attached  to  the  jamb-shafts] 
of  the  openings  (see  fig.  10). 
These  latter  figures,  -with  their  j 
exaggerated  height   and   thel 
long  straight  folds   of   their  i 
drapery,   are    designed    with 
great  skill  to  assist  and  not  ■ 
to  break  the   main    upward ' 
lines  of  the  doorways.      The  J 
sculptors  have  -willingly  sacri- 
ficed the  beauty  anc"  propor- 
tion of   each  separate  statue 
for  the  sake  of  the  architec- 
totiic  eflfect  of  the  whule  fagade.  ■ 
The  heads,  however,  are  full 
of  nobility,  beauty,  and  even 
grace,   especially  those    that 
are  softened  by  \he  addition  ' 
of  long  -wavy  curls,  which  give 

rehef  to  the  general  stiffness  ^'°-  10- -Statues  on  jamb  ef 
.     ,    ^  =^^T  '="""c.^      central  west  door  of  Chartres 

of  the  form.  The  sculptured  cathedral,  12th  century;  sped- 
doors  of  tha  north  and  sotith 
aisles  of  Bourges  cathedral  are 
fine  examples  of  the  end  of 
the  12th  century,  and  so  wa« 
the  west  doo-rs  of  Xotre  Bame  in  Paris  till  they  were 
hopelessly  inj"ared  by  "restoration."  The  early  sculpture 
at  Bourges  is  specially  interestrng  from  the  existence  in 
many  parts  of  its  original  colo-nred  decoration. 

In  France,  as  in  England,  the  13th  centtay  -was  ■lie'^li^ 
golden  age  of  sculpture ;  -while  still  keeping  its  early  dignity  teent 
■md  subordination  to  its  architecttiral  settmg,  th«  sculpture  '^^^^ 
.•cached  a  very  high  ijjegree  of  graceful  finish  and  even 
sensuous  beauty.  Nothing  coitld  surpass  the  loveliness 
of  the  an,r;el  statues  round  the  Parisian  Sainte  Chapelle, 
and  even  the  earlier  work  on  the  facade  of  Laon  cathedral 
is  full  of  grace  and  delicacy.  Amiens  cathedral  is  especi- 
ally rich  in  sculpture  of  this  date, — as,  for  example,  the 
noble  and  majestic  statues  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles  at 
the  west  end ;  the  sculpture  on  the  south  transept  of  about 
12G0-70,  of  more  developed  style,  is  remarkable  for  dignity 
combined  -with  soft  beauty.^  The  noble  row  oi  kings  on 
the  -(vest  end  of  Notre  Dame  at  Paris  has,  like  the  earlier 
sculpture,  been  ruin  d.by  "  restoration,-" -vs'hich  has  robbed 
the  statues  of  both  their  spirit  and  their  vigour.  To  the 
latter  years  of  the  13th  century  'belong  the  magnificent 
sei-ies  of  statues  and  reliefs  round  the  three  great  western 
door-n-ays  of  the  same  church,  among  which  are  no  less 
than  thirty-four  life-sapd  figures.  On  the  -whole,  the  single 
statues  thro-ughoat  this  -period  are  finer  than  the  reliefs 
with  many  figures..  Some  of  the  statues  of  the  Virgin  and 
Child  are  of  extraordinary  beauty,  in  spite  of  their  being 
often  treated  with  a  certain  mannerism, — &  f^wrved  pose 
of  the  body,  which  appears  to  have  been  copied  from  ivory 
statuettes  in  whidi  the  figure  followed  the  curve  of  the 
elepliant's  tusk.  The  north  transept  at  Kheims  is  no  less 
rich  :  the  central  statue  of  Christ  is  a  work  of  much  grace 
and  nobiUty  of  form ;  and  some  nude  figures — f(;r  esample, 
that  of  St  Seba.stian — show  a  knowledge  of  the  human 
form  which  was  very  unusual  at  that  early  date.  JIany 
of  these  Rheims  statues,  like  those  by  Torell  at  West 
minster,  are  quite  equal  to  the  best  work  of  Niccola  PisanO( 

5  See  Ruskin,  The  Bible  of  Amiens,  1878» 


FRE^cr.J 


bUUijFTUftii: 


5o3 


The  abbey  cliurcli  of  St  Denis  possesses  the  largest  collec- 
tion of  French  13th-century  monumental  effigies,  a  large 
aumbor  of  which,  Trith  supposed  portraits  of  the  early 
kings,  were  made  during  the  rebuilding  of  the  church  in 
1264;  some  of  them  appear  to  be  "archaistio"  copies 
of  older  contemporary  statues. "^ 

In  the  14th  century  French  sculpture  began  to  decline, 
though  much  beautiful  plastic  work  was  still  produced. 
Some  of  the  reliefs  on  the  choir  screen  of  Notre  Dame  at 
Paris  belong  to  this  period,  as  does  also  much  fine  sculp- 
ture on  the  transepts  of  Eouen  cathedral  and  the  west  end 
lof  Lyons.  At  the  end  of  this  century  an  able  sculptor 
'  from  the  Netherlands,  called  Claux  Sluter,  executed  much 
fine  work,  especially  at  Dijon,  under-  the  patronage  of 
Philip  the  Bold,  for  whose  newly  founded  Carthusian 
monastery  in  1399  he  sculptured  the  great  "Moses  foun- 
tain "  in  the  cloister,  with  sis  life-sized  statuea  of  prophets 
in  stone,  painted  and  gilt  in  the  usual  mediaeval  fashion. 
iftetDii.Not  long  before  his  death  in  1411  Sluter  completed  a 
'otury.  ^gj.y  jnagnificent  altar  tomb  for  Philip  the  Bold,  now  in 
the  museum  at  Dyon.  It  is  of  white  marble,  surrounded 
Tfith  arcading,  which  contains  about  forty  small  alabaster 
figures  representing  mourners  of  all  tiasses,  executed  with 
much  dramatic  power.  The  recumbent  portrait  effigy  of 
Philip  in  his  ducal  mantle  with  folded  hands  is  a  work 
of  great  power  and  delicacy  of  treatment. 

The  latter  part  of  the  15th  century  in  France  waa  a 
time  of  transition  from  tile  mediaeval  style,  'which  had 
gradually  been  deteriorating,  to  the  more  florid  and  real- 
istic taste  of  the  Eenaissance.  To  this  period  belong  a 
number  of  rich  reliefs  and  statues  on  the  choir-screen  of^ 
Chartres  cathedral.  Those  on  the  screen  at  Amiens  are 
later  still,  and  exhibit  the  rapid  ad- 
vance of  the  new  style.  Fig.  1 1  shows 
a  statuette  in  the  costume  of  the  end 
of  the  15th  century,  a  characteristic 
example  of  the  later  mediaeval  method 
of  treating  saints  in  a  realistic  way. 

Ip  the  16th  century  Italian  influ- 
ence, especially  that  of  Benvenuto  Cel- 
lini, was  paramount  in  France.  Jean 
Goiyon  (d.  1572)  was  the  ablest  French 
sculptor  of  the  tinje;  he  combined 
great  technical  skill  and  refinement  of. 
modelling  with  the  florid  and  affected 
style  of  the  age.  His  nude  figure  of 
Diana  reclining  by  a  Stag,  now  in  the 
Louvre,  is  a  graceful  and  vigorous  piece 
of  work,  superior  in  eculpturesque 
breadth  to  the  somewhat  similar  bronze 
relief  of  a  nymph  by  CellinL  Between 
1540  and  1652  Qoujon  executed  the 
fine  monument  at  Eouen  to  Duke  Louis 
da  Br<Sz6,  and  from  1555  to  1562  waa  pj^  ii._stahietto  of 
mainlyoccupiedindecoratLigtheLouvre  st  Mary  Magd&lene, 
with  sculpture.  One  of  the  most  pleas-  lato  IStli  century  ; 
ing  and  graceful  works  of  this  period,  French  work,  painted 
thoroughly  Italian  in  style,  is  the  marble  *°  ^  ' 
group  of  the  Three  Graces  bearing  on  their  heads  an  urn 
containing  the  heart  of  Henry  11.,  executed  in  1500  by 
Germain  Vilon  for  Catherine  de'  Medici.  The  monument 
of  Catherine  and  Henry  11.  at  St  Denis,  by  the  same 
sculptor,  is  an  inferior  and  coarser  work.  Maltro  Ponce, 
probably  the  same  as  the  Italian  Ponce  Jacqiiio,  chiselled 
the  noble  monument  of  Albert  of  Carpi  (1535),  now  in 
the  Louvre.  Another  very  fine  portrait  effigy  of  about 
1570,  a  recumbent  figure  in  full  armour  of  the  duke  of 
Montmorency,  preserved  in  the  Louvre,  is  the  work  of 

'  See  Felii;en,  HisUre  de  VAbbaye  de  Saint-Denya,  Paris,  1708. 


Barth^lemy  Prieur.  "  Frangois  Duquesnoy  of  Brussels 
(1594-1644),  usually  known  as  H  Flamingo,  was  a  clever 
sculptor,  thoroughly  French  in  style,  though  he  mostly 
worked  in  Italy.  His  large  statues  are  very  poor,  but  •  his 
reliefs  in  ivory  of  boj-s  and  cupids  are  modelled  with  won- 
derfully soft  realistic  power  and  graceful  fancy. ' 

No  sculptor  of  any  great  merit  appears  to  have  arisen 
in  France  during  the  17th  century,  though  some,  such  as 
the  two  Coustous,  " 

had  great. techni- 
cal skill.  Pierre 
Puget(1622-1694) 
produced  vigor- 
ous but  coarse  and 
tasteless  work, 
such  as  hisMUo  de- 
voured by  a  Lion. 
Other  sculptors 
of  the  time  were 
Simon '  GuiUain, 
Frangois  and  Mi- 
chel Anguier,  and 
Chas.  Ant.  Coyze- 
vox  (1640-1720), 
the  last  a  sculptor 
of  Lyons  who  pro- 
duced some  fine 
portrait  busts. 
Fig.  12  shows  a 
group  by  Clodion, 
whose  real  name 
was  Claude  Michel 
(c.  1745-1814). 
He  worked  largely 
in  terra-cotta,  and 
modeEed  with 
great  spirit  and 
invention,  though 
in  the  sensual  unscolptaresqae  manner  prevalent  in  his 
time. 

In  the  following"  century  Jean  Antoine  Hondon  (1740-Eiglii 
1828),  a  sculptor  of  most  exceptional  power,  produced  *^^°^ 
some  works  of  the  highest  merit  at  a  time  when  the  plastic  '^^"""J 
arts  had  reached  a  very  low  ebb.  ^,His  standing  colossal 
statue  of  S.  Bruno  in  S.  Maria  degli  Angeli  at  Kome  is 
a  most  noble  and  stately  piece  of  portraiture,  full  of 
commanding  dignity  and  expression.  His  seated  statue  of 
Voltaire  in  the  foyer  of  the  ThMtro  Frangais,  though 
sculpturesque  in  treatment,  is  a  most  striking  piece  ol 
lifelike  realism.  Houdon  may  in  fact  be  regarded  as  th« 
precursor  of  the  modern  school  of  French  sculpture  of  the 
better  sort.  About  the  middle  of  the  18th  centiu-y  a 
revolution  was  brought  about  in  the  stylo  of  sculpture  by 
the  suddenly  revived  taste  for  antique  art.  A  period  of 
dull  pseudo-classicism  succeeded,  which  in  most  cases  stifled 
all  original  talent  and  reduced  the  plastic  arts  to  a  lifeless 
form  of  archaeology.  Eegardod  even  as  imitations  tha 
works  of  this  period  are  very  unsuccessful :  tlie  sculptors 
got  hold  merely  of  the  dry  bones  not  of  the  spirit  of  classic 
art ;  and  their  study  of  the  subject  was  so  shallow  and 
unintelligent  that  they  mostly  picked  out  what  was  third, 
rate  for  special  admiration  and  ignored  the  glorious  beauty 
ol  the  best  works  of  true  Hellenic  art.  Thus  in  sculpture, 
aa  in  painting  and  architecture,  a  study  which  might  have 
been  stimulating  and  useful  in  the  highest  degree  became 
a  serious  hindrance  to  the  development  of  modern  art,  and 
this  net  only  in  Franco  but  in  the  other  countries  ol 
Europe ;  in  France,  however,  the  victories  of  Napoleon  I. 
and  his  arrogant  pretension  to  create  a  Gaulish  empire  on 
the  model  of  that  of  ancient  Bomo  caused  the  td.-tc  foi 


Fia  12. — Bacchanal  group  by  Clodion  in 
terra-cotta. 


564 


pseudo-Eoman  art  to  be  more  pronounced  than  elsewhere. 
Among  the  first  sculptors  of  this  school  were  Antoine 
Chaudet  (1763-1810)  and  .  Joseph  Bosio  (1769-1845). 
The  latter  was  largely  employed  by  Napoleon  I. :  he  exe- 
cuted •with  some  ability  the  bronze  spiral  reliefs  round  the 
column  of  the  Place  Vendome  and  the  statue  of  Napoleon 
on  the  top,  and  also  modelled  the  classical  quadriga  on  the 
triumphal  arch  in  the  Place  du  Carrousel.  Jacques  Pradier 
of  Geneva  (1790-1852)  produced  the  Chained  Prometheus 
of  the  Louvre  and  the  Niobe  group  (1822).  He  possessed 
great  technical  ability,  but  aimed  in  most  of  his  works  at 
a  soft  sensuous  beauty  which  is  specially  unsuited  to 
sculpture.  Frangois  Eude  (1784-1855)  worked  in  a  style 
modelled  on  Grajco-Roman  sculpture  treated  with  some 
freedom.  His  bronze  "Mercury  in,  the  Louvre  is  a  clever 
work,  but  his  statues  of  Marshal  Ney  in  the  Luxembourg 
Gardens  and  of  General  Cavaignac  (1847)  in  the  cemetery 
of  Montmartre  are  conspicuously  bad.  The  reliefs  on  the 
pediment  of  the  Pantheon  are  bj'  Pierre  Jean  David  of 
Angers  (1789-1856) ;  his  early  works  are  of  dull  classic 
style,  but  later  in  life  he  became  a  realist  and  produced 
the  most  imsculpturesque  results.  A  bronze  statue  of  a 
Dancing  Fisher-lad  modelled  by  Frangois  Joseph  Duvet, 
now  in  the  Luxembourg  ccllection,  is  an  able  work  of  the 
genre  class.  Other  French  sculptors  who  were  highly 
esteemed  in  their  time  were  Ottin,  Courtet,  Simart,  Etex, 
and  Carpeaux.i  The  last  was  an  artist  of  great  ability, 
and  produced  an  immense  number  of  clever  but  often  very 
offensive  statues.  He  obtained  the  highest  renown  in 
France,  and  was  a  typical  example  of  the  sad  degradation 
of  taste  which  prevailed  under  the  rule  of  Napoleon  III. 

The  existing  schools  of  French  sculpture  are  by  far  the 
most  important  in  the  world.  Technical  skill  and  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  human  form  are  possessed  by  several 
living  sculptors  of  France  to  a  degree  which  has  probably 
never  .been  surpassed,  and  some  of  them  produce  works  of 
Tery  great  power,  beauty,  and  originality.  Many  of  their 
•works  have  a  similar  fault  to  that  of  one  class  of  French 
painters  :  they  are  much  injured  by  an  excess  of  sensual 
reaUsm;  in  many  cases  nude  statues  are  simply  life-studies 
•with  all  the  faults  and  individual  peculiarities  of  one 
model.  Very  unsculpturesque  results  are  produced  by 
treating  a  statue  as  a  representation  of  a  naked  person, — 
one,  that  is,  who  is  obviously  in  the  habit  of  wearing 
clothes, — a  very  different  thing  from  the  purity  of  the 
ancient  Greek  treatment  of  the  nude.  Thus  the  great 
ability  of  many  French  sculptors  is  degraded  to  suit  the 
taste  of  the  voluptuary.  An  extravagance  of  attitude  and 
an  undignified  arrangement  of  the  figures  do  much  to 
injure  some  of  the  large  groups  which  are  full  of  technical 
merit,  and  executed  with  marvellous  anatomical  knowledge. 
This  is  specially  the  tase  with  much  of  the  sculpture  that 
is  intended  to  decorate  the  buildings  of  Paris.  The  group 
of  nude  dancers  by  Carpeaux  outside  the  new  opera- 
house  is  a  work  of  astonishing  skill  and  prurient  imagi- 
nation, ■  utterly  unsculpturesque  in  style  and  especially 
Unfitted  to  decorate  the  comparatively  rigid  lines  of  a, 
building.  The  egotism  of  modern  French  sculptors  will 
•lot  allow  them  to  accept  the  necessarily  subordinate 
.-eserve  which  is  so  necessary  for  architectonic  sculpture. 
Other  French  works,  on  the  other  hand,  err  in  the  direc- 
tion of  a  sickly  sentimentalism,  or  a  petty  realism,  which 
js  fatal  to  sculpturesque  beauty.  The  real  power  and 
nerits  of  the  modern  French  school  make  these  faults  aU 
she  more  conspicuous.^ 

'  See  Chesneau,  J.  B.  Carpeaux,  sa  vie,  &o.,  Paris,  18S0. 

'  On  French  sculpt<ire  see  Adams,  Recueil  de  Sculptures  Gothiques, 
Paris,  1858;  Cerf,  Description  de  Ifotre  Dame  de  Reims,  Rheims, 
1861 ;  Emiric-David,  L'Art  Statuaire,  Paris,  1805,  and  Histoire  de 
la  Sculpture  Franfaise,  Paris,  1853 ;  Guilliebaud,  L' Architecture  et  la 


SCULPTURE  toKKM.. 

Germatiy.—Till  the  12th  century  sculpture  in  Germany 
contmued  to  be  under  the  lifeless  influence  of  Byzantium 
tempered  to  some  extent  by  an  attempt  to  return  to 
classical  models.  This  is  seen  in  the  bronze  pillar  reliefs 
and  other  works  produced  by  Bishop  Bernward  after  his 
visit  to  Rome  (see  Metal-woek,  vol.  xvi.  p.  77).  Hildes- 
heim,  Cologne,  and  the  whole  of  the  Rhine  provinces 
were  the  most  active  seats  of  German  sculpture,  especially 
in  metal,  till  the  12th  -century.  Many  remarkable  pieces 
of  bronze  sculpture  were  produced  at  the  end  of  that 
period,  of  which  several  specimens  exist.  The  bronze 
font  at  Li^ge,  with  figure- subjects  in  relief  of  various 
baptismal  scenes  from  the  New  Testament,  by  Lambert 
Patras  of  Dinant,  cast  about.  1112,  is  a  work  of  most 
wonderful  beauty  and  perfection  for  its  time ;  other  fonts 
in  Osnabriick  and  Hildesheim  cathedrals  are  surrounded  by 
spirited  reliefs,  fine  in  conception,  but  inferior  in  beauty 
to  those  on  the  Liege  font.  Fine  bronze  candelabra  exist 
in  the  abbey  church  of  Comburg  and  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
the  latter  of  about  1165.  Merseburg  cathedral  has  a 
strange  realistic  sepulchral  figure  of  Rudolf  of  Swabia, 
executed  about  1100;,  and  at  Magdeburg  is  a  fine  effigy, 
also  in  bronze,  of  Bishop  Frederick  (d.  1152),  treated  in  a 
more  gracefid  way.  The  last  figure  has  a  peculiarity 
which  is  not  uncommon  in  the  older  bronze  reliefs  of 
Germany :  the  body  is  treated  as  a  relief,  while  the  head 
sticks  out  and  is  quite  detached  from  the  gi'ound  in  a 
very  awkward  way.  One  of  the  finest  plastic  works  of 
this  century  is  the  choir  screen  of  Hildesheim  cathedral, 
executed  in  hard  stucco,  once  rich  with  gold  and  colours ; 
on  its  lower  part  is  a  series  of  large  reliefs  of  saints 
modelled  with  almost  classical  breadth  and  nobility,  -snth 
drapery  of  especial  excellence. 

In  the  13th  century  German  sculpture  had  made  con- Thir- 
siderable  artistic  progress,  but  it  did  not  reach  the  high  ''=^°"' 
standard  of  France.  One  of  the  lest  examples  is  the"^™*""^ 
"golden  gate"  of  Freiburg  cathedral,  with  sculptured 
figures  on  the  jambs  after  the  French  fashion.  The 
statues  of  the  apostles  on  the  n,ave  pillars,  and  especially 
one  of  the  JIadonua  at  the  east  €nd  (1260-70),  possess 
great  beauty  and  sculpturesque  breadth. ,  The  statues  both 
inside  and  outside  Bamberg  cathedral,  of  the  middle  of 
the  13th  century,  are  nobly  designed;  and  an  equestrian 
statue  of  Conrad  III.  in  the  market-place  at  Bamberg, 
supported  by  a  foliated  corbel,  exhibits  startling  vigour 
and  originality,  and  is  designed  with  wonderful  largeness 
of  effect,  though  small  in  scale.  The  statues  of  Henry  the 
Lion  and  Queen  Matilda  at  Brunswick,  of  about  the  same 
period,  are  of  the  highest  beauty  and  dignity  of  expression. 
Strasburg  cathedral,  though  sadly  damaged  by  restoration, 
stiU  possesses  a  large  quantity  of  the  finest  sculpture  of 
the  13th  century.  One  tympanum  relief  of  the  Death  of 
the  Virgin,  surrounded  by  the  sorrowing  Apostles,  is  a 
work  of  the  very  highest  beauty,  worthy  to  rank  -with  the 
best  Italian  sculpture  of  even  a  later  period.  Of  its  class 
nothing  can  surpass  the  purely  decorative  carving  at  Stras- 
burg, with  varied  realistic  foliage  studied  from  nature, 
evidently  •svith  the  keenest  interest  and  enjoyment. 

Nuremberg  is  rich  in  good  sculpture  of  the  14th  century. 
The  chiu-ch  of  St  Sebald,  the  Frauenkirche,  and  the  -west 
facade  of  St  Lawrence  are  lavishly  decorated  with  reliefs 
and  statues,  very  rich  in  eflect,  but  sho\ving  the  germs  of^ 


Sculpture  du  Yme  au  XVIme  Sikle,  Paris,.  1851-59  ;  Mchard,  Sculp- 
ture Antique  et  Moderne,  Jjris,  1867;  Didron,  Annates  Archio- 
logiques,  various  articles;  Felibien,  Histoire  de  I'Art  en  France,. 
Paris,  1856  ;  Mrs  Pattison,  Renaissance  of  Art  in  France,  London, 
1879;  Moutfaucon,  Mommens  de  la  Monarchic  Franfaise,  Paris, 
172'3-33  ;  Jouy,  Sculptures  Modemes  du  Louvre,  Paris,  1855  ;  Reveil, 
(Em-re  de  Jean  Goujon,  Paris,  1868  ;  ViolIet-le-Dnc,  Dictionnairede 
V Architecture,  funs,  1869,  art.  "Sculpture,"  vol.  viii.  pp.  97-279; 
Claretie,  Peintres  et  Sculpteurs  Contemporains,  Pans,  ui  progress. 


GERMAN.] 


SCULPTURE 


565 


that  mannerism  which  grew  so  strong  in  Germany  during 
the  15th  century.  Of  special  beauty  are  the  statuettes 
which  adorn  the  "beautiful  fountain,"  executed  by  Heio- 
rich  der  Balier  (1385-1396),  and  richly  decorated  with  gold 
and  colour  by  the  painter  Rudolf.i  a  number  of  colossal 
figures  were  executed  for  Cologne  cathedral  between  1349 
and  1361,  but  they  are  of  no  great  merit.  Augsburg  pro- 
duced several  sculptors  of  ability  about  this  time;  the 
museum  possesses  some  very  noble  wooden  statues  of  this 
school,  large  in  scale  and  dignified  in  treatment.  On  the 
exterior  of  the  choir  of  the  church  of  Marienburg  castle 
is  a  very  remarkable  colossal  figure  of  the  Virgin  of  about 
1340-50.  Like  the  Hildesheim  choir  screen,  it  is  made 
of  hard  stucco  and  is  decorated  with  glass  mosaics.  The 
equestrian  bronze  group  of  St  George  and  the  Dragon 
in  the  market-place  at  Prague  is  excellent  in  workmanshio 
and  full  of  vigour,  though 
much  wanting  dignity  of 
style.  Another  fine  work  in 
bronze  of  about  the  same  date 
is  the  efEgy  of  Archbishop 
Conrad  (d.  1261)  in  Cologne 
cathedral,  executed  many 
years  after  his  death.  The 
portrait  appears  truthful  and 
the  wjiole  figure  is  noble  in 
style.  The  military  effigies 
of  this  time  in  Germany  as 
elsewhere  were  almost  un- 
avoidably stiff  and  lifeless 
from  the  necessity  of  repre-- 
senting  them  in  plate  ar- 
mour ;  the  ecclesiastical 
chasuble,  in  which  priestly 
effigies  nearly  always  ap- 
pear, is  also  a  thoroughly 
nnsculpturesque  form  of 
drapery,  both  from  its  awk- 
ward shape  and  its  absence 
of  folds.  Fig.  13  shows  a 
characteristic  example  of 
these  sepulchral  effigies  in 
slight  relief.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  compare  this  with  a 
somewhat  similarly  treated 
Florentine  effigy,  executed  in  Fia.  13.— Sepulchral  effigy  in  low 
marble  at  the  beginning  of  'f'l?L^"''l''""  ?!■  Scl'warziiurg 
the    next    century,    but    of     (<••  1319),  m  Frankfort  cathedral. 

very  superior  grace  and  delicacy  of  treatment  (see  fig.- 
16  below). 
fte«ith  The  15th  century  was  one  of  great  activity  and  origin- 
intr.  /y.  ality  in  the  sculpture  of  Germany  and  produced  many 
artists  of  very  high  ability.  One  speciality  of  the  time 
was  the  production  of  an  immense  number  of  wooden  altars 
and  reredoses,  painted  and  gilt  in  the  most  gorgeous  way 
and  covered  with  subject-reliefs  and  statues,  tho  former 
often  treated  in  a  very  pictorial  style.^  Wooden  screens, 
stalls,  tabernacles,  and  other  church-fittings  of  tho  greatest 
elaboration  and  clever  workmanship  were  largely  produced 
in  Germany  at  the  same  time,  and  on  into  tho  16th  century.' 
Jorg  Syrlin,  one  of  the  most  able  of  these  sculptors  in 
wood,  executed  the  gorgeous  choir-stalls  in  Ulm  cathedral, 
richly  decorated  with  statuettes  and  canopied  work,  be- 
tween 1469  and  1474;  his  son  and  namesake  sculptured 


'  See  Baader,  Bcitragc  zur  Kunstyr.sch.  Nilmifr(/3  ;  and  Kuttbcrg, 
IfilnibergsKunsllebcn,  Btuttgart,  1854. 

'  This  class  of  largo  wooden  retable  was  much  Imitated  in  Spain 
and  Scandinavia.  The  metropolitan  cathedral  uf  Kuskildo  in  Denmark 
possesses  a  very  large  and  magnificont  example  covered  with  subject 
Teliefs  enriched  witli  gold  and  colours. 

'  See  Waagen,  Kunst  und  KiruUtT  t'n  Deultchl.,  Lelpsic,  1813-45. 


the  elaborate  stalls  in  Blaubeuren  church  of  1493  and  the 
"reat  pulpit  in  Ulm  cathedral.  Veit  Stoss  of  Nuremberg, 
though  a  man  of  bad  character,  was  a  most  skilful  sculptor 
in  wood ;  he  carved  the  high  altar,  the  tabernacle,  and  the 
stalls  of  the  Frauenkirche  at  Cracow,  between  1472  and 
1495.  One  of  his  finest  works  is  a  large  piece  of  wooden 
panelling,  nearly  6  feet  square,  carved  in  1495,  with  central 
reliefs  of  the  Doom  and  the  Heavenly  Host,  framed  by 
minute  reliefs  of  scenes  from  Bible  history.  It  is  now 
in  the  Nuremberg  town-hall.  Wohlgemuth  (1434-1519), 
the  master  of  A.  Durer,  was  not  only  a  painter  but  also  D, 
clever  wood-carver,  as  was  also  Diirer  himself  (1471-1528), 
who  executed  a  tabernacle  for  the  Host  with  an  exquisitelj 
carved  relief  of  Christ  in  Majesty  between  the  Virgin  ahd 
St  John,  which  still  exists  in  the  chapel  of  the  monastery 
of  Landau.  Diirer  also  produced  miniature  reliefs  cut  in 
boxwgod  and  hone-stone,  of  which  the  British  Museum 
(print  room)  possesses  one  of  the  finest  examples.  Adam 
Krafft  (c.  1455-1507)  was  another  of  this  class  of  sculp- 
tor.s,  but  he  worked  also  in  stone ;  he  produced  the  great 
Schreyer  monument  (1492)  for  St  Sebald's  at  Nuremberg, 
— a  very  skilful  though  mannered  piece  of  sculpture,  with 
very  realistic  figures  in  tho  costume  of  tho  time,  carved 
in  a  way  more  suited  to  wood  than  stone,  and  too  pictorial 
in  effiect.  ■  He  also  made  the  great  tabernacle  for  the  Host, 
80  feet  high,  covered  ■with  statuettes,  in  Ulm  cathedral, 
and  the  very  spirited  "  Stations  of  the  Cross  "  on  the  road 
to  the  Nuremberg  cemetery. 

The  Vischer  family  of  Nuremberg  foi'  three  generations  visehc- 
were  among  the  ablest  sculptors  in  bronze  during  the  loth'''™''^ 
and  16th  centuries.  Hermann  Vischer  tho  elder  worked 
mostly  between  1450  and  1505,  following  the  earlier 
mediaeval  traditions,  but  without  the  originality  of  his 
son.  Among  his  existing  works  the  chief  are  the  bronze 
font  at  Wittenberg  church  (1457)  and  four  episcopal 
effigies  in  relief,  dated  from  1475  to  1505,  in  Bamberg 
cathedral ;  this  church  also  contains  a  fine  series  of  bronze 
sepulchral  monuments  of  various  dates  thrbughout  the  15tb 
and*16th  centuries.  Hermann's  son  Peter  Vischer  was 
the  chief  artist  of  the  family ;  he  was  admitted  a  master 
in  the  sculptor's  guild' in  1489,  and  passed  "the  greater 
part  of  his  life  at  Nuremberg,  where  he  died  in  1529.  In 
technique  few  bronze  sculptors  have  ever  equalled  him ; 
but  his  designs  are  marred  by  an  excess  of  mannered 
realism  and  a  too  exuberant  fancy.  His  chief  early  work 
was  the  tomb  of  Archbishop  Ernest  in  Magdeburg  cathedral 
(1495),  surrounded  with  fine  statuettes  of  the  apostles 
vmder  semi-Gothic  canopies ;  it  is  purer  in  style  than  his 
later  works,  such  as  the  magnificent  shrine  of  St  Sebald  at 
Nuremberg,  a  tall  canopied  bronze  structure,  crowded  ■n-ith 
reliefs  and  statuettes  in  the  most  lavish  way.  The  general 
form  of  the  shrine  is  Gothic,''  but  the  details  are  those  of 
the  16th-century  Italian  Ecnaissanco  treated  with  much 
freedom  and  originality.  Some  of  the  statuettes  of  saints 
attached  to  tho  slender  columns  of  the  canopy  are  modelled 
with  much  grace  and  even  dignity  of  form.  A  small 
portrait  figure  of  Peter  himself,  introduced  at  one  end  of 
the  base,  is  a  marvel  of  clever  realism  :  ho  has  represented 
himself  as  a  stout,  bearded  man,  wearing  a  largo  leatliorn 
apron  and  holding  some  of  the  tools  of  his  craft.  In  this 
work,  executed  from  1608  to  1519,  Peter  was  assisted  bj 
his  son.s,  as  is  recorded  in  an  inscription  on  tho  base — 
"  Pettcr  Vischer,  Purger  zu  Niirmberg,  maclict  das  Werck 
mit  soinen  Sunnen,  und  ward  folbracht  im  Jar  mdxix  .  .  .' 
This  gorgeous  shrine  is  a  remarkable  example  of  the  un- 
commercial .spirit  which  animated  tho  artists  of  that  time, 

*  This  great  work  is  really  a  canopied  podcstjil  to  support  and  en- 
close tho  shrine,  not  tho  shrine  it-self,  which.  Is  a  work  of  tho  Htli 
century,  having  tho  gabled  form  conunoaly  used  in  the  Middle  Ages 
for  metal  reli(iuaricg. 


566 


SGULPTURE 


[gERJIAN,  SPANISH. 


and  of  the  evident  delight  which  they  took  in  their  work. 
Dragons,  grotesques,  and  little  figures  of  boys,  mixed  with 
graceful  scroU  foliage,  crowd  every  possible  part  of  the 
canopy  and  its  shafts,  designed  in  the  most  free  and  un- 
conventional way  and  executed  with  an  utter  disregard  of 
the  time  and  labour  which  were  lavished  on  them.  Other 
existing  works  by  Peter  Vischer  and  his  sons  are  the 
Entombment  relief,  signed  "P.  V.  1522,"  in  the  Aegidien- 
kirche,  the  monument  of  Cardinal  Albert  (1525)  in  the 
church  at  Aschaffenburg,  and  the  fine,  tomb  of  Frederick 
the  Wise  (1527)  in  the  castle  chapel  at  Wittenberg. 

Next  to  Xuremberg,  the  chief  centres  of  bronze  sculpture 
were  Augsburg  and  Liibeck.  Innsbruck  possesses  one  of 
the  -finest  series  of  bronze  statues  of  the  first  half  of  the 
16th  century,  namely  twenty-eight  colossal  figures  round 
the  tomb  of  the  emperor  Maximilian,  which  stands  in  the 
centre  of  the  nave, 
representing  a  suc- 
cession of  heroes  and 
ancestors  of  the  em- 
peror. The  first  of 
the  statues  which  was 
completed  cost  3000 
florins,  and  so  Maxi- 
milian invited  the 
help  of  Peter  Visch- 
er, whose  skill  was 
greater  and  whose 
work  less  expensive 
than  that  of  the  local 
craftsmen.  Most  of 
them,  however,  were 
executed  by  sculptors 
of  whom  little  is  now 
known.  They  differ 
much  in  style,  though 
all  are  of  great  techni- 
cal merit.  The  finest 
(see  fig.  14)  is  an  ideal 
statue  of  King  Arthur 
of  Britain,  in  plate 
armour  of  the  14th 
or  early  1 5th  century, 
very  remarkable  for  Pig.  14, — Bronze  statue  of  King  Arthnr  at 
the    nobility    of    the  Innsbruck. 

face  and  pose.    That  of  Theodoric  is  also  a  very  fine  con- 
ception.    Some  of  the  portrait  figures  of  the  Hapsburgs 
are  almost  ludicrously  realistic,  and  are  disfigured  by  the 
ugly  German  armour  of  the  time, 
fcom  In  the  latter  part  of  the  16th  century  the  influence  of 

Eiateeuti  the  later  Italian  Eenaissance  becomes  very  apparent,  and 
onwards  ^^^J  elaborate  works  in  bronze  were  produced,  especi- 
'  ally  at  Augsburg,  where  Hubert  Gerhard  cast  the  fine 
"Augustus  fountain  '  -n  1593,  and  Adrian  de  Vries  made 
the  "Hercules  f ountaii; "' in  1599;  both  were  influenced 
by  the  style  of  Giovanni  di  Bologna,  as  shown  in  his 
magnificent  fountain  at  Bologna. 

In  the  following  century  Andreas  Schliiter  of  Hamburg 
(b.  about  1662)  produced  smaller  bronze  reliefs  and  acces- 
sories of  great  merit.  His  colossal  statue  of  Frederick 
in.  on  the  bridge  at  Berlin  is  less  successful.  On  the 
whole  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  in  Germany,  as  in 
England,  were  periods  of  great  decadence  in  the  plastic 
art;  little  of  merit  was  produced,  except  some  portrait 
figures.  In  the  second  half  of  the  18th  centirry  there 
was  a  strong  revival  iu  sculpture,  especially  in  tie  classic 
style ;  and  siace  then  Germany  has  produced  an  immense 
quantity  of  large  and  pretentious  sculpture,  mostly  dull 
in  design  and  second-rate  in  execution.  Johann  Gottfried 
of  Berlin  (1764-1850)  finished  a  number  of  portrait  figures, 


some  of  which  are  ably  modelled,  as  did  also  Friedrich 
Tieck  (1776-1851)  and  Christian  Ptauch  (1777-1857) ;  the 
works  of  Eauch  are,  however,  mostly  weak  and  sentimental 
in  style,  as,  for  example,  his  recumbent  statue  of  Queen 
Louisa  at  Charlottenburg  (1813)  and  his  statues  of 
Generals  Biilow  and  Scharnhorst  at  Berlin.  Friedrich 
Drake  was  the  ablest  of  Kauch's  pupUs,  but  he  lived  at  a 
very  xmhappy  period  for  the  sculptor's  art.  His  chiel 
work  is  perhaps  the  colossal  bronze  equestrian  statue  pi 
King  William  of  Prussia  at  Cologne.  Albert  Wolff  was  a 
sculptor  of  more  ability ;  he  executed  the  equestrian  por-' 
trait  of  King  Ernest  Augustus  at  Hanover,  and  a  Horse- 
man attacked  by  a  Lion  now  in  the  Berlin  Museum. 
Augustus  Kiss  (1802-1865)  produced  the  companion  group 
to  this,  the  celebrated  Amazon  and  Panther  in  bronze,  as 
weU  as  the  fine  group  of  St  George  and  the  Dragon  in  a 
courtyard  of  the  royal  palace  at  Berlin.  The  St  George 
and  his  horse  are  of  bronze ;  the  dragon  is  formed  of  gilt 
plates  of  hammered  iron.  Kiss  worked  only  in  metaL 
The  bad  taste  of  the  first  half  of  the  present  centiuy  is 
■strongly  shown  by  many  of  the  works  of  Theodore  Kalldfe, 
whose  Bacchanal  sprawling  on  a  Panther's  Back  is  a 
marvel  of  awkwardness  of  pose  and  absence  of  any  feeling 
for  beauty.  Eietschel  was  perhaps  the  best  German  sculp- 
tor of  this  period,  and  produced  work  superior  to  that  of 
his  contemporaries,  such  as  Haagen,  Wichmann,  Fischer, 
and  Hiedel.  Some  revival  of  a  better  style  is  shown  in 
some  sculpture,  especially  reliefs,  by  Hiihnel,  whose  chief 
works  are  at  Dresden.  Schwanthaler  (1802-1848),  who 
was  largely  patronized  by  King  Louis  of  Bavaria,  studied 
at  Eome  and  was  at  first  a  feeble  imitator  of  antique  classic 
art,  but  later  in  life  he  developed  a  more  romantic  and 
pseudo-mediaeval  style.  By  him  are  a  large  number  of 
reliefs  and  statues  in  the  Glyptothek  at  Munich  and  in 
the  Walhalla,  also  the  colossal  but  feeble  bronze  statue  of 
Bavaria,  in  point  of  size  one  of  the  most  ambitious  works 
of  modem  times.^  Since  the  beginning  of  the  second  half 
of  the  century  the  sculpture  of  Germany  has  made  visible 
progress,  and  several  living  artists  have  produced  works  ' 
of  merit  and  originality,  far  superior  to  the  feeble  imita- 
tions of  classic  art  which  for  nearly  a  century  destroyed 
all  possible  vigour  and  individuality  in  the  plastic  pro- 
ductions of  most  European  countries.^ 

Spain. — In  the  early  mediseval  period  the  sculpture  of 
northern  Spain  was  much  influenced  by  contemporary 
ai'fc  in  France.  From  the  12th  to  the  14th  century  many  Twelfth 
French  architects  and  sculptors  visited  and  worked  in  to  four 
Spain.  The  cathedral  of  Santiago  de  Compostella  pos-'^^^ 
sesses  one  of  the  grandest  existing  specimens  in  the  world 
of  late  12th-century  architectonic  sculpture;  this,  though 
the  work  of  a  native  artist,  Mastei  Mateo,^  is  thoroughly 
French  in  style ;  as  recorded  by  an  inscription  on  the 
front,  it  was  completed  in  1188.  The^  whole  of  ■  the 
western  portal  with  its  three  doorways  is  covered  with 
statues  and  reliefs,  all  richly  decorated  with  colour;  part 
of  which  still  remains.  Bound  the  central  arch  are  figures 
of  the  twenty-four  elders,  and  in  the  tympanum  a  very 
noble  relief  of  Christ  in  Majesty  between  Saints  and 
Angels.  As  at  Chartres,  the  jamb-shafts  of  the  doorways 
are  decorated  with  standing  statues  of  saints, — St  James 
the  elder,  the  patron  of  the  church,  being  attached  to  the 

'  In  size,  bat  not  Li  merit,  tliis  enormous  statue  lias  reccntlj'  been 
surpassed  by  the  figure  of  America  made  in  Paris  and  now  (1 886)  being 
erected  as  a  beacon  at  the  entrance  to  the  harbour  of  New  York  City. 

-  On  German  sculpture  see  Foerster,  Dcnkmale  deiitscher  Baiikunst, 
Leiprfc,  1855  ;  Wanderer,  Adam  Kraft  and  his  School,  Nuremberg, 
1663  ;  Babe,  Das  Qrahmal  des  J.  von  Brandeniurg  .  ,  .  von  P.  Vischer,. 
Berlin,  1843 ;  Eeindel,  Vischcr's  Shrine  of  St  Sehaldus,  Nuremberg,' 
1855  ;  Lilbke,  Bist.  of  Sculpt,  Eng.  trans.,  London,.1872. 

'  A  kneeling  portrait-statue  of  JIateo  is  introduced  at  the  back  ot 
the  central  pier.  This  figure  is  now  much  revered  by  the  Spanish 
peasants,  and  the  head  i.-  partly  worn  away  with  kisses. 


TIAUAy.j 


S  C  U  L  P  T  U  Ji  E 


567 


central  pillar."  These  noble  figures,'tiiough  treated  in  a 
somewliat  rigid  manner,  are  thoroughly  subordinate  to  the 
main  lines  of  the  building.  Their  heads,  with  pointed 
bearda  and  a  fixed  mechanical  smile,  together  with  the 
stiff  drapery  arranged  in  long  narrow  folds,  recall  the 
^ginetan  pediment  sculpture  of  about  500  B.C.  This 
appears  strange  at  first  sight,  but  the  fact  is  that  the 
worlis  of  the  early  Greek  and  the  medioaval  Spaniard  were 
both  produced  at  a  somewhat  similar  stage  in  two  far 
distant  periods  of  artistic  development.  In  both  cases 
plastic  art  waa  freeing  itself  from  the  bonds  of  a  hieratic 
archaism,  and  had  reached  one  of  the  last  steps  ia  a  de- 
■velopment  which  in  the  one  case  culminated  in  the  per- 
fection of  the  Phidian  age,  and  in  the  other  led  to  the 
exquisitely  beautiful  yet  simple  and  reserved  art  of  the 
end  of  the  13th  and  early  part  of. the  lith  century, — the 
golden  age  of  sculpture  in  France  and  England. 

In  the  14tfi  century  the  silversmiths  of  Spain  produced 
many  works  of  sculpture  of  great  size  and  technical  power. 
One  of  the  finest,  by  a  Yalencian  called  Peter  Bemec,  is  the 
great  silver  retable  at  Gerona  cathedral.  It  is  divided 
into  three  tiers  of  statuettes  and  reliefs,  richly  framed  in 
■canopied  niches,  all  of  silver,  partly  cast  and  partly 
hammered. 

In  the  15th  century  an  infusion  of  German  infiuence 
•was  mixed  jvith  that  of  France,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 
Tery  rich  sculjftural  decorations  which  adorn  the  main 
door  of  Salamanca  cathedral,  the  fagade  of  S.  Juan  at 
Valladolid,  and  the  church  and  cloisters  of  S.  Juan  de  los 
Keyes  at  Toledo,  perhaps  the  most  gorgeous  examples  of 
architectural  sculpture  iu  the  world.  The  carved  foliage 
of  this  period  is  of  especial  beauty  and  spirited  execution ; 
realistic  forms  of  plant-growth  are  mingled  with  other 
more  conventional  foliage  in  the  most  masterly  manner. 
The  very  noble  bronze  monument  of  Archdeacon  Pelayo 
(d.  1490)  in  Burgos  cathedral  was  probably  the  work  of 
Simon  of  Cologne,  who  was  also  architect  of  the  Certosa 
at  Miraflores,  2  miles  from  Burgos.  The  church  of  this 
monastery  contains  two  of  the  most  magnificently  rich 
iaon»ments  in  the  world,  especially  the  altar-tomb  °of  King 
Jo^ii  n.  and  his  queen  by  Gil  de  Siloe, — a  perfect  marvel 
o*'  rich  alabaster  canopy-work  and  intricate  under-cutting. 
The  effigies  have  little  merit. 

►*■'  In  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century  a  strong  Italian 
influence  superseded  that  of  France  and  Germany,  partly 
owing  to  the  presence  in  Spain  of  the  Florentine  Torri- 
giano  and  other  Italian  artists.  The  magnificent  tomb  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in  Granada  cathedral  is  a  fine 
specimen  of  Italian  Renaissance  sculpture,  somewhat  similar 
in  general  form  to  the  tomb  of  Sixtua  IV.  by  Ant.  PoUai- 
Uolo  in  St  Peter's,  but  half  a  century  later  in  the  style  of 
Its  detail.  It  looks  as  if  it  jiad  been  executed  by  Torri- 
^dano,  but  the  design  which  he  made  for  it  is  said  to  have 
been  rejected.  Some  of  the  work  of  this  period,  though 
purely  Italian  in  style,  was  produced  by  Spanish  sculp- 
tors,— for  example,  the  choir  reliefs  at  Toledo  cathedral, 
and  those  in  the  Colegio  Mayor  at  Salamanca  by  Alonso 
Bemiguete,  who  obtained  his  artistic  training  in  Rome 
and  Florence.  Esteban  Jordan,  Gregorio  Hernandez,  and 
other  Spanish  sculptors  produced  a  large  numljor  of  elabo- 
rate retables,  carved  in  wood  with  subjects  in  relief  and 
richly  decorated  in  gold  and  colours.  These  sumptuous 
masses  of  polychromatic  sculpture  resemble  the  15th- 
century  rotables  of  Germany  more  than  any  Italian  ex- 
amples, and  were  a  sort  of  survival  of  an  older  mediieval 
iityle.  Alonso  Cano  (1G00-1GG7),  the  painter,  was  re- 
markable for  clever  realistic  sculpture,  very  highly 
coloured  and  religious  in  stylo.  Montafies,  who  died  in 
1614,  was  one  of  the  ablest  Spanish  sculptors  of  his 
time.'  His  finest  works  are  the  reliefs  of  the  Madonna 


and  Saints  on  an  altar  in  the  university  church  of  Sevilla 
and  in  the  cathedral,  in  the  chapel  of  St  Augustine,  s 
very  nobly  designed  Conception,  n)ode?!ci  with  great  skill. 
In  later  times  Spain  has  produced  little  or  no  sculpture  of 
any  merit. 

Itali/. — Till  the  great  revival  of  plastic  art  took  place 
in  the  middle  of  the  13th  century,  the  sculpture  of  Italy 
was  decidedly  inferior  to  that  of  other  more  noithem 
countries.  Much  of  it  was  actually  the  work  of  northern 
sculptors, — as,  for  example,  the  very  rude -sculpture  on  the 
fajade  of  S.  Andrea  at  Pistoia,  executed  about  11  SB 'by 
Gruamons  and  his  brother  Adeodatus.^    Fig.  15  shows  a 


FiQ.  15.— Eelief  by  Benedetto  Antelan-i  _.  ....  ,  ,„j...  „.  .  ^^^ 
cathedral  in  1178  ;  Byzantine  style. 

relief  by  Antelami  of  Parma  of  the  year  1 178.  Unlike  the 
sculpture  of  the  Pisani  and  later  artists,  these  early  figure? 
are  thoroughly  secondary  to  the  architecture  they  are  de- 
signed to  decorate;  they  are  evidently  the  work  of  men  who 
were  architects  first  and  sculptors  in  a  secondary  degree. 
After  the  13th  century  the  reverse  was  usually  the  case, 
and,  as  at  the  west  end  of  Orvieto  cathedral  the  sculptured 
decorations  are  treated  as  being  of  primary  importance, 
— not  that  the  Italian  sculptor-architect  ever  allowed  his 
statues  or  reliefs  to  weaken  or  damage  their  architectura' 
surroundings,  as  is  unfortunately  the  case  with  mucl 
modern  sculpture.  In  soutliern  Italy,  during  the  13th 
century,  there  existed  a  school  of  sculpture  resembling 
that  of  France,  owing  probably  to  the  Norman  occupa- 
tion. The  pulpit  in  the  cathedral  of  Ravello,  executed  hj 
Nicolaus  di  Bartolomeo  di  Foggia  in  1272,'is  an  import- 
ant work  of  this  class;  it  is  enriched  with  very  noble 
sculpture,  especially  a  large  female  head  crowned  with  a 
richly  foliated  coronet,  and  combining  lifelike  vigour  with 
largeness  of  style  in  a  very  remarkable  way.  The  bronze 
doors  at  Monreale,  Pisa,  and  elsewhere,  which  are  among 
the  chief  works  of  plastic  art  in  Italy  during  the  12th 
century,  are  described  m  Moneeale  and  Mkhx-woek, 
The  history  of  Italian  sculpture  of  the  best  period  is 
given  to  a  great  extent  in  the  separate  articles  on  the 
PiSANi  (q.v.)  and  other  Italian  artists.  During  the  13th 
century  Rome  and  the  central  provinces  of  Italy  produced 
.very  few  sculptors  of  ability',  almost  the  only  men.  of  note 
being  the  Cosmati  (see  Rome,  vol.  xx.  p.  835). 

During  the  14  th  century  Florence  and  the  neighbouring 
cities  were  the  chief  centres  of  Italian  sculjiture,  and  there 
niunerous  sculptors  of  succe-ssively  increasing  artistic  powci 
lived  and  worked,  till  in  the  15th  century  Florence  had 
become  the  lesthctic  cnjntnl  of  the  world,  and  reached 
a  pitch  of  artistic  wealth,  and  perfection  which  Athcnt 


Tho  other  flnest  cxnmplen  of  this  early  rln^j  of  sculpture  exist  *( 
frn,  Parnio,  Modenn,  anil  Verona  ;  in  most  of  them  the  old  Byantinl 
iililuenoe  is  very  strong, 


568 


SCULP  TURji 


[iTAILUr 


alone  in  its  best  days  could  have  rivalled.  The  similarity 
between  the  plastic  arts  of  Athens  in  the  5th  or  4th  cen- 
tury B.C.  and  of  Florence  in  the  15th  century  is  not  one  of 
analogy  only.  Though  free  from  any  touch  of  copyism, 
there  are  many  points  in  the  works  of  such  men  as  Doua- 
teUo,  Luca  della  Eobbia,  and  Vittore  Pisanello  which 
strongly  recall  the  sculpture  of  ancient  Greece,  and  suggest 
that,  if  a  sculptor  of  the  later  Phidian  school  had  been 
surrounded  by  the  same  types  of  face  and  costume  as  those 
among  which  the  Italians  lived,  he  would  have  produced 
plastic  works  closely  resembling  those  of  the  great  Floren- 
tine masters.  In  the  14th  century,  in  northern  Italy, 
various  schools  of  sculpture  existed,  especially  at  Verona 
and  Venice,  whose  art  differed  widely  from  the  contem- 
porary art  of  Tuscany ;  but  Jlilan  and  Pavia,  ou  the  other 
hand,  possessed  sculptors  who  followed  closely  the  style 
of  the  Pisani.  The  chief  examples  of  the  latter  class  are 
the  magnificent  shrine  of  St  Augustine  in  the  cathedral  of 
Pavia,  dated  1362,  and  the  somewhat  similar  shrine  of 
Peter  the  JIartyr  (1339),  by  Balduccio  of  Pisa,  in  the 
church  of  St  Eustorgio  at  Milan,  both  of  white  marble, 
decorated  in  the  most  lavi.sh  way  with  statuettes  and 
subject  reliefs.  Many  other  fine  pieces  of  the  Pisan  school 
exist  in  JMilan.  The  well-known  tombs  of  the  Scaliger 
family  at  Verona  show  a  more  native  style  g."  'lesign,  and 
in  general  form,  though  not  in  detail,-  suggest  the  influence 
of  transalpine  Gothic.  In 
Venice  the  northern  and 
almost  French  character 
of  much  of  the  early  15th- 
century  sculpture  is  more 
strongly  marked,  especi- 
ally in  the  noble  figures 
in  high  relief  which  de- 
corate the  lower  story  and 
angles  of  thedoge's  palace;^ 
these  are  mostly  the  work 
of  a  Venetian  named  Bar- 
tolomeo  Bon.  A  magni- 
fioent  marble  tympanum 
relief  by  Bon  has  recently 
been  added  to  the  South 
Kensington  Museum ;  it 
Las  a  noble  colossal  figure 
of  the  Madonna,  who  shel- 
ters under  her  mantle  a 
number  of  kneeling  wor- 
shippers ;  the  background 
is  enriched  with  foliage 
and  heads,  forming,  a 
"  Jesse  tree,"  designed 
with  greatdecorative  skill. 
The  cathedral  of  Como, 
buUt  at  the  very  end  of 
the  15th  century,  is  de- 
corated with  good  sculp- 
ture of  almost  Gothic  style, 
but  on  the  whole  rather 
dull  and  mechanical  in  de- 
tail, like  much  of  the  sculp- 
ture in  the  extreme  north 
of  Italy.  A  large  quantity 
of  rich  sculpture  was  pro-  Fig.  16.— Florentine  marble  effigy  in 

duced  in  Naples  during  'cTrtc^fnyW^eL:.'"^'  "'  ''' 
the  14th  century,  but  of 

no  great  merit  either  in  design  or  in'  execution.  The 
lofty  monument  of  King  Robert  (1350),  behind  the  high 
altar  of  S.  •  Chiara,  and  other  tombs  in  the  same  church 

'  See  Kuskin,  Stones  of  Ytnia  ;  and  Mothes,  Gesch.  der  Bank.  u. 
BUdK  Vaiedii/s,  Leip.sic,  18oi 


are  the  most  conspicuous  works  of 'this  period.  Very 
beautiful  sepulchral  effigies  in  low  relief  were  produced  in 
many  parts  of  Italy,  especially  at  Florence.  The  tomb  of 
Lorenzo  Acciaioli  (see  fig.  16),  in  the  Certosa  near  Florence 
is  a  fine  example  of  about 
the  year  1400,  which  has 
absurdly  been  attributed  to 
Donatello.  Pome  was  very 
remarkable  during  the  14  th 
century  for  its  extraordinary 
poverty  in  the  production  of 
sculpture.  The  clum.sy effigies 
at  the  north-east  of  S.  Maria 
in  Trastevere  are  striking  ex- 
amples of  the  degradation  of 
the  plastic  art  there  about  the 
year  1400;  and  it  was  not 
till  nearly  the  middle  of  the 
century  that  the  arrival  of 
able  Florentine  sculptors, 
such  as  Filarete,  Jlino  da 
Fiesole,  and  the  PoUaiuoli, 
initiated  a  brilliant  era  of 
artistic  activity,  which,  how- 
ever, for  about  a  century 
continued  to  depend  on  the 
presence  of  sculptors  from 
Tuscany  and  other  northern 
provinces.  It  was  not,  in  fact, 
till  the  period  of  full  decad- 
ence had  begun  that  Kome 
itself  produced  any  notable 
artists. 

For  the  great  sculptors  of 
Florence  dming  the  14th  and 
15th  centuries  we  refer  th. 
reader  to  the  separate  bio- 
graphical notices  on  the  sub-  Fio.  17.— Statue  of  St  George  by- 
ject.  The  Pisani  and  Arnolfo  Donatello,  outside  the  church  of ' 
del   Cambio  were   succeeded      Or  San  Michele  at  Florence. 

by  Orcagna  and  others,  who  carried  on  and  developed  the 


:li>iM(inifnTii!iii:':nnlimliimihnwiimftniim«Hm 

FlQ,  18. — Bronze  colossal  statue  of'Colleoni  at  Venice,  modelled  by 
Verrocchio  and  cast  by  Leopardi. 

grea*'    lessons  these    pioneers  of  the   Eenaissance    had. 
taught.     Gbiberti,  the  sculptor  of  the  world-famed  bap- 


{Italian; 


SCULPTUIIE 


56\) 


Fio.  19.- 


-Head  of  tie  colossal  statue  ol  David  by 
Jlichelaugelo  at  Florence. 


tistery  gates ;  Donatello,  tlie  ma.ster  of  delicate  relief  and 
dignified  realism- (see  fig.   17);  Luca  della  Kobbia,  with 
hLs  classic  purity  of  style  and  sweetness  of  expression, 
came  next  in  o.rder.     Uiisensnal  beauty  elevated  by  reli- 
gions spirit  wasattained  in  the  highest  degree  by  Jlino  da 
Fiesole,  the  two  Rossellini,  Benedetto  da  Maiano,  and  other 
sculptors  of  Florence.  Two  of  the  noblest  equestrian  statues 
the  world  has  probably  ever  seen  are  the  Gattamelata  statue 
at  Padua  by  Donatello  and  the  statue  of  CoUeoni  at  Venice 
by  Verrocchio  and  Leopardi  (see  fig.  18).  A  third,  which  was 
probably  of  equal  beauty,  was  modelled  in  clay  by  Leonardo 
da  Vinci,  but  it  no  longer  exists.     Finally  came  Michel- 
angelo,       whO/ 
raised  the  sculp- 
ture     of      the 
modern     world 
to    its    highest 
pitch  of  magni- 
ficence, and  at 
the   same   time 
sowed  the  seeds 
of    its    rapidly 
approaching  de- 
cline; the  head 
of  his  David  (see 
fig.  19)  is  a  work 
of       unrivalled 
force  and    dig- 
tiity.  His  rivals 
anil     imitators, 
Baccio     Bandi- 
nelli,    Giacomo 
•della  Porta,  Montelupo,  Ammanati,  Vincenzo  de'  Rossi, 
and   others,   copied  and  ^exaggerated   his  faults  without 
possessing    a   touch  of  his  gigantic  genius.       In  other 
parts  of  Italy,  such  as  Pavia,  the  traditions  of  the   15th 
•century  lasted   longer,    though  gradually   fading.      The 
statuary  and  reliefs  which  make  the  Certosa  near  Pavia 
one  of  the  most  gorgeous  buildings  in  the  world  are  free 
from  the  influence  of  Michelangelo,   which  at  Florence 
and  Rome  was  overwhelming.    Though  much  of  the  sculp- 
ture was  begun  in  the  second  half  of  the  1.5th  century, 
the  greater  part  was  not  executed  till  much  later.     The 
magnificent  tomb  of  the  founder,  Giovanni  Galeazzo  Vis- 
conti,  was  not  completed  till  about  1560,  and  is  a  gorgeous 
example  of  the  style  of  the  Renaissance  grown  weak  from 
excess  of  richness  and  from  loss  of  the  simple  purity  of 
the  art  of  the  15th  century.     Every whorci,  in  this  wonder- 
id  building  the  fault  is  the  same ;  and  the  growing  love 
of  luxury  and  display,  which  was  the  curse  of  the  time,  is 
reflected  in  the  plastic  decorations  of  the  whole  church. 
The  old  religious  spirit  had  died  out  and  was  succeeded 
by  unbelief  or  by  an  aft'ccted  revival  of  paganism.     Monu- 
ments to  ancient  Romans,  such  as  those  to  the  two  Plinys 
on  the  facade  of  Como  cathedral,  or  "hcroa"  to  unsaintly 
mortals,  such  as  that  erected  at  Rimini  by  Sigismondo 
Pandolfo  in  honour  of  Isotta,'  grew  up  side  by  side  with 
shrines  and  churche.?  dedicated  to  the  saints.     We  have 
seen  how  the  youthful  vigour  of  the  Christian  faith  vivified 
for  a  time  the  dry  bones  of  expiring  classic  art,  and  now 
the  decay  of  this  same  belief  brought  with  it  the  destruc- 
tion of  all  that  was  most  valuable  in  mcdiajval  sculpture. 
Sculpture  like  the  other  arts  became  the  bond-slave  of  the 
rith  and  ceased  to  be  the  natural  expression  of  a  whole 
people.     Though  for  a  long  time  in  Italy  great  technical 
skill  continued  to  exist,  the  vivifying  spirit'was  dead,  and 
at   last  a  dull  scholasticism  or  a  riotous  extravagance' of 
design  became  the  leading  characteristics. 

'  See  Yrjaite,  Rimitii  an  A'  Vme  Hiicle,  Paris.  1S80 ;  also  tlio  article 
BoilNl. 

21-20* 


\ 


The  IGth  century  was  one  of  transitfon  to  this  state  of 
degradation,  but  neverthele.'^s  produced  many  scul|itors  oi 
great  ability  who  were  not  wholly  crushed  by  the  declining 
taste  of  their  time.     John  of  Douay  (1.")2-1-1C08),  usually 
known  as  Giovanni  da  Bologna,  one  of  the  ablest,  lived  and 
worked  almost  entirely  in  Italy.     His  bronze  statue  ol 
Mercury  flying  upwards,  in  the  Utiizi,  one  of  his  finest, 
works,   is   full   of    life   and 
movement.     By  him  also  is 
the  Carrying  oti'of  a  Sabine 
^Vonlan  in  the   Loggia  de' 
Lanzi.     His   great  fountain 
at   Bologna,  with  two  tiers 
of  boys  and  mermaids,  sur- 
mounted by  a  colos.'ial  statue 
of   Neptune,    a   very   noble 
work,  is  composed  of  archi- 
tectural   features   combined 
withsculpture,  and  is  remark- 
able for  beauty  of  proportion. 
He  also  cast  the  fine  bi-onzo 
equestrian  statue  of  Cosimo 
de'  Medici  at  Florence  and 
the    very    richly    decorated 
west  door  of  Pisa  cathedral, 
the  latter  much  injured  by 
the  over-crowding  of  its  orna- 
ments and  the  want  of  sculp- 
turesque dignity  in  the  fig- 
ures ;  it  is  a  feeble  copy  of 
Ghiberli's  noble  productioi'. 
One  of  Giovanni's  bestworks, 
a  group  of  two  nude  figures 
fighting,  is  now  lost.     A  fine 
copy    in    lead    existed    tillF'a-20.- 
recently  in  the  front  quad- 
rangle   of    Brasenose    Col- 
lege, Oxford,  of  which  it  was  the  chief  ornament  (see  fig. 
20).     In  1881  it  was  sold  for  old  lead  by  the  master  and 
fellows  of  the  college,  and  was 
immediately  melted  down  by 
the  plumber  who  bought  it — 
a  quite  irreparable  loss,  as  the 
only   other   existing    copy    i.s 
very  inferior;  tl-e  destruction 
was  an  utterly  inexcusable  act 
of  vandalism.     The  sculpture 
on  the  western  facade  of  the 
church  at  Loreto  and  the  ela- 
borate   bronze'  gates   of'  the 
Santa  Casa  are  works  of  great 
technical    merit    by  Girolamo 
Lombardo  and  his  sons,  about 
the  middle,  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury. Benvenuto  Cellini  (1500- 
1569),  though  in  the  main  a 
poor  ■  sculptor,    produced    one 
work  of  great  beauty  and  dig- 
nity,— the  colos.sal  bronze  Pei 
sens  at  Florence  (.see  fig.  21). 
His  largo  bust  of  Cosimo  de' 
.Medici  in  the  Bargcllo  is  mean 
and  potty  in  style.      A  num- 
ber of  very  clever  statues  and 

groups  in  terra -cotta  were  Fio.  21.— Bronze  statue  of  Per. 
modelled  by  Antonio  Bcgarelli  "^'"  ""'•  Mcilusn  by  Cellini,  iu 
of  Modena  (d.  1565),  and  "'«  Wgi»  Jo' Lan^  m  Flor, 
were  enthusiastically  admired 

by  Michelangelo  ;  the  finest  are  a  Pieti  in  S.  Maria  Pom- 
posa  and  a  large  Descent  from  tlio  Cross  in  S.  Francesco 


-Group  byGiovanni  Ja  Bo« 
logua,  formerly  iu  Brasenose  Col. 
lege,  Oxford  ;  destroyed  iu  1881 


57C 


SCULPTURE 


[ITaIj.aN, 


both  at  Modena.  The  colossal  bronae  seated  statue  of 
Jaliuij  III.,  at)  Perugia,  cast  in  1555  by  Vir-.aeBzo  Danti,  is 
one  of  the  best  portiaiti-flgures  of  the  timt 

The  chief  sculptor  aud  architect  of  tb©  ITth  century  was 
the  Xeapolitau  Bernini  (159^-1680),  who,  with  the  aid  of 
a  large  .school  of  assistants,  jiroduced  an  almost  incredible 
quantity  of  sculpture  of  the  most  varyinfj  degives  of  merit 
and  hideousness.  His  chief  early  group,  the  Apollo  and 
Daiihne  in  the  Borghese  casino,  is  a  work  of  wonderful 
technical  skill  and  delicate  high  finish,  combined  with  soft 
beauty  and  grace,  though  too  pictorial  in  style.  In  later 
life  Bernini  turned  out  work  of  brutal  coarsenens,'  designed 
in  a  thoroughly  unsculpturesque  spirit.  The  churches  of 
ilome,  the  colonnade  of  St.  Peter's,  and  the  bridge  of  S. 
Angelo  are  crowded  with  his  clumsy  colossal  figures,  half 
draped  in  wildly  Skittering  garments, —perfect  models  of 
Iwliat  is  wor3t  in  the  plastic  ai-t.  'And  yet  his  works  re- 
ceived perhaps  more  praise  tlian  those  of  any  other  sculptor 
of  any  age,  aud  after  his  deatli  a  scaffolding  was  erected 
outkde  the  bridge  of  S.  Angelo  in  order  that  people  might 
walk  round  and  admire  his  rows  of  feeble  half -naked 
angels.  For  all  that,  Bernini  was  a  man  of  undoubte4 
talent,  aud  in  a  better  period  of  art  would  have  been  a: 
sculptor  of  the  first  rank';  many  of  bis  portrait-busts  are 
works  of  great  vigour  and  dignity,  quite  free  from  the 
mannered  extravagance  of  liis  larger  sculpture.  Stefano 
Maderna  (1571-1636)  was  the  ablest  of  his  contempo- 
raries ;  his  clever  and  much  admired  statue,  the  figure  of 
the  dead  S.  Cecilia  under  the  high  altar  of  her  basilica, 
is  chiefjy  remarkable  for  its  deathlike  pose  and  the  realistic 
treatment  of  the  drapery.  Another  clever  sculptor  was 
Alessandro  Algardi'of  Bologna  (1598 M654). 

In  the  next  century  at  Naples  Queirolo,  Corradini,  and 
Sammartino  produced  a  number  of  statues,  now  in  the 
chapel  of  S.  Maria  de'  Sangri,  which  are  extraordinary 
examples  of  wasted  labour  aud  ignorance  of  the  simplest 
canons  of  plastic  art.  These  are  marble  statues  enmeshed 
in  nets  or  covered  with  thin  veils,  executed  with  almost 
deceptive  realism,  perhaps  the  fewest  stage  of  tricky  de- 
gradation into  which  the  sculptor's  art  could  possibly  fall,^ 
lu  the  18th  century  Italy  was  naturally  the  headquarters 
of  the  classical  revival,  which  spread  thence  throughout 
most  of  Europe.  Canova  (1757-1822),  a  Venetian  by 
birth,  who  spent  most  of  his  life  in  Rome,  was  perhaps 
the  leading  spiiit  of  this  movement,  and  became  the  most 
popular  sculptor  of  his  time.  His  work  is  very  unequal  in 
merit,  mostly  dull  and  uninteresting  in  style,  and  is  occa- 
sionally marred  by  a  meretricious  spirit  very  contrary  to 
the  true  classic  feeling.  '  His  group  of  the  Three  Graces, 
the  Hebe,  and  the  very  popular  Dancing-Girls,  copies  of 
which  in  plaster  disfigure  the  stairs  of  countless  modern 
hotels  and  other  buildings  on  the  Continent,  are  typical 
examples  of  Canova's  worst  work.  ,Some  of  his  sculpture 
is  designed  with  far  more  of  the  purity  of  antique  art ; 
his  finest  work  is  the  colossal  group  of  Theseus  slaying  a 
Centaur  at  Vienna  (see^fig.  22),  Canova's  attempts  at 
Chri.?tian  sculpture  are  singularly  unsuccessful,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, his  pretentious  monument  to  Pope  Clement  XIII. 
in  St  Peter's  at  Rome,  that  to  Titian  at  Venice,  and 
Alfieri's  tomb  in  the  Florentine  church  of  S.  Croce.  Fiesole 
has  in  this  century  produced  one  sculptor  of  great  talent, 
named  Bastianini.  He  worked  in  the  style  of  the  great 
1 5th-century  Florentine  sculptors,  and  followed  especially 
the  methods  of  his  distinguished  fellow-townsman  Mino  da 


'  The  Ludovisi  group  of  Pluto  carrj'iug  off  Proserpine  is  a  striking 
example,  and  sliows  Beruini's  deterioration  of  style  in  titer  life.  It  has 
nothing  in  common  with  the  Cain  and  Abel  or  the  Apollo  and  Daphne 
of  his  earlier  years. 

-  In  the  present  century  an  Italian  sculptor  named  Monti  won  much 
popular  repute  by  similar  unworthy  tricks ;  some  veiled  statues  by  him 
iu  the  London  Ezhibitiou  of  1851  were  greatly  admired. 


Fiesole.  .  Many,  of  Bastianini's  works  are  hardly  to  be  di»^ 
tinguisbed  from  genuine  sculpture  of  the  15th  century^ 
and  in  some  cases  enormous  prices  have  been  paid  foe 


5^^^ 


♦a 


Fia.  22. — Colossal  marble  group  of  Theseus  aud  a  ceutaurSiy,  Canovi^ 
^at  Vienna.' 

them  under  the  supposition  that  they  were  medireval  .^ro^ 
ductions.  These  frauds  were,  however,  perpetrated  without, 
Bastianini's  knowledge. :. 

Scandhmvia,  dv. — By  far  the  greatest  scnlptof  of  tie 
classical  revival  was  Bertel  Thorw^aldsen  (1770-1844),_^'an 
Icelander  by  race,  whose  boyhood  was  spent  at  Copenhagen', 
and  who  settled  in  Rome  in  1797,  when  Canova's  fame^was 
at  its  highest  point. ^  He  produced  an  immense-^quantity 
of  grouj)s,  single  statues,  and  reliefs,  chiefly  Greek'  and 
Roman  deities,  many  of  which  show  more  of  the' true 
spirit  of  antique  art  than  has  baott  attained  by  any  other 
modem  scu'ptor.  His  group  of  the  Three  Graces  is  for 
purity  of  form  and  sculpturesque  simplicity  far  superior 
to  that  of  the  same  subject  by  Canova.  No  .sculptor's 
works  have  ever  been  exhibited  as  a  whole  in  so  perfect  a 
manner  as  Thorwaldsen's ;  they  'are  collected  in  a  fine 
building  which  has  been  specially  erected  to  contain  them 
at  Copenhagen;  he  is  buried  in  the  courtyard. 'v' The 
Swedish  sculptors  Tobias  Sergell  and  Johann  Bystrom  be- 
longed to  the  classic  school ;  the  latter  followed  in  Thorwald; 
sen's  footstei^s.  Another.  Swede  named  Fogelberg  was 
famed  chiefly  for  his  sculptured  subjects  taken  from  Norse 
mythology.  W.  Bissen  and  Jerichau  of  Denmark  have 
produced  some  able  works, — the  former  a  fine  equestrian 
statue  of  Frederick  VII.  at  Copenhagen,  and  the  latter  a 
very  spirited  and  widely  known  group  of  a  Man  attacked 
by  a  Panther. 

Within  recent  years  Russia,  Poland,  and  other  countries 
have  produced  many  sculptors,  most  of  whom  belong  to 
the  modern  German  or  French  schools.  Rome  is  still  a 
favoitrite  place  of  residence  for  the  sculptors  of  all  coun- 
tries, but  can  hardly  be  said  to  possess  a  school  of  its  own. 
The  sculptors  of  America  almost  invariably  study  at  one 
of  the  great  European  centres  of  plastic  art,  especially  in 
Paris.  Hiram  Powers  of  Cincinnati,  who  produced  one 
work  of  merit,  a  nude  female  figure,  called  the  Greek 
Slave,  exhibited  in  London  in  1851,  lived  and  worked  in 
Florence.  A  number  of  living  American  sculptors  now- 
reside  both  there  and  in  Rome.'' 

'  See  Eug.  Plon,  I'w  de  Tliorwchlscn,  Paris,  1867. 

*  On  Italian  and  Spauish  sculpture,  see  Vasari,  Trallato  dclla  Scut.- 


SCULP'TURE 


571 


Tecihcicai.  Methods  of  the  Sculptor. 

r  The  pio'luclion  of  lironzo  statues  by  the  cire  perdue  process  is 
Jcscribcil  in  the  avliolc  ilr.TAL-woRK,  vol.  xri.  p.  72;  this  is  now 
but  little  practised  out  of  Paris. 

Fcr  tlie  execution  of  a  marble  statue  the  sculptor  first  models  a 
jjfcliminary  s1;ctch  on  a  small  scale  in  clay  or  wax.  He  then,  in 
the  case  of  a  life-sized  or  colossal  statue,  has  a  sort  of  iron  skeleton 
set  up,  with  stout  bars  for  the  arms  aud  legs,  fi.xed  in  the  pose  of 
tlie  future  figure.  This  is  placed  on  a  stand  with  a  revolring  top, 
so  that  the  sculptor  can  easily  turn  the  whole  model  round  and 
thus  work  with  the  liglit  on  any  side  of  it.  Over  this  ii'on  skeleton 
wi-ll-tcnipcred  modcliin"-cIay  is  laid  and  is  modelled  into  shape 
by  the  help  of  wood  anif  bone  tools  ;  without  the  ironwork  a  soft 
clay  figure,  if  more  than  a  few  incites  high,  would  collapse  with 
its  own  weight  and  squeeze  the  lower  part  out  of  shape.  While 
the  modelling  is  in  progress  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  clay  moist 
'  and  plastic,  by  squirting  water  on  to  it  with  a  sort  of  garden  syringe 
capped  with  a  finely  pciforated  rose.  Vhen  the  sculptor  is  not  at 
work  the  whole  figuie  is  kept  wrapped  up  in  damp  cloths.  A 
modern  improvement  is  to  mix  the  nioJclling-clay,  not  with  water, 
but  with  stearin  and  glycerin  ;  this,  while  keeping  the  clay  soft 
and  plastic,  has  the  great  advantage  of  not  being  wet,  and  so  the 
sculptor  avoids  the  chill  and  consequent  risk  of  rheumatism  which 
fiillow  from  a  constant  manipulation  of  wet  clay.  When  the  clay 
model  is  finished  it  is  cast  in  plaster.  A  "piece-mould"'  is  formed 
\>y  applying  patches  of  wet  plaster  of  Paris  all  over  the  clay  statue 
in  such  a  way  that  they  can  be  removed  piecemeal  from  the  modjl, 
and  then  be  titled  together  again,  forming  a  complete  hollow  mould. 
i'ho  inside  is  then  rinscil  out  with  plaster  and  water  mixed  to  the 
consistency  of  cream  till  a  skin  of  plaster  is  formed  all  over  the 
inner  surface  of  the  mould,  and  thus  a  hollow  cast  is  made  of  the 
whole  fignrc.  The  "piece-mould"  is  then  taken  to  pieces  and  the 
casting  set  free.  If  skilfully  done  by  a  good/orjjm^ore  or  moulder 
the  plaster  cast  is  a  perfect  facsimile  of  the  original  clay,  very 
slightly  disfigured  by  a  series  of  lines  showing  the  joints  in  tlie 
piece-mould,  the  sections  of  which  cannot  be  made  to  fit  together 
with  absolute  precision.  JIaiiy  sculptors  have  their  clay  model 
■Mst  in  plaster  before  the  modelling  is  qnite  finished,  as  they  prefer 
!o  put  the  finishing  touches  on  the  plaster  cast, — good  plaster 
licing  a  very  easy  and  pleasant  substance  to  work  on, 
iDtui^'  The  next  stage  is  to  copy  the  plaster  model  iu  marble.  The 
'  model  is  set  on  a  large  block  called  a  "scale  stone,"  while  the 

irUc.  marble  for  the  future  statue  is  set  nijon  another  similar  block. 
The  plaster  model  is  then  covered  witli  a  series  of  marks,  placed 
jn  all  the  most  salient  [larls  of  the  body,  and  the  front  ol  each 
■'scale  stone  "  is  covered  with  another  series  of  points,  exactly  the 
umo  on  both  stones.  An  ingenious  instrument  called  a  pointing 
machine,  which  Ii.ts  nnns  ending  in  metal  points  or  "needles"  that 
move  in  ball-socket  jointi,  is  placed  between  the  model  and  the 
marble  block.  Two  of  its  arms  arc  then  applied  to  the  model, 
inc  touching  a  point  on  the  scale  stone  while  the  other  touches  a 
mark  on  the  figure.  The  arms  arc  fixed  by  screws  in  this  position, 
and  the  machine  is  then  revolved  to  the  marble  block,  and  set 
with  its  lower  needle  touching  tho  corresponding  point  on  the 
scale  stone.  Tho  upper  needle,  which  is  arranged  to  slide  back  on 
its  own  axis,  cannot  reach  tlic  corrcspouding  point  on  the  statue 
because  tho  marble  block  is  in  the  way ;  a  hole  is  then  drilled  iiito 
tho  block  at  the  place  and  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the  needle, 
till  the  hitter  can  slide  forward  so  as  to  re.aeh  a  point  sunk  in  tho 
marble  block  exactly  corresponding  io  the  point  it  touded  on  tho 
plaster  mould.  This  |u-oces.s  is  repeated  both  on  the  model  and  on 
'.he  marble  block  till  tho  latter  is  drilled  with  a  number  of  holes, 
tho  bottoms  of  which  correspond  in  position  to  the  nnmber  of 
onaiks  made  on  the  surface  of  tho  model,     A  comparatively  un- 

'um,  Floiciicr,  ISilS,  vol.  I.,  Tiwl  liU  Vile  ilei  Pillori,  i(V.,  ml.  Mil.ineiii,  Florence, 
I8S0  ;  IlillMolii',  IKilientxIit  Fortchtini)Cn.  l^ijisic,  1S27-31  :  Dolinip,  Kunit  Mnd 
S*iiil!rr  lliilknt,  LrlpHlc,  1879;  PirkiiiH,  jTliscrnii  Sclilplors,  I.nnilon  (ISCi), 
Mi/(.m  Srii/;.(or«  (ISCS),  mill  Ila, idb-tnk-  of  Hal:  rn  Sciilplitrt  (\fS3);  Robliuon, 
/tntiflii  Sriiliitiire,  Loiidoit,  ISGi ;  Qriincr,  Mannor- liihtuicrkt  dcr  I'isaner, 
fx'iimlo,  ls:ib;  Fcrrc'ii,  I.WrcOiU  S.  A'joslino,  r.nvln,  163'.';  Syinoiiils,  rienalstmiue 
In  llithi,  l,on.loii,  18T7,  \ol.  ill.  ;  Cruwonml  Cnv.il&nsclle,  llisl.  o/  I'dlnllng  In 
llnlii,  l.omlnii,  IsiHl,  vol.  I. ;  SoUatico,  Arrli.  c  Sndlnra  in  Vtiitda,  Venice,  1847  ; 
nicci,  Xlarhi.  ilcir  Areh.  In  Jhilia,  Hcnloiin,  1S57C0 ;  Stiwt  (Animkl  Soclctv), 
irpidchrtU  iloniimenlt  o/  Ihihi,  1S78  ;  Gozjhii,  WoiiKiiiciili  Sej'olcmll  ilc'lla 
fiuninn,  Klorcncc.  1S19;  Do  Jli>iit.iull,  in  Hcidrliire  r.dUjkust  i  Romt,  Rome, 
1870— a  Klvncli  olitluii  (wKli  liiiprnvcil  tpNt)  of  Tii=*l  anil  Brcclilo.  Monvhienli 
iucri  ill  noinn,  lloinc,  ISJ  J ;  CavalluccI  niiil  .Mollnlcr,  Lrs  Drila  Jiabbin,  PnrU, 
ISW  ;  Cico;;iinin,  .VuiHiniriili  ill  IViirrin,  Venice,  1S:;S-I0;  Durgc*  nnil  Dlilron, 
lcon«tim)<liiK  ilr.1  Chnjiilnur  iln  I'nlnit  Difeal  i  I'rnitf,  r.irls,  1SJ7  ;  niclitor. 
■'Sciil|ilino  of  S.  JIark'H  .it  Vpiiico,"  ilarmilln ii'i  ,\M'i..  Jnno  ISSO  ;  Tciiinnw, 
^ileilifill  Siiillorl  IViirridiil,  Vi-nlcp,  1778;  Diiilo  niul  /.iilolln,  Monumrnli  dl 
''cnezia,  Milan,  1S:10  ;  ScliiiU,  DfukuuiUr  tier  Kiinal  In  I'lilcr-Hnlien,  Dirvlcn, 
MO;  UrlMPkinaiiii,  CiV  Sriilitliir  rou  R.  Clluil,  Li'insic,  JSU7  ;  Kiig.  I'lun, 
:cllini,tn  VI,;  he.,  iP.llli,  JSS2  ;  MniCHninl  Clrnpinra,  II  urKtlf/Caiioia,  Ixinilon, 
*S'24-'JS  ;  Pii-olj,  l'\ti)(nti.i,  mill  olliri^,  a  si'iios  of  ciipitivcil  /Vii/ej  n/  Cniiovn't 
'l'ort.g,  a.\.Hn. :  Oiullint,  t.es  Arlhl,i  en  h>ini<nir,  P.Trln,  1870;  Cjinlprcm  y 
^olniio,  hmormiHn  Knitnnolrt,  .'•'iii'o  Xl.XVIf.,  JIniliM,  ISiSlU  ;  ,1/oiiiiMriiloi 
Irqnitcctonti-oj  t}f.  t\siH(nn,  iitiblthliiti  liy  tlii'  Simntsll  (jovu-nniL'uL  ls:)9.  ouU 

•till  ill  |i|ii;-|v>iK. 

*  Miiiilils  iimili-  III  one  or  few  lu'i-ci-i.  noiii  wliicli  (hccn«t  can  only  lieoxlractwl 
<iy  ilfstrnyin;;  the  iiintilil,  nri*  c:illi'il  "«ltiiil-inotiIi|.i."  A  I.irp-  nliliiluM-  itf  cnHtt 
I'an  be  in;ulo  fruiii  a  "  iilccc-iiu'iilil,"  but  only  uiic  fruiii  a  "sinill-iiiouUl." 


skilled  scarpellino  or  "chisel-man  "  then  sets  to  work  and  cats  away 
the  marble  till  ho  has  reached  the  bottoms  of  all  the  holes,  beyond 
which  he  must  not  cut  The  statue  is  thus  roughly  blocked  out, 
and  a  more  skilled  scarpcllixo  begins  to  work.  Partly  by  eye  and 
partly  with  the  constant  help  of  tho  pointing  machine,  wliich  i.' 
used  to  give  any  required  measurements,  the  workman  almost  com' 
pletes  the  marble  statue,  leaving  only  the  finislung  touches  to  b( 
done  by  the  sculptor. 

Among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  and  in  the  mediseva) 
period  it  was  the  custom  to  give  the  nude  parts  of  a  marble  statui 
a  considerable  degree  of  polish,  which  really  su^^ests  the  somewhat 
glossy  surface  of  the  human  skin  very  much  Better  than  the  dull 
loaf  -  sugar  -  like  surface  which  is  left  on  the  marble  by  modern 
sculptors.  This  liigh  polish  still  remains  in  parts  of  the  pedimcntal 
figures  from  the  Partnenon,  where,  at  the  back,  they  have  been 
specially  protected  from  the  weather.  The  Hermes  of  the  Vatican 
Belviderc  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  the  preser\ation  of  this  polish, 
Jlichelangelo  carried  tho  practice  further  still,  and  gave  certain 
parts  of  some  of  his  statues,  such  as  tlie  Jloses,  the  highest  possibia 
polish  in  oi-der  to  produce  high  lights  just  where  he  wanted  them  ■, 
the  artistic  legitimacy  of  this  may  perhaps  be  donbted,  and  in 
weaker  hands  it  might  degenerate  into  mere  trickery, .  It  is,  however, 
much  to  be  desired  that  modern  sculptors  should  to  some  extent 
at  least  adopt  the  classical  practice,  and  by  a  slight  but  uniform 
polisli  remove  the  disagreeable  crystalline  grain  from  all  the  nude 
parts  of  the  marble, 

A.  rougher  method  o.  obtaining  fixed  points  to  measure  from  was 
occasionally  employed  by  Michelangelo  and  eai'lier  sculptors.  They 
immersed  the  model  in  a  tank  of  water,  the  water  being  gradually 
allowed  to  run  out,  and  thus  by  its  sinking  level  it  gave  a  series  ot 
contour  lines  on  any  required  number  of  planes.  In  some  cases 
Jlichelangelo  appears  to  have  cut  his  statue  out  of  the  marble  with- 
out previously  making  a  model — a  most  marvellous  feat  of  skill. 

In  modelling  bas-reliefs  the  modern  sculptor  usually  applies  the 
clay  to  a  slab  of  slate  on  which  tho  design  is  sketched  ;  the  slate 
forms  the  background  of  the  figures,  and  thus  keeps  the  relief 
ab-wlutely  true  to  one  plane.  This  method  is  one  of  the  causes  of 
the  dulncss  and  want  of  spirit  so  conspicuous  in  most  modern 
sculptured  reliefs.  In  the  best  Greek  examples  there  is  no  ab- 
solutely fixed  plane  surface  for  the  backgrounds.  In  one  place, 
to  gain  an  efl'ective  shadow,  the  Greek  sculptor  would  cut  below 
the  average  surface ;  in  another  he  wonld  leave  the  gi-ound  at  a 
higher  plane,  exactly  as  happened  to  suit  each  portion  of  his 
design.  Other  differences  fioni  the  modern  mechanical  rules  can 
easily  be  seen  by  a  careful  examination  of  the  Parthenon  frieze  and 
other  Greek  reliefs.  Though  the  word  "  bas-relief  "  is  now  often 
applied  to  reliefs  of  all  degrees  of  projection  from  the  ground,  it 
should,  of  course,  only  be  used  for  those  in  which  the  projection  is 
slight;  "basso,"  "mezzo,"  and  "alto  rilievo"  express  three  different 
degrees  of  salience.  Very  low  iclief  is  but  little  used  by  modern 
sculptors,  mainly  because  it  is  much  easier  to  obtain  sti-iking 
effects  with  the  help  of  more  projection.  Donatello  and  other  1 5th- 
ccnlury  Italian  artists  showed  the  most  wonderful  skill  in  their 
treatment  of  very  low  relief.  One  not  altogether  legitimate 
method  of  gaining  effect  was  practised  by  some  mediteval  sculptors : 
tho  relief  itself  was  kept  verj-  low,  but  was  "stilted  "  or  projected 
from  tho  gi'ound,  and  then  undcreut  all  round  tho  outline,  A 
15th-century  tabernacle  for  the  host  in  the  Brera  at  Slilan  is  a 
very  beautiful  example  of  this  method,  which  as  a  rule  is  not 
pleasing  in  effect,  since  it  looks  rather  as  if  the  figures  were  cut 
out  in  cardboard  and  then  stuck  on. 

The  practice  of  most  modern  sculptors  is  to  do  very  little  to  the 
marble  with  their  own  hands ;  some,  in  fact,  have  never  really 
lenint  how  to  carve,  and  thus  tho  finished  statje  is  often  very 
dull  and  lifeless  in  comparison  with  tlic  clay  model.  Host  of  tho 
great  sculptors  of  tho  Jliddlo  Ages  left  little  or  nothing  to  be  done 
by  nn  assistant ;  Jlichel.ingelo  especially  did  the  whole  of  tho 
carving  with  his  own  hands,  and  when  beginning  on  a  block  of 
marble  attacked  it  with  such  vigorous  strokes  of  the  h.immcr  that 
large  jiieces  of  marble  flew  about  in  every  direction,  lint  skill  as 
a  carver,  though  very  desirable,  is  not  absolutely  necessary  for  a 
sculptor.  If  he  casts  in  bronze  by  tho  ci'rc  jKidiie  process  lie  may 
proiluco  tho  most  perfect  plastic  works  without  touching  nnylhiiig 
Iiarder  tlian  tho  modelling-wnx.  The  sculptor  in  marble,  however, 
must  bo  able  to  carve  a  hard  substance  if  ho  is  to  be  master  of  his 
art,  Unhapjiily  sonio  modern  sculptors  not  only  leave  all  mnui- 
pulatlon  of  tho  mnrblo  to  their  woikinon,  but  they  also  employ 
men  to  do  their  modelling,  the  supposed  sculptor  supplying  littlo 
or  nothing  but  his  imnio  to  tho  work.  In  sonio  cases  sculptor* 
who  arc  neither  one  nor  the  other,  but  who  suffer  under  an  excess 
of  populiirity,  are  induced  to  employ  aid  of  this  kind  on  Pivonirt  of 
their  undertaking  more  wink  tlian  any  one  man  could  jios-iibly 
occoniplish,— a  stale  of  things  which  i.H  neccsnarily  very  hostile  to 
the  intcivsts  of  true  art  As  a  rulo,  however,  tho  sculptor's  sair- 
IKltiiio,  though  he  may  and  often  docs  attain  the  highest  skill  a\ 
0  carver  and  can  cojiy  almost  anything  with  wonderful  fidelity, 
seldom  develops  into  an  original  artist     The  popular  admiration 


572 


S  C  U  —  8  C  U 


for  pieces  of  clever  triclccry  in  sculpture,  such  as  the  carving  of  the 
open  meshes  of  a  fisherman's  net,  or  a  chain  with  each  link  free 
ind  movable,  -would  perhaps  be  diminished  if  it  were  known  that 
Euch  vi-ork  as  this  is  invariably  done,  not  by  the  sculptor,  but  by 
the  scarpcllino.  Unhappily  at  the  present  day  there  is,  especially  in 
England,  little  appreciation  of  what  is  valuable  in  plastic-art ;  there 
IS  probably  no  other  civilized  country  where  the  state  does  so  little  to 
give  practical  support  to  the  advancement  of  monumental  and  deco- 
rative sculpture  on  a  large  scale — the  most  important  branch  of  the 
nrt — which  it  is  hardly  in  the  power  of  jirivate  persons  to  further. 


LiUrciMre.—On  llie  genei-al  liistory  of  Christian  Sculpture,  see  AgincouT^ 
Flsloire  de  I'Art,  Paris,  1S23 ;  Du  Soiunicrard,  Lcs  Arts  an  ^lo>it<i-A'jz,  Paris. 
1S39-46;  Cicognara,  Sloria  lUUn  Scvllutxi,  Pratn,  1323-14  ;  Westuiaeott,  //mid- 
hook  of  Sculpture,  Edinburgh,  lSo-1;  Lubke,  Hislo-y  of  Sculpture,  Eng.  trans., 
London,  1S72  ;  Ruskin,  Aratra  Pentctki  (six  lectiu-es  on  sculpture),  London, 

1572  ;  Viardot,  Lcs  MerveiUes  tie  lit  Sivtpturc,  Paris,  1S69  ;  Arseune  and  Denis, 
Manud  .  .  .  (tu  Sculpteur,  Paris,  1S5S  ;  Clarac,  Musee  de  Sculpture,  Riris. 
1826-53;  Denunin,  EncijclophUe  (Us  Beaux-Arts  plastiqries,  P.Tiis,  1S72-T5,  vol. 
iii.  ;  Didron,  CEuvres  de  Bri^nse  du  yioyen-Age,  Paris,  1S59  ;  Fortnum,  Bronze\ 
ill  the  South  Kensiufjton  Mi'scur.i,  1S7~;  Finociiietti,  Scultura  in  Leguo,  Florence, 

1573  ;  Anon.,  Oruuti  del  Coro  di  S,  Ptetro  de'  Cassinesi  c  Pertt^Ui,  Rome,  18 '5. 
See  als9  the  list^  of  works  given  in  tlie  preceding  pages,  and  those  in  lUe 
articles  on  individual  sculptors  and  in  that  ou  Metal-wobk.         (J.  H.  M.) 


SCUE^T,  or  ScoKBUTUS,  a  morbid  condition  of  the 
blood,  manifesting  itself  by  marked  impairment  of  the 
nutritive  functions  and  by  the  occurrence  of  hemorrhagic 
extravasations  in  the  tissues  of  the  body,  and  depending 
on  the  absence  of  certain  essential  ingredients  in  the  food. 

In  former  times  this  disease  was  extremely  common 
among  sailore,  and  gave  rise  to  a  frightful  amount  of 
mortality.  It  is  now,  however,  of  rare  occurrence  at  sea, 
its  cause  being  well  understood  and  its  prevention  readily 
secured  by  simple  measures.  Scurvy  has  also  frequently 
broken  out  among  soldiers  on  campaign,  in  beleaguered 
cities,  as  well  as  among  communities  in  times  of  scarcity, 
and  in  prisons,  workhouses,  and  other  public  institutions. 
In  all  such  instances  it  has  been  found  to  depend  closely 
upon  the  character  and  amount  of  the  food.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  a  too  limited  diet,  either  in  amount  or 
variety,  might  induce  the  disease ;  but  an  overwhelming 
weight  of  evidence  goes  to  prove  that  the  cause  resides  in 
the  inadequate  supply  or  the  entire  want  of  fresh  vegetable 
matter.  The  manner  in  which  this  produces  scurvy  is  not 
quite  clear.  Some  high  authorities  have  held  that  the 
insufficient  supply  of  potash  salts,  in  which  vegetables  are 
rich,  is  the  procuring  cause  ;  but  it  has  been  found  that  the 
mere  administration  of  these  salts  will  neither  prevent  nor 
cure  scurvy.  Hence,  while  it  is  probable  that  this  may 
be  one  of  the  factors  concerned  in  the  production  of  the 
disease,  the  want  of  other  vegetable  constituents,  especially 
vegetable  acids,  is  of  still  greater  importance.  Besides  this 
essential  defect,  a  diminution  in  the  total  amount  of  food, 
the  large  tise  of  salted  meat  or  fish,  and  all  causes  of  a 
depressing  kind,  such  as  exposure,  anxiety,  bad  hygiene, 
ic,  will  powerfully  contribute  to  the  development  of  the 
disease.     See  Dietetics,  vol.  vii.  pp.  207-208. 

The  symptoms  of  scurvy  come  on  gradually,  and  its 
onset  is  not  marked  by  any  special  indications  beyond  a 
certar^  failure  of  strength,  most  manifest  on  making  effort. 
Breathlessness  and  exhaustion  are  thus  easily  induced, 
and  there  exists  a  corresponding  mental  depression.  The 
countenance  acquires  a  sallow  or  dusky  hue ;  the  eyes  are 
sunken  ;  while  pains  in  the  muscles  of  the  body  and  limbs 
are  constantly  present.  The  appetite  and  digestion  may 
be  unimpaired  in  the  earlier  stages  and  the  tongue  com- 
paratively clean,  but  the  gums  are  tender  and  the  breath 
offensive  almost  from  the  first.  These  preliminary  symp- 
toms may  continue  for  w-eeks,  and  in  isolated  cases  may 
readily  escape  notice,  but  can  scarcely  fail  to  attract  atten- 
tion where  they  aft'ect  large  numbers  of  men.  In  the  further 
stages  of  the  disease  all  these  phenomena  are  aggravated 
in  a  high  degree  and  the  physical  and  mental  prostration 
soon  becomes  extreme.  The  face  looks  haggard ;  the  gums 
are  livid,  spongy,  ulcerating,  and  bleeding ;  the  teeth  are 
loosened  and  drop  out ;  and  the  breath  is  excessively  fetid. 
Extravasations  of  blood  now  take  place  in  the  skin  and 
other  textures.  These  may  be  small  like  the  petechial 
spots  of  purpura  (see  Purpura),  but  are  often  of  large 
amount  and  cause  swellings  of  the  muscles  in  which  they 
occur,  having  the  appearance  of  extensive  bruises  and 
tending  to  become  hard  and  brawny.  These  extravasa- 
tions are  most  common  in  the  muscles  of  the  lower  ex- 
tremities ;  but  they  may  be  formed  anywhere,  and  may 


easily  be  produced  by  very  slight  pressure  upon  the  skin 
or  by  injuries  to  it.  In  addition,  there  are  bleedings  from 
mucous  membranes,  such  as  those  of  the  nose,  eyes,  and 
alimentary  or  respiratory  tracts,  while  efi'usions  of  blood- 
stained fluid  take  place  into  the  pleural,  pericardial,  or 
peritoneal  cavities.  Painful,  extensive,  and  destructive 
idcers  are  also  apt  to  break  out  in  the  limbs.  Peculiar 
disorders  of  vision  have  been  noticed,  particularly  night- 
blindness  (nyctalopia),  but  they  are  not  invariably  present, 
nor  specially  characteristic  of  the  disease.  The  further 
progress  of  the  malady  is  marked  by  profound  exhaustion, 
with  a  fendency  to  syncope,  and  with  various  complications, 
such  as  diarrhoea  and  pulmonary  or  kidney  troubles,  any 
or  all  of  which  may  bring  about  a  fatal  result.  On  the 
other  hand,  even  in  desperate  cases,  recovery  may  be  hope- 
fully anticipated  when  the  appropriate  remedy  can  be 
obtained.  The  composition  of  the  blood  is  materially 
altered  in  scurvy,  particularly  as  regards  its  albumen  and 
its  red  corj^uscles,  which  are  diminished,  while  the  fibrine 
is  increased. 

No  disease  is-  more  amenable  to  treatment  both  as  re- 
gards prevention  and  cure  than  scurvy,  the  single  remedy 
of  fresh  vegetables  or  some  equivalent  securing  both  these 
ends.  Potatoes,  cabbages,  onions,  carrots,  turnips,  ic., 
and  most  fresh  fruits,  will  be  found  of  the  greatest  service 
for  this  purpose.  Lime  juice  and  lemon  juice  are  re- 
cognized as  equally  eflicacious,  and  even  vinegar  in  the 
absence  of  these  will  be  of  some  assistance.  The  regulated 
administration  of  lime  jmce  in  the  British  navy,  which  has 
been  practised  since  1795,  has  had  the  effect  of  virtually 
extinguishing  scurvy  in  the  service,  while  similar  regula- 
tions introduced  by  the  British  Board  of  Trade  in  lSCi5 
have  had  a  like  beneficial  result  as  regards  the  mercantile 
marine.  It  is  only  when  these  regulations  have  not  been 
fully  carried  out,  or  when  the  supply  of  lime  juice  has 
become  exhausted,  that  scurvy  among  sailors  has  been 
noticed  in  recent  times.  Besides  the  administration  of 
lime  or  lemon  juice  and  the  use  of  fresh  meat,  milk,  &c., 
which %re  valuable  adjuvants,  the  local  and  constitutional 
conditions  require  the  attention  of  the  physician.  The 
ulcers  of  the  gums  and  limbs  can  be  best  treated  by  stimu- 
lating astringent  applications;  the  hard  swellings,  which 
are  apt  to  continue  long,  may  be  alleviated  Jtyy  fomenta- 
tions and  frictions ;  while  the  anaemia  and  debility  are  best 
overcome  by  the  continued  administration  of  iron  tonics, 
aided  by  fresh  air  and  other  measures  calculated  to  pro- 
mote the  general  health. 

SCUTAGE  or  Escttage  was  one  of  the  forms  of  knight- 
service  (see  ICnighthood,  Real  Estate).  It  was  prac- 
tically a  composition  for  personal  service.  "When  levied 
on  a  knight's  fee  it  was  called  scutage  uncertain,  as  its 
amount  depended  upon  the  present  needs  of  the  crown. 
Scutage  certain  was  a  socage  tenure,  and  consisted  in  the 
payment  of  a  sum  fixed  in  amount  and  payable  at  regular 
times.  Scfltage  appears  to  have  been  first  imposed  on  the 
occasion  of  the  Toulouse  War  in  1159.  Magna  Charta 
(§  12)  forbade  the  levy  of  scutage  unless  per  commune  con- 
silium regni.  It  appears  to  have  fallen  into  disuse  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  II.,  and  was  finally  done  away  with  liy 
the  Act  abolishing  feudal  tenures  (12  Car.  II.  c.  24). 


S  C  U  — S  C  Y 


573 


SCUTARI  (Turkish,  Vslciidar),  anciently  Cnrysnpmis,  a 
seaport  town  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  on  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  Bosphorus,  opposite  Constantinople  (see  plan,  vol.  vi. 
p.  305),  of  -which  it  is  regarded  as  a  suburb.  Climbing 
the  slopes  of  several  hills  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre, 
its  houses  generally  painted  in  red,  distinguished  by  a 
number  of  mosqnes  adorned  with  numerous  minarets,  pos- 
sessing some  fine  bazaars  and  public  baths,  and  merging 
farther  inland  into  burying-grounds,  gardens,  and  villas, 
Scutari  presents  a  very  picturesque  appearance,  especially 
when  viewed  from  the  bridge  of  the  Golden  Horn  or  ap- 
proached from  the  Straits  of  Constantinople  right  in  front 
of  its  most  prominent  point.  The  inhabitants  are  largely 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  saddlery  and  silk,  muslin, 
and  cotton  stuffs  ;  the  town  also  contains  granaries  and  is 
prized  as  a  fruit-market,  more  particularly  for  grapes, 
lemons,  and  figs.  The  population  is  estimated  at  60,000 
(entirely  Jlohammedan,  with  the  exception  of  some  Jews). 
The  streets,  especially  the  main  street  leading  from  the  pier 
to  the  barracks,  are  in  general  much  wider  than  those  of 
Constantinople.  The  city  includes  eight  mosques.  Behind 
the  landing-place  is  the  Biijiik  Jami  (great  mosque),  sur- 
mounted by  a  cupola.and  a  minaret  and  presenting  terraces 
mammillated  by  small  leaden  domes.  The  centre  of  the 
square  is  adorned  by  a  fountain  of  simple  architecture. 
The  mosque  of  Selim  III.,  farther  in  the  interior  of  the  city, 
is  likewise  flanked  by  two  minarets  and  surmounted  by  a 
cupola.  The  most  elegant  mosque,  however,  is  the  Valide 
Jami  or  mosque  of  the  dowager  sultana,  surmounted  by  two 
minarets,  built  in  1547  by  the  daughter  of  Solyman. 
Another  [prominent. mosque,  on  the  right  of  the  main  street 
Jind  south  of  Biijiik  Jami,  is  Jeni  Jami  (new  mosque). 
Other  noticeable  buildings  are  the  barracks  built  by  Selim 
III.,  forming  a  handsome  and  vast  quadrangle  surmounted 
by  a  tower  at  each  angle,  and  whose  corridors,  ifcc,  are  calcu- 
lated to  have  an  aggregate  length  of  4  miles ;  an  old  large 
red  building  now  used  as  a  military  hospital,  and  during 
the  Crimean  War  as  a  hospital  for  the  English  sick  and 
wounded ;  a  seraglio  of  the  sultans ;  a  convent  of  howling 
dervishes,  a  simple  wooden  structure  of  two  stories  front- 
ing a  small  cemetery.  Other  business  quarters  of  the 
town  deserving  mention  are  Jeni  Mahalle  (new  quarter) 
and  the  Dohanjilar  Mejdani  (tobacco  merchants'  square). 
The.  most  characteristic  feature,  however,  of  Scutari  is  its 
immense  cemetery,  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  of  all 
the  cemeterfes  in  and  around  Constantinople,  extending 
over  more  than  3  miles  of  undulating  plain  behind  the 
town.i  In  the  centre  of  the  ground  rises  the  magnificent 
dome,  supported  by  six  marble  pillars,  which  Sultan 
Mohammed  erected  in  memory  of  hb  favourite  horsci 
Close  to  the  barracks,  on  the  Bosphoru.s,  the  scene  of 
Miss  Nightingale's  labours,  8000  English  dead  are  over- 
shadowed by  a  largo  granite  obelisk.  Immediately  behind 
the  iovm  is  the  mountain  of  Bulgurlu  clad  in  evergreen 
savins  and  red  beeches,  one  of  the  plateaus  of  which  is  a 
favourite  holiday  resort.  Its  summit  commands  a  very 
extensive  view.  In  the  .plain  of  Ilaidac  Pasha  close  by, 
between  the  cemetery  and  Kadikoi  (judge's  village, 
anciently  Chalcedon),  the  English  anny  lay  encamped 
during  the  Crimean  War.     In  front  of  Scutari,  on  a  low- 

'  The  cemetery  yi  intersected  with  numerous  paved  nllcyH,  and  the 
tombstones  tire  inscribed  with  verse-i  of  the  Koran  gilded  on  a  d.irk 
blue  ground  and  bearing  each  simply  the  name  of  the  deceased.  The 
monuments  of  the  men  are  distinguished  each  by  a  turban,  those  of 
the  women  each  by  a  lotus  leaf.  The  nature  of  tlio  carved  turban 
indicates  tho  rank  of  the  decea,sed  and  the  fashion  of  the  time  to 
which  it  refers,. 80  that  tho  tombstones  present  the  sculplured  history 
of  the  Mohammeilan  head-dress  from  the  date  of  the  Turkish  conquest. 
Each  corpse  is  allowed  a  scparoto  grave,  never  desecrated  either  by 
axe  or  spado.  Tliis  cemetery  lying  in  Asiatic  ground  is  on  that  account 
the  more  desired  as  a  burial-place  by  pious  Mahommednns,  and  holds 
half  the  generations  of  Stomboul  (probably  some  3,000,000  persons). 


lying  rock  almost  level  with  the  water  and  about  a  cablet 
length  from  the  shore,  rises  a  white  tower  90  feet  high, 
now  used  as  a  lighthouse,  called  "  Leander's  Tower,"  and 
by  the  Turks  Kiz-kultssi,  or  the  "  JIaiden's  Tower."  Tlie 
first  printing  press  in  Turkey  was  set  up  at  Scutari  in  172".. 

Its  ancient  name  Chrysopolis  most  probably  has  reference  to  tlie 
fact  that  there  the  Persinn  ti  ibiite  was  collected  and  rcposited,  as 
at  a  later  date  the  Atlienians  levied  there  too  a  tenth  on  the  sbii-" 
passing  from  the  Euxino.  Its  more  modern  name  of  llskiidaV, 
signifying  a  courier  who  conveys  the  royal  orders  from  station  to 
station,  commemorates  the  fact  that  formerly  Scutari  was  the  poet 
station  for  Asiatic  conriers,  as  it  is  still  the  great  rendervous  and 
point  of  departure  of  caravans  arriving  from  and  destined  for  Syria, 
Persia,  and  other  parts  of  Asia,  and  the  spot  whence  all  travellers 
and  pilgrims  fiom  Constantinojile  to  the  East  begin  their  journeys. 

SCUTARI  (Turkish,  Scodra;  Slavic,  Skadar),  the 
capital  of  North  Albania,  at  the  south  end  of  the  lake  of 
the  same  name,  with  a  population  of  24,500  in  1880 
(mostly  Mohammedans).  There  is  only  one  street  with 
any  pretensions  to  regularity.  The  straggling  to^\Ti  is 
built  on  the  low  flat  promontory  formed  by  the  Bojana, 
which  takes  off  the  waters  of  the  lake  to  the  Adriatic,  and 
the  river  which  flows  into  the  lake  after  crossing  the  plain 
between  Scutari  and  the  mountains  of  Biskassi.  In  winter 
the  town  is  often  flooded  by  the  Bojana.  The  mosques  and 
minarets  are  insignificant;  the  handsomest  of  the  churches 
is  the  Catholic  church  at  the  north-east  end.  In  the 
background  is  an  old  Venetian  fortress  perched  on  a  lofty 
rock.  Tho  to^wn  is  favourably  situated  for  commerce, 
being  connected  by  the  Bojana  with  the  Adriatic,  whence 
its  boats  carry  the  products  which  descend  by  the  Drina  to 
the  mountaineers  in  exchange  for  their  wool,  grain,  and 
dyeing  and  building  woods.  There  are  some  manufac- 
tures of  arms  and  of  cotton  stuffs.  In  1884  330  ships 
of  123,923  tons  entered  the  port  and  325  ships  of  123,713 
tons  cleared. 

Liyy  relates  that  Scodra  was  chosen  as  capital  by  tho  Illyrian 
kinj»  Gcntius,  who  was  here  besieged  in  168  B.C.,  and  carried  cap- 
tive to  Rome.  In  the  7th  century  Scutari  fell  into  the  hands  of 
tho  Servians,  from  whom  it  was  wrested  by  tho  Venetians,  and 
finally,  in  1479,  tho  Turks  acauired  it  by  treaty.  Early  in  1885 
a  beginning  was  made  with  the  construction  of  a  highway  from 
the  roadstead  of  San  Giovanni  de'  Medici  to  Scutari. 

SCYLAX  of  Caryanda  in  Caria  was  employed  by  Darius 
I.  to  explore  the  course  of  the  Indus.  He  started  from 
Afghanistan  and  is  said  by  Herodotus  (iv.  44)  to  have 
reached  tho  sea  and  then  sailed  to  the  Gulf  of  Suez  (comp. 
Persia,  vol.  xviii.  p.  569).  Scylax  wrote  an  account  of 
his  explorations,  which  is  referred  to  by  Aristotle  and  other 
ancient  writers,  but  must  have  been  lost  pretty  early,  and 
probably  also  a  history  of  the  Carian  hero  Heraclides, 
who  distinguished  himself  in  the  revolt  against  Darius.^ 
i3ut  Suidas,  who  mentions  tho  second  work,  confounds  the 
old  Scylax  with  a  much  later  author,  who  mote  a  refuta- 
tion of  tho  history  of  Polybius,  and  is  presumably  identical 
with  Scylax  of  Ilalicarnassus,  a  statesman  and  astrologer, 
the  friend  of  Panxtius  spoken  of  by  Cicero  {De  Div.,  ii.  42). 
Neither  of  these,  however,  can  be  tho  author  of  the  IWi- 
pliis  of  tho  Mediterranean,  which  has  como  down  to  us 
under  the  name  of  Scylax  of  Caryanda  in  several  MSS.,  of 
which  the  archetype  is  at  Paris.  This  work  is  little  more 
than  a  Bailor's  handbook  of  places  and  distances  all  round 
tho  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  and  its  branches,  ami  then 
along  the  outer  Libyan  coast  as  far  as  the  Cirthaginians 
traded  ;  but  various  notices  of  towns  and  tho  Htutcs  to 
which  they  belong  enable  us  to  fix  tlnj  date  will,  consider- 
able precision.  Niebuhr  gave  the  date  352-34H  i.e.,  others 
bring  it  down  a  year  or  two  later,  and  C.  Muller  as  late 
as  338-335,  which  is  only  possible  if  tho  writers  informa- 
tion was  sometimes  rather  stale.  See  tbo  duscuj^ion  w 
Miiller's  edition  {a<roff.  Or.  Min.,  vol.  i.,  Tans,  18yj.),  and 
against  him  Ungcr,  in  J'hiMxjus,  1874,  p.  -^  ^^Zlii:^^!^' 
•  bee  A.  V.  Gutschmidt,  In  Rhein.  Uus.,  1854,  p.  1*1  «!•, 


574 


S  C  Y  —  S  0  \' 


cludea  for  the  year  347.     The  latest  edition  is  that  of 
Fabricina  (Leipsic,  1878). 

SCYLLA  AOT)  CHARYBDIS.  In  Homer  {Od.,  zii.  73 
sq.)  Scylla  is  a  dreadful  sea-monster,  daughter  of  Crataeis, 
with  six  heads,  twelve  feet,  and  a  voice  like  the  yelp  of  a 
puppy.  She  dwelt  in  a  sea-cave  looking  to  the  west,  far 
up  the  face  of  a  huge  cliff.  Out  of  her  cave  she  stuck  her 
heads,  fishing  for  marine  creatures  and  snatching  the  sea- 
men out  of  passing  ships.  Within  a  bowshot  of  this  cliff 
was  another  lower  cliff  with  a  great  fig-tree  growing  on  it. 
Under  this  second  rock  dwelt  Charybdis,  who  thrice  a  day 
sucked  in  and  thrice  spouted  out  the  sea  water.  Between 
these  rocks  Ulysses  sailed,  and  Scylla  snatched  six  men  out 
of  his  ship,  in  later  classical  times  Scylla  and  Charybdis 
were  localized  in  the  Strait  of  Messina, — Scylla  on  the 
Italian,  Charybdis  on  the  Sicilian  side.  In  Ovid  (Metam., 
xiv.  1-74)  Scylla  appears  as  a  beautiful  maiden  beloved  by 
the  sea-god  Glaucus  and  changed  by  the  jealous  Circe  into 
a  sea-monster;  afterwards  she  was  transformed  into  a 
rock  shunned  by  seamen.  There  are  various  other  ver- 
sions of  her  story.  According  to  a  late  legend  (Servius 
on  Virgil,  JSra.,  iii.  420),  (Siarybdis  was  a  voracious 
woman  who  robbed  Hercules  of  his  cattle  and  was  there- 
fore cast. into  the  sea  by  Jupiter,  where  she  retained  her 
old  voracious  nature.  '  The  well-known  line 

"  Incidis  in  Sfvllam  cupiens  vitare  Charybdim" 
occurs  in  the  Alexandreis  of  Philip  Gualtier  (a  poet  of  the 
13th  century),  which  was  printed  at  Lyons  in  1558. 

Another  Scylla,  confounded  by  Virgil  {Ec.,  vi.  74  sq.) 
with  the  sea-monster,  was  a  daughter  of  Nisus,  king  of 
Megara.  When  Megara  was  besieged  by  Minos,  Scylla, 
who  was  in  love  with  him,  cut  off  her  father's  purple  lock, 
on  which  his  life  depended.  But  Minos  drowned  the  un- 
dutiful  daughter  (.iEschylus,  ChoepL,  613  sy.;  Apollodorus, 
iii.  15,  8). 

SCYMNUS  of  Chios,  a  Greek  geographer  of  uncertain 
date,  known  to  us  only  by  a  few  references  in  later  writers, 
but  perhaps  identical  with  the  Scynmus  Chius  of  a  Delphic 
inscription  of  the  beginoing  of  the  2d  century  B.c.,^  was 
commonly  taken  to  be  the  author  of  an  imperfect  anony- 
mous Paraphrasis  in  verse  describing  the  northern  coast  of 
the  Mediterranean,  which  in  the  first  edition  (Augsburg, 
1600)  was  ascribed  to  Marcianus  of  Heraclea.  Meineke 
showed  conclusively  that,  this  piece  cannot  be  by  Scymnus. 
It  is  dedicated  to  a  King  Nicomedes,  probably  Nicomedes 
m.  of  Bithynia,  and  so  would  date  from  the  beginning  of 
the  1st  century  B.C.  See  Miiller,  Geoff.  Gr.  Min.,  vol.  i., 
where  the  poem  is  edited  with  sufficient  prolegomena. 

SCYEOS,  a  small'  rocky  barren  island  in  the  .(Egean 
Sea,  off  the  coast  of  Thessaly,  containing  a  town  of  the 
same  name.  In  469  B.C.  it  was  conquered  by  the  Athe- 
nians under  Cimon,  and  it  was  probably  about  this  time 
that  the  legends  arose  which  connect  it  with  the  Attic  hero 
Theseas,  who  was  said  to  have  been  treacherously  slain 
and  buried  there.  A  mythic  claim  was  thus  formed  to 
justify  the  Athenian  attack,  and  Cimon  brought  back  the 
bones  of  Theseus  to  Athens  in  triumph.  The  inhabitants 
of  Scyros  before  the  Athenian  conquest  were  Dolopes 
(Tliuc,  i.  98) ;  but  other  accounts  speak  of  Pelasgians  or 
Carians  as  the  earliest  inhabitants.  There  was  a  sanctuary 
of  AchUles  on  the  island,  and  numerous  traditions  connect 
Scyros  with  that  hero.  He  was  concealed,  disguised  as  a 
woman,  in  the  palace  of  Lycomedes,  king  of  the  island, 
when  his  mother  wished  to  keep  him  back  from  the  Trojan 
War;  he  was  discovered  there  by  Odyss^s,  and  gladly 
accompanied  him  to  Troy.  An  entirely  different  cycle  of 
legends  relate  the  conquest  of  Scyros  by  Achilles.  The 
dctual  worship  on  the  island  of  a  hero  or  god  named 

'  Sea  Rhode,  in  Rhdn.  Mm.,  1S79,  p.  153  sj. 


Achilles,  and  the  probable  kinship  of  ^ts  inhabitants  with 
a  Thessalian  people,  whose  hero  Achilles  also  was,  form 
the  historical  foundation  of  the  legends.  Scyros  was  left, 
along  with  Lemnos  and  Imbros,  to  the  Athenians  by  tlia 
peace  of  Antalcidas  (387  B.C.).  It  was  taken  by  Philip, 
and  continued  under  Macedonian  rule  tiU  196,  when  the 
Romans  restored  it  to  Athens,  in  whose  possession  it  re- 
mained throughout  the  Roman  period.  It  was  sacked  by 
an  army  of  Goths,  Heruli,  and  Peucini,  in  269  aj).  The 
ancient  city  was  situated  on  a  lofty  rocky  peak,  on  the 
north-eastern  coast,  where  the  modern  town  of  St  George 
now  stands.  A  temple  of  Athena,  the  chief  goddess  of 
Scyros,  was  on  the  shore  near  the  town.  The  island  has 
a  small  stream,  called  in  ancient  times  Cephissus.  Strabo 
mentions  as  its  sole  products  its  excellent  goats  and  a 
species  of  variegated  marble — the  latter  in  great  favour 
at  Rome. 

SCYTHE  AND  SICKLE.  Till  the  invention  of  the 
reaping  machine,  which  came  into  practical  use  only  about 
the  middle  of  the  19th  century,  scythes  and  sickles  were 
the  sole  reaping  implements.  The  scythe  is  worked  with 
two  hands  with  a  swinging  motion,  while  the  sickle. or 
reaping  hook  is  held  in  one  hand  and  the  reaper  bends 
and  cuts  the  crop  with  a  shearing  or  hitting  motion.  Of 
the  two  the  sickle  is  the  more  ancient,  and  indeed  there 
is  some  reason  to  conclude  that  its  use  is  coeval  with  the 
cultivation  of  grain,  crops.  Among  the  remains  of  the 
later  Stone  period  in  Great  Britain  and  on  the  European 
continent  curved  flint  knives  have  occasionally  been  found 
the  form  of  which  has  led  to  the  suggestion  that  they  were 
used  as  sickles.  Sickles  of  bronze  occur  quite  commonly 
among  remains  of  the  early  inhabitants  of  Europe.  Some 
of  these  are  deeply  curved  hooks,  flat  on  the  under-side, 
and  with  a  strengthening  ridge  or  back  on  the  upper 
surface,  while  others  are  small  curved  knives,  in  form  like 
the  ordinary  hedge-bill.  Arnoag  tie  ancient  Egyptians 
toothed  or  serrated  sickles  of  both  bronze  and  iron  were 
used.  Ancient  Roman  drawings  show  that  both  the 
scythe  and  the  sickle  were  known  to  that  people,  and 
Phny  makes  the  distinction  plain.-  Although  both  imple- 
ments have  lost  muxJi  of  their  importance  since  the 
general  introduction  of  mowing  and  reaping  machinery, 
they  are  still  used  very  extensively,  especially  in  those 
countries  where  small  agricultural  holdings  prevail.  Tlie 
principal  modern  forms  are  the  toothed  hook,  the  scythe 
hook,  the  Hainault  scythe,  and  the  common  scythe.  The 
toothed  hook,  which  was  in  general  use  till  towards  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century,  consists  of  a  narrow-bladed 
curved  hook,  having  on  its  cutting  edge  a  series  of  fine 
close-set  serratures  cut  like  file-teeth,  with  their  edges 
inclined  towards  the  heft  or  handle.  Such  sickles  were 
formerly  made  of  iron  edged  with  steel ;  but  in  recent 
times  they  came  to  be  made  of  cast  steel  entirely.  To- 
wards the  middle  of  the  century  the  toothed  hook  was 
gradually  supplanted  by  the  scythe  hook  or  sHiooth-edgcd 
sickle,  a  somewhat  heavier  and  broader-bladed  implement, 
having  an  ordinary  knife  edge.  Both  these  implements 
were  intended  for  "shearing"  handful  by  handful,  thi> 
crop  being  held  in  the  left  hand  and  cut  with  the  tool 
held  in  the  right.  A  heavy  smooth-edged  sickle  is  used 
for  "bagging"  or  "clouting," — an  operation  in  which  the 
hook  is  struck  against  the  straw,  the  left  hand  being  used 
to  gather  and  carry  along  the  cut  swath.  The  Hainault 
scythe  is  an  implement  intermediate  between  the  scythe  and 

-  "Of  the  sickle  there  are  two  yarieties,  the  Italian,  which  is  ma 
shorter  and  can  be  handled  among  brushwood,  and  the  tivo-hand«"l 
Gallic  sickle,  "which  makes  quicker  work  of  it  when  employed  on  their 
[the  Ga'ols']  extensive  domains  ;  for  there  they  cut  their  grass  only  m 
the  middle,  and  pass  over  the  shorter  blades.  Tii^  ^tclian  mowetu 
cut  with  the  right  hand  onlj  "  ',3.  X ,  xviii.  67). 


S  C  Y  — b  C  Y 


)75 


*iiA  fijokJe,  teing  worVed  ■n-Ith  one  hand,  and  tho  motioti  is 
enui-cly  a  swinging  or  bagging  one.  The  implement  con- 
sists of  a  short  scythe  blade  mounted  on  a  vertical  handle, 
and  in  using  it  the  reaper  collects  the  grain  v(ith  a  crook, 
which  holds  the  straw  together  till  it  receives  the  cutting 
stroke  of  the  instrument.  The  Hainault  scythe  is  exten- 
sively used  in  Belgium,  The  common  hay  scythe  consist-s 
•of  a  slightly  curved  broad  blade  varying  in  length  from 
28  to  46  inches,  mounted  on  a  bent,  or  sometimes  straight., 
wooden  sned  or  snathe,  to  which  two  handles  are  attached 
at  such  distances  as  enable  the  workman,  with  an  easy 
stoop,  to  swing  the  scythe  blade  along  the  ground,  the 
catting  edge  being  slightly  elevated  to  keep  it  clear  of 
the  inequalities  of  the  surface.  The  grain-reaping  scythe  is 
similar,  but  provided  with  a  cradle  or  short  gathering  rake 
attached  to  the  heel  and  following  the  direction  of  the  blade 
for  about  12  inches.  The  object  of  this  attachment  is  to 
gather  the  stalks  as  they  are  cat  and  lay  them  in  regular 
swaths  against  the  line  of  still-standing  corn.  The  reap- 
ing scythe,  instead  of  a  long  sned,  has  frequently  two  helves, 
the  right  hand  branching  from  the  left  or  main  helve  and 
the  two  handles  placed  about  2  feet  apart.  The  best 
scythe  blades  are  made  from  rolled  sheets  of  steel,  riveted 
to  a  back  frame  of  iron,  which  gires  strength  and  rigidity 
to  the  blade.  On  the  Continent  it  is  still  common  to 
mould  and  hammer  the  whole  blade  out  of  a  single  piece 
of  steel,  but  such  scythes  are  difficult  to  keep  keen  of 
edge.  There  is  a  great  demand  for  scythes  in  Russia, 
chiefly  supplied  from  the  German  empire  and  Austria. 
The  principal  manufacturing  centre  of  scythes  and  sickles 
in  the  United  Kingdom  is  Sheffield. 
•  •  SCYTHIA,  SCYTHIANS.  TNTien  the  Greeks  began 
to  settle  the  north  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  about  the 
middle  of  the-  7th  century  B.C.,  they  found  the  south 
Russian  steppe  in  the  hands  of  a  nomadic  race,  whom 
they  called  Scythians.  An  exacter  form  of  the  name  was 
Scoloti.  The  inhabitants  of  the  steppe  must  always  have 
been  nomads ;  but  the  life  of  all  nomads  is  so  much  alike 
that  we  cannot  tell  whether  the' Scythians  are  the  race 
alluded  to  in  II.,  xiii.  5  sq. 

The  name  is  first  found  in  Hesiod  (Strabo,  viL  p.  300) 
about  800  B.C.,  and  about  689  (Herod.,  iv.  15)  Aristeas 
of  Proconnosus  knew  a  good  deal  about  them  in  connexion 
with  the  ancient  trade  route  leading  from  their  country  to 
Central  Asia.  From  the  passage  of  the  Tanais  (Don)  for 
fifteen  marches  north-east  through  the  steppe  the  countiy 
belonged  to  the  nomad  Sarmatians,  whose  speech  and  way 
of  life  resembled  those  of  the  Scythians.  Then  came  tho 
wooded  region  of  the  Budini,  who  spread  far  inland  and 
were  probably  a  Finnish  raco  of  hunters  with  filthy  habits.' 
In  this  region  lay  Gelonus,  the  Greek  emporium  of  tho 
fur  trade,  round  which  lived  the  half-Grecian  Geloni,  prob- 
ably on  the  Volga  and  hardly  farther  LCUth  than  Simbirsk. 
Seven  more  marches  in  the  same  line  ran  through  desert, 
and  then  in  the  country  of  tho  Thyssagetso  the  road  turned 
south-east,  and  led  first  through  the  country  of  the  lyrcoe,- 
whose  way  of  hunting  (Herod.,  iv.  22)  indicates  that  they 
dwelt  between  tho  steppe  and  tho  forest,  but  belonged 
more  to  the  former;  the  road  perhaps  crossed  tho  river 
Ural  near  Orenburg,  and  ascending  its  tributary  tho  Ilek 
crossed  tho  Mugojar  Mountains.  Beyond  this  in  the  steppe 
as  far  as  tho  Sir-Darj'a  and  Amu-Darj-a  the  traveller  was 
again  among  Scythians,  who  were  regarded  ns  a  branch  of 
the  European  Scythians.  '  Next  camo  a  long  tract  of  rocky 
.BoUli^  tho  bald-headed  Argippici  were  reached,  a  raco 
esteemed  holy  and  secmin^.'y  Mongolian,  who  dwelt  on  tho 
slopes  of  impassable  mountains,  jjrobably  the  Belurtagh, 


'  In  Herod.,  iv.  103,  ^iffeiporpayiovai  is  to  Ni  taken  literally.     Plan 
ids  CiirpiD  relates  the  same  thing  of  tho  MongoU, 


and  served  as  intermediaries  in  trade  with  the  remoter 
peoples  of  Central  Asia.  The  description  of  the  fruit  on 
which  they  subsisted  (Herod.,  iv.  23)  suits  the  Elxannus 
hortensis,  indigenous  on  the  upper  Zerafshan.  Many 
notices  of  ancient  writers  about  Scythia  {e.g.,  as  to  the 
eight  months  winter  and  the  rainy  summer)  suit  only  the 
lands  on  tho  first  part  of  this  trade  road ;  moreover,  the 
Greeks  soon  began  to  extend  the  name  of  Scj-thians  to  all 
the  nations  beyond  in  a  northerly  or  north-easterly  direc- 
tion. But  such  inaccuracy  is  not  common  till  the  fall  of 
the  Scythia-n  race,  when  their  name  became  a  favourite  , 
designation  of  more  remote  and  less  known  nations.  Out 
best  and  chief  informants,  Herodotus  and  Hippocrates, 
clearly  distinguish  the  Scolots  or  true  Scythians  from  all 
their  neighbours,  and  on  them  alone  this  article  is  based. 

The  boundaries  of  Scythia  are,  broadly  speaking,  those 
of  the  steppe,  which  had  as  wide  a  range  in  antiquity  as 
at  the  present  day,  cultivable  land  having  always  been 
confined  to  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  tho  rivers. 
But  to  the  west  the  Scythians  went  beyond  the  steppe, 
and  held  Great  WaUachia  between  the  AJuta  and  the 
Danube  (Atlas  and  Ister).  Here  their  northern  neigh- 
bours were  the  Agathyrsians  of  Transylvania,  who  were 
perhaps  Arj-ans,  though  in  manners  they  resembled  the 
Thracians.  The  Dniester  was  Scythian  as  far  up  the 
stream  as  tho  Greeks  knew  it.  On  the  Bug  were  found 
first  the  mixed  Gra;co-Scythian  Callipidae  and  Alazones  as 
far^as  Exampaeus  (an  eastern  feeder  of  the  Bug),  then  agri- 
cultural Scythians  ("ApoT^pes),  who  grow  corn  for  export, 
and  therefore  were  not  confined  to  the  steppe.  This  i)oints 
to  south-east  Podolia  as  their  dwelling-place.  Beyond  them 
on  the  upper  Bug  and  above  the  Dniester  were  the  Neuri, 
who  passed  for  were-wolvcs,  a  superstition  still  current 
in  Volhynia  and  about  Kieff.  On  the  left  bank  of  the 
Dnieper  the  "  forest-land  "  ('YAaia)  reached  as  far  as  the 
modern  Bereslaff ;  then  came  the  Scythians  of  the  Dnieper 
(the  Borysthenians),  who  tilled  the  soil  (of  course  only 
close  to  the  river),  and  extended  inland  to  the  Panticapcs 
(Inguletz '?)  ^  and  up  the  stream  to  the  district  of  Gerrhi 
(near  Alexandrovsk).  Herodotus  does  not  know  the  falls 
of  the  Dnieper ;  beyond  Gerrhi  he  places  a  desert  which 
seems  to  occupy  the  rest  of  tlie  stepp~C,  Still  farther 
north  were  the  wandering  Andropliagi  (Cannibals),  pre- 
sumably hunters  and  of  Mordvinian  race.^  The  nomadic 
Scythians  proper  succeeded  their  agricultural  brethren  to 
the  east  as  far  as  the  Gerrhus  (Konskaya),  and  their  land 
was  watered  by  the  Hypacyris  (Jlolotchnaya).*  The  royal 
horde  was  cast  of  the  Gerrhus  and  extended  into  the 
Crimea  as  far  as  tho  fosse  which  cut  off  Chersonesus 
Trachea  from  the  rest  of  tho  peninsula,  and  remains  of 
which  can  still  be  traced  cast  of  Theodosia.  The  southern 
neighbours  of  the  roj-al  Scythian's  were  the  savage  Taurian 
mountaineers.  Along  the  coast  of  the  Sea  of  Azoff  the 
royal  horde  stretched  eastward  as  far  as  Crenini  (Tagan- 
rog) ;  farther  inland  their  eastern  border  was  Ihe  Don. 
They  extended  inland  for  twenty  marches,  as  far  prol)ably 
as  tho  steppe  itself,  and  here  their  neighbours  were  the 
Mclanchlani  (Black-cloaks). 

Tho  true  Scythians  led  the  usual  hio  of  nomaas,  moving 

'  Herodotus  (iv.  04)  malicjj  it  au  eastern  instead  of  a  wustem  feedej 
of  the  Dnieper. 

'  Tho  cistern  Mordviiiians  (Ersian's)  etill  passed  for  cainibals  iq 
tho  time  of  tlio  Aral)ian  travellers. 

«  Herodotus  (iv.  DO)  represents  the  Oerrhim  ns  n  branch  of  ins 
Dnieper  flowing  into  tho  H}n>aeyTis,  whicli  is  not  impossible  (Vou  Bacr, 
llUtor.  I'r.,  p.  CO).  But  Iltrodoius  luuisclf  never  travelled  beyond 
Olbia,  and  what  ho  Ihero  1  '     '     ■'    the  rivers  w.is  necessarily 

vague,  except  for  tho  juris  v  torn  trade  route  from  Olbn 

touched.     Ho  filled  up  this  II   :  i  matioii  on  analog)-,  suppos. 

inf  ihat  all  these  rivers  caiuu  iroiu  ialkts,  ns  tho  Bug  did,  with  which 
ho  l;new  a  lake  was  connected  called  "mother"  of  that  river  (iv.  61, 
62.  H,  55.  67). 


576 


S  C  Y  T  H  I  A 


through  the  steppe  from  exhausted  to  fresh  pasture- 
grounds,  their  woraen  in  waggons  roofed  with  felt  and 
drawn  by  oxen,  the  men  on  horseback,  the  droves  of  sheep, 
cattle,  and  horses  following.  They  lived  on  boiled  fiesh, 
mare's  milk,  and  cheese ;  they  never  washed,  but  enjoyed 
a  narcotic  intoxication  in  combination  with  a  vapour  bath 
by  shutting  themselves  up  within  curtains  of  felt  and  strew- 
ing hemp  seed  on  heated  stones.  The  women,  in  place  of 
washing,  daubed  themselves  with  a  paste  containing  dust  of 
fragrant  woods  and  removed  it  on  the  second  day.  Like 
many  other  barbarians,  the  Scythians,  at  least  in  Hippo- 
crates's  time  (ed.  LittrS,  ii.  72),  were  not  a  specially  hardy 
race ;  they  had  stout,  fleshy,  flabby  bodies,  the  joints  con- 
cealed by  fat,  their  countenances  somewhat  ruddy.  The 
observation  of  Hippocrates  that  they  all  looked  alike  is  one 
that  has  often  been  made  by  travellers  among  lower  races. 
They  were  liable  to  dysentery  and  rheumatism,  which  they 
treated  by  the  actual  cautery;  impotence  and  sterility  were 
common,  and,  though  the  accounts  vary,  it  is  probable  that 
the  race  was  not  very  numerous  (Herod.,  iv.  81). 

Hippocrates's  description  has  led  many  writers  to  view 
the  Scythians  as  Mongolian ;  but  the  life  of  the  steppe 
impresses  a  certain  common  stamp  on  all  its  nomad  in- 
habitants, and  the  features  described  are  not  sufficiently 
characteristic  to  justify  the  assumption  of  so  distant  a 
Mongol  migration.  \Vhat  remains  of  the  Scythian  lan- 
guage, on  the  other  hand,  furnished  Zeuss  with  clear 
proofs  that  they  were  Aryans  and  nearly  akin  to  the 
settled  Iranians.  The  most  decisive  evidence  is  found  in 
Herodotus  (iv.  117),  viz.,  that  Scythians  and  Saematians 
(q.v.)  were  of  cognate  speech ;  for  the  latter  were  certainly 
Aryans,  as  even  the  ancients  observed,  supposing  them  to 
be  a  Median  colony  (Diod.,  ii.  43;  Pliny,  vi.  19).  The 
whole  steppe  lands  from  the  Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes  to  the 
HungaT.'an  pusztas  seem  to  have  been  held  at  an  early 
date  by  a  chain  of  Aryan  nomad  races. 

The  Scythian  deities  have  also  an  Aryan  complexion. 
The  highest  deity  was  Tahiti,  goddess  of  the  hearth ; 
next  came  the  heaven -god  Papseus,  with  his  wife  the 
earth-goddess  Apia ;  a  sun-god,  CEtosyrus ;  a  goddess  of 
fecundity,  Arippasa,  who  is  compared  with  the  Queen  of 
Heaven  at  Ascalon ;  and  two  gods  to  whom  Herodotus 
(iv.  59)  gives  the  Greek  names  of  Heracles  and  Ares. 
These  deities  were  common  to  aU  Scythians.  The  royal 
horde  had  also  a  sea-god,  Thamimasadas.  In  true 
Iranian  fashion  the  gods  were  adored  without  images, 
altars,  or  temples,  save  only  that  Ares  had  as  his  symbol 
a  sabre  (Herod.,  iv.  62),  which  was  set  up  on  a  huge  altar 
piled  up  of  faggots  of  brushwood.  '  He  received  yearly 
sacrifices  of  sheep  and  oxen,  as  well  as  every  hundredth 
captive.  Ordinarily  victims  were  strangled.  Diviners  were 
common,  and  one  species  of  them,  who  came  only  from 
certain  families,  the  Enarians  or  Anarians,  were  held  in 
high  honour.  These  supposed  their  race  to  have  offended 
the  goddess  of  heaven,  who  in  revenge  smote  them  with 
impotence;  they  assumed  the  dress  and  avocations  of 
women  and  spoke  with  a  woman's  voice.^  Divination  was 
practised  with -willow  withes  as  among  the  Old  Germans  ; 
the  Enarians,  •  however,  used  lime-tree  bark.  False  pro- 
phets were  tied  on  a  waggon  with  burning  brushwood,  and 
ihe  frightened  team  was  driven  forth.  '  Oaths  were  sealed 
^y  drinking  of  a  mixture  of  wine  with  the  blood  of  the 
s-arties  into  which  they  had  dipped  their  weapons.  When 
ihe  king  was  sick  it  was  thought  that  some  one  had 
jworn  falsely  by  .the  deities  of  his  hearth,^  and  the  man 
1 ■ 

'  Reinegga  in  1776  observed  the  same  symptoms,  with  the  same 
fonsequence  of  relegation  among  the  women,  in  certain  Nogai  Tatars 
m  the  Kuban. 

"  The  plural  (Herod.,  iv.  69)  reminds  us  of  the  Fravashi  of  the  king 
Ip  the  Avesta. 


was  beheaded  whom  the  diviners,  or  a  majority  of  tL  ^m,, 
pronounced  to  be  the  culprit.  When  the  king  commanded, 
the  death  of  a  man  all  his  male  offspring  perished  with 
him  (for  fear  of  blood-revenge).  He  who  gained  a  suit 
before  the' king  had  the  right  to  make  a  drinking-cup  of 
his  adversary's  skull.  Actions  at  law  thus  stood  on  the 
same  footing  with  war,  for  this  is  what  one  did  after  slay- 
ing a  foe.  The  Scythians  fought  always  on  horseback 
with  bow  and  arrow,  and  the  warrior  drank  the  blood  of 
the  first  man  he  slew  in  battle,  probably  deeming  that  his 
adversary's  prowess  thus  passed  into  him.  No  one  shared 
in  booty  who  had  not  brought  the  king  a  foeman's  head  ; 
the  scalp  was  then  tanned  and  hung  on  the  bridle.  Cap- 
tive slaves  were  blinded  on  the  absurd  pretext  that  thi.i 
kept  them  from  stealing  the  mare's-milk  butter  they  were 
employed  to  churn. 

The  government  was  strictly  despotic,  as  appears  most 
plainly  in  the  hideous  customs  at  the  burial  of  kings.  The 
corpse  of  an  ordinary  Scythian  was  carried  about  among 
all  the  neighbours  for  forty  days,  and  a  funeral  feast  was 
given  by  every  friend  so  visited.  But  the  royal  corpse 
T^as  embalmed  and  passed  in  like  manner  from  tribe  to 
tribe,  and  the  people  of  each  tribe  joined  the  procession 
with  their  whole  bodies  disfigured  by  bloody  wounds,  till 
at  length  the  royal  tombs  at  Gerrhi  were  reached.  Then 
the  king  was  buried  along  with  one  of  his  concubines,  his 
cupbearer,  cook,  groom,  chamberlain,  and  messenger,  all 
of  whom  were  slain.  Horses,  too,  and  golden  utensils  were 
buried  under  the  vast  barrow  that  was  raised  over  the  grave. 
JIany  such  tumuli  (called  in  Tatar  kurgan)  have  been  found 
between  the  Dnieper  and  the  sources  of  the  Tokmak,  a 
tributary  of  the  Molotchnaya.  Then,  on  the  first  anniver- 
sary, yet  fifty  horses  and  fifty  free-born  Scythian  servants, 
of  the  king  were  slain,  and  the  latter  werj  pinned  upright 
on  the  stuffed  horses  as  watchmen  over  the  dead. 

The  Scythians  deemed  themselves  aihochthonous ;  their 
patriarch  was  Targitaus,  a  son  of  the  god  of  heaven  by  a 
daughter  of  the  river  Dnieper.  .  This  legend,  with  the 
site  of  the  royal  graves,  points  to  the  lower  Dnieper  a-s. 
the  cradle  of  their  kingdom.  The  further  legend  (Herod., 
iv.  5)  of  the  golden  plough,  yoke,  battle-axe,  and  cup 
(tokens  of  sovereignty  over  hu.sbandmen  and  warriors) 
that  fell  from  heaven,  and  burned  when  the  two  eldest 
sons  of  Targitaus  approached  them,  hut  allowed  thi> 
youngest  son  to  take  them  and  become  king,  has  been 
well  comjmred  by  Duncker  with  the  Iranian  conception 
of  hvareno,  the  halo  of  majesty,  which  refused  to  Id 
grasped  by  the  Turanian  Franra^^,  but  attached  itself  to 
pious  kings  like  Thra6ta6na.  The  eldest  brother,  Lipoxai.', 
was  ancestor  of  the  AuchatK ;  the  second,  Arpoxais,  cf 
the  Catiari  and  Traspians  ;  the  youngest,  Colaxais  (whose 
name  seems  to  be  mutilated),  was  father  .of  the  royal 
tribe  of  Paralatse,  and  from  him,  too,  the  whole  nation 
had  the  name  of  Scolots.  Pliny  {H.N.,  iv.  88)  places  thu 
Auchatae  on  the  upper  Bug,  so  this  seems  to  be  the  proper 
name  of  the  agricultural  Scythians ;  if  so,  the  Catiari  and 
Traspians  will  be  the  Borysthenian  and  nomad  Scythians 
who  dwelt  between  the  husbandmen  and  the  royal  horde. 
Colaxais  divided  his  kingdom  among  his  three  sons,  the 
chief  kingdom  being  that  in  which  the  golden  relics  were 
kept ;  and  these  three  sons  correspond  to  the  three  kings 
of  the  Scythians  in  the  time  of  Darius's  invasion,  viz., 
Scopasis,  whose  realm  bordered  on  the  Sarmatians ;  Idan- 
thyrsus,  sovereign  of  the  chief  kingdom;  andTaxacis, — th& 
last  two  being  neighbours  of  the  Budini  and  the  Geloni. 
According  to  the  Scythians,  Targitaus  lived  just  a  thousand 
years  before  the  year  513  B.C., — a  legend  which,  taken  with 
the  tradition  of  autochthonism,  indicates  a  much  earlier 
date  for  the  immigration  of  the  Scythians  than  we  should 
deduce  from  other  narratives. 


S  C  Y  T  H  1  A 


577 


Aristtas  of  rrocuiinesus  (Hercd.,  iv.  13)  Lad  heard  of 
a  migration  of  the  Scythians  into  their  later  settlement. 
The  one-eyed  Arimaspians,  who,  as  neighbours  of  the 
gold-gnarding  griffins,  may  be  sought  necr  the  gold-fields 
of  the  Tibetan  plateau,  had  attacked  the  Issedones  (whom 
later  authors  are  probably  right  in  placing  in  the  region 
of  Kashgar  and  Khotan),  and  the  latter  in  turn  fell  on  the 
Scythians  and  drove  them  from  their  seats,  whereupon 
these  occupied  the  lands  held  till  then  by  the  Cimmerians. 
It  is  a  probable  conjecture  that  the  branch  of  the  roj'al 
Scythians  spoken  of  as  dwelling  north  of  the  Oxus  and 
Jaxartes  was  really  a  part  of  the  nation  that  remained  in 
their  ancient  home.  Aristeas's  story  has  much  internal 
probability ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  hold  that  the  Scythian 
migration  immediately,  preceded  the  first  appearance  of 
the  expelled  Cimmerians  in  Asia  Minor,  in  Aristeas's  own 
days  (695  B.C.).  The  Scythians  must  have  seized  the 
steppe  as  far  as  the  Dnieper  centuries  oefore,  but  '.he 
oldei  inhabitants,  who  were  probably  of  one  race  with 
the  Thracians,  remained  their  neighbours  in  the  Crimea 
and  the  extreme  west  till  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century. 

Concerning  the  complete  expulsion  of  the  Cimmerians 
and  the  Scythian  invasion  of  Asia  that  followed,  Herodotus 
(iv.  11  sq.,  i.  10.3-lOG,  iv.  1,  3  «y.) 'gives  an  account, 
taken  from  several  sources,  which  is  intelligible  only  when 
we  put  aside  the  historian's  attempts  to  combine  these. 
A  barbarian  {i.e.,  Median)  account  was  that  the  Scythian 
nomads  of  Asia,  pressed  by  the  Massagetaj,  crossed  the 
Araxes  (by  which  Herodotus  here  and  in  other  places 
means  the  Amu-Darya)  and  fell  on  Media.  Taking  these 
Scythians  for  Scolots  and  assuming,  therefore,  that  the 
reference  was  to  their  first  migration,  Herodotus  had  to 
place  the  expulsion  of  the  Cimmerians  between  the  crossing 
of  the  Araxes  and  the  invasion  of  Media,  and  he  had  heard 
from  Greeks  (of  Pontus)  that  on  the  Dniester  was  the 
gravs  of  the  Cimmerian  kings,  who  had  siaiii  each  other 
in  single  combat  rather  than  share  the  migration  of  their 
people.  This  local  t"adition  implies  that  the  Cimmerians 
reached  Asia  Minor  through  Thrace,  which,  indeed,  is  the 
only  possible  route,  except  by  sea ;  Herodotus,  however, 
is  led  by  his  false  presuppositions  to  conduct  them  east- 
wards from  the  Dniester  by  the  Crimea  (where  many  local 
names  preserved  their  memory),  and  so  along  the  Black 
Sea  coast,  and  then  westwards  from  the  Caucasus  to 
Asia  Minor.  The  Scythians,  he  thinks,  followed  them, 
but,  losing  the  trail,  went  east  from  the  Caucasus,  and  so 
reached  Media.  ,  Tliis  he  gives  only  as  his  own  inference 
from  two  things — (1)  that  the  Cimmerians  settled  on  the 
peninsula  of  Sinope,  from  which  their  forays  into  Asia 
Minor  seem  to  have  been  conducted,  and  (2)  that  the 
Scythians  invaded  Media.  The  Median  source  spoke 
further  of  a  great- victory  of  the  Scythians,  after  which 
rhcy  overran  all  Asia,  and  held  it  for  twenty-eight  years 
1631-60G),  levying  tribute  and  plundering  at  will,  till  at 
length  the  Medes,  under  Cyaxares,  destroyed  most  of 
them  after  making  them  drunk  at  a  banquet.'  Here  a 
third,  Egyptian,  account  comes  in,  viz.,  that  ICing  Psam- 
metichus  (d.  611)  bought  off  certain  northern  invaders 
who  had  advanced  as  far  as  Philistoca ;  there  is  no  reason 
to  doubt  that  these  are  the  Scythians  of  the  Median 
account.  Still  more  important  is  the  evidence  of  certain 
prophecies  of  Jeremiah  (comp.  iii.  6)  in  the  reign  of  Josiah 
(626-609),  describing  the  approach  from  the  noith  of  an  all- 
destroying  nation  of  ridert  and  bowmen  (.ler.  iv.  6  sij.,  v. 
15  sq.,  vi.  1  sq.,  22  sq.).'^  Horodotus's  twenty-eight  years 
are  simply  the  period  between  the  accession  of  Cyaxares 


'  This  story  may  be  influenced  by  tlio  mytli  about  the  feast  of  the 
Sacosa  (Strabo,  xi:  p.  512).     Ctesias  baa  it  that  peace  was  made. 

"  This  is  mtzig'a  diacovery  and  must  bo  sound.  Before  the  fall  of 
Nineveh  the  Chaldieans  could  Dot  be  a  sourcs  of  danger. 


and  the  taking  of  Nineveh,  which  followed  close  on  the 
overthrow  of  the  Scythians ;  Justin,  on  the  other  hand, 
gives  the  Scythians  eight  years  of  sovereignty,  which  fits 
well  with  the  interval  between  the  first  and  the  second 
siege  of  Nineveh  (619-609).^ 

A  fourth  account  in  Herodotus,  which  connects  the 
di'jXiia  voVos  of  the  Enarians  with  the  plundering  of  the 
temple  of  Astarte  at  Ascalon,  is  entirely  apocryphal,  and 
must  come  from  the  Greek  identification  of  this  Astarte 
with  the  Scythian  Arippasa.  Yet  it  seems  to  have  been 
chiefly  this  story  that  led  Herodotus  to  take  the  Scythians 
of  his  Median  source  for  Scolots.  He  is  refuted  by  another 
account  of  Iranian  origin  :  Ctesias  (in  Diod.,  ii.  34)  tells  of 
a  long  war  between  the  Medes  and  the  Sacae,  occasioned  by 
the  defection  of  Parthian  subjects  of  Media  to  the  latter 
nation  in  the  time  of  Astibaras  (Cyaxares) ;  so  that  the 
Scythian  conquerors  actually  came  from  the  east,  not 
from  the  north.  Herodotus's  Median  source  closed  with 
Cyaxares  recovering  his  power ;  the  story  which  follows 
about  the  resistance  of  the  slaves  of  the  Scythians  to  their 
returning  lords,  who  cowed  them  by  using  whips  instead 
of  arms,  must  have  come  from  the  Pontic  Greeks,  and  is 
certainly  a  local  legend,*  which, has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  wars  in  Asia,  and  indeed  is  connected  by  Callistratus 
(Steph.  Byz.,  s.v.  Td<j>pai)  with  a  war  between  Scythians 
and  Thracians. 

From  the  expedition  of  Darius  upwards  Herodotus 
names  .five  generations  of  Scythian  kings,  Idauthyrsus, 
Saulius,  Gnurus,  Lycus,  Spargapeithes ;  the  last  may  be 
contemporary  with  the  foundation  of  Olbia  (6-46  B.C.).' 
Under  IdanthjTsus  fell  the  invasion  of  Darius  (513  B.C.). 
The  motive  for  this  invasion  cannot  possibly  have  been 
revenge  for  the  Scythian  invasion  of  Media.  It  is  possible 
that  a  popular  war  against  the  chief  nation  of  the  nomads, 
who  are  so  hated  by  the  Iranian  peasants,  seemed  to 
Darius  a  good  way  of  stimulating  common  feeling  among 
his  scattered  subjects,  and  it  is  certain  that  he  had  quite 
false  ideas  of  the  wealth  of  Scythia,  due  perhaps  to  export 
of  grain  from  the  Grecian  cities  of  the  Scythian  coast. 
Herodotus's  account  of  the  campaign  is  made  up  in  a 
puzzling  way  of  several  distinct  narratives,  retouched  to 
smooth  away  contradictions.  Here  it  must  suffice  to  refer 
to  the  article  Persia  (vol.  xviii.  p.  570),  and  to  add  that  the 
geographical  confusion  in  Herodotus  and  his  exaggerated 
idea  of  the  distance  to  which  the  Persians  advanced  seem 
to  be  due  partly  to  a  false  combination  between  a  Scythian 
account  of  the  campaign  and  certain  notices  about  the 
burning  of  Gelonus  by  enemies  and  about  fortresses  on 
the  river  Oarus  which  had  come  to  him  from  the  inland 
trade  route,  and  had  nothing  to  do  with  Darius,  partly  to 
a  confusion  between  the  desert  reached  by  the  Persians 
and  that  which  lay  between  the  Budini  and  ThyssagetM. 

While  the  Persian  rule  in  the  newly  conquered  districts 
of  Europe  was  shaken  by  the  Ionic  revolt,  the  Scythians 
made  plundering  expeditions  in  Thrace,  and  in  495  pene- 
trated into  the  Chersonesus,  whose  tyrant  Miltiades  fled, 
but  was  restored  after  their  retreat  by  the  Dolonci  (Herod., 
vi.  40).  Dajius  had  Abydus  and  the  other  cities  of  tho 
Propontis  burned  lest  they  should  furnish  a  base  for  a  pro- 
jected Scythian  expedition  against  Asia(Strabo,  xiii.  p.  591); 
this  agrees  with  the  fact  known  from  Herodotus  (v.  117), 


'  Eusebius's  date  (t)31)  for  tho  Scythians  in  Palestine  is  deduced 
fi'om  Herodotus. 

*  It  is  meant  to  explain  Ibo  origin  of  tho  fosse  (Herod.,  iv.  3),  which 
tho  slaves  wero  said  to  have  dug,  and  of  a  suhjcctiaco  in  tho  sanio 
district  (Pliny,  y/.jN'.,  iv.  80),  the  Sindians  (Anim.  Mar.,xxiL  8,  11  ; 
Val.  Fine,  vi.  80),  or  ratlicr  pcrliaps  tho  Salarcha). 

»  That  tho  wlio  ANACIIAnsis  (^.r.)  was  brother  of  King  Saulius 
(Caduidas  of  DinR.  Lncrt.,  i.  101)  seems  to  bo  a  mere  guess  of  Herod- 
otus's Siythi.ui  informant  Tunes.  Tho  story  of  Anacharais's  fate  is 
coloured  by  that  of  tho  l»tor  kiug  Scylcs. 

XXI.  —  X3 


578, 


£5  ili  A  — S  E  A 


that  Abydus  had  been  retaken  by  Daurises  a  little  before. 
In  tMs  connexion  the  Scythian  embassy  to  King  Cleomenes 
at  Sparta  (Herod.,  vL  84)  to  arrange  a  combined  attack  on 
Asia  becomes  credible  ;  for,  barbarians  though  they  were, 
the  Scythians  had  a  political  organization  and  many  con- 
nexions with  the  lonians  of  the  Pontic  colonies,  so  that 
their  envoys  may  well  have  reached  Sparta  at  the  same 
time  with  Aristagoras  (499)  and  served  as  decoys  for  his 
fantastic  schemes.^ 

Our  accounts  of  the  Scythians  begin  to  fail  after  the 
time  of  King  Scyles,  who  affected  Grecian  habits  and  was  de- 
posed and  finally  slain  for  sharing  in  Bacchic  orgies  (Herod., 
iv.  78-80) ;  his  death  fell  a  little  before  Herodotus's  visit 
to  Olbia  {o.  456).  We  read,  in  an  imclear  context  (Diod., 
ii.  43)  of  a  division  of  the  Scythians  into  two  great  tribes, 
the  Pali  and  the  Napae,  the  former  of  whom  crossed  the 
Don  from  the  east  and  destroyed  the  latter  and  also  the 
Tanaites.2  These  events  seem  to  point  to  a  change  pf 
dynasty  in  the  royal  horde. 

The  Periplics  ascribed  to  Scylax  (346  B.C.)  knows  the 
Scythians  as  stUl  occupying  almost  exactly  the  same  limits 
as  in  Herodotus's  time  ;  only  in  the  east  there  is  a  small 
but  significant  change ;  the  Sarmatians  have  already 
crossed  the  Don  (§  68).  King  Ateas  still  ruled  Scythia 
in  its  old  extent  (Stfabo,  vii.  307),  but  all  that  we  know  of 
the  events  of  his  reign  took  place  south  of  the  Danube, — 
wars  with  the  TribaUi  in  Servia,  with  Byzantium,  with  the 
king  of  the  Greek  city  of  Istrus,  and  finally  with  his  old 
ally  Philip  of  Macedon.  Philip  defeated  and  slew  Ateas 
near  the  Danube  in  339  B.a  He  was  then  oyer  ninety 
years  old.* 

The  Scythians  appear  once  more  in  the  region  of  the 
Dobrudja  in  313,  when  they  helped  the  citizens  of  Callatis 
against  Lysimachus  and  were  defeated  by  him  (Diod,,  xix. 
73).  All  this  points  to  a  considerable  advance  of  their 
frontier  southwards,  and  in  fact  Pseudo-Scymnus  (Ephorus) 
gives  Dionysopolis  (a  little  to  the  west  of  the  modern  BaJ- 
tchik)  as  the  j)lace  where  the  Crobyzian  and  the  Scythian 
territories  met  in  his  time  (334  B.C.).*  This  apparent  ad- 
vance of  the  realm  contrasts  singularly  ■«iih  the  distress  to 
which  Ateas  was  reduced  by  the  king  of  the  insignificant 
tff^vn  of  Istrus,  an  evidence  that  the  Scythian  power  was 
really  much  decayed.  Ateas  indeed  is  sometimes  painted 
-as  a  rude  barbarian  lord  of  a  poor  but  valiant  and  hardy 
race,  and  Ephorus,  who  mainly  follows  Herodotus  about 
Scj'thia,  yet  speaks  of  the  Scythians  in  contrast  with  the 
fierce  Sarmatians  as  corresponding  to  Homer's  description 
■of  a  just  and  poor  people  feeding  on  milk  (Strabo,  vii.  302). 
But  Aristotle,  on  the  contrary  {Eth.  Nic.,  vii.  8),  speaks  of 
the  effeminacy  of  the  Scythian  monorchs  as  notorious ;  and 
indeed  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  Scythians  crossed 
the  Danube  and  settled  in  the  Dobrudja  urder  pressure 
of  the  S&rmatians  behind  them,  and  that  the  idyllic  picture 
dra^vn  by  Ephorus  presupposes  -the  fall  of  their  political 
system.  Diodorns  (ii.  43)  tells  us  that  the  Sarmatians  ex- 
terminated the  inhabitants  of  most  part  of  Scythia,  and  this 
must  have  taken  place  in  the  later  yeaxs  of  Ateas,  between 
546  and  339. 

At  a  later  but  uncertain  date  the  great  inferiority  of  the 
Scythians  to  the  Sarmatians  is  illustrated  by  the  story  of 
Amage,  the  warlike  consort  of  a  debauched  Sarmatian  king, 
who  with  only  1?!0  chosen  horsemen  delivered  Chersonesus 


^  King  Ariantas,  ^hose  primitive  census  is  mentioned  in  Herodotus 
|iv.  81),  seems  to  Iiave  flourished  at  this  time. 

'  Pliny,  H.N.,  vi.  50;  comp.  vi.  22,  where'we  must  read  "Assm- 
f  atas,  Palos,  ab  his  Tanaitas  ct  Napasos  "  and,  below,  "  Satarchasos, 
PaljEos." 

'  For  Ateas,  see  Frontin.,  Slratej.,  ii.  4,  20 ;  Poly«n.,  vii.  41,  1 ; 
Aristocritus,  in  Clem.  Al.,  Strom.,  v.  p.  239 ;  Jnstin,  in.  2 ;  Lucian, 
Macrob.,  10;  .fflschmes,  C.-Cifsij,?!,,  liS,  p.  71. 

'  Comp.  Pliny,  H.X^.,  iv.  44,  ^,ho  calls  the  ScytUians  Aroteces. 


in  Tauris  from  the  neighbouring  Scythian  king,  slew  hii «.' 
with  all  his  followers,  and  gave  the  kingdom  to  his  sc  t 
(Polj'sen.,  viii.  56).  It  is,  however,  not  quite  certain  wheth(  r 
these  were  a  remnant  of  the  old  Scythians;  and  it  is  sti^l 
more  doubtful  whether  the  powerful  Scythian  kingdom  if 
Scilurus,  who  brought  the  Greek  cities  of  the  Crimea  1 » 
the  verge  of  ruin,  but  was  destroyed  by  Mithradates  Eupvr 
tor  (105),  was  reaDy  a  kingdom  of  Scolots.  The  last  cei  >• 
tain  trace  of  true  Scjfthians  occurs  about  100  B.C.  in  thii 
Olbian  psepkuma  in  honour  of  Protogenes.*  Here  they 
appear  as  a  small  nation  west  of  Olbia  between  the  Thisa* 
mat«  and  Saudaratce,  who  are  anxious  to  take  refuge  in 
Olbia  from  the  (Scordiscian)  Galatians. 

Sources. — Herodotus  (iv.  1-82,  97-142)  and  Hippocrates  (/)« .4««, 
&c.,  c.  17-22,  in  Littre's  ed.,  iL  66-82)  are  alone  trustworthy,  bccaiuie 
they  carefully  distinguish  the  Scythians  from  the  other  northfru 
nations.  Ephorus  (in  Strabo,  vii.  p.  302  sq.,  and  Scymn.,  Perieij., 
773-873),  Diodorus  (ii.  43  sq.),  and  Trogus  (in  Justin,  ii.  1-3,  R, 
1-11,  and  Jordan.,  Get.,  v.-vi.,  x.)  do  not  do  so,  and  must  be  usr.d 
with  great  caution.  , 

ffeljis. — Ukert,  Gcog.  d.  Gr.  und S'6mcr,va.  2  (complete  collection 
of  materials  from  original  sources) ;  Niebuhr,  Klcine  Sehriften,  vol. 
i.  (1828);  Zs\i%%  Die  Deutsc)icn  und  die  Kachbarsldrmne {ISZI) — a« 
admirable  discussion,  which  est.iblLshed  the  Aryan  origin  of  X\\ 
Scythians  ;  Boeckh,  in  C.  Insc.  Gr.,  ii.  81  sq.  ;  K.  Neumann,  He\- 
Icncn  im,  Shjtiienlande  (1855) — the  best  book,  in  spite  of  certain 
fundamental  errors,  such  as  the  ideas  tliat  great  part  of  the  step)  e 
was  once  wooded  and  that  the  Scythians  were  Mongols  ;  Miillenhol  i, 
"Origin  and  Speech  of  the  Pontic  Scytliians  and  Sarmatians,"  in 
Monatsb.  d.  Bcrl.  Ak.  (1866).  The  best  account  of  the  trade  roul  e 
wliich  in  th3  5th  century  j).C.  passed  through  a  gi-eat  part  of  wh:.t 
is  now  Russian  territory  is  by  K.  E.  v.  Baer,  JfistoriscJic  Fragcn,  & !.  , 
(1S73) ;  comp.  also  Grote,  Mist,  of  Greece,  iii.  314  sq.  (1850),  anil 
Duncker,  ii.  430  sq.  (5th  ed.).  There  is  a  class  of  mere  amateuni, 
especially  in  east  Germany,  who  absurdly  take  the  Scythians  t>"' 
have  been  Slavs.  (A.  v.  G.) 

SEA.  Any  part  of  the  ocean  marked  off  from  the 
general  mass  of  water  may  bo  called  a  sea.  In  geograph  j 
the  name  is  loosely  applied  :  for  instance,  the  Arabian  Sea 
is  an  open  bay,  Hudson's  Bay  is  an  enclosed  sea.  Sea.s 
proper  lie  within  the  transitional  area  which  divides  tho 
permanent  contmental  masses  from  the  permanent  ocean 
basins,  and  their  boundaries  are  consequently  subject  tti 
geological  change,  and  to  alteration  by  subsidence  anck 
elevation  occurring  in  histori'S  times. 

Inland  Seas  are  seas  entiiely  surroundfed  by  land  (sei» 
CASPiAif  Sea,  Dead  Sea,  and.  for  general  discussion . 
Lake). 

Enclosed  Seas  have  commimication  with  the  ocean  re  ■ 
stricted  to  one  opening,  whio'l  may  take  the  form  of  one, 
two,  or  more  straits  close  to  each  other.  The  best  known 
are- the  ■\\Tiite  Sea  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  •  the  Baltic,  Zuyder 
Zee,  Hudson's  Bay,  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  Mediterranean, 
^•ith  the  Adriatic  and  Black  Sea,  of  the  Atlantic ;  the  Red 
Sea  and  Pereian  Gulf  of  the  Indian  Ocean;  and  the  Yellow 
Sea  and  Sea  of  Okhotsk  of  the  Pacific.''  They  are  all  cut; 
off  from  general  oceanic  circiJation  and  very  largely  from 
tides,  but  the  result  is  not  stagnation.  The  Baltic  anfl 
Black  Sea  aro  but  slightly  saUne  on  account  of  the  numbe  t 
of  large  rivers  falling  into  them,  and  the  fresh  surface-wate« 
flows  oiit  as  a  regular  current,  liable  indeed  to  be  checked, 
and  even  reversed  for  a  time,  but  in  the  main  persistent ; 
while  the  salt  water  flows  in  uniformly  as  an  undercurrenii 
A  state  of  equilibrium  is  arrived  at,  so  that  periodic? J 
fluctuations  of  salinity  do  not  affect  the  average  of  a  num- 
ber of  years.  The  water  of  the  MediteiTanean  and  Bed 
Sea  is  much  Salter  than  that  of  the  ocean,  which  therefore 
flows  in  as  a  surface-current,  while  the  dense  very  salt 
water  escapes  below.  In  the  case  of  the  Baltic  and  Black 
Sea  dilution  by  rivers,  in  that  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
Red  Sea  concentration  by  evaporation  maintains  a  circu- 

'  C.  I.  Gr.,  ii.  No.  2058  ;  comp.  Zippel,  RSm.  Berrschaft  in  lUyriea,, 
p.  155. 
'  The  prevalence  of  colour  names  for  these  seas  b  noteworthy. 


!S  E  A  — S  E  A 


570 


lation.  Winds  and  differences  of  barometric  pressure  are, 
as  in  inland  seas,  great  factors  in  producing  variable 
currents.  (See  Baltic  Sea,  Black  Sea,  JlEDiTEERANE.i-N 
Sea,  Red  Sea,  &c.) 

Pa:lially  Eiiclosed  Seas  may  he  (a)  cordparativeiy  shallow 
irregvdar  channels  through  which  strong  tides  sweep,  or  (6) 
ocean  basins  cut  off  by  barriers  barely  rising  to  the  surface, 
or  remaining  permanently  submerged,  in  which  case  there 
may  be  no  break  of  continuity  in  the  ocean  surface  to  indi- 
cate the  sea.  Seas  of  the  first  description  are  related  to 
shallow  enclosed  seas,  but  are  much  affected  by  tides  and 
ocean  currents  ;  the  principal  are  the  Kara  Sea  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  Baffin  Bay  and  North  Sea  of  the  Atlantic,  Behring 
Sea  and  japan  Sea  of  the  Pacific.  They  are  subject  to 
considerable  temperature  changes  owing  to  their  proximity 
to  land.  Seas  coming  under  the  second  category  combine 
the  peculiarities  of  the  open  ocean  and  of  deep  inland  seas. 
The  Caribbean  Sea  of  the  Atlantic,  the  China  Sea,  Java 
Sea,  and  numerous  small  seas  of  the  eastern  archipelago 
of  the  Pacific  arc  the  best  examples.  Their  chief  peculi- 
arity is  that  the  temperature  of  the  water  instead  of  falling 
uniformly  to  the  bottom  becomes  stationary  at  some  inter- 
mediate position  corresponding  to  the  top  of  the  barrier. 
They  are  usually  very  deep.  (See  Noeth  Sea,  NoEWECLiif 
Sea,  and  Pacific  Ocean.) 

Olher  Seas. — Coral  Sea,  Arabian  Sea,  Sea  of  Bengal,  are 
names,  now  dropping  out  of  use,  to  designate  parts  of  the 
ocean.  "Sargasso  Sea"  is  an  expression  devoid  of  geo- 
graphical meaning  (see  Ati.antic  Ocean,  vol.  iii.  p.  20). 

Firths  and  Estuaries. — A  river  entering  the  sea  by  a 
short  estuary  flows  over  the  surface,  freshening  it  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  and,  if  the  force  of  its  current  is  not  too 
great,  the  rising  tide  slowly  forces  a  wedge  of  sea  water  up 
between  river  and  river  bed,  withdrawing  it  rapidly  when 
ebb  sets  in.  In  a  firth  that  is  large  compared  with  the 
river  falling  into  it,  judging  from  results  recently  obtained 
in  the  Firth  of  Forth, ^  a  state  of  equilibrium  is  arrived 
at,  the  water  increasing  in  salinity  more  and  more  gradu- 
ally as  it  proceeds  seawards,  the  disturbing  influence  of  the 
tide  becoming  less  and  less,  and  the  vertical  distribution  of 
salinity  more  and  more  uniform  until  the  river  water  meets 
the  sea,  diflused  through  a  nearly  homogeneous  mass  with 
a  density  little  inferior  to  that  of  the  ocean.  Between  the 
extreme  cases  there  are  numerous  gradations  of  estuary 
depending  on  the  ratio  of  river  to  sea  inlet. 

Deposits. — ^All  seas  within  about  300  miles  of  continental 
land,  whatever  may  bo  their  depth,  are  paved  with  terrige- 
nous debris,  and  all  at  a  greater  distance  from  shore  are 
carpeted  with  true  pelagic  deposits  (seo  Pacific  Ockan). 

Marine  Fauna  arul  Flora. — The  mixing  of  river  with 
sea  water  produces  a  marked  difference  in  the  fauna  and 
flora  of  seas.  Where  low  salinity  prevails  diatoms  abound, 
probably  on  account  of  the  greater  amount  of  silica  dis- 
solved in  river  water,  and  they  form  food  for  minute  pelagic 
animals  and  larvae,  which  are  in  tiUTi  preyed  upon  by  larger 
creatures.  In  some  seas,  snoh  as  the  North  Sea,  there  are 
many  celebrated  fishing  beds  on  the  shallow  banks  of  which 
innumerable  invertebrate  animals  live  and  form  an  inex- 
haustible food-supply  for  edible  fishes.  Naturalists  have 
remarJted  that  in  temperttto  seaa  enormous  shoals  of  relar 
tivclj'  few  species  are  met  with,  while  in  tropical  seas  species 
aro  very  numerous  and '  individuals  comparatively  few. 
Organisms,  such  as  the  corals,  which  secrete  cavlxinate  of 
lime  appear  to  flourish  more  luxuriantly  in  w.amior  and 
Salter  seas  than  in  those  which  aro  colder  and  fresher. 

The  geological  and  dynamic  aspects  of  seas  aro  treated  of 
in  Qeolooy  (vol.  x.  p.  284  sq.)  and  Oeograpity  (Physical)  > 
and  in  Atlantic  Ocean,  Baltic  Sea,  Black  Sea,  Indian 

>  MUl,  Ptoc,  Roy.  Soc  Ed.,  xia  20  187.  and  317. 


Ocean,  Jiediterkanean  Sea,  North  Sea,  Noewecian 
Sea,  Pacific  OctAN,  Polar  Kegions,  and  Red  Sea  the 
general  geographical  and  physical  characters  of  oceans  and 
seas  are  described.  In  ^Ieteorologt  some  account  is 
given  of  the  influence  of  the  sea  on  climate,  and  chemical 
problems  connected  with  the  ocean  are  discussed  in  Sea 
Water. 

SEA-CAT.     See  Sea- Wolf,  infra. 

SEA-DEVIL.     See  Fishing-Frog,  vol.  ix.  p.  269. 

SEA-HOESE.  Gea-horses  (Hippocampina)  are  small 
marine  fishes  which,  together  with  pipe-fishes  (Syn- 
gnaihina),  form  the  order  of  Lophobianchiate  fishes,  as 
already  noticed  in  Ichthtology,  vol.  sii.  p.  694.  The 
gills  of  the  members  of  this  order  aro  not  arranged  in 
leaf -like  series  as  in  other  fishes,  but  form  a  convex  massi 
composed  of  small  rounded  lobes  attached  to  the  branchial 
arches,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure  (fig.  1)  of 
the  head  of  a  sea-horse,"  in  which  the  gill-cover  has  been 
pushed  aside  to  show  the  interior  of  tho  gill-cavity.     Sca- 


Fia.  1. — ^Gills  ol  Sijyjiocampus  aldominalis. 

horses  differ  from  pipe-fishes  by  having  a  prehensile  and 
invariably  finless  tail ;  it  is  long,  slender,  tapering,  quad- 
rangular in  a  transverse  section,  and,  like  the  rest  of  the 
body,  encased  in  a  dermal  skeleton,  which  consists  of  horny 
segments,  allowing  of  ventral,  and  in  a  loss  degree  of  lateral, 
but  not  of  dorsal,  flexion.  The  typical  sea-horse  (Hippo- 
campits)  can  coil  up  a  great  portion  of  its  tail,  and  tirmly 
attach  itself  by  it  to  the  stems  of  searweeds  or  other 
similar  objects.  The  body  is  compressed  and  more  or 
less  elevated,  and  the  head  terminates  in  a  long  tubiform 
snout,  at  the  end  of  which  the  small  mouth  is  situated. 
The  whole  configuration  of  the  fore  part  of  the  body,  as 
well  as  tho  peculiar  manner  in  which  the  head  is  joined  to 
tho  neck-like  part  of  the  trunk,  bears  a  striking  resem- 
blance to  a  horse's  head  ;  hence  the  name  by  which  tliese 
fishes  are  generally  known.  Sea-horses  are  bad  swimmers 
and  are  unable  to  resist  currents.     With  the  aid  of  their 


FiO.  2. — Vhyllopteryx  tqua. 

single  dorsal  fin,  which  is  placed  about  the  middle  of 
the  fish's  body  and  can  bo  put  into  a  rapid  nndulatory 
motion,  they  shift  from  time  to  time  to  somo  other  object 
near  them,  remaining  stationary  among  vegetation  or  coral 
where  they  find  the  requisite  amount  of  food  and  sufficient 


580 


S  E  A  — S  E  A 


cover.  Their  coloration  and  the  tubercies  or  spines  on  the 
Lead  aud  body,  sometimes  with  the  addition  of  skinny 
flaps  and  filaments,  closely  resemble  their  surroundings,  and 
constitute  the  means  by  which  these  defenceless  creatures 
escape  detection  by  their  enemies.  These  protective 
structures  are  most  developed  in  the  Australian  genus 
Phyllopteryx,  one  of  the  most  singular  types  of  littoral  fishes. 

Sea-horses  belong  to  the  tropics  and  do  not  extend  so 
far  north  as  pipe-fishes.  They  are  abundant  at  suitable 
localities,  chiefly  on  the  coral-banks  of  the  Indo-Pacific 
Ocean.  Some  thirty  species  are  known,  of  which  the 
majority  belong  to  the  genus  Hippocampus  proper.  Their 
size  varies  from  2  to  1 2  inches  in  length ;  but  in  China 
and  Australia  a  genus  (Solenognathus)  occurs  the  species 
of  which  attain  to  a  length  of  nearly  2  feet ;  they,  how- 
ever, in  form  resemble  pipe-fishes  rather  than  sea-horses. 
The  species  which  may  be  sometimes  seen  in  aquaria 
in  Great  Britain  is  Hippocampus  antiqiiorum,  from  the 
Mediterranean  ■  and  the  coasts  of  Portugal  and  France. 
The  food  of  the  sea-horses  consists  probably  of  very  f,maU 
invertebrates  and  the  fry  of  other  fishes.  Like  the  other 
Lophobranchiates,  they  take  great  care  of  their  progeny. 
The  male  Hippocampus  carries  the  o»a  in  a  sac  on  the  lower 
side  of  the  tail,  in  which  they  are  hatched ;  in  the  other 
genera  no  closed  pouch  is  developed,  and  the  ova  are 
embedded  in  the  soft  and  thickened  integument  of  either 
the  abdomen  or  the  tail. 

SEAL.  lu  the  article  Mammalia  (vol.  xv.  p.  442)  will 
be  found  a  general  account  of  the  distinguishing  character- 
istics of  the  animals  constituting  the  sub-order  Pinnipedia 
of  the  order  Carnivora,  and  their  divisions  into  families 
and  genera.  It  only  remains  to  give  some  further  details 
respecting  those  members  of  the  group  to  which  the  term 
"  seal "  is  properly  restricted  (the  sub-family  Fhocinx), 
especially  those  which  inhabit  the  British  coasts. 

Although  seals  swini'  and  dive  with  the  greatest  ease, 
often  remaining  as  much  as  a  quarter  of  an  hour  or  more 
below  the  surface,  and  are  dependent  for  their  sustenance 
entirely  on  living  prey  captured  in  the'  water,  all  the 
species  frequently  resort  to  sandy  beaches,  rocks,  or  ice- 
floes, either  to  sleep  or  to  bask  in  the  sun,  and  especially 
for  the  purpose  of  bringing  forth  their  young.  The  latter 
appears  to  be  the  universal  habit,  and,  strange  as  it  may 
seem,  the  young  seals — of  some  species  at  least — take  to 
the  water  at  first  very  reluctantly,  and  have  actually  to  be 
taught  to  swim  by  their  parents.  The  number  of  young 
produced  is  usually  one  annually,  though  occasionally  two. 
They  are  at  first  covered  with  a  coat  of  very  thick,  soft, 
nearly  white  fur,  and  until  it  falls  off  they  do  not  usually 
enter  the  water.  This  occurs  in  the  Greenland  and  grey 
seal  when  from  two  to  three  weeks  old,  but  in  the  common 
seal  apparently  much  earlier.  One  of  this  species  born  in 
the  London  Zoological  Gardens  had  shed  its  infantile 
woolly  coat  and  was  swimming  and  diving  about  in  its 
pond  within  three  hours  after  its  birth.  The  movements 
of  the  true  seals  upon  the  ground  or  iee  are  very  different 
from  those  of  the  Otariee  or  eared  seals,  which  walk  and 
run  upon  all  four  feet,  the  body  being  raised  as  in  the  case 
of  ordinary  quadrupeds.  The  hinder  limbs  (by  which 
mainly  they  propel  themselves  though  the  water)  are  on 
land  always  perfectly  passive,  stretched  backwards,  with 
the  soles  of  the  feet  applied  to  each  other,  and  often  raised 
to  avoid  contact  with  the  ground.  Sometimes  the  fore 
limbs  are  equally  passive,  being  placed  close  to  the  sides 
of  the  body,  and  motion  is  then  effected  by  a  shufiaing  or 
wriggling  action  produced  by  the  muscles  of  the  trunk. 
Wb'en,  however,  there  Is  any  necessity  for  a  more  rapid 
mode  of  progression,  the  ariimals  use  the  fore  paws,  either 
alternately  or  simultaneously,  pressing  the  palmar  surface 
on  the  ground  and  lifting  and  dragging  the  body  forwards 


in  a  succession  of  short  jumps.  La  this  way  they  manage 
to  move  so  fast  that  a  man  has  to  step  out  beyond  a  walk 
to  keep  up  with  them ;  but  such  rapid  action  costs  con- 
siderable effort,  and  they  very  soon  become  heated  and 
exhausted.  These  various  modes  of  progression  appear  to 
be  common  to  all  species  as  far  as  has  been  observed. 

Most  kinds  of  seals  are  gregarious  and  congregate, 
especially  at  the  breeding  season,  in  immense  herds.  Such 
is  the  habit  of  the  Greenland  seal  (Fhoca  grcenlandica), 
which  resorts  in  the  spring  to  the  ice-floes  of  the  North 
Sea,  around  Jan  Mayen  Island,  where  about  200,000  are 
killed  annually  by  the  crews  of  the  Scotch,  Dutch,  and 
Norwegian  sealing  vessels.  Others,  like  the  common  sea! 
of  the  British  islands  (Phoca  vitulina),  though  having  a 


Fio.  1. — Common  seal.(PAoca  ntulina). 

wide  geographical  range,  are  never  met  with  in  such  large 
numbers  or  far  away  from  land.  Thia  species  is  stationary 
all  the  year  round,  but  some  have  a  regular  season  of 
migration,  moving  south  m  winter  and  north  in  summer. 
They  are  usually  harmless,  timid,  inofl'ensive  animals, 
though,  being  polygamous,  the  old  males  often  fight  des- 
perately with  each  other,  their  skins  being  frequently 
found  covered  with  wounds  and  scars.  They  are  greatly 
attached  to  their  young,  and  remarkably  docile-and  easily 
trained  when  in  captivity  ;  indeed,  although  there  would 
seem  little  in  the  structure  or  habits  of  the  seal  to  fit  it  by 
nature  to  be  a  companion  of  man,  there  is  perhaps  no 
wild  animal  which  attaches  itself  so  readily  to  the  person 
who  takes  care  of  and  feeds  it.  They  appear  to  have  much 
ciuriosity,  and  it  is  a  very  old  and  apparently  well-attested 
observation  that  they  are  strongly  attracted  by  musical 
sounds.  Their  sense  of  smell  is  very  acute,  and  theLr 
voice  varies  from  a  harsh  bark  or  grunt  to  a  plaintive  bleat 
Seals  feed  chiefly  on  fish,  of  which  they  consume  enormous 
quantities ;  some,  however,  subsist  largely  on  crustaceans, 
especially  species  of  Gammai-us,  which  swarm  in  the 
northern  seas,  also  on  molluscs,  echinoderms,  and  even 
occasionally  sea-birds,  which  they  seize  when  swimming 
or  floating  on  the  water. 

Although  the  true  seals  do  not  possess  the  beautiful 
nnder-fur  ("seal-skin"  of  the  furriers^  which  makes  the 
skin  of  the  sea-bears  or  Otarix  so  precious,  their  hides  are 
still  sufficiently  valuable  as  articles  of  commerce,  together 
with  the  oil  yielded  by  their  fat,  to  subject  them  to  a 
devastating  persecution,  by  which  their  numbers  are  being 
continually  diminished  (see  below,  p.  581  sq.). 

Two  spcies  of  seals  only  are  met  with  regularly  on  the 
British  coasts,  the  common  seal  and  the  grey  seal.     The 


SEAL 


581 


common  seal  (Phoca  vUulina)  is  a  constant  resident  in  all 
(iuitable  localities  round  the  Scottish,  Irish,  and  English 
coasts,  from  which  it  has  not  been  driven  away  by  the 
molestations  of  man.  Although,  naturally,  the  most  se- 
cluded and  out-of-the-way  spots  are  selected  as  their 
habitual  dwelling-places,  there  are  few  localities  where  they 


Fio.  2.— Sl;uU  of  coiuuioa  si;;il,  sliowiug  form  of  teetU. 

may  not  be  occasionally  met  with.  AVithin  the  writer's 
knowledge,  one  was  seen  not  many  years  ago  lying  on  the 
shingly  beach  at  so  populous  a  place  as  Brighton,  and 
another  was  lately  caught  in  the  river  Welland,  near  Stam- 
ford, 30  miles  from  the  sea.  They  frequent  bays,  inlets, 
and  estuaries,  and  are  often  seen  oli  sandbanks  or  mud- 
flats left  dry  at  low  tide,  and,  unlike  some  of  their  con- 
geners, are  not  found  on  the  ice-floes  of  the  open  sea,  nor, 
though  gregarious,  are  very  large  numbers  ever  seen  in 
one  spot.  The  young  are  produced  at  the  end  of  May  or 
beginning  of  June.  They  feed  chiefly  on  fish,  and  the 
destruction  they  occasion  among  salmon  is  well  known 
to  Scottish  fishermen.-  The  common  seal  is  widely  distri- 
buted, being  found  not  only  on  the  European  and  American 
coasts  bordering  the  Atlantic  Ocean  but  also  in  the  North 
Pacific.  It  is  from  4  to  5  feet  in  length,  and  variable  in 
colour,  though  usually  yellowish  grey,  with  irregular  sjiots 
of  dark  brown  or  black  above  and  yellowish  white  beneath. 
The  grey  seal  (/Inlic/ioerui  grypua)  is  of  considerably  larger 
iize,  the  males  attaining  when  fully  adult  a  length  of  8  feet 
from  nose  to  end  of  hind  feet.  The  form  of  the  skull  and 
the  simple  characters  of  the  molar  teeth  distinguish  it 
goncrically  from  the  common  seal.  It  is  of  a  yellowish 
grey  colour,  lighter  beneath,  and  with  dark  grey  spots  or 
blotches,  but,  like  most  other  seals,  is  liable  to  great  varia- 
tions of  colour  according  to  age.  The  grey  seal  appears 
to  bo  restricted  to  the  North  Atlantic,  having  been  rarely 
seen  on  the  American  coasts,  but  not  farther  south  than 
Nova  Scotia ;  it  is  chiefly  met  with  on  the  coasts  of  Ire- 
land, England,  Scotland,  Norway  and  Sweden,  including 
the  Baltic  and  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  Iceland,  though  it 
does  not  appear  to  range  farther  north.  It  is  apparently 
not  migratory,  and  its  favourite  breeding  places  are  rocky 
islands,  the  young  being  born  in  the  end  of  September  or 
DCginning  of  October. 

Other  species  of  seals  inhabiting  the  northern  seas, 
of  which  stragglers  have  occasionally  visited  the  British 
coasts,  are  the  small  ringed  seal  or  "  floe-rat "  of  the 
scalers  (Phoca  hispida),  the  Greenland  or  harp  seal  {Phoca 
tjr'vnlandica),  the  hooded  or  bladder-nosed  seal  (Cj/Mo- 
p/iora  crisla/a),  and  possibly  the  Bearded  seal  (Phoca  bar- 
,  bita),  though  of  the  last  there  is  no  certain  evidence. 
The  general  characters  and  geographical  distribution  of 
the  remaining  species  of  the  group  are  indicated  in  the 
article  Mammalia,  vol.  xv.  p.  412.  "(w.  ii.  f.) 

Sf.al  FisiiF.r.iEs. 

F.'om  a  commercial  point  of  view  seals  may  bo  dividcil  into  two 

groups, — hair  seals  .iiiil  fur  soiila.     Tlio  former  aro  valued  for  llio 

oil  tliny  yiild  and  for  tlieir  skins,  wliicb  arc  converted  into  leather, 

ind  tho  latter  for  their  skius  alone.     The  fur  seals  arc  jirovidcii 


with  a  dense  soft  under-fur  like  velvet  and  a  quantity  of  long  looso 
exterior  hair,  which  has  to  be  removed  in  dressing  the  hides.  Hair 
seals  are  either  entirely  without  under-fur  or  possess  it  in  too  small 
a  quantity  to  render  the  skins  of  much  commercial  value  as  furs. 
The  two  groups  correspond  to  the  two  divisions  of  eared  seals  and 
earless  seals  described  above  (see  also  vol.  xv.  pp.  442-443).^ 

JIair  Seals. — The  principal  hair  seal  fisheries  are  those  of  New- 
foundland and  Labrador  (area  about  200  miles),  the  Gulf  of  St 
Lawrence,  Jan  JIayen  and  the  adjacent  seas.  Nova  Zembla,  th' 
White  Sea  and  Arctic  Ocean,  the  Caspian,  and  the  North  and  Sout 
Pacific.  The  first-named  is  by  far  the  most  important.  To  th. 
immense  icefields  borne  past  these  shores  during  the  spring  month? 
great  herds  of  seals  resort  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  forth  and 
suckling  tlieir  young.  These  are  usually  produced  in  the  last 
week  of  February  and  increase  rapidly  in  size.  When  born  they 
weigh  about  5  lt> ;  in  four  weeks  the  fat  beneath  the  skin  has 
increased  to  a  depth  of  3  to  4  inches,  and  with  the  adhering  skin 
weighs  from  40  to  50  lb.  At  this  ago  the  animals  are  in  the  best 
condition  for  being  taken;  as  the  oil  then  yielded  is  of  the  best 
quality.  They  remain  on  the  ice  attended  by  their  dams  for  about 
six  weeks,  when  they  begin  to  take  to  the  water,  and  it  becomes 
much  more  difficult  to  capture  them.  When  a  floe  containing 
young  seals  is  reached,  the  hunters  take  to  the  ice  armed  with  a 
pole  or  "gaff,"  having  a  hook  at  one  end  and  sl\od  with  iron  at  tho 
other.  A  blow  on  the  nose  from  this  quickly  despatches  the  animal ; 
by  means  of  the  "  scalping-knife  "  the  skin  with  the  fat  adhering  is 
then  rapidly  detached.  The  fat  and  skins  are  rolled  into  bundles 
and  dragged  to  the  ship.  When  the  sliip  reaches  port  the  skins 
are  separated  from  the  lat  and  salted  for  export  to  Great  Britain, 
wliere  they  are  converted  into  leather.  Of  late  years  furriers  have 
succeeded  in  converting  a  few  of  the  finer  skins  into  ladies'  tippets. 
The  fat  was  formerly  thrown  into  huge  vats,  where  its  own  weight 
and  the  heat  of  the  sun  extracted  the  oil,  but  in  the  improved 
modern  process  the  fat  is  ground  into  minute  pieces  by  machinery 
and  then  steamed  ;  the  oil,  after  being  exposed  for  a  time  in  glass- 
covered  tanks  to  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays,  is  barrelled  for  ex- 
portation. The  greater  part  of  it  goes  to  England,  where  it  is 
largely  employed  both  as  an  illuminant  and  as  a  lubricant.  If  is 
also  used  for  tanning  purposes  and  in  the  manufacture  of  the  finer 
kinds  of  soap. 

From  8000  to  10,000  men  embark  annually, from  Newfoundland 
on  this  pursuit.  The  steamers,  which  are  rapidly  superseding 
sailing  vessels,  are  stoutly  timbered,  sheathed  with  iron  and  wood, 
and  provided  with  iron-plated  stems ;  they  carry  from  150  to  300 
men  each,  and  make  two,  and  sometimes  when  very  successful  even 
three,  trips  in  the"  season.  From  20  to  25  steamships  in  all  arc 
engaged  in  this  industry,  6  of  these  being  from  Dundee,  Scotland. 
Tlie  Dundee  vessels  arrive  in  Newfoundland  in  February  and  there 
ship  their  crews  ;  at  the  close  of  the  scaling  season  they  proceed  to 
tho  northern  whale  fishery  and  return  home  in  October.  A  "  close 
time"  for  seals  is  now  established  by  law.  Sailing  vessels  cannot 
clear  for  this  fishery  before  1st  March,  nor  can  steamers  before  10th 
March.  After  tho  young  seals  have  taken  to  the  water,  the  steamers 
in  their  second  trips  engage  in  the  pursuit  of  the  old  breeding  seals 
till  the  middle  or  end  of  May.  These  are  taken  either  by  shooting 
them  or  clubbing  them  when  congregated-  in  herds  on  tho  ice. 
This  practice,  which  is  most  injurious  to  the  fishery,  has  of  lato 
been  partially  abandoned,  by  an  agreement  among  the  ownei-s  of 
vessels  not  to  continue  operations  beyond  30th  April.  Tho  failures 
and  disappointments  of  tho  voyage  are  numerous,  many  vessels  re- 
turning to  port  with  few  seals  or  oven  witli  none.  The  prizes, 
liowovor,  are  so  enormous  that  there  is  no  hesitation  in  embarking 
capital  in  the  enterprise.  It  is  no  uncommon  event  for  a  steamer 
to  icturn  two  or  three  weeks  after  leaving  port  laden  to  the  gunwalo 
with  seals.  As  many  as  42,000  have  been  brought  in  by  a  single 
steamer,  the  value  at  two  and  a  half  dollars  per  seal  being  $105,000 
(£21,875).  Tho  men  on  board  tho  steamers  share  one-third  of  tli« 
proceeds  of  the  voyage  among  them ;  tho  remainder  goes  to  tho 
ownei-s  who  equip  and  provision  tho  vciisels.  In  sailing  vessels  tho 
men  get  one-half  tho  proceeds.  'The  number  ofseals  taken  annually 
ranges  from  350,000  to  500,000.  In  the  three  years  1877, 187S,  and 
1881  the  average  take  was  430,413,  valued  at  i:213,937.  Between 
1881  and  188G  tho  returns  fell  below  this  aver.iL'O  owing  to  thtf 
heavy  ice,  which  comparatively  few  vessels  succeeded  in  penetrating. 
■Thelargo  number  of  young  seals  which  escaped  during  these  years 
will  improve  tho  fishery  in  the  future. 

In  tho  seas  around  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  there  are  four 
species  of  seals,— tho  b,iy  seal,  tho  harp,  tho  hood,  and  tho  square 
flipper.  Tho  first  of  theso  frequents  tho  mouths  of  rivers  and 
harbours  and  is  never  foinnl  on  tho  ice.  The  harp,  so  called  from 
a  cun'ed  line  of  dark  spots  on  iLs  back  making  a  figure  somewhat 
resembling  an  ancient  harp,  is  by  far  tho  most  uunierous,  and  is 
par  excellence  the  seal  of  commcrco.     'J^io  hoods,  which  owe  their 

•  Some  naturallati  Iiavo  proposed  llio  name  TiichcphocinK  for  llio 
Iinlr  seals  ami  Oulophodnm  for  the  fur  ncals,  in  allnsiou  to  the  dilTercot 
character  of  tho  akiu  iu  the  tv<o  grouiis. 


582 


SEAL 


namo  to  a  bag  or  hood  on  the  nose  of  the  males,  which  they  can 
inflate  at  pleasure  for  protection,  are  much  larger  than  the  harps, 
but  their  oil  is  not  of  such  good  quality.  But  few  square  flippers 
are  taken;  they  are  large  seals  from  12  to  16  ffeet  in  length,  and 
are  believed  to  be  identical  with  the  great  Greenland  seals.  The 
seals  frequenting  these  seas  are  migratory.  In  ilay,  attended  by 
their  young,  they  commence  their  northerly  movements  to  tlie 
Greenland  seas,  where  they  spend  two  or  three  moutlis,  and  in 
September  begin  their  southerly  migration,  moving  along  the  coast 
of  Labrador,  feeding  in  its  iiords  and  bays.  One  division  passes 
through  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle  into  the  Gulf  of  St  Laivrence,  the 
other  along  the  east  coast  of  Newfoundland.  By  the  close  of  the 
year  they  reach  the  Great  Banks,  theii'  southern  headquarters, 
and  early  in  February  commence  their  northerly  movement  to  meet 
(hs  ice  on  which  their  young  are  to  be  brought  forth. 

The  Newfoundland  fishery  was  o£  slight  importance  till  the  be- 
.linning  of  the  19th  century.  At  first  the  seals  were  taken  in  nets ; 
t.he  next  method  was  shooting  them  from  large  boats,  which  left 
shore  about  the  middle  of  April.  Afterwards  small  schooners  were 
employed,  and  a  rapid  e.\pansion  of  the  fishery  followed.  Over  100 
of  these  small  vessels  used  to  leave  the  port  of  St  John's,  and  as 
many  more  the  ports  of  Conception  But.  In  1795  the  whole  catch 
of  seals  was  but  5000.  In  1805  it  reached  81,000 ;  in  ISlo,  126,000 ; 
in  1822,  306, 933.  The  krgest  catclies  on  record  were  in  1S30,  when 
558,942  seals  were  taken  ;  in  1831,  6S6,S36  ;  18i3,  651,370  ;  and 
in  1S14,  685,530.  The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  scale 
taken  in  some  recent  years  :- 


Tear^.  No.  of  Sells. 

ISSl 4J7,00:i 

ISSJ 200,500 

1SS3 300,350 

1SS4 aCSjSST 


I'eara.  Ko.  of  Seals. 

IS5S SflI,3I7 

ISSl 375,SS2 

1869 339,S21 

1S76 500,000 

16S0 .• 22.1,793 

Of  late  years  an  increasing  number  of  steamers  from  St  John's 
have  resorted  to  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence  as  well  as  small  sailing 
vessels  from  the  southern  ports  of  Newfoundland.  A  few  residents 
of  the  Magdalen  Islands  also  pursue  the  seals  on  the  Gulf  ice,  and 
tile  Canadians  carry  on  a  seal  fishery  along  the  shore  by  means  of 
nets  both  in  spring  and  autumn.  The  nets  are  made  of  strong 
hempen  cord,  some  of  them  very  large  and  costing  with  the  anchors 
and  gear  as  much  as  £1500  each.  iThis  fishery  is  carried  on  from 
Bbnc  Juberlis  Bay  to  Cape  "Whittle.  The  number  taken  averages 
about  70,000  to  80,000. 

Next  in  iriiportance  is  the  seal  fishery  carried  on  between  Green- 
land, Spitzbergen,  and  the  island  of  Jan  Maj-en, — between  68°  and 
74"  N.  lat.  and  3°  E.  and  17°  AV.  long.  In  most  years,  however, 
the  seals  are  taken  mainly  in  the  vicinity  of  Jan  JIayen.  The 
fishery  is  carried  on  by  the  British,  Norwegians,  Swedes,  Danes, 
«nd  Germans.  The  number  talcen  by  the  British  vessels  about 
equals  that  taken  by  all  the  others  together.  The  species  taken  are 
the  same  as  on  the  Newfoundland  coast,  the  harp  or  saddleback  and 
the  hood  or  bladder-nose.  The  breeding  season  is  about  three  weeks 
later  than  in  the  cnse  of  the  Newfoundland  seals,  the  yonng  being 
brought  forth  between  the  16th  and  the  22 J  of  JIarch.  The  method 
of  capture  is  almost  the  same  as  that  of  the  Ne\Tfoundland  hunters. 
Steamers  are  now  almost  exclusively  employed.    The  only  British 

Sorts  now  engaged  in  the  enterprise  are  Dundee  and  Peterhead, 
luring  the  twelve  years  1873  to  1885  the  niunber  of  British  vessels 
taking  part  in  it  was  from  14  to  21,  the  number  of  men  varying 
from  900  to  1200,  and  the  number  of  seals  taken  ranging  from  35,000 
to  75,000.  The  total  number  of  seals  taken  by  these  vessels  during 
the  ten  years  ending  1SS4  was  452,013.  Formerly,  from  1500  to 
2700  men  were  employed,  and  the  number  of  seals  taken  ranged 
from  50,000  to  125,000.  The  decline  has  been  largely  caused  by 
the  reckless  and  barba'rous  way  in  which  the  fishery  has  been  cou- 
dncted,  the  practice  of  seal-hunters  of  all  nations  having  been  to 
reach  the  seals  soon  after  the  young  were  born,  and  then  to  watch 
for  the  mothers  as  they  came  to  suckle  them  and  shoot  them  with- 
out mercy,  leaving  the  young  to  die  in  thousands  of  starvation  on 
the  ice.  "The  consequence  is  that  the  hr,.ds  are  not  now  a  twentieth 
part  of  their  former  size.  Newfoundland  hunters,  on  the  other 
hand,  do  not  disturb  the  seals  till  they  are  grown  and  about  to 
leave  their  mothers,  the  old  seals  not  being  killed  till  a  later  date. 
By  an  internationai  treaty  between  England  and  Norway — the  two 
nations  most  interested — a  "  close  season  "  has  been  established  in 
tlie  Jan  Mayen  fishery.  The  Dundee  and  Peterhead  steamers  are 
chiefly  manned  by  Shetlanders,  who  are  taken  on  board  at  Lerwick. 
The  vessels  make  the  ice  from  the  15th  to  the  20th  March  and 
commence  the  chase  in  the  destructive  w'ay  already  described. 
They  follow  up  the  capture  of  the  young  seals  in  April,  when 
they  are  better  worth  taking.  Then  they  proceed  to  separate  the 
skins  from  the  fat.  The  fonner  are  salted  on  board,  and  the  fat  is 
stowed  in  tanks.  In  May  the  pursuit  of  the  old  seals  on  the  ice 
commences  and  continues  till  the  16th,  when  it  is  time  to  proceed 
to  the  whale  fishery.  The  oil  is  not  manufactured  till  the  vessels 
reach  home  late  in  the  autumn.  As  the  blubber  undergoes  decay 
in  the  tanks,  the  oil  is  not  so  good  in  quality  as  that  made  in  New- 
foundland from  the  fresh  fat. 


The  Jan  Mayen  fishery  commenced  in  1840.  In  that  year  13 
British  vessels  and  650  men  engaged  in  it,  and  17,300  seals  wei-e 
taken.  The  Norwegians  and  other  nationalities  also  took  part  in 
it.  Steamers  were  introduced  in  1858.  The  following  table  shows 
the  growth  and  decline  of  the  fishery : — 


Tear. 

Na  of 

British 
Vessels. 

Ko.  of 
Jlen. 

Seals   ■*  1  V  ., 
taken.      ]  ^'="- 

No.  of 

British 
Vessels. 

No.  of 
Men. 

Seals 
taken. 

1S40 
1S45 
ISiO 
1S30 
ISlil 
1S<55 
1S70 

13 
S9 
32 
51 
4« 
26 
22 

650 
1950 
160O 
2700 
2300 
1300 
1320 

17,300 
94,S30 
74,053 
81,500 
10,350 
112,000 
128,000 

1875 
ISSO 
ISSl 
1SS2 
1SS3 
1SS4 

20 

'      It 
15 
IT 
20 

1200 
S40 
840 
900 
1020 
1200 

71,040 

41,403 

23,084 

21,092 

49,S0(i     . 

42,129 

The  Norwegian  vessels  are  all  steamers,  sheathed  with  wood  and 
iron,  the  crews  averaging  forty-six  men.  They  belong  principally 
to  Tbnsberg,  but  Tromsb  also  sends  out  a  number  of  small  vessels 
to  hunt  adolt  seals.  The  total  annual  product  has  reached 
8300,000.  Over  bventy  Norwegian  and  Swedish  steamers  are 
engaged  in  this  fishery.  Since  about  the  year  1873  or  1874  the 
Norwegians  and  Swedes  have  discovered  a  new  fishing-ground  for 
adult  seals  off  the  coast  of  Greenland  between  Iceland  and  Cape 
Farewell.  It  is  carried  on  in  the  months  of  June  and  July.  The 
seals  taken  are  all  of  the  hood  kind.  At  one  time  the  Jan  Mayen 
fishery  averaged  200,000  seals  annually  among  all  the  uatiouaUties 
engaged.     It  does  not  now  exceed  120,000  to  130,000. 

'i'ha  Danes,  the  Eskimo,  and  the  half-breeds  carry  on  a  seal- 
fishery  olf  the  western  coast  of  Greenland  between  Cape  Farewell 
and  79°  N.  lat.  Tlie  seals  taken  are  chiefly  the  floe  or  spotted  seal 
and  the  square  flipper.  Rink,  in  his  Greenland,  estimates  tiia 
annual  number  taken  at  89,000,  but  at  present  it  does  not  exceed 
50,000,  as  the  seals  are  becoming  scarcer.  The  oil  is  made  at  the 
Danish  settlements  on  the  coast,  and  the  skins  are  dried,  not 
salted,  and  both  are  shipped  to  Denmark. 

The  fisheries  of  Nova  Zcmbla,  once  productive,  have  declined  in 
value,  and  are  now  carried  on  by  only  five  vessels,  which  reach  the 
island  about  the  end  of  June.  The  fishermen  commence  with  hunt- 
ing the  seal  and  the  walrus  and  afterwards  fish  for  the  common 
tiout.  Five  kinds  of  seals  are  found  here,  the  chief  being  the 
Phoca  vilulina  and  the  Pkoca  granlaixdica.  The  number  taken 
is  small. 

The  Russians  carry  on  a  seal-fishery  on  the  eastern  and  western 
coasts  of  the  'UTiite  Sea,  in  the  bays  of  the  Dwina  and  the  Mezen 
and  on  the  coast  of  Kanin.  The  species  is  the  Phcca  ffrcenlandica. 
These  seals  live  in  the  high  regions  of  the  polar  seas  from  May 
tOl  September,  and  appear  later  "in  the  gulfs  and  bays  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  where  the  young  are  born  on  the  floating  ice  early  in 
Febraary.  Soon  after  the  hunt  commences  and  lasts  tUl  the  end 
of  March.  On  the  eastern  coast  of  the  White  Sea  the  chase  is 
pursued  over  a  space  of  230  miles.  Two  thousand  huntft-s  assemble 
at  Kedy,  near  Cape  Voronofl".  High  wooden  towers  are  erected 
along  the  shore,  whence  observers  watch  the  movements  of  the 
seals.  Hunting  sheds  for  the  men  are  also  erected.  When  a  lierd 
of  seals  is  observed,  the  men  go  out  on  the  ice,  ibawing  small  boats 
after  them,  and  kill  the  young  and  old  with  clubs  and  guns.  To 
approach  the  seals  without  being  discovered,  the  hunters  mufile 
themselves  in  long  white  shirts  and  advance  slowly  and  noiselessly 
over  the  snow.  They  are  often  exposed  to  the  greatest  dangers, 
owing  to  the  sudden  movements  of  tlie  ice.  In  following  up  the 
chase  in  April  they  use  sailing  boats  22  feet  long,  with  an  iron- 
plated  bottom,  which  they  draw  up  on  the  ice,  where  a  vast  en- 
campment is  formed,  and  shooting- parties  search  for  the  seals.' 
On  the  western  shore  of  the  White  Sea  the  seaf-hunt  is  less  pro- 
ductive than  on  the  eastern.  The  hunters  meet  at  Dcvyatoc,  a 
few  miles  north  of  the  river  Ponoi.  About  500  men  engage  in  the 
chase.  The  Russians  take  each  year  in  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the 
White  Sea  from  2,500,000  to  3,000,000  lb  of  seal  blubber.  Allow- 
ing an  average  of  40  lb  per  seal,  this  would  imply  the  capture  of 
65,000  to  75,000  seals.     The  skins  are  made  into  leather. 

The  most  extensive  and  valuable  seal-fishery  of  the  Russians  is 
in  the  Caspian  Sea,  where  the  seals  (Phoca  caspica)  are  plentiful. 
They  pass  the  summer  in  deep  water,  and  in  the  autumn  resort 
to  the  eastern  basin,  where  the  ice  forms  earliest  and  breaks  up 
latest.  Here  the  pairing  takes  place  on  the  ice  in  December  and 
January.  The  seals  are  also  hunted  at  the  mouths  of  the  Volga 
anil  the  Ural,  and  in  the  southern  part  of  the  sea,  on  the  islands 
of  the  Gulf  of  Apsheron.  There  are  three  methods  of  hunting  the 
seals, — killing  them  with  clubs  (the  commonest  and  most  successful 
way),  shooting  them  on  the  ice,  and  taking  them  in  nets.  From 
130,000  to  140,000  are  taken  annually. 

A  few  seals  are  taken  off  the  coast  of  California  and  Washington 
Territory.  In  the  South  Pacific,  off  the  co.ast  of  ChUi,  only  a  few 
are, now  taken  where  formerly  they  were  captured  by  the  thousand. 

The  elephant  seal  or  sea  elephant  {Mucrorldnus  Iconina)  was 
formerly  taken  in  great  numbers  at  various  places  for  the  sake  of 


SEA- 

j'ti  oil.  This  fishery  is  now  almost  a  thing  of  the  past;  since 
alout  1875  it  has  been  carried  on  solely  from  New  London  in 
<;i>onecticut,  the  fleet  nunibciiug  only  four  or  five  vessels.  The 
yield  in  1880  was  42,000  eaUous  of  oil,  worth  S21,420. 

The  average  number  of  hair  seals  taken  annually  may  be  esti- 
ni  ited  as  follows  : —  Seals. 

'Kemburntlatid, including  Labrndorand  theGulf  of  St  Lawrence  400,000 

Cam  iian  ii«t  hshery,  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence 73,000 

J.in  Mavcn  and  the  adjacent  seas 130,000 

Western  G reenland 60,000 

Nova  Zeiubla,  Wiite  Sea,  and  Arctic  Ocean 75,000 

Cupila  Sea  IJO.OOO 

Korth  and  South  Pacifle  5,000 

Total  number  oi'hair  seals   873,000 

Value  at  SiaO  per  seal  82,lS7,i00 

Fur  Seals, — The  fur  seals  occupy  two  distinct  areas.  Ifone 
<?iist  on  the  shores  of  the  North  Atlantic.  South  of  the  eqaiator 
they  extend  from  near  the  tropics  to  the  region  of  antarctic  ice. 
ily  far  the  most  important  and  raluable  fir  seal  fisheries  are  those 
<arriedon  at  St  Paul's  and  St  George's  Islands,  belonging  to  the 
j'ribyloir  group,'  off  the  coast  of  Alaska,  at  the  Commander  Islands 
hi  tlte  Behriug  Sea,  and  that  in  the  same  sea  700  miles  west  of  the 
.\la8kan  seal  islets.  The  species  found  here  is  the  northern  fur 
real  {Callorhimts  ursiiiHs).  The  males  attain  mature  size  about 
I  lie  eighth  year,  when  their  length  is  from  7  to  8  feet,  their  girth 
Ivum  7  to  S  feet,  and  their  weight,  when  in  full  flesh,  from  5u0  to 
iCO  lb.  The  females  are  full  grown  at  four  years  old,  wlien  they 
vi;asure  4  feet  in  length,  2 J  m  girth,  and  weigh  from  80  to  100  lb. 
'1  lie  yearlings  weighfrom  30  to  40  lb.  The  sejjs  resort  to  these 
ii  lands  late  iu  spring  chiefly  for  reproductive  purposes,  making 
Vieic  appearance  from  the  southward.  The  number  annually 
>  isitijig  St  Paul's  and  St  George's  is  estimated  at  five  millions. 
About  the  middle  of  April  the  males  begin  to  arrive  and  take 
I'leir  places  along  the  shore  iu  "the  rookeries,"  as  the  breeding- 
S  rounds  are  called.  The  younger  males  are  prevented  from  landing 
by  the  older,  and  aro  compelled  cither  to  stay  in  the  water  or  to 
^0  to  the  uplands.  By  the  middle  of  June  all  the  males  have 
assembled,  and  then  the  females  begin  to  appear.  Each  old  male 
fcal  collects  from  ten  to  fifteen  or  more  females,  whom  he  guards 
most  jealously.  The  males  fi"ht  furiously,  "  so  that  night  and  day 
the  aggregated  sound  is  like  that  of  an  apjiroaching  railway  train." 
By  the  middle  of  July  the  family  circle  is  complete.  Soon  after 
lunding  the  female  gives  birth  to  one  pup,  weighing  about  6  lb, 
v;hich  she  nurses  at  wide  intervals  without  auy  affection.  Paiiiug 
tikes  place  soou  afterwards.  Xo  food  is  taken  by  the  breeding 
males  while  on  the  rocks, — a  period  of  three  to  four  months. 
When  the  males  leave  after  this  long  fast,  they  ai-e  reduced  to  half 
their  former  weight.  In  the  end  of  October  and  middle  of  November 
ill  leave  tho  island,  the  young  males  going  la.st  ooid  by  themselves. 

The  killijig  of  the  seals  is  carefully  regulated.  Ko  fepaales  ai'a 
I.  illed,  and  only  a  certain  number  of  young  "  bachelor  "  seals  whose 
skins  aie  of  superior  finality.  These  younger  male  seals  are  spread 
« ,it  on  tlw  slopes  above  tho  rookeries  to  rest.  A  party  of  men 
aiTuedwith  clubs  of  hard  wood  quietly  creep  betwceu  them  and 
tiie  shore,  and  at  a  given  signal  start  up  with  a  shout  and  drive 
tlie  seals  inland.  \Vhen  they  reach  the  kilUug-grounds  ne.ir  the 
^  illagcs,  they  select  those  that  are  two  or  three  yeara  old  and  seem 
I.kely  to  yield  the  most  valuable  fur.  These  they  despatch  with 
3  cltib.  Tho  skins  are  eamfuUy  sailed  for  c-xpoitalion.  Besides 
tiio  skin  each  seal  yields  about  a  goUon  and  a  half  of  oil.  But 
il  is  not  u.^ed,  as  its  rank  odour  rendei-s  refining  veiy  costly.  The 
\'..lue  of  the  skins  in  tho  raw  state  varies  frotn  five  to  twenty-five 
ddlars  each  ;  at  times,  when  furs  are  specially  foshiouablc,  a 
higher  price  is  obtaiucd.  Tho  quality  of  the  Alaska  furs  is  superior, 
but  those  obtained  iu  the  South  Shetland  and  antarctic  regions  aro 
rated  best.  A  cloak  of  tho  richest  fur  seal,  a  yard  deep  or  more, 
w  111  cost  from  £25  to  £  10.  The  roots  of  tho  loose  ctterior  hairs 
pi'netrato  deeper  into  tlie  skin  than  those  of  tlio  fur  or  short  hair, 
and  can  readily  bo  cut  by  paring  on  the  fleshy  side,  without 
touching  tho  roots  of  tho  fur  ;  tho  long  hairs  then  drop  off,  leaving 
the  valuable  fur  below  in  a  sheet  like  puro  velvet,  fho  number 
of  se.ils  killed  on  tho  Pribyloft  Islands  is  limited  to  100,000  annu- 
ally, and  with  tho  precautions  taken  they  incrc;isc  as  fast  as  if  left 
\i  themselves,  "fotwhen  tho  number  of  males  is  in  e.\ces3,  tho 
CDntinual  fighting  ou  tho  rookeries  destroys  many  of  both  females 
and  young,  whicli  got  trampled  to  death." 

Alaska  was  purchased  from  Russia  by  tho  United  States  iu  1867. 
1  he  Pribyloff  Islands  wore  leased  to  tha  Alaska  Commercial  Com- 

^  The  sea-lien  (Enmetopiaa  iMIeri)  is  a  characteristic  pinniped  of 
t  ,'io  Pribyloff  Islands  and  other  parts  of  Alaska.  It  has  very  little 
<  ommercial  value  ;  but  by  the  natives  along  tlio  Bchring  Sen  coast  of 
>ilaska,  Kamchatka,  and  tlio  Kuriles  it  is  highly  prized.  From  the 
lido  they  inako  coverings  for  their  boats;  tbo  intestines  are  made 
I  nto  gnmisnts  ;  tho  stomach  walls  are  used  n«  pouches  for  oil  ;  the 
)lo°h  is  k.iied  and  eaten  ;  and  tlie  whiskers  are  sold  to  the  Cluncsc, 
who  use  ihem  as  pickers  to  their  opium  pipes,  and  in  several  cere- 
u-.aic3  in  their  joss  houses. 


-SEA  583 

pany  of  San  Francisco  for  twenty  years,  from  . ; ..May  1870,  under 
Act  of  Congress  approved  1st  July  1870.  The  cnnuM  rental  is 
Sj5,000  with  a  ta.v  of  $2:62  on  each  skin  taken,-  -making  tho  total 
rental  $317,000  per  annum.  The  Alaska  Commercial  Company 
have  leased  the  Commander  Islands  from  the  Russian  Government. 
About  30,000  fur  seals  aro  annually  taken  there. 

The  fishery  at  the  mouth  of  the  Straits  of  Juan  de  Fuca  and  its 
vicinity  is  carried  on  by  Americans  and  Canadians.  The  seals 
are  captured  iu  tlie  waters,  tha  largest  number  being  secured  at 
and  about  Cape  flattery,  to  the  extent  of  15,000  annually.  The 
Lobos  Islands,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  are  under 
the  protection  of  the  Govcrnmeut  of  Uruguay,  the  number  of  seals 
annually  taken  being  limited  to  about  12,000.  Some  of  tbo  numer- 
ous islands  about  Cape  Horn  are  the  breeding-places  of  fur  seals,  as 
are  also  the  South  Shctlaud  Islands  farther  south.  Tliis  Cape  Horn 
region  is  visited  by  a  fleet  of  seven  to  ten  vessels  belonging  to  New 
London  and  Stoiiington,  Connecticut,  and  also  by  a  few  Chilian 
and  otlier  South  American  vessels.  Only  occasionally  does  a  vessel 
visit  the  South  Shetlands,  though  the  quality  of  skins  to  be  secured 
there  is  very  superior.  The  headquarters  for  the  fleet  between 
seasons  is  at  Ptinta  Arenas,  or  Sandy  Point,  in  the  Straits  of 
Magellan.  The  Americ.in  fleet  in  1380  numbered  nine  vessels  of 
1192  tons.  The  result  of  the  fitshery  was  9275  sldns,  worth  $90,431. 
Early  in  the  19th  century  the  Falkland  Islands  abounded  in  fur 
seals,  but  they  have  been  exterminated.  The  number  now  (1SS6) 
annually  secured  there  does  not  average  more  thau  500 ;  in  some 
years  only  50  skins  are  taken. 

There  ai-o  annually  received  at  London  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  about  10,000  sealskins  taken  at  various  islands  iu  the 
Southern  Indian  Ocean  and  along  the  south-west  coast  of  Africa. 
A  few  fur  seals  are  taken  in  tlie  Okhotsk  Sea. 

Nearly  all  the  fur-seal  skins  find  their  way  to  London,  \rhero 
they  are  plucked,  dressed,  and  dyed.  A  few,  however,  ai'e  nrcparcd 
iu  ifcw  York.  At  the  seal  islands  they  are  salted  and  baled  with 
the  fur  inside,  and  in  this  miinner  shipped  to  London.  .The  annual 
vield  of  tho  fur-seal  fisheries  of  the  world  is  about  185,000. 
•'  Scats. 

Pril)yloff  Islands,  Alaska 100,000 

Copunander  Islantls .- _•  SO.OOO 

Straits  of  Juan  de  l-'uca  and  vicinity    .'.  13,000 

Lobos  Islands,  month  of  Bio  <le  la.  Flat  i 12,000 

Fatigonisi,  including  South  Shetlawi  Islands  and  Straits  of 

Magellan  •  15.000 

Falkland  Islands MO 

Cive  of  Good  Hope,  includins  south-west  coast  of  Africa  and 

islands  in  Southern  Indian  Ocean  10,000 

Islands  belonging  to  Japan 2,500 

Total ISS.OOO 

At  an  average  of  $7  per  skin  the  annual  value 

would  be  fl,5<i5,C0O 

Value  of  hair  sials  annually 2,lS7,i()0 

Total  valna  of  hair  and  fur  eeals $3, 452,600 

•See  H.ltton  and  Hnrvey,  Kmfinnidiand,  1S63;  Scltlrns  of  tht  Jtin  Uaycn 
Seal  Fiik-.i-iis,  by  Captain  Adams.  1SS5;  Unitat  Slalas  Fisli  CommiKioii  Reporli 
tor  1873-7-1  and  1S7+-76  ;  J.  A.  Alleu,  Earal  Seals  ;  Chrnles  Bryant,  Habili  v/llic 
yortherii  i'lir  Stal :  U.  W.  Elliott,  Sea!  IsltijtOs  of  Alalia.  (M.  H.) 

SEA  LAWS,  a  title  which,  .came  into  use  amongst 
writers  on  maxitime  law  in  the  16th  century,  and  was 
ai>2>'ie'-l  by  them  to  certain  mediaeval  collections  of  usages 
of  tho  sea  which  hact  been  recognized  as  having  tho  forco 
of  customary  law,  either  by  the  judgments  of  a  maritinio 
court  or  by  the  resolutions  of  a  congress  of  merchants  and 
shipmasters.  To  the  former  class  belong  the  sea  laws  of 
Oleron,  which  embody  the  usages  of  tho  mariners  of  tho 
Atlantic ;  under  the  latter  come  tho  sea  laws  of  Wjsby, 
which  reflect  the  customs  of  the  niarinoi-s  of  tho  North 
Sea  and  of  the  Baltic. 

Tho  earliest  collection  of  such  usages  vihich  was  re- 
ceived in  England  is  described  in  tha  BlarJ:  Book  of-the 
AdmiraUy  as  the  "Laws  of  Oleron,"  whilst  the  earliest 
known  te.xt  is  contained  iu  the  Lihcr  ilaaofandorum  of 
the  corporation  of  the  City  of  London,  preserved  in  tho 
archives  of  their  Guildhall.  These  laws  are  in  an  early 
handwriting  of  tho  11th  century,  and  tho  title  prefixed  to 
thciu  is  La  Charte  d'Oleroun  des  Jmiycment:  de  la  J/i<-r. 
How  and  in  what  manner  these  "Judgments  of  the  Sea" 
came  to  be  collected  is  not  altogether  certain.  Clcirac,  a 
learned  advocate  in  the  parliament  of  Bordeau.v,  in  tho 
introduction  to  his  work  on  Lcs  Us  ct  Coustumcs  de  la  Afer, 
first  printed  at  Bordeaux  in  1647,  states  that  Eleanor, 
duchess  of  Guienno  (tho  consort  of  Louis  \^I.  of  Franco, 
but  subsequently  divorced  from  him  and  married  to  Henry 
IL  of  England},  havinn  observed  during  her  visit  to  the 


684 


S  E  i^       LAWS 


Holy  Land,  in  company  with  Louis,  that  the  collection  of 
customs  of  the  sea  contained  in  The  Booh  of  the  Consulate 
of  the  Sea  (see  vol.  vi.  p.  317)  'was  held  in  high  repute  in 
the  Levant,  directed  on  her  retu/n  that  a  record  should 
be  made  of  the  judgments  oi  the  maritime  court  of  the 
island  of  Oleron  (at  that  time  a  peculiar  court  of  the  duchy 
of  Guienne),  in  order  that  they  might  serve  as  law  amongst 
the  mariners  of  the  AVcstern  Sea.  He  states  further  that 
rdchard  L  of  England,  on  his  return  from  the  Holy  Land, 
brought  back  with  him  a  roll  of  those  judgments,  which 
he  published  in  England  and  ordained  to  be  observed  as 
law.  It  is  probable  that  the  general  outline  of  Cleirac's 
account  is  correct,  as  it  accords  with  a  memorandum  on 
the  famous  roll  of  12  Edw.  III.,  "De  Superioritate  Maris 
Anglise,"  which,  having  been  for  many  years  carefully 
preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  Tower  of  London,  is  how 
deposited  in  the  Public  Eecord  Office.  According  to  this 
memorandum,  the  king's  justiciaries  were  instructed  to 
declare  and  uphold  the  laws  and  statutes  made  by  the 
kings  of  England,  in  order  to  maintain  peace  and  justice 
amongst  the  people  of  every  nation  passing  through  the 
sea  of  England:  "Qure  quidem  leges  'et  statuta  per 
dominum  Ricardum,  quondam  regem  Anglite,  in  reditu  suo 
a  Terra  Sancta  correcta  fuerunt,  interpretata,  declarata,  et 
in  Insula  Oleron  publicata,  et  nominata  in  Gallica  lingua 
La  Leye  Olyroun." 

The  earliest  version  of  these  Oleron  sea  laws,  which, 
according  to  the  memorandum  above  mentioned,  were  re- 
ceived in  England  in  the  latter  part  of  the  12th  century, 
comprised  certain  Customs  of  the  sea  which  were  observed 
in  the  wine  and  the  oil  trade,  as  carried  on  between  the 
ports  of  Guienne  and  those  of  Brittany,  Normandy,  Eng- 
land, and  Flanders.  No  English  translation  seems  to  have 
been  made  before  the  Butter  of  the  Sea,  printed  in  London 
by  Thomas  Petyt  in  1536,  in  which  they  are  styled  "the 
Lawes  of  ye  Yle  of  Auleron  and  ye  Judgementes  of  ye  See." 
French  was,  in  fact,  a  tongue  familiar  to  the  English  High 
Court  of  Admiralty  down  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  A 
Flemish  text,  however,  appears  to  have  been  made  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  14th  century,  the  Puiyle  Booh  of  Bruges, 
preserved  in  the  archives  of  Bruges,  in  a  handwriting 
somewhat  later  than  that  of  the  Liher  Memorandorum. 
Prefixed  to  this  Flemish  version  is  the  title,  "  Dit  es  de 
Coppie  van  den  Pollen  van  Oleron  van  den  Vonnesse  van 
der  Zee."  Certain  changes,  however,  have  been  made  in 
the  P'urple  Booh  of  Briir/es  in  the  names  of  the  ports 
mentioned  in  the  original  Gascon  text.  For  instance, 
Sluys  is  in  several  places  substituted  for  Bordeaux,  just  as 
in  the  Rxdter  of  the  Sea  London  replaces  iiordeaux.  That 
these  sea  laws  were  administered  in  the  Flemish  maritime 
courts  may  be  inferred  from  two  facts.  First,  a  Flemish 
translation  of  them  was  made  for  the  use  of  the  maritime 
tribunal  of  Damme,  which  was  the  chief  Flemish  entrepot 
of  the  wine  trade  in  the  1 3th  century.  The  text  of  this 
translation  has  been  published  by  Adriaen  Verwer  under 
the  title  of  the  Judgments  of  Damme.  In  the  second 
place,  there  is  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  senate  of 
Dantzic,  where  there  was  a  maritime  court  of  old,  famous 
for  the  equity  of  its  judgments,  an  early  manuscript  of  the 
15th  century,  which  contains  a  Flemish  reproduction  of 
the  Judgments  of  Oleron  headed  "  Dit  is  Twater  Recht 
in  Vlaenderen."  So  far  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
Judgments  of  Oleron  were  received  as  sea  laws  in  Flanders 
as  well  as  in  England  in  the  i4th  century.  Further 
inquiry  enables  us  to  trace  them  as  they  followed  the 
course  of  the  wine  trade  in  the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic 
Sea.  Boxhorn,  in  his  CUronyh  van  Zetlande,  has  published 
a  Dutch  version  of  them,  which  Van  Leeuwen  has  repro- 
duced in  his  Bafavia  lUustraia,  under  the  title  of  the 
Lav:s  of  West-Co  13"^,  in  Zealand.     Verwer  has  also  pub- 


lished a  Dutch  text  of  them  in  his  Kederlanfs  See-Rechlen, 
accompanied  by  certain  customs  of  Amsterdam,  of  which 
other  M.SS.  exist,  in  which  those  customs  are  described  as 
usages  of  Stavoren.  or  as  usages  of  Enkhuizen,  both  ports 
of  active  commerce  in  the  loth  century.  Of  these  customs 
of  Amsterdam,  or,  as  they  were  more  generally  styled, 
"  Ordinances  of  Amsterdam,"  further  mention  is  made 
below. 

A  new  and  enlarged  collection  oi  sea  laws,  purporting 
to  be  an  extract  of  the  ancient  laws  of  Oleron,  made  its 
appearance  in  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  century  in  Le 
Orant  Routler  de  la  J/er,  printed  at  Poitiers  in  France 
by  Jan  de  !Marnef,  at  the  sign  of  the  Pelican.  The  title- 
page  is  without  a  date,  but  the  dedication,  which  purports 
to  be  addressed  bj"  its  author  Pierre  Garcie  alias  Ferrande 
to  his  godson,  is  dated  from  St  Gilles  on  the  last  day  of 
May  1483.  It  contains  forty-seven  articles,  of  which  the 
first  twenty-two  are  identical  with  articles  of  the  "Judg- 
ments of  the  Sea,"  in  the  Liber  Memorandorum,  the  re- 
maining articles  being  evidently  of  more  recent  origin.  A 
black-letter  edition  of  this  work  in  French,  without  a  date, 
is  preserved  in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Qxford,  and  to  the 
last  article  this  colophon  is  appended :  "  Ces  choses  pre- 
cedentes  sont  extraictes  du  trfes  utille  et  profittable  EooUe 
Doloyron  par  le  diet  Pierre  Garcie  alias  Ferrande."  An 
English  translation  is  printed  in  the  appendix  to  A  View 
of  the  Admiral  Jurisdiction,  published  in  1661  by  Dr 
John  Godolphin,  in  which  the  laws  are  described  as  "  an 
Extract  of  the  Ancient  Laws  of  Oleron  rendered  into 
English  out  of  Garsias  alias  Ferrand."  Although  this 
new  text  had  the  recommendation  of  an  advocate  who 
had  filled  the  office  of  judge  of  the  Admiralty  Court  during 
the  C'ommon\\ealth  and  been  appointed  king's  advocate- 
general  by  Chavles  II.,  it  seems  to  have  been  superseded 
in  a  short  time  by  Cleirac's  Us  et  Coustumes  de  la  Jler,  to 
which  was  appended  the  following  clause  of  authentication: 
"  Tesmoiu  le  Seel  de  I'Isle  d'Oleron,  estably  aux  contracts 
de  la  dite  Isle,  le  jour  du  Mardy  apres  la  Feste  Sainct 
Andr^  I'an  mille  deux  cens  soixant-six."  Cleirac  does  not 
inform  us  from  what  source  or  under  what  circumstances 
he  procured  his  text,  nor  on  what  authority  he  has  adopted 
in  certain  articles  readings  at  variance  with  those  of  Garcie, 
whilst'he  retains  the  same  number  of  articles,  to  wit,  forty- 
seven.  The  clause  of  authentication  cannot  be  accepted 
as  a  warranty  above  suspicion,  as  the  identical  clause  of 
authentication  with  the  same  date  is  appended  to  the  early 
Norman  and  Breton  versions  of  the  rolls,  which  contain 
only  twenty-six  articles.  Cleirac's  version,  however,  owing 
probably  to  the  superior  style  in  which  it  was  edited,  and 
to  the  importance  of  the  other  treatises  on  maritime  matters 
which  Cleirac  had  brought  together  for  the  first  time  in  a 
single  volume,  seems  to  have  obtained  a  preference  in  Eng- 
land over  Garcie's  text,  as  it  was  received  in  the  High 
Court  of  Admiralty  during  the  judgeship  of  Sir  Leoline 
Jenkyns,  and  an  English  translation  of  it  was  introduced 
into  the  English  translation  of  the  Blach  Booh  of  the 
Admiralt!/  made  by  John  Bedford,  the  deputy  registrar  of 
the  High  Court,  and  dedicated  to  Sir  Leoline  Jenkyns. 
It  seems  to  have  been  Bedford's  intention  to  print  this 
translation  imder  the  title  of  "  Sea  Laws  "  ;  but  the  manu- 
script passed  into  the  hands  of  Sir  Leoline  Jenkyns,  who 
gave  it  to  the  College  of  Advocates  in  1685.  The  Black 
Booh  itself,  which  was  missing  for  a  long  time  from  the 
Admiralty  registry,  has  recently  been  discovered  and  has 
been  replaced  in  the  archives  of  the  Admiralty  Court.  Of 
these  two  versions  of  the  sea  laws  of  Oleron  the  earlier 
obtained  a  wide-world  reception,  for  it  was  translated  into 
Castilian  (Fiiero  de  Layron)  by  order  of  King  Alphonso 
X.,  and  a  Gascon  text  of  it  is  still  preserved  in  the  archives 
of  Leghorn,  apparently  in  a  handwriting  of  the  15th  cen- 


SEA      L  A  \v   S 


585 


tury,  entitled  "  Asso  63  la  copia  deua  Kolles  do  Leron  de 
jucgomens  do  mar." 

The  parent  stock  of  the  Wisby  seal  laws  -would  appear 
to  have  been  a  code  preserved  in  the  chancery  of  Liibeck, 
dravirn  up  in  the  Old  Saxon  tongue,  and  dated  1240.  This 
code  contains  amongst  many  others  certain  articles  on 
maritime  law  which  are  identical  with  articles  in  the 
Gothland  sea  laws,  Gothland  being  the  island  of  which 
Wisby  was  the  chief  port.  This  collection  comprises  sixty- 
six  articles,  and  it  is  now  placed  beyond  a  doubt  by  recent 
researches,  especially  of  Professor  Schlyter  of  Luiid,  that 
these  Gothland  sea  laws  are  a  compilation  derived  from 
three  distinct  sources, — a  Liibeck,  an  Oleron,  and  an  Am- 
sterdam source.  A  Saxon  or  Low  German  text  of  this 
collection  was  printed  for  the  first  time  in  1505  at  Copen- 
hagen by  Godfrey  do  Gemen,  a  native  of  Gouda  in  Holland, 
■who  is  reputed  to  have  sot  up  the  earliest  printing-press 
in  Copenhagen.  This  print  has  no  title-page,'  and  in  this 
respect  resembles  the  earliest  known  print  of  The  Consulate 
of  ihe  Sea ;  uut  iipon  a  blank  leaf,  which  occupies  the  place 
of  a  frontispiece  in  one  of  two  copies  of  Godfrey  de  Gcmen's 
text,  both  preserved  in  the  royal  library  at  Copenhagen, 
there  has  been  inserted  with  a  pen  in  alternate  lines  of 
black  and  red  ink  the  title  "Dat  hogheste  Gotlansche 
Water-Recht  gedrucket  to  Koppenhaven  Anno  Domini 
M.D.V.,"  and  there  has  also  been  inserted  on  the  first  page 
of  the  text  the  introductory  title  "  Her  beghynt  dat 
hogheste  Water-Kecht"  (here  begins  the  supreme  sea  law). 
Professor  Schlyter  has  discovered  a  MS.  (No.  3123)  in  the 
royal  library  at  Copenhagen,  which  is  written  on  parchment 
in  a  hand  of  the  15th  century,  and  from  which  it  seems 
probable  that  Godfrey  de  Gemen  mainly  derived  his  text, 
as  it  comprises  the  same  number  of  articles,  containing  the 
same  matter  arranged  in  the  same  order,  with  this  minor 
diflferenco,  that,  whilst  both  the  MS.  and  the  print  have 
the  simple  title  "  Water-Recht "  prefixed  to  the  first  article, 
the  MS.  has  also  a  similar  title  prefixed  to  the  fifteenth. 
Further,  as  this  article  together  with  those  that  follow  it 
in  the  MS.,  appears  to  be  in  a  handwriting  diSercnt  from 
that  of  the  articles  that  precede,  the  fifteenth  article  may 
justly  bo  considered  as  the  first  of  a  distinct  series,  more 
particularly  as  they  are  numbered  in  Roman  characters, 
beginning  with  §  1,  and  such  characters  are  continued 
witli  a  single  interruption  down  to  the  end  of  the  MS. 
Although,  however,  the  numeration  of  the  articles  of  this 
second  series  is  continuous  and  the  handwriting  of  the 
MS.  from  the  fifteenth  to  the  sLxty-sLxth  article  is  un- 
changed, the  text  of  the  series  is  not  continuous,  as  the 
fortieth  article  commences  with  an  introductory  clause — 
"This  is  the  ordinance  which  the  skippers  and  merchants 
have  resolved  amongst  themselves  as  ship  law."  There  is 
no  difficulty  in  recognizing  the  first  division  of  this  second 
series  of  sea  laws  as  a  Low  German  version  of  the  Judg- 
ments of  Oleron,  transmitted  most  probably  through  a 
Flemish  text.  This  hypothesis  would  account  for  the  sub- 
stitution in  several  articles  of  Sluys  for  Bordeaux.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  introductory  clause  which  ushers  in 
tho  fortieth  article  is  identical  with  the  title  that  Ls  gen- 
erally prefixed  to  MSS.  of  the  maritime  Ordinances  of 
Amsterdam,  and  tho  text  of  this  and  of  tho  following 
articles  down  to  tho  sixty-fifth  inclusive  is  evidently  of 
Dutch  origin  and  moro  or  less  identical- with  Vcrwer's 
text  of  the  usages  of  Amsterdam.  M.  Pardcssu.-i,  in  his 
valuable  Collection  de  Lois  Marilimes,  published  in  Paris 
before  Professor  Scldyter  made  known  tho  result  of  his 
researches,  Las  justly  remarked  that  the  provisions  of 
several  articles  of  this  last- division  of  the  sea  laws  are 
inconsistent  with  tho  theory  that  they  originated  at  Wisby. 
It  may  be  observed  that  the  sixty-sixth  article  of  the  JIS. 
5?  ".  Liibeck  law  identical  with  tho  first  article  of  the  first 


series,  -which  is  of  Liibeck  origin.  No  colophon  is  ap- 
pended to  this  final  article  in  tho  JIS.  Nevertheless, 
Godfrey  de  Gemon's  edition  of  1505,  which  breaks  off  in 
the  middle  of  the  sixty-sLxth  article  of  tho  MS.,  has  tho 
following  colophon  : — "  Here  end  the  Gothland  sea  laws, 
which  the  community  of  merchants  and  skippers  have  or- 
dained and  made  at  Wisby,  that  aU  men  may  regulate 
themselves  by  them.  Printed  at  Copenhagen,  a.d.  m.d.v." 
The  question  naturally  suggests  itself.  To  what  MS.  was 
Godfrey  de  Gemen  indebted  for  this  colophon,  or  is  the 
alternative  more  probable  that  he  devised  iti  There  is 
no  known  MS.  of  this  collection  of  an  earlier  date  to 
which  an  appeal  can  be  made  .as  an  authority  for  this 
colophon;  on  the  contrary,  the  only  known  MSS.  of 
which  the  date  is  earlier  than  Godfrey  de  Gemen's  print, 
both  of  which  are  in  the  library  of  the  university  of  Copen- 
hagen, are  without  this  colophon,  and  one  of  them,  which 
purports  to  have  been  completed  at  Nykoping  on  tho  Eve 
of  the  Visitation  of  the  Virgin  in  1494,  concludes  with  a 
colophon  which  precludes  all  idea  that  anything  has  been 
omitted  by  the  scribe,  viz.,  "Here  ends  this  book,  and 
may  God  send  us  his  grace.  Amen."  We  are  disposed  to 
think  that  Gemen  himself  devised  this  colophon.  He  was 
engaged  in  printing  for  the  first  time  other  collections  of 
laws  for  the  Danish  Government,  and,  as  Gothland  was  at 
that  time  a  possession  of  Denmark,  he  may  have  thus  dis- 
tinguished the  sea  laws  from  another  collection,  namely,  of 
land  laws.  Professor  Schlyter,  however,  believes  Gemen 
may  have  borrowed  it  from  a  MS.  which  is  lost,  or  at  all 
events  is  not  known.  There  is  some  support  to  this  view 
in  the  fact  that  in  the  archives  of  the  guildhall  of  Liibeck 
there  is  preserved  a  JIS.  of  1533  which  contains  a  Low 
German  version  of  the  same  collection  of  sea  laws,  with  a 
rubric  prefixed  to  the  first  article  announcing  them  to  be 
"  the  water  law  or  sea  law,  which  is  the  oldest  and  highest 
law  of  Wisby,"  and  there  are  good  reasons  for  supposing 
that  the  scribe  of  this  JIS.  copied  his  text  from  a  JIS. 
other  than  the  Copenhagen  JIS.  The  same  observation 
will  apply  to  a  second  JIS.  of  a  similar  character  preserved 
in  the  library  of  the  gymnasium  of  Liibeck,  which  pur- 
jjorts  to  have  been  written  in  1537.  But  as  regards  the 
Wisby  sea  laws  Little  reliance  can  be  placed  on  such 
rubrics  or  colophons  as  proofs  of  the  facts  recited  in  them, 
though  they  may  be  valuable  as  e\'idence  of  the  reputed 
origin  of  the  sea  laws  at  the  time  when  the  scribe  com- 
pleted tho  JIS.  In  illustration  of  this  view  it  may  bo 
stated  that  in  the  same  year  in  which  the  more  recent  of 
these  two  JISS.  purports  to  havo  been  completed — namely, 
1537 — there  was  printed  at  Liibeck  an  enlarged  edition  of 
the  sea  laws  consisting  of  seventy-two  articles,  being  a 
Low  German  translation  of  a  Dutch  text,  in  which  six 
additional  Dutch  laws  had  been  inserted  which  are  not 
found  in  the  Copenhagen  JIS.,  nor  have  a  place  in  Gcmen's 
text,  yet  to  this  edition  is  prefi.xed  tho  title,  "This  is  tho 
highest  and  oldest  sea  law,  which  tho  community  of  mer- 
chants and  shipmasters  havo  ordained  and  made  at  Wisby, 
that  all  persons  who  would  bo  secure  may  regulate  them- 
selves by  it."  Furtjier,  it  has  an  introductoiy  clause  to  its 
thirty-seventh  article — "This  is  tho  ordinance  which  tho 
community  of  skippers  and  merchants  liavo  resolved  upon 
amongst  themselves  tis  ship  law,  which  tho  men  of  Zea- 
land, Holland,  Flanders  hold,  and  with  tho  law  of  Wisby, 
which  is  the  oldest  ship  law."  At  tho  end  of  the  seventy- 
second  article  there  follows  this  colophon  :  "  Hero  ends 
tho  Gothland  sea  law,  which  tho  community  of  merchants 
and  mariners  havo  ordained  and  made  at  Wisby,  that 
each  may  regulate  himself  by  it.  All  honour  bo  to  God, 
MDXXXVll."  Each  article  of  this  edition  has  prefixed  to  it 
after  its  particular  number  the  word  "hclcvingo"  (judg- 
ment).    It  would  th'os  appear  that  the  Wisby  sea  laws 

XXi.  -  74 


586 


IS  Jli  A  —  S   iii  A 


have  fared  like  the  Oleron  sea  laws  :  they  have  gathered 
bulk  with  increasing  years. 

The  question  remains  to  be  answered,  How  did  this  col- 
lection of  sea  "laws  acquire  the  title  of  the  "  Wisby  sea  laws" 
outside  the  Baltic  1  for  under  such  title  they  were  received 
in  Scotland  in  the  IGth  century,  as  may  be  inferred  from 
extracts  from  them  cited  in  Sir  James  Balfour's  Si/sfem  of 
the  more  Anctcnt  Laws  of  Scollaiu/,  which,  although  not 
printed  till  1754,  was  completed  before  his  death  iu  1583. 
The  text  of  the  Wisby  sea  laws  generally  current  in  Eng- 
land is  an  English  translation  of  a  French  text  which 
Cleirac  publislied  in  1G41  in  his  Us  et  Coustumcs  ck  In 
Mer,  and  is  an  abbreviated,  and  in  many  respects  muti- 
lated, version  of  the  original  sea  laws.  This  inquiry,  how- 
ever, would  open  a  new  chapter  on  the  subject  of  the 
northern  sea  laws,  and  the  civilizing  influence  which  the 
merchants  of  Wisby  exercised  in  the  13th  century  through 
their  factories  at  Kovgorod,  linking  thereby  the  trade  of 
the  Baltic  to  that  of  the  Black  Sea. 

See  Pardessus,  Collection  cle  Lois Marilinu-.i pulerkxrcs an  XVIIl. 
Steele  (6  vols.,  P.aHs,  1823-15) ;  Sclilyter,  irinhij  Siadslfj  oeh  Sjoratl, 
being  vol.  viii.  of  the  Corpvs  Juris  Smeo-Ootorina  Antiqni  (Lunil, 
1853) ;  and  The  Blacl:  Book  of  the  A'lmirolt'i,  ed.  bv  Sir  Travers 
Tiviss  (4  vols.,  London,  1871-76).  (T.  T.)  _ 

SE^UjING  wax.  In  mediasvai  times,  when  the  princi- 
pal use  of  sealing  wax  was  for  attaching  the  impression  of 
seals  to  official  documents,  the  composition  used  consisted 
of  a  mixture  of  Venice  turpentine,  beeswax,  and  colouring 
matter,  usually  vermilion.  The  preparation  now  employed 
contains  no  wax.  Fine  red  stationery  .sealing  wax  is  com- 
posed of  about  seven  parts  by  weight  of  shellac,  four  of 
Venice  turpentine,  and  three  to  four  of  vermilion.  The 
resins  are  melted  together  in  an  earthenware  pot  over  a 
moderate  fire,  and  the  colouring  matter  is  added  slowly 
with  careful  stirring.  The  mass  when  taken  from  the  fire 
is  poured  into  oiled  tin  moulds  the  form  of  the  sticks 
required,  and  when  hard  the  sticks  are  polished  by  passbg 
them  rapidly  over  a  charcoal  fire,  or  through  a  si)irit  flame, 
which  melts  the  superficial  film.  For  the  brightest  quali- 
ties of  sealing  wax  bleached  lac  is  employed,  and  a  pro- 
portion of  perfuming  matter — storax  or  balsam  of  Peru — 
is  added.  In  the  commoner  qualities  considerable  admix- 
tures of  chalk,  carbonate  of  magnesia,  baryta  white,  or 
other  earthy  matters  are  employed,  and  for  the  various 
colours  appropriate  mineral  pigments.  In  inferior  waxes 
ordinary  resin  takes  the  place  of  lac,  and  the  dragon  gum 
of  Australia  (from  Xanthorrhoga  hastUis)  and  other  resins 
are  similarly  substituted.  Such  waxes,  used  for  bottling, 
parcelling,  and  other  coarser  applications,  run  thin  when 
heated,  and  are  comparatively  brittle,  whereas  fine  was 
should  soften  slowly  and  is  tenacious  and  adhesive. 

SEALKOTE.     See  Sialkot. 

SEALS  1  (Gr.  o-</>pay6S',  Lat.  sigWum).  During  the 
medieval  period  the  importance  of  seals  was  very  great, 
as  they  were  considered  the  main  proofs  of  the  authenticity 
of  all  sorts  of  documents,  both  public  and  private.-  That 
is  much  less  the  case  now,  the  written  signature  being 
thought  a  safer  guarantee  of  genuineness.  In  order  to 
make  illicit  use  or  imitation  of  a  seal  difficult,  the  seal 
itself  was  usually  locked  up  and  guarded  with  special  care, 
and  in  the  case  of  royal  personages  or  corporate  bodies 
was  often  made  a  very  complicated  work  of  art,  which  it 
would  have  been  almost  impossible  to  copy  exactly.  One 
very  curious  precaution  that  was  adopted  is  still  in  use 
with  the  corporate  seal  of  the  monasteries  of  Slount  Athos. 
The  circular  matrix  =  is  divided  into  four  quarters,  each 


'  For  antique  seals,  see  Gems,  Jewellery,  and  RiKG. 

^  tn  some  cases,  in  the  presence  of  witnesses,  a  seal  which  did  not 
lieloiig  to  the  signer  of  a  document  w.as  used  when  the  right  matri.x  was 
ucit  at  liaud.     This  has  naturally  caused  many  archffiological  jiuzzles. 

-  Till'  word  "  seal "  is  often  used  tc  denote  both  the  impressioa  made 


of  which  is  kept  by  one  of  the  four  eputoUn  or  ruling 
monks  ;  the  .four  pieces  are  joined  by  a  key-handle,  which 
remains  in  the  custody  of  the  secretarj'.  Thus  it  is  only 
when  all  five  guardians  of  the  various  parts  of  the  matrix 
meet  together  that  the  comiilete  seal  can  be  stamped  on 
any  document.  The  device  on  the  Mount  Athos  seal  is 
a  half-length  figure  of  the  !Madonna  and  Child,  aird  the 
imprint  is  made  by  blackening  the  matrix  in  the  flame  of 
a  lamp  and  then  pressing  it  on  the  paper  or  vellum  itself, 
ilediieval  seals  were  applied  in  two  difl"erent  ways :  in 
one  the  stamp  was  impressed  in  wax  run  on  the  surface 
of  the  document  (Fr.  fAaque  or  eti  placard) ;  in  tlie  othei 
the  wax  impression  was  suspended  bj-  cord  or  strips  of 
parchment  {Fr.  pendant).  The  latter  method  was  neces- 
sarily used  with  metal  seals  or  bidlx  (see  below). 

For  the  sake  of  greater  security  in  the  case  of  jylaque 
seals,  it  was  a  common  practice  from  the  12th  century 
onwards,  or  even  earlier,  to  make  a  cross  cut  iii  the  vellum 
of  the  document,  the  corners  of  which  were  then  turned 
back,  thus  forming  a  square  opening,  over  which  the  wax 
seal  was  stamped ;  the  turned-up  corners  helped  to  hold 
the  wax  in  its  place,  and  the  aperture  allowed  a  second 
matrix  to  be  applied  at  the  back.  Tliis  was  usually  a 
smaller  private  seal  called  a  secreium.  Thus,  for  example, 
an  abbot  would  use  on  the  front  of  a  document  the  large 
corporate  seal  of  his  community,  and  on  the  back  would 
stamp  his  personal  seal  as  a  secretion. 

Till  the  12th  century  pure  white  beeswax  was  generally- 
used,  after  that  wax  coloured  green  or  red.  The  use  of 
shellac  or  other  harder  materials,  such  as  modern  sealing- 
wax,  is  of  recent  date.  Thus  if  was  usual  to  protect  the 
soft  wax  seals  by  some  sort  of  "  fender,"  often  a  wreath  of 
rushes  or  plaited  strips  of  paper  twisted  round  it ;  another 
method  much  employed  in  the  loth  century  was  to  cover 
the  seal  with  leaves  of  oak,  bay,  or  beech.  Pendant  seals 
were  often  encased  in  boxes  of  wood  or  cidr  louilli,  which 
in  some  cases  are  very  richly  decorated.  From  the  13th 
to  the  15th  century  original  royal  documents  are  usually 
on  fine  veUum  and  have  green  seals  hung  by  many-coloured 
silk  and  gold  thread,  while  office  copies  are  on  coarser 
vellum  and  have  white  seals  hung  by  parchment  strips. 
In  England  an  important  official,  called  the  clerk  of  the 
chafe-wax,  an  office  which  still  exists,  was  entrusted  with 
the  duty  of  softening  the  wax  for  state  seals  over  a 
chafing-brazier.  Two  different  methods  of  sealing  docu- 
ments, either  closed  or  open  for  inspection,  are  recorded 
in  the  legal  terms  "  letters  secret "  and  "  letters  patent." 

0\ving  to  the  enormous  number  of  mediseval  seals  which 
still  exist,  and  their  frequently  great  historical  and  artistic 
importance,  it  is  necessary  to  adopt  some  method  of 
classification,  especially  for  large  collections,  such  as  that 
of  the  British  Museum,  which  contains  about  25,000 
specimens,  and  the  very  important  one  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries.*  The  chief  classes  are  these: — (1)  £cclesi-, 
astical. — (a)  Seals  belonging  to  offices,  such  as  those  c^ 
popes,  bishops,  abbots,  deans,  &c.;  (h)  common  seals  of 
corporate  bodies,  such  as  chapters,  religious  colleges,  monas- 
teries, and  the  like ;  (c)  official  seals  without  the  name  of 
the  officer ;  (<f)  personal  seals,  with  or  without  a  name. 
(2)  Lay.— {a)  Eoyal  seals,  including  those  of  queens  and 
royal  princes;  (b)  official  seals  in  the  name  of  the 
sovereign  or  a  state  official ;  (c)  common  seals  of  corporate 
bodies,  such  as  towns,  universities,  guilds,  schools,  hospi- 
tals, &c. ;  (d)  personal  seals  (not  being  royal)  with  effigies, 
heraldry,  merchants'  marks,  or  other  devices,  with  or  with- 
out a  name,  or  with  name  only,  or  with  legend  only. 

and  the  object  that  makes  the  impress.  More  correctly  the  latter  is 
called  the  "matrix,"  und  only  the  impression  is  called  the  "seal." 

*  This  valuable  collection  has  been  arranged  and  catalogued  by  Pt; 
C  S.  Percival,  flie  best  modem  authority  ou  English  seals./ 


JS'E  A.JJ  S 


587 


Jrench  Royal  Seals} — The  earliest  and  most  complete 
series  of  seals  is  that  of  the  French  kings.  The  Carlo- 
vingian  and  Merovingian  monarchs  mostly  used  antique 
gems  or  pastes,^ — portrait  heads  being  selected  and  a 
legend  added  in  the  metal  setting  of  the  matrix.  Charle- 
magne used  A  head  of  Jupiter  Serapis,-  Pippin  the  Short 
that  of  the  Indian  Dionysus.  The  British  Museum  pos- 
sesses a  seal  of  Odo  or  Eudes,  kin^  of  France  (888-898), 
impressed  from  a  fine  Greek  gem  of  the  3d  century  B.C., 
with  a  portrait  of  Seleucus  IV.  The  oldest  existing  matrix 
is  that  of  Lothaire  I.  (c.  817),  now  preserved  at  Aix-la- 
Clhapelle,  attached  to  an  altar-cross.  It  is  an  oval  intaglio 
in  rock  crystal,  with  a  laureatcd  portrait  and  the  legend 
+  xi>E .  ADIWA .  HLOTHAEIVM .  REG. ;  it  is  not  an  antique, 
but  is  of  contemporary  Byzantiuo-Rhenish  work.  Till  the 
time  of  Louis  VL  (1108-1137)  these  seals  were  plaque,  but 
he  introduced  pendant  seals  about  1108;  and  counter- 
seals  at  the  back  were  first  used  by  Louis  VII.  (1137-80). 
The  grand  series  of  round  seals  with  an  enthroned  figiue 
of  the  king  begins  with  the  Capet  Henry  I.  (1031-60). 
The  Mng  holds  a  sceptre  in  one  hand  and  a  flower  in  the 
other.  Those  of  the  queens  are  frequently  of  a  pointed 
oval  form,  with  a  standing  portrait  figm-e  holding  a  flower 
in  each  hand.  In  the  13th  and  14th  centuries  the  French 
royal  seals  were  elaborate  works  of  art,  with  a  finely  draped 
figure  of  the  king  seated  under  a  rich  canopy  on  a  throne, 
decorated  with  lions'  or  eagles'  heads ;  the  king  holds  a 
sceptre  in  each  hand.  The  queens'  seals,  of  a  rovmd  or 
pointed  oval  form,  are  also  very  beautiful,  with  a  graceful 
figure  standing  between  two  shields  under  a  rich  canopy. 
After  the  15th  century  there  was  a  rapid  decadence  in  the 
royal  seals,  and  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  they  were 
of  the  most  tasteless  style,  far  worse  than  those  used  in 
England  at  the  same  date. 

Engliih  Royal  Seals. — This,  which  is  on  the  whole  the 
most  beautiful  of  all  royal  series,  begins  with  the  seal 
of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor (see  fig.  1).' 
The  great  seal  of  Will- 
iam the  Norman  and 
his  successors  was  not 
plaque,  like  the  earlier 
ones,  but  pendant ;  it 
has  on  one  side  an 
enthroned  figure  of 
a  king  copied  from 
contemporary  French 
seals,  and  on  the  re- 
verso  the  king  on 
horseback  armed  ^vith 
spear  and  shield. 
These    two    ways    of     Tio.l.-Beal  of  Edward  the  Confessor. 

representing  the  sovereign  have  been  used  on  all  the  royal 
seals  of  England  down  to  the  present  day.  By  degrees 
greater  elaboration  of  ornament  was  introduced  into  the 
throne  and  its  canopy.  In  Edward  III.'s  time  niches  with 
minute  statuettes  of  saints  were  added  at  the  sides  of  the 
obverse.  The  climax  of  magnificence  was  reached  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  V.     On  the  obverse  of  his  seal  the  king 

*  See  Wailly,  JbllmcnU  de  Pul'oqraphie,  vol.  ii.,  pi.  A. ;  by  various 
authora,  TrCsorde  Xum.  H  de  Gbjpliqtu;,  vol.  i.,  P.iris,  1834  (which 
contains  also  plates  of  EnKlish  royal  seals) ;  Poiict-iVArcq,  Coll.  de 
Sceaux del' Empire,  Paris,  1363-08;  BuUelin  de  la  SociltC  dr.  Sphrafiis- 
tique,  Paris,  v.y.  ;  D'Anisy,  JUcitcilde  Sceaux  A'ormands,  Cuen,  1635. 

'  The  nionlts  of  Durham  also  used  a  gam  with  a  head  of  Jupiter 
Serapis,  round  which  was  added  the  legend— CAPVT  .  SANCTl  . 
08WALDI. 

'  The  Engliali  kings  before  the  Conquest  signed  usually  \\1th  a  cross 
only,  but  a  few,  such  as  Olla,  Ethehvulf,  and  Elliclrcd,  occasionally 
used  seals,  especially  on  documents  containing  grants  to  St  Denis 
and  other  French  abbeys,  on  which  they  followed  tlio  French  custom  of 
•affixing  plaqui  seals. 


sits  holding  the'CrB^and  sceptre;  the  gorgeous  canopy 
contains  statuettes  of  the  Virgin  and  two  saints,  and  at 
each  side  are  three  rows  of  statuettes  in  minute  canopietl 
niches,  each  row  two  tiers  high ;  about  fifteen  minute 
figures  of  saints  and  angels  are  introduced  into  the  design. 
On  the  reverse  is  the  king  on  horseback,  bearing  a  sword 
and  shield ;  the  horse,  going  at  full  speed,  is  clothed 
with  richly  embroidered  heraldic  drapery,  and  on  its  head 
and  on  the  king's  is  a  lion  cres*;-.  After  Henry  V.  the 
seals  began  to  decrease  in.  magnificence,  and  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VII.  the  new  taste  of  the  Renaissance  began  to 
supplant  the  pure  Gothic  of  the  earlier  seals.  In  the  time 
of  Philip  and  Mary  both  sovereigns  appear  together,  seated 
under  canopies,  or  riding  side  by  side.*  The  great  seal 
of  the  Commonwealth  is  a  marvel  of  ugliness.  On  the 
obverse  is  a  perspective  view  of  the  interior  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  and  on  the  reverse  a  map  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.  Cromwell's  seal  has  an  equestrian  portrait 
of  himself,  and  its  reverse  the  arms  of  the  Commonwealtli 
between  a  lion  and  a  dragon  as  supjrorters.  Little  is 
noticeable  about  the  seals  of  succeeding  sovereigns ;  that 
of  Victoria  is  minutely  cut,  but  is  very  poor  as  a  work 
of  art. 

Other  Etiglish  Seals. — Gilt  bronze  was  the  commonest 
material  for  large  seals,  but  other  metals  were  used,  such 
as  gold,  silver,  and  lead,  also  jet  and  ivory,  especially 
before  the  Norman  Conquest.  Pktjck  crystal,  carnelian, 
and  sard  were  the  favourites  among  the  hard  stones  cut 
for  matrices.  JLarge  seals  were  usually  either  round  or  of 
a  pointed  oval  form  (as  in  figs.  2  and  3)  ;  the  small  secreta 
were  sometimes  square,  triangular,  or  hexagonal,  as  well 
as  round  or  oval.*  The  most  elaborate  and  beautiful  of 
all  were  those  of-religious  corporations,  such  as  the  chapter 
seals  of  monasteries."  These  are  among  the  most  exquisite 
works  of  art  that  the  Middle  Ages  produced,  especially 
during  the  14th  century,  and  exceed  in  delicacy  of  work- 
manship and  elaboration  of  design  the  finest  seals  of  all 
other  classes,  not  excepting  those  of  the  sovereigns.  Fig. 
2  shows  the  common  seal  of 
Boxgrove  priory  (Sussex), 
the  matrix  of  which  is  now 
in  the  British  Museum.  On 
one  side  is  a  figure  of  the 
Virgin  enthroned,  and  on 
the  reverse  a  representation 
of  the  west  front  of  t! 
priory  church,  with  O] 
tracery  and  niches  cont.'i  i 
ing  minute  statuettes.  Tl 
elaborate  matrix  is  m;i 
up  of  four  distinct  pic 
of  gilt  bronze,  and  to  form 
the  perfect  seal  must  have 
been  a  work  requiring  con- 
siderable skill  and  patience. 
The  reverse  was  formed  by 
two  stamps    used    on   two  ^ 

separate  plaques  of  softened  Fic.  2. — Fourtccnth-ccntury  8«.il  of 
wax  :   one  of  these  formed  Boxgrove  priory  ;  iwerse, 

the  background  with  the  various  statuettes,  and  the  second 
was  used  to  stamp  the  oj)cn  tracery  work  of  the  front  of 
the  church  ;  the  latter  when  hard  was  fitted  on  to  the 

•  A  variety  of  design  is  introduced  on  the  reverse  of  one  of  Queen 
Elizabeth's  seals :  she  is  represented  standing,  holiling  the  orb  and 
sceptre,  and  wcarj  a  dress  with  enormous  hoops."  llor  other  seal  bu 
the  usual  equestrian  portrait  on  the  reverse. 

•  A,s  1  rule,  from  the  12th  to  the  1.1th  century,  cccle-sia-stical  seals 
and  tlioso  of  females  were  of  the  pointed  oval  form,  most  others 
being  circular  ;  there  arc,  however,  many  exceptions  to  this  nde. 

•  A  s])ecial  English  ollice  for  the  blessing  of  scala  "is  printed  by 
Alaskcll    Mon.  JiUualid,  1882,  vol.  iii. 


/ 


588 


SEALS 


impression  of  the  background,  and  thus  a  sort  of  miniature 
model  of  the  church  was  made,  with  its  statues  and  the 
inner  jslanes  of  the  fa9ade  seen  through  the  open  tracery 
work, — the  effect  being  extremely  rich  and  delicate.  When 
the  finished  obverse_  and  reverse  had  been  fitted  together, 
the  legend  was  added  on  their  edges  by  means  of  the  fourth 
piece  of  the  matrix, — a  strip  of  bronze  with  letters  cut 
into  it  on  both  its 
edges ;  first  one 
side  and  then  the 
other  of  this  strip 
was  pressed  against 
the  rim  of  the  wax 
seal,  which  thus 
received  the  im- 
pression of  the 
complete  legend 
all  round  its  edge. 
The  seal  of  South- 
wark  priory,  also 
of  the  14th  cen- 
tury, is  even  more 
elaborate,  as  both 
sides  have  open 
tracery  separately 
applied,  and  thus 
the  matrix  consists 
of  five  distinct 
pieces.  Many  of 
the  bishops'  seals, 
though  less  com- 
plicated in  design, 
are  of  equal  beauty 
to  those  of  the 
chapters.  The  common  design  has  a  standing  figure 
under  a  richly  decorated  canopy.  -Fig.  3  shows  a  very 
beautiful  example,  the  seal  of  Eichard,  bishop  of  Dur- 
ham. The  standing  figure  of  the  bishop  in  mass  vest- 
ments is  modelled  wth  wonderfiil  skill  and  shows  ex- 
treme taste  in  the  treatment  of  the  drapery;  the  legend  is 

Spgillum]     RICAEDI  .  DEI  .  GRA  .  DTKELMENSIS  .  EPI.       A 

great  variety  of  sacred  subjects  occur  on  ecclesiastical  seals 


Fio.  3. — Seal  of  Richard  de  Bury,  late 

nth  century. 


Fia.  4.— Seal  of  King's  College,  Cambridge. 

in  addition  to  single  figures' of  patron  saints;  the  most 
frequent  were  perhaps  the  Crucifixion,  the  Annunciationj 
the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  and  the  Virgin  enthroned 
in  Heaven;  small  figures  of  kneeling  worshippers  were 


often  added.  Fig.  4  shows  one  of  the  most  magnificent 
of  this  class,  with,  in  the  centre,  a  figure  of  the  Virgin  io 
glory,  between  St  Nicholas  and  Henry  VI.,  each  under  a 
vciy  rich  canopy ;  at  the  sides  are  shields  charged  with 
England  and  France,  and  France  (modern)  alone,  held  by 
two  monks.i  This  very  beautiful  work  of  art  dates  about 
the  year  1443.  In  the  15th  century  the  ecclesiastical 
seals  began  to  (fall  off  in  richness  and  beauty,  and  after 
the  Reformation  were  of  little  artistic  value.  Very  hand- 
some seals  were  used  by  lay  corpoiations,  especially  the 
municipalities  of  towns.  These  last  frequently  have  a 
careful  representation  of  the  tovra  itself,  with  •  its  circuit 
of  walls  or  that  of  its  chief  castle  or  cathedral,  and  thus 
often  afford  valuable  evidence  as  to  the  form  of  its  de- 
fences and  principal 
buildings.  Fig.  5 
shows  a  fine  example, 
3  inches  in  diameter, 
— the  corporate  seal 
of  Rochester,  made 
in  the  13th  century; 
it  has  a  minute  re- 
presentation of  the 
keep  of  Rochester 
Castle,  surrounded 
by  an  outer  circuit 
wall  and  a  moat.  On 
one  of  the  turrets 
of  the  gateway  is  a 

sentinel    blowing    a        ^^  5._corporate  seal  of  Rochester, 
signal  horn ;  legend, 

siGiLLVM  .  civivM  .  EOFENSis.  The  reverse  has  the  same 
legend  repeated  round  the  scene  of  the  Crucifixion  of  St 
Andrew.  Other  corporation  seals  are  covered  with  small 
figures  under  elaborate  canopy  work,  much  like  those  of 
the  ecclesiastical  foundations. 

Seals  of  hospitals  are  often  designed  in  a  similar  way, 
with  a  representation  of  the  hospital  building  very  minutely 
treated.  In  the  15th  century  seals  began  to  be  designed 
in  a  rather  pictorial  style,  which,  though  very  graceful,  is 
inferior  to  the  earlier 
and  more  architect- 
onic class.  Very 
magnificent  seals 
were  used  by  state 
ofiicials  :  those  of 
the  lord  high  ad- 
miral of  England  are 
especially  fine,  from 
the  beautiful  form  of 
the  ship  on  the  ob- 
verse. Fig.  6  shows 
that  of  the  earl  of 
Huntingdon,  who 
was  lord  high  ad- 
miral in  the  reign 
of  Henry  Vm.  In 
design  it  resembles 

those  of  the  admirals  of  the  previous  century, 
sails  are  embroidered  the  royal  arms  of  England. 

Among  private  seals  those  of  powerful  barons  are  often 
large  and  very  beautifully  cut.  Fig.  7  shows  a  silver 
matrix,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  which  is  remarkable 
for  the  great  beauty  of  its  workmanship.  Its  legend  is 
SIGILLVM  .  ROBERTi .  iTLn  .  "WALTERL  On  it  an  anped 
knight,  of  the  time  of  Henry  III.,  is  riding  over  a  dragon, 
whose  tail  ends  in  a  scroll  of  very  beautiful  conventional 
foliage,  modelled  with   the  greatest  spirit  and  delicacy. 

'  This  class  of  seal  is  often  a  sort  of  miuiatura  repro  ductioa  of  some 
magnificent  altar  retable,  as  in  fig.  4. 


Fig.  6.- 


-Seal  of  Lord  High  Admiral 
Huntingdon. 


On  the 


S  E  A  — fc>  jW  a 


589 


A  common  and  graceful  form  of  private  seal  in  the  13th 
and  14th  centuries  has  simply  a  shield  with  the  owner's 
arms  on  a  diap'^red 
background,  the 
whole  enclosed  with- 
in many-cusped  tra- 
cery. Fig. -8  shows 
an  example  of  a  fine 
Grseco-Roman  gem, 
— a  carnelian  en- 
graved with  a  female 
head,  full  face.  The 
14th-century  oi;\'ner 
of  this  has  added  a 
metal  setting  with 
the    words    capvt  . 

MARIE .  MAGDALENE, 

to  give  it  a  sacred  na.  7. -Seal  of  Robert  Fitzwalter,  c.  1270. 
meaning.      The    le- 
gends of  private  seals  or  secreta  were  often  chosen  in  allu- 
sion to  their  use ;   common  phrases  are  "  clausa  secreta 
tego,"  or  "  lecta  lege,  tecta  tege."     Many 
ingenious  devices  were  practised  to  enable 
the  same  matrix  to  give  two  or  more  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  impression.      In  some 
cases  the  border  with  the  legend  was  so 
contrived  as  to  slide  up  the  handle,  ao 

that  the  seal  could  be  made  cither  with  pia.   s. Autique 

or  without  an  inscription.  Others  had  gem  used  as  a 
the  border  made  to  revolve  on  a  swivel,  private  seal. 
60  as  to  supply  two  different  legends ;  and  the  magnificent 
monastic  seals  (as  that  shouTi  in  fig.  2)  were  arranged  so 
as  to  give  a  perfect  seal  without  the  use  of  the  ela- 
borate open  tracery.  In  the  15th  and  IGth  centuries  mer- 
chants and  handicraftsmen  frequently  employed  devices 
connected  with  their  trade — either  some  tool  or  badge  or 
an  arbitrary  sign  used  as  a  trade-mark ;  or  a  rebus  of  the 
owner's  name  was  ii^ed,  such  as  a  bolt  and  a  tun  (cask)  for 
the  name  Bolton.  The  use  of  seals  by  the  humbler  classes 
was  more  common  in  England  than  abroad ;  even  bonds- 
men sometfmes  had  seals,  both  before  and  after  the  Nor- 
man Conouest.     Seals  of  other  countries  mostly  followed 


the  same  fashions  as  those  of  England,  though  of  course 
varying  in  design  and  workmanship  with  each  country. 
On  the  whole,  the  English  seals  were  superior  during 
their  best  period  (the  14th  century)  to  those  of  any  other 
country,  though  matrices  of  great  beauty  were  produced 
in  both  Germany  and  France.  In  Italy  less  care  and  skill 
were  usually  spent  on  seals,  pattly  owing  to  the  greater 
use  of  metal  bullae  for  important  charters. 

Metal  Bullx. — These  are  necessarily  not  plaque  but  pen- 
dant, and  are  held  usually  by  cords  passed  tlirough  a  hole 
in  the  seal.  ■  Lead  was  the  metal  most  commonly  used, 
but  some  sovereigns  had  bullaj  struck  in  silver  or  gold, 
either  as  a  mark  of  thoir  own  dignity  or  to  confer  special 
honour  on  the  recipient  of  a  charter.  An  extant  letter 
from  Petrarch  to  Charles  TV.  thanks  that  emperor  for  a 
diploma  of  the  rank  of  count,  and  especially  for  the 
honour  shown  to  him  by  the  attachment  of  gold  bullae 
to  the  document.  Lead  buUse  were  also  used  by  various 
ecclesiastical  dignitaries,  from  patriarchs  to  bishops,  but 
were  rarely  used  by  ecclesiastics  of  lower  rank.  In  some 
cases,  however,  especially  in  Sicily  and  Byzantium,  buUte 
were  used  by  laymen  of  very  moderate  rank.  A  large  num- 
ber of  fine  papal  buUoe  ^  exist  dating  from  the  7th  century 
onwards.2  Since  the  time  of  Pope  Paschal  II.  they  have 
borne  heads  of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul ;  previously  they  had 
such  simple  devices  as  crosses  or  stars,  with  the  name  of 
the  pontift".  Another  early  series  of  buUre  begins  in  the  8th 
century  with  the  bulliB  of  the  patriarchs  of  Byzantium. 
Those  of  the  doges  of  Venice  exist  in  large  numbers,  bear- 
ing figures  of  St  Mark  and  the  reigning  doge  kneeling 
before  him.  Existing  bulla;  of  Charlemagne  have  a  ru'de 
profilo  portrait  crowned  with  a  diadem,  and  on  the  reverse 
the  monogram  of  kaeolvs  arranged  in  the  form  of  a 
cross. 

Consult,  in  addition  to  the  works  named  above,  Thulemarius, 
Dc  Bulla  Aurea,  Frankfort,  1724  ;  Boniar-Biichner,  Die  Sicgcl  dcr 
deutsch.  Kaiser,  Frankfort,  1851  ;  Vossberg,  Gcsch.  dcr prexissischcn 
Sicgcl,  Berlin,  18*3  ;  Melly,  Sicrjcl-Kunde  dcs  MiUelaltcrs,  Vienna, 
1846  ;  Heineccius,  Dc  Sigillis,  Frankfort,  1709  ;  Lepsius,  Sphragis- 
tische  Aphorisincn,  Halle,  1842-43  ;  Caulficld,  Sigilla  Ecclcsim 
mbcrnicse,  London,  1853  ;  and  more  especially  various  articles  in 
the  Gaz.  dcs  Beaux-Arts,  Archxologia,  Archxological  Journal,  an-J 
Proceedings  of  other  antiquarian  societies.  (J.  H.  II.) 


SEAMANSHIP 


SEAMANSHIP  is  the  art  of  sailing,  manoeuvring,  and 
preserving  a  ship  or  a  boat  in  all  positions  and  under 
all  reasonable  circumstances,  and  thus  involves  a  sound 
practical  knowledge  of  all  the  forces  by  which  she  may  be 
actuated  and  the  means  at  command  to  assist  or  counter- 
act them ;  it  is  a  branch  of  applied  mechanics  acquired  by 
experience  and  study.  The  former  can  only  be  obtained 
thoroughly  in  many  years  spent  at  sea,  in  personal  con- 
nexion with  the  work  of  the  ship  and  her  boats ;  that  such 
training  should  commence  at  an  early  age  is  very-  desir- 
able, if  not  even  imperative.  The  practical  knowledge  so 
gained  should  be  supplemented  and  improved  by  reading, 
conversation,  and  discussion,  as  the  casualties  which  befall 
ships  are  so  varied  that  a  man  may  pass  forty  years  in  sea- 
going vessels  without  e.x])criencing  one-half  of  those  which 
might  occur.  Many  of  tho  old  maxims  arc  still  applicable 
to  every  class  of  vessel  and  must  always  remain  so. 

The  terms  "  ship  "  and  "  vessel "  are  hero  intended  to 
embrace  all  classes,  though  "ship"  is  generally  applied  to 
the  larger  without  reference  to  form  or  description  unless 
such  is  specified.  Though  t1ie  use  of  sails  has  been  greatly 
superseded  by  tho  introduction  of  steam-power  both  in  the 
navies  of  all  nations  and  in  tho  mercantile  marine,  it  is 
still  generally  admitted  that  seamanship  is  best  acquired 


on  board  a  vessel  which  is  dependent  upon  her  sails.  The 
construction  and  equipment  of  sailing  ships  had  reached  a 
high  point  of  perfection  at  the  time  steam  came  into  general 
use.  The  power  derived  from  the  steam-engine  does  not 
change  any  of  the  former  conditions,  but  simply  adds 
another  element,  confined  to  propulsion  directly  ahead  or 
astern  (except  with  reversible  wheels  or  twin  screws), 
which  when  combined  with  sails  renders  a  ship  much  more 
manageable  and  safe, — that  is  to  say,  assuming  all  the 
forces  at  command  to  bo  properly  applied.  Hence  it  is  very 
desirable  that  all  ocean-going  steam  vessels  should  haVo 
sufficient  sail-poVver  to  turn  them  round  (wear)  or  to  enable 
them  to  sail  with  the  wind  abeam  without  tttcam,  especially 
when  fitted  with  single  screws  or  with  paddle  wheels  which 
do  not  work  separately.  Twin  screws,  of  course,  give  a 
double  chance  as  far  ns  tho  engine  is  concerned  ;  but  even 
with  that  advantage  tho  loss  of  tho  rudder  would  leJivothe 
ship  in  a  holjiless  condition  if  she  had  not  cflicient  head 
and  after  sails  to  balance  her  on  tho  desired  course. 

At  present  the  excessive  desire  to  make  quick  passage-t 
has  greatly  augmented  the  danger  unavoidably  attending  a 
sea  voyage,  tho  risk  as  well  as  tho  violence  of  a  collision 

'  TliL'  term  "  bull  "  for  a  papnl  clinrtor  comes  ftom  iU  lead  Imlla. 
'  See  Ficoronl,  Piombi  Antichi.  Uomc,  1745. 


590 


SEAMAN  SHIP 


at  high  speed  in  thick  weather  being  thereby  much  in- 
creased. Through  the  want  of  masts  and  sails  there  is  a 
probability  of  total  loss  by  drifting  helplessly  on  a  lee 
shore  during  a  gale,  or  by  foundering  "  in  the  trough  of 
the  sea."  In  spite  of  her  monstrous  size  (22,000  tons), 
the  "Great  Eastern,"  in  1863  or  186-1,  \ntii  her  six  com- 
paratively small  masts  afld  weak  sails  was,  after  the  loss 
of  her  rudder,  very  roughly  -used  by  the  waves  striking 
her  fuU  on  the  side.  She  was  in  the  position  which  is 
expressed  by  the' common  sea-phrase  "wallowing  in  the 
trough  of  the  sea,"  from  which  her  crew  had  no  power  to 
extricate  her.  A  smaller  vessel  deeply  laden  in  such  a 
position  would  most  probably  have  foundered,  leaving  no 
jne  to  teU  the  tale.  Too  much  stress  is  laid  lapon  the  re- 
tardation caused  by  masts  and  rigging  when  steaming 
head  to  wind ;  it  is  the  pitching  and  plunging  motion  of 
the  ship  into  a  succession  of  waves  that  principally  retards 
her  speed.  If  the  waves  are  approaching  at  the  rate  of  10 
miles  an  hour  and  the  ship  is  steaming  against  them  at  a 
similar  rate,  they  will  strike  the  bows  with  a  force  equal 
to  20  miles  an  hour.  When  a  ship  is  steaming  through 
comparatively  smooth  water  (sheltered  by  land)  against  a 
gale  of  wind,  her  speed  is  but  little  reduced  by  the  force 
of  the  wind  alone,  when  other  circumstances  admit  of  her 
working  full  power.  Storm-saUs  only  require  short  masts, 
but  these  and  the  canvas  they  support  should  be  strong, 
which  is  not  the  case  in  the  merchant  service  generally. 

Every  seaman  is  expected  to  be  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  rigging  of  the  vessel  in  which  he  serves,  and 
when  in  charge  he  should  frequently  examine  every  part, 
to  see  that  it  is  efficiently  performing  the  duty  assigned  to 
it,  being  neither  too  taut  nor  too  slack,  nor  suffering  from 
chafing,  wet,  or  other  injury.  He  should  be  capable  of 
repairing  or  replacing  any  part  with  his  own  hand  if 
necessary  and  of  teaching  others  how  to  do  so.  He  need 
not  necessarily  be  a  navigator,  though  a  good  navigator 
must  be  a  seaman ;  nor  is  it  necessary  that  a  seaman 
should  be  a  shipbuilder,  a  mast-m^er,  a  rope-maker,  or  a 
sail^maker,  but  he  should  possess  a  general  knowledge  of 
each  art,  especially,  the  last ;  every  able  seaman  should  be 
'  able  to  sew  a  seam  and  assist  the  ship's  sail-maker  in 
repairing  sails. .  It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  various 
circumstances  have  brought  about  such  a  change  in  the 
system  of  rigging  ships,  in  both  the  British  navy  and  the 
mercantile  marine,  that  those  who  sail  in  them  seldom  see 
it  done.  Young  officers  were  in  former  times  frequently 
entrusted  with  the  charge  of  day  watches,  during  which 
they  would  give  the  necessary  orders  for  making,  shorten- 
ing, or  trimming  sails,  perhaps  even  tacking  and  wearing. 
That  practice  gave  confidence  and  quickened  the  desire  to 
learn  more  j  it  was  more  frequently  done  in  small  than  in 
large  ships.  The  general  adoption  of  the  steam-engine  in 
ships  has  not  only  diminished  the  value  of  sail-power  but 
of  seamanship  also,  and  has  produced  such  a  change  in 
the  rig  that  instead  of  masts  and  yards  we  find  only  two 
or  three  poles.  In  the  British  navy  so  many  new  sciences 
have  been  introduced  that  seamanship  takes  but  a  low 
place  among  them  at  the  examination  of  a  midshipman, 
who  has  had  but  little  boat  duty  and  probably  found  the 
discussion  of  seamanship  in  his  mess-place  contrary  to 
rule.  The  rapidity  with  which  all  sail  and  mast  drill  is 
executed,  combined  with  the  perfection  of  the  "station 
bill,"  renders  it  worse  than  useless  as  a  means  of  teaching, 
as  it  gives  a  false  confidence  which  fails  in  the  hour  of 
necessity,  when  the  accustomed  routine  is  thrown  out  by  a 
sail  actually  splitting  to  pieces  or  a  spar  snapping.  The 
fact  that  the  same  men  perpetually  do  the  same  thing  must 
tend  greatlj"  to  render  each  evolution  quick  so  long  as 
every  one  is  in  his  accustomed  place,  but  sickness  or  the 
absp.nce  of  a  party  from  duty  will  disorganize  the  ship  for 


some  time,  as  the  general  usefulness  of  the  men  has  been 
cramped.  Sail  drill  in  harbour  is  open  to  grave  objec- 
tions :  unless  in  a  tide-way,  the  ship  must  be  invariably 
head  to  wind ;  for  reefing  and  furling  the  yards  are  laid 
square,  consequently  flat  aback  ;  both  earings  are  hauled 
out  at  once,  and  as  it  is  only  for  exercise  they  are  only 
half  secured.  Even  when  reefing  top-sails  at  sea  either  for 
exercise  or  of  necessity  in  company  with  other  ships,  the 
yards  are  laid,  square  to  enable  the  men  to  get  readily  on 
the  weather-side  ;  therefore,  if  on  a  wind,  the  sail  must  re- 
main aback  or  the  ship  must  be  kept  away  till  the  wind  is 
on  the  beam  in  order  to  shake  the  sail. 

The  foundation  of  all  teaching  of  seamanship  must  be  a 
knowledge  of  the  knots,  bends,  and  splices,  and  their  use 
in  the  various  parts  of  the  rigging  and  equipment  of  a 
ship.i  Some  knots,  bends,  and  hitches  are  intended  to  afford 
security  as  long  as  desired,  and  then  to  be  easily  disengaged. 
Other  knots,  splices,  and  seizings  are  of  a  more  permanent 
character,  generally  continuing  as  long  as  the  rope  will  last. 


Fig.  2.  Fig.  3. 

Fig.  1.— OverhAnd  Knot.  Fig.  3. 

Fio.  2.— Figure-of-Eight  Knot.  Fio. 


Fig.  4 

>  3  1 

■  ^'  >  Bowline  on  a  Bigbt. 


Over?iayid  Knot. — Used  at  the  end  of  ropes  to  prevent  their  unreeving  and  as 
the  commencement  of  other  knots.  Fig.  1  represents  an  overhand  knot  hauled' 
tight ;  for  an  illustration  of  the  same  not  hauled  tight  see  Knot.  vol.  xiv,  p. 
12S,  flg.  7. 

Figurc-of-ElgM  Knot  (fig.  2).— Used  only  to  prevent  ropes  from  unreeving ;  it 
forms  a  large  knob. 

Jieef  Knot (,5ee  Knot,  loc.  cit.,  figs.  8  and  9). — First  form  an  overhand  knot;  then 
take  the  end  a  over  the  end  6  and  through  the  bight.2  This  knot  is  so  named 
from  being  used  in  tying  the  reef  points  of  a  sail,  since  it  will  not  jam.  If  the 
end  a  were  taken  under  the  end  &,  a  granny's  knot  would  be,fonned. 

Bowline  Knot. — Lay  the  end  of  a  rope  a  over  the  standing  part  6  ;  form  with 
b  a  bight  c  over  a ;  take  a  round  behind  b  and  down  through  the  bight  c 
This  is  a  very  useful  knot,  forming  a  loop  which  wiU  net  slip.  Running  bow~ 
line^  are  formed  by  making  a  bowline  round  its  own  standing  part  above  b. 
It  is  the  most  common  and  convenient  temporary  running  noose.  See  iiNOT, 
I.e.,  figs.  11  and  12. 


Fig.  5'.  Fig-  6-  Fig.  8. 

Fio.  5.— Two  ntif  Hitches.  Fio.  7.— Cafs-paw. 

Fio.  6.— Double  Blackwall  Hitch.  Fio.  6.— Marling-Spike  Hitch. 

HowUne  cm,  a  BiaU  (flss.  S,'  4).— The  first  part  is  made  similar  to  the  abow 
wifrthrdo^Weplrt  of  t^e  Ve ;  then  the  b^t  a  is  puUed  through  snfflcienO! 
to  allow  it  to  be  bent  over  past  d  and  come  up  in  the  position  shown  In  flg.  i 
It  makes  a  more  comfortable  sUng  for  a  man  than  a  ^'^S'^ '",?"■  „.  ,^,  ^.  .  . 

Ualf-Hitcb.—Fass  the  end  a  round  the  standing  part  b  and  through  the  bight 

1  A  person  wishing  to  make  sailor's  knots  need  not  be  deterred  bj 
tie  want  of  material,  as  nearly  aU  that  are  here  represented  were  made^ 
for  the  pnrpose  of  sketching  them,  -with  the  lashins  of  a  racking  case, 

!>  For  an  explanation  of  this  and  other  technical  terms,  see  tljs- 
glossary  on  p.  603  below. 


SEAMANSHIP 


691 


This  hitch  by  itself  round  a  large  object  would  not  hold  and  roaad  a  small  cue 
would  jam  excessively.    See  Knot,  t.c,  6k.  13. 

Two  Hal/- H itches {iig.  5).— Tlie  half-hitch,  repeated;  this  is  commoDly used, 
»nd  is  copabla  of  resisting  to  the  full  strength  of  the  rope.  A  stop  from  a  to 
the  standing  part  vri\l  prevent  it  jamming. 

Clove  Wifcft.— P3S3  the  end  a  round  a  spar  or  rope  and  cross  it  OTt-rft,  Ita 
standing  part ;  poas  it  round  again  and  put  the  end  a  through  the  second  bight. 
This  hitch  is  generally  used  at  right  angles  to  the  object  and  is  improved  by 
•dding  a  half-hitch  vnth  the  end  a  round  b.  When  puUed  in  a  line  with  the 
opar  it  becomes  simply  two  half-hitches.    An  iUusti-ation  is  giveD  in  Knot, 

LC  fie.  1^. 

DouoU  BtacTcwatl  Hitch  (fig.  6).— Pass  the  end  a  twice  round  the  hook  and 
QDder  the  standins  part  b  at  the  last  cross.  The  ordinary  Blackwall  hitch  only 
extends  to  the  first  cross  at  b,  and  Is  quickly  formed  by  passing  the  hook  of 
a  jijger  through  the  bight  of  a  rope  so  that  the  end  may  be  jammed  between 
it  and  the  standing  part,  as  from  6  to  a.  Used  for  setting  up  top-gallant  rigging 
and  similar  light  work  when  a  slip  is  of  little  consequeuce. 

Cal'x-paw  (Bg.  7).— Twist  up  two  parts  ofalanyard  in  opposite  directions  and 
book  thb  tackiie  in  the  eyes  i,  i.  A  piece  of  wood  shonld  be  placed  between 
the  parts  at  g.  A  large  lanyard  should  be  dove-hitched  round  a  largo  toggle 
and  a  strap  passed  round  it  below  the  toggle. 

Marling-Spitce  Hitch  (flg.  8).— Lay  the  end  a  over  c ;  fold  the  loop  over  on  the 
standing  part  b ;  then  pass  the  marling-spike  through,  over  both  parts  of  the 
bight  and  under  the  part  b.    Used  for  tightening  each  tom.  of  a  seizing. 


fig-  9-  Fig.  10.  fig.  11. 

Fig.  9.— risherman's  Bend.  Fro.  10.— Studding-Sail  Halyard  Bend. 

Fic.  11.— Timber  Hitch. 

Fisherman's  Bend  (fig.  9).— Take  two  turns  round  a  spar,  then  a  half-hitch 

roond  the  standing  part  and  between  the  spar  and  the  toms,  lastly  a  Imlf- 

Uitch  round  the  standing  part. 

Stvddirui-Saa  Halyard  Bend  (flg.  10).— Similar  to  the  above,  except  that  the 
end  is  tucked  under  the  first  round  turn ;  this  is  more  anu^.  A  nuifjnus  hitch 
has  two  round  turns  and  one  on  the  other  side  of  the  standing  part  with  the 
end  through  the  bight. 

Timber  Hitch  (fig.  11).— Take  the  end  o  of  a  rope  round  a  spar,  then  round 
the  standing  part  6,  then  several  times  round  its  own  part  c,  against  the  lay 
of  the  rope.  c        »    o  j 


^^e-  12.  Fig.  13.  Fig.  14.  Fig.  15. 

Fio.  12.-Snaking.  Fio.  14.— InattJc  CUnch. 

Fio.  13.— Carrlck  Bend.  Fia.  15.^M  id  ship  man's  Hitch. 

Snaking  (flg.  12).— Tlils  consists  of  turns  and  crossings,  the  latter  taken 
diagonally  with  a  marling  hitch  each  time.  Used  to  keep  wooldinga  and  seiz- 
ings In  plucc.  Tho  same  term  is  applied  to  lines  between  the  backstays  to 
keep  a  broken  part  from  falling. 

Carrick  Bend  (lig.  13).— Lay  the  end  of  one  hawser  over  its  own  part  to  form 
a  bight  as  «*,  6  ;  pass  tho  end  of  another  haw.ser  up  through  that  bight  near  h, 
going  out  over  the  first  end  at  r,  crossing  under  th.;  llr>t  I-ri;'  pAit  and  over  its 
end  at  rf,  then  under  both  long  ports,  forming  ilw  I  i    tvo  tho  first 

short  part  at  h,  terminating  at  tho  end  c",  in  the  <■;•  n  vertically 

and  horizontally  to  tho  other  en'l.    Tlio  ends  should  l-  :.|>rd  to  their 

respective  standing  parts,  and  also  a  atop  put  on  tho  h^  '.;<!  ..r  fxtromp  end  to 
prevent  it  catching'  a  pipe  or  chock  ;  in  tliat  form  this  is  tho  best  quick  means 
of  uniting  two  largo  haw3eifl,-8liico  they  cannot  Jam.  When  largo  hawsers  have 
to  woik  throu;,'h  small  pipes,  good  accority  may  be  obtjilned  oithcr  by  nasHinjr 
ten  or  twelve  Uut  racking  turns  with  a  suitable  str.ind  and  Hccnring  each 
cod  to  a  standing  part  of  thcjmwspr.  or  by  taking  half  as  miry  rnnnl  tiuTia 
tint,  crossing  the  ends  between  the  hawHcrs  over  the  seizii.  .ttinc 

tho  ends.     This  should  be  repeated  In  three  placon  and  th  i    %fcli 

stopped.    Connecting  hawsera  by  bowline  knots  is  verv  ..;  -u  the 

bend  is  largo  and  tho  knots  jam. 

Shut  Brnd.— Pass  the  end  oi  one  rope  thiongh  the  bight  of  another,  round 
boEti  parts  of  tho  other,  and  iinch-r  its  own  standing  part  Used  for  bi:n<ting 
Rmall  Hheets  to  the  clews  of  snil.s.  which  prr^ent  bfghU  ready  for  tho  hitch. 
An  ordinary  net  Is  composci  of  a  series  of  sheet  bends.  See  Kkot  t.c  fia  20 
A  treafer**  knot  is  ni.id.-  like  a  sheet  bend.  * 

Siny/«  Wall  A'no(.— Unlay  the  end  of  a  iopc,  and  with  Uio  strand  a  form  a 


bight;  take  the  next  strand  6  round  the  cnT  of  a  ;  take  the  last  strand  ■; 
round  the  end  of  6  and  through  the  bight  made  by  a ;  haul  the  ends  taut. 
A  double  u-all  a^inst  tlio  lay  (not  crowned)  makes  a  good  stopper.  A  vhaU 
knot  is  similar,  but  made  \v\t\i  the  lay.  Fig.  21  of  art.  IiLnot,  I.e.,  represents  a 
single  wall  knot. 

Single  Wall  Croumcd.—ToTm  a  single  wall,  and  lay  one  of  the  ends,  a,  over 
the  Imot ;  lay  b  over  a,  and  c  over  b  and  through  the  bight  of  a ;  haul  the 
ends  taut.    Stc  Knot,  I.e.,  fig.  22. 

Double  Wall  and  Double  Croifn.— Form  a  single  wall  crowned  ;  then  let  the 
ends  follow  their  own  parts  round  until  all  tlie  parts  appear  doable ;  put  the 
ends  down  through  the  knot  A  very  excellent  and  generally  used  cable- 
stopper.    See  K^OT,  I.e.,  flg.  23. 

Mattheio  li-'aJ^-tr.- Unlay  the  end  of  a  rope.  Take  the  first  strao'I  round 
the  rope  and  through  its  own  biglit ;  the  .second  strand  round  the  rope,  through 
the  bight  of  the  first,  and  through  its  own  bight ;  the  third  through  all  three 
bights.  Haul  all  taut.  An  easily  made  and  useful  knot.  Illustrations  are 
given  in  Kxor,  I.e.,  figs.  24  and  25. 

Inside  Clinch  (fig.  14).-^Tiie  end  is  bent  close  round  the  standing  part  till  it 
forms  a  circle  and  a  half,  when  it  is  securely  seized  at  a,  &,  and  c,  thus  making  a 
running  eye ;  when  taut  round  anytliing  it  j-ams  the  end.  It  is  used  for  secoring 
hemp  cables  to  anchors,  the  standicg  parts  of  topsail  sheets,  and  for  many 
other  purposes.  If  the  eye  were  formed  outside  tho  bight  an  outside  clin^i 
would  be  made,  depending  entirelj'  on  the  seizings,  but  more  ready  for  slipping. 

Midshipman's  Hitch  (fig.  15). — Take  two  round  turns  inside  the  bight,  the 
same  as  a  halfthitch  repeated  ;  stop  up  the  end  ;  or  lot  another  hnlf-liitch  be 
taken  or  held  by  hand.    Used  for  hooking  a  tackle  for  a  tempoiary  purpose. 


Fio.  16.— Turk's  Head,    Fio.  17.— Spanish  Windlass. 


Fio.  18.— Slings. 


Turk's  Head  (fig.  16).— With  fine  line  (very  dry)  make  a  clove  hitch  round 
the  rope ;  cross  the  bights  twice,  passing  an  end  the  reverse  way  (up  or  down) 
each  time;  then  keeping  the  whole  spread  flat,  let  each  end  foUow  its  own 
part  round  and  round  till  it  is  too  tight  to  receive  any  more.  Usod  as  an 
ornament  variously  on  side-ropes  and  foot-ropes  of  jibbooras.  It  may  also  be 
made  with  three  ends,  two  formed  by  the  same  piece  of  line  secured  through 
tho  rope  and  one  single  piece.  Form  with  them  a  diamond  knot ;  theij  each 
end  crossed  over  its  neighlwur  follows  its  own  part  as  above. 

Spanish  Windlass  (fig.  17).— An  iron  bar  and  two  marling-spikes  are  taken ; 
two  parts  of  a  seizing  are  twisted  like  a  cat's-paw  (tig.  7),  passed  round  the 
b.'ir,  and  hova  round  till  sufficiently  taut.  ]n  heaving  shrouds  together  to 
form  an  eye  two  round  turns  are  taken  with  a  strand  and  the  two  ends  hove 
upon.  When  a  lever  is  placed  between  the  parts  of  a  long  lashing  or  tapping 
and  hove  round,  wc  have  what  is  also  called  a  Sparish  windlass 

Slings  (fig.  18).— This  is  simply  the  bight  of  a  rope  turned  up  over  its  own 
part :  it  is  flrequently  made  of  chain,  when  a  shackle  (bow  up)  takes  tlie  place 
of  the  bight  at  5  and  another  at  y,  connecting  the  two  ends  with  the  part  which 
goes  round  the  mast-head.  Used  to  sling  lower  yards.  For  boat's  yards  it 
should  be  a  grummet  with  a  thimble  seized  in  at  y.  As  the  tendency  of  all 
yards  is  to  cant  forward  with  the  weight  of  the  sail,  the  port  marked  by  an 
arrow  should  be  the  fore-aide,— easily  ulustrated  by  a  round  ruler  and  a  piece 
of  twine. 


Fig.  19.  Fig.  20. 

F[0.  19.— Sprit -Sail  Sheet  Knot  Fio.  21.— Turning  in  a  Dcid-Eye 

Fig.  20.— Turning  in  a  Dead-Eye  Cutter-  end  up. 

Stay  fashion. 

Sprit-Sail  Sliftt  Knot  (fig.  19).— This  knot  consists  of  a  double  wall  and  double 
crown  mado  by  the  two  ends,  conseouently  with  six  strands, — with  the  ends 
turned  down.  Used  formerly  in  tho  clews  of  sails,  now  as  nn  exeell.'iit  stopper, 
a  lashing  or  .shackle  being  placed  at  s,  and  a  lanyard  round  tlie  hrad  at  /. 

Turning  in  a  Drnd-E^je  Cvtter-Stay  fashion  (flg.  20).— .\  b-Mul  is  made  In  tho 
stay  or  shroud  rnumt  if-  c>vn  part  and  hove  together  with  .i  t-.»-;iTi'l  ntrand  ; 


two  or  three  Hfiziii;^s  dimiiiidiini;  in  sizu  (one  rotir 
round  or  llat)avc  hove  on  taut  ati"l  snnc.  the  end  bi  i 


part.    Tlicfl-. 

Turning  ■ 
dead-eye  an 
forced  into  ,' 
taut  and  sci-iucki 
another  seizing, 
tho  rope  as  murli 
rlj^dit-lianded  or  I 
ally  kink  by  pnt^ 
turned  In  end  up  w 
the  under  turn-,  ot  t '; 
Rllp.     With  th.'  enftr 
under  tho  nip  of  fi.r  . 
when  secur-  '  ■ 
of  Hat  c»r  r.!i  : 
on  oecmiu  ■  . 
In  small  vcssei.t,  tsint 


driven  .1 


iiy  jacuKi,  li.  i 


ither 
1  .How 

;  the 
then 
:i  up 
I  by 
it  In 
■  chfc 
'  itur- 
yo  Is 

''««; 

.ttn 

way 
train 

■llllCl' 

■,.iblp 

',.,'tV. 


592 


SEAMANSHIP 


Fig.  23.— Shroad  Knot. 


that  case  a  round  seizing  is  placed  between  the  dead-eye  and  the  splice.  The 
dead*eyes  should  be  in  diameter  Ij  times  the  circumference  of  a  hemp  shroud 
and  thrice  that  of  wire;  the  lanyard  should  be  half  the  nominal  size  of  hemp 
and  the  same  size  as  wire ;  thus,  hemp-shroud  12  inches,  wire  6  inches,  dead- 
eye  18,  lanyard  6  inche.s. 

Sfuirt  Splice. — The  most  common  description  of  splice  is  when  a  rope  is 
lengthened  by  another  of  the  same  size,  or  nearly  so.  Fig.  22  represents  a  splice 
of  this  kind  :  the  strands 
have  been  imlaid,  married, 
and  passed  through  with 
the  assistance  of  a  uiarling- 
spike,  over  one  strand  and 
under  the  next,  twice  -each 
way.    The  ends  are  then  cut 

off  close.  To  render  the  r  ^^  v,„  on  ct,„^  c„it«« 
splice  neater  the  strands  ^-^  Fig.  22.-Sliort  Splice, 
should  have  been  halved  before  turning  them  in  a  second  time,  the  uppnr 
half  of  each  strand  only  being  turned  in  ;  then  all  are  cut  off  smooth.  Eye- 
Sphce.—  UnJaj^  the  strands  and  place  them  upon  the  same  rope  spread  at 
such  a  distance  as  to  give  the  size  of  the  eye ;  enter  the  centre  strand  (unlaid) 
under  a  strand  of  the  rope  (as  above)  and  the  other  two  in  a  similar  manner  on 
their  respective  sides  of  the  flrst ;  taper  each  end  and  pass  them  through  again. 
If  neatness  is  desired,  reduce  the  ends  and  pass  them  through  once  more  ;  cut 
off  smooth  and  serve  the  part  disturbed  tightly  with  suitable  hard  line.  Uses 
too  numerous  to  mention.  Cut  Sphcc— Made  in  a  similar  iQanner  to  an  eye- 
splice,  but  of  two  pieces  of  rope,  therefore  with  two  splices.  Used  for  mast- 
head pendants,  jib-guys,  breast  backstays,  and  even  odd  shrouds,  to  keep  the 
eyes  of  the  rigging  lower  by  one  part.  It  is  not  so  strong  as  two  separate  eyes. 
Horse-Shoe  Splice.— M3.de  similar  to  the  above,  but  one  part  much  shorter  than 
the  other,  or  another  piece  of  rope  is  spliced  across  an  eye,  forming  a  horse- 
shoe mth  two>  long  legs.  Used  for  back-ropes  ouvdolphin  striker,  backstays 
(one  on  each  side),  and  cutter's  runner  pendants.  Long  Splice.— The  strands 
must  be  unlaid  about  three  times  as  much  as  for  a  short  splice  and  married, — 
care  being  taken  to  preserve  the  lay  or  shape  of  each.  Unlay  one-of  the  strands 
still  further  and  follow  up  the  vacant  space  with  the  corresponding  fttrand  of 
the  other  part,  fitting  it  firmly  into  the  rope  till  only  a  few  inches  remain. 
Treat  the  other  side  in  a  similar  manner.  There  will  then  appear  two  long 
strands  in  the  centre  and  a  long  and  a  short  one  on  each  side.  The  splice  is 
practically  divided  into  three  distinct  parts  ;  at  each  the  strands  are  divided 
and  the  corresponding  halves  knotted  (as  shown  on  the  top  of  fig.  24)  and 
turned  in  twice.  The  half  strand  may,  if  desired,  be  still  further  reduced 
before  the  halves  are  turned  in  for  the  second  time.  This  and  all  other  splices 
should  be  well  stretched  and  hammered  into  shape  before  the  ends  are  cut  off. 
The  long  splice  alone  is  adapted  to  mnning  ropes. 

Shroud  Knot(6g.  23). — Pass  a  stop  at  such  distance  from  each  end  of  the 
broken  shrood  as  to  afford  sufficient  length  of  strands,  when  it  is  unlaid,  to 
form  a  single  wall  knot  on  each  ,  ,-A<5 

side  after  the  parts  have  been  r-^  /i  ^  \ 

ntarrted ;  it  will  then  appear  as 
represented  in  the  figure,  the 
strands  having  been  weil  tarred 
and  hove  taut  separately.  The 
part  a  provides  the  knot  on  the 
opposite  side  and  the  ends  6,  6 ; 
the  part  c  provides  the  knot  and 
the  ends  d,  d.  After  the  knot  has  been  well  stretched  the  ends  are  tapered, 
laid  smoothly  bet%veen  the  strands  of  the  shroud,  and  firmly  served  over.  This 
knot  is  used  when  shrouds  or  stays  are  broken.  French  Shroud  Knot. — Marry 
the  parts  with  a  similar  amount  of  end  as  before  ;  stop  one  set  of  strands  taut 
up  on  the  shroud  (to  keep  the  parts  together);  and  turn  the  ends  back  on 
their  own  part,  forming  bights.  Make  a  single  wall  knot  witU  the  other  three 
strands  round  the  said  bights  and  shrqud  ;  haul  the  knot  taut  first  and  stretch 
the  whole ;  then  heave  down  the  bights  close:  it  will  look  like  the  ordinary 
shroud  knot.  It  is  very  liable  to  slip.  If  the  ends  by  which  the  wall  knot  are 
made  after  being  hove  were  p^issed  through  the  bights,  it  would  make  the 
knot  stronger.    The  ends  would  be  tapered  and  served. 

Flemish  Eye  (fig.  24), — Secure  a  spar  or  toggle  twice  the  circumference  of  the 
rope  intended  to  be  rove  through  the  eye  ;  unlay  the  rope  which  is  to  form  the 
eye  about  three  times  its  circumference,  at 
which  part  place  a  strong  whipping.  Point 
the  rope  vertically  under  the  eye,  and  bind 
it  taut  up  by  the  core  if  it  is  four-stranded 
rope,  otherwise  by  a  few  yarns.  Wliile  doing 
so,  arrange  six  or  twelve  pieces  of  spun-yam 
at  equal  distances  on  the  wood  and  exactly 
halve  the  number  of  yarns  that  have  been 
unlaid.  If  it  is  a  small  rope,  select  two  or 
three  yams  from  each  side  near  the  centre  ; 
cross  them  over  the  top  at  a  ;  and  half  knot 
them  tightly.  So  continue  till  all  are  ex- 
pended and  drawn  down  tightly  on  the  op- 
posite side  to  that  from  which  they  came, 
being  thorougnly  intermixed.  Tie  the  pieces 
of  spun-yarn  which  were  placed  under  the 

eye  tightly  round  various  parts  to  keep  the  j-jq  04  —Flemish  Eve 

eye  in  shape  when  taken  off  the  spar,  till  ' 

they  are  replaced  by  turns  of  marline  hove  on  as  taut  as  possible,  the 
hitches  forming  a  central  line  outside  the  eye.  Heave  on  a  good  seizing  of 
spun-yarn  close  below  the  spar  and  another  betweea  six  and  twelve  inches 
below  the  first ;  it  may  then  be  parcelled  and  served  :  the  eye  is  served  over 
twice,  and  well  tarred  each  time.  As  large  ropes  are  composed  of  so  many 
jiirns,  a  greater  number  must  be  knotted  over  the  toggle  each  time  ;  a  4-inch 
rope  has  132  yarns,  which  would  require  22  knottings  of  six  each  time;  a 
10-inch  rope  has  834  yarns,  therefore,  if  ten  are  taken  from  each  side  every 
time,  about  twice  that  number  of  hitches  ivill  be  required;  sometimes  only 
half  the  yarns  are  hitched,  the  others  being  merely  passed  over.  The  chief 
use  of  these  eyes  has  been  to  form  the  collars  of  stays,  the  whole  stay  in  each 
case  havmg  to  be  rove  through  it,— a  very  inconvenient  device.  It  is  almost 
superseded  for  that  purpose  by  a  leg  spliced  in  the  stay  and  lashing  eyes  abaft 
the  mast,  for  "which  it  is  commonly  used  at  present.  This  eye  is  not  always 
called  by  the  same  name,  but  the  weight  of  endence  is  in  favour  of  calling  it 
a  Flemish  eye.  Bopemaker's  Eye,  which  also  has  alternative  names,  is  formed  by 
taking  out  of  a  rope  one  strand  longer  by  6  inches  or  a  foot  than  the  required 
eye,  then  placing  the  ends  of  the  two  strands  a  similar  distance  below  the  dis- 
turbance of  the  one  strand,  that  is,  at  the  size  of  the  eye  ;  the  single  strand  is 
led  back  through  the  vacant  space  it  left  till  it  arrives  at  the  neck  of  the  eye, 
with  a  similar  lengtl^of  spare  end  to  the  other  two  strands.  They  are  all 
seized  together,  scraped,  tapered,  marled,  and  served.  The  principal  merit 
is  neatness. 

Mou^  on  a  Stay. — Formed  by  turns  of  coarse  spun-yam  hove  taut  round  the 
stay,  over  parcelling  at  the  requisite  distance  from  the  eye  to  form  the  collar  ; 
assistance  is  given  by  a  padding  of  short  yarns  distributed  eq.ually  round  the 


Fig.  : 


J5.— Rolling  Hitch. 
This  is  very  useful,  as  it 


rope,  which,  after  being  firmly  secured,  especially  at  what  la  to  be  the  unda^ 

part,  are  turned  back  over  the  first  layer  and  seized  down  again,  thus  making 

a  shoulder;  sometimes  it  is  formfed  with 

parcelling  onlj*.    In  ei  ther  case  it  is  finished 

by  marling,  followed  by  serving  or  grafting. 

The  use  is  to  prevent  the  Flemish  eye  in 

the  end  of  the  stay  from  slipping  up  any  , 

farther. 

Rolling  Bitch  (fig.  2S).— Two  round  turns 
are  taken  round  a  spar  or  large  rope  in  the 
direction  in  which  it  is  to  be  hauled  and 
one  half-hitch  on  the  other  side  of  the  hauling  part, 
can  be  put  on  and  off  quickly. 

Ronnd  Seizing  (fig.  26).— So  named  when  the  rope  it  secures  does  not  cross 
another  and  there  are  three  sets  of  turns.  The  size  of  the  seizing  line  is  about 
one-sixth  (nominal)  that  of  the  ropes  to  be 
secured,  but  varies  according  to  the  number 
of  turns  1 
the  line  , 
bracing  1 
spread  open, 

part;  place  tarred  c-anvas  under  the  seizin^  _ 
pass  the  line  round  as  many  times  (^^'itti 

much  slack)  as  it  is  intended  to  have  t.,„  ««  ■D.^„«^  Ca:^«« 
under-turns ;  and  pass  the  end  back  through  ^'°'  26.-Round  Semng. 
them  all  and  through  the  eye.  Secure  the  eye  from  rendering  round  by  the 
ends  of  its  splice  ;  heave  the  turns  on  with  a  marling-spike  (see  fig.  8),  perhaps 
seven  or  nine;  haul  the  end  through  taut;  and  commence  again  the  riding 
turns  in  the  hollows  of  the  first.  If  the  end  is  not  taken  back  through  the  eye 
but  pushed  up  between  the  last  two  turns  (as  is  sometimes  recommended), 
the  riders  must  be  passed  the  opposite  way  m  order  to  follow  the  direction 
of  the  under-turns,  which  are  always  one  more  in  number  than  the  riders. 
When  the  riders  are  complete,  the  end  is  forced  between  the  last  lower  tum.s 
and  two  cross  turns  are  taken,  the  end  coming  up  where  it  went  down,  when 
a  wall  knot  is  made  with  the  strands  and  the  ends  cut  close  ;  or  the  end  may 
be  taken  onceroufid  the  shroud.  Throat  Setsiyig.-TwQ  ropes  or  parts  of  rope» 
are  laid  on  each  other  parallel  and  receive  a  seizing  similar  to  that  shown  ia 
fig.  21,— that  is,  with  upper  and  ridingj  but  no  cross  turns.  As  the  two  parta 
of  rope  are  intended  to  turn  up  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  they 
were  secured,  the  seizing  should  be  of  stouter  line  and  short,  not  exceed- 
ing seven  lower  and  six  riding  turns.  The  end  is  better  secured  with  a  turn 
round  the  standing  pait.  Used  for  turning  in  dead-eyes  and  variously.  Flat 
Seizitig. —  Commenced  similarly  to  the  above,  but  it  has  neither  riding  nor 
cross  turns. 

Iiacking-Sei2ing  (fig.  27).— A  running  eye  having  been  spliced  round  one  part 
of  the  rope,  the  line  is  passed  entirely  round  the  other  part,  crossed  back  round 
the  first  part,  and  so  on  for 

ten  to  twenty  turns  accord-  ^  ^  ^  „"^^^ 

ing  to  the  expected  strain, -^-^  ^^Tv^^Cr^^r^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

every  turn  being  hove  as    <*  .WjAJAidJXjXJH ^ 

tight     as     possible,    after 

which     round     turns    are 
passed  to  fill  the  spaces  at 

the  back  of  each  rope,  by 

taking  the  end  a  over  bpth 

parts  into  the  hollow  at  b, 

returning   at  e,  and   going 

over  to  d.    When  it  reaches 

e  a  turn  may  be  taken  round 

that  rope  only,  the  end  rove  under  it,  and  a  half-hitch  taken,  which  will  form 

a  clove  hitch  ;   knot  the  end  and  cut  it  close.     When  the  shrouds  ace  wire 

(which  is  half  the  size  of  hemp)  and  the  end  turned  up  round  a  dead-eye  of  any 

kind,  \Fire -seizings  are  preferable.     It  appears  very  undesirable  to  have  wira 

rigging  combined  with  plates  or  screws  for  setting  it  up,  as  in  case  of  accident 

— such  as  that  of  the  mast  going  over  the  side,  a  shot  or  collision  breaking  the 

Ironwork — the  seamen  are  powerless. 
Diamond  Knot  (figs.  28,  29). — The  rope  must  be  unlaid  as  far  as  the  centre  it 

the  knot  is  required  there,  and  the  strands  handled  with  great  care  to  keep 

the  lay  in  them.    Three  bights  are  turned 

up  as  in  fig.  28,  and  the  end  of  a  is  takea 

over  b  and  up  the  bight  c.     The  end  of  b  is 

taken  over  c  and  up  through  a.    The  end 

c  is  taken  over  a  and  through  6.      When 

hauled  taut  and  the  strands  are  laid  up 

again  it  will  appear  as  in  fig.   29.      Any 

number  of  knots  may  be  made  on  the  same 

rope.    They  were  used  on  man-ropes,  the 

foot-ropes  on  the  jibboom,  and  similar 

places,  where  it  was  necessary  to  give  a 

good  hold  for  the  hands  or  feet.     Turk's 

heads  are  now  generally  used.    Double  Dia- 
mond.— Made  by  the  ends  of  a  single  dia 

mond   iollowing  their  own  pai-t    till  the 

knot  is  repeated.     Used  at  the  upper  end 

of  a  side  rope  as  an  ornamental  stopper- 
knot. 
Stropping- Blocks. — There  are  various  modes  of  securing  blocks  to  ropes  ;  the 

most  simple  is  to  splice  an  eye  at  the  end  of  the  rone  a  Uttle  longer  than  the 

block  and  pass  a  round 

seizing  to  keep  it  in  place ; 

such  is  the  case  with  jib- 
pendants.    As  a  general 

rule,  the  parts  of  a  strop 

combined  should  possess 

greater  strength  than  the 

parts  of  the  fall  which  act 

against  it.    The  shell  of  - 

an  ordinary  block  should  ' 

be  about  three  times  the 

circumference  of  the  rope 

which  is  to  reeve  through 

it,  as  a  9-inch  block  for  a 

3  -  inch  rope  ;  but   small 

ropes  require  larger  blocks 

in  proportion,  as  a  4-inch 

block  for  a  1-inch  rope. 

When  the  work.to  be  done 

is    very    important    the 

blocks  are  much  lai-ger;  ^^^^  SO. -Grummet-Strop. 

brace  -  blocks    are    more 

than  five  times  the  nominal  size  of  the  brace.    Leading-blocks  and  sheaves  III 
racks  are  generally  smaller  than  the  blocks  through  whicli  the  ropes  pass  farther 


Fig.  27. —Racking  Seizing. 


Figs.  28,  29.— Diamond  Knot. 


SEAJklANSHIP 


593 


Fio.  31.— Double 
Strop. 


miriT  wliich  appears  to  be  a  mistake,  as  more  power  is  lost  by  friction.  A 
Wump-block  should  be  double  the  nominal  size  of  the  rope.  A  single  strop 
IMF  be  made  by  joinics  tlio  ends  of  a  rope  of  sufficient  length  to  go  round  the 
block  and  thimble  by  a  common  short  splice,  which  rests  on  the  crown  of  the 
block  (the  opposite  end  to  the  thiuible)  and  is  stretched  into  pl.ico  by  a  jigger  ; 
s  strand  is  then  passed  twico  round  the  space  between  the  block  arid  the 
thimble  and  hove  Unt  by  a  Spanish  windlass  to  cramp  the  parts  together  ready 
for  the  reception  of  a  small  round  seizing.  The  cramping  or  pinching  into 
shape  issonietimes  done  by  machinery  invented  by  a  rigger  in  Por  suiouth 
dock>-ard.  The  strop  may  bo  in.Tle  the  required  length  by  a  long  splice,  but 
it  would  not  possess  any  advantage.  ^^v    j    •     ,    ■ 

Grummet-Strop  (llg.  80).-Made  by  unlaying  a  piece  of  rope  of  the  desired  size 
about  a  foot  more  than  three  times  the  leoeth  required  for  the  strop  Place 
the  centre  of  the  rope  round  the  block  and  thimble ;  mark  with  chalk  where 
the  parts  cross  :  take  one  strand  out  of  the  rope  ;  bring  the  two  chalk  marks 
together;  and  cross  the  strand  in  the  lay  on  both  sidcf,  contiiimng  round  and 
r«UDd  till  the  two  en.Is  incet  the  third  time ;  they  are  then  halved,  and  the 
upper  halves  half-knotted  and  passed  over  and  under  the  next  strands  exactly 
as  ine  part  of  a  long  splice.  A  piece  of  worn  or  well-stretched  rope  will  better 
retain  its  shape,  upon  which  success  entirely  depends.  The  object  is  neatness, 
and  if  three  or  multiples  of  three  strops  are  to  be  made  it  is  economicah 

DouhU  Strop  (llg.  31).— JIade  with  one  piece  of  rope,  the  spUce  being  brought 
asusual  to  tliecro%vn  of  the  block,  (.the  bijihts  fitting  into  ^^Js  /<[7>\ 
..cores  some  inches  apart,  converging  to  the  upper  part,  fq'^  a  OM 
above  which  the  thimble  receives  the  bights  a,  a ;  and  the 
four  parts  of  the  strap  ore  secured  at  s,  s  by  a  round  seizing 
doubly  crossed.  If  the  block  be  not  then  on  the  right  slew 
(the  shell  horizontal  or  vertical)  a  union  thimble  is  used 
with  another  strop,  which  produces  the  desired  cfTect ; 
thus  the  fore  and  main  brace-blocks,  being  very  large  and 
thin,  are  required  (for  appearance)  to  lie  horizontally;  a 
single  strop  round  the  yard  vertically  has  a  nnion  thimblo 
between  it  and  the  double  strop  round  the  block.  Tlio 
double  strop  is  used  for  large  blocks;  it  gives  more  suji- 
port  to'  the  shell  than  the  single  strop  and  admits  of 
smaller  ropo  being  used.  Wire  rope  is  much  used  for 
block.strops  ;  the  fitting  is  similar.  Met.il  blocks  are  also 
used  in  fixed  positions;  durability  is  their  chief  recom- 
mendation. Great  care  should  be  taken  th.it  they  do  not 
chafe  the  ropes  which  pass  by  them  as  well  as  those  which 
reeve  through.  ,  , 

Stlvagte  ifrop.— Twine,  rope-yarn,  or  rope  is  warped 
round  two  or  more  pegs  placed  at  the  desired  distance 
apart,  till  It  assumes  the  requisite  size  and  strength  ;  the 
two  ends  are  then  knotted  or  spliced.  Temporary  Arm 
kcizings  are  applied  in  several  places  to  bind*  the  parts 
together  before  the  rope  or  twino  is  removed  from  the 
pegs,  after  which  it  is  marled  with  suitable  material.  A 
large  strop  should  bo  warped  round  four  or  six  pegs  in 
order  to  give  it  the  shape  in  which  it  is  to  be  used.  This 
description  of  strop  is  much  stronger  and  more  supple  than  rope  of  similar 
size.  Twine  strops  (covered  with  duck)  are  used  for  boats  blocks  and  in 
similar  places  requiring  neatness.  Eone-yam  and  spun-yarn  strops  are  used 
for  attaching  hilT-tacklcs  to  shrouds  and  for  many  similar  purposes.  To  bniig 
to  a  shVoud  or  hawser  the  centre  of  the  strop  is  p.isscd  round  the  rope  and  each 
part  crossed  three  or  four  times  before  hooking  the  "  lull "  ;  a  spun-yarn  stop 
above  the  centre  will  prevent  slipping  and  is  very  necessary  with  wire  rope. 
As  an  instance  of  a  l.irge  aclvagce  block-strop  being  used,— When  the 
"Melville"  w.xs  hove  down  at  Chusan  (China),  the  maui-purchasc-block  was 
double  stropped  with  a  selvagce  containing  28  parts  of  3-inch  rope  ;  tliat  would 

Jiroduce  112  parts  in  the  neck,  equal  to  a  breaking  strain  of  2S0  tons,  which 
s  more  than  four  parts  of  a  19-inoh  cable.    The  estimated  strain  it  bore  was 

80  tons.  J    1        ,.  .  .  »  » 

Stopptn  for  ordinary  running  ropes  are  made  by  splicing  a  piece-  of  rope  to 
•  bolt  or  to  a  hook  and  thimble,  unlaying  3  or  4  feet,  tapering  it  by  cutting 
away  some  of  the  yarns,  and  marling  It  down  securely,  with  a  good  whipping 
also  on  the  end.  It  Is  used  by  taking  a  half-hitch  round  the  rope  which  is  to 
be  hauled  upon,  dogging  the  end  up  In  the  lay,  and  holding  it  by  hand.  The 
rope  can  come  through  it  when  hauled,  but  cannot  go  back. 

WTiipping  and  Voinling.—lho  end  of  every  working  rope  should  at  least  be 
■whipped  to  prevent  it  fagglug  out;  in  ships  of  war  and  yachts  they  are  invari- 
ably pointed.  Whipping  is  done  by  placing  the  end  of  a  piece  of  twine  or 
knlttle-stuffon  a  rope  about  an  inch  from  the  end,  taking  three  or  fonr  turns 
tautoverit(workingtowards  thoend);  the  twine  is  then  laid  on  the  rope  again 
lengthways  contrary  to  the  flr»t,  leaving  a  slack  bight  of  twine  ;  and  taut  turns 
are  repeatedly  passed  round  the  ropo  over  the  first  end  and  over  the  bight,  till 
there  are  in  all  six  to  ten  turns  ;  then  haul  the  bight  taut  through  between  the 
turns  and  cut  it  close.  To  point  a  ropo,  place  a  good  whipping  a  few  inches 
from  the  end  according  to  size  ;  open  out  the  end  entirely  ;  select  all  the  outer 
yams  and  twist  them  Into  knlttles  either  singly  or  two  or  thrc*  together; 
•crape  down  ;  and  taper  the  central  part,  marling  it  firmly.  Turn  every  alter. 
nato  knittle  and  secure  the  remainder  down  by  a  turn  of  twine  or  a  smooth 
yam  hitched  close  up,  which  acts  as  the  weft  In  weaving.  The  knlttles  are 
then  roverscd  and  another  tiu-n  of  the  weft  taken,  and  this  is  continued  till  far 
enough  to  look  well.  At  the  last  turn  the  ends  of  the  knittles  which  are  laid 
back  are  led  forward  over  and  under-the  weft  and  hauled  through  tightly, 
making  it  present  a  circle  of  small  bights,  level  with  which  the  core  is  cut  ofi' 
smootlily.  Hawsers  and  large  ropes  li.ivo  a  becket  formed  in  their  ends  during 
the  process  of  pointing.  A  piece  of  1  to  Ij-lnch  rope  about  IJ  to  2  feet  long  is 
spliced  into  the  core  by  each  end  while  it  Is  open  :  from  four  to  seven  yarns 
(equal  to  a  strand)  are  taken  at  a  time  and  twisted  up  ;  open  the  ends  of  the 
Bcckot  only  sufficient  to  marry  them  close  in  ;  turn  in  the  twisted  yarns  between 
the  strands  (as  splicing)  three  times  ;  and  stop  it  above  and  below.  Doth  ends 
are  treated  alike  ;  when  the  pointing  Is  completed  a  loop  a  few  inches  In  length 
will  protrude  from  the  end  of  the  rope,  which  is  very  useful  for  reeving  It.  A 
hauling  line  or  reeving  lino  should  only  be  rove  throngli  the  Itccket  as  a  fair 
lead.  Grafting  is  very  similar  to  pointing  and  frequently  dono  the  whole 
length  of  a  rope,  as  a  sldc-ropo.  Pieces  of  white  line  more  than  double  the 
leD{;th  of  the  rope,  sufficient  In  number  to  encircle  it,  are  made  up  in  hanks 
called  foxes  ;  the  centre  of  each  is  made  fast  by  twine  and  the  weaving  process 
continued  as  In  pointing.  Block-strops  are  soiiieliincs  so  covered  ;  but,  as  it 
causes  decay,  a  small  wove  mat  which  can  be  taken  olf  occasionally  Is  preferable. 
SlMp-Shar\k  (fig.  32).— Formed  by  making  a  long  bight  In  a  top-gallant-back- 


j  Fio..  82.— Sheep-Shank.  4 

«»ay,  or  any  rope  which  It  Is  desirable  to  shorten,  snd  taking  a  half-hitch  near 
each  bend,  as  at  a,  o.  _  Rope-yarn  slops  at  b,  6  are  desirable  to  keep  It  In  place 

21-L>1 


till  the  strain  is  brought  on  It.  Wire  rope  cannot  be  so  treated,  and  It  tain- 
jurious  to  hemp  rope  that  is  large  and  stilf.  i_         ,  .«« 

Knottinn  I'orns  (fig.  33).— This  operation  becomes  necessary  wheiualcom- 
parativcly  short  piece  of 
junk  is  to  be  made  into 
spun-yarn,  or  large  ro[)e  ■' 
into  small,  which  is  called 
twice  laid.  The  eiul  of 
each  yam  is  divided, 
rubbed  smooth,  and  mar- 
ried   (.-IS    for    splicing). 

Two  of  the  divided  iv.rts,  p      33._Knotting  Tams. 

as  c,  c  and  d,  rf ,  are  passed  •  •.«.»...  i,  .^        . 

In  opposite  directions  round  all  the  other  parts  and  knotted.  The  ends-ff'^Q 
/remain  passive.  The  figure  is  drawn  ojien,  but  the  forks  of  A  and  li  should 
beiiresseU  close  together,  the  knot  hauled  taut,  and  the  ends  cut  olf. 

Bull  Sli:igs  (tig.  34).— >lade  of  4-iiich  rope,  each  pair  being  2l>  feet  in  lengtll, 
with  an  eye  spliced  in  one  end,  through  whicli  the  other  is  rove  before  beillf 
placed  over  one  end  of  the  cask ;  the  rone  is  then 
passed  round  the  opposite  side  of  the  ci-sK  and  two 
half-hitches  made  with  the  end,  forming  another  run- 
ning eye,  both  of  which  are  beaten  down  tJUit  as  the 
tackle  receives  tlic  weight.     Slings  for  smaller  casks  f 
l-equiring  care  slionld  be  of  this  description,  though  J 
of  smaller  rope,  as  the  cask  cannot  possibly  slip  out,  C 
Bute  Stings  are  made  by  splicing  tlie  ends  of  about  3,' 
fathoms  of  3 -inch  rope  together,  which  then  looks 

like  a  long  strop,  similar  to  the  double  strop  rcjire-    „      .,  _-n..,t  RUnzir. 
sented  in  fig.  SlT-the  bights  t  being  placed  under  the  ■  ^'°-  ^*-  ■"""  """S* 
cask  or  tale  niul  one  of  the  bights  a,  a  rove  through  the  other  and  attichcd  (• 
the  whip  or  tackle.    ,  ,  ,.        . 

The  marks  on  the  lead-line  are  leather  at  2,  3,  and  10  fathoms,  white  at  a 
and  15,  red  at  7  and  17,  and  blue  at  13.  The  length  of  the  lead  is  not  usually 
included.  The  deep-s«i  line  commences  w  ith  2  knots  at  20,  another  knot  being 
added  for  every  10  fatlionis,  and  a  single  knot  at  each  intermediate  5.  Log- 
lines  should  have  ample  stray  line  (distance  bciwecu  the  log-ship  and  the  llrst 
mark).  The  distance  of  47  feet  and  a  2S-secoiid-filass  were  adopted  to  assiinilats 
the  sea  furlong  to  the  shore  furlong,  which  was  absurd.  Fifty  feet  to  half  a 
minute  would  be  more  correct  and  more  convenient. 

Since  space  will  not  allow  of  a  full  description  of  masting  and 
ripfing,  only  a  few  of  tlio  more  important  points  will  bo  noticcil. 
The  masts  must  be  stepped  before  tlicy  are  rigged  ;  accordingly 
we  will  Ih-st  describe  the  manner  in  which  they  are  put  on  boarJ 
in  cases  where  the  assistance  of  shears  on  hulk  or  jetty  is  not 
available  ;  at  an  out-port  a  seaman  is  still  left  to  his  own  resources, 
just  as  he  was  in  former  times.  Fixing  the  masts  in  a  largo  frigatoj 
such  as  that  shown  in  6g.  35  below,  is  a  serious  cousidcration,  ag 
the  mainmast  weighs  about  twenty  tons. 

Two  suitable  spars  must  be  procured  about  three-fourths  tM 

length  of  the  main-mast  and  about  two-thirds  its  diameter,— th» 

greater  the  housing  the  higher  the  shears.     They  are  towed  along-i 

side  or  under  the  stern  witli  the  tliicker  ends  forward,  and  par* 

buckled  over  the  side  or  hoisted  in  through  the  stern-ports  by  means 

of  a  derrick,  whicliever  is  most  convenient.     Tlie  smaller  ends  art 

rested  upon  a  spar  across  the  gunnel  or  the  break  of  the  poop 

crossed,  and  lashed  with  strong  well-stretched  rope  (about  44  or  5 

inches)  passed  figure-of-eight  fashion,  commencing  at  tlie  centre, 

returning  with  riding  turns  as  a  racking  seizing,  and  crossed  a^am } 

the  turns  at  the  extreme  ends  should  not  be  so  taut  as  the  others. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  place  the  seizing  ccinidistant  from  each  heel 

after  they  have  been  trimmed  to  tit  flat  upon  shoes  of  strong  oak 

planking;   they  will  remain  within  their  full  spread  by  about ,3 

feet  each  side  till  utter  the  head  seizing  has  been  secured.     Lash  a 

threefold  purchase-block  to  the  horns  above  the  lashings,  to  hanfl 

down   clear  under  tlie  crass,  so  as  to  correspond  with  n  twofolj 

block  to  bo  lashed  to  the  mast.    If  such  blocks  cannot  be  procured 

two  top-blocks  may  be  substituted  for  the  upper  block  and  one  oil 

the  mast,  reserving  the  fourth  top-block  as  a  lead  secured  to  ona 

of  the  shear  legs  or  near  it.'     Two  purchases  may  be  used  at  the 

same  time  with  advantage,  one  block  hanging  on  the  fore,  tha 

other  on  the  after  side.     A  giid-line  is  also  placed  on  the  highest 

part  of  the  horns  to  assist  in  canting  the  mast,  and  another  foa 

the  purpose  of  hoisting  up  a  man  should  anything  rei|uire  altern. 

lion.     The  lashing  at  tlie  L.icar-hcad  nmst  be  well  piotcctcd  witli 

old  canvas  and  all  the  decks  must  be  shored  up  in  the  vioinitv  of 

the  places  where  the  shear-legs  stand  for  each  mast.    '  The  legs 

must  be  lashed  together  at  the  desired  spread  and  heel  tackles  led 

forward  and  aft  from  each.    To  form  the  four  head-guys  the  central 

parts  of  twohawsers  are  clovc-liitehed  above  the  lashing  and  sprenj 

as  far  as  is  convenient  in  four  directions  and  set  un  by  tackles. 

When  all  is  ready  and  the  puichn.se  rove,  the  lower  block  sliould 

bo  secured  forward  as  high  as  ran  be  ;  and,  while  the  purch.iso  is 

beiii"  hove  upon,  a  light  derrick  or  small  shears  lifting  the  shear. 

heaifwill  greatly  assist  j  of  course  the  after  heel  Licklcs  must  b« 

well  secured. '    After  tho  shears  arc  erect  and  the  heels  cleatcd  and 

hished  to  tho  shoes  they  can  bo  sculfed  about  by  tho  heel  Ucklca 

and  guys  to  any  desired  position,— tho  holo  for  tho  muaeu-mast 

is  first  plumbed.  ■  t  •.    v     j     » 

The  mizzcn-niast  should  bo  brought  alongside  with  »U  hrart  jlt. 

and  a  sulliciently  strong  sclva^'oc  !itiop  hshod  on  (ho  fore  side  if  tt 

*.'  nil"*,  the  break- 

'   down  tn  the  mafft 

I  i.trglii  ovcrSOtona- 

lul-l  l.icli  at  hi  Iniu.     Larign 


Top-blocks  In  large  sliljw  n 
Ing  strain  of  which  is  ;;'>  tons  :  I 


there  are  three  pans  lifting,  cqii.i 

iinty-two-incli  blocks  and  nii  v. ,-   - --  -  y 

■hips  li.vo  one  20ineli  and  one  2«  Inch  <(oul.le  bl.Kk  for_{cer>,_ whmji  wonhl 


reeve  an  SInch  rope.    The  size  of  a  block  Imiilles  the  IcngOi  of  the  ihcU,  of  » 
tupo  Its  circumference,  and  of  a  cliala  cable  tlio  dUmcUT  of  the  Iron. 


594 


SEAMANSHIP 


is  to  bo  lifted  by  one  purchase,  and  one  on  each  side  if  two  are  used, 

and  as  high  up  as  the  shears  will  allow,  the  limit  being  from  heel 

to  lashing  6  or  8  feet  less  than  from  the  lower  side  of  the  pui'chase- 

block  to  the  deck.     Old  spars 

having  been  hung,  over  the  side 

for  the  mast  to  rub  against  and 

the  purchase   fall  taken  round 

the  capstan,   the  mast  is  hove 

np  till  the  head  comes  above  the 

gunnel ;   then  two  single  blocks 

with     long -tailed 

strops  are  secured 

round  it  with  the 

gird-lines  of  about 

4  inches  and  twice 

the  length  of  the 

mast  ready  rove. 

The  trestle-trees 


are  now  usually  bolted  on  in  the  mast-house.  The  gird-line  froni 
the  sheai'-head  must  be  bent  to  the  head  of  the  mast  at  a  suitable 
Jieight  to  act  as  a  topping-lift.  As  the  mast  is  hove  up  by  the 
capstan  a  stout  rope  from  out- 
board must  be  timber -hitched 
round  the  heel  so  as  to  ease  it  iu 
as  it  clears  the  gunnel,  and  to  haul 
it  towards  the  partners  (mast-hole); 
"len  it  has  been  lowered  to  wiUlin 
feet  of  the  step,  a  slew  rope  is 
passed  three  tiAics 
round  the  mast  and 
a  " cat's-paw"  formed 
on  each  side,  through 
the  eyes  of  which  a 
capstan  bar  is  passed 
ready  to  heave 
either    way    as 


Rd.  35.— The  spars  and  rigging  of  a  frigate.'  1,  the  bowsprit;  2,  bobstays,  three  pairs;  3,  sprit- sail -gatTs,  projecting" «n  each  side  of  the  bowsprit,— tho 
ropes  at  the  extremities  are  jib-guys  and  flying-jib-guys ;  4,  jibboom  ;  5,  martingale-stay,  and  below  it  the  flying-jib-niartingale  ;  6,  back-ropes ;  7, 
flying-jibboom;  8,  fore-royal-stay,  flying-jib-stay,  and  halyards;  9,  fo"rc-top-gallant-stay,  jib-stay,  and  halyards;  10,  two  fore-top-mast-stays  and  fore- 
top-mast  stay-sail  halyards ;  11,  the  fore-top-bowlines,  stopped  into  the  top  and  two  fore-stays ;  12,  two  fore-tacks ;  13,  fore-truck ;  14,  fore-royal-niast, 
yard,  and  lift;  IS,  top-gallant-raast,  yard,  and  lift;  16,  fore-top-raast,  topsail-yard,  lift,  and  reef-tackle;  17,  fore-top,  fore-lifl,  and  top-sail-shect ;  18, 
fore-mast  and  fore-shrouds,  nine  pairs ;  19,  fore-sheets  ;  20,  fore-gaff ;  21,  fore-top-mast  back-stays  and  topsail-tye ;  22,  royal  and  top-gallant  back- 
Btays;  23,  fore-royal-braces  and  main-royal-stay;  24,  fore-top-gallant-braces  and  main-topgallant-stay;  25,  standing  parts  or  fore-top-sail-braces  and 
main-top-mast-stays ;  26,  hauling  parts  of  fore-top-sail-braces  and  main-top-bowlines ;  27,  four  parts  of  fore-braces  ;  23,  main-stays  ;  29.  maid-tacks  ;  30, 
main-truck  ;  31,  main-royal-braces  ;  32,  mizzen-royal-stay  and  mi;:zen-royal-braces  ;  33,  main-top-gallant-braces  and  mizzen-top-gallant. braces  ;  34,  standing 
parts  of  main-top-sail-braces  and  mizzen-top-mast-stay ;  35,  mizzen-top-sail-braces ;  36,  hauling  parts  of  raain-top-sail-bixices,  jnizzen-top-boulines,  and  cross- 
jack -braces  ;  37,  main-braces  and  mizzen-stay  ;  38,  standing  part  of  peak  halyards  ;  39,  vangs,  similar  on  each  galf ;  40,  ensign  staff;  41,  spauker-boom  ; 
42,  quarter-boat's  davits ;  43,  one  of  the  davit  topping-lifts  and  wind-sail ;  44,  main-yard-tackle ;  45,  a  bull-rope. 


required  ;  in  the  meantime  both  the  heel  of  the  mast  and  the  step 

should  be  well  coated  with  white  lead  or  coal-tar.    Lower  and  slew 

according  to  directions  from  below  ;  when  the  mast  is  stepped  and 

brought  to  the  desired 

position,      place     four 

temporary  wedges,  rig 

a  triangle,  trice  it  up 

by  the  gird -lines,  un- 

lash    the   purchase   or 

strops,  overhaul  down, 

Bnrig  the  tiiangle,  and 

haul  the  gird-lines  taut 

on  each  side. 

The  shears  can  be 
transported  forwai'd  in 
nearly  an  upright  posi- 
tion by  first  pulling  the  ' 

heel  -  tackles  and  then  '^^^. 

the  guys,  shifting  the  !?,„;  36._Schoone7^cht."  1,  bowsprit,  with  m.ar. 
guys  lorward  one  at  a  tingale  to  the  stem ;  2,  fore-top-mast-stay,  jib, 
time  as  necessary.  The  and  stay-fore-sail ;  3,  fore-gaff-top-sail ;  4,  fore- 
main-mast  and  the  ^^''  ^"'^  main-stays;  5,  main-gaff-top-sail ;  6, 
fore-mast  are  taken  in  '"='"-^"'  ■'  '•  ""^  °' ''°°™- 
in  the  same  way  as  the  mizzen-mast,  described  above, — all  three 
abaft  the  shears ;  but,  being  mi  zh  longer,  they  require  greater 
hoist  and  greater  care  generally. 

To  take  in  the  bowsprit  the  shears  are  again  moved  forward,  all 
the  heel-tackles  being  led  forward  and  extra  lashings  placed  On  the 
heels.  A  purchase  nearly  as  strong  as  that  to  be  used  in  lifting 
the  bowsprit  should  be  secured  between  the  fore-mast-head  and  the 
shear-head,  or  two  parts  of  a  stout  hawser  may  be  used,  the  middle 
being  clove -hitched  over  the  horns  and  the  ends  taken  round 
beams  well  aft  on  either  side,  ready  for  veering  as  the  shears  are 
drooped  (to  an  angle  of  about  45°),  then  to  act  as  the  principal 
support ;  the  fore-guys  are  also  taken  aft  to  assist.  The  fore-mast 
must  be  wedged  on  both  decks  and  one  or  more  tackles  used  to 
keep  the  head  aft.  The  bowsprit  cap  is  invariably  bolted  on  in 
the  mast-house;  the  bowsprit  is  then  brought  under  the  bows 
vrith  the  cap  end  forward  and  slung  for  the  main  purchase  a  little 

'  Bef«reno«a  are  aot  repeated  for  efich  mast  where  the  names  and  functions 
are  Mentlod. 


outside  the  housing,  which  is  generally  about  two- fifths  of  the 
whole  length.  Tb"  main  purchase  should  plumb  nearly  the  length 
of  the  housing  o>itside  the  bows,  and  the  higher  the  shear-head 
the  greater  the  freedom  of 
motion.  Tiie  outer'  purchase 
attached  to  a  strop  tlirough  the 
hole  in  the  cap  and  the  guj's 
from  the  cap  to  each  cat -head 
alike  tend  to  force  in  the  bow- 
sprit when  it  is  high  enough ; 
besides  this,  a  heel  rope  is  put 
round  it  before  it  leaves  the 
water,  and  a  strop  with  a  tackle 
to  the  bitts  is  used  to  bowse  it 
into  the  hole  and  mortise.  It 
is  hoisted  to  about  an  angle  of 
45°  before  the  heel  is  entered. 
A  rough  sketch  made  to  scale 
will  greatly  facilitate  such  opera- 
tions and  ensure  success.  \Vhen 
a  bowsprit  is  put  in  by  shears  on 
a  hulk  or  jetty,  it  is  hoisted  up 
ahead  of  the  ship  nearly  hori- 
zontal, or  at  the  angle  (steevej 
which  it  is  intended  to  assume,  '  '\._^^  .] 
and  the  ship  is  moved  ahead  ^  .  ^^ 
towards  it,  till  the  bowsprit  ea- 
ters in  the  desired  position.  j.,„  37.-  Cutter  yacht, 

ihe  directions  for  mastmg  a  

large  ship  are  more  than  suffi- 
cient for  masting  a  small  one, 
which  is  so  much  ea.sier. 

Gammoning  the  bowsprit  is 
the  most   important  point   in 


1,  bowsprit  and 
martingale  ;  2,"  jib,— behind  it  is  thf 
fore-sail ;  3,  cross-trees  and  top-m»«t- 
shroud  ;  4,  pennant  designating  the 
club  to  which  she  belongs;  5,  gafT- 
top-sail ;  6,  peak  of  gaff,  hoisted  by 
peak  and  throat  halyards ;  7,  main- 
sail ;  8,  end  of  boom  and  topping-lift.  , 


rigging  a  ship,  as  the  stays  of  the  fore-mast  and  main-top-mast 
depend  for  security  on  the  bowsprit.  In  large  ships  there  are  two 
distinct  lashings  (of  either  new  stretched  rope  or  chain)  to  keep  the 
bowsprit  down  ;  they  are  passed  in  a  similar  manner  over  a  long 
saddle-shaped  piece  of  wood  called  a  gammoning  fish  :;;nd  through 
the  holes  in  the  head  knees,  the  outer  one  first.  One  end  is  clinched 
or  shackled  round  the  bowsprit  over  the  fore- part  of  the  hole ;  the. 


{SEAMANSHIP 


595 


9tlieT,  being  rove  through  the  after-part  of  the  hole,  comes  np  on 
the  aft  side  of  the  first  turn  on  the  bowsprit  and  down  inside  that 
Y&Tt  and  before  the  turns  in  the  hole,  thus  foi-ming  a  double  cross 
with  the  first  turns  outside.  Every  turn  is  set  up  as  passed  by 
means  of  a  pendant  through  tl>«  hawse-pipe  or  bow-port,  and  a 
block  is  secured  to  the  hole  for  the  bobstays,  which  ai-e  attached  to 
the  gammoning  by  a  selvagee  or  toggle,  and  held  while  the  next 
turn  is  being  passed  by  a  racking  seizing  if  rope  and  by  nails  diiven 
through  the  links  into  the  fish  if  chain.  When  the  hole  is  full  of 
turns — eight  or  ten — the  whole  is  frapped  together  as  tightly  as 
possible,  commencing  at  the  lower  part. 

The  clothing  of  a  bowsprit  of  a  large  ship  consists  of  nine  strops 
for  its  own  security  and  the  fore-stays.  A  bobstay  collar  is  hove 
on  at  one-third  the  distance  between  the  night-heads  and  the  outer 
extremity,  and  close  outside  it  two  bowsprit  shroud  collars  and  a 
fore-stay" collar,  then  the  second  bobstay  collar,  two  bowsprit  shroud 
tollars,  another  fore-stay  collar,  and  the  third  bobstay  collar ;  in 
addition  to  these  there  is  a  cap  bobstiy,  which  sets  up  to  a  bolt 
close  inside  the  bowsprit  cap.  The  bobstay  and  bowsprit  shroud 
sollars  are  hove  on  at  right  angles  to  the  spar  and  usually  cleated 
in  that  position.  But  this  cleating  is  a  mistake ;  as  the  strain 
comes  u]ion  each  of  them  vciy  obliquely,  it  is  necessary  that  they 
•hould  yield  in  that  direction  before  the  cleats  are  nailed,  or  they 
Trill  give  way  and  slacken  the  rope  when  it  is  most  required  to  be 
taut.  Bobstays  are  cut  to  the  required  length,  wormed  and  pai-celled 
from  the  centre  towards  the  ends,  and  seiTed ;  they  are  rove  through 
their  respective  holes  in  the  cutwater  before  being  spliced,  which 
splice  is  tapered,  parcelled,  and  served  over,  and  rests  ou  the  head 
of  the  heart  when  it  is  seized  in.  The  bobstays  and  bowsprit 
•hrouds  are  set  up  by  lanyards  half  the  nominal  size  if  rope  and 
the  same  size  if  wire  ;  the  standing  parts  are  secured  by  running 
eyes  round  the  necks  of  the  collars  confining  the  hearts,  and  are 
act  up  by  two  luffs,  one  acting  upon  the  other. 

The  cross-trees  are  swayed  up  one  at  a  time  by  the  two  gird -lines, 
whose  united  action  and  a  guy  on  deck  conduct  them  to  their  places, 
where  they  drop  into  recesses  and  are  bolted  to  the  trestle-trees. 
When  a  whole  top  is  to  be  got  up  it  is  placed  abaft  the  mast  (except 
the  mizzen)  with  the  lower  side  forward  and  the  fore  part  upper- 
most ;  the  gird-lines  are  passed  under  it,  that  is,  before  it,  each 
being  rove  up  through  the  second  hole  from  aft  for  the  fnttock- 

flates  and  hitched  tightly  to  its  own  part  as  it  passes  the  lubber's 
ole,  which  part  is  also  stopped  to  the  hole  at  the  fore  part  of  the 
top.  If  it  be  a  large  top  each  gird-line  may  be  taken  down  the 
fore  (under)  side  (as  before),  rove  up  through  the  after-hole  for  the 
futtock-plate,  down  through  the  lubber's  hole,  taut  up  through 
the  foremost  hole,  and  hitched  to  the  hoisting  part,  which  is 
stopped  firmly  to  the  fore  part,  where  a  gird-Hno  leading  fi'om  the 
mast  abaft  is  also  stopped  after  the  end  has  been  made  fast  to  the 
icentro  hole  for  tho  top-rail ;  that  gird-lino  is  to  keep  the  top  clear 
of  the  trestle-trees  as  it  goes  up  and  to  assist  in  placing  it.  There 
■re  several  slightly  different  ways  of  slinging  a  whole  top  ;  but  in 
all  cases  the  gird-line  blocks  (after  tho  stop  is  cut)  hoist  the  fore 
part  higher  than  themselves,  till  it  falls  over  them  and  hangs  as 
nearly  horizontal  as  could  be  judged  in  slinging  it.  The  final  ad- 
justment of  it  in  its  place  is  done  by  hand,  and  then  it  is  bolted 
to  the  cross-trees.  The  mizzen-top  is  put  over  either  in  a  similar 
manner  with  a  guy  to  the  taffrail  or  sent  up  before  the  mast  mth 
the  after  part  uppermost,  a  gird -line  from  the  main -mast -head 
keeping  it  clear  of^  the  trestle-trees,  which  project  much  farther  on 
the  fore  side.  Tops  are  taken  off  by  tho  reverse  process ;  but  it  is 
iaore  difficult  to  get  the  hole  back  over  the  raast-nead. 

Tops  are  now  very  seldom  made  in  one  part,  but  in  two  halves, 
which  is  more  convenient  and  equally  Berviccable.  Each  half  is 
sent  up  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  whole  top  ;  tho  giid-lines  are 
bent  on  precisely  tho  same  way,  but  one  half  at  a  time,  which  falls 
square  at  tho  siio  of  tho  mast  when  the  stop  is  cut  instead  of  going 
over  tho  top  of  the  mast.  After  the  top  is  bolted,  it  is  advisable 
to  hoist  up  the  lower  cap  into  the  top  wliile  the  whole  space  of  tho 
lubber's  hole  is  still  free,  but  not  to  put  it  on  till  after  tho  lower 
rigging  is  fixed.  Tho  cap  being  placed  near  tho  mast  with  the 
bolts  downwards  and  tho  hole  for  the  top-mast  forward,  both  gird- 
lines  are  brought  down  through  the  lubber's  hole  on  the  same  side  ; 
that  which  crossed  before  the  mast  is  bent  on  to  tho  fore  part  of 
the  cap,  and  that  which  belongs  to  the  side  on  which  the  cap  is 
lying  is  made  to  sling  the  after  part  fairly  and  is  then  stopped  to 
tnc  fore  part,  so  that  this  last  is  lioistad  up  by  both  gird-lines  end 
on  till  in  tho  top,  when,  tho  stop  at  the  fore  end  being  cut,  tho 
cap  hangs  in  front  of  the  mast  and  tho  round  hole  can  bo  placed 
exactly  over  the  space  between  the  trestlo-trccs  where  the  top-mast 
will  come  up.  A  soft  piece  of  wood  called  a  "bolster"  is  made  to  fit 
into  the  angle  formed  by  the  trestle-tree  and  the  mast  on  each  side, 
and  is  bolted  in  place  so  as  to  present  a  smooth  rounded  surface 
^ong  the  whole  distance  required  for  tho  rigging  to  rest  upon,  and 
is  covered  by  a  padding  of  tarred  canvas  nve  or  six  parts  thick, 
secured  by  a  row  of  Hat-headed  nails  along  tho  upper  side.  Each 
mast  is  similarly  provided. 

Preparatory  to  sending  up  the  lower  rigging  on  the  masts  it  is 


necessary  to  rearrange  the  mrd-lines,  as  it  is  obviously  inconvenient' 
to  hoist  the  eye  of  a  shroud  over  the  mist  and  allow  it  to  fall  down! 
over  both  parts  of  a  heavy  rope  which  would  require  to  be  hauled 
up  from  the  deck  or  rerove  every  time  ;  therefore  they  are  lashed 
to  the  leads  in  the  bestle-trees  for  the  truss  falls,  and  a  small  gird» 
line  is  lashed  high  up  abaft  the  mast  to  be  worked  in  the  top  for* 
both  sets  of  rigging.  The  starboard  tackle-pendant  is  put  over 
first,  then  the  port  pair,  next  the  starboard  foremost  pair  of  shrouds 
followed  by  the  port  pair,  and  so  on  alternately  till  all  the  shiouds 
are  in  place,  ending  with  an  odd  one  called  a  swifter  on  each  side. 
Largo  ships  have  four  pairs  of  shiouds  and  a  swifter  on  each  side. 
'  They  are  all  sent  up  in  a  similar  manner  :  the  large  gird-line  from 
the  trestle-tree  is  secured  to  the  pendant  at  the  extremity  and  to 
tho  shrouds  more  than  the  length  of  the  mast-head  below  the  seizing 
by  means  of  a  stiop  with  a  slip-rope,  toggle,  and  down-haul ;  tho 
eye  is  opened  to  the  shape  of  the  mast-head  and  the  after-port  ia 
stopped  to  the  gird-line,  which  sways  it  up  to  the  lubber's  hole, 
when  the  men  in  the  top  bend  the  eye  in  the  direction  it  is  to  go 
over  the  mast  and  make  fast  their  small  gird-line  a  fathom  or  tw« 
below  the  seizing,  with  a  stop  on  the  after  part  of  the  eye,  which 
is  cut  when  the  pendant  or  shroud  is  fair  for  going  over  the  mast- 
head. When  the  shroud  is  over,  each  eye  is  hardened  down  by  a 
large  mallet  called  a  "  commander."  Ropes  should  be  rove  through 
the  thimbles  of  the  pendants  and  hauled  taut  when  they  are  being 
driven  down  ;  then  the  "  up-and-down  "  tackles  should  be  hooked 
to  the  short  legs  (which  are  fonvard),  while  the  long  legs  are  being 
lashed  abaft  the  mast  and  the  runner-blocks  lashed  to  them  for 
staying  the  mast  by  the  runners.  As  each  pail'  of  shrouds  are  put 
over,  they  should  be  temporarily  set  up  by  the  dead-eyes  and  lan- 
yards, or  by  a  luff-tackle  on  each,  to  prevent  their  springing  up 
before  another  p4ir  presses  upon  them.  It  is  of  very  great  import* 
ance  to  keep,  each  eye  taut  before  others  press  on  it  both  for  preJ 
BeiTatiou  and  appearance  ;  many  an  eye  has  been  stripped  of  it^ 
service  and  parcelling  through  slipping  out  from  under  the  weight. 
A  piece  of  rounding  made  fast  to  a  bolt  in  the  hounds  of  the  tuast 
with  an  eye  in  the  other  end  is  very  useful  for  keeping  the  back  of 
the  eye  down  while  it  is  being  made  taut,  by  reeving  the  short  eyo 
end  up  through  the  eye  of  the  shroud  and  hooking  a  burton  from 
the  deck  to  it,  which  is  pulled  upon  at  tho  same  time  that  tho 
shroud  is  sot  up  on  the  other  side  of  the  ship  ;  when  finished,  that 
piece  of  rope  will  be  jammed.  The  lower  stays,  after  they  have 
been  completely  fitted  and  the  hearts  have  been  turned  in,  aro 
stopped  together  one  over  the  other  at  the  fork  of  tlio  collar,  at 
the  sides,  and  at  the  eyes.  The  gird-lines,  having  been  put  back 
to  the  mast-head,  are  sent  down  through  the  lubber's  hole,  one 
crossing  tho  fore  side  of  the  mast,  and  are  bent  to  both  stays  below 
the  foi-k  of  collars  and  stopped  to  the  ej-es  ;  they  are  thus  stayed 
up  near  their  places,  the  respective  eyes  being  lashed  together  by 
rose -lashings  low  down  over  the  eyes  of  all  the  shrouds.  The 
hearts  are  then  carried  forward,  the  fore  to  the  hearts  in  collars 
round  the  bowsprit  and  the  main  to  hearts  provided  for  the  purpose 
near  the  fore-partners,  while  the  collars  of  tho  stays  arc  suspended 
from  the  fore-part  of  the  top,  tho  collars  being  ca.scd  down  as  re- 
quired to  preserve  a  straight  line  between  the  lashing-eyes  nn^^  tho 
point  where  tho  stay  is  set  up. 

The  following  is  the  method  employed  to  set  up  tho  rigging  on 
the  masts.     It  is  first  diawn  forward  by  tho  rvmners  and  tackles 
(lashed  to  the  long  legs  of  mast-head  pendants,  which  are  lashed 
together  abaft   tho  mast)  till  brought   before   tlie  position  it  is 
intended  to  stand  in,  as  the  strain  of  tho  shrouds  will  draw  it  aft. 
JIany  seamen  recommend,  with  reason,  that  a  stiain  should  be' 
brought  on  tho  aftor-swiftera  while  it  is  being  stayed,  to  keep  it 
moi'o  firm.     Tho  propriety  of  wedging  the  mast  bcforo  the  rigging 
is  sot  up  may  be  considered  an  open  question  ;  it  \va8  considcrca 
lubberly  forty  years  ago,  but  is  now  tho  common  practice.     The 
lanyards  of  the  stays  aro  in  proportion  smaller  than  those  of  the 
shrouds,  since  many  more  turns  can  be  passed  through  hearts  than 
through  dead-eyes.     Tho  standing  parts  are  made  fast  round  tlie 
collar  or  strop  of  tho  lower  heart  by  a  running  oyo  ;  tho  end  ia 
rove  up  through  the  heart  in  tho  stay  and  down  through  the 
lower  one  twice  and  tho  slack  hauled  tlirough  by  tho  sail-tackle, 
which  must  bo  previously  secured  for  that  tuhimso  round  .  le  lower 
mast-head  and  hung  over  tho  foro-part  of  tiio  top  ;  or  tho  two  top- 
burtons  may  bo  used,  one  for  each  stay.     Whon  tho  slack  of  tlie 
lanyard  is  through  and  raiked,  the  double  block  of  a  luff-tackls  ia 
attached  by  turning  tho  biglit  back  over  a  toggle  or  glut,  as  slings 
are  represented  in  fig.  IS.     Theu  a  Bclv.iguo  strop  is  jiasscd  twice 
round  both  parts  below  tho  bight  a  (when  tho  figure  is  turned  up), 
brought  up  ou  tho  side  of  thu  arrow,  and  hooked  to  tho  luff.     A 
cat's-paw,  as  shown  in  fig.  7,  may  be  used  with  a  glut  placed  at  f 
to  keep  tho  parts  open,  otherwise  a  largo  ropo  would  bo  injured. 
The  single  block  of  tho  luff  is  secured  to  tho  stay  as  high  np  as 
it  will  reach  by  a  long  dotibic  -  tailed  solvagi'o,  wuich  is  dogged 
softly  at  first,  but  terminates  with  close-taut  turns  and  a  spun- 
yam  seizing.     Caro  must  bo  taken  to  prevent  kinking  tho  ^op^ 
especially  if  it  ia  wire:   if  hernia  it  should  bo  parceUed  to  pro- 
tect  the  outer  yarns.    The  lall  of  the  lulT  is  connected  with  tbt 


596 


SEAMANSHIP 


feail-taclcle  (by  one  of  the  means  descriVied)  and  the  sail-taclde  fall 
:led  in  the  direction  of  the  stay  ;  it  is  pulled  up  steadily,  the  nips 
«f  the  lanyards  having  been  well  tarred  to  make  them  slip  through 
the  hearts,  while  they  are  also  shaken  up  by  levers.  "When  taut 
enough  the  lanyard  is  securely  seized  to  the  next  part,  another 
turn  rove,  set  up,  and  seized,  till  the  scores  in  the  hearts  are  full ; 
then  riding  turns  are  taken.  "Whilst  the  first  riding  turn  still 
bears  the  strain,  all  the  seizings  on  the  lanyards  should  be  cut  off, 
and  others  put  on  when  each  part  has  taken  over  an  equal  strain. 
After  the  riding  turns  are  completed,  the  end  of  the  lanyard  is 
secured  by  a  clove-hitch  and  a  seizing.  Where  there  is  not  a  sail- 
tackle  a  long  luff  may  be  used  in  a  similar  manner,  the  double 
block  being  secured  above  the  single  block  of  the  other  luff.  It 
is  desirable  that  both  stays  on  the  masts  should  be  set  np  at  the 
same  time,  but  it  is  not  imperative ;  care  should  be  taken  that 
they  are  equally  taut. 

A  lanyard  for  rigging  with  dead-eyes  is  half  the  nominal  size  of 
rope  shrouds  and  tlie  same  size  as  vdre  rigging.  The  knot  is  inside 
under  the  end  of  the  shroud,  or  is  first  spliced  to  a  bolt  in  the 
chains  and  then  rove  through  that  hole ;  it  is  rove  full  before 
commencing  to  set  up.  The  mast  having  been  stayed,  luffs  are 
placed  on  the  shrouds  with  the  double  block  down  and  brought  to 
the  lanyard  as  above  described  ;  the  up-and-down  tackle  from  the 
inast-head  pendant  is  secured  to  the  fall  of  the  luff  by  a  cat's-paw 
and  strop  and  pulled  up  till  taut  enough,  the  foremost  shroud  on 
the  starboard  side'  first,  then  that  on  the  port  side,  and  so  on 
alternately  till  they  are  all  nearly  taut  alike  (the  after-swifters  not  ■ 
quite  so  taut  as  the  others),  which  is  best  ascertained  by  an. 
experienced  man  shaking  them  ;  if  the  dead-eyes  are  not  square 
(even)  when  finished,  it  is  far  better  to  turn  them  in  afresh  than 
to  have  an  unequal  strain  on  the  shroudsi  If  a  pair  of  shrouds 
■were  set  up  at  the  same  time  it  would  be  better  for  the  eye  and 
the  seizing.  Tar  should  be  used  freely  on  the  lanyards  as  they 
enter  the  dead-eyes,  whether  they  are  of  iron  or  wood  ;  it  causes 
them  to  slip  quite  as  well  as  grease  and  preserves  the  rope,  while 
grease  causes  it  to  decay.  The  lanyards  are  seized  to  the  ne.vt 
part  till  a  clove  hitch  is  taken  above  the  dead-eye  and  the  end 
seized  down  ;  the  parts  of  the  lanyard  should  then  be  made  to 
bear  an  equal  strain,  and  afterwards  seized  together  lest  any  part 
should  be  injured.  The  runners  should  be  kept  taut  till  every- 
thing is  secured,  then  _  eased  up  gently,  to  avoid  straining  the 
mast.  Lower  masts  generally  have  an  inclination  to  belly, — i.e., 
liend  aft.  Space  will  not  admit  of  details  being  given  as  to  the 
/various  parts  of  the  rigging  ;  the  main  principles  follow  the  lines 
of  that  which  has  been  already  rather  fully  described  above. 
The  top-mast  stays  and  rigging  are  set  up  by  means  of  top-burtons 
and  jiggers,  the  top-gallant-rigging  and  that  of  all  small  vessels 
by  jiggers  and  light  appliances. 
6owcr  The  lower  caps  were  supposed  to  have  been  swayed  up  by  the 
cap  and  gird-lines  and  placed  in  position  to  receive  the  top-masts  before  the 
^p-  f^  '  lower  rigging  was  put  over.  To  fix  one  of  them  in  its  place,  let  a 
»>asti  top-block  be  hoisted  np  lashed  to  the  mast-head  close  below  the 
.square  on  which  the  cap  is  to  rest,  on  the  side  suitable  to  the  sheave 
in  the  top-mast ;  through  the  block  reeve  a  suitable  hawser  (9  inches 
for  a  large  ship) ;  send  the  fore  end  down  through  the  square  hole 
|between  the  trestle-trees  ;  lay  it  aloug  the  top-mast  (the  spare  one  if 
allowed  two) ;  reeve  it  through  the  live  sheave  in  the  heel ;  aad  hitch 
it  round  the  head  of  the  top-mast  and  hawser,  leaving  considerable 
|end  ;  also  place  a  good  lashing  round  the  mast-head  and  the  hoist- 
Shg-part  of  the  hawser  and  seize  the  two  parts  of  the  hawser  together 
about  half-way  up,  strong  enough  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  mast. 
If  the  top-mast  no  much  longer  than  the  space  between  the  deck 
and  the  trestle-tree,  the  lashiug  must  be  placed  low  enough  from 
the  head  of  the  mast  to  allow  it,  while  suspended,  to  project 
above  the  top  outside,  while  the  heel  is  guided  down  the  main 
iatchway  or  fore-scuttle.  The  capstan  is  used  to  heave  the  mast 
[Tip ;  when  it  is  pointed  between  the  trestle-trees,  remove  the  lashing 
round  the  head,  and  if  landed — i.e.,  resting  its  weight  on  the  deck — 
make  the  end  of  the  hawser  fast  round  the  mast-head,  the  hitch 
being  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  block,  and  cast  off  the  racking 
lashing,  leaving  the  mast  ready  to  be  hove  up  by  the  two  parts  of 
the  hawser.  If  not  landed,  heave  up  3  or  4  feet  before  securLug 
the  end  of  the  hawser,  so  that,  whe'n  that  has  been  done  and  well 
seized,  the  capstan  may  be  moved  back  till  both  parts  bear  an  equal 
strain  ;  the  racking  can  then  be  taken  off  without  fear  of  a  jerk. 
After  the  head  of  the  top-mast  has  been  hove  3  or  4  feet  through 
the  hole  in  the  cap,  it  is  securely  lashed,  commencing  with  a  clove- 
hitch  round  the  mast,  the  ends  being  passed  through  the  bolts 
under  the  cap  on  one  side  and  repeated  on  the  other,  sq>,that  it 
will  be  sure  to  hang  horizontally.  Heave  round  the  capstan  till 
the  cap  is  above  the  lower  mast-hekd  ;  then  ste'er  it  by  means  of  a 
kandspike  or  capstan  bar  in  the  fid-hole,  while  men  in  the  top 
direct  the  head  of  the  top-mast  by  handspikes,  tUl  the  hole  in 
the  cap  is  exactly  over  the  square  of  the  mast,  when  by  moving 
l»ack  the  capstan  and  beating  the  cap  down  with  a  commander  it 
will  fit  firmly  in  its  place. 
If  the  heel  of  the  top-mast  rests  on  the  deck  before  the  head 


is  free  from  the  trestle-trees,  it  is  as  well  to  lower  it  do\ra  to  that 
position  ;  but,  if  it  is  too  short  to  rest  there,  the  up-and-dowa 
tackles  must  be  used  to  suspend  it  by  stiops  through  the  fid-hole,, 
while  the  top-block  is  being  unlashed  and  hooked  to  the  after- 
bolt  fixed  for  that  purpose  in  the  cap  and  the  end  of  the  hawser 
secured  to  the  foremost  bolt  on  the  opposite  side.  In  large  ships 
a  shore  is  placed  under  the  fore-part  of  the  cap  to  support  the 
weight  and  resist  a  possible  blow  from  the  top-sail-yard.  The  ti'p- 
mast  may  now  (unless  it  is  blowing  hard)  be  swayed  right  up  and 
fidded  to  prove  that  it  will  fit  when  required  (an  allowance  being 
made  for  the  wood  swelling  with  wet),  and  sent  on  deck  in  ex-' 
change  for  the  other  mast,  which  when  swayed  above  the  lower 
cap  \vill  have  a  gird-line  lashed  round  the  head  and  then  be  raised  , 
15  or  20  feet  more.  One  part  of  the  gird-line  should  be  sent  down 
abaft  all  and  bent  on  to  the  fore-part  of  the  top-mast  cross-trees ;  _ 
by  this,  assisted  by  a  guy,  they  can  be  swayed  up  till  above  the 
lower  cap,  upon  which  the  after-part  vriU  rest,  securely  lashed  to 
the  bolts  to  prevent  it  slipping,  while  the  fore -part  wiU  lean 
against  the  top-mast  at  such  a  distance  as  to  ensure  it  falling  in 
the  right  position  when  the  top-mast  is  lowered  and  to  receive  tho 
head  of  the  mast  between  the  trestle-trees  as  it  is  swayed  up  again 
to  a  convenient  position  for  receiving  the  rigging.  The  rigging  is 
swayed  up  by  gird-lines  on  the  cross-trees,  and  put  over  in  a  similar 
manner  to  the  lower  rigging,  the  top-burton  pendants  first,  then 
the  shrouds  and  backstays  iu  succession,  and  the  stays  are  lashed. 

There  is  usually  a  chain  necklace  round  each  top-mast-head,  sunk 
in  the  bolsters  ;  one  leg  of  each  is  for  the  top-sail-tye  hanging-block 
to  shackle  to,  and  forward  there  are  two  other  legs  for  the  jib-hal- ' 
yards  and  fore-top-mast  stay-sail-halyards.  After  the  rigging  has 
been  placed  over  the  top-mast-head,  the  cap  is  sent  up  by  two  gird- 
lines  lashed  as  high  as  possible  and  bent  to  the  foremost  part  of 
the  cap,  with  stops  to  the  after-bolts,  by  which  means  it  goes  up 
before  all,  with  the  under-side  towards  the  mast ;  when  it  is  high 
enough  the  after-stops  are  cut  and  it  slides  up  on  the  top  of  the 
mast,  assisted  by  men  at  the  mast-head,  who  get  it  over  the  square 
and  beat  it  down.  Directly  the  top-mast  is  in  position  to  receive 
the  rigging  the  top-rope  pendants  are  rove  and  the  tackles  secured, 
first  one  to  relieve  the  hawser  of  the  weight  and  then  the  other  in 
its  place.  Copper  funnels  are  somotimes  used  to  receive  the  top- 
mast rigging,  similar  to  those  for  top-gallant-masts.    -  ,  "      >  ■. 

Top-gallant  and  royal  rigging  is  sometimes  stripped  of  the  service  Top-p 
and  covered  with  canvas,  which  is  afterwards  painted,  for  the  sake  lant  ai 
of  neatness ;  but  the  durability  of  the  rope  is  thereby  greatly  royal  r 
lessened.  Another  bad  practice  is  that  of  taking  off  one  of  the  top-  ging. 
gallant-backstays,  thereby  dii'ectly  diminishing  the  support.  But 
worse  stUl  is  the  trick  of  forming  the  eyes.of  rigging  ana  backstays 
by  two  seizings,  the  ends  of  each  rope  going  to  different  sides  of 
the  ship  ;  this  gives  two  eyes  over  the  mast  instead  of  four,  and' 
makes  everything  depend  on  the  strength  of  the  seizings.  -It  is  noW| 
a  very  common  practice  to  cross  the  top-gallant  rigging  and  set  it 
up  on  opposite  sides  of  the  top,  instead  of  reeving  it  through  tha 
necklace  on  the  top-mast  and  setting  it  up  on  the  same  side. 
This  is  done  entirely  for  the  sake  of  saving  seconds  in  shifting 
the  spars,  either  the  top-gallant-mast  or  the  top-mast.  Shrouds 
so  treated  give  no  support  to  the  mast  whatever ;  probably  they 
act  in  the  reverse  way,  as  may  be  easily  shown  by  drawing  a  straight 
line  to  represent  the  masts  when  standing  upright  and  lines  ia 
rough  proportion  at  right  angles  for  the  top  and  cross-trees.  Draw 
the  top-gallant  rigging  on  one  side  from  mast  to  cross-tree  and 
thence  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  top.  The  top-mast,  having  a 
little  play  in  the  cap  and  at  the  heel,  is  bound  to  go  over  soma 
inches  at  the  .head,  taking  the  cross-tree  with  it ;  it  will  then  be 
seen  that  the  weather  side  of  the  cross-tree  has  approached  the  lea 
side  of  the  top,  slacking  the  weather  and  tightening  the  lee  tog«- 
gallant  rigging.  I  '         .,',■< 

Getting  a  lower  yard  on  board  requires  great  care  to  avoid  injury  Lower 
to  the  hammock  netting  and  other  things.  Spars  should  be  slung  yarcfe. 
over  the  side  for  it  to  rub  against  and  sUp-ropes  through  the  ports 
to  ease  it  over  the  gunnel.  If  it  is  to  be  hoisted  in  on  the  port- 
side,  the  starboard  yard-arm  is  towed  foremost.  A  hawser  may  ba 
rove  through  the  port  top-block  down  through  the  lubber's  hola 
and  bent  round  the  centre  of  the  yard.  The  hatch  of  the  lubber's 
hole  must  be  open  and  a  strong  mat  provided.  Instead  of  tha 
hawser  the  jeers  may  be  partially  rove,  the  standing  part  being 
secured  to  the  yard,  and  also  the  sail-tackle  from  tho  top-mast-- 
head  to  the  lower  yard-arm  and  the  starboard  up-and-down  tackla' 
to  the  starboard  yard-arm,  also  a  burton  from  the  fore-mast  to  tha 
main-yard,  or  from  the  bowsprit  if  it  is  a  fore-yard.  The  capstan 
and  jeers  will  heave  np  the  bulk  of  the  weight,  while  the  othet 
tackles  cant  it  and  ease  it  across  the  gunnel.  A  derrick  is  some-i 
times  used  to  keep  it  off  the  ship's  side.  .  When  a  ship  is  alongsida 
a  jetty,  a  guy  from  a  strong-hold  on  shore  removes  all  difficulty^ 
and  a  list  towards  the  side  at  which  the  yard  is  coming  in  is  desir- 
able. Lower  yards  are  usually  rigged  while  resting  across  tha 
gunnel ;  they  are  swayed  up  by  the  jeers,  and  slung  with  strong 
chains — the  part  round  the  yard  being  connected  with  that  round 
♦■he  lower  mast-head  by  a  tongue  and  slip.  .  The  yards  must  bd 


SEAMANSHIP 


597 


prevented  fVom  canting  fonrard  witli  the  woiglit  and  drag  of  the  sail ; 
accordingly  the  slings,  cither  ihaiu  or  rope,  should  be  put  on  with 
the  bight  coming  up  the  fore  side  (see  fi".  18,  where  the  arrow 
indicates  the  fore  side  and  the  direction  the  sail  pulls) ;  they  are 
generally  put.  on  the  wrong  way.  Merchant  shins  are  invariably 
fitted  with  iron  trusses,  which  are  fi.^tures  on  the  mast,  holding 
the  yard  at  the  requisite  distance  and  acting  as  a  universal  joint. 
.Thgy  are  of  great  advantage  where  there  is  not  a  large  crew. 

While  the  rigging  is  progressing  the  disposition  of  all  heavy 
weights  is  worthy  of  serious  attention  ;  for  not  only  ought  the 
vessel  to  be  brought  to  the  draught  and  tri.n  designed  by  the 
builder,  or  that  which  has  by  experience  been  found  the  best,  but 
there  must  not  be  too  much  strain  at  any  one  part,  especially  the 
extremities.  In  ships  intended  for  sailing  or  steaming  rapidly 
this  is  of  vital  importance;  the  bows  and  sterns  of  cutter  or 
schooner  yachts  should  be  empty.  PlaciiifT  tlic  weij;hts  in  the 
wing3  of  the  hold  will  steady  the  rolling  n:otion  and  make  the 
intervals  longer ;  but  this  may  be  carried  too  far  for  stability, — 
especially  if  the  vessel  has  a  low  free-board.  Weights  low  down 
close  to  the  keel  wLU  increase  stability  at  the  expense  of  a  quick 
uneasy  jerkin"  motion.  A  yacht  which  camcK  much  ballast 
low  down  will  De  Mpry  stifT  under  canvas  and  may  siU  well  in  the 
Solent,  but  would  ue  unfit  to  go  outside  the  Isle  of  Wight.  When 
heavy  weights  are  carried  in  merchant  .ship3  as  part  cargo,  they 
Bhould  never  bo  placed  as  a  solid  mass  ;  railway  bars,  for  instance, 
may  be  stowed  gridiron  fashion  a  foot  apart,  by  whicli  means  they 
will  occupy  as  much  space  and  act  upon  the  ship  in  the  same  way 
as  on  equal  weight  of  provision  casks. 

Before  bendin"  sails  all  the  ropes  are  rove  ready  for  use.  A  yacht's 
saOs  if  new  should  be  scrubbed,  to  take  the  stiifness  out  of  them. 
In  all  cases  they  should  be  'set  when  bent  and  the  yards  braced 
each  way  (unless  it  is  blowing  too  hard),  or  there  is  a  risk  of  some- 
thing going  wrong  when  they  are  required  for  use.  In  setting 
them  care  snould  be  taken  that  no  part  is  stretched  or  girt  unduly. 

The  inner  end  of  a  chain  cable  is  usually  seemed  by  a  tongue- 
slip  and  by  a  short  piece  of  cable  which  passes  round  the  mast  or  is 
shackled  to  the  keelson;  it  still  retains  the  name  of  "clinch." 
The  tongue  should  not  have  scope  enough  to  reach  the  compressor, 
as  it  has  been  known  to  strip  back  the  ling  and  slip  the  cable.  It 
is  a  good  thing  to  trice  up  the  slip  before  the  cable  is  stowed,  so 
that  it  wUl  be  accessible  at  all  times,  cither  for  slipping,  shackling 
another  cable,  or  bending  a  hawser.  It  may  be  thought  that  a 
chain  cable  would  run  into  the  locker  and  stow  itself,  but  that  is  a 
mistake  ;  if  care  is  not  taken  to  spread  it  evenly,  it  will  form  a 
pyramid  with  turns  round  the  base,  upon  which  the  upper  part 
Txil\  fall  as  soon  as  the  ship  leans  over ;  it  will  then  be  necessary  to 
liaul  up  several  small  bights  before  tjie  cable  will  run  clear. 

A  snip  should  never  lie  long  at  single  anchor  in  a  tide-way  or 
during  variable  winds,  for  fear  of  fouling  her  anchor  and  thereby 
destroying  its  holding  power.  Frc(;uently  space  is  wanted,  as  ship 
and  cable  range  over  a  large  circle,  with  liability  to  foul  other  ships 
or  their  anchors.  A  long  scope  of  cable  will  only  keep  a  ship  clear 
of  her  anchor  during  very  hght  winds,  unless  assisted  by  close 
attention  and  correct  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  seaman.  The 
direction  of  the*two  streams  of  tide  should  be  considered  in  con- 
nexion with  the  wind  in  order  to  keep  the  ship  to  leeward  of  her 
anchor  each  time  she  passes  it.  A  strong  wind  blowing  across  the 
direction  of  the  tide  and  acting  on  the  liul'.  of  the  shij)  will  secure 
that  eliect ;  but,  when  the  directions  of  w'od  and  tide  are  the  same 
or  nearly  so,  precaution  is  necessary  at  cacli  turn  of  the  tide  ;  it  is 
then  that  a  buoy  watching  over  the  anchor  is  of  great  service. 
AVhen  the  wind  and  tide  are  in  the  same  direction  the  helm  should 
be  kept  over  to  that  side  which  will  ciuse  the  ship's  head  to  point 
in  the  direction  on  which  she  has  previously  passed  the  anchor,  as 
the  tight  of  the  cable  will  be  dra/jging  that  way.  The  force  of 
the  tide  alone  will  cause  her  to  shoot  over  considerably  ;  but  when 
she  is  assisted  by  the  fore-top-mast  stay-sail  (or  stay-fore-sail  in  a 
small  vessel)  the  sheer  will  be  mvch  greater.  The  sheet  in  cither 
case  is  better  to  \vindward  and  t'le  fore-top-sail  braced  sharp  abox 
if  the  wind  is  light ;  but,  when  the  tide  commences  to  change,  the 
sail  should  bo  allowed  to  fill,  or  it  should  bo  taken  in  and  the  helm 
placed  in  midships.  If  suflicie'it  effect  ha^  not  been  produced  by 
helm  and  head-sails  before  the  tide  ends,  the  mi^zen-top-snil  should 
be  set  as  soon  as  the  ship  fallii  head  to  wind,  first  braced  abox  to 
turn  her  stern  in  the  desired  Aircction  and  then  Hat  aback  So  as  to 
drag  the  cable  straight.  Cutt.or3  and  schooners  liave  not  that  ad- 
vantage ;  they  must  depend  on  the  helm  and  head-sails.  At  the 
end  of  a  weather  tide  the  htl-n  and  stay-sail  will  guide  the  vessel 
toast  the  anchor.  If  a  ship  should  break  her  sheer  (pass  the  wrong 
Svay),  or  durinj;  calms  and  variable  winrts  should  approacli  her 
anchor,  the  cable  should  be  Kovo  in,  and  if  there  is  reason  to  sus- 
pect the  clearness  of  the  anchor  it  should  bo  sighted,  since  it  will 
ue  of  no  use  as  an  anchor  if  a  turn  of  cable  is  ronnd  the  (luko. 
IWhcn  anchoring,  the  state  of  tho  tide  must  be  considered  in  con- 
nexion with  tlie  depth  of  water  ;  a  vessel  was  once  left  high-and- 
dry  by  the  ebb-tide  near  Dungencss,  and  a  largo  iron  ship  drove 
her  own  anchor  through  her  bottom  in  tho  Solent,  off  Lymington. 


The  avoidance  of  the  anchors  in  shallow  water  is  another  reasoal 
for  mooring. 

When  a  ship  is  in  an  exposed  position,  where  it  may  becom* 
necessary  to  let  go  two  or  three  anchors  through  stress  of  weather, 
in  any  part  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  the  bower  ou  the  port  side, 
should  he  used  first,  next  the  foremost  one  on  the  starboatd  side, 
and  as  a  third  the  after  one  on  the  starboard  side,  since  the  onlinary 
wind  veers  with  the  sun,  and  at  tlie  end  of  the  g-ale  the  cables  w ill 
be  clear  of  each  other.  In  tlie  souther;^,  hemisphere  the  reverse 
order  holds  good. 

When  a  ship  is  likely  to  remain  many  days  at  an  anchoraga; 
where  there  is  a  tide  or  variable  winds  it  is  better  to  moor  at  one* 
on  arrival,  with  a  scope  of  cable  each  way  six  or  eight  times  gj-eater 
than  the  depth  of  water,  and  an  open  hawse  towards  the  worat  wind. 
The  two  cables  combined  should  always  be  much  in  excess  of  th« 
distance  between  th(>  am.-hors,  otherwise  they  wUl  possess  but  Uttl» 
strength  to  resist  a  rectaugular  strain, — an  error  frequently  com- 
mitted. Tho  amount  of  support  which  cables  will  render  iindei 
such  circumstances  will  be  m  proportion  to  the  sine  of  the  anglt 
contained  between  the  anchor  and  the  ship's  bow  and  a  line  fronv 
one  anchor  to  the  other.  Suppose,  for  example,  a  shiji  moored  witU 
anchors  cast  and  west  of  each  other,  100  fathoms  apart  and  having 
65  fathoms  on  each  cable,  in  10  fathoms  of  water.  With  chain 
cables  the  hawse  pipes  would  not  be  more  than  53  fathoms  fron> 
each  anchor,  consequently  ■with  a  south  wind  the  support  given  to 
the  ship  by  each  cable  w  ill  only  be  33  per  cent,  of  the  strain  on  tha 
cable, — that  is,  say,  66  tons' combined  when  the  cables  are  strained 
up  to  100-  tons  each.  The  sujiport  increases  rapidly  as  the  cabla 
is  veered  ;  an  addition  of  5  fathoms  each  way  will  (under  the  above 
circumstances)  give  101  tons,  and  a  scope  of  80  fathoms  each  way 
will  give  153  tons.  In  practice  the  cables  by  dragging  over  tht 
ground,  especially  soft  mud,  assume  a  direction  more  ahead,  particu- 
laiiy  when  each  cable  has  a  long  scope.  The  anchors  should  bi 
placed  sufficiently  far  apart  to  prevent  iouling  with  the  slack  chain, 
but  not  farther,  unless  the  water  is  too  shallow  to  allow  the  ship 
to  pass  over  her  anchor  at  low  tide.  Such  an  anchorage  is  not 
suitable  for  very  long  ships  unless  special  moorings  are  provided,, 
for  W'hich  purpose  Parks  s  mooring -blocks  are  very  suitable  and 
inexpensive  ;  they  are  commonly  used  in  Portsmouth  harbour.| 
Tlicse  blocks  are  recommended  as  moorings  for  the  use  of  yachta 
and  small  craft,  as  being  trustworthy  and  less  likely  to  be  stolenj 
than  anchors  of  any  kind.  Should  a  ship  that  is  moored  with  a. 
pood  scope  ou  each  cable  have  the  misfortune  to  part  one  of  them,] 
iier  position  will  be  preferable  to  what  it  would  bo  if  parted  from  a 
single  anchor,  as  the  bight  of  cable  dragging  over  the  ground  will 
retard  her  progi-ess,  giving  more  time  for  another  anchor  to  be  let 
go.  In  all  cases  of  veering  cable  either  it  should  be  done  so  freely 
that  the  ship  will  fall  oil'  broadside  to  the  wind,  when  it  may* 
be  secured  wnile  drifting,  or  it  should  be  done  very  slowly,  a  few^ 
fathoms,  or  even  a  few  feet  at  a  time,  the  ship  not  being  allowed 
to  get  any  stern  way.  Veering  during  a  squall  should  be  avoided 
if  possible  ;  it  should  be  done  in  time,  before  the  violence  of  tliaj 
squall  is  felt ;  but,  if  it  is  intended  to  jiay  out  freely  till  broadside 
on,  the  head-yards  should  te  braced  abox  to  assist  and  anothet 
anchor  should  bo  ready.  A  cable  should  never  bo  secured  entirely* 
by  the  bitts  or  windlass,  but  tho  compressor  and  deck  stojipers 
should  participate  in  the  strain.  ..When  unmooring,  the  ndin^ 
cable  should  be  veered  freely  to  allow  the  ship  to  get  directly  ovep 
tho  lee  anchor  ;  if  it  is  embedded,  stojiper  the  cable  while  vertical 
and  heave  on  tlie  other,  which  must  break  it  out. 

Tlie  laborious  operation  of  clearing  hawse  was  mitigated  ^g^^ 
avoided  by  tho  introduction  of  chain  cables  and  the  invention  of 
the  mooring  swivel.  As  tho  cables  unshackle  at  every  12J.  or  J5 
fathoms,  the  end  to  bo  difiped  round  the  other  cable  need  not  hd. 
long.  T hero  are  two  general  methods  of  holding  the  weight  of  tha 
lee  cable  while  the  turns  are  taken  out.  The  simplest  is  to  havo' 
a  light  tongue  slip  to  take  the  Hat  link,  but  only  about  one-tenthj 
tho  strength  of  tho  cable  ;  in  a  largo  ship  it  should  havo  a  roller  ac 
the  top,  so  that  tha  end  of  a  hawser  may  be  rove  and  form  ai 
standing  part  Tho  slip  being  fixed  on  tho  lee  cable  close  abova 
tho  turns  and  tho  hawser  taut,  the  nearest  shackle  inboard  is  taken 
out,  and  the  short  end  thus  formed  is  hauled  out  of  tho  haw.'c-pip* 
by  tho  fore-bowline,  or  ciso  by  a  rope  from  tho  bees  of  the  bowspnL. 
a  hook-ropo  being  also  attached  for  hauling  it  inboard  again.  Aj 
boat  should  bo  in  attendanco  from  which  to  detach  tlie  hook-ropa 
from  the  end  of  tlic  cable,  pa.ss  it  round  the  riding-c.ible,  and  inaka 
it  fast  again  to  the  end  ol  tho  cable  (hanging  by  tho  bowline)  for 
liauling  it  back  through  the  hawse-pipe  ;  thus  an  elbow  is  forincdl 
taut  round  tho  riding-cable  in  tho  reverse  direction  to  tho  elbows 
and  turns  below  tho  slip.  That  operation  must  bo  repeated  till  thor 
same  number  of  turns  is  formed  above  as  below  tlio  slip, — olwerving 
that  a  cross  cannot  Iw  removed,  but  tho  leo  cable  can  be  brough^ 
under  tho  other.  When  the  cable  is  taut  in  and  shackled,  the  slip 
is  knocked  ofl",  which  allows  the  turns 'to  drop  clear.  The  ciblo* 
will  then  bo  as  they  were  when  moored,  with  tlie  addition  of  one  of 
two  fathoms  on  tho  leo  cable.  If  tho  phort  end  of  tho  cable  i> 
lowered  into  a  boat  and  lifted  by  the  bowline  only  for  each  turn,' 


598 


S  E  A  M  A  N  S  HI  P 


Jib  tjpsrafion  can  be  performed  mncli  quicker.  The  second  method 
^  to  lash  the  two  cables  together  above  tlie  turns  -with  a  piece  of  old 
rope,  which  acts  as  the  slip  and  is  cut  when  done  with.  In  rough 
tveatier  when  a  boat  canuot  lie  under  the  bows  the  lashing  must 
be  passed  by  a  man  on  the  cable  (if  it  is  not  high  enough,  heave  it 
up),  after  which  both  cables  are  hove  into  the  same  hawse-pipe, 
wlience  they  are  easily  cleared  inboard  ;  if  there  are  many  *urns  a 
email  lashing  will  suffice  in  moderately  deep  water. 

One  of  the  objections  made  to  slack  mooring  is  that  turns  are 
formed  below  water  where  they  are  not  visible.  To  meet  this 
objection  a  piece  of  paper  representing  a  ship  stuck  to  the  glass 
icover  of  a  compass,  with  two  differently  coloured  threads  attached 
to  paper  anchora  or  inserted  into  cuts  at  the  edge  of  the  card, 
Sn  tlie  directions  the  ancliors  actually  bear  from  each  other,  Tvill 
Represent  all  the  turns  which  the  ship  makes  with  the  cables. 
I  There  are  various  ways  of  putting  on  a  mooring-swivel,  but 
doing  it  inboard  appears  to  be  the  safest  and  easiest.  First  place 
it  in  the  riding-cable  by  shackling  the  two  sliort  legs  of  the  swivel ; 
Heave  the  two  linked  ends  for  the  second  cable,  the  end  of  which 
being  hauled  out  of  the  hawse  by  the  bowline  is  hauled  into  the 
other  pipe  "by  a  hook-rope  and  shackled  to  the  outer  long  leg  ;  the 
etopper  just  inside  the  hawse  (which  had  been  holding  the  weight 
outboard  of  the  lee  cable)  is  then  slipped  and  that  hawse-pipe  is 
left  clear  for  hauling  out  the  inner  end  of  the  lee  cable,  wliich  is 
hauled  in  the  other  side  and  shackled  to  the  inner  (upper)  long  leg 
of  the  swivel ;  it  then  becomes  a  bridle.  There  are  tlius  three 
parts  of  cable  in  that  hawse- pipe  ;  the  last,  having  no  weight,  should 
be  stopped  here  and  there  to  the  others  so  as  to  be  carriedout  as  the 
Bwivel  IS  veered  towards  the  water's  edge  and  the  bridle  hove  up 
square.  Ships  constructed  as  rams  take  in  both  bridles  on  the 
Bame  side.  A  mooring-swivel  should  always  be  taken  off  by  first 
heaving  it  inboard.  If  moored  very  slack,  turns  may  form  below 
the  smvel  during  a  calm  with  still  water,  but  they  will  disappear 
with  a  cross  strain  ;  and  if  the  ship  is  about  to  get  under  way  the 
6wivel  and  turns  may  be  hove  in  together.  If  it  becomes  desirable 
to  put  on  a  mooring-swivel  when  turns  are  In  the  cables,  let  it  be 
j)Ut  on  over  them  ;  they  will  soon  shake  out.  One  of  the  bridles  is 
sometimes  taken  otf  the  swivel  for  the  sake  of  clearing  that  side  of 
the  deck  ;  the  error  is  obvious  on  considering  that  the  strength  of 
the  reniauiing  part  is  not  equal  to  the  strain  which  may  come  upon 
the  span,  and  the  nip  in  tlie  hawse-pipe  is  always  the  part  most 
severely  tried.  The  importance  of  frequently  white-leading  and 
greasing  all  cable  shackles  and  smvels  is  obvious,  but,  Being 
troublesome,  it  is  much  neglected.  The  bow  of  a  cable  shackle 
should  always  be  forward  ;  if  the  reverse  is  the  case,  the  shoulder 
maij'  strike  the  side  of  the  hawse- pipe  or  get  jammed  under  the 
conrpressor.  The  shape  of  a  shackle  bolt  should  be  such  as  to  pre- 
(rent  it  entering  the  wrong  way ;  they  often  go  half  way  in  and  jam. 

It  is  desirable  that  every  vessel  should  carry  anchors  as  large  as 
ehe  can  stow  and  work  conveniently,  and  cables  to  correspond.  A 
wooden-stocked  anchor  is  lighter  when  under  water  than  an  u-on- 
Btocked  one  of  similar  holding  power,  and  the  wooden  stock  is  less 
liable  to  foul  when  let  go  ;  but  the  durability  of  iron  has  nearly 
J-emiered  the  wooden  stock  obsolete.  The  old-fashioned  anchor 
with  long  shank,  fluke,  and  stick  Iiad  greater  holding  power  and 
certainty  of  grip  than  the  more  compact  dumpy  anchor  now  in 
common  use.  Backing  large  anchors  by  smaller  ones  is  now 
seldom  practised,  except  when  vessels  are  on  shore  and  the  anchor 
is  laid  out  on  a  sandy  bottom  ;  it  is  generally  better  that  each 
anchor  should  liave  its  own  cable  and  proportionate  strain.  Float- 
ing ancliors  were  formerly  used  to  keep  ships'  bows  up  in  a  gale  ; 
they  were  made  of  iron  crossbars  and  three  or  four  thicknesses  of 
Etrong  canvas,  or  a  spar  with  a  heavily  weighted  sail,  spanned 
Bpith  a  stout  hawser ;  such  a  contrivance  might  frequently  be  im- 
provised and  used  to  prevent  a  boat  or  small  vessel  from  foundering. 

Should  an  anchor  be  lost  in  sand  or  soft  mud  after  having  borne 
B.  heavy  strain,  it  may  be  buried  entirely,  when  it  can  only  be 
recovered  by  grappling  tlie  chain,  if  that  is  of  sufficient  length. 
This  is  best  done  by  a  small  anchor  with  a  bar  of  iron  to  assist  the 
Btock  and  dragged  by  a  long  scope  of  chain.  If  the  anchor  is  on 
ordinary  ground  and  only  sunk  as  far  as  the  shank  or  a  little  more, 
Bs  shown  in  fig.  33,  it  is  easily  recovered  whether  there  is  any 
cable  on  it  or  not.  The  full 
fengtli  of  a  hawser  strong 
enough  to  weigh  the  anchor 
should  be  used  as  a  sweep, 
Urith  a  boat  at  each  end 
pulling  very  slowly  or  drop- 
ping Arith  the  tide,  in  the  _, 
tevei-se  direction  to  the  '^' 
Istrain  when  it  parted,  so  as  to  catch  the  fluke  as  a  hook.  Towing 
a  hawser  against  the  tide  is  generally  waste  of  time,  and  a  chain 
forms  too  narrow  a  bight,  unless  the  anchor  is  buoyed.  VHien  the 
anchor  is  felt  both  boats  should  close  together  and  their  crews  pull 
iK'ith  all  their  strengtli  for  a  minute  or  two.  Theu,  while  one  boat 
remains  stationary,  keeping  lier  part  of  the  hawser  steady,  the 
other  should  cross  her  bow?  with  a  slack  hawser,  which  thus  passes 


under  the  tauter  part ;  this  second  boat,  by  continuing  in  a  circla 
round  the  anchor  and  returning  to  the  side  of  the  stationary  one, 
will  cause  a  turn  to  be  formed  round  the  fluke,  as  represented  in 
the  figur").  Both  crews  should  again  pull  hard  to  tighten  the  tura 
round  the  fluke,  after  which,  both  parts  being  held  in  one  boat  and 
made  equally  taut,  an  anchor  shackle  (buoyed)  isplaced  round  them 
and  shaken  down  by  a  veer-and-haul  pull  on  both  parts  by  the  crew 
of  one  boat,  while  the  other  tows  ahead  to  keep  a  strain  on  the  hawser 
till  it  is  nearly  vertical,  when  the  anchor  is  secured.  The  ship  can 
then  take  in  the  two  parts  of  the  hawser  and  weigh  it. 

In  getting  a  ship  under  way  there  are  a  few  precautions  whicli 
should  necessarily  be  observed.  If  the  ship  is  moored,  the  first 
anchor  to  be  Vieighed  is  that  which  it  would  be  least  convenient  to( 
sail  from.  At  the  time  of  unmooring  the  direction  of  the  tide  is 
very  important  in  the  case  of  sailing  ships,  and  should  not  be  dis- 
regarded by  steamers.  The  hauling  part  of  the  cat-faU  is  always 
through  the  foremost  sheave,  to  prevent  the  tackle  from  fouling 
owing  to  the  ship's  motion  through  the  water.  The  cable  on  the 
second  anchor  should  always  be  hove  short  before  making  saiL 
Should  there  be  plenty  of  room  and  the  wind  moderate,  there  is  no 
caution  necessary  beyond  placing  leadsmen  in  the  chains  with  newly 
marked  lines,  and  putting  the  helm  hard  over  each  way  to  ensure  its 
being  clear.  The  after-j'ards  should  be  braced  up  on  one  tack  and 
the  head-yards  on  the  other,  to  pay  her  head  off;  ii\  cutters  and 
schooners  the  stay-fore-saQ  is  used  for  that  purpose.  If  anothei 
vessel  is  at  anchor  too  close  astern  to  ensure  gathering  way  while 
ahead  of  her,  it  should  not  be  attempted ;  but,  by  squaring  the 
after-yards  as  soon  as  the  anchor  is  tripped,  the  ship's  head  will 
pay  off  till  it  becomes  safe  to  fill  all  the  sails  and  pass  under  the 
stem  of  the  other  vessel.     The  anchor  should  have  been  catted  and 

Eerhaps^s/ifii  also  during  the  internal;  much  way  should  nevei 
e  on  the  ship  till  the  anchor  is  secured,  for  fear  of  it  slipping  or  oi 
a  man  faUing  overboard.  Should  rocks  or  shallow  water  be  incon- 
veniently close  astern  different  means  must  bo  adopted.  If  the 
wind  blows  directly  on  shore,  oE'eriog  no  choice_  of  direction,  and 
a  current  runs  parallel  to  the  shore,  the  ship's  head  -should  be  cast 
against  the  stream.  The  yards  should  be  braced  abox  sharp  np, 
with  as  much  sail  set  over  them  as  the  force  of  the  wind  will  allow, 
every  means  being  taken  to  heave  the  anchor  up  quickly  ;  and,  in 
a  well-manned  ship,  as  soon  os  it  is  out  of  the  ground,  haul  on 
board  the  main-tack  and  aft  with  the  sheet,  set  jib  and  spanker. 
The  helm  being  alee,  keep  it  so  as  long  as  is  required,  and  brace 
round  the  head -yards  quickly;  the  sbip  will  soon  spring  ahead. 
Then,  by  keeping  close  to  the  wind,  the  rate  of  movement  wOI  I)c 
retarded  till  the  anchor  is  secured  ;  then  set  tue  fore-sail. 

Tho  above  is  applicable  in  moderate  weather  when  all  or  nearly 
all  plain  sail  could  be  set.  But,  should  there  be  a  strong  winS 
and  a  rough  sea,  it  might  not  be  possible  to  weigh  the  anchor  o» 
to  prevent  it  staving  the  bows  if  it  were  hove  up  ;  in  that  case  H 
must  be  sacrificed  for  the  safety  of  the  ship  Vy  passing  the  strongest 
hawser  fiom  the  after-port  (padded  with  mats)  to  the  cable,  making 
it  fast  by  a  rolling-hitch,  and  hauling  it  taut ;  an  axe  and  block 
should  be  In  readiness,  also  guys,  to  prevent  the  spring  of  the 
hawser  breaking  men's  legs.  The  courses  should  be  reefed  and  all 
ready  for  setting  ;  the  top-sails  (double  or  treble  reefed)  should  be 
set  or  sheeted  nome  ready  for  setting ;  and  all  the  yards  should 
be  braced  up  on  the  tack  it  is  intended  to  go  oft'  on.  Tlie  first 
opportunity  should  be  taken  when  the  ship  is  commencing  a  yaw 
in  the  desired  direction  to  slip  the  cable,  set  the  forc-stay-sail  and 
fore-top-mast  stay-sail ;  as  soon  as  the  top-sails  fill,  cut  the  spring, 
set  the  reefed  courses,  and  the  main-  and  mizzen-try-sails.  To  veer 
the  cable  previous  to  slipping  would  be  more  likely  to  break  the 
hawser.  Tne  expedient  of  losing  an  anchor  should  only  be  resorted 
to  when  there  is  too  much  wind  and  sea  to  admit  of  weighing  it 
and  not  too  much  to  prevent  the  ship,  of  whatever  description,  from 
gaining  something  to  windward  under  a  press  of  sail.  Otherwise 
her  condition  is  made  worse  by  the  loss  of  the  anchor  ;  it  would  bo 
better  to  decide  upon  riding  the  gale  out,  letting  go  other  anchors, 
veering  all  the  cable  available,  striking  the  top-masts,  and  bracing 
the  yards  nearly  fore-and-aft.  The  cutting  away  of  the  lower- 
masts,  when  necessary,  must  always  be  done  with  great  care  tj| 
avoid  killing  people  or  bilging  the  ship  with  the  wreckage.  Ths 
lanyards  of  the  lower  rigging  on  one  side  should  be  cut  as  the  ship 
rolls  in  that  direction,  and  a  few  notches  made  in  the  mast  on 
both  sides  3  or  4  feet  above  the  deck,  the  men  running  aft  out  ol 
the  way  when  it  is  likely  to  faU,  for  which  operations  they  wouldl 
have  from  eight  to  fourteen  seconds.  As  soon  as  the  mast  hasj 
fallen  the  lanyards  of  the  stays  should  be  cut  and  the  most 
strenuous  efforts  made  w  cut  and  clear  every  rope  which,  would 
still  hold  the  mast  to  the  ship. 

When  weigliing  in  rough  weather  with  sufficient  room  to  drif^ 
it  is  better  to  have  the  anchor  fully  secured  before  making  any 
saO  ;  or,  if  it  is  intended  to  run  before  the  wind,  the  ship  can  be  kept 
on  her  course  by  the  jib  only  till  the  anchor  is  stowed.  SteamLng 
up  to  an  anchor  against  strong  wind  or  tide  is  objectionabile,  as  ii 
requii'es  gi'eat  attention  and  judgment  to  avoid  jerks  ;  the  same 
applies  to  steamuig  in  a  gale  to  ease  the  strain  on  the  cable  ;  a  cod- 


SE  AMANSJaiP 


599 


stanl  watch  shoula  be  kept  to  prevent  the  caoie  ever  becomms 

slack      Fore-and-aft  rigged  vessels  have  much  less  difficulty  in 

getting  under  way  when  close  to  a  lee  shore,  as  their  mam-^i Is  can 

.  fully  set  without  holding  wind,  and  directly  she  pays  off  aU  the 

°*K  thelnchora  drag  and  the  ship  strikes  the  bottom,  especially  on 
rocks,  and  it  is  apprehended  that  she  may  go  to  pieces  or  founder 
L  comparatively  ieep  water,  it  would  be  right  to  select  the  best 
rface  on  shore  (if  there  be  a  choice),  and  endeavour  to  thrust  her 
[nto  it  by  slipping  or  breaking  aU  the  cables  and  making  sail,  if 
there  is  stUl  tie  means  of  doing  so,  with  the  view  of  driving  her  up 
as  high  as  possible  and  so  saving  life  i  et  it  also  be  at  the  top  ol 
hiKh  water,  if  that  can  be  waited  lor.  When  there  is  a  heavy  strain 
on  a  chain  cable  it  is  easUy  broken  by  scratching  a  notch  with  a 
common  saw  on  a  link  that  rests  firmly  on  the  bitts  and  then  striking 
it  with  a  maul  or  sledge-hammer. 

The  usual  way  of  testing  whether  the  anchors  are  holding  or  not 
is  by  dropping  the  lead  over  the  side  and  leaving  the  lije  si--"  ^  ;  but 
the  ship  is  liable  to  swing  over  it,  causing  it  to  be  ^stuibed.  A 
grapnel  over  the  bow  or  from  tho  bowsprit  is  preferable,  -i'^o  by 
littmg  on  a  cable  before  the  bitts  a  tremulous  motion  is  felt  if  the 

*°If  inyt^ead^rf  riead  lee  shore  we  have  the  wind  oblique  with  the 
Une  of  coast,  and  the  ship  from  some  cause  too  close  to  admit  oi  a 
Etem-board  towards  it,  tho  head-yards  should  be  braced  abox  -to 
cast  her  head  inshore,  while  the  after-yards  are  kept  scjuare  ;  this 
will  cause  the  ship  to  make  a  long  stern-board  from  the  shore, 
which  will  not  terminate  tiU  the  mnd  is  well  abaft  the  beam. 
The  helm  up  to  that  time  may  be  kept  in  midships,  as  there  is  no 
reason  to  diminUh  the  curve.  As  the  stern-way  is  lost  the  helm 
should  be  put  hard  up,  tho  head-yards  squared,  and  the  mizzen- 
top-saU  kept  shivering  tiU  braced  up  on  tho  desired  taick.  Xhe 
nmn-top-saU  should  bo  kept  full.  If  it  is  necessary  to  get  the 
ship  round  as  quickly  and  .as  shortly  as  possible,  *^e  fore-yard, 
instead  of  being  squared  when  about  to  shake,  may  be  braced  entirely 
round  quickly  so  as  to  continue  paying  her  bow  off  till  the  wind 
comes  aVt,  then  squared  to  allow  her  to  come  to.  The  31b  or  the 
fore-top-mast  stay-sail  (according  to  tho  weather)  may  be  hoisted 
when  the  auchor  is  tripped  or  not,  untQ  the  wind  is  before  the 
beam  on  the  desired  taek  ;  if  at  the  former  time  the  sheets  should 
be  hauled  to  windward  and  kept  so  tUl  tho  ship  13  before  the 
wind,  then  eased  off  tUl  the  wind  comes  before  the  beam,.  Ihe 
spanker  or  mizzen-try-saU  should  be  set  as  soon  as  it  will  draw  the 

"^Vhat  ^has  been  said  about  trimming  the  saUs  as  the  ship  is 
turned  round  after  casting  with  her  head  inshore  is  equally  appli- 
cable to  a  case  of  ordinary  wearing  when  it  is  desirable  to  turn  the 
ship  with  as  little  loss  of  ground  as  possible.     As  a  general  guide 
to  the  position  in  which  the  yards  should  be  placed,  it  may  bo 
remembered  that  the  pressure  on  the  sails  always  acts  at  right 
ancles  to  the  yards.    This  may  bo  exemplified  by  bracing  the  yards 
sharp  up  when  the  wind  is  two  or  three  points  abaft  the  beam.     As 
it  wSl  then  blow  directly  into  the  saUs  they  will  certainly  reeeive 
crcater  strain,  but  the  speed  of  the  ship  wiU  be  less  than  when 
the  yards  were  square  ;  and  it  may  be  o\jserved  that  considerable 
leeway  will  be  caused  by  the  later^  pressure.     In  wearing  ship  all 
the  fore-and-aft  saUs  should  be  taken  m  except  the  head-sails,  and 
when  the  helm  is  put  up  the  main-saU  should  be  taken  in  and 
the  mizzen-top-sail  shivered, -the  latter  continued  till  it  is  sharp 
up  for  the  nei  tack.     A  fashion  has  been  adopted  of  leavmg  the 
mizzen-top-sail  square  till  after  tho  head-yards  have  been  squared ; 
hence  everything  depends  for  a  time  upon  the  action  of  the  rudder, 
and  the  ship  saik  a  considerable  distance  before  the  wind  and  loses 
80  ranch  ground.    The  operation  of  wearing  a  cutter  requires  much 
more  care  than  with  a  square-rigged  vessel  on  account  of  tho  heavy 
boom.     A  schooner  is  treated  similarly,  but  the  spars  and  sails  are 
lichtcr  in  proportion  to  the  si^e  of  the  vessel.     Before  putting  the 
helm  up,  t^ie  tack  of  the  main-saU  is  triced  up  (the  topsail  clewed 
up),  and  the  peak  dropped  till  it  is  nearly  in  a  lino  with  the  boom 
toppin"-lift3,   which  18  called  scandalizing  tho  mam-sail.     Both 
pcaic  and  boom  are  secured  lirmly  in  midships  by  means  of  tho  down- 
taul  and  sheets.    Not  only  is  the  diminution  of  after-sail  necessary 
to  allow  tho  vessel  to  pay  off  quickly,  but  tho  change  of  wind 
from  one  quarter  to  tlio  other  will  ouly  cause  n  gybe  which  is  per- 
fectly under  control     Tho  jib  and  slay-forc-sail  are  gybed  by  ha-il- 
ibc  the  sheets  flat  just  before  tho  win.l  is  aft  so  as  to  dimmish  the 
ierk  as  much  as  possible.     Tho  pSak  of  the  mmn-sail  is  casUjr  re- 
ioisted  while  thi  tack  is  un  anf  tho  vessel  luted  up  to  the  w.ncb 
The  ninners  and  weather-boom  topping-l.ft  ehould  bo  puUcd  up 
^h  lo   ho  ship  is  before  tho  wind  «»\theton.sa.l-shee   hauled  out 
03  soon  as  the  peak  is  up, -tho  tack-tacklo  fcc.uR  shifted  to  «  n  l- 
ward  and  pnUcNl  down.     In  wearing  during  Inio  ^Y,'''''"';, ^'I'«^  f  y 
in  yachts  when  racing,  somo  risk  may  bo  piefcrable  to  the  losa  of 
time  and  tho  main-sail  may  bo  kept  set      As  tho  ma  °-s  'oe'  " 
usually  rove  through  a  treble  block  on  the  boom   a  double  block  to 
move  along  the  hoarse,  and  a  single  block  on  «»«'' I""'"'  ?;  »'^^8 
"ew  eaii  man  each  part  at  tho  same  t.mo  and  haul  tho  boom  ui  I 


midships  quickly.-^claying  the  part  which  was  at  the  lee  side  and 
is  about  to  become  the  weather  side  directly  the  boom  is  over  thi 
leading  block,  while  the  other  part  is  kept  in  hand  till  the  gyb« 
has  been  effected  to  lessen  tho  jerk. 

The  sails  of  all  vessels  are  most  effective  when  set  as  nearly  flat 
as  practicable,  and  also  each  sail,  as  well  as  each  part  of  a  sail, 
should  be  spread  at  the  same  angle  from  the  keel.  If  under  that 
condition  too  much  or  too  little  weather-helm  is  required,  th« 
balance  should  be  established  by  changing  the  quantity  of  canvas 
at  either  end  or  by  altering  the  trim,  not  by  permanently  easing 
off  a  sheet,  for  that  is  as  detrimental  as  dragging  the  rudder  at  • 
large  angle.  By  altering  the  stand  of  the  masts  materially  tht 
angle  and  consequent  set  of  all  gaff-sails  are  thrown  out. 

To  tack  a  fore-and-aft-rigged  vessel  is  very  simple  ;  by  easinff  oB 
the  iib  and  fore-sheets  at  the  time  the  helm  is  eased  dpwn  and 
hauling  over  the  main-sheet,  the  vessel  will  soon  run  np  to  the 
wind  ;  then  if  the  fore-sheet  is  hauled  flat  over  as  for  the  former 
tack  it  will  assist  to  pay  her  bow  off  the  right  way.  The  jib-sheet 
would  be  hauled  aft  while  shaking,  but  not  too  soon  to  cause  it  to 
take  the  wrong  way.  The  fore-sheet  is  shifted  over  as  the  other 
sails  are  about" to  fill,  according  to  the. speed  with  which  the  vessel 
is  payinf  off.  In  a  smart  vessel,  such  as  a  cutter-yacht  in  smooth 
water  and  with  a  good  breeze,  there  will  be  no  occasion  to  retain 
tho  fore-sheet,  but  allow  it  to  shake  itself  over  similarly  to  the  jib. 
Returning  to  the  idea  of  tacking  with  difficulty,— tho  helm  should 
be  put  hard  over  as  the  speed  decreases  and  reversed  directly  stem-' 
way  commences;  this  remark  applies  to  vessels  of  all  shapes  and 
sizes,  as  wUl  also  the  advice  not  to  put  the  helm  over  to  a  large 
angle  while  tho  vessel  is  going  at  great  speid.  At  an  angle  cf  IQ 
de?rees,  more  than  38  per  cent.  01  the-lorce  on  the  rudder  la 
applied  to  turning  the  vessel  and  17i  per  cent,  to  retard  her  ;  whila 
at  30  decTees  one-half  the  force  wopld  retard  and  86i  per  cent 
tend  to  turn.  Hence  we  see  the  reasons  for  recommending  close 
fitting,  broad,  tapering  rudders.  . 

While  the  vessel  is  in  stays  the  weather-boom  toppmg-litt  shonia 
be  pulled  to  take  the  weight  of  the  boom,  the  runner-and-tackle  oa 
the  weather  side  set  np,  and  the  lee  one  slacked,  as  soon  as  sheM 
round ;  also  shift  the  main  tack-tackle  over  to  windward  and  net 


\: 


it  up ;  get  a  pull  of  tho  gaff-top-saU  tack  if  necessary. 

The  jib  of  a  cutter,  yawl,  or  schooner  with  a  running  bowspiit  u 
a  difficult  sail  to  handle  when  the  vessel  is  under  way.  If  there 
is  sea-room  it  is  better  to  keep  the  yacht  away  before  the  wmd  and 
let  go  tho  outhaul,  when  the  traveller  will  run  in,  or  pull  at  the 
same  time  on  the  inhaul,  which  should  be  fitted  with  a  sptn  to 
keep  it  square.  Haul  the  stay-fore-saU  sheet  over  to  make  room 
to  haul  in  the  jib  to  leeward  of  it.  Gather  in  the  slack  canvaa 
smartly  to  keep  it  from  getting  overboard  ;  .get  hold  of  the  luff  of 
the  sail  by  the  stay-rope,  while  some  hands  pull  on  the  downhauL 
When  the  sail  is  perfectly  under  control  let  go  the  halyards  and 
continue  hauling  on  the  stay-rope  and  downhaul.  When  there  u 
not  room  to  run  before  tho  wind,  it  is  best  to  heave  to  with  fore- 
sheet  to  windward  while  taking  in  or  shifting  a  jib  ;  by  letting  go 
the  outhaul  the  traveller  will  run  in  and  the  sail  can  bo  handled 
as  before,  a  good  hold  being  always  kept  of  the  w-eather  side,  that 
is  tho  luff  of  the  saU.  If  another  jib  is  to  bo  bent  it  should  bo 
laid  alon"  tho  weather  side  of  the  deck  m  readmess,  with  the  tadc 
forward  and  tho  head  aft.  The  sheets  are  then  untoggled  from  the 
former  sail,  handed  across  outside  (to  windward  of  tho  fore-stay, 
and  toggled  to  the  second  jib  ;  also  take  the  taek  to  fbe  ^aveller 
hook  it  and  run  it  out.  Hook  the  halyards  and  hoist  the  j.b  up 
by  them  ;  then  tauten  the  luff  by  tho  puichase  whUe  tho  sheet  ]> 

^°A  "i^-headed  gaff-top-sail  ia  preferable  for  uso  on  a  wind  and 
commanding  breeze,  though  for  "light  winds  a  l^ng  7";!  ^I'^^j^f  » 
fine  sheet  oT  canvas.  Such  a  yard  should  be  slung  »*  .»"<=-^^ 
from  tho  fore-cnd  (as  a  boat's  dinp.ng  lue),  the  c^ew-  me  blodc 
secured  at  the  length  of  the  Icecfi  from  the  upper  end,  and  th. 
staXe  mrt  of  the  elow-line  made  fast  to  the  lower  end,-thi8  l«t 
to  kcTp^it  clear  of  the  cross  tree  when  being  hauled  dov™,  whrA 
must  a\ways  bo  done  on  the  side  it  has  been  so*,  a  tack  being  made 
^  necessary  to  bring  it  to  windward.  On  tho  approach  of  a  squaH 
the  foreS  sliould%e  hauled  down  by  means  of  tlie  downhaul  and 
the  vessel  luffed  up;  it  is  dangerous  to  attempt  bearing  "P  "t  '-J?^ 
a  time  until  tho  main-sail  has  been  scandalized;  tho  effect  of  thej 
water  on  tho  rudder  aids  greatly  in  tripping  a  vessel  over 

As  bad  weather  come.,  on  the  main-s.^il  m.ist  bo  reefed  (?  B>n»U«: 
iib  having  been  already  set)  by  tonping  up  the  boom  oa.  ng  do^l 
the  peak  and  throat,  aiid  hauling  Aown  the  reef  cri.iKlo  to  I  .0  loom 
bvtFrrecf  tackle  ;  lash  tho  tick  and  tie  the  points  without  roUing 
tho  sWk  canvas.  The  second  and  third  reefs  are  t^kcn  m  aa  tbo 
wind  increases  and  tho  foresail  reefed  afain  or  .towed,  dunnj 
which"  no  the  jib-sheet  should  bo  hauled  fl.,t.  tho  main-  acktno^ 
UP  and  the  vcsiel  kept  close  to  tho  wind  to  avoid  plunging  tho  le* 
"Fir  0.0  bow.     To  reef  tho  bo,v8prit,-hou8o  the  top-ma.l,  let  Ui. 

Jib  run  in  ^Uck  tho  bobatay.  and  bowsprit  'l^™."'  f,'  t nd°'lL  «t 
fid  and  lot  tho  bowsprit  run  in  ono  or  two  reefs;  then  rcfid  it,  Bet 
UutTbo  Bear,  and  sot  a  BmaU  jib.     It  is  at  aU  tmies  much  mom 


500 


SEAMANSHIP 


lifEcult  tci  steer "a'^ort  vessel  than  a  long  one,  but  especially  in 
1  Jieavy  ica,  ■nhen  tlie  mode  of  treatment  must  be  entirely  different. 

el.  smiil  vessel  should  be  luffed  up  to  meet  every  large  wave  in 
rdir  to  bow  it  as  much  as  possible.  She  will  have  but  little  way 
Wn  at  the  time  of  meeting  it  and  will  drop  into  it  easily  ;  the  bow 
Will  then  fall  off,  the  sails  fill,  and  a  run  be  made  parallel  to  the 
Waves  till  she  is  luffed  up  again.  A  four-oared  gig  has  been  taken 
thi'ough  a  heavy  sea  under  oars  by  pulling  up  to  meet  every  danger- 
bus  crest  which  could  not  be  dodged,  and  just  before  it  broke  over 
the  bow  backiug  away  from  it.  The  smallest  amount  of  sail  which 
can  be  shown  by  a  main-sail  is  when  it  is  balance-reefed  ;  this  is 
iccomplished  by  close-reefing  it  and  lowering  the  jaws  of  the  gaff 
close  down  to  the  boom,  while  the  peak  stretches  up  that  part  of 
the  leech  above  the  close-reef  cringle.  The  plan  is  more  frequently 
adopted  by  fishing  smacks  than  by  yachts  or  other  well-found 
Vessels  ;  they  have  a  try-sail  which,  being  laced  on  a  smaller  gaff, 
is  hoisted  by  the  same  peak  and  throat  halyards  as  the  larger  sail, 
land  has  its  sheet  secured  to  a  bolt  near  the  stern,  while  the  boom 
,is  crutched  and  secured  with  the  main-sail  and  the  large  gaff  lashed 
to  it.  The  try-sail  admits  of  being  reefed  ;  it  is  a  safe  sail  either 
■on  or  off  the  wind  in  rough  weather.  The  greatest  care  is  necessarj* 
when  running  before  the  wind  to  keep  the  vessel  on  her  course  and 
to  avoid  gybing.  A  vessel  should  never  get  under  way  without  a 
small  boat,  and  a  cutter  should  never  be  without  her  legs  for  fear 
of  taking  tl^  ground  une.xpectedly.  In  racing  to  windward,  if  the 
Trind  is  variable,  keep  neaiiy  dead  to  leeward  of  the  mark  vessel, 
as  every  change  in  the  direction  of  the  wind  will  then  be  an 
advantage ;  unless  there  is  a  tidal  preference  for  one  direction  over 
the  other,  that  will  of  course  decide  it. 

If  taken  aback  by  a  change  of  wind,  and  wishing  to  remain  on 
the  same  tack,  put  the  helm  up  and  haul  over  the  fore-sheet.  In  a 
ship  haul  over  the  head-sheets  and  brace  the  head-yards  abox. 
The  way  to  tack  a  ship  under  favourable  circumstances  may  here 
be  assumed  as  well  known,  and  only  a  few  bints  relative  to  doubt- 
ful cases  given.  A  few  minutes  prior  to  the  attempt  set  all  suit- 
able sail,  keep  steadily  "rap-full  with  a  small  helm,  60  as  to  get 
as  much  way  as  possible.  If  the  crew  is  large  enough  to  list  the 
ship,  send  them  over  to  leeward,  ease  down  uie  helm  slowly,  haul 
the  boom  in  midships,  haul  down  the  head-sails,  ease  off  the  fore- 
sheet,  let  go  the  head-bowlines,  and  check  the  head-braces.  Directly 
the  wind  is  out  of  the  fore-top-sail,  brace  the  head-yards  sharp  up 
again  and  haul  the  bowlines.  When  the  wind  is  entirely  out  of  the 
main-top-sail,  let  go  the  top-gallant  bowlines  (if  those  sails  are  set) 
and  raise  tacks  and  sheets,  e.xcept  the  fore-tack,  which  should  be  ■ 
raised  after  the  main-yard  has  been  swung.  As  soon  as  the  vessel 
loses  her  way,  shift  the  helm  hard  over,  and  send  the  men  to  their 
stations.  If  she  brings  the  wind  across  her  bow,  hoist  the  head- 
aaiis  with  the  sheets  on  the  same  side  as  before ;  if  the  wind  takes 
them  well  and  the  ship  is  still  going  round,  give  the  order  "main- 
sail haul,"  haul  down  the  main-tack,  aft  the  sheet,  shift  over  the 
head-sails,  haul  the  after-bowlines.  As  the  main-top-saU  fills,  or 
before,  according  to  the  rapidity  with  which  she  pays  off,  swing  the 
'head-yards  to  the  order  of  "haul  off  all." 

If  when  near  head  to  wind  it  is  found  that  the  bow  is  falling 
back  and  stern-way  commencing,  it  is  evident  that  she  has  "missed 
stays."  The  helm  in  that  case  should  not  be  shifted,  as  with 
stern -way  it  will  help  her  to  pay  her  bow  off  in  the  direction  it 
Was  before.  The  head-sails  should  be  hoisted,  the  main-sail  and 
spanker  taken  in,  the  fore-sheet  hauled  aft,  the  after-yards  squared. 
As  the  wind  comes  abaft  the  beam  the  mizzen-top-sail  should  be 
kept  shivering  and  the  main  top-sail  just  full ;  shift  the  helm  as 
she  gathers  headway.  ^^^leL  before  the  wind  square  the  head- 
yards,  shift  over  the  head-sheets,  and  keep  them  flowing.  Set  the 
spanker  when  it  will  take  the  right  way ;  complete  wearing  as  before 
described.  This  is  similar  to  "box-hauling";  it  is  not  necessary 
to  brace  the  heod-yards  abox  if  she  will  fall  off  without.  The 
manceuvre  of  putting  the  helm  down  and  letting  the  ship  shoot  up 
in  the  wind  before  wearing  is  sometimes  adopted  for  the  sake  of 
^miii'sliing  tlie  run  to  leeward.  Hauling  all  the  yards  at  once  is 
very  objectionable ;  the  sails  are  longer  aback  and  have  to  be  hauled 
round  by  main  strength  against  the  pressure  of  the  wind. 

"  Club-hauling  "  may  occasionally  save  a  ship  even  in  these  days 
of  steam,  as  a  paddle-steamer  will  not  turn  with  her  head  against 
a  strong  gale  and  a  hea\-y  sea,  nor  will  a  sailing-ship  with  an  auxi- 
liary screw-propeller.  It  may  be  done  when  the  ship  is  found  edging 
down  on  a  lee  shore,  too  close  to  wear,  and  having  a  depth  of  water 
not  exceeding  20  fathoms.  It  will  take  two  or  three  minutes  to 
open  the  hawse-pipe,  get  the  cable  clear,  and  procure  hammer  and 
punches  for  unshackling,  and  mauls  for  breaking  the  cable  if 
necessary.  Put  the  helm  down  and  act  as  in  ordinary  tacking  till 
she  ceases  to  turn  nearer  to  the  wind ;  then  let  go  the  anchor,  whether 
she  has  entirely  lost  her  way  or  not,  as  passing  the  anchor  a  little 
will  give  a  greater  swing  back  when  the  strain  comes  and  allow 
*iore  time  for  slipping  the  cable,  which  should  be  done  directly 
ithe  wind  has  crossed  the  bow  ;  at  the  same  time  swing  the  after- 
yards.  If  the  cable  has  been  Slipped^succcssfully,  the  head-yards 
piaj  be  haule-J  as  soon  as  the  after-yards  have  been  braced  up,  as 


she  will  soon  be  broaaside  on.  It  has  been  proposed  to  run  A 
spring  from  the  after-lee-port  to  the  anchor,  but  that  would  take 
too  much  time. 

' '  Backing  and  filling  "  is  practised  in  a  tidal  channel  which  is 
too  narrow  to  allow  a  ship  to  gather  way  for  tacking.  One  top-sail, 
with  the  jib  and  spanker  occasionally,  is  generally  sufficient  to  give, 
slight  head  or  stem  way,  to  avoid  either  bank  or  asother  vessel,.' 
while  the  tide  carries  her  broadside  against  the  wind  ;  the  less  sail 
exposed  the  less  the  lee-way.  Fore-and-aft  vessels  having  less  power 
to  get  stern-way  should  have  a  boat  in  attendance  with  a  line  and' 
a  small  anchor. 

"Kedging"  was  a  frequent  performance  before  steam-tugs  were 
introduced  ;  it  consisted  of  a  series  of  movements  from  one  small- 
anchor  to  another,  previously  laid  out  by  boats.  For  a  similar 
purpose  harbours  that  were  much  frequented  were  formerly  fur-i 
nished  with  a  succession  of  warping  buoys.  The  large  ropes  usetl' 
for  transporting  ships  are  called  hawsers,  and  by  a  strange  anomaly 
were  formerly  cable-laid  nine-stranded.  Such  rope  is  hard  and  stiJf 
to  handle ;  it  absorbs  more  wet  and  retaius  it  longer,  therefore  is  leas 
durable ;  when  new  the  strength  is  far  inferior  to  hawser-laid  rope 
of  similar  size.  Manila  and  coir  hawsers  float  on  the  water  and  arc 
therefore  very  useful. 

Dropping  through  a  narrow  tidal  channel  by  means  of  an  anchor 
just  touching  the  bottom  is  called  "  dredging"  or  clubbing ;  it  can 
be  practised  in  a  passage  which  is  too  narrow  for  backing  and  fill-f 
ing,  such  as  the  upper  part  of  the  Thames,  where  it  is  done  every 
day.  The  vessel  swings  to  her  anchor  and  points  her  stem  up  (or 
down)  the  stream  ;  bylieaving  in  the  cable  (for  which  the  steam 
capstans  and  windlasses  afford  great  facility)  the  tide  takes  the 
ship  on  as  fast  as  it  is  running  so  long  as  the  course  remains  cleaiu 
When  it  is  desirable  to  approach  either  side,  a  few  fathoms  of  cable 
paid  out  will  cause  it  to  hold  ;  the  helm  and  the  action  of  the  tide 
will  then  sheer  the  ship  as  desired,  and  by  heaving  in  cable  she  will 
go  on  again,  so  that  a  sailing-ship  should  go  up  at  half  the  rate  of 
the  tide  at  least.  With  a  screw -steamer  it  is  far  easier,  as  the  screw 
will  straighten  her  as  well  as  the  tide,  and  when  fairly  pointed 
through  an  open  space  she  can  make  a  stern-board  at  five  knots  an 
hour  while  perfectly  under  control. 

A  few  words  may  be  said  about  making  and  shortening  sail  in 
bad  weather.  One  point  holds  good  in  all  cases  :  the  sails  should 
never  be  allowed  to  flap,  as  that  exposes  them  to  the  danger  of  i 
splitting.  The  tack  or  luff  is  invariably  secured  first,  while  the ' 
sheet  bears  a  steady  strain  enough  to  keep  the  sail  from  shaking. 
Before  hoisting  fore-and-aft  sails  the  sheets  are  steadied  aft ;  and, 
should  a  sheet  carry  away,  the  sail  is  hauled  down  or  brailed  up 
instantly.  Spankers  and  try-sails  should  be  taken  in  entirely  by 
the  lee-brails,  the  stack  only  of  the  weather -brails  being  at  first 
taken  down.  A  practice  has  become  general  in  the  British  navy 
of  securing  the  top-sail  clew-line  blocks  to  the  lower  cap  instead  of 
round  the  yard,  for  the  sake  of  saving  time  when  shifting  top-sail- 
yards  ;  the  use  of  the  clew-lines  for  hauling  the  yard  down  and  steady- 
ing it  is  thus  lost ;  this  is  one  of  many  objectionable  practices. 

There  has  been  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  mode  of  setting 
and  taking  in  top-sails  and  courses ;  but  the  same  rule  should  apply 
to  all  square  sails  alike  :  that  which  is  safest  fo:  one  will  be  safest 
for  the  others.  Experience  and  the  balance  of  opinion  favour  the 
hauling  home  of  the  weather  top-gallant-sheet,  top-saU-sheet,  and 
tack  of  the  fore-sail  or  main-sail  first,  with  a  good  strain  on  the 
clew-lines,  clew-garnets,  and  bunt-lines,  to  avoid  flapping.  The  lee 
sheet  may  then  be  hauled  and  eased  down  by  clew-line  and  bunt- 
line.  Each  bowline  should  also  be  steadied  taut  in  succession  to 
prevent  the  leech  from  flapping.  There  appears  to  be  no  advan- 
tage in  fitgt  hauling  the  lee-sheet  partially  down.  The  taking  in 
of  these  sails  has  been  equally  a  matter  of  dispute,  and  many  ad- 
vocate taking  in  a  top-sail  in  a  different  manner  from  that  which 
they  would  adopt  in  taking  in  a  course.  Falconer's  rule  was  often 
quoted  and  followed  in  former  times.  It  runs  thus — 
*'  And  be  who  strives  tlie  tempest  to  disarm, 
"Will  never  first  embrail  the  Ise  yard-arm." 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  decision  there  supported  by  the 
sea-poet  was  then  a  novelty,  and  opposed  to  the  opinion  of  the 
practical  seaman.  A  main-sail  had  been  split  by  "  letting  fly  "  the 
sheet ;  but  that  proves  nothing,  as  all  sails  will  split  if  the  clew 
flies  loose  in  a  gale.  The  lee  clew  of  an  eighty-gun  ship's  main- 
top-sail was  blown  over  the  yard-arm  in  consequence  of  the  weather- 
sheet  having  carried  away  ;  that  clew  was  hauled  up  first.  It  might 
not  have  happened  had  the  bunt-lines  been  well  manned  and  had 
there  been  a  small  strain  on  the  lee  bowline.  Either  plan  will 
answer  if  the  bunt -lines  are  well  manned  and  the  sheets  eased 
steadUy  ;  but  that  the  weather  clew  should  beset  first  and  taken 
in  last  is  preferable. 

In  taking  in  top-gallant-sails  before  the  wind  both  sheets  should 
oe  kept  fast  till  the  yard  is  down.  When  a  top-sail  is  to  be  reefed 
the  yard  should  be  pointed  to  the  wind  ;  and  for  the  first  reef  the 
top-gallant-sheets,  bunt-line,  and  bowlines  should  be  hauled  taut,' 
for  the  second  reef  the  top-gaUant-sail  should  be  clewed  up,  to 
keep  the  sheets  from  knockuig  the  men  at  the  yard-anus.    In  rough 


S  E  A  :\1  A  N  S  H  I  P 


601 


BTntlier  a  preventer  pan-el  aiul  rolling- tackle  sliould  be  put  on 
befoi*  tlie  men  go  on  the  yanls.  For  a  fourth  leef  the  topsail 
should  be  clewed  up  during  the  operation  :  it  will  tlien  be  perforn>ed 
with  less  difficulty.  The  long  reef-points  in  top-sAils  and  courses 
have  generally  given  place  to  the  lighter  and  more  expeditious 
method  of  having  reef-lines  on  the  sails,  with  beckets  and  toggles 
on  the  jackstay.  The  whole  sti'ain  of  the  sail  is  thus  thrown  on 
the  jackstay  and  small  eyebolts,  instead  of  the  points  being  firmly 
tied  round  the  yard  itself.  Also  the  slab  of  each  reef  is  usually 
allowed  to  hang  down  and  chafe  at  the  fold  ;  but  this  can  be  pre- 
vented by  fastening  three  or  four  small  slab-lines  on  each  side  of 
each  reef.  Cunningham's  invention  for  reefing  top-sails  is  very 
valuable  in  all  weakly  manned  ships,  but  it  requires  to  be  kept 
square  upon  the  yard  while  rolling  up.  If  it  becomes  necessary  to 
sliift  a  top-sail  during  a  gale,  it  should  be  made  up  on  deck  in  the 
shape  it  would  aSSume  if  furled  on  the  yard,  and  stopped  with 
■spun-yarn,  with  the  reef-earings  and  bowline  bridles  showing  near 
the  ends  and  the  clews  and  bunt-line  toggles  near  the  centre,  where 
it  would  be  slung  by  a  slip  strop.  When  the  two  earings  are  taken 
into  the  centre  it  will  form  four  parts,  and  the  weather  top-mast 
studding-sail  halyards  being  bent  round  it  will  cause  it  to  look  like 
a  large  bale.  In  that  state  it  is  hoisted  into  the  top  by  the  sail 
tackle,  at  the  same  time  being  steadied  by  the  studding-sail  hal- 
yards ;  there  all  the  ropes  are  bent,  clew-lines  and  bunt-lines  hauled 
up,  reef-tackles  hauled  out,  and  the  sail  bent  to  the  yard  before  the 
stops  are  slipped  or  cut ;  then  it  is  reefed  as  desired  before  the 
weather  sheet  is  hauled  home.  A  fore-sail  or  main-sail  is  bent  in  a 
similar  manner,  except  that  tlft  various  ropes  employed  on  a  course 
are  bent  on  deck,  by  which  ropes  and  the  burtons  it  is  swayed  up. 
Studding-sails  are  very  useful  in  long  voyages  ;  their  disuse  on  the 
main-mast  is  to  be  regretted,  especially  in  long  ships.  A  top-mast 
or  top-gallant  studding-sail  is  shifted  "before  all,"  by  a  man  (>n 
the  yard  gathering  in  the  sail  as  it  is  lowered  to  him  and  holding 
the  outer  leech  till  it  cants  the  right  way. 

iitlng.  During  a. coasting  voyage  the  vessel  must  be  within  a  moderate 
distance  of  the  shore,  therefore  the  person  in  charge  should  con- 
stantly be  ready  to  run  for  shelter  when  necessary,  and  have  the 
moral  courage  to  do  it  in  time.  In  yachting  voyages,  however  dis- 
tant, there  is  a  natural  desire  to  see  the  land  and  all  that  is  worth 
seeing,  and,  being  well  provided  with  charts,  such  vessels  can  enter 
any  harbour,  when  perhaps  a  pilot  is  not  able  to  get  out.  A  ships 
stuting  on  a  foreign  voyage  should  seek  "blue  water"  as  soon  as 
possible,  and  keep  a  safe  distance  from  all  land  which  is  liable  to 
become  a  lee  shore,  and  not  be  tempted  to  edge  in  because  a  certain 
tack  is  much  nearer  to  the  desired  course  than  the  other.  For  the 
choice  of  track  and  for  trade  winds,  see  Navigation. 

tvtog  To  heave  to  for  the  purpose  of  stopping  is  done  in  a  cutter  by 
easing  off  the  jib-sheet,  hauling  over  the  weather  fore-sheet,  and 
tricing  up  the  tack  of  the  main-sail.  A  schooner  is  treated  simi- 
larly :  the  top-sail  (if  she  has  one)  is  backed  and  the  gaff-fore-sail  is 
taken  in.  A  ship  has  her  courses  hauled  up,  head-sheets  eased  off, 
and  either  the  main  or  fore  yard  squared.  Upon  the  latter  point 
opinions  differ.  If  two  ships  are  close  together,  the  one  to  wind- 
ward had  better  back  the  main-top-sail  arid  the  ship  to  leeward  the 
fore-top-sail ;  they  should  always  preserve  a  little  headway.  Boats 
invariably  board  ships  on  the  lee  side  ;  small  vessels,  when  drifting 
fast,  on  the  weather  side.  A  ship  at  anchor  in  a  tide-way  will 
always  present  a  lee  side  during  some  period  ;  but  a  "weather  tide  " 
causes  a  dangerous  sea  for  boats.  A  boat's  oars  should  never  bo 
tossed  up  or  forward  when  there  is  danger  of  their  fouling,  for  fear 
of  staving  the  boat  or  injuring  some  one  in  the  after  part. 
I  When  in  the  vicinity  of  a  lee  beach  and  landing  by  means  of  a  boat 
,18  determined  on,  the  oars  should  be  manned  to  the  utmost  and  the 
waves  watched  (as  they  always  vary),  and  the  boat  forced  in  on  the 
tbp  of  the  third  largo  wave,  care  being  taken  to  keep  her  exactly 
end  on  to  the  sea.  At  the  instant  of  touching  the  ground  every 
man  should  jump  out  and  begin  to  haul  up  the  boat,  if  .she  is  of 
reasonable  weight  ;  the  next  wave  will  probably  put  them  all  out 
of  danger.  By  holding  on  to  the  boat  they  give  and  receive  mutual 
support,  and  avoid  being  sucked  back  by  the  receding  water  or 
cruslied  by  the  boat. 

The  term  "hove  to"  as  applied  to  a  vessel  in  a  gale  of  wind  is 
derived  from  the  desire  to  turn  her  bow  up  towards  the  wind  and 
sea  ;  this  under  all  circumstances  of  sail  should  be  the  point  aimed 
«t,  since  then  the  seas  strike  the  side  obliciucly  and  also  the  bow, 
which  is  the  strongest  part.  The  best  sails  to  keep  on  a  ship  during 
a  violent  gale  are  the  close-reefed  main-top-sail,  main-  and  mizzen- 
try-sails,  and  forestay-sail.  The  fore-try-sail  also  may  do  good, 
and  is  far  preferable  to  a  main-stay-sail.  The  pressure  of  the  main- 
top-sail tends  greatly  to  mitigate  tne  violent  motion  ;  also  by  heeling 
the  ship  she  presents  a  higher  side  to  keep  the  sea  out  and  a  sloiiing 
dock  to  aid  the  water  in  running  off.  The  helm  should  be  aoout 
one  turn  "alee,"  never  hard  down.  When  north  of  the  equator 
ships  should  heave  to  on  the  starboard  tuck,  aiul  the  reverse  in 
southern  latitudes.  More  sail  should  be  made  as  soon  as  the  gnlo 
moderates,  to  steady  the  ship.  The  violent  rolling  motion  inny 
sometimes  bo  diminished  by  altering  course,  so  that  the  period  be- 


tween the  waves  reaching  the  vessel  may  he  made  to  disagi-ee  witl 
her  own  period  of  oscillation,  or  when  rnnning  before  the  wind  bj 
br.acing  ttie  yards  up  in  opposite  directions.  Steamers  at  a  reduoel 
speed  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  hove  to  ;  their  masts  and  aeila 
are  too  weak  to  be  of  any  use  in  a  gale  and  too  small  in  inoderats 
winds  ;  they  make  the  rudder  do  all  the  work.  The  best  sail  t.i 
scud  under  is  close-reefed  main-top-sail,  reefed  fore-sail,  and  foro^ 
top-inast  stay-s,ail. 

Three  contingencies  should  always  be  anticipated  by  the  captain 
and  officei'  of  the  watch,  and  in  some  degree  by  every  man  in  th» 
crew,  so  that  the  alarm  should  lose  half  its  dread  and  be  met  by 
prompt  action,— a  man  falling  overboard,  fire,  and  collision.  A 
boat's  crew  should  be  appointed  in  each  watch,  who  on  going  on 
deck  should  see  the  boat  ready  and  the  plug  in.  If  the  ship  l)e  on 
a  wind  and  capable  of  tacking,  on  the  cry  "A  man  overboard !"  th« 
helm  should  be  put  down  and  the  ship  steered  round  on  the  other 
tack,  with  either  the  fore  or  main  yanls  left  square  and  the  coui-soB 
UP ;  she  will  then  drift  down  towards  the  nian,  while  the  boat, 
which  was  at  first  on  the  weather  side,  is  being  lowered  to  pick  hing 
up.  If  the  ship  is  runniii"  free  the  case  is  worse  ;  she  must  be 
brought  to  the  wind  instantly  with  the  head-yards  square.  A'arious 
plans  have  been  devised  for  lowering  boats"  many  of  them  veiy 
good  when  executed  by  trustworthy  men  ;  the  same  may  be  said 
of  the  old  system  with  plain  blocks  and  tackles  ;  jiractice  and  cool- 
ness will  render  either  successful. 

With  regard  to  fire,  prevention  is  better  than  cure  ;  lights  in  the  Fir* 
hold  should  never  be  without  a  protecting  lantem,  and  passengers'  " 
sleeping-cabins  should  be  lighted  by  lamps  fi.xed  in  the  bulkhead, 
inaccessible  frorh  the  inside.  Pumps  and  engines  for  extinguishing 
fire  should  be  on  the  upper  deck,  for  fear  of  being  cut  olf  by  tht 
first  outbreak.  Fire  stations  and  exercise  should  be  frequent  ever 
with  the  smallest  crew.  On  the  first  alarm  all  ports  and  ventilators 
should  be  closed,  wind-sails  hauled  up,  hatchways  closed  ns  much 
as  practicable,  awnings  and  all  lower  sails  taken  in,  and  the  shin 
kept  before  the  wind,  unless  the  fire  is  in  the  after-part,  in  which 
case  the  boats  should  be  lowered  at  once.  Slany  other  things  will 
present  themselves  to  a  cool  head  ;  perhaps  the  first  order  should 
be  "Silence  ! " 

Collisions  may  be  reckoned  among  those  dangers  against  which  Calli«««. 
no  man  can  guard  himself,  be  he  ever  so  wise  and  experienced  ;  it 
avails  not  that  one  ship  should  do  what  is  right,  unless  they  both 
do  so.  The  laws  upon  the  subject  appear  to  be  all .  that  can  b» 
desired  (see."Rnles  of  the  Koad,"  under  Navigation','vo1.  xvii.  p. 
277);  but  the  mode  of  enforcing  obedience  is  veiy  lax  and  lenient. 
A,  purely  nautical  tribunal  is  greatly  needed,  and  every  unjustifiable 
deviation  should  be  severely  punished,  whether  followed  by  an  acci- 
dent or  not.  It  is  admitted  that  in  most  cases  of  collision  the  evi. 
dence  is  so  conflicting  that  a  judge  must  be  puzzled  where  to  find 
the  truth.  The  great  increase  of  speed  diminishes  the  time  o( 
approach  ;  the  increased  length  of  vessels  demands  a  larger  circle 
to  turn  in  ;  the  want  of  sail  at  the  extremities  diminishes  the 
power  of  turning,  throwing  all  the  work  on  the  rudder,  which 
IS  proportionately  much  smaller  than  it  was.  The  perpendiculai 
stem  gives  a  deadly  blow  at  the  flat  side,  instead  of  first  cutting 
down  the  upper  works  by  the  sloping  cut-water,  and  probably  coming 
to  a  state  of  rest  before  reaching  the  water's  edge.  Sufficient  care 
is  not  taken  to  keep  all  lights  from  the  upper  deck  and  all  placee 
where  they  may  disable  the  eyes  of  the  officer  in  charge  or  the  look, 
out  men.  Even  holes  have  been  made  at  the  back  of  the  bow-light 
box  to  enable  the  officer  of  the  watch  to  see  them  burning  ;  o( 
course  his  eyes  are  thereby  rendered  unserviceable  for  seeing  distant 
objects.  Officers  in  the  merchant  service  are  invariably  in  two 
watches,  which  docs  not  allow  them  sufficient  time  for  sleep,  especi- 
ally in  windy  weather.  If  immediate  action  is  not  taken  the  instant 
a  sail  or  a  light  is  reported,  the  officer  in  charge  should  take  bearings 
by  the  compass,  by  which  he  will  soon  know  if  the  other  vessel  is 
inclined  to  pass  ahead  or  astern.  If  it  remains  stationary  by  the 
compass,  they  must  both  be  converging  on  the  same  spot. 

If  a  ship  should  spring  a  leak  at  sea  which  may  be  attributable 
to  straining  and  is  sufficientiv  serious,  she  should  be  run  before 
the  wind  and  sea  under  small  sail.  If  the  pumps  then  clear  oiU 
the  water,  she  may  run  for  a  port  or  resume  her  voy.ige  when  tbt 
gale  censes.  If  the  leak  does  not  abate,  though  the  motion  of  thi 
ship  is  easy,  it  will  be  evident  that  a  butt  (end  of  a  plank)  has 
started  if  it  is  a  wooden  ship,  or  that  a  plate  has  given  way  if  aa 
iron  ship.  In  that  case,  two  stout  hauling-lines  should  be  placed 
under  the  bowsprit  and  head-gear,  and  the  end  of  one  secured  t* 
the  head-caring,  the  other  to  tne  clew  of  a  spare  top-sail  or  course, 
also  two  similar  ropes  to  the  other  side,  each  of  the  four  ropes  being 
marked  at  10  and  15  fathoms  from  the  sail.  Half  a  hundredweight 
of  iron  (shot  or  furnace  bars)  should  be  attached  to  each  clew,  the 
ship's  progress  completely  utoppcd,  the  .sail  thrown  overboard  and 
drawn  square  across  the  boWs  ;  the  hauling-lines  on  the  clews  being 
carried  aft  and  kept  square  by  the  marks,  while  the  ropes  on  the 
head  of  the  sail  arc  veeicd,  the  sail  is  placed  like  a  largo  patch 
over  the  place  desired.  Should  the  position  of  the  leak  not  bo  dis- 
covered, It  might  be  well  to  place  the  sail  under  the  niaiumts^ 


■2\ 


M' 


iD2 


SEAMANSHIP 


(T  tLis  lias  no  effect,  place  another  sail  under  the  fore-nust  and  tlic 
fore-foot  This  simple  device  is  no  doubt  very  ancient  and  w  as  prob- 
aW.V  the  process  called  in  the  book  of  Acts  •'undcrgirding  the  ship." 
Sails  have  usually  been  thrummed  ;  but  that  requires  much  time, 
Hud  the  utility  is  questionable.  If  a  large  hole  has  been  made  by 
boUision  a  spread  sail  would  be  burst  by  the  pressure ;  but,  such  a 
liole  being  usually  at  the  side  and  pai'tially  visible,  a  large  sail 
iiearly  in  the  form  in  which  it  was  stowed,  having  the  stops  tut, 
Ehould  be  thrown  over  before  the  hole  end  downwards,  and,  when 
Bunk  below  the  supposed  depth  of  the  fissure,  brought  towards  it 
till  the  bight  of  the  sail  enters  the  vortex,  when  it  will  be  sucked 
ia  violently  and  either  disappear  within  the  ship  or  block  the 
iole;  if  the  latter,  smaller  sails  can  be  spread  slack  over  the 
hole  to  be  sucked  in.  The  use  of  sails  for  the  above  purposes  has 
been  strangely  neglected  during  late  years,  tliough  much  more 
frequently  needed. 

A  leak  can  be  stopped  from  inboard  when  accessible  by  placing 
ever  it  pads  of  oiled  or  tarred  canvas,  tarred  coal-sacl;s,  hags  of  white 
Iea31  tallow,  paint,  clay,  or  any  nmterial  which  fits  close  when 
pressed' by  boards  and  shored  down  firmly, — that  or  somethiug 
similar  could  be  done  when  a  ship  is  on  shore.     If  a  ship  is  on 
shore  with  a  large  hole  in  one  part  of  hev  bottom,  she  might  be 
J^covered,  especially  if  ebb-tide  recedes  many  feet,  by  building  a 
double  partition  with  a  space  of  about  2  feet  between  on  each  side 
of  the  injured  part,  filling  the  space  with  clay,  and  shoring  it  w6ll, 
U-in  other  words,  by. improvising  two  water-tight  bulkheads  ;  the 
Water  havin<<  been  pumped  out  of  the  sound  parts  the  rising  tide 
'■would  float'her.     AVheu  a  ship  is  on  shore  witli  numerous  cracks 
ia  her  hottoui,  but  not  a  clear  hol«',  she  may  be  floated  by  constant 
unmpiiig,  even  though  at  first  the  expedient  should  fail  to  prevent 
the  tide" from  ebbing  and  flowing  in  the  hold.     By  maintaining  as 
Wuch  as  possible  an  inward  flow  the  small  fissules  will  g:i-adually 
choke  with  weed  and  sand,  till  the  inflow  is  so  reduced  as  to  be 
;-mthin  the  power  of  the  pumps ;  hay,  oakum,  or  dirt  of  any  kind 
should  be  thrown  over  where  it  can  be  sucked  into  the  leak.     The 
ordinary  pumps  of  a  ship  may  be  supplemented  by  nailing  together 
four  common  deal  boards  and  fitting  two  square  valves  weighted 
■with  lead,  hinged  and  lined  with  leather,  to  rest  on  seats  2  feet 
from  one  end,  which  must  be  weighted  on  the  outside  as  the  bbttom. 
'A  large  hole  near  the  top  should  be  provided  with  a  leather  lip  to 
shoot  the  water  over  the  combings.     AVhen  slung  in  the  bights  of 
two  ropes  four  men  jerk  it  up  and  down  ;  the  force  with  which  it 
'descends  through  the  water  will  send  a  stream  up  the  tube  with 
less  labour  than  baling  entails. 
Ship  an  '-   Shi])S  on  shore  should  be  secured  from  driving  into  a  worse  posi- 
abore,  '"  tion  before  being  freed  from  any  weight.     Hard  substances  such  as 
guns  and  shot  should  not  be  thrown  on  the  lee  side  or  where  the 
ship  in  hauling  off  might  strike  on  them.     Keep  sufiicient  fresh 
water  for  immediate  use.    An  anchor  is  usually  carried  out  between 
two  boats,  the  flukes  being  himg  to  a  spar  across  the  boats  chocked 
up  from  the  thwarts,  while  the  stock  is  suspended  across  the  sterns 
of  the  boats.     The  boats  should  be  hauled  out  to  a  kedge  anchor, 
while  other  boats  support  shart  bights  of  hemp  cable.     Good  axes 
should  be  used  for  letting  go  the  anchor. 
Bettleis.      A  wooden  rudder  when  immersed  is  very  little  heavier  tMn 
"  water  and  can  be  shipped  and  unshipped  by  seamen  with  ordinary 
appliances  ;  but  iron  ships  have  metal  rudders  sometimes  weighing 
"  ■  as  much  as  20  tons.      The  following  remarks  apply  to  wooden 
rndders  only.    To  imhang  a  rudder  remove  the  woodlock,— a  chock 
recessed  and  nailed  to  the  stern-post  close  above  the  upper  pintle,— 
the  use  of  which  is  to  prevent  it  being  unhung  by  accident.     From 
a  beam  or  chock  above  the  rudder-head  suspend  two  luff- tackles, 
single  blocks,  and  two  leads  up,  and  the  double  blocks  down  to 
strops  through  the  tiller  hole.      A  few  men  ou  each  luff- fall 
•will  easily  lift  the  rudder  the  length  of  the  pintles  ;  and  as  they 
are  drawn  from  the  gudgeons  it  will  swing  free  and  may  be  lowered 
■between  two  boats  provided  with  sjiars  across  their  gunnels  ;  the 
bight  of  a  rope  will  bring  the  heel  up  to  a  position  similar  to  that 
of  the  head,— nearly  horizontal.     It  can  then  be  taken  under  the 
jnain-yard  and  hoisted  in,  or  be  carried  for  repair  to  a  wharf  or  suit- 
able beach  at  high  water.     Before  a  rudder  is  taken  off  to  be  hung, 
two  long  guys  are  rove  through  holes  for  the  purpose  at  the  fore-part 
of  the  heel,  one  end  of  each  being  hitched  to  the  band  for  the  rudder- 
chains,  while  the  other  is  in  readiness  to  hand  into  the  ship  half- 
way forward  and  low  down.     On  the  rudder-head  being  suspended 
by  the  luff-tackles  a  little  higher  than  its  position  when  shipped, 
the  guys  will  haul  it  to  the  exact  line  with  the  steni-post ;  it  is  then 
lowered  into  the  gudgeons,  the  guys  unrove  by  means  of  the  short 
ends,  and  the  woodlock  replaced.     Smooth  water  is  desirable  for 
that  operation  ;  a  little  tide  in  a  line  with  the  keel  will  assist.    The 
tiller  should  be  firmly  wedged  or  secured  in  the  rudder-head  so  as  to 
prevent  anv  jerking  motion  ;  for  the  same  reason,  the  wheel  ropes 
should  be  kept-moderately  taut ;  they  should  also  be  rove  in  two 
parts,  laslied  together  on  top  of  the  wheel,  for  convenience  in  shift- 
uig  them  one  part  at  a  time.     The  rudder-chains  are  shackled  to  a 
band,  which  embraces  the  rudder  a  little  above  the  water,  and  are 
iattached  to  a  stout  rope,  usually  stopped  up  round  the  counter  ready 


to  receive  tackles,  by  which  the  ship  may  be  steered  imperfectly 
after  the  ruider-head  is  disabled. 

The  construction  of  a  temporary  rudder  has  always  been  con- 
sidered an  interesting  and  highly  useful  piece  of  seamanship.  One 
easy  plan  is  to  pass  the  end  of  a  large  hemp  cable  out  of  the  ruddei- 
holetcr  central  port,  haul  it  up  to  the  ship's  side,  lash  to  it  one  or 
more  large  spars,  sling  the  whole  bundle  about  the  centre  of  tho 
spai's  with  stout  hawsers  as  guys,  throw  it  o\'erboard,  and  heave  iu 
a  part  of  the  cable,  leaving  the  part  with  the  spars  lashed  to  tha 
side  of  it  far  enough  away  not  to  be  lifted  out  of  the  water  with 
the  ])itch  of  the  si;ip.  Th'e  guys  w  hen  rove  through  blocks  ou  tha 
spare  top-sail  yard-arms,  which  ajo  lashed  across  the  gunnel  for  the 
purpose,  are  taken  to  the  capstan  ;  by  this  means  the  ship  may  be 
steered  with  the  assistance  of  her  sails.  If  there  be  not  a  hemp 
cable  on  board,  the  largest  hawser  must  be  used  with  a  spare  top- 
mast or  the  largest  spar  available. 

Early  in  the  19th  centuiy  Captain  Edward  rakenham  contrived  an 
efficient  rudder  with  the  material  in  his  ship.     Part  of  a  top-mast 
heel  up  formed  the  rudder-head  and  main-piece,  the  fitl-hole  becom- 
ing the  tiller-hole.    The  main-piece  passed  through  the  round  hole  of 
the  lower  cap,  which  was  made  of  elm  and  lined  with  leather,  and 
which,  being  secured  by  a  collar  neat  the  lower  part,  acted  for  pintles 
and  gudgeons,  and  was  drawn  into  place  by  two  hawsers  li,  h,  till 
it  embraced  the  stern-post  by  the  square  intemltd 
for  the  mast-head  (fig.   39).      There  should  be 
ropes   to  the  bolts  h,   b  to  keep  it  horizontal. 
Another  top -mast  was  cut,  which  with  the  re- 
mainder of  the  first  made  four  parts  in  all,  flat- 
tened and  fitted  together,  woolded  and  bolted, 
and  so  forming  the  required  width.     Three  ])igs 
of  ballast  were  let  into  the  lower  pait  and  tlie  ( . 
whole  planked  over  and  secured  with  spike  nails. 
Fine  weather  was  necessary  for  shipping  it  and  a 
collar  was  built  above  the  rudder-hole  to  confine 
the  motion   and   to  support  the  weight.      The 
materials  carried  in  modern  ships  may  differ,  but 
a  fertile   mind  will   generally  find   substitutes. 
The  "Pique"  frigate,  commanded  by  the  Hon. 
H.  J.  Ilous,  steered  across  the  Atlantic  during 
sixteen  days  of  almost  continuous  gales,  a  dis- 
tance of  1500  miles,  by  means  of  a  cable  over  tliC 
stern  and  a  Pakenham  rudder  during  part  of  the  time.     She  had 
been  on  shore  in  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence  ;  during  tlio  voyage  sho 
was  making  20  indues  of  water  an  hour  and  she  had  also  two  masts 
sprung ;  she  reached  St  Helens  iu  the  Isle  of  Wight  ou  the  13th  • 
of  October  1835. 

It  is  a  ditficult  thing  to  get  a  lower  yard  from  the  dect  into  its  Ralsinj 
place  without  letting  go  either  stays  or  rigging,  and  this  the  fol-  main- 
lowing  instance  will  illustrate.     The  "  Thundcrei', "  an  eighty-four  yard, 
gun  ship,  broke  her  main-yard,  which  was  112  feet  long,  completely 
iu  two,  5  feet  to  leeward  of  the  slings.     The  broken  parts  were  sent 
down,  and  a  niain-top-sail-yard  crossed  iustead,-wliile  a  reefed  top- 
sail did  dut}'  as  a  course  and  a  mizzeu-top-sail  over  it  as  a  main-top- 
sail.   The  parts  of  the  main-yard  were  placed  together  on  deck ;  the 
two  halves  of  a  spare  anchor  stock  were  let  in  on  tlie  fore  and  aft  sides 
and  an  oak  mast  fish  on  top,  with  some  studdmg-sail-booms  to  round 
it  off.    All  parts  were  bolted,  hooped,  and  woolded  together,  making 
it  as  strong  as  ever  it  was,  entirely  from  the  matetial  caiTied  m  tha 
ship.    The  sketch  (fig.  40) 
represents  the  time  of  dip- 
ping the  port  yard-ai-m 
under  the  main -stay:  y 
represents  the  jeers,. which 
bear  the  principal  weight 
(total,  5J  tons) ;  /the  two 
fore-tackles  laslied  to  the 
mast-head  pendants ;  t  a 
top-burton ;  s  a  sail-tackle 
to  the  top-mast-head  ;  m, 

«i  main-tackles  from  the  . 

mast-head    pendants ;    I  J^    ,n 

the  main-lift ;  y  a  yard-  *'«■■"'■ 

tackle  secured  to  an  upper-deck  beam.    Tlie  main-yard  was  cnturely 

rigged  before  being  crossed ;  the  blocks  are  not  shown.     In  a  long 

sliip  the  operation  would  be  easier.    "When  a  fore -yard  has  to  be 

got  across  from  the  deck,  time  and  trouble  can  be  saved  by  letting 

go,  half  at  a  time,  all  the  fore-rigging  and  back-stays  which  are  on 

that  side.  ,.1^11.. 

When  feeling  the  way  into  harbour  dunng  a  thick  fog,  let  a  boat 
pretend  to  tow  the  ship  with  the  deep-sea  lead-line  ;  by  this  means 
a  margin  of  100  fathoms  of  safety  will  be  secured.  Care  should 
be  taken  that  every  running  rope  iu  the  ship  be  slacked  previous 

to  rain  or  heavy  dew.  •  ._.,..  ^ 

For  further  information  and  variety  of  opinions  see  Captain  Francis  Liafi--, 
t.N.,  Points  of  Scain^'.nsMp  and  Discipline ;  Robert  Kipping,  Mostinfi.  Wa.<(- 
mni-ino,  and  Ittqgivii'SUps i  VamlertlecVen,  Tlie  VncM  Sailor :  R.  H.  Dana, 
Sainums  Manmd  (10th  ed.,  1S67) ;  Captain  Alston,  Seoniansftjp:  Charles 
Bushell,  Hi<iger:s  Guide ;  Captain  Sir  George  S.  ^ares,  .•ieumitimip  (6th  ed.). 


SEAMANSHIP 


603 


Glossaht.i 

J.B.,  ** able-bodied,"  signifies  a  trained  seaman.  Alxtfl  (prep,  and  adv.),  rela- 
tively nearer  the  8t«rn.  Abtainy  in  a  direction  alireaat  the  shi]>.  Ahont  ship,  to 
tark  or  turn  bead  to  wind.  Accomhiodat ion'iadder,  a  flijiht  of  steps  over  the 
side,  suitable  for  ladies.  Adrift,  severed  from  all  security.  Aft,  towards  the 
stem.  Arming  the  hfMl,  placing  tallow  in  tlifi  cavity  at  the  eud  to  bring  up 
specimens  from  the  bottom.  Astern,  behind;  to  pass  astern  is  to  go  behind. 
Atht'-^rt,  across;  as  across  the  bows.  Avast  (as  in  the  expression^i  "Avast 
there."  "Avast  heav-in;^"),  stop. 

S<tck  andjiU,  a  mode  of  drifting  safely  with  the  tide,  against  the  wind.  Back 
n  mil,  to  let  the  wind  preso  it  the  reverse  way.  Backstay,  a  support  at  tlie 
Bi'ie  and  lU-aU  an  upper  mast.    Ikcte-sHnfjs,  a  long  strap  of  rope  for  hoisting 

f.ac'r:  1 ;.  ?.  i': :  f.'ayf.  any  thing  earned  for  the  sake  of  its  weight.  Sfmyan-day, 
oriii'ilya  fiyt-daycn  wliich  oatine^J  was  issued  in  lieu  of  meat.  Hart  poles,  at 
sea  without  any  .sail  set.  Barrica,  a  small  cask  fur  water  in  boats.  Batten 
doti-n,  to  cover  the  liatchwaj"3  with  canvas  secured  with  battens,  in  ortler  to  ex- 
clude the  sea.  Bfam,  the  extreme  width.  fiea»t-enrfs,  a  slxip  is  on  her  beam- 
ends  when  incliniu'i  over  at  a  right  angle.  Bear  a  hand,  make  baste.  Bmraway 
and  bear  up,  steer  farther  from  the  wind.  Bearino,  direction  ;  down  to  her  ft^ir- 
im^s,  a  point  in  the  inclination  of  a  good  ship  at  which  she  resists  going  further. 
Beckd,  a  rope  eye  to  receive  a  knot  or  toggle.  Bees,  strong  projections  bolted 
on  each  side  the  bowsprit.  Betay,  to  secure  a  rope  by  tarns  round  a  belaying 
pin  or  cleat.  Bftt^,  one  sound  is  made  for  each  half-hour  from  setting  the 
watch  (see  •'  watch ").  Belly,  in  a  mast,  a  cun'e  with  the  convex  side  aft. 
B<lt<f-da'id,&  broad  strip  of  canvas  across  tlie  middle  of  a  sail,  to  stren.'jtlien  it. 
Betty-stay,  a  rope  from  the  centre  of  the  ma.st  led  forward.  Bend,  sails  are  said 
to  be  bent  to  the  yards ;  a  kink  formed  in  a  hemp  cable  when  stowing  it ;  to 
inake  fast  anything  ;  to  bend  on.  Bentick  shrouds,  foi-merly  used  to  assist  the 
futtock  shrouds  and  set  up  on  deck.  Berth,  the  situation  of  a  sliip  or  other  thing. 
Brttrein  uriud  and  water,  at  tha  y^ater's  edge.  Bight,  a  loop  formed  by  a  roj>e. 
Bil;je,  a  gutter  nearly  the  length  of  the  bottom  of  the  ship  ;  hence  bilge-water. 
Binnacie,  a  box  for  the  compass.  Bite,  the  anchor  bites  when  It  hooks  the 
ground.  •  BUrs,  a  rack  with  sheaves  and  pins  ;  cross  timbers  or  iron  to  secure 
the  cable.  Block,  a  shell  of  wood  or  metal  containing  one  or  more  sheaves. 
Blue  imter,  clear  of  the  English  Channel ;  at  a  distance  from  shore.  Blujf,  bruad, 
as  ajiplied  to  the  bows.  Coarding-nettinn,  a  rope  net  to  exclude  an  enemy. 
Bohtt'up,  strong  ropes  or  chains  to  keep  the  bowsprit  down.  Bold  shore,  tliat 
which  has  deep  wafer  close  to  it.  Bolsters,  soft  wood  and  canvas  under  the  eyes 
of  tiie  rigging.  B'M-rope,  a  superior  description,  made  of  flue  yam,  used  for 
replug  sails.  Sonnet,  an  addition  to  a  try-sail  (or  other  sail),  attached  by  a 
row  of  beckets  rove  thi-ongli  each  other.  Boom-irons,  supports  for  studdiug- 
aall-booins.  Booms,  spare  spars  (indefinitely).  Both  sheets  aft,  running  before 
the  wind.  Bou-er  anchors,  the  two  princiiial  anchors  for  use.  Bou'line,  a  rope 
to  bow  the  leech  of  the  sail  forward  ;  boidine-tyridU,  a  sjian  for  the  same ;  to 
sail  on  a  howline,  to  sail  close  to  the  wind.  Bou:se,  a  violent  pull.  Box,  or 
braced  aboz,  the  head-yards  crossed  the  reverse  way  of  the  after-yards ;  lox 
her  of,  to  force  her  bow  from  the  wind.  Box-hauling,  letting  the  ship  come  to 
the  wind,  hauling  round  all  the  yards,  making  a  stem-board,  and  wearing. 
Braa  to  or  by,  to  bring  the  yards  back  a  little,  to  make  them  shake  or  ncirly 
10.  Bract  vp,  to  place  the  yards  as  far  forward  as  they  will  go.  Brail  -up,  to 
take  in  a  sail  by  means  of  brails.  Break  bulk,  to  commence  discharging  cargo. 
Break  her  sheer,  to  pass  the  wrong  side  of  her  anchor.  Breast-fast,  a  security 
■t  right  angles  to  mo  side.  Bridle,  two  parts  of  cable  (i-om  the  hawse  to  a 
mooring.  Bring  by  the  let,  to  fall  off  till  the  win<l,  after  crossing  the  stem, 
backs  the  sails.  Bring  to,  either  to  anchor  or  to  stop  by  backing  a  sail ;  to 
connect  the  cable  with  the  capstan,  or  a  tackle  to  a  rope,  iironc/iiiij  to, 
coming  to  the  wind  against  the  helm.  Broadside,  the  whole  side ;  the  dis- 
cliarji-  of  every  gun  on  one  side.  Broadside  on,  the  flat  side  against  anything, 
Br„irr, -backed,  a  state  caused  by  weakness  or  strain,  when  the  centre  sinks  un- 
duly (■,«  "  hogged  ").  BurMers,  shutters  and  bars  to  secure  the  hawse-holes  at 
sea.  Hulk,  the  cargo  is  stowed  in  bulk  when  without  sacks  or  packages.  J5i<«- 
To/K,  a  rope  from  the  jibboora  to  kcfrp  a  buoy  or  boat  Itom  the  bows.  BulVs- 
tye,  a  wooden  fair  lead  or  a  round  thick  piece  of  ghiss.  Bnmpkin,  a  short  spar 
projecting  from  each  bow,  to  which  the  fore-tack  is  hauled  down ;  it  is  sup- 
ported by  bumpkin  shroiirLi.  Bunt,  the  centre  part  of  a  square  sail  when  furled. 
BunMijicj  ropes  from  the  foot  of  a  sail  by  which  to  haul  It  up.  Bnoy-rope, 
the  rjpc  between  tie  crown  of  the  anchor  and  the  buoy.  Burton,  a  Ion" 
purchase  with  a  double  and  a  single  block.  Bush  of  a  sheave,  the  brass  lining 
njion  which  the  pin  rests.  £utt,  the  end  of  a  plaak.  BuU-slings,  strong  slings 
fcr  casks.  By,  brace  the  yards  by,  nearly  in  tlio  direction  of  the  wind,  but 
not  so  as  to  shake.  By  tlie  board,  overboard  entirely,  as  a  mast  going  over  the 
aide.     By  the  head  or  stern,  drawing  more  water  fonvanl  or  aft. 

CahU-taid,  the  designation  of  nine-stranded  rope.  Caboose,  a  cook-house  on 
deck.  Caa<,  to  turn  over.  Cap,  a  Inr^j  piocoof  elm  fltted  on  the  topof  a  m.ist 
by  a  square  hole,  with  a  round  hole  for  an  upper  iiuist  to  slide  through  ■  with 
Iron  mists  Uio  tip  is  of  iron.  C<'.j>sho>-e,  a  support  to  the  fore-part  of  a  lower 
cap.  Caiistan,n  drum  on  a  vcrtital  S|j|iullo  for  heaving  heavy  weights.  Careen 
to  heel  oyer  bottom  out  of  water  for  rciiairs.  Cast  off,  to"  let  go.  Cat-block 
and  ait-fall,  m,.-<l  ,n  hoistiuK  the  anchor.    Cortarpi^i  Ugi,  short  ropes  connectinn 


icontInuou.s  lluiv.    (,f<a 

the  ri;i-;ing.     Ch'xk-a-hU.  h  ,  , 

together.     ChoU-it-lvf,  tn  ii . 

to  pnveut  their  moving  wL:u  u.i  (.■ 


es  pnxluces 

icutions  from  the  ship's  side  to  spread 

'.-,  when  the  blocks  of  a  tackle  meet 

uii-yarn  round  bfdh  parts  of  the  fall 

fc,,-.  ,,„,.- , ,  „    ". -,    -  I-  ■■     i-irat,  a  piece  of  b.7ceh  with  two  honis 

ri..ri„,'^r  '','''■■''  I"'™  "J  ''■"'"'  """"''  *«  »«<=''"'  »  t''i"8  from  "lipping. 
S^^uZtl:  r\J'''"Tr  "'r  '""  v'^.T  "'  »  "O""*-  ««<..(;n<,  the  .ope  w'hicT. 
CUws.  an  a.Tnn,:..,M  .„.  ,.f  .M„al  ll„e,  called  knlttles  for  hanging  cots  and  ham- 
~w.  ;„  '''"■■'■,""■  """•■'■  end  of  a  o.rvl.lo;  al„o  a  mode  of  f,,.,tenlng  a  homp 


each  wonl  imp. 
helm  ami  an  n 

letting  f;o  nml  :  .,,.., 
Cockbtll,  v.\u:u  Uii:  atiiN..r  i 
ports  of  tlie  HLiyiaiil  l.Lr,; 
alack  or  let  ^o.     rr^j;**  j;^  :,; 


».     Clubbing,  dreil'jin^,  or  tlrlviny, 

while  tho  ship  is  governcl  by  tlio 

Clnh-hnut,  in  tack  by  means  of 

■-.  Ml-  -:■■'.     I  fhime  ct  a  lintcliway. 

I'l.    CoUurt,  tho  U)if)or 

'  Conxf.  it;>,  to  rcn J«r 

liowfl  n  noarer  appro-idi 


the  course,  tommxn.kr.  u  large  uiiiilet  for  hammering  rope.  CeiniiiiTwii 
•  high  coyonng  ovef  a  hatchway.  Compressor,  a  curved  liar  to  unucczo  the 
Miain  cable  against  a  beam  as  a  stop|«r.  Conninj,  directing  the  helmsman. 
CoaiKcr,  t.ic  allele  of  the  stem  on  either  side.  Courses,  forc-sail  an.|  nmln-.sail  of 
aiiquaro-r.ggiMl  vessel.  Crank,  unstable,  easily  turned  over.  Cri...,(f.  an  Iron 
.D°  "-i"'"""  •  l"".*"  "  "'">■  •  ""  ''>°  '"'■"«"'  '>>■ »  "n""l  on  the  Uech  of 
«,jT.,'r>c  „,?f"i''i/^  *""'"•  J",'""'"?  ■^'"'°  "ho"')-  CroK-trr„,  8i.rea.len.  under 
tto  tops  and  at  the  top-mast  heads  to  «i-pi«rt  the  top.gailant  riggliig.  CrowS- 
fia,  scvera  snans  of  small  rojw  brought  lo  a  conmion  ixntn.  CrowS-nesI  a 
teat  for  a  lookout  man  at  the  topgallant  roaat-lieail.  Cnipper,  m  chain  to 
1  Sea  also  the  explanation  to  .Ig.  Si  at  p  UM. 


keep  down  the  heel  of  tho  Jibboom.    Cntch,  an  Iron  rest  for  a  boom  ;  a  metal 
swivel  for  on  oar  to  work  in.    Cut  and  run,  to  cut  the  cable  and  go  In  haste. 

Uavn,  a  derrick  of  wood  or  iron  to  Uft  a  weight.  Xk!a.(«n  her  imu,  to  retard 
progress.  Dead-eye,  a  clump  of  wood  with  three  holes,  without  slieavm  •  an 
iron  frame  for  setting  up  rigging.  Derrick,  a  single  siar  held  by  guys  to  lift  a 
weiglit.  Dog,  to  pass  the  tails  of  a  stopper  or  other  ropes  zigzag.  Dog't-tar, 
the  icoch  of  the  sail  between  the  reefs  when  allowed  to  stick  up.  Dof-tane, 
niaJo  of  feathers  for  the  use  of  tho  quarteriiuister.  Dog-mitch,  4  to  6  and  6  ta 
5  P.M. ;  flguratively,  a  short  time.  Dowse,  to  lower  a  sail;  put  out  a  light- 
Dn^,  applied  to  an  anchor  not  holding.  Draught,  tho  ilepUi  of  wnter  r«quire.l 
to  noat  the  ship.  Untiu,  when  a  sail  takes  tho  wind  properlv.  Dre<U:ina.  seo 
clubbing.  Drift,  floating  without  guidance.  Driwii,,  dragging  the  anchor 
unavoidably  in  a  gale ;  dropping  Intentionally  with  the  tide  and  very  little 
cable.  Z)ropas/rrn,  to  (aU  behind.  Drop  of  a  saii,  the  distance  the  foot  ia 
from  the  yard.  Dunnage,  firewood  or  valueless  things  i.laccd  under  the  canto. 
i-anngs,  tho  upper  comers  of  a  square  sail ;  the  ropea  by  which  they  are 
secured  to  the  yard.  Ease  her,  in  steamers,  go  slow.  Eau  o/;  to  siacKen  a  rone. 
Ea.K  the  helm,  move  it  back  towards  midshiifc.  edge  au-ay,  to  steer  lliitter 
from  the  wmd,  or  obliquely  from  a  ship.  £Jge  in  uUh,  to  steer  obliqueiy 
towarJs  something.  EI'mw,  an  angle  formed  by  twocnbles  or  ropes.  £m5rail 
to  brail  up  (obsolete).  End  for  end,  changing  a  lialf-wom  rope,  substituting  a 
strong  part  lor  a  weak.  End  on,  in  a  direct  line  with  the  length  of  tho  shiii. 
islitador  or  steretlore,  a  man  who  stows  holds  but  does  not  go  to  sea.  Etin 
keel,  when  a  ship  draws  as  much  water  forward  as  aft. 

i^nj-jiid,  the  end  of  a  rope  mikid  ;  refuse.  rair--j.ay,  the  fi-co  passasi  to  a 
harbour.  J?air  wind,  a  wind  which  allows  a  ship  to  steer  direct  &  her 
destmation.  Fake,  one  circle  of  a  coil  of  rone.  Fcke  down,  to  arrange  a  tope 
to  and  fro  clear  for  running.  Fall,  of  a  tackle,  tho  pait  which  is  hauled  upo^ 
failing  of,  when  the  change  of  wind  obliges  the  shvp  to  deviate  farther  from 
her  course.  False  keel,  an  addition  to  the  main  keel,  not  vital  to  the  strengtli 
of  the  ship.  Fetch  way,  to  move  through  being  insecure.  Fid,  a  piece  of  wood 
or  u-on  to  key  ilp  a  mast  or  keep  out  a  cutter's  bowsprit ;  a  wooden  cone  nseU 
oy  riggers,  f  ill,  to  pkco  the  sails  to  the  wind  so  as  to  propel  the  ship  formml. 
Fun,  a  piece  of  wood  or  iron  secured  to  a  weok  most  or  yard  to  etrengthen  it. 
J'wMani  a  derrick  for  hoisting  the  flukes  of  au  anchor ;  hence  Mi-b£c*,«si- 
hook,  fish-fall.  Flat  aft,  when  tlie  sheet  of  a  sail  is  as  taut  as  it  can  bo  •  flaUen 
111  13  the  order  to  produce  that  eH'ect.  Flaw  of  wind,  wind  sudden  and  un- 
stable  in  force  and  direction,  f  icr(,  to  reai-range  a  pureliaso  for  another  pall. 
tiemish  horse,  a  foot-rope  at  tlie  yard-arm  for  men  to  stand  on.  FloHUa,  a 
fleet  of  small  vessels.  Flowing  sheet,  the  sheet  cased  olf  to  a  fcir  wind.  Fltuli, 
level.  Fljish-dccked,  having  neither  poop  nor  forecastle.  Foot-ropes,  rupee  on 
the  yards,  the  jibboom,  and  the  flying-iibboom  for  men  to  stand  upon.  J'oi-* 
Olid  aft,  from  one  eud  to  the  other  lengthways  of  the  ship.  Fore-and-aft  sails 
those  not  set  on  yards,  therefore.capable  of  being  placed  in  a  line  with  the  keel." 
Forecastle,  the  front  part  of  tiie  upper  deck,  but  more  correctly  the  deck  built 
over  thot  part;  lop-gallant  forecastle,  a  short  piece  of  deck  open  boneaUi.  For4 
peak,  under  the  front  part  of  the  deck  ;  the  forward  extremity.  Fore  nucM  ta 
sail  faster  through  the  water  than  another  when  on  a  wind,  though  not  Biin'ing 
to  windwai-d.  Forge  ahead,  the  ship  moving  aliead  slightly  when  hove  to,  or 
in  a  calm,  or  over  a  shoal.  Foul,  entangled  (of  a  rope) ;  contrary  (of  a  wind) : 
weedy  (of  the  bottom).  Foul  haii-se,  when  the  cables  are  twisted.  Fronting 
an  irregular  lashing  to  bind  things  togetlier.  Freeboard,  that  part  whiah  is 
above  water.  Freshen  tlie  nip,  to  veer  a  little  cable,  or  any  rope.  In  order  ta 
relievo  the  parts  strained.  Full  and  by,  to  steer  close  to  the  wind,  keeping  the 
sails  full.  F'unnel,  a  copper  sheath  at  tho  top-mast  or  tqp-gaUant^mast  liead. 
Furl,  to  roll  up  square  Bails ;  other  sails  are  slowed.  Futtock-shroudt,  »hor» 
ropes  below  eacn  top. 

Gnminojiiiij,  a  strong  loshing  of  rope  or  chain  to  secure  the  bowsprit  down 
to  tho  head  knee.  Gangboard,  a  plank  with  battens  for  people  to  walk  upoiu 
Gangway,  the  narrow  deck  between  the  quarter-deck  and  lorecastle ;  tho  en- 
trance to  a  ship  ;  any  passage  kept  clear.  Gaskets,  bands  of  platted  rope-yania 
to  secure  the  sails  when  furled.  Gird-tines,  ropes  whidi  are  on  a  mast  when  it 
is  hoisted  in  and  by  wliich  tho  shrouds  are  triced  up.  Girt,  when  the  mooring 
cables  are  so  stretched  as  to  prevent  the  sMp  swinging  frcoly.  CJiir.  a  piece 
of  woml  wliieh  keeps  a  knot  or  hitch  from  closing.  Ooose-neck,  a  crooked^iron 
to  support  a  studding-sail-boom.  Goose-wings,  the  parte  of  a  course  which 
ore  exposed  to  tho  wind  when  conUned  by  clew-garnets  and  bunt-lines  onl.v. 
Graft,  to  cover  a  rope  with  flne  line  in  an  ornamental  manner.  Gr(piii7,  oomiiig 
up  to  tho  wind  against  the  helm.  Gronnd-tnckl-:,  anchors,  cables,  and  all  con. 
nected  with  them.  Grow,  a  tenn  opplied  to  the  direction  of  tho  cable  when 
it  is  being  hove  in.  Grummet,  a  rofie  ring  made  by  a  strand.  Gttdf/eoa,  tha) 
part  of  tho  hanging-  of  a  rudder  which  is  bolted  to  the  etem-poat.  Cwss- 
it'arp,  a  rope  stretciied  tent  to  haul  something  to  and  fro  upon.  Gunnei  or 
gunicale,  the  highest  |>art  of  the  bulwark.  GuK-t,  ropes  to  keep  a  spar  or  other 
thing  in  the  desired  position.  Gybe,  to  let  a  fore-and-aft  tail  ahiit  from  on* 
side  to  the  other  when  nearly  before  the  wind. 

Halyards,  ropes  exclusively  for  hoisting  sails.  Hmid  oiw  hand,  to  ptdj 
with  one  hand  after  the  other ;  flgurativoly,  done  qnickly.  Handumtlu,  an  In- 
junction signifjing  slow  motion  ;  with  care.  Uandy  billy,  a  small  axekept  on 
deck.  Hard  down  and  hard-a-lee,  position  of  the  helm,  "the  reveree  td"  .'uirtf-a- 
ireather  and  hard  up,  }laul  on  board,  the  usual  order  for  hauling  don-n  tba 
main-tack.  Haul  up,  altering  the  course  more  towards  tho  wind.  }Ia\r^-hiAe», 
the  openings  in  tho  bows  through  which  tho  cables  pass,— tiic  inn  lining  la 
tho  hawse-pipe  ;  a  lai'go  piece  of  wood  which  stops  tho  hole  at  sea  Is  llio  /lawM. 
plug  ;  open  hawse,  when  the  cables  are  clear  of  each  other ;  o  cross,  when  tba 
ahip  has  swung  half  round ;  an  elbow,  when  onco  roumi ;  a  round  turfi,  when 
twice  round  ;  in  the  hawse.  In  the  space  close  ahead.  Hau-ser,  a  Inrr.-  r^i-^  Un 
moving  a  ship,  now  ft-eqncntly  of  ste-d  wire.   UeaJ-sails,  Uiv  i}\ .  ud 

forc-top-mast  stay -sail.     Jlead  sea,  when  tho  waves  run  contni'  i« 

though  the  wind  may  pot  ;>c  so.     /rnidr^Yiy,  motion  in  tin-  ■,  Ih* 

vessel's  head.     Heart,  a  block  of  hani  wood,  which  takes  a  Inr.-  :  i| 

and  many  turns  of  a  lanyani  through  It,     Heni-e  dou*n,  ^^  c-u  r\ 

Heave  in  stays,  to  come  up  in  tho  wimi  for  tacking,    tlen^-e  ffc  >■  ■  .;u 

cable  to  a  short  scoiw.     Heni-e  the  trad,  to  cast  the  load  •  h. 

lieave  the  log,  to  throw  the  log  oi'cr  to  test  the  spec*!.    /  r  a 

mast,  spar,  rudder,  or  stem-post.     Hrel  chain,  from  tl  p 

the  jib-boom  out.     Helm's  a-fee,  a  woni  of  comin.M  '  ,  m 

down.     /fof7,  to  scrub  or  scmiM)  the  l^ottoin.     //.  n 

through  weakness  the  bow  and  storn  droop,  «o  tt  ■  % 

back  (see  "  brokcn-tweked  ">,     I'  •  -   "  ,-,1 

they  aro  home,  when  an  an   '  „| 

it  is  Ha!d  to  cotne  home.     //  ,,,,1 

IVlnd  sails.       :'i.r  .-    :,    in-  I,. ,,,  .^^ 

vessels  run.      /'  cheelis  on  a  mast  to  sui'  v 

Housing,  of  a  r  Iwlow  the  npiier-deck.     Ii  n 

or  hove  to  the  wi  !   ■  nea  ;  to  stop.    Hulk,  un  otl i, „«.!». 

Hull,  the  tiocly  of  Die  ier.»i  I  ejoiiislve  of  masts  and  rigging.  HvU-d/tim.  an  tkj 
distant  Hint  tho  hull  la  below  the  hnrltou. 

/i.N«ir,l,  any  place  within  tho  ship.  In  irons,  when  the  nfla  are  «o  badiv 
arninij.  d  that  the  vossol  will  not  uUy  tho  hilui.  /»  M(  wind,  too  cloae,  Uio 
sails  tiapping. 

Jack-tlay,  a  tight  rope  to  which  others  are  made  fait.-  jaeobs  ladder,  a  ropa 


tiUl 


SEAMi^NSHIP 


ladder  with  wooden  steps.  Jrtu*-roj*,  tn  confine  the  jaws  of  a  gaff  to  the  mast. 
Jeers,  a  heavy  purchase  for  swaying  up  the  fore  and  main  yards.  Jeivel-Uock, 
at  thf  exlremity  of  a  yard  for  the  studding-sail  halyards.  Jck-'s  harp,  a  shackle 
at  the  head  of  an  anchor.  Jigner,  a  small  handy  tackle  with  a  double  and  a 
single  block.  Junk,  old  cable  or  large  rope,  used  for  making  swabs,  mats,  spun- 
yarn,  &c.  Jury-mast,  jury-yard,  jury-rudder,  temporary  substitutes  for  mast,  &c. 
Kecklt,  to  pass  old  rope  round  a  hemp  cable  to  protect  it  from  chafing. 
Kedging,  to  move  by  meaus  of  warps  and  kedge  anchors.  Keehon,  a  timber 
Inside  ou  top  of  the  keel.  Keep  away,  steer  farther  from  the  ^vind.  Keep  her 
full,  the  helmsman  to  keep  the  sails  full  of  wind.  Keep  your  luff  and  keep  to 
the  iviiui,  synonymous  expressions.  Kinkf  a  knotty  twist  in  rope ;  a  bend  in 
wire-rope  which  is  difficult  to  straighten.  Knees,  angular  supports  of  iron  or 
wood.  Kiiittle-stnff,  small  line  made  by  hardening  two  or  three  rope-yanis 
and  twisting  them  tog'ether.    Knot,  a  geographical  mile  (see  art.  Loo). 

Lacings,  small  lines,  securing  sails  and  other  things.  Landfall,  finding  the 
land  asexpeoted.  Landlocked,  protected  by  land  in  every  direction.  Lanyard, 
R  rope  for  tightening  larger  ropes  ;  a  line  to  fasten  knives,  marling-spikes,  &c. 
Larboard,  the  old  name  for  the  left  side,  now  called  port.  Lash,  to  secure  two 
or  more  things  together  by  ropes.  Lay  to,  to  wait ;  to  heave  to.  Lazy-guy,  a 
rope  or  tackle  on  a  spanker-boom  or  main-boom  to  keep  it  steady.  Lead,  the 
weight  for  ascertaining  the  depth  of  water.  Lead,  the  lead  of  a  rope  is  its 
proper  direction  through  the  blocks.  Leech^  either  side  of  a  square  sail  and  the 
lee-side  of  all  othera  (see  "  luff").  Leech-lines,  on  courses  only,  to  haul  the  leech 
of  the  sail  close  up  to  the  fore-side  of  the  yard.  Le&  lurch,  a  deep  roll  to  lee- 
ward. Lee  shore,  a  shore  upon  which  the  wind  blows  directly  and  which  is 
unsheltered.  Lee  side,  the  side  farthest  from  the  ^ind,  either  inside  or  outside 
the  ship.  I'nder  the  lee,  a  ship  is  so  spoken  of  in  relation  to  the  land  by  which 
It  is  protected  ;  similarly  a  boat  may  be  said  to  be  *' under  the  lee"  of  a  ship. 
Lee-u-ay,  the  distance  a  ship  drifts  out  of  her  course,  indicated  by  the  angle 
formed  by  the  wake.  Legs,  spars  carried  by  cutters  to  keep  them  upright 
when  on  the  pound.  Life-lines,  small  ropes  to  steady  the  men  when  standing 
on  the  yards,  to  hold  by  when  being  lowered  in  boats,  and  for  similar  purposes. 
Lift,  a  rope  near  the  extremity  of  each  yard  to  top  it  up,  i.e.,  lift  it.  LiviherSy 
boards  or  plates  to  keep  the  bilge  clear.  List,  to  lean  over  continuously. 
Lizard,  a  lanyard  with  a  thimble  to  confine  another  rope  or  to  slip  at  pleasure. 
Loose  sails,  letting  tliem  fall  free  to  dry  or  for  use.  Lubber,  a  uian  not  skilled 
in  seamanship.  Lubber's  hole,  an  open  space  in  the  top  near  the  eyes  of  the 
rigging,  thi'ough  which  a  man  can  crawl  instead  of  going  outside.  Luff,  an 
order  to  steer  closer  to  the  wind  ;  of  a  sail,  the  fore-part  of  a  stay-sail,  try-sail, 
or  jib,  and  the  weather-side  for  the  time  being  of  any  square  sail.  Luff-tackle, 
is  formed  of  3-inch  or  4-inch  rope,  a  double  and  a  single  block,  and  is  used  for 
various  temporary  purposes- 

Make  sa'l,  to  set  sail.  Make  water,  to  leak.  Manger,  a  tight  enclosure  to 
catch  the  water  from  the  hawse-pipes.  Man-rope,  placed  over  the  side  at  the 
gangway  for  people  to  climb  up  by,  and  at  other  places.  Man  yards,  men  to 
stand  in  a  row  on  each,  as  a  salute.  Marl,  to  secure  things  together  by  a  suc- 
cession of  half-hitches.  Marling,  soft-laid  white  line  for  set;uring  sails  to  the 
bolt-rope.  Marling-spike,  an  iron  or  copper  spike  used  by  sailraakers  and 
riggers.  Mari-y,  to  fit  the  strands  together  ready  for  splicing.  Martingale,  a 
tackle  to  keep  down  a  spar.  Jl/aui,  alarge  double-headed  hammer  used  by  riggers. 
Messenger,  an  endless  rupe  or  chain  from  the  capstan  to  bring  in  the  cable.  Mid- 
ships, the  centre,  or,  when  applied  to  the  helm,  the  neutral  point.  Miss  stays,  to 
try  to  tack  and  fail.  Mooring-sivivel,  a  swivel  with  four  short  legs  to  meet  two 
cables  from  the  anchors  and  two  bridles  from  the  hawse.  Mouse,  a  swelling  or 
obstruction  raised  on  a  stay  ;  also  a  seizing  across  the  point  of  a  hook. 

Neitped,  of  a  ship,  to  be  in  a  dock  or  on  shore  requiring  more  water  to  float 
than  neap-tides  afford.  Near,  a  caution  to  the  helmsman  that  the  ship  is  too 
close  to  the  wind.  Necklace,  a  chain  or  band  round  a  lower  mast  for  the  futtock 
rigging  to  be  set  up  to,  al-  round  the  top-mast  for  the  top-gallant  rigging  to 
reeve  through.  Nip,  the  part  of  the  rope  which  bears  the  chief  strain ;  to 
freshen  the  nip  is  to  veer  out  and  change  the  phice.  Nipper,  a  selvagee,  rope, 
or  chain  for  binding  the  messenger  to  the  cable.  Norman,  a  block  of  wood 
placed  in. one  of  the  holes  of  a  capstan  for  veering  a  rope  by.  Nun-buoy,  a 
buoy  of  any  material  in  the  form  of  a  double  cone. 

Offing,  a  distance  ft-om  the  laud.  Off  the  wind,  not  so  close  as  she  might  be 
if  sailing  on  a  wind.  Ope7i,an  anchorage  is  open  when  exposed  to  the  sea;  the 
havFse  when  the  cables  are  clear  of  each  other;  ap  object  when  visible,  not 
obscured.  Orlop-deck,  the  lowest  in  large  ships.  Out  of  trim,  when  the  weights 
are  wTongly  placed.  Overhaul,  to  slacken  every  part  of  a  tackle  ;  to  overtake ; 
to  examine. 

Painter,  the  rope  by  which  boats  are  made  fast.  Parbuckle,  to  hoist  by  rolling 
a  thing  with  two  ropes.  Parcelling,  covering  a  rope  with  strips  of  tarred  canvas. 
Parrels,  stout  ropes  covered  \nth  leather,  used  to  confine  an  upper  yard  to  the 
mast.  Parting,  breaking,  as  parting  the  cable.  Pay  a  seam,  filling  it  with 
pitch.  Pay  away  and  pay  out,  applied  to  slacking  hawsers  or  cables.  Pay 
down,  lowering  things,  as  the  cable  to  be  coiled  or  stowed.  Pay  off,  from  the 
-wind,  as  by  hoisting  head-sail  or  putting  the  helm  up  ;  to  pay  and  dismiss  the 
crew.  Peak,  the  outer  part  of  a  gaff  and  of  a  gaff-sail.  Pendant,  a  large  rope 
with  a  tackle  attached,  Pcnnaiit,  s.  narrow  signal  flag  ;  a  long  strip  flown  by 
ships  of  war.  Pig,  one  part  of  iron  ballast;  the  largest  is  3  cwt.  Pintle,  a 
large  pin  bolted  to  the  rudder,  by  which  itis  hinged.  Pitching  aiid  sending 
signifies  plunging  the  bow  into  one  wave  and  the  stem  into  another.  Plain 
sail,  all  except  studding-sails  aud  stay-sails  between  the  masts.  Point,  a  plat- 
ting or  line  to  tie  up  a  reef;  to  secure  the  end  of  a  rope  with  knittles.  Pooped, 
a  vessel  is  said  to  be  pooped  when  a  wave  breaks  over  the  stem.  Port,  the 
modern  word  for  left.  Press  of  sail,  very  much  sail.  Preventer -brace,  an 
additional  rope  to  support  the  yard  during  a  gale.  Prize,  to  move  by  a  lever 
or  a  spar  ;  a  lawful  capture.    Purchase,  a  tackle  or  lever. 

Quarter-  the  part  of  the  side  near  the  stern,  hence  quarter-boat ;  aiso  the  part 
of  a  yard  between  the  centre  and  the  yard-arm. 

Rack,  a  frame  with  sheaves  and  belaying  pins,  Eakc,  to  fire  through  a  ship 
from  end  to  end  ;  the  inclination  of  the  masts  aft.  Range  of  cable,  it  was  for- 
merly customary  to  haul  up  cable  equal  to  the  depth  of  water.  Pap-fuU,  the 
wind  acting  fully  on  every  sail.  Ratlins  or  ratlings,  small  lines  as  steps  up  the 
rigging.  Razee,  a  ship  reduced  in  height  by  one  or  more  decks.  Reach,  the 
open  straight  part,  of  a  river  between  two  bends.  Ready  about,  ready  o'  ready, 
words  of  warning  preparatory  to  tacking.  Reef-tackles  and  rccf-pemlants,  for 
hauling  up  the  leeches  ©f  top-sails  and  courses  ready  for  reefing ;  the  latter 
also  on  a  boom  for  ree^ng  a  sail.  Reeciii^-line,  a  small  rope  rove  through 
blocks  to  drag  a  larger  one  after  it.  Refit,  general  repair.  Relieving  tackles, 
placed  on  a  tiller  to  assist  the  wheel-ropes  during  a  gale.  Rendering,  slipping, 
not  holding  as  a  knot  or  fastening  should.  Ribs  and  trucks,  flat  boards  and 
rollers  alternating ;  used  for  jaw-ropes  and  parrels.  Riding  between  wind  and 
tide,  when  balanced  between  the  two.  Riding  cable,  the  cable  bearing  .the 
Btrain.  Rigging  stoppers,  for  securing  the  standing  rigging  when  broken. 
Right  a  vessel,  to  recover  the  upright  position.  Right  the  helm,  to  relinquish 
the  position  the  helm  is  in  at  any  moment  and-  place  it  in  midships.  Ring- 
ropes,  cable  stoppers  which  pass  through  the  ring-bolts.  Robands,  small  tyers 
to  fasten  a  top-sail  or  course  to  a  jack-stay.  Rogui's  yarn,  a  thread  of  worsted 
spun  in  the  rope  to  mark  it ;  each  British  royal  dockyard  formerly  used  a  difier- 
ent  colour.  Rolling  tackle,  stretch«d  from  the  lee  quarter  of  a  yard  to  the  mast, 
to  relieve  the  parrel  or  truas  from  the  jerkini;  j^train  of  the  lee  roll.    Roping, 


the  bordering  of  every  sail.  Rvund  doy-'n,  to  overhaul,  to  slack  by  haad.^ 
Rounding,  old  3-inch  or  4-inch  rope  for  hack  purposes.  Round  in  the  weather' 
braces,  the  wind  becoming  more  favourable,  to  bring  the  yards  nearer  to  square. 
Roundly,  to  lower  or  veer  quickly.  Ronnd  to,  to  come  to  the  wind  and  heava 
to.  Hound  turn,  a  double  twist  in  a  cable  ;  to  veer  a  rope  round  a  bit-head  or 
cleat.  Round  up,  to  shorten  up  a  tackle ;  to  pull  up  a  slack  rope  through  a 
block.  Rouse  it  in,  as  hauling  a  hawser  by  hand  without  a  purchase.  Rowlock^ 
an  opening  in  the  gunwale  of  a  boat  for  au  oar.  Rudder  chains  and  X'cndants 
are  shackled  to  a  band  ou  the  rudder  ready  to  steer  the  ship  if  the  rudder-he»d 
gives  way.  Ruddtr  coat,  canvas  or  leather  round  the  aperture  and  rudder-head 
to  exclude  the  sea.  Runner  and  tackle,  a  long  pendant  and  tackle  for  staying 
lower  masts  ;  the  chief  support  aft  to  a  cutter's  mast.  Runjiing  rigging,  that 
which  is  rove  through  blocks,  or  is  otherwise  hauled  upon. 

Saddle,  a  wooden  rest  for  the  heel  of  the  jibboom  and  the  end  of  the  spanker 
boom.  Sag  to  leeu-ard,  to  make  more  leeway  than  headway.  Sail  close  to  th£ 
wind,  to  sail  with  the  sails  barely  full.  So.il  large  or  free,  to  sail  off  the  wind, 
as  "with  a  flowing  sheet."  Sail  tackle,  from  the  top-mast-head  to  sway  np 
top-sails  and  top-sail-yards.  Sanxson-post,  a  strong  piece  of  elm  to  fit  against 
a  beam  above  it  and  in  a  step  on  tie  deck.  -Scanidalizt-  a  boom  vtain-sail,  to 
trice  up  the  tack  and  drop  the  peak.  Scope  of  cable,  the  length  veered  out 
of  the  hawse.  Scotchvian,  an  iron  plate  to  protect  a  part  of  the  rigging  from 
chafing.  Scudding,  running  before  a  gale  either  with  or  witliout  sail  ;  tha 
latter  is  described  as  "under  bare  poles."  Scull,  a  small  oar.  Sculling, 
propelling  a  boat  by  moving  the  flat  of  the,-oar  over  the  stem  to  and  fro 
while  changing  the  angle.  Snipper,  a  passage  for  water  to  run  off  a  deck. 
Scuttle,  a  hole  in  the  side  to  admit  light  and  air;  a  hole  made  in  the  side  or  deck 
to  let  water  flow  in.  Sea,  a  wave  ;  a  long  sea  or  a  short  sea  has  reference  to  the 
distance  between  the  waves.  Sea-boat,  a  vessel  is  said  to  be  a  good  or  bad 
sea-boat  according  as  she  behax'es  in  a  gale.  Sea-room,  free  from  land  orshoalsL 
Seizing,  a  small  lashing.  Selvagee,  a  strap  made  of  yarns  or  small  rope  wound 
as  a  skein  and  marled  together.  Sending,  see  "pitching."  Sennit,  a  platting 
of  three-or  more  rope-yarns.  Serving,  covering  a  rope  closely  with  spun-yarn, 
hove  ou  by  a  serving  mallet.  Set  up,  applied  to  standing  rigging  to  make  it 
tight.  Setting-fid,  a  large  cone  of  wood  used  in  fitting  rigging.  Sewed,  to  be 
lifted  oat  of  the  water,  as  by  running  on  a  ledge,  or  being  left  by  the  tide. 
Shackle,  a  curved  bir,  with  two  eyes  and  a  bolt,  for  joining  chains.  ■SftanJk- 
pnin/«/",  a  stopper  T\  Inch  holds  up  the  fluke  of  an  anchor  at  the  bows.  Shop* 
a  coiirse,  to  sceer  in  the  desired  direction,  the  wind  favouring.  Shear-huUc, 
a  vessel  fitt€d  permanently  with  shears.  Shears,  two  large  spars  with  their 
heads  lashed  and  heels  spread,  for  masting  ships  and  lifting  hea\'y  weights. 
Sheave,  a  wheel  of  brass  or  lignum  vitse  for  ropes  to  travel  on  ;  all  the  fakes  of 
a  coil  of  rope  to  complete  a  layer.  Sheer,  to  swerve  from  the  course,  the  curve 
formed  by  the  bow  aud  steru  being  higher  than  the  centre.  Sheer-batton,  % 
bar  of  iron  to  keep  the  dead-eyes  square.  Sheer  off,  to  edge  away.  Sheet,  the 
rope  which  holds  the  lee  lower  comer  of  a  sail.  Sheet-anchor,  one  of  the  largest, 
and  the  third  for  use.  Sheet  home,  to  haul  the  sheets  of  square  sails  to  their 
positions.  Shift  the  helm,  put  it  over  the  other  way.  Shipped,  taken  on  board  ; 
anything  fixed  in  its  place  for  use.  Shipshape,  in  a  proper  and  seamanUke 
manner.  Shiver  a  sail,  to  make  it  shake  and  render  it  neutral.  Shoot,  to  go 
ahead  after  the  propulsion  has  ceased.  Shorten  sail,  to  take  in  some  portion. 
Skid,  a  spar  for  something  to  rest  or  slide  upon.  Skin  of  a  sail,  the  part  ex- 
posed when  it  is.  furled.  Skipper,  the  old  name  for  the  master  of  a  small 
vessel.  Slab  of  a  sail,  the  slack  part  which  hangs  down  after  the  leech-linea 
are  hauled  up.  Sleepers,  timbers  in  the  hold  and  strengthening  pieces  ip  the 
tops.  Slcio,  to  turn  or  cant  over.  Slips,  ropes  with  toggles,  shackles,  and 
tongiies,  and  various  contrivances  for  letting  go  quickly.  Small  helm,  when 
the  sails  are  well  balanced  and  the  rudder  but  little  used.  Small  sail,  and 
snug  sail,  low  and  reduced,  ready  for  bad  weather.  Sound,  to^scertdin  Uie 
depth  of  the  sea,  or  of  water  in  the  pump-well.  Span,  two  parts  of  a  rope 
spread  to  divide  the  strain,  or  for  making  a  point  secure  in  an  intermediate 
place.  Spanish  icindhissf  a  bar  of  iron  and  two  marling-spikes  to  heave 
seizings  taut ;  tightening  ropes  by  twisting  them  together  by  a  lever.  Spell, 
a  turn  or  relief.  Spider,  a  small  iron  outrigger,  to  keep  the  main-brace  block 
clear  of  the  counter.  Spilling-lines,  ropes  passed  round  a  part  of  a  sail  which 
is  flapping,  to  confine  it.  Spitfire -jib,  a  small  storm -sail  used  in  cutters. 
Splice,  to  join  two  ropes  by  entwining  the  strands.  Splice  the  main-brace, 
to  give  a  glass  of  grog  to  every  man  after  some  unusual  fatigue,  or  on  some 
occasion  of  rejoicing.  Splicing-tails,  a  short  piece  of  chain  with  three  tapering 
tails,  for  splicing  to  a  hemp  cable.  Spring,  a  hawser  from  the  after-part  to 
cant  the  ship.  Spring  a  leak,  to  cause  a  leak  by  straining.  Sprit-sail,  formerly 
set  on  the  sprit-sail-yard  ;  an  efficient  four-sided  sail  for  boats  and  barges,  the 
peak  of  which  is  held  up  by  a  spar  called  a  sprit.  Sprung,  cracked,  fractured. 
Spun-yafn,  rope-yarns  laid  up  together  softly.  Square-rigged,  having  yards 
and  square  sails,  as  ships  and  brigs  have.  Sqjiare  sails,  those  set  upon  such 
yards  as  have  lifts  and  braces,  regardless  of -their  proportions.  Square  yards, 
to  adjust  them  by  means  of  their  lifts,  and  braces.  Stand  by  a  rope,  to  be  in 
readiness  to  let  it  go.  Standing  off  and  on,  sailing  to  and  fro,  as  off  a  port. 
Sta  ndi  ngpart,  the  fixed  end  of  a  i  unning  rope.  Standing  rigging,  such  as  shrouds 
and  stays.  Stand  on,  to  continue  the  same  progress  and  course.  Starboard, 
the  right-hand  side.  Starboard  and  port  tack  express  the  direction  of  the  wind» 
on  the  right  hand  and  on  the  left  respectively.  Stay-sails,  any  sail  set  on  a 
stay,  except  the  jib,  flying-jib,  and  fore-sails  of  cutters  and  schooners.  Steady, 
to  the  helm  ;  to  keep  the  same  course.  Steadying-lines,  passed  from  eye-bolta 
in  the  gunnel  of  a  boat  to  the  slings  to  keep  it  upright,  Steeve,  the  angle  which 
the  bowsprit  forms  with  the  horizon.  Steyn.  on,  striking  head  foremost  at  right 
angles,  the  reverse  of  stem  on.  Stern-board,  having  considerable  stern-way. 
Stevedore,  see  "estivador."  Stiffness,  stabilitj-  under  canvas.  Stirrup,  a  short 
rope  from  a  yard  to  support  a  foot-rope.  Stop,  a  light  temporary  seizing. 
Storm-sails,  stay-sails  and  try-sails  of  the  strongest  canvas.  Stranded,  when 
one  strand  is  broken ;  wrecked  on  a  beach.  Stream-anchor,  about  one-third 
to  one-fourth  the  weight  of  a  bower  anchor.  Stream  the  buoy,  to  throw  over 
the  buoy  which  is  to  watch  over  the  anchor. .  Strike,  to  send  down  from  aloft. 
Strike  colours,  a  token  of  submission.  Strike  soundings,  to  succeed  in  reaching 
the  bottom  with  the  lead.  Studding-sails,  light  four-sided  sails  set  only  with 
a  fair  wind.  Surge,  to  slack  back  quickly,  as  a  hawser  round  a  capstan,  to 
make  it  slip  up  to  its  place.  Sicab,  a  large  bundle  of  rope-yams  for  soaking 
Dp  water  ;  a  drunkard.  Sway  aicay,  to  hoist  by  running  with  a  rope.  Sweep, 
a  large  oar ;  to  search  the  bottom  with  a  hawser  or  chain.  Sv-ifter,  a  single 
shroud,  when  there  is  an  odd  one  ;  to  draw  rigging  together  :  a  rope  or  bar  to 
keep  things  equidistant,  or  in  their  proper  places.  Swinging,  the  act  of  turning 
to  the  change  of  wind  and  tide.  Swinging  boom,  a  large  spar  for  spreading 
the  foot  of  the  lower  studding-sail ;  in  harbour  for  making  boats  fast. 

Tabemade,  a  frame  for  receiving  the  heel  of  a  boat's  mast  to  make  it  higher. 
Tack,  the  lower  weather  comer  of  every  sad  ;  to  change  course  by  bringing  the 
wind  ahead  and  round  to  the  other  side.  Taken  aback,  applied  to  a  vessel 
when  the  wind  coming  ahead  reverses  tlie  action  of  all  the  sails.  Taking  in 
sail,  clewing  it  up  and  perhaps  fnrling  it.  Taxint,  high  masts,  comparatively. 
Taut  (also  taught),  the  only  word  among  seamen  to  signify  tight.  Tending  to 
the  tide,  beginning  to  swing  to  the  change  of  tide  in  opposition  to  the  wind. 
Thimble,  an  iron  ring  with  a  score  to  receive  a  rope ;  ■union  thimble,  two 
thimbles  welded  within  each  other.  Thole  pin,  a  peg  of  wood  on  the  gunwale 
of  a  boat  to  confine  tha  oar.     Thorough-foot,  the  fall  of  a  tackle  being  foul. 


S  E  A  — S  E  A 


605 


nqnlnnc  to  be  onTOve  or  the  block  tamed  over  between  the  parts.  Tlirfe  shfeta 
in  the  wind,  a  ship  too  close  to  the  wind  ;  a  man  half  drunk.  Thro<il,  the  upper 
corner  of  a  gaff-sail  nearest  the  mast  Throat  halyards,  for  hoisting  the  end  of 
the  gaff  nearest  the  mast.  T7i?farf,  across  ;  the  name  of  all  seats  which  cross 
a  boat.  Thwart  ohips,  across  the  ship.  Tide-u-ay,  an  anchorage  or  position 
affected  by  tide,  Tilitr,  a  lever  which  moves  the  rudder.  Toggle*,  pieces  of 
wood  varying  in  shape,  generally  secured  to  one  piece  of  rope  so  as  to  hold  the 
«ye  of  another,  as  a  button.  Top,  a  large  platform  resting  on  the  cross-trees 
of  each  lower  mast ;  to  top  a  yard  is  to  raise  It  by  the  lift.  Top-rope,  a  large 
tope  rove  through  the  heel  of  the  top-mast.  Tow,  one  vessel  pulling  another 
in  any  relative  position.  Traiisport  a  ship,  to  move  her  in  a  harbour  by  ropes. 
Traveller,  an  Iron  ring  covered  with  leather,  for  jibs,  royals,  and  boat  sails. 
Travelting  badcslay,  a  support  to  the  top-mast  always  close  above  the  yard. 
Traverse,  to  make  several  tacks  ;  the  free  motion  of  a  sheave  or  rope.  Trestle- 
trees,  pieces  of  wood  which  rest  on  the  hounds  of  the  mast  and  support  the 
cross-trees.  Trtclnij-lirK,  a  small  rope  used  for  hoisting  up  a  tackle  or  larger 
lope.  Trim  of  the  ship,  neither  too  deep  nor  too  light,  and  ha\-ing  the  right 
draught  of  water  forward  and  aft.  Trim  sails,  to  brace  the  yards  and  adjust 
the  sheets.  7>ip,  the  anchor  is  tripped  when  the  shank  is  raised  and  the  fiukcs 
broken  out  of  the  ground.  Trough  of  the  sea,  the  hollow  between  long  wa^'es, 
which  are  generally  nearly  parallel.  Truck,  a  disk  of  M-ood  at  the  summit  of 
the  mast,  generally  ha\ing  sheaves  for  signal  halyards  ;  a  long  wooden  fair 
lead  seized  to  the  shrond.  Trusses,  fitted  variously  to  confine  the  centre  of  the 
lower  yards  to  the  mast.  Try-sail,  a  foul-weather  gatf-sail.  Try-sait-inasl, 
a  smooth  spar  abaft  each  mast  to  support  the  jaws  of  the  gaff  and  luff  of  the 
sail.  Turning  in  a  dead-eye,  fitting  the  shroud  or  stay  roiind  it.  Turning  to 
wiTidumrd,  tacking  frequently.  Twice  laid,  tope  that  has  been  unlaid  and  re- 
twisted  to  the  desired  size.  Twiddllng-lincs,  for  securing  the  wheel  when  not 
in  use.  Two  blocks,  signifying  that  the  two  ends  of  a  purchase  have  come 
together.     Tye,  a  large  rope  on  which  the  halyards  act  when  hoisting  a  yard. 

Vnder  foot,  said  of  an  anchor  when  dropped  without  veering  more  cable, 
t'nder  sail,  free  from  moorings  and  propelled  by  sail  only.  Under  steam,  pro- 
pelled by  steam  only.     Vnder  way,  ha\-ing  motion  ;  the  anchor  off  the  ground. 


Fanjs,  ropes  to  steady  a  gaff.  Vetr,  to  slack  oat  cable,  hawser,  or  tow-rops  • 
the  old  expression  for  "  wear."  Vurand  haul,  slacking  and  hauling  alUnutely' 
by  a  number  of  men  simultaneously,  so  aa  to  gain  by  the  jerk, 

Il'aijf,  the  centre  part  of  the  ship  before  the  gangway  port.  IToU,  the  tisck 
left  in  the  water.  Warji,  a  small  hawser  for  moving  the  ship ;  yams  or  ion« 
stretched  over  pins  for  making  straps.  Warpinf  buoys,  buoys  moored  in  sttit- 
able  positions  for  ships  to  warp  by,  now  rendered  nearly  obsolete  by  the  .s 
of  steam-tugs.  Watch,  sailors'  watches  commence  or  terminate  at  4  8  and  18 
o'clock,  also  at  6  p.m.  ;  a  buoy  over  an  anchor  is  said  to  watch  whi'le'it  Moata 
and  can  be  seen.  Il'afer-toi-ne,  to  be  cntirelv  aBoat.  Water-logged  full  or 
water,  unmanageable.  Il'nv,  motion,  aa  under  way,  headway  st'einwaT 
Wear  ship,  to  bring  the  wind  on  the  other  side  by  ttrst  running  before  it 
Ifealher-bound,  detained  by  contrary  winds  or  bad  weather.  Weather-qagt 
being  to  windward  of  the  enemy.  Wcatherly,  sailing  well,  without  much  lee^ 
way.  Weather-side,  that  on  which  the  wind  blows.  Wcather-tidt  the  stream 
running  contrary  to  the  direction  of  the  wind.  Wedging  a  must,  securing  it  Id 
the  partners  or  framf  on  each  deck  by  wedges  made  to  fit.  Weigh,  to  h^avo 
up  the  anchor.  Whip,  a  single  rope  passing  through  a  block.  Whipping,  a 
light  seizing  of  twine  at  the  end  of  a  rope  to  prevent  framing.  Whiskers,  pro- 
jections from  the  cat-head  to  spread  the  jib-guys.  Wind  a  ship  or  boat,  to 
turn  her  head  where  her  stern  was.  To  take  the  wind  out  of  anothefs  sails, 
to  pass  close  Jo  windward,  as  yachts  sometimes  do.  I('iiii(;a!j,  a  machine  for 
heaving  in  cable.  Wttid-rode,  being  head  to  wind  though  in  a  tide-way. 
Wind-sail,  a  canvas  ventilator.  Wood-lock,  a  chock  to  keep  the  rudder  in  ita 
place.  Woolding,  a  stout  lashing  to  secure  sprung  or  fished  spars.  WorTc  a 
ship,  to  perform  every  manoeuvTC.  ICorm,  to  heave  small  line  between  the 
strands  of  a  rope  to  make  it  smooth. 

Yard,  a  spar  which  spreads  a  sail.  Yard-rope,  a  rope  by  which  a  top.gallant 
or  royal  yard  is  sent  up  from  the  deck,  and  afterwards  becomes  the  tye  and 
halyards.  Yard-tackles,  permanently  on  the  lower  yard-arins  of  large  ships 
for  hoisting  in  things  and  as  preventer  braces.  Faif,  an  involuntary  deviation 
from  the.  course.  Yoke,  a  bent  lever  across  the  ship  or  boat  which  acts  as  b 
tiUer.l  (H.  A.  M.) 


SEAifEN,  L.^'svs  relating  to.  In  most  legal  systems 
legislation  has  interfered  to  protect  the  seaman  from  the 
consequences  of  that  imprudence  -which  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  be  one  of  his  distinguishing  characteristics.  In 
the  United  Kingdom  there  has  been  a  very  large  amount 
of  legislation  dealing  with  the  interests  of  seamen  -n'ith 
unusual  fulness  of  detail,  proving  the  care  bestowed  by  a 
maritime  power  upon  those  to  whom  its  commercial  suc- 
cess is  so  largely  due.  How  far  this  legislation  has  had 
the  efficiency  which  was  expected  may  be  doubtful.  The 
loss  of  life  amoflg  sailors  was  one  in  eighty  in  1871,  one 
in  seventy-five  in  1882.  There  has  been  besides  a  steady 
diminution  in  the  number  of  British  seamen  employed  on 
British  ships,  nearly  one-eighth  being  foreigners  at  the 
present  time. 

For  legislative  purposes  seamen  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes,  seamen  in  the  royal  na^vy,  merchant  seamen, 
and  fishermen. 

Seamen  in  the  Royal  Navy. — It  is  still  lawful  to  impress  men  for 
the  naval  service,  subject  to  certain  exemptions  (13  Geo.  II.  c. 
17).  Among  the  persons  exempt  are  seamen  in  the  merchant 
Borvice.  In  cases  c  emergency  officers  and  men  of  the  coastguard 
and  revenue  cruisers,  seamen  riggers,  and  pensioners  may  bo  re- 
quired to  sirve  in  the  navy  (16  and  17  Vict.  c.  73).  There  appears 
to  be  no  other  instance  (now  that  balloting  for  the  mUitia  is  sus- 
pended5  where  a  suWect  may  be  forced  into  the  service  of  the  crown 
against  his  wilL  Tne  navy  is,  however,  at  the  present  day  wholly 
recruited  by  voluntary  enlistment.  The  navy  estimates  of  1885 
provided  fir  69,000  men  (see  Navy).  Special  advantages  are 
afforded  by  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act,  1854,  to  merchant  seamen 
enlisting  in  the  navy.  They  are  enabled  to  leave  their  ship  without 
punisliment  or  fmfeiture  in  order  to  join  the  naval  service.  The 
discipline  of  the  navy  is,  unlike  that  of  the  army,  for  which  an 
annual  Army  Act  is  necessary,  regulated  by  a  permanent  Act  of 
Parliament,  that  now  in  force  being  the  Naval  Discipline  Act,  1866. 
In  addition  to  numerous  hospitals  and  infirmaries  in  the  United 
Kingdom  and  abroad,  the  great  charity  of  Greenwich  Hospital  is 
a  mode  of  provision  (or  old  and  disabled  seamen  in  the  navy  (see 
Greenwich).  At  present  such  seamen  are  out-pensioners  only ; 
the  hospital  has  been  for  some  years  used  as  the  Royal  Naval 
College  for  officer  students.  The  enactments  of  the  Merchant 
Shipping  Act,  1854,  as  to  savings  banks  were  extended  to  seamen 
in  the  navy  by  18  and  19  Vict  c.  91,  B.  17.  Enlistment  without 
the  licence  of  the  crown  in  the  naval  service  of  a  foreign  state  at 
war  with  another  foreign  state  that  is  at  peace  with  the  United 
Kingdom  is  an  offence  punishable  under  tho  Foreign  Enlistment 
Act,  1870.  Any  person  buying  from  a  seaman  or  enticing  a  sea- 
man to  sell  Government  property  is  liable  to  penalties  under  the 
Seamen's  Clothing  Act,  1869. 

ilerchaiit  Seamen.— ^losi  of  the  Acts  dealing  -rfitb  this  subject, 
commencing  with  8  Eliz.  c  13,  were  repealed  by  17  and  18  Vict. 
C.  120,  after  having  been  consolidated  and  extended  by  llio  Mer- 
chant Shipping  Act,  1854  (17  and  18  Vict.  c.  101).  The  main  part 
of  the  legislation  affecting  seamen  ia  tho  merchant  service  occurs 
iu  the  third  part  of  this  Act.     Since  1854  numerous  amending 


Acts  have  been  passed,  amounting  to  no  less' than  eleven  in  number. 
They  are  cited  collectively  as  "The  Merchant  Shipping  Acts,  1854 
to  1SS3."  The  enactment  of  a  new  consolidation  Act  is  urgently 
required,  and  can  be  only  a  question  of  time.  The  Merchant 
Shipping  Act,  1854,  defines  a  seaman  to  be  "  every  person  (except 
masters,  pilots,  and  apprentices  duly  indentured  and  registered) 
employed  or  engaged  in  any  capacity  on  board  any  ship"  (s.  2).  It 
should  be  noticed  that  most  of  tlie  enactments  relating  to  merchant 
seamen  do  not  affect  seamen  employed  on  foreign  vessels,  on  fishing 
boats  on  the  coasts  of  the  United  Kingdom,  on  vessels  belonging  to 
the  Trinity  House,  the  Commissioners  of  Northern  Lighthouses,  and 
the  port  of  Dublin  corporation,  and  on  pleasure  yachts.  The  princi- 
pal provisions  of  the  Merchant  Shipping  Acts  dealing  with  seamen 
are  as  follows.  Where  no  otb^r  reference  is  given,  the  Act  of  1854  is 
intended.  An  elective  local  marine  board  under  tho  general  super- 
vision of  the  Board  of  Trade  is  appointed  in  the  principal  ports  of 
the  United  Kingdom.  One  of  the  duties  of  the  board  is  the  estab- 
lishment of  mercantile  marine  offices  under  superintendents  or 
deputy  superintendents."  It  is  the  general  business  of  such  officers 
to  afford  facilities  for  engaging  seamen  by  keeping  registries  of  their 
names  and  characters,  to  superintend  and  facilitate  their  engage- 
ment and  discharge,  to  provide  means  for  securing  the  presence  on 
board  at  the  proper  times  of  men  who  are  so  engaged,  and  to  facili- 
tate the  making  of  apprenticeships  to  the  sea  service  (s.  124).  A 
seaman  must  be  hired  before  a  superintendent  or  deputy  superin- 
tendent, an  officer  of  customs,  or  a  consular  officer  on  a  form  sanc- 
tioned by  the  Board  of  Tiade  (usually  called  the  shipping  articles) 
containing  the  following  particulars  :— (1)  the  nature  and,  as  far  as 
practicable,  the  duration  of  tho  intended  voyage  or  engagement,  or 
the  maximum  period  of  tlie  voyage  or  engagement,  and  the  places 
or  parts  of  tho  world  (if  any)  to  which  the  voyage  or  engagement 
is  not  to  extend  ;  (2)  the  number  and  description  of  the  crew, 
specifying  how  many  are  employed  as  sailors ;  (3)  tho  time  at 
which  each  seaman  is  to  bo  on  board  or  to  begin  work  ;  (4)  tht 
capacity  iu  which  each  seaman  is  to  serve  ;  (5)  the  amount  of 
wages  which  each  seaman  is  to  receive ;  (6)  a  scale  of  tho  provi- 
sions which  aro  to  be  furnished  to  each  seaman  ;  (7)  any  regulations 
as  to  conduct  on  board  anil  as  to  fines,  short  allowance  of  provi- 
sions, or  otlier  lawful  punisliments  for  misconduct,  which  have  been 
sanctioned  by  the  Board  of  Trade  as  regidations  proper  to  be  adopted, 
and  which  the  parties  agree  to  adopt.  Every  agreement  is  to  boi 
framed  so  as  to  admit  of  sJpulations  as  to  allotment  of  wages,  and' 
may  contain  any  other  stipulations  not  contrary  to  law  (s.  149,  aa 
amended  by  the  Act  of  1873  and  tho  Merchant  Seamen  Act,  1880). 
Among  illegal  stipulations  would  fall  any  agreement  by  a  seaman 
to  give  up  Ids  right  to  salvage,  to  forfeit  hia  lien  on  the  ship,  or  to 
bo  deprived  of  any  remedy  for  tho  recovery  of  wages  to  which  he 
would  otherwise  have  been  entitled  (s.  182).  In  tho  case  of  foreign, 
going  ships  tho  following  rules  in  addition  must  he  observed  :— (0 
every  agreement  made  in  the  United  Kingdom  (except  agrcemeuO 
with  substitutes)  is  to  be  ngned  by  each  seanmn  in  the  presence  of 
tho  superintendent  of  a  incrcantilo  marine  office;  (2)  the  superin*- 
tendont  ia  to  cause  tho  agreement  to  be  read  over  and  explained  tp 

1  For  a  fuller  cnilanntion  of  some  of  these  tenin.  see  VIce-Admlral  W  O. 
Smyth,  riii'ailor'.  Il'ord  Book  of  Kaulical  Terns;  F«'f<">f^' ^'J'lV '',";'!*I!:, 
nrv.  enlarged  by  'W.  Duniey  ;  P.  L.  Broslaucr,  /lliu<rai»d  HautUal  foli/tUI  ^^t»' 
laiiRiiages).  j    %.,      »_  . 

■'  TliiHe  offleea  and  nlllceni  were  called  •hlnplng  oBlcal  and  ablppfng  »*•«<* 
In  the  Act  of  18i4.  The  iiiunrt  were  changml  to  the  loniter  aid  l«e«  conviiaJ(»» 
ones  Id  the  text  by  the  Act  of  180S  (21  »nu  20  Vlot  c.  M,  a.  li). 


606 


S  E  A  M  E  JS 


eacu  seaman,  or  otherwise  to  ascertain  that  eacli  seaman  understands 
the  same  before  he  signs  it,  and  is  to  attest  each  signature ;  (3) 
the  agreement  is  to  be  in  duplicate,  one  part  to  be  retained  by  the 
superintendent,  the  other  by  the  master ;  (4)  in  the  ease  of  sub- 
•itilutes,  they  are  where  possible  to  be  engaged  before  a  superin- 
tendent, in  other  cases  the  agieement  is  to  be  read  orer  and  ex- 
glained  to  the  seaman  by  the  master  and  signed  by  the  seaman  in 
je  presence  of  a  witness  (s.  150).     The  only  cases  where  no  agree- 
ment in  ■nTiting  is  necessary  is  where  the  hiring  is  for  a  coaster  of 
less  than  eighty  tons  register  or  for  a  foreign  vessel.     In  the  case 
of  union  apprentices  the  indentui-es  must  be  executed  in  the  pre- 
sence of  and  attested  by  two  justices.     No  stamp  duty  is  charge- 
able on  indentures  for  the  sea  service.     In  .tlie.  case  of  foreign- • 
going  ships  making  voyages  averaging  less  than  six  months  in 
duration,  running  agreements  with  the  crew  may  be  made  (s.  151). 
No  person  unlicensed  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  other  tlian  a  master 
or  mate  or  agent  of  the  owner,  may  engage  or  supply  seamen. 
The  discharge  of  a  seaman,  like  his  engagement,  must  take  place 
before   a   superintendent   or   an   officer   of  equivalent   authority. 
The  seaman  is  entitled  to  receive  a  certificate  of  service  and  dis- 
charge.    His  wages  must  be  paid  within  a  limited  time  from  his 
discharge,  varying  according  to  circumstances,  and  are  not  now 
dependent,   as   they  were  at  common   law,   upoq  the  earning  of 
freight.     If  he  is  discharged  before  a  month's  wages  are  earned, 
he  is  entitled  to  a  month's  wages.     As  far  as  possible,  payment 
is  to  be  made  in  money  and  not  by  bill.     In  the  absence  of  special 
stipulations,   wages  are  not  generally  due  until  the  contract  of 
service  is  complete.     By  8  Geo.  I.  c.  24,  s.  7,  a  master  may  not 
advance  a  seaman  more  than  half  his  wages  while  abroad.     Sums 
recoverable  as  wages  are,'  in  addition  to  wages  properly  so  called, 
the  expenses  of  subsistence  and  of  the  voyage  home  when  a  ship  is 
sold  or  transferred  abroad,  and  the  master  does  not  deposit  with  a 
consular  officer  a  sufficient  sum  for  the  seaman's  expenses  pursu- 
ant to  s.  205  ;  the  expenses  of  a  seaman  Jeft  behind  or  discharged 
from  a  British   ship,  or  a   British   subject  from  a  foreign  ship, 
out   of  the   United   Kingdom ;   allowance  for  short   or  bad   pro- 
visions ;  the  moneys  and  effects  of  a  deceased  seaman  who  has  been 
employed  on  a  British  ship  ;  expenses  caused  by  illness  from  want 
of  proper  food  and  accommodation  and  medicines  ;  and  double  pay 
for  every  day,  not  exceeding  ten,  during  which  payment  of  wages 
is  delayed  without  proper  cause.     Wages  cannot  be  attached.     They 
may  be   forfeited   or  reduced   by   desertion,   wilful  disobedience, 
smuggling,  want  of  exertion  in  case  of  wreck,  illness  caused  by 
Dc<rlect  or  default  of  the  seaman,  and  misconduct  of  other  kinds. 
Advance  notes — that  is,  documents  promising  the  future  payment 
of  money  on  account  of  a  seaman's  wages  conditionally  on  his  going 
to  sea  and  made  before  the  wages  have  been  earned — are  void,  and 
uo  money  paid  in  respect  of  an  advance  note  can  be  deducted  from 
the  wages  earned.  Merchant  Seamen  (Payment  of  Wages  and  Rating) 
Ast,  18S0  (43  and  44  Tict.  c.   16,  s.  2).     Allotment  notes  may  be 
made  in  the  form  sanctioned  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  may 
stipulate  for  the  allotment  of  not  more  than  half  the  seaman's 
wages  in  favour  of  a  wife,  parent,  grandparent,  chUd,  giandchild, 
brother  or  sister  (s.  169),  or  of  a  savings  bank  (43  and  44  Vict. 
t.  16,  s.  3).     Seamen's  savings  banks  have  been  established  arid  are 
administered  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  chiefly  under  the  powers  given 
by  the  Seamen's  Savings  Banks  Act,  1856.     If  during  the  absence 
«f  a  seamau_  on  a  voyage  his  wife  and  family  become  chargeable  to 
the  parish,  two-thirds  of  his  wages  at  the  most  are  all  that  can  be 
recovered  by  the  parish.     Careful  provision  is  made  for  the  custody 
of  a  deceased  seaman's  effects  and  wages,  and  their  delivery  to  his 
representatives.     The  possibility  of  a  seaman's  being  left  destitute 
abroad  is  prorided  against  by  ss.  206,  207.    Consular  officers  abroad 
•re  bound  to  send  heme  any  distressed  or  ship^vrecked  seaman, 
the  expenses  being  chargeable  upon  the  mercantile  marine  fund. 
Compansation  is  to  be  made  for  insufficiency  or  bad  quality  of 
provisions  or  water  on  board.     If  a  complaint  of  the  quality  or 
sufficiency  be  frivolous,  the  persons  complaining  are  liable  to  for- 
feit a  week's  wages.     All  foreign -going  ships  are  to  carry  proper 
medicines  and  medical  stores.     Lune  and  lemon  juice  ana  other 
antiscorbutics  are  to  be  provided  on  ships  bound  to  foreign  ports 
other  than  ports  in  Europe  and  the  north  of  North  America.     An 
stuice  a  day  of  lime  or  lemon  juice  is  to  be  served  to  each  member 
of  the  crew  after  the  ship  has  been  at  sea  for  ten  days  (Act  of  1867, 
SO  and  31  Vict,  c   124,  s.   4).     A  foreign-going  ship  having  one 
hondred  persons  or  upwards  on  board  must  carry  a  qualified  medical 
aian  (s.  130).     Each  seaman  or  apprentice  is  entitled  to  a  space  of 
no*  less  than  72  cubic  feet,  the  place  to  be  securely  constructed, 
proporly   lighted   and   ventilated,    and    properly  protected    from 
weather  and  sea,  and  as  far  as  possible  iiom  effluvium  caused  by 
cargo  or  bilge-water.     The  place  is  to  be  inspected  and  certified  by 
a  surveyor  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  to  be  kept  free  from  goods 
and  stoi-ea.     The  local  marine  board  (or  the  Board  of  Trade  where 
Uipre  is  no  local  marine  board)  may  appoint  a  medical  inspector 
»t'  seamen,  who  may  on  application  by  the  master  or  owner  report 
tn  the  superintendent  of  the  soercantile  marine  office  as  to  whether 
^j-  seaman  is  fit  for  duty  (30  and  31  Vict.  c.   124,  ss.  9,  10). 


Bye-laws  and  regulations  relating  to  seamen's  lodging-hcuscs  may 
be  made  by  the  sanitaiy  authority  of  any  seajiort  toira  with  th« 
sanction  of  the  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  Such  bye-laws 
and  regulations  are  to  provide  for  the  licensing  of  seamen's  lQd"iii<»- 
houses,  the  iuspecHon  of  the  same,  the  sanitary  conditions  of  tlTe 
same,  the  publication  of  Hie  feet  of  a  house  being  licensed,  the  due 
execution  of  the  bye-laws  and  regulations  and  the  non-obstruction 
of  persons  engaged  in  securing  such  execution,  tlie  preventing  of 
persons  not  duly  licensed  holding  themselves  out  as  keepuig  or 
purporting  to  keep  licensed  houses,  and  the  exclusion  from  licensed 
houses  of  persons  of  improper  character  (46  and  47  Vict.  c.  41 
s.  48).  Provision  is  made  tor  tlie  protection  of  seamen  from  im- 
positiou  by  crimps  and  lodging-house  keepers.  This  protection  may 
m  certain  cases  be  extended  by  order  in  council  to  foreign  ships 
(s.  237,  and  43  and  44  Vict.  c.  16,  ss.  5,  6).  At  the  time  of  discharge 
of  the  crew  in  the  United  Kingdom  a  list  in  the  form  sanctioned  by 
the  Board  of  Trade  is  to  be  made  out  and  delivered  to  a  superintend- 
ent of  a  mercantile  marine  office  containing,  inter  alia,  the  follow- 
ing pai-ticulars  : — (1)  the  number  and  date  of  the  ship's  register  and 
her  registered  tonnage  ;  (2)  the  length  and  general  nature  of  the 
voyage  or  employment ;  (3)  the  Christian  names,  surnames,  ages,  and 
places  of  birth  of  all  the  crew,  including  the  master  and  apprentices, 
their  qualities  on  board,  their  last  ships  or  other  employments,  and 
the  dates  and  places  of  their  joining  tlie  ship  ;  (4)  the  names  of  any 
members  of  the  crew  who  have  been  maimed  or  hurt,  with  the  times, 
places,  causes,  and  circnmstances  thereof;  (5)  the  wages  due  at  the 
time  of  their  respective  deaths  to  any  of  the  crow  who  have  died  ; 
(6)  the  clothes  and  other  effects  belonging  to  any  of  the  crew  who 
have  died,  with  a  statement  of  the  manner  in  which  they  have  been 
dealt  with,  and  the  money  for  wliich  any  of  them  have  been  sold 
(s.  273).  Every  birth  or  death  occurring  at  sea  is  to  be  recorded  in 
the  log-book  and  reported  on  arrival  at  any  port  in  the  United 
Kingdom  to  the  registrar -general  of  shipping  and  seamen,  who 
forwards  a  certified  copy  to  the  registrar -general  of  births  and 
deaths  (37  and  38  Vict.  c.  88,  s.  37).  An  official  log-book  in  a  form 
sanctioned  by  the  Board  of  Trade  is  to  be  kept  by  the  master  of 
every  ship  except  a  coaster.  It  must  contain,  inter  alia,  (1) 
every  legal  conviction  of  any  member  of  his  crew  and  the  punish- 
ment inflicted  ;  (2)  every  offence  committed  by  any  member  of  his 
crew  for  which  it  is  intended  to  prosecute,  or  to  enforce  a  forfeiture, 
or  to  exact  a  fine,  together  with  a  statement  concerning  the  reading 
over  of  such  entry  and  concerning  the  reply  (if  any)  made  to  tlie 
charge ;  (3)  every  offence  for  which  punishment  is  inflicted  on  board, 
and  the  punishment  inflicted  ;  (4)  a  statement  of  the  conduct, 
character,  and  qualifications  of  each  of  his  crew,  or  a  statement  that 
he  declines  to  give  an  opinion  on  such  particulars ;  (o)  every  case 
of  illness  or  injury  happening  to  any  member  of  the  crew,  with  the 
natiue  thereof  and  the  medical  treatment  adopted  (if  any)  ;  (6)  the 
name  of  eveiy  seaman  or  apprentice  who  ceases  to  be  a  member  of 
the  crew,  otherwise  than  by  death,  with  the  time,  place,  manner, 
and  cause  thereof;  (7)  the  amount  of  wages  due  to  any  seaman  who 
enters  Her  Majesty's  service  during  the  voyage  ;  (8)  the  wages  due 
to  any  seaman  or  apprentice  who  dies  during  the  voyage,  and  the 
gross  amount  of  all  dednctioDS  to  bo  made  therefrom  ;  (9)  the  sale 
of  the  effects  of  any  seaman  or  apprentice  who  dies  during  the 
voyage,  including  a  statement  of  each  article  sold  and  of  the  sum 
received  for  it  (s.  282).  At  common  law  there  was  no  obligation 
of  the  owner  to  provide  a  seaworthy  ship,  but  by  the  Act  of  1876 
every  person  who  sends  or  attempts  to  send,  or  is  party  to  sending 
or  attempting  to  send,  a  British  ship  to  sea  in  such  unseaworthy 
state  that  the  life  of  any  person  is  likely  to  be  thereby  endangered 
is  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour,  unless  he  proves  that  he  used  all  reason- 
able means  to  insure  her  being  sent  to  sea  in  a  seaworthy  state,  or 
that  her  going  to  sea  in  such  unseaworthy  state  was  under  the 
circumstances  reasonable  and  justifiable.  A  master  knowingly 
taking  a  British  ship  to  sea  in  such  unseaworthy  state  that  the  life 
of  any  person  is  likely  to  be  thereby  endangered  is  guilty  of  a  mis- 
demeanour. In  every  contract  of  service  between  tlie  owner  and  the 
master  or  any  seaman  and  in  every  indenture  of  sea  apprenticeship, 
an  obligation  is  implied  that  the  owner,  master,  and  ageut  shall 
use  all  reasonable  means  to  insure  the  seaworthiness  of  the  ship 
(39  and  40  Vict.  c.  80,  ss.  4,  6).  A  return  of  certain  particulars,  such 
as  lists  of  crews  and  of  disti"essed  seamen  sent  home  from  abroad, 
reports  on  discharge,  births  and  deaths  at  sea,  must  be  made  to  the 
registrar-general  of  shipping  and  seamen,  an  officer  of  the  Board  of 
Trade.  The  seaman  is  privileged  in  the  matter  of  wills  (see  Will), 
and  is  exempt  fro.-s  serving  in  the  militia  (42  Geo.  III.  c.  90,  s.  43). 
Assaults  upon  seamen  with  intent  to  prevent  them  working  at  their 
occupation  are  punishable  summarily  by  24  and  25  Vict.  c.  100,  8. 
40.  There  are  special  enactments  in  favour  of  Lascars  and  foreign 
seamen  on  British  ships  (see  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  80 ;  17  and  18  Vict,  c  I'M, 
3.  544 ;  17  and  -18  Vict.  c.  120,  s.  16 ;  18  and  19  Vict.  c.  91,  s.  16). 
In  addition  to  this  legislation  directly  in  his  interest,  the  seaman 
is  Indirectly  protected  by  the  provisions  of  the  Merchant  Shipping 
Acts  requiring  the  possession  of  certificates  of  competence  by  snips' 
officers,  the  periodical  survey  of  'ships  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  and 
the  enactments  against  deck  cargoes  and  overloading,  as  weU  as  by, 


SEAMEN 


607 


Sther  Acts,  snch  as  the  Chain  Cables  and  Anchors  Acts,  enforcing  a 
roiniraum  strengtli  of  cables  and  anchors,  and  tlic  Passenger  Acts 
under  wliich  a  proper  supply  of  life-boats  and  life-buoys  lunst  be 
provided.  The  duties  of  the  seamen  appear  to  be  to  obey  the 
master  in  all  lawful  matters  relating  to  the  navigation  of  the  ship 
and  to  resist  enemies,  to  encourage  him  in  which  lie  may  become 
entitled  to  prize  money  under  22  and  23  Car.  II.  c.  11  (sec  Prize). 
Any  services  beyond  these  would  fall  under  the  head  of  salvage 
service  and  be  recompensed  accordingly.  There  arft  certain  offences 
for  -which  the  seaman  is  liable  to  be  summarily  punished  under  the 
Act  of  1854.  Tliey  compiise  desertion,  neglect  or  refusal  to  join 
Ilia  ship  or  absence  \\-ithout  leave,  quitting  the  ship  without  leave 
])efore  she  is  placed  in  security,  wilful  disobedience  to  a  lawful 
command,  either  on  one  occasion  or  continued,  assault  upon  a 
master  or  mate,  combining  to  disobey  lawful  commamU  or  to 
neglect  dnty  or  to  invpede  the  navigation  of  the  ship  or  the  progress 
of  the  voyage,  trilful  damage  to  Qie  ship,  or  embezzlement  of  or 
wilful  damage  to  her  stoi-es  or  cargo,  and  smuggling.  The  punish- 
ine-.it  varies  from  foi-feitnre  of  all  or  part  ofliis  wages  to  twelve 
weeks'  imprisonment  (s.  243,  as  amended  by  the  Merchant  Seamen 
Act,  1880).  A  master,  .seaman,  or  apprentice  who  by  wilful  breach 
of  duty,  or  by  neglect  of  dutj-,  or  by  reason  of  drankenuess,  does 
any  act  tending  to  the  immediate  loss,  deslrnction,  or  serious 
damage  of  the  ship  or  to  immediately  endanger  the  life  or  liml)  of 
any  person  belonging  to  or  on  board  of  the  snip,  or  who  by  wilful 
breach  of  duty,  or  by  neglect  of  duty,  or  by  reason  of  drunkenness 
refuses  or  omits  to  do  any  lawful  act  proper  and  requisite  to  be 
done  by  him  for  preserving  the  ship  from  immediate  loss,  destruc- 
tion, or  serious  damage,  or  for  preserving  any  person  belonging  to 
or  on  board  of  the  ship  from  inmiediate  danger  to  life  or  limb,  is 
guilty  of  a  misdemcauoiu-  (s.  239).  A  seaman  is  also  punishable  at 
common  law  for  piracy  and  by  statute  for  piracy  and  offences  against 
the  -Slave  Trade  Acts.  A  riotons  assembly  of  seamen  to  prevent 
the  loading  or  unloading  of  any  ship  or  to  prevent  others  from 
working  is  an  offence  under  33  Geo.  III.  c.  67  (see  Riot).  Deserters 
from  Portuguese  ships  are  punishable  by  12  and  13  Vict.  c.  25,  and 
from  any  foreign  ship  by  15  and  16  Vict.  c.  26,  of  course  by  virtue 
of  conventions  with  Portugal  and  othei'  foreign  powers.  The 
rating  of  seamen  is  now  regulated  by  the  Jlerchant  Seamen  Act, 
18S0.  By  tliat  Act  a  seaman  is  not  entitled  to  the  rating  of  "  A.B." 
unless  he  has  served  four  years  before  the  mast,  or  three  years  or 
more  in  a  registered  decked  fishing  vessel  and  ore  year  at  sea  in  a 
trading  vessel  (43  and  44  Vict.  c.  16,  s.  7).  The  Act  of  1854  enabled 
contributions  to  seamen's  refuges  and  hospitals  to  be  charged  upon 
the  mercantile  marine  fund.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  there 
appears  to  bo  no  gi'ant  iu  support  of  seamen's  hospitals  out  of  any 
puolic  funds.  The  principal  seamen's  hospital  is  that  at  Green- 
wich, established  in  1821  and  incorporated  by  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  c 
9  under  the  name  of  "  The  .Seaman's  Hospital  Society."  Up  to 
1870  this  hospital  occupied  the  old  "  Dreaduonght "  at  Greenwich, 
but  in  that  year  it  obtained  the  old  infirmary  of  Greenwich  Hospital 
from  the  admiralty  at  a  nominal  rent,  iu  return  for  which  a  certain 
number  of  beds  are  to  be  at  the  disposal  of  the  admiralty.  The 
liospital  is  supported  by  roluntai7  contributions,  including  those 
of  many  foreign  Governments,  and  has  between  its  foundation  and 
the  end  of  1884  relieved  no  less  tlian  253,629  seamen  of  all  nations. 
iTliere  is  also  a  dispensai-y  for  seamen  at  the  London  Docks,  and  a 
floating  hospital  at  Cardiff,  equally  supported  by  voluntary  con- 
tributions. At  one  time  there  was  an  enforced  conti'ibution  of  six- 
pence a  month  from  the  pay  of  masters  and  seamen  towards  tlie 
funds  of  Green\vich  Hospital,  levied  under  the  powers  of  some  of 
the  Greenwich  Hospital  Acts.  The  payment  of  these  contributions 
enabled  them  to  receive  annuities  n'oin  the  funds  of  the  hospitaL 
These  "  Greenwich  Hospital  sixpences,"  however,  became  the  source 
of  very  considerable  irritation  and  have  now  been  discontinued. 
In  their  place  a  purely  voluntai-y  seamen's  provident  fund  has  been 
established,  its  object  being  to  persuade  seamen  to  subscribe  six- 
'pcnce  a  month  towards  the  seamen's  hospitaL 

The  remedies  of  the  seaman  for  wages  are  an  ordhiary  action  in 
the  Queen's  Bench  Division  or  plaint  in  a  county  conrt,  an  action 
in  rem  or  in  personam  in  the  Admiralty  Division  of  the  Hi;,'h  Conrt 
(in  Scotland  in  the  Conrt  of  Session),  a  Vicc-Admiialty  Court,  or 
a  county  conrt  having  ailmiialty  jurisdiction,  or  summary  proceed- 
ings before  justices,  naval  courts,  or  suporiuteudcnts  of  mercantile 
marine  offices.  The  master  has  now  the  same  remedies  as  the  sea- 
man for  his  wages,  under  which  are  iuclnded  all  disbursements 
made  on  account  of  the  ship.  At  common  law  ho  had  only  a 
personal  action  against  the  owner.  Ho  has  the  nilditional  advan- 
tage of  being  able  to  insure  his  wages,  which  a  seaman  cannot  do. 
A  common  law  action  for  wages  is  seldom  brought,  the  statutory 
remedies  being  more  convenient.  By  the  Admiralty  Court  Act, 
1861,  the  Hign  Court  of  Justice  (Admiralty  Division)  has  juris- 
diction over  any  claim  by  a  seaman  of  any  ship  for  wages  earned 
by  him  on  board  the  ship,  whether  the  same  bo  due  under  a  special 
contract  or  othernise  (24  Vict  c.  10,  b.  10).  This  section  has  been 
liberally  constiued  and  held  to  apply  to  such  persons  as  a  surgeon, 
purser,  pilot,  carpenter,  and  steward.     The  court  can  entertain 


claims  by  foreign  seamen  against  a  foreign  ship,  on  notice  being 
given  to  the  consul  of  the  foreign  country.  If  he  protest,  the 
court  has  a  discretion  to  determine  whether  the  action  shall  pro- 
ceed or  not.  A  claim  for  ivagcs  in  the  High  Court  must  be  brought 
within  six  years  (4  and  5  Anne,  c.  3,  s.  17).  The  Vice-Admiralty 
Conrt  Act,  1863,  gives  jurisdiction  in  claims  for  wages  inespectire 
of  amount  to  vice-admiralty  courts.  A  county  conrt  having  admir- 
alty jurisdiction  may  entertain  claims  for  wages  where  the  amount 
claimed  does  not  exceed  £150  (31  and  32  Vict.  c.  71,  s.  3).  Tb^ 
jurisdiction  of  the  inferior  conrt  is  protected  by  the  proviso  that,' 
if  the  action  be  brought  in  the  High  Conrt  for  a  claim  not  exeeed- 
ing  £130,  the  plaintiff  may  be  condemned  in  costs,  and  will  no» 
be  entitled  to  costs  if  he  recover  less  than  this  snm,  unless  th« 
judge  certifies  that  it  w.-is  a  proper  case  to  be  heard  in  the  Higb 
Court  (s.  9).  In  actions  in  all  courts  of  admiralty  jurisdiction  thg 
seaman  has  a  maritime  lien  on  the  ship  and  freight,  ranking  next 
after  claims  for  salvage  and  damage.  The  amotmt  recoverabW 
summan'ly  before  justices  is  limited  to  £50.  Orders  may  be  en» 
forced  by  distress  of  the  ship  and  her  tackle.  Proceedings  must 
be  taken  within  si.x  months.  A  naval  court  on  a  foreign  statioii 
may  determine  questions  as  to  wages  without  limit  of  amount.' 
.is  a  rule  a  seaman  cannot  sne  abroad  for  wages  due  for  a  voyags 
to  temiinate  in  the  United  Kingdom.  The  superintendent  of  a 
mercantile  marine  office  has  power  to  decide  any  question  whatever 
between  a  master  or  owner  and  any  of  his  crew  wnich  both  parties 
in  writing  agi'ee  to  submit  to  him.  These  summary  remedies  are 
all  given  by  the  Act  of  1854.  The  Merchant  Seamen  Act,  1880, 
further  provides  that,  where  a  question  as  to  wages  is  raised  befora 
a  superintendent,  if  the  amount  in  question  does  not  exceed  £5,' 
the  supeiinteiident  may  adjudicate  finally,  unless  he  is  of  opiniou 
that  a  conrt  of  law  ought  to  decide  it.  'The  same  Act  ertends  the 
)n-ovisions  of  the  Employers  and  Workmen  Act,  1875,  to  seamen.' 
The  Act  of  1875  itself  specially  excluded  them.  A  county  court 
or  court  of  summary  jurisdiction  (the  latter  limited  to  claims  not 
exceeding  £10)  may  under  the  Act  of  1875  determine  all  disputes 
between  an  employer  and  workman  arising  out  of  their  relation  as 
such.  The  jurisdiction  of  courts  of  summary  jurisdiction  is  pro- 
tected by  the  enactment  of  the  Act  of  1854  that  no  proceeding  for 
the  recovery  of  wages  under  £50  is  to  be  instituted  in  a  superior 
court  unless  either  the  owner  of  the  ship  is  banki'upt,  or  the  ship 
is  under  arrest  or  sold  by  the  authority  of  such  court,  or  the  justices 
refer  the  case  to  such  court,  or  neither  owner  nor  master  is  or 
resides  within  20  miles  of  the  place  where  the  seaman  is  put  ashore 
(s.  189).  It  shonld  bo  noticed  that  claims. upon  allotment  notes 
may  be  brought  in  all  coimty  courts  and  beixire  justices  without 
any  limit  as  to  amount  (s.  169).  In  Scotland  the  sheriff  court  has 
concurrent  jurisdiction  with  justices  in  claims  for 'wages  and  upon 
allotment  notes.' 

Fishermen. — ^The  regulations  respecting  fisiiermen  are  contained 
chiefly  in  the  Sea  Fisheries  Acts,  1SG8  and  1883,  and  in  the  ilor- 
chant  Shipping  (Fishing-Boats)  Act,  1883.  The  Sea  Fisheries  Act 
of  1868  constituted  a  registry  of  fishing-boats,  and  that  of  1883 
gave  powers  of  enforcing  the  provisions  of  the  Acts  to  sea-fishery 
officers.  Tho  Merchant  Shipping  (Fishing-Boats)  Act  was  passed 
iu  consequcnco  of  the  occurrence  of  some  cases  of  barbarous  treat- 
ment of  boys  by  the  skippers  of  North  Sea  trawlers.  The  Act  pro- 
vides, inter  aha,  that  indentures  of  appi-enticeship  arc  to  be  in  ai 
certain  fonn  and  entered  into  before  a  superintendent  of  a  mercantile 
marine  office,  that  no  boy  under  thirteen  is  to  bo  employed  in  sea* 
fishery,  that  agreements  with  seamen  on  a  fishing-boat  are  to  con- 
tain the  same  particulars  as  those  with  merchant  seamen,  that 
running  agreements  m.ay  be  made  in  the  case  of  short  voyages,  that 
reports  of  tho  names  of  the  crew  are  to  bo  sent  to  a  superintendent 
of  a  mercantile  marine  office,  and  that  accounts  of  wages  and  cer- 
tificates of  discharge  are  to  be  given  to  seamen.  No  lishing-boat 
is  to  go  to  sea  without  a  duly  certified  skipper.  Piovision  is  also 
made  for  special  reports  of  cases  of  death,  injury,  ill-troatmcut,  or 
punishment  of  any  of  tho  crew,  and  for  inquiry  into  the  cause  o( 
such  death,  &c  Disputes  between  skippers  or  owners  and  seamen 
ore  to  bo  determined  at  request  of  any  of  the  parties  concerned  by 
a  superintendent.  For  special  privileges  of  fishermen  in  the  use  of 
the  seashore,  see  Eii'AuiAN  Laws.  They  are  also  exempt  from 
Trinity  Houso  dues.  There  aro  numerous  police  pro\'isions  con- 
tained in  various  Acts  of  Parliament  dealing  with  tho  breach  of 
fishery  regulations.  Those  provisions  act  as  an  indirect  protection 
to  honest  fishermen  in  their  employment.  Tlie  riglita  of  British 
fishermen  in  foreign  watcra  oiid  foreign  fushormen  in  British  watori 
are  in  many  rases  regulatfd  by  treaty,  genenilly  coufiruied  in  the 
United  Kingdom  by  Act  of  Parliament.  A  royal  fund  for  widoTO 
and  orphans  of  fishermen  has  recently  been  formed,  tho  nucleiLs  of 
tho  fund  being  piirt  of  tho  profiU  of  tho  Fisberiei  ExliibitioB  held 
iu  London  in  1883. 

Uniieii  Slates.— The  law  of  the  United  Sutos  i.s  in  general  accord- 


'  Bpc  the  works  on  inorctunt  ililpplng,  nooh  u  thotn  of  At.lwttjMMtachtall, 
Mmxic  «nd  rollick;  Roscne,  A'hnlrailt  Inti-  hnd  l><irlii-r ;  Wlllliuw  •« 
Uruco,  Admirally  I'rtKtUt ;  tUo  UvKor,  .MoiUm  l^MatUn M  Smmtn  a*d  fir 
Saftty  at  Sta,  liSi. 


608- 


S  E  A  — S  E  A 


anco  with  that  of  England."  Tlic  lawrclnting  to  seamen  in  the 
navy  will  be  found  in  the  articles  for  the  government  of  the  navy 
{Bevised  Statutes,  s.  1624).  Legislation  in  the  interests  of  mercljant 
seamen  dates  from  1790.  A  list  of  the  crew  must  be  delivered  to 
a  collector  of  customs.  The  shipjiing  artiides  arr'  the  same  as  those 
in  use  in  the  United  Kingdom.  For  vessels  in  the  coasting  trade 
they  are,  vith  certain  exceptions,  to  he  in  writing  or  in  Jirint. 
They  must  in  the  case  of  foreign-hound  ships  be  signed  before  a 
shipping  commissioner  appointed  by  the  circuit  court  or  a  collector 
of  customs,  or  {if  entered  into  abroad)  a  consular  officer,  where  M'acti- 
cable,  and  must  be  acknowledged  by  his  signature  in  a  prescribed 
form.  One-third  of  a  seaman's  wages  earned  up  to  that  time  is  due 
Hit  every  port  where  the  ship  unlades  and  delivers  her  cargo  before 
jthe  voyage  is  ended.  They  must  be  fully  paid  in  gold  or  its  Cfjuiva- 
flent  within  twenty  days  of  the  discharge  of  the  cargo.  Advance 
■notes  can  be  made  only  in  favour  of  the  .seaman  himself  or  his  wife 
or  mother.  There  is  a  summary  remeily  for  wages  before  a  district 
court,  a  justice  of  the  peace,  or  a  commissioner  of  a  district  court. 
lA  shipping  commissioner  may  act  as  arbitrator  by  written  consent 
of  the  parties.  Seaworthiness  is  an  implied  condition  of  the  hiring. 
There  may  be  an  examination  of  the  ship  on  the  complaint  of  the 
mate  and  a  majority  of  the  crew.  The  expenses  of  an  unnecessary 
investigation  are  a  charge  upon  the  wages  of  those  who  complain. 
A  seaman  may  not  leave  his  ship  without  the  consent  of  the  master. 
For  foreign-bound  voyages  a  medicine-chest  and  antiscorbutics 
must  be  carried,  also  60  gallons  of  water,  100  lb  of  salted  meat,  and 
100  It)  of  wholesome  bread  for  every  person  on  board,  and  for  every 
seaman  at  least  one  suit  of  wooUen  clothing,  and  fuel  for  the  fire 
of  the  seaman's  room.  An  assessment  of  forty  cents  per  month  per 
seaman  is  levied  on  every  vessel  arriving  from  a  foreign  port  and 
on  every  registered  coasting  vessel  in  aid  of  the  fund  for  the  relief 
of  sick  and  disabled  seamen.  In  the  navy  a  deduction  of  twenty 
qents  per  month  from  each  man's  pay  is  made  for  the  same  pur])ose. 
The  offences  and  punishments  are  similar  to  those  in  tlie  United 
Kingdom.  There  is  also  the  additional  offence  of  wearing  a  sheath 
knife  on  shipboard. '  (J.  \vt. ) 

_    SEAECH,  Right  of.'  "  Tlie  rigbt  of  visiting  and  search- 
ing ships  on  the  high  seas,"  says  Lord  Stowell,  "  whatever 
ibe  the  ships,  whatever  be  the  cargoes,  whatever  be  the 
'destinations,  is  an  incontestible  right  of  the  lawfully  com- 
missioned ship  of  a  belligerent  nation ;  because  till  they 
are  visited  and  searched  it  does  not  appear  what  the  ships 
or  the  cargoes  or  the  destinations  are ;  and  it  is  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  these  points  that  the  necessity  of 
this  right  of  visitation  and  search  exists.     This  right  is  so 
clear  in  principle  that  no  man  can  deny  it  who  admits  the 
|right  of  maritime  capture,  because  if  you  are  not  at  liberty 
to  ascertain  by  sufficient  enquiry  whether  there  is  property 
.which  can  be  legally  captured,  it  is  impossible  to  capture  " 
r '  The  Maria,"  1  C.  Robinson's  Reports,  36).     This  right  of 
pearch  or  visitation  and  search  has  not  been  at  all  times 
[recognized.     The  second  armed  neutrality  of  the  Baltic 
powers  in  1800  attempted  to  withdraw  their  vessels  from 
the  right.     The  bombardment  of  Copenhagen  in  1801  was 
one  of  the  results  of  this  policy.     Since  the  convention 
which  followed  that  event  the  right  has  been  rejjarded  as 
established  within  proper  limits,  and  is  often  regi  dated  by 
jtreaty,  especially  as  to  the  search  of  vessels  suspected  of 
jbeing  engaged  in  the  slave  trade.     Apart  from  tnaty,  the 
main  rules  which  govern  the  right  are  these.     (I'l  It  is  a 
belligerent  right,  and  can  be  exercised  only  in  time  of  war, 
(unless  in  the  case  of  a  vessel  reasonably  suspected  of 
piracy  or  breach  of  revenue  regulations.     (2)  It  can  be 
exercised  only  by  a  ship  of  war  duly  commissioned  by  the 
Bovereign  of  the  belligerent  power  and  only  in  the  case  of 
a  merchant  vessel,  whether  of  an  enemy  or  neutral  power. 
(3)  It  cannot   be   exercised  in   neutral  -waters,  and  an 
attempt  to  exercise  it  in  such  waters  is  a  gross  violation 
of  neutrality.     (4)  It  can  be  exercised  only  for  certain 
purposes,  such  as  to  examine  the  ship's  papers  and  to  see 
S^hether   she  carries  any  contraband  goods.      (5)  After 
the  ship  of  war  has  raised  her  flag,  an  affirming  gun  {coup 
^assurance)  loaded  with  blank  cartridge  must  be  fired  to 
bring  the  merchant  vessel  to.     (6)  In  case  of  reasonable 
puBpicion  it  is  the  duty  of  the  ship  of  war  to  detain  the 

'  Bise, Bevised  Statutes,  ss.  4501-4612;  Kent,  Comm.,  vol.  iii.  177; 
raraons,  Law  of  Shipping,  vol.  ii.  32. 


merchant  vessel  for  the  decision  of -a  prize  court."^  Resist- 
ance by  a  neutral  vessel,  whether  alone  or  in  convo}',  renders 
her  liable  to  capture  according  to  the  English  and  United 
States  doctrine.  But  most  Continental  authorities  lay 
down  that  the  declaration  of  the  officer  in  charge  of  the 
convoy  is  to  be  accepted,  and  that  a  refusal  to  accept  such 
declaration  may  justify  the  convoy  in  resisting  search. 
There  is  al.so  a  conflict  of  opini^^n  as  to  whether  a  neutral 
loses  his  neutral  rights  by  loading  his  goods  on  board  an 
armed  ship  of  the  enemy.  It  has  been  held  in  England 
that  such  a  jjroceeding  is  a  violation  of  neutrality,  as  afford- 
ing a  presumption  of  resistance  to  search. 

The  right  of  search  is  historically  interesting,  as  on  two  occasions 
it  has  brought  Great  Britain  into  collision  with  the  United  States. 
One  of  the  causes  of  the  war  of  1812  was  the  right  then  claimed 
(but  since  abandoned)  by  Great  Britain  of  searching  vessels  of  the 
United  States  for  British  subjects  serving  in  them  as  seamen,  with 
a  view  to  impressing  them  for  the  royal  navy.  In  1S61  the  IJritish 
mail  steamer  "Trent"  was  stopped  "on  the  high  seas  by  a  United 
States  ship  of  war,  and  Jlessrs  Slidell  and  Mason,  two  commis- 
sionei-s  of  the  Confederate  States  proceeding  to  Europe,  were  taken 
out  of  her  and  afterwards  imprisoned  in  the  United  States.  On 
diplomatic  representations  being  made  at  ^Vashington  by  the  am- 
bassadors of  Great  Britain  and  other  powers  the  commissioners 
were  released,  and  a  war  was  avoided. 

See  in  addition  to  the  ordinaiv  autliorities  on  international  law,  Vtsitalion 
and  Search,  by  W.  B.  Lawreiice.  Boston,  U.S.,  ISoS. 

SEA-SERPEXT.      The  belief  in  enormous   serpents, 
both  terrestrial  and  marine,  dates  from  very  early  times. 
Pliny  {H.^\,  viii.  U),  following  Livy  (Epit,  xviii.),  tells 
us  of  a  land-serpent  120  feet  long,  which  Eegulus  and 
his  array  besieged  with  balista;,  as  though  it  had  been  a 
city,  and  this  story  is  repeated  by  several  other  WTiters 
(Florus,  ii.  2 ;  Yal.  JIax.,  i.  8 ;  Gellius,  vi.  3).     The  most 
prolific  in  accounts  of  the  sea-serpent,  however,  are  the 
early  Norse  writers,  to  whom  the  "  So-Orm  "  was  a  subject 
both  for  prose  and  verse.    Olaus  IMagnus  {Hixf.  Gent.  Sept., 
xxi.  24)  describes  it  as  200  feet  long  and  20  feet  round, 
and  states  that  it  not  only  ate  calves,  sheep,  and  swine, 
but  also  "disturbs  ships,  rising  up  like  a  mast,  and  some- 
times snaps  some  of  the  men  from  the  deck,"  illustrating 
his  account  with  a  vivid  representation  of  the  animal  in 
the  very  act.     Pontoppidan,  in  his  Katural  History  (Eng. 
tr.,_1755,  p.  19,5  sq.),  says  that  its  existence  was  generally 
believed  in  by  the  sailors  and  fishermen  of  his  time,  and 
recounts  the  means  they  adopted  to  escape  it,  as  well  as 
many  details  regarding  the  habits  of  the  creature.     The 
more    circumstantial    records    of    comparatively   modern 
times  may  be  most  conveniently  grouped  according  to  the 
caiises  which  presumably  gave  rise  to  the  phenomena  de- 
scribed.    (1)  A  number  of  porpoises  swimming  one  behind 
another  may,  by  their  characteristic  mode  of  half  emerging 
from  and  then  re-entwing  the  water  during  respiration, 
produce  the  appearance  of   a  single  animal   showing  a 
succession  of  snake-like  undulations.     The  figure  given  by 
Pontoppidan  was  very  likely  suggested  by  such  an  appear- 
ance, and  a  sketch  of  an  animal  seen  off  Llandudno  by 
several  observers  -  looks  as  though  it  might  have  had  a 
similar  origin,  notwithstanding  that  this  "hypothesis  was 
rejected  by  them.     (2)  A  flight  of  sea-fowl  on  one  occasion 
recorded  by  Professor  Aldis  ^  produced  the  appearance  of 
a  snake  swimming  at  the  surface  of  the  water.     (3)  A 
large  mass  of  seaweed  has  on  more  than  one  occasion  been 
cautiously  approached  and  even  harpooned  under  the  im- 
pression that  it  was  such  a  monster.*     (4)  A  pair  of  bask- 
ing sharks  (Selacke  maxima)  furnish  an  explanation  of  some 
of  the  recorded  observations,  as  was  first  pointed  out  by 
Frank  Buckland.     These  fish  have  a  habit  of  swimming 


=  Mott,  A'ature,  xxvii.  pp.  293,  315,  338  ;  also  Land  and  Water, 
September  1872.  '        " 

^  Nature,  ibid.;  also  Drew,  in  vol.  xviii.  p.  48&;  Bird,  torn.  cit.,p 
*19  ;  Ingleby,  torn,  cit.,  p.  541. 

*  F.  Smith, ,  ri)«™,  February  1858;   Herriman,  quoted  by  Gosse, 
op.  cit.  postea,  p.  338  ;  Pringle,  Ifature,  xviii.  p.  619,  1878. 


SEA-SERBENT 


609 


tn  paii-s,-  une''following  the  other  ^^■ith  the  dorsal  fin 
Sind  the  upper  lobe  of  the  tail  just  appearing  above  the 
n-ater,  and,  as  each  animal  is  fully  30  feet  long,  the  effect 
of  a  body  of  60  or  more  feet  long  moving  through  the 
water  is  readily  produced.  To  this  category  belongs  the 
famous  serpent  cast  up  on  Stronsay,  one  of  the  Orkneys, 
of  which  an  account  was  read  to  the  Wernerian  Society  of 
Edinburgh  i ;  some  of  its  vertebrre  were  preserved  in  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  London,  and  identified  as 
those  of  Selnche  maxima  by  both  Home  and  Owen."  There 
is  also  evidence  to  show  that  specimens  of  Cnrr/iai-oclon 
must  have  existed  more  than  100  feet  long.^  (5)  Eibbon- 
lish  {Regalecus),  from  their  snake-like  form  and  great  length 
(sometimes  as  much  as  20  feet),  have  been  suggested  as  the 
oiygin  of  so-called  "sea-serpents,"  amongst  others  by  Dr 
Andrew  Wilson'':  but  Dr  Giinther,-'  from  what  is  kno^vni 
regarding  the  habits  of  these  fish,  does  not  regard  the 
theory  as  tenable.  (G)  A  gigantic  s(iuid  {ArcUiteuihus) 
was  most  likely  the  foundation  of  the  old  Norse  accounts,^ 
and  also  of  those  which  in  the  early  part  of  the  19th 
century  came  so  frequently  from  the  United  States  as 
to  gain  for  the  animal  the  sobriquet  of  "  American  sea- 
serpent."^  These  stories  were  so  circumstantial  and  on 
the  whole  so  consistent,  and  vouched  for  by  j)ersons  of 
such  eminence,  that  no  douV,  v.Ci!'  possible  (notwithstanding 
the  cavilling  of  Mitchell)  ^  as  to  the  existence  of  a  strange 
marine  monster  of  very  definite  chai'acter  in  those  regions. 
The  description  commonly  given  of  it  has  been  summed 
up  by  Gosse'''  somewhat  thus: — (i.)  general  form  that  of  a 
serpent;  (ii.)  length  averaging  60  feet;  (iii.)  head  flattened, 
eye  generally  not  mentioned,  some  distinctly  stating  that  it 
was  not  seen  ;  (iv.)  neck  12  to  16  inches  in  diameter ;  (v.) 
appendages  on  the  head,  neck,  or  back  (accounts  here 
variable);  (vi.)  colour  dark,  lighter  below  ;  (vii.)  swims  at 
the  surface,  head  thrown  forward  and  slightly  elevated ; 
(viii.)  progression  steady  and  uniform,  body  straight  but 
capable  of  being  bent;  (ix.)  water  spouting  from  it;  (x.) 
in  shape  like  a  "nun  buoy."  The  annexed  figure  (fig.  1) 
Tepresents '  'one" 
(Which  was  seen 
from  H.M.S. 
,"Da!dalus.""'To 
show  the  reason- 
ableness of  this 
hypothesis,  it 
may  be  added 
that  gigantic  Cephalopoda  are  not  unfrecjuent  on  the 
shores  of  Newfoundland,"  and  are  occasionally  met  with 
on  the  coasts  of  Scaudinavia,i-  Denmark,  and  the  British 
Lsles,'^  that  their  extreme  size  seems  to  be  above  60  feet, 
and,  furtliermore,  that  their  mode  of  progression  is  by 
means  of  a  jet  of  water  forcibly  exi^elled  from  the  siphon, 
iwhich  would  impart  that  equable  motion  to  which  several 


Fia.  1. — Sea-serpent,  as  seen  from  H.M.S.' 
"Dsdalus." 


1  Mem.  Weill.  Soc.  EcUu.,  vol.  i.  pp.  418-14-1,  pis.  ix.-xi.,  1811. 
'  A.m.  Mag.  Xut.  Hist.,  ser.  2,  vol.  ii.  p.  461, 1848  ;  for  a  criticism 
ipf  tUcae  views,  see  Traill,  Pivc.  Roy.  Soc.  £din.,  vol  iii.  p.  208,  1857. 
"  Owen,  Odontoftraphy,  p.  30. 

•  Leisure  Time  Sliulie.^,  p.  115,  London,  1879,  containing  a  readable 
lessay  on  the  subject ;  Scotsman,  6th  September  1878  ;  Nature,  loc.  cit. 
■     ■>  Sladi/  of  Fishes,  p.  521,  Edinburgh,  1880. 

.     •  See  note  3  ;  also  Deiubolt,  qnotcd  in  Zoologist,  p.  1604,  1847. 

"  Bigelow,  Amer.  .Joiirn.  Sci.,  vol.  ii.  pp.  147-165, 1820;  Warburtou, 
'!i7>.,  vol.  .\ii.  p.  375,  1823  ;  Zoologist,  p.  1714,  1847. 

•  Amer.  Joam.  Sci.,  vol.  xv.  p.  351,  1829. 

•  /loiiuoice  of  Xalimil  History,  \>.  345,  London,' 1859. 

"  M'Qu.ohae,  Times,  October  1848  ;  III.  Land.  News,  October  1848. 

"  Venill,  Trans.   Connect.  Acad.,  vol.  v.  part  i.,  1880,  containing 
•D  account  of  all  antheilticatcd  specimens  of  gigantic  R^ptids. 
*   ^  Steenstruji,  Forhandl.  Skund.  Natitr/.,  Idc  Mode,  pp.  182-185,' 
Cliristiania,  1857. 

"  Sa\-ille  Kent,  Pivc.  Xool.  Soc.  Land.,  p.  178,  1874 ;  More, 
Zoologist,  p.  4026,  1875  ;  also  Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  4,  vol.  vi. 
p.  12S. 


observers  allude  as  being  evidently  not  produced  by  any 
serpentine  bending  of  the  body.  A  very  interesting 
account  of  a  monster  almost  certainly  originating  in  one 
of  these  squids  is  that  of  Hans  Egede,"  the  well-kno\\-u  mis; 
sionary  to  Green- 
land ;  the  drawing 
by  Bing,  given  in 
his  work,  is  repro- 
duced here  (fig.  2), 
along  with  a  sketch 
of  a  squid  in  the 
act  of  rearing  itself 
out  from  the  water 
(fig.  3),  an  action 
which  they  have 
been  observed  in 
aquaria  habitually 
to  perform.  Nu- 
merous other  ac- 
counts seem  to  be 
explicable  by  this 
hypothesis.**  (7)  A 


Fw.  2. — Sea-serpent,  as  observed  by  Hans' 
Egede 


-.Squid,  rearing  itself  out  of  the  wtt«i> 


sea- lion,  or  "Anson's  sea,\"  {Morunc/a  elephantina),  was 
suggested  by  Owen'"  as  a  possible  explanation  of  the' 
serpent  seen  from 
H.M.S."DKdalus": 
but  as  this  was 
afterwards  rejected 
by  Captain  M'Qua- 
hae,''  who  stated 
that  it  could  not ' 
have  been  any  ani- 
mal of  the  seal 
kind,  it  seems  bet- 
ter to  refer  the  ap- 
pearance to  a  squid 
as  above  stated. 
(8)  A  plesiosaurus, 
or  some  other  of 
the  huge  -,  marine 
reptiles  usually  be-' 
lieved  to  be  extinct,  yiq.  3. 
might  certainly 
have  produced  the  phenomena  described,  granting  thej 
possibility  of  one  having  survived  to  the  present  time. 
Newman  '^  and  Gosse  '^  have  both  supported  this  theory, 
the  former  citing  as  evidence  in  its  favour  the  report  of 
a  creature  with  the  body  of  an  alligator,  a  long  neck,  and 
four  paddles  having  been  seen  by  Captain  Hope  of  H.M.S. 
"  Fly  ■'  in  the  Gulf  of  California.-"  (9)  No  satisfactory 
explanation  has  yet  been  given  of  certain  descriptions  of 
the  sea-serpent;  among  others  of  this  class  may  bo  ;nen- 
tioned  the  huge  snake  seen  by  certain  of  the  crew-'  of 
the  "  Pauline "  in  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean,  .vhich  wa.<« 
coiled  twice  round  a  large  sperm  whale,  and  then  towered 
up  many  feet  into  the  air,  and  finally  dragged  the  whale 
to  the  bottom.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable,  however,' 
is  Lieutenant  Haync's '-'-  account  of  a  creature  seen  from 
H.M.  yacht  "  Osborne."  Two  diflferent  aspects  were  re- 
corded,— the  first  being  a  ridge,  30  feet  in  length,  of  tri- 

"  Dct  gamle  Ori/nlanda  nyi  Perlustralion,  Copenhogeu,  1741 
(Eng.  trans.,  A  Description  of  Oreenland,  London,  1745,  pp.  80-89) ; 
also  Paul  Egedc,  E/tcrrctninger  om  Orlinland,  Cojieuhagcn,  n.d.,  pp. 
45,  46. 

"  L.  do  Fen-)-,  quoted  by  Pontoppidan,  o^.  cil.  ;  Davidson  una 
Sandford,  quoted  in  Zoologist,  p.  2459,  1849  ;  Senior,  Graphic,  191U 
April  1879  ;  Barnett,  Nature,  vol.  ix.  p.  289,  1879. 

>•  yliiH.  Mag.  Nat.  I/ist.,  ser.  2,  vol.  ii.  p.  461,  1848. 

"  Timts,  21st  Novcmbar  1848.  "  Zoologist,  p.  2395.^ 

'»  Op.  cit:,v-  358.  *  Zoologist,  p.  2356,  1849. 

=•  Penny,  III.  Land.  News,  vol.  ll\Ti.  p.  615,  20th  Novcmb«r  1875; 

=  ataphic,  30th  Juno  1877.  „,., 

XXL  —  77 


610 


S  E  A  — S  E  A 


angular  fins,  each  rising  5  to  6-  feet  above  tlie  water, 
while  the  second  view  showed  a  large  round  head  6  feet 
in  diameter,  with  huge  flappers,  which  moved  like  those 
of  a  turtle.!  jt  ^-ould  thus  appear  that,  while,  with  vciy 
few  exceptions,  all  the  so-called  "  sea-seqients "  can  he 
explained  by  reference  to  some  well-known  animal  or  other 
natural  object,  there  is  still  a  residuum  sufficient  to  prevent 
modern  zoologists  from  denying  the  possibility  that  some 
such  creature  ma}-  after  all  exist. 

Quite  distinct  in  origin  from  the  stories  already  toucned 
on  is  the  legend  of  the  sea-serpent  or  tinn'ai  among  the 
Arabs  (JIas'udf,  i.  266  sq. ;  Kazwinl,  i.  132  sq. ;  Damiri, 
i.  1S6  S'l.),  which  is  described  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave 
no  doubt  that  the  waterspout  is  t!-e  2)henomenon  on  ^^'liich 
the  fable  rests.  The  tinn'tii  is  the  Hebrew  innniii  (E.V. 
•'  whale,"  "  dragon ''),  which  in  Ps.  cxlviii.  7  might  in  the 
context  be  appropriately  rendered  "  waterspout." 

In  addition  to  the  soui'ce.=!  already  cited,  the  reader  may  consult 
BlaAaood's  }[aria:lnc,  vol.  iii.,  1818  ;  Lee,  Sra  ilunslcrs  UninnslaJ 
(Inteniatioiial  Fisheries  Exhibition  Handhooh),  London,  1SS3  ; 
Co£;swell.  Z'^olorjisl,  ].p.  1S41,  1911  (1847);  and  Ilovle,  Proc.  liny, 
rii'i/.'!.  Sue.  Ed  111.,  vol.  is      ■  .  (W.  E.  HO.) 

SEA-SICKNESS, -a  peculiar  set  of  symptoms  experi- 
enced by  many  persons  when  subjected  to  the  pitching 
and  rolling  motion  of  a  vessel  at  sea,  of  which  depression, 
giddiness,  nausea,  and  vomiting  are  the  most  prominent. 

Although  the  vast  majority  of  persons  appear  to  be 
liable  to  this  ailmentfon  exposure  to  its  exciting  cause  (the 
instances  of  complete  and  constant  immunity  being  rare), 
they  do  not  all  suffer  alike.  Many  endure  distress  of  a 
most  acute  and  even  alarnihig  kind,  while  others  are 
simply  conscious  of  transient  feelings  of  nausea  and  dis- 
comfort. In  long  voyages,  while  many  are  affected  with 
sea-sickness  for  the  first  few  days  only,  others  are  tor- 
mented with  it  during  the  entire  period,  especially  on  the 
occurrence  of  rough  weather.  In  short  voyages,  such  as 
across  the  English  Channel,  not  a  few  even  of  those  sus- 
ceptible escape,  while  others  suffer  in  an  extreme  degree, 
the  sickness  persisting  long  after  arrival  on  shore. 

The  symptoms  generally  show  themselves  soon  after  the 
vessel  has  begun  to  roll  by  the  onset  of  giddiness  and 
discomfort  in  the  head,  together  with  a  sense  of  nausea 
and  sinking  at  the  stomach,  which  soon  develops  into 
intense  sickness  and  vomiting.  At  first  the  contents  of 
the  stomach  only  are  ejected;  but  thereafter  bihous  matter, 
and  occasionally  even  blood,  are  brought  up  by  the  violence 
of  the  retching.  The  vomiting  is  liable  to  exacerbations 
according  to  the  amount  of  oscillation  of  the  .ship ;  but 
seasons  of  rest,  sometimes  admitting  of  sleep,  occasionally 
intervene.  Along  with 'the  sickness  there  is  great  physical 
prostration,  as  shown  in  the  pallor  of  the  skin,  cold  sweats, 
and  feeble  pulse,  accompanied  with  mental  depression  and 
wretchedness.  In  almost  all  instances  the  attack  has  a 
favourable  termination,  and  it  is  extremely  rare  that  serious 
results  arise,  except  in  the  case  of  persons  weakened  by 
other  diseases,  although  occasionally  the  symptoms  are  for 
a  time  sufficiently  alarming. 

The  causes  giving  rise  to  sea-sickness  nave  long  been 
discussed,  and  a  vast  number  of  theories  have  been  pro- 
posed. The  conditions  concerned  in  the  production  of  the 
malady  are  apparently  of  complex  character,  embracing 
more  than  one  set  of  causes.  In  the  first  place,  the  rolling 
or  heaving  of  the  vessel  disturbs  that  feeling  of  the  relation 
of  the  body  to  surrounding  objects  upon  which  our  sense 
of  security  rests.  The  nervous  system  being  thus  sub- 
jected to  a  succession  of  shocks  or  surprises  fails  to  effect 
the  necessary  adjustments  for  equilibrium.  Giddiness  and 
with  it  nausea  and  vomiting  follow,  aided  probably  by  the 
profound   vaso- motor   disturbance  which   produces   such 

'  Dr  Andrew  Wilson  has  claimed  this  monster  as  a  ribbon-fish, 

Times,  15th  June  1877. 


manifest  depression  of  the  circulation.  Much  has  been 
made  by  some  of  the  effects  of  the  displacement  of  the 
abdominal  viscera,  especially  the  .'Stomach,  by  the  rolling 
of  the  vessel ;  but,  while  this  may  possibly  operate  to 
some  extent,  it  can  only  be  as  an  accessory  cause.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  intluence  of  the  changing  impres- 
sions made  upon  the  vision,  which  has  lieen  regarded  by 
some  as  .so  powerful  in  the  matter,  since  attacks  of  sea- 
sickness occnr  also  in  the  dark,  and  in  the  case  of  Mind 
persons.  Other  contributory  causes  may  be  mentioned, 
such  as  the  feeling  that  sickness  is  certain  to  come,  which 
may  biing  on  the  attack  in  some  persons  even  before  the 
vessel  has  begv.n  to  move ;  the  sense  of  the  body  being  in 
a  liquid  or  j-ieuljng  medium  as  it  descends  with  the  vessel 
into  the  trough  of  the  sea,  the  varied  odours  to  be  met 
with  on  lioard  ship,  and  circumstances  of  a  like  nature 
tend  also  to  jirecipitate  or  aggravate  an  attack.  Dr  Chap- 
man's vicvi  is  that  the  essential  cause  is  an  undue  afilux  of 
blood  to  the  spinal  cord.  But,  in  the  few  rare  instances 
where  sea-sickness  has  jiroved-fatal,  ]-if,s(-mor(em  appearances 
have  been  almost  entirely  negative,  and  only  such  as  are 
met  OTth  in  death  from  syncojje. 

Innunieralile  pipvintives  and  remedies  hare  been  proposed  ;  but 
most  of  them  fall  far  short  of  the  success  claimed  for  tliem.  No 
means  has  yet  been  discovered  which  can  altogi'thcr  jirevent  the  oc- 
currence of  sca-sickiiess,  uor  is  it  likely  anj-  will  be  found,  since  it  is 
largelj'  due  to  the  pitching  movements  of  the  vessel,  which  cannot 
be  .averted.  Swinging  couches  or  chambers  have  not  jiroved  of  any 
practical  utility.  No  doubt  there  is  less  risk  of  sickness  in  a  large 
and  well-liallastcd  vessel  than  in  a  small  one  ;  but,  even  tliougli 
the  rolling  may  be  consideraldy  modilicd,  the  ascending  and  de- 
scending movements  wliicli  so  readily  produce  nausea  continue. 
None  of  the  medicinal  agents  proposed  possess  infallible  pro]>ertics: 
a  remedy  which  suits  one  person  will  often  wholly  fail  with  another. 
There  appears  to  be  a  wide  concurrence  of  oi>inion  that  nerve  seda- 
tives are  among  the  most  potent  drags  which  can  be  employed; 
and  full  medicinal  doses  of  bromide  of  potassium,  chloral,  or  opium 
(the  last  two  only  under  strict  medical  direction)  taken  before  sail- 
ing appear  to  act  usefully  in  the  case  of  many  persons.  Ou  the 
other  hand,  some  high  authorities  have  recommended  the  employ- 
ment of  nerve  stimulants,  such  as  a  small  cupful  of  very  strong 
coffee  to  be  taken  about  two  hours  before  sailing,  wdiich  wiU  fre- 
quently pre^■ent  or  mitigate  the  sickness.  When  the  vessel  is  in 
motion,  or  even  before  starting,  the  recumbent  position  with  the 
licad  low  and  the  eyes  closed  should  be  assimied  by  those  at  all 
likely  to  suffer,  and,  should  the  weather  admit,  on  deck  rather 
than  below, — the  body,  especially  the  extremities,  being  well 
covered.  JIany  persons,  however,  find  comfort  and  relief  from 
lying  down  in  their  berths  with  a  hot  bottle  to  the  feet,  by  -whicli 
means. sleep  may  be  obtained,  and  with  it  a  temporary  abatement 
of  the  distressing  giddiness  and  nausea.  Should  sickness  supervene 
small  quantities  of  some  light  food,  such  as  thin  arrowroot,  giuel, 
or  soup,  ought  to  be  swallowed  if  possible,  in  order  to  lessen  the 
sense  of  exhaustion,  which  is  often  extreme.  The  vomiting  may- 
be mitigated  by  saline  effervescing  drinks,  ice,  chloroform,  hydro- 
cyanic acid,  or  opium.  Alcohol,  although  occasionally  useful_  in 
great  prostration,  is  not  generally  found  to  be  of  much  service, 
but  tends  rather  to  aggravate  the  sickness.  Dr  Chapman,  in 
accordance  with  his  view  of  the  cause  of  the  sickness,  introduced  a 
spinal  ice-bag,  which  has  been  extensively  employed  and  recom- 
mended ;  but,  like  every  other  plan  of  treatment,  it  has  only  occa- 
sional success.  The  more  recently  proposed  remedies,  such  as 
nitrite  of  amyl  and  cucaine,  do  not  seem  to  yield  any  better  results 
than  the  agents  abeady  mentioned. 

SEATTLE,  county  seat  of  King  county,-  Washington 
Territory,  United  States,  on  Seattle  Bay,  east  side  of 
Puget  Sound,  with  Lake  Union,  3  miles  long,  on  the  north, 
and  Lake  Washington,  25  miles  long,  on  the  east,  is  the 
largest  city  of  the  Territory.  A  ship  canal  to  connect 
these  lakes  with  Puget  Sound  is  now  (1886)  in  course  of 
construction.  Seattle  has  shipyards,  foundries,  machine- 
shops,  sawmills,  lumber-yards,  breweries,  and  manufac- 
tories of  furniture,  carriages,  cigars,  crackers,  patent 
medicbes,  boxes,  and  barrels.  It  possesses  the  Territorial 
university.'-  The  Columbia  and  Puget  Sound  and  the 
Puget  Sound  Shore  iRailroads  have  their  terminus  here, 
whence  large  shipments  of  coal  take  place.  The  population 
in  18S0  was  3533,  and  in  1885  it  was  estimated  at  12,000. 


SEA      WATER 


611 


SEA  WATER.'  The  ocean  covers  very  nearly  eight- 
elerrenths  of  the  total  area  of  the  globe  ;  its  iiverage  depth 
may  be  estimated  as  2000  fathoms,  and  its  total  mass  at 
r3-22  X  10"  (i.e.,  13  million  million  millions)  tons.  Its 
general  configuration  must  be  assumed  to  have  been  sub- 
stantially the  same  as  it  is  now  for  thousands  of  years ; 
henco  we  may  safely  conclude  that  the  absolute  composi- 
tion of  the  ocean  as  a  whole  is  constant  in  the  sense  of 
tetng  only  subject  to  very  slow  progressive  millennial 
variation,  and  that,  taking  one  part  of  the  ocean  -with 
another,  the  percentage  composition  of  the  fixed  part  of 
the  solutiim  can  oscillate  only  within  narrow  limits.  The 
composition  of  tliis  solutum  is  very  complex.  According 
to  Forchhamnier,  ocean  salt  in  addition  to  the  chlorides 
and  sulphates  of  sodium,  magnesium,  potassium,  and  cal- 
cium— which  had  long  been  known  to  be  its  principal 
components — includes  silica,  boric  acid,  bromine,  iodine, 
fluorine  as  acid,  amd  the  oxides  of  nickel,  cobalt,  manganese, 
aluiuinium,  zinc,  silver,  lead,  copper,  barium,  and  strontium 
as  basic  components.  Arseruc,  gold,  lithium,  rubidium, 
cesium  have  been  discovered  since  Forchhammer  wrote. 
But  all  these  subsidiary  components,  as  that  investigator 
found,  amount  to  very  little, — so  little  that  in  his  numerous 
quantitative  analyses  of  waters  which  he  had  procured 
from  all  quarters  of  the  globe  he  confined  himself  to  the 
determination  of  the  cLlorine,  sulphuric  acid,  magnesia, 
lime,  potash,  and  soda.  The  soda,  however,  he  determined 
only  by  difference,  assuming  that  the  miniatic  and  sul- 
phuric acids  are  united  v.ith  the  bases  into  perfectly  neutral 
salts.  As  a  general  result  he  found  that,  in  tlie  open  ocean, 
the  ratio  to  one  another  of  the  several  acids  and  bases 
named  is  subject  to  only  slight  variations.  But  his  samples 
had  all  been  collected  at  the  surface ;  the  potash  had  been 
determined  by  an  insufficiently  exact  method ;  and  the 
assumed  neutrality  of  the  total  salt  had  not  been  proved. 
With  the  view  primarily  of  supplementing  Forclihammer's 
work,  Dittraar  made  complete  analyses  of  77  of  the  samples 
brought  home  by  the  "  Challenger,"  so  selected  that  31  out 
of  the  77  represented  depths  of  1000  fathoms  or  more. 
His  analyses  brought  out  a  small  surplus  of  base,  prov- 
ing the  presence  of  carbonate  in  all  the  waters ;  but  the 
numerical  values  thus  found  for  the  "alkalinity,"  being 
charged  with  the  observational  errors  of  the  whole  series 
of  determinatiorts,  could  not  be  relied  on.  Dittmar  there- 
fore subsequently  availed  himself  of  a  very  easy  and  yet 
'exact  method  for  the  direct  determination  of  this  quantity, 
•which  meanwhile  had  been  discovered  by  Tornoe,  and  ap- 
plied it  to  over  130  "Challenger"  eamples.  He  besides 
made  a  special  inquiry  into  the  relation  between  the 
quantity  of  lime  and  the  depth  at  which  the  water  had 
been  collected,  and  a  similar  inquiry  in  regard  to  the 
bromine.  As  a  general  summary  ho  gives  the  following 
three  tables.  The  total  salts  contained  in  ocean  water 
amount  on  an  average  to  about  3-5  per  cent.,  thus  leaving 
96'5  per  cent,  for  the  water  proper. 

•  All  our  knowledge  of  the  mibject  of  cliemieiil  occaiiograjWiy — a 
branch  of  physical  geography  which  has  only  lately  come  to  be  cxten- 
aively  ciiltivated — is  derived  from  a  Beries  of  investigntionfi  chiefly  em* 
l)Odi«d  in  the  following  publications: — (1)  Forchlmiiimer,  "On  tho 
Composition  of  Sea  Water,"  kc,  in  Phil.  Trans.,  1.  155,  pp.  203-262 
(1865) ;  (2)  Oscar  Jocobscn,  Ann.  d.  Clicm.,  toL  clxviL  p.  1  sq. 
fl873);  (3)  Dun  Norske  Nordhavs  Hxpedilim,  1S76-73 :  Chemi,  by 
Torniic);  (4)  tbe  Jahreabericlile  of  the  Kiel  commitftce  for  the  scien- 
tific Investigation  of  the  Gcrmnn  Ocean,  1873-32;  (5)  Physics  and 
Chemistry  of  the  Vo;/nije  of  //..\I..S.  "  CJidlmger" — I.  "Report  on 
Researches  into  the  Composition  of  Ocean  Wntor,"  &c.,  by  Prof.  W. 
Kttmar,  January  1834;  II.  "Report  on  tho  Spccilic  Gravity  of 
samples  of  Ocean  Water,"  &c.,  by  J.  Y.  Biicluiiiaii,  .Janiinry  1884  ; 
HI.  "Report  on  Deep-sea  Temperature,"  Ac,  by  the  oftiL-crs  of  tlie 
•jcpcdition.  A  shorter  and  moro  popular  exposition  of  tho  whole  is 
found  in— <6)  A'arralivn  of  Ike  Cniist  of  //.  U.S.  "C'Aa/teij7»r"  (1885). 
The  exccUont  HandbwJi  der  Oceanogmpliie  (Stuttgart),  by  Prof.  O. 
T*n  Boguslawaki,  may  be  referred  to  as  beinj  almost  up  to  date. 


Tadib  I. — Average  Compotiticm  of  Ocean-  Water  Shlls. 


Per  100  parta  of 
Touil  Salts. 

F<r  100  or  Halo^ii  calculatnt 

u  Cliloriue. 

Dlttmnr. 

Dlltinar. 

99-843 
0-340 

11-576 
0-274 
3  026 

11-212 
2-405 

74-462 

(-22-559) 

Forclilmmuicr. 

Chlorine 

55-2921 
0-133/  = 
6-410 
0  152 
1-676 
6-209 
1-332 

41  -234 

(-12-493) 

Not  detcrmine«l. 
Not  duterniined. 

11-88 

Not  deteiminetl. 

2-93 

11-03 

1-93 

Not  deterniiued. 

Sulphuric  acid,  SOj 
Carbonic  acid',  CO; 

1  Magnesia,  MgO 

1  Potash,  K.,0 

Soda,  Na,b    : 

(Basic    oxygen,   ccnii- 
valent  to  tho  ha!o- 

Total  salts 

100-000 

180-58*            .181-1 

Table  II. — RcsxMsfrom  combining  Acids  and  Bases  (Dittmar). 


Chloride  of  sodium 77  758 

Chloride  of  magnesium  ...10-878 
Sulphate  of  magnesium  ...  4-737 
Suliihateoflimo 3-600 


Snlphate  of  potash 2-465 

llromide  of  niagnesinra        0'217 
Carbonate  of  lime   0-345 


Total  salts...   100009 
Reducing  to  the  absolute  mass  of  the  ocean  a;s  given 
above,  we  arrive  at  the  followng  numbers  : — 

T^UiLE  III. — Absolute  Composition  of  the  Salts  of  the  Oecaiu 
Unit=l  million  million  =  10'-  tons. 

Chlovido  of  sodium  35990  I  .Sulphate  of  potash   1141 

Chloride  of  magucsium   ...5034    liromido  of  niagnesiuni    ...     100 

Sulphate  of  magnesium  ...  2192    Carbouato  of  lime 169 

Sulphate  of  lime  1666  46283 

Total  bromine     87-2    (Dittmar). 

Tot,->l  iodine     0-03  (Kbttstorfer). 

Total  chloride  of  rubidium  25-0    (C.  Schmidt). 

Of  the  several  quantities  recorded  in  columns  2  or  3 
of  Table  I.  "carbonic  acid"  is  proved  to  be  subject  to 
variation ;  all  the  rest,  including  even  the  bromine,  are 
practically  constant.  This  shows  that  Forclihammer's 
propo.sition  holds  for  ocean  water  from  all  depths,  with 
one  important  qualification  :  special  research  on  the  lime 
showed  that  its  quantity  increases  slightly  but  appreciably 
with  the  depth.  Taking  s,  m,  d  as  rein-esenting  the  lime 
per  100  of  chlorine  in  shallow,  medium-depth,  and  deep- 
sea  water  respectively,  Dittmar  found  ns  mean  results  of 
analyses  which  agreed  very  well  together — 

s  =  3-0175  )j»  =  3-0300  (Z  =  3-0303 

Probable  error,  ±00012  ±00014  ±0-0011. 

But  TO -a  =  0-01 24  and  rf-s  =  0-0132.  One  explanation 
of  this  result  is  that  the  crustaceans,  foraniinifura,  and 
molluscs  which  form  carbonate  of  lime  shells  live  chiefly  in 
surface  waters,  but  after  their  death  siuk  to  the  bottom, 
where — especially  in  great  depths — their  carbonate  of  limo 
is  partially  redissolved. 

Oceanic  Carlotuc  Acid.— It  is.  well  l<no^\-n  that  not  only  in  tho 
neighbourhood  of  actual  volcanoes  but  in  thousands  of  other  places 
on  the  dry  land  carbonic  acid  gas  is  constantly  stnvnmiiig  forth  into 
tho  atmosphere,  and  it  is  generally  admitted  now  Ihut  this  supply 
of  telluric  carbonic  acid  amounts  to  more  than  all  that  is  l'urni.shed 
by  processes  of  combustion  and  respiration.  That  carbonic  acid 
springs  should  bo  absent  from  tho  bottom  of  tho  ocean  Ls  too  absiirU 
an  assumption  to  bo  entertained  ;  hence,  supposing  even  the  water 
of  tho  ocean  were  ncrfectly  neutral,  it  could  not  but  contain  dis- 
solved carbonic  aciiL  But  such  carbonic  acid,  at  the  ocean  (.nifaco 
at  least,  would  constantly  tend  to  assume,  and  in  pncral  probably 
actually  would  come  down  to,  tho  small  limit  value  prcsci-ihej  to 
it  by  the  given  inoportiou  by  volume  of  the  carbonic  acid  in  the 
atmosphere  and  the  laws  of  gas-nhsorptiou.  This  proportion,  ac- 
cording to  the  best  modern  researches,  is  almost  constant,  every- 
whero  amoni.  in?  to  very  nearly  0  0003  volume  per  unit  volume 
of  air.  Tlio  coeltiriont  of  absorption  by  even  pure  water  is  IS  at 
0°  and  10  at  15"  C.  Hence,  even  lo  the  polar  n-ginns,  the  surface 
water  could  not  hold  in  pi-rmanent  solution  more  than  about  0-54 
c.c,  or  say  ono  niilligrnmmo  jwr  litre  of  water.     Jacobsen,  in  his 

•  Equal  conjointly  to  56-376  parts  of  chlorine,  w-hich  accordin«Iy  U 
the  porcenlage  of  "  halogen  reckoned  aa  chlorine  "  iu  tlio  real  total  solidx 

'  Calculating  the  surplus  boso  a.s  noi-mal  carbonate.  In  Toblu  11. 
this  carbonate  h  n.'iirtsent«d  as  so  much  CaOCO, 


612 


SEA      WATER 


"numerous  analyses  of  North  Sea  water,  found  from  90  to  100  milli- 
grammes per  litre  ;  but  .lie  also  observed  that  only  a  small  portion 
of  the  carbonic  acid  is  eliminated  on  boiling :  the  rest  comes  out 
only  when  the  water  is  distilled  to  dryness.  He  presumed  that 
the  gas  was  retained  chemically  by  the  chloride  of  magnesium. 
Buchanau,  who  inquired  into  the  subject  synthetically,  arrived  at 
the  conclusion  that  it  was  the  sulphates '  iu  sea  water  {qua  sul- 
phates) which  retained  the  carbonic  acid.  Accordingly  in  his 
inimerous  carbonic  acid  dctermiuatipns  he  liberated  the  gas  by 
distilling  the  water  down  with  an  excess  of  chloride  of  barium. 
Tornoe  was  the  first  to  prove  that  the  carbonic  acid  in  sea  water 
is  present  as  carbonate,  and  that,  iu  the  northern  part  of  the  North 
Atlantic  at  least,  the  total,  carbonic  acid,  while  considerably  gieater 
than  the  quantit"  which  would  convert  the  surplus  base  into 
normal,  falls  shor.  -^f  that  which  would  be  required  to  produce 
fully  saturated  acid  carbonate. 

Even  without  Tornoe's  discovery  it  would  have  been  necessary 
to  find  the  true  interpretation  of  the  results  of  the  numerous 
carbonic  acid  determiuatious  made  during  the  voyage  of  the 
"Challenger"  by  Buchanan.  Dittmar  had  no  difficulty  in  prov- 
ing the  non-existence  of  the  alleged  afBnity  of  sulphates  for  car- 
bonic acid,  and  naturally  concluded  that  the  chloride  of  barium 
used  in  the  processes  liberates  the  loose  part  of  the  carbonic  acid  by 
converting  the  normal  carbonate  part  into  a  precipitate  of  carbonate 
of  baryta,  thus— R"C03  +  a:CO...  +  BaCl2=R"CU-fBaC03-faC02.  A 
series  of  synthetical  experiments  showed  that  this  is  substantially, 
though  not  exactly,  correct.  If  Buchanan's  modus  operandi'  be 
rigorously  followed,  the  carbonic  acid  obtained,  as  a  rule,  falls 
somewhat  short  of  the  actual  amount  of  loose  carbonic  acid  present, 
while  on  resuming  the  distillation  after  addition  of  fresh  water  an 
appreciable  part  of  fixed  carbonic  acid  passes  away  as  gas.  Yet, 
Buchanan's  results  being  of  great  value,  Dittmar  discussed  them 
(conjointly  with  his  own  alkalinity  determinations)  on  the  basis 
of  the  assumption  that  they  afforded  a  fair  approximation  to  the 
proportions  of  loose  carbonic  acid  in  the  respective  waters.  His  gen- 
eral conclusions  are  as  follows.  Taking  "alkaliuity  "  as  meaning 
the  "weight"  of  the  carbonic  acid,  CO^,  in  the  normal  carbonate 
part  of  the  carbonate  present  per  100  parts  of  total  solids,  the  alka- 
linitvin  the  water  .samples  analysed  (omitting  a  few  obviously 
abnormal  cases)  was  found  to  be  as  follows  (Table  IV.) : — 


Alkalinity  ranges  from 

Number 
of  Cases. 

Alkalinity  ranges  fiom 

Number 
of  Cases. 

O'UOO  to  0*1439  

9 

0-1640  to  0-1719  1         c 

Alk.  -     01731    1 

0-1449  „  0-1479  

84 
40 
19 

12 

„    -     0-IS88    

0-1520  ,,  0-1559   

„     -    0-2079   

1 

0-1560  ,,  0-1599   .. 

01400  to  0'20Ta 

OleOO  „  0-1639    

127 

Values  above  0'16  are  obviously  exceptional;  hence  the  Donnal 
range  may  be  said  to  be  from  014  to  0'16.  The  most  frequently 
occurring  values  were  found  to  be  about  0"146  in  the  case  of  surface 
or  shallow  sea  water,  and  in  the  case  of  bottom  water  about  0-152. 
In  regard  to  the  loose  carbonic  acid  a  full  discussion  of  Buchanan's 
lesults  led  to  the  following  conclusions  : — (1)  carbonic  acid  rarely 
occurs  in  the  free  state ;  as  a  rule  it  falls  short  of  the  quantity  which 
would  produce  bicarbonate  ;  (2)  in  surface  waters  it  is  relatively 
high  where  the  natural  temperature  is  relatively  low,  and  vice  versa ; 
(3)  within  equal  ranges  of  temperature  it  seems  to  be  less  in  the 
sui'face  water  of  tlie  Pacific  than  it  is  in  that  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Of  the  19.T  samples  of  sea  water  which  Buchanan  analysed  for 
carbonic  acid  only  22  contained  fully  saturated  bicarbonate,  and 
only  2  out  of  these  are  proved  by  the  analyses  to  have  contained 
free  carbonic  acid  in  addition  to  bicarbonate.  In  all  the  remaining 
173  samples  the  " carbonic  acid  deficit"  (meaning  the  proportion 
of  carbonic  acid  which  was  wanted  to  completely  transform  the 
carbonate  intobicarbonate)  assumed  tangible  and  often  considerable 
values.  We  are  probably  safe  in  coucluding  tbat  the  ocean  as  a 
whole  will  have  to  continue  taking  iu  carbonic  acid  for  thousands 
of  years  before  its  carbonic  acid  deficit  has  been  reduced  to  nothing. 
IJut  it  is  as  well  to  observe  that  at  its  surface  in  the  warmer  lati- 
tudes the  attainment  of  this  condition  is  a  physical  impossibility 
.  as  long  as  the  percentage  of  carbonic  acid  iu  the  air  retains  its 
present  low  value. 

A  solution  of  a  bicarbonate  when  shaken,  say  iu  a  bottle,  with 
i)Ure  air  (free  of  carbonic  acid)  at  summer  heat  gives  up  its  com- 
bined caibonic  acid  to  the  air  space  iu  the  bottle  until  the  partial 
tension  of  the  acid  gas  there  has  come  up  to  a  limit  value ^',  wliich 
is  called  the  dissociation  tension  of  the  bicarbonate  at  the  prevail- 
ing temperature  I.  General  experience  coucerningsuch  phenomena 
wai'iants  the  presumption  that,  up  to  a  certain  (low)  teniperature 
In,  P  =  0,  and  thence  onwards,  p  increases  with  t.  It  does  not 
lollow  that  the  bicarbonate  in  a  solution  wheu  shaken  again  and 
.-igaui  with  even  pure  air  tends  to  become  normal  carbonate  ;  for 
aught  we  know,  the  elimination  of  carbonic  acid  may  stop  as  soon 
us  tl'.e  residual  carbonate  has  come  down  to  some  composition 
'  See  Geology,  vol.  x.  p.  22-2. 


R"0(1  +a-)CO^,  (where  x  is  less  than  1),  and  x  may  be  a  function  of 
temperature.  Dittmar  has  attempted  to  d.!terminc  the  coui-se  of 
the  function  1  +x=J\t)  in  reference  to  natural  sea  water  on  the  onb 
hand  and  to  pure  air  (air  freed  of  its  carbonic  acid)  and  ordinary 
air  oij  the  other.  One  sample  of  sea  water  containing  Ha  surplus 
base  as  practically  bicarbonate  served  for  all  the  experiments.  It 
was  shaken  again  and  again  at  a  fi.xed  teniperature  t  with  one  or 
the  other  kind  of  air,  until  (after  "N"  shakings,  always  with 
renewed  air)  the  stage  of  saturation  appeared  to  liave  become  con- 
stant. The  investigation  is  not  completed  yet ;  the  following 
table  (V.)  gives  the  results  which  have  come  out  so  far.  The  fin^ 
carbonate  was  R.,0.)iCO.,. 


(. 

N. 

Pure  air. 

Ortlinaryair. 

N. 

Pure  air. 'Ordinary alr.| 

«o- 

11,.- 

«o- 

'I- 

2°  C. 

200 

1-90 

15' 

200 

1-50 

2° 

200 

2-04 

20° 

200 

1-42(7) 

2' 

62 

2-06 

25' 

52 

1-53 

10' 

200 

1-70 

■a' 

32 

1-53 

1.3' 

50 

1-S41 

32* 

52 

1-89 

15' 

100 

1-63 

32- 

150 

1'82 

Hence  we  see  that  even  at  the  highest  temperatiire,  and  with 
air  frie  from  carbonic  acid,  the  carbonate  never  came  down  below 
the  state  of  sesquicarbonate,  while  with  ordinary  air,  even  at  32°  C, 
it  never  fell  below  )i  =  l*8.  At  2°  «„  as  well  as  Wj  was  =2,  the 
value  characteristic  of  bicarbonate.  Now  Buchanan  reports  a  good 
number  of  cases  where,  even  at  lower  temperatures,  n  was  con- 
siderably less  than  1-S  at  any  rate.  Hence,  if  liis  numbei-s  are 
correct,  unless  the  atmosphere  acts  raoi'e  powerfully  than  the  air 
in  Dittniar's  bottle,  it  would  appear  that  deep-sea  water  is  iu 
general  below  even  the  stage  of  carbonic  acid  saturation  which  it 
could  attain  at  the  surface  at  high  temperatures. 

In  any  mixed  solution  of  saltscvery  base  is  combined  with  every 
acid;  hence  the  "carbonate"  of  sea  water  is  strictly  speaking  a 
complex  plural.  But  as  a  matter  of  probability  the  carbonic  acid 
has  very  little  chance  of  uniting  with  any  of  the  potash  or  soda, 
and  the  overwhelmingly  large  quantity  of  alkaline  chloride  would 
no  doubt  convert  any  carbonate  of  magnesia  tbat  was  introduced 
into  double  chloride  of  magnesium  and  alkali  metal ;  hence  it  is 
fair  to  assume  that  oceanic  carbonate  is  chiefly  carbonate  of  lime. 
Now  immense  quantities  of  this  compound  are  being  constantly 
introduced  into  the  ocean  by  rivers.  Dumas  once  gave  it  as  hi» 
opinion  that  this  imported  carbonate  remains  dissolved  in  the  ocean 
as  long  as  and  wherever  the  carbonate  there  is  at  the  bicarbonate 
stage  ;  but,  as  soon  as  part  of  the  loose  carbonic  acid  goes  o(T  into 
the  air,  the  corresponding  weight  of  normal  carbonate  separates  out 
as  an  addition,  ultimately,  to  the  solids  on  the  bottom.  Dittmar 
has  tried  to  test  this  notion  synthetically,  but  without  arriving 
at  very  definite  results.  According  to  his  experiments  sea  water 
which  contains  free  carbonic  acid  dissolves  added  solid  carbonate 
of  lime,  and  more  largely  carbonate  of  magnesia  ;  sea  water  which 
contains  fully,  or  almost  fully,  saturated  bicarbonate  dissolves  car- 
bonate of  magnesia  veiy  appreciably,  but  would  not  appear  to  act  ou 
carbonate  of  lime  at  all.  But,  when  carbonate  of  lime  was  produced 
in  the  water  by  successive  additions  of  potential  calcium  carbonate 
in  the  form  of  dissolved  sodium  carbonate  and  its  equivalent  of 
calcium  chloride,  the  original  carbonate  of  lime  could  be  increased 
very  largel}',  with  formation  of  solutions  which  remained  clear 
during  a  long-continued  jieriod  of  observation.  As  a  set-off  against 
this  a  few  of  the  many  hundred  samples  of  sea  water  which  he 
received  from  the  "  Challenger  "  deposited  in  the  course  of  a  number 
of  years  crj-stalliuo  crusts  of  carbonate  of  lime  on  the  sides  of  the 
bottles;  and  the  mother-liquor  never  contained  more  than  the 
normal  quantity  of  lime  per  100  parts  of  chlorine.  In  discussing 
this  question  Dittmar  gives  an  estimate,  based  on  data  furnished 
by  Boguslawski's  work,  of  the  total  carbonate  of  lime  introduced 
into  the  ocean  annually  by  the  thirteen  principal  rivers  ;  and  by 
doubling  the  quantity  he  estimates  the  carbonate  of  lime  intro- 
duced by  all  rivers  as  equal  to  about  1'34  x  10'  tons.  Now  the  sum 
total  of  carbouate  of  lime,  CaC03,  in  the  ocean  amounts  to  about 
160x10"  tons;  hence  it  would  take  1190  years  to  increase  the 
present  stock  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  ocean  by  one  per  cent,  of 
its  value. 

Absorbed  Oxyge^i  and  Nitrogen  in  Ocean  Water. — As  a  matter  of 
physical  necessity  these  two  gases  must  be  present  in  the  water 
of  the  ocean — and  they  may  be  presumed  in  general  to  pervade  it 
to  its  greatest  depth — because  the  whole  of  tlie  surface  of  the  sea  is 
in  constant  contact  with  the  atmosphere.  Our  knowledge  regarding 
their  distributi-ju  in  the  ocean  may  be  said  to  date  from  1872, 
when  Jacobsen  inquired  into  the  matter  in  a  most  masterly  manner 
in  connexion  with  the  German  North  Sea  expedition.  'The  work 
of  his  predecessors  possesses  no  scientific  value,  because  they  era- 
ployed  inadequate  methods.  Unlike  theni,  Jacobsen  did  not 
attempt  to  analyse  a  sample  of  sea  water  air  on  board  ship :  he 
extracted  the  air  from  measured  samples  (by  an  excellent  method 
of  his  own)  and  then  sealed  them  up  in  glass  tubes,  to  measure 
and  analyse  them  after  his  return  home.  .  Buchanan,  during  tha 


SEA      WATER 


(513 


••  Cliallenger "  cruise  adopted  Jacotsen's  method.  Of  the  164 
samples  which  he  sealed  up  successfully  69  came  from  the  surface 
and  9?  from  depths  varying  from  5  to  4575  fathoms.  A  good 
number  of  these  he  analysed  himself  after  his  return  ;  the  majority, 
however,  were  analysed  and  all  were  measured  by  Dittmar.  The 
latter,  in  order  to  bo  able  to  iuterpret  the  results,  also  investigated 
the  absorption  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  gas  from  air  by  sea  water. 
The  foUomng  table  (VI.)  gives  the  result  of  his  investigations. 
One  litre  (1000  volumes)  of  ocean  water  when  saturated  with  con- 
stantly renewed  air  at  t,  and  a  pressure  of  760  millimetres '  plus 
tension  of  steam  at  ('  C. ,  takes  up  the  following  volumes,  measured 
<lry  at  0°  C.  and  760  millimetres  pressure,'  of  the  pure  gases. 


Tempera- 
ture. 

Dissolved  Nitrogen  and  Oxygen  in  Cubic 
Centimetres  (volumes). 

Percentage  of 

Oxygen  in 
Dissolved  Gas. 

c. 

Nitrogen. 

Oxygen. 

0' 

15-(iO 

8-18 

34-40 

13-Sli 

7-2-J 

34-24 

10" 

12-'ir 

6--13 

34-09 

15' 

11-34 

5-83 

33-93 

ao* 

10-41 

5-31 

33-7S 

iV 

9-0-2 

4 -87 

33-62 

30" 

S-0-1 

4-00 

33-47 

35' 

s-3i; 

4-17 

33-31 

The  method  used  for  obtaining  these  numbers  adapted  itself 
closely  to  the  one  which  Buchanan  had  employed  for  extracting 
the  gas  samples.  In  the  calculations  it  ivas  assumed  that  atmo- 
spheric air  contains  21'0  volumes  of  oxygen  for  79-0  volumes  of 
nitrogen,  the  slight  variation  in  this  ratio,  which  is  known  to 
occasionally  present  itself,  being  neglected.  From  the  table  we 
can  calculate  approximately  the  limits  between  which  the  propor- 
tions of  dissolved  oxygen  and  nitrogen  in  the  water  of  the  ocean 
must  bo  presumed  to  oscillate  in  nature.  The  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  at  the  sea-level,  though  by  no  means  constant,  is  never 
far  removed  from  that  of  760  mm.  of  mercury.  The  temperature 
of  the  sniface  water  (with  rare  exceptions)  may  be  said  to  vary  from 
-  2°  C.  (in  the  liquid  part  of  the  ocean  in  the  arctic  and  antarctic 
regions)  to  about  30°  C.  (in  the  tropics).  The  ocean  receives  all  its 
<lissolved  oxygen  and  nitrogen  fiom  the  surface;  neither  gas  comes 
in  from  below,  except  perhaps  a  relatively  insignificant  quantity 
of  nitrogen  derived  from  the  decay  of  dead  organisms,  which  may 
safely  be  neglected.  Hence  the  ocean  can  contain  nowhere  more 
than  15'6  c.c.  of  nitrogen  or  more  than  8'18  c.c.  of  oxygen  per  litre, 
and  the  nitrogen  will  never  fall  below  8-55  c.c.  We  cannot  make  a 
similaf  assertion  in  regard  to  the  oxygen,  because  its  theoretical 
minimum  of  4-30  c.c.  per  litre  is  liable  to  further  dirainutiou  by 
processes  of  life  and  putrefaction  and  by  oxidation  generally.* 

At  any  point  in  the  surface  of  the  ocean  the  water  constantly 
tends  to  assume  the  composition  demanded  for  the  prevailing 
temperature  by  the  laws  of  gas  absorption.  But  it  is  rarefy  possible 
for  it  to  assume  this  composition,  owing  to  the  water  being  in  a 
continual  state  of  motion  ;  and,  supposing  a  certain  area  of  the 
ocean  surface  were  in  a  state  of  stagnation,  the  temperature  would 
vary  in  diurnal  cycles,  and  even  the  calculated  volume  of  nitrogen 
per  litre  would  bo  a  periodic  function  of  time,  exhibiting  its  maxi- 
mum at  the  hour  of  minimum  temperature,  and  ijice  versa.  -The 
pi-ocessofabsorptiometric  exchange,  however,  even  at  the  constantly 
oscillating  surface  of  the  ocean,  is  slow ;  it  could  not  keep  pace 
^th  the  change  of  temperature,  and  the  actual  nitrogen  curve 
-would  never  go  as  high  up  or  as  low  down  as  the  theoretical  one. 
In  addition  to  this,  the  lower  strata  of  the  water  constantly  add 
to,  or  take  away  from,  the  surface  nitrogen  by  difl'usion  and 
occasional  intermixture.  -All  this  holds  for  the  oxygen  likewise, 
except  that  it  is  liable  to  constant  diminution  by  oxidation.  On 
tho  whole  we  may  assume  that  all  the  disturbing  influences  will 
only  modify,  not  efface,  tho  coui'se  of  events  as  prescribed  by  the 
laws  of  gas-absorption. 

Id  regard  to  non-surface  water  wi^iave  to  confront  a  greater 
complexity  of  phenomena.  The  gas-contents  of  deep-sea  w-ater, 
of  coarse,  have  nothing  to  do  with  tho  low  temperature  and  tho 
high  pressure  which  in  general  prevail  there.  For  tho  purpose  of 
a  prchminary  survey,  let  u»  imagine  a  deep-sea  water  formed  from 
one  kind  of  surface  water,  which  took  up  its  air  at  a  coustant 
temperature  ((),  and  then  sank  down  unmixc<l  with  other  waters. 
The  volumes  of  the  oxygen  and  nitrogen  per  litre  have  at  first  tho 
values  assigned  to  them  by  the  laws  of  gas  absorption.  But,  while 
the  nitrogen  (as  long  as  tho  water  remains  unmixed  with  other 
water)  remains  constant,  the  o.xygeu  will  become  less  and  less 
through  tho  processes  of  oxidation  which  go  jn  in  the  deep  with- 
out compensation.  Hence  if  ihero  wore  absolute  stagnation  in  the 
ocean  anywhere  the  proportioni  )f  jxygen  there  might  he  reduced 
ultimately  to  nothing.  Among  the  many  "  Challenger  "  deep-sea 
specinieas  which  were  analysed   for  their  gas-contents  none  was 


I  Tlieoretically  lyiy  number  may  bo  substituted  for  760 ;  Tor  calculating  pnr- 
jMMCs  Trad  "I  inilllnietre. " 

>  In  calculating  these  limit  valuci  the  tension  of  tho  \-npour  ofwotcr  ia  tjiVen 
into  account ;  Itcncc  the  ap|>arcnt  non-agreeuiout  with  tho  entries  in  the  table. 


found  quite  free  from  absorbed  oxygen ;  and  this  confirms  tho 
conclusion  that  absolute  stagnation  exists  nowhere  in  the  ocean,  not 
even  at  its  greatest  depth.  Occasionally,  however,  the  oxygen  was 
found  to  have  sunk  down  to  very  little,  as  shown  by  the  following 
two  examples : — 

No.  of  C.c.  per  Litre  of      C.c  of  Oxycen  calculated    Depth  in 

Sample.  Nitrogen.   Oxj-gen.  from  Nitrogen.  Fathoms. 

1001  15-03  0-6  8-21  2S75 

1645  13-33  2t)4  6-95  1500 

There  must  have  been  an  approximation  to  absolute  rest  at  these 
two  places  at  any  rate.  On  the  whole,  the  results  of  tho  gas  analy- 
sis, as  interpreted  on  the  basis  of  Dittmar's  absorptiometric  deter- 
minations, agreed  fairly  well  with  the  inferences  which  wo  have 
just  been  deducin"  from  physical  laws.  There  was  no  lack  of 
anomalous  results,  but  it  was  not  found  possible  to  trace  them  to 
natural  causes.  The  equilibrium  in  regard  to  the  absorbed  nitrogen 
and  oxygen  in  the  ocean  is  maintained  by  the  atmosphere  ;  and, 
from  the  fact  that  the  air  contained  in  surface  water  is  always 
richer  in  oxygen  than  is  atmospheric  air,  one  naturally  concludes 
that  tho  ocean  shonld  constantly  add  to  the  percentage  of  oxygen 
in  the  air  in  the  tropics  and  constantly  diminish  it  in  the  colder 
latitudes.  But  Regiiault's  numerous  air-analyses  do  not  confirm 
this.  Nor  need  this  be  wondered  at,  since,  as  we  have  seen,  even 
the  corresponding  influence  on  the  atmospheric  carbonic  acid  has 
so  far  defied  the  powers  of  chemical  analysis. 

Salinitij  of  Ocean  Water. — Even  in  the  open  ocean  the  "salinity" 
— meaning  in  a  given  quantity  the  ratio  between  the  weight  of 
dissolved  salt  and  the  weight  or  volume  of  the  whole — is  subject 
to  considerable  variation  ;  and  it  obviously  is  one  of  the  foremost 
duties  of  observing  oceanographers  to  collect  the  data  by  means  of 
which  it  may  be  possible  one  day  to  represent  that  quantity  mathe- 
matically as  a  function  of  geographic  position,  depth,  and  time. 
For  the  quantitative  determination  of  the  salinity  an  obvious,  easy, 
and  sufficient  method  is  to  determine  the  specific  gravity  S  at  a 
convenient  temperature  t ;  this  in  fact  is  the  method  which  has 
so  far  been  employed  by  all  observers  almost  to  the  exclusion  of 
every  other.  Buchanan  used  it  during  the  "Challenger"  cruise 
perhaps  more  extensively  than  any  of  his  predecessors  had  doue. 
Of  the  arithmetical  relation  between  salinity  on  tho  one  hand 
and  S  and  I  on  the  other  the  successive  researches  of  Ekman  (as 
supplemented  by  Tornoe),  Thorpe  and  Riicker,  Dittmar,  and  others 
have  given  us  a  practically  sufficient  knowledge;  According  to 
Dittmar  the  function  (within  the  limits  of  Buchanan's  values) 
coincides  practically  with  the  formula 

4S,-4W,  =  x(a-l-4i-l-ci2), 
where  ^t  means  the  specific  gravity  at  C  C.  referred  to  that  of  pure 
water  of  +  4°  0.  as  equal  to  1000  ;  ,W,  has  a  similar  meaning  in 
reference  to  pure  water ;  x  stands  for  the  weight  of  total  halogen 
calculated  as  chlorine  per  1000  parts,  by  weight,  of  sea  water  ;  and 
n  =  l-45993,  6= -0-005592,  c= -l-00060649.  For  oceanographic 
purposes,  iowever,  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  back  to  x ;  it  sufli«s 
from  series  of  values  ^c  to  deduce  tho  corresponding  values  ^S,^ 
for  a  convenient  standard  temperature,  and  to  reason  on  these 
reduced  numbers  as  if  they  measured  the  salinity,  just  as  we  take 
the  readings  of  a  thermometer  as  in  themselves  representing 
"  temperatures."  This,  in  fact,  is  always  done  ;  only  unfortunately 
dilferent  standard  temperatures  have  been  chosen  by  difl'eijent 
observers;  Buchanan  adopted  15°-56  C.  =60°  Fahr.  Before  going 
further,  let  «s  observe  that  the  specific  gravity  of  sea  water, 
taking  it  as  it  is  in  situ,  has  an  important  oceanograpliic  signi- 
ficance, even  as  such.  But  this  quantity  in  the  case  of  defp-sfa 
waters  is  influenced  very  largely^  by  tho  pressure  of  the  super- 
incumbent layer  of  water — which  in  itself  is  a  complex  function  of 
the  successive  temperatures  and  salinities— and  unfortunately  we 
still  lack  the  constants  and  fomiula!  for  making  tho  necessary 
reductions  with  adequate  exactitude.  Meanwhile  all  our  statistics 
of  sea  water  specific  gravities,  valuable  as  they  are,  constitute 
statistics  of  only  salinities  and  nothing  else. 

At  the  surface  of  tho  ocean  the  salinity  is  liable  chiefly  to  three 
influences,— (1)  concentration  by  formation  of  ice  or  by  the  action 
of  dry  w-inds  ;  (2)  dilution  through  the  melting  of  ice  or  tho  falling, 
of  rain  ;  (3)  concentration  or  dilution  through  the  virtual  addition 
of  salt  or  water  by  inflowing  currents  of  Salter  or  fresher  water 
respectively.  The  efTect  of  the  formation  or  melting  of  ice,  though 
great  within  the  arctic  circles,  does  not  tell  much  on  the  non-polar 
seas.  More  important  in  regard  to  these  is  tho  efl'ect  of  tho  southeast 
and  the  north-cast  .tra<lo  winds,  which  in  the  Facilic  blow  between 
about  3°  and  21°  S.  lat.  and  between  about  2°  and  20°  N.  lat  re- 
spectively, leaving  between  tho  two  a  Iwit  of  5°  of  a  region  of  calms 
(see  more  exactly,  MF.Ti:onOLOOY,  vol.  xvi.  p.  144).  In  tho  Atlantic 
the  limiting  linos  of  both  trades  oscillate  annually,  so  that  the 
eiiuatorial  boundary  of  the  north  east  trade  shifts  from  3°  to  11" 
N.  lat,  and  that  of  tlio  .southeast  trade  from  about  1*  to  8°  A',  lat. 
3  Arconling  to  OraHwi's  oxiMrlnicntJt,  if  sea  water  under  tlio  prcMUrr  of  ono 
Btmoslihero  has  tho  spccillc  Kiavlty  1026,,  It  MsumeB  at  deplh«=100O,  2000, 
8000  fathoms  a  donalty  of  lOM-t-  1,  2,  3  times  7B  unlta-1033-!l,  1041 -*,"  1049-7 
r«apcctivoly. 


614 


S  E  A  —  S  E  B 


Both  trades  blowing  from  colder  into  warmer  regions  absorb  water 
Jargely  and  thus  raise  the  salinity  within  their  areas  of  action. 
The  western  anti-trades  which  blow  on  the  polar  sides  of  the  t/vo 
trades,  passing  from  hotter  to  colder  regions,  should  dilute  the 
ocean  there  ;  but  they  do  not  seem  to  act  so  powerfully  in  this 
direction  as  might  be  expected.  In  the  belt  of  equatorial  calms 
between  the  two  trades  abundant  rains  fall  freqxiently  and  dilute 
the  water  very  perceptibly. 

What  has  been  said  thus  far  about  the  distribution  of  surface 
salinity  applies  cbietiy  to  the  Atlantic,"  which  in  fact  is  far  more 
completely  known  in  this  respect  than  any  other  ocean.     The  ao- 


Curves  showing  variation  of  surface  salinity  of  ocean  with  latitude. 


companying  diagram  shows  how  on  the  average  the  surface  salinity 
▼aries  there  with  the  latitude.  The  bolder  curve  is  dra^Ti  after  a 
table  given  bj-  Buchanan  in  his  part  of  the  I^'arrativc  of  the  Ciiiise 
e/tJte  "  Challevgcr,"  the  other  aft«ra  more  extensive  table  given  by 
Boguslawski  as  embodying  the  mean  results  of  many  observations 
by  different  authorities  with  reference  to  standard  temperatures 
Tarying  from  15°  to  17°'5  C, — coast  waters  affected  by  the  influx 
of  large  rivers  having  been  omitted.^  In  the  North  Atlantic  there 
is  an  area  of  ma-rfmum  (surface)  salinity  (S  =  102S'5)  between  25" 
«nd  35°  N.  lat.  and  30°  and  20'  W.  long.  The  zone  of  miniranm 
salinity  lies  betvveen  15°  K.  lat.  and  the  equator.  In  the  South 
Atlantic  (surface)  there  are  two  concentration  centres, — an  eastern 
about  St  Helena  and  between  that  island  and  Ascension,  and  a 
•western  north  of  San  Trinidad, — both  nearer  the  equator  than  that 
of  the  North  Atlantic.  As  pointed  out  by  Buchanan,  a  relatively 
tigh  salinity  (not  merely  on  the  surface)  is  quite  a  characteristic 
feature  of  the  Atlantic,  and  in  its  northern  part  prevails  up  to  the 
high  latitudes  of  the  Norwegian  Sea,  which  was  so  thoroughly  in- 
vestigated by  Swensden  {lSi6)  and  Tornde  (1S77  and  1878)  during 
the  Norwegian  expeditions.  The  salt  (and  heat)  conveying  influ- 
ence of  the  Gulf  Stream  mal;es  itself  felt  up  to  Spitzbergen  (76°  N. 
lat).  On  both  sides  of  the  Faroe  Islands  the  specific  gravity 
jT-jSpj  comes  up  to  IO-27'O  ;  at  the  Bear  Islands  it  sinks  to  1026'7, 
«nd  thence  farther  northwards  to  1025-1.  'While  the  Gulf  Stream 
pushes  north-vvards,  a  cniTent  of  relatively  fresh-  polar  water  travels 
southwards  and,  creeping  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United 
States,  foi-ms  what  is  known  as  the  "cold  wall."  In  passing  from 
the  sm-face  to  the  depth  of  the  ocean  the  general  nile  (Buchanan) 
is  that  the  actual  specific  gravity  i'li  situ  increases  with  the  depth  ; 
but  this  does  not  hold  for  the  salinity  (or  specific  gravity  reduced 
to  standard  temperature).  In  jilaces  where  there  is  active  dilution 
at  the  surface  {e.g.,  in  the  belt  of  equatorial  calms)  the  salinity  as 
a  rule  increases  down  to  some  50  or  100  fathoms  ;  but  thence  down- 
wards it  follows  the  general  rule,  that  is,  it  decreases  down  to  800 
or  1000  fathoms,  and  thence  increases  steadily  to  the  bottom.  In 
the  South  Atlantic  the  salinity  of  the  bottom  water  has  an  almost 
constant  value  (48155  =  10257  to  1025'9) ;  but  northwards  it  in- 
creases to- from  1026-16  to  1026-32  at  2000  to  4000  fathoms 
iBnchanan). 

In  regai-d  to  the  Pacific  our  knowledge  is  far  less  complete.  A 
elance  at  the  curve  shows  that  the  (surface)  salinity  at  a  given 
latitude  is  less  there  than  it  is  in  the  Atlantic.  In  the  whole  of 
the  Pacific  there  is  only  one  concentration  centi-e,  which  lies 
about  the  Society  Islands,  with  a  maximum  salinity  coiTesponding 
tO4S,55  =  1027-19.  •      (W.  D.) 

SEA- WOLF,  also  Sea-cat  and  Wolf-fish  (Anai-rhickas 
lupus),  a  marine  fish,  the  largest   kind  of  the  family 

*  For  the  sake  of  comparison  there  is  shown  on  the  lower  part  of 
the  diagram  the  surface  salinity  curve  for  the  Pacific  dra^\-n  after 
Buchanan's  summary  tabulation  of  his  results. 


Blenniidx  or  Blennies.  In  spite  of  its  large  size,  it  has 
retained  the  bodily  form  and  general  external  character- 
istics of  the  small  blennies,  -o'liich  are  so  abundant  oa' 
every  rocky  part  of  the  coast  Its.  body  is  long,  subcyliu- 
drical  in  front,  compressed  in  the  caudal  portion,  smooth 
and  slippery,  the  rudimentary  scales  being  embedded  and 
almost  hidden  in  the  skin.  An  even  dorsal  fin  extends  along 
the  whole  length  of  the  bade,  and  a  similar  fin  from  the 
vent  to  the  caudal  fin,  as  in  blennies.     But  its  formidabla 

dentition  di.stinguishes 
the  sea-wolf  from  all  the 
other  members  of  the 
family.  Both  jaws' 'are 
armed  in  front  with  strong 
conical  teeth,  and  on  the 
sides  with  two  series  of 
large  tubercular  molars, 
a  biserial  band  of  simi- 
lar molars  occupying  the 
V^^  middle  of  the  palate.  By 
these  teeth  the  sea-wolf 
is  able  to  crush  the  hard 
carapaces  or  shells  of  the 
crustaceans  and  molluscs 
on  which  it  feeds ;  but 
whether  it  uses  the  teeth 
as  a  weapon  of  defence 
and  deserves  the  character 
of  ferocity  generally  attri- 


buted to  it  would  appear  to  be  rather  questionable  from 
observations  made  on  specimens  in  the  aquarium  at 
Hamburg,  which 
allowed  them- 
selves to  be 
handled  -without 
in  any  way  re- 
senting the  loss 
of  their  liberty. 
It  must,  how- 
ever, be  added 
that  the  small 
blennies         bite  Teeth  of  the  lower  and  upper  jaws  of  the  sea-wolf. 

readily  when  caught.  Sea-wolves  are  inhabitants  of  the 
northern  seas  of  both  hemispheres,  one  (A.  lupus)  being 
common  on  the  coasts  of  Scandinavia  and  Korth  Britain, 
and  two  in  the  seas  round  Iceland  and  Greenland.  Two 
others  occur  in  the  corresponding  latitudes  of  the  North 
Pacific.  They  attain  to  a  length  exceeding  6  feet,  and  in 
the  north  are  esteemed  as  food,  both  fresh  and  preserved. 
The  oil  extracted  from  the  liver  is  said  to  be  in  quality 
equaJ  to  the  best  cod-liver  oil.  Of  late  years  small  num- 
bers have  reached  the  English  markets,  where,  how-cver, 
the  prejudice  which  attaches  to  all  scaleless  fishes,  parti- 
cularly such  as  possess  a  varied  pattern  of  coloration, 
limits  their  use  as  food. 

SEBASTE.     See  Sivais. 

SEBASTIAN,  Dom.  See  Poetugal,  vol.  xix.  pp.  5-tG- 
547. 

SEBASTIAN,  St,  the  patron  saint  against  plague  and 
pestilence,  was  by  birth  a  Narbonese.  According  to  the 
Roman  breviary  his  nobility  and  bravery  had  endeared 
him  to  the  emperor  Diocletian,  who  made  him  eajitain  of 
the  first  cohort.  Having  secretly  become  a  Oiristian,  he 
was  wont  to  encourage  those  of  his  brethren  who  in  the 
hour  of  trial  seemed  wavering  in  their  jirofession.  This 
was  conspicuously  the  case  when  the  brothers  Marcus  and 
Marcellinus  were  being  led  forth  to  death  ;  by  his  exhorta- 
tions he  prevailed  on  them  to  resist  the  entreaties  and  tears 
of  their  wives  and  children.  The  emperor  having  been 
informed  of  this  conduct  sent  for  him  and  earnestly  remon- 


S  E  B  — S  E  B 


615 


strated  Mrith  him,  but,  finding  him  inflexible,  orderea  that 
he  should  be  bound  to  a  stake  and  shot  to  death.     After 
the  archers  had  left  him  for  dead  a  devout  woman,  Irene, 
came  by  night  to  take  his  body  away  for  burial,  but,  find- 
ing him  still  alive,  carried  him  to  her  house,  where  his 
wounds  were  dressed.     No  sooner  had  he  wholly  recovered 
than  he  hastened  to  confront  the  emperor,  reproaching  him 
with  his  impiety;    Diocletian,  filled  with  astonishment, 
which  soon  changed  into  fury,  ordered  him  to  be  instantly 
carried  off  and  beaten  to  death  with  rods  (288).     The 
sentence  was  forth^-ith  executed,  his  body  benig  thrown 
into  the  cloaca,  where,  however,  it  was  found  by  another 
pious  matron,  Lucina,  v/hom  Sebastian  vi.'^itod  in  a  dream, 
directing  her  to  bury  him  iu  the  Catacombs  under  the  site 
of  the  church  now  called  by  his  name.     He  is  celebrated 
by  the  Roman  Church  on  20th  January  (duplex).     His 
cult  is  chiefly  diffused  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Italy  and 
in  other  districts  liable  to  visitations  of  plague.   _  As  a 
young  and  beautiful  soldier,  ho  is  a  favourite  subject  of 
sacred  art,  being  most  generally  represented  as  undraped 
and  severely,  though  not  mortally,  wounded  ■^^^th  arrows. 
SEBASTIAXO  DEL  PIOMBO  (1485-1547),  painter, 
was  born  at  Venice  in  1485,  and  belongs  to  the  Venetian 
school,  exceptionally  modified  by  the  Florentine  or  Roman. 
His  family  name  was  Luciani.     He  was  at  first  a  musician, 
chiefly  a  solo-player  on  the  lute,  and  was  in  great  request 
among  the  Venetian  nobility.     He  soon  showed  _a_  turn 
for  painting,  and  became  a  pupil  of  Giovanni  Bellini  and 
afterwards  of  Giorgionc.     His  first  painting  of  note  was 
done  for  the  church  of  St  John  Chrysostom  m  Venice, 
and  is  so  closely  modelled  on  the  style  of  Giorgione  that 
in  its  author's  time  it  often  passed  for  the  work  of  that 
master.      It  represents  Chrysostom  reading  aloud  at  a 
desk,  a  grand  Magdalene  in  front,  and  two  other  female 
and  three  male  saints.     Towards   1512  Sebastiano  \yas 
invited  to  Rome  by  the  wealthy  Sienese  merchant  Agostmo 
Chigi,  who  occupied  a  villa  by  the  Tiber,  since  named  the 
Farnesina ;  he  executed  some  frescos  here,  other  leading 
artists  being  employed  at  the  same  time.   •  The  Venetian 
mode  of  colour  was  then  a  startUng  novelty  in  Rome. 
Michelangelo  saw  and   approved   the  work   of   Luciani, 
became  his  personal  friend,  and  entered  into  a  peculiar 
arrangement   with   him.      At   this   period   the  pictorial 
ability  of  Michelangelo  (apart  from  his  general  power  as 
an  artist,  regarding  which  there  arose  no  question)  was 
somewhat  decried  in  Rome,  the  ri\^al  faculty  of  Raphael 
being  invidiously  exalted  in  comparison  ;  in  especial  it 
was  contended  that  Buonarroti  fell  short  as  a  colourist. 
He   therefore   thought   that  he  might   try  whether,  by 
furnishing  designs  for  pictures  and  leaving  to  Sebastiano 
the  execution  of  them  in  colour,  he  could  not  maintain  at 
its  highest  level  his  own  general  supremacy  in  the  art, 
leaving  Raphael  to  sustain  the  competition  as  he  best 
might.     In  this  there  seems  to  have  been  nothing  particu- 
larTy  unfair,  always  assuming  that  the  compact  was  not 
fraudulently  concealed ;  and  the  facts  are  so  openly  stated 
by  Michelangelo's  friend  Vasari  (not  to  speak  of  other 
writers)  that  there  appears  to  have  been  little  or,  no  dis- 
guise in  the.  matter.     Besides,  the  pictures  are  there  to 
speak  for  themselves ;  and  connoisseurs  have  always  ac- 
knowledged that  the  quality  of  Michelangelo's  unmatched 
design  is  patent  on  the  face  of  them.    Of  late  year.s,  how- 
ever, some  writers,  unnecessarily  jealous  for  Buonarroti's 
personal  rectitude,  have  denied  that  hi:i  handiwork  is  to 
lbe  traced  in  the  pictures  bearing  the  name  of  Sebastiano. 
iFour  leading  pictures  which  Sebastiano  painted  in  pursu- 
ance of  his  league  with  Buonarroti  are  the  P^et.^  (earliest 
of  the  four),  in  the  church  of  the  Conventual!,  Viterbo ; 
the  Transfiguration  and  the  Flagellation,  in  the  church  of 
S.  Pietro  in  Montorio.   Rome;  and,  most  celebrated  of 


all,  the  Raising  of  Lazarus,  now  in  the  London  National 
Gallery.     This  grand  work— more  remarkable  for  general 
strength  of  pictorial  perception  than  for  qualities  of  de- 
tailed intellectual  or  emotional  expression— is  more  than 
12  by  9  feet  in  dimensions,  with  the  principal  figures  of 
the  natiual  size;  it  is  inscribed  " Sebastianus  Venetus 
faciebat,"  and  was  transferred  from  wood  to  canvas  in 
1771.     It  was  painted  in  1517-19  for  Giulio  de'  Medici, 
then  bishop  of  Narbonne,  afterwards  Pope  Clement  VII. ; 
and  it  remained  in  Narbonne  cathedral  until  purchased 
by  the  duke  of  Orleans  early  in  the  18th  century,— coming 
to  England  with   tbe  Orleans    gallery    in    1792.      It  is 
generally  admitted  that  the  design  of  Jlichelangelo  appears 
in  the  figure  of  Lazarus  and  of  those  who  are  busied 
about  him  (the  British  iluseum  contains  two  sketches  of 
the  Lazarus  regarded  as  Michelangelo's  handiwork) ;  but 
whether  he  actually  touched  the  panel,  as  has  often  been 
said,  appears  wore  than  doubtful,  as  he  left  Rome  about 
the  time  when  the  picture  was  commenced.     Raphael's 
Transfiguration  was  painted  for  the  same  patron  and  the 
same  destination.     The  two  works  were  exhibited  together, 
and  some  admirers  did  not  scruple  to  give  the  preference 
to  Sebastiano's.     T]ie  third  of  the  four  pictures  above 
mentioned,  the  Flagellation  of  Christ,  though  ordinarily 
termed  a  fresco,  is,  according  to  Vasari,  painted  in  oil 
upon  the  wall.     This  was  a  method  first  practised  by 
Domenico    Veneziano,   and    afterwards    by    some    other 
artists ;  but  Sebastiano  alone  succeeded  in  preventing  the 
blackening  of  the  colours.     The  contour  of  the  figure  of 
Christ  in  this  picture  is  supposed  by  many  to  have  been 
supplied  by  Buonarroti's  own  hand.     Sebastiano,  always 
a  tardy  worker,  was  occupied  about  six  years  upon  this 
work,  along  with  its  companion  the .  Transfiguration,  and 
the  allied  figures  of  saints. 

After  the  elevation  of  Giulio  de'  Medici  to  theijontificate, 
the  office  of  the  "  piombo  "  or  leaden  seal— that  is,  the  office 
of  sealer  of  briefs  of  the  apostolic  chamber— became  vacant ; 
two  painters  competed  for  it,  Sebastiano  Luciani,  hitherto 
a  comparatively  poor  man,  and  Giovanni  da  Udine.    Finally 
Sebastiano,  assuming  the  habit  of  a  friar,  secured  the  very 
lucrative  appointment,— with  the  proviso,  however,  that  he 
should  pay  out  of  his  emoluments  300  scudi  per  annum  to 
Giovanni.     If  he  had  heretofore  been  slow  in  painting,  he 
became  now  supine  and  indifferent  iu  a  marked  degree. 
He  lived  on  the  fat  of  the  land,  cultivated  sprightly  hterary 
and  other  society,  to  which  he  contributed  his  own  full 
quota  of  amusement,  and  woi\ld  scarcely  handle  a  brush, 
saying  jocularly  that  he  benefited  the  profession  by  leav- 
ing all  the  more  work  for  other  artists  to  do.     Berni,_one 
of  his  intimates,  addressed  a  caintolo  to  him,  and  Sebastiano 
responded  in  like  versified  form.     One  of  the  few  subject- 
pictures  which'  he  executed  after  taking  office  \yas  Christ 
carrvinf  the  Cross  for  the  patriarch  of  Aquileia,  also  a 
l^Iadonna  with  the  body  of  Christ.     The  former  painting 
is  done  on  stone,  a  method  invented  by  Sebastiano  himself. 
He  likewise  painted  at  times  on  slate,— as  in  the  instance 
of  Christ  on  the  Cross,  now  in  the  Berlin  gallery,  where  the 
slate  constitutes  the  background.     In  the  same  metho^ 
and  also  in  the  same  gallery,  is  the  Dead  Christ  supported 
by  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  with  a  weeping  Magdalene — 
colossal  half-length  figures.     Late  in  life  Sebastiano  had 
a  serious  disagreement  with  Michelangelo  with  reference 
to  the  Florentine's  great  picture  of  the  Last  Judgment^ 
Sebastiano  encouraged  the  pope  to  insist  that  tins  picture 
should  be  executed  in  oil.     Michelangelo,  determined  from 
the  first  upon  nothing  but  fresco,  tartly  replied  to  hia 
holinesi  that  oil  was  only  fit  for  women  and  for  sluggards 
like  Friar  Sebastian  ;  and  the  coolness  tf^^-^^"  *>>«  *^;° 
painters  lasted  almost  up  to  the  friar's  death.     This  event 
consequent  upon  a  violent  fever  acting  rapidly  upon  a 


616 


S  E  B  — S  E  C 


very  sanguine  temperament,  took  place  at  Eome  in  1547. 
Sebastiauo  directed  that  his  burial,  in  the  church  of  S. 
Maria  del  Popolo,  should  be  conducted  without  ceremony 
of  priests,  friars,  or  lights,  and  that  the  cost  thus  saved 
should  go  to  the  poor  ;  in  this  he  was  obeyed. 

KiuneroHS  pupils  sought  tvaiiiiiig  from  Sebastiano  del  Piombo  ; 
but,  owing  to  his  dilatory  aud  self-indulgeut  habits,  they  learned 
little  from  him,  with  the  exception  of  Tommaso  Laureti.  Sebas- 
tiano, conscious  oC  his  deliciency  in  the  higher  sphere  of  invention, 
made  himself  especially  celebrated  as  a  portrait  painter  :  the  like- 
ness of  Aiidrea  Doria,  iu  the  Doria  Palace,  Rome,  is  one  of  the 
most  renowned.  In  the  London  National  Gallery  are  two  fine 
specimens :  one  canvas  represents  the  friar  himself,  along  with 
Cardinal  Ippolito  de'  Medici ;  the  other,  a  porti-ait  of  a  lady  ui  the 
character  of  St  Agatha,  used  to  bo  identified  with  one  of  Sebastian o's 
prime  works,  the  likeness  of  Julia  Gouzaga  (painted  for  her  lover, 
the  aforenamed  cardinal),  but  this  assumption  is  now  discredited. 
There  were  also  portraits  of  Marcantouio  Colonna,  Yittoria  Colonnn, 
Ferdinand  marquis  of  Pescara,  Popes  Adrian  VI.,  Clement  VII. 
(Studj  Gallery,  Naples),  and  Paul  III.,  Saumicheli,  Anton  Fran- 
cesco degli  Albizzi,  and  Pietro  Aretino.  One  likeness  of  the  last- 
named  sitter  is  in  Arezzo  aud  another  in  the  Berlin  galleiy. 

SEBASTOPOL,  or  Sevastopol,  the  chief  naval  station 
of  Russia  on  the  Black  Sea,  is  situated  in  the  south-west 
of  the  Crimea,  in  44°  37'  N  lat.  and  33°  31'  E.  long.,  935 
miles  from  Moscow,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail  via 
Kharkoff.  The  estuary,  which  is  one  of  the  best  roadsteads 
in  Europe  and  could  shelter  the  combined  fleets  of  Europe, 
is  a  deep  and  thoroughly  sheltered  indentation  among 
chalky  cliffs,  running  east  and  west  for  nearly  3J  miles, 
Avith  a  width  of  three-quarters  of  a  mile,  narrowing  to  930 
yards  at  the  entrance,  where  it  is  protected  by  two  small 
promontories.  It  has  a  depth  of  from  6  to  10  fathoms, 
with  a  good  bottom,  and  large  ships  can  anchor  at  a 
cable's  length  from  the  shore.  The  main  inlet  has  also 
four  smaller  indentations, — Quarantine  Bay  at  its  entrance, 
Yuzhnaya  (Southern)  Bay,  which  penetrates  more  than  a 
mile  to  the  south,  with  a  depth  of  from  4  to  9  fathoms. 
Dockyard  Bay,  and  Artillery  Bay.  A  small  river,  the 
Tchornaya,  enters  the  head  of  the'  inlet.  The  main  part 
of  the  town,  with  an  elevation  ranging  from  30  to  190  feet, 
stands  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  chief  inlet,  between 
Yuzhnaya  and  Artillery  Bays.  To  the  east  are  situated 
the  barracks,  hospitals,  and  storehouses ;  a  few  buildings 
on  the  other  shore  of  the  chief  bay  constitute  the  "northern 
side."  Before  the  Crimean  War  of  1853-56  Sebastopol 
was  a  well-built  citj',  beautified  by  gardens,  and  had  43,000 
inhabitants ;  but  at  the  end  of  the  siege  it  had  not  more 
than  fourteen  buildings  which  had  not  been  badly  injured. 
After  the  war  many  prinleges  were  granted  by  the  Govern- 
ment in  order  to  attract  population  and  trade  to  the  town  ; 
but  both  increased  slowly,  and  at  the  end  of  seven  years 
its  population  numbered  only  5750.  The  railway  line 
connecting  Sebastopol  with  Moscow  gave  some  animation 
to  trade,  and  it  was  thought  at  the  time  that  Sebastopol, 
although  precluded  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  from  reacquiring 
its  military  importance,  might  yet  become  a  commercial 
city.  In  November  1870,  during  the  Franco-German 
War,  the  Russian  Government  publicly  threw  off  the 
obligation  of  those  clauses  of  the  treaty  of  Paris  which 
related  to  the  Black  Sea  fleet  and  fortresses,  and  it  was 
decided  again  to  make  Sebastopol  a  naval  arsenal.  In 
1882  Sebastopol  had  a  popidation  of  26,150  inhabitants, 
largely  military.  The  town  has  been  rebuilt  on  a  new 
plan,  aud  a  fine  church  occupies  a  prominent  site.  There 
are  now  two  lyceunis  and  a  zoological  marine  station. 
Although  belonging  to  the  government  of  Taurida,  Seba.s- 
topol  and  its  environs  are  under  a  separate  military 
governor. 

The  peninsula  between  the  Bay  of  Sebastopol  and  the  Black  Sea 
became  known  iu  the  7tli  centiuy  as  the  Heracleotic  Chersonese 
(see  vol.  vi.  p.  ,187).  In  tlie  5tli  century  B.C.  a  Greek  colony  was 
founded  here  and  remniiied  independeiit  for  three  centuries,  when 
it  became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Bosphorus,  and  subsequently 


tributary  to  Rome.  Under  the  Byzantine  emperors  Cliersonesii* 
was  an  administrative  centre  to  their  possessions  in  Taurida.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Russian  annals,  Vladimii',  prince  of  Kietf,  conquered 
Chersonesus  (Korsua)  before  being  baptized  there,  and  restored  it 
to  the  Greeks  on  marrying  the  princess  Anna.  Subsequently  the 
Slavonians  were  cut  otf  from  relations  with  Taurida  by  the  Mongols, 
and  only  made  occasional  raids,  such  as  that  of  the  Lithuanian 
prince  Uigerd.  In  the  16th  ceutuiy  a  new  influ.\  of  colonizers, 
the  Tatars,  occupied  Chersonesus  and  founded  a  settlement  named 
Akliti.ir.  This  \illage,  after  the  Riissiau  conquest  in  1783,  was 
selected  for  tlie  cliicf  naval  station  of  the  empire  in  the  Black  Sea 
and  received  its  present  name  ("The  August  City").  In  lS2t) 
strong  fortitications  were  begixn,  and  in  1853  it  was  a  formidable 
fortress.  In  September  1S54,  after  having  defeated  the  Russians 
in  the  battle  of  the  Alma,  the  Anglo-French  laid  siege  to  the 
southern  portion  of  the  town,  and  on  17th  October  began  a  heavy 
bombardment.  Sebastopol,  which  was  nearly  quite  open  from  the 
land,  was  strengthened  by  earthworks  thrown  up  under  the  fire 
of  the  besiegers,  and  sustained  a  memorable  eleven  months'  siege. 
On  8th  September  1855  it  was  evacuated  by  the  Russians,  who 
retired  to  the  north  side.  The  fortifications  were  blown  up  by  the 
allies,  and  by  the  Paris  treaty  the  Russians  were  bouuci  not  to 
restore  them. 

SEBENICO  {SiheniFj,  a  iovra  of  Austrian  Dalmatia,  on 
the  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  about  half-way  between  Zara  and 
Spalato,  is  situated  on  an  irregular  basin  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Kerka,  connected  with  the  sea  by  a  winding  channel  3 
miles  long.  The  channel  is  defended  by  a  fort  designed 
by  Sanmicheli,  and  the  town  itself,  picturesquely  situated 
on  the  abrupt  slope  cf  a  rocky  hill,  is  guarded  by  three 
old  castles,  now  dismtntled.  There  is  also  a  wall  on  the 
landward  side.  Sebenico  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  its 
Italian  Gothic  cathedral,  dating  from  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries,  is  considered  the  finest  church  in  Dalmatia. 
Its  excellent  harbour  and  its  situation  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Kerka  valley  combine  to  make  Sebenico  the  entrepot 
of  a  considerable  trade.  Fishing  is  carried  on  exten- 
sively. The  population  of  the  commune  in  1880  M-as 
18,104,  of  the  town  proper  about  8000. 

SECCHI,  Angelo  (1818-1878),  Italian  astronomer,  was 
born  on  29th  June  1818  at  Reggio  in  Lombardy,  and 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  an  early  age.  In  1849  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  observatory  of  the  Collegio 
Romano,  which  was  rebuilt  in  1853 ;  there  he  devoted 
himself  with  great  perseverance  to  researches  in  physical 
astronomy  and  meteorology  till  his  death  at  Rome  on  26tli 
February  1878. 

The  results  of  Secchi's  observatmns  are  contained  in  a  great 
number  of  papers  aud  memoirs.  From' about  1864  he  occupied 
himself  almost  exclusively  with  spectrum  analysis,  both  of  stars 
( Calalorjo  dellc  StcUc  di  cui  si  e  deUrminato  lo  Spetlro  Luminoso,  Paris, 

1867,  8vo  ;  "  Sugli  Spettri  Prismatici  delle  Stelle  Fisse,"  two  parts, 

1868,  in  the  AUi  delta  Soc.  Ilal.)  and  of  the  sun  (Lc  Sold!,  Paris, 
1870,  8vo  ;  2d  ed.  1877).  Though  his  publications  always  bear 
witness  of  his  indefatigable  zeal  and  energy,  they  are  often  uncritical 
and  wanting  in  accuracy.  A' 

SECKENDORF,  Veit  Ludwig  von  (1626-1692),  a 
German  statesman  and  scholar  of  the  17th  century,  was 
the  most  distinguished  member  of  an  ancient  and  wide- 
spread German  noble  family,  which  took  its  name  from 
the  village  Seckendorf  between  Nuremberg  and  Langen4 
zenn,  and  is  said  to  have  been  ennobled  by  the  emperor 
Otho  I.  in  950,  though  it  traces  its  own  genealogy  nol 
further  back  than  1262.  The  family  was  divided  into 
eleven  distinct  lines,  but  at  present  only  three  are  pre- 
served, widely  distributed  throughout  Prussia,  Wiirtem- 
berg,  and  Bavaria.^  Veit  Ludwig  von  Seckendorf,  son 
of  Joachim  Lud^vig,  of  the  Gudentine  line,  was  born) 
at  Herzogenaurach  (near  Erlangen)  in  Upper  Franconia> 
20th  December  1626.  His  youth  fell  in  the  midst  of  tha 
Thirty   Years'   War,  in  which   his   father  was   active!;^ 

'  Amongst  the  Seckendorfs  less  known  .to  fame  than  Veit  Ludwig 
are  his  nephew,  Friedrich  Heinrich  (1673-1763),  soldier  and  diplo' 
matist  ;  Leo  (1773-1809),  poet,  literary  man,  and  soldier  ;  the  brother* 
Cliristiau  Adolf  (1767-1833)  and  Gustav  Anton  ("PatrUi  Pe.-ile") 
(1775-18231    both  literary  men  of  some  note. 


S  E  C  — S  E  C 


617 


lengaged.  But  his  talented  and  noble  mother  carefully 
watched  over  bis  education.  In  Coburg,  Miihlhausen, 
and  finally  in  Erfurt,  whither  his  mother  removed  in 
1636,  he  acquired  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  French  lan- 
guages. In  1639  he  rotui-neJ  to  Coburg,  and  the  reign- 
ing duke,  Ernest  the  Pious,  made  him  his  protcffe.  Enter- 
ing the  university  of  Strasburg  in  1642,  he  devoted 
himself  to  history  and  jurisprudence.  After  he  finished 
his  university  course  his  patron  gave  him  an  appointment 
in  his  court  at  Gotha,  with  the  charge  of  his  valuable 
library.  He  there  laid  the  foundation  of  his  great  collec- 
tion of  historical  materials  and  mastered  the  principal 
modern  languages.  In  1652  he  was  appointed  to  import- 
ant judicial  positions  and  sent  o.i  weighty  embassages. 
In  1656  he  was  made  judge  in  the  ducal  court  at  Jena, 
o  position  which  he  held  many  years  and  in  which  he 
took  the  leading  part  in  the  numerous  beneficent  reforms 
of  the  duke.  In  1664  he  resigned  office  tinder  Duke 
Ernest,  who  had  just  made  him  chancellor  and  with  whom 
he  continued  on  excellent  terms,  and  entered  the  service 
of  Duke  Maurice  of  Zeitz  (Altenburg),  with  the  view  of 
lightening  his  official  duties.  ■  After  the  death  of  Jlaurice 
in  1681  he  retired  to  his  estate,  Meuselwitz  in  Altenburg, 
from  nearly  all  public  offices,  and  devoted  himself  to  his 
intellectual  labours.  Although  living  in  retirement,  he 
kept  up  a  correspondence  with  the  principal  learned  men 
of  the  day.  He  was  especially  interestefl  in  the  endeavours 
of  the  pietist  Spener  to  efi'ect  a  practical  reform  of  the 
German  church,  although  he  was  hardly  '-imself  a  pietist. 
In  1692  he  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  new  university 
of  Halle,  but  died  a  few  weeks  afterwards,  on  the  18th  of 
December. 

Seckeudorfs  principal  works  were  the  following: — Deulschcr 
Fiirslenstaat  (1656  and  often  afterwards),  a  handbook  of  German 
public  law;  Dcr  Christcnslaat  (1685),  partJv  an  apology  for  Chris- 
tianity and  partly  suggestions  for  the  reformation  of  the  church, 
founded  on  Pascal's  Pensics  and  embodying  the  fundamental  ideas 
of  Spener  ;  Comnuntarms  hisloricus  el  apologeticiis  de  Lulhcrnnismo 
sive  de  lic/ormatione  (3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1692)  occasioned  by  the 
Jesuit  Maimbourg's  Hisloirc  du  Luthiranisme  (Paris,  1680),  his 
most  important  work,  and  still  indispensable  to  the  historian  of 
the  Reformation  as  a  rich  storehouse  of  authentic  materials. 

See  D.  O.  Schrcber's  Historla  viliv  «c  merilornm  Vili  Ludovici  a  Seckmdorf 
(Leipsic  173a) ;  Schrockh,  LebrnsbeKhreibmigcn  berithmter  MUnner  (Leipsic, 
1790):  Nasemaiin,  *' Vcit  Ludwig  von  SeckoiiUorf,"  in  Preussische  Jahrbiichcr 
(vol.  xii.p  18G3,  p.  257  sq.);  W.  Roscher,  "Zwei  sachsische  Staatswirthe  ija 
I6tcn  unfl  ITten  Jdlirhundert,"  in  Weber's  Archiv  Jiii-  die  sdcksische  Geschichte 
(vol.  1.,  1862);  and  Theodor  Kolde,  "Seckendorf,"  ia  Herzog-Plitt's  Eealen- 
cyklopiiiHe  (imt). 

SECRETARY-BIRD,  a  very  singular  African  animal 
first  accurately  made  known,  from  an  example  living  in 
the  menagerie  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  in  1769  by  Vos- 
maer,'  in  a  treatise  published  simultaneously  in  Dutch 
and  French,  and  afterwards  included  in  his  collected  works 
issued,  under  the  title  of  Regnwn  Animale,  in  1804;  He 
was  told  that  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  this  bird  was 
known  as  the  "  Sagittarius "  or  Archer,  from  its  striding 
gait  being  thought  to  resemble  that  of  a  bowman  advanc- 
ing to  shoot,  but  that  this  name  had  been  corrupted  into 
that  of  "  Secretarius."  In  August  1770  Edwards  saw  an 
example  (apparently  alive,  and  the  survivor  of  a  pair  which 
had  been  brought  to  England)   in  the  possession  of  Jlr 

•  Le  VaiUant  {Sfc>  Voij.  A/riquf,  ii.  p.  273)  truly  states  that  Kolben 
in  1719  {Caput  Bona  Spei  hodiernum,  p.  182,  French  version,  ii.  p.  198) 
had  mentioned  thii  bird  under  its  local  name  of  "Snake-ealer"(S/<wi3cn- 
vreeler,  Dutrh  translation,  i.  p.  214) ;  but  that  author,  who  was  a 
bad  naturalist,  thought  it  was  a  Pelican  and  also  confounded  it  with 
the  Spoonbill,  whicli  is  figured  to  illnstrato  his  account  of  it.  Tliough 
he  doubtless  had  .seen,  and  perhaps  tried  to  describe,  the  Secretary- 
bird,  he  certainly  failed  to  convey  any  correct  idea  of  it.  Latham's 
BUggestion  {loc.  infra,  cit.)  that  the  figure  of  the  "Grus  Capensis 
Cauda  cristata"  in  Petiver's  Qazophyhtciitni  (tab.  xii.  fig.  12)  was 
meant  for  this  bird  is  negatived  by  his  description  of  it  (p.  20).  Tlie 
figure  was  probably  copied  from  one  of  Sherard's  paintings  and  is  more 
likely  to  liavo  had  its  origin  in  a  Crane  of  some  species.  Vosmner's 
plate  is  lettered  "  Amerikaanischcn  Roof-Vogcl,"  of  course  by  mistake 
.for  "  Afrikaanischcn." 


Raymond  near  Ilford  in  Kssex ;  and,  being  unacquainted 
with  Vosmaer's  work,  he  figured  and  described  it  as  "  ol 
a  new  genus"  in  the  Pkilosophkal  Transactions  for  thf 
following  year  (Ixi.  pp.  55,  56,  pL  ii.).  In  1776  Sonnerat 
{Voy.  JVoiiv.  (inink',  p.  87,  pi.  50)  again  described  and 


*'>»S>-i^-- 


Secretary-Bird. 

figured,  but  not  at  all  correctly,  the  species,  saying  (but 
no  doubt  wrongly)  that  he  found  it  in  1771  in  thi 
Philippine  Islands.  A  better  representation  was  given  by 
D'Aubenton  in  the  Planches  Enluminees  {1'2\);  in  1780 
Buftbn  (Oiseaia;  vii.  p.  330)  published  some  additional 
information  derived  from  Querhocnt,  saying  also  that  i', 
was  to  be  seen  in  some  English  menageries;  and  tht 
following  year  Latham  (Synopsis,  i.  p.  20,  pi.  2)  described 
and  figured  it  from  three  examples  which  he  had  seen 
alive  in  England.  None  of  these  authors,  however,  gave 
the  bird  a  scientific,  name,  and  the  first  confe'red  upon  it 
seems  to  have  been  that  of  Falco  serpe7ilantis,  inscribed 
on  a  plate  bearing  date  1779,  by  John  F.-ederick  Wdler 
(III.  Nat.  History,  xxviii.),  which  plate  appears  also  in 
Shaw's  Cimelia  Physica  (No.  28)  and  is  a  misleading 
caricature.  In  1786  Scopoli  called  it  Otis  secretaries — 
thus  referring  it  to  the  Bustards,-  and  Cuvier  in  1798 
designated  the  genus  to  which  it  belonged,  and  of  which 
it  still  remains  the  sole  representative,^  Serpentnrius.  Suc- 
ceeding systematists  have,  however,  encumbered  it  with 
many  other  names,  among  which  the  generic  terms  Gypo- 
geranus  and  Ophiotheres,  and  the  specific  epithets  reptili- 
vorus  and  cristatus,  require  mention  here.-'  The  Secretary- 
bird  is  of  remarkable  appearance,  standing  nearly  4  feet  in 
height,  the  great  length  of  its  legs  giving  it  a  resemblance 
to  a  Crane  or  a  Heron  ;  but  the  expert  ,will  at  once  notice 
that,  unlike  those  birds,  its  tibiaj  arc  feathered  all  the  way 
down.  From  the  back  of  the  head  and  the  nape  hang-s 
loosely  and  in  pairs,  a  scries  of  black  elongated  feathers, 
capable  of  erection  and  dilation  in  periods  of  excitement.' 

-  Curiously  enough,  Boddaert  in  1783  omitted  to  givo  it  a  scieutifio 
name. 

'  Ogilby's  attempt  to  distinguish  three  species  (Pioc.  Zool.  Society, 
1835,  pp.  lot,  105)  has  met  with  no  encouragement;  but  CTOinplcs 
from  the  north  of  the  equator  are  somowliat  smaller  than  those  from 
the  south, 

*  The  scientific  synonymy  of  the  species  is  given  at  great  length  by 
Drs  Finsch  and  Hartlaub  ( Vtigd  Osl-Afrikas,  p.  93)  ond  by  Mr  Blrnrpa 
{Cat.  Ii.  Brit.  Mtiscum,  I.  p.  45);  but  coch  list  has  some  crroni  in 
common. 

"  It  is  from  the  fancied  resemblance  of  those  fiatliers  to  luc  pcn» 
which  a  clerk  is  supposed  to  stick  above  liis  car  that  the  bird's  ume 
of  Secretary  is  really  derived. 

XXI.  —  1^ 


.618 


S  E  C  — S  E  D 


ThVskin  Toand  the  ej'es  is  bare  and  of  an  orange  colour. 
The  head,  neck,  and  upper  parts  of  the  body  and  wiug- 
coverts  are  bluish-grey;  but  the  carpal  feathers,  including 
the  primaries,  are  black,  as  also  are  the  feathers  of  the 
vent  and  tibite, — the  last  being  in  some  examples  tipped 
■nith  white.  The  tail-quills  are  grey  for  the  greater  part 
of  their  length,  then  barred  -n-ith  black  and-  tipped  with 
white  ;  but  the  two  middle  .feathers  are  more  than  twice 
as  long  as  those  next  to  them,  and  drooping  downwards 
present  a  very  unique  appearance. 

Tbe  habits  of  the  Secretary-bird  have  been  very  frequently 
described,  one  of  the  best  accounts  of  them  being  by  Verreaux  in 
the  Zoological  Society's  Proceedings  for  1856  (pp.  348-352).  Its 
chief  prey  consists  of  insects  and  reptiles,  -and  as  a  foe  to  snakes  it 
is  held  in  high  esteem.  Making  every  allowance  for  exaggeration, 
it  seems  to  possess  a  sti'ange  pai-tiality  for  the  desti'uctiou  of  the 
latter,  and  successfully  attacks  the  most  venomous  species,  striking 
them  with  its  knobbed  wings  and  kicking  forwards  at  them  with 
its  feet,  until  they  are  rendered  incapable  of  offence,  when  it 
swallows  them.  The  nest  is  a  huge  structure,  placed  in  a  bush  or 
tree;  and  in  it  two  white  eggs,  spotted  with  rust-coloiu-,  are  laid. 
The  young  remain  in  the  nest  for  a-  long  while,  and  even  when 
four  months  old  are  unable  to  stand  upright.  They  are  very 
frequently  brought  up  tame,  and  become  agreeable  not  to  say 
useful  pets  about  a  house,'  the  chief  drawbacks  to  thetn  being  tha"t 
when  hungry  they  will  help  themselves  to  the  small  poultiy,  and 
the  fragility  of  their  legs,  which  follows  on  any  sudden  alarm,  and 
eiids  in  their  death.  The  Secretary-bird  is  found,  but  not  very 
abundantly  and  only  in  some  localities,  over  the  gi-eater  part  of 
Africa,  especially  in  the  south,  extending  northwards  on  the  west 
to  the  Gambia  and  in  the  interior  to  .Khartum,  where  Vou  Heugliu 
observed  it  breeding. 

The  systematic  position  of  the  genus  Serpentarius  has  long  been 
a  matter  of  discussion,  and  is  still  one  of  much  interest,  though  of 
late  classifiers  have  been  prettj'  well  agreed  in  placing  it  in  the 
Order  Accipitres.  Most  of  them,  however,  have  .shown  great 
want  of  perception  by  putting  it  in  the  Family  Falconidx.  Ko 
anatomist  can  doubt  its  forming  a  peculiar  Famfiy,  Scrpenlariida:, 
differing  more  from  the  Falconidas  than  do  the  Vtdturidas ;  and 
the  fact  of  Prof.  A.  Milne  -  Edwards  having  recognized  in  the 
Miocene  of  the  Allier  the  fossil  bone  of  a  species  of  this  genus, 
S.  robustus  {Ois.  foss.  France,  ii.  pp.  465-468,  pi.  186,  figs.  1-6), 
proves  .that  it  is  an  ancient  form,  .one  possibly  carrying  on  a 
direct  and  not  much  modified  descent  from  a  generalized  form, 
whence  may  have  sprung  not  only  the  Falconides  but  perhaps  the 
progenitors  of  the  Ardeidss  and  Ciconiidm,  as  well  as  the  puzzling 
Gariamidse  (Sebi.ema,  q.v.).-  '  (A.  N.) 

SECULAE  GAMES' were  celebrated  at  Eome  for  three 
days  and  nights  with  great  ceremony  to  mark  the  com- 
mencement of  a  new  sxculum,  or  generation.  Originally 
they  were  a  propitiatory  festival,  imported  from  Etruria 
under  the  name  of  Ludi  Terentini,  and  held  at  irregular 
intervals,  in  yiew  of  extraordinary  prodigies ;  but  in  249 
B.C.  it  was  decreed  that  they  should  be  celebrated  in  every 
hundredth  year  after  that  date.  This  decree  was  frequently 
disregarded,  partly  for  political  reasons  and  partly  because 
in  Augustus's  time  and  with  his  approval  the  quindecem- 
viri,  acting  under  Greek  influence,  sanctioned  the  longer 
period  of  110  years. 

The  .dates  of  the  actual  celebrations  are  as'  follows: — the  first  in 
509  B.o^  the  second  in  3-48,  the  third  in  249,  the  fourth  in  146, 
the  fifth  by  Augustus  in  17  (for  this  occasion  Horace  wrote  his 
Carmen  Sseculare),  the  sixth  by  Claudius  in  47  A.n.  =800  A.u.c, 
the  seventh  by  Domitian  in  88,  the  eighth  by  Antoninus  Pius  in 
147  =  900  A.u.c.,'  the  ninth  by  Sevenis  in  204  (220  years  after  the 
Augustan  celebration),  the  tenth  by  Philip  in  248,  the  eleventh 
and  last  by  Gallienus  c.  262.  The  projected  celebration  of  Masir 
raian  in  304  did  Jiot  take  place. 

CensorinDS,  Dt  Die  Natali,  c.  17;  Zosimus,  ii.  1  sq~\  'Val.  Max.,  ii.  c.  6. 
Tlie  dates  of  the  first  two  celebrations  appear  to  rest  only  on  the  uuthority  of 
Valerius  Antias ;  the  others  are  certain;  The  quindeceramal  books  assigned 
fictitious  dates  for  the  rre-Augnstan  celebrattonB.  Comp.  Uarquardt,  Vie 
roTnisclu  Staaisverwalhing,  iii.  p.  £69  sq.  ■ 

SEClINT)ERABi.p,  one  of  the  chief  British  military 
cantonments  in  India,  is  situated  in  the  native  state  of 
Haidar4bAd  (Hyderabad)  or  the'  Nizam's  Dominions,  in 
17"  26:  30"  N.-  lat.  and  78"  33'  E.  long.,  1830  feet  above 
the  level  of. the  sea,  and  6  miles  north-east  of  HaidarAbAd 
city.  ■  .SecunderdbAd  is  the  largest  military  station  in  India 
and  forms  the  headquarters  of  the  Haidardbid  subsidiary 


force,  which  constitutes  a  division  of  the  Madras  aruiy.'  The 
strength  of  the  military  force  stationed  at  SecunderAbAd 
in  1883  was  5632,  European  troops  numbering  2276  and 
native  troops  3356.  To  the  south-west  of  the  cantonment 
there  is  a  large  reservoir  or  tank,  known  as  the  Husain 
SAgar,  about  3  miles  in .  circumference.  Secunder'AbAd 
town,  which  forms  the  cantonment  bazaar,  contains  a 
population  of  over  30,000.  Adjoining  this  cantonment  to 
the  north  is  the  BolAram  cantonment,  one  of  the  stations 
of  the  HaidarAbAd  contingent,  under  the  immediate  com- 
mand of  the  nizam  ;  and  2  miles  to  the  south  of  SecunderA- 
bAd  cantonment  are  the  lines  of  the  HaidarAbAd  reformed 
troops,  also  belonging  to  the  nizam.  During  the  mutiny 
(1857-58)  both  the  subsidiary  force  and  the  HaidarAbAd 
contingent  rendered  good  service. 

SECUNDUS,  Johannes,  or  Johann  Everts  (1511- 
1536),  Latin  poet,  was  born  at  The  Hague  on  10th  No- 
vember 1511.  He  was  descended  from  an  ancient  and 
honourable  family  in  the  Netherlands ;  his  father,  Nicholas 
Everts,  or  Everard,  seems  to  have  been  high  in  the  favour 
of-  the  emperor  Charles  V..  On  what  account  the  son  was 
called  Secundus  is  not  known.  His  father  intended  him 
for  the  law ;  but  though  he  took  his  degi-ee  at  Bourges  it 
does  not  appear  that  he  devoted  much  time  to  legal  pur- 
suits. Poetry  and  the  sister  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture 
engaged  his  mind  at  a  very  early  period.  In  1533  he  went 
to  Spain,  and  soon  afterwards  became  secretary  to  the 
cardinal-archbishop  of  Toledo,  in  a,  department  of  business 
which  required  no  other  qualification  than  that  which  he 
possessed  in  a  very  eminent  degree, — a  facility  in  'm-iting 
with  elegance  the  Latin  language.  It  was  during  this 
period  that  he  compo-sed  his  most  famous  work,  the  Bdsia, 
a  series  of  amatory  poems,  of  which  the  fifth,  seventh,  an'd 
ninth  Carmina  of  Catullus  seem  to  have  given  the  hint.' 
In  1534  he  accompanied  Charles  V.to  the  siege  of  Tunis, 
but  gained  few  laurels  as  a  soldier.  After  quitting  the 
service  of  the  archbishop,  Secundus  was  employed  as  secre- 
tary by  the  bishop  of  Utrecht ;  and  so  much  did  he  dis- 
tinguish himself  by  the  classical  elegance  of  his  composi- 
tions that  he  was  called  upon  to  fill  the  important  post  of 
private  Latin  secretary  to  the  emperor,  who  was  then  in 
Italy.  But,  having  arrived  at  St  Amand,  tiear  Tournay, 
be  -nas  cut  off  by  a  violent  fever  on  8th  October  1536. 

3EDAINE,  Michel  Jeajj  (1719-1797),  dramatist,  was 
born  at  Paris  on  4th  July  1719.  Few  men  of  letters  have 
risen  from  a  lower  station.  Although  his  father  was  an 
architect,  he  died  when  Sedaine  was  quite  young,  leaving 
no  fortune,  and  the  boy  began  life  as  a  mason's  labourer. 
He  worked  himself  up  in  his  trade  and  ■nas  at  last  taken 
as  pupil  and  partner  by  the  builder  who  employed  him. 
Meanwhile  he  had  done  his  best  to  repair  liis  deficiencies 
of  education,'and  in  1753  he  published  a  volume  of  poems 
of  some  merit.  He  then  took  to  the  theatre  and  after 
composing  various  vaudevilles  and  operettas  attracted  the 
attention  of  Diderot,  and  had  two  remarkable  plays  ac- 
cepted aiid  performed  at  the  Theatre  Franjais^  "The  first 
and  longest,  the  Pkilosopke  sans  le  Savoi?;  'was  acted  in 
1705;  the  second,  a  lively  one-act  piece.  La  Gageureltn- 
privue,  in  1768.  These  two  at  once  took  their  place  as 
stock  pieces  and  are  still  ranked  among  the  best  French 
plays,  each  of  its  class.  Sedaine  inclined  somewhat  to  the 
school  of  drame  or  iragedie  bourgeoise,  but  he  was  free 
from  the  excessive  sentimentality  which  in  the  hands  of 
Diderot  and  others  marred  the  style,  and  he  had  a  vein 
of  singularly  natural  and  original  comedy.  Indeed  his 
originality  is  one  of  his  chief  points,  though  except  the 
two  pieces  mentioned  little  or  nothing  of  his  has  kept  the 
stage  or  the  shelves.  Sedaine,  who  became  a  nieraber  of 
the  Academy,  secretary  for  architecture  of  the  fine  arts 
division,  and  a  pro.sperous  man  generally,  'was  personally 


S  E  D  — S  E  D 


Glif 


both'  popular  riiid  respected.  Ha  lived  to  a  considerable 
agCj  dying  at  Paris  on  17tli  May  1797. 

SEI)ALL\,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  county  town 
of  Pettis  county,  Missouri,  lies  189  miles  west  of  St  Louis, 
on  the  higliest  swell  of  a  rolling  prairie,  which  drains  by 
small  streams  north-east  to  the  Jlissouri.  It  is  a  railroad 
centre,  and,  besides  the  machine-shops  and  carriage- 
factories  of  two  railway  companies  (the  Missouri,  Kansas, 
and  Texas,  and  the  ilissouri  Pacific,  Middle  Division),  it 
contains  foundries,  flour-mills,  and  establishments  for  the 
manufacture  of  furniture,  woollen  goods,  soap,  beer,  &c. 
Among  the  iniblic  buildings  are  two  operarhouscs,  a  public 
library,  a  high  school,  and  a  gj-mnasium.  Founded  in 
ISGO  by  General  George  E.  Smith,  Sedalia  had  4560 
inhabitants  in  1S70,  and  9561  in  1880. 

SEDAN,  a  town  of  France,  the  chef-lieu  of  an  arrondisse- 
ment  in  the  department  of  Ai-dennes,  lies  on  the  right 
bauk  of  the  Meusc,  13  miles  cast-south-east  of  Mezitres 
by  the  railway  to  Thionville  (Lorraine),  and  is  surrounded 
by  heights  of  about  1000  feet.  Since  its  fortifications 
were  dedassh,  a  process  of  embellishment  has  been  going 
on.  Place  Tureune  takes  its  name  from  the  statue  of  the 
illustrious  marshal,  who  was  born  in  the  town  in  1611. 
The  public  buildings  include  a  Protestant  chm-ch,  a  syna- 
gogue, a  museum,  and  a  college.  The  manufacture  of  fine 
black  cloth  has  long  been,. and  stUl  continues  to  be,  the 
staple  industry,  employing  in  the  town  and  neighbourhood 
more  than  10,000  workmen,  and  producing  to  the  value  of 
40,000,000  francs  annually.  Several  spiiming-mills  have 
been  erected  by  Alsatian  refugees  since  1871.  Consider- 
able activity  is  also  displayed  in  various  departments  of 
metal-working,  especially  in  the  surrounding  villages.  The 
population  was  13,807  in  1872,  and  19,240  in  1881 
(19,556  in  the  commune). 

Sedan  was  in  the  13th  century  a  dependency  of  the  ahhey  of 
Mouzon,  the  possession  of  which  was  disputed  by  the  bishops  of 
Liege  and  Rhcims.  United  to  the  cro\vn  of  France  by  Charles  V., 
it  vras  ceded  by  Charles  VI.  to  GuiUaume  de  Braquemont,  who 
sold  it  to  the  La  IMarcks.  For  two  centuries  this  powerful  family 
inanaMd  to  continue  master.')  of  the  place  in  spite  of  the  bishops 
of  Liege  and  the  dukes  of  Burgundy  and  Lorraine ;  and  in  the 
person  of  Henri  Robert  they  adopted  the  title  "prince  of  Sedan." 
In  the  16th  century  the  town  was  an  asylum  for  many  i'rotestant 
refugees,  who  laid  the  basis  of  its  industrial  prosperity,  and  it 
became  the  seat  of  a  Protestant  seminary.  Tlie  last  heiress  of  the 
La  Marck  family  brouglit  Sedan  and  the  duchy  of  Bouillon  to 
Henri  do  la  Tour  d'Auvergnc,  viscount  of  Tureune.  When  the 
new  duko  attempted  to  maintain  liis  independence,  Henry  IV. 
cnptured  Sedan  iu  three  days  ;  and  the  second  duke  (eldest  brother 
of  the  gieat  marshal),  whoh.ad  several  times  revolted  against 
Louis  XlIL,  was  at  last,  after  his  share  in  the  conspiracy  of  Cinq- 
Mars,  obliged  to  surrender  his  principality.  Sedan  thus  became 
Dart  of  the  royal  domain  in  ICil.  On  1st  September  1870  tlio 
'brtrcss  was  the  centre  of  the  most  disastrous  conflict  of  the 
Franco-German  War.  Shut  in  by  the  Germans,  who  had  occupied 
tlie  suiTouuding  heights,  the  wliole  French  army,  after  a  terrific 
contest,  was  obliged  to  capitulate, — the  emperor,  39  generals,  230 
staff-officers,  2600  oflicers,  and  83,000  men  becoming  prisoners  of 
war.  The  village  of  Bazeilles  was  the  scene  of  the  heroic  stand 
made  by  the  maiincs  under  Martin  des  Pallieres.  It  now  contains 
the  great  ossuary,  and  a  monument  to  the  memory  of  the  marines  ; 
and  the  liouso  which  has  been  rendered  famous  by  Neuville's 
painting,  "  Los  Dcrnibres  Cai-touchos,"  is  a  museum  of  objects 
loimd  on  the  battlefield. 

SEDDON,  T110MA.S  (1821-1856),  landscape  painter,  was 
born  iu  London  on  28th  August  1821.  His  father  was  a 
cabinetmaker,  and  the  son  for  some  time  followed  the  same 
occupation;  but  in  1842  he  was  sent  to  Paris  to  study, 
ornamental  art. .  On  hia  return  ho  executed  designs  for 
furniture  for  his  father,  and  in  1848  gained  a  sUvcr  nicdal 
from  the  Society  of  Arts.  In  the  following  year  ho  made 
sketching  expeditions  in  Wales  and  Franco;  and  in  1852 
began  to  exhibit  in  the  Royal  Academy,  sending  a  figure- 
piece,  Penelope,  and  afterwards  landscapes,  deriving  their 
•subjects  from  Brittany.  In  the  end  of  1853  he  started  for 
the  East  and  joined  Mr  Holmau  Hunt  at  Cairo.    Ho  worked 


10 


for  a  year  in  Egypt  and  Palestine,  e.<ecuting  views  which  Mr 
Ruskin  has  pronounced  to  be  "  the  first  landscapes  uniting 
perfect  artisticai  skill  with  topographical  accuracy ;  being 
directed,  with  stern  self-restraint,  to  no  other  purpose  than 
that  of  giving  to  persons  who  cannot  travel  trustworthy 
knowledge  of  the  scenes  which  ought  to  be  most  interest- 
ing to  thein."  Seddon's  Eastern  subjects  were  exhibited  in 
Berners  Street,  London,  in  1855,  and  in  Conduit  Street  in 
1856.  In  October  1856  Seddon  again  visited  Cairo,  where, 
after  a  very  brief  illness,  he  died  on  23d  November.  In 
1857  his  works  were  collected  and  exhibited  in  the  rooms 
of  the  Society  of  Arts,  and  his  important  and  elaborately 
finished  picture,  Jerusalem  and  the  Valley  of  Jchoshaphat, 
was  purchased  by  subscription  and  presented  to  the  National 
Gallery.  A  memoir  of  ^eddon,  by  his  brother,  was  pub- 
lished in  1859. 

SEDGWICK,  Adaji  (1785-1873),  geologist,  was  bom 
in  1785  at  Dent,  Yorkshire,  where  his  father  was  vicar  of 
the  parish.  He  was  educated  at  Sedbergh  school  and  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  as  fifth 
wrangler  iu  1808,  andVas  elected  a  fellow  in  1809.  For 
some  years  he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  studies  and 
duties  of  academic  life,  but  gradually  he  acquired  an  ab- 
sorbing interest  in  geology  and  natural  science,  which  was 
fostered  by  long  excursions  into  the  country,  rendered 
necessary  by  the  state  of  his  health.  In  1818  he  suc- 
ceeded Professor  Hailstone  in  the  Woodwardian  chair  erf 
geology.  Among  his  principal  discoveries,  which  appeared 
for  the  niost  part  in  the  Cambridge  Transactions  and  the 
Transactions  of  the  (Jeological  Society,  were  those  of  the 
true  position  and  succession  of  the  PaUeozoic  strata  of 
Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  of  the  geological  relation  of 
the  beds  afterwards  named  Permian  in  the  north  and 
north-west  of  England,  and  of  the  general  structure  of 
North  Wales, — a  subject  which  led  him  into  controversy 
with  Murchison.  In  1834  he  published  a  Discourse  on  the 
Studies  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  which  reached  a 
fifth  edition.  By  his  generosity  and  energy  he  succeeded 
in  rendering  the  geological  collection  of  the  Woodwardian 
Museum  one  of  the  most  complete  in  the  kingdom.  He 
was  one  of  the  original  secretaries  of  the  Cambridge  Philo- 
sophical Society  established  in  1819,  and  was  president  of 
the  Geological  Society  of  London  from  1829  to  1831. 
Having  taken  holy  orders,  he  was  advanced  to. the  dignity 
of  canon  of  Norwich  cathedral,  and  for  some  time  also  he 
was-  vice-master  of  Trinity  College.  Sedgwick  died  at 
Cambridge  on  25th  January  1873. 

SEDITION  in  Roman  law  was  considered  as  majesta* 
or  treason.  In  English  law  it  is  a  very  elastic  term, 
including  ofl'ence.s  ranging  from  libel  to  Tre.\son  {q.v-). 
It  is  rarely  used  except  in  its  adjectival  form,  e.g.,  sedi- 
tious libel,  seditious  meeting,  or  seditious  .  conspiracy. 
"  As  to  sedition  itself,"  says  Mr  Justice  Stephen,  "  I  do 
not  think  that  any  such  ofl'cnce  is  known  to  English  law" 
{Hist:  Crim.  Law,  vol.  ii.  chap.  xxiv.).i  The  same  high 
authority  laj's  down  the  law  in  the  following  terms,  which 
were  substantially  adopted  by  the  Draft  Criminal  Code 
Commissioners. 

"  Every  one  commits  a  misdemcnnonr  who  publishes  vorbally  or 
otherwise  any  wcrds  or  any  document  witli  a  seditious  intention. 
If  tlie  matter  so  published  consists  of  words  spokou,  tlic  otfcnco  is 
called  the  speaking  of  sedilious  words.  If  the  matter  so  published 
is  containctf  in  anything  capable  of  being  n  libel,  the  olTiiico  is 
called  the  publication  ot  a  seditious  libel.  Every  one  commits  a 
misdemeanour  who  agrees  witli  any  other  person  or  persons  to  do 
any  act  for  the  furtherance  of -any  seditious  intention  common  to 
both  or  all  of  them.  Snch  an  offonoo  is  called  a  seditious  conspiracy. 
A  seditious  intention  is  an  intention  to  bring  into  hatred  or  con- 
tempt or  to  cxrilo  disiilTertion  a;;niiist  the  person  of  Her  Majesty, 
her  licirs  and  successors,  or  tho  Government  and  constitution  of  tha 

•  Tho  word  "sedition"  occun,  however,  in  40  and  11  Vict,  c,  21, 
s.  10. 


620 

■United  KingcTom,  as  "by  lawesfaWislied,  or  either  House  of  Parlia- 
ment, or  the  administration  of  justice,  or  to  excite  Her  Majesty's 
subjects  to  attempt  otherwise  than  by  lawful  means  the  alteration 
of  any  matter  ui  church  or  state  by  law  established,  or  to  raise  dis- 
content or  disafl'ection  amongst  Her  Majesty's  subjects,  or  to  pro- 
mote feelings  of  ill-will  and  hostility  between  different  classes  of 
Her  Majesty's  subjects.  An  intention  to  show  that  Her  Majesty 
has  been  misled  or  mistaken  in  her'  measures,  or  to  point  out 
errors  or  defects  in  the  Government  or  constitution  as  by  law 
established,  with  a  view  to  their  reformation,  or  to  excite  Her 
Majesty's  subjects  to  attempt  by  lawful  meabs  the  alteration  of 
any  matter  in  church  or  state  by  law  established,  or  to  point  out, 
in  order  to  their  removal,  matters  which  are  producing  or  have  a 
tendency  to  produce  feelings  of  hatred  and  ill-will  between  different 
classes  of  Her  Majesty's  subjects,  is  not  a  seditious  intention.  In 
determining  ivhether  the  intention  with  which  any  wbrds  were 
spoken,' any.  document  .was  published,  or  any  agreement  wis  made, 
vas  or  was  not  seditious,  every  person  must  be  deemed  to  intend 
the  consequences  which  would  naturally  follow  from  his  conduct  at 
the  time  and  under  the  circumstances  in  which  he  so  conducted 
himself"  {Digest  of  the  Criminal  LaiOj  §§  91-94). 

The  principal-  enactments  no'w  in  force  deaung  'witli 
seditiouo  offences  were  all  passed  during  the  last  twenty- 
five  years  of  the  reign  of  George  III.  They  are  37  Geo. 
III.  c.  123,  prohibiting  the  administering  or  taking  of 
unla'wful  oaths  (see  Ga,th)  or  the  belonging  to  an  unlaw- 
ful confederacy ;  60  Geo.  III.  and  1  Geo.  JV.  c.  1,  pro- 
libiting  unlawful  drilling  and  military  exercises ;  and  the 
Acts  for  the  suppression  of  corresponding  societies,  39 
Geo.  III.  c.  79  and  57  Geo.  III.  c.  19. '  No  proceedings  can 
be  instituted  under  these  last  two  Acts  'without  the  autho- 
rity of  the  law  officers  of  the  crown  (9  and  10  Yiet.  e.  33). 
Under  the  head  of  statutes  aimed  at  seditious  offences  may 
also  be  classed  2  Ric.  II.  st.  1,  c.  5  and  12  Kic.  II.  c. 
1 1,'  against  scandalum  magnatum  or  slander  of  great  men, 
such  as  peers, -judges,  or  great  officers  of  state,  whereby 
discord  may  arise  within  the  realm,  and  13  Car.  11..  c.  5, 
against,  tumultuous  petitioning  (see  Petition).  There 
;has  been  no  prosecution  in  recent  times  for  seditious  words 
as  distinguished  from  seditious  libel,  but  such  words  have 
been  .admitted  as  evidence  in  proceedings  for  seditious 
CoNSPiEACY  (?.?'.),  as  in  the  prosecution  of  O'Connell  in 
1844  and  of  Mr  ParneU  and  others  in  1880  (see  Eeg.  v. 
Pamell,  Cos's  Criminal  Cases,  vol.  xiv.  508).  By  the 
Prison  Act,  1877,  any  prisoner  under  sentence  for  sedition 
or  seditious  libel  is  to  be  treated  as  a  misdemeanant  of  the 
first  division  (40  and-4l  Vift.  c.  21,  s.  40). 

Scotland.^'  AW  acts  by  'n-luch  the  minds  of  the  people  may  be 
incited  to  defeat  the  Government  or  control  legislation  by  violent 
or  unconstitutional  means  are  seditious"  (Macdonald,  Criminal 
Law,  229).  Sedition  is  punishable  by  fine  or  imprisonment  or 
both  (6'Geo.  I'V.  c.  47).  A  very  large  number  of  Acts  of  the  Scot- 
tish Parliament  dealt  wdth  seditiijn,  beginning  as  early  as  1184 
with  the  assize  of  'William  the  Lion,  c.  29.  Lcasing-making  is  to 
be  distingiiished  from  sedition,  as  it  attacked  only  the  sovereign 
individually,  not  the  Government. 

United  States. — In  the  Acts  of  Congress  the  word  "sedition" 
appears  to  occur  only  in  the  army  and  navy  articles.  A  soldier 
joining  any  sedition  or  'who,  being  present  at  any  sedition,  does  not 
use  his  utmost  endeavour  to  suppress  the  same  is  punishable  with 
death.  A  sailor  uttering  seditious  words  is  punishable  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  a  court-martial.  'In  1798  an  -Act  of  Congress  called  the 
Sedition  Act  was  passed,  which  expired  by  effluxion  of  time  in  1801. 
Its  constitutionality  was  violently  assailed  at  the  time.  (See  Story 
on  the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  §§  1293-4.)  Several 
prosecutions  under  the  Act  will  be  found  in  Wiarton's  Stale  Trials. 
Sedition  is  also  dealt  with  by  the  State  la'ws  mostly  in  a  very 
liberal  spirit.  Thus  the  Louisiana  Code,  §  394,  enacts  that  "there 
is  no  such  offence  known  to  our  law  as  defamation  of  the  Govern- 
ment or  either  of  its  branches,  either  under  the- name  of  .libel, 
slander,  seditious  writing,  or  other  appellation."  By  §  111,  to  con- 
stitute the  offence  of  sedition  ."there  must  be  not  only  a  design 
to  dismember  the  Ftate,  or  to  subvert  or  change  its  constitution, 
but  an -attempt  must  be  made  to  do  it  by  force." 

Continent  of  Europe. — The  Continental  codes  as  a  rule  are  little 
more  definite  than  English  Ir.w  in  their  treatment  of  sedition.  In 
Germany  a  distinction  is  drawn  betvveen  Auflauf,  the  remaining 
together  of  a  mob  after  the  authorities  have  thrice  bid  it  disperse, 
and  Aafruhr  or  Aufsland,  an  organized  resistance  to  the  autho- 
rities ;  but  no  definition  is  given  of  the  terms.     The  Hungarian 


S  E  D  — S  E  D 


penal  code  defines  Attf^and  to  1)8  an  amied  assembly  which  Lis 
the  intention  of  attaching  a  class  of  citizens,  a  nationality,  or  a 
religious  body.  The  B'rench  penal  code  recognizes  a  difference  'be- 
tween sidition  and  riunimi  siditieuse.  If  carried  out  (rith  snfEcient 
numbers  and  sufficient  force  sedition  becomes  rebellion.  Section  100 
exempts  from  the  penalties  of  sedition  those  who  have  merely  been 
present  Lt  a  seditious  meeting  without  taking  any  active  part  there- 
in, aad  have  dispersed'  at  the  fii'st  warning  of  the  military  or  oitU 
authorities. 

SEDLEY,  SiK  Chaeles  (1639-1701),  a  noted  "wit" 
and  patron  of  literature  in  the  Restoration  period,  the 
"  Lisideius  "  of  Dryden's  Essay  of  Dramatic  Poesy.  He 
was  born  in  1639,  the  son  of  Sir  John  Scdley  of  Aylesford 
in  Kent.'"  Lilje  rciany  other  men  of  rank  and  fashion  at 
the  court  of  "  the  merry  monarch,"  SedLey  had  poetical  aiB> 
bition,  and  ^vrote  comedies  and  songs.  His  most  famotis 
song,  "  Phyllis,"  is  much  more  widely  known  now  than  the 
author's  name..'  His  first  comedy.  The  Midhernj  Garden, 
was  published  in  1668,  but  it  does-  not  sustain  Sedley's 
contemporary  reputation  for  wit  in  conversation.  He  was 
probably  too  indolent'  to  master  the  art  of  providing  con- 
tinuous opportunities  for  brilliant  sayings,  although  he 
continued  to  try,  wrote  two  more  co'medies,  and  left  a 
comedy  and  two  tragedies  behind  him  to  be  published  after 
his  death.  An  indecent  frolic  in  Bow  Street,  for  wiueh 
he  was  heavily  fined,  made  him  notorious  in  his  youth,  bnt 
later  on  he  sobered  down,  entered  parliament  for  Ne\* 
Eomhey  (Kent),  and  took  an  active  part  in  politics.  ■  A 
speech  of  his  on  the  civil  list  after  the  Revolution  is  cited 
by  Jlacaulay  as  a  proof  (which  -his  plays  do  not  afford) 
that  his  reputation  as  a  man  of  'wit  and  abUity  was  de- 
served. His  bon  mot  at  the  expense  of  James  II.  is  another 
well-known  fragment  of  his  wit.  The  king  had  seduced  his 
daughter  and  created  her  countess  of  Dorchester,  where- 
upon Sedley  remarked  that  he  hated  ingratitude,  and,  as 
the  king  had  made  his  daughter  a  countess,  he  would  en- 
deavour to  make  the  king's  daughter  a  queen.  Sedley 
died  on  20th  August  1701. 

SEDUCTION.  The  action  for  seduction  of  an  unmarried 
woman  in  England  stands  ia  a  somewhat  anomalous  posi- 
tion. The  theory  of  English  law  is  that  the  woman  herself 
has  sirffered  no  ^\Tong ;  the  wrong  has  been  suffered  by 
the  parent  or  person  in  loco  parentis,  who  must  sue  for  tl^ 
damage  arising  from  the  loss  of  service  caused  by  the 
seduction  of  the  woman.  Some  e'vidence  of  service  must 
be  given,  but  very  slight  evidence  wiU  be  sufficient. 
Although  the  action  is  nominally  for  loss  of  service,  still 
exemplary  damages  may  be  given  for  the  dishonour  of  the 
plaintiff's  family  beyond  recompence  for  the  mere  loss  of 
service.  An  action  for  seduction  cannot  be  brought  in  the 
county  court  except  by  agreement  of  the  parties.  As  ta 
seduction  of  a  married  woman,  the  old  action  for  criminal 
conversation  was  abolished  by  the  Divorce  Act,  1857, 
which  substituted  foi;  it  a  claim  for  damages  against  the 
co-respondent  in  a  divorce  suit.  Seduction  in  England 
is  not  as  a  rule  a  criminal  offence.  But  a  conspiracy  to 
seduce  is  indictable  at  common  law.  And  the  Criminal 
Law  Amendment  Act,  1885  (which  extends  to  the  United 
Kingdom),  makes  it  felony  to  seduce  a  girl  under  the  age 
of  thirteen,  and  misdemeanour  to  seduce  a  girl  between 
thirteen  and  sixteen  (48  and  49  Vict.  c.  69,  §§  4,  5).  The 
same  Act  also  deals  severely  with  the  cognate  offences  of 
procuration,  abduction^  and  unlawful  detention  with  the 
intent  to  seduce  a  woman  of  any  age.  In  Scotland  the 
seduced  woman  may  sue  on  her  own  account. 

United  States. — In  the  United  States  State  legislation  has  gener- 
ally modified  the  common  law.  .  In  some  States  the  father  brings, 
the  action  as  the  representative  of  the  family  whose  purity  .has 
been  iuvaded  ;  in  others  the  woman  herself  may  bring  the  action. 
In  many  States  there  is  a  criminal  as  well  as  a  civil  remedy.  The 
penal  codes  of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Louisiana,  and  other  States 
make  it  a  crime  to  seduce  under  promise  of  marriage  an  Onmarried 
woman  of  good  reputation.    Subsequent  intermarriage  of  the  parties. 


S  E  D  — S  E  G 


621 


ii  ia  moafcasos  a  tar  to  criminal  proceedings.  SFassachusetts  goes 
stitl  further.  By  the  law  of  tliat  State  if  a  man  commits  fornication 
with  a  single  woman,  each  of  them  shall  be  punished  by  imprison- 
ment not  exceeding  three  months,  or  by  fine  not  exceeding  S^O. 
Tko  seduction  of  a  female  passenger  on  a  vessel  of  the  United  States 
IB  an  olfence  punishable  by  fine  or  imprisonment.  Tlie  fine  may 
fco  ordered  by  the  court  to  be  paid  to  the  person  seduced  or  her 
child  (Act  of  Congress  of  24th  March  1860).  The  State  legislation 
of  the  United  Slates  is  in  remarkable  opposition  to  the  rule  of  the 
canon  law,  by  which  the  seduction  of  a  woman  by  her  betrothed 
was  not  punishable  on  account  of  the  inchoate  right  over  her  person 
given  by  the  betrothal. 

SEDULIUS,  CffiLius,  a  Christian  poet  of  the  5th  cen- 
tury, was  the  author  of  an  abecedarian  Hymniis  de  Christo 
in  iambic  dimeters,  portions  of  which  maintain  their  ground 
in  the  offices  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  viz.,  in  the  Christmas 
hymn  "A  solis  ortus  cardine,"  and  in  that  for  Epiphany 
(altered  from  "  Herodes  hostis  impie  ").  His  other  works 
are  Pasckale  Carmen  s.  Mirahilium  Divinorum.  Libri  V., 
originally  in  four  or  five  books  in  hexameter  verse  and 
afterwards  enlarged  and  turned  into  prose,  and  Veieris  et 
N'ovi  Testamenti  Colloiio,  in  elegiac  verse.  De  Verbi 
Incamatioiie,  a  Virgilian  cento,  has  also  been  ascribed  to 
Mm,  but  on  insufficient  grounds.  Of  his  personal  history 
nothing  is  known,  except  that  he  is  called  a  presbyter  by 
Isidore  of  Seville ;  by  some  other  writers  of  less  authority 
he  is  designated  "antistes"  or  "episcopus."  A  Scoto- 
Irish  origin  has  sometimes  been  claimed  for  him ;  but  at 
all  events  he  must  not  be  confounded  with  Sedulius  the 
grammarian,  an  Irish  Scot  who  lived  in  the  9th  century. 
The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  Arevalus  (4to, 
Rome,  1794). 

SEDUM.  About  120  species  are  enumerated  in  this 
genus  of  CrasstdacesCy  mostly  perennial  herbs  with  succulent 
leaves  of  varied  form,  but  never  compound.  The  indivi- 
dual flowers  are  usuaUy  small  and  grouped  in  c3Tnes.  In 
colour  they  range  from  white  and  yellow  to  pink.  They 
have  a  caly.K  of  five  sepals,  as  many  petals,  usually  ten 
stamens,  and  five  distinct  carpels,  which  have  as  many' 
glands  at  their  base  and  ripen  into  as  many  dry  seed-pods. 
Several  species  are  British,  including  some  with  tuberous 
roots  and  large  leaves  (7'elepfdnm),  and  others  of  smaller 
size,  chiefly  found  on  rocks,  walls,  and  dry  banks.  Many 
are  cultivated  for  the  beauty  of  their  flowers,  and  many 
are  remarkable  for  their  prolonged  vitality  under  adverse 
circumstances.  Sedums  are  very  closely  allied  to  Semper- 
vivums  (see  Ho0seleek). 
SEELAND.     See  Zealand. 

SfiES,  a  town  of  France  and  a  oisnop's  see,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Orne,  is  situated  on  the  Orne,  4  miles  from 
its  source  and  13  miles  north  of  Alcngon  by  the  railway 
from  Le  Mans  to  Caen.  The  very  fine  cathedral,  dating  to 
a  large  extent  from  the  13th  and  14th  centuries,  occupies 
the  site  of  churches  founded  in  440,  996,  and  1053.  The 
west  front  has  two  stately  spires  of  open  work  230  feet 
high,  which  have  been  restored  more  than  once  in  the  19th 
century.  The  nave,  built  in  the  beginning  of  the  13th 
century,  was  remodelled  in  its  upper  portion  fifty  or  sixty 
years  after  its  erection ;  the  choir,  built  about  1 230  and 
restored  in  1260  after  a  great  fire,  is  remarkable  for  the 
lightness  of  its  construction, — the  inner  galleries  of  the 
presbytery  being  the  boldest  venture  ever  made  in  this 
kind.  In  the  choir  aro  four  bas-reliefs  of  great  beauty  and 
delicacy  representing  scenes  in  the  life  of  the  Virgin ;  and 
the  altar  is  adorned  with  another  depicting  the  removal 
of  the  relics  of  St  Gervais  and  St  Protais.  Most  of  the 
.stained  windows  are  good.  Around  the  cathedral  are  the 
cloisters  of  the  canons  ;  the  episcopal  palace  (1778),  with  a 
pretty  chapel ;  the  great  seminary,  located  in  the  old  abbey 
of  St  Martin  (supposed  to  be  one  of  the  fourteen  or  fifteen 
monasteries  founded  in  the  6th  century  by  St  Evrouit) ; 
the  hotel  de  ville ;  and  the  st  tue  of  Contd,  a  member  of  - 


the  Egyptian  exjiedition  of  1798.     The  population  of  Sdes 
was  3483  in  18S1,  and  that  of  the  commune  4687. 

The  first  bishop  of  Sees  {Sagium)  was  St  Lain,  who  lived  at  the 
close  of  the  3d  or  oeginning  of  the  4th  century.  In  tlic  9th  century 
it  was  a  fortified  town  and  fell  a  prey  to  the  Normans  ;  and  the 
stones  from  its  ruined  ramparts  were  nsed  for  the  erection  of  a 
church  in  the  close  of  the  10th  century.  In  th""  12th  century 
Sees  belonged  to  the  count  of  Aleni;on  and  consisted  of  two  distinct 
parts,  separated  by  the  Orne,— the  bishop's  burgh,  and  to  the  south 
the  new  or  count's  burgh  (Boicrg  le  Comic).  Captured  in  1154  by 
Henry  II:  of  England,  it  was  recovered  in  the  foUomng  year  by 
Guillaunie  de  Belleme  ;  and  in  1136  it  was  partly  burned  by  tho 
count  of  Anjou.  After  being  taken  by  Philip  Augustus  it  enjoyed 
some-years  of  peace,  during  which  a  hospital  and  a  Franciscan  mon- 
astery were  built ;  but  it  was  one  of  the  first  towns  of  Normandy 
to  fall  into  tlie  hands  of  the  English  (1417),  who  retained  posses- 
sion until  their  fiual  e-xpulsion  from  France.  Pillaged  by  the  Pro- 
testants during  the  Wars  of  Religion,  Sees  attached  itself  to  tho 
League  in  1589,  but  voluntarily  sunendered  to  Henry  IV.  in  1590. 

SEETZEN,  Ulrich  Jaspee  (1767-1811),  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  of  modem  travellers  in  the  East,  was 
born  the  son  of  a  yeoman,  in  the  little  lordship  of  Jever  in 
German  Frisia,  on  30th  January  1767.  His  father,  who  was 
a  man  of  substance,  sent  him  to  the  university  of  Gottingenj 
where  he  graduated  in  medicine.  His  chief  interests,  how- 
ever, were  in  natural  history  and  technology ;  he  wrote  a 
number  of  papers  on  both  these  subjects  which  gained  him 
some  reputation,  and  had  both  in  view  in  a  series  of 
journeys  which  he  made  from  time  to  time  through  various 
parts  of  Holland  and  Germany.  '  He  also  engaged  practi- 
cally in  various  small  manufactures,  and  in  1802  obtained- 
a  Government  post  in  Jever.  In  1801,  however,  the  in- 
terest which  he  had  long  felt  in  geographical  exploration 
had  culminated  in  a  resolution  to  travel  by  Constantinople 
to  Syria  and  Arabia,  and  then,  when  familiarized  with 
Mohammedan  ways,  to  try  to  penetrate  into  Central  Africa. 
He  relied  mainly  on  his  own  resources,  but  received  a  small 
subvention  from  Gotha,  where  also  he  learned  from  Zach 
to  make  astronomical  observations.  In  the  summer  of 
1802  he  started  down  the  Danube  with  a  companion 
Jacobsen,  who  broke  down  at  Smyrna  a  year  later.  His 
journey  was  by  Constantinople,  where  he  ?tayed  six  months, 
thence  through  Asia  Minor  to  Smyrna,  then  again  through 
the  heart  of  Asia  Minor  to  Aleppo,  where  he  remained  from 
November  1 803  to  April  1 805,  and  made  himself  sufficiently 
at  home  with  Arabic  speech  and  ways  to  travel  as  a  native 
and  without  an  interpreter.  Now  began  the  part  of  hia 
travels  of  which  a  fidl  journal  has  been  published  (April 
1805  to  March  1809),  a  series  of  most  instructive  journeys 
in  eastern  and  western  Palestine  and  the  wilderness  of 
Sinai,  and  so  on  to  Cairo  and  tho  FayyClm.  His  chief  ex" 
ploit  was  a  tour  round  the  Dead  Sea,  which  ho  made  with- 
out a  companion  and  in  the  disguise  of  a  beggar.  .From 
Egypt  he  went  by  sea  to  Jeddah  and  reached  Mecca  as  a 
pilgrim  in  October  1809.  In  Arabia  he  made  extensive 
journeys,  ranging  from  Medina  to  Lahak  and  returning  to 
Mocha,  from  which  place  his  last  letters  to  Europe  were 
written  in  November  1810.  In  September  of  the  follow- 
ing  year  he  left  !Mocha  with  the  hope  of  reaching  Muscat, 
and  was  found  dead  two  days  later,  having,  it  is  believed, 
been  poisoned  by  the  command  of  the  iniAm  of  Sana'a. 
For  the  parts  of  Seetzen's  journeys  not  covered  by  tho 
published  journal  {Eeuen,  ed.  Kruse,  4  vols.,  Berlin,  1854) 
the  only  printed  records  are  a  series  of  letters  and  papers 
in  Zach's  MonatUclie  Correspondaiz  nnd  Hammer's  Fund- 
ffruhen.  Many  papers  and  collections  were  lost  through 
his  death  or  never  reached  Europe.  Tiie  collections  that 
were  saved  form  the  Oriental  museum  and  the  chief  part 
of  the  Oriental  MSS.  of  the  ducal  library  in  Gotha. 

SE-GAN  FOO,  tho  capital  of  the  province  of  Shen-se 
in  north-western  China,  is  situated  in  34°  17'  N.  lat.  andl 
108°  58'  E.  long.  iLike  most  Chinese  cities,  Sc-pan  Voo^  as 
repeatedly  cliaugecl  its  name  during  its  history,  which  dates 


G22 


S  E  G  — S  E  G 


back  to  tlie  timeof  Che  Hwang-te  (246-210  B.c.^,  the  first 
universal  emperor,  whose  naine  will  be  ever  notorious  as 
that  of  the  monarch  who  built  the  Great  Wall,  burnt  the 
books,  and  established  his  capit-al  at  Kwan-chung,  the  site 
of  the  modern  Se-gan  Foo.  Under  the  succeeding  Han 
dynasty  (206  B.C.-25  a.d.)  this  city  was  called  Wei-nan 
and  Nuy-she;  under  the  Eastern  Han  (25-221  a.d.)  it 
was  known  as  Yung  Chow;  under  the  T'ang  (618-907) 
as  Kwan-nuy;  under  the  Sung  (960-1127)  as  Yung-hing; 
under  the  Yuen  and  Ming  (1260-1644)  as  Gan-se ;  and 
under  the  present  dyiiasty  as  Se-gan.  During  the  Ts'in, 
Han,  and  T'ang  dynasties  it  was  the  capital  of  the  empire, 
and  is  at  the  present  time  second  only  to  Peking  in  size, 
population,  and  importance.  The  city,  which  is  a  square, 
measuring  10  Chinese  miles  each  way,  is  prettily  situated 
on  ground  rising  from  the  river  Wei,  and  includes  within 
its  limits  the  two  district  cities  of  Ch'ang-gan  and  Hien- 
ning.  Its  walls  are  little  inferior  in  height  and  massive- 
ness  to  those  of  Peking,  while  its  gates  are  handsomer  and 
better  defended  than  any  of  which  the  capital  can  boast. 
The  population  is  said  to  be  1,000,000,  of  whom  50,000 
axe  Mohammedans.  Situated  in  the  basin  of  the  AVei 
river,  along  which  runs  the  great  road  which  connects 
jnortheru  China  with  Central  Asia,  at  a  point  where  the 
kralley  opens  out  on  the  plains  of  China,  Se-gan  Foo 
[occupies  a  .strategical  position  of  great  importance,  and 
Irepeatedly  in  the  annals  of  the  empire  has  history  been 
Wade  around  and  w'ithin  its  walls.  During  the  late 
iMohammedan  rebellion  it  was  besieged  by  the  rebels  for 
two  yeais  (1868-70),  but  owing  to  the  strength  of  the 
fortifications  it  defied  the  efi'orts  of  its  assailants.  From 
its  eastern  side  three  great  roads  radiate,  one  reaching  to 
Shan-se,  one  to  Ho-nan,  and  one  to  Hoo-pih  ;  while  from 
it  runs  in  a  south-westerly  direction  the  great  highway 
into  Sze-chuen.  It  is  thus  admirably  situated  as  a  trade 
i'centre  and  serves  as  a  depot  for  the  silk  from  Che-keang 
and  Sze-chuen,  the  tea  from  Hoo-pih  and  Ho-nan,  and  the 
sugar  from  Sze-chuen  destined  for  the  markets  of  Kan- 
suh,  Tmkistan,  Hi,  and  Kussia.  Marco  Polo  speaking  of 
Kenjanfu,  as  the  city  was  then  also  called,  says  that  it 
[was  a  place  "of  great  trade  and  industry.  They  have 
great  abundance  of  silk,  from  which  they  weave  cloths  of 
sUk,  and  gold  of  divers  kinds,  and  they  also  majiufacture 
all  sorts  of  equipments  for  an  array.  They  have  every 
'necessary  of -man's  life  very  cheap."  Many  of  the  temples 
and  public  buildings  are  very  fine,  and  not  a  few  historical 
monuments  are  found  within  and  about  the  walk.  Of 
these  the  most  notable  is  a  Nestorian  tablet,^  which  was 
accidentally  discovered  in  1625  in  the  Ch'ang-gan  suburb. 

^  The  contents  of  this  Nestorian  inscription,  which  consists  of  1-780 
characters,  may  be  described  as  follows.  (1)  An  abstract  of  Christian 
doctrine  of  a  vague  and  figivrcitive  kind.  (2)  An  account  of  the  arrival 
of  the  missionary  Olopun  (probably  a  Chinese  form  of  Rabban  =  Monk), 
from  Tats'in  in  the  year  635,  bringing  sacred  books  and  images  ;  of  the 
translation  of  the  said  books  ;  of  the  imperial  approval  of  the  doctrine 
and  permission  to  teach  it  publicly.  Then  follows  a  decree  of  the 
emperor  (T'ait-sung,  a  very  famous  prince),  issued  in  638,  in  favour  of 
the  new  doctrine,  and  ordering  a  church  to  be  built  in  the  square  of 
justice  and  peace  (Inihg  fmig)  in  the  capital.  The  emperor's  portrait 
was  to  be  placed  in  this  church.  After  this  comes  a  description  of 
Tats'in,  and  then  some  account  of  the  fortunes  of  the  church  in  China. 
Kaontsung  (650-683,  the  devout  p.itron  also  of  the  Buddhist  traveller 
and  doctor,  Hwen  Ts'ang),  it  is  added,  continued  to  favour  the  new 
faith.  In  the  end  of  the  century  Buddhism  got  the  upper  hand,  but 
under  Yuen-tsung  (713-755)  the  church  recovered  its  prestige,  and 
Kiho,  a  new  missionary,  arrived.  Under  Tih-tsung  (780-783)  the  monu- 
ment was  erected,  and  this  part  of  the  inscription  ends  with  a  eulogy 
of  I-sze,  a  statesman  and  benefactor  of  the  church.  (3)  Then  follows 
a  recapitulation  of  the  above  in  octosyllabic  verse.  The  Chinese  in- 
scription, which  concludes  with  the  date  of  erection,  viz.,  781,  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  series  of  short  inscriptions  in  Syriac  and  the  Estrangelo 
character,  containing  the  date  of  the  erection,  the  name  of  the  reigning 
Nestorian  jiatriarch,  Mar  Hanan  Islnia,  that  of  Adam,  bishop  and  pope 
,of  China,  and  those  of  the  clerical  staff  of  the  capital.     Tlieu  follow 


The  stone  slab  which  bears  the  inscription  is  7^  feet  high 
by  3  wide,  and  at  present  stands  embedded  in  a  brick 
wall,  which  forms  part  of  a  dilapidated  temple.^  '  Frpm  a 
Chinese  point  of  view,  however,  the  Pei  Lin  or  "  forest  of 
tablets  "  is  a  place  of  even  greater  interest  than  t'<.e  above- 
mentioned  temple.  For  there  are  collected  tablets  of  tho 
Han,  T'ang,  Sung,  Yuen,  and  Jling  dynasties,  some  of 
which  bear  historical  legends,  notably  a  set  of  stone  tablets 
having  the  thirteen  classics  inscribed  upon  them,  while 
others  are  symbolical  or  pictorial ;  among  these  last  is  a 
full-sized  likeness  of  Confucius.  As  might  be  expected  on 
a  site  which  has  played  so  prominent  a  part  in  Chinese 
history,  antiquities  are  constantly  being  discovered  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  city,  e.g.,  rich  stores  of  coins  and 
bronzes,  bearing  dates  ranging  from  200  B.C.  onwards. 

SEGSSTA,  a  very  ancient  city  near  the  north-western 
extremity  of  Sicily,  so  named  by  the  natives  and  by  tlie 
Komans,  while  the  Greeks  called  it  Egesta  or  ^Egesta.  Its 
origin  was  ascribed  by  tradition  sometimes  to  Trojan 
refugees  and  sometimes  to  Phocians,  followers  of  Philo- 
ctetes ;  the  accounts  agree  only  in  making  Segesta  older 
than  the  Greek  colonization  of  Sicily  in  the  7th  century 
B.C.  A  tribe,  named  Elymi,  distinct  from  both  the  Siculi 
and  the  Greek.s,  occupied  the  country  round  the  city. 
The  scanty  references  to  the  history  of  Segesta  show  it  in 
continual  warfare  with  the  Greek  city  Selinus  from  the 
year  580  B.C.  downwards.  As  early  as  426  B.C.  it  con- 
cluded an  alliance  with  Athens;  and .  in  416  a  great 
Athenian  fleet  sailed  to  Sicilj',  ostensibly  to  aid  Segesta 
against  its  enemies  Selinus  and  Syracuse,  but  really  to 
attempt  the  conquest  of  the  island. '  After  the  destruction 
of  the  Athenian  fleet  and  arm)',  the  Segestans  turned  to 
the  Carthaginians.  But,  when  Hannibal  destroyed  Selinus 
(see  Sellncs)  in  409  B.C.  and  Himera,  and  established  the 
Carthaginian  power  firmly  in  the  western  part  of  Sicily, 
Segesta  sank  to  the  position  of  a  dependent  ally.  In  397 
it  sufl'ered  a  long  siege  from  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  but  at 
last  was  relieved  by  Himilco.  In  307,  however,  the  Greek 
arms  had  better  success ;  Agathocles  of  Syracuse  sold  the 
inhabitants  into  slavery,  after  massacring  10,000  men,  and 
changed  the  name  of  the  city  to  Dicaeopolis.  But  it  soon 
recovered  its  old  name  and  passed  again  to  the  Cartha- 
ginians. In  the  beginning  of  the  First  Punic  War  tho 
Segestans  murdered  the  Carthaginian  garrison  and  became 
aUies  of  Eome.  Being  soon  after  besieged  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians, they  were  relieved  by  the  great  naval  victory  of 
Duilius,  260  B.C.  Segesta  was  always  highly  favoured  by 
the  Romans,  both  on  account  of  its  early  adhesion  to  their 
cause  and  from  its  supposed  Trojan  origin.  Its  site  is  now 
deserted,  having  been  exposed  to  the  Saracen  depredations 
in  the  10th  century  ;  but  the  ruins  are  very  fine.  Segesta 
was  about  6  miles  from  the  sea,  and  the  modern  town  of 
Castellamare  probably  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient 
harbour.  The  Crimisus,  which  is  represented  on  coins  of 
Segesta,  is  probably  the  river  S.  Bartolommeo,  about  6 
miles  to  the  south.  There  were  hot  springs  and  baths  not 
far  from  the  city. 

SEGOVIA,  a  province  or  Spain,  formerly  part  of  Old 
Castile,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  N.E.  by  the  provinces 
of  Burgos  and  Soria,  on  the  S.E.  by  those  of  Guadalajara 
and  Madrid,  on  the  S.W.  by  AvOa,  and  on  the  N.W.  by 
Valladolid.  It  has  an  area  of  2670  square  mUes,  and  the 
population  in  1877  was  149,961.  The  greater  portion  of 
the  country  consists  of  a  dry  .arable  tableland,  lifted  some 

sixty-seven  names  of  persons  in  Syriac  characters,  most  of  whom  are 
characterized  as  priests,  and  sixty-one  names  of  persons  in  Chinese, 
all  priests  but  one.  .  , 

2  See  Yule,  Marco  Polo,  London,  1875  ; '  Williamson,  Journeys  t* 
Korth  China,  London.  1870  ;  and  S.  Wells  Williams,  Tlie  Midm 
Kingdom,  London,  1883. 


S  E  G  — S  E  I 


623 


2500  feet  above  the  sea,  monotonous  enough  in  .appear- 
ance, and  buxnt  to  a  dull  brown  during  summer,  but  yet 
producing  some  of  the  finest  ?orn  in  the  Peninsula.  Along 
the  whole  south-eastern  boundary  the  Guadarrama  range 
of  mountains  rises  up  suddenly,  like  a  huge  barrier,  sepa- 
rating Old  from  New  Castile  and  the  basin  of  the  Douro 
from  that  of  the  Tagus, — affording,  too,  among  its  ravines 
and  upon  its  slopes  some  remarkably  fine  scenery.  There 
are  two  well-known  passes  or  "  puertos  "  over  the  sierra, 
those  of  the  Nava  Cerrada  and  oi  Somosieia.  The  former 
has  been,  until  quite  a  recent  date,  the  chief  means  of 
communication  with  the  outer  world,  save  when  blocked 
by  winter  snows.  It  winds  round  the  lower  southern 
slope  of  the  Pefialara.  (8500  feet).  The  Puerto  de  Somo- 
siera  lies  north  of  the  feiialara.  By  it  in  1808  Napoleon 
descended  upon  Madrid.  Though  to  the  eye  of  the  stranger 
almost  desert-like  in  appearance,  the  province  of  Segovia  is 
well  watered  by  the  streams  which  rise  in  the  Guadarrama 
range  and  flow  northwards  to  the  Douro,  and  by  careful 
methods  of  irrigation.  The  Eresma,  Cega,  Duraton,  and 
Riaza  are  the  principal  watercourses.  With  the  exception 
of  Segovia  and  Sepulveda,  there  is  no  town  of  any  imports 
aiice, — the  inhabitants  being  for  the  most  part  employed 
in  agricultural  and  pastoral  pursuits  and  backward  in 
civilijation.  Since  the  completion  (1883)  of  the  railway 
from  Medina  del  Campo  to  the  cify  of  Segovia,  however, 
the  towns  en  route  have  begun  to  show  signs  of  animation  ; 
and,  as  the  province  contains  monuments  of  deepest  inter- 
est to  the  historian  and  ecclesiologist,  it  bids  fair  to  receive 
its  due  "measure  of  attention  and  enlightenment.  At  the 
foot  of  the  ^ava  Cerrada  pass  lies  the  royal  demesne  and 
summer  residence  of  La  Granja,  or  San  Ildefonso,  one  of  the 
great  show  places  of  the  Peninsula.  The  chief  trades  and 
manufactures  formerly  carried  on  in  the  province — ^weaving, 
tanning,  making  of  earthenware,  &c. — have  been  drawn 
away  to  more  commercial  centres.  Paper-making  holds  its 
own  to  some  extent,  owing  to  the  excellen-ceof  the  water; 
and  for  the  same  reason,  together  with  the  superior  quality 
of  the. breed  of  sheep,  the  picturesque  scenes  attendant 
upon  the  preparation  of  the  fleeces  may  still' be  witnessed. 
Such  prosperity,  however,  as  Segovia  retains  is  dependent 
upon,  its  agricultural  produce — wheat,  rye,  barley,  peas, 
hemp,  flax,  &c. — together  with  the  rearing  of  sheep,  cattle, 
mules,  and  pigs.  The  sierras  yield  excellent  granite, 
marble,  and  limestone ;  but  hitherto  the  difficulty  of  trans- 
port has  prevented  any  development  of  mineral  wealtli, 

SEGOVIA, 'the  capital  of  the  above  province,  clusters 
upon  a  narrow  ridge  of  rock  which  rises  in  the  valley  of  the 
Eresma,  where  this  river  is  joined  by  its  turbulent  little 
tributary  the  Clamores, -and  is  one  of  the  best  specimens 
extant  of  the  Gotho-Castilian  cities.  Founded  originally 
as  a  Roman  pleasure  resort,  it  became  in  the  Middle  Ages 
a  great  royal  and  religious  centre,  and  was  surrounded  by 
Alphonso  VI.  with  the  walla  and  towers  which  still  give  to  it, 
even  in  their  dilapidation,  the.air.  of  a  military  stronghold. 
The  streets  are  steep,  irregular,  and  narrow,  and  are  lined 
with  quamt  old-fashioned  housos  as  irregular  and  forbid- 
ding, built  for  tlie  most  part  of  granite  from  the  neighbour- 
ing sierra.  The  place  teems  with  records  and  monuments 
of  the  many  vicissitudes  of  fortnno  and  art  through  which' 
It  has  passeo,  foremost  among  the  latter  being  the  ancient 
AlcAzar,  the  cathedral,  the  aqueduct  of  Trajan,  and  a 
notable  array  of  churches  and  other  ecclesiastical  edifices! 
Ihe  Alcdzar  is  perched  upon  the  western  tip  of  the  Ion.- 
tongueof  rock  upon  which  the  city  is  built,  and  which  at 
this  pomt  has  a  sheer  descent  u|)on  three  sides  into  the 
valley.  Of  the  original  Middle-Age  fortress  but  little  re- 
mains save  the  noble  facade,— the  .building  having  been 
wantonly  fired  in  18G2  by  the  students  of  the  artillery  school 
domicile'  withiTi  itc  walla,  aiid  al!  but  destroyed.    It 


is  now  in  course  of  slow  but  praiseworthy  restoration.  The 
work  is  Gotho-Moorish,  vnth  an  admixture  of  Renaissance 
in  •  the  decoration.  Some  of  the  rooms  dese.rve  potice, 
especially  the  Sala  del  Trono  and  the  Sala  de  Recibimiento. 
The  views  obtained  over  the  outlying  ve^a  frem  the  towers 
ai)d  windows  arc  superb.'  The  16th-century  cathedral 
(1521-1577),  the  work  of  Juan  Gil  de  Ontafion  and  his 
son  Rodi'igo,' occupies  the  site  of  a  former  church  of  the 
1 1th  century,  of  which  the  present  cloisters,  rebuilt  in  1524, 
■formed  part.  It  is  a  well-proportioned  and  delicate  piece 
of  Late  Gothic — the  latest  of  its  kind  in  Spain — 317  feet 
long  by  177  wide.  The  central  nave  rises  99  feet  and 
the  tower  330.  The  exterior,  is  the  least  satisfactory 
portion,  at  once  bald  and  over-decorated ;  the  interior  is 
light  and  pure,  with  an  effectiveness  greatly  enhanced  by 
some  very  fine  stained  glass.  '  The  churches  of  Segovia 
are  legion,  though  many  of  them  are  closed  and  fast  fall- 
iiig  into  disrepair.  The  most  remarkable  are  tho^e  of  La 
Vera  Cruz  (Knights  Templar,  Romanesque  of  the  early 
13th  century),  San  Millan  and  San  Juan  (both  Romanesque 
of  second  half  of  13th  century),  El  Parral  (Gothic  of  early 
IGth  centuiy),  and  Corpus  Christi,  an  ancient  Jewish 
sanctuary  and  an  interesting  specimen  of  Moorish  work. 
The  towers  and  external  cloistering,  or  con'ecfores,  of  several 
of  the  later  churches — especially  those  of  San  Est6ban  and 
San  Martin— are  fine.  The  great  aqueduct,  however, 
called  El  Puente  del  Diablo,  ranks  usually  as  the  glory  of 
Segovia,  and  is  remarkable  alike  for  its  colossal  propor- 
tions,- its  history,  its  picturesqueness,  and  the. art  with 
which  it  is  put  together.  Erected  first,  according  to  fairly 
reliable  tradition,  in  the  time  of  the  emperor  Trajan,  and 
several  times  barely  escaping  destruction,  it  is  now,  after 
nearly  eighteen  hundred  years,  in  perfect  working  order, 
bringing  the  pure  waters  of  .the  Rio  Frio  down  from  the 
Sierra  Fonfria,  distant  10  miles  to  the  south.  The  bridge 
jjortion  Striding  across  the  valley  into;  the  city  is  847  yards 
long,  and  consists  of  a  double  tier  of  superimposed  arches, 
built  of  rough-hewn  granite  blocksj  laid  without  lime  or 
cement.  The  three  centre  arches  are  102  feet  in  height. 
Segovia  finally  lost  its  ancient  prosperity  when  it  was  taken 
and  sacked  by' the  French  in  1808.  Some  insignificant 
manufactories  of  cloth,  leather,  paper,'and  rude . earthen-, 
ware  still  exist  in  the  suburb  of  San  Lorenzo,  but  the  trade 
of  the  place  languishes  year  by  year.  The  city  is  the' see 
of  a  bishop,  suffragan  to  Valladolid.  The  population  in 
18Y7  was  11,318. 

iSEIGNORY,  or  Seigniory,  is  the  relation  of  the  lord 
of  a  fee  or  a  manor  to  his  tenant.    There  Isno  land  in  Eng- 
land -nithout  its  lord  :  "Nulle  terre  sans  seigneur"  is  the 
old  feudal  maxim.     Where  no  other  lord  can  be  discovered 
the  crown  is  lord  as  lord  paramount.     The  principal  inci- 
dents of  a  seignoi^  were  fealty  and  rent-service.    In  return 
for  these  privileges  the  lord  was  liable  to  forfeit  his  rights 
if  he  neglected  to  protect  and  defend  the  tenant  or  did 
anything  injurious  to  the  feudal  relation.  •  Every  seignory 
now  existing  must  have  been  created  before  the  Statute  of 
Quia  Emptores,  which  forbade  the  future  creation  of  estates 
in  ffe-simple  by  subinfeudation  (see  Real  Estate).     The 
only  seignories  of  any  importance  at  present  are  the  lord- 
ships of  manors.    Theyare  regarded  as  incorporeal  heredita- 
ments, and  are  either  appendant  or  in  gross.     A.  seignory 
rppe'ndant  passes  with  the  grant  of  the  manor '^  a  seignory 
in  gross — that  is,  a  seignory  which  Jias  been  severed  from 
the  demesne  lands  of  the  manor  to  which  it  w«s  originally 
appendant— must  be  specially  conveyed  by  deed  of  grant. 
SEINE.     This,  one  of  tlio  chief  rivers  of  Franco  (Lot. 
Sequana),  rises  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  plateau  of 
Langres,  18  miles  to  the  north-west  of  Dijon.     It  keeps 
the  same  general  direction  (nortliwcstwardn)  thix)uglioufc 
its  entire  course,  but  has  numerous  windings    between  its 


624 


S  E  I  — S  E  I 


source  and  its  mouth  in  the  English  Channel  the  air  distance 
is  only  250  miles,  but  that  actually  traversed  (through  the 
departments  of  Cote-d'Or,  Aube,  Seine-et-Marne,  Seine-et- 
Oise,  Seine,  Eure,  and  Seine-Inf^rieure)  is  482.  Though 
shorter  than  the  Loire  and  inferior  in  volume  to  the  streams 
of  the  Rhone  system  when  these  are  at  their  fullest,  the 
Seine  derives  an  exceistional  importance  from  the  regularity 
o\  its  flovv.  .  This  feature  is  due  to  the  geological  character 
of  its  basin,  an  area  of  19,400,000  acres,  entirely  belonging 
to  France  (with  the  exception  of  a  few  communes  in 
Belgium),  and  formed  in  three-fourths  of  its  extent  of  per- 
meable strata,  which  absorb  the  atmospheric  precipitation 
to  restore  it  gently  to  the  river  by  perennial  springs.  It 
is  believed  that  the  Seine  never  attains  a  volume  so  high 
as  90,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  At  Paris  its  average  per 
second  is  9000,  and  after  it  has  received  all  its  tributaries 
it  ranges  between  24,000  and  25,000  cubic  feet.  At  Paris 
it  falls  as  low  as  2650  cubic  feet  and  in  exceptional  droughts 
the  figure  of  1200  has  been  reached.  During  the  flood  of 
1876,  which  lasted  fifty-five  days,  the  volume  between  the 
quays  at  Paris  rose  to  58,600  cubic  feet  per  second. 

Kising  at  a  Iieiglit  of  1545  feet  above  sea-level,  at  the  base  of  the 
statue  of  a  nymph  erected  on  the  spot  by  the  city  of  Paris,  the  Seine 
is  at  first  such  an  insignificant  streamlet  that  it  is  often  dry  in 
summer  as  far  as  to  Chatillon  (722  feet).  At  Bar  (531  feet)  its 
waters  feed  tlie  Haute-Scine  Canal,  so  that  there  is  uninterrupted 
navigation  from  this  point  to  the  sea  (395  miles).  At  Troyes  it 
has  descended  to  331  feet.  It  next  passes  Merj",  and  at  Marcilly 
receives  tlie  Aube  (riglit),  from  wliich  point  it  becomes  navigable  ; 
here  it  is  deflected  in  a  south-westerly  direction  by  the  lieights  of 
La  Brie,  the  base  of  which  it  skirts  past  Nogcnt  and  Montereau,  at 
the  latter  point  receiving  the  Yonne,  its  most  important  left-hand 
tributary.  It  tlien  resumes  its  general  north-westerly  direction, 
receiving  the  Loiug  (left)  at  Moret,  then  passing  Meluu  (121  feet), 
being  joined  at  Corbeil  by  the  Essbnne  (left),  and  after  its  junction 
with  the  Marue  (right),  a  tributary  longer  than  itself  by  31  miles; 
reaches  Paris.  "  From  this  point  to  the  sea  its  channel  has  been  so 
deepened  by  recent  works  that  vessels  of  9  to  10  feet  draught  can 
reach  the  capital.  The  river  then  winds  through  a  pleasant  cham- 
paign country  past  St  Cloud,  St  Denis,  Argenteuil,  St  Germain, 
Conflans  (where  it  is  joined  from  the  right  by  the  Oise,  56  feet  above 
the  sea),  Poissy,  Mantes,  Les  Andelys,  and  Poses,  where  the  tide 
first  begins  to  be  perceptible.  It  next  receives  tlie  Eure  (left),  and 
passes  Pont  de  I'Arche,  Elbeuf,  and  Rouen,  where  the  sea  naviga- 
tion commences.  The  river  has  been  dyked  to  Kouen  so  as  to  admit 
vessels  of  20  feet  draught,  and  large  areas  have  thus  been  reclaimed 
for  cultivation.'  At  every  tide  there  is  a  "bore"  {barre  ov  mas- 
card),  ranging  usually  from  8  to  10  feet.  Between  Rouen  and  the 
sea  tlicre  are  numerous  windings,  as  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris ; 
after  Caudcbec  and  Quillebanif  (where  the  Rille  is  received  from  the 
left)  the  estuary  begins,  set  with  extensive  sandbanks,  between 
which  flows  a  narrow  navigable  channel.  At  Tancarville  (right)  is 
the  commencement  of  a  canal  to  enable  river  boats  for  Havi-e  to  avoid 
the  sea  passage.  The  river  finally  falls  into  the  English  Channel 
between  Honfleur  on  the  left  and  Havre  on  the  right.  The  llarne 
brings  to  the  Seine  the  waters  of  the  Ornain,  the  Ourcq,  and  the 
Jlorin  ;  the  Oise  those  of  the  Aisne  ;  the  Yonne  those  of  the  Arman- 
con.  The  low  elevation  of  the  bounding  hills  has  rendered  it  com- 
paratively ea?;y  to  connect  the  Seine  and  its  affluents  with  adjoining 
river  basins  by  means  of  canals.  Tlie  Oise  and  Sonime  are  connected 
by  the  Picardy  or  Crozat  Canal,  which  in  turn  is  continued  to  the 
Scheldt  by  menus  of  the  St  Quentin  Canal  and  the  Oise,  and  to  the 
Sambre  by  that  of  Oise  and  Sambre.  Between  the  Aisne  and  the 
Meuse  is  the  Ardennes  Canal,  and  the  Aisne  and  the  Maine  are  united 
by  a  canal  which  passes  Rheims.  TheMarne  has  similar  communica- 
tion with  the  Jlcuse  and  the  Rhine,  the  Yonne  with  the  Saone  (by  tlie 
Burgundy  Canal)  and  with  the  Loire  (by  that  of  Nivernais).  The 
Seine  itself  is  connected  with  the  Loire  by  the  Loing  Canal  dividing 
at  Montargis  into  two  branches, — those  of  Orleans  and  Briare. 

SEINE,  the  department  of  France  which  has  Paris  is 
its  chief  town,  was  formed  in  1790  of  part  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Ile-de-France.  It  lies  between  48°  44'  and  48° 
58'  N.  lat.  and  2°  10'  and  2°  34'  E.  long,  and  is  entirely 
surrounded  by  the  department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  from  which 
it  is  separated  at  certain  parts  by  the  Seine,  the  Marne,  and 
the  Bievre.     The  area  of  the  department  is  only  118,306 

'  Comp.  River  Engineering,  vol.  xx.  p.  579;  see  .tlso  the  valuable 
paper  "The  River  Seiue,"  in  Proc.  Inst.  C'lV.  Enr;.,  vol.  Ixxxiv.,  1886, 
by  L.  P.  Vcrnon-Harcourt. 


acres,  and  of  this  surface  a  seventh  or  a  sixth  is  occupied 
by  Paris ;  the  suburban  villages  also  are  close  together  and 
very  populous.  In  actual  population  (2,799,329  in  1881) 
as  well  as  in  density  (23-7  persons  per  acre)  it  holds  the 
first  place.  Flowing  from  south-east  to  north-west  through 
the  department,  the  Seine  forms  three  links  :  on  the  right 
it  receives  above  Paris  the  Marne,  and  below  Paris  the 
Eouillon,  and  on  the  left  hand  the  Bievre  within  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  city.  The  left  bank  of  the  Seine  is  in  general 
higher  than  the  right  and  consists  of  the  Villejuif  and 
Chatillon  plateaus  separated  by  the  Bifevre ;  the  highest 
point  (568  feet)  is  above  Chatillon  and  the  lowest  (105) 
at  the  exit  of  the  Seine.  Below  Paris  the  river  flows  be- 
tween the  plain  of  Gennevilliers  and  Nanterre  (commanded 
by  Mont  Valerien)  on  the  left  and  the  plain  of  St  Denis  on 
the  right.  On  the  right  side,  to  the  east  of  Paris,  are  the 
heights  of  Avron  and  Vincennes  commanding  the  course 
of  the  ilarne.  Communication  is  further  facilitated  by 
various  cauals  (see  Paris). 

Market  gardens  occupy  about  3700  acres  within  and  without  the 
city,  and  by  means  of  irrigation  and  manuring  are  made  to  yield 
from  ten  to  eleven  crops  per  annum  (see  Pakis).  Some  districts 
are  specially  celebrated, — Montreuil  for  its  peaches,  Fontenay-aux- 
Roses  for  its  sti'a\\berries  and  roses,  and  other  places  for  flowers  and 
nurseries.  The  department  produced  in  1883  326,326  bushels  of 
wheat,  4042ofraeslin,  75,003  of  rye,  3415  of  barley,  337,837  of  oats, 
1,656,009  of  potatoes,  14,650  of  pulse,  and  15,400  tons  of  beetroot. 
Altogetlier,  60,000  persons  are  engaged  in  agriculture.  The  live  stoclc 
in  1881  comprised  95,796  horses  (70,296  in  Paris),  4174  cattle,  280 
calves,  8159  sheep,  3626  pigs,  and  660  goats.  Vineyards,  producing 
366,748  gallons  of  wine  annually,  cover  2460  acres.  The  principal 
woods  (Boulogne  and  Vincennes)  belong  to  Paris.  It  is  partly 
owing  to  the  number  of  quarries  in  the  district  that  Paris  owes  its 
origin  :  Chatillon  and  Montrouge  in  the  south  yield  freestone,  and 
Bagneux  and  C'lamait  in  the  south  and  Montreuil  and  Romainville 
in  the  east  possess  the  richest  plaster  quarries  in  France.  Within 
the  circuit  of  Paris  are  certain  old  quarries  now  forming  the  cata- 
combs. Most  of  the  industrial  establishments  in  the  department 
are  situated  in  Paris  or  at  St  Denis.  Pantin  (17,857  inhabitants  in 
1881)  on  the  Ourcq  Canal  is  the  seat  of  a  national  factoiy  of  tobacco, 
and  also  of  glass-works,  and  Aubervilliers  (19,437)  on  the  St  Denis 
Canal  is  the  seat  of  great  chemical  works.  Along  the  Seine,  below 
Paris,  Boulogne  (25,615)  is  partly  occupied  by  laundry  establish- 
ments ;  Puteaux  (15,586)  manufactures  woollen  goods,  and  has  dye- 
works,  printing  works,  cloth-dressing  works,  and  engineering  works 
of  considerable  importance;  Clichy  (24,320)  manufactures  crystal 
and  has  a  large  gaswork,  kc.  Above  Paris,  Ivry  (18,442)  has 
iron-works  and  engineering  works;  Choisy-le -Roi  (6978)  has 
factories  for  the  making  of  porcelain,  glass,  soda,  chemicals,  morocco, 
and  waxcloth ;  Mouti-euil  (18,693),  near  Vincennes,  makes  patent 
leather,  porcelain,  &c.  The  department  is  of  course  traversed  by 
all  the  railway  lines  which  converge  in  Paris,  and  also  contains  the 
inner  circuit  railway  and  part  of  the  outer  circuit, — making  a  total 
of  122  miles  of  railway,  to  which  are  to  be  added  numerous  tram- 
ways, 72  miles  of  national  roads,  and  458  of  other  roads.  There 
are  3  arroudissements  (Paris,  St  Denis,  and  Sceaux),  28  cantons 
(20  in  Paris),  and  72  communes.  The  department  forms  the  archi- 
episcopal  diocese  of  Paris,  falls  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Paris 
court  of  appeal,  and  is  divided  between  the  four  corps  d'armee  of 
Amiens,  Rouen,  Le  Mans,  and  Orleans.  Among  the  important  in- 
stitutions in  the  department  are  the  lyceums  of  Vanves  and  Sceaux, 
the  lunatic  asylum  at  Charenton,  the  veterinary  college  of  Maisons- 
Alfort,  and  the  great  Bicetre'  hospital  at  Gentiljy. 

SEINE-ET-MARNE,  a  department  of  northern  France, 
was  formed  in  1790  of  almost  the  entire  district  of  Brie 
(half  of  which  belonged  to  Champagne  and  half  to  Ile-de- 
France)  and  a  portion  of  Gatinais  (from  Ile-de-France  and 
Orleanais).  Lying  between  48°  7'  and  49°  6'  N.  lat. 
and  2°  23'  and  3°  13'  E.  long.,  it  is  bounded  N.  by  the 
departments  of  Oise  and  Aisne,  E.  by  Marne  and  Aube, 
S.  by  Yonne  and  Loiret,  and  W.  by  Seine-et-Oise.  The 
whole  department  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Seine,  and 
is  drained  partly  by  that  river  and  partly  by  its  tributaries 
the  Yonne  and  the  Loing  from  the  left,  and  from  the  right 
the  Voulzie,  the  Yferes,  and  the  Marne,  with  its  affluents 
the  Ourcq,  the  Petit  Jlorin,  and  the  Grand  Morin.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Loing,  flowing  from  south  to  north, 
all  these  streams  cross  the  department  from  east  to  west, 


y  E  I  — S  E  1 


625 


following  the  general  slope  of  the  surface,  which  js  broken 
m,  into  "several  plateaus  from  300  to  500  feet  in  height 
(tishest  point,- in  the  north-east,  705  feet,  lowest  105), 
ind  separated  from  each  other,  by  deep  valleys.  ■  Most  of 
the  plateaus  belong  to  the  Brie,  a  fertile  and  weU-wooded 
district  of  a  clayey  character.  In  the  south-west  Ues  the 
dry  sandy  district  of  the  Fontainebleau  sandstones.  The 
climate  is  rather  more  "continental"  than  that  o£  Pans, 
—the  summers  warmer,  the  winters  colder;  the  annual 
raiufall  does  not  exceed  16  inches.  .  There  is  a  striking 
difference  between  the  south  of  the  department,  where  the 
famous  white  grape  (chasselas)  of  Fontainebleau  ripens,  and 
the  country  to  the  north  of  the  Marne,— this  river  marking 
pretty  exactly  the  northern  limit  of  the  vine. 

With  a  total  area  of  1,417,534  acres,  Seine-et-Marne  had  in  1879 
261  074  under  wheat,  274,808  under  oats,  58,362  under  beetroot, 
51  130  under  vines.    .Besides  tljese,  meslm,  rye,   barley,  pulse, 
Ho'tatoes  are  the  principal  crops  grown       In,.1884  the:yield  was 
6  567  547  bushels  of  w'heat,  231,959  of  meslin,   665,505  of  rye, 
471  '51  of  barley,  9,104,254  of  oats,  3,035,167  of  potatoes,  924,210 
ton^  of  beetroot,  and  401,427  tons  of  green  fodder  (lucerne,  clover 
sainfoin  ko  ).    The  live  stock  In  1879  included  40,400  horses,  5190 
asses  522  700  sheep  (173.290  superior  breed),  101,100  cattle,  16,840 
pigs '3714  goats,  and  11,440  beehives  (75  tons  of  honey,  15  of 
w£t)     Cereals  occupy  two-fifths  of  the  department  and  J-ield  an 
annual  value  of  £2,400,000,  whUe  aU  other  products  of  the  soil  do 
not  reach  £1,600,000.     The  wheat  and  oats  of  Brie  are  especially 
esteemed,  as  aro  also  the  white  grapes  of  Fontainebleau  and  the 
roses  of  Provins  (see  vol.  xis.  p.   886).     Thousands  of  the  well- 
known  Brie  cheeses  are  manufactured,  and  large  numbers  of  calves 
and  poultry  are  reared.     The  forests  (covering  a  fifth  of  the  surface) 
are  planted  with  oak,  beech,  chestnut,  hornbeam,  birch,  wild  chea-ry, 
linden,  willow,  poplar,  and  conifers.     Best  known  and  most  im- 
portant is  the  forest  of  Fontainebleau,  the  annual  product  of  which 
is  worth  £14,000.     Excellent  freestone  is  quarried  in  the  depart- 
meat,  especially  in  the  valley  of  the  Loing,  mill-stones  at  La  Ferte- 
30U9-Jouarre ;  the  Fontainebleau  sandstone,  used  extensively  for 
pavements,  gives  employment  to  300  establishments,  and  the  white 
sand  which  is  found  along  with  it  is  in  great  request  for  the  manu- 
facture of  glass:     Along  the  Marne  are  numerous  plaster-quarries  ; 
lime-kilns  occur  throughout  the  department ;  and  peat  is  found 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Ourcq  and  the  Vouhie.     Beds  of  common 
olay  and  porcelam  clay  supply  the  potteries  of  Fontainebleau,  and 
especially  those  of  Montereau,  where  upwards  of  .700  hands  are 
employed.    Other  industrial  estabUshments  are  the  numerous  large 
flour-mills,  the  sugar-factories,  beetroot  distilleries,  paper-mills  (the 
Marais  paper-mill  manufactures  bank-notes,  &c.,  both  for  France 
and  foreign  markets),  saw-mills,  foundries,  printing  works,  tanneries,, 
tawing  works,  glove  factories,  chemical  works,  &c.     Most  of  the 
motive -power  used  in  these   establishments   is  supplied  by  the 
streams.     The  Seine,  theYonne,  the  Marne,  and  the  Grand  Morin 
are  navigable,  and,  mtli  the  canals  of  the  Loing  and  the  Ourcq 
and  those  of  Chalifcrt,  Cornillon,  and  Chelles,  which  cut  eff  the 
windings  of  the  Marne,  form  a  total  waterway  of  219  mUes.     lliere 
are  242-miio3  of  railway.     With  its  348,991  inhabitants  in  1881, 
3oine,et-Mame  is  in  density  of  population  sUghtly  below  the  aver-_ 
ace  of  France.     It  has  5  arrondissements, ,  29  cantons,  530  com- 
munes, forms  the' diocese  of  Meaux, 'belongs  to  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Paris  court  of  appeal,  and  to  .the  district  of  the  Orleans  corps 
iarmie.     Among  the  places  of  note  in  the  department,  Montereau 
(7107  inhabitants  in  1881),  distinguished  as  :ilontcreau-faut.Yonne 
because  of  its  sitiiatlon  at  the  conlluenco  of  the  Younemth  the 
Seine,  deserves  to  be  mentioned  not  only  for  its  porcelain  manu- 
facture but  also  as  a  great  railway  station  on  the  route  from  Pans 
to  Lyons  at  the  junction  of  the  Troyes  line,  as  the  scene  of  the 
assassination  of  John  the  Bold,  duko  -of  Burgundy,  and  as  one  ot 
the  battlefields  of  Napoleon  L  in  the   campaign  of  1814.      Its 
church  is  an  historical  monument  of  tho  13th,  14th,  15th,  and  Ibth 
centuries.     A  statue  of  Napoleon  stands  between  tho  two  bridges. 

SEIFE-ET-OISE,  a,  department '  of  northern  Franco, 
formed  in  1790  of  part  of  the  old  province  of  Ile-de- 
France,  and  tra7erBed  from  south-ea.'it  to  north-west  by 
the  Seine,'  which  ia  joined  by  the  Oi.so  from  the  right. 
Lying  between  48'  17'  and  49°  14'  N.  lat.  and  1°  27'  and 
2°  37'  E.  loni,'.,  it  is  surrounded  by  tho  departments  of 
Seine-et-Marne  on  the  east,  Loiret  on  the  south,  Eure-ct- 
Loir  on  the  west,"  Euro  on  the  north-west,  and  Oiso  on  tho 
north:  It  encloses  tho  department  of  Seine.  The  Epto  on 
the  north-west  is  almost  the  only  natural  boundary  of  the 
department.     The  stfeams  (all  belonging  to  the  basin  of 

21-22 


the  Seine)  are,  on  the  right  the  Yores,  the  Marne,  the  Oise, 
and  the  Epte,  and  on  the  left  the  Es.sonno  (joined  by  tie 
Juine,  which  passes  by  ttampes),  the  Orge,  the  Bi^vre, 
and  the  Mauldre.  Soine-et-Oise  belongs  in  part  to  the 
tableland  of  Beauce  in  the  south  and  to  that  of  Brie,  in 
the  east.  In  the  centre  are  the  high  wooded  hills  wMch 
make  the' charm  .of  Versailles,  Marly,  and  St  Germain. 
But  it  is  in  the  north-west,  in  the  -Vexin,  that  the 
culminating  point  of  690  feet  Ls  reached,  while  the  lowest 
point,  where  the  Seine  leaves  the  department,  is  hardly  40 
feet  above  the  sea..    The  mean  temperature  is  51°  Fahr. 

Of  the  1,384,695  acres  912,205  are  arable. soil,  50,330  meadows, 
42  852  vineyards,  and  199,864  woods.     In  1881  tlie  live  stock  com- 
prised 48,540  horses,  5626  asses,  162  mules,  70,600  cattle,  341,600 
sheep  (wool-clip,  1110  tons),  16,200  pigs,  4500  goats,  and  13,500 
beehives.     Seine-et-Oise  is  a  great  agricultural  and  horticultural 
depai-tment.     The  crops  in  1883  were — wheat,' 5,817,858  bushels; 
meslin,  353,127;  rye,  1,034,572;  barley,  641,894;  oats,  8,705,193; 
buckwheat,  3800  ;  potatoes,  6,479,000  ;  beetroot  fo  ■  sugar  206,645 
tons,  andfor  fodder  237,915  ;-colza  seed,  415  tor... ;  hay,  48,242  ; 
clover,13,505;!ucerne,140,354;  sainfoin, 57, 283.  Oaks, hornbeams, 
birch,  chestnuts  are  tho  prevailing  trees  in  the  forests,  most  of 
which  belong  to  the  state.    Building,  paving,  and  mill  stones  (1978 
workmen),  lime,  plaster,  mari,  chalk,  sand,  clay,  and  peat  (along 
the  Essonne)  are  aU  found  in  the  department.     At  Eiighicn'are 
cold  mineral  springs,  and  Forges  has  a  hydropathic  establishment, 
where  the  town  of  Paris  maintains  a  hospital  for  scrofulous  children. 
The  most  important  industrial  establishments  are  the  national  por- 
celain factory  at  Sevres  ;  the  Government  powder-mills  of  Sevraii 
and  Bouchet ;  the  paper-mills  and  cardboard  mills  (1570  workmen) 
of  Corbeil  (population  6566  in  1S81),  Etampcs  (7465),  and  Pontoise 
(6675),  but  by  far  the  largest  is  at  Essonne  (4999) ;  the  flax-spmning 
mills  (6368  spindles),  cotton-mills  (17,830  spindles),  sUk-mills  (5726), 
wool -mills  (8890);  the  foundries  and  boat  and  bridge  bmlding 
yards  at  ArgenteuU  (10,167)  ;  the  engineering  and  railway  ivoiks 
at  CorbeU,  &c.  ;  the  agricultural  implement  factories  at  Dourdan 
(2319)  •  the  sugar-refineries  with  thousands  of  workmen ;  distilleries 
on  most  of  the  large  farms  ;  starch-works,  laundries,  large  printing 
establishments  close  to.  Paris;   fictories  for  chemical   products, 
candles,  embroidery,  hosiery,  perfumery,  shoes,  and  biittons ;  one 
of  the  finest  zinc-works  in  France;  saw-mills,  &c.     Besides  the 
navigation   of  the   Seine,   the  Marne,   the  Oise    and  .tlie   tana 
d'Ourcq,  the  department  has  420  miles  of  railroad,  457  of  national 
roads,  and  3958  of  other  roads.     The  population  of  the  department 
in  1881  was  577,798  inhabitants  (one  and  a  half  times  the  average 
density  of  the  French  departments).     There  are  6  arrondissements. 
37  cantons,  and  686  communes;  the  department  foi-ms  the  diocese 
of  Versailles,  is  divided  between  the  corps  A  artnic  of  Amiens,  Koiieii, 
Le  Mans,  and  Orleans,  and  has  its  court  of  appeal  at  Pans.     Iho 
commune  of  Argenteuil  (11,849  inhabitants)  is  not  only  imporUnt 
for  its  manufactures  but  also  for  its  market  gardens  (asparagus,  figs 
cn-apes,  &c.'>;  and  its  church,  rebuilt  in  the  19th  century  in  tho 
Romanesque  style,  is  a  fashionable  place  of  pilgrimage. 

SEINE  mFfiRIEURE,  a  department  of  the  north  of 
France,  formed  in  1790  of  four  districts  (Norman  Vexrn 
Bray,  Caux,  and  Eoumois)  belonging  to  the  province  of 
Normandy.      Lying  between.  49°  15'  and  50    4   N.  lat. 
and  r  52'  and  0°  4'  E.  long.,  it  is  bounded  N  W.  and  N. 
by  tho  English  Channel  for  a  distance  of  80  mUes  N.K  by 
Somme,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Breslo,  E.  by 
Oise,  S.  by  Euro  and  the  estuary  of  tho  Seine,  which 
separates  the  department  from  Calvados..    It  is  divided 
almost  equally  between  the  basin  of  the  Seine  m  t.he  south 
and  the  basins  ot  certain.coast  streams  in  the  north      1  lo 
Seine  receives  from  the  right  baud  before  ^J/?'^^; '"  ^  >^ 
department  the  Epto  and  tho  Andello  from  the  ^'^^J^^' 
tr'ct  and  then  the  Darndtal,  the  CaiUy,  U.e  Austreberte 
he  Bolbec,  and  tho  L^.zarde.     Tho  main  coast  sraius  are 
tho  Breslo  (which  forms  the  ports  of  Eu  and  Trei.ort),  luo 
'T^^^rettSiqt.esorDieppostream(forri,edby^ 
nf  the  Varennes,  tho  B6thuno,  and  the  Eaulno),  t|io  Dcie, 
the  Saano  the  Durdent.     As  a  whole  tho  department  may 
be  dotcribtras  an  elevated  plateau  culminating  towards 
the  east  in  a  point  807  feet  above  tho  sea  and  tormina  ing 
don'  the  Seine  in  high  bluffs  and  towards  the  sea  in  steep 
S     IffsSOO  to  400  feet  high,  which  are  continualy 
,.  eaten  away  and  transformed  into  I'eds  of  shmglo^ 
There  's  no  striking  lino  of  parting  between  tho  basins  of 


626 


S  E  I  — S  E  I 


the  Seine  and  the  Channel,  but  deep  valleys  have  been 
hollowed  out  by  the  streams.  The  Bray  district  in  the 
south-east  is  a  broad  vaOey  of  denudation  formed  by  the 
sea  as  it  retired,  and  it  is  traversed  by  smaller  valleys  and 
covered  with  excellent  pasture.  In  the  comparatively 
regular  outline  of  the  coast  there  are  a  few  breaks,  as  at 
Tr^port,  Dieppe,  St  Valery-en-Caux,  Fecamp,  and  Havre, 
the  Cap  de  la  H6ve,  which  commands  this  last  port,  and 
Cape  Antifer,  12  or  13  miles  farther  north.  Tr6port, 
Dieppe,  Veules,  St  Valery,  Fecamp,  Yport,  Etretat,  and  Ste 
Adresse  (to  mention  only  the  more  important)  are  fashion- 
able watering-places  with  the  Parisians.  The  winters  are 
not  quite  so  cold  nor  is  the  summer  so  hot  as  in  Paris,  and 
the  average  temperature  of  the  year  is  higher.  The  rain- 
fall is  24  inches  per  annum,  increasing  from  Kouen  to 
Dieppe  as  the  sea  is  approached. 

With  a  total  area  of  1,491,458  acres,  Seine  Inferieure  lias 
911,938  acres  of  arable  gi'ound,  151,125  of  wood,  99,703  gi-ass, 
32,977  moorland  and  pasturage.  Out  of  a  total  population  of 
814,068  in  1881  those  dependent  on  agriculture  numbered  233,536. 
The  live  stc,!:  in  the  same  year  comprised  81,561  horses  of  good 
breeds,  1421  asses,  125  mules,  236,493  cattle,  259,677  sheep  of 
ordinary  kinds  and  27,523  of  special  breeds  (wool-clip,  560  tons), 
78,186  pigs,  3341  goals,  13,202  beehives  (54  tons  of  honey  and  13  of 
wax).  Milch  cows  are  kept  in  great  numbers,  and  Gournay  butter 
and  Gournay  and  Neufchatel  cheese  are  in  repute.  The  farms  of 
the  Caux  plateau  are  each  surrounded  by  an  earthen'  dyke,  on  which 
are  planted  forest  trees,  generally  beech  and  oak.  Within  tl-e 
shelter  thus  provided  apple  and  pear  trees  grow,  which  produce  the 
eider  generally  drunk  by  the  inhabitants  (38,602,036  gallons  in 
1883).  The  other  crops  in  1883  were— wheat,  6,667,650  bushels ; 
meslin,  59,950;  rye,  654,489;  barley,  443,751;  oats,  7,017,609; 
potatoes,  2,954,457  ;  pulse,  98,736  ;  beetroot  for  sugar  28,837  tons, 
and  for  fodder  118,099  ;  colza  seed,  29,076  tons  ;  and  457,047  tons 
cf  ordinary  fodder.  In  general  the  department  is  fertile  and  well 
tultivated.  Along  the  Seine  fine  meadow-land  has  been  reclaimed 
by  dyking ;  and  sandy  and  barren  districts  have  been  planted  with 
trees,  mostly  with  oaks  and  beeches,  and  they  often  attain  magnifi- 
cent dimensions,  especially  in  the  forest  of  Arques  and  along  the 
railway  from  Rouen  to  Dieppe  ;  Finns  sylveslrU  is  the  principal  com- 
ponent of  the  forest  of  Rouvray  opposite  Rouen.  With  the  exception 
of  a  little  peat  and  a  number  of  quarries,  employing  745  workmen, 
Seine  Inferieure  has  no  mineral  source  of  wealth  ;  but  manufactur- 
ing industry  is  well  developed.  Rouen  is  the  chief  centre  of  the 
cotton-trade,  which  is  in  the  department  represented  by  190  spinning 
and  weaving  factories,  employing  22,947  hands,  1,400,000  spindles, 
14,000  power-looms,  and  4000  hand-looms,  and  working  up  30,000 
tons  of  cotton  annually.  Hand  -loom  weaving,  carried  on  throughout 
the  country  districts,  employs  18,000  looms  ;  in  the  branch  of  the 
cotton  trade  known  as  rouenneric  190  manufacturers  are  employed, 
producing  to  the  value  of  £2,40,0,000  per  annum;  in  that  of 
the  indiennes  20  establishments  with  5000  workpeople  turn  out 
yearly  1,000,000  pieces  of  115  yards  each.  There  are  22  establish- 
ments for  dyeing  cotton  cloth  with  700  workmen,  and  for  dyeing 
cotton  yarn  32  establishments  with  1200  workmen.  The  woollen 
manufacture,  of  which  Elbeuf  is  the  centre,  employs  24,000  work- 
men and  produces  goods  valued  at  about  £3,500,000,  mth  raw 
material  valued  at  £1,720,000,  mainly  imported  from  Australia  and 
partly  from  the  La  Plata  ports.  The  wool-spinning  mills  (at  Elbeuf 
and  Darnetal)  have  92,000  spindles,  and  there  are  650  power-looms 
and  3800  hand-looms.  At  Elbeuf  (22^883  inhabitants  in  1881) 
there  are  17  dyeworks,  50  tmst  factories,  a  manufactory  of  carding 
machines,  and  45  cloth-dressing  factories.  About  18,000  spindles 
are  employed  in  flax-spinning,  an  industry  more  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  department.  Engineering  works,  foundries,  and 
iron  shipbuilding  yards  occur  at  Havre  (population  105,540  in  1881) 
and  Rouen  ( 1 05,860).  Wooden  ships  are  also  built  at  Havre,  Rouen, 
Dieppe  (21,585),  and  Fecamp  (11,919).  -Other  establishments  of 
importance  are  the  national  tobacco-factories  at  Dieppe  (1100  hands) 
and  Havre  (580  hands),  sugar-refineries  (£1,440,000  worth  of  sugar 
ia  1881),  glass-works  (873  workmen),  soap-works,  chemical  works, 
candle-factories,  flour-mills,  oil-factories,  ivory-works,  lace-works, 
plock-factories,  &c.  The  total  number  of  industrial  establishments 
in  the  department  is  975  ;  and  it  is  estimated  that  305,460  persons 
depend  on  industrial  pursuits.  The  fisheries  are  a  great  resource 
for  the  inhabitants  of  the  seaboard.  Fecamp  sends  yearly  £100  000 
worth  of  cod  and  £80,000  worth  of  herrings,  mackerel,  &c. ,  into  the 
market ;  Dieppe  has  the  supplying  of  Paris  with  fresh  fish  ;  St 
Valery  sends  its  boats  as  far  as  Iceland.  The  principal  ports  for 
foreign  trade  are  Havre,  Rouen,  and  Dieppe.  There  are  364  miles 
o!  railway,  370  of  national  roads,  6543  of  other  roads,  98  of  Seine 
navigation,  and  the  Bresle  is  canalized  for  2  miles.  In  population 
Seine  Inferieure  stands  fourth  in  the  list  if  French  departments; 


it  has  consequently  been  proposed  to  divide  it  into  the  two  depart- 
ments of  Seine  Inferieure  and  Seine  Maritime.  The  density  of 
population  is  double  the  average  of  France.  There  are  5  arrondisse- 
ments,  51  cantons  (of  which  3  are  in  Havre  and  6  in  Rouen),  and 
759  communes.  The  department  forms  the  archbishopric  of  Eouen  ; 
the  court  of  appeal  and  the  headquarters  of  the  corj)s  d'armie  are 
also  in  that  city.  Places  of  importance  are  Elbeuf;  Fecamp,  a 
fishing  port,  with  sea-bathing,  distilling,  &c.  ;  Bolbec  (10,226 
inhabitants),  with  weaving  and  spinning  factories;  and  Eu  (4827 
inhabitants),  with  a  celebrated  castle  belonging  to  Louis  Philippe 
and  the  Orleans  family. 

SEISIN.  "  Seisin  of  the  freehold  may  be  defined  to 
be  the  possession  of  such  an  estate  in  land  as  was  anciently 
thought  worthy  to  be  held  by  a  free  man  "  (Williams,  On 
Seisin,  p.  2).  Seisin  is  now  confined  to  possession  of  the 
freehold,  though  at  one  time  it  appears  to  have  been  used 
for  simple  possession  without  regard  to  the  estate  of  the 
possessor.  (See  Possession.)  Its  importance  is  consider- 
ably less  than  it  was  at  one  time  owing  to  the  old  form  of 
conveyance  by  feofi'ment  with  livery  of  seisin  having  been 
superseded  by  a  deed  of  grant  (see  Real  Estate),  and 
the  old  rule  of  descent  from  the  person  last  seised  having 
been  abolished  in  favour  of  descent  from  the  purchaser. 
(See  Inheritance.)  At  one  time  the  right  of  the  \vife  to 
dower  and  of  the  husband  to  an  estate  by  curtesy  depended 
upon  the  doctrine  of  seisin.  The  Dower  Act,  3  and  4 
Will.  rV'.  c.  105,  has,  however,  rendered  the  fact  of  the 
seisin  of  the  husband  of  no  importance,  and  the  Married 
Women's  Property  Act,  1882,  appears  -to  have  practically 
abolished  the  old  law  ol  curtesy.  In  the  case  of  a  convey- 
ance operating  under  the  Statute  of  Uses,  seisin  is  deemed 
to  be  given  by  the  effect  of  the  statute.  This  constructive 
seisin  may  still  be  of  importance  where  the  question  arises 
how  long  a  person  has  been  in  actual  possession.  Thus  in 
Orme's  Case  (Law  Rep.,  8  Common  Pleas,  ^^81)  the  right 
to  a  county  vote  depended  upon  the  form  t>f  the  convey- 
ance of  a  rent-charge  to  the  voter.  If  the  conveyance  had 
been  under  the  statute,  the  claimant  woulc\  have  been 
seised  for  a  sufficient  time ;  the  court,  however,  held  that 
the  conveyance  was  a  common  law  grant,  and  that  the 
grantee  must  have  been  in  actual  receipt  of  the  rent  in 
order  to  entitle  him  to  be  registered. 

Primer  seisin  was  a  feudal  burden  at  one  tim  ^  incident 
to  the  king's  tenants  in  capite,  whether  by  knight  service 
or  in  socage.  It  was  the  right  of  the  crown  to  r  teeive  of 
the  heir,  after  the  death  of  a  tenant  in  capite,  one  year's 
profits  of  lands  in  possession  and  half  a  year's  pi  ofits-  of 
lands  in  reversion.  The  right  was  abandoned  by  the  Act 
abolishing  feudal  tenures  (12  Car.  II.  c.  24). 

In  Scotch  law  the  corresponding  term  is  "sasine."  Like  seisin 
in  England,  sasine  has  become  of  little  legal  importance  om\  g  to 
recent  legislation.  By  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  35  actual  sasine  on  the 
lands  was  made  unnecessary.  By  21  and  22  Vict.  c.  76  the  instru- 
ment of  sasine  was  superseded  by  the  recording  of  the  conveyance 
with  a  warrant  of  registration  thereon.  For  the  register  of  sasines, 
see  Registration. 

SEISMOMETER.  This  name  waa  originally  given  to 
instruments  designed  to  measure  the  movement  of  the 
ground  during  earthquakes.  Recent  observations  have 
shown  that,  in  addition  to  the  comparatively  great  and 
sudden  displacements  which  occur  in  earthquakes,  the 
ground  is  subject  to  other  movements.  Some  of  these, 
which  may  be  called  "  earth-tremors,"  resemble  earthquakes 
in  the  rapidity  with  which  they  occur,  but  differ  from 
earthquakes  in  being  imperceptible  (owing  to  the  small- 
ness  of  the  motion)  until  instrumental  means  are  used 
to  detect  them.  Others,  which  may  be  called  "  earth-tilt- 
ings,"  show  themselves  by  a  slow  bending  and  unbending 
of  the  surface,  so  that  a  post  stuck  in  the  ground,  ver- 
tical to  begin  with,  does  not  remain  vertical,  but  inclines 
now  to  one  side  and  now  to  another,  the  plane  of  the 
ground  in  which  it  stands  shifting  relatively  to  the  horizon. 
No  sharp  distinction  can  be  drawn  between  thesi..  classes 


SEiSMOMETEK 


of  movements.  Earthquakes  and  earth  tremors  grade  into 
one  another,  and  in  almost  every  earthquake  there  is  some 
tUting  of  the  surface.  The  term  "  seismometer  "  may  con- 
veniently .  bo  extended  (and  ■will  hero  be  imderstood)  to 
cover  all  instruments  whiph  are  designed  to  measure  move- 
ments of  the  ground. 

Measurements  of  earth-movements  are  of  two  distinct 
types.  In  one  type,  which  is  applicable,  to  ordinary 
earthquakes  and  earth-tremors,  the  thing  measured  is  the 
displacement  of  a  point  in  the  earth's  crust.  .  In  the 
second  type,  which  is  applicable  to  slow  tiltings,  the  thing 
measured  is  any  change  in  the  plane  of  "the  earth's  surface 
relatively  to  the  vertical.  Under  Earthquake  mention 
is  made  of  instruments  designed  by  Palmieri  and  others 
to  register  the  occurrence  of  earthquakes,  and  in  some  cases 
to  give  a  general  idea  of  their  severity.  While  some  of 
those  instruijients  act  well  as  seismoscopes,  none  of  them 
serve  to  determine  with  precision  the  character  or  the 
magnitude  of  the  motion.  In  this  article  notice  will  btf 
taken  only  of  instruments  intended  for  exact  measurement. 
Earthquake  displacements  are  in  general  vertical  as  well 
as'  horizontal.  For  the  purpose  of  measurement  it  is  con- 
venient to  treat  the  vertical  component  separately,  and  in 
some  cases  to  resolve  the  horizontal  motion  into  two  com- 
ponents at  right  angles  to  each  other. 

Inertia  Method. — In  the  first  type  of  measurements  what  may  be 
called  the  "  inertia  "  method  is  followed.  A  mass  is  suspended  with 
freedom  to  move  in '  the  direction  of  that  component  of  the  earth's 
motion  which  is  to  bo  measured.  When  an  impulse  occurs  the 
snpports  move,  but  the  mass  is  prevented  by  its  inertia  from 
accompanying  them.  It  supplies  a  steady  point,  to  be  used  as  a 
standard -of  reference  in  determining  the  extent  through  which  the 
ground  has  moved  in  the  direction  in  questioij.  But,  in  order  that 
the  suspended  mass  shall  not  acquire  'motion  when  its  supports 
move,  one  essential  condition  must  be  satisfied.  Its  equilibrium 
mpst  bo  neutral,  or 
nearly  so,  in  order  that, 
when  the  supports  ara 
displaced,  little  .  or  no 
force  may  be  brought 
into  operation '  tending 
to  bring  the  mass  into- 
the  same  position  rela- 
tive to  the  supports  as 
it  occupied  before  dis- 
turbance. ■  This  can  be 
made  plain  by  consider- 
ing the  case  of  a  common 
pendulum  hung  from  a 
support  which  is.  rigidly 
fixed  to  the  crounct. 
When  the  ^ound  moves 
in  any  horizontal  direc- 
tion tlie  pendulum'* 
inertia  causes  a  certain 
point  in  it  (the  centrb 
of  percussion)  to  remain 
for  the  instant  at  rest 
But  this  .  contrivance 
does  not  yield  a  steady 
point,  because  the  sta- 
bility of  the  pendulum- 
makes  the  bob  swing 
down  to  recover  its  place 
directly  under  the  sup- 
port ;  and  in  fact,  if  a 
succession  of  oscillations 
of  the  ground  occur,  the 
bob  acquires  a  motion 
often  much  greater  than 
the  motion  of  the  sup- 
port itself.  This  tmiil- 
ency  may  be  corrected, 
and  the  pendulum  made 
fit  to  act  as  a  seismo- 
meter, by-  any  .contri- 
vance which  (without  .t..  .,  ,^^  ,  ■  ,  , 
introducing  friction)  ^<|-  l-r^P'"  P*'"^"''"°  seismograph, 
will  reduce  its  stability  so  miich  as  to  make  the  oquilibricm  of  the 
bob  v^ry  nearly  neutral.  In  all  instruments  designed  to  furnish  a 
steadjr  point  the  suspondod  mass  must  have  some  Bmall  stability. 


627 

else  it  would  be  unmanageable ;  but  its  period  of  fiea  escalation 
must  be  much  gieater  than  that  of  the  carthouake-motiofis  which 
it  IS  employed  to  measure.  Even  a  simple  pendulum  can  have  iU 
stability  reduced  sutficiently  to  fit  it  for  aeismometric  work  by 
making  It  very  long. .  The  same  result  is,  however,  much  more  con- 
yemcnt  y  achieved  by  combining  a  common  pendulum  with  an 
inverted  pendulum  placed  just  beneath  it.  The  common  pendulum 
being  stable  and  the  inverted  pendulum  unstable,  if  the  bobs  are 
jointed  so  that  they  must  move  together,  the  combination  can  b« 
made  as  nearly  astatic'  as  may  be 
desired.'  Figs.  1  and  2 iUustrate 
how  this  combination  is  applied 
in  seismometry.  The  stable  bob 
a,  hung  from  a  fixed  support' 
above  by  three  parallel  wires,  is 
■coiinected  with  the  inverted  pen- 
dulum 6  by  a  ball-and-tube  joint. 
A  lever  c,  carried  by  a'  gimbal 
joint  in  the  fixed  bracket, ti,  is 
geared  also  -by  a  ball-and-tube 
joint  to  the  upper  bob.  Its  long 
arm  carries  a  jointed  index  c, 
which  projects  out  and  touches 
a  smoked-glass  plate  /,  held  on 
a  fixed  shelf.  Any  horizontal 
motion  of  the  ground  acts  on  the  ^W-  2. '—Duplex  pendulum 
lever    by    the    bracket    d,  and  showing  details, 

causes  the  index  to  trace  a  magnified  record  on  the  smoked-glass 
plate.  "Fig.  1  is  taken  from  a  photogi-aph  of -an  instrument  of 
this  kind,  constructed  to. give  a  much  magnified  record  of  small 
movements.  When  large  earthquakes  are  to  be  recorded  the  mul- 
tiplying lever  is  dispensed  with,  and  the  index  is  attached  directly 
to  one  of  the  bobs.  Observations  with  instruments  of  this  class 
exhibit  well  the  very  complicated  motion  which  the  earth's  surface 
undergoes  during  an  earthquake.  In  small  earthquakes  (such  as 
are  only  slightly  or  not  at  all  destructive)  the  greatest  amplitude 
of  mo.tion  is  often  less  than  a  mUlimetre,  and  rarely  more  than  a 
centimetre ;  the  disturbance  nevrthcless  consists  of  a  multitude 
of  successive  movements,  quite  irregular  in  amplitude,  period,  and 
direction.  Fig.  3  is  a  facsimile  of  the  record-given 
by  a  duplex  pendulum  seismograph  during  one  of  j 
the  earthquakes  which-  occvu:  frequently  in  the 
plain  of  Yedo,  Japan.  The  record,  as  engraved,  is 
three  and  a  half  times  the  earth's  actual  motion.- 
Instead  of  two  pendulums,  a  single  invertedypcn-  _ 
dvdum  has  been  used,  with  a  spring  stretched  ""■  ^■" 
between  it  and  a  fixed  support  above.  ■  By  ad-  "  " 
justing  the  spring  so  that  a  proper  proportion  of  ' 
the  weight  is  borne  by  it  and  the  remainder  by  the  rigid  stem  of 
thependulum,  an  approach  to  neutral  equilibrium  can  ho  made.* 
In  Forbes's  inverted  pendulum  seismometer' a  somewhat  similar 
plan  was  adopted :  the  foot  of.  the  pendulum  was  attached  to  an 
elastic  wire  which  tended  to  restore  it  to  its  normal  vertical 
position  when  displaced. 

Another  group  of  instruments  designed  to  furnish  two  degrees 
of  freedom  for  the  purpose  of  recording  all.  motions  -iil  a  horizontal 
plane,  but  much  less  satisfactory  _on.  account  of  their  friction,  is 
that  in  which  a  rolling  sphere  either.itself  supplies  inertia  or  forms 
a  support  for  a  second  inertia-giving  mass.  'Probably  the  earliest 
was  one  used  in  Japan  by  Dr  G.  K 'Verbeck  in  1876  (see  fig.  4). 
On  a  marble  table,  ground 
plane  and  carefully  levelled, 
four  balls  of  rock-crystal 
were  placed,  carrying  a 
massive  block  of  hard 
wood.  •  A  pencil,  sliding 
in  a  hole  in  the  block,  ro-  afj 
gistered  the  relative  motion 
of  the  table  and  the  block 
on  a  sheet  of  paper  fixed 

below.     Tho  motion  regis-     pjg   4._Rolling  tphere  seismograph. 
tered  is  (or  would  be,  if      .        - 

there  were  no  friction)  soriiewhat  larger  than  the  true  moHon  of 
the  table,  for  the  system  is  kinetically  equivalent  to  four  upright 
pieces  whoso  centres  of  percussion  lie  in  a  pluno  nearly,  hut  not 
quite,  as  high  as  the  tops  of  the  balls.  This  forms  what  may  ha 
Called  the  steady  plane  ;  its  position' depends  on  tho  relative  inassos 
of  block  and  balls,  and  is  c.i.sily  caliulatod.  When  tho  ^otuid 
moves  in  any  direction  thu  block  moves  through  a  short  distaaoo 
in  the  opposite  direction,  and  the  record  is  magnified  in  a  fixed 
ratio.     Various;  forms  of  rolling-.sph^ro  seiamomctera  have  been 


r  Record 
of  earthquake 
'motion. 


'  J.A.Ewing,  "A  Duplex  Pendulum  Seismoniotor,"  in  Tnmtaciions 
({f  Uus  Scisnwlogkal  Society  of  Japan,  vol.  v.,  1882,  p.  89. 
,     "  Ewing,  ■"  A  Duplex  Pendnlnm  with  a  Single  Bob,"  is  ZVsM.  BeU. 
fibs,  yn/).,  vol.  vi.,  1883,  p.  19. 

»  R^orl  of  Brit  Auot.,  18«,  p.  47,  or  Trdm-JIAJE.,  XT.  p.  239, 


628 


SEISMOMETER 


proposed  by  Mr.  T.  Gray,'  Mr.  C.  A.  Stevenson,-  and  others.  Prob- 
ably the  best  form  would  .be  that  of  a  light  spherical  segment 
rolling  on  a  level  plane  base  and  carrying  a  heavy  bob  fixed  to  it. 
To  give  some  stability  the  bob  should  be  placed  so  as  to  bring  the 
centre  of  gravity  a  little  under  the  centre  of  curvature.  The  centre 
of  percussion,  somewhat  higher  than  this,  would  of  course  be  the 
steady  point,  and  a  multiplying  pointer  might  take  the  motion 
cither  from  it  or  from  any  other  convenient  part  of  the  rolling 
piece.  All  rolling  seismometers^including  rolling  cylinders,  which 
have  been  proposed  by  Mr  Gray  as  single-freedom  instruments,  to 
register  one  component  of  horizontal  motion — fail  to  act  well, 
partly  because  of  the  comparatively  great  frictional  or  quasi-fric- 
tional,  resistance  which  is  presented  to  the  motion  of  the  free 
mass,  and  partly  because,  owing  to  imperfections  in  the  construc- 
tion and  want  of  perfect  rigidity  in  the  materials,  the  ball  or  cylinder 
takes  up  a  position  in  which  there  is  an  objectionably  gi'eat  stability 
as  regards  very  small  displacements.  These  objections  make  the 
use  of  rolling  seismometers  unadvisable,  except  perhaps  for  the 
rough  measurement  of  violent  earthquakes. 

The  seismographs  which  have  been  described  draw  a  horizontal 
plan  of  the  path  pursued  during  an  earthquake  by  a  point  on  the 
earth's  surface.  They  take  no  note  of  the  relation  of  the  displace- 
ment to  time, — an  element  which  is  required  if  we  are  to  form  any 
estimate  of  the  violence  of  an  earthquake  from  tho  record.  With 
this  view  a  different  method  of  registration  is  also  followed.  The 
whole  movement  is  resolved  into  rectilinear  components,  and  these 
are  separately  recorded  (by  single-freedom  seismometers)  on  a  plate 
or  drum  which  is  kept  in  continuous  movement,  so  that  the  record 
of  each  component  takes  the  form  of  an  undulating  line,  from  which 
the  number,  succession,  amplitude,  velocity,  and  acceleration  of  the 
component  movements  can  be  deduced  and  the  resultant  motion 
determined.  A  single  steady  mass  with  two  degrees  of  freedom 
may  still  be  employed  to  record,  separately,  two  components  of 
horizontal  motion ;  but  it  is  generally  preferable  to  provide  two 
distinct  masses,  each  with  one  degree  of  freedom.  The  principal 
instrument  of  this  class  is  the  horizontal  pendulum  seismograph,' 
which  has  been  used  to  record  Japanese  earthquakes  since  1880. 
It  consists  of  two  horizontal  pendulums,  set  at  right  angles  to  ^ach 
other,  each  supplying  a  steady  point  with  respect  to  horizontal 
motions  transverse  to  its  own  length.  Each  pendulum  is  pivoted 
about  two  points,  on  an  axis  which  is  nearly  vertical,  but  in- 
clined slightly  forwards  to  give  a  suitable  degree  of  stability.  In 
some  forms  of  the  instnmect  the  pivoted  frame  of  the  pendulum 
is  light,  and  the  inerti?.  is  prartically  all  furnished  by  a  second 
piece  or  bob  pivoted  on  the  frame  about  a  vertical  axis  through 
the  centre  of  percussion  of  the  frame.  This  construction  has  the 
advantage  of  compactness  and  of  making  the  position  of  the  steady 
point  at  once  determinate.  But  a  simpler  construction  is  to  at- 
tach the  bob  rigidly  to  the  frame.  This  shifts  the  steady  point 
a  little  way  outwards  from  the  position  it  would  have  if  the  bob 
were  pivoted.  In  either  construction  a  prolongation  of  the  pendu- 
lum beyond  the  bob  forms  a  convenient  multiplying  index.     Fig. 


or  be  started  into  motion  by  an  electric  seismoscope  when  th» 
earliest  indications  of  an  earthquake  are  felt.  The  former  plan  is 
practicable  only  when  the  instrument  can  receive  careful  attend- 
ance and  where  earthquakes  occur  often.  It  has  the  drawback  that 
the  circle  which  is  drawn  by  each  pointer  as  the  plate  revolves* 
below  it  gradually  broadens,  partly  because  of  warping  and  tempera- 
ture changes  in  the  supports  and  partly  because  of  actual  tilting  oi 
the  ground.  As  an  earthquake  generally  begins  with  comparatively 
insignificant  movements,  there  is  not  much  to  object  to  in  having 
the  plate  at  rest  to  begin  with,  provided  a  sufficiently  sensitive 
starting  seismoscope  be  used.  A  suitable  arrangement  for  this  pur- 
pose is  one  due  to  Palmieii :  a  short  pendulum  hangs  over  a  cup  of 
mercury,  in  the  centre  of  which  a  depression  is  formed  by  an  iron 
pin,  whose  top  is  a  little  lower  than  the  surface  of  the  mercury. 
The  pendulum  ends  in  a  platinum  point,  which  stands  clear  in  the 
centre  of  this  depression,  but  touches  the  edge  whenever  a  hoiizontal 
movement  of  the  ground  takes  place,  thereby  closing  the  circuit  of 
an  electro -magnet,  which  starts  the  clock.  In  the  most  recent 
form  of  the  horizontal  pendulum  seismograph  the  bobs  are  fixed 
to  the  pivoted  frames,  and  the  pointers  are  arranged  to  trace  their 
records  side  by  side.  Records  with  instruments  of  this  class,  besides 
giving  much  additional  information,  agree  with  those  of  the  duplex 
pendulum  in  show- 
ing that  earthquake 
motion  is  a  tangle 
of  waves  in  all  azi- 
muths. This  will 
be  seen  by  reference 
to  fig.  6,  which  shows 
a  small  portion  of 
an  earthquake  re-  y 
gistered  by  a  pair  of 
horizontal  pendu- 
lums. Contemporary  parts  of  the  two  records  are  shown  together, 
the  straight  radial  lines  marking  seconds  of  time.  The  phases  of 
the   two   components   are   con-  N 

tinually  changing,  and  when 
the  two  are  compounded  the 
result  is  a  path  having  the 
same  characteristics  as  those  of 
the  diagram  in  fig,  3.  Fig.  7 
gives  the  result  of  compounding* 
the  records  of  fig.  6  during  three 
seconds,  while  the  rangeof  move- 
ment was  a  maximum. 

To  register  the  vertical  com- 
ponent of  earthquake  motions 
we  require  to  suspend  a  mass 
with  vertical  freedom.  Most  _ 
ways  of  doing  this  give  too 
much  stability,  as,  for  instance, 
when  a  weight  is  hung  from  a  spiral  spring  or  carried  by  a  hori- 
zontalbar  that  is  fixed  to  a  wall  or  table 
This  last  is  ths 

n 


6. — Record  of   earthquake  by  horizontal 
pendulum  seismograph  ;  one-third  fall  size. 


-Result  of  compoimding  the 
record  of  fig.  6. 


Horizontal  pendulum  seismograph. 

5  shows  a  complete  horizontal  pendulum  seismograph  (mth  pivoted 
bobs).  Two  rectangular  components  of  earthquake  motion  are  re- 
corded radially  on  a  revolving  plate  of  smoked  glass,  which  receives 
its  motion  through  a  friction  roller  from  a  clock  furnished  with  a 
fluid-friction  centrifugal  governor.  The  clock  may  either  be  kept 
going  continuously,  in  expectation  of  an  earthquake  at  any  moment, 

•  Gray,  Phil  Ma^.,  Sfptemter  1881. 

'  Stevenson^  Trans.  J?o!/.  Seal.  Soc.  of  Arts,  February  1882. 
'  Ewtag,   "On  a  New  Seismograph,"  in  Proc.  iioy.  Soc.,  No.  210,  1381,  Or 
Trams.  Seis.  Sqc.  ofjafaii,  December  1880. 


by  a  flexible  spring  joint, 
vertical  motion  seis- 
mometer which  was 
used  by  the  British 
Association  Commit- 
tee at  Comrie  in  1842. 
Another  form,  me- 
chanically equivalent 
^ — ,  to  this,  is  a  weighted 
/  /I  horizontal  bar,  pivot- 
/  I  ed  on  a  fixed  hori- 
//zontal  fulcrum,  and 
/  /  held  up  by  a  spiral 
/  /  spring,  stretched 
/  /  from  a  point  near 
/  /  the  fulcrum  to  a 
/  fixed  support  above. 
This  mode  of  suspen- 
sion is  still  too  stable,  !-^_^  i 
though  less  so  than  ^  <,„..', 
if  the  spring  were  ^^°-  8— Prmciple  of 
directly  loaded.  To  ^«.^''"1  ,'"°"<'" 
make  it  nearly  a-  seismograph, 
static  Mr  T.  Gray^  proposed  the  use 
of  a  tube  containing  mercury,  connected  with  the  bar  in  such  a 
manner  that  when  the  bar  goes  down  the  mercnry,  running  to- 
wards one  end  of  the  tube,  has  the  eflTect  of  increasing  the  weight, 
and  when  the  bar  goes  up  an  opposite  effect  occurs.  This  plan  is 
open  to  the  objection  that  the  mercury  is  disturbed  by  horizontal 
movements  of  the  ground.  A  simpler  plan  is  shown  in  fig.  8.' 
There  the  pull  of  the  spring  is  applied  at  a  short  distance  v  below 
the  plane  of  the  bar.    Hence  when  the  weight  goes  down  the  spring, 

••  Gray,  Trans.  Seis.  Soc.  Jap.,  vol.  iii.  p.  137. 
s  Bwing,  rroTU.  Seis.  Soc.  Jap.,  vol.  iii.  p.  140, 


S  E  I  S  M  O  iA  E  r  E  K 


629 


which  then  pulls  mth  more  force,  pulls  with  a  smaller  leverage, 
and  it  is  easy  to  adjust  the  distance  v  so  that  the  moment  of  the 
pull  of  the  spring  remains  sensibly  equal  to  the  moment  of  the 
weight, — the  condition  necessary  to  make  the  bar  astatic     This  is 

secured  when  v=-j-,  h  being  the  horizontal  distance  from  the  fui- 

cram  to  the  point  at  which  the  spring  acts,  and  I  the  length  by 
which  the  spiing  is  sti'etched  when  the  bar  is  undeflected.  Stability 
is  given  by  making  v  somewhat  less  than  this.  A  vertical-motion 
seismograph,  constructed  on  the  principle  which  fig.  8  illustrates 
diagrammatically,  is  arranged  to  trace  its  record  on  a  revolving  glass 
plate.  This,  along  with  a  pair  of  horizontal  pendulums  recording 
on  the  same  plate,  completes  a  three-component  seismogiaph. 

An  interesting  mode  of  suspension,  by  which  a  mass  is  hung  in 
uaotral  or  nearly  neutral  equilibrium,  with  one  degree  of  horizontal 
freedom,  is  shown  in  fig.  9.  It  is 
based  on  the  appro.ximate  straight 
line  liukwork  of  Tchebicheff.  When 
a  bar  is  hung  from  fixed  supports 
by  crossed  ties,  at  a  distance  oelow 
the  supports  equal  to  the  distance 
Ijetween  the  supports,  the  length  of 
the  bar  being  equal  to  half  that 
distance,  its  middle  point  moves  in 
very  nearly  a  straight  line.  By  fix- 
ing a  weight  at  the  centre  of  the 
bar  and  adding  a  suitable  recording 
apparatus,  we  have  a  very  friction- 
less  form  of  one -component  hori-  ,,«.,.. 
zontal  seismometer.'  When  a  dis-  ^^°-  9— Astatic  suspension, 
placement  of  the  ground  occurs  in  the  line  of  the  bar,  the  bar  is 
tilted  through  an  angle  which  is  proportional  to  the  linear  displace- 
ment, and  the  centre  of  the  bar  consequently  shares,  in  a  small  and 
definite  proportion,  the  motion  of  the  ground, — a  fact  which  is  to 
be  borne  in  mind  in  estimating  the  degree  of  multiplication  given 
by  the  recording  apparatus. 

The  instruments  which  have  been  described  afford  complete  and 
satisfactory  means  of  determining  the  motion  which  a  point  of  the 
ground  undergoes  during  any  disturbance  which  would  be  recog- 
nized as  an  earthquake.  For  minute  earth  -  tremors,  however,  a 
larger  multiplication  is  necessary,  and  the  absence  of  friction  is  of 
even  more  importance  than  in  the  measurement  of  earthquakes 
proper.  Optical  methods  of  magnifying  the  motion  are  accordingly 
resprted  to.  In  the  "  normal  tromometer  "  of  Bertelli,  used  in  Italy 
to  detect  earth-tremors,  the  bob  of  a  pendulum,  suspended  by  a  fine 
\vire  from  a  fixed  support,  is  viewed  through  a  reflecting  prism  and 
its  motion  in  any  azimuth  measured  by  a  micrometer  microscope. 
The  great  stability  of  the  pendulum,  which  is  only  1 J  metres  long, 
prevents  it  from  .behaving  as  a  steady -point  seismometer;  and,  if 
snccessi.  3  earth-movements  were  by  chance  to  occur  with  a  period 
eqnal  or  nearly  equal  to  its  own  free  period,  its  acquired  swing 
would  altogether  mask  the  legitimate  indications.  'This  kind  of 
action  has,  in  fact,  been  turned  to  account  as  a  means  of  detecting 
very  minute  earth  -  tremors 
by  Eossi,  who  has  devised 
a  micro-seismoscope,  consist- 
ing of  a  number  of  pendu- 
lums of  vai'ious  lengths,  one 
or  other  of  which  is  likely 
to  be  set  swinging  when  the 
ground  shakes  to  and  fro  re- 
putedly, through  even  the 
minutest  range.  To  measure 
tremors,  however,  the  instru- 
ments of  Bertelli  and  Eossi 
are  inappropriate ;  for  that 
purpose,  just  as  for  the  pmr- 
pose  of  measuring  larger 
motions,  the  suspended  mass 
>mnst  be  in  nearly  neutral 
equilibrium.  To  find  a  mode 
of  suspension  which  is  at  once 
astatic  and  extremely  fric- 
tionless  is  a  matter  of  some 
difficulty;  the  crossed  -  link 
suspension,  which  has  been 
already  described,  is  probably 
the  most  satisfactory  means 
hitherto  sugsjestcd.  It  has 
been  adopted  ir  the  micro- 
seismometer  sketched  in  sec- 
tion in  fig.  10.  Two  bobs  are  separately  suspended,  in  the  manner 
shown  by  fig.  0,  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  one  above  the  other, 
in  a  cast-iron  case.  A  microscope,  fixed  to  the  top  of  the  case  and 
furnished  with  a  micrometer  eye-piece,  is  focused  on  a  hair,  which 

"•fcwiiig,  "  On  certain  Methods  of  Astatic  Suspension,"  in  Jran*  Stit.  Soc. 
/•J.,  vol.  vl.  p.  24.  r  t 


Flo.  10. — Microscismomctcr. 


is  stretched  transversely  across  a  vertical  tube  in  ho  upper  bob  a. 
This  seiTcs  to  measure  horizontal  motion  in  the  plane  of  the  drawing. 
Motion  at  right  angles  to  this  is  shown  by  the  lower  bob  e  (drawn 
in  section),  which  carries  a  similar  transverse  hair.  A  fixed  lens  b 
between  the  bobs  gives  an  image  of  the  lower  hair  in  the  plane  of 
the  upper  hair,  so  that  both  appear  crossed  in  the  field  of  the 
microscope,  thereby  allowing  both  components  of  horizontal  motion 
to  be  observed  together. 

Equ  ilibrium  Method.  — In  observing  slow  earth-til  tings  an  entirely 
difi'erent  process  is  followed.  The  problem  then  is,  not  to  measuro 
displacements  by  aid  of  the  inertia  of  a  body  which  tends  to  pre- 
serve its  original  poBitioii,  but  to  compare  the  direction  of  a  line  or 
plane  fixed  to  the  earth  wilh  the  direction  of  the  vertical.  The 
earliest  observations  of  earth-tdtings  were  made  by  the  aid  of 
spirit-levels.  If  a  level  be  set  on  a  table  fixed  to  the  roclc,  it3 
bubble,  watched  through  a  microscope,  will  be  seen  to  move  slowly 
now  to  one  side  and  now  lo  another.  The  movements  are  so  slow 
that  the  inertia  of  the  fluid  is  unimportant.  Observations  with 
pairs  of  levels,  set  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  have  been  carried 
on  systematically  for  some  years  by  M.  P.  Plantamour.-  This  is  the 
simplest  method  of  measuring  earth-tiltings,  but  it  is  liable  to  errora 
which  are  not  easily  excluded.  Another  method  of  investigating 
changes  in  the  direction  of  the  vertical  was  initiated  in  1868  by 
M.  A.  d'Abbadie,'  who  had  before  that  observed  the  movements  of 
level-bubbles.  Light  from  a  fixed  source  is  made  to  fall  on  a  reflect- 
ing basin  of  mercury  about  10  metres  below  it.  Above  the  basin  is  a 
large  lens  of  long  focus,  which  brings  the  rays  into  parallelism  dur- 
ing their  passage  to  the  mercuryi  and  causes  them  to  converge  after 
reflexion,  so  that  an  image  of  the  source  is  formed  at  a  convenient 
distance  from  it,  and  in  the  same  horizontal  plane.  The  interval 
between  the  source  and  the  image  is  measured  (in  amount  and 
azimuth)  at  least  t\vice  a  day  by  a  micrometer  microscope.  The 
accuracy  of  the  method  depends  on  the  fixity  of  the  source  of  light 
.relatively  to  the  lens  and  to  the  surface  of  the  groimd,  and  to 
secure  this  M.  d'Abbadie  built  a  massive  hollow  cone  of  concrete 
for  the  support  of  his  apparatus.  His  observations  have  shown 
that  the  earth's  surface  undergoes  almost  incessant  slow  tilting 
through  angles  which,  in  the  course  of  a  year,  have  been  found  to 
range  over  four  seconds.  He  has  also  noticed  the  occurrence  of 
earth-tremors  by  the  occasional  blurring  of  the  image  through 
agitation  of  the  mercury.  An  improvement  on  his  apparatus  sug- 
gested by  M.  Wolf''  is  shown  in  fig.  11. 
The  light,  instead  of  being  all  reflected 
from  the  free  surface  of  mercury  (a),  is 
partly  reflected  from  that  and  partly  from 
a  plane  mirror  (6)  fixed  to  the  rock.  Two 
images  are  therefore  formed,  whose  rela- 
tive position  measures  the  tilting  of  the 
surface.  The  advantage  of  this  is  that 
the  position  of  the  source  of  light  need 
no  longer  be  fixed,  and  the  accuracy  of 
the  method  depends  only  on  the  fixity 
of  the  mirror  4  with  respect  to  the  rock. 
Further,  to  avoid  having  the  source  and  ■ 
image  at  a  great  height  above  the  surface,  fi  .1  p-r--^ 
M.  Wolf  allows  the  light  to  reach  and  *^"^^^*'^^r^'^  -'" 
leave  the  apparatus  horizontally,  in  the  *^'S'  ^'• 

manner  indicated  in  the  sketch,  by  using  a  plane  mirror  inclined 
at  45°  to  the  horizon.  Still  another  mode  of  investigating  slow 
changes  of  the  vertical  was  followed  (at  thc'suggestion  of  Sir  WUliam 
Thomson)  by  Messrs  G.  H.  and  II.  Darwin,  in  observations  made  by 
them  with  the  view  of  measuring  the  lunar  disturbance  of  gravity. 
The  Reports  of  the  British  Association  for  1881  and  1882  contain  a 
full  account  of  their  apparatus,  as  well  as  notices  of  the  work  of  other 
observers  and  a  discussion  of  the  cause  of  earth-tiltings.  Their  in- 
strument was  a  short  pendulum  hung  in  a  viscous  fluid,  from  a  fixed 
support,  by  two  wires  arranged  V-wiso  to  leave  the  pendulum  only 
one  degree  of  freedom.  Below  the  bob  was  a  small  mirror  hung  by 
two  threads,  one  of  which  was  attached  to  tho  pendulum  bob  and 
the  other  to  a  fixed  support.  Tho  pendulum  was  free  to  8«-ing  at 
right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  threads,  and  any  movement  of  this 
kind  caused  tho  mirror  to  rotate  through  an  angle  which  wa3 
measured  in  the  usual  Vvay  by  a  telescope  and  scale.  Tho  method 
is  susceptible  of  very  great  delicacy,  but  Messrs  Darwin  found 
that  when  tho  instrument  was  adjusted  to  be  specially  sensitive  its 
manipulation  became  extremely  diflicult  Wolfs  modification  of 
D'Abbadie's  method  appears  to  furnish,  on  tlio  whole,  tho  most 
promising  apparatus  tor  mcosuromcnts  of  this  type.  The  ap- 
paratus represented  in  fig.  10  is  also  applicable.  Tho  method 
of  measurement  employed  in  the  casa  of  slow  tiltings  may  be  called 
tho  equilibrium  method  in  contradistinction  to  tho  inertia  method, 
which  is  used  to  measure  comparativoly  sudden  displacements.    Tho 


»  Plantamour,  ComfUs  lUnd\t$,  Ut\\  Juno  18V8,  lit  December  1870,  k*. ;  ud 
niMiiomtjs  Diiporn  In  Archivt$  dei  Scitncti.  Geneva,  1878-84. 

8  D'Abhiulu',  f.tndet  »iir  la  Vcrtirate  (Association  Francilse  poor  rAvanw?- 
ment  dis  ScionccH),  1873,  p.  IJO ;  also  Ann.  dt  la  Soc  Sciint.  d*  BnaMu,  1881 

*  Comfta  Bmdui,  lovU.  p.  22& 


Gao 


S  E  I  — S  E  L 


two  mctKoils  arc  applicable  to  two  widely  different  classes  of  move- 
mentg.  It  is  at  least  possible  that  between  these  classes  there  may  be 
other  modes  of  motion, — displacements  whicJi  arc  too  slow  for  the 
inertia  method,  and  which  j;ive  rise  to  too  little  change  of^lope  for 
the  equilibrium  method.  How  to  measure  them  is,  and  Hinst  appar- 
ently remain,  an  unsolved  problem  in  seismomctry. 

lie  fere  iice.<.— The  Report  of  the  British  Assnciatinn  for  1S3S  contains  an 
account  by  Mallet  of  some  of  the  ohier  and  now  obsolete  forms  of  seismometers 
(see  also  Earthquake).  Fur  accounts  of  modem  instruments  of  the  inertia 
class,  see  the  Transactions  of  the  ."Seismological  Society  of  Jopan  from  IS.'^O,  also 
Prof.  Ewinj;'s  ^Icmoir  on  Earthquake  Measurement,  published  by  the  university 
of  Tokio  (16S3).  References  to  papers  on  the  eciuilibriucj  method  of  neasurc- 
ment  have  been  made  in  the  text  (J.  A.  E.) 

SEISTAN     See  Sistan. 

SEJANUS,  ^Lius  (executea  31  A.D.V  the  famous 
minister  of  Tiberius  (q.v.). 

SELBY,  a  market  town  of  tlie  West  Eiding  of  York- 
shire, England,  is  situated  on  the  navigable  river  Ouse 
and  on  the  main  line  of  the  Great  Northern  Railway,  15 
miles  south  of  York  and  20  east  of  Leeds.  Of  the  ancient 
abbey  for  Benedictines,  founded  by  WUliam  the  Conqueror 
in  1069  and  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  mitred  abbey  by 
Pope  Alexander  II.,  there  still  remains  the  church  of  St 
Mary  and  St  German,  although  it  has  been  much  changed 
by  alterations  and  additions,  the  more  ancient  and  notable 
features  being  the  nave,  transept,  and  west  front.  The 
phurch  was  made  parochial  in  1618.  In  the  market-place 
there  is  a  modern  Gothic  market  cross.  Among  the  public 
buildings  are  the  drill  hall  and  the  mechanics'  institute 
and  public  rooms.  Flax- scutching,  seed-crushing,  brick 
and  tile  making,  boat-building,  tanning,  and  brewing  are 
the  principal  industries.  There  is  a  large  trade  in  potatoes, 
flax,  and  mustard,  and  a  considerable  cattle-market.  The 
town  receives  its  water-supply  from  artesian  wells.  .A 
^ocal  board  of  health  was  established  in  1851,  consisting 
of  nine  members.  The  population  of  the  urban  sanitarj' 
district  (6193  in  1871),  extended  in  1881  from  514  to 
3760  acres,  was  in  that  year  6057. 

Heni7  I.  of  England  was  born  in  tlie  abbey,  a  fact  which  prob- 
ably accounts  for  the  special  privileges  conferred  on  it.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  Civil  War  it  was  held  by  the  PavHament,  and  after 
beiug  taken  by  the  Royalists  was  recaptured  by  Fairfax. 

SELDEN,  John  (1584-1654),  jiu-ist,  legal  antiquary, 
and  Oriental  scholar,  was  born  on  16th  December  1584  at 
Salvington,  in  the  parish  of  West  Tarring,  near  Worthing, 
Sussex.  His  father,  also  named  Jolm  Selden,  held  a  small 
farm,  and  seems  to  have  occasionally  added  to  his  liveli- 
hood by  his  labour  as  a  wheelwright  and  his  skill  as  a 
musician.  It  is  said  that  his  accomplishments  as  a  violin- 
player  gained  him  his  wife,  whose  social  position  was 
Bomewhat  superior  to  his  own.  She  was  Margaret,  the 
only  child  of  Thomas  Baker  of  Eustington,  a  village  in 
the  vicinity  of  West  Tarring,  and  was  more  or  less  re- 
motely descended  from  a  knightly  family  of  the  same 
name  in  Kent.  John  Selden  commenced  his  education  at 
the  free  grammar-school  at  Chichester,  whence  he  pro- 
ceeded in  his  sixteenth  year  with  an  exhibition  to  Hart 
Hall  at  Oxford.  In  1603  he  was  admitted  a  member  of 
Clifford's  Inn,  London,  and  in  1604  migrated  to  the  Inner 
Temple,  and  in  due  course  he  was  called  to  the  bar. 
While  stiU  a  student  he  appears  to  have  been  on  terms  of 
friendship  with  Ben  Jonson,  Drayton,  and  Camden  ;  and 
among  his  more  intimate  companions  were  Edward  Little- 
ton, afterwards  lord  keeper  ;  Henry  Eolle,  afterwards 
lord  chief-justice;  Edward  Herbert,  afterwards  solicitor- 
general;  and  Thomas  Gardener,  afterwards  recorder  of 
London.  His  earliest  patron  was  Sir  Eobert  Cotton,  the 
aatiquary,  by  whom  he  seems  to  have  been  employed  in 
copying  and  abridging  certain  of  the  parliamentary  records 
then  preserved  in  the  Tower.  For  some  reason  which  has 
not  been  explained,  Selden  never  went  into  court  as  an 
advocate,  save  on  rare  and  exceptional  occasions.  But  his 
practice  in  chambers  as  a  conveyancer  and  consulting 
counsel  is  stated  to  have  been  larg^,  and,  if  we  may  judge 


from  the  considerable  fortune  he  accumulated,  it  must  also 
have  been  lucrative. 

_  It  was,  however,  as  a  scholar  and  writer  that  Selden  won 
his  reputation  both  amongst  his  contemporaries  and  with 
posterity.  His  first  work,  an  account  of  the  civil  adminis- 
tration of  England  before  the  Norman  Conquest,  is  said  to 
have  been  completed  when  he  was  only  two-  or  three-and- 
twenty  years  of  age.  But  if  this  was  the  Analedon  Anglo- 
Bntannicon,  as  is  generally  supposed,  he  withheld  it  from 
the  world  until  1615.  In  1610  appeared  his  EnglaruSt 
Epinomisand  Jamis  Angloi-um,  Fades  Altera,  which  dealt 
with  the  progress  of  English  law  down  to  Henry  11.,  and 
The  Duello,  or  Single  Combat,  in  which  he  traced  the  his- 
tory of  trial  by  battle  in  England  from  the  Norman  Cob- 
quest.  In  1613  he  supplied  a  series  of  notes,  enriched  by 
an  immense  number  of  quotations  and  references,  to  the 
first  eighteen  cantos  of  Drayton's  Polyolbion.  In  1614  ha 
jniblished  Titles  of  Honour,  which,  in  spite  of  some  obviocn 
defects  and  omissions,  has  remained  to  the  present  daj 
the  most  comprehensive  and  trustworthy  work  of  its  kind; 
that  we  possess;  and  in  1616  his  notes  on  Fortescue's  De 
Laudibus  Legum  Anglix  and  Hengham's  Summx  Magna 
et  Farm.  In  1617  his  De  Diis  Syriis  was  issued  from 
the  press,  and  immediately  established  his  fame  as  an 
Oriental  scholar  among  the  learned  in  all  parts  of  Europe.' 
After  two  centuries  and  a  half,  indeed,  it  is  stiU  not  only 
the  fundamental  but  also-  in  many  respects  the  best  book 
which  has  been  written  on  Semitic  mythology.  In  IGl? 
his  History  of  Tithes,  although  only  published  after  it  had 
been  submitted  to  the  censorship  and  duly  licensed,  never- 
theless aroused  the  apprehension  of  the  bishops  and  pro- 
voked the  intervention  of  the  king.  The  author  was  sum- 
moned before  the  privy  council  and  compelled  to  retract 
his  opinions,  or  at  any  rate  what  were  held  to  be  his  opin- 
ions. Moreover,  his  work  was  suppressed  and  himself 
forbidden  to  reply  to  any  of  the  controversialists  who  had 
come  or  might  come  forward  to  answer  it. 

This  seems  to  have  introduced  Selden  to  the  practical 
side  of  political  affairs.  The  discontents  which  a  few  years 
later  broke  out  into  civil  war  were  already  forcing  them- 
selves on  public  attention,  and  it  is  pretty  certain  that, 
although  he  was  not  in  parliament,  he  was.  the  instigator 
and  perhaps  the  draftsman  of  the  memorable  protestation 
on  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  House  affirmed  by  the 
Commons  on  the  ISth  of  December  1621.  He  was  with 
several  of  the  members  committed  to  prison,  at  first  in  the 
Tower  and  subsequently  under  the  charge  of  Sir  Robert 
Ducie,  sheriff  of  London.  -  During  his  detention,  which 
only  lasted  a  short  time,  he  occupied  himself  in  preparing 
an  edition  of  Eadmer's  History  from  a  manuscript  lent  to 
him  by  his  host  or  jailor,  which  he  published  two  years 
afterwards.  In  1623  he  was  returned  to  the  House  oi 
Commons  for  the  borough  of  Lancaster,  and  sat  with  Coke, 
Noy,  and  Pym  on  Sergeant  Glanville's  election  committee. 
He  was  also  nominated  reader  of  Lyon's  Inn,  an  office 
which  he  declined  to  undertake.  For  this  the  benchers 
of  the  Inner  Temple,  by  whom  he  had  been  appointed, 
fined  him  £20  and  disqualified  him  from  being  chosen 
one  of  their  number.  But  he  was  relieved  from  this  in- 
capacity after  a  few  years,  and  became  a  master  of  the 
bench.  In  the  first  parliament  of  Charles  I.  (1625),  it 
appears  from  the  "returns  of  members"  printed  in  1878 
that,  contrary  to  the  assertion  of  all  his  biographers,  he 
had  no  seat.  In  Charles's  second  parliament  (1626)  he 
was  elected  for  Great  Bed  win  in  Wiltshire,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  impeachment  of  George  VilHers, 
duke  of  Buckingham.  In  the  following  year,  in  the 
"benevolence"  case,  he  was  counsel  for  Sir  Edmund 
Hampden  in  the  Court  of  King's  Bench.  In  1628  he  was 
returned  to  the  third  parliament  of  Charles  for  Ludgere 


S  E  L  — S  E  L 


G31 


Sail  in  Wiltshire,  and  had  a  large  and  important  share  in 
drawing  up  and  carrj'lng  the  Petition  of  Eight,     In  the 
'session  of  1629  he  was  one  of  the  mpmbers  mainly  respon- 
sible for  the  tumultuous  passage  in  the  House  of  Comn.ons 
of  the  resolution  against  the  illegal  levy  of  tonnage  and 
poundage,  and,  along  with  Eliot,  Holies,  Long,  Valentine, 
Strode,  and  the  rest,  he  was  sent  once  more  to  the  Tower. 
There  he  remained  for  eight  months,  deprived  for  a  part 
of  the  time  of  the  use  of  books  and  writing  materials. 
Ho  was  then  removed,  under  less  rigorous  conditions,  to 
the  Marshalsea,  until  not  long  afterwards  owing  to  the 
good  offices  of  Archbishop  Laud  he  was  liberated.     Some 
years  before  he  had  been  appointed  steward  to  the  earl  of 
Kent,  to  whose  seat,  Wrest  in  Bedfordshire,  he  now  retired. 
In  1628  at  the  suggestion  of  Sir  Robert  Cotton  he  had 
compiled,  with  the  assistance  of  two  learned  coadjutors, 
Patrick  Young  and   Richard  James,  a  catalogue  of  the 
Arundel  marbles.     He  employed  his  leisure  at  Wrest  in 
writing  De  Sziccessionibus  in  Bona  Defuncti  secundum  Leges 
Ebmoruni  and  De  Successione  in  Pontificatum  Ebrseorum, 
published  in  16.3L     About  this  period  ho  seems  to  have 
inclined  towards  the  court  rather  than  the  popular  party, 
and  everj  to  have  secured  the  personal  favour  of  the  king. 
To  him  in  1635  he  dedicated  his  Mare  Clavxum,  and  under 
the  royal  patronage  it  was  put  forth  as  a  kind  of  state 
paper.     It  had  been  written  sixteen  or  seventeen  years 
before ;  but  James  I.  had  prohibited  its  publication  for 
political  reasons ;  hence  it  appeared  a  quarter  of  a  century 
after  Grotius's  Mare  Libenim,  to  which  it  was  intended 
to  be  a  rejoinder,  and  the  pretensions  advanced  in  which 
on  behalf  of  the  Dutch  fishermen  to  poach  in  the  waters 
off  the  British  coasts  it  was  its  purpose  to  explode.     The 
fact  that  Selden  was  not  retained  in  the  great  case  of  ship 
money  in  1637  by  John  Hampden,  the  cousin  of  his  former 
client,  may  be  accepted  as  additional  evidence  that  his 
jseal  in  the  popular  cause  was  not  so  warm  and  unsuspected 
as  it  had  once  been.     During  the  progress  of  this  moment- 
ous constitutional  conflict,  indeed,  he  seems  to  have  been 
absorbed  in  his  Oriental  researches,  publishing  Be  Jure 
Naturali    et    Gentium  juxta    Tiisdplinam,    Ebrg<)rum    in 
1640.     He  was  not  elected  to  the  Short  Parlir  ment  of 
1640 ;  but  to  the  Long   Parliament,   summoned  in  the 
autumn,  he  was  returned  without  opposition  for  the  uni- 
versity of  Oxford.     Immediately  after  the  opening  of  the 
session  lie  was  nominated  a  member  of  the  committee  of 
twenty-four  appointed  to  draw  up  a  remonstrance  on  the 
state  of  the  nation.     He  was  also  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittees entrusted  with  the  preliminary  arrangements  for 
the  impeachment  of  Strafford.     But  he  was  not  one  of  the 
managers  at  the  trial,  and  he  voted  against  the  Bill  for 
his  attainder.     He  %vas,  moreover,  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittees nominated  to  search  for  precedents  and  frame  the 
articles  of  impeachment  against  Archbishop  Laud,  although 
it  does  not  appear  that  ho  was  implicated  in  the  later 
stages  of  the  prosecution  against  him.     He  opposed  the 
resolution  against  Episcopacy  which  led  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  bishops  from  the  House  of  Lords,  and  printed  an 
answer  to  the  arguments  used  by  Sir  Harbottlo  Grimston 
on  that  occasion.     He  joined  in  the  jjrrotcstation  of  the 
Commons  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Protestant  religion 
according  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  England,  the 
authority  of  the   cro^vn,   and  the   liberty  of  the  subject. 
He  was  equally  opposed  to  the  court  on  the  question  of 
the  commissions  of  lieutenancy  of  array  and  to  the  parlia- 
ment on  the  question  of  the  militia  ordinance.     In  1613, 
however,  ho  became  a  member  and  participated  in  the  dis- 
cussions of  the  assembly  of  divines  at  Wcstraiuster,  and 
was  appointed  shortly  afterwards  keeper  of  the  rolls  and 
records  in  the  Tower.     In  1645  ho  was  named  one  of  tho 
parliamentary  commissioners  of  the  admiralty,  and  was  1 


elected  master  of  Trinity  Tf'Jl  in  Cambridge, — an  office 
he  declined  to  accept.  In  iu46  he  subscribed  the  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant,  and  in  1647  was  voted  £5000  by 
the  parliament  as  compensation  for  his  sufferings  in  the 
evil  days  of  the  monarchy.  He  had  not,  however,  relaxed 
his  literary  exertions  during  these  years.  He  published 
in  1642  Privileges  of  the  Baronage  of  England  when  they 
sit  in  Parliament  and  Discourse  concerning  the  EiglUs  and 
Privileges  of  the  Subject-,  in  1644  Dissertatio  de  Anno 
Civili  et  Calendario  Rei}yuhlicx  Judaicx;  in  1646  his 
treatise  on  marriage  and  divorce  among  the  Jews  entitled 
Uxor  Ebraica;  and  in  1647  the  earliest  printed  edition 
of  the  old  and  curious  English  law-book  Fleta.  WTiat 
course  he  adopted  with  regard  to  the  trial  and  execution 
of  the  king  is  unknown  ;  but  it  is  said  that  he  refused  to 
answer  the  Eikon  Basilike,  although  Cromwell  was  anxious 
he  should  do  so,  the  task  which  he  declined  being  after- 
wards performed  by  Milton  in  his  Iconoclastes.  In  1650 
Selden  passed  the  first  part  of  De  Synedriis  et  Prefecturis 
Juridicis  Veterum  Ebrseorum  through  the  press,  the  second 
and  third  parts  being  severally  published  in  1653  and 
1655,  and  in  1652  he  wrote  a  preface  and  collated  some 
of  the  manuscripts  for  Sir  Roger  Twj'sden's  Historia 
Anglicx  Scriptores  Decern.  His  last  publication  was  a 
vindication  of  himself  from  certain  charges  advanced 
against  him  and  his  Mare  Clausvan  in  1653  by  Theodore 
Graswinckel,  a  Dutch  jurist. 

After  the  death  of  the  earl  of  Kent  in  1639  Selden 
lived  permanently  under  the  same  roof  with  his  widow. 
It  is  believed  that  he  was  married  to  her,  although  their 
marriage  does  not  seem  to  have  ever  been  publicly  acknow- 
ledged. He  died  at  Friary  House  in  Whitefriars  on  30th 
November  1654,  and  was  buried  in  the  Temple  Church, 
London. .  Within  the  last  few  years  a  brass  tablet  haa 
been  erected  to  his  memory  by  tho  benchers  of  the  Innet 
Temple  in  the  parish  church  of  West  Tarring. 

Several  of  Selden's  minor  productions  were  printed  for  the. first 
time  after  his  death,  and  a  collectivo  edition  of  his  writings  ^¥a^ 
published  by  Archdeacon  AVilkins  in  3  vols,  folio  in  1725,  and  again 
in  1726.  His  Table  Talk,  by  which  he  is  perhaps  best  known,  did 
not  appear  until  1689.  It  was  edited  by  his  amanuensis,  Kichard 
Jlilward,  who  affirms  that "  the  sense  and  notion  is  wholly  Selden's," 
and  that  "  most  of  the  words  "  are  his  also.  Its  genuineness  has 
sometimes  been  questioned,  although  on  insufficient  gro\inds.  In 
Hallam's  opinion  it  "gives  perhaps  a  more  exalted  notion  of  Sel- 
den's natural  talents  than  any  of  his  learned  writings,"  and  in 
Coleridge's  it  contains  "  more  weighty  bullion  sense  "  than  he  had 
"  ever  found  in  the  same  number  of  pages  of  any  uninspired  wj  iter." 

See  Bliss,  Wood's  Athenm  O^onicnscs  (Lc'idon,  1817,  vol.  iv.);  AikiD,  Zil'U 
ofJuhn  Sciden  axd  ATchbishop  Vshtr  (London,  lSi2) ;  Johnson,  Memoirs  tifjohn 
Selden,  ic.  (London,  1836);  Singer,  Table  Talk  0/ John  SclJin  (Loudon,  1S47); 
aiid  Wilkins,  Johannis  Seldeni  Oyera  Omnia,  &c.  (London,  1726).        (F.  Dll.) 

SELECTION  AND  VARIATION.  See  Variation 
AND  Selection. 

SELENIUM  AND  TELLURIUM  i  are  two  rather  rare 
chemical  elements  discovered,  the  latter  by  Miillor  von 
Reichenstcin  in  1782,  the  former  by  Berzelius  in  1817 
Both  occur  only  in  the  mineral  kingdom  as  components  ol 
very  rare  minerals,  most  of  which  are  compounds  of  one  oi 
the  other  or  of  both  and  sulj)hur  with  silver,  lead,  bismuth, 
antimony,  gold,  and  other  metals. 

Elementary  Selenium. — This,  like  elementary  sulphur, 
exists  in  a  variety  of  forms,  which  are  conveniently  con. 
sidered  as  modifications  of  the  two  genera  now  to  b* 
described..  (1)  A^on-wc/aWt'c sf/t/m/w  includes  the  flocculent 
scarlet  precipitate  produced  by  tho  reduction  of  solutioii 
of  selenium  by  sulphurous  acid  in  the  cold.  Tho  scarlet 
flocks  when  dried  without  tho  aid  of  heat  assume  tho 
form  of  a  brown-red  powder  of  sp.  gr.  4'26,  which  dissolves 
in  1000  times  its  weight  of  boiling  bisulphide  of  carbon 
(at  46° '6  C).  The  solution  on  cooling  deposits  most  of  its 
selenium  in  the  form  of  minute  nionoclinic  crystals  of  sp 

'  Oomp.  Chehiatrt,  vol.  v.  pp.  498,  499,  601-503,  006,  608. 


632 


S  E  L  — S  E  L 


gr.  4"5  (isomorphous  with  monoclinic  sulphur),  which  retain 
their  solubility  in  bisulphide  of  carbon  up  to  100°  C.  At 
110°  C.  or  higher  temperatures  they  pass  into  the  metallic 
modification  (see  below)  with  evolution  of  heat.  With 
the  amorphous  kind  a  similar  change  sets  in  at  or  above 
80°  C.  and  attains  its  maximum  of  rapidity  at  a  point  be- 
tween 1 25°  and  1 80°  C.  Fused  selenium  when  cooled  down 
suddenly  hardens  into  a  very  dark-coloured  glass  of  4-28 
sp.  gr.,  soluble  in  bisulphide  of  carbon  ;  on  gradual  cool- 
ing it  becomes  more  or  less  completely  "metallic."  (2) 
Metallic  selenium  is  a  dark  grey  or  black  solid  of  4-8  sp. 
gr. ;  it  exhibits  metallic  lustre,  stretches  perceptibly  under 
the  hammer,  and  its  fracture  is  similar  to  that  of  grey  cast 
iron.  It  is  insoluble  in  bisulphide  of  carbon.  Its  fusing 
point  is  sbarjily  defined  and  lies  at  217°  C.  At  the  ordi- 
nary temperature  it  conducts  electricity,  while  the  non- 
motallic  modification  does  not ;  at  higher  temperatures,  or 
after  temporary  exposure  to  higher  temperatures,  the  con- 
ductivity on  either  side  becomes  an  eminently  variable 
(juantity.  According  to  Draper  and  Moss,  glassy  selenium 
begins  to  conduct  electricity  at  16.5°  to  175°  C,  and  the 
conductivity  increases  regularly  as  the  temperature  rises 
to  near  the  boiling-point.  With  mf>*allic  selenium,  which 
behaves  similarly,  the  increase  of  conductivity  is  propor- 
tional to  the  increase  of  temperature  to  near  the  fusing 
point  (217°  C);  but  from  this  point  upwards  it  decreases 
rapidly  and  attains  its  niinimum  at  250'  C.  According 
to  W.  Siemens,  however,  selenium  by  long  exposure  to 
200°  C.  becomes  what  one  may  call  electrically  metallic  ; 
the  conductivity  then  decreases  when  the  temperature 
rises,  just  as  it  does  with  ordinary  metals.  But  tliis  electro- 
metaliicity  is  not  permanent ;  on  continued  exposure  to  a 
lower  temperature  it  vanishes  gradually,  until  the  propor- 
tion of  quasi-metal  has  fallen  to  a  limit-value  depending 
on  that  temperature.  Very  surprising  is  the  observation 
of  Sale  that  the  electric  conductivity  of  metallic  selenium 
increases  on  exposure  to  the  light;  the  red  and  ultra-red 
rays,  as  he  found,  act  most  powerfully.  The  effect  of 
insolation  is  almost  instantaneous,  but  on  re-exposure  to 
darkness  the  original  condition  is  re-established  only  very 
gradually.  W.  Siemens  found  that  his  electro-metallic 
selenium  (as  jiroduced  at  200'  C.)  is  more  sensitive  to 
light  than  any  other  kind.  The  conductivity  of  such 
selenium  starting  from  darkness  is  raised  twofold  by  dif- 
fu.se  and  tenfold  by  direct  sunlight.  The  specific  heat  of 
selenium,  according  to  I'cgnault,  is  0'0746  both  in  the 
glassy  and  in  the  metallic  modification.  Selenium  (of  any 
kind)  boils  at  700'  C.  (Jlitscherlich).  The  vapour  has 
an  intense  colour  intermediate  between  that  of  chlorine 
and  that  of  Kuli)hur.  According  to  Deville  and  Troost, 
at  880°  C.  it  is  7'G7  times,  and  at  1420°  is  5-G8  times,  as 
heavy  as  air;  theory,  for  Seo=  1  molecule,  demands  5'47.' 
Elcincntart/  ']\lliirimii. — This,  the  compact  form,  is  "^ 
silver- white  rcsiilendent  metal  of  markedly  crystalline 
structure;  the  crystals  are  rhomboliedra,  and  the  ingo'; 
con.se(]nently  is  very  brittle.  Siiccific  giavity  G"2.  The 
metal  fuses  at  about  500°  C,  and  is  distillable  at  very  higii 
tempeiatures.  Its  vapour  is  golden  yellow  and  has  a  very 
hrilliunt  absorption-spectrum.  The  vapour  density,  accord- 
ing to  Dovillo  and  Troost,  is  90S  at  1139°  C.  (air=l), 
cori'es])onding  to  Tc.,=  1  moloculo.  A  bar  of  tellurium  be- 
comes feebly  electrical  when  rubbed  with  a  woollen  cloth. 
Tlic  electric  conductivity,  like  that  of  selenium,  is  largely 
influonccd  by  the  temperature  and  jirevious  exposure  to 
heat,  anti  it  increases  after  exposure  to  light,  though  not 
to  the  .same  extent  as  selenium  does.  Starting  from  the 
nrdinary  temperature  the  conductivity  decreases  up  to  some 
point  between  90°  and  115°  C;  it  then  increases  up  to 
200°  C.  (the  highest  temjieraturc  tried) ;  on  cooling  it  de- 
creases steadily,  and  finally  is  only  one-filth  or  oue-si.vth  of 


what  it  was  at  200°.    The  numerical  value  at  200°  (silver  = 
100)  was  found  equal  to  0-0035  to  O'OOSl  (F.  Exner). 

Extraction  of  the  EUmentanj  Suhstances. — If  seleniferous  sulphnr 
or  pyrites  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  oil  of  vitriol  by  the 
chamber  process,  most  of  the  selenium  accumulates  as  such  in  the 
"chamber  mud,"  from  which  it  may  be  extracted  by  the  following 
method  of  Wohler's.  The  nnid,  after  having  been  thoroughly 
washed  and  dried,  is  fused  with  all.aline  nitrate  and  carbonate,  to 
convert  the  selenium  into  selenate  (ScO^Kj  or  Na;),  which  is  ex- 
tracted by  means  of  water.  The  filtered  solution  is  boiled  with 
hydrochloric  acid  to  convert  the  selenic  into  selenium  acid  (SeOj 
+  2HCl  =  Clj4-H„0-l-Se02),  ar.d  this  last  is  then  reduced  by  addi- 
tion of  duIiiLurous  acid  and  heating,  when  the  selenium  comes  down 
as  a  red  precipitate  (SeOj  +  2SO2  =  2.SO3  -t-  Sej.  A  richer  material  than 
cliamber  mud  is  selenifercrus  ore-smoke  as  produced  in  JIansfeld, 
which  likewise  contains  free  selenium.  Its  extraction,  according 
to  0.  Pettersen  and  F.  Nilsnn,  is  best  effected  by  digestion  with  con- 
centrated solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium  at  80°C.,  which  converts 
the  selenium  into  selenocyanide  (SeNCK),easiIy  e.xtract.able  by  water. 
The  filtered  solution  is  acidified  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  allowecl 
to  stand,  when  the  selenium  (through  the  spontaneous  decomposi- 
tion of  the  SeNC.H  into  NCH  and  Se)  comes  down  as  a  precipitate. 

Tellurium  is  generally  prepared  from  Transylvanian  gold  ore. 
The  powdered  ore  is  oxidized  by  means  of  hot  nitric  acid  and  tiie 
least  sufficiency  of  hydrochloric  acid,  the  excess  of  nitric  acid  being 
chased  away  by  evaporation,  and  the  residue  mixed  with  sulphuric 
acid  (to  convert  the  lead  into  insoluble  sulphate),  and  with  some 
tartaric  acid  to  prevent  precipitation  of  tellurious  acid  (TeO.)  in 
the  subsequent  treatment  with  water.  From  the  filtered  aqueous 
solution  the  gold  is  removed  by  addition  of  ferrous  sulphate  and 
by  filtration.  The  filtrate  is  treated  with  sulphurous  acid  to  reduce 
the  tellurious  acid  to  tellurium,  which  separates  out  as  a  black 
precipitate.  The  precipitated  metal  is  fused  down  and  then  sublimed 
at  a  very  high  temperature,  in  a  porcelain  tube,  in  a  current  of 
hydi'ogen,  to  remove  nou-volatile  impurities  and  eliminate  the  last 
trace  of  selenium  (SeH„). 

CJicmkal  iic?«^i'o)!s. -Selenium  and  tellurium  are  similar  in  their 
chemical  character  to  sulphur;  the  gradation  of  properties  withiu 
the  triad  is-in  the  order  of  the  atomic  weights,  which  are  S  =  32'fl6, 
Se  =  79'07,  Te  =  128  (0  =  16).  In  oxygen  or  air  the  elementary  sub- 
stances burn  readily  into  (solid)  dioxides  (SeO.^,  TeO,),  in  the  case 
of  selenium  with  production  of  a  characteristic  stench  of  puti'id 
rndish,  owing  probably  to  the  formation  of  a  trace  of  hydride,  SeHj. 
Nifric  acid,  in  the  heat,  converts  sulphur  directly  into  sulpl.uric 
acid.  In  the  case  of  the  two  rare  elements  the  oxidation  stops  at 
the  stnge  corresponding  to  sulphurous  acid.  The  acids  SeOjH,  and 
TeO,H;  are  not  liable  to  further  oxidation  by  any  of  the  wet-way 
reagents  (HNO3,  H.p  and  CL,  Br^  lo,  &c.)  which  convert  sulphur- 
ous into  sulphuric  acid. 

By  fusion  with  nitre  and  alkaline  carbonate  the  three  elements, 
in  their  elementary  or  less  oxygenated  forms,  aie  leadily  converted 
into  salts,  R.ZOj  (sulphates,  ic,  2  =  S,  Se,  or  Te).  Selenic  and 
telluric  acids  (H„20j),  unlike  sulphuric,  when  boiled  with  aqueous 
hydrochloric  acid,  are  gradually  reduced  to  the  lower  acids  (Sc  or 
TejOjHj,  with  evolution  of  chlorine  ;  and  the  lower  acids  are  readily 
reduced  to  (precipitates  of)  elementary  selenium  and  tellurium  re- 
spectively by  the  action  of  sulphurous  acid  iu  the  heat.  Chlorine 
combines  readily  w-ith  elementary  selenium  and  tellurium  into 
dichlorides  (Se  or  Te)6L,  which,  liowever,  on  continued  chlorina- 
tion  are  at  last  completely  converted  into  the  tetrachlorides  (Sc  or 
Te)Cl4.  These  last,  uulike  the  corresponding  sulpliur  compound, 
are  distillable  without  decomposition.  Metals  capable  of  uniting 
directly  with  sulphur  as  a  rule  imite  also  with  selenium  and  telhmuni 
into  corresponding  compounds.  Hydrogen  unites  with  elementai-y 
scleuium  and  tellurium  in  the  heat  into  gaseous  hydrides  (Se  or 
Te)H5  closely  similar  to  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  But,  as  these 
hydrides  are  liable  to  dissociation,  the  pure  compounds  must  be 
prepared  by  the  decomposij^ion  of  tlie  zinc  comjiounds  Zu—  ivith 
hydrochloric  acid.  For  the  description  of  individual  compounds 
lefcrence  nnist  be  made  to  the  handbooks  of  chemistry.    (\V.  1).) 

SELEUCIA,  or  Seleucf.ia  {-(.XiVKiLo).  Of  the  numer- 
ous ancient  towns  of  this  name  the  most  famous  are — (1) 
the  great  city  on  the  Tigris  founded  by  Seleucus  I.  Nicator 
(see  vol.  xviii.  p.  587),  of  the  greatness  and  decay  of  which 
nn  account  has  been  given  in  vol.  xviii.  p.  601  ;  (2)  a  city 
on  the  jiortheru  frontier  of  Syria  towards  Cilicia,  some 
miles  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Orontes,  also  founded 
by  Seleucus  I.,  and  forming  with  Antioch,  Apamea,  ami 
Laodicea  the  Syrian  Tetrapolis.  It  served  as  the  jiort  of 
Antioch  (Acts  xiii.  4).  Considerable  ruins  are  still  visible, 
especially  a  great  cutting  through  solid  rock,  about  two- 
thirds  of  a  mile  long,  which  Polybius  speaks  of  as  the  road 
from  the  city  to  the  sea. 


S  E  L  — S  E  L 


633 


SELEUCTDS.  See  ^Iacedonian  Empire,  vol.  sv.  p. 
142,  and  Persia,  vol.  xviii.  p.  585  sq. 

SELIM  or  Saxeu:,  the  title  borne  by  tnree  emperors  of 
the  Ottoman  Turks.  For  Selim  I.,  emperor  from  1512 
to  1520,  see  Persia,  vol.  xviii.  pp.  635-636,  and  Turkey. 
Sblim  II.,  grand.son  of  the  preceding,  was  sultan  from  1566 
to  1574.  See  TimKEy.  Selim  III.,  son  of  Sultan  Mus- 
tapha  III.,  succeeded  his  father  in  1789  and  was  deposed 
in  1807.     See  Turkey. 

SELIMNIA.     See  Sliten. 

SELINUS  (ScAei-oCs),  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
Greek  colonies  in  Sicily,  near  the  rivers  Hypsas  and  Selinus 
on  the  south-west  coast,  was  founded,  probably  about  628 
B.C.,  by  colonists  from  Megara  Hyblasa  in  the  east  of  Sicily 
and  others  from  the  parent  city  of  Megara  on  the  Saronic 
Gulf  of  Greece  (see  Thuc,  vi.  4,  vii.  57,  and  Strabo,  vi.  p. 
272).     The  name  of  the  city  and  the  little  river  (see  H  in 
fig.)  on  which  it  stands  was  derived  from  the  wild  parsley 
[(reXivov)  which  grew  there  in  abundance  (comp.  vol.  xvii. 
)).  639).     Many  autonomous  coins  of  Selinus  exist,  dating 
'rom  the  5th  and  4th  centuries  B.C.     The  tetradrachms 
•lave  on  the  obverse  a  youth,  representing  the  river  Selinus, 
lacrificing  at  an  altar,'  and,  in  the  field,  a  parsley  leaf, — 
legend,  2EAIN0S  ;  on  the  reverse,  Apollo  and  Artemis  in 
a  biga, — legend,  SEAINONTION  (retrograde).    Didrachms 
have  a  similar  obverse  with  the  river  Hypsas, — legend, 
HY'I'AS ;     reverse,    Heracles    slaying    a    bull,  —  legend, 
SEAINONTION.      As  early  as  580  B.C.  the  citizens  of 
Selinus  were  at  war  with  the  adjoining  people  of  Segesta, 
a  non-Hellenic  race  who  occupied  the  province  north  of 
Selinus  ;  the  success  of  the  Segestans  on  this  occasion  was 
mainly  owing  to  aid  given  them  by  colonists  from  Rhodes 
and  Cnidus.     Little  is  known  about  the  early  history  of 
Selinus  ;  but  the  city  evidently  grew  rapidly  in  wealth  and 
importance,  and  soon  extended  its  borders  15  miles  west- 
wards to  the  river  Mazarus  and  eastwards  as  far  as  the 
Halycus  (Diod.,  xiii.  54  ;  Herod.,  v.  46).     Thucydides  (vi. 
20)  mentions  its  power  and  wealth  and  especially  the  rich 
ti.-easures  in  its  temples.    From  its  early  oligarchical  form  of 
government  Selinus  passed  to  a  short-lived  despotism  under 
tbo  tyrant  Pithagoras,  who  was  deposed  soon  after  510  B.C. 
hi  480  B.C.,  when  the  Carthaginian  Hamilcar  invaded  Sicily, 
the  city  took  his  side  against  their  fellow  Hellenes.    In  416 
I;  0.  a  new  dispute  between  Selinus  and  Segesta  was  eventu- 
5  lly  the  cause  of  the  fatal  Athenian  expedition  against  Sicily, 
the  Athenians  acting  as  allies  of  Segesta  and  the  Syracusans 
6.3  allies  of  Selinus.     The  conclusion  of  this  expedition  (see 
Hyeacuse)  left  Segesta  at  the  mercy  of  the  Selinuntines, 
whose  rapacity  and  cruelty  soon  brought  about  their  own 
destruction,  through  the  aid  which  the  Segestans  obtained 
from  Carthage.    In  409  B.C.  Hannibal,  with  an  overwhelm- 
ing force,  took  and  destroyed  the  city,  the  walls  of  which 
were  razed  to'the  ground.     He  killed  about  16,000  of  the 
inhabitants,  took  5000  prisoners,  and  only  a  rcranani  of 
2600  escaped  to  Agrigcntum  (Diod.,  xiii.  54-59).     The  sur- 
vivors were  afterwards  allowed  to  return  and  to  rebuild 
Selinus  as  a  city  subject  to  the  Carthaginians,  under  whoso 
yoke,  in  spite  of  their  attempts  to  regain  freedom,  tho 
Selinuntines  remained  till  c.  250,  the  close  of  tho  First 
Punic  War ;  after  this  the  Carthaginians  transferred  the 
inhabitants  of  Selinus  to  Lilybaum,  and  completely  de- 
Ktroyed  the  city  (Diod.  xxiv.).     It  was  never  rebuilt,  and 
irt  mentioned  by  Strabo  (vi.  p.  272)  as  being  one  of  the 
extinct  cities  of  Sicily.- 


'  Sculptured  on  tho  altar  ia  a  cock,  Tn  allusion  to  tho  aid  given  by 
'IC<!culapiu3  against  the  fever  which  was  caused  by  tlio  marshy  site. 
Drainage  works  directed  by  Empedoclcs  are  said  to  have  rendered  tho 
lite  healthy  (Diog.  Laer.,  viii.  2,  11). 

*  Roman  .sulphur  baths  existed  under  the  name  Thermre  Selinuntiie, 
bnt  these  were  about  20  miles  east  of  tho  site  of  tho  cuciont  Selinus. 

21-22* 


The  ancient  city  occupied  two  elevated  plateaus  at  the  edge  of 
tlie  sea  and  also  part  of  the  surrounding  plain.  The  western  of 
these  elevations  formed  the  acropolis  ;  on  tne  other  was  the  agora. 
The  walls  of  the  acropolis  can  still  be  traced  round  the  whole  cir< 
cuit ;  the  only  entrance  was  on  the  north-east.  Remains  also  exist 
of  long  walls  connecting  the  city  and  its  port.  The  chief  glory  of 
Selinus  was  its  double  group  of  great  temples, — three,  on  tho 
acropolis  and  three  in  the  agora,  one  of  which  was  the  largest 
peripteral  temple  in  the  world.  All  are  completely  ruined,  but 
the  materials  of  each  still  remain  almost  perfect,  though  scattered 
in  confused  heaps  of  stone  ;  the  cxtraordiuary  completeness  of  these 
fragments  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  site  has  never  been  occu'pied 
since  the  final  transference  of  the  inhabitants  in  250  B.C.,  and  thus 
the  scattered  blocks  have  never  been  taken  as  materials  for  later 
structures.  Of  »11  the  six  tem^jles'  none  are  later  than  the  5th 
century  B.C.,  and  those  on  the  acropolis  probably  date  from  about 
628  B.C.,  soon  after  the  first  settlement.  The  sculptured  metopes 
from  three  of  the  temples  are  among  the  most  important  examples 
of  early  Hellenic  art  (.see  Archeology,  vol.  it.  p.  349,  and  Beun- 
dorf,  Die  Mctopen  von  Sclinunl).  The  ISiiildings  themselves  are  of 
the  highest  interest,  being  the  earliest  known  examples  of  the 
Doric  ?tyle,  and  differing  in  many  important-details  from  all  other 
examples,  even  such  early  ones  as  the  temples  at  Corinth  and 
Sj'racuse. 

The  three  temples  on  tho  acropolis  (A,  C,  D  in  fig.)  stand  side  by 
side,  with  their  axes  nortli-west  to  south-east ;  all  are  hexastyk  and 
peripteral,  with  either  thirteen  or  fomteen  columns  on  the  sides. 
Their  stylobates  have  four 
high  steps  along  the  sides, 
with  an  easier  approach  of 
more  steps  at  tlie  north- 
west fronts.  To  the 
middle  one  of  the  three 
belong  the  very  arcjiaic 
metopes  described  in  vol. 
ii.  p.  349.  All  have  a 
rather  narrow  cella  with 
prsnaos  and  opisthodo- 
mus.  Their  archaic  pecu- 
liarities are  the  rapid  di- 
minution of  the  columns, 
the  absence  of  entasis,  tho 
narrow  mutules  over  the 
metopes,  and  especially  a 
curious  cavetto  or  neck- 
ing under  the  usual  hypo- 

trachelia.     No  other  ex-  Selinus. 

ample  of  this  feature  was  A,  0,  D,  Temples  on  acropolis.  B,  Small  pro- 
known  till  1884,  when  stylo  tetrastyle  adicula.  E,  F,  G,  Temples  on 
Dr  Schliemann  aud  Dr 
Dorpfeld  discovered  a 
similar  Doric  capital  among  the  ruins  of  the  citadel  of  Tiryns.  The 
Tirjnis  capital  dates  probably  from  a  little  before  COO  B.C.  and  appears 
to  be  nearly  contemporary  with  that  at  Selinus.  Bet<\-een  temples 
A  and  C  are  remains  of  a  small  prostyle  tetrastyle  cedicula  (B)  of 
the  Doric  order.*  The  second  group  of  three  Doric  temples  (E,  F,  G) 
belongs  to  a  rather  later  date,— probably  500  to  440  B.C.  The  first 
two  (E  and  F)  have  very  narrow  celkc,  so  that  they  are  pseudo- 
dipteral.  They  also  are  hexastylo,  with  fourteen  columns  on  tho 
sides.  Though  still  early  in  detail,  they  are  without  the  curious 
necking  of  the  acropolis  temples.  Tho  sculptured  metopes  of 
temple  E  are  of  extraordinary  beauty  and  interest,  and  appear  to 
date  from  the  finest  period  of  Greek  art— the  ago  of  Thidias  or 
perhaps  that  of  Myron.  Tho  chief  subjects  are -Zeus  and  Hera  on 
Mount  Olympus,  Artemis  and  Acta:on,  and  Heracles  defeating  an 
Amazon.  They  are  of  tho  noblest  style,  simple  and  highly  sculp- 
turesnuo  in  treatment,  and  full  of  giace  and  expression.  One 
remarkable  peculiarity  in  their  technique  is  that  tho  nude  ports  of 
tho  female  figures  {heads,  feet,  and  hands)  are  executed  in  white 
marble,  while  tho  rest  of  tho  reliefs  aro  in  tho  native  grev  tufa, 
which  originally  was  covered  with  marble-dust  stucco  and  then 
painted.  The  whole  of  tho  stonework  of  all  the  temples  was  treated 
in  a  similar  way,  and  gives  most  valuable  examples  of  early  Greek 
coloured  decoration.  Kccent  excavations  at  Selinus  have  shown 
that  in  many  coses  the  cornices  and  other  architectural  features 
were  covered  with  moulded  slabu  of  terra  cotta,  all  richly  coloured 

8  The  stor.e  of  which  all  these  temples  were  built  camo  from  a  quarry 
a  few  miles  north-west  of  Selinus  (mod.  Campobello).  Tho  ancient 
workings  ore  very  visible,  and  unfinished  drums  of  columns  and  other 
blocks  still  exist  in  the  quarry.     It  is  a  brown  tufa-liko  stone. 

*  Strange  to  say,  HittorlT  and  Zanth  (Archikclim  Antique  de  Stale, 
Paris,  1870),  in  their  elaborate  work  on  this  subject,  restore  this  icdicula 
with  0  Doric  entablature  on  Ionic  columns  ;  a  good  many  other  similar 
absurdities  occur  in  this  richly  illustrated  work.  Moro  judgment  Is 
shown  in  Scrradifalco's  Antica  So/int/iito  (Polermo,  18»l-42),  though 
it  is  not  always  accurate  in  measurements. 


eastern  hill."   a,  o,  Remains  of  buildings  out- 
side acropolis  walls.    II,  River  Selinus. 


634 


S  E  L  — S  E  L 


{see  Dorpfcld,  Die  Vcnvcndunrj  von  Ta-racoUcn,  Dcilin.  ISSl.  ainl  I 
Tereacotta).  Tlie  sieat  UTiiplo  of  Zeus'  (G  iu  tiy.)  was  tljc  I 
largest  peripteral  tenijile  oftlie  wbolo  Hellenic  world,  boiiiy  almost 
exactly  tlie  same  size  as  tlie  enoniious  pseuJo- peripteral  Olj'iu- 
pereum  at  the  ueighliourinj;  Agrigeiitum.  It  was  oct.1^tyle.  psemlo- 
dipteral,  with  se\enteen  cohinmson  the  sides,  and  measures  360 
by  162  feet;  the  columns  are  10  feet  7i  inches  at  the  liase  and  were 
48  feet  7  inches  high.  This  gigantic  huUding  was  never  ijuite 
completed,  though  the  whole  of  the  main  structure  was  built. 
Jlost  of  the  columns  still  remain  nnfluted.  In  spite  of  Uie  projior- 
tional  narrowness  of  its  cella,  it  had  an  internal  range  of  coluuiiis, 
probably  two  orders  high,  like  those  within  the  cella >at  P^estum. 
The  axes  of  these  last  three  temples  have  exactly  the  same  inclina- 
tion as  those  on  the  acropolis.  •  The  gi'eat  temple  of  Zeus  possesses 
some  of  the  curious  archaisms  of  the  acropolis  temples,  andj  thongli 
never  completed,  it  was  probabl"  designed  and  begun  at  an  earlier 
date  than  the  two  adjacent  buildings.  These  jieculiarities  are  the 
nngraccfidly  rapid  diminution  of  the  shaft  and  the  cavetto  under 
the  necking  of  the  capitals.  The  whole  of  these  six  massive  build- 
ings now  lie  in  a  complete  state  of  ruin,  a  work  of  evidently  wilful 
destraction  on  the  part  of  tlic  Carthaginians,  as  the  temple  at 
Segesta,  not  many  miles  distant,  has  still  every  cohunn  and  its 
xrhole  entablature  quite  perfect ;  so  it  is  impossible  to  suppose  that 
an  earthquake  was  the  cause  of  the  utter  ruin  at  Selinus.  Few  or 
no  marks  of  fire  are  visible  on  the  stone  blocks.  (J.  H.  AI.) 

SELJ1?KS  is  the  name  of  several  Turkisli  dynasties, 
issued  from  one  family,  wliicli  reigned  over  large  parts  of 
Asia  in  tbe  lltli,  12tb,  and  13  th  centuries  of  our  era. 
The  history  of  the  Seljuks  forms  the  first  part  of  the  hi.s- 
tory  of  the  Turkish  empire.  Proceeding  from  the  deserts 
of  Turkestan,  the  Seljuks  reached  the  Hellespont;  but  this 
barrier  was  crossed  and  a  European  po^Ye^  founded  by  tbe 
Ottomans  (Osmanli).  The  Seljuijs  inherited  tbe  traditions 
and  at  the  same  time  the  power  of  tbe  previous  Arabian 
empire,  of  which,  when  they  made  their  ajipearance,  only 
the  shadow  remained  in  tbe  person  of  the  "AbbAsid  caliph 
of  BaghdAd.  It  is  their  merit  from  a  Mohammedan  point 
of  view  to  have  re-established  tbe  power  of  orthodox  Islam 
and  delivered  the  !Moslem  world  from  the  supremacy  of 
the  caliph's  Shl'ite  competitors,  the  FAtimites  of  Egyjjt, 
and  from  the  subversive  influence  of  ultra-Shi'ite  tenets, 
which  constituted  a  serious  danger  to  the  duration  of  Islam 
itself.  Neither  had  civilization  anything  to  fear  from 
them,  since  they  represented  a  strong  neutral  power,  which 
made  the  intimate  union  of  Persian  and  Arabian  elements 
possible,  almost  at  the  expense  of  the  national  Tiu'kish, — 
literary  monuments  in  that  language  being  during  the 
whole  period  of  the  Seljilk  rule  exceedingly  rare. 

The  first  Seljuk  rulers  were  Togbrul  Beg,  Chakir  Beg, 
and  Ibrahim  Niyal,  the  sons  of  "MLkaO,  the  son  of  Seljuk, 
the  son  of  Tuk4k  (also  styled  Timurydlik,  "iron  bow"). 
They  belonged  to  the  Turkish  tribe  of  tbe  Ghuzz  (Oi>foi  of 
Const.  Porphyr.  aiid  the  Byzantine  writers),  which  traced 
its  lineage  to  Oghuz,  the  famous  eponymic  hero  not  only 
of  this  but  of  all  Turkish  tribes.  There  arose,  however, 
at  some  undefined  epoch  a  strife  on  the  part  of  this  tribe 
and  some  others  with  the  rest  of  the  Turks,  because,  as 
the  latter  allege,  Ghuzz,  the  son  (or  grandson)  of  Tafeth 
(Japhet),  'the  son  of  Nuh  (Noah),  had  stolen  tbe  genuine 
rain-stone,  which  Turk,  also  a  son  of  Yafeth,  had  inherited 
from  liis  father.  By  this  party,  as  appears  from  this 
tradition,  the  Ghuzz  were  not  considered  to  be  genuine 
Juries,  but  to  be  Turkmans  (that  is,  according  to  a  popular 
etymology,  resembling  Turks).-  But  the  native  tradition 
of  the  Ghuzz  was  unquestionably  right,  as  they  spoke  a 
pure  Turkish  dialect.  The  fact,  however,  remains  that 
there  existed  a  certain  animosity  between  the  Ghuzz  and 
their  allies  and  the  rest  of  the  Turks,  which  increased  as 
the  former  became  converted  to  Islam  (in  the  course  of 
the  -Ith  century  of  the  Flight).  The  Ghuzz  were  settled 
at  that  time  in  Transoxiana,  especially  at  Jand,  a  weU- 

'  Tlie  dedication  of  tbe  five  smaller  temples  is  unknown  ;  some  were 
prob.ably  consecrated  to  Poseidon,  Apollo,  and  Artemis.  Tbe  existing 
metope  reliefs  are  preserved  iu  the  museum  at  Palermo. 


known  city  on  the  banks  of  the  Jaxartes,  not  far  from  its 
mouth.  Some  of  them  served  in  the  armies  of  the  Ghazno/- 
vids  Sebuktcgln  and  Jiahnn'id  (997-1030);  but  the  Seljuks, 
a  royal  family  among  them,  had  various  relations  with  the 
reigning  princes  of  Transoxiana  and  KhArizm,  which  can- 
not be  narrated  here.-  But,  friends  or  foes,  the  Ghuzz 
became  a  serious  danger  to  the  adjoining  Mohammedan 
provinces  from  their  predatory  habits  and  continual  raids, 
and  the  more  so  as  they  were  very  numerous.  It  may 
suffice  to  mention  that,  under  the  leadershij)  of  Israil  or 
Pigu  ArslAn,  they  crossed  the  Oxiis  and  spread  over  the 
extern  provinces  of  Persia,  everywhere  plundering  and  de- 
stroying. The  imprisonment  of  this  chieftain  by  Mas'ud, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Mabmiid,  was  of  no  avail :  it  only 
furnished  his  nephews  with  a  ready  pretext  to  cross  the 
Osus  likewise  in  arms  against  the  Ghaznavids.  We  pass 
over  their  first  conflicts  and  the  unsuccessful  agreements 
that  were  attempted,  to  mention  the  decisive  battle  near 
yi^vw  (1010),  in  which  Mas'ud  was  totally  defeated  and 
driven  back  to  Ghazna  (Ghazni).  '  Persia  now  lay  opea 
to  the  victors,  who  proclaimed  themselves  independent  at 
Merv  (which  became  from  that  time  the  official  capital  of 
the  principal  branch  of  the  Seljuks),  and  acknowledged 
Togbrul  Beg  as  chief  of  the  whole  family.  After  this 
victory  the  three  princes  Togbrul  Beg,  Chakir  Beg,  and 
Ibrahim  Niyal  separated  in  different  directions  and  con- 
quered the  Jlohammedan  provinces  east  of  the  Tigris ;  the 
last-named,  after  conqitering  HamadAn  and  the  province 
of  Jebel,  penetrated  as  early  as  1048,  with  fresh  Ghuzz 
troops,  into  Aimenia  and  reached  Jlelazkerd,  Erzenim 
(Erzeroum),  and  Trebizond.  This  excited  the  jealousy  of 
Toghrid  Beg,  who  summoned  him  to  give  up  HamadAn 
and  the  fortresses  of  Jebel ;  but  Ibrahim  refused,  and  the 
progress  of  the  Seljiikian  arms  was  for  some  time  checked 
by  internal  discord, — an  ever-recurring  event  in  their 
history.     Ibrahim  was,  however,  compelled  to  submit. 

At  this  time  the  power  of  the  'AbbAsid  caliph  of 
BaghdAd  (Al-KAim  bi-amr  illdh)  was  reduced  to  a  mere 
shadow,  as  the  Shl'ite  dynasty  of  the  Biiyids  and  after- 
wards his  more  formidable  FAtimite  rivals  had  left  him 
almost  wholly  destitute  of  authority.  The  real  ruler  at 
BaghdAd  was  a  Turk  named  BasAslri,  lieutenant  of  the  last 
Biiyid,  Al-Malik  ar-Ealjim.  Nothing,  could,  therefore,  be 
more  acceptable  to  the  caliph  than  the  protection  of  the 
orthodox  Toghrul  Beg,  whose  name  was  read  in  the  oflScial 
prayer  (khotba)  as  early  as  1050.  At  the  end  of  the  same 
year  the  Seljulf  entered  the  city  and  after  a  tumult  seized 
the  person  of  Malik  ar-Eahim.  BasAslri  had  the  good 
fortune  to  be  out  of  his  reach ;  after  acknov/ledging  the 
right  of  the  FAtLmites,  he  gathered  fresh  troops  and  in- 
cited Ibrahim  Nij'Al  to  rebel  again,  and  he  succeeded 
so  far  that  he  re-entered  BaghdAd  at  the  close  of  1058. 
The  next  year,  however,  Toghrul  Beg  got  rid  of  both  his 
antagonists,  Ibrahim  being  taken  prisoner  and  strangled 
with-  the  bowstring,  while  BasAslri  fell  in  battle.  Toghrul 
Beg  now  re-entered  BaghdAd,  re-estabhshed  the  caliph, 
and  was  betrothed  to  his  daughter,  but  died  before  the 
consummation  of  the  nuptials  (September  1063).  Alp 
ArslAn,  the  son  of  Chakir  Beg,  succeeded  his  uncle  and 
extended  the  rule  of  his  family  beyond  the  former  frontiers. 
He  made  himself  master,  e.g.,  of  the  important  city  of 
Aleppo;  and  during  his  reign  a  Turkish  emir,  Atsiz, 
wrested  Palestine  and  Syria  from  the  hands' of  the  FAtim- 
ites.  Nothing,  however,  added  more  to  his  fame  than  his 
successful  expeditions  against  the  Greeks,  especially  that 
of  1071,  in  which  the  Greek  emperor  Eomanus  Diogenes 
was  taken  prisoner  and  forced  to  ransom  himself  for  a 

'  Comp.  Sachan,  "Zur  Geschichte  und  ChronoTogie  von  Khwirizm," 
in  SitzungsberichU  of  the  Vienna  Acad.,  Ixiiv.  304  tq. 


S  E  L  J  U  K  S 


635 


large  ?um.  The  foundation  of  the  Seljiilj  empire  of  Riim 
(Asia  Minor,  see  below)  was  the  immediate  result  of  this 
great  victory.  ^  Alp  ArsUn  afterwards  undertook  an  ex- 
pedition against  Turkestan,  and  met  with  his  death  at  the 
hands  of  a  captured  chief,  Jusof  Barzami,  whom  he  had 
intended  to  shoot  with  his  own  hand. 

Malik  Sh.^h,  the  son  and  successor  of  Alp  ArslAn,  had  to 
encounter  his  uncle  K4wurd,  founder  of  the  Seljiiljian  em- 
pire of  Kermin  (see  below),  who  claimed  to  succeed  Alp 
ArsUn.  in  accordance  with  the  Turkish  laws,  and  led  his 
troops  towards  Hamaddn.  However,  he  lost  the  battle 
that  ensued,  and  the  bowstring  put  an  end  to  his.  life 
(1073).  Malik  Shih  regulated  also  the  affairs  of  Asia  Minor 
and  Syria,  conceding  the  latter  province  as  an  hereditary 
fief  to  his  brother  Tutush,  who  established  himself  at 
Damascus  and  killed  Atsiz.  He,  however,  like  his  father 
Alp'  Arsldn,  was  indebted  for  hi?  greatest  fame  to  the 
wise  and  salutary  measures  of  their  vizier,  Nizdm  al-Mulk. 
This  extraordinary  man,  associated  by  tradition  with  'Omar 
KhayyIii  (q.v.),  the  well-known  mathematician  and  free- 
thinking  poet,  and  with  Hasan  b.  §abbdh,  afterwards  the 
founder  of  the  Ismaelites  or  Assassins,  was  a  renowned 
author  and  statesman  of  the  first  rank,  and  immortalized 
his  name  by  the  foundation  of  several  universities  (the 
Nizdmiyah  at  Baghdad),  observatories,  mosques,  hospitals, 
and  other  institutions  of  public  utility.  At  his  instigation 
the  calendar  was  revised  and  a  new  era,  dating  from  the 
reign  of  Malik  ■  Shah  and  kuovrn  as  the  Jelalian,  was  in- 
troduced. Not  quite  forty  days  before  the  death  of  his 
master  this  great  man  was  murdered  by  the  Ismaelites. 
He  had  fallen  into  disfavour  shortly  before  because  of 
his  unwillingness  to  join  in  the  intrigues  of  the  princess 
Turk.'in  Khdtlin,  who  wished  to  secure  the  succe.ssion  to 
the.  throne  for  her  infant  son  Mahmiid  at  the  expense  of 
the  elder  .sons  of  Malik  Shdh. 

Constitulioii  and  Government  of  the  Selju^  Empire. — It  has  been 
already  observed  that  the  Seljuks  considered  themselves  the  de- 
fenders of  the  ortliodox  faitli  ami  of  the  'Abbdsid  caliphate,  while 
they  oil  their  side  represented  the  temporal  power  winch  received 
its  titles  and  aanction  from  the  successor  of  the  Prophet.  All 
the  members  of  tlie  Seljiik  house  had  the  same  obligation?  in  this 
respect,  but  they  had  not  the  same  rights,  as  one  of  them  occu- 
pied relatively  to  the  others  a  place  almost  analogous  to  that  of 
the  great  klum  of  the  Mongols  m  later  times.  This  position,  was 
inherited  from  father  to  son,  though  the  old  Turkish  idea  of  the 
rights  of  the  e'der  brother  often  caused  rebellions  and  violent  family 
disputes.  After  the  death  of  Malik  Shah  the  head  of  the  family 
was  not  strong  enough  to  enforce  obedience,  and  consequently  the 
central  government  broke  up  iiito  several  independent  dynasties. 
Within  the  limits  of  these  minor  dynasties  the  same  rales  were  ob- 
served, and  the  same  may  bo  said  of  tlic  hereditary  fiefs  of  Turkish 
emirs  not  belonging  to  the  royal  family,  who  bore  ordinarily  the 
title  ofalnbck  (properly  "father  bey"),  c..^.,  the  atabeks  of  Fars,  of 
Adharbaijiii  (Azerbijan),  of  Syria,  &c.  The  title  was  first  given  to 
Nixiiin  al-.\Iulk  and  cxi)ressed  the  relation  in  which  he  stood  to  the 
prince,— as  lain,  "tutor."  The  affairs  of  state  were  managed  by  the 
divan  under  the  presidency  of  the  vizier  ;  but  in  the  empire  of  Kiim 
Its  authority  was  inferior  to  that  of  the  iin-vdiic/i,  whom  we  mav 
name  "  lord  chancellor."  In  Riim  the  feudal  .system  was  cxtende;i 
to  Christian  princes,  who  were  acknowledged  by  tlie  sultan  on  con- 
dition of  paying  tribute  and  serving  in  the  armies.  The  court 
(ligiiitanos  and  their  titles  were  manifold  ;  not  less  manifold  were 
the  royal  prerogatives,  in  which  the  sultans  followed  the  e.'iample 
set  by  their  prodeeejsors,  the  Biiyids. 

^  Notwithstanding  the  intrigues  of  Turk.'in  Mhitiin,  Malik 
Shdh  was  succeeded  by  his  elder  son  Barkiydrolj  (1092- 
1104),  whose  short  reign  was  a  series  of  rebellions  and 
strange  adventures  such  as  one  may  imagine  in  the  story 
of  a  youth  who  is  by  turns  a  powerful  prince  and  a  miser- 
able fugitive.'  Like  his  brother  Mohammed  (1 101-1 118), 
who  successfully  rebelled  against  him,  bis  nio.st  dangerous 
enemies  were  the  Lsraaelites,  who  had  succeeded  in  takiii" 
the  fortress  of  Alamut  (north  of  Kazv(n)  and  become  a 

.'  A  sketch  of  liis  reigu  ha.s  been  given  by  DofriSuierv.  Joiint   A  tin 
tiqite,\i5Z,l.msq.,i\.2\l  Si.  "'•"'• /isin 


formidable  political  power  by  tne  organization  of  bands  of 
fddiins,  who  were  ahi'ays  ready,  even  at'  the  sacrifice  of 
their  own  lives,  to  murder  any  one  whom  they  were  com- 
manded to  slay  (see  Assassins). 

Mohammed  had  been  successful  by  the  aid  of  his  brother 
Sinjar,  who  from  the  year   1097  held  the  province  of 
Khordsan  with  .the  capital  Merv.     After   the   death  of 
Mohammed  Sinjar  became  the  real  head  of  the  family,' 
though   'Irdk   acknowledged   Mahmiid,  the  son   of   Mo- 
hammed.     Thus  there  originated  a  separate  dynasty  of 
'Irdk  with  its  capital  at   Hamaddn;  but  Sinjar  during 
his  long  reign  often  interfered  in  the  affairs  of  the  new 
dynasty,  and  every  occupant  of  the  throne  had  to  acknow- 
ledge his  supremacy.     In  11 1 7  he  led  an  expedition  against 
Ghazna  and  bestowed  the  throne  upon  Behrdm  Shdh,  who 
was  also  obliged  to  mention  Sinjar's  natoe  first  in  the 
official  prayer  at  the  Ghaznavid  capital," — a  prerogative 
that  neither  Alp  Arslan  nor  Malik  Shdh  had  attained.     la 
1134  Behrdm  Shdh  failed  in  this  obligation  and  brought  on* 
himself  a  fresh  invasion  by  Sinjar  in  the  midst  of  winter  ; 
a  third  one  took  place  in  1152,  caused  by  the  doings  of 
the  Ghurids  (Hosain  Jihdnsiiz,  or  "  world-burner  ").    Other 
expeditions  were  undertaken  by  him  against  Kbdrizm  and 
Turkestan ;  the  government  of  the  former  had  been  given 
by  Barkiydrok  to  Mohammed  b.  Anushtegln,  who  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1128  by  his  son  Atsiz,  and  against  him  Sinjar 
marched  in  1138.     Though  victorious  in  this  war,  Sinjar 
could  not  hinder  Atsiz  from  afterwards  joining  the  gurldidn 
(great  khdn)  of  the  then  rapidly  rising  empire  of  the  Kara^ 
chitai,  at  whose  hands  the  Selji'ik:  suflered  a  terrible  defeat 
at  Samarkand  in  1141.     By  the  invasion  of  these  hordes 
several  Turkish  tribes,  the  Ghuzz  and.  others,  were  driven 
beyond  the  Oxus,  where  they  killed  the  Seljuk  governor 
of  Balkh,  though  they  professed  to  be  loyal  to  Sinjar> 
Sinjar  resolved  to  punish  this  crime;  but  his  troops  deserted 
and  he  himself  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Ghuzz,  who 
kept  him  in  strict  confinement  during  two  years  (1 153-55), 
though  treating  him  with  all  outward  marks  of  respect. 
In  the  meantime  they  plundered  and  destroyed  the  flourish- 
ing cities  of  Jlerv  and  Nishdpiir ;  and  when  Sinjar,  after 
tis  escape  from  captivity,  revisited  the  site  of  his.capital 
he  fell  sick  of  sorrow  and  grief  and  died  soon  afterwards 
(1157).     His  empire  fell  to  the  Karachitai  and  afterwards 
to  the  shdh  of  Khdrizm..    Of  the  successors  of  Mohammed 
in  'Irdk  we  give  only  the  names  with  the  date  of  the  death 
of  each: — I^Iahmud  (1131);  Toghrul,  son  of  Mohammed, 
proclaimed  by  Sinjar  (1134)  ;  Mas'iid  (1152) ;  Malik  Shdh 
and  Mohammed  (1159),  sons  of  Mahnn'id  ;  Sulaimdu  Shdh, 
their  brother  (1161);  Arsldn,  son  of  Toghrvd  (1175);  and 
Toghrul,  son  of  Arsldn,  killed  in  1194  by  Indnej,  son  of 
his  atabek,  jMohammed,  who  was  in  confederation  with  the 
Khdrizm  shdh  of  the  epoch,  Takash.     This  chief  inherited 
his  po.ssessions  ;  Toghrul  was  the  last  representative  of  the 
Scljiiks  of  'Irdk. 

The  province  of  Kermdn  was  one  of  the  fii-st  conquests 
of  the  Seljiiks,  and  became  the  hereditary  fief  of  KAwurd, 
the  son  of  Chakir  Beg.  Jlention  has  been  made  of  his 
war  with  !Malik  Shdh  and  of  his  ensiling  death  (1073). 
Nevertheless  his  descendants  were  loft  ip  possession  of 
their  ancestor's  dominions;  and  till  1170  Kermdn,  to 
which  belonged  also  the  opposite  coast  of  'Omdn,  enjoyed 
a  well-ordered  government,  except  for  a  short  interruption 
caused  by  the  deposition  of  Irda  Shdh,  who  had  embraced 
the  tenets  of  the  Ismaelites,  and  was  put  to  death  (1101) 
in.  accordance  with  a  fatwa  of  the  uloma.  But  after  the 
death  of  Toghrul  Shdh  (1170)  his  three  sons  disputed  with 
each  other  for  the  po.sscssioii  of  the  throne,  and  imj^lorod 
foreign  assistance,  till  the  country  became  utterly  deva,s- 
tatcd  and  fell  an  easy  proy  to  some  bands  of  Oliuzz,  wbn, 
under  the  leadership  of  Malik  Dindr  (1185),  marchej^jntv 


636 


S  E  L  J    U   K  S 


Kerman  after  harassing  Sinjar's  dominions.     Afterwards 
tLe  shAlis  of  KhArizm  took  this  province.^ 

The  Seljukian  dynasty  of  Syria  came  to  an  end  after 
three  generations,  and  its  later  history  is  interwoven  with 
that  of  the  crusaders.  The  first  prince  was  Tutush,  men- 
tioned above,  who  perished,  after  a  reign  of  continuous 
fighting,  in  battle  against  Barkiyarolj  near  Rai  (1095).  Of 
his  two  sons,  the  elder,  RidhwAn,  established  himself  at 
Aleppo  (died  1113);  the  younger,  Dukalf,  took  possession 
of  Damascus,  and  died  in  1103.  The  sons  of  the  former. 
Alp  ArsUa  and  Sultan  Shah,  reigned  a  short  time  nomi- 
nally, though  the  real  power  was  exercised  by  Luli'i  fill  1117. 
We  cannot,  however,  enter  here  into  the  very  complicated 
history  of  these  two  cities,  which  changed  their  masters 
almost  every  year  till  the  time  of  Zengi  and  Nur  ed-din. 

After  the  great  victory  of  Alp  Arsldn  in  which  the  Greek 
emperor  was  taken  prisoner  (1071),  Asia  ]\Iinor  lay  open  to 
the  inroads  of  the  Turks.     Hence  it  was  easy  for  Sulaimdn, 
the  son  of  Kutulmish,^  the  son  of  Arsldn  Pigu  (Israil),  to 
penetrate  as  far  as  the  Hellespont,  the  more  so  as  after  the 
captivity  of  Komanus,  two  rivals,  Nicephorus  Bryennius  in 
Asia  and  another  Nicephorus  named  Botoniates  in  Europe, 
disputed  the  throne  -n-ith  one  another.     The  former  ap- 
pealed to  'Sulaimin  for .  assistance,  and  was  by  his  aid 
brought  to  Constantinople  and  seated  on  the   imperial 
throne.     But  the  possession  of  Asia  Jlinor  was  insecure 
to  the  Selji'ilfs  as  long  as  the  important  city  of  Antioch 
belonged  to  the  Greeks,  so  that  we  may  date  the  real 
fo\mdation  of  this  Seljilk  empire  from  the  taking  of  that 
city  by  the  treason  of  its  commander  Philaretus  in  1084, 
who  afterwards  became  a  vassal  of  the  Seljuks.  --The  con- 
quest involved  Sulaimdn  in  war  with  the  neighbouring 
Mohammedan  princes,  and  he  met  his  death  soon  After- 
wards (108'6),  near  Shaizar,  in.  a  battle  against  Tutush. 
Owing  to  these  family  discords   the  decision  of   Malik 
Shdh  was  necessary  to  settle  the  aflfairs  of  Asia  Elinor  and 
Syria ;  he  kept  the  sons  of  SulaimAn  in  captivity,  and 
committed  the  war  against  the  imbelieving  Greeks  to  his 
generals  Bursuk  (npoa-ov\)  and  BuzAn  (Hovfovos).    Barki- 
ydrok,   however,  on  his  accession  (1092),  allowed  Kihg 
ArsUn,  the  son  of  SulaimAn,  to  return  to  the  dominions  of 
his  father.     Acknowledged  by  the  Turkish  emirs  of  Asia 
Minor,  he  took  up  his  residence  in  Nicsea,  and  defeated  the 
first  bands  of  crusaders  under  Walter  the  Penniless  and 
others  (1096);  but.  on  the  arrival  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon 
and  his  companions,  he  was  prudent  enough  to  leave  his 
capital  in  order  to  attack  them  as  they  were  besieging 
Nicsea.     He  suffered,  however,  two  defeats  in  the  vicinity, 
and  Nicsea  surrendered  on  23d  June  1097.     As  the  cru- 
.saders  marched  by  way  of  Doryloeum  and  Iconium  towards 
Antioch,   the  Greeks  subdued  the  Turkish  emirs  resid- 
ing at  Smyrna,  Ephesus,  Sardis,  Philadelphia,  Laodicea, 
Lampes,  and   Polybotus ;  ^    and  Kilig   Arsldn,  with  his 
Turks,  retired  to  the  north-eastern  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  to 
act  with  the  Turkish  emirs'  of  SivAs  (Sebaste),  known 
under  the  name  of  the  Danishmand. 

The  history  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Danishmand  is  still  very  ob- 
scure, notwithstanding  tlie  etforts  of  Jlordtmann,  Schlumberger, 
Karabaijek,  Sallet,  and  otiiers  to  fix  some  chronological  details, 
and  it  is  almost  impossible  to  harmonize  the  different  statements 
of  the  Armenian,  Syiiac,  Greek,  and  Western  chronicles  with  tliose 
of  the  Aiabic,  Persian,  and  Turkish.  The  coins  are  few  in  number, 
very  diliicult  to  decipher,  and  often  without  date.  The  founder 
of  the  dynasty  was  a  csitain  Taihi,  who  is  said  to  have  been  a 
schoolmaster  (danishmand),  probably  because  he  undei-stood  Arabic 
and  Persian.  His  descendants,  therefore,  took  the  style  of  "  Ibn 
Danishmand,"  often  without  their  own  name.     They  took  posses- 

•  An  outlme  of  the  history  of  this  branch  of  the  Seljuks  is  given 
in  Z.D.M.G.,  188.5,  pp.  362-401. 

■^  This  prince  rebelled  asaiust  AJp  Arslan  in  1064,  and  was  found 
dead  after  a  battle. 

'  Tlie  Turkmans  who  dwelt  in  these  western  parts  of  Asia  Minor, 
which  were  never  regaiued  by  the  Seljuks,  were  called  Utch  (Ontsidere). 


slon  of  Sivas,  Tokat,  Nicsar,  Ablastan,  Malatieh,  probably  afler 
the  death  of  Sulalman,  though  they  may  have  established  them- 
selves in  one  or  more  of  these  cities  much  earUer,  perhaps  in  1071, 
after  the  defeat  of  Romanus  Diogenes.  Durmg  tie  first  cruaada 
the  reigning  prince  was  Kumushtegin  (Ahmed  Ghazi),  who  defeated 
the  Franks  and  took  prisoner  the  prince  of  Antioch,  Bohemond, 
afterwards  ransomed.  He  died  probably  in  1106,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Mohammed  (d.  1143),  after  whom  reigned  Jaghi  Basaa  • 
but  it  is  very  probable  that  other  members  of  the  same  dynast 
reigned  at  the  same  time  in  the  cities  already  named,  and  in  soma 
others,  e.g.,  Kastamuni. 

Afterwards  there  arose  a  natural  rivahy  between  the 
Seljuks  and  the  Danishmand,  which  ended  -nith  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  latter  about   ]  175.      Kilig  Arsldn  to<A 
possession  of  Mosul  in  1 107,  and  declared  himself  independ- 
ent of  the  Selji'iks  of  'Irdk ;  but  in  the  same  year  he  was 
drowned  in  the  Chaboras  through  the  treachery  of  his  own 
emirs,  and  the  dynasty  seemed  again  destined  to  decay,  as 
his  sons  were  in  the  power  of  his  enemies.     The  sultaa 
Mohammed,  however,  set  at  liberty  his  eldest  son  Malik 
Shdh,  who  reigned  for  some  time,  until  he  was  treacher- 
ously murdered  (it  is  not  quite  certain  by  whom),  being 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Mas'iid,  who  established  himself 
at  Konieh  (Iconium),  from  that  time  the  residence  of  the 
Selji\ks  of  Brim.     During  his  reign — he  died  in  1155 — 
the  Greek  emperors  undertook  various  expeditions  in  Asia 
Jlinor  and  Armenia ;  but  the  Seljtlk  was  cunning  enough 
to  profess  himself  their  ally  and  to  direct  them  against  his 
own  enemies.     Nevertheless  the  'Selj'iikian  dominion  was 
petty  and  unimportant  and  did  not  rise  to  significance  till 
his  son  and  successor,  Kilig  Arsldn  11.,  had  subdued  the 
Danishmands  and  appropriated  their  possessions,  though 
he  thereby  risked  the  wrath  of  the  powerful  atabek  of 
Syria,  Nur  ed-din,  and  afterwards  that  of  the  still  more 
powerful  Saladin.   But  as  the  sultan  grew  old  his  numerotis 
sons,  who  held  each  the  command  of  a  city  of  the  empire, 
embittered  his  old  age  by  their  mutual  rivalry,  and  the 
eldest,  Kotb  ed-din,  tyrannized  over  his  father  in  his  own 
capital,  exactly  at  the  time  that  Frederick  I.  (Barbarossa) 
entered  his  dominions  on  his  way  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
(1190).     Konieh  itself  was  taken  and  the  sultan  forced  to 
provide  guides  and  provisions  for  the  crusaders.     Kilig 
Arsldn  lived  two  years  longer,  finally  under  the  protection 
of  his  youngest  son,  Kaikhosrau,  who  held  the  capital 
after  him  (till  1199)  until  his  elder  brother,  Eokn  ed-dfn 
SidaimAn,  after  having  vanquished   his   other,  brothers, 
ascended  the  throne  and  obliged  Kaikhosrau  to  seet  refuge 
at  the  Greek  emperor's  court.    This  valiant  prince  saved 
the  empire  from  destruction  and  conquered  Erzertim,  which 
had  been  ruled  during  a  considerable  time  by  a  separate 
dynasty,  and  was  now  given  in  fief  to  his  brother,  Mughit 
ed-dln  Toghnd  Shdh.     But,  marching  thence  against  the 
Georgians,  Sulaimdn's  troops  suffered  a  terrible  defeat ; 
after  this  Sulaimdn  set  out  to  subdue  his  brother  Mas'iid 
Shdh,  at  Angora,  who  was  finally  taken   prisoner  and 
treacherously  murdered.    This  crime  is  regarded  by  Orien- 
tal authors  as  the  reason  of  the  premature  death  of  the 
sultan  (in  1204);  but  it  is  more  probable  that  he  was 
murdered  because  he  displeased  the  Mohammedan  clergy, 
who  accused  him  of  atheism.    His  son,  Kilig  Arslan  III., 
was  soon  deposed  by  Kaikhosrau  (who  returned),  assisted 
by  the  Greek  Maurozomes,  whose  daughter  he  had  married 
in  exile.     He  ascended  the  throne  the  same  year  in  which 
the  Latin  empire  was  established  in  Constantinople,  a  cir- 
cumstance highly  favourable  to  the  Turks,  who  were  the 
natural  allies  of  the  Greeks  (Theodore  Lascaris)  and  the 
enemies  of  the  crusaders  and  their  allies,  the  Armenians. 
Kaikhosrau,   therefore,   took   in   1207   from   the   Italiad 
Aldobrandini  the  important  harbour  of  Attalia  (Adalia) ; 
but  his  conquests  in  this  direction  were  put  an  end  to  by 
his  attack  upon  Lascaris,  for  in  the  battle  that  ensued  hs 
perished  in  single  combat  with  his  royal  antagonist  (1211). 


S  E  L  J  U  K  S 


637 


His  son  and  successor,  KaikAviis,  made  peace  with  Lascaris 
and  extended  his  frontiers  to  the  Black  Sea  by  the  con- 
quest of  Sino],  J  (1214).  On  this  occasion  he  was  fortiinate 
enough  to  take  prisoner  the  Comnenian  prince  (Alexis) 
who  ruled  the  independent  empire  of  Trebizond,  and  he 
compelled  him  to  purchase  his  liberty  by  acknowledging 
the  supremacy  of  the  Seljiiks,'  by  paying  tribute,  and  by 
serving  in  the  armies  of  the  sultan.  Elated  by  this  great 
success  and  by  his  victories  over  the  Armenians,  Kaikdvus 
was  induced  to  attempt  the  capture  of  the  important  city 
of  Aleppo,  at  this  time  governed  by  the  descendants  of 
Saladin ;  but  the  affair  miscarried.  Soon  afterwards  the 
sultan  died  (1219)  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  AlA 
od-dln  KaikobM,  the  most  powerful  and  illustrious  prince 
of  this  branch  of  the  Seljiiks,  renowned  not  only  for  his 
successful  wars  but  also  for  his  magnificent  structures  at 
Konieh,  Alaja,  SivAs,  and  elsewhere,  which  belong  to  the 
best  specimens  of  Saracenic  architecture.  The  town  of 
Alaja  was  the  creation  of  this  sultan,  as  previously  there 
existed  cJn  that  site  only  the  fortress  of  Candelor,  at  that 
epoch  in  the  possession  of  an  Armenian  chief,  who  was 
expelled  by  Kaikobid,  and  shared  the  fate  of  the  Armenian 
and  Frankish  knights  who  possessed  the  fortresses  along 
the  coast  of  theMediterranean  as  far  as  Selefke  (Seleucia). 
KaikobSd  extended  his  rule  as  far  as  this  city,  and  desisted 
from  further  conquest  only  on  condition  that  the  Armenian 
princes  would  enter  into  the  same  kind  of  relation  to  the 
Seljuks  as  had  been  imposed  on  the  Coranenians  of  Trebi- 
zond. But  his  greatest  niilitary  fame  was  won  by  a  war 
which,  however  glorious,  was  to  prove  fatal  to  the  Seljiik 
empire  in  the  future :  in  conjunction  with  his  ally,  the 
Eyyiibid  prince  Al-Ashraf,  he  defeated  the  KhArizm  shdh 
JelAl  ed-din  near  Arzengdn  (1230).  This  victory  removed 
the  only  barrier  that  checked  the  progress  of  the  Mongols. 
During  this  war  KaLkobid  put  an  end  to  the  coUateoil 
dynasty  of  the  Seljiiks  of  Erzeriim  and  annexed  its  pos- 
sessions. He  also  gained  the  city  of  Kheldt  with  depend- 
encies that  in  former  times  had  belonged  to  the  Shdh-i- 
Armen,  but  shortly  before  had  been  taken  by  Jeldl  ed-dln  ; 
this  aggression  was  the  cause  of  the  war  just  mentioned. 
The  acquisition  of  Khel4t  led,  however,  to  a  new  war, 
as  Kaikob4d's  ally,  the  Eyyiibid  prince,  envied  him  this 
Conquest.  Sixteen  Mohammedan  princes,  mostly  Eyyiibids, 
of  Syria  and  Mesopotamia,  under  the  leadership  of  Al- 
Malik  al-Kdmil,  prince  of  Egypt,  marched  with  considerable 
forces  into  Asia  Minor  against  him.  Happily  for  Kaiko- 
bid,  the  princes  mistrusted  the  power  of  the  Egyptian, 
and  it  proved  a  difficult  task  to  penetrate  through  the 
mountainous  well-fortilied  accesses  to  the  interior  of  Asia 
Minor,  so  that  the  advantage  rested  with  Kaikobdd,  who 
took  Kharput,  and  for  some  time  even  held  Harrdn,  Ar- 
Roha,  and  Ilakka  (1232).-  The  latter  conquests  were, 
however,  soon  lost,  and  KaikobAd  himself  died  in  1231 
of  poison  administered  to  him  by  his  son  and  successor, 
GhiyAts  ed-dln  ■  Kaikhosrau  11.  This  unworthy  son  in- 
herited from  his  father  an  empire  embracing  almost  the 
whole  of  Asia  Minor,  with  the  exception  of  the  countries 
governed  by  Vatatzes  (Vataces)  and  the  Christian  princes 
of  Treljizond  and  Lesser  Armenia,  who,  however,  were 
bound  to  pay  tribute  and  to  serve  in  the  armies, — an 
empire  celebrate*  by  contemporary  reports  for  its  wealth. ^ 
But  the  Turkish  soldiers  were  of  little  use  in  a  regular 
battle,  and  the  sultan  relied  mainly  on  his  Cliristian 
troops,  so  much  so  that  an  insurrection  of  dervishes  which 
occurred  at  this  period  could  only  be  put  down  by  their 
assistance;  It  was  at  this  epoch  also  that  there  flourished 
at  JKonieh  the  greatest  mystical  poet  of  Islam,  and  the 
founder  of  the  order  of  the  Mawlawis,  Jeldl  ed-din  Riimf 

^  '  See  the  details  in  Vincent  of  Beauvais,  Speculum  Bulariale,  bk. 
xziL.  chapa.  143,  114. 


(d.  1273;  see  RtJMf),  and  that  the  dervish '  fraternities 
spread  throughout  the  whole  country  and  became  power- 
ful bodies,  'often  discontented  with  the  liberal  principles 
of  the  sultans,  who  granted  privileges  to  the  Christian 
merchants  and  held  frequent  intercourse  vAih.  them.  Not- 
withstanding all  this,  the  strength  and  reputation  of  the 
empire  were  so  great  that  the  Mongols  hesitated  to  invade 
it,  although  standing  at  its  frontiers.  But,  as  they  crossed 
the  border,  Kaikhosrau  marched  against  them,  and  suffered 
a  formidable  defeat  at  KuzadAg  (between  Arzengdn  and 
SivAs)  In  1243,  which  forced  hira  to  purchase  peace  by 
the  promise  of  a  heavy  tribute.  The  independence  of  the 
Seljiiljs  was  now  for  ever  lost.  The  Jlongols  retired  for 
some  years;  but,  Kaikhosrau  dying  in  1245,  the  joint 
government  of  his  three  sons  gave  occasion  to  fresh  in- 
roads, tiU  one  of  them  died  and  Hulagu  divided  the 
empire  between  the  other  two,  'Izz  ed-dln  ruling  the  dis- 
tricts west  of  the  Halys  and  Eokn  ed-din  the  eastern 
provinces  (1259).  But  the  former,  intriguing  with  the 
JIameluke  sultans  of  Egypt  to  expel  his'  brother  and  gain 
his  independence,  was  defeated  by  a  Mongol  army  and 
obliged  to  flee  to  the  imperial  court.  Here  he  was  im- 
prisoned, but  afterwards  released  by  the  Tatars  of  the 
Crimea,  who  took  him  with  them  to  Sarai,  where  he  died. 
Rokn  ed-din  was  only  a  nominal  ruler,  the  real  power 
being  in  the  hands  of  his  pervAneh,  Muln  ed-dln  SulaimAn, 
who  in  1267  procured  an  order  of  the  Mongol  Khan 
Abaka  for  his  execution.  The  minister  raised  his  infant 
son,  GhiyAts  ed-dln  Kaikhosrau  HI.,  to  the  throne,  and 
governed  the  country  for  ten  yea's  longer,  tiU  he  was 
entangled  in  a  conspiracy  of  several  emirs,  who  proposed 
to  expel  the  Mongols  with  the  aid  of  the  Mameluke  sultan 
of  Egypt  (Beybars  or  Bibars).  The  latter  marched  into 
Asia  Minor  and  defeated  the  Mongols  in  the  bloody  battle 
of  Ablastdn  (1277);  but,  when  he  advanced  farther  to 
Csesarea,  the  pervAneh  retired,  hesitating  to  job  him  at 
the  very  moment  of  action.  Beybars,  therefore,  in  his 
turn  fell  back,  leaving  the  perv<ineh  to  the  vengeance  of 
the  khdn,  who  soon  discovered  his  treason  and  ordered  a 
■barbarous  execution.  Ghiydts  ed-dln  continued  to  reign 
in  name  till  1284,  though  the  country  was  in  reality 
governed  by  a  Mongol  viceroy.  Mas'iid,  the  son  of  'Izz 
■  ed-dfn,  vrho  on  the  death  of  his  father  had  fled  from  th.e 
Crimea  to  the  Mongol  kh.ln  and  had  received  from  him 
the  government  of  SivAs,  ArzengAn,  and  Erzeriim  during 
the  lifetime  of  Ghiydts  ed-din,  ascended  the  Seljiilf  throne 
on  the  death  of  Ghiydts;  But  his  authority  was  scarcely 
respected  in  his  own  residence,  for  several  Turkish  emirs 
assumed  independence  and  could  only  be  subdued  by 
Mongol  aid,  when  they  retired  to  the  mountains,  to  re- 
appear as  soon  as  the  Mongols  were  gone.  Mas'iid  fell, 
probably  about  1295,  a  victim  to  the  vengeance  of  one  of 
the  emirs,  whose  father  he  had  ordered  to  be  put  to  death. 
After  him  KaikobAd,  son  of  his  brother  FarAmarz,  entered 
Konieh  as  sultan  in  1298,  but  his  reign  is  so  obscure  that 
nothing  can  be  said  of  it;  some  authors  assert  that  ha 
governed  only  till  1300,  others  till  1315.  With  him  ended 
the  djTiasty  of  the  Seljiilf  s ;  but  the  Turkish  empire  founded 
by  them  continued  to  exist  under  the  rising  dynasty  of  the 
Ottomans.     (See  Tokkey.) 

Bibliop'aphij.—Tho  best,  thongh  insufficient,  account  of  the  Sel- 
juks is  BtUl  Do  Guiraos,  Uistoire  QintraU  des  Huns,  bks.  x.-xii.. 
from  wliom  Gibbon  borrowed  bis  dates.  Among  translations  from 
original  sources  (of  which  the  most  trustworthy  are  vet  uncdited\ 
comp.  Stirkhond's  GcschiclUe  dcr  SeUiMhidat  (ed.  Vullers),  Giossoii, 
1838;  Tarikh'iOuzidch,  French  translaiion  by  Defr^mory  lu  tho 
Journal  Asialiquc,  1848,  i.  417  sj.,  ii.  259  s?.,  334  sq.  ■  Sad 
Locmani.  ex  Libra  Turcica  qui  Oghuzname  inscnbtUir  £xcerpla(,c<t. 
J.  H.  W.  Lagiis),  Helsingfors,  1854  (on  the  Seljuks  of  Asia  Minor 
exclusively,  but  of  little  value).     Information  respecting  ccrt.iin 

•  "o  vpoU-known  works  of  \  on 


periods  is  given  incidentally  in  tbo 
Hammer  and  D'OLssua. 


CM.  T.  H.) 


638 


S  E  L  K  I  il  K 


SELKIRK,  a  lowmnd  county  of  Scotland,  of  tortuous 
outline,  is  bounded  by  Midlothian  on  tbe  N.,  by  Peebles  on 
the  N.  and  W.,  by  Dumfries  on  the  S.,  and  by  Roxburgh 
on  the  E.  Its  extreme  length  from  south-west  to  north- 
east is  28  miles,' its  greatest  breadth  from  east  to  west  17, 
and  its  total  area  260  square  miles  or  166,524  acres,  of 
which  1997  are  water.  This  includes  two  detached  portions, 
one  to  the  north-west,  surrounded  by  Peebles,  and  another 
on  the  east,  the  estate  and  barony  of  Sinton,  separated  from 
Roxburgh  in  the  reign  of  William  the  Lion  on  the  appoint- 
ment of  Andrew  de  Synton  to  the  sheriffship  of  Selkirk. 
From  its  lowest  altitude  (300  feet)  at  the  junction  of  the 
Gala  and  the  Tweed  the  surface  rises  to  2433  feet  at  Dmi 
Rig,  a  wild  and  desolate  summit  on  the  western  boundary. 
Level  haughs,  beds  of  ancient  lakes,  occur  in  the  courses 
of  the  rivers ;  but  the  county  is  otherwise  whoUy  mountain- 
ous and  only  a  small  proportion  of  it  arable.  Of  its  prin- 
cipal summits,  Ettrick  Pen  (2269),  Cape!  FeU  (2223), 
Deer  Law  (2064),  Herman  Law  (2014),  are  in  the  south, 
and  Windlestrae  Law  (2161)  in  the  north,  •  about  a  mile 
from  the  borders  of  Midlothian.  Broadly  speaking,  Selkirk 
may  be  said  to  consist  of  the  two  entire  valleys  of  Ettrick 
and  Yarrow  and  a  section  of  the  valley  of  Tweed,  the  first 
two  sloping  from  the  south  until  they  merge  in  the  last, 
which  forms  the  northern  portion  of  the  county.  Besides 
St  Mary^s  Loch  and  its  adjunct  the  Loch  of  the  Lowes, 
together  about  4i  miles  long,  there  are  several  others  of 
considerable  size,  "mostly  in  the  eastern  uplands  between 
Ettrick  and  Teviotdale — the  two  lochs  of  Shaws,  Clearbum 
Loch,  Kingside  Loch,  Hellmuir  Loch,  Alemuir  Loch,  and 
Akermuir  Loch.  These,  with  the  larger  rivers  and  the 
mountain  "burns,"  attract  anglers  to  Selkirk  from  all 
parts  of  the  kingdom. 

Geologically,  the  Selkirk  rocks  are  a  portion  of  that 
^eat  Silurian  mass  which  occupies  the  south  of  Scotland 
from  Wigtown  to  the  north-east  coast  of  Berwick.  At  no 
part  are  they  known  to  be  covered  by  rocks  of  later  forma- 
tion ;  but  here  and  there  (at  Windlestrae  Law  and  Priest- 
hope,  for  example)  igneous  rocks  protrude  in  massive  out- 
crops, almost  granitic,  one  measuring  over  100  feet  in 
thickness.  The  hillsides  yield  inexhaustible  supplies  of 
blue  -  grey  whinstone,  suitable  for  building;  but  repeated 
efforts  to  establish  slate-quarries  and  lead-mines  have  ended 
in  failure.  According  to  records  of  the  16th  centuiy,  gold 
•was  found  at  Mount  Benger,  Douglas  Craig,  and  Linglie 
Burn, — "an  ingenious  gentleman"  named  Bevis  Bulmer 
having  been  "  most  successful  upon  Henderland  Moor  in 
Ettrick  Forest,  where  he  got  the  greatest  gold — ^the  litu 
to  it  in  no  other  place  before  of  Scotland." 

Corresponding  with  the  high  average  altitude,  the  pre- 
vailing climate  is  cold  and  wet,  and,  as  the  soil  is  mostly 
thin,  over  a  close  subsoil  of  clayey  "  till,"  agriculture  is 
carried  on  at  a  disadvantage.  About  the  middle  of  the 
19th  century  large  areas  of  virgin  soil  were  brought  under 
tillage ;  but  the  prudence  of  the  "  improvement "  is  now 
greatly  doubted,  in  regard  to  a  large  proportion  at  least, 
— its  restoration  to  permanent  pasture  being  now  found 
almost  impracticable. 

la  1884  23,263  acres,  or  nearly  a  seventh  of  the  whole,  were  UBder 
cultivation  and  3228  under  wood.  The  rotation  of  crops  most 
commonly  followed  is  a  six-coui'se  shift  of  (1)  turnips,  (2)  barley 
or  oats,  (3),  (4),  (5)  grass  or  pasture,  and  (6)  oats.  Horses  in 
1884  numbered  B80,  cattle  2657,  sheep  165,061.  Tifl  about  a 
century  ago  the  upper  farms  of  the  county  were  stocked  exclusively 
with  sheep  of  the  blackfaced  breed,  and  in  high  heathery  tracts 
these  still  predominate.  But  as  altitude  diminishes  sheep  improve 
in  quality,  from  pure  Cheviot  to  half-bred  and  three-quarters-bred 
Leicester-Cheviot.  Upwards  of  60,000  acres,  more  than  a  third  of 
the  county,  belong  to  the  duke  of  Buccleuch,  whose  title  is  derived 
from  an  ancient  possession  of  his  family  in  the  vale  of  Rankleburn. 
Other  principal  landowners  are  Mr  Maxwell-SUiart  of  Traquair 
(9765  *cre3)and  Lord  Napier  and  Ettrick  (6988  acres). 

Momufacbures.—SiO  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  1 7th  century 


the  village  of  Galashiels  did  a  considerable  local  trade  in  wooUetf 
cloth,  then  or  shortly  afterwards  knowTi  as  "  Galashiels  grey,"  and 
towards  the  end  of  the  18th  century  this  industry  was  greatly 
stimulated  by  judicious  giants  from  "  the  equivalent "  paid  by 
England  at  the  Union.  Abont  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of  the 
19th  century  a  few  novelties  in  pattern  (mostly  accidental)  led  to 
the  opening  up  of  what  has  now  become  a  vast  industry — the  Tweed 
trade,  which  still  has  its  acknowledged  centre  in  Selkirk. 

Administration  and  Population.  —  Selkirkshire  with  Peeblesshire 
forms  one  parliamentary  constituency.  Of  entire  civil  parishes  it 
contains  only  two,  with  parts  of  nine  others  ;  there  are  also,  taken 
from  these,  three  quoad  sacra  parishes  and  part  of  a  fourth.  The 
population,  4937  in  1755  and  9809  in  1851,  was  in  1881  returned  at 
25,564, — an  increase  partly  due  to  the  annexation  of  a  portion  of 
Galashiels  formerly  reckoned  in  Roxburgh.  Outside  the  two  towns 
of  Galashiels  (population  9140  in  1881)  and  Selkirk  population  has 
been  almost  stationary  for  more  than  a  century,  that  of  the  landwai-d 
parishes  in  1755  and  1S81  being  respectively  as  foUox^s : — Ashkirk, 
200  and  138;  Innerleithen,  60  and  61 ;  Ettnck,  397  and  S97;  Stow, 
260  and  441  ;  Yarrow,  1180  and  611  ;  Foberton,  250  and  250. 

Antiquities  and  History. — The  shire  is  not  rich  in  antiquities, 
although  its  hillsides  here  and  there  reveal  earthen  enclosures 
known  as  "British  camps,"  as  well  as  tumuli  yielding  human 
remains  and  the  usual  fragments  of  rude  pottery.  A  mysterious 
ditch,  known  as  "the  Catrail,"  beginning  at  the  north  end  of  the 
county,  traverses  its  entire  extent  before  entering  Roxburgh  on 
its  way  to  the  English  border.  Besides  smaller  redoubts,  tllere 
is  on  its  line,  at  Rink  in  Galashiels  parish,  a  well-preserved  circular 
fort  of  formidable  strength  and  dimensions.  Near  Jlinchmoor  the 
Catrail  is  crossed  by  "AVallace's  trench,"  where,  according  to  an 
historical  document  recently  published,  the  Scottish  patriot  defied 
for  a  while  the  generals  of  Edward  I.  Close  by  is  the  hill-track 
by  which  Montrose  escaped  from  the  disastrous  field  of  Philiphaugh 
in  1645.  Newark  Castle,  built  by  James  IL,  still  stands  in  fair 
preservation,  notable  enough  historically,  but  more  familiar  as  the 
recital-hall  of  the  "last  minstrel's"  immortal  l.-iy.  The  county  is 
dotted  over  with  other  towers  of  smaller  size,  in  various  stages  of 
decay.  Around  them  cluster  those  traditions  which,  sung  in 
ballads  full  of  simple  force  and  tenderness,  have  made  Selkii-k 
the  poet's  chosen  haunt.  Yarrow,  "garlanded  with  rhyme,"  has, 
without  hyperbole,  been  termed  "  the  Tempe  of  the  West"  Selkirk 
was  long  known  officially  as  the  "shire  of  the  Forest,"  an  appellation 
its  famous  sheriff  Sir  Walter  Scott  loved  to  recall.  Except  the 
burgh  of  Selkirk,  its  lands,  and  a  large  tract  in  upper  Eth'ick  be- 
longing to  Melrose  Abbey,  the  county  remained  long  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  a  forest  court,  and  its  forest-steadings  were  held  by 
tack  from  the  crown  till  the  time  of  Queen  Mary.  It  was  a  favourite 
hunting-ground  of  Scottish  monarchs  and  formed  the  dowry-land 
of  at  least  two  foreign  piincesses  who  became  oueens  of  Scotland. 

See  T.  Craig-BroWD,  Hist.  o/SdlirtsAire. 

SELKIRK,  the  county  town  of  Selkirkshire,  is  on  th» 
river  Ettrick,  between  its  absorption  of  the  Yarrow  and 
its  junction  with  the  Tweed,  and  is  connected  by  a  brancb 
railway  with  the  Waverley  line  from  Scotland  to  Eng- 
land. Although  almost  entirely  a  manufacturing  town, 
having  several  large  mUls  for  woollen  cloth  and  yam,  il 
la  not  without  importance  as  the  centre  of  an  extensiv* 
pastoral  area.  The  county  offices  and  prison  excepted,  thm 
public  buildings  of  Selkirk  are  not  striking.  The  popula- 
tion of  the  burgh  was  1053  in  1735,  1800  in  1831,  and 
6090  in  1881. 

From  the  charter  by  which  David  I.,  while  prince  of  North- 
umbria,  established  in  Selkirk  the  Benedictine  abbey  afterwards 
removed  to  Kelso,  it  appears  that  even  at  that  remote  period  (1119- 
24)  it  was  an  old  town  and  the  prince's  residence.  David's  castle 
continued  to  be  a  frequent  resort  of  his  successors  on  the  throne, 
particularly  of  William  the  Lion,  many  of  whose  charters  were 
signed  "  in  plena  curia  apud  Scelchircham."  Enlarged  and  strength- 
ened by  Edward  I.,  the  fortress  was  captured  by  the  patriotic  party 
soon  after  Wallace's  return  from  France.  Nothing  now  remains  of 
it  but  green  mounds  and  the  name  "Peel  Hill."  It  is  significant 
of  the  destruction  wrought  by  repeated  conquests  and  reconquests 
that  Selkii-k,  notwithstanding  its  antiquity  and  early,  impoTtance, 
boasts  not  one  building  a  century  and  a  half  old.  As  its  early 
name  (Scheleschyi-che)  implies,  it  was  originally  a  collection  of 
forest  "  shiels  "  beside  which  an  early  church  was  planted,  probably 
by  the  Culdees  of  Old  Melrose.  Clear  light  is  thrown  upon  the 
manners  and  customs  of  old  border  towns  by  the  ancient  records  of 
this  burgh,  stOl  extant  (with  gaps)  from  1503.  A  minute  of  1513 
mentions  the  steps  taken  to  comply  with  the  king's  letter  ordering 
the  levy  before  Flodden,  where,  according  to  tradition,  the  burgesses 
of  Selkirk  fought  with  stubborn  valour.  James  V.  granted  the 
community  right  to  enclose  1000  acres  from  the  common  and  gave 
them  leave  to  elect  a  provost,  the  first  to  fill  that  office  being  slain 


S  E  L  — S  E  M 


639 


in  defence  of  the  bui-gli  lands.  From  an  early  period  slioerankers 
were  i  numerous  craft  In  Selkirk,  and  in  1715  and  17J5  they  were 
foroed  to  furnish  several  thousand  pairs  of  shoes  to  the  Jacobite 
armies.    "  Souters  of  Selkirk  "  is  stUl  a  synonym  for  the  inhabitants. 

SFXKIRIC,  or  Selcr.ug,  Alexandek  (167G-1723),  a 
sailor  who  Ls  supposed  to  have  been  the  prototype  of  Defoe's 
"  Robinson  Crusoe,"  was  the  son  of  a  shoemaker  and  tanner 
in  Largo,  Fifeshire,  and  was  born  in  1676.  In  his  youth  he 
displayed  a  quarrelsome  and  unruly  dispositioii,  and,  hav- 
ing been  summoned  on  27th  August  1695  before  the  kirk- 
sesaion  for  his  indecent  behaviour  in  church,"  "did  not  com- 
pear, being  gone  away  to  the  seas."  At  an  early  period 
he  was  engaged  in  buccaneer  expeditions  to  the  South 
Seas,  and  in  1703  joined  the  "Cinque  Ports"  galley  as 
sailing  master.  The  following  year  he  had  a  dispute  with 
the  captain,  and  at  his  own  request  was  in  October  put 
ashore  on  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez,  where,  after  a 
solitary  residence  of  four  years  and  four  months,  he  was 
taken  oflf  by  Captain  Woods  Rogers,  commander  of  a 
privateer,  who  made  him  his  mate  and  afterwards  gave 
liim  the  independent  command  of  t>ne  of  his  prizes.  He 
returned  home  in  1712;  but  in  1717  he  eloped  with  a 
country  girl  and  again  went  to  sea.  He  died  in  1723 
while  lieutenant  on  board  the  royal  ship  "  Weymouth." 

See  Howell,  Life  mid  Adventures  of  Alexander  Selkirk,  1829: 

SEIjJL\,  a  city  of.  the  United  States,  in  Dallas  county, 
Alabama,  at  the  head  of  steamboat  navigation  of  the 
Alabama  river,  occupies  a  plateau  on  the  bluff  of  the  right 
bank,  95  miles  below  Montgomery.  It  has  cotton  ware- 
houses, railroad  machine-shops,  and  various  factories. 
The  population  was  6'i84  (3660  coloured)  in  1870  and 
7529  (4-184  coloured)  in  1880.  Selma,  which  was  strongly 
fortified  during  the  Civil  War  and  the  seat  of  a  Con- 
federate arsenal  (where  1800  men  were  employed),  was 
captured  by  the  Federal  major-general  J.  H.  Wilson  on 
3d  April  1865. 

SEMIPALATINSK,  an  extensive  prftvince  {ohlast)  pi 
the  Russian  dominions  in  Central  Asia ;  administratively- 
it  forms  a  part  of  the  general-governorship  of  the  Steppes, 
although  its  northern  portions  really  belong  to  the  Irtish 
plains  of  West  Siberia.  It  has  an -area  of  188,300 'square 
miles,  and  is-  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Tobolsk  and  Tomsk, 
on  the  S.E.  by  China,  on  the  S.  by  Scmiryetchensk,  and 
on  the-  W.  by  Akmolinsk.  As  regards  configuration,  it 
differs  widely  in  its  northern  and  southern  parts.  The 
snowclad  ridges  (9000  to  10,000  feet)  of  the  great  Altai 
and  Narym  enter  its  south-eastern  portion,  stretching 
southwards  to  Lake  Zaisap.  Another  complex  of  moun- 
tains, Kandygatai  and  Kalbinsk,  rising  to  5000  and  6000 
feet  above  the  sea,  continues  them  towards  the  west ;  a  broad 
valley  intervenes,  through  which  the  Irtish  finds  its  way 
from  the  Zaisan  terrace  to  the  lowlands  of  Siberia.  Many 
extensions  of  these  mountains-  and  subordinate  ridges 
stretch  towards  the  north.  The  still  lower  but  wild 
Jinghiz-tap  mountains  fill  the  south-western  part  of 
Semipalatinsk,  sending  out  their  rocky  spurs  jnto  the 
steppe  region.  In  the  south,  the  Tarbagatai  (Marmots') 
range  (9000  to  10,000  feet)  separates  Semipalatinsk  from 
Semiryetchensk  and  the  Chinese  province  of  Jugutchak. 
Wide  stoppcs  fill  up  the  spaces  between  the  mountains: 
such  are  the  Zaisan  steppe  (1200  to  1500  feet),  between 
the  .Tarbagatai  and  the  Altai  ranges ;  the  plains  of  Lake 
Balkash,  some  300  feet  lower,  to  the  south  of  the  Jinghiz- 
tau;  and  the  plains  of  the  Irtish,  which  hardly  rise  600 
feet  above  the  sea.  All  kinds  of  crystalline  rocks — gran- 
ites, syenites,  diorites,  and  porphyries,  as  also  crystalline 
slates  of  all  descriptions — are  met  with  in  the  mountain 
tracts,  which  contain  also  rich  gold-bearing  sands,  silver 
and  lead  mines,  graphite,  coal,  and  the  leas  valuable  pre- 
cious stones.     The  geology  of  the  region  and  even  its 


topography  are  still  but  imperfectly  known.  Nameroua 
boulder*  widely  scattered  around  the  mountains  testify 
to  a  much  wider  extension  of  glaciers  in  former  times.  The 
chief  river  of  the  province,  the  Irtish,  which  issues  from 
Lake  Zaisan,  flows  north  and  north-west  and  waters  Semi- 
palatinsk for  more  than  7G0  miles.  Between  Bukhtarraa 
and  Ust-Kamenogorsk  it  crosses  the  Altai  by  a  wild  gorge, 
with  dangerous  rapids,  through  wjiich,  however,  boats  arc 
floated.  Lake  Zaisan,  80  miles  long  and  from  10  to  20  wide, 
has  depth  sufficient  for  steamboat  navigation;  stearjers  tra- 
verse also  for  some  100  miles  the  lower  course  of  the  Black 
Irtish,  which  flows  from  Kuldja  to  Lake  Zaisan.  The 
Kurtchum,  the  Narym,  arid  the  Bukhtarma  are  the  chief 
right-hand  tributaries  of  the  Irtish,  while  the  Bukofi,  the 
Kizil'su,  and  many  smaller  ones  join  it  from  the  left; 
none  are  navigable,  neither  are  the  Kokbekty  and  Bugaz, 
which  enter  Lake  Zaisan  on  the  west.  Lake  Balkash, 
which  borders  Semipalatinsk  in  the  south-west,  formerly 
received  several  tributaries  from  the  Jinghiz-tau.  ilany 
smaller  lakes  (some  of  them  merely  temporary)  occur  on 
the  Irtish  plain,  and  yield  salt.  The  whole  of  the  country 
is  rapidly  drying  up.  The  climate  is  severe.  The  average 
yearly  temperature  reaches  43°  in  the  south  and  34°  in  the 
north ;  the  winter  is  very  cold,  and  frosts'  of  -  44°  Fahr. 
are  not  uncommon,  while  heats  raising  the  thermometer 
to  122°  in  the  shade  are  experienced  in  the  summer.  The 
yearly  amoimt  of  rain  and  snow  is  trifling,  although  snow- 
storms are  very  common  ;  strong  winds  prevail.  Forests 
are  plentiful  in  the  hilly  districts  and  on  the  Irtish  plain, 
the  flora  being  Siberian  in  the  north  and  more  Central 
Asiatic  towards  Lakes  Balkash  and  Zaisan. 

The  chief  inhabitants  are  Ivirghiz-kazaks,  who  acknowledged  the 
supremacy  of  Russia  in  1732  and  may  number  now  (1386)  nearly 
half  a  million  (479,750  in  1876,  of  whom  10,950  were 'settled  in 
towns).  The  Russian  population,  which  in  the  same  year  amounted 
to  nearly  50,000  Cossacks  and  peasants,  has  slowly  increased  since. 
The  aggregate  population  was  in  1882  estimated  at  538,400,  of 
whom"34,550  lived  in  towns.  The  Russians  are  chiefly  agricul- 
turists, and  have  wealthy  settlements  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Irtisli,  as  well  as  a  few  patches  in  the  south,  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains.  The  Kirghizes  are  almost  exclusively  cattle-breeders 
and  keep*  largo  flocks  of  sheep,  horses,  and  horned  cattle,  aa  also 
camels.  Hunting  and  fishing  (in  Lake  Zaisan)  are  favourite  and 
profitable  occupations  with  the  Cossacks  and  the  Kirghizes.  In- 
dustries are  of  course  iusigtiificant,  except  that  of  mining, — gold 
being  obtained  vdthin-the  province  to  the  amount  of  from  300  to  400 
lb  every  year ;  the  extraction  of  silver  and  lead  is  very  Ihnited. 
Trade  is  of  some  importance,  and  is  inoreasing, — Russian  manu- 
factured articles  being  exchanged  for  the  raw  produce  (hides,  tallow, 
cattle)  of  the  region.  The  province  is  divided  into  four  districts, 
the  chief  to\vns  of  which  are  Semipalatinsk  (17,820  inhabitants 
in  1S81),  Pavlodar  (2260),  Kokbekty  (8680),  and  Karkaralinsk 
(2030).  All  these  towns,  lost  amidst  the  sandy  steppes,  are  merb 
administrative  centres.  Bukhtarma, and  Ust-Kamenogorsk  (3400), 
among  the  mountains,  are  also  worthy  of  mention. 

SEMIPALATINSK,.  capital  of  the  above  province,  is 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Irtish,  on  the  highway 
from  Central  Asia  to  northern  Europe.  At  the  end  of 
the  18th  century  it  began  to  be  a  centre  for  trade,  reach- 
ing its  greatest  development  in  1860-60. .  Kazan  and 
Turkestan  Tatars  formed  the  bulk  of  its  population.  The 
town  still  remains,  however,  a  collection  of  old  wooden 
houses  scattered  among  unfenced  spaces  of  sand.  •  'The 
Tatar  town  has  a  somewhat  better  aspect  than  the  Russian. 
The  inhabitants  (17,820  in  1881)  consist  of  officials,  mgr* 
chants,  and  agriculturists. 

SEMIRAMIS.  According  to  the  legend  which  tho 
Greeks  received  from  Ctesias,  and  which  is  most  fully  prfv 
served  by  Diodorus  (book  ii.)  in  a  form  that,  according  to 
the  researches  of  C.  Jacoby  {Rhcin.  Museum,  1875,  p.  555 
sg.),  is  not  talcen  direct  from  Cte.sias  but  coracs  through 
Clitarchus,  and  has  been  modified  by  traits  borrowed  fi-oin 
the  history  of  Alexander  thp  Great,  the  Assyrian  empire 
over  all  Asia  as  far  as  the  borders  of  India  was  created  hj 


640 


iJinus,  the  founder  of  Nineveh,  and  his  "greater  spouse 
Semiramis,  who  ivas  first  the  wife  of  his  'captain,  Onnes 
but  won  the  king's  love  by  an  heroic  exploit,  the'  capture 
of  Bactra,  which  had  defied  the  royal  forces.     Ninus  died 
and  Semiramis,  succeeding  to  his  power,  traversed  all  parts 
of  the  empire,  erecting  great  cities  (sspecially  Babylon)  and 
stupendous  monuments  or  opening  roads  through  savage 
mountains.     She  wa,s  unsuccessful  only  in  an  attack  on 
India.     At  length,  after  a  reign  of  forty-two  years,  she 
dehveredup  the  kingdom  to  her  son  Ninyas  and  dis- 
appeared, or,  accOT-ding  to  what  seems  to  be  the  original 
form  of  the  story,  was  turned  into  a  dove  and  was  thence- 
forth worshipped  as  a  deity.     This  legend  is  certainly  not 
Assyrian  or  Babylonian ;  Ctesias  must  have  had  it  from 
Persians  or  Medes,  and  the  fulness  of  detail,  the  multi- 
tude of  proper  names,  favour  the  conjecture  that  Ninus 
and  Semii-amis  were  celebrated  in  some  Median  epic  tale 
which  went  on  to  teU  of  the  faU  of  Assyria  before  the 
Mede^  (Duncker,  Gesch.  d.  AH.,  5th  ed.,  ii.  IS  si.).    In  this 
legend  all  the  conquests  of  Assyria  were  crowded  together 
mto  one  lifetime,  and  King  Ninus-and  his  son  Ninyas  are 
mereeponyms  of  Nineveh,  personifications  of  the  Assyrian 
monarchy.     But  it  is  round  the  figure  of  Semiramis  that 
all  the  real  interest  of  the  legend  gathers;  nor  can  she  be 
the  arbitrary  creation  of  a  poet,  for  it  is  certain  that-her 
name  was  popularly  connected  with  many  famous  places 
and  monuments.     «  The  works  of  Semiramis,"  says  Strabo 
(xvi.  1,  2),  "are  pointed  out  through  aknost  the  whole 
continent,  earthworks  bearing  her  name,  waUs  and  strong- 
holds,  aqueducts,  and   stair-like  roads  over,  mountains, 
canals,  roads,  and  bridges."    Ultimately  every  stupeUdous 
work  of  antiquity  by  the  Euphrates  or  in  Iran  seems  to 
bave  been  ascribed  to  her,— even  the  Behistun  inscriptions 
of  Darius  (Died.,  ii.  13).     Of  this  we  already  have  evi- 
dence in  Herodotus,  who,  though  he  does  not  know  the 
legend  afterwards  told  by  Ctesias,  ascribes  to  her  the 
banks  that  confined  the  Euphrates  (i.  184)  and  knows  her 
name  as  borne  by  a  gate  of  Babylon  (iii.  155).     Various 
places  m  Media  bore  the  name  of  Semiramis,  but  slightly 
changed,  even  in  the  Middle  Ages  (Hofiinann,  'Synsche 
Aktm,Y>.  13/),  and  the  old  name  of  Van  was  Shamirama- 
gerd,  Armenian  tradition  regarding  her  as  its  founder  (St 
Martm,  Mem.  sur  rArmenk,  i.  138).    These  facts  are  to  be 
explained  by  observing  that  in  her  birth  as  well  as  in  her 
disappearance  from  earth  Semiramis  clearly  appears  not 
as  a  mere  woman  but  as  a  great  goddess.     In  Diodorus's 
accovmt  she  is  the  daughter  of  the  Derceto  of  Ascalon 
and  miraculously  brought  up  by  doves,  and  again  she  is 
finaUy  transformed  into  a  dove,  and  therefore  the  Assyrians 
pay  divine  honours  to  this  bird.     Semiramis,  therefore,  is 
a  dove-goddess  associated  with  Derceto  the  fish-goddess. 
The  same  association  of  the  fish  and  dove  goddesses  appears 
at  Hierapolis  (Bambyce,  Mabbug),  the  great  temple  at 
v/hich  accordbg  to  one  legend  was  founded  by  Semi- 
ramis {De  Dea  Syria,  14),  and  where  her  statue  was  shown 
with  a  golden  dove  on  her  head  {ibid.,  33,  comp.  39).i 
But  the  Semitic  dove-goddess  is  Ishtar  or  Astarte,  the 
great  goddess  of  Assyria  and  Babylon,  and  the  irresistible 
charms  of  Semiramis,  her  sexual  excesses  (see  especially 
Dinon  ID  ^Uan,  V.H.,  vii.  1),  and  other  features  of  the 
legend  all  bear  out  the.view  that  she  is  primarily  a  form 
of  Astarte,  and  so  fittingly  conceived  as  the  great  queen  of 
Assyria.     The  word  Semiramis  in  Semitic  form,  as  the 
byriang  write  it,  is  Shemlram  (Hoffmann,  ut  supra),  an 
epithet  rather  than  a  proper  name,  which  may  be  rendered 
the  highly  .celebrated,"  or  perhaps  rather  "name  [mani- 
.estation]  of  [the  god]  Ram."2-    The  historical  inference 


IS  E  M  — S  E  M 


'  It  is  noteworthy  iu  this  connexion  that  Mabbug  is  the  Ninus  vetus 
>r  Ammmiius  and  Philostratus. 
=  Cp.  the  Phcenician  "Astarte  5MDt4'"  fjC.7.a,  i  1,  No.  3,  1. 18). 


from  all  this  is  that  Semitic  worship  was  carried  by  Die 
Assyrians  far  into  Media  and  Armenia. 

Ou  an  Assyrian  inscription  the  name  Sammnramat  appears  as 
borne  by  he  " lady  of  the  palace  "  of  Ranimannivar (812-783  b  a?- 

Tf^^'f^<-^-^U^-'  ^^  f'^-.P-  ^^^-  ^-  Meyer(ffA  dcsAUnii:. 
p.  409)  combines  this  with  the  statement  of  Herodotus  that  Senvi- 
j''?'^,!'^^  "''^  generations  before  Nitocris,  which  would  make  ler 
elate  766  B.C.  Possibly  Herodotus  identified  the  two  names  but  it 
IS  very  doubtful  whether  they  are  really  cpunected.  Shemiramo  th 
(1  Lhron.  XV.  18)  perhaps  means  "  statues  of  Semiramis."  and  if 
so,  was  originally  a  place-name  (Ewald,  a.l.).  ' 

,    SEMIRYETCHENSK,  a  province  of  Russian  Turkest*  u 
including  the  steppes  south  of  Lake  Balkash  and  pavts. 
of  the  Tian-Shau  Mountains  around  Lake  Issik-kul.     It 
has  an  area  of  155,300  square  miles  and  is  bounded  by 
Semipalatinsk  on  the  N.,  by  China  (Jugutchak,  Kuldja, 
Aksu,  and  Kashgaria)  on  the  E.  and  S.,  and  by  the  Russian 
provmces  of  Ferganah,  Syr-Dpria,  and  Akmolinsk  on  the 
W.     It^  owes  its  name  {Jity-sv,  Semi-ryetckie,  i.e.,  "  Seven 
Rivers  ")  to  the  rivers  which  flow  from  the  south-east  into 
Lake  Balkash.     The  Jungarian  Ala-tau,  which  separates  it 
from  north-western  Kuldja,  penetrates  into  its  central  por- 
tions, extending  south-west  towards  the  river  Hi,  with  an 
average  height  of  6000  feet  above  the  sea,  several  isolated 
snow-clad  peaks  reaching  about  12,000  feet.     In  the  south 
Semiryetchensk  embraces  the  intricate  systems  of  the  Trans- 
Hi  Ala-tau  and  the  Tian-Shan  (see  Tuekestan).     TWo 
ranges  of  the  former,  connected  about  their  middle  by  a 
single  mountain-mass,  extend  east-north-eastwards  along 
the  northern  shore  of  Lake  Issik-kul,  both  ranging  from 
10,000  to  about  15,000  feet  and  both  partially  snow-ckd. 
To  the  south  of  the  lake  two  immense  ranges  of  the  Tia-a- 
Shan,  separated  by  the  valley  of  the  Naryn,  stretch  in  the 
same  direction,  raising  their  icy  peaks  to  above  15,000  and 
16,000  feet ;  while  westwards  from  the  lake  the  vast  walls 
of  the  Alexandirovskiy  ridge,  9000  to  10,000  feet  hiah, 
with  peaks  rising  some  2000' feet  higher,  extend  to  the 
province  of  Syr-Daria.    Another  mountain  complex  of  much 
lower  elevation  runs  north-westwards  from  the  Trans-Hian 
Ala-tau  towards  the  southern  extremity  of  Lake  Balkash. 
Inthe  north,  where  the- province  borders  Semipalatins':, 
it  includes  the  western  parts  of  the  Tarbagatai  range,  tlie 
summits  of  which  (10,000  feet)  do  not.  reach  the  limit  of 
perpetual  snow.     The  remainder  of  the  province  consists 
of  a  rich  steppe  iu  the  north-east  (Serghiopol),  and  vast 
uninhabitable  sand-steppes  on  the  south-east  of  Lake  Bal- 
kash..   Southwards  from  the  last-named,  however,  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountains  and  at  the  entrance  to  the  valle}s, 
there  are  rich  areas  of  fertile  land,  which  are  rapidly  being 
colonized  by  Russian  immigrants,- who  have  also  spread  into 
the  Tian-Shan,  to  the  east  of  Lake  Issik-kul.    Tie  climate  is 
relatively  temperate  (average  yearly  temperature  44°  Fahr. 
at  Vyernyi,  2500  feet  above  the  sea)  and  the  vegetation  rich. 
The  chief  river  is  the  Hi,  which  enters  the  province  from  Kuldja, 
makes  its  way  through  the  spurs  of  the  Trans-Hian  Ala-tan,  flows 
north-west  in  a  bed  varying  from  200  to  1000  yards  in  width,  and 
waters  the  province  for  250  miles  before  it  enters  Lake  Balkash 
by  several  mouths  forming  a  wide  delta.     Its  tributaries  from  the 
left  are  the  Naryn,  the  Tchilik,  and  the  Kurtu ;  several  others 
become  lost  in  the  sands.     The  Karatal,  the  Aksu,  and  the  Lepsa 
likewise  fall  into  Lake  Balkash.     The  Tchu  irises  in  the  Tian-Shan 
Mountains  and  flows  north-westwards  to  Lake  Saumal-kuJ ;  and 
the  Naryn  flows  south-westwards  along  a  longitudinal  valley  of  the 
Tian-Shan,  and  enters  Ferganah  to  join  the  Syr-Daria. .  The  province 
contains  several  important  lakes.     Lake  Balkash,  or  Denghiz,  in 
the  north  (8880  square  miles),  is  crescent-shaped,  400  miles  long 
and  55  wide  in  its  broader  part ;  but  its  area  is  much  less  than  it  for- 
merly was,  and  it  is  rapidly  drying  up,— notably  since  1853.     Lake 
Ala-knl,  which  was  connected  with  Balkash  in  the  Post-Pliocene 
period,  now  stands  some  hundred  feet  higher,  and  is  connected  by 
a  chain  of  smaller  lakes  with  Sisik-kul.      Lake  Issik-kul  (2260 
square  miles)  is  a?  deep  mountain  lake,  120  miles  long  and  37  wid«, 
5300  feet  above  the  sea,  '  The  alpine  lakes  Son-kul  (9400  feet)  and 
Tchatyi--kul  (11,100)  lie  south-west  of  Issik-kul. 

The  population,  which  was  estimated  at  748,800  by  M.  Kostenko 
iu  1880  (139,660  being  in  the  Kuldja  region),  has  since  increased. 


S  E  M  —  S  E  Ikl 


641 


fee  latest  official  figures  (1882)  giving  685,950  for  tlio  proviuee7 
exclusive  of  tlieKiiUja  region.  Of  these  Russians  numbered,  an- 
e<niing  to  Kostenko,  44,585,  20.640  being  Cossacks,  who  are  very 
poor  as  commrecl  with' tlio  free  Knssian  en\igrant3.v"  .The  majority 
of  the  population  are  Kiighiz  (595.-.!37)  :  nest  come  Tarantdiis 
(36,26'5),  Kalmucks  (about  25,000),  ilongols  anil  JIanrliurians 
(22,000),  and  Dungans  (19,657),  these  last  two  mostly  in-  KnMja  ; 
while  .Tatars  and  Sarts  are  each  represented  by  somo  '3000  or 
3500  (all  the  foregoing-  figures  include  those  for  Kuldj.a).t  The 


■proviin-e  U  suWividcd  into  fire  distrirt."! ;  Vyernyi  (18,423  inhabit- 
ants in  IS/P,  of  whom  Sfi.Sfi  were  niilit:in),  the  chief  tnvra  of  the 
province,  fornlerly  Almaty,  is  sitiiali-d  nt  ihi>  foot  of  the  Trans-Uian 
Ala-tan',  and  lias  a  mixed  iinpnhition  of  Russians,  Tatars,' Sart.'s, 
Kirghiz,  Kalninrk.<;.  and  .Ic«s;  its  trade  with  Kulilja  and  K.ishgnr 
is  increasing  rapidly,  and  it  has  now  two  Ijccnms,  for  Iwys  and 
girls,  and  severnl  other  Behonls.  Tlio  other  towns^Kopaf  (5450 
inhabitants),  Serghioi>ol(1045),  Tokmak  (1770);  anil  Karakol  (2780) 
— art  merely  administiativu  centres.  • 


SEMITIC     LANGUAGES 


THE  name  "  Semitic  languages  "  i.s  used  to  designate  a 
group-  of  Asiatic  and  African  languages,  some  living 
and  some  dead,  namely,  Hebrew  and  Plioenician,  Aramaic, 
As.'syrian,  Arabic,  Ethiopic  (Geez  and  Araliaric).  .The  name, 
ivbich  was  introduced,  by  Eicliliorn,!  is  derived  from  the 
fact  that  most  nations  wliich  speak  or  sjioke'  these  lan- 
guages are  descended,  according  to  Geuesi.s,  from  Shem, 
son  of  Noah.  But  the  classification  of  nations  in  Gene.'^is 
X  is  founded  neither  upon  linguistic  nor  upon  ethno- 
graphical principles:  it  is  determined  rather  hy  geograph- 
ical and  political  considerations.  For  this  reason.  Elam 
Mid  Lud  are  also  included  among  the  children  of  Shem ; 
but  neither  "the  Elamites  (in  Snsiaua)  nor  the  Lydians 
appear  to  have  spoken  a  language  connected  -n'ith  Hebrevr. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Phoenicians  (Canaanites),  who.se 
dialect  closely  resembled  that  of  Israel,  are  not  counted  as 
children  of  Shem.  Moreover,  the  compiler  of  the  list  in 
Genesis  x.  had  no  clear  conceptions  about  the  peoples  of 
south  Arabia  and  Ethiopia.  Nevertheless  it.  would  be 
undesirable  to  give  up  the  universally  received  te'rms 
"Semites"  and  "Semitic."  There  exist  large  groups  of 
languages 'and  peoples  which  bear  no  natural  eo.Uective 
appellations,  because  the  peoples  grew  up  unconscious  of 
their  .mutual  relationship ;  so  science  must  needs  give 
them  artificial  designations,  and  it  would  be  well  if  aU 
such  terms  were  as  .short  and  precise  as  "Semitic." 

The  connexion  of  the  Semitic  languages  with  one 
another  is  somewhat  close,  in  any  case  closer  than  that  of 
the  Indo-European  languages.  The  more  ancient  Semitic 
tongues  differ  from  one  another  scarcely  more  than  do'  the 
various  Teutonic  dialects.  Hence  even  in  the  17th  century 
such  learned  Orientalists  as  Hottinger,  Bochart,  Castcll, 
and  Ludolf  had  a  tolerably  clear  notion  of  the  relationship 
between  the  different  Semitic  languages  with  which  they 
were'  acquainted ; '  indeed  the  same  may  be  said  of  some 
Jewish  scholars  who  lived  many  centuries  earlier,  as,  for 
instance,  Johuda  ben  Koraish.  It  is  not  difficult  to  point 
out  a  series  of  characteristic  marks  common  to  these  lan- 
guages,— the  predominance  of  triconsouautal  roots,  or  of 
roots' formed  after  the  analogy  of  such,  similarity  in  the 
formation  of  nominal  and  verbal  stems,  a  great  resemblance 
in  the  forms  of  the  personal  pronouns  and  in  their  use  for 
the  purpose  of  verbal  inflexion,  the  two  principal  tenses, 
the  importance  attached  to  the  change  of  vowels  in  the 
interior  of  words,  and  lastly  considerable  agreement  with 
regard  to  order  and  the  construction  of  sentences.  Yet 
even  so  ancient  a  Semitic  language  as  the  Assyrian  ap- 
pears to  lack  some  of  these  features,  and  in  certain  modern 
dialects,  sUch  as  New  Syriac,  Mahri,  and  more  particularly 
Amharic,  many  of  the  characteristics  of  older  Semitic 
speech  have  di-sappeared.  But  the  resemblance  in  voca- 
bulary generally  diminishes  in  proportion  to  the  modern- 
jiess  of  the  dialects.  Still  we  can  trace  the  connexioin 
between  the  modern-  and  the  ancient  dialects,  and  show, 
at  least  approximafely,  bow  the  former  were  developed 
out  of  the  latter.  Where  a  development  of  this  kind  can 
bo  proved  to  have  taken  place,  there  a  relationship  must 


'  Emlcilung  in  dasA.T..  Sd  ed.,  i.  45  (Leipsic,  1787). 


exist,  hi)wever  much  the  individual  features  may  liavfi 
been  effaced.  The  qti'estion  here  is  not  of  logical  categories 
but  of  organic  groups. 

All  these  languages  are  oescendants  of  a  primitive 
Semitic  stock  which  has  long  been  extinct.  '^Many  of  its 
most  important  features  may  be-  reconstructed  ivith  -at 
least  tolerable  certainty,  but  we  must  beware  of  attempt- 
ing too  much  in  this  respect.  When  the  various-cognato 
languages  of  a  group  diverge  in  essential  points,  it  is 
by  no  means  always  possible  to  determine  which  of  them 
has  retained  the  move  pvimitit-e  form.  The  history  of  the 
development  .of  these  tongues  during  the  period  anterior 
to"  the  documents  which  ■we  possess  ■  is  often  exti'eniely 
obscure  in  its  details.  Even  -when  several  Semitic  lan- 
guages agree  in  impol'tant  points  of  grammar  we  cannot 
always  be  sure  that  in  these  particulars  we  have  what  is 
primitive,  since  in  many  cases  analogous  changes  have 
taken  place  independentlj'.  To  one  who  should  assert  the 
complete  reconstruction  of  the  primitive  Semitic. language 
to  be  possible,  we  might  put  the  question.  Would  the  man 
who  is  best  acquainted  with  all  the  Eomance  languages 
be  in  a  position  to  reconstruct  their  common  mother, 
Latin,  if  the.  knowledge  of  it  were  lost?- '  And  yet  there 
are  but  few  Semitic  languages  which  we  can  know  as 
accurately  as  the  Eomance  languages  are  known.  As  far 
fis  the  vocabulary  is  concerned,  we  may  indeed  maintain 
with  certainty  that  a  considerable  number  of  ■words  which 
have  in  various  Semitic  languages  the  form  proper  to  each 
■were  a  part  of  primitive  Semitic  .sjieech.  Nevertheless 
even  then  we  are  apt  to  be  misled  by  independent  but 
analogous  formativ^ns  and  'by  words  borrowed  at  a  very 
remote  period.-  Each  Semitic  language  or  group  of  lan- 
guages bas,  however,  many  words  which  we  cannot  point 
out  in  the  others.  Of  such  words  a  great  number  no 
doubt  belonged  to  primitive  Semitic  .speech,  and  either 
disappeared  in  some  of  these  languages  or  else  remained 
in  use,  but  not  .so  as  to  be  recognizable  by  us.  Yet  many 
isolated  words  and  roots  may  in  very  early  times  have 
been  borrowed' by  the  Hebrew,  the  A-ramaic,  the  Ei'hiopic, 
&c.,  perhaps  from  wholly  different  languages,  of  which -no 
trace  is  left. 

The  question  which  of  the  known  Semitic  diajects  most 
resembles  the  primitive  Semitic  language  is  k.ss  important 
than  one  might  at  first  supjiose,  since  the  .question  is 
one  not  of  absolute  but  only  of  relative  priority.  After 
scholars  had  given  up  the  notion  (which,  however,  wa£ 
■not  the  fruit  of  scientific  research)  that  all  Semitic  lan- 
guages, and  indeed  all  the  language's  in  the  world,  were  de- 
scendants of  Hebrew  or  of  Aramaic,  it  was  long  the  fashion 
to  maintain  that  Arabic  bore  a  close  resemblance  to  the 
l)rimitivo  Semitic  language;'  ^  But,  just  as  it  is  now  recog- 
nized' with  ever-increasing  clearness  that  Sanskrit  is  far 
from  having  retained  in  such  a  degree  as  was  even  lately 
supposed  the  characteristics  of  primitive  Indo-Euvdpean 

-  Tlie  more  aUko  two  languages  are  tlie  more.diflicidt'il  usually  is 
to  detect,  'as  borrowed  elements,  those  words  which-  have  passed  from 
one  hinCj'uage  into  the  other. 

'  Thi.H  tlieory  is  carried  to  its  cxtrcn'.o  limit  In  Olshauseu's  very 
viluablo  Ilcbrcw  Grutnmar  (Brunswick.  1861). 

•  XXI.  —  Si 


«42 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


speech,  so  in  tlie  domain  of  the  Semitic  tongues  ue  can 
assign  to  Arabic  only  a  relative  antiquity.     It  is  true  that 
in  Arabic  very  many  features  are  preserved  more  faithfully 
,than  in  the'  cognate  languages, — for  instance,  nearly  all 
the  original  abundance  of  consonants,  the  short  vowels  in 
open  syllables,  particularly  in  the  interior  of  words,  and 
manj'  grammatical  distinctions  which  in  the  other  lan- 
guages are  more  or  less  obscured.  .  But,  ou  the  other  hand, 
Arabic  has  coined,  simply  from  analogy,  a  great  number 
of  forms  which,  owing  to  their  extreme  simplicity,  seem 
at  the  first  glance  to  be  primitive,  but  which  nevertheless 
are  only  modifications  of  the  primitive  forms ;  whilst  per- 
haps the  other  Semitic  languages  exhibit  modifications  of 
a  different  kind.     In  spite  of  its  great  wealth,  Arabic  is 
characterized  by  a  certain  monotony,  which  can  scarcely 
have  existed  from   the  beginning.      Both   Hebrew  and 
Aramaic  are  in  many  respects  more  ancient  than  Arabic. 
This  would  no  doubt  be  far  more  apparent  if  we  knew 
Hebrew  more  completely  and  according  to  the  original 
pronunciation  of  its  vowels,  and  if  we  could  discover  how 
Aramaic  was  pronounced  about  the  13th  century  before 
our  era.     It  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  we  are 
far  more  fully  and  accurately  acquainted  with  Arabic  than 
■with  the  other  Semitic  languages  of  antiquity.     The  opin- 
ion sometimes  maintained  by  certain  over-zealous  Assyrio- 
logists,   that  AssjTian  is  the   "Sanskrit  of  the  Semitic 
world,"  has  not  met  with  the  approval  even  of  the  Ass3Tio- 
logists  themselves,  and  is  unworthy  of  a  serious  refutation. 
A  comparative  grammar  of  the  Semitic  languages  must 
of  coiu-se  be  based  upon  Arabic,  but  must  in  every  matter 
of  detail  take  into  consideration  all  the  cognate  languages, 
as  far  as  they  are  known  to  us.     In  the  reconstruction  of 
the  primitive  Semitic  tongue  Hebrew  might  perhaps  afford 
more  assistance  than  Ethiopic ;  but  Aramaic,  Assyrian, 
and  even  the  less  known  and  the  more-  modern  dialects 
might  furnish  valuable  materials. 
<3ia.-ac-       It  is  not  a  formidable  undertaking  to  describe  in  general 
ter  of      terms  the  character  of  the  Semitic  mind,  as  has  been  done, 
Sfejmtio^  for  example,  by  Lassen  {Iiidische  Altevthumshinde,  i.  414 
sq.)  and  by  Eenan  in  the  introduction  to  his  llistoire 
des  Langues  Semitiques.     But  still  there  is  a  danger  of 
assuming  that  the  most  important  characteristics  of  particu- 
lar Semitic  peoples,  especially  of  the  Israelites  and  of  the 
Arabs,  are  common  to  all  Semites,  and  of  ascribing  to  the 
influence  of  race  certain  striking  features  which  are  the 
result  of  the  external  conditions  of  life,  and  which,  under 
similar   circumstances,   are   also   developed    among   non- 
Semitic  races.    And,  though  it  is  said,  not  without  reason, 
that  the  Semites  possess  but  little  talent  for  political  and 
military  organization  on  a  large  scale,  yet  we  have  in  the 
Phoenicians,  especially  the  Carthaginians,  in  Hamilcar  and 
in  Hannibal,  a  proof  that  under  altered  conditions  the 
Semites  are  not  incapable  of  distinguishing  themselves  in 
these  domains.    It  is  a  poor  evasion  to  deny  that  the  Pboa- 
nicians  are  genuine  Semites, 'since  even  our  scanty  sources 
of  information  suffice  to  show  that  in  the  matter  of  reli- 
gion, which  among  Semites  is  of  such  supreme  importance, 
they  bore  a  close  resemblance  to  the  ancient  Hebrews  and 
Aramseans.     In  general  descriptions  of  this  kind  it  is  easy 
to  go  too  far.    But  to  give  in  general  terras  a  correct  idea 
of  the  Semitic  languages  is  a  task  of  very  much  greater 
difficulty.    Kenan's  brilliant  and  most  interesting  sketch  is 
in  many  respects  open  to  serious  criticism.     He  cites,  for 
example,  as  characteristic  of  the  Semitic  tongues,  that  they 
still  retain  the  practice  of  expressing  psychological  pro- 
ce'sses  by  means  of  distinct  imagery.     In  saying  this  he  is 
taking  scarcely  any  language  but  Hebrew  into  account. 
But  the  feature  to  which  he  here  alludes  is  owing  to  the 
particular  stage  of  intellectual  development  that  had  been 
reached  by  the  Israelites,  is  in  part  peculiar  to  the  poetical 


style,  and  is  to  be  found  in  like  wanner  among  whoU^ 
different  races.  That  the  Semitic  languages  are  far  from 
possessing  the  fixity  which  Eenan  attributes  to  them  vte 
shall  see  below.  But,  however  this  may  be,  certain  gram- 
matical peculiarities  of  the  Semitic  languages — above  all, 
the  predominance  of  triliteral  roots — are  so  marked  that 
it  is  scarcely  possible  to  duubt  whether  any  language  with 
which  we  are  tolerably  well  acquainted  is  or  is  not  Semitic. 
Only  when  a  Semitic  language  has  been  strongly  influenced 
not  only  in  vocabulary  but  also  in  grammar  by  some  nou- 
Semitic  speech,  as  is  the  case  with  Amharic.  can  such  a 
doubt  be  for  a  moment  entertained. 

JIany  attempts  have  been  made,  sometnnes  in  a  vety 
superficial  fashion  and  sometimes  by  the  use  of  scienti/k 
methods,  to  establish  a  relationship  between  the  Semitic 
languages  and  the  Indo-European.  It  was  very  natural 
to  suppose  that  the  tongues  of  the  two  races  which,  -with 
the  single  exceptions  of  the  Egyptians  and  the  Chinese, 
have  formed  and  moulded  human  civilization,  who  have 
been  near  neighbours  from  the  earliest  times,  and  who, 
moreover,  seem  to  bear  a  great  physical  resemblance  \» 
one  another  can  be  nothing  else  than  two  descendants  of 
the  same  parent  speech.  But  all  these  endeavours  haio 
wholly  failed.  It  is  indeed  probable  that  the  languages, 
.not  only  of  the  Semites  and  of  the  Indo-Europeans,  b»»t 
also  those  of  other  races,  are  derived  from  the  same  stocit, 
but  the  separation  nuist  have  taken  place  at  so  remote  a 
period  that  the  changes  which  these  languages  underwent 
in  prehistoric  times  have  completely  effaced  what  featunsa 
they  possessed  in  common ;  if  such  features  have  some- 
times been  preserved,  they  are  no  longer  recognizable.  Xt 
must  be  remembered  that  it  is  only  in  e.xceptionally  favour- 
able circumstances  that  cognate  languages  are  so  preserved 
during  long  periods  as  to  render  it  i)ossible  for  scientifW 
analysis  to  prove  their  relationship  Avith  one  another.^ 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Semitic  languages  bear  no 
striking  a  resemblance  in  some  respects  to  certain  la^i-, 
guages  of  northern  Africa  that  we  are  forced  to  assume  the 
existence  of  &  tolerably  close  relationship  between  tlie 
two  groups.  We  allude  to  the  family  of  languages  knowa 
in  modern  times  as  the  "  Hamitic,"  and  composed  of  the 
Egyptian,  Berber,  Beja  (BishArf,  &c.),  and  a  number  vf 
tongues  spoken  in  Abj-ssinia  and  the  neighbouring  countri* 
(Agaw,  Galla,  JJankali,  <tc.).  It  is  remarkable  that  sookj 
of  the  most  indispensable  words  in  the  Semitic  vocabulary 
(as,  for  instance,  "  water,"  "mouth,"  and  certain  numerals) 
are  found  in  Hamitic  also,  and  that  these  woi-ds  happen 
to  be  such  as  cannot  well  be  derived  from  triliteral  Semitic 
roots,  and  are  more  or  less  independent  of  the  ordinary 
grammatical  rules.  We  notice,  too,  important  reseos- 
blances  in  grammar, — for  example,  the  formation  of  the 
feminine  by  means  of  a  <  prefixed  or  aflixed,  that  of  tb » 
causative  by  means  of  s,  similarity  in  the  suffixes  and  itnu 
fi.xes  nf  the  verljal  tenses,  and,  generally,  similarity  in  tlie 
personal  pronouns,  &c.  It  must  be  admitted  that  there  is 
also  much  disagreement, — for  instance,  the  widest  divei'- 
gence  in  the  mass  of  the  vocabulary ;  and  this  applies  t<j 
the  Semitic  languages  as  compared  not  only  with  thofie 
Hamitic  languages  that  are  gradually  becoming  known  Va 
us  at  the  present  day  but  with  the  Egyptian,  of  which  -we 
possess  documents  dating  from  the  fourth  millenni'.MA 
before  the  Christian  era.  The  question  is  here  invol'ficd 
in  great  difficulties.  Some  isolated  resemblances  may, 
improbable  as  it  appears,  have  been  produced  by  the  bcr- 

'  The  following  is  an  instance  of  the  manner  in  which  we  may  be 
deceived  by  isolated  cases.  "  Six  "  is  in  Hebrew  shesh,  almost  ei.ictly 
like  the  Sanskrit  and  modern  Persian  shash,  the  Latin  se^,  &c.  Rat 
the  Indo-European  root  is  siceks,  or  perhaps  even  ksiceks,  wherfeas  tha 
Semitic  root  is  shidlh,  so  that  the  resemblance Ja  a.  purelj.accideTital 
one,  produced  by  phonetic  change. 


SEJMITIO     LAISIGUAGES 


643 


mowing  of  words'."  "Uncivilized  races,  as  lias  oeen  proved 
with  certainty,  sometimes  borrow  from  others  elements  of 
speech  in  cases  "where  we  should  deem  such  a  tb;ng  im- 
jiossible, — for  examjile,  numerals  and  even  personal  sutfixes. 
But  the  great  resemblances  in  grammatical  formation  can- 
not be  reasonably  explained  as  due  to  borro^nng  on  the 
part  of  the  ilamites,  more  especialjy  as  these  points  of 
agreement  are  also  found  in  the  language  of  the  Bcrbci-s. 
who  are  scattered  over  an  enormous  territory,  and  who've 
speech  must  have  acquired  its  cliaracter  long  before  they 
came  into  contact  with  the  Semites.  We  are  even  now 
but-  imperfectly  acquainted  with  the  Hamitic  languages ; 
it  is  not  yet  certain  into  what  groups  tliey  fall ;  and  the 
relation  in  which  Egyptian  stands  to  Berber  on  the  one 
hand  and  to  the  .south  Hamitic  languages  on  the  other  re- 
qaires  further  elucidation.  The  attemjit  to  write  a  com- 
[jarative  grammar'of  the  Semitic  and  Hamitic  languages 
vrould  be,  to  say  the  least,  very  premature.' 

The  connexion  between  the  Semitic  languages  and  the 
Hamitic  apjrears  to  indicate  that  the  primitive  seat  of 
the  Semites  is  to  be  sought  in  Africa  j  for  it  can  scarcely 
be  supposed  that  the  Hamites,  amongst  whom  there  arc 
gradual  transitions  from  an  almost  purely  European  type 
to  that  of  the  Negroes,  are  the  children  of  any  other  land 
than  "the  dark  continent."  There  seems,  moreover,  to  be 
a  considerable  physical  resemblance  between  the  Hamites 
and  the  Sem-iteij,'  especially  in  the  case  of  the  southern 
Arabs ;  we  need  mention  only  the  slight'  development  of 
the  calf  of  the  leg,  and  the  sporadic  appearance  amongst 
Semites  of  woolly  hair  and  prominent  jaws.-  But  both 
Semites  and  Haraiies  have  been  mingled  to  a  large  extent 
iwith  foreign  'races,  which  process  must  have  diminished 
their  mutual  similarly.  All  this,  however,  is  offered  not 
as  a  definite  theory  but  as  a  modest  hypothesis. 

It  was  once  the  custom  to  maintain  that  the  Semites 
came  originally  from  certain  districts  in  Armenia.  This 
supposition  was  founded  on  the  book  of  Genesis,  accord- 
ing to  which  several  of  the  Semitic  nations  are  descended 
from  Arphachsad,  i.e..  the  eponym  of  the  district  of 
Arrapachitis,  now  called  Albak,  on  the  borders  of  Armenia 
and  Kurdistan.  .  It  was  also  thought  that  this  region  was 
inhabited  by  the  primitive  race  from  which  both  the 
Semites  and  the  Indo- Europeans  derived  their  origin. 
But,  as  we  saw  above,  this  ancient  relationship  is  a  matter 
of  some  doubt ;  in  any  case,  the  separation  does  not  date 
from  a  period  so  recent  that  the  Semites  can  be  supposed 
to  have  possessed  any  historical  tradition  concerning  it. 
There  cannot  be  a  greater  mistake  than  to  imagine  that 
nations  have  been  able  to  preserve  during  long  ages  their 
recollection  of  the  country  whence  their  supposed  ancestors 
are  said  to  have-  emigrated.  The  fantastic  notion  once  in 
vogue  as  to  the  permanence  of  historical  memories  among 
uncivilized  races  must  bo  wholly  abandoned.  '  The  period 
in  which  the  Hebrews,  the  Arabs,  and  the  other  Semitic 
nations  together  formed  a  single  people  is  so  distant  that 
none  of  tliem  can  possibly  have  retained  any  tradition  of 
it.  The  opinion  that  the  Hebrews  and  the  tribes  most 
plosely  related  to  them  were  descendants  of  Arphachsad 
is  apparently  due  to  the  legend  that  Noah's  ark  landed 
near  this  district.  The  notion  has  therefore  a  purely 
mythical  origin.  Moreover,  in  Genesis  itself  "wo  find  a 
totally  different  account  of  the  matter,  derived  from  another 
source,  which  represents  all  nations,  and  therefore  the 
Semites   among   them,    as   having   como   from   Babylon. 

*  This  of  course  nprlics  yet  more  strongly  to  Bcnfey's  work,  Ucber 
das  Verh&Uniss  der  /ir/yplischm  SpracUe  ::um  nmnilischen  Spruchslamm 
(Leipsic,  1844) ;  but  his  book  hns  the  iiermanent  merit  of  having  for 
the  first  time  examined  this  roUtionihip  in  a  scientiric  manner. 

'  Comp.  O.  Gerland,  Atlaf  der  Mthnographie  (Leipsic,  1876),  p.  40  | 
of  the  text. 


Scarcely  any  man  of  science  now  believes  in  the  northern 
origin  of  the  Semites. 

Others,  as  Sprenger  and  Schrader,^  consider  the  birth- 
place of  the  Semitic  race  to  have  been  in  Arabia.  .There 
is  much  that  appears  to  support  this-  theory.  History 
proves  that  from  a  very  early  period  trilics  from  the 
deserts  of  Arabia  settled  on  the  cnkirablq  lands  which 
border  them  aiid  adopted  a  purely  agricultural  mode  o£ 
life.  Various  traces  in  the  language  seem  to  indicate 
that  the  Hebrews  and-  the  Aranueans  were  oriirinally 
nomads,  and  Arabia  with  its  northern  i)rolongation  (the 
Syrian  desert)  is  the  true  home  of  nomadic  peoples.  Thi; 
Arabs  are  also  supposed  to  display  the  Semitic  character 
in  its  purest  form,  and  tlieir  language  is.  on  the  whole, 
'nearer  the  original  Semitic  than  are  the  languages  of  the 
cognate  races.  '  To  this  last  circumstance '■ne  should,  how- 
ever, attach  little  importance.  It  is  by  no  means  always 
the  case  that  a  language  is  mojt  faithfully  preserved  in 
the  country  where  it  originated.  The  Lithuanians  speak 
the  most  ancient  of  all  living  Indo-European  languages, 
and  they  are  certainly  not  autochthones  of  Lithuania;  the 
Eomance  dialect  spoken  in  the  south  of  Sardinia  is  far 
more  primitive  than  that  spoken  at  Eprae;  and  Of  all  living 
Teutonic  languages  the  most  ancient  is  the  Icelandic.  It 
is  even  doubtful  whether  the  ordinary  assumption  be  cor- 
rect, that  the  most  primitive  of  modern  Arabic  dialects 
are  those  spoken  in  Arabia.  Besides,  we  cannot  unre- 
servedly admit  that  the  Arabs  display  the.  Semitic  char- 
acter in  its  purest  form  ;  it  would  be  more  correct  to  say 
that,  under  the  influence  of  a  country  indescribably  moncw 
tonous  and  of  a  life  ever  charging  yet  ever  the  same,  th^ 
inhabitants  of  the  Arabian  deserts  have  developed  mostr 
exclusively  certain  of  the  principal  traits  of  the  Semiti? 
race.  All  these  considerations  are  indecisive;  but  we  will^ 
ingly  admit  that  the  theory  which  regards  Arabia  as  tha 
primitive  seat  of  all  Semites  is  by  no  means  untenable. 

Finally,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  contemporary  Orieo- 
talists,  Ignazio  Guidi,'*  has  attempted  to  prove  that  thd 
home  of  the  Semites  is  on  the  lower  Euphrates.     He) 
contends  that  the ,  geographical,  botanical,  and  zoological 
conceptions  which  are  expressed  in  the  various  Semitic 
languages  by  the  same  words,  preserved  from  the  time  of 
the  dispersion,  correspond  to  the  natural  characteristics  oi 
no  country  but  the  above-mentioned..    Great  as  arc  the 
ingenuity  and  the  caution  "which  he  displays,  it  is  difficult 
to  accept  his  conclusions.   'Several  terms  might  be  men: 
tioncd  -which  are  part  of  the  common  heritage  of.-  th( 
northern  and  the  southern  Semites,  but  which  can  scarcelj 
have  been  formed  in  the  region  of  the  Euphrates.     More 
over,  tho  vocabulary  of  most  Semitic  languages  is  bra 
very  imperfectly  kno\vn,  and  each  dialect  has  lost  manj 
primitive  "vv-ords  in  the 'course  of  time.     It  is  thcrefoi^ 
very  unsafe  to  draw  conclusions  from  the  fact  that  .tht 
various  Semitic  tongues  have  no  one  common  dcsignatioi 
for  many  important  local  conceptions,  such  as  "mountaiii.' 
The  ordinary  words  for  "man,"  "old  man,"  "boy,"  "tent," 
are  quite  different  in  the  various  Semitic  languages,  an<; 
yet  all  these  are  ideas  for  which  tho  primitive  SemiteJ 
must  have  had  names.  _ 

■Wo  must  therefore  for  tho  present  confess  our  mabihq 
to  make  any  positive  .statement  with  regard  to  tho  iirimitivi 
seat  of  tho  original  Semitic  race. 

It  is  not  very  easy  to  settle  what  is  "tho  prcci.so  coni 
nexion  between  the  various  Semitic  languages,  considered 
individually.  In  this  matter  one  may  easily  be  led  to 
hasty  conclusions  by  isolated  peculiarities  in  vocabulaij  or 

>  The.  f.irmer  hns  maintaiiiHl  this  view  iu  several  of  liis  -work*.  th» 
latter  in  .!r./>.-V.O.,  xxTii.  417.'?.  ,i  ,      ,     „ 

•    «  "  QuUa  Sede  Priniitiva  dci  Popoli  Scmitici,    in  the  Pnceeaxngs  OS. 
tho  Accadomia  dci  Lincei;  1878-79, 


644 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


grammar.  ,  Each  of  the  older  Semitic  langiaages  occasion- 
ally agrees  in  grammatical  points  with  some  other  to  which 
in  most  respects  it  bears  no  very  close  resemblance,  while 
dialects  much  more  nearly  related  to  it  are  found  to  exhibit 
different  formations.  Each  Semitic  tongue  also  possesses 
features  peculiar  to  itself.  For  instance,  the  Hebrew- 
Phoenician  group  and  the  Arabic  have  a  prefixed  definite 
article  (the  etymological  identity  of  which  is,  however,  not 
quite  certain) ;  the  dialect  nearest  to'  Arabic,  the  Saboean, 
expresses  the  article  by  means  of  a  suffixed  n ;  the  Aramaic, 
which  in  general  more  closely  resembles  Hebrew  than  does 
the  Arabic  group,  expresses  it  by  means  of  a  suffixed  <f ; 
whereas  the  Assyrian  in  the  north  and  the  Ethio)3ic  in  the 
south  have  no  article  at  all.  Of  this  termination  n  for 
the  definite  article  there  is  no  trace  in  either  Arabic  or 
Hebrew;  the  Sabsean,  thd  Ethiopic,  and  the  Ai-amaic 
employ  it  to  give  emphasis  to  demonstrative  pronouns ; 
and  the  very  same  usage  has  been  detected  in  a  single 
Phoenician  inscription. i  In  this  case,  therefore,  Hebrew 
and  Arabic  have,  independently  of  one  another,  lost  some- 
thing which  the  languages  most  nearly  related  to  them 
have  preserved.  In  like  manner,  the  strengthening  of  the 
pronoun  of  the  third  person  by  means  of  t  (or  iii)  is  only 
found  in  Ethiopic,  Sabsean,  and  Phoenician.  Aramaic 
alone  has  no  certain  trace  of  the  reflexive  conjugation 
formed  with  prefixed  n;  Hebrew  alone  has  no  certain 
trace  of  the  causative  with  sJm.^  In  several  of  the  Semitic 
languages  we  can  see  how  the  formation  of  the  passive  by 
means  of  internal  vocal  change  (as  hdlima,  "  he  was  ad- 
dressed," as  distinguished  from  kallama,  "he  addressed") 
gradually  dropped  out  of  use;  in  Ethiopic  this  process 
was  already  complete  when  the  language  fii'st  became 
literary  ;  but  in  AJ-amaic  it  was  not  wholly  so.  In  a  few 
cases  phonetic  resemblances  have  been  the  result  of  later 
growth.  For  example,  the  termination  of  the  plm-al 
masculine  of  nouns  is  in  Hebrew  im,  in  Aramaic  in,  as  in 
Arabic.  But  we  know  that  Aramaic  also  originally  had 
m,  whereas  the  ancient  Arabic  forms  have  after  the  n  an 
a,  which  appears  to  have  been'  originally  a  long  4  {Una, 
ina) ;  in  this  latter  position  (that  is,  between  two  vowels) 
the  change  of  rti  into  n  is  very  improbable.  These  two 
similar  terminations  were  therefore  originally  distinct. 
We  must  indeed  be  very  cautious  in  drawing  conclusions 
from  points  of  agreement  between  the  vocabularies  of  the 
various  Semitic  tongues.  The  Ethiopians  and  the  Hebrews 
have  the  same  word  for  many  objects  which  the  other 
Semites  call  by  other  names, — for  instance,  "stone," 
"tree,"  "enemy,"  "enter,"  "go  out";  and  the  same  may 
be  said  of  Hebrew  as  compared  with  Sabtean.  But  to 
build  theories  upon  such  facts  would  be  unsafe,  since  the 
words  cited  are  either  found,  though  with  some  change  of 
meaning,  in  at  least  one  of  tlie  cognate  languages,  or  actu- 
ally occur,  perhaps  quite  exceptionally  and  in  archaic 
writings,  with  the  same  signification.  The  sedentary 
habits  of  the  Ethiopians  and  the  Sabaeans  may  possibly 
have  rendered  it  easier  for  them  to  retain  in  their  vocabu- 
lary certain  words  which  were  used  by  the  civilized  Semites 
of  the  north,  but  which  became  obsolete  amongst  the 
Arabian  nomads.  To  the  same  cause  we  may  attribute 
the  fact  that  in  religion  the  Sabaeans  resemble  the  northern 
Semites  more  closely  than  do  the  tribes  of  central  Arabia ; 
but  these  considerations  Drove  nothing  in  favour  of  a 
nearer  linguistic  affinity. 

One  thing  at  least  is  certain,  that  Arabic  (with  Sabsean) 
and  Ethiopic  stand  in  a  comparatively  close  relationship 
to  one  another,  and  compose  a  group  by  themselves,  as 
contrasted  with  the  other  Semitic  languages,  Hebrseo- 
Phoenician,  Aramaic,  and  Ass3Tian,  which  constitute  the 

'  Viz.,  the  great  inscription  of  Byblus,  C.I.S.,  fasc.  L  No.  1. 
"  Shalhfbeth,  "flame,"  is  borrowed  from  Aramaic. 


northern  group.  Only  in.  these  southern  dialects  ao  w« 
find,  and  that  under  forms  substantially  identical,  the  im- 
portant innovation  known  as  the  "  broken  plurals."  They 
agree,  moreover,  in  employing  a  peculiar  development  of 
the  verbal  root,  formed  by  inserting  an  «  between  the  firs 
and  second  radicals  {Miala,  tahdicda),  in  using  the  vowel 
a  before  the  third  radical  in  all  active  perfects — for 
example,  {h)al-fala,  Tcattaln,  instead  of  the  hahtU,  kattil  of 
the  northern  dialects — and  in  many  other  grammatical 
phenomena.  This  is  not  at  all  contradicted  by  the  fact 
that  certain  aspirated  dentals  of  Arabic  {t/i,  dh,  tk)  are 
replaced  in  Ethiopic,  as  in  Hebrew  and  Assyrian,  by  pure 
sibilants — that  is,  s  (Hebrew  and  Assyrian  sA),  z,  f — 
whereas  in  Aramaic  they  are  replaced  by  simple  dentals 
{t,  d,  t),  which  seem  to  come  closer  to  the  Arabic  sounds. 
After  tlie  separation  of  the  northern  and  the  southern 
groups,  the  Semitic  languages  possessed  all  these  sounds, 
as  the  Arabic  does,  but  afterwards  simplified  them,  for 
the  most  part,  in  one  direction  or  the  other.  Hence  there 
resulted,  as  it  were  by  chance,  occasional  similarities. 
Even  in  modern  Arabic  dialects  th,  dh  have  become  some- 
times t,  d,  and  sometimes  s,  :.  Ethiopic,  moreover,  has 
kept  d,  the  most  peculiar  of  Arabic  sounds,  distinct  from 
f,  whereas  Aramaic  has  confounded  it  with  the  guttural 
'ain,  and  Hebrew  and  Assyrian  with  f.  It  is  therefore 
evident  that  all  these  languages  once  possessed  the  con- 
sonant in  question  as  a  distinct  one.  One  sound,  stn, 
appears  only  in  Hebrew,  in  Phoenician,  and  in  the  older 
Aramaic.  It  must  originally  have  been  pronounced  very 
like  sk,  since  it  is  represented  in  writing  by  the  same 
character ;  in  later  times  it  was  changed  into  an  ordinary 
s.  AssjTian  does  not  distinguish  it  from  sh.^  The  division 
of  the  Semitic  languages  into  the  ncfrthern  group  and  the 
southern  is  therefore_  justified  by  facts.  Even  if  we  were 
to  discover  really  important  grammatical  phenomena  in 
which  one  of  the  southern  dialects  agreed  with  the  northern, 
or  vice  versa,  and  that  in  cases  where  such  phenomena 
could  not  be  regarded  either  as  remnants  of  primitive 
Semitic  usage  or  as  instances  of  par^lel  but  independent 
development,  we  ought  to  remember  that  the  division  ofi 
the  two  groups  was  not  necessarily  a  sudden  and  instan- 
taneous occurrence,  that  even  after  the  separation  inter- 
course'may  have  been  carried  on  between  the  various  tribes 
who  spoke  kindred  dialects  and  were  therefore  still  able 
to  understand  one  another,  and  that  intermediate  dialects 
may  once  have  existed,  perhaps  such  as  were  in  use 
amongst  tribes  who  came  into  contact  sometimes  with  the 
agricultural  population  of  the  north  and  sometimes  with 
the  nomads  of  the  south  (see  below).  All  this  is  purely 
hypothetical,  whereas  the  division  between  the  northern 
and  the  southern  Semitic  languages  is  a  recognized  fact. 

Although  we  cannot  deny  that  there  may  formerly  have  Losi 
existed  Semitic  languages  quite  distinct  from  those  with  ^'^^_^" 
which  we  are  acquainted,  yet  that  such  was  actually  the  ^^^ 
case  cannot  be  proved.     Nor  is  there  any  reason  to  think 
that  the  domain  of  the  Semitic  languages  ever  extended 
very  far  beyond  its  present  limits.     Some  time  ago  many 
scholars  believed  that  they  were  once  spoken  in  Asia  Minor 
and  even  in  Europe,  but,  except  in  the  Phoenician  colonies, 
this  notion  rested  upon  no  solid  proof.     It  cannot  be 
argued  with  any  great  degree  of  plausibility  that  even  the 
Cilicians,   who  from   a  very  early  period  held  constant 
intercourse  with  the  Svrians  and  the  Phoenicians,  spoke 
a  Semitic  language^ 

3  It  is  not  quite  certain  whether  all  the  Semitic  languages  originally 
had  the  hardest  of  the  gutturals  gh  and  kh  in  exactly  the  same  places 
that  they  occupy  in  Arabic.  In  the  case  of  ift— where  Ethiopic  agrees 
with  Arabic— this  is  at  least  probable,  since  there  seem  to  be  traces 
of  it  in  Assyrian.  But  it  would  appear  that  in  Hebrew  and  Aramaic 
the  distinction  between  gh  and  'ayin,  between  kA  and^  was  often 
different  from  what  ''*  '"  in  Arabic 


SEMITIC      LANGUAGES 


645 


Hehmv. — Hebrew  and  Phceuiciau  are  but  dialects  of  one 
and  the  same  language.  It  is  only  as  the  language  of  the 
people  oi  Israel  that  Hebrew  can  be  kno^^ii  with  any  (ire- 
cision.  Since  in  the  Old  T«stanient  a  few  of  the  neigh- 
bouring peoples  are  represented  as  being  descended  from 
Eber,  thQ  eponym  of  the  Hebrews,  that  is,  are  regarded  as 
nearly  related  to  the  latter,  it- was  natural  to  suppose  that 
they  likewise  spoke  Hebrew, — a  supposition  which,  at  least 
in  tba  case  of  the  Moabites,  has-been  fully  confinned  by 
the^scovery  of  the  Jlesha  inscription  ^^date,  soon  after  900 
B.C.).  The  .language  of  this  inscription  scarcely  difTer.s  from 
that  of  the  Old  Testament ;  the  only  important  distinction 
is  the  occurrence  of  a  reflexive  form  (■\^•ith  t  after  the  first 
radical),  which  appears  nowhere  el-^e  but  in  Aiabic.  We 
may  remark  in  passing  that  the  style  of  thi.s  inscription  is ' 
quite  that  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  enables  us  to  maintain 
with  certainty  that  a  similar  historical  literature  existed 
amongst  the  Moabites.  But  it  must  be  remembered  tliat 
ancient  Semitic  inscriptions  exhibit,  in  a  seu.se,  nothing 
but  the  skeleton  of  the  language,  since  they  do  not  express 
the  vowels  at  all,  or  do  so  only  in  certain  cases ;  still  less 
do  they  indicate  other  phonetic  modifications,  such  as  the 
doubling  of  conso'nant-s,  itc.  It  is  therefore  very  possible 
that  to  the  ear  the  language  of  Moab  seemed  to  differ 
considerably  from  that  of  the  Judajans. 

cieut       The  Mesha  inscription  is  the  only  non-Israelite  source, 
from  which  any  knowledge  of  ancient  Hebrew  can  be 

^^'  obtained.  (See  Hebrew  L.vxgctaoe  and  Literaktbe.) 
Some  fragments  in  the  Old  Testament  belong  to  the 
second  millennium  before  our  era, — particularly  the  song  of 
Deborah  (Judges  v.),  a  document  which,  in  .spite  of  its 
many  obscurities  in  matters  of  detail,  throws  much  light 
on  the  condition  of  the  Israelites  at  the  time  when  the 
Caiiaanites  were  still  contending  with  them  for  the  posses- 
ion of  the  country.  The  firet  rise  of  an  historicallitera- 
ure  may  very  probably  date  from  before  the  establishment 
of  the  monarchy. '  Various  portions  of  the  Old  Testament 
belong  to  the  time  of  the  earlier  kings ;  but  it  was  under 
the  later  kings  that  a  great  part  of  extant  Hebrew  litera- 
ture came  into  shape.  To  this  age  also  belong  the  Siloam 
inscription  and  a  few  seals  and  gems  bearing  the  names 
of  Israelites.  The  Hebrew  language  is  thus  known  to  us 
from  a. very  ancient  period.  But  we  are  far  from  being 
acquainted  with  its  real  phonetic  condition  in  the  tiiiie  of 
David  or  Isaiah. '  For,  much  as  we  owe  to'the  labours  of 
the  later  Jewish  schools,  which  with  infinite  care  fixed  the 
pronunciation  of  the  sacred  text  by  adding  vowels  and 
other  signs,  it  is  evident  that  even  at  the  best  they  could 
.only  represent  the  pronunciation,  of  the  language  in  its 
latest  stage,  not  that  of  very  early  ages.  Besides,  their 
'object  was  not  to  exhibit  Hebrew  simply  as  it  was,  but  to 
show  how  it  should  bq  read  in  the  solemn  cbant  of  the 
synagogue.  Accordingly,  the  pronunciation  of  the  older 
period  may  have  differed  considerably  from  that  repre- 
sented by  the  punctuation.  Such  difl'erenccs  are  now  and 
then  indicated  by  the  customary  spelling  of  the  ancient 
text-s,^  and  sometimes  thc'orthography  is  difcctly  at  vari- 
anee  with  the  punctuation.-  In  a  few  rare  cases  wo  may 
derive  help  from  the  somewhat  -older  tradition  contained 
in  the  representation  of  Hebrew  words  and  proper  names 
by  Greek  letters,  especially  in  the  ancient  Alexandrine 
translation  of  the  Bible  (the  so-called  Septuagint).  It  is 
of  particular  importance  to  remark  that  this  older  tradi- 
tion still  retains  an  original  a  m  many  cases  where  the 

^  For  e.vninple,  we  niny  conrlmlo  witli  toler.iblo  certainty,  frojn  tlio 
presence  aud  nb^cm-o  of  tlie  vowel-k'ttei-^  y  mil  i",  th.it  in  older  times 
Ibe  accented  e  nud  o  \\\'re  not  pronounced  long,  and  timt,  on  tlio  other 
Iiand,  till-  diplitliongs  an  nml  ni  were  used  for  the  later  6  and  I. 
k  •  Tlie  very  first  word  of  the  Biblo  contains  au  Aleph  {spjri(ii$  lenls), 
wliifh  is  required  by  etyinnlogy  and  was  once  andiblc,  but  which  tho 
lifouuiiciatioij  represented  by  tlie  iiniut-system  ignores. 


punctuation  has  the  later  /  or  c.  We  have  examined  thia 
point  somewhat  in  detail,  in  order  to  contracljct  the  false 
but  ever- recurring  notion  that  the  ordinary  text  of  tho 
Bible  represents  without  any  essential  modification  the 
pronunciation  of  ancient  Hebrew,  whereas  in  reality  it  ck- 
presses  (in  a  very  instinctive  and  careful  manner,  it  is 
true)  only  its  latest  development,  and  that  for  the  purpose 
of  solemn  public  recitation.  A  clear  trace  of  dialectical 
diflferences  within  Israel  is  found  in  Judges  xiL  6,  wliich 
shows  that  the  ancient  Ephraimites  wrouounced  a  instead 
oi's/i. 

The  destruction  of  the  Jucla;an  kingdom  dealt  a  heavy 
blow  to  the  Hebrew  language.  But  it  is  going  too  far  to 
suppose  that  it  was  altogether  banished  from  ordinary  life 
al  the  time  of  the  exile,  and  that  Aramaic  came  into  use 
among  all  the  Jetvs.  ■  In  the  East  even  small  communities, 
especially  if  they  form  a  religious  body,  often  cling  per- 
sistently to  their  mother-tongue,  though  they  may  bo  sur- 
rounded by  a  poiailation  of  alien  speech';  and -such  was 
probably  the  case  with  the  Jews  in  Babylonia.  See 
Hebrew  Laxcuage,  vob  xi.p.'  .'597.  Even  so  late  as  the 
time  of  Ezra  Hebrew  was  in  all  probability  the  ordinary 
language  of  the  new  community.  In  Neh.  xiii.  21  we  find 
a  complaint  that  the  children  of  Jews  by  wives  from  Ashddd 
and  other  places  spoke  half  .in  the  ."Jewish."  language 
and  half  in  the  language  of  Ashdod,  or  whatever  else  may 
have  been  the  tongue  of  their  mothers.  .  No  one  can  sup- 
pose that  NeUemiah  would  have  been  particularly  zealous 
thai  the  children  of  Jews  should  speak  aii  Aramaic  dialect 
with  correctness.  He  no  doubt  refers  to  Hebrew  as  it 
was  then  spoken, — a  stage  in  its  development  of  which 
Nehemiah's  own  work  gives  a  very  fair  idea.  And,  more- 
over, the  injiabitants.  of  Ashdod  spoke  Hebrew.  G.  Hoff- 
mann'^ has  deciphered  inscriptions  (written  in  Greek  letterSj 
but,  after  the  Hebrew  iashion,  from  right  to  left)  on  two 
coins  struck  about  150  years  after  Nehemiah,  which  are 
in  pure  Hebrew*;  nor  does  the  language  seem  to  diverge 
at  all  from  that  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  therefore 
prdbable  that  Nehemiah  alludes  only  to  a  slightly  different 
local  dialect.  If  the  Philistines  of  Ashdod  still  continued 
lo  speak  Hebrew  about  the  year  300  B.C.,  it  cannot  be 
supposed  that  the  Jews  had  given  up  this  their  own  lan- 
guage nearly  three  centuries  earlier.  We  mayalso  con- 
clude that  the  Philistines  from  the  earliest  period  spoke 
the  same,  language  as  their  eastern  neighbours,  with  whom 
they  had  so  often  been  at  war.  but  ■  had  also  lived  in  close, 
pacific  intercourse. 

After  the  time  of  Alexander  large  bodies  of  the  Je'wisli 
population  were  settled  ui  Alexandria  and  other  western 
cities,  and  were  very  rapidly  Hellenized.  Meanwhile  the 
principal  langrage  of  Syria  and  the  neighbouring  countries, 
Aramaic,  the  influence  ti  which  may  be  perceived  even  in 
some  pre-exilic  writings,  began  to  spread  more  and  more 
among  the  Jews.  Hebrew  gradually  ceased  to  -be  the  lair- 
guago  of  tho  people  and  became  that  of  religion  and  tha 
schools.  The  book  of  Daniel,  written  in  167  or  166  B.Or,' 
begins  in  Hebrew,  then  suddenly  passes  into  Aramaic,  and 
ends  again  in  Hebrew.  Similarly  the  redactor  of  Ezra  (oc 
more  correctly  of  tho  Chronicles,  of  which  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah form  tho  ooncluaion)  borrows  large  portions  from  nn 
Aramaic  Work,  in  most  cases  without  translating  them  int<^ 
Hebrew.  No  reason  can  be  assigned  for  the  use  of  Aramaic 
in  Jewish  ■works  intended  primarily  for.  Jerusalem,  Unless 
it  were  already  the  dominant  speech,  whilst,  on  tho  other 
hand,  it  was  very  nat.ural  for  a  pious  Jew  to  write  in  .the 

»  Ste  Sallol'a  Zcitschri/l  fiir  Xinnismalik,  1S82  (Berlin). 

♦  Tho  inicriptiona,  short  nS  they  are,  oxliibit  the  exclusively  IlebroW 

word  if  ('(r),  "  town,"  and  tho  feminine  asina  {ImsUuih),  "  the  strong," 

with  tho  (erraination  ah  (not  at,  oa  in  Pho-nician).   .Had  the  Ashdoditcj 

been  nccustonied  to  use  a  dead  langnafto  on  their  coins  thoy  woulJ 

-  certainly  have  employed  tho  native  Semitic  writing. 


646 


SEMITIC      LANGUAGES 


ancient  "  holy "  language  even  after  it  had  ceased  to  be 
spoken.  •-  Esther,  Ecclesiastes,  and  a  few  Psalms,  which  be- 
long to  the  3d  and  2d  centuries  before  our  era,  are  indeed 
written  in  Hebrew,  but  are  so  strongly  tinctured  by  the 
Aramaic  influence  as  to  prove  that  the  writers  usually 
spoke  Aramaic.  We  are  not  likely  to  be  far  wrong  in 
saying  that  in  the  Slaccabsean  age  Hebrew  had  died  out 
among  the  Jews,  and  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  it  sur- 
vived longer  amongst  any  of  the  neighbouring  peoples. 

But  in  the  last  period  of  the  history  of  Jerusalem,  and 
still  more  after  the  destruction  of  the  city  by  Titus,  the 
Jewish  schools  played  so  important  a  part  that  the  life  of 
the  Hebrew  language  was  in  a  manner  prolonged.  The 
lectures  and  discussions  of  the  learned  were  carried  on  in 
that  tongue.  AVe  have  very  extensive  specimens  of  this 
more  modern  Hebrew  in  the  ^Mishnah  and  other  works, 
and  scattered  pieces  throughout  both  Talmuds.  But,  just 
as  the  "classical"  Sanskrit,  which  has  been  spoken  and 
written  by  the  Brahmans  during  the  last  twenty-five  cen- 
turies, differs  considerably  from  the  language  which  was 
once  in  use  among  the  people,  so  this  "  language  of  the 
learned "  diverges  in  many  respects  from  the  "  holy  lan- 
guage " ;  and  this  distinction  is  one  of  which  the  rabbis 
were  perfectly  conscious.  The  "  language  of  the  learned  " 
borrows  a  great  part  of  its  vocabulary  from  Aramaic,^ 
and  this  exercises  a  strong  influence  upon  the  gram- 
matical forms.  The  grammar  is  perceptibly  modified  by 
the  peculiar  style  of  these  writings,  which  for  the  most 
part  treat  of  legal  and  ritual  questions  in  a  strangely 
laconic  and  pointed  manner.  But,  large  as  is  the  propor- 
tion of  foreign  words  and  artificial  as  this  language  is,  it 
contains  a  considerable  niunber  of  purely  Hebrew  elements 
which  do  not  appear  in  the  Old  Testament.  Although 
we  may  generally  assume,  in  the  case  of  a  word  occurring 
in  the  Mishnah  but  not  found  in  the  Old  Testament,  that 
it  is  borrowed  from  Aramaic,  there  are  several  words  of 
this  class  which,  by  their  radical  consonants,  prove  them- 
selves to  be  genuine  Hebrew.  And .  even  some  gram- 
matical phenomena  of  this  language  are  to  be  regarded 
as  a  genuine  development  of  Hebrew,  though  they  are 
unknown  to  earlier  Hebrew  speech. 
Medi-  From  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages  down  to  our 

^'*J  own  times  the  Jews  have  ■  produced  an  enormous  mass  of 
^^^'  writings  in  Hebrew,  sometimes  closely  following  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Bible,  sometimes  that  of  the  Mishnah,  some- 
times introducing  in  a  perfectly  inorganic  manner  a  great 
quantity  of  Aramaic  forms,  and  occasionally  imitating  the 
Arabic  styla  The  study  of  these  variations  has  but  little 
interest  for  the  linguist,  since  they  are  nothing  but  a  purely 
artificial  imitation,  dependent  upon  the  greater  or  less  skill 
of  the  individual.  The  language  of  the  Mishnah  stands  in 
much  closer  connexion  with  real  life,  and  has  a  definite 
raiso7i  cFctre ;  all  later  Hebrew  is  to  be  classed  with  medi- 
aeval and  modern  Latin.  Much  Hebrew  also  was  written 
in  the  Middle  Ages  by  the  hostUe  brethren  of  the  Jews,  the 
Samaritans;  but  for  the  student  of  language  these  produc- 
tions have,  at  the  most,  the  charm  attaching  to  curiosities. 
The  ancient  Hebrew  language,  especially  in  the  matter 
of  syntax,  has  an  essentially  primitive  character.  Para- 
taxis of  sentences  prevails  over  hypotaxis  to  a  greater 
extent  than  in  any  other  literary  Semitic  language  with 
which  we  are  well  acquainted.  The  favourite  method  is 
to  link  sentences  together  by  means  of  a  simple  "  and." 
There  is  a  great  lack  of  particles  to  express  with  clearness 
►he  more  subtle  connexion  of  ideas.  The  use  of  the  verbal 
tenses  is  in  a  great  measure  determined  by  the  imagination, 

'  It  is  a  cbaracteristic  feature  tbat  "my  father"  and  "my  mother" 
are  here  expressed  by  purely  Aramaic  forms.  Even  the  learned  did 
not  wish  to  call  their  "papas"  and  "mammas"  by  any  other  names 
than  those  to  which  they  had  been  accustomed  in  infancy. 


which  regards  things  unaccomplished  as  accomplished  and 
the  past  as  still  present.  There  are  but  few  words  or 
inflexions  to  indicate  slight  modifications  of  meaning, 
though  in  ancient  times  the  language  may  perhaps  have 
distinguished  certain  moods  of  the  verb  somewhat  more 
plainly  than  the  present  punctuation  does.  But  in  any 
case  this  language  was  far  less  suited  for  the  definite  ex- 
pression of  studied  thought,  and  less  suited  still  for  the 
treatment  of  abstract  subjects,  than  for  poetry.  We  must 
remember,  however,  that  as  long  as  Hebrew  was  a  living 
language  it  never  hatl  to  be  used  for  the  expression  of  the 
abstract.  Had  it  lived  somewhat  longer  it  might  very 
possibly  have  learnt  to  adapt  itself  better  to  the  formulat- 
ing of  systematic  conceptions.  The  only  book  in  the  Old 
Testament  which  attempts  to  grapple  with  an  abstract 
subject  in  plain  prose — namely,  Ecclesiastes — dates  from 
a  time  when  Hebrew  was  dying  out  or  was  already  dead. 
That  the  gifted  author  does  not  always  succeed  in  giving 
clear  expression  to  his  ideas  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  language  had  never  been  employed  for  any  scientific 
purposes  whatsoever.  With  regard  to  grammatical  forms, 
Hebrew  has  lost  much  that  is  still  preserved  in  Arabic  ; 
but  the  greater  richness  of  Arabic  is  in  part  the  result  of 
later  development. 

The  vocabulary  of  the  Hebrew  language  is,  as  we  have" 
said,  known  but  imperfectly.  The  Old  Testament  is  no' 
very  large  work ;  it  contains,  moreover,  many  repetitions, 
and  a  great  number  of  pieces  which  are  of  little  use  to  the 
lexicographer.  On  the  other  hand,  much  may  be  derived 
from  certain  poetical  books,  such  as  Job.  The  numerous 
aira^  Xeyofjia'a  are  a  suflicient  proof  that  many  more' words 
existed  than  appear  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  WTiters 
of  which  never  had  occasion  to  use  them.  Were  we  in 
possession  of  the  whole  Hebrew  vocabulary  in  the  time 
of  Jeremiah,  for  example,  we  should  be  far  better  able 
to  determine  the  relation  in  which  Hebrew  stands  to  the 
other  Semitic  languages,  the  Old  Testament  would  be  far 
more  intelligible  to  us,  and  it  would  be  very  much  easier 
to  detect  the  numerous  corrupt  passages  in  our  text. 

P/Kenician. — This  dialect  closely  resembles  Hebrew,  and  ^^"^ 
is  known  to  us  from  only  one  authentic  source,  namely,  '^'*"- 
inscriptions,  some  of  which  date  from  about  600  b.c.  or 
earlier ;  but  the  great  mass  of  them  begin  with  the  4th 
century  before  our  era.  These  inscriptions  ^  we  owe  to 
the  Phcenicians  of  the  mother-country  and  the  neighbour- 
ing regions  (Cyprus,  Egypt,  and  Greece),  as  well  as  to  the 
Phoenicians  of  Africa,  especially  Carthage.  Inscriptions 
are,  however,  a  very  insufficient  means  for  obtaining  the 
knowledge  of  a  language.  The  number  of  subjects  treated 
in  them  is  not  large  ;  many  of  the  most  important  gram- 
matical forms  and  many  of  the  words  most  used  in  ordi- 
nary Efe  do  not  occur.  Moreover,  the  "lapidary  style"  is 
often  very  hard  to  understand.  The  repetition  of  obscure 
phrases,  in  the  same  connexion,  in  several  inscriptions 
does  not  help  to  make  them  more  intelligible.  Of  what 
use  is  it  to  us  that,  for  instance,  thousands  of  Carthaginian 
inscriptions  begin  with  the  very  same  incomprehensible 
dedication  to  two  divinities  ?  The  diflicuity  of  interpreta- 
tion is  greatly  increased  by  the  fact  that  single  words  are 
very  seldom  separated  from  one  another,  and  that  vowel- 
letters  are  used  extremely  sparingly.  We  therefore  come 
but  too  often  upon  very  ambiguous  groups  of  letters.  In 
spite  of  this,  our  knowledge  of  Phoenician  has  made  con- 
siderable progress  of  late.  Some  assistance  is  also  got 
from  Greek  and  Latin  writers,  who  cite  not  only  many 
Phoenician  proper  names  but  single  Phoenician  words : 
Plautus  in  particular  inserts  in  the  Pcenulus  whoIC' pass- 
ages in  Punic,  some  of  which  are  accompanied  by  a  Latin 

'  The  scattered  materials  are  being  collected  in  the  Corjsiis  Inscryi- 
lioiuim  Semiticarum  of  the  Paris  Academy, 


SEMITIC      LANGUAGES 


647 


Iraaslation.  This  source  of  iaforniatiou  must,  however, 
be  used  with  great  caution.  It  \\as  not  the  object  of 
Pliutus  to  exhibit  the  Punic  language  Avitli  precision,  a 
ta«k  for  which  the  Latin  alphabet  is  but  ill  adapted,  but 
onJy  to  make  the  populace  laugh  at  the  jargon  of  the  hated 
Oirthaginians.  Moreover,  he  had  to  force  the  Punic  words 
iiito  Latin  senaril;  and  finally  the  text,  being  unintelligible 
tc  copyists,  is  terribly  corrupt.  Much  ingenuity  lias  been 
wasted  on  the  Punic  of  Plautus;  but  the  passage  yields 
valuable  results  to  cautious  investigation  which  does  uot 
try  to  explain  too  much.^  In  its  grammar  Phoenician 
closely  resembles  Hebrew.  In  both  dialects  the  consonants 
Me  the  same,  often  in  contrast  to  Aramaic  and  other 
(xjgnate  languages.^  As  to  vowels,  Phrenician  seenis  to 
diverge  rather  more  from  Hebrew.  The  connecting  of 
clauses  is  scarcely  carried  further  in  the  former  language 
thvn  in  the  latter.  A  slight  attempt  to  define  the  tenses 
KK>re  sharply  appears  once  at  least  in  the  joining  of  hin 
(fiut)  with- a  perfect,  to  express  complete  accomplishment 
(or  the  pluperfect).^  One  important  jdifterence  is  that  the 
iisu  of  tvdii)  conversive  with  the  imperfect — so  common 
in  Hebrew  and  in  the  inscription  of  Meslia — is  wanting 
in  Phoenician.  The  vocabulary  of  the  language  is  very 
likt!  that  of  Hebrew,  but  words  rare  in  Hebrew  are 
«ft*n  common  in  Phoenician.  For  instance,  "to  do"  is  in 
Phoenician  not  'asd  but  pa'al  (the  Arabic  fu'uta),  which 
in  Hebrew  occurs  only  in  poetry  and  elevated  language. 
"Gold"  is  not  zahah  (as  in  most  Semitic  languages)  but 
Aanff  (Assyrian  hnrdg),  which  is  used  occasionally  in 
Hebrew  poetry.  Traces  of  dialectical  distinctions  have 
been  found  in  the  great  inscription  of  Byblus,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  which  seem  to  be  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the 
Phcenicians  in  Josh.  xiii.  5  (and  1  Kings  v.  32?  [A.V.  v.  18]); 
It  is  probable  that  various  differences  between  the  language 
of  the  mother-country  and  that  of  the  African  colonies  arose 
at  an  early  date,  but  our  materials  do  not  enable  us  to 
ojme  to  any  definite  conclusion  on  this  point.  In  the  later 
African  inscriptions  there  appear  certain  phonetic  changes, 
eapecially  in  consequence  of  the  softening  of  the  gutturals, 
-■-changes  which  show  themselves  yet  more  plainly  in  the 
so-called  Neo-Punic  inscriptions  (beginning  with  tlie  1st, 
if  not  the  2d,  century  before  our  era).  In  these  the 
gutturals,  which  had  lost  their  real  sound,  are  frequently 
iaterchanged  in  writing;  and  other  modifications  may  also 
be  perceived.  Unfortunately  the  Neo-Punic  inscriptions 
are  written  in  such  a  debased  indistinct  cliaractcr.  that  it 
iii  often  impossible  to  discover  with  certainty  the  real  form 
of  the  words.  This  dialect  was  still  spoken  about  400, 
and  perhaps  long  afterwards,  in  those  districts  of  North 
Africa  which  had  once  belonged  to  Carthage.  It  would 
Boem  that  in  the  mother-country  the  Phoenician  language 
withstood  the  encroachment  of  Greek  on  the  one  hand  and 
of  Aramaic  on  the  other  somewhat  longer  than  Hebrew  did. 
Aranuik. — Aramaic  is  nearly  related  to  Hcbrsoo-Phceni- 
ciiln  ;  but  there  is  nevertheless  a  sharp  line  of  demarcation 
between  the  two  groups.  Of  its  original  home  nothing 
certain  is  known.  In  the  Old  Testament  "Ar,am  "  appears 
at  an  early  period  aa  a  designation  of  certain  districts  in 
Syria  ("Aram  of  Damascus,"  ikc.)  and  in  Mesopotamia 
(•*Aram   of   the  Two  Rivers").      The   language  of   the 

'  See  Gildemeister,  in  RitscUl's  Plautus  (vol.  ii.  fasc.  v.,  LeiDsic, 
1884). 

"  At  an  early  period  the  Plm-iilcian  pronunciation  may  have  distin- 
guished a  greater  number  of  original  consonants  than  are  distingiiislietl 
in  writing.  It  is  at  least  remorkable  that  tlie  Greeks  render  the  name 
of  the  city  of  Qui  (Hebrew  C<5r),  which  must  originally  have  been  pro- 
nounced Tliurr,  with  a  t  (Ti^pos),  and  the  name  of  Cidiii,  where  the 
f  runs  through  all  the  Semitic  languages,  with  a  ir  {XiSun).  Distinction-- 
cf  this  kind,  jiisliliod  by  etymology, Jiave  perhaps  been  obscured  in 
Hebrew  by  the  imporfectlou  of  the  alphabet.  lu  the  case  of  sin  and 
f  tia  this  can  be  positively  proved. 

'  Kiin  nadar,  "had  vowed,"  Wal.  E  {C.T.S.,  Phoen.,  No.  03). 


Aramieans  gradually  spread  far  and  wide,  and  occupied 
all  Syria,  both  those  regions  which  were  before  in  tl/a 
possession  of  the  Klieta,  ])robably  a  non-Semitic  peopi*, 
and  tho.se  which  were  most  likely  ii-Uabited  by  CanaaniJo 
tribes  3  last  of  all,  Palestine  became  Araniaized.  Towards 
the  east  this  language  was  spoken  on  the  Euphrates,  and 
throughout  the  districts  of  the  Tigris  south  and  west  of 
the  Armenian  and  Kurdibh  mountains  ;  the  province  in 
which  the  capitals  of  the  Arsacidcs  and  the  SAsiinians 
were  situated  was  called  "the  country  of  the  Arama;aiis.'' 
In  Babylonia  and  Assjria  a  large,  or  pei-liaps  the  larger, 
portion  of  the  population  were  most  probably  Aramieans; 
even  at  a  very  early  date,  whilst  Assyrian  was  the  language, 
of  the  Government. 

The  oldest  extant  Aramaic  documents  consist  of  inscriin' 
tions  on  monuments  and  on  seals  and  gems.  In  the  Persian 
period  Aramaic  was  the  official  language  of  the  provinces 
west  of  the  Euphrates ;  and  this  explains  the  fact  that 
coins  which  were  struck  by  governors  and  vassal  princes 
in  Asia  Jtinor,  and  of  which  the  stamp  was  in  some  cases 
the  Avoi'k  of  skilled  Greek  artists,  bear  Aramaic  inscrip-' 
tions,  whilst  those  of  other  coins  are  Greek.  This,  of 
course,  does  uot  prove  that  Aramaic  was  ever  spoken  in 
Asia  Jfinor  and  as  far  north  as  Sinope  and  the  Helles- 
pont. In  Eg3'pt  Aramaic  inscriptions  have  been  found 
of  thb  Persian  period,  one  bearing  the  date  of  the  fourth 
year  of  Xerxes  (482  a.c.)* ;  we  have  also  official  documents 
on  papyrus,  unfortunately  in  a  very  tattered  condition 
for  the  most  part,  which  prove  that  the  Persiins  preferred 
using  this  convenient  language  to  mastering  the  difiiculties 
of  the  Egyptian  systems  of  writing.  It  is,  further,  very 
possible  that  at  that  time  there  were  considerable  numbers 
of  Aramasans  in  Egypt,  just  as  there  were  of  Phusnicians, 
Greeks,  and  Jews.  But  probably  this  preference  for 
Aramaic  originated  under  the  Assyrian  empire,  in  which 
a  veiy  large  proportion  of  the  population  spoke  Aramaic, 
and  iu  which  this  language  would  naturally  occupy  a 
more  important  position  than  it  did  luidcr  the  Persians. 
■Wo  therefore  uuderstapd  why  it  was  taken  for  granted  that 
a  great  Assyrian  official  could  speak  Aramaic  (2  Kings  x\iii. 
26;  Isa.  xjcxvi.  11),  and  lor  the  same  reason  the  digni- 
taries of  Judah  appear  to  have  learned  the  language  {ibid.); 
namely,  in  order  to  communicate  with  the  Assyrians.* 
The  short  dominion  of  the  Chaldicans  very  proheMy 
strengthened  this  prepoiidei'ance  of  Aramaic.  A  few 
ancient  Aramaic  inscriptions  have  lately  been  discovered 
far  within  the  limits  of  Araliia,  in  the  palm  oasis  of  TeinjA 
(in  the  north  of  the  Hijaz) ;  the  oldest  and  by  far  the 
most  important  of  these  was  very  likely  made  before  the 
Persian  period.  We  may  presume  that  Aramaic  was  in- 
troduced into  the  district  by  a  mercantile  colony,  which 
settled  in  this  ancient  seat  of  commerce,  and  in  con.se- 
quence  of  which  Aramaic  may  have  remained  for  some  time 
lie  literary  language  of  the  neighbouring  Arabs.  All  these 
older  Aramaic  monuments  cxhil)it  a  language  which  is 
almost  absolutely  identicah  One  peculiarity  which  distin- 
guishes it  from  later  Aramaic  is  that  in  the  relative  and 
demonstrative  pronoun  the  sound  originally  pronounced 
dk  is  changed  into  c,  as  in  Hebrew,  not  into  d,  as  is 
required  by  a  rule  univensal  in  the  Aiamaic  dialects."  The 
Egyptian  monuments  at  least  boar  marks  of  Hebrew,  or 
more  correctly  Phoenician,  influence. 

The  Aramaic  portions  of  the  Old  Testament  show  us 
the  form  of  the  language  which  was  in  use  among  the 
Jews  of  Palestine.      Isolated  pns.<Miges  in  Ezra  perhaps 


*  See  the  Palocogiaphicnl  .Society's  Oritntut  Seriis,  plate  Ixiii. 

'  We  possess  certain  small  documents  in  Semitic  writing  which 
date  from  tlio  Assjrian  perio<l,  but  of  wliich  the  linguistic  character  is 
still  very  obscure  ;  they  contain  Araniaii-,  Plio?niciau,  and  probably 
Assyrian  fonus.    .See  ^.  A  J/.f/.,  xvxiii.  321.  ^ 

°  Some  traces  of  this  pLeuomcuou  are  fouud  later. 


648 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


belong  to  the  Persian  period,  but  have  certainly  been  re- 
modelled by  a  later  writer.^  Yet  in  Ezra  we  find  a  few- 
antique  forms  which  do  not  occur  in  Daniel.  The  Aramaic 
pieces  contained  in  the  Bible  have  the  great  advantage  of 
being  furnished  with  vowels  and  other  orthographical 
signs,  though  these  were  not  inserted  until  long  after  the 
composition  of  the  books,  and  are  sometimes  at  variance 
with  the  text  itself.  But,  since  Aramaic  was  still  a  living 
language  when  the  punctuation  came  into  existence,  and 
since  the  lapse  of  time  was  not  so  very  great,  the  tradition 
ran  less  risk  of  corruption  than  in  the  case  of  Hebrew. 
Its  general  correctness  is  further  attested  by  the  innumer- 
able points  of  resemblance  between  this  language  and 
Syriae,  with  which  we  are  accurately  acquainted.  The 
Ajamaic  of  the  Bible  exhibits  various  antique  features 
which  afterwards  disappeared, — for  example,  the  formation 
of  the  passive  by  means  of  internal  vowel-change,  and  the 
causative  with  ha  instead  of  with  a, — phenomena  which 
have  been  falsely  explained  as  Hebraisms.  Biblical  Aramaic 
agi-ees  in  all  essential  points  with  the  language  used  in 
the  niunerous  inscriptions  of  Palmyra  (beginning  soon 
before  the  Christian  era  and  extending  to  about  the  end 
of  the  3d  century)  and  on  the  Nabatcean  coins  and  stone 
monuments  (concluding  about  the  year  100).  Aramaic 
was  the  language  of  Palmyra,  the  aristocracy  of  which 
were  to  a  great  exteilt  of  Arabian  extraction.  In  the 
northern  portion  of  the  Nabatsean  kingdom  (not  far  from 
Damascus)  there  was  probably  a  large  Aramaic  population, 
but  farther  south  Arabic  was  spoken.  At  that  time,  how- 
ever, Aramaic  was  highly  esteemed  as  a  cultivated  lan- 
guage, for  which  reason  the  Arabs  in  question  made  use 
of  it,  as  their  ovm  language  was  not  reduced  to  writing, 
just  as  in  those  ages  Greek  inscriptions  were  set  up  in 
many  districts  where  no  one  spoke  Greek.  That  the 
Nabataeans  were  Arabs  is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  fact 
that,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  Greek  names,  almost  all 
the  numerous  names  which  occur  in  the  Nabatsean  inscrip- 
tions are  Arabic,  in  many  cases  with  distinctly  Arabic 
terminations.  A  further  proof  of  this  is  that  in  the  great 
inscriptions  over  the  tombs  of  Hejr  (not  far  from  TeimA) 
the  native  Arabic  continually  shows  through  the  foreign 
disguise, — for  instance,  in  the  use  of  Arabic  words  when- 
ever the  writer  does  not  happen  to  remember  the  corre- 
sponding Aramaic  terms,  in  the  use  of  the  Arabic  particle 
fa,  of  the  Arabic  ghair,  "other  than,"  and  in  several 
syntactic  features.  The  great  inscriptions  cease  with  the 
overthrow  of  the  Nabatsean  kingdom  by  Trajan  (105) ;  but 
the  Arabian  nomads  in  those  countries,  especially  in  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula,  often  scratched  their  names  on  the 
rocks  down  to  a  later  period,  adding  some  benedictory 
formula  in  Aramaic.  The  fact  that  several  centuries  after- 
wards, the  name  of  "Nabatsean"  was  used  by  the  Arabs  as 
synonymous  with  "Aramsean"  was  probably  due  to  the 
gradual  spread  of  Aramaic  over  a  great  part  of  what  had 
once  been  the  country  of  the  Nabatseans.  In  any  case 
Aramaic  then  exercised  an  immense  influence.  This  is 
also  proved  by  the  place  which  it  occupies  in  the  strange 
Pahlavl  writing,  various  branches  of  which  date  from  the 
time  of  the  Parthian  empire  (see  Pahlavi).  Biblical 
Aramaic,  as  also  the  language  of  the  Pahnyrene  and 
Nabatsean  inscriptions,  may  be  described  as  an  older  form 
of  Western  Aramaic.  The  opinion  that  the  Palestinian 
Jews  brought  their  Aramaic  dialect  direct  from  Babylon 
— whence  the  incorrect  name  "  Chaldee  " — is  altogether 
untenable. 

We  may  now  trace  somewhat  further  the  development 
of  Western  Aramaic  in  Palestine ;  but  unhappily  few  of 

'  The  decree  which  is  said  to  have  Ijeen  sent  by  Ezra  is  in  its  present 
form  a  comparatively  late  production. 


the  sources  from  which  we  derive  our  information  can  be 
thoroughly  trusted.  In  the  synagogues  it  was  necessary 
that  the  reading  of  the  Bible  should  be  followed  by  aa 
oral  "  targiim  "  or  translation  into  Aramaic,  the  language 
of  the  people.  The  Targum  was  at  a  later  period  fixed  ia 
writing,  but  the  officially  sanctioned  form  of  the  Targum 
to  the  Pentateuch  (the  so-called  Targum  of  Onkelos)  an4 
of  that  to  the  prophets  (the  so-called  Jonathan)  was  not 
finally  settled  till  the  4th  or  5th  century,  and  not  in 
Palestine  but  in  Babylonia.  The  redactors  of  the  Targum 
preserved  on  the  whole  the  older  Palestinian  dialect ;  yet 
that  of  Babylon,  which  difi'eied  considerably  from  tha 
former,  exercised  a  vitiating  influence.  The  punctuation, 
which  was  added  later,  first  in  Babylonia,  is  far  less  trust- 
worthy than  that  of  the  Aramaic  pieces  in  the  Bible.  Th« 
language  of  Onkelos  and  Jonathan  differs  but  little  from 
Biblical  Aramaic.  The  language  spoken  some  time  after- 
wards by  the  Palestinian  Jews,  especially  in  Galilee,  is 
exhibited  in  a  series  of  rabbinical  works,  the  so-called  Jeru- 
salem Targums  (of  which,  however,  those  on  the  Hagio- 
grapha  are  in  some  cases  of  later  date),  a  few  Midrashie 
works,  and  the  Jerusalem  Talmud.  Unfortunately  aU 
these  books,  of  which  the  Midrashim  and  the  Talmud 
contain  much  Hebrew  as  well  as  Aramaic,  have  not  beem 
handed  down  with  care,  and  require  to  be  used  with  great 
caution  for  linguistic  purposes.  Moreover,  the  influence 
of  the  older  language  and  orthography  has  in  part  ob- 
scured the ' characteristics  of  these  popular  dialects;  for 
example,  various  gutturals  are  still  written,  although  they 
are  no  longer  pronounced.  The  adaptation  of  the  spelling 
to  the  real  pronunciation  is  carried  furthest  in  the  Jeru- 
salem Talmud,  but  not  in  a  consistent  manner.  ■  Besides, 
all  these  books  are  without  vowel-points ;  but  the  frequent 
use  of  vowel-letters  in  the  later  Jewish  works  renders  this 
defect  less  sensible. 

Not  only  the  Jews  but  also  the  Christians  of  Palestine 
retained  their  native  dialect  for  some  time  as  an  ecclesi- 
astical and  literary  language.  We  possess  translations  of 
the  Gospels  and  fragments  of  other  works  in  this  dialect 
by  the  Palestinian  Christians  dating  from  about  the  5th 
centnry,  accompanied  by  a  punctuation  which  was  not 
added  till  some  time  later.  This  dialect  closely  resembles 
that  of  the  Palestinian  Jews,  as  was  to  be  expected  from 
the  fact  that  those  who  spoke  it  were  of  Jewish  origin. 

Finally,  the  Samaritans,  among  the  inhabitants  of 
Palestine,  translated  their  only  sacred  book,  the  Pentateuch, 
into  their  own  dialect.  The  critical  study  of  this  trans- 
lation proves  that  the  language  which  lies  at  its  base  was 
very  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  neighbouring  Jews. 
Perhaps,  indeed,  the  Samaritans  may  have  carried  the 
softening  of  the  gutturals  a  little  fiu-ther  than  the  Jews  of 
Galilee.  Their  absurd  attempt  to  embellish  the  language 
of  the  translation  by  arbitrarily  introducing  forms  borrowed 
from  the  Hebrew  original  has  given  rise  to  the  false  notion 
that  Samaritan  is  a  mixture  of  Hebrew  and  Aramaic.  The 
introduction  of  Hebrew  and  even  of  Arabic  words  and 
forms  was  practised  in  Samaria  on  a  still  larger  scale  by 
copyists  who  lived  after  Aramaic  had  become  extinct.  The 
later  works  written  in  the  Samaritan  dialect  are,  from  a 
linguistic  point  of  view,  as  worthless  as  the  compositions 
of  Samaritans  in  Hebrew ;  the  writers,  who  spoke  Arabic, 
endeavoured  to  write  in  languages  with  which  they  were 
but  half  acquainted. 

All  these  Western  Aramaic  dialects,  including  that  of 
the  oldest  inscriptions,  have  this  feature  ainong  others 
in  common,  that  they  form  the  third  person  singular 
masculine  and  the  third  person  plural  masculine  and 
feminine  in  the  imperfect  by  prefixing  y,  as  do  the  Other 
Semitic  languages.  And  in  these  dialects  the  termina- 
•tion  d  (the  so-called  "  status  emphaticus  ")  still  retained 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


G49 


the  meaning  of  a  definite  article  down  to  a  tolerably  late 
period. 

is  early  as  the  7th  century  the  conquests  of  the  Moslems 
greatly  circumscribed  the  domain  of  Aramaic  and  a  few 
centuries  later  it  was  almost  completely  sujijilanted  in  the 
West  by  Arabic.  For  the  Christians  of  those  countries, 
who,  like  every  one  else,  spoke  Arabic,  the  Palestinian 
dialect  was  no  longer  of  importance,  and  they  adopted 
as  their  ecclesiastical  language  the  dialect  of  the  other 
Aramaean  Christians,  the  Syriac  (or  Edessene).  The  only 
localities  where  a  Western  Aramaic  dialect  still  survives 
are  a  few  villages  in  Anti-Libanus.  Our  information  upon 
this  subject  is  but  slight  and  fragmentary ;  but  it  is  hoped 
"Slat  Professors  Prym  and  Socin  will  soon  be  able  to  furnish 
more  ample  details. 

The  popular  Aramaic  dialect  of  Babylonia  from  the 
4th  to  the  6th  century  of  our  era  is  exhiliited  in  the  | 
Babylonian  Talmud,  in  which,  however,  as  in  the  Jeru- 
salem Talmud,  there  is  a  constant  mingling  of  Aramaic 
and  Hebrew  passages.  To  a  somewhat  later  period,  and 
probably  not  to  exactly  the. same  district  of  Babylonia, 
belong  the  writings  of  the  Mand-Eans  (q.v.),  a  strange 
sect,  half  Christian  and  half  heathen,  who  from  a  linguistir 
point  of  view  possess  the  peculiar  advantage  of  having 
remained  almost  entirely  free  from  the  influence  of  Hebrew, 
■which  is  so  perceptible  in  the  Aramaic  writings  of  Jews 
as  well  as  of  Christians.  Tbe  orthography  of  the  Man- 
cbeans  comes  nearer  than  that  of  the  Talmud  to  the  real 
pronun  jiation,  and  in  it  the  softening  of  the  gutturals  is 
most  clearly  seen.  In  other  respects  there  is  a  close  resem- 
Uance  between  Mandsean  and  the  language  of  the  Babylon- 
ian Talmud.-  The  forms  of  the  imperfect  which  we  have 
enumerated  above  take  in  these  dialects  n  or  l.^  In 
Babylonia,  as  in  Syria,  the  language  of  the  Arabic  cbn- 
qnerors  rapidly  drove  out  that  of  the  country.  .  The  latter 
has  long  been  totally  extinct,  unless 'possibly  a  few  surviv- 
ing Mandaeans  still  speak  among  themselves  a  more  modern 
form  of  their  dialect. 
fri&c  ot  At  Edessa,  in  the  west  of  Mesopotamia,  the  native 
dialect  had  already  been  used  for  some  time  as  a  literary 
'"  language,  and  had  been  reduced  to  rule  through  the  influ- 
ence of  the  schools  (as  is  proved  by  the  fixity  of  the  grammar 
and  orthography)  even  Ijefore  Christianity  acquired  power 
in  the  country  in  the  2d  century.  At  an  early  period  tbe 
Old  and  New  Testaments  were  here  translated,  with  the 
help  of  Jewish  tradition.  This  version  (the  so-called 
Peshitta  or  Peshito)  became  the  Bible  of  Aramsean  Chris- 
tendom, and  Edessa  became  its  capital.  Thus  the  Aramrean 
Christians  of  the  neighbouring  countries,  even  those  who 
■were  subjects  of  the  Persian  empire,  adopted  the  Edessan 
dialect  as  the  language  of  the  church,  of  literature,  and 
of  cultivated  intercourse.  Since  the  ancient  name  of  the 
inhabitants,  "  Aramxans,"  just  like'that  of  "EAAi^i'cs,  had 
acquired  in  the  minds  of  Jews  and  Christians  the  un- 
pleasant signification  of  "  heathens,"  it  was  generally 
avoided,  and  in  its  place  the  Greek  terms  "  SjTians  "  and 
"Syriac"  were  used.  But  "Syriac"  was  also  the  name 
^Ten  by  the  Jews  and  Christians  of  Palestine  to  their  own 
language,  and  both  Greeks  and  Persians  designated  the 
A»amaeans  of  Babylonia  as  "Syrians."  It  is  therefore, 
properly  speaking,  incorrect  to  employ  the  word  "Syriac" 
as  meaning  the  language  of  Edessa  alone ;  but,  since  it 
■was  the  most  important  of  these  dialects,  it  has  the  best 
claim  to  this  generally  received  appellation.  It  has,  as  we 
have  said,  a  shape  very  definitely  fixed ;  and  in  it  the 
above-mentioned  forms  of  the  imperfect  take  an  n.  As 
in  the  Babylonian  dialects,  the  termination  d  has  become 
so  comjilctely  a  part  of  the  substantive  to  which  it  is 
added  that  it  has  wholly  lost  the  meaning  of  the  definite 
1  See  Noldeke,  Mandiiische  (Jrammatik  (Halle,  187.'-). 


article,  •whereby  the  clearness  of  the  language  is  perceptibly 
impaired.  The  influence  exercised  by  Greek  is  very  ajijia- 
rent  in  Syriac.  From  the  3d  to  the  7th  century  an  exten- 
sive literature  was  produced  in  this  language,  consisting 
chiefly,  but  not  entirely,  of  ecclesiastical  works.  '  In  the 
development  of  this  literature  the  Syi'ians  of  the  Persian 
erajjire  took  an  eager  part.  In  the  Eastern  Eoman  empire 
Syriac  was,  after  Greek,  by  far  the  most  important  lan- 
guage; and  under  the  Persian  kings  it  virtually  occupied 
a  more  prominent  position  as  an  organ  of  culture  than  the 
Persian  language  itself.  The  conquests  of  the  Arabs  totally 
changed  this  state  of  things.  But  meanwhile,  even  in 
Edessa,  a  considerable  difi'erence  had  arisen  between  the 
written  language  and  the  popular  speech,  in  which  the  pro- 
cess of  modification  was  still  going  on.  About  the  year 
700  it  became  a  matter  of  absolute  necessity  to  systematize 
the  grammar  of  the  language  and  to  introduce  some  means 
of  cleariy  expressing  the  vowels.  The  principal  object 
aimed  at  was  that  the  text  of  the  Syriac  Bible  should  bo 
recited  in  a  correct  manner.  But,  as  it  happened,  the 
eastern  pronunciation  difi"ered  in  many  respects  from  that 
of  the  west.  The  local  dialects  had  to  some  extent  exer- 
cised an  influence  over  the  pronunciation  of  the  literary 
tongue ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  political  separation 
between  Home  and  Persia,  and  yet  more  the  ecclesiastical 
schism — since  the  Syrians  of  the  east  were  mostly  .Nesto- 
rians,  those  of  the  ■u-est  ^lonophysites  and  Catholics — had 
produced  divergencies  between  the  traditions  of  the  various 
schools.  Starting,  therefore,  from  a  common  source,  two 
distinct  systems  of  punctuation  ■were  formed,  of  which  tlie 
western  is  the  more  convenient,  but  the  eastern  the  more 
exact  and  generally  the  more  in  accordance  with  the 
ancient  pronunciation ;  it  has,  for  example,  d  in  place 
of  the  western  6,  and  6  in  many  cases- where  the  western 
Syrians  pronounce  w.  In  later  times  the  two  systems 
have  been  intermingled  in  various  ways. 

Arabic  everj-where  put  a  speedy  end  to  the  predomi- 
nance of  Aramaic — a  predominance  which  had  lasted  for 
more  than  a  thousand  years — and  soon  began  to  drive 
Syriac  out  of  use.  At  the  beginning  of  the  11th  century 
the  learned  metropolitan  of  Nisibis,  Elias  bar  Shinndyi, 
wrote  his  books  intended  for  Christians  either  entirely  in 
Arabic  or  in  Arabic  and  Syriac  arranged  in  parallel  columns, 
that  is,  in  the  spoken  and  in  the  learned  language.  Thus, 
too,  it  became  necessary  to  have  Syriac-Arabic  glossaries. 
Up  to  the  present  day  Syriac  has  remained  in  use  for 
literary  and  ecclesiastical  purposes,  and  may  perhajts  bo 
even  spoken  in  some  monasteries  and  schools ;  but  it  has 
long  been  a  dead  language.  When  Syriac  becams  ex- 
tinct in  Edessa  and  its  neighbourhood  is  not  known  -with 
certainty. 

This  language,  called  Syriac.  par  ercellenre,  is  not  the 
immediate  source  whence  are  derived  the  Aramaic  dialects 
still  surviving  in  thenortlicrn  districts.  In  the  mountains 
known  as  the  Tiir  'Abdin  in  Mesopotamia,  in  certain 
districts  east  and  north  of  Mosul,  in  the  neighbouring 
mountains  of  Kurdistan,  and  again  beyond  them  on  the 
■western  coast  of  Lake  Urmia,  Aramaic  dialects  arc  spoken 
by  Christians  and  occasionally  by  Jews,  and  some  of  these 
dialects  wo  know  with  tolerable  precision.  The  dialect  of 
Tiir  'Abdin  seems  to  dilfcr  considerably  from  all  the  rest ; 
the  country  beyond  the  Tigris  is,  however,  divided,  as 
regards  language,  amongst  a  multitude  of  local  dialect.s. 
Among  these,  that  of  Urmia  has  become  the  most  import- 
ant, since  American  missionaries  have  formed  a  new  literary 
language  out  of  it.  Moreover,  the  Roman  Propaganda  has 
printed  books  in  two  of  the  Neo. Syriac  dialects.  All  these 
dialects  exhibit  a  complete  transformation  of  the  ancient 
type,  to  a  degree  incomparably  greater  than  ia  the  ca.so, 
for  example,  with  Manda;an.     In  particular,  the  ancient 

XXI.  —  &2 


650 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


verbal  tenses  have  aimost  entirely  disappeared,  but  have 
been  successfully  replaced  by  new  forms  derived  from  parti- 
ciples. There  are  also  other  praiseworthy  innovations. 
The  dialect  of  Tiir  "Abdin  has,  for  instance,  again  coined 
a  definite  article.  By  means  of  violent  contractions  and 
phonetic  changes  some  of  these  dialects,  particularly  that 
cf  Urmia,  have  acquired  a  euphony  scarcely  known  in  any 
other  of  the  Semitic  languages,  with  their  "stridentia 
anhelantiaque  verba "  (Jerome).  These  Aramaeans  have 
all  adopted  a  motley  crowd  of  foreign  words,  from  the 
Arabs,  Ktxrds,  and  Turks,  on  whose  borders  they  live  and 
of  whose  languages  they  can  often  speak  at  least  one. 

Aramaic  is  frequently  described  as  a  poor  language.  This 
is  an  opinion  which  we  are  unable  to  share.  It  is  quite 
possible,  even  now,  to  extract  a  very  large  vocabulary  from 
the  more  ancient  Aramaic  writings,  and  yet  in  this  pre- 
dominantly theological  literature  a  part  only  of  the  words 
that  existed  in  the  language  have  been  preserved.  It  is 
true  that  Aramaic,  having  from  the  earliest  times  come  into 
close  contact  with  foreign  languages,  has  borrowed  many 
w' ords  from  them,  in  particular  from  Persian  and  Greek ; 
but,  if  we  leave  out  -of  consideration  the  fact  that  many 
Syrian  authors  are  in  the  habit  of  using,  as  ornameuts  or 
for  convenience  (especially  in  translations),  a  great  number 
of  Greek  words,  some  of  which  were  unintelligible  to  their 
readers,  we  shall  find  that  the  proportion  of  really  foreign 
words  in  older  Aramaic  books  is  not  larger,  perhaps  even 
smaller,  than  the  proportion  of  Romance  words  in  German 
or  Dutch.  The  influence  of  Greek  upon  the  syntax  and 
phraseology  of  Syriac  is  not  so  great  as  that  which  it  has 
exercised,  through  the  medium  of  Latin,  upon  the  literary 
languages  of  modern  Europe.  With  regard '  to  sounds, 
the  most  characteristic  feature  of  Aramaic  (besides  its 
peculiar  treatment  of  the  dentals)  is  that  it  is  poorer  in 
vowels  than  Hebrew,  not  to  speak  of  Arabic,  since  nearly 
all  short  vowels  in  open  syllables  either  wholly  disappear  or 
leave  but  a  slight  trace  behind  them  (the  so-called  shewa). 
In  this  respect  the  punctuation  of  Biblical  Aramaic  agrees 
with  Syriac,  in  which  we  are  able  to  observe  from  very 
early  times  the  number  of  vowels  by  examining  the  metri- 
cal pieces  constructed  according  to  the  number  of  syllables, 
and  with  the  Mandaean,  which  expresses  every  vowel  by 
means  of  a  vowel-letter.  When  several  distinct  dialects 
so  agree,  the  phenomenon  in  question  must  be  of  great 
antiquity.  There  are  nevertheless  traces  which  prove  that 
the  language  once  possessed  more  vowels,  and  the  Ara^ 
mKans,  for  instance,  with  whom  David  fought  may  have 
2ironounced  many  vowels  which  afterwards  disappeaired. 
Another  'peculiarity  of  Aramaic  is  that  it  lends  itself  far 
more  readily  to  the  linking  together  of  sentences  than 
Hebrew  and  Arabic.  It  possesses  many  conjunctions  and 
adverbs  to  express  slight  modifications  of  meaning.  It  is 
also  very  free  as  regards  the  order  of  words.  That  this 
quality,  which  renders  it  suitable  for  a  clear  and  limpid 
prose  style,  is  not  the  result  of  Greek  influence  may  be 
seen  by  the  Mandapan,  on  which  Greek  has  left  no  mark. 
In  its  attempts  to  express  everything  clearly  Aramaic 
often  becomes  prolix, — for  example,  by  using  additional 
persbnal  and  demonstrative  pronouns.  The  contrast  be- 
tween Aramaic  as  the  language  of  prose  and  Hebrew  as 
the  language  of  poetry  is  one  which  naturally  strikes  us, 
but  we  must  beware  of  carrying  it  too  far.  Even  the 
Aramjeans  were  not  wholly  destitute  of  poetical  talent. 
Although  the  religious  poetry  of  the  Syrians  has  but  little 
charm  for  us,  yet  real  poetry  occurs  in  the  few  extant  frag- 
ments of  Gnostic  hymns.  ^Moreover,  in  the  modern  dialects 
popular  songs  have  been  discovered  which,  though  very 
simple,  are  fresh  and  fvdl  of  feeUng.i     It  is  therefore  by  no 


'  See  Socin,  Die  iicit-aramaischen  Diitlekte  xon   Urm'- 
Tvitiiugen,  1882  :  comt>.  Z.D.il.G..  xxxvi.  079  sq. 


l/is  Mosul, 


means  improoaoie  tnat  m  ancient  times  Aramaic  was  used 
in  ixiems  which,  being  contrary  to  the  theological  tendemy 
of  Syrian  civilization,  were  doomed  to  total  oblivion. 

Assyrian. — Long  before  Aramaic  another  Semitic  lan- 
guage flourished  in  the  regions  of  the  Tigris  and  on  the  lower 
Euphrates  which  has  been  preserved  to  us  in  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions.  It  is  usually  called  the  Assyrian,  after  the 
name  of  the  country  where  the  first  and  most  important 
e.xcavations  were  made  ;  but  the  term  "Babylonian"  would 
be  more  correct,  as  Babylon  was  the  birthplace  of  this  lan- 
guage and  of  the  civilization  to  which  it  belonged.'  Certain 
Babylonian  inscriptions  appear  to  go  back  to  the  fourth 
millennium  before  our  era ;  but  the  great  mass  of  these 
cuneiform  inscriptions  date  from  between  1000  and  600 
B.C.  Assyrian  seems  to  be  more  nearly  related  to  Hebrew 
than  to  Aramaic ;  we  may  cite,  for  example,  the  relative 
particle  ska,  which  is  also  used  as  a  sign  of  the  genitive, 
and  is  identical  with  the  Phoenician  ash  and  the  Hebrevr 
asher  {she,  ska),  also  the  similarity  between  AssjTian  and 
Hebrew  in  the  treatment  of  the  aspirated  dentals.  On  tha 
other  hand,  Assyrian  differs  in  many  respects  from  all  the 
cognate  languages.  The  ancient  perfect  has  wholly  dis- 
appeared, or  left  but  few  traces,  and  the  gutturals,  with 
the  exception  of  the  hard  l-h,  have  been  smoothed  down  to 
a  degree  which  is  only  paralleled  in  the  modern  Aramaic 
dialects.  So  at  least  it  would  appear  from  the  writing,  or 
rather  from  the  manner  in  which  Assp-iologists  transcribe 
it.  The  Babylonian  form  bel  (occurring  in  Isa.  xlvi.  1 ; 
Jer.  1.  2  and  li.  ii, — passages  all  belonging  to  the  6t2i 
century  B.C.),  the  name  of  the  god  who  was  originally 
called  ba'l,  is  a  confirmation  of  this ;  but,  on  the  othear 
hand,  the  name  of  the  country  where  Babylon  was  situated, 
viz.,  Shin'ar,  and  that  of  a  Babylonian  god,  'Anammelekb 
(2  Kings  xvii.  31),  as  well  as  those  of  the  tribes  Sh6'a 
and  Ko'a  (Ezek.  xxiii.  23)  who  inhabited  the  Assyrio- 
Babylonian  territory,  seem  to  militate  against  this  theory, 
as  they  are  spelt  in  the  Old  Testament  with  "aire.  The 
Assyrian  system  of  writing  is  so  complicated,  and,  in  spite 
CI  its  vast  apparatus,  is  so  imperfect  an  instrument  for  the 
accurate  representation  of  sounds,  that  we  are  hardly  yet 
bound  to  regard  the  transcriptions  of  contemporary  Assyrio- 
logists  as  being  in  all  points,  of  detaU  the  final  dictum  of 
science.  It  is,  for  example,  very  doubtful  whether  the 
vowels  at  the  end  of  words  and  the  appended  m  were 
really  pronounced  in  all  cases,  as  this  would  presuppoa^ 
a  complete  confusion  in  the  grammar  of  the  language. 
However  this  may  be,  the  present  writer  does  not  feel 
able  to  speak  at  greater  length  upon  Assyrian,  not. being 
an  Assyriologist  himself  nor  yet  capable  of  satisfactorily 
distinguishing  the  certain  from  the  uncertain  results  of 
Assyriological  inquiry. 

The  native  cuneiform  writing  was  used  in  Eabylonift 
not  only  under  the  Persian  empire  but  also  in  the  Greek 
period,  as  the  discovery  of  isolated  specimens  proves.  JJ) 
does  not  of  course  necessarily  follow  from  this  that  Assyrian 
was  still  spoken  at  that  time.  Indeed,  this  language  may 
possibly  have  been  banished  from  ordinary  life  long  before 
the  destruction  of  Nineveh,  surviving  only  as  the  officisd 
and  sacerdotal  tongue.  These  inscriptions,  in  any  cas^ 
were  intended  for  none  but  a  narrow  circle  of  learned 
persons. 

Arabic. — The  soutnern  group  of  Semitic  languages  con- 
sists of  Arabic  and  Ethiopic.  Arabic,  again,  is  subdivided 
into  the  dialects  of  the  larger  portion  of  Arabia  and  those 
of  the  extreme  south  (the  Sabsean,  itc).  At  a  very  much 
earlier  time  than  we  were  but  lately  justified  in  supposing, 
some  of  the  northern  Arabs  reduced  their  language  to 
writing.  For  travellers  have  quite  recently  discovered  in 
the  northern  parts  of  the  Hijdz  inscriptions  in  a  strange 
character  J^hich  seem  to  have  been  written  Ions  before  our 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


651 


era.  The  character  resembles  the  Sabsean.  out  perhaps  re- 
presents an  earlier  stage  of  graphical  development.  These 
inscriptions  have  been  called  "  Tbamudic,"  because  they 
\rere  found  in  the  country  of  the  Thamud  ;  but  this  desig- 
nation is  scarcely  a  suitable  one,  because  during  the  period 
■when  the  power  of  the  Thamiid  was  at  its  height,  and 
•when  the  buildings  mentioned  in  the  Koran  were  hewn  in 
the  rocks,  the  language  of  this  country  was  Nabatjean  (see 
above).  Unfortunately  the  inscriptions  hitherto  discovered 
are  all  short '  and  for  the  most  part  fragmentary,  and  con- 
sequently furnish  but  little  material  to  the  student  of  lan- 
guages. But  there  can:  be  no  doubt  that  they  are  written 
in  an  Arabic  dialect.  The  treatment  of  the  dentals, 
among  other  things,  is  a  sufficient  proof  of  this.  At  least 
in  one  point  they  bear  a  strikitig  resemblance  to  Hebrew  : 
they  have  the  article  ha  (not  kal,  as  we  might  exi^ect).  It 
is  possible  that  the  tribes  living  on  Arabian  soil  which  are 
regarded  in  the  Old  Testament  as  nearly  related  to  Israel, 
that  is,  the  Ishmaelites,  the  ^lidianites,  and  even  the 
Edomites,  may  have  spoken  dialects  occupying  a  middle 
position  between  Arabic  and  Hebrew.  They  are  perhaps 
traces  of  some  such  intermediate  link  that  have  been  pre- 
served to  us  in  these  inscriptions. 

The  numerous  inscriptions  scattered  over  the  north-west 
of  Arabia,  especially  over  the  wild  and  rocky  district  of 
Said,  near  Damascus,  probably  date  from  a  later  period. 
They  ar^  written  in  peculiar  characters,  which,,  it  would 
seem,  are  likewise  related  to  those  used  by  the  Sabffians. 
They  are  all  of  them  short  and  indistinct,  scratched  hurriedly 
and  irreguiar.'r  "iion  unhewn  stone.  AVhat  we  at  present 
understand  of  them — they  consist  almost  entirely  of  proper 
names— is  owing  in  nearly  every  case  to  the  ingenuity  of 
Hal6vy.*  In  matters  of  detail,  however,  much  still  remains 
tincertain.  To  decipher  them  with  absolute  certainty  will 
no  doubt  always  be  impossible  on  account  of  their  careless 
execution.  These  inscriptions  are  probably  the  work  of 
Arab  emigrants  from  the  south. 

The  Arabs  who  inhabited  the  Naoataean  kingdom  wrote 
in  Aramaic,  but,  as  has  been  remarked  above,  their  natLve 
language,  Arabic,  often  shows  through  the  foreign  disguise. 
We  are  thus  able  to  satisfy  ourselves  that  these  Arabs,  who 
lived  a  little  before  and  a  little  after  Christ,  spoke  a  dialect 
closely  resembling  the  later  classical  Arabic.  The  nomi- 
native of  the  so-called  "  triptote  "  nouns  has,  as  in  classical 
Arabic,  the  termination  u ;  the  genitive  has  i  (the  accusa- 
tive therefore  probably  ended  in  a),  but  without  the  addi- 
tion of  n.  Generally  speaking,  those  proper  names  which 
in  classical  Arabic  are  "diptotes"  aje  here  devoid  of  any 
inflexional  termination.  The  u  of  the  nominative  appears 
also  in  Arabic  proper  names  belonging  to  more  northern 
districts,'  as,  for  example.  Palmyra  and  Edessa.  All  these 
Arabs  were  probably  of  the  same  race.  It  is  possible  that 
the  two  oldest  known  .specimens  of  distinctively  Arabic 
■writing — namely,  the  Arabic  portion  of  the  trilingual  in- 
scription of  Zabad,  south-east  of  Halob  (Aleppo),  written 
in  Syriac,  Greek,  and  Arabic,  and  dating  from  512  or  513 
A.D.,  ^  and  that  of  the  bilingual  inscription  of  Harran, 
south  of  Damascus,'*-  written  in  Greek  and  Arabic,  of  5GS 
— represent  nothing  but  a  somewhat  more  modern  form 
of  this  dialect.  In  both  these  inscriptions  proper  names 
take  in  the  genitive  the  termination  u,  which  shows  that 
the  meaning  of  such  inflexions  was  no  longer  felt.  These 
two  inscriptions,  especially  that  of  Zabad,  which  is  badly 

'  Tlie  (lecipliennent  of  these  inscrijitious  was  begun  by  lir.'uvy,  who 
followetl  the  drawings  of  Doughty.  The  subject  is  now  being  further 
invcstig.ateil  by  D.  H.  Mtiller  of  Vicuna  from  Euting's  copies, 

-  "  Essai  sur  Ics  luscriptions  du  Safa,"  from  the  Journal  Atialique 
(Paris,  1882).'  ' 

'  Sachau,  Monatsherkkt  dcr  Berliner  Ahndcmie dcr  WiasenachafUn, 
10th  Febniarv  1881,  and  Z.D.iF.O.,  xxxvi.  345  sy. 

■«  Le  Btts  aiid  Waddiugtou,  No.  SJttJ,  aud  Z.VM.G.,  ixxviii.  530. 


written,  have  not  vet  been  satisfactorily  intertireted  in  all 
their  details. 

During  the  whole  period  qf  the  preponderance  of  Aramaic 
this  language  exercised  a  great  influence  upon  the  vocabu- 
lary of  the  Arabs.  The  more  carefully  we  investigate  the 
more  clearly  does  it  appear  that  numerous  Arabic  words; 
used  for  ideas  or  objects  which  presuppose  a  certain  degree 
of  ci^■ilization,  are  borrowed  from  the  ..Vramajans.  Hence 
the  civilizing  influence  of  their  northern  neighbours  must 
have  been  very  strongly  felt  by  the  Aj'abs,  and  contributed 
in  no  small  measure  to  prepare  them  fur  playing  so  import- 
ant a  jiart  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

In  the  6th  centiu-y  the  inhabitants  of  the  greater  part 
of  Arabia  proper  spoke  everywhere  essentially  the  same 
language,  which,  as  being  by  far  the  most  important  of  all 
Arabic  dialects,  is  known  simply  as  the  Arabic  language. 
Arabic,  poetry,  at  that  time  cultivated  throughout  the 
whole  of  central  and  northern  Arabia  as  far  as  the  lower 
Euphrates  and  even  beyond  it,  employed  one  language 
only.  The  extant  Arabic  poems  belonging  to  the  heathen 
period  were  not  indeed  written  down  tiU  much  later,  and 
meanwhile  underwent  considerable  alterations  ^ ;  but  the 
absolute  regularit}'  of  the  metre  and  rhyme  is  a  suflicient 
proof  that  on  the  whole  these  poems  all  obeyed  the  same 
laws  of  language.  It  is  indeed  highly  probable  that  the 
rhapsodists  and  the  grammarians  have  effaced  many  slight 
dialectical  peculiarities ;  in  a  great  number  of  passages,  for 
example,  the  poets  may  have  used,  in  accordance  with  the 
fashion  of  their  respective  tribes,  some  other  case  than  that 
prescribed  by  the  grammarians,  and  a  thing  of  this  kind 
may  afterwards  have  been  altered,  unless  it  happened  to 
occur  in  rhyme ;  but  such  alterations  cannot  have  extended 
very  far.  A  dialect  that  diverged  in  any  great  measure 
from  the  Arabic  of  the  grammarians  could  not  possibly 
have  been  made  to  fit  into  the  metres.  Moreover,  the 
Arabic  philologists  recognize  the  existence  of  various  small 
distinctions  between  the  dialects  of  individual  tribes  and  of 
their  poets,  and  the  traditions  of  the  more  ancient  schoola 
of  Koran  readers  exhibit  very  many  dialectical  nuances. 
It  might  indeed  be  conjectured  that  for  the  majority  qf 
the  Arabs  the  language  of  poetry  was  an  artificial  one, — 
the  speech  of  certain  tribes  having  been  adopted  by  all  the 
rest  as  a  dialectus  poeiica.  And  this  might  be  possible  in 
the  case  of  wandering  minstrels  whose  art  gained  them 
their  livelihood,  such  as  Ndbigha  and  A'shA.  But,  when 
we  find  that  t.he  Bedouin  goat-herds,  for  instance,  in  the 
mountainous  district  near  Mecca  composed  poems  in  this 
very  same  language  upon  their  insignificant  feuds  and  per- 
sonal quarrels,  that  in  it  the  proud  chiefs  of  the  Taghli- 
bites  and  the  Bekrites  addressed  defiant  verses  to  the  king 
of  Hira  (on  the  Euphrates),  that  a  Christian  inhabitant  qf 
Hlra,  Adl  b.  Zaid,  used  this  language  iu  his  serious  poems, 
— when  we  reflect  that,  as  far  as  the  Arabic  poetry  of  the 
heathen  period  extends,  there  is  nowhere  a  trace  of  any 
important  linguistic  difl'erence,  it  would  surely  be  a.  para- 
dox to  assume  that  all  these  Arabs,  who  for  the  most  p>art 
were  quite  illiterate  and  yet  extremely  jealous  of  the  honour 
of  their  tribes,  could  have  taken  the  trouble  to  clothe  their 
ideas  and  feelings  iu  a  foreign,  or  even  a  perfectly  arti- 
ficial, language.  The  Arabic  philologists  also  invariably 
regarded  the  language  of  the  poets  as  being  that  of  the 
Arabs  in  general.-  Even  at  the  end  of  the  2d  century 
after  Mohammed  the  Bedouins  of  Arabia  proper,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  outlying  districts,  were  considered  as 
being  in  possession  of  this  pure  Arabic.  The  most  learned 
grammarians  were  in  the  habit  of  appealing  to  any  unedu- 
cated man  who  happened  to  have  just  arrived  with  his 
camels  from  the  desert,  though  he  did  not  know  by  heart 
twenty  verses  of  the  Koran,  and  had  no  conception  of  theo- 

"  Comp.  the  article  Mo'iLU.4¥AI. 


652 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


retical  grammar,  in  order  that  he  might  decide  whether  in 
Arabic  it  were  allowable  or  necessary  to  express  oneself  in 
this  or  that  manner.  It  is  evident  that  these  profound 
scholars  knew  of  only  one  classical  language,  which  was  still 
spoken  by  the  Bedouins.  The  tribes  which  produced  the 
principal  poets  of  the  earlier  period  belonged  for  the  most 
part  to  portions  of  the  HijAz,  to  Nejd  and  its  neighbour- 
hood, and  to  the  region  which  stretches  thenc  towards  the 
Euphrates.  A  great  part  of  the  HijAz,  on  the  other  hand, 
plays  a  very  unimportant  part  in  this  poetry,  and  the 
Arabs  of  the  north-west,  who  were  under  the  Roman 
dominion,  have  no  share  whatever  in  it.  The  dialects  of 
these  latter  tribes  probably  diverged  further  from  the 
ordinary  language.  The  fact  that  they  were  Christians 
does  not  explain  this,  since  t'ae  Taglilibites  and  other  tribes 
who  produced  eminent  poets  also  professed  Christianity. 
Moreover,  poets  from  the  interior  were  gladly  welcomed 
at  the  court  of  the  Ghassanian  princes,  who  were  Christian 
vassals  of  the  emperor  residing  near  Damascus ;  in  this 
district,  therefore,  their  language  was  at  least  understood. 
It  may  be  added  that  most  of  the  tribes  which  cultivated 
poetry  appear  to  have  been  near  neighbours  at  an  epoch 
not  very  far  removed  from  that  in  question,  and  afterwards 
to  have  been  scattered  in  large  bands  over  a  much  wider 
extent  of  country.  And  nearly  all  those  who  were  not 
Christians  paid  respect  to  the  sanctuary  of  Mecca.  It  is 
a  total  mistake,  but  one  frequently  made  by  Europeans, 
to  designa.te  the  Arabic  language  as  "  the  Koraishite  dia- 
lect." This  expression  never  occurs  in  any  Arabic  author. 
True,  in  a  few  rare  cases  we  do  read  of  the  dialect  of  the 
Koraish,  by  which  is  meant  the  peculiar  local  tinge  that 
distinguished  the  speech  of  Mecca ;  but  to  describe  the 
Arabic  language  as  "  Koraishite  "  is  as  absurd  as  it  would 
be  to  speak  of  English  as  the  dialect  of  London  or  of 
Oxford.  This  unfortunate  designation  has  been  made  the 
basis  of  a  theory  very  often  repeated  in  modern  times, — 
namely,  that  classical  Arabic  is  nothing  else  but  the  dialect 
of  Mecca,  which  the  Koran  first  brought  into  fashion.  So 
far  from  this  being  the  case,  it  is  certain  that  the  speech 
of  the  towns  in  the  HijAz  did  not  agree  in  every  point  with 
the  language  of  the  poets,  and,  as  it  happens,  the  Koran 
itself  contains  some  remarkable  deviations  from  the  rules 
of  the  classical  language.  This  would  be  still  more  evident 
if  the  punctuation,  which  was  introduced  at  a  later  time, 
did  not  obscure  many  details.  The  traditions  which  re- 
present the  Koraish  as  speaking  the  purest  of  all  Arabic 
dialects  are  partly  the  work  of  the  imagination  and  partly 
compliments  paid  to  the  rulers  descended  from  the  Koraish, 
but  are  no  doubt  at  variance  with  the  ordinary  opinion  of 
the  Arabs  themselves  in  earlier  days.  In  the  Koran  Mo- 
hammed has  imitated  the  poets,  though,  generally  speaking, 
wth  little  success ;  the  poets,  on  the  other  hand,  never 
imitated  him.  Thus  the  Koran  and  its  language  exorcised 
but  very  little  influence  ujjon  the  poetry  of  the  following 
century  and  upon  that  of  later  times,  whereas  this  poetry 
closely  and  slavishly  copied,  the  productions  of  the  old 
heathen  period.  The  fact  that  the  poetical  literature  of 
the  early  Moslems  has  been  preserved  in  a  much  more 
authentic  form  than  the  works  of  the  heathen  poets 
proves  that  our,  idea  of  the  ancient  poetry  is  on  the 
whole  just. 

The  Koran  and  Islam  raised  Arabic  to  the  position  of 
one  of  the  principal  languages  of  the  world.  Under  the 
leadership  of  the  Koraish  the  Bedouins  subjected  half  the 
world  to  both  their  dominion  and  their  faith.  Thus 
Arabic  acquired  the  additional  character  of  a  sacred  lan- 
guage. But  soon  it  became  evident  that  not  nearly  all 
the  Arabs  ^poke  a  language  precisely  identical  with  the 
classical  Arabic  of  the  poets.  The  north-western  Arabs 
played  a  particularly  important  part  during  the  period  of 


the  Omayyads.  The  ordinary  speech  of  Mecca  and 
Medina  was,  as  we  have  seen,  no  longer  quite  so  primitive' 
as  that  of  the  desert.  To  this  may  be  added  that  the 
military  expeditions  brought  those  Arabs  who  spoke  the 
classical  language  into  contact  with  tribes  from  -out-of-the- 
way  districts,  such  as  'Omdn,  Bahrain  (Bahrein),  and 
particularly  the  north  of  Yemen.  The  fact  that  numbers 
of  foreigners,  on  passing  over  to  Islam,  became  rapidly 
Arabized  was  also  little  calculated  to  preserve  the  unitj  of 
the  language.  Finally,  the  violent  internal  and  external 
commotions  which  were  produced  by  the  great  events  of 
that  time,  and  stirred  the  whole  nation,  probably  acceler- 
ated linguistic  change.  In  any  case,  we  know  from  good 
tradition  that  even  in  the  1st  century  of  the  Flight  the 
distinction  between  correct  and  incorrect  speech  was  quite 
perceptible.  About  the  end  of  the  2d  century  the  system 
of  Arabic  grammar  was  constructed,  and  never  underwent 
any  essential  modification  in  later  times.  The  theory  as 
to  how  one  should  express  oneself  was  now  definitely 
fixed.  The  majority  of  those  Arabs  who  lived  beyond  the 
limits  of  Arabia  already  diverged  far  from  this  standard ; 
and'  in  particular  the  final  vowels  which  serve  to  indicate 
cases  and  moods  were  no  longer  pronounced.  This  change, 
by  which  Arabic  lost  one  of  its  principal  advantages,  was 
no  doubt  hastened  by  the  fact  that  even  in  the  classical 
style  such  terminations  were  omitted  whenever  the  word 
stood  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  (in  pause) ;  and  in  the  living 
language  of  the  Arabs  this  dividing  of  sentences  is  very 
frequent.  Hence  people  were  already  quite  accustomed 
to  forms  without  grammatical  terminations. 

Through  the  industry  of  Arabic  philologists  we  are  ablevocai 
to  make  ourselves  intimately  acquainted  with  the  system,  1"7- 
and  still  more  wth  the  vocabulary  of  the  language, 
although  they  have  not  always  performed  their  task  in  a 
critical  manner.  We  should  be  all  the  iiiore  disposed  to 
admire  the  richness  of  the  ancient  Arabic  vocabulary  when 
we  remember  how  simple  are  the  conditions  of  life  amongst 
the  Arabs,  how  painfully  monotonous  their  country^  and 
consequently  how  limited  the  range  of  their  ideas  tnust 
be.  Within  this  range,  however,  the  slightest  modification 
is  expressed  by,  a  particular  word.  It  must  be  confessed 
that  the  Aaabic  lexicon  has  been  greatly  augmented  by 
the  habit  of  citing  as  words  by  themselves  such  rhetorical 
phrases  as  an  individual  poet  has  used  to  describe  an  ob- 
ject :  for  example,  if  one  poet  calls  the  lion  the  "tearer" 
and  another  calls  him  the  "  mangier,"  each  of  these  terms 
is  explained  by  the  lexicographers  as  equivalent  to  "  lion." 
One  branch  of  literature  in  particular,  namely,  lampoons 
and  satirical  poems,  which  for  the  most  part  have  perished, 
no  doubt  introduced  into  the  lexicon  many  expressions 
coined  in  an  arbitrary  and  sometimes  in  a  very  strange 
manner.  Moreover,  Arabic  philologists  have  greatly  under- 
rated the  number  of  words  which,  though  they  occur  now 
and  then  in  poems,  were  never  in  general  use  except  among 
particular  tribes.  But  in  spite  of  these  qualifications  it 
must  be  admitted  that  the  vocabulary  is  surprisingly  rich, 
and  the  Arabic  dictionary  will  always  remain  the  principal 
resomce  for  the  elucidation  of  obscure  expressions  in  all 
the  other  Semitic. tongues.  This  method,  if  pursued  ivith 
the  necessary  caution,  is  a  perfectly  legitimate  one. 

Poems  seldom  enable  us  to  form  a  clear  idea  of  the  lan- 
guage of  ordinary  life,  and  Arabic  poetry  happens  to  have 
been  distinguished  from  the  very  beginning  by  a  certain 
tendency  to  artificiality  and  mannerism.  Still  less  does 
the  Koran  exhibit  the  language  in  its  spoken  form.  This 
ofiice  is  performed  by  the  prose  of  the  ancient  traditions 
(Hadlth).  The  genuine  accounts  of  the  deeds  of  the 
Prophet  and  of  his  companions,  and  not  less  the  stories 
concerning  the  battles  and  adventures  of  the  Bedouins  i» 
the  heathen  period  and  in  the  earlier  days  of  Islam,  are 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


653 


excellent  models  of  a  prose  style,  altliougli  in  some  cases 
their  redaction  dates  from  a  later  time. 

Classical  Arabic  is  rich  not  only  in  words  but  in  gram- 
matical forms.  The  wonderful  development  of  the  broken 
plurals,  and  sometimes  of  the  verbal  nouns  must  be  re- 
garded as  an  excess  of  wealth.  The  sparing  use  of  the 
ancient  terminations  which  mark  the  plural  has  somewhat 
obscured  the  distinction  between  plurals,  collective.s,  ab- 
stract nouns,  and  feminines  in  general  In  its  manner  of 
employing  the  verbal  tenses  genuine  Arabic  still  exhibits 
traces  of  that  poetical  freedom  which  we  see  in  Hebrew ; 
this  characteristic  disappears  in  the  later  literary  language. 
In  connecting  sentences  Arabic  can  go  much  further  than 
Hebrew,  but  the  simple  parataxis  is  by  far  the  most  usual 
construction.  Arabic  has,  however,  this  great  advantage, 
that  it  scarcely  ever  leaves  us  in  doubt  as  to  where  the 
apodosis  begins.  The  attempts  to  define  the  tenses  more 
clearly  by  the  addition  of  adverbs  and  auxiliary  verbs  lead 
to  no  very  positive  result  (as  is  the  case  in  other  Semitic 
languages  also),  since  they  are  not  carried  out  in  a  system- 
atic manner.  The  arrangement  of  words  in  a  sentence  is 
governed  by  very  strict  rules.  As  the  subject  and  object, 
at  least  in  ordinary  cajses,  occupy  fixed  positions,  and  as  the 
genitive  is  invariably  placed  after  the  noim  that  governs 
it,  the  use  of  case-endings  loses  much  of  its  significance. 

This  language  of  the  Bedouins  had  now,  as  we  have 
seen,  become  that  of  religion,  courts,  and  polished  society. 
In  the  streets  of  the  towns  the  language  already  diverged 
considerably  from  this,  but  the  upper  classes  took  pains  tJo 
speak  "Arabic."  The  poets  and  the  beaux  espriis  never 
ventured  to  employ  any  but  the  classical  language,'  and 
the  "Atticists,"  with  pedantic  seriousness,  convicted  the 
most  celebrated  among  the  later  poets  (for  instance  Motan- 
abbl)  of  occasional  deviations  from  the  standard  of  correct 
speech.  At  the  same  time,  however,  classical  Arabic  was 
the  language  of  business  and  of  science,  and  at  the  present 
day  still  holds  this  position.  There  are,  of  course,  many 
gradations  between  the  pedantry  of  purists  and  the  use  of 
what  is  simply  a  vulgar  dialect.  Sensible  writers  employ 
a  kind  of  Koivj,  which  does  not  aim  at  being  strictly  cor- 
rect and  calls  modern  things  by  modern  names,  but  which, 
nevertheless,  avoids  coarse  vulgarisms,  aiming  principally 
at  making  itself  intelligible  to  aU  educated  men.  The 
reader  may  pronounce  or  omit  the  ancient  terminations  as 
he  chooses.  This  language  lived  on,  in  a  sense,  through 
the  whole  of  the  Middle  Ages,  owing  chiefly  to  the  fact 
that  it  was  intended  for  educated  persons  in  general  and 
not  only  for  the  learned,  whereas  the  poetical  schools 
strove  to  make  use  of  the  long  extinct  language  of  the 
Bedouins.  As  might  be  expected,  this  koivij,  like  the  koivij 
of  the  Greeks,  has  a  comparatively  limited  vocabulary, 
since  its  principle  is  to  retain  only  those  expressions  from 
the  ancient  language  which  were  generally  understood,  and 
it  does  not  borrow  much  new  material  from  the  vulgar 
dialects. 

It  is  entirely  a  ipistake  to  suppose  that  Arabic  is  un- 
suited  for  the  treatment  of  abstract  subjects.  On  the 
contrary,  scarcely  any  language  is  so  well  adapted  to  be 
the  organ  of  scholasticism  in  all  its  branches.  Even  the 
tongue  of  the  ancient  Bedouins  had  a  strong  preference  for 
the  use  of  abstract  verbal  nouns  (in  striking  contrast  to 
the  Latin,  for  example) ;  .thus  they  oftener  said  "  Needful 
is  thy  sitting  "  than  "  It  is  needful  that  thou  shouldest  sit." 
This  tendency  was  very  advantageous  to  i>hilosophical 
phraseology.  The  strict  rules  as  to  the  order  of  words, 
though  very  unfavourable  to  the  development  of  a  truly 
eloquent  style,  render  it  all  the  easier  to  express  ideas  in 
%  rigidly  scientific  form. 

lu  tlio  nieantimo  Arabic,  like  every  other  widely  spread  language, 
ueceasarily  begau  to  uudergo  modification  and  to  Bplit  up  into 


dialects.  The  Arabs  are  mistaken  in  attributing  this  development 
to  the  influence  of  those  foreign  languages  witli  wliich  Arabic  camo 
into  contact.  Such  iulluences  can  have  hadbut  little  to  do  with 
the  matter ;  for  were  it  othciwise  the  language  of  the  interior  of 
Arabia  must  have  remained  unchanged,  yet  even  iu  this  region  the 
iuhribitauts  are  very  fer  from  speakiii"  as  they  did  a  thousand  years 
back.  A  pereou  who  in  Arabia  or  elsewhere  should  trust  to  his 
knowledge  of  classical  Arabic  only  would  resemble  those  travcllera 
fiom  tlie  north  who  endeavour  to  make  themselves  iiuderstood  by 
Italian  waiters  through  the  medium  of  a  kind  of  Latin.  The 
written  language  hns,  it  is  tine,  greatly  retarded  the  development 
of  the  dialects.  Every  good  Moslem  repeats  at  least  a  few  short 
si'nas  several  times  a  day  in  his  prayers,  besides  being  minutely 
acquainted  with  the  sacred  Look  ;  and  this  must  have  had  a  power- 
ful influence  upon  the  spee.2h  of  the  people  at  large.  But  never- 
theless dialects  have  formed  themselves  and  have  diverged  con- 
siderably from  oue  another.  Of  these  there  are  indeed  but  few 
with  which  we  are  tolerably  well  acquainted  ;  that  of  Egypt  alone 
is  known  with  real  accuracy.'  Although  the  French  have  occupied 
Algeria  for  about  fifty  years,  we  still  possess  but  imperfect  informa- 
tion with  respect  to  the  language  9f  that  country.  It  is  closely 
connected  witii  that  of  Morocco  on  the  one  hand  and  with  that  of 
Tunis  on  the  other.  Arabic  has  long  been  banished  from  Spain  ; 
but  we  possess  a  few  literary  works  written  in  Spanish  Arabic,  and 
just  before  it  became  too  late  Pedro  de  Alcala  composed  a  grammar 
and  a  lexicon  of  that  dialect.^  We  have  also  a  few  ancient  speci- 
mens of  the  Arabic  which  was  once  spoken  in  Sicily.  To  the 
western  group  of  dialects  belongs  the  language  of  Malta,  which, 
cut  off  as  it  is  from  other  Arabic  dialects  and  exposed  to  the  influ- 
ence of  Italian,  has  developed  itself  in 'a  very  strange  manner ;  in 
it  a  considerable  number  of  books  have  already  beei)  printed,  but 
with  Latin  characters.  The  dialects  of  Arabia,  S}Tia,  and  the  other 
Easteni  provinces,  in  spite  of  many  valuable  works,  are  not  yet 
sufficiently  well  known  to  admit  of  being  definitely  classified. 

There  can  be  uo  doubt  that  the  development  of  these  dialects  is 
in  part  the  result  of  older  dialectical  variations  which  wereah'eady 
in  existence  in  the  time  of  the  Prophet.  The  histories  of  dialects 
which  difl'er  completely  from  one  another  often  -pursue  an  ana- 
logous course.  In  general,  the  Arabic  dialects  stLli  resemble  one 
another  more  than  wo  might  expect  when  we  take  into  considera- 
tion the  great  extent  of  country  over  which  they  are  spoken  and 
the  very  considerable  geogi'aphical  obstacles  that  staud  in  the  way 
of  communication.  But  wo  must  not  suppose  that  people,  for 
instance,  from  Mosul,  Morocco, 'San'a,  and  the  interior  of  Ai'abia 
would  be  able  to  understand  one  another  without  difficulty.  It  is 
a  total  error  to  regard  the  difl'erence  between  the  Arabic  dialects 
and  the  ancient  language  as  a  trifling  one,  or  to  represent  the 
development  of  these  dialects  as  something  wholly  unlike  the 
development  of  the  Romance  languages.  No  living  Arabic  dialect 
diverges  from  classical  Arabic  so  much  as  French  or  Eouman  from 
Latin  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  no  Arabic  dialect  resembles  the 
classical  language  so  closely  as  the  Lugodoric  dialect,  which  is  still 
spoken  in  Sardinia,  resembles  its  parent  speech,  and  yet  the  lapse 
of  time  is  very  much  greater  in  the  case  of  the  latter. 

Sabcran. — Long  before  Mohammed,  a  peculiar  and  highly  Sabe^ 
developed  form  of  civilization  had  flourLshed  in  the  table-  inscrif- 
land  to  the  south-west  of  Arabia.  The  more  we  become  ^'''"^ 
acquainted  with  the  country  of  the  ancient  Sabajans  and 
with  its  colossal  edifices,  and  the  better  we  are  able  to 
decipher  its  inscriptions,  which  are  being  discovered  iu 
ever-increasing  numbers,  the  easier  it  is  for  us  to  account 
for  the  haze  of  mythical  glory  wherewith  the  Sabieans 
were  once  invested.  The  Saba;an  inscriptions  (which  till 
lately  were  more  often  called  by  the  less  correct  name  of 
"  Himyaritic  ")  begin  long  before  our  era  and  continue  till 
about  the  4th  centiuy.  The  somewhat  stiff  character  is 
always  very  distinct ;  and  the  habit  of  regularly  dividing 
the  words  from  one  another  renders  decipherment  easier, 
which,  however,  has  not  ye'c  been  performed  iu  a  very 
satisfactory  manner,  owing  in  part  to  tho  fact  that  the 
vast  majority  of  the  documents  in  question  consist  of  re- 
ligious votive  tablets  with  peculiar  sacerdotal  expressions, 
or  of  architectural  notices  abounding  in  technical  terms. 
These  inscriptions  fall  into  two  classes,  distinguished  partly 
by  grammatical  peculiarities  and  jjartly  by  peculiarities 
of  phraseology.  One  dialect,  which  forms  the  causative 
with  fia,  like  Hebrew  and  others,  and  employs,  like  nearly 

*  W.  Spittit-Bey,  OramnuUik  des  araJbUchen  VulgdrdinUcta  vott 
Aeqyptm  (I^eipsic,  1880). 

'  ^  Thoy  were  published  in  1505,  reprinted  by  Lagardo  {Pftri  UispcuU 
de  Lingua  Arabica  Libri  duo,  Gottingen,  1883). 


654 


SEMITIC       LANGUAGES 


all  tte^Semitic' languages,  the  termination  h  (hie)  as  tlie 
suffix  of  the  third  person  singular,  is  the  Sabsean  properly 
speaking.  The  other,  which  expresses  the  causative  by 
pa  (corresponding  to  the  Shaphel  of  the  Aramaeans  and 
others),  and  for  the  suffix  uses  s  (like  the  Assyrian  sh),  is 
the  Minaic.  To  this  latter  branch  belong  the  numerous 
South  Arabic  inscriptions  recently  found  in  the  north  of 
the  HijAz,  near  Hejr,  where  the  Minasaus  must  have  had 
a  commercial  settlement.  The  diflerence  between  the  two 
classes  of  inscriptions  is  no  doubt  ultimately  based  upon 
a  real  divergence  of  dialect.  But  the  singular  manner  in 
which  districts  containing  Sabsan  inscriptions  and  those 
containing  Minaic  alternate  with  one  another  seems  to 
point  in  part  to  a  mere  hieratic  practice  of  clinging  to 
ancient  modes  of  expression.  Indeed  it  is  very  probably 
due  to  conscious  literary  conservatism  that  the  language 
of  the  inscriptions  remains  almost  entirely  unchanged 
through  many  centuries.  A  few  inscriptions  from  districts 
rather  more  to  the  east  exhibit  certain  linguistic  peculiar- 
ities, which,  however,  may  perhaps  be  explained  by  the 
supposition  that  the  writers  did  not,  as  a  rule,  speak  this 
dialect,  and  therefore  were"  but  imperfectly  acquainted 
with  it. 

As  the  Sabsean  writing  seldom  indicates  the  vowels,  our 
knowledge  of  the  language  is  necessarily  very  incomplete ; 
and  the  unvarying  style  of  the  inscriptions  excludes  a  great 
number  of  the  commonest  grammatical  forms.  Not  a 
single  occurrence  of  the  first  or  second  person  has  yet  been 
detected,  with  the  possible  exception  of  one  proper  name, 
in  which  "  our  god  "  apparently  occurs.  But  the  know- 
ledge which  we  already  possess  amply  suffices  to  prove  that 
Saboean  is  closely  related  to  Arabic  as  we  are  acquainted 
■with  it.  The  former  language  possesses  the  same  phonetic 
elements  as  the  latter,  except  that  it  has  at  least  one  addi- 
tional sibilant,  which  appears  to  have  been  lost  in  Arabic. 
It  possesses  the  broken  plural,  a  dual  form  resembling 
that  used  in  Arabic,  &c.  It  is  especially  important  to 
notice  that  Sabsean  expresses  the  idea  of  indefiniteness  by 
means  of  an  appended  m,  just  as  Arabic  expresses  it  by 
means  of  an  k,  which  in  all  probability  is  a  modification 
of  the  former  sound.  Both  in  this  point  and  in  some 
others  Sabiean  appears  more  primitive  than  Arabic,  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  earlier  date  of  its  monuments. 
The  article  is  formed  by  appending  an  n.  In  its  vocabulary 
also  Sabsean  bears  a  great  resemblance  to  Arabic,  although, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  often  approaches  more  nearly  to  the 
northern  Semitic  languages  in  this  respect;  and  it  possesses 
much  that  is  i^eculiar  to  itself.* 

Soon  after  the  Christian  era  Sabsean  civilization  began 
to  decline,  and  completely  perished  in  the  wars  with  the 
Abyssinians,  who  several  times  occupied  the  country,  and 
in  the  6th  century  remained  in  possession  of  it  for  a  con- 
siderable period.  In  that  age  the  language  of  central 
Arabia  was  already  penetrating  into  the  Sabsean  domain. 
It  is  further  possible  that  many  tribes  which  dwelt  not  far 
to  the  north  of  the  civilized  districts  had  always  spoken 
dialects  resembling  central  Arabic  rather  than  Sabsean. 
About  the  year  600  "  Arabic  "  was  the  language  of  all 
^Yenien,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of  a  few  isolated  dis- 
tricts, and  this  process  of  assimilation  continued  in  later 
times.  Several  centuries  after  Mohammed  learned  Yemen- 
ites were  acquainted  with  the  characters  of  the  inscriptions 
which  abounded  in  their  country ;  they  were  also  able  to 
decipher  the  proper  names  and  a  small  number  of  Sabsean 
words  the  meaning  of  .which  was  still  known  to  them,  but 
thej-  could  no  longer    understand   the   inscriptions   as  a 


'  Tlie  literature  relating  to  these  inscriptions  is  widely  scattered. 
B«fore  the  P.irisiaii  Corpus  supplies  us  with  the  collected  materials, 
we  may  hope  to  see  the  Sabcean  grammar  of  D.  H.  Miiller,  who,  with 
Halevy,  has  lately  reuilered  the  greatest  services  in  tliis  department. 


whole.     Being  zealous  local  patriots,  they  discovered  in 

those  inscriptions  which  they  imagined  themselves  to  be 
capable  of  deciphering  many  fabulous  stories  respecting 
the  glory  of  the  ancient  Yemenites. 

Farther  to  the  east,  iu  the  sea-coast  districts  of  Shihr  and  Mahra, 
up  to  the  borders  of  the  barren  desert  of  the.  interior,  and  also,  we 
are  told,  iu  the  island  of  Socotra,  dialects  very  uulike  Arabic  are 
still  spoken.  Allusions  to  tliis  fact  are  found  in  Arabic  miters  of 
the  10th  centuiy.  These  dialects  depart  widely  from  the  ancieut 
Semitic  type,  but  bear  some  resemblance  to  the  Sabaean,  although 
they  caunot  be  regarded  as  actually  descended  from  the  latter. 
One  feature  which  they  have  in  common  with  Sabaean  is  the  habit  • 
of  appending  an  h  to  the  imperfect.  Like  the  Ethiopic,  and  prob-< 
ably  also  the  Sabfean,  they  use  Ic  (instead  of  0  in  the  terminations 
of  the  iirst  person  singular  and  the  second  person  singular  aud 
plural  of  the  perfect  tense.  Iu  the  suffixes  of  the  third  person 
there  appears,  at  least  in  the  feminine,  an  s,  as  iu  the  Jlinaic. 
Unfortunately  the  information  which  we  have  hitherto  possessed 
respecting  these  dialects  is  meagi-e  and  inexact,  in  part  very  in- 
exact.- It  is  much  to  be  wished  that  soon  they  may  all  be  inves- 
tigated as  carefully  as  possible,  the  more  so  as  there  is  danger  in 
delay,  for  Arabic  is  gradually  supplanting  them. 

Ethiopic. — In  Abyssinia,  too,  and  in  the  neighbouring  Geez, 
countries  we  find  languages  which  bear  a  certain  resem-  E"*" 
blance  to  Arabic.  The  Geez  or  Ethiopic  ^  proper,  the  Ian- 1'™^-" 
guage  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Aksum,  was  reduced  to 
writing  at  an  early  date.  To  judge  by  the  few  passages 
communicated  by  Salt,  the  back  of'  the  inscription  of 
Aeizanas,  king  of  AksiVm  about  350,  exhibits  writing  in 
the  Sabsean  language,  which  appears  to  prove  that  the 
development  of  the  Geez  character  out  of  the  Sabsean,  and 
the  elevation  of  Geez  to  the  rank  of  a  literary  language, 
must  have  taken  place  after  the  year  350.  The  oldest 
monuments  of  this  language  which  are  known  with  cer 
tainty  are  the  two  great  inscriptions  of  Tizeni,  a  heathen 
king  of  Aksilm,  dating  from  about  500.  '  Hitherto  our 
acquaintance  with  these  inscriptions  has  been  derived  from 
very  imperfect  drawings* ;  but  they  amply  suffice  to  show 
that  we  have  here  the  same  language  as  that  in  which 
the  Ethiopic  Bible  is  written,  with  the  very  same  exact 
indication  of  the  vowels, — a  point  in  which  Ethiopic  has 
an  advantage  over  all  other  Semitic  characters.  Who  iur 
troduced  this  vocalization  is  urdinown.  When  the  above- 
mentioned  inscriptions  were  made  the  Bible  had  probably 
been  already  translated  into  Geez  from  the  Greek,  perhaps 
in  part  by  Jews;  for  Jews  and  Christians  were  at  that 
time  actively  competing  with  one  another,  both  in  Arabia 
aud  in  Abyssinia;  nor  were  the  former  unsuccessful  in 
making  proselytes.  The  missionaries  who  gave  the  Bible 
to  the  Abyssinians  must,  at  least  in  some  cases,  have 
spoken  Aramaic  as  their  mother-tongue,  for  this  alone  can 
explain  the  fact  that  in  the  Ethiopic  Bible  certain  religious 
conceptions  are  expressed  by  Aramaic  words.  During  tha 
following  centuries  various  works  were  produced  by  the 
Abyssinians  in  this  language ;  they  were  all,  so  far  as  we 
are  able  to  judge,  of  a  more  or  less  theological  character, 
almost  invariably  translations  from  the  Greek.  We  cannot 
say  with  certainty  when  Geez  ceased  to  be  the  language 
of  the  people,  but  it  was  probably  about  a  thousand  years 
ago.  From  the  time  when  the  Abyssinian  kingdom  was 
reconstituted,  towards  the  end  of  the  13th  century,  by 
the  so-called  Solomonian  dynasty  (which  was  of  southern 
origin),  the  language  of  the  court  and  of  the  Government 
was  Amharic ;  but  Geez  remained  the  ecclesiastical  and 
literai:y  language,  and  Geez  literature  even  showed  a  certain 

'  See  especially  Maltzan,  in  Z.D.if.O.,  vols.  xrv.  and  XKva. 

^  This  name  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Abyssinians,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  false  erudition,  applied  the  name  AlBioirla  to  their  own 
kingdom. 

*  The  anthorities  of  thfe  library  of  Frankfort  have  kindly  enabled 
the  present  writer  to  consult  Eiippell's  copies,  which  are  more  accurate 
than  the  lithographs  in  his  book.  The  English  m  186S  did  not  seize 
the  opportunity  to  examine  thoronghlj  the  antiquities  of  Aksum,  and 
since  then  no  traveller  haa  taken  the  trouble  to  orocure  accurate  copi«a 
of  these  extremely  important  monuments. 


SE]\IITIC      LANGUAGES 


655 


actrvlty  'tA  numerous  translations  from  those  Ai-abic  and 
Coptic  works  ^\•llich  were  in  use  amongst  the  Christians  of 
Egypt;  besides  these 'a  few  original  writings  were  com- 
posed, namely,  lives  of  saints,  hymns,  <tc.  This  literary 
condition  lasted  till  modern  times.  '  The  language,  i\liich 
ihad  long  become  extinct,  was  by  no  means  invariably 
.written  in  a  pure  form ;  indeed  even  in  manuscripts  of 
more  ancient  works  we  find  many  linguistic  corruptions, 
which  iiave  crept  in  partly  through  mere  carelessness  and 
ignorance,  partly  through  the  influence  of  the  later  dialects. 
On  points  of  detail  we  are  still  sometimes  left  in  doubt, 
fts  we  possess  no  manuscripts  belonging  to  the  older  period, 
this  renders  it  all  the  more  important  that  the  ancient 
(ind  authentic  inscriptions  upon  the  mouuments  of  A.ksilm 
'should  be  tvccurately  published. 

Gecz  is  more  nearly  related  to  Sab«an  than  to  Arabic, 
though  scarcely  to  such  a  degree  as  we  might  expect. 
The  historical  intercourse  between  the  Sabojans  and  the 
people  of  Aksiim  does  not,  however,  pro-re  that  those  who 
spoke  Geez  were  simply  a  colony  from  Sabaeaj  the  lan- 
guage may  be  desccrjed  from  an  extinct  cognate  dialfct 
of  south  Arabia,  or  may  have  arisen  from  a  mingling  of 
several  such  tliaiects.  And  this  colonization  in  Africa 
probably  began  much  sooner'  than  is  usually  supposed. 
In  certain  respects  Geez  represents  a  more  modern  stage 
of  development  than  Arabic ;  we  may  cite  as  instances  the 
loss  of  some  inflexional  terminations  and  of  the  ancient 
passive,  the  change  of  the  aspirated  dentals  into  sibilants, 
kc.  In  the  manuscripts,  especially  those  of  later  date, 
many  letters  are  confounded,  namely,  /(,  h,  and  /Ji,  s  and 
sh,  f  and  d ;  this,  however)  is  no  doubt  due  only  to  the 
influence  of  the  modern  dialects.  To  this  same  influence, 
and  indirectly  perhaps  to  that  of  the  Hamitie  languages, 
we  may  ascribe  the  very  hard  sound  now  given  to  certain 
letters,  k,  t,  f,  and  d,  in  the  reading  of  Geez.  The  last 
two  are  at  present  pronounced  something  like  is  and  fs 
(the  German  2).  A  peculiar  advantage  possessed  by  Geez 
and  by  all  Ethiopic  languages  is  the  sharp  distinction 
between  the  imperfect  and  the  subjunctive  :  in  the  former 
a  vowel  is  inserted  after  the  first  radical, — a  formation  of 
which  there  seem  to  be  traces  in  the  dialect  of  JIahra,  and 
which  is  also  believed  to  have  existed  in  Assyrian.  Geez 
has  no  definite  article,  but  is  very  rich  in  particles.  In 
the  ease  with  which  it  joins  sentences  together  and  in  its 
freedom  as  to  the  order  of  words  it  resernbles  Aramaic. 
The  vocabulary  is  but  imperfectly  known,  as  the  theologi- 
cal literature,  which  is  for  the  most  part  very  arid,  supplies 
us  with  comparatively  few  expressions  that  do  not  occur 
in  the  Bible,  whereas  the  more  modern  works  borrow  their 
phraseology  in  part  from  the  spoken  dialects,  particularly 
Amharic.  With  regard  to  the  vocabulary,  Geez  has  much 
in  common  with  the  other  Semitic  tongues,  but  at  the  same 
time  possesses  many  words  peculiar  to  itself ;  of  these  a 
considerable  proportion  may  be  of  Hamitie  origin.  Even 
some  grammatical  phenomena  seem  to  indicate  Hamitie 
influence  ;  for  instance,  the  very  frequent  use  of  the  gerun- 
dive, a  feature  which  has  become  still  more  prominent  in 
the  modern  dialects,  placed  as  they  are  in  yet  closer  contact 
with  the  Hamitie.  We  must  not  suppose  that  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Aksvim  were  of  pure  Semitic  blood.  The 
immigration  of  the  Semites  from  Arabia  was  in  all  prob- 
ability a  slow  process,  and  under  such  circumstances  there 
is  every  reason  to  assmno  that  they  largely  intermingled 
with  the  aborigines.  This  opinion  seems  to  be  confirmed 
by  anthropological  facts. 

Not  only  in  wliat  is  proporly  the  territory  of  Alcsi'iin  (namely, 
Ti^6,  north-eastern  Ahys  inin),  but  also  in  tlie  countries  bordering 
upon  it  to  the  north,  inclnding  the  islands  of  Dahl.ik,  dialects  are 
still  spoken  which  are  bnt  wore  modern  forms  of  llic  liii^'iiistic 
type  clearly  cxliihiteil  in  Geez.  The  two  principal  of  these  arc 
that  spoken  in  Tigre  proper  and  that  of  the  neighbouring  countries. 


In  reality,  the  name  of  Tigre  belongs  to  both,  and  it  would  bo 
desiiable  to  distinguish  thcni  from  one  another  as  Northern  and 
Sonthern  Tigid.  lint  it  is  the  custom  to  call  the  northern  dialect 
Tigre  simply,  whilst  that  spoken  in  Tigru  itself  bears  the  name  of 
Tigiina,  with  an  Anihaiiu  tenninatiou.  It  is  generally  assunic<l 
thot  Tim-o  bears  a  closer  resemblance  to  Geez  than  docs  Tigiana, 
althoHsli  the  latter  is  spokfn  in  the  country  where  Geez  was  formed; 
and  this  may  very  possibly  bo  the  case,  for  Tigriha  has  dun'ig 
several  centuries  been  very  strongly  inHuenccil  by  Amharic,  which 
has  not  been  the  case  with  Tigre,  which  is  spoken  partly  by  nomads. 
Of  Tigie,  which  appears  to  bo  divided  into  numerous  dialects,  we 
have  several  glossaries  ;  but  of  its  giauimar  wo  as  yet  know  bnt 
little.')  Written  specimens  of  this  language  are  almost  entirely 
wanting.  ■'With  Tigrifia  we  are  somewhat  better  acquainted,'  bnt 
only  as  it  is  spoken  iu  the  ccntie  of  tlic  countiy,  near  the  site  uf 
the  ancient  Aksuni,  where  Amharic  liappens  to  be  particularly 
etrong, — above  all,  amongst  the  more  educated  classes.  In  Tigriiia 
the  older  gi-ammatical  forms  are  often  subjecteil  to  violent  altera- 
tions ;  foreign  elements  creep  iu  ;  but  the  kernel  remains  Semitic. 
Veiy  difibrent  is  the  case  with  Amliaiic,  a  language  of 
which  the  domain  extends  from  the  left  bank  of  the 
Takkaze  into  .regions  far  to  the  south.  Although  by  no 
means  the  only  langua.ixc  spoken  in  these  countries,  it 
always  tends  to  displace  thost/  foreign  tongues  which  sur- 
round it  and  with  which  it  is  interspersed.  We  here  refer 
especially  to  the  Agaw  dialects.  Although  Amharic  ha.s 
been  driven  back  by  the  inva.sions  of  the  Galla  tribes,  it 
has  already  compensated  itself  to  some  extent  for  this  loss, 
as  the  Yedju  and  W'ollo  Gallas,  who  penetrated  into  eastern 
Abyssinia,  have  adopted  it  as  their  language.  AVith  the 
exception,  of  course,  of  Arabic,  no  Semitic  tongue  is  spoken 
by  so  large  a  number  of  human  beings  as  Amharic.  The 
very  fact  that  the  Agaw  languages  are  being  gradually, 
and,  as  it  were,  before  our  own  eyes,  absorbed  by  Amharic  ^ 
makes  it  appear  probable  that  this  language  must  be 
spoken  chiefly  by  people  who  are  not  of  Semitic  race. 
This  supposition  is  confirmed  by  a  study  of  the  language 
itself.  Amharic  has  diverged  from  the  ancient  Sejnitic 
type  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  any  of  the  dialects  which 
we  have  hitherto  enumerated.  Jlany  of  the  old  forma^ 
tions  preserved  in  Geez  are  completely  modified  in  Amharic. 
Of  the  feminine  forms  there  remain  but  a  few  traces  ;  and 
that  is  the  case  also  with  the  ancient  plural  of  the  noun. 
The  strangest  innovations  occur  in  the  personal  pronouns. 
And  certainly  not  more  than  half  the  vocabulary  can  with- 
out improbability  be  made  to  correspond  with  that  of  the 
other  Semitic  languages.  In  this,  as  also  in  the  grammar, 
we  must  leave  out  of  account  all  that  is  borrowed  from 
Geez,  which,  as  being  the  ecclesiastical  tongue,  exercises 
a  great  influence  everywhere  in  Abyssinia.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  must  make  allowance  for  the  fact  that  in  this 
lan.tjuage  the  .cry  considerable  phonetic  modifications  often 
produce  a  total  change  of  form,  so  that  many  words  which 
at  first  have  a  thoroughly  foreign  appearance  prove  on 
further  examination  to  be  but  the  regular  development  of 
words  with  which  we  are  already  acquainted.^  But  tlie 
most  striking  deviations  occur  in  the  syntax.  Things 
which  we  are  accustomed  to  regard  as  u.sual  or  even  uni- 
versal in  the  Semitic  languages,  such  as  the  placing  of  the 
verb  before  the  subject,  of  the  governing  noun  before  the 
genitive,  and  of  the  attributive  relative  clause  after  its 
substantive,  are  here  totally  reversed.  Words  which  ari 
marked  as  genitives  by  the  prefixing  of  the  relative  particle, 
and  even  whole  relative  clauses,  are  treated  as  one  word, 
and  are  capable  of  having  the  objective  suflix  added  to 
them.     It  is  scarcely  going  too  far  to  say  that  a  person 

'  Kranz  Practorius,  (jrttmmulik  tier  Tii/riilitxprarhr,  Halle,  1872. 
The  ineseut  writer  was  alio  )>erniitted  to  use  llio  niaauscrij)!  graniuiar 
of  a  13L'lgian  missionary,  who  5-pent  a  long  time  in  the  countrj'. 

'  Only  an  advanced  guard  of  the  Agaw  languages,  the  Billu  or 
dialect  of  the  Bogos,  is  being  similarly  aliiorlwil  by  the  Tigri, 

'  Praotorins,  however,  in  liis  very  valuoblt  grammar,  Jjie  amhnrische 
Sprnchc  (lialle,  1879),  has  gone  inucli  too  far  in  his  atteniiit3  to  connect 
Amharic  wort.ls  and  grammatical  phenomena  with  those  that  occur  in 
Geez. 


656 


S  E  M  — S  E  M 


(vho  has  learnt  no  Semitic  language  -would  have  less  diffi- 
culty in  mastering  the  Amharic  construction  than  one  to 
whom  the  Semitic  syntax  is  familiar.  What  here  appears 
contrary  to  Semitic  analogy  is  sometimes  the  rule  in  Agaw. 
Pence  it  is  probable  that  in  this  case  tribes  originally 
JIamitic  retained  their  former  modes  of  thought  and  expres- 
sion after  they  had  adopted  a  Semitic  speech,  and  that 
they  modified  their  new  language  accordingly.  And  it  is 
not  certain  that  the  partial  Semitization  of  the  southern  dis- 
tricts of  Abyssinia  (which  had  scarcely  any  connexion  with 
the  civilization  of  Aksiim  during  its  best  period)  was  en- 
tirely or  even  principally  due  to  influences  from  the  north. 
I  In  spite  of  its  dominant  position,  Amharic  did  not  for 
several  centuries  show  any  signs  of  becoming  a  literary 
language.  The  oldest  documents  which  we  possess  are  a 
few  songs  of  the  15th  and  16th  centuries,  which  were  not, 
however,  written  down  till  a  later  time,  and  are  very  diffi- 
cult to  interpret.  There  are  also  a  few  Geez- Amharic  gloss- 
aries, which  may  be  tolerably  old.  Since  the  17th  century 
various  attempts  have  been  made,  sometimes  by  European 
missionaries,  to  write  in  Amharic,  and  in  modern  times 
this  language  has  to  a  considerable  extent  been  employed 
for  literary  purposes;  nor  is  this  to  be  ascribed  exclu- 
sively to  foreign  influence.  A  literary  language,  fixed  in  a 
sufficient  measure,  has  thus  been  formed.  Books  belonging 
to  a  somewhat  earlier  period  contain  tolerably  clear  proofs  of 
dialectical  differences.    Scattered  notices  by  travellers  seem 


to  indicate  that  in  some  districts  the  language  diverges  in 
a  very  much  greater  degree  from  the  recognized  type. 

The  Abyssinian  chronicles  have  for  centuries  been  written 
in  Geez,  largely  intermingled  with  Amharic  elements. 
This  "  language  of  the  chronicles,"  in  itself  a  dreary  chaos, 
often  enables  us  to  discover  what  were  the  older  forms  of 
Amharic  words.  A  similar  mixture  of  Geez  and  Amharic 
is  exemplified  in  various  other  books,  especially  such  as 
refer  to  the  afiairs  of  the  Government  and  of  the  court. 

The  languages  spoken  still  farther  to  the  south,  that  of  Gui-dgue 
(south  of  Shea)  and  that  of  Harar,  are  perhaps  more  fitly  described 
as  languages  akiu  to  Amharic  than  as  Amharic  dialects.  Uutil 
we  possess  more  precise  information  respecting  them,  and  In  general 
respecting  the  linguistic  and  ethnographical  condition  of  these 
countries,  it  would  not  be  safe  to  hazard  even  a  conjecture  as  to 
the  origin  of  these  languages,  which,  corrupt  as  they  may  be,  aad 
surrounded  by  tongues  of  a  wholly  different  class,  must  still  be 
regarded  as  Semitic.  It  is  enough  to  repeat  that  the  Immigration 
of  the  Somites  into  these  parts  of  Africa  was  probably  no  one  single 
act,  that  it  may  have  taken  place  at  different  times,  that  the  immi- 
grants perhaps  belonged  to  ditferent  tribes  and  to  different  districts 
of  Arabia,  and  that  very  heterogeneous  peoples  and  languages  appear 
to  have  been  variou-sly  mingled  together  in  these  regions. 

The  clever  and  brilliant  work  of  Renan,  Histoire  ghiSraU  des  langues  SeaU- 
tiqvcs  (1st  ed.,  Paris,  1855),  could  not  fail  to  produce  mucb  effect  at  the  tirap, 
in  spite  of  its  one-sided  character  and  the  actual  mistakes  that  It  contains. 
Even  at  the  present  day  a  scholar  may  l-ead  it  with  great  interest  and  profit ; 
but  as  a  whole  it  has  been  superseded  by  the  discoveries  of  the  last  twenty 
or  thirty  years.  The  remarks  of  Ewald,  in  the  introduction  to  his  Hebrew 
grainraar,  upon  the  mutual  relationship  of  the  Semitic  languages  are  still 
worthy  of  perusal,  much  as  they  provoke  contradiction.  A  work  upon  Uie 
subject  which  re-alizes  for  the  present  state  of  science  what  Renau  endeavoured 
to  realize  for  his  OAvn  time  unfortunately  does  not  exist.  (TH.  N-) 


SEMLER,  JoHANN  Salomo  (1725-1791),  ecclesiastical 
historian-  and  critic,  sometimes  called  "  the  father  of 
German  rationalism"  (see  Eatioxalism),  was  born  at 
Saalfeld  in  Thuringia  on  18th  December  1725.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  clergyman  in  poor  circumstances,  and  had 
to  fight  his  'way  in  the  world  solely  by  his  o^\ti  talents. 
He  grew  up  amidst  Pietistic  surroundings,  which  power- 
fully influenced  him  his  life  through,  though  he  was  never 
spiritually  or  intellectually  a  Pietist.  As  a  boy  he  showed 
the  omnivorous  ap))etite  for  books  which  was  characteristic 
of  his  later  life.  In  his  seventeenth  year  he  entered  the 
university  of  Halle,  where  he  became  the  disciple,  after- 
wards the  assistant,  and  at  last  the  literary  executor  of  the 
orthodox  rationalistic  Professor  Banmgarten.  In  17-19  he 
accepted  the  position  of  editor,  with  the  title  of  professor, 
of  the  Coburg  official  Gazette,  with  leisure  to  pursue  his- 
torical and  scientific  studie.s.  But  the  next  year  he  was 
invited  -to  Altdorf  as  professor  of  philology  and  history, 
and  six  months  later  became  a  professor  of  theology  in 
Halle.  After  the  death  of  Baumgarten  (1757)  Semler  be- 
came the  head  of  the  theological  faculty  of  his  university, 
and  the  fierce  opposition  which  his  writings  and  lectures 
provoked  only  helped  to  increase  his  fame  as  a  professor. 
His  popularity  continued  undiminished  for  more  than 
twenty  years,  until  1779.  In  that  year  he  came  forward 
with  a  reiily  to  the  WolfenhiUtd  Fragments  (see  Beiaiarus) 
and  to  Balirdt's  confession  of  faith,  a  step  which  was  inter- 
preted by  the  extreme  rationalists  as  a  revocation  of  his 
own  rationalistic  position.  Even  the  Prussian  Government, 
which  favoured  Bahrdt,  made  Semler  painfully  feel  its  dis- 
pleasure at  this  new  but  really  not  inconsistent  aspect  of 
his  position.  But,  though  Semler  was  really  not  incon- 
sistent with  himself  in  attacking  the  views  of  lleimarus 
and  Bahrdt,  as  a  comiiarison  of  his  works  prior  and  subse- 
quent to  1779  with  those  in  question  shows,  his  jiopularity 
began  from  that  year  to  decline,  and  towards  the  end  of 
his  life  he  felt  painfully  the  necessity  of  emphasizing  the 
apologetic  and  coii.servative  value  of  tiue  historical  inquiry. 
With  more  justification,  perhajis,  might  his  defence  of  the 
notorious  edict  of  WOlliier  ()7S8),  the  cultus  minister,  be 
cited  as  a  sign  of  the  decline  of  his  powers  and  of  an  un- 
faithfulness to  his  principles.      He  died  at  Halle  on  IJih 


March  1791,  worn  out  by  his  prodigious  labours,  embittered 
by  his  desertion,  and  disappointed  at  the  issue  of  his  work. 

Semler's  importance  in  the  history  of  theology  and  the  human 
„iind  is  that  of  a  critic  of  Biblical  and  ecclesiastical  documents  and 
of  the  history  of  dogmas.  He  was  not  a  philosophical  thinker  or 
theologian,  though  he  insisted,  more  or  less  confusedly,  and  yet 
with  an  energy  and  persistency  before  unknown,  on  certain  distinc- 
tions of  great  importance  when  properly  worked  out  and  applied, 
e.g.,  the  distinction  between  religion  and  theology,  that  between 
private  personal  beliefs  and  public  historical  creeds,  and  that  between 
tlie  local  and  temporal  and  the  permanent  elements  of  historical  reli- 
gion. His  great  work  was  that  ol^  the  critic.  He  was  the  first  to  reject 
with  sufficient  proof  the  equal  value  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testa- 
ments, the  uniform  authority  of  all  parts  of  the  Bible,  the  divine 
authority  of  the  traditional  canon  of  Scripture,  the  inspiration  and 
supposed  correctness  of  the  text  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
and,  generally,  the  identification-  of  revelation  with  Scripture. 
Tliough  to  some  extent  anticipated  by  the  English  deist  Thomas 
Jlorgan,  Semler  was  the  first  to  take  due  note  of  and  use  for  critical 
purposes  the  opposition  between  the  Judaic  and  anti-Judaic  parties 
of  the  early  church'.  He  led  the  way  in  the  task  of  discovering  the 
origin  of  the  Gospels,  the  Epistles,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and 
tlie  Apocalypse.  He  revived  previous  doubts  as  to  the  direct 
Pauline  origin  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  called  in  question 
Peter's  authorship  of  the  fiist  epistle,  and  referred  the  second  epistle 
to  the  end  of  the  2d  centuiy.  He  mshed  to  remove  the  ApocaIyi)se 
altogether  fi'ora  the  canon.  In  textual  criticism  Semler  pursued 
further  the  principle  of  classifying  JISS.  in  families,  adopted  bj'  K. 
Simon  and  Bengel.  Though  he  lacked  almost  every  qualification 
of  the  true  church  historian,  Semler  did  the  work  of  a  pioneer  in 
many  periods  and  in  several  departmcuts  of  ecclesiastical  histor)'. 
Tholuck  jironounces  him  "the  father  of  the  history  of  doctrines" 
and  Baur  "  the  first  te  deal  with  that  history  fi-om  the  true  critical 
standpoint."  At  the  same  time,  it  is  admitted  by  all  that  he  was 
nowhere  more  than  a  pioneer.  Baur's  description  of  his  work  iu 
oue  department  of  ecclesiastical  history  is  true  of  his  work  generally. 
"  His  writings  on  the  history  of  dogma  resemble  a  fallow-field  wait- 
ing to  be  cultivated  or  a  building-site  on  which,  uuder;;cath  refuse 
and  ruins,  lie  the  materials  in  chaotic  confusion  for  a  new  edifice. 
The  consequence  was  that  as  lie  was  always  occupied  in  preliminary 
labours,  he  brought  nothing  to  even  partial  completion;  and,  though 
his  general  critical  standpoint  was  correct,  in  its  application  to 
details  his  criticism  eould  only  be  regarded  as  extremely  bold  and 
arbitrary." 

Tholuck  gives  171  as  the  number  of  Semler's  works,  of  which 
only  two  reached  a  second  edition,  and  none  is  now  read  for  its 
own  sake.  Amongst  the  chief  aie — De  rfcmoiiwci's  (Halle,  1760, 
4th  ed.  1779),  Sclccta  capita  historix  ecclesiastics  (3  vols.,  Halle, 
1767-69),  Vo>i  frcicf  Unltrsacltung  dcs  Kanon  (Halle,  1771-72), 
jlpjXinUus  ml  libcrahm  N.  T.  inkrprclationcm  (1767;  ad  I'.  T., 
]1~Z).  hiHil'Uio  ad  doctrinam  Christ,  libcralitcr  disccndam  (Hallo. 


S  E  M  — S  E  N 


657 


1774),  Ucbcr  liislorischc,  gcseVschcflUchc,  ur.d  moralische  lUlUjioii  da- 
Christen  (1786),  anJ  his  autobiography,  Scmkr'sLelciiskschnioituy, 
■von  ihm  selbsl  abtjcfassl  (idaile,  I781-S2). 

For  estimates  or  beinler's  labours,  see  Qasa,  (t'esrft.  drr  jmt.  D^'gnuttil:  (Berlin, 
1SJ4-07);  Donier,  Gcscft.  (lev  prot.  Thcol.  (Munich.  1S07) ;  TJiuluck,  art.  iu 
Herzng's  Iteat-EiKyklopadie  ;.  HilgenfeUI,  Einleitunij  in  Jas  -Vetie  Ttsl.  (Leip>ic. 
1S75);  Baur,  Epocluii,  der  kirclilichen  (Jtschklitsclireibuiig  ilSJi);  and  Ritsclil, 
iicscli.  des  PUtismus  (Bonn,  18S0-SJ). 

SEilLIN  (Hung.  Ziviony;  Servian,  Semvn),  a  town  of 
Austria-Hungary,  tlie  easternmost  in  the  ILilitary  Frontier 
<listrict,  stands  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Danube,  on  a 
tongue  of  land  between  that  river  and  the  Save.  It  is 
the  see  of  a  Greek  archbishop,  has  a  real  school  of  lower 
grade,  five  Roman  Catholic  and  two  Greek  churches,  a 
.synagogue,  a  theatre,  and  a  custom-house.  The  population 
<  10,046)  consists  mostly  of  Servians,  with  a  few  Germans, 
<ireeks,  Ill}Tians,  Croats,  Gipsies,  aud  Jews.  Semliu  has 
recently  undergone  improvement  iu  its  streets  and  build- 
ings ;  but  its  suburb  Franzenthal  near  the  Danube  consists 
mostly  of  mud  huts  thatched  with  reeds.  The  town  is 
surrounded  by  a  stockade.  On  the  top  of  Zigeunerberg 
are  the  remains  of  the  castle  of  John  Hunyadi,  who  died 
here  in  14-56.  Semlin  has  a  considerable  trade,  sending 
woollen  cloth,  porcelain,  and  glass  to  Turkey,  and  obtain- 
ing in  return  yarn,  leather,  skins,  honey,  and  meerschaum 
pipes.  It  is  a  principal  quarantine  station  for  travellers 
from  Turkey.  Steam  ferry  boats  cross  to  Belgrade  several 
times  a  day,  and  larger  vessels  run  up  the  Save  as  far  as 
to  Sissek. 

SEMPER,  Gottfried  (1803-1879),  German  architect 
and-  writer  on  art,  was  born  at  Altona  on  29th  Xoveniber 
1803.     His  lather  intended  him  for  the  law,  but  irresist- 
ible impulse  carried  hini  oyer  to  art.     His  early  mastery 
of  classical  literature  led  him  to  the  study  of  classic  monu- 
ments in  classic  lands,  while  his  equally  conspicuous. talent 
for  mathematics  gave  him  the  laws  of  form  and  proportion 
in  architectural  design.     While  a  student  of  law  at  the 
iiniversity  of  Giittingea  lie  fell  under  the  influence  of  K. 
0.  Miiller,  and  in  after  years  followed  closely  in  his  foot^ 
tteps.     Semper's  architectural  education  was  carried  out 
iiuccessively  in  Hamburg,  Berliu,  Dresden,  in  Paris  under 
Gau,  and  in  Munich  under  Gartner ;  afterwards  ho  visited 
Italy  and  Greece.     In  1834  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
architecture  in  Dresden,  and  during  fifteen  years  received 
many  important  commissions  from  the  Saxon  court.     He 
built  the  opera-house,   which  made  his  fame,   the  new 
museum  and  picture  gallery,  likewise  a  synagogue.     In 
1848  his  turbulent  spirit  led  him  to  side  with  the  revolu- 
tion against  his  royal   patron ;    he  furnished  the  rebels 
with  military  plans,  and  was  eventually  driven  into  e.\ile. 
Semper  came  to  London  at  the  time  of  the  Great  Exhibition 
of  1851,  and  the  prince  consort  found  him  an  able  ally  in 
carrying  out  his  plans.     He  was  appointed  teacher  of  the 
principles  of  decoration ;  and  his  lectures  in  manuscript, 
preserved  in  the  art  library,  South  Kensington,  deserve  to 
be  better  known.     He  was  also  employed  by  the  prince 
consort  to  prepare  a  design  for  the  Kensington  Museum  ; 
he  likewise  made  the  drawings  for  the  Wellington  funeral 
car.    In  1853  Semper  left  Loudon  for  Zurich  on  his  appoint- 
ment as  profes,sor  of  architecture,  and  with  a  commission 
to  build  in  that  town  the  polytechnic  school,  the  hospital, 
&c.     In  1870  ho  was  called  to  Vienna  to  assist  in  the  great 
architectural  pr?jccts  since  carried   out  round  the  Ring. 
A  year  later,  after  an  exile  of  over  twenty  years,  ho  received 
a  sunmions  to  Dresden,  on  the  rebuilding  of  the  first  opera- 
house,  which  had  been  destroyed  by  fire  in  1869 ;  his  second 
design  was  a  modification  of  the  first.     The  closing  years 
of  his  Ufe  were  passed  in  comparative  tranquillity  between 
Venice  and  Rome,  and  in  the  latter  city  he  died  on  15th 

May  1879. 

Semper's  stylo  \va3  a  growth  from  tho  classic  orders  through  tho 
Italian  Cinque  Cento'.  He  forsook  the  base  and  rococo  forms  ho 
found  rooted  in  Germany,  and,  reverting  to  the  best  historic  ex- 


amples, fashioned  a  purer  Renaissance.     He  stands  as  a  leader  in 

tlie  practice  of  polychrome,  since  widely  diffused,  and  by  his  writings 
and  example  did  much  to  reinstate  the  ancient  union  between  archi- 
tecture, sculpture,  and  painting.  Among  his  ntmierous  literary 
works  are  Uclicf  Polychromlc  u.  ihrcii  Ursprung  (1851),  Die  An- 
■wcndung  der  Farbcn  in  dcr  Archilcktur  u.  Plastik  bei  den  Allen,  Dcr 
Stil  iti  den  leehnischen  «.  teklonischen  Kunsten  (1860-63).  His 
A'oSes  of  Lectures  on  Practical  Art  in  Metals  and  Sard. Materials : 
its  Technology,  History,  and  Style,  remains  iu  MS.  His  teachingi 
are  sometimes  encumbered  by  speculatious  reaching  far  beyond  the 
domain  of  his  art. 

SEXAAR  (Sknnaae,  properly  Sexnar),  a  country  of 
east  Central  Africa,  commonly  identified  with  the  "  Island 
of  Meroe"  of  the  ancients,  and  included  in  the  central 
division  of  Egyptian  (Eastern)  Sudan,  as  reorganized  in  the 
year  1882.  By  European  writers  the  term  is  often  applied 
to  the  whole  region  lying  between  the  Atbira  (Takazze) 
and  the  White  Nile,  but  by  native  usage  is  restricted  to 
the  district  confined  between  the  latter  river  and  the  Bahr- 
el-Azrak  (Blue  Nile),  and  its  eastern  tributaries,  the  Rahad 
and  the  Dender.  It  is  bordered  north  and  north-east  by 
Upper  Nubia,  east  by  Abyssinia,  west  by  the  White  Nile 
(Bahr-el-Abiad),  separating  it  from  Kordofin,  and  stretches 
from  the  confluence  of  the  two  Niles  at  Khartum  south- 
wards, in  the  direction  of  the  Berta  highlands  in  the  east 
and  the  Biirun  and  Diuka  plains  in  the  west.  As  thus  de- 
fined, Sennir  extends  across  five  degrees  of  latitude  (16° 
to  11°  N.),  ■n-ith  a  total  length  of  about  350  miles,  a  mean 
breadth  of  120  miles,  an  area  of  40,000  square  miles,  and 
an  approximate  population  of  300,000;  It  comprises  two 
physically  distinct  tracts,  the  densely  wooded  and  well- 
watered  Jezlrat  el-Jesfi-dt  ("Isle  of  Isles")  between  the 
Rahad  and  the  Blue  Nile,  and  the  "island"  of  SennAr  proper, 
a  nearly  level  steppe  land  confined  between  the  two  main 
streams.  This  western  and  much  larger  division,  which 
has  a  mean  elevation  of  under  .2000  feet  above  searlevel, 
consists  mainly  of  alluvial  and  sandy  matter,  resting  on  a 
bed  of  granite  and  porphyritic  granite,  which  first  crops  out 
some  ten  days'  journey  south  of  Kliartiim,  iu  the  Jebel  es- 
Segati  and  the  Jebel  el-5Ioye,  near  the  town  of  SennAr  on 
the  Balir-el-Azrak.  Between  these  two  groups  the  plain  is 
dotted  over  with  isolated  slate  hills  containing  iron  and 
silver  ores.  But  beyond  SennAr  the  boundless  steppe,  either 
under  a  tall  coarse  grass,  or  overgrown  with  mimosa  scrub, 
or  else  absolutely  waste,  again  stretches  uninterruptedly  for 
another  ten  or  eleven  days'  journey  to  the  Ros^res  (Rosaires) 
district,  where  the  isolated  Okelmi  and  Keduss  Hills,  con- 
taining quartz  with  copper  ore,  rise  1000  feet  above  the 
right  bank  of  the  Blue  Nile  and  3000  above  the  sea. 
Here  the  plain  is  furrowed  by  deep  gullies  flushed  during 
the  rainy  season ;  aud  farther  south  the  land,  hitherto 
gently  sloping  towards  tho  north-west,  begins  to  rise 
rapidly,  breaking  into  hills  and  ridges  4000  feet  high  in  tho 
Fazogl  district,  and  farther  on  merging  in  the  Bert;i  high- 
lands with  an  extreme  altitude  of  9000  to  10,000  feet. 
Iu  these  metalliferous  uplands,  recently  explored  by  Marno 
and  Schuver,  rises  tho  Tuinat,  which  is  washed  for  gold, 
and  which  after  a  northerly  course  of  nearly  100  miles 
joins  the  left  bank  of  tho  Blue  Nile  near  Fazogl  and 
Famaka.  South  of  and  jiarallel  with  tho  Tumat  flows  the 
still  unexplored  Jabus  (Vabus),  on  \Vhieh  stands  Fada.si, 
southernmost  of  tho  now  abandoned  Egyptian  stations  in 
the  Bahr-el-Azrak  basin.  This  point  also  marks  the  present 
limit  of  geographical  exploration  in  tho  direction  of  the 
conterminous  Galla  country,  Schuver  being  the  only 
European  traveller  who  has  hitherto  succeeded  in  pene- 
trating to  any  distance  south  of  the  Jabus. 

Stnniir  lies  within  the  northern  limits  of  tlio  tropical  rains,  wliich 
rcai.li  to  Khartum,  and  fall  between  Juno  and  September.  In  this 
part  of  its  course  the  Rluo  Nile  rises  from  May  to  August,  when 
the  northern  and  western  winds  prevail,  nearly  coinciding  with  tho 
cool  and  henUhy  si;n»ou.  lUit  they  are  followed  by  the  hot  khamusin 
from  the  south  or  tho  samum  (simoom)  from  the  north-west  charged 


658 


S  E  N  — S  E  N 


Tvith  fine  sand  from  the  Libyan  Desert.  Still  more  dreaded  are  the 
miasmatic  exhalations  caused  by  the  glowiug  sun  jilayiiii*  on  stag- 
nant waters  after  the  floods  and  ginng  rise  to  the  "Senuar  ferer.'' 
which  drives  the  natives  themselves  from  the  plains  to  the  soutlicru 
uplands.  The  temperature,  which  rises  at  times  to  over  120°  Fahr., 
is  also  very  changeable,  often  sinlcing  from  100°  Fahr.  during  the 
day  to  under  60°  fahr.  at  night. 

The  soil,  mainly  alluvial,  is  naturally  fertile,  and  wherever  water 
and  hands  are  avaUable  yields  bounteous  crops  of  maize,  pulse, 
cotton,  tobacco,  sesame,  and  especially  durra,  of  which  as  many  as 
twenty  varieties  are  said  to  be  cultivated.  The  forest  vegetation, 
mainly  confined  to  the  "  Isle  of  Isles  "  and  the  soutliern  uplands, 
in^dudes  the  Adansonia  (baobab),  which  in  the  Fazogl  district  attains 
eigantic  proportions,  the  tamarind,  of  which  bread  is  made,  the 
deleb  palm,  several  valuable  gum  trees  (whence  the  terra  Senndri 
often  applied  in  E.ctypt  to  gum  arabic),  some  dyewoods.  ebony,  iron- 
wood,  and  many  ijarieties  of  acacia.  These  forests  are  haunted  by 
the  two-horned  rhinoceros,  the  elephant,  lion,  panther,  numerous 
apes  and  antelopes,  while  the  crocodile  and  hippopotamus  frequent 
all  the  rivers.  The  cliief  domestic  animals  are  the  camel,  horee. 
ass,  ox,  buffalo  (used  both  as  a  beast  of  burden  and  for  ridingl,  sheep 
^vitb  a  short  silky  fleece,  the  goat,  cat,  dog,  and  pig.  which  lust 
here  reaches  its  southernmost  limit.  The  tsetse  fly  appears  to  be 
absent,  but  is  replaced  in  some  districts  by  a  species  of  wasp, 
whose  sting  is  said  to  be  fatal  to  the  camel  in  the  rainy  season. 

The  "African  Mesopotamia"  is  occupied  by  a  partly  settled 
partly  still  nomad  population  of  an  e.Ttremely  mixed  character, 
including  representatives  of  nearly  all  the  chief  ethnical  divisions 
of  the  continent.  But  the  great  plain  of  Seunar  is  mainly  occupied 
by  Hassanieh  Arabs  in  the  north,  by  Abu-Kof  (Rufaya)  Hamites 
of  Eeja  stock  (Robert  Hartmann)  iu  the  east  as  far  as  Fazogl,  and 
elsewhere  by  the  Funj  (Fung,  Fungheli),  traditionally  from  beyond 
the  AVhite  Nile,  and  affiliated  by  some  to  the  Kordofau  Kubas,  by 
others  more  probably  to  the  Nilotic  Negro  Shilluks.  These  Funj, 
who  have  been  the  dominant  race  since  the  15th  century,  have 
become  almost  everywhere  assimilated  in  speech,  religion,  and 
habits  to  the  Arabs.  Nevertheless  on  their  sacred  Mount  Guleh 
the  -traveller  Pruyssenaere  found  them  still  performing  pagan  rites, 
wliile  according  to  Marno  the  Bun'ins,  the  southernmost  branch  of 
the  race  between  the  Bcrta  highlanders  and  the  Nilotic  Denkas, 
are  addicted  to  cannibalism.  The  Berta  highlanders  themselves 
(Jebalaln,  as  the  Arabs  collectively  call  them)  are  of  more  or  less 
pure  Negro  stock  and  number  about  80,000,  grouped  iu  several 
semi-independent  principalities.  The  "no-man's-land"  stretcliing 
north  of  Dar-Berta  and  east  of  the  Tumat  valley  is  also  occupied 
by  distinct  nationalities,  such  as  the  Kadalos  in  the  exti'erae  north, 
the  Sienetjos  and  Gumus  in  the  east,  here  bordering  on  the  Abys- 
sinian Agaws,  the  Jabus  and  Ganti  in  the  south.  Most  of  these 
appear  to  be  of  Negro  or  Negroid  stock  ;  but  the  Sieuetjos,  said 
to  be  a  surviving  remnant  of  the  primitive  population  of  the  whole 
country,  are  doubtless  akin  to  the  Sienetjos  of  Damot  and  Gojam  in 
Abyssinia.  They  are  certainly  not  blacks,  and  have  a  yellow  or 
fair  complexion,  lighter  than  that  of  southern  Europeans. 

Tlie  Senndri  people  cultivate  a  few  industries,  such  as  cotton- 
weaving,  pottery,  gold,  sUvev,  and  iron  work,  matting,  and  leather 
■work  (camel  saddles,  sandals,  &c.),  noted  throughout  Sudan.  But 
their  chief  pursuits  are  stock-breeding,  agriculture,  and  trade, — 
exporting  to  Egypt  and  Abyssinia  gold,  hides,  durra,  sesame,  gums, 
ivory,  horses,  and  slaves.  The  chief  centres  of  population,  aU  on 
the  Bahr-el-Azrak,  are  Fazogl  (Fazoklo),  now  replaced  by  Famaka, 
at  the  Tumat  confluence ;  Roseres,  formerly  capital  of  au  inde- 
pendent state  ;  Sennar,  also  an  old  capital,  which  gives  its  name  to 
the  whole  region ;  Wod-Medineh  at  the  Rahad  confluence ;  and 
.Khartiim,  just  above  the  junction  of  the  two  Niles.  A  few  mUes 
above  Khartum  are  the  extensive  ruins  of  Soba,  former  capital  of 
the  Funj  empire,  which  at  one  time  stretched  from  'W'ady  Haifa 
to  Dar-Berta  and  from  Snakin  to  beyond  Kordofan,  but  which  was 
overthrown  by  Ismail  Pasha  in  the  year  1822.  (A.  H.  K.) 

S6NANC0UE,  £tienne  Pivert  de  (1770-1846), 
French  man-of-letters,  was  born  at  Paris  in  November 
1770.  His  family  was  noble  and  not  poor,  but  its  fortunes 
were  ruined  by  the  Revolution.  Before  that  event,  how- 
ever, Senancour  had  met  with  mishap.  He  was  a  sickly 
youth  and  was  destined  for  the  church,  but  ran  away  from 
home  and  established  himself  in  Switzerland.  Here  he 
married  and  spent  some  years ;  his  wife  died,  and  he  re- 
turned to  Paris  about  the  end  of  the  century.  In  1804 
he  published  the  singular  book  enfitled  Olermann,  which 
has  continued  to  be  in  a  fashion  popular  to  the  present 
day,  and  the  nest  year  a  treatise  De  V Amour,  which  had 
even  more  vogue  at  first,  but  is  now  little  read.  Ohermann, 
which  is  to  a  great  extent  inspired  by  Rousseau,  which 
attracted  the  admiration  of  George  Sand,  and-  which  had 


a  considerable  influence  over  the  last  generation  in  France 
and  England,  is  a  series  of  letters  supposed  to  be  written 
by  a  solitary  and  melancholy  person,  whose  headquarters 
were  in  a  valley  of  the  Jura,  but  who  writes  also  from 
divers  other  places.  The  style  is  meritorious,  the  descrip- 
tive power  very  considerable,  the  thought  sometimes  ori- 
ginal, and  the  expression  of  a  certain  form  of  the  maladie 
du  siecfe  effective  and  striking.  But,  viewed  from  the 
strictly  critical  point  of  view,  there  is  perhaps  a  certain 
unreality  about  the  book.  Its  idiosyncrasy  in  the  large 
class  of  AVertherian-Byronic  literature  has  justly  enough 
been  said  to  be  that  the  hero,  instead  of  feeling  the  vanity 
of  things,  recognizes  his  own  inability  to  be  and  do  whnt 
he  wishes.  Senancour  is  tinged  to  some  extent  with  the 
older  ])/nlosop//e  form  of  freethinking,  and  expresses  less 
revolt  from  the  ISth  centm-y  than  Chateaubriand.  Having 
no  resources  but  his  pen,  Senancour  during  the  half -century 
which  elapsed  between  his  return  to  France  and  his  death 
at  St  Clcud  in  February  1846  was  driven  to  literary  hack 
work,  and  even  his  more  independent  productions  have 
none  of  the  attraction  of  Obermann.  When  George  Sand 
and  Sainte-Beuve  revived  interest  in  this  latter,  Thiers  and 
Villemain  successively  obtained  for  the  author  from  Louis 
Philippe  pensions  which  enabled  him  to  pass  hb  last  days 
in  comfort.  He  committed  the  usual  mistake  of  writing 
late  iu  life  a  continuation  to  Ohermann,  entitled  Isalelle 
(1833),  but  it  has  been  wisely  forgotten. 

SEXEBIER,  Jean  (1742-1809),  a  Swiss  pastor  and 
voluminous  writer  on  vegetable  physiology,  was  born  at 
Geneva  on  6th  !May  1742.  He  is  remembered  on  account 
of  his  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  the  influence  of 
light  on  vegetation.  Though  Malpighi  and  Hales  had 
shown  that  a  great  part  of  the  substance  of  plants  must 
be  obtained  from  the  atmosphere,  no  progress  was  made 
until  more  than  a  century  later,  when  Bonnet  observed  on 
leaves  plunged  in  aerated  water  bubbles  of  gas,  which 
Priestley  recognized  as  oxygen.  lugenhousz  proved  the 
contemporaneous  disappearance  of  carbonic  acid ;  but  it 
was  Senebier  who  clearly  showed  that  this  activity  was 
confined  to  the  green  parts,  and  to  these  only  in  sunlight, 
and  first  gave  a  connected  view  of  the  whole  process  of 
vegetable  nutrition  in  strictly  chemical  terms,  so  prepar- 
ing the  way  for  the  quantitative  researches  of  N.  T.  de 
Saussure.     Senebier  died  at  Geneva  on  22d  July  1809. 

See  Sachs,  GcscJtichic  d.  Bolunik,  and  Arbcitcn,  vol.  ii. 

SEXEGA,  Luoirs  Ax^"J!Us  (c.  3  B.C.- 65  a.d.),  the  most 
brilliant  figure  of  his  time,  was  the  second  son  of  the  rhe- 
torician Marcus  Anuaeus  Seneca,  and,  like  him,  a  native  of 
Corduba  in  Hispania.  From  his  infancy  of  a  delicate  con- 
stitution, he  devoted  himself  with  intense  ardour  to  rhetor- 
ical and  philosophical  studies  and  early  won  a  reputation 
at  the  bar.  Caligula  threatened  his  life,  and  under  Claudius 
his  political  career  received  a  sudden  check,  for  the  influ- 
ence of  Messalina  having  efi'ected  the  ruin  of  Julia,  the 
youngest  daughter  of  Germanicus,  Seneca,  who  was  com- 
promised by  her  downfall,  was  banished  to  Corsica,  41  a.d. 
There  eight  weary  years  of  waiting  were  relieved  by  study 
and  authorship,  with  occasional  attempts  to  procure  his 
return  by  such  gross  flattery  of  Claudius 'as  is  foimd  in  the 
work  Ad  PolyUum  de  Consolatione  or  the  panegyric  on 
ilessaUna  which  he  afterwards  suppressed.  At  length  the 
tide  turned ;  the  next  empress,  Agrippina,  had  him  recalled, 
appointed  pr:etor,  and  entrusted  with  the  education  of  her 
son  Nero,  then  (48)  eleven  years  old.  Seneca  became  in 
fact  Agrippina's  confidential  adviser ;  and  his  pupil's  acces- 
sioii  increased  his  power.  He  was  consul  ia  57,  and  during 
the  first  bright  years  of  the  new  reign,  the  incomparable 
quinquenniitin  Keronis,  he  shared  the  actual  administration 
of  affairs  with  the  worthy  Burrus,  the  praeforian  prtefect. 
The  government  in  the  hands  of  these  men  of  remarkable 


S  E  N  — S  E  i^ 


659 


insiglit  and  energy  was  wise  and  humane ;  their  influence 
over  Nero,  while  it  lasted,  was  salutary,  though  sometimes 
maintained  by  doubtful  means.  When  there  came  the 
inevitable  rupture  between  mother  and  son  they  sided  with 
the  latter ;  and  Seneca,  who  drew  up  all  Nero's  state 
papers,  Was  called  upon  to  write  a  defence  of  matricide. 
We  must,  however,  regard  the  general  tendency  of  his 
measures ;  to  judge  him  as  a  Stoic  philosopher  by  the 
counsels  of  perfection  laid  down  in  his  writings  would  bo 
much  the  same  thing  as  to  apply  the  standard  of  New 
Testament  morality  to  the  career  of  a  Wolsey  or  Mazarin. 
He  is  the  type  of  the  man  of  letters  who  as  courtier  and 
minister  rises  into  favour  by  talent  and  suppleness  (coinilas 
honesta),  and  is  entitled  as  such  to  the  rare  ci-edit  of  a 
beneficent  rule.  In  course  of  time  Nero  got  to  dislike 
him  more  and  more ;  the  death  of  Burrus  in  62  gave  a 
shock  to  his  positioa.  In  vain  did  he  petition  for  permis- 
sion to  retire,  offering  to  Nero  at  the  same  time  his  enor- 
mous fortune.  Even  when  he  had  sought  privacy  on  the 
plea  of  ill  health  he  could  not  avert  his  doom.;  on  a  charge 
of  being  concerned  in  Piso's  conspiracy  he  was  forced  to 
commit  suicide.  His  manly  end  might  be  held  in  some 
measiu-e  to  redeem  the  weakness  of  his  life  but  for  the 
testimony  it  bears  to  his  constant  study  of  efiect  and 
ostentatious  seK-complacency  ("  conversus  ad  amicos,  ima- 
ginem  vit«  sure  relinquere  testatur  "). 

Seneca  is  at  once  the  most  eminent  among  the  Latin  wi-iters  of. 
the  Silver  Age  and  in  a  special  sense  their  representative,  not  least 
because  he  was  the  originator  of  a  false  style.  The  affected  and 
sentimental  manner  wliich  gradually  grew  up  in  the  first  century 
A.r.  became  ingrr.ined  in  him,  and  appears  ec|ual]y  in  everything 
which  he  wrote,  whether  poetry  or  prose,  as  the  most  finished  pro- 
duct of  ingenuity  concentrated  upon  declamatory  exercises,  sub- 
stance being  sacrificed  to  form  and  thought  to  point.  Every  variety 
of  rhetorical  conceit  in  turn  contributes  to  the  dazzling  effect,  now 
tinsel  and  ornament,  now  novelty  and  versatility  of  treatment,  or 
iffected  simplicity  and  studied  absence  of  plan.  But  the  chief 
weapon  is  the  epigram  (scntaUla),  summing  up  in  terse  incisive 
intithesis  the  gist  jjf  a  wliole  period.  "  Seneca  is  a  man  of  real 
genius,"  writes  Niebuhr,  "which  is  after  all  the  main  thing;  not 
to  be  unjust  to  him,  one  must  know  the  whole  range  of  that  litera- 
ture to  wluch  he  belonged  and  realize  how  well  he  understood  the 
art  of  making  something  even  of  what  was  most  absurd."  His 
works  were  upon  various  subjects.  (1)  His  Omtiotis,  probably  the 
speeches  whit'ti  Nero  delivered,  are  lost,  as  also  a  biography  of  liis 
father,  and  (2)  his  earlier  scientific  works,  such  as  the  monographs 
describing  India  and  Egy]>t  and  one  upon  earthquakes  (iV«^  Qu., 
vi.  4,  2).  The  seven  extant  books  of  Physical  Iiiveiiigalions  {Nalur- 
ales  Quieslioncs)  treat  in  a  popular  manner  of  meteorology  and 
astronomy  ;  the  work  has  little  scientific  merit,  yet  here  and' there 
Seneca,  or  his  authority,  has  a  shrewd  guess,  e.g.,  that  there  i.s  a 
connexion  between  earthquakes  and  volcanoes,  and  that  comets  are 
bodies  like  the  planets  revolving  in  fixed  orbits.  (3)  The  Satire  on 
the  Death  (and  deification)  of  Claiulius  is  a  specimen  of  the  "satira 
Menippea  "  or  medley  of  prose  and  verse.  The  writer's  spite  against 
the  dead  emperor  before  whom  he  had  cringed  servilely  shows  in  a 
sorry  fashion  when  he  fastens  on  the  uiso  and  liberal  mcasura  of 
conferring  the  franchise  upon  Gaul  as  a  theme  for  abuse.  (4)  The 
remaining  prose  works  are  of  the  nature  of  moral  essays,  bearing 
various  titles', — twelve  so-called  Dialo'jiies,  three  books  On  Clemency 
dctlic.-\tcd  to  Nero,  seven  On  Benefits,  twenty  books  of  Letters  to 
ZMcilixts,  They  are  all  alike  in  discussing  practical  questions  and 
in  addressing  a  single  reader  in  a  tone  of  familiar  conversation,  tho 
objections  ho  is  supposed  to  make  being  occasionally  cited  and 
aiKwercd.  Seneca  had  tho  wit  to  discover  that  conduct,  which  is 
after  all  "three-fourths  of  life,"  could  fuinish  inexhaustible  topics 
of  abiding  universal  interest  far  superior  to  the  imaginary  themes 
set  in  the  schools  and  abundantly  analysed  in  his  father's  Co^itro- 
vcrsiie  and  Huasoriie,  sudi  as  poisoning  cases,  or  tyraiinicido,  or 
even  historical  persons  like  Hannibal  and  Sulla.  Tho  innovation 
took  tho  public  taste,— plain  matters  of  urjjent  personal  concern 
sometimci  treated  casuistically,  sometimes  in  a  liberal  vein  witli 
serious  divergence  from  the  orthodox  standards,  but  always  with 
an  earnestLess  which  aimed  directly  at  tke  reader's  edification,  pro- 
gress towards  virtue,  and  general  moral  improvement.  Tho  essays 
ore  in  fact  Stoic  sermons  ;  for  the  creed  of  tho  later  Stoics  had  be- 
come less  of  a  philobopliical  system  and  more  of  a  religion,  especially 
at  Home,  where  moral  and  theological  doctrines  alone  attracted 
lively  interest.  The  school  is  remarkable  for  its  anticipation  of 
modern  ethical  conceptions,  for  the  lofty  morality  of  its  exhorta- 


tions to  forgive  injuries  and  overcome  evil  with  good  ;  th^bligntion 
to  «nivcrs.-u  benevolence  had  been  deduced  from  the  cosmopolitan 
principlo  that  all  men  are  brethren.  In  Seneca,  in  addition  to  all 
this,  tliere  is  a  distinctively  religious  temperament,  which  finds  ex- 
pression in  phrases  cuiiously  suggestive  of  the  spiritual  doctrines 
of  Christianity.  Yet  the  verbal  coincidence  is  sometimes  a  nicra 
accident,  as  when  he  uses  saeer  S2>irUus ;  and  in  the  same  wiitiucs 
he  sometimes  a)(iivocates  what  is  wholly  repulsive  to  Christian  fed- 
inft  as  the  duty  and  privilege  of  suicide. 

Eiglit  of  the  tragedies  which  bear  Seneca's  name  are  undoubtedly 
genuine.  In  them  the  defects  of  Ids  prose  style  are  exaggerated  : 
as  specimens  of  pompous  raut  they  are  probably  unequalled  ;  and 
the  rhythm  is  uunleiisant  owing  to  the  monotonous  structure  of 
the  iambics  and  the  neglect  of  sjmapheia  in  the  anapa;stic  sys- 
tems. Tho  prajtexta  Octavia,  also  ascribed  to  him,  contains  plain 
allusions  to  Nero's  end,  and  must  therefore  be  the-  product  of  a. 
later  hand. 

Our  materials  for  a  knowletlge  of  Seneca  are  ample,  and  are  variously  pre- 
sented in  such  works  as  Merivale's  Romans  vndcr  Ihe  Empire,  cc.  52-54  ;  Zelter's 
Greek  Philosophy  (Eng.  tr.  Eclecticism,  pp.  202-245);  and  tile  histories  of  Roni.iD 
literature  by  Bernhai-dy,  Teuffel  (§§  282-285),  and  Siracox  (ii.  pp.  1-27,  Londo-.; 
1SS3).  His  elder  brother  Ann»us  Seneca  Novatus,  afterwards  adopted  by  a 
Junius  Gallic,  was  the  proconsul  of  Achaia  befoi-e  whom  St  Paul  pleaded  (Acta 
xviii.  12).  The  date  of  Seneca's  birth  must  be  approximately  mferved  from 
Nut.  Qti.,  i.  1,  3;  Ep.,  IDS,  22.  His  mother's  name  was  Helvia ;  her  sister 
brought  him  as  a  child  to  Homo  and  nursed  him  tenderly.  His  teachers  were 
Attalus,  a  Stoic,  and  Sotion,  a  pupil  of  the  Sextii.  In  his  youth  he  was  a 
vegetarian  and  a  water-drinker,  but  liis  father  checked  his  indulgence  in  asceti- 
cism. Before  his  exile  he  had  served  as  quKstor,  was  niamed,  and  had  two 
children  born.  Caligula  said  his  style  was  meie  mosaic  (coimnissuras  v\eras)  or 
"sand  without  lime,"  and  would  have  put  him  to  death,  had  he  not  beeu 
assured  that  so  consumptive  a  subject  could  not  last  long  (Suet.,  Calig.,  63 ;  Dio 
Cassius,  lix.  19, 7).  Upona  Pompeian  fresco  a  butterfly  appears  as  chaiioteer  of 
a  dragon,— Seneca  and  Xero.  His  second  wife  was  Pompeia  Paulina,  of  noble 
family  ;  she  attempted  to  die  with  him.  His  enormous  wealth  was  estimated 
at  300  millions  of  sesterces.  He  had  500  ivory  tables  inlaid  with  citron  wood 
(Dio,  Ixi.  10,  Lxii.  2).  The  judgment  of  Tacitus  (Ann.,  xiii.  4,  13,  42  sq.,  xiv. 
52-56,  XV.  GO  sq.)  is  more  favourable  than  that  of  Dio,  who  may  possibly  derive 


Ehrciireltmig  (Hadersleben,  1S39);  Martha,  Les  MomlisUs  sous  I'Empire  Romain 
(2d  ed.,  Paris,  1866).  For  the  dates  of  his  works,  see  H.  Lehmann,  in  Pkilologiu, 
viii.  p.  809 ;  F.  Jonas,  De  online  libnrum  Sen.  (Berlin,  1870) ;  A.  Marten.s,  Dt  Sen. 
vita  (Altoua,  1871) ;  also  R.  Volkmnnn,  in  Mager'3  Ptidagog.  Revue,  xviii.  pp. 
259-270  (1857).  At  least  eighteen  prose  works  liave  been  lost,  among  them  De 
su2)crstitione,  an  attack  upon  the  popular  conceptions  of  the  gods,  and  De 
matrimonio,  which,  to  judge  by  the  e.vtant  fragments,  most  have  been  interest- 
ing reading.  Since  Ooltius  fxii.  2,  3)  cites  a  book  .xxli.  of  the  Lellen  to  lucitius, 
some  of  these  have  been  lost.  His  style  is  elaborately  criticized  by  (Juintilian 
(fiKf.,  X.  1,  125-131),  also  by  Pronto  (p.  155  sq.;  Gellius,  xii.  2,  1).  The  doubt 
as  to  his  authorship  of  the  tragedies  is  due  to  a  blunder  of  Sidonius  Apollinaris 
(ix.  229-231);  against  it  must  be  set  Quintilian's  testimony  ("ut  Medea  apud 
Senecam,"  ix.  2,  8).  Some  of  the  Fathei-s,  probably  in  admiration  of  liis  eth'ics, 
reckoned  Seneca  among  tho  Christians  ;  this  assumption  in  its  turn  led  to  the 
furgeiy  of  a  con-espoudence  between  St  Paul  and  Seneca,  which  was  known 
to  Jerome  (comp.  An^ustin,  Ep.,  153:  "Seneca  .  .  .  cujus  etiam  ad  Paulum 
apostolum  leguntnr  epistoloe").  This  has  given  rise  to  an  interesting  historical 
problem,  most  thoroughly  discussed  in  the  commentary  on  the  Ep.  to  the 
Pkilijypians  by  Dr  Lightfoot,  bishop  of  Durham  (London,  new  ed.,  1879,  pp. 
270-333),  who  cites  (p.  278  note)  among  earlier  authorities  A.  Fleury,  St  Pavl 
et  Scii^'jHC  (Pariii,  1853);  C.  Aubertin,  lilmte  (iS'j3),  also  new  ed.  Sinique  tl  St 
Paul  (Piiris,  1370) ;  F.  0.  Baur  (1858),  republished  in  Drel  AVhaiulUngtn  (Leip- 
sie,  1876);  F.  W.  Farrar,  Seekers  ojtcr  Goil  (London,  s.a.);  and  G.  Boissicr,  in 
the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  xcii.,  1S71,  pp.  40-71.  Add  the  articles  by  F.  X. 
Kraus  in  Theolog.  Quurtalschrijl,  vol.  xlix.  pp.  609-624  (Tubingen,  1S67)  and  by 
A.  Hnrnack  in  Theolog.  V.t.-Zeitmifi,  1881,  pp.  444-449,  the  latter  being  a  review 
of  E.  Westcrburg,  UiUersuchuug  dcr  Sage,  u'iiss  Souca  Christ  gcUKUn,  «i  (Ber- 
lin, ISSl). 

I1ie  best  text  of  tho  prose  works,  that  of  Hasse  in  Tenbner's  series  0852), 
was  re-edited  in  1872-74 ;  he  followed  tho  critical  labours  of  Fiokert  (Berlin, 
8  vols.,  1842-45).  Jlore  r-ecently  Gertz  h.os  revised  the  text  of  li&rt  de  beiufxiis 
et  dc  dementi'.:  (Berlin,  1676)  and  H.  A.  Koch  that  of  the  Dialogoruin  libri'XIl. 
(completed  by  Vahlen,  Jena,  3879).  There  is  no  complete  cxegetical  comment- 
ary, cither  English  or  German.  Bilchcler's  edition  of  the  'ATO/coXoxiJi'Tonrit 
may  be  found  in  Sy7nbotaphitol,  Boniien.^.,  I.  (1864),  pp.  31-80.  Little  has  been 
done  systematically  since  the  notes  of  Lipsius  and  Gronovius.  There  is,  how- 
ever, Ruhkopf'sed.  with  Latin  notes,  5  vols.  (Leipsic,  1797-lSll),  and  Lcniaire's 
variorum  ed,  (Paris,  1827-32,  S  vols.,  prose  and  verse).  The  text  of  the  tragedies 
was  edited  nyPeiper  and  Itiehter  for  Teubiier's  series  (1S67),  and  more  recently 
by  F.  Leo  (Berlin,  2  vols.,  1S7S-79).  Nisar<l,  I^:iudes  de  mo-vrset  ue  critvye  s\>f 
les  pontes  de  la  dkadcncc  (4th  ed.,  Paris,  187S),  has  criticued  then:  in  detail.  Of 
some  300  mdnographs  enumerated  iu  E:j::<'Iiii  iiin  luav  1 , m. iiU'  !i  ■;,  iii  :  !i'..tion 
t'l  tho  above,  Cf.  Boissicr,  ix'X  t»'  ''iris, 

1861) ;   A.  Dnrgens,  Seuee.  dis'  ^-tia 

(Leipsic,  1857);  E.  F.Gelpkc,  J' .  i.crr, 

Dcr  Philosoph  Seneca  (Raitadt,  15M).  (l:.  D.  U.) 

SENECA  FALLS,  a  post  village  and  to'miship  of  the 
United  States,  in  Seneca  county,  New  York,  41  miles 
south-west  of  iSyracuso  by  th«  Auburn  division  of  tho 
New  York  Ceiitral  Railroad,  occupies  a  beautiful  ."-ituation 
on  beneca  river,  the  outlet  of  Seneca  Lake.  It  turns  tho 
water-power  of  the  falls  to  account  in  the  manufacluro  of 
steam  lirc-cngincs,  fire-extinguishing  apparatus,  pumps, 
machinery,  kuit  goods,  flour,  y'-ast,  <tc.  Tho  population 
of  tho  vilJago  was  5880  in  1880  and  of  tho  township 
085.3. 

SENEFELDER,  jUois.  See  LmiocRAi'HV-  vn!.  .<!.. 
pp.  697-698. 


660 


SENEGAL 


SENEGAL,  a  river  of  western  Africa,  wliich  falls  into 
the  Atlantic  about  16°  N.  lat.,  9  or  10  miles  below  St 
Louis.  It  is  formed  at  Bafulab^i  (13°  50'  N.  lat.  and 
10°  50'  W.  long.)  by  the  junction  of  the  Ba-fing  or  Black 
Eifer  and  the  Ba-khoy  or  White  Eiver.  The  Ba-fing, 
which  has  a  width  at  the  confluence  of  1  -ITo  feet,  descends 
from  the  highlands  of  Futa-Jallon  by  a  northward  course  of 
about  350  miles,  during  which  it  passes  by  a  series  of 
rapids  from  the  altitude  of  2460  feet,  at  which  it  takes  its 
ri.se,  to  that  of  360  feet,  and  receives  fi-om  the  right  the 
Nunkolo  and  the  Funkumah  (with  its  tributary  the  Boki). 
The  Ba-khoy,  800  feet  wide  at  the  confluence,  has  been 
previously  flowing  from  east  to  west  and  gives  that  general 
direction  to  the  Senegal,  but  its  source  is  away  in  the 
south-east  behind  the  country  of  Bur^.  That  of  its  prin- 
cipal tributary,  theBa-ule  (Red  Eiver),  is  more  to  the  east 
and  lies  within  a  few  miles  of  the  course  of  the  Niger  in 
the  JIandingo  plateau.  Below  Bafulab6  the  Senegal,  flow- 
ing north-west,  passes  a  succession  of  falls — those  of  Guina 
(160  feet)  and  of  Felu  (50  or  60) — and  arrives  at  Medine, 
after  having  accomplished  440  of  its  total  course  of  1000 
miles.  It  receives  only  two  important  affluents, — from  the 
right  the  "marigot"  of  Kulu,  which  comes  fromKuniakhary, 
draining  the  slopes  of  the  Kaarta  plateau,  and  from  the 
left  the  Faleme,  which  rises  in  the  Futa-Jallon  between 
Lab6  and  Timbo  and  flows  north-west  in  a  permanent 
stream.  Below  Medine  the  Senegal  presents  a  series  of 
great  reaches,  which  become  more  and  more  navigable  as 
they  approach  the  sea. 

Trom  the  1st  of  August  to  the  1st  of  October  it  is  open  as  far  as 
Medine  to  vessels  not  drawing  more  than  8  feet.  Between  Mediue 
and  Bakel  (85  miles)  there  are  twenty-seven  "narrows,"  of  which 
several,  such  as  that  at  Kayes,  are  difficult  ;  it  is  on  this  account 
that  a  railway  has  been  projected  between  Kayes  and  the  Niger. 
At  Bakel  below  the  conflnence  of  the  Faleme  the  river  is  navigable 
till  the  1st  of  December,  from  Bakel  to  Salde  between  the  15th  of 
July  and  the  15th  of  December,  and  lastly  from  Mafu  to  the  sea 
for  a  distance  of  215  miles  it  is  navigable  all  the  year  round. 
Outside  the  limits  indicated  navigation  between  Mafu  and  Medine 
is  often  precarious  even  for  barges  drawing  little  over  a  foot,  and 
above  Medine,  though  some  reaches  are  deep  enough,  troublesome 
transhipments  are  necessary  between  reach  and  reach.  Between 
Mafu  and  Salde  the  Senegal  changes  its  direction  from  north-west 
to  west,  and  shortly  before  reaching  the  sea  to  south-west.  Tlie 
bar  at  -the  mouth  can  usually  be  crossed  by  vessels  not  drawing 
more  than  10  feet,  or  at  high  tides  a  little  more.  Below  Bakel 
the  river  becomes  tortuous  and  encloses  the  great  island  of  Morfil, 
110  miles  long,  and  a  series  of  other  islands,  of  which  one  is  occupied 
by  St'  Louis.  At  this  pouit  the  right  branch  of  the  river  is  only 
600  feet  from  the  sea,  but  the  dunes  along  the  coast  turn  it  south 
for  other  9  miles.  The  scantiness  of  its  sources,  the  steejiness  of 
its  upper  course,  and  the  rapid  evaporation  which  takes  place  after 
the  short  rainy  season  would  soon  dry  up  the  river-system  of  tlie 
Senegal,  especially  in  the  upper  regions  ;  but  natural  dams  cross 
the  channel  at  intervals  and  the  water  accumulates  behind  them  in 
deep  reaches,  which  thus  act  as  reservoirs.  In  the  rainy  season  the 
barriers  are  submerged  ii^  succession,  beginning  with  the  farthest 
up,  the  reaches  are  filled,  and  the  plains  of  the  lower  Senegal  are 
changed  into  immense  marshes.  Like  Lake  Mceris  in  antiquity 
on  the  NUe  and  the  lake  of  Cambodia  at  the  present  time  on  the 
Me-kong,  Lake  Cayor  on  the  right  side  of  the  lower  Senegal  and 
Lake  Panieful  on  the  left  constitute  reserve  basins,  receiving  the 
surplus  waters  of  the  river  during  flood  and  restoring  the.m  in  the 
dry  season.  For  months  together  the  latter  forms  the  only  drink- 
ing pond  for  the  wild  beasts  of  the  surrounding  counti-y, — lions, 
elephants,  leopards,  panthers,  ounces,  cheetahs,  hyanas,  lynxes, 
giraffes,  antelopes,  gazelles,  monkeys,  jackals  visiting  it  in  crowds. 
In  the  upper  part  of  the  river  the  reservoirs  are  successively  emptied 
to  the  level  of  the  dams  and  receive  no  more  water  except  from  the 
j>prmanent  springs;  but -they  are  partially  protected  by  curtains 
of  verdure  from  the  effects  of  the  evaporation  which  makes  itself 
so  severely  felt  on  the  treeless  seaboard.  Owing  to  these  natural 
"  locks,"  similar  to  those  of  an  artificial  canal,  the  Senegal  river 
never  discharges  less  than  1700  or  1800  cubic  feet  per  second.  The 
lower  Senegal  forms  the  boundary  between  the  dry  and  barren 
Sahara  and  the  rich  and  productive  region  of  the  western  Sudan  ; 
the  line  of  its  inundations  is  an  ethnographic  march  between  the 
noma  lie  Moor  and  the  settled  Negro. 

'  Bajulohe  is  a  native  word  for  "  conflueuce." 


SENEGAL,-  a  French  colony  of  western  Africa,  com- 
posed of  lines  of  fortified  posts  and  a  loose  agglomeration 
of  states  and  territories  in  various  degrees  of  subjugation. 
The  forts  extend  {a)  from  St  Louis  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Senegal  to  Bammako  on  the  Niger,^  (6)  along  the  coast  of 
the  Atlantic  between  St  Louis  and  the  mouth  of  the  Salum 
to  the  south  of  Cape  Verd,  and  (c)  along  the  so-called  rivers 
of  the  south  which  fall  into  the  ocean  between  the  Gam- 
bia and  Sierra  Leoxe  (y.','.).  French  influence  is  fully 
dominant  along  those  lines  either  in  the  form  of  actual 
territorial  possession  or  of  a  recognized  protectorate.* 

The  colony  is  ruled  by  a  governor,  sends  a  deputy  to  the  French 
legislature,  and  elects  a  general  council  of  sixteen  members,  ten  for 
the  electoral  district  of  St  Louis,  four  for  that  of  Goree-Dakar,  and 
two  for  that  of  Rufisque.  The  three  communes  just  named  liave 
each  its  municipal  council.  The  population  of  tliose  French  pos- 
sessions was  in  1884  197,644,-46,364  urban,  143,200  rural,  8080 
"  floating."  In  tlie  whole  number  there  were  only  1474  Eurojieans, 
of  whom  1461  were  French.  The  population  of  tlie  protected 
countries  cannot  be  ascertained.  The  most  important  places  in  the 
colony  are  St  Louis  (18,924  inhabitants  in  1883),  Dagana  (5375), 
Rufisque  (4214),  Medine  (3000),  Joal  (2372),  Gorcc  and  Dakar  (each 
2000).  The  colony  has  only  a  single  frue  port,  that  of  Dakar  to 
the  east  of  the  peninsula  of  Cape  Verd,  since  1885  connected  with 
St  Louis  by  a  railroad,  163  miles  long,  and  insited  by  Atlantic 
ste.amers  on  their  way  from  France  to  South  America.  Rufisque 
and  Goree  liave  open  roadsteads,  where  vessels  anchor  at  some  clis- 
tauce  from  the  shore.  The  port  of  St  Louis  in  the  Senegal  is  dilH- 
cult  of  access  owing  to  the  bar,  but  it  is  the  only  place  where 
vessels  can  repair  serious  damages.  The  princip.al  commercial 
centies  are  St  Louis  (imports  and  exports),  Goree  (exports),  and 
Rufisque  (exports).  The  upper  Senegal  seucls  ground-nuts  (known 
as  Galam  nuts),  gum,  millet,  leather,  and  receives  in  exchange 
blue -calico  (guiuee)  from  India,  England,  and  Belgium,  various  other 
cotton  stnfls,  cotton  yarn,  guns  and  ammunition,  tobacco,  crushed 
rice,  sugar  (raw  and  refined),  molasses,  biscuits,  tinsmiths'  wares, 
&e.  The  colony  also  imports  Swedish  iron,  which  is  manu- 
factured by  the  native  blacksmiths  into  agiicultural  implements, 
knives,  daggers,  and  spearheads.  Cayor  sells  its  ground-nuts  for 
money.  The  rivers  of  the  south  district  export  ground-nuts,  palm 
kernels,  india-rubber,  leather,  coffee,  in  return  for  English  and  Bel- 
gian blue  calico,  Hamburg  brandy,  EngUsh  gunpowder,  Englisli 
and  Belrian  guns,  and  American  tobacco.  An  English  firm  hns 
twenty-tnree  factories  on  the  Rio  Nuftez,  and  others  on  the  Rio 
Pongo  and  the  Mellacoree.  The  total  value  of  the  exports  and 
imports  of  the  colony  was  £1,325,711  in  1879,  £l,774,OS9'in  1880, 
and  £1,888,657  in  1883,  the  imports  slightly  preponderating  over 
the  exports.  The  valne  of  the  ground-nuts  exported  in  1883  was 
£700,000,  that  of  the  gums  only  £120,000 ;  and  the  ground-nut 
trade  is  still  rapidly  developing.     The  imports  comprise  French 


-  For  the  physical  geography,  &c.,  see  StNEOAStBLi. 

'  Along  this  line  lie  Richard  Toll,  Dagana  (founded  in  1821),  Podor 
(1743  and  1854),  Salde  (1859),  Matam  (1857),  Bakel  (1820),  Kayes, 
Medine  (1855),  and  Bafulab^  (1879)  on  the  Senegal,  .-ind  between  thi.i 
river  and  the  Niger  the  forts  of  Badumbe  and  Tukota  on  the  Ba-khoy, 
Kita  (1881),  Kondu  (1882),  Niagassola  (1884-85),  and  lastly  Bam- 
mako (1883)  or  Bamn).iku,  on  the  Niger. 

*  AKnoxDissEMENT  I. — On  the  circle  of  BcCkel  depend  the  post  of 
Matam,  the  ])rotected  countries  of  Daitiga  (1859),  Guoy,  Kamera, 
Guidimakha,  Boudu,  and  Bambuk  ;  on  the  circle  of  Metliuet  Khasso, 
Logo,  and  Natiaga  ;  on  the  circle  of  Bo/iilabe,  Barinta,  Makadiigu, 
Beteadugu,  Farimbula,  Bafing  ;  on  the  circle  of  7u/a,  the  province  of 
Kita  and  Fuladugu  ;  on  the  circle  of  Bammako^  Birgo  and  Little 
Beledugu.  This  arrondissement  is  under  the  command  of  a  superior 
officer  resident  at  Kayes.  Arrondissements  II.,  III. — Tliese  are 
formed  by  Lao  and  Toro  (1863),  protected  countries  attached  to  the 
circle  oi Salde;  the  circle  of  Podor^  which  comprises  the  French  portion 
of  Toro  and  a  fragment  of  Dimar;  the  circle  of  Dagana,  on  which 
depend  the  other  portion  of  Dimar  and  a  portiou  of  Walo  ;  the  sub- 
urban district  of  St  Louis,  including  the  other  portion  of  Walo,  Ross, 
Merinaghen,  the  cantons  of  Gandiole,  M'pal,  Khattet,  Gondu,  Diala- 
khar,  N'diago,  and  Tube  ;  N'diambor  and  Merina  N'guick,  separatC'l 
from  Cayor  and  placed  under  French  protection,  as  well  as  the  king- 
doms of  Cayor  and  Baol  ;  the  suburb  of  Dakar  with  the  island  of 
Goree,  the  cantons  of  Rufisque  and  the  circles  of  M'bijem,  Thies, 
PoHudut,  and  Joal.  Arrondissement  IV.— The  Rivers  of  the  South 
district  constitutes  the  fourth  arrondissement  under  a  lieutenant- 
governor,  and  comprises  the  circle  of  Kaolack  or  Solum  ;  those  of 
Carahane  and  Sedhin  on  the  Cazamance,  with  the  protected  countries 
of  Pakao,  Balinadu,  Suna,  Yacine,  Firdu  ;  the  circle  of  Rio  -Vi/iio', 
formed  by  the  Nalus  and  Landuman  tribes  ;  the  circle  of  the  Iti'i 
Pongo  with  the  country  of  the  Susus  ;  the  circle  of  ilellacorlf.  with 
the  p-otected  countries  o'  Samo,  Kaback,  Kabita-  Kalum,  Tabussv, 
Maneah,  Correra,  and  the  island  of  Tombo. 


S  E  N  —  S  E  N 


661 


goods  £360,000,  goods  passing  as  Trench  £200,000,  foreign  goAds 
£4-10,000,  of  which  £240,000  represent  Enijlish,  £200,000  Belgian, 
f  120,000  German,  £S0,OuO  American  articles.  In  1S82  946  vessels 
entered  and  960  cleared.  The  budget  for'  the  colony  in  1884  v.as 
£100,320,  for  the  communal  expenses  £14,560,  and  for  the  expenses 
ofthe  capital  £250,000. 

fistonj. — The  navigators  of  Dieppe  are  said  to  have  discovered  the 
Senegal  about  1300.  The  Portuguese  had  some  establishments  on  its 
banks  in  the  15th  century  ;  and  the  first  French  settlements  were 
probably  formed  in  the  latter  part  of  the  10th  or  beginning  of  the 
17th  century.  Between  1664,  when  these  French  settlements  were 
assigned  to  Colbert's  West  India  Company,  and  1758,  when  the 
colony  was  seized  by  the  English,  Senegal  had  passed  under  the 
idministration  of  no  fewer  than  seven  dilferent  companies,  none  of 
which  attained  any  great  success,  though  from  1694  to  1724  affairs 
were  conducted  by  a  really  able  governor,  Andre  Brue.  In  1677 
the  French  captured  from  the  Dutch  Rufisque,  Portudal,  Joal,  and 
Goree,  and  they  were  confirmed  in  possession  of  these  places  by  the 
treaty  of  Niraeguen  (1678).  In  1717  they  acquired  Portendic  and 
in  1724  Ai-gnin  on  the  coast  of  the  Sahara,  which  still  belong  to 
the  colony.  Goree  and  the  district  of  Cape  Verd  were  surrendered 
by  the  English  to  the  French  in  1763,  and  by  the  treaty  of  peace 
in  1783  the  whole  of  the  Senegal  was  also  restored  ;  but  the  English 
again  captured  the  colonv  in  the  wars  of  the  first  empire  (Goree 
1800,  St  Louis  1809),  and,  though  the  treaty  of  Paris  authorized  a 
complete  resritution,  the  Irench  authorities  did  not  enter  into  pos- 
session till  1S17.  Between  that  date  ami  1854  little  was  eifected  by 
the  thirty-seven  governors  who  succeeded  each  other  at  St  Louis;  but 
in  this  year  the  appointment  of  General  Faidlierbe  proved  the  turn- 
ing-point in  the  history  of  Senegal.  He  at  once  set  about  subduing 
the  Moorish  (Berber)  tribes  of  the  Trarzas,  Braknas,  and  Duaish, 
whose  "kings,"  especially  the  king  of  the  Trarzas,  had  subjected 
the  French  settlers  and  traders  to  the  most  grievous  and  arbitrary 
exactions  ;  and  he  bound  them  by  treaty  to  confine  their  authority 
to  the  north  bank  of  the  Senegah  In  1855  he  annexed  the  countiy 
of  Walo  and  erected  the  fort  of  Medine  in  the  country  of  Khasso. 
This  last  was  a  bold  stroke  for  the  purpose  of  stemming  the  ad- 
vaticing  tide  of  Moslem  invasion,  which  under  Omar  al-Hadji 
(Ale^ui)  threateiied  the  safety  of  the  colony.  In  1857  lledine  was 
brilliantly  defended  by  the  mulatto  Paul  Holle  against  Omar,  who 
with  his  army  of  20,000  men  had  to  retire  before  the  advance  of 
General  Faidherbe  and  turn  his  attention  to  the  conquest  of  the 
native  states  of  the  Sudan.  By  treaty  of  1860  Omar  recognized  the 
French  claim  to  half  of  Bambuk,  half  of  Khasso,  Bondu,  Kamera, 
Guoy,  Guidimakha,  Damga,  Futa-Toro,  Dimar,  &c.  Since  then 
annexations  and  protectorates  have  followed  in  rapid  succession 
under  the  governorships  of  Jaureguiberry,  Faidherbe,  and  Briere 
de  I'lsle.  It  is  suffirient  to  mention  the  treaties  of  1881  and  1885 
by  which  the  confederation  of  Futa-Jallon  and  Bute  respectively 
recognized  a  French  protectorate. 

See  Jannequin  de  Rochefort,  Voyagt  de  Lilye  au  royawme  de  Eimga,  1G43 ; 
Adanson,  Histoire  natitrel  du  Sincgai,  1757;  MoUien,  Voyage  dans  I'inlerienr 
de  I'Afriqne  fait  artx  sources  dn  Senegal  et  de  la  Gamble  en  1318-1820 ;  Tardien, 
Siniga-mble  et  diince,  1847  ;. Faidherbe  on  "Populations  noires  des  bassins  du 
Senegal  et  du  Ni;jer,"  in  Bull.  Soc.  de  Ghgr.^  Paris,  1854  :  Siwegal  et  Niger^  la 
France' dans  VAJrUpte  Occidentnlc,  1S79-83,  publislied  oy  the  Jlinistry  of 
Marine,  1884  ;  Faidherbe,  Le  Soudan  franrnis,  Lille,  1881-85  ;  Notices  Colonlnks 
pub.  d  Voccaslon  de  V Erposi'Aon  d'Anvers,  1835  ;  Annates  Senegalaises  de  135U  a 
XSSSf  snivies  des  traites  passes  avec  les  indigenes,  1880  ;  and  Rambaud,  "Senegal 
et  Soudan  Fran^ais,"  in  Itevue  des  Deux  Mondes,  1SS5. 

SENEGAILBIA,  a  country  in  tlie  west  of  equatorial 
Africa,  comprising,  as  the  name  indicates,  tlie  regions 
Bouii>i-  'watered  by  the  Senegal  and  the  Gambia.  It  lies  between 
►rie"  9°  and  17°  K  lat.  and  6°  and  17°  30'  W.  long.,  being 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Sahara,  W.  by  the  Atlantic, 
S.  by  Sierra  Leone,  and  E.  by  the  Joliba  or  upper  Niger. 
The  area  is  estimated  at  about  400,000  square  miles. 
Accepting  the  course  of  the  Senegal  and  its  right  hand 
affluent  the  Ba-ule  as  the  boundary  towards  the  Sahara, 
the  Joliba  as  the  frontier  towards  Segu  and  Upper  Guinea, 
and  the  watershed  between  the  Mcllacorde  (Mellicoury) 
and  the  Great  Scarcies  as  that  between  Senegambia  and 
Sierra  Leone,  wo  have  only  for  short  distances  to  fall 
back  on  a  mere  conventional  delimitation, — in  the  north 
between  Sidian  oh  the  Ba-ule  and  Sansanding  on  the 
Niger  via  Slurdia ;  in  the  south-east,  from  Sansanding  to 
a  point -above  Nyamina;  and  finally  between  the  Joliba 
and  the  sources  of  the  Great  Scarcies.  The  Sencgambian 
«oast  extends  south-south-west  almost  in  a  straight  line 
from  the  N'diadier  or  Mosquito  lagoon  (Marigot  des  Ma- 
ringouins),  formerly  the  northern  moutli  of  the  Senegal,  to 
Cape  Verd,  the  most  western  point  of  the  African  con- 
tinent j  then  it  bends  south  as  far  as  Capo  Eoxoj  and 


afterwards  south-east  as  far  as  the  Jfellacor^e.  With  the 
exception  of  the  two  great  capes  just  mentioned,  the  only 
headlands  of  any  importance  are  Cape  St  Mary,  forming 
the  south  side  of  the  estuary  of  the  Gambia ;  Cape  Verga, 
between  Rio  Nufiez  and  Rio  Pongo ;  and  Konakry  Point, 
opposite  the  Los  (or  Idolos)  Isknds.  The  only  gulf  on  the 
whole  coast  is  that  which  lies  to  the  south  of  Cape  Verd 
and  contains  the  island  of  Gor^e  (q.v.);  the  other  inlets, 
such  as  the  bay  of  Sangareah,  are  mere  estuaries  or  river 
mouths.  Apart  from  the  island  in  the  Senegal  on  which 
St  Louis  is  built  and  those  formed  by  the  deltas  of  the 
rivers,  the  only  islands  along  the  coast  are  Goree,  the 
Bissagos  (or  Bijug)  Archipelago,  the  Los  Islands,  and  the 


_T>-<ti«>Wl 


-K. 


Map  of  Senegambia. 
little  island  of  Matakong.  The  coast  in  the  northern  part 
has  the  same  appearance  as  that  of  the  Sahara, — low,  arid, 
desolate,  and  dune-skirted,  its  monotony  relieved  only  here 
and  there  by  cliffs  and  plateaus.  Farther  south  it  be- 
comes low,  marshy,  and  clothed  with  luxuriant  vegetation. 
Behind  the  low  flat  seaboard  the  country  rises  into  a  va.st  lnteri'» 
plateau  terminating  eastwards  in  a  mountainous  region. 
Though  of  no  great  height,  these  mountains  cover  a  largo 
area  and  have  numerous  ramifications. .  Farther  to  the 
east  they  sink  abruptly  towards  the  Niger  valley,  while 
southwards  tliey  are  prolonged  towards  Sierra  Leono  and- 
the  interior  of  'Upper  Guinea,  perhaps  forming  those  Kong 
Mountains  which  are  said  to  exist  between  the  ocean  and 
the  Niger  basin.  Under  the  name  of  Mounts  Badet, 
Yandi,  Mat6,  Kissi  (of  which  the  first  form,  the  "Alps" 
of  Futa-Jallon)  they  descend  on  the  west  by  a  series  of 
terraces  to  the  plains  of  Senegambia,  and  on  the  north 
they  extend  to  tlio  loft  bank  of  the  Senegal  and  even 
throw  out  some  spurs  into  the  desert  beyond.  The  moun- 
tain region  is  cut  by  numerous  erosion  valleys.  As  to  the 
general  altitude  nothing  is  accurately  known,  but  the  fol- 
lowing points  have  been  determined- — Mount  Daro,  4063 
feet ;  Kuruworo,  38G8  ;  'Warnani,  3799  ;  Vcnkina,  3:)G0 ; 
Bogoma,  3524  ;  Pampaya,  3290.  Tlic  principal  rivers  are 
the  Senegal,  tlie  Salum,  the  Yomba.s,  the  Gambia,  the 
Caiamance,  the  Cacheo,  the  Geba,  the  Rio  Grande,  the 


662 


S  E  N  E  G  A  M  B  I  A 


Cassini,  the  Compony,  tlie  Eio  Nunez,  tlie  Rio  Pongo,  tlie 

Dubreka  or  Konakry,  the  Forecareah,  and  the  Mellacoree. 

They  a'l  rise  in  the  mountains  of  the  interior  or  at  the 
foot  of  the  highlands  and  fall  into  the  Atlantic.  Their 
general  direction  is  from  east  to  west  vrith  a  south-west 
deflexion,  which  becomes  always  more  pronounced  as  we 
advance  southwards.  Unlike  these  rivers,  the  Joliba  or 
Niger  (q.v.),  flowing  north  and  north-east,  soon  passes 
beyond  Senegambia.  Lagoons  and  backwaters  are  com- 
mon ;  but  there  are  no  true  lakes  of  any  importance. 

The  geological  constitution  cf  the  country  is  as  yet  very  imper- 
fectly known,  especially  in  the  interior.  The  low  region  of  the 
seaboard  has  a  very  uniform  character.  It  consists  of  sandstones  or 
clay  rocks  and  loose  beds  of  reddish  soil  containing  marine  shells. 
At  certain  points,  such-  as  Cape  Verd  and  Caps  lioxo,  the  sand- 
stones cop  out ;  it  is  the  red  colour  of  the  sandstone  in  fact  which 
has  given  Cape  Roxo  or  Cap  Rouge  its  name.  Clay  slates  also 
occur,  and  at  intervals  these  sedimentary  strata  are  interrupted  by 
basaltic  amygdaloid  and  volcanic  rocks.  For  instance,  the  island 
pfGoree  is  basaltic  ;  the  Bissagos  (Bissao)  Islands  are  composed  of 
scorias  and  other  volcanic  products  ;  and  a  great  part  of  the  coast 
to  the  north  of  Rio  Kunez  consists  of  basaltic  and  amygdaloid  rocks. 
The  base  of  the  mountains  Is  formed  in  certain  places  of  clay  slate, 
but  more  generally  of  granite,  porphyiy,  syenite,  or  trachyte.  In 
those  districts  inica  schists  and  iion  ores  occur.  Iron  and  gold  are 
found  in  the  mountains  and  the  aUuvial  deposits.  The  sti'eams  also 
carry  down  gold  dust.  Many  of  the  valleys  are  covered  with  fertile 
roUs  and  there  is  generally  a  fertile  belt  along  the  river  sides ;  but 
the  rest  of  the  country  is  rather  arid  and  sterile. 

The  climate  is  far  from  being  so  unhealthy  as  is  frequently 
asserted.  Except  when  yellow  fever  is  raging,  Europeans  may  live 
there  as  satisfactorily  as  at  home.  There  are  two  seasons,  the  dry 
season  and  the  rainy  season  or  winter,  the  latter  coutemporaneons 
with  our  summer.  Along  the  seaboard  the  dry  season  is  cool  and 
agreeable ;  in  the  interior  ■  it  is  mild  only  for  the  three  months 
which  correspond  to  our  winter,  and  then  it  becomes  a  time  of  in- 
tolerable heat.  The  annual  temperature  increases  as  we  advance 
south  and  more  rapidly  as  we  advance  east  into  the  interior,  except, 
of  course,  where  an  ascent  is  made  to  higher  altitudes.  To  the 
south  of  Cape  Verd  the  changes  of  temperature  become  less  and 
less  marked  ;  Bissao  has  a  more  equable  climate  than  Goree.  East- 
wards the  monthly  range  of  the  thermometer  becomes  more  exten- 
sive. The  maximum  readings,  which  are  exceptional  at  St  Louis, 
become  almost  the  rule  at  Bakel  on  the  upper  Senegal  and  at 
MacCarthy  on  vh«  Gambia.  In  the  north,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Senegal,  the  north-east  trade-winds  blow  for  eight  months  of  the 
year,  the  daily  land  and  sea  breezes  which  cool  the  atmosphere 
along  the  seaboard  not  being  felt  far  inland.  During  the  other 
four  months  there  prevails  a  gentle  south-west  monsoon  accom- 
panied with  frequent  calms,  storms,  tornadoes,  and  rains.  South- 
wards along  the  coast  the  trade-winds  gradually  decrease  in  both 
strength  and  duration,  while  the  south-west  monsoon  becomes 
more  powerful  and  persistent.  The  rainy  season  begins  at  Goree 
between  27th  June  and  13th  July,  on  the  Gambia  about  20th  June, 
on  the  Casaraauce  about  the  end  of  May,  at  the  Bissagos  Archipelago 
about  the  middle  of  May,  and  on  the  Kio  Nullez  at  the- end  of 
April.  During  this  season  Senegambia,  drenched  by  heavy  rains 
brought  from  the  ocean,  has  everywhere  one  unifonn  appearance. 
The  mean  temperature  is  throughout  very  close  on  81°  Fahr.  and 
the  range  of  the  thermometer  is  extremely  limited.  The  rivers 
overflow  and  flood  the  lowlands.  Storms  are  frequent.  Vegetation 
displays  its  fullest  energy.  The  fever  exhalations  are  unfortunately 
also  at  their  worst.  At  St  Louis,  Goree,  Dagana,  and  all  along 
the  Senegal  there  ar*!  35  days  of  rain,  a  slight  increase  being 
apparent  in  the  upper  course  of  the  river.  At  St  Mary's,  Bathurst, 
there  are  48  -lays,  at  Sedhiu  Si,  at  Bissao  111,  at  Boke  137,— a  steady 
increase  as  we  approach  the  equator.  The  number  of  storms  follows 
almost  the  same  ratio  of  incre;.  se,  and  showers  which  last  two  or 
three  hours  at  St  Louis  give  place  to  whole  days  of  rain  on  the 
Casamance  and  the  Kio  Nunez. 

The  king  of  the  Senegambian  trees  is  the  baobab  (Adansonia 
digiiala),  which  sometimes  at  the  height  of  2i  feet  has  a  diameter 
of  34  Teet  and  a  circumference  of  104.  Acacias  are  very  numerous, 
one  species,  A.  Adansonia,  being  indeed  the  commonest  of  all  Sene- 
gambian trees  and  valuable  for  its  ship-timber.  Among  tha  palm- 
trees  the  ronier  deserves  to  be  mentioned,  as  the  wood  resists 
moisture  and  the  attacks  of  insects  ;  in  some  places,  as  in  Cayor, 
it  forms  magnificent  forests.  The  wood  of  the  cailcedra  {Khaya 
unegaitiisis),  a.  tall  tree,  is  use-',  in  joiner's  work  and  inlaying,  and 
its  bark  furnishes  a  bitter  tonic.  'The  mampatas  grows  sotiietimes 
100  feet  high,  its  branches  beginning  only  at  a  height  of  about  2P 
feet    The  tiee  producing  the  famous  kola-nut'  grows  on  the  banks 

1  A  vety  complete  account  of  this  Mt  will  be  found  iallachtigal, 
Sahara  mtd  Sudan, 


of  the  southern  streams.  It  is  almost  needless  to  mention  thar 
m'bilor,  the  gonat,  the  mimosa,  fig- trees,  orange-trees,  cocoa-palms, 
mango-trees,  pomegranates,  sycamores,  and  so  on.  The  dimb, 
the  neteru,  the  tiamanoi,  the  dimbguton,  the  gologne,  the  n'tabo 
yield  edible  fruits.  The  cultivated  plants  are  millet,  rice, 
tobacco,  haricots,  grotmd-nuts,  indigo  (wild  indigo  i^also  abun- 
dant), cotton  (also  found  wild),  maize,  sugar-cane,  and  the  butter- 
tree  or  karite. 

The  Senegambian  lion  is  quite  different  from  the  Barbaiy  lion  : 
its  colour  is  a  deeper  and  brighter  yeUow,  and  its  mane  is  neither 
so  thick  nor  so  long.  Other  beasts  of  prey  are  the  leopard,  tho 
wild  cat,  the  cheetah,  the  civet,  and  the  hyaena.  The  wild  boar  is 
clumsier  than  the  European  variety.  Antelop^  and  gazelles  occur 
in  large  herds  all  thi-ough  upper  Senegambia ;  the  giraffe  is  common/ 
in  the  region  of  the  upper  Senegal ;  the  elephant  is  rare  ;  tha 
hippopotanms  is  gradually  discppearing.  Crocodiles  swarm  both! 
in  the  upper  Senegal  and  the  upper  Niger.  Monkeys  and  apes  of 
different  species  (the  chimpanzee,  the  colobus,  the  cynocephalns, 
&c. ),  the  squiirel,  rat,  and  mouse  abound.  The  hedgehog,  marmot, 
porcupine,  nare,  rabbit,  &c.,  are  also  met  with.  Among  the  more 
noteworthy  buds  are  the  ostrich,  which  migrates  to  the  Sahara ; 
the  bustard,  occurring  in  desert  and  uncultivated  districts  ;  the 
marabout,  a  kind  of  stork,  with  its  beak  black  in  the  middle  and 
red  at  the  point,  which  frequents  the  moist  meadow-lands  and  the 
lagoons  ;  the  browii  partridge,  the  rock  partridge,  and  the  quail  in 
the  plsins  and  on  the  mountain  sides ;  and  the  guinea-fowl  in  the 
thickets  and  brushwood.  Along  the  coast  are  caught  the  sperm 
whale,  the  manatee,  and  the  cod-fish.  The  domestic  animals  are 
the  horse,  ass,  ox,  sheep,  goat,  dog,  and  camel. 

The  population  of  Senegambia  cannot  be  ascertained  with  any  1 
approach  to  accuracy,  but  it  may  be  roughly  stated  at  from  ten  to  I 
twelve  mOlions.  It  comprises  three  distinct  racea, — the  Moor, 
the  Negro,  and  the  European.  The  Moors,  or  rather  Berbers 
(Trarzas,  Braknas,  and  Duaish),  belong  strictly  to  the  right  bank 
of  the  Senegal  and  appear  in  Senegambia  only  exceptionally. 
The  Negroes  form  the  bulk  of  the  population.  They  are  divided 
into  Pouls  (Penis,  Fulbe,  Fi'lah,  or  Fellatah),  Toucouleurs,  Man- 
dingoes,  Sarakoles;  Wolofe,  bereres,  Diolas,  Bambaras,  BaJantes, 
Biafares,  Panels,  Nalus,  Landumans,  Bagas,  and  Susns.  Tho 
Pouls  inhabit  Futa,  Damga,  Bondu,  and  Futa-Jallon ;  they  have  a 
reddish  complexion  and  almost  straight  hair,  their  body  fairly 
stout,  but  their  limbs  slim.  They  are  gentle  and  hospitable,  but 
addicted  to  theft.  The  Toucouleurs,  Poul  half-breeds,  belonging 
originally  to  Futa-Jallon,  are  similar  to  the  Negro  proper  ;  they  aro 
treacherous,  warlike,  fond  of  plunder,  and  fanatical  in  their  Moham- 
medanism. The  Mandingoes  or  MaUnkes  inhabit  the  basins  of  tho 
upper  Niger  and  the  upper  Senegal  and  the  western  slope  of  the 
mountains  of  Futa-Jallon.  They  comprise  the  Mandingo  proper, 
occupying  Handing,  and  the  Malinkes  and  Soninkes,  scattered 
about  Bambuk,  Buve,  and  Fuladugu.  LTnder  the  name  of  Wakore 
or  Wangara  they  are  also  found  in  all  the  immense  tract  which 
extends  to  the  north  of  the  Kong  Jlountains.  They  are  tall  of 
stature  and  of  great  muscular  strength.  Tha  Sarakoles  are  one  of 
the  branches  of  the  Bambara  race  produced  by  crossing  with  the 
Pouls.  Their  character  is  mild  and  pacific.  Scattered  about  in 
Guoy,  Eamera,  and  Guidimakha,  they  are  fond  of  trade  and  engage 
in  it  with  activity.  The  \yolofs  and  the  Sereres  Inhabit  the  sea- 
board from  St  Louis  to  Cape  Verd  and  the  left  bank  of  the  Senegal 
from  its  mouth  to  Richard  Toll  and  Dagana.  They  are  tail  aiid 
robust,  with  blaek  and  glossy  skin.  Most  of  them  are  fetishists. 
The  Diolas  have  flat  noses,  thick  lips,  harsh  features,  and  a  promi- 
nent beUy ;  the  body  is  tattooed.  The  Bambaras,  who  have  invaded 
Kaarta  and  Khasso,  have  a  coppery  black  complexion  and  frizzly 
hair ;  their  cheeks  are  marked  with  deep  scars.  The  Balantes 
inhabit  the  left  bank  of  the  Casamance  ;  they  are  as  cruel  and  as 
fond  of  pUlage  as  the  Mandingoes,  but  are  more  generous  towards 
the  vanquished.  The  Biafares  live  on  the  banks  of  the  Kio  Grande 
and  the  Papels  in  the  valley  of  the  Cacheo  and  the  Geba.  The 
Nalus  and  the  Landumans  are  tributary  to  the  French  ports  of  the 
Rio  Nunez  and  the  Rio  Pongo.  Islam  is  gradually  detaching  them 
from  fetishism.  The  Bagas  occupy  the  coast  between  the  Rio 
Nunez  and  the  Rio  Pongo.  The  Susus  formerly  dwelt  on  the 
upper  Niger,  but  they  were  expelled  by  the  invasion  of  the  Moham- 
medans and  are  at  the  present  time  settled  in  the  valley  of  the  Ria 
Pongo.  The  principal  languages  of  Senegambia  are  Wolof,  Poul, 
Sereres,  Mandingo,  and  Arabic  Wolof  is  spoken  in  a  large  part 
of  Senegambia,  in  Wolof,  Walo,  Cayor,  Dakar,  Baol,  Sine,  Salum, 
and  in  the  towns  of  St  Louis  and  Goree.  The  river  Senegal  mai-ks 
the  line  of  separation  between  AVolof  and  Arabic,  s  Poul  is  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Potds  and  the  Toucoideurs ;  Mandingo  comprises 
several  dialects, — Malink^,  Soninke,  Bambara.  The  few  Europeans 
are  mainly  civil  and  military  officials  or  traders.  White  planters 
are  rare.  Tlie  natives  of  Senegambia  are  generally  divided  into 
two  quite  distinct  classes, — freemen  and  slaves.  The  griots  are  a 
'tind  of  bards  or  trouveres  who  live  at  the  expense  of  those  whoso 
praises  they  sing.  Polygamy  is  generally  practised.  Circumcisic* 
of  the  adufts  of  both  sexes  is  a  rita  accompanied  with  superstitious 


S  E  N  — S  E  N 


663 


observances.  Every  canton,  every  village  in  independent  Sene- 
fj.imbia  is  governed  either  by  a  cliief  ("king")  or  by  an  "almamy  " 
.elected  by  a  gioup  of  \-illasers. 

Senegambia  is  divided  into  French  Senegambia  (with  the  tcrri- 
toiies  placed  imder  French  protection),  English  Senegambia,  Portu- 
guese Senegambia,  and  independent  Senegambia,  comprising  the 
native  states  not  under  the  protection  of  a  European  power. 
French  Senegambia  is  called  the  colony  of  Senegal  iq.v.).  English 
Senegambia  comprises  the  establishments  of  the  Gambia  (q.v.)  and 
the  islands  of  Los.  Portuguese  Senegambia  consisted  till  quite 
recently  of  Bissagos  Archipelago  and  the  "factories "  of  Zighinchor 
on  tlie  Casamance,  Cacheo  and  Farim  on  the  Rio  Cacheo,  and  Geba 
on  the  Geba.  By  an  arrangement  effected  in  18S6  Portugal  ceded 
Zighinchor  to  France  in  exchange  for  Massabe  on  the  Loaugo  coast. 
Germany,  which  seemed  at  one  time  disposed  to  jdace  various 
territories  of  Dubreka,  Koba,  and  Kabitai  under  its  protection,  lias 
formally  abandoned  the  plan.  The  independent  states  are  not  very 
numerous,  but  for  the  most  part  they  are  more  extensive  than  the 
protected  countries.  They  were  quite  recently — Jolof,  lying  be- 
tween the  Senegal  and  the  Gambia  in  one  direction  and  between 
the  Faleme  and  the  ocean  in  the  other ;  Bure  in  the  Jlandingo 
region,  a  territory  abounding  in  gold  ;  Guidimakha  in  Gangara,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Senegal.  There  still  remain  among  the  more 
important  Kaarta,  the  country  of  Segu,  and  Futa-Jallon. 

Several  lines  of  English,  French,  and  German  packets  call  at  the 
Senegambian  ports,  and  small  steamers  ascend  the  navigable  por- 
tions of  the  rivers.  A  railway  unites  St  Louis  and  Dakar,  and 
another  line  is  being  constructed  from  KayeS  to  Bafulabe  (on  the 
upper  Senegal),  with  a  projected  extension  to  Bammako.  There 
is  telegraphic  communication  between  Dakar  and  St  Louis,  and  a 
second  line  puts  all  the  ports  of  the  upper  Niger  and  the  left  bank 
ot'  the  Senegal  into  connexion  witli  St  Louis,  which  has  touch  of 
Europe  by  means  of  a  submarine  cable  passing  by  way  of  the 
Canary  Islands  to  Cadiz.  The  foreign  trade  of  Senegambia  consists 
in  the  exportation  of  gums,  ground-nuts,  sesame,  oil,  india-rubber, 
birds'  feathers,  hides,  wax,  and  ivory,  coffee  from  tlie  Kio  Nunez, 
and  rice  from  the  Casamance,  and  the  importation  of  iron,  alcoholic 
liquors,  firearms,  ammunition,  coral,  beads,  tobacco,  preserved  foods, 
and  blue  calico  (guinee).  (D.  K*.) 

SENIOR,  Nassau  William  (1790-1864),  English 
political  economist,  was  born  at  Compton,  Berks,  on  26tli 
September  1790,  the  eldest  son  of  the  Eev.  J.  E.  Senior, 
vicar  of  Durnford,  Wilts.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
^Magdalen  College,  0.x ford ;  at  the  university  he  was  a 
private  pupil  of  Richard  Whately,  afterwards  archbishop 
of  Dublin,  witli  whom  he,  remained  connected  by  ties' of 
lifelong  friend.ship.  He  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1811, 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1819,  and  in  1836,  during  the 
chancellorship  of  Lord  Cottenham,  was  appointed  a  master 
in  chancery.  On  the  foundation  of  the  professorship  of 
political  economy  at  Oxford  in  1825,  Senior  was  elected 
to  fill  the  chair,  which  he  occupied  till  1830,  and  again 
from  1847  to  1852.  In  1830  he  was  requested  by  Lord 
Melbourne  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  combinations  and 
strikes,  to  report  on  the  state  of  the  law,  and  to  suggest 
improvements  in  it.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Poor  Law 
Inquiry  Commission  of  1832,  and  of  the  Handloom 
Weavers  Commission  of  1837;  the  report  of  the  latter, 
published  in  1841,  was  drawn  up  by  him,  and  he  embodied 
in  it  the  substance  of  the  report  he  had  prepared  some 
years  before  on  combinations  and  strikes.  He  was  also 
one  of  the  commi.ssioners  appointed  in  1861  to  inquire 
into  popular  education  in  England.  In  the  later  years 
of  his  life,  during  his  visits  to  foreign  countries,  he  studied 
with  much  care  the  political  and  social  phenomena  they 
exhibited.  Several  volumes  of  his  journals  have  been  pub- 
lished, which  contain  much  interesting  matter  on  these 
topics,  though  the  author  probably  rated  too  higljy  tho 
value  of  this  sort  of  social  study.  Senior  was  for  many 
jears  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  Edinhirgh,  Quarierli/, 
London,  and  North  British  Reviews,  dealing  in  their  pages 
with  literary  as  well  as  with  economic  and  political  sub- 
jects.    He  died  at  Kensington  on  4th  June  1864. 

His  ^vritings  on  economic  theory  consisted  of  an  article  in  the 
EiKijdopkdia  Melropolitana,  afterwards  separately  published  a3  An 
Outline  of  the  Science  of  Political  Economy  (1836,  3d  cd.  1854),  and 
his  lectures  delivered  at  Oxford.  Of  tho  latter  the  following  wero 
printed— .4m  Introductory  Lecture  fl827.  8d  od.  1831) ;  Two  Lec- 


tures on  Population,  with  ft- correspondence  betiveen  the  author  and 
Malthus  (1831) ;  Three  Lectures  on  the  Transmission  of  the  Precious 
Mdals  from  Country  to  Country,  and  the  Mercantile  Theory  of 
IVcalth  (1828) ;  Three  Lectures  on  the  Cost  of  obtaining  Honey  and 
on  some  Effects  of  Private  and  Governmenl  Pajxr  Money  (1S30) ; 
Three  Lectures  on  Wages  and  on  the  Ejects  of  Absenteeism,  Machin- 
ery, and  War,  with  a  Preface  on  the  Causes  and  Eemedies  of  the 
Present, Disturbances  (1830,  2d  ed.  1831) ;  A  Lecture  on  the  Produc- 
tion of  Wealth  (1847) ;  and  Four  Litroduclory  Lectures  on  Political 
Economy  (1352).  Several  of  his  le'tures  were  translated  into 
French  by  M,  Arrivabene  under  the  title  oiPrincipes  Fondanuntaxix 
d' Econopiie  Polilique  (1&35).  Senior  also  wrote  on  administrative 
and  social  questions — A  Letter  to  Lord  Howick  on  a  Legal  Provision 
for  the  Irish  Poor,  Cmnmulation  of  Tithes,  and  a  Provision  for  the 
Irish  Roman  Catholic  Clergy  (1831,  3d  ed.  1832,  with  a  preface 
containing  suggestions  as  to  the  measures  to  be  adopted  in  the 
"  present  emergency  ") ;  Statement  of  the  Provision  for  the  Poor  and 
of  the  Condition  of  the  Labouring  Classes  in  a  considerable  portion 
of  America  and  Europe,  being  the  Preface  to  the  Foreign  Communi- 
cations in  the  Appe^idix  to  the  Poor  Law  Report  (1835) ;  On  National 
Property,  and  on  the  Prospects  of  the  Present  Administration  and  of 
their  Successors  (anon.  ;  1835) ;  Letters  on  the  Factory  Act,  as  it 
affects  the  Cotton  Manufacture  (1837) ;  Suggestions-on  Popular  Edu- 
cation (1861) ;  American  Slavery  (in  part  a  reprint  from  the  Edin- 
burgh Review;  1862) ;  An  Address  on  Edtication  delivered  to  the 
Social  Science  Association  (1863).  His  contributions  to  the  reviews 
were  collected  in  volumes  entitled  Essaijs  on  Fiction  (1864) ;  Bio- 
graphical Sketches  (1865,  chiefly  of  noted  lawyers) ;  and  Eistoriea.1 
and  Philosophical  Essays  (1865).  In  1859  appeared  his  Journal 
kept  in  Turkey  and  Greece  in  the  Autumn  of  1S57  and  the  Beginning 
of  185S ;  and  the  following  were  edit-id  after  his  death  by  his 
daughter — Journals,  Conversations,  and  hssays  relating  to  Ireland 
(1868) ;  Journals  kept  in  France  and  Italy  from  1S48  to  1S53,  with 
a  Sketch  of  the  Revolution  oflS4S  (1871) ;  Conversations  with  Thiers, 
Guizot,  and  other  Distinguished  Persons  during  the  Second  Empire 
(1878) ;  Conversations  with  Distinguished  Persons  during  the  Second 
Empire,  from  1860  tolS63  (1880) ;  Conversations  and  Journals  in 
Egypt  and  Malta  (1882) ;  also  in  1872  Correspondence  and  Conver- 
sations with  Alexis  de  Tocqueville  from  1834  to  1859. 

Senior's  literary  criticisms  do  not  seem  to  have  ever  won  tho 
favour  of  the  public  ;  they  are,  indeed,  somewhat  formal  and 
academic  in  'spirit,  "riie  author,  while  he  had  both  good  sense 
and  right  fcoliiig,  appears  to  have  wanted  the  deeper  insight,  the 
geniality,  and  the  catholic  tastes  which  are  necessary  to  make  a 
critic  of  a  high  order,  especially  in  the  field  he  chose, — that,  namely, 
of  imaginative  literature.  His  tracts  on  practical  politics,  though 
the  theses  they  supported  were  sometimes  questionable,  were  ably 
written  and  are  still  worth  reading,  but  cannot  be  said  to  be  of 
much  permanent  interest.  But  his  name  will  continue  to  hold 
an  honourable,'though  secondary,  place  in  the  history  of  political 
economy.  Senior  regards  political  economy  as  a  purely  deductive 
science,  all  the  truths  of  which  are  inferences  from  four  elementary 
propositions.  It  is,  in  his  opinion,  wrongly  supposed  by  J.  S.  Mill 
and  others  to  be  a  hypothetic  science, — founded,  that  is  to  say,  on 
postulates  not  corresponding  with  social  reali  ties.  The  prem  isesfroni 
which  it  sets  out  are,  according  to  him,  not  assumptions  but  facts. 
It  concerns  itself,  however,  with  wealth  only,  and  can  therefore 
give  no  practical  counsel  as  to  political  action  :  it  can  only  suggest 
considerations  which  the  politician  should  Jeep  in  view  as  elements 
in  the  study  of  tho  questions  with  which  he  has  to  deal.  The.  con- 
ception of  economics  as  altogether  deductive  is  certainly  erroneous, 
and  puts  tho  science  from  tho  outset  on  a  false  path.  •  But  de- 
duction has  a  real,  though  limited,  sphere  within  it.  Hence,  though 
tho  chief  dilficulties  of  the  subject  are  not  of  a  logical  kind,  yet 
accurate  nomenclature,  strict  definition,  and  rigorous  reasoning 
are  of  great  importance.  To  these  Senior  has  given  special  atten- 
tion, and,  notwithstanding  occasional  pedantries,  with  verj'  useful 
results.  He  has  in  several  instances  improved  tho  forms  in  wldch 
accepted  doctrines  were  habitually  stated.  He  lias  also  done  ex- 
cellent service  by  pointing  out  tho  arbitraiy  novelties  and  frequent 
inconsistencies  of  terminology  which  delace  Kicardo's  principal 
work, — as,  for  cxam])Ie,  his  use  of  "value"  in  the  sense  of  "cost 
of  production,"  and  of  "high  "  aud  "  low  "  wages  ii>  tho  sense  of  a 
certain  proportion  of  the  product  as  distinguished  from  an  absolute 
amount,  and  his  peculiar  employment  of  the  epithets  "fixed"  and 
"circulating"  as' applied  to  capital.  Ho  shows,  too,  that  in 
numerous  instances  the  premises  assumed  by  Ricardo  are  false. 
Thus  he  cites  the  assertions  that  rent  depends  on  the  difference  of 
fertility  of  the  different  portions  of  land  in  cultivation  ;  that  the 
labourer  always  receives  precisely  tho  necessaries,  or  what  custom 
leads  him  to  consider  tho  necessaries,  of  lifo  ;  that,  as  wealth  and 
population  advance,  agricultural  labour  becomes  loss  and  less  pro- 
portionately productive  ;  and  that  therefore  the  share  of  tho  pro- 
duce taken  by  tho  landlord  and  tho  labourer  must  constantly  in- 
crease, whilst  that  taken  by  the  capitalist  must  constantly  diminish ; 
and  ho  denies  tho  truth  of  all  these  propositions.  Besides  adopting 
somo  terms,  such  as  that  of  "natural  agents,"  from  Say,  Senior 


664 


S  E  N  — S  E  N 


introduced  the  word  "abstinence" — which,  though  obviously  not 
free  from  bbjection,  is  for  some  purposes  useful — to  express  the 
conduct  of  the  capitalist  which  is  remuueratcd  by  interest ;  but  in 
defining  "cost  of  production  "  as  the  sum  of  labour  and  abstinence 
necessary  to  production  he  docs  not  seem  to  see  that  an  amount 
of  labour  and  an  amount  of  abstinence  are  disparate,  and  do  not 
admit  of  reduction  to  a  common  quantitative  standard.  He  has 
(idded  some  important  considerations  to  what  had  been  said  by 
Smith  on  the  division  of  labour.  He  distinguishes  usefully  between 
the  rate  of  wages  and  the  price  of  labour.  But  in  seeking  to  deter- 
mine the  law  of  wages  he  falls  into  the  error  of  assuming  a  deter- 
minate wage-fund,  and  states  as  an  economic  truth  what  is  only 
an  identical  proposition  in  arithmetic.  Whilst  entertaining  such 
an  exaggerated  estimate  of  the  services  of  JIalthus  that  he  extra- 
vagantly pronounces  him  "as  a  benefactor  of  mankind  on  a  level 
with  Adam  Smith,"  he  yet  shows  that  he  modined  his  opinions 
on  population  considerably  in  the  course  of  his  career,  regards  his 
statements  of  the  doctrine  with  which  his  name  is  associated  as 
vague  and  ambiguous,  aud  asserts  that,  "  in  the  absence  of  disturb- 
ing causes,  subsistence  may  be  expected  to  increase  in  a  greater  ratio 
than  population."  It  is  urged  by  Perin,  and  must,  we  think,  be 
admitted,  that  by  his  isolation  of  economics  from  morals,  and  his 
assumption  of  the  desire  of  wealth  as  the  sole  motive-force  in  the 
economic  domain.  Senior  has,  in  common  with  most  of  the  other 
followers  of  Smith,  tended  to  set  up  egoism  as  the  legitimate  ruler 
and  guide  of  practical  life.  It  is  no  sufficient  answer  to  this  charge 
that  he  makes  formal  reserve  in  favour  of  higher  ends.  From  the 
scientific  side,  Clilfe  Leslie  has  abundantly  proved  the  unsubstantial 
nature  of  the  ab:itraction  implied  in  the  phrase  "desire  of  wealth," 
and  the  .inadequacy  of  such  a  principle  for  the  explanation  of 
economic  phenomena  (J.  K.  I.) 

SENLIS,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Oise, 
lies  on  the  right  side  of  the  Nonette,  a  left-hand  affluent 
of  the  Oise,  3-i  miles  north-north-east  of  Paris  by  the 
Northern  Railway  on  the  branch  line  (ChantiUy-Crepy) 
connecting  the  Paris-Creil  and  Paris-Soissons  lines.  In 
1881  it  had  only  GS70  inhabitants ;  but  its  antiquity,  its 
historical  monuments,  and  its  situation  in  a  beautiful  valley, 
in  the  midst  of  the  three  great  forests  of  Hallatte,  Chantilly, 
and  Ermenonville,  render  it  interesting.  Its  Gallo-Koman 
walls,  23  feet  high  and  13  feet  thick,  are,  with  those  of  St 
Lizier  (Ariege)  and  Bourges,  the  most  perfect  in  France. 
They  enclose  an  oval  area  1024  feet  long  from  east  to 
west  and  794  feet  wide  from  north  to  South.  At  each  of 
the  angles  formed  by  the  broken  lines  of  which  the  circuit 
of  2756  feet  is  composed  stands  or  stood  a  tower ;  number- 
ing originally  twenty-eight,  and  now  only  sixteen,  they  are 
semicircular  in  plan,  and  up  to  the  height  of  the  wall  are 
unpierced.  The  Roman  city  had  only  two  gates;  the 
present  number  is  five.  The  site  of  the  prcetorium  was 
afterwards  occupied  by  a  castle  occasionally  inhabited  by 
the  kings  of  France  from  Clevis  to  Henry  IV.  and  still 
represented  by  ruins  dating  from  the  11th,  13th,  and  16th 
centm-ies.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Senhs  the  foundations 
of  a  Roman  amphitheatre,  138  feet  by  105,  have  also  been 
discovered.  The  old  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  (12th,  13th, 
and  16th  centuries)  was  begun  in  1155  on  a  vast  scale; 
but  owing  to  the  limited  resources  of  the  diocese  progress 
was  slow  and  the  transept  was  finished  only  under  Francis  I. 
The  total  length  is  269  feet,  but  the  nave  (98  feet  high) 
is  shorter  than  the  choir.  At  the  west  front  there  are  three 
doors 'and  two  bell  towers.  The  right-hand  tower  (256 
feet  high)  is  very  striking :  it  consists,  above  the  belfry 
stage,  of  a  very  slender  octagonal  drum  with  open-work 
turrets  and  a  spire  with  eight  dormer  windows.  The  left- 
hand  tower,  altered  in  the  16th  century,  is  crowned  by  a 
balustrade  aud  a  sharp  roof.  In  the  side  portals,  especi- 
ally in  the  southern,  the  flamboyant  Gothic  is  displayed 
in  aU  its  delicacy.  Externally  the  choir  is  extremely  simple. 
In  the  interior  the  sacristy  pillars  vdih  capitals  of  the  10th 
Cintury  are  noteworthy.  The  episcopal  palace,  now  an 
archreological  museum,  dates  from  the  13th  century;  the 
eld  collegiate  church  of  St  Frambourg  was  rebuilt  in  the 
1 2th  century  in  the  style  which  became  characteristic  of 
the  "saintes  chapelles "' of  the  13th  and  14th  centuries;  St 
Pierre,  though  enclosed  by  cavah-y  barracks,  has  preserved 


its  two  towers.  The  ecclesiastical  college  of  St  Vincent, 
occupying  the  old  abbey  of  this  name,  has  a  very  elegant 
church,  the  date  of  which  has  been  greatly  disputed  by 
archseologists,  who  sometimes  wrongly  refer  it  to  Queen 
Anne  of  Russia.  The  town-house  and  several  private 
houses  are  also  of  architectural  interest. 

Senlis  can  be  traced  back  to  the  Gallo-Roman  township  of  the 
Silvanectes  which  afterwards  became  Augustomagus.  Christianity 
was  introduced  by  St  Eieul  at  the  close  of  the  3d  century.  Duiing 
the  first  two  dynasties  of  France  Senlis  was  a  royal  residence. 
After  the  dismemberment  of  the  Carlovinginn  empire  it  belonged 
to  the  counts  of  Vermandois  aud  then  to  the  royal  domain,  and 
obtained  a  communal  charter  in  1173.  Its  bishop,  Guerin,  elected 
in  1214,  signalized  himself  at  the  battle  of  Bouvines.  The  burgesses 
took  part  in  the  Jacquerie  of  the  14th  century,  then  sided  with  the 
Burguudians  and  the  English,  whom,  however,  they  afterwards 
expelled.  The  Le.aguers  were  there  beaten  by  the  duke  of  Longue- 
ville  and  La  None.  In  the  time  of  Heniy  IV.  the  local  manufac- 
tures employed  200  masters  and  4000  men,  but  all  industrial  activity 
has  now  disappeared.  The  bishopric  was  suppressed  at  the  Revolu- 
tion, and  this  suppression  was  confiimed  by  the  Concordat 

SENNA  (Arab,  sand),  a  popular  purgative,  consisting 
of  the  leaves  of  two  species  of  Cassia,  viz.,  C.  acutifolia, 
Del.,  and  C.  anffvstifolia,  Vahl.  C.  acutifolia  is  a  native 
of  many  districts  of  Nubia,  e.(;.,  Dongola,  Berber,  Kordofan, 
and  Senaar,  but  is  grown  also  in  Timbuctoo  and  Sokoto. 
The  leaflets  are  collected  twice  a  year  by  the  natives,  the 
principal  crop  being  gathered  in  September  after  the  rainy 
season  and  a  smaller  quantity  in  AprU.  The  leaves  are 
dried  in  the  simplest  manner  by  cutting  down  the  shrubs 
and  exposing  them  on  the  rocks  to  the  burning  sun  until 
quite  diy.  The  leaflets  then  readily  fall  off  and  are  packed 
in  large  bags  made  of  palm  leaves,  and  holding  about  a 
quintal  each.  These  packages  are  conveyed  by  camels  to 
Assouan  and  Darao  and  thence  to  Cairo  and  Alexandria, 
or  by  ship  by  way  of  Massowah  and  Suakim.  The  leaflets 
form  the  Alexandrian  senna  of  commerce.  Formerly  this 
variety  of  senna  was  much  adulterated  with  the  leaves  of 
Solenosiemma  Argel,  HajTie,  which,  however,  are  readily 
distinguishable  by  their  minutely  wrinkled  surface.  Of 
late  years  Alexandrian  senna  has  been  shipped  of  much 
better  quality.  Occasionally  a  few  leaves  of  C.  obovata, 
Coll.,  may  be  found  mixed  with  it.  C.  angtistifolia  affords 
the  Bombay,  East  Indian,  Arabian,  or  Mecca  senna  of 
commerce.  This  plant  grows  wild  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Yemen  and  Hadramaut  in  the  south  of  Arabia,  in  Somali 
Land,  and  in  Sind  and  the  Punjab  in  India.  The  leaves 
are  chiefly  shipped  from  Mocha,  Aden,  Jeddah,  and  other 
Red  Sea  ports  to  Bombay  and  thence  to  Europe,  the 
average  imports  into  Bombay  amounting  to  about  250  tons 
annually,  of  which  one-half  is  re-exported.  Bombay  senna 
is  very  inferior  in  appearance  to  the  Alexandrian,  as  it 
frequently  contains  many  brown  and  decayed  leaflets  and 
is  mixed  with  leaf- stalks,  &c.  C.  angnstifolia  is  also 
cultivated  in  the  extreme  south  of  India,  and  there  affords 
larger  leaves,  which  are  knoAvn  in  commerce  as  TinneveUy 
senna.  This  variety  is  carefully  collected,  and  consists 
almost  exclusively  of  leases  of  a  fine  green  colour,  without 
any  admixture  of  stalks.     It  is  exported  from  Tuticorin, 

Senna  appears  to  have  been  introduced  into  Europe  about  the 
9th  century  by  Arabian  physicians,  by  whom,  however,  the  pods 
seem  to  have  been  preferred  "to  the  leaves.  The  medicinal  activity 
of  senna  leaves  appears  to  be  due  to  a  very  unstable  colloid  glucoside 
to  which  the  name  of  cathartic  acid  has  been  given.  It  is  readily 
decomposed  by  a  temperature  much  below  100°  Fahr.  (Pharnu 
Jour.  Trans.,  [3],  sv.  p.  704), -and  hence  cold  preparations  of  senna, 
.ire  the  most  active.  In  the  free  state  it  is  soluble  in  dilute  alcohol 
and  in  water,  forming  a  brown  solution,  but  is  almost  insoluble  in 
strong  alcohol  and  entirely  so  in  ether  and  chloroform.  Combined 
with  ammonia  it  forms  an  active  purgative.  Two  bitter  principles 
named  sennacrol  and  senna-picrin  have  been  extracted  from  senna 
by  Ludwig  ;  the  former  is  soluble  and  the  latter  insoluble  in  ether. 
A  yellow  colouring  matter  has  also  been  obtained  from  senna,  but 
it  appears  probable  that  it  is  only  a  decomposition  product  of  cathar- 
tic acid.  Senna  must  be  included  among  the  irritant  purgatives, 
siuce  cathartic  acid  has  no  aperient  effect  when  injected  into  the 


S  E  N  — S  E  O 


6Q5 


Hood.  Owing  to  its  colloid  cliaractci-,  it  is  alisorbed  with  difficulty, 
ami  its  action  is  thus  exerted  tluougUoiit  tlie  greater  part  of  the 
intestinal  canal. 

SENNACHERIB.     See  Babylonia,  vol.  iii.  p.  187, 
and  Israel,  vol.  xiii.  p.  413  sq. 

SENNIr.     See  Senaar. 

SENS,  a  town  of  France,  chef-lieu  of  an  avrondisscment 
in  the  departrcsnt  of  Yonne,  lies  on  the  right  side  of  the 
Yonne  near  its  confluence  with  the  Vannc,  and  on  the 
railway  from  Paris  to  Lyons,  70  miles  south-east  of  the 
former  city  at  the"  intersection  of  the  line  from  Orleans  to 
Troyes.  It  derives  its  importance  from  its  antiquity  and 
its  archiepiscopal  see.  The  cathedral  of  St  litienne  occu- 
pies the  site  of  an  ancient  temple  on  which  St  Savinian  is 
said  to  have  built,  at  the  close  of  the  3d  century,  a  little 
church  consecrated  to  the  Virgin.  The  present  Gothic 
cathedral,  erected  between  1122  and  1168,  subsequently 
underwent  alteration  in  the  13th  century  and  again  under 
Louis  XII.  The  west  front  measures  15-1  feet  in  breadth  ; 
the  middle  portal  has  good  sculptures,  representing  the 
parable  of  the  virgins  and  the  story  of  St  Stephen.  The 
right-hand  portal  contains  twenty-two  remarkable  statuettes 
of  the  prophets,  which  have  suflfered  considerable  injuries. 
Above  this  portal  rises  the  stone  tower,  decorated  with 
armorial  bearings  and  with  statues  representing  the  prin- 
cipal benefactors  of  the  church.  The  bells  in  the  cam- 
panile, by  which  the  tower  is  surmounted,  enjoyed  immense 
reputation  in  the  Middle  Ages ;  the  two  which  still  remain, 
La  Savinienng  and  La  Potentienne,  weigh  respectively 
1.5  tons  7  cwts  and  13  tons  13  cwts.  The  left  portal  is 
adorned  with  two  bas-reliefs,  Liberality  and  Avarice,  as 
well  as  with  the  story  of  John  the  Bajitist.  The  portal 
on  the  north  side  of  tlie  cathedral  is  one  of  the  finest 
examples  of  French  IGtli-century  sculpture.  Glass  windows 
of  the  12th  to  the  IGth  century  are  preserved,  some  of 
them  representing  the  legend  of  St  Thomas  of  Canterbury. 
Among  the  interior  adornments  are  an  altarpiece  finely 
carved  in  stone,  the  tomb  of  the  dauphin  (son  of  Louis 
XV.)  and  his  consort,  Marie  Josephe  of  Saxony,  one  of  the 
masterpieces  of  Coustou,  and  bas-reliefs  from  the  mausoleum 
of  Cardinal  Duprat.  The  treasury  contains  a  fragment  of 
the  true  cross  presented  by  Charlemagne,  and  the  vestments 
of  St  Thomas  of  Canterbury.  It  was  in  the  cathedral  of 
Sens  that  St  Louis,  in  1234,  married  Marguerite  of  Pro- 
vence, and  five  j-ears  later  deposited  the  cro\vn  of  thorns. 
The  official  buildings  of  the  cathedral,  dating  from  the  13th 
century,  have  been  restored  by  Viollet-le-Duc.  The  old 
judgment-hall  and  the  dungeons  had  remained  intact ;  in 
the  first  story  is  the  synod  hall,  vaulted  with  stone  and 
lighted  by  beautiful  grisaille  windows.  A  Renaissance 
structure  connects  the  buildings  with  the  archiepiscopal 
palace,  which  also  dates  from  that  period.  The  oldest  of 
fhe  other  churches  of  Sens  is  St  Savinian,  the  foundation 
of  which  dates  from  the  3d  century,  while  the  crypt  is  of 
the  early  part  of  the  1 1  th,  and  the  ujjptr  portions  of  the 
bell-tower  of  the  first  years  of  the  13tli.  The  contents  of 
the  museum  of  sculptured  stones  have  )>een  mainly  derived 
from  the  old  fortifications,  which  were  themselves  con- 
structed during  barbarian  invasion  from  the  ruins  of  public 
monuments.  The  only  town  gate  still  preserved  is  that 
known  as  the  dauphin's  (1777).  In  the  public  library  are 
a  number  of  MSS.  and  a  famous  missal  witii  ivory  covers. 
The  chemist  Thcnard  has  his  statue  in  the  town.  The 
population  in  1881  numbered  13,440. 

Sens,  when  the  capital  of  the  .Senones,  one  of  the  most  powerful 
licoples  of  Gaul,  bore  the  name  of  Agenticum.  It  was  not  finally 
subdued  by  tlic  liomans  till  after  tl.o  defeat  of  Vercingetorix.  Oil 
Uie  division  of  Gaul  into  seventeen  provinces  under  the  emperor 
V  alens,  Agenticum  became  the  metropolis  of  the  4th  Lugdunensis 
i  lieatr(?3,  circuses,  ainpbitli.;atre3,  triumphal  aiches,  and  aqueducts 
were  all  built  in  the  town  by  the  Itomans.  It  was  the  meetiiiR 
point  of  six  great  highways.     The  inhabitauts,  converted  to  Chris- 

21—28* 


tianity  liy  the  martyrs  Savinian  and  Potcntian,  held  out  against  tlio 
Alemanni  and  the  Franks  in  356,  .ngainst  tlie  Saracens  in  731  or 
738,  and  finally  against  the  Koimans  in  886, — tlie  last  li.v.ing  be- 
sieged the  town  for  six  months.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
feudal  period  Sens  was  governed  by  counts,  who  had  become  here- 
ditary towards  the  midcTle  of  the  10th  century ;  and  tlie  contests 
of  these  counts  with  the  archbishops  or  with  their  feudal  superiors 
often  led  to  much  bloodshed  and  disaster.  Several  councils  were 
held  at  Sens,  notably  tliat  at  which  St  Bernard  and  Abelard  met. 
The  burgesses  iu  the  middle  of  the  12th  century  forr.:ed  a  defensive 
association  which  carried  on  war  against  the  clergy,  and  Piiili[i 
Augustus  restored  the  commune.  In  the  ardour  of  its  Catholicism 
Sens  massacred  the  Protestants  in  1562,  and  it  was  one  of  the  Cist 
towns  to  join  the  League.  Henry  IV.  did  not  effixt  his  entrance 
till  1594,  and  he  then  deprived  the  town  of  its  privileges.  In  1632 
Paris,  hitherto  suffragan  to  Sens,  was  made  an  aichbishonric,  and 
the  bishoprics  of  Chartres,  Orleans,  and  Jlcaux  were  traiisfcncd  to 
the  new  jurisdiction.  In  1791  the  archbisliopric  was  reduced  to  a 
bishopric  of  the  department  of  Yonne.  Suppressed  in  1801,  the 
see  was  restored  iu  1S07  with  the  rank  of  aiclibisliopric.  The  town 
was  occupied  by  the  invaders  in  1811  and  1 870-71. 

SENSITIVE  PLANT.  See  Mimosa:  corap.  riiYSio- 
LOOY,  vol.  xix.  p.  62. 

SEONI,  or  Seonee,  a  British  district  of  India,  in  the 
Central  Provinces,  lying  between  21°  36'  and  22°  58'  N. 
lat.  and  79°  14'  and  80°  19'  E.  long.,  with  an  area  of  3247 
square  miles,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Jabalpur,  on  the  E. 
by  Mandla  and  BAlAghrit,  on  the  S.  by  Ndgpur  and  IJlian- 
dira,  ajid  on  the  W.  by  Narsinhpur  and  Chhindwara. 
Seoni  is  a  portion  of  the  ujiland  tract  formed  by  the 
Sdtpura  Hills  which  extend  along  the  south  bank  of  the 
Narbadd  (Nerbudda)  from  the  plains  of  Broach  on  the 
west  to  the  Maikal  range  in  the  east ;  and  it  is  remarkable 
for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery  and  the  fertility  of  its  valleys. 
The  northern  and  western  portions  of  the  district  include 
lEc  plateaus  of  Lakhnadon  and  Seoni ;  the  eastern  section 
consists  of  the  watershed  and  elevated  basin  of  the  Wain- 
ganga ;  and  in  the  south-west  is  a  narrow  strip  of  rocky 
laud  known  as  Dongartdl.  The  plateaus,  of  Seoni  and 
Lakhmldon  vary  in  height  from  1800  to  2000  feet;  they 
are  well  cultivated,  clear  of  jungle,  and  their  temperature 
is  always  moderate  and  healthy.  Geologically  the  north 
part  of  Seoni  consists  of  trap  hills  and  the  south  of  cry^tal- 
line  rock.  The  soil  of  the  plateaus  is  the  rich  black  cotton 
soil  formed  by  disintegrated  trap,  of  which  about  two-thirds 
of  the  district  are  said  to  consist,  but  towards  the  south, 
where  cliffs  of  gneiss  and  other  primitive  formations  occur, 
the  soil  is  silicious  and  contains  a  large  proportion  of  clay. 
Seoni  is  hilly  throughout,  the  hills  for  the  most  part  being 
clothed  with  small  stunted  trees  ;  but  in  the  valleys  and 
on  the  plateaus  forest  trees  are  very  thinly  scattered  and 
are  seldom  of  large  size.  The  chief  river  of  the  disirict 
is  the  Wainganga,  with  its  affluents  the  Hirf,  Silgnr,  Thelf, 
BijnA,  and  ThAnwar ;  other  streams  are  the  'limar  and  the 
Sher,  aflluents  of  the  NarbadA.  The  average  annual  rain- 
fall is  about  50  inches. 

The  census  of  1881  returned  the  population  of  Seoni  district  at 
334,733  (males  107,925,  females  166,808) ;  of  these  179,705  wcro 
Hindus,  13,442  Mohammedans,  99  Christians,  and  139,444  abori- 
ginals. Sf.oni  (q.v.)  is  the  only  town  with  a  population  exceeding 
10,000.  Of  the  total  district  area  of  3247  square  miles  only  109S 
are  cultivated,  and  of  the  jiortion  lying  waste  013  are  returned  a< 
cultivable.  Wheat  forms  the  staple  crop ;  rice  and  other  food-giaiiis 
are  also  extensively  grown  ;  and  among  miscellaneous  produgts  aiu 
cotton,  fibres,  and  sugar-cane.  In  1883-84  tlio  gio^s  revenue  of 
Seoni  qmountcd  to  £:J5,419,  of  which  the  land-tax  yielded  i;l5,379. 
Trade,  is  chiedy  carried  on  by  means  of  markets  in  tli», towns. 
JIaiiufactures  consist  of  coarse  cloth  and  some  pottery  of  superior 
quality  made  at  Kiiiihiwara.  At  Khawiisa,  in  tho  midst  of  tlio 
forest,  leather  is  beautifully  tanned.  The  only  means  of  coniiiiiini- 
cation  is  by  road,  the  aggregatj  length  of  which  is  estimated  at  90 
niii»s.  Seoni  came  under  liritish  lulo  early  in  the  19th  ccutHiy, 
on  the  downfall  of  the  Nagpiii'  jiower,  and  it  was  formed  into  a 
separate  district  in  1801. 

SEONI,  principal  town  and  administrative  headquarters 
of  the  above  district,  is  situated  in  22°  0'  30"  N.  lat.  and 
79°  35'  E.  long.,  midway  between  Niigpur  and  Jabalpur. 


666 


S  E  P  —  S  E  P 


It  Tvas  founded  in  1 774  by  Mohammed  Araln  KbAn,  and 
contains  large  public  gardens  a  fine  market-plaee,  and  a 
'handsome  tank.     In  1881  the  population  was  10,203. 

>SEPIA  is  a  valuable  and  much  used  deep  brown  pig- 
ment obtained  from  the  ink -sacs  of  various  species  of 
Cuttle-fish  (q.v.) ;  that  from  which  it  is  principally  ob- 
tained is  Sepia  officinalis,  a  native  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  especially  abundant  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  Adriatic, 
where  it  is  a  prized  article  of  food.  To  obtain  sepia  the 
ink-sac  is,  immediately  on  the  capture  of  the  animal,  ex- 
tracted from  the  body  and  speedily  dried  to  prevent  putre- 
faction. The  contents  are  subsequently  powdered,  dissolved 
in  caustic  alkali,  and  precipitated  from  the  solution  by 
neutralizing  with  acid.  The  precipitate  after  washing  with 
water  is  ready  to  make  up  into  any  form  required  for  use. 

Sepia-lone  or  cuttle -hoiie  consists  of  the  internal  "shell"  or 
skeleton  of  Sepia  officinalis  and  other  allied  species.  It  is  an  oblong 
convex  structure  from  4  to  10  inches  in  length  and  1  to  3  inches 
in  greatest  width,  consisting  internally  of  a  highly  porous  cellular 
mass  of  carbonate  of  lime  with  some  animal  matters  covered  by 
a  hard  thin  glassy  layer.  ,It  is  used  principally  as  a  polishing 
material  and  for  tooth  powder,  and  also  as  a  moulding  material  for 
fine  castings  in  precious  metals. 

SEPOY,  the  usual  English  spelling  of  sipdhi,  the  Persian 
ind  Urdii  term  for  a  soldier  of  any  kind.  The  word  sipdh, 
"  army,"  from  which  sipdhi,  "  soldier,"  is  derived,  corre- 
sponds to  the  Zend  fpddka.  Old  Persian  ^pdda,  and  Las 
also  found  a  home  in  the  Turkish,  Kurdish,  and  Pashto 
(Pushtu)  languages  (seo  Justi,  Eandbxich  der  Zendsprache, 
p.  303,  6),  while  its  derivative  is  used  in  all  Indian  verna- 
culars, including  Tamil  and  Burmese,  to  denote  a  native 
soldier,  in  contradistinction  to  gord,  "  a  fair-complexioned 
(European)  soldier."  Towards  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century  efforts  were  made  by  the  East  India  Company  to  > 
train  natives  of  good  caste,  both  Hindus  and  Mohammedans, 
for  military  service  under  the  company.  Though  they 
were  made  to  use  the  musket,  they  remained  for  some  time 
chiefly  armed  in  the  fashion  of  the  country,  with  sword  and 
target ;  they  wore  the  Indian  dress — the  turban,  vest,  and 
long  drawers — and  were  provided  with  native  officers  under 
English  superior  command.  Under  their  European  leaders 
they  were  found  to  do  good  service  and  to  face  danger 
with  constancy  and  firmness.  In  the  progress  of  time  a 
considerable  change  took  place,  and  natives  of  every  de- 
scription were  enrolled  in  the  service.  Though  some  corps 
that  were  almost  entirely  formed  of  the  lowest  classes 
a-chieved  considerable  reputation  for  valour  in  the  field,  it 
was  not  considered  safe  to  encourage  the  system  ;  and  the 
company  reverted  to  their  practice  of  recruiting  from  none 
but  the  most  respectable  classes  of  native  society.  It  is 
on  record  that  a  corps  of  100  sepoys  from  Bombay  and 
400  from  TeUicherry  joined  the  army  at  Madras  in  1747, 
that  the  regular  sepoys  at  Madras  were  employed  in  the 
defence  of  Arcot  (1751),  and  that  a  company  of  Bombay 
sepoys  were  present  at  the  victory  of  Plassey. 

for  instances  of  the  early  occurrence  of  the  word  see  Burnell  and 
V'ule's  Glossary  of  Anglo-Indian  Terms,  s.v.  On  the  history  of  the 
sepoys  compare  Captain  Williams's  Historical  Account  of  the  liise 
and  Progress  of  the  Bengal  Infantry  (London,  1817) ;  Captain 
IJioome's  History  of  ike  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Bengal  Army 
(Calcutta,  1850) ;  Colonel  Wilson's  History  of  i/te  Madras  Army 
(London,  1882-85,  in  3  volumes) ;  ?<^o.  xxxvi.  of  the  Quarterly 
licview;  and  the  military  histories  of  India  generally. 

SEPTEMBER,  the  seventh  month  of  the  old  Roman 
year,  had  thirty  days  assigned  to  it.  By  the  Julian 
arrangement,  while  retaining  its  former  name  and  number 
of  days,  it  became  the  ninth  month.  The  Ludi  Magni 
(Ludi  Romani)  in  honour  of  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva 
began  on  the  4th  of  September.  The  principal  ecclesias- 
tical feasts  falling  ivithin  the  month  are — the  Nativity  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  on  the  8th,  the  Exaltation  of  the  Holy 
Cross  on  the  14th,  St  Matthew  the  Apostle  on  the  21st, 
and  St  Michael  the  Archangel  on  the  29th.    September 


was  called  "harvest  month"  in  Charlemagne's  calendar, 
and  it  corresjjonds  partly  to  the  Fructidor  and  partly  to 
the  Vendemiaire  of  the  first  French  republic. 

SEPTICiEJillA.  After  a  wound,  whether  the  result  of 
accident  or  of  operation  by  the  surgeon,  blood-poisoning 
may  occur.  Sepsis  or  putrefaction  in  the  wound  is  the 
most  evident  local  condition  which  lias  been  associated  by 
clinical  observers  with  blood-poisoning,  and  hence  the  term 
"  septicemia."  Within  recent  years  the  relation  of  micro- 
organisms to  the  different  forms  of  blood-poisoning  has 
come  prominently  into  notice  ;  putrefaction  is  now  known 
to  be  only  one  of  the  fermentative  changes  due  to  the 
presence  of  certain  micro-organisms  in  a  wound,  and  it  is 
admitted  that  there  are  many  organisms  which,  when  they 
enter  a  wound,  may  give  rise  there  to  fermentative  changes 
that  are  non-putrefactive.     (See  Schizomycetes.) 

Organisms  have  recently  been  divided  into  two  great 
groups, — those  which  can  only  grow  in  dead  or  decaying 
matter  and  those  which  can  grow  in  the  living  tissues 
and  in  the  blood,  which  in  this  relation  must  be  looked 
upon  as  a  tissue.  The  first  group  has  been  termed  "  .sapro- 
phytic."  The  second  group  may  be  termed  "pathogenic,"  to 

.  distinguish  them  from  the  saprophytic  vaHety.  But  no 
distinct  line  of  demarcation  can  yet  be  drawn  between 
these  two  groups,  and  as  a  matter  of  fact  some  patho- 
genic organisms  may  equally  with  the  saprophytic  find  a 
pabulum  in  dead  and  decaying  matter.  Yet  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  more  common  varieties  of  septic  organisms 
or  saprophytes  can  only  grow  in  dead  or  decaying  matter, 
and  that  the  living  tissues,  more  especially  when  their 
power  of  vitality  is  great,  are  able  to  resist  and  destroy 

'  the  saprophytes.  There  are  also  some  organisms  which, 
as  far  as  is  known  at  present,  may  be  innocuous  and 
give  rise  to  no  symptoms,  local  or  general,  when  they  are 
implanted  in  the  human  body.  'WTien  an  organism  finds 
in  the  tissues  a  fit  pabulum  for  its  growth  and  devel- 
opment, the  elements  in  the  tissue  are  broken  up,  and 
the  products  are  termed  a  "ptomaine"  (irTw/ia).  This 
ptomaine  may  irritate  the  wound  and  prevent  healing ;  it 
may  also  be  absorbed  into  the  blood  and  poison  it,  hence 
the  term  "ptomaine  poisoning."  Both  the  saprophji.ic 
and  the  pathogenic  organism  may  form  a  ptomaine  in  the 
wound.  When  the  wound  is  due  to  a  saprophyte  the 
absorption  of  the  ptomaine  has  been  termed  "saprsmia"; 
the  ptomaine  of  the  saprophyte  has  been  called  "sepsin." 
No  special  name  has  yet  been  given  to  the  ptomaine 
formed  in  the  wound  by  the  pathogenic  organism  ;  nor 
has  any  name  been  given  to  the  condition  due  to  the 
absorption  of  the  ptomaine  formed  by  the  pathogenic 
organism.  Our  knowledge  is  not  yet  sufiicient  to  enable 
us  to  separate  these  two  varieties  of  ptomaine  poisoning. 
There  can,  however,  be  little  doubt  that  they  do  exist  as 
separate  conditions,  and  also  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
in  some  instances  both  forms  of  poisoning  may  be  present 

~at  one  and  the  same  time.        , 

The  pathogenic  organism,  however,  has  another  power 
which  gives  rise  to  an  entirely  separate  condition.  Not 
onlj'  may  it  form  its  ptomaine  in  the  wound,  but  the 
organism  itself  can  enter  into  and  be  carried  by  the  blood- 
stream and  lymph-stream  to  distant  parts.  It  can  live  in 
the  blood  or  lymph-stream  and  can  grow  there  :  it  may  be 
arrested  in  the  capillaries  of  the  blood-vessels,  or  in  the 
lymphatic  glands  of  the  lymph-vessels,  and  in  these  situa- 
tions may  form,  so  to  speak,  a  colony  of  organisms  which 
develop  and  form  ptomaines ;  and  the  ptomaines,  passing 
into  the  blood,  may  still  further  poison  the  patient.  This 
power  of  the  pathogenic  organism  is  infective,  and  the 
term  "  infection  "  has  been  a|)plied  to  the  process*  These 
colonies  or  secondary  foci  of  infection  often  go  on  to  sup- 
puration ;  hence  the  term  "  secondary "  applied  to  the 


S  E  P  — S  E  P 


667 


abscesses  which  have  long  been  observed  in  some  forms 
of  blood-poiiouing.  It  -was  at  one  time  thought  that  the 
pus-cells  in  the  original  wound  passed  into  the  blood,  and, 
being  caught  in  the  capillaries,  were  the  pause  of  the 
abscess-formation  in  the  parts  distant  from  the  wound ; 
hence  the  term  "  pyaemia  "  or  pus  in  the  blood.  The  pus- 
cells  may  enter  the  blood-stream ;  it  is  not,  however,  the 
cellular  element  that  is  the  essence  of  the  condition,  but 
the  organism  which  the  cellular  element  may  carry  along 
with  it.  Thn  hectic  condition  observed  in  a  case  of  long- 
continued  suppuration  is  in  all  probability  a  chronic  form 
of  blood-poisoning.  In  very  acute  cases,  in  which  the 
poison  is  either  concentrated,  virulent,  or  in  large  quantity, 
death  may  occur  within  a  veiy  few  hours.  In  other  cases 
the  condition  may  become  chronic,  and  if  the  strength  of 
the  patient  can  be  kept  up  by  stimulants  recovery  often 
takes  place.  The  chances  of  recovery  are  much  greater 
when  the  condition  is  not  truly  an  infective  one.  ^Vhen 
the  manufactory  of  the  ptomaine  is  only  in  the  wound, 
the  organism  may  be  there  destroyed  by  the  use  of  power- 
ful antiseptics  or  antifermentatives.  The  primary  cause 
being  removed,  the  patient  may  then  be  saved.  ^Micn, 
however,  the  pathogenic  organism  gets  into  the  blood- 
stream and  distant  foci  of  infection  are  formed,  the  chances 
of  ultimate  recovery  are  greatly  diminished.  Various  un- 
successful attempts  have  been  made  by  the  internal  admi- 
nistration of  antifermentatives  so  to  alter  the  blood  that 
the  micro-organism  cannot  find  in  it  or  the  tissues  a  fit 
nidus.  The  point  to  attend  to  is  to  prevent  organismal 
fermentation  in  wounds  by  careful  antiseptic  or  rather 
antifermentative  precautions.  Just  as  the  word  "septic- 
iBmia "  has  a  more  general  application  than  can  now  be 
strictly  allowed  if  we  look  to  the  derivation  of  the  word 
and  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  so  ithe  word 
"antiseptic"  is  applied  to  all  substances  which  prevent 
organismal  fermentation,  although  many  of  these  organisms 
are  undoubtedly  non-septic  in  their  character. 

SEPTUAGINT.  The  Septuagint  (ol  6,  LXX.)  or  Alex- 
andrian version  of  the  Old  Testament  seems  to  be  named 
from  the  legend  of  its  composition  by  seventy,  or  more 
exactly  seventy-two,  translators.  In  the  Letter  of  Aristcas 
(Aristaaus)!  this  legend  is  recounted  as  follows.  Demetrius 
Phalereus,  keeper  of  the  Alexandrian  library,  proposed  to 
King  Ptolemy  II.  Philadelphus  to  have  a  Greek  translation 
of  the  Jewish  law  made  for  the  library.  The  king  con- 
sented and  sent  an  embassy,  of  which  the  author  of  the 
letter  was  a  member,  to  the  high  priest  Eleazar  at  Jeru- 
salem asking  hira  to  send  six  ancient,  worthy,  and  learned 
men  from  each  of  the  twelve  tribes  to  translate  the  law 
for  him  at  Alexandria.  Eleazar  readily  consented  and  sent 
the  seventy-two  men  with  a  precious  roll  of  the  law.  They 
were  most  honourably  received  at  the  court  of  Alexandria 
and  conducted  to  the  island  (Pharus),  that  they  might  work 
undisturbed  and  isolated.  When  they  had  come  to  an  agree- 
ment upon  a  section  Demetrius  wrote  down  their  version ; 
the  whole  translation  was  finished  in  seventy-two  days.  The 
Jewish  community  of  Alexandria  was  allowed  to  have  a 
copy,  and  accepted  the  version  officially, — indeed  a  curse 
was  laid  upon  the  introduction  of  any  changes  in  it. 

There  is  no  question  that  this  Letter  is  spuriou.s.^ 
Ariateas  is  represented  as  a  heathen,  but  the  real  writer 
must  have  been  a  Jew  and  no  heathen.  Aristeas  is  repre- 
sented as  himself  a  member  of  the  embassy  to  Eleazar ; 
but  the  author  of  the  Letter  cannot  have  been  a  contem- 
l>orary  of  the  events  he  records,  else  he  would  have  known 

'  Edited  by  S.  Schard  (Frankfort,  1610),  by  Fovercamp  (in  his 
Josephiis),  and  by  M.  Schmidt  (in  Merx's  Ardih',  186S).  Camp.  Lum- 
broco,  in  the  Transactions  of  tlio  Turin  Academy,  1869. 

-  Scaliger,  In  Eus,  Chron.  animudv.,  No.  1734  ;  H.  Hody,  DeBMi- 
'^um  Texlibu!  Originalibua. 


that  Demetrius  fell  out  of  favoitr  at  the  very  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  Philadelphus,  being  said  to  have  intrigued 
against  his  succession  to  the  throne.'  Nor  could  a  genuine 
honest  witness  have  fallen  into  the  absurd  mistake  of 
making  delegates  from  Jerusalem,  the  authors  of  the  Alex- 
andrian version.  The  forgery,  however,  is  a  very  early  one. 
"  There  is  not  a  court-title,  an  institution,  a  law,  a  magis- 
tracy, an  office,  a  technical  term,  a  formula,  a  peculiar 
phrase  in  this  letter  which  is  not  found  ou  papyri  or  in- 
scriptions and  confirmed  by  them."*  That  in  itself  would 
not  necessarily_  imply  a  very  early  date  for  the  piece ;  but 
what  is  decisive  is  that  the  author  Hmits  canonicity  to  the 
law  and  knows  of  no  other  holy  book  already  translated 
into  Greek.  Further,  what  he  tells  about  Judwa  and  Jeni- 
.salem  is  throughout  applicable  to  the  period  when  the 
Ptolemies  bore  sway  there  and  gives  not  the  slightest  sug- 
gestion of  the  immense  changes  that  followed  the  conquest 
of  Palestine  by  the  Seleucids.  Thus,  too,  it  is  probable  that 
the  Jewish  philosopher  Aristobulus,  who  lived  under  Pto- 
lemy Philometor(lS0-14.5),  derived  his  account  of  the  origin 
of  the  LXX.  from  this  Letter,  with  ^^'hich  it  corresponds.^ 
If  now  the  Letter  is  so  old,  it  is  incredible  that  it  should 
contain  no  elements  derived  from  actual  tradition  as  to  the 
origin  of  the  LXX.,  and  we  must  try  to  separate  these 
from  the  merely  fabulous.  To  this  end  we  must  consider 
what  is  the  main  aim  and  object  of  the  forgery.  The  chief 
thing  in  the  Letter  is  the  description  of  a  seven  days' 
s}'mposiuni  of  the  seventy  translators  at  the  Alexandrian 
court,  during  which  each  of  them  has  a  question  to  answer, 
and  raises  the  admiration  of  the  king  for  the  wisdom 
produced  among  the  Jews  by  their  knowledge  of  the 
law.  Further,  very  great  weight  is  laid  on  the  point  that 
the  LXX.  is  the  official  and  authoritative  Bible  of  the 
Hellenistic  Jews,  having  been  not  only  formally  accepted 
by  the  synagogue  at  Alexandria  but  authorized  by  the 
high  priest  at  Jerusalem  and  the  seventy  elders  who  are 
in  fact  its  authors.  Other  matters  receive  no  special 
emphasis,  and  the  presumption  is  that  what  is  said  about 
them  is  not  deliberate  fiction  and  in  part  at  least  is  true. 
Thus  it  has  always  been  taken  as  a  fact  that  the  version 
originated  at  Alexandria,  that  the  law  was  translated  first, 
and  that  this  took  place  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  II.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  has  been  thought  difficult  to  believe  that  the 
scholarly  tastes  of  the  Alexandrians,  personified  in  Deme- 
trius Phalereus  as  the  presiding  genius  of  the  Alexandrian 
library,  could  have  furnished  the  stimulus  to  reduce  the 
translation  to  ■writing.  One  can  hardly  call  this  intrinsic- 
ally improbable  in  view  of  the  miscellaneous  literary  tastes 
of  the  court  of  the  Ptolemies.  But  it  has  been  thought 
much  more  likely  that  the  Septuagint  was  written  down 
to  satisfy  the  reUgious  needs  of  the  Jews  by  a  translated 
Torah,  since  in  fact  the  version  is  fitted  for  Jews  and  could 
have  been  intelligible  only  to  them,  and  indeed  never  came 
to  be  circulated  and  known  outside  of  their  circles.  Here, 
however,  we  must  distinguish  between  written  and  oral 
interpretation.  If  interpretation  was  needed  in  the  sjma- 
gogue  service,  it  was  an  oral  interpretation  that  was  given. 
It  was  noc  a  natural  thing  for  the  Jews  to  u<ri(v  the  trans- 
lation,— indeed  they  had  religious  scruples  against  such  a 
course.  Only  "  Scripture  "  was  to  be  written,  and  to  put 
the  contents  of  Scripture  in  vriting  in  any  other  than  tho 
old  holy  form  was  deemed  almost  a  profanation, — a  feeling 
of  which  there  is  evidence  in  the  Letter  itself."     It  is  well 

'  Hermippus  Callimnchiua,  ap.  Diog.  Lacrt.,  v.  78. 

*  G.  Liinibroso,  Rechcrclus  auT  V£con,  Pol.  dc  l'£gyptt  aoua  la 
Lajides  (Turin,  1870),  p.  xiii. 

"  Clem.  Alex.,  Strom.,  i.  p.  342,  ed.  Sylb.;  Euseb.,  Prrp.  Ev.,  Ix.  6, 
p.  410  sq.  ;  conip.  Valckeuaer,  Diatribe  de  Aruiobulo,  Leydoa,  1806, 
reprinted  in  Gaifsford's  ed.  of  tlio  Prirp.  Ev. 

'  In  what  is  told  of  the  authors  Thcopompus  and  'Tbeodectet,  who 
ventured  to  insert  certain  things  out  of  the  law  in  their  Qrofane  woib 


668 


SEPTUAGINT 


known  how  in  Palestine  the  Taigum  was  handed  down 
orally  for  centiiries  before  it  was  at  last  reduced  to  writing; 
and,  if,  on  the  contrary,  at  Alexandria  a  written  version 
came  into  existence  so  early,  it  is  far  from  improbable  that 
this  was  due  to  some  influence  from  without.  That  the 
work  is  purely  Jewish  in  character  is  only  what  was  in- 
evitable in  any  case.  The  translators  were  necessarily 
Jews  and  were  necessarily  and  entirely  guided  by  the  living 
tradition  which  liad  its  focus  in  the  synagogal  lessons. 
And  hence  it  is  easily  understood  that  the  version  was 
ignored  by  the  Greeks,  who  must  have  found  it  barbarous 
and  unintelligible,  but  obtained  speedy  acceptance  with 
the  Jews,  first  in  private  use  and  at  length  also  in  the 
synagogue  service. 

The  next  direct  evidence  which  we  have  as  to  the  origin 
of  the  LXX.  is  the  prologue  to  Ecclesiasticus,  from  which 
it  appears  that  about  130  B.C.  not  only  the  law  but  "the 
prophets  and  the  other  books "  were  extant  in  Greek. 
With  this  it  agrees  that  the  most  ancient  relics  of  Jewish- 
Greek  literature,  preserved  in  the  extracts  made  by  Alex- 
ander Polyhistor  (Eus.,  Prsij').  Ev.,  ix.),  all  show  acquaint- 
ance with  the  LXX.  These  later  translations  too  were 
not  made  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  sj-nagogue,  but  express 
a  literary  movement  among  the  Hellenistic  Jews,  stimulated 
by  the  favourable  reception  given  to  the  Greek  Pentateuch, 
which  enabled  the  translators  to  count  on  finding  an  inter- 
ested public.  If  a  translation  was  well  received  by  reading 
circles  amongst  the .  Jews,  it  gradually  acquired  public  ac- 
knowledgment and  was  finally  used  also  in  the  synagogue, 
so  far  as  lessons  from  other  books  than  the  Pentateuch 
were  iised  at  all.  But  originally  the  translations  were 
mere  private  enterprises,  as  appears  from  the  prologue  to 
Ecclesiasticus  and  the  colophon  to  Esther.  It  appears 
also  that  it  was  long  before  the  whole  Septuagint  was 
finished  and  treated  as  a  complete  work. 

As  the  work  of  translation  went  on  so  gradually  and 
new  books  were  always  added  to  the  collection  the  compass 
of  the  Greek  Bible  came  to  be  somewhat  indefinite.  The 
law  always  maintained  its  pre-eminence  as  the  basis  of 
the  canon  ;  but  the  prophetic  collection  changed  its  as- 
pect by  having  various  Hagiographa  incorporated  ;vith  it 
according  to  an  arbitrary  arrangement  by  subjects.  The 
distinction  made  in  Palestine  between  Hagiographa  and 
Apocrypha  was  never  properly  established  among  the  Hel- 
lenists. In  some  books  the  translators  took  the  liberty 
to  make  considerable  additions  to  the  original,  and  these 
additions — e.g.,  those  to  Daniel — became  a  part  of  the 
Septuagint.  Nevertheless  learned  Hellenists  were  quite 
well  aware  of  the  limits  of  the  canon  and  respectfed  them. 
Philo  can  be  shown  to  have  known  the  Apocrypha,  but  he 
never  cites  them,  much  less  allegorizes  them  or  uses  them 
in  proof  of  his  tenets.  And  in  some  measure  the  widening 
of  the  Old  Testament  canon  in  the  Septuagint  must  be  laid 
to  the-account  of  Christians.  As  regards  the  character  of 
the  version,  it  is  a  first  attempt,  and  so  is  memorable  and 
worthy  of  respect,  but  at  the  same  time  displays  all  the 
weaknesses  of  a  first  attempt.  Though  the  influence  of 
contemporary  ideas  is  sometimes  perceptible,  the  Septuagint 
is  no  paraphrase,  but  in  general  closely  follows  the  Hebrew, 
— so  closely  indeed  that  we  can  hardly  understand  it  with- 
out a  process  of  retroversion,  and  that  a  true  Greek  could 
not  have  found  any  satisfaction  in  it.  The  same  Greek  word 
is  forced  to  assume  the  whole  range  of  senses  which  belongs 
in  Semitic  speech  to  the  derivatives  of  a  single  root;  a 
Hebrew  expression  which  has  various  Greek  equivalents 
according  to  the  contest  is  constantly  rendered  in  one  way ; 
the  aorist,  liko  the  Hebrew  perfect,  is  employed  as  an  in- 
choative with  a  much  wider  range  of  application  than 
is  tolerated  in  classical  Greek.  At  the  same  time,  many 
passages  are  freely  rendered  and  turned  where  there  is  no 


particular  need  to  do  so,  and  that  even  in  books  like  the 
Prophetee  Priores,  in  which  the  rendering  is  generally  quite 
stif  The  Hteralness  of  the  version  is  therefore  due  not  to 
scrupulousness  but  to  want  of  skill,  and  probably  in  part 
also  to  accommodation  to  a  kind  of  Jewish  Greek  jargon 
which  had  already  developed  in  the  mouths  of  the  people 
and  was  really  Hebrew  or  Aramaic  in  disguise.  This  Jewish 
dialect  in  turn  found  its  standard  in  the  Septu^igint. 

As  the  version  is  the  work  of  many  hands,  it  is  naturally 
not  of  uniform  character  throughout  all  its  parts, — indeed 
considerable  varieties  of  character  sometimes  appear  in  one 
and  the  same  book.  The  older  constituents  of  the  canon 
have  an  unmistakable  family  likeness  as  contrasted  with 
the  later  books ;  this  one  may  see  by  comparing  Kings  with 
Chronicles  or  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  with  Daniel.  The 
Pentateuch  is  considered  to  be  particularly  well  done  and 
Isaiah  to  be  particularly  unhappy.  Some  of  the  Hagio- 
grapha (Ecclesiastes,  Canticles,  Chronicles)  are  reproduced 
with  verbal  closeness;  others,  on  the  contrary  (Job,  Esdras, 
Esther,  Daniel),  are  marked  by  a  very  free  treatment  of 
the  text,  or  even  by  considerable  additions.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, always  easy  to  tell  whether  a  Septuagint  addition  is 
entirely  due  to  the  translator  or  belongs  to  the  original 
text,  which  lay  before  him  in  a  recension  divergent  from 
the  Massoretic.  The  chief  impulse  in  recent  times  to 
thorough  investigation  of  the  character  of  the  several  parts 
of  the  Septuagint  was  given  by  Lagarde  in  his  Anmerk- 
vngen  zur  griechischen  Uebersetxung  der  Proverbien,  Leipsic. 
1863. 

The  Septuagint  came  into  general  use  with  the  Grecian 
Jews  even  in  the  synagogue.  Philo  and  Josephus  use  it,  and 
so  do  the  New  Testament  writers.  But  very  early  small 
corrections  seem  to  have  been  introduced,  especially  by  such 
Palestinians  as  had  occasion  to  use  the  LXX.,  in  consequence 
partly  of  divergent  interpretation,  partly  of  difi'erences  of 
text  or  of  pronunciation  (particularly  of  proper  names). 
The  Old  Testament  passages  cited  by  authors  of  the  first 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  especially  those  in  the  Apo- 
calypse, show  many  such  variations  from  the  Septuagint, 
and,  curiously  enough,  these  often  correspond  with  the  later 
versions  (particularly  with  Theodotion),  so  that  the  latter 
seem  to  rest  on  a  fixed  tradition.  Corrections  in  the  pro- 
nunciation of  proper  names  so  as  to  come  closer  to  the 
Massoretic  pronunciation  are  especially  frequent  in  Jose- 
phus. Finally  a  reaction  against  the  use  of  the  Seiituagiut 
set  in  among  the  Jews  after  the  destruction  of  the  temple, 
— a  movement  which  was  connected  with  the  strict  defini- 
tion ^of  the  canon  and  the  fixing  of  an  authoritative  text 
by  the  rabbins  of  Palestine.  But  long  usage  had  made 
it  impossible  for  the  Jews  to  do  without  a  Greek  Bible, 
and  to  meet  this  want  a  new  version  was  prepared  corre- 
sponding accurately  with  the  canon  and  text  of  the  Phari- 
sees. This  was  the  version  of  Aquila,  which  took  the 
place  of  the  Septuagint  in  the  synagogues,  and  long  con- 
tinued in  use  there.^  A  little  later  other  translations 
were  made  by  Jews  or  Jewish  Christians,  which  also 
followed  the  official  Jewish  canon  and  text,  but  were  not 
such  slavish  reproductions  as  Aquila's  versicn ;  two  of 
these  were  Greek  (Theodotion,  Symmachus)  and  one  Syriac 
(Peshito). 

Meantime  the  Greek  and  Latin  Christians  kept  to  the 
old  version,  which  now  became  the  official  Bible  of  the 
catholic  church.  Yet  here  also,  in  process  of  time,  a 
certain  distrust  of  the  Septuagint  began  to  be  felt,  as  its 
divergence  from  the  Jewish  text  was  observed  through 
comparison  of  the  younger  versions  based  on  that  text, 
or  came  into  notice  through  the  frequent  discussions  be- 
tween Jews  and  Christians  as  to  the  Messianit  prophecies. 

'  Corpus  Juris  Civ.,  Nov.  cxlvi 


SEPTUAGINT 


669 


On  the  whole  the  Christians  were  disposed  to  charge 
the  Jews  with  falsifying  their  Scriptures  out  of  hatred  to 
Christianity, — a  charge  which  has  left  its  echoes  ewn  in 
the  Koran.  But  some  less  prejudiced  scholars  did  not 
share  this  current  view,  and  went  so  far  in  the  other 
direction  as  simply  to  identify  the  Jewish  text  with  the 
authentic  original.  Thus  they  fell  into  the  mistake  of 
holding  that  the  later  Jewish  text  was  that  from  which 
the  Septuagint  translators  worked,  and  by  which  their 
work  was  to  be  tested  and  measured.  On  these  critical 
]'rinciples  Origen  prepared  his  famous  Ilexapla,  in  which 
he  placed  alongside  of  the  Septuagint,  in  six  parallel 
columns,  the  three  younger  ■versions  and  the  Hebrew 
■text  in  Hebrew  and  in  Greek  characters.  The  Septuagint 
text  he  corrected  after  the  younger  versions,  marking  the 
additions  of  the  LXX.  with  a  prefi.xed  obelus  ( — ,  -7-),  as 
a  sign  that  they  should  be  deleted,  and  supplying  omis- 
sions, generally  from  Theodotion,  with  a  prefixed  asterisk 
(*).  The  end  of  the  passage  to  which  the  obelus  or 
asterisk  applied  was  marked  with  a  metobelus  (•< ). 
The  same  signs  were  used  for  various  readings,  the  read- 
ing of  the  LXX.  being  obelized,  and  the  variant,  from 
another  version  corresponding  to  the  Hebrew  text,  follow- 
ing it  with  an  asterisk.  It  was  only  in  simpler  cases, 
however,  that  this  plan  could  be  carried  through  without 
making  the  text  quite  unreadable ;  the  more  complicated 
variations  were  either  tacitly  corrected  or  left  untouched, 
jthe  reader  being  left  to  judge  of  them  by  comparing  the 
parallel  columns.  Origen  made  most  change  in  the  proper 
names,  which  he  emended  in  conformity  with  the  Jewish 
pronunciation  of  the  period,  and  in  the  order  of  the  text, 
svhich,  to  preserve  the  parallelism  in  the  columns,  he  made 
to  follow  the  Hebrew.i 

Origen's  critical  labours  had  a  very  great  influence  in 
shaping  the  text  of  the  Septuagint,  though  in  quite  another 
direction  than  he  designed.  Even  before  his  time  the 
Septuagint  was  largely  contaminated  by  admixture  from 
the  other  versions,  but  such  alterations  now  began  to  be 
made  systematically.  Thus  he  intensified  a  mischief  which 
to  be  sure  had  begun  before  him,  and  even  before  the 
labours  of  Aquila,  Theodotion,  and  Symmachus.  The  most 
significant  evidence  of  this  contamination  of  the  text  lies 
in  the  conflate  readings,  where  the  same  Hebrew  words 
ari  translated  twice,  or  sometimes  even  thrice,  or  where 
two  Hebrew  readings  of  the  same  passage  are  represented, 
sometimes  by  simple  juxtaposition  of  renderings  that 
difl'er  but  slightly,  at  other  times  by  a  complicating  inter- 
lacing of  very  different  forms  of  the  Greek.  These  con- 
flate readings,  however,  in  which  the  true  reading  survives 
along  with  the  false,  arc  the  least  fatal  corruptions ;  in 
many  cases  the  genuine  text  has  disappeared  altogether 
before  the  correction,  as  can  be  i'ee:i  by  comparing  different 
MSS.  A  faithful  picture  of  the  corruption  of  the  text  of 
the  Septuagint  as  it  has  come  down  to  us  is  given  in 
the  apparatus  to  the  great  O.^ford  edition  of  Holmes  and 
Parsons  (5  vols.,  Oxford,  1798-1827). 

Not  long  after  Origen  there  arose  almost  contemporane- 
ously three  recensions  of  the  Septuagint,  wliich  became 
established  in  three  regions  of  the  Greek  Church.  "Alex- 
andria et  yEgyptus  in  Septuaginta  suis  Hesychium  laudat 
auctorem,  Constantinopolis  usque  Antiochiam  Luciani 
martyris  exemplaria  probat,  mediaj  inter  has  provincia; 
Palestinaj  codices  legunt,  quos  ab  Origcno  claboratos 
Eusebius  et  Pamphilus  vulgavcrunt ;  totusque  orbis  hac 
inter  se  trifaria  varietate  compugnat,"  says  Jerome  in  the 
Prof,  in  Paralip.  ad  Chromatiuin.  According  to  this  the 
text  of  Eusebius  is  that  of  Origen,  i.e.,  a  separate  cdilion 
of  the  fifth  column  of  the  llcxapla,  which  contained  the 


'  Tho  best  collection  of  tlie  fr.igmenU  of  the  HoJcapla  ij  that  of 
Field,  Origenis  Uexaplorum  ^na  tuperaunt,  Oxford,  1875. 


Septuagint  with  asteri.sks  and  obeIi.~'  The  text  of  Hesychius 
has  not  yet  been  identified  with  certainty-;  that  of  Lucian 
is,  according  to  Field  and  Lagarde,  most  probably  given  in 
Codd.  Holmes.,  19,  82,  93,  108,  and  another  series  of  JISS. 
for  the  prophets.  It  is  by  no  means  the  case,  however, 
that  all  our  JISS.  can  be  arranged  in  three  families ;  many 
belong  to  none  of  the  three  recensions,  and  among  these 
are  such  important  codices  as  the  Alexandrian  (A)  and 
the  Vatican  (R). 

The  divergences!  of  the  LXX.  from  the  Hebrew  are 
particularly  great  in  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings, 
also  in  the  prophets,  especially  in  Ezekiel,  and  still  more 
in  Jeremiah,  and  finally  also  in  Job  and  Proverbs.  In 
Jeremiah  the  differences  extend  to  the  order  of  the 
chapters  in  the  second  lialf  of  the  book,  and  therefore 
have  always  attracted  special  attention.  In  Proverbs 
too  the  individual  proverbs  are  differently  arranged  in 
the  LXX.,  and  similar  differences  can  be  traced  in  the 
versions  of  Ecclesiasticus.  In  the  Pentateuch  there  are 
considerable  variations  only  in  the  last  part  of  Exodus. 
The  text  of  the  genuine  Septuagint  is  generally  shorter 
than  the  Massoretic  text. 

The  chief  editions  of  the  Septuagint  are — (1)  the  Complutena.s, 
1514-17  ;  (2)  the  Aldine,  1516  ;  (3)  the  Si.xtine,  1587  ;  (4)  the  first 
Oxford  edition  by  Giabe,  1707-20  ;  (5)  the  second  O.-sford  edition  by 
Holmes  and  Parsons,  1798-1827;  (6)  Lagarde's  edition  of  Luciau, 
vol.  i.,  Gottingeii,  1883. 

The  LXX.  is  of  great  importance  in  more  than"  one 
respect :  it  is  probably  the  oldest  translation  of  consider- 
able extent  that  ever  was  written,  and  at  any  rate  it  is 
the  starting-point  for  the  history  of  Je^vish  interpretation 
and  the  Jewish  view  of  Scripture.  And  from  this  its  im- 
portance as  a  document  of  exegetical  tradition,  especially 
in  lexical  matters,  may  be  easily  understood.  It  was  iu 
great  part  composed  before  'the  close  of  the  canon — nay, 
before  some  of  the  Hagiographa  were  written — and  in  it 
alone  are  preserved  a  number  of  important  ancient  Jewish 
books  that  were  not  admitted  into  the  canon.  As  the 
book  which  created  or  at  least  codified  the  dialect  of  Bib- 
lical Greek,  it  is  also  the  key  to  the  New  Testament  and  all 
the  literature  connected  with  it.  But  its  chief  value  lies 
in  the  fact  that  it  is  the  only  independent  witness  for 
the  text  of  the  Old  Testament  which  we  have  to  compare 
with  the  Massoretic  text.  Now  it  may  seem  that  the 
critical  value  of  the  LXX.  is  greatly  impaired,  if  not 
entirely  cancelled,  by  the  corrupt  state  of  the  text.  If  we 
have  not  the'^version  itself  in  authentic  form  we  cannot 
reconstruct  with  certainty  the  Hebrew  text  from  which  it 
was  made,  and  so  cannot  get  at  various  readings  which 
can  be  confidently  confronted  with  the  Massoretic  text ; 
and  it  may  be  a  long  time  before  wo  possess  a  satisfactory 
edition  of  the  genuine  Septuagint.  But  fortunately  in 
this  case  sound  results  in  detail  must  precede  and  not 
follow  the  establishment  of  a  text  sound  throughout.  The 
value  of  a  Septuagint  reading  must  be  separately  deter- 
mined in  each  particular  case,  and  the  proof  that  a  read- 
ing is  good  is  simply  that  it  necessarily  carries  us  back  to 
a  Hebrew  variant,  and  cannot  be  explained  by  looseness 
of  translation.  It  is  therefore  our  business  to  collect  as 
many  Greek  passages  as  possible  which  point  to  a  various 


"  See,  however,  Ccrinni's  note  on  tlio  recensions  of  LXX.  in  the 
Rcndkonli  of  tliO  R.  Instituto  Lombardo  for  18th  Febrnary  1886, 
where  it  is  shown  that  the  Codtx  rescripliis  Duhlinmsia,  nolnios,  viii.. 
edited  at  Dublin,  1880),  and  other  MSS.  written  in  Efij-pt,  which 
Cirinni  had  already  cited  in  his  Movumenta  (vol.  iii.  p.  xx.)  pre.wnl 
many  fcntvircs  of  correspondence  with  the  Coptic  versions  and  with 
the  readings  of  CjTil  of  Alexandria.  "  All  those  documents  at  any 
rate  present  the  character  of  the  Hcsychian  recension,  being  all  Egyp- 
tian testimonies  contemporary  with  or  little  later  than  .TiTonie."  Mosi 
of  tlicir  characteristic  remlings  appear  also  in  Mt!.  Holrne»,  108,  to 
which  MSS.  26,  33,  86,  97,  198,  206  are  also  akin.  For  an  attemi-t 
to  detcimino  the  MSS.  containing  or  akin  to  tho  Hesyhinn  recenaiou 
in  Eiokiel,  see  Comill,  Das  Buck  Ez'chUl,  Leipsi^  1  ■       ,    1  '    ;. 


670 


3  E  P  — S  E  P 


reading  in  the  Hebrew  test  of  the  translators  as  compared 
with  the  Massoretic  text.  And  for  this  we  must  not  con- 
fine ourselves  to  one  recension  but  use  all  recensions 
that  our  MSS.  offer.  For,  though  one  recension  may  be 
better  than  another,  none  of  them  has  been  exempt  from 
the  influences  under  which  the  genuine  Septuagint  was 
brought  into  conformity  with  the  received  Hebrew  text, 
and  those  influenced  have  affected  each  recension  in  a 
different  way,  and  even  differently  in  the  different  books. 
In  this  process,  as  indeed  in  all  textual  criticism,  much  of 
course  must  be  dependent  on  individual  judgment.  But 
that  it  should  be  so  appears  to  have  been  the  design  of  pro- 
vidence, which  has  permitted  the  Old  Testament  text  to 
reach  us  in  a  form  that  is  often  so  corrupt  as  to  sin  against 
both  the  laws  of  logic  and  of  grammar — of  rhetorical  and 
poetical  form.  (j.  wi:.) 

SEPULCHKE,  Canons  Kegtjlae  of  the  Holy,  an 
order  founded  in  1114  by  Arnold,  patriarch  of  Jerusalem 
(or  according  to  another  account  in  1099  by  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon),  on  the  rule  of  St  Augustine.  It  admitted 
women  as  well  as  men  and  soon  spread  rapidly  over  Europe. 
-In  tlie  17th  century  it  received  a  new  rule  from  Urban 
Vin.  Shortly  after  this  the  canons  became  extinct ;  but 
the  canonesses  are  still  to  be  found  in  France,  Baden,  and 
the  Netherlands.  They  live  a  strictly  monastic  life  and 
devote  themselves  mainly  to  the  work  of  education. 

SEPULCHEE,  Knights  op  the  Holy,  an  English 
military  order  which  was  said  to  date  from  the  12th 
century  and  which  became  extinct  at  the  Eeformation.  A 
similar  order,  founded  in  France,  lasted  from  the  end  of 
the  loth  centiuy  till  the  time  of  the  Revolution;  it  was 
resuscitated  by  Louis  XVIII.  in  1814,  but  again  became 
extinct  in  1830. 

SEPULCHEE,  The  Holy,  the  rock-cut  tomb  in  which, 
after  His  crucifixion,  the  body  of  our  Lord  was  placed. 
Few  questions  of  topography  have  been  debated  with 
greater  persistence  or,  in  many  cases,  with  greater  bitter- 
ness than  that  of  the  site  of  this  tomb.  Only  a  brief 
sketch  of  the  leading  features  of  the  controversy  can  be 
given  here. 

The  only  information  on  the  subject  to  be  gained  from 
the  New  Testament  is  that  the  tomb  was  in  a  garden  "  in 
the  place  where  Christ  was  crucified"  (John  six.  41), 
which  again  was  "near  the  city"  (John  zix.  20)  and 
"without  the  gate"  (Hcb.  xiii.  12),  and  that  the  watch, 
proceeding  from  the  sepulchre  to  the  chief  priest's,  "  came 
into  the  city"- (Matt,  xxviii.  11).  The  first  requisite, 
therefore,  of  any  locality  professing  to  be  that  of  the 
Sepulchre  is  that  it  should,  at  the  date  of  the  crucifixion, 
have  been  without  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.^ 

The  existing  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  which  is 
admitted  on  all  hands  to  have  occupied  the  same  site  for 
the  last  800  years,  is  in  the  heart  of  the  j^resent  town, 
300  yards  from  the  nearest  point  of  the  existing  wall  and 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  bazaars.  Saewulf,-  writ- 
ing in  1102,  Hildebrand  of  Oldenburg^  in  1211,  and 
Jacobus  de  Vitiiaco*  in  1220,  assert  that  up  to  the  time, 
of  Hadrian  the  site  was  still  without  the  circuit  of  the 
walls.  Brocardus*  in  1230  states  that  the  modern  walls 
included  more  in  breadth  than  they  did  at  the  time  of 


'  The  revised  text  of  John  xix.  20  reads  on  ^71''!  ^k  rqi  jriXeus  6 
T67ros  6wov  iirravpthdy}  b  'l'f}<Tovs ;  but  tlie  hest  accredited  reading  is  on 
e77i>s  ^v  o  tAttos  t^s  jriXetis.  Mr  Buckton,  in  i'/oto  and  Queries  (2d 
series,  ii.  97),  argnes  that  occovding  to  the  latter  reading  Calvary  must 
have  been  within  tlie  city.  He  would  explaiji  Heb.  xiii.  12  as  spoken 
"for  the  allegorical  purpose  of  the  writers"  of  the  temple,  but  offers 
no  explanation  of  Matt,  xxviii.  11. 

?  Jleciial  de  Voyages  (Society  de  Geog.),  iv.  84,  Paris,  1839. 

'  Leo  Allatius, -Zu/i^iKra,  p.  146,  Cologne,  1653. 

'  Getta  Dei  per  Francos,  p.  1079,  Hanover,  1611. 

•  Canisius,  Thesaurus,  iv.  17,  21,  Antwerp,  1735. 


Christ,  and  that  there  were  even  some  who  refused  to  be- 
lieve that  the  present  site  was  the  true  one.  Ordcricus* 
in  1320  and  William  de  BaldenseF  in  1336  corroborated 
Sae^vtilf ;  but  Baldensel  adds  that  the  sepulchre  then  shown 
was  no  longer  the  one  in  which  th«  body  of  Christ  had 
been  laid,  for  that  had  been  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock, 
while  the  other  was  formed  out  of  stones  cemented  to- 
gether. Gretser*  in  1598  and  Quseresimus *  in  1616-25 
refer  to  the  objections  started  in  their  time  by  some  whom 
the  latter  calls  "  misty  Western  heretics,"  and  the  diflSculty 
was  broadly  enunciated  by  Monconys^"  in  1647.  It  was 
not,  however,  until  1741  that  the  site  was  openly  declared 
to  be  false  by  Korte.i'^  The  attack  of  the  latter  writer 
was  followed  up  in  greater  detail  by  Plessingi"  in  1789, 
and  in  England  by  Dr  Edward  Clarke  ^^  in  1810;  but 
until  the  appearance  of  the  Biblical  Researches  of  Dr 
Eobinson  of  New  York  in  1841  ^*  the  attention  of  inquirers 
in  England  and  America  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  been 
seriously  drawn  to  the  subject.  This  elaborate  work  called 
forth  energetic  replies  from  Cardinal  Newman  ^^  and 
Williams,!''  tlie  latter  of  whom  subsequently  republished 
his  work  in  two  large  volumes  in  1849,  which,  to  the  up- 
holders of  tradition,  may  be  said  to  occupy  the  same 
position  as  those  of  the  American  author  to  its  oppo- 
nents. Since  that  date  the  writers  on  both  sides  have  been 
numerous;  among  them  may  be  specially  noted,  as  im- 
pugning the  accmacy  of  tradition,  Fergusson,  Tobler,  the 
author  of  an  elaborate  essay  in  the  Museum  of  Classical 
Antiquities  for  1853,  Barclay,  Bonar,  Schwartz,  Sandie, 
and  Conder ;  and  on  the  other  side  Lord  Nugent,  Schutz, 
Krafft,  Schaffter,  De  Saulcy,  Abbe  Michon,  Thmpp,  De 
Vogue,  Lewin,  Pierotti,  Caspari,  and  Sir  Charles  Wan-pri 

The  main  question  on  which  the  dispute  has  turned  is 
the  circuit  of  the  walls  at  the  time  of  Christ.  The  city 
at  that  date  was  surrounded  by  two  walls.  The  first  or 
oldest  began,  according  to  Josephus,  "  in  the  north,  at  the 
tower  called  Hippicus,  and  extended  to  what  was  termed 
the  Xystua ;  it  then  formed  a  junction  with  the  council 
house,  and  terminated  at  the  western  colonnade  of  the 
temple."'^  By  almost  all  the  writers  on  either  side  this 
northern  portion  of  the  fiirst  wall  is  traced  along  the 
southern  side  of  the  depression,  which  extends  from  the 
central  valley  eastwards  to  the  Jaffa  gate.^^  From  some 
point  in  that  northern  Une  of  waU  the  second  wall  took 
its  departure,  and  of  it  all  we  are  told  by  Josephus  is  that 
"  it  had  its  beginning  at  the  gate  called  Gennath,  belonging 
to  the  first  wall,  and  reached  to  the  Antonia,  encircling 
only  the  western  quarter  of  the  city."  If  this  Gennath 
gate  was  near  Hippicus,  the  line  of  the  second  wall,  in ' 
order  to  exclude  the  present  site,  must  be  drawn  along  a 
route  curiously  imsuited,  from  the  slope  of  the  hill,  for 
defensive  purposes ;  and  that  it  was  near  Hippictis  seemi. 

^  Peregrinaiores  Medii  ^'ci  quatuor,  ed.  Laurent,  p.  ''49,  Leiosic, 
1864.  '  Canisius,  Thesaurus,  iv,  348-349. 

*  De  Cruce  Christi,  bk.  i.  chap.  17,  Ingolstadt,  1598. 

'  Terrse  Sanctis  £lucidalio,  ii.  515,  Antwerp,  1639. 

"  Voyages,  Paris,  1665-66,  4to,  i.  307. 

"  Reise  tuich  derfi  gelolten  Lande,  Altona,  1741. 

"  XJeher  Golgotha  und  Christi  Grab,  HaUe,  1789. 

"  Travels,  Cambridge,  1810-23. 

"  London,  1841,  afterwards  re-issQsd  with  a  supplemental  jOTiraey 
in  1856. 

'^  "  Essay  on  the  Miracles  recorded  in  Eccles.  History,"  prefixed  to 
translation  of  Fleury's  Eccles.  Hist,  to  end  of  4th  Century,  Oxford,  1 S42. 

>«  The  Holy  City , .London,  1845.  "  BeU.  Jud.,  v.  4,  2. 

J3  Fergusson  and  Sandie  place  Hippicus  at  the  north-wastem  angle 
of  the  modem  wall,  and  thus  include  the  existing  church  of  the  sepul- 
chre within  the  first  waU  itself,  but  they  have  overiooked  the  assertion 
of  the  Jevrish  historian,  that  from  the  ravines  which  surrounde<l  the 
latter  it  was  almost  impregnable.  Bonar,  while  placing  Hippicus  tn'i.e- 
where  near  the  same  spot,  does  not  define  the  locality,  and  Scliwarti 
seeks  to  identify  it  with  "  a  high  rocky  hUl  north  of  the  so-called  C rijtto . 
of  Jeremiah  "  and  far  beyond  de  northsra  limits  of  the  modem  City. 


bi^r  ULCERE,     Jd.  OLY 


671 


demonstrable  from  tbe  declaration  of  Josephus  that  the 
city  iu  his  time  was  "  fortified  by  three  walls  except  where 
it  was  encompassed  by  impassable  ravines  ^ ;  from  the 
absence  of  any  record  of  an  attack  on  the  first  wall  till 
the  second  had  been  taken ;  from  a  variety  of  incidental 
references  in' the  siege  by  Titus;  from  the  apparent  neces- 
sity of  including  within  its  circuit  the  pool  Amygdalon, 
now  known  as  Hezekiah's  Pool  or  Biiket  Hamman  el- 
Batrak-;  and  from  the  remarkably  small  area  which  would 
otherwise  be  included  by  it. 

Writers  on  both  sides  have  pressed  into  their  service 
the  remains  of  ancient  buUdings  found  in  the  districts 
traversed  by  the  second  wall  according  to  their  respect- 
ive theories.  It  sesmed- doubtful,  till  .quite  recently,  if 
any  sound  argument  could  be  based  on  these,  the  ruins 
being  too  fragmentary  and  occurring  in  too  many  difi'erent 
quarters  to  warrant  acy  positive  identification  with  a  line 
of  fortification  as  distinguished  from  other  edifices.^  But 
in  the  summer  of  1885  a  stretch  of  ancient  wall  40  or  50 
yards  in  length  was  disinterred,  running  northwards  from 
the  open  space  within  the  Jaffa  gate  to  the  west  of  Heze- 
kiah's pool,  which  certainly,  as  figured  in  the  January 
number  of  the  Quarterly  Hep&rfs  of  the  Palestine  Exjilora- 
tion  Fund,  seems  to  go  a  long  way  to  settle  the  question 
against  the  genuineness  of  the  existing  site. 

Considerable  stress  has  been  laid  by  some  writers  on  the 
existence  of  ancient  Jewish  sepulchres,  of  a  date  apparently 
anterior  to  the  Christian  era,  in  the  rock  on  which  the 
present  church  is  buUt,  as  proving  that  that  rock  could 
not  have  been  ■within  the  circuit  of  the  walls,  inasmuch  as 
it  is  alleged  "  the  Jews  never  buried  within  their  towns."* 
There  is,  however,  no  trace  in  the  historical  books  of  the 
Bible  of  any  aversion  on  the-  part  of  the  Jews  to  intra- 
mural interment.  Whatever  width  of  interpretation  may 
be  given  to  the  recorded  burial  of  eleven  of  the  kings  of 
Judah  "  iti  the  city  of  David,"  the  phrase  can  hardly  be 
held  to  prove  that  such  burial-place  was  iviihout  the  walls ; 
while  2  Chron.  xxviii.  27  and  xxxiii.  20  seem  to  point 
very  strongly  in  the  opposite  direction.  Joab  also,  wo  are 
told,  was  buried  "  in  his  own  house  in  the  wilderness,"  ^ 
and  Samuel  "in  his  house  a'  Ramah."^  But  the  most 
striking  case  of  all  is  Hebron,  where  in  the  midst  of  the 
city  are  found  the  jealously  guarded  walls  which  enclose 
the  cave  of  Machpelah.  If,  then,  these  tombs  are  older 
than  the  time  of  Christ,  there  seems  little  diflSculty  in 
crediting  that  they  might  have  been  included  within  the 
second  wall.  We  know  for  a  certainty  that  they  were 
within  the  third.  The  curious  point  rather  is  that  their 
existence  in  the  rock  may  be  used  as  a  strong  argument 
against  the  site,  for,  speaking  of  the  disinterment  of  the 
rock  of  the  sepulchre  frohi  the  accumulated  soil  heaped 
over  it  by  the  Komans,  Eusebius ''  impresses  on  us  the  fact 

»  Bell.  Jud.,  v.  4,  1. 

-  It  is  of  course  quitp  possible  to  draw  a  line,  as  Lewin  docs,  which, 
•while  it  includes  this  pool,  will  yet  exclude  the  existing  church,  but 
all  probability  seenu  opposed  to  such  a  route. 

^  Pierotti  gives  a  detailed  plan  of  the  whole  district  In  which  the 
remaini!  which  he  seeks  to  identify  with  the  second  wall  occur  (,Jeru- 
mlnn,  Explored,  pi.  xxx.).  But  from  this  it  would  seem  extremely 
doubtful  whether  any  of  those  ruins  can  be  identified  with  a  city  wall, 
or  should  not  merely  bo  regarded  as  portions  of  detached  buildings, 
Iho  walls  of  which  project,  now  to  the  east,  now  to  the  west,  of  the 
imagined  line. 

*  Lord  Nugent,  Lands  Classical  and  Sacred,  London,  1845,  ii.  47. 
These  tombs  have  been  described  by  Hepworth  Dixon,  in  Oenlkmau'a 
Magazine,  March  1877,  and  more  fully  by  Clerniont-Ganneau  in  Quar- 
terly Jleport  of  the  Palestine  fixploration  Fund,  1877,  n.  76.  In  1885 
two  additional  sepulchral  chambers  were  discovered  in  the  same  rock  a 
little  to  the  south-east  of  the  present  church,  of  which  a  plan  and 
Boiices  are  given  by  Schick  iu  Zeitschri/l  des  deiilschen  Pal'ustinu- 
Vercins,  1884,  vol.  viii.  p.  171. 

''  1  Kings  ii.  34.  •  1  Samuel  xxv.  1. 

'  Theophania,  Lee's  tianslatiOD,  p.  199. 


that  there  was  "  only  one  cave  within  it,  lest,  had  there 
been  many,  the  miracle  of  Him  who  overthrew  death 
should  have  been  obscured." 

One  argument  remained  which,  at  least  up  to  1847,  it 
seemed  difficult  for  the  impugners  of  the  orthodox  site  to 
meet,  namely, — Was  it  at  all  probable  that  Constantine 
should  have  been  deceived,  either  by  erroneous  inference 
or  by  wilful  misrepresentation,  when  in  325  he  erected 
a  monumental  church  over  what  was  then  believed  to  be 
the  holy  tomb  ?  Apart  from  the  consideration  that  of  ali 
localities  this  seemed  to  be  the  least  likely  to  pass  from 
the  memory  of  the  Christian  church,^  its  exact  position 
had  been  in  a  manner  identified  by  the  existence  on  the 
rock  of  Golgotha  of  a  temple  or  statue  of  Venus,  and  on 
the  site  of  the  resurrection  of  a  statue  of  Jupiter  erected 
by  Hadrian  in  the  2d  century  j  and  the  fact  remains  that 
on  the  superincumbent  rubbish  being  cleared  away  by  the 
orders  of  Constantine  a  cave  was  discovered,  which  it  seems 
difficult,  even  were  we  willing  with  Taylor'  to  impute 
deliberate  fraud  to  the  existing  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  to 
believe  could  have  been  previously  prepared  beneath  a 
heathen  shrine,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  population  of  pagans 
and  of  Jews.i* 

In  1847  Fergusson,  in  his  Essay  on  the  Ancient  Topo- 
graphy of  Jerusalem,  attempted  to  show  that  Constantine 
had  built  his  memorial  chtirch  on  another  site  altogether, 
and  that  it  was  stil]  existing  under  another  name.  On 
the  eastern  hill  of  the  city,  in  the  sacred  Mohammedan 
enclosure  of  the  Harim-es-Sherif,  and  on  a  spot  generally 
considered  to  have  formed  part  of  the  temple  area,  stand." 
the  magnificent  octagonal  building  called  the  Dome  of 
the  Rock,  usuaDy  but  erroneously  believed  to  have  been 
erected  by  the  caliph  'Omar,  and  so  popularly  known  as 
the  mosque  of  'Omar.  The  jealousy  of  the  Moslems  had, 
with  rare  exceptions,  prevented  up  to  quite  recent  times 
the  intrusion  of  Christians  within  its  sacred  precincts,  but 
it  was  known  to  have  been  erected  over  a  large  mass  of 
native  rock  rising  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
having  a  cave  within  it.  A  section  of  the  building,  very 
roughly  executed,  was  given  in  the  Travels  of  Ali  Bey, 
published  in  1816 (vol.  ii.  p.  74);  but  in  1833  Mr.  Cother- 
wood,  under  the  pretext  of  being  a  civil  engineer  in  the 
employment  of  Mehemet  Ali,  and. of  examining  into  the 
structural  condition  of  the  building  with  a  view  to  its 
repair,  spent  three  weeks  in  examining  it  and  its  sur- 
roundings, of  which  he  made  elaborate  drawings  and 
sections.  A  general  account  of  his  investigations  and 
their  results,  published  in  W.  H.  Bartlett's  Walks  about  the 
City  and  Environs  of  Jerusalem  (p.  148),  led  to  Fergusson's 
getting  access  to  those  drawings,  which  confirmed  him  in 
the  belief  he  had  already  begun  to  entertain  from  other 
sources,  that  the  Dome  of  the  Rock  was  originally  a  Chris- 
tian edifice ;  and  in  the  essay  referred  to  he  argued  at 
great  length  and  with  much  vigour  on  both  architectural 
and  historical  grounds  that  it  and  the  Golden  Gateway — 
a  walled-up  entrance  to  the  Hanim  from  the  east — were 
built  in  the  time  of  Constantine ;  that  the  former  was  the 
church  of  the  Anastasis,  erected  by  that  emperor  ovfer  the 
tomb  of  our  Lord,  and  the  latter  the  entrance  to  the 
atrium  of  the  great  basilica  described  by  Eusebius ''  as 

^  Origen  (Conl.  Ci's.,  i.  61)  speaks  of  Calvary  as  of  a  spot  well 
known  in  his  day  (IS-O-SSl). 

»  Ancient  Chrislianitij,  4th  ed.,  London,  1844,  ii.  277. 

">  Finlay  {Oreece  under  the  Romans,  p.  561)  has  argued  that  exact 
identification  would  bo  easy  from  the  minnto  ivgislration  of  property 
wliich  prevailed  iu  the  Kouian  empire  and  extended  to  the  provinces, 
by  which  tlio  iiosiliou  of  Golgotlia  and  the  property  of  Joseph  of 
Arimathea  might  easily  have  been  traced.  But  ho  .seems  to  press  his 
point  too  far  (see  Fallmernyer,  Golgotha  und  das  hcilige  Grab,  4to, 
Munioli,  1S52,  p.  8). 

"   1  ite  Const.,  ill.  39. 


672 


SEPULCHRE,     HOLY 


immediately  adjoining ;  and  that  the  transference  of  the 
site  from  the  eastern  to  the  western  hill  took  place  some- 
where about  the  commencement  of  the  11th  century, 
when,  in  consequence  of  the  invasion  of  the  Turks,  the 
Christians  were  driven  from  the  former  hill  for  a  time. 
This  work  was  followed  up  by  his  article  "  Jerusalem  "  in 
Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  and  by  several  minor  pub- 
lications ^ ;  and  the  wholfi  question  was,  with  some  modifi- 
cations, re-argued  by  him  at  great  length  in  The  Temples 
of  the  Jews  and  the  other  Buildings  in  ihe  Haram  Area  at 
Jerusalem  in  1878. 

Though  at  first  Fergusson's  essay  seemea  to  faU  dead, 
it  inaugurated  a  discussion  which  has  within  the  last 
twenty  years  been  carried  on  with  much  keenness.  His 
views  have  been  supported  on  architectural  grounds  by 
Unger,^  and  on  general  grounds  by  Sandie,^  Smith,*  and 
Langlois,^  while  among  the  multitude  of  his  opponents  may 
be  specially  noted  Williams,^  Lewin,^  the  Abb6  Michon,^ 
De  Vogue,''  Pierottij^**  Sir  Charles  Warren,"  and  Captain 
Conder.i- 

The  architectural  arguments  in  favour  of  Fergusson's 
theory  have  forced  Lewin,  one  of  his  most  strenuous 
opponents,  to  argue  that  the  Dome  of  the  Rock  may  have 
been  a  temple  to  Jupiter  erected  by  Hadrian,  which  he 
imagines  may  have  been  restored  or  rebuilt  by  JIaximin 
Daza,  the  successor  of  Diocletian. '^  But  they  must  be 
studied  in  Fergusson's  own  works  or  in  that  of  Unger 
above  referred  to.  The  topographical  objections  are  mainly 
founded  on  the  necessity  of  restricting  the  Jewish  temple 
to  the  south-eastern  corner  of  the  Haram,  the  site,  how- 
ever, assigned  to  it  by  Lewin  himself  and  Thrupp,!*  and 
on  the  dilBculty  of  supposing  a  place  of  interment  so  near 
the  sacred  building.  But  Josephus,  at  the  time  of  the 
Biege,  speaks  of  "the  monuments  of  King  Alexander," 
whatever  that  may  mean,  existing  just  over  against  or  in 
front  of  the  north  colonnade  of  the  temple.'^ 

As  regards  the  historical  argument,  it  would  certainly 
appear  that  up  to  the  close  of  the  6th  century  the  balance 
of  evidence  is  in  favour  of  the  eastern  site.  The  narrative 
of  the  Pilgrim  of  Bordeaux  "^  may  perhaps  be  read  as  sup- 
jjorting  either  view.  But  Antoninus  Martyr  ^''  and  Theo- 
dosius  '^  can  hardly  be  reconciled  with  the  existing  location ; 
in  two  manuscripts  of  the  latter  i'  the  writer  believed  that 
the  same  hill  witnessed  in  succession  the  offering  of  Isaac, 
the  vision  of  the  angel  at  Araimah's  threshing-floor,  the 
building  of  the  temple,  and  the  death  and  resurrection  of 


^  Notes  on  the  Site  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jeriisatcnif  London, 
1861,  and  The  Uoly  Sepulchre  and  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  London, 
1865. 
-  Die  Bauten  Constantin's  am  heiligen  Grahe,  Gottingcn,  1863. 
'  Uoreb  and  Jerusalem,  Edinburgh,  1864. 
*  TJie  Temple  and  the  Sepulchre,  Loudon,  1865. 
^  Un  Chapitre  inedit  de  la  Question  des  Lieux  Saints,  Paris,  1861. 
'  The  Holy  City,  2d  eJ.,  2  vols.,  Loudon,  1849. 
'  The  Siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  &c.,  London,  1863. 
'   Voyage  religieux  en  Orient,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1854. 
'  Le  Temple  de  Jerusalem,  fol.,  Paris,  1864-65. 
'"  Jerusalem  Explored,  2  vols,  fol.,  London,  1864. 
"  The  Temple  and  the  Tomb,  London,  ISSO. 

^  Various  papers  in  the  Quarterly  Statauenl  of  Palestine  E.\plora- 
tion  Fund. 

"  Arehseologia,  xli.  p.  157.     Sepp  has  latterly  tried  to  show  that  it 
was  built  by  Justinian — Die  Felsenkuppel,  cine  Justinianische  SopAien- 
kirche,  mid  die  ubrigen  Temjwl  Jerusalems,  Munich,  1882, 
^*  Ancient  Jerusalem,  Cambridge,  1855. 

'°  Bel.  Jud.,  V.  5  §  3.  Sandie's  attempt  {Horeb  and  Jerusalem,  p. 
259)  to  minimize  this  diiHculty  by  supposing  a  rocky  valley  to  have 
run  up  from  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  westwards  at  this  point,  and 
60  to  have  divided  the  temple  from  the  tomb,  seems  inadmissible. 
Modem  investigation  shows  that  such  a  valley,  or  rather  depression, 
did  exist,  but  north,  not  south,  of  the  Dome  of  the  Rock. 
"  Itinera  Latina  (Soc.  de  I'Or.  Lat.),  Geneva,  1879,  i.  pp.  16-18. 
"  lb.,  pp.  100-106.  "  Ih.,  pp.  63-66. 

"  Tlie  Louvain  and  British  Museum  MSS. ,  see  Notes  and  Queries, 
27th  January  1877. 


our  Lord.  Many  more  passages  might  be  quoted  from. 
writers  of  this  period  testifying  to  the  belief  that  the  hill 
that  witnessed  the  offering  of  Isaac  witnessed  also  the 
resurrection  of  Christ,  and  many  others  identifying  the 
scene  of  the  offering  of  Isaac  with  the  hill  on  which  the 
temple  was  built.  Perhaps  the  strongest  point  in  this 
connexion  against  Fergusson  is  that  so  striking  a  fact  as 
the  identity  of  the  hill  of  the  Passion  with  that  on  patt  of 
which  the  temple  stood  should  only  be  directly  spoken  to- 
by a  single  writer.  After  the  9th  century  the  historical 
evidence  becomes  more  difficult  to  interpret.  Fergusson 
would  date  the  transference  of  the  site  about  1000 ;  but  it 
seems  cleiir  from  Istakhri  (978)20  and  Mokaddasi  (987), 2» 
both  of  whom  were  unknown  to  him,  that  before  their  day-s- 
the  Dome  of  the  Rock  was  a  Mohammedan  place  of  worship, 
and  the  latter  expressly  states  that  it  was  suggested  by  a 
great  Christian  church.--  The  natural  date  to  assign  for 
such  a  transference  would  be  about  614,  when  the  city 
was  captured  by  the  Persians,  and,  to  quote  the  carefully 
guarded  narrative  of  Gibbon,  "  the  sepulchre  of  Christ  and 
the  stately  churches  of  Helena  and  Constantino  were  con- 
sumed, or  at  least  damaged,  by  the  flames."  The  building.s 
were  repaired  or  rebuilt  by  Modestus  a  few  years  later,  and 
their  praises  are  sung  by  Sophronius,  his  successor  in  the 
patriarchate,  but  in  terms  which  give  little  topographical 
information.  Sophronius  lived  to  see  the  capture  of  the 
city  by  'Omar  in  636,  the  earliest  records  of  whose  doings 
as  yet  available  are  the  brief  one  of  Theophanes  (818)  and 
the  more  lengthened  one  of  Eutychius  (937).  From  both 
of  these  it  seems  clear  that  the  caliph  confirmed  the  Chris- 
tians in  the  possession  of  the  sites  (whatever  these  might 
be)  which  he  found  in  their  hands.  In  or  about  670  the 
French  bishop  Arculph  visited  Jerusalem,  and  under  the 
hand  of  Adamnanus  we  have  a  detailed  account  taken  down 
from  his  lips,-^  and  a  plan  of  the  church  of  the  Resurrec- 
tion as  he  saw  it,  which  strikingly  corresponds  to  the  Dome 
of  the  Rock, — as,  however,  it  necessarily  would  correspond 
with  any  church  which  had  been  erected  in  close  imitation 
of  that  building.^*  There  are  passages,  however,  in  Arculph 
descriptive  of  the  city  very  difficult  to  understand  unless 
on  the  assumption  that  the  transference  of  Sion,  which  had 
hitherto  (see  Jerusalem)  been  identified  with  the  eastern 
hill,  had  already  in  his  time  taken  place.  The  next  pil- 
grim who  has  left  us  a  record  is  AVillibald,-^  who  visited  the 
city  early  in  the  8th  century,  and  whose  description  applies 
on  the  whole  better  to  the  western  than  the  eastern  site ; 

-"  Bill.  Grog.  Arab.,  ed.  De  Goeje,  Leyden,  1870-71,  i.  p.  56  sq. 

-^  lb.,  iii.  p.  165  sg.  -  lb.,  iii.  p.  159. 

f  Jtin.  Lat.  (Soc.  de  I'Or.  Lat.),  1879,  i.  pp.  141-202. 

-*  The  view  that  at  the  time  when  Arculph  wrote  the  Dome  of  the 
Rock  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Mohammedans  seems  strengthened  by 
the  well-loiown  Cuiic  inscription  which  still  runs  round  the  colonnade 
of  that  buildiug,  and  a  complete  translation  of  which  by  the  late 
Professor  Palmer  will  be  found  in  the  Quarterly  Report  of  the  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund  (1871,  p.  164)  and  Fergusson's  Temples  of  the  Jeu-s 
(p.  2G9).  In  it  the  construction  of  the  dome  of  the  building  is  dated 
72  A.H.  (691),  but  the  name  of  the  builder,  which  clearly  was  Abd-el- 
Melek  iu  the  original,  has  |)een  erased  and  that  of  Abdallah  el-Mamuu 
(198  A.H. ;  813)  fraudulently  substituted,  "the  short-sighted  forger," 
as  Palmer  calls  him,  having  omitted  to  change  the  date  as  well  as  the 
name.  In  this  inscription  there  is  very  special  mention  made  of  our 
Saviour,  and  in  a  way  which  seems  inexplicable  unless  the  building  on 
which  it  was  inscribed  had  been,  in  the  mind  of  the  writer,  associ.ated 
in  some  important  respects  with  the  history  of  Jesus.  And  the  tradi- 
tion that  it  was  so  continued  long  after  ;  for  we  find  Theoderic  so  late 
as  1176  writing  of  it,  "  Hoc  templum,  quod  nunc  ridetur,  ad  honorem 
Domini  nostri  Jesu  Christi  ejusque  pia:  genetricis  ab  Helena  regina  et 
ejus  filio,  imperatore  Constantino,  constrnctum  est"  (ed.  Tobler,  St 
Gall,  1865,  p.  46).  Fergusson  believes  this  inscription  to  have  beeu 
^vritten  in  the  12th  century,  but  is  obliged  to  admit  that  the  alpliabi-1 
employed  is  identical  with  that  found  on  the  coins  of  Abd-el-Melri: 
{Temples  of  the  Je%os,  p.  24).  A  facsimile  of  the  sentence  containing; 
the  date  and  the  forgery  wUl  be  found  in  the  Kev.  Tsaac  Tavlor's  TI^t 
Alphabet  (London,  1883,  i.  p.  322). 

==  Itin.  Lat.  (Soc.  de  I'Or.  Lat.),  1879,  i.  pp.  244-297. 


S  E  Q,— S  E  Q 


673 


but,  on  the  other  hand,  that  of  Bernard,'  who  travelled 
about  870,  applies  better  to  the  eastern  than  to  the  western. 
If  the  transference  can  be  supposed  to  have  taken  place  at 
the  time  of  the  Persian  invasion,  one  of  the  main  difficul- 
ties in  the  adoption  of  Fergusson's  theory  will  be  greatly 
lessened,  for  the  intervening  period  of  more  than  450  years 
would  go  far  to  explain  how  the  crusaders,  on  gaining 
possession  of  the  city  in  1099,  failed  to  make  it  their  first 
business  to  i  evert  to  the  original  site.  On  the  whole,  the 
question  is  one  which  can  hardly  be  satisfactorily  deter- 
mined until  the  Arabic  authorities  on  the  subject  have 
been  duly  scrutinized,  and  as  j  ^t  we  have  practically  access 
to  none  earlier  than  the  two  above  referred  to.- 

Within  the  last  few  years  a  third  locality  has  been  sug- 
gested. In  1878  Captain  Conder,  in  his  Tent  Work  in 
Palestine  (i.  pp.  372-376),  expressed  a  strong  conviction  that 
the  real  site  was  to  be  found  on  a  rocky  knoll  outside  the 
northern  wall,  and  close  to  the  cave  kno^\Ti  as  "Jeremiah's 
Grotto."  He  argued  that  not  only  did  this  locality  meet 
the  reqmrements  of  the  Gospel  narratives,  being  outside 
the  city  and  near  one  of  the  great  roads  leading  from  the 
country,  but  that  in  this  direction  lay  "  the  great  ceme- 
tery of  Jewish  times "  as  testified  by  "  the  sepulchre  of 
Simon  the  Just  preserved  by  Jewish  tradition,"  and  the 
monument  of  Helena  "  fitted  with  a  rolling  stone  such 
as  closed  the  mouth  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre."  Here  also 
by  early  Christian  tradition  had  been  the  scene  of  the 
martyrdom  of  Stephen,  which  doubtless  occurred  at  the 
place  of  public  execution,  and  to  this  day,  according  to  Dr 
Chaplin,  the  Jews  designate  the  knoll  "  by  the  name  Beth 
has-Sekilah,  'the  place  of  stoning'  (domus  lapidationis), 
and  state  it  to  be  the  ancient  place  of  public  execution 
mentioned  in  the  Mishnah."  The  hill  itself  appears  to 
present  a  striking  resemblance  to  a  human  skull,  and  so  to 
associate  itself  with  the  word  "  Golgotha."  The  adoption 
of  this  site  by  Dr  Chaplin,  the  Rev.  S.  Merrill,  Schick,  and 
perhaps  especially  the  late  General  Gordon,^  has  aided 
in  giving  it  a  considerable  popularity.  It  is,  however,  a 
purely  conjectural  location,  and  involves  the  assumption 
that  all  the  Christian  writers  from  the  4th  century  down- 
wards, as  well  as  the  mother  of  Constantine,  were  in  error 
as  to,  the  real  site.  (a.  b.  M'g.) 

SEQUESTRATION".     See  Baijtiruptcy. 

SEQUOIA,  a  genus  of  conifers,  allied  to  Taxodium  and 
Cryptomeria,  forming  one  of  several  surviving  links  between 
the  firs  and  the  cypresses.  The  two  species  usually  placed 
in  this  group  are  evergreen  trees  of  large  size,  indigenous 
to  the  west  coast  of  North  America.  Both  bear  their  round 
or  ovoid  male  catkins  at  the  ends  of  the  slender  terminal 
branchlets;  the  ovoid  cones,  either  terminal  or  on  short 
lateral  twigs,  have  thick  woody  scales  dilated  at  the  extrem- 
ity, with  a  broad  disk  depressed  in  the  centre  and  usually 
furnished  with  a  short  spine ;  at  the  base  of  the  scales  are 
from  three  to  seven  ovules,  which  become  reversed  or 
partially  so  by  compression,  ripening  into  small  angular 
seeds  with  a  narrow  wing-like  expansion. 

The  redwood  of  the  Californian  woodsmen,  8.  semper- 
virens,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  typical  form,  abounds 
on  the  Coast  Range  from  the  southern  borders  of  the  State 
northwards  into  Oregon,  and,  according  to  De  CandoUc,  as 
far  as  Nootka  Sound.    It  grows  to  a  gigantic  size :  a  trunk 

'  Itin.  Lai.  (Soc.  de  I'Or.  Lat.),  1879,  L  pp.  309-320. 

'  Palmer,  in  the  cli.ipter  contributed  by  liim  (mainly  from  Anil)ic 
sources)  to  Jn-Matem,  the  City  of  Herod  and  Saladtn  (by  W.  Bes^int 
and  E.  11.  Palmer,  London,  1871),  hn.s  failed  to  give,  with  rare  exccji- 
tions,  any  clue  to  *he  date  of  the  writers  whose  statements  he  enibodie  L 

'  Reflections  in  Palestine,  London,  1884,  pp.  1-3.  Sec  also  Quarle-  Ij 
Report  of  Palestine  B^loration  Fund  for  1883,  p.  69  ;  and  Sir  J.  ^^■ 
Dawson's  Egypt  and  /Syria,  their  J'Injaical  Features,  in  Halation  .0 
Bible  Biitory,  LondoQ,  1886,  pp.  86-95,  where  two  illustrations  ot 
the  hill  are  given. 


has  been  recorded  270  feet  in  length,  and  a  greater  height 
is  said  to  be  occasionally  reached,  while  a  diameter  of  from 
12  to  15  feet  is  sometimes  attained  at  the  base.     In  old 


Sequoia,  sempermrens — a,  green  cones  and  catkin ;  b,  section  of  con* ; 
c,  scale  of  cone. 

age  the  huge  columnar  trunk  rises  to  a  great  height  bare 
of  boughs,  while  on  the  upper  part  the  branches  are  short 
and  irregular.  The  bark  is  red,  like  that  of  the  Scotch 
fir,  deeply  furrowed,  with  the  ridges  often  much  curved 
and  twisted.  When  young  the  tree  is  one  of  the  most 
graceful  of  the' conifers  :  the  stem  rises  straight  and  taper- 
ing, with  somewhat  irregular  whorls  of  drooping  branches, 
the  lower  ones  sweeping  the  ground, — giving  an  elegant 
conical  outline.  The  twigs  are  densely  clothed  with  flat 
spreading  linear  leaves  of  a  fine  glossy  green  above  and 
glaucous  beneath ;  in  the  old  trees  they  become  shorter 
and  more  rigid  and  partly  lose  their  distichous  habit. 
The  globular  brown  catkins  appear  early  in  June ;  the 
cones,  from  1  to  2  inches  long,  are  at  first  of  a  bluish 
green  colour,  but  when  mature  change  to  a  reddish  brown  ; 
the  scales  are  very  small  at  the  base,  dilating  into  a  broad 
thick  head,  with  a  short  curved  spine  below  the  deep  trans- 
verso  depression.  The  redwood  forms  woods  of  large 
extent  on  the  seaward  slope  of  the  Coast  Range  and  occurs 
in  isolated  groups  farther  inland.  From  the  great  size  of 
the  trunk  and  the  even  grain  of  the  red  cedar-like  wood 
it  is  a  valuable  tree  to  the  farmer  and  carpenter  :  it  splits 
readily  and  evenly,  and  planes  and  polishes  well ;  cut 
radially,  the  medullary  plates  give  the  wood  a  fine  satiny 
lustre ;  it  is  strong  and  durable,  but  not  so  elastic  as  many 
of  the  western  pines  and  firs.  In  England  the  tree  grows 
well  in  warm  situations,  but  suffers  much  in  severe  winters, 
— its  graceful  form  rendering  it  ornamental  in  the  park  or 
garden,  where  it  sometimes  grows  30  or  40  feet  in  height ; 
its  success  as  a  timber  tree  would  be  doubtful  In  the 
eastern  parts  of  the  United  Sta»«3  it  does  not  flourish. 
Discovered  by  Monzics  in  the  end  of  the  18th  century,  it 
has  long  been  known  in  British  nurseries  under  the  name 
of  Taxodium  sempervirens. 

The  only  other  member  of  the  genus  is  the  giant  tree 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  S.  gitjantea,  the  largest  of  known 
conifers ;  it  is  confined  to  the  western  portion  of  the  great 
Californian  range,  occurring  chiefly  in  detached  group* 

XXL  —  85 


ti74 


S  Bi  li  — -~-  S  E  JR 


locally  called  "groves,"  at  an  altitude  of  from  4000  to  5000 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  leaves  of  this  species  are  awl- 
shajied,  short  and  rigid,  -n-ith  pointed  apex;  closely  ad- 
pressed,  they  completely  cover  the  braiichlets.  The  male 
catkins  are  smaU,  solitary,  and  are  borne  at  the  ends  of 
the  twigs ;  the  cones  are  from  1  i  to  3  inches  long,  ovoid, 
with  scales  thicker  at  the  base  than  those  of  the  redwood, 
and  bearing  below  the  depression  a  slender  prickle.  The 
young  tree  is  more  formal  and  rigid  in  growth  than  iS'. 
sempervireiis,  but  when  old  the  outline  of  the  head  becomes 
cylindrical,  with  short  branches  sparsely  clad  with  foliage 
sprays.  The  bark,  of  nearly  the  same  tint  as  that  of  the 
redwood,  is  extremely  thick  and  is  channelled  towards  the 
base  with  vertical '  furrows ;  at  the  root  the  ridges  often 
•stand  out  in  buttress-like  projections.  Some  of  these  vast 
vegetable  columns  are  upwards  of  30  feet  in  diameter  and 
a  few  have  attained  a  height  of  400  feet  or  more. 

The  famous  group  knomi  as  the  Mammoth  Grove  of  Calaveras 
in  California,  coutaiuiug  above  ninety  large  trees,  stands  in  38°  N. 
lat,  about  4370  feet  above  the  sea,  between  tke  San  Antonio  and 
Stanislaus  rivers.  Aceordiug  to  Vischcr,  it  was  discovered  by  a 
hunter  in  pursuit  of  a  bear  in  1852,  but  had  apparently  been 
visited  before,  as  the  date  1S50  is  cut  on  one  of  the  trees.  The 
bark  of  one  of  the  finest  trunks  was  foolisMy  stiij)ped  off  to  tho 
height  of  116  feet,  and  exhibited  in  New  York  and  London  ;  it 
now  stands  in  the  Crystal  Palace,  Sydenham.  The  tree,  known  as 
the  "  mother  of  the  forest, "  soon  died ;  at  the  base  it  measured 
90  feet  in  girth,  and  the  dead  tree  was  321  feet  high  ;  a  prostrate 
trunk  in  the  neighbourhood  is  18  feet  in  diameter  300  feet  from 
the  base.  Some  trees  in  the  Mjiriposa  grove  rival  these  in  size : 
one  measures  101  feet  round  the  root,  and  a  cut  stump  is  31  feet  in 
diameter.  Gigantic  as  these  trees  are  and  imposing  from  their 
vast  columnar  trunks,  they  have  little  beauty,  owLug  to  the  scanty 
foliage  of  the  sliort  roimded  boughs  ;  some  of  the  trees  stand  very 
close  together ;  they  are  said  to  be  about  400  hi  number.  Somo 
are  of  vast  age,  perhaps  3000  years  or  more ;  they  appear  to  be 
the  remains  of  extensive  woods  belonging  to  a  past  epoch,  and 
probably  have  been  in  distant  time  much  injured  by  forest  fires. 
The  growth  of  the  "mammoth  tree"  is  fast  when  young,  but  old 
trees  increase  with  extreme  slowness.  The  timber  is  not  of  great 
value,  but  the  heartwood  is  dense  and  of  deeper  colour  than  that 
of  S.  scmpervirens,  Tar3^ng  from  brownish  red  to  very  deep  brown  ; 
oiled  ami  varnished,  it  has  been  used  in  cabinet  work.  S.  gigautca 
was  brought  to  England  by  Lobb  in  1853,  and  received  from  Dr 
Lindley  the  name  of  Wcllingtonia,  by  which  it  is  still  popularly 
known,  though  its  affinity  to  the  redwood  is  too  maiked  to  admit  of 
generic  distinction.  In  America  it  is  sometimes  called  Washing- 
tottia.  In  the  Atlantic  States  it  does  not  succeed ;  and,  though 
nearly  hardy  in  Great  Britain,  it  is  planted  only  as  an  orrament  of 
the  lawn  or  paddock.  It  is  never  likely  to  acquire  any  economic 
importance  in  Europe.  _  (C.  P.  J.) 

SEEAIEVO.     See  Bosna  Sekai. 

SERAiKG,  a  town  of  Belgium,  stretching  nearly  a  Hiile 
along  the  right  bank  of  the  !Meuse,  across  which  a  sus- 
pension bridge  connects  it  with  Jemeppe,  3  miles  south- 
west of  Liege.  It  has  one  of  the  largest  manufactories  of 
machinery  on  the  Continent,  founded  by  John  Cockerili, 
an  Englishman,  in  1817,  on  the  site  of  the  former  palace 
of  the  prince-bishops  of  Li^ge.  Includiiig  offices,  the  works 
extend  over  270  acres,  employ  1 1,000  hands,  and  the  annual 
value  of  their  products  is  more  than  45,000,000  francs. 
Down  to  1882  they  had  turned  out  52,600  engines  or 
pieces  of  macliitiery,  including  the  first  locomotive  engine 
built  on  the  Continent  (1835).  After  Cockerill's  death  in 
1840,  the  works  were  purchased  by  "La  John  Cockerili 
Socidte."  A  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory  in 
1871.  The  population,  which  numbered  but  2226  in  1827, 
amounted  to  24,315  in  1877,  and  is  now  ''1886^  estimated 
at  about  27,500. 

SERAMPUR,  a  town  of  British  xndia,  m  flugli 
(Hooghly)  district,  Bengal,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Hugli  river,  13  miles  by  rail  north  of  Calcutta,  in  22" 
45'  26"  N.  lat.  and  88°  23'  10"  E.  long.  It  was  formerly 
a  Danish  settlement,  and  remained  so  imtil  1845,  when 
all  the  Danish  possessions  in  India  were  ceded  by  treaty 
to  the  East  India  Company,     Serampur  is  famed  as  the 


resiaence  of  a  body  of  Protestant  Baptist  missionaries,  who 
made  it  the  centre  of  their  Christianizmg  efforts.  At  the 
census  of  1881  the  population  of  the  town  was  25.559 
(13.i''7  males  and  12,422  females). 

bERAPHIM.  In  the  vision  of  Isaiah  vi.  the  throne 
of  God  is  surrounded  by  seraphim, — figures  apparently 
human  (ver.  6),  but  with  sis  wings,  which  constantly  pro- 
claim the  trhagion.  The  seraphim  are  not  again  mentioned 
in  the  Bible ;  but  in  later  Jewish  theology  they  are  taken 
to  be  a  class  of  angels.  As  the  whole  vision  of  Isaiah  ia 
sjTnbolical,  the  seraphim  also  are  in  this  connexion  symbol- 
ical figures,  aiding  the  delineation  of  Jehovah's  awfrfl 
holiness.  But  the  imagery  is  probably  borrowed  from  some 
j)opular  conception  analogous  to  that  of  the  Cherubim 
{q.v.).  The  name  is  sorfietimes  explained  to  mean  "  lofty 
ones,"  after  the  Arabic  shanifa  (Gesenius) ;  but  if  it  has 
a  Hebrew  etymology  it  must  signify  "  burning  ones  '• 
("consuming,"  not  "fiery"),  so  that  in  Isaiah's  vision  the 
seraphim  will  mean  the  same  thing  as  the  "devouring 
fire"  of  God's  holiness  (Isa.  xxxiii.  14).  But  this,  ^gain, 
is  a  spiritual  interjiretation  of  the  old  Hebrew  conception 
that  Jehovah  appears  in  the  thunderstorm.  (Judges  v.  4 ; 
Ps.  xviii.,  xxix.)  escorted  by  thunderbolts  (resheph,  Hab. 
iii.  5).  Among  the  Phoenicians  Resheph  is  a  god  (C.I.S., 
i.  38),  probably  identical  with  the  Arabian  divine  archer 
ICozah,  who  shoots  lightnings.  In  prophetic  monotheism 
such  mythological  conceptions  could  only  survive  aspersoni- 
dcations  of  the  natural  phenomena  attending  a  theophany. 
In  Num.  xxi.  6  sq.  the  word  "seraphim"  is  used  of  a  kind  of  serpents, 
not  "  fiery  serpents  "  {A.X. )  but  burning,  i.e.,  poisonous  ones  (corap. 
hlmah,  "glowing  heat,"  "  venom  ").  In  Isa.  xiv.  29  and  xxx.  6  the 
singular  saraph  occurs  with  the  epithet  "flying,"  and  from  the  second 
passage  we  see  that  sucli  fljang  serpents  were  supposed  to  inhabit  the 
desert  between  Palestine  and  Egj'pt ;  comp.  Herod,  ii.  75  and  the 
white  flying  serpents  ia  an  Ai'abian  legend  {Agh.,  xx.  135,  SO). 

SERAPIS,  or  Saeapis,  in  the  Leyden  pap>Tus  'Oo-apajris, 
i.e.,  Osiris-Apis,  apparently  meaning  the  dead  Apis  wor 
shipped  as  Osiris  (see  Apis),  and  so  as  lord  of  the  under- 
world, was  the  name  under  which  the  Egyptian  priests 
consulted  by  Ptolemy  Soter  incorjwrated  with  the  old 
religion  the  Greek  worship  of  Hades.  The  statue  with  the 
attributes  of  Hades  which  they  professed  to  identify  as 
Serapis  (a  name  which  had  tLU  then  played  no  prominent 
part  in  Egyjatian  religion)  was  brought  by  the  king  from 
Sinope  to  Alexandria  in  consequence,  it  was  given  out,  of 
a  revelation  granted  to  him  in  a  di'eam  (Plut.,  Js.  et  Os., 
28).  The  real  object  of  Ptolemy  was  to  provide  a  mixed 
Greek  and  Egyptian  religion  for  his  mixed  subjects,  especi- 
ally in  Alexandiria ;  the  true  Egyptians  disliked  the  inno- 
vation, and  no  Serapeum  or  Serapis  temple  was  admitted 
within  the  walls  of  Egyptian  cities  (Macrob.,  i.  7,  14). 
Thus  the  great  Serapeum  at  Memphis  lay  outside  the  town 
(Strabo,  xvii.  1,  32),  where  its  ruins  were  laid  bare  by 
Mariette  in  1850.  From  papyii  found  on  the  spot  it  is 
known  that  a  sort  of  monastery  was  connected  with  this 
and  other  Serapea.  The  so-called  Egyptian  Serapeum  or 
series  of  Apis  graves  excavated  in  the  rock  near  the  Greek 
Serapeum  is  distinct  and  belongs  to  the  old  religion,  though 
the  old  Osiris  worship  was  gradually  transferred  to  Serapis. 
The  cult  of  Serapis  also  spread  largely  in  the  Grseco-Eoman 
world.  Egyptian  monasticism  seems  to  have  borrowed 
something  from  the  monks  of  Serapis,  and  the  Egyptian 
Christians  were  accused  of  worshipping  Serapis  as  well  as 
Christ  (  Vita  Saturnini,  8),  perhaps  because  they  identified 
the  god  who  is  represented  bearing  a  corn-measure  on  his 
head  with  the  Biblical  Joseph;  see  Firmicus  Llaternus, 
c.  13,  and  Suidas,  s.v.  2d/ja77is. 

SERENA,  a  city  of  Chili,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Coquimbo,  is  situated  on  an  elevated  plain  en  the  south 
side  of  the  river  Coquimbo,  about  5  miles  from  the  sea, 
in  29°  54'  S.  lat.  and  71°  13'  W.  long.     The  original  town 


S  E  R  — S  E  R 


675 


was  founded  by  Juan  Bohon  in  1544,  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  river,  and  called  by  him  Serena,  after  the  town  of 
that  name  in  Spanish  Estremadura,  the  birthplace  of  his 
chief,  Pedro  de  Valdivia.  Being  shortly  after  destroyed 
by  the  Indians,  it  was  rebuilt  on  its  present  site  by  Fran- 
cisco de  Aguirre  in  1549.  Serena  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric 
embracing  the  whole  of  Chil.i  to  the  north,  and  of  a  court 
•of  appeal  the  jurisdiction  of 'which  extends  to  the  province 
of  Atacama.  The  town  is  well  supplied  with  water.  The 
principal  edifice  is  the  cathedral  (1844-60),  built  of  a  light 
porous  stone,  216  feet  long  and  66  broad.  The  town  con- 
tains eight  other  churches,  an  excellent  lyceuni,  a  theatre, 
an  episcopal  palace,  and  several  convents  and  charitable 
institutions.  It  is  connected  by  luil  with  its  port  9  miles 
to  the  south-west,  and  with  the  Tamaya  copper-mines.  A 
narrow-gauge  line  up  the  Elqui  valley  was  opened  in 
1883.  Brewing  has  recently  become  an  important  industry. 
The  population  of  Serena  was  12,293  in  1875,  or,  including 
the  suburbs  of  the  Pampa  (Alta  and  Baja),  14,403 

SEKENUS  OF  Antissa,  an  ancient  Greek  geometer, 
the  author  of  two  treatises — De  Sectione  Cylindn  et  Coni, 
iibri  duo — which  Halley  has  published  in  Greek  and  Latin 
along  with  his  edition  of  the  Conies  of  ApoUonius  of  Perga. 
Great  difference  of  opinion  has  existed  as  to  his  date : 
Halley  says  in  his  prrface  to  the  Conies,  "We  know 
nothing  of  Serenus  except  that  he  was  born  at  Antissa,  a 
town  in  the  island  of  Lesbos ;  and  that,  besides  his  book 
On  the  Section  of  the  Cylinder,  and  another  On  the  Section 
of  the  Cone,  he  wrote  commentaries  on  Apollonius ;  and 
that  he  lived  before  Marinus — the  pupil  of  Proclus — as 
appearj  from  the  preface  of  Marinus  to  the  Data  of  Euclid." 
Montucla  says  vaguely  that  Serenus  lived  within  the  first 
four  centuries  of  the  Christian  era.  Chasles  places  him 
about-  the"  same  time  as  Pappus.  Bretschneider  pointed 
out  that  Antissa  was  completely  destroyed  by  the  Eomans 
in  167  B.C.,  and  inferred  thence  that  Serenus  lived  c.  220- 
180  B.C.  To  this  inference  it  has  been  fairly  objected  by 
Clantor,  after  F.  Blass,  that  the  name  Serenus  is  Latin  and 
that  Antissa  had  been- rebuilt  at  the  time  of  Strabo.  The 
statement  of  Halley  that  "  he  lived  before  Marinus "  has 
"been  since  repeated  by  many  writers ;  but  Heiberg  has 
pointed  out  (Rev.  Grit.  d'Hist.  et  de  Litt.,  1881,  p.  381) 
that  the  passage  referred  to  in  support  of  this  statement 
is  faulty,  and  that  tte  name  of  Serenus  is  certainly  not  to 
be  found  in  it.  Th.  H.  Martin,  in  his  edition  of  the 
Astronomy  of  Theon  of  Smyrna  (Paris,  1849),  has  pub- 
lished a  fragment  which  in  the  MS.  follows  the  text  of 
Theon  and  is  headed  From  the  Lem7nas  of  the  Philosopher 
JSerentts.  This  is  unquestionably  the  same  as  Serenus  of 
Antissa,  to  whom  this  appellation  "philosopher"  is  given  in 
the  titles  of  the  two  treatises  edited  by  Halley.  No  con- 
«lusion,  however,  can  bo  drawn  from  this  as  to  the  date 
of  Serenus,  for  the  extract  is  not  given  by  Theon  but  by  an 
anonymous  scholiast.  M.  Paul  Tannery  in  an  elaborate 
paper  (Bull,  des  Sc.  Math,  et  Astron.,  2d  series,  vii.,  1883) 
has  sho-wn  from  the  character  of  Serenus's  writings  that  he 
lived  long  after  the  brilliant  period  of  Greek  mathematics, 
and  that  he  must  be  placed  chronologically  between  Pappus 
and  Hypatia,  consequently  in  the  4th  century.  This 
determination  of  the  date  of  Serenus  is  accepted  by  Cantor 
{Zeitschrift  fur  Math,  und  Phys.,  August  1885,  p.  124). 

In  tho  treatise  On  the  Section  of  the  Cone,  which  is  tlio  less  im- 
portant of  the  two  books,  Serenas,  as  ho  tells  ua  in  the  preface,  was 
tho  first  to  take  up  tho  particnjar  branch  of  that  subject  with 
whicli  ho  deals.  In  it  ho  ticats  of  tho  area  of  a  trlanfjje  formed 
by  cutting  a  cone,  right  or  scalene,  on  a  circular  base  by  a  plane 
through  tho  vertex.  Ha  ehows  how  "to  cut  a  riglit  cone  whoso 
axis  is  not  loss  than  the  Bcmi-diamoter  of  tho  baso  by  a  plane 
through  the  vertex  so  that  the  triangle  thus  formed  shall  bo  equal 
to  a  given  triangle"  (Prop.  8),  or  "a  maximum"  (rrop.  13).  Ho 
then  considere  tho  case  of  tho  scalene  cone,  solves  the  problem 
"to  cut  a  given  scalene  cone  by  a  piano  through  the  vertex  so  as 


to  form  an  isosceles  triangle"  (Prop.  21),  and  shows  that,  "of  the 
triangles  which  are  formed  by  cutting  a  scalene  cone  throvigU  tlie 
axis,  the  greatest  is  the  isosceles,  the  least  that  which  is  at  right 
angles  to  the  base  of  the  cone  ;  of  tlie  rest  however,  that  which  is 
nearer  the  greatest  is  greater  than  one  more  remote  "  (Prop.  22). 
The  general  questions  for  a  scalene  cone,  corresponding  to  the 
problems  for  the  right  cone  (Props.  8  and  13),  and  which  depend 
on  solid  loci  for  tlicir  solution,  are  not  attempted.  These  have 
been  solved  by  Halley  in  his  edition  of  Serenus,  p.  6S  sq. 

In  his  preface  to  the  treatise  On  the  Section  of  the  Cylinder, 
Serenus  tells  us  tliat  many  geometers  of  his  time  supposed  that  the 
transverse  sections  of  a  cylinder  were  different  from  tho  elliptic 
sections  of  a  cone,  that  he  thought  it  right  to  refute  tliis  error  and 
to  prove  that  these  sections  were  of  the  same  kind.  Having  estab- 
lished this  in  a  series  of  theorems  ending  with  Prop.  18,  he  shows 
in  Prop.  19  that  "it  i''  possible  to  exhibit  a  cone  and  a  cylinder 
cutting  one  another  in  one  and  the  same  ellipse."  He  then  solves 
problems  such  as — "given  a  cone  (cylinder)  and  an  ellipse  on  it, 
to  find  the  cylinder  (cone)  which  is  cut  in  the  same  ellipse  as  th« 
cone  (cylinder) "  (Props.  20,  21) ;  "given  a  cone  (cylinder),  to  find 
a  cylinder  (cone),  and  to  cut  both  by  one  and  the  same  plane  so 
that  the  sections  tliiis  fcrmed  shall  bo  similar  ellipses  "  (Props.  22, 
23) ;  "given  a  cylinder  cut  in  an  ellipse,  to  construct  a  cono 
having  the  same  base  and  altitude  as  the  cylinder,  so  that  the 
section  of  it  by  the  same  plane  is  an  ellipse  similar  to  the  ellipse  of 
the  cylinder"  (Prop.  25).  In  Props.  26-29  he  shows  how  to  cut  a 
scalene  cylinder  or  cone  in  au  infinite  number  of  ways  by  two 
planes — which  are  not  parallel — so  as  to  form  sinmar  ellip.?c3 
(subcontrary  sections).  He  then  gives  some  theorems:  "all  the 
straight  lines  drawn  from  the  same  point  to  touch  a  cylindrical 
surface,  on  both  sides,  have  their  points  of  contact  on  the  sides  of 
a  single  parallelogram"  (Prop.  31) ;  "all  the  straight  lines  drawn 
from  the  same  point  to  touch  a  conical  surface,  on  both  sides,  have 
their  points  of  coutact  on  the  sides  of  a  single  triangle "  (Prop. 
34).  This  last  is' proved  by  means  of  Prop.  33,  where  we  find, 
indirectly  stated,  the  property  of  an  harmonic  pencil. 

SERES,  Seeres,  or  Smos,  a  town  of  Turkey  in  Europe, 
now  at  the  head  of  a  sanjak  in  the  vilayet  of  Saloniki,  is 
situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Strymon  (Karasu),  in  a  district 
so  fertile  as  to  bear  among  the  Turks  tho  name  of  Altin 
Ovassi  or  Golden  Plain,  and  so  thickly  studded  -with  vill- 
ages as  to  have,  when  seen  from  the  heights  of  Rhodope, 
the  appearance  of  a  great  city  with  extensive  gardens. 
The  principal  buildings  are  the  Greek  archiepiscopal  palace, 
the  Greek  cathedral,  restored  since  the  great  fire  of  1879, 
by  which  it  was  robbed  of  its  magnificent  mosaics  and 
woodwork,  the  Greek  gjTnnasium  and  hospital  (the  former 
built  of  marble),  the  richly  endowed  Esla  Jami,  and  the 
ruins  of  the  once  no  less  flourishing  Ahmed  Pasha  or 
Aghia  Sophia  mosque,  whose  revenues  used  to  be  derived 
from  the  Crimea.  On  a  hill  above  the  town  are  the  ruins 
of  a  fortress  described  in  a  Greek  inscription  as  a  "  tower 
built  by  Helen  in  the  mountainous  region."  Cloth-factories 
and  tanneries  are  tho  chief  industrial  establishments  and 
lignite  mines  are  worked  in  the  neighbourhood  with  some 
success.    The  population  is  30,000. 

Seres  is  tho  ancient  Scris,  Sirte,  or  Sirrhte,  mentioned  by  Herod- 
otus in  connexion  with  Xerxcs's  retreat,  and  liy  Livy  as  tho  placo 
where  iEmilius  faulus  received  a  deputation  from  Pei-seus.  In  tho 
11th  century,  when  Stephen  Dushan  of  Sei-via  assumed  tho  titlo 
emperor  of  Scrvia,  &e.,  he  chose  Sirrha)  as  Ids  capital ;  and  it 
remained  in  the  hands  of  tho  Sei-vians  till  its  capture  by  Sultan 
Murad.  In  1390  Bayazid  summoned  his  Christian  vassals  to  his 
camp  at  Sirrhoo. 

SERFDOM.    See  Slavery. 

SERGHIEVSKIY  POSAD,  or  TRorrzE-SEEGinETSK,  a 
town  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Moscow,  -nhich  has 
grown  up  round  the  monastery  of  Troitzc-Scrghievskaya 
Lavra,  44  miles  by  rail  to  tho  north-east  of  Moscow.  It 
is  situated  in  a  beautiful  country,  intersected  by  pleasant 
little  valleys  and  varied  with  woods,  tho  buildings  extend- 
ing partly  over  tho  hill  occupied  by  the  monastery  and 
partly  over  the  valley  below.  Including  the  extensive 
Kukuevsk  suburb.s,  it  had  in  1884  31,400  inhabitants. 
There  are  several  lower-grade  schools,  an  infirmary  for  old 
women,  and  a  school  for  girls.  Numerous  inns  and  hotels, 
some  maintained  by  tho  monastery  and  others  a  rich 
source  of  revenue  to  it,  accommodate  the  numerous  pilgrims. 


676 


S  E  R  —  S  E  rl) 


Serghievsk  has  long  been  renowned  for  its  manufactures 
of  holy  pictures  (painted  and  carved),  spoons,  and  a  variety 
of  other  articles  carved  in  ■wood,  especially  toys,  sold  to 
pilgrims.  Within  the  last  twenty  years  this  industry  has 
greatly  developed ;  separate  parts  of  certain  toys  are  made 
elsewhere  and  brought  to  Serghievsk,  where  no  fewer  than 
330  workshops,  employing  1055  hands,  with  an  annual 
production  valued  at  more  than  £30,000,  supply  the 
finished  article.  Several  other  petty  industries  are  carried 
on  both  in  the  town  and  in  the  neighbouring  villages. 

The  Troitsk  monastery  is  the  most  sacred  place  in  middle  Kussia, 
the  Great  Russians  regarding  it  with  more  veneration  than  even 
the  cathedrals  and  relics  of  the  Kremlin  of  Moscow.  It  occupies  a 
picturesque  site  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  protected  on  two  sides  by  deep 
ravines  and  steep  slopes.  The  walls,  25  to  50  feet  in  height,  are 
fortified  by  nine  towers,  one  oF  which,  the  Pyatnitsk,  has  been 
for  some  time  a,  prison  for  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical  offenders. 
Eleven  churches,  including  the  Troitskiy  (Trinity)  and  Uspenskiy 
cathedrals,  a  lofty  bell-tower,  a  theological  academy,  various 
buildings  for  monks  and  pilgrims,  and  a  hospital  stand  within  the 
precincts,  which  are  nearly  two- thirds  of  a  mile  in  circuit.  A  small 
wooden  church,  erected  by  the  monk  Sergius,  and  afterwards  burned 
by  the  Tatars,  stood  on  the  site  now  occupied  by  the  cathedral  of 
the  Trinity,  which  was  built  in  1422,  and  contains  the  reUcs  of 
Sergius,  as  well  as  a  holy  picture  which  has  frequently  been  brought 
into  requisition  in  Russian  campaigns.  The  Uspenskiy  cathedral 
was  erected  in  1585  ;  close  beside  it  are  the  graves  of  Boris  Godunoff 
and  his  family.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  monastery  is  the 
church  of  Sergius,  beneath  which  are  spacious  rooms  where  200,000 
dinners  are  distributed  gratis  every  year  to  the  pilgrims.  The 
bell-tower,  290  feet  high,  has  a  bell  weighing  1374  tons.  Several 
monasteries  of  less  importance  occur  in  the  neighbourhood.  The 
site  now  occupied  by  the  Troitsk  monastery  was  in  the  14th 
century  covered  with  impenetrable  forests.  In  1337  two  brothers, 
Barthelemy  and  Stefan,  sons  of  a  Rostoff  hoiar,  erected  a  chiu'ch 
on  the  spot.  The  elder  (bom  in  1314)  took  monastic  orders  under 
the  name  of  Sergius,  erected  cells  by  the  church,  and  became  widely 
famous  among  the  peasants  around.  The  Moscow  princes  also 
showed  great  respect  for  the  chief  of  the  new  monastery.  Dmitri 
Joannovich  Donskoi  received  the  benediction  of  Sergius  before 
setting  out  on  the  Tatar  expedition  which  terminated  in  the  victory 
of  Kulikovo,  and  afterwards  accepted  the  advice  and  help  of  the 
monk  in  his  dealings  with  the  prince  of  Ryazan.  Sergius  lived  a 
life  of  diligence  and  simplicity,  and  declined  to  accept  the  office  of 
metropolitan  of  Moscow.  His  monastery  acquired  great  fame  and 
became  the  wealthiest  in  middle  Russia.  Ivan  the  Terrible  in  1561 
made  it  the  centre  of  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Moscaw. 
During  the  Polish  Invasion  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century 
it  organized  the  national  resistance,  and  supplied  the  combatants 
with  money  and  food.  In  1608-9  it  withstood  a  sixteen  months' 
siege  by  the  Poles  ;  at  a  later  date  the  monks  took  a  lively  part 
in  the  organization  of  the  army  which  crushed  the  outbreak  of^the 
peasants.  In  1683  and  1689  Peter  I.  took  refuge  here  from  the 
revolted  strcUzi.  The  theological  seminary,  founded  in  1744  and 
transformed  in  1814  into  an  academy,  reckons  Platon  and  Philarete 
among  its  pupUs. 

SERGIUS  I.,  pope  from  687  to  701,  came  of  an  An- 
tiochene  family  which  had  settled  at  Palermo,  and  owed 
his  election  as  Conon's  successor  to  skiKul  intrigues  against 
Paschalis  and  Theodorus,  the  other  candidates.  In  the 
second  year  of  his  pontificate  he  baptized  King  Ceadwalla 
of  Wessex  at  Rome.  For  rejecting  certain  canons  of  the 
TruUan  (Quinisext)  council  of  692,  Justinian  11.  com- 
manded his  arrest  and  transportation  to  Constantinople, 
but  the  militia  of  Ravenna  and  the  Pentapolis  forced  the 
imperial  protospatharius  to  abandon  the  attempt  to  carry 
out  his  orders.     Sergius  was  followed  by  John  VI.  as  pope. 

SERGIUS  n.,  pope  from  844  to  847,  a  Roman  of 
noble  birth,  elected  by  the  clergy  and  people  to  succeed 
Gregory  IV.,  was  forthwith  consecrated  without  waiting 
for  the  sanction  of  the  emperor  Lothair,  who  accordingly 
sent  his  son  Louis  with  an  army  to  punish  the  breach  of 
faith.  A  pacific  arrangement  was  iiltimately  made,  and 
Louis  was  crowned  king  of  Lombardy  by  Sergius.  In  this 
pontificate  Rome  was  ravaged,  and  the  churches  of  St 
Peter  and  St  Paul  robbed,  by  garacens  (August  846). 
Sergius  was  succeeded  by  Leo  IV. 

SERGIUS  in.  succeeded  Pope  Christopher  in  904,  and 
reigned  till  911.     His  pontificate,  so  far  as  is  known,  was 


remarkable  for  nothing  but  the  rise  of  the  "  poinocracy  " 
of  Theodora  and  her  daughters.  Sergius  restored  the 
Lateran  palace,  which  had  been  shattered  by  an  earthquake. 
After  him  Anastasius  III.  sat  on  the  pontifical  throne. 

SERGIUS  IV.,  pope  from  1009  to  1012,  originaUybore 
the  name  of  Peter,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
change  his  name  on  accession  to  the  pontificate.  He  was 
a  mere  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  feudal  nobility  of  the  city 
(see  Rome)  ;  he  was  succeeded  by  Benedict  Vili. 

SERGIUS,  St.  The  Eastern  and  Western  Churches 
celebrate  the  martyrs  Sergius  and  Bacchus,  Roman  oflScers 
who  suffered  under  Maximian,  on  7th  October.  Both  were 
martyred  in  Syria,  Sergius  at  Ros4fa  (RaslftS,,  Eosdfrt 
HishAm)  near  Rakka.  Sergius  was  a  very  famous  saint 
in  Syria  and  Christian  Arabia  (comp.  what  is  related  of 
Chosroes  II.  in  vol.  xviii.  p.  61  i) ;  and  Rosafa,  which  became 
a  bishop's  see  (Le  Quien,  Or.  Chr.,  ii.  951),  took  the  name 
of  Sergiopolis,  and  preserved  his  relics  in  a  fortified  basilica. 
The  church  was  adorned  and  the  place  further  strengthened 
by  Justinian  (Procopius,  ^d.,  ii.  9). 

SERIEMA,  or  Cakiama,^  a  South-American  bird,  suffi- 
ciently well  described  and  figured  in  Marcgrave's  work 
i^Hist.  Rer.  Nat.  Brasilise,  p.  203),  posthumously  published 
by  De  Laet  in  1648,  to  be  recognized  by  succeeding  orni- 
thologists, among  whom  Brisson  in  1760  acknowledged  it  as 
forming  a  distinct  genus  Cariama,  while  Linnasus  regarded 
it  as  a  second  species  of  Palamedea  (see  Sc  ukamek  vol. 
rxi.  p.  552),  under  the  name  of  P.  crisiata,  Englished  by 
Latham  in  1785  {Synopsis,  v.  p.  20)  the  "Crested 
Screamer,'' — an  appellation,  as  already  observed,  since 
transferred  to  a  wholly  different  bird.  Nothing  more 
seems  to  have  been  known  of  it  in  Europe  tiU  1803,  when 
Azara  published  at  Madrid  his  observations  on  the  tods 


Senema. 


of  Para'guay  (Apuntamientos,  No.  340),  wherein  he  gave 
an  account  of  it  under  the  name  of  "Saria,"  which  it  bore 
among  the  Guaranis, — that  of  "Cariama"  being  applied  to 
it  by  the  Portuguese  settlers,  and  both  expressive  of  its 
ordinary  cry.^  It  was  not,  however,  until  1809  that  this 
very  remarkable  form  came  to  be  autoptically  described 
scientifically.      This  was  done  by  the  elder  Geoffrey  St- 


'  In  this  word  the  initial  C,  as  is  usual  in  Portuguese,  is  pronounced 
soft,  and  the  accent  laid  upon  the  last  syllable. 

'  Yet  Forbes  states  {Ibis,  1881,  p.  358)  that  Seriema  comes  from 
Sirif  "a  diminutive  of  Indian  extraction,"  and  Ema^  the  Portuguese 
name  for  the  Ehea  (comp.  Emeu,  vol  viii  p.  171),  the  whole  thua 
meaning  "Little  Khea." 


S  £  11  — S  E  R 


677 


HiJaire  (Ann.  du  Museum,  xiii.  pp.  362-370,  pi.  26),  who 
had  seen  a  specimen  in  the  Lisbon  museum ;  and,  though 
knowing  it  had  already  been  received  into  scientific  nomen- 
clature, he  called  it  anew  Microdactylus  marcgravii.  In 
1811  Illiger,  without  having  seen  an  example,  renamed 
the  genus  Dicholojihus — a  term  which,  as  before  stated 
(Ornithology,  vol.  xviii.  p.  46,  note  1),  has  .since  been 
frequently  applied  to  it — placing  it  in  the  curious  con- 
geries of  forms  having  little  affinity  which  he  called  Alcc- 
iorides.  In  the  course  of  his  travels  in  Brazil  (1815-17), 
Prince  Max  of  Wied  met  with  this  bird,  and  in  1823 
there  appeared  from  his  pen  {N.  Act.  Acad.  L.-C.  Nat., 
Curiosorum,  xi.  pt.  2,  fp.  341-350,  tab.  xlv.)  a  very  good 
contribution  to  its  history,  embellished  by  a  faithful 
life-sized  figure  of  its  head.  The  same  year  Temminck 
figured  it  in  the  Planches  Coloriees  (No.  237).  It  is  not 
easy  to  say  when  any  example  of  the  bird  first  came  under 
the  eyes  of  British  ornithologists ;  but  in  the  Zoological 
Proceedings  for  1836  (pp.  29-32)  Martin  described  the 
visceral  and  osteological  anatomy  of  one  which  had  been 
received  alive  the  preceding  year.^ 

The  Serieraa,  owing  to  its  long  legs  and  neck,  stands  some  two 
feet  or  more  in  height,  and  in  menageries  bears  itself  with  a  stately 
deportment.  Its  bright  red  beak,  the  bare  greenish  blue  skin 
surrounding  its  large  yellow  eyes,  and  the  tufts  of  elongated  feathers 
springing  vertically  from  its  lores,  give  it  a  pleasing  and  animated 
expression  ;  but  its  plumage  generally  is  of  an  inconspicuous 
ochreous  grey  above  and  dull  ■n-hite  beneath,  — the  feathers  of  the 
upper  parts,  which  on  the  neck  and  throat  are  long  and  loose,  being 
barred  by  fine  zigzag  markings  of  dark  broivn,  while  those  of  the 
lower  parts  are  more  or  less  striped.  The  wiug-quills  are  brownish 
black,  handed  with  mottled  white,  and  those  of  the  tail,  except  the 
middle  pair,  which  are  wholly  greyish  brown,  are  banded  with 
mottled  white  at  the  base  and  the  tip,  but  dark  brown  for  the  rest 
of  their  length.  The  legs  are  red.  The  Seriema  inhabits  the 
campcs  or  elevated  open  parts  of  Brazil,  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
Pernambuco  to  the  Kio  de  la  Plata,  extending  inland  as  far  as 
Jlatto  Grosso  (long.  60°),  and  occurring  also,  though  sparsely,  in 
Paraguay.  It  lives  in  the  high  grass,  running  away  in  a,stooping 
posture  to  avoid  discovery  on  being  approached,  and  taking  flight 
only  at  the  utmost  need.  Yet  it  builds  its  nest  in  thick  bushes  or 
trees  at  about  a  man's  height  from  the  ground,  therein  laying  two 
eggs,  which  Prof  Burmeister  likens  to  those  of  the  Laud-Rail  in 
colour.'  The  young  are  hatched  fully  covSred  with  grey  down, 
relieved  by  brown,  and  remain  for  some  time  in  the  nest.  The  food 
of  the  adult  is  almost  exclusively  animal, — insects,  especially  large 
ants,  snails,  lizards,  and  snakes ;  but  it  also  eats  certain  iarge  red; 
berries. 

Until  18C0  the  Seriema  was  believed  to  be  without  any  near 
relative  in  the  living  world  of  birds';  but  in  the  Zoological  Pro- 
ceedings for  that  year  (pp.  334-336)  Dr  Hartlaub  described  an  allied 
species  discovered  by  Prof  Burmeister  in  the  territory  of  the 
Argentine  Republic.^  This  bird,  which  has  since  been  regarded  as 
entitled  to  generic  division  under  the  name  of  Clmiiga  burmeistcri 
{P.Z.S.,  1870,  p.  466,  pi.  xxxvi.),  and  seems  to  be  known  in  its 
native  country  as  the  "Chunnia,"  differs  from  the  Seriema  by  fre- 
quenting forest  or  at  least  bushy  districts.  It  is  also  darker  in 
colour,  has  less  of  the  frontal  crest,  shorter  legs,  a  longer  tail,  and 
the  markings  beneath  take  the  form  of  bars  rather  than  stripes. 
In  other  respects  the  dUTerenco  between  the  two  birds  seems  to  be 
immateiial. 

There  are  few  birds  which  have  more  exercised  the  tax- 
onomer  than  thi.s,  and  the  reason  seems  to  be  plain.  The 
Seriema  must  be  regarded  as  the  not  greatly  modified  heir 
of  some  very  old  type,  such  as  one  may  fairly  imagine  to 
have  lived  before  many  of  the  existing  groups  of  birds  had 

'  The  skeleton  has  been  briefly  described  and  figured  by  Eyton 
(Osteol.  Avium,  p.  190,  pis.  3,  K,  and  28  bw,  fig.  1). 

2  Tliis  distinguished  author  twice  cites  the  figure  given  by  Tliiene- 
niann  (Fortpjlanzungsgcsch.  gesammt.  Vligd,  pi.  Ixxii.  fig.  11)  as 
though  taken  from  a  genuine  specimeu  ;  but  little  that  can  be  called 
Kalline  in  character  is  observable  therein.  The  same  is  to  be  said  of 
an  egg  laid  in  captivity  at  Paris  ;  but  a  specimen  in  Mr  Walter's  pos- 
ses.sion  undeniably  shows  it  (cf.  Proe.  Zool.  Society,  1881,  p.  2). 

'  A  supposed  fossil  Cariama  from  the  caves  of  Brazil,  mentioned  by 
Bonaparte  (C.R.,  xliii.  p.  779)  and  others,  has  since  been  shown  by 
Reinhardt  (Ibis,  1882,  pp.  321-332)  to  rest  upon  the  misinteqiretation 
of  certain  bones,  which  the  latter  considers  to  have  been  those  of  a  Khca. 

*  Near  Tucumnu  and  Catamarca  (Burmeister,  Reise  durrA  die  La 
Plitla  Slaatcn,  ii.  p.  508). 


become  differentiated.  Looking  at  it  in  this  light,  we  may 
be  prepared  to  deal  gently  with  the  systematists  who, 
having  only  the  present  before  their  eyes,  have  relegated 
it  positively  to  this,  that,  or  the  other  Order,  Family,  or 
other  group  of  birds.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  some  of 
its- habits  point  to  an  alliance  with  the  Bqstakd  (vol.  iv. 
p.  578)  or  perhaps  certain  Plovers  (see  Plover,  vol.  xix. 
p.  227),  while  its  digestive  organs  are  essentially,  if  not 
absolutely,  those  of  the  Herom  (vol.  xi.  p.  760).  Its  general 
^ppearamie  recalls  that  of  the  Secretary -Bird  (supra, 
p.  617) ;  but  this,  it  must  be  admitted,  may  be  merely  an 
analogy  and  may  indicate  no  affinity  whatever.  On  the 
one  hand  we  have  authorities,  starting  from  bases  so  op- 
posed as  Prof.  Parker  (P.Z.S.,  1863,  p.  516)  and  Sundevall, 
placing  it  among  the  Accipitres,^  while  on  the  other  we 
have  Nitzsch,  Prof.  Burmeister,''  Martin  (ut  supra),  and 
Dr  Gadow  (Joicni.  f.  0 rnithologie,  1876,  pp.  445,  446) 
declaring  in  effect  that  this  view  of  its  affinities  cannot  be 
taken.  Prof.  Huxley  has  expressed  himself  more  cautiously, 
and,  while  remarking  (P.Z.S.,  1867,  p.  455)  that  in  its 
skull  "the  internasal  septum  is  ossified  to  a  very  slight 
extent,  and  the  maxillo-palatine  processes  may  meet  in  the 
middle  line,  in  both  of  which  respects  it  approaches  the 
birds  of  prey,"  adds  that  "  the  ossified  part  of  the  nasal 
septum  does  not  unite  below  with  the  maxillo-palatincs," 
and  that  in  this  respect  it  is  unlike  the  Accipitres;  finally 
he  declares  (p.  457)  that,  as  Otis  connects  the  Geranomorphse 
with  the  Charadriomorph-se,  so  Cariama  connects  the  former 
with  the  Aetomorphx,  "  but  it  is  a  question  whether  these 
two  genera  may  be  better  included  in  "  the  Geranomorplue. 
"or  made  types  of  separate  groups."  (a.  n.) 

SERIES.  A  series  is  a  set  of  terms  considered  as 
arranged  in  order,  f  sually  the  terms  are  or  represent 
numerical  magnitudes,  and  we  are  concerned  with  the  sura 
of  the  series.  The  number  of  terms  may  be  limited  or 
without  limit ;  and  we  have  thus  the  two  theories,  finite 
series  and  infinite  series.  The  notions  of  convergency  and 
divergency  present  themselves  only  in  the  latter  theory. 

Finite  Series. 

1.  Taking  the  terms  to  be  numerical  magnitudes,  or  say 
numbers,  if.  there  be  a  defijiite  number  of  terins,  then  the 
sum  of  the  series  is  nothing  else  than  the  number  ob- 
tained by  the  addition  of  the  terms  ;  f.^.,  4  4-9-1-10  =  23, 
l-f-2-f4-(-8=15.  In  the  first  example  there  is  no 
apparent  law  for  the  successive  terms ;  in  the  second 
example  there  is  an  apparent  liw.  But  it  is  important  to 
notice  that  in  neither  case  is  there  a  determinate  law  : 
we  can  in  an  infinity  of  ways  form  scries  beginning  with 
the  apparently  irregular  succession  of  terms  4,  9,  10,  or 
with  the  apparently  regular  succession  of  terms  1,  2,  4,  8. 
For  instance,  in  the  latter  case  we  may  have  a  series  with 
the  general  term  2" ,  when  for  n  =  0, 1,  2,  3,  4,  5  . .  the  series 
will  be  1,  2,  4,  8,  16,  32,  . . ;  or  a  series  with  the  general 

°  The  author  of  vol.  i.  of  tiie  British  Museum  Catalogue  of  Birds 
even  refers  it  to  the  Family  Falconidto  and  sub-Family  Polyborinm, 
though  ho  regards  the  Osprey  (vol.  xviii.  p.  66)  as  the  type  of  a  dis- 
tinct fiub-Oriler,  thereby  showing  a  want  of  penetration  which  it  ia 
dinicult  to  excuse.  Hero  it  needs  only  be  said  tliat,  whereas  in  a  few 
points  Pandion  differs  from  the  normal  Falconidm,  Cariawa  diverge* 
in  characters  too  numerous  to  mention.  Tlio  suggeation  that  the  Order 
/•I  (;c!/)i(rM  might  be  justifiably  enlarged  so  as  to  include  the  Seriema 
has  before  (Ohnitholooy,  vol.  xviii.  pp.  45,  4i;)  met  with  conditional 
approval ;  but  that  this  remarkable  ami  peculiar  form  should  bo  treated 
In  the  way  just  described  indicates  an  amount  of  neglect  of  evidence 
hardly  to  bo  expected  at  the  present  day. 

'  Nitz.scli,  as  Prof  Burmeister  slates  in  his  masterly  contribution  to 
the  natural  history  of  this  bird  (Abhan-it.  nalurf.  OescUscli.  lialle,  1.  pp. 
1-68,  pis.  1,  2),  in  1834  .saw  a  defective  skeleton  sent  to  Munich  by  the 
Brazilian  travellers  Spix  and  Martins.  His  description  ol  it  was  not, 
however,  published  uutil  1853.  To  it  is  appiiidcd  a  description  by 
Dr  Crcplin  of  some  Entozoit  fcund  In  the  Senema,  but  tliis  \infortu- 
nately  seems  to  give  no  help  is  to  the  systematic  position  of  the  bird. 


678 


SERIES 


tei-ra  ^(»*  +  S»  +  6),  where  for  the  same  values  of  n  the  series 

will  be  1,  2,  i,  8,  15,  26, . .  The  series  may  contain  nega- 
tive terms,  and  in  forming  the  sum  each  term  is  of  course 
to  be  taken  with  the  proper  sign. 

2.  But  we  may  have  a  given  law,  such  as  either  of  those 
just  mentioned,  and  the  question  then" arises,  to  find  the 
sum  of  an  indefinite  number  of  terms,  or  say  of  n  terms 
(n  standing  for  any  positive  integer  number  at  pleasure) 
of  the  series.  The  expression  for  the  sura  cannot  in  this 
-.ase  be  obtained  by  actual  addition;  the  formation  by 
addition  of  the  sum  of  two  terms,  of  three  terms,  &.C., 
will,  it  may  be,  suggest  (but  it  cannot  do  more  than  suggest) 
the  expression  for  the  sum  of  «  terms  of  the  series.  For 
instance,  for  the  series  of  odd  numbers  1+3  +  5  +  7+..., 
we  have  1  =  1,  1  +  3  =  4,  1  +  3  +  5  -=  9,  &c.  These  results 
at  once  suggest  the  law,  1  +  3  +  5  . . .  +  (2«  -  1 )  =  «-,  which 
U  in  fact  the  true  expression  for  the  simi  of  ii  terms  of 
the  series ;  and  this  general  expression,  once  obtained,,  cau 
afterwards  be  verified- 

3.  We  have  here  the  theory  of  finite  series  :  the  general 
proljlem  is,  «„  being  a  given  function  of  the  positive 
integer  n,  to  determine  as"  a  function  of  n  the  sum 
■"o  +  «i  +  ''e  •  •  •  + '""'  O"")  i"^  order  to  have  si  instead  olu+l 
terms,  say  the  sum  Kj  +  w~^  +  ?<,..  +  «„  _  i. 

Simple  cases  are  the  three  which  follow. 

(i  )  The  aiithmetic  series, 

a  +  {a  +  b)  +  {a  +  2b)..  +  {a  +  u-l)b; 
writing  here  the  terms  in  the>  reverse  order,  it  at  once 
appears  that  thrice  the  sum  is  =  2ft  +  ?j  -  16  taken  n  times  : 
that  is,  the  sum  =  ma  + -?t(»  -  1)6.     Li  particular  we  have 
an  expression  for  the  sum  of  the  natural  numbers 

1+2  +  3. ..  +  !l  =  |«(H  +  l), 

and  an  expression  for  the  simi  of  the  odd  uiuubers 
1  +  3  +  5. .  +  (2)t-l)  =  5!% 
(ii.)  The  geometric  series, 

n+ar+ar' . .  .  +  ar'" -^  ; 
here  the  difi'erence  between   the  siun  and  r  times  the 
sum  is  at  once  seen  to  be  =  «-«?•",  and  the  sum  is  thus 

1  -  r"    . 
=  «2  -1^'  ^  particiUar  the  sum  of  the  series 


l  +  r+?=..  +  . 


ji-l 


(iii.)  But  the  harmonic  series, 


^1 

r  ' 


-  +  —.  +  - 
OS     a  +  b     a  + 


26"""*'(i  +  (n_l)y 


1 


+  -,  does  not  admit  of  summation ; 


1^2^3  ■  n' 

there  is  no  algebraical  function  of  n  which  is  equal  to  the 
sum  of  the  series. 

4.  If  the  general  term  be  a  given  function  «„,  and  we 
can  find  Vii  a  function  of  »  such  that  Vn+\  -  v,i  =  i(,^  then 
we  have  «<,  =  i-j  -  «>„,  «j  =  v„  -  v^,  n^  =  Vj  -  v^, . .  m„  =  v^+i  -  Vn ; 
and  hence  «„  +  Mj  +  v^  .  ,j(-  «„  =  Vn+\  -  Vf^, — an  expression 
for  the  required  simi.  This  is  in  fact  an  application  of 
the  Calcidus'  of.  Finite  Differences.  In  the  notation  of 
this  calculus  Vn+i  -  -On  is  written  A?'„ ;  and  the  general 
inverse  problem,  or  problem  of  integration,  is  from  the 
equation  of  differences  Ay„  =  «^  (where  u,^  is  a  given  func- 
tii^n  of  n)  to  find  Vn.  The  general  solution  contains  an 
arbitrary  constant,  Vn=  F„  +  (7 ;  but  this  disappears  in  the 
difference  Vn+i  -  v^     As  an  example  consider  the  series 

«o+«T..  +  !f,i=0  +  l  +  3..  +  ^i()i  +  l); 
here,  observing  that 
"(«  +  l)(»  +  2)-{n-l)n(7i  +  l)  =  7!(n  +  l)()r+2-ft^),=3n(tt  +  l), 


■we  have 


^'n+l  =  6"Cn  +  l)(n  +  2); 


and  hence     l  +  3  +  6..  +  ^!i(«  +  ])=^)»(»i  +  l)(i!  +  2), 

as  may  be  at  once  verified  for  any  particular  value  of  n. 

Similai-ly,  when  the  general  term  is  a  factorial  of  jjje 
order  r,  we  have 


1  + 


r  +  l        ,  i((«  +  l)..(«  +  r-l)_>i(H  +  l).^  [n  +  r) 


..+ 


1    ■■■  '      1.2     ..        r  1.2     ..  (r  +  1)    . 

5.  If  the  general  term  itn  be  any  rational  and  integral 
function  of  n,  we  have 


«,.  =  "o+j^«0  + 


v{n-\) 


A'«„ 


ii(it-l) .  .  (« - 


"^V,,,. 


1.2    -'•«—  '  \.2..p 

where  the  series  is  continued  only  up  to  the  term  dependr 
ing  on;),  the  degree  of  the  function; «;„,  for  all  the  subse- 
quent terms  vanish.  The  series  is  thus  decomposed  intp> 
a  set  of  series  which  have  each  a  factorial  for  the  general 
term,  and  which  cau  be  siuumed  by  the  last  formula ;'  thus 
we  obtain 


«5+»«, . . .  +n,={u  +  \)Uf,+ 
(it  +  l);i()t-l).  .  (« - 


(k_+1)« 
1.2 


AUa . 


A  "o, 


1.2.3..0)  +  1) 

which  is. a  function  of  the  degree  p+\. 

Thus  for  the  before-mentioned  series  1  +  2  +  4  +  8+  .-. . 
if  it  be  assiuned  that  the  general  terra  !(;,  is  a  cubic  function 
of  n,  and  wp-iting  <lo^vn  the  gi\en  terms  and  forming  the 
difierences,  ],  2,  4,  8;  1,  2,  4;  1,  2 ;  1,  we  have 

«„=^  +  l  +  -Y72-+       1.2.3 

and  the  sum  Uf,  +  «(j . .  +  tin. 

_  „  ,  1  ,  («  +  !)« ^  (h  +  1}»(«-1)  .  («  +  lM« -!)(»- 2) 
-»  +  l  +  -j--2-+       j-g-g       +  1.2.3.4         • 

=;^(H-'  +  2»'  +  ll,r  + 34)1  +  24). 

As  particular  cases  we  have  exinessions  for  the  sums 
of  the  powers  of  the  natural  niunbers — 


t?5(»i'+5H  +  6),  asabove  J  v 


l=  +  2=...+)i==|n()!  +  l)(2!i  +  i;;  I'+Z'. 
o 


+«»=i»i=(n  +  l)' 


(observe  that  this  =  ( 1  +  2  .  . .  +  «)-) ;  and  so  on. 

6.  We  may,  from  the  expression   for  the  sum  of  the 
geometric  series,  obtain  by  differentiation  other  results  : 

'  =  ; gives 

1  -  )• 


thus 


l+j'  +  i-=...+r'' 


■^(»-^>-"-^=ir-rr7. 


l  +  2r+3>  =  ... ,..-.,         -,,,i_,.    -  (i_,), 

and  we  might  in  this  way  find  the  sum  Uf^  +  n-^r. . .  +«„»•% 
where  v,i  is  any  rational  and  integral  function  of  n.      ;- 

7.  The  expression  for  the  sum  u^  +  u^. . .  +  Un  of  an  in- 
definite number  of  terms  will  in  many  cases  lead  to  the 
sum  of  the  infinite  series  ifj  +  ?(,...;  but  the  theory  of 
infinite  series  requires  to  be  considered  separately.  Often 
in  dealing  apparently  with  an  infinite  series  ?«5  +  ?<i+  ^. 
we  consider  rather  an  indefinite  than  an  infinite  series, 
and  are  not  in  any  wise  reallj'  concerned  with  the  sum  of 
tbe  series  or  the  ouestion  of  its.  convergeucy :  thus  the 
equation 

f  1  +  mx  +  -Yz       ■'■••){l+"=^+    1    2  ^-r  +- ^- ) 


=  l  +  (m  +  n)i  + 


(m  +  «)(»i  +  «-  1) 
1.2 


ar  +  "; 


really  means  the  series  of  identities 
{m+n)  =  m  +  n 
(7/i+M)(m  +  )t-  l)_))i(i)i 
2 


-1)     „?u  it     ^l(lt- 
2  1   1       1. 


1) 


,ic., 


1.2  1.2  11        1.2 

obtained  by  multiplying  together  the  two  series  of  the 
left-hand  side.  Again,  in  the  method  of  generating  func- 
tions we  are  concerned  with  an  equation  <j>{t)  =  A^  -^  A^t . . . 
+  .4,i<"+  ..,  where  the  fimction  <^{t)  is  used  only  to  ex- 
press the. law  of  formation  of-  the  successive  coeflScients. 

It  is  an  obvious  remark  that,  although  according  to  the 
original  definition  of  a  series  the  terms  are  considered  &^. 
arranged  in  a  determinate  order,  yet  ic  a  finite  serie;" 


SERIES 


679 


(-.vhether  the  nvunber  of  terms  be  definite.or  indefinite)  the 
«iin  is  independent  of  the  order  of  arrangemeiit. 


Infinite  Sei-ies. 
6.  We  consider  an  infinite  series  «o  +  Mj  +  «2  + 


of 


terms  proceeding  according  to  a  given  law,  that  is,  the 
general  term  «„  is  given  as  a  function  of  n.  To  fix  the 
ideas  the  terms  may  be  taken  to  be  positive  numerical 
magnitudes,  <)r  say  r'lmbers  continually  diminishing  to 
zero;  that  is,  Mn>tt,i+i,  and  Un  is,  moreover,  such  a  function 
of  n  that  by  taking  ?i  sufiiciently  large  «,i  can  be  made 
as  small  as  we  please. 

Forming  the  sjiccessive  sums  <S'o  =  «q,  ^j  =  «q  +  ?<i,  S2 
=  2<g  +  Uy  +  «2.  •  •  these  sums  S^,  S-^,  •S'j  . . .  will  be  a  series 
of  continually  increasing  terms,  and  if  they  increase  up 
to  a  determinate  finite  limit  S  (that  is,  if  there  exists  a 
determinate  numerical  magnitude  S  such  that  by  taking 
«  sufficiently  large  we  can  make  S  -  S,,  as  small  as  we 
please)  S  is  said  to  be  the  sum  of  the  infinite  series.  To 
show  that  we  can  actually  have  an  infinite  series  with  a 
given  sum  S,  take  e<g  any  number  less  than  S,  then  S  -  «(, 
is  positive,  and  taking  Mj  any  numerical  magnitude  less 
than  S  -  n^,  then  S-Ug-  u^  is  positive.  And  going  on 
continually  in  this  manner  we  obtain  a  series  «o  +  ''i 
+  Uo+  .  .  .  such  that  for  any  value  of  n  however  large 
,S'  -  Wj  -  Mj .  . .  -  «,i  is  positive ;  and  if  as  n  increases  this 
difference  diminishes  to  zero,  we  have  w^  +  «i  +  Wj  +  •  •  •  > 
— an  infinite  series  ha^'ing  S  for  its  sum.     Thus,  if  ^  =  2, 


'2' 


and  we  take  Uf,<2,  say  u^  =  l;  «i<2  -  1,  say  ti^ 

-1  -2>say«2  =  j;  and  soon,  we  have  1+;^  +  ^+  ...  =2; 
or,  more  generally,  if  r  be  any  positive  number  less  than 
1,  then  l+r  +  r^+  ...  =f3~i  that  is,  the  infinite  geo- 
metric series  with  the  first  term  =  1,  and  with  a  ratio 

j-<l,  has  the  finite  sum  r: .     This  in  fact  follows  from 

'  d  ~  r 

1  -  ?•" 
the  expression  l  +  r  +  r^...  +  r""^  =  .  _     for  the  sum  of 

the  finite  series ;  taking  >•<!,  then  as  n  increases  r"  de- 
creases to  zero,  and  the  sum  becomes  more  and  more 

nearly  =  ^-3^- 

9.  An  infinite  series  of  positive  numbers  can,  it  is  clear, 
have  a  sum  only  if  the  terms  continually  diminish  to  zero ; 
but  it  is  not  conversely  true  that,  if  this  condition  be  satis- 
fied, there  will  be  a  sum.     For  instance,  in  the  case  of  the 

harmonic  series  1  -I-  ^  +  5  -f  ...  it  can  be  shown  that  by  tak- 

ing  a  suflScient  number  of  terms  the  sum  of  the  finite  series 
may  be  made  as  large  as  we  please.    For,  writing  the  series 

in  the  form  1  +  |+ (|  +  l)  +  (|  +  ^  +  ;-+ 1)  +    .  .  ,  the 

number  of  terms  in  the  brackets  being  doubled  at  each 
successive  step,  it  is  clear  that  the  sum  of  the  terms  in 

any  bracket  is  always  >^;  hence  by  sufficiently  increas- 
ing the  number  of  brackets  the  sum  may  bo  made  as  large 
as  we  please.    In  the  foregoing  scries,  by  grouping  tte  terms 

in  a  different  manner  1  +  ^1 +  1^  +  ^  +  1  +  1  +  1)-)-  .., 

the  sum  of  the  terms  in  any  bracket  is  alwaj's  <  1  ;  we  thus 
arrive  at  the  result  that  (ti  =  3  at  least)  the  sum  of  2"  terms 

of  the  series  is  >l+-n  and  <n. 

10.  An  infinite  series  may  contain  negative  tern  is;  sup- 
pose in  the  first  instance  that  the  terms  are  altc^rnately 
positive  and  negative.  Hero  the  absolute  magr'Hudes  of 
the  ternis  must  decrease  down  to  zero,  but  this  is  a  suffi- 


cient condition  in  order  that  the  series  may  have  a  sum. 
The  case  in  question  is  that  of  a  series  ?'(,  -  fi  +  is  -  •  -  > 
where  v^,  t\,  v„, . .  are  all  positive  and  decrease  down  to 
zero.  Here,  forming  the  successive  sums  S^  =  Wq,  .Sj  = »',  -  t'l, 
S^^Vg-v^  +  v^,. .  S^,  S^,  S„, 
have  Sg  >  (Sj,  ,S'i  <  S. 


3>  ■ 


are  all  positive,  and  we 
and  Sn+i  -  Sn  tends  con- 
tinually to  zero.  Hence  the  sums  S^,  JSi,  S2, . .  tend  con- 
tinually to  a  positive  limit  .S^  in  such  wise  that  <S'o,  >S% 
5j,  . . .  are  each  of  them  greater  and  S^,  S^,  S^, . .  are 
each  of  them  less  than  S;  and  we  thus  have  .S'  as  the  sum 

of  the  series.     The  series  1-0  +  5-7+  ■•  will  serve  as 

an  example.  The  case  just  considered  includes  the  appar- . 
ently  more  general  one  where  the  series  consists  of  alternate 
groups  of  positive  and  negative  terms  respectively;  the 
terms  of  the  same  group  may  be  united  into  a  single  term 
±  v„,  and  the  original  series  will  have  a  sum  only  if  the 
resulting  series  Vq-v-^  +  v.^...  has  a  sum,  that  is,  if  the 
positive  partial  sums  v^,  v^,  v„, . .  decrease  down  to  zero. 

The  terms  at  the  beginning  of  a  series  may  be  in-egular 
as  regards  their  signs ;  but,  when  this  is  so,  all  the  terms  in 
question  (assumed  to  be  finite  in  niunber)  may  be  united 
into  a  single  term,  which  is  of  course  finite,  and  instead  of 
the  original  series  only  the  remaining  terms  of  the  series 
need  be  considered.  Every  infinite  series  whatever  is  thus 
substantially  included  under  the  two  forms, — terms  all  posi-  • 
tive  and  terms  alternately  positive  and  negative. 

11.  In  brief,  the  sum  (if  any)  of  the  infinite  series 
Uq  +  u^  +  ii2+  . .  is  the  finite  limit  (if  any)  of  the  succes- 
sive sums  Wq,  iIq  +  «j,  j<(|  +  {«j  +  «.,,...;  if  there  is  no  such 
limit,  then  there  is  no  sum.  Observe  that  the  assumed 
order  «q,  Mj,  ii^.  . .  of  the  terms  is  part  of  and  essential 
to  the  definition ;  the  terms  in  any  other  order  may  have 
a  different  sum,  or  may  have  no  sum.  A  series  having  a 
sum  is  said  to  be  "  convergent " ;  a  series  which  has  no 
sum  is  "divergent." 

If  a  series  of  positive  terms  be  convergent,  the  terms 
cannot,  it  is  clear,  continually  increase,  nor  can  they  tend 
to  a  fixed  limit :  the  series  1  +  1  +  1  +  . .  is  divergent.  For 
the  convergency  of  the  series  it  is  necessary  (but,  as  has 
been  shown,  not  sufficient)  that  the  terms  shall  decrease 
to  zero.  So,  if  a  series  with  alternately  positive  and  nega- 
tive terms  be  convergent,  the  absolute  magnitudes  cannot, 
it  is  clear,  continually  increase.  In  reference  to  such  a  series 
Abel  remarks,  "  Peut-on  imaginer  rien  de  plus  horrible 
que  de  debiter  0  =  l"-2"-f3"- 'l"-f,  &c.,  oil  n  est  un 
nombre  entier  positif?"  Neither  is  it  allowable  that  the 
absolute  magnitudes  shall  tend  to  a  fixed  limit.  The  so- 
called  "  neutral "  series  1-1  +  1-1..  is  divergent :  the 
successive  sums  do  not  tend  to  a  determinate  limit,  but 
are  alternately  + 1  and  0 ;  it  is  necessary  (and  also  suffi- 
cient) that  the  absolute  magnitudes  shall  decrease  to 
zero. 

In  the  so-called  semi-convergent  series  we  have  an  equa- 
tion of  the  form  S=  U^-  U^  +  U.,- . . . ,  where  the  positive 
values  U^,  U^,  U„, . . .  decrease  to  a  minimum  value,  suppose 
Uji,  and  afterwards  increase ;  tho  scries  is  divergent  and 
has  no  sum,  and  thus  S  is  not  tho  sum  of'  the  scries.  S 
is  only  a  number  or  function  calculable  approximately  by 
means  of  the  series  regarded  as  a  finite  scries  terminating 
with  the  term  ±  Up.  The  successive  sums  U^,  U^  -  U^, 
Uq-  Ui+  f/j,  .  .  up  to  that  containing  ±  Up,  give  alter- 
nately superior  and  inferior  limits  of  the  number  or 
function  S. 

12.  The  condition  of  convergency  may  bo  presented 
under  a  different  form  :  let  tho  series  ii^  +  u^  +  «j  + . .  be 
convergent,  then,  taking  m  sufficiently  large,  tho  sum  is 
the  limit  not  only  of  «<,  +  w,  + .  .  +  Un  but  also  of  t/,  -I-  «j .  .  . 
+  ?t„i+r,  where  r  is  any  number  as  large  as  wo  please.  The 
difference  of  these  two  expressions  must  therefore  bo  in- 


680 


SERIES 


definitely  small ;  by  taking  m  sufficiently  large  the  sum 
«,!+!+ «m+2  .  •  .  .+«m+r  (where  r  is  any  number  how- 
ever large)  can  be  made  as  small  as  we  please;  or,  as 
this  may  also  be  stated,  the  sum  of  the  infinite  series 
«m+i  +  Mm+2  +  .  .  •  Can  be  made  as  small  as  we  please. 
If  the  terms  are  all  positive  (but  not  otherwise),  we  may 
take,  instead  of  the  entire  series  Wm+i  +  «m+2+ •  ■,  any 
set  of  terms  (not  of  necessity  consecutive  terms)  subse- 
quent to  Vm;  that  is,  for  a  convergent  series  of  positive 
terms  the  sum  of  any  set  of  terms  subsequent  to  Um  can, 
by  taking  m  sufficiently  large,  be  made  as  small  as  we 
please. 

13.  It  follows  that  in  a  convergent  series  of  positive 
terms  the  terms  may  be  grouped  together  in  any  manner 
so  as  to  form  a  finite  niunber  of  partial  series  which  will 
be  each  of  them  convergent,  and  such  that  the  sum  of  their 
sums  will  be  the  sum  of  the  given  series.  For  instance, 
if  the  given  series  be  «(,  -1-  Mj  4-  Wj  +  •  •  •  i  then  the  two  series 
Uq  +  U2  +  u^  +  .  . .  and  Wj  -f-  w,  -(- . .  will  each  be  convergent 
and  the  sum  of  their  sums  will  be  the  sum  of  the  original 
series. 

14.  Obviously  the  conclusion  does  not  hold  good  in 
general  for  series  of  positive  and  negative  terms :  for  in- 
stance, the  series  \—^  +  -^---i-. .  is  convergent,  but  the 


two  series 


1     1,1, 


and-l-^ 


are  each  diver- 


gent, and  thus  without  a  sum.  In  order  that  the  conclusion 
may  be  applicable  to  a  series  of  positive  and  negative 
terms  the  series  must  be  "  absolutely  convergent,"  that  is, 
it  must  be  convergent  when  all  the  terms  are  made  posi- 
tive. This  implies  that  the  positive  terms  taken  by  them- 
selves are  a  convergent  series,  and  also  that  the  negative 
terms  taken  by  themselves  are  a  convergent  series.  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  remark  that  a  convergent  series  of 
positive  terms  is  absolutely  convergent.  The  question  of 
the  convergency  or  divergency  of  a  series  of  positive  and 
negative  terms  is  of  less  imp'-rtance  than  the  question 
■whether  it  is  or  is  not  absolutely  convergent.  But  in  this 
latter'  question  we  regard  the  terms  as  all  positive,  and 
the  question  in  effect  relates  to  series  containing  positive 
terms  only. 

15,  Consider,  then,  a  series  of  positive  terms  Mq  +  z<j 
-Hte2  +  . .;  if  they  are  increasing — that  is,  if  in  the  Umit 
«rt4.i/M,i  -be  greater  than  1 — the  series  is  divergent,  but  if 
less  than  1  the  series  is  convergent.  This  may  be  called 
a  first  criterion  ;  but  there  is  the  doubtful  case  where  the 
limit  =1.  A  second  criterion  was  given  by  Cauchy  and 
Raabe  j  but  there  is  here/again  a  doubtful  case  when  the 
Umit  considered  =1.  A 'succession  of  criteria  was  estab- 
lished by  De  Morgan,  which  it  seems  proper  to  give  in 
the  original  form;  but  the  equivalent  criteria  established  by 
Bertrand  are  somewhat  more  convenient.  In  what  follows 
Ix  is  for  shortness  written  to  denote  the  logarithm  of  x,  no 
matter  to  what  base.    De  Morgan's  form  is  as  follows : — 

Writing  Un  =  -rr^,  put  Po  =  'T~  '>  if  f or  a; = oo  the  limit  ag 

of  Pf,  be  greater  than  1  the  series  is  convergent,  but  if  less 
than  1  it  is  divergent.  If  the  limit  a^=\,  seek  for  the 
limit  of  jOj,  =  (pg-  \)lx;  if  this  limit  a^  be  greater  than  1 
the  series  is  convergent,  but  if  less  than  1  it  is  divergent. 
If  the  limit  a]^=l,  seek  for  the  Limit  ^j,  =  (/>j  -  1)W«;  if 
this  limit  a,  be  greater  than  1  the  series  is  convergent,  but 
if  less  than  1  it  is  divergent.     And  so  on  indefinitely. 

16.  Bertrand's  form  is : — If,  in  the  limit  for  jj  =  oo,  I — ji^ 
be  negative  or  less  than  1  the  series  is  divergent,  but  if 
greater  than  1  it  is  convergent.  If  it  =  1,  then  if  I — llln 
be  negative  or  less  than  1  the  series  is  divergent,  but  if 


4 

greater  than  1  it  is  convergent.    If  it  =  1 ,  then  if  I  — -r-jllUk 

"be  negative  or  less  than  1  the  series  is  divergent,  but  if 
greater  than  1  it  is  convergent.     And  so  on  indefinitely. 

The  last-mentioned  criteria  follow  at  once  from  the 
theorem  that  the  several  series  having  the  general  terms 

^  ^«'  nbkw  M^mr  •  •  '''^''^^'^^  ^^'  ^^^ 

of  them  convergent  if  a  be  greater  than  1,  but  divergent 
if  a  be  negative  or  less  than  1  or  =  1.     In  the  simplest 

case,  series  with  the  general  term  — >  the  theorem  may  b^ 

proved  nearly  in  the  manner  in  which  it  is  shown  above  (cfj 
§  9)  that  the  harmonic  series  is  divergent.  — 

17.  Two  or  more  absolutely  convergent  series  may  bd 
added  together,  {j/q  -f  Mj  -F  Wj  . .}  +  {''o  +  "i  +  Vj . .  = }  («q  -(-  t-o) 
+  ("i  +  ''i)  •  •  j  ^^^^  isj  the  resulting  series  is  absolutely  con- 
vergent and  has  for  its  sum  the  sum  of  the  two  sums. 
And  similarly  two  or  more  absolutely  convergent  series  may 
be  multiplied  together  {!((,  -h  Mj  -^  «2  •  • }  x  {"o  +  ''i  +  "2  •  • } 

=  J^o^o  +  (^o"!  +  "A)  +  ("o"2  +  ^i"!  +  Vo)  +  •  •  j  tif>'t  's,  the 
resulting  series  is  absolutely  convergent  and  has  for  its 
sum  the  product  of  the  two  sums.  But  more  properly  the 
multiplication  gives  rise  to  a  doubly  infinite  series — 

JJjVo,    UjVi,   «ifj 

— which  is  a  kind  of  series  which  will  be  presently  con-' 
sidered. 

18.  But  it  is  in  the  first  instance  proper  to  consider  a 
single  series  extending  backwards  and  forwards  to  infinity, 
or  say  a  back-and- forwards  iufiuite  serifs  . .  .u.„  +  u-i 
-1-  Wq  -I-  «j  -t-  j<2  •  •  •  j  such  a  series  may  be  absolutely  con- 
vergent, and  the  sum  is  then  independent  of  the  order  of 
the  terms,  and  in  fact  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  sums  of 
the  two  series  Vg  +  u^  +  u^  .  .  and  u-i  +  u-o  +  u-s  .  . 
respectively.  But,  if  not  absolutely  convergent,  the  ex- 
pression has  no  definite  meaning  until  it  is  explained  in 
what  manner  the  terms  are  intended  to  be  grouped 
together;  for  instance,  the  expression  may  be  used  to 
denote  the  foregoing  sum  of  two  series,  or  to  denote  the 
series  7ii^  +  {u-^  +  ii.i)  +  {u„-i-u.2)+  ..and  the  sum  may 
have  different  values,  or  there  may  be  no  svun,  accordingly. 

Thus,  if  the  series  be  .  .  - 1- v  +  O-Fi-^^-}-  .  .  ,  in  the 

former  meaning  the  two  series  0  -H  r  -f ;;  + . .  and  -  r-  -  ;r  - . . 

are  each  divergent,  and  there  is  not  any  suio.  But  in  the 
latter  meaning  the  series  is  0  -)-  0  -1-  0  -}- . . ,  •which  has  a 
sum  =  0.  So,  if  the  series  be  taken  to  denclo  the  limit  of 
(ug  +  ii^  +  u.2.  .  +nm)  +  {-u. 1  +  11.2  ..  .  -i-J'.-.K'),  where  m, 
m'  are  each  of  them  ultimately  infinftc,  th.sre  may  be  a 
sum  depending  on  the  ratio  m :  m\  ■w'lich  sum  conse- 
quently acquires  a  determinate  value  oni'y  wien  this  ratio 
is  given. 

19.  In  a  singly  infinite  series  we  Lave  fi  general  tenn 
M,„  where  n  is  an  integer  positive  in  the  care  of  an  ordinary 
series,  and  positive  or  negative  in  the  <.&s<^  of  a  back-and- 
forwards  series.  Similarly  for  a  doublj  iiifitfite  series  we 
have  a  general  term  'Um,n,  where  m^  n  E13  integers  which 
may  be  each  of  them  positive,  and  the  foi  m  of  the  series 
is  then 

''0.0 1  "04 )  "0.5  •  • 
''1,0 1  «j,i »  "1.! 

or  they  may  be  each  of  them  positive  or  uegative.  ^  The 
latter  is  the  more  general  supposition,  s  id  includes  the 
former,  since  Um.,n  may  =  0  for  m  or  n  eich.  or  either  of 
them  negative.  To  put  a  definite  meaninc;  on  the  notion 
of  a  sum,  we  may  regard  m,  n  as  the  ret  I  ».ngu!ar  coordi- 
nates of  a  point  in  a  plane ;  that  is,  if  ?i    >%  a.rb  ei»«l.  o^ 


SERIES 


them  positive  we  attend  only  to  the  positive  quadrant  of 
the  plane,  but  othenvise  to  the  whole  plane ;  and  we  have 
thus  a  doubly  infinite  system  or  latticework  of  points. 
We  may  imagine  a  boundary  depending  on  a  parameter  T 
which  for  2'=co  is  at  every  point  thereof  at  an  infinite 
distance  from  the  origin ;  for  instance,  the  boundary  may 
be  the  circle  x-  +  y"-  =  T,  or  the  four  sides  of  a  rectangle, 
x—^uT,  y=±pT.  Suppose  the  form  is  given  and  the 
value  of  T,  and  let  the  sum  2m,„,„  be  understood  to  denote 
the  sum  of  those  terms  Um,n  which  correspond  to  points 
within  the  boundary,  then,  if  as  T  increases  vnthout  limit 
the^  sum  in  question  continually  approaches  a  determinate 
limit  (dependent,  it  may  be,  on  the  form  of  the  boundary), 
for  such  form  of  boundary  the  series  is  said  to  be  conver- 
gent, and  the  sum  of  the  doubly  infinite  series  is  the  afore- 
said limit  of  the  sum  2m„_  „.  The  condition  of  convergency 
may  be  otherwise  stated  :  it  must  be  possible  to  take  T 
so  large  that  the  sum  2ei„,„  for  all  terms  «„,„  which 
correspond  to  points  outside  the  boundary  shall  be  as 
small  as  we  please. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that,  if  the  terms  «„,„  be  all  of  tnem 
positive,  and  the  series  be  convergent  for  any  particular 
form  of  boundary,  it  will  be  convergent  for  any  other  form 
of  boundary,  and  the  sum  will  be  the  same  in  each  case. 
Thus,  let  the  boundary  be  in  the  first  instance  the  circle 
x2  +  y2  =  r;  bytaking  T  sufficiently  large  the  sum  2w™,„ 
for  points  outside  the  circle  may  be  made  as  small  as  we 
please.  Consider  any  other  form  of  boundary — for  in- 
stance, an  ellipse  of  given  excentricity, — and  let  such  an 
ellipse  be  drawn  including  within  it  the  circle  x'^  +  y'=T. 
Then  the  sum  ^u^.n  for  terms  «„,»  corresponding  to 
points  outside  the  ellipse  will  be  smaller  than  the  sum  for 
points  outside  the  circle,  and  the  difi"erence  of  the  two  sums 
— that  is,  the  sum  for  points  outside  the  circle  and  inside 
the  ellipse— will  also  be  less  than  that  for  points  outside 
the  circle,  and  can  thus  be  made  as  small  as  we  please. 
Hence  finally  the  sum  2j<„,,„,  whether  restricted  to  terms 
Um,  n  corresponding  to  points  inside  the  circle  or  to  terms 
corresponding  to  points  inside  the  ellipse,  will  have  the 
same  value,  or  the  sum  of  the  series  is  independent  of 
the  form  of  the  boundary.  Such  a  series,  viz.,  a  doubly 
infinite  convergent  series  of  positive  terms,  is  said  to  be 
absolutely  convergent;  and  similarly  a  doubly  infinite 
series  of  positive  and  negative  terms  which  is  convergent 
when  the  terms  are  all  taken  as  positive  is  absolutely 
convergent. 

20.  We  have  in  the  preceding  theory  the  foundation  of 
the  theorem  (§  17)  as  to  the  product  of  two  absolutely 
convergent  series.  The  product  is  in  the  first  instance 
expressed  as  a  doubly  infinite  series ;  and,  if  we  sum  this 
for  the  boundary  x  +  y=T,  this  is  in  effect  a  summation 
of  the  series  n^v^  +  {u^v^  +  y^v^)  + . .  ^  ^hjch  fg  the  product 
of  the  two  series.  It  may  be  further  remarked  that, 
starting  with  the  doubly  infinite  series  and  summing  for 
the  rectangular  boundary  x  =  aT,  y  =  liT,  we  obtain  the 
sum  as  the  product  of  the  sums  of  the  two  single  series. 
For  series  not  absolutely  convergent  the  theorem  is  not 
true.  ^  A  striking  instance  is  given  by  Cauchy  :  the  series 

^~V5''"V3~V4"'"""'^  convergent  and  has  a  calcul- 
able sum,  but  it  can  be  shown  without  diflSculty  that 

its    square,    viz.,    the    series    \  -~  +  (A.  +\\  ^ 

is  divergent.  V2      \V3      2^      '  *  > 

21.  The  case  where  the  terms  of  a  series  are  imaginary 
comes  under  that  where  they  are  real.  Suppose  the  general 
term  is  p^  +  q„i,  then  the  series  will  have  a  sum,  or  will 
be  convergent,  if  and  only  if  the  series  having  for  its  general 
term  p„  and  the  series  having  for  its  general  term  qn  bo 
each  convergent;  then  the  sum  =  sura  of  first  series +t- 
into  sum  of  second  series.     T'le  notion  of  absolute  conver- 


G81 


gence  will  of  course  apply  to  each  of  the  series  separately  ; 
further,  if  the  series  having  for  its  general  term  the  modulus 
'Jp'^n  +  q^n  be  convergent  (that  is,  absolutely  convergent, 
since  the  terms  are  all  positive),  each  of  the  component 
series  will  be  absolutely  convergent ;  but  the  condition  is  not 
necessary  for  the  convergence,  or  the  absolute  convergence, 
of  the  two  component  series  respectively. 

22.  In  the  series  thus  far  considered  the  terms  are 
actual  numbers,  or  are  at  least  regarded  as  constant ;  but 
we  may  have  a  series  «o  +  «i  +  «2  +  •  ■  '^^^lere  the  successive 
terms  are  functions  of  a  parameter  z ;  in  particular  we  may 
have  a  series  a^  +  a^z  +  a^''- . .  arranged  in  powers  of  z.  It 
is  in  view  of  a  complete  theory  necessary  to  consider  z  as 
having  the  imaginary  value  x  +  iy  =  r(cos  <f>  +  i  sin  <f>).  The 
two  component  series  will  then  have  the  general  terms 
OnT^''  cos  nifi  and  a„r"  sin  n<f>  respectively ;  accordingly  each 
of  these  series  will  be  absolutely  convergent  for  any  value 
whatever  of  4>,  provided  the  series  with  the  general  term 
a,ir"  be  absolutely  convergent.  Jloreover,  the  series,  if  thus 
absolutely  convergent  for  any  particular  value  Ji  of  r,  will 
be  absolutely  convergent  for  any  smaller  value  of  r,  that  is, 
for  any  value  oi  x  +  iy  having  a  modulus  not  exceeding  £ ; 
or,  representing  as  usual  x  +  iyhy  the  point  whose  rect- 
angular coordinates  are  x,  y,  the  series  will  be  absolutely  con- 
vergent for  any  point  whatever  inside  or  on  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  circle  having  the  origin  for  centre  and  its  radius 
=  R.  The  origin  is  of  course  an  arbitrary  point.  Or,  what 
is  the  same  thing,  instead  of  a  series  in  powers  of  z,  we 
may  consider  a  series  in  powers  of  ^  -  c  (where  c  is  a  given 
imaginary  value  =a  +  [ii).  Starting  from  the  series,  we 
may  within  the  aforesaid  limit  of  absolute  convergency  con- 
sider the  series  as  the  definition  of  a  function  of  the  vari- 
able z ;  in  particular  the  series  may  be  absolutely  conver- 
gent for  every  finite  value  of  the  modulus,  and  we  have  then 
a  function  defined  for  every  finite  value  whatever  x  +  iy  of 
the  variable.  Conversely,  starting  from  a  given  function 
of  the  variable,  we  may  inquire-  under  what  conditions  it 
admits  of  expansion  in  a  series  of  powers  of  z  (or  z-  c\ 
and  seek  to  determine  the  expansion  of  the  function  in  a 
series  of  this  form.  But  in  all  this,  however,  we  are  tra- 
velling out  of  the  theory  of  scries  into  the  general  theory 
of  functions. 

23.  Considering  the  modulusr  as  a  given  quantity  and  the 
several  powers  of  r  as  included  in  the  coeflScients,  the  com- 
ponent series  are  of  the  forms  a^  -^  a^cos  ^  -I-  a^cos  2^  + . . 
and  c(iSin<jl)  +  a2sin2</>-t-.  .  respectively.  The"  theory  of 
these  trigonometrical  or  multiple  sine  and  cosine  series, 
and  of  the  development,  under  proper  conditions,  of  an 
arbitrary  function  in  series  of  these  forms,  constitutes  an 
important  and  interesting  branch  of  analysis. 

24.  In  the  case  of  a  real  variable  z,  we  may  have  a  series 
«(,  +  a-^z  +  a,^' . . ,  where  the  series  a^  -(-  «j  +  Oj . .  is  a  diver- 
gent series  of  decreasing  positive  terms  (or  as  a  limiting  case 
where  this  series  is  1  -f  1  -t- 1  . .).  For  a  value  of  z  inferior 
but  indefinitely  near  to  ±1,  say  z=±(l  -t),  where  t  is 
indefinitely  small  and  positive,  the  series  will  be  convergent 
and  have  a  determinate  sum  </>(-'),  and  we  may  write  <^(  ±  1) 
to  denote  the  limit  of  </>(  ±  (1  -  f) )  as  f  diminishes  to  zero  ; 
but  unless  the  series  be  convergent  for  the  value  j=  ±  1 
it  cannot  for  this  valuo  have  a  sum,  nor  consequently  a 

sum  =  <^(  ±  1).    For  instance,  let  the  series  be  « -(•  ^  +  -  . . , 

which  for  values  of  z  between  the  limits  ±  1  (both 
limits  excluded)  =  -log(l  -z).  For  j  =  -I- 1  the  series  is 
divergent  and  has  no  sura;  but  for  j—l  -<  as  t  dimi- 
nishes to  zero  wc  havo  -  log  t  and  (1  -  c)  -f-  ,^(1  -  «)*> . . 
each  positive  dnd  increasing  without  limit;  for  »«i  -  1 
the  series  l~2  +  a~i'*'*  convergent,  and  we  havo  at 

XXI.  —  S6 


58S. 


S  E  R  —  S  E  Rr 


the  limit  log2  =  l-g  +  ^-l...  As  a  second  example- 
consider  the  series  \+z  +  z- . . ,  which  for  values  of  z  be- 
tween the  limits  ±  1  (both  limits  excluded)  =  y-^  •  For 
E  =  + 1,  the  series  is  divergent  and  has  no  sum ;  but  for 
s=  1  - e  as  £  diminishes  to  zero  we  have  -  and  1  +  (1  -  «) 

.+  (1  —  t)" . . ,  each  positive  and  increasing  without  limit ; 
for  z=  —1    the  series   is  divergent  and  has  no  sum ; 

the  equation  ^— ^  =  1  -  (1  -  «)  +  (1  -  e)^ . . .  is  true  for  any 

positive  value  of  c  however  small,  but  not  for  the  value 

£  =  0. 

The  foUomng  memoii's  and  works  may  be  consulted : — Caucliy, 
Cou,rs  d' Atuxlyse  de  V£cole  Polykchnique — part  i.,  Aiudysc 
Algibrique,  8vo,  Paris,  1821 ;  Abel,  "  Uutersuchuugen  iiber  die 

Reihe  1  +  yaJH :j — 5— ^»^  .  .  ,"  in  Crelle's  Journ.  dc  Math.,  vol.  i 

(1826)  pp.  211-239,  and  (Euvres  (French  ti-ans.),  vol.  L ;  De  Morgan, 
Treatise  cm  the  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus,  8vo,  London, 
1842;  Id.,  "On  Divergent  Series  and  various  Points  of  Analysis 
connected  with  them"  (1S44),  in  Camb.  Phil.  Trans.,  vol.  viii. 
(1849),  and  other  memoirs  in  Camh.  Phil.  Trans.  ;  Bertrand, 
"Regies  sur  la  Convergence  des  Series,"  in  Liouv.  Jouni.  de  Math., 
vol.  rii.  (1842)  pp.  35-54;  Cayley,  "On  the  Inverse  Elliptic 
Junctions,"  Camb.  Math.  Journ. ,  vol.  iv.  (1845)  pp.  257-277,  and 
"Jlemoire  sur  les  Fonctions  doublement  periodiq[ues,"  in  Liouv. 
Journ.  de  Math.,  vol.  x.  (1845)  pp.  385-420  (as  to  the  boundary 
for  a  doubly  infinite  series).;  Riemann,  "  Ueber  die  Darstellbarkeit 
einer  Function  durch  eine  trigonometrische  Reihe,"  in  Gott.  Abh., 
vol.  xiii.  (1S54),  and  Werke,  Leipsic,  1876,  pp.  213-253  (contains 
an  account  of  preceding  researches  by  Euler,  D'AIembert,  Fourier, 
Lejeune-Diricblet,  &c.);  Catalan,  Traiti  EUmaitaire  des  Series, 
Svo,  Paris,  1860;  Boole,  Treatise  on  the  Calculus  of  Finite  Differ- 
ences, 2d  ed.  by  Moulton,  Svo,  London,  1872.  (A.  0.) 

SERINGAPATAM,  formerly  the  capital  of  Jlysore, 
India,  is  situated  on  an  island  of  the  same  name  in  the 
Kaveri  (Cauvery)  river  in  12°  25'  33"  N.  lat.  and  76°  43' 
8'  E.  long.  It  is  chiefly  noted  for  its  fortress,  which 
figured  so  prominently  in  Indian  history  at  the  close  of  the 
18th  century.  This  formidable  stronghold  of  Tipu  Sultan 
thrice  sustained  a  siege  from  the  British,  but  it  was  finally 
stormed  in  1799 ;  and  after  its  capture  the  island  was 
ceded  to  the  British.  The  island  of  Seringapatam  is  about 
3  miles  in  length  from  east  to  west  and  1  in  breadth, 
and  yields  valuable  crops  of  rice* and  sugar-cane.  The 
fort  occupies  the  western  side  of  the  island,  immediately 
overhanging  the  river.  Seringapatam  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  in  1454  by  a  descendant  of  one  of  the  local 
oflBcers  appointed  by  EAm^nuja,  the  Tishnuite  apostle, 
who  named  it  the  city  of  Sri  Eanga  or  Vishnu.  At  the 
eastern  or  lower  end  of  the  island  is  the  Lai  Bagh  or  "  red 
garden,"  containing  the  mausoleum  built  by  Tipu  Sultan 
for  his  father  Hyder  Ali,  in  \\hich  Tipu  himself  also  lies. 
In  1881  the  population  of  the  town  of  Seringapatam  was 
11,734  (males  5579,  females  6155). 

SEEJEANT-AT-LAW  is  the  name  given  to  one  who 
holds  an  ancient  and  honourable  rank  at  the  English  or 
Irish  bar.  The  word  is  a  corruption  of  serviens  ad  legem, 
as  distinguished  from  apprenticiiis  ad  legem,  or  utter 
barrister,  who  probably  originally  obtained  his  knowledge 
of  law  by  serving  a  kind  of  apprenticeship  to  a  Serjeant. 
AMien  the  order  of  seijeants  was  instituted  is  imkno^vn, 
but  it  certainly  dates  from  a  very  remote  period.  The 
authority  of  Serjeant  counters  or  countors  (i.e.,  pleaders, 
those  who  frame  counts  in  pleading)  is  treated  in  the 
Mirror  of  Justices,  and  they  are  named  in  3  Edw.  I.  c.  29. 
They  may  possibly  have  been  the  representatives  of  the 
conteurs  mentioned  in  the  great  customary  of  Normandy. 
The  position  of  the  Serjeant  had  become  assured  when 
Chaucer  wrote.  One  of  the  characters  in  the  Canterbury 
Tales  is 


■  A  Serjeant  of  the  law,  wary  and- wise, 
That  often  had  y-been  at  the  parvis."' 

Serjeants  (except  king's  Serjeants)  were  created  by  writ  of 
summons  under  the  great  seal,  and  wore  a  special  and  dis- 
tinctive dress,  the  chief  feature  of  which  was  the  coif,  a 
white  lawn  or  silk  skull-cap,  now  represented  by  a  round 
piece  of  black  sUk  at  the  top  of  the  wig.  They  enjoyed 
a  social  precedence  after  knights  bachelors  and  before 
companions  of  the  Bath  and  other  orders.  In  this  they 
differed  from  queen's  counsel,  who  have  simply  professional 
as  distinguished  from  social  rank. .  Socially  the  Serjeant 
had  precedence,  professionally  the  queen's  counsel,  unless 
indeed,  as  was  often  the  case,  a  patent  of  precedence  was 
granted  to  the  former.  Till  past  the  middle  of  the  19th 
century,  a  limited  number  of  the  Serjeants  were  called 
"king's  (queen's)  Serjeants."  They  were  appointed  by 
patent  and  summoned  to  parliament.  Until  1814  the  two 
senior  king's  Serjeants  had  precedence  of  even  the  attorney- 
general  and  solicitor-general.  It  was  the  custom  for 
Serjeants  on  their  appointment  to  give  gold  rings  with 
mottoes  to  their  colleagues.  Down  to  1845  the  order  en- 
joyed a  very  valuable  monopoly  of  practice.  The  Serjeants 
had  the  right  of  exclusive  audience  as  leading  counsel  in 
the  Court  of  Common  Pleas.  In  1834  a  royal  mandate 
of  William  IV.  attempted  to  abolish  this  privilege,  but  in 
1 840  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy  council  declared 
the  mandate  informal  and  invalid.  The  monopoly  was 
finally  abolished  in  1845  by  Act  of  Parliament  (9  and  10 
Vict.  c.  54).  For  at  least  600  years  the  judges  of  the 
superior  courts  of  common  law  were  always  Serjeants.  If 
a  judge  was  appointed  who  was  not  a  serjeant  at  the  time 
of  his  appointment,  he  was  formaUy  created  one  immedi- 
ately before  his  elevation  to  the  bench.  B)'  the  Judicature 
Act,  1873,  sect.  8,  no  person  appointed  a  judge  of  the  High 
Court  of  Justice  or  the  Court  of  Appeal  is  required  to  take 
or  have  taken  the  degree  of  serjeant-at-law.  The  Serjeants 
had  their  own  inn  of  court  down  to  a  very  recent  date. 
Serjeants'  Inn  was  formerly  in  two  divisions,  one  in  Fleet 
Street  and  one  in  Chancery  Lane.  In  1758  the  members 
of  the  former  joined  the  latter.  In  1877  the  latter  was 
dissolved,  the  inn  sold  to  one  of  the  members,  and  the 
proceeds  divided  among  the  existing  Serjeants.  The  extinc- 
tion of  the  order  is  now  only  a  question  of  time,  no  serjeant 
having  been  created  since  1868.  It  is,  however,  still  with- 
in the  discretion  of  the  crown  to  create  fresh  Serjeants  if 
ever  it  should  be  deemed  advisable  to  do  so.  In  Ireland 
the  order  stUl  exists.  The  three  Serjeants  at  the  Irish  bar 
have  precedence  next  after  the  law  officers  of  the  crown. 

See  Scrviens  ad  Legem,  by  Mr  Serjeant  Manning ;  The  Order  0/ 
the  Coif,  by  Mr.  Serjeant  Fulliiig. 

SEEJEANTY,  a  form  of  tenure.     See  Eeal  Estate. 

SEEPENT,  a  musical  instrument.  ,  See  Ophicleide, 
vol.  xvii.  p.  778. 

SEEPENTINE,  a  compact  crypto-crystaUine  or  fibrous 
mineral  substance,  occurring  in  rock-masses  which  com- 
monly present  dark  green  colours,  variously  mottled  and 
fancifully  compared  to  the  markings  on  certain  serpents, 
whence  the  name  "serpentine."  For  a  like  reason  it  is  some- 
times called  "  ophite,"  while  Italian  sculptors  have  termed 
it  "ranocchia,"  in  allusion  to  its  resemblance  to  the  skin  of  a 
frog.  .  In  consequence  of  its  variegated  tints,  the  stone  is 
frequently  cut  and  polished  for  ornamental  purposes,  and 
is  hence  popularly  called  a  marble.  From  true  marble, 
however,  it  differs  in  chemical  composition,  being  essen- 
tially a  hydrated  silicate  of  magnesium,  usually  associated 
with  certain  metallic  oxides  (such  as  those  of  iron,  nickel, 
and  chromium)  which  confer  upon  the  stone  its  character- 
istic  tints.      In   some   localities  serpentine  is  found  in 


'  The  parvis  was  the  porch  of  old  St  Paul's,  where  each  serjeant 
had  his  particular  pillar  at  which  he  held  interviews  with  his  clients.  . 


S  E  R  — S  E  R 


683 


masses  which  are  evidently  intrusive  among  other  rocks, 
while  elsewhere  it  occurs  interbedded,  usually  in  lenticular 
masses,  associated  with  gneiss  and  crystalline  schists.  It 
is  noteworthy  that  the  serpentine  is  frequently  crushed 
and  brecciated,  exhibiting  polished  slip-faces  which  are 
sometimes  striated.  The  surface  of  an  exposed  mass  of 
serpentine  is  generaUy  barren,  whence  bosoes  of  the  rock 
are  known  in  the  Alps  as  "  monts  morts."  The  origin  of 
serpentine  has  been  si  subject  of  much  dispute.  It  was 
pointed  out  by  Sandberger  and  Tschermak  that  the  altera- 
tion of  olivine  may  give  rise  to  this  product,  and  pseudo- 
morphs  of  serpentine  after  chrysolite  are  well  known  to 
mineralogists.  Professor  Bonney  and  many  other  geo- 
logists regard  serpentine  as  being  generally  an  altered 
eruptive  rock,  due  to  the  hydration  of  peridotites,  such  as 
Iherzolite ;  probably  it  may  also  result  from  the  decom- 
position of  olivine-gabbro  and  other  rocks  rich  in  mag- 
nesian  silicates.  Augite  and  hornblende  may  become 
altered  to  serpentine.  On  the  contrary,  Dr  Sterry  Hunt 
and  certain  other  chemical  geologists  believe  that  serpentine 
has  generally  been  formed  as  an  aqueous  sediment,  prob- 
ably precipitated  by  the  reaction 'of  sulphate  or  chloride 
of  magnesium  upon  the  siligate  of  lime  or  alkaline  silicates 
derived  from  the  disintegration  of  crystalline  rocks  and 
found  in  solution  in  many  natural  waters.  Serpentine  is 
a  rock  of  rather  limited  occurrence.  Its  principal  localities 
in  England  are  Cornwall,  especially  in  the  Lizard  district, 
where  it  occupies  a  considerable  area.  The  famous  scenery 
of  KjTiance  Cove  owes  much  of  its  beauty  to  the  vivid 
colours  and  brilliant  surface  of  the  serpentine.  The  rock 
is  worked  into  vases,  columns,  mantelpieces,  &c.,  and  of 
late  years  has  been  used  to  a  limited  extent  for  the  deco- 
ration of  shop-fronts  in  London.  The  beauty  of  the  Lizard 
rock  is  heightened  by  the  white  veins  of  steatite  which 
traverse  it,  and  in  some  cases  by  disseminated  crystals  of 
bastite,  which  glisten  with  metallic  lustre.  Much  of  the 
Lizard  serpentine  is  of  rich  red  and  bro-n-n  colour.  Green 
serpentine  is  found  near  Holyhead  in  Anglesea.  A  singu- 
larly beautiful  variety  of  mottled  red  and  green  tints,  with 
veins  of  steatite,  occurs  near  Portsoy  in  Banffshire,  Scot- 
land. It  is  also  found  with  chrome  iron  ore  in  the  Shetland 
Islands.  The  green  serpentine  of  Galway  occui"s  in  inti- 
mate association  with  crystalline  limestone,  forming  the  rock 
known  as  "ophicalcite"  or  "serpentinous  marble."  Such  an 
association  is  by  no  means  uncommon ;  but,  though  the 
beauty  of  the  serpentine  may  thus  be  enhanced,  its  dura- 
bility seems  to  bo  impaired.  On  exposure  to  the  weather 
the  carbonate  of  calcium  decomposes  more  readily  than  the 
silicate  of  magnesium,  and  hence  the'  stone  soon  presents 
a  rough  eroded  surface.  The  Galway  rock  comes  into  the 
market  under  the  name  of  "  Irish  green  "  or.  "  Connemara 
marble."  Ophicalcites  also  occur  in  A}T:shire,  Scotland, 
and  in  various  pairts  of  the  Scottish  Highlands;  and  the 
green  pebbles  found  in  lona  belong  to  this  t3'pe  of  rock. 

On  the  Continent  serpentines  are  largely  worked  at 
Zoblitz  and  at  Waldhcim  in  Saxony.  The  famous  rock 
of  Zobliti,  mentioned  by  Agricola,  is  known  to  have  been 
wrought  for  between  threo  and  four  centuries,  and  is  still 
extensively  explored  by  open  quarries  and  by  subterranean 
galleries.  The  rock  usually  presents  various  shades  of 
green  and  brown,  red  being  very  rare ;  but  its  most  in- 
teresting feature  is  the  frequent  presence  of  pyrope,  or 
Bohemian  garnet,  which  occurs  scattered  through  the  rock 
in  dark  red  grains,  that  decompose  on  weathering  to  a  green 
chloritic  product.  Very  little  of  the  Zoblitz  serpentine 
cornea  to  England,  but  it  is  common  throughout  Germany, 
and  a  good  deal  is  sent  to  Rhssia  and  even  to  the  United 
States.  It  has  been  used  in  the  construction  of  the  mauso- 
leum of  Prince  Albert  at  Frogmore,  and  for  Abraham  Lin- 
coln's monument  at  Springfield,  Illinois.     The  best  known 


01  the  Italian  serpentines  is  the  "verde  Prato,"  which 
has  been  quarried  for  centuries  at  Monteferrato,  near 
Prato  in  Tuscany.  According  to  Capacci  this  serpentine 
is  probably  of  Eocene  age.  It  has  been  largely  used  as  a 
decorative  stone  in  ecclesiastical  architecture  in  Prato, 
Pistoia,  and  Florence.  A  good  deal  of  serpentine  is  found 
near  Genoa  and  Levanto.  The  "verde  di  Pegli"  is  ob- 
tained from  Pegli,  not  far  from  Genoa,  while  the  "verde 
di  Geneva "  is  a  brecciated  serpentinous  limestone  from 
Pietra  Lavezzara.  Serpentine  also  occurs  at  various  other 
points  of  the  Apennines,  in  Elba,  and  in  Corsica.  The 
term  "  ophiolite  "  has  been  vaguely  used  to  include  not  only 
serpentines  but  many  of  the  rocks  associated  with  the 
Italian  serpentines.  In  like  manner  the  term  "gabbro," 
derived  from  a  locality  near  Leghorn,  was  at  one  time  used 
as  a  general  name  for  serpentine  and  its  associates,  though 
now  usually  restricted  to  a  rock  composed  essentially  of 
plagioclase  and  diallage.  It  is  notable  that  this  true  gab- 
bro is  often  found  in  company  with  serpentine. 

Serpentine  is  found  in  numerous  localities  in  the  Alps 
and  in  France.  An  elegant  variety  is  quarried  at  Epinal 
in  the  Vosges,  and  a  beautiful  ophicalcite  is  worked  at  St 
V6ran  and  Maurins,  in  the  department  of  Hautes-Alpes. 
The  serpentine  of  the  Eonda  Slountains  in  Spain  has 
been  described  by  Mr  J.  Macpherson.  In  North  America 
serpentine  is  so  extensively  distributed  that  only  a  few 
localities  can  be  mentioned.  It  is  found  at  Syracuse  in 
New  York;  on  Manhattan  and  Staten  Islands;  at  Hobo- 
keu  in  Kew  Jersey  ;  at  Newport,  Ehode  Island ;  at  New- 
buryport,  Massachusetts ;  at  Westchester,  Chester  county, 
and  at  Texas,  Lancaster  county,  in  Pennsylvania.  It  also 
occurs  between  Clear  Lake  and  New  Idrea  in  California. 
A  fine  ophicalcite  has  been  obtained  frorn  near  Milford  and 
New  Haven  in  Connecticut,  and  a  beautiful  variety  has  been 
worked  at  Port  Henry,  Esses  county.  New  York  (Dana). 
The  Canadian  eozooa  occurs  in  a  serpentinous  limestone. 

See  Geology,  vol.  x.  pp.  228,  232 ;  JIarble,  vol.  xv.  p.  528  ;  ar.d 
JIiNERALOGY,  vol.  svL  p.  414.  The  literature,  of  the  Italian-  and 
Saxon  serpentines  is  rather  voluminous.  Of  recent  English  writings 
ofl  serpentine  reference  may  be  made  to  Bonney,  in  Quart.  Jaurn. 
Geol.  Soc,  London,  xxxiii.  p.  884,  x.xxiv.  p.  769,  xxxvii.  p.  40, 
xxxix.  p.  21,  and  in  Gcol.  Mac/.,  [2]  ri.  p.  862,  [3]  I  p.  406  ; 
and  to  ColUns,  Quart.  Journ.  Gcol.  H'cc,  xl.  p.  458,  and  Gcol. 
Mag.,  [3]  ii.  p.  298.  Sterry  Hunt  has  viiiton  an  elaborate  paper 
in  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Canada,  1883,  sect.  iv.  pp.  165-215.  See  also 
TeaU,  Erilish  Pctrogravhij.  1886,  and  Becker,  in  Anicr.  Journ.  of 
Science,  May  1886.  (F.  W.  K*.) 

SERPENTS.    See  Snakes." 

SEKPUKHOFF,  a  district  town  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Moscow,  61  miles  south  of  the  city  of  Moscow,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  rail.  Built  on  high  cliffs  on  both 
banks  of  the  river  Nara,  3  miles  above  its  junction  with 
the  Oka,  Serpukhoff  has  of  late  become  an  important 
manufacturing  and  commercial  town.  The  aggregate  pro- 
duction of  its  manufactories  (cotton  and  woollen  stuffs, 
paper,  leather),  which  employ  about  4000  hands,  in  1880 
was  valued  at  about  X300,000.  The  surrounding  district 
has  several  large  cotton  and  woollen  factories,  with  a 
yearly  output  worth  about  £1,000,000.  Petty  trades 
are  also  much  developed  in  the  neighbojuhood, — textile 
fabrics,  furniture,  and  earthenware  and  porcelain  being 
produced  by  the  peasantry.  The  manufactured  goods  of 
Serpukhoff  are  sent — mostly  by  rail — to  the  fairs  of  Nijni- 
Novgorod  and  the  Ukraine,  while  largo  amounts  of  grain, 
hemp,  and  timber,  brought  from  the  cast  on  the  Oka,  aru 
discharged  at  Serpukhoff  and  sent  on  to  Moscow  and  ISt 
Petersburg.  The  goods  trnlBc  by  rail  and  river  showed 
in  1880  an  aggregato  of  6,400,000  cwts.  (exclusive  of 
timber  floated  down  the  Oka).  Notwithstanding  its  recent 
prosperity  and  tho  sums  bequeathed  to  the  municipality 
by  wealthy  merchants,  Serpulihoff  improves  but  slowlj. 
The catliedral  (1380)  was  rebuilt  in  the  18th  century;  of 


♦^84 


S  E  R  — S  E  R 


the  old  fortress,  situated  on  a  promontory  formed  by  a  bend 
of  the  Nara,  a  few  heaps  of  stones  are  the  only  remains. 
The  population  in  1884  was  22,420. 

Serpukhoff  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of  the  principality  of 
Moscow ;  it  is  mentioned  in  the  will  of  Ivan  Daislovicfi  (1328), 
Et  which  time  it  was  a  nearly  independent  principality  under  the 
protcctorato  of  Moscow.  Its  fortress,  protecting  Moscow  on  the 
south,  was  often  attacked  by  the  Tatars  ;  Toktamiah  plundered  it 
in  1382,  and  the  Lithuanian  prince  Svidrigaito  in  1410.  In  1556 
the  town  was  strongly  fortified,  so  that  fifteen  years  later  it  was  able 
to  resist  the  Mongol  invasion.  Its  commercial  importance  dates 
from  the  18th  century. 

SEKTORIUS,  QuTNTUs.  The  life  and  career  of  the 
Eoman  Sertorius,  am  of  remarkable  genius  both  as  a 
general  and  as  a  statesLian,  may  be  said  to  be  comprised 
between  the  years  105  and  72  B.C.,  a  period  of  civil  war 
and  revolution  in  the  Roman  world,  when  every  man  of 
any  mark  had  to  be  an  adherent  either  of  Sulla  or  of 
Marius.  Sertorius,  who  came  from  a  little  Sabine  village 
under  the  Apennines  and  was  a  self-made  man,  attached 
himself  to  the'  party  of  the  latter,  and  served  under  him 
in  102  B.C.  at  the  great  battle  of  Aquae  Sextise  (Aii),  in 
which  the  Teutones  were  decisively  defeated.  Three  years 
before  he  had  witnessed  the  rout  of  a  Roman  army  by  the 
Cimbri  on  the  Rhone.  In  97  he  was  serving  in  Spain  and 
thus  had  a  good  opportunity  of  making  himself  acquainted 
with  the  country  with  which  his  fame  is  chiefly  associated. 
In  91  he  was  quaestor  in  Cisalpine  Gaul,  and  on  his  retm-n 
to  Rome  he  met  with  such  a  hearty  welcome  that  he  would 
have  been  elected  to  the  tribuneship  but  for  the  decided 
opposition  of  SuUa.  He  now  declared  himself  for  Marius 
and  the  democratic  party,  though  of  Marius  himself  as  a 
man  he  had  the  worst  opinion.  He  must  have  been  a  con- 
senting party  to  those  hideous  massacres  of  Marius  and 
O'nna  in  87,  though  he  seems  to  have  done  what  he  could 
to  mitigate  their  horrors  by  putting  a  stop  to  the  outrages 
perpetrated  by  the  scum  of  Marius's  soldiery.  On  Sulla.'s 
return  from  the  East  and  the  war  with  Mithradates  in  83, 
Sertorius  left  Rome  for  Spain,  where  he  represented  the 
Marian  or  democratic  party,  but,  it  would  appear,  without 
receiving  any  definite  commission  or  appointment.  Here 
»id  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life,  with  the  ezception 
of  some  cruises  in  the  Mediterranean  in  conjunction  with 
Cilician  pirates,  and  of  a  campaign  in  Mauietania,  in  which 
he  defeated  one  of  Sulla's  generals  and  captured  Tingis 
(Tatigier).  This  success  recommended  him  to  the  Spaniards, 
more  particularly  to  the  Lusitanian  tribes  in  the  west,  whom 
Roman  generals  and  governors  of  Sulla's  party  had  plun- 
dered and  oppressed.  Brave  and  kindly  and  gifted  with 
a  rough  telling  eloquence,  Sertorius  was  just  the  man  to 
impress  Spaniards  favourably,  and  the  native  mihtia,  which 
he  organized,  spoke  of  him  as  the  "new  Hannibal."  Many 
Roman  refugees  and  deserters  joined  him,  and  with  these 
and  his  Spanish  volunteers  he  completely  defeated  one  of 
Sulla's  generals  and  drove  MeteUus,  who  had  been  specially 
sent  against  him  from  Rome,  out  of  Lusitania,  or  Further 
Spain  as  the  Romans  called  it.  Sertorius  owed  much  of 
bis  success  to  his  statesmanlike  ability,  and  it  seems  that 
he  aspired  to  be  in  Spain  what  the  great  .Agricola  after- 
wards was  in  Britain.  His  obje*;t  was  to  build  up  a  stable 
government  in  the  country  with  the  consent  and  co-opera- 
tion of  the  people,  whom  he  wished  to  civilize  after  the 
Latin  model.  He  established  a  senate  of  300  members, 
■Irawnfrom  Koman  emigrants,  with  probably  a  sprinkling 
of  the  best  Spaniards.  For  the  children  of  the  chief  native 
i'araUies  he  provided  a  school  at  Osca  (Huesca),  where  they 
received  a  Roman  education  and  even  adopted  the  dress 
of  Roman  youths.  Strict  and  severe  as  be  was  with  his 
soldiers,  he  was  particularly  considerate  to  the  people 
generally  and  made  their  burdens  as  light  as  possible.  It 
seems  clear  that  he  had  a  peculiar  gift  for  evoking  the 


enthusiasm  of  rude  tribes,  and  we  can  well  understand 
how  the  famous  white  fawn,  which  was  his  constant  com- 
panion, may  have  promoted  his  popularity.  For  six  years 
he  may  be  said  to  have  really  ruled  Spain.  In  77  he  was 
joined  by  Perpenna,  one  of  the  officers  of  Lepidus,  from 
Rome,  with  a  following  of  Roman  nobles,  and  in  the  same 
year  the  great  Pompey,  then  quite  a  young  man  and  merely 
a  knight,  was  sent  by  the  senate  to  take  the  command  in 
Spain  and  with  Metellus  to  crush  Sertorius.  The  war  was 
waged  with  varying  success,  but  on  the  whole  Sertorius 
proved  himself  more  than  a  match  for  his  adversaries, 
utterly  defeating  their  united  forces  on  one  occasion  near 
Saguntum.  Pompey  wrote  to  Rome  for  reinforcements, 
without  which,  he  said,  he  and  Metellus  would  be  driven 
out  of  Spain.  Rome's  position  was  very  critical,  the  more 
so  as  Sertorius  was  in  league  with  the  pirates  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, was  negotiating  with  the  formidable  Mithradates, 
and  was  in  communication  with  the  insurgent  slaves  in 
Italy.  But  o^ving  to  jealousies  among  the  Roman  oflScers 
who  served  under  him  and  the  Spaniards  of  higher  rank 
he  could  not  maintain  his  position,  and  his  influence  over 
the  native  tribes  slipped  away  from  him,  though  he  won  vic- 
tories to  the  last.  In  72  he  was  assassinated  at  a  banquet, 
Perpenna,  it  seems,  being  the  chief  instigator  of  the  deed. 
What  'we  know  of  Sertorius  is  mainly  dra%vn  from  Plutarch's 
Lives,  from  Appian,  and  from  the  fragments  of  SaUust.  There  is 
a  good  life  of  him  by  G.  Long  in  Smith's  Class.  Diet. 

SERVANT.     See  Master  Am)  Servant. 

SERVETUS,  MicHAEt,or  MiguexServeto  (1 511-1 553), 
physician  and  polemic,  was  born  in  1511  ^  at  Tudela  in 
Navarre  (according  to  his  Vienne  deposition),  his  father 
being  Hernando  ViUanueva,  a  notary  of  good  family  in 
Aragon.  His  surname  is  given  by  himself  as  Serveto  in 
his  earliest  works,  "  per  Michaelem  Serueto,  alias  Reues." 
Later  he  Latinized  it  into  Servetus,  and  even  when  writing 
in  French  (1553)  ho  signs  "Michel  Seruetus."^  It  is  not 
certain  that  he  was  related  to  his  contemporary  Andrfes 
Serveto  of  AniSon,  the  Bologna  jurist ;  but  it  is  probable 
that  he  was  of  the  same  famUy  as  the  Spanish  ecclesiastic 
Marco  Antonio  Serveto  de  Reves  (d.  1598),  born  at  Villa- 
nueva  de  Sigena  in  the  diocese  of  Huesca  (Latassa,  Biblio- 
teca  Nueva,  1798,  i.  609).  Servetus,  who  at  Geneva  makes 
"  Villeneufve  "  his  birthplace,  fixes  it  in  the  adjoining  dio- 
cese  of  Lerida,  in  which  there  are  three  villages  named 
VUanova.  Having  apparently  had  his  early  training  at  the 
university  of  Saragossa,  he  was  sent  by  his  father  to  study 
law  at  Toulouse,  where  he  first  became  acquainted  with  the 
Bible  (1528).  From  1525  he  had  foimd  a  patron  in  Juan 
de  QuintaSa  (d.  1534),  a  Franciscan  promoted  in  1530  to 
be  confessor  to  Charles  V.  In  the  train  of  Quintana  he 
witnessed  at  Bologna  the  coronation  of  Charles  in  February 
1530,  visited  Augsburg,  and  perhaps  saw  Luther  at  Coburg, 
The  spectacle  of  the  adoration  of  the  pope  at  Bologna  had 
strongly  impressed  his  mind  in  an  anti-papal  direction. 
He  left  Quintana,  and,  after  visiting  Lyons  and  Geneva, 
repaired  to  CEcolampadius  at  Basel,  whence  he  pushed  on 
to  Bucer  and  Capito  at  Strasburg.  A  crude,  but  very 
original  and  earnest,  theological  essay,  De  Trinitatis  Errori- 
bus,  printed  at  Hagenau  in  1531,  attracted  considerable 
attention ;  Melanchthon  writes  "  Servetum  multum  lego.'' 
It  was  followed  in  1532  by  a  revised  presentation  of  its 
argument.  We  next  find  Servetus  at  Lyons,  in  1535,  as 
an  editor  of  scientific  works  for  the  printing  firm  of  Trechsel, 
under  the  name  of  Michel  de  Villeneufve  or  Michael  ViUa- 
novanus,  which  he  used  without  interruption  till  the  year 

'  This  date  rests  upon  his  .own  testimony  as  to  his  age  (both  at 
Vienne  and  Geneva)  and  that  of  Calvin.  An  isolated  passage  of  his 
Geneva  testL-aony  may  be  adduced  in  support  of  1509. 

"  The  form  "  Servet "  first  appears  in  a  letter  of  CEcolampadius  to  the 
senate  of  Basel  (1531),  and  is  never  used  by  himself.  "Servede"  is 
au  imaginary  form. 


S  E  R  V  E  T  U  S 


685 


of  his  death.  Here  he  found  a  friend  in  Dr  Symphorien 
Champier  (Campegins)  (1472-1539),  whose  profession  he 
resolved  to  foUow.  Accordingly  he  went  (1536)  to  Paris, 
where  he  studied  medicine  under  Johann  Gilnther,  Jacques 
Dubois,  and  Jean  Fernel.  It  was  in  1536,  when  Calvin 
was  on  a  hurried  and  final  visit  to  France,  that  he  first 
met  Servetus  at  Paris,  and,  as  he  himself  says,  proposed 
to  set  him  right  in  theological  matters.*  As  assistant  to 
Giinther,  Servetus  succeeded  the  famous  anatomist  Ves- 
alius  ;  Giinther,  who  pays  the  highest  tribute  to  his  general 
culture,  describes  him  as  specially  skilled  in  dissection  and 
"  vix  ulli  secundus  "  in  knowledge  of  Galen.  He  gradu- 
ated in  arts  and  asserts  that  he  also  graduated  in  medicine, 
published  a  set  of  lectures  on  syrups  (the  most  popular  of 
his  works),  lectured  on  geometry  and  astrology,  and  de- 
fended by  counsel  a  suit  brought  against  him  (March  1538) 
by  the  medical  faculty  on  the  ground  of  his  astrological 
lectures.  In  June  1538  we  find  him  at  the  university  of 
Louvain  (where  he  was  inscribed  on  the  roll  of  students  as 
Michael  Villanova  on  14th  December  1537),  studying 
theology  and  Hebrew,  explaining  to  hia  father  (then  resi- 
dent at  San  Gil)  his  removal  from  Paris,  early  in  Septem- 
ber 1537,  as  a  consequence  of  the  death  (8th  August)  of 
his  master  (el  senor  mi  maestro),  and  proposing  to  return 
to  Paris  as  soon  as  peace  was  proclaimed.  After  this  he 
practised  medicine  for  a  short  time  at  Avignon,  and  for  a 
longer  period  at  CharHeu  (where  he  contemplated  marriage, 
but  was  deterred  by  a  physical  impediment).  In  Septem- 
ber 1540  he  entered  himself  for  further  study  in  the  medi- 
cal school  at  Montpellier.  In  1541  he  resumed  editorial 
work  for  the  Lyons  booksellers,  to  whose  neighbourhood 
he  had  returned. 

Among  the  attendants  upon  his  Paris  lectures  had  been 
a  distinguished  ecclesiastic,  Pierre  Paulmier,  since  1528 
archbishop  of  Vienne.  Paulmier  invited  Servetus  to  Vienne 
OS  his  confidential  physician.  He  acted  in  this  capacity  for 
twelve  years  (1541-53),  and  made  money.  Outwardly  he 
conformed  to  Roman  Catholic  worship  ;  in  private  he  pur- 
sued his  theological  speculations.  It  is  probable  that  in 
1541  he  had  been  rebaptized.  He  opened  a  correspondence 
with  Calvin,  and  late  in  1545,  or  very  early  in  1546,  he 
forwarded  to  Calvin  the  manuscript  of  a  revised  and  en- 
larged edition  of  his  theological  tracts,  and  expressed  a 
wish  to  visit  him  at  Geneva.  Calvin  replied  on  23d  Febru- 
ary 1546,  in  a  letter  which  is  lost,  but  in  which,  he  says, 
he  expressed  himself  "plus  durement  que  ma  coustume 
ne  porte."  On  the  same  day  ho  wrote  to  Guillaumo 
Farel,  "si  venerit,  modo  valeat  mea  autoritas,  vivum  exire 
nunquam  patiar,"  and  to  Pierre  Viret  in  the  same  terms. 
Servetus  had  fair  warning  that  if  he  went  to  Geneva  it 
was  at  his  peril.  In  his  letter  to  Abel  Pouppin  (in  or 
about  1547),  after  stating  that  he  had  failed  to  recover  his 
manuscript  from  Calvin,  he  says,  "  mihi  ob  earn  rem  mori- 
endum  esse  certo  scio."  The  volume  of  theological  tracts, 
again  recast,  was  declined  by  a  Basel  publisher  in  April 
1552,  but  an  edition  of  1000  copies  was  secretly  printed 
at  Vienne.  It  was  finished  on  3d  January  1 553 ;  the 
bulk  of  the  impression  was  privately  consigned  to  Lyons 
and  Frankfort,  for  the  Easter  market.  But  on  2Gth 
February  a  letter,  enclosing  a  sheet  of  the  printed  bonk, 
and  revealing  the  secret  of  its  authorship,  was  written  from 
Geneva  by  Guillaume  H.  C.  do  Tryo,  formerly  echevin  of 
Lyons,  to  his  cousin  Antoine  Arneys  in  that  city.  This 
letter  bears  no  sign  of  dictation  by  Calvin  ;  tlie  history  of 
Da  Trye  shows  that  it  may  have  been  instigated  in  part  by 
personal  ill-feeling  towards  the  Lyons  booksellers.  But 
Calvin  furnished  (reluctantly,  according  to  De  Trye)  the 
samples  of  Servetus's  handwriting  enclosed  in  a  subsequent 
letter,  for  the  express  purpose  of  securing  his  conviction. 
'  Beza  incorrectly  nukes  ScrvetuB  tUo  cbaUcngor  and  the  date  1&34. 


The  inquisitor-general  at  Lyons,  Matthieu  Ory,  set  to 
work  on  "2th  March;  Servetus  was  interrogated  on  16th 
March  and  arrested  on  4th  April.  Under  examination 
his  defence  was  that,  in  correspondence  with  Calvin,  he 
had  assumed  the  character  of  Servetus  for  purposes  of  dis- 
cussion. At  4  A.M.  on  7th  April  he  escaped  from  his 
prison,  evidently  by  connivance.  He  took  the  road  for 
Spain,  but  turned  back  in  fear  of  arrest.  How  he  spent 
the  next  fow  months  is  not  known ;  Calvin  believed  he 
was  wandering  in  Italy ;  the  idea  that  he  lay  concealed 
in  Geneva  was  first  started  by  Spon.  On  Saturday  12th 
August  he  rode  into  Louyset,  a  village  on  the  French  side 
of  Geneva.  Next  morning  he  walked  into  Geneva,  and 
ordered  a  boat,  to  take  him  towards  Zurich  on  his  way 
for  Naples.  He  was  recognized  that  day  at  church  and 
immediately  arrested.  The  •  process  against  him  lasted 
from  14th  August  to  26th  October,  when  sentence  "estre 
brusle  tout  vyfz  "  was  passed,  and  carried  out  next  day  at 
Champel  (27!,h  October  1553).  Calvin  would  have  had 
him  beheaded.  Meanwhile  the  civil  tribunal  at  Vienne 
had  ordered  (17th  June)  that  he  be  fined  and  burned  alive ; 
the  sentence  of  the  ecclesiastical  tribunal  at  Vienne  was 
delayed  till  23d  December.  Jacques  Charmier,  a  priest 
in  Servetus's  confidence,  was  condemned  to  three  years' 
imprisonment  at  Vienne.  The  life  of  Servetus  is  full  of 
puzzles ;  his  writings  give  the  impression  not  only  of  quick 
genius  but  also  of  transparent  sincerity ;  they  throw,  how- 
ever, little  light  on  the  mysterious  parts  of  his  story.  Don 
Pedro  Gonzalez  de  Velasco  (see  his  Miguel  Servet,  1880) 
has  placed  a  statue  of  Servetus  in  the  porch  of  the  Insti- 
tuto  Antropologico  at  Madrid. 

The  opinions  of  Servetus,  marked  by  strong  individuality,  are 
not  easily  described  in  the  terms  of  anv  current  system.  Hia  ana- 
baptism,  with  his  denial  of  the  tripersonality  of  the  Godhead  and 
of  the  eternity  of  the  Son,  made  his  views  abhorrent  to  Catholics 
and  Protestants  alike ;  while  his  intense  Biblicism,  his  passionate 
devotion  to  the  person  of  Christ,  and  the  essentially  Chnstocentric 
character  of  his  view  of  the  universe  give  him  an  almost  unique 
place  in  the  history  of  religious  thought.  He  is  sometimes  classed 
with  the  Arians  ;  but  he  endorses  in  his  own  way  the  homoousiap 
formula,  and  speaks  contemptuously  of  Arius  as  *  Christi  gloriie 
incapacissimus.  Ho  has  had  many  critics,  some  apologists  (e.g., 
Postel  and  Lincurius),  and  few  followers.  The  fifteen  condemnatory 
clauses,  introducing  the  sentence  of  Servetus  at  Geneva,  set  forth 
in  detail  that  he  had  been  found  guilty  of  licresies,  expressed  in 
blasphemous  language,  against  the  true  foundation  of  the  Ciiristian 
religion.  It  is  curious  that  one  instance  of  his  injurious  language 
is  his  employment  of  the  term  "  trinitaires  "  to  denote  "ceux  qui 
croyent  en  la  Trinite. "  No  law,  current  in  Geneva,  has  ever  been 
adduced  as  enacting  the  capital  sentence.  Claude  Rigot,  the  pro- 
cureur-general,  examined  Servetus  with  a  view  to  show  that  his 
legal  education  must  have  familiarized  him  with  the  provisions  of 
the  code  of  Justinian  to  this  effect ;  but  ip  1535  all  the  old  laws  on 
the  subject  of  religion  had  been  set  aside  at  Geneva  ;  the  only  civil 
penalty  for  religion,  retained  by  the  edicts  of  1543,  was  banish- 
ment. The  Swiss  churches,  while  agreeing  to  condemn  Servetus, 
give  no  hint  of  capital  punishment  in  their  letters  of  advice.  The 
extinct  law  seems  to  have  been  arbitrarily  revived  for  the  occasion. 
A  valuable  controversy  followed,  on  the  question  of  executing  here- 
tics, in  which  Beza  {for),.Mino  Cclsi  (against),  and  several  caustic 
anonymous  writers  took  part 

The  works  of  Servetus  are  not  80  rare  as  is  oiten  supiioscd,  but 
the  most  common  are  his  earliest,  in  which  he  approaches  nearer 
to  the  position  afterwards  taken  by  F.  Socinus  than  ho  does  in  his 
more  matured  publications.  The  following  is  an  enumeration  of 
them  in  the  order  of  their  appearance.  (1)  De  TriniUitis  Erroribiu 
Libri  Septan,  1531,  ICmo.  (2)  Dialogorum  de  TrCnUale  Libri  Duo, 
1532,  16mo  ;  four  chanters  are  added  on  justifiration  and  kindred 
topics.  Those  two  book*  liave  beon  twice  re|-iiiRed  and  manuscrint 
copies  are  common  ;  a  Dutch  version,  by  Keynier  Telle,  was  pub- 
lished in  18JU.  (3)  aaiulii  Ptvlomeei  Alexnndrini  Geographies 
Enarrationis  Libri  Oclo :  ex  Silibapi  Pirekheymeri  tran.flalicmt, 
scd  ad  Oraxa  el  prisca  exemplarial  a  MieJitute  Villanomno  jam 
primum  recognili.  Adjeeta  insiiper  ab  eodem  scholia,  &c.,  Lyons, 
(Melchior  &  Caspar  Trediscl),  153.'i,  fol.  ;  2d  cd.,  Lyons  (Hugo  h, 
I'orta),  1541,  i.e.,  1542;  printed  by  Caspar  Trcchsnl  at  Vienne, 
fol. ;  on  this  work  Tollin  founds  his  liijfh  estimate  of  Servetus  as  a 
conip.irativn  geographer  ;  the  passage  incriminated  on  his  trial  as 
attacking  the  authority  of  Uoscs  a  on  extract  from  Loronz  Friose. 


686 


S  E  R— S  E  R 


(4)  Bi'cvissima  Apologia  jyro  Symphoriano  Campegio  in  Leonardum 
Fuchsium,  1536,  12rao  ;  no  extant  copy  is  known  ;  ToUin  has 
reprinted  an  extract  from  it.  (5)  Syruj^oriirn  Univcrsa  MaiiOj  &c., 
Paris,  1537,  16mo;  there  Tve re  four  subsequent  editions,  the  last 
being  Venice,  1543  (six  lectures  on  digestion,  the  composition  and 
tise  of  syrups  being  treated  in  the  fifth  lecture).  (6)  In  quendam 
Medicum  Apologctica  Disceptatio  pro  Astrologia,  Paris,  1538,  16mo  ; 
reprinted,  Berlin,  18S0;  the  mcdicics  is  Jean  Tagault,  who  had  in- 
terrupted the  lectures  of  Servetus  on  astronomy,  under  which  he 
included  meteorology.  (7)  Biblia  Sacra  ex  Santis  Pagnini  Trala^ 
iionc  ,  .  .  recognitay  et  scholns  illicstrata,  &c.,  Lyons  (Hugo  a  Porta), 
1542,  fol.,  remarkable  for  its  theory  of  j^'op^ecy,  explained  in  the 
preface  and  illustrated  in  the  notes.  (8)  D'Artigiiy  says  that 
Servetus  *'fit  les  argumens"  to  a  Spanish  version  of  the  Su)n7na 
of  Aquinas  ;  but  nothing  is  known  of  this  or  of  the  "divers  traites 
de  graramaire  "  which  he  translated  from  Latin  into  Spanish.  (9) 
Christianisini  BestitutiOf  &:c.,  1553,  8vo  (perfect  copies  in  Vienna 
and  Paris,  an  imperfect  copy  in  Edinburgh),  partly  reprinted, 
LonJon,  1723;  4to  (copies  in  London  and  Paris),  reprinted  1790; 
8vo,  by  Rau  at  Nuremberg  for  De  Murr,  from  the  "S'ienna  copy  ; 
manuscript  copies  are  rare ;  the  Paris  library  has  a  manuscript 
copy  of  an  earlier  recension  of  several  books,  including  the  often- 
quoted  description  of  the  pulmonary  circulation.  Tiiis  work  is 
o*'ten  called  anonymous,  but  the  initials  iL  S.  V.  are  given  at  the 
snd  and  the  full  name  at  p.  199  ;  the  volume  is  not  a  single  treatise 
but  an  assemblage  of  theological  tracts  written  in  a  nervous  and 
epigrammatic  style  and  with  great  command  of  very  various  learn- 
ing ;  the  Apologia  addressed  to  Melanchthon,  with  which  it  con- 
cludes, is  in  the  writer's  best  manner.  Two  treatises,  Dcsidcrius 
(anic  1542)  and />e  yK6ifs/7Jipos(o77'6(«(159S),  have  been  erroneously 
assigned  to  Servetus.  Of  liis  few  remaining  letters  most  will  be 
found  in  Mosheim. 

The  literature  relating  to  Servetus  is  very  large,  but  the  following  are  some 
of  the  most  important  pieces.  Calvin's  De/cnMo  Orthodozx  Fidei,  &:c.,  1554, 
4to  (also  ih  French,  Dicluration  pour  maintenir,  &c.,  16nio,  same  date),  is  the 
60urce  of  many  prevalent  misconceptions  respecting  the  opinions  of  Servetus 
and  liis  attitude  on  his  trial.  De  la  Roche's  Historical  Accomit,  &c.,  in  Mem. 
of  Lit.,  1711-12  (reproduced  in  Fi-ench,  Biblioth.  Angl.y  Amsteitlam,  171T,  ISmo), 
was  followed  by  An  ImpczTtial  History,  &c.,  1724,  8vo  (said  to  be  by  Nathaniel 
Hodges,  a  Baptist  minister,  afterwards  knighted).  AUwoerden's  Historia,  &c., 
1728,  4to  (materials  furu'~hed  by  Mosheim),  is  superseded  by  Mosheim's  .^ndcr- 
weiti^er  Vers^tch,  &c,,  It-iS,  4to,  with  its  appendix.  Neiic  Kachrichten,  1750,  4to, 
issued  after  the  publication  of  the  records  of  the  Vieune  trial  by  D'Artigny,  in 
Nouveaux  Mhiwires  d'Hist.,  &c.,  vol.  ii.,  1749,  12mo.  Chaufepie's  valuable 
article  in  Now.  Diet.  Historique,  vol.  iv.,  1756,  fol.  (translated  separately  by 
Rev.  James  Yair,  1771,  Svo),  makes  no  use  of  Mosheim's  later  researches. 
Trechsel,  in  Die  prot.  Aniitriniiarier  vor  F.  Sodn,  <5ic.,  bk.  1.,  1S30,  8vo,  uses 
ail  available  materials  up  to  datfe.  Since  then  the  investigations  of  H.  Tollia 
(published  in  a  series  of  some  forty  separate  articles  in  various  journals  from 
1874  to  1SS5)  have  thro^ra  light  on  every  portion  of  the  subject.  The  records 
of  the  Geneva  trial,  first  published  by  De  la  Roche,  and  reproduced  in  Rillict's 
F^ation,  &c.,  184-^  Svo,  and  elsewhere,  are  best  given  in  vol.  viii.  (1870)  of 
the  edition  of  Calvin's  works  by  Baum,  Cunitz,  and  Reuss  ;  Roget,  in  HisL  dii, 
Feuple  de  Genive,  vol.  iv.,  1&77,  has  a  good  account  of  both  trials.  The  passage 
describing  the  pulmonary  circulation  is  first  noticed  by  W.  Wolton,  in  liejlictions 
vpon  A-ncieni  and  Mod.  Learning,  1694,  and  lias  given  rise  to  a  literature 
of  its  own;— see  especially  Tollin's  Die  Entdechnng  des  Bbitlreislmi/s,  &c., 
1870,  Huxley,  in  Fortnightly  Rev.,  February  1S7S:  and  Tollin's  Krilische  Bcmer- 
kungcn  iibcf  Harvey  und  seine  Vorganger,  1SS2.  Other  physiological  speculations 
of  Servetus  are  noted  by  Sigmond  (The  Unnoticed  Theories  of  Servetus,  1826) ; 
but  it  has  escaped  Sigmond  that  Servetus  had  an  idea  of  the  composition  of 
•water  and  of  air.  As  a  thiuker,  Sen-etus  is  claimed  on  superficial  grounds  by 
Un-tariaas  (see  Wallace,  Antitrin.  Biog.,  1850,  i.  420),  who  have  written  several 
accounts  of  him,  of  which  R.  Wright's  Apology,  Ac,  1S07,  8vo,  is  the  worst, 
and  J.  S.  Porter's  Servetus  and  Calvin,  &c.,  1S54,  Svo,  perhaps  the  best. 
Saisset,  in  T^er.  des  Deux  Mondes,  1848,  treats  Servetus  as  a  pantheist;  he  is 
followed  by  WiUis,  in  his  Servetus  and  Calvin,  1877,  Svo,  a  most  unsatisfactory 
book  (comp.  Thcol.  Kev.,  April  and  July  -1878).  Tollin's  Das  Lehrsystem  Michael 
Servet's,  3  vols.,  1876-73,  Svo,  and  Ptinjer's  compendious  De  Mickaelis  Servcti 
I}')cirina,  &c.,  1876,  Svo,  are  valuable  digests  of  hi?  opinions  from  different 
points  of  view.  Of  Servetns's  personal  character  the  best  vindication  is  Tollir's 
Ckaracterbild  Michael  Servet's,  1S76,  Svo  (in  French  with  additions  by  Dardier, 
Portrait  Caractere,  1879,  Svo).  His  story  has  been  dramatized  by  Max  Ring, 
Die  Genfer  (1850),  by  Jose  Echegaray,  La  Mmrte  en  los  Lahios  (ISSO),  and  by 
Albert  Hamann,  Servet  (ISSl).  The  recent  discovery  at  the  Record  Office, 
London,  (U.  140)  and  the  British  Maseum  (Cotton  MSS.,  Galba  B.  x.)  of  inter- 
cepted letters  from  Servetus  at  Louvain  in  1538  adds  considerably  to  our  in- 
formation about  his  family  and  early  friends,  but  introduces  new  problems  as 
to  the  details  of  his  fitful  career.  (A.  GO 

SERVIA,  a  kingdom  belonging  to  the  Balkan  peninsula 
of  Europe,  lying  between  Bosnia  on  the  Tvest  and  Bulgaria 
and  Roumania  on  the  east,  and  between  the  Turkish  pro- 
vince of  Albania  on  the  south  and  the  Austrian  Jlilitary 
Frontier  on  the  north.  From  Bosnia  it  is  separated  by 
the  Drina,  from  Austrian  and  Roumanian  territory  by  the 
Danube  and  the  Save,  and  from  Bulgaria  partly  by  the 
Timok.  Some  parts  of  the  southern  frontier  are  indicated 
by  mountains,  but  elsewhere  there  are  no  natural  bound- 
aries. In  .shape  Servia  is  an  irregular  trapezium,  situated 
between  about  42°  30'  and  45°  Klat.  and  19°  and  22°  30' 
E.  long.  The  area  is  about  18,760  square  miles,  and  the 
population  (1,667,159  in  1874)  was  estimated  at  the  end 
of  1884  to  be  1,902,419,  thus  giving  a  density  of  about 


100  to  the  square  mile.  This  low  density,  only  about  one-' 
third  of  that  of  the  United  Kingdom,  is  explained  by  the 
nature  of  the  surface,  the  inland  position,  the  defective 
communications  with  the  exterior,  and  the  absence  of 
manufacturing  industries. 

The  surface  is  for  the  most  part  mountainous  or  hilly,  Oro- 
though  there  are  no  well-defined  mountain  ranges  of  any  S^V^i 
extent.  The  highest  summits  lie  near  the  middle  of  the 
southern  frontier,  where  Mount  Kopaonik  attains  the 
height  of  nearly  7000  feet.  Towards  the  Bosnian  frontier 
the  mountains  are  pretty  closely  massed  together,  and  some 
of  the  summits  approach  4000  feet ;  this  height  is  ex- 
ceeded on  the  eastern  side  of  the  country,  where  the  moun- 
tains, forming  a  continuation  of  the  Carpathians,  are  in 
many  places  more  rugged  and  precipitous  tiian  anywhere 
else  in  the  kingdom.  The  Rudnik  Mountains,  which 
begin  immediately  to  the  north  of  the  Servian  Morava, 
have  their  highest  parts  in  the  south  and  gradually  sink 
towards  the  north  from  nearly  3000  to  less  than  2000 
feet.  Still  lower  are  the  elevations  in  the  provinces  in 
the  extreme  south  acquired  in  1878  under  the  treaty  of 
Berlin.  As  a  general  rule  the  Servian  highlands  consist  of 
detached  groups  of  mountains  and  conical  hills  with  gentle 
slopes  rising  from  verdant  valleys,  and  they  are  mostly 
covered  to  the  top  with  forests,  chiefly  of  oak  and  beech, 
the  higher  summits  in  the  south  also  with  conifers.  But 
the  plains,  though  numerous,  are  of  no  great  extent,  and 
occur  chiefly  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers.  Apart  from 
frontier  rivers,  the  most  important  stream  is  the  Morava, 
which,  rising  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Kara  Dagh,  a 
little  beyond  the  Servian  frontier,  enters  the  country  with 
a  north-easterly  course  near  the  extreme  south-east,  and 
then  turns  north-north-west  and  flows  almost  in  a  straight 
line  through  the  heart  of  the  kingdom  to  the  Danube.  la 
the  upper  part  of  its  course  it  is  known  as  the  Bulgarian 
Jlorava,  and  only  after  receiving  the  Servian  Morava  on 
the  left  is  it  known  as  the  Morava  simply  or  as  the  Great 
Jlorava.  The  only  other  important  tributary  is  the  Nishava, 
which  it  receives  from  the  right  at  Nish.  The  valleys  ol 
all  these  rivers,  especially  those  of  the  Bulgarian  and  the 
Great  Morava,  and  of  the  Nishava,  contai;i  considerable 
areas  of  level  or  low -lying  country  well  suited  for  the 
growth  of  com,  and  the  low  grounds  along  the  Save  and 
the  Danu'oe  from  the  Drina  to  the  Morava  are  also  well 
adapted  for  agriculture,  though  for  the  most  part  devoted 
only  to  pasture.  Altogether  no  more  than  one-sixth  of 
the  surface  is  estimated  to  be  occujiied  by  cultivated  fields 
and  vineyards,  while  one-fifth  is  estimated  to  form  pasture 
land  and  about  an  equal  area  woodland.  Nearly  one-half 
of  the  entire  area  is  lielieved  to  be  unproductive. 

Besides  the  frontier  streams  on  the  north  and  west,  the 
only  river  of  any  importance  for  navigation  is  the  Jlorava, 
which  is  navigable  for  steamers  of  light  draught  as  high 
as  Tiupriia  about  60  miles  from  its  mouth,  but  its  valley. 
is  important  as  the  main  highway  of  the  country,  and  ?11 
the  more  since  the  introduction  of  railways.  Railways 
both  to  Constantinople  and  to  Salonica  are  now  (1886)  in 
course  of  construction  under  a  convention  concluded  with 
Austria  in  1881.  The  section  common  to  the  two  systems, 
that  from  Belgrade  to  Nish,  152  miles  in  length,  was 
opened  for  trafiic  in  September  1884,  and  the  line  (76 
miles)  from  Nish  to  Vranja  was  completed  in  March  18SC, 
but  the  connexion  with  the  Turkish  railway  from  Salonica 
remains  to  be  completed.  At  present,  in  consequence  of 
the  unsatisfactory  communication  with  the  south,  only 
about  7  or  8  per  cent,  of  the  Servian  imports  enter  by  the 
southern  frontier,  85  per  cent,  coming  through  Austria- 
Hungary.  In  the  beginning  of  1886  work  had  been  begun 
on  only  one-half  of  the  line  from  Nish  to  Pirot,  on  the 
other  system. 


S  E  R  V  I  A 


The  geological  structure  of  Servia  is  varied.     In  the 
south  and  west  the  sedimentary  rocks  most  largely  de- 
veloped  are   of  ancient,   pre -Carboniferous   date,  inter- 
rupted by  considerable  patches  of  granite,  serpentine,  and 
Jther  crystalline  rocks.     Beyond  this  belt  there  appear  in 
the  north-west  Mesozo'c  limestones,  such  as  occupy  so 
pxtensive  an  area  in  the  north-west  of  the  Balkan  pen- 
'nsula"  generally,  and  the  valleys  opening  in  that  quarter 
to  the  Drina  have  the  same  aesolate  aspect  as  belongs  to 
diese  rocks  in  the  rest  of  that  region.     In  the  extreme 
Donh-east  the  crystalline  schists  of  the  Carpathians  extend 
to  the  south  side  of  the  Danube,  and  stretch  parallel  to 
the  Morava  in  a  band  along  its  right  bank.     Elsewhere 
east  of  the  Morava  the  prevailing  rocks  belong  to  the 
Cretaceous  series,  w^hich  enters  Servia  from  Bulgaria.    The 
heart  of  the  country— the  Shumadia,  as  it  is  called— is 
mainly  occupied  by  rocks  of  Tertiary  age,  with  inter- 
vening  patches  of  older  strata;  and  the  Rudnik  Moun- 
tains are  traversed  by  metalliferous  veins  of  syenite.    The 
mineral  wealth  of  Servia  is  considerable  and  varied,  though 
far  from  being  adequately  developed.      Gold,  silver,  iroii, 
and  lead  are  said  to  have  been  worked  in  the  time  of  the 
Romans.     Heaps  of  ancient  slag  from  load  mines  still 
exist  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Belgrade,  and  other  old  lead 
mines  occur  in  the  valley  of  the  Toplitza.      Gold  dust  is 
washed  down  by  heavy  rains  in  the  valley  of  the  Timok, 
where  it  is  gathered  by  the  peasants.    In  the  syenite  veins 
of  the  Rudnik  Mountains  ores  of  lead,  zinc,  copper,  sulphur, 
and  arsenic  are  present,  but  are  not  worked,  and  from  the 
mines  of  Krupani  in.  the  north-west  argentiferous  lead, 
antimony,  and  other  ores  have  been  obtained.     The  prin- 
cipal mining  centre  east  of  the  Morava  is  JIaidanpek  in 
the  north,  where  there  is  a  large  iron-smelting  establish- 
ulcnt  in  the  hands  of  an  English  company.      Coal  or 
lignite  is  met  with  in  many  places,  including  a  number 
of  points  on  the  Servian  railway.      The  largest  deposit 
lies   round   Tiupriia,  and  measures  about   19   miles  in 
length  by  71  in  breadth.     All  the  minerals  belong  to  the 
state,  but  permission  to  work  them  can  be  obtained  on 
payment  of  a  moderate  royalty. 

The  climate  of  Servia  is  on  the  whole  mild,  though 
subject  to  the  extremes  characteristic  of  inland  Eastern 
countries.  In  summer  the  temperature  may  rise  as  hi«h 
as  106°  Fahr.,  while  in  winter  it  often  sinks  to  13'  or 
even  sometimes  20"  below  zero.  The  high-lying  valleys 
in  the  south  are  colder  than  the  rest  of  the  country,  not 
only  on  account  of  their  greater  elevation  but  also  be- 
cause of  their  being  exposed  to  the  cold  winds  from  the 
north  and  nortli-east.  Accordingly,  the  chief  products  of 
the  soil  are  ruch  as  thrive  under  a  warm  summer  and  are 
unaffected  by  a  cold  winter.  Both  maize  and  wine  are 
grown,  but  the  olive  is  excluded  by  tho  severity  of  the 
cold  season. 


00/ 


Jfaize  is  tho  principal  object  of  agriculture,  the  avcrafo  animal 
crop  being  estimated^  at  upwards  ol  5,000,000  bus!  er^Xat 
coming  next  witli  an  average  crop  of  loss'  than  4,000,000  burhels. 
Besides  cereals,  flax,_  hemp,  and  tobacco  are  gio^vn,  but  the 
attempts  made  to  cu  tivato  cott.n  have  proved  iinluecessA.l  Tho 
chief  y.ne-growi„g  localitv  is  in  tlie  north-east  round  Nogotin 
Ineme.ent  as  are  tlie  implements  and  backward  tlio  mctl.ods  of 
Zw  f'Ti  «'"'""  T^''  "P  a  considerable  portion  of  the  export" 
OAVingto  tlio  scantiness  o^  tho  pop.:Iation\nd  tho  defieiencv  of 
other  industries,  and  it  is  expected  that  this  export  will  bo  .'atlv 
increased  on  tho  eo.np letion  of  tho  railway  system  to  tho  sot.tWi^ 
seaports.  The  grain  chiefly  exported  is  wheat.-make  supp  v  n^^ 
asamongall  the  Slavs  of  tho  iklkan  peninsu  a,  the  chiKo  Sf 
the  people.    Hitherto  live-stock  has  formed  the  largest    em  in   ho 

tl.  fhJf  '",  '""""A'."  ,""'"''="  ""  *''"  •••''»^'  of  tl'o  forests 
.Wlino  1  i^''-''"-  °^  '""'  ^'•'"■'  ^'"^'^  "'""bcr  has  greatly 
d.xlined,  largely  in  eonsequenco  of  American  competition  :  but 
relatively  to   population   Servia  still   maintains  a  much  cheater 

f  eheep,  whicli  are  here  relatively  moro  than  t«-ico  as  numerous 


as  111  Spain.  Cattle  also  &re  hntnerous,  but  i.e  reare.^  solely  as 
beasts  of  draught  and  for  export.  Bees  are  very  generally  kepl- 
the  honey  being  consumed  in  the  country,  the  wax  exported.  The 
rearing  of  silkworms  is  spreading,  especially  since  cocoons  and  egga 
have  begun  to  be  exported  to  Italy.  Orolmids  are  very  cxt^S- 
sive,  andall  kinds  of  Iruit  belonging  to  central  Europe  arc  grown 
in  abundance,-above  all,  the  plum,  from  which  is  distilled  the 
favourite  national  spirit,  sliwvUza.  The  average  annual  value  oi 
the  exports  IS  a  little  over  £1  per  head  of  population.  After  live 
animals  and  grain  come  hides  and  jiruues.  Among  the  import. 
the  chief  Items  are  sugar,  salt  (wholly  nbseut  in  Servia),  cotton 
goods,  and  other  textiles.  Import  duties  being  high,  a  consider- 
able amount  must  a  ways  be  allowed  for  smuggled  goods:  Though 
the  gieat  bulk  of  the  imports  enter  the  country  by  the  Austrian 
frontier,  an  increasingly  large  proportion  comes  originally  from 
beyond  Austria-Hungary.  Thus  in  3879,  of  the  totaf  quantity  ol 
imports  across  the  Austrian  frontier,  76  per  cent,  were  of  Austiian- 
Hunganaii  origin,  in  1880  73  percent,  in  1881  65  percent.,  leavin? 
^4,  27,  anoas  per  cent,  respectively  for  countries  beyond.  Amorg 
the  latter  Germany  comes  next  after  Austria-Hungary  and  then 
England.  Colonial  wares  (sugar,  coffee,  &c.)  are  now  imported 
cheaper  by  way  of  Hamburg  than  by  way  of  Trieste. 

The  natural  increase  of  population  in  Servia  is  pretty  rai)id  the 
annual  birth-rate  being  among  the  highest  in  Europe,  while  the 
death-rate,  though  higli,  is  exceeded  in  several  other  countries 
?«"o«o"  ^'f  ,y^"«  l^'f^-l  the  average  annual  number  of  births  was 
(6,962  of  deaths  47,181,  the  excess  of  births  over  deaths  29  781 
which  hgures  compared  with  a  total  poimlation  intermediate  between 
that  at  the  end  of  1874  and  that  at  the  end  of  1884  give  a  birth-rate 
of  upwards  of  43  per  thousand,  a  death-rate  of  less  than  27  per  thou- 
sand, and  an  annual  excess  of  births  over  deaths  of  nearly  17  per 

in«"^?n«"  J*"^  ^''^^,^''  P''0PO''''o"  of  male  to  female  births  is 
10b :  100.  The  people  are  mainly  Serbs,  though  the  proportions 
have  been  modified  by  the  increase  of  territory  under  the  treaty  o"" 
Berlin.  Tlus  territory,  at  one  time  occupied  by  Servians,  had  be"n 
to  a  large  extent  deserted  by  them  in  consequence  of  the  oppressive 
lurkish  yoke,  and  their  place  had  been  taken  bv  Mohammedan 
Albanians  west  of  the  Morava  and  by  Bulg.nrians'in  the  valley  of 
the  Nishava.  Mostof  the  Albanians,  however,  quitted  then'  homes 
at  the  time  of  annexation,  and  Servians  are  now  returning  to  their 
iormer  seats.  Previous  to  the  treaty  of  Berlin  the  principal  element 
ot  the  population  next  after  the  Servians  consisted  of  Roumanians 
of  whom  there  were  about  130,000.  The  Servian  Church  forms  a 
branch  of  the  Oriental  Greek  Church  with  a  perfectly  independent 
administration.  The  highest  ecclesiastical  authority  is  exercised 
by  the  national  synod.  Elementary  education  is  in  a  very  baekivard 
state,  but  recently  a  law  has  been  passed  to  remedy  this  defect  by 
making  education  obligatory  on  all  chUdren  between  six  and  thiitcen 
and  laying  the  duty  of  providing  aeconuiiodation,  books,  and 
teachers  upon  school  districts.  At  Belgrade  there  is  a  high  school 
or  university  with  faculties  of  philosophy,  law,  and  technics. 

Ihe  agricultural  population  are  scattered  among  a  great  number 
of  villages,  most  of  which  consist  of  single  isolated  homesteads. 
Kach  homestead  is  occupied  by  a  gioup  of  families  connected  by 
blood  and  acknowledging  ono  head,  the  slarcshina,  who  is  usually 
t  le  patriarch  ot  tho  community,  but  is  often  chosen  by  tho  rest  of 
the  members  on  account  of  his  prudence  and  ability.     Ho  regulates 
the  work  and  distributes  the  proceeds  of  the  labour  of  the  entiro 
homestead,  and  his  niling  is  followed  without  question.     Tho  land 
cultivated  by  a  family  or  group  of  families  is  always  their  own 
property.     Iho  buildings  belonging  to  the  homesteads  are  enclosed 
withm  an  immense  palisade,  inside  which  a  largo  expanse  of  fields 
IS  mostly  planted  with  plum,  damson,  and  other  fruit-trees,  surround- 
ing the  houses  of  tho  occupiers.     In  the  midst  of  these  is  tho 
house  of  the  stareshina,  which  contains  the  common  kitchen,  eating 
hall,  and  family  hall  of  the  eutire  homestead.     In  this  last  all  the 
members  assemble  in  tho  evening  for  conversation  and  amusement, 
the  women  spinning,  while  tho  children  play.     Tho  peoiilo  take 
delight  m  listening  to  tho  recitation  of  tho  jioetical  rhapsodies  in 
which  tho  Servian  literature  is  remarkably  rich.    Tho  houses  are 
mostly  very  small  wooden  structures,  serving  for  littlo  else  but 
sleeping  nlaces.     But  that  of  tho  stareshina  is  ofleu  of  brick,  oud 
IS  invariably  of  better  construction  than  tho  rest. 

Since  6th  March  1882  tho  govornmeiit  has 'been  a  constitutional 
monarchy.  Tho  legislative  body  is  called  tlio  skiimJUiiia,  and  in 
1884  consisted  of  178  members,  three-fourlhs  of  whom  arc  elected 
by  the  people,  the  remainder  being  nominated  by  the  king.  .A  new 
skujishtina  is  elected  every  tlireo  years.  Tor  tho  settlement  of 
special  questions  of  great  moment  an  extriordinaiy  .skupslitina  or 
great  national  aasembly  is  elected,  in  which  tlicro  are  four  times  a« 
many  members,  all  elected,  as  in  tho  ordinary  skupshtina.  There  is 
also  a  permanent  council  of  stoto  of  15  members,  who  have  tho 
task  of  drawing  up  proposals  for  legislation,  hearing  complaints 
regarding  the  decisions  ot  ministers,  and  performing  other  function.-!. 
For  ndinini.strativo  purposes  the  kingdom  is  divided  into  twenty, 
two  circles,  besiilcs  tho  city  of  Belgmdo.  In  tho  budget  for  18fi3- 
84  tho  rovcnuo  and  cxpeudituro  were  each  tstinintcd  at  nearly 


68S 


S  E  R  V  I  A 


£1  500  000,  and  for  1884-85  at  about  £1,840,000.  The  na  lona 
ll',?  at  the  end  of  1884  was  about  £7,000,000.  An  additional 
debl  of  aboitt  £i:000,000  was  contracted  during  the  Servo-Bulganan 

'' Thi  Sefvia'n'  army  is  divided  into  three  classes.  The  first  class, 
embracing  men  between  25  and  30  years  of  age  constitutes  the 
st^ndTn"frmy,  which  numbers  18,000  on  a  peace  footing  and  about 
10o!oOO°on  a  war  footing.  The  first  two  years  are  served  wih  the 
■  colours  and  the  remainder  of  the  term  in  the  reserve.  The  second 
dass  contains  men  between  30  and  37  who  have  served  in  the 
s  andin  °S-my.  The  third  class,  which  is  only  called  out  in  extra- 
ordinary  emergencies,  is  composed  of  men  between  37  and  50.  The 
total  military  Strength  of  Servia  for  cases  of  emergency  is  estimated 
to  be  about  210,000  men.  .        .  „     tn       i. 

The  capital  of  Servia  is  Belgrade,  at  the  junction  of  the  Danube 
and  the  Save.  It  is  the  only  town  wth  more  than  15  000  inhabit- 
ants. Next  in  size  is  Nish.  in  the  territory  added  by  the  treaty 
of  Berlin,  where  the  valley  of  the  N.shava  opens  into  that  of  the 
Bulgarian  Morava.  The  other  chief  towns  are  Kragushevatz  in  the 
ceat'^^^e  of  the  Shumadia,  the  former  capital  of  the  counh-y,  Shabatz 
on  the  Save,  Semendria  on  the  Danube,  Krushevatz,  Alexinatz  (the 
cintre  of  th;  flax  and  hemp  growing  district),  Ushitze,  Posbarevatz, 

'''Avt  Sn'-ia  a,^  ,kc  Serbians.  London,  1862  :  K-itz,  S,rM^: 
kuSri7^eJh\,"grarhUcke  BeisestudUn.  Leipsic,  1868;  Balme,  La  f"'"r?"« 
it  SerbU,  Paris,  1880.  ^"-  "'  ^' 

History. 
The  original  home  of  the  Croats  and  Serbs,  who  are  identical  in 
race  and  language,  was  the  country  adjoining  the  Carpathian  range. 
Their  speech  shows  them  to  belong  to  the  eastern  dmsion  of  the 
Slavonic  family  (see  Slavs).  The  generally  accepted  derivation 
of  the  name  Chroiat,  Croat,  is  from  the  original  designation  of  the 
Carpathians,  Ckrbet,  "a  ridge,"  an  opinion  supported  by  Schatank 
and  Professor  Ljubid,  author  of  a  Croatian  history.  This  view  is 
rejected  by  Perwolf  and  also  by  Penka,=  but  apparently  on  insuffi- 
cient grounds.  The  last-named  connects  the  word  wi  h  the  6ame 
root  as  that  from  which  "Slav"  is  derived  {slu-ti,  klii,l-m)  a^^d 
makes  it  signify  the  "vassals,"  those  who  follow  a  chief.  The 
derivation  suggested  by  Schafarik  for  "Serb"  is  the  root  s,i,  to 
produce";  thus  the  name  would  come  to  mean  the  people  just  as 
dculsch  is  from  diot,  "  people."     He  considers  it  to  have  been  the 


original  appellation  of  all  the  Slavs.     This  must  be  accepted  as  the 
best  explanation  hitherto  given,  though  not  altogether  satisfactory. 
We  find  the  name  Zip^oi  in  Ptolemy  and  Sirbi  in  P'luy- 
■  The  Serbs  and  Croats  have  no  history  till  the  year  633  A.P.,  at 
vhich  period  they  left  their  original  settlements  and  migrated  into 
the  ancient  lUyricum  and  part  of  Mcesia.     Whether  any  of  this 
teople  had  previously  taken  up  their  abode  in  the  Balkan  penin- 
s-la  is  by  no  means  clear,  and  very  different  opinions  have  been 
held  on  the  subject.     The  most  probable  account  is  that  small 
Slavonic  colonics  were  settled  here  and  there  as  early  as  the  2d  and 
3d  centuries,  consisting  mainly  of  prisoners  taken  in  war ;  and  we 
hear  of  two  tribes,  the  Karpi  and  the  Kostoboki,  who  are  claimed 
by  Schafarik  vfith  good  reason  as  Slavs.    Jirecek  considers  that  lor 
two  hundred  years  before  the  Slavs  are  heard  of  in  history  south 
of  the  Danube  they  were  scattered  as  colonists  in  Mcesia,  Ihrace, 
Dardania,  and  Macedonia.     Professor  Drinoff  finds  mention  of  Slav- 
onic colonies  in  Thrace  in  the  Itinerariuvi  Hicrosohjnutanxm  and 
Jlinerarium  Antonini;  and,  even  if  we  do  not  give  a  complete 
adhesion  to  his  views,  there  are  many  names  of  towns  in  Procopius 
(in  the  firsthalf  of  the  6th  century)  which  are  undoubtedly  Slavonic. 
The  traces  of  the  original  inhabitants  have  disappeared,  except  in 
so  far  as  the  Albanians  represent  these  peoples.     It  is  generally 
believed  that  the  wo:d  vwropch  or  iieropch,  signifying  a  slave,  lound 
in  the  Zakonik  of  Dushan,  refers  to  the  Noropians,  an  old  Thracian 

Oiir  authority  for  the  Servian  migration  in  the  middle  of  the  7th 
century  is  the  emperor  Constantine  Pornhyrogenitus.  According 
to  the  storv,  five  Croatian  princes,  the  brothers  Clucas,  Lobelus, 
Cosentzis,  Muchlo,  and  Chrobatus,  and  two  sisters,  Tuga  and  Buga 
(i  c,  Calamity  and  Prosperity),  came  at  this  period  from  northern 
or  Belo-Ch-obatia,  as  it  was  called,  the  original  home  of  the  Croats 
in  the  Carpathian  Mountains.  The  descendants  of  their  people  who 
remained  in  the  territory  are  lost  among  the  surrounding  popula- 
tion The  services  of  these  Croats  were  made  use  of  by  the  emperor 
Heraclius,  and  they  became  a  barrier  against  the  Avars,  whom 
they  drove  out  of  the  country  in  which  they  settled.  The  territory 
which  they  occupied  was  divided  by  them  into  eleven  iupas  or 
gaucn.  The  people  wV.o  inhabited  the  western  portion  kept  the 
name  of  Croat,  those  in  the  eastern  were  called  Serbs.  We  must 
now  leave  the  Croats,  as  in  this  article  we  have  only  to  do  with  the 
'Serbs  properly  so  called.  The  Croatian  branch  of  the  fanaily,  after 
being  ruled  by  petty  bans  (a  word  said  to  be  of  Avar  origin),  was 
annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Hungary,  and  after  the  16th  century 
foilowed  the  fortunes  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg. 

1  Archiv  Jur  slavische  Philoloijie,  vii.  591. 

»  Origines  Ariacx,  p.  128,  Vienna,  1883. 


For  five  centuries  after  their  arrival  in  their  new  territories  W8 
hear  nothing  of  the  Serbs  save  an  occasional  very  brief  mention  m 
the  Byzantine  chroniclers.    The  native  annalists  do  not  begin  earlier 
than  the  12th  century.     As  in  Croatia  so  among  the  Serbs,  the 
smaller  iSupans^  gradually  became  merged  into  two  or  three  great 
ones.     The  head  zupan  of  Servia,  who  resided  in  Desnica,  called 
by  Constantine  Destmica,  was  at  first  the  suzeram  of  all  the  other 
Servian  zupans,  with  the  exception  of  the  Pagani,  concemmg  whoso 
Latin  name  the  emperor  Constandne  makes  the  very  strange  remark 
—Kal  yap  Uayaml  Ka.rb.  rnv  tQw  SjcXd^ui-  -yXJiirffO^  a^oTrT.ffTO.  ip^-^- 
yn-ourL     After  the  land  was  harried  by  the  Bulgarians  we  find  tho 
great  Jupan  of  Dioclea  (Doclea)  supreme  ;  he  acquired  the  title  of 
kin",  and  received  his  insignia  from  the  pope.    Finally,  Nemanya. 
the  descendant  of  a  zupan  family  of  Dioclea,  founded  a  new  dynasty 
in  liasa  (mod.  Novibazar),  and  united  Servia  and  Bosnia  into  one 
strong  en.pire.     The  names  of  the  earlier  princes,  who  are  insignu.- 
cant  and  do  not  help  us  to  follow  the  thread  of  Servian  histoiy, 
need  not  be  mentioned.     We  find  them  sometimes  tributary  to  the 
Greek  emperors  and  sometimes  independent.     They  appear,  more- 
over, to  have  been  engaged  in  consUnt  wars  with  the  Bulgarians. 
About  1015  Vladimir  was  reigning;  but  he  was  assassinated  by 
the  Bulgarian  czar  John,  who  got  possession  of  Servia,  but  died 
two  years  afterwards  on  an  expedition  against  the  Greeks,     lo- 
gether  with  Bulgaria,  Servia  fell  under  the  power  of  the  emperor 
tnd  ite  affairs  were  managed  by  a  Greek  governor.    Stephen  Voyislaff 
made  an  insurrection  in  1040,  expelled  the  governor,  Theophilus 
Eroticus,  and  defeated  the  Greeks  in  1043.     His  son  and  successor 
Michael  (1050-80),  at  first  lived  in  peace  with  the  Byzantines,  but 
afterwards  entered  into  diplomatic  relations  with  the  ^\  est,  tooK 
the  title  of  king  (rex),  and  received  his  insignia  from  the  pope 
(1078).     He  conquered  Durazzo  (Drac)  in  1079,  and  reigned  thirty 
years       His  son,   Constantine  Bodin,   subjugated   the  zupans  of 
Bosnia  and  Rasa.     About  1122  Ourosh,  sumamed  Bela,  zupan  of 
Rasa,  ascended  the  throne.      From  this  time  dates  the  power  of 
Servia.     His  wife  Anna  was  a  German  princess.     Omitting  three 
insi^ificant  rulers,  we  come  to  the  famous  Stephen  Nemanya  (115a- 
95),°  whose  life  has  been  written  by  his  son  Sav*.     He  reigned 
thirty-six  years,  and  was  many  times  successful  against  the  Greets, 
but  was  not  able  to  take  Ragusa.     He  abandoned  the  govemment 
to  his  son  Stephen  in  1195  and  became  a  monk  under  the  name  ot 
Simeon,  dyini  in  1200  in  the  monastery  of  Chilander  on  Mount 
Athos      Stephen  was  crowned  by  his  youngest  brother  Sava,  hrst 
archbishop  of  the  country,  with  a  crown  which  had  been  conse- 
crated by  the  pope;  hence  his  title  Prvmycncham,   '  the  farst- 
crowued,"-that  is  to  say  of  the  new  dj-nasty,  for  the  Xupans  of 
Dioclea  were  already  kings.     He  died  in  1224  ^^i^" /o""^^^,^? 
his  sons  Radoslaff  and  Vladislaff  in  succession.     The  latter  made 
an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  Ragusa.     He  employed 
Germans  to  work  the  Servian  mines  ;  and  we  find  them  repeatedly 
mentioned  in  Servian  documents  under  the  name  of  Saxons,  especi- 
ally in  the  Zakonik  of  Stephen  Dushan.     No  traces,  however   c^ 
be  found  of  them  at  the  present  day.  ,  yj^'^'^l^f  %<=™'^-''.^;<L*? 
have  been  very  luxurious.     He  died  childless  about  1237  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Stephen  Urosh,  whose  territories  were 
devastated  in  1241  by  the  Mongols.     He  was  afterwards  dnven 
from  his  throne  by  his  son  Dragutin  and  died  m  1272.    The  latter, 
however,  stung  by  conscience,  abandoned  the  crown  to  his  brother 
Milutin  and  contented  himself  with  Syrmia,   where  he  died  in 
1317      The  reign  of  Milutin  was  chiefly  occupied  with  struggles 
against  the  Greiks  ;  he  was  generaUy  successful  in  his  campaigns^ 
But  his  domestic  life  was  unhappy  :  he  divorced  three  wives  and 
caused  his  only  son  Stephen  to  be  blinded  froni  suspicion  ol  his 
treachery.      The  operation,  however,  was  imperi-ectly  Pf /o™?'^ 
and  the  youth  recovered  his  sight.     In  1314  Milutm  fo^g^J*  °"  t^« 
side  of  the  emperor  Andronicus  against  the  Turks  and  «>  th^  ^^"« 
year  forced  the  Ragusans  to  pay  him  tribute.     After  h>s  bro  h 
Dragutin's  death  he  seized  his  hereditary  dominions,  and  recaUing 
his  son  Stephen,  whom  he  had  banished  to  Constantmople,  ga^e 
him  Dioclea.     In  1319  the  Hungarians  deprived  him  of  Bosnia 
two  years  later  he  died.     His  son  Stephen  was  <=ngt^'='l,"^  1'^'"?^'"^ 
wars.     In  1330  he  defeated  the  Bulgarians  at  the  brook  Eamencha 
near  Velbnzhd,  when  the  Bulgarian  czar  Michael  ^5^  sl'"^-     " 
was  on  this   occasion  that  his  son  called  Stephen   Dushan  firat 
distinguished  himself.     In  spite  of  the  kmg'  s  successes  against  the 
Greek!,  he  was  destined  to  cfose  his  reip  in  t^e  most  lamen  able 
manner  :  he  was  imprisoned  and  strangled  by  order  of  !"=>  °«"  =°° 
at  Zvechan  in  1336.     It  is  from  this  crime  that  Dushan  gained  his 
surname  {d.ishiti,  "to  suffocate").     Concerning  this  pf">f  ■  ^/^ 
told  by  the  ancient  chroniclers  that  he  was  gigantic  in  stature  |md 
terrible  in  appearance.     He  conducted  tl>'rteen  campaigns  against 
the  Greeks.     In  1337  he  took  Strumitza  and  ^"^jugated  aU  Mace^ 
donia  and  Albania  to  Thessalonica,  Kostur   and  J°"'"^' tj\7„^'?°f 
Byzantium,  and  concluded  a  peace  with  the  emperor  Andronicus, 


English  word  "daintier";  c  =  cJi  as  m" church    ;;  =  yosin     youn^    ,' 
'  J  =1/1  orj  in  the  French  "iour." 


S  E  Pv  V  I  A 


689 


t»lio  was  shut  lip  in  Thessalonica.     He  now  divided  his  kingdom 
into  eight  districts  aud   arranged   everything  on  the   liyzautine 
model.     He  conquered  the  whole  of  Macedonia,  and  caused  himself 
to  bo  crowned  euiperor  of  Servia,  his  son  Urosh  as  Vmg  {feral,  roc), 
and  the  archbishop  of  the  country  as  patriarch.     In  13-19,  at  a  diet, 
kC' published  his  celebrated  Zakonik  or  "Book  of  Laws"  (see  be- 
low).    In  1356  he  began  a  new  campaign  against  the  Greeks,  his 
object  being  to  seize  Constantinople,  to  place  the  Greek  crown  upon 
his  head,  and  drive  the  Turks  out  of  Europe  ;  but  in  the  midst  of  his 
schemes  ho  died  at  DeaboUs  in  Albania  on  18th  December  1356. 
His  son  Urosh  was  theu  but  nineteen  years  of  age,  and,  being  .sickly 
in  body  and  weak  in  mind,  ho  was  unable  to  struggle  ag.iinst  the 
revolted  governors  of  his  provinces,  some  of  whom  wished  to  make 
themselves  independent.     Ho  was  killed  in  a  conflict  ivith  one  of 
Uiem  in  1367,  who  ascended  the  throne  under  the  name  of  Vukashin. 
This  monarch  was  at  first  successful  against  the  Turks,  now  already 
nasters  of  considerable  portions  of  the  Byzantine  emnire  ;  but  he 
lost  the  decisive  battle  of  Taenarus,  and  with  it  his  life,  in  1371. 
According  to  the  chroniclers,  the  Serbs  were  surprised  and  many 
slain  whUe  sleeping.     JIany  also  were  drowned  in  the  waters  of 
the  Maritza,  "and  there  their  bones  lay  and  were  never  buried." 
The  fate  of  Vukashin  and  of  his  brother  Goiko  was  uncertain.     The 
empire  of  Dushan  now  began  to  fall  to  pieces  and  Servia  was  again 
without  a  ruler.     Marco,  the  son  of  Vukashin,  declared  himself 
the  successor  of  his  father  ;  but  the  line  was  unpopular  with  the 
Serbs,  and  at  a  diet  at  Pe6  (Ipek)  in  1374  they  elected  a  young 
noble,  Lazar  Greblianovich,  a  connexion  of  the  old  princely  house. 
He  did  not,  however,  take  the  title  of  either  emperor  or  king,  but 
only  of  knez  or  prince.     Bosnia  was  separated  from  Servia  and  fell 
under  the  rule  of  a  noble  named  Tvertko.      Sultan  Murad  had 
already  conquered   the   Bulgarian   sovereign  Shishman  and  now 
marched  against  Servia.     On  the  15th  of  June  1389  the  Serbs  were 
completely  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Kosovo,  the  "  field  of  black- 
birds."    No  event  has  been  so  much  celebrated  in  the  national 
songs  as  this.     Many  are  the  lays  which  tell  of  the  treachery  of 
Vuk  Brankovi  -h  and  the  glorious  self-immolation  of  Milosh  Obilich, 
who  stabbed  the  conqueror  on  the  battlefield.     The  silken  shroud, 
embroidered  with  gold,  with  which  his  wife  Militza  covered  the 
body  of  her  liusband  is  still  preserved  in  the  monastery  of  Vrduik 
in  Syrmia,  and  a  tree  which  she  planted  is  shown  to  travellers  at 
iupa.     According  to  one  account  Lazar  was  killed  in  the  battle  ; 
occording  to  others  he  was  taken  prisoner  and  executed  before  the 
eyes  of  the  dying  Murad.   ■  The  bones  of  Lazar  now  rest  at  Kavanitza 
•o  the  Frushka  Gora  in  Syrmia.     We  hear  no  more  of  independent 
Serb  princes ;  the  country  was  now  tributary  to  Turkey,  and  its 
rnlers  were  styled  despots.    Stephen,  the  son  of  Lazar,  was  confirmed 
in  this  title  by  Bajazid,  the  successor  of  Murad.     Militza  died  in 
a  convent  in  1406.     Stephen  died  in  1427  childless,  and  was  suc- 
eeeded  by  George  Brankovich,  a  man  sixty  years  of  age,  whose  reign 
was  a  troubled  one.     In  1437  ho  was  compelled  to  fly  to  Hungary 
to  avoid  the  wrath  of  Murad  II.,  and  did  not  recover  his  territory 
t(ll  Hunyadi  and  Scandcrbeg  drove  back  the  Turksjn  1,444.    George 
fell,  in  the  ninety-first  year  of  his  ago,  in  battle  with  a  Hungarian 
magnate  named  Michael  Szilagyi  on  24th  December  1457.     His 
youngest  son  Lazar  succeeded  him  after  committing  many  crimes, 
but  only  survived  his  father  fivo  weeks.     His  widow,  Helena  Pala;- 
ologus,  gave  the  country  to  the  pope  in  order  to  secure  his  assist- 
ance against  the  Turks.     Upon  this  the  sultan  ravaged  Servia  in 
the  most  pitiless  manner,  burnt  the  churches  and  monasteries, 
and  carried  off  200,000  persons  into  captivity.     Servia  became  in 
all  respects  a  Turkish  province,  although  we  occasionally  find  the 
empty  title  of  "  despot "  borne  by  some  of  the  descendants  of  its 
princes.     Great  numbers  of  the  Serbs  subsequently  migrated  to 
Hungary.     In  1639  somo  thousands  under  the  command  of  tho 
despot  George  Brankovich  entered   the  imperial  (German)  army 
In  1G91  tho  Servian  patnarch,  Arsenius  Chernoyevich,  led  about 
36,000  families  to  settle  in  various  parts  of  Hungary,  chiefly  in 
Syrmia  and  Slavonia.     These  iadrugas,  as  they  are  called,  are  not 
families  in  our  sense  of  the  word,  consisting  of  parents  and  children, 
but  communities  of  families  according  to  tho  custom  still  found 
among  the  Croats  of  tho  Military  Frontier.     The  number  of  the 
emigrants  at  that  time  would   proUably  amount  to  400,000  or 
500,000  persons.     Others  followed  them  in  1738  and  1788      These 
Sorbs  have  kept  their  religion  and  language  in  spite  of  the  desperate 
efforts  of  the  Government  to  Magyarizo  them.     The  last  aespot 
of  Servia  was  George  Brankovich,  who  died  in  captivity  in  Austria 
in  1711. 

In  consequence  of  the  splendid  victories  of  Prince  Eugene,  Austria 
acquired  tho  greater  part  of  Servia  by  tho  treaty  of  Posharovatz  in 
1718,  but  the  Turks  regained  it  by  the  peace  of  Belgrade  in  1739. 
For  upwards  of  four  centuries  tho  Serbs  groaned  under  tho  Turkish 
yoke,  until,  in  1804,  unable  to  endure  the  oppression  of  tlio  Turkisli 
dahis,  they  broke  out  into  rebellion  under  Georgo  Petrovich,  sur- 
named  Tsrni,  or  "  Black  Georgo  "  (in  Turkish  Kara),  Kara  Georgo 
was  born  at  Topola  (Tapolja)  in  1767  ;  at  first  he  merely  aimed  at 
conquering  the  dahis,  but  afterwards  he  attempted  to  drive  tho 
Turks  out  of  Servia.   This  ho  succeeded  in  doing  after  many  failures. 

21—21 


In  1813,  however,  they  reconquered  the  conntry,  and  George  with 
his  adherents  was  compelled  to  fly  to  Austria.  He  returned  in  1817, 
but  was  treacherously  murdered  by  order  of  Milosh  Obrenovich,  who 
had  now  become  tho  Servian  leader.  We  have  no  space  hero  to 
sketch  the  struggles  of  Milosh  to  secure  the  independence  of  Servia. 
Ho  was  himself  of  peasant  origin  and  in  his  youth  had  been  a  swine- 
herd. The  Turks  had  contrived  to  kill  or  drive  out  of  the  countiT 
all  tho  Servian  aristocracy,  leaving  only  peasants  to  till  the  ground, 
feed  swine  (one  of  the  great  industries  of  the  country),  and  pay  the 
harach.  Milosh  was  declared  prince  by  the  national  assembly,  and" 
in  1830  secured  the  consent  of  tho  Porte  to  his  enjoyment  of  tho 
title  with  tho  succession  reserved  to  his  family.  Turkey  allowed 
Servia  a  quasi-independence,  but  held  and  garrisoned  several  for- 
tresses. Milosh  had  so  little  forgotten -his  Turkish  training  that 
ho  made  himself  obnoxious  to  his  subjects  by  his  despotic  acts. 
He  was  a  man  of  simple,  even  coarso  habits,  as  many  of  the  anec- 
dotes told  of  him  testify.  He  was  compelled  to  abdicate  in  1839 
in  favour  of  his  son  Milan,  who,  however,  was  of  too  feeble  a  con- 
stitution to  direct  the  government,  and,  dying  soon  afterwards,  was 
succeeded  by  his  younger  brother  Michael.  He  also  abdicated  in 
1842  and  the  Serbs  then  elected  Alexander,  the  son  of  Tsrni  George, 
or,  to  give  him  his  Servian  patronymic,  Karageorgevich.  His  rule 
lasted- seventeen  years;  he  was  compelled  to  resign  in  1859,  ami 
Milosh,  now  very  old,  was  invited  to  come  from  Bucharest.  Ho 
lived,  however,  only  one  year,  dying  in  1860,  and  left  the  throne 
to  his  son  Jlichael,  then  aged  forty,  who  was  thus  a  second  time 
elected  prince  of  Servia.  Michael  was  a  man  of  refinement  and 
had  learned  much  during  his  exile.  The  condition  of  the  country 
improved  during  his  reign,  and  in  1862  he  succeeded  in  getting 
the  Turkish  garrisons  removed  from  Belgrade.  The  Moslem  in- 
habitants have  gradually  withdrawn  from  the  country,  so  that  they 
are  now  represented  by  a  very  few  families.  Of  the  two  mosques 
still  remaining  in  Belgi'ade,  one  is  devoted  to  their  use,  tho  other 
having  been  turned  into  a  gas-work.  While  walking  in  his  park, 
called  Koshutniak  or  Topshidere,  near  Belgrade,  Michael  wa3 
assassinated  by  the  emissaries  of  Alexander  Karageorgevich  on  lOtli 
June  1868.  He  was  suegeeded  by  his  second  cousin,  Milan,  grand- 
son of  Yephrem,  a  brother  of  Milosh.  Milan  was  born  in  1854  ; 
he  became  prince  of  Servia  in  1872.  In  1875  he  maiTied  a  Russian 
lady,  Natalie  de  Keczko.  In  1S78  the  Serbs  declared  war  against 
Turkey,  bat  their  arms  were  unsuccessful,  and  they  were  only  saved 
by  the  intervention  of  Russia.  By  tho  treaty  of  Berlin,  July  1878, 
the  country  received  a  large  accession  of  territory,  and  the  prince 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  king.  Peace  continued  till  the 
year  1885,  and  during  this  period  the  Serbs  seemed  to  make  con- 
siderable progress  as  a  nation,  in  spite  of  the  bitterness  of  political 
faction.  In  1885,  however,  Servia  made  an  ill-judged  and  selfish 
attack  upon  Bulgaria,  which  was  ignominiously  beaten  off. 

LiTF.r.ATURE. 

For  some  account  of  the  Servian  language,  see  Slavs. 

Under  Servian  literature  tho  Dalmatian  and  Croatian  in  the 
limited  sense  of  tho  term  must  bo  included.  The  latter,  however, 
is  somewhat  meagre.    This  literature  is  divided  into  three  periods — 

(1)  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  fall  of  Servian  independence  at 
the  battle  of  Kosovo,  1389;  (2)  from  the  rise  of  tho  importance  of 
Ragusa  in  the  15th  century  till  its  decay  towards  the  end  of  the 
17th  ;  (3)  from  the  time  of  Dositci  Obradovich  to  the  present  day. 

Fiisl  Period. — Tho  earliest  composition  which  has  come  down  to 
us  in  the  Servian  or  lllyrian  language,  to  use  a  term  in  which  we 
may  include  the  Dalmatian  Slavs,  who  are  essentially  the  same 
people,  is  the  production  of  an  unknown  priest  of  Diorlea  (Doclea), 
now  Duklya,  a  heap  of  ruins,  but  formerly  a  city  of  considerable 
importance  on  the  river  Moratza.  His  title  in  Latin  is  "  Anonymus 
Presbyter  Diocleus,"  or  in  Slavonic  "Pop  Dukljanin."  Ho  must 
have  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  12th  centiuy,  as  the  chronicle 
comi>ilcd  by  him  extends  to  tho  year  1161.  It  is  a  tedious  pro- 
duction, and  possesses  only  antiquarian  interest ,  it  is  printeu  by 
Kukuljevic  Sakcinski'  in  tho  Arkiv  ;«  Povcstnicu  Jugoslavenskii 
(Agram,  1851)  The  oldest  locuments  of  the  Servian  language  in 
tlio  narrower  sense  of  tho  term  are  a  letter  of  Kulin,  the  ban  ol 
Bosnia  in  1189,  and  the  letter  of  Simeon  or  Stephen  Nemanya  to 
tho  monastery  of  Chilander  on  Mount  Athos.  These  pioductiona 
are  simply  Paltcoslavonie  with  a  mixture  of  Serbisms.  The  history 
of  early  Servian  literature  has  been  thoroughly  investigattd  by 
Schafarik  in  his  Serbisc/te  LesckiJnii-r  (Pesth,  1853).  Wo  hav»  only 
space  to  mention  tho  more  important  productions.  (1)  Tho  Lift  of  St 
Simeon  by  his  son  St  Sabbas  or  Sava,  the  first  archbishop  of  Servia, 
Wiis  written  about  1210.  The  early  manuscripts  have  been  lost 
and  tho  oldest  copy  known  only  ilates  from  tho  17th  century. 
Besides  this  work,  Sava  also  comi>iUd  a  tipik  or  collection  of  statutes 
for  tho  Uionastery  of  Studenitza,  of  which  ho  was  hegouraen  or 
abbot.     He  was  tlio  founder  of  the  celebrated  Chilander  monastery. 

(2)  Tho  Uislory  of  St  Sirncon  mid  St  Sabbas  by  Domelian  was  com- 
piled in  1264,  and  is  preserved  in  a  manuscript  of  tho  14th  century. 

1  In  citing  tho  namci  of  those  members  or  the  Scn'o.Oroatian  race  who  um 
Latin  loticrs  the  oriilnal  orthography  la  preserved. 


690 


S  E  R  V  I  A 


riiere  is  a  good  edition  by  Danichiclj,  to  whom  -we  are  indebted  for 
a.  valuable  lexicon  of  Old  Servian.  (3)  The  Eodosloff  or  Live7  rf 
Servian  kings  and  archbishops,  compiled  by  Archbishop  Daniel 
(died  133S),  contains  the  lives  of  Kings  Radoslaff,  Vladislaff,  Urosh, 
Dragutin,  Quepu  Helena,  llilutin,  &c.  After  his  death  the  work 
was  continued  by  an  anonymous  writer.  The  style  of  these  pro- 
ductions is  dry  and  tasteless.  They  are  written  in  Palreoslavonio 
mixed  with  Serbisms,  Hilferding  has  commented  with  great 
severity  on  their  bombastic  and  panegyrical  style, — the  most  com- 
plimentary epithets  being  applied  to  many  sovereigns  whose  carcei-s 
were  stained  with  crimes.  (4)  The  Life  of  Stephen,  snrnamed  "  De- 
chanski,"  from  the  monastery  Dechani  which  he  founded,  written 
by  Gregory  Tzamblak,  hegoumen  of  the  same  monastery.  (5)  In 
1359  we  have  the  Code  of  Laws  (Zakonik)  of  Stephen  Dushan, 
which  has  been  previously  mentioned  ;  it  is  the  earliest  specimen 
of  Servian  legislation,  and  has  come  down  in  several  manuscripts, 
being  first  published  by  Knich  in  his  History  at  the  close  of  the 
18th  century.  Since  that  time  other  editions  have  appeared,  the 
two  most  important  being  those  of  Jliklosich  and  Novakovich 

Second  Period. — To  this  epoch,  which  may  be  said  to  commence 
with  the  15th  century,  belong  somo  of  the  Servian  chronicles,  the 
Lyetopis  Kopnvnichki  and  others,— tlry  and  tedious  compilations  ; 
the  15th  century  saw  also  the  outburst  of  the  literature  of  Kagusa 
(see  below).  The  Servian  ballads  have  obtained  a  European  celebrity, 
«nd  must  havo  existed  from  very  early  times.  Nicephorus  Gregoras, 
who  in  1325  26  came  to  Stephen  Urosh  IV.  as  ambassador  from  the 
Byzantine  emperor  Andronicus,  noticed  that  some  Serbs  attached 
to  his  suite  sang  tragic  songs  celebrating  the  great  exploits  of  their 
national  herues.  As  M.  Pipin  remarks  in  his  History  of  Slavonic 
Literature,  this  shows  the  existence  of  a  national  epic  among  the 
Serbs  before  the  battle  of  Kooovo.  In  the  description  of  an  embassy 
sent  from  Vienna  to  Constantinople  in  1551  a  certam  Kuripcshich, 
by  birth  a  Slovene,  speaks  of  hearing  songs  sung  iu  honour  of 
Ttfilnsh  who  sU»  Sultan  Murad.  The  first  attempt  at  collecting 
them  wai  made  by  the  Franciscan  monk  Andrew  Kai;ic-Mio5ic,  a 
Dalmatian,  who  died  in  17S5  His  work  was  published  at  Venice 
in  1766  imder  the  title  of  Bazgovor  Ugodni  Naroda  SlovinJcoga 
(Recreations  of  the  Slavonic  People).  Some  of  the  pieces  included 
in  this  volume  were  written  by  Miosn^  himself,  and  he  made  many 
alterations  In  the  old  ones.  This,  however,  was  quite  iu  the  spiut 
of  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  We  find  extracts  from  Servian 
ballads  m  some  of  the  Dalmatian  poets  of  the  16th  century.  In 
1794  they  were  alluded  to  in  the  Traveh  of  the  abbe  Fortis,  and 
were  finally  collected  by  Vuk  Stephanovich  Karajich  and  published 
at  Leipsic  in  1824  under  the  title  Narodnc  Srpske  Fyesme  (Popular 
Servian  Songs)  Some  of  them  were  afterwards  translated  into 
German  by  Theresa  von  Jacob  and  into  English  by  Bonring  and 
Lord  Lytton.  The  versions  of  the  last  two  possess  but  little  merit. 
It  would  be  impossible  in  a  short  notice  like  the  present  to  discuss 
the  contents  of  these  remarkable  ballads.  To  the  majority  of  readers 
the  cycle  which  treats  of  Knez  L,azar  and  his  fate  at  the  battle  of 
Kosovo  will  prove  the  most  interesting.  Besides  historical  persons 
Innodat-ftd  in  the  ballads,  there  is  the  half-mythical  hero  Marco 
Kralevich,  who,  like  the  Russian  Ilya  llurometz,  has  many  of  the 
characteristics  of  a  supernatural  being.  His  victories,  chiefly  over 
Turks  ana  ilngyars,  are  narrated  in  the  most  bombastic  phraseology. 
At  last  he  dies  in  battle  i  but  tlie  belief  prevails  that  he  remains 
concealed  till  he  shall  appear  on  somo  future  occasion  to  rescue  his 
people  from  their  oppr<-ssoi-s.  Almost  as  mystoriouis  as  tlie  hero 
himself  is  his  bursa  Sharatz,  who  was  presented  to  him  by  a  vila 
or  fairy.  After  the  death  of  Vuk  Stephanovich  (1864)  a  supple- 
mentary volume  was  published  by  his  widow,  which  her  husband 
had  left  prepared  for  the  press  Srps/ce  Narodne  Pycsmo  iz  Ilcrzc- 
goviiie  (Popular  Servian  Songs  from  Herzegovina,  Vienna,  1866). 
A  good  collection  of  songs  of  the  Montenegrins  (Tsrhogortzi)  was 
edited  at  Leipsic  in  1857  by  Milutinovich.  There  has  also  appeared 
a  little  volume  of  Servian  national  songs  from  Bosnia,  collected  by 
Bogolub  Petranovich  in  1867.  Since  then  volumes  of  Servian 
popular  poetry  by  Rayachevich  and  Ristich  have  appeared. 

During  this  period  Slavonic  literature  reached  a  high  pitch  of 
culture  in  the  little  city  of  Ragiisa,  called  in  Slavonic  Dubrovnik. 
During  the  loth,  16th,  and  17th  centuries  this  city,  now  in  a  state 
of  decay,  was  a  kind  of  Slavonic  Athens.  To  tlie  influence  of 
Italian  literature  was  added  the  culture  inti'oduced  by  the  crowds 
pf  learned  Greeks, — Chalcocondylas,  Lascaris,  and  others, — wlio 
found  refuge  within  its  walls  after  tlie  fall  of  Constantinople. 
Lyrics  and  the  lyric  drama  seem  to  have  been  the  general  pro- 

? notions  of  the  more  noteworthy  authors.  The  influence  of 
talian  is  perceptible  throughout.  The  first  writer  of  eminence 
was  Hannibal  Lucii!,  a  very  popular  poet  in  his  day,  author  of  love- 
longs,  a  drama  Rohinja  (The  Female  Slave),  and  translations  pub- 
lished fir«t  by  his  son  Anthony  at  Venice  in  1556,  and  reprinted 
S)y  Dr  Gaj  at  Agrara  in  1847.  A  very  interesting  poem  by  this 
Suthor  is  his  Eitlogy  of  the  city  of  Dubrovnik  (Ragusa).  Another 
writer  of  considerable  reputation  was  Nicholas  Vetranii!-dav5i(5 
(1482-1576),  who  afterwards  became  a  monk  and  lived  as  a  hermit 
Bat  ou«  of  tiio  islands  on  the  Daliuatiau  coast.     He  has  left  several 


plays  and,  besides  translating  the  Hecuba  of  EuripideB,  wrote 
several  mysteries,  in  the  style  of  the  religious  plays  once  so  popular 
throughout  Europe  ;  of  these  the  Sacrifice  of  Abraham  is  the  oest. 
His  poem  entitled  Italy  is  remarkable  for  the  warm  afiection  it 
expresses  for  the  country  of  his  education.  Peter  Hektorevic  (1486- 
1572)  was  a  rich  proprietor  of  the  island  of  Zara,  and  is  worth 
mentioning  as  having  shown  a  taste  for  the  national  poetry  of  his 
country.  He  has  introduced  some  songs  in  bis  Rihanjc  i  Eibarsko 
Frigovoranje  (Fishing  and  a  Dialogue  of  Fishermen).  „Very  cele- 
brated in  its  time  was  the  Jegjiipka  or  Gipsy  of  Andrew  Cubranovid 
(1500-1559),  who  was  originally  a  silversmith.  His  poem  of  the 
Gipsy  is  said  to  liave  been  evoked  in  the  foUowing  marmer. 
Cubranovic  was  on  one  occasion  following  a  young  lady  and  urging 
his  suit  when  she  turned  round  and  said  scornfully  in  Italian  to  her 
attendant,  in  the  hearing  of  the  poet,  "  Clis  vuolo  da  me  qucsto 
Zmgaro  8"  ("What  does  this  Gipsy  want  with  me  ?").  The  despised 
lover  took  up  the  word  of  reproach  and  wrote  a  poem  in  which  he 
iutroduccd  a  Gipsy  inophcsying  to  a  company  of  ladies  their  various 
fortunes  and  concluding  with  an  expostulation  to  the  hard-hearted 
beauty  for  her  obduracy.  Schafank  speaks  of  this  piece  with  great 
enthusiasm  and  calls  it  "a  truly  splendid  flower  in  the  garden  of 
the  lllyrian  Muses  "  The  Russian  critic  Pipin  supposes,  with  great 
probability,  that  the  poem  was  wi-itten  as  a  sort  of  masquerade  for 
tlie  carnival.  It  enjoyed  consideiable  popularity  and  was  frequently 
im'.tated.  A  similar  story  is  said  to  have  suggested  the  Dervise 
(Dervish)  of  Stjcpo  Gucetic,  in  which  the  author  represents  himself 
as  a  Turkish  dervish.  Tbese  two  pieces  are  elegant  productions  in 
the  Italian  manner. 

Nicholas  Naljeskovii  (1510-1587)  was  a  native  of  Ragusa  and 
author  of  several  pastoral  plays  iu  the  style  then  so  much  in  vogua 
throughout  Europe.  Of  the  same  description  are  the  produciions 
of  JIavino  \)\i\i.  (1520-1580),  of  whom  his  contemporaries  praised 
"il  puro,  vago,  e  dolce  canto."  Mention  may  also  bo  made  of 
Dinko  Ranjina  and  Mauro  Orbini  (d.  1614).  Another  celebrated 
poet  was  Dominco  Zlatarid  (1556-1C07),  who,  besides  tr.anslating  the 
Ulcctra  of  Sophocles,  produced  a  version  of  the  Aminta  of  Tasso 
and  has  left  several  minor  pieces.  The  chief  of  the  Ragusan  poets, 
however,  was  Ivau  Gundulic  (sometimes  called  by  his  Italian  iiaina 
of  Gondola).  Very  few  facts  are  known  of  his  life ;  but  he  died 
in  1658  aged  fifty,  having  discharged  several  important  public  offices. 
His  death,  says  Schafarik,  was  not  too  early  for  his  fame  but  tot 
early  for  literature  and  the  glory  and  prosperity  of  his  country. 
He  himself  published  but  little,  and  many  of  his  ^^Titing3  perished 
in  the  eartliquake  in  1667,  after  which  Ragusa  never  regained  her 
former  prosperity.  The  so-called  Petrarchan  school  of  lUjTian 
poetry  languished  after  this  and  wasted  its  energy  on  elegant 
trifles.  Dalmatian  poets  of  the  18th  and  19th  centuries  have  not 
made  any  considerable  figure.  The  Os>nan  of  Gundulic!,  on  which 
his  fame  rests,  is  an  epic  in  twelve  books,  and  was  written  to  cele« 
brate  the  victory  of  the  Poles  under  Chodkiewicz  over  the  Turks 
and  Tatars  in  1622  at  Cliocim  (Kliotin).  Schafarik  praises  Gundulid 
for  the  richness  of  his  imagination,  the  loft)'  tone  of  his  verse,  and 
its  perfectly  constructed  rhythm.  We  arc  willing  to  allow  that 
OsTiian  possesses  considerable  spirit  and  that  the  versification  is 
melodious,  but  on  the  whole  it  seems  a  tedious  poem.  The  short 
quatrains  in  which  it  is  written  lack  the  true  epic  dignity.  Leaving 
the  Dalmatians,  the  only  writer  worthy  of  mention  among  the 
Serbs  is  George  Brankovich  (1645-1711),  the  last  despot,  who  corn- 
piled  a  History  of  Scrvia  till  the  end  of  the  11th  Century,  which  has 
been  edited  by  Chedoiriil  Miyatovicli,  ambassador  from  the  court  ol 
Servia  to  St  James's  (1886).  From  this  period  till  the  close  of  the 
ISth  century  there  is  no  Servian  literatuie  :  the  spirit  of  the  jicoplo 
seems  to  havo  been  crushed  out  of  them  by  Austrian  persecutors  on 
the  one  hand  and  by  Turkish  on  the  other.  Till  the  reign'of  Milosl^ 
Obrenovich  in  the  19th  century  hardly  a  Servian  printed  book  was 
to  be  seen.  The  works  of  Yuri  Krizhanich,  who,  although  a  SerbJ 
^vrote  in  Russian,  are  mentioned  under  Russia  (p.  105). 

Third  Period  {from  1750). — The  spark  of  nationality  was  still 
burning  among  the  Serbs,  in  spite  of  their  degradation,  and  mcii 
were  found  to  fan  it.  Such  a  man  was  Raich  (1720-1801),  a 
thorough  patriot.  He  was  born  in  Slavonia,  a  province  of  Austria 
inhabited  by  Serbs,  the  son  of  poor  parents,  but  he  had  all  tho 
enthusiasm  for  learning  that  animated  the  Russian  LomonosolT, 
whom  he  very  much  resembled.  Tlius  we  find  him  making  his 
way  on  foot  from  his  native  town  to  Kicfl',  where  he  was  received 
into  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  and  devoted  himself  to  theology. 
After  spending  three  years  at  Kieff,  he  betook  himself  to  Moscow. 
Meeting,  on  his  return  to  his  native  country,  wnth  a  cold  reception 
from  those  whom  he  had  expected  to  foster  his  studies,  he  went 
back  ta.  Russia,  and  while  at  Kieff  resolved  to  write  the  history  oS 
the  Servian  nation.  Knowing  that  the  Slavonic  monasteries  in 
European  Turkey  contained  many  unpublished  manuscripts  (num- 
bers of  which  have  since  perished  in  the  wars  which  have  devastated 
the  country  or  have  been  destroyed  by  the  Greeks),  he  visited  Con- 
stantinople and  many  other  parts  of  tbat  empire  in  order  to  collect 
materials.  On  his  return  to  Austria  bo  took  up  his  abode  at 
Neusatz  on  tho  Danube  (also  Ion?  the  headquarters  of  SehafariK 


2f  nl^M-^t  i}^  ^^^°^;  ""^^"^  ^^  ^'^^^^^  '•»  1768,  but  it  was 
not  published  till  npwar.lf,  of  twenty  vears  later.      In  1772  ha 

SsHn""""^'-  '"'^  ^'  '^'"'^  ^  l^O^-     The  work  of  Raich,  though 
interesting  as   a   mouumeut  of  learned  industry,   does  not  d?w 

of  the  ethnology  (a  science  then  in  its  Infancy)  unsound.  Thus 
among  other  strange  statements,  he  holds  the  Bulgarians  on  the 

fo?-^K^  =  "'  ^'^  ?'"^^-  ^'^'  ^''^  ''-^  ^°°>«  "Pon  two  inde- 
totigablo  Seryian  workers,  Dositei  Obradovich  (1739-1811)  aid  Vuk 
gtephanonch  (1787-186i).  The  life  of  the  foriier  has  b  n  wri  ten 
fcylii.nself  He  was  a  man  of  varied  learning,  and  L^reer 
mas  marked  by  many  curious  adventures.  After  harins  visited 
nearly  every  part  of  Europe  (including  England,  where  bTwa^ 
teceived  mth  great  hospitality),'  Obradovicl  returned  to  Sei^S 
»nd  became  tutor  to  the  childien  of  Tsrni  George.     He  wa7  a 


S  E  R  V  I  A 


691 


tor 

ten. 


£h^„r^T"  ^r  *^\P<'°P«'  '"J  ="1  indefatigablo^ndsucressftil 
fcbourer  for  national  education.  The  list  of  iSs  compilation.,  and 
tanslations  is  considerable.  Acting  on  the  wise  principle  that 
S^prl^T-f^'.lf  ''  1  'J>'^«Y^ou\d  be  cultivated  an/not  a  jamon 
overloaded  with  archaic  and  supposed  classical  forms,  he  did  good 
ty  destroymg  the  influence  of  the  Palceoslavonie  amon^  his  couifhy- 
men  Before  his  death  his  services  to  his  country  were  recognize^! 
n{t?nn,V'Pf '"'f- '"'  ^™='°ber  of  the  senate  and  superintendfnfof 
.k  ?h.  w-  r"°"-  7^'  ■".""'  ''°"'"^^-  ^'^^  ^^5  destined  to  brLg 
^h^  B,  ^  °  language  into  the  greatest  prominence  was  Vuk  (TVoln 
ph».  Stephanovich  Karajich,  whose  collection  of  songs  was  mentioned 
JZ%y.  \^^  •^'",  ^"  indefatigable  scholar  and  patriot  TUllS 
time  the  Seryian  language  had  been,  so  far  as  al  foreigners  we^ 
wncerned,  simply  rudis  induje^laqm  moles.  He  wot?  a  Zd 
grammar,  which  has  formed  the  basis  of  all  published  since,  an^d  to 

fi^^afrrf^^h^""™  ^T''^',"^  ^  P''^^''-     T°  bim  also  we  owe  a 
Berv^u  dictionary  and  a  collection  of  tales  and  proverbs.     His  .UD 

WnJTl''  '°  ,"1  ^ ■"'"",  """^^e^  with  regard  to  the  rejeo- 
ton  of  archaisms  and  the  introduction  of  a  new  system  of  ortho- 
graphy  raised  up  a  host  of  enemies  against  him,  so  that  not  only 
was  ho  forbidden  to  enter  Servia  but  his  books  w^re  excluded  fi^oni 
makeTl  Tv"'  ^'"^^^  ^^'  beginning  of  1864,  but  permission  to 
maU  use  of  his  innovations  was  not  given  till  four  years  afterwards 
H,„  iqT^     f  enumeration  of  the  Servian  and  Croatian  authors  of 
W.t  H.,  T\l'^  ''°,?  n  far  e.xceed  the  limits  of  this  article.     But 
llattbias  Anthony  Relkovi.!  (1732-1798)  desei-ves  mention,  because 
he  ,vT0te  ui  a  dialect  b.^  Utile  cultivated,  vi...  the  Slavonian  i^  the 
St  nnW*^  I'T'  ^,SPP'"=d  to  the  Austrian  province  of  that  name. 
He  published  in  1/61  a  successful  satire  entitled  Satir  ilUi  IXvi 
Cso^i  (Satire  or  the  Clever  Man),  at  Dresden.     Tfew  names  Seh 
•f  which  marks  a  definite  feature  of  the  literature,  must  suffice 
f'f"carIowitf  w""  ['P,VV'  »n  archimandrite,  afterwards  bishop 
of  Carlowitz   was  highly  esteemed  by  his  countrymen  as  a  poet 
B.S  odes  are  full  of  patriotic  feeling.     Yovan  Hadchich  (1799-mO) 
wrote  under  the  mm  dc  plume  of  MOosh  Sveticb.    For  some  time  he 
was  an  authority  in  Servian  literature,  but  ultimately  hiT  nfluence 
«^•.ne,l.     Simeon  Milutmovich,  a  noted  writer,  whose  life  was  f\dl 
•r  strange  adventures,  composed  an  epic  poem  entitled  Serbiaiika 
»h,eh  desenbes  the  chief  inc.denU  of  the  Servian  war  in  1812      It 

E  published  at  Leipsic  in  1826.  We  have  previously  alluded  to 
collection  of  Montenegrin  songs.  He  is  ako  the  author  of  a 
;edy  on  M.losh  Obilich,  who  sl.w  Sultan  Murad.    Mil  utinovich 

ri806T«.«^  ^°""."''  'Yi  '°  P°^''^'y  i"  1^7-  Yovan  Popov  eh 
ln?i  t  >^'  ^  ""'P'^^f  the  Banat,  was  a  writer  of  much  industry 
and  merit,  and  gamed  a  considerable  reputation  by  his  plavs  the 
jnibjec  s  of  whirh  were  taken  from  Servian  histor/and  were  put 
jpon  the  stage  with  considerable  effect.  Without  b«i„g  a  gr^eat 
•ramatic  writer  he  had  the  art  of  constructing  pieces  to  wS 
|«ooe  would  listen,-somethinp  like  Sheridan  Knowles.     T^  this 

MushitXom  (A  Memorial  to  Lucian  Mushitzki),  and  also  the  Anotl^ 
•r«  of  Kara  George.  In  1847  the  well-known  journal  0/^,i*  (The 
■^TnoXi'  ^''  fo-'-ded,  which  has  continued^o  the  preT  t  imo 
K^^f^rik  r  ,'°^"y.'»'"^b'e  papers  on  Servi.L  histonr  and  literature 
|D/iafarik  had  previous!);  foun Jed  at  Neusatz  (Novi  Sad)  the  MatU-a 
^trhr„°,."r""'','°r'y  <■"  P"°«"«  Servian  books.  "^""""'""^ 
The  Croats  have  also  been  acHvc  in  modern  times.     The  remark 

S^n'rrsifri  ./hmK^^'"  "T"'  ^"^-  ^y  l™n  MaiSanW 
^  fi,  °  ^  r^'  ?  l''°J'°  f  P°P"''"'  among  the  Serbs,  as  stimulat 
W  their  hatred  of  tho  Turk,  that  it  has  befn  called  '  *l^,o  F^>os  o 
Hate  Ismail  was  tho  descendant  of  an  old  Bosnian  family  who 
kad  turned  Mussulmans  to  keep  their  esUtes  when  the  country  wa^ 
hrst  invaded.  These  renegades,  as  mieht  ba  ei-nertn.l  Jr„ 
fiinatical  than  tho  Turks  ?hem«Ives  ^lU  explS  U  were  chTeflv' 
direotod  against  the  Uskoks  and  the  MonteneJna      The  po    a  is 

TyTk  VlT"":  Tl'W'  '^"^  °^  "">  ^'"'•"'  ''"""da  coll  eted 
by  Vuk.  It  IS  spirited,  but  has  a  savage  air  about  it,  engeudered 
by  the  scenes  described,  the  fierce  bonfer  wai-a  of  long  hSitory 


•.Ifa.  Tv.^-  i'".,°P'';''"'  entertained  of  him  In  Britain  It  Is  only  nocesBurv  to 
iJ^H^  to'orlptlon  In  a  book  presented  to  him  by  Dr  Fordyco  an  .ml7nn^ 
London  phyalolan  of  the  time:  "Dosliheo  Obradovlo.  BorbKo  rtrn  n„^,u 
tarll»  BTUdlto,  .onotl8«lml8  niorlbua  mornto,"  4a  """"'O.  vlro  linguU 


collecHn<r^h«T     A  "^  the  cruelties  committed  by  the  Turks  wHl, 
skin  a"L  u  K      ^w^'"",  "1^  conclusion,  where  the  body  of  Out 

The  fou,  ^„.r*\  •  t°  * '° ''«™it.  are  dramatically  conceived. 
Preradov?/Toin  •'?'"'  Servo-Croatian  poets  are  Stanko  Vr,^ 
l«^n  r,iV  k-^m"'"''^',  ^°''  Radichevich.  Stanko  Vraz  (ISlo! 
1851)  was  by  birth  a  Slovene;  he  joined,  however  the  IllvrkU 
^°r'Thr't7  ^i"devit  Gaj'and'used  thrSe^o^C  oati^K 
S^fl'^'ft,!  '^"'r?,',"  "^^  ^^''J  *"  form  a  common  literary  langua»a 
Sani^i.!,^"  "'/"'"  ^>-/l^i"gthe  Servo-Croat and  theSWeS^ 
sh  languages  was  not  successful.     Perhaps  tho  only  result  if  it  had 

^co°m^e?;m".ft'?'  1°"^'^  ^'''J'''''  »'>='«»''«  Slo/enTwoiidhav. 
wo^^d  nnf^''  '  K^  Germanized  as  a  pedantic  literary  languago 
wouid  not  have  been  undersiood  by  the  peasants.  Beiides  SSS 
iomf;ff  rS'  Z'""  ?''"  P"^^^^^'l  collections  of  nationals™^ 
eoZnnW  vT'i  ^''T  ^-T  ""^  <'''^S='°t  ^■'d  have  a  rich  OrienS 
FrlnH  /■  /'*"■  ^'■^'-adov..!  (1818-1872),  a  native  of  the  Military 
TrWnl  1  ^  ^™M  *,^  "i  '^"  *"^^'^''  army,  is  the  author  of  m^ 
fe^,-on^  I"'''  ^''dcly.kno;™  throughout  aU  Servian-speS' 
regions.     A  complete  edition  of  his  works  appeared  in  1873      PeiS 

But^In'.  'f  r  T  ?'"^'  '^  '^?  ''"*''"  oTmany  popula  poemS 
But  no  one  of  the  later  generation  of  Servian  autioi^  has^inS^ 
^ch  a  reputation  as  Branko  Radi.hevich,  who  was  bora  Slh^ 
Austiian  Banat  m  1824,  and  ended  his  short  Ufe  at  Vienna  in  1851 
tbeir^^^Hf  "i^  "'*'  T°  ?°  patriotism  shown  in  his  writings  and 
InX^^  r  .t  *  «°?:i  Nor  hav.  tho  Seryo-Croats  lacked  important 
workers  n  the  fields  of  history  and  phUology.  Among  these  mSt 
b.  mentioned  Dyuro  Daniehich  (1825-l«i),  whTwIis  eduSted 
parUy  at  Pesth  and  partly  at  Vienna,  at  the  latter  unTversit^W 
coming  the  pupil  of  Miklosich.  He  first  made  himself  conspkuoW 
by  spousing  tte  cause  of  Vuk  Stephanovich  Karajich  in  the  L^ato 
about  Servian  orthography.  Besides  contributing  valuable  papeS 
to  the  Gla^nk,  he  was  the  author  of  an  Old  Servian  dict^on^r^  S 

memorLT'of*nM"<f '°  '•   ,?'  "^'''^' '''  P'^^i»"^'y  mentioned 

memouals  of  Old  Servian  literature.     At  the  time  of  his  death  he 

as  engaged  upon  a  great  Servo-Croatian  dictionary,  a  work  whicl^ 

^K„  I  f;  f'^?^'  ''u°  ^^^  ^'''^^'dy  '^'=«  mentioned,  was  a  Croat  an* 

I  ihl  /,1,  ".^'^""^  ^AT'  J^l'f'i'"?"'  """y-     «i^  =^^"ces  were  inv^u- 

able  as  an  editor  of  the  Old  Dalmatian  classics.     Armin  P,vic  (still 

^nl^l^yt  '^'"'°  ^""'^  '"'^'"^y  °f  "'^  Dalmatian  drama  (SrSa 
I  ^ubrovamVrame.  Agram,  1871).  Stoyau  Novakovich  (born  18421 
at  one  time  minister  of  public  instruction,  besides  contributina 
valuable  articles  in  the  Glasiia-.  has  published  an  historitaUhr^s? 
sZfl  '/n^  ?'  ^"7°  ^''S"^^''  ""^  ^°  edition  of  the  Siil  of 
Mivn  nv;  ),  ••   ^f°*'"^''  ''y'^''  '"  the  same  field  was  ChedonUl 

ani  mWnh'  ^T°'f^  mentioned.  One  of  the  most  indefatigabS 
and  pah-iotic  of  modern  Croatian  scholars  is  Ivan  Kukuli.vid  Sak.' 
^^^,''  ^^l,^""  edited,  besides  many  early  Croatian  a"  dSr^ 
v^oiks,  an  admirable  Arkiv  za  rovestnieu  Jugoslavemku  (CoUect^ 
of  Documents  for  South  Slavonic  History),  of  which  several  volm^ea 
have  appeared,-a  veritable  storehouse  of  Slavonic  history  arSo! 
te"p'i  w^^'-.c^''^'^^^  '■"""'^  ""  C-xcellentcofdjutorTn  Dr 
rismo  SlovjeiiskoiShvoma  Writing,  Agi-am,  1S61),  Odlomci  iz 
Z>rzavnogapravaSorvatskoga  (Fragmcnts\f  Croatia  law!  1861? 
and  many  excellent  historical  articles  in  the  journals  PoTw  (The 
Observer)  and  Piad  (Labour).  ^ 

<?ldi'^LrJ'''"f'''''  ^^^  v°?*  "defatigable  worker  in  tho  fiell  of 
(born  IS^fl     f      ■'  r"  ^'"?S  '^  "'«  C™^t  iL-naz  Vatroslaff  Jadl 
nb^lr  J^'  '^°™<'^'7.?  Professor  at  Berlin,  wT.o  now  occupies  S, 
chau-  of  Slavonic  plnlosc.phy  at  St  Petersburg,  in  tho  plao.  of 
Sreznevski.     He  has  published  many  valuable  works  on  &^ 
philology  such  as  {in  m7)^Ifi^lory\/Serfo.Croatian  LilerZri 
also  a  reading-book  with  specimens  of  early  GlagoUtic  aid  0^ 
omo  ildZf.Y  '^'«."''-"''**T  'Tczika)!^  Heias^also  cdite'dTi: 
.;„.;„  id  ^  "7°"'^  "f^'"^'-  ilarianus  and  Zographensis.     Mor». 
W^'  ZH^u'  ^"""ded  the  weU-known  Archiv/iir  ,lavisc},e  Phih- 
logie,  which  ho  stUl  edit,  wth  the  co-operation  of  many  SlavisU. 
bimo  loubid  13  another  worker  in  tho  field  of  Slavonic  history  and 
mnv  l^"^A^  To  the  excellent  literary  journals  already  mentionad 
may  be  added  the  ,?ter«ia,  published  at  Agram.     Valuable  works 
have  been  wntten  by  Balthasar  Bogis'vidon  the  house-communiti«i 
of  the  southern  Slavs  and  douth  Slavonic  law  gcncrallT.    His  laboun 
have  been  made  use  of  by  Sir  Henry  Maine.    One  of  the  most  calm 
brated  of  living  Servian  poets  is  Matthias  Ban,  tho  author  of  several 
poems  and  phiys,  which  have  been  very  favourably  received 

A  few  words  may  be  added  here  on  Montenegrin  history  end 
literature,  the  details  of  which  are  but  scanty.  On  tho  deith  rf 
istoplien  Diishan,  a  ceiUIn  prince  Bnlslia  became  independent  ruler 
01  -icta.  Many  fugitives  betook  thcmsolves  to  tho  little  rotre»» 
alter  the  battle  of  Kosovo.  Ivan  Chernoyevich  settled  in  TzetinVe 
((..ettinie)  in  1485  and  built  n  church  and  a  monastery.  In  1616  hl« 
son  and  successor  retired  to  Venice,  and  Montenegro  was  ooverned 


by  a  national  assembly  and  a  vladika  (prince  bishop).  Tho  countrr 
T^  '111'°'',. ''5'  ^'adikas  of  various  families  tUl  16fi7.  In  that  yeS 
nrV^?,  T"""  '!<^"ditnrv  m  the  family  of  Poti-ovich  of  Nego.h. 
Originally  tho  ecclesiastical  an.l  civU  functions  wore  combinwi  in 


692 


S  E  R  — S  E  R 


the  person  of  the  vladika,  But  they  were  separated  on  the  death  of 
Peter  II.  in  1851.  Tlie  latter  was  the  author  of  some  poems  in  the 
Servian  language,  the  most  celebrated  being  Loucha  Mikrokozma 
(The  Light  of  the  Microcosm),  which  appeared  at  Belgrade  in  1845. 
He  \vas  succeeded  hj  his  son  Daniel,  first  prince  of  Montenegro,  ivho, 
djring  in  1860,  was  followed  by  his  nephew  Xicbo'as,  the  most  memor- 
able events  of  whose  reign  have  be«n  the  war  with  Turkey  and  the 
increase  of  his  territory  oy  the  treaty  of  Berlin.  (W,  E.  M. ) 

SERVITES  (Servi  Beatse  Marise  Virginis).  This  reli- 
gious order  owes  its  origin  to  Bonfiglio  Jilonaldi,  a  Floren- 
tine, who  in  1233  withdrew  along  with  six  of  his  comrades 
to  the  Campo  Marzo  near  the  city  for  prayer  and  ascetic 
exercises  in  honour  of  the  Virgin.  Three  years  afterwards 
they  removed  to  Monte  )Senario,  where  their  numbers  were 
considerably  increased.  The  order  at  a  very  early  period 
received  from  Bishop  Ardingus  of  Florence  the  rule  of  St 
Augustine,  but  did  not  obtain  papal  sanction  until  1255. 
It  rapidly  spread  into  France,  Germany,  the  Low  Countries, 
Poland,  and  Hungary,  and  from  Martin  V.  it  received  in 
1424  the  privileges  of  the  mendicant  orders.  The  Servite 
Tertiaries  were  founded  about  the  same  time  by  Giuliano 
Falconieri.  Under  Bernardino  de  Kicciolini  arose  the 
Hermit  Servites  (1593).  The  members  of  the  order  (Ob- 
servants and  Conventuals)  are  now  found  chiefly  in  Italy, 
Hungary,  Austria,  and  Bavaria. 

SERVIUS,  the  commentator  on  Yirgil,  is  all  but  un- 
known to  us,  so  far  as  personal  information  goes.  From 
notices  in  the  Saturnalia  of  Macrobius,  where  he  appears 
as  an  interlocutor,  we  may  infer  that  in  or  about  380, 
though  still  quite  young,  he  was  already  distinguished  as 
a  "  grammaticus,"  that  is,  as  an  expert  in  the  criticism, 
explanation,  and  teaching  of  the  classical  literature  of 
Rome.  Servius  therefore  belongs  to  the  latter  half  of  the 
4th  and  the  earlier  years  of  the  5th  century,  to  the  age 
of  Symmachus  and  Claudian,  of  Jerome  and  Augustine. 
The  allusions  of  Macrobius  and  a  short  letter  from  Sym- 
machus to  Servius  leave  no  doubt  that  the  grammarian 
formed  one  of  that  band  of  cultivated  men,  led  by  Sym- 
machus, whose  eyes  were  turned  towards  the  pagan  past 
and  away  from  the  Christian  future,  and  who  breathed 
into  pagan  culture  its  last  transient  sparks  of  life  and 
vigour.  The  race  of  "  grammatici "  to  which  Servius 
belonged,  and  which  had  now  run  at  Rome  a  course  of 
some  500  years,  had  done  much  evU  to  literature,  had 
helped  to  corrujit,  falsify,  encumber,  and  even  in  some 
instances  by  abbreviations  upon  abbreviations  to  kill  out 
the  texts  on  which  they  worked  j  but  on  the  whole  they 
had  done  more  good.  They  had  helped  to  save  what  could 
be  saved  of  education,  culture,  and  history,  and  so  had 
in  the  main  contributed  to  the  preservation  of  the  ancient 
literature  that  has  come  down  to  us.  Of  all  the  "  gram- 
matici "  none  bears  on  his  front  more  of  the  virtues  and 
fewer  of  the  vices  of  the  race  than  Servius.  But  it  must 
be  noted  that  much  which  passes  under  the  name  of 
Servin*  in  modern  editions,  and  in  modern  quotations, 
most  certainly  did  not  proceed  from  his  hand.  The 
oomments  on  Virgil  to  which  his  name  has  been  attached 
oome  from  three  different  sources.  One  class  of  MSS. 
wntains  a  Comparatively  short  commentary,  definitely 
ittributed  to  Servius.  A  second  class  (all  going  back  to 
jhe  10th  or  11th  century)  presents  a  much  expanded  com- 
mentary, in  which  the  first  is  embedded ;  but  these  MSS. 
differ  very  much  in  the  amount  and  character  of  the  addi- 
tions they  make  to  the  original,  and  none  of  them  bear 
the  name  of  Servius.  The  added  matter  is  undoubtedly 
mcient,  dating  from  a  time  but  little  removed  from  that  of 
Servius,  and  is  founded  to  a  large  extent  on  historical  and 
mtiquarian  literature  which  is  now  lost.  The  third  class  of 
MSS.,  written  for  the  most  part  in  Italy  and  of  late  date, 
repeats  the  text  of  the  first  class,  with  numerous  interpolated 
eoholia  of  quite  recent  orij^  and  little  or  no  vaXuf. 


The  real  Servian  commentary  (for  so  we  must  designate 
the  te.^t  that  we  find  in  the  first  class  of  MSS.)  practically 
gives  the  only  complete  extant  edition  of  a  classic  author 
written  before  the  destruction  of  the  empire.  It  is  cour 
structed  very  much  on  the  principle  of  a  modern  edition, 
but  with  very  different  ideas  both  as  to  the  relative  and  the 
absolute  value  of  the  matters  treated.  Owing  to  the  delicacy 
and  originality  of  his  veiled  style,  to  the  innumerable 
threads  of  ancient  history,  mythology,  and  antiquities  shot 
through  the  texture  of  his  poems,  owing  above  all  to  the 
firm  hold  he  early  gained  upon  the  Latin  schools,  Virgil  had 
a  continuous  line  of  expounders  stretching  almost  from  his 
death  to  the  destruction  of  the  Roman  government  of  the 
West.  Servius  buUt  his  edition  in  part  on  the  extensive 
Virgihan  literature  of  preceding  times,  much  of  which  is 
known  only  from  the  fragments  and  facts  he  has  preserved. 
The  notices  of  Virgil's  text,  though  seldom  or  never 
authoritative  in  face  of  the  existing  MSS.,  which  go  back 
to,  or  even  beyond,  the  times  of  Servius,  yet  supply  valuable 
information  concerning  the  ancient  recensions  and  textual 
criticism  of  Virgil.  In  the  grammatical  interpretation  of 
his  author's  language,  Servius  does  not  rise  above  the  stiff 
and  overwrought  subtleties  of  that  day  ;  while  his  etymo- 
logies, as  is  natural,  violate  every  law  of  sound  and  sense. 
As  a  literary  critic  the  shortcomings  of  Servius  are  great, 
if  we  judge  him  by  a  modern  standard,  but  he  shines 
if  compared  vnih.  his  contemporaries.  In  particular,  he 
deserves  credit  for  setting  his  face  against  the  prevalent 
allegorical  methods  of  exposition.  But  the  abiding  value 
of  his  work  lies  in  his  preservation  of  facts  in  Roman 
history,  religion,  antiquities,  and  language  which  but  for 
him  might  have  perished.  Not  a  little  of  the  laborious 
erudition  of  Varro  and  other  ancient  scholars,  to  whom 
time  has  proved  unkind,  has  survived  in  Servius's  pages. 
The  older  MSS.  sometimes  add  to  the  name  Servilis  that 
of  JIagister  (given  to  other  distinguished  grammarians  at 
difierent  times) ;  the  later  Italian  MSS.  in  some  cases  give 
his  name  as  Maurus  Servius  Honoratus.  Besides  the 
Virgllian  commentary,  we  have  other  works  of  Servius, — 
a  collection  of  notes  on  the  grammar  {Ars)  of  Donatus ;  a 
treatise  on  metrical  endings  ;  the  tract  De  Centum  Meteris 
or  Centimeter. 

The  most  noted  editions  of  the  Virgiliah  commentary  are  by 
Fabricius  (1651);  P.  Daniel,  who  first  published  the  enlarged 
commentary  (1600) ;  and  by  Thilo  and  Hagen  (Leipsic,  1878-84). 
The  Essai  sur  Servius  by  E.  Thomas  (Paris,  1880)  is  an  elaborat* 
and  valuable  examination  of  all  matters  connected  with  Servius ; 
many  points  are  treated  also  by  Ribbeck  in  his  "Prolegomena"  to 
Virgil,  and  by  Thilo  and  Hagen  as  above.  The  smaller  worka  of 
Servius  are  printed  in  Keil's  Orammatici  Latini. 

SER\TCrS  TULLIUS,  the  sixth  king  of  Rome,  described 
in  one  account  as  originally  a  slave,  is  s§id  to  have  married 
a  daughter  of  Tarquin,  and  to  have  gained  the  throne  by 
the  contrivance  of  Tanaquil,  his  mother-in-law.  Another 
legend  represented  him  as  a  soldier  of  fortune  originally 
named  Mastarna,  from  Etruria,  who  attached  himself  to 
Caeles  Vibenna,  the  founder  of  an  Etruscan  city  on  the 
Caelian  Hill.  Servius  included  within  one  circuit  the  five 
separately  fortified  lulls  which  were  then  inhabited  and 
added  two  more,  thus  completing  the  "Septimontium"; 
the  space  thus  inclosed  he  divided  into  four  "  regiones,"  the 
Suburana,  Esquilina,  Collina,  and  Palatina  (see  Rome,  voL 
sx.  p.  813).  For  his  contributions  to  Roman  law  sea 
Roman  Law,  vol.  xx.  p.  669  sq.,  and  for  his  reforms  of 
the  constitution  see  Rome,  vol.  xx.  pp.  734-735.  His 
legislation  was  extremely  distasteful  to  the  patrician  order, 
and  his  reign  of  forty-four  years  was  brought  to  a  close 
by  a  conspiracy  headed  by  his  son-in-law  Tarquinius 
Superbus.  The  street  in  which  Tullia  drove  her  car  over 
her  father's  body  ever  after  bore  the  name  of  the  "  Vicua 
Sceleratus." 


S  E  S  — S  E  T 


693 


SESAME,    the   most    important   plant   of    the   genua 
Sesamum  (nat.    ord.    Pedalinex),    is    that    which   is  used 
throughout  India  and  other  tropical  countries  for  the  sake 
of  the  oil  expressed  from  its  seeds.     S.  indicum  is  an  herb 
2  to  4  feet  high,  with  the  lower  leaves  on  long  stalks,  broad, 
coarsely  toothed  or  lobed.     The  upper  leaves  are  opposite^ 
lanceolate,  and  bear  in  their  axils  curved,  tubular,  two^ 
iipi)ed  flowers,   each  about  |  inch  long,  and  pinkish  or 
yellowish  in   colour.     The  four  stamens  are  of  unequal 
length,  with  a  trace  of  a  fifth  stamen,  and  the  two-celled 
ovary  ripens  into  a  two-valved  pod  with  numerous  seeds. 
The  plant  has  been  cultivated  in  the  tropics  from  time 
immemorial,  and  is  supposed  on  philological  grounds  to 
have  been  disseminated  from  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  but  at  present  it  is  not  known  with  certainty 
ID  a  wild  state.     The  plant  varies  in  the  colour  of  the 
flower,  and  especially  in  that  of  the  seeds,  which  range  from 
light  yellow  or  whitish  to  black.     Sesame  oil,  otherwise 
known  as  gingelly  or  til  (not  to  be  confounded  with  that 
derived  from    Guizotia   oleifera,   known  under  the  same 
vernacular  name),  is  very  largely  used  for  the  same  pur- 
poses as  olive  oil,  and,  although  less  widely  known  by 
name,  is  commercially  a  much  more  important  oil ;  thus, 
apart  from  the  almost  universal  use  of  the  oil  in  India' 
from  50  to  80  millions  of  kilogrammes  of  the  seed  are  stated 
to  have  been  introduced  annually  into  France  in  1870- 
1872.     The  seed  is  also  largely  exported  from  Zanzibar 
and  Formosa.     The  seeds  and  leaves  also  are  used  by  the 
natives  as  demulcents  and  for  other  medicinal  purposes. 
The  soot  obtained  in  burning  the  oil  is  said  to  constitute 
•ne  of  the  ingredients   in   India   or  Chinese  ink.     The 
plant  might  be  cultivated  with  advantage  in  almost  all 
the  tropical  and  semi-tropical  colonies  of  Britain,  but  will 
not  succeed  in  any  part  of  Europe. 

SESOSTRIS  (SeVcoorpts,  so  Herodotus  ;  Diodorus  writes 
Sesoosis;  other  forms  are  Sesonchosis,  Sesosis,  Sesothis, 
ix.)  IS  according  to  Greek  historians  the  name  of  a  king 
Egypt  who  conquered  the  whole  world,  even  Scythia^ 
the  lands  of  the  Ganges,  and  Ethiopia,  which  were  not 
subject  to  any  of  the  later  great  empires.  The  conqueror 
in  whose  exploits  these  extravagant  legends  took  their  rise 
was  Ramses  II.  (see  Egtot,  vol.  vii.  p.  739) ;  but  the 
Greek  accounts  unite  in  his  person  all  the  greatest  deeds  of 
the  ancient  Pharaohs,  and  add  much  that  is  purely  imagin- 
ary. In  Manetho's  lists  Sesostns  is  identified  with  a  much 
•Ider  king,  Usertesen  IL,  perhaps  because  authentic  tradi- 
tion made  him  the  conqueror  of  .(Ethiopia  (see  vol.  vii.  p. 
731).  When  Herodotus  says  that  he  himself  saw  monu- 
ments of  Sesostns  in  Palestine,  he  has  been  thought  to  refer 
to  the  figures  of  Ramses  II.  h6wn  in  the  rocks  of  Nahr-al- 
Aalb,  near  Beirut,  but  they  do  not  agree  well  with  his 
description  (Hdt.,  ii.  102-106),  which  seems  to  point  rather 
to  Astarte  pillars  (Asherim).  The  monuments  in  Ionia  of 
which  he  speaks  still  exist  in  the  Karabel  Pass.  They  are 
not  Egyptian  but  so-called  "  Hittite,"  i.e.,  probably  Cappa- 
docian.     See  Wright,  i;m2}m  of  the  Ilittites,  last  plate. 

SESSA,  a  town  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  province  of 
Terra  di  Lavoro,  situated  among  hills  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Suessa  Aurunca,  on  a  small  affluent  of  the  Gari- 
gliano,  is  17  miles  east  of  Gaeta  and  half  a  mile  from 
Sanf  Agata.  The  hill  on  which  Sessa  is  situated  is  a  mass 
of  volcanic  tufa,  in  which  have  been  discovered  painted 
chambers  erroneously  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  a 
city  covered  by  a  volcanic  eruption.  The  town  contains 
many  ancient  remains,  particularly  the  ruins  of  Ponte 
Aurunca  and  of  an  amphitheatre.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop, 
has  an  interesting  basilica  with  three  naves,  a  gymnasium' 
a  technical  school,  and  a  seminary.  The  cathedral  contains 
inscriptions,  a  mosaic  pavement,  and  a  good  ambo  decorated 
with  mosaics  resting  on  columns.     In  the  principal  street 


are  memorial  stones  with  inscriptions  in  honour  of  Charieb 
v.,  surmounted  by  an  old  crucifix  with  a  mosaic  cross. 
Exclusive  of  the  environs,-the  town  has  a  population  of 
6130.  The  hills  of  Sessa  are  celebrated  for  their  vines, 
the  "Agor  Falernus  "  of  the  Romans. 
SESSION,  CoDUT  OF.  See  Scotland,  p.  535  supra 
SETTLE,  Elkanah  (1G48-1723),  a  minor  poet  and 
playwright  of  the  Restoration  period,  immortalized  by  the 
ridicule  of  Dryden  and  Pope,  was  born  at  Dunstable  in 
1618.  He  IS  the  "  Doeg  "  of  the  second  part  of  Absalom 
and  Achxtophel,  and  is  treated  by  the  satirist  with  some- 
what more  good-humoured  contempt  than  his  compauiou 
in  the  pillory — Shadwell. 

Doeg,  though  without  knowing  how  or  why,  ' 
Made  still  a  blundering  kind  of  melody; 
Spurr'd  boldly  on,  and  dash'd  through  thick  and'thiii, 
Through  sense  and  nonsense,  never  out  uor  in. 

Dryden  treats  him  as  a  sort  of  harmless  fool,  who 
"rhymed  and  rattled "  along  in  perfect  satisfaction  with 
himself.  For  some  time  also  he  was  taken  by  the  public 
at  his  own  valuation.  At  college  he  seems  to  have  been 
regarded  as  a  prodig)',  and  his  juvenile  verse  was  preferred 
to  Dryden's.  Coming  to  London,  he  began  to  produce 
tragedies.  His  Empress  of  Morocco  (acted  in  1673,  when 
the  author  was  twenty-five)  was  a  signal  success  on  the 
stage,  and  is  said  by  Dennis  to  have  been  "  the  first  play 
that  was  ever  sold  in  England  for  two  shillings,  and  ths 
first  that  was  ever  printed  with  cuts."  Puffed  up  by  this 
success,  Settle  made  haughty  allusions  in  his  preface, 
which  excited  the  ire  of  his  contemporaries ;  an4  Dryden 
cooperated  with  Crowne and  Shadwell  in  writing  sarcastic 
notes  on  The  Empress.  Settle's  next  collision  with 
Dryden  was  also  provoked  by  himself.  He  attempted  a 
counterblast  to  Dryden's  great  satire  in  Absalom  Senior, 
and  was  contemptuously  demolished  in  return.  Settle  was 
then  comparatively  a  young  man,  his  age  being  thirty-five, 
but  ho  had  touched  the  height  of  his  fame,  and  the  remain- 
ing forty  years  of  his  life  were  not  so  successful.  Dryden 
mockingly  said  of  him  that  his  ambition  was  to  be  "  the 
master  of  a  puppet-show,"  alluding  to  his  duties  in  the  office 
of  city  poet,  in  which  he  was  one  of  the  successors  of  Lodge, 
Middleton,  Jonson,  and  Quarles ;  and  to  this  he  was  literally 
reduced  in-  his  old  age,  keeping  a  booth  at  Bartholomew 
Fair,  where  he  is  said  to  have  played  the  part  of  the  dragon 
in  green  leather.     He  died  in  the  Charterhouse  in  1723, 

SETTLEMENT,  in  law,  is  a  mutual  arrangement 
between  living  persons  for  regulating  the  present  or  future 
enjoyment  of  property.  It  also  denotes  the  instrument  by 
which  such  enjoyment  is  regulated.  The  prevailing  notion 
of  a  settlement  is  the  dealing  with  property  in  a  manner 
different  from  that  in  which  the  law  would  have  dealt  with 
it  apart  from  the  settlement.  Definitions  of  settlement  for 
the  purposes  of  the  Acts  are  contained  in  the  Acts  of  1856, 
1877,  and  1882  (see  below).  They  are,  however,  scarcely 
sufficient  for  a  general  definition.  On  the  one  hand  they 
are  too  extensive,  and  include  wills ;  on  the  other  they  are 
not  comprehensive  enough,  as  they  apply  only  to  real  estate. 
They  also  include  only  cases  of  successive  limitations,  but 
the  idea  of  succession  does  not  in  itself  seem  a  necessary 
part  of  the  conception  of  settlement,  although  no  doubt 
most  settlements  contemplate  successive  enjoyment.  Settle- 
ments may  be  either  for  valuable  consideration  or  not :  the 
latter  are  usually  called  voluntary,  and  are  in  law  to  some 
extent  in  the  same  position  as  revocable  gifts ;  the  former 
are  really  contracts,  and  in  general  their  validity  depends 
upon  the  law  of  contract.  They  may  accordingly  contain 
any  provisions  not  contrary  to  law  or  public  policy.' 

'  In  thU  Englisli  Isw  alloTiii  greater  freedom  thin  French.  •  by 
S  791  of  the  Code  NapoMon,  In  a  contract  of  martiij^  Ui*  iuoMwlon  to 
a  living  pvrsou  cannot  bt  renounced. 


694 


SETTLEMENT 


The  elements  of  the  modern  settlement  are  to  be  found 
in  Koman  law.  The  vulgaris,  2'>upillaris,  or  exemplaris 
tubsiiiutio  (consisting  in  the  appointment  of  successive 
heu's  in  case  of  the  death,  incapacity,  or  refusal  of  the 
heir  first  nominated)  may  have  suggested  the  modern 
mode  of  giving  enjoyment  of  property  in  succession. 
Such  a  siihstiiutio  could,  however,  only  have  besn  made  by 
will,  while  the  settlement  of  English  law  is,  in  the  general 
acceptation  of  the  term,  exclusively  an  instrument  inter 
vivos.  The  dos  or  donatio  propter  tiuptias  corresponds  to  a 
considerable  extent  with  the  marriage  settlement,  the 
instrument  itself  being  represented  by  the  dotale  instru- 
mentum  or  pacta  dotalia.  In  the  earliest  period  of  Koman 
law  no  provision  for  the  wife  was  required,  for  she  passed 
under  mamis  of  her  husband,  and  became  in  law  his 
daughter,  entitled  as  such  to  a  share  of  his  property  at  his 
death.  In  course  of  time  the  plebeian  form  of  marriage 
by  usiis,  according  to  which  the  wife  did  not  become  sub- 
ject to  mcmus,  gradually  superseded  the  older  form,  and  it 
became  necessary  to  make  a  provision  for  the  wife  by 
contract.  Such  provision  from  the  wife's  side  was  made 
by  the  dos,  the  property  contributed  by  the  wife  or  some 
one  on  her  behalf  towards  the  expenses  of  the  new  house- 
hold. Dos  might  be  given  before  or  after  marriage,  or 
might  be  increased  after  marriage.  It  was  a  duty  enforced 
by  legislation  to  provide  dos  where  the  father  possessed  a 
suiEcient  fortune.  Dos  was  of  three  kinds  : — profeditia, 
contributed  by  the  father  or  other  ascendant  on  the  male 
Bide ;  adventitia,  by  the  wife  herself  or  any  person  other 
than  those  who  contributed  dos  profeditia ;  receptiiia,  by 
ftny  person  who  contributed  dos  adventitia,  subject  to  the 
stipulation  that  the  property  was  to  be  returned  to  the 
person  advancing  it  on  dissolution  of  the  marriage.  The 
position  of  the  husband  gradually  changed  for  the  worse. 
From  being  owner,  subject  to  an  obligation  to  return  the 
das  if  the  wife  predeceased  him,  he  became  a  trustee  of 
the  corpus  of  the  property  for  the  wife's  family,  retaining 
only  the  enjoyment  of  the  income  as  long  as  the  marriage 
continued.  The  contribution  by  the  husband  was  called 
donatio  propter  nuptias}  The  most  striking  point  of  dif- 
ference between  the  Koman  and  the  English  law  is  that 
under  the  former  the  children  took  no  interest  in  the  con- 
tributions made  by  the  parents.  Other  modes  of  setthng 
property  in  Koman  law  were  the  life  interest  or  usus,  the 
f-dncommissum,  and  the  prohibition  of  alienation  of  a 
legatum. 

The  oldest  form  of  settlement  in  England  was  perhaps 
the  gift  in  f rankmarriage  to  the  donees  in  frankmarriage, 
and  the  heirs  between  them  two  begotten  (Littleton,  §  17). 
This  was  simply  a  form  of  gift  in  special  tail,  which 
became  up  to  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  the  most  usual 
kind  of  settlement.  The  time  at  which  the  modern  form 
of  settlement  of  real  estate  came  into  use  seems  to  be 
doubtful.  There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  trace  of  a 
limitation  of  an  estate  to  an  unborn  child  prior  to  1556. 
In  an  instrument  of  that  year  such  a  limitation  was 
effected  by  means  of  a  feoffment  to  uses.  The  plan  of 
granting  the  freehold  to  trustees  to  preserve  contingent 
remainders-  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Lord  Keeper 
Bridgman  in  the  17th  century,  the  object  being  to  preserve 
the  estate  from  forfeiture  for  treason  daring  the  Common- 
wealth.s  The  settlement  of  chattels  is  no  doubt  ot  consider- 
ably later  origin,  and  the  principles  were  adopted  by  courts 
of  equity  from  the  corresponding  law  as  to  real  estate. 

'  See  Hunter,  Roman  Law,  p.  150  ;  Maine,  Early  History  of  Insti- 
tutions, lect.  xi. 

'  The  appointment  of  Buch  trustees  has  been  rendered  unnecessary 
by  8  and  9  Vict.  c.  106  and  40  and  41  Vict.  c.  83. 

•  Tliis  sketch  of  the  history  of  settlement  is  abridgea  from  a  paper 
by  tlio  late  Mr  Joshua  Williams,  Papers  qf  the  Juridical  Society,  vol. 
1.  p.  45. 


At  the  present  time  the  settlement  in  England  is,  bo  far 
as  regards  real  estate,  used  for  two  inconsistent  purposes, 
— to  "  make  an  eldest  son,"  as  it  is  called,  and  to  avoid 
the  results  of  the  right  of  succession  to  real  property  of  the 
eldest  son  by  making  provision  for  the  younger  children. 
The  first  result  is  generally  obtained  by  a  strict  settlement; 
the  latter  by  a  marriage  settlement,  which  is  for  valuable 
consideration  if  ante-nuptial,  voluntary  if  post-nuptiaL  At 
the  same  time  it  should  be  remembered  that  these  two 
kinds  of  settlement  are  not  mutually  exclusive  :  a  marriage 
settlement  may  often  take  the  form  of  a  strict  settlemeot 
and  be  in  substance  a  resettlement  of  the  family  estate. 

There  are  throe  possible  varieties  of  the  marriage  settlement : — ' 
(1)  the  dotal  system  (regime  dotal),  under  which  the  liusbaiij 
generally  has  the  usufruct  but  not  the  property  in  the  dos  ;  this  fa 
the  system  generally  followed  in  countries  where  the  Romaq  law 
prevails ;  (2)  the  system  of  community  of  goods  (communauti  de 
Mens),  by  which  the  wife  becomes  a  kind  of  partner  of  the  husband  ; 
this  system,  said  to  have  been  originally  the  custom  of  ancient 
Germany,  is  in  vogue  in  France  and  Louisiana  ;  (3)  the  system  of 
separate  property,  by  which  (subject  to  contract)  the  wife's  pro- 
perty is  free  from  the  control  of  her  husband  ;  this  system  prevail! 
in  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  United  States.  An  ordinary 
English  marriage  settlement  of  personalty  is  a  deed  to  which  tho 
parties  are  the  intended  husband  and  wife  and  trustees  nominated 
on  their  behalf.  It  generally  contains  the  following  clauses  : — a 
power  to  vary  the  investments  of  the  settled  property  withiB 
limits  ;  trusts  of  the  income  for  the  benefit  of  the  husband  and 
wife  during  their  lives ;  trusts  for  tho  issue,  usually  accordiug  to 
the  appointment  of  the  husband  andwife  or  the  survivor,  and  in 
default  for  sons  attaining  twenty-one  and  for  daughters  attaining 
that  ago  or  raaiTying,  equally,  subject  to  a  "hotchpot"  clause, 
charging  tho  children  with  the  amount  of  any  previous  appoint- 
ments ;  a  power  of  advancement  of  the  portions  of  childien  in 
anticipation  ;  a  trust  for  the  maintenance  of  infant  cliildren  after 
the  death  of  the  parents,  with  a  direction  for  the  accomnlation  of 
surplus  income  ;  ultimate  trusts  fixing  the  destination  of  the 
settled  property  in  default  of  issue.  The  receipt  and  trustee 
clauses,  at  one  time  usual,  have  been  rendered  unnecessary  by 
recent  legislation.  The  Conveyancing  Act,  18S1,  superseding 
Lord  St  Leonard's  Act  of  1859  and  Lord  Cranworth's  Act  of  1860, 
gives  power  to  appoint  new  trosteea,  and  makes  a  trustee's  receipt 
a  sufficient  discharge.  Trustees  were  formerly  much  restricted 
in  their  investments,  but  various  Acts  of  Parliament  have  now 
increased  their  powers  of  choice  of  investment  (see  Tkust).  Th» 
settlement  of  real  estate  is  still  a  matter  of  greater  difficulty  than 
that  of  personalty,  though  it  has  been  considerably  siniplined  by 
recent  legislation.  A  snort  statutory  form  of  settlement  of  real 
estate  is  provided  by  the  Conveyancing  Act,  1881  (Fourth  Schedule, 
Form  iv. ).  The  Act  further  enacts  that  a  covenant  by  tb«  aettlor 
for  further  assurance  is  to  be  implied.  This  takes  the  place  of 
those  covenants  usually  inserted  in  settlements  befor*  the  Act, 
which  were  the  ordinary  covenants  for  title.  (See  Real  Estate.) 
The  Settled  Land  Act,  1832,  gives  statutory  anthority  to  certain 

E revisions  generally  inserted  by  conveyancers.  The  clauses  must, 
owever,  still  vary  infinitely  according  to  the  circumstances  of 
particular  cases.  Where  the  settlement  is  of  copyholds,  the  usaal 
course  is  to  surrender  them  to  the  use  of  trustees  as  joint  tenants 
in  fee  upon  such  trusts  as  will  effect  the  desired  devolutioi.  of  the 
property. 

A  strict  settlement  of  real  estate  usually  takes  place  on  the 
coming  of  age  or  marriage  of  the  eldest  son,  if  it  be  the  intentioii 
of  the  parties  that  the  estate  should  continue  undivided.  Thp 
consideration  for  the  settlement  in  the  first  case  is  usually  an 
immediate  allowance  made  to  the  son,  in  the  second  the  marria® 
itself,-  a  valuable  consideration.  It  will  appear  on  referring  v> 
the  articles  Entail  and  Real  Estate  that  an  estate  cannot  be 
entailed  for  a  period  exceeding  a  fixed  number  of  existing  lives  and 
an  additional  term  of  twenty-one  years,  but  that  if  it  be  sought  to 
bar  the  entail  within  that  period  the  consent  of  the  protector  of 
the  settlement  must  be  obtained.  The  process  of  resettlement  is 
thus  described  by  Lord  St  Leonards  :  "Whore  there  are  younger 
children,  the  father  is  always  anxious  to  have  the  estate  resettled 
on  them  and  their  issue,  in  case  of  failure  of  iaeue  of  the  first  son. 
This  he  cannot  accomplish  without  the  concurrence  of  the  son ; 
and,  as  the  son,  upon  his  establishment  in  Ufe  in  his  father's  life- 
time, requires  an  immediate  provision,  the  father  generally  secures 
to  him  a  -provision  during  their  joint  lives  as  a  consideration  for 
the  resettlement  of  the  estate  in  remainder  ujion  the  younger  sons. 
The  settlement  usually  takes  the  form  of  a  lite  estate  for  the  father, 
followed  by  a  life  estate  for  the  son,  with  remainder  in  taU  to  tlla 
nnbom  chUd  of  the  son,  the  continuance  of  the  estate  in  the 
family  being  further  secured  by  a  series  of  cross-remainders.  There 
is  often  a  name  and  arms  clause,  under  which,  by  mc»a»  </  s 


shifting  use  (see  Teitst),  every  person  succeeding  to  the  settled 
estate  as  tenant  m  tai  is  forced  to  assume  tlie  name  and  ams  of 
the  settlor  under  penalty  of  forfeiture  of  his  estate.  Certain  parts 
of  the  personalty  of  the  settlor  are  often  settled  upon  trusts™ 
<levolro  with  the  real  estate.  In  order  to  attain  this  end  the 
chattels  are  not  simply  subjected  to  the  same  limitations  as  the 
real  estate  If  so  subjected,  they  would  vest  absolutely  in  the 
first  tenant  m  succession,  as  no  estate  can  be  limited  iu  personalty 
(see  Personal  EsTAIE).  A  declar^ition  is  added  that  they  sS 
not  vest  absolutely  in  any  tenant  until  he  shaU  attain  t^ventyono 
and  m  case  he  should  die  under  that  age  that  they  shall  devolve 
as  pearly  as  possible  m  the  same  way  as  the  lands.  By  means  of 
strict  settlement  the  actual  possessor  of  a  settled  estate  at  anv 
given  time  is  in  general  only  a  tenant  for  life.  It  is  a  rule  of  law 
that  in  a  settlement  of  this  nature  there  should  be  a  full  and  com 
plete  communication  of  all  material  circumstances  by  the  one 
party  to  tlie  other.  ■' 

It  is  only  within  a  comparatively  recent  period  that  any  dis- 
satisfaction at  the  system  of  settlement  has  been  felt.     In  1829 
the  Keal  Property  Commissioners  saw  no  reason  to  recommend  anv 
alteration  of  the  law  as  it  then  existed.     To  use  the  words  of  thi 
First  Report,  p.  6,   "  Settlements  bestow  upon  the  present  possessOT 
of  an  estate  the  benefits  of  ownership,  ind  secure  the  property 
r,nn  1  P"?*T,"^-     T  ■'  ^l''^'"S  rule  respecting  perpetuities^  h^ 
happily  h.   the  medium  between  the  strict  entlils  which  prevail 
in  tl,e  northern  part  of  the  island,  and  by  which  the  property 
entailed  ,s  for  ever  abstracted  from  commerce,'  and  the  total  pro! 
hibition   of  substitutions^  and  the  excessive   restriction   of   the 
power  of  devKingS  established  in  some  countries  on  the  Continent 
of  Europe       In  England  families  are  preserved,  and  purchasers 
always  find  a  supply  of  land  in  the  mark'et."  This  optimistic  vTe" 
It  IS  scarcely  necessary  to  say,  is  not  the  one  generally  accepted  It 
r^Wf  The  inconveniences  inseparable  in  In -economical  point 
of  view  from  the  settlement  of  land  have  been  proposed  to  be  met 
in  two  ways  _(1     by  a  total  prohibition  of  the  creation  of  life 
estates  (see  Land)  and  (2)  bj  an  extension  of  the  powers  of    he 
limited  owner..     The  latter  is  the  one  which  has  hitherto  com 
ni^ded  Itself  to  the  legislature  of  the  United  Kingdom 
..^^^t°  thirty  years  ago  a  settled  estate  in  England  or  Ireland 
couia  bo  sold  or  leased  only  under  the  authority  of  a  private  Act 

were  practically  confined  to  certain  powers  of  raising  money  fo^ 

T)TnT^  '"fl^'f  ^^  ^  """^^  ^■'^*-  <=•  5«  ""d  the  Public'and  PrIvaL 
Drainage  Acts  (now  repealed).  The  first  general  Act  was  the 
Leases  and  Sale  of  Settled  Estates  Act,  1856,  whicli  proceeded  on 
the  principles  generally  followed  in  the  private  A  ts^  The  Ac" 
allowed  the  tenant  for  life  to  demise  the  premises  Vexcer^  ihl 
principal  mansion  house)  for  various  terms,  and  oseUwul  he 
approval  of  the  court.  Several  amending  Acts  were  pLred  and 
final  y  the  law  was  consolidated  and  amended  by  t'he  Settle 
Estates  Act,  1877  40  and  41  Vict.  c.  18).  Meanwhil7thrTrm.r^ia 
ZTfS-f  t':  ''''■  '."^'^'^  applie^o^r  Uni'ted^K  n^ffom  ■ 
passea.  ine  Act  ol  18G4  allowed  the  owner  of  a  settled  estate '(-n 
charge  upon  the  land,  by  way  of  rent-charge,  tlie  exnenies  of  cer^^ln 
improvements,  such  as  drainage,  irrigation,  inclosing  xechL'oT 

puis  rshrft°er'''''"f"V°"^«."^  '^"^  farmho^use  buUd    °g^; 
planting   lor  shelter,   construction   of  any   buildin-s   which  w^l 

•  Tha  Iaw  nf  .<!f«rtHnn,*  «.A-   .1. ....    ^j:  --. — - — _^        " 


SETTLEMENT 


695 


that  thco  „ro  notBub.«liml„„r«la  .    hfoT^J  Jo™,,"^;;  "'[."^         ^  "'«™1"R 


for  a  longer  term  if  in  accordance  with  the  custom  of  the  district 
and  beneficial  to  the  inheritance  ;  (2)  the  best  rent  must  b« 
reserved;  (3)  m  a  mineral  lease  three-fourths  of  the  rent  is  to  be 
invested  (one-fourth  where  the  limited  owner,  is  entitled  to  work 
the  minerals  for  his  o;vn  benefit) ;  (4)  the  lease  is  not  to  authorize 
leuing  of  trees  except  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  for  building  :  (51 
the  lease  is  to  be  by  deed,  and  is  to  contain  a  condition  tor  re- 
entry on  non-payment  of  rent  for  twenty-eight  days.  The  couH 
TL^}-L7^T\'^^''  f  ''="'^'^  estates'' and  k  timber,  and 
worl^Th^^t  ?'''!• '■°^?'\l''"'^'=''  saddens,  sewers,  and  other 
rw;„^  n-  .^Pr'''<"^tloa  to  the  court  (which  in  England  is  the 
?^tZJ  ^'■"•"°"  °":  ^\^  Chancery  of  Lancashire,  in  Ireland  the 
S^™/^„f  ir'""^  "  by  petition  in  a  summary. way  with  the 
consent  of  the  persons  having  any  beneficial  estate  under  tho 
unbom'rhild"'^  T  *""''\'  having^  any  estate  on  behalf  of  aiV^ 
unboin  child.  Tlie  court  may  dispense  with  consent  under 
certain  circumstances.  No  applicatioli  is  to  be  granted  by  the 
court  where  a  similar  application  has  been  refused  by  parliament 
Money  receivedon  sale  under  the  Act  is  to  be  invested'^as  he  Act 
directs  for  the  benefit  of  the  settled  estate.  In  1882thepowe  "oftho 
W  9'm°?/' T?  I'f.t'^'"'  '""^"^^'i-  I"  'hat  yea^r  wa^pas  ed 
47  »fH  is  V  ^'"^^'o'  1882  («.a"^i6 Vict.  c.  88),  si.^e  amended  by 
tLTiu  7!'\-^-  }l-  /",'•  ^}!'^  very  valuable  Act  the  statute  book 
is  indebted  to  the  late  Earl  Cairns.  It  does  not  repeal  the  Act  of 
1877,  but  gives  cumulative  powers.    The  Act  of  1877  must  still 

SLoTJ  ",  ^"ri'rr  '^Y'^'"  """''^  t"  ^I'ich  the  Act  of  1882 
does  not  apply.  The  broad  distinction  between  the  two  Acts  is 
that  the  powers  given  by  the  Act  of  1877  are  based  entirely,  except 
bv?K»7\  TU'cr''  °"  J^Ji^^'l  proceedings,  while  those  given 
by  the  Act  of  18S2  may  be  exercised,  by  the  tenant  for  life  at  his 
option,  generally  without  the  consent  of  trustees  or  the  court 
Ihe  powers  are  those  usually  inserted  in  settlements  of  real  estate 
and  are  conferred  upon  every  tenant  for  life  beneficially  entitled  to 
possession.     This  includes  a  tenant  in  tail  by  Act  of^plrl  an icnt 

wbp'r^'?^^'^T•''''^''""S  "/  '^'"'^  '^".  l^"'  "<"  a  tenant  in  tei 
where  the  land  m  respect  of  whicli  he  is  restrained  was  purchaS 
with   money   provided   by  parliament, <>  £   tenant   in   fee   simple 
subject  to  an  executory  limitation,  a  person  entitled  to  a  baseT 
a  tenant  for  years  determinable  on  o,  fife,  a  tenant  ««,•  mdrelie  ^^ 

ursy"L*'''/ma  ^T^"^'"'  °^  issue  Extinct,  a^'ei^allM,;'  i,: 
curtesy  &c.     A  married  woman  may  exercise  the  powers  given  by 

settkm  n"?  "^tV{T,  ''''™i°'  °V  anticipation  c^ontainef^In  tb'e 
or  acZZie  Th.  1  •  f°f  °°'  "^^^^  *?  corporations,  whether  solo 
fn,f  ff/f     •■  » '^'""^  f'"'"'"  g'v^"  hy  the  Act  are  those  of  sell- 

ing  and  leasing.  A  tenant  for  life  may  sell  settled  land  or  any  wrt 
of  It,  or  any  easement,  right,  or  privilege  over  it,  or  the  sei«nof?^M 
forXbest"f,.!:?r  "'^^'  '""'T^'  orWtition.'  A  sale  ^sTb^ 
sidera?inn  .»«'i  "^  an  exchange  or  partition  for  the  best  con. 
sideiation  ;  the  sale  may  be  in  one  lot  or  several,  and  by  auction  o. 
pnvate  conti-act.  _  A  reservation  as  to  user  o;  as  toVimf  and 
minerals  may  be  imposed.     Settled  land  in  England  may  not  bo 

is  •£";?■#=  "^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

mining  leases.  .Where  the  tenant  for  life  is  impeachable  for  waste 
m  respect  of  mines,  three-fourths  of  the  mining  rent  is  to  be^? 
aside  as  capital  money,  in  other  cases  one-fourtf.  The  tenan?  Tot 
life  may  surrender  and  rcgrant  leases.  The  principal  mansion 
house  and  the  demesnes  thereof,  and  other  land's  usuilly  occup  ed 

rM,7e'It'^f  fr""'  h«  ^oW  or  leased  without  the  consent  o'  he 
trustees  of  the  settlement  or  the  order  of  the  court  The  Act  pro- 
vides  for  three  kinds  of  sale  :-(l)  by  the  tenant  for  life  ,n<^oZ°c 

he  ordinary  case  ;  (2)  frith  consent  of  trustees  or  the  court,  as  in 
the  cise  of  the  principal  mansion  and  of  the  application  of  money 

i^l  nfTi*  ^^''•^°''  "T'^r'  ■'  (3)  by  orchr  of  ifio  court,  as  in  tho 
case  ot  the  variation  of  a  building  or  mining  lease  according  to  tho 
circumstances  of  tho  district,  of  jwirliam^ntary  opposition  for  tho 
protection  or  recovery  of  settled  land,  and  of  the  sale  or  purchase 
ol  chattels  as  heirlooms  to  devolve  with  land.'  Land  accmircd  bv 
purchase,  exchange,  or  nartition  is  to  bo  settled  as  far  as  possible 
on  tho  same  trusts  as  the  other  settled  property.  Oipital  money 
I.S  to  bo  applied  as  tho  Act  directs,  generally  for  tho  benelit  ot 
the  settled  property.  Tho  tenant  for  life  may  enter  into  a  contract 
for  carrying  into  ellect  tho  purposes  of  the  Act  A  contmct  not  to 
o-xerciso  tho  powers  of  tho  Act  is  void.  As  to  proce.luro,  an  en- 
plication  to  the  Chancery  Division  is  to  bo  nia.lo  by  petition 
or  summons.  Jurisdiction  is  confcri-cd  upon  county  coiirls  (in 
Ireland  civil  -bill  courts)  in  respect  to  land  or  personal  chatleU 
settied  or  to  bo  settled,  not  cTceodiiig  in  capital  >iiluo  i£600  or  ia 

•That  is  to  any,  tho  Act  wonhl  npply  to  tho  F.itltcii  (all  of  tho  mnrnnli  of 
AbcrKsvcnny  or  thoc.rl  of  Shrtw.bury,  but  not  to  Blenheim  or  .s"™iMHd„,„ 
Cl'^tJ,';."  """"=  """"'^  ""  ""  '''"-"  •"  M«rlbom„g,.  j;  Vv^lh-'I.^L''"^^; 
dl^UyriychiS'iterinclc"''"'''  '^"""^ """  »•"<«  •«  l"cludo  .„  bcr«m«. 


096 


SETTLEMENT 


1  -.i„»  f\n     Rules  of  court  have  been  framed  for  the  pur- 
annu»l  value  £30j^   Rules  0.  CO  ^^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^ 

?8ra     Fc^Se  -?nute  infornfation  than  can  Be  given  xn  this 

^x^fer;ft™'ret^r:l:rfr^^s%r^^^^^ 

menta  and  a  power  to  make  fuUire  settlements  with  or  without 

retSemenU    to  h  ve  greatcv  validity  against  a  married  woman's 
crlitors   than   such   settlement  or   agreement  would  have  when 

the   reason Tor^the  doctrine°of  equity  to  a  settlement  has   dis- 
"T^rule  a  settlement  can  only  bo  made  by  a  person  not  vinder 

rapt,  ana  g^"'';*^''^  "    „.^        ^^.  ;  f^^t  males  of  twenty  or  over 

^rtfa'nffLlkfof'lIutL%^(ver  may  with  the  appr^^ 

the  Chancerv  Division  obtained  by  petition  make  a  valiu  seuie 

Te^rtaiu'clses  be' exercised  by  trustees  of  a  settlement,  trustees 
n  bankruptcy,  committees  of  lunatics,  and  guardians  of  infan  s 

Wh"emrtiesarenot  in  a  position  to  make  »n  immeOrate 
setUement,  articles  for  a  settlement  "« /T f '"^^^      .fo,  ^^d 
r  r^StV's\"t  Ce^rict^^Thrclrrw^^^ 
^Lcut  on  of  a  settlement  in  accordance  with  the  a.  tides   and  w 

noUced  that  marriage  itself  is  not  such  a  part  per  ormance  of  a 
r^ntract  as  to  give  the  court  jurisdiction.  An  imperfect  obligation 
^Ung  from  fn   informal   antenuptial   agreement   can   bo  made 

Sn^a^  between  the  parties  by  a  Po^'"?"?*'!^  ^^^"l';"!^,'.  =  ^,t 
tWs  wUl  not  protect  such  a  settlement  from  being  treated  as  a 
voluntary  settlement  against  creditors.  •j„,„t;„r.  <^r 

A  settlement  or  contract  for  settlement  made  in  consideration  of 
man  a"e  oTfor  other  valuable  consideration  is  as  a  rule  "•revocable 
by Thefettlor  and  good'  against  creditors      The  only  «=''«rtion  or 
apparent  exception  is  the°provision  in  the  Bankruptcj' Act     883 
iiR  La  47  Vict    c    52   «  47  (2)),  that  any  covenant  or  contract 
^ad^in  conslleratbn  ^f  maiTiige  for  the  future  BOttlernent  on  or 
for  the  settlor'3  wife  or  children  of  any  money  or  ProP^^^  y  l'^^;'^^" 
he  had  not  at  the  date  of  his  marriage  any  estate  or  interest   and 
not  being  money  or  property  of  or  in  right  of  his  ^'f^.  ^1  ?>'- °" 
Ms  b^co^ing  bLkruVbefo're  the  property  or  money  sialhav 
been  actually  transferred  cr  paid,  bo  ^""l  ,f f'"'' *'\°  *S  iz   c   5 
bankruptcy.     With  regard  to  voluntary  ^ff'^J^"'?  i2,t|,3';o„. 
avoids  L  against  creditors  conveyances  of  lands  or  chattels  con 
trivcd   to  delay,  hinder,  or  defraud  creditors  or  others,  with  a 
proviso  protect^^g  estate's  or  interests  conveyed  «"  good  ^""^^'''^  ^j 
tion  and  bona  fide  to  persons  not  having  notice  of  fraud.     46  and 
47  Vict  c  52,  §  47  (1  ,  enacts  that  any  settlement  of  property,  not 
being  a  settlement  made  before  and  in  consideration  of  marriag 
or  made  in  favour  of  a  purchaser  or  '"oumbrancer  in  good  f.^  th 
tnd  for  valuable  consideration,  or  a  settlement  made  on  or  toi  the 
wife  or  ehildren  of  the  settlor  of  property  which  has  accrued  to  th 
settlor  after  marriage  in  right  of  l>!s  wife,  ^''^l';  '^  X  ^tuie 
becomes  bankrupt  within  two  years  after  the  date  of  the  settle- 
ment, be  void-against  the  trustee  in  the  ^a'-l^rnptcy,  and  shall   i 
the  settlor  becomes  bankrupt  within  ten  years,  be  void  agamst  the 
trustee  unless  the  parties  claiming  under  tbe  settlement  can  prove 
that  the  settlor  was  at  tho  time  of  making  the  settlement  able  to 
pay  all  his  debts  without  the  aid  of  the  settled  property,  and  that 

1  At  one  time  the  ecclestastlcal  court,  ^vent  farther,  and  ^"'"rceaspecMc  per- 
formance o(  tho  ceremony  of  marrinKe  Itself.  A  ter  a  "^'^"'™/'.  °' ^^  Ji°^°,?ht 
KrM  de  frmmli  or  per  verba  de  faluro,  a  "''^''^l'™,'"  f  ■''„'"  „'!^  I"'fny 
have  been  decreed.  This  jiiri5.lictlou  of  the  ccdcsiaslicul  couils  vas  nii.illy 
abolished  by  4  Geo.  IV.  c.  7C. 


the  interest  of  ths  settlor  in  such  property  haa  pa^ed  to  the 
trustee  of  the  settlement  on  the  execution  thereof.     2    EI.2  c^  4 

rt«  s:i^?s,^-"-^^?T!l^lii 

reLd^^i^rers^^shlllXUC^^^^^^^^ 
Sh&yanc.withpowei^ofr^^^^^^^^^^^ 

r  rnurrco-y-e  of' «af  et\e  is  -id  as^^^ainst  a  sub^ 

^^SJ^:^^S^  isgoVrs  let"weenrs|| 
rnd^rob|c.oft£.ttlement,ai^^^^^^^^^^ 

Fe\rrtole°st:;  I  effect^t'rv'oLtarysettlementbycoin^^^^^^^ 

'""s^ttT-rdilposUion  and  settlement  is  a  mode  of  providing 
for  the  devolution^  of  property  after  death  and  =0  corresponds 
rather  to  the  English  will  than  the  English  settlement,  iha 
En.lTsh  marriage  Settlement  is  represented ^in  Scotland  by  the 
eontract  of  marriane,  which,  like  the  English  settlement,  may  tie 
ante,  or  pos  -nuptial  The  main  difference  between  the.  ante- an* 
the  post-Cptial^ontract  is  the  extent  to  which  the  proper^  the 
s  bi?ct  of  the  contract  may  be  withdrawn  from  creditors.  In  the 
fomer  case  a  preference  o/j».  crcdUi  is  according  to  circumstanc^ 
on"erreron?he  wife  or  children  ;  in  the  latter  case  *ewif« 
children  cannot  compete  with  the  creditors.     A  post-nuptuil  con- 

°'r"onfi"ct  of  marriage  may  be  made  with  or  without  the 
creation  of  trustees,  the  latter  being  the  more  "f"^,f°™-  J/^j^^ 
contract  settle  heritable  property   it  generally  ^outams  a  narrative 
or  inductive  clause,  containing  the  names  of  the  parties  w-ithaj 
obliffation  to  celebrate  the  marriage,  a  disposition  ot  the  estate  wit» 
t'sl^sth^aUon,  provisions  as  to  tie  wife  and  younger  Aild,;eaani 
a  declaration  that  these  provisions  shall  be  in  full  ot  their  lega 
claims  a  conveyance  by  the  wife  of  herwhole  means  and  estate  to 
her  husband"o^the  trustees,  an  appointment  of  trustees  to  secure 
fnip  en  ent  of  provisions  to  the  wife  and  children,  a  registra  .« 
ckuse,  and  a  testing  clause.     If  the  contract  fettle  movabesit  1^ 
t^Mis  mutandis,  tn  much  the  same  form,  ^>th  the  addition  of  , 
clause  excluding  the  ™.  marit  iot  a  |"ture  husband  of  the  wfe 
[sc^  Juridical  Styles,  vol.  i.  p.  17*.Jol-  "•  P;  ^^|\„;,    f.f   lag, 
ford   Act   (11   and   12    Vict.    c.    36     and   the   Entail   Act,    1882 
45  atd  46  V?ct    c.  63),  specially  provide  that  ^^ettlemente  bj 
marriage  contract  are  not  to  be  di^ppointed  until  tjia  birth  of 
kchild  who  by  himself  or  his  guardian  consents  to  disentail  or 
un   1  the  marriage  is  dissolved,  unless  with  the  consent  of  the 
Uustees  of  the  contract.     Improvements  by  l^-^'ted  owners  wem 
allowed  bv  law  much  earl  er  than  in  England.     10  Geo.  111.  c.  M 
nabled  hliirof  entail  to  charge  the  entailed  estates  wv^h  the  su^ 
of  money  laid  out  by  them  in  building  mansions.   Jl»>^  F'^^P*? 
was  exp'ressly  adopted  for  England    as  the  Preamble  of  the  A* 
shows  by  the  Limited  Owners'  Residence  Act,  18(0.     Ihe  Kwne^ 
ford  Act  and  other  Acts  empowered  heirs  of  entail  to  excamb  t. 
feu"  to  lease,  to  charge  by  bond  and  disposition  "'.security   to  sel^ 
to  eraut  family  provisions,  and  to  erect  labourers    cottages.     'Tl* 
ret^SV-stateJIct  and  Settled  Land  Act  donot  app  y  to  s^^^^^^ 


I^Sfl^i^i^^r^sIn  Smri;^5r;^yhe  mad^^entarj 
or  mortis  causa  disposition,  ^ho  Eutherford  Act  and  the  Entel 
Amendment  Act,  1868  (31  and  32  \ict.  c.  84)  more  stnct  tha. 
the  law  of  England  against  perpetuities,  forbid  the  cieation  « 
a  1  fe  rlnt  iurere°st  in  hfritable^  of  movables  except  in  favour  of  a 
mi  tv  in  life  at  the  date  of  the  deed  creating  such  interest. 
'  ^^L  Vffl«te.-Marriage  settlements  are  not  >"  as  common  n^ 
as  in  England,  no  doubt  owing  to  tho  fact  that  the  principle  ot 
the  Married  Women's  Property  Act  was  the  law  of  most  ol  the 
States  of  the  Union  long  before  its  adoption  by  England.  U 
Louisiana,  in  the  absence  o°f  stipulation  to  the  contrary,  commum^ 
of  soods  is  the  rule.  Settlements  other  than  marriage  settlemente 
are  rnact  cally  unknown  in  the  United  States.  Property  cannot,  _«s 
rglneraJrulrbetied  up  to  anything  like  the  extent  silUdmi^ 
sible  in  England.  In  those  States  where  entail  is  aUowed  the 
entail  mi^y  bo  barred  by  simple  means  of  alienation.      (J.  WTO 

SETTLEMENT,  Act  of.  By  this  Act,  12  &  1.5  Wi». 
in  c  2,  passed  in  1701  (followed  by  the  parliament  of 
Sco'tland  m  the  Act  of  Union,  1707,  c. ^ythe^crown^s 

^T^wnilama,  T^e  SeWemeni  of  I<-^' ^^'f'^l^^^''^',%^al°:^. 
reyancing,  vol.  111.;  Wolstenholme  and  Turner.  The  ixtiua  iana  Jia  ,  -^ 
Ttie  Slatutes  relating  lo  SelHeJ  Eitalet. 


S  E  T  —  S  E  V 


697 


'settled  upon  the  Princess  Sophia,  electress  and  duchess 
dowager  of  Hanover,  granddaughter  of  James  I.,  and  the 
heirs  of  her  body,  being  Protestaints.  The  Act  contained 
in  addition  some  important  constitutional  provisions. 
Those  which  are  still  law  are  as  follows  : — (1)  that  whoso- 
ever shall  hereafter  como  to  the  possession  of  this  crown 
shall  join  in  communion  with  the  Church  of  England  as 
by  law  established ;  (2)  that  in  case  the  crown  of  this 
realm  shall  hereafter  come  to  any  person  not  being  a 
native  of  this  kingdom  of  England,  this  nation  bo  not 
obliged  to  engage  in  any  war  for  the  defence  of  any 
dominions  or  territories  which  do  not  belong  to  the  crown 
•f  England  without  the  consent  of  parliament ;  (3)  that 
after  the  limitation  shall  take  effect  no  person  born  out  of 
the  kingdoms  of  England,  Scotland,  or  Ireland,  or  the 
dominions  thereunto  belonging,  although  he  be  naturalized 
or  made  a  denizen  (except  such  as  are  born  of  English 
parents),  shall  be  capable  to  be  of  the  privy  council  or  a 
»ember  of  either  House  of  Parliament,  or  enjoy  any  office 
•r  place  of  trust,  either  civil  or  military,  or  to  have  any 
grant  of  lands,  tenements,  or  hereditaments  from  the 
crown  to  himself,  or  to  any  other  or  others  in  trust  for 
him;'  (4)  that  after  the  limitation  shall  take  effect  judges' 
commissions  be  made  qnamdiu  se  bene  gesserint,^  and  their 
salaries  ascertained  and  established,  but  upon  the  address 
•f  both  Houses  of  Parliament  it  may  be  lawful  to  remove 
them  ;  (5)  that  no  pardon  under  the  great  seal  of  England 
be  pleadable  to  an  impeachment  by  the  Commons  in  parlia- 
ment The  importance  of  the  Act  of  Settlement  appears 
from  the,  fact  that  in  all  the  Regency  Acts  it  is  specially 
■lentioned  as  one  of  those  Acts  which  the  regent  may  not 
assent  to  repeal  (see  Regent).  To  maintain  or  affirm  the 
Rght  of  any  person  to  the  crown,  contrary  to  the  provisions 
•f  the  Act  of  Settlement,  is  treason  by  6th  Anne,  c.  7. 

SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  POOR.     See  Poor  Laws. 

Sl^TUBAL,  called  by  the  EngUsh  St  Ubes,  a  port  and 
♦ommercial  town  in  the  province  of  Estreniadara,  Portugal, 
■early  20  miles  south-east  of  Lisbon,  lining  for  about 
three<iuarter8  of  a  mile  the  north  shore  of  a  harbour  of 
the  same  name,  3  leagues  long  by  half  a  league  broad  and 
mferior  only  to  that  of  Lisbon,  at  the  end  of  a  fertil.-i 
Talloy  of  6  miles  long  from  Palraella,  where  the  Sabo  river 
discharges  into  the  Bay  of  Setubal,  and  on  the  Portuguese 
»ilway  (L'^bon-Barreiro-Siitubal).  It  is  overtopped  on  the 
west  by  the  great  red  treeless  range  of  Arrabida.  In  the 
sandhills  of  a  low-lying  promontory  in  the  bay,  over  against 
Situbal,  are  the  ruins  of  "  Troia,"  uncovered  in  part  by 
keavy  rains  in  1814,  arfd  again  in  1850  by  an  antiquarian 
society.  These  ruins  of  "  Troia,"  among  which  have  been 
brought  to  view  a  beautiful  Roman  house  and  some  1600 
Roman  coins,  refer,  beyond  almost  aU  dispute,  to  Cetobriga, 
which  flourished  300-400  a.u.  In  the  neighbourhood,  on 
a  mountain  1700  feet  high,  is  the  cloister  Arrabida,  with 
Btalactite  cavern,  whither  pious  pilgrimages  are  made. 
There  are  five  forts  for  the  defence  of  the  harbour,  and  that 
•f  St  Philip,  built  by  Philip  III.,  commands  the  town. 
S6tubal  is  an  emporium  of  the  Portuguese  salt  trade  carried 
•n  principally  with  Scandinavian  ports,  the  salt  being 
deemed  the  finest  for  curing  meat  and  fish.  By  reason 
«f  this  advantage  and  the  oxcellencq  of  its  oranges,  the 
best  in  Portugal,  and  of  its  Muscatel  grapes,  it  has  much 
oommercial  importance,  and  is  the  fourth  city  in  the  king- 
dom. It  also  manufactures  leather  and  does  a  considorablo 
fishing  trade.  There  aro  five  churches,  several  convents,  a 
theatre,  a  monument  of  the  poet  Bocage,  who  was  born  here, 

'  This  clause  \a  virtually  repealed  by  the  Naturalization  Act,  1870 
(S3  &  34  Vict,  c  14,  §  7),  08  to  persona  obtaining  a  certificate  of 
naturaliz.ition. 

'  Tlieir  comniisaioua  bad  previously  been  made  durante  bcm 
l>taciCo, 


and  an  arsenal.  Among  its  other  public  buildings  are  the 
Stapal,  the  Bomfin,  which  has  a  handsome  fountain,  the 
Fonte  Nova,  and  the  Annunciatd.  Setubal  suffered 
severely,  along  with  Lisbon,  from  the  earthquake  of  1755. 
The  population  was  14,798  in  1878. 

SEVENOAKS,  a  market  town  of  Kent,  England,  situated 
on  high  ground  about  a  mile  from  .the  railway  station,  25 
miles  south-east  of  London  by  the  London,  Chatham,  and 
Dover  Railway,  and  20  by  the  South-Eastern  Railway.  It 
consists  principally  of  two  streets  which  converge  at  the 
south  end,  near  which  is  the  church  of  St  Nicholas,  of  the 
13th,  14th,  and  15th  centuries,  restored  in  1878,  and  con- 
taining monuments  of  the  Amherst  family  and  a  tablet  to 
William  Lambarde,  the  "  Perambulator"  of  Kent  (d.  1601), 
removed  from  the  old  parish  church  of  Greenwich  when 
that  wa^lkmolished.  At  the  grammar  school  founded  in 
1418  by>SJr  William  Sevenoke,  lord  mayor  of  London, 
George  Grote  received  his  education.  There  is  also  a  school 
founded  by  Lady  Margaret  Boswell,  wife  of  Sir  William 
Boswell,  ambassador  to  Charles  L  at  The  Hague,  and  alms- 
houses founded  by  Sir  William  Sevenoke  in  connexion 
with  his  school.  The  Walthamstow  Hall  for  100  children, 
daughters  of  Christian  missionaries,  erected  at  a  cost  of 
£22,000,  was  opened  in  1882.  Close  to  Sevenoaks  is  Knole 
Park,  one  of  the  finest  old  residences  in  England,  which  in  the 
time  of  King  John  was  possessed  by  the  earl  of  Pembroke, 
and  after  passing  to  various  owners  was  bought  by  Arch- 
bishop Bourchier  (d.  1486),  who  rebuilt  the  house.  He  left 
the  property  to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  and  about  the  time 
of  the  dissolution  it  was  given  up  by  Cranmer  to  Henry 
Vm.  By  Elizabeth  it  was  conferred  first  on  the  earl  of 
Leicester  and  afterwards  on  Thomas  Sackville,  earl  of 
Dorset,  by  whom  it  was  in  great  part  rebuilt  and  fitted 
up  in  regard  to  decoration  and  furniture  very  much  as  it 
at  present  exists.  In  the  time  of  Elizabeth  county  assizes 
were  held  in  the  town.  Of  late  years  Sevenoaks  has 
very  much  increased  by  the  addition  cf  vUla  residences 
for  persons  having  their  business  in  London.  The  popu- 
lation of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  2028  acres)  in 
1871  was  4118,  and  in  1881  it  was  6296. 

SEVEN  SLEEPERS  OF  EPHESUS,  TnE,  according 
to  the  most  common  form  of  an  old  legend  of  Syrian 
origin,  first  referred  to  in  Western  literature  by  Gregory  of 
Tours  {Be  Glor.  Mart.,  c.  95),  were  seven  Christian  youths 
of  Ephesus,  who,  to  escape  the  rage  of  Decius,  lived  for 
some  time  in  concealment  in  a  cave.  The  enemy  at  last, 
however,  discovered  their  hiding  place,  and  caused  great 
stones  to  be  rolled  to  its  mouth  that  they  might  die  of 
hunger.  The  martyrs  fell  asleep  in  a  mutual  embrace. 
The  occurrence  had  long  been  forgotten,  when  it  fell 
out,  in, the  thirtieth  year  of  Theodosius  II.,  196  years 
afterwards,  that  a  certain  inhabitant  of  Ephesus,  seeking 
shelter  for  his  cattle,  rediscovered  the  cave  on  Mount 
Coelian,  and,  letting  in  the  light,  awoke  the  inmates,  who 
sent  one  of  their  number  down  to  buy  food.  Cautiously 
approaching  the  city,  the  lad  was  greatly  astonished  to 
find  the  cross  displayed  over  the  gates,  and  on  entering  to 
hear  the  name  of  Christ  openly  pronounced.  By  tendering 
coin  of  the  time  of  Decius  at  a  baker's  shop  ho  rouSed 
suspicion,  and  in  his  confusion  being  unable  to  oxplaio 
how  he  had  como  by  the  money  ho  was  taken  before  the 
authorities  as  a  dishonest  finder  of  hidden  treasure.  He 
was  easily  able  to  confirm  the  strange  story  ho  now  had  to 
tell  by  actually  leading  his  accusers  to  the  cavern  wuore 
his  six  companions  were  found,  youthful  and  rosy  and 
beaming  with  a  holy  radiance.  Theodosius,  hearing  what 
had  happened,  hastened  to  the  spot  in  time  to  boar  from 
their  lips  that  God  had  wrought  this  wonder  to  confirm  his 
faith  in  the  resurrection  of  tho  dead.  This  message  one* 
delivered,  they  again  fell  asleep. 


21—34" 


B98 


S  E  V— S  E  V 


Gregoiy  says  ho  HsrI  tho  legend  from  tlio  iuterpretation  o£  "  a 
certain  Syrian";  in  point  of  fact  the  story  is  very  common  in 
Syriac  sources.  It  forms  tlie  subject  of  a  homily  of  Jacob  of  Sarug 
(ob.  521  A.D.),  which  is  given  in  tlic  Acta  Smutorum.  Another 
Syi'iac  version  is  printed  in  Land's  Aiiccdota,  iii.  87  sq.  ;  sco  also 
Barhebriuus,  Chron.  Ecclcs.,  L  142  sq.,  and  compare  Assemaui, 
Bib.  Or.,  i.  335  sq.  Some  forms  of  the  legend  give,  eight  sleepers,— 
e.g.,  an  ancient  IIS.  of  tho  6th  century  now  in  the  British  Museum 
{Cat.  Syr.  MSS.,  p.  1090),  There  are  considerable  variations  as  to 
their  names.  The  legend  rapidly  attained  a  wide  diffusion  through- 
Out  Christendom  ;  its  currency  in  tho  East  is  testified  by  its  accept- 
ance by  Mohammed  (sur.  xviii.),  who  calls  them  Ashah  al-Kahf, 
"tho  men  of  the  cave."  According  to  Al-Biruni  (Chronology,  tr. 
by  Sachau,  p.  285)  certain  undecayed  corpses  of  monks  were  sliowu 
in  a  cave  as  the  sleepers  of  Gphesus  in  tho  9th  century.  The  seven 
sleepers  are  a  favourite  subject  in  early  mediaeval  art. 

SEVERN,  The,  next  to  the  Thames  in  length  among 
the  rivers  of  England,  rises  at  Maes  Hafren  on  the  eastern 
side  of  Plinlimmon,  on  the  south-south-west  borders  of 
Montgomeryshire,  and  flows  in  a  nearly  semicircular 
course  of  about  200  miles  to  the  sea ;  the  direct  distance 
from  its  source  to  its  mouth  in  the  Bristol  Channel  is 
about  80  miles.  By  the  Britons  it  was  called  Halfren, 
and  its  old  Latin  name  was  Sahrina.  Through  Mont- 
gomeryshire its  course  is  at  first  in  a  south-easterly  direc- 
tion, and  for  tho  first  15  miles  it  flows  over  a  rough 
precipitous  bed.  At  Llanidloes,  where  the  valley  widens 
to  a  breadth  of  one  or  two  miles  and  assumes  a  more 
fertile  appearance,  it  bends  towards  the  north-east,  passing 
Newtown  and  Welshpool.  On  the  borders  of  Shropshire  it 
receives  the  Vyrnwy,  and  then  turning  in  a  south-easterly 
direction  enters  the  broad  rich  plain  of  Shrewsbury,  after 
which  it  bends  southward  past  Ironbridge  and  Bridg- 
north to  Bewdley  in  "Worcestershire.  In  Shropshire  it 
receives  a  number  of  tributaries  (see  Sheopshiee).  Still 
continuing  its  southerly  course  through  Worcestershire  it 
passes  Stourport,  where  it  receives  the  Stour  (left),  and 
Worcester,  shortly  after  which  it  receives  the  Teme  (right). 
It  enters  Gloucestershire  at  Tewkesbury,  where  it  receives 
the  Avon  (left),  after  which,  bending  in  a  south-westerly 
direction,  it  passes  the  town  of  Gloucester,  18  miles  below 
which  the  estuary  widens  out  into  the  Bristol  Channel,  at 
the  point  where  it  receives  from  the  left  the  Lower  Avon 
•  or  Bristol  river,  and  from  the  right  the  Wye. 

From  Newtown  its  fall  is  465  feet,  the  average  fall  per  mile  being 
about  2  feet  3  inches,  but  from  Ironbridge  to  Gloucester,  a  distance 
of  about  70  miles,  the  fall  is  only  about  103  feet.  Between  Stour- 
port and  Gloucester  the  breadth  is  150  feet,  but  below  that  town 
tho  breadth  rapidly  increases  and  the  banks  become  bolder  and 
more  picturesque.  Owing  to  the  gradual  decrease  in  the  width 
and  depth  of  the  Bristol  Channel  the  tide  enters  with  great  force, 
forming  a  tidal  wave  or  bore  about  9  feet  in  height,  which  at  cer- 
tain times  causes  great  destruction,  among  the  more  serious  inun- 
dations being  those  of  1606,  1687,  1703,  and  1883.  The  total  area 
drained  by  the  Severn  is  about  4500  square  miles.  Its  navigation 
extends  to  about  160  miles  above  its  mouth  ;  barges  can  ascend  as 
far  as  Stourport,  and  large  vessels  to  Gloucester.  Owing  to  tho  dilB- 
cnJties  of  the  navigation  the  Gloucester  and  Berkeley  Ship  Canal,  IS 
mUes  in  length,  was  constructed,  admitting  vessels  of  350  tons  to 
Gloucester,  the  river  only  admitting  vessels  of  150  tons.  The  only 
other  important  port  is  Bristol,  but  there  are  a  few  smaller  ports 
and  fishing  towns,  whUe  by  means  of  canals  the  Severn  has  con- 
nexion with  some  of  the  principal  towns  of  England.  With  the 
Thames  it  is  connected  by  the  Stroudwater  and  Thames  and  Severn 
Canals ;  by^  various  canals  it  has  communication  with  the  Trent 
and  the  riVers  of  the  north ;  and  the  Hereford  and  Gloucester  Canal 
connects  those  two  cities.  The  Severn  is  a  good  salmon  river,  and 
is  specially  famous  for  its  lampreys. 

SEVERN,  Joseph  (1793-1879),  portrait  and  subject 
painter,  was  born  in  1793.  During  his  earlier  years  he 
practised  fjortraiture  as  a  miniaturist ;  and,  having  studied 
in  the  schools  of  the  Eoyal  Academy,  he  exhibited  his 
first  work  in  oil,  Hermia  and  Helena,  a  subject  from  tho 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  in  the  Royal  Academy  Exhibi- 
tion of  1819.  In  1820  he  gained  the  gold  medal  and  a 
three  years'  travelling  studentship  for  his  Una  and  the 
Red  Cross  Knight  in  the  Cave  of  Despair,  a  painting  now 


iu  tho  possession  of  the  representatives  of  the  late  Lord 
Houghton.  Ho  accompanied  his  friend  Keats  the  poet  to 
Italy,  and  nursed  hiui  till  his  death  in  1821.  In  18(il  he 
was  appointed  British  consul  at  Rome,  a  post  which  ho 
held  till  1872,  and  during  a  great  part  of  the  time  he  also 
acted  as  Italian  consul.  His  most  remarkable  work  is  tho 
Spectre  Ship  from  the  Ancient  Mariner.  He  painted 
Cordelia  Watching  by  the  Bed  of  Lear,  the  Roman 
Beggar,  Ariel,  the  Fountain,  and  Rienzi,  executed  a  large 
altarpiece  for  the  church  of  St  Paul  at  Rome,  and  pro- 
duced many  portraits,  including  one  of  Baron  Bunsen  and 
several  of  Keats.     He  died  at  Rome  August  3,  1879. 

SEVERUS,  Lncius  Septimius,  the  twenty-first  emperor 
of  Rome,  reigned  from  193  to  211  a.d.  He  was  born  in 
146  at  Leptis  Magna,  an  African  coast  town  in  the 
district  of  Syrtes,  whose  ancient  prosperity  is  still  attested 
by  its  extensive  ruins.  In  this  region  of  Africa,  despite 
its  long  possession  by  the  Romans,  the  Punic  tongue  was 
still  spoken  by  the  people  in  general.  Severus  had  to 
acquire  Latin  as  a  foreign  language,  and  is  said  to  havo 
spoken  it  to  the  end  of  his  days  with  a  strong  African 
accent.  After  ho  had  arrived  at  the  throne  he  dismissed 
abruptly  from  Rome  a  sister  who  had  come  to  visit  him, 
because  he  felt  shame  at  her  abominable  Latin.  Yet 
Severus  and  his  dynasty  were  almost  the  only  emperors 
of  provincial  descent  who  frankly  cherished  the  province 
of  their  origin,  while  the  province  showed  true  loyalty  to 
the  only  Roman  emperor  ever  born  on  African  soil,  and 
to  the  successors  who  derived  their  title  from  him. 

Of  the  origin  of  the  Severi  nothing  is  known  :  it  is  a 
natural  but  very  doubtful  conjecture  that  the  L.  Septimius 
Severus,  a  native  of  Africa,  addressed  by  the  poet  Statius, 
was  an  ancestor  of  the  emperor  who  bore  the  same  name. 
The  father  of  Severus  was  a  Roman  citizen  of  equestrian 
rank,  and  it  may  safely  be  affirmed  that  the  family  held 
a  poor  position  when  he  was  born,  but  had  risen  in 
importance  by  the  time  he  reached  manhood.  Two  of 
his  uncles  attained  to  consular  rank.  Fulvius  Pius,  tho 
maternal  grandfather  of  Severus,  is  often  identified  with 
the  man  of  that  name  who  was  governor  of  Africa,  and, 
after  being  condemned  for  corruption  by  Pertinax,  was 
highly  honoured  by  Didius  Julianus ;  but  dates  are 
strongly  against  the  identification.  Of  the  future  emperor's 
education  we  learn  nothing  but  its  results.  Spartiantis 
declares  him  to  have  been  "  very  learned  in  Latin  and 
Greek  literature,"  to  have  had  a  genuine  zeal  for  study, 
and  to  have  been  fond  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric.  But 
the  learning  of  rulers  is  often  seen  through  a  magnifying 
medium,  and  we  may  better  accept  the  statement  of  Dio 
Cassius  that  in  the  pursuit  of  education  his  eagerness  was 
greater  than  his  success,  and  that  he  was  rather  shrewd 
than  facile.  No  doubt  in  his  early  years  he  acquired  that 
love  for  jurisprudence  which  distinguished  him  as  emperor. 
Of  his  youth  we  know  only  that  it  wa,s  entirely  spent  at 
Leptis.  Beyond  that  there  is  merely  one  anecdotal  fabri- 
cation giving  an  account  of  youthful  wildness. 

The  removal  of  Severus  from  Leptis  to  Rome  is  attri- 
buted by  his  biographer  to  the  desire  for  higher  education', 
but  was  also  'no  doubt  due  in  some  degree  to  ambition. 
From  the  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  he  early  obtained,  by 
intercession  of  a  consular  uncle,  the  distinction  of  the 
broad  purple  stripe.  At  twenty-six,  that  is,  almost  at  the 
earliest  age  allowed  by  law,  Severus  attained  the  quasstor- 
ship  and  a  seat  in  the  senate,  and  proceeded  as  quaestor 
militaris  to  the  senatorial  province  of  Bsetica,  in  the 
Peninsula.  While  Severus  was  temporarily  absent  in 
Africa  in  consequence  of  the'  death  of  his  father,  the 
province  of  Bsetica,  disordered  by  invasion  and  internal 
commotion,  was  taken  over  by  the  emperor,. who  gave  the 
senate  Sardinia  in  exchange.     On  this   Severus   became 


mihtary  qu^stor  of  Sardinia.     His  next  office,  probably 

^  liS7"  '^^'  '^  'T'^  '"  "^«  1^^«=°°^^  °f  Africa,  and 
m  the  following  year  he  was  tribune  of  tlie  plebs  This 
magistracy  though  far  diflferent  from  what  it  had  been  in 
the   days  of  the  republic,  was  still  one  of   di^nitv    and 

inS  :f  \'\P^°'"°'r  *°  "  ^'^^''  g^^d^  •"  ^i^e  senate 
louring  the  tribunate  he  married  his  first  wife  ilarcia 

whose  name  he  passed  over  in  his  autobiography,  though 

he  erected  statues  of  her  after  he  became  emperor      In 

178  Severus  became  pn-etor,  not  by  favour  of  the  emperor, 

^Jirl7]     ■'°''J°'  '^'  '"'^^^Ses  of  the   senators 
Then,  probably  in  the  same  year,  he  went  to  Spain  as 

fe^'  fl'Vt'  ^'^V  ^'  ^°™-"«°ded  a  legion  in^ia 
The  deah  of  Marcus  Aurelius  seems  in  some  way  to  have 
^terrupted   his   career;  he  was  unemployed  for  several 
years,  and  devoted  great  part  of  his  leisure  to  the  study 
at  Atlir^'Tf  ^'°°'  ^^'^.'^"''q^ities  (so  says  Spartianus) 
at  AUiens.     The  year  of  Severus's  first  consulship  canno 
be  determined  with  precision,  but  it  falls  within  the  space 
be  ween  185  and  190      In  this  time  also  falls  the  marrlge 
with   Julia,  afterwards   famous  as  Julia   Domna,  wkse 
mjquaintance  he  had  no  doubt  made  when  an  officer  in 
^ria.     Her  two  sons  Bassianus  (known  as  Caracalla)  and 
Geta  were  probably  born  in  188  and  189.     Severus  was 
governor  in  succession  of  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  Sicily,  and 
Pannonia  Superior.     He  was  in  command  of  three  legions 
at  Carnuntuni  the  capital  of  the  province  last  named,  when 
news  reached  him  that  Commodus  had  been  murdered  bv 
his  favourite  concubine  and  his  most  trusted  servants 

Up   to  this  moment  the  career  of  Severus  had  been 
ordinary  in  its  character.    He  had  not  raised  himself  above 
the  usual  official  level.     He  had  achieved  no  military  dis- 
tinction -b,d  indeed  seen  no  warfare  beyond  the  petty 
border_  frays  of  a  frontier  province.     But  the  storm  that 
now  tried  all  official  spirits  found  his  alone  powerful  enough 
to  brave  it.     Three  imperial  dynasties  had  now  been  ended 
ly  assassination.     The  Flavian  line  had  enjoyed  much 
Aortor  duration  and  much  less  prestige  than  the  other  two 
and  the  circumstances  of  its  fall  had  been  peculiar  in  that 
ft  was  probably  planned  in  the  interest  of  the  senate  and 
tne  senate  certamly  reaped  the  immediate  fruits.    But  the 
crisis  which  arose  on  the  death  of  Nero  and  the  crisis  which 
arose  on  the  death  of  Commodus  were  strikingly  alike     In 
both  cases  It  was  left  to  the  army  to  determine  by  a  struggle 
which  of  the  divisional  commanders  should  succeed  to  the 
oommand-in-chief,  tliat  is,  to  the  imperial  throne.     In  each 
case  the  contest  began  with  an  impulsion  given  to  the  com- 
manders by  the  legionaries  themselves.     The  soldiers  of 
the  great  commands  competed  keenly  for  the  honour  and 
the  material  advantages  to  be  won  by  placing  their  general 
m  the  seat  of  empire.     The  officer  who  refused  to  lead 
would  have  been  deemed  a  traitor  to  his  troops,  and  would 
have  suffered  the  punishment  of  his  treason. 

There  IS  a  widespread  impression  that  the  Pn-ctorian 
pards  at  all  times  held  the  Eoman  empire  in  their  hands 
but  Its  e^rroneousnosa  is  demonstrated  by  the  events  of  the 
year  t.^.  j-or  the  first  time  in  the  course  of  imperial 
history  the  Prretorians  presumed  to  nominate  as  emperor 
a  man  who  had  no  legions  at  his  back.  This  was  Pcrtinav 
who-has  been  well  styled  the  Galba  of  his  timc-unriKht 
and  honourable  to  severity,  and  zealous  for  good  govcrn- 
mont,  but  blindly  optimist  about  the  possibilities  of 
re  orm  in  a  feeble  and  corrupt  age.  After  a  three  months- 
rule  ho  was  destroyed  by  the  power  that  lifted  him  up 
According  to  the  well-known  story,  true  rather  in  its  out- 
line than  in  its  details,  the  PriBtorians  sold  the  throno  to 
Didius  Juhanus.  But  at  the  end  of  two  months  both  the 
Pra;torians  and  their  nominee  were  swept  away  by  the 
real  disjjosers  of  Eoman  rule,  the  provincial  legions.  Four 
groups  of  legions  at  the  time  were  strong  enough  to  aspire 


SEVERUS 


699 


?n  BrSaTn'Tn  at  ''''""^  V'  ''"^I'^^'-^^ose  quartered 
in  Britain-,  in  Germany,  m  Pannonia,  in  Syria.  Three  of 
the  groups  actually  took  the  decisive  step,  and  Sever^  2 
Pannonia,  Pescennius  Niger  in  Syria,  Clodius  Albin^  S 
Britain,  received  from  their  troops  the  title  of  AuZtus 

iy'whaVme°anf^  l^is  rivals  in  promptness  and  deSn; 
By  what  means  we  do  not  know,  he  secured  the  aid  of 
the  legions  in  Germany  and  of  those  in  Illyria      ThesI 

dentlv  fni°*Tl/°/'°'^°'^'^'  '"^'^^  ^  combination  S- 
ciently  formidable  to  overawe  Albinus  for  the  moment 
He  probably  deemed  that  his  best  chance  lay  b  the 
exhaustion  of  his  competitors  by  an  internecine^struggle 
At  all  events  he  received  with  submission  an  offer  made  by 
Severus,  no  doubt  well  understood  by  both  to  be  politiZ 

^TrnV'^'lT'''^:-  .^'''"''  ^'-it  a  trusted  offiS 
h  m  Z  r H  f^n""'  '°  ^''  P°^^^  '^"'^  bestowed  upon 
him  the  title  of  Caesar,  making  him  the  nominal  hdr- 
apparent  to  the  throne. 

Before  the  action  of  Severus  was  known  in  Home  the 
senate  and  people  had  shown  signs  of  turning  to  Pescen- 
nius Niger,_  that  he  might  deliver  them  from   the  poor 
puppet  Diduis  Julianus  and  avenge  on  the  Praetorians  the 
murder  of  Pertinax.     Having  secured  the  co-operation  or 
neutrakty   of  all  the  forces  in  the  western  part  of  the 
empire,  Severus  hastened  to  Rome.     To  win  the  sympathy 
ot  the  capital  he  posed  as  the  avenger  and  successor  of 
Per  max  whose  name  he  even  added  to  his  own,  and  used 
to  the  end  of  his  reign.     The  feeble  defences  of  Julianus 
were  broken  down  and  the  Pratorians  disarmed  and  dis- 
banded, without  a  blow  being  struck.     A  new  body  of 
household   troops  was   enrolled  and   organized  on   quite 
different  principles  from  the  old.     In  face  of  the  senate, 
as  Dio  tells  us,  Severus  acted  for  the  moment  like  "one 
of  the  good  emperors  in  the  olden  days."    After  a  magni- 
ficent entry  into  the  city  he  joined  the  senate  in  execrat- 
ing  the  memory  of   Commodus,   and  in   punishing  the 
murderers  of  Pertinax,  whom  ho  honoured  with  the  meet 
splendid  funeral  rites.     He  also  encouraged  the  senate  to 
pass  a  decree  directing  that  any  emperor  or  subordinate 
of  an  emperor  who  should  put  a  senator  to  death  should 
be  treated  as  a  public  enemy.     But  he  ominously  refrained 
from  asking  the  senate  to  sanction  his  accession  to  the 
throne. 

The  rest  of  Severus's  reign,  as  it  is  read  in  the  ancient 
histories,  is  in  the  main  occupied  with  wars,  over  which 
wo  shall  rapidly  pass.  The  power  wielded  by  Pescennius 
Niger,  who  called  himself  emperor,  and  was  supposed  to 
control  one  half  of  the  Roman  world,  proved  to  be  mor« 
imposing  than  substantial.  The  magnificent  promises  of 
Oriental  princes  were  falsified  as  usual  in  the  hour  of  need. 
Niger  himself,  as  described  by  Dio,  was  the  very  type  of 
mediocrity,  conspicuous  for  no  faculties,  good  or  bad. 
This  very  character  had  no  doubt  commended  him  to 
Commodus  as  suited  for  the  important  command  in  Syria, 
which  might  have  proved  a  source  of  danger  in  abler 
hands.  The  contest  between  Severus  and  Niger  waa 
practically  decided  after  two  or  three  engac-cments,  fought 
by  Severus's  officers.  The  last  battle,  which  took  placo 
at  Issus,  ended  in  the  defeat  and  death  of  Niger  (194). 
After  this  the  emperor  spent-  tw6  years  in  successful 
attacks  upon  the  peoples  bordering  on  Syria,  particularly 
in  Adiabcne  and  Osrhoene.  Byzantium,  the  first  of  Niger's 
possessions  to  be  attacked,  was  the  last  to  fall,  after  a 
glorious  defence. 

lato  in  19C  Severus  turned  wc-'^tward,  to  reckon  with 
Albinus,  who  was  well  aware  that  the  reckoning  was 
inevitable.  He  was  better  born  and  better  educated  than 
Severus,  but  in  capacity  far  inferior.  Aa  Severus  waj 
noaring  Italy  ho  received  the  news  that  Albinus  had  been 
declared  emperor  by  hia  soldiers.     The  first  countor-strot* 


700 


S  E  V  E  R  U  S 


of  Severus  was  to  affiliate  himself  and  his  elder  son  to  the 
Antonines  by  a  sort  of  spurious  and  posthumous  adop- 
tion. The  prestige  of  the  old  name,  even  when  gained  in 
this  illegitimate  way,  was  probably  worth  a  good  deal. 
Bassianus,  the  elder  son  of  Severus,  thereafter  known  as 
Aurelius  Antoninus,  was  named  Caesar  in  place  of  Albinus, 
and  was  thus  marked  out  as  successor  to  his  father.  With- 
out interrupting  the  march  of  his  forces,  Severus  con- 
trived to  make  an  excursion  to  Rome.  Here  he  availed 
himself  with  much  subtlety  of  the  sympathy  many  senators 
were  known  to  have  felt  for  Niger.  Though  he  was  so 
far  faithful  to  the  decree  passed  by  his  own.  advice  that 
he  put  no  senator  to  death,  yet  he  banished  and 
impoverished  many  whose  presence  or  influence  seemed 
dangerous  or  inconvenient  to  his  prospects.  Of  the 
sufferers  probably  few  had  ever  seen  or  communicated 
with  Niger. 

The  collision  between  the  forces  of  Severus  and  Albinus 
was  the  most  violent  that  had  taken  place  between  Roman 
troops  since  the  mighty  contest  at  Philippi.  The  decisive 
engagement  was  fought  in  February  of  the  year  197  on 
the  plain  between  the  Rhone  and  the  Saone,  to  the  north 
of  Lyons.  Dio  tells  us  that  150,000  men  fought  on  each 
side.  The  fortunes  of  Severus  were,  to  all  appearance,  at 
one  stage  of  the  battle  as  hopeless  as  those  of  JuliusCtesar 
■were  for  some  hours  during  the  battle  of  Munda.  The 
tide  was  turned  by  the  same  means  in  both  cases — by  the 
personal  conduct  and  bravery  of  the  commander. 

By  this  crowning  victory  Severus  was  released  from  all 
need  for  disguise,  and  "  poured  forth  on  the  civil  popula- 
tion all  the  wTath  which  he  had  been  storing  up  for  a  long 
time  "  (Dio).  He  particularly  frightened  the  senate  by 
ea"ing  himself  the  son  of  Marcus  and  brother  of  Commodus, 
whom  he  had  before  insulted.  And  he  read  a  speech  in 
■which  he  declared  that  the  severity  and  cruelty  of  Sulla, 
Marius,  and  Augastus  had  proved  to  be  safer  policy  than 
the  clemency  of  Pompey  and  Julius  Ca;sar,  which  had 
wrought  their  ruin.  He  ended  with  an  apology  for  Com- 
modus  and  bitter  reproaches  against  the  senate  for  their 
eympathy  with  his  assassins.  Over  sixty  senators  were 
arrested,  on  a  charge  of  having  adhered  to  Albinus,  and  half 
of  them  were  put  to  death.  Tn  most  instances  the  charge 
■was  merely  a  pretence  to  enable  the  emperor  to  crush  out 
the  forward  and  dangerous  spirits  in  the  senate.  The 
murderers  of  Commodus  were  punished ;  Commodus  himself 
■was  deified ;  and  on  the  monuments  from  this  time  onward 
Severus  figures  as  the  brother  of  that  reproduction  of  all 
the  vice  and  cruelty  of  Nero  with  the  refinement  left  out. 

The  next  years  (197-202)  were  devoted  by  Severus  to 
one  of  the  dominant  ideas  of  the  empire  from  its  earliest 
days — war  against  t'he  Parthians.  The  results  to  which 
Trajan  and  Verus  had  aspired  were  now  fully  attained,  and 
Mesopotamia  was  definitely  established  as  a  Roman  pro- 
vince. Part  of  the  ttme  was  spent  in  the  exploration  of 
Egypt,  in  respect  of  which  Dio  takes  opportunity  to  say  that 
Severus  was  not  the  man  to  leave  anything  human  or  divine 
uninvestigated.  The  emperor  returned  to  enjoy  a  well- 
earned  triumph,  commemorated  to  this  day  by  the  arch  in 
Rome  -which  bears  his  name.  .  -During  the  six  years  which 
followed  (202-208)  Severus  resided  at  Rome  and  gave  his 
attention  to  the  organization  of  the  empire.  No  doubt  his 
vigorous  influence  was  felt  to  its  remotest  corners,  but  our 
historians  desert  us  at  this  point  and  'save  us  for  the  most 
part  to  the  important  but  dim  and  directive  conclusions  to 
be  drawn  from  the  abundant  monu:Qental  records  of  the 
reign.  Only  two  or  three  events  in  the  civil  history  of  this 
period  are  fully  narrated  by  the  ancient  writers.  ■  The  first 
of  these  is  the  festival  of  the  Decennalia,  or  rejoicings  in 
the  tenth  year  of  the  emperor's  reign.  Contemporaneous 
vith  this  festival  ^yas  the  marriage  of  Aurelius  Antonini^s 


(Caracalla)  with  Plautilla,  the  daughter  of  Plautianus,  com- 
mander of  the  reorganized  Pnctorian  guards.  This  oflncct 
holds  a  conspicuous  position  in  the  ancient  accounts  of  il)t 
reign,  yet  it  is  all  but  impossible  to  believe  a  good  deal 
that  we  are  told  concerning  him.  Nevertlieloss,  without  a 
clear  view  of  the  career  of  Plautianus,  it  is  difficult  to 
grasp  definitely  some  important  features  in  the  character 
of  Severus,  or  to  appreciate  exactly  the  nature  of  his 
government.  According  to  Dio  and  Herodian,  Plautianus 
was  allowed  for  years  to  exercise  and  abuse  the  whole 
power  of.  the  emperor,  so  far  as  it  did  not  relate  to  th« 
actual  conduct  of  war.  He  was  cruel,  arrogant,  and 
corrupt;  and  the  whole  empire  groaned  under  his  exac- 
tions. Geta,  the  brother  of  Severus,  tried  to  open  the 
emperor's  eyes,  but  the  licence  of  Plautianua  was  merely 
restricted  for  a  moment,  to  be  bestowed  again  in  full. 
Finally,  in  203  this  second  Sejanus  fell  a  victim  to  an 
intrigue  set  on  foot  by  his  own  son-in-law  Antoninus 
(Caracalla),  the  details  of  which  were  not  clearly  known 
even  to  contemporary  writers.  It  is  hard  to  see  in  what 
way  wo  are  to  reconcile  this  history  with  the  known  facts 
of  Severus's  character  and  career,  unless  we  assume  that 
Plautianus  was  really  the  instrument  of  liis  roaster  for  tho 
execution  of  his  new  policy  towards  the  senate  and  tho 
senatorial  provinces.  'That  Plautianus  abused  his  authority 
and  brought  about  his  own  fall  is  probable  enough, — also 
that  Severus  had  destined  him  at  one  time  for  the  guardian- 
ship of  his  sons.  Plautianus  was  succeeded  in  his  offico 
by  two  men.  one  of  whom  was  the  celebrated  jurist 
Papinian 

Severus  spent  the  last  three  years  of  his  life  (208-211) 
in  Britain,  amidst  constant  and  not  very  successful  war- 
fare, which  ho  is  said  to  have  provoked  partly  to  strengthen 
the  discipline  and  powers  of  the  legions,  partly  to  wean 
his  sons  from  their  evil  courses  by  hard  military  service 
He  died  at  York  in  February  of  the  year  211.  There  arc 
vague  traditions  that  his  death  was  in  some  way  hastened 
by  Caracalla.  This  prince  had  been,  since  about  197, 
nominally  joint  emperor  ■with  his  father,  so  that  n© 
ceremony  was  needed  for  his  recognition  as  monarch. 

The  natural  gifts  of  Severus  ■were  of  no  higli  or  unusual  order. 
He  had  a  clear  head,  proniiuitude,  resolution,  tenacity,  and  great 
organizing  power,  bat  no  touch  of  genius.  That  he  was  cruel 
cannot  be  questioned,  but  his  cruelty  ivas  of  the  calculating  kind, 
and  always  clearly  directed  to  some  end.  He  threw  the  liead  of 
Niger  over  the  ramparts  of  Byzantium,  but  merely  as  tho  best 
means  of  procnKag  a  surrender  of  the  stubbornly  defended  fortress. 
The  head  of  Albinus  he  e.-?hibited  at  Rome,  but  only  as  a  warning 
to  the  capital  to  tamper  no  more  with  pretenders.  The  cliilJren 
of  Niger  were  held  as  hostages  aud  kindly  treated  so  long  as  they 
might  possibly  afford  a  useful  basis  for  negotiation  w  ith  their 
father  ;  when  he  was  defeated  they  were  killed,  lest  from  amonjj 
them  should  arise  a  claimant  for  the  imperial  power.  Stern  auil 
barbarous  punishment  was  always  meted  out  by  Severus  to  tlie 
conquered  foe,  but  terror  was  deemed  the  best  guarantee  for  peace 
Ho  feltno  scruplesof  conscience  or  honour  if  be  thought  his  interest 
at  stake,  but  he  was  not  wont  to  take  an  cj;citcd  or  ex.iggcratcJ 
yiew'of  what  his  interest  required.  He  used  or  destroyed  men  ami 
institutions  alike  with  cool  judgment  aud  a  single  oye  to  the  main 
purpose  of  his  life,  the  secui-e  establishment  of  his  dynasty.  .Tlie 
few  traces  of  aimless  savagery  which  we  find  in  the  ancient  narra- 
tives are  probably  the  result  of  fear  working  on  tho  imagination  of 
the  time. 

As  a  soldier  Severus  was  personally  brave,  but  ho  ran  hardly  lie 
called  a  general,  in  spite  of  his  successful  camjiaigns.  He  was 
rather  tho  organizer  of  victory  than  the  actual  author  of  it  Tlie 
operations  against  Niger  were  carried  out  entirely  by  his  ofRcci-s. 
Dio  even  declares  that  tho  fi.ial  battle  with  Albinus  was  the  lii-st 
at  which  Severus  had  ever  been  actually  present  TVBen  a  war 
was  going  on  ho  was  constantly  travelling  over  tho  scene  of  it, 
planning  it  and  instilling  into  tho  army  hia  own  pertinarious 
spirit,  but  the  actual  fighting  was  usually  loft  to  others.  His  treat- 
ment of  the  army  is  tho  most  characteristic  feature  of  his  reign. 
He  frankly  broke  with  the  decent  conventions  of  tho  Augustan 
constitution,  ignored  tho  senate,  and  candidly  based  his  rule  eqion 
force.  Till)  only  title  he  ever  laid  to  the  throne  was  tho  prouuiicia- 
mienio  of  tho  legions,  vhoso  adhorom,o  is  his  cause  ho  commcmoraUJ 


S  E  V  E  R  U  S 


701 


eTcn  on  the  coinage  of  the  realm.  The  legions  voted  liim  the 
adopted  son  of  JIarcus  Aurcliua  ;  the  legions  associated  with  him 
Caracalla  in  the  government  of  the  empire.  Severus  strove  earnestly 
to  wed  the  army  as  a  whole  to  the  support  of  his  dynasty.  He 
increased  enormously  the  material  gains  and  the  honorary  distinc- 
tions of  the  service,  so  that  he  was  charged  with  corrupting  the 
troops.  Yet  it  cannot  bo  denied  that,  all  things  considered,  he 
left  the  army  of  the  empire  more  efficient  than  ho  found  it.  Ho 
increased  the  strength  of  it  by  three  legions,  and  tuwied  the 
Praetorians,  heretofore  a  flabby  body  without  military  e.^perience 
or  instinct,  into  a  chosen  corps  of  veterans.  Their  ranlts  we're 
filled  by  promotion  from  all  the  legions  on  service,  whereas  pre- 
viously there  had  been  special  enlistment  from  Italy  and  one  or 
two  of  the  neighbouring  provinces.  It  was  hoped  that  these 
picked  men  would  form  a  force  on  which  an  emperor  could  rely  in 
an  emergency.  But  to  meet  the  possibility  of  a  legionary  revolt 
in  the  provinces,  one  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  Augustan 
empire  was  abrogated  :  Italy  became  a  province,  and  troops  of  the 
regular  army  were  quartered  in  it  under  the  direct  eommand  of 
the  emperor!  Further  to  obviate  the  risk  of  revolution,  the  great 
commands  in  the  provinces  were  broken  up,  so  that,  e.vcepting  on 
the  turbulent  eastern  frontier,  it  was  not  possible  for  a  commander 
to  dispose  of  troops  numerous  enough  to  render  him  dangerous  to 
the  government. 

But,  while  the  policy  of  Severus  was  primarily  a  family  policy, 
he  was  by  no  means  careless  of  the  general  security  and  welfare  of 
the  empire.  Only  in  one  instance,  the  destruction  of  Byzantium, 
did  he  weaken  its  defences  for  his  own  private  ends — an  error  for 
which  his  successors  paid  dearly,  when  the  Goths  came  to  dominate 
the  Euxino.  The  constantly  troublesome  Danubian  regions  re- 
ceived the  special  attention  of  the  emperor,  but  all  over  tne  realm 
the  status  and  privileges  of  communities  and  districts  were  recast 
in  the  way  that  seemed  likely  to  conduce  to  their  prosperity.  The 
administration  acquired  more  and  more  of  a  military  character,  in 
Italy  as  well  as  in  the  provinces.  Retired  military  officers  now 
filled  many  of  the  posts  formerly  reserved  for  civilians  of  equestrian 
rank.  The  prtefect  of  the  Praetorians  received  large  civil. and  judi- 
cial powers,  so  that  the  investment  of  Papinian  with  the  office  was 
less  unnatural  than  it  at  first  sight  seems.  The  alliance  between 
Severus  and  the  jurisconsults  had  important  consequences.  "While 
ho  gave  them  new  importance  in  the  body  politic,  and  co-operated 
with  them  in  the  work  of  legal  reform,  they  did  him  material  service 
by  working  an  absolutist  view  of  the  government  into  the  texture  of 
Koman  law.  Of  the  legal  changes  of  the  reign,  important  as  they 
were,  we  can  only  mention  a  few  details.  The  emperor  himself  was 
a  devoted  and  upright  judge,  but  he  struck  a  great  blow  at  the 
purity  of  the  law  by  transferring  the  exercise  of  imperial  jurisdic- 
tion from  the  forum  to  the  palace.  He  sharpened  in  many  respects 
the  law  of  treason,  put  an  end  to  the  time-honoured  jjtacsijOTWS 
perpcluac,  altered  largely  that  important  section  of  the  law  which 
dcfmed  tlie  rights  of  the  fiscas,  and  developed  further  the  social 
policy  which  Augustus  had  embodied  in  the  to  Julia  de  aduUeriis 
and  the  lex  Papin,  Poppaca. 

Severus  boldly  adopted  as  an  official  designation  the  autocratic 
title  of  dominits,  which  the  better  of  his  predecessors  had  renounced, 
and  with  which  the  worse  had  only'  toyed,  as  Domitian,  whom 
Martial  did  not  hesitate  to  call  "his  lord  and  his  god."  During 
Severus's  reign  the  senate  was  absolutely  powerless ;  ho  took  all 
initiative  into  his  hands.  Ho  broke  down  the  distinction  between 
the  servants  of  tho  senate  and  the  servants  of  the  emperor.  All 
nominations  to  office  or  function  passed-  under  his  scrutiny.  Tho 
estimation  of  the  old  consular  and  other  republican  titles  was 
diminished.  Tho  growth  of  capacity  in  tho  senate  was  efl'ectually 
checked  by  cutting  off  the  tallest  of  the  poppy-heads  early  in  tho 
reign.  The  senate  became  a  mere  registration  ollico  for  tho 
imperial  determinations,  and  its  members,  as  has  been  well  said, 
a  cnoir  for  drawling  conventional  hymns  of  praise  in  honour  of 
the  monarch.  Even  tho  nominal  restoration  of  .the  senate's  power 
at  tho  timo  of  Alexander  Severus,  and  tho  accession  of  so-called 
"senatorial  emperors"  later  on,  did  not  ctlace  tho  work  of 
Septimius  Severus,  which  waa  resumed  and  carried  to  its  fulfil- 
ment by  Diocletian. 

It  only  remains  to  nay  a  few  words  of  tho  emperor's  attitude 
towards  literature,  art,  and  religion.  No  jieriod  in  tho  history  of 
Latin  literature  is  so  barren  as  tho  reign  of  Severus.  Many  later 
periods— the  ago  of  Stilioho,  for  example— shine  brilliantly  by  com- 
parison. Tho  only  great  Latin  writers  aro  tho  Christians  TertuUian 
and  Cyprian.  Tho  Greek  literature  of  the  period  is  richer,  but  not 
owing  to  any  patronage  of  the  emperor,  except  perhaps  in  the  case 
of  Dio  Cassius,  who,  though  no  admirer  of  Severus,  attributes  to 
encouragement  received  from  him  the  execution  of  tho  great  his- 
torical work  which  has  conio  down  to  our  lime.  Tho  nunierous 
restorations  of  ancient  buildings  and  tho  many  new  constructions 
carried  out  by  Severus  show  that  ho  was  not  insensible  to  tho  artistic 
glories  of  tho  past  ;  and  ho  is  known  to  have  paid  much  attention 
to  works  of  art  in  foreign  countries  whore  bis  duties  took  him.  But 
ho  waa  in  no  sense  a  patron  or  connoisseur  of  ort.     '«  to  religion. 


if  wo  may  tnist  Dio,  one  of  the  most  superstitious  of  historians, 
Severus  was  one  of  the  most  superstitious  of  monarchs.  But  apart 
from  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  what  was  his  influence  on  the  religious 
currents  of  the  time.  He  probably  did  a  good  deal  to  strengihen 
and  extend  the  official  cult  of  the  imperial  familj-,  which  had  been 
greatly  developed  during  the  prosperous  times  of  the  Antonines. 
But  what  he  thought  of  Christianity,  Judaism,  or  the  Oriental 
mysticism  to  which  his  wife  Julia  Domna  gave  such  an  impulse  in 
the  succeeding  reign,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  'We  may  best  conclude 
that  his  religious  symjiathies  were  wide,  since  ti-adition  has  not 
painted  him  as  the  partisan  of  any  one  form  of  w^orsbip. 

The  energy  and  dominance  of  Severus's  character  and  his  capacity 
for  rule  niay  be  deemed,  without  fancifulness,  to  be  traceable  in 
the  numerous  representations  of  his  features  which  have  survived 
to  our  days. 

The  authorities  for  this  emperor's  rel^n  ai-e  fairly  fall  and  satisfactory,  con- 
sidering the  general  scantiness  of  tho  imperial  i-ecords.  Severus  himself  wrote 
an  autobiograpliy  whicli  -was  reg.irded  as  candid  and  ti-ustworthy  on  the  whole. 
The  events  of  the  reign  were  lecordedby  several  contemporBries.  Tlie  fii-st  plaeo 
among  these  must  be  given  to  Dio  Cassius,  who  stands  to  the  empire  in  niucii 
the  same  relation  as  Livy  to  the  republic.  He  became  a  senator  in  the  year 
when  Marcus  Aurelius  died  (UO)  and  retained  that  dignity  for  more  tlian  nfty 
years.  He  was  well  acquainted  with  Severus,  and  was  Bear  enough  the  centre 
of  affairs  to  know  the  real  nature  of  events,  without  being  great  enough  to  have 
pprsonal  motives  for  warping  tho  record.  Though  tiiia  portion  of  Dio's  history 
no  longer  exists  In  its  oiiginal  form,  we  have  copious  extracts  from  it,  made  by 
Xiphilinus,  an  ecclesiastic  of  the  11th  century.  The  faults  which  have  impaired 
tile  credit  of  Dio's  great  worlc  in  its  earlier  portions, — his  lack  of  the  critical 
faculty,  his  inexact  knowledge  of  the  earlier  Roman  Institutions,  his  passion  for 
signs  from  heaven,— could  do  little  injury  to  the  narrative  of  an  eye-witness;  and 
he  must  here  make  upon  the  attentive  reader  tlie  impression  of  unusnal  freedom 
from  the  commonest  vices  of  history, — passion,  prejudice,  and  irsincerity.  His 
Greek,  too,  stands  in  agreeable  contrast  to  the  debased  Latin  of  the  "scriptorcs 
historiae  Augustae."  The  Greek  wTiter  Herodian  was  also  a  contemporary  of 
Sevei-us,  but  the  mere  fact  that  we  know  nothing  of  ids  life  is  in  itself  enougli  to 
show  that  his  opportunities  were  not  80  great  as  tiiose  of  Dio.  The  reputation  of 
Kerodian,  who  was  used  as  the  main  Buthoiity  for  the  times  of  Severus  by 
Tillemont  and  Gibbon,  has  not  been  proof  against  the  criticism  of  recent  scholars. 
His  faults  are  those  of  rhetoric  and  exaggeration.  His  nairative  is  probably 
in  many  places  not  independent  of  bio.  The  writers  known  as  the  "scriptorcs 
historiae  Augustae"  are  also  of  consideiable  importance, — particularly  in  the  lives 
of  DiiJius  Julianus,  Severus,  Pescennius  Niger,  and  Caracalla,  attributed  to  .^lius 
Spartianus ;  those  of  Clodius  Albinus  and  Opilius  Macrinus  to  Julius  Capitolinus; 
those  of  Antoninns  Diadumenus,  Antoninus  Heliogabalus,  and  Alexander 
Severus  to  L.ampridius.  The  persoiial  history  of  Severus  and  his  family  is  known 
to  us  mainly  through  these  wi  iters.  Their  principal  authority  was  most  probably 
L.  Marius  Maximus,  a  younger  contemporary  of  Septimius  Severus,  who  wrote, 
in  continuation  of  the  work  of  Suetonius,  the  lives  of  eleven  emperors  from 
Trajan  to  Heliogabalus  inclusive.  If  we  may  believe  a  few  words  about  him 
dropped  by  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  lie  was  a  kind  of  prose  Juvenal,  whoso 
uniformly  dark  pigments  can  hardly  have  suiiiccd  to  paint  a  true  picture  even 
of  his  own  times.  The  very  numerous  inscriptions  belonging  to  the  age  of 
Septimius  Severus  enable  us  to  contiol  at  many  points  and  largely  to  supplement 
the  literary  records  of  his  reign,  particulaiiy  as  regards  the  details  of  his 
administration.  Tho  juridical  works  of  Justinian's  epoch  embody  much  Uiat 
throws  light  on  the  government  of  Severus. 

The  principal  modem  works  relating  to  this  emtieror,  after  'nilemont  and 
Gibbon,  arc— J.  J.  Sehulte,  Dc  Jmpcratore  L.  Septimio  SiVf.ro,  Miinster,  1SG7  ; 
Hofner,  Unter^uchumjen  zur  Oachichte  <ies  2'aiseri  L.  Sfl'timius  Seva'tix, 
Gicssen,  187,*i ;  Uiitersuchunffal  zur  rvmnchen  Kaisertjcicfiicftte^  cd.  by  M. 
Budinger;  H.  Schiller,  Gesch'ichte  der  romischen  Kaisf:rzi:it,  Gotha;  1880-63;  De 
Ceiileiiccr,  £ssai  iur  la  Viii  et  le  Rcgne  de  Stplime  Severe,  Ilrussels,  1S80; 
lieville.  La  Rt^tigion  a  Romii  sous  les  Streres,  Paris,  18S6.  Contiovci-s-y  about  tho 
many  disputed  matters  pertaining  to  Severus  has  been  intcjjtionally  avoided  In 
what  has  been  said  above.  _<J.  S.  It.) 

SEVEEUS,  Marcus  Aitrelius  Alexandee,  Roman 
emperor  from  222  to  235,  ■was  of  Syrian  parentage,  and  was 
born  at  Area  near  the  Syrian  Tripolis  (now  'Irka;  Ydkv'iti 
iii.  G53  ;  cf.  Gen.  x.  17),  probably  in  the  year  205.  Hia 
father  Gessius  Marcianus  held  office  more  than  once  as  an 
imperial  procurator ;  his .  mother  Julia  Mamaja  was  the 
daughter  of  Julia  ^Liesa,  tho  scheming  and  ambifious 
lady  of  Emesa  who  had  succeeded  in  raising  her  grand- 
son Elagabalus  to  the  throne  of  tho  Cwsars ;  see  tho 
genealogical  table  in  Heliogabalus.  His  original  namo 
waa  Alexius  Bassianus,  but  ho  changed  it  in  221,  when 
Mtesa  persuaded  Elagabalus  to  adopt  his  cousin  as  suc- 
cessor and  create  him  Ctcsar.  In  tho  next  y«ar  Elagaboluf 
was  murdered,  and  Alexander  was  proclaimed  by  tlio 
Prietorians  and  accepted  by  tho  senate.  Ho  was  then  o 
mere  lad,  amiable,  well-meaning,  but  somewhat  weak,  and 
entirely  under  the  dominion  of  his  mother,  a  woman  of 
many  virtues,  who  surrounded  her  son  with  wise  counsel- 
loi^,  watched  over  tho  development  of  hia  character,  and 
improved  tho  tone  of  tho  administration,  but  on  the  other 
hand  was  inordinately  jealous  of  her  influence,  and  alieH- 
atcd  tho  army  by  extreme  parsimony,  while  neither  she 
nor  her  son  had  a  strong  enough  hand  to  keep  tight  th« 
reins  of  military  discipline.  Mutinies  became  frequent  it» 
all  parts  of  tho  empire :  to  one  of  them  tho  life  of  the 
i)ra;torian  pra;foct  Ulpian  was  eacrificcd  ;  another  compelK  J 


702 


S  E  V  E  K  U  S 


the  retirement  of  Dion  Cassius  from  his  command  (see 
Dion).  On  the  whole,  however,  the  reign  of  Alexander 
Severus  was  prosperous  till  he  was  summoned  to  the  East 
to  face  the  new  power  of  the  Sdsinians  (see  Persia,  vol. 
xviii.  p.  607).  Of  the  war  that  followed  we  have  very 
■various  accounts ;  Mommsen  (vol.  v.  p.  420  sq.)  leans  to 
that  which  is  least  favourable  to  the  Eomans.  At  all 
events,  though  the  Persians  were  checked  for  the  time, 
the  conduct  of  the  Roman  army  showed  an  extraordinary 
lack  of  discipline.  The  emperor  returned  to  Rome  and 
celebrated  a  triumph  (233),  but  next  year  he  was  called 
to  face  German  invaders  in  Gaul,  and  there  was  slain 
with  his  mother  in  a  mutiny  which  was  probably  led  by 
Maximinus,  and  at  any  rate  purchased  him  the  throne. 
Whatever  the  personal  virtues  of  Alexander  were,  and 
tiiey  have  not  lost  by  contrast  with  his  successor's  brutal 
tyranny,  he  was  not  of  the  stuff  to  rule  a  military  empire. 
SEVERUS,  Suxpicrns  (c.  365-c.  425),  early  Christian 
writer.  A  native  of  Aquitania,  he  was  thoroughly  imbued 
with  the  culture  of  his  country  and  time.  The  seven 
southern  provinces  of  Gaul,  between  the  Alps  and  the 
Loire,  had  long  been  completely  Romanized.  The  very 
name  "  Gaul "  was  repudiated  by  the  inhabitants  and 
confined  to  the  natives  of  the  ruder  northern  districts. 
The  lifetime  of  Severus  exactly  coincided  with  the  period 
of  greatest .  literary  development  in  Aquitania,  then  the 
truest  or  only  true  home  of  Latin  letters  and  learning — 
their  last  place  of  refuge,  from  which  Severus  saw  them 
driven  before  he  closed  his  eyes  on  the  world.  Almost  all 
that  we  know  of  his  life  comes  from  a  few  allusions  in  his 
own  writings,  and  some  passages  in  the  letters  of  his 
friend  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Nola.  In  his  early  days  he 
was  famous  as  a  pleader  in  the  courts,  and  his  knowledge 
©f  Roman  law  is  reflected  in  parts  of  his  writings.  He 
married  a  wealthy  lady  belonging  to  a  consular  family, 
who  died  young,  leaving  him  no  children.  At  this  time 
Beverus  came  under  the  powerful  influence  of  St  Martin, 
bishop  of  Tours,  by  whom  he  was  led  to  devote  his  wealth 
to  the  Christian  poor,  and  his  ovni  powers  to  a  life  of  good 
•works  and  meditation.  To  use  tlie  words  of  his  friend 
Paulinus,  he  broke  with  his  father,  followed  Christ,  and  set 
the  teachings  of  the  "  fishermen"  far  above  all  his  "  TuUian 
learning."  He  rose  to  no  higher  rank  in  the  church  than 
that  of  presbyter.  His  time  was  passed  chiefly  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Toulouse,  and  such  literary  efforts  as  he 
permitted  to  himself  were  made  in  the  interests  of 
Christianity.  In  many  respects  no  two  men  could  be 
more  unlike  than  Severus,  the  scholar  and  orator,  well 
versed  in  the  ways  of  the  world,  and  Martin,  the  rough 
Pannonian  bishop  of  Tours,  ignorant  of  learning,  sus- 
picious of  culture,  the  champion  of  the  monastic  life,  the 
seer  of  visions,  and  the  worker  of  miracles.  Yet  the  spirit 
of  the  r-ugged  saint  subdued  that  of  the  polished  scholar, 
and  the  works  of  Severas  would  have  little  importance 
now  did  they  not  reflect  the  ideas,  influence,  and  aspira- 
tions of  Martin,  the  foremost  ecclesiastic  of  Gaul,  and  one 
of  the  most  striking  figures  in  the  church  of  his  day. 

The  chie(  work  of  Sevenis  is  the  Chronica,  a  summary  of  snored 
history  from  the  beginning  of  the  world  to  his  own  times,  with 
the  omission  of  the  events  recorded  in  the  Gospels  and  the  Acts, 
"  lest  the  form  of  his  brief  work  should  detract  from  the  honour 
dne  to  those  events."  The  book  was  in  fact  a  text-book,  and  was 
actually  used  as  such  in  the  schools  of  Europe  for  about  a  century 
and  _a  half  after  the  editio  princeps  was  published  by  Flacius 
lUyricus  in  1,556.  Severus  nowhere  clearly  points  to  the  class  of 
readers  for  whom  his  book  is  designed.  He  disclaims  the  inten- 
tion of  making  his  work  a  substitute  for  the  actual  narrative 
contained  in  the  Bible.  "Worldly  historians"  had  been  used 
by  him,  he  says,  to  make  clear  the  dates  and  the  connexion  of 
events  and  for  supplementing  the  sacred  sources,  and  with  the 
faitent  at  one  and  the  same  time  to  instruct  the  unlearned  and  to 

oonvince  "  the  learned.  Probably  the  "  unlearned  "  are  the  mass 
K  (^rixtiani   and  the  learned  are  the  cultivated  Christians  and 


pagans  alike,  to  whom  the  rude  language  of  the  sacred  terts, 
whether  in  their  Greek  or  their  Latin  form,  would  be  distastefuL 
The  literary  structure  of  the  narrative  itself  shows  that  Severus 
had  in  his  mind  principally  readers  on  the  same  level  of  culture 
with  himself.  He  was  anxious  to  show  that  sacred  history 
might  be  presented  in  a  form  which  lovers  of  Sallust  and  Tacitus 
could  appreciate  aud  enjoy.  The  style  is  lucid  and  almost 
classical.  Though  plrrases  and  even  sentences  from  many  classical 
authors  are  inwoven  here  and  there,  the  narrative  flows  on  easily, 
with  no  trace  of  the  jolts  and  jerks  which  offend  us  in  almost 
every  line  of  a  patchwork  imitator  of  the  classics  like  Sidonius. 
In  order  that  his  work  might  fauly  stand  beside  that  of  the  old 
Latin  writei-s,  Severus  boldly  ignored  the  allegorical  methods  of 
Lnteriireting  sacred  history  to  which  the  heretics  and  the  orthodox 
of  the  age  were  alike  wedded.  Possibly  he  was  not  unshaken  iB 
his  adherence  to  the  peculiar  reading  wliich  nearly  all  men  then 
gave  to  the  maxim  that  "  the  letter  killeth  but  the  spirit  maketh 
aUve." 

As  an  authority  for  times  antecedent  to  his  own,  Severus  is  of 
little  moment  At  only  a  few  points  does  he  enable  us  to  con-ect 
or  supplement  other  records.  Bernays  has  shown  that  he  based 
his  narrative  of  the  destraction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  on  the 
account  given  by  Tacitus  in  his  "Histories,"  a  portion  of  which 
has  been  lost.  We  are  enabled  thus  to  contrast  Tacitus  with 
Josephus,  who  warped  his  narrative  to  do  honour  to  Titus.  In 
his  allusions  to  the  Gentile  rulers  with  whom  the  Jews  came  into 
contact  from  the  time  of  the  Maccabees  onwards,  Severus  dis- 
closes some  points  which  are  not  without  importance.  But  the 
real  interest  of  his  work  lies,  first,  in  the  incidental  glimpses  it 
afibrds  all  through  of  the  history  of  his  own  time,  next  and  mors 
jiarticularly,  in  the  information  he  has  preserved  concerning  the 
struggle  over  the  Priscillianist  heresy,  which  disorgaui2ed  and 
degraded  the  churches  of  Spain  and  Gaul,  and  particularly  affected 
Aquitaine.  The  sympathies  here  betrayed  by  Severus  are  wholly 
those  of  St  Martin.  The  stout  bishop  had  withstood  to  his  face 
Maximus,  w'ho  ruled  for  some  years  a  large  part  of  the  western 
portion  of  the  empire,  though  he  never  conquered  Italy.  He  had 
reproached  him  with  attacking  and  overthrowing  his  predecessors 
on  the  throne,  and  for  his  dealings  with  the  church.  Severus  loses 
no  opportunity  presented  by  his  narrative  for  laying  stress  on  the 
crimes  and  follies  of  rulers,  and  on  their  cruelty,  though  he  once 
declares  that,  cniel  as  nilere  could  be,  priests  could  be  crueller  still. 
This  last  statement  has  reference  to  the  bishops  who  had  left 
Maximus  no  peace  till  he  had  stained  his  hands  with  the  Wood  of 
Pi-iscilUan  and  his  followers.  Martin,  too,  had  denounced  the 
worldliness  and  greed  of  the  Gaulish  bishops  and  clergy.  Accord- 
ingly we  find  that  Severus,  in  narrating  the  division  of  Canaan 
among  the  tribes,  calls  the  special  attention  of  ecclesiastics  to  ths 
fact  that  no  portion  of  the  land  was  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Levi, 
lest  they  should  be  hindered  in  their  service  of  God.  "  Our  clergy 
seem,"  he  says,  "not  merely  forgetful  of  the  lesson  but  ignorant  of  it, 
such  a  passion  for  possessions  has  in  our  days  fastened  like  a  pesti- 
lence on  their  souls.  They  are  greedy  of  property,  and  tend  their 
estates  aud  hoard  their  gold,  aud  buy  and  sell  and  give  their  minds 
to  gain.  Those  of  them  who  are  reputed  to  be  of  better  principles, 
who  neither  hold  property  nor  barter,  sit  and  wait  for  gifts,  and 
pollute  all  the  gi'ace  of  their  lives  by  taking  fees,  while  they  almost 
make  market  of  their  holiness ;  but  I  have  digressed  farther  than  I 
intended,  through  vexation  and  weariness  of  the  present  age."  We 
here  catch  an  interesting  glimpse  of  the  circumstances  wliich  were 
winning  over  good  men  to  monasticism  in  the  West,  though  the  evi- 
dence of  an  enthusiastic  votary  of  the  solitai-y  life,  such  as  Severus 
was,  is  probably  not  free  from  exaggeration.  Severus  also  fully 
sympathized  with  the  action  of  St  Martin  touching  Priscillianism. 
This  mysterious  Western  offshoot  of  Gnosticism  had  no  single 
feature  about  it  which  could  soften  the  hostility  of  a  character 
such  as  Martin's  was,  but  he  staunchly  resisted  the  introduction  ol 
secular  punishment  for  evil  doctrine,  and  withdrew  from  communion 
with  those  bishops  in  Gaul,  a  large  majority,  who  invoked  the  aid 
of  Maximus  against  their  erring  brethren.  In  this  connexion  it  is 
interesting  to  note  the  account  givea  by  Severus  of  the  synod  held 
at  Rimini  in  359,  where  the  question  arose  whether  the  bishops 
attending  the  assembly  might  lawfully  receive  money  from  the 
imperial  treasury  to  recoup  their  travelling  and  other  expenses^ 
Severus  evidently  approves  the  action  of  the  British  and  Gaulish 
bishops,  who  deemed  it  unbecoming  that  they  should  lie  under 
pecuniary  obligation  to  the  emperor.  His  ideal  of  the  church 
required  that  it  should  stand  clear  of  and  above  the  state. 

After  the  Chronica  the  chief  work  of  Severus  is  his  Zi/e  of 
Martin,  a  contribution  to  popular  Christian  literature  wliick 
did  much  to  establish  the  great  reputation  which  that  wonder- 
working saint  maintained  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  The  book 
is  not  properly  a  biography,  but  a  catalogue  of  miiaclcs,  told  in  all 
the  simplicity  of  absolute  "belief.  The  power  to  work  miraculous 
signs  is  assumed  to  be  in  direct  proportion  to  holiness,  and  is  by 
Severus  valued  merely  as  an  evidence  of  holiness,  which  ho  K 
persuaded  can  only  be  attained  through  a  life  of  isolation  from  tli^ 


S  E  V  —  S  E  V 


703 


world.  In  tho  first  of  his  dialogues  Severus  puts  iuto  the  mouth 
of  au  interlocutor  a  most  pleasing  description  of  the  life  of 
cojnobites  and  solitaries  in  the  deserts  bordering  on  Egypt.  Tho 
main  evidence  of  tho  virtue  attained  by  them  lies  in  the  volnutary 
subjection  to  them  of  tho  savage  beasts  among  which  they  lived. 
But  Severus  was  no  indiscriminating  adherent  of  monasticism. 
The  aonio  dialogue  shows  him  to  be  alive  to  its  dangers  and  defects. 
The  second  dialogue  is  a  Lirpe  appendix  to  the  Life  of  Martin,  and 
really  supplies  more  information  of  his  life  as  bishop  and  of  his 
views  than  the  work  which  bears  tho  title  Vita  S.  Martini.  The 
two  dialogues  occasionally  make  interesting  references  to  personages 
of  the  epoch.  In  Dial.  1,  cc.  6,  7,  we  have  a  vivid  picture  of  the 
controversies  which  raged  at  Alexandria  over  the  works  of  Origen. 
The  judgment  of  Severus  himself  is  no  doubt  that  which  he  puts 
in  the  mouth  of  his  interlocutor  POstumianus  :  "I  am  astonished 
that  one  and  tho  same  man  could  have  so  far  differed  from  himself 
that  in  the  approved  portion  of  his  works  he  has  no  equal  since 
the  apostles,  while  in  that  portion  for  which  he  is  justly  blamed 
it  is  proved  that  no  man  lias  committed  more  unseemly  errors." 
Three  epistles  complete  the  list  of  Severus's  genuine  works.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  led  away  in  his  old  age  by  Pelagianism,  but 
to  have  repented  and  inflicted  long-enduring  penance  on  himself. 

The  text  of  tho  Chronica  rests  on  a  single  MS.,  one  of  the  Palatine  collection 
now  in  the  Vatican;  of  tlie  other  works  MSS.  are  abundant.  Some  spurious 
tetters  bear  the  name  of  Severus;  also  in  a  MS,  at  Madlid  is  iwork  falsely 
professing  to  be  an  epitome  of  the  Chronica  of  Seveilis,  and  going  down  to 
511.  The  chief  editions  of  the  complete  works  of  Severus  are  those  by  De  Piato 
(Verona,  1741)  and  by  Halm  (foi-miuR  vol.  1.  of  the  Corpus  Scriptontm 
Ecclesiaslicoitiin  iafi7(ort/m, 'Vienna,  186C).  There  Is  a  most  adtnirabie  mono- 
graph on  the  Chronica  by  Bemays  (Berlin,  1861).  (J.  S.  R.) 

SfiVIGNfi,  Maiue  de  Eabutin-Chantal;  Marquise 
DE  (1626-1696),  the  most  charming  of  all  letter-writers 
in  all  languages,  was  born  at  Paris  on  February  6,  1626, 
and  died  at  the  chateau  of  Grignan  (Drome),  on  April  18, 
1696.  The  family  of  Kabutin  (if  not  so  illustrious  as  Bussy, 
Madame  de  Sevigne's  notorious  cousin,  affected  to  consider 
it)  was  one  of  great  age  and  distinction  in  Burgundy.  It 
was  traceable  in  documents  to  the  1 2th  century,  and  the 
castle  which  gave  it  name  still  existed,  though  in  ruins,  in 
Madame  de  S6vign6's  time.  The  family  had  been  "  gens 
d'lipee "  for  the  most  part,  though  Francois  de  Kabutin, 
the  author  of  valuable  memoirs  on  the  sixth  decade  of  the 
16th  century,  undoubtedly  belonged  to  it.  It  is  said  that 
Bussy's  silly  vanity  led  him  to  exclude  this  Francois  from 
the  genealogy  of  his  house  because  he  had  not  occupied 
any  high  position.  Jlarie's  father,  Celse  B6nigne  de 
Rabutin,  Baron  de  Chantal,  was  the  son  of  the  celebrated 
"  Sainte  "  Chantal,  friend  and  disciple  of  St  Francis  of 
Sales ;  her  mother  was  Marie  de  Coulanges.  Celse  do 
Eabutin  shared  to  the  full  the  mania  for  duelling  which 
was  the  curse  of  the  gentlemen  of  France  during  tho  first 
half  of  the  17th  century,  and  was  frequently  in  danger  both 
directly  from  his  adversaries  and  indirectly  from  the  law. 
He  died,"  -however,  in  a  more  legitimate  manner,  being 
killed  during  the  English  descent  on  the  Isle  of  Rh6  in 
July  1627.  His  wife  did  not  survive  him  many  years,  and 
Marie  was  left  an  orphan  at  the  age  of  seven'  years  and  a 
few  months.  She  then  passed  into  the  care  of  her  grand- 
parents on  the  mother's  side ;  but  they  were  both  aged, 
and  the  survivor  of  them,  Pliilippe  de  Coulanges,  died  in 
1636,  Marie  being  then  ten  years  old.  According  to  French 
custom  a  family  council  was  held  to  select  a  guardian  of 
tlie  young  heiress,  for  such  slie  was  to  some  extent.  Her 
uncle  Christophe  do  Coulanges,  Abbe  de  Livry,  was  chosen. 
He  was  somewhat  young  for  the  guardianship  of  a  girl, 
being  only  twenty-nine,  but  readers  of  his  niece's  letters 
know  how  well  "  Le  Bien  Bon  " — for  such  is  his  name  in 
Madame  do  Stivign^'s  little  language — acquitted  himself 
of  the  trust.  He  lived  till  within  ten  years  of  his  ward's 
death,  and  long  after  his  nominal  functions  were  ended  ho 
was  in  all  matters  of  business  the  good  angel  of  the  family, 
while  for  half  a  century  his  abbacy  of  Livry  was  tho 
favourite  residence,  both  of  his  niece  and  her  daughter. 
Coulanges  was  much  more  of  a  man  of  business  than  of 
a  man  of  letters,  but  cither  choice  or'  the  fashion  of  the 
time  induced  him  to  make  of  his  nieco  a  learned  lady. 
Chapelaia  and  Manage  are   BDecialJv    mentioned  as  her 


tutors,  and  Manage  at  least  fell  in  love  with  her,  in  which 
point  he  resembled  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  was  constant 
to  his  own  habits  in  regard  to  his  pupils.  Tallemant  dea 
Rteux  gives  more  than  one  instance  of  the  cool  and  good- 
humoured  raillery  with  which  she  received  his  passioo, 
and  the  earliest  letters  of  hers  that  we  possess  arc 
addressed  to  JM^nage.  Another  literary  friend  of  her 
youth  was  the  poet  Saint- Pavin.  Among  her  own  sex  ai^a 
was  intimate  with  all  the  coterie  of  the  Hotel  Eambouillct, 
and  her  special  ally  was  JIademoiselle  de  la  Vergne,  after- 
wards Madame  de  la  Fayette.  In  person  she  was  extremely 
attractive,  though  the  minute  critics  of  tho  time  (which 
was  the  palmy  day  of  portraits  in  words)  objected  to  her 
divers  deviations  from  strictly  regular  beauty,  such  as  eyes 
of  different  colours  and  sizes,  a  "  square-ended  "  nose,  and 
a  somewhat  heavy  jaw.  Her  beautiful  hair  and  com- 
plexion, however,  were  admitted  even  by  these  censors,  as 
well  as  the  extraordinary  spirit  and  liveliness  of  her 
expression.  Her  Jong  minority,  under  so  careful  a 
guardian  as  Coulanges,  had  tilso  raised  her  fortune  to  the 
amount  of  100,000  crowns — a  large  sum  for  the  time,  and 
one  which  with  her  birth  and  beauty  might  have  allowed 
her  to  expect  a  very  brilliant  marriage.  That  which  she 
finally  made  was  certainly  one  of  affection  on  her  side 
rather  than  of  interest.  There  had  been  some  talk  of  her 
cousin  Bussy,  but  very  fortunately  for  her  this  came  to 
nothing.  She  actually  married  Henri,  Marquis  de  S6vigni, 
a  Breton  geutleman  of  a  good  family,  and  allied  to  the 
oldest  houses  of  that  province,  but  of  no  great  estate. 
The  marriage  took  place  on  August  4,  1644,  and  the  pair 
went  almost  immediately  to  S6vign6's  manor-house  of  Les 
Rochers,  near  Vitr6,  a  place  which  Madame  de  S6vign6 
was  in  future  years  to  immortalize.  It  was  an'  unfortified 
chateau  of  no  very  great  size,  but  picturesque  enough,  with 
the  peaked  turrets  common  in  French  architecture,  and 
surrounded  by  a  park  and  grounds  of  no  largo  extent,  but 
thickly  wooded  and  communicating  with  other  woods. 
The  abundance  of  trees  gave  it  the  repute  of  being  damp 
and  somewhat  gloomy.  Fond,  however,  as  Madame  de 
S6vign6  was  of  society,  it  may  be  suspected  that  the 
happiest  days  of  her  brief  married  life  were  spent  there. 
For  there  at  any  rate  her  husband  had  less  opportunity 
than  in  Paris  of  neglecting  her,  and  of  wasting  her  money 
and  his  own.  Very  little  good  is  said  of  Henri  da 
S6vign6  by  any  of  his  contemporaries.  He  was  one  of 
the  innumerable  lovers  of  Ninon  do  I'Enclos,  and  made 
himself  even  more  conspicuous  with  a  certain  Madame  de 
Gondran,  known  in  the  nickname  slang  of  the  time  as 
"La  Belle  Lolo."  He  was  wildly  extravagant.  That  his 
wife  loved  him  and  that  he  did  not  love  her  was  generally 
admitted,  and  the  frank  if  somewhat  coxcomb-like  accounts 
which  Bussy  Rabutin  gives  of  his  own  attempt  and  failure 
to  persuade  her .  to  retaliate  on  her  husband  aro  decisive 
as  to  her  virtue.  At  last  Stivign^'s  pleasant  vices  came 
home  to  him.  He  quarrelled  with  the  Chevalier  d'.(Ubret 
about  Madame  de  Gondran,  fought  with  him  and  was 
mortally  wounded  on  tho  4lh  of  February  1651  ;  he  died 
two  days  afterwards.  There  is  no  reasonable  doubt  that 
his  wife  regretted  him  a  great  deal  more  than  he  deserved. 
On  two  different  occasions  she  is  said  to  have  fainted  in 
public  at  the  sight  once  of  his  adversary  and  once  of  his 
second  in  the  fatal  duel ;  and  whatever  Madame  de 
S6vign6  was  (and  she  had  several  faults)  she  was  certainly 
not  a  hypocrite.  Her  husband  had  when  living  accused 
her  of  coldness, — tho  common  excuse  of  Ubertino  husbands, 
— but  even  he  seems  to  have  found  fault  only  with  her 
temperament,  not  with  her  heart.  To  close  this  part  of 
the  subject  it  may  be  t*aid  that  though  only  six  and 
twenty,  and  more  beautiful  than  over,  she  never  married 
again  despite  frequent  offers,  and  that  do  aspersion  vms 


704 


S  E  V  I  G  N  E 


ever  thrown  save  in  one  instance  on  her  fame. '  For  the 
rest  of  her  life,  which  was  long,  she  gave  herself  up  to  her 
children.  These  were  two  in  number,  and  they  divided 
their  mother's  affections  by  no  means  equally.  The  eldest 
was  a  daughter,  Frauijoise  Jlarguerite  de  SdvigmS,  who 
was  boru  on  October  10,  1G4G,  whether  at  Les  Rochers 
or  in  Paris  is  not  absolutely  certain.  The  second,  a  son, 
Charles  de  Sevigue,  was  born  at  Les  Eochers  in  the  spring 
of  1648.  To  him  Madame  de  S6vign6  was  an  indulgent, 
a  generous  (though  not  altogether  just),  and -in  a  way  an 
affectionate  mother.  Her  daughter,  the  future  Madame  de 
Grignan,  she  worshipped  with  an  almost  insane  affection, 
which  only  its  charming  literary  results  and  the  delightful 
qualities  which  accompanied  it  in  the  worshipper,  though 
not  in  the  worshipped,  save  from  being  ludicrous  if  not 
revolting.  As  it  is;  not  one  in  a  hundred  of' Madame  de 
Sovigne's  readers  can  find  in  his  heart  to  be  angry  with 
her  for  her  devotion  to  a  very  undivine  divinity. 

After  her  husband's  death  ^Madame  de  Sevign6  passed 
the  greater  part  of  the  year  1651  in  retirement  at  Les 
Rochers.  She  had,  however,  no  intention  of  renouncing 
the  world,  and  she  returned  to  Paris  in  November  of  that 
year,  her  affairs  having  been  put  in  such  order  as  Sevign^'a 
extravagance  permitted  by  the  faithful  Coulanges.  For 
nearly  ten  years  little  of  importance  occurred  in  her  life, 
which  was  passed  at  Paris  in  a  house  she  occupied  in  the 
Place  Royale  (not  as  yet  in  th«  famous  Hotel  Carnavalet), 
9*  Les  Rochers,  at  Livry,  or  at  her  own  estate  of  Bourbilly 
in  the  Maconnais.  She  had,  however,  in  1658  a  quarrel, 
with  her  cousin  Bussy,  which  had  not  unimportant  results, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  time  mentioned  above  she  narrowly 
escaped  being  compromised  in  reputation,  thoagh  not  poli- 
tically, at  Fouquet's  downfall.  Notwithstanding  Bussy's 
unamiable  character  and  the  early  affair  of  the  proposed 
marriage,  and  notwithstanding  also  his  libertine  conduct 
towards  her,  the  cousins  had  always  been  friends;  and 
the  most  amusing  and  characteristic  part  of  !Madame  de 
S6vign6'3  correspondence,  before  the  date  of  her  daughter's 
marriage,  is  addressed  to  him.  She  had  a  very  strong 
belief  in  family  ties ;  she  recognized  in  Bussy  a  kindred 
sijirit,  and  she  excused  his  faults  as  Rabutinades  and 
Rahidinafjes — the  terms  she  uses  in  alluding  to  the  rather 
excitable  and  humorist  temper  of  the  house.  But  in 
1653  a  misunderstanding  about  money  brought  about  a 
quarrel,  which  in  its  turn  had  a  long  sequel,  and  results 
not  .unimportant  in  literature.  Bussy  and  his  cousin  had 
jointly  come  in  for  a  considerable  legacy,  and  he  asked  her 
for  a  loan.  If  this  was  not  positively  refused,  there  was  a 
difficulty  made  about  it,  and  Bussy  was  deeply  offended. 
A  year  later,  at  the  escapade  of  Roissy  (see  Eajbtjtin), 
according  to  his  own  account,  he  iniprovised  (according 
to  probability  he  had  long  before  written  it)  the  famous 
portrait  of  Madame  de  S6vign6  which  appears  in  his 
notorious  Eistoire  Amoureuse,  and  which  is  a  triumph  of 
malice.  Circulated  at  first  in  manuscript  and  afterwards 
in  print,  this  caused  Madame  de  S6vign6  the  deepest  pain 
and  indignation,  and  the  quarrel  between  the  cousins  was 
not  fully  made  up'  for  years,  if  indeed  it  was  ever  fully 
made  up;  This  portrait,  however,  was  more  wounding 
to  self-love  than  in  any  way  really  dangerous,  for,  read 
between  the  lines,  it  is  in  effect  a  testimonial  of  character. 
The  Fouquet  matter  was  more  serious.  The  superin- 
tendent was  a  famous  lady-killer,  but  Madame  de  S^vign6, 
though  he  was  her  friend, '  and  though  she  had  been 
ardently  courted  by  him  as  by  others  (one  quarrel  in  her 
presence  between  the  Duke  de  Rohan  and  the  Marquis  de 
Tonquedeo  had  become  notorious),  had  hitherto  escaped 
scandal.  At  Fouquet's  downfall  in  1651  it  was  announced 
on  indubitable  authority  that  communications  from  her 
had  been  found  in  the  coffer  where  Fouquet  kept  his  love 


letters.  She  protested  that  tne  notes  in  question  were  of 
friendship  merely,  and  Bussy  (one  of  the  not  very  numcroas 
good  actions  of  his  life)  obtained  from  Le  Tellier,  who  as 
minister  had  examined  the  letters,  a  corroboration  of  the 
protest.  But  the  letters  were  never  published,  and  there 
have  always  been  those  who  held  that  Madame  de  Sevign6 
regarded  Fouquet  with  at  least  a  very  warm  kind  of 
friendship.  It  is  certain  that  her  letters  to  Pomponne 
describing  his  trial  are  among  her  masterpieces  of 
unaffected,  vivid,  and  sympathetic  narration. 

During  these  earlier  years,  besides  the  circumstances 
already  mentioned,  Madame  de  Sevign6  conceived,  like 
most  of  the  better  and  more  thoughtful  among  Frenchmea 
and  Frenchwomen,  a  great  affection  for  the  establishment 
of  Port  Royal,  which  was  not  without  its  effect  on  her 
literary  work.  That  work,  however  (if  writing  than  which 
certainly  none  was  ever  less  carried  out  in  a  spirit  of 
mere  workmanship  can  be  so  called),  dates  in  its  buUc  and 
really  important  part  almost  entirely  from,  the  last  thirty 
years  of  her  life.  Her  letters  before  the  marriage  of  her 
daughter,  though  by  themselves  they  would  suffice  to  give 
her  a  very  high  rank  among  letter-writers,  would  not  do 
more  than  fill  one  moderate-sized  volume.  Those  after 
that  marriage  fill  nearly  ten  large  volumes  in  the  latest 
and  best  edition.  We  do  not  hear  very  much  of  Made- 
moiselle de  Sevign^'s  early  youth.  For  a  short  time,  at  a 
rather  uncertain  date,  she  was  placed  at  school  with  the 
nuns  of  St  Marie  at  Nantes.  But  for  the  most  part  her 
mother  brought  her  up  herself,  assisted  by  the  Abb6  de  la 
Mousse,  a  faithful  friend,  and  for  a  time  one  of  her  most 
constant  companions.  La  Mousse  was  a  great  Cartesian, 
and  he  made  Mademoiselle  de  S6vign6  also  a  devotee  of 
the  bold  soldier  of  Touraine  to  a  degree  which  even  in  that 
century  of  blue  stockings  excited  surprise  and  some  ridi- 
cule. But  Mademoiselle  de  S6vign6  was  bent  on  more 
mundane  triumphs  than  philosophy  had  to  offer.  Her 
beauty  is  all  the  more  incontestable  that  she  was  by  n» 
means  generally  liked.  Bussy,  a  critical  and  not  too  bene- 
volent judge,  called  her  "la  plus  jolie  fille  de  France," 
and  it  seems  to  be  agreed  that  she  resembled  her  mother, 
with  the  advantage  of  more  regular  features.  She  was 
introduced  at  court  early,  and  as  she  danced  well  she 
figured  frequently  in  the  ballets  which  were  the  chief 
amusement  of  the  court  of  Louis  XFV.  in  its  early  days. 
If,  however,  she  was  more  regularly  beautiful  than  her 
mother  she  had  little  or  nothing  of  her  attraction,-  and 
like  many  other  beauties  who  have  entered  society  with 
similar  expectations  she  did  not  immediately  find  a 
husband.  Various  projected  alliances  fell  through  for  one 
reason  or  another,  and  it  was  not  till  the  end  of  1668 
that  her  destiny  was  settled.  On  January  29  in  the  next 
year  she  married  Francois  Adh^mar,  Comte  de  Grignan, 
a  Provencal,  of  one  of  the  noblest  families  of  France,  and 
a  man  of  amiable  and  honourable  character,  but  neither 
young  nor  handsome,  nor  in  reality  rich.  He  had  been 
twice  married  and  his  great  estates  were  heavily  encum- 
bered. Neither  did  the  large  dowry  (300,000  livres) 
which  Madame  de  S6vign6,  somewhat  unfairly  to  her  son, 
bestowed  upon  her  daughter,'  sufiice  to  clear  encumbrances, 
which  were  constantly  increased  in  the  sequel  by  the 
extravagance  of  Madame  de  Grignan  as  well  as  of  her 
husband. 

Charles  de  S6vign6  was  by  this  time  twenty  years  old, 
but  he  had  no  doubt  already  learnt  that  ie  was  not  the 
person  of  chief  •  importance  in  the  famity.  He  never, 
throughout  his  life,  appears  to  have  resented  his  mother's 
preference  of  his  sister ;  but,  though  thoroughly  aniable, 
he  was  not  (at  any  rate  in  his  youth)  a  model  character. 
Nothing  is  known  of  his  education,  but  just  before  his 
sister's  marriage  he  voluntaered  for  a  rather  hairbrained 


S  E  V  1  G  N  E 


705 


fxpedition  to  Crete  against  the  Turks,  and  served  with 
credit.  Then  liis  mother  bought  him  the  commission  of 
ffuidon  (a  kind  of  sub-cornet)  in  the  Gendarmes  Dauphin, 
in  which  regiment  he  served  for  some  years,  and  after 
long  complaining  of  the  slowness  of  promotion  rather 
rapidly  rose  to  the  rank  of  captain,  when  he  sold  out. 
But  though  he  always  fought  well  he  was  not  an  enthusi- 
astic soldier,  and  was  constantly  and  not  often  fortunately 
in  love.  He  followed  his  father  into  the  nets  of  Ninon 
de  I'Enclos,  and  was  Racine's  rival  with  Mademoiselle 
ChampmesltJ.  The  way  in  which  his  mother  was  made 
confidante  of  these  discreditable  and  not  very  successful 
loves  is  characteristic  both  of  the  time  and  of  the  country. 
In  16G9  M.  de  Grignan,  who  had  previously  been  lieu- 
tenant-governor of  Languedoc,  was  transferred  to  Provence. 
The  governor-in-chief  was  the  young  duke  of  VendOnie. 
But  at  this  time  he  was  a  boy,  and  he  never  really  took 
up  the  government,  so  that  Grignan  for  more  than  forty 
years  was  in  effect  viceroy  of  this  important  province. 
His  wife  rejoiced  greatly  in  the  part  of  vice-queen;  but 
their  peculiar  situation  threw  on  them  the  expenses 
without  the  emoluments  of  the  office,  and  those  expenses 
were  increased  by  the  extravagance  of  both,  so  that  the 
Grignan  money  affairs  hold  a  larger  place  in  Madame  de 
S6vigne's  letters  than  might  perhaps  be  wished. 

In  1671  Madame  de  Sevignii  with  her  son  paid  a  visit 
to  Les  Rochers,  which  is  memorable  in  her  history  and  in 
literature.  The  states  of  Brittany  were  convoked  that 
year  at  Vitr6.  This  town  being  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood of  Les  Eochers,  Madame  de  SiSvign^'s  usually 
quiet  life  at  her  country  house  was  diversified  by  the 
necessity  of  entertaining  the  governor,  the  Due  de 
Chaulnes,  of  appearing  at  his  receptions,  and  so  forth. 
All  these  matters  are  duly  consigned  to  record  in  her 
letters,  together  with  much  good-natured  raillery  (it  must 
be  admitted  that  it  is  sometimes  almost  on  the  verge  of 
being  ill-natured,  though  never  quite  over  it)  on  the 
country  ladies  of  the  neighbourhood  and  their  ways.  She 
remained  at  Les  Rochers  during  the  whole  summer  and 
autumn  of  1671,  and  did  not  return  to  Paris  till  late  in 
November.  The  country  news  is  then  succeeded  by  news 
of  the  court.  At  the  end  of  the  next  year,  1672,  one 
great  wi.sh  of  her  heart  was  gratified  by  paying  a  visit  to 
her  daughter  in  her  vice-royalty  of  Provence.  Madame 
de  Grignan  does  not  seem  to  have  been  very  anxious  for 
this  visit, — perhaps  because,  as  the  letters  show  in  many 
cases,  the  exacting  affection  of  her  mother  was  somewhat 
too  strong  for  her  own  colder  nature,  perhaps  because  she 
feared  such  a  witness  of  the  ruinous  extravagance  which 
characterized  the  Grignan  household.  But  her  mother 
remained  with  her  for  nearly  a  year,  and  did  not  return  to 
Paris  till  the  end  of  1673.  During  this  time  we  have  (as 
is  usually  the  case  during  these  Provencal  visits  and  the 
visits  of  Madame  do  Grignan  to  Paris)  some  letters 
addressed  to  Madame  de  Sevign6,  but  comparatively  few 
from  her.  A  visit  of  the  second  class  was  tho  chief  event 
of  1674,  and  the  references  to  this,  such  as  they  are,  is 
the  chief  evidence  that  mother  and  daughter  were  on  the 
whole  better  apart.  1675  brought  with  it  the  death  of 
Turenne  (of  which  Madame  do  S6vign6  has  given  a  very 
noteworthy  account,  characteristic  of  her  more  ambitious 
but  not  perhaps  her  more  successful  manner),  and  also 
serious  disturbances  in  Brittany.  Notwithstanding  these 
it  was  necessary  for  Madame  do  Sevign6  to  make  her 
periodical  visit  to  Les  Rochers.  She  reached  the  house  in 
safety,  and  tho  friendshi])  of  Chaulnes  protected  her  both 
from  violence  and  from  the  exactions  which  the  miserable 
province  underwent  as  a  punishment  for  its  resistance  to 
excessive  and  unconstitutional  taxation.  No  small  part 
of  her  letters  is  occupied  by  these  affairs. 


Tho  year  1676  saw  several  things  important  in  Madame 
de  Sevigne's  life.  For  tbe  first  time  she  was  seriously  ill, 
— it  would  appear  with  rheumatic  fever, ^-and  she  did  not 
thoroughly  recover  till  she  had  visited  Vichy.  Her  letters 
from  this  place  are  among  her  very  best,  and  picture  life 
at  a  17th-century  watering-place  with  unsurpassed  vivid- 
ness. In  this  year,  too,  took  place  the  trial  and  execution 
of  IMadame  de  Brinvilliers.  This  event  figures  in  the 
letters,  and  the  references  to  it  are  among  those  which 
have  given  occasion  to  unfavourable  comments  on  Madame 
do  S6vign6's  character — comments  which,  with  others  of 
the  kind,  ■u-ill  bo  more  conveniently  treated  together. 
In  the  next  year,  1677,  she  moved  into  the  Hotel  Carna- 
valet,  a  house  which  stiU  remains  and  is  inseparably 
connected  with  her  memory,  and  she  had  the  pleasure 
of  welcoming  the  whole  Grignan  family  to  it.  They 
remained  there  a  long  time  ;  indeed  nearly  two  years 
seem  to  have  been  spent  by  Madame  de  Grignan  partly 
in  Paris  and  partly  at  Livry.  The  return  to  Provence 
took  place  in  October  1678,  and  next  year  Madame  de 
Sevignd  had  the  grief  of  losing  La  Rochefoucauld,  the 
most  eminent  and  one  of  the  most  intimate  of  her  close 
personal  friends  and  constant  associates.  In  1680  she 
again  visited  Brittany,  but  the  close  of  that  year  saw  her 
back  in  Paris  to  receive  another  and  even  longer  visit 
from  her  daughter,  who  remained  in  Paris  for  four  years. 
Before  the  end  of  the  last  year  of  this  stay  (in  February 
1684)  Charles  de  Sevign^,  after  all  his  wandering  loves, 
and  after  more  than  one  talked-of  alliance,  was  married 
to  a  young  Breton  lady,  Jeanne  Marguerite  de  Mauron, 
who  had  a  considerable  fortune.  In  the  arrangements  for 
this  marriage  Madame  de  S6vigne  practically  divided  all 
her  fortune  between  her  children  (Madame  de  Grignan  of 
course  receiving  an  unduly  large  share),  and  reserved  only 
part  of  the  life  interest.  The  greed  of  Madame  de 
Grignan  nearly  broke  her  brother's  marriage,  but  it  was 
finally  concluded  and  proved  a  very  happy  one  in  a  some- 
what singular  fashion.  Both  Si§v»gn6  and  his  wife  became 
deeply  religious,  and  at  first  Madame  de  S^vign6  found 
their  household  (for  she  gave  up  Les  Rochers  to  them) 
not  at  all  lively.  But  by  degrees  she  grew  fond  of  her 
daughter-in-law.  During  this  year  sho  spent  a  consider- 
able time  in  Brittany,  first  on  business,  afterwards  on  a 
visit  to  her  son,  and  partly  it  would  appear  for  motives 
of  economy.  But  Madame  de  Grignan  still  continued 
with  only  short  absences  to  inhabit  Paris,  and  the  mother 
and  daughter  were  practically  in  each  other's  company 
until  1688.  The  proportion  of  letters  therefore  that  we 
have  for  the  decade  1677-1687  is  much  smaller  than 
that  which  represents  the  decade  preceding  it ;  indeed  the 
earlier  period  contains  the  great  bulk  of  the  whole  corre- 
spondence. In  1687  the  Abb6  de  Coulanges,  Madame  de 
S6vign6's  uncle  and  good  angel,  died,  and  in  the  following 
year  the  whole  family  were  greatly  excited  by  the  first 
campaign  of  the  young  Marquis  de  Grignan,  Madame  de 
Grignan's  only  son,  who  was  sent  splendidly  equipped  to 
the  siege  of  Philippsbourg.  In  the  same  year  Madame  do 
S6vign6  was  present  at  tho  St  Cyr  performanco  of  Esther, 
and  some  of  her  most  amusing  descriptions  of  court  cere- 
monies and  experiences  date  from  this  timo.  1689  and 
1690  were  almost  entirely  spent  by  her  at  Les  Rochers 
v.'ith  her  son ;  and  on  leaving  him  she  went  across  France 
to  Provence.  There  was  some  excitement  during  her 
Breton  stay,  owing  to  tho  rumour  of  an  English  descent, 
on  which  occasion  tho  Breton  militia  was  called  out,  ancl 
Charles  do  Scvigmi  appeared  for  tho  lost  time  as  a  soldier; 
but  it  came  to  nothing.  1691  was  passed  at  Grignan  and 
other  places  in  tho  south,  but  at  tho  end  of  it  Madame  de 
S6vign6  returned  to  Paris, -bringing  tho.  Qrignans  with 
her;  and  her  daughter  stayed  with  her  tiU  1694.     The 

XXI.  —  8q 


706 


S  E  V  I  G  N  E 


year  1693  saw  the  loss  of  two  of  her  oldest  friends, — Bussy 
Kabutin,  her  faithless  and  troublesome  but  in  his  own  way 
affectionate  cousin,  and  Madame  de  la  Fayette,  her  life- 
long companion,  and  on  the  whole  perhaps  her  best  and 
wisest  friend.  Another  friend  almost  as  intimate,  Madame 
de  Lavardin,  followed  in  1694.  Madame  de  Sevigni 
spent  but  a  few  months  of  this  latter  year  alone,,  and 
followed  her  daughter  to  Provence.  She  never  revisited 
Brittany  after  1691.  Two  important  marriages  with 
their  preparations  occupied  most  of  her  thoughts  during 
1694-1695.  The  young  Marquis  de  Griguan  married  the 
daughter  of  Saint-Amant,  an  immensely  rich  iipancier ; 
but  his  mother's  piide,  ill-nature,  and  bad  taste  (she  is 
said  to  have  remarked  in  full  court  that  it  was  necessary 
now  and  then  to  "  manure  the  best  lands,"  referring  to 
Saint-Amant's  wealth,  low  birth,  and  the  Grignan's  nobility) 
made  the  marriage  not  a  very  happy  one.  His  sister 
Pauline,  who,  in  the  impossibility  of  dowering  her  richly, 
had  a  narrow  escape  of  the  cloister,  made  a  marriage  of 
affection  with  M.  de  Simiane,  and  eventually  became  the 
sole  representative  and  continuator  of  the  families  of 
Grignan  and  Sevign^. 

Madame  de  S6vign^  survived  these  alliances  but  a  very 
short  time.  During  an  illness  of  her  daughter  she  herself 
was  attacked  by  smallpox  in  April.  1696,  and  she  died  on 
the  17th  of  that  month  at  Grignan,  and  was  buried  there. 
Her  idolized  daughter  was  not  present  during  any  time  of 
her  illness;  it  has  been  charitably  hoped  that  she  was  too 
ill  herself.  Her  knovl'n  attention  to  her  own  good  looks, 
and  the  terror  of  the  smallpox  which  then  prevailed, 
s"upply  perhaps  a  less  charitable  but  sufficient  explanation. 
But  in  her  will  Madame  de  Sevign^  still  showed  her  prefer- 
ence for  this  not  too  grateful  child,  and  Charles  de  S6vign6- 
accepted  his  mother's  wishes  in  a  letter  showing  the  good- 
nature which  he  had  never  lacked,  and  the  good  sense 
which,  after  his  early  follies,  and  even  in  a  way  during 
them,  he  h!id  also  shown.  But  the  two  families  were, 
except  as  has  been  said  foi  Madame  de  Simiane  and  her 
posterity,  to  be  rapidly  broken  up.  Charles  de  S6vign6 
and  his  wife  had  no  children,  and  he  himself,  after  occupy- 
ing some  public  posts  (he  was  king's  lieutenant  in  Brittany 
in  1697),  went  with  his  wife  into  rehgious  retirement  at 
Paris  in  1703,  and  after  a  time  sequestered  himself  still 
more  in  the  seminary  of  Sainte-Magloire,  where  he  died  on 
March  26,  1713.  His  widow  survived  him  twenty  years. 
Madame  de  Grignan  had  died  on  August  16,  1705,  at  a 
country  house  near  ^Marseilles,  of  the  very  disease  which 
she  had  tried  to  escape  by  not  visiting  her  dj'ing  mother. 
Her  son,  who  had  fought  at  Blenheim,  had  died  of  the 
same  malady  at  Thionville  the  year  before.  Marie 
Blanche,  her  eldest  daughter,  was  in  a  convent,  and,  as  all 
the  Comte  de  Grignan's  brothers  had  either  entered  the 
church  or  died  Unmarried,  the  family,  already  bankrupt 
in  fortune,  was  extinguished  in  the  male  line  by  Grignan's 
own  death  in  1714,  at  a  very  great  age.  Madame  de 
Simiane,  whose  connexion  with  the  history  of  the  letters 
is  important,  died  in  1737. 

■  The  chief  subjects  of  public  interest  and  the  principal  family 
events  of  importance  whicli  are  noticed  in  the  letters  of  Madame 
de  Sevigne  have  been  indicated  already.  But,  as  will  readily  be 
understood,  neither  the  whole  nor  eren  the  chief  interest  of  her 
correspondence  is  confined  to  such  things.  In  the  latest  edition 
the  letters  extend  to  sixteen  or  seventeen  hundred,  of  which,  how- 
ever, a  considerable  number  (perhaps  a  third)  are  replies  of  other 
•persons  or  letters  'addressed  to  her,  or  letters  of  her  family  and 
friends  having  more  or  less  connexion  with  tlie  subject.'  of  her  cor- 
respondence. As  a  nile  her  own  letters,  especially  those  to  her 
daughter,  are  of  great  length.  Writing  as  she  did  in  a  time  when 
newspapers  were  not,  or  at  least  were  scanty  and  jejune,  gossip  of 
all  sorts  appears  among  her  Subjects,  and  some  of  her  most  famous 
letters  are  pure  reportage  (to  use  a  modern  Freuch  slang  term), 
while  others  deal  with  strictly  private  subjects.  Thus  one  of  her 
best  known  pieces  has  for  subject  the  famous  suicide  of  the  grfeat 


cook  Vatel  owing  to  a  misunderstanding  as  to  the  provision  Of  fis^ 
for  an  entertaiument  given  to  the  king  by  Condi  at  Chantilly. 
Another  (on4  of  the  most  characteristic  of  all)  deals  \nih  the 
projected  marriage  of  Lauzun  and  Jfailemoiselle  de  Jlontpensiei*; 
another  with  the  refusal  of  one  of  her  own  footmen  to  tuni  hay- 
maker when  it  was  importaut  to  get  tlie  crop  in  at  Les  Rocbers  ; 
another  with  the  fire  which  burnt  out  her  neighbour's  house  in 
Paris.  At  one  luoment  she  tells  how  a  forwanl  lady  of  honour 
was  disconcerted  in  oifering  certain  services  at  Mademoiselle's 
lev^e  ;  at  another  bow  ill  a  courtier's  clothes  became  him.  She 
entei-s,  as  has  been  said,  at  great  length  into  the  pecuniary 
dilliculties  of  her  daughter ;  she  tells  the  most  extraordinary 
stories  of  the  fashion  in  which  Charles  de  Sevigne  sowed  his  wild 
oats;  she  takes  an  almost  ferocious  interest  and  side  in  her 
daughter's  quarrels  with  rival  beauties  or  great  officials  in  Provence 
who  throw  difficulties  in  the  waj'  of  government. 

Almost  all  writers  of  literary  letters  since  Madame  de  ^evign^'s 
days,  or  rather  since  the  irublicatiou  of  her  correspondence,  have 
imitated  her  more  or  less  directlj',  more  or  less  consciously,  and  it 
is  therefore  only  by  applying  that  historic  estimate  upon  which 
all  true  criticism  rests  that  her  full  value  can  be  discerned.  The 
charm  of  her  work  is,  however,  go  irresistible  that,  read  even  with- 
out any  historical  knowledge  and  in  the  comparatively  adulterated 
editious  in  which  it  is  generally  ijiet  with,  that  chai-m  can  hardly 
be  urissed.  Madame  de  Sevigni  was  a  member  of  the  strong  and 
original  group  of  writers — Ketz,  La  Rochefoucauld,  Corneille,  Pascal, 
St  Kvi-emoud,  Descartes,  and  the  rest — who  escaped  the  finical  and 
weakening  reforms  of  the  later  17th  century,  while  fpr  the  most  part 
they  had  profited  by  those  earlier  reforms  which  succeeded  the 
classicizing  of  the  Pleiade  and  the  imitation  of  Spanish  and  Italian 
which  marred  some  early  work  of  Louis  Xlll.'s  time.  Accordiugto 
the  strictest  standard  of  the  Academy  her  jihraseology  is  sometime* 
inconect,  and  it  occasionally  shows  traces  of  the  quaint  and  affected 
style  of  the  Precioiscs  ;  but  these  things  only  add  to  its  savour  and 
piquancy.  lu  lively  narration  few  writers  have  excelled  her,  and 
in  the  natural  expression  of  domestio  aOectioii  and  maternal 
affection  none.  She  had  an  all-obseiTant  eye  for  trifles'  and  the 
keenest  possible  appreciation  of  the  ludicrous,  together  with  a 
hearty  relish  for  all  sorts  of  amusements,  pageants,  and  diversions, 
and  a  deep  though  not  voluble  or  over-sensitive  sense  of  the 
beauties  of  nature.  But  with  all  thia  she  had  an  understanding  as 
solid  as  her  temper  was  gay.  Unlike  her  daughter  she  was  not  a 
professed  blue-stocking  or  philpsophess.  But  she  had  a  strong 
affection  for  theology,  in  which  she  inclined  (like  the  great  majority 
of  the  religious  aud  intelligent  laity  of  her  time  in  France)  to  the 
Jansenist  side.  Her  favourite  author  in  this  class  was  Nicole. 
She  has  been  reproached  \vith  her  fondness  for  the  romances  of 
Mile,  de  Scud^ry  ai!d  the.  rest  of  her..school.  But  probably  many 
persons  who  make  that  reproach  have  themselves  never  read  the 
works  they  despise,  and  are  ignorant  how  much  merit  there  is  in 
books  whose  chief  faults  are  that  they  are  written  in  a  strongly 
marked  and  now  obsolete  fashion,  and  that  their  length  (which, 
however,  scarcely  if  at  all  exceeds  that  of  Clarissa)  is  pr^osterous. 
In  purely  literary  criticism  Madame  de  Sevi^e,  few  as  were  the 
airs  she  gave  herself,  was  no  mean  expert.  Her  preference  for 
Corneille  over  Kaciuo  has  pinch  more  in  it  than  the  fact  that  the 
elder  poet  had  been  her  favourite  before  the  younger  began  to 
write  ;  and  her  remarks  on  La  Fontaine  and  some  other  authors 
are  both  judicious  and  independent.  If  or  is  she  wanting  in 
original  reflexions  of  no  ordinary  merit.  All  these  things,  added 
to  her  abundance  of  amusing  matter  and  the  charm  of  her  bright 
and  ceaselessly  flomng  style,  fully  account  for  the  unchanged  and 
undimiuished  delight  which  half  a  dozen  generations  have  taken 
in  her  work.  But  it  cannot  be  repeated  too  often  that  to  enjoy 
that  work  in  its  most  enjoyable  point — the  combination  of  fluent 
and  easy  style  with  quaint  archaisms  and  tricks  of  phrase — it  must 
be  read  as  she  wrote  it,  and  not  in  the  trimmed  and  corrected  version 
of  Pen-in  and  Madame  de  Simiane. 

There  can,  moreover,  be  no  one,  however  wedded  he  may  be  to 
the  plan  of  criticizing  literature  as  literature,  who  will  not  admit 
that  great  part  of  the  interest  apd  value  of  these  remarkable  works 
lies  in  the  picture  of  character  which  they  present.  Indeed,  great 
part  of  their  purely  literary  merit  lies  in  the  extraordinary  vivid- 
ness of  this  very  presentation.  Madame  de  Sevigne's  character, 
however,  has  not  united  quite  such  a  unanimity  of  suffrage  as  her 
ability  in  writing.  In  her  own  time  there  were  sot  wanting 
enemies  (indeed  her  unsparing  partisanship  on  her  daughter's 
side  could  not  fail  to  provoke  such)  who  maintained  that  her 
letters  were  written  for  effect,  and  that  her  affection  for  her 
daughter  was  ostentatious  aud  ,  unreal.  But  few  modern  critics 
have  followed  those  detractors,  and  it  may  be  said  confidently  that 
no  com;.)etent  judge  of  character,  after  patiently  reading  the  letters, 
can  for  a  Woraenl  admit  their  view.  I3ut  this  kind  of  enemy  has 
been  follosied  by  another,  who,  not  overshooting  his  mark  so  con- 
spicuously, has  been  somewhat  more  successful  in  persuading 
spectators  th;  t  he  has  hit  it.  Her  excessive  affection  for  Madame 
de  Grignan  (the  almost  importunate  character  of  which  seems  to 


S  E  V  —  S  E  V 


707 


be  proved  by  her  own  confessions  of  unhappiuess  if  not  of  quarrel 
when  they  ■were  together) ;  her  unhesitating  blmdness  to  anything 
but  lier  daugliter's  interest  (manifested  especially  in  the  part  she 
took  iu  most  unjustifiable  attempts  of  Madame  do  Gngnau  to 
secure  her  stepdaughters'  dowries  and  to  force  themselves  into  a 
convent);  her  culpable  tolerance  of  her  son's  youthful  follies  on 
the  ono  hand  and  the  uneven  balance  which  she  held  in  money 
matters  between  him  and  his  sister  on  the  other  ;  tlie  apparent 
levity  witli  which  she  speaks  of  tho  sufferings  of  Madame  de 
Brinvilliers,  of  galley  slaves,  of  the  peasantry,  &c. ;  and  tlie  freedom 
of  language  which  she  uses  herself  and  tolerates  from  others, — have 
ill  been  cast  up  against  her.  Here  the  before-mentioned  historic 
estimato  sufficiently  disposes  of  some  of  the  objections,  a  little 
common  sense  of  others,  and  a  vei-y  little  charity  of  the  rest.  If 
too  much  love  felt  by  a  mother  towards  a  daughter  be  a  fault,  then 
certainly  Madame  de  Sevirae  was  one  of  the  most  offending  souls 
that  ever  lived  ;  but  it  will  hardly,  even  with  tho  injustice  which 
like  all  excessive  affection  it  brought  iu  its  tram,  bo  held  damning. 
Indeed,  the  guilty  lady  was  evidently  quite  aware  of  her  weakness 
in  this  respect,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  things  of  her 
literary  capacity  that,  excessive  as  the  weakness  is,  it  does  not  dis- 
pist  or  weary  the  reader.  The  singular  confidences  which  Madame 
4e  Sevign^  received  from  her  son  and  transmitted  to  her  daughter 
would  even  at  tho  present  day  bo  less  surprising  in  France  than  in 
England.  They  are  only  an  instance,  adjusted  to  the  manners  of 
<he  time,  of  the  system  of  sacrificing'eveiything  to  the  mnintcn- 
ance  of  confideuce  between  mother  and  son,  to  which  the  almost 
invariable,  and  to  foreigners  sometimes  rather  ludicrous,  but  certainly 
not  unamiablo,  adoration  of  Frenchmen  for  their  mothers  is  due. 
Here  too,  as  well  as  in  reference  to  the  immediately  kindred  chargB 
of  crudity  of  language,  and  to  that  of  want  of  sympathy  with  sulfer- 
ing,  especially  with  the  sufferings  of  tho  people,  it  is  especially 
necessary  to  remember  of  what  generation  Madame  de  Sevigne 
was  and  what  were  her  circumstances.  That  generation  was  the 
generation  which  Madame  de  Rambouillet  endeavoured  with  some 
success  to  polish  and  humanize,  but  which  had  barely  recovered 
tho  hardening  influences  of  tho  religious  and  civil  wars  when  it 
was  plunged  into  the  Fronde.  It  was  tho  generation  to  which 
belong  the  almost  incredible  yet  trustworthy  Historietlcs  of 
TaUemant,  and  in  which,  when  she  herself  had  already  reached' 
middle  life,  Bussy  Rabutin's  Uistoire  Amoiireuse  exposed  him 
indeed  to  .powerful  resentments  but  did  not  make  him  lose  all  caste 
as  a  gentleman  and  man  of  hooour.  It  is  absurd  to  expect  at  such 
a  time  and  in  private  letters  the  delicacy  proper  to  quite  different 
times  and  circumstances.'  Moreover,  as  to  the  charge  of  inhumanity 
not  only  do  these  considerations  apply  but  there  is  more  to  bo 
pleaded  than  mere  extenuating  circumstances.  It  is  not  ti'uo  that 
|Madamo  de  S^vigni5  shows  no  sympathy  with  the  oppression  of  the 
Bretons;  it  is  very  far  from  true,  though  her  incurable  habit  of 
liumorous  expression — of  liabutinage,  as  she  says — makes  her  occa- 
sionally use  light  phrases  about  the  matter.  But  it  is  in  fact  as 
tjnreasonable  to  expect  modern  political  views  from  her  (and  it  is 
from  certain  modern  political  standpoints  that  the  charge  is  usually 
made)  as  it  is  to  expect  her  to  observe  the  canons  of  a  19th-century 
propriety.  On  the  whole  she  may  be  as  fairly  and  confidently 
acquitted  of  any  moral  fault,  save  tho  one  peccadillo  of  loving  her 
daughter  too  exclusively  and  blindly,  as  slio  may  be  acquitted  of 
all  literary  faults  whatsoever.  Her  letters  are  wholly,  what  her 
son-in-law  said  well  of  her  after  her  death,  compagnons  ddlicicux; 
and,  far  from  faultless  as  Madame  de  Grignan  was,  none  of  her  faults 
is  more  felt  by  tho  reader  than  her  long  visits  to  her  mother,  diuing 
which  the' letters  cciiscd. 

The  bibliographic  history  of  Madame  de  Sdvignii's  letters  is  of 
considerable  interest  in  itself,  and  is  moreover  typical  of  much 
other  contemporary  literary  history.  Tho  17th  century  was  jiar 
excellence  the  century  of  privately  circulated  literature,  and  from 
Uadamo  do  Sevign^  herself  wo  know  that  her  own  letters  were 
copied  and  handed  about,  sometimes  under  specified  titles,  as  early 
as  1073.  None  of  them,  however,  were  published  until  her  cor- 
respondeaco  with  Bussy.  Rabutin  appeared,  in  ^his  Memoirs  and 
Correspondence,  partly  in  tho  yenr  of  her  dcath,'partly  next  year. 
The  remainder  were  not  printed  in  any  foim  for  thirty  years. 
Then  between  1725  and  1728  appeared  no  less  than  seven  nn- 
aatborizcd  editions,  containing  more  or  fewer  additions  from  tho 
copies  which  had  been  circulated  privately.  The  bibliography  of 
these  is  complicated  and  curious,  and  must  bo  gouf;ht  iu  special 
works  (see  especially  the  Grands  £crivains  edition,  vol.  xi. ).  They 
have,  however,  abiding  interest  chicHy  because  they  stirred  up 
Madame  do  Simiano,  tho  ^vriter's  only  living  representative,  to 
give  an  authorized  version.  This  appeared  under  the  care  of  tho 
Chevalier  do  Perrin  in  0  vols.  (Paris,  173t-37).  It  contained  only 
the  letters  to  Madame  de  Grignan,  and  these  wore  subjected  to 
editing  rather  careful  than  conscientious,  tho  results  of  which  were 
never  thoroughly  removed  until  quite  recently.  In  tho  first  place, 
Madame  de  Simianc,  who  possessed  lar  motiier's  replies,  is  said  to 
hare  burnt  tho  whole  of  tiiese  from  religious  motives  ;  this  phrase 
is  explained   by  Madame  de  Grignan's  Cartesianism,    which   is 


supposed  to  havo  led  her  to  ex]iressiou3  alarming  to  orthod-'xy. 
In  tho  second,  scruples  partly  having  to  do  with  the  susceptibilities 
of  living  persons,  partly  concerning  Jansenist  and  other  prejudices, 
made  her  insist  on  numerous  omissions.  Thirdly,  and  most  un- 
fortunately, the  change  of  taste  seems  to  havo  required  still  mors 
numerous  alterations  of  style  and  language,  such  as  tho  substitu- 
tion of  "Ma  FiUo"  for  Madame  de  Sevigne's  usual  and  charming 
"Ma  Pionnc,"  afid  many  others.  Perrin  followed  this  edition  up 
in  1751  witli  a  volume  of  8U)>plementary  lettti-s  not  addressed  to 
Madame  do  Grignan,  and  in  176'!  published  his  last  edition  of  the 
whole,  which  was  long  tlie  standard  (8  vols. ,  Paris).  During  the  last 
half  of  tho  IStli  century  numerous  editions  of  tho  whole  or  parta 
appeared  with  important  additions,  such  as  that  of  1756,  giving 
for  tho  first  time  the  letters  to  Pomponne  on  tho  Fouquet  trial ; 
that  of  1773,  'giving  letters  to  Jloulceau  ;  that  of  1775,  giving  for 
the  first  time  tho  Bussy  letters  separate  from  his  memoirs,  &c.  Au 
important  collected  edition  of  all  these  fragments,  by  tho  Abbe  da 
Vauxcelles,  appeared  in  1801  (Paris,  An  IX. )  in  10  vols. ;  five  years 
later  Gouvelle  (Paris,  1806,  8  vols.)  introduced  tho  improvement 
of  chronological  order  ;  this  was  reprinted  in  12  vols.  (Paris,  1819) 
with  some  more  unpublished  lettei-s  which  had  separately  appeared 
meanwhile.  In  the  same  year  appeared  the  first  edition  of  M.  de 
Moiimerqu(*.  From  that  d.nte  continual  additions  of  unpublished 
letters  were  made,  in  great  part  by  tho  same  editor,  and  at  lost  the 
whole  was  remodelled  on  manuscript  copies  (tho  originals  unfor- 
tunately are  available  for  but  few)  in  the  edition  called  Ues  Grands 
ficrivains,  which  M.  de  Moninerque  began,  but  which  owing  to  his 
death  had  to  he  finished  by  MM.  liegnicr,  Paul  Mesnard,  and 
■Sommer  (Paris,  1862-1868)."  This,  which  entirely  supersedes  all 
othei-s  (even  a  handsome  edition  published  during  its  appearance 
by  M.  Silvestre  de  Sacy),  consists  of  twelve  volumes  of  text,  notes. 
Sec,  two  volumes  of  lexicon,  and  au  album  of  plates.  It  contains 
au  tho  published  letters  to  and  from  Madame  do  Sevigni!,  with  tho 
replies  where- they  exist,  with  all  those  letters  to  and  from  Jladamo 
do  Simiano  (many  of  which  had  been  added  to  the  main  body) 
that  contain  any  interest.  The  solo  fault  to  bo  found  with  this 
excellent  edition  is  the  omission  to  add  to  each  volume  a  table  of 
contents  giving  each  letter  as  it  comes  with  a  brief  abstract  of  its 
contents.  To  it,  however,  must  be  added  two  volumes  (printed 
unifoi-mly)  of  Lctlres  In6dites,  published  by  M.  Ch.  Capmas  in 
1876  and  containiug  numerous  variants  and  additions  from  a  MS. 
copy  discovered  in  an  old  curiosity  shop  at  Dijon.  Of  loss  elalioiate 
and  costly  editions  that  in  the  collection  Didot  (6  vols. ,  Paris,  v.  d. ) 
is  by  far  tho  best,  though,  in  common  with  all  others  except  the 
Grdnds  £crivains  eAiiiov,  it  contains  an  adulterated  text. 

Works  on  Sladame  de  S(?vign6  are  innumerable.  Tlio  biography  by  Paul 
Mesnaid  Is  nearly  cxhaustlTi;,  but  tlie  most  elaborate  biographical  bO'ik  Is  that 
of  \\'atckcnaer  (3d  ed.,  Paris,  1856,  6  vols.),  to  which  should  be  added  llio  remark- 
able JJisCoirc  de  Mine,  de  Sevtgiie  of  Aubensa  (Paris  and  St  Petersburg,  IS^J). 
In  English  an  excellent  little  book  by  Hiss  Thackeray  (Mrs  ISitchle),  Edinburgh 
and  London,  1881,  may  be  recommended.  MoK  of  the  aditions  have  portrait* 
more  or  fewer.  (G.  SA.) 

SEVILLE,  a  Spanisti  province — one  of  the  eight  into 
which  Andalusia  is  divided — and  formerly  one  of  the  four 
Jloorish  kingdom.s,  is  bounded  on  tho  S.  by  Malaga  and 
Cadiz,  on  the  W.  by  Huelva,  on  the  N.  by  Badajoz,  and 
on  the  E.  by  Cordova.  The  superficial  area  is  5429  square 
miles,  and  in  1877  the  population  numbered  505,29  L' 
Northwards  the  province  is  broken  up  by  low  spurs  of  the 
Sierra  Jforena,  the  summits  of  which  in  tho  extreme  north 
rise  to  a  considerable  height;  but  in  tho  southern  and 
larger  half  the  ground  is  flat  and  fertile,  and  tho  only 
mountainous  part  is  the  frontier  lino  formed  by  the  Sierra 
de  Ronda.  The  Guadalquivir  traverses  tho  province  from 
north-east  to  south-west  and  receives  in  its  course  the 
waters  of  several  streams,  tho  chief  being  the  Genii  and 
tho  Guadaira  on  the  left,  and  tho  Guadalimar  to  tho  right 
The  province  is  ono  of  the  most  productive  and  flourisliing 
in  Spain,  and  grows  all  kinds  of  grain  and  vegetables. 
Oil  and  wine,  oranges  and  olives,  aro  among  its  chief 
exports,  while  tobacco,  leather,  paper,  spirits,  chocolate, 
textile  fabrics  of  silk  and- wool,  soap,  glass,  and  earthen- 
war*  ftro  amongst  its  manufactures.  Sheep  and  oicn, 
horses  and  asses,  aro  reared  on  its  pastures  ;  and  in  tho 
mountainous  districts  there  aro  copper,  silver,  lead,  iron, 
coal,  and  salt  mines,  and  quarriea  of  chalk  and  marble. 
Commerce  has  made  great  strides  of  late  years  owing  to 
tho  opening  up  of  the  country  by  railways,  and  foreiga 
capital  fins  dcvclo|)cd  tho  natural  resources  of  "the  district 
The  province  is  divided  for  administrative  purposes  into 
fourteen partidosjudiciales and  ninety-eight ayuntamiectos, 


708 


SEVILLE 


and  is  represented  in  the  cor'tes  by  four  senators  and 
twelve  deputies.  The  following  towns  have  a  population 
of  more  than  10,000  within  the  municipal  boundaries  : — 
Seville  (see  below),  Carmona  (17,426),  Constantina 
(10,988),  Ecija  (24,955),  Lebrija  (12,864),  Marchena 
(13,768),  Moron  de  la  Frontera  (14,879),  Osuna  (17,211), 
and  Utrera  (15,093). 

SEVILLE  (Span.  Sevilla,  Latin  lepalis,  Arabic  IsIM- 
liya),  capital  of  the  above  province  and  the  seat  of  an 
archbishopric,  with  a  population  of  133,938  in  1877,  is 
situated  in  37°  22'  N.  lat.  and 
5°  58'  W.  long.,  62  miles 
(95  by  rail)  north-north-east 
,  of  Cadiz  and  355  miles  south- 
south-west  of  Madrid,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Guadal- 
quivir, which  here  flows 
through  a  level  country  as 
productive  as  a  garden.  The 
river  is  navigable  up  to  the 
city,  which  is  highly  pictur- 
esque in  its  combination  of 
ancient  buLldiDgs  with  busy 
commerce.  From  the  earliest 
times  the  port  has  been  a 
chief  outlet  for  the  vrealth  of 
Spain.  Under  the  Komans 
the  city  was  tiiade  the  capital 
of  Bsetica,  and  became  a 
favourite  resort  for  wealthy 
Romans,  The  emperors 
Hadrian,  Trajan,  and  Theo- 
dosius  were  born  in  the 
neighbourhood  at  Italica 
(now  Santiponce)  where  are 
the  remains  of  a  considerable 
amphitheatre.  The  chief 
existing  monument  of  the 
Romans  in  Seville  itself  is  the 
aqueduct,  on  four  hundred 
and  ten  arches,  by  which  the 
water  from  Alcahi  de  Gua- 
dairacontinued  until  recently 
to  be  supplied  to  the  town. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  5th 
century  the  Silingi  Vandals 
made  Seville  the  seat  of  their 
empire,  until  it  passed  in  531 
under  the  Goths,  who  chose 
Toledo  for  their  capital. 
After  the  defeat  of  Don 
Roderick  at  Guadalete  in 
7l2  the  Arabs  took  posses 
sion  of  the  city  after  a  siesjL 
of  some  months.  Under  the 
Arabs  Seville  continued  to 
flourish.  Edrisi  speaks  ,in 
particular  of  its  great  export 
trade  in  the  oil  of  Aljarafe. 
The  district  was  in  great 
part    'occupied    by    Syrian 

Arabs  from  Emesa,  part  of  the  troops  that  entered  Spain 
with  Balj  in  741  at  the  time  of  the  revolt  of  the  Berbers.  It 
was  a  scion  of  one  of  these  Emesan  families,  Ab>i  '1-KAsim 
Mohamnied,  cadi  of  Seville,  who  on  the  fall  of  the  Spanish 
caliphate  headed  the  revolt  of  his  townsmen  against  their 
Berber  masters  (1023)  a&d  became  the  founder  of  the 
AbbAdid  dynasty,  of  which  Seville  was  capital,  and  which 
lasted  under  his  son  Mo'tadid  (1,042-1069)  and  grandson 
Mo'tamid  (1069-1091)  till  the  city  was  taken  by  the 


Almoravids.  The  later  years  of  the  Almoravid  rule  were 
very  oppressive  to  the  Moslems  of  Spain;  in  1133  the 
people  of  Seville  were  prepared  to  welcome  the  victorious 
arms  of  Alphonso  VII.,  and  eleven  years  later  Andalusia 
broke  out  in  general  rebellion.  Almohade  troops  now 
passed  over  into  Spain  and  took  Seville  in  1147.  Under 
the  Almohades  SevUle  was  the  seat  of  government  and 
enjoyed  great  prosperity;  the  great  mosque  was  com- 
menced by  Yiisuf  I.  and  completed  by  his  son  the  famous 
Almanzor.     In  the  decline  of  the  dynasty  between  1228 


J.Bwtlu]iS<iftEiirf 


Plan  of  Seville. 


and  1248  Seville  underwent  various  revolutions,  and  ulti- 
mately acknowledged  -the  Hafsite  prince,  who,  however, 
was  unable  to  save  the  city  from  Ferdinand  III.,  who 
restored  it  to  Christendom  in  1248.  The  aspect  of  th(< 
town  even  now  is  essentially  Moorish,  with  its  narrow  tortu- 
ous streets  and  fine  inner  court-yards  to  the  houses.  Many 
of  these  date  from  before  the  Christian  conquest,  and  the 
walls  and  towers  which  until  recently  encircled  the  city  for 
a  length  of  5  miles  have  a  similar  origin.     The  victory  of 


SEVILLE 


709 


Ferdinand  brought  temporary  ruin  on  the  city,  for  it 
is  said  that  400,000  of  the  inhabitants  went  into  volun- 
tary exUo,  and  some  time  elapsed  before  Seville  recovered  ■ 
from  I'he  loss.  But  its  position  was  too  favourable 
for  trade  for  it  to  fall  into  permanent  decay,  and  by 
the  l.^ith  century  it  was  again  in  a  position  to  derive 
full  benefit  from  the  discovery  of  America.  After  the 
reign  of  Philip  II.  its  prosperity  gradually  waned  with 
that  of  the  rest  of  the  Peninsula;  yet  even  in  1700  its 
silk  factories  gave  employment  to  thousands  of  work- 
people; their  numbers,  however,  by  the  end  of  the  18th 
centary  had  fallen  to  four  hundred.  In  1800  an  out- 
break of  yellow  fever  carried  off  30,000  of  the  inhab- 
itants, and  in  1810  the  city  suffered  severely  from  the 
French  under  Soult,  who  plundered  to  the  extent  of 
six  millions  sterling.  Since  that  time  it  has  gradually 
recovered  prosperity,  and  is  now  one  of  the  most  busy 
and  active  centres  of  trade  in  the  peninsula.  Politically 
Seville  has  always  had  the  reputation  of  peculiar  loyalty 
to  the  throne  from  the  time  when,  on  the  death  of 
Ferdinand  III.,  it  was  the  only  city  which  remained 
faithful  to  his  son  Alphonso  the  Wise.  It  was  conse- 
quently much  favoured  by  the  monarchs,  and  frequently  a 
neat  of  the  court.  In  1729  the  treaty  between  England, 
France,  and  Spain  was  signed  in  the  city;  in  1808  the 
central  junta  was  formed  here  and  removed  in  1810  to 
Cadiz;  in  1823  the  cortes  brought  the  king  with  them 
from  Madrid;  and  in  1848  Seville  combined  with  Malaga 
and  Granada  against  Espartero,  who  bombarded  the 
city  but  fled  on  the  return  of  Queen  Maria  Christina 
to  Madrid. 

Sovillo  contains  treasures  of  art  and  architectnre  which  make  it 
•ne  of  the  most  interesting  cities  in  Europe.  The  cathedral,  dedi- 
cated to  Santa  Maria  de  la  Sede,  ranks  in  size  only  after  St  Peter's 
at  Eome,  being  415  feet  long,  298  feet  wide,  and  150  feet  high  to 
the  roof  of  the  nave.  The  west  front  is  approached  by  a  high 
flight  of  steps,  and  tho  platform  on  which  the  enthedral  stands  is 
surrounded  by  a  hundred  shafts  of  columns  from  the  mosque  which 
formerly  occupied  the  site.  The  worli  of  building  began  in  1403 
and  was  finished  in  1519,  so  that  the  one  style  of  Spanish  Pointed 
Oothic  is  fairly  preserved  throughout  the  interior,  however  much 
the  exterior  is  spoiled  by  late}  additions.  Unfortunately  the  west 
front  remained  unfinished;  until  1827,  when  the  central  doorway 
was  completed  in  a  very  inferior  manner  ;  but  this  lias  How  been 
renewed  in  a  purer  style.  At  tho  east  end  are  two  fine  Gothic 
doorways  with  good  sculpture  in  tho  tympana;  and  on  tho  north 
ride  the  Puerta  del  Perdou,  as  it  is  called,  has  some  very  e.\(juisito 
detail  over  tho  horse-shoe  arch,  and  a  pair  of  fine  bronze  doors.  Tho 
exterior  of  the  cathedral  may  bo  disappointing,  but  tho  interior 
leaves  little  to  be  desired.  It  forms  a  parallelogram  containing 
a  nave  and  four  aisles  with  surrounding  chapels,  a  central  dome 
171  feet  high  inside,  and  at  tho  east  end  a  royal  sepiilchral  chapel, 
which  was  an  addition  of  tho  16th  century.  The  thirty-two 
fcnmense  clustered  columns,  the  ninety-three  wiudows,  mostly  filled 
with  the  finest  glass  by  Flemish  artists  of  tho  16th  century,  and 
tiio  profusion  of  art  work  of  various  kinds  displayed  on  all  sides 
produce  an  unsurpassed  effect  of  magnificenco  and  grandeur.  Tho 
reredos  is  an  enormous  Gothic  work  containing  forty-four  panels 
of  gilt  and  coloured  wood  carvings  by  Dancart,  dating  from  1482, 
and  a  silver  statue  of  tho  Virgin  by  Francisco  AUaio  of  1596. 
The  archbishop's  throne  and  tho  choir-stalls  (1475-1548)  are  fine 
pieces  of  carving,  and  amongst  tho  notable  metal-work  are  the  rail- 
mga  (1519)  by  Sancho  Nulioz,  and  tho  lectern  by  Bartolomii  Morel 
•f  tho  same  period.  Tho  bronze  candelabrum  for  tenebra;,  25  feet 
in  height,  is  a  splendid  work  by  Morel.  In  tho  Sacristiu  Alta  is  a 
ailver  repoussd  reliauary  presented  by  Alphonso  tho  "Wise  in  tho  13th 
century  ;  and  in  tno  Sncristia  Mayor,  which  is  a  good  plateresi[uo 
addition  by  Diego  do  Riafio  in  1530,  is  a  magnificent  collection  of 
•hurch  plate  and  vestments.  At  tho  west  end  of  tho  nave  is  t^'e  grave 
of  Ferdinand,  tho  son  of  Columbus,  and  at  the  east  ond,  in  tho  royal 
ehapel,  lies  the  body  of  St  Ferdinand,  wliich  is  exposed  three  times 
in  the  year.  Tliis  chapel  also  contains  a  curious  lifo-sizo  imago  of 
tho  Virgin,  which  was  presented  to  tho  royal  saint  by  St  Louis  of 
Franco  in  tho  13th  century.  It  is  in  carved  wood  with  movable 
arms,  seated  on  a  silver  throne  and  with  hoir  of  spun  gold.  The  chief 
pictures  in  the  cathedral  are  tho  Guardian  Ang;l  and  tlio  St  Anthony 
of  MuriUo,  the  Holy  Family  of  Tobar,  tho  Natirity  and  La  Genera- 
cion  of  Luis  do  Vargas,  Valdds  Leal's  Marriage  of  tho  Virgin,  i>nd 
Qoadalupo'a  Descent  from  tho  Cross.     la  tho  Socristia  AUa  oro 


three  fine  paintings  by  Alexo  Fernandez,  and  in  tho  Sala  Capitulat 
are  a  Conception  by  Murillo  and  a  St  Ferdinand  by  Pacheco.  Tha 
organ  is  ono  of  tho  largest  in  tho  world  ;  it  contains  over  5300 
pipes.  A  ourious  and  unique  ritual  is  observed  by  the  choir  boys 
on  the  festivals  of  Corpus  Christi  and  tho  Immaculate  Conception, 
— a  solemn  dance  with  castanets  being  performed  by  them  Deforo 
the  altar ;  the  custom  is  an  old  one  but  its  origin  is  obscure. 
The  Sagrario  on  tho  north  of  the  cathedral  is  a  Renaissance  addition 
by  Miguel  de  Zumarraga,  which  serves  as  tho  parish  church.  At 
the  north-cast  corner  of  tho  cathedral  stands  the  Giralda,  a  bell 
tower  of  Moorish  origin,  275  feet  in  height  The  lower  part  of  tho 
tower,  or  about  185  feet,  was  buUt  in  tho  latter  half  of  the  12tU 
century  by  Abu  Yusuf  Yakub  ;  the  upper  part  and  the  belfry 
which  is  surmounted  by  a  vano  foniied  of  a  bronze  figure  14  feet 
high  representing  The  Faith,  were  added  by  Fernando  Kuiz  in  156S 
The  ascent  is  made  by  a  series  of  inclined  planes.  The  exterior  Is 
encrusted  with  delicate  Moorish  detail,  and  the  tower  is  altogether 
the  finest  specimen  of  its  kind  in  Europe.  At  tho  base  lies  the 
Court  of  Oranges,  of  which  only  two  sides  now  remain ;  the  original 
Moorish  fountain,  however,  is  still  preserved.  But  tho  chi«f  relic  ot 
the  Arab  dominion  in  Seville  is  the  Alcazar,  a  palace  excelled  in 
interest  and  beauty  only  by  the  Alhambra  of  Granada.  It  was 
begun  in  1181  by  Jalubi  during  the  best  period  of  the  AlmohaJes, 
and  was  surrounded  by  walls  and  towers  of  which  the  Torre  del 
Oro,  a  decagonal  tower  on  the  river  side,  is  now  the  principal 
survival.  Pedro  tho  Cruel  made  considerable  alterations  and 
additions  in  the  14th  century,  and  worse  havoc  was  afterwards 
wrought  by  Charles  V.  Restorations  have  been  effected  as  far  as 
possible,  and  the  palace  is  now  an  extremely  beautiful  example 
of  Moorish  work.  The  facade,  tho  hall  of  ambastadors,  and  the 
Patio  de  las  Muliecas  are  tho  most  striking  portions,  after  which 
may  be  ranked  the  Patio  de  las  Doncellas  and  the  chapel  of  Isabella. 
Among  other  Moorish  remains  in  Seville  may  be  mentioned  tha 
Casa  O'Shea,  which  is  somewhat  spoiled  by  whitewash,  and  the  Casa 
de  las  Dueaas,  with  eleven  court-yards  and  nine  fountains.  Tho 
Casa  de  PUatos  is  in  a  pseudo-Moorish  style  of  the  15th  century, 
and,  in  addition  to  its  elegant  court-yard  surrounded  by  a  marble 
colonnade,  contains  some  fine  decorative  work.  Tho  Casa  de  los 
Abadcs  is  in  tho  Sevillian  plateresque  style,  which  is  strongly 
tinged  with  Moorish  feeling.  Tho  following  are  tho  most  notablo 
churches  in  Seville  :— Santa  Maria  la  Blanca,  an  old  Jewish  syna- 
gogue ;  San  Marcos,  badly  restored,  but  with  a  remarkable  mudejar 
portal;  Omnium  Sanctorum,  erected  upon  the  ruins  of  a  Roman 
temple;  Sau  Juan  de  la  Palma;  San  Julian;  Santa  Catalina;  San 
Miguel;  San  Clemente  el  Real;  tho  church  of  La  Sangro  Hospital; 
the  Gothic  Parroquia  of  Santa  Ana,  in  tho  Triana  suburb ;  and  La 
Caridad.  The  last-named  belongs  to  a  well-conducted  almshousa 
founded  by  the  Sevillian  Dou  Juan,  Miguel  de  Manara.  It  pos-, 
sesses  sLs  masterpieces  by  Murillo,  and  two  by  Yaldes  Leal.  Tha 
other  ctiurches,  though  generally  deficient  in  architectural  interest, 
are  enriched  by  the  products  of  the  brush  or  chitel  of  Pacheco, 
Montaiies,  Alonso  Cano,  ValdiSa  Leal,  Eoelas,  Cami>aiia>  Morales, 
Vargas,  and  Zurbaran.  The  museum  was  formerly  the  church  and 
convent  of  La  Merced.  It  now  contains  priceless  examples  of  tha 
Seville  school  of  painting,  which  flourished  during  tho  16th  and 
17th  centuries.  Among  the  masters  represented  are  Velazquez  and 
Murillo"  (both  natives,  of  Seville),  Zurbaran,  Roelas,  Herrora  tha 
Elder,  Pacheco,  Juan  do  Castillo,  Alonso  Cano,  Cespedes,  Boca- 
negra,  Valdes  Leal,  Goya,  and  Martin  de  Vos.  Tho  university 
was  founded  in  1602,  and  its  present  buildings  were  originally  a 
convent  built  in  1567  from  designs  by  Hcrrera,  but  devoted  to  its 
present  use  in  1707  on  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits.  Tho  Casa  del 
Ayuntamieuto,  in  the  cinquecento  style,  was  begun  in  1545,  and 
has  a  fine  staircase  and  hall  and  handsome  carved  doors.  Tha 
Lonja,  or  exchange,  was  built  by  Herrera  in  1585  in  his  severe 
Doric  and  Ionic  stylo  ;  the  browii  and  rod  marblo  staircase  which 
leads  to  tho  Archivo  de  Indias  is  the  best  part  of  tho  design.  Tho 
archives  contain  30,000  volnmes  relating  to  tho  vovages  of  Spanish 
discoverers,  many  of  which  are  still  unexamined.  The  archbishop's 
palace  dates  from  1697  ;  tho  most  notablo  features  are  tho  Churri- 
gueresquo  doorway  and  staircase.  Tho  royal  cigar  factory  is  an  im- 
mense building  662  feet  long  by  524  feet  wide,  and  contains  twenty- 
eight  court-yards.  Employment  is  given  in  it  to  4500  hands,  who 
work  up  2,000,000  pounds  of  tobacco  yearly.  The  palace  of  San 
Telmo,  now  occupied  by  tho  duke  of  Montpeusicr,  was  formerly  tho 
seat  of  a  naval  college  originally  founded  bv  tho  son  of  Columbus. 
The  immense  doorway  is  the  principal  architectural  fiaturo.  Tlio 
picture  gallery  is  interesting  and  important.  Tho  chirf'snuares  in 
Seville  are  tho  Plaza  Nueva,  the  Pla^a  do  la  Constituciofl,  th6  Plaza 
del  Duque,  and  tho  Plaza  del  Triunfo.  Tho  bullring  accommodates 
18,000  spectators,  and  is  the  next  in  size  to  that  at  Madrid.  There 
aro  Boveral  beautiful  promenades,  the  principal  being  Las  DcUcias,' 
along  tho  river  bank  below  tho  town.  Tho  city  also  contains  several 
theatres.  Across  the  river,  and  connected  with  the  city  by  a  bridge, 
is  tho  Gipsy  quarter  of  tho  Triana.  Tho  navigation  of  tho  river  has 
been  improved  of  late  years  so  that  vessels  of  largo  draught  can  now 
oaeend  tho  stream,  ^Tno  results  are  shown  in  a  larger  tro'lc,  and  ia 


710 


S  E  V  —  S  E  W 


1883  tlio  aggregate  burthen  of  vessels  cleared  amonntccl  to  353,541 
tous  (65,324  British).  Tlic  imirorts  were  valued  at  £1,879,522,  and 
the  exports  at  £1.190.625.  lu  the  Utter  were  included  3110  tung 
of  olive  oil  shipped  to  the  United  Kingdom,  and  1610  t#ns  of  quick- 
silver from  the  Almaden  mines,  which  had  formerly  sent  their 
produce  via  Lisbon.  lu  adilition  to  strictly  local  industries  the 
chief  factories  of  the  city  are  the  tobacco  factory,  the  cannon 
foundry,  and  the  small-arms  factory.  Tliere  are  also  a  petroleum 
refinery,  some  soap  works,  iion  foundries,  artificial  ice  and 
marmalade  factories,  and  several  potteries.  The  ancient  sources  of 
water  supply  having  proved  insufficient,  a  new  system  of  waterworks 
was  designed,  and  was  brought  to  a  suiiceasful  completion  iu  18S3 
by  a  firm  of  English  engineers.  ~  (H.  B.  B. ) 

SEVRES,  a  town  of  France,  in  tlie  department  of 
Seine-et-Oise,  on  tbe  left  bank  of  the  Seine,  midway 
between  Paris  and  Versailles,  with  a  population  of  6768 
in  1881,  owes  its  celebrity  to  tlie  Government  porcelain 
manufactory,  wliicli  dates  from  1756.  In  1876  a  new 
building  WES  erected  at  the  end  of  the  park  of  St  Cloud  to 
replace  the  older  structures,  which  were  in  a  dangerous 
state,  but  have  since  been  transformed  into  a  normal  school 
for  girls.  In  the  museum  connected  with  the  works  are 
preserved  specimens  of  the  different  kinds  of  ware  manu- 
factured in  all  ages  and  countries,  and  the  whole  series  of 
mbdels  employed  at  Sfevres  from  the  commencement  of 
the  manufacture,  fo)'  an  account  of  which  see  vol.  xix. 
pp.  637-38.  A  technical  school  of  mosaic  was  established 
at  Sevres  in  1875; 

SEVRES,  Deux,  a  department  of  western  France, 
formed  in  1790  mainly  of  the  districts  of  Thouars, 
G&tinais,  and  Niortais,  which  constituted  about  one-fourth 
of  Poitou,  and  to  a  small  extent  of  a  portion  of  Basse- 
Saintonge  and  Angoumois,  and  a  very  small  fragment  of 
Aunis.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  Sevre  of  Niort, 
which  flows  across  the  south  of  the  department  from  east  to 
west,  and  the  Sevre  of  lS{antes,  which  drains  the  north-west. 
Lying  between  45°  58'  and  47°  7'  N.  lat.  and  between 
0°  56'  W.  and  0°  13'  E.  long.,  it  is  bounded  (for  the  most 
part  conventionally)  N.  by  Maine-et-Loire,  E.  by  Vienne, 
S.E.  by  Charente,  S.  by  Lower  Charente,  and  W.  by  La 
Vendee.  Part  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Loire,  part 
to  that  of  the  Sevres  of  Niort,  and  part  to  that  of  the 
Charente.  There  are  three  regions, — the  Gatine,  f^e 
"Plain,"  and  the  "Marsh," — distinguished  by  their  geo- 
logical character  and  their  general  physical  appearance. 
The  Gatine,  formed  of  primitive  rocks  (granite  and 
schists),  is  the  continuation  of  the  "Bocage"  of  La 
Vendue  and  Maine-et-Loire.  It  is  a  poor  district  with 
an  irregular  surface,  covered  with  hedges  and  clumps  of 
wood  or  forests.  The  Plain,  resting  on  Oolitic  lime- 
Btone  or  the  "  white  rock "  (pieive  blanche),  is  a  fertile 
grain  country.  The  Marsh,  occupying  only  a  small  part 
of  the  departihent  to  the  south-west,  consists  of  alluvial 
clays  which  also  are  extremely  productive  when  pro- 
perly drained.  The  highest  point  in  the  department  (892 
feet  above  the  sea)  is  to  the  east  of  Parthenay ;  the 
lowest  lies  only  10  feet  above  sea-level.  The  climate  is 
mild,  the  annual  temperature  at  Niort  being  54°  Fahr., 
and  the  rainfall  a  little  more  than  24  inches.  The  winters 
are  colder  in  the  Gatine,  the  summers  warmer  in  the 
Plain  ;  and  the  '"'farsh  is  the  moistest  and  mildest  of  the 
three  districts. 

With '4  total  area  of  1,482,655  acres,  the  .department  contains 
1,043,752  acres  of  arable  ground,  125,534  acres  of  meadows,  49,129 
of  vineyards,  106,222  of  forests,  20,429  of  heath.  The  live  stock 
in  1880  comprised  36,150  horses,  12,800  mides,  2012  asses,  217,935 
eattle,  18,405  sheep  (wool  cUp  102  tous)  78,930  pigs,  60,321  goats, 
18,846  beehiv68'(55  tons  of  honey).  The  horses  are  a  strong  breed, 
and  the  department  raises  mules  for  Spain,  the  Alps,  Auvergne, 
and  Provence.  In  1883  there  were  produced — wheat,  3,909,260 
bushels;  meslin,  466,909;  rye,  673,920;  and  in  1880  barley  pro- 
duced 1,293,600  bushels;  buckwheat,  133,650;  maize  and  millet, 
508,062;  oats,  2,744,500;  potatoes,  4,812,000;  pulse,  192,500 
bnshels  ;  beetroot,  123,429  tons  ;  hemp,  945  tons  ;  flax,  -245  tons  ; 
colza  866(1,  75,900  bushels  (640  tuns  of  oil).     The  wine  and  cider 


amounted  in  1882  to  2,859,912  and  210,914  gallons  iVspectivelr. 
Vegetables  (artichokes,  asparagus,  cabbnge,  pease,  onions)  are  largely 
cultivated.  Oaks,  chestnuts,  and  beeches  are  the  most  importaut 
trees.  Tbe  apple-trees  of  the  Gatine  and  the  walnut-trees  of  tha 
Plain  are  also  of  considerable  value.  Coal  (200  miners,  and  21,487 
tons  in  1S82)  and  peat  are  worked ;  iron-ore,  argentiferous  lead,  and 
antimony  exist  but  are  not  worked  ;  and  freestone,  both  bard  and 
soft,  is  very  extensively  quarried.  There  are  several  sulphurous 
mineral  waters  in  the  department.  The  most  important  industry 
is  the  manufacture  of  cloth— serges,  druggets,  linen,  handkerchiefs, 
flannels,  swan-skins,  and  knitted  goods.  Wool  and  cotton-spin- 
ning, tanning,  and  currying,  glove,  brush,  and  hat  making,  distil- 
ling, brewing,  flour-milling,  and  oil-refining  are  also  carried  on. 
In  740  establishments  water-power  is  used  to  the  extent  of  3000 
horse-power;  and  301  statiouary  and  165  movable  steam-engines 
represeut  respectively  1895  and  677  horse-power.  The  commerce 
of  the  department,  wliicli  supplies  mules,  cattle,  and  provisions  for 
Paris  and  the  neighbouring  great  towns,  is  facilitated  by  21  mUes 
ofjvaterway  (the  Sevre  and  its  left-hand  tributary  tbe  Mignon), 
289  miles  of  national  roads,  3535  of  other  roads,  and  232  miles  of 
railway.  In  density  of  population  (350,103  iu  1881)  the  depart- 
ment is  below  the  average  of  France.  It  contains  38,000  Pro- 
testants, especially  in  the  south-east,  there  being  only  three  French 
departments— Card,  Ardecbe,  and  Drome— which  surpass  it  in 
this  respect.  The  four  ai-rondissemeuts  are  Niort,  Bressuire  (3549 
inhaMtants  in  the  town),  Welle  (2433),  and  Parthenay  (4842) ; 
the  cantons  number  31,  and  the  communes  356.  It  is  part  of  the 
diocese  of  Poitiers,  where  also  is  tbe  court  of  appeal  j  its  military 
headquarters  are  at  Toui's.  St  Maixeut  (4790)  has  an.  infantry 
school. 

SEWAGE.     See  Sewerage.  _ 

SEWARD,  tViLLiAM  Heney  (1801-1872),  American 
statesman,  was  born  May  16,  1801,  in  the  town  of  Florida, 
Orange  county,  N.Y.  He  was  graduated  at  Union  College 
in  1820,  and  began  the  practice  of  law  three  years  after 
in  the  town  of  Auburn,  which  became  his  home  for 
the  rest  of  his  life.  Several  of  his  cases  brought  Mm 
reputation  as  a  lawj'er,  but  he  soon  drifted  into  the  more 
congenial  field  of  politics.  After  he  had  served  for  four 
years,  in  the  State  senate,  the  'Whig  party  of  New  York 
nominated  him  for  governor  of  the  State  in  1834.  Though 
then  defeated,  he  was  nominated  again  in  1838^  and 
elected,  serving  until  1842.  He  then  returned  to  his  law 
practice,  retaining,  however,  the  recognized  leadership  of 
the  WTiig  party  in  the  most  important  State  of  the  Union. 
During  the  next  seven  years  slavery  became  the  burning 
question  of  American  politics.  The  purely  ethical  and  the 
philanthropic  sides  of  the  anti-slavery  struggle  are  repre- 
sented by  Garrison  and  Greeley  (q.v.).  Seward  was 
the  first  to  develop  that  purely  political  side,  with  an 
economic  Jjasis,  which  probably  best  met  the  desires  and 
prejudices  pf  the  great  mass  of  those  who  took  part,  veil- 
ing or  unwilling,  in  the  struggle.  The  keynote  of  his 
theory  was  struck  in  1848  in  a  speech  at  Cleveland: — 
"  The  party  of  slavery  upholds  an  aristocracy,  founded  on 
the  humiliation  of  labour,  as  necessary  to  the  e.xistence  of 
a  chivalrous  republic."  The  absurdity  of  the  conception 
of  a  civilized  nation  which,  in  flat  opposition  to  historical 
development,  should  tolerate  for  ever  a  systematic  humilia- 
tion of  labour  was  only  his  starting  point.  His  theory 
culminated  naturally  in  his  famous  Rochester  speech  of 
1858,  in  which  he  enumerated  the  inevitable  direct  and 
indirect  consequences  of  a  free-labour  and  a  slave-labour 
system  respectively,  showed  the  two  to  be  absolutely 
irreconcilable  and  yet  steadily  increasing  their  interferences 
with  one  another,  and  drew  this  pregnant  inference  : — there 
is  here  "  an-  irrepressible  conflict  between  opposing  and 
enduring  forces,  and  it  means  that  the  United  States  must 
and  will,  sooner  or  later,  become  either  entirely  a  slave- 
holding  nation  or  entirely  a  free-labour  nation."  But  the 
germ  of  the  "  irrepressible  conflict  "  of  1858  lay  clearly  in 
the  utterances  of  1848,  and  Seward  was  even  then  most 
widely  known  as  its  exponent.  When,  therefore,  the  New 
York  Whigs,  who  in  1849  controlled  the  State  legislature, 
which  elects  United  States  senators,  sent  Seward  to  the 
senate  with  hardly  a  show  of  opposition,  their  defiance  of 


S  E  W  —  S  E  W 


711 


C'le  southern  wing  of  their  i>arty  was  a  premonition  of  the 
general  break-up  of  parties  three  years  afterwards.  In  the 
senate  Seward  had  at  first  but  two  pronounced  anti-slavery  '■ 
aas'^iatfia.  As  anti-slavery  feeling  increased,  and  the  | 
Republican  party  was  organized  in  1855-5G,  ho  went  into 
it  naturally,  for  it  was  to  him  ofily  an  anti-slavery  Whig 
party,  and  his  pre-eminent  ability  made  him  at  once  its 
recognized  leader.  In  the  Republican  convention  of  18G0 
he  was  the  leading  candidate  for  the  nomination  for 
president;  and  it  was  only  by  a  sudden  union  of  all  the 
elements  of  opposition  to  hira  that  the  nomination  was 
finally  given  to  Abraham  Lincoln,  whose  name  was  then 
hardly  known  outside  of  Illinois.  It  has  been  an  almost 
invariable  rule  that  American  presidents  have  found  their 
most  irritating  difficulties  in  dealing  with  the  New  York 
leaders  of  their  respective  parties ;  Lincoln  when  elected 
removed  any  such  possibility  by  offering  Seward  the  chief 
position  in  h;s  cabinet,  that  of  secretary  of  state.  Here, 
for  at  least  four  years,  Seward  did  the  great  work  of  his 
life.  His  errors,  wliether  of  constitutional  law,  inter- 
national law,  or  ])olicy,  are  more  clearly  seen  now  than 
they  were  then.  In  spite  of  them  all  the  estimate  of  the 
value  of  his  work  must  be  very  high,  if  we  consider  the 
chances  in  favour  of  foreign  intervention  at  some  time 
during  a  four  years'  war,  and  his  unbroken  success  in  in- 
culcating OB  other  Governments  the  propriety  and  wisdom 
of  neutrallty.s  JIuch  of  this  success  was  due  to  circum- 
stances which  he  did  not  create,  to  his  ability  to  rely 
wlidly  on  the  cordial  friendship  of  the  "plain  people"  (to 
ase  Lincoln's  common  phrase)  of  Great  Britain  and 
France;  and  particularly  to  the  change  of  policy  induced 
by  the  emancipation  proclamations  of  18G2-63;  but  much 
is  still  left  to  the  credit  of  the  secretary,  whose  zeal, 
acttteness,  and  etTiciency  brought  the  shin  safely  through 
the  intricacies  of  international  relations  while  the  crew 
were  putting  out  the  fire  in  her  hold.  In  the  process 
of  reconstruction  which  immediately  followed  the  war 
Seward  sided  heartily  with  President  Johnson  and  shared 
his  defeat  The  Wliig  element  had  been  burned  out  of 
the  Republican  party  by  the  war ;  a,  new  party  had  grown 
np,  not  limited  by  ante  hdlum  notions,  and  it  rapidly 
came  to  look  upon  Seward,  its  onto  trusted  leader,  not  only 
as  a  traitor  but  as  the  main  intellectual  force  which 
supported  Johnson's  clumsy  attempts  at  treason.  At 
ihe  end  of  his  second  term  as  secretary  of  state  in  1869 
he  retired  to  his  home  at  Auburn,  broken  by  loss  of  health, 
by  loss  of  political  standing,  and  by  the  death  of  his  wife 
and  daughter.  Ho  spent  the  next  two  years  in  foreign 
travel,  and  died- at  Auburn,  October  10,  1872. 

Of  SowarJ's  Life  and  IVorJcs,  iu  5  .volis.,  cnlitcJ  by  Ocorgc  E. 
Ealccr,  the  lant  vol  iniie  deals  with  his  career  during  lii«  fust  tt-rm 
M  Becretary  of  state. 

SEWERAGE  is  the  proce.ss  of  systematically  collect- 
ing and  removing  refuse  from  dwellings.  The  matter  to 
bo  dealt  with  may  conveniently  be  classified  as  made  up 
of  four  pdrls; — (1)  dust,  ashes,  kitchen  waste,  and 
solid  matters  generally,  other  than  solid  e.xcreta ;  (2) 
oxcrcta,  consisting  of  urine  and  fxces;  (3)  sloj^watcr,  or 
the  discharge  from  sinks,  basins,  baths,  kc,  and  the  waste 
Water  of  industrial  processes;  (•()  surf.'ice  water  due  to 
rainfall.  I5ofore  the  use  of  undergrouiid  conduits  became 
gonsnii,  the  third  and  fourth  constituents  were  commonly 
allowed  to  sink  into  the  neighbouring  ground,  or  to  find 
their  way  by  surface  channels  to  a  watercourse  or  to  the 
ilea.  Tho  first  and  second  constituents  were  conserved  in 
middens  or  pits,  cither  togolhcr  or  separately,  and  were 
carried  away  from  time  to  time  to  be  npiilicd  as  manure  to 
tbe  land.  In  more  modern  times  the  pits  in  which  cxcro- 
pient  was  collected  took  the  form  of  covered  (anks  called 
cesspools,  and  with  this  niudiiication  the  primitive  uyelem 


of  conservancy,  with  occasional  removal  ly  carts,  is  still 
to  be  found  in  many  towns.  Even  where  the  plan  ol 
removing  excrement  by  sewers  has  been  adopted,  the  first 
kind  of  refuse  named  above  is  still  treated  by  collecting  it 
in  pails  or  bins,  whose  contents  are  removed  by  carts 
either  daily  or  at  longer  intervals.  It  therefore  forms  no 
part  of  the  nearly  liquid  sewage  which  the  other  con- 
stituents unite  to  form. 

The  second  constituent  is  from  an  agricultural  point  of 
view  the  most  valuable,  and  from  a  hygienic  point  of  view 
the  most  dangerous,  element  of  sewage.  Even  healthy 
excreta  decompoee,  if  kept  for  a  short  time  after  they 
are  produced,  and  give  rise  to  noxious  gases;  but  a  more 
serious  danger  proceeds  from  the  fact  that  in  certain'  cases 
of  sickness  these  products  are  charged  with  specific  germs 
of  disease.  Speedy  removal  or  destruction  of  excremental 
sewage  is  therefore  imperative.  It  may  bo  removed  in  an 
unmixed  state,  either  in  pails  or  tanks  or  (with  the  aid 
of  pneumatic  pressure)  by  pipes ;  or  it  may  be  defjecated 
by  mixture  with  dry  earth  or  ashes  ;  or,  finally,  it  may  be 
conveyed  away  in  sewers  by  gravitation,  after  the  addition 
of  a  relatively  large  volume  of  water.  This  last  mode  of 
disposal  is  termed  the  water-carriage  system  of  sewerage.  Water-, 
It  is  the  plan  now  usually  adopted  in  tow-ns  which  have  a  camaga 
sufficient  water  supply,  and  it  is  probably  the  mode  which  '■J **'*"• 
best  meets  the  needs  of  any  large  community.  The  sewers 
which  carry  the  diluted  excreta  serve  also  to  take  slop- 
water,  and  may  or  may  not  be  used  to  remove  the  surface 
water  due  to  rainfall.  The  water-carriage  system  has 
the  disadvantage  that  much  of  the  agricultural  value  of 
sewage  is  lost  by  its  dilution,  while  the  volume  of  foul 
matter  to  bo  disposed  of  is  greatly  increased.  But  it  has 
been  found  that,  even  when  the  excrement  of  a  community 
is  kept  out  of  the  sewers,  and  subjected  to  distinct  treat- 
ment, the  contents  of  the  sewers  are  still  so  foul  that 
their  discharge  into  streams  is  scarcely  less  objectionable 
than  when  the  water-carriage  system  is  adopted-  and, 
further,  it  appears  difficult  if  not  impossible  to  realize  the 
agricultural  value  of  excrement  by  any  process  of  separate 
treatment  that  is  not  offensive  or  dangerous  or  inappli- 
cable to  towns. 

A\'hen,  in  the  water-carriage  system,  the  same  sewers  Ck)mbui«4 
carry  foul  sewage  and  surface-water  due  to  rainfall,  the  """^ 
sewerage   is   said    to  be   "  combined  " ;   the   "  separate "  gj.g,*^™  * 
system,  on  the  other  hand,  is  that  in  which  a  distinct  set  of  water- 
of  sewers  is  provided  to  carry  off  rainfall.     Each  plan  has  carriage., 
its  advantages.     In   tho  separate   system  tho  foul-water 
sewers  need  be  largo  enough  to  take  only  tho  normal  fiow; 
they  may  thus  be  made  self-cleansing  much  more  readily 
than  if  their  size  were  sufficient  to  carry  tho  immensely 
greater  volume  to  which  (on  the  combined  plan)  sewage 
may   bo   swollen   during   heavy   rain.      The  amount   of 
dangerously  foul  matter  is  also  much  reduced.     On  the 
other  hand,  the  contents  of  the  rain-water  sewers  are  still 
too  much  tainted  by  tho  filth  of  tho  streets  to  render  their 
discharge  into  rivers  or  lakes  desirable ;  and  the  complica- 
tion of  two  sets  of  mains  and  branches  is  a  serious  draw- 
back.    Where  old  sewers  are  giving  place  to  new  ones  it 
is  not  unusual  to  retain  the  old  sewers  for  tho  carriage  o) 
surface-water ;  but  in  now  works  a  single  .system  of  sewers, 
provided  with  storm-ovcrnows  to  relievo  them  of  part  of 
tho  rainfall  during   exceptionally  heavy  showers,   would 
probably  be  preferred  in  nearly  every  case.'     Since  sowers 
should,    in  all  cases,    be  water-tight,  thev  do  not  form 
suitable  collectors  of  subaoil  water. 

•  An  cxrcjition  to  this  remark  may  be  tiiailo  In  llio  case  of  I/OnJon, 
wlicre  tlio  ciioiroini.s  ana  to  bo  draintil,  as  well  as  tho  ililBciiIty  ol 
disposing  of  the  foul  scw.igo  on  account  of  its  l.irj;u  voluini".  has  led 
the  Coinniissioncra  on  Metropolitan  Sewage  Divcliarj^o  to  a.lvis«  (in 
tlnir  Itipcrt  (if  ISSI)  tliaf"in  new  dninngo  works  til*  »«i»»if»  khould 
bo,  as  fai'  a^  voaaible,  eeporatcd  frx>in  Ui«  rainfall." 


712 


SEWERAGE 


Sewage 
farms. 


The  waterxarriage  system  of  sewerage  x^iU  be  noticed 
here  under  its  three  aspects  :-(l)  the  ultimate  disposal  of 
sewage-  (2)  the  system  of  common  sewers  by  which 
sewafe  is^onveyed  to  its  destination;  (3)  the  domestic 
arran^'-'ements  for  the  collection  of  sewage. 

Tthe  Ultimate  Disposal  or  Watee-cabuied  Sew- 
age.-In  the  water-carriage  system  of  sewerage  the  fertiliz- 
ing elements  are  so  largely  diluted  that  it  becon.es  a  matter 
of  the  utmost  difficulty  to  turn  them  to  profitable  account 
It  has  been  estimated  that  every  ton  of  London  sewage 
contains   ingredients  whose   value   as  manure   is   rather 
more  than  2d.,i  a  value  which,  could  it  be  realized,  would 
make  the  sewage  of  the  metropolis  worth  a  million  and 
three   quarters    sterling   per   annum      Sewage    farming 
however,    does  not  pay.     After  much  costly  experiment 
the  conviction  is  gaining  ground  that,  neither  by  applying 
sewage  directly  to  land,  nor  by  any  process  of  chemical 
treatment  that  has  yet  been  proposed,  can  sewage  be  made 
to  yield  a  return  as  manure  which  will  cover  the  cost  ot  its 
transport,  treatment,  and  distribution,  except  perhaps  in  a 
few  cases  where  the  circumstances  are  peculiarly  favourable. 
At  the  same  time,  sewage  farming  does  afford  one  satis- 
factory  solution   of  the  problem   of   how   to  dispose  of 
sewage  without  creating  a  nuisance-a  problem  in  which 
any  question  of  profit  or  loss  is  of  secondary  importance 
A  very  early  instance  of  irrigation  by  sewage  is  that  ot 
the  Craigentinny  Meadows,  a  sandy  tract  of  400  acres,  or 
which  part  of   the   sewage   of   Edinburgh  has  been  dis- 
charged   during   certain   seasons    for   nearly   a   century 
There  owing  to  favourable  conditions,  and  to  the  fact  that 
complete  purification  of  the  sewage  is  not  attempted,  the 
process  yields  a  profit ;  but  no  such  result  could  be  looked 
for  if  the  sea  were  not  at  hand  to  receive  the  imperfect!) 
cleansed    sewage    and    the   wholly  uncleansed  _  surplus. 
Germany   furnishes   a   still   older   example  of  irrigation 
in  the  sewage  farm  of  the  town  of  Bunzlau,  which  has 
been  in  existence  for  more  than  three  hundred  years. 

Five   methods   of  treating   sewage  may  _  be  named,  ot 
which  two  or  more  are  often  found  in  combination. 

J)lscnarge  into  the  Sea  or  into  a  large  ^™t"<:°"'^^^.  .'^'f,  f J^ 
the  least  costly  means  by  whicli  a  commiinity  can  nd  itself  of  its 
sewage.  Mucl.  care  in  the  choice  of  outlets  is  necessary  to  make 
this  plan  effective  in  avoiding  nuisance.  Some  towns  make  use  ot 
ffioroutlet-sewersof  Iar|e  capacity,  from  >vh.ch  the  ^scharje 
is  allowed  to  occur  only  when  the  tide  is  ebbing  ^^1^^"  *«  ^°1"'^* 
of  sewace  is  very  large,  even  this  precaution  does  not  wholly  pro- 
tct  Keighbourini  coast  from  foul  deposits.  A  striking  instance 
L  furn^hed  by  the  case  of  London,  wliich  discharges  its  sewage 
fnto  TlTe  tidal^stuary  of  the  Thames  at  Barking  and  Crossness 
dming  only  some  three  or  four  hours  from  the  time  of  each  high 
Ude  It  is  found  that  the  discharged  matter  is  washed  up  and 
koL  the  river  with  every  tide,  occasionally  reaching  as /aj  up  as 
Teddington.  and  that  the  portion  which  is  not  deposited  in  the 
fom  of  mud  banks  only  very  slowly  works  its  way  to  the  sea.  _ 

BZ<rirrigaiion.-iy  this  is  meant  the  use  of  sewage  to  irrigate 
h  eommratl^ely  largo  tract  of  cultivated  land,  in  the  proportion  of 
abou^l  acrltor  mo°re)  of  laud  to  every  120  persons  in  the  sewage- 
^oZibutTn"  population.     This  system  is  now  largely  and  success- 
fuUv  used   especially  where  the  soil  is  a  porous  sandy  loam..     Fears 
that  the  farms  Nvould  prove  dangerous  to  the  hea  th  of  the  ne.ghbour- 
ng  district?  and  tha^t  the   crSps  and  ^^ff -tl^Mf°;™.!°fe  ^T^ 
pould  be  unwholesome,  have  proved  groundless      When  the  farm  is 
^roDerlv  laid  out  and  carefully  managed  the  effluent  water  is  pure 
Kgh^to  bo- admitted  to  a  clear  stream  from  ^^ich  water-supply 
is  drawn      Broad  irrigation  is  practised  .at  Croydon,  Cheltenham, 
Blackbum,  and  many  Sther  English,  towns ;  and  it  ^as  recent  y  been 
applied   oA  a  very  large  scale,  to  dispose  of  the  sewage  of  Berlin. 
"%ermMent  Downlard  FiUration.-Ti^h  i^  ^^l"  mtoad 
trarifvin"  sewage  by  applying  it  to  land,  which  differs  ffom  broad 
?^iSn-:u  requiring  a  much  smaller  area  in  proportion  to  the 
s7w°a"e  dealt  wUh.     In  1870  Dr  Frankland=  drew  attention  to  the 
fact  that^  sewage  were  passed  through  porous  soil,  not  continu. 
ously  but  at  inte°  vals  long  enough  to  let  the  soil  become  aerated 
rapid  rnriScation  took  place  through  the  oxidizing  action  ofjhe 

1  Hoffmann   and   Wilt,    Report  to  tJie   Oovermr^U   Eefertes  on 
Metropolitan  Drainage,  1857.  _ 

2  Report  of  the  Hiv^s  Polluiim  Commisstonere,  l8/u. 


air  which  the  -^/eld  ^  j^Joi^Wh  ^^^^ 

?LT  ?e  XTe'rcoTatn  TouM  in  this  way  take  -the  sewagej 

2000  pe  sfus    ^This  estimate  is  now  Considered  excessive,  and 

successfully  appbed  to  the  sewage  of  --y  towns.^^  m^^^^ 
■which  constitutes  the  titer  is  usea  lu  b'""  ,  J  ,  j,  Und  is 
Trops.     Clay  sods  are,  as  far  as  possible  ''™^'\^^V  ^"1*",;*^  u 

mmmm 

where  that  is  earned  .°"t;/,//"Zt  the  farmer  must  take  the 
sewage  by  irrigation  is   the Jact  tha^  the  la  ^^  ^^^._^^ 

sewagealways  -at  times  ^t'^\"^''^^f„rout  a  portion  of  the  land 
when  the  land  wants  it.     But  "^yayiUo  "     „„%>,„^  whenever  its 

insists,  apparently  ^'^.'"^'IXT any  other  efficient  mode  oJ 
offers  abetter  PJ°^P^='/f  P^^^'JYntemUtent  filtration  through 
Fa";f  haf  bruTecom^menTedTy  ^he^Eoyal  Commission  of  1882-84 
as  a  mode  of  treating  London  sewage  —  ^^^_ 

But  it  mav  be  very  greatly  accelerated  by  the  adaition  oi  terw  u 

Ib^t  are  suspe'nded  throughout  the  mas^    .^^^-/^^^^f^tS 
Z1  ^:dt^h:?r7pttionSouttnr^of  lime  to  one  milUon 

SS^^^if^S*^tltir4a:e?^=effC^ 

ililTdt&^^-glS^e^' -d  m?y"^^^^^^^ 
s?  earns  only  wheS  a  high  standard  of  purity  is  not  compulsory^ 
When    however,  the  voltme  of  the  running  water  which  it  enters 
iJ  relatively  very  large  a  ^uick  purification  takes  place  by  mean. 
of  the  oxveen  which  the  water  carries  m  solution.  . 

The  S  process  is  practised,  without  further  Pn^^fi^t'^n  of 

buted  bv  manufactories),  is  used  to  irrigate  a  farm  of  120O  acres. 
Very  mTny  patents  have  been  obtained  fo^t^ie  precipitation  <rf 

sewage  by  other  chemicals  in  place  of  or  in  addition  to  hrn^     la 

Hmis  process  lime  is  the  chief  ingredient,  with  tar  and  chlonda 
,  of  maLiium  or  calcium  added.  '  At  Coventry  the  precipitants  are 
'  sulS   0     a°u4ia,   protosnlphate  of  iron,  ^d  lime,   and  the 

effluent  UafterwardB  filtered  tl^ough  land,  in  &6  Proportion  of  1 

%X-s'^°Bc'"7otr  worked  by  the  Kauve  Gulno  ^m- 

a^us^'s  ^^^^-^ 


s  J.Bailey-Denton,  Intemittent  D^'^^^'^^f'^^^k  Td'Sst 
(/«  rractioiiind  R^s^  of  Sc^rage  Farrmng,  1st  ed.  1880, 2d  ed.  1S86. 


SEWERAGE 


713 


isttlloweil  to  settle.  The  process  gives  a  reinaikalily  Hear  effluent; 
practically  tlio  whole  of  tlie  insohibio  constituents  of  the  sewaga 
aod  a  jiortion  of  the  dissolved  impurities  are  carried  down  in  the 
precipitate,  which,  wlien  dried  and  ground  along  with  some 
Sulphate  of  magnesia,  is  sold  under  the  name  of  native  guano.  Tho 
^BC  process  has  been  in  successful  use  for  nine  years  at  Aylesbury, 
where  the  "^uano"  finds  a  sale  at  70s.  per  ton.  In  IS/CCthe 
Eiircrs  Pollution  Commissioners  reported  unfavourably  on  the  pro- 
cess, a  fact  wliich  may  have  prevented  its  adoption  by  other  towns, 
but  it  has  since  then  received  the  approval  of  niauy  s)>ecialists. 
A  recent  protracted  investigation  by  Dr  C.  M.  Tidy  and  Prof. 
Dewar  showed  that  the  percentage  of  oxidizable  organic  matter 
removed  by  the  process  ranges  from  75  to  86— a  result,  in  their 
^Uiigincnt,  natiiifactorj'.  At  Leeds,  wliere  the  process  was  tried  for 
a  ( ime,  it  was  given  up  because  the  effluent  was  purer  than  the 
riicrinto  which  it  ran.  and  tho  simple  lime-proiess,  which  costs 
l«w  but  gives  a  less  clear  efliuent,  wa.s  adopted  in  its  place. 

Much  difTereuce  ef  opinion  .still  exists  as  to  the  relative  merits 
»t  broad  irrigation,  filtratioa  through  land,  and  chemical  treat- 
Jn'^nt,  as  means' of  disposing  of  sewage.  Tiiat  either  of  the  two 
8xst  plans  or  a  combination  of  them  both  can  be  made  to  yield  a 
gn  isfactory  solution  of  the  sewage  problem,  from  o  hygienic  point 
of  viciv,  seems  uncjuestionable.  That  chemical  treatment,  cspe- 
ci'  lly  if  supplemented  by  filtration  through  laud,  will  also  purify 
w.'ll,  is  generally  admitted.  Ko  jiroeess  of  effective  purification  is 
»Aw  expected  to  yield  a  profit ;  but  tho  question  of  cost,  on  which 
tl  e  choice  of  a  system  principally  turns,  is  too  extensive  to  be 
t»  uched  in  this  article. 

n.  The  Conveyance  of  Sewage. — For  small  sewera, 
'drcular  pipes  of  glazed  earthenware  or  fire-cla]'  or  of 
noulded  cement  are  used,  from  6  inches  to  18  inches 
'f\tid  even  20  inches  in  diameter.  The  pipes  are  made  in 
fliort  lengths,  and  are  usuallj'  jointed  by  passing  the 
(^fid  or  spigot  of  one  into  the  socket  or  faucet  of  the 
jvjxt.  Into  the  space  between  the  spigot  and  faucet  a 
n'ng  of  gasket  or  tarred  hemp  should  be  forced,  and  the 
rest  of  the  space  filled  up  with  cement,  not  claj'.  The 
gasket  prevents  the  ceiuent  from  entering  the  pipe,  and  so 
obstructing  the  flow ;  at  the  same  time  it  forms  an  elastic 
packing  wliich  serves  to  keep  the  successive  lengths  of 
^ipe  concentric,  even  if  the  cement  should  fail.  The 
pipes  are  laid  with  the  spigot  ends  pointing  in  the  direction 
of  tho  flow,  with  a  nniform  gradient,  and,  where  practi- 
cable, in  straight  lines.  In  special  positions,  such  as 
under  tho  bed  of  a  stream,  cast-iron  pipes  are  used  for 
the  conveyance  of  sewage.  Where  the  capacity  of  an 
18-inch  circular  pipe  would  bo  insufficient,  built  sewers 
are  used  in  place  of  earthenware  pipes.  These  are  some- 
times circular  or  oval,  but  more  commonly  of  an  egg- 
shaped  section,. the  invert  or  lower  side  of  the  sewer  being 
a  curve  of  shorter  radius  than  tho  arch  or  upper  side. 
The  advantage  of  this  form  lies  in  the  fact  that  great 
rariations  in  tho  volum6  of  flow  must  bo  expected,  and 
the  egg-section  presents  for  tho  small  or  dry-weather  flow 
a  narrower  channel  than  would  bo  presented  by  a  circular 
sewer  of  the  saino  total  capacity.     Figs.  1  and  2  show 


rig.  1.  Pig.  2. 

FioB.  1 ,  ?.— Konnfl  of  Sewera. 

two  common  forms  of  egg-sections,  with  dimensions  ex- 
pressed in  terms  of  tho  diameter  of  the  arch.  Fig.  2  is 
tho  more  modern  form,  and  has  tho  advantage  of  a 
eliarper  invert.     The  ratio  of  width  to  height  is  2  to  3. 

Built  sowers  are  meet  commonly  made  of  bricks, 
uouldcd  to  suit  the  curved  structure  of  which  they  are  to 
form  part.  Separate  invert  blocks  of  glazed  earthenware, 
terra-cotta.  or  flre-clay  are  often  used  in  combination  with 


brickwork.  The  bricks  are  laid  over  a  templet  made  to 
the  section  of  "the  sewer,  and  are  grouted  with  cement'. 
An  egg-shaped  sewer,  made  with  two  thicknesses  of  brick, 
an  invert  block,  and 
a  concrete  setting, 
is  illustrated  iu  fig. 
3.  Concrete  is  now- 
very  largely  used 
in  the  construction 
of  sewers,  either  in 
combinatiou  with 
brickwork  or  alone. 
For  this  purpose 
the  concrete  con- 
sists of  from  5  to 
7  parts  of  sand  and 
gravel  or  broken 
stone  to  1  of  Port- 
land cement.  It 
may  be  used  as  a 
cradle  for  or  as  a  iJiMi^^^^^^^p 


Fio.  3.— Brick  Sewer. 


backing  to  a  brick 

ring,  or  as  the  sole 

material  of  construction  by  mnning  it  into  position  round 

a  mould  which  is  removed  when  the  concrete  is  sufficiently 

set,  the  inner  surface  of  the  sewer  being  iu  this  case  coated 

with  a  thin  layer  of  cement. 

In  determining  the  dimensions  of  sewers,  the  amount  of  sewage 
proper  may  be  taken  as  ecjual  to  the  water  supply  (generally  about 
30  gallons  pel  head  per  diem),  and  to  this  must  be  added  an  allow- 
ance for  the  surface  water  (liio  to  rainfall.  The  latter,  which  is 
generally  by  far  tlie  larger  constituent,  is  to  be  estimated  from  th? 
maximum  rate  of  rainfall  for  the  district  and  from  tho  area  and 
character  of  the  surface.  In  the  sewerage  of  Berlin,  for  example, 
(one  of  tb-  most  recent  instances  of  the  combined  water-can i.agc 
system  applied  on  a  large  scale),  tho  maximum  rainfall  allowed  for 
is  J  of  an  inch  per  hour,  of  which  one-third  !s  supposed  to  enter 
the  sewers.  In  auy  estimate  of  tho  sizo  of  sewers  based  ou 
rainfall  account  must  of  course  be  taken  of  the  relief  provided  by 
storm-overflows,  and  also  of  the  capacity  of  the  sewers  to  become 
simply  charged  with  water  during  the  short  time  to  which  very 
heavy  showers  are  invariably  limited.  Rainfall  at  the  rate  of  5  or 
6  inches  per  hour  has  been  known  to  occur  for  a  few  minutes,  but 
it  is  altogether  unnecessary  to  provide  (even  above  storunoverllows) 
sewers  capable  of  discharging  any  such  amount  as  Ibis;  tho  timei 
taken  by  .sewers  of  more  moderate  sizo  to  HIl  would  of  itself  prevent 
the  discharge  from  them  from  reaching  a  condition  of  steady  flow/ 
and,  apart  from  this,  the  risk  of  damage  by  such  an  exceptional 
fall  would  t  warrant  so  great  an  initial  expenditure.  Engineera 
differ  widely  in  their  estimates  of  tho  allowance  to  bo  made  for 
the  discharge  of  surface  water,  and,  no  rule  can  bo  laid  down 
which  would  bo  of  general  application. 

In  order  that  sewers  should  be  self-cleansing,  the  mean  velocity 
of  flow  should  be  not  less  than  2J  feet  pier  second.  Tho  gradieut 
necessary  to  secure  this  is  calculated  on  principles  which  have  been 
stated  in  the  article  H  vdhomeciianics  {q.v.}.    The  velocity  of  flow, 


V,  is 


V—  csjim. 


where  i  is  tho  inclination,  or  ratio  of  vertical  to  horizontal  distance  : 
m  is  tho  "  hydraulic  mean  depth,"  or  tho  ratio  of  area  of  section  oi 
tho  stream  to  the  wetted  perimeter  ;  and  r  is  a  oooQiciont  depend- 
ing on  the  dimensions  and  tho  roughness  of  tho  channel  niiQ  tho 
depth  of  tho  stream.  A  table  of  values  of  c  will  bo  found  in  §  90 
of  the  article  referred  to.  This  velocity  multiplied  by  tho  area  ol 
tho  stream  gives  tho  rate  of  discharge.  Tables  to  facililalo  tho 
determination  of  velocity  and  discharge  in  sowers  of  vnrioiu 
dimensions,  forms,  and  gradicnta  will  bo  found  in  Mr  Latham't 
and  other  practical  treatises.  .  . 

Where  the  contour  of  the  ground  docs  not  admit  of  a  BulllQicnt 
gradient  from  tho  gathering  ground  to  tho  place  of  destination,  tho 
sewage  must  be  pumped  to  a  higher  level  at  one  or  more  points  in 
its  course.  To  minimize  this  necessity,  and  al.so  for  other  reasons, 
it  is  frequently  desirable  not  to  gather  sewage  from  the  wholo  area 
into  a  single  ruain,  but  to  collect  tho  sewage  of  higher  portions  of 
the  town  by  a  separate  high-lovcl  or  interception  sewer. 

Sewer  gas  is  a  term  applied  to  the  air,  fouled  by  mixture  wilK 
gases  which  are  formed  bjr  tho  decomposition  of  sewage,  *iul  by 
the  organic  germs  which  it  carries  in  suspension,  that  fills  tho 
sewer  in  tho  variable  space  above  tho  liquid  stream.  It  is  uni- 
versally recognized  that  sower  gas  is  a  mo»linm  for  tho  conreyanoi 

XXI..  —  oo 


714 


SEWERAGE 


of  disease,  and  in  all  well-designed  systems  of  sewerage  stringent 
precautions  (which  will  be  presently  described)  are  taken  to  keep  it 
cut  of  houses.  It  is  efjually  certain  that  the  dangerous  character 
of  sewer  gas  is  reduced,  if  not  entirely  removed,  by  free  admixture 
with  the  oxygen  of  fresh  air.  Sewers  should  be  liberally  venti- 
lated, not  only  for  this  reason,  but  to  prevent  the  air  within  them 
from  ever  having  its  pressure  raised  (by  sudden  influx  of  water)  eo 
considerably  as  to  force  the  "  traps "  which  separate  it  from  the 
Utniospliere  of  dwellings.  The  plan  of  ventilation  now  most 
approved  is  the  very  simple  one  of  making  openings  from  the  sewer 
to  the  surface  of  the  street  at  short  distances,  —generally  shafts  built 
of  brick  and  cement,— and  covering  these  with  metallic  gratings. 
Under  each  grating  it  is  usual  to  hang  a  box  or  tray  to  catcli 
any  stones  or  dirt  that  may  fall  through  from  the  street,  but  the 
passage  of  air  to  and  from  tlie  sewer  is  left  as  free  as  possible.  The 
openings  to  the  street  are  frequently  made  large  enough  to  allovr  a 
man  to  go  down  to  examine  or  clean  the  sewers,  and  are  then  called 
"manholes."  Smaller  openings,  large  enough  to  allow  a  lamp  to 
be  lowered  for  purposes  of  inspection,  are  called  "lampholes,"  and 
are  often  built  up  of  vertical  lengths  of  drain-pipe. 


To  facilitate  inspection  and  cleaning,  sewei-s  are,  as  far  as 
possible,  laid  in  straight  lines  of  uniform  gradient,  with  a  nianhcla 
or  lam])liolc  at  each  cliango  of  direction  or  of  slope  antl  at  each 
junction  of  mains  with  one  another  or  with  branches.  The  scwcri 
may  advantageously  be  stepped  here  and  there  at  manholes.  Sir 
R.  Rawlinson  has  pointed  out  that  a  difTcrcnco  of  level  between 
the  entrance  and  exit  pipes  tends  to  prevent  continuous  Aoay  of 
sewer  gas  towards  tlio  higher  parts  of  the  system,  and  makes  the 
ventilation  of  cacli  section  more  independent  and  tliorough. 
When  the  gradient  is  sliglit,  ami  the  dry-weatlier  flow  very  small, 
occasional  Hushing  must  be  resorted  to.  Flap  valves  or  sliding- 
penstocks  arc  introduced  at  manholes  :  by  closing  these  for  a 
short  time  sewage  (or  clean  water  intio.lnccd  for  tlic  purpose)  i< 
d.ammed  up  bcliiud  the  valve  either  in  higher  parts  of  the  scwcr  or 
in  a  special  (lushing  chamber,  and  is  then  allowed  to  adv.ance  with  a 
rusli.  Many  self-acting  arrangements  for  flusliing  have  been  devised 
which  act  by  allowing  a  continuous  stream  of  comparatively  small 
volume  to  accumulate  in  a  tank  that  discliarges  itself  suddenly 
uheu  full.  A  very  valuable  contrivance  of  this  kind  is  Mr  Rogen 
Field's  siphon  flush  tank,  shown  in  fig.  4.     When  the  liquid  in 


Fio.  4.— Field's  Siphon  Flush  Tank. 


BomeS' 
tic 

sewer* 
ege. 


sites. 


the  tanlc  accumulates  so  that  it  reaches  the  top  of  the  annular 
sipbon,  and  begins  to  flow  over  the  lip,  it  carries  with  it  enough 
air  to  produce  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  tube.  The  siphon  then 
bursts  into  action,  and  a  rapid  discharge  takes  place,  which  con- 
tinues till  the  water  level  siuks  to  the  foot  of  the  beli-shaped  cover. 

m.  Domestic  Seweeage. — In  the  water-carriage 
system  each  house  has  its  own  network  of  drain-pipes, 
soil-pipes,  and  waste-pipes,  which  lead  from  the  basins, 
sinks,  closets,  and  gullies  within  and  about  the  house 
Primary  to  the  common  sewer.  These  must  be  planned  to 
requi-  remove  sewage  from  the  house  and  its  precincts  quickly 
and  without  leakage  or  deposit  by  the  way ;  the  air 
■within  them  must  be  kept  out  of  the  dwelling,  by 
placing  a  water-trap  at  every  opening  through  which 
sewage  is  to  enter  the  pipes,  and  by  making  all  internal 
pipes  gas-tight ;  the  pipes  must  be  freely  ventilated  by  a 
current  of  fresh  air,  in  order  to  oxidize  any  deposited  filth 
and  to  dilute  any  noxious  gas  they  may  contain  ;  finally — 
and  this  is  of  prime  importance — the  air  of  the  common 
sewer  must  be  rigorously  shut  out  from  all  drains  and  pipes 
within  the  house.  To  disconnect  the  pipes  of  each  indi- 
vidual house  from  the  atmosphere  of  the  common  sewer 
is  the  first  principle  of  sound  domestic  sanitation.  When 
this  is  done  the  house  is  safe  from  contagion  from  without, 
so  far  as  contagion  can  come  through  sewer  gas;  and,  how- 
ever faulty  in  other  respects  the  internal  fittings  may  be, 
the  house  can  suffer  no  other  risk  than  that  which  arises 
from  its  own  sewage. 

Protection  against  the  passage  of  gas  through  open- 
ings which  admit  of  the  entry  of  water  is  secured  by  the 
familiar  device  known  as  the  water-trap. 

The  simplest  and  in  many  respects  the  best  form  of  trap  is  a 
)ent  pipe  or  inverted  siphon  (fig.  5)  which  is  sealed  by  water  lying 
n  the  bend.  The  amoimt  of  the  seal  (measured  by  the  vertical 
distance  between  the  lines  a  and  b)  varies  in  practice  from  about  J 
.an  inch  to  3  inches.     If  the  pressure  of  air  within  the  pipe,  below 


the  trap,  is  greater  than  that  of  the  air  above  the  trap  by  an  amoait' 
exceeding  the  pressure  due  to  a  column  of  water  equal  in  height  to 
the  seal,  the  trap  will  be  forced  and  air  will  bubble  tlirough.  Tbfc 
is  one  way  in  which  a,  trap  may  fail,  but  this  may  be  prevented  bj 


n 


Fio.  6. — Comnaon  Water- 
Trap. 


sufificient  ventilation  of  the  pipe  below  the  trap.     Other 
possibilities  of  failure  are,  however,  only  too  numerous. 
If  the  pipe  is  disused  for  some  time,  the  water  may  eva- 
porate so  considerably  as  to  break  the  seal.     The  pipe, 
if  of  lead,  may  bend  out  of  shape,  or  it  may  even  Ijc  .so 
badly  set  in  the  first  instance  as  to  make  the  trap  in- 
operative.      The    seal   may    be 
broken  by  the  capillary  action  of 
a  thread  or  strip  of  cloth,  hang- 
ing over  the  lip  of  the  trap  and 
causing  the  water  to  drain  away. 
A  rush  of  water  down  the  pipe, 
suddenly  arrested,  may  pass  the 
trap  with  such  momentum  as  to 
leave  it  wholly  or  partly  empty. 
Another  and  a  conjmon  cause  of 
failure  can  be  explained  by  re- 
ference to  fig.  5.     Let  a  column 
of  water  rush  down  the  soil-pipe 
c  from  a  closet   or   sink  which 

discharges  into  it  at  some  higher  point.  As  the  water 
passes  the  junction  with  the  branch  d  it  will  produce  a 
partial  vacuum  in  the  branch,  and  so  tend  to  suck  over  the  contents 
of  the  trap.  Tliis  process,  which  is  sometimes  called  the  siphonag* 
of  traps,  can  be  guarded  against  by  ventilating  the  branch,  cither 
by  a  separate  ventilating  pipe  leading  to  the  open  air  or  by  a  pipo« 
(shown  by  dotted  lines)  connecting  the  to])  of  the  branch  d  with  a 
point  sufficiently  far  up  on  the  soil-pipe  to  be  above  the  column  of 
water  which  is  passing  the  junction.  One  more  imperfection  in  traps 
may  be  named.  The  exjieriments  of  Dr  Fergus  have  shown  that 
the  water  in  traps  will  allow  gases  to  pass  through  by  absorbing  the 
gas  on  one  surface  and  giving  it  off  at  the  other.  It  is  improb- 
able that  this  action  occurs  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  dangerous 
by  permitting  the  transfer  of  disease  germs  from  one  to  the  other 
side.  Apart  from  any  risk  of  this  kind,  however,  it  is  clear  that  a 
trap  is  open  to  so  many  possibilities  of  failure  as  to  form  a  very  in- 
sufficient barrier  between  the  air  of  a  room  and  the  foul  air  of  a  sewer. 
Nevertheless  tke  practice  was  until  very  lately  almost  universal, 
and  is  still  far  from  uncommon,  of  connecting  closets,  sinks,  and 


SEWEEAGE 


715 


^    CNO    OPCN    fO« 
T        VINTILAHOH   , 


even  bedroom  basins  with  common  sewera  by  a  continuous  sj-stem  of 
(xping,  in  wliich  tlie  onlj-  s:ifcgnarcl  against  the  eiitiT  of  sewer  gas  is 
s  single  trap  close  to  eacli  sink  or  basin.  This  means  that  sewer  gas, 
charged  with  tlie  infection  of  a  whole  community,  is  brought  within 
a  few  inches  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  dwelling,  ready  to  contamin- 
ate it  whenever  the  trap  fails  from  any  of  tho  causes  which  have 
^cen  named,  or  whenever,  by  a  flow  of  water  through  it,  the  seal  is 
«nfEciently  disturbed  to  allow  bubbles  of  gas  to  escape  into  the  room. 
I  Tho  remedy  for  this  lies  in  having,  at  any  convenient  point  on 
each  house-drain,  a  disconnecting  trap  which  separates  the  house 
system  from  the  sewer,  and  so  establishes  wluit 
may  be  called  an  outer  line  of  defence.  Any 
occidental  leakage  of  sewer  gas  throngli  it  then 
does  no  more  than  cause  a  comparatively  slight 
pollution  of  the  air  within  the  house-drains, 
and  if  these  are  well  ventilated  the  etfects  of 
this  are  insensible.  At  each  individual  basin 
or  other  fitting  a  trap  is  still  required,  but  its 
function  is  now  merely  to  shut  out  the  air  of 
the  house-drains  from  the  rooms,  and,  as  the 
air  of  the  house-drains  is  no  longer  nolluted 
by  connexion  with  the  sewers,  tlie  occasional 
tiilurc  of  this  function  is  a  matter  of  com- 
paratively small  moment.  Further,  the  dis- 
connecting trap  on  the  house-drain  furnishes 
a  convenient  place  of  access  for  fresh  air ;  and 
tho  ventilation  is  completed  by  carrying  the 
bighest  point  of  each  soil-pipe  or  waste-pipe 
up  to  the  level  of  the  roof  and  leaving  it  open 
there.  This  arrangement  will  be  understood 
by  reference  to  fig.  6,  which  shows  a  soil-pipe, 
open  at  its  upper  end,  discharging  into  a 
house-drain  in  which  there  is  a  disconnecting 
trap  provided  with  an  open  grating  for  the 
entry  of  air.  The  soil-pipe  is  ventilated  by  a 
current  of  air  which  (usually  if  not  always) 
flows  upwards.  This  not  only  dilutes  any 
gases  that  are  produced  in  the  pipe,  but 
quickly  oxidizes  any  foul  matter  that  may 
adhere  to  the  sides.  Care  must  be  taken  to 
avoid  having  the  upper  end  of  tho  pipe  open 
near  windows  or  under  eavfs.  In  the  figure 
the ,  branch  leading  to  a 
water-closet  is  ventilated  by  """ 
a  pipe  earned  into  an  upper 
part  of  the  soil-pipe  ;  this 
IS  scarcely  necessary  if  the 
branch  be  short.  Another 
construction  is  to  carry  a 
distinct  (ventilating  pipe  up 
from  the  top  of  the  branch 
to  a- point  above  the  roOf-; 


'^EZ' 


■^^g^ 


■.'.;:;^j" 


Fio.  6. — House-Drain  properjy  disconnected 
from  eewcr,  and  ventilated. 

and  •where  several  fittings  discharge  into  one  soil-pipe,  tho  same 
ventilating  pipe  may  be  made  to  servo  for  all.     An  examnle  of  the 
latterarrangemcnt 
Igshowninlig.  lo. 
Tfie  form  of  dis- 
connecting     trap 
shown    in    fig.    li 
js     that    of     ih- 
W.  P.  Buchan  of 
Gksgow,  who  has 
done  excellent  ser- 
vice' to  the  cause 
of     sanitary     re- 
form by  practising 
and       advocating 
tho    disconnexion 
and  ventilation  of 
house-drains    iind  ' 
soil-pipts.      The  same  trap  is 
shown  to  a  larger  scale  in  fig. 
7,  ■where  it  njipears  imbedded 
in  coiiciete  and  covered  by  a 
built  manhole,  which  gives  ac- 
cess to  thff  trap  in  case  of  its 
becoming  choked.     The  man- 
hole niay  have  an  open  grating 
at  tlio  top  ;  or  the  top  may  bo 
clo8cd   by  a  solid  plate  (if  a 
prating  there  be  for  any  reason 
inadmissible),  in  which  cfaso  a 


Flo,  7.— Bnchnn  Tmp  and  Jlonliolo,  with 
ventilating  grating  in  wail. 


ventilnting  shaft  is  carrieil  from  tne  manhole  to  some  other  open- 
ing. Fig.  7  shows  Buch  a  shaft  lending  to  a  grating  which  is  placed 
vertically  in  a  neighbouring  wall.  Among  other  good  forms  of 
disconnecting  trap,  more  or  less  like  Guchan's,  mention  may  bo 
mudo  of  Weaver's,  Fotts's,  nnd  Jlellycr's. 


An  arrangement  of  double  disconnecting  trap  is  illustrated  in  fltf 
8.  Any  sewer  gas  forcing  the  trap  next  the  sewer  is  still  kept  bad 
by  tho  upper  trap  and  will 


escape  by  a  grating  or  open 
ventilating     shaft      which 
enters  at  A,    while   air   to 
ventilate    the     house-drain 
enters  the  upper  trap  from 
tho  manhole.    Tliis  arrange- 
ment no  doubt  gives  more 
absolute  protection   than  a 
single  trap  of  the  kind  a" 
reatly   described,   but   it   is 
probable    that    (except    in 
cases  where  the  sewers  are 
very   foul   and   liahla  to 
frequent  e.'seess   of 
pressure)    the     ad- 
vantage is  so  slight 
as  to  be  more  than 
counterbalanced  by 
the   greater  liabil- 
ity    to    accidental 


C  R  ftT  I  N  s 


Fio.  8. — Double  DisconneclIngTrnp. 


stoppage  and  greater  complexity  which  this  arrangement  entails. 
The  extent  to  which  it  is  permissible  or  advisable  in  practice  t« 
allow  several  fittings  to  discharge  into  a  single  waste-pipe  ot 
soil-pipe  will  vary  in  different  cases.  We  can  recognize  a  broad 
distinction  between  sewage  from  closets  and  urinals,  liable  to  the 
most  dangerous  taint  should  disease  occur  within  the  house,  and 
the  comparatively  innocuous  sewage  that  comes  from  basins,  baths, 
and  sinks.  Some  sanitarians  go  so  far  as  to  advise  that  these  tws 
classes  of  sewage  should  be  kept  absolutely  apart  within  the  house, 
by  the  use  of  a  complete  double  system  of  house  drain-pipes.  This, 
however,  is  an  extreme  measure  ;  no  reasonable  objection  can  b« 
urged  against  the  discharge  into  a  water-closet  soil-pipe  of  watet 
from  a  bath  or  washhand  hasin  in  the  same  room,  except  perhape 
that  if  the  soil-pipe  is  of  lead  its  corrosion  is  hastened  by  ho< 
water  ;  and  the  additional  flushing  which  tho  soil-pipe  so  receives 
is  3  distinct  advantage.  But  to  connect  a  water-closet  soil-pipe 
with  oinks  and  basins  in  other  apartments  is  to  multiply  possibilitiet 
for  the  spread  of  disease  within  the  house,  and  it  is  strongly  advis- 
able to  convey  the  waste  from  them  by  a  separate  pipe,  protected 
from  the  sewer  by  a  disconnecting  trap  of  its  own  with_a  grating 
open  to  the  air.  This  applies  with  special  force  to  tlve  washhand 
basins  that  are  often  fixed  in  bedrooms  and  dressing-rooms. 
Nothing  could  bo  more  dangerous  than  the  usage — of  which  many 
good  houses  still  furnish  instances — of  multiplying  these  conven- 
iences without  regard  to  'the  risk  they  involve,  and  making  thii 
risk  as  great  as  possible  by  placing  each  in  direct  communication 
through  an  ordiuary'trap  with  the  soil-pipe,  itself  perhaps  unvcn- 
tilated  and  provided  with  no  disconnexion  from  the  sewer.  Even 
when  the  drain  or  soil-pipe  is  ventilated'  and  disconnected  from 
the  sewer,  no  bedroom  basin  should,  under  any  circumstances,  be 
allowed  to  discharge  into  it  without  first  passing  a  separate  open 
trap.  On  the  other  hand,  a  bedroom  basin  may  be  made  perfectly 
safe     by     leading     its 

OOHTlNa 


(trapped 
under  tlie  basin  in  the 
usual  way)  into  an 
open-air  channel  which 
communicates  with  the 
sewer  by  a  surface-trap 
or  gully  outside  the 
house  (fig.  9).  Similar 
treatment  should  be 
adopted  in  the  case-  of 
pantry  and  scullery 
sinks.  Under  most 
jilumbing  fixtures  it  is 


Fio.  9.— Open  Trap, 
usual  to  place  a  safe-tray  to  rcccrvc  any  water  accidentally  spDt 


The  disohargo  pipes  from  these  trays  arc  sometimes,  but  very  ob-, 
jectionably,  led  into  the  waste-pipe  or  soil-pipe  below  the  fixture. 
The  proper  method  of  providing  for  the  discharge  of  water  spilt  into 
the  safe-tray  is  to  lead  a  j^iipo  from  it  through  the  Wall  nn<l  alloir 
it  to  end  in  the  open  air  (tig.  10,  whore  each  of  the  snfc-trny  drains 
is  marked  "  waste-pipo  ") ;  a  flap  valvo  fixed  on  tho  cud  wiU  sorvei: 
if  need  be,  to  keep  out  draught. 

Overflow-pipes  from  cisterus  used  fur  dietetic  purjioses  should  bt 
led,  in  tho  same  way,  into  tho  open  air  nnd  not  into  soil-pipes  or 
waste-pipes  (fig.  10).  Traps  on  them  cannot  bo  depended  on  to 
remain  sealed,  and  any  connexion  of  an  overOow-pipe  with  a  soil- 
pipe  would  result  in  allowing  foul  air  from  tho  pipn  to  difTuss 
Itself  over  the  surface  of  water  in  tho  cistern— a  stat"  of  thingi 
peculiarly  likely  to  cause  pollution  of  the  water.  When  a  ciston 
18  used  only  for  water-closet  service,  its  ovcrflow-pipa  may  properly 
be  led  into  the  basin  of  tho  closet 

Eaiu-pipes,  extending  as  tboy  do  to  the  roof,  aro  sometimoa  used 


710 


SEWERAGE 


to  serve  as  ventilating  continuations  of  soil-pipes  and  waste-pipes. 
Tlie  practice  is  open  to  serious  objection,  for  it  discharges  the  drain 
air  just  under  the  eaves,  at  a  place  where  air  is  generally  .being 
drawn  into  the  house.  The  ventilating  end  of  a  soil-pipe  should 
be  carried  to  a  higher  level,  as  in  fig.  6,  clear  of  the  lower  edge  of 
the  root  It  is  better  to  restrict  rain--  '.^es  to  their  legitimate 
function  of  taking  surface  water  from  tne  roof,  or  at  most  to  allow 
them  to  receive  slop-water  from  sinks  and  basins,  and  to  make 
them  terminate  in  or  over  open  traps  from  which  a  connexion  J3 
taken  to  the  house-drain  or  sewer  (fig.  9). 

.    In  figs.  lOandll  the  sanitary  fittings  of  a  small  house  are  shown 
by  diagrams,  which  should  be  carefully  studied 
as  exemplifying  a  well-arranged  system.     Two 
closets,  and  a  bath  and  basin  in  the  closet  apart- 
ment, discharge  into  a  soil-pipe  on  the  right,  and 
the  branches  (except  that  of  the  basin)  are  venti- 
lated by  pipes  leading  to  a  sepa- 
rate air  pipe,  which,  like  the 
soil-pipe,  is  carried  above  the 
roof.  '  The  overflow  of  a  cistern 
which  supplies  bath,  basin,  and 
boiler  is  carried  out  to  the  open 
air,  and  so  are  the  waste-pipes  of 
the  leaden  safe-trays.     A  sepa- 
rate cistern  supplies  each  water- 
closet,  and  its   overflow  opens 
into  the  closet  basin.     A  rain- 
pipe  (in  the  middle  of  the  figure) 


i'ltui  of  the  Drains  In  tig.  lu. 


covered  with  a 


Fio.  10.— Diagram  Section  of  the  Drains  and  Fittings  of  a  Small  Honaa. 

deceives  a  bedroom  basin  waste,  and 
leads  by  a  4-inch  drain'to  a  venti- 
lated  grease-box,   into  -which,  the 
scullery    sink 
and         wash-  , 
tubs  and  an- 
other rain-pipe 
also  discharge. 
Finally,      the 
whole   system 
is  protected  by 

a  Buchan  trap  in  a  built  manhole,  which  if 
grating. 

House-drains,  that  is  to  say,  those  parts  of  tho  domestic  system 
of  drainage  which  extend  from  the  soil-pipes  and  waste-pipes  to 
tho  sewer,  are  made  of  glazed  fireclay  pipes,  generally  6  inches 
but  sometimes  only  4  inches  in  diameter.  A  larger  size  than  6 
inches  is  rarely  if  ever  desirable.  The  pipes  are  spigot-and-faucet- 
jointed,  and  the  joints  should  be  made  with  cement  in  i.he  manner 
already  descriljed  for  sewers.  When,  as  is  often  unavoidable,  the 
house-drain  has  to  pass  imder  a  part  of  tho  house,  or  to  come 
from  back  to  front,  iron  pipes  jointed  with  lead  and  coated  with 
an  anti-corrosive  compound  are  preferred  to  fireclay  pipes,  as 
giving  a  better  security  against  the  production  of  leaks  by  the 
settling  of  the  soil  and  otlier  causes.  Soil-pipes,  when  carried 
down  inside  the  house,  are  of  either  lead  or  iron  ;  when  outside  the 
house  they  are  usually  of  iron.  An  outside  soil-pipe  is  obviously 
preferable  to  an  inside  one;  if  the  arrangement  of  the  building 
makes  an  inside  soil-pipe  necessary,  care  must  be  taken  that  it  shall 
be  easily  accessible  for  inspection  at  all  parts  of  its  length.  The 
usual  diameter  is  i  inches.  For  the  sake  of  good  ventilatioi  it  is 
desirable  to  continue  the  soil-pipe  to  a  point  above  the  roof  without 
reduction  of  diameter  rather  than  apply  a  smaller  ventilating  pipe. 
Amongst  reasons  for  ventilation  one  remains  to  be  mentioned, — 
tlurt,  owing  to  tlio  corrosive  action  of  sewer  gas,  the  life  of  tho  soil- 
r>i|>o  is  greatly  shortened  if  provision  for  the  free  circulation  of  air 
be  wanting  or-  insufficient.  A  closed  soil-pipe  becomes  in  time 
pitted  with  holes,  especially  in  the  upper  parts  of  its  length. 

Defective  joints  in  soil-pipes  and  waste-pipes,  particularly  wnere 
Ihey  connect  with  drains,  closet-basins,  p^uks,  &c.,  are  another 
frequent  cause  of  leakage.  Any  want  o.- iir-tightness  in  drains 
u'-soU-pipeS  within  a  dwelling  leads  to  the  pollution  of  the  air.  not 


Fio.  12. — Grease  Tra#. 


merely  by  diffusion,  but  by  an  actual  in-dranghl^  for  generally  the 
air  of  the  house  has  its  pressure  reduced  by  chimney  draughts  to 
a  value  slightly  lower  than  that  of  tho  air  outside.  The  house,  in 
fact,  ventilates  itself  by  drawing  in  air  from  the  pipe  at  any  hole, 
a  fact  which  may  easily  be  demonstrated  by  holding  the  flame  of 
a  taper  near  the  hole. 

Various  experimental  methods  are  used  of  detecting  such  leaks 
as  would  admit  foul  air  to  the  dwelling.  Of  these  the  best  is  the 
"smoke  test"  It  consists  of  filling  the  house-drain,  soU-pipea, 
and  waste-pines  with  a  dense  and  pungent  smoke,  any  escape  oi 
which  into  the  house  is  readily  observed  by  eye  and  nose.  A 
quantity  of  cotton-waste  soaked  in  oil  is  lighted,  and  its  fumee 
are  blown  into  the  house-drain  by  a  revolving  fan,  at  tho  ventilat- 
ing cover  of  the  disconnecting  trap,  or  at  any  other  convenient 
opening.  Smoke  soon  fills  the  pipes,  and  begins  to  escape  at  th» 
roof.  The  upper  ends  of  the  pipes  are  then  closed,  and  the  house 
is  searched  for  smoke.  ^  Another  test,  especially  applicable  t» 
those  parts  of  drains  that  are  laid  under  houses,  is  the  hydrauUi 
test,  which  consists  in  stopping  up  the  lower  end  of  the  pipe 
filling  it  with  water  so  as  to  produce  a  moderate  pressure,  ani 
then  observing  whether  the  level  of  the  water  falls.  This  test, 
however,  is  too  severe  for  anv  but  new  and  very  well  constructe* 
drains. 

Every  basin,  sink,  or  other  fitting  should  be  separately  trappe 
oy  a  bend  on  the  waste-  ^  ......  » 

V  ii.       r  ^ ,C  RATING 

pipe  or  some  other  torm       A'M'MM  ■  ■  g|  ^  »ji^ 
of  trap.     A  brass  cap,       ^-^---^  ^^^- 

screwed  on  a  ferule  which 
is  let  iiito  the  pipe  on  the 
bend,  facilitates  cleaning 
(fig.  5).  The  warm  waste- 
water from  pantry  and 
Bcullery .  sinks  contains 
much  grease,  and  should 
be  discharged  into  a 
pease  box  (fig.  12)  where 
the  water  becomes  cool 
and  deposits  its  greasa 
before  overflowing  into 
the  drain.  To  collect  surface  water  from  laundry  floors,  areaA^ 
court-yards,  &c. ,  an  open  trap  or  gully  is  used.  Fig.  9  shows  a 
simple  and  good  form  of  opfen 
trap;  but  if  the  water  is  liable 
to  cany  down  sand  or  earth 
a  gully  (fig.  13}  is  more  snit- 
able.  Even  in  this  simple 
fittingaremarkable  ingenuity 
of  error  has  been  disphiyed. 
Many  of  the  forms  favoured  by 
builders  are  bad  either  because  of 
an  insecure  seal,  a  narrow  outlet, 
or  a  tendency  to  gather  filth.  One 
in  particulaf;  the  well-known 
"  Bell "  trap,  ia  an  example  of 
nearly  everything  a  trap  should 
not  be. 

Water-closets  used  to  be  almost 
invariably  of  the  "  pan  "  type,  but  Fio.  IS.— GnDy-Trap. 

wherever  sanitary  reform  has  been  • 

preached  to  any  pnr^iose  the  pan  closet  is  giving  place  to  cleane 
and  wholesomer  patterns.  The  evils  of  the  pan  closet  will  be  af 
dent  from  an  inspection  of  fig. 
14.  At  each  use  of  the  closet 
the  hinged  pan  a  is  tilted  down 
so  that  It  discharges  its  contents 
into  the  container  b.  ■  The  sides 
of  the  container  are  inacc^sible 
for  cleaning,  and  their  upper 
portions  are  out  of  reach  of  the 
flushing  action  of  the  pan.  They 
gradually  become  coated  with  a 
foul  deposit  A  gust  of  tainted 
air  escapes  at  every  use  of  the 
closet ;  and  it  rarely  happens  that  the 
container  is  air-tight,  and  that  the  filth  it  I 
has  gathered  does  not  cause  a  smell  even  ' 
in  intervals  of  disuse.     To  make  matters 

worse,  many  of  tho  older  pan  closets  are         

provided  with  the  kind  of  trap  shown  in  ^^  iT^^^Water-Ooaet. 
tlie   sketch,  called  the   U  trap,  which  is 

also  liable  to  become  a  gathering  place  for  filfh.     Even  with  sa 
ordinary  trap,  however,  the  pan  closet  remains  so  bad  that  its  nee 
is  to  be  strongly  condemned. 
A  much  better  closet  is  the  valve  or  Bramah  closet,  an  exceDent 

J  A  nore!  plan  of  making  the  smoke  test  has  lately  been  Introdnced,  In  which 
smoke  is  given  off. by  a  "smoke  rocket"  or  cake  of  slowly  combustible  compound 
which  Is  lighted  and  placed  In  tha  drain. 


iSE^EBAGE 


717 


example  ol  wWcli  "by  Trew  of  Perth  is  sTiown  in  fi^.  15.  The 
basin  is  kept  partly  full  of  water  by  a  ground  gun-metul  valre 
tightly  pressed  up 
against  a  conical  scat 
at  the  basin's  foot. 
The  chamber  below  is 
^nly  large  enough  to 
allow  the  valve  to 
^um  down  ;  it  cannot 
BoUect  much  foul  mat- 
ter and  may  be  venti- 
lated by  a  separate 
pipe.  A  trapped  over- 
Bow  prevents  the  basin 
from  being  overfilled. 
Ihe  whole  closet  is 
trapped  by  an  ordinary 
Vend  on  the_  soil-pipe, 
vhich  is  not'  shown  in 
the  figure.  The  volume 
»f  water  in  the  basin  is 
much  greater  than  iu 

7)an  closets,  where  the  r,,m        ..m.^,     . 

I    .  ,  ..  .    i-'-i  jv    iv,  FiQ.  15.— Bramah  Water-Cloaet. 

height  IS  limited  bythe 

everfiow  which  occurs  round  the  lip  of  the  pan.  In  some  closets 
•f  this  kind  the  valve  is  placed  at  the  side,  and,  when  closed,  lies 
nearly  vertical.  In  another  type  of  valve  closet  (Jennings's)  the 
valve  is  a  conical  plug,  pressed  vertically  down  on  a  seat  at  the  side, 
nhout  Valve  closets  can  be  made  fairly  effective  and  satisfactory  from 
>tel.  a  sanitary  point  "of  view  ;  but  a  much  cheaper  and  certainly  not 
less  excellent  type  of  closet  is  the  "washout,"  an  example  of 
which  (the  "Kational")  is  shown  in  iig.  16.  (Another  wash- 
sat  closet,  by  Doulton,  appears  in  iig.  6.)  These  are  now  made 
in  a  great  variety  of  good  forms,  sometimes  of  a  single  piece  of 
white  stoneware.  They  combine  cheapness  and  simplicity  with  a 
degree  of  sanitary  perfection  that  is  probably  not  reached  by 
the  most  expensive  closets  of  the  kinds  already  named.  Tliey 
kave  no  working  parts  ;  the  closet  is  cleansed  after  use  simply  by 
9ie  flush  of  water,  which  sweeps  everything  before  it.  The  flush 
must  of  course  be  good:  a  li-iiich  service  pipe  from  a  cistern 
»ot  less  than  5  feet  above  the  closet  will  do  well.  Iu  some  recent 
oeeigos  the  cistern  is  a  box  at  the  back  of  the  seat  with  a  wide 


Pio.  IC.— Wasliout  Water-Closet. 


Fio.  17.— Hopper  Closot. 


oval  mouth  leading  from  it  to  tlio  flushing  rim  of  the  pan  :  this 
gives  a  good  Hush  although  the  ci'stem  is  low.  A  feature  of  con- 
struction which  may  be  strongly  recommended  is  to  leave  the 
eloset  entirely  o'licn  for  inspection  and  cleaning,  instead  of  con- 
cealing it  in  a  wooden  case.  The  scat  then  generally  rests  on  iron 
|>rackcts  projecting  from  the  wall,  and  can  bo  raised  on  Iiinges  at 
the  back,  so  that  the  pan  maj-  bo  used  as  a  urinal  or  slojj-sink 
without  the  risk  of  fouling.  Another  good  typo  of  closet,  sharing 
with  tlie  washout  the  advantage  of  having  no  nieclianicul  parts,  is 
tlie  "hopper,"  illustrated  in  fig.  17  (Dodd's  Hopper).  In  all  these 
closets  the  horn  marked  V  Ls  ujr  attaching  a  ventilating  pipe. 

For  the  supply  of  water  to  a  closet  a  separate  cistoni  is  desirable, 
especially  when  water  for  dietetic  purposes  is  liable  to  be  drawn 
from  the  main  cLstcrn  (instead  of  being  taken  direct  frorii  tho  water 
service  pijic,  which  is  better).  It  would  seem  needless  to  add, 
were  it  not  that  such  faults  are 
common,  that  no  cistern — unless 
it  be  oxclusivcly  used  for  water- 
closet  supply — should  be  placed  in 
the  same  room  with  or  just  under 
a  water-closet,  and  that  tho  room 
itself  should  bo  well  lighted,  well 
ventilated,  and  well  shut  off  from 
bedrooms.  To  prevent  flushing 
of  closets  from  being  iiniierfcct 
through  carelessness,  many  plans 
have  hecn  devised  for  ensuring  that  Fiu.  18.- Wutcr-Cloiol  Cletoi 
once  the  flow  of  water  is  started  it  """'  **'!''""'  •■■'"'''■ 

will  continue  until  a  given  volume  has  been  discharged.  One  of 
the  best  of  these  is  tho  arrangement  of  siiihon  flush  sketched  in 
fie.  18  :  when  tho  vatvo  a  is  opened  tho  downrush  of  water  starts 
the  siphon  b  into  action,  and  even  should  «  bo  then  closed  tho 
flow  continues  until  tho  wator-Iovol  falls  to  c,  when  air  is  admitted 


CIS1t(1N 


and  tho  siphon  ceases  to  act    The  air-pipo  e  is  cnt  to  give  the 
desired  volume. 

As  regards  house-drainage  generally,  the  points  of  chief 
importance  may  bo  briefly  summed  up  as  follows  :— (1)  the 
use  of  one  or  more  disconnecting  traps  to  shut  off  sewer 
gas  from  the  whole  system  of  house-drains  and  pipes; 
(2)  the  thorough  ventilation  of  house-drains,  soil-pipea, 
and  branches,  by  providing  openings  through  which  air 
can  enter  at  the  foot  and  escape  at  the  top  ;  (3)  the  dis- 
charge of,  all  sinks,  basins,  &.c.,  other  than  water-closet 
fittings,  and  especially  of  fixed  bedroom  basins,  into  open 
traps  in  the  open  air;  (4)  the  direct  discharge  of  cistern 
overflows  and  safe-trays  into  the  open  air  ;  (5)  the  use  of 
cleanly  and  well-designed  closets,  basins,  &c.,  each  sealed 
by  an  ordinary  bent  trap ;  (6)  the  use  of  separate  service 
cisterns  for  water-closets. 

It  may  seem  superfluous  to  add  that  the  system  of 
pipes  must  provide  a  rapid  and  effective  carriage  of  all 
sewage  to  the  sewer,  and  must  bo  water-tight  and  air- 
tight. During  the  last  five  years,  however,  it  has  been 
proved,  by  examination  of  the  best  houses  in  London, 
that  it  is  no  uncommon  case  for  a  house  to  be  so  completely 
without  effective  connexion  with  the  sewer  that  all  its  own 
sewage  sinks  into  the  soil  under  the  basement ;  and  about 
75  per  cent,  of  the  houses  inspected  have  failed  to  pass 
the  "  smoke  test." 

In  this  connexion  mention  should  be  made  of  tho 
system  of  co-operative  house-inspection  originated  by  the 
late  Prof.  Fleeming  Jenkin.  The'  Edinburgh  Sanitary, 
Protection  Association  was  founded  by  him  in  1878  to 
carry  out  the  idea  that  the  sanitary  fittings  of  a  house 
should  be  periodicaUy  submitted  to  examination  by  an 
expert,  and  that  householders  should  combine  to  secure 
for  this  purpose  the  continuous  service  of  an  engineer 
able  to  .deto.ct  flaws,  to  advise  improvements,  and  to 
superintend  alterations.  The  "Edinburgh  association  soon 
justified  its  existence  by  discovering,  in  tho  houses  of  its 
members,  a  state  of  things  6ven  worse  than  students  of 
sanitary  science  had  imagined  possible.  Similar  associa- 
tions are  now  doing  excellent  work  in  London,  Glasgow, 
and  many  other  large  towns. 

Space  admits  of  only  a  very  brief  mention  of  those  systems  of 
sewerage  in  which  excreta  are  not  removed  by  tho  aid  of  water.  Tlie 
dry-earth  system,  introduced  by  the  Kov.  II.  Moule,  takes  advan- 
tngo  of  the  oxidizing  effect  which  a  porous  substance  such  as  dry 
earth  exerts  by  bringing  acy  sewage  .."ith  which  it  is  mixed  into 
intimate  contact  with  ihe  air  contained  in  its  pores.  A  discharge 
of  urine  and  fsces  is  quicKly  and  completely  deodorized  and  absorbed 
when  covered  with  a  small  quantity  of  dry  earth  ;  and  tho  sann 
soil,  if  exposed  to  the  air  and  allowed  to  dry,  may  be  used  over  and 
over  again  for  tho  Same  purijoso.  Even  after  soil  has  been  several 
times  used,  however,  its  value  as  manure  is  not  so  great  as  to  pay 
for  its  traiisjiort  to  any  considerable  distance  ;  and  for  this  reason, 
as  well  as  from  tho  fact  that  it  leaves  other  constituents  of  sowago 
to  bo  dealt  with  by  other  means,  the  system  is  of  rather  limited 
application.  So  far  as  it  goes  it  is  oxcollont,  and  where  there  is 
no  general  system  of  water-carriago  sewerage,  or  where  tho  water- 
supply  is  small  or  uncertain,  an  earth-closet  will,  in  careful  hands, 
givo  perfect  satisfaction.  Numerous  forms  of  earth-closet  arc  sold  in 
which  a  suitable  quantity  of  earth  is  automatically  thrown  into  th4 
pan  at  each  time  of  use.  Arrangements  of  fliis  kind  are,  howovcri 
not  necessary  to  tho  success  of  tho  system  ;  a  box  filled  with  drj 
earth  and  a  hand  scoop  will  answer  tho  purpose  not  less  cfTcctivolv, 
Aslies  are  sometimes  substituted  for  or  mixed  with  tho  dry  cartii 
and  powdered  charcoal  is  also  used. 

Tho  most  primitive  method  of  dealing  systematically  witB 
excreta  is  to  collect  tho  discharges  directly  in  a  vessel  which  il 
either  itself  carried  to  tho  country,  and  its  contents  applied  to  tin 
land,  or  is  emptied  into  a  mon>  portable  vcsael  for  that  ]i«rpo»a 
In  Japan,  for  example,  in  spite  of  the  dillicully  of  transimrtovcr  bad 
roads  and  by  liumau  labour,  tlio  latter  plan  is  universally  followed  : 
the  land  and  tho  people  have  in  fact  performed  for  centuries  what 
may  bo  called  a  complete  cycle  of  operations.  Tho  agricultun) 
return  is  so  good  that  farmers  ])ay  for  Icovo  to  remove  excrement, 
and  householders  look  to  their  discharges  as  a  source  -of  income. 
Tho  plan,  although  carried  out  in  the  roughost  manner,  anpoara 
to  involve  fewer  sanitary  dmwbneks  than  mi-jht  be  oxpcctcU  :  but 


718 


S  E  W  — a  E    SV 


the  smells  from  privies  and  carts,  and,  above  all,  from  the  process 
of  emptying  by  ladle,  are  a  nuisance  which  no  "Western  community 
would  tolerate.  A  simple  pail  system,  in  which  the  sewage  is 
collected  and  removed  in  the  same  vessel,  has  been  used  at  Roch- 
dale ;  another,  with  an  absorbent  lining  in  tho  pajls,  at  Halifax. 
A  plan  much  used  in  Continental  cities  is  to  collect  exci-ement  in 
tight  vaults,  which  are  emptied  at  intervals  into  a  tank  cart  by  a 
suction  pump  or  injector.  A  more  recent  pneumatic  system  is 
that  of  Liernur,  applied  at  Amsterdam,  where  sewage  reservoirs  at 
individual  houses  are  permanently  connected  with  a  central  reservoir 
by  pipes,  through  which  the  contents  of  the  former  are  sucked  by 
exhausting  air  from  the  reservoir  at  the  central  station.  A  similar 
plan  has  been  tried  at  Lyons  and  Paris  by  M.  Berlier. 

/ie/ercncct.— The  blue-book  literaturo  of  sewajje  disposal  is  very  voluminous. 
Special  reffrence  should  be  niatle  to  tlie  Reports  of  fhe  liivcis  J'ot/ntion  Com- 
mff-ioiieis^  from  ISCG  :  Report  of  t/ir  Rr/ei-tus  on  Metropolitan  Main  braiiwne, 
1S57;  Reports  of  the  Conintissioa  on  the  Scirage  of  Totons,  I8JS-18G'»;  Reports  of 
Select  Committees  of  lite  Jfonse  of  Commons.  JS63  ana  1^14 ;  Reports  of  t/ie 
British  Association  Committee  on  ttte  Treatment  and  Vtilizntiou  of  Seicage, 
1869  1S76;  Report  of  t lie  Btrntinghaot  SC'cafje  Inqaii-y  Committee,  1871  ;  Reports 
of  Ih?  Lrical  Goeernmi'nt  Board;  Reports  of  the  Ro'jat  Commission  on  litetropolitaa 
Senage  Discharge.  ISS-I  (the  second  and  final  rciioit  contains  a  valnable  Idbtoiical 
rcsumd  of  llic  subject).  Sec  also  the  following  boolcs  : — Corfield,  Tretttment  and 
Uiiliiaiion  of  Seioage,  1S71:  Burke,  Handbook  of  Sewage  Ctitization,  1873; 
Roblnsou  and  Mclliss,  Piiiifratiou  of  Water-carried  Setrage,  1877;  Robinson, 
Sewags  J)isposal,  l.^S'2;  J.  Ii;iiIcy-Denton.  /ntermittenl  Doicimaid  Filtration, 
'id  c(i.,  1S85.  Encineci'ius  details  of  sewenice  are  ftivcn  in  Baldwin  Lalhani's 
Sant'ary  Eiigineei-iiig,  2J  ed..  1873;  and  particulars  of  the  diainu^^e  of  indixidual 
to'viis  will  be  found  in  numerous  papers  in  the  Jfinutes  of  Procee^iings  of  the 
Incritution  of  Civil  Ensineei-s.  The  domestic  anpect  of  sewera^'e  has  been  treated 
by  E.  Eaiiey-Denton,  Handbook  of  llonse  Sanitation,  1SS2 ;  W.  F.  Buchan, 
Plumbing  and  House  Drainage,  4th  ed,,  188^;  \V.  Eassie,  Healthij  Houses,  1.S76; 
Gerhaid,  House  Drainage,  New  York,  1882 ;  Waring.  Sanilarg  Drainage  of 
Hou:es  and  Toicns,  Boston,  4th  ed.,  18S3  ;  i%  Jcnldn,  HeaUliy  Houses,  1878  ;  and 
Biaay  other  writers.  (J.  A.  E.) 

SEWIN,  or  Sewen.     See  SAXMOXiDiE,  vol.  xxi.  p.  222. 

SEWING  MACHINES.  The  sewing  macliine,  as  is 
the  case  with  most  mechanical  iuventions,  is  the  result  of 
the  efforts  of  many  ingenious  persons,  although  it  would 
appear  that  the  most  meritorious  of  these  worked  in  entire 
ignorance  of  the  labours  and  successes  of  others  in  the 
same  field.  Many  of  the  early  attempts  to  sew  by 
machinery  went  on  the  lines  of  imitating  ordinary  hand- 
sewing,  and  all  such  inventions  proved  conspicuous 
failures.  The  method  of  hand-sewing  is  of  necessity  slow 
and  intermittent,  seeing  that  only  a  definite  length  of 
thread  is  used,"  which  passes  its  full  extent  through  the 
cloth  at  every  stitch,  thus  causing  the  working  arm,  human 
or  otherwise,  to  travel  a  great  length  for  every  stitch 
Kiade,  and  demanding  frequent  renewals  of  thread.  The 
foundation  of  machine -cev.-ing  was  laid  by  the  invention 
of  a  double  pointed  needle,  with  the  eye  in  the  centre, 
patented  by  Charles  F.  AYeiaenthal  ia  1755.  This  device 
■was  intended  to  obviate  the  necessity  for  inverting  the 
needle  in  sewing  or  embroidering,  and  it  was  subsequently 
utihzed  m  Heilmau's  well  known  embroidery  machine. 

Many  of  the  features  of  the  sowing  machine  are  dis- 
tinctly specified  in  a  patent  secured  in  England  by  Thomas 
Saint  in  1700,  in  which  he,  inter  alia,  describes  a  machine 
for  stitching,  quilting,  or  sewing.  Saint's  machine,  which 
appears  to  have  been  intended  principally  for  leather  work, 
was  fitted  with  an  awl  which,  working  vertically,  pierced 
a  hole  for  the  thread.  A  spindle  and  projection  laid  the 
thread  over  this  hole,  and  a  descending  forked  needle 
pressed  a  loop  of  thread  through  it.  The  loop  was  caught 
C&  the  under  side  by  a  reciprocating  hook ;  a  feed  moved 
th3  work  forward  the  extent  of  one  stitch ;  and  a  second 
loop  was  formed  by  the  same  motions  as  the  first.  It, 
towever,  descended  within  the  first,  which  was  thrown  off 
by  the  hook  as  it  caught  the  second,  and  being  thus 
seoired  and  tightened  up  an  ordinary  tambour  or  chain 
stitch  was  formed.  Had  Saint  hit  on  the  idea  of  the  eye- 
pointed  needle  his  machine  would  have  been  a  complete 
anticipation  of  the  modern  chain-stitch  machine. 

The  inventor  who  first  devised  a  real  working  machine 
was  a  poor  tailor,  BarthtSlemy  Tliimonier,  of  St  Etienno, 
who  obtained  letters  patent  in  France  in  1830.  In  Thi- 
monier's  apparatus  the  needle  was  crocheted,  and  descend- 
ing through  the  cloth  it  brought  up  with  it  a  loop  of 
thread  which  it  carried  through  the  previously  made  loop, 


and  thus  it  formed  a  chain  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
fabric.  The  machine  was  a  rather  clumsy  affair,  made 
principally  of  wood,  notwithstanding  which  as  many  as 
eighty  were  being  worked  in  Paris  in  1841,  making  army 
clothing,  when  an  ignoi'aut  and  furious  crowd  wrecked 
the  establishment  and  nearly  murdered  tho  unfortunate 
inventor.  Thimoiiier,  however,  was  not  discouraged,  for 
in  18^5  he  twice  patented  improvements  on  it,  and  in 
1848  he  obtained  both  in  France  and  the  United  ICingdom 
patents  forfurtlier  improvements.  The  machine  was  tbeo 
made  entiiely  of  metal,  and  vastly  improved  on  the  first 
model.  But  the  troubles  of  1848  blasted  the  prospects 
of  the  resolute  inventor.  His  patent  rights  for  Great 
Britain  were  sold  ;  a  machine  shown  in  tho  Great  Exhi- 
bition of  1851  atti'acted  no  attention,  and  Thimonier  died 
in  1857  unfriended  and  unrewarded. 

The  ino.st  important  ideas  of  an  eye-pointed  needle  and 
a  double  thi'ead  or  lock-stitch  ai'e  strictly  of  American 
origin,  and  that  combinntion  was  first  conceived  by 
Walter  Hunt  of  New  York  about  1832-34.  Hunt  reaped 
nothing  of  the  enormous  pecuniary  reward  which  has 
been  shared  among  the  introducers  of  the  sewing  machine, 
and  it  is  therefore  all  the  more  necessary  that  his  great 
merit  as  an  inventor  .should  be  insisted  on.  He  constructed 
a  machine  having  a  vibrating  arm,  at  the  extremity  of 
which  he  fixed  a  curved  needle  with  an  eye  near  its  point. 
By  this  needle  a  loop  of  thread  was  formed  under  the 
cloth  to  be  sewn,  and  through  that  loop  a  thread  carried 
in  an  oscillating  shuttle  was  passed,  thus  making  the  lock- 
stitch of  all  ordinary  two-thiead  machines.  Hunt's  inven- 
tion was  purchased  by  a  blacksmith  named  Arrowsmith, 
and  a  good  deal  was  done  towards  improving  its  mechanical 
details,  but  no  patent  was  sought,  nor  was  any  serious 
attempt  made  to  draw  attention  to  the  invention.  After 
the  success  of  machines  based  on  his  two  devices  was 
fully  established,  Hunt  in  1853  applied  for  a  patent;  but 
his  claim  was  disallowed  on  the  ground  of  abandonment. 
The  most  important  feature  iu  Hunt's  invention — the  eye- 
pointed  needle — was  first  patented  in  the  United  Kingdom 
by  Newton  and  Archbold  in  1841,  in  connexion  with 
glove-stitching. 

Apparently  quite  unconscious  of  the  invention  of  Walter 
Hunt,  the  attention  of  Elias  Howe,  a  native  of  Spencer, 
Slass.,  was  di- 
rected to  machi  ne- 
sewing  about  the 
year  1843.  In 
1844  he  com- 
pleted a  rough 
model,  and  in 
1846  he  patented 
his  sewing  ma- 
chine (fig.  1 ). 
Howe  was  thus 
the  first  to  patent 
a  lock-stitch  ma- ,, 
chine,  but  his  in- 1^ 
vention  had  the 
two  essential  feat- 
ures— the  curved 
eye-pointed  needle 
and  the  under- 
thread  shuttle — 
which  undoubted- 
ly were  invented  .-     ,     „  •       ^      , «    ,, 

,•'      -,-   ,  -T       L.  rio-  1.— Howe  3  original  Mutunci 

by  Walter  Hunt 

twelve  years  previously.  Howe's  inventioa  -waf  Sold  IB 
England  to  William  Thomas  of-Cheapside,  London,  a  corset 
manufacturer,  for  £250.  Thomas  secured  in  December 
1846  the  English  patent  in  his  own  wame.  and  engaged 


SEWING     :machines 


719 


Howe  on  weekly  wages  to  adapt  the  machine  for  his  manu- 
facturing purposes.  The  career  of  the  inventor  in  London 
■was  chequered  and  unsuccessful ;  and,  having  pawned  his 
American  patent  rights  in  England,  he  returned  ii\  April 
1849  in  deep  poverty  to  America.  There  in  tne  mean- 
time the  sewing  machine  was  beginning  to  excite  public 
curiosity,  and  various  persons  were  making  machines 
■which  Howe  found  to  trench  on  his  patent  rights.  The 
most  prominent  of  the  manufacturers,  if  not  of  inventors, 
ultimately  appeared  in  the  person  of  Isaac  Merritt  Singer, 
who  in  1851  secured  a  patent  for  his  machine  (fig.  2), 
and  immediately 
devoted  himself 
with  immense  en- 
ergy to  push  the 
fortunes  of  the 
infant  industry. 
Howenowbecame 
alert  to  vindicate 
his  rights,  and, 
after  regaining 
possession  of  his 
pawned  patent, 
he  instituted  suits 
against     the    in- 

t  •  A  Fig.  2. — Singer*8  original  Machine. 

fringers.  Anenor-  *"         ^ 

H10U3  amount  of  litigation  ensued,  in  which  Singer  figured 
as  a  most  obstinate  defendant,  but  ultimately  all  makers 
became  tributary  to  EUas  Howe.  It  is  calculated  that 
Howe  received  in  the  form  of  royalties  on  machines  made 
op  to  the  period  of  the  expiry  of  his  extended  patent — 
September  1867 — which  was  also  the  month  of  his  death, 
a  sum  of  not  less  than  two  millions  of  dollars. 

The  practicability  of  machine-sewing  being  demonstrated, 
inventions  of  considerable  originality  and  merit  followed 
in  quick  succession.  One  of  the  most  ingenious  of  all 
the  inventors — who  worked  also  ■without  knowledge  of 
previous  efforts— was  Mr  Allan  B.  Wilson.  In  1849  he 
devised  the  rotary  hook  and  bobbin  combination,  which 
now  forms  the  special  feature  of  the  Wheeler  &  Wilson 
machine.  Mr  Wilson  obtained  a  patent  for  his  machine, 
which  included  the  important  and  effective  four-motion 
feed,  in  November  1850.  In  February  1851  Mr  William 
0.  Qrover,  tailor,  of  Boston,  patented  his  double  chain- 
stitch  action,  which  formed  the  basis  of  the  Grover  & 
Baker  machine.  At  a  later  date,  in  1856,  Mr  James  A.  E. 
Gibbs,  a  Virginia  farmer,  devised  the  improved  chain- 
stitch  machine  now  popularly  known  as  the  Willcos  & 
Gibba.  These-  together — all  American  inventions — form 
the  types  of  the  various  machines  now  in  common  use. 
Several  thousands  of  patents  have  been  issued  in  the 
United  States  and  Europe,  coveriijg  improvements  in  the 
sowing  machine ;  but,  although  the  efficiency  of  the  machine 
has  been  greatly  increased  by  nnmerous  accessories  and 
attachments,  the  main  principles  of  the  various  machines 
have  not  been  affected  thereby. 

In  iiiachinc  Bowing  there  are  three  Tarieties  of  etitch  made, — (1) 
the  simplo  chain  or  tambour  stitch,  (2)  the  double  chain  stitch, 
and  (3)  the  lock  stitch.  In  the  first  variety  the  machine  works 
with  a  binglo  thread  ;  the  other  forms  use  two,  an  upper  and  an 
Wnder  thread. 

Tho  structure  of  the  chain  stitch  is  shown  in  fig.  3.  The  needle 
first  descend!!  through  tho  cloth,  then  as  it  begins  to  ascend  tho 
friction  of  tho  thread 
against  the  fabric  is  suf- 
ficieut  to  form  a  small 
loop  into  which  tho 
point  of  a  hook  opcr^xt- 
ing  under  the  cloth 
plato  enters,  expanding 
and  holding  the  loop 
while  tho  needle  rises  to  its  full  height  Tho  food  then  moves  the 
fabrio  forward  one  atitch  length,  the  hook  with  its  loop  is  also 


Fio.  S._Cb>Ui  Stitdi. 


projected  so  that  when  next  the  needle  descends  its  loop  is  formed 
within  the  previous  loop.  The  hook  then  releases  loop  No.  1,  seizes 
and  expands  loop  No.  2,  and  in  so  doing  draws  up  the  previous  loop 
into  a  stitch,  chain-like  on  the  under  side  but  plain  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  fabric  The  seam  so  made  is  firm  and  elastic,  but 
ea.sily  undone,  for  if  at  any  point  a  thread  is  broken  the  whole  of 
the  sewing  can  be  readily  run  out  backwards  by  pulling  the  thread, 
just  as  in  crochet  work,  To  a  certain  extent  this  imperfection 
in  the  chain-stitch  machine  is  overcome  in  the  Willcox  &  Gibba 
machine,  in  which  each  loop  is,  by  means  of  a  rotating  hook, 
twisted  half  a  revolution  alter  it  has  passed  through  its  pre- 
decessor. 

Tho  double  chain  stitch  is  made  by  machines  associated  with 
tho  name  of  Grover  k  Baker.  Tlie  somewhat  complicated  course 
of  the  threads  in  this  stitch 
is  shown  in  fig.  4.  The 
under  thread  in  this  machine 
is  supplied  from  an  ordinary 
bobbin  and  is  threaded 
through  a  circular  needle  of 
peculiar  form.    The  machine 

is  wasteful  of  thread,  and  the  Fig.  4.-Doiible  Chain  Stitch, 

sewing  forms  a.  knotted  ridgo  on  the  under  side  of  the  fabric. 
Except  for  special  manufacturing  and  ornamental  purposes  the 
machine  is  now  iff  little  use. 

The  lock  stitch  is  that  made  by  all  ordinary  two-thread  sewing 
machines,  and  is  a  stitch  peculiar  to  machi-ne  sewing.  Its  structure 
is,  as  shown  in  fig.  5,  very  simplo,  and  when  by  proper  tension 
the  threadsinterlock  with- 
in tho  work  the  stitch 
shows  tho  same  on  both 
sides  and  is  very  secure. 
When,  however,  the  ten- 
sion on  the  upper  thread 
is  weak,  the  under  thread 
runs  along  the  surface  as  at  J,  held  more  or  less  tightly  by  the 
upper  loops.  It  will  be  seen  that  to  make  the  chain  stitch  the 
under  thread  has  to  be  passed  quite  through  the  Iflop  of  the  upper 
thread.  That  is  done  in  two  principal  way.i.  By  the  first  plan  a 
small  metal  shuttle,  holding  within  it  a  bobbin  of  thread,  is  carried 
backward  and  forward  under  the  cloth  plate,  and  at  each  fonvard 
movement  it  passes  through  tho  upper  thread  loop  formed  by  each 
succeeding  stroke  of  the  needle,  such  is  the  principle  devised  by 
Hunt,  introduced  by  Howe,  and  improved  by  Singer  and  many 
others.  The  second  principal  method  of  forming  the  lock  stitch 
consists  in  seizing  the  loop  of  the  upper  thread  by  a  rotating  hook, 
expantling  the  loop  and  passing  it  around  a  stationary  bobbin 
within  which  ij  wound  the  under  thread.  Tho  method  is  tho 
invention  of  ilr  A.  B.  Wilson,  and  is  known  generally  as  the 
Wheeler  &  Wilson  principle.  The  rotary  hook  seen  at  J,  fig.  6, 
is  so  bevelled  and  notched  that  it  opens  and  expands  the  upper 
thread  loop,  causing  it  quite  to  enclose  the  bobbin  of  under  thread, 
after  which  it  throws  it  off  and  the  so-formed  lock  stitch  is  puUed 
up  and  tightened  either  by  an  independent  take-up  motion  as  in 
recent  machines,  or  by  the  expansion  of  the  next  loop  as  in  the 
older  forms.     The  bobbin  A,  lenticular  in  form,  and  its  case  B, 


Fio.  6.— Lock  Stitch. 


Fio  6  —notary  Hook,  Bobbin,  nnd  Bobbin  Quo  (Whcclor  4  WU»on 
Machine). 

fig.  6,  fit  easily  into  a  circular  depression  within  tho  hook,  against 
wliich  they  arc  held  by  tho  bobbin  holder  a,  fig.  6. 

Intcnnediate  between  tho  shuttle  and  the  rotary-hook  machinoa 
is  tho  now  oscillating-shnttlo  miichino  introduced  bv  tho  Singer 
Co.  Tho  shlittle  is  liookforniod,  not  unlike  tho  Wilson  hook, 
and  it  carries  within  it  a  capacious  circular  bobbin  of  thread  fc, 
fig.  7.  This  shuttle  is  driven  by  an  oscillating  ilrivcr  dh  within 
an  annular  raceway  a  a,  and,  instead  of  revolving  completely 
like  the  Wilson  hook,  it  only  oscillates  in  an  arc  of  160°,  so  far 
as  servos  to  catcli  and  clear  tho  upper  thread.     Tlio  oscillating- 


720 


S  E  X  — S  E  X 


shuttle  and  rotary-liook  machines  work  with  great  smoothness 
and  rapidity. 


X^L 


Fio.  7.— Singei'n  OsclllatUig-Shattle  Machine. 
There  are  nnmerons  special  sewicf;  machines  adapted  for  leather 
work,  glove-sewiug,  &c.,  some  of  which  will  be  alluded  to  under 
Shoes.  (J-  P^) 

SEX.  Since  the  article  Eepeodfction  (j.j'.)  includes 
not  only  some  account  of  tbe  reproductive  processes  but 
an  outline  of  the  comparative  anatomy  of  the  reproductive 
organs,- and  even  a  somewhat  detailed  description  of  the 
essential  sexual  elements,  it  ouly  remains  here  to  make  a 
brief  survey  of  the  more  important  groups  with  respect  to 
the  absence,  union,  or  distinction  of  the  sexes  and  to  the 
associated  "secondary  sexual  characters"  which  distinctly 
male  and  female  organisms  so  frequently  and  strikingly 
present,  and  to  follow  up  that  outline  of  the  morphological 
facts  with  a  brief  discussion  of  the  nature  and  origin  of 
the  sexes  and  of  the  theory  of  reproduction. 

Characters  of  the  Sexes. — Starting  with  the  Protozoa,  Tve 
find  indeed  that  union  or  conjugation  of  two  or  more 
individuals  is  of  frequent  if  not  universal  occurrence ;  yet, 
since,  at  any  rate  with  rare  and  slight  exceptions,  no 
permanent  morphological  difference  can  be  made  out  which 
would  entitle  us  to  speak  of  males  or  females,  the  group  is 
generally  defined  as  characterized  by  the  absence  of  sexual 
reproduction.  Without  at  present  accepting  or  rejecting 
this  view,  it  is  convenient  to  postpone  its  discussion  until 
the  origin  of  sex  comes  to  be  considered. 

Passing  to  the  Calentera,  we  find  among  the  Rydromedjisss 
the  sexes  usually  distinct,  aud  this  distinction  of  the  sexes  has 
lately  been  traced  back  to  the  apparently  asexual  colonies  from 
which  the  gonophores  arise.  Exceptions,  however,  occur, — e.g., 
Tubularia,  which  is  monoecious.  The  higher  Medusa  are  also 
usually  unisexual,  aud  occasionally  even  show  secondary  sexual 
differences,  as  in  the  form  and  length  of  the  prehensile  filaments 
(Aurclia).  Clirysaora,  however,  is  hermaphrodite.  The  Siphono- 
phora  usually  present  both  sexes  within  a  single  colony,— the  gono- 
phores themselves  being,  however,  unisexual  In  a  few  cases 
(Apolemia  uvaria,  Hipkijes  acuminata)  the  colony  itself  is  entirely 
male  or  female.  The  Ctenophora  are  invariably  hermaphrodite; 
ind  among  the  Sexactinia  this  is  frequently  though  not  generally 
She  case,  completely  dioecious  colonies  even  occurring  (Gerardia). 
imong  the  Odactinia  the  sexes  are  usually  distinct,  even  so  far 
IS  the  colonies  are  concerned,  yet  there  are  many  exceptions,  e.g., 
lorallium,  which  has  male,  female,  and  hermaphrodite  polyps  on 
he  same  stock.     See  Hydeozoa,  Corals,  &c. 

The  Echinodermata  are  very  rarely  hermaphrodite  (Synapta, 
imphiura  sqxiamala),  hut  secondary  sexual  characters  are  almost 
inknown.  Thyone,  however,  has  the  male  orifice  on  a  small  pro- 
oiberance.     SeeEoaiNODERMATA. 

Probably  no  invertebrate  group  presents  so  varied  and  interest- 
ing a  series  of  sexual  phenomena  as  the  Verrms.  Thus  the 
Polyzoa  exhibit  that  remarkable  association  of  hermaphroditism 
with  asexual  reproduction  which  so  frequently  recurs  in  organisms 
of  vegetative  habit  The  Brachiopods  also  are  hermaphrodite,  as 
also  are  the  Oligochffites  ;  the  Polychsela  only  exceptionally  so  ; 
some  (liereidm)  exhibit  secondary  sexual  charactei^  so  well  marked 
as  to  have  been  mistaken  for  specific  or  even  generic  ones.  The 
Plalykelminlhes   with    few   exceptions  are  hermaphrodite  ;   the 


Ncmerteans  (except  BorUsia)  aro  unisexual  and  occasionally 
exhibit  secoudiry  sexual  difi'erences.  The  Nematodes  are  very 
rarely  hermaphrodite  (Ascaris,  Pelodytes),  but  present  very  marked 
sexual  difi'erences,  the  male  being  usually  recognizable  by  smaller 
size  and  caudal  curvature.  Spicules  or  claspers  for  copulation 
are  also  present.  In  Strougylus  the  female  is  cairied  by  the  malii 
in  a  ventral  furrow.  The  aberrant  nematoid  £chinorkynchus  is 
also  dioecious,  ^at/ite  is  hermaphrodite ;  Balanoglossus  nmsexvia.] , 
but  without  secondary  sexual  difference.  Some  of  the  most 
striking  cases,  of  sexual  dimorphism  are  presented  by  the  Motif  era, 
where  the  male  is  often  a  fallen  representative  of  the  specifij 
type  presented  by  the  female,  having  not  only  greatly  diminishe*! 
in  size  but  havuig  undergone  thorough  degeneration  in  structure, 
the  alimentary  canal  especially  becoming  represented  by  a  mera 
imperforate  thread  of  cells.  Nor  are  such  cases  of  male  degenci- 
ation  by  any  means  confined  to  this  group  :  a  yet  more  striking 
instance  is  presented  by  the  Gephyrean  BonelUa,  in  which  the 
onduct  of  the  large  and  well-grown  female  contains  a  number 
of  almost  microscopic  ciliated  Turbellarian-looking  parasites,  which 
have  been  shown  to  be  the  degenerate  males.  Tbo  othei'  Gqihyvca 
present  no  such  extraordinary  dimorphism,  while  the  Discophora 
are  hermaphrodite.     See  Poltzoa,  Brachiopoda,  Annelida,  Nb- 

MERTEAKS,  PlANARIANS,  TAPEWORM,  SaGITTA,  LeECH,  &C. 

Among  Crustaceans  the  males  are  frequently  smaller  or  relatively 
dwarfish,  sometimes  attached  parasitically  to  the  female,  and  the 
sexes  are  generally  distinguishable  at  least  by  differences  in  the 
structure  of  some  of  the  appendages, — generally,  however,  in  evident 
relation  to  their  respective  functions.  Among  the  Copepods  the 
sexes  are  separate,  and  a  marked  tendency  to  dimorphism  is 
manifested,  even  among  the  free-living  forms.  This  is  sometimes 
manifested  in  a  way  which  suggests  the  sexual  magnificence  of 
the  highest  animals  ;  thus,  for  instance,  the  male  Sapphiriim  has 
the  hrilhance  of  a  gem.  With  the  appearance  of  parasitism  in 
the  group  tho  reproductive  relations  become  profoundly  modified  ; 
thus  it  is  the  always  less  active  female  which  fii-st  becomes  sessile 
and  parasitic  ;  the  male  occasionally  permanently  retains  freedom, 
as  in  the  common  Kicothoe  of  the  lobster's  gill ;  more  usually,  how- 
ever, he  settles  dowu  beside  or  even  npbn  the  female  and  becomes 
more  or  less  completely  epi-parasitic,  undergoing  a  more  thorough 
degeneration  than  the  female  herself.  The  analogous  series  front 
free  to  parasitic  forms  furnished  by  the  Ostracoda  and  Cirripedia 
are  yet  more  remarkable  in  their  sexual  degeneration,  since  not 
only  does,  hermaphroditism  become  the  rule,  but  "  complementary 
males"  (most  frequently  two  to  one  female)  appear.  These  are 
utterly  degenerate  in  size  and  structure,  in  fact  often  qnita 
unrecognizable  as  Cirripedes  at  all,  much  less  as  members  of  the 
same  species,  save  for  their  developmental  history  and  the  existence 
of  a  few  intermediate  degrees  of  degeneration  between  the  normal 
and  the  lost  Cirripede  organization,  e.g.,  Ilia  or  Scalpellum,  where 
the  males  of  some  species  stiU  retain  cirri  and  buccal  pieces.  In 
some  cases  at  least  their  male  reproductive  function  seems  to  be 
discharged  early  in  larval  life,  before  the  exchange  of  free  for 
sessile  habits,  their  subsequent  life  apparently  even  sinking  below 
the  level  of  reproductive  activity.  A  reversal, of  sex  has  actually 
been  alleged  in  some  cases,  the  males  having  been  said  to  become 
female.  In  tho  Phyllopods  the  sexes  are  separate,  but  partheno- 
genesis very  frequently  occurs,  as  in  Daphnia,  jpus,  &c. ,  and 
even  in  Apua  tends  to  replace  sexual  reproduction  very  completely, 
f  on  Siebold  examined  thousands  of  specimens  dming  twelve  years 
without  finding  a  single  male ;  in  other  years,  however,  from 
10  to  45  per  cent,  of  males  have  since  been  found.  Besides 
the  usual  copulatory  modifications  of  appendages  the  males  of  some 
JhyUopods  have  more  olfactory  filaments  on  the  antennse.  In 
Amphipods  similar  differences  have  been  noted  ;  in  Isopods  these 
often  become  much  more  marked, — sometimes,  as  in  the  classical 
case  of  Praniza  and  Anceus,  reaching  a  degree  of  dimorphism  with- 
out degeneration  which  is  hardly  exceeded  in  the  anu"jl  kingdom, 
and  which  quite  naturally  led  to  the  separation  of  the  sexes  into 
distinct  genera.  In  the  parasitic  forms  {Bopyridw)  the  females 
degenerate  much  more  thoroughly  than  the  small  and  active  males. 
The  Schizopods  exhibit  considerable  sexual  differences.  Thus 
among  the  males  the  antenuie  bear  larger  olfactory  comb-like 
structures  and  larger  abdominal  members  ;  copulatory  appen(lagcs 
may  also  be  specialized  ;  while  the  females,  as  in  many  Isopods,  &c., 
have  a  brood-pouch  formed  of  overlapping  ventral  lamellse.  Tho 
different  position  of  the  sex-openings  and  the  characteristic  forms 
of  the  limbs  render  the  sexes  easily  distinguishable  among  the 
Decapods  ;  the  crabs  have  an  obviously  broader  abdomen  in  the 
female  (see  Crustacea).  Among  the  Arachnida,  the  archaic 
king-crabs  already  show  slight  external  sex-differences ;  among 
the  spiders  the  mates  have  a  maxillary  palp  specially  modified  for  a 
copulatory  organ,  an  adaptation  which,  associated  with  their 
often  extremely  small  size,  is  of  great  importance  in  aidingthoir 
escape  from  their  larger  and  ferocious  mates.  Some  species  of 
TUridium.  have  a  stridnlating  apparatus.  The  male  scorpions 
on  the  otlier  hand  seem  to  possess  a  rather  stronger  development ; 
in  the  Acarins  the  smaller  males  are  more  distinctly  segiueatod. 


SEX 


721 


afipendages  modified  for  attachment,  and  sometimes  retain 
a  free  habit  of  life  as  distinguished  from  the  parasitic  females. 
8o8  Akachnida. 

Among  Insects  the  sexes  are  distinguished  by  varying  modifica- 
tions of  different  parts  of  the  body,  and  differences  iu  general  form 
and  in  colour  are  frequent.  Tlie  males  are  generally  active  and 
more  teautiful,  and  seem  better  endowed  with  sense  organs,  though 
usually  smaller  than  the  females.  The  males  have  also  a  pre- 
eminence or  even  monopoly  in  producing  sounds,  and  it  is  perhaps 
in  relation  to  this  that  the  psychology  of  sex  can  first  be  said  to 
come  within  the  range  of  observation.  Thus  the  field-cricket  is 
Baid  to  lower  the  tone  of  his  song  while  caressing  the  female  with 
his  antennae.  In  the  parasitic  forms  dimorphism,  as  might  be 
expected,  becomes  very  marked  ;  in  Strepsiptera  the  males  are  free 
and  winged,  while  the  females  are  blind  and  wingless,  in  fact, 
permanently  larval.  Similar  cases  occur  in  other  orders,  the  glow- 
worm being  probably  the  most  familiar  instance.  In  parasitic  or 
abundantly  nourished  forms  parthenogenesis  very  frequently 
appears,  the  extreme  case  being  presented  by  Cecidomyia;  a  fly 
which  exhibits  rapid  parthenogeuetic  reproduction  in  the  larval 
state.  The  dimorphism  of  many  beetles,  in  which  the  male 
frequently  acquires  the  most  extraordinary  specializations  of 
external  form,  has  received  especial  attention  from  Darwin,  whose 
Descent  of  Man  includes  the  fullest  details.  Here  it  is  enough  to 
mention  that  Reichenau  has  recently  pointed  out  the  coexistence 
of  the  larger  size  and  relative  inactivity  of  the  male  with  the 
presence  of  these  functionless  outgrowths.  The  beautiful  sexual 
dimorphism  so  common  among  the  Lepidoptera  need  not  be  more 
than  mentioned  at  present ;  while  the  very  remarkable  sexual 
differentiation  of  Hymenoptcra  (bees,  ants,  sawfiies,  &c. )  may  also 
be  assumed  to  be  sufficiently  familiar-  See  Insects,  Ants,  Bees. 
Ib  several  orders  [Diplera,  Lepidoptera,  CoUoptera)  cases  of  dimor- 
phism occur  among  the  females  themselves,  or  even  among  the 
males  ;  as  many  as  three  forms  of  females  have  been  described  in 
certain  butterflies. 

The  MoUuscan  series  opens  with  the  normally  dioecious  Lamelli- 
branchs,  of  which  some  genera  (most  species  of  Ostrea,  Pecten,  &C ) 
arc,  however,  hermaphrodite.  The  Pteropods,  Pulmonates,  and 
Opisthobranchs  are  hermaphrodite  ;  the  Prosobranchs,  Heteropods, 
and  Cephalopoda  unisexual.  Though  slight  differences  have  been 
described  even  in  Lamellibranch  shells  {Unio},  and  though  the 
internal  anatomy  of  the  essential  and  accessory  organs  is  of  very 
liigh  complexity,  the  extraordinary  phenomena  associated  with 
"  hectocotylization  "  among  the  Cephalopod  are  the  only  marked 
outward  manifestations  of  that  sexual  dimorphism  which  reaches  its 
climax  in  , the  Argonaut.  (See  Mollusc  A,  Cuttle-fuh.)  The 
Tnnicates  are  usually  hermaphrodite;  Amphioxus,  however,-  is 
nnisexual  (see  Twhicata). 

Among  Fishes  hermaphroditism  is  extremely  rare  (Serranus). 
The  males  are  sometimes  characterized  by  the  modification  of  the 
pelvic  limbs  as  claspers,  &c. ,  and  arc  at  the  reproductive  period 
often  readily  distinguishable  from  the  females  by  their  brighter 
colour  or  other  cutaneous  changes,  such  as  ruffling  of  the  skin. 
Hale  and  female  rays  are  readily  also  distinguishable  by  their  teeth 
and  dermal  defences.  The  hooked  jaw  of  the  male  salmon  gives 
him  a  characteristic  physiognomy  during  the  breeding  season.  The 
carp, undergoes  a  sort  of  epidermic  eruption  at  the  same  period  ; 
male  and  female  eels,  too,  are  said  often  to  become  distinguishable 
both  in  colour  and  shape,  Stridulating  apparatus  may  be  present, 
notably  in  the  Siluroids,  (See  IciitiiYolooy.)  Among  Amphi- 
bians the  bright  dorsal  crest  of  the  male  newt  is  perhaps  the  most 
striking  of  sex  distinctions,  but  many  male  frogs  and  toads  have 
vocal  air  sacs,  epidermal  callosities,  and  some  (CuUripes,  PelobaUs) 
t>osses3  a  gland  under  the  fore-limb,     (See  A.MrniBiA, ) 

Among  the  Ophidians  thi  males  are  smaller,  and  have  longer  and 
more  slender  tails ;  the  sexes,  too,  difl'er  sometimes  in  colour  and 
markings,  Male  Chelonians,  too,  have  sometimes  longer  tails  and 
claws  and  may  even  give  voice.  The  submaxillary  musk-gland 
of  the  crocodile  is  especially  acrive'in  the  breeding  season  ;  the 
Hzards  have  remarkable  throat-pouchca  and  crests,  which  may  bo 
epidermic  or  even  correspond  to  cranial  outgrowths,  as  in  the 
chameleon. 

But  it  is  among  Birds  and  Mammals  that  the  observer  of  sexual 
characters  finds  abundant  and  remarkable  differences  extending  to 
the  minutest  details,  and  showing  how  tho  higher  evolution  of 
parental  care  which  the  inevitably  prolonged  embryonic  life  in- 
volves and  the  wider  range  of  sexual  selection  have  co-operalcd  in 
modifying  tho  whole  organism.  As  might  bo  expected,  tho  lower 
mammals  show  least  of  this  ;  but  as  we  a,scend  the  adult  males 
become  differentiated  from  the  females  by  tho  acquirement  of 
secondary  sexual  characters  which  aro  mainly  either  offensive  and 
defensive  aids  for  battle  with  each  other,  or  which  assist  in  gaining, 
the  admiration  of  the  females  ;  and  these  may  coexist  or  coincide  in 
very  various  degrees.  Thus  scent-glands  aro  of  common  occurrence 
from  the  Inseciivora  (perhaps  even  from  Om!7/tor/iy»it.At«)  upwards. 
Greater  beauty  of  markings  or  more  vivid  colours  aro  acquired, — 
is  many  Anthropidas  (baboons,  ttc)  the  latter  being  of  peculiarly 

21 -2f- 


crude  magnificence.  Abundant  local  growths  of  haii  often  appear, 
most  notably  in  the  lion  and  in  many  ArUhropidse.  The  develop- 
ment of  tusks  and  horns  is  also  too  familiar  to  need  more  than 
passing  mention. 

But  it  is  unquestionable  that  in  this  as  in  not  a  few  other 
respects  the  birds,  rather  than  the  mammals,  have  reached  the 
highest  stages  of  evolution.  For  here  sexual  characters  no  \onger 
seem  merely  superadded  or  supplementary  to  the  apparatus  of 
individual  life,  but  habits  and  organization  alike  become  thor- 
oughly adapted  to  these — the  sex-differences  and  the  reproductive 
functions  as  it  were  saturating  the  whole  life,  and  producing  so 
many  and  marvellous  results,  in  habits  and  character,  in  beauty 
and  song,  that  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  descriptive 
labours  of  the  professed  ornithologist  have  constantly  risen  into 
those  of  the  artist  and  even  the  poet  See  Birds,  and  Darwin's 
jOtscent  of  Man. 

Nature  and  Ddermination  of  Sex. — It  is  not  here'  pro- 
posed to  enter  upon  the  task  bi  ■  historical  review  and 
criticism  of  the  various  theories  of  sex — which  were  esti- 
.  mated  at  so  many  as  five  hundred  at  the  beginning  of  the 
last  century,  or  even  to  attempt  any  sketch  of  the  present 
very  conflicting  state  of  opinion  on  the  subject,* 

Although  our  theories  of  sex  may  be  still  vague  enough, 
the  greatest  step  to  the  solution  has  been  made  in  the 
general  abandonment  by  scientific  men  of  the  doubtless 
still  popular  explanation — iu  terms  of  a  "  natural  tend- 
ency "'  for  the  production  of  an  excess -of  males  or  the  like. 
It  is  now  held  that  "  quality  and  quantity  of  food,  elevation 
of  abode,  conditions  of  temperature,  relative  age  of  parents, 
their  mode  of  life,"  habits,  rank,  &c.,  are  all  factors  which 
have  to  be  considered."  The  idea  that  the  problem  of  the 
nature  of  sex  is  capable  of  being  approached  by  empirical 
observation  of  the  numbers  of  different  sexes  produced 
under  known  sets  of  conditions,  and  the  obvious  practical 
corollary  of  this,  viz.,_  that  the  proportion  of  the  sexes  must 
therefore  be  capable  of  being  experimentally  modified  and 
regulated,  are  conceptions  which  have  steadily  been  acquir- 
ing prominence,  especially  of  late.  In  short,  if  ve  can 
find  how  sex  is  determined,  we  shall  have  gone  far  to 
investigate  sex  itself. 

One  of  the  most  crude  attempts  has  been  that  of 
Canestrini,  who  ascribes  the  determination  of  sex  to  the 
number  of  sperms  entering  the  ovum,  but  this  view  has 
been  already  demolished  by  Fol  and  Pfliiger.  The  time  of 
fertilization  has  also  and  apparently  with  greater  weight 
been  insisted  upon  ;  thus  Thury,  followed  by  Diising,  holds 
that  the  sex  of  the  offspring  depends  on  the  period  of  fer- 
tilization :  an  ovum  fertilized  soon  after  liberation  produces 
a  female,  while  the  fertilization  of  an  older  ovum  produces  a 
male.  This  view  has  been  carried  a  step  farther  by  Hensen, 
who  suggests  that  the  same  should  probably  hold  true  of 
tho  spermatozoa,  and  thus  the  fertilization'  of  a  young  ovum 
by  a  fresh  sperm  would  have  a  double  likelihood  of  result- 
ing in  a  female.)  There  are  some  observations  which 
support  this:  thus  Thury  and  other  cattle-breeders  have 
claimed  to  deterniine'the  sex  of  cattle  on  this  principle, 
and  Girou  long  ago  alleged  that  female  flowers,  fertilized 
as  soon  as  they  aro  able  to  receive  pollen,  produced  a 
distinct  excess  of  female  offspring. 

Great  weight  has  also  been  laid  on  the  relative  age  of 
the  parents.  Thus  Hofacker,  so  long  ago  as  1828,  and 
Sadler  a  couple  of  years  later,  independently  published  a 
body  of  statistics  (each  of  about  2000  births)  in  favour. of 
the  generalization  (since  kno\vn  as  Hofackcr's  and  Sadler's 
law)  that  when  the  male  parent  is  tho  cider  tho  offspring 
are  prcpondcratingly  male  :  while,  if  tho  parents  be  of  tho 
same    ago,  or  a  fortiori  if  the  male  parent  be  younger,' 

^  As  for  reproduction  in  general,  so  for  fox,  tlio  moat  coovoniont 
starting-point  is  tho  work  of  Henson  ("Die  Zougung,"  in  nermann! 
Tlilh.  d.  Physiologif),  while  other  dLmertolions  ore  to  be  found  in  the 
leading  manuals  of  zoology  and  botany,  ospocinlly,  however,  in  special 
papers  too  numerous  to  niontion.  Hco  also  KKPBODDonoit,  and  for 
fuller  bibliographical  details  ace  Ocddos,  "  On  tho  Theory  of  Orowtli,] 
Reproduction,  Sex,  and  Uoredlty,"  Pnc  Roy.  Soc  Edin.,  188ft. 


722 


SEX 


female  offspring  appear  in  increasing  n^jorlty.  This  view 
has  been  confirmed  by  Goehlert,  Boulanger,  Legoyt,  and 
others ;  some  breeders  of  horses,  cattle,  and  pigeons  have 
also  accepted  it.  Other  breeders,  however,  deny  it  alto- 
gether j  moreover,  tha  recent  statistics  of  Stieda  abd  of 
Berner  (taken  independently  from  Alsace-Lorraine  and 
Scandinavia)  seem  to  stand  in  irreconcilable  contradiction. 
{A.t  any  rate  at  present  we  do  not  seem  justified  in  ascribing 
greater  importance  to  the  relative  age  of  parents  than  as  a 
isecondary  factor,  which  may  probably  take  its  place  among 
those  causes  influencing  nourishment  discussed  below. 

That  good  nourishment  appears  to  produce  a  distinct 
(preponderance  of  females  is  perhaps  the  single  result 
(which  can  at  present  be  regarded  as  clearly  proven  and 
'generally  accepted.  Tet  it  would  be  too  much  to  say  that 
lunanimity  is  even  here  complete  ;  thus,  among  plants,  the 
experiments  of  Girou  (1823),  Haberlandt  (1869),  and 
others  gave  no  certain  result ;  those  of  Heyer  (1883) 
have  led  him  to  dispute  the  validity  of  the  generalization 
altogether,  while  Haberlandt  (1877)  brought  evidence  for 
regarding  the  excess  of  females  as  largely  due  to  the  greater 
mortality  of  the  males.  The  investigations  of  agricultural 
observers,  especially  Meehan  (1878),  which  are  essentially 
corroborated  by  Diising  (1883),  however,  leave  little  doubt 
that  abundant  moisture  and  nourishment  tend  to  produce 
females.  Some  of  Meehan's  points  are  extremely  instruc- 
tive. Thusold  branches  of  Conifers  overgrown  and  shaded 
by  younger  ones  produce  only  male  inflorescences,  a  fact 
■which  may  be  taken  in  connexion  with  Sadebeck's  obser- 
vation that  some  fern  prothallia,-  under  unfavourable  con- 
ditions, can  still  form  antheridia  but  not  archegonia.  The 
formation  of  female  flowers  on  male  heads  of  maize  is 
ascribed  by  Knop  to  better  nutrition  consequent  on  abund- 
ant moisture.  The  only  seriously  contradictory  observa- 
tions are  thus  those  of  Heyer,  and  it  is  therefore  reassuring 
when  a  detailed  scrutiny  of  his  paper  shows  his  ill-con- 
ducted experiments  (wliich  land  him  in  the  conclusion  that 
the  organism  is  not  modifiable  by  its  environment  at  all) 
to  be  largely  capable  of  a  reversed  interpretation.  The 
agency  of  temperature  is  also  of  considerable  importance. 
Thus  Meehan  finds  that  the  male  plants  of  hazel  grow 
more  actively  in  heat  than  the  female,  and  Ascherson 
states  that  Stratiotcs  aloides  bears  only  female  flowers 
north  of  52°  lat.,  and  from  50°  southwards  only  male  ones. 
Other  instances  might  be  given. 

Passing  to  the  animal  kingdom  we  find  the  case  of 
insects  peculiarly  clear  ;  thus  Mrs  Treat  showed  that  if 
caterpillars  were  starved  before  entering  the  chrysalis 
state  the  resultant  butterflies  or  moths  were  malesj  while 
others  of  the  same  brood  highly  nourished  came  out 
females.  Gentry  too  has  shown  for  moths  that  innutri- 
tions or  diseased  food  produced  males ;  hence  perhaps  a 
partial  explanation  of  the  excess  of  male  insects,  in  autumn, 
although  temperature  is  probably  more  important.  The 
recent  experiments  of  Yung  on 'tadpoles  are  also  very 
conclusive.  Thus  he  raised  the  percentage  of  females  in 
one  brood  from  56  in  those  unfed  to  78  in  those  fed  with 
beef,  and  in  another  supply  from  61  to  81  per  cent,  by 
feeding  with  fish ;  while,  when  the  especially  nutritious 
flesh  of  frogs  was  supplied,  the  percentage  rose  from  54 
to  92.  Among  mammals  the  difiiculties  of  proof  are 
greater,  but  evidence  is  by  no  means  wanting.  Thus  an 
important  experiment  was  long  ago  made  by  Girou,  who 
divided  a  flock  of  300  ewes  into  equal  parts,  of  which  the 
one  half  were  extremely  well  fed  and  served  by  two  young 
rams,  while  the  other  was  served  by  two  mature  rams  and 
poorly  fed.  The  proportion  of  ewe  lambs  in  the  two  cases 
was  respectively  60  and  40  per  cent.  Diising  aloO  states 
that  it  is  usually  the  heavier  ewes  which  bring  forth  ewe 
>ambs. 


Nor  does  sex  in  the  human  species  appear  to  be 
independent  of  differences  of  nutrition.  After  a  cholera 
epidemic  or  a  war  more  boys  are  said  to  be  born,  and 
Diising  also  points  out  that  in  females  with  small  placenta 
and  little  menstruation  more  boys  are  found,  and  even 
affirms  that  the  number  of  male  children  varies  with  the 
rise  in  prices.  In  towns  and  in  prosperous  families  there 
are  also  more  females,  while  males  are  more  numerous  in 
the  country  and  among  the  poor.  The  influence  of  tem- 
perature is  also  marked  :  more  males  are  born  during  the 
colder  months,  a  fact  noted  also  by  Schlechter  for  horses. 

The  best  known  and  probably  still  most  influential 
theory  is  that  systematized  by  Girou  and  known  as  that  of 
"  comparative  vigour."  This  makes  sex  of  offspring  depend 
on  that  of  the  more  vigorous  parent.  But  to  this  view 
there  are  serious  diflSculties :  thus  consumptive  mothers 
produce  a  great  excess  of  daughters,  not  sons  as  might  be 
expected  from  the  superior  health  of  the  father.  Still  less 
weight  can  be  attached  to  that  form  of  the  hypothesis 
which  would  make  sex  follow  "genital  superiority"  or 
"  relative  arJeQcy ''  alona  Any  new  theory  has  thus  to 
reconcile  the  arguments  in  favour  of  each  of  the  preceding 
views,  and  meet  the  difficulties  which  beset  all.  As 
Starkweather  puts  it,  it  must  at  once  account  for  such 
facts  as  "  the  preponderance  of  male  births  in  Europe,  of 
females  among  mulattos  and  other  hybrid  races,  as  also 
among  polygamous  animals,  and  for  the  equality  among 
other  animals.  More  especially  it  must  suggest  some 
principle  of  eelf-adjustment  by  which  not  only  is  the 
balance  of  the  sexes  nearly  preserved  on  the  whole,  but  by 
which  also  in  cases  of  special  disturbance  the  balance 
tends  to  readjust  itself."  Starkweather  proceeds  to 
attempt  this,  and  his  argujnent  may  be  briefly  summarized. 
Whili  few  maintain  any  essential  equality  of  the  sexes, 
and  stili  fewer  any  superiority  of  the  feinale,  the  weight  of 
authority  has"  been  from  the  earliest  times  in  favour  of  the 
doctrine  of  male  superiority.  From  the  earliest  ages 
philosophers  have  contended  that  woman  is  but  an  unde- 
veloped man  ;  Darwin's  theory  of  sexual  selection  presup- 
poses a  superiority  in  the  male  line  and  entailed  on  that 
sex ;  for  Spencer  the  development  of  woman  is  early 
arrested  by  procreative  functions  :  in  short,  Darwin's  man 
is  as  it  were  an  •  evolved  womSn,  and  Spencer's  woman  an 
arrested  man.  On  such  grounds  we  have  a  number  of 
theories  of  sex.  Hough  thinks  males  are  borp  when  the 
system  is  at  its  best,  more  females  when  occupied  in 
growth,  rej)aration,  or  disease.  So,  too,  Tiedman  and 
others  regard  every  embryo  as  originally  female  and 
remaining  female  if  errested,  while  Velpau  conversely 
regards  embryos  as  all  naturally  ■  male,  but  frequently 
degenerating  to  the  female  state.  Starkweather  points  out 
some  of  the  difiiculties  to  the  view  of  female  inferiority, 
and  lays  it  down  as  the  foundation  of  his  work  that 
".neither  sex  is  physically  the  superior,  but  both  are  essen- 
tially equal  in  a  physiological  sense."  But,  while,  this  is 
true  of  the  average,  there  are  many  grades  of  individual 
differences  and  deficiencies  in  detail,  involving  a  greater  or 
less  degree  of  superiority  in  one  or  other  of  every  pair. 
Starkweather's  theory  then  is  "that  sex  is  determined  by 
the  superior  parent,  also  that  the  superior  parent  produces 
the  opposite  sex."  The  arguments  adduced  in  favour  of 
this  view,  however,  are  scarcely  worthy  of  it,  since,  save  a 
chapter  of  pseudo-physiological  discussion  of  vital  forces 
and  polarities,  of  superiority, — nervous,  electrical,  &c.,-^ 
they  rest  mainly  on  the  vague  and  shifting  grounds  of 
physiognomy  and  temperament.  And  when  superiority  ia 
analysed  into  its  factors, — cerebral  development  and  activ 
ity,  temperament,  state  of  health,  of  nutrition,  &c., — soon 
we  find  under  the  appearance  of  simplicity  a  law  has  been 
obtained  not  by  discovering  any  real  unity  under  the  va&xtj 


SEX 


723 


apparently  different  factors,  but  by  simply  lumping  them 
under  a  common  name.  Nor  is  a  rationale  given  of  the 
affirmed  reversal  of  sex,  which  Schlcchter  and  other 
authorities  moreover  whoUy  deny.  Despite  these  and 
other  faults  and  failures  the  work  is  interesting  and  often 
suggestive,  and  that  not  only  on  account  of  its  theoretic 
position  but  its  sanguine  proposals  for  the  practical  control 
of  sex. 

The  work  of  Diising  (1883),  while  less  speculative,  is  of 
great  importance  in  respect  to  the  causes  which  regulate 
the  proportions  of  the  sexes  ;  since,  instead  of  falling  ba(  k 
with  Darwin  on  the  unexplained  operation  of  natural 
selection,  he  seeks  to  note  the  circumstances  in  which  a 
majority  of  one  sex  is  profitable,  and  to  show  that 
organisms  have  really  the  power  to  produce  in  such  circum- 
stances a  majority  of  one  sex, — in  short,  that  disturbances 
in  the  proportion  of  the  sexes  bring  about  their  own 
compensation,  and  further  supports  these  views  by  ualcuU- 
tion  and  statistical  evidence. 

He  separates  the  causes  dctcmiining  sex  into  those  affecting  (a) 
one  parent  and  (4)  both  alike.  Starting  with  a  minority  ot  one 
sex,  he  emiil'.asizes  tlie  importance  of  delayed  fertilizatiou,  accept- 
ing it  as  a  fact  that  females  Ijtc  fertilized  bear  most  males  (tliis 
correspoudins;  in  man  to  a  scarcity  of  males  among  tlio  lower 
animals).  Ho  notes  that  the  firstborn  child  is  most  frequently 
a  male,  e.specially  among  older  persons,  and  thus  explains  how 
after  a  war,  when  there  is  a  want  of  males,  most  male  ciiildren  are 
born.  He  ascribes  importance  to  the  amount  of  sexual  intercourse. 
Thus,  suppose  a  minority  of  females  :  their  fertilization  teuds  to 
occur  more  frequently,  and  thus  (if  the  general  statement  be 
correct)  they  should  produce  a  majority  of  their  own  sex ;  or 
similarly  with  males.  This  is  supported  by  reference  to  cattle- 
breeding,  and  it  is  interpreted  physiologically  to  involve  that 
youug  spermatozoa  produce  a  majority  of  males.  Suppose  a  gicat 
majority  of  males :  the  chances  of  early  fertilization  of  the  females 
are  of  course  great,  but  eggs  fertilized  early  tend  to  produce 
females.  Or  suppose  conversely  a  great  minority  of  males :  the 
chances  of  early  fertilization  are  small,  but  old  eggs  tend  to 
produce  males,  and  either  excess  will  thus  become  Compensated. 
Or  again,  the  more  decided  the  minority  of  one  sex  the  more 
frequent  the  sexual  activity  of  its  indiviiluals,  the  younger  their 
sexual  elements,  and  consequently  the  more  individuals  of  that  sex 
are  produced.  Diising  next  takes  up  as  indirect  causes  equivalent 
to  a  minority  of  individuals — (ft)  deficient  nutrition  ;  just  as  fre- 
quent copulation  overstrains  the  genital  organs  the  same  result 
may  arise  from  the  dclicient  nutrition  of  the  system  ;  hence  an  ill- 
fed  COW  yields  a  female  to  a  well-fed  bull  and  vice  versa  ;  (4)  relative 
age  ;  the  nearer  either  parent  is  to  the  period  of  gieatest  reproduc- 
tive capacity  the  less,  he  thinks,  is  a  birth  of  that  sex  jirobablc. 

As  factors  affecting  both  parents  he  first  discusses  variations  in 
nutrition;  although  means  of  subsistence  may  decrease,  there  is  at 
first  no  decrease  in  the  number  of  progeny.  But  it  is  necessary  to 
distinguish  the  reproduction  of  the  species  from  its  miJtiplication, 
so  that  in  defective  nutrition,  though  au  animal  may  not  reproduce 
less,  it  will  pennancntly  multiply  much  less.  He  agrees  with 
Darwin  that  the  reproductive  system  is  most  sensitive  to  changes 
of  nutrition;  gives  cases  showing  the  effect  of  abundant  nutrition 
on  reproductive  activity,  notes  the  influence  of  climate,  function, 
&c.,  and  contrasts  organisms  of  high  activity,  lilce  birds  and  insects, 
with  parasites.  The  nutritive  relations  "f  the  sexes  are  also 
contrasted  ;  since  females  liave  to  give  to  the  embryo  more  than 
the  male,  they  are  much  more  dependent  on  food  for  vigour  of 
their  reproductive  capacity,  and  hence  the  frequent  contrast  of 
their  size,  ix.  .  Furthermore,  animals  suit  tlieir  multiplication  to 
their  conditions  of  nutrition ;  it  -food  be  abundant  there  is  an 
increase  in  the  number  of  females,  and  therefore  a  further  increase 
in  number  of  individuals  of  the  suecies  ;  if  food,  however,  he  too 
ecarce  the  more  males  are  produced  and  the  number  of  the  species 
tends  to  diminish.  Hence  thetonnexion  above  mentioned  between 
increase  of  children  (especially  females)  in  prosperity  and  aftcr'a 
good  harvist,  aud  the  rising  proportion  of  boys  during  a  rise  of 
prices.  'Similarly  for  animals :  the  more  food  the  more  females,  and 
the  more  rapidly  the  species  increases ;  the  less  footl  the  more  males, 
and  the  less  rapid  the  increase.  Again,  plants  on  good  soil  produce 
more  female  flowers  and  more  seed  with  profit  to  the  species ;  on 
bad  soil  male  flowers  preponderate,  mostly  perish,  and  the  species 
tends  to  disappear.  The  extreme  case  of  optimum  nutrition  tends 
to  prftduce  normal  parthenogenesis  ("tliclytokie  "),  yielding  only 
females,  difTcrent  in  cause  and  operation  from  the  parthenogenesis 
rusnltiug  from  the  absence  of  males  ("arrcnolokio"). ' 

'  See  DUsing,  Jena  Zeitschr. ,  1 885 ;  Starkweather,  Law  qf  Sex,  1883. 


Theory  of  Reproduction  and  Sex. — If  we  now  attempt 
to  reach  a  rational  standpoint  from  which  to  criticize  and 
compare  the  innumerable  empirical  conceptiouB  of  sex, — 
much  more  if  we  seek  a  firm  basis  for  the  construction  of 
a  really  comprehensive  theory, — it  is  evident  that  such 
a  theory  must  be  addressed  not  merely  to  the  specialist 
concerned  with  problems  of  reproduction  and  development, 
but,  while  embracing  details  and  anomalies,  must  be  satis- 
factory alike  to  the  general  niorphologist  and  physio- 
logist AVe  must  therefore  have  before  us  that  conception 
of  the  main  lines  of  thought  on  each  of  these  subjects 
which  has  been  outlined  under  the  Leadings  Physiology, 
and  MoEPHOLOGY. 

The  close  coincidence  between  these  two  independeiil 
developments  is  especially  to  be  noted.  From  the  vague 
account  of  general  form  and  appearance,  of  habits  and 
temperaments,  which  made  up  the  descriptive  natural 
history  of  the  past,  the  two  streams  of  progres-s,  though 
distinct,  are  wholly  i>aralleL  Thus  Buffon  famished  a 
brilliant  and  synthetic  exposition  of  the  oldest  view,  while 
one  side  of  their  general  aspect  received  new  precision  at 
the  hands  of  Linnajus, — to  some  extent  the  other  also  at  the 
hands  of  his  physiological  contemporaries.  The  anatomical 
advance  of  Cuvier  is  parallel  to  the  detailed  study  of  the 
functions  of  the  organs,  while  the  great  step  made  by 
Bichat  lay  in  piercing  below  the  conception  of  the  organ 
and  its  function  as  ultimate,  and  in  seeking  to  interpret 
both  by  reference  to  the  component  tissues.  The  cell- 
theory  of  Schwann  and  his  successors  analysed  these  tissues 
a  step  farther,  while  the  latest  and  deepest  analysis  refer} 
all  structure  ultimately  to  the  substance  caii«d  protoplasm, 
and  similarly  claims  to  expi-ess  all  function  in  terms  of 
the  constiuction  and  destruction,  synthesis  and  analysis, 
anabolism  and  katabolism  of  this.  See  Physiology,  Photo- 
plasm,  JfORPHOLOGY. 

Now,  since  every  morphological  arid  physiological  fact  or 
theory  is  in  one  or  other  of  these  few  categories,  it  is 
evident  that  we  have  here  the  required  criterion  of  theories 
of  reproduction  and  sex.  The  question,  AVhat  is  sexl  what 
is  meant  by  male  or  female'!  admits  of  a  regular  series 
of  answers.  The  first  and  earliest  is  in  terms  of  general 
aspect,  temperament,  and  habit,  and,  though  crude,  em- 
pirical, and  superficial,  it  lacks  neither  unity  nor  usefulness. 
At  this  plane  are  not  only  most  popular  conceptions  but 
many  theories  like  that  of  Starkweather,  which  may  be 
mentioned  as  the  most  recent.  The  anatomist  contents 
himself  with  the  recognition  of  specific  organs  of  sex,  oral 
most  with  a  similarly  empirical  account  of  their  functions ; 
while  the  embryologist  and  histologist  •will  not  rest  con- 
tented without  seeking  to  refer  these  organs  to  the  tissues 
of  which  they  are  composed  and  the  layer  from  which  they 
spring,  and  even  reaches  and  describes  the  ultimate  cellular 
elements  essential  to  sex, — the  ovum  and  spermatozoon.  A 
parallel  physiological  interpretation  of  these  is  next  required, 
and  at  this  point  appear  such  hypotheses  as  these  of  VVeia 
mann  and  others. 

Thus  the  bewildering  superabundance  of  wideiy  dif- 
ferent theories  at  the  present  juncture  becomes  intelligible 
enough  ;  and,  each  once  classified  according  to  its  slAite 
of  progress,  a  detailed  criticism  would  be  OAsy.  But  this 
is  not  enough  :  the  demand  for  an  explanation  at  once 
ra,'aonal  and  ultimate,  to  compreliend  and  underlie  all  the 
preceding  ones,  is  only  the  more  urgent.  Where  shall  we 
seek  for  it  1  On  the  one  hand  the  morphological  aspect  of 
such  an  explanation  must  interpret  tlic  forms  of  sex  cells 
in  terms  of  those  of  cells  in  general,  and  in  t«rms  of  the 
structural  properties  of  [)rotoplasm  itself ;  while  its  more 
difficult  yet  more  satisfying  physiological  aspect  mnat 
express  the  mysterious  difference  of  male  ond  female  in 
terms  of  the  life  processes  of  that  protoplasm,— in  terms. 


724 


S  E  X  — S  E  X 


that  is  to  say,  of  anabolism  and  katabolism.  Were  these 
steps  made  a  new  synthesis  would  be  reached,  and  fi-om 
this  point  it  should  even  next  be  possible  to  retrace  the 
progress  of  the  science,  and  interpret  the  forms  and  the 
functions  of  tissues  and  organs,  nay,  even  of  the  facts  of 
aspect,  habit,  and  temperament,  so  furnishing  the  deductive 
rationale  of  each  hitherto  merely  empirical  order  of  ob- 
served fact  and  connecting  theory. 

While  this  conception  does  not  admit  of  development  within 
the  present  limits,"  a  brief  abstract  of  such  an  interpretation  of 
reproduction  and  of  sex  in  terms  of  anabolism  and  katabolism  may 
be  of  interest  to  the  reader.  The  theory  of  neproduction,  iu 
general  principle  at  least,  is  simple  enough.  A  continued  surplus 
of  anabolism  involves  growth,  and  the  setting  in  of  reproduction 
when  growth  stops  implies  a  relative  katabolism.  This  in  short 
is  merely  a  more  precise  restatement  of  the  familiar  antithesis 
between  nutrition  and  reproduction.  At  first  this  disintegration 
and  reintegration  entirely  e.xhaust  the  organism  and  conclude  its 
individual  e.\istcnce,  but  as  we  ascend  the  process  becomes  a  more 
and  more  localized  one.  The  origin  of  this  localization  of  the 
reproductive  function  may  best  be  understood  if  we  figure  to 
ourselves  a  fragment  of  the  genealogical  tree  of  the  evolutionist  in 
gieater  detail,  and  bear  in  mind  that  this  is  made  up  of  a  con- 
tinuous alternate  series  of  sex-ceU  and  organism,  the  organism,  too, 
becoming  less  and  less  distinguished  from  its  parent  cell  until  the 
two  practically  coincide  in  the  Protozoa,  which  should  be  defined  not 
so  much  as  "  organisms  devoid  of  sexual  reproduction  "  but  rather 
as  undifl'erentiated  reproductive  cells  (protosperms  or  protova,  as 
ithey  might  in  fact  be  called),  which  have  not  built  up  round  them- 
selves a  body.  We  should  note,  too,  how  the  continuous  immortal 
stream  of  Protozoan  life  (see  Protozoa)  is  continujd  by  that  of 
ordinary  reproductive  cells  among  the  higher  animals,  for  the  mor- 
|tality  of  these  does  not  affect  this  continuity  any  more  than  the 
fall  of  leaves  does  the  continued  life  of  the  tree.  The  interpreta- 
ition  of  sex  is  thus  less  difficult  than  might  at  firet  sight  appear. 
For  anabolism  and  katabolism  cannot  and  do  not  absolutely  bal- 
ance, as  all  the  facts  of  rest  and  motion,  nutrition  and  reproduc- 
tion, variation  and  disease,  in  short  of  life  and  death,  clearly  show. 
|During  life  neither  process  can  completely  stop,  but  their  algebraic 
sum  keeps  varying  within  the  widest  limits.  Let  us  note  the  result, 
starting  from  the  undifferentiated  amoeboid  cell.  A  surplus  of  ana- 
|bolism  over  katabolism  involves  not  only  a  growth  in  size  but  a 
reduction  in  kinetic  and  a  gain  in  potential  energy,  i.e.,  a  diminu- 
(tifin  of  movement.  Irregularities  thus  tend  to  disappear  ;  surface 
(tension  too  may  aid  ;  and  the  cell  acquires  a  spheroidal  form.  The 
|large  and  quiescent  ovum  is  thus  intelligible  enough.  Again  starting 
from  the  amceboid  cell,  if  katabolism  be  in  increasing  preponderance 
the  increasing  liberation  of  kinetic  energy  thus  implied  must  find 
its  outward  expression  in  increased  activity  of  movement  and  in 
diminished  size ;  the  more  active  cell  becomes  modified  in  form 
by  passage  through  its  fluid  environment,  and  the  flagellate  form 
of  the  spermatozoon  is  thus  natural  enough.  It  is  noteworthy,  too, 
that  these  physiologically  normal  results  of  the  rhythm  of  cellular 
life,  the  resting,  amceboid,  and  ciliate  forms,  are  precisely  those 
which  we  empirically  reach  on  morphological  grounds  alone  (see 
Morphology,  vol.  xvi.  p.  841). 

J  Given,  then,  the  conception  of  the  cellular  life  rhythm  as  capable 
of  thus  passing  into  a  distinctly  anabolic  or  katabolic  habit  or 
,diathesis,  the  explanation  of  the  phenomena  of  reproduction  becomes 
only  a  special  field  within  a  more  general  view  of  structure  and 
ftraction,  nay  even  of  variation,  normal  and  pathological.  Thus 
the  generalify,  use,  and  nature  of  the  process  of  fertilization  become 
readily  intelligible.  The  profound  chemical  difference  surmised  by 
[so  many  authors  becomes  intelligible  as  the  outcome  of  anabolism 
and  katabolism  respectively,  and  the  union  of  their  products  as 
restoring  the  normal  balance  and  rhythm  of  the  renewed  cellular  life. 
iWithout  discussing  the  details  of  this,  farther  than  to  note  how 
it  resumes  the  speculations  of  Kolph  and  others  as  to  the  origin 
'of  fertilization  from  mutual  digestion,  of  the  reproductive  from  the 
ntitritive  function,  we  may  note  how  they  illustrate  on  this  view  that 
origin  of  fertilization  from  conjugation  which  is  the  central  problem 
of  the  ontogeny  and  phylogeny  of  sex.  The  formation  of  polar 
yefeides  seems  thus  an  extrusion  of  katabolic  (or  male)  elements, 
and  conversely  its  analogues  in  spermatogenesis  (see  Repkoduo- 
tion).  Passing  over  such  tempting  applications  as  that  to  the 
explanation  of  segmentation  and  even  subsequent  developmental 
changes,  it  must  suffice  to  note  that  the  constant  insistance  of 
embryologists  upon  the  physiological  importance  of  the  embryonic 
layers  bears  essentially  upon  their  respective  predominance  of  ana- 
ibolism  and  katabolism.  The  passage  from  ordinary  growth  to  that 
discontinuous  growth  which  we  term  asexual  reproduction,  and  from 
this  again  to  sexuality  or  the  frtutent  reverse  progress,  is  capable 
of  rational  interpretation  in  like  mnniBr:  tho  "alternation  of  yone- 

VSee  paper  by  Geddes  already  mentioned  at  p.  721,  footnote. 


rations"  is  but  a  rhythm  between  a  relatively  anabolic  and  katabolic 
preponderance;  a  p.artlienogenetic  ovum  is  an  incompletely  ditfcr- 
entiated  ovum  whicii  i-ctains  a  measure  of  katabolic  (male)  products, 
and  thus  does  not  need  fcrtiliz.Ttion  ;  while  hermaphroditism  is  due 
to  the  local  preponderances  of  anabolism  or  katabolism  in  one  set 
of  reproductive  cells  or  iu  one  period  of  their  life.  The  rcvcision 
of  unisexual  forms  to  henn.nphrodite  ones,  or  of  these  to  oscxnal 
ones,  which  wo  bavo  sceu  in  such  constant  association  with  Jiigh 
nutrition  and  low  expenditure,-  is  no  longer  inexplicable.  The 
female  sex  being  thus  preponderatingly  anabolic,  the  importance  of 
good  nutrition  iu  determining  it  is  explained :  menstruation  is  seen 
to  be  the  means  of  getting  rid  of  the  anabolic  surplus  in  absence 
of  its  foital  consumption,  while  the  higher  temperature  and  grcatci- 
activities  of  the  male  sex  express  its  katabolic  diathesis.  Tho 
phenomena  of  sex,  then,  aro  no  isolated  ones,  but  express  tho 
highest  outcome  of  tho  whole  activities  of  theorganism — the  literal 
blossoming  of  tho  individual  life.  (P.  GE.) 

SEXTANT,  an  instrument  for  measuring  angles  on  the 
celestial  sphere'.  The  name  (indicating  that  the  .instru- 
ment is  furnished  with  a  graduated  arc  equal  to  a  sixth 
part  of  a  circle)  ia  now  only  used  to  designate  an  instru- 
ment employing  refle.xion  to  measure  an  angle ;  but 
originally  it  was  introduced  by  Tycho  Brahe,  who  con- 
structed several  sextants  with  two  sights,  one  'on  a  fixed, 
the  other  on  a  movable  radius,  which  the  observer  pointed 
to  the  two  objects  of  which  the  angular  distance  was  to 
be  measured. 

In  the  article  Navigation  the  instruments  are  described 
which  were  in  use  before  the  invention  of  the  reflecting 
sextant.  Their  imperfections  were  so  evident  that  the 
idea  of  employing  reflexion  to  remove  them  occurred 
independently  to  several  minds.  Hooke  contrived  two 
reflecting  instruments.  The  first  is  described  in  his  Post- 
humous Worls  (p.  503) ;  it  had  only  one  mirror,  which 
reflected  the  light  from  one  object  into  a  telescope  which 
is  pointed  directly  at  the  other.  Hooke's  second  plan 
employed  two  single  reflexions,  whereby  an  eye  placed  at 
the  side  of  a  quadrant  could  at  the  same  time  see  the 
images  formed  in  two  telescopes,-  the  axes  of  which  were 
radii  of  the  quadrant  and  which  were  pointed  at  the  two 
objects  to  be  measured.  This  plan  is  described  in  Hooke's 
Animadversions  to  the  Machina  Coelesiis  of  Hevelius,  pub- 
lished in  1674,  while  the  first  one  seems  to  have  been 
communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  in  1666.  Newton 
had  also  his  attention  turned  to  this  subject,  but  nothing 
was  known  about  his  ideas  till  1 742,  when  a  description 
in  his  own  handwriting  of  an  instrument  devised  by  him 
was  found  among  Halley's  papers  and  printed  in  the 
Philosophical  Traiuactions  (No.  465).  It  consists  of  a 
sector  of  brass,  the  arc  of  which,  though  only  equal  to 
one-eighth  part  of  a  circle,  is  divided  into  90°.  A  tele- 
scope is  fixed  along  a  radius  of  the  sector,  the  object  glass 
being  close  to  the  centre  and  having  outside  it  a  plane 
mirror  inclined  45°  to  the  axis  of  the  telescope,  ,*nd 
intercepting  half  the  light  which  would  otherwise  fall  on 
the  object  glass.  One  object  is  seen  through  the  tele- 
scope, while  a  movable  radius,  carrying  a  second  mirror 
close  to  the  first,  is  turned  round  the  centre  until  the 
second  object  by  double  reflexion  is  seen  in  the  telescope 
to  coincide  with  the  first. 

But  long  before  this  plan  of  Newton's  saw  the  light 
the  sextant  in  its  present  form  had  been  invented  and  had 
come  into  practical  use.  On  May  13,  1731,  John  Hadley 
gave  an  account  of  an  "octant,"  employing  double  re- 
flexion, and  a  fortnight  later  he  exhibited  the  instrument.' 


-  Thus  Marshall  Ward  has  lately  drawn  attention  to  the  association 
of  parasitism  with  the  disappearance  of  sexuiJ  reproduction  in  Fvitgi 
{Quart,  Jour.  Micr.  Sci.,  xxiv.). 

^  Hadley  described  two  different  constructions  :  in  one  the  telescopfi 
was  fixed  along  a  i-adius  as  in  Newton's  form,  in  the  other  it  was 
placed  in  the  way  afterwards  universally  adopted ;  an  octant  of  th^' 
first  construction  was  made  as  early  as  the  summer  of  IT-'^O,  according^ 
to  a  statement  made  to  the  Royal  Society  by  Hadley's  brother  GeorM 
ou  Feb.  7,  1734.,. 


S  E  X  — S  E  Y 


725 


On  the  20tli  May  Halley  stated  to  the  society  that 
Newton  had  iovented  an  instrument  founded  on  the  same 
principle,  and  had  communicated  an  account  of  it  to  the 
society  in  1699,  but  on  search  being  made  in  thp  minutes 
it  was  only  found  that  Newton  had  showed  a  new  instru- 
ment "  for  observing  the  moon  and  stars  for  the  longitude 
at  sea,  being  the  old  instrument  mended  of  some  faults," 
but  nothing  whatever  was  found  in  the  minutes  concerning 
the  principle  of  the  construction.  Halley  had  evidently 
only  a  very  dim  recollection  of  Newton's  plan,  and  at  a 
fneeting  of  the  Royal  Society  on  December.  16,  1731,  he 
declared  himself  satisfied  that  Hadley's  idea  was  quite 
iSifferent  from  Newton's. »  The  new  instrument  was  already 
in  August  1732  tried  on  board  the  "Chatham"  yacht  by 
order  of  the  Admiralty,  and  was  found  satisfactory,  but 
otherwise  it  does  not  seem  to  have  superseded  the  older 
instruments  for  at  least  twenty  years.  As  constructed 
by  Hadley  the  instrument  could  only  measure  angles  up 
to  90°;  but  in  1757  Captain  Campbell  of  the  navy,  one 
of  the  first  to  use  it  assiduously,  proposed  to  enlarge  it  so 
as  to  measure  angles  up  to  120°,  in  which  form  it  is  now 
generally  employed. 

Quite  independently  of  Hadley  and  Newton  the  sextant 
was  invented  by  Thomas  Godfrej',  a  poor  glazier  in  Phila- 
delphia. •  In  May  1732  Mr  James  Logan  of  that  city 
wrote  to  Halley  that  Godfrey  had  about  eighteen  months 
previously  showed  him  a  common  sea  quadrant  "to 
which  he  had  fitted  two  pieces  of  looking-glass  in  such  a 
manner  as  brought  two  stars  at  almost  any  distance  to 
coincide,"  The  letter  gave  a  full  description  of  the  instru- 
ment ;  the  principle  was  the  same  as  that  of  Hadley's  first 
octant  which  had  the  telescope  along  a  radius.  At  the 
meeting  of  the  Koyal  Society  on  January  31,  1734,  two 
affidavits  sworn  before  the  mayor  of  Philadelphia  were 
read,  proving  that  Godfrey's  quadrant  was  made  about 
November  1730,  thtt  on  the  28th  November  it  was 
brought  by  G.  Stewart,  mate,  on  board  a  sloop,  the 
"Truman,"  John  Cox,  master,  bound  for  Jama'ca.  and 
that  in  August  1731  it  was  used  by  the  same  persons  on 
a  voyage  to  Newfoundland.  There  can  thus  be  no  doubt 
that  Godfrey  invented  the  instrument  independently ;  but 
the  statement  of  several  modern  writers  that  a  brother  of 
Godfrey,  a  captain  in  the  TVest  India  trade,  sold  the 
quadrant  at  Jamaica  to  a  Captain  or  Lieutenant  Hadley 
of  the  British  navy,  who  brought  it  to  London  to  his 
brother,  an  instrument  maker  in  the  Strand,  has  been 
proved  to'  be  devoid  of  all  foundation.  Not  only  is  this 
totally  at  variance  with  all  the  particulars  given  in  the 
affidavits,  but  between  1719  and  1743  there  was  no  officer 
in  the  British  navy  of  the  name  of  Hadley,  and  John 
Hadley  cannot  possibly  have  been  in  the  West  Indies  at 
that  time,  as  he  was  present  at  many  meetings  of  the 
Royal  Society  between  November  1730  and  Jlay  1731 ; 
besides,  neither  Hadley  nor  his  brothers  were  professional 
instrument  makers.  A  detailed  discussion  of  this  question 
by  Prof.  Rigaud  is  found  in  the  Nantkal  Maaazine,  vol. 
iL  No.  21.1 

The  annexed  figure  civea  an  idea  of  the  construction  of  tho 
aeitant.  ABC  is  a  liRht  framework  of  brass  in  the  shape  of  a 
sector  of  60°,  the  limb  Ali  having  a  gradimted  arc  of  silver  (some- 
times of  gold)  inlaid  in  the  brass.  It  is  licld  in  the  liaud  by  a 
cnall  handle  at  the  back,  either  vertically  to  measure  the  altitudo 
of  an  object,  or  in  the  plane  passing  through  two  objects  the 
angular  distance  of  which  is  to  bo  found.  CD  is  a  radius  movable 
round  C,  where  a  small  plane  mirror  of  silvered  plate-glass  is  fixed 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  sextant  and  in  the  line  CD.  .  At 
D  is  a  vernier  read  through  a  small  lens,  also  a  clamp  ond  a  tangent 

'  John  Hadley  was  a  country  gentleman  of  independent  moans,  and 
the  fact  that  he  was  the  first  to  bring  the  construction  of  rctlictinR 
telescopes  to  any  perfection  has  made  many  authors  of  astronomical 
books  believe  that  he  was  a  professional  iustrununt  maker.  His 
brother  George,  who  assisted  him  in  his  pursuitu,  was  a  'jorriator. 


screw  which  enable  the  observer  to  give  the  arm  CD  a  very  slow 
motion  within  certain  limits.     At  E  is  another  mirror  "  the  horizon 
glass,"  also  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  seitajit  and  narallcl 
toCB.    F  is  a  email  telescope      r. 
fixed  across  CB,  parallel  to       \ 
the  plane  CAB  and  pointed 
totho  mirror E.    Darkglasses               \ 
can  be  placed  outside  E  and                  \ 
between  E  and  0  when  ob-                      '\ 
serving  the  sun.      As  only                          '\ 
the  lower  half  of  Eissilvered,                             \ 
the  observer  can  see  the  hori- 
zon in  the  telescope  through  •""" 

the  unsilvered  half,  while 
the  light  from  the  sun  or  a 
star  S  may  be  reflected  from 
the  "index  glass"  C  to  the 
silvered  half  of  E  and  thence 
through  F  to  the  observer's 
eye.  If  CD  has  been  movefl 
so  as  to  make  the  image  of  a 
star  or  of  the  limb  of  the 
sun  coincide  with  that  of  the 
horizon,  it  is  easy  to  see  that 
the  angle  SCH  (the  altitude 
of  the  star  or  solar  limb)  is 
equal  to  twice  the  angle 
BCD.     The  limb  AB  is  al-  Sextant, 

ways  graduated  so  as  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  doubling  the  mea- 
sured angle,  a  space  marked  as  a  degree  on  the  limb  being  in 
reality  only  30'.  The  vernier  should  point  to  0°  0'  0"  when  the 
two  mirrors  are  parallel,  or  in  other  words,  when  the  direct  and 
reflected  images  of  a  very  distant  object  are  seen  to  coincide.  For 
the  methods  of  adjusting  the  mirrors  and  finding  the  index  .error 
see  Navigation  (vol.  .xvii.  p.  26S). 

If  the  sextant  is  employed  on  land,  an  artificial  horizon  has  to 
be  used.  This  is  generally  a  basin  of  mercury  protected  from  the 
wind  by  a  roof  of  plate-glass  with  perfectly  parallel  faces  ;  some- 
times a  glass  plate  is  used  (with  the  lower  surface  blackened), 
which  can  be  levelled  on  three  screws  by  a  circular  level.  The 
telescope  is  directed  to  the  image  of  the  celestial  object  reflected 
from  the  ai-tiCcial  horizon,  and  this  imago  is  made  to  coincide 
with  that  reflected  from  the  index-glass.  In  this  case  the  angle 
BCD  will  be  double  the  altitude  of  the  star.  Towards  the  end  of 
last  aud  the  beginning  of  this  century  the  sextant  was  much  used 
on  land  for  determining  latitudes,  but,  though  in  the  h:..nds  of  a 
skilful  observer  it  can  give  results  far  superior  to  what  oi.e  might 
expect  from  a  small  instrument  held  in  the  hand  (or  attached  to  a 
small  stand),  it  has  on  shore  been  quite  supe.-seded  by  the  portable 
altazimuth  or  theodolite,  while  at  ^ea  it  continues  to  be  indis- 
pensable. 

The  principle  of  the  sextant  has  been  applied  to  the  construc- 
tion of  reflecting  circles,  on  which  the  index  arm  is  a  diameter 
with  a  vernier  at  each  end  to  eliminate  the  error  of  eccentricity. 
The  circles  constructed  by  Pistor  and  JIartins  of  Berlin  have  a 
glass  prL-m  instead  of  tht  lorizon  glass  and  are  extremely  con- 
venient. (J.  L.  E.  D.) 

SEXTUS  EMPIRICUS.     See  Scepticism. 

SEYCHELLES,  an  archipelago  of  the  Indian  Ocesan, 
consisting  of  eighty  islands — several  of  them  mere  islets — 
situated  between  3°  38'  and  5°  45'  S.  lat.  and  52°  55'  and 
53°  50'  E.  loiig.,  about  1400  miles  south-east  of  Aden  and 
1000  miles  east  of  Zanzibar.  They  are  the  only  small 
tropical  oceanic  islands  of  granitic  structure,  and  rise 
steeply  out  of  the  sea,  culminating  in  the  island  of  Mahu,' 
at  an  elevation  of  2998  feet  above  the  sea-leveL  •  The 
most  northerly  island  is  Bird,  4  by  J  miie;  the  most 
southerly,  Plate ;  the  most  easterly,  Frdga'cs ;  the  most 
westerly,  Silhouette.  Mah6,  the  largest  island  of  the 
group,  3  by  H  miles,  is  very  nearly  central,  GO  miles  south 
of  Bird,  and  having  to  the  north  and  north-east  of  it  La 
Digne,  F61icit6,  Praslin,  and  Curieuse.  Only  a  fcv*— 
Mah6,  Prasliu,  La  Digne,  Denis,  and  Bird — are  inhabiteot. 
The  total  area  is  about  50,120  acrci,  of  which  Mahd  alone 
comprises  34,749.  The  beaches  of  glistening  calcarcouB 
sand  are  begirt  by  coral  reefs  which  form  a  wall  round  th« 
islands.  The  valleys  and  easier  slopes  are  overlaid  with  a 
very  fertile  soil,  and  vegetation  is  most  luxuriant.  Thougk 
the  climat^is  tropical,  the  heat  is  tempered  and  rendered 
uniform  by  the  sea  breezes,  and  probaldy  this  accounts  for 
epidemic  diseases  and  endemic  fever  l<eing  of  uncommon 


726 


S  E  Y  —  S  H  A 


occurrence.  There  are  anmerous  brooks  and  torrents, 
making  their  way  to  the  sea  between  blocks  of  granite. 
The  islands  are  green  and  fresh  at  all  times,  particularly 
during  the  wet  season  from  November  to  JIay.  The  total 
rainfall  for  1881  was  113'50  inches.  The  extreme  range 
of  the  thermometer  in  1881  and  1882  was  only  22° 
(minimum  71°,  maximum  93°).  The  heat  is  seldom  sultry 
and  oppressive.  The  Seychelles  lie  too  far  to  the  norkh 
to  receive  the  huiTicanes  which  occasionally  sweep  over 
Bourbon  and  Mauritius,  and  even  thunderstorms  are  rare. 
The  population  at  the  census  of  1881  was  14,081  (7179 
males  and  6902  females) — 500  ■white  (mostly  French 
Creoles),  11,600  black,  and  2000  coolies.  Since  1881  the 
population  has  considerably  increased  in  consequence  of  a 
tide  of  immigration  from  Mauritius.  Men  and  women  of 
exceptionally  great  age  are  frequently  met  with,  and  the 
death-rate  for  1880  amounted  to  only  13-1  per  1000.  The 
prevailing  language  is  a  French  patois,  but  English  is 
taught  in  the  schools. 

These  islands  were  discovered  at  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
ceutnry,  but  never  oecnpied,  by  the  Portuguese.  In  1742  the 
[■■rench  took  possession  of  them,  calling  them  at  first  lies  des 
Labourdonnais,  but  afterwards  the  Seychelles,  from  Count  Herault 
de  Seychelles,  an  officer  of  the  East  Indian  fleet.  The  first  settle- 
ment was  made  in  1768  at  Mahe,  now  Port  Victoria.  In  1794  the 
English  wrested  them  from  the  French  along  with  Mauritius, 
and  they  are  now  ruled  by  a  board  of  six  civil  commissioners,  as  a 
dependency  under  the  governor  of  Mauritius.  lu  1834  slavery 
was  abolished,  and  since  then  the  plantations  have  been  in  a 
declining  state.  In  1884  there  were  in  the  islands  20  primary 
schools  aided  by  Government  grants  and  attended  by  1620  children. 
There  are  16  churches  belonging  to  the  Roman  Catholics  (the 
dominant  faith)  and  11  to  the  Church  of  England.  The  main 
product  is  the  cocoa-nut,  but  tobacco,  coffee,  rice,  maize,  sweet 
potatoes,  and  manioc  are  raised  for  home  consumption,  while  cotton, 
pepper,  cinnamon,  and  other  spices  grow  wild.  Many  of  the  trees 
display  simultaneously  blossoms  and  unripe  and  ripe  fruit.  The 
so-called  sea  or  Maldive  double  cocoa-nut,  "coco  de  mer,"  the  fruit 
of  the  palm-tree  Lodoicca  ScchcUarum,  is  peculiar  to  certain  of 
these  islands.  It  was  long  known  only  from  sea-borne  specimens 
cast  np  on  the  Maldive  and  other  coasts,  was  thought  to  grow  on 
a  submarine  palm,  and,  being  esteemed  a  sovereign  antidote  to 
poisons  (Lusiad,  x.  136),  comraauded  exorbitant  prices  in  the  East. 
Tliia  palm  will  grow  to  a  height  of  100  feet,  and  shows  fern-like 
leaves  of  enormous  size.  Sensitive  plants  from  America  spread 
like  lawns  over  the  soil  and  quake  at  every  step  taken  over  them. 
The  cocoa-nut  palm  flourishes  in  the  gardens,  overtopping  the 
honses  and  most  other  trees.  Lining  the  shore,  climbing  high  up 
the  mountains,  and  in  many  places  forming  extensive  forests. 
There  are  no  native  mammals,  and  domestic  animals  are  scarce. 
The  birds  comprise  gannets,  terns  in  great  numbers,  and  white 
egrets.  Tortoises  are  common, — among  them  the  gigantic  turtle 
and  black  turtle,  whose  flesh  is  exported.  The  sea  abounds  in 
fish,  many  of  them  distinguished  by  splendid  coloiu-s,  and  yields 
the  inhabitants  not  only  a  large  part  of  their  animal  food  but  also 
material  for  building  their  houses, — a  species  of  massive  coral, 
Poritcs  gaimardi,  being  hewn  into  sqnai'o  building  blocks  which 
at  a  distance  glisten  like  white  marble. 

The  principal  harbour  is  Port  Victoria,  situated  on  Mahe  island. 
The  total  value  of  imports  here  in  1884,  including  Rs.27,097  specie, 
was  Ks.428,605,  and  of  the  exports,  including  Ks.21,582  specie, 
Ks.392,175.  The  chief  imports  were  coffee  and  cotton  manufac- 
tures ;  the  chief  exports,  cocoa-nut,  cocoa-nut  oil,  and  sperm  oil. 
The  fiscal  receipts  for  1884  amouuted  to  Ks.130,047.  The  culttva- 
tion  of  cocoa  is  prcgresoing  favourably,  but  the  same  cannot  be 
said  of  the  vaniila  and  clove  plantations,  which  suffer  from  want 
of  regular  labour,  attributable  to  the  widespread  share  system, 
which  the  negroes  prefer  to  regular  work.  The  leaf  disease  affect- 
ing coffee  has  done  great  injury,  and  cocoa-nut  plautationi  have 
suffered  from  the  ravages  of  an  insect,  but  no  effort  seems  to  have 
yet  been  made  by  weeding  the  plantations  to  stamp  out  the  disease. 
Of  the  34,749  acres  of  land  making  up  Mahe,  12,000  acres  are  laid 
out  in  cocoa-nut,  500  in  vanilla,  coffee,  and  cloves,  and  1500  are  in 
fnrest ;  of  the  uncultivated  land  8000  acres  are  well  suited  for 
vanilla,  cocoa,  and  coffee  plantations. 

SEYMOUR,  Edward.  See  Someeset,  Duke  of. 
SEYNE,  La,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Var,  5  miles  south-west  of  Toulon,  with  a  population  of 
9788  in  1881.  It  owes  its  importance  mainly  to  its  ship- 
building, tbeSoci^te  des  Forges  et  Chantiers  de  la  M6di- 
terran6e  having  here  one  of  the  finest  building  yards  in 


Eiifcpe,  in  which  more  than  2000  workmen  are  employed  ; 
contracts  are  executed  for  private  shipowners,  for  the  great 
Jlessageries  Maritimes  Company,  and  for  various  Glovern- 
ments.  The  port,  which  has  communication  by  steamer 
and  omnibus  with  that  of  Toulon,  is  6  acres  in  extent,  and 
admits  vessels  of  the  largest  tonnage. 

SFAX,  a  city  of  Tunis,  second  in  importance  only  to 
the  capital,  is  situated  116  miles  south  of  5Iahadia,  on 
the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Gabes  (Syrtis  Minor)  opposite  the 
Kerkenah  Islands.  It  consists  of  three  distinct  portions  : 
— the  new  European  quarter  to  the  south,  with  roads, 
piers,  and  other  improvements  carried  out  by  the  muni- 
cipality ;  the  Arab  town  in  the  middle  with  its  tower- 
flanked  walls  entered  by  only  two  gates ;  and  to  the  north 
the  French  camp.  Kound  the  town  for  5  or  6  miles  to 
the  north  and  west  stretch  orchards  and  gardens  and 
country  houses,  where  most  of  the  Sfax  families  have  their 
summer  quarters.  Dates,  almonds,  grapes,  figs,  peaches, 
apricots,  olives,  and  in  rainy  years  melons  and  cucumbers, 
grow  there  in  great  abundance  without  irrigation.  Two 
enormous  cisterns  maintained  by  public  charitable  trnsts 
supply  the  town  with  water  in  drj'  seasons.  Sfax  was 
formerly  the  terminus  of  a  caravan  route  to  Central  Africa,' 
but  its  inland  trade  now  extends  only  to  Gafsa. "  The 
export  trade  (esparto  grass,  oil,  almonds,  pistachio  nuts, 
sponges,  wool,  &c.)  has  attained  considerable  dimensions. 
Fifty-one  English  vessels  (34,757  tons)  visited  the  port  in 
1884.  The  anchorage  is  2  miles  from  the  shore,  and 
there  is  a  rise  and  fall  of  5  feet  at  spring  tides  (a  rare 
phenomenon  in  the  Mediterranean).  In  1881  the  popula- 
tion was  said  to  be  about  15,000  (including  1200  Arabs, 
1500  Tunisian  Jews,  1000  JIaltese,  &c.,  500  Europeans); 
in  1886  it  is  stated  at  32,000  (1200  Maltese,  1000  Euro- 
peans). 

Sfax  (the  Ai'abic  AsfaRis  or  Safakus,  sometimes  called  the  City  of 
Cucumbers)  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  TapJirura.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  it  was  famous  for  its  vast  export  of  olive  oil.  The 
Sicilians  took  Sfax  under  Roger  the  Norman  in  the  12th  ceutui-y, 
and  the  Spaniards  occupied  itforabrief  period  in  the  16th  century. 
The  bombardmeut  of  the  town  in  1881  was  ono  of  fhe  principal 
events  of  the  French  conquest  of  Tunis ;  it  was  pillaged  by  the 
soldiers  on  July  16th  and  the  inhabitants  had  afterwards  to  pay  a 
war  indemnity  of  £250,000. 

SFORZA,  House  of.  See  Milan,  vol.  xvi.  p.  293, 
and  Italy,  vol.  xiii.  p.  479. 

SHAD  is  the  name  given  to  certain  migratory  species 
of  Herrings  (Clupea),  which  are  distinguished  from  the 
herrings  proper  by  the  total  absence  of  teeth  in  the  jaws. 
Two  species  occur  in  Europe,  much  resembling  each  other, 
—one  commonly  called  Ailis  Shad  {Clvpea  alosa),  and  the 
other  known  as  Twaite  Shad  {Clupeafinta).  Both  are,  like 
the  majority  of  herrings,  greenish  on  the  back  and  bright 
silvery  on  the  sides,  but  they  are  distinguished  from  the 
other'  European  species  of  Clupea  by  the  presence  of  a 
large  blackish  blotch  behind  the  gill-opening,  which  is 
succeeded  by  a  scries  of  several  other  similar  spots  along 
the  middle  of  the  side  of  the  body.  So  closely  allied  are 
these  two  fishes  that  their  distinctness  can  be  proved  only 
by  an  examination  of  the  giU-apparatus,  the  allis  sha'd 
having  from  sixty  to  eighty  very  fine  and  long  gill-rakers 
along  the  concave  edge  of  the  first  branchial  arch,  whilst 
the  twaite  shad  possesses  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-seveo, 
stout  and  stiff  gillrakers  only.  In  their  habits  and  geo- 
graphical distribution  also  the  two  shads  are  very  similar. 
They  inhabit  the  coasts  of  temperate  Europe,  the  twaite 
shad  being  more  numerous  in  the  Jlediterranean.  While 
they  are  in  salt  water  they  live  singly  or  in  very  small 
companies,  but  during  May  (the  twaite  shad  somo^A'eeks 
later)  they  congregate,  and  in  great  numbers  ascend  large 
rivers,  such  as  the  Severn  (and  formerly  the  Thames),  the 
Seine,  the  Rhine,  the  Kile,  ic,  in.ordeti  to  deposit  their 


S  H  A  — S  H  A 


727 


spawn, — sometimes  traversing  hundreds  of  miles,  until 
their  progress  is  arrested  by  some  natural  obstruction.  A 
few  weeks  after  thoy  may  be  observed  dropping  dovi-n  the 
river,  lean  and  thoroughly  exhausted,  numbers  floating 
dead  on  the  surface,  so  that  only  a  small  proportion  seem 
to  regain  the  sea.  Although  millions  of  ova  must  be  de- 
posited by  them  in  the  upper  reaches  of  a  river,  the  fry 
dues  not  aeem  to  have  been  actually  observed  in  fresh 
w»*c>r.  so  that  it  seems  probable  that  the  young  fish  travel 
to  the  sea  long  b^ore  they  have  attained  to  any  size. 

On  rivers  iu  which  these  fishes  make  their  periodical 
appearance  they  have  become  the  object  of  a  regular 
fishery,  and  their  value  increases  in  proportion  to  the 
distance  from  the  sea  at  wliich  they  are  caught.  Thus 
they  are  much  esteemed  on  the  middle  Rhine,  where  they 
are  penerally  known  as  "  Maifisch";  those  caught  on  their 
return  journey  are  worthless  and  uneatable.  Tlie  allis 
shad  is  caught  at  a  size  from  1.5  to  24  incbe.s,  and  is  con- 
sidered to  be  better  flavoured  than  the  twaite  shad,  which 
generally  remains  within  smaller  dimensions. 

Otlier,  but  closely  allied  species,  occur  on  the  Atl.intic  coasts  of 
North  America,  all  surpassing  the  European  species  in  iniportan.co 
as  food-tishes  and  economic  value,  viz.,  the  American  Shad  {Clnpca 
sapidissima),  the  Gaspereau  or  Ale-wife  (C.  maltowocca),  and  the 
Menhaden  (G  vicnluidcn).     Seo  1[E^"HAI)E^^. 

SHADDOCK  {Citrus  decumana)  is- a  tree  allied  to  the 
orange  and  the  lemon,  presumably  native  to  the  Malay 
and  Polynesian  islands,  but  generally  cultivated  through- 
out the  tropics.  The  leaves  are  like  those  of  the  orange, 
but  downy  on  the  under  surface,  as  are  also  tlie  young 
shoots.  The  flowers  are  largo  and  white,-  and  are  succeeded 
by  very  large  globose  or  pear-shaped  fruits  like  oranges,  but 
paler  in  colour,  and  with  less  flavour.  The  name  Shad- 
dock is  asserted  to  be  that  of  a  captain  who  introduced 
the  tree  to  the  West  Indies.  The  fruit  is  also  known 
under  the  name  of  pommeloes  and  "forbidden  fruit." 
There  are  two  varieties  commonly  met  with,  one  with  pale 
and  the  other  with  red  pulp. 

SHADWELL,  Thomas  (1640-1692),  a  playwright  and 
miscellaneous  versifier  of  the  Restoration  period,  Dryden's 
successor  in  the  laurcateship,  is  remembered  now,  not  by 
his  wirks,  though  he  was  a  prolific  writer  of  comedies 
highly  successful  in  their  day,  but  as  the  subject  of 
Dryden's  satirical  portraits  "  JlacFlocknoe "  and  "Og." 
He  was  a  native  of  Norfolk — not  an  Irishman,  as  he 
retorted  with  significant  imbecility  when  Dryden's  satire 
appeared, — went  through  the  forms  of  study  at  Cambridge 
and  the  Inner  Temple,  travelled  abroad  for  a  little, 
returned  to  London,  cultivated  the  literary  society  of 
coffee-houses  and  taverns,  and  in  1668,  at  the  age  of  28, 
gained  the  ear  of  the  stage  with  a  comedy  The  Sullen 
Lovers.  For  fourteen  years  afterwards,  till  his  memorable 
encounter  with  DryJon  he  continued  regularly  to  produce 
a  comedy  nearly  every  year,  showing  considerable  clever- 
ness in  caricaturing  the  oddities  of  the  time.  Ben  Jonson 
was  his  model,  but  he  drew  his  materials  largely  from  con- 
temporary life.  He  also  acquired  standing  among  the  wits 
.as  a  talker.  In  the  quarrel  with  Dryden  he  was  the  aggres- 
sor. They  had  been  good  enough  friends,  and  Dryden  in 
1679  had  furnishc<l  him  with  a  prologue  for  his  Ti-uc 
Widoio.  But  when  Dryden  threw  in  his  lot  with  the  court, 
and  satirized  the  opposition  in  Absalom  and  Achitop/iel  and 
The  Medal,  ShadwcU  was  rash  enough  to  constitute  himself 
the  champion  of  the  true-blue  Protestants  and  wrote  a 
grossly  per.soual  and  scurrilous  attack  on  the  poet,  entitled 
The  Medal  of  John  Bayes.  Dryden  immediately  retorted 
in  MacFlerknoe,  the  most  powerful  and  contemptuously 
scornful  personal  satire  in  our  language,  adding  next  month 
a  few  more  rough  touches  of  supercilious  mockery  in  the 
second  part  of  Absalom  and  Achitophel,  where  Shadwell 
figures  as  "Og":— 


Og  from  a  treason-tavern  rolling  home, 
Round  as  a  globe,  and  liquored  every  chink  ; 
Goodly  and  great  he  sails  behind  his  link. 
Dryden  may  not  be  strictly  fair  when  he  addresses  hia 
enemy  as  "thou  last  great  prophet  of  tautology,"  and 
makes   Flecknoe  e.xtol  him  because  "he  never  deviates 
into  sense,"  but  Shadwell  had  fairly  earned  his  chastise- 
ment, the  sting  of  which  lay  in  its  substantial  truth.     Ha 
survived  till  1602,   and  on  Dryden's  resignation  of  tha 
laureatcship  in  1688  was  promoted  to  the  office,  a  sign  of 
the  poverty  of  the  Whig  side  at  the  time  in  literary  men, 
and  part  of  the  explanation  of  their  anxiety  in  the  next 
generation  to  secure  literary  talent. 

A  complete  edition  of  Shadwell's  worka  was  published  in  1720, 
in  i  vols.  12mo.  His  diamatic  works  arc — Tlie  Sullen  Lovers, 
1668  ;  The  JRoyal  SlCepherdcss,  1669  ;  The  Humorist,  1671 ;  The 
Miser,  1672;  Epsom  ire/ls,  1673;  Psyche,  1675;  The  LiOerliiu, 
1676;  The  I'irliioso,  1676;  Timoii  of  Athens,  WIZ-^A  True 
IVidow,  1679;  Tlie  Woman  Captain,  1680;  The  Xaneashire 
Witches,  1G82  ;  The  Squire  of  Alsatia,  1688  ;  Bury  Fair,  1689 ; 
The  Amorous  Bigot,  1690 ;  The  Scoxee-rcrs,  1691 ;  and  The 
Volunteers.  1693. 

SHAF'f,  SHAFlTES.     See  Sunnites. 

SHAFTESBURY,  Anthoxy  Ashley  Cooper,  Fikst 
Earl  of  (1621-1683),  was  the  son  of  Sir  John  Cooper  of 
Rockbourne  in  Hampshire,  and  of  Anne,  the  only  child  of 
Sir  Anthony  Ashley,  Bart.,  and  was  born  at  Wimborne  St 
Giles,  Dorset,  on  July  22,  1621.'  His  parents  died  before 
he  was  ten  years  of  age,  and  he  inherited  extensive  estates 
in  Hampshire,  Wiltshire,  Dorsetshire,  and  Somersetshire, 
much  reduced,  however,  by  litigation  in  Chancery.  He 
lived  for  some  time  with  Sir  Daniel  Norton,  one  of  his 
trustees,  at  South  wick,  and  upon  his  death  in  1635  with 
Mr  Tooker,  an  uncle  by  marriage,  at  Salisbury.  In  1 637 
he  went  as  a  gentleman-commoner  to  Exeter  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  remained  about  a  year.  No  record  of  his 
studies  is  to  be  found,  but  he  has  left  an  amusing  account 
of  his  part  in  the  wilder  doings  of  the  university  life  of  that 
day,  in  which,  in  spite  of  his  small  stature,  he  was  recog- 
nized by  his  fellows  as  their  leader.  At  the  age  of  eighteen, 
on  February  25,  1639,  ho  married  Margaret^  daughter  of 
Lord  Coventry,  with  whom  he  and  his  wife  lived  at  Durham 
House  in  the  Strand,  and  at  Canonbury  House  in  Isling- 
ton. In  March  1640,  though  still  a  minor,  he  was  elected 
for  Tewkesbury,  and  sat  in  the  parliament  which  met  on 
April  13,  but  appears  to  have  taken  no  active  part  in  its 
proceedings.  In  1640  Lord  Coventry  died,  and  Cooper 
then  lived  with  his  brother-in-law  at  Dorchester  House  in 
Covent  Garden.  For  the  Long  Parliament,  which  met  on 
November  3,  1640,  he  was  elected  for  Downton  in  Wilt- 
shire, but  the  return  was  disputed,  and  he  did  not  take 
his  seat, — his  election  not  being  declared  valid  until  the 
last  days  of  the  Rump.  He  was  present  as  a  spectator  at 
the  setting  up  of  the  king's  standard  at  Nottingham  on 
August  25,  1642;  and  in  1643  he  appeared  openly  on 
Charles's  side  in  Dorsetshire,  where  he  raised  at  his  own 
expense  a  regiment  of  foot  and  a  troop  of  horse  of  both  of 
which  he  took  the  command.  Ho  was  also  appointed 
governor  of  Weymouth,  sheriff  of  Dorsetshire  for  the  king, 
and  president  of  the  king's  council  of  war  in  the  county. 
In  tho  beginning  of  January  1044,  however,  for  reasons 
which  are  variously  reported  by  himself  and  Clarendon, 
he  resigned  his  governorship  and  commissions  and  went 
over  to  the  Parliament.  Ho  appeared  on  March  6  before^ 
the  standing  committee  of  the  two  Houses  to  explain  his 
conduct,  when  he  stated  that  he  had  come  over  because  he 
saw  danger  to  tho  Protestant  religion  in  the  king's  service, 
and  expressed  his  willingness  to  t.ako  tho  Covenant.  In 
July  1644  he  went  to  Dorsetshire  on  military  service,  and 
on  August  3  received  a  commission  as  field-marshal  goneraL 
Ho  as.sisted  at  tho  taking  of  Warcham,  and  shortly  after- 
wards compounded  for  his  estates  by  a  Cne-of  £600 'from 


728 


SHAFTESBURY 


wnich,  however,  he  was  afterwards  relieved  by  Cromwell. 
On  October  25  he  was  made  cominander-in-chief  in  Dorset- 
shire, and  in  November  he  took  by  storm  Abbotsbury,  the 
house  of  Sir  John  Strangways, — an  affair  in  which  he 
appears  to  have  shown  considerable  personal  gallantry. 
In  December  he  relieved  Taunton.  His  military  sei'vice 
terminated  at  the  time  of  the  Self-denying  Ordinance  in 
1645;  he  had  associated  himself  with  the  Presbyterian 
faction,  and  naturally  enough  was  not  included  in  the 
New  Model.  For  the  ne.^t  seven  or  eight  3'ears  he  lived 
in  comparative  privacy.  He  was  high  sheriff  of  Wiltshire 
during  1647,  and  displayed  much  vigour  in  this  office. 
Upon  the  execution  of  Charles,  Cooper  took  the  Engage- 
ment, and  was  a  commissioner  to  administer  it  in  Dorset- 
shire. On  April  25,  1650,  he  married  Lady  Frances 
Cecil,  sister  of  the  earl  of  Essex,  his  first  wife  having  died 
in  the  previous  year  leaving  no  family.  In  1651  a  son 
was  born  to  him,  who  died  in  childhood,  and  on  January 

16,  1652,  another  son,  named  after  himself,  who  was  his 
heir.  On  January  17  he  was  named  on  the  commission 
for  law  reform,  of  which  Hale  was  the  chief;  and  on  March 

17,  1653,  he  was  pardoned  of  all  delinquency,  and  thus  at 
last  made  capable  of  sitting  in  parliament.  He  sat  for 
Wiltshire  in  the  Barebones  parliament,  of  which  he  was  a 
leading  member,  and  where  he  zealously  and  prudently 
supported  Cromwell's  views  against  the  extreme  section. 
He  was  at  once  appointed  on  the  council  of  thirty.  On 
the  resignation  of  this  parliament  he  became  a  member  of 
the  council  of  state  named  in  the  "  Instrument."  In  the 
first  parliament  elected  under  this  "Instrument"  he  sat 
for  Wiltshire,  having  been  elected  also  for  Poole  and 
Tewkesbury,  and  was  one  of  the  commissioners  for  the 
ejection  of  unworthy  ministers.  After  December  28,  1654, 
for  reasons  which  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  with  clear- 
ness, he  left  the  privy  council,  and  henceforward  is  found 
with  the  Presbyterians  and  Kepublicans,  in  opposition  to 
Cromwell.  His  second  wife  had  died  during  this  year; 
in  1656  he  married  a  third,  who  survived  him,  Margaret, 
daughter  of  Lord  Spencer,  niece  of  the  earl  of  Southampton, 
and  sister  of  the  earl  of  Sunderland,  who  died  at  Newbury. 
By  his  three  marriages  he  was  thus  connected  with  many 
of  the  leading  politicians  of  Charles  II. 's  reign. 

Cooper  was  again  elected  for  Wiltshire  for  the  parlia- 
ment of  1656,  but  Cromwell  refused  to  allow  him,  with 
many  others  of  his  opponents,  to  sit.  He  signed  a  letter 
of  complaint,  with  sixty-five  excluded  members,  to  the 
speaker,  as  ^  also  a  "  Remonstrance  "  addressed  '  to  the 
people.  In  the  parliament  which  met  on  January  20, 
1658,  he  took  his  seat,  and  was  active  in  opposition  to 
the  pew  constitution  of  the  two  Houses.  He  was  also  a 
leader  of  the  opposition  in  Richard  Cromwell's  parliament, 
especially  on  the  matter  of  the  limitation  of  the  power  of 
the  Protector,  and  against  the  House  of  Lords.  He  was 
throughout  these  debates  celebrated  for  the  "  nervous  and 
subtle  oratory"  which  made  him  so  formidable  in  after 
days  :  he  had  "  his  tongue  well  hung,  and  words  at  will." 

Upon  the  replacing  of  the  Rump  by  the  army,  after  the 
breaking  up  of  Richard's  parliament.  Cooper  endeavoured 
unsuccessfully  to  take  his  seat  on  the  ground  of  his  former 
disputed  election  for  Downton.  He  was,  however,  elected 
on  the  council  of  state,  and  was  the  only  Presbyterian  in 
it ;  he  was  at  once  accused  by  Scot,  along  with  Wiite- 
locke,  of  corresponding  with  -Hyde.  This  he  solemnly 
denied.  After  the  rising  in  Cheshire  Cooper  was  arrested 
in  Dorsetshire  on  a  charge  of  correspondence  with  its 
leader  Booth,  but  on  the  matter  being  investigated  by  the 
council  he  was  unanimously  acquitted.  In  the  disputes 
between  Lambert  at  the  head  of  the  military  party  and 
the  Rump  in  union  with  the  council  of  state,  he  supported 
the  latter,  and  upon  the  temporary  supremacy  of  Lambert's 


party  wc'ted  indefatigably  to  restore  the  Rump.  With 
Monks  commissioners  he,  with  Haselrig,  had  a  fruitless 
conference,  but  he  assured  Monk  of  his  co-operation,  and 
joined  with  eight  others  of  the  overthrown  council  of  state 
in  naming  him  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland.  He  was  instrumental  in  securing  the 
Tower  for  the  Parliament,  and  in  obtaining  the  adhesion 
of  Admiral  Lawson  and  the  fleet.  Upon  the  restoration 
of  the  Parliament  on  December  26  Cooper  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  to  command  the  army,  and  on  January  2 
was  made  one  of  the  new  council  of  state.  On  January  7 
he  took  his  seat  on  his  election  for  Downton  in  1640,  and 
was  made  colonel  of  Fleetwood's  regiment  of  horse.  He 
speedily  secured  the  admission  of  the  secluded  members, 
having  meanwhile  been  in  continual  communication  with 
Jlonk,  was  again  one  of  the  fresh  council  of  state,  con- 
sisting entirely  of  friends  of  the  Restoration,  and  accepted 
from  Monk  a  comraissioa  to  be  governor  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight  and  captain  of  a  company  of  foot.  He  now 
steadily  pursued  the  design  of  the  Restoration,  but  with- 
out holding  any  private  correspondence  with  the  king, 
and  only  on  terms  similar  to  those  proposed  in  1648  to 
Charles  I.  at  the  Isle  of  Wight.  In  the  Convention 
Parliament  he  sat  for  Wiltshire.  Monk  cut  short  these 
deliberations  and  forced  on  the  Restoration  without  con- 
dition. Cooper  was  one  of  the  twelve  commissioners  who 
went  to  Charles  at  Breda  to  invite  him  to  return.  On  hia 
journey  he  was  upset  from  his  carriage,  and  the  accident 
caused  an  internal  abscess  which  was  never  cured. 

Cooper  was  at  once  placed  on  the  privy  council,  receiv 
ing  also  a  formal  pardon  for  former  delinquencies.  Hia 
fii'st  duty  was  to  examine  the  Anabaptist  prisoners  in  the 
Tower.  In  the  prolonged  discussions  regarding  the  Bill 
of  Indemnity  he  was  instrumental  in  saving  the  life  of 
Haselrig,  and  opposed  the  clause  compelling  all  officers  who 
had  served  under  Cromwell  to  refund  their  salaries,  he 
himself  never  having  had  any.  He  showed  indeed  none  of 
the  grasping  and  avaricious  temper  so  common  among  the 
politicians  of  the  time.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
for  conducting  the  trials  of  the  regicides,  but  was  himself 
vehemently  "  fallen  upon  "  by  Prynne  for  having  acted 
with  Cromwell.  He  was  named  on  the  councU  of  planta- 
tions and  on  that  of  trade.  In  the  debate  abolishing  the 
court  of  wards  he  spoke,  like  most  landed  proprietors,  in 
favour  of  laying  the  burden  on  the  excise  instead  of  on 
the  land,  and  on  the  question  of  the  restoration  of  the 
bishops  carried  in  the  interests  of  the  court  an  adjourn- 
ment of  the  debate  for  three  months.  At  the  coronation  in 
April  1661  Cooper  had  been  made  a  peer,  as  Baron  Ashley 
of  Wimborne  St  Giles,  in  express  recognition  of  his  services 
at  the  Restoration ;  and  on  the  meeting  of  the  new  parlia- 
ment in  May  he  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
and  under-treasurer,  aided  no  doubt  by  his  connexion 
with  Southampton.  He  vehemently  opposed  the  perse- 
cuting Acts  now  passed, —  the  Corporation  Act,  the  Uni- 
formity Bill,  against  which  he  is  said  to  have  spoken  three 
hundred  times,  and  the  Militia  Act  He  is  stated  also  to 
have  influenced  the  king  in  issuing  his  dispensing  declara- 
tion of  December  26,  1662,  and  he  zealously  supported  a 
bill  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  confirming  the  declara- 
tion, rising  thereby  in  favour  and  influence  with  Charles. 
He  was  himself  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  tolerance.  He 
was  now  recognized  as  one  of  the  chief  opponents  of 
Clarendon  and  the  High  Anglican  policy.  On  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  Dutch  War  in  1664  he  was  made  treasurer 
of  the  prizes,  being  accountable  to  the  king  alone  for  all 
sums  received  or  spent.  He  was  also  one  of  the  grantees 
of  the  province  of  Carolina  and  took  a  leading  part  Ln  its 
management;-  it  was  at  his  request  that  Locke  in  1669 
drew  up  a  constitution  for  the  new  colony,     In  September 


SHAFTESBURY 


729 


1665  tho  king  uncspcctedly  paid  him  a  visit  at  Wim- 
borne.  He  opposed  unsuccessfully  the  appropriation  pro- 
viso introduced  into  the  supply  bill  as  hindering  the  due 
administration  of  finance,  and  this  opposition  seems  to 
have  brought  about  a  reconciliation  'with  Clarendon.  In 
1668,  however,  he  supported  a  bill  to  appoint  commis- 
sioners to  examine  the  accounts  of  tho  Dutcli  War,  though 
in  the  previous  year  he  had  opposed  it.  In  accordance 
with  his  former  action  on  all  questions  of  religious  tolera- 
tion he  strongly  opposed  the  shameful  Five  Mile  Act  of 
1665.  In  1667  he  eagerly  supported  the  bill  for  prohibit- 
ing the  importation  of  Irish  cattle  on  the  ground  that  it 
would  lead  to  a  great  fall  of  rents  in  England.  Ashley 
was  himself  a  large  landowner,  and  moreover  was  opposed 
to  Ormonde  who  would  have  greatly  benefited  by  the  im- 
portation. In  all  other  questions  of  this  kind  he  shows 
himself  far  in  advance  of  the  economic  fallacies  of  the  day. 
His  action  led  to  an  altercation  with  Ossory,  the  son  of 
Ormonde,  in  vrhich  Ossory  used  language  for  which  he  was 
compelled  to  apologize.  On  the  death  of  Southampton, 
Ashley  was  placed  on  the  commission  of  tho  treasury, 
Clifford  and  William  Coventry  being  his  principal  col- 
leagues. He  appears  to  have  taken  no  part  in  the  attempt 
to  impeach  Clarendon  on  a  general  charge  of  treason. 

The  new  administration  was  headed  by  Buckingham,  in 
whose  toleration  and   comprehension   principles  Ashley 
shared  to  the  full.     A  most  able  paper  written  by  him  to 
the  king  in  support  of   these  principles,  on  the  ground 
especially  of  their  advantage  to  trade,  has  been  preserved. 
He  excepts,  however,  from  toleration  Koman  Catholics  and 
Fifth  Monarchy  men.     Hia  attention  to  all  trade  questions 
was  close  and  constant ;  he  was  a  member  of  the  council 
of  trade  and  plantations  appointed  in  1670,  and  was  its 
president  from  1672  to  1676.     Tho  difficulty  of  the  suc- 
cession also  occupied  him,  and  he  co-operated  thus  early 
in  the  design  of  legitimizing  Monmouth  as  a  rival  to  James. 
In  the  intrigues  which  led  to  the   infamous  treaty  of 
Dover  he  had  no  part.     That  treaty  contained  a  clause  by 
which  Charles  was  bound  to  declare  himself  a  Catholic, 
and  with  the   knowledge   of  this  Ashley,  as  a  staunch 
Protestant,  eould  not  be  trusted.     In  order  to  blind  him 
and  the  other  Protestant  members  of  the  Cabal  a  sham 
treaty  w-as  arranged  in  which  this  clause  did  nut  appear, 
and  it  was  not  until  a  considerable  while  afterwards  that 
he  found   out   that   he  had   been   duped.      Under  this 
misunderstanding  he  signed  the  sham  Dover  treaty  on 
December  31,  1670.     This  treaty,  however,  was  carefully 
kept  from  public  knowledge,  and  Ashley  did  not  hesitate 
to  help  Charles   to  hoodwink  parliament  by  signing  a 
einuiar  treaty  on  February  2,  1673,  which  was  then  laid 
before  them  as  the  only  one  in  existence.     This  is  one  of 
*he  proved  dishonourable  actions  of  his  life.     His  approval 
of  the  attempt  of  the  Lords  to  alter  a  money  bill  led  to 
tho  loss  of  the  supply  to  Charles  and  to  the  consequent 
displeasure  of  the  king.     His  support  of  the  Lord  Roos 
Act,  ascribed  generally  to  his  desire  to  ingmtiate  himself 
with  Charles,  was  no  doubt  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that 
his  son  had  married  Lord  Roos's  sister.     It  is,  too,  neces- 
sary to  notiee  that,  so  far  from  advising  tho  "  Stop  of  tho 
Exchequer,"  he  actively  opposed  this  bad  measure;  the 
reasons  which  ho  left  with  the  king  for  his  opposition  are 
extant.     The  responsibility  rests  with  Clifford  alone.     In 
the  otl)er  great  measure  of  the  Cabal  ministry,  Charles's 
Declaration  of  Indulgence,  he  cordially  concurred.      Ho 
was  now  rewarded  by  being  made  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  and 
Baron  Cooper  of  Pawlett  by  a  patent  dated  April  23,  1672. 
It  is  stated  too  that  ho  was  offered,  but  refused,  the  lord 
treasurership.      On   November    17,    1672,   however,   he 
became  lord  chancellor,  Bridgman  having  been  compelled 
to  resign  the  seeJ.    As  chancellor  he  issued  writs  for  the 


election  of  thirty-si.x  new  members  to  fill  vacancies  caused 
during  the  long  recess ;  this,  though  grounded  upon  pre- 
cedent, was  certainly  open  to  the  gravest  suspicion  as  an 
attempt  to  fortify  Charles,  and  was  vehemently  attacked 
by  an  angry  House  of  Commons  which  met  on  Febniaiy 
4,  1673.  The  writs  were  cancelled,  and  the  principle  was 
established  that  the  issuing  of  writs  rested  with  the  House 
itself.  It. was  at  tho  opening  of  parliament  that  Shaftes- 
bury made  his  celebrated  "delenda  est  Carthago"  speech 
against  Holland,  in  which  he  urged  the  Second  Dutch  War, 
on  tho  ground  of  the  necessity  of  destroying  so  formidable 
a  commercial  rival  to  England,  excused  the  Stop  of  the 
Exchequer  which  he  had  opposed,  and  vindicated  the 
Declaration  of  Indulgence.  On  March  8  he  announced  to 
parliament  that  the  declaration  had  been  cancelled,  though 
he  did  his  best  to  induce  Charles  to  remain  firm.  For 
affixing  the  great  seal  to  this  declaration  he  was  threatened 
with  impeachment  by  the  Commons.  The  Test  Act  was 
now  brought  forward,  and  Shaftesbury,  who  appears  to 
have  heard  how  he  had  been  duped  in  1670,  warmly  sup- 
ported it,  with  the  object  probably  of  thereby  getting  rid 
of  Clifford.  He  now  began  to  be  regarded  as  the  chief 
upholder  of  Protestantism  in  the  ministry;  he  rapidly  lost 
favour  with  Charles,  and  on  Sunday,  September  9,  1673, 
was  dismissed  from  the  chancellorship.  Among  the  reasons 
for  this  dismissal  is  probably  the  undoubted  fact  that  he 
opposed  reckless  grants  to  the  king's  mistresses.  He  has 
been  accused  of  much  vanity  and  ostentation  in  his  office, 
but  his  reputation  for  ability  and  integrity  as  a  judge  was 
high  even  with  his  enemies. 

Charles  soon  regretted  the  loss  of  Shaftesbury,  and 
endeavoured,  as  did  also  Louis,  to  induce  him  to  return, 
but  in  vain.  He  preferred  now  to  become  the  great 
popular  leader  against  all  the  measures  of  the  court,  and 
may  be  regarded  as  the  intellectual  chief  of  the  opposition. 
At  the  meeting  of  parliament  on  January  8,  1674,  he 
carried  a  motion  for  a  proclamation  banishing  Catholics 
to  a  distance  of  ten  miles  from  London.  During  the 
whole  session  he  organized  and  directed  the  opposition  in 
their  attacks  on  the  king's  ministers.  On  ilay  19  he 
was  dismissed  the  privy  council  and  ordered  to  leave 
London.  He  hereupon  retired  to  Wimborno,  from  whence 
he  urged  upon  his  parliamentary  followers  tho  necessity 
of  securing  a  new  parliament.  He  was  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  however,  in  1675,  when  Danby  brought  forward 
his  famous  Non-resisting  Test  Bill,  and  headed  the  opposi- 
tion which  was  carried  on  for  seventeen  days,  distinguish- 
ing himself,  says  Burnet,  more  in'  this  session  than  ever 
ho  had  done  before.  The  bill  was  finally  shelved,  a  pro- 
rogation having  taken  place  in  consequence  of  a  quarrel 
between  the  two  Houses,  supposed  to  have  been  purposely 
got  up  by  Shaftesbury,  in  which  he  vigorously  supported 
tho  right  of  the  Lords  to  hear  appeal  cases,  even  where 
the  defendant  was  a  member  of  tho  Lower  House.  Parlia- 
ment was  prorogued  for  fifteen  months  until  February  15, 
1677,  and  it  was  determined  by  the  opposition  to  attack 
its  existence  on  the  ground  that  a  prorogation  for  more 
than  a  year  was  illegal.  In  this  matter  tho  opposition 
were  clearly  in  tho  wrong,  and  by  attacking  the  parliament 
discredited  themselves.  The  immediate  result  was  that 
Shaftesbury,  Buckingham,  Wharton,  and  Salisbury  wore 
sent  to  the  Tower.  In  Juno  Shaftesbury  applied  for  a 
writ  of  haheaa  corpus,  but  could  get  no  rclea.se  until 
February  26,  1678,  after  his  letter  and  three  petitions  to 
the  king.  Being  brought  before  the  bar  of  the  House  of 
Lords  ho  at  length  made  a  complete  submission  as  to  his 
conduct  in  declaring  parliament  dissolved  by  tho  proroga- 
tion, and  in  violating  tho  Lords'  jirivileges  by  bringing  a 
habeas  corjnta  in  the  King's  Bench. 

The  breaking  out  of  the  Ponisb  Terror  in  1678  marks 


21 


■'  '> ' 


730 


SHAFTESBURY 


the  worst  part  of  Shaftesbury's  career.  That  so  clear- 
headed a  man  could  have  really  credited  the  extravagant 
lies  of  Oates  and  the  other  perjurers  is  beyond  belief ;  and 
the  manner  in  which  by  incessant  agitation  he  excited  the 
most  baseless  alarms,  and  encouraged  the  wildest  excesses 
of  fanatic  criielty,  for  nothing  but  party  advantage,  is 
utterly  without  excuse.  On  November  2  he  opened 
the  great  attack  by  proposing  an  address  declaring 
the  necessity  for  the  king's  dismissing  James  from  his 
council.  Under  his  advice  the  opposition  now  made  an 
alliance  with  Louis  whereby  the  French  king  promised  to 
help  them  to  ruin  Danby  on  condition  that  they  would 
compel  Charles,  by  stopping  the  supplies,  to  make  peace 
with  France,  doing  thus  a  grave  injury  to  Protestantism 
abroad  for  the  sake  of  a  temporary  party  advantage  at 
home.  Upon  the  refusal  in  November  of  the  Lords  to 
concur  in  the  address  of  the  Commons  requesting  the 
removal  of  the  queen  from  court,  he  joined  in  a  protest 
against  the  refusal,  and  was  foremost  in  all  the  violent  acts 
of  the  session.  He  urged  on  the  bill  by  which  Catholics 
were  prohibited  from  sitting  in  either  House  of  Parliament, 
and  was  bitter  in  his  expressions  of  disappointment  when 
the  Commons  passed  a  proviso  excepting  James,  against 
whom  the  bill  was  especially  aimed,  from  its  operation.  A 
new  parliament  met  on  March  6,  1679.  Shaftesbury  had 
meanwhile  ineffectually  warned  the  king  that  unless  he 
followed  his  advice  there  would  be  no  peace  with  the  people. 
On  March  25  he  made  a  striking  speech  upon  the  state  of 
the  nation,  especially  upon  the  dangers  to  Protestantism  and 
the  misgovernment  of  Scotland  and  Ireland.  He  was,  too, 
suspected  of  doing  all  in  his  power  to  bring  about  a  revolt 
in  Scotland.  By  the  advice  of  Temple,  Charles  now  tried 
the  experiment  of  forming  a  new  privy  council  in  which 
the  chief  members  of  the  opposition  were  included,  and 
Shaftesbury  was  made  president,  with  a  salary  of  £4000, 
being  also  a  member  of  the  committee  for  foreign  affairs. 
He  did  not,  however,  in  any  way  change  either  his  opinions 
or  his  action.  Ho  vigorously  opposed  the  compelling  of 
Protestant  Nonconformists  to  take  the.  oath  required  of 
Roman  Catholics.  That  indeed,  as  Ranke  says,  which 
makes  him  memorable  in  English  history  is  that  he 
opposed  the  establishment  of  an  Anglican  and  Royalist 
organization  with  decisive  success.  The  question  of  the 
succession  was  now  again  prominent,  and  Shaftesbury,  in 
opposition  to  Halifax,  committed  the  error,  which  really 
brought  about  his  fall,  of  putting  forward  Monmouth  as 
his  nominee,  thus  alienating  a  large  number  of  his  sup- 
porters ;  he  encouraged,  too,  the  belief  that  this  was  agree- 
able to  the  king.  Ho  pressed  on  the  Exclusion  Bill  with 
all  his  power,  and,  when  that  and  the  inquiry  into  the 
pa3Tnents  for  secret  service  and  the  trial  of  the  five  peers, 
for  which  too  he  had  been  eager,  were  brought  to  an  end 
by  a  sudden  prorogation,  he  is  reported  to  have  declared 
aloud  that  he  would  have  the  heads  of  those  who  were  the 
king's  advisers  to  this  course.  Before  the  prorogation, 
h6wever,  he  saw  the  invaluable  Act  of  Habeas  Corpus, 
which  he  had  carried  through  parliament,  receive  the 
royal  assent.  In  pursuance  of  his  patronage  of  Mon- 
mouth, Shaftesbury  now  secured  for  him  the  command  of 
the  army  sent  to  suppress  the  insurrection  in  Scotland, 
which  he  is  supposed  to  have  fomented.  In  October 
1679,  the  circumstances  which  led  Charles  to  desire  to 
conciliate  the  opposition  having  ceased,  Shaftesbury  was 
dismissed  from  his  presidency  and  from  the  privy  council ; 
when  applied  to  by  Sunderland  to  return  to  office  he  made 
as  conditions  the  divorce  of  the  queen  and  the  exclusion 
of  James.  With  nine  other  peers  he  presented  a  petition 
to  the  king  in  November,  praying  for  the  meeting  of 
parliament,  of  which  Charles  took  no  notice.  In  April, 
upon  the  king's  declaration  that  he  was  resolved  to  send 


for  James  xrom  Scotland,  Shaftesbury  strongly  advised 
the  popular  leaders  at  once  to  leave  the  council,  and  they 
followed  his  advice.  In  JIarch  we  find  him  unscrupulously 
eager  in  the  prosecution  of  the  alleged  Irish  Catholic  plot. 
Upon  the  king's  illness  in  Jlay  he  held  frequent  meetings 
of  Jlonmouth's  friends  at  his  house  to  consider  how  best  to 
act  for  the  security  of  the  Protestant  religion.  On  June  26, 
accompanied  by  fourteen  others,  he  presented  to  the  grand 
jury  of  Westminster  an  indictment  of  the  duke  of  York 
a-s  a  Popish  recusant.  In  the  middle  of  September  he 
was  seriously  ill.  On  November  15  the  Exclusion  Bill, 
having  passed  the  Commons,  was  brought  up  to  the 
Lords,  and  an  historic  debate  took  place,  in  which  Halifax 
and  Shaftesbury  were  the  leaders  on  opposite  sides.  The 
bill  was  thrown  out,  and  Shaftesbury  signed  the  protest 
against  its  rejection.  The  next  day  he  urged  upon  the 
House  the  divorce  of  the  queen.  On  December  7,  to  his 
lasting  dishonour,  he  voted  for  the  condemnation  of  Lord 
Stafford.  On  the  23d  he  again  spoke  vehemently  for 
exclusion,  and  his  speech  was  immediately  printed.  All 
opposition  was,  however,  checked  by  the  dissolution  on 
January  18.  A  new  parliament  was  called  to  meet  at 
Oxford,  to  avoid  the  influences  of  the  city  of  London, 
where  Shaftesbury  had  taken  the  greatest  pains  to  make 
himself  popular.  Shaftesbury,  with  fifteen  other  peers,  at 
once  petitioned  the  king  that  it  might  as  usual  be  held  in 
the  capital  He  prepared,  too,  instructions  to  be  handed 
by  constituencies  to  their  members  upon  election,  in  which 
exclusion,  disbanding,  the  limitation  of  the  prerogative  in 
proroguing  and  dissolving  parliament,  and  security  against 
Popery  and  arbitrary  power  were  insisted  on.  At  this 
parliament,  which  lasted  but  a  few  days,  he  again  made  a 
personal  appeal  to  Charles,  which  was  curtly  rejected,  to 
permit  the  legitimizing  of  Jlonmouth.  The  king's  advisers 
now  urged  him  to  arrest  Shaftesbury ;  he  was  seized  on 
July'  2,  1681,  and  committed  to  the  Tower,  the  judges 
refusing  his  petition  to  be  tried  or  admitted  to  bail  This 
refusal  was  twice  repeated  in  September  and  October,  the 
court  hoping  to  obtain  evidence  sufficient  to  ensure  his  ruin. 
In  October  he  wrote  offering  to  retire  to  Carolina  if  he 
were  released.  On  November  24  he  was  indicted  for 
high  treason  at  the  Old  Bailey,  the  chief  ground  being  a 
paper  of  association  for  the  deferce  of  the  Protestant 
religion,  which,  though  among  his  papers,  was  not  in 
his  handwTiting;  but  the  grand  jury  ignored  the  bill. 
He  was  released  on  bail  on  December  1.  In  1682,  how- 
ever, Charles  secured  the  appointment  of  Tory  sheriffs  for 
London ;  and,  as  the  juries  were  chosen  by  the  sheriffs, 
Shaftesbury  felt  that  he  was  no  longer  safe  from  the 
vengeance  of  the  court.  Failing  health  and  the .  dis- 
appointment of  his  political  plans  led  him  now  into  violent 
courses.  He  appears  to  have  entered  into  consultation  of 
a  treasonable  kind  with  Monmouth  and  others ;  he  him- 
self had,  he  declared,  ten  thousand  brisk  boys  in  London 
ready  to  rise  at  his  bidding.  For  some  weeks  he  was 
concealed  in  the  city  and  in  Wapping ;  but,  finding  the 
schemes  for  a  rising  hang  fire,  he  determined  to  flee.  He 
went  to  Harwich,  disguised  as  a  Presbyterian  minister,  and 
after  a  week's  delay,  during  which  he  was  in  imminent  risk 
of  discovery,  if  indeed,  as  is  very  probable,  his  escape  was 
not  winked  at  by  the  Government,  he  sailed  to  Holland  on 
November  28,  1682,  and  reached  Amsterdam  in  the  begin- 
ning of  December.  Here  he  was  welcomed  with  the  jest, 
referring  to  his  famous  speech  against  the  Dutch,  "  non- 
dura  deleta  Carthago."  He  was  made  a  citizen  of  Amster- 
dam, but  died  there  of  gout  in  the  stomach  on  January 
21,  1683.  His  body  was  sent  in  February  to  Poole,  in 
Dorset,  and  was  buried  at  Wimbome  St  Giles. 

Few  politicians  have  teen  the  mark  of  such  nnsparing  abuse 
as  Shaft"abury.     Dryden,  while  compelled  to  honour' him  as  an 


SHAFTESBORY 


731 


npriKht  judge,  ovenvhelmed  his  memory  with  scathing,  if  v^nal, 
satire ;  and  Dryden's  satire  has  been  accepted  as  truth  by  later 
bistoriaiis  Macaolay  in  especial  has  exerted  all  his  art,  though 
in  flagrant  oontradiction  of  probability  and  fact,  to  deepen  still 
further  tlie  shade  wliich  rests  upon  his  reputation.  Mr  Christie, 
on  the  other  hand,  in  possession  of  later  sources  of  information, 
and  witU  more  honest  purpose,  has  done  much  to  rehabilitate  him. 
Occasionally,  however,  he  appears  to  hold  a  brief  for  the  defence, 
and,  thouph  his  picture  is  comparatively  a  true  one,  should  be  read 
with  caution.  Finally,  in  his  monograph  in  the  scries  of  "  Euglisli 
Worthies,"  ilr  H.  D.  TraiU  professes  to  hold  the  scales  equally. 
He  makes  an  interesting  adaitiou  to  our  conception  of  Siiaftes- 
bary's  place  in  English  politics,  by  insisting  on  his  position  as  tho 
first  great  party  leader  in  tho  modem  sense,  and  as  tho  founder 
of  modern  parliamentary  oratory.  In  other  respects  his  book  is 
derived  almost  entirely  from  Christie.  Much  of  Shaftesbury's 
career,  increasingly  so  as  it  came  near  its  close,  is  incapable  of 
defence  ;  but  it  has  escaped  his  critics  that  his  life  up  to  the  Re- 
storation, apparently  full  of  inconsistencies,  was  evidently  guided 
by  one  leading  principle,  the  determination  to  uphold  the  supremacy 
of  parliament,  a  principle  which,  however  obscured  by  self-interest, 
appears  also  to  have  underlain  his  whole  political  career.  He  was, 
too,  ever  the  friend  of  religious  freedom  and  of  an  enlightened 
policy  in  all  trade  questions.  And,  above  all,  it  should  not  be 
forgotten,  in  justice  to  Shaftesbury's  memory,  that  "during  his 
long  political  career,  in  an  age  of  general  corruption,  he  was  ever 
incorrupt,  and  never  grasped  either  money  or  land.  In  the  days 
of  the  Commonwealth  he  never  obtained  or  sought  grants  of 
forfeited  estates.  In  the  days  of  tho  restored  monarchy  he  never 
profited  by  the  king's  favour  for  aught  beyond  the  legal  emolu- 
ments of  office,  and  in  office  or  out  of  office  spurned  all  aud  many 
offers  of  bribes  from  the  French  king."  (0.  A.) 

SHAFTESBURY,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  Thfrd 
Eajjl  of  (1671-1713),  was  born  at  Exeter  House  in  London, 
February  26,  1670-7L  He  was  grandson  of  the  first  and 
son  of  tho  second  earl.  His  mother  was  Lady  Dorothy 
Manners,  daughter  of  John,  earl  of  Rutland.  According 
to  a  curious  story,  told  by  the  third  earl  himself,  the 
marriage  between  his  father  and  mother  was  negotiated 
by  John  Locke,  who  was  a  trusted  friend  of  the  first  earl. 
The  second  Lord  Shaftesbury  appears  to  have  been  a  poor 
creature,  both  physically  and  mentally,—"  born  a  shapeless 
lump,  like  anarchy,"  according  to  what  is  doubtless  the 
exaggerated  metaphor  of  Dryden.  At  the  early  ago  of 
three  his  son  was  made  over  to  the  formal  guardianship 
of  his  grandfather.  Locke,  who  in  his  capacity  of 
medical  attendant  to  the  Ashley  household  had  already 
assisted  in  bringing  the  boy  into  the  world,  though  not 
his  instructor,  was  entrusted  with  tho  superintendence  of 
his  education.  This  was  conducted  according  to  tho 
principles  enunciated  in  Locke's  Thoughts  aiticertiinc/ 
Education,  and  the  method  of  teaching  Latin  and  Greek 
conversationally  was  pursued  with  such  success  by  his 
instructress,  Mrs  Elizabeth  Birch,  that  at  the  age  of  eleven, 
it  is  said,  young  Ashley  could  read  both  languages  with 
ease.  In  November  1683,  Some  months  after  the  death 
of  tho  first  earl,  his  father  entered  him  at  Winchester  as 
a  warden's  boarder.  Being  a  shy,  retiring  boy,  and  being 
moreover  constantly  taunted  with  tho  opinions  and  fate  of 
his  grandfather,  ho  appears  to  have  been  rendered  miserable 
by  the  rough  manners  of  his  schoolfellows,  and  to  have 
left  Winchester  in  1686  for  a  course  of  foreign  travel. 
By  this  change  ho  was  brouglit  into  direct  contact  with 
those  artistic  and  classical  associations  which  afterwards 
exercised  so  marked  an  influence  on  his  character  and 
opinions.  On  his  travels  he  did  not,  wo  aro  told  by  tho 
fourth  earl,  "  greatly  seek  tho  conversation  of  other  English 
young  gentlemen  on  their  travels,"  but  rather  that  of  their 
tutors,  with  whom  he  could  converse  on  congenial  topics. 

]JQ  1680,  tho  year  after  tho  Revolution,  Lord  .iVshley 
returned  to  England,  and  for  nearly  five  years  from  this 
time  he  ai)pear8  to  have  led  a  quiet,  uneventful,  and 
etudiona  lite.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  greater 
part  of  his'  attention  was  directed  to  the  perusal  of  those 
classical  authors,  and  to  tho  attempt  to  realize  the  true 
spirit  of    thct    classical   antiquity,   for   which    he    had 


conceived  so  ardent  a  passion.  He  had  no  intention, 
however,  of  becoming  a  recluse,  or  of  permanently  holding 
himself  aloof  from  public  life.  Accordingly,  he  became  a 
candidate  for  tho  borough  of  Poole,  and  was  returned 
May  21,  1695.  He  soon  distinguished  himself  by  a 
speech,  which  e.xcited  great  attention  at  the  time,  ia 
support  of  the  Bill  for  Regulating  Trials  in  Cases  of 
Treason,  one  provision  of  which  was  what  seems  to  ns  the 
obviously  reasonable  one  that  a  person  indicted  for  treason 
or  mi.=iprision  of  treason  should  be  allowed  the  assistance 
of  counsel.  In  connexion  with  this  speech  a  story  is  told 
of  Shaftesbury  which  is  also  told,  though  with  less 
verisimilitude,  of  Halifax,  that,  being  overcome  by 
shyness,  and  unable  to  continue  his  speech,  he  simply 
said,  before  sitting  do^\^l :  "If  I,  sir,  who  rise  only  to 
speak  my  opinion  on  the  bill  now  depending,  am  so 
confounded  that  I  am  unable  to  express  the  least  of  what  I 
proposed  to  say,  what  must  the  condition  of  that  man  be 
who  is- pleading  for  his  life  without  any  assistance  and 
under  apprehensions  of  being  deprived  of  it?"  "The 
sudden  turn  of  thought,"  says  his  son,  the  fourth  earl, 
"  pleased  the  House  extremely,  and,  it  is  generally 
believed,  carried  a  greater  weight  than  t  ny  of  the  argu- 
ments which  were  offorcjd  in  favour  of  the  bill."  But, 
though  a  Whig,  alike  by  descent,  by  education,  and  by 
conviction,  Ashley  could  by  no  means  be  depended  on  to 
give  a  party  vote ;  he  was  always  ready  to  support  any 
propositions,  from  whatever  quarter  they  came,  that 
appeared  to  him  to  promote  the  liberty  of  the  subject 
and  the  independence  of  parliament.  Unfortunately,  his 
health  was  so  treacherous  that,  on  the  dissolution  of  July 
1698,  he  was  obliged  to  retire  from  parliamentary  life. 
He  suffered  much  from  asthma,  a  complaint  which  was 
aggravated  by  the  London  smoke. 

Lord  Ashley  now  retired  into  Holland,  where  he  became 
acquainted  with  Le  Clerc,  Bayle,  Benjamin  Futly,  the 
English  Quaker  merchant,  at  whose  house  Locke  had 
resided  during  his  stay  at  Rotterdam,  and  probably 
Limborch  and  the  rest  of  tho  literary  circle  of  which 
Locke  had  been  a  cherished  and  honoured  member  nine 
or  ten  years  before.  To  Lord  Ashley  this  society  wa.s 
probably  far  more  congenial  than  his  surroundings  in 
England.  Unrestrained  conversation  on  the  topics  which 
most  interested  him — philosophy,  politics,  morals,  religion 
— was  at  this  time  to  be  had  in  Holland  with  less  danger 
and  in  greater  abundance  than  in  any  other  country  in 
the  world.  To  the  period  of  this  sojourn  in  Holland  must 
probably  be  referred  tho  surreptitious  impression  or 
publication  of  an  imperfect  edition  of  the  Inquiry  concern- 
ing Virtue,  from  a  rough  draught,  sk°fched  when  ho  was 
only  twenty  years  of  age.  This  liberty  was  taken,  during 
his  absence,  by  Toland. 

After  an  absence  of  over  a  twelvemonth,  Ashley 
returned  to  England,  and  soon  succeeded  his  father  as  carl 
of  Shaftesbury.  Ho  took  an  active  part,  on  the  Whig 
sido,  in  tho  general  election  of  1700-1,  and  again,  with 
more  success,  in  that  of  the  autumn  of  1701.  It  is  said 
that  William  III.  showed  his  appreciation  of  Shaftesbury's 
services  on  this  latter  occasion  by  ofll'ering  him  a  secretary- 
ship of  state,  which,  however,  his  declining  health 
compelled  him  to  decline.  Had  the  king's  life  continued, 
Shaftesbury's  influence  at  court  would  probably  have 
been  considerable.  After  tho  first  few  weeks  of  Anne's 
reign,  Shaftesbury,  who  had  been  deprived  of  tho  vice- 
admiralty  of  Dorset,  returned  to  his  retired  mode  of 
life,  but  his  letters  to  Furly  show  that  ho  still  retained  a 
keen  interest  in  politics.  In  August  1 70.3  ho  again  settled 
in  Holland,  in  the  air  of  which  he  seems,  like  Locke,  to  have 
had  great  faith.  At  Rotterdam  he  lived,  ho  says  in  a  letter 
to  his  steward  Whccloclc.  at  tho  rate  of  less  than  X^QQ  « 


732 


SHAFTESBURY 


year,  and  yet  had  much  "  to  dispose  of  and  spend  beyond 
(Jonvenient  living."  He  returned  to  England,  much 
improved  in  health,  in  August  1704.  But,  though  he 
had  received  immediate  benefit  from  his  stay  abroad, 
symptoms  of  consumption  were  constantly  alarming  him, 
and  he  gradually  became  a  confirmed  invalid.  His  occu- 
pations were  now  almost  exclusively  literary,  and  from 
this  time  forward  he  was  probably  engaged  in  writing, 
completing,  or  revising  the  treatises  which  were  afterwards 
included  in  the  Characteristics.  He  still  continued,  how- 
ever, to  take  a  warm  interest  in  politics,  both  home  and 
foreign,  and  especially  in  the  war  against  France,  of  which 
he  was  an  enthusiastic  supporter. 

Shaftesbury  was  nearly  forty  before  he  married,  and 
even  then  he  appears  to  have  taken  this  step  at  the 
urgent  instigation  of  his  friends,  mainly  to  supply  a  suc- 
cessor to  the  title.  The  object  of  his  choice  (or  rather  of 
his  second  choice,  for  an  earlier  project  of  marriage  had 
shortly  before  fallen  through)  was  a  Miss  Jane  Ewer,  the 
daughter  of  a  gentleman  in  Hertfordshire.  The  marriage 
took  place  in  the  aututhn  of  1709,  and  on  February  9, 
1710,  was  bom  at  his  house  at  Reigate,  in  Surrey,  his 
only  child  and  heir,  the  fourth  earl,  to  whose  manuscript 
accounts  we  are  in  great  part  indebted  for  the  details  of 
his  father's  life.  The  match  appears  to  have  been  a  happy 
one,  though  Shaftesbury  neither  had  nOr  pretended  to 
have  much  sentiment  on  the  subject  of  married  life. 

With  the  exception  of  a  Preface  to  the  Sermons  of  Dr 
Whichcote,  one  of  the  Cambridge  Platonists  or  latitudin- 
arians,  published  in  1698,  Shaftesbury  appears  to  have 
printed  nothing  himself  till  the  year  1708.  About  this 
time  the  French  prophets,  as  they  were  called,  attracted 
much  attention  by  the  extravagances  and  follies  of  which 
they  were  guilty.  Various  remedies  of  the  repressive 
kind  were  proposed,  but  Shaftesbury  maintained  that  their 
fanaticism  was  best  encountered  by  '•  raillery  "  and  "  good- 
humour."  In  support  of  this  view  he  wrote  a  letter  to 
Lord  Somers,  dated  September  1707  which  was  published 
anonymously  in  the  following  year,  and  provoked  several 
.replies.  In  May  1709  he  returned  to  the  subject,  and 
printed  another  letter,  entitled  Sensus  Communis,  an 
Essay  on  the  Freedom  of  Wit  and  Humour.  In  the  same 
year  he.  also'  published  The  Moralists,  a  Philosojihical 
Jthapsody,  and  in  the  following  year  Soliloquy,  or  Advice 
to  an  Author.  None  of  these  pieces  seem  to  have  been 
printed  either  with  his  name  or  his  initials.  In  1711 
appeared  the  Characteristics  of  Mai,  Manners,  Opinions, 
Times,  in  three  volumes,  also  without  any  name  or  initials 
on  the  title-page,  and  without  even  the  name  of  a  printer. 
These  three  handsome  volumes  contain  in  addition  to  the 
four  treatises  already  mentioned,  Miscellaneous  Reflections, 
now  first  printed,  and  the  Inquiry  concerning  Virtue  or 
Merit,  described  as  "formerly  printed  from  an  imperfect 
copy,  now  corrected  and  published  intire,"  and  as  "  printed 
first  in  the  year  1699." 

The  declining  state  of  Shaftesbury's-  health  rendered  it 
necessary  for  him  to  seek  a  warmer  climate,  and  in  July 
1711  he  set  out  for  Italy.  He  settled  at  Naples  in 
November,  and  lived  there  considerably  over  a  year.  His 
principal  occupation  at  this  time  must  have  consisted  in 
preparing  for  the  press  a  second  edition  of  the  Character- 
istics, which  appeared  in  1713,  soon  after  his  death.  The 
copy,  most  carefully  corrected  in  his  own  handwriting,  is 
still  preserved  in  the  British  Museum.  He  was  also 
engaged,  during  his  stay  at  Naples,  in  viriting  the 
little  treatise  (afterwards  included  in  the  Characteristics) 
entitled  A  Notion  of  the.  Historical  Draught  or  Tahlature 
of  the  Judgment  of  Hercules,  and  the  letter  concerning 
Design.  A  little  before  his  death  he  had  also  formed  a 
cchemo  of  writing  a  Discourse  on  the  Arts  of  Painting, 


Sculpture,  Etching,  ic,  but  when  he  died  lie  had  ina<H 
but  little  progress  with  it.  "Medals,  and  pictures,  and 
antiquities,"  he  writes  to  Furly,  "  are  our  chief  entertain- 
ments here."  His  conversation  was  with  men  of  art  and 
science,  "the  virtuosi  of  this  place." 

The  events  preceding  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  which  he 
regarded  as  preparing  the  way  for  a  base  desertion  of  our 
allies,  greatly  troubled  the  last  months  of  Shaftesbury's 
life.  He  did  not,  however,  live  to  see  the  actual  conclu.- 
sion  of  the  treaty  (JIarch  31,  1713),  as  he  died  the  month 
before,  February  4,  1712,  O.S.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
he  had  not  yet  completed  his  forty-second  'year.  His 
body  was  brought  back  by  sea  to  England  and  buried  at 
St  Giles's,  the  family  seat  in  Dorsetshire.  Though  he  died 
so  long  ago,  and  was  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  English 
moralists,  his  descendant,  the  celebrated  philanthropist, 
who  died  so  recently  as  1885,  was  only  his  great-grandson. 
Shaftesbury's  amiability  of  character  seems  to  have 
been  one  of  his  principal  characteristics.  All  accounts 
concur  in  representing  him  as  full  of  sweetness  and 
kindliness  towards  others,  though  he  may  sometimes  him-' 
self  have  been  the  victim  of  melancholy  and  despondency. 
Like  Locke  he  had  a  peculiar  pleasure  in  bringing  forward 
young  men.  Amongst  these  may  be  especially  mentioned 
Michael  Ainsworth,  a  native  of  Wimborne  St  Giles,  the 
young  man  who  was  the  recipient  of  the  Letters  addressed 
to  a  student  at  the  university,  and  who  waa  maintained, 
by  him  at  University  College,  Oxford.  The  keen  interest 
which  Shaftesbury  took  in  his  studies,  and  the  desire  that 
he  should  be  specially  fitted  for  the  profession  which  he 
had  selected,  that  of  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, are  marked  features  of  the  letters.  Other  proteges 
were  Crell,  a  young  Pole,  the  two  young  Furlys,  and 
Harry  Wilkinson,  a  boy  who  was  sent  into  Furly's  office 
at  Rotterdam,  and  to  whom  several  of  the  letters  still 
extant  in  the  Record  Office  are  addressed. 

In  the  popular  mind,  Shaftesbury  is  generally  regarded 
as  a  writer  hostile  to  religion.  But,  however  short  his 
orthodoxy  might  fall  if  tried  by  the  standards  of  any 
particular  church,  his  temperament  was  pre-eminently  a 
religious  one.  This  fact  is  shown  conspicuously  in  his 
letters,  where  he  had  no  reason  for  making  any  secret  of 
his  opinions.  The  belief  in  a  God,  all- wise,  all-just,  and 
all-merciful,  governing  the  world  providentially  for  the 
best,  pervades  all  his  works,  his  correspondence,  and  his 
life.  Nor  had  he  any  wish  to  undermine  established 
beliefs,  except  where  he  conceived  that  they  conflicted 
with  a  truer  religion  and  a  purer  morality. 

To  the  public  ordinances  of  the  church  he  scrupulously 
conformed.  But,  unfortunately,  there  were  many  things 
both  in  the  teaching  and  the  practice  of  the  ecclesiastics 
of  that  day  which  were  calculated  to  repel  men  of  sober 
judgment  and  high  principle.  These  evil  tendencies  in 
the  popular  presentation  of  Christianity  undoubtedly 
begot  in  Shaftesbury's  mind  a  certain  amount  of  repug- 
nance and  contempt  to  some  of  the  doctrines  of  Christianity 
itself ;  and,  cultivating,  almost  of  set  purpose,  his  sense  of 
the  ridiculous,  he  was  too  apt  to  assume  towards  such 
doctrines  .and  their  teachers  a  tone  of  raillery  and  banter, 
which  sometimes  even  approaches  grimace. 

But,  whatever  might  be  Shaftesbury's  speculative 
opinions  or  his  mode  of  expressing  them,  all  witnesses 
concur  in  bearing  testimony  to  the  elevation  and  purity  of 
his  life  and  aims.  Molesworth,  who  had  no  special  reason 
for  flattering  him,  speaks  of  him  as  "possessing  right 
reason  in  a  more  eminent  degree  than  the  rest  of  man- 
kind," and  of  his  character  as  "  the  highest  that  the  per- 
fection of  human  nature  is  capable  of."  Even  Warburton, 
in  his  dedication  of  the  Divine  Legatitm  to  the  free- 
thinkers, is  compelled  to  "  own  that  this  lord  had  many 


SHAFTESBURY 


733 


»<x(!ellent  qualities,  both  as  a  man  and  a  writer.     He  was 
temperate,  chaste,  honest,  and  a  lover  of  his  country." 

As  an  earnest  student,  an  ardent  lover  of  liberty,  an  en- 
insiast  in  the  cause  of  virtue,  and  a  man  of  unblemished 
life  and  untiring  beneficence,  Shaftesbury  probably  had  no 
superior  in  his  generation.  His  character  aOd  pursuits  are 
the  more  remarkable,  considering  the  rank  of  life  in  which 
he  was  born  and  the  circumstances  under  which  he  was 
brought  up.  In  many  respects  he  reminds  us  of  the  impe- 
rial philosopher  Marcus  Aurelius,  whose  works  we  know 
him  to  have  studied  with  avidity,  and  whose  influence  is 
unmistakably  stamped  upon  his  own  productions. 

Most  of  Shaftesbury's  writings  have  been  already  mentioned. 
In  addition  to  these  there  have  been  published  fourteen  letters 
from  Shaftesbury  to  Molesworth,  edited  by  Toland  in  1721  ; 
some  letters  to '  Benjamin  Furly,  his  sons,  and  his  clerk  Harry 
Wilkinson,  included  in  a  volume  entitled  Original  Letters  of 
Locke,  Sidney,  and  ShafUsiury,  which  was  published  by  Mr  T. 
Forster  in  1830,  and  again  in  an  enlarged  foiTO  in  1847  ;  three 
letters,  written  respectively  to  Stringer,  Lord  Oxford,  and  Lord 
Godolphin,  whicli  appeared,  for  tlie  first  time,  in  the  General 
DicliOTUiry ;  and  lastly  a  letter  to  Le  Clerc,  in  his  recollections  of 
Locke,  first  published  in  NoUs  and.  Queries,  Feb.  8,  1851.  The 
Letters  to  a  Young  3fan,  at  tlie  University  [Michael  Ainswortli], 
already  mentioned,  were  first  published  in  1716,  it  being  uncertain 
by  whom.  The  Letter  on  Design  was  first  published  in  the  edition 
of  the  Characteristics  issued  in  1732.  Besides  the  published  ^vrit- 
ings,  there  are  stOl  to  be  found  several  memoranda,  letters,  rough 
drafts,  etc.,  in  the  Shaftesbury  papers  in  the  Record  Office. 

Shaftesbury,  it  is  plain,  took  great  pains  in  the  elaboration  of  his 
style,  and  he  succeeded  so  far  as  to  make  his  meaning  trans- 
parent. The  thought  is  always  clear.  But,  on  tho  other  hand,  he 
did  not  ecjually  succeed  in  attaining  elegance,  an  object  at  which 
he  seems  equally  to  have  aimed.  There  is  »  curious  affectation 
about  his  style, — a  falsetto  note, — which,  notvlthstanding  all  his 
efforts  to  please,  is  often'  irritating  to  the  reader,  its  main 
characteristic  is  perhaps  best  hit  oft  by  Charles  Lamb  when  he 
calls  it  "genteel.  He  poses  too  much  as  a  fine  gentleman,  and  is 
so  anxious  not  to  be  taken  for  a  pedant  of  the  vulgar  scholastic 
kind  that  ho  falls  into  the  hardly  more  attractive  pedantry  of 
the  aisthete  and  virtuoso.  But,  notwithstanding  these  defects,  he 
possesses  the  great  merits  of  being  easUy  read  and  easily  under- 
stood. Hence,  probably,  the  wide  popularity,  which  his  wo  ks 
enjoyed  in  the  last  century  ;  and  hence,  undoubtedly,  thcagreealle 
feeling  with  which,  notwithstanding  all  their  false  taste  and  their 
tiresome  digressions,  they  still  impress  tho  modem  reader. 

It  is  mainly  as  a  moralist  that  Shaftesbury  has  a  clafm  to  a 
place  in  the  history  of  literature  and  philosophy.  L'ke  most  of 
the  ethical  writers  of  his  time  his  first  impulse  to  speculation,  or 
at  least  to  publication,  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  a  desire  to 
combat  the  still  fashionable  paradoxes  of  Hobbcs,  and  to  arrest  tho 
progress  of  doctrines  at  which  sbciety  still  continued  to  bo  seriously 
alarmed.  Hence  it  became  his  main  concern  to  assert  the  reality 
and  independence  of  our  benevolent  affections,  and  to  show  that 
these  and  the  acts  which  result  from  them  ate  what  mainly  elicit 
the  feeling  of  moral  approbation.  This  work  ho  appears  to  have 
conceived  it  his  special  mission  to  undertake,  not  as  a  "peefant" 
or  a  "Schoolman,"  but  as  a  "man  of  taste."  It  was  probably 
in  accordance  with  this  conception  that  he  refrained  from  using 
the  language  about  tho  "laws  of  nature"  which  had  hitherto 
been  current  in  ethical  treatises,  and  that  he  preferred  to  represent 
morality  as  a  matter  of  "taste,"  "sentiment,"  or  "affection," 
lather  than  as  dictated  simply  by  reason. 

Tho  leading  ideas  in  Shaftesbury's  ethical  theory  are  those  of  a 
eystcm,  or  the  relation  of  parts  to  a  whole,  benevolence,  moral 
beauty,  and  a  moral  sense. 

The  individual  man  hijnself  Is  a  systein  conslstln(»  of  varlotu 
•ppetitvs,  passions,  and  aQ'ections,  all  united  under  the  Bupremo 
control  of  reason.  ■  Of  this  system  the  parts  arc  so  nicely  adjusted 
to  each  other  that  any  lUsarrangement.  or  disproportion,  however 
slight,  may  mar  and  d:9ligure  tho  whole.  "Whoever  is  In  the  least 
versed  in  'his  moral  kind  of  architeotnre  will  find  the  inward  fabrio 
so  adjusted,  and  the  wliolo  so  nicely  built,  that  the  barely  extending 
of  a  single  passion  a  little  too  far,  or  tho  continuance  of  it  too  long, 
is  able  to  bring  irrecoverable  ruin  and  misery." 

But  morality  and  human  nature  cannot  be  adequately  studied 
in  the  system  of  tho  individual  man.  There  are  parts  in  thj^t 
system,  both  mental  and  bodily,  which  have  an  evident  respect  to 
something  outside  it.  Neither  man  nor  any  other  aniniair  though 
ever  so  complete  a  system  of  parts  as  to  all  within,  can  bo  allowed 
in  the  same  manner  complete  as  to  all  without ;  ho  must  bo  con- 
sidered as  having  a  further  relation  abroad  to  the  system  of  liia 
kind.  So  even  this  syatein  of  his  kind  to  the  aniinal  system; 
Ibis  to  tho  world  (our  lai  th) ;  and  this  again  to  the  bigger  world 


and  to  the  universe.  No  being  can  properly  be  called  good  or  ill 
except  in  reference  to  the  systems  of  which  ho  is  a  part.  "  When, 
in  general,  all  the  affections  or  passions  are  suited  to  the  public 
good  or  end  of  tho  species,  then  is  the  natural  temper  entirely 
good.  If,  on  the  contrary,  any  requisite  passion  be  wanting,  or 
if  there  bo  any  one  supernumerary  or  weak,  or  anywise  disserviceable 
or  contrary  to  that  main  end,  then  is  the  natural  temper,  and 
consequently  tho  creature  himself,  in  fiomo  measure  corrupt  and 
ilL"  Hence  it  follows  that  benevolence,  if  not  tho  sole,  is  at 
least  the  principal  moral  virtue. 

The  idea  of  a  moral  and  social  system,  the  parts  of  which  are  in 
a  constant  proportion  to  each  other,  and  so  nicely  adjusted  that 
the  slightest  disaiTaugement  would  mar  the  unity  of  design, 
almost  necessarily  suggests  an  analogy  between  morality  and  art 
As  the  beauty  of  an  extei-nal  object  consists  in  a  certain  pro- 
portion between  its  parts,  or  in  a  cei-tain  harmony  of  colouring,  so 
the  beauty  of  a  virtuous  character  consists  in  a  certain  proportion 
between  the  various  affections,  erin  a  certain  harmonious  blending 
of  the  various  springs  of  action  as  they  contribute  to  promote  the 
great  ends  of  our  being.  Aud  similarly,  we  may  suppose,  the 
beauty  of  a  virtuous  action  would  bs  esplaiiiied  as  consisting  in  its 
relation  to  the  virtuous  character  in  which  it  has  its  source,  or  to 
the  other  acts  of  a  virtuous  life,  or  to  tho  general  condition  of  a 
virtuous  state  of  society.  This  analogy  between  art  and  morality, 
or,  as  it  may  otherwise  be  expressed,  between  the  beauty  of 
external  objects  and  the  beauty  of  actions  or  characters,  is  never 
long  absent  from  Shaftesbury's  mind.  Closely  connected  with  it 
is  the  idea  that  morals,  no  less  than  art,  is  a  matter  of  taste  or 
relish. 

This  idea  leads  ns  to  the  last  of  the  distinctive  features  in 
Shaftesbury's  ethical  philosophy.  Tho  faculty  which  approves  of 
right  and  disapproves  of  wrong  actions  is  with  him  a  sense,  and 
more  than  once  he  anticipates  ilutcheson  by  calling  it  a  "moral 
sense,"  an  expression,  indeed,  which  he  may  be  said  to  have 
contributed  to  the  English  language.  This  "sense  of  right  and 
WTong"  is  "  as  natural  to  us  as  natural  affection  itself,"  and  "a 
first  principle  in  our  constitution  and  make."  At  the  same  time 
it  includes  a  certain  amount  of  judgment  or  reflexion,  that  is  to 
say,  a  rational  element.  Shaftesbury's  doctrine  on  this  head  may, 
perhaps,  briefly  be  summed  up  as  follows.  Each  man  has  from 
the  first  a  natural  sense  of  right  and  wrong,  a  "  moral  sense  "  or 
"  conscience  "  (all  which  expressions  he  employs  as  synonymous). 
This  sense  is,  in  its  natural  condition,  wholly  or  mainly  emotional, 
but,  as  it  admits  of  constant  education  and  improvement,  the 
rational  or  reflective  element  in  it  gradu.illy  becomes  more  pro- 
minent. Its  decisions  are  generally  described  as  if  they  were 
immediate,  and,  beyond  the  occasional  recognition  of  a  rational 
as  well  as  an  emotional  element,  little  or  no  attempt  is  made  to 
analyse  it.  It  was  reserved  for  Hume  properly  to  discriminate 
between  these  two  elements,  and  to  point  out  that,  while  the 
feeling  of  moral  approbation  or  disapprobation  is  instantaneous, 
the  moral  judgment  which  precedes  it  is  often  the  result  of  an 
intellectual  process  of  considerable  length  and  jierplexity. 

It  may  be  sufficient  to  supplement  this  brief  survey. of  Shaftes- 
bury's system  by  a  still  briefer  summary  of  the  answera,  so  far  as 
they  can  be  collected  from  his  works,  which  he  would  have  given 
to  the  principal  questions  of  ethics  as  they  are  now  usually  pro- 
pounded. His  answers  to  these  questions  are,  as  it  appears  to  the 
present  writer,  that  our  moral  ideas — the  distinctions  of  virtue 
and  vice,  right  and  wrong — are  to  be  found  in  the  very  make  and 
constitution  of  our  nature  ;  that  morality  is  independent;  of 
theology,  actions  being  denominated  good  or  just,  not  by  tho 
arbitrary  will  of  God  (as  had  recently  been  maintained  by  Locke), 
but  in  virtue  of  some  quality  existing  in  themselves  ;  that  tho 
ultimate  test  of  a  right  action  is  its  tendency  to  promote  tho 
general  welfare  ;  that  wo  have  a  peculiar  organ,  the  moral  sense-, 
analogous  to  taste  in  art,  by  which  wo  discriminate  between 
characters  and  actions  as  good  or  bad  ;  that  the.  higher  natures 
among  nionkiud  are  impelled  to  right  action,  and  deterred  from 
wrong  action,  partly  by  the  moral  Muse,  partly  by  tho  lovs  and 
reverence  of  a  just  and  goou  God,  wliilo  the  lower  natures  an 
mainly  influenced  by  tho  opinions  of  others,  or  by  the  hope  of 
reward  and  the  fear  of  punishment ;  that  apitctito  and  roasou 
botk  ooDcnr  in  tho  Uotcrmination  of  action  ;  lastly,  th«t  tlio 
questioo  whether  tho  will  does  or  does  not  possess  any  froe4o:Tt  «* 
choice.  Irrespectively  of  character  ond  motivn,  ia  un*  (at  !iua>,  •>. 
wo  may  gather  from  Shaftesbury's  reticence)  which  it  docs  not 
"concern  the  moralist  to  solve. . 

The  close  resemblnnco  of  Hntcheson's  speculations  to  those  of 
Shaftesbury,  amounting  sometimes  to  identity,  will  bo  oppnront  on 
reference  to  tho  account  of  thot  philosopher  (vol.  xii.  i>p.  409-11). 
Next  to  llobbes,  the  niornlist  with  whoso  views  Shaftesbury's  stand 
in  most  direct  antagonism  is  Locko,  who  not  only  maintained 
that  moral  distinctions  dcjwnd  solely  on  the  arliitrary  will  of  God, 
but  tli.it  tho  sanctions  by  which  they  are  mainly  unforced  are  tho 
hope  of  future  reward  and  the  f««r  of  fiituro  punishment.  "By 
tlm  f'<'Ol  ix    lli>.  rod,  uud  with  tho  transgression  a  fire  nad;  ta 


734 


S  fl  A  — S  H  A 


punish  it."  Shaftesbury's  was  m  reality,  though  perhaps  uot  in 
appearance,  a  more  triily  religious  philosophy.  For  with  him 
the  incentives  to  well-doing  and  the  deterrents  from  evil-doing  are 
to  be  sought  not  solely,  or  even  mainly,  in  the  opinion  of  man- 
kind, or  in  the  rewards  and  punishments  of  the  magistrate,  or  in 
the  hopes  and  terrors  of  a  future  world,  but  in  the  answer  of  a 
good  conscience  approving  rirtue  and  disapproving  vice,  and  in 
the  love  of  a  God,  who,  by  His  infinite  wisdom  and  His  all- 
embracing  beneficence,  is  worthy  of  the  love  and  aitmiration  of 
His  creatures. 

The  main  object  of  the  Moralists  is  to  propound  a  system  of 
natural  theology,  and  to  vindicate,  so  far  as  natural  religion  is 
ooncemcd,  the  ways  of  God  to  man.  The  articles  of  Shaftesbury's 
religious  creed  were  few  and  simple,  bat  these  he  entertained 
with  a  conviction  amounting  to  enthusiasm.  They  may  briefly  be 
summed  up  as  a  belief  in  one  God  whose  most  characteristic 
attribute  is  universal  benevolence,  in  the  moral  government  of 
the  universe,  and  in  a  future  state  of  man  making  up  for  the 
imperfections  and  repairing  the  inequalities  of  the  present  life. 
Shaftesbury  is  emphatically  an  optimist,  but  there  is  a  passage  in 
the  Moralists  (pt.  ii  sect.  4)  which  would  lead  us  to  suppose 
that  he  regarded  matter  as  au  indifterent  principle,  co-existeut  and 
co-«ternal  with  God,  limiting  His  operations,  and  the  cause  of  the 
evil  and  imperfection  which,  notwithstanding  the  benevolence  of 
the  Creator,  is  still  to  be  found  in  His  work.  If  this  view  of  his 
optimism  be  correct,  Shaftesbury,  as  Mill  says  of  Leibnitz,  must 
be  regarded  as  maintaining,  not  that  this  is  the  best  of  all 
imaginable  but  only  of  all  possible  worlds.  This  brief  notice  of 
Shaftesbury's  scheme  of  natural  religion,  would  be  conspicuously 
imperfect  unless  it  were  added  that  it  is  popularized  in  Pope's  Essaij 
on  Man,  several  lines  of  which,  especially  of  the  first  epistle,  are 
'simply  statements  from  the  Moralists  done  into  verse.  Whether, 
however,  these  were  taken  immediately  by  Pope  from  Shaftesbury, 
or  whether  they  came  to  him  through  the  papers  which  Boling- 
broke  had  prepared  for  his  use,  we  have  no  means  of  determining. 
Shaftesbury's  philosophical  activity  was  confined  to  ethics, 
ffisthetics,  and  religion.  For  metaphysics,  properly  so  called,  and 
even  psychology,  except  so  far  as  it  .afforded  a  basis  for  ethics,  he 
evidently  had  no  taste.  Logic  he  probably  despised  as  merely  an 
instrument  of  pedants, — a  judgment  for  which,  in  his  day,  and 
especially  at  the  universities,  there  was  only  too  much  ground. 

The  influence  of  Shaftesbury's  writings  was  very  considerable 
both  at  home  and  abroad.  His  ethical  system  was  reproduced, 
though  in  a  more  precise  and  philosophical  form,  by  Hiitcheson, 
and  from  him  descended,  with  certain  variations,  to  Hume  and 
Adam  Smith.  Nor  was  it  without  its  effect  even  on  the  specula- 
tions of  Butler.  Of  the  so-called  deists  Shaftesbury  was  probably 
the  most  important,  as  he  was  certainly  the  most  plausible  and 
the  most  respectable.  No  sooner  had  the  Characteristics  appeared 
than  they  were  welcomed,  in  terms  of  warm  commendation,  by  Le 
Clerc  and  Leibnitz.  In  1745  Diderot  adapted  or  reproduced  the 
Inquiry  concerning  Virtue  in  what  was  afterwards  known  as  his 
Essai  sur  le  Mirite  et  la  Verlu.-  In  1769  a  French  translation  of 
the  whole  of  Shaftesbury's  works,  including  the  Letters,  was 
published  at  .Geneva.  'Translations  of  separate  treatises  into 
German  began  to  be  made  in.  1738,  and  in  1776-1779  there 
appeared  a  complete  German  translation  of  the  Characteristics. 
Hermann  Hettner  says  that  not  only  Leibnitz,  Voltaire,  and 
Diderot,  but  Lessing,  Mendelssohn,  Wieland,  and  Herder,  drew 
the  most  stimulating  nutriment  from  Shaftesbury.  "  His  charms," 
he  adds,  "are  ever  fresh.  •  A  new-born  Hellenism,  or  divine  cultus 
of  beauty  presented  itSelf  before  his  inspired  soul."  Herder  is 
especially  eulogistic.  In  the  Adraslea  he  pronounces  the  Moralists 
to  be  a  composition  in  form  well-nigh  worthy  of  Grecian  antiquity, 
and  in  its  contents  almost  superior  to  it  The  interest  felt  by  Ger- 
man literary  men  in  Shaftesbury  has  been  recently  revived  by  the 
publication  of  two  e.xcellcnt  moiiographs,  one  dealing  with  him 
mainly  from  the  theological  side  by  Dr  Gideon  Spicker  (Freiburg 
in  Baden,  1872),  the  other  dealing  with  him  mainly  from  the  philo- 
sophical side  by  Dr  Georg  von  Gizycki  (Leipsic,  1876). 

Iq  the  foregoing  article  the  writer  has  made  free  use  of  his  monORraph  on 
Shaftesbury  and  Hutcliesnn  in  the  series  of  "English  philosophers"  (1882), 
published  by  Sampson  Low  &  Co.  In  that  woik  he  was  able  largely  to  sup- 
plement the  printed  materials  for  the  Life  by  extracts  from  the  Shaftesbury 
papers  now  deposited  In  the  Record  Office.  These  include,  besides  many  letters 
^d  memoranda,  two  lives  of  him,  composed  by  his  son,  the  fourth  earl,  one  of 
IThlch  is  evidently  the  oilginil,  though  it  is  by  no  means  always  closely  followed, 
of  the  Life  contributed  by  Dr  Birch  to  the  General  Dictionary.  For  a  descrip- 
tion snd  criticism  of  Shaftesbury's  philosophy  reference  may  also  be  made  to 
Mackintosh's  Frogrea  of  Ethical  Philosophy^  Wjewell's  History  of  Moral 
Vhiloiophy  in  England,  Jouffroy's  Introduction  to  Ethics  (Channing's  transla- 
fcion),  Leslie  Stephen's  English  Thought  in  the  Eighteenth  Century.  Martineau's 
Types  of  Ethical  Theory,  and  the  article  Ethics  in  the  present  work  (vol.  Tiii. 

£p.  699,  600).  For  his  relation  to  the  religious  and  theological  controversies  of 
la  day,  lee,  In  addition  to  some  of  the  above  works,  Leland's  View  of  the 
Principal  Deiaticat  Writers.  Lechler's  Oeschichte  des  Englischen  Dei.^mus,  Hunt's 
Reiigious  Thought  in  England,  •Abbey  and  Overton's  English  Church  in  the 
£ighitenth  Century,  and  A.  S.  Farrar's  Bampton  Lectures.  C^.  F.) 

SHAFTESBURY,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  Seventh 
Eari  of  (1801-1885),  was  the  son  of  Cropley,  sixth  earl, 


and  Anne,  daughter  of  the  third  duke  of  Marlboroagli,  and 
was  born  28th  April  1801.  He  was  eaucated  at  Harrow 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  obtained  a  first  class 
in  classics  in  1822,  and  graduated  M.A,  in  1832.  In 
1841  he  received  from  his  university  the  degree  of  D.C.L. 
He  entered  parliament  as  member  for  the  pocket  borough 
of  Woodstock  in  1826;  in  1830  he  was  returned  for 
Dorchester;  from  1831  till  February  1846  he  represented 
the  county  of  Dorset ;  and  he  was  member  for  Bath  from 
1847  till  (having  previously  borne  the  courtesy  title 
Lord  Ashley)  he  succeeded  his  father  as  earl  in  1851. 
Although  giving  a  general  support  to  the  Conservatives, 
his  parliamentary  conduct  was  greatly  modified  by  his 
intense  interest  in  the  improvement  of  the  social  condition 
of  the  working  classes,  his  efforts  in  behalf  of  whom  have 
made  his  name  a  household  word.  He  opposed  the  Reform 
Bill  of  1832,  bat  was  a  supporter  of  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion, and  his  objection  to  the  continuance  of  resistance  to 
'the  abolifion  of  the  Corn  Laws  led  him  to  reSign  his  seat 
for  Dorset  in  1846.  In  parliament  his  name,  more  than 
any  other,  is  associated  'with  the  factory  legislation  (see 
Factory  Acts,  vol.  viii:  p.  845).  He  was  a  lord  of  the 
admiralty  under  Sir  Robert  Peel  (1834—35),  but  on  being 
invited  to  join  Peel's  administration  in  1841 .  refused, 
having  been  unable  to  obtain  Peel's  support  for  the  Ten 
Hours'  Bill.  Chiefly  by  his  persistent  efforts  a  Ten  Hours' 
BiU  was  carried  in  1847,  but  its  operation  was  impeded 
by  legal  difficulties,  which  were  only  removed  by  successive 
Acts,  instigated  chiefly  by  him,  until  legislation  reached 
a  final  stage  in  the  Factory  Act  of  1874.  The  part  which 
he  took  in  the  legislation  bearing  on  coal  mines  was  equally 
prominent;  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  his  efforts  in 
behalf  of  the  practical  'welfare  of  the  working  classes  were 
guided  by  his  own  personal  knowledge  of  their  circum- 
stances and  wants.  Thus  in  1846  he  took  advantage  of 
his  leisure  after  the  resignation  of  his  seat  for  Dorset  to 
explore  the  slums  of  the  metropolis,  and  by  the  informa- 
tion he  obtained  not  only  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  move- 
ment for  the  establishment  of  ragged  schools,  but  was  able 
to  make  it  more  'widely  beneficial  For  over  forty  years 
he  was  president  of  the  Ragged  School  Union.  He  was 
also  one  of  the  principal  founders  of  reformatory  and 
refuge  unions,  young  men's  Christian  associations,  and 
working  men's  institutes.  He  took  an  active  interest  in 
foreign  missions,  and  was  president  of  several  of  the  most 
important  philanthropic  and  religious  societies  of  Ldndon. 
He  died  1st  October  1885.  By  his  marriage  to  Lady 
Emily,  daughter  of  the  fifth  Earl  Ccjwper,  he  left  a  large 
family,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son  Anthony,  who 
committed  suicide  shortly  afterwards. 

SHAGREEN.  See  Leather,  vol  xiv.  p.  390,  and 
Shark. 

SHAiL^JBAD,  a  British  district  in  the  Patna  division 
of  the- lieutenant-governorship  of  Bengal,  India,  between 
24°  31'  and  25°  43'  N.  lat.  and  between  83°  23'  and 
84°  55'  E.  long.,  ■with  an  area  of  4365  square  miles.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  district  of  Ghazipur  in  the 
North-Western  Provinces  and  by  Saran,  on  the  E.  by 
Patna  and  GayA  districts,  on  the  8.  by  Lohardaga,  and 
on  the  W.  by  Mirzapur,  Benares,  and  Ghazipur  districts 
of  the  North- Western  Provinces.  About  three-fourths  of 
the  whole  area  lying  to  the  north  is  an  alluvial  flat,  wholly 
under  cultivation,  and  fairly  planted  with  mangoes,  bam- 
boos, and  other  trees ;  while  the  southern  portion  of  the 
district  is  occupied  by  the  Kaimur  Hills,  a  branch  of  the 
great  Vindhyan  range,  and  is  a  densely  wooded  tract. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Ganges  and  the  Son,  which  unite 
in  the  north-eastern  corner  of  Shih4b4d.  A  series  of  canals 
on  the  Son  are  reported  to  have  secured  for  the  district 
immunity  from  future  famine.     In  the  southern  oortion 


S  H  A  —  S  H  A 


735 


'If  the  district  large  game  abounds,  including  the  tiger, 
bear,  leopard,  and  several  varieties  of  deer ;  and  among 
other  animals  met  with  are  the  wild  boar,  hyxna,  jiJckal, 
and  fox.  The  nylghau  is  seen  on  the  Kaimur  Hills.  The 
climate  is  very  sultry,  and  the  rains  hea\'y.  The  East  Indian 
Railway  traverses  the  north  of  the  district  for  CO  miles, 
and  the  aggregate  length  of  roads  is  about  1000  miles. 

The  census  of  1881  disclosed  a  population  of  1,964,909  (males 
950,250,  females  1,014,6S9);  Hindus  numbered  1,817,881,  Moham- 
inedans  146,732,  and  Christians  274.  Four  towns  contain  a 
population  exceeding  10,000,  -  viz.,  Arrah  42,998,  Dumraon 
17,429,  Baxar  16,493,  and  Jagdispur  12,563.  The  administrative 
headcjnarters  of  the  district  are  at  Arrah.  The  cliief  staple  of 
Shdhabad  is  rice,  which  produces  three  crops  during  the  year ; 
wheat,  barley,  maize,  cereals,  and  various  other  plants  are  also 
grown.  The  principal  manufactures  of  the  district  are  sugar, 
paper,  saltpetre,  blanket.?,  coarse  cotton  cloth,  and  brass  utensils. 
Its  trade  is  chiefly  carried  on  by  means  of  permanent  markets  in 
the  town  and  at  fairs.  The  principal  exports  are  rice,  wheat, 
barley,  pulses,  grain,  oats,  linseed,  carraway  seed,  paper,  and  spices ; 
imports  consist  of  cleaned  rice,  betel-nut,  tobacco,  sugar,  molasses, 
salt,  pepper,  cotton,  iron,  brass,  zinc,  copper,  lead,  tin,  and  betel- 
leaf.  The  revenue  of  Shdhabad  district  in  1883-84  amounted  to 
£253,642,  of  which  the  land  j-ielded  £171,263.  The  southern 
part  of  the  district  was  ceded  to  the  British  by  Shah  Alum, 
emperor  of  Delhi  in  17C5,  and  the  northern  part  by  Azuf-ud- 
Dowlah,  vizier  of  Oudh,  ten  years  later. 

SHAH  JAhAn,  Mogul  emperor  from  1627  to  1658. 
See  In'dia,  vol.  xii.  p.  795. 

SHi.HJ^\ili.NPUR,  the  easternmost  district  of  the 
Eohilkhand  division  in  the  lieutenant-governorship  of  the 
North-Western  Provinces  of  British  India,  lying  between 
27°  36'. an*  28"  29'  N.  lat.  and  between  79°  23'  and 
80°  20'  E.  long.  It  has  an  area  of  1746  square  miles,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  N.W.  by  Pilibhit,  ^on  the  E.  by 
Hardoi  and  Kheri,  on  the  S.  by  the  Ganges,  separating  it 
from  Farukhabad,  and  on  the  W.  by  Budaun  and  Bar- 
eilly.  The  district  consists  of  a  long  and  narrow  tract 
running  up  from  the  Ganges  towards  the  Himalayas,  and 
is  for  the  most  part  level  and  without  any  hills  or 
considerable  undulations.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Gumti,  Ivhanaut,  GarAi,  and  lUmganga.  The  last-named 
is  the  main  waterway  of  the  district,  and  is  navigable 
as  far  as  Kola  Ghat  near  JalAUbdd,  whence  grain  is 
shipped  for  the  Ganges  ports.  To  the  north-east  beyond 
Gumti  the  country  resembles  the  tarai  in  the  preponder- 
ance of  waste  and  forest  over  cultivated  land,  in  the  sparse- 
ness  of  population,  and  in  general  unhealthiness.  Between 
the  Gumti  and  the  Khanaut  the  country  varies  from  a 
rather  wild  and  unhealthy  northern  region  to  a  densely 
inhabited  tract  in  the  south,  with  a  productive  soil  well 
cultivated  with  sugar-cane  and  other  remunerative  crops. 
The  section  between  th'a  Deoha  and  Gaiki  comprises 
much  marshy  land ;  but  south  of  the  Gardi,  and  between 
it  and  thfc  R-lmganga,  the  soil  is  mostly  of  a  sandy  nature. 
From  Rimganga  to  the  Ganges  in  the  south  is  a  continuous 
low  country  of  marshy  patches  alternating  vrith  a  hard 
clayey  soil  requiring  much  irrigation  in  parts.  Sh.ih- 
jahAnpur  contains  a  number  of  jhils  or  lakes,  which  afford 
irrigation  for  the  spring  crops  in  their  neighbourhood. 
The  Oudh  and  Rohilkband  Railway  traverses  the  district 
a  distance  of  39  miles.  The  climate  of  the  district  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  most  parts  of  Oudh  and  Rohil- 
kband, but  moister  than  that  of  the  Doab.  Except  in  May 
and  June,  the  country  has  a  fresh  and  green  appearance. 
Its  average  annual  rainfall  is  about  38  inches. 

In  1881  the  population  of  Shahjahdnpur  nnmbcred  858,9<8 
(males  460,004,  females  890,882),  of  whom  73.'),244  were  Hindus 
and  120,214  were  Mohammedans.  The  district  contains  only  two 
towns  with  a  population  exceeding  10,000,  viz.,  Siiaiijaiiani'UK 
(q.v.)  and  Tilliar  (15,351).  Of  the  total  area  of  1746  luiu.are  miles 
1090  were  under  cnltivation  in  1883-84,  and  4C4  were  rcturnrd  as 
cnltivablo.  The  chief  agricultural  products  aro  wlicat  and  gram  I 
in  spring,  and  in  the  autumn  sugar-cano,  rico,  joar,  and  bajra,  and-4 


several  kinds  of  pulses.  Exports  aro  chiefly  sugar,  grain  of  all 
kinds,  pulses,  indigo,  cotton,  and  timber,  and  the  imports  are 
mainly  European  goods,  metals,  arid  salt.  The  gross  revenue 
raised  in  the'district  in  1883-84  amounted  to  £186,162,  of  which 
the  land  contributed  £118,638.  The  only  manufactures  of  any 
importance  under  European  snper^'ision  aro  those  of  sugar  and 
rum  and  of  indigo.  Shdhjahanpur  was  ceded  to  the  English  by 
treaty  in  1801.  During  the  mutiny  of  1857  it  became  the  sceno 
of  open  rebellion.  The  Europeans  were  attacked  when  in  church ; 
three  were  shot  down,  but  the  remainder,  aided  by  a  hundred 
faithful  sepoys,  escaped.  The  force  under  Lord  Clyde  put  a  stop 
to  the  anarchy  in  April  1858,  and  shortly  afterwards  peaca  and 
autliority  were  rctoreJ. 

SHAHJAHAxPUR,  municipal  town  and  administra- 
tive headquarters  of  the  above  clistrict,  lies  in  27°  53'  41" 
N.  lat.  and  79°  57'  30"  E.  long.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Deoha.  It  is  a  large  place,  with  some  stately  old  mosques 
and  a  castle  now  in  ruins.  The  city  was  founded  in 
1647  during  the  reign  of  Shdh  Jahin,  whose  name  it  bears, 
by  Nawdb  Bahadur  Khdn,  a  Fathin.  It  has  a  considerable 
export  trade  in  cereals,  pulses,  and  sugar.  In  1881  the 
population  was  74,830  (36,840  males,  and  37,990  females). 

SHAHPUR,  the  southernmost  district  of  the  Rawal 
Pindi  division  in  the  lieutenant-governorship  of  the 
Punjab,  India,  between  31°  32'  and  32°  42'  N.  lat.  and 
between  71°  37'  and  73°  24'  E.  long.,  with  an  area  of 
4691  square  miles.  The  district  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
the  Jhelum  district,  on  the  E.  by  Gujrdt  and  the  Chenab, 
on  the  S.  by  Jhang,  and  on  the  W.  and  N.W.  by  Dera 
Ismail  Khan  and  Bannu.  On  both  sides  of  the  Jhelum 
stretch  wide  upland  plains,  utterly  barren  or  covered  only 
with  brushwood ;  a  considerable  portion  of  this  area,  how- 
ever, is  composed  of  good  soil,  only  requiring  irrigation  to 
make  it  productive.  The  most  important  physical  sub- 
divisions of  the  district  are  the  Salt  range  in  the  north, 
the  valleys  of  the  Chendb  and  Jhelum,  and  the  plains 
between  those  rivers  and  between  the  Jhelum  and  the 
Salt  range.  The  characteristics  of  these  two  plains  are 
widely  different :  the  desert  portion  of  the  southern  plain 
is  termed  the  bar;  the  corresponding  tract  north  of  the 
Jhelum  is  known  as  the  thai.  That  part  of  Shdhpur'to 
the  north  of  the  Jhelum  is  by  far  the  most  interesting, 
containing  as  it  does  such  varieties  of  scenery  and  climate, 
such  contrasts  of  soil,  vegetation,  and  natural  capabilities. 
Communications  are  carried  on  by  well-made  roads,  by 
the  Jhelum,  which  is  navigable  for  country  craft  through- 
out its  course  within  the  district,  and  by  52  miles  of  the 
Salt  branch  of  the  Punjab  Northern  State  Railway.  Tho 
climate  of  the  plains  is  hot  and  dry,  but  in  the  Salt 
range  it  is  much  cooler ;  tho  average  annual  rainfall  is 
about  15  inches.  Tigers,  leopards,  and  wolves  are  found 
in  the  Salt  range,  while  small  game  and  antelope  abound 
among  the  thick  jungle  of  tho  bar. 

Tho  census  of  1881  disclosed  a  population  of  421,508  (males 
221,676,  females  199,832);  of  these  59,020  were  Hindus  and 
857,742  were  Mohammedans.  Tho  only  town  in  the  dbtrictwith 
more  than  10,000  inhabitants  is  Bhera,  with  15,165;  but  tho 
administrative  headquarters  of  tho  district  aro  at  the  small  town 
of  Sh.ihpur  on  tho  Jhelum  river,  tho  population  of  which  in  1881 
was  5424.  Of  the  total  area  only  871  square  milcs.<wero  under 
cultivation  in  1883-84,  and  3053  square  miles  were  returned  as 
cultiTablc.  Wheat  is  tho  chief  stai)le,  and  covers  nearly  a  half  of 
the  cultivated  area  ;  bajra  and  cotton  aro  tho  next  most  extensively 
grown  crops  ;  among  other  crops  aro  sugar-cano  and  opium.  Tho 
commercial  importance  of  tho  district  depends  almost  entirely  upon 
its  connexion  with  tho  Salt  range,  mlt  being  found  throughout 
these  hilts.  Tlio  revenue  derived  from  this  product,  Iiowevcr, 
though  collected  in  the  Sliahjiur  district,  cannot  oroiwriv  bo 
credited  to  it,  as  tlio  mineral,  though  abundant  in  tho  Shahnur 
portion  of  tho  range,  is  worked  chicdy  in  that  part  of  it  which  lies 
m  tho  Jhelum  district.  Tho  chief  exports  aro  grain,  rice,  cotton, 
wool,  ghi,  and  snltpetro  ;  the  imports  sugar,  Englisli  picco-goods, 
and  metals.  Ita  innnufacturcs  consist  of  ailk  aud  cotton  scarfs, 
toys,  and  feltand  blankets.  The  gross  revenue  in  1883-84  amounted 
to  £.'i5,290,  of  whi'li  the  laml  cimtributcd  £39,020. 

Shahpur  passed  into  tho  hands  of  the  English  along  with  the 
rest  of  tho  Punjab  on  tlio  suppression  of  tho  Miiltan  rebellioa  in 


736 


S  H  A  — tS  H  A 


1849.  During  tne  mutiny  of  1857  the  district  remained  tranquil, 
'and  though  the  villages  of  the  bar  gave  cause  for  alarm  no  outbreak 
of  sepoys  occuncd.  Since  annexation  the  limits  and  constitution 
of  the  district  have  undergone  many  changes. 

SHAHRASTANl  (1086-1153).  Abu'l-FatL  Mohammed 
ibn  'Abd  al-KarIm,  called  al-ShahrastAal,  a  native  of 
Shahrastin  (Shehristdn)  in  IvliordsAn,  Persia,  was  noted  as 
a  jurisconsult  and  theologian  of  the  Ash'arite  school.  He 
went  to  Baghdad  in  lllG  and  stayed  there  three  years,  but 
afterwards  returned  to  his  native  place,  where  he  died. 
Sam'dni,  the  famous  historian  of  Baghdad,  was  one  of  his 
hearers,  and  to  him  Ibn  Khallikin  (No.  622,  Eng.  tr.  ii. 
675  sq.)  mainly  owes  the  i'ttle  that  is  known  of  Shahra- 
stAnl's  life. 

He  wrote  various  works,  oi  wnica  several  still  exist ;  that  which 
gives  him  a  claim  to  notice  here  is  the  interesting  Kitdb  al-Milal 
wan-Nihal,  or  "Account  of  Eeligious  Sects  and  Philosophical 
Schools,"  published  by  Cureton  in  1846  and  translated  into  German 
by  Haarbriicker  (Halle,  1850-51).  The  book  was  already  used  by 
Pocock  for  his  account  of  the  ancient  Arabs  and  has  been  much 
referred  to  since,  but  has  to  be  read  with  caution,  as  the  author  is 
often  very  uncritical.  It  treats  successively  of  the  Mohammedan 
sects,  of  other  religious  bodies  (Jews,  Samaritans,  Christians, 
Magians,  Wanichseaus,  &c.),  of  philosophical  schools  (including  the 
Greeks),  and  of  the  aucieut  Arabs  and  Indians,  and  contains  a 
great  deal  of  curious  and  valuable  matter. 

SHAIRP,  JoHX  Campbell  (1819-1885),  principal  of 
the  United  College,  St  Andrews,  and  professor  of  poetry 
at  Oxford,  was  'born  at  Houstoun  House,  Linlithgowshire, 
on  July  30,  1819.  He  was  the  third  son  of  Major 
Norman  Shairp  of  Houstoun  and  E.  Binning,  daughter  of 
J.  Campbell  of  Kildaloig,  Argyllshire.  He  was  educated 
at  Edinburgh  Academy  and  Glasgow  University,  where  he 
gained  the  Snell  exhibition,  and  entered  at  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  in  1840.  WTiile  a  stucjent  at  Glasgow  and  an 
undergraduate  at  (Oxford  it  was  his  privilege  to  make 
many  warm  friends-  and  to  be  very  widely  loved.  At 
Glasgow  began  his  lifelong  friendship  with  Dr  Norman 
M'Leod,  while  amcng  those  with  whom  he  was  most 
intimate  at  Oxford  were  the  names  of  Bradley,  Coleridge, 
Temple,  Clough,  Walrond,  Kiddell,  Prichard,  and  Edwin 
Palmer.  In  1812  he  gained  the  Newdigate  prize  for  a 
poem  on  Charles  XXL,  and  in  1814  took  his  degree  with 
second  class  honours.  During  these  years  the  "Oxford 
movement "  was  at  its  height.  Shairp's  earnest  nature 
was  greatly  stirred  by  Newman's  sermons,  while  Keble's 
poetry  spoke  home  to  his  heart ;  but,  though  full  of  warm 
sympathy  for  many  High  Church  views,  he  remained 
faithful  to  his  Presbyterian  upbringing.  After  leaving 
Oxford  he  took  a  mastership  at  Eugby  under  Dr  Tait ; 
here  he  sought  loyally  to  develop  Dr  Arnold's  system  by 
appealing  to  the  better  feelings  of  his  pupils  and  by  giving 
them  wide  views  of  culture  and  education.  And  in  this  he 
was  successful,  making  among  his  pupils  warm  and  lasting 
friends.  In  1857  he  became  assistant  to  the  professor  of 
humanity  in  the  university  of  St  Andrews,  and  in  1861  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  that  chair.  In  1853  he  married 
Eliza,  daughter  of  Henry  Alexander  Douglas,  Kilhead, 
Dumfriesshire,  and  had  one  surviving  son,  John  Campbell, 
who  became  an  advocate  at  the  Scottish  bar.  Shairp  was 
highly  respected  by  the  more  earnest  students,  and  much 
loved  by  some  whose  spiritual  as  well  as  mental  nature  he 
helped  to  qiiicken.  In  1864  he  published  Kilmahoe,  a 
nighland  Pastoral ;  in  this  his  devotion  to  the  scenery  and 
the  people  of  the  Scottish  Highlands,  where  he  always  spent 
his  vacations,  found  vent.  In  this  poem  there  was  a 
directness,  simplicity,  and  moral  earnestness  which  showed 
the  true  poet.  In  1868  he  republished  some  articles  under 
the  name  of  Studies  iyi  Poetry  and  Philosophy  ;  this  book 
showed  him  to  be  one  of  the  foremost  critics  of  his  day ;  the 
chief  subjects  it  discussed  were  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  and 
Keble.  He  insisted  strongly  on  the  high  spiritual  teach- 
ing and  the  deep  poetical  power  of  the  great  lake  bard. 


^^^^ile  not  blina  to  his  many  faults  of  style,  his  occasional 
puerility,  and  his  prosiness,  he  urged  his  claims  as  a 
unique  interpreter  of  Nature  and  a  spiritual  philosopher. 
Coleridge  interested  him  as  a  poet,  but  much  more  as  a 
religious  teacher;  the  Aids  to  Reflection  was  a  favourite 
present  to  his  young  friends,  and  often  gave  a  text  for  liis 
deeper  conversations.  The  most  popular  essay  was  that 
on  Keble,  in  which  he  gave  a  vivid  sketch  of  Newman's 
influence  in  Oxford,  while  he  spoke  of  the  author  of  The 
Christian  Year  with  enthusiasm  as  a  Christian  teacher, 
and  with  discerning  criticism  as  a  poet.  In  1868  he  was 
presented  to  the  principalship  of  the  United  College,  vacant 
by  the  death  of  J.  D.  Forbes  ;  he  discharged  the  duties  of 
this  office  with  conscientious  zeal  and  interest,  and  also  con- 
tinued to  lecture  from  time  to  time  on  literary  and  ethical 
subjects.  A  course  of  the  lectures,  published  in  1870, 
Culture  and  Religion,  is'  one  of  his  most  popular  works.' 
In  1873  he  helped  to  edit  the  life  of  Principal  Forbes, 
and  in  1874  he  edited  Dorothy  Wordsworth's  charming 
Recollections  of  a  Tour  in  Scotland  in  1803-  In  1877  he 
was  elected  professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford  in  succession  to 
Sir  F.  H.  Doyle.  Of  his  lectures  from  this  chair  the  best 
were  published  in  1880  as  Aspects  of  Poetry.  In  1877  hn 
had  published  The  Poetic  Interpretation  of  Nature,  in  which 
he  enters  fully  into  the  "  old  quarrel,"  as  Plato  calls  it, 
between  science  and  poetry,  and  traces  with  great  clear 
ness  and  literary  acumen  the  ideas  of  nature  in  all  the 
chief  Hebrew,  classical,  and  English  poets.  In  1879  ho 
published  a  short  life  of  Robert  Burns.  Such  were  Shairp's 
chief  literary  works,  though  many  uncollected  magazine 
articles  and  a  few  poem's  show  tlie  versatility  of  his  mind ; 
attention  may  be  specially  called  to  his  article  Keble  in 
this  Encyclopedia  as  an  example  of  his  critical  power..  In 
1882  he  was  re-elected  to  the  poetry  chair  and  discharged 
his  duties  there  and  at  St  Andrews  till  the  end  of  1884  ; 
but  his  health  had  been  frail  for  some  time,  and  in  March 
1885  he  sought  a  change  of  air  in  the  Riviera.  He  returned 
in  June,  somewhat  benefited,  but  ho  caught  a  chill  in  the 
autumn,  and,  after  a  short  illness,  died  at  Ormsary,  Argyll- 
shire, on  September  18,  1885. 

SHAKERS  is  the  name  commonly  applied  to  and  not 
rejected  by  a  religious  denomination  of  which  the  official 
title  is  "The  United  Society  of  Believers  in  Christ'.s 
Second  Appearing."  The  foundress  was  Ann  Lee,  wha 
was  born  in  Toad  Lane,  Manchester,  29th  February  1736, 
but  only  privately  baptized  1st  June  1742.  Her  father 
was  a  blacksmith,  and  at  an  early  age  she  found  employ, 
ment,  being  at  one  time  a  cutter  of  hatter's  fur,  and  al: 
another  cook  in  the  infirmary  of  her  native  town.  Sh« 
was  a  quiet  child  of  a  somewhat  visionary  temperament,, 
and  in  1758  joined  a  small  religious  body,  a  remnant  of 
the  French  Prophets.  The  leader  was  Jane  ^VardleJ•, 
who  was  regarded  by  her  followers  as  the  "spirit  of  John 
the  Baptist  operating  in  the  female  line."  These  people 
were  called  Shakers  because,  like  the  early  Quakers,  they 
were  seized  with  violent  tremblings  and  shakings  when 
under  the  influence  of  strong  religious  emotion.  Ann  Lee 
in  1762  married  a  blacksmith  whose  character  was  not 
very  good.  Their  four  children  died  in  infancy.  She 
became  "a  seeker  after  salvation,"  and  her  conversion  was 
followed  by  her  taking  the  lead  in  the  Shaker  Society,  to 
which  she  promulgated  a  doctrine  of  celibacy.  Their 
previous  training  had  led  them  to  expect  that  the  second 
coming  of  Christ  would  be  in  the  form  of  a  woman ;  as 
Eve  was  the  mother  of  all  living,  so  in  their  new  leader 
the  Shakers  recognized  "  the  first  mother  or  spiritual 
parent  in  the  line  of  the  female."  With  their  new-born 
zeal  aflame,  they  preached  their  doctrine  in  season  and  out 
of  season,  and  suffered  something  from  mob  violence  and 
from  the  intolerance  of  the  constituted  authorities.     In 


S  H  A  — S  H  A 


737 


1774  Ann  the  Word  and  eight  of  her  disciples  emigrated 
to  America,  and  landed  at  Now  York  on  August  1st  of 
that  year.  Abraham  Stanley,  not  relishing  his  wife's 
celibate  creed,  abandoned  her  for  another  woman.  The 
"Believers"  settled  at  Neuskenna,  now  called  Watervliet, 
and  were  imprisoned  for  refusing  to  take  the  oath,  for 
which  reason  they  were  suspected  of  being  unfavourable 
to  the  cause  of  the  Revolution.  On  being  released  they 
preached  their  creed  and  gradually  gained  converts.  Ann 
Lee  died  at  Watervliet  8th  September  1780.  She  was 
succeeded  by  James  Whittaker,  who  died  in  1"88,  when 
Joseph  Jlcacham  succeeded  to  the  leadership  and  organized 
the  society  on  that  communistic  basis  which  now  distin- 
guishes it.  In  the  early  history  of  the  Shakers  various 
charges  were  brought  against  them,  including  flagellation 
and  naked  dancing,  but  they  have  outlived  these  scandals 
and  are  now  generally  respected.  There  is  an  interesting 
sketch  of  a  Shaker  community  in  Howell's  Undiscovered 
Country.  They  all  work  ;  they  are  capital  agriculturists ; 
they  have  a  widespread  reputation  for  thoroughness,  fru- 
gality, and  temperance.  They  believe  in  the  reality  of 
constant  intercourse  with  the  world  of  spirits.  There  are 
"  poems  "  by  Mother  Ann  which  it  is  claimed  have  been 
dictated  bv  her  from  the  .spirit  world.     They  claim  from 


time  t(3  time  the  exercise  of  the  gift  of  tongues  and  the 
gift  of  healing.  The  theological  ideas  of  the  Shakers  aro 
set  forth  in  the  Testimony  of  Christ's  Second  Appearing 
exemplified  hy  the  Principle  and  Practice  of  the  True  Church 
of  Christ,  of  which  a  fourth  edition,  printed  in  1856,  was 
extensively  circulated.  A  compacter  statement  is  that  in 
F.  W.  Evans's  Shakers'  Compendium,  which  was  printed 
at  New  Lebanon  in  1859.  Elder  Evans,  who  is  the  best- 
known  representative  of  Shakerism,  is  of  English  birth, 
and  has  published  an  autobiography.  In'1870  there  were 
eighteen  distinct  Shaker  communities,  with  eighteen  church 
buildings  capable  of  seating  8850  persons,  and  possessing 
property  valued  at  886,900.  These  socialist  villages  are  ia 
Connecticut,  Kentucky,  Maine,  Massachusetts,  New  York, 
New  Hampshire,  and  Ohio. 

Tlie  best  known  of  the  settlements  is  that  at  New  Lebanon,  where 
there  are  three  separate  societies  in  view  of  each  other.  The  North 
Family,  the  Church  Family,  and  the  Second  Family  are  distinct 
groups,  whose  members  live  together  and  have  a  common  right  to 
land,  house,  hats,  tools,  books,  and  all  that  there  is.  The  only 
fortn  of  government  is  that  supplied  by  the  public  opinion  of  the 
community,  as  expressed  in  its  social  meetings  for  mutual  con- 
fession, counsel,  and  criticism.  Jlr  Hepworth  Dixon's  Hav  America 
gives  an  interesting  account  of  their  communistic  methods.' 

There  i3  an  extensive  literature  vespectinc  the  Shakers ;  a  bibliography  is 
appended  to  W.  E.  A.  Axon's  Biographical  Notice  of  Ann  Lee,  Liverpool,  1676. 


SHAKE SPEAEE 


TTTILLIAMSHAKESPEAEE(1564-1616),  the  national 
Y  Y  poet  of  England,  the  greatest  dramatist  that  modern 
Europe  has  produced,  was  born  in  April,  in  the  year  156-t, 
at  Stratford-upon-Avon,  in  the  county  of  Warwick.  The 
known  facts  of  the  poet's  personal  history  are  compara- 
tively few,  and  before  giviug  them  in  order  we  purpose 
considering  in  some  detail  the  larger  educational  influences 
which  helped  to  stimulate  his  latent  powers,  to  evoke  and 
strengthen  his  poetical  and  patriotic  sympathies,  and  thus 
prepare  and  qualify  him  for  his  future  work.  In  dealing 
with  these  influences  we  are  on  firm  and  fruitful  ground. 
We  know,  for  example,  that  Shakespeare  was  born  and  lived 
for  twenty  years  at  Stratford-upon-Avon  ;  and  we  can  say 
therefore  with  certainty  that  all  the  phy.sical  and  moral 
influences  of  that  picturesque  and  richly-storied  Midland 
district  melted  as  years  went  by  into  the  full  current  of 
his  ardent  blood,  became  indeed  the  vital  element,  the 
very  breath  of  life  his  expanding  spirit  breathed.  We 
know  a  good  deal  about  his  home,  his  parents,  and  his 
domestic  surroundings ;  and  these  powerful  factors  in  the 
development  of  any  mind  gifted  with  insight  and  sensibility 
must  have  acted  with  redoubled  force  on  a  nature  so  richly 
and  harmoniously  endowed  as  that  of  the  Stratford  poet. 
It  would  be  dinicult  indeed  to  overestimate  the  combined 
effect  of  these  vital  elements  on  his  capacious  and  retentive 
mind,  a  mind  in  which  the  receptive  and  creative  powers 
were  so  equally  poised  and  of  such  unrivalled  strength. 
This  review  of  the  larger  influenres  operating  with  con- 
centrated force  during  the  critical  years  of  youth  and  early 
manhood  will  help  to  connect  and  interpret  the  few  and 
scattered  particulars  of  Shakespeare's  pcreonal  history. 
These  particulars  must  indeed  be  to  some  extent  connected 
and  interiirctcd  in  order  to  be  clearly  understood,  and  any 
intelligible  account  of  Shakespeare's  life  must  therefore 
take  tlio  shape  of  a  biographical  cs.say,  rather  than  of  a 
biography  proper.  We  may  add  that  the  sketch  will  be 
confined  to  the  points  connected  with  Shakc^iicaic's  local 
surroundings  and  jicr.sonal  history.  The  largo  literary 
questions  connected  with  his  works,  sucli  as  the  classifica- 
tion, tile  chronology,  and  analysis  of  tlio  play.s,  could  not  of 
oour.'o  be  adequately  dealt  with  in  such  a  sketch.     It  is 


the  less  necessary  that  this  wider  task  should  be  attempted 
as  the  main  points  it  embraces  have  recently  been  well 
handled  by  competent  Shakespearian  scholars.  The  best 
and  most  convenient  manuals  embodying  the  results  of 
recent  criticism  and  research  will  be  referred  to  at  the 
close  of  the  article.  Meanwhile  we  have  first  to  look  at 
the  locality  of  Shakespeare's  birth,  both  in  its  material  and 
moral  aspects. 

Warwickshire  was  known  to  Shakespeare's  contcm-Waiv 
porarics  as  the  central  county  or  heart  of  England.  It  w'p^"' 
was  the  middle  shire  of  the  Midlands,  where  the  two  great  ^''"* 
Roman  roads  crossing  the  island  from  east  to  west  and 
west  to  east  met, — forming  at  their  point  of  junction  the 
centre  of  an  irregular  Sfc  Andrew's  cross,  of  which  the  arms 
extended  from  Dover  to  Chester  on  the  one  side  and  from 
Totnos  to  Lincoln  and  the  north  on  the  other.  The  centre 
in  which  these  roads — Watling  Street  and  the  Fosse  Way 
— thus  met  was  early  known  from  this  circumstance  as  tho 
High  Cross.  Being  the  most  important  Jlidland  position 
during  the  Roman  occupation  of  the  country,  several 
Roman  stations  were  formed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  this 
venerable  Quatre  Bras.  Of  these  Camden  specifies  the 
ancient  and  flourishing  city  of  Clychester,  represented  in 
part  by  the  modern  Clybrook,  and  IManduessidum,  tho 
memory  of  which  is  probably  retained  in  the  modern  Man- 
cettar.  Important  Roman  remains  have  also  been  found 
within  a  few  miles  of  Stratford,  at  Alcestcr,  a  central 
station  on  the  third  great  Roman  road,  Ricknild  Street, 
which  ruris  from  south  to  north  across  the  western  side  of 
the  county.  In  later  times,  when  means  of  communication 
were  multiplied,  the  great  roads  to  tho  north-west  still 

._^ — — . s— — ■ 

"  There  is  consiileroblp  similftiity  between  tho  American  di.icip)«ii  of 
Ann  Leo  and  tho  Englisli  Shnktra  of  the  Now  Foiost,  who  cnmo  into 
public  noticu  in  1S74.  One  of  their  nioniliers  li.iil  bought  31  acres  ot 
I.iml,  which  they  cultivated  under  the  direction  of  ".Motlier"  Mory  Ann 
Girling,  who  was  at  onco  their  foundress  and  projihetCM.  As  tlio  result 
of  some  litigation  tho.Sliakcrs  wore  ejected  in  li*74,  ami,  after  having 
shelter  for  a  tinio  on  a  farm  belonging  to  tlio  Hon.  Aulierou  Ilerbeit, 
they  then  became  a  tent  cominunily.  Cliarges  were  niado  against  then) 
of  n.iUid  daiu'in;:  in  tlie  course  of  tlioir  i-eligious  ecstasies.  They 
believe  ill  ilic  feci  nd  ailvent,  iv;;.ipl  MisCirling  as  the  woman  Messiah, 
have  all  property  In  common,  and  preach  tlio  doctrine  of  celibacy. 

XXL  —  93 


738 


SHAKESPEAKE 


passed  through  the  county,  and  ona  of  them,  the  mail 
road  from  London  through  Oxford  to  Birmingham,  btaflord, 
and  Chester,  was  the  "streete"  or  public  way  that  crossed 
the  Avon  at  the  celebrated  ford  spanned  in  1483  by  Sir 
Hugh  Clopton's  magnificent  bridge  of  fourteen  arches. 
Immediately  beyond  the  bridge  rose  the  homely  gables  and 
wide  thoroughfares  of  Shakespeare's  native  place. 

In  Shakespeare's  time  Warwickshire  was  divided  by  the 
irregular  line  of  the  Avon  into  two  unequal  but  well-marked 
divisions,  known  respectively,  from  their  main  character- 
istics, as  the  woodland  and  the  open  country,  or  more 
technically  as  the  districts  of  Arden  and  Feldon.  The 
former  included  the  thickly-wooded  region  north  of  the 
Avon,  of  which  the  celebrated  forest  of  Arden  wa.s  the 
centre,  and  the  latter  the  champaign  countrj',  the  rich  and 
fertile  pasture-lands  between  the  Avon  and  the  line  of  hills 
separating  Warwick  from  the  shires  of  Oxford  and  North- 
ampton. Shakespeare  himself  was  of  course  familiar  with 
this  division  of  his  native  .shire,  and  he  has  well  expressed 
it  in  Lear's  description  of  the  section  of  the  kingdom 
a.ssigned  to  liis  eldest  daughter  Goneril, — 

"Of  all  these  hounds, — even  from  this  line  to  this, 
Witli  si'.adowy  forests  nncl  with  ch.iinpaiiis  rich'd. 
With  plenteous  rirers  and  wide-skirted  meads, — 
AVo  make  thee  lady." 

No  better  general  description  of  Warwickshire  could 
indeed  be  given  than  is  contained  in  these  lines.  Taking 
the  rtoiuan  roads,  Watling  and  Rieknild  Streets,  as 
boundaries,  they  vividly  depict  the  characteristic  features 
of  the  county,  including  its  plenteous  rivers  and  wide- 
skirted  meads.  The  old  and  central  division  of  Arden 
and  Feldon  is  clearly  embodied  in  the  second  line, 
"  with  .shadowy  forests  and  with  chanipains  rich'd." 
This  distinction,  practically  effaced  in  modern  times  by 
agricultural  and  mining  progress,  was  partially  affected  by 
these  caases  even  in  Shakespeare's  own  day.  The  wide 
Ardei-^  or  belt  of  forest  territory  which  had  once  extended 
not  only  across  the  county  but  from  the  Trent  to  the 
Severn,  was  then  very  much  restricted  to  the  centre  of  the 
shire,  the  line  of  low  hills  and  undulating  country  which 
stretched  away  for  upwards  of  twenty  miles  to  the  north 
of  Stratford.  The  wliolo  of  the  northern  di=lrict  was,  it  is 
true,  still  densely  wooded,  but  the  intervening  patches  of 
arable  and  pasture  land  gradually  encroached  more  and 
more  upon  the  bracken  and  brushwood,  and  every  year 
larger  areas  were  cleared  and  prepared  fui-  tillage  by  the 
ute  and  the  plough.  In  the' second  half  of  the  IGth 
;cnlury,  liowevcr,  the  Arden  di.^trict  still  retained  enough 
if  its  primitive  character  to  fill  theiioot's  imagination  wilh 
the  cxhilaratMig  breadth  and  sweetness  of  wooiUand  hauuts, 
the  beauty,  variety,  and  freedom  of  .sylvan  life,  and  thus  to 
impart  to  the  scenery  of  .Is  Yon  J.i/.e  ll  the  vivid  fresh- 
ness and  reality  of  a  living  exjierience.  In  this  delightful 
comedy  the  details  of  forest-life  are  touched  with  i^o  light 
but  at  the  same  time  so  sure  a  band  as  to  jirove  the 
writer's  familiarity  with  the  whole  art  of  venery,  his 
thorough  knowledge  of  that  "highest  franchise  of  noble 
and  jirinccly  pleasure"  which  the  loyal  dcme.-iues  of  wood 
and  jiark  afforded.  In  referring  to  the  niai-ches  or  wide  i 
margins  on  the  outskirts  of  the  forest,  legally  known  as  ' 
l)urlicus,  Shakespeare  indeed  displays  a  minute  technical  ! 
accuracy  which  would  seem  to  indicate  that  in  his  early 
rambles  about  the  foi-est  and  casual  talks  with  its  keepers  ' 
and  woodmen  he  had  picked  up  the  legal  incidents  of  , 
sylvan  cconom}-,  as  well  as  enjoyed  the  freedom  and  charm  ; 
of  forest-life.  Throughout  the  jmrlicus,  for  instance,  the  | 
forest  laws  were  only  partially  in  fnrce,  while  the  more  ' 
important  rights  of  individual  owners  were  fully  recognized 
and  cstaMished.  llenco  it  happened  that  Corin"s  niaster, 
dwelling,  as  llo.salind  puts  it  in  a  quaint  b\)t  characteristic 


simile  that  betrays  her  sex,  "here  in  the  skirts  of  the 
forest,  like  fringe  upon  a  petticoat,"  could  sell  "  his  cote,  his 
flock,  and  bounds  of  feed,"  and  that  Celia  and  Rosalind 
were  able  to  purchase  "the  cottage,  the  pasture,  and  the 
flock."  It  may  be  noted,  too,  that,  in  exchange  for  the 
independence  the  dwellers  in  the  purlieus  acquired  as 
private  owners,  they  had  to  relinquish  their  common 
right  or  customary  privilege  of  pasturing  their  cattle  in  the 
forest.  Sheep,  indeed,  were  not  usually  included  in  this 
right  of  common,  their  presence  in  the  forest  being  regarded 
as  inimical  to  the  deer.  When  kept  in  the  purlieus,  there- 
fore, they  had  to  be  strictly  limited  to  their  bounds  of  feed, 
shepherded  during  the  day  and  carefully  folded  every 
night,  and  these  points  are  ftuMifully  reflected  by  Shake- 
speare. Again,  only  those  specially  privileged  could  hunt 
venison  within  the  forest.  But  if  the  deer  strayed  beyond 
the  forest  bounds  they  could  be  freely  followed  by  the 
dwellers  in  the  purlieus,  and  these  happy  hunting  grounds 
outside  the  forest  precincts  were  in  many  cases  spacious  and 
extensive.  The  special  office  of  a  forest  ranger  was 
indeed  to  drive  back  the  deer  straying  in  the  purlieus.  The 
banished  duke  evidently  has  this  in  mind  when,  as  a 
casual  denizen  of  the  forest,  he  proposes  to  make  war  cm 
its  native  citizens  : — 

"Come,  shall  wo  go  and  kill  us  venison  ? 
And  3'et  it  iilis  me,  Uic  poor  dappled  fools, 
Being  native  bnrghrirs  of  this  desert  city, 
Shnuld,  in  their  own  confines,  with  forked  heads, 
Have  their  round  haunches  gor'd." 

And  the  melancholy  Jaques,  refining  as  usual  with  cynical 
sentimentalism  on  every  way  of  life  and  every  kind  ol 
action,  thinks  it  would  be  a  special  outrage 

"  To  flight  the  animals,  and  to  kill  them  up. 
In  their  assigu'd  and  native  dwelling  place." 

Not  only  \n  As  Yon  Like  It,  but  in  Lov^s  Labour 's  Loit, 
in  A  Midswnmer  Night's  Dream,  in  the  Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor,  and  indeed  throughout  his  dramatic  works, 
Shakespeare  displays  the  most  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
aspects  and  incidents  of  forest  life  ;  and  it  is  certain  that 
in  the  first  instance  this  knowledge  must  have  been  gained 
from  his  early  familiarity  with  the  Arden  district.  This, 
as  we  have  seen,  stretched  to  the  north  of  Stratford  in  all 
its  amplitude  and  variety  of  hill  and  dale,  leafy  covert  and 
sunny  glade,  giant  oaks  and  tangled  thickets, — the  wood, 
land  stillness  being  broken  at  intervals  not  only  by  the 
noise  of  brawling  brooks  below  and  of  feathered  outcries 
and  flutterings  overhead,  but  by  dappled  herds  sweeping 
across  the  open  lawns  or  twinkling  in  the  shadowy  bracken, 
as  well  as  by  scattered  groups  of  timid  conies  feeding,  at 
matins  and  vespers,  on  the  tender  shoots  and  sweet 
herbage  of  the  forest  side.  The  deer-stealing  tradition  is 
snflicient  evidence  of  the  popular  belief  in  the  poet's  love 
of  daring  exploits  in  the  regions  of  vert  and  venison, 
and  of  his  devotion,  although  in  a  somewhat  irregular  way 
perhajjs,  to  the  attractive  woodcraft  of  the  park,  the 
warren,  and  the  chase.  The  traditional  scene  of  this 
adventure  was  Charlecote  Park,  a  few  miles  north-east  of 
Stratford :  but  the  jioet's  early  wanderings  in  Arden 
extended,  no  doubt,  much  further  afield.  Stirred  by  the 
natural  desire  of  visiting  at  leisure  the  more  celebrated 
places  of  his  native  district,  he  would  pass  from  Stratford 
to  Henley  and  Hampton,  to  AVroxall  Priory  and  Kcnil worth 
Castle,  to  Stoneleigh  Abbey  and  Leamington  Priors,  to 
Warwick  Keep  and  Guy's  Cliffe.  The  remarkable  beauty 
of  this  last  storied  spot  stirs  the  learned  and  tianipiil  pens 
of  the  antiquaries  Camden  and  Dugdale  to  an  unwonted 
cllbrt  of  dcsiription,  even  in  the  pre-dcscriptivc  era. 
"  Under  this  hill,"  says  Camden,  "hard  by  the  river  Avon, 
staiideth  Guy-cliffc,  others  call  it  Gib-cliffe,  the  dwelling 
house  at  this<lay  of  Sir  Thomas  Beau-foe,  dcsccndcjl  fron> 


SHAKESPEARE 


tue  ancient  Normans  line,  and  tlie  very  seate  itseife  of 
pleasantnesse.  Tliere  have  yee  a  shady  little  wood,  cleere 
and  cristall  springs,  mossy  bottomes  and  caves,  m'edowes 
alwaies  fresh  and  greene,  the  rivef  rumbling  here  and 
there  among  the  stones  wth  his  stream  making  a  mildo 
noise  and  gentle  whispering,  and  besides  all  this,  solitary 
and  still  quietnesse,  things  most  grateful  to  the  Muses." 
But    this   whole  of    the    circuit    waa    richly    wooded,  the 

towns,  as  the  names  indicate,  being  forest  towns, He'nley- 

in-Arden,    Hampton-in-Arden,— while    the    castles     and 
secularized   religious  house*  were  paled  off  within  their 
own  parks  and  bounds  from  the  sylvan  wilderness  around 
them.     Some,  like  the  celebrated  castle  of  the  Jlountfords, 
called   from   its   pleasant  situation   amongst   the   woods 
Beaudesert,  having  been  dismantled  during  the  Wars  of 
the   Roses  were   already  abandoned,  and  had  in  Shake- 
speare's day  relapsed  from  the  stately  revelry  that  once 
filled  their  halls  into  the  silence  of  the  surrounding  woods 
At  every  point  of  the  journey,  indeed,  as  the  poel's  ea-^er 
and  meditative  eye  embraced  new  vistas,  it  might  be  R.ald, 
"Towers  and  battlements  it  sees 
Bosomed  high  in.  tufted  trees." 
On  the  southern  margin  of  the  Arden  division,  towards  the 
Avon,  small  farms  were  indeed   already   numerous    and 
cultivation  had  become  tolerably  general.     But  the  region 
as  a  whole  still  retained  its  distinctive  character  as  the 
Arden  ot    wooded,  division  of   the   county.     Even  now, 
indeed   it  includes  probably  more  woods  and  parks  thaii 
are  to  be  found  over  the  same  area  in  any  other  English 
shire.  ^ 

rddon        Y^"^^    ^'^'■'^  °^  ^^^  ^^^^^  •^'^*"'^*  ^^'ero  in   this  way 
Uviflon.  "°'^®'^  cultivation,   it   must  not   be   supposed   that   the 
'^         champaign  or  open  country  to  the  south  of  the  Avon,  the 
Feldon  division  of  the  county,  was  destitute  of  wood ;  on  the 
contrary  its  extensive  pastures  were  not  only  well  watered 
by  local   streams    overshadowed    by   wiUow  and   alder, 
but  well  wooded  at  intervals  by  groups  of  more  stately 
trees.  '  The    numerous    flocks    and    herds    that    grazed 
throughout  the  valley  of  the  Red  Horse  found  welcome 
shelter  from  the  noonday  heat  and  the  driving  wind  under 
the  green  roofs  and  leafy  screens  that  lined  and  dotted 
their   bounds  of  feed.     And,  although  even  the  grazin<^ 
farms  were  comparatively  small,  almost  every  homestead 
had  its  group  of  protecting  elms,  its  outlying  patch  of 
hanging  beech  and  dsh,  or  straggling  copse  of  oak  and 
hazel.     This  is  still  reflected  in  such  local  names  as  Wood 
Park,  Shrub  Lands,  Ockley  Wood,  Furze  Hill,  Oakham 
Ashborne    Alcott  Wood,   Berecote  Wood,   and   Radland 
Oorse.     These  features  .gave  interest  and  variety  to  the 
teldon    district,   and  justified  the   characteristic   epithet 
which  for  centuries  was  popularly  applied  to  the  county  as 
a  whole,  that  of  "  woody  Warwickshire."  And  Shakespeare 
in   passing  out   of  the  county  on  his   London  journeys' 
would  quickly  feel  the  difference,  as  beyond  its  borders  he 
canie  upon  stretches  of  less  clothed  and  cultivated  scenery 
As  his  stout  gelding  mounted  Edgchili,  and  he  turned  in 
the  saddle  to  take  a  parting  look  at  the  familiar  landscape 
he   was   leaving,    ho   would    behold  what   Speed,  in  his 
enthusiasm,    calls  "another  Eden,    as    Lot   the  plain   of 
Jordan."     While  the  general  aspect  would  be  that  of  green 
pastures  and  grassy  levels,  there  would  bo  at  the  same  time 
the  picturesque  intermingling  of  wood  and  water,  of  mill 
and  grange  and  manor  house,  which  gives  light  and  shade, 
colour  and  movement,  interest  and  animation,  to  the  plainer 
sweeps  and  more  monotonous  objects  of  pastoral  scenery 

On  the  historical  side  Warwicksliire  has  points  of 
interest  as  striking  and  distinctive  as  its  physical  features. 
During  the  Roman  occupation  of  the  country  it  was,  as  wo 
have  seen,  the  site  of  several  central  Roman  stations,  of 
which,  besides  those  already  noticed,  the  fortified  camns  of 


739 

Tripontium  and  Presidium  on  the  line  of  the  Avon  were 
the  most  important.     A  Roman  road  crossed  the  Avon  at 
Stratford,  and  radiating  north   and  south   soon   reached 
some  of  the  larger   Roman  towns   of  the  west,  such   as 
Unconium   and   Corinium.  '  Between   these   towns  were 
country  villas  or  mansions,  many  of  them  being,  like  that 
at  ^\  oodchester,  "magnificent  palaces  covering  as  much 
ground  as  a  whole  town."     The  entire  district   must  iu 
this   way  have  been   powerfully  aflected    by  the  higher 
forms   of  social  life  and   material   splendour   which  the 
wealthier   provincials   had   introduced.      The   immediate 
effect  of  this  Roman  influence  on  the  native  populations 
was,  as  we  know,  to  divide  them  into  opposed   groups 
whose  conflicts  helped  directly  to  produce  the  disastrous 
results  which  followed  the  withdrawal  of  the  Romans  from 
the  island.     But  the  more  permanent  and  more  important 
effect  IS  probably  to  be  traced  in  the  far  less  obstinate 
resistance  offered  by  the  Celtic  tribes  of  Mid  Britain  to 
the   invading   Angles  from   the  north   and  Saxons  from 
the  south,  by  whom  themselves  and  their  district  were 
eventually  absorbed.     Instead  of  the  fierce  conflicts  and 
wrathful   withdrawal  or  extermination  of   the  conquered 
Britons   which  prevailed   further  east,   and   for  a   time 
perhaps  further  west  also,  the  intervening  tribes  appear  to 
have  accepted  the  overlordship  of  their  Teutonic  neighbours 
and  united  with  them  in  the  cultivation  and  defence  of  their 
common  territory.     The  fact  that  no  record  of  any  early 
Angle  conquest  remains  seems  to  inditate  that,  after  at 
most  a  brief  resistance,  there  was  a  gradual  coalescence  of 
the  invading  with  the  native  tribes  rather  than  •any  fiercp 
or  memorable  struggle   between  them.     Even   the   more 
independent  and  warlike  tribes  about  the  Severn  repeatedly 
joined  the  Saxon  Hwiccas,  whose  northern  frontier  was  the 
forest  of  Arden,  in  resisting  the  advance  of  Wessex  from 
the  south.     And  for  more  than  a  hundred  years  after  the 
establishment  of  the  central  kingdom  of  the  Angles,  the 
neighbouring  Welsh  princes  are  found  acting  in  friendly 
alliance  with  the  Mercian  rulers.     It  was  thus  the  very 
district  where  from  an  early  period  the  two  race  elements 
that  have  gone  to  the  making  of  the  nation  were  most 
nearly  balanced  and  most  completely  blended.     The  union 
of  a  strong  Celtic  element  with  the  dominant  Angles  is  still 
reflected  in  the  local  nomenclature,  not  only  in  the  names 
of  the  chief  natural  features,  such  as  rivers  and  heights, 
—Arden  and  Avon,  Lickey,  Alne,  and  Thame,— but  in 
the  numerous  comhes  and  cotes  or  cols,  as  in  the  reduplica- 
tive Cotswold,  in  the  duns,  dons,  and  dens,  and  in  such 
distinctively  Celtic  elements  as  rnan,  pol,  try,  in  names 
of  places  scattered  through  the  district.     The  cotes  are,  it 
is  true,  ambiguous,  being  in  a  majority  of  cases  perhaps 
Saxon  rather  than  Celtic,  but  in  a  forest  country  near  th^ 
old  Welsh  marches  many  must  still  represent  the  Celtic 
cod  or  coed,  and  in  some  cases  this  ia  clear  from  the  word 
itself,  as  in  Kingscot,  a  variation  of  Kingswood,  and  even 
Charlecote  exists  in  the  alternative  form  of  Chariewood. 
This  union  of  the  two  races,  combined  with  the  stirring 
conditions  of  life  in  a  wild  and  picturesque  border  country, 
gave  a  vigorous  impulse  and  distinctive  character  to  tho 
population,  tho  influence  of  which  may  bo  clearly  traced  in 
the  subsequent  literary  as  well  as  in  iho  poUtical  history 
of  tho  country.     As  eariy  as  tho  9th  century,  when  tho 
ravages  of  the  Danes  Lad  desolated  tho  homes  and  scattered 
the  representatives  of  learning  in  Wessex,  it  was  to  western 
Mercia  that  King  Alfred  sent  for  scholars  and  churchmen 
to  unite  with  him  in  helping  to  restore  the  fallen  fortunw 
of  religion  and  letters.     And  after  tho  long  blank  in  the 
native  literature  produced  by  tho  Norman  Conquest  the 
authentic  signs  of  its  indestructible  vitality  first  appeared 
on  tho  banks  of  the  Severn.     Layamon's  spirited  poem 
dealing  with  tho  leirendarv  lijstorv  of  Britain,  and  writtea 


740 


SHAKESPEARE 


at  Redstone  near  A rley,  within  sight  of  the  river's  majestic 
sweep  amidst  its  bordering  woods  and  hills,  is  by  far  the 
inost  importa::t  literary  monument  of  semi-Saxon.  And, 
•while  the  poem  as  a  whole  displaj's  a  Saxon  tenacity  of 
Jjurposo  in  working  out  a  comprehensive  scheme  of 
memorial  verse,  its  more  original  parts  have  touches  of 
passion  and  picturesqueness,  as  well  as  of  dramatic 
vivacity,  that  recall  the  patriotic  fire  of  the  Celtic  bards. 
/A  hundred  and  fifty  years  later  the  first  great  period  of 
lEnglish  literature  was  inaugurated  by  another  poem  of 
Imarked  originality  and  power,  written  under  the  shadow 
of  the  Malvern  Hills.  The  writer  of  the  striking  series  of 
allegories  known  as  Piers  Ploiumaii's  Visions  was  a  Shrop- 
shire man,  and,  notwithstanding  his  occasional  visits  to 
London  and  official  employments  there,  appears  to  have 
.^pent  his  best  and  most  productive  years  on  the  western 
■border  between  the  Severn  and  the  Malvern  Hills.  In 
many  points  both  of  substance  and  form  the  poem  may, 
it  is  true,  be  described  as  almost  typically  Saxon.  But  it 
has  at  the  same  time  a  power  of  vivid  portraiture,  a  sense 
of  colour,  with  an  intense  and  penetrating  if  not  exag- 
gerated feeling  for  local  grievances  which  are  probably 
due  to  the  strain  of  Celtic  blood  in  the  writer's  veins. 
Two  centuries  later,  from  the  same  district,  from  a  small 
town  on  an  affluent  of  the  Severn,  a  few  miles  to  the  west 
of  the  river,  came  the  national  poet,  who  not  only  inherited 
the  patriotic  fire  and  keen  sensibility  of  Layamon  and 
Langland,  but  who  combined  in  the  most  perfect  form  and 
carried  to  the  highest  point  of  development  the  best 
qualities  of  the  two  great  races  represented  in  the  blood 
and  history  of  the  English  nation.  Mr  J.  E.  Green,  in 
referring  to  the  moral  effects  arising  from  the- mixture  of 
races  in  the  Midland  district,  has  noted  this  fact  in  one 
of  those  sagacious  side-glances  that  make  his  history  so 
instructive. '  "  It  is  not  without  significance,"  he  says, 
"  that  the  highest  type  of  the  race,  the  one  Englishman  who 
has  combined  in  their  largest  measure  the  mobility  and 
fancy  of  the  Celt  with  the  depth  and  energy  of  the  Teutonic 
temper,  was  born  on  the  old  Welsh  and  English  borderland, 
in  the  forest  of  Ardcn."  And  from  the  purely  critical 
side  Mr  Matthew  Arnold  has  clearly  brought  out  the  same 
point.  He  traces  some  of  the  finest  qualities  of  Shake- 
speare's poetry  to  the  Celtic  spirit  which  touched  his 
imagination  as  with  an  enchanter's  wand,  and  thus  helped 
to  brighten  and  enrich  the  profounder  elements  of  his 
creative  genius. 

The  history  of  Warwickshire  in  Anglo-Saxon  times  is  identified 
with  the  kingdom  of  Mercia,  which,  under  a  series  of  able  rulers, 
was  for  a  time  the  dominant  power  of  the  country.  In  later  times, 
from  its  central  position,  the  county  was  liable  to  be  crossed  by 
military  forces  if  rebellion  made  head  in  the  north  or  west,  as  well 
as  to  be  traversed  and  occupied  by  the  rival  armies  during  the 
periods  of  civil  war.  The  most  important  events,  Indeed,  con- 
nected with  the  shire  before  Shakespeare's  time  occurred  during 
the  two  greatest  civil  conflicts  in  the  earlier  national  annals — 
the  Barons'  War  in  the  13th  century,  and  the  Wars  of  the  Eoses  in 
the  15th.  The  decisive  battles  that  closed  these  long  and  bitter 
straggles,  and  thus  became  tm-niug  points  in  our  constitutional 
history,  were  both  fought  on  the  borders  of  Warwickshire, — the 
battle  of  Evesham  on  the  south-western  and  the  battle  of  Bosworth 
Field  on  the  north-eastern  boundary.  The  great  leaders  in  each 
conllict — the  founder  of  the  Commons  House  of  Parliament  and  the 
"  setter  up  and  puller  down  of  kings"— were  directly  connected  with 
Warwickshire.  Kcnilworth  belonged  to  Simon  do  Montfort,  and 
its  siege  and  surrender  constituted  the  last  act  in  the  Barons'  War. 
During  the  Wars  of  the  Koses  the  county  was  naturally  promi- 
nent in  j)ublic  affairs,  as  its  local  earl,  the  last  and  greatest  of 
the  lawless,  prodigal,  and  ambitious  barons  of  medieeval  times,  was 
for  more  than  twenty  years  the  leading  figure  in  the  struggle. 
But  notwithstanding  this  pow-crful  influence  the  county  was,  like 
the  country  itself,  very  much  divided  in  its  politicMl  sympathies 
and  activities.  The  weakness  and  vacillation  of  Henry  VI.  had 
stimulated  the  rival  house  of  York  to  assert  its  claims,  and,  as  the 
trading  and  mercantile  classes  were  always  in  favour  of  a  strong 
povernmeut,  Loudon,  witli  the  eastern  counties  and  the  chief  ports 
>ud  commeicial  towns,  favoui-cd  the  house  of  York.     On  the  other 


hand,  South  Wales,  some  of  the  Midland  and  most  of  the  western 
shires,  under  the  leadership  of  the  Rcauforts,  and  the  northern 
counties,  under  the  leadership  of  Clillbrd  and  NorthnmbcilanJ, 
supported  the  house  of  Lancaster.  Political  feeling  iu  the  Princi- 
pality itself  vas  a  good  deal  divided.  Tlie  duke  of  York  still 
possessed  Ludlow  Castle,  and,  the  Welsh  of  tlie  nortlicrn  border 
being  devoted  to  the  houses  of  JIarch  and  Jlortimer,  Princo 
Edward,  the  young  carl  of  JIarch,  after  tlie  defeat  and  death  of  his 
father  at  Wakefield,  was  able  to  rally  on  the  border  a  "mighty 
power  of  marchmen,"  and,  after  uniting  his  forces  with  those  of 
Warwick,  to  secure  the  decisive  victory  of  Towton  which  jilaced 
him  securely  on  the  throne.  Still,  during  the  earlier  stages  of  tho 
struggle  the  Bcauforts,  with  the  earls  of  Pembroke,  Devon,  and 
Wiltshire,  were  able  to  muster  in  the  south  and  west  forces  sufficient 
to  keep  the  Yorkists  in  check.  And  when  the  final  struggle  came, 
—when  Henry  of  Kichmond  landed  at  Jlilford  Haven,— the  Welsh 
blood  in  his  veins  rallied  to  his  standard  so  powerful  a  contingent 
of  the  southern  marchmen  that  he  was  able  at  once  to  cross  tho 
Severn,  and,  traversing  north  Warwickshire,  to  confront  the  forces 
of  Richard,  with  the  assurance  that  in  the  hour  of  need  he  would 
be  supported  by  Stanley  and  Northumberland.  Warwickshire  itself 
was,  as  already  intimated,  considerably  divided  even  in  the  moro 
active  stages  of  the  conllict,  Coventry  lieing  strongly  in  favour  of 
the  Red  Rose,  while  Warwick,  under  the  influence  of  the  earl,  was 
for  a  while  devoted  to  the  cause  of  the  White  Rose.  Kcnilworth 
was  still  held  by  the  house  of  Lancaster',  and  Henry  VI.  at  tho 
outset  of  the  conijuest  had  more  than  once  taken  refuge  there.  On 
the  other  hand  Edward  IV.  and  Richard  III.  both  visited  AVarwiek,' 
the  latter  being  so  interested  in  the  castle  that  he  is  said  to  have 
laid  the  foundation  of  a  new  and  "mighty  fayre"  tower  on  tha 
north  side,  afterwards  known  as  the  Bear's  Tower.  Edward  IV.,  in 
harmony  with  his  strong  instinct  for  popularity,  and  command  of 
the  arts  that  secure  it,  tried  to  conciliate  the  people  of  Coventry  by 
visiting  the  town  and  witnessing  its  celebrated  pageants  more  than 
once— at  Christmas  in  1465  and  at  the  festival  of  St  George  in 
1474.  Although  ho  was  accompanied  by  his  queen  the  efforts  to 
win  the  town  from  its  attachment  to  the  rival  house  do  not  appear 
to  have' been  very  successful.  Under  Edward's  rule  the  manifesta- 
tion of  active  partisanship  was  naturally  in  abeyance,  and  no  doubt 
the  feeling  may  to  some  extent  have  declined.  Indeed,  in  the  later 
stages  of  the  struggle  Warwickshire,  like  so.  many  other  counties, 
was  comparatively  weary  and  quiesceut.  When  Richard  III. 
advanced  to  the  north  the  sheriff  of  the  shire  had,  it  is  true,  in 
obedience  to  the  royal  mandate  levied  a  force  on  behalf  of  the  king, 
but  as  this  force  never  actually  joined  the  royal  standard  it  is 
naturally  assumed  that  it  was  either  intercepted  by  Henry  on  his 
march  to  Bosworth  Field  or  had  voluntarily  joined  him  on  the  eve 
of  the  battle.  In  view  of  the  strong  Lancasterian  sympathies  in 
the  north  and  cast  of  the  shire  the  latter  is  by  far  'the  more 
probable  supposition.  In  this  case,  or  indeed  on  either  alternative, 
it  niay  be  true,  as  asserted  in  the  patent  of  arms  subsequentlyj 
granted  to  Shakespeare's  father,  that  his  ancestors  had  fought  on 
behalf  of  Henry  VII.  in  the  great  battle  that  placed. the  crown  on 
his  head.  Many  families  bearing  the  name  of  Shakespeare  wero 
scattered  through  Warwicksliire  in  the  15th  century,  and  it  is 
therefore  not  at  all  unlikely  that  some  of  their  members  had 
wielded  a  spear  with  effect  in  the  battle  that,  to  the  immense 
relief  of  the  country,  happily  closed  the  most  miserable  civil 
conflict  in  its  annals. 

But,  whether  aijy  of  his  ancestors  fought  at  Bosworth  Field  InAo** 
or  not,  Shakespeare  would  be  sure  in  his  youth  to  hear,  almost  j"^^'' 
at  first  hand,  a  multitude  of  exciting  stories  and  stirring  iaci-  tions. 
dents  connected  with  so  memorable  and  far-reaching  a  victory. 
After  the  battle  Henry  VII.  had  slept  at  Coventry,  and  was 
entertained  by  the  citizens  and  presented  with  handsome  gifts. 
He  seems  there  also  to  have  first  exercised  his  royal  power  by  con- 
ferring knighthood  on  the  mayor  of  the  town.  Th'e  battle  was 
fought  only  eighty  years  before  Shakespeare's  birth,  and  public 
events  of  importance  are  vividly  transmitted  by  local  tradition  for 
more  than  double  that  length  of  time.  At  this  hour  the  quiet 
farmsteads  of  iSIid  Somerset  abound  with  stories  and  traditions  of 
Monmouth  and  'his  soldiers,  and  of  the  events  that  preceded  and 
followed  the  battle  of  Sedgemoor.  And  a  century  earlier  local 
traditions  possessed  still  more  vitality  and  power.  In  the  16tli 
century,  indeed,  the  great  events  of  the  nation's  life,  as  well  as 
more  important  local  incidents,  were  popularly  preserved  andj 
transmitted  by  mean's  of  oral  tradition  and  scenic  display.  Oulyj 
a  small  and  cultured  class  could  acquire  their  knowledge  of  them 
through  literary  chronicles  and  learned  records.  The  popular 
mind  was  of  necessity  largely  fed  and  stimulated  by  the  spoken 
narratives  of  the  rustic  festival  and  the  winter  fireside.  And  a 
quiet  settled  neighbourhood  like_Stratford,  out  of  the  crush,  but 
near  the  great  centres  of  national  activity,  would  be  peculiarly  rich 
iu  these  stored-up  materials  of  unwritten  history.  The  vei-y  fact 
that  within  eight  miles  of  Shakespeare's  birthplace  arose  from 
their  cedared  slopes  the  halls  and  towers  of  the  great  earl  who 
for   more   than  a  quarter   of  a   century  wielded  a  political  and 


S  H  A  K  E  S  r  E  A  11  E 


741 


military  power  mightier  than  any  suhject  liad  wielded  before 
■would  give  the  district  an  excciitional  prominence  in  the  national 
Runals,  whidi  would  ho  locaKy  reflected  in  an  answering  wealth  of 
historic  tradition.  In  Shakespeare's  day  Warwichshiro  thus  sup- 
plied the  materials  of  a  liberal  elementary  training  in  tlie  heroic 
annals  of  the  past,  and  especially  in  the  gieat  events  of  the  recent 
past  that  had  established  the  Tudora  on  the  throne,  consolidated 
the  permanent  interests  of  the  Government  and  the  country,  and 
helped  directly  to  promote  the  growing  unity  and  strength,  pro- 
sperity and  renown,  of  the  kingdom.  Tlic  special  value  of 
Shakespeare's  dramatic  interpretation  of  this  period,  arising  from 
hLs  early  ramiliarity  with  the  rich  and  pregnant  materials  of 
unwritten  history,  has  recently  been  insisted  on  afresli  by  one  of 
3ur  most  careful  and  learned  authorities.  In  the  preface  to  his 
work  oa  The  Houses  of  Lancaster  and  Yoyl:,  Jlr  James  Gairdner 
says: — "  For  this  period  of  English  history  we  are  fortunate  in  pos- 
sessing an  unrivalled  interpreter  in  our  great  dramatic  poet 
Shakespeare.  A  regular  sequence  of  historical  plaj's  exhibits  to  us, 
not  only  the  general  character  of  each  successive  reign,  but  nearly 
the  \Yholo  chain  of  leading  events  from  the  days  of  Ricliard  II. 
to  the  dcatli  of  Kichard  III.  at  Bosworth.  Following  the  guidance 
of  such  a  master  mind,  wo  realize  for  ourselves  the  men  and  actions 
of  the  period  in  a  way  wo  cannot  do  in  any  otlier  epoch.  And 
this  is  the  more  important  as  the  age  itself,  esiiccially  towards 
the  close,  is  one  of  tlio  most  obscure  in  English  history.  During 
the  period  of  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  we  have,  compaiatively  speak- 
ing, very  few  contemporary  narratives  of  what  took  place,  and 
anything  like  a  general  history  of  the  times  was  not  written  till  a 
much  later  date.  But  the  doings  of  that  stormy  ngc, — the  sad 
calamities  endured  by  kings — the  sudden  changes  of  fortune  in 
great  men — the  glitter  of  chivalry  and  the  horrors  of  civil  war, — 
all  loft  a  deep  impression  upon  the  mind  of  the  nation,  whicli  loas 
kept  alive  by  vivid  traditions  of  the  past  at  the  time  that  our  great 
dramatist  wrote.  Hence,  notwithstanding  the  scantiness  of  records 
and  the  meagreness  of  ancient  chronicles,  we  have  singularly  little 
(lifficulty  in  understanding  the  spirit  and  character  of  tlic  times.' 
Familiar  !">  hn  must  have  been  in  his  youth  with  the  materials 
that  enabled  him  to  interpret  so  stirring  a  period,  it  is  not  surpris- 
ing that  even  amidst  the  quiet  hedgerows  and  meadows  of  Strat- 
ford Shakespeare's  pulse  should  have  beat  high  with  patriotic 
enthusiasm,  or  that  when  launched  on  his  new  career  in  the 
metropolis  he  .should  have  sympatliizcd  to  the  full  e.ttent  on  his 
hirgcr  powers  with  the  glow  of  loyal  feeling  that,  under  Elizabeth's 
rule,  and  especially  in  the  conflict  with  Spain,  thrilled  the  nation's 
heart  with  an  exulting  sense  of  full  political  life,  realized  national 
powoi*,  and  gathering  European  fame. 

In  the  interval  that  elapsed  between  the  battle  of  Bosworth 
Field  and  tho  birth  of  Shakespeare  Warwickshire  continued  to  be 
visited  by  tho  reigning  monarch  and  members  of  the  royal  family. 
Tho  year  after  his  accession  to  the  crown  Henry  A'lII.,  with  Queen 
Catherine,  visited  Coventry  in  state,  and  witnessed  there  a  series 
of  jnagnificent  pageants.  In  1525  the  Piinccss  Mary  spent  two 
days  at  the  priory,  being  entertained  with  tho  usual  sports  and 
shows,  and  presented  by  tho  citizens  on  her  departure  with  hand- 
some presents.  The  year  after  Shakespeare's  birth  Queen  Elizabeth 
mado  a  stato  visit  to  Coventry,  Kcnilworth,  and  Warwick,  tho 
young  queen  being  received  at  every  point  of  her  progress  with 
unusually  splendid  demonstrations  of  loyalty  and  devotion.  And 
nino  years  before  Shakespeare's  birth  King  Edward  VI.,  in  tho  last 
months  of  his  reign,  had  specially  interested  himself  in  the  re- 
cstablishmcnt  by  royal  charter  of  the  free  grammar  school  of  tho 
guild  at  Stratford,  which  had  been  suppressed  at  tho  dissolution 
of  religious  houses  during  his  father's  reign. 

The  town  of  Stratford  lies  on  tho  north  bank  of  the 
Avon,  at  a  point  about  midway  in  it.s  course  from  its  riso 
in  Northamptonshire  hills  to  its  junction  with  the  Severn 
at  Tewkesbury.  On  entering  the  town,  across  Sir  Hugh 
Clopton's  noble  bridge,  tho  road  from  tlie  south-east  fan.s 
out  in  three  main  direetion.s, — on  the  riglit  to  Warwick  and 
Coventry,  on  the  loft  to  Alcester,  wliilo  between  runs  tho 
central  street,  tho  modern  representative  of  the  oUl  Roman 
■way  to  Birmingham,  Chester,  and  the  north.  Further  to 
the  loft  a  fourth  and  less  important  road  ieaves  the  town 
beyond  tlio  church,  and,  keeping  in  the  main  the  lino  of 
tho  river,  goes  to  Jjidford,  Saiford  Priora,  and  Evesham. 
It  is  a  picturesque  country  road  connecting  a  string  of 
undulating  villages  and  hamlets  with  Stratford.  The 
town  itself  consisted  in  the  16th  century  of  tho  low  gable- 
roofed  wood-aiid-plastcr  houses  dotted  at  intervals  along 
these  roads  and  down  tho  cross  streets  that  connected 
them  with  each  other  ond  with  tho  river.  Alost  of  tho 
houses  in  Shakespeare's  time  had  gardens  nt  the  back, 


and  many  at  the  sides  also ;  and  the  space  between  tbo 
houses,  combined  with  the  unusual  width  of  the  streets, 
gave  the  town  an  open  cheerful  look  which  enabled  it  to 
retain  pleasant  touches  of  its  earlier  rural  state.  As  its 
prosperity  increased  the  scattered  dwellings  naturally 
tended  to  close  up  their  ranks,  and  present  a  more  united 
front  of  exposed  wares  and  convenient  hostelries  to  the 
j'eomcn  and  graziers,  who  with  their  wives  and  families 
frequented  the  place  on  fair  and  market  days.  But  in 
Shakespeare's  time  the  irregular  lino  of  gables  and  porches, 
of  penthouse  walls  and. garden  palings,  with  patches  of 
flowers  and  overarching  foliage  between,  still  varied  tho 
view  and  refreshed  the  eye  in  looking  down  the  leading 
thoroughfares.  These  thoroughfares  took  the  shape  of  a 
central  cross,  of  which  Church,  Chapel,  and  High  Streets, 
running  in  a  continuous  line  north  and  south,  con-stituted 
the  shaft  or  stem,  while  Bridge  and  Wood  Streets,  running 
in  another  line  east  and  west,  were  tho  transverse  beam 
or  bar.  At  the  point  of  intersection  stood  the  High  Cross, 
a  solid  stone  building  with  steps  below  and  open  arches 
above,  from  which  public  proclamations  were  made,  and, 
as  iiv  London  and  other  large  towns,  sermons  sonietimcs 
delivered.  The  open  space  around  the  High  Cross  was 
the  centre  of  trade  and  merchandise  on  market  days,  and 
from  the  force  of  custom  it  naturally  became  the  site  on 
which  at  a  later  period  the  market-house  was  built.  Oppo- 
site the  'High  Cross  the  main  road,  carried  over  Sir  Hugh 
Clopton's  arches  and  along  Bridge  Street,  turns  to  the  left 
through  Henley  Street  on  its  way  to  Henley-in-Ardcn 
and  tho  more  distant  northerly  towns.  At  the  western 
end  of  Wood  Street  was  a  large  and  open  space  called 
Bother  Market,  whence  Bother  Street  running  parallel 
with  High  Street  led  through  narrower  lanes  into  tho 
Evesham  Road. 

This  open  ground  was,  as  tho  name  indicates,  the  great  rattle  The 
market  of  Stratford,  one   of  the  most  important   features  of  its  Rothef 
industrial  history   from  very  early  times.     In   the   later  Middle  Mark«t 
Ages  most  of  the  wealthier  inhabitants  were  engaged  in  farming 
operations,  and  tho  growth  and  prosperity  of  the  place  resulted 
from  its  position  as  a  market  town  in  tho  midst  of  an  ngriculluial 
and  grazing  district.     In  the  13th  century  a  number  of  oharters 
were  obtained  from  the  early  Tlantogenet  kings,  empowering  tho 
town  to  hold  a  weekly  market  and  no  fewer  than  five  annual  fairs, 
four  of  which  were  mainly  for  cattle.'     In  later  times  a  series  of 
great  cattle  markets,  one  for  each  month  in  the  year,   was  added 
to  tho  list.     The  name  of  the  Stratford  cattle  market  embodies 
this  feature  of  its  history,  "rother"  being  a  good  Saxon  word  for 
horned  cattle,  a  word  freely  employed  in  Early  English,  both  alono 
aud  in  composition.     In  tlio  IGth  century  it  was  still  in  familiar 
use,  not  only  in  literature  but  in  oflicial  documeDts  and  esjiccially 
in  statutes  of  the  realm.     Thus  Cowell,  in  his  law  dictionary,  nndor 
the  heading  "Rother-bcasts,"  explains  that  "tho  name  compre- 
hends oxen,  cows,   steers,  heifers,  and  such  liko  horned  beasts," 
and  refers  to  statutes  of  Elizabeth  and  James  in  support  of  tho 
usage.     And  Arthur  Golding  in  1567  translates  Ovid's  lines — 
**  MIIIc  gregcs  nil  tolldcmquo  armenta  per  Iicrbas 
Errabant — " 

"  A  thousand  flocks  of  sheep, 
A  thousand  herds  of  rcll>er-bratls,  ho  In  his  flclils  did  kctp." 
The  word  seems  to  have  been  longer  retained  and  moro  freely 
used  in  the  Midland  counties  than  elsewhere,  .and   Shakcspcaro 
himself  employs  it  with  colloquial  precision  in  tho  restored  lino  of 
Timon  of  Athens:    "It  is  the  pasture  lards   the  rothcr's   sides." 


■ly  driven  in  from  tho  rich  pa,stu 
Valley."  There  would  bo  some  variety  and  excitement  in  tho  spcc- 
taclo  as  tho  droves  of  meditative  oxen  were  invaded  from  limo  to 
time  by  groups  of  Ilcrcfoidshiiu  cows  lowing  anxiously  after  Iheir 
skittish  calves,  a.s  well  as  by  the  presence  anil  disconcerting  activity 
of  still  smaller  deer.  And  the  boy  would  bo  sure  In  follow  tho 
crowding  cattle  to  tho  Rother  Market  and  observe  at  leisure  tho 
humours  of  tho  ploughmen  and  drovers  from  tho  Fcldon  district, 
whoso  heavy  intermittent  talk  would  bo  in  perfect  keeping  with  tho 
bovine  stolidity  of  the  steers  and  heifers  around  them.  There  was 
a  market-cross  at  tlic  head  of  the  Holher  expanse,  and  this  was  the 
chief  gathering  place  for  tho  cattlo-dealcrs,  as  tho  High  Cross  wai 
tho  rallving  point  of  tho  dealers  in  corn  and  country  produce.     In 


742 


S  H  A  K  E  S  P  E  A  R  J^ 


modem  Stratrora  Kotlior  MaiTcet  lofaina  Ifs  place  ns  the  busiest 
centre  at  the  annual  fairs,  during;  one  of  wliicU  it  is  still  customary 
to  roast  au  ox  iu  the  open  street,  olteu  amidst  a  gooil  deal  of 
pojmlar  excitement  ami  convivial  nproar. 

Tlie  cross  ways  going  from  KotUcr  Street  to  the  river  side,  wuich 
cut  the  central  Hue,  dividing  it  into  tluco  sections,  arc  Ely  Street 
and  Sheep  Street  in  a  contiunous  line,  and  Scholar's  Lane  andCliapcl 
Lane  in  another  line.  Tliey  run  parallel  with  the  head  line  of 
Criilge.and  Wood  Streets,  and  lilio  tlieni  traverse  from  east  to  we.st 
the  northern  shaft  of  the  cross  tiiat  constituted  tlie  ground  plan  of 
tlie  town.  Starting  down  this  line  from  the  market  house  at  the 
top,  the  first  division,  tlie  High  Street,  is  now,  as  it  was  in  Shake- 
speare's Jay,  the  busiest  part  for  shops  and  shopping,  the  solid 
iiuilding  at  the  furtlier  corner  to  the  left  being  the  Corn  Exchange. 
At  the  first  corner  of  the  second  division,  called  Chapel  Street, 
stands  the  town-hall,  wliile  at  the  further  corner  are  the  site  and 
railed-in  gardens  of  New  Place,  the  large  mansion  purchased  by 
Shakespeare  iu  1S97.  Opposite  New  Place,  at  the  corner  of  the 
third  and  last  tlivision,  known  as  Church  Street,  is  the  grey  mass 
of  Gothic  buildings  belonging  to  the  guild  of  the  Holy  Cross,  and 
consisting  of  the  chapel,  the  hall,  the  grammar  .school,  and  the 
almshouses  of  the  aneieut  guild.  Turning  to  the  left  at  the  bottom 
t>f  Church  Street,  you  enter  upon  what  was  in  Shakespeare's 
day  a  well-wooded  suburb,  with  a  lew  good  houses  scattered  among 
the  aucieut  elms,  aud  surrounded  by  ornamental  gardens  and 
extensive  private  grounds.  In  one  of  these  Iionses,  Vfith  a  sunny 
exp.Miso  of  lawn  ami  shnibliery,  lived  iii  the  e^'rly  veal's  of  the  ITtli 
century  Sludcespeare's  eldest  daughter  Su.sinn.i  with  lar  hnsliniid, 
Dr  John  Hall,  and  here  iu  sjiriug  mornings  and  sumnier  afternoons 
the  gre.at  poet  must  have  often  strolled,  either  alone  or  accom- 
panied by  his  favourite  daugliter,  realizing  to  the  full  the  (|iiiet 
enjoyment  of  the  sylvan  scene  and  its  social  surrounding?!.  This 
plcasaut  suburb,  cailed  then  as  now  Old  Town,  leads  directly  to  the 
church  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  near  the  river  side.  The  church,  a  line 
specimen  of  Decorated  and  Per[iendicular  Gothic  with  a  lofty  spire, 
is  approached  on  the  northern  side  through  on  avenue  of  limes, 
and  sheltered  on  the  east  and  south  by  an  irregnlar  but  massive 
group  of  elms  towering  .above  tlio  churchway  path  between  the 
transepts,  tha  chancel,  and  the  river.  Below  the  church,  on  the 
margin  of  the  river,  were  the  mill,  the  mill-bridge,  and  tlic  WTir, 
half  hidden  by  grey  willows,  green  alders,  and  tall  beds  of  rustling 
sedge.  And,  beyond  the  cliiuvh,  the  college,  and  the  line  of  streets 
already  described,  the  suburbs  stretched  away  into  gardens, 
orchards,  meadows,  and  cultivated  fields,  diviilcd  by  rustic  lanes 
with  mossy  banks,  flowering  hedgerows,  and  Inmiiifus  vistas  of 
bewildering  beauty.  These  cross  and  countiy  roads  were  dotted 
»t  intervals  with  cottage  homesteads,  isolated  farms,  aud  the 
small  giwups  of  both  which  constituted  the  villages  and  hamlets 
included  within  the  wide  sweep  of  old  Stratford  parish.  Amongst 
these  were  the  villages  ami  hamlets  of  'VVelcombe,  Ingon,  Drayton, 
Shottery,  Lnddington,  Little  Wilmcote,  and  nishoi^ston.  The 
towu  was  thus  girdled  in  the  spring  by  daisied  meadows  and  blos- 
Boming  orchards,  and  enriched  during  the  later  mouths  by  the 
Drange  and  gold  of  harvest  fields  and  autumn  foliage,  mingled 
with  the  coral  and  purple  clusters  of  elder,  hawthorn,  aud  moun- 
tain ash,  and,  around  the  farms  and  csltages,  with  the  glow  of 
ripening  fruit  for  the  winter's  store. 

But  perhaps  the  most  characteristic  featiu-e  of  tlie 
scenery  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Stratford  i.s  to  be  found 
in  the  union  of  this  rich  and  varied  cultivation  with 
picturesque  survivals  of  the  primeval  forest  territory.  The 
low  hills  that  rise  at  intervals  above  the  well-turned  soil 
Btill  carry  on  their  serrated  crests  the  lingering  glories  of 
the  ancient  woodland.  Though  tha  once  mighty  forest  of 
Arden  has  disappeared,  the  after-glow  of  its  sylvan  beauty 
rests  on  the  neighbouring  heights  formerly  enclosed  within 
its  ample  margin.  These  traces  of  the  forast  wildness  and 
freedom  were  of  course  far  more  striking  and  abundant  in 
Shakespeare's  day  thau  now.  At  that  time  many  of  the 
farms  had  only  recently  been  reclaimed  from  the  forest, 
and  most  of  them  .still  had  their  bosky  acres  "  of  tooth'd 
briars,  sharp  furzes,  pricking  goss  and  thorns,"  their 
broom  groves,  hazel  copses,  and  outlying  patches  of 
anshrubbad  down.  And  the  hills  that  rose  above  the 
chief  villages  of  the  neighbourhood  were  still  clothed  and 
erovvned  with  the  green  and  mystic  mantle  of  the  leafy 
Arden.  But,  though  much  of  the  ancient  woodland  has 
disappeared  since  Shakespeare's  day,  many  traces  of  it 
still  remain.  Any  of  the  roads  out  of  Stratford  will  soon 
bring  the  pedestrian  to  some  of  these  picturesque  sur- 
vivals  of  the   old   forest   wilderness.     On  the  Warwick 


road,  at  the  distance  of  about  a  mile  from  the  town,  tlicro 
arc  on  the  left  the  Wclcoinbc  Woods,  and  just  beyond  tho 
woods  tho  well-known  Dingle.'*,  a  belt  of  straggling  a.sli 
and  hawthorn  winding  irregularly  through  bluo-bcll  depths 
and  briery  hollows  from  tho  [lathway  below  to  the  west 
of  tho  hill  above,  wliile  imuiodiately  around  rise  tho 
Welcombe  Hills,  from  the  top  of  which  is  obtained  th: 
finest  local  view  of  Stratford  and  the  adjacent  country 
Looking  south-west  aud  facing  the  central  lino  of  the 
town,  yoii  see  below  you,  above  the  mass  of  roofs,  tho 
square  tower  of  the  guild  chapel,  the  graceful  sjiire  of  tlio 
more  distant  church,  tho  sweep  of  the  winding  river,  and 
beyond  tho  river  tho  undulating  valley  of  the  lied  Hor.S' 
shut  ill  by  the  blue  range  of  the  C'otswold  Hills.  A 
couple  of  miles  to  the  east  of  tho  Welcombe  Hills  is  the 
village  of  SMittcrfield,  where  Shakespeare's  grandfather^ 
Bichard  Shakespeare,  lived  and  cultivated  to  tho  end  of 
his  days  the  acres  around  his  rustic  dwelling.  Beyond 
the  village  on  its  western  .side  there  is  an  upland  reach  of 
wilderness  iu  the  shape  of  a  hill,  covered  with  shrub  and 
copsewood,  and  known  as  the  Snitterficld  Bushes.  Hora 
Shakespeare  as  a  boy  must  have  often  rambled,  enjoying 
the  freedom  of  the  unfcnced  downs,  and  enlarging  hi3 
knowledge  of  nature's  e.Kuberant  vitalit}'.  On  tho 
oiniosite  side  of  the  town,  about  a  mile  on  the  Evesham 
road,  or  rather  between  the  Evesham  and  Alccster  roadsj 
lies  the  hamlet  of  Sliottsry,  half  concealed  by  ance.stral 
elms  and  nestling  amongst  its  homestead  fruits  and 
flowers.  From  one  of  these  homesteads  Shakespeare 
obtained  his  bride  Anne  Hathaway.  A  mile  or  two  om 
the  central  road,  passing  out  of  the  towu  through  Henley 
Street,  is  the  village  of  Eearlcy,  and  above  the  villago 
another  sweep  of  wooded  upland  known  as  Bearley 
Bashes.  And  at  various  more  distant  points  between 
these  roads  the  marl  and  sandstone  heights,  fringed  witli 
woods  or  covered  with  wilding  growths,  still  bear  clotjuciit 
testimony  to  the  time  when  Guy  of  A\''arwick  and  his 
tutor  iu  chivalry,  Heraud  of  Arden,  still  roamed  the  foicsfc 
in  search  of  the  wild  ox  and  savage  boar  that  frayed  tha 
infrequent  travellers  and  devastated  at  intervals  the 
Blender  cultivation  of  the  district.  The  subtle  power  of! 
this  order  of  scenery,  arising  from  the  union  of  all  that  is 
rich  and  careful  in  cultivation  with  all  that  is  wild  and' 
free  in  natural  beauty,  is  e.xactlj'  of  the  kind  best  fitted  to 
attract  and  delight  imaginative  and  emotional  minds.  Ifl 
possesses  the  pcctdiar  charm  that  in  character  arises  from 
the  union  of  refined  culture  with  the  bright  and  exhilarating 
spontaneity  of  a  free  and  generous  nature. 

On  its  moral  side  such  scenery  has  an  expanding  illuminating  SISia 
power  which  links  it  to  the  wider  and  deeper  interests  of  humanity  iulIA 
as  a  whole.  Nutiire  seems  to  put  forth  her  vital  energies  eX]irts»ly  oiH:e*\ 
for  the  relief  of  man's  estate,  appearing  as  his  friend  and  helper  scett^ 
and  I'onsoler.  Instead  of  being  absorbed  in  her  own  inacrc-siblc 
grandenn  and  Bolitaiy  sublimities,  she  exerts  her  benign  influences 
expressly  as  it  were  for  his  good,  to  cheer  and  brighten  his 
evanescent  days,  and  beautify  his  tvuiporaiy  home,  lioldcr  and 
more  rug^'ed  landscapes,  gloomy  glens,  and  thunder-scarred  peaks 
mav  eveite  more  paNsion.ite  feelings,  may  rouse  and  strengthen  by 
reaction  the  individualistic  elements  of  mind  and  ch.nracter,  and. 
thus  produce  the  hardy,  daring  type  of  mountaineer,  the  intenso 
self-centrj^  and  definnt  local  patriot  or  hero,  tho  chieftain  and 
his  clansmen,  co)i()'«  mtiiuhim.  No  doubt  it  is  also  true  that  tho 
vaster  and  loftier  mount.Tin  ranges  have  a  unique  power  of  exciting 
in  susceptible  minds  the  emotions  of  awe,  wonder,  and  sublimity. 
But  the  very  |iower  and  permanence  of  these  mighty  solitudes,  the 
grandeur  and  immobility  of  their  mo.asureless  strength  aud  imperial 
repose,  dwnrf  by  comparison  all  merely  human  interests  ;  and  to 
the  meditative  mind  swept  by  the  S[iiiit  of  such  immensities  tJic 
moments  of  our  mortal  life  seem  to  melt  as  dew-drops  intf  tbcr 
silence  of  their  eternal  years.  Tho  feelings  thus  cxciteA,  being  iu 
themselves  of  the  essence  of  poetry,  may  indeed  find  expression  in 
verse  and  in  vei-se  of  a  noble  kind,  but  the  poetry  will  be  lyrical 
and  reflective,  not  dramatic,  or  if  dramatic  in  form  itwill  be  lyrical 
in  su'ostance.  .As  Mr  Paiskin  has  pointed  out,  the  overmastering 
c.Tect  of  mountain   scenery   ^linds   'o   absorb  a:!d  preoccupy  tho 


SHAKESPEARE 


749 


inna,  mq  tuns  to  distnvB  tlic  iniiaitial  view,  the  universal  vision 
W  nature  and  liiiman  nature  as  a  complex  ■whole,  or  rather  of  nature 
•s  the  theatre  and  scene  of  hoinan  life,  which  tho  dramatist  must 
preserve  in  order  to  secure  success  in  lijs  hijilier  work.  Itountaiii 
iicencry  is,  hoirevcr,  not  only  rare  and  exacting  in  the  range  and 
intensity  of  feeling  it  excites,  l)ut  locally  remote  in  its  separation 
from  tho  interests  and  occupations  of  men.  It  is  thus  removed 
from  the  vital  clement  in  •nhicli  the  dramatist  uorks,  if  not  in  its 
higher  influence  antagonistic  to  that  element  llr  Hamerton, 
who  discusses  the  question  on  <i  uider  basis  of  knowled;,'e  and 
i«xi>ericnce  than  perliajw  any  living  authority  except  Jlr  Kusldn, 
supports  this  \-icv.-.  "  As  a  general  nile,"  he  says,  "  I  should  say 
there  is  an  tintagonism  betnceu  the  love  of  mountains  and  the 
knowledge  of  mankind,  that  the  lover  of  mountains  will  often  be 
iatisfied  with  their  appearances  of  pover  and  passion,  tl'.eir  splendour 
and  gloom,  tlieif  sccmijig  cheerfulness  or  iiiclauclioly,  \vheu  a 
mind  iudilferunt  to  tliis  class  of  scenery  might  study  the  analogous 
phases  of  human  character."  Wiere,  indued,  the  iiiduence  of 
tiature  is  overpowering,  as  in  the  East,  wonder, — tlie  wonder  excited 
by  mere  physical  vastncss,  power,  and  iniinitudc, — takes  the  place 
of  intelligent  interest  in  individual  life  and  character. 

But  the  dramatic  poet  has  to  deal  primarily  with  human 
power  and  passion;  and  not  for  him  therefore  is  tlie  life  of 
lonely  raptures  and  awful  delights  realized  by  the  moun- 
tain wanderer  or  the  Alp-inspired  bard.  His  work  lies 
Bearer  the  homes  and  ways  of  men,  and  his  choicest 
scenery  will  be  found  in  the  forms  of  natural  beauty  most 
directly  associated  with  their  habitual  activities,  most 
completely  blended  with  their  more  rivid  emotional 
experiences.  A  wooded  undulating  country,  watered  by 
memorable  streams,  its  ruder  features  relieved  by  the 
graces  of  cultivation,  and  its  whole  circuit  rich  in  histori- 
cal remains  and  associations,  is  outside  the  domain  of 
cities,  the  natural  stage  and  theatre  of  the  dramatist  and 
story-teller.  This  was  the  kind  of  scenery  that  fascinated 
Scott's  imagination,  amidst  which  he  fixed  his  chosen 
home,  and  where  he  sleeps  his  last  sleep.  It  is  a  border 
country  of  grey  waving  hills,  divided  by  streams  renowned 
in  song,  and  enriched  by  the  monuments  of  the  piety, 
splendour,  and  martial  power  of  the  leaders  whose  fierce 
raids  and  patriotic  conflicts  filled  with  romantic  tale  and 
minstrelsy  the  whole  district  from  tho  Lammerraoors  to 
the  Cheviots,  and  from  the  Leader  and  the  Tweed  to  the 
Solway  Firth.  In  earlier  times  Shakespeare's  own  dis- 
trict had  been  virtually  a  border  country  also.  The 
meditcval  tide  of  intermittent  but  savaj;c  warfare,  between 
the  unsubdued  Welsh  and  the  Anglo-Normans  under  the 
feudal  lords  of  the  marches,  ebbed  and  flowed  across  the 
Bevern,  inundating  at  times  the  whole  of  Powis-land,  and 
sweeping  on  to  tho  very  verge  of  Warwickshire,  In  the 
12th  and  13th  centuries  the  policy  of  intermarriage 
between  their  own  families  and  the  Welsh  princes  was 
tried  by  the  English  monarch',  and  King  John,  on  betroth- 
ing his  daughter  Joan  to  the  Welsh  prince  Llewelyn,  gave 
tho  manor  of  Bidford,  six  miles  from  Stratford-on-Avon,  as 
part  of  her  dower.  The  fact  of  this  English  princess 
being  thus  identified  with  South  Warwickshire  may  help 
to  explain  the  prevalence  of  the  name  Joan  in  the  county, 
but  the  early  impulse  towards  tho  giving  of  this  royal  name 
•would  no  doubt  be  strengthened  by  tho  knowledge  that 
John  of  Gaunt's  daughter,  the  mother  of  the  great  earl 
of  Warwick,  had  also  borne  tho  favourite  local  name. 
Shakespeare  himself  it  will  bo  remembered  had  two  sisters 
of  this  name,  the  elder  Joan,  born  some  time  before  him, 
the  firstborn  of  tho  family  indeed,  who  died  in  infancy, 
and  tho  younger  Joan,  who  survived  him.  But  the  local 
popularity  of  a  name,  familiarly  associated  with  tho 
kitchen  and  the  scullery  rather  than  with  tho  court  or  tho 
palace,  is  no  doubt  due  to  one  of  tho  more  striking 
incidents  of  the  long  conflict  between  the  EngliHh  and  the 
Welsh  on  tho  western  border.  As  wo  have  seen,  during 
the  Barons'  War  and  tho  Wars  of  tho  Roses  the  western 
border  was  tho  scene  of  active  conflict,  each  party  seeking 
Welsh  support,  and  each  being  able  in  turn  to  rally  a 


power  of  hardy  marchmen  to  its  banner.  And  that  the 
insurgent  Welsh  were  not  idle  during  the  interval  between 
these  civil  conflicts  we  have  the  emphatic  testimony  oi 
Glendower ; — 

"Three  times  hath  Henry  Bolinphrooke  made  head 
Against  my  power  ;  thrice  from  the  hanks  of  Wye 
And  sedgy-hottonied  Severn  have  I  t»iit  him 
Bootless  home,  and  weather-beaten  Lack." 

The  Hotspur  and  ilortimer  revolt  against  Henry  IV. 
well  illustratc.%  indeed,  the  kind  of  support  which  English 
disaffection  found  for  centuries  in  tlie  AVelsh  marches.  A 
rich  heritage  of  stirring  border  life  and  heroic  martial 
story  was  thus  transmitted  from  the  stormy  ages  of  faith 
and  feudalism  to  tho  more  settled  Tudor  times.  Apart 
from  the  border  ^va^fare  there  were  also  the  multiplied 
associations  connected  with  the  struggles  between  the 
nobles  and  the  crown,  and  the  rise  of  the  Commons  as  a 
distinctive  power  in  the  countrj'.  The  whole  local  record 
of  great  names  and  signal  deeds  was  in  Shakespeare's  day 
so  far  withdrawn  into  the  past  and  mellowed  by  secular 
di.stance  as  to  be  capable  of  exerting  its  full  enchantment 
over  the  feelings  and  the  imagination.  The  historical 
associations  thn^  connected  wth  the  hills  and  streams,  the 
abbeys  and  castles,  of  Warwickshire  added  elements  of 
striking  moral  interest  to  the  natural  beauty  of  the 
scenerj'.  To  the  penetrating  imagination  of  poetic 
natures  these  elements  reflected  the  continuity  of  national 
life  as  well  as  the  greatness  and  splendour  of  the  per- 
sonalities and  achievements  by  which  it  was  developed 
from  age  to  age.  They  also  helped  to  kindle  within  them  a 
genuine  enthusiasm  for  the  fortunes  and  tlie  fame  of  their 
native  land.  And  scenery  beautiful  in  itself  acquired  a 
tenfold  charm  from  the  power  it  thus  possessed  of  bring- 
ing vividly  before  the  mind  the  wide  and  moving  panorama 
of  the  heroic  past.  The  facts  sufficiently  prove  that 
scenery  endowed  with  this  multiplied  charm  takes,  if  a 
calmer,  still  a  deeper  and  firmer  hold  of  the  affections 
than  any  isolated  and  remote  natural  features,  however 
beautiful  and  sublime,  have  power  to  do.  This  general 
truth  is  illustrated  with  even  exceptional  force  in  the  lives 
of  Scott  and  Shakespeare.  Both  were  passionately  attached 
to  their  native  district,  and  tho  memorable  scenes  amidst 
which  their  early  years  were  passed.  So  intense  was 
Scott's  feeling  that  ho  told  Washington  Irving  that  if  he 
did  not  see  the  grey  hills  and  the  heather  once  a  year  ho 
thought  he  should  die.  And  one  of  the  few  traditions 
preserved  of  Shakespeare  is  that  even  in  tho  most  active 
period  of  his  London  career  he  always  visited  Stratford 
at  lea.st  once  every  yew.  ^V'c  know  indeed  from  other 
sources  that  during  his  absence  Shakespeare  continued  to 
take  tho  liveliest  interest  in  the  affairs  of  his  native  place, 
and  that,  although  London  was  for  some  years  his  profes- 
sional residence,  he  never  ceased  to  regard  Stratford  as  his 
home. 

Amongst  other  illustrations  of  this  strong  feeling  of 
local  attachment  that  might  bo  given  there  is  one  that 
has  recently  excited  a  good  deal  of  attention  and  is  worth 
noticing  in  some  detail.  Mr  llallam,  in  a  well-known 
passage,  has  stated  that  "no  letter  of  Shakespeare's  writ- 
ing, no  record  of  his  conversation,  has  been  preserved." 
But  we  certainly  have  at  least  one  corft-ersation  reported 
at  first  hand,  and  it  turns  directly  on  the  point  in  question. 
It  relates  to  a  proposal  made  inlCll  by  some  of  tho  local 
proprietors  for  tho  enclosure  of  certain  common  lands  at 
Welcombo  and  Old  Stratford.  Tho  corporation  of  Strat- 
ford strongly  opposed  tho  project  on  the  ground  that  it 
would  be  a  hardship  to  the  j)Oorcr  members  of  the  com- 
munity, and  their  clerk  Mr  Thomas  Grceno,  who  was 
related  to  Shakespeare,  was  in  London  about  the  business 
ip  November  of  tho  same  year     Under  date  November 


744 


S  H  A  K  E  S  P  E  A  E  E 


1 7th  Greeno  says,  in  notes  which  still  exist,  "  My  cosen 
Shakespear  comyng  yesterdy  to  town,  I  went  to  see  him 
how  he  did.  He  told  me  that  they  assured  him  they 
ment  to  inclose  no  further  than  to  Gospell  Bush,  and  so 
upp  straight  (leavyng  cut  part  of  the  Dyugles  to  the 
ffield)  to  the  gate  in  Clopton  hedg,  and  take  in  Salis- 
buryes  peece ;  and  that  they  mean  in  Aprill  to  survey  the 
land,  and  then  to  gyve  satisfaction,  and  not  before  :  and 
he  and  Mr  Hall  say  thf^y  think  ther  will  be  nothyng  done 
at  all."  This  proves  that  the  agents  of  the  scheme  had 
seen  Shakespeare  on  the  subject,  that  he'  had  gone  care- 
fully into  the  details  of  their  plan,  consulted  liis  son-in- 
law  Dr  John  Hail,  about  them,  and  arrived  at  the  conclu- 
sion that  for  the  present  they  need  take  no  decided  action 
in  the  matter.  There  is  evidently  on  Shakespeare's  part 
a  strong  feeling  against  the  proposed  enclosure,  and  the 
agents  of  the  scheme  had  clearly  done  their  best  to  remove 
Lis  objections,  promising  amongst  other  things  that  if  it 
went  forward  lie  should  suffer  no  pecuniary  loss,  a  pro- 
mise already  confirmed  by  a  legal  instrument.  But  nine 
months  later,  when  the  local  proprietors  seemed  bent  on 
pushing  the  scheme,  Shakespeare  takes  a  more  decided 
stand,  and  pronounces  strongly  against  the  whole  business. 
We  have  a  notice,  dated  September  1,  1615,  to  the 
effect  that  Sir  Shakespeare  had  on  that  day  told  the  agent 
of  the  corporation  "that  he  was  not  able  to  bear  the 
enclosing  of  Welcombe."  As  his  .proprietary  rights  and 
pecuniary  interests  were  not  to  be  affected  by  the  pro- 
posed enclosure,  this  strong  expression  of  feeling  must 
refer  to  the  public  advantages  of  the  Welcombe  common 
fields,  and  especial!)'  to  what  in  Scotland  would  be  called 
their  "  amenity,"  tlie  element  of  value  arising  from  their 
freedom  and  beauty,  their  local  history  and  associations. 
Welcombe,  as  we  have  seen,  was  the  most  picturesque 
»'.burb  of  Stratford.  The  hills  divided  by  the  leafy 
Dingles  afforded  the  finest  panoramic  view  of  ^he  whole 
neighbourhood.  On  their  eastern  slope  they' led  to  Fnl- 
broke  Park,  the  probable  scene  of  the  deer-stealing  adven- 
ture, and  towards,  the  north-west  to  the  village  of  Snitter- 
field  with  its  wooded  sweep  of  upland  "bushes."  Every 
acre  of  the  ground  was  associated  with  the  happiest  days 
of  Shakespeare's  youth.  In  his  boyish  holidays  he  had 
repeatedly  crossed  and  recrossed  the  unfenced  fields  at 
the  foot  of  the  Welcombe  Hills  on  his  ways  to  the  rustic 
scenes  and  occupations  of  his  uncle  Henry's  farm  in  the 
outlying  forest  village.  He  knew  by  heart  every  boundary 
tree  and  stone  and  bank,  every  pond  and  sheep-pool, 
every  barn  and  cattle-shed,  throughout  the  whole  well- 
frequented  circuit.  And  in  his  later  years,  when  after 
the  turmo'.i  and  excitement  of  his  London  life  he  came  to 
reside  at  Stratford,  and  could  visit  at  leisure  the  scenes  of 
bis  youth,  it  was  perfectly  natural  that  be  should  shrink 
from  the  prospect  of  having  these  scenes  partially  destroyed 
and  their  a.ssociations  broken  up  by  the  rash  hand  of 
needless  innovation,  fn  his  own  emphatic  language,  "  ho 
could  not  bear  the  enclo.sing  of  "Welcombe,"  and  the  only 
authoritative  fragment  of  his  conversation  preserved  to 
us  thus  brings  vividly  out  one  of  the  best  known  and 
most  distinctive  features  of  his  personal  character  and 
history — his  deep  and  life-long  attachment  to  his  native 
place.  Another  illustration  of  the  same  feeling,  common 
both  to  Scott  and  Shakespeare,  is  supphed  by  the  prudence 
and  foresight  they  both  displayed  in  husbanding  their 
early  gains  in  order  to  provide,  amidst  .the  scenery  they 
loved,  a  permanent  home  for  themselves  and  their  families. 
Shakespeare,  the  more  careful  and  .sharp-sighted  of  the 
two,  ran  no  such  risks  and  experienced  no  such  reverses  of 
fortune  as  those  which  saddened  Scott's  later  days.  Both, 
however,  spent  the  last  years  of  their  lives  in  the  homo 
which  their  energy  and  affection  had  provided,  and  both 


sleep  their  last  sleep  under  the  changing  skies  and  amidst 
the  fields  and  streams  that  gave  light  and  music  to  their 
earliest  years.  Hence,  of  all  great  authors,  they  are  the 
two  most  habitually  thought  of  in  connexion  with  their 
native  haunts  and  homesteads.  Even  to  his  contempon 
raries  Shakespeare  was  known  as  the  Swan  of  Avon.  The 
two  spots  on  British  ground  most  completely  identified 
with  the  noblest  energies  of  genius,  consecrated  by  life- 
long a.ssociations,  and  hallowed  by  sacred  dust  are  the 
banks  of  the  Tweed  from  Abbotsford  to  Dryburgh  Abbey, 
and  the  sweep  of  the  Avon  from  Charlecote  Park  to  Strat- 
ford church.  To  all  lovers  of  literature,  to  all  whose 
.spirits  have  been  touched  to  finer  issues  by  its  regenerating 
influence,  these  spots,  and  above  all  the  abbey  grave  and 
the  chancel  tomb,  are  holy  ground, —  national  shrines  visited 
by  pilgrims  from  every  land,  wh"  breathe  with  pride  and 
gratitude  and  affection  the  household  names  of  Shakespeare 
and  of  Scott. 

The  name  Shakesi>eare  is  found  in  the  Jlidland  counties  Shak< 
two  centuries  before  the  birth  of  the  poet,  scattered  so  ^P^*" 
widely  that  it  is  not  easy  at  first  sight  to  fix  the  locality  "'"".' 
of  its  rise  or  trace  the  lines  of  its  progress.  Several  facts, 
however,  would  .?eem  to  indicate  that  those  who  first  bore 
it  entered  AVarwickshire  from  the  north  and  west,  and  may 
therefore  have  migrated  in  early  times  from  the  neighbour- 
ing marches.  The  name  itself  is  of  course  thorough!/ 
English,  and  it  is  given  by  Camden  and  Verstegan  as  aa 
illustration  of  the  waj'  in  which  surnames  were  fabricated 
when  first  introduced  into  England  in  the  13th  centiurj. 
But  it  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  some  hardy 
borderers  who  had  fought  successfully  in  the  English 
ranks  may  have  received  or  assumed  a  significant  and 
sounding  designation  tliat  would  help  to  perpetuate  the 
memory  of  their  martial  prowess.  We  have  indeed  a 
distinct  and  authoritative  assertion  that  some  of  Shake- 
speare's ancestors  had  served  their  country  in  this  way. 
However  ih's  may  be,  families  bearing  the  name  are 
found  during  the  loth  and  16th  centuries  in  the  Arden 
district,  especially  at  Wroxhall  and  Eowington, — some 
being  connected  with  the  priory  of  Wroxhall,  while 
during  the  1 5th  century  the  names  of  more  than  twenty 
are  enumerated  as  belonging  to  the  guild  of  St  Ann,  at 
Knoll  near  Pionington.  lu  the  roll  of  this  guild  or  college 
are  also  found  the  representatives  of  some  of  the  best 
families  in  the  county,  such  as  the  Ferrerses  of  Tamworth 
and  the  Chntcns  of  Coleshill.  Among  the  uu-mbers  of 
the  guild  the  poet's  ancestors  are  to  be  looked  for,  and  it 
is  not  improbable,  as  Mr  French  .suggests,  that  Jolin  and 
Joan  Shakespeare,  entered  on  the  Knoll  registfr  in  1527, 
may  have  been  the  parents  of  Eicbard  Shakespeare  of 
Snitterfield,  whose  sons  gave  each  to  his  children  the 
favourite  family  names.  Kichard  Shakespeare,  the  poet's 
grandfather,  occupied  a  substantial  dwelling  and  culti- 
vated a  forest  farm  at  Snitterfield,  between  3  and  4  miles 
from  Stratford.  He  was  the  tenant  of  Robert  Ardcn  of 
Wilmcote,  "a  gentleman  of  worship,"  who  farmed  his  own 
estate,  situated  a  few  miles  to  the  west  of  Snitterfield. 
Richard  Shakespeare  was  settled  at  the  latter  hamlet  and 
doing  well  as  early  as  1513,  Thomas  Atwood  of  Stratford 
having  in  that  year  bequeathed  to  him  four  oxen  which 
were  then  in  his  keeping ;  and  he  continued  to  reside 
there  certainly  till  1560,  and  probably  till  his  death.  He' 
appears  to  have  had  two  sons,  John  and  Henry,  of  whom 
John,  the  eldest,  early  broke  through  the  contracted  circle 
of  rustic  life  at  Snitterfield,  made  his  way  to  Stratford,  and 
established  himself  as  a  trader  in  one  of  the  leading 
thoroughfares  of  the  town.  This  movement  to  the  town 
probably  took  place  in  1551,  as  in  1552  John  Shakespearo- 
is  described  in  an  official  document  as  residing  in  Henley 
Street,  where  the  poet  was  subsequti;',?."  Hora      A.*"  to  U>i 


S  H  A  K-  E  S  P  E  A  R  E 


745 


precise  nature  of  his  occupation,  the  kind  of  wares  iu 
which  he  priucipally  dealt,  there  are  various  and  conflict- 
ing statements  that  have  given  rise  to  a  good  deal  of  dis- 
cussion. The  earliest  official  statement  on  the  subject 
occurs  in  the  register  of  the  bailiff's  court  for  the  year 
1556.  lie  is  there  described  as  a  "glover,"  which, 
according  to  the  verbal  usage  of  the  time,  included  deal- 
ing in  skins,  as  well  as  in  the  various  leather-made 
articles  of  farming  gear,  such  as  rough  gauntlets  and 
leggings  for  hedging  and  ditching,  white  leather  gloves  for 
chopping  wood,  and  the  like.  But  in  addition  to  the 
trade  of  glover  and  fell-monger  tr.idition  assigns  to  John 
Shakespeare  the  functions  of  butcher,  wool-stapler,  corn- 
dealer,  and  tinibei'-merchant.  These  occupations  are  not 
incompatible,  and  together  they  represent  the  main  lines 
some  of  which  at  least  a  young  farmer  going  into  the 
town  for  trading  purposes  would  be  likely  to  pur.sue. 
He  would"  naturally  deal  with  the  things  he  knew  most 
about,  such  as  corn,  wool,  timber,  skins,  and  leather-made 
articles.used  in  farm  work — in  a  word,  he  would  deil  in 
farm  conveniences  and  farm  products.  Iu  a  town  that 
Was  the  centre  and  chief  market  of  an  agricultural  and 
grazing  district,  and  as  the  member  of  a  family  whose 
wide  connexions  were  nearly  all  engaged  in  farming 
operations,  his  prospects  were  certainly  rather  favourable 
than  otherwise.  And  he  soon  began  to  turn  his  country 
connexion  to  account.  There  is  distinct  evidence  that  he 
early  dealt  in  corn  and  wood  as  well  as  gloves  and  leather, 
for  in  155G  he  sues  a  neighbour  for  eighteen  quarters  of 
barley,  and  a  few  years  later  is  paid  three  shilUngs  by  the 
corporation  for  a  load  of  timber. 

The  poet's  father  was  evidently  a  man  of  energy,  ambition, 
and  public  spirit,  with  the  knowledge  and  ability  requisite 
for  pushing  his  fortune  with  fair  success  in  his  now  career. 
His  youthful  vigour  and  intelligence  soon  told  in  his  favour, 
and  in  a  .short  time  we  find  him  taking  an  active  part  in 
public  affairs.     He  made  way  so  rapidly  indeed  amongst 
his  fellow-townsmen,  that  within  five  years  after  entering 
Stratford  he  is  recpgnized  as  a  fitting  recipient  of  municipal 
honours;  and    his   oJlicial    appointments   steadily  rise  in 
dignity  and  value  through  the  various  gradations  of  leet- 
juror,  ale-taster,  constable,  affeeror,  burgess,  chamberlain, 
and  alderman,  until  in  1568  he  gains  the  most  distinguished 
post  of  official  dignity,  that  of  high-bailiff  or  mayor  of 
the  town.     Within  twenty  years  after  starting  in  business 
in  Henley  Street  he  thus  rises  to  the  highest  jilace  in  the 
direction  of  municipal  affairs,  presiding'  as  their  head  over 
the  deliberations    of  his  fellow  aldermen  and    burgesses, 
and  as  chief  magistrate  over   the  local   court   of  record. 
Three  years  later,  in  1571,  he  was  again  elected  as  chief 
alderman.     There  is   ample   evidence,    too,    that   during 
these  years  he  advanced  in  material  prosperity  as  well  as 
m  municipal  dignities  and  honours.     As  early  as  155G  ho 
had  means  at  his  command  which  enabled  him  to  purchase 
two   houses   in  the   town,  one  in    Henley  Street  with  a 
considerable  garden,  and  another  iu  Greeuhill  Street  with 
a  garden  and  croft  attached  to  it.     In  the  following  year 
ho  married  an  heiress  of  gentle  birth,  Mary  Ardcn  of  the 
Aslnes,  who  had  recently  inherited  under  her  father's  will 
a  substantial  sum  of  ready  money,  an  estate  at  Wilnicote, 
consisting  of  nearly  60  acres  of  land  with  two  or  three 
liouses,  and  a  reversionary  interest  in  houses  and  lands  at 
SnitterGold,    including    the     farm    tenanted    by    llichard 
Shakespeare,  her  husband's  father.     Ileing  now  a  landed 
proprietor  and  a  man  of  rising  position  and  influence,  John 
Shakespeare  would  be  able  to  extend  his  business  opera- 
tions,  and   it   is   clear  that  ho  did   so,    though  whether 
always   with   duo  prudence  and  foresight    may  be  fairly 
qubstioncd.     To  a  man  of  his  sanguine  and  somewlmt 
impetuous   temner  the   sudden   increase   of   wealth    was 


probably  by  no  means  au  unmixed  good.  But  for  bome 
years,  at  all  events,  he  was  able  to  maintain  his  more 
prosperous  state,  and  his  new  ventures  appear  for  a  time 
to  have  turned  out  well.  He  is  designated  in  official 
documents  as  yeoman,  freeholder,  and  gentleman,  and  has 
the  epithet  "  master "  preti.\ed  to  his  name  ;  this,  heing 
equivalent  to  esquire,  was  rarely  used  except  in  relation 
to  men  of  means  and  station,  possessing  landed  property 
of  their  own.  In  a  note  to  another  official  document  it 
is  stated  that  about  the  time  of  his  becoming  chief  magis- 
trate of  Stratford  John  Shakespeare  had  "lands  and  tene- 
ments of  good  worth  and  substance"  estimated  in  value 
at  ^500,  and  though  there  may  be  some  exaggeration  in 
this  estimate  his  jnoperty  from  various  sources  must  have 
been  worth  nearly  that  sum.  And  in  1575  he  increased  the 
total  amount  by  piuxhasing  two  houses  in  Henley  Street, 
the  two  that  still  remain  identified  with  the  name  and  ai-e 
consecrated  by  tradition  as  the  birthplace  of  the  poet.  But 
this  was  his  last  purchase,  tlic  tide  of  his  hitherto  pro- 
sperous fortunes  being  but  too  clearly  already  on  the  turn. 
Having  passed  the  highest  poiut  of  social  and  commercial 
success,  he  was  now  facing  the  downward  slope,  and  the 
descent  once  begun  was  for  some  years  continuous,  and  at 
times  alarmingly  and  almost  inscrutably  rapid. 

It  sceins  clcr.r  iiuleeJ  from  the  facts  of  tlie  c.ise  tliat,  notivith-  RcvenftaS 
ttandir.g  Joliu  Shakespeare's  intelligence,  activity,  ami  early  fortuiw, 
success,  tlicro  was  some  defect  of  character  which  intiotlucetl  an 
element  of  instability  into  his  career,  anil  in  the  eml  very  ir.uch 
neutializeil  the  working  of  his  nobler  powers.  Faintly  ilisceniible 
perhaps  from  tli*  iirst,  and  overpowered  only  for  a  time  by  the 
access  of  prosperity  that  followed  liis  fortunate  marriage,  this  vital 
flaw  ultimately  produced  its  natural  fruit  iu  the  serious  embarrass- 
ments that  clouded  his  later  years.  The  [■recise  iiatnio  of  the 
defect  can  only  be  indicated  in  gencial  terms,  but  it  seems  to 
have  consisted  very  much  iu  aviant  of  mcasiiic  and  balance,  of 
adctiuatc  care  and  foresight,  in  his  business  dealings  and  calcula- 
tions. Ho  seems  to  liave  possessed  the  eager  sanguine  tempera- 
ment which,  absorbed  iu  the  immediate  object  of  pursuit,  overlook* 
dinicnlties  and  neglects  the  wider  consideiations  on  which  lasting 
success  depends.  Even  in  his  early  years  at  Stratfoi'd  thcio  are 
signs  of  tliis  aidciit,  impatient,  somewhat  unhccdful  temper.  He 
is  not  only  active  and  pushing,  but  too  restless  and  excitable  to 
pay  projier  attention  to  necessary  details,  or  discharge  with 
punctuality  the  minor  duties  of  his  position.  The  first  recorded 
fact  iu  his  local  history  illustrates  this  feature  of  his  character.  In 
Api'il  1552  Jolm  Shakespeare  is  fined  twelve  pence,  equal  to  between 
eight  and  ten  shillings  of  our  English  money  now,  for  not  remov- 
ing the  heap  of  household  dirt  and  refuse  that  had  accumulated  in 
front  of  hi3  own  door.  Auotlier  illustration  of  his  want  of  thorough 
method  and  system  iu  the  management  of  his  nflairs  is  supplied 
liy  the  ftict  that  iu  the  years  1506-57  he  allowed  himself  to  be  sued 
in  the  baililTs  court  for  comparatively  small  debts.  This  could  not 
have  arisen  from  any  want  of  means,  as  during  the  same  period,  in 
October  1556,  ho  made  the  purchase  already  referred  to  of  two 
houses  with  extensive  gardens.  The  actions  for  debt  must  thei-o- 
foio  have  been  tho  result  of  uegligenco  or  temner  on  John 
Shakespeare's  part,  and  cither  alternative  tells  almost  equally 
against  his  liabits  of  business  coolness  and  regularity.  Another 
iUusti-atiou  of  his  restless,  ill-considered,  and  unbalanced  cnercy 
may  bo  found  in  tho  numbei-  and  variety  of  occupations  which  ho 
seems  to  have  added  to  liis  early  trado  of  glover  and  leather-dealer. 
As  his  prospects  improved  ho  appears  to  have  seized  on  frosb 
branches  of  business,  until  ho  had  included  within  his  grasp  the 
whole  circle  of  agricultural  products  that  could  in  any  way  1)» 
brought  to  market.  It  would  seem  also  that  ho  added  farming, 
to  a  not  inconsiderable  extent,  to  his  expanding  retail  business  iu 
Stratford.  But  it  is  equally  clear  that  ho  lockeJ  tho  orderly 
method,  the  comprehensivo  outlook,  and  the  vigilant  care  for 
details  essential  for  holding  well  in  hand  the  threads  of  so  com- 
plicatc<l  a  commercial  web.  Other  disturbing  forces  may  iirol>ably 
1)0  discovered  in  tho  priilo  and  ambition,  the  lovo  of  social  cxcito- 
inoiit  and  display,  which  appear  to  bo  omong  tho  ground  notes  of 
John  Shakespiarc's  character  so  far  as  it  is  revealed  to  us  in  tho 
few  facts  of  his  Iribtory.  His  stiom?  social  feeling  mid  love  of 
pleasurable  excitement  are  illustr.ited  by  tho  fact  that  during  tho 
year  of  his  m.iyoially  lio  brought  couqianica  of  players  into  the 
town,  and  inaugurated  dramatic  performances  in  the  gnihl  hall. 
It  is  during  tho  year  of  his  filling  the  post  of  high-bailill  that  wo 
lii-st  hear  of  stage  plays  at  Stratfor.l,  nnd  tho  playora  must  liavo 
visited  the  towii,  it  not,  as  is  most  likelv,  at  the  invitation  and 
desire  of  tho  poet's  father,  at  least  with  his  sanction  and  support 

XXI.  -  94 


746 


SHAKESPEAEE 


(In  sucli  cases  tlio  players  could  not  act  at  all  without  the  pcr- 
'mission  of  the  mayor  and  council,  and  their  first  performance  was 
'usually  a  free  entertainment,  patronized  and  paid  for  by  tlio  corpora- 
'tion,  and  called  the  mayor's  play.  In  all  this  John  Shakespearo 
took  tile  initiative,  and  in  so  doing  probably  helped  to  decide  the 
future  career  of  his  son.  The  notes  of  personal  pride  and  social 
ambition  are  equally  apparent.  It  is  on  record,  for  example,  that 
soon  after  reaching  the  highest  post  of  municipal  distinction  the 
poet's  father  applied  to  the  heralds'  college  for  a  grant  of  arms. 
Tliis  application  was  not  at  the-  time  successful,  but  it  seems  to 
have  been  so  far  seriously  entertained  that  odicial  inciuiries  were 
made  into  the  family  history  and  social  standing  of  the  Shake- 
bpcares.  But  the  remarkable  fact  is  that  such  an  application 
should  have  been  made  at  all. by  a  Stratford  burgess wdiose  position 
and  prospects  were  so  unstable  and  precarious  as  the  events  of  the 
next  few  years  showed  those  of  John  Shakespeare  to  be.  At  the 
time  of  the  application  his  increasing  familj-  must  have  enlarged 
his  household  e-tpenses,  while  his  oliicial  position,  combined  with 
his  open  and  generous  nature,  his  love  of  social  sympathy,  distinc- 
tion, and  support,  would  probably  have  led  him  into  habits  of  fiee- 
handod  hospitality  and  inconsiderate  expenditure.  All  this  must 
have  helped  to  introduce  a  scale  of  lavish  domestic  outlay  that 
would  tend  direi-tly  to  hasten  the  financial  collapse  in  his  affairs 
that  speedily  followed.  And  on  finding  things  going  against  him 
John  Shakespeare  was  just  the  man  to  discount  his  available 
resources,  aud,  as  the  pressure  increased,  mortg.Tge  his  future  and 
adopt  any  possible  expedient  for  maintaining  the  increased  port 
■md  social  consequence  he  had  imprudentlj-  assumed. 
Mora!  This  seems  to  have  been  the  course  actually  pursued  when  pecu- 

effects.  niary  tlifiiculties  arose.  Dm^ing  the  three  years  that  elapsed  after  his 
last  purchase  of  house  property  his  affairs  became  so  seriously  embar- 
rassed that  it  was  found  necessary,  if  not  to  sacrifice,  at  least  to  jeo- 
pardize the  most  cherished  future  of  the  family  in  order  to  meet  the 
exigencies  of  tho  moment.  In  1578  John  and  Mary  Shalcespeare 
mortgaged  for  forty  pounds  their  most  considerable  piece  of  landed 
property,  the  estate  of  the  Asbics.  The  mortg.igee  was  a  family 
connexion  of  their  own,  Edmund  Lambert,  who  had  married  JIary 
Shakespeare's  sister  Joan.  The  subsequent  history  of  this  transac- 
tion shows  hqvf  bitter  must  have  been  tho  need  that  induced  the 
Shakespeares  to  siu'render,  even  for  a  time,  their  full  control  over 
tho  ancestral  estate.  The  next  year,  however,  the  pressure,  instead 
of  being  relieved  by  the  sacrifice,  had  become  still  more  urgent, 
aud  the  only  outlying  property  that  remained  to  meet  it  was  the 
reversionary  interest  in  tho  Snitterfield  estate.  Under  a  family 
settlement  JIary  Shakespeare,  on  the  death  of  her  stepmother, 
would  come  into  the  possession  of  houses  and  laud  at  Snitterfield 
almost  equal  in  value  to  the  Asbies  estate.  But  in  1579  the 
Shakespeares  found  it  necessary  to  dispose  altogether  of  this 
reversionary  interest.  In  that  year  it  was  sold  to  Robert  AVebb 
for  the  sum  of  forty  pounds.  The  buyer  was  a  nephew  of  llary 
Shakespeare,  being  the  son  of  Alexander  AA'ebb,  who  had  married 
her  sister  Margaret.  In  thus  applying  to  relatives  or  family  con- 
nexions in  their  need,  and  disposing  of  their  property  to  them,  the 
Shakespeares  may  have  hoped  it  would  bo  more  easily  regained 
should  times  of  prosperity  return.  The  sacrifice  of  the  remaining 
interests  in  the  Snitterfield  property  afi'orded,  however,  only  a 
temporary  relief,  qnite  insufficient  to  remove  the  accumulating 
burden  of  debt  and  difficuHy  whicli  now  weighed  the  Shakespeares 
down.  The  notes  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Stratford  corporation 
and  of  tlie  local  court  of  record  sufficiently  show  that  John  Shake- 
speare's adverse  fortune  continued  through  a  series  of  years,  and  they 
also  enable  us  in  part  to  understand  how  he  bore  liim.self  under  the 
changes  iu  liis  social  position  that  followed.  These  changes  begin 
in  the  critical  year  157S.  In  January  of  that  year,  when  his 
brother  aldermen  were  called  upon  to  pay  a  considerable  sum 
each  as  a  contribution  to  the  military  equipment  to  be  provided 
by  tlie  town,  John  Shakespeare  is  so  fer  relieved  that  only  one 
half  the  amonnt  is  required  from  him.  Later  in  the  year  we  find 
him  wholly  exempted  from  the  weekly  tax  paid  by  his  fellow- 
aldermen  for  the  relief  of  the  poor.  In  the  spring  of  the  follow- 
ing year,  on  a  further  tax  for  military  purposes  being  laid  on  tlie 
town,  he  is  unable  to  contribute  anything,  and  is  accordingly 
reported  as  a  defaulter.  A  few  years  Later,  in  an  action  for  a  debt, 
a  verdict  is  recorded  against  him,  with  the  official  report  that  he  had 
no  goods  on  wiiich  distraint  could  be  made.  About  the  same  time 
he  appears  to  havo  been  under  .some  resti'aint,  if  not  actually 
imprisoned  for  debt.  And  as  late  as  1692  it  is  oHiciaUy  stated,  as 
a  result  of  an  inqufry  into  the  number  who  fail  to  attend  the' 
church  service  once  a  month  according  to  the  statutory  require- 
ment, that  Jolm  Shakespeare  with  some  others,  two  of  whom, 
curiously  enough,  are  named  Flnellen  and  Bardolph,  "  come  not  to 
church  for  fear  of  process  for  debt."  In  the  year  1586  another 
alderman  had  at  length  been  chosen  in  his  place,  the  reason  given 
being  expressly  because  "  John  Sli.akespeare  doth  not  coma  to  the 
halles  when  they  are  warned,  nor  hath  not  done  for  a  long  time." 
From  this  brief  oliicial  record  it  would  seem  that  under  his  reverse 
of  fortune  ho  w.is  treated  with  marked  sympathy  aud  consideration 


by  his  fellow  townsmen.  For  at  least  seven  years  after  Ids 
troubles  first  began  his  fellow-burgesses  persist  in  keeping  his 
name  in  its  place  of  honour  on  their  roll,  partly  no  doubt  as  a 
mark  of  respect  for  his  character  and  past  services,  and  partly  it 
may  bo  in  the  hope  that  his  fortunes  might  improve  and  )irosperou3 
days  return.  And,  when  at  length  he  is  superseded  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  another  in  his  place,  this  is  done,  not  on  the  groimd  of 
his  reduced '  circumstances,  but  simply  because  he  voluntarily 
absents  himself  from  the  council,  never  attends  its  meetings  or 
takes  any  part  in  its  aflTairs.  This  is  a  noteworthy  fact  illustrating 
still  further  John  Shakespeare's  character.  The  statement  clearly 
indicates  the  kind  of  moral  collapse  that  had  followed  the  con- 
tiinious  pressure  of  material  reverses.  The  eager  sanguine  nature 
that  had  so  genially  expanded  iu  prosperity  was,  it  is  clear,  sorely 
chilled  and  ilcpresscd  by  adversity.  He  abandons  the  usual  places 
of  resort,  withdraws  himself  from  the  meetings  of  the  corporation, 
and  ceases  to  associ.ite  with  his  fellow-burgesses.  And,  what  is 
perhaps  still  more  noticeable,  he  gives  up  attending  church,  and  no 
longer  even  woi-ships  with  his  fcUow-towr^smen.  All  this  is  the 
more  significant  because  his  circumstances,  though  seriouslj 
embarrassed,  and  for  some  years  much  reduced,  were  never  so 
desperate  as  to  compel  him  to  jiart  with  his  freehold  property  iu 
Henley  Street.  In  the  <larkest  hours  of  his  clouded  fortune  he 
still  retained  the  now  world-famous  houses  associated  with  tho 
poet's  birth  and  early  years.  There  was  no  adequate  reason  there- 
fore why  John  Shakespeare  should  have  so  completely  forsaken  the 
usual  haunts  and  regular  assemblies  of  his  fellow-townsmen  and 
friends.  But  it  seems  clear,  as  already  intimated,  that,  whiFe 
gifted  with  a  good  deal  of  native  energy  and  intelligence,  and 
possessing  a  temper  that  was  proud,  sensitive,  and  even  passionate, 
John  Shakespeare  lacked  the  kind  of  fortitude  and  moral  courage 
which  enables  men  to  meet  serious  reverses  of  fortune  with  dignity 
and  reserve,  if  not  with  cheerfulness  aud  hope.  With  the  instinct 
of  a  wounded  animal  he  seems  to  have  left  the  prosperous  herd  aud 
retired  apart  to  bear  his  pain  and  loss  iu  solitude  and  alone.  Nor 
apparently  did  he  hold  up  his  head  again  until  the  cflScient  support 
of  his  prosperous  son  enabled  him  to  take  active  measures  for  tho 
recovery  of  his  alienated  estate  and  lost  position  in  the  town.  By 
the  middle  of  the  last  decade  of  the  16th  century  the  poet's  success 
iu  his  profession  was  thoroughly  assured,  and  he  was  on  tho  high 
road  to  wealth  and  fame.  As  actor,  dramatist,  and  probably  also 
as  sharer  in  the  Blackfriars  theatre,  he  was  in  the  receipt  of  a 
large  income,  and  according  to  tradition  received  a  considerable 
sum  from  the  young  earl  of  Southampton,  to  whom  his  poems 
were  dedicated.  The  son  was  now  therefore  as  able  as  he  had 
always  been  willing  to  help  his  father  to  regain  the  position  of 
comfort  and  dignity  ho  had  formerly  occupied.  We  find  accord- 
ingly that  in  1597  John  and  Mary  Shakespeare  filed  a  bUl  in 
Chancery  against  John  Lambert  for  the  recovery  of  the  Asbies 
estate,  which  had  been  mortgaged  to  his  father  nearly  twenty 
years  before.  There  had  indeed  been  some  movement  iu  the 
matter  ten  years  earlier,  on  the  death  of  Edward  Lambert  tho 
mortgagee.  His  sou  John  being  apparently  anxious  to  settle  the 
dispute,  it  was  proposed  that  he  should  pay  an  additional  sum  of 
twenty  pounds  in  order  to  convert  the  mortgage  into  a  sale,  and 
that  he  should  then  receive  from  the  Shakespeares  an  absolute  title 
to  the  estate.  The  arrangement  was  not,  however,  carried  out, 
and  iu  1589  John  Shakespeare  brought  a  bill  of  complaint  against 
Lambert  in  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench.  Nothing  further,  how- 
ever, seems  to  have  been  done,  probably  because  Lambert  may 
have  felt  that  in  the  low  state  of  the  Shakespeares'  fortime  the 
action  could  not  be  pressed.  In  1597,  however,  there  was  a 
change  in  the  relative  position  of  the  litigants,  John  Shakespeare 
having  now  the  purse  of  his  son  at  his  command,  and  a  bill  in 
Chancery  was  accordingly  filed  against  John  Lambert.  Tho  plea 
in  support  of  the  Shakespeares'  claim  was  that  the  original  con- 
ditions of  the  mortgage  had  been  fulfilled,  the  money  in  discharge 
having  been  oflTered  to  Edward  Lambert  at  the  proper  date,  but 
refused  by  him  on  the  ground  that  other  sums  were  owing  which 
must  also  be  repaid  at  the  same  time.  To  this  pica  John  Lambert 
replied,  and  there  is  a  still  further  ' '  replication  "on  the  part  of 
the  Shakespeares.  How  the  matter  was  eventually  decided  is  not 
known,  no  decree  of  the  court  in  the  case  having  been  discovered. 
But  the  probabilities  are  that  it  was  settled  out  of  court,  and,  as 
the  estate  did  not  return  to  the  Shakespeares,  probably  on  the 
basis  of  the  proposal  already  made, — that  of  the  payment  of  an 
additional  sum  by  John  Lambert.  About  tho  same  date,  or  rather 
earlier,  in  1596,  John  Shakespeare  also  renewed  his  application  to 
the  heralds'  c^'llege  for  a  giant  of  arms,  and  this  time  with  success. 
The  grant  was  made  on  the  ground  that  the  history  aud  position 
of  the  Shakespeare  and  Ai'den  families  fully  entitled  the  applicant 
to  receive  coat  armour.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  means 
required  for  supporting  these  applications  were  supplied  by  the 
poet,  and  he  would  be  well  rewarded  by  the  knowledge  that  in  the 
evening  of  his  days  his  father  had  at  length  realized  the  desire,  of 
his  heart,  being  otKcially  recognized  as  a  "gentleman  of  worsTiip." 
And,  what  would  now  perhaps  please   his  father  still  better,  he 


SHAKESPEARE 


747 


Would  be  able  to  hand  on  the  distinction  to  his  son,  whose  pro- 
fession prevented  him  at  the  time  from  gaining  it  on  uis  ovm 
account.  John  Shakespeare  died  in  1601,  having  through  the 
alFuctionate  caro  of  his  son  spent  the  last  yeare  of  his  life  in  the 
ease  and  comfort  befitting  ono  who  had  not  only  been  a  prosperous 
burgess,  but  cliief  alderman  and  mayor  of  Stratford. 

Of  JIary  Arden,  the  poet's  mother,  wo  know  little, 
hardly  anything  directly  indeed ;  but  the  little  known  is 
wholly  in  her  favour.  From  the  provisions  of  her  father's 
iwill  it  is  clear  that  of  his  seven  daughters  she  was  his  favour- 
ite; and  the  links  of  evidence  are  now  complete  connecting 
her  father  Robert  Arden  with  the  great  Warwickshire  family 
of  Arden,  whose  members  had  more  than  once  filled  the 
posts  of  high-sheriH  and  lord-lieutenant  of  the  county. 
She  was  thus  descended  from  an  old  county  family,  the 
oldest  in  Warwickshire,  and  had  inherited  the  traditions  of 
gentle  birth  and  good  breeding.  Her  ancestors  are  traced 
back,  not  only  to  Norman,  but  to  Anglo-Saxon  times, 
Alwin,  an  early  representative  of  the  family,  and  himself 
connected  with  the  royal  house  of  Athelstane,  Laving  been 
vice-comes  or  sheriff  of  Warwickshire  in  the  time  of  Edward 
the  Confessor.  His  son  Turchill  retained  his  extensive 
possessions  under  the  Conqueror ;  and,  when  they  were 
divided  on  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Margaret  to  a 
Norman  noble  created  by  William  Rofus  earl  of  Warwick, 
Turchill  betook  himself  to  his  numerous  lordships  i":  the 
Arden  district  of  the  county,  and  assumed  the  name  of  De 
Ardern  or  Arden.  His  descendants,  who  retained  the  name, 
multiplied  in  the  shire,  and  were  united  in  marriage  from 
time  to  time  with  the  best  Norman  blood  of  the  kingdom. 
The  family  of  Arden  thus  represented  the  union,  under 
somewhat  rare  conditions  of  original  distinction  and 
jquality,  of  the  two  great  race  elements  that  have  gone  to 
the  making  of  the  typical  modern  Englishman.  The 
immediate  ancestors  of  Mary  Shakespeare  were  the  Ardens 
of  Parkhall,  near  Aston  in  the  north-western  part  of  the 
jhire.  During  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  Robert  Arden  of 
Parkhall,  being  at  the  outset  of  the  quarrel  a  devoted 
Yorkist,  was  seized  by  the  Lancastrians,  attached  for  high 
treason,  and  executed  at  Ludlow  in  14.52.  He  left  an  only 
son,  Walter  Arden,  who  was  restored  by  Edward  IV.  to  his 
position  in  the  country,  and  received  back  his  hereditary 
lordships  and  lands.  At  his  death  in  1502  he  was  buried 
with  groat  state  in  Aston  church,  where  three  separate 
monuments  were  erected  to  his  memory.  He  had  married 
Eleanor,  second  daughter  of  John  Hampden  of  Pnicks,  and 
by  her  had  eight  children,  si-x:  sons  and  two  daughters. 
The  eldest  son.  Sir  John  Arden  of  Parkhall,  having  been 
for  some  years  esquire  of  the  body  of  Henry  VII.,  was 
knighted  and  rewarded  by  that  monarch.  Sir  John  was 
the  great-uncle  of  Mary  Hhakespcaro  — his  brother  Thomas, 
the  second  son  of  Walter  Arden,  being  her  grandfather. 
Thomas  Arden  is  found  residing  at  Aston  CantJowo  during 
the  first  half  of  the  16th  century,  and  in  the  year  1501  he 
united  with  his  son  l?obert  Arden,  Mary  Shakespeare's 
father,  in  the  purchase  of  the  Snitterfiold  estate.  Mary 
Shakespeare  was  thus  directly  connected  by  birth  and 
lineage  with  those  who  had  taken,  and  were  to  take,  a 
foremost  part  in  the  great  conflicts  ^vhich  constitute  turning- 
points  in  the  history  of  the  country.  On  her  father's  side 
she  was  related  to  Robert  Arden,  who  in  the  15th  century 
lost  his  life  while  engaged  in  rallying  local  forces  on  behalf 
of  the  White  Hofc,  and  on  her  mother's  side  to  John 
Hampden,  who  took  a  still  more  distinguished  part  in  the 
momentous  civil  struggles  of  the  17th  century. 

A  very  needless  and  abortive  attempt  has  been  mode  to 
call  in  question  Robert  Ardcn's  social  and  family  position 
on  the  ground  that  in  a  contemporary  deed  ho  i.s  called  a 
husbandman  {agrkola), — tho  assumption  being  that  a 
husbandman  is  simply  a  farm-labourer.  But  tho  term 
husbandman  was  often  used  in  Shakespeare's  day  to  desig- 


nate a  landed  prcprietor  who  fanned  one  of  his  own  estates. 
The  fact  of  his  being  spoken  of  in  official  documents  aa 
a  husbandman  does  not  therefore  in  the  least  affect  Robert 
Arden 's  social  position,  or  his  relation  to  the  great  hotise 
of  Arden,  which  is  now  established  on  the  clearest  evidence. 
He  was,  however,  a  younger  member  of  the  house,  and 
would  naturally  share  in  the  diminished  fortune  and 
obscurer  career  of  such  a  position.  But,  even  as  a  cadet 
of  so  old  and  distinguished  a  family,  he  would  tenaciously 
preserve  the  generous  traditions  of  birth  and  breeding  he 
liad  inherited.  Mary  Arden  was  thus  a  gentlewoman  ia 
the  truest  sense  of  the  term,  and  she  would  bring  into  her 
husband's  household  elements  of  character  and  culture 
that  would  be  of  priceless  value  to  the  family,  and  espe- 
cially to  the  eldest  son,  who  naturally  had  the  first  place 
in  he.  care  and  love.  A  good  mother  is  to  an  imagina- 
tive boy  his  earliest  ideal  of  womanhood,  and  in  her  for 
him  are  gathered  up,  in  all  their  vital  fulness,  the  ten- 
derness, sympathy,  and  truth,  the  infinite  love,  patient 
watchfulness,  and  self-abnegation  of  the  whole  sex.  And 
the'  experience  of  his  mother's  bearing  and  example  during 
tho  vicissitudes  of  their  home  life  must  have  been  for  the 
future  dramatist  a  vivid  revelation  of  the  more  sprightly 
and  gracious,  as  well  as  of  the  profounder  elements,  of 
female  character.  In  the  earlier  and  prosperous  days  at 
Stratford,  when  all  within  the  home  circle  was  bright  and 
happy,  and  in  her  intercourse  with  her  boy  Mary  Shake- 
speare could  freely  unfold  the  attractive  qualities  that  had 
so  endeared  her  to  her  father's  heart,  the  delightful  image 
of  the  young  mother  would  melt  unconsciously  into  the 
boy's  mind,  fill  his  imagination,  and  become  a  storehouse 
whence  in  after  years  he  would  draw  some  of  the  finest 
lines  in  his  matchless  portraiture  of  women.  In  the  darker 
days  that  followed  he  would  learn  something  of  the  vast 
po.ssibilities  of  suffering,  personal  and  sympathetic,  be 
longing  to  a  deep  and  sensitive  nature,  and  as  the  troubles 
made  head  he  would  gain  some  insight  into  the  quiet 
courage  and  self-possession,  the  unwearied  fortitude,  sweet- 
ness, and  dignity  which  such  a  nature  reveals  when  stirred 
to  its  depths  by  adversity,  and  rallying  all  its  resources 
to  meet  the  inevitable  storms  of  fate.  These  storms  were 
not  simply  tho  ever -deepening  pecuniary  embarrassments 
and  consequent  loss  of  social  position.  In  the  very  crisis 
of  the  troubles,  in  the  spring  of  1579,  death  entered  the 
straitened  household,  carrying  oS  Ann,  tho  younger  of  the 
only  two  remaining  daughters  of  John  and  Mary  Shake- 
speare. A  characteristic  trait  of  tho  father's  giief  and 
pride  is  afforded  by  the  entry  in  tho  church  books  that  a' 
somewhat  excessive  sum  was  paid  on  this  occasion  for  the 
tolling  of  the  boll.  Even  with  ruin  staring  him  in  the 
face  John  Shakespeare  would  forego  no  point  of  customary 
respect  nor  abate  one  jot  of  the  ceremonial  usage  proper 
to  the  family  of  an  eminent  burgess,  although  tho  observ- 
ance might  involve  a  very  needless  outlay.  In  passing 
through  these  chequered  domestic  scenes  and  vividly 
realizing  tho  alternations  of  grief  and  hope,  tho  eldest  son, 
oven  in  his  early  yoars,  would  gain  a  fund  of  memorable 
experiehccs.  From  hia  nalive  son.'^ibility  and  strong^ 
family  affection  he  would  passionately  sympathico  with 
his  parents  in  their  apjiarently  hopela^s  struggle  against 
tho  sling.-i  and  arrows  of  outrageous  fortune.  Above  till 
ho  would  cherish  tho  memory  of  his  mother's  noble  bear- 
ing alike  under  serene  and  clouded  skies,  and  loam  to 
estimate  at  their  true  worth  the  refined  8lreng<h  of 
inherited  courage,  tho  dignified  grace  and  silent  helpful- 
ness of  inherited  courtesy  and  geiiuino  kindness  of  heart, 
Tliose  roenlloctiona  wore  vitalized  in  the  sprightly  intelli- 
gence, quick  sympathy,  and  loving  truthfulness  belonging 
to  tho  fcmnlo  ihnraotcrs  of  his  early  comedies,  as  well  m 
in  the  profounder  notes  of  womanly  grief  and  suffertof^ 


748 


SHAKESPEAEE 


struck  with   so  sure   a  hand  and  with  puch  depth  and 
intensity  of  tone,  in  the  early  tragedies. 

But  in  addition  to  her  constant  influence  and  example  the 
poet  was  probably  indebted  to  his  mother  for  certain  ele- 
ments of.  his  own  miud  and  character  directly  inherited  from 
her.  This  position  may  be  maintained  without  accepting  the 
Vague  and  comparatively  empty  dictum  that  Shakespeare 
Iderived  his  genius  from  his  mother,  as  many  eminent  men 
are  loosely  said  to  have  done.  The  sacred  gift  of  genius 
has  ever  been,  and  perhaps  always  will  be,  inexplicable. 
'No  analysis,  however  complete,  of  the  forces  acting  on 
the  individual  mind  can  avail  to  extract  this  vital  secret. 
The  elements  of  race,  country,  parentage,  and  education, 
though  all  powerful  factors  in  its  development,  fail  ade- 
quately to  account  for  the  mystery  involved  in  i)re-eminent 
poetical  genius.  Like  the  unseen  wind  from  heaven  it 
bjoweth  where  it  listeth,  and  the  inspired  voice  is  gladly 
heard  of  men,  but  none  can  tell  whence  it  cometh  or 
whither  it  goeth.  "\\nule,  however,  genius  is  thus  without 
ancestry  or  lineage,  there  are  elements  of  character  and 
qualities  of  mind  that,  like  the  features  of  the  countenance 
and  the  lines  of  the  bodily  frame,  appear  to  be  clearly 
transmissible  from  parent  to  child.  Shakespeare  not 
unfrequently  recognizes  this  general  truth,  especially  in 
relation  to  moral  qualities ;  and  it  is  mainly  qualities  of 
this  kind  that  he  himself  appears  to  have  inherited  from 
his  geutly  born  and  nurtured  mother,  ilary  Ardeu  of 
the  Asbies.  At  least  it  is  hardly  fanciful  to  say  that 
in  the  life  and  character  of  the  poet  we  may  trace  ele- 
ments of  higher  feeling  and  conduct  derived  from  the 
hereditary  culture  and  courtesy,  the  social  insight  and 
refinement,  of  the  Ardeas.  Amongst  such  elements  may 
be  reckoned  his  strong  sense  of  independence  and  self- 
respect,  his  delicate  feeling  of  honour,  his  habitual  con- 
sideration for  others,  and,  above  all  perhaps,  his  deep 
instinctive  regard  for  all  family  interests  and  relationships, 
for  everything  indeed  connected  with  family  character 
and  position.  The  two  epithets  wiiich  those  who  knew 
Shakespeare  personally  most  habitually  applied  to  him 
appear  to  embody  some  of  these  characteristics.  They 
unite  in  describing  him  as  "gentle"  and  "honest"  in 
character,  and  of  an  open  and  free,  a  frank  and  generous 
disposition.  The  epithet  "  gentle  "  may  be  taken  to  repre- 
sent the  innate  courtesy,  the  delicate  consideration  for  the 
feelings  of  others,  which  belongs  in  a  marked  degree  to 
the  best  representatives  of  gentle  birth,  although  happily 
it  is  by  no  means  confined  to  them.  The  second  epithet, 
"honest,"  which  in  the  usage  of  the  time  meant  honourable, 
may  be  taken  to  express  the  high  spirit  of  independence 
and  self-respect  which  carefully  respects  the  just  claims 
and  rights  of  others.  One  point  of  the  truest  gentle 
breeding,  which,  if  not  inherited  from  his  mother,  must 
[lave  been  derived  from  her  teaching  and  example,  is  the 
cardinal  maxim,  which  Shakespeare  seems  to  have  faith- 
fully observed!  as  to  nice  exactness  in  money  matters — 
the  maxim  not  lightly  to  incur  pecuniary  obligations,  and 
if  incurred  to  meet  them  with  scrupulous  precision  and 
punctuality.  This  he  could  not  have  learnt  from  his 
father,  who,  though  an  honest  man  enough,  was  too  eager 
and  careless  to  be  very  particular  on  the  point.  Indeed, 
carelessness  in  money  matters  seems  rather  to  have 
belonged  to  the  Snitterfield  family,  the  poet's  uncle  Henry 
having  'been  often  in  the  courts  for  debt,  and,  as  we  have 
seen,  this  was  true  of  his  father  also.  But,  while  his 
father  was  often  prosecuted  for  debt,  no  trace  of  any  such 
action  against  the  poet  himself,  for  any  amount  however 
email,  has  been  discovered.  He  sued  others  for  money 
due  to  him  and  at  times  for  sums  comparatively  small, 
but  he  never  appears  as  a  debtor  himself.  Indeed,  his 
whole  life  contradicts  the  supposition  that  he  ■should  ever 


have  rendered  himself  liable  to  such  a  humiliation.  Tha 
family  troubles  must  have  very-  early  developed  and 
strengthened  the  high  feeling  of  honour  on  this  vital 
point  he  had  inherited.  He  must  obviously  have  taken 
to  heart  the  lesson  his  father's  imprudence  could  hardly 
fail  to  impress  on  a  mind  so  capacious  and  reflective. 
.John  Shake.-ipeare  was  no  doubt  a  warm-hearted  lovable 
man,  who  would  carry  the  sympathy  and  affection  of  his 
family  with  him  through  all  his  troubles,  but  his  eldest 
son,  who  early  understood  the  secret  springs  as  v,-ell  as  thrj 
open  issues  of  life,  must  have  realized  vividly  the  rock  on 
which  their  domestic  prosperity  had  been  wrecked,  ami 
before  he  left  home  he  had  evidently  formed  an  invincil.lo 
resolution  to  avoid  it  at  all  hazards.  This  helps  to  explain 
what  has  often  excited  surprise  in  relation  to  his  future 
career — his  business  industry,  financial  skill,  and  steady 
progress  to  what  may  be  called  worldly  success.  Few 
things  are  more  remarkable  iu  Shakespeare's  personal 
historj'  than  the  resolute  spirit  of  independence  he  seems 
to  have  displayed  from  the  moment  he  left  his  straitened 
household  to  seek  his  fortunes  in  the  world  to  the  time 
when  he  returned  to  live  at  Stratford  as  a  man  of  wealth 
and  position  in  the  town.  ^Yhile  many  of  his  fellow 
dramatists  were  spendthrifts,  in  constant  difiiculties,  lead- 
ing disorderly  lives,  and  sinking  into  unhonoured  graves,' 
he  must  have  husbanded  his  early  resoiu-ces  with  a  rare 
amount  of  quiet  firmness  and  self-control.  Chettle's  testi- 
mony as  to  Shakespeare's  character  and  standing  during 
his  first  j'ears  in  London  is  decisive  on  this  head.  Having 
published  a  posthumous  work  by  Greene,  in  which  ilar- 
lowe  and  Shakespeare  were  somewhat  sharply  referred  to, 
Chettle  expressed  his  regret  in  a  preface  to  a  work  of  his 
own  issued  a  few  months  later,  in  Decenjber  1592;  he 
intimates  that  at  the  time  of  publishing  Greene's  Groats- 
worth  of  Wit  he  knew  neither  Jlarlowe  nor  Shakespeare, 
and  that  he  does  not  care  to  become  acquainted  with  the 
former.  But  having  made  Shakespeare's  acquaintance 
in  the  interval  he  expresses  his  regret  that  ho  should, 
even  as  editor,  have  published  a  word  to  his  disparage- 
ment, adding  this  remarkable  testimony  :  "  Because  myself 
have  seen  his  demeanour,  no  less  civil  than  he  excellent 
in  the  qualities  he  professes ;  besides,  divers  of  worship 
have  reported  his  uprightness  of  dealing,  which  argues 
his  honesty,  and  his  facetious  grace  in  writing,  which 
approves  his  art."  So  that  Shakespeare,  during  his 
earliest  and  most  anxious  years  in  London,  had  not  only 
kept  himself  out  of  debt  and  difficulty,  but  had  estab- 
lished a  reputation  of  strictly  honourable  conduct,  "  divers 
of  worship,"  i.e.,  men  of  position  and  authority  entitled 
to  speak  on  such  a  point,  "  having  reported  his  upright 
ness  of  dealing,  which  argued  his  honesty."  Now,  consider- 
ing the  poet's  associates,  occupations,  and  surround- 
ings, this  is  significant  testimony,  and  conclusively  proves 
that,  although  fond  of  social  life  and  its  enjoyments, 
and  without  a  touch  of  harshness  or  severity  in  his  temper, 
he  yet  held  himself  thoroughly  in  hand,  that  amidst 
the  ocean  of  new  e.xperiences  and  desires  on  which  he 
was  suddenly  launched  he  never  abandoned  the  helm, 
never  lost  command  over  his  course,  never  sacrificed  the 
larger  interests  of  the  future  to  the  clamorous  or  excessive 
demands  of  the  hour.  And  this  no  doubt  indicates  the 
direction  in  which  he  was  most  indebted  to  his  mother. 
From  his  father  he  might  have  derived  ambitious  desires, 
energetic  impulses,  and  an  excitable  temper  capable  of 
rushing  to  the  verge  of  passionate  excess,  but,  if  so,  it  is 
clear  that  he  inherited  from  his  mother  the  firmness  of 
nerve  and  fibre  as  well  as,  the  ethical  strength  required  for 
regulating  these  violent  and  explosive  elements.  If  ho 
received  as  a  paternal  heritage  a  very  tempest  and  whirJ- 
wind   of   passion,    the   maternal  gift  of  temperance   and 


SHAKESPEARE 


740 


measure  would  help  to  give  it  smootbncss  and  finish  in 
the  working,  would  supjily  in  sonio  degree  at  least  the 
(Wwer  of  concentration  and  self-control  indispensable  for 
moulding  the  extremes  of  exuberant  sensibility  and  pas- 
eionato  impulse  into  forms  of  intense  and  varied  dramatic 
portraiture ;  and  of  course  all  tho  finer  and  regulative 
elements  of  character  and  disposition  derived  from  the 
spindle  side  of  the  house  would,  throughout  tho  poet's 
early  years,  be  strengthened  an'd  developed  by  his  mother's 
constant  presence,  influence,  and  example. 

John  and  ilary  Shakespeare  had  eight  children,  four 
sons  and  four  daughters.  Of  the  latter,  two,  tho  first 
Joan  and  Margaret,  died  in  infancy,  before  tho  birth  of 
the  poet,  and  a  third,  Anne,  in  early  childhood.  In  addition 
to  tho  poet,  three  sons,  Gilbert,  Richard,  and  Edmund, 
and  one  daughter,  the  second  Joan,  lived  to  maturity 
and  will  be  referred  to  again.  William  Shakespeare 
was  christened  in  Stratford  church  on  April  26,  15G1, 
having  most  probably  been  born,  according  to  tradition, 
on  the  23d.  In  July  of  the  same  year  tho  town  was 
visited  by  a  severe  outbreak  of  the  plague,  which  in  the 
course  of  a  few  months  carried  off  one-sixth  of  the  inhab- 
itants. Fortunately,  however,  the  family  of  the  Shake- 
speares  wholly  escaped  the  contagion,  their  exemption 
being  probably  duo  to  the  fact  that  they  lived  in  the 
healthiest  part  of  the  t^wn,  away  from  tho  river  side,  on  a 
dry  and  porous  soil.  At  the  back  of  Henley  Street,  indeed, 
were  the  gravel  pits  of  the  guild,  which  were  in  frequent 
use  for  repairing  the  inundated  pathways  near  the  river 
after  its  periodical  overflows.  For  two  years  and  a  half 
'William,  their  first-born  son,  remained  the  only  child  of 
his  parents,  and  all  his  mother's  love  and  care  would 
naturally  be  lavished  upon  him.  A  special  bond  would 
in  this  way  be  established  between  mother  and  child,  and, 
his  father's  affairs  being  at  the  time  in  a  highly  prosperous 
state,  Mary  Shakespeare  would  see  to  it  that  the  boy  had 
all  the  pleasures  and  advantages  suitable  to  his  age,  and 
which  the  family  of  a  foremost  Stratford  burgess  could 
easily  command.  Healthy  outdoor  enjoyment  is  not  tho 
least  valuable  part  of  a  boy's  education,  and  the  chief 
recreations  available  for  the  future  dramatist  in  those 
early  years  would  be  the  sports  and  pastimes,  the  recur- 
ring festivals,  spectacles,  and  festivities,  of  the  town  and 
neighbourhood,  especially  tho  varying  round  of  rural 
occupations  and  the  celebration  in  tho  forest  farms  and 
villages  of  tho  chief  incidents  of  the  agricultural  year. 
Seed  timo  and  harvest,  summer  and  winter,  each  brought 
its  own  group  of  picturesque  merry-makings,  including 
some  more  important  festivals  that  evoked  a  good  deal  of 
rustic  pride,  enthusiasm,  and  display.  There  were,  during 
these  years,  at  least  three  of  tho  forest  farms  where  tho 
poet's  parents  would  bo  always  welcome,  and  where  the 
boy  must  have  spent  many  a  happy  day  amidst  the  free- 
dom and  delights  of  outdoor  country  life.  At  Snitterficld 
his  grandfather  would  bo  proud  enough  of  the  curly- 
headed  youngster  with  thi  fine  hazel  eyes,  and  his  uncle 
Henry  would  be  charmed  at  tho  boy's  interest  in  all  ho 
saw  and  heard  as  ho  trotted  with  him  through  tho  byres 
and  barns,  tho  po\iltry  yard  and  steading,  or,  from  a  safe 
nook  on  tho  bushy  margin  of  tho  pool,  enjoyed  tho  fun 
and  excitement  of  sheep-washing,  or  later  on  watched  the 
mysteries  ot  tho  shearing  and  saw  the  heavy  fleece  fall 
/rom  the  sides  of  tho  palpitating  victim  before  the  sure 
and  rapid  furrowing  of  tbo  shears.  lie  would  no  doubt 
also  be  present  at  tho  shearing  feast  and  see  tho  queen  of 
tho  festival  receive  her  rustic  guesta  aud  distribute  amongst 
th'm  her  floral  gifts.  At  Wilmecoto,  in  the  solid  oak- 
timborcd  dwelling  of  tho  Asbies,  with  its  well-stocked 
garden  and  orchard,  tho  boy  would  '/u  received  with  conlial 
hospitality,  aa  well  as  with  tho  at'oution  and  rosuoct  duo 


to  his  parents  a."<  the  proprietors  and  to  himself  as  the  heir 
of  the  maternal  estate.  At  Shottery  the  welcome  of  tlio 
Shakcspearcs  would  not  bo  less  cordial  or  friendly,  as 
there  is  evidence  to  show  that  as  early  as  1500  tho 
families  were  known  to  each  other,  John  Shakespeare 
having  in  that  year  rendered  liicliard  Hathaway  an  im- 
portant personal  service.  Hero  the  poet  met  his  futurr 
bride,  Anne  Hathaway,  in  all  tho  charm  of  her  sunny  girl- 
hood, and  they  may  bo  said  to  have  grown  up  together, 
except  that  from  the  difference  of  their  ages  she  woidd 
reach  early  womanhood  while  ho  was  yet  a  stripling.  In 
his  later  youthful  years  he  would  thus  be  far  more  fre- 
quently at  tho  Hathaway  farm  than  at  Snitterficld  or  tho 
Asbies.  There  were,  however,  family  caiincxions  of  the 
Shakespeares  occupying  farms  furtiier  afield, — Hills  and 
Webbs  at  Bcarley  and  Lamb-trts  at  I5arton-on-thc-Hcath. 
There  was  thus  an  exceptionally  wide  circle  of  countiy 
life  open  to  tho  poet  during  his  growing  years.  And  in 
those  years  he  must  have  repeatedly  gone  tho  whole 
picturesque  round  with  the  fresh  senses  and  eager  feeling, 
the  observant  eye  and  open  mind,  that  left  every  detail, 
from  tho  scarlet  hips  by  tho  wayside  to  tho  proud  tops  of 
the  eastern  pines,  imprinted  indelibly  upon  his  heart  and 
brain.  Hence  the  apt  and  vivid  references  to  tho  scenes 
and  scenery  of  his  youth,  the  intense  and  penetrating 
glances  at  the  most  vital  aspects  as  well  as  the  minutest 
beauties  of  nature,  with  which  his  dramas  abound.  Theao 
glances  are  so  penetrating,  the  result  of  such  intimate 
knowledge  and  enjoyment,  that  they  often  seem  to  reveaJ 
in  a  moment,  and  by  a  single  touch  as  it  were,  all  <Jic 
loveliness  and  charm  of  tho  objects  thus  rapidly  flashed  ob 
the  inward  eye.  In  relation  to  the  scenes  of  his  youth 
what  fresh  and  delightful  hours  at  tho  farms  are  reflected 
in  the  full  summer  beauty  and  motley  humours  of  ft 
sheep-shearing  festival  in  tho  IVinter's  2'ale  ;  in  the  autumn 
glow  of  the  "  sun-burnt  sicklemen  and  sedge-crowned 
nymphs"  of  the  masque  in  the  Tempest;  and  in  tho  vivid 
pictures  of  rural  sights  and  sounds  in  wpring  and  winter 
so  musically  rendered  in  tho  owl  and  cuckoo  songs  of 
Love's  Labour's  Lost\  But,  in  addition  to  tho  festivities 
and  merry-makings  of  the  forest  farms,  it  is  clear  that,  in 
his  early  years,  the  poet  had  some  experience  of  country 
sports  proper,  such  as  hunting,  hawking,  coursing,  wild- 
duck  shooting,  and  the  like.  Many  of  these  sports  were 
pursued  by  the  local  gentry  and  the  yeomen  together,  and 
the  poet,  as  the  son  of  a  well-connected  burgess  of  Strat- 
ford, who  had  recently  been  mayor  of  the  town  and 
possessed  estates  in  tho  county,  would  be  well  entitled  \» 
.share  in  them,  while  his  handsome  presence  and  courteou* 
bearing  would  bo  likely  to  ensure  him' a  hearty  welcoma 
If  any  of  the  stiffer  local  magnates  looked  coldly  upon  the 
high-spirited  youth,  or  resented  in  any  way  his  presence 
amongst  them,  their  conduct  would  be  likely  enough  to 
provoke  tho  kind  of  sportive  retaliations  that  might 
naturally  culminate  in  tho  deer-stealing  adventure.  How- 
ever this  may  be,  it  is  clear  from  internal  evidence  that 
the  poet  was  practically  familiar  with  tho  field  sports  of 
his  day. 

In  tho  town  tho  chief  holiday  Bpcctaclcs  and  (nfortain- 
ments  were  thosu  connected  with  tho  Christmas,  New 
Year,  and  Easter  festivals,  thu  May-day  rites  and  games, 
tho  pageants  of  delight  of  Whitsuntide,  the  beating  of  tho 
bounds  during  Itogation  week,  and  tho  occasional  repro 
sontation  of  mysteries,  moralities,  and  Btago-i)lays.  In 
relation  to  tho  main  bent  of  the  poet's  mind,  and  tho 
future  dovelopment  of  his  powers,  tho  latter  constituted 
probably  tho  most  ini])ortant  educational  iiillucnce  and 
stimulus  which  the  social  activities  and  public  entertain- 
ments  of  tho  place  could  havo  supplied.  Most  of  tlicsa 
recurring   celebrations   involved,    it  ia    true,    a   dramatic 


750 


SHAKESPEARE 


element, — some  hero  or  exploit,  some  emblem  or  allegory, 
"being  represented  by  means  of  costumed  personations, 
'pantomime,  and  dumb  show,  while  in  many  cases  songs, 
dances,  and  brief  dialogues  were  interposed  as  part  of  a 
performance.  There  were  masques  and  morris-dancing 
on  May-day,  as  well  as  mummers  and  Traits  at  Christmas. 
In  a  number  of  towns  and  villages  the  exploits  of  Kobin 
Hood  and  his  associates  were  also  celebrated  on  May-day, 
often  amidst  a  picturesque  confusion  of  floral  emblems 
and  forestry  devices.  In  Shakespeare's  time  the  JIay-day 
rites  and  games  thus  included  a  -variety  of  elements  charged 
with  legendary,  historical,  and  emblematical  significance. 
But,  notwithstanding  this  mixture  of  festive  elements,  the 
celebration  as  a  whole  retained  its  leading  character  and 
purpose.  It  was  still  the  spontaneous  meeting  of  town  and 
country  to  welcome  the  fresh  beauty  of  the  spring,  the 
welcome  being  reflected  in  the  open  spaces  of  the  sports 
by  tall  painted  masts  decked  with  garlands,  streamers, 
and  flowery  crowns,  and  in  the  public  thoroughfares  by 
the  leafy  screens  and  arches,  the  bright  diffused  blossoms 
and  fragrant  spoils  brought  from  the  forest  by  rejoicing 
youths  and  maidens  at  the  dawn.  May-day  was  thus 
well  fitted  to  be  used,  as  it  often  is  by  Shakespeare,  as 
the  comprehensive  symbol  of  all  that  is  delightful  and 
exhilarating  in  the  renewed  life  and  vernal  freshness  of 
.  the  opening  year. 

After  May-day,  Whitsuntide  was  at  Stratford  perhaps 
the  most  important  season  of  festive  pageantry  and  scenic 
display.  In  addition  to  the  procession  of  the  guild  and 
trades  and  the  usual  holiday  ales  and  sports,  it  involved  a 
distinct  and  somewhat  noteworthy  element  of  dramatic 
representation.  And,  as  in  the  case  of  the  regular  stage- 
plays,  the  high-baiUff  and  council  appear  to  have  patron- 
ized and  supported  the  performances.  We  find  in  the 
chamberlain's  accounts  entries  of  sums  paid  "  for'  exhibit- 
ing a  pastyme  at  Whitsuntide."  Shakespeare  himself 
refers  to  these  dramatic  features  of  the  celebration,  and  in 
a  manner  that  almost  suggests  he  may  in  his  youth  have 
taken  part  in  them.  However  this  may  be,  the  popular 
celebrations  of  Shakespeare's  youth  must  have  supplied  a 
kind  of  training  in  the  simpler  forms  of  poetry  and 
dramatic  art,  and  have  afforded  some  scope  for  the  early 
exercise  of  his  own  powers  in  both  directions.  This  view 
is  indirectly  confirmed  by  a  passage  in  the  early  scenes  of 
\Tlie  Hetiim  from  Parnassus,  where  the  academic  speakers 
eneer  at  the  poets  who  come  up  from  the  country  without 
liny  university  training.  The  sneer  is  evidently  the  more 
bitter  as  it  implies  that  some  of  these  poets  had  been 
successful, — more  successful  than  the  college-bred  wits. 
The  academic  critics  suggest  that  the  nurseries  of  these 
poets  were  the  country  ale-house  and  the  country  green, 
— the  special  stimulus  to  their  powers  being  the  May-day 
celebrations,  the  morris-dances,  the  hobby-horse,  and  the 
like. 

But  the  moralities,  interludes,  and  stage-plays  proper 
afforded  the  most  direct  and  varied  dramatic  instruc- 
tion avaUable  in  Shakespeare's  youth.  The  earliest 
popular  form  of  the  drama  was  the  mystery  or  miracle 
play,  dealing  in  the  main  with  Biblical  subjects;  and, 
Coventry  being  one  of  the  chief  centres  for  the  production 
and  exhibition  of  the  mysteries,  Shakespeare  had  ample 
opportunitiMi  of  becoming  well  acquainted  with  them. 
Some  of  the  acting  companies  formed  from  the  numerous 
trade  guilds  of  the  "  shire-town "  were  moreover  in  the 
habit  of  visiting  the  neighbouring  cities  for  the  purpose 
of  exhibiting  their  plays  and  pageants.  There  is  evidence 
of  their  having  performed  at  Leicester  and  Bristol  in 
Shakespeare's  youth,  and  on  returning  from  the  latter 
eity  they  would  most  probably  have  stopped  at  Stratford 
and  given  some  performances  there.     And   in  any  case. 


Coventry  being  so  near  to  Stratford,  the  fame  of  th8 
multiplied  pageants  presented  during  the  holiday  weeks  of 
Easter  and  Svhitsuntide,  and  especially  of  the  brilliant 
concourse  that  came  to  witness  the  grand  series  of  Corpus 
Christi  plays,  would  have  early  attracted  the  young  poet , 
and  he  must  have  become  familiar  with  the  precincts  of 
the  Grey  Friars  at  Coventry  during  the  celebration  of 
these  great  ecclesiastical  festivals.  The  indirect  evidence 
of  this  is  supplied  by  Shakespeare's  references  to  the  well- 
known  characters  of  the  mysteries,  such  as  Herod  and 
Pilate,  Cain  and  Judas,  Termagaunt  with  his  turbaned 
Turks  and  iofidels,  black-burning  souls,  grim  and  gaping 
hell,  and  the  like.  The  moralities  and  interludes  that 
gradually  took  the  place  of  the  Biblical  mysteries  were 
also  acted  by  companies  of  strolling  players  over  a  wide 
area  in  the  towns  and  cities  of  the  Midland  and  western 
counties.  Malone  gives  from  an  eye-witness  a  detailed 
and  graphic  account  of  the  public  acting  of  one  of  these 
companies  at  Glouce.<;ter  in  1.569,  the  year  during  which 
the  poet's  father  as  high-bailiff  had  brought  the  stage- 
players  into  Stratford  and  inaugurated  a  series  of  per- 
formances in  the  guild  hall.  The  playacted  at  Gloucester 
was  The  Cradle  of  Security,  one  of  the  most  striking  and 
popular  of  the  early  moralities  or  interludes.  Willis,  the 
writer  of  the  account,  was  just  Shakespeare's  age,  having 
been  born  in  1564.  As  a  boy  of  five  years  old  he  had 
been'  taken  by  his  father  to  see  the  play,  and,  standing 
between  his  father's  knees,  watched  the  whole  performance 
with  such  intense  interest  that,  Tvriting  about  it  seventy 
years  afterwards,  he  says,  "  the  subject  took  such  an  im- 
pression upon  me  that  when  I  came  afterwards  towards 
man's  estate  it  was  as  fresh  in  my  memory  as  if  I  had 
seen  it  newly  enacted."  In  proof  of  this  he  gives  a  clear 
and  detailed  outline  of  the  play.  WOlis  was  evidently  a 
man  of  no  special  gifts,  and,  if  the  witnessing  a  play  when 
a  child  could  produce  or  2a  ordinary  mind  so  memorable 
an  impression,  we  may  imagine  what  the  effect  would  be 
on  the  mind  of  the  marvellous  boy  who,  about  the  same 
time  and  under  like  circumstances,  was  taken  by  his 
father  to  see  the  performances  at  Stratford.  The  com- 
pany that  first  visited  Stratford  being  a  distinguished  one, 
their  plays  were  probably  of  a  higher  type  and  better 
acted  than  The  Cradle  of  Security  at  Gloucester ;  and  their 
effect  on  the  young  poet  would  be  the  more  vivid  and 
stimulating  from  the  keener  sensibiUties  and  latent 
dramatic  power  to  which  in  his  case  they  appealed. 
These  early  impressions  would  be  renewed  and  deepened 
with  the  boy's  advancing  years.  During  the  decade  of 
Shakespeare's  active  youth  from  1573  to  1584  the  best 
companies  in  the  kingdom  constantly  visited  Stratford, 
and  he  wotild  thus  have  the  advantage  of  seeing  the  finest 
dramas  yet  produced  acted  by  the  best  players  of  the  time. 
This  would  be  for  him  a  rich  and  fruitful  experience  of  the 
flexible  and  impressive  form  of  art  which  at  a  moment  of 
exuberant  national  vitality  was  attracting  to  itself  the 
scattered  forces  of  poetic  genius,  and  soon  gained  a  position 
of  unrivalled  supremacy.  As  he  watched  the  performance 
in  turn  of  the  various  kinds  of  interlude,  comedy,  and 
pastoral,  of  chronicle  and  biographical  plays,  of  historical, 
domestic,  oi^realistic  tragedy,  he  would  gain  in  instructive 
insight  into  the  wide  scope  and  vast  resources  of  the  rising 
drama.  And'  he  would  have  opportunities  of  acquiring 
some  knowledge  of  stage  business,  management,  and 
effects,  as  well  as  of  dramatic  form.  Amongst  the  com- 
panies that  visited  Stratford  were  those  of  the  powerful 
local  earls  of  Leicester,  Warwick,  and  Worcester,  whose 
members  were  largely  recruited  from  the  Midland  counties. 
The  earl  of  Leicester's  company,  tho  most  eminent  of  all, 
included  several  Warwickshire  men,  while  some  of  the 
leading  members,  like  the  elder  Burbage,  appear  to  have 


S  H  A  K  E  S  r  E  A  R  E 


751 


Occn  natives  of  Stratford  or  ibc  immediate  neighbourhood. 
And  the  poet's  father  being,  as  we  have  seen,  so  great  a 
friend  of  the  players,  and  during  his  most  prosperous  years 
Inconstant  communication  with  them,  his  son  would  have 
every  facility  for  studying  their  art.  Curiosity  and  in- 
terest and  the  like  would  prompt  him  to  find  out  all  ho 
;ould  aboutthe  use  of  the  stage  "  books,"  the  distribution  of 
the  parts,  the  cues  and  exits,  the  management  of  voice  and 
gesture,  the  graduated  passion  and  controlled  power  of 
the  leading  actors  in  the  play,  the  just  subordination  of 
the  less  important  parts,  and  the  measure  and  finish  of 
isach  on  which  the  success  of  the  whole  so  largely  depended. 
It  is  not  improbable,  too,  that  in  connexion  with  some  of 
the  companies  Shake.speare  may  have  tried  his  hand  both 
as  poet  and  actor  even  before  leaving  Stratford.  His 
poetical  powers  could  hardly  be  unknown,  and  ho  may 
have  written  scenes  and  passages  to  fill  out  an  imperfect  or 
somplete  a  defective  play ;  and  from  his  known  interest 
in  their  work  he  may  have  been  pressed  by  the  actors  to 
appear  in  some  secondary  part  on  the  stage.  In  any  case 
he  would  bo  acquainted  with  some  of  the  leading  players 
in  the  best  companies,  so  that  when  he  decided  to  adopt 
their  profession  he  might  reasonably  hope  on  going  to 
London  to  find  occupation  amongst  them  without  much 
difficulty  or  delay. 

Shakespeare  received  the  technical  part  or  scholastic 
elements  of  his  education  in  the  grammar  school  of  his 
native  town.  Tho  school  was  an  old  foundation  dating 
from  the  second  half  of  the  1 5th  century  and  connected 
with  the  guild  of  tho  Holy  Cross.  But,  having  shared  the 
fate  of  tho  guild  at  the  suppression  of  religious  houses,  it 
was  restored  by  Edward  VI.  in  1553,  a  few  weeks  before 
his  death.  The  "King's  New  School,"  as  it  was  now 
called,  thus  represented  the  fresh  impulse  given  to  educa- 
tion throughout  the  kingdom  during  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.'s  earnest-minded  son,  and  well  sustained  under  the 
enlightened  rule  of  his  sister,  the  learned  virgin  queen. 
What  the  course  of  instruction  was  in  these  country 
Bchool.s  during  tho  second  half  of  the  16th  century  has 
recently  been  ascertained  by  special  research,*  and  may  be 
stated,  at  least  in  outline,  with  some  degree  of  certainty 
and  precision.  As  might  have  been  expected,  Latin  was  the 
chief  scholastic  drill,  the  thorough  teaching  of  the  Koman 
tongue  being,  as  the  name  implies,  the  very  purpose  for 
which  the  grammar  schools  were  originally  founded.  Tho 
regular  teaching  of  Greek  was  indeed  hardly  introduced 
into  the  country  schools  until  a  somewhat  later  period. 
But  the  knowledge  of  Latin,  as  the  language  of  all  the 
learned  professions,  still  largely  used  in  literature,  was 
regarded  as  quite  indispensable.  Whatever  else  might 
be  neglected,  tho  business  of  "gerund-grinding"  was 
vigorously  carried  on,  and  tho  methods  of  teaching,  the 
expedients  and  helps  devised  for  enabling  the  pupils  to 
read,  write,  and  talk  Latin,  if  rather  complex  and  operose, 
were  at  the  same  time  ingenious  and  effective.  As  a  rule 
the  pupil  entered  the  grammar  school  at  seven  years  old, 
having  already  acquired  either  at  homo  or  at  the  petty 
school  tho  rudiments  of  reading  and  writing.  During  tho 
first  year  tho  pupils  wore  occupied  with  tho  elements  of 
Latin  grammar,  the  accidence,  and  lists  of  common  words 
which  were  committed  to  memory  and  repeated  two  or 
three  times  a  week,  as  well  as  further  impressed  upon  their 
minds  by  varied  exorcises.  In  tho  second  year  tho 
grammar  was  fully  mastered,  and  tho  boys  were  drilled  in 
short  phrase-books,  such  as  tho  Scntrntix  I'ueriica,  to 
increase  their  familiarity  with  the  ptructure  and  idioms  of 
the  language.  In  the  third  year  tho  books  used  wcro 
^sop's  Fables,  Cato's  Maxims,  and  some  good  manual  of 

*  "What  Shakeapcara  learot  at  School,"  .fVcue/j  Uagwdne,  Nov. 
1870,  Jan.  and  May,  18S0. 


school  conversation,  such  as  the  ConfaUilniionts' Pueriles. 
The  most  popular  of  these  manuals  in  Shakespeare's  day 
was  that  by  tho  eminent  scholar  and  still  more  eminent 
teacher  Cordcrius.  His  celebrated  Colloquies  were  prob- 
ably used  in  almost  every  school  in  the  kingdom  ;  and 
Hoole,  writing  in  1652,  says  that  the  worth  of  the  book 
had  been  proved  "  by  scores  if  not  hundreds  of  impressions 
in  this  and  foreign  countries."  Bayle,  indeed,  says  that 
from  its  universal  use  in  the  schools  the  editions  of  the 
book  might  be  counted  by  thousands.  This  helps  to 
illustrate  the  colloquial  use  of  Latin,  which  was  so  essential 
a  feature  of  grammar  school  discipline  in  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries.  The  evidence  of  Brinsley,  who  was 
Shakespeare's  contemporary,  conclusively  proves  thai  the 
constant  speaking  of  Latin  by  all  the  boys  of  the  more 
advanced  forms  was  indispensable  even  in  the  smallest  and 
poorest  of  the  country  grammar  schools.  The  same  holds 
true  of  letter-writing  in  Latin  ;  and  this,  as  we  know  from 
the  result,  was  diligently  and  successfully  practised  in  the 
Stratford  grammar  school.  During  his  school  days,  there- 
fore, Shakespeare  would  be  thoroughly  trained  in  the 
conversational  and  epistofary  use  of  Latin,  and  several  well- 
known  passages  in  his  dramas  show  that  he  did  not  forget 
this  early  experience,  but  that  like  everything  else  he 
acquired  it  turned  to  fruitful  uses  in  his  hands.  Tho 
books  read  in  the  more  advanced  forms  of  the  school  were 
the  Hdoyv.es  of  !Mantuanus,  the  Tristia  and  Metamoiyhoses 
of  Ovid,  Cicero's  Offices,  Orations,  and  Epistles,  the 
Gcorgics  and  JUneid  of  Virgil,  and  in  the  highest  form 
parts  of  Juvenal,  of  the  comedies  of  Terence  and  Plautus, 
and  of  the  tragedies  of  Seneca.  Shakespeare,  having 
remained  at  school  for  at  least  six  years,  must  have  gone 
through  a  greater  part  of  this  course,  and,  being  a  pupil  of 
unusual  quickness  and  ability,  endowed  with  rare  strength 
of  mental  grip  and  firmness  of  moral  purpose,  he  must 
during  those  years  have  acquired  a  fair  mastery  of  Latin, 
both  colloquial  and  classical.  After  the  difficulties  of  the 
grammar  had  been  overcome,  his  early  intellectual  cravings 
and  poetic  sensibilities  would  be  alike  quickened  and 
gratified  by  the  new  world  of  heroic  life  and  adventure 
opened  to  him  in  reading  such  authors  as  Ovid  and  VirgiL 
Unless  the  teaching  at  Stratford  was  very  exceptionally 
poor  he  must  have  become  so  far  familiar  with  the  favourite 
school  authors,  such  as  Ovid,  Tully,  and  Virgil,  as  to  read 
them  intelligently  and  with  comparative  ease. 

And  tlicro  is  no  reason  whatever  for  supposinp;  that  the  instruc- 
tion at  the  Stratford  grammar  school  was  less  efticient  tlian  in  tlio 
grammar  s'jliools  of  other  provincial  towns  of  about  tho  same  size. 
There  is  abundant  evidence  to  show  that,  with  tho  fresh  impulso 
given  to  education  under  energetic  Protestant  auspices  in  tho 
second  half  of  tho  16th  century,  tho  teaching  even  in  the  country 
grammar  schools  was  as  a  rule  painstaking,  intelligent,  and  fruitfuf. 
lirinshy  himself  was  for  many  years  an  eminent  and  successful 
teacher  in  the  grammar  school  of  Ashby-dc-la-Zouihe,  a  small 
town  on  tlio  borders  of  Warwickshire,  only  a  few  miles  indeed  from 
Coventry  ;  and  in  his  Ludits  Litcrarius,  referring  to  a  book  of 
exercises  on  tho  Latin  accidence  and  grammar  ho  had  prepared,  ho 
says  that  ho  had  chiefly  followed  tho  order  of  tho  nuobtiona  "of 
that  ancient  schoolmaster  11  aster  Bruusword  of  Waxlield  (Maccles- 
field) in  Cheshire,  so  much  commended  for  his  order  and  sehoUers  ; 
who,  of  all  other,  commcth  therein  the  neerest  unto  the  marke." 
Another  provincial  schoolmaster,  Mr  Robert  Poughty,  a  contem- 
porary of  Shakespeare,  who  was  for  nearly  lifty  ycar.i  at  the  head  of 
the  Wakefield  grammar  school,  is  celebrated  by  lloole,  not  only  as 
an  eminent  teacher  who  had  constantly  sent  out  good  scholars, 
but  as  ono  who  had  produced  a  class  of  teacluTs  emulating  his  own 
educational  zeal  and  intelligence.  Tho  mosler.i  of  the  .Slnilforil 
grammar  school  in  Shakesju-aro's  time  scim  to  liavo  been  men  of 
a  similar  stamp.  Ono  of  them,  John  Brunsword,  who  hold  tho  ro»t 
for  throe  years  during  tho  poet's  eliildh(X)d,  was  almost  certainly  ■ 
relative,  probably  a  son,  of  tho  eminent  Jlacclcsfiuld  muster  whoso 
chancier  and  work  Brinsley  praises  so  highly.  At  hiuil,  Bruns- 
word  being  an  uncommon  name,  when  wo  lind  it  borne  by  two 
grammar-Hchool  masters  in  nriglilK>uring  counties  who  flourished 
either  together  or  in  closo  succei>i<ioii  to  each  other,  it  i.i  nstiirtl  to 
Gonr.lude   that  thoro  must  have   been  some   relationship  botweui 


752 


S  H  A  K  E  S  P  E  A  11  E 


Home 

Kfe  on- 
Irving 
scbooL 


tliom,  and  if  so  wo  may  bo  sure  that  tlio  Stratford  master,  who 
was  cridently  the  younger  man,  had  been  well  trained  and  must 
have  proved  an  edicieut  te.ielier.  The  masters  who  followed 
Ijrunsword  were  univci-sity  men  of  at  least  average  attainments 
and  ability,  as  they  rapidly  gained  promotion  in  the  church. 
Thomas  Hunt,  who  was  head-master  during  the  most  important 
years  of  Shakespeare's  school  coui-se,  became  incumbent  of  the 
neighbouring  village  of  Luddiugton ;  and,  if  there  is  any  truth  ui 
the  tradition  that  the  poet's  man-iagc  was  celebrated  tlicrc,  it  is 
not  improbable  that,  from  having  been  a  favourite  pupil,  ho  may 
bavo  become  the  personal  friend  of  his  foruier  master.  In  any 
case,  during  the  years  of  his  scliool  attendance  the  poet  must  have 
gained  suiKcient  knowledge  of  Latin  to  read  for  his  own  instruc- 
tion and  delight  the  authors  included  in  the  school  curriculum 
ivho  had  struck  his  fancy  and  stimulated  bis  awakening  powcis. 
While  his  writings  supply  clear  evidence  in  support  of  this  general 
position,  they  also  bring  out  vividly  the  fact  that  Ovid  wns  a 
special  favourite  with  Shakespeare  at  the  outset  of  his  career.  The 
influence  of  this  romantic  and  eh'giac  Roman  poet  is  indeed 
strongly  marked  and  clearly  traceable  in  the  poems  as  wcU  as  in 
tlie  early  plays. 

According  to  Eowe's  account,  Shakespeare  -was  with- 
drawn from  school  about  1578,  a  y?.ar  or  two  before  he  Lad 
completed  the  usual  course  for  boys  going  into  business  or 
passing  on  to  the  universities.  The  immediate  cause  of 
the  withdrawal  seems  to  have  been  the  growing  embarrass- 
ments of  Johij  Shakespeare's  affairs,  the  boy  being  wanted 
at  home  to  help  in  the  various  departments  of  his  father's 
business.  The  poet  had  just  entered  on  his  fifteenth  year, 
and  his  school  attainments  and  turn  for  affairs,  no  less 
than  his  native  energy  and  ability,  fitted  Mm  for  efficient 
action  in  almost  any  fairly  open  career.  But  open  careers 
were  not  numerous  at  Stratford,  and  John  Shakespeare's 
once  prosperous  way  of  life  was  now  hampered  by  actual 
and  threatening  difficulties  which  the  zeal  and  affection  of 
his  son  were  powerless  to  remove  or  avert.  No  doubt 
theboy  did  his  best,  trying  to  understand  his  father's 
position,  and  discharging  with  prompt  alacrity  any  duties 
that  came  to  be  done.  But  he  would  soon  discover  how 
hopeless  such  efforts  were,  and  with  this  i  deepening 
conviction  there  would  come  upon  him  the  reaction  of 
weariness  and  disappointment,  which  is  the  true  inferno 
of  ardent  youthful  minds.  His  father's  difficulties  were 
evidently  of  the  chronic  and  complicated  kind  against 
iwluch  the  generous  and  impulsive  forces  of  youth  and 
inexperience  are  of  little  avail.  And,  after  his  son  had 
done  his  utmost  to  relieve  the  sinking  fortunes  of  the 
family,  the  aching  sense  of  failure  would  be  among  the 
bitterest  experiences  of  his  early  years,  would  be  indeed 
a  sharp  awakening  to  the  realities  and  responsibilities 
of  life.  AVithin  the  narrow  circle  of  his  own  domestic 
relationships  and  dearest  interests  he  would  feel  with 
Hamlet  that  the  times  were  out  of  joint,  and  in  his  gloomier 
moods  be  ready  to  curse  the  destiny  that  seemed  to  lay 
upon  him,  in  part  at  least,  the  burden  of  setting  the 
obstinately  crooked  straight.  As  a  relief  from  such 
moods  and  a  distraction  from  the  fruitless  toils  of  home 
affairs,  he  would  naturally  plunge  with  keener  zest  into 
such  outlets  for  youthful  energy  and  adventure  as  the 
town  and  neighbourhood  afi"orded.  What  the  young 
poet's  actual  occupations  were  during  the  four  years 
and  a  half  that  elapsed  between  his  leaving  school  and  his 
marriage  we  have  no  adequate  materials  for  deciding  in 
any  detail.  But  the  local  traditions  on  the  subject  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  after  the  adverse  turn  in  his  fortunes 
John  Shakespeare  had  considerably  contracted  the  area  of 
Lis  commercial  transactions.  Having  virtually  alienated 
Lis  wife's  patrimony  by  the  mortgage  of  the  Asbies  and 
the  disposal  of  all  interest  in  the  Snitterfield  property,  he 
seems  to  have  given  up  the  agricultural  branches  of  his 
business,  retaining  only  his  original  occupation  of  dealer 
in  leather,  skins,  and  sometimes  carcases  as  well  His 
■wider  speculations  had  probably  turned  out  ill,  and  having 
ao  longer  any  land  of  his  own  he  apparently  relinquished 


the  corn  and  timocr  business,  restricting  hini.sclf  to  the 
town  trades  of  fcUniongcr,  wookstaplcr,  and  butcher. 
Aubrey  at  least  had  heard  that  Sliakc.^pearo  after  leaving 
school  assisted  his  father  in  these  branches, — and  at  timcsa 
with  a  deal  of  youtliful  cxtravagauco  indicative  of  irrC' 
pressible  energy  and  spirit.  Aubrey  al.so  rcport.T,  on 
the  authority  of  Bccston,  aud  as  incidentally  proving  Lo 
know  Latin  fairly  well,  that  for  a  time  the  poet  was  a 
teacher  in  a  country  school ;  while  Jlalono  believed  from 
the  internal  evidence  of  his  writings  that  he  Lad  .^iicnt 
two  or  three  years  in  a  lawyer's  otllce.  These  stories jnay 
be  taken  to  indicate,  what  is  no  doubt  true,  that  at  a  time 
of  domestic  need  the  poet  was  ready  to  turn  Lis  hand,  to 
anything  that  offered.  It  is  no  doubt  also  true  that  Lc 
would  prefer  the  comparative  retirement  and  regularity  of 
teaching  or  clerk's  work  to  the  intei-niittcnt  drudgery  and 
indolence  of  a  retail  shop  in  a  small  market-town.  There 
is,  howevei',  no  direct  evidence  in  favour  of  either  supposi- 
tion ;  and  the  indirect  evidence  for  the  lawyer's  office 
theory  which  has  found  favour  with  several  recent  critics 
is  by  no  means  decisive.  'Whether  engaged  in  a  lawyer's 
office  or  not,  we  may  be  i|uite  suie  that  during  the  yeaiB 
of  adolescence  he  was  actively  occupied  in  work  of  somo 
kind  or  other.  He  was  far  too  sensible  and  energetic  te 
remain  without  employment ;  shapeless  idleness  had  no 
attraction  for  his  healthy  nature,  and  his  strong  family 
feeling  is  certainly  in  favour  of  the  tradition  that  for  a  time 
he  did  his  best  to  help  his  father  in  his  business. 

But,  however  he  may  have  been  emplo3'ed,  this  interral 
of  home  life  was  for  the  poet  a  time  of  active  growth  and 
development,  and  no  kind  of  business  routine  could  aval 
to  absorb  his  expanding  powers  or  repress  the  exuberant 
vitality  of  his  nature.  During  these  critical  )'ears,  to  a 
vigorous  aud  health}'  mind  such  as  Shakespeare  possessed, 
action — action  of  an  adventurous  and  recreative  kiud,  ia 
which  the  spirit  is  quickened  and  refreshed  by  new 
experiences — must  have  become  an  absolute  necessity"©! 
existence.  The  necessity  was  all  the  more  urgent  ia 
Shakespeare's  case  from  the  narrower  circle  within  which 
the  once  prosperous  and  expanding  home,  life  was  now 
confined.  We  have  seen  that  the  poet  occasionally  shared 
the  orthodox  field  sports  organized  by  the  country  gentle- 
men, where  landlords  and  tenants,  yeomen  and  squires, 
animated  by  a  kindred  sentiment,  meet  to  a  certain  extent 
on  common  ground.  But  this  long-drawn  pursuit  of 
pleasure  as  an  isolated  miit  in  a  local  crowd  would  hardly 
satisfy  the  thirst  for  ijassionate  excitement  and  personal 
adventure  which  is  so  dominant  an  impulse  in  the  hey-day 
of  youthful  blood.  It  is  doubtful,  too,  whether  in  the 
decline  of  his  father's  fortimes  Shakesjieare  would  have 
cared  to  join  the  prosperous  concourse  of  local  sportsmen. 
He  would  probably  be  thrown  a  good  deal  amongst  a 
somewhat  lower,  though  no  doubt  energetic  and  intelli- 
gent, class  of  town  companions.  And  they  would  devise 
together  exploits  which,  if  somewhat  irregular,  possessed 
the  inspiring  charm  of  freedom  and  novelty,  and  would 
thus  be  congenial  to  an  ardent  nature  with  a  passionate 
interest  in  life  and  action.  Such  a  nature  would  eagerly 
welcome  enterprises  with  a  dash  of  hazard  and  daring  in 
them,  fitted  to  bring  the  more  resolute  virtues  into  play, 
and  develop  in  moments  of  emergency  the  manly  qualities 
of  vigilance  and  promptitude^  courage  and  endurance, 
dexterity  and  skill.  It  would  seem  indeed  at  first  sight 
as  though  a  quiet  neighbourhood  like  Stratford  could 
afford  little  scope  for  such  adventures.  But  even  at 
Stratford  there  were  always  the  forest  and  the  river,  the 
outlying  farms  with  adjacent  parks  and  manor  houses,  the 
wide  circle  of  picturesque  towns  and  villages  with  theit 
guilds  and  clubs,  their  local  Shallows  and  Slenderss 
Dogberries  and  Verges ;  and  in  the  most  quiet  neigh- 


SHAKESPEARE 


753 


Kourhooas  it  still  remains  true  that  adventures  are  to  the 
adventurous.  That  this  dictum  was  verified  in.  Shake- 
speare's experience  seems  clear  alike  from  the  internal 
evidence  of  his  writings  and  the  concurrent  testimony  of 
local  tradition.  In  its  modern  form  the  story  of  the 
Bidford  challenge  exploit  may  indeed  be  little  better  than 
a  myth.  But  in  substance  it  is  by  no  means  incredible, 
and  if  wo  knew  all  about  the  incident  we  should  probably 
find  there  were  other  points  to  be  tested  between  the 
rival  companies  besides  strength  of  head  to  resist  the 
efiects  of  the  well-known  Bidford  beer.  The  i)rompt  re- 
fusal to  return  with  his  companions  and  renew  the 
contest  on  the  following  day, — a  decision  playfully  ex- 
pressed and  emphasized  in  the  well-known  doggrel  lines, — 
implies  that  in  Shakespeare's  view  such  forms  of  good 
fe/lowship  were  to  be  accepted  on  social  not  self-indulgent 
grounds,  that  they  were  not  to  be  resorted  to  for  the  sake 
of  the  lower  accessories  only,  or  allowed  to  grow  into  evil 
habits  from  being  unduly  repeated  or  prolonged.  It  is 
clear  that  this  general  principle  of  recreative  and  adventur- 
ous enterprise,  announced  more  than  once  in  his  writings, 
guided  his  own  conduct  even  in  the  excitable  and  impulsive 
season  of  youth  and  early  manhood.  If  he  let  himself  go, 
as  he  no  doubt  sometimes  did,  it  was  only  as  a  good  rider 
on  coming  to  the  turf  gives  the  horse  his  head  in  order  to 
enjoy  the  exhilaration  of  a  gallop,  having  the  bridle  well 
in  hand  the  while,  and  able  to  rein  in  the  excited  steed 
at  a  moment's  notice.  It  may  be  said  of  Shakespeare  at 
such  seasons,  as  of  his  own  Prince  Hal,  that  he — 

"  Obscur'd  his  contemplation 
Under  the  veil  of  wildhess  ;  which,  uo  doubt, 
Grew  like  the  summer  grass,  fastest  by  night, 
Unseen,  yet  crescive  in  his  faculty." 

The  deer-stealing  tradition  illustrates  the  same  point ; 
and  though  belonging  perhaps  to  a  rather  later  period  it 
may  be  conveniently  noticed  here.  This  fragment  of 
Shakespeare's  personal  history  rests  on  a  much  surer  basis 
than  the  Bidford  incident,  being  supported  not  only  by 
early  multiplied  and  constant  traditions,  but  by  evidence 
which  the  poet  himself  has  supplied.  Rowe's  somewhat 
formal  ver.sion  of  the  narrative  is  to  the  effect  that  Shake- 
speare in  his  youth  was  guilty  of  an  extravagance  which, 
though  unfortunate  at  the  time,  had  the  happy  result  of 
helping  to  develop  his  dramatic  genius.  This  misfortune 
was  that  of  being  engaged  with  some  of  his  companions 
more  than  once  in  robbing  a  park  belonging  to  Sir  Thomas 
Lucy  of  Charlecote.  Sir  Thomas,  it  is  said,  prosecuted 
him  sharply  for  the  offence,  apd  in  retaliation  he  wrote  a 
satirical  Isallad  upon  him,  which  so  incensed  the  baronet 
that  Shakespeare  thought  it  prudent  to  leave  Stratford 
and  join  his  old  friends  and  associates  the  players  in 
London.  Other  versions  of  the  tradition  exist  giving  fresh 
details,  some  of  which  are  on  the  face  of  them  later 
additions  of  a  fictitious  and  fanciful  kind.  But  it  w6uld 
be  useless  to  discuss  the  accretions  incident  to  any  narrative, 
however  true,  orally  transmitted  through  two  or  three 
generations  before  being  reduced  to  a  written  shape.  All 
that  can  be  required  or  expected  of  such  traditions  is  that 
they  should  contain  a  kernel  of  biographical  fact,  and  be 
true  in  substance  although  possibly  not  in  form.  And 
tried  by  this  test  the  tradition  in  question  must  certainly 
be  accepted  as  a  genuine  contribution  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  poet's  early  years.  Indeed  it  could  hardly  have  been 
repeated  again  and  again  by  inhabitants  Of  Stratford 
within  a  iov,  ■•jz-a.ra  o\  Shakespeare's  death  if  it  did  not 
embody  a  characteristic  feature  of  his  early  life  which  was 
■well  known  in  the  town.  This  feature  was  no  doubt  the 
poet's  love  of  woodland  life,  and  the  woodland  sports 
through  which  it  is  realized  iu  the  most  animated  and 
vigorous  form. 

21— 2G 


The  neighbourhood  of  Stratford  in  Shakespeare's  day  afforded 
considerable  scope  for  this  kind  of  healthy  recreation.     There  una 
tlio  remnant  of  the  old  Arden  forest,  wliich,  though  still  nominally 
a  royal  domain,  was  virtually  free  for  many  kinds  of  sport.     Indeed, 
the  observance  of  the  forest  laws  had  fallen  into  such  neglect  in 
tho  early  years  of  Elizabeth's  reign  that  even  unlicensed  deer- 
hunting  in  the  royal  domains  was  common  enough.     And  hardly 
any  attempt  was  made  to  prevent  the  puisuit  of  the  smaller  gama 
belonging  to  tho  wancn  and  the  chase.     Then,  three  or  four  miles 
to  tha  east  of  Stratford,  between  tho  Warwick  road  and  the  river, 
stretched  tho  romantic  park  of  Fulbroke,  which,  as  the  property  of 
an   attainted  exile,  seriucstered  though  not  seized  by  the  crown, 
was  virtually  open  to  all  comers.     There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
when  Shakespeare  and  liis  companions  wished  a  day's  outing  in  the 
woods  they  usually  resorted  to  some  part  of  the  Arden  forest  still 
available   for  sporting  purposes.      But  sometimes,   probably  on 
account  of  its  greater  convenience,  they  seem  to  have  changed  tho 
venue  to  Fulbroke  Park,  and  there  they  might  easily  come  into 
collision  with  Sir  Thomas  Lucy's  keepers.     There  has  been  a  good 
deal  of  discussion  as  to  the  scene  of  the  traditional  adventure,  but 
the  probabilities  of  the  case  are  strongly  in  favour  of  Fulbroke. 
When  Sir  Walter  Scott  visited  Sir  Thomas  Lucy  at  Charlecote  in 
1828,  Sir  Thomas  told  him. that  the  park.^rom  which  Shakespeare 
stole  the  deer  was  not  Charlecote,  but  one  belonging  to  a  mansion 
at  some  distance,  tho  conte.xt  indicating  Fulbroke  as  tho  scene  of 
the  exploit.     And  Mr  Bracebridge,  in   his  interesting  pamphlet 
Shakespeare  no  Deer-Slealcr,  has  thrown  fresh  light  on  the  sub- 
ject, and  made  the  whole  incident  more  intelligible  by  marshalling 
the  reasons  in  favour  of  this  view.     The  park  had,  it  seems,  been 
held  by  the  Lucys  under  the  crown  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIIL,  but 
was  afterwards  granted  by  Queen  Mary  to  one  of  her  privy  council- 
lors,— Sir  Francis  Engeltield.     Being  a  devoted  Romanist,  he  fled 
to  Spain  on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  and  was  subsequently  ad- 
judged a  traitor,  the  Fulbroke  estate  being  sequestered  thoug'h  not 
administered  by  the  crown.     Tho  park  being  thus  without  a  legal 
custodian  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  became  disparked, 
the  palings  having  fallen  into  decay  and  the  fences  being  in  many 
places  broken  down.     Tho  deer  .with  which  it  abounded  were  thus 
left  without  any  legal  protection,  and  might  be  hunted  at  will 
by  enterprising  sportsmen.     The  only  person  likely  to  check  this 
freedom  or  to  attempt  to  do  so  was  Sir  Thomas  Lucy,  whose  own 
park  of  Charlecote  ran  for  a  mile  along  the  other  side  of  the  river 
just  below  Fulbroke.     As  the  nearest   large  landed  proprietor, 
having  a  direct  interest  in  the  state  of  tho  neighbouring  park,  he 
might  naturally  think  himself  entitled  to  act  as  a   kind   of  ad 
interim  custodian  of  Fulbroke.     And  with  his  aristocratic  feeling, 
his  severe  and  exacting  temper,  he  would  be  likely  enough  to  push 
his  temporary  guardianship  of  custom  or  courtesy  into  an  exclusive 
right,  at  least  so  far  as  tho  venison  of  the  park  was  concerned.     In 
any  case  Sir   Thomas's   keepers   would   occasionally   perambulate 
Fulbroke  Park  as  a  protection  to  Charlecote,  and  in  doing  so  they 
probably  came  upon  Shakespeare  and  his  companions  after  they 
had  brought  down   a  buck   and   were  about  to  break  it  up  fo' 
removal.     Or  the  hunted  deer  may  have  crossed  the  river  at  tie 
shallow  ford  between  the  two  parks,  and,  pursued  by  tho  cagei^ 
sportsmen,    have   been-  brought    down    within    tho    Charlecote 
grounds.     In  either  case  the  keepers  would  denounce  the  trespass,! 
and  possibly  with  menacing  and  abusive  words  demand  the  buck 
for  their  master.     On  being  treated  in  this  insulting  way,  Shake- 
speare, who  had  pride  and   personal  dignity^as  well  as  courage, 
would  deny  any  intentional  or  actual  trespass,  refuse  to  givo  up 
tho  venison,  and  iilainly  toll  the  keepers  that  they  might  report 
tho  matter  to  Sir  Thomas  Lucy  and  ho  would  answer  for  himself 
and  his  companions.     On  finding  what  had  happened,  Sir  Thomas 
would  be  all  the  more  incensed  and  indignant  from  the  conscious- 
ness that  ho  had  pushed  his  claims  beyond  the  point  at  wliich 
they  could  legally  bo  enforced.     And,  being  to  some  extent  in  a 
false  position,  he  would  bo  proportionately  wrathful  and  vindictive 
against  tho  youthful  sportsmen,  and  especially  against  their  leader 
who  had  dared  to  resist  and  defy  his  authority.     Sir  Thomas  was 
tho  great  man  of  Stratford,  who  came  periodically  to  the  town  on 
magistrate's  busines.s,  was  appealed  to  as  arbitrator  in  special  cases, 
and  entertained  by  the  corporation  during  his  visits.     In  character 
he  seems  to  Iiavc  combined  aristocratic  pride  and  ii.irrownes3  with 
the  harshness  and  severity  of  the  Puritan  temper.     As  a  landed 
proprietor  and  local  magnato  ho  was  exacting  ami  exclusive,  looking 
with  a  kind  of  Puritanical  sourness  on  all  youllifnl  frolics,  merri- 
ment, and  recreation.     Ho  would  thus  have  a  natural  antipathy 
to  young  Shakespeare's  free,  generous,  and  enjoying  nature,  and 
would  resent  as  an  unpardonable  outrage  his  high-spirited  conduct 
in  attempting  to  resist  any  claims  ho  chose  to  make.     Sir  Thomas 
would  no  'doubt  vent  his  indignation  to  tho  authoritica  at  Strat- 
ford, and  try  to  sot  tho  law  in  motion,  and  failing  in  this  might 
have  threatened,  as  Justice  Shallow  docs,  to  niako  a  StarChamher 
matter  of  it.     This  was  tho  kind  of  extreme  course  which  a  man 
in  his  jiositiou  might  take  wlicro  there  was  no  available  local 
redress  (or  any  wrong  ho  imagined  himself  to  havo  suffered.     AnJ 


754 


SHAKESPEARE 


the  Stratford  authorities,  being  naturally  anxious  to  propitiate  the 
great  man,  may  have  suggested  that  it  would  be  well  if  young 
Shakespeare  could  be  out  of  the  way  for  a  time.  This  would 
help  him  to  decide  on  the  adoption  of  a  plan  already  seriously 
entertained  of  going  to  London  to  push  his  fortune  among  the 
players. 

There  is,  however,  another  aspect  in  which  this  traditional 
incident  may  be  looked  at,  which  seems  at  least  worthy 
of  consideration.  It  is  possible  that  Sir  Thomas  Lucy  may 
have  been  prejudiced  against  the  Shakespeares  on  religious 
grounds,  and  that  this  feeling  may  have  prompted  him 
to  a  display  of  exceptional  severity  against  their  eldest 
son.  As  we  have  seen,  he  was  a  narrow  and  extreme,  a 
persecuting  and  almost  fanatical  Protestant,  and  several 
events  had  recently  happened  calculated  to  intensify  his 
bitterness  against  the  Romanists.  In  particular,  Jlary 
Shakespeare's  family  connexions — the  Ardens  of  Parkhall 
— had  been  convicted  of  conspiracy  against  the  queen's 
life.  The  son-in-law  of  Edward  Arden,  John  Somerville, 
a  rash  and  "hot-spirited  young  gentleman,"  instigated 
by  Hall,  the  family  priest,  had  formed  the  design  of 
going  to  London  and  assassinating  Queen  Elizabeth  with 
hia  own  hand.  He  started  on  his  journey  in  November 
1583,  but  talked  so  incautiously  by  the  way  that  ho  was 
arrested,  conveyed  to  the  Tower,  and  under  a  threat  of  the 
rack  confessed  everything,  accusing  his  father-in-law  as  an 
accomplice  and  the  priest  as  the  instigator  of  the  crime. 
All  three  were  tried  and  convicted,  their  fate  being 
probably  hastened,  as  Dugdale  states,  by  the  animosity 
of  Leicester  against  the  Ardens.  Somerville  strangled 
himself  in  prison,  and  Edward  Arden  was  hanged  at 
Tyburn.  These  events  produced  a  deep  impression  in 
Warwickshire,  and  no  one  in  the  locality  would  be  more 
excited  by  them  than  Sir  Thomas  Lucy.  His  intensely 
vindictive  feeling  against  the  Komanists  was  exemplified 
a  little  later  by  his  bringing  forward  a  motion  in  parlia- 
ment in  favour  of  devising  some  new  and  lingering 
tortures  for  the  execution  of  the  Komanist  conspirator 
Parry.  As  Mr  Froude  puts  it,  "Sir  Thomas  Lucy, — 
Shakespeare's  Lucy,  the  original  perhaps  of  Justice  Shallow, 
with  an  English  fierceness  at  the  bottom  of  his  stupid 
nature, — having  studied  the  details  of  the  execution  of 
Gerard,  proposed  in  the  House  of  Commons  '  that  some 
new  law  should  be  devised  for  Parry's  execution,  such  as 
might  be  thought  fittest  for  his  extraordinary  and  horrible 
treason.' "  The  Ardens  were  devoted  Romanists ;  the 
terrible  calamity  that  had  befallen  the  family  occurred  only 
a  short  time  before  the  deer-stealing  adventure  ;  and  the 
Shakespeares  themselves,  so  far  from  being  Puritans,  were 
suspected  by  many  of  being  but  indifi^erent  Protestants. 
John  Shakespeare  was  an  irregular  attendant  at  church, 
and  soon  ceased  to  appear  there  at  all,  so  that  Sir  Thomas 
Lucy  probably  regarded  him  as  Tittle  better  than  a 
recusant.  In  any  case  Sir  Thomas  would  be  likely  to 
resent  the  elder  Shakespeare's  convivial  turn  and  profuse 
hospitality  as  alderman  and  bailiff,  and  especially  his 
oflScial  patronage  of  the  players  and  active  encouragement 
of  their  dramatic  representations  in  the  guild  hall.  The 
Puritans  had  a  rooted  antipathy  to  the  stage,  and  to  the 
jaundiced  eye  of  the  local  justice  the  reverses  of  the 
Shakespeares  would  probably  appear  as  a  judgment  on 
their  way  of  life.  He  would  all  the  more  eagerly  seize 
any  chance  of  humiliating  their  eldest  son,  who  still  held 
up  his  head  and  dared  to  look  upon  life  as  a  scene  of 
cheerful  activity  and  occasional  enjoyment.  The  young 
poet,  indeed,  embodied  the  very  characteristics  most 
opposed  to  Sir  Thomas's  dark  and  narrow  conceptions  of 
life  and  duty.  His  notions  of  public  duty  were  very  much 
restricted  to  persecuting  the  Romanists  and  preserving  the 
game  on  Protestant  estates.  And  Shakespeare  probably 
took  no  pains  to  conceal  his  want  of  sympathy  with  these 


supreme  objects  of  aristocratic  and  Puritanical  zeal.  And 
Sir  Thomas,  having  at  length  caught  bim,  as  he  imagined, 
in  a  technical  trespass,  would  ba  sure  to  pursue  the  culprit 
with  the  unrelenting  rigour  of  his  hard  and  gloomy  nature. 
But,  whatever  may  have  been  the  actual  or  aggravating 
circumstances  of  the  original  offence,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  an  element  of  truth  is  contained  in  the  deer- 
stealing  tradition.  The  substantial  facts  in  the  story  arc 
that  Shakespeare  in  his  youth  was  fond  of  woodland  sport, 
and  that  in  one  of  his  himting  adventures  he  came  into 
collision  with  Sir  Thomas  Lucy's  keepers,  and  fell  under 
the  severe  ban  of  that  local  potentate.  The  latter  point  is 
indirectly  confirmed  by  Shckespeare's  inimitable  sketch  of 
the  formal  country  justice  in  the  Second  Fart  of  Ihiiry 
/r.  and  the  ifcri-y  Wives  of  Wimhoi; — Robert  Shallow, 
Esq.,  being  sufficiently  identified  with  Sir  Thomas  Lucy  by 
the  pointed  allusion  to  the  coat  of  arms,  as  well  as  by 
other  allusions  of  a  more  indirect  but  hardly  lost'  decisive 
kind.  To  talk  of  the  sketch  as  an  act  of  revenge  is  to 
treat  it  too  seriously,  or  rather  in  too  didactic  and 
pedestrian  a  spirit.  Having  been  brought  into  close 
relations  with  the  justice,  Shakespeare  could  hardly  be 
expected  to  resist  the  temptation  of  turning  to  dnniatic 
account  so  adniircbic  a  subject  for  humorous  portraiture. 
The  other  point  of  the  ti'adition,  Shakespeare's  fondness 
for  woodland  life,  is  supported  by  the  internal  evidence  of 
his  writings,  and  especially  by  the  numerous  allusions  to  the 
subject  in  his  poems  and  earlier  plays.  The  many  refer- 
ences to  woods  and  sports  in  the  poems  arc  well  known  ; 
and  in  the  early  plaj-s  the  allusions  are  not  less  frequent 
and  in  some  respects  even  n)orc  striking.  Having  no  space, 
however,  to  give  these  in  detail,  a  general  reference  must 
suffice.  The  entire  action  of  Love's  Labour 's  Lost  takes 
place  in  a  royal  park,  ■while  the  scene  of  the  most  critical 
events  of  the  l\ro  Gent/fiiu".  of  Verona  is  a  forest  inhabited 
by  generous  outlaws  whose  offences  ajipoar  to  have  been 
youthful  follies,  and  who  on  being  pardoned  by  the  duke 
become  his  loyal  followers.  In  those  early  plaj's  it  seems 
as  though  Shakespeare  could  hardly  conceive  of  a  royal 
palace  or  capital  city  without  a  forest  close  at  hand  as  the 
scene  of  princely  sport,  criminal  intrigue,  or  fairy  enchant- 
ment. Outside  the  gates  of  Athens  swept  over  hill  and 
dale  the  wonderful  forest  which  is  the  scene  of  the 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream ;  and  in  Titus  A  mlronicus 
imperial  Rome  seems  to  be  almost  surrounded  by  the 
brightness  and  terror,  the  inspiring  charm  and  sombre 
shades  of  rolling  forest  lawns  and  ravines,  the  "ruthless, 
vast,  and  gloomy  woods." 

There  can  be  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  during  the  years  Shaki 
of  home  life  at  Stratford  Shakespeare  was  often  in  the  ^l*'"'. 
forest.  But  in  the  latter  part  of  the  time  he  would  be  ™'"" 
found  still  more  frequently  hastening  through  the  fields 
to  Shottery,  paying  long  visits  at  the  Hathaway  farm, 
followed  by  late  and  reluctant  leave-takings.  For  the 
next  important  fact  in  Shakespeare's  history  is  his 
marriage  with  Anne  Hathaway.  This  event,  or  rather 
the  formal  and  ecclesiastical  part  of  it,  took  place  in  the 
end  of  November  1-582,  the  bond  for  the  licence  from  the 
consistory  court  being  dated  on  the  28th  of  the  month. 
Mr  Halliwell-PbiUipps  has,  however,  sufficiently  proved  by 
detailed  instances  tiat  the  formal  and  public  part  of  the 
ceremony  would,  according  to  the  usage  of  the  time,  havo 
been  preceded  some  months  earlier  by  the  betrothal  or 
pre-contract,  which  was  in  itself  of  legal  validity.  Shake- 
speare's marriage  may  therefore  be  dated  from  the  summer 
of  1582,  he  being  then  in  his  nineteenth  year,  while  his 
bride  was  between  seven  and  eight  years  older.  ^lany  of 
the  poet's  biographers  have  assumed  that  the  marriage 
was  a  hasty,  unsuitable,  and  in  its  results  an  unhappy  ona 
It    is    necessary    therefore    to    repeat   with    all    possible 


SHAKESPEARE 


755 


emphasis  the  well-founded  statement  of  Jlr  nalliwell- 
Phillipiis  that  "  thei-e  is  not  a  particlo  of  direct  evidence  " 
for  cither  of  these,  suppositions.  The  marriage  could 
hardly  have  been  a  hasty  one,  for,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
two  families  had  been  intimate  for  fifteen  years,  and 
Shakespeare  had  known  Anne  Hathaway  from  his  early 
boyhood.  As  to  whether  it  was  suitable  or  not  Shake- 
speare himself  was  the  best  and  only  adequate  judge,  and 
there  is  not,  in  the  whole  literature  of  the  .subject,  even  the 
shadow  of  a  successful  appeal  against  his  decision.  And, 
so  far  from  the  marriage  having  been  unhappy,  all  the 
evidence  within  our  reach  goes  to  show  that  it  was  not 
only  a  union  of  mutual  affection  but  a  most  fortunate 
event  for  the  poet  himself,  as  well  as  for  the  wife  and 
mother  who  remained  at  the  head  of  his  family,  venerated 
and  loved  by  her  children,  and  a  devoted  helpmate  to  her 
husband  to  the  very  end.'  Looking  at  the  matter  in  its 
wider  aspects,  and  especially  in  relation  to  his  future 
career,  it  may  be  said  that  Shakespeare's  early  marriage 
gave  him  at  the  most  emotional  and  unsettled  period  of 
life  a  fixed  centre  of  affection  and  a  supreme  motive 
to  prompt  and  fruitful  exertion.  This  would  have  a 
'salutary  and  steadying  effect  on  a  nature  so  richly  en- 
dowed with  plastic  fancy  and  passionate  impul.se,  com- 
bined with  rare  powers  of  reflective  foresight  and  self- 
control.  If  Shakespeare's  range  and  depth  of  emotional 
and  imaginative  genius  had  not  been  combined  with 
lunusual  force  of  character  and  strength  of  ethical  and 
artistic  purpose,  and  these  elements  had  not  been  early 
stimulated  to  sustained  activity,  he  could  never  have  had 
80  great  and  uninterrupted  a  career.  And  nothing  perhaps 
is  a  more  direct  proof  of  Shakespeare's  manly  character 
than  the  prompt  and  serious  way  in  which,  from  the  first, 
he  assumed  the  full  responsibility  of  his  acts,  and  unflinch- 
ingly faced  the  wder  range  of  duties  they  entailed.  He 
himself  has  told  its  that 

"  Love  is  too  youug  to  know  what  conscience  is  : 
Yet  who  knows  not  conscience  is  bom  of  love  ? " 

and  it  remains  true  that  conscience,  courage,  simplicity, 
and  nobleness  of  conduct  are  all,  in  generous  natures, 
evoked  and  strengthened  by  the  vital  touch  of  that 
regenerating  power.  Shakespeare's  whole  course  was 
changed  by  the  new  influence ;  and  with  his  growing 
responsibilities  his  character  seems  to  have  rapidly  matured, 
and  his  powers  to  have  found  fresh  and  more  effective 
development.  His  first  child  Susanna  was  born  in  May 
1583,  and,  as  she  was  baptized  on  the  26fh,  the  day  of  her 
tirth  may  have  been  the  23d,  which  would  be  exactly  a 
month  after  her  father  completed  his  nineteenth  year.  In 
February  ISS.*)  the  family  was  unexpectedly  enlarged  by 
the  birth  of  twins,  a  boy  and  a  girl,  who  wore  named  re- 
spectively Hamnot  and  Judith,  after  Hamnet  and  Judith 
Sadl'^r,  inhabitants  of  Stratford,  who  were  lifelong  friends 
of  Shakespeare.  Before  ho  had  attained  his  majority  the 
poet  had  thus  a  wife  and  three  children  dependent  upon 
him,  with  little  opportunity  or  means  apparently  of  ad- 
vancing his  fortunes  in  Stratford,  The  situation  was  in 
itself  sufliciently  serious.  But  it  was  complicated  by  his 
father's  increasing  embarrassments  and  multiplied  family 
claims.  Four  children  still  remained  in  Ilcnloy  Street  to 
be  provided  for, — the  youngest,  Edmund,  born  in'  May 
1580,  being  scarcely  five  years  old.  John  Shakespeare, 
too,  was  being  sued  by  various  creditors,  and  apparently 
in  some  danger  of  being  arrested  for  debt.  All  this  was 
enough  to  make  a  much  older  man  than  the  poet  look 
anxiously  about  him.  But,  with  the  unfailing  sense  and 
sagacity  ho  displayed  in  practical  affairs,  Iio  seems  to  have 
formed  a  sober  and  just  estimate  of  his  own  i)owers,  and 
made  a  careful  survey  of  the  various  fields  available  for 
their  remunerative  exercise.     As  the  result  of  his  dchbcra- 


tions  he  decided  in  favour  of  trying  the  metropolitan  stage 
and  theatre.  He  had  already  tested  his  factUty  of  acting 
by  occasional  essays  on  the  provincial  stage ;  and,  once 
in  London  amongst  the  players,  where  new  pieces  were 
constantly  required,  he  would  have  full  scope  for  the 
exercise  of  his  higher  powers  as  a  dramatic  poet  At  the 
outset  he  could  indeed  only  expect  to  discharge  the  lower 
function,  but.  with  the  glowing  popular  demand  for 
dramatic  representations,  the  actor's  calling,  though  not 
without  its  social  drawbacks,  was  in  the  closing  decades  of 
the  16th  century  a  lucrative  one.  Greene,'in  his  autobio- 
graphical sketch  A'ei-er  Too  Late,  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing of  his  prose  tracts,  illustrates  this  point  in  the  account 
he  gives  of  his  early  dealings  with  the  players  and 
experiences  as  a  writer  for  the  stage.  Speaking  through 
his  hero  Francesco,  he  says  that  "  v/hen  his  fortunes  were 
at  the  lowest  ebb  he  fell  in  amongst  a  company  of  players 
who  persuaded  him  to  try  his  wit  in  writing  of  comedies, 
tragedies,  or  p^torals,  and  if  he  could  perform  anything 
worth  the  stage,  then  they  would  largely  reward  him  for 
his  pains."  Succeeding  in  the  work,  he  was  so  well  paid 
that  he  soon  became  comparatively  wealthy,  and  went 
about  with  a  well-filled  purse.  Although  WTiting  from  the 
author's  rather  than  the  actor's  point  of  view,  Greene 
intimates  that  the  players  grew  rapidly  rich  and  were 
entitled  both  to  praise  and  profit  so  long  as  they  were 
"neither  covetous  nor  insolent."  In  the  BeCurn  from 
Piniiassus  (1601)  the  large  sums,  fortunes  indeed,  realized 
by  good  actors  are  referred  to  as  matter  of  notoriety.  One 
of  the  disappointed  academic  scholars,  indeed,  moralizing 
on  the  fact  with  some  bitterness,  exclaims, — 
"England  affords  those  glorious  vagabonSs, 
That  carried  erst  their  fardles  on  their  backs, 
Coursers  to  ride  on  through  the  gazing  streets, 
Sweeping  it  iu  tlieir  glaring  satin  suits. 
And  pages  to  attend  their  masterships  : 
With  monthing  words  that  better  wits  have  framed 
They  purchase  lands,  and  now  esquires  arc  made." 
And  in  a  humorous  sketch  entitled  Ealseis  G7ios(,  and 
published  in  the  first  decade  of  the  17th  century,  an 
apparent  reference  to  Shakespeare  himself  brings  out  the 
same  point.  The  hero  of  the  tract,  Ratsey,  a  highwayman, 
having  compelled  a  set  of  strolling  players  to  act  before 
him,  advised  their  leader  to  leave  the  country  and  get  to 
London,  where,  having  a  good  presence  for  the  stage  and  a 
turn  for  the  "work,  he  would  soon  fill  his  pockets,  adding, 
"  When  thou  feelcst  thy  purse  well-lined,  buy  thee  some 
place  of  lordship  in  the  country,  that,  growing  weary  of 
playing,  thy  money  may  bring  theo  dignity  and  reput*- 
tion."  The  player,  thanking  him  for  his  advice,  replies, 
"I  have  heard  indeed  of  sonic  that  have  gone  to  London 
very  meanly,  who  have  in  time  become  exceedingly 
wealthy."  'The  movement  to  the  London  stage  was  there- 
fore from  a  worldly  point  of  view  a  prudent  one,  and  for 
the  higher  purjioses  of  Shakespeare's  life  it  was  equally 
wise  and  necessary.  For  besides  the  economic  and  practi- 
cal considerations  in  favour  of  the  step  there  must  have 
pressed  on  the  poet's  mind  the  importance  of  a  wider 
sphere  of  life  and  action  for  the  enlargement  of  his  inward 
horizon,  and  the  effective  development  of  his  poetical  and 
dramatic  gifts. 

The  c.vact  date  of  this  event — of  Slmkospcnro's  leaving 
Stratford  for  London— cannot  bo  fixed  with  any  certainty. 
All  the  probabilities  of  the  case,  however,  indicate  that  it 
must  have  taken  place  between  the  spring  of  \!>S5  and  the 
autumn  of  ITiST.  In  the  latter  year  three  of  the  leading 
companies  visited  Stratford,  those  belonging  to  the  queen, 
Lord  Leicester,  and  Lord  Essex ;  and,  as  Lord  Leicester's 
included  three  of  Shakespeare's  follow  townsmen, — Bur- 
bage,  Hcniingc,  and  Greene, — it  is  not  improbable  that  he 
may  then  have  decided  on  trying  bis  fortune  in  London. 


756 


SHAKESPEARE 


At  the  same  time  it' is  quite  possible,  and  on  some  grounds 
even  likely,  that  the  step  may  have  been  taken  somewhat 
earlier.  But  for  the  five  years  between  1587  and  1592 
we  have  no  direct  knowledge  of  Shakespeare's  movements 
at  all,  the  period  being  a  complete  biographical  blank, 
dimly  illuminated  at  the  outset  by  one  or  two  doubtful 
traditions.  We  have  indeed  the  assurance  that  after  leav- 
ing Stratford  he  continued  to  visit  his  native  town  at  least 
once  every  year;  and  if  he  had  left  in  1586  we  may  con- 
fidently assume  that  he  returned  the  next  year  for  the 
purpose,  amongst  others,  of  consulting  with  his  father  and 
mother  about  the  Asbies  mortgage  and  of  taking  part 
with  them  in  their  action  against  John  Lambert.  His 
uniting  with  them  in  this  action  deserves  special  notice,  as 
ishowiug  that  ho  continued  to  take  the  keenest  personal 
interest  in  all  home  aflair.s,  and,  although  living  mainly  in 
London,  was  still  looked  upon,  not  only  as  the  eldest  sou, 
but  as  the  adviser  and  friend  of  the  family.  The  anec- 
dotes of  Shakespeare's  occupations  on  going  to  London 
are,  that  at  first  he  was  employed  in  a  comparatively 
humble  capacity  about  the  theatre,  and  that  for  a  time  he 
took  charge  of  the  horses  of  those  who  rode  to  see  the 
plays,  and  was  so  successful  in  this  work  that  he  soon 
had  a  number  of  juvenile  assistants  who  were  known 
as  Shakespeare's  boys.  Even  in  their  crude  form  these 
traditions  embody  a  tribute  to  Shakespeare's  busmess 
promptitude  and  skill.  If  there  is  any  truth  in  them 
they  may  be  taken  to  indicate  that  while  filling  some 
subordinate  post  in  the  theatre  Shakespeare  perceived  a 
defective  point  in  the  local  arrangements,  or  heard  the 
complaints  of  the  mounted  gallants  as  to  the  difiiculty  of 
putting  up  their  horses.  His  provisions  for  meeting  the 
difficulty  seem  to  have  been  completely  and  even  notori- 
ously successful.  There  were  open  sheds  or  temporary" 
stables  in  connexion  with  the  theatre  in  Shoreditch,  and 
Shakespeare's  boys,  if  the  tradition  is  true,  probably  each 
took  charge  of  a  horse  in  these  stables  while  its  owner 
was  at  the  play.  But  in  any  case  this  would  be  simply  a 
brief  episode  in  Shakespeare's  multifarious  employments 
when  he  first  reached  the  scene  of  his  active  labours  in 
London.  He  must  soon  have  had  more  serious  and 
absorbing  professional  occupations  in  the  green  room,  on 
the  stage,  and  in  the  laboratory  of  his  own  teeming  brain, 
"  the  quick  forge  and  working  house  of  thought." 
fcntinues  But  his  leisure  hours  during  his  first  years  in  London 
jis_edtt.  ■would  naturally  be  devoted  to  continuing  his  education 
and  equipping  himself  as  fully  as  possible  for  his  future 
work.  It  was  probably  during  this  time,  as  Mr  Halliwell- 
Phillipps  suggests,  that  he  acquired  the  working  knowledge 
of  French  and  Italian  that  his  writings  show  he  must  have 
possessed.  And  it  is  perhaps  now  possible  to  point  out 
the  sources  whence  his  knowledge  of  these  languages  was  . 
derived,  or  at  least  the  master  under  whom  he  chiefly 
studied  them.  The  most  celebrated  and  accomplished 
teacher  of  French  and  Italian  in  Shakespeare's  day  was 
the  resolute  John  Florio,  who,  after  leaving  JIagdalen 
College,  Oxford,  lived  for  years  in  London,  engaged  in 
tutorial  and  literary  work  and  intimately  associated  with 
eminent  men  of  letters  and  their  noble  patrons.  After 
the  accession  of  James  I.,  Florio  was  made  tutor  to  Prince 
Henry,  received  an  appoint  .lent  about  the  court,  became 
the  friend  and  personal  favourite  of  Queen  Anne  (to 
whom  he  dedicated  the  second  edition  of  his  Italian 
dictionary,  entitled  the  World  of  Words),  and  died  full  of 
years  and  honours  in  1625,  having  survived  Shakespeare 
nine  years.  Florio  had  married  the  sister  of  Daniel  the 
poet,  and  Ben  Jonson  presented  a  copy  of  T/tj  Fox  to 
him,  with  the  inscription,  "  To  his  loving  father  and  worthy 
friend  Master  John  Florio,  Ben  Jonson  seals  this  testi- 
mony of  his  friendshio  and  love."     Daniel  writes  a  poem 


won.' 


of  some  length  in  praise  of  his  translation  of  Montaigne, 
while  other  contemporary  poets  contribute  commendatory 
verses  which  are  prefixed  to  his  other  publications.  There 
are  substantial  reasons  for  believing  that  Shakespeare  was 
also  one  of  Florio's  friends,  and  that  during  his  early 
years  in  London  he  evinced  his  friendship  by  yielding 
for  once  to  the  fashion  of  writing  this  kind  of  eulogistic 
verse.  Prefixed  to  Florio's  Second  Frtdls,  Prof.  Minto 
discovered  a  sonnet  so  superior  and  characteristic  that  he 
was  impressed  with  the  conviction  that  Shakespeare  must 
have  written  it.  The  internal  evidence  is  in  favour  of  this 
conclusion,  while  Jlr  Minto's  critical  analysis  and  com- 
parison of  its  thought  and  diction  with  Shakespeare's  early 
work  tends  strongly  to  support  the  reality  and  value  of 
the  discovery.  In  his  next  work,  produced  four  years 
later,  Florio  claims  the  sonnet  as  the  work  of  a  friend 
"  who  loved  better  to  be  a  poet  than  to  be  called  one," 
and  vindicates  it  from  the  indirect  attack  of  a  hostile 
critic,  H.  S.,  who  had  also  disparaged  the  work  in  which 
it  appeared.  There  are  other  points  of  connexion  between 
Florio  and  Shakespeare.  The  only  known  volume  that 
certainly  belonged  to  Shakespeare  and  contains  his  auto- 
graph is  Florio's  version  of  Montaigne's  Essays  in  the 
British  JIuseum ;  and  critics  have  from  time  to  time 
produced  evidence  to  show  that  Shakespeare  must  have 
read  it  carefully  and  was  well  acquainted  with  its  con- 
tents. Victor  Hugo  in  a  powerful  critical  passage 
strongly  supports  this  view.  The  most  striking  single 
proof  of  the  point  is  Gonzalo's  ideal  republic  in  the 
Tempest,  which  is  simply  a  passage  from  Florio's  version 
turned  into  blank  verse.  Florio  and  Shakespeare  were 
both,  moreover,  intimate  personal  friends  of  the  young 
earl  of  Southampton,  who,  in  harmony  with  his  generous 
character  and  strong  literary  tastes,  was  the' munificent 
patron  of  each.  Shakespeare,  it  will  be  remembered,  dedi. 
cated  his  Vemis  and  Adonis  and  his  Lucrece  to  this  youn^ 
nobleman ;  and  three  years  later,  in  1598,  Florio  dedicated 
the  first  edition  of  his  Italian  dictionary  to  the  earl  in 
terms  that  almost  recall  Shakespeare's  words.  Shake- 
speare had  said  in  addressing  the  earl,  "  What  I  have  done! 
is  yours,  what  1  have  to  do  is  yours,  being  part  in  all  I 
have  devoted  yours."  And  Florio  says,  "  In  truth  I  ac- 
knowledge an  entire  debt,  not  only,  of  my  best  knowledge, 
but  of  all,  yea  of  more  than  I  know  or  can  to  your  bounte- 
ous lordship,  most  noble,  most  virtnous,  and  most  honour- 
able earl  of  Southampton,  in  whose  pay  and  patronage 
I  have  lived  some  years,  to  whom  I  owe  and  vow  the 
years  I  have  to  live."  Shakespeare  was  also  familiar  with, 
Florio's  earlier  works,  his  First  Fruits  and  Second  Frzdts,' 
which  were  simply  carefully  prepared  manuals  for  the 
study  of  Itahan,  containing  an  outline  of  the  grammar, 
a  selection  of  dialogues  in  parallel  columns  of  Italian  and 
English,  and  longer  extracts  from  classical  Italian  writers 
in  prose  and  verse.  We  have  collected  various  points  of 
indirect  evidence  showing  Shakespeare's  familiarity  with 
these  manuals,  but  these  being  numerous  and  minute 
cannot  be  given  here.  It  must  suffice  to  refer  in  illustrar 
tion  of  this  point  to  a  single  instance — the  lines  in  praise 
of  Venice  which  Holofernes  gives  forth  with  so  much 
unction  in  Love's  Labour 's  Lost.  The  First  Fruits  was 
published  in  1578,  and  was  for  some  years  the  most 
poi)ular  manual  for  the  study  of  Italian.  It  is  the  book 
that  Shakespeare  would  naturally  have  used  in  attempting 
to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  language  after  his  arrival 
in  London  ;  and  on  finding  that  the  author  was  the  friend 
of  some  of  his  literary  associates  he  would  probably  have 
sought  his  acquaintance  and  secured  his  personal  help. 
As  Florio  was  also  a  French  scholar  and  habitually  taught 
both  languages,  Shakespeare  probably  owed  to  him  his 
knowledge  of  French  as  well  as  of  Italian.,    If  the  sonnet 


S  II  A  K  E  S  P  E  A  11  E 


7r)7 


to  accepted  as  Shakespeare's  worjc  he  must  Lave  made 
Florio's  acquaintance  within  a  year  or  two  after  going  to 
London,  as  in  1591  he  appears  in  the  character  of  a 
personal  friend  and  well-wisher.  In  any  case  Shakespeare 
would  almost  certainly  have  met  Florio  a  few  years  later 
at  the  house  of  Lord  Southampton,  with  whom  the  Italian 
scholar  seems  to  have  occasionally  resided.  It  also  appears 
that  he  was  in  the  habit  of  visiting  at  several  titled  houses, 
amongst  others  those  of  the  earl  of  Bedford  and  Sir  John 
Harrington.  It  seems  also  probable  that  ho  may  have 
assisted  Harrington  in  his  translation  of  Ariosfo.  Another 
fend  perhaps  eveu  more  direct  link  connecting  Sliakespeare 
with  Florio  during  his  early  years  in  London  is  found  in 
their  common  relation  to  the  family  of  Lord  Derby.  In  the 
year  1585  Florio  translated  a  letter  of  news  from  Pionie, 
giving  an  account  of  the  sudden  death  of  Pope  Gregory 
XIII.  and  the  election  of  his  successor.  This  translation, 
published  in  July  1585,  was  dedicated  "To  the  Ilight 
Excellent  at]d  Honourable  Lord,  Henry  Earl  of  Derby," 
ID  terms  expressive  of  Florio's  strong  personal  obligations 
to  the  earl  and  devotion  to  his  service.  Three  years  later, 
on  the  death  of  Leicester  in  1588,  Lord  Derby's  eldest  son 
Ferdinando  Lord  Strange  became  the  patron  of  Leicester's 
company  of  players,  which  Shakespeare  had  recently  joined. 
The  new  patron  must  have  taken  special  interest  in  the 
companj',  as  they  soon  became  (chiefly  through  his  influ- 
ence) great  favourites  at  court,  superseding  the  Queen's 
players,  and  enjoying  something  like  a  practical  monopoly 
of  royal  representations.  Shakespeare  would  thus  have  the 
opportunity  of  making  Florio's  acquaintance  at  the  outset 
of  his  London  career,  and  everything  tends  to  show  that 
he  did  not  miss  the  chance  of  numbering  amongst  his 
personal  friends  so  accomplished  a  scholar,  so  alert,  ener- 
getic, and  original  a  man  of  letter.s,  as  the  resolute  John 
Florio.  Warburton,  it  is  well-known,  had  coupled  Florio's 
name  with  Shakespeare  in  the  last  century.  He  sug- 
gested, or  rather  asserted,  that  Florio  was  the  original 
of  Holoferncs  in  Love's  Lahoar  's  Lost.  Of  all  Warburton's 
arbitrary  conjectures  and  dogmatic  assumptions  this  is 
perhaps  the  most  infelicitous.  That  a  scholar  and  man  of 
the  world  like  Florio,  with  marked  literary  powers  of  his 
own,  the  intimato  friend  and  associate  of  some  of  the 
aiost  eminent  poets  of  the  day,  living  in  princely  and 
ooble  circles,  honoured  by  royal  personages  and  welcomed 
at  noble  houses, — that  such  a  man  sliould  be  selected  as 
the  original  of  a  rustic  pedant  and  dominie  like  Holofernes, 
is  surely  the  climax  of  reckless  guesswork  and  absurd 
Suggestion.  There  i.s,  it  is  true,  a  distant  connexion 
between  Holofernes  and  Italy — the  pedant  being  a  well- 
known  figure  in  the  Italiau  comedies  that  obviously  affected 
Shakespeare's  early  work.  This  usage  calls  forth  a  kind 
qf  sigh  from  the  easy-going  and  tolerant  Montaigne  as 
he  thinks  of  his  early  tutors  and  youthful  interest  in 
knowledge.  "I  have  in  my  youth,"  he  tolls  us,  "often- 
times been  vexed  to  see  a  pedant  brought  in  in  most  of 
Italian  comedies  for  a  vice  or  sport-maker,  and  the  nick- 
aame  of  magister  (dominie)  to  be  of  no  hetter  significa- 
tion amongst  us."  We  may  bo  suro  that,  if  Shakespeare 
•knew  Florio  before  he  produced  Love's  Labour's  Lost,  ic 
vas  not  as  a  sport-maker  to  be  mocked  at,  but  as  a  friend 
•ind  literary  associate  to  whom  he  felt  personally  indebted. 
But,  whatever  his  actual  relation  to  the  Italian  scholar 
.may,  have  been,  Shakespeare,  on  reaching  London  and 
beginning  to  breathe  its  literary  atmosphere,  would  nat- 
irally  betake  himself  to  the  study  of  Italian.  At  various 
iltitudes  the  English  Parnassus  was  at  that  time  farmed 
by  soft  airs,  swept  by  invigorating  breezes,  or  darkened 
by  gloomy  and  infected  vapours  from  the  south.  In 
■'tuer  words,  the  influence  of  Italian  literature,  so  dominant 
ii«  En^^land  daring  the  second  half  of  the  16th  century, 


may  bo  said  to  have  reached  its  highest  point  at  the  very 
time  when  Shakespeare  entered  on  Lis  poetic  and  dramatic 
labours.  This  influence  was  in  part  a  revival  of  the 
strong  impulse  communicated  to  English  literature  frora 
Italy  in  Chaucer's  day.  The  note  of  the  revival  was 
struck  in  the  title  of  Thomas's  excellent  Italian  manual, 
"  Principal  rules  of  Italian  grammar,  with  a  dictionarie  ioi 
the  better  understandyng of  Iloccace,  J'etiarcha,  and  D'lfttn " 
(1550).  The  first  fruits  of  the  revival  were  the  lyrical 
poems  of  Surrey  and  Wyatt,  written  somewhat  earlier,  but 
published  for  the  first  time  in  Tottle's  jlfiscetliaii/  (1557). 
The  sonnets  of  these  poets — the  fir.'st  ever  written  in 
English — produced  in  a  few  years  the  whole  musical  choir 
of  Elizabethan  sonneteers.  Surrey  and  Wyatt  were  sym- 
pathetic students  of  Petrarch,  and,  as  Puttenham  says, 
reproduced  in  their  sonnets  and  love  poems  much  of  the 
musical  sweetness,  the  tender  and  refined  sentiment,  of  the 
Petrarchian  lyric.  This  perhaps  can  hardly  in  strictness 
of  speech  be  called  a  revival,  for,  strong  as  was  the  influ- 
ence of  Boccaccio,  and  in  a  less  degree  of  Dante,  diu-ing 
the  first  period  of  English  literature,  the  lyrical  poetry  of 
the  south,  as  represented  by  'Petrarch,  affected  English 
poetry  almost  for  the  first  time  in  the  IGth  century.  This 
influence,  as  subsequently  developed  by  Lyly  in  his  prose 
comedies  and  romances,  indirectly  affected  the  drama,  and 
clear  traces  of  it  are  to  be  found  in  Shakespeare's  own 
work.  Surrey,  however,  rendered  the  Elizabethans  a  still 
greater  service  by  introducing  from  Italy  the  unrhymed 
verse,  which,  with  the  truest  instinct,  was  adopted  by  the 
great  dramatists  as  the  metrical  vehicle  best  fitted  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  most  flexible  and  expressive  form 
of  the  poetic  art.  But,  although  in  part  the  revival  of  a 
previous  impulse,  the  Italian  literature  that  most  power- 
fully affected  English  poetry  during  the  Elizabethan  period 
was  in  the  main  new.  During  the  interval  the  prolific 
genius  of  the  south  had  put  forth  fresh  efforts  which 
combined,  in  new  and  characteristic  produets,  the  forms 
of  classical  poetry  and  the  substance  of  southern  thought 
and  feeling  with  the  spirit  of  mediajval  romance.  The 
chivalrous  and  martial  epics  of  Ariosto  and  Tasso  repre- 
sented a  new  school  of  poetry  which  embraced  within 
its  expanding  range  every  department  of  imaginative 
activity.  There  appeared  i;i  rapid  succession  romantic 
pastorals,  romantic  elegies,  romantic  satires,  and  romantic 
dramas,  as  well  as  romantic  epics.  The  epics  were 
occupied  with  marvels  of  knightly  daring  and  chivahous 
adventure,  expressed  in  flowing  and  melodious  numbers ; 
while  the  literature  as  a  whole  dealt  largely  in  the  favourite 
elements  of  ideal  sentiment,  learned  allusion,  and  elaborixte 
ornament,  and  was  brightened  at  intervals  by  grave  and 
sportive,  by  highly  wrought  but  fanciful,  pictures  of 
courtly  and  Arcadian  life.  While  Sidney  and  Spenser 
represented  in  England  the  new  school  of  allegorical  and 
romantic  pastoral  and  epic,  Shakespeare  and  liis  associates 
betook  themselves  to  the  study  of  the  romantic  drama 
and  the  whole  dramatic  element  in  recent  and  contempor- 
ary southern  literature.  The  Italian  drama  proper,  so  far 
as  it  affected  the  form  adopted  by  English  play\^Tights, 
had  indeed  virtually  done  its  work  before  any  oi  Shake- 
speare's characteristic  pieces  were  produced.  His  imme- 
diate predecessors,  Greene,  Peelc,  and  Lodge,  Nash,  Kyd, 
and  Marlowe,  had  all  probably  studied  Italian  models 
more  carefully  than  Shakespeare  himself  ever  did ;  and 
the  result  is  seen  in  the  appearance  among  the.<!0  later 
Elizabethans  of  the  romantic  drama,  which  united  tho 
better  elements  of  tho  Engli.sli  academic  and  popular  plays 
with  features  of  diction  and  fancy,  incident  and  structure, 
that  were  virtually  new.  Many  members  of  this  dramatic 
group  were,  like  Orcono,  good  Italian  scholars,  had  them- 
uelves  travelled  in  Italy,  knew  tho  Italian  stage  at  firsi 


758 


SHAKESrEAllE 


hand,  and,  as  their  writings  show,  were  well  acquainted 
with  recent  Italian  literature.  But  the  dramatic  element 
in  that  literature  extended  far  beyond  the  circle  of  regiilar 
plays,  whether  tragedies,  comedies,  or  pastorals.  It  in- 
cluded the  collections  of  short  prose  stories  which  appeared, 
or  were  published  for  the  first  time,  in  such  numbers  during 
the  16th  century,  the  novels  or  novelettes  of  Ser  Giovanni, 
Ciuthio,  Bandello,  and  their  associates.  These  stories, 
consisting  of  the  humorous  and  tragic  incidents  of  actual 
life,  told  in  a  vivid  and  direct  way,  naturally  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  dramatists.  We  know  from  the 
result  that  Shalce-^^peare  must  have  studied  them  with 
eome  care,  as  he  derived  from  this  source  the  plots  and 
incidents  of  at  least  a  dozen  of  his  plays.  Many  of  the 
stories,  it  is  true,  liad  already  been  translated,  either 
directly  from  the  Italian,  or  indirectly  from  French  and 
Lati.i  versions.  Of  Ciuthio's  hundred  tales,  however, 
only  two  or  three  are  known  to  have  been  rendered  into 
English  ;  and  Shakespeare  derived  the  story  of  Othello 
from  the  untranslated  part  of  this  collection,  ilany  of 
the  Italian  stories  touched  on  darker  crimes  or  more  aggra- 
vated forms  of  violence  than  those  naturally  prompted  by 
jealousy  and  revenge,  and  are  indeed  revolting  from  the 
atrocities  of  savage  cruelty  and  lust  related  so  calmly  as 
to  betray  a  kind  of  cynical  insensibility  to  their  true 
character.  Shakespeare,  however,  with  the  sound  judg- 
ment and  strong  ethical  sense  that  guided  the  working  of 
his  dramatic  genius,  chose  the  better  and  healthier  materials 
of  this  literature,  leaving  the  morbid  excesses  of  criminal 
passion  to  Webster  and  Ford.  But  the  Italian  influence 
on  Shakespeare's  work  is  not  to  be  estimated  merely  by 
the  outlines  of  plot  and  incident  he  borrowed .  from 
southern  sources  and  used  as  a  kind  of  canvas  for  his 
matchless  portraiture  of  human  character  and  action.  It 
is  apparent  also  in  points  of  structure  and  diction,  in 
types  of  character  and  shades  of  local  colouring,  which 
realize  and  e.'jpress  in  a  concentrated  form  the  bright  and 
Im'id,  the  brilliant  and  passionate,  features  of  southern  life. 
The  great  majority  of  the  dramatis personx  in  his  comedies, 
as  well  as  in  some  of  the  tragedies,  have  Italian  names, 
and  many  of  them,  such  as  Mercutio  and  Gratiano  on  the 
one  han^  lachimo  and  lago  on  the  other,  are  as  Italian  in 
nature  as  in  name.  The  moonlight  scene  in  the  Merchant 
of  Venice  is  Southern  in  every  detail  and  incident.  And, 
as  iL  Philarete  Chasles  justly  points  out,  Borneo  and 
Juliet  is  Italian  throughout,  alike  in  colouring,  incident, 
and  passion.  The  distinctive  influence  is  further  traceable 
in  Shakespeare's  use  of  Italian  words,  phrases,  and  pro- 
verbs, some  of  which,  such  as  "  tranect "  (from  tranare),  or 
possibly,  as  Eowe  suggested,  "traject"  (trayhctto),  are  of 
special  local  significance.  In  the  person  of  Hamlet 
Shakespeare  even  appears  as  a  critic  of  Itahan  style. 
Referring  to  the  murderer  who  in  the  players'  tragedy 
poisons  the  sleeping  duke,  Hamlet  exclaims,  "  He  poisons 
him  in  the  garden  for  his  estate.  His  name  's  Gonzago  : 
the  story  is  extant  and  written  in  vt^ry  choice  Italian." 
In  further  illustration  of  this  point  Mr  Grant  White  has 
noted  some  striking  turns  of  thought  and  phrase  which 
seem  to  show  that  Shakespeare  must  have  read  parts  of 
Berni  and  Ariosto  in  the  original.  No  doubt  in  the  case 
of  Italian  posts,  as  in  the  case  of  Latin  authors  like 
Ovid,  whose  works  he  was  familiar  with  in  the  original, 
Shakespeare  would  also  diligently  read  the  translations,' 
^especially  the  translations  into  English  verse.  For  in 
reading  such  works  as  Gelding's  Ovid,  Harrington's  Ariosto, 
and  Fairfax's  Tasso,  he  would  be  increasing  his  command 
over  the  elements  of  expressive  phrase  and  diction  which 
■were  the  verbal,  instruments,  the  material  vehicle,  of  his 
art.  But,  besides  studying  the  translations  of  the  Italian 
poets  and  prose  writers  made  available  for  English  readers. 


he  would  naturally  desire  to  possess,  and  no  doubt 
acquired  for  himself,  the  key  that  would  unlock  the  whole 
treasure-house  of  Italian  literature.  The  evidence  of 
Shakespeare's  knowledge  of  French  is  more  abundant  and 
decisive,  so  much  so  as  hardly  to  need  express  illustration. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  therefore  that,  during  his  early 
years  in  London,  he  acquired  a  fair  kno\ylcdge  both  of 
French  and  Italian. 

But,  while  pursuing  these  collateral  aids  to  his  highfer' 
work,  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  Shakespeai-a  also 
devoted  himself  to  that  work  itself.  As  early  as  1592  ho- 
is publicly  recognized,  not  only  as  an  actor  of  distinction,, 
but  as  a  dramatist  whose  work  had  excited  the  envy  and 
indignation  of  his  contemporaries,  and  especially  of  one  so 
accomplished  and  so  eminent,  so  good  a  scholar  and  master 
of  the  plaj'Avright's  craft,  as  Robert  Greene.  Greene  had, 
it  is  true,  a  good  deal  of  the  irritability  and  excitable 
temper  ofteu  found  in  the  subordinate  ranks  of  poetical 
genius,  and  he  often  talks  of  himself,  his  doings,  and 
associates  in  a  highly-coloured  and  extravagant  way.  But 
his  reference  to  Shakespeare  is  specially  deliberate,  being 
in  the  form  of  a  solemn  and  last  appeal  to  his  friends 
amongst  the  scholarly  dramatists  to  relinquish  their 
connexion  with  the  presumptuous  and  ungrateful  stage. 
In  his  Groatsu'ortk  of  Wit,  published  by  his  friend  Chettle 
a  few  weeks  after  his  death,  Greene  urges  three  cf  his 
friends,"  apparently  Marlowe,  Lodge,  and  Peele,  to  give  up 
writing  for  the  players.  "  Base-minded  men,  all  three  of 
}'ou,  if  by  my  misery  ye  be  not  warned ;  for  unto  none  of 
you  like  me  sought  those  burs  to  cleave  ;  those  puppets,  I 
meau,  who  speak  frciu  our  mouths,  those  anticks  garnisht 
in  our  colours.  Is  it  not  strange  that  I,  to  whom  they 
have  all  b?en  beholding ;  is  it  not  like  that  you,  to  whom 
ihey  have  all  been  beholding,  shall  (were  ye  in  that  case 
that  I  am  now)  be  both  of  them  at  once  forsaken  1  Yes, 
trust  them  not ;  for  there  is  au  upstart  Crow,  beautified 
in  our  feathers,  that,  with  his  tiger's  IteaH  wrapt  in  a 
player's  hide,  supposes  he  is  as  well  able  to  bombast  out  a 
blank  verse  as  the  best  of  you,  and,  being  an  absolute 
Johannes  fac  totum,  is,  in  his  own  conceit,  the  only 
Shakescene  in  a  country.  Oh  that  I  might  intreat  youi 
rare  wits  to  be  employed  in  more  profitable  courses,  and  let 
these  apes  imitate  yoiur  past  excellence,  and  never  more 
acquaint  them  with  your  admired  inventions."  This  curious 
passage  tells  us  indirectly  a  good  deal  about  Shakespeare. 
It  bears  decisive  testimony  to  his  assured  position  and  rapid 
advance  in  his  profession.  The  very  term  of  reproach 
applied  to  him,  "Johannes  Factotum,"  is  a  tribute  to 
Shakespeare's  industry  and  pra:tical  ability.  From  the 
beginning  of  his  career  he  must  have  been  in  the  widest 
and  best  sense  a  utility  man,  ready  to  do  any  work  con- 
nected with  the  theatre  and  stage,  and  eminently  successful 
in  anytliing  he  undertook.  In  the  first  instance  he  had 
evidently  made  his  mark  as  at>  actor,  as  it  is  in  that 
character  he  is  referred  to  by  Greene,  and  denounced  for 
going  beyond  his  province  and  usurping  the  functions  of 
the  dramatist.  Greene's  words  imply  that  Shakespeare 
not  only  held  a  foremost  place  as  an  actor,  but  that  he. 
was  already  distinguished  by  his  dramatic  success  in 
revising  and  rewriting  existing  plays.  This  is  confirmed 
by  the  parodied  line  from  the  Third  Part  of  Henry  VI., 
recently  revised  if  not  originally  written  by  Shakespeare. 
This  must  have  been  produced  before  Greene's  death, 
which  took  place  in  September  1592.  Indeed,  all  the 
three  parts  of  Henry  VI.  in  the  revised  form  appear  to 
have  been  acted  during  the  spring  and  summer  of  that 
year.  It  is  not  improbable  that  two  or  three  of  Shake- 
speare's early  comedies  may  also  have  been  produced 
before  Greene's  death.  And  if  so,  his  resentment,  as  an 
academic  scholar,  against  the  country  actor  who  had  noti 


SHAKESPEARE 


759 


only  become  a  dramatist  but  bad  excelled  Greene  himself 
in  his  chosen  field  of  romantic  comedy  becomes  intelligible 
enough.  Even  in  his  wrath,  however,  Greene  bears 
eloquent  witness  to  Shakespeare's  diligence,  ability,  and 
marked  success,  both  as  actor  and  playwright.  All  this 
is  fully  confirmed  by  the  more  deliberate  and  detailed 
language  of  Chettle's  apology,  already  quoted.  Of  Shake- 
speare's amazing  industry  and  conspicuous  success  the 
nezt  few  years  supply  ample  evidence.  Within  six  or 
eeven  years  he  not  only  produced  the  brilliant  reflective 
and  descriptive  poems  of  Veiiiis  and  Adonis  and  Lucrece, 
but  at  least  fifteen  of  his  dramas,  including  tragedies, 
comedies,  and  historical  plays.  Having  found  his  true 
vocation,  Shakespeare  works  during  these  years  as  a 
master,  having  full  command  over  the  materials  and 
resources  of  his  art.  The  dramas  produced  have  a  fulness 
of  life  and  a  richness  of  imagery,  a  sense  of  joyousness 
and  power,  that  speak  of  the  writer's  exultant  absorption 
and  conscious  triumph  in  his  chosen  work.  The  sparkling 
comedies  and  great  historical  plays  belonging  to  this 
period  evince  the  ease  and  delight  of  an  exuberant  mind 
realizing  its  matured  creations. 

Nor  after  all  is  this  result  so  very  surprising.  ShaKe- 
speare  entered  on  his  London  career  at  the  very  moment 
best  fitted  for  the  full  development  of  his  dramatic 
genius.  From  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  all  the  domi- 
nant impulses  and  leading  events  of  her  reign  had  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  splendid  triumph  of  policy  and 
arms  that  closed  its  third  decade,  and  for  the  yet  more 
splendid  literary  triumph  of  the  full-orbed  drama  that 
followed..  After  the  gloom  and  terror  of  Mary's  reign 
the  coming  of  Elizabeth  to  the  crovm  was  hailed  with 
exultation  by  the  people,  and  seemed  in  itself  to  open 
a  new  and  brighter  page  of  the  nation's  history. 
Elizabeth's  personal  charms  and  mental  gifts,  her  high 
spirit  and  dauntless  courage,  her  unfailing  political  tact 
and  judgment,  her  frank  bearing  and  popular  address, 
combined  with  her  unaffected  love  for  her  people  and 
devotion  to  their  interests,  awakened  the  strongest  feelings 
of  personal  loyalty,  and  kindled  into  passionate  ardour 
the  spirit  of  national  pride  and  patriotism  that  made  the 
whole  kingdom  one.  The  most  powerful  movements  of 
the  time  directly  tended  to  reinforce  and  concentrate  these 
awakened  energies.  While  the  Reformation  and  Renais- 
sance impulses  had  liberalized  men's  minds  and  enlarged 
their  moral  horizon,  the  effect  of  both  was  at  first  of  a 
political  and  practical  rather  than  of  a  purely  religious  or 
literary  kind.  The  strong  and  exhilarating  sense  of  civil 
and  religious  freedom  realized  through  the  Reformation 
Was  inseparably  associated  with  the  exultant  spirit  of 
nationality  it  helped  to  stimulate  and  diffuse.  The  pope, 
and  his  emissaries  the  Jesuits,  wore  looked  upon  far  more 
as  foreign  enemies  menacing  the  independence  of  the 
kingdom  than  as  religious  foes  and  firebrands  seeking  to 
destroy  the  newly  established  faith.  The  conspiracies, 
fomented  from  abroad,  that  gathered  around  the  captive 
queen  of  Scots,  the  plots  successively  formed  for  the 
iassassination  of  Elizabeth,  were  regarded  as  murderous 
assaults  on  the  nation's  life,  and  the  Englishmen  who 
organized  -them  abroad  or  aided  them  at  homo  were 
denounced  and  prosecuted  with  pitiless  severity  as  traitors 
to  their  country.  Protestantism  thus  caino  to  bo  largely 
identified  with  patriotism,  and  all  the  active  forces  of  the 
kingdom,  its  rising  wealth,  energy,  and  intelligence,  were 
concentrated  to  defend  the  rights  of  the  liberated  empire 
against  the  assaults  of  despotic  Euro])0  represented  by 
Rome  and  Spain.  These  forces  gained  volume  and 
impetus  as  the  nation  was  thrilled  by  the  details  of  Alva's 
ruthless  butcheries,  and  the  awful  massacre  of  jSt  l!ar- 
tbolomew,  until  at  length  they  were  organized  and  hurled 


with  resistless  effect  against  the  grandest  naval  and  military 
armament  ever  equipped  by  a  Continental  power, — an  arma- 
ment that  had  been  sent  forth  with  the  assurance  of  victory 
by  the  wealthiest,  most  absolute,  and  most  determined 
monarch  of  the  time.  There  w-as  a  vigorous  moral  element 
in  that  national  struggle  and  triumph.  It  was  the  spirit 
of  freedom,  of  the  energies  liberated  by  the  revolt  from 
Rome,  and  illuminated  by  the  fair  humanities  of  Greece 
and  Italy,  that  nerved  the  arm  of  that  happy  breed  of 
men  in  the  day  of  battle,  and  enabled  them  to  strike  with 
fatal  effect  against  the  abettors  of  despotic  rule  in  church 
and  state.  The  material  results  of  the  victory  were  at 
once  apparent.  England  became  mistress  of  the  seas,  and 
rose  to  an  assured  position  in  Europe  as  a  political  and 
maritime  power  of  the  first  order.  The  literary  results 
at  homo  were  equally  striking.  The  whole  conflict  reacte4 
powerfully  on  the  genius  of  the  race,  quickening  into  life 
its  latent  seeds  of  reflective  knowledge  and  wisdom,  of 
poetical  and  dramatic  art. 

Of  these  effects  the  rapid  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  the  national  drama  was  the  most  brilliant 
and  characteristic.  There  was  indeed  at  the  timo  <% 
unique  stimulus  in  this  direction.  The  greater  num 
ber  of  the  eager  excited  listeners  who  crowded  the 
rude  theatres  from  floor  to  roof  had  shared  in  tho 
adventurous  exploits  of  the  age,  while  all  felt  the  keenest 
interest  in  life  and  action.  And  the  stage  represented 
with  admirable  breadth  and  fidelity  the  struggling  forces, 
the  mingled  elements,  humorous  and  tragic,  the  passionate 
hopes,  deep-rooted  animosities,  and  fitful  misgivings  of 
those  eventful  years.  The  spirit  of  the  timo  had  made 
personal  daring  a  common  heritage :  w-ith  noble  and 
commoner,  gentle  and  simple,  alike,  love  of  queen  and 
country  was  a  romantic  passion,  and  heroic  self-devotion 
at  the  call  of  either  a  beaten  way  of  ordinary  life.  To 
act  with  energy  and  decision  in  the  face  of  danger, 
to  strike  at  once  against  any  odds  in  the  cause  ol 
freedom  and  independence,  was  the  desire  and  ambition 
of  all.  This  complete  unity  of  national  sentiment 
and  action  became  tho  great  characteristic  of  the  time. 
The  dangers  threatening  the  newly  liberated  kingdom  were 
too  real  and  pressing  to  admit  of  anything  like  seriously 
divided  councils,  or  bitterly  hostile  parties  within  tha 
realm.  Everything  thus  conspired  to  give  an  extraordinary 
degree  of  concentration  and  brilliancy  to  the  national  life. 
For  the  twenty  years  that  followed  the  destruction  of  tht 
Armada  London  was  the  centre  and  focus  of  that  lifa 
Hero  gathered  the  soldiers  and  officers  who  had  fought 
against  Spain  in  the  Low  Countries,  against  France  in 
Scotland,  and  against  Rome  in  Ireland.  Along  tho  river 
side,  and  in  noble  houses  about  tho  Strand,  were  tho  hardj 
mariners  and  adventurous  sea  captains,  such  as  Drake, 
Hawkins,  and  Frobisher,  who  had  driven  their  dauntlpss 
keels  into  unknown  seas,  who  had  visited  .strange  lands 
and  alien  races  in  order  to  enlarge  tho  knowledge,  increase 
tho  dominions,  and  augment  the  wealth  of  their  fellow- 
countrymen.  Hero  assembled  the  noblo  councillors, 
scholar.'^,  and  cavaliers  whose  foresight  and  skill  guided  tho 
helm  of  state,  whose  accomplishment  in  letters  and  (irmB 
gave  refinement  and  distinction  to  court  pageants  and 
ceremonials,  and  whoso  patronage  and  su[)port  of  tho 
rising  drama  helped  to  make  tho  metropolitan  theatre 
the  great  centre  of  genius  and  art,  the  groat  school  of 
historical  teaching,  the  great  minor  of  human  oaturo  in 
all  the  breadth  and 'emphasis  of  its  interests,  convictions, 
and  activities.  Tho  theatre  was  indeed  tlio  living  organ 
through  which  all  tho  marvellous  and  mingled  experiences 
of  a  timo  incomparably  rich  in  yiCa\  elcinonta  found 
expression.  There  was  no  other,  no  organized  or  adequate 
means,  of  popular  expression  at  all.     Books  were  a  solitarj^ 


760 


SHAKESPEARE 


tntertainmeht  in  the" hands  of  few;  newspapers  did  not 
exist ;  and  the  modern  relief  of  incessant  public  meetings 
(syas,  fortunately  perhaps,  an  unknown  luxury,  ^nd  yet, 
firaidst  the  plenitude  of  national  life  centred  in  London, 
the  need  for  some  common  organ  of  expression  was  never 
more  urgent  or  imperious.  New  and  almost  inexhaustible 
springs  from  the  well-heads  of  intellectual  life  had  for 
^ears  been  gradually  fertilizing  the  productive  English 
mind. .  The  heroic  life  of  the  past,  in  clear  outline  and 
stately  movement,  had  been  revealed  in  the  recovered 
masterpieces  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The  stores  of  more 
recent  wisdom  and  knowledge,  discovery  and  invention, 
science  and  art,  were  poured  continually  into  the  literary 
exchequer  of  the  nation,  and  widely  diffused  amongst 
eager  and  open-minded  recipients.  Under  this  combined 
stimulus  the  national  intellect  and  imagination  had 
already  reacted  fruitfully  in  ways  that  were  full  of  higher 
promise.  The  material  results  of  these  newly  awakened 
energies  were,  as  we  have  seen,  not  less  signal  or 
momentous.  The  number,  variety,  and  power  of  the  new 
forces  thus  acting  on  society  effected  in  a  short  period  a 
complete  moral  revolution.  The  barriers  against  the 
spread  of  knowledge  and  the  spirit  of  free  inquiry  erected 
and  long  maintained  by  nliediaeval  ignorance  and  pre- 
judice were  now  thrown  down.  The  bonds  of  feudal 
authority  and  Romish  domination  that  had  hitherto 
forcibly  repressed  the  expanding  national  life  were  effectu- 
ally broken.  Men  opened  their  eyes  upon  a  new  world 
Which  it  was  an  absorbing  interest  and  endless  delight 
to  explore, — a  new  world  physically,  where  the  old  geo- 
graphical limits  had  melted  into  the  blue  haze  of  distant 
horizons — a  new  world  morally,  -where  the  abolition  of 
alien  dogma  and  priestly  rule  gave  free  play  to  fresh  and 
vigorous  social  energies;  and,  above  all,  more  surprising 
and  mysterious  than  all,  they  opened  their  eyes  with  a 
strange  sense  of  wonder  and  exultation  on  the  new  world 
of  the  emancipated  human  spirit.  At  no  previous  period 
had  the  popular  curiosity  about  human  life  and  human 
affairs  been  so  vivid  and  intense.  In  an  age  of  deeds  so 
memorablej  man  naturally  became  the  centre  of  interest, 
and  the  whole  world  of  human  action  and  passion, 
character  and  conduct,  was  invested  with  irresistible 
attraction.  All  ranks  and  classes  had  the  keenest  desire 
to  penetrate  the  mysterious  depths,  explore  the  unknown 
regions,  and  realize  as  fully  as  might  be  the  actual 
achievements  and  ideal  possibilities  of  the  nature  throbbing 
with  so  full  a  pulse  within  themselves  and  reflected  so . 
powerfully  in  the  world  around  them.  Human  nature, 
released  from  the  oppression  and  darkness  of  the  ages,  and 
emerging  with  all  its  infinite  faculties  and  latent  powers 
into  the  radiant. light  of  a  secular  day,  was  the  new  world 
that  excited  an  admiration  more  profound  and  hopes  far 
more  ardent  than  any  recently  discovered  lands  beyond 
the  sinking  sun.  At  the  critical  moment  Shakespeare 
appeared  as  the  Columbus  of  that  new  world.  Pioneers 
had  indeed  gone  before  and  in  a  measure  prepared  the 
way,  but  Shakespeare  still  remains  the  great  discoverer, 
occupying  a  position  of  almost  lonely  grandeur  in  the 
isolation  and  completeness  of  his  work. 

Never  before,  except  perhaps  in  the  Athens  of  Pericles,  had 
^11  the  elements  and  conditions  of  a  great  national  drama 
met  in  such  perfect  union.  As  we  have  seen,  the  popular 
conditions  supplied  by  the  stir  of  great  public  events  and 
the  stimulus  of  an  appreciative  audience  were  present  in 
exceptional  force.  With  regard  to  the  stage  conditions, — 
the  means  of  adequate  dramatic  representation, — public 
theatres  had  for  the  first  time  been  recently  established  in 
London  on  a  permanent  basis.  lu  1574  a  royal  licence 
had  been  granted  by  the  queen  to  the  earl  of  Leicester's 
company  "  to  use,  exercise,  and  occupy  the  art  and  faculty 


of  playing  Cometties,  Tragedies,  Interludes,  and  Stage  Plays, 
and  such  other  like  as  they  have  been  already  used  and 
studied,  as  well  for  the  recreation  of  our  loving  subjects  as 
for  our  solace  and  pleasure  when  we  shall  think  good  to 
see  them  "  ;  and,  although  the  civil  authorities  resisted  the 
attempt  to  establish  a  public  theatre  within  the  city,  two 
or  three  were  speedily  erected  just  outside  its  boundaries, 
in  the  most  convenient  and  accessible  suburbs, — the 
Curtain  and  the  Theatre  in  Shoreditch,  beyond  the  northern 
boundary,  and  the  Blackfriars  theatre  within  the  precincts 
of  the  dissolved  monastery,  just  beyond  the  civic  jurisdic- 
tion on  the  western  side.  A  few  years  later  other  houses 
werS  built  on  the  southern  side  of  the  river,- — the  Rose 
near  the  foot  of  London  Bridge,  and  the  Hope  and  Swan 
further  afield.  There  was  also  at  Newington  Butts  a  place 
of  recreation  and  entertainment  for  the  archers  and  holiday 
people,  with  a  central  building  which,  like  the  circus  at 
Paris  Garden,  was  used  during  the  summer  months  for 
dramatic  purposes.  These  theatres  were  occupied  by 
different  companies  in  turn,  and  Shakespeare  during 
his  early  years  in  London  appears  to  have  acted  at 
several  of  them.  But  from  his  first  coming  up  it 
seems  clear  that  he  was  more  identified  with  the  earl 
of  Leicester's  players,  of  whom  his  energetic  feUow 
townsman,  James  Burbage,  was  the  head,  than  vrith 
any  other  group  of  actors.  To  Burbage  indeed  be- 
longs the  distinction  of  having  first  established  public 
theatres  as  a  characteristic  feature  of  metropolitan  life 
His  spirit  and  enterprise  first  relieved  the  leading  com- 
panies from  the  stigma  of  being  strolling  players,  and 
transferred  their  dramatic  exhibitions,  hitherto  restricted 
to  temporary  scaffolds  in  the  court-yards  of  inns  and 
hostelries,  to  the  more  reputable  stage  and  convenient 
appliances  of  a  permanent  theatre.  In  1575  Burbage, 
having  secured  the  lease  of  a  piece  of  land  at  Shoreditch, 
erected  there  the  house  which  proved  so  successful,  and 
was  known  for  twenty  years  as  the  Theatre,  from  the  fact 
that  it  was  the  first  ever  erected  in  the  metropolis.  He 
seems  also  to  have  been  concerned  in  the  erection  of  a 
second  theatre  in  the  same  locality  called  the  Curtain ; 
and  later  on,  in  spite  of  many  diflSculties,  and  a  great 
deal  of  local  opposition,  he  provided  the  more  celebrated 
home  of  the  rising  drama  known  as  the  Blackfriars 
theatre.  'When  Shakespeare  went  to  London  there  were 
thus  theatres  on  both  sides  of  the  water — the  outlying 
houses  being  chiefly  used  during  the  summer  and  autumn 
months,  while  the  Blackfriars,  being  roofed  in  and  pro- 
tected from  the  weather,  was  specially  used  for  perform- 
ances during  the  winter  season.  In  spite  of  the  persistent 
opposition  of  the  lord  mayor  and  city  aldermen,  the 
denunciations  of  Puritan  preachers  and  their  allies  in  the 
press,  and  difficulties  arising  from  intermittent  attacks  of 
the  plague  and  the  occasional  intervention  of  the  court 
authorities,  the  theatres  had  now  taken  firm  root  in  the 
metropolis ;  and,  strong  in  royal  favour,  in  noble  patron- 
age, ar\d  above  all  in  popular  support,  the  stage  had 
already  begun  to  assume  its  higher  functions  as  the  living 
organ  of  the  national  voice,  the  many-coloured  mirror  and 
reflexion  of  the  national  life.  A  few  years  later  the  com- 
panies of  players  and  the  theatres  they  occupied  were 
consolidated  and  placed  on  a  still  firmer  public  basis. 
For  some  years  past,  in  addition  to  the  actors  really  or 
nominally  attached  to  noble  houses,  there  had  existed  a 
body  of  twelve  performers,  selected  by  royal  authority 
(in  1583)  from  different  companies  and  known  as  the 
Queen's  players.  The  earl  of  Leicester's,  being  the  leading 
company,  had  naturally  furnished  a  number  of  recruits  to 
the  Queen's  players,  whose  duty  it  was  to  act  at  special 
seasons  before  Her  Majesty  and  the  court.  ■  But  vrithin  a 
few  years  after  Shakespeare  arrived  in  London  the  chief 


S  H  A  K  E  S  P  E  A.K  E, 


riji 


groups  of  actors  were  divided  into  two  great  companies, 
specially  licensed  and  belonging  respectively  to  the  Lord 
Chamberlain  and  the  Lord  Admiral.  Und«r  the  new 
arrangement  the  earl  of  Leicester's  actors  (who,  as  ali-eady 
stated,  after  the  earl's  death  in  1588  found  for  a  time  a  new 
patron  in  Lord  Strange^)  became  the  servants  of  the  Lord 
Chamberlain.  James  Burbage  had  already  retired  from 
the  company,  his  place  being  taken  b}'  his  more  cele- 
brated son  Richard  Lurbage,  the  Garrick  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan stage,  who  acted  with  so  much  distinction  and 
success  all  the  great  parts  in  Shakespeare's  leading 
plays.  In  order  that  the  Lord  Chamberlain's  company 
might  have  houses  of  their  own  both  for  summer  and 
winter  use,  Richard  Burbage,  bis  brother  Cuthbert,  and 
their  associates,  including  Shakespeare,  undertook  in  1599 
to  build  a  new  theatre  on  the  bank  side,  not  far  from  the. 
old  Paris  Garden  circus.  We  know  from  a  subsequent 
document,  whPch  refers  incidentally  to  the  building  of 
this  theatre,  that  the  Burbages  had  originally  introduced 
Shakespeare  to  the  Blackfriars  company.  He  had  indeed 
proved  himself  so  useful,  both  as  actor  and  poet,  that 
they  were  evidently  glad  to  secure  his  future  services  by 
giving  him  a  share  as  part  proprietor  in  the  Blackfriars 
property.  The' new  theatre  now  built  by  the  company 
was  that  known  as  the  Globe,  and  it  was  for  fifteen 
years,  during  the  summer  and  autumn  months,  the 
popular  and  highly  successful  home  of  the  Shakespearian 
drama.  Three  years  earlier  Richard  Burbage  and  liis 
associates  had  rebuilt  the  Blackfriars  theatre  on  a  more 
extended  scale ;  and  this  well-known  house  divided 
Avith  the  Globe  the  honour  of  producing  Shakespeare's 
later  and  more  important  plays.  Shakespeare's  position 
indeed  of  actor  and  dramatist  is  identified  with  these 
liouses  and  with  the  Lord  Chamberlain's  company  to 
which  thoy  belonged.  On  the  accession  of  James  L,  this 
compahy,  being  specially  favoured  by  the  new  monarch, 
received  a  fresh  royal  charter,  and  the  members  of  it  were 
henceforth  known  as  the  King's  servants.  In  the  early 
years  of  Shakespeare's  career  the  national  drama  had  thus 
a  permanent  home  in  theatres  conveniently  central  on 
either  side  of  the  river,  and  crowded  during  the  summer 
and  winter  months  by  eager  and  excited  audiences. 
Even  before  the  building  of  the  Globe,  the  liouso  at  New- 
ington  where  three  of  JIarlowe's  most  important  plays  and 
some  of  Shakespeare's  early  tragedies  were  produced  was 
often  crowded  to  the  doors.  In  the  summer  of  1592, 
when  the  First  Farl  of  Henry  VI.,  as  revised  by  Shake- 
speare, was  acted,  the  performance  was  so  popular  that,  we 
are  told  by  Nash,  ten  thousand  spectators  witnessed  it  in 
the  course  of  a  few  weeks.  It  is  true  that  even  in  the  best 
theatres  the  appliances  in  the  way  of  scenes  and  stage 
machinery  were  of  the  simplest  description,  change  of  scene 
being  often  indicated  by  the  primitive  device  of  a  board 
with  the  name  painted  upon  it.  But  players  and  play- 
wrights, both  arts  being  often  combined  in  the  same  person, 
knew  their  business  thoroughly  well,  and  justly  relied  for 
success  on  the  moro  vital  attractions  of  powerful  acting, 
vigorous  writing,  and  practised  skill  in  the  construction  of 
their  pieces.  In  the  presence  of  strong  passions  expressed 
in  kindling  words  and  powerfully  realized  in  living  action, 
gesture,  and  incident,  the  absence  of  canvas  sunlight  and 
painted  gloom  was  hardly  felt.  Or,  as  the  stirring 
choruses  in  Henry  V.  sliow,  the  want  of  more  elaborate  and 
realistic  scenery  was  abundantly  supplied  by  the  excited 
fancy,  active  imagination,  and  concentrated  interest  of  tho 
spectators. 

'  Thi3  is  maintained  by  Mr  Flcay  In  liis  recent  Life  and  Work  of 
Shakespeare.  But  tho  liistory  of  tlio  early  dramatic  comjianics  is  so 
obscure  that  it  is  difficult  to  trace  their  chonging  fortunes  with  absolute 
•ertainty. 

■2 1  -L'G» 


The  dramatic  conditions  of  a  national  tlieatre  were 
indeed,  at  the  outset  of  Shakespeare's  career,  more  com- 
plete, or  rather  in  a  more  advanced  state  of  development, 
than  the  playhouses  themselves  or  their  stage  accessories. 
If  Shakespeare  was  fortunate  in  entering  on  his  Loudon 
work  amidst  the  full  tide  of  awakened  patriotism  and 
public  spirit,  he  was  equally  fortunate  in  finding  ready  to 
his  hand  the  forms  of  art  in  which  the  rich  and  complex 
life  of  the  time  could  be  adequately  expressed.  ,  During 
the  decade  in  which  Shakespeare  left  Stratford  the  play- 
wright's art.  had  undergone  changes  so  important  as  to 
constitute  a  revolution  in  the  form  and  spirit  of  the 
national  drama.  For  twenty  years  after  the  accession 
of  Elizabeth  the  two  roots  whence  the ,  English  drama 
sprung — the  academic  or  classical,  and  the  popular,  devel- 
oped spontaneously  in  the  line  of  mysteries,  moralities, 
and  interludes — continued  to  exist  apart,  and  to  produce 
their  accustomed  fruit  independently  of  each  other.  The 
popular  drama,  it  is  true,  becoming  more  secular  and 
realistic,  enlarged  its  area  by  collecting  its  materials  from 
all  sources, — from  novels,  tales,  ballads,  and  historie.s,  as 
well  as  from  fairy  mythology,  local  superstitions,  and  folk- 
lore. But  the  incongruous  materials  were,  for  the  most 
part,  handled  in  a  crude  and  semi-barbarous  way,  with 
just  sufficient  art  to  satisfy  tho  cravings  and  clamours  of 
unlettered  audiences.  ■'The  academic  plays,  on  tho  other 
hand,  were  written  by  scholars  for  courtly  and  cultivated 
circles,  were  acted  at  the  universities,  the  inns  of  court, 
and  at  special  public  ceremonials,  and  followed  for  the 
most  part  the  recognized  and  restricted  rules  of  the  classic 
drama.  But  in  the  third  decade  of  Elizabsth's  reign 
another  dramatic  school  arose  intermediate  between  the 
two  elder  ones,  which  sought  to  combine  in  a  newer  and 
higher  form  the  best  elements  of  both.  The  inniii  impulse 
guiding  the  efforts  of  the  new  school  may  be  traced  in- 
directly to  a  classical  source.  It  was  due,  not  immediately 
to  the  masterpieces  of  Greece  and  Rome,  but  to  the  form 
which  classical  art  had  assumed  in  the  contemporary  drama 
of  Italy,  France,  and  Si)ain,  especially  of  Italy,  which 
was  that  earliest  developed  and  best  known  to  tho  new 
school  of  poets  and  dramatists.  This  southern  drama, 
while  academic  in  its  leading  features,  had  nevertheless 
modern  elements  blended  \vith  the  ancient  form.  As  tho 
Italian  epics,  followinp  in  the  main  the  older  examgles, 
were  still  charged  with  romantic  and  realistic  elements 
unknown  to  the  classical  epic,  so  the  Italian  drama,  con- 
structed on  the  lines  of  Seneca  and  Plautus,  blended  with 
the  severer  form  essentially  romantic  features.  With  tho 
choice  of  heroic  subjects,  the  orderly  development  of  tho 
plot,  the  free  use  of  the  chorus,  the  observance  of  tho 
unities,  and  constant  substitution  of  narrative  for  action 
wore  united  tho  vivid  colouring  of '"poetic  fancy  and 
diction,  and  the  use  of  materials  and  incidents  derived 
from  recent  history  and  contemporary  life.  The  influence 
of  tho  Italian  drama  on  tho  now  school  of  English  play- 
wrights was,  however,  very  much  restricted  to  points  of 
stylo  and  diction  of  rhetorical  and  poetical  effect.  It 
helped  to  produce  among  them  the  sense  of  artistic  treat- 
ment, the  conscious  effort  after  higher  and  moro  elaborate 
forms  and  vehicles  of  imaginative  and  [inssionatu  expres- 
sion. For  the  rest,  the  rising  Engli.sh  drama,  in  spito  of 
tho  efforts  made  by  academic  critics  to  narrow  its  range 
and  limit  its  intcrest.s,  retained  and  thoroughly  vindicated 
its  freedom  and  independence.  Tho  central  character- 
istics of  the  new  school  are  sufficiently  explained  by  tho 
fact  that  its  leading  representatives  were  all  of  them 
scholars  and  poct.s,  living  by  their  wits  and  gaining  a 
somewhat  precarious  livelihood  amidst  tho  stir  and  bu.stle, 
tho  tcmjitations  and  excitpmcnt,  of  concentrated  London 
life.     Tho  distinctive  note  of  their  work  is  the  reflex  of 


762 


SHAKESPEAEE 


their  position  as  academic  scholars  working  under  poetic 
and  popular  impulses  for  the  public  theatres.     The  new 
and   striking  combination  in   their   dramas   of  elements 
hitherto  wholly  separated  is  but  the  natural  result  of  their 
attainments^  and   literary  activities.     From  their  univer- 
sity training  and  knowledge  of  the'  ancients  they  would 
be  familiar  with  the  technical  requirements  of  dramatic 
art,  the  deliberate  handling  of  plot,  incident,  and  char- 
acter, and  the  due  subordination  of  parts   essential  for 
producing  the  effect  of  an  artistic  whole.     Their  imagina- 
tive and  emotional  sensibility,  stimulated  by  their  studies 
in  Southern  literature,  would  naturally  prompt  them  to 
combine  features  of  poetic  beauty  and  rhetorical  finish 
with  the  evolution  of  character  and  action ;  while  from 
the  popular  native  drama  they  derived  the   breadth  of 
sympathy,  sense  of  humour,  and  vivid  contact  with  actual 
life  which  gave  reality  and  power  to  their  representations. 
The  leading  members  of  this  group  or  school  were  Kyd, 
Greene,  Lodge,  Nash,  Peele,  and  Marlowe,  of  whom,  in 
relation  to  the  future  development  of  the  drama,  Greene, 
Peele,  and  Marlowe  are  the  most  important  and  influerltial. 
They  were  almost  the  first  poets  and  men  of  genius  who 
devoted  themselves  to  the  production  of  dramatic  pieces 
for  the  public  theatres.     But  they  all  helped  to  redeem 
the  common   stages   from   the   reproach   their   rude  and 
boisterous  pieces  had  brought  upon  them,  and  make  the 
plays  represented  poetical  and  artistic  as  well  as  lively, 
bustling,   and   popular.     Some   did   this   rather   from  a 
necessity  of  nature  and  stress  of  circumstance  than  from 
any  higher  aim   or   deliberately   formed   resolve.      But 
Marlowe,  the  grea.«st  of  them,  avowed  the  redemption  of 
the  common  stage  as  the  settled  purpose  of  his  labours  at 
the  outset  of  his  dramatic  career.     And  during  his  brief 
and  stormy  life  he  nobly  discharged  the  self-imposed  task. 
His  first  play,  Tamhurline  the  Great,  struck  the  authentic 
note  of  artistic  and  romantic  tragedy.     With  all  its  extra- 
vagance,   and    over-straining  ■  after   vocal   and   rhetorical 
effects,  the  play  throbs  with  true  passion  and  true  poetry, 
and  has  throughout  the  stamp  of  emotional  intensity  and 
intellectual  power.     His  later  tragedies,  while  marked  by 
the   same   features,  bring  into   fuller   relief   the   higher 
characteristics   of    his    passionate    and    poetical   genius. 
Alike  in  the  choice  of  subject  and  method  of  treatment 
Marlowe  is  thorou^ly  independent,  deriving  little,  except 
in  the  way  of  general  stimulus,  either  from  the  classical  or 
popular  drama  of  his  day.     The  signal  and  far-reaching 
reform  he  effected  in  dramatic  metre  by  the  introduction 
of  modulated  blajik  verse  illustrates  the  striking  originality 
of  his  genius.     Gifted  with  a  fine  ear  for  the  music  of 
English  numbers,  and  impatient  of  "  the  gigging  veinj  of 
rhyming   mother  wits,"  he  introduced  the  noble   metre 
which  was  at  once  adopted   by  his  contemporaries  and 
became  the  vehicle  of  the  great  Elizabethan  drama.     The 
new  metre  quickly  abolished  the  rhyming  couplets  and 
stanzas  that  had  hitherto  prevailed  on  the  popular  stage. 
The  rapidity  and  completeness  of  this  metrical  revolution 
is  in  itself  a  powerful  tribute  to  Marlowe's  rare  insight 
and   feeling  as   a   master   of  musical   expression.      The 
originality  and  importance  of  Marlowe's  innovation  are  not 
materially  affected  by  the  fact  that  one  or  two  classical 
plays,  such  as  Gorbodwc.  and  Jocasta,  had  been  already 
written   in   unrhymed   verse.     In   any   case   these   were 
private  plays,  and  the  monotony  of  cadence  and  structure 
in   the    verse  excludes  them    from  anything  like  serious 
comparison  with  the  richness  and  variety  of  vocal  effect 
produced  by  the  skilful  pauses  and  musical  interlinking  of 
Marlowe's  heroic  metre.     Greene  and  Peele  did  almost  as 
much  for  romantic   comedy  as   Marlowe  had   done  for 
romantic  tragedy.     Greene's  ease  and  lightness  of  touch, 
his  freshness  of  feeling  and  plav  of  fancy,  his  vivid  sense 


of  the  pathos  and  beauty  of  homely  scenes  and  thorough 
enjoyment  of  English  rural  life,  give  to  his  dramatic 
sketches  the  blended  charm  of  romance  and  reality  hardly 
to  be  found  elsewhere  except  in  Shakespeare's  early 
comedies.  In  special  points  of  lyrical  beauty  and  dramatic 
portraiture,  such  as  his  sketches  of  pure  and  devoted 
women  and  of  witty  and  amusing  clowns,  Greene 
anticipated  some  of  the  more  delightful  and  characteristic 
features  of  Shakespearian  comedy.  Peele's  lighter  pieces 
and  Lyly's  prose  comedies  helped  in  the  same  direction. 
Although  not  written  for  the  public  stage,  Lyly's  court 
comedies  were  very  popular,  and  Shakespeare  evidently 
gained  from  their  light  and  easy  if  somewhat  artificial 
tone,  their  constant  play  of  witty  banter  and  spark- 
ling repartee,  valuable  hints  for  the  prose  of  his  own 
comedies.  Marlowe  again  prepared  the  way  for  another 
characteristic  development  of  Shakespeare's  dramatic  art 
His  £dward  II.  marks  the  rise  of  the  historical  drama,  as 
distinguished  from  the  older  chronicle  play,  in  which  the 
annals  of  a  reign  or  period  were  thrown  into  a  series  of 
loose  and  irregular  metrical  scenes.  Peele's  Edward  I., 
Marlowe's  Edward  II.,  and  the  fine  anonymous  phiy  of 
Edward  III.,  in  which  many  critics  think  Shakespeare's 
hand  may  be  traced,  show  how  thoroughly  the  new  school 
had  felt  the  rising  national  pulse,  and  how  promptly  it 
responded  to  the  popular  demand  for  the  dramatic  treat- 
ment of  history.  The  greatness  of  contemporary  events 
had  created  a  new  sense  of  the  grandeur  and  continuity  of 
the  nation's  life,  and  excited  amongst  all  classes  a  vivid 
interest  in  the  leading  personalities  and  critical  struggles 
that  had  marked  its  progress.  There  was  a  strong  and 
general  feeling  in  favour  of  historical  subjects,  and 
especially  historical  subjects  having  in  them  elements  of 
tragical  depth  and  intensity.  Shakespeare's  own  early 
plays — dealing  with  the  distracted  reign  of  King  John,  the 
Wars  of  the  Koses,  and  the  tragical  lives  of  Richard  11. 
and  Eichard  IIL — illustrate  this  bent  of  popular  feeling. 
The  demand  being  met  by  men  of  poetical  and  dramatic 
genius  reacted  powerfully  on  the  spirit  of  the  age,  helping 
in  turn  to  illuminate  and  strengthen  its  loyal  and  patriotic 
sympathies. 

This  is  in  fact  the  key-note  of  the  English  stage  Snpei 
in  the  great  period  of  its  development.  It  was  its  °^'^^ 
breadth  of  national  interest  and  intensity  of  tragic  power  ^^^^ 
that  made  the  English  drama  so  immeasurably  superior  to  stage, 
every  other  contemporary  drama  in  Europe.  The  Italian 
drama  languished  because,  though  carefully  elaborated  in 
point  of  form,  it  had  no  fulness  of  national  life,  no  common 
elements  of  ethical  conviction  or  aspiration,  to  vitalize 
and  ennoble  it.  Even  tragedy,  in  the  hands  of  Italian 
dramatists,  had  no  depth  of  human  passion,  no  energy  of 
heroic  purpose,  to  give  higher  meaning  and  power  to  its 
evolution.  In  Spain  the  dominant  courtly  and.  ecclesi- 
astical influences  limited  the  development  of  the  national 
drama,  while  in  France  it  remained  from  the  outset  under 
the  artificial  restrictions  of  classical  and  pseudo-classical 
traditions.  Shakespeare's  predecessors  and  contemporaries, 
in  elevating  the  common  stages,  and  filling  them  with 
poetry,  music,  and  passion,  had  attracted  to  the  theatre  all 
classes,  including  the  more  cultivated  and  refined;  and 
the  intelligent  interest,  energetic  patriotism,  and  robust 
life  of  so  representative  an  English  audience  supplied  the 
strongest  stimulus  to  the  more  perfect  development  of  the 
great  organ  of  national  expression.  The  forms  of  dramatic 
art,  in  the  three  main  departments  of  comedy,  tragedy,  ■ 
and  historical  drama,  had  been,  as  we  have  seen,  clearly 
discriminated  and  evolved  in  their  earlier  stages.  It  was 
a  moment  of  supreme  promise  and  expectation,  and  in  the 
accidents  of  earth,  or,  as  we  may  more  appropriately  and 
gratefully  say,  in  the  ordinances  of  heaver   the  supreme 


SHAKESPEARE 


poet  and   dramatist   appeared   to   more   than   fulfil   the 
Jitmost   promise    of    the    time.     By    right    of    imperial 
command  oyer   all  the  resources  of  imaginative  insight 
and  expression  Shakespeare  combined  Uie  rich  dramatic 
materials  already  prepared  into  more  perfect  forms,  and 
carried  them  to  the  highest  point  of  ideal  development. 
He   quickly  surpassed   Marlowe   in   passion,  music,  and 
intellectual  power ;  Greene  in  lyrical  beauty,  elegiac  grace, 
and  narrative  interest;  Peele   in  picturesque    touch   and 
pastoral   sweetness;  and   Lyly  in  bright  and  sparkling 
dialogue.     And  having  distanced  the  utmost  efforts  of  his 
predecessors  and  contemporaries  he  took  his  own  higher 
way,  and  reigned  to  the  end  without  a  rival  in  the  new 
world  of  supreme  dramatic  art  he  had  created.     It  is  a 
new  world,  because  Shakespeare's  work  alone  can  be  said 
to  possess  the  organic  strength  and  infinite  variety,   the 
throbbing  fulness,  vital  complexity,  and  breathing  truth, 
of  nature  herself.      In   points   of  artistic   resource  and 
technical  ability — such  as  copious  and  expressive  diction, 
freshness  and  pregnancy  of  verbal   combination,    richly 
modulated  verse,   and   structural   skill   in   the   handling 
of    incident    and    action — Shakespeare's     supremacy    is 
indeed    sufficiently    assured.      But,  after    all,    it   is    of 
course  in  the  spirit  and  substance  of  his  work,  his  power 
of  piercing  to  the  hidden  centres  of  character;  of  touch- 
ing the  deepest  springs  of  impulse  and   passion,  out  of 
which  are  the  issues  of  life,  and  of  evolving  those  issues 
dramatically  with  a  flawless  strength,  subtlety,  and  truth, 
which  raises  him  so  immensely  above  and  beyond  not  only 
the  best  of  the  playwrights  who  went  before  him,  but  the 
whole  line  of  illustrious  di-amatists  that  came  after  him. 
It   is   Shakespeare's   unique   distinction  that  he  has   an 
absolute  command  over  all  the  complexities  of  thought  and 
feeling  that  prompt  to  action  and  bring  out  the  dividing 
lines  of  character.     He  sweeps  with  the  hand  of  a  master 
the  whole  gamut  of  human  experience,  from  the  lowest 
note  to  the   very  top  of   its  compass,  from  the   sportive 
childish  treble  of  Mamilius  and  the  pleading  boyish  tones 
of   Prince  Arthur,  up  to  the  spectre-haunted   terrors   of 
Macbeth,  the   tropical  passion  of  Othello,   the  agonized 
sense  and  tortured  spirit  of  Hamlet,  the  sustained  elemental 
grandeur,  the  Titanic  force  and  utterly  tragical  pathos,  cf 
Lear. 
*»ke;         Shakespen.'^'s  active  dramatic  career  in  London  lasted 
P^'^  about  twenty  years,    and  may   be   divided    into    three 
areer—  tolerably  symmetrical  periods.     The  first  extends  from  the 
irrt        year  1587  to  about  1593-94;  the  second  from  this  date  to 
•rfc-d.     the  end  of  the  century  ;  and  the  third  from  J  GOO  to  about 
1608,  soon  after  which  time  Shakespeare  ceased  to  write 
regularly  for  the  stage,  was  less  in  London  and  more  and 
more  at  Stratford.     Some  modern  critics  add  to  these  a 
fourth  period,  including  the  few  pluys  which  from  internal 
as  well  as  external  evidence  must  have  been  among  the 
poet's  latest   productions.     As   the  exact  dates  of  these 
plays  arc  unknown,  this  period  may  bo  taken  to  extend 
from   1G08  to  about  1612.     The  three  dramas  produced 
during  these  years  are,   however,   hardly  entitled   to   be 
ranked  as  a  separate  period.     They  may  rather  bo  regarded 
as  supplementary  to  the  grand  seriej  of  dramas  belonging 
to  the  third   and  greatest   epoch   of   Shakespeare's   pro- 
ductive power.     To  the  first  period  belong  Shakespeare's 
early  tentative  efforts  in  revising  and  partially  rewriting 
plays  produced  by  others  that  already  had  possession  of 
the  stage.     These  efforts  are  illustrated  in  the  three  parts 
of  Htnry  VI.,  especially  the  second  and  third  parts,  which 
bear  decisive  marks  of  Shakespeare's  hand,  and  were  to  a 
great   extent  recast   and  rewritten  by    him.     It  is  clear 
from  the  internal  evidence  thus  supplied  that  Shakespeare 
was  at  first  powerfully  affected   by  "Marlowe's   mighty 
Ann."    This  influence  is  so  marked  in  the  revised  second 


763 

and  third  parts  of  Henry  VI.  as  to  iiiduce  some  critics  to 
believe  Marlowe  must  have  had  a  hand  in  the  revision. 
These  passages  are,  however,  sufficiently  explained  by  the 
fact  of   Marlowe's   influence  during  the   first   period  of 
Shakespeare's  career.     To  the  same  period  also  belong  the 
earliest  tragedy,  that  of  Tilus  Andronicus,  and  the  three 
comedies— Zow's  Labour  's  Lost,  The  Comedy  of  Errors, 
and  the  Two  GenUemen  of  Verona.     These  dramas  are  all 
marked  by  the  dominant  literary  influences  of  the  time. 
They  present  features  obviously  due  to  the  revived  and 
widespread  knowledge  of  classical  literature,  as  well  as  to 
the  active  interest  in  the  literature  of  Italy  and  the  South. 
Titus  Androniats,  in  many  of  its  characteristic  features, 
reflects  the  form  of  Roman   tragedy  almost  universally 
accepted  and  followed  in  the  earlier  period  of  the  drama. 
This  form  was  supplied  by  the  Latin  plays  of  Seneca, 
their  darker  colours  being  deepened  by  the  moral  effect  of 
the  judicial  tragedies  and  military  conflicts  of  the  time. 
The  execution  of  the  Scottish  queen  and  the  Catholic  con- 
spirators who  had  acted  in  her  name,  and  the  destruction 
of  the  Spanish  Armada,  had  given  an  impulse  to  tragic 
representations  of  an  extreme  type.     This  was  undoubtedly 
rather  fostered  than  otherwise  by  the  favourite  exemplars 
of  Roman  tragedy.     The  Medea  and  Thyestes  of  Seneca  are 
crowded  with  pagan  horrors  of  the  most  revolting  kind. 
It  is  true  these  horrors  are  usually  related,  not  represented, 
although  in  the  iledea  the  maddened  heroine   kills  her 
children   on   the   stage.     But   from   these   tragedies  the 
conception    of  the  physically  horrible  as    an  element   of 
tragedy  was  imported  into  the  early  English  drama,  and 
intensified  by  the  realistic, tendency  which  the  events  of  the 
time  and  the  taste  of  their  ruder  audiences  had  impressed 
upon  the  common  stages.     This  tendency  is  exemplified 
in  Tittis  Andronicus,  obviously  a  very  early  work,   the 
signs  of  youthful  effort  being  apparent  not  only  in  the 
acceptance  of  so  coarse  a  type  of  tragedy  but  in  the  crude 
handling  of  character  and  motive,  and  the  want  of  har- 
mony in  working  out  the  details  of  the  dramatic  concep- 
tion.    Kyd  was  the  most   popular  contemporary   repre- 
sentative of  the  bloody  school,  and  in  the  leading  motives 
of  treachery,  concealment,  and  revenge  there  are  points 
of   likeness  between    Titus  Andronicus  and   the  Spanish 
Traffcdy.       But    how   promptly   and   completely   Shake- 
speare's nobler   nature   turned   from   this  lower  type  is 
apparent  from  the  fact  that  ho  not  only  never  reverted  to 
it  but  indirectly  ridicules  the  piled-up  horrors  and  extra- 
vagant language  of  Kyd's  plays. 

The  early  comedies  in  the  same  way  are  marked  by  the 
dominant  literary  influences  of  the  time,  partly  classic 
partly  Italian.  In  the  Comedy  of  Errors,  for  example, 
Shakespeare  attempted  a  humorous  play  of  the  old  classi- 
cal type,  the  general  plan  and  many  details  being  derived 
directly  from  Plautus.  In  Love's  Labour  's  Lost  many 
characteristic  features  of  Italian  comedy  are  freely  intro- 
duced :  the  pedant  Holofornes,  the  curate  Sir  Nathaniel,  the 
fantastic  braggadocio  soldier  Armado,  are  all  well-known 
characters  of  the  contemporary  Italian  drama.  Of  this 
comedy,  indeed,  Gervinus  says,  "  the  tone  of  the  Italian 
school  prevails  here  more  than  in  any  other  play.  The 
redundance  of  wit  is  only  to  be  compared  with  a  similar 
redundance  of  conceit  in  Shakespeare's  narrative  poems, 
and  with  the  Italian  stylo  which  ho  had  early  ndoiited." 
These  comedies  display  another  sign  of  early  work  in  the 
mechanical  exactness  of  the  plan  and  a  studied  symmetry 
in  the  grouping  of  the  chief  personages  of  the  drama.  In 
the  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona,  as  Prof.  Dowden  points  out, 
"  Proteus  the  fickle  is  set  against  Valentine  the  faithful, 
Silvia  the  light  and  intellectual  against  Julia  the  ardent 
and  tender.  Lance  the  humourist  against  Speed  the  wit." 
So  in  Love's  Labour  'a  Lost,  the  king  and  his  three  fellow- 


764 


SHAKESPEARE 


(students  bahnce  the  princess  and  Ler  three  ladies,  and 
there  is  a  symmetrical  play  of  incident  between  the  two 
groups.  The  arrangement  is  obviously  more  artificial 
than  spontaneous,  more  mechanical  than  vital  and  organic. 
But  towards  the  close  of  the  first  period  Shakespeare  had 
fully  realized  his  own  power  and  was  able  to  dispense 
with  these  artificial  supports.  Indeed,  having  rapidly 
gained  knowledge  and  experience,  he  had  before  the  close 
written  plays  of  a  far  higher  character  than  any  which 
even  the  ablest  of  his  contemporaries  had  produced'.  He 
had  firmly  laid  the  foundation  of  his  future  fame  in  the 
direction  both  of  comedy  and  tragedy,  for,  besides  the 
comedies  already  referred  to,  the  first  sketches  of  Hamht 
and  Romeo  and  Juliet,  and  the  tragedy  of  Eichard  III., 
may  probably  be  referred  to  this  period. 

Another  mark  of  early  work  belonging  to  these  dramas 
is  the  lyrical  and  elegiac  tone  and  treatment  associated 
with  the  use  of  rhyme,  of  rhyming  couplets  and  stanzas. 
Spenser's  musical  verse  had  for  the  time  elevated  the 
character  of  i-hyming  metres  by  identifying  them  with  the 
highest  kinds  of  poetry,  and  Shakespeare  was  evidently  at 
first  affected  by  this  powerful  impulse.  He  rhymed  with 
great  facility,  and  delighted  in  the  gratification  of  his 
IjTical  fancy  and  feeling  which  the  more  musical  rhyming 
metres  afforded.  Rhyme  accordingly  has  a  considerable 
and  not  inappropriate  place  in  the  earlier  romantic 
comedies.  The  Comedy  of  Errors  has  indeed  been  de- 
scribed as  a  kind  of  lyrical  farce  in  which  the  opposite 
'quaUties  of  elegiac  beauty  and  comic  effect  are  happily 
blended.  Rhyme,  however,  at  this  period  of  the  poet's 
work  is  not  restricted  to  the  comedies.  It  is  largely  used 
in  the  tragedies  and  histories  as  well,  and  plays  even  an 
important  part  in  historical  drama  so  late  as  Eichard  II. 
Shakespeare  appears,  however,  to  have  worked  out  this 
favourite  vein,  and  very  much  taken  leave  of  it,  by  the 
publication  of  his  descriptive  and  narrative  poems,  the 
Venus  and  Adonis  and  the  Lucrece,  although  the  enormous 
popularity  of  these  poems  might  almost  have  tempted  him 
to  return  again  to  the  abandoned  metrical  form.  The 
only  considerable  exception  to  the  disuse  of  rhyming 
metres  and  lyrical  treatment  is  supplied  by  the  Sonnets, 
which,  though  not  published  till  1609,  were  probably 
begun  early,  soon  after  the  poems,  and  written  at  intervals 
during  eight  or  ten  of  the  intervening  years.  Into  the 
tnany  vexed  questions  connected  with  the  history  and 
meaning  of  these  poems  it  is  impossible  to  enter.  The 
attempts  recently  made  by  the  Rev.  W.  A.  Harrison  and  Jlr 
T.  Tyler  to  identify  the  "  dark  lady  "  of  the  later  sonnets, 
while  of  some  historical  interest,  cannot  be  regarded  as 
successfuh  And  the  identification,  even  if  rendered  more 
probable  by  the  discovery  of  fresh  evidence,  would  not  clear 
up  the  difficulties,  biographical,  literary,  and  historical,  con- 
nected with  these  exquisite  poems.  It  is  perhaps  enough 
to  say  with  Prof.  Dowden  that  in  Shakespeare's  case  the 
most  natural  interpretation  is  the  best,  and  that,  so  far  as 
they  throw  light  on  his  personal  character,  the  sonnets 
show  that  "he  was  capable  of  measureless  personal  devotion; 
that  he  was  tenderly  sensitive,  sensitive  above  all  to  every 
liminution  or  alteration  of  that  love  his  heart  so  eagerly 
*raved ;  and  that,  when  wronged,  although  he  suffered 
anguish,  he  transcended  his  private  injury  and  learned  to 
forgive." 

Whatever  question  may  be  raised  \rith  regard  to  the 
superiority  of  some  of  the  plays  belonging  to  the  first 
period  of  Shakespeare's  dramatic  career,  there  can  be  no 
question  at  all  as  to  any  of  the  pieces  belonging  to  the 
second  period,  which  extends  to  the  end  of  the  century. 
During  these  years  Shakespeare  works  as  a  master,  having 
complete  command  over  the  materials  and  resources  of  the 
most  mature  and  flexible  dramatic  art.     '■  To  this  stage," 


says  llr  Swinburne,  "  belongs  the  special  faculty  of  fault- 
less, joyous,  facile  command  upon  each  faculty  required  of 
the  presiding  genius  for  service  or  for  sport.  It  is  in  the 
middle  period  of  his  work  that  the  language  of  Shake- 
speare is  most  limpid  in  its  fulness,  the  style  most  pure, 
the  thought  most  transparent  through  the  close  and 
luminous  raiment  of  perfect  expression."  This  period 
includes  the  magnificent  series  of  historical  plays — Eichard 
//.,  the  two  parts  of  Henry  I V.,  and  Henry  V. — and  a 
double  series  of  brilliant  comedies.  The  Midsummer 
Xighfs  Dream,  All  's  Well  that  ends  Well,  and  the  Mer- 
chant of  Venice  were  produced  before  1598,  and  during 
the  next  three  years  there  appeared  a  still  more  complete 
and  characteristic  group  including  Much  ado  about  Ko- 
thiny.  As  you  Like  it,  and  Twelfth  Kight,  These  comedies 
and  histo.-ical  plays  are  all  marked  by  a  rare  harmony  of 
reflective  and  imaginative  insight,  perfection  of  creative 
art,  and  completeness  of  dramatic  effect.  Before  the  closo 
of  this  period,  in  1598,  Francis  ileres  paid  his  cele- 
brated tribute  to  Shakespeare's  superiority  in  lyrical, 
descriptive,  and  dramatic  poetry,  emphasizing  his  un- 
rivalled distinction  in  the  three  main  departments  of  the 
drama, — comedy,  tragedy,  and  historical  play.  And  from 
this  time  onwards  the  contemporary  recognitions  of 
Shakespeare's  eminence  as  a  poet  and  dramatist  rapidly 
multiply,  the  critics  and  eulogists  being  in  most  cases 
well  entitled  to  speak  with  authority  on  the  subject. 

In  the  third  period  of  Shakespeare's  dramatic  career 
years  had  evidently  brought  enlarged  vision,  wider 
thoughts,  and  deeper  experiences.  While  the  old  mastery 
of  art  remains,  the  works  belonging  to  this  period  seem  to 
bear  traces  of  more  intense  moral  struggles,  larger  and  less 
joyous  views  of  human  life,  more  troubled,  comple.x,  and 
profound  conceptions  and  emotions.  Comparatively  few 
marks  of  the  lightness  and  animation  of  the  earlier  works 
remain,  but  at  the  same  time  the  dramas  of  this  period 
display  .an  unrivalled  power  of  piercing  the  deepest 
m3'steries  and  sounding  the  most  tremendous  and  perplex- 
ing problems  of  human  life  and  human  destiny.  To  this 
period  belong  the  four  great  tragedies — Hamlet,  Macbeth, 
Othello,  Lear  ;  the  three  Roman  plays — Coriolanus,  Juliui 
Csesar,  Anthony  and  Cleopatra  ;  the  two  singular  plays 
whose  scene  and  personages  are  Greek  but  whose  action 
and  meaning  are  wider  and  deeper  than  either  Greek  or 
Roman  life — Troihts  ajid  Cressida  and  Timon  of  Athens; 
and  one  comedy — Measure  for  Measure,  which  is  almost 
tragic  in  the  depth  and  intensity  of  its  characters  and 
incidents.  The  four  great  tragedies  represent  the  highest 
reach  of  Shakespeare's  dramatic  power,  and  they  sufficiently 
illustrate  the  range  and  complexity  of  the  deeper  problems 
that  now  occupied  his  mind.  Timon  and  Measure  for 
Measure,  however,  exemplify  the  same  tendency  to  brood 
with  meditative  intensity  over  the  wrongs  and  miseries 
that  afflict  humanity.  These  works  sufficiently  prove  that 
during'this  period  Shakespeare  gained  a  disturbing  insight 
into  the  deeper  evils  of  the  world,  arising  from  the  darker 
passions,  such  as  treachery  and  revenge.  But  it  is  also 
clear  that,  with  the  larger  vision  of  a  noble,  well-poised 
nature,  he  at  the  same,  time  gained  a  fuller  perception  of 
the  deeper  springs  of  goodness  in  human  nature,  of  the 
great  virtues  of  invincible  fidelity  and  unweajicd  love, 
and  he  evidently  received  not  only  consolation  and  calm 
but  new  stimulus  and  power  from  the  fuller  realization  of 
these  virtues.  The  typical  plays  of  this  period  thus 
embody  Shakespeare's  ripest  experience  of  the  great  issues 
of  life.  In  the  four  grand  tragedies  the  central  problem  is 
a  profoundly  moral  one.  It  is  the  supreme  internal  conflict 
of  good  and  evil  amongst  the  central  forces  and  higher 
elements  of  human  nature,  as  appealed  to  and  developed 
by  sudden  and  powerful  temptation,  smitten  by  accumu- 


SHAKESPEARE 


765 


(ated  wrongs,  orplunged  in  overwhelming  calamities.  As 
the  result,  we  learn  that  there  is  something  infuiitely  more 
J»recious  in  life  than  social  ease  or  worldly  success — noble- 
ness of  soul,  fidelity  to  truth  and  honour,  human  love  and 
{oyalty,  strength  and-  tenderness,  and  trust  to  the  very 
End.  In  the  most  tragic  experiences  this  fidelity  to  all 
that  is  best  in  life  is  only  possible  through  the  loss  of  life 
itself.  But  when  Desdemona  expires  with  a  sigh  and 
bordelia's  loving  eyes  are  closed,  when  Hamlet  no  more 
draws  his  breath  in  pain  and  the  tempest-tossed  Lear  is  at 
last  liberated  from  the  rack  of  this  tough  world,  we  feel 
that,  death  having  set  his  sacred  seal  on  their  great  sorrows 
jind  greater  love,  they  remain  with  us  as  possessions  for 
ever.  In  the  three  dramas  belonging  to  Shakespeare's  last 
period,  or  rather  which  may  be  said  to  close  his  dramatic 
career,  the  same  feeling  of  severe  but  consolatory  calm  is 
still  more  apparent.  If  the  deeper  discords  of  life  are  not 
finally  resolved,  the  virtues  which  soothe  their  perplexities 
and  give  us  courage  and  endurance  to  wait,  as  well  as 
confidence  to  trust  the  final  issues, — the  virtues  of  forgive- 
ness and  generosity,  of  forbearance  and  self-control, — are 
largely  illustrated.  This  is  a  characteristic  feature  in  each 
of  these  closing  dramas,  in  the  Winter's  Tale,  Cymheline, 
and  the  2\mpest.  The  Tempest  is  supposed,  on  tolerably 
good  grounds,  to  be  Shakespeare's  last  work,  and  in  it  we 
see  the  great  magician,  having  gained  by  the  wonderful 
experience  of  life,  and  the  no  less  wonderful  practice  of  his 
art,  serene  wisdom,  clear  and  enlarged  vision,  and  beneficent 
self-control,  break  his  magical  wand  and  retire  from  the 
scene  of  his  triumphs  to  the  home  he  had  chosen  amidst 
the  woods  and  meadows  of  the  Avon,  and  surrounded  by 
the  family  and  friends  he  loved, 
wi  Wo   must  now  briefly   summarize   the  few  remaining 

^"*'  facts  of  the  poet's  personal  history.  The  year  1596  was 
marked  by  considerable  family  losses.  In  August  Shake- 
speare's only  son  Hamnet  died  in  the  twelfth  year  of  his 
age.  With  his  strong  domestic  affections  and  cherished 
hopes  of  founding  a  family,  the  early  death  of  his  only  boy 
must  have  boon  for  his  father  a  .severe  blow.  It  was  followed 
in  December  by  the  death  of  Shakespeare's  uncle  Henry, 
the  friend  of  his  chilahood  and  youth,  the  protector  and 
encourager  of  his  boyish  sports  and  enterprises  at  Bearloy, 
Snitterfield,  and  Fulbroke.  A  few  months  later  the  Shake- 
speare household  at  Snitterfield,  so  intimately  associated 
for  more  than  half  a  century  with  the  family  in  Henley 
Street,  was  finally  broken  up  by  the  death  of  the  poet's  aunt 
Margaret,  his  uncle  Henry's  widow.  Although  the  death 
of  his  son  and  heir  had  diminished  the  poet's  hope  of 
foundipg  a  family,  he  did  not  in  any  way' relax  his  efforts 
to  secure  a  permanent  and  comfortable  home  for  his  wife 
and  daughters  at  Stratford.  As  early  as  1597,  when  ho 
had  pursued  his  London  career  for  little  more  than  ten  years, 
he  had  saved  enough  to  purchase  the  considerable  dwelling- 
house  in  New  Place,  Stratford,  to  which  he  afterwards 
retired.  This  house,  originally  built  by  Sir  Hugh  Clop- 
ton  and  called  the  "Great  House,"  was  one  of  the  largest 
mansions  in  the  town,  and  the  fact  of  Shakespeare  having 
acquired  such  a  place  as  his  family  residence  would  at  once 
increase  his  local  importance.  From  time  to  time  ho 
made  additional  purchases  of  land  about  the  house  and 
in  the  neighbourhood.  In  1C02  ho  largely  increased 
the  property  by  acquiring  107  acres  of  arable  land,  and 
later  on  he  added  to  this  20  acres  of  pasture  land,  ^vith 
a  convenient  cottage  and  garden  in  Chapel  Lane,  oppo- 
site the  losver  grounds  of  the  house.  Within  a  few  years 
his  property  thus  comprised  a  sub.stantial  dwelling-house 
with  largo  garden  and  extensive  outbuildings,  a  cottage 
fronting  the  lower  road,  and  about  1.37  acres  of  arable 
and  pasture  land.  During  these  years  Shakespeare  made 
another  important  purchase  that  added  considerably  to  his 


income.  From  the  letter  of  a  Stratford  burgess  to  a  friend 
in  London,  it  appears  that  as  early  as  1597  Shakespeare 
had  been  making  inquiry  about  the  purchase  of  tithes  in 
the  town  and  neighbourhood.  And  in  1605  he  bought  the 
unexpired  lease  of  tithes,  great  and  small,  inS''^tford  and 
two  adjoining  hamlets,  the  lease  having  still  thirty  years 
to  run.  This  purchase  yielded  him  an  annual  income  of 
,£38  a  year,  equal  to  upwards  of  £350  a  year  of  our 
present  money.  The  last  purchase  of  property  made  by 
Shakespeare  of  which  we  have  any  definite  record  is  at 
once  so  interesting  and  so  perplexing  as  to  have  stimulated 
various  conjectures  on  the  part  of  his  biographers.  This 
purchase  carries  us  away  from  Stratford  back  to  London, 
to  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Shakespeare's  dramatic 
labours  and  triumphs.  It  seems  that  in  March  1613  he 
bought  a  house  with  a  piece  of  ground  attached  to  it  a 
little  to  the  south-west  of  St  Paul's  cathedral,  and  not  far 
from  the  Blackfriars  theatre.  The  purchase  of  this  house 
in  London  after  he  had  been  for  some  years  settled  at 
Stratfcrd  has  led  some  critics  to  suppose  that  Shakespeare 
had  not  given  up  all  thought  of  returning  to  the 
metropolis?,  or  at  least  of  spending  part  of  the  year  there 
with  his  family  in  the  neighbourhood  he  best  knew  and 
where  he  was  best  known.  The  ground  of  this  supposition 
is,  however,  a  good  deal  destroyed  by  the  fact  that  soon 
after  acquiring  this  town  house  Shakespeare  let  it  for  a 
lease  of  ten  years.  He  may  possibly  have  bought  the 
property  as  a  convenience  to  some  of  his  old  friends  who 
were  associated  with  him  in  the  purchase.  In  view  of 
future  contingencies  it  would  obviously  be  an  advantage  to 
have  a  substantial  dwelling  so  near  the  theatre  in  the 
hands  of  a  friend.  It  was  indeed  by  means  of  a  similar 
purchase  that  James  Burbage  had  originally  started  and 
established  the  Blackfriars  theatre. 

The  year  1607-8  would  be  noted  in  Shakespeare's 
family  calendar  as  one  of  vivid  and  chequered  domestic 
experiences.  On  the  5th  of  June  his  eldest  daughter 
Susanna,  who  seems  to  have  inherited  something  of  her 
father's  genius,  was  married  to  Dr  John  Hall,  a  medical 
man  of  more  than  average  knowledge  and  ability,  who  had 
a  considerable  practice  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Stratford, 
and  who  ivas  deservedly  held  in  high  repute.  The  newly 
married  couple  settled  in  one  of  the  picturesque  houses  of 
the  wooded  suburb  between  the  town  and  the  church 
known  as  Old  Stratford.  But  before  the  end  of  the  year 
the  midsummer  marriage  bells  had  changed  to  sadder 
music.  In  December  Shakespeare  lost  his  youngest 
brother,  Edmund,  at  the  early  age. of  twenty-seven.  He 
had  become  an  actor,  most  probably  through  his  brother's 
help  and  influence,  and  was,  at  the  time  of  liis  death, 
living  in  London.  Ho  was  buried  at  Southwark  on  the 
last  day  of  the  year.  Two  months  later  there  was  family 
rejoicing  in  Dr  Hall's  house  at  the  birth  of  a  daughter, 
christened  Elizabeth,  the  only  offspring  of  the  union,  and 
the  only  grandchild  Shakespeare  lived  to  see.  The 
rejoicing  at  this  event  would  bo  fully  shared  by  the  house- 
hold in  New  Place,  and  especially  by  Shakespeare  himself, 
"whose  cherished  family  hopes  would  thus  be  strengthened 
and  renev/ed.  Six  months  Istcr  in  this  eventful  year', 
fortune  again  turned  her  wheel.  Early_  in  September 
Shakespeare's  mother,  Mary  Arden  of  the  Asbics,  died, 
having  lived  long  enough  to  see  and  welcome  her  great- 
grandchild as  a  fresh  bond  of  family  life.  She  was  buried 
at  Stratford  on  the  9th  of  September,  having  survived 
her  husband,  who  was  buried  on  the  8th  of  September 
ICOl,  exactly  seven  years.  Mary  Shakesjjcare  died  full  of 
years  and  honour  and  coveted  rewards.  For  more  than 
a  decade  she  had  witnessed  and  shared  the  growing  pro- 
sperity of  her  eldest  son,  and  felt  the  mother's  thrill  of  joy 
and  pride  in  the  success  that  had  cro\vncd  his  brilliant 


766 


SHAKSSPEAKE 


career.  The  loss  of  his  mother  would  be  deeply  felt  by 
her  favourite  son,  but  there  was  no  bitterness  in  the  bereave- 
ment, and  it  even  seems  to  have  exerted  a  tranquillizing, 
elevating  effect  on  the  poet's  mind  and  character.  As  he 
laid  her  in  the  grave  he  would  recall  and  realize  afresh  the 
early  years  during  which  her  loving  presence  and  influence 
were  the  light  and  guide  of  his  boyish  life.  With  these 
vivid  and  varied  family  experiences  a  strong  wave  of  home- 
yearning  seems  to  have  set  in,,  which  gradually  drew  the 
poet  wholly  back  to  Stratford.  During  the  autumn  visit 
connected  with  his  mother's  deafli  Shakespeare  must  have 
remained  several  weeks  at  the  New  Place,  for  on  the  16th 
of  October  he  acted  as  godfather  to  the  infant  son  of  an 
old  personal  friend,  Henry  Walker,  who  was  an  alderman 
of  the  borough.  The  child  was  called  William  after  his 
godfather,  and  the  poet  must  have  taken  a  special  interest 
in  the  boy,  as  he  remembered  him  in  his  will 

It  seems  most  probable  that  soon  after  the  chequered 
domestic  events  of  this  year,  as  soon  as  he  could  con- 
veniently terminate  his  London  engagements,  Shake- 
speare decided  on  retiring  to  his  native  place.  He  had 
gained  all  he  cared  for  in  the  way  of  wealth  and  fame, 
and  his  strongest  interests,  personal  and  relative,  were 
DOW  centred  in  Stratford.  But  on  retiring  to  settle  in  his 
native  town  he  had  nothing  of  the  dreamer,  the  sentiment- 
alist, or  the  recluse  about  him.  His  healthy  natural 
feeling  was  far  too  strong,  his  character  too  manly  and 
well-balanced,  to  admit  of  any  of  the  so-called  eccentricities 
of  genius.  •  He  retired  as  a  successful  professional  man 
who  had  gained  a  competence  by  his  own  exertions  and 
wished  to  enjoy  it  at  leisure  in  a  simple,  social,  rational 
way.  He  knew  that  the  competence  he  had  gained,  the 
lands  and  wealth  he  possessed,  could  only  be  preserved, 
like  other  valuable  possessions,  by  good  management  and 
careful  husbandry.  And,  taught  by  the  sad  experience  of 
his  earlier  years,  he  evidently  guided  the  business  details 
of  his  property  with  a  firm  and  skilful  hand,  was  vigilant 
end  scrupulously  just  in  his  dealings,  respecting  the  rights 
of  others,  and,  if  need  be,  enforcing  his  own.  He  sued 
his  careless  and  'negligent  debtors  in  the  local  court  of 
record,  had  various  commercial  transactions  with  the 
corporation,  and  took  an  active  interest  in  the  affairs  of 
the  borough.  And  he  went  now  and  then  to  London, 
partly  on  business  connected  with  the  town,  partly  no 
doubt  to  look  after  the  administration  and  ultimate  dis- 
posal of  his  own  theatrical  property,  and  partly  it  may  be 
assumed  for  the  pleasure  of  seeing  his  old  friends  and 
fellow  dramatists.  Even  at  Stratford,  however,  Shake- 
speare was  not  entirely  cut  off  from  his  old  associates  in 
arts  and  letters,  his  hospitable  board  being  brightened  at 
intervals  by  the  presence,  and  animated  by  the  wit, 
humour,  and  kindly  gossip,  of  one  or  more  of  his  chosen 
friends.  Two  amongst  the  most  cherished  of  his  com- 
panions and  fellow  poets,  Drayton  and  Ben  Jonson,  had 
paid  a  visit  of  this  kind  to  Stratford,  and  been  entertained 
by  Shakespeare  only  a  few  days  before  his  death,  which 
occurred  almost  suddenly  on  the  23d  of  April  1616. 
After  three  days'  illness  the  great  poet  was  carried  off  by  a 
sharp  attack  of  fever,  at  that  time  one  of  the  commonest 
scourges,  even  of  country  towns,  and  often  arising  then 
as  now,  only  more  frequently  then  than  now,  from  the 
neglect  of  proper  sanitary  precautions.  According  to 
tradition  the  23d  of  April  was  Shakespeare's  birthday,  so 
that  he  died  on  the  completion  of  the  52d  year  of  his  age. 
Three  days  later  he  was  laid  in  the  chancel  of  Stratford 
church,  on  the  north  wall  of  which  his  monument,  contain- 
ing his  bust  and  epitaph,  was  soon  afterwards  placed,  most 
probably  by  the  poet's  son-in-law,  Dr  John  HalL  Shake- 
speare's widow,  the  Anne  Hathaway  of  his  youth,  died  in 
1623,  having  survived  the  poet  seven 'years,  exactly  the 


same  length  of  time  that  his  mother  Mary  Arden  had  out- 
lived her  husband.  Elizabeth  Hall,  the  poet's  grandchild, 
was  married  twice,  first  to  Mr  Thos.  Nash  of  Stratford, 
and  in  1649,  when  she  had  been  two  years  a  widow,  to 
Mr  afterwards  Sir  John  Barnard  of  Abington  in  North- 
amptonshire. Lady  Barnard  had  no  family  by  either 
husband,  and  the  three  children  of  the  poet's  second 
daughter  Judith  (who  had  married  Richard  Quiney  of 
Stratford,  two  months  before  her  father's  death)^all  died 
comparatively  young.  At  Lady  Barnard's  death' in  1670 
the  family  of  the  poet  thus  become  extinct.  By  his  will 
made  a  few  weeks  before  his  death  Shakespeare  left  his 
landed  property,  the  whole  of  his  real  estate  indeed,  to  his 
eldest  daughter  Mrs  Susanna  Hall,  under  strict  entail  to 
her  heirs.  He  left  also  a  substantial  legacy  to  his  second 
daughter  and  only  remaining  child  JIrs  Judith  Quiney, 
and  a  remembrance  to  several  of  his  friends,  including  his 
old  associates  at  the  Blackfriars  theatre,  Burbage,  Heminge, 
and  Condell, — the  two  latter  of  whom  edited  the  first  col- 
lection of  his  dramas  published  in  1623.  The  will  also 
included  a  bequest  to  the  poor  of  Stratford. 

From  this  short  sketch  it  will  be  seen  tliat  all  the  best  Sami 
known  facts  of  Shakespeare's  personal  history  bring  into  °^^' 
vivid  relief  the  simplicity  and  naturalness  of  his  tastes,  *" 
his  love  of  the  country,  the  strength  of  his  domestic  affec- 
tions, and  the  singularly  firm  hold  which  the  conception 
of  family  life  had  upon  his  imagination,  his  sympathies, 
and  his  schemes  of  active  labour.  He  had  loved  the 
country  with  ardent  enthusiasm  in  his  youth,  when  all 
nature  was  lighted  with  the  dawn  of  rising  passion  and 
kindled  imagination ;  and  after  his  varied  London  experi- 
ence we  may  well  believe  that  he  loved  it  still  more  with 
a  deeper  and  calmer  love  of  one  who  had  looked  through 
and  through  the  brilliant  forms  of  wealthy  display,  public 
magnificence,  and  courtly  ceremonial,  who  had  scanned 
the  heights  and  sounded  the  depths  of  existence,  and  who 
felt  that  for  the  king  and  beggar  alike  this  little  life  of 
feverish  joys  and  sorrows  is  soothed  by  natural  influences, 
cheered  by  sunlight  apd  green  shadows,  softened  by  the 
perennial  charm  of  hiU  and  dale  and  rippling  stream,  and  - 
when  the  spring  returns  no  more  is  rounded  with  a  sleep. 
In  the  more  intimate  circle  of  human  relationships  he 
seems  clearly  to  have  realized  that  the  sovereign  elixir 
against  the  ills  of  life,  the  one  antidote  of  its  struggles 
and  diflSculties,  its  emptiness  and  unrest,  is  vigilant 
charity,  faithful  love  in  all  its  forms,  love  of  home,  lovo 
of  kindred,  love  of  friends,  love  of  everything  simple, 
just,  and  true.  The  larger  and  more  sacred  group  of  those 
serene  and  abiding  influences  flowing  from  well-centred 
affections  was  naturally  identified  with  family  ties,  and  it 
is  clear  that  the  unity  and  continuity  of  family  life  pos- 
sessed Shakespeare's  imagination  'with  the  strength  of  a 
dominant  passion  and  largely  determined  the  scope  and 
direction  of  his  practical  activities.  As  we  have  seen.  La 
displayed  from  the  first  the  utmost  prudence  and  foresight 
in  securing  a  comfortable  home  for  his  family,  and  provid- 
ing for  the  future  welfare  of  his  children.  The  desire  of 
his  heart  evidently  was  to  take  a  good  position  and  found 
a  family  in  his  native  place.  And  if  this  was  a  weakness 
he  shares  it  with  other  eminent  names  in  the  republic  of 
letters.  In  Shakespeare's  case  the  desire  may  have  been 
inherited,  not  only  from  his  father,  who  had  pride,  energy, 
and  ambition,  but  especially  from  his  gently  descended 
mother,  Mary  Arden  of  the  Asbies.  But,  whatever  its 
source,  the  evidence  in  favour  of  this  cherished  desire  is 
unusually  full,  clear,  and  decisive.  While  the  poet  had 
no  doubt  previously  assisted  his  father  to  retrieve  his 
position  in  the  world,  the  first  important  step  in  building 
up  the  family  name  was  the  grant  of  arms  or  armorial 
bearings   to  John  Shakespeare  in  the  year   1596.     The 


SHAKESPEARE 


767 


father,  it  may  be  assumed,  bad  applied  to  tlio  lieinlds' 
college  for  the  grant  at  the  instance  and  by  tUe  help  of 
his  son.  In  tbii  document,  the  draft  of  which  is  still 
preserved,  tho  grounds  on  which  the  arms  are  given  are 
stated  as  two  : — (1)  because  John  Shakespeare's  ancestors 
had  rendered  valuable  services  to  Henry  YU. ;  and  (2) 
that  he  liaA  married  Mary,  daughter  and  one  of  tho  lieirs 
of  Robert  i\j-den  of  AVilnicoto,  iu  the  said  county,  gentle- 
man. In  the  legal  conveyances  of  property  to  Shake- 
speare himself  alter  the  grant  of  arms. he  is  uniformly 
described  as  "William  .Shakespeare  of  Stratford-upoa- 
Avon,  gentleman."  He  is  so  described  in  the  midst  of 
his  London  career,  and  this  sufficiently  indicates  that 
Stratford  was  even  then  regarded  as  his  permanent  resid- 
ence or  home.  In  the  following  year  another  important 
step  was  taken  towards  establishing  the  position  of  the 
family.  This  was  an  application  by  John  and  ilajy 
Shakespeare  to  the  Court  of  Chancery  for  tho  recovery  of 
the  estate  of  tho  Asbies,  which,  under  the  pressure  of 
family  difficulties,  had  been  mortgaged  in  1578  to  Edward 
Lambert.  The  issue  of  the  suit  is  not  known,  but,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  pleadings  on  either  side  occupy  a  consider- 
able space  and  show  how  recolutely  John  Shakesueare  was 
bent  on  recovering  his  wife's  family  estate. 

Turning  to  the  poet  himself,  we  have  the  significant  lact 
that  during  the  next  ten  years  he  continued,  with  steady 
persistency,  to  build  up  the  family  fortunes  by  investing 
all  his  savings  in  real  property, — in  houses  and  land  at 
Stratford.  While  many  of  his  associates  and  partners  in 
the  Blackiriars  conopaay  remained  on  in  London,  living  and 
dying  there,  Shakespeare  seems  to  have  early  realized  his 
theatrical  property  for  the  sake  of  increasing  the  acreage  of 
his  arable  and  pasture  land  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Strat- 
ford. In  1598,  the  year  after  the  purchase  of  New  Place, 
his  family  are  not  only  settled  there,  but  ho  is  publicly 
ranked  among  the  most  prosperous  and  well-to-do  citizens 
of  Stratford.  In  that  year,  there  being  some  anticipation 
of  a  scarcity  of  corn,  an  official  statement  was  drawn  up  as 
to  the  amount  of  wheat  in  the  town.  From  the  list  con- 
tained in  this  document  of  the  chief  householders  in 
C'haiiol  Ward,  where  New  Place  was  situated,  we  find 
that  out  of  twenty  holders  of  corn  enumerated  only  two 
have  more  in  stock  than  AVilliam  Shakespeare.  Other 
facts  belonging  to  the  same  year,  such  as  the  successful 
appeal  of  a  fellow-townsman  for  important  pecuniary  help, 
and  the  suggestion  from  an  alderman  of  the  borough  that, 
for  the  sake  of  securing  certain  private  and  public  benefits, 
he  should  be  encouraged  to  complete  a  contemplated 
purchase  of  land  at  Shottery,  show  that  Shakespeare  was 
now  recognized  as  a  local  proprietor  of  wealth  and  influence, 
and  that  he  had  so  far  realized  his  early  desire  of  taking  a 
good  position  in  tho  town  and  neighbourhood.  It  will  be 
noted,  too,  lha.t  all  the  loading  provisions  of  Shakespeare's 
will  embody  the  same  cherLiibed  family  purpose.  Inrtoad 
of  dividing  his  property  between  his  two  daughters,  ho  left, 
as  we  have  seen,  the  whole  of  his  estate,  tho  whole  of  his 
real  property  indeed,  to  his  eldest  daughter  Mrs  Susanna 
Hall,  with  a  strict  entail  to  the  heirs  of  her  body. 
This  indicates  in  the  strongest  manner  the  fixed  desire  of 
his  heart  to  take  a  permanent  position  in  the  locality, 
and,  if  possible,  strike  the  family  roots  deeply  into  their 
native  soil.  That  this  purpose  was  realized  in  his  own 
case  seems  clear  from  tho  special  respect  paid  to  his 
memory.  He  was  buried,  as  we  have  seen,  in  the  chancel 
of  the  parish  church,  where  as  a  rule  only  persons  of 
family  and  position  could  bo  interred.  His  monument, 
one  of  the  most  considerable  in  tho  church,  holds  a  place 
of  honour  on  the  north  wall  of  the  chancel,  just  above  the 
altar  railing.  While  this  tribute  of  marked  official  respect 
may    bo   duo   in  uart,  as   tho  epitaph  intimates,    to   his 

\ 


eminence  as  a  poet,  it  was  no  doubt,  in  a  country  district 
like  Stratford,  duo  still  more  to  his  local  imj>ortauce  as  a 
landed  proprietor  of  Avealth  and  position.  Indeed,  as  a 
holder  of  the  great  tithes  he  was  by  custom  and  courtesy 
entitled  to  burial  in  the  chancel. 

If  there  is  truth  in  the  early  tradition  that  Shakespearo 
originally  left  Stratford  in  consequence  of  tlic  sharp  prose- 
cution of  Sir  Thomas  Lucj-,  .who  resented  with  narrow 
bitterness  and  pride  the  presumption  and  audacity  of  tho 
highspiiited  youtli  found  trespassing  on  his  grounds,  tho 
victim  of  his  petty  wrath  was  in«the  end  amply  avenged. 
After  a  career  of  unexampled  success  in  London  Shake- 
speare returned  to  his  native  town  crowned  with  wealth 
and  honours,  and,  having  spent  the  last  years  of  his  lifejn 
cordial  intercourse  with  his  old  friends  and  fellow  towns- 
men, was  followed  to  the  grave  with  the  affectionate 
respect  and  regret  of  tho  whole  Stratford  tommunity. 
This  feeling  was  indeed,  we  may  justly  assume,  fully  shared 
by  all  who  had  ever  known  the  great  poet.  His  con- 
temporaries and  associates  unanimously  bear  witness  to 
Shakespeare's  frank,  honourable,  loving  nature.  Krhaps 
the  most  striking  expression  of  this  cornmon  feeling  comes 
from  one  who  in  character,  disposition,  and  culture  was 
so  different  from  Shakespeare  "as  his  friend  and  fellow- 
dramatist  Ben  Jonson.  Even  his  rough  and  cynical 
temper  could  not  resist  the  charm  of  Shakespeare's  genial 
character  and  gracious  ways.  "I  loved  the  man,"  ho 
says,  "  and  do  honour  his  memory  on  this  side  idolatry 
as  much  as  any.  He  was  indeed  honest,  and  of  an  open 
and  free  nature,  had  an  excellent  phantasy,  brave  notions, 
and  gentle  expressions."  As  the  genius  of  Shakespeare 
united  the  most  opposite  gifts,  so  amongst  his  friends  are 
found  tho  widest  diversity  of  character,  endowment,  and 
disposition.  This  is  only  another  way  of  indicating  the 
breadth  of  his  sympathies,  the  variety  of  his  interests,  the 
largeness  and  exuberant  vitality  of  his  whole  nature.  He 
touched  life  at  so  many  jjoints,  and  responded  so  in- 
stinctively to  every  movement  in  the  complex  web  of  its 
throbbing  activities,  that  nothing  affecting  humanity  was 
alien  either  to  his  heart  or  brain.  To  one  so'  gifted  with 
the  power  of  looking  below  the  surface  of  custom  and  con- 
vention, and  perceiving,  not  only  the  deeper  elements  o£ 
rapture  and  anguish  to  which  ordinary  eyes  are  blind, 
but  the  picturesque,  humorous,  or  patlietic  varieties  of  the 
common  lot,  every  form  of  human  experience,  every  type 
of  character,  would  have  an  attraction  of  its  own.  In  the 
view  of  such  a  mind  nothing  w'ould  be  common  or  unclean. 
To  Shakespeare  all  aspects  of  life,  even  the  humblest,  had 
points  of  contact  with  his  own.  He  could  talk  simply 
and  naturally  without  a  touch  of  patronage  or  condescen- 
sion to  a  hodman  on  his  ladder,  a  costcrmonger  at  his 
stall,  tho  tailor  on  his  board,  tho  cobbler  in  his  combe,  the 
hen-wife  in  her  poultry-yard,  the  ploughman  in  his  furrow, 
or  the  base  mechanicals  at  the  wayside  country  inn.  'He 
could  watch  with  full  and  humorous  appreciation  the 
various  forms  of  brief  authority  and  petty  officialism,  tho 
bovino  stolidity  and  empty  con.sequence  of  tho  focal 
Dogberries  and  Shallows,  tho  strange  oaths  and  martial 
swagger  of  a  I'istol,  a  Uardolph,  or  a  I'arollcs,  tho  pedantic 
talk  of  a  Holoferncs,  tho  pragmatical  saws  of  a  Poloniua^ 
or  the  solemn  absurdities  of  a  self-conceited  Ufalvolia 
On  the  other  hand  he  could  seize  from  the  inner  side  bv 
links  of  vital  affinity  every  form  of  higher  chamctor,  pa^ 
sionato,  rolloctivo,  or  executive, — lover  and  princo,  duke 
and  captain,  legislator  and  judge,  counsellor  and  king,— 
and  portray  with  almost  equal  c4so  and  with  vivid  truth- 
fulness men  and  women  of  distant  ages,  of  different  races, 
and  widely  sundered  nationalities. 

As  in  his  dramatic  world  ho  embraces  the  wiaesi  variety 
of  human  experience,  so  in  his  uorsoual  character  he  ni.ov 


768 


SHAKE  S  P  E  A  R  E 


bo  said  to  havo  combined  in  harmonious  union  the  widest 
range  of  qualities,  including  some  apparently  the  most 
opposed.  He  was  a  vigilant  and  acute  man  of  business,  of 
great  executive  ability,  with  a  power  of  looking  ir.to  affairs 
which  included  a  thorough  mastery  of  tedious  legal  details. 
But  with  all  his  worldly  prudence  and  foresight  he  was  at 
the  same  time  the  most  generous  and  affectionate  of  men, 
honoured  and  loved  by  all  who  knew  him,  with  the  irre- 
sistible charm  that  belongs  to  simplicity  and  directness  of 
character,  combined  with  thoughtful  .sympathy  and  real 
kindne.^s  of  heart.  And,  while  displaying  unrivalled  skill, 
sagacity,  and  firmness  in  business  transactions  and  practical 
a(fair.s,  he  could  promptly  throw  tlio  whole  burden  aside, and 
in  the  e.xercise  of  his  noble  art  pierce  with  an  eagle's  wing 
the  very  highest  heaven  of  invention.  That  indeed  was  his 
native  air,  his  true  home,  his  permanent  si)here,  where  he 
still  rules  wtth  undisputed  sway.  He  occupies  a  throne 
apart  in  the  ideal  and  immortal  kingdom  of  supreme  creative 
art,  poetical  genius,  and  dramatic  truth.  (t.  s.  k), 

CIBLIOGRAPIIY.' 
I.  Principal  Collective  Editiohs. 


I  1C32 
IC03,  C4 

1685 

1700 
4J23-20 

1733 
1743,44 

1747 

17C5 

17u7 

1773 
1773-75 

1790 

1793 
1795-96 
1799- 
1801 

ISOJ 

ISOj 

1S07 

1813 

1821 

1825 

182G 

1829 

1830 
1832-34 
1638-43 
1839-43 
1841-44 
1842-44 

1844 

1847 

1851 

1652 
1852-5 

1353 
I853-C5 
1834-C, 

1856 

1857 
1857-CO 
1853 -CO 

18(10 
18G3-66 

1804 
1805-69 

1872-74 
1872ic. 
18731:c. 

1874 
1873 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1881 
18S3 
•1884 


Eilitors,  Publishers,  (CC. 


1st  folio,  J.  Ileminirc  irnd  It.  Condcil  (Jnpgard  &  Blount)  [i  epilntcil 
by  J.  Wiiflit  (1S07,  folio)  nrnl  by  L.  Booth  (ISC2-4,  3  vols.  4to), 
photo-litliographic  facsimile  by  II.  Staunton  (1SG6,  folio), 
iciUiccd  by  J.  0.  Ualliwell  Phillipns,  1876,  8vul. 

2d  folio  (Cotes). 

3d  folio  (ChctMinde). 

4lh  folio. 

1st  8vo.  Ron-c  (Tonson),  7  vols.,  plates. 

A.  Pope  (Tnnson),  7  vols.  4lo. 

L.  Theobald  (Tonson),  7  vols.  8vo,  plates. 

Sir  T.  Hanmcr  (Oxford),  6  vols.  4to,  [rfates. 

Bp.  Warburton,  K  vols.  8vo. 

Dr  S.  Johnson  (Tonson),  8  vols.  8vo. 

E.  Capell  (Tonson),  10  vols.  sm.  8vo. 

Johnson  and  G.  Stcevens,  10  vols.  8vo. 

"  Staple  ed."  (Bell),  8  vols.  12mo,  plates. 

E.  Malono  (B.ildwin),  first  "  Vaiiorura  ed.,"  10  vols.  sm.  8to 

Johnson  and  Steevcns'a  4th  ed.,  by  I.  Heed,  15  vols.  8vo 

1st  American  ed.,  S.  Johnson  (Philadelphia),  8  vols.  12mo. 

1st  Continental  cd.  (Brunswick),  8  vols.  8vo:  rcpr.  of  1793  cd  at 
Basel,  1799-1S02.  23  vols.  8vo. 

Boj-deUs  illus.  cd.  (Bulmci),  0  v.ils.  fol.,  plates,  aud2  addlUoual  vols. 

A.  Chalmcis,  9  vols.  8vo,  Fusell's  plates.         •  -    - 

Heath's  cncravings,  C  vols.  imp.  4to.  . 

T.  Bowdler's  "  F.amily  ed.,"  cnmplcle,  10  vols.  18mb.^ 

E.  Malone,  by  J.  Boswell,  "  Variorum  ed.,"  21  vols   8V0 

Rev.  W.  Uainess,  8  vols.  8vo. 

S.  Vf.  Sin^'er  (Pickeunc),  10  vols.  18mo,  woodcuts. 

1st  French  ed.  (Baudry),  8vo. 

L.  Tieck  (Leipsie),  roy.  8vo. 

J.  Valpy,  "  Cabinet  Pictorial  cd.,"'  15  vols.  sm.  Svo 

C.  Knight,  "  Pictorial  ed.,"  8  vols.  Imp.  Svo. 

B.. Cornwall,  3  vols.  imp.  Svo,  woodcuts  by  Kenny  Meadows 

J.  P.  Collier,  8  vols.  8vo. 

C.  KnlRht,  "  Library  od.,"  12  vols.  Svo.  woodcuts. 

O.  Vf.  Pcabody  (Boston,  U.S.),  7  vols.  Svo. 

Dr  G.  C.  Vci  planck  (N.Y.),  3  vols.  roy.  Svo,  woodcuts. 

W.  Hazhtt,  4  vols.  12mo. 

"  LansJownc  ed.,'  (White),  Si-o. 

Rev.  II.  N.  Hudson  (Boston,  U.S.),  11  vols.  I2rao. 

J.  P.  Collier  (see  Paime  CoUiei-  Controversy,  p.  771).  Svo. 

J.  O.  Hiimwell,  16  vols,  folio,  plates. 

N.  Dcllus  (Elbeifcld),  8  vols.  Svo. 

Singer  and  W.  W.  Lloyd  (Bell),  10  vols.  12mo. 

Rev.  A.  Dyce  (Moxon),  C  vols.  Svo,  2d  ed.,  1864-07. 

H.  G.  White  (Boston,  U.S.),  12  vols.  cr.  Svo. 

H.  Staunton,  3  vols.  loy.  Svo,  illustrated  by  Sir  J.  Gilbert. 

Mrs  Cowden  Clarke  (N.Y.),  2  vols.  rov.  Svo. 

W.  O.  Clark,  J.  Glover,  and  W.  A.  Vvright,  "  Cambrldco  ed.  "  P 
vols.  Svo. 

J.  B.  M.arsh,  "  Reference  cd.,"  large  Svo. 

C.  and  M.  C.  Clarke  (Cassell),  illustrated  by  H.  C.  Selous,  3  vols, 
la.  Svo. 

C.  Knlcht,  "  Imperial,"  4  vols.  imp.  4to,  plates. 

A.  A.  Palon,  "  Ilnmnet  ed.,"  Svo,  in  progress  (1886). 

H.  II.  Furness,  "  Variorum  cd."  (Phil.),  vols.  1-6,  Svo,  In  progress 
(1886). 

W  G.  Claik  and  \V.  A.  Wright,  "  Globe,"  sm.  Svo. 

S.  Neil,  "  Library  Shakespeare,"  (Mackenzie),  3  vols.  4to,  illus. 

G.  L.  Duyckinck  (Phil.),  largo  Svo,  illus. 

N.  Pelius  (F.  J.  Furnivall),  "Leopold"  Shakespeare,  4to. 

J.  S.  Hart,  "Avon  cd."  (Phil.),  largo  Svo,  portraits. 

Rev.  H.  N.  Hudson.  ••  Harvart*  ed.'^  (Boston.  U.S.).  ao  Tols.  zaao. 

C.  Wordsworth.  "  Historical  PUys."  3  vols.  sm.  Svo. 

Kolfc's  "  Friendly  ed.,"  zo  veils.  i6nio  (.\.  y.). 

[u.  Stcevens.  T-u'tnly  c/  tlie  /'.j)M.  1766.  4  vols.  «vo.  contains 
reprints  of  the  early  editions.  48  vols,  of  the  Quartos  were 
facsimiled  by  E.  W.  Ashljee  (r866-7i),  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  Halliwell;  photo-lithographic  reproductions  of  early 
editions  by  Griggs  and  Pr.T;toriu5.  with  introductions  by  Furni- 
vall. &-C..  1878,  iVc.  are  now  being  published;  a8  out  of  38  vols, 
4to  have  been  issued.) 


II.  Selpctiins  and  READIKOS. 
J.  R.  Pitman.  Tho  School  S..  1822,  Svo;  B.  II.  Smart,  S.  ncadlnns  1830. 
12nio  ;  Howell.  Selrcl  Ptai/s,  ISJS,  12iuo,  Roman  Catholic  ;  C.  Kcan  Hrlc'cliMU 
n.«  at  Ihc  PriDccxi'  T/icafrc.  W',o,  a  vols.  sm.  Svo  ;  T.  anil  Rev  S  G  liul- 
'\!-  I'  ^■.'"'"i''"i  /"I'  Ji'-<'<ii"aCias,<c<a,ul  Ihc  Famllu,  Lofton,  ItC.  i^nio  • 
,:  ■  ,',  V  ■;;''''•  ^''"^  fl'i'js.  lsC9-e,(i.  14  vols.  sm.  Svo  ;  R.  J.  Lane  (editor)  C 
kcniMcsS.  /;™</i,iy...  lS7».sm.  Svo;  11.  liaughan.  Plays.  Ahridon! ami  nctUcd 
.lor  Girtf  18,1,  Svo  ;  11.  N.  IIuilsou.  Plai/s,  selected,  Bostun.  1872,  3  vols.  «m 
bvo;  S,  Lraniliain,  Selected  Plaijs,  ahrid,jed/or  the  younij,  18S2,  Em.  Svo.»      " 

HL  Pnrs-ciPAL  Thanslatioks  of  Wukks. 
GcrnMit.—C  JI  Wielnnd,  17C2-G,  S  vols.  Svo;  J.  J.  Eseliciibtiig,  1775-S2' 
13  vols.  Svo  ;  A.  W.  v.  Schlegel,  1797-lSlO,  0  vols.  Svo  ;  J.  H.  ami  H  and  A 
\oss  1818-29.  <J  vols.  Svo;  .F.  W.  U.  Bemin,  1S25-6,  19  vols.  lOmo ;  J.  Meyer 
and  II.  Uiinng,  1824-34.  52  pts.  ISmo;  Sclilegel-Tieck,  IS25-33  »  vols  l-'mo  •  P 
kaiifmann.  1S30-C,  4  vols.  12mo  ;  E.  Orilepp,  1S3S-9,  16  vols,  l-'mo  •  Sclile"el- 
i '?';''■  "-.'In'^''  l'^<'7-71,  12  vols.  8vo;  V.  Bodeustedt.  1507-71,  38  vols',  sm.  Svo  • 
Sihleixel-rieck-Bcriiays,  1S71-3,  12  vols.  s.m.  bvo.  /-/cm;..— Lctouiiieur 
1.16-82,  20  vols.  8\o;  Letouineiir  Giiizot,  1821,  13  vols.  S\-o ;  ii.  Laroelie 
1838-9,  2  vols.  roy.  Svo;  Fr.ancis(iueMichel,  IS-ln-lO,  3  vols.  roy.  8vo-  F 
\  ictnr  Uugo  fils,  1859-02,  12  vols.  Svo ;  E.  Montdgut,  1S6S-73,  10  vols  l-'mo 
Italwn.—.W.  Leoni,  181 1-5,  S  vols.  Svo  ;  C.  Rusconi.  1831,  Svo  ;  C.  Pasiiuali-o' 
1S70,  itc.  S/)a!i;,v/i. —Marques  de  Dos  Herraanos,  187'2-7,  3  vols.  Svo.  Dnt'ch. 
■-B.  Brunius,  &c.,  1778-8.',  5  vols.  Svo;  A.  S.  Kok,  1S72-SO,  7  vols  Svo 
naiiis/i.— Foersom  and  P.  F.  Wiillf,  1807-25.  Sivcdisli.—C.  A.  Ua'-bergl 
1847-51,  12  vols.  Svo.  Bohennail.—  V.  Douclia,  &c.,  lS.i5-00,  5  vols,  sm  Svo 
Wunjaiinii.— Dohicntei,  1S24.  Svo;  Lemouton,  1845,  &c.  Polish —1  kefa- 
Imski  and  J.  v.  Placjd,  1S39-17,  3  vols.  Svo j  S.  Kosmiana,  1866.  &c 
iii!5SM/i.— >.  Ketschera,  1S41-50,  5  vols.  12nio. 

IV.  CRITICISM,  ILLUSTRATIOX,  AND  CoM.ME.\T. 
A.—General  JVorks. 
T.  Eymer.  The  Trarjedies  0/  the  Last  Age    167S,  Svo,  and  A  Short  View  of 
Traocdy,  1093,  Svo  ;  C.  Gildon,  "  Some  RellectioDS  on  Jlr  Bymer"  (in  Miscel- 
laneous Lectures,  1694,  8>o) ;  J.  Dennis,  The  Impartial  Critic,  1692  4to   and 
Essaij  on  the  Oenius  and  Writinr/s  of  S.,  1712,  Svo ;  Z.  Grey,  Word  or  Two 
of  Advice  to  tV.   IVarliurtm,  174li,  Svo,  Free  and  Fa>niliar  Letter  to  \r.  War- 
burton,  1760,  Svo,  Jtcuiarts  on  I  Ifarhnrton's]  Edition,  1761,  Svo,  and  Critical 
Historical,  and  Exidanatorij  Aotis,  1754,  3il  ed.  1755,  2  vols.  Svo  •  S  Johnson 
Froposat  for   a    Xcw   Edition  (1740),    Jolio,   1766,  Svo ;  E.   c'apell     Note's 
and  Various  Readings  to  S.,  1759,  4to  (1779-80),  3  vols,  4to  ;  P.  Xichrils,  The 
Castrated  Letter  of  Sir  T.  Hanmer,  1763.  Svo  ;  Prefaces  hy  Dr  Johiuon,  Pope, 
Iheobald,  ic,  1765,  Svo  ;  W.  Kenrick,  Review  of  Dr  Johnson's  Xew  Edition 
1/66,  Svo,  and  Defence,  1760;  0.  Steevens,  Proposals  for  Printinn  a  A'car 
Edition,  1766,  Svo;   JIrs  Eliz.  .Montagu,  Essaij  on  Writings  and  Genius  of 
S.,  1769,  Svo,  frequently  repiiuted  ;  Vi.  Kenrick,  Introduction  to  the  School  of 
S.,  17,3,  Svo;  Mrs  Eliz.  Orifflth,  Morality  of  S.S  Drama,  1775,  Svo  ;  Voltaire, 
Lettre  a  lAeadeinie,   1778,  Svo,  on  Letonrneur's  translation;  J     Baretti 
Discours  sur  S.  ct  Voltaire,  1777,  8vo  ;  E.  Jlalone,  Supplement  lo  the  Edition 
?i  ■'.W  '.■''^'  1"°^^-  ^^■°'  '^'-co'iii  Ajipendix,  17S3,  Svo ;  J.  Ritsou,  Remarks  on 
theTcztandAotesoflStecvens's  7?7SJ  edition,  1783,  Svo;  T.  Davies  Dramatic 
M_iseellanies,  1783-4,  3  vols.  Svo  ;  J.  U.  iM.xson,  Comments  on  the  Last  Edition, 
1,85,  Svo  ;  1.  VAhotely,  Remarks  on  some  of  the  Characters,  1786,  Svo,  new 
editaon  by  Archbishop  Wliately,  1839,  12mo:  J.  J.  Esclienburg,   Versuch  ti. 
S.,  Leipsic,  1,87,  Svo  ;  J.  Ritsoli,  The  Quip  Modest,  1788,  Svo  :  S.  Felton   Im- 
perfect Hints  towards  a  New  Fdition  (J'  S.,  1787-8,   2  pts.  4to ;  A.   Eccles, 
Illustrations  and  Variorum  Comments  on  Lear,  Cymbetine,  and  Merchant 
of  r«uce    1792-1805,  3  vols.  12mo ;  B.  JIaloue,  Letter  to  R.  Fanner,  1792, 
Svo;   J.  Kitson,   Cursory  Criticism  on  Malone's   Edition,    1792,    Svo-    E 
•Maloue,  Prospectus  of  an  Edition  in  15  vols.  roy.  Seo,  179?,  4to  •    Bishop 
Percy,  0,mi,i  of  the  English  Stage,  1793,  Svo ;  E.  Malone.  Proposals  for  an 
Intended  Edition  m  SO  vols.  roy.  Svo,  1795,  folio ;  W.  Richardson,  Essaiis 
on  some  iif  S.'s  Dramatic  Cliaracters,   1797,  1S12,  Svo,  reprint  of  separate 
pieces;  Lord  Cliedwortli,  Notes  on  some  Obscure  Passages,  1805,  Svo,  pri- 
vately printed  ;  E.  U.  Seymour,  Remarks  on  the  Plays  of  S.,  1S05,  2  vols.  Svo ; 
i-.-  '""^f'  ■"'"'"''"'°"»  of  S.  and  Aiicient  Manners    1807,  2  vols.  Svo,  new 
edition  1839,  Svo  ;  H.  J.  Pye,  Comments  on  the  Commentators,  1807,  Svo  ;  J 
M.  Ilason,  Comments  on  the  several  Editions,  1S07,  Svo ;  C.  (and  M  )  Lamb 
Tales  from  S.,  1807,  2  vols.  12mo,  plates,  frequently  translated  and  reprinted '; 
A.  Becket,  S.  himself  ogam,  1S16,  2  vols.  Svo;  W.  Hazlitt,  Characters  of  S.'s 
Plays,  181^  Svo.  new  edition  1873  ;  N.  Drake,  S.  and  his  Times,  1S17,  2  vols. 


X  This  Is  an  attempt  to  supply  tho  want  of  a  select  classihed  bibliography  of  the 
■teraturo  connected  with  Shaltespcaxe.    Great  compression  has  l>cen  necessary.    Arti- 


Hailitt,  Lectures  on  the  Dramatic  Literature  qf  the  Ane  of'Elizabeth,  KiO 
,°,i  •?■•  ?''J^?:  ^""'^  e<  S.,  1823-5,  2  pts.  Svo  ;  T.  Bowdler,  Lett:r  lo  i:dilor 
of  British  CritK,  IS'33,  Svo,  defends  omissions;  T.  P.  Courtenay,  Commen- 
taries upon  the  Historical  Plays  ofS.,  1840,  2  vols.  sm.  Svo;  K.  Svbraildi. 
VcrAnnrfrfiiisrclJc-r  Fonrfei  «i  5.,  Haarlem,  1841.  4to;  Rev.  A.  Dyce,  Remarii 
"'^f  ,17.'^?'"',  "'"HM'S  Editions,  1S44,  Svo;  J.  Huntei\  New  Illustrations 
OfS.,  1845,  2  vols.  Svo;  G.  Fletcher,  Studies  of  S.,  1847,  Svo;  L.  Tieck,  Z)ra- 
maturgische  Blatter,  2d  ed.  1848-62,  3  vols.  Svo;  H.  N.  Hudson,  Lectures  on  S., 
N A.,  1S48  2  vols.  Svo ;  C.  Knight,  Studies  of  S.,  1849,  Svo ;  S.  T.  Coleridge 
Notes  and  Lectures  upon  S.,  i-c,  1849,  2  vols.  sm.  Svo,  and  Lecturci  and  Notei 
onS.,  by  I.  Ashe  1SS3,  sm.  Svo  ;  J.  Brittou,  Essay  on  the  Merit  and  Char- 
aetmstics  of  S.s  Writings,  1S49,  roy.  Svo  ;  K.  Simrock,  Remarks  on  the  PloU 
"■'  *'  s,-P'?!'s  (Shakespeare  Society),  1860,  Svo  ;  Rev.  T.  Grinfleld,  Moral  Influ- 
ence OfS.  s  Plays,  1850,  Svo  ;  V.  E.  P.  Chasles,  Etudes  sur  W.  S.,  Marie  Stuart, 
et  I  Armn,  ISil,  ISmo  ;  F.  A.  T.  Kreyssig,  Vorles-mgenil.  S.,  1858-60,  3  vols. 
-<1  ed..  18,4,  2  vols.  Svo,  and  S.  Fragen,  Leipsic,  1871,  Svo ;  [O'ConneU],  New 
Exegesis y  S.,  1859,  Svo  ;  S.  Jervis,  Proposed  Emendations  ofS.,  2d  ed.  1861, 
Svo ;  R  Cartwnght,  The  Footsteps  qfS.,  1862,  Svo,  New  Readings  in  8..  1866 
?c?.;  "^^  PaP^s  on  S.,  1877,  Svo  ;  O.  G.  Gervinus,  S.  Commentaries  translated, 
1803,  2  vols.,  new  edition  revised  1S75,  Svo;  S.  Bailey,  Thereeeived  TextofS.'a 
Dramatic  Writings,  1S02-6,  2  vols.  Svo;  C.  C.  Clarke,  S.  Characters,  chiefly 
those  Subordinate,  1863,  Svo  ;  H.  Warggraff,  W.  S.  als  Lehrer  der  Mmschhcit, 
Leipsic,  1864,  lonio ;  J.  H.  Hackett,  Notes  and  Comments,  N.  Y.,  1S64,  sm.  Svo  : 
A.  JlleziJrres,  S.,  ses  eeuvres  ct  ses  critiQues,  1S66,  Svo ;  H.  WeUesIey,  Straii 
^o'es  on  the  Text  OfS.,  1865,  4to;  A.  W.  L.  de  Lamartine.  S.  et  son  ceuvTC, 
VihD,  Svo;  W.  L.  Ruslltoii,S.  Illii.Hralcd  by  old  Author.^,  1S67-S,  2  pts.  Svo: 
h  '^"S'Mey,  ThcS.  Expositor,  1867,  sm.  Svo ;  B.  Tschisrhwitz,  S.  Forschungen 
IbOS,  3  vols.  Svo;  O.  K.  French,  Shakespeareana  Genealogica,  1869,  Svo-  l. 
Jacox,  S.  Diversions,  1S75-7,  2  vols.   Svo;  U.  v.  Friesen,  Z)a.s  JSi<c7i:  S  v. 


cle«  In  penodicals  not  Issued  separately,  and  modem  critical  tditions  of  tinela 
playi  are  not  included:  and  only  those  of  the  plays  usually  contained  in  tho  collec 
tiye  editions  are  nmiced.  The  name,  in  Its  various  spellines  (Shakespeare,  Shaas- 
pcare,  Shakespear.  Siiakspere.  &c.).  is  usually  represcncd  by  the  initial  S. 


SHAKESPEARE 


769 


amlct,  Julius  Crcsnr,  .Merchant  of  Venice,  Jruch  A<1f>,  <Sc.,  F.iclianl  II., 
Komeo  aua  Juliet;  C.  W.  II.  G  v.  Uunielin,  S.  Studien,  M  ej.,  Slutt?.,  1674, 
Svo  ;  R.  A.  C.  Hel.lcr,  Aii/xutu-  uO.  S..  2<\  eil.,  Bern,  1874,  Svo  ,  F.  J.  Kurnivnll, 
The  Siiccceeion  qf  S.'s  lloj  As  and  the  I'ici  <if  ilclrical  Tesit,  1S74,  Svo ;  O. 
Luilwig,  S.  StiuUeu,  1&74.  Svo  ;  E.  Dow.len,  5.:  a  Critical  Studi/of  his  Mind 
nnd  jlrt,  1875,  Svo;  C.  il.  In-jUbi;  S.  Uermcneulics,  1S7»,  4to,  S.,  Ihi  ilan 
•nd  the  Book,  1S77-81,  2  pts.  4to,  auil  Occasional  Paiirrs  on  S.,  l&Sl,  8q. 
ICnio;  F.  K.  EUe,  Abfiamllun^eH  zu  S.,  1S77,  Svo,  and  i"s,'ni/s  on  S.,  trans- 
lated, 1S74,  8vn;  E.  Hornumn,  Drei  S.  Studien,  Evlangcn,.  1S77-9,  4  pts.  sni. 
8V0,  n'eitere  HcitrUne,  ib.,  ISSl,  sra.  Svo  ;  H.  H.  Vaugimn,  lYfic  Headings  and 
A'eid  Kendfrings  o/S.'s  Traijedirs,  1S78-86,  3  vols.  Svo;  V.  G.  Kleny.  S.  il'an'tal, 
187S,  sm.  Svo;  J.  O.  Uallhvell  riiillipps,  Notes  and  Memoranda  [on  4  Plays], 
18tlS-S0,  4  pts.,  Svo,  and  Memoranda  (on  12  Plays],  lb79-i-0,  ?  pts.  Svo  ;  A.  C. 
.Swinbunie,  A  ."tudy  of  S.,  18S0,  Svo;  D.  J.  Snider,  System  o/S.'s  Dramas, 
new  edition, "ISSO,  Svo;  F.  A.  Kemble,  i'oles  on  some  o/  S.'s  Plays,  1SS2, 
Svo ;  U.  Giles,  Human  Life  in  S.,  Boston,  1&S2,  12nio  ;  B.  O.  Kinnear,  Cruees 
Shakespearianrv,  1SS3,  sm.  Svo ;  C.  C.  Henso,  5.  Studien,  Halle.  18S3,  Svo ; 
A.  S.  G.  Canning,  Tliowjhts  on  S.'s  Historical  Plays,  1884,  Svo;  A'eui  Study  (^ 
S.,  1SS4,  Svo ;  J.  \V.  Hales,  Notes  and  £ssayB  on  S.,  1&S4,  sm.  Svo ;  J,  Feis, 
S.  and  Montaigne,  1SS4,  sm.  Svo;  Sir  P.  Perring,  Hard  Knots  in  $.,  18S3, 
Svo ;  E.  Rossi,  Studien  lib.  S.  u.  d.  Mademe  Theater,  18,S5,  Svo ;  F.  A.  Leo, 
S.  Notes,  ISS5.  Svo ;  R.  G.  Sloulton,  S.  as  a  D  tic  Artist.  18S5  Svo :  K.  O. 
White,  Studies  in  S.,  Boston,  1SS5,  Svo. 

B.—Speciai  Works  on  Separate  Plays,  d:c.,  tcith  Dates  of  Early  Quartos.   ■ 

Ail's  Weil  that  Ends  Well  (IrI  ed.  in  F.l,"l623):  H.  v.  Hagen,  Ueb. 
die  alt/ranzos.  Vorstufe  des  Lustspiele^,  Halle,  1S79,  Svo.  ASTONV  .VND 
CLKOPiTRA  (1st  cd.  in  F.l).  AS  Vou  Like  It  (Ist  ed.  in  F.l):  W.  Wliiter, 
Specimen  of  n  Commentary,  1794,  Svo;  A.  O.  Kellogg,  Jacques,  Utica,'"l805, 
Svo;  C.  Sheldon,  jVo(es,  1S77,  Svo;  T.  Slothard,  S.'s  Seven  Ages  Illustrated, 
1799,  folio ;  J.  Ev.ins,  S.'s  Seven  Ages,  3d  cd.  1S34,  12nio  ;  J.  \V.  Jones, 
Origin  (tf  the  Division  qf  Man's  Li/e  into  Stages,  18G1,  4to.  Co.^lEDY  OP 
Erroks  (1st  ed.  in  F.l).  Coriolakus  (1st  ed.  in  F.l):  F.  A.  Leo,  Din 
Delius'schc  A  utgube  kritisch  beleuchtet,  Berlin,  1861,  Svo.  CrMBELlNE  (1st  ed. 
in  F.l).  Hamlet  (Q.l,  1003 ;  Q.2,  1C04  ;  Q.3, 1005 ;  Q.4,  ICOS ;  Q.5,  ICIl ;  Q.O, 
n.d.;  Q.7,  1037) :  L.  Theobald,  S.  Restored,  1726,  4to,  devoted  to  Hamlet ;  Sir 
T.  Hannier,  Some  Remarks  on  Hamlet,  1730,  Svo,  reprinted  1SG3,  sm.  Svo ;  J. 
Plumptre,  Observations  on  Hamlet,  and  Appendix,  1796-7,  2  pts.  Svo ;  F.  L. 
Schmidt,  Sammlung  dcr  besteil  Urtheile.iJbcr  Uamlet,  Queil.,  1S03,  Svo;  A. 
G.  Bamnte,  Sur  Hamlet,  1824,  Svo;  P.  Macdonnell,  Essav  on  Hamlet,  1843, 
Svo ;  Sir  E.  Strachey,  S.'s  Hamlet,  I&IS,  Svo;  H.  K.  S.  Caiiston,  Essay  on  Mr 
Singer's  Wormuiood,  1851,  Svo;  L.  Noir^,  Hamlet,  zwci  Vortrdge,  Maniz,  1S56, 
l«mo;  >I.  W.  Eooney,  Hamlet,  First  Edition  (1603),  1S56,  Svo;  S.'s  Hamlet, 
ICOS  and  160!,,Kilh  Bibliographical  Prejiice,  by  S.  Timmins,  1800,  Svo;  A. 
Oerth,  Z)crZ/amfe(D.  i'.,  Leip.,  1801,  Svo;  J.  Conolly, /I  Sfiirfi/ o/Hamlc^  1663, 
6m.  Svo;  H.  V.  Friescn,  Lriejc  ub.  S.'s  Hamlet,  Leipsic,  1865,  Svo;  A.  Flir,  Brieje 
iib.  S.'s  Hamlet,  Innsbruck,  1865,  Svo;  W.  D.  Wood,  Hamlet  from  a  Psycho- 
logical Point  oj  View,  1870,  Svo;  E.  H.  Home  (editor),  TTas  Hamlet  Mad  i  a 
Series  of  Critiques,  1871,  Svo;  O.  F.  Stedefeld,  Hamlet  ein  Tcndenzdyama, 
BerliiK  1671,  Svo :  A.  .Meadows,  Hamlet:  an  Essay,  1871,  Svo ;  R.  G.  Latham, 
The  Hamlet  of  Saxo  Grammaticus  and  S.,  1872,  Svo ;  F.  A.  Marshall.  Sliidy 
(if  Hamlet,  lSi5.  Svo;  H.  v.  Struve,  Hamlet  einc  Charakterstudie,  Weimar, 
1S76,  Svo ;  H.  Baumgart.  Die  Hamlet  Tragiidie  it.  ihre.Eritik,  Kunipsb.,  1877, 
Svo;  A.  Zinzow,  Die  Hamlet  Sage,  Halle,  1877,  Svo;  A.  BUehner,  Hamlet  te 
Danois,  187S,  Svo  ;  JI.  Jloltke,  S.'s  Hamlet  Quellen,  1881,  Svo  ;  E.  P.  Vining, 
The  Mystery  o/  Hamlet,  Philad.,  1831,  sm.  Svo  [Hamlet  a  woman] ;  H.  Beaser, 
y.w  Hamlet  Frage,  18S2,  Svo ;  E.  Stcuger,  Dcr  Hamlet  Charaktcr,  I88S,  Sv.i ;  A. 
Brereton,  Somejamous  Hamlets,  IBS),  Svo.  He.nry  IV.  (Pt.  i.:  Q.l,  169S ;  (J.2, 
1690;  Q.3,  1004;  Q.4,  1003;  Q.5,  1613;  Q.6,  1622;  Q.7,  1632;  Q.8, 1639.  Pt.  ii.:  . 
Q.l  and  Q,2,  ICOO) :  E.  A.  Struve,  Studien  zu  S.'s  Hcnni  I  y.,  Kiel,  1851,  4to, 
Henrv  V.  (Q.l,  .1000;  Q.2,  1602;  Q.3,  lOOS);  G.  A.  Schmeding,  Eisaw  on 
S.'s  Henry  V.,  1874,  Svo.  Henbt  VI.  (Pt.  1.  1st  ed.  in  F.l.  Pt.  ii.  1st  ed.  in 
F.l.  Con(cn(ion,  ic.:  Q.l,  1594  ;  Q.2.  1000;  Q.3,  1619.  Pt.  iii.  1st  ed.  in  F.l. 
Richard  oJ  Yorke:  Q.l,  15'j5 ;  Q.2,  1600):  E.  M.ilone,  Dissertation  on  Henry 
VI.,  1792,  Sto;  G.  L.  Rives,  Authorship  of  Henry  VI.,  1874,  Svo.  HenrV 
VIII.  (Ist  6(1.  in  F.l).  Julius  Cssar  (Ist  ed.  in  F.l):  G.  L.  Craik,  The 
English  qf  S.  Illustrated,  3d  ed.  1860,  sm.  Svo;  H.  Gomont^  Le  Cesar  de  S., 
1874,  Svo;  W.  G.  Moberly.  Hrnts/or  S.  Studif  exemplified  in  Julius  Cieaar, 
18S1,  Svo.  Kino  John  (1st  authentic  ed.  in  F.l.  Troublesome  Raignc, 
spurious:  Q.l,  1591 ;  Q.2,  1011  ;  Q.3.  1032).  Kino  Lear  (Q.l,  Q.2,  Q.3,  1608; 
Q.4, 1655):  [C.  Jenncns].  King  Lear  Vindicated,  1772,  Svo  ;  U.  Neumann,  Ueber 
Lear  u.  Ophelia,  Breslau,  laOO,  Svo ;  J.  R.  Seelcy,  W.  Young,  and  E.  A.  Hart, 
Three  Essavs  on  Lear,  1851,  Svo,  Beaufoy  prize  essays.  Love's  Labour  's 
I,OST  (Q.l,  1698;  Q.2,  1031).  Macdetu  (Ist  ed.  in  F.l):  (Dr  S.  Johnson], 
Miscellaneous  Observations  on  Macbeth,  1745,  121310;  J.  P.  Kemble,  Macbeth 
and  Richard  III.,  1817,  Svo;  C.  W.  Opzoomer,  Aanteekeningen  op  Macbeth, 
Anist.,  18.''i4,  Svo  ;  G.  Sexton,  Psychology  (if  Macbeth,  1869.  Svo ;  J.  0.  Ritter, 
Beitrdge zur  Erkl.  des  Macbeth,  Leer,  JS71,  2  pts.  4to  ;  V.  Kaiser,  Macbeth  wnrt 
Lady  Macbeth,  Basel,  ls75,  Svo;  E.  R.  Russell,  The  True  Macbeth,  1876, 
Svo ;  T.  Hall  Calne,  Iti'chard  III.  and  Macbeth,  1877,  Svo  ;  A.  Uorst,  Kdnig 
Macbeth,  sine  Seholtisehe  Sage,  Bremen,  1876, 16mo.  Measure  for  Measure 
(Isted.  In  F.l).  JlERCiiAS-rOF  Venice  (Q.l,  Q,2,  IGOO;  Q.3,  1037  ;  Q.4, 1052) : 
O.  Forren,  Essay  on  Shylock,  1633,  Svo;  i-.  V.  Hugo,  Comrnentary  on  the 
Merchant  (if  Venice,  translated.  1803,  Svo ;  H.  Graotz,  Shylock  in  d.  Sage, 
18S0,  Svo;  A.  Pletscher,  Versvch  ciner  Sludie  tlb.  S.'s  Kau/mann  v.  V.,  1881, 
Svo;  C.  H.  C.  Plath,  S.'s  Kau/mann  v.  V.,  1882,  Svo.  Merry  Wives  op 
WlNIiSOK(Q.l,  1602;  Q.2,  1619;  Q.3, 1030):  J.  0.  Ilalllwell  rhllUpps,  Account 
dfthe  only  known  MS.  o/S.'s  Plaits,  1S43,  Svo,  JIid.summer  Night's  Drrau 
(Q.l,  Q.'i,  1600) :  N.  J.  Ilalpin,  Oberon'l  Vision  and  L'lUe's  Endymion  (Sliako- 
Bpearo  Society),  1813,  Svo ;  J.  O.  Ualllwell  Plililipjis,  )nlroih(clion  to  S.'s  Mid- 
rummer  Night's  Dream,  1841,  Svo,  nnd  Illustrations  0/  the  Fairy  Mythology 
0/ Midsummer  Night's  Dream  (Shakcsp.  Soc.),  1845,  8vo  ;  the  same  with  J. 
Rit^on,  Fairy  Tales,  Legends,  and  liomancfs,  ed.  liazlitt,  1875,  Svo ;  E.  llor- 
inann,  DreiS.  Studien,  Erlangen,  1877-9,  4  pts.  sm.  Svo  ;  L.  E.  A.  Proescholdt, 
On  the  Sources  0/  S.'s  Midsummer  Nights  Dream,  1878,  Svo.  AIUCH  ADO 
iBOUT  NOTIIINO  (Q.l,  1000) :  W.  W.  Lloyd.  Much  Ado,  Ac,  with  essay,  1884, 
Svo,  to  prove  reputed  prose  to  ba metrical.  OTHELLO  (Q.l,  1022;  Q.'i,  1030; 
Q.3,  1655):  W.  Parr,  The  .Story  of  the  Moor  (\f  rtni'cf,  1705,  Svo;,  R.  G. 
Macgregor,  Othello's  Character,  18.52,  Svoj  J.  E.  Taylor,  The  Moor  o/Venice, 
Cinthio's  Tale  and  S.'s  Tragedy,  lB!}b,  Svo.  PERICLES  ((J. 1  ll'avlcr,  n.  d.l;  Q.2, 
Q.3,  1609;  Q.4,  1611:  Q.5,  lOlB;  Q.O.  1030;  Q.7,  1035) :  K.  lloylo.  On  Wilkins's 
Sharein  Pericles,  1882,  Svo.  RlCHARB  II.  (Q.l.  I.'i97  ;  Q.2,  1598;  Q.3,  Q  4, 
1008;  Q.6,  1015;  Q.6,  1031):  RIcchelnmnn,  Zu  Richard  II.  S.  u  Holinshrd, 
Plauon,  1860,  Svo.  RichaRP  III.  (Q.l,  1697  ;  Q.2,  1593 ;  Q.3.  1602  ;  Q.4,  1005 ; 
Q.6,  1612  ;  Q.O,  1022  ;  Q.7,  1024  ;  Q  8.  1629  ;  Q.9,  1024) :  M.  Bialc,  Lecture  on 
the  Times  and  J'lay  qf  liichard  III.,  18*4,  Svo;  I  F  Hchoini!,  Veber  den 
Charaktcr  Richard  III.  bet  S.,  18,'tO,  Svo;  L.  Mliser,  Obseriations  on  S.'s 
Richard  III,  Hertford,  1809,  Ivo.  Romeo  and  Juliet  (Q.l,  1697:  Q.'i, 
1699;  Q.3,  1000 ;  0  4,  n.  d. ;  Q.6,  1837) :  J.  ('■.  Walker,  llittotical  Memoir  on 
Italian  Tragcdii,  1799,  4to  ;  O.  Pace  Sanfcllce,  The  Original  Story  0/  Homeo 
nnd  Juliet,  buL.  da  Purto,  1808,  Svo;  T.  Straetor,  l>u!  Kompotilion  S.'s 
"onuo  u.  Julia,  Bonn,  1861,  Svo ;  C.  B.  E.  IlartinauD,  Romeo  u.  Julia,  Lolpilc, 


1874,  Svo,  n  critical  essay  ;  JI.  1'.  OaentT'cr,  Dejenoe  esfS.'s  Romeo  and  Juliet, 
1870,  Svo;  R.  Geriekc, /((/mco  i(.  Jti/irt  uaeh  S.'s  MS.,  1880,  Svo.  Taming  OP 
THE  Shrew  (1st  ed.  in  F.l).  Tejifest  (1st  ed.  in  F.I):  J.  Holt,  Remarks  on 
the  Tempest,  1750,  Svo;  E.  ^lalone,  Incidents  from  ichicA  S.'s  Tempest  teat 
derived,  1808-9,  2  pts.  Svo;  G.  Chalmers,  Another  AccounI,  ic,  1815,  Svo; 
Rev.  J.  Hunter,  Disquisition  on  the  Tempest,  1839,  Svo;  P.  Macdonnell, 
Essay  on  the  Tempest,  1840,  Svo ;  Notes  0/  Studies  on  the  Tawina  0/  th» 
Shrcw.H.  Society  ol  Pliiladelphia,18<,6.4to,wlth  bibliography  of  the  Tempest; 
J.  Jlelssner,  (7n(crsiicAii)ijc)i  116.  S.'s  Sturm,  Dessau,  1672,  Svo;  D.  Wuson, 
Ca(i'i<an,  thu  Missing  Link,  1S73,  Svo ;  C.  C.  Hcnse,  Das  Antikt  in  S.'t 
Dramen:  D.  Sturm,  1879,  Svo.  TIJION  OP  ATHENS  (Ist  cd.  in  F.l):  A. 
Mueller,  Veber  die  (quellen  aus  dencn  S.  den  Timon  v.  Athen  cnlnommen  hat, 
Jena,  1873,  Svo.  THUS  A.n'PROnicus  (Q.l,  1594,  no  copy  known ;  Q.2. 1000; 
Q.3,  1011).  TROILUS  AND  CrESSIDA  (Q.l,  Q.2,  1009):  Annolationi  by  S. 
Johnson,  Q.  Steevens,  drc,  upon  Troitus  and  Cressida,  1787,  12mo  ;  L.  Baning, 
DcS./abula  qux  Troilusct  Cressida  inscribitur,  1670,  Svo.  Tavelfth  Nioht, 
The  Two  Genileme:j  of  Verona,  and  The  Winter's  Tale  (all  three 
first  printed  in  F.l).- 

Sonnets  (Q.l,  1C09):  J.  Boaden,  On  the  Sonnets  <i)  S..  1837,  Svo;  C.  A. 
Brown,  5. 's  i4i<^oi'io,7ra;)/iicn;  Poems,  1833,  Svo;  I.  Donnely,  The  Sonnets  o/ 
S.,  1359,  Svo ;  Dr  Barustorif,  Key  to  S.'t  Sonnets,  translated,  1802,  Svo ;  B. 
Comey,  The  Sonnets  o/  S.,  1S02,  €vo ;  [E.  A.  Hitchcock],  Reinarl.s  on  tlie 
Sonnets  (tfS.,  N.Y.,  1S05,  12mo ;  R.  Simpson,  Introduction  to  the  Philosophy 
Of  S.'s  Sonnets,  1808,  Svo  ;  U.  Browil,  The  Sonnets  o/  S.  solved,  1870,  Svo  ;  C. 
M.  Ingleby,  The Soulc arrayed.  Sonnet cxlvi.,  1872,  Svo;  G.  Massey,  The  Secret 
Drama  o/  S.'s  Sonnets  un/oUlcd,  2d  ed.  1872,  Svo  VENUS  AND  ADONIS 
(Q.l,  1593;  Q.2,  1594;  sm.  Svo,  1596,  1509,  1000(a  1602,  1617,  1020,  1627,1030, 
1636 ;  Svo,  1675) :  A.  Jlorgan,  Venus  and  Adonis,  Study  in  Warwickshire 
Dialect,  N.y.,  1SS5,  Svo.  LUCRECE  (Q.l,  1594  ;  sm.  Svo,  1593,  1600,  1607, 1616  ; 
lemo,  1024;  l'2mo,  1632;  ICnio.  1055).  PASSIONATE  PlLORIM  (16mo,  1599; 
2d  ed.  not  known  ;  3d  ed.  'Omo,  1012>  •  A.  Uoclinen,  S.'s  Passionate  Pitgrint, 
1867,  Svo,  dissertation. 

FalstafF  :  C.  Slorris,  True  Standard  tif  Wit,  with  Character  qf  Sir  J. 
Falsta^,  1744,  Svo;  W.  Richardson,  Essays  on  Character  qf  Sir  J.  .Falstaf, 
1783,  Svo ;  il.  Morgan,  Essay  on  Sir  J.  FaUtaf,  1777,  new  edition  IS'25,  Sv'o, 
vindicates  his  courage;  J.  H.  Hackett,  i''ois(a/,  1840,  Svo;  J.  O.  Ualliwell 
Phillipps,  On  the  Character  o/  Falstaf  in  Henry  IV.,  1841,  Svo;  E.  Schueller, 
Don  (Juixole  nnd  Falstaf,  Berlin,  1S58,  Svo ;  G.  W.  Rusden,  Character  qf 
Falstaf,  Melbourne,  1870,  Svo.  FEMALE  CHARACTERS :  W.  Ricliardson, 
On  S.'s  Female  Characters,  A-c,  1783,  Svo ;  A.  M.  Jameson,  Characteristics  o/ 
iromcn,  1832,  2  vols.  12mo,  illustrated  ;  C.  Heath,  The  Heroines  o/  S.,  1843, 
large  4to,  illustrated,  and  The  S.  Gallery,  containing  the  Principal  Female 
Characters,  1836,  large  Svo,  plates  reproduced  in  H.  L.  Palmer's  Strat/ord 
Gallery,  N.Y.,  1S59,  large  Svo;  M.  C.  Clarke,  Girlhood  o/  S.'s  Heroines, 
1850-2,  3  vols.  Svo  ;  H.  Heine,  Englischc  Fragmenfe  und  S.'s  Miidchen  und 
Frauen,  Hamburg,  1861,  sm.  Svo;  F.  A.  Leo,  S.'s  Frauenideale,  Hallo,  1SC8, 
Svo;  F.  M.  V.  Bodcnstedt,  S.'s  Frauencharaktere,  2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1876,  Svo; 
JI.  Summer,  Les  Heroines  de  Kalidasa  et  les  Heroines  de  S.,  1879,  sm.  Svo; 
Lady  Martin,  On  some  (if  S.'s  Female  Characters,  1885,  Svo;  .Mrs  M.  L. 
Elliott,  S.'s  Garden  o/  Girls,  1885,  Svo.  HUMOUR :  J.  Weiss,  iri(.  Humour, 
and  S.,  Boston,  1876, 16nio;  J.  R.  Elirlich,  Der  Humor  S.'s,  Vienna,  1878,  Svo. 

V.  Lanquaqe,  includln'O  Grammars  and  Glossartes. 

X.  Edwards,  Supplement  to  Mr  Warburton's  Edition,  being  the  Canon$  qf 
Criticism  and  Glossary,  1748,  Svo,  7lh  ed.  1705 ;  R.  Warner,  Letter  on  a 
Glossary  to  S.,n6S,  S\o;  H.  Klrcs,  Glossary,  1822,  4to,  new  edition  1859,2 
vols.  Svo  ;  J.  M.  Jost,  Erkl.  Worlerbuch,  Berlin,  1830,  sin.  Svo  ;  J.  0.  Ualliwell 
Pliillip{)S,  Dictionary  of  Archaic  and  Provincial  Words,  lS4<>-7,  2  vols.  Svo, 
and  Hand-Rook  Index  to  the  Works,  ISGO,  Svo,  phrases,  manners,  Ac. ;  J.  L. 
Hilgers,  Sind  nicht  in  S.  noeh  manche  Verse  tciederherzustellcn  in  Prosaf 
Aix-la-Chapello,  1852,  4to;  N.  Belius,  S.  Lexikon,  Bonn,  1852,  Svo;  W.  S. 
Walker,  S.'s  Versification,  1854,  Svo,  nnd  Examination  qfthe  Text  ofS.,  with 
Remarks  on  his  Language,  1860,  S  vols.  Svo  ;  C.  Bathurst,  S.'s  Versification  at 
different  Periods,  IS^"".  sm.  Svo;  S.  Jervis,  Dietionaryo/  the  Language  o/ S., 
1808,  4to ;  O.  Holmes,  The  English  Adjective  in  S.,  Bremen,  1808,  Svo ;  A.  J. 
Ellis,  On  Early  English  Pronunciation;  1809-75,  4  vols.  Svo;  W.  L.  Rushton, 
S.'s  Euphuism,  1871, Svo;  D.  Rohde,  DteHiHfszeilivorf'I'orio"beiS.,Clitl\a- 
gen,  1872,  Svo ;  E.  A.  Abbott,  Shakespearian  Grammar,  now  edition  1S73, 
sm.  Svo;  K.  Seitz,  Die  Alliteration  im  Engl,  vor  u.  lei  S.,  1875,  4to;  F. 
Pfeffer,  Die  Anredcpronomina  bei  S.,  1877,  Svo. ;  P.  A.  Bronisch,  Das  nrutrale 
Possessivpronvfn  bei  S.,  lS7S,.Svo ;  O.-W.  F.  Lohmann,  Die  Auslassung  det 
Relativpronomcns,  etc.,  1879,  Svo ;  A.  Dyce,  Glossanj,  new  edition,  1880,  Svo ; 
C.  Deulschbcin,  S.  Grammalik  f.  Deutsche,  1882,  Svo  A.  I.uninicrt.  Die 
Orthographic  der  erttcn  Folioausnabe,  1883,  Svo ;  C.  Mackay,  Obscure  Words 
and  J'hrasrs  in  S.,  1884,  Svo  ;  O.  H.  Browne,  S.'s  r«r«i;/icn(iun,  Boston,  1884, 
12mo,  Includes  bibliography ;  L.  Kellner,  Zur  Syntax  des  Engl.  Verbumt, 
Vienna,  1885,  Svo;  J.  H..Siildons,  Shakespearian  Re/eree,  Washington,  ISSO, 
Svo,  encyclopedic  glossary. 

\1.  Quotations. 

C.  Oildon,  Shakcspeariana,  In  his  Complete  Art  of  Poetry,  1718,  12mo,tho 
first  of  tho  class ;  Dr  W.  Dodd,  The  Eeautirs  o/  S. ,  1762,  2  vols.  12mo,  ri>prinlca 
(In  various  forms)  more  frequently  than  any  similar  work ;  0.  LolTI,  Aphonsnu 
fromS.,  1812,  12mo;  T.  Dolby,  J'he  Shakespearian  Dictionary,  1832,  Svo,  and 
A  Thousand  Shakes-pearian  Mottoes,  1S50. 32mo  ;  Mrs  M.  C.  Clarke,  S.  Proverbs, 
1847,  sm.  Svo,  reprinted  ;  J.  B.  Marsh,  Familiar,  Proverbial,  and  Select  Say- 
imisfromS.,  1804,  Svo;  E.  Routledge,  Quotations  from  S.,  IS<;7,  Svo;  C  W. 
Stearns,  TVio  S.  Treasury,  N.Y.,  1869,  12mo ;  Capt,  A.  F.  P.  llarconrt,  1  he  S. 
Argos'i,  1874,  sm.  Svo;  0.  S.  Bellamy,  New  Shakespearian  Dictionary.  1877, 
Svo;  A.  A.  Morgan,  The  Mind  o/  S.,  18S0,  Svo,  quotations  In  aliihsbctical 
order ;  C  Arnold,  Index  to  Slmkes]>carian  Thought,  1880,  Svo 
VII.  CONCOailANCKS. 

A.  Bocket,  Concordance,  1787.  Svo,  tho  earliest ;  9.  Ayscough,  /nrf«,  170O, 
largo  Svo,  2d  cd.  enlarved,  1827.  useful ;  F.  T«  i««,  Compltit  »  erlnil  Index, 
1805  2  vols  Svo;  M.  Cowden  Clalke,  Complete  Concordance.  1S14,  Svo,  dcala 
only  with  the  plays  (no  complete  one  exIsU);  .Mrs  II.  U  I utiku.  Conevrd- 
nnee  to  Poems,  Philadelphia,  1874,  Svo,  complillng  Mrs  I .  <  Iniko  i ;  A. 
Schmidt,  S.  Lexikon,  Berlin,  1S74-,'.,  2  vols,  large  svo.  In  Knttllih,  l.olh 
concordance  and  dktinnary;  C.  nnd  M.  ('.  (Marke,  The  S.  hey  8.0.  Svo, 
companion  to  the  Concordance;  J.  Barlhlt,  The  S.  Phrase  Coo*,  1881.  Svo; 
W.  H.  D.  Adams,  Concorifanco  to  Plays,  1S»»,  Svo. 
VIII.  Prodadlk  Sourcks. 

Mrs  C  I.onnox,  S.  Illustrated,  17M-4,  3  vols.  ISmo,  dedication  by  Johnson, 
many  of  tho  olmrvntlons  also  said  to  ho  by  him  ;  T.  Hawkins,  T/.^  Orujin  of 
li^kuglish  Drama,  1773,  3  vols.  Svo  ;  J.  Nl.hols,  Th4  Six  OldPtauson  u:hie), 
S. /ounded  Measure /or  Measure.  Ac,  1770  2  v.di  I'-imo ;  T.  hjhtcrmcyer, 
L  llenschel  nnd  K.  SImrork.  Quellen  dts  S..  Berlin,  1831,  3  vols  lOmo;  L. 
Tlcik  S  '»  l'or«c/iw(c,  I.rlpsic,  l.vil-O,  2  vols.  Svo ;  J.  P.  OoUlw.  S.  f  Library 
[1843];  «  vols.  SVO.  2d  ed.  [by  W.  C.  Unlllttl  1876,  6  vol..  8v..:  W.  C.  Halllll, 
sTsJelt  Boo*..  18M,  S  vol..  Svo :  W.  W.  Sko.^  S.'t  PlitiaTcK  1M6.  8»o  ;  y. 


770 


SHAKESPEARE 


k.  Leo,  Four  Chnptcrs  qf  North's  Plutarch,  1878,  tolio ;  R.  Simpson,  The 
School  tlfS;  1S78,  2  vols.  8vo. 

IX.   SPECIAIi  KJ^OWLE»OE. 

ANOLiso :  H.  N.  Ellacombe,  S.  as  an  Angler,  1SS3,  8vo.  Bible  :  T.  R. 
t3.-urtm,  S.  and  the  Bible,  185S,  Svo  ;  J.  Bjoim,  Bible  Truths  icilh  Shnkrspeanan 
?czra.UeU,  3J  ed.  1872,  8vo  ;  J.  Kees,  S.  and  thf  Bible.  Phil..  1876,  sm.  Svo  ;  Bp. 
V  ■Vi'oraaworth,  S.'s  Knowledge  and  Use  qf  the  BUile.  1864,  Svo;  C.  Bullock, 
f,?t  Debt  to  the  Bible,  1879,  Svo.  BOTANT  :  J.  E.  Giraud.  Flowers  of  S..1S47, 
id.  plates ;  S.  Beisly,  S.'«  Garden,  1661,  Svo ;  H.  N.  Ellaconibe,  Plant-lore 
titd  Garden-craft  qf  S.,  2d  ed.  1SS4,  em.  Svo ;  L.  H.  Griudon,  S.'s  Flora,  1883, 
tvfot^  Emblejjs:  H.  Green,  S.  and  the  Emblem  Writers,  1870,  4to.  foLK- 
loaB :  W.  Bell.  S.V  Puck  and  his  Folks-lore,  1652-64,  3  vols.  sm.  Svo ;  W.  J. 
Cboras,  "The  Folklore  of  Shakespeare,"  in  Three  Kotelets,  18C.5,  Svo,  re- 
jpjnted  from  Athenxum,  1847  ;  B.  Tschischwitz,  KaclMdnge  Gcnnanischer 
ibi/the  in  S.,  Halle,  1868,  Svo;  (VV.  C.  Hazlitt,  editor],  Fairi/  Talcs.  Legends, 
tifui  Jtomances  illustrating  S.,  i-c,  1875,  Svo;  T.  F.  T.  Dyer,  Follc-lore  oj  S., 
ISS4,  Svo.  Leakniso:  p.  Whaliey,  Enquiry  into  the  Learning  (if  S.,  1748, 
iSKO.';  R.  Farmer,  Essav  on  the  Learning  of  S.,  1767,  8vo,  reprinted  in  the 
Variorum  (lS:!l)and  other  editions,  criticized  by  W.  ilaginn,  see  S.  Papers, 
annotated  by  S.  Mackenzie,  N.\;.,  1856.  sm.  Svo;  [K.  Prescot],  Essay  on  the 
Learning  o/S.,  1774,  4to;  E.  Capell,  The  echool  of  S.,  1780,  4to  (vol,  iii.  of  Ins 
Holes  and  Vanou.s  Readings  to  S.,  1779-83,  3  vols.  4to) ;  P.  Stapter,  S. 
et  Vantiquite,  Paris,  1879,  Svo,  translated  1880,  Svo.  LEOAL :  W.  L.  Rushton, 
S.  a  Lawyer,  1858,  Svo,  S.'s  Legal  Maxims,  1859,  Svo,  S.s  Testamentary 
Language,  1809.  Svo,  and  S.  illustrated  by  the  Lex  Scripta,  1870,  Svo ;  Lord 
Campbell,  S.'s  Legal  Acquirements,  1859.  Svo ;  H.  T.,  Has  S.  a  Lawyer!  1871, 
Svo  ;  J.  kohler,  5.  vor  dem  Furum  der  J urisprudenz,  und  ^achivort,  1883-4, 
2  pts.  Svo;  F.  F.  Heard,  S.  as  a  Lawyer,  Boston,  1884,  16mo ;  C.  K.  Davis, 
The  Law  in  S.,  St  Paul,  L'.S.,  1884,  Svo.  Medicine:  G.  Farren,  Essays  on 
Mania  exhibited  in  Hamlet,  Ophelia,  &c.,  1833,  Svo ;  J.  C.  Bucknill,  The 
Medical  Kiiowledqe  o/S.,  1800,  Svo,  and  The  Mad  Folk  o/S.,  1867,  sm.  Svo ; 
C.  W.  Stearns,  ^.'s  Medical  Knowledge,  N.Y.,  1865,  sm.  Svo;  G.  Cless, 
Medicinische  Blumenlese  aus  S.,  Stuttj^.art,  1865,  Svo ;  A.  O.  Kellogg,  S.s 
Delineations  of  Insaiiitii,  Jcc.,  N.Y.,  1806,  16mo ;  H.  R.  Auhert,  S.  als 
Mediciner,  Rostock,  1S7'3.  Svo ;  J.  P.  Chesney,  S.  as  a  Physician,  St  Louis, 
1884,  Svo;  B.  R.  Field  J/<'d<ca(  Thonnhts  of  $.,  2d  ed.,  Eastou,  I'.S.,  1885, 
Svo.  Military:  W.  J.  Thorns,  "Was  S.  ever  a  Soldiert"  in  his  Three 
Notelets,  1865,  Svo.  NATURAL  History  :  R.  Patterson,  Insects  mentioned 
in  S.'s  Plans,  1833,  Svo;  J.  H.  fennell,  S.  Cyclopxdia,  1862,  Svo,  pt.  i. 
Zoology,  Man  (all  published);  J.  £.  Hartlng,  Ornithology  o/S.,  1871,  Svo; 
C.  R.  Smith,  The  Rural  Life  ofS..  1874,  Svo ;  J.  Waller,  S.'s  Home  and  Rural 
Life,  1874,  4to,  illustrated ;  R  Mayou,  Satural  History  of  S.,  1877,  Svo, 
quotations;  E.  Phipson,  Animal  Lore  of  S.'s  Time,  1883,  sm.  Svo.  PHILO- 
SOI'UV:  W.  J.  Birch,  Philosophy  and  Religion  of  S.,  1S4S,  sm.  Svo; 
V.  Knauer,  IV.  S.,  der  philoi^oph,  Innsbruck,  1879,  Svo.  Printing  :  W. 
Blades,  S.  and  Typography.  1872,  Svo.  PsvCHOLOGT :  J.  C.  Bucknill,  The 
Psychology  qf  S.,  ibSy,  Svo ;  E.  Onimus,  La  Psychologie  dang  les  Drames  de 
S.,  1876,  8vQ.    SEA :  J.  Scbuemann,  See  «.  Seefalirt  in  S.'s  Dramen,  1878,  4to. 

X.  Periodicals. 
S.  Museum,  edited  by  M.  L.  Moltke,  Leipsic,  23d  April  1870  to  2Sd  February 

1874,  20  Kos.  (all  published) ;  Shakespeariana,  18S3,  sm.  Svo,  in  progress. 
From  the  commencement  of  Notes  and  Queries  in  1856,  a  special  Shakespeare 
department  (see  Indexes)  has  been  carried  on.  See  also  W.  F.  Poole's  Index 
to  Periodical  Literature,  Boston,  1S82,  and  supplemeuts. 

XI.  Shakespeabe  Socletles  and  their  Publications. 
Proceedings  of  the  Sheffield  S.  Club  CIS19-29),  1829,  Svo;  Shakespeare 
Society,  various  publications,  1841-53.  48  vols.  Svo ;  New  Shakspere  Society, 
Tra/isactions  and  oilier  publications,  reprints  of  quartos,  &c.,  1874,  &c.,  Svo, 
iJJ  progress;  Deutsche  S.  Gesellschaft,  Jahrbuch  Weimar,  1865,  &c.,  in  pro- 
gress.   The  S.  Societies  of  New  1'ork  and  PUiiadelpbia  publish  transactions. 

XII.  Music. 
W.  Linley,  S.'s  Dramatic  Songs,  n.  d.,  2  vols,  folio;  The  S.  AVmm,  or 
Warwickshire  Garland  (C.  Lonsdale),  1S62,  folio;  G.  O.  Gervinus,  Handel  u, 
S..  Leipsic,  1808.  Svo  ;  H.  Lavoix,  Les  Traducteurs  de  S.  en  Musique,  1869,  Svo  ; 
A.  Rutfe,  Handbook  of  S.  Music,  1878,  4to  ;  List  qf  Songs  and  Passoijcs  set  to 
Music  CS.  S.  Soc),  1S84,  Svo.  See  also  the  musical  works  of  J.  Addison,  T.  A. 
Arne,  C.  H.  Berlioz,  Sir  H.  R.  Bishop,  C  Dibdin,  \V.  Linley,  Jl.  Locke,  G;  A. 
^cfarren,  F.  Mendelssohn- Barthold^  H.  Purcell,  G.  Verdi,  &c. 

XIII.  Pictorial  Illusira'hons. 
C.  Taylor,  Picturesque  Beauties  of  S.,  after  Smirke,  Stothard,  Ac,  1733-7, 
2  vols.  4to ;  W.  H.  Bunbury,  Scries  qf  Prints  Illustrative  of  S.,  1792-6, 
oblong  folio ;  S.  UnTding,  S.  Illustrated,  1793,  4to ;  S.  Ireland,  Picturesf^ue 
Scenes  upon  the  Avon,  1795,  Svo;  J,  and  J.  Boydell,  Collection  qf  Prints 
from  Pictures  Illustrating  the  Dramatic  Works  qf  S.,  1802-3,  2  vols,  atlas 
folio,  100  plates,  forms  supplement  to  Eoydell's  edition ;  reproduced  by 
photography,  1S64,  4to,  reduced,  and  edited  by  J.  P.  Norris,  Philadelphia, 
1874,  4to;  S.  Portfolio,  1821-9,  roy.  Svo;  Btuthard,  Illustrations  o/S.,  1826, 
Svo  ;  F.  A.  M.  Retzsch,  Gallerie  zu  S.'s  dramat.  Werken  in  Vmrigsen,  Leipsic, 
IS2&-46,  8  vols.,  obi.  4to;  J.  Thurston,  Illmtrations  of  S.,  1830,  Svo;  F. 
Howard,  The  Spirit  of  the  Plays  qfS.,  1833,  6  vols.  Svo;  L.  S.  Ruhl,  Skizzen 
zu.  S.'s  dram.  Werken,  Frankfort,  1827-31,  Cassel,  1833-10,  6  vols,  oblong 
folio ;  G.  F.  Sargent,  S.  illustrated  in  a  Series  of  Landscape  and  Archi- 
tectural Designs,  1842,  Svo,  reproduced  as  The  Book  of  S.  Oemi,  1846,  Svo ; 
■W.  V.  Kaulbach,  S.  Gallerie,  Berlin,  1867-8,  3  pts.  folio ;  P.  Konewka,  JJi'n 
Sommernachtstraum,  Heidelb.,  1S68,  4to,  and  Falstafu.  seine  GeseUen,StTas- 
bui-g,  1872,  Svo  ;  E.  Dowdeu,  S.  Scenes  and  Characters,  1876,  4to,  illustrations 
from  A.  P.  Pecht's  S.  Gallerie,  Leipsic,  1876,  4to;  J.  O.  Halliwell  PhiUippa, 
HandLiit  qf  Drawings  and  Engravings  illustrative  ojthe  Life  qfS.t  1884,  Svo. 

XI'V.  BlOORAPBT. 
A. — General  Works. 
N.  Rowe,  The  Life  of  Mr  W.  S.,  1743,  Svo,  the  first  separate  life  ;  N.  Drake, 
S.  and  his  Times,  1817,  2  vols.  4to ;  J.  Britton,  Remarks  on  the  Life  and 
Writings  qf  S.,  revised  •ditiou,  ISIS,  sm.  Svo  ;  A.  Skottowe,  Life  ofS.,  1S24, 
2  vols,  svo ;  J.  P.  Collier,  Neui  Facts,  1835,  Svo,  New  Particulars,  1836,  Svo. 
Further  Particulars,  1839,  Svo,  aud  Traditionary  Anecdotes  o/S.  collected  in 
1673,  1838,  Svo;  T.  Campbell,  Life  and  Writings  qf  W.  S.,  183S,  Svo;  C. 
Knight,  S.,  a  Biographu,  18(3,  Svo,  repriuted  in  Studies,  1850,  2  vols.  Svo  ; 
J.  O.  Halliwell  Phillipps,  The  Life  qf  W.  S.,  1843,  Svo,  S.  Facsimiles,  1803, 
'olio.  Illustrations  of  the  Life  qfS.,  1874,  folio,  aud  Outlines  of  the  Life  ofS., 
1881,  Svo,  6th  ed.  1886,  2  vols.  Svo  ;  F.  P.  G.  Guizot,  S.  et  son  temps,  1852,  Svo, 
translated  into  English,  1852,  Svo;  G.  M.  Tweddell,  S.,  his  'Times  and  Con- 
temporaries, 1862,  12mo,  2d  ed.  1861-3,  unftnislied;  W.  W.  Lloyd,  Essays  on 
Life  and  Plays  o/S.,  1858,  Svo ;  S.  Neil,  S.,  a  Critical  Biography,  1861,  Svo ; 
T.  De  Quincey,  S.,  a  Biography,  1864,  Svo;  T.  Kenny  Life  and  Genius  ofS., 
1884,  svo;  W.  Bekk,  W.  S.,  eine  biogr.  Sludie,  Munich,  ISM,  sm.  Svo;  S.  W. 
FuUom,  The  History  qf  W.  S.,  2d  ed.  1864,  Svo  ;  Victor  M.  Hu^'O,  W.  5.,  1864, 


Svo,— transl.ited  into  Dutch.  German,  and  English  ;  n..G.  Bohn,  Biography 
and  Bibliograiihy  of  S.  (Phllobiblon  Soc,  18C3),  8vo,  illustr.itions  :  J.  Jordan, 
Orininal  Collections  on  S.  and  Stratford,  1780,  edited  by  J.  O.  Halliwell 
Phillipps,  1SG4,  4to  ;  J.  A.  Heraud,  S.'5  inner  Life  as  intimated  in  his  Works, 
1S65,  Svo ;  R.  G.  White,  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  W.  S.,  Boston,  1805,  Svo ; 
S-  A.  Alliboue,  Biography  of  S.  (in  Dictionary,  vol.  2,  1870);  II.  K.  Hudson, 
S.—his  Life,  Art,  and  Characters,  Boston.  1872,4th  ed.  1883,  Svols.  12nlo; 
R  Gence.  S.,  seia  Leben  u.  s.  ireri-c,  Hildbujghausen,  1872,  Svo  ;  F.  K.  Elze, 
W.  S.,  Halle,  1870,  large  Svo ;  G.  H.  Calvert,  S. — a  Biographic,  jKsthetio 
Study,  Boston,  1879,  ICmo ;  W.  Tegg,  S.  and  liis  Contemporaries,  1879,  Svo ; 
W.  Henty,  S.,  with  some  Notes  on  his  early  Biography,  1S82,  sm.  Svo;  B. 
Hermann,  Ergamungen  u.  Berichti^iingcji  der  herqebrachten  S.  Biagraph., 
Erl.,  1884,  2  vols.  Svo;  F.  G.  Fleay,  Chronicle  History  of  the  Life  and 
WorkqfW.8.,\(iS/i,S\o. 

B. — Special  Works. 
AutoorapH:  Sir  f.  Madden,  Autograph  and  Orthography  qf  S.,  1837,  4to 
S.'s  Autograph,  copied  aiiJ  eularged  by  J.  Harris,  dec.  (Rodd),  1813;  J.  0. 
H:illiwell  Phillipps,  S.'s  Will,  1851,  4lo ;  H.  Staunton,  Memorials  o/S. 
Photographed,  1804,  folio  ;  J.  H.  Fris»  ell,  Photogr.  Reprod.  of  S.'s  Will,  1804, 
410.  Birthday  :  B.  Corney,  Argument  on  the  Assumed  Birthday,  1864,  Svo. 
BoVES  ;  C.  M.  Ingleby,  S.'s  Bones,  1883,  sm.  4to;  W.  Hall,  S.'s  Grave^  Notoi 
of  Traditions,  18S4,  Svo.  CRAB  TREE  :  C.  F.  Green,  Legend  of  S.'s  Crab  Tree, 
1837,  4to,  illustrated.  Deer  Sieaiing  :  C.  H.  Eracebridge,  S.  no  Deer 
Stealer,  1862,  Svo,  illustrated.  Genealogy  :  J.  Jordan,  pedigree  of  tite 
Family  of  S.,  1796,  in  voL  iii.  of  R.  Ryan's  Dramatic  Table  Talk,  1825-30,  3 
vols.  Svo  ;  Memoirs  of  the  Families  of  S.  and  Hart,  1790,  ed.  Halliwell,  18G5, 
4to;  O.  R.  French,  'Shakapeareana  'Ocnealogica,  1869,  Svo;  J.  O.  Halliwell 
Phillipps,  Entries  respecting  S.,  his  Family  and  Connexions,  1864,  4to. 
Ghost-Belief:  A.  Rotfe,  The  Ghost  Belief  of  S.,lS5\Swo;  T.  A.  Spalding, 
Elizabethan  Demonology,  1880,  Svo.  Name  :  J.  '0.  Halliwell  Phillipps,  New 
Lamps  or  Old!  IBsO,  Svo,  advocates  "Shakespeare."  OCCUPATION:  see 
Special  Knowledge,  above.  Religion:  F.  Fritzart,  IFar  S.  ein  Christ! 
Hcirtelberg,  1832,'Svo;  W.  J.  Birch,  Philosophy  and  Religion  ofS.,  1848,  sm. 
Svo,  thinks  him  a  sceptic ;  £.  Vdise,  S.  als  Protestant,  Potitiker,  Psychotog, 
u.  Dichter,  Hamburg.  1S51,  2  vols.  sm.  Svo;  J.  J.  Rietmano,  Ueber  S.'S 
religiose  u.  ethische  Bedeutuna.  St  Gallen,  1853,  12mo ;  A.  F.  Rio,  S.,  1864, 
Svo  (S.  Roman  Catholic);  W."Koenig,  S.  als  Dichter,  Wellweiser,  «.  Christ, 
Leipsic,  1S73,  Svo;  A.  Gilman,  S.'s  Morals,  N.Y.,  1880,  Svo;  J.  M.  Raich,  S.'s 
Stellung  zur  Kathol.  Religion,  ISW,  Svo.  STRATFORD-UPON-AVON  :  R.  B. 
Wheler,  History  and  A  ntiquities  qf  Stratford,  1806,  Svo,  Accotmt  of  the  Birth- 
place, new  edition  1803,  bvo,  and  Collectanea,  1865,  4to ;  F.  W.  Fairholt,  The 
Home  qf  S.,  1847,  Svo,  engravings  reproduced  in  S.  Neil's  Home  of  S.,  1S71, 
Svo;  J.  O.  Halliwell  Phillipps,  New  Bole  about  S.  and  Slrat.ford,  1850,  4to, 
Brief  Hand  List  qf  the  Bvrough  Records,  1802,  Svo,  Descriptive  Calendar, 
1663,  folio.  Brief  Guide  to  the  Gardens,  1863,  Svo,  Historical  Account  qf  the 
New  Place,  lSt>l,  folio  illustrated,  and  Strai/ord  in  the  Times  of  the  S.s,  lS6f, 
folio ;  £.  Lees,  Stratford  as  connected  with  S.,  1354,  Svo ;  J.  R.  Wise,  S.,  his 
Birthplace  and  its  Neighbourhood,  1861,  Svo;  J.  C.  M.  Bellew,  S.'s  Home  at 
New  Place,  1803,  sm.  Svo,  Illustrated,  with  pedigrees ;  R.  E.  Hunter,  S.  and 
Stratford,  1864,  Svo;  J.  M.  Jephson,  S.,  his  Birthplace,  Home,  and  Grave, 
1864,  4to,  illustrated;  J.  Walter,  S.'s  Home  and  Rural  Life,  1874,  4to, 
illustrative  of  localities ;  C.  M.  Ingleby,  S.  and  the  Welcombe  Enclosures, 
1883,  folio ;  8.  L.  Lee,  Stratford-on-Avon,  1884,  folio,  illustrated. 

XV.  Portraits. 
G.  Steevens,  Proposals  for  Publishing  the  Felton  Portrait,  1794,  Svo;  J. 
Britton,  On  the  Monuitientat  Bu.it,  1816,  Svo;  J.  Eoadeii,  Authenticity  of 
Various  Pictures  and  Prints  offered  as  Portraits  of  S.,  1821,  4to;  A,  Wivell, 
The  Monumental  Bust,  1827,  Svo,  and  inquiry  into  the  S.  Portraits,  1840, 
Svo  ;  H.  Rodd,  The  Cliandos  Portrait  [1849),  Svo  ;  R.  H.  Forster,  Remarts  or. 
the  Chandos  Portrait,  1849,  Svo  ;  J.  P.  ColLer,  Dissertation  upon  the  Imputed 
Portraits,  1851,  Svo;  J.  H.  Friswell,  Life  Portraits  of  W.  S.,  1864,  Svo;  G. 
Scliarf,  On  the  Principal  Portraits  of  S.,  1864,  12mo  ;  E.  T.  Craig.  S.  and  his 
Portraits,  Bust,  and  Monument,  2d  ed.  1664,  Svo,  and  S.'s  Portraits  phreuo- 
logically  considered,  Philadelphia,  1875,  Svo  ;  G.  Harrison,  The  Stratford  Bust, 
Brooklyn,  1665,  4to ;  W.  Page,  Study  of  S.'s  Portraits,  1876,  sm.  4to ;  J.  P. 
Norris,  Bibliography  qf  Works  on  the  Portraits  qfS.,  Philadelphia,  1879,  Svo, 
44  titles,  The  Death  Mask  qfS.,  18S4,  and  The  Portraits  of  S.,  Phil.,  18S6,  4to, 
with  bibliograpliy  of  111  references, and  illustrations.  An  elaborate  account 
by  A.  M.  Knapp  of  the  portraits  in  the  Barton  collection,  Boston  Public 
Library,  may  be  found  in  the  S.  Catalogue,  1880,  large  Svo. 

XVI.  Liter  ART  and  Dramatic  History. 

E.  Malone,  Historical  Account  qf  the  English  Stage  1790,  enlarged  In 
Boswell's  edition,  1821 ;  J.  P.  Collier,  History  of  English  Dramatic  Poetry, 
1831,  new  cd.  1879,  3  vols.  Svo,  Memoirs  of  Edw.  Alleyne  (Shake.speara 
Society),  1841,  Svo,  The  Alleyne  Papers  (Shakespeare  Society),  1343,  Svo  [see 
G.  F.  \Vaiuer'B  catalogue  of  tlie  Dulwich  MSS.,  1881,  Svo],  and  Memoirs  of  the 
Principal  Actors  in  the  Plaijs  qf  S.  (Shakespeare  Society),  1846,  Svo  ;  N.  J. 
Halpin,  The  Dramatic  Unities  ofS.,  1849,  Svo,  ed.  by  C.  M.  Ingleby  (N.S.  Soc, 
series  i.,  1875-6);  N.  Delias,  Ueber  das  Englische  Theaterwescn  zu  S.'s  Zeit, 
Bremen,  1853,  Svo ;  A.  MeziSres,  Predecesseurt  et  Contemporains  de  S.,  1803, 
3d  ed.  1881,  Svo,  and  Contemporains  et  successeurs  de  S.,  3d  ed.  18S1 ;  Rev.  W. 
R.  Arrowsmith,  S.'s  Editors  and  Commentators,  1865,  Svo  ;  W.  Kelly,  Notices 
t^the  Drama  and  Popular  Amusements  of  the  ICth  and  nth  Centuries,  1S6.5, 
Svo  ;  C.  M.  Ingleby,  Traces  of  the  Authorship  of  the  Works  attributed  to  S., 
1S6S,  Svo,  S.'s  Centurie  qf  Prayse,  culled  from  Writers  qf  the  First  Century 
after  his  Rise,  1874,  4to  (enlarged  by  Miss  Toulmin  Smith  for  N.  S.  Soc, 
1879),  aud  S.  Allusion  Books  (N.  S.  Soc),  1S74  ;  H.  I.  Ruggles,  The  Method  qfS. 
as  an  Artist,  N.Y.,  1870,  Svo;  A.  H.  Paget,  S.'s  Plays,  a  Chapter  of  Stage 
History,  1875,  Svo  ;  H.  Ulrici,  S.'s  Dramatic  Art,  translated  by  L.  D.  Schmitz. 
1876,  2  vols.  Svo ;  H.  P.  Stokes,  The  Chronological  Order  qf  S.'s  Plays,  1S7S', 
Svo;  C.  Knortz,  S.  in  Amcrika,  BerUn.  1882,  Svo;  C.  Muerer.  Synchronist. 
Zusammenstellung  der  wichtigsten  Notizen  ub.  S.'s  Leben  it.  Werke,  1S32,  4to^ 
J.  A.  Symonds,  S.'s  Predecessors  iti  the  English  Drama,  1884,  Svo;  A-  R| 
Frey,  S.  and  the  alleged  Spanish  Prototype.!,  N.  Y.,  18S6,  sm.  4to. 

Germany  :  S.'s  Seha.ispiele  erldutert  von  P.  Horn,  Leipsic,  1823-31,  6  voU. 
Svo ;  £.  A.  Hogeo,  S.'s  erstes  Ersclieinen  auf  den  Biihnen  DcuUchlaruls, 
KUnigs.,  183-2,  Svo  ;  K.  Assman,  S.  und  seine  deutschen  Uebersetzer.  Liegnitz, 
1843,  4to ;  N.  Delias,  Die  Schlegel-Ticcksche  S.  Ucbersetz.,  Bonn,  1846,  12mo ; 
F.  K.  Elze,  Die  Englische  Sprache  in  Deutschland,  Dresden,  1864,  12mo;  F. 
A.  T.  Kreyssig,  S.  Cultus,  Elbiug.  1864,  Svo;  L.  G.  r,emcke,  S.  in  setnem 
Verhdltnisse  zu  Deutschland,  Leipsic,  1864,  Svo ;  W.  J.  Thorns,  "  S.  m 
Germany,"  in  Three  Notelets,  1865,  svo ;  A.  Cohn,  S.  tn  Germany  in  the  JCth 
and  17th  Centuries,  1865.  4to  ;  C.  Humbert,  Afoiijre,  S. ,  und  d.  deuttelu  Knltt, 
Leipsic,  1809,  Svo  ;  W.  Oechelhauser,  DU  Wurdigunt  S.'s  in  Engl.  u.  Deiii-Kh- 
land,  1869,  Svo;  R.  Gemie,  Oeschichte  d.  S.'selien  Dramen  in  Deutschland, 
Leipsic,  1870,  Svo;  JI.  Bernays,  Zur  Entstchungsgesehichte  des  Schlegelschen 
S  ,  Leipsic,  1872,  Svo  ;  R.  J.  Benedix,  Die  S.omanie,  Stuttgart,  1873,  Svo ;  W, 
Wagner,  S.  und  die  neneste  Kritik.  Hamburg,  1874,  Svo ;  J.  Meissaer,  I>> 
enQlischea  Comoduintcii  m  oesttrretcn.  Vienna.  1884.  Svo. 


S  H  A  — S  H  A 


771 


France;  J.  B.  M.  A.  Lacroix,  Bistoire  de  X'influtnc*  de  S.-*ur  f«  th^dtre 
frantaU,  Brussels,  185^,  8vo ;  W.  Reymond,  CorneUU,  $.,  et  Goethe,  Berlin, 
1864,  8vo;  A.  Schioidt,  VoUaire't  VerdiensU  um  dit  JUj^/uhrung  S^  1SG4,  4to; 
Xvn.  Shakespeare  Jubilees. 

Enay  on  the  Julnlee  at  Stratford,  1769,  8vo;  S.'»  Garland,  1769,  8vo, 
flecond  edition  1826,  8vo;  ConcUe  Acc&unt  of  Oanici's  JvhUee,  1769,  and 
the  PettivaU  qf  1837  and  1S30,  1830- 8vo  ;  Descriptive  Account  of  the  Second 
Oala,  1830,  8vo ;  K.  F.  Oiitzkow,  Eine  S.  Feier  an  rfer  llm,  Leipsic,  1864, 
8to;  p.  H.  a.  Mbbias,  Die  Deutscht  S.  Feier,  Leipsic,  1804,  Svo;  Ter- 
centenary Celebration  fc,y  the  yew  England  Bistoric-GeTicaloffical  Society  at 
Boston,  1864,  8vo :  Official  Profjramine  at  the  Tercenlenary  Festival  at 
StTOfford,  mlh  Li/e,  Guide,  ic,  1864,  Svo. 

xvni.  Ireland  C0NTR0VEE3T. 

MisceUaneeue  Papers  and  Legal  Instruments  under  the  Band  and  Seal  of 
W.  S;  1795,  imp.  folio,  2d  ed.  1706,  Svo  (W.  H.  Ireland's  fdrseries) ; 
Vorti^em,  an  Historical  Tragedy,  1706.  sm.  Svo,  2d  ed.  1S32,  8vo  (forgery); 
E.  fttaione.  Inquiry  into  the  Authenticity  of  Certain  Papers  and  Legal 
Instruments,  1796,   Svo ;  W.   H.   Ireland,  Authentic  Account  of  the  Shake 

rarian  MSS.,  1796,  Svo  ;  S.  Ireland,  Investigation  of  Mr  Mahme,  1797,  Svo  ; 
J.  Eschenbnrg,  &eber  den  vorgcblichen  Fund  S.schen  Uandschriften, 
Leipsic,  1797,  am.  Svo;  O.  Chalmers.  Apology  for  the  Lctievers  in  the  S. 
Papers,  <tc.,  1797-1800,  3  pts.  Svo  ;  [G.  llardin^jej,  Chahnfriana,  1800,  8vo  ; 
W.  H.  Ireland,  Confessiotis,  1805,  sm.  Svo,  new  edition,  with  iutroductiou  by 

B.  O.  White,  1S74,  12mo. 

XIX.  PATNE  COLLfER  CURTROVERST. 
J.  P.  Collier,  Xew  Facts  regarding  the  Life  of  S.,  1835,  Svo,  Ketc  Particu- 
lars, 1836,  Svo,  Further  Particulars,  1839,  Svo,  Reasons  for  a  New  Edition 
ofS.'li  Works,  1841,  2d  ed.  1842,  Svo,  and  Notes  and  Emendattons  to  the  Text 
^Shakespeare  Society),  1852,  2d  ed.  1853.  Svo,  translated  into  German  by 
Dr  Leo,  1853,  also  in  .T.  Frese'a  Ergiinzungsband  zu  S.'s  Dramcn.  1853,  Svo ; 
8.  W.  Singer.  The  Text  of  S.  Vindicated,  1863,  Svo  (anti-Collier) ;  J.  0. 
Halliwell  Phillipps,  Curiosities  qf  Modern  Shakespearian  Criticism,  1853,  Svo 
(anti-Collier),  Observations  on  the  MS.  Emendations,  1853,8vo  (anti-Collier), 
and  Observations  on  the  Shakespearian  Forgeries  at  Bridgcwater  House,  1853, 
4to  (anti-Collier);  C.  Knight,  Old  Lamps  or  Newi  1853,  12nio  (pro-Collier); 
Be¥.  A.  Dyce,  A  Few  Notes  on  S.,  1853.  Svo  :  N.  Delius,  Collides  alte  handschr. 
Emendationcn,  Bonn,  1853,  Svo  (anti-Collier);  F.  A.  Leo,  Die  Delius'sche 
Kritik,  Berlin,  1853,  Svo  (pro-CoUier);  E.  G.  White,  S.s  Scholar,  1S51,  Svo 
(aiiti-(>}llier) ;  J.  T.  Moramsen,  Der  Perkins  S.,  Berlin,  1854,  Svo  (anti-Collier) ; 
A.  E.  Brao,  Literary  Cookery,  1855,  Svo  (auti-CoUier),  and  Collier,  Coleridge, 
end  S;  1860,  Svo,  disputes  authenticity  r-*  following  lectures  ;  S.  T.  Coleridge, 
Seven  Lectures  on  S.  and  Milton,  edited  oy  J-  P.  Collier,  1856 ;  Rev.  A.  Dyce, 
Strictures  on  Mr  Collier's   New  Edition   [1858J,   1859,    Svo  (anti-Collier); 

C.  M.  Ingleby,  The  S.  Fabrications.  1859,  sm.  Svo,  and  Complete  View  of 
the  8.  Controversy,  1861,  with  bibliography  (anti-Collier)  ;  N.  E.  S.  A. 
Hamilton,  Inquin/  into  the  Genuinejtess  of  the  MS.  Corrections,  1860,  4to 
<»nti-Collier) ;  Collier's'  Reply  to  Hamilton,  1860,  Svo ;  Sir  T.  D.  Hardy, 
Review  qf  the  Present  State  of  the  S.  Controversy,  1860,  Svo;  J.  P.  Collier, 
Trilogy :  Conversations,  1874,  3  pts.  4to. 

XX.  Shakespeare- Bacoh  Controversy. 
J.  C.  Hart,  The  llomanee  of  Yachting,  N.T.,  1848,  12mo,  first  work  con- 
taining doubt  of  Shakespeai-e's  authorship ;  VV.  U.  Smitli,  Was  Bacon  the 


Author  of  S.'s  PlamI  1856,  8vo,— extended  as  Bacon  and  S.,  1S57. 12mo  (antl- 
Shakespeare) ;  D.  Bacon,  The  philosophy  of  the  Plays  ofS.  urv'oldcd,  1867,  8»o 
•<anti. Shakespeare);  N.  Holmes,  Authorship  of  8.,  1866,  new  ed.  1686,  2  vols. 
12rao  (anti  .Shakespeare) ;  Bacon's  Prointis,  edited  by  .Mrs  H.  Pott,  1883,  Svo 
(antl-Shakcspeare) ;  W.  H.  Wyman,  Bibliography  of  the  BaconS.  Contro- 
versy, Cincinnati,  1884,  Svo,  255  entries  (of  which  117  pro-Shakespeare,  73 
anti-,  and  65  unclassilied). 

XXI.  BlDLIOORAPHT. 
P.  Meres,  Palladis  Tamia:  Witlt  Treasury,  169S,  12mo,  contains  th» 
earliest  list  of  Shakespeare's  works  ;  J.  Wilson,  Shakespeariana,~Catnto'7ue 
Hf  all  the  Books,  itc,  relating  to  8.,  1827,  sm.  Svo;  W.  T.  Lowndes.  8.  and 
his  Commentators,  1831,  Svo,  reprinted  from  the  Manual;  J.  O.  Ualliwell 
Phillipps,"  Shakespeariana :  Catalogue  of  Early  Editions,  Commentaries,  d-e., 
1841,  Svo,  Some  Account  of  AhI«i.  Books,  MSS.,  &C.,  illust.  of  8.,  in  hit 
possession,  1852,  4to,  illustrated.  Garland  of  Shakespeariana,  1854,  4lo,  Earlu 
Editions  of  8.,  1857,  Svo  (notices  of  14  early  quartos).  Brief  Hand  List  of 
Books,  ic.,  illustrative  of  8.,  1859,  Svo,  Skeleton  Uaiul  List  (if  the  Early 
Quartos,  1860,  Svo,  Harul  List  of  Shakespeariana,  1862,  Svo,  List  of  Watks 
Illustrative  of  8.  1807,  Svo,  Catalogue  of  the  S.  Library  and  Museum  nt 
Stratford-on-Avon,  1808,  Svo,  Hand  List  of  Early  Editions,  1^67,  8vo.  Cata- 
logue of  Wareholue  Library,  1876,  Svo,  Brief  Hand  List  qf  Selected  Parcels, 
1876,  and  Catalogue  of  8.  Study  Books,  1876,  Svo;  J.  Moulin,  Orittrekken  tenet 
algemeene  Literatuur  over  W.  8.,  Kampeu,  1845,  Svo  (only  part  2  published); 
S.  Literatur  in  Deutschland,  nci-lS51,  by  P.  H.,  Cassel,  185'4  sm.  Svo; 
P.  H.  Silli,',  Die  8.  Literatur  bit  Mittc  lS5t,,  eingejuhrt  v.  H.  Ulriei, 
Leipsic,  1854,  Svo;  L[enox],  SSs  Plays  in  Folio,  18G1,  4to,  bibliographical 
notice ;  II.  G.  Bohn,  Biography  and  Bibliography  qfS.^  Philobiblon  feoa,  lfe63» 
sm.  Svo,  bibliography  with  some  additions  from  his  edition  of  Lowndes; 
Shakespeareana:  Verzeichniss,\\ci\x\3.,  1SG4,  Svo  ;  F.  Thimm,  Shakespeariana 
from  I'JC',,  2ii  edition  containing  the  literature  to  1871,  1872,  Svo, 
continued  in  Transactions  of  N.  S.  Soc. ;  bibliographies  of  Hamlet, 
Lear,  Macbeth,  Ttonieo  and  Juliet,  Othello,  may  bo  found  in  H.  H.  Furncss'a 
New  Variorum  edition.  Philadelphia.  1673,  Ac.  ;  Catalogue  qf  the  8.  Memorial 
Library  at  the  Cambridge  Free  Public  Library,  1881,  nearly  all  presented  by 
H.  T.  ii.ill:  S.  A.  Allibone,  Shakespeare  Bibliography  (see  his  Dictionary, 
V.  2,  1870),  based  on  Bohn  witli  additional  Americana ;  A.  Cohn,  8.  Biblio- 
graphie,  1871,  &c.,  contributed  to  5.  Jahrbuch;  U.  T.  Hall,  Shakcj^arian 
Statistics,  new  edition  1874,  8vo:  J.  D.  Mullins,  Catalogue  of  the  S-  Memorial 
Library,  Birmingham  Free  Libraries,  1S72-6,  3  pts.  &vo,  a  niagnlflcent  col- 
lection of  7000  vols,  destroyed  by  fire  in  1879,  now  fully  replaced  ;  Kataloy 
d.  Bibliolhetc  der  Deutschen  8.  Ges.,  Weimai',  1S76,  Svo;  K.  Knortz,  An 
American  8.  Bibliography,  1876,  l'2rao ;  J.  Winsor,  Bibliography  of  the 
Original  Quartos  and  Folios.  Cambridge.  U.S.,  1876."  4to  (with  facsimiles),  and 
S.'s  Poems,  a  Bibliography  ot  the  Earbl  Editions,  1879,  Svo  ;  Catalogue  qf  H'orA-# 
of,  and  relating  to,  W.  8.,  Barton  Coll.,  Boston  Pub.  Lib.,  by  J.  M.  Hubbard, 
1878-80,  2  vols.  la.  Svo,  the  largest  collection  in  U.S. ;  II.  H.  Morgan, 
A.  Morgan,  Topical  Shakespeariana,  arranged  under  Headings,  St  Louis, 

1879,  Svo;  Topical  Index  Shakcspeareawe  (sic)  in  Shakespeariana,  1^^-^ 
pts.  xv.-xxil.,  repr.  as  Digest  Shakespearean.^  (sic),  pt.  1  (A-F),  y.Y.,  1S36, 
Svo ;  r.  J.  I.  Arnold,  8.  Bibliography  in  the  Netherlands,  The  Hague,  1879, 
sm.  Svo  ;  L.  Unflad,  Die  8.  Literatur  in  Deutschland,  ISSO,  Svo  ;  H.  T.  Hall, 
The  .Separate  Editions  of  S.'s  Plays,  with  the  Alterations  by  various  Bands, 

1880,  Svo  ;  J.  Jeremiah,  Aid  to  Shakespearean  Study,  ISSO,  Svo  j  8.  Tininiins, 
Books  on  8.,  1885,  am.  Svo.  (H.  R.  T.) 


SHALLOT.  See  Horticultitee,  yol.  zii.  p.  288. 
•  SHAiLVNISM  is  the  name  commonly  given  to  the 
type  o£  religion  which  once  prevailed  among  all  the  Ural- 
Altaic  peoples, — Tungus,  Mongol,  and  Turkish, — and  which 
still  lives  in  various  parts  of  northern  Asia  in  spite  of  the 
progress  of  Mohammedanism,  Buddhism,  and  Christianity. 
The  shaman  himself  (in  Turkish,  l:am)  is  a  wizard-priest, 
closely  akin  to  the  medicine-men  of  savage  tribes  in  other 
parts  of  the  world.  Outsiders  often  describe  Shamanism 
as  pure  devil-worship,  but  in  reality  the  shaman  or  karn 
deals  with  good  as  well  as  with  evil  spirits,  especially 
■with  the  good  spirits  of  ancestors  (rf.  Religion,  vol.  xx. 
p.  3G3).  Among  the  Altaians,  for  example,  the  practices 
of  the  sorcerers  rest  on  an  elaborate  cosmogony  and  a 
developed  doctrine  of  good  and  evil  powers,  the  friends 
and  enemies  of  man.  The  kam  has  the  power  of  influen- 
cing these  by  magic  ritual,  and  his  gift  is  hereditary, — his 
own  ancestors,  now  go<jd  spirits,  being  the  great  assistants 
of  his  work.  His  two  chief  functions  are  to  perform  sacri- 
fice, with  which  is  conjoined  the  procuring  of  oracles,  and 
to  purify  houses  after  a  death,  preventing  the  dead  man 
from  continuing  his  injurious  presence  among  the  living  ; 
see  the  full  accounts  of  Radlofl,  Atis  Siberien,  1884,  vol.  ii. 
In  his  magical  apparatus  a  drum  {liingilr)  hold.s  tlie  chief 
place.  The  ceremonies  have  a  dramatic  character,  the 
wizard  acting  an  ascent  to  the  heavens  or  a  descent  to  the 
under-world,  and  holding  colloquy  with  their  denizens  in 
scenes  of  great  excitement  ending  in  ecstasy  and  physical 
collapse.  The  epithet  of  devil-worship  a.s  applied  to  the 
Altaian  Shamanism  is  so  far  justified  that  the  groat  enemy 
of  man,  Erlik,  the  king  of  the  lower  world,  from  whom 
death  and  all  evils  come,  is  much  courted,  addressed  as 
father  and  guidrf,  and  propitiated  with  offerings.     Ho  is 


not,  however,  a  power  co-ordinate  with  the  highest  good 
god  Kaira  Kan,  but  is  the  creature  of  the  latter,  who 
banished  hira  underground  for  his  evil  deeds. 

SHAMMAI,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  sometimes  called  W,y^, 
"the "elder,"  was  the  contemporary  of  Hillel  {q-v.)  and 
the  head  of  a  rival  school.  The  pair  are  twelfth  in  order 
in  the  Pirke  Ahoth,  where  wo  are  informed  that  Shammai 
enjoined  his  disciples  to  make  a  special  business  of  the 
study  of  the  law,  to  promise  little  and  perforin  much,  and 
to  receive  every  one  in  a  friendly  spirit.  Of  his  personal 
history  nothing  is  known.  The  tendency  of  Shammai 
and  his  school  is  represented  as  having  been  towards  a 
more  scrupulously  and  burdensomely  literal  construction 
of  the  law  than  was  thought  necessary  by  Hillel ;  but 
their  differences  bo  far  as  known  turned  upon  very  trifling 
niinutiiB.  One  e.xample  of  his  rigour  will  suffice.  It  is 
related  of  him  in  the  Mishnah-  that  a  grand.son  having 
been  born  to  him  during  the  feast  of  tabernacles  he  caused 
the  ceiling  to  be  removed  and  the  bed  to  bo  canopied  with 
brancb  ,.,  in  order  that  the  child  also  might  observe  the 
solemnity  according  to  the  law. 

SHAMOKIN,  a  post  borough  of  the  United  States,  in 
Northumberland  county,  Tennsylvauia,  20  miles  south- 
east of  Sunbury,  is  a  great  centre  of  the  coal-Uftdc.  and 
had  a  population  in  1881  of  8184. 

SlIAJS'GHAI,  a  city  of  China.  The  native  city  of 
Shanghai  is  situated  in  31°  15'  N.  lat.  and  121°  27'  E.  long., 
and  stands  on  the  left  or  western  bank  of  the  Ilwang-p'u 
river,  about  twelve  miles  from  the  point  where  that  river 
empties  itself  into  the  estuary  of  the  Yang-tszo-kiang. 
The  walls  which  surround  it  are  about  3  J  miles  "in  circum- 
ference, and  are  pierced  by  seven  gates.  The  streets  and 
thoroughfares   may  be  said  to   illustrate  all   the  worse 


772 


SHAN  (}  U  A  I 


Shanghai. 


features-  of  Chinese  cities — dirt,  closeness,  and  absence  of 
all  sanitary  arrangements ;  wliile  the  want  of  any  build- 
in"  of  architectural  or  antiquarian  interest  robs  the  city 
of'any  redeeming  traits.     On  the  eastern  face  of  the  city, 
between   the   walls   and   the    river,  stands  the   principal 
suburb,  off  which  the  native  shipping  lies  anchored.     T)ie 
native  to>vn  Las  thus  nothing  to  recommend  it  except- its 
geo'Taphical   position.     Situated  in  the  extreme  eastern 
])ortion  of  the  province  of 
Kiaug-soo,  aud  possessing 
a  good  and  commodious 
anchorage,  as  well  as  au 
easy  access  to  the  oceau, 
it    forms    the    principal 
port    of    central    China. 
From    the    western    Wall 
&f  the  city  thei e  stretches 
away  a  rich  alluvial  plain 
extending    over    -1 5,000 
square    miles,    which    is 
intersected  by  nuuieiuus 
waterways      and      great 
chains    of    lakes.       'I'ho 
products  of    this    fertile 
district,   as  well  as  the 
teas  and   silks   of  more 
distant      regions,      hud 
their   natural    outlet   at 
Shanghai.       The    looms 
of  Soocliow  and  the  tea 
plantations  of  Gan  h  wuy, 
together   with    the    rice 
of  this  "garden  of  China,"  have  for  many  years  before 
treaty    days    supplied    the    Shanghai    junks    with    their 
richest  freight.      But   though    thus    favourably    situated 
as  an  emporium  of  trade  Shanghai  did  not  attract   the 
attention  of   foreign    diplomatists  until  the  outbreak    of 
the  war  of  1841,  when  the  inhabitants  purchased  protec- 
tion from  the  bombarding  propensities  of  Admiral  Parker 
by  the'  payment  of  a  ransom  of  one  million  taels.     In  the 
Nanking  treaty,  which  was  signed  in  the  following  year, 
Shanghai  was  included  among  the  four  new  ports  which 
were  thrown  open  to  trade  by  the  terms  of  that  document. 
In  1843  Sir  George  Balfour,   then  Captain   Balfour,  was 
appointed  British  consul,  and  it  was  on  his  motion  that  the 
site  of  the  present  English  settlement,  which  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Soochow  creek,  on  the  south  by  the 
Yang-king  canal,  and  on  the  east  by  the  river,  was  chosen. 
The  site,  thus  defined  on  its  three  sides  (on  the  west  no 
boundary  was  marked   out),  is  three-fifths  of  a  mile  in 
length,  and   was  separated  from  the   native  city   by   a 
narrow  strip  of  land  which  was  subsequently  selected  as 
the    site   of    the    French   settlement.       Later  again    the 
Americans  established  themselves  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Soochow  creek,  on  a  piece  of  land  fronting  on  the  river, 
which  there  makes  a 'sharp  turn  in  an  easterly  direction. 
At  first  merchants  appeared  disinclined  to  take  advantage 
of  the  opportunities  offered  them  at  Shanghai.     "At  the 
end  of  the  first  year  of  its  history  as  an  open  port  Shanghai 
Could   count  only    23  foreign   residents  and   families,    1 
cor>sular   flag,  11    merchants'   houses,    and  2   Profestant 
missionaries.     Only  forty-four  foreign  vessels  had  arrived 
during    the   same    period."'     By    degrees,    however,    the 
manifold   advantages   as    a-  port   of   trade   possessed   by 
Shanghai  attracted  merchants  of  all   nationalities ;   and 
from  the  banks  of  the  Hwang-p'u  arose  lines  of  hongs 
and  handsome  dwelling-houses,  w-hich  havb  converted   a 
reed-covered  swamp  into  one  of  the  finest  cities  in  the  East. 

'  The  Treaty  Ports  of  China  and  Japan,  by  W.  F.  Mayer. 


The  number  of  foreigner;!,  other  than  English,  who 
took  up  their  abode  in  the  English  settlement  at  Shanghai 
made  it  soon  ncces.=;ary  to  adopt  some  more  catholic  form 
of  government  than  that  supplied  by  an  English  consul 
who  had  control  only  over  British  subjects,  and  by  com- 
mon agreement  a  committee  of  residents,  consisting  of  a 
chairman  and  six  members,  was  elected  by  the  renters 
of  land  for  the  purposes  of  general  municipal  administra- 
tion. It  was  expected  when  the  council  was  formed  that 
the  three  settlements — the  British,  French,  and  Americans 
— would  have  been  incorporated  into  one  municipality, 
but  international  jealousy  prevented  the  fulfilment  of  the 
scheme,  and  it  was  not  until  1863  that  the  Americans 
threw  in  their  lot  with  the  British.  In  1853  the  pro- 
sperity of  the  settlements  received  a  severe  check  in  con- 
sequence of  the  capture  of  the  native  city  by  a  band  of 
insurgents,  who  held  possession  of  the  walls  from  September 
in  that  year  to  February  1855.  This  incident,  though  io 
many  ways  disastrous,  was  the  exciting  cause  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  foreign  customs  service,  which  has  proved 
of  such  inestimable  advantage  to  the  Chinese  Government. 
The  confusion  into  which  the  customs  system  was  thrown 
by  the  occupation  of  the  city  by  the  rebels  induced  the 
Chinese  authorities  to  request  the  consuls  of  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  the  United  States  to  nominate  three 
officers  to  superintend  the  collection  of  the  revenue.  •  This 
arrangement  was  found  to  work  so  well  that  on  the  re- 
occupation  of  the  city  the  native  authorities  proposed  that 
it  should  be  made  permanent,  and  Mr  H.  N.  Lay,  of  H.M.'s 
consular  service,  was  in  consequence  appointed  inspector 
of  the  Shanghai  customs.  The  results  of  Mr  Lay's  ad- 
ministration proved  so  successful  that  when  arranging  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  of  1858  the  Chinese  willingly  assented 
to  the  application  of  the  same  system  to  all  the  treaty  ports, 
and  !Mr  Lay  was  thereupon  appointed  inspector-general  of 
maritime  customs.  On  the  retirement  of  Mr  Lay  in  1S62 
Sir  Robert  Hart  was  appointed  to  the  post,  which  he  still 
(1886)  occupies. 

During  the  period  from  1856  to  1864  the  trade  of  Shanghai 
increased  by  leaps  and  by  bounds,  and  its  prosperity  culminated 
between  1860  and  18tj4,  when,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  commerce, 
the  influx  of  Chinese  into  the  foreign  settlement  in  consequence  of 
the  advance  eastward  of  the  T'si -p'ing  rebels  added  enormously  to 
the  value  of  land  and  to  the  profits  of  the  leaseholders.  Both  in 
1860  and  again  in  1861  the  rebels  advanced  to  the  walls  of  Shanghai, 
and  on  both  occasions  were  driven  back  in  confusion  by  the  British 
troops  and  volunteers,  aided  by  the  naval  forces  of  England  and 
France.  It  was  in  connexion  with  this  resistance  to  the  rebels  at 
Shanghai  that  General  Gordon  assumed  thecoramandof  the  Chinese 
force,  which  under  his  direction  gave  a  meaning  and  reality  to  the 
hitherto  somewhat  boastful  title  of  "ever-victorious  army  '  it  had 
assumed  under  the  generalship  of  the  two  American  adventurers 
Ward  and  Burgerine.  To  Shanghai  the  successful  operations  of 
Gordon  against  the  rebels  brought  temporarily  disastrous  conse- 
(juences.  With  the  disappearance  of  the  T'ai-p'ings  the  refugees 
who  had  sought  safety  in  the  foreign  settlements  returned  to  their 
homes,  leaving  whole  streets  and  quarters  deserted  and  empty.  The- 
loss  thus  inllicted  on  the  municipality  was  very  considerable,  and 
was  intensified  by  a  commercial  crisis  in  the  markets  of  cotton  and 
tea,  in  both  of  which  articles  there  had  been  a  great  deal  of  over- 
speculation.  But,  though  the  abnormal  prosperity  produced  by 
extraordinary  circumstances  was  thus  suddenly  brought  to  an  end, 
the  genuine  trade  of  the  port  has  steadily  advanced,  subject  of 
course  to  occasional  fluctuations.  For  example,  between  the  years 
1878  and  1881  the  gross  value  of  the  trade  increased  from  110,956,274 
taels  to  141,391,357  taels.  In  1883,  however,  this  amount  fell  to 
110,433,531  taels,  while  in  1884  it  rose  again  to  113,215,520  taels, 
although  at  this  time,  as  will  be  remembered,  hostilities  were  being 
carried  on  between  France  and  China.  In  the  same  year  63,562 
bales  of  silk  were  exported,  as  against  47,807  bales  in  1883,  and 
27,084,675  lb  of  green  tea,  as  against  25,336,041  lb  in  1883. 
In  black  tea  there  was  a  falling  off,  the  respective  figures  being 
43,813,058  and  48,251,637  lb.  The  total  burthen  of  foreign  steamers 
which  entered  and  cleared  at  Shanghai  during  1884  waa  3,145,242 
tons.  Of  this  amount  2,238,433  tons  were  British,  500,222  were 
American,  188,484  were  Japanese,  93,226  were  German,  88,983 
were  French,  24,572  were  Russian,  and  11,322  were  Danish. 

According  to  the   latest  estimate  the  native  population  of  the 


S  H  A  — S  H  A 


773 


city  and  eubura:  jf  Shanghai  amounts  to  156,000.  When  to  this 
uumber  the  ha^t  population,  amounting  to  11,000,  and  tho  mixed 
inhabitants  of  ;iie  foreign  settlements,  numbering  145,600,  are 
added,  a  total  is  rtached  of  312,500  souls. 

The  vastness  of  English  interests  in  China  and  tho  large  Brltlsn 
population  at  Shanghai  gave  rise  in  1865  to  tho  establishment  of  a 
British  supreme  court  for  China  and  Japan, — Sir  Edmund  Hornby, 
who  was  then  the  judge  of  the  British  court  at  Constantinople,  being 
the  first  judge  appointed  to  the  new  office.  The  court  thus  consti- 
tuted not  only  exercises  jurisdiction  over  the  British  subjects  at 
Shanghai  but  acts  as  a  court  of  appeal  from  all  British  consular 
courts  in  China  and  Japan.  All  charges  against  Chinamen  within 
the  settlement  are  tried  before  a  mixed  court,  which  sits  daily, 
presided  over  by  a  Chinese  official  and  an  officer  of  tho  con.sular 
service.  During  the  year  1884  2,304  criminal  coses  were  tried 
before  this  tribunal,  and  89  civil  cases, — in  85  of  which  cases  no 
less  a  sum  than  £60,000  was  involved. 

A  handsome  bund  runs  along  the  river  frontage  of  the  three 
foreign  settlements,  and  the  public  buildings,  especially  in  the 
British  settlement,  are  large  and  fine.  The  cathedral,  which  is 
bdilt  in  the  Gothic  style,  is  a  notable  example  of  Sir  Gilbert  Scott's 
skill  as  on  architect,  and  the  municipal  offices,  club-house,  and 
hospitals  are  all  admirable  in  their  way.  Shanghai  is  now  con- 
nected with  Peking  by  a  telegraph,  which  will  doubtless  before 
long  be  supplemented  by  a  railway.  Some  years  ago  a  short 
railnay  was  laid  down  between  Shanghai  and  Woosung  by  some 
foreigners  who  wished  to  force  the  pace  at  which  China  was  pro- 
gressing. But  the  time  had  not  come  when  such  a  step  would 
be  adopted  by  the  Chinese,  and  after  a  few  weeks'  existence  the 
plant  was  bought  by  the  native  authorities  and  shipped  to  Formosa, 
whore  it  has  since  been  allowed  to  rust  and  rot.  The  climate  of 
fihangbai  is  essentially  unhealthy.  It  lies  low,  and,  though  the 
early  winter  is  enjoyable,  enow  and  ice  being  occasionally  seen, 
the  summer  months  are  swelteringly  hot.  Fever,  dysentery,  and 
cholera  are  unfortunately  common  complaints,  and  it  is  only  by 
frequent  trips  to  Japan  and  Chefoo  that  the  residents,  are  able  to 
preserve  health  and  strength.  But,  notwithstanding  every  dis- 
edvontage,  the  position  occupied  by  Shanghai  as  a  centre  of  trade, 
situated  as  it  is  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yang-tsze-kiang,  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  richest  silk  and  tea  districts,  and 
in  proximity  to  Japan  and  the,  newly-opened  ports  of  Corea, 
insures  for  it  an  increasing  volume  of  commerce  and  a  widening 
prosperity  in  the  future.  (R.  K.  D.) 

SHANNON.     See  Ireland,  vol.  xiii.  p.  216. 

SHANS.  Tkis  name  is  applied  to  a  number  of  for 
the  most  part  semi-independent  communities  occupying  a 
region  bounded  on  tks  W.  by  Burmah  and  Assam,  N.  and 
N.E.  by  the  Chinese  crovince  of  Yun-nan,  E.  by  Tong- 
king,  and  S.  by  Siam  (see  Plate  IX.).  Ethnologically 
the  race  has  a  much  wider  extension,  including  the 
Siamese  (see  Siam),  and  also,  according  to  Garnier  and 
Colquhoun,  the  hill  tribes  around  the  Tong-king  delta 
end  various  tribes  of  Kwang-tung  and  Kwang-se,  and 
extending  across  tho  north  of  Burmah  into  Assam.  It 
is  also  widely  diffused  through  south-western  Yun-nan. 
Terrion  do  Lacouperie  considers  it  allied  to  tho  Mon,  the 
Mung,  and  the  Pa,  and  places  its  early  home  in  the 
mountains  north  of  Sze-cbuen,  whence,  not  having  amal- 
gamated with  the  growing  Chinese  empire,  it  was  gradually 
forced  southwards.  Although  the  level  of  civilization  and 
the  purity  of  their  Buddhism  vary  considerably  among  the 
different  branches  of  the  race,  there  is  everywhere  a 
remarkable  resemblance  in  appearance,  manners,  customs, 
and  polity.  Tho  traditions  current  of  their  origin,  too, 
though  localized  by  each  in  its  own  habitat,  are  closely 
similar.  This  great  homogeneity  seems  the  more  ron'ark- 
able  in  that  the  race  is  found  not  only  living  under  many 
different  political  systems, — i.e.,  either  independent,  or 
subject  to  Burmah,  China,  or  Siam, — but  often  in  com- 
munities isolated  by  mountain  ranges,  inhabited  by  tribes 
of  different  race  and  character.  All  this  seems  to  point  to 
a  political  unity  in  earlier  times. 

Tho  Shans  probably  appeared  on  the  upper  Irawadi 
nearly  two  thousand  years  ago,  but  ]?urmeso  and  Shan 
traditions  agree  that  they  wore  established  somo  centuries 
earlier  on  tho  u|ii)er  waters  of  the  Sliweli  and  on  the 
Salwin  and  adjacent  valleys  on  tho  south-west  frontiers 
of  Yun-nan.     Here,  at  all  events,  in  tho  7th  and  8th  cen- 


turies, we  hear  of  the  growth  of  that  power  which, 
temporarily  broken  by  Burmah  in  the  lith  century, 
reached  its  highest  development  in  tho  13th.  This  Suan 
empire,  known  by  the  classical  Indian  name  of  Kausambi, 
— corrupted  after  the  punning  Chinese  fashion  iuto  Ko- 
shan-pyi,  i.e.,  nine  Shan  states, ^ — was  a  confederacy  of 
about  ton  states,  known  among  them.selves  by  the  name 
of  the  most  powerful  member,  Mau,  or  Muang  Mau.  A 
great  leader,  Sam  Lung  Pha,  brother  of  the  king  of  Mao, 
overran  and  conquered  Upper  Assam  from  the  Satiyas  in 
1229,  the  dynasty  lasting  until  tho  British  annexation. 
These  Ahoms  still  inhabit  the  Assam  districts  of  Sibsagar 
and  south  and  east  Lakhimpur,  though  pressed  on  from 
the  south-west  by  the  Bengalis,  whom  they  despise  as  a 
black  and  inferior  race,  preferring  to  associate  with  the 
Chinese,  whom  they  regard  as  congeners,  and  as  the 
greatest  race  in  the  world. 

This  13th  and  the  following  century  also  saw  Tali  to 
the  east  and  Arakan  to  the  west  invaded,  Burmah  being 
then  weakened  by  the  Mongol  invasion  ;  Chieng  Mai  and 
other  southern  Shan  states  were  also  annexed,  and 
"  Ayuthia  "  {i.e.,  Siam),  Cambodia,  and  Tavoy  are  claimed 
by  the  Shan  historians  as  among  their  conquests,  the 
Shan  influence  being  felt  even  in  Java.  From  tho  14th  to 
the  16th  century  wars  with  both  Burmah  and  China  were 
frequent,  and  Shan  dynasties  ruled  at  times  in  Burmah ; 
but  in  1556-62  the  Burmese  conquered  Mogaung,  the 
chief  province  of  Mau,  when  Buddhism  is  recorded  to 
have  been  introduced  :  probably  only  a  reform  of  religion 
is  meant.  In  1604  the  districts  now  known  as  the  Chinese 
Shan  States,  i.e.,  the  heart  of  the  JIau  empire,  lying 
chiefly  in  the  Ta-peng  basin,  east  of  Bamo, — a  town  whose 
population  also  is  mainly  Shan, — were  finally  conquered 
by  China,  Mogaung  remaining  independent  on  sufferance 
till  absorbed  by  Burmah  in  1796. 

Zimm6  or  Chieng  Mai  (including  Kiang  Hai,  Kiang  Sen, 
Lagong,  and  Lapong),  whose  capital  is  now  an  important 
and  well-built  town,  and  Vien  Chang  on  the  east  of  the 
Mekong,  were  both  great  Shan  centres,  warring,  with 
various  fortunes,  with  Burmah  and  Cambodia  and  with 
each  other,  till  subjected  by  the  growing  uower  of  Siam 
late  in  the  last  century. 

The  Burmese  Shan  States,  especially  those  more  remote 
from  Mandalay,  have  latterly  become  practically  inde- 
pendent: and,  the  tyranny  which  led  to  extensive  south- 
ward migration  having  thus  ceased,  the  stream  is  partly 
returning  northwards.  Descendants,  too,  of  tho  popula- 
tion deported  by  Siam  from  Kiang  Sen  about  a  hundred 
years  ago  are  now  by  the  king's  permission  returning  to 
fieoi>le  that  fertile  territory.  The  Burmese  plan  with  the 
Shans  was  to  govern  by  fostering  internal  dissensions,  and 
they  are  bitterly  hated,  while  the  Chinese  are  in  an  equal 
degree  liked  and  respected.  The  great  Shan  stuto  of 
Kiang  Hung  has  now  accepted  the  dictation  of  China,  to 
whom  in  fact,  like  somo  of  it«  lesser  neighbours,  it  baa 
always  paid  certain  taxes,  while  acknowledging  tho  supre- 
macy of  Burmah.  Kiang  Tung  to  tho  south,  which  bos 
been  Burmese  for  over  a  century,  hos  lately  made  over- 
tures to  Siam,  though  not  forgetting  the  injuries  inflicted 
by  that  power  in  1854.  Tho  numerous  ruins  of  great 
cities  over  the  whole  region  from  Chieng  Mai  to  Kiang  Tung 
testify  to  former  wealth  and  prosperity,  though  they  may 
not  have  all  existed  contemporaneously.  In  Luang  Pra- 
bang  in  tho  north-oast,  on  tho  other  hand,  tribes  of  a  i)artly 
Chinese  raco  aro  pressing  southwards.  It  is  remarkable 
how  many  of  the  conquering  irruptions  of  south-cant  Asia 
wore  due  mainly  to  tho  eviction  of  such  conquerors  by 
some  stronger  power.  Incessant  wars  and  vast  deporta- 
tions have  tended  to  assimilate  tho  various  populations  of 
all  this  region. 


774 


S  HTA  — S  H  A 


Each  Sliau  state  is  governed  by  3  <s. '"'"'  Uhao  p'hya),  or  supreme 
chief,  aided  by  a  couucil,  aud  often  by  i,  oudjutor.  Where  the 
Shans  ar«  in  immediate  contact  with  one  of  their  great  neighbours 
their  habits  and  customs  are  necessarily  modified  ;  otherwise, 
Bjijeaking  generally,  civilization  increases  southwards.  Religion 
is  nominally  Buddhist,  and  the  priests,  though  their  lives  are 
usually  fas  from  correct,  have  great  influence  ;  temples,  caves,  and 
other  localities  sacred  to  Buddha  are  thronged  with  worshippers 
liberal  with  their  offerings ;  but  the  practical  exer'ise  of  religion 
consists  chiefly  in  efforts  to  propitiate  or  avert  the_  evil  influence 
of  the  nats  or  p'hecs,  demons  and  spirits  everywhere  present,  to 
whom  all  accidents  and  illnesses  are  attributed.  Along  with  the 
Buddha,  various  images,  among  which  the  horse  is  not  uncommon, 
are  adored  (though  there  are  temples  in  which  these  are  not  found) ; 
and  fetiches — natural  objects  of  special  form,  e.g.,  of  some  part  of 
the  body — are  kept  in  the  liouse  to  avert  disease.  Medical  treat- 
ment consists  largely  in  magical  practices,  and  individuals  de- 
nounced by  the  sick  as  the  cause  of  their  illness  frequently  have 
their  houses  burned  and  are  themselves  deported  to  a  distance. 
Thus,  too,  ordeals  have  a  prominent  place  in  legal  practice.  The 
Shanshave  no  Buddhist  prejudices  against  killing  poultry  or  cattle 
for  food,  but  like  other  Indo-Chinese  and  the  Malays  do  not  use  milk. 
Slavery  is  general ;  the  supply  is  recruited  .partly  by  raids  on 
neighbouring  hill  tribes  ;  the  Indo-Chinese  practice  of  slavery  for 
debt  also  prevails.  The  slaves  are  not  ill-treated,  and  are  chiefly 
employed  in  iieid  labour  by  the  chaos,  who  own  great  numbers. 
In  appearance  the  North  Shans  are  sallow,  but  hardly  darker  than 
South  Europeans,  and  are  characterized  by  a  short  broad  flat  face, 
more  elongated  and  nearer  the  Tartar  type  in  the  upper  classes ; 
they  have  red  cheeks,  brown  eyes  hardly  oblique,  black  hair, 
nose  almost  aquiline,  and  are  of  medium  height.  The  Chinese 
Shans  are  much  smaller,  with  souat  figures,  prominent  cheek-bones, 
and  oblique  eyes. 

The  practice  of  tattooing  prevails  in  some  districts,  down  to  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Me-nam,  and  it  occurs  also  among  the  Laos  in 
the  south-east,  the  tattooed  being  known  az  the  black-bellied,  the 
non-tattooed  as  the  white-hellied.  The  Shans  are  all  hardier  and 
more  manly  than  their  congeners  the  Siamese,  and  they  are  also 
more  sedate  and  more  self-possessed  than  the  Burmese.  Most 
travellers  speak  of  them'  as  brave,  friendly,  social,  and  hospitable, 
but  a  good  deal  of  the  oppression  and  cruelty  natural  to  a  semi- 
barbarous  condition  prevails.  They  are  cleanly  and  fond  of 
bathing,  the  towns  and  Tillages  being  supplied  with  bamboo 
aqueducts.  Drunkenness,  except  at  festivals,  is  rare.  Gambling 
is  common,  whole  families  being  sold  into  slavery  to  pay  debts 
thus  contracted.  Public  gaming  aud  the  sale  of  spirits  and 
opium  are  monopolies.  Tliey  show  much  artistic  taste  in  the 
beautiful  colours  of  their  textile  fabrics,  the  needlework  and 
embroidery  of  the  women,  and  the  designing  and  execution  of  the 
silver  ornaments  wliich  are  woi;n  in  profusion.  They  show  great 
aptitude  for  trade,  and  are  said  by  Mr  Holt  Hallett  to  welcome 
the  prospect  of  the  railway  intended  to  connect  their  country  with 
Maulmein,  crossing  thence  to  Raheng  or  some  neighbouring  point 
on  the  Me-nam,  and  on  through  the  fertile  valleys  and  plateaus  on 
its  upper  tributaries  to  the  Chinese  frontier. 

Tea  is  found,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  from  Zimme  to  iviang 
Tung.  Opium  is  exported  to  Mandalay  and  to  China.  Indian 
corn,  sugar,  and  tobacco  are  grown  in  the  low  grounds,  and 
excellent  cotton  and  indigo  (which  also  grows  wild  in  the  hills). 
Teak  has  long  be^n  worked  by  Anglo-Burmese  in  the  eastern 
affluents  of  the  Toong-yen  and  neighbouring  valleys,  and  has 
become  comparatively  scarce  west  of  the  Me-ping ;  but  it  grows 
freely  in  the  hills  and  valleys  around  Kiang  Sen  and  Lagong,  and 
in  the  hill  ret'ion  of  eastern  Siam,  where,  however,  it  is  of  inferior 
quality.  Silk  is  produced,  and  iron,  copper,  and  silver-lead 
(galena)  ores  are  worked. 

The  Shan  languages  are  classified  oy  Dr  Gushing  as  follows  : — 
Ahom  (AssAm),  extinct ;  Khamti,  on  the  upper  Irawadi  and  other 
valleys  on  the  extreme  north  of  Burmah  ;  the  Chinese  (Mau)  Shans, 
east  from  Bimo  ;  Shans  proper,  between  the  mountains  which 
bound  the  Burmese  plains  in  the  east  and  the  Me-koug,  and  between 
23°  and  19"  N.  lat. ;  Laos  to  the  south  of  this,  from  19"  north  to  the 
frontiers  of  Siam  ;  and  lastly,  Siamese.  The  last  two,  as  spoken, 
differ  but  little,  and  the  three  others  may  be  grouped  together. 
All  have  separate  alphabets  (related,  however,  in  form),  except  the 
Siamese  ;  and,  the  spelling  being  phonetic,  the  orthography  is 
tolerably  fixed.  But  it  is  a  tonal  language,  and  the  vowel  signs 
are  few,  so  that  some  have  two  or  three  values  assigned  them. 
There  are  a  good  many  Pali  words  due  to  Buddhism,  many  Bur- 
mese words  in  the  districts  under  Burmese  influence,  and  a  large 
foreign  element  in  the  Chinese  Shan  state  of  Ho-tha,  where  the 
race  is  perhaps  not  fundamentally  Shan. 

See  Xey  Elias,  Introductory  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Shans  m  Upper 
Burmah  and  West  Tun-nan,  Calcutta,  1876  ;  Yule,  Glossary  of  Anglo-Indian  Words 
and  Phrases  (ISSti),  and  Narrative  of  the  Mission  to  Ava  (1858)  ;  Anderson,  l^rom 
tfandaUtu  to  Uomien ;  Colquhouri,  Among  the  Shans  ■  Cusliing,  Shan  Dictionary 
llntrnducMon);  Bock.  Templa  and  Elephants;  Sir  A.  Phayre,  History  of 
Burmall.'  (C.  T.) 


SHARK.-  The  systematic  position  of  the  group  of 
Sharks  or  Selachoidu  in  the  class  of  Fislieb,  their  classificsk- 
tion,  and  their  general  external  and  anatomical  character- 
istics have  been  already  sufficiently  noticed  under  Ichthy- 
ology (vol.  xii.  pp.  630  «7.),  and  we  have  here  to  supplement 
that  article  only  by  a  fuller  reference  to  the  natural  history 
of  the  more  common  and  more  important  types  of  the 
group. 

Sharks  are  almost  exclasively  innabitants  of  the  sea, 
but  some  species  freely  enter  the  mouths  of  large  rivers; 
and  one  species  {Carcharias  ganc/eticus)  occurs  frequently 
high  up  in  the  large  rivers  of  India,  and  in  the  Tigris 
about  Baghdad,  at  a  distance  of  350  miles  from  the  Persian 
Gulf  in  a  straight  line,  and  has  even  been  reported  from 
a  lake  in  Viti  Levu  (Fiji  Islands)  which  is  shut  off  from 
the  sea  by  a  cataract.  Sharks  are  found  in  all  seas  ;  most 
numerous  between  the  tropics,  they  become  scarcer  beyond, 
a  few  only  reaching  the  Arctic  circle ;  it  is  not  known  how 
far  they  advance  southwards  in  the  Antarctic  region.  Alto- 
gether some  hundred  aod  fifty  different  species  have  been 
described. 

With  regard  to  their  habits  many  are  littorai  species, 
the  majority  pelagic,  and  a  few  are  known  to  belong  to 
the  bathybial  fauna,  having  hitherto  been  obtained  down 
to  a  depth  of  500  fathoms. 

Littoral  Sharks. — The  littoral  forms  are  of  small  size, 
and  generally  known  under  the  name  of  "  dog-fishes," 
"hounds,"  &c.  Some  pelagic  sharks  of  larger  size  also 
live  near  the  shore  on  certain  parts  of  a  coast,  but  they 
are  attracted  to  it  by  the  abundance  of  food,  and  are  aa 
frequently  found  in  the  open  sea,  which  is  their  birth-" 
place ;  therefore  c^e  shall  refer  to  them  when  we  speak  of 
the  pelagic  kinds. 

The  majority  of  the  littoral  species  live  on  the  bottom, 
sometimes  close  inshore,  and  feed  on  small  marine  animals 
or  on  any  animal  substance.  The  following  are  deserving 
of  special  notice. 

The  Tope  {Galeus)  is  common  on  toe  ceases  nou  oniy  of 
England,  Ireland,  and  of  the  more  southern  parts  of 
Europe,  but  also  of  South  Africa,  California,  Tasmania, 
and  New  Zealand.     Its  teeth  are  equal  in  both  a 

jaws,  of  rather  small  size,  flat,  triangular,  with 
the  point  directed-  towards  the  one  side,  and 
with  a  notch  and  dentictdations  on  the  shorter 
side  (fig.  1).  It  is  of  a  uniform  slaty-grey 
colour,  and  attains  to  a  length  of  6  feet.  The 
female  brings  forth  some  thirty  living  young  at 
one  birth  in  May.  It  cannot  be  regarded  as  a 
very  destructive  fish,  but  becomes  troublesome  ^'°- 
at  times  to  fishermen  by  taking  their  bait  and 
driving  away  other  fish  they  desire  to  catch. 

The  Hounds  proper  {Mustelus)  possess  a  very  different 
dentition,  the  teeth  being  small,  obtuse,  numerous,  arranged 
in  several  rows  like  pavement  (fig.  2).  Five  or  six  speciea 
are  known  from  the  shores  of  the 
various  temperate  and  subtropical 
seas,  one  (M.  vul  aris)  being  common 
on  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  on  the  Pacific  as  well  as 
the  Atlantic  side.  It  is  of  a  uniform 
grey  colour  or  sparingly  spotted  with  ^'"^  '-'^"'"' "'  "•"""'■ 
white,  and  attains  to  a  length  of  3  or  4  feet.  The  young, 
about  twelve  in  number,  are  brought  forth  alive  in  Nov- 
ember. It  is  a  comparatively  harmless  fish,  which  feeds 
on  shells,  crustaceans,  and  decomposing  animal  substancea 

Of  the  Dog-Fishes  proper  (Scyllium,  Ckiloscyllium,  &,c.) 
some  twenty  species  are  known,  which  are  spread  over  nearly 
all  the  temperate  and  tropical  seas.  Their  teeth  are  small, 
in  several  series,  with  a  longer  pointed  cusp  in  the  middle, 
and  generally  one  or  two  smaller  ones  on  each  side  (figs. 


1.— leelb 
Tope.     «, 
uppei ;  t,  loit- 
er.   (X  2.) 


SHARK. 


775 


3  and  5).  They  are  all  oviparous,  their  oblong  egg-shells 
l>eiug  produced  at  each  corner  into  a  long  thread  by  which  the 
^g  is  fastened  to  some  fixed  object.  Some  of  the  tropical 
8()ecies  are  ornamented  with 
a  pretty  pattern  of  coloration.  •; 
The  two  British  species,  the 
Lesser  and  the  LargerSpotted 
Dog-Fish  {Sc.  canicula  and 
Sc.  cattdua),  belong  to  the 
most  common  fishes  of  the 
coast,  and  are  often  con- 
founded with  each  other. 
But  the  former  is  finely  dotted 
with  brown  above,  the  latter  having  the  same  parts  covered 
with  larger  rounded  brown  spots,  some  of  which  are  nearly 


*Y^  7)  ^ 


Fio.  3.— Teeth  of  Scytlium  eanlcuta. 


The  so-called  Port  Jackson  Shark  (Cestraeion)  is  likewise 
a  littoral  form.     Besides  the  common  species  {C.  philippi). 


f  10.  4. — ChiJoscylHum  trhpeculare. 

as  large  as  the  eye.     As  regards  size,  the  latter   exceeds 
somewhat  the  other  species,  attaining  to  a  length  of  4  feet. 
Dogfishes    may    become 
extremely      troublesome  ^^t> 
by  the  large  numbers  in      v 
which  they  congregate  at 
fishing  stations ;   nor  do 
they,  compensate  for  the 
injury     they    cause     to 
fishermen,      being      but 
rarely  used  as  food,  ex- 
cept  at   certain   seasons 
by    the     poorer    classes 
of     the     Jlcditerrancan 
countries,  in   China  and 
Japan,  and  in  the  Ork- 
neys, where  they  are  dried  ■'■<»•  B.— Confluent  Nasal  and  Baccal  CavlUca 
-    "^   ',  "^  ,.  of  the  same  fish. 

for    noma    consumption. 

The  Black-mouthed  Dog-Fish  (^Prisiiurua  melanostomvs)  is 
another  European  species  which  is  rarely  caught  on  the 
British  coasts,  and  is  recognized  by  a  series  of  small,  flat 
8|)ines  with  which  each  side  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  caudal 
fin  is  armed. 

The  Tiger-Shark  {Stegostoma  tigrinum)  is  one  of  the 
commonest  and  handsomest  sharks  in  the  Indian  Ocean. 
The  ground  colour  is  a  brownish-yellow,  and  the  whole  fish 
is  ornamented  with  black  or  brown  transverse  bands  or 
rounded  spots.  It  h  a  littoral  species,  but  adult  specimens, 
v'hich  are  from  10  to  15  feet  long,  are  not  rarely  met  far 
from  land.  It  is  easily  recognized  by  its  enormously  long 
bladelike  tail,  which  is  half  as  long  as  tho  whole  fish.  The 
teeth  are  small,  trilobed,  in  many  series.  The  fourth  and 
fifth  gill-openings  aro  close  together. 

The  genus  Crossor/dnus,  of  which  throe  species  aro  known 
from  tho  coasts  of  Australia  and  Japan,  is  remarkable  as 
the  only  instance  in  this  group  of  fishes  in  which  the  in- 
teguments give  these  inactive  ground-sharks,  whilst  they  lie 
concealed  watching  for  their  prey,  what  may  be  called  a 
"celative"  rather  than  a  "protective"  resemblance  to  their 
surroundings.  Skinny  frond-like  appendages  aro  developed 
near  the  angle  of  tho  mouth,  or  form  a  wreath  round  the 
side  of  tho  head,  and  the  irregular  and  varied  coloration  of 
the  whole  body  closely  assimilates  that  of  a  rock  covered 
with  short  vegetable  and  corallino  growth.  This  peculiar 
development  reminds  us  of  the  similar  condition  in  tho  sea- 
devil  (Lop/iiuf),  whore  it  serves  also  to  conceal  the  fish  from 
its  prey,  rather  than  to  protect  it  from  its  enomiea  Tho 
species  of  Crossorhinus  grow  to  a  length  of  10  feet 


Fig.  6. — Ceitracion  galeattu, 

three  other  closely  allied  kinds  from  the  Indo-Pacific  are 
known.  This  genus,  which  is  the  only  existing  type  of  a 
separate  family,  is  one  of  special  interest,  as  similar  forms 
occur  in  Primary  and  Secondary  strata.  The  jaws  are 
armed  with  small  obtuse  teeth  in  front,  which  in  young 
individuals  are  pointed,  and  provided  with  from  three  to 
five  cusps.  The  lateral  teeth  are  larger,  pad -like,  twice  aa 
broad  as  long  and  arranged  in  oblique  series  (fig.  7), — an 


Fio.  7.— Upper  Jaw  of  Port  Jackson  Shark  (Oulncion pHrippI).    (x  {.) 

arrangement  admirably  adapted  for  the  prehension  and 
mastication  of  crustaceans  and  hard-shelled  animals.  The 
fossil  forms  far  exceeded  in  size  the  living,  which  scarcely 
attain  to  a  length  of  5  feet.  The  shells  of  their  eggs  are 
not  rare  in  collections,  being  found  thrown  ashore  like  those 
of  our  dog-fishes.  The  shell  is  pyriform,  with  two  broad 
lamellar  ridges  each  wound  edgewise  five  times  round  it 
(fig.  8). 

The  Spiny  or  Piked  Dog-Fish  (Acanihias)  inhabits,  like 
tho  majority  of  littoral  genera  of  sharks,  the  temperate 
seas  of  both  tho  northern  and  southern  hemispheres.  For 
some  part  of  tho  year  it  lives  in  deeper  water  than  the 
sharks  already  noticed,  but  at  uncertain  irregular  times  it 
appears  at  the  surface  and  close  inshore  in  almost  incredible 
numbers.  Couch  says  that  ho  has  heard  of  20,000  having 
been  taken  in  a  scan  at  one  time  ;  and  in  March  1858  tho 
newspapers  reported  a  prodigious  shoal  reaching  westward 
to  Uig,  whence  it  extended  from  20  to  .30  miles  seaward, 
and  in  an  unbroken  phalanx  eastward  to  Moray,  Banff,  and 
Aberdeen.  In  tho  deep  fjords  of  Norwoy,  and  indeed 
at  every  station  of  which  a,  shoal  of  these  fishes  has  taken 
temporary  possession,  line-fishing  has  to  bo  snancndcd 
during  tho  time  of  their  visit,  aa  they  cut  tho  lines  with 
their  Bcissors-liko  teeth.     As  expressed  by  tho  mime,  those 


776 


SHARK 


fishes   are  distinguished   from  the  other   British  littoral 
aharks  by  each  of  the  two  dorsal  fins  being  armed  in  front 


'^\ 


Fio.  ».— TcLth  of  Acan- 
thias  vulgaris. 


Fig.  8. — Egg-shell  of  same  fish  (x  i).    I.,  external  view;  II.,  section  ;  a  and  b, 
the  two  spiral  riilges ;  c,  cavity  for  the  ovum. 

by  an  acute  spine.  They  do  not  possess  an  anal  fin. 
Theit  teeth  are  rather  small,  placed  in  a  single  series,  with 
the  point  so  much  turned  aside  that  the  inner  margin  of 
the  tooth  forms  the  cutting  edge  (fig.  9).  The  spiny  dog- 
fish are  of  a  greyish  colour,  with  some 
whitish  spots  in  young  specimens,  and 
attain  to  a  length  of  2  or  3  feet.  They 
are  viviparous,  the  young  being  pro- 
duced throughout  the  summer  months. 
It  is  stated  that  in  the  northern  islands 
of  Great  Britain  they  are  dried  for 
food,  and  that  their  livers  yield  a  large 
quantity  of  oil. 

Finally,  we  have  to  notice  among 
the  littoral  sharks  the  "Angel-Fish"  or  "JIonk-Fish" 
(Rhina  squatina),  which,  by  its  broad  flat  head  and  ex- 
panded pectoral  fins  approaches  in  general  appearance  the 
rays.  It  occurs  in  the  temperate  seas  of  the  southern  as 
well  as  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  is  not  uncommon  on 
sandy  parts  of  the  coast  of  England  and  Ireland.  It  does 
not  seem  to  exceed  a  length  of  5  feet,  is  not  used  fia  food, 
and  is  too  rare  to  do  any  perceptible  injury  to  other  fish. 
It  is  said  to  produce  about  twenty  young  at  a  birth. 

Pelagic  Sharks. — All  these  are  of  large  size,  and  some 
are  surpassed  in  bulk  and  length  only  by  the  larger  kinds 
of  cetaceans.  Those  armed  with  powerful  cutting  teeth 
are  the  most  formidable  tyrants  of  the  ocean  and  dangerous 
to  man,  whilst  others,  which  are  provided  with  numerous 
but  very  small  teeth,  feed  on  small  fishes  only  or  marine 
invertebrates,  and  are  otherwise  almost  harmless  and  of  a 
timid  disposition,  which  causes  them  to  retire  into  the 
eobtudes  of  the  open  sea.  On  this  account  we  know  very 
little  of  their  life ;  indeed,  some  are  known  from  a  few 
individuals  only  which  have  accidentally  come  ashore.  All 
pelagic  sharks  have  a  wide  geographical  range,  and  many 
are  found  in  all  seas  within  the  limits  of  the  equatorial 
zone, — some  being  almost  cosmopolitan.  All  seem  to  be 
viviparous. 

Of  the  more  remarkable  forms  which  we  propose  to 
notice  here  the  genus  most  abundantly  represented '  in 
species  and  individuals  is  Carcharias.  Perhaps  nine-tenths 
<if  the  sharks  of  which  we  read  in  books  of  travel  belong 


to  this  genus.  Between  thirty  and  forty  species  have 
been  distinguished,  all  of  which  are  found  in  tropical  seas. 
They  are  the  sharks  which  so  readily  attach  themselves  to 
sailing  vessels,  following  them  for  weeks,  and  thus  exhibit- 
ing an  endurance  of  muscular  power  scarcely  found  in  any 
other  class  of  animals.  Others  affect  more  the  neighbour- 
hood of  land,  congregating  at  localities  where  nature  or  tho 
vicinity  of  man  provides  them  with  an  abundant  supply  of 
food.  One  of  the  most  common  species,  and  one  of  those 
which  extend  far  into  the  temperate  zones,  is  the  Blue 
Shark  (Carcharias  glancus),  of  which  small  specimens  (4 
to  6  feet  long)  are  frequently  caught  on  the  south  coasts 
of  England  and  Ireland.  Other  species  of  Carcharias 
attain  a  length  of  25  feet.  The  mouth  of  all  is  armed 
with  a  series  of  large  flat  triangular  teeth,  which  have  a 
sharp,  smooth,  or  serrated  edge  (fig.  10). 


■  FiQ.  10. — Deiitition.of  the  Blue  Shark  (Carcharias  glaucus).    The  Single  teeth  ' 
are  of  the  natural  size. 

Galeocerdo  is  likewise  a  large  shark  very  dangerous  to 
taan,  differing  from  the  preceding  chiefly  by  having  the 
outer  side  of  its  teeth  deeply  notched.  It  has  long  been 
known  to  occur  in  the  North  Atlantic,  close  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean  {G.  arcticus),  but  its  existence  in  other  parts  has 
been  ascertained  within  a  recent  period ;  in  fact,  it  seems 
to  be  one  of  the  most  common  and  dangerous  sharks  of 
the  Indo-Pacific,  the  British  Museum  having  obtained 
specimens  from  Mauritius,  Kurrachee,  Madras,  and  the 
west  coast  of  Australia. 

Hammerheaded  Sharks  {Zygxna)  are  sharks  in  ■which 
the  anterior  portion  of  the  head  is  produced  into  a  lobe  on 
each  side,  the  extremity  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  eye. 
The  relation  of  this  unique  configuration  of  the  head  to  the 
economy  of  the  fish  is  unknown. ,  Otherwise  these  sharka 
resemble  Carcharias,  and  are  equally  formidable,  but  seem 
to  be  more  stationary  in  their  habits.  They  occur  in  all 
tropical  and  subtropical  seas,  even  in  the  Mediterranean, 
where  Z.  malleus  is  by  no  means  rare.  In  the  Indian 
Ocean  it  is  common,  and  Cantor  states  that  specimens  of 
this  species  may  be  often  seen  ascending 
from  the  clear  blue  depths  of  the  ocean 
like  a  great  cloud. 

The  Porbeagles  (Lamna)  differ  from 
the  preceding  sharks  in  their  dentition 
(fig.  11),  the  teeth  being  large,  lanceo-    Tio.  ii.— Teeth  of 
late  in  shape,  not  ada'pted  for  cutting,  iimna. 

but  rather  for  seizing  and  holding  the  prey,  which  consists 
chiefly  in  fish.     These  sharks  are  therefore  not  dangerous 


S  H  A  11  K 


777 


fco  man ;  at  least,  there  is  no  instance  known  of  a  peraon 
having  been  attacked  by  the  species  common  on  the  British 
coast  {L.  comuhica).  It  grows  to  a  length  of  10  feet,  and 
ranges  to  New  Zealand  and  Japan.  See  vol.  xlx.  p.  518. 
To  the  genus  Carcharodon  particular  interest  is  attached, 
because  the  single  still  existing  species  is  the  most  form- 
idable of  all  sharks,  as  were  those  which  preceded  it  in 
Tertiary  times.  '  The  existing  species  (C  ronddetii)  occurs 
in  almost  all  tropical  and  subtropical  seas,  but  seems  to  be 
verging  towards  extinction.  It  is  known  to  attain  to  a 
length  of  40  feet.  The  tooth  figured  here  of  the  natural 
size  (fig.  1 2)  is  taken  from  a  jaw  much  shrunk  in  drying, 
but  still  20  inches  wide 
in  its  transverse  dia- 
meter, and  taken  from 
a  specimen  36i  feet 
long.  The  extinct  spe- 
cies must  have  been 
still  more  gigantic  in 
bulk,  as  we  may  judge 
from  teeth  which  are 
found  in  the  crag  or 
which  have  been 
dredged  up  from  the 
bottom  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean  by  the  naturalists 
of  the  ■  "  Challenger  " 
expedition,  and  which 
are  4  inches  wide  at  the 
base  and  5  inches  long 
measured    along    their 

lateral      marcin  In     ^^°*  ^^* — '^^^^^  ^f  Carcharodon  ronddeiii. 

some  Tertiary  strata  these  teeth  are  extremely  abundant,  so 
much  so  that — for  instance,  in  Florida — the  strata  in  which 
they  occur  are  quarried  to  obtain  the  fossil  remains  for  ex- 
port to  England,  where  they  are  con 
verted  into  artificial  manure. 

The  Fox-Shark  or  Thresher (.4 ^/aeciVt* 
vulpei),  of  which  every  year  specimens 


d 


Fio.  13.— Bosklni;  Sliurk. 


frequently  seen  during  the  summer  months,  generally  in 
companies,  at  a  distance  of  from  three  to  a  hundred  miles 
off  the  shore,  it  is  chased  by  the  more  courageous  of  the 
fi.shermen  for  the  sake  of  the  oil  which  is  extracted  from 
the  liver,  one  fish  yielding  from  a  ton  to  a  ton  and  a  half. 
Its  capture  is  not  unattended  with  danger,  as  one  blow 
from  the  enormously  strong  tail  is  suflicient  to  stave  in 
the  sides  of  a  large  boat.  The  Bimjile  method  used  at 
present  of  harjiooning  the  fish  entails  much  iialicnce  and 
loss  of  time  upon  the  captors,  as  tho  fish  generally  sinks  to 
the  bottom  and  sulks  for  many  hours  before  it  rises  again 
in  a  more  or  less  exhausted  condition  ;  and  tho  use  of  more 
modern  appliances  could  not  fail  of  Bucuring  more  speedy 
and  better  siu-coss.  Tho  baaking  shark  is  gregarious, 
and  many  iiulividuals  may  be  seen  in  calm  wcnther  lyinj; 


arc  captured  on  the  British  coast,  but  which  is  common 
in  all  the  temperate  ^eas  of  the  northern  and  southern 
hemispheres,  is  readily  recognized  by  its  extremely  slender 
tail,  the  length  of  which  exceeds  that  of  the  remainder  of 
the  body.  Its  teeth  are  small,  flat,  triangular,  and  without 
serrature  (fig.  13;  the  single  tooth  is  of  the  natural  size). 
It  follows  tho  shoals  of  herrings,  pilchards,  and  sprats  in 
their  migrations,  destroying  incredible  numbers  and  fre- 
quently injuring  the  nets  by  getting  entangled  in  them. 
When  feeding  it  uses  the  long  tail  in  splashing  the  surface 
of  the  water,  whilst  it  swims  in  gradually  decreasing 
circles  round  a  shoal  of  fishes  which  are  thus  kept  crowded 
together,  falling  an  easy  prey  to  their  enemy.  Sometimes 
two  threshers  may  be  seen  working  together.  Statements 
that  it  has  been  seen  to  attack  whales  and  other  large  ceta- 
ceans rest  upon  erroneous  observations  ;  its  dentition  is 
much  too  weak  to  bite  through  their  skin,  although,  aa 
Couch  says,  by  one  splash  of  its  tail  on  the  water  it  may  put 
a  herd  of  dolphins  or  porpoises  to  flight  like  so  many  hares. 
The  same  effect  may  bo  produced-by  the  splash  of  an  oar. 
The  thresher  attains  to  a  length  of  15  feet,  the  tail  included. 
The  Basking  Shark  (Selac/te  maxima),  sometimes  erro- 
neously called  "Sun-Fi.sh,"  is  the  largest  fish  of  the  North 
Atlantic,  growing  to  a  length  of  more  than  30  feet.  It  is 
one  of  the  few  types  of  sharks  which  up  to  a  very  recent 
time  were  considered  to  bo  peculiar  to  the  North-Atlantic 
fauna ;  but  Prof.  F.  M'Coy  has  just  recorded  its  occur- 
rence on  the  Australian  coast,  a  specimen  30  feet  long 
having  been  captured  in  November  1883  at  Portland,  on 
the  west  coast  of  Victoria.  The  mouth  is  of  an  extra- 
ordinary width,  and,  like  the  gill-cavity,  capable  of  great 
expansion,  so  as  to  enable  the  fi:5h  to  take  at  one  gulp  an 
enormous  quantity  of  tho  small  fish  «.i.^  other  marine 
creatures  on  which  it  subsists.  Also  the  gill-openings  are 
of  great  width.  The  teeth  are  very  small,  numerous, 
arranged  in  several  series,  conical,  and'  probably  without 
use  in  feeding.  This  shark  is  therefore  quite  harmless  if 
not  attacked.     On  the  west  coast  of  Ireland,  where  it  is 


together  motionless,  with  the  upper  port  of  the  back  raised 
above  the  surface  of  the  water,  a  habit  which  it  has  in 
common  with  the  true  sun -fish  {Orthagoriscus),  and  from 
which  it  has  derived  its  name. 

A  shark  similar  in  many  points  to  the  basking  shark 
(which  it  exceeds  in  size),  and  an  inhabitant  of  tho  Indo- 
Pacific  Ocean,  is  Ji/tinodoii  lypicvs.  In  fact,  so  far  as  our 
present  knowledge  goes,  it  is  the  largest  of  all  sharks,  as  it 
is  known  to  exceed  a  length  of  50  feet,  but  it  is  stated  to 
attain  that  of  70.  The  captures  of  only  a  few  specimens 
are  on  record,  viz.,  one  at  the  Capi.  of  Good  Ho|ic,  one  or 
two  near  the  Seychelles,  where  it  is  known  as  the  "chagrin," 
one  on  the  coast  of  California,  and  ono  (quite  recently)  on 
the  coast  of  Peru.  The  snout  is  extreinely  short,  broad, 
and  flat,  with  the  mouth  and  nostrils  placed  at  its  extrem- 
ity ;  the  gilloj>ening8  very  wide,  and  tho  eye  very  small. 
The  teeth  are,  us  in  tho  basking  .shark,  extremely  small 
'  and  numerous,  conical  in  slmjie.  No  opportunity  should 
be  lost  of  obtaining  exact  iuformalioD  on  this  sliark. 

The  Grci-iiluud  SUark  {La^iarywi  borra/it)  belongs  to  tho 


778 


S  H  A  K  K 


same  family  as  tlie  spiked  dog-fisb,  but  grows  to  a  much 
larger  size,  specimens  15  feet  long  being  frequently  met 


v^ 


Fig.  15.— Dentiliou  of  Greenland  Sliark. 


Flo.  14. — Greenland  Sliark  {Lxumrgas  borealia). 

withi  The  two  dorsal  fins  are  small  and  destitute  of 
sjjines.  The  teeth  (fig.  II)  in  the  upper  jaw  are  small, 
narrow,  conical  in  shape  ;  those  of  the  lower  flat,  arranged 
in  several  series,  one  on  the  top  of  the  other,  so  that  only 
the  uppermost  forms  the  sharp  dental  edge  of  the  jaw. 
Tho  points  of 
these  lower 
teeth  are  so 
much  turned 
aside  that  the 
inner  margin 
only  enters  the 
dental  edge. 
The  Green- 
land shark  is 
an  inhabitant 
of  the  Arctic 
re-rions,  some- 
times  strayiny  ( (y~  '  / 
to  the  lati-  ' 
tudes  of  Great 
Britain  and  of 
Cape  Cod  in 

the  western  Atlantic  ;  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  enemies  of 
the  whale,  which  is  often  found  with  large  pieces  bitten 
out  of  tho  tail  by  this  shark.  Its  voracity  is  so  great  that, 
as  Scoresby  telh  us,  it  is  absolutely  fearless  in  the  presence 
of  man  whilst  engaged  in  ieoding  on  the  carcase  of  a 
whale,  and  that  it  will  allow  itself  to  be  stabbed  with  a 
lance  or  knife  without  being  driven  away. 

The  Spinous  Shark  (Echinorhinns  spiiiosus)  is  readily  re- 
cognized by  the  short  bulky  form  of  its  body,  its  short  tail, 
and  the  large  round  bony  tubercles  which  are  scattered  all 
over  its  body,  each  of  which  is  raised  in  the  middle  into  a 
pointed  conical  spine.  Jlore  frequent  in  the  Mediterranean, 
it  has  been  found  also  not  very  rarely  on  the  English  coasts 
and  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  is  always  living  on 
the  ground,  and  probably  descends  to  some  depth,  It  does 
not  seem  to  exceed  a  length  of  10  feet. 

Batliyhial  Sharks. — SLarks  do  not  appear  to  have  yet 
reached  the  greatest  depths  of  the  ocean  ;  and  so  far  as  we 
know  at  present  we  have  to  fix  the  limit  of  their  vertical 
distribution  at  500  fathoms.  Those  which  we  find  to  have 
reached  or  to  pass  the  100  fathoms  line  belong  to  generic 
types  which,  if  they  include  littoral  species,  are  ground- 
sharks, — as  we  generally  find  the  bottom-feeders  of  our 
littoral  fauna  inuch  more  strongly  re})resented  in  the  deep 
sea  than  the  surface  swimmers.  All  belong  to  two  faraiUes 
only,  the'  Scylliidx  and  Spiiiacidse,  the  littoral  members  of 
which  live  for  the  greater  part  habitually  on  the  bottom 
and  probably  frequently  reach  to  the  100  fathoms  line. 
Distinctly  bathybial  species  are  two  small  dog-fishe.s, — 
Spinax  granulatus  from  120  fathoms,  and  Scyllium 
canescens  from  400  fathoms,  both  on  the  south-west  coast 
of  South  America  ;  also  Ceiitroscyllnan  granulatmn  from 
245  fathoms  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  whose  congener  from 
the  coast  of  Greenland  probably  descends  to  a  similar 
depth.  The  sharks  which  reach  the  greatest  depth 
recorded  hitherto  belong  to  the  genus  Cenlrophoms,  of 
■which  some  ten  species  are  known,  all  from  deep  water  in 
the">  North  Atlantic,  Mediterranean,  the  Jlolucca  and 
Japanese  seas.     The  Japanese  species  were  discovered  by 


the  naturalists  of  the  "Challenger'.'  on  the  Hjalcmeiaa 
ground  o£  Inosima  in  315  fathoms.  Dr  £.  I'.  Wright 
found  C.  :a(o/epis  at  a  still  greater  depth  on  the  coast  of 
Portugal.  The  fisLiermcn  of  Sctubal  fish  for  these  sharks 
in  400  or  500  fathoms,  with  a  lino  of  some  GOO  fathoms 
in  length.  "  The  sharks  caught  were  from  3  to  4  feet  long, 
and  when  they  were  hauled  into  the  boat  fell  down  into 
it  like  so  many  dead  pigs";  in  fact,  on  being  rapidly 
withdrawn  from  the  great  jiressure  under  which  they 
lived  they  were  killed,  like  other  deep-sea  fishes  under 
similar  circumstances.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  organiz- 
ation of  none  of  these  deep-ser.  sharks  has  undergone 
such  a  modification  as  would  lead  us  to  infer  that  they 

are  inhabitants  of 
great  depths. 

One  of  tb« 
most  interesting 
types  of  tho  divi- 
sion of  sharks  is 
the  small  family 
of  Kotidanida^ 
which  is  external- 
ly distinguished 
by  the  presence 
of  a  single  dorsal 
fin  only,  without 
spine  and  oppo- 
site to  the  anal, 
and  by  having 
six  or  seven  wide 
branchial  open- 
ings. They  repre- 
sent an  ancient 
type,  the  presence 
of  which  in  Ju- 
assic  formations 
is  shown  by  teeth 
extremely  similar 
to  those  of  tho 
living  species. 
Their  skeleton 
notochordal. 
Only  four  species 
are  known,  of 
which  one  (Noti- 
danns  f;risens)has 
now  and  then 
strayed  north- 
wards    to       the 


Fig.  16. — ChJamydonelarhus  anguuuus. 


English  coast.  A  member  of  this  family  has  been  »»- 
cently  discovered  in  Japan,  and  is  so  scarce  that  only 
two  specivncns  are  known — one  in  the  museum  at  Cam- 
bridge, U.S.,  and  the  other  in  the  British  Museum.  It 
was  named  hy  its  first  describer,  S.  Garman,  Cldnmy- 
doselachm  anguineus  (fig.  16).  It  resembles  somewhat 
in  shape  a  conger,  and  differs  from  the  A'olidani  proper 
by  its  elongate  body,  wide  lateral  and  terminal  mouth, 
extremely  wide  gill-openings,  and  peculiarly  formed  teeth. 
The  teeth  are  similar  in  both  jaws,  each  composed  of 
three  slender  curved  cusjis  separated  by  a  pair  of  rudi- 
mentary points,  and  with  a  broad  base  directed  back- 
wards. These  teeth  resemble  some  fossils  of  the  Middle 
Devonian,   described   as   Cladodus,  and    NoRth-Amcrican 


S  H  A— S  H  A 


779 


naturalists  regard,  therefore,  this  fish  an  "  the  oldest 
Jiving  type  of  vertebrate."  The  Noiidani  are  very  pro- 
bably groiiud-sharks,  perhaps  descending  into  deep  water ; 
and,  although  nothing  positive  is  known  at  present  of 
the  habits  of  C/ilamt/dose/achus,  the  fact  that  this  singu- 
lar type  has  escaped  so  long  the  observation  of  the 
numerous  collectors  in  Japan  renders  it  probable  that 
it  inhabits  depths  the  exploration  of  which  has  been 
initiated  only  recently. 

A  few  worJs  have  to  bo  aJded  with  reference  to  the  economic 
nses  of  this  group  of  fishes.  Their  utility  to  man  is  iusignilicant 
in  comparison  with  tlio  havoc  tliey  commit  among  food-fishes  and 
at  fisheries,  and  wifh  the  loss  of  life  wliich  is  caused  by  the  larger 
kinds.  As  mentioned  above,  some  of  the  smaller  dog-fishes  aro 
eaten  at  certain  seasons  by  tlie' captors,  and  by  tho  poorer  classes 
of  the  population.  An  inferior  kind  of  oil,  chiefly  used  for  tho 
adulteration  of  cod-liver  oil,  is  extracted  on  some  of  the  nortliern 
fishin"-statiou3  from  tlie  liver  of  the  spiked  dog-fishes,  and  occa- 
sionally of  tluj  larger  sharks.  Cabinet-makers  make  extensive  uso 
of  shark'a-skin  under  the  name  of  "shagreen"  for  smoothing  or 
polishing  wood.  This  shagreen  is  obtained  from  species  (sucli  as 
our  dog-lishes)  whoso  skin  is  covered  with  small,  pointed,  closely- 
set,  calcified  jjapilla;,  wliilst  very  rough  skins,  in  which  tho  papillae 
are  largo  or  blunt,  are  useless  for  this  purpose.  The  dried  fins  of 
sharks  (and  of  ravs)  form  in  India  and  China  an  important  article 
of  trade,  the  Cnincso  preparing  gelatin  from  them,  and  using 
tho  better  sort  for  culinary  purposes.  They  are  assorted  in  two 
kinds,  viz.,  "  white  "  and  "  black.  Tho  former  consists  exclusively 
of  the  dorsal  fins,  which  are  on  both  sides  of  the  same  light  colour, 
and  reputed  to  yield  more  geliitin  than  the  other  fins.  The 
pectoral,  ventral,  and  anal  fins  constitute  the  "black"  sort;  tho 
caudal  are  not  used.  One  of  tlio  principal  places  where  shark 
fishing  is  practised  as  a  profession  is  Kurrachee,  and  the  principal 
kinds  of  sharks  c:iught  there  are  species  of  Canharias,  Galeocerdo, 
and  Zijjsuna.  Dr  Buist,  writing  in  1850,  states  that  there  aro 
thirteen  large  boats,  with  crews  of  twelve  men  each,  constantly 
employed  in  this  pursuit,  that  the  valuo  of  the  tins  sent  to  the 
inarket  varies  from  15,000  to  18,000  rupees,  that  a  boat  will 
capture  sometimes  at  a  draught  as  many  as  a  hundred  sharks  of 
various  sizes,  and  that  tho  number  of  sharlcs  captured  annu;iliy 
amounts  proKibly  to  not  less  than  40,000.  Large  quantities 
are  imported  from  t)ie  Africnn  coast  and  the  Arabian  Gulf,  and 
^■arious  ports  on  the  coast  of  India,  in  the  year  1845-46  8770  cwt. 
of  sharks'  fins  were  exported  from  Bombay  to  China.    (A.  C.  G.) 

SHARON,  a  borough  of  tho  United  States,  in  Mercer 
County,  Pennsylvania,  14  miles  west  of  Mercer,  is  the  seat 
of  considerable  iron  manufacture,  with  blast  furnaces, 
rolling  mills,  foundries,  and  nail  factories,  and  had  in  1880 
a  population  of  5G84. 

SHARP.  JAME3  (1618-1679),  archbishop  of  St 
Andrews,  wa&  the  son  of  William  Sharp,  sheriff-clerk  of 
Banffshire,  and  of  Isabel  Leslie,  daughter  of  Leslie  of 
Kininvic,  of  the  family  of  Halyburtons  of  Pitcur  in 
Angus,  and  was  born  in  Castle  Banff  on  May  4,  1618. 
He  was  a  clever  boy,  and  his  early  disposition  for  the 
church  led  to  his  being  called  in  jest  "the  young 
minister."  In  1C33  he  went  to  King's  College,  Aberdeen, 
and  graduated  in  1637.  He  there  studied  divinity  for  one 
or  two  years,  and  probably  derived  his  Episcopal  tendencies 
from  the  "Aberdeen  doctors,"  Aberdeen  being  at  that  time 
the  home  of  Episcopal  sentiment.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Covenanting  war  ho  went  to  England  (1639)  and  visited 
Oxford  and  perhaps  Cambridge,  becoming  acquainted  with 
tho  principal  English  divines.  Upon  his  return  he  was 
chosen  in  1643  through  tiic  influence  of  Lord  Eothes  to  bo 
pae  of  tho  "  regents  "  of  philosophy  in  St  Leonard's  College, 
gt  Andrews.  Ho  appears  to  have  continually  risen  in 
[oputation  until  in  December  1647  he  went  through  his 
ordinary  trials  for  tho  ministerial  olhce  before  tho  presby- 
tery of  St  Andrews,  and  was  appointed  minister  of  Crail 
in  Fifeshire,  on  tho  presentation  of  the  earl  of  Crawford,  on 
January  27,  1648.  In  the  great  schism  of  Kcsolutionera 
and  Protestors,  ho,  with  tho  large  majority  of  oiucated 
men,  took  active  part  with  tho  former ;  he  was  tho  friend 
of  Baillie,  Douglas,  Dickson,  Wood,  Blair,  and  others,  and 
as  early  as  March  1651  was  recognized  as  ono  of  the  lead- 


ing men  of  the  party.  His  first  public  employment  was 
in  1656,  when  he  went  to  London  on  their  behalf  to 
endeavour  to  counteract  with  the  Protector  the  influence 
of  Warriston,  who  was  acting  for  the  Protestors.  Here  he 
became  acquainted  with  Calamy,  Ash,  and  other  leading 
London  Presbyterian  ministers,  and  letters  passed  between 
him  and  Lauderdale,  then  prisoner  in  the  Tower.  He 
displayed  all  his  undoubted  talents  for  petty  diplomacy 
and  considerable  subtlety  in  argument  while  on  this  service, 
and  his  mission  was  decidedly  successful.  He  returned  to 
Scotland  in  1659,  but  upon  Monk's  march  to  London  was 
again,  in  February  1660,  sent  by  the  Eesolutioners  to  watch 
over  their  interests  in  London,  where  he  arrived  on 
February  13.  He  was  most  favourably  received  by  Monk, 
to  whom  it  was  of  great  importance  to  remain  on  good 
terms  with  the  dominant  party  in  Scotland.  His  letters 
to  Douglas  and  others  during  this  period,  if  they  may  be 
trusted,  are  useful  towards  following  the  intrigues  of  the 
time  day  by  day.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  howevur,  that 
there  is  good  reason  for  thinking  that  Sharp  had  already 
made  up  his  mind  not  to  throw  away  the  chances  he  might 
have  of  prominent  employment  under  the  Restoration. 
In  the  beginning  of  May  he  was  despatched  by  Monk  to 
the  king  at  Breda  "  to  deal  that  he  may  be  sent  with  a 
letter  to  the  London  Presbyterian  ministers,  showing  his 
resolution  to  own  the  godly  sober  party."  His  letters  on 
this  occasion  to  Douglas  show  that  he  regarded  himself 
equally  as  the  emissary  of  the  Scottish  kirk.  It  is  to  be 
noticed  that  he  was  also  the  bearer  of  a  secret  letter  from 
Lauderdale  to  the  king.  He  was  in  fact  playing  a  game 
admirably  suited  to  his  peculiar  capacity  for  dark  and 
crooked  ways  of  dealing.  There  can  bo  little  doubt  that 
while  on  this  mission  he  was  finally  corrupted  by  Charles 
and  Clarendon,  not  indeed  so  far  as  to  make  up  his  mind 
to  betray  the  kirk,  but  at  any  rate  to  decide  in  no  way  to 
imperil  his  own  chances  by  too  firm  an  integrity.  The 
first  thing  that  aroused  the  jealousy  of  his  brethren,  who, 
as  Baillie  says,  had  trusted  him  as  their  own  souls,  was 
his  wTiting  from  Holland  in  commendation  of  Clarendon. 
This  jealousy  was  increased'  on  his  return  to  London 
(May  26)  by  his  plausible  endeavours  to  stop  all  coming 
of  Presbyterian  commissioners  from  Scotland  and  Ireland, 
though  he  professed  to  desire  tho  presence  of  Douglas 
and  Dickson,  by  his  urgent  advice  that  the  Scots  should 
not  interfere  in  the  restoration  of  Episcopacy  in  England, 
and  by  his  endeavours  to  frustrate  the  proposed  union 
of  Resolutioners  and  Protestors.  He  informed  tliem  that 
Presbytorianism  was  a  lost  cause  in  England,  but  as  late  as 
August  1 1  he  intimated  that,  though  there  had  been  great 
danger  for  the  Scottish  kirk  cs  well,  this  danger  had  been 
constantly  and  successfully  warded  off  by  his  efforts.  He 
returned  to  Scotland  in  this  month,  and  busied  himself  in 
endeavouring  to  remove  all  suspicions  of  his  loyalty  to  the 
kirk  ;  but  at  the  same  time  he  successfully  stopped  all  peti- 
tions from  Scottish  ministers  to  king,  parliament,  or  counciL 
His  letters  to  Drummond,  a  Presbyterian  minister  in 
London,  and  to  Lauderdale,  without  absolutely  committing 
him,  .show  clearly  that  he  was  certain  that  Episcopacy  was 
about  to  be  set  up.  How  far  he  was  actively  a  traitor  in 
the  matter  had  always  been  fairly  disputed  until  tho  ques- 
tion was  at  last  set  at  rest  by  the  discovery  of  his  letter, 
dated  May  21,  from  London,  whither  ho  went  in  April 
1661,  to  Middleton,  the  High  Commissioner,  who.so  chap- 
lain ho  now  was,  from  which  it  is  proved  that  he  was  in 
confidential  communication  with  Clarendon  and  the  English 
bishops,  that  ho  was  earnestly  and  eagerly  co-operating  in 
the  restoration  of  Episcopacy  in  Scotland,  that  ho  had 
before  leaving  Scotland  held  frequent  conferences  with 
Middleton  on  the  subject  (a  fact  which  he  had  exjilicitly  and 
vehemently  denied)  and  was  aware  that  Middleton  had 


780 


SHAH  P 


UX  along  intended  it,  and  that  he  drew  up  and  was 
directly  responsible  for  the  quibbling  proclamation  of  June 
10,  the  sole  purpose  of  which  was  "the  disposing  of  minds 
to  acquiesce  in  the  king's  pleasure."  The  original  of  this 
letter  (^ which  is  printed  in  the  Latulcrdale  Papers  and  in 
the  Scottish  Eevieui)  is  preserved  iu  the  JIuseum  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries,  Edinbnrgh.  It  should  be  noticed 
that  as  late  as  the  end  of  April,  on  the  eve  of  starting 
on  his  mission  to  court  with  Eothes  and  Glencairiie,  he 
]declared  to  Baillie  that  no  change  in  the  kirk  was  intended. 
The  mask  was  at  length  dropped  in  August,  when  Ei>is- 
copacy  was  restored,  and  Sharp  was  appointed  archbishop 
pf  St  Andrews.  He  and  Leighton,  Fairfoul,  and  Hamilton 
"  were  dubbed,  first  preaching  deacons,  then  presbyters, 
and  then  consecrated  bishops  in  one  day,  by  Dr  Sheldon 
and  a  few  others."  On  April  8th  the  new  prelates  entered 
Scotland,  and  on  the  forenoon  of  April  20,  1662,  Sharp 
preached  his  first  sermon  at  St  Andrews. 

Sharp  had  carefully  kept  on  good  terms  with  Lauder- 
dale, and  when  the  Billeting  Plot  was  concocted  in  Septem- 
ber 16G2  against  the  latter  by  Middleton,  he  managed 
to  avoid  acting  against  him ;  indeed  it  is  probable  that, 
after  being  appointed  under  an  oath  of  secrecy  to  be  one 
of  the  scrutineers  of  the  billets,  he,  in  violation  of  the  oath, 
was  the  cause  of  Lauderdale  receiving  timely  informa- 
tion of  the  decision  against  him  ;  and  yet  he  shortly  went 
up  to  London  to  explain  the  whole  affair  in  Middleton's 
interest.  When  Lauderdale's  supremacy  was  established 
he  readily  co-operated  in  passing  the  National  Synod  Act 
in  1663,  the  first  step  in  the  intended  subjection  of  the 
church  to  the  crown.  In  1664  he  was  again  in  London, 
returning  in  April,  having  secured  the  grant  of  a  new 
church  commission.  His  vanity  also  had  been  gratified 
by  his  being  allowed  to  take  precedence  of  the  chan. 
cellor  at  the  council.  He  harassed  the  ministers  who  were 
with  Lis  old  friend  James  Wood  wheu  he  signed  his 
well-known  deathbed  confession  ;  he  cited  and  fined  others, 
as  well  as  laymen,  for  withdrawing  from  the  churches  ;  he 
urged  the  thorough  prosecution  of  the  arbitrary  powers 
granted  to  the  commission,  and  complained  of  the  slackness 
of  his  fellow  commissioners.  So  oppressive  was  his  con- 
duct and  that  of  others  of  the  bishops  that  it  called  forth 
a  written  protest  from  Gilbert  Burnet.  Sharp  at  once 
summoned  him  before  the  bishops  and  endeavoured  to 
obtain  a  sentence  of  deprivation  and  excommunication 
jagainst  him,  but  was  overruled  by  his' brethren.  On  the 
Heath  of  Glencairne,  the  chancellor's  greatest  efforts  were 
made  to  secure  the  vacant  office  for  Sharp,  and  he  was  not 
inactive  in  his  own  interest ;  the  place  was  not,  however, 
filled  up  until  1667,  and  then  by  the  appointment  of  Rothes. 
He  was  in  strict  alliance  with  llothes,  Hamilton,  and  Dal- 
yeli,  and  the  other  leaders  of  oppression,  and  now  placed 
himself  in  opposition-  to  the  influence  of  Lauderdale, 
attacking  his  friends,  and  especially  the  earl  of  Kincardine. 
In  1665  he  was  again  in  London,  where,  through  his  own 
folly  and  mendacity,  he  suffered  a  complete  humiliation  at 
the  hands  of  Lauderdale,  well  described  by  the  historian 
Burnet.  With  Eothes  he  now  in  great  part  governed 
Scotland,  and  the  result  of  their  system  of  violence  and 
extortion  was  the  rising  of  the  Covenanters,  during  which, 
being,  in  temporary  charge  during  Rothes's  absence,  he 
chowed,  according  to  Bellenden,  the  utmost  fear,  equalled 
only  by  his  cruelty  to  the  prisoners  after  the  rout  of  Pent- 
land.  When  the  convention  of  estates  met  in  January 
1667  he  received  his  first  rebuff,  Hamilton  being  substi- 
tuted for  him  as  president.  He  now  triod  to  curry  favour 
v/ith  Jjauderdale,  to  whom  he  wrote  letters  of  the  most 
whining  contrition,  and  who  extended  him  a  careless  recon- 
ciliation. The  expressions  of  contempt  for  him  which  occur 
ot  this  time,  as  previously,  in  the  letters  of  Robert  Moray, 


Argyll,  and  others  of  Lauderdale's  correspondents,  are 
frequent  and  very  amusing.  For  a  time  he  made  himself 
actively  useful,  and  was  instrumental  in  restraining  his 
bretliren  from  writing  to  London  to  complain  of  the  con- 
ciliation policy  which  for  a  while  Lauderdale  carried  out,  a 
transaction  in  which  ho  displayed  the  utmost  effrontery  of 
lying;  and,  with  .slight  attempts  to  free  himself,  he  con- 
tinued faithful  in  his  new  service.  On  July  10,  1G68,  an 
attempt  was  made  upon  his  life  by  Robert  Jlitchcll,  who 
fired  a  pistol  at  him  wliile  driving  through  the  streets  of 
Edinburgh.  The  shot,  however,  missed  Sharp,  though  his 
companion  the  bishop  of  Orkney  was  wounded  by  it,  and 
Mitchell  for  the  time  escaped.  In  August  Sharp  went  up 
to  London,  returning  in  December,  and  with  his  assistance, 
nominally  indeed  at  his  suggestion,  Tweeddale's  tolerant 
proposals  for  filling  the  vacant  parishes  with  some  of  the 
"  outed"  ministers  were  carried  out.  In. the  debates  on 
the  Supremacy  Act,  by  which  Lauderdale  destroyed  the 
autonomy  of  the  church,  ho  at  first  showed  reluctance  to 
|iut  in  motion  the  desired  policy,  but  gave  way  upon  the 
first  pressure.  When,  however,  Leighton,  as  arclibishoi> 
of  Glasgow,  endeavoured  to  carry  out  a  comprehension 
scheme,  Sharp  actively  opposed  him,  and  expressed  his  joy 
at  the  failure  of  the  attempt.  From  this  time  he  was 
completely  subservient  to  Lauderdale,  who  had  now  finally 
determined  upon  a  career  of  oppression,  and  in  1674  he 
was  again  in  London  to  support  this  policy.  In  this  year 
also  Mitchell,  who  had  shot  at  him  six  years  before,  waB 
arrested.  Sharp  himself  having  recognized  him,  and,  upon 
Sharp's  promise  to  obtain  a  pardon,  privately  made  a  full 
confession.  When  brought  into  the  justiciary  court,  how- 
ever, he  refused  to  repeat  the  confession,  whereupon  the 
promise  of  pardon  was  recalled  ;  the  prisoner  was  sent  to 
the  Bass,  and  was  not  brought  to  trial  for  four  years.  In 
1678,  however,  the  country  being  again  in  great  disorder, 
he  was  tried  on  his  own  confession,  which,  not  having 
been  made  before  judges,  could  not  legally  be  brought 
against  him.  This  plea  being  overruled,  he  claimed  the 
promise  of  pardon.  Sharp,  however,  basely  denied  that 
any  such  promise  had  been  given.  His  falsehood  was 
proved  by  the  entry  of  the  act  in  the  records  of  the  court. 
Jlitchell  was  finally  condemned,  but  the  condemnation  was 
so  evidently  unfair  and  contrary  to  solemn  promise  that  a 
re|)rieve  would  have  been  granted  bad  not  Sharp  himself 
insisted  on  his  death.  This,  perhaps  the  basest  action  of 
his  base  life,  was  speedily  avenged.  On  May  3,  1679,  as 
he  was  driving  with  his  daughter  Isabel  to  St  Audrews, 
he  was  set  upon  by  nine  men,  who  were  looking  for  one 
of  the  instruments  of  his  cruelty,  and,  in  spite  of  unmanly 
beseechings  and  of  the  aj^peals  of  his  daughter,  was  cruelly 
murdered  The  place  of  the  murder,  on  Magus  Muir, 
now  covered  with  fir  trees,  is  marked  by  a  monument 
erected  by  Dean  Stanley,  with  a  Latin  inscription  record- 
ing the  deed.  It  is  only  right,  while  recording  a  career  of 
cold-blooded  cruelty  and  almost  unexampled  political  base- 
cess,  to  remember  that  no  charge  that  can  be  seriously 
maintained  has  ever  been  brought  against  the  morality 
of  Sharp's  private  life. 

Unless  otherwise  mentioned,  tlio  proofs  of  the  statements  in  this 
article  will  be  found  in  vols.  i.  and  ii.  of  the  Lauderdale  Papers 
(CfiDiden  Society)  and  in  two  articles  iu  the  Scottish  Jicvicw,  July 
18S4  and  January  1S85.  (O.  A.) 

SHARP,  William  (1749-1824),  an  -  eminent  line- 
engraver,  was  born  at  London  on  the  29th  of  January 
1749.  He  was  originally  apprenticed  to  what  is  called  a 
bright  engraver,  and  practised  as  a  writing  engraver,  but, 
gradually  becoming  inspired  by  the  higher  branches  of  the 
engraver's  art,  he  exercised  his  gifts  with  surprising  success 
on  works  of  the  old  masters.  Among  his  earlier  plates 
are  .some    illustration.s,    after  Stothard,  for  the  Novdists, 


S  H  A  — S  H  E 


781 


Afagazine.  He  engraved  the  Doctors  Disputing  on  the 
Immaculateness  of  the  Virgin  and  the  Ecce  Homo  of 
Guido  Eeni,  the  St  Cecilia  of  Doraenichino,  the  Virgin 
and  Child  of  Dolci,  and  the  portrait  of  John  Hunter  of 
Sir  Josluia  Keynolds.  His  style  of  engraving  is  thoroughly 
masterly  and  original,  excellent-  in  its  play  of  line  and 
rendering  of  half-tints  and  of  "colour."  He  died  at 
Chisn'ick  on  the  25th  July  1821.  In  his  youth  Sharp 
was  a  violent  republican,  and,  owing  to  his  hotly  expressed 
adherence  to  the  politics  of  Paine  and  Home  Tooke,  he 
vpas  examined  by  the  privy  council  on  a  charge  of  treason. 
He  was  also  one  of  the  greatest  visionaries  in  matters 
pertaining  to  religion.  No  imposture  was  too  gross  for 
him  to  accept,  no  deception  too  glaring  for  his  eyes  to 
admire.  The  dreams  of  Mesmer  and  the  rhapsodies  of 
Brothers  found  in  Sharp  a  staunch  believer ;  and  for  long 
he  maintained  Joanna  Southcott  at  his  own  expense.  As 
an  engraver  he  achieved  a  European  reputation,  and  at  the 
time  of  his  death  he  enjoyed  the  honour  of  being  a  meniber 
of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Vienna  and  of  the  Koyai 
Academy  of  Munich. 

SHAWL,  a  square  or  oblong  article  of  dre.ss  worn  in 
various  ways  dependent  from  the  shoulders.  The  term  is 
of  Persian  origin  (shdl),  and  the  article  itself  is  most 
characteristic  and  important  in  the  dress  of  the  natives  of 
north-western  India  and  Central  Asia;  but  in  various 
forms,  and  under  different  names,  essentially  the  same 
piece  of  clothing  is  found  in  most  parts  of  the  world.  The 
shawls  made  in  Kashmir  occupy  a  pre-eminent  place  among 
textile  products  ;  and  it  is  to  them  and  to  their  imitations 
from  Western  looms  that  specific  importance  attaches. 
The  Kashmir  shawl  is  characterized  by  the  great  elabora- 
tion and  minute  detail  of  its  design,  in  which  the  "cone" 
pattern  is  a  prominent  feature,  and  by  the  glowing 
harmony,  brilliance,  depth,  and  enduring  qualities  of  its 
colours.  The  basis  of  these  excellences  is  found  in  the 
raw  material  of  the  shawl  manufacture,  which  consists  of 
the  very  fine,  soft,  short,  flossy  under-wool,  called  pashm  or 
pashmina,  found  on  the  shawl-goat,  a  variety  of  Capra 
hirctis  inhabiting  the  elevated  regions  of  Tibet.  There  are 
several  varieties  of  pashm,  according  to  tho  districts  in 
■which  it  is  produced,  but  the  finest  is  a  strict  monopoly 
of  the  maharaja  of  Kashmir,  through  whose  territory  it 
comes.  Inferior  pashm  and  Kirman  wool — a  fine  soft 
Persian  sheep's  wool — are  used  for  shawl  weaving  at 
Amritsar  and  other  places  in  the  Punjab,  where  colonies  of 
Kashmiri  weavers  are  established ;  but  just  in  projiortion 
to  the  quality  of  the  jjashm  u.sed  are  the  beauty  and  value 
of  the  resulting  shawl.  In  Kashmir  the  £ha\yl  wool  is 
sorted  with  patient  care  by  hand,  and  spun  into  a  fine 
thread,  a  work  of  so  much  delicacy,  owing  to  tho  shortness 
of  the  fibre,  that  a  pound  of  undyed  thread  may  be 
worth  £2,  10s.  The  various  colours,  costly  and  perma- 
nent, are  dyed  in  the  yarn.  The  subsequent  weaving  or 
embroidering  is  a  work  of  great  labour,  and  a  fine  shawl 
will  occupy  the. whole  labour  of  three  men  not  less  than  a 
year.  Thus  a  first-rate  shawl  weighing  about  7  lb, may 
cost  at  the  place  of  its -production  £300,  made  up  thus: — 
material  £30,  labour  £150,  duty  £70,  miscellaneous 
expenses,  £50.  In  shawl  cloth  many  varieties  of  dress 
articles  are  made ;  but  of  shawls  themselves,  apart  from 
shape  and  pattern,  there  are  only  two  j)rincipal  classes  : — 
(1)  loom-woven  shawls  called  tiliwalla,  tilikar  or  kAni 
kiir, — sometimes  woven  in  one  piece,  but  more  often 
in  small  segments  which  are  sewn  together  with  such 
precision  and  neatness  that  the  sewing  is  quite  impercept- 
ible (such  loom-woven  shawls  have  borders  of  silk,  the 
weight  and  stiffness  of  which  servo  to  stretch  the  shawl 
and  make  it  set  properly) ;  and  (2)  embroidered  shawls — 
amlikdr, — in  which  over  a  ground  of  plain  pashmina  is 


worked  oy  needle  a  minute  and  elaborate  pattern.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Srinagar,  the  capital 
of  Kashmir,  are  engaged  in  the  shawl  industry ;  and  there 
are  numerous  colonies  of  Kashmiri  weavers  settled  at 
Amritsar,  Ludianah,  Nurpur,  and  other  to^vns  ih.  the 
Punjab.  Amritsar  is  now  the  principal  entrepot  of  the 
shawl  trade  between  India  and  Europe.  Imitation  Kashmir 
shawls  are  made  at  Lyons,  Nimes,  Norwich,  and  Paisley, 
and  some  of  the  products  of  these  localities  are  little 
inferior  in  beauty  and  elaboration  to  Oriental  shawJs  ;  but 
owing  to  the  fluctuations  of  fashion  there  has  been  little 
demand  for  the  finer  products  of  European  looms  for  many 
years.     See  also  Persia,  vol.  xviii.  p.  626. 

SHEA  BUTTER.     See  Oils,  vol.  xvii.  p.  747. 

SHEARWATER,  the  name  of  a  bird  first  published  in 
Willughby's  Ornithologia  (p.  252),  as  made  known  to  him 
by  Sir  T.  Browne,  who  sent  a  picture  of  it  with  an  account 
that  is  given  more  fully  in  Ray's  translation  of  that  work 
(p.  334),  stating  that  it  is  "a  Sea-fowl,  which  fishermen 
observe  to  resort  to  their  Vessels  iu  some  numbers,  swim- 
mingi  swiftly  to  and  fro,  backward,  forward,  and  about 
them,  and  doth  as  it  were  radere  aquam,  shear  the  water, 
from  whence  perhaps  it  had  its  name.'-  Ray's  mistaking 
young  birds  of  this  kind  obtained  in  the  Isle  of  Man  for 
the  young  of  the  Coulterneb,  now  usually  called  PnFFiN, 
has  already  been  mentioned  under  that  heading  (vol.  xx. 
p.  102);  and  not  only  has  his  name  I'ttffitius  anglorum 
hence  become  attached  to  this  species,  commonly  described 
in  English  books  as  the  Manx  Puffin  or  Manx  Shearwater, 
but  the  barbarous  and  mi.sapplied  word  PvJHnvs  has  come 
into  regular  use  as  the  generic  term  for  all  birds  thereto 
allied,  forming  a  well-marked  group  of  the  Family  Procel- 
lariidx  (cf.  Petrel,  vol.  xviii.  p.  711),  distinguished 
chiefly  by  their  elongated  bill,  and  numbering  some  twenty 
species,  if  not  more — the  discrimination  of  which,  owing 
partly  to  the  general  similarity  of  some  of  them,  and  partly 
to  the  change  of  plumage  which  others  through  age  are 
believed  to  undergo,  has  taxed  in  no  common  degree  the 
ingenuity  of  those  ornithologists  who  have  ventured  on 
the  difficult  task  of  determining  their  characters.  Shear- 
waters are  found  in  nearly  all  the  seas  and  oceans  of  the 
world,^  generally  withm  no  great  distance  from  the  land, 
though  rarely  resorting  thereto,  except  in  the  breeding- 
season.  But  they  also  penetrate  to  waters  which  may  be 
termed  inland,  as  the  Bosphorus,  where  they  have  long 
attracted  attention  by  their  daily  passage  u\>  and  down 
the  strait,  in  numerous  flocks,  hardly  ever  alighting  on  the 
surface,  and  from  this  restless  habit  they  are  known  to  the 
French-speaking  part  of  the  population  as  dmes  damnce$, 
it  being  held  by  the  Turks  that  they  are  animated  by 
condemned  human  souls.  Four  species  of  Pvjinus  are 
recorded  as  visiting  the  coasts  of  tho  United  Kingdom; 
but  tho  Manx  Shearwater  aforesaid  is  the  only  one  that  at 
all  commonly  occurs  or  breeds  in  tho  British  Islands.  It 
is  a  very  plain-looking  bird,  black  above  and  white  beneath, 
and  about  the  size  of  a  I'igeon.     Some  other  species  are 

'  By  mistake,  no  doubt,  for  flying  or  "hovering,-"  tljo  latter  tli« 
word  used  by  Browne  in  his  Account  of  Jiirds  found  in  A'or/o/k  (Mua. 
Brit  MS.  Sloano,  1830,  fol.  6.  22  and  31),  witteu  in  or  about  IfiOa. 
EiivitiTiXB  {OUnninr/f,  iii.  p.  316)  speaks  of  comparing  his  own  drawing 
" with  Brown's  old  draught  of  It,  still  ppscrvcd  in  tho  BritiHk 
Museum,"  and  thus  idcntiflos  tho  Intter's  "Shearwater"  with  the 
"  Pullln  of  the  Islo  of  Man." 

■  Lyrk  appears  to  bo  the  most  common  local  name  for  this  bird 
in  Orkney  and  Slictlnndi  but  Seraib  and  Srralitr  are  also  used  in 
Scotland.  These  are  from  tho  Scandinavian  .SA-m<i/>i!  or  Slcro/a,  and 
considering  Trof.  Skeat's  roinarka  (Elym.  IHclionarij,  p.  640)  as  ti! 
the  alliance  between  the  words  shear  and  tcra)>e  it  may  bo  thai 
Browne's  hesitation  a-s  to  tho  derivation  of  "Shearwater''  had  mon 
ground  than  at  lirst  appears. 

'-Tho  chief  exception  would  scfm  to  bo  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and 
thence  throughout  tho  western  part  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  wlicni^ 
though  they  may  occur,  they  nra  certainly  uncommoB. 


782 


S  H  E  —  S  H  E 


considerably  larger,  wliile  some  are  smaller,  and  of  tbe 
former  several  are  almost  whole-coloured,  being  of  a  sooty 
or  dark  cinereous  hue  botli  above  and  below.  All  over  the 
world  Shearwaters  seem  to  have  precisely  the  same  habits, 
laying  their  single  purely  white  egg  in  a  hole  under  ground. 
The  young  are  thickly  clothed  with  long  down,  and  are  ex- 
tremely fat.  In  this  condition  they  are  thought  to  be  good 
feating,  and  enormous  numbers  are  caught  for  this  purpose 
in  some  localities,  especially  of  a  species,  the  P.  bhincandus 
bf  Gould,  which  frequents  the  islands  off  the  coast  of  Aus- 
tralia, where  it  is  commonly  known  as  the  "Mutton-bird." 
For  works  treating  of  the  Shearwaters,  see  those  cited 
Under  Petrel  (vol.  xviii.  p.  712).  (a.  n.) 

SHEATHBILL,  a  bird  so-called  by  Pennant  in  1781 
{Gen.  Birdx,  ed.  2,  p.  43)  from  the  horny  case^  which 
6nsheaths  the  basal  part  of  its  bill.  It  was  first  made 
known  from  having  been  met  with  on  New- Year  Island,  off 
the  coast  of  Staten  Land,  where  Cook  anchored  on  New 
Year's  eve  1774.^  A  few  days  later  he  discovered  the 
islands  that  now  bear  the  name  of  South  Georgia,  and 
there  the  bird  was  again  found, — in  both  localities 
frequenting  the  rocky  shores.  On  his  third  voyage,  while 
seeking  some  land  reported  to  have  been  found  by  Ker- 
guelen,  Cook  in  December  1776  reached  the  cluster  of 
desolate  islands  now  generally  known  by  the  name  of  the 
French  explorer,  and  here,  among  many  other  kinds  of 
birds,  was  a  Sheathbill,  which  for  a'  long  while  no  one 
suspected  to  be  otherwise  than  specifically  identical  with 
that  of  the  western  Antarctic  Ocean;  but,  as  will  be  seen. 
Its  distinctness  has  been  subsequently  admitted. 
I  The  Sheathbill,  so  soon  as  it  was  brought  to  the  notice  of 
fcaturalists,  was  recognized  as  belonging  to  a  genus  Iiitherto 
hnknown,  and  the  elder  Forster  in  1788  (Enchiridion,  p.  37)  con- 
ferred upou  it,  from  its  snowy  plumage,  the  name  Chionis,  which 
has  most  properlj'  received  general  acceptance,  though  in  the  same 
year  tlie  compiler  Gmolin  termed  the  genus  Vaginalis,  as  a  render- 
ing of  Pennant's  English  name,  and  the  species  alba.  It  has  thus 
become  the  Chionis  alba  of  ornithology.  It  is  about  the  size  of  and 
lias  much  the  aspect  of  a.  Pigeon ;'  its  plumage  is  pure  white,  its  bill 
Bomewliat  yellow  at  the  base,  passing  into  pale  pink  towards  the  tip. 
iBound  the  eyes  the  skin  is  bare,  and  beset  with  cream-colouicd 
Il)apilliB,  while  the  legs  are  bluish-grey.  The  second  or  eastern 
Species,  first  discriminated  by  Dr  Hartlaub  {Rev.  Zoologiqiui,  1841, 
ip.  5;  1842,  p.  402,  pL  2)*  as  C.  minor,  is  smaller  in  size,  with 
!]ilumage.iust  aa  white,  but  having  the  bill  and  bare  skin  of  the  face 
black  and  the  legs  much  darker.  The  form  of  the  bill's  "  sheath  " 
in  the  two  species  is  also  quite  differcut,  for  in  C.  alba  it  is  almost 
level  througliout,  while  in  C.  minor  it  rises  in  front  like  the  pom- 
mel of  a  saddle.  Of  the  habits  of  the  western  and  larger  species 
not  much  has  been  recorded.  It  gathers  its  food,  consisting  chiefly, 
as  Darwin  and  others  have  told  us,  of  sea-weeds  and  shell-fish,  on 
rocks  at  low  water  ;  but  it  is  also  known  to  eat  birds'  eggs.  There 
is  some  curiously  conflicting  evidence  as  to  the  flavour  of  its  flesh, 
some  asserting  that  it  is  wholly  uneatable,  and  others  that  it  is 
palatable, — a  difference  which  may  possibly  be  due  to  the  previous 
diet  of  the  particular  example  tasted,  to  the  skill  of  the  cook,  or 


^  A  strange  fallacy  arose  early,  and  of  course  has  been  repeated  late, 
that  this  case  or  sheath  was  movable.     It  is  absohitely  lixed. 

^  Doubtless  some  of  the  earlier  voyagers  had  encountered  it,  as 
Forster  suggests  {hescr.  Animalium,  p.  330)  and  Lesson  asserts 
{^fan.  d'Or^iUholofjie,  ii.  p.  343)  ;  but  for  all  practical  purposes  we 
certainly  owe  its  discovery  to  the  naturalists  of  Cook's  second  voyage. 
By  some  error,  probably  of  transcription.  New  Zealand,  instead  of 
New- Year  Island,  appeai-s  in  many  works  as  the  place  of  ita  discovery, 
while  not  a  few  writers  have  added  thereto  New  Holland.  Hitherto 
there  is  no  real  evidence  of  the  occurrence  of  a  Sheathbill  in  the  waters 
of  Australia  or  New  Zealand. 

'  In  the  Falkland  Isles  it  is  called  the  "Kelp- Pigeon,"  and  by 
some  of  the  earlier  French  navigators  the  "  Pigeon  blanc  antarctique. " 
Tlie  cognate  -species  of  KergueleM  Laud  is  named  by  the  sealers 
"Sore-eyed  Pigeon,"  from  its.  prominent  fleshy  orbita,  as  well  as 
"Paddy-bird" — the  last  doubtless  from  its  white  plumage  calling  to 
mind  tliat  of  some  of  the  smaller  Egrets,  so>called  by  the  English  in 
India  and  elsewhere. 

''  Lesson  (loc.  cit.)  cites  a  brief  but  correct  indication  of  this 
species  as  observed  by  Lesquin  {Lyc^  Armoricain,  z.  p.  36)  on 
Crozet  Island,  and,  not  suspecting  it  to  be  distinct,  was  at  a  loss 
to  reconcile  the  discrepancies  of  the  latter 's  description  with  that 
given  of  the  other  species  by  earlier  authors. 


the  need  of  the  taster.     Though  most  ahnudant  as  a  sliorc-Inrd,  it 

is  frequently  met  with  far  out  iit  sea,  and  its  most  northern  recorded 
limit  is  by  Fleuricu  {Kuy.  tic  Marchand,  i.  (i.  19),  in  lat.  44°  S., 
iome  260  miles  from  the  eastern  coast  of  Fatngoida.  It  is  not 
uncommon  on  the  Falkland  Isles,  where  it  is  said  to  breed  (Ibis, 
1801,  p.  154),  though  conluniation  of  the  report  is  as  yet  wanting, 
and  from  thence  is  found  at  both  extremities  of  the  Strait  of 
Jlagollan,  and  southward  to  Louis-Pliilijipe  Land  in  lat.  60''  S. 
On  the  other  hand,  thanks  to  the  nnturnlists  of  the  liritish  and 
United  States  exjieditions  to  Kergutlen  Laud  for  tlic  observatioD 
of  the  transit  of  Venus  in  1874,  especially  XIr  Eaton  (Hiilns.  Trmia- 
actions,  cLxviii.  pp.  103-105)  and  l)r  Kidder  (Bull.  U.  ,S.  National 
Miiscnm,  1875,  No.  2,  p.  1-4),  much  more  has  been  recorded  of  the 
eastern  and  smaller  species,  which  had  already  been  ascertained  by 
ilr  Layard  (Proc.  Zool.  Society,  1871,  p.  57,  pi.  iv.  lig.  7)  to  breed 
on  the  Crozet  Islands,-^  and  was  found  to  do  so  still  more  nnnier- 
onsly  on  Kerguelen,  while  it  probably  frequents  Prince  Edwanl's 
Islands  for  the  same  purpose.  Tlie  eggs,  of  which  a  considerable 
number  have  now  been  obtained,  though  of  peculiar  appearanci-, 
bear  an  unmistakable  likeness  to  those  of  some  Plovers,  witilo 
occasionally  exhibiting  a  resemblance — of  little  significance,  how- 
ever— to  those  of  the  Tropic-birds. 

The  systematic  position  of  the  Sheathbills  has  been  the 
subject  of  much  hesitation — almost  useless  since  1836,  when 
De  Blainville  {Ann.  Sc.  Xahtretles,  ser.  2,  vi.  p.  97)  niado 
known  certain  anatomical  facts  proving  their  affinity  to  the 
Oyster-catchers  (vol.  xvii.  p.  Ill),  though  pointing  also 
to  a  more  distant  relationship  with  the  Gulls  (vol.  xi.  p. 
274).  These  he  afterwards  described  more  fully  ^(  Toy. 
'■'■  Bordte"  Zoohgie,  i.  pt.  3,  pp.  107-132,  pi.  9),  so'as  to 
leave  no  doubt  that  ChionU  was  a  form  ^ntermediato  be- 
tween those  groups.  Yet  some  writers  continued  to  refer 
it  to  the  Gallinx  and  others  to  the  Cohimbse.  The  matter 
may  now  be  regarded  as  settled  for  ever.  In  1876  Dr 
Reichenow  in  Germany  {Jour.  f.  Orn.,  1876,  pp.  84-89) 
and  in  America  Drs  Kadder  and  Coues  {Bull.  U.  S.  Kat. 
Museum,  No.  3,  pp.  85-116)  published  elaborate  accounts 
of  the  anatomy  of  C.  minor,  the  first  wholly  confirming 
the  view  of  De  Blainville,  the  last  two^  agreeing  with 
him  in  the  main,  but  concluding  that  the  Sheathbills 
formed  a  distinct  group  Chionomorphte,  in  rank  equal  to 
the  Cecomorphx  and  Charadriomorphx  of  Prof.  Huxley 
(which  are,  to  speak  roughly,  the  Gaiix  and  Limicolse  of 
older  systematists),  and  regarding  this  group  as  being 
"still  nearer  the  common  ancestral  stock  of  both."  The.se 
authors  also  wish  to  separate  the  two  species  generically ; 
but  their  proposals  are  considered  needless  by  Garrod  {P. 
Z.  S.,  \%~tl,  p.  417)  anJ  M.  AlpL  Milne-Edwards  {Ann.: 
Sc.  Naturelles,  ser.  6,  xiii.  art.  4,  p.  24).  The  opinions 
of  De  31ainville  and  Dr  Reichenow  are  borne  out  by  the 
observations  of  Jlr  Eaton  (loc.  cit.),  and  no  one  knowing 
the  habits  of  an  Oyster-catcher  can  read  his  remarks 
without  seeing  how  nearly  related  the  two  forms  are. 
Their  differences  may  perhaps  justify  the  separation  of 
each  form  into  what  is  vaguely  called  a  "  Family,"  bat 
the  differences  will  be  seen  by  the  comparative  anatomist 
to  be  of  slight  importance,  and  the  iutiniate  affinity  of  the 
Gavix  and  Limicolse,  already  recognized  by  Prof.  Parker 
and  some  of  the  best  taxonomers  (cf.  Ornithology,  voL 
xviii.  p.  45)  is  placed  beyond  dispute.^  (a.  n.) 

SHEBA.     See  Yemen. 

SHEBOYGAN,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  capital  of 
Sheboygan  county,  Wisconsin,  stands  on  Lake  Michigan,i 

s  A  previous  announcement  of  the  discovery  of  its  egg  {Ibis,  ]867» 
p.  458)  was  premature,  the  specimen,  now  in  the  possession  of  the 
pres'ent  writer,  proving  to  be  that  of  a  Gull — a  fact  unknown  to  the 
American  ■ftTiter  named  above. 

°  In  some  details  their  memoir  is  unfortunately  inaccurate. 

'  The  little  group  of  very  curious  birds,  having  no  English  name,i 
of  the  genera  Thinoeorys  and  Aiiagis,  which  are  peculiar  to  certain 
localities  in  South  America  and  its  islands,  are  by  some  systematists 
placed  in  the  Family  Chionididm-  and  by  others  in  a  distinct  Family 
Thinocoridm  (more  correctly  Thinocorylhidx).  They  are  undoubtedly 
Limicoline,  though  having  nmch  the  aspect  of  Sand-Grouse,  but  their 
precise  position  and  rank  remain  at  present  uncertain,  Cf.  Garro^ 
\u.l  svjtra)  and  Prof.  Parker  {Trans.  Zool.  Soc,  x.  pp.  301  ^.). 


S  H  E  — S  H  E 


783 


at  the  moutli  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  43  miles  east 
of  Fond  du  Lac  and  52  miles  north  of  Jlilwaukeo.  It  pos- 
sesses a  good  harbour,  and,  being  surrounded  by  very 
productive  agricultural  land,  exports  annually  a  largo 
quantity  of  grain.  The  manufactures  include  farming 
implements,  enamelled  hollow-ware,  and  stone-ware;  there 
area  number  of  tanneries  and  breweries;  and  mineral  water 
is  exported.  Settled  in  1836,  the  city  had  in  1880  a 
population  of  7314. 

SHECHEM,  now  Niscxus,  a  city  of  Palestine.  Eleven 
hours  from  Jerusalem  on  the  great  north  road  the  traveller 
finds*  himself  in  the  broad  upland  plain  of  JIakhna  (1500 
feet  above  the  sea),  with  Mount  Gerizim  on  his  left,  and, 
skirting  the  base  of  the  mountain,  reaches  the  traditional 
well  of  Jacob  (John  iv.  5,  C  ;  cf.  Gen.  x.xxiii.  19),  a  deep 
cistern  with  the  ruins  of  an  old  church  beside  it.  Here 
the  road  divides:  the  caravan  route  to  Damascus  continues 
northward  by  the  village  of  'Asker  (Sychar  of  John  iv. 
5  %  and  so  to  Beisan  (Beth-shan)  and  Tiberias ;  but  the 
way  to  Samaria  turns  westward  into  a  fertile  and  well- 
watered  side  valley  between  Gerizim  (2849  feet)  on  the 
south  and  Ebal  (3077  feet)  on  the  north.  This  is  the 
Vale  of  Shechem  or  N.ibulus ;  it  is  in  fact  an  easy  pass 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  Jordan  basins,  and  at  the 
watershed  (1870  feet),  where  the  city  stands,  1^  miles  from 
Jacob's  Well,  is  not  more  than  100  yards  v/ide.  Thus 
Shechem  commands  both  branches  of  the  great  north  road, 
and  several  routes  from  the  coast  also  converge  here  and 
connect  with  the  ancient  road  from  Shechem  eastward  to 
KerAwd  (Aruhelais)  and  Al-Salt,  the  capital  of  the  Belkd. 
The  name  of  Shechem  (shoulder,  back)  accords  with  the 
position  of  the  town  on  the  watershed,  anji  the  native 
name  in  Josephus's  time  (Mabortha,  B.  J.,  iv.  8.  1  ;  Pliny 
has  Mamortha)  means  simply  "  the  pass."  The  situation 
of  Shechem  at  the  crossing  of  so  many  great  roads  must. 
have  given  it  importance  at  a  very  early  date,  and  it  is 
still  a  busy  town  of  20,000  inhabitants,  with  soap  manu- 
factures and  considerable  trade.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
position  is  equally  favourable  for  brigandage,  to  which, 
under  weak  governments,  the  Shechemites  were  addicted 
of  old  (Judges  ix.  25  ;  Hosea  vi.  9,  where  "for  consent" 
read  "  to  Shechem "),  and  the  district  is  still  a  law- 
less one. 

The  ancient  inhabitants  of  Shechem  wero  tho  Bne  Hamor,  a 
Canaanito  clan,  who  were  not  expelled  on  the  first  conquest  of 
Canaan  but  remained  iu  possession  till  tlie  events  recorded  in 
Judges  ix.  From  the  narrative  of  Gen.  xxxiv.,  which  has  been 
spoken  of  in  the  ai-ticle  Levi,  it  would  seem  that  they  entered  into 
friendly  relations  with  tho  invaders,  and  that  an  attack  made  nn 
tliom  by  Simeon  and  Levi  was  repudiated  by  Israel  and  led  to  tlie 
dispersion  of  these  two  tribes.  In  Judges  ix.  tho  "  freemen  of 
Shechem"  (Q^ty  "hv^)  appear  as  a  turbulent  but  cowardly  race, 
who,  in  Bpite  of  their  numbers  and  wealth,  had  become  vassals  of 
Gideon  for  tho  sake  of  protection  against  tho  Midianitea,  and 
would  have  continued  to  servo  his «ons  but  for  tho  enterprise  of 
Abimelech,  whose  mother  was  of  their -race.  "With  tho  aid  of 
mercenaries  hired  with  the  treasure  of  the  sanctuary  of  BaalBerith 
or  El-IJerith,  tlio  god  of  tho  town,  Abimelech  destroyed  the  sons 
of  Gideon,  was  crowned  king  of  Shechem,  and  for  three  ye.irs  held 
sway  also  over  tho  surrounding  Israelites.  A  revolt  was  led  by 
Gaal,  an  Israelite  who  scorned  to  be  subject  to  tho  cieaturo  of  the 
despised  Canaauitcs,'  and,  the  Shechemites  having  fillen  out  with 
Abimelech  about  their  practice  of  brigandage,  Gnal  made  a  dnsli  at 
tho  city  in  tho  absenco  of  tho  king,  and  the  ficklo  inhabitants 
received  him  with  open  arms.  Abimelech,  however,  with  his 
mercenaries  proved  too  strong  for  his  adversaries,  and  Canaanito 
Shechem  was  utterly  destroyed.  Its  place  was  taken  by  a  Hebrew 
city,  and  tho  Canaanite  sanctuary  of  El-Berith  was  transformed  into 

1  In  Judges  ix.  28  for  niV  read  ITaV'  (Wellhauscn  after  MSS. 
of  LXX. ),  and  translate  "Who  is  Ablmelecli  or  who  arc  tho  Shechemites 
(his  supporters)  that  we  should  be  his  slaves  f  By  all  means  let  tlio 
son  of  Jerubbaal  and  Zebul  his  olUccr  enslave  the  men  of  Humor 
father  of  Shechem  ;  but  why  should  we  (Hebrews)  bo  his  slaves?" 
Those  words  cannot  have  been  spoken  after  the  Shechemites  hail 
renounceil  Abimolerh  ;  vv.  29,  30  ought  tn  eland  immediately  after 
»er.  22.     See  VV.  R.  Smith,  in  Tlicol  Tijdschrift,  1886,  p.  105  aq. 


a  Hebrew  holy  place  of  El  the  God  of  Israel,  of  which  the  founda- 
tion was  afterwards  referred  to  Jacob  (Gen.  xx.Niii.  20)  or  even  to 
Abraham  (Gen.  xii.  7).  The  great  stone  under  the  famous  sacred 
tree  at  the  sanctuary  (tho  "tree  of  tho  reveller"  or  "tree  of  the 
soothsayers,"  E.V.  "plain  of  Moreh"or  "of  Mconcnim";  Gen. 
xii.  6,  xxxv.  4  ;'  Deut.  xi.  30;  Jud.  ix.  6,  37)  was  said  to  have 
been  set  up  by  Joshua  (Josh.  xxiv.  26),  ami  Joseph's  grave  was 
shown  there.'  All  this  indicates  that  Shechem  was  ohco  the  chief 
sanctuary  of  Joseph,  and  so  we  understand  why  Kehoboam  went  to 
Sliechcm  to  be  crowned  king  of  Northern  Isr.iel  and  why  Jeroboam 
at  first  made  it  his  residence  (1  Kings  xii.  25).  Tolitically  Shechem 
was  soon  supplanted  by  Tiizah  and  Samaria,  but  it  appears  to 
have  been  still  a  sanctuary  in  the  time  of  Hosea.  It  survived  the 
fall  of  Ephiaim  (Jer.  xii.  5)  and  ultimately  became  the  religious 
centre  of  the  Sahakitans  (q.v.).  The  Greek  name  Ncapolis, 
kucwn  to  Josephus,  indicates  tho  building  of  a  new  town,  wliich, 
according  to  Eusebiua  and  Jerome,  was  a  little  way  from  the  old 
Sliechem,  or  at  least  did  not  include  the  traditional  holy  sites. 
The  coins  give  the  form  Flavia  JTcapolis.  Neapolis  was  the  birth- 
place of  Justin  Slartyr,  and  became  the  seat  of  a  bishopric.  Five 
Christian  churches  destroyed  by  the  Samaritans  iu  tiie  tiuio  of 
Anastasius  were  rebuilt  by  Justinian  (Procop.,  Dc  jEd.,  v.  7). 
Remains  of  one  of  these  seem  still  to  exist  in  tho  crusaders'  church 
of  the  Passion  and  Resurrection  (1167),  now  the  great  mosque. 
Neapolis  had  much  to  sutler  in  tlie  crusades  ;  it  w.is  finally  lost  to 
the  Christians  soon  after  Saladin's  great  victory  at  Ilittin. 

A  map  of  the  Shechem  valley,  with  topoijitiphical  details,  &c., 
will  be  found  in  tho  Memoirs  of  Pal.  Expl.  Soc,  vol.  ii. 

SHEE,  Sir  Maktin  Akcher  (1770-1850),  portrait- 
painter,  and  president  of  the  Eoyal  Academy,  was  born  in 
Dublin  on  the  23d  of  December  1770.  He  was  sprung 
from  an  old  Irish  family,  and  his  father,  while  he  exercised 
the  trade  of  a  merchant,  regarded  the  profession  of  a 
painter  as  in  no  sense  a  fit  occupation  for  a  descendant  of 
the  Shees.  Young  Shee  became,  nevertheless,  a  student 
of  art  in  the  Dublin  Society,  and  came  early  to  London, 
where  he  was,  in  1788,  introduced  by  Burke  to  Eeynolds, 
by  whose  advice  he  studied  in  the  schools  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  In  1789  he  exhibited  his  first  two  pictures, 
the  Head  of  an  Old  Man  and  Portrait  of  a  Gentleman. 
During  the  next  ten  years  he  steadily  increased  iu  practice, 
and  gradually  gained  ground  among  the  austocracy,  with 
whom  his  suavity  and  gooil  manners  were  great  recom- 
mendations. He  was  chosen  an  associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1798,  shortly  after  the  illustrious  Flaxman, 
and  in  1800  he  was  made  a  Royal  Academician.  In  tho 
former  year  he  had  married,  removed  to  Romney's  house 
in  Cavendish  Square,  and  set  up  as  tho  legitimate  successor 
of  that  artist.  Shee  continued  to  paint  with  great 
readiness  of  hand  and  fertility  of  invention,  although  his 
portraits  were  eclipsed  by  more  than  one  of  his  contem- 
poraries, and  especially  by  Lawrence,  Hoppner,  Phillips, 
Jackson,  and  Eaeburn.  In  addition  to  his  portraits  he 
executed  various  subjects  and  historical  works,  such  as 
Lavinia,  Belisarius,  his  diploma  picture  Prospcro  and 
Miranda,  and  the  Daughter  of  Jcphthah.  In  1805  he 
published  a  poem  consisting  of  Rhymes  on  Art,  and  it  was 
succeeded  by  a  second  part  in  1809.  Although  Byron 
spoke  well  of  it  in  his  EtKjlish  Bards  and  Scotch  Ren'etfers, 
and  invoked  a  place  for  "Shee  and  genius"  in  the  temple 
of  fame,  yet,  as  nature  had  not  originally  conjoined  these 
two,  it  is  to  bo  feared  that  even  a  poet's  invocation  could 
not  materially  affect  their  relations.  Shee  published 
another  small  volume  of  verses  in  1814,  entitled  The 
Commemoration  of  Sir  Joshua  Beynolds,  and  other  Poems, 
but  this  effort  did  not  greatly  increase  his  fame.  Ho  now 
produced  a  tragedy  called  Alasco,  of  which  the  scene  was 
laid  in  Poland.     Tho  play  was  accepted  at  Covent  Garden, 


*  Euscblus  glTos  the  tree  (tcrcbiiitlius)  of  Gen.  ixxv.  4  a  place  in 
his  Uiiomastico.i ;  and  from  it  probably  the  bishop  Tcrcbiathius  in 
Procop.,  JJe  Jid.,  v.  7,  had  his  name. 

'  Tho  Canaanito  s.iiictuary  was  roiiresented  us  a  more  tcniponiry 
usuqialion  by  the  tradition  (In  tlio  Elohistic  narrative)  that  Jacob  hail 
bought  tlio  site  of  his  altar  from  tho  Hamoritca  and  bequeathed  it  to 
Joseph  (Gen.  xxxiii.  19,  Josh.  xxiv.  32;  Iu  tho  latter  passage  roaJ 

with  LXX.  ajriM  for  vnn). 


784 


S  H  E  — S  H  E 


and  intte  fertile  fancy  of  tlie  poet  tlie  play  had  already 
gained  for  him  a  great  dramatic  fame,  when  Colman,  the 
licenser,  refused  it  bis  sanction,  on  the  plea  of  its  containing 
certain  treasonable  allusions,  and  Shee,  in  great  wrath,  re- 
solved to  make  his  appeal  to  the  public.  This  violent 
threat  Le  carried  out  in  1824,  but  unfortunately  the  public 
found  other  business  to  mind,  and  Alasco  is  still  on  the 
list  of  unacted  dramas.  Oa  the  death  of  Lawrence  in 
1830,  Snee  was  chosen  president  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
and  shortly  afterwards  he  received  the  honour  of  knight- 
hood. He  was  excellently  qualiEsd  by  his  gentlemanly 
manners,  busviess habits,  and  fluent  speech  for  the  position; 
and  in  the  dispute  regarding  the  use  of  rooms  to  be  pro- 
vided by  Government,  and  in  his  examination  before  the 
parliamentary  committee  of  1836,  he  ably  defended  the 
rights  of  the  Academy.  He  continued  to  paint  till  1845, 
and  died  on  the  13th  of  August  1850  in  his  eightieth  year. 
The  earlier  portraits  of  the  artist  are  carefully  finished,  easy  in 
action,  with  good  drawing  and  excellent  discrimination  of  character. 
They  show  an  undue  tendency  to  redness  in  the  flesh  painting, — a 
defect  which  is  still  more  apparent  in  his  later  works,  in  whicli  the 
handling  is  less  "square,"  crisp,  and  forcible. 

SHEEP.  The  animals  commonly  designated  by  this 
name  (Constitute  the  genus  Ovis  of  zoologists,  a  group 
belonging  to  the  Artiodactyle  or  paired-toed  section  of 
the  Uiigulata  or  hoofed  mammals  (see  Mammalia,  vol.  xv. 
p.  432).  They  are  ruminants,  and  belong  to  the  hollow- 
horned  section,  i.e.,  those  having  persistent  ho^ns  composed 
of  conical  epidermic  sheaths,  encasing  and  supported  by 
processes  of  the  frontal  bone.  This- section  includes  the 
various  species  of  Oxen,  Goats,  and  Antelopes,  as  well  as 
the  Sheep,  animals  all  so  closely  related  structurally  that 
it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  define  the  differences  between 
them. 

In  nearly  all  wild  sheep  the  boms  are  present  in  both 
sexes,  though  smalle.  in  the  female.  They  are  trigonal  in 
section,  havinj  always  three  more  or  less  distinctly  marked 
surfaces,  divided  by  edges  running  longitudinally  to  the 
axis  of  the  horn,  sometimes  sharply  prominent  and  some- 
times rounded  off.  They  are  also  marked  by  numerous 
transverse  ridges  and  constrictions,  and  present  a  strong 
more  or  less  spiral  curve,  which  varies  in  direction  in 
Uifferent  species.  The  teeth  resemble  generally  those  of 
the  other  Bovidx.  The  upper  incisors  and  canines  are 
entirely  wanting,  their  place  being  taken  by  a  callous  pad 
against  which  the  lower  front  teeth  bite.  These  are  eight 
in  number,  all  much  alike  and  in  close  contact ;  the  outer 
pair  represent  the  canines,  therest  the  incisors.  On  each 
side  of  the  mouth  above  and  below  are  six  teeth  close 
together,  three  of  which  are  premolars  (replacing  milk 
teeth)  and  three  true  molars,  all  markedly  selenodont  (the 
grinding  surfaces  presenting  crescent-like  patterns)  and 
hypsodont,  or  with  long  crowns  and  small  roots.  .  The 
dental  formula  is  thus — incisors  §,  canines  ^,  premolars  §, 
molars  §,=37^;  total  of  both  sides  32.  The  vertebral 
formula  is — cervical  7,  dorsal  13,  lumbar  6  or  7,  sacral  4, 
-caudal  variable.  In  the  feet  the  hoofs  of  the  two  middle 
toes  (third  and  fourth)  only  reach  the  ground,  and  are 
equally  developed.  The  outer  toes  (second  and  fifth)  are 
very  rudimentary,  represented  only  by  small  hoofs,  without 
bony  phalanges,  and  by  the  proximal  or  upper  ends  of 
the  slender  splint-like  metacarpal  or  metatarsal  bones. 
Between  the  two  middle  toes,  in  most  species,  is  lodged  a 
deep  sac,  having  the  form  of  a  retort  and  with  a  small 
external  orifice,  which  secretes  an  unctuous  and  odorous 
substance.  This,  tainting  the  herbage  or  stones  over 
which  the  animal  walks,  affords  the  means  by  which, 
through  the  powerfully  developed  sense  of  smell,  the 
neighbourhood  of  other  individuals  of  the  species  is  reca^- 
nized.  The  crumen  or  suborbital  gland,  which  is  so  largely 
deve'opp-d  and  probably  perlorma  the  same  office  in  some  [ 


antelopes  and  deer,  is  present,  but  in  a  comparatively 
rudimentary  form,  though  varying  in  different  species.  The 
tail,  though  long  in  many  varieties  of  domestic  sheep,  i" 
short  in  all  the  wild  species,  in  which  also  the  exteriial 
covering  of  the  bodj'  is  in  the  main  hairy, — the  fine  fleecy 
coats  of  wool,  or  hair  so  modified  as  to  have  the  propert) 
of  "  felting "  or  adhering  together  under  pressure,  which 
give  such  value  to  many  breeds,  having  been  especially 
cultivated  by  selective  breeding. 

The  sheep  was  a  domestic  animal  in  Asia  and  Europe 
before  the  dawn  of  history,  though  quite  unknown  as  such 
in  the  New  World  until  after  the  Spanish  conquest.  It 
has  now  been  introduced  by  man  into  almost  all  parts  of 
the  world  where  settled  agricultural  operations  are  carried 
on,  but  nourishes  especially  in  the  temperate  regions  of 
both  hemispheres.  Whether  our  well-known  and  useful 
animal  is  derived  from  any  one  of  the  existing  wild  species, 
or  from  the  crossing  of  several,  or  from  some  now  extinct 
species,  is  quite  a  matter  of  conjecture.  The  variations  of 
external  characters  seen  in  the  different  domestic  breeds 


Muufilan  (Ovif  musimon).     From  a  living  anim.!!  iu  the  Lonilun 

Zoological  Gardens. 

are  very  great.  They  are  chiefly  manifested  in  the  form 
and  number  of  the  horns,  which  may  be  increased  from 
the  normal  two  to  four  or  even  eight,  or  may  bo  altogether 
absent  in  the  female  alone  or  in  both  sexes;  in  the  form 
and  length  of  the  ears,  which  often  hang  pendent  by  the 
side  of  the  head ;  in  the  peculiar  elevation  or  arching  of 
the  nasal  bones  in  some  Eastern  races ;  in  the  length  of 
the  tail,  and  the  development  of  great  masses  of  fat  at  each 
side  of  its  root  or  in  the  tail  itself ;  and  in  the  colour  and 
quality  of  the  fleece.     See  Agriculture. 

The  distinction  of:  the  various  permanent  modifications 
under  which  wild  sheep  occur  is  a  matter  of  considerable 
difficulty.  Trivial  characters,  such  as  size,  slight  variations, 
in  colour,  and  especially  the  form  and  curvature  of  the 
horns,  are  relied  upon  by  different  zoologists  who  have 
given  attention  to  the  subject  in  the  discrimination  of 
species,  but  no  complete  accord  has  yet  been  established. 
The  most  generally  recognized  forms  are  enumerated  below. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  wild  sheep  is  interesting.  The 
immense  raouutain  ranges  of  Central  Asia,  the  Pamir  anU  Thian 
Shan  of  Turkestan,  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  centre  of  their 
habitat.  HeTe,  at  an  elevation  of  16,000  feet  above  the  sea-level, 
is  the  home  of  the  magnificent  Ow'-spo/i',  named  after  the  ce.ebrated 
Venetian  traveller  Marco  Polo,  who  met  with  it  iu  his  adventurous 
travels  through  this  region  in  the  13th  century.  It  is  remark- 
able for  the  great  size  of  the  horns  of  the  old  rams  and  tbo 
wide  open  sweep  of  their  curve,  so  that  the  points  stand  boldij 


S  H  E  — S  H  E 


785 


iMit  on  cacli  side,  far  away  from  tlie  animal's  head,  instead  of  curl- 
ing round  nearly  in  tlie  same  I'lanc,  as  in  most  of  the  allied  species. 
A  very  similar  if  not  identical  species  from  the  same  origin,  in 
whi''!i  the  horns  retain  their  mom  normal  di'vclopiiient,  has 
rccciiod  the  name  of  0.  \-ardhii.  Eastward  and  northward  is 
found  the  argali  (0.  «»imoii),  with  a  wide  and  not  very  well 
determined  range.  Still  further  north,  in  the  Stanovoi  Mountains 
and  Kamchatka,  is  0.  nivicnla,  an<A  away  on  the  other  side  of 
ilcliring's  Strait,  in  tlio  Rocky  ^lountains  and  adjacent  high  lands 
•of  western  North  America,  is  tlie  "  bighorn  "  or  mountain  sheep 
(0.  viontunn),  the  only  one  of  the  genus  fo\i!id  iu  ihat  continent 
and  indeed — except  the  bison, tlie  musk-o.x  (Ovibos),  mountain  goat 
iAplnccras),  and  the  prongbuck  {Antilompra) — tlie  only  hollow- 
iK.rncd  ruminant,  being  like  the  rest  obviously  a  straggler  from  the 
cradle  of  its  race.  Turning  southward  from  the  point  from  which 
wc  started,  and  still  a  little  to  the  east,  iu  Nepal  and  Little  Tibet, 
is  0.  hodgsoni,  a  species  with  large  and  strongly  curved  horns, 
and  another  with  smaller  and  more  spreading  horns,  the  burrhel, 
0.  nalioor.  Passing  in  a  south-westerly  direction  wc  find  a  series 
of  smaller  forms,  0,  vignri  of  Ladak,  0.  ajcloccros  of  northern 
India,  Persia,  and  Haluchistan,  0.  gmclini  of  Asia  Minor,  0.  ophton, 
confined  to  the  elevated  pine-clad  Troodos  Mountains  of  the 
island  of  Cyprus,  and  said  at  the  time  of  the  British  occupation 
in  1878  to  have  bee.,  reduced  to  a  flock  of  about  t-euty-five 
individuals,  and  0.  miisinwn,  the  mouftlon  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia 
(see  figure),  believed  to  have  been  formerly  also  a  native  of  Spain. 
Lastly,  we  have  the  somewhat  aberrant,  goat-like  aoudad,  0. 
iragclaphns,  of  the  great  mountain  ranges  of  North  Africa. 

We  thus  find  that  sheep  are  essentially  inhabitants  of  high 
mountainous  parts  of  the  world,  for  dwelling  among  which  their 
wonderful  powers  of  climbing  and  leaping  give  them  special 
advantages.  No  species  frequent  by  choice  either  level  deserts, 
open  plains,  dense  forests,  or  swamps.  By  far  the  greater  number 
of  species  are  inhabitants  of  the  continent  of  Asia,  one  or  perhaps 
two  extending  into  North  America,  one  into  Southern  Kurope, 
and  one  into  North  Africa.  No  wild  sheep  occurs  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world,  unless  the  so  called  musk-ox  (Ovibos  iiioschatus) 
of  tlio  Arctic  regions,  the  nearest  existing  ally  to  the  true  sheep, 
may  be  considered  as  one.  Geologically  speaking,  sheep  appear 
to  be  very  modern  animals,  or  perhaps  it  would  be  safer  to  say 
that  no  remains  that  can  be  with  certainty  referred  to  the  genus 
have  been  met  with  iu  the  hitherto  explored  true  Tertiary  beds, 
which  have  yielded  such  abundant  modifications  of  antelopes 
and  deer.  They  are  appareritly  not  indigenous  in  th;  British  Isles, 
tut  were  probably  introduced  by  man  from  the  East  in  prehistoric 
times.  (W.  H.  F.) 

SHEEPSEEAD  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  largest 
species  of  the  genus  Sargus,  marine  fishes  known  on  the 
coasts  of  southern  Europe  as  "  sargo  "  or  "  saragu."  These 
fishes  possess  two  kinds  of  teeth  : — one,  broad  and  flat,  like 
mcisors,  occupying  in  a  single  series  the  front  of  the  jaws ; 


Shccpshcod. 
tlic  otlisr,  semiglobular  and  molar-liko,  arranged  in  several 
series  on  the  sides  of  the  jaws.  l''or  tlic  .systematic  po.si- 
tion  of  the  genus,  sec  vol.  xii.  p.  G89.  The  slieopsbead, 
Saryua  ovis,  occurs  in  abundance  on  the  Atlantic  coasts  of 
the  United  Stalo,  from  Capo  Cod  to  Florida,  and  is  one 
of  tho  most  valued  food-fisbcs  of  North  America.  It  is 
said  to  attain  to  a  Icntjlb  of  30  inches  and  a  weight  of  l.'j 

21 -■3' 


pounds.  Its  food  consists  of  shellfish,  which  it  detaches 
with  its  incisors  from  the  base  to  which  they  arc  fi.xcd, 
crushing  them  with  its  powerful  molars.  It  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  some  other  allied  species  occurring  in  tho 
same  seas  by  the  presence  of  seven  or  eight  dark. cross- 
bands  traversing  tlic  body,  by  a  recumbent  spine  in  front 
of  the  dorsal  fin,  by  twelve  spines  and  as  many  rays  of 
the  dor.sal  and  ten  rays  of  the  anal  fin,  and  by  forty-six 
scales  along  the  lateral  line.  The  term  "sheepshead"  is 
also  given  in  some  parts  of  North  America  to  a  very 
different  fish,  a  freshwater  Sciajiioid,  Corvina  oscnia,  which 
is  much  less  (.steemed  for  the  table. 

SHEEivNESS-ON-SEA,  a  seaport,  watering-place,  naval 
establishment,  and  garrison  town  in  the  Isle  of  Sheppey, 
Kent,  is  situated  on  the  Thames  at  the  mouth  of  the  iled- 
way,  on  the  Sittingbourne  branch  of  the  London,  Chatham, 
and  Dover  Railway,  52  miles  east  of  London,  and  17 
north-east  of  Maidstone.  The  older  part  of  Sbecrness, 
containing  the  dockyard,  is  called  Blue  Town,  the  later 
additions  being  known  as  Jliletown,  Bankstown,  and 
Mar'aetown.  Maricetown  consists  chiefly  of  houses  occu- 
pied by  summer  visitors,  but  although  there  is  a  good 
beach  for  bathing  the  presence  of  the  dockyard  with  its 
surroundings  has  militated  against  the  success  of  the  town 
as  a  watering-place.  The  dockyard,  erected  by  the  admi- 
ralty about  1830,  was  seriously  damaged  by  fire  in  1881. 
The  naval  establishment  is  only  of  the  second-class,  the 
basins  being  too  small  to  admit  vessels  of  the  largest  size. 
The  dockyard  is  60  acres  in  extent,  and  contains  naval 
barracks  with  accommodation  for  1000  men.  A  fort  was 
built  at  Sheerness  by  Charles  U.,  which  on  the  10th  July 
1C67  was  taken  by  the  Dutch  fleet  under  Dc  Kuyter. 
After  this  mishap  it  was  strengthened  and  a  dockyara 
was  formed.  The  fortifications  are  now  of  great  strength, 
X100,000  having  been  spent  in  adapting  them  to  modern 
necessities.  The  town  is  in  the  parish  of  Minster,  whirh 
possesses  the  most  ancient  abbey  church  in  England.  Tho 
population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  938  acres) 
in  1871  was  13,956,  and  in  18S1  it  was  14,286. 

SHEFFIELD,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough 
in  tho  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  next  to  Leeds  tho 
largest  town  in  the  county,  and  the  chief  seat  of  the 
cutlery  trade  in  England,  is  situated  on  somewhat  hilly 
ground  in  tho  neighbourhood  of  the  Pennine  range,  on 
several  rivers  and  streams,  tho  principal  of  which  are  the 
Don,  the  Sheaf,  the  Porter,  tho  Rivelin,  and  the  Loxlcy, 
and  on  the  Midland,  Great  Northern,  and  various  branch 
railway  lines,  39  miles  south  of  Leeds,  37  south-east  of 
Manchester,  172  north  of  London  by  the  ]\Iidland 
Railway,  and  162  by  the  Great  Northern.  Tho  borough 
of  Shehield  is  coextensive  with  tho  parish,  and  embraces 
a  district  10  miles  in  length  by  3  or  4  miles  in  breadth. 
It  includes  the  townships  of  Sheftleld,  Brightsido  Bierlow, 
Atterclifl'e-cum-Darnall,  Nether  Ilallam,  Hecley,  Eccles- 
all  Bierlow,  and  Upper  Ilallam,  tho  last  twe  districts 
being  in  great  part  rural,  but  occupied  als(.  by  the 
southern  and  western  suburbs  of  the  borough.  Tlio  older 
portions  of  the  town  are  somewhat  irregularly  built,  and 
in  some  districts  densely  populated,  but  much  has  been 
dono  of  lato  years  to  widen  nnd  otherwise  imjirovo  the 
streets  in  the  central  districts  by  tho  operation  of  an  Act 
passed  in  1875,  tho  expense  amounting  in  all  to  about 
£1,000,000.  Tho  suburbs  contain  a  largo  number  of 
beautiful  terraces  and  mansions,  picturcsqncly  situated  in 
tho  neighbourhood  of  fine  natural  scenery.  A  consider- 
able portion  of  them  is  occupied  by  workmen'.^  cottages, 
many  of  which  aro  surrounded  by  well-kept  gardens. 

Sheffield  in  1845  was  divided  into  twcnty-livo  parochial 
districts,  which  have  been  gradually  added  to  in  successive 
jyyirs,  and  in  1805  it  was  constituted  a  deanery.     Tho 


786 


SHEFFIELD 


only  ecclesiastical  building  of  special  interest  is  the  old 
parish  church  of  St  Peter,  chiefly  in  the  Perpendicular 
style,  originally  cruciform,  but  by  various  additions  now 
rectangular.  The  old  Norman  building  is  supposed  to 
have  been  burned  down  during  the  wars  of  Edward  III. 
with  the  barons,  and  the  most  ancient  part  of  the  present 
structure  is  the  tower,  dating  from  the  14th  century. 
The  church  has  lately  been  restored  at  the  cost  of  about 
£20,000.  It  contains  a  large  number  of  interesting  mural 
monuments. 

The  free  grammar  school  was  founded  in  1603  through 
a  bequest  of  Thomas  Smith,  a  native  of  Sheffield,  practis- 
ing as  an  attorney  at  Crowland,  Lincolnshire,  and  it  re- 
ceived the  sanction  of  King  James  I.  in  1604,  with  the 
title  "The  Free  Grammar  School"  of  King  James  of 
England."  The  grammar  school  building  of  stone  in  the 
Tudor  style,  erected  in  182t,  is  now  «1S86)  used  as  a 
technical  school,  the  grammar  school  trustees  having  pur- 
chased the  collegiate  school  at  Broomhall  Park.  The 
other  principal  educational  institutions  are  the  free  writ- 
ing school  (1715,  rebuilt  in  1827),  the 
boys'  charity  school  (founded  1706), 
the  g'rls'  charity  school  (1786),  the 
Roman  Catholic  reformatory  (1861), 
the  Church  of  England  educational 
institute,  the  Firth  College,  erected  by 
Mark  Firth  at  a  cost  of  £20,000,  for 
lectures  and  classes  in  connexion  with 
the  extension  of  university  education, 
the  Wesley  College,  associated  with 
London  University,  Ranmoor  College, 
for  training  young  men  for  the 
ministry  in  the  Methodist  New  Con- 
nexion, the  mechanics'  institute,  the 
school  of  art,  and  the  St  George's 
Museum,  founded  by  Mr  Euskin,  and 
including  a  picture  gallery,  a  library, 
and  a  mineral,  a  natural  history,  and 
a  botanical  collection,  the  special  pur- 
pose of  the  institution  being  the  train- 
ing of  art  students.  The  school  board 
was  first  elected  in  1870,  and  carries  , 
on  its  operations  with  great  energy 
and  success. 

The  principal  public  buildings  are 
the  town-hall,  including  the  police 
ofBces  and  rooms  for  the  quarter  ses- 
sions and  other  courts,  erected  in 
1808,  enlarged  in  1833,  and  lately 
extensively  remodelled  at  a  cost  of 
over  £10,000 ;  the  council  hall  and  municipal  baildings, 
originally  used  for  the  mechanics'  institute,  but  purchased 
by  the  corporation  in  1864  ;  the  cutlers'  hall,  built  in  1832 
at  a  cost  of  £6500,  and  enlarged  in  1857  by  the  addition 
of  a  magnificent  banqueting  hall,  erected  at  a  cost  of 
£9000  ;  the  general  post  office,  in  the  Doric  style,  opened 
in  1874;  the  fine  new  corn  exchange,  in  the  Tudor  style, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  £60,000;  the  Albert  Hall,  opened  in 
1873  by  a  joint-stock  company  for  concerts  and  public 
meetings;  the  music  hall,  erected  in  1823  ;  the  freemasons' 
hall,  opened  in  1877;  the  temperance  halls,  1856;  the 
Norfolk  market  hall,  opened  in  1857  at  a  cost  of  £40,000  ; 
the  theatre  royal,  originally  erected  in  1793,  rebuilt  in 
1880  at  a  cost  of  £8000  ;  the  Alexandra  theatre,  erected 
1836-7  at  a  cost  of  £8000  ;  the  barracks,  having  accom- 
modation for  a  Cavalry  and  an  infantry  regiment  and 
surrounded  by  grounds  25  acres  in  extent;  and  the 
volunteer  artillery  drill  hall,  erected  at  a  cost  of  £9000. 
The  literary  and  social  institutions  include  the  Athenoeum, 
established  in  1847,  with  a  newsroom  and  library;  the 


literary  and  philosophical  society,  1822  ;  the  Sheffield  club, 
1862;  the' Sheffield  library,  commenced  in  1777,  and  con- 
taining 80,000  volumes  ;  and  the  free  library,  founded  in 
1856,  with  various  branches  opened  in  subsequent  years. 
Among  the  medical  or  benevolent  institutions  may  be 
mentioned  the  general  infirmary,  opened  in  1797,  and 
successively  enlarged  and  improved  as  requirements  de- 
manded ;  the  public  hospital,  erected  in  1858  (in  connexion 
with  the  Sheffield  medical  school  established  in  1792)  and 
extended  in  1869  ;  the  hospital  for  women,  originally  estab- 
lished in  1864,  but  transferred  in  1878  to  a  new  building 
erected  at  the  expense  of  Thomas  Jessop,  and  now  called 
the  Jessop  hospital  for  women ;  the  hospital  for  diseases 
of  the  skin,  1880;  the  ear  and  throat  hospital,  1880;  the 
fever  hospital,  erected  by  the  Town  Council  at  a  cost  of 
about  £25,000  ;  the  school  and  manufactory  for  the  blind, 
1879;  the  South  Yorkshire  lunatic  asylum,  1872;  the 
Shrewsbury  hospital  for  twenty  men  and  twenty  women, 
originally  founded  by  the  seventh  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  who 
died  in  1616,  but  since  greatly  enlarged  by  successive 


Plan  of  Sheffield. 

benefactions ;  the  HoUis  hospital,  established  in  1700  foi; 
widows  of  cutlers,  &.c. ;  the  Firth  almshouses,  erected  and 
endowed  in  1869  by  Mark  Firth  of  Oakbrook  at  a  cost 
of  £30,000;  the  licensed  victuallers'  asylum,  1878;  the 
Deakin  institution,  1849;  Hanby's  charitj',  1766;  and 
Hadfield's  charity,  1860. 

The  public  monuments  are  neither  numerous  nor  im^ 
portant,  the  principal  being  the  Montgomery  statue,  erectec\ 
to  James  Montgomery  the  poet  in  1861,  chiefly  by  the 
Sunday  school  teachers  of  the  town,  the  Ebenezer  Elliot 
monument,  erected  in  the  market  place  in  1854,  anj 
removed  to  Weston  Park  in  1875,  the  column  to  Godfrey 
Sykes  the  artist,  erected  in  Weston  Park  in  1871,  the 
cholera  monument  1831-5,  and  the  Crimean  monument 
to  the  natives  of  Sheffield  who  died  in  the  Crimean  War. 

The  town  is  comparatively  well  supplied  with  parks 
and  public  gardens.  In  three  of  the  more  populous  dis- 
tricts the  duke  of  Norfolk,  lord  of  the  manor,  presented 
plots  of  ground  amounting  in  all  to  26  acres,  to  be  need 
as  recreation   grounds.      In  the  western   suburbs  is  the 


S  H  E  — S  H  E 


787 


Weston  Park  and  Museum,  occupying  the  grounds  and 
mansion  house  of  Weston  Hall,  which  the  town  council 
purchased  in  1873.  The  grounds  are  about  13  acres  in 
extent,  and  the  museum  includes — in  addition  to  tho 
Mappin  Art  Gallery,  now  (1886)  being  erected  from  tho 
bequest  of  John  Newton  Mappin — a  picture  gallery,  a 
natural  history  collection,  and  an  extensive  collection  of 
r>ritish  antiquities.  The  Firth  Park,  on  the  north-cast  of 
the  town,  36  acres  in  extent,  was  purchased  by  Mark  Firth, 
and  presented  to  the  town,  the  opening  ceremony  by  the 
prince  and  princess  of  Wales  taking  place  1 6th  August 
187.5.  The  Norfolk  Park,  60  acres  in  extent,  is  granted 
by  the  duke  of  Norfolk  for  the  use  of  the  town,  but  remains 
his  property.  The  botanical  gardens,  IS  acres  in  extent, 
situated  in  the  western  suburbs,  are  the  property  of  a  com- 
pany, but  on  certain  days  they  are  open  to  the  public  at  a 
small  charge.  Tho  Braniall  Lane  cricket  ground  is  the 
.■icene  of  most  of  the  Yorkshire  county  cricket  matches. 

Tho  prosperity  of  SheffieUI  is  chiefly  dependent  on  the  manu- 
facture of  steel  and  tlio  application  of  it  to  its  various  uses.  The 
smelting  of  iroa  in  the  district  is  supposed  to  date  from  Roman 
times,  and  thcr  is  distinct  proof  carrying  it  back  as  far  as  the 
Norman  Conqnest  The  town  had  become  famed  for  its  cutlery 
by  the  14th  centnry,  as  is  shown  by  allusions  in  Chaucer.  There 
was  an  important  trade  carried  on  in  knives  in  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth, and  the  Cutlers'  Coinnauy  was  incorporated  in  162-1.  In  early 
tunes  cutlery  was  made  orblistcr  or  bar  steel ;  afterwards  shear 
steel  was  introduced  for  tho  same  purpose  ;  but  in  1740  Benjamin 
Huntsman  of  Handsworth  introduced  the  manufacture  of  cast  steel, 
and  up  to  the  present  time  Shelfield  retains  its  supremacy  in  steel 
nuwufacturc,  notwithstanding  foreign  competition,  especially  that 
of  Germany  and  the  United  States,  its  trade  in  heavy  steel  Jiaving 
kept  pace  with  that  in  the  other  branches.  It  was  with  the  aid 
of  Sheffield  capital  that  Henry  Bessemer  founded  his  pioneer  works 
to  develop  the  manufacture  of  his  invention,  and  a  large  quantity 
of  Bessemer  steel  is  still  made  in  Sheffield.  Tho  heavy  branch  of 
the.  steel  manufacture  includes  armour  plates,  rails,  tyres,  axles, 
large  castings  for  engines,  steel  shot,  and  steel  for  rifles.  Tlie 
cntlery  trade  embraces  almost  every  variety  of  instrument  and 
tool, — spring  and  table  knives,  razors,  scissors,  surgical  instru- 
ments, mathematical  instruments,  cdgo  tools,  saws,  scythes, 
sicklijs,  spades,  shovels,  engineering  tools,  hammers,  vices,  &c. 
The  manufacture  of  engines  and  machinery  is  also  largely  carried 
on,  as  well  as  that  of  stoves  and  gi'ates.  The  art  of  silver  plating 
was  introduced  by  Thomas  Bolsover  in  174'2,  and  the  manufacture 
is  still  of  importance.  Among  the  minor  industries  of  the  town 
are  tanning,  confectionery,  cabinetmaking,  bicycle-making,  iron 
and  brass  founding,  silver  rofming,  and  tho  manufactnre  of 
brashea  and  combs  and  of  optical  instruments.  On  account  of 
various  outrages  perpetrated  by  artisans  in  workshops  against  per- 
sons obnoxious  to  them,  a  Government  commission  was  in  1867 
appointed  to  make  inquiries,  the  result  being  tho  exposure  and 
suppression  of  confederacies  in  connexion  with  various  workmen's 
nnions. 

The  town  trust  for  the  administration  pf  property  belonging  to 
tho  town  dates  from  the  14th  century,  and  in  1C81  the  number 
and  manner  of  election  of  the  "town  trustees"  was  definitely 
settled  by  a  decree  of  the  Court  of  Chancery.  Additional  powers 
were  conferred  on  the  trustees  by  an  Act  passed  in  1874.  The 
annual  income  of  tho  trust  property  now  amounts  to  about  £5000. 
Sheffield  obtained  mnnicipal  government  in  1843,  and  is  divided 
into  nine  wards.  The  number  of  aldermen  is  sixteen.  Since  1864 
tho  town  council  have  had  control  of  tho  police,  of  the  maintenance 
of  the  streets,  and  of  tho  drainage  and  sanitary  arrangements,  but 
the  supplies  of  water  and  gas  are  in  the  hands  of  private  companies. 
Tho  markets  belong  to  tho  duke  of  Norfolk,  lord  of  tho  manor. 
The  town  first  returned  members  to  parliament  in  1832.  In  1885 
tho  representation  was  increased  from  two  to  five  members,  tho 
parliamentary  divisions  being  Atteroliffe,  Brightside,  Central, 
Ecclcsall,  and  Hallam.  The  area  of  tho  municipal  and  parliament- 
ary borough  is  19,651  acres.  Krom  45,755  in  1801  the  jiopulation 
had  increased  by  184]  to  110,891,  by  1871  to  239,947,  and  by  1881 
to  284,.'->08  (141,208  males,  l.|3,210  females). 

Sheffield  was  the  capital  of  Hallamshire  from  Iho  Normin  Con- 
tiuest,  and  it  is  supposed  that  tho  "aula"  of  tho  Saxoa  Lord 
AValtheof  mentioned  in  Domesday  was  on  tho  Cnstlo  Hill.  After 
the  execution  of  Waltheof  for  a  conspiracy  against  the  Conqueror 
in  1075  tho  manor  for  some  time  remained  in  the  hands  of  his 
countess,  but  in  1080  was  possessed  by  Uogcr  de  Busli.  After- 
wards it  passed  to  tlio  Do  Lovetots,  barons  of  Huutingdonshire,  one 
of  whom  had  a  castle  at  Sheflield.  A  number  of  people,  workers 
iu  iron,  gathered  round  the  castlo  and  fanned  the  nucleus  of  the 


town.  Through  an  heiress  of  the  De  Lovetots  it  passed  in  the 
reign  of  Richard  I.  to  the  De  Furnivals,  one  of  whom,  Thomas  de 
Furiiival,  strengthened  and  completed  the  castle,  and  obtained 
■from  Edward  I.  a  charter  under  the  great  seal  for  a  market  and 
annual  fair.  After  tho  extinction  of  the  male  line  of  the  Furnivals 
in  140G,  tho  manor  passed  to  tho  Talbots,  of  whom  John,  referred 
to  in  Shakespeare's  Henry  VI.,  was  created  earl  of  Shrewsbury  in 
1442.  Cardinal  Wolsey,duringhis  disgrace,  was  for  some  time  placed 
in  Sheffield  Castle  under  the  charge  of  Gc9rge,  fourth  carl  of  Shrews- 
bury ;  and  Queen  JIary  remained  a  prisoner  in  it  under  the  care  of 
George,  sixth  carl,  from  the  autumn  of  1570  to  the  autumn  of  1584. 
During  tho  Civil  AVars  the  castle  was  seized  iu  1642  by  the 
Parliamentary  party,  who  garrisoned  it  and  tlMew  up  entrench- 
ments round  the  town,  but  after  the  capture  of  Rotherham  in 
April  1643  they,  on  the  approach  of  the  earl  of  Newcastle,  left  it 
ill  panic  and  fled  to  Derbyshire.  It  was,  however,  recaptured  by 
the  party  in  tlie  following  year,  and  was  subsequently  demolished. 
In  1654  the  estate  passed  by  marriage  to  {he  Howards,  dukes  of 
Norfolk. 

See  Hunter's  J/allamshire,  1819,  new  cd.  l'>-  A.  Catty,  ISCO ;  Leader, 
Sheffield  Castle  and  Mar'j  Queen  of  Scots,  ISC'J  ;  Catty,  Slu-fflfld  Past  and 
Present,  1873  ;  W.  dc  Cray  Birch,  Original  Documents  relating  to  Sheffield,  ISi-l : 
Leader,  Reminiscences  of  Old  Sheffield,  1875 ;  Taylor,  I'lclorial  Guide  to 
Sheffield,  1879. 

SHEFFIELD,  John.    See  Buckinghamshire,  Duke 

OF. 

SHEIL,  KicHARD  Lalor  (1791-1851),  Irish  political 
orator,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Edward  Sheil,  an  Irishman 
who  had  acquired  considerable  wealth  in  Spain,  and  after 
the  passing  of  the  Act  permitting  Catholics  in  Ireland  to 
purchase  and  transmit  property  in  fee  had  returned  to 
Ireland,  where  he  purchased  the  estate  of  JBcUevue, 
Tipperary.  Tho  son  was  born  17th  August  1791,  at 
Drumdowney,  Tipperary.  He  received  instruction  in 
French  and  Latin  from  the  Abbe  de  Grimeau,  a  French 
refugee,  and  afterwards  at  Kensington  House  school, 
London,  presided  over  by  a  French  nobleman,  the  Prince 
de  Broglie.  In  October  1804  he  was  removed  to  the 
college  at  Stoneyhurst,  Lancashire,  and  in  November 
1807  entered  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he  specially 
distinguished  himself  in  the  debates  of  the  Historical 
Society.  He  graduated  B.A.  in  July  1811,  and  on 
13th  November  of  the  same  year  entered  Lincoln's  Inn, 
preparatory  to  being  called  to  the  Irish  bar.  He  ttsb 
admitted  a  member  of  the  Irish  bar  at  the  Hilary  term 
1814,  and  meanwhile  resolved  to  support  himself  by 
writing  plays.  His  play  of  Adelaide,  or  the  Emigrants,  was 
played  at  the  Crow  Street  theatre,  Dublin,  19th  February 
1814,  with  complete  success,  and  on  the  23d  Jlay  1816 
was  performed  at  Covont  Garden.  The  Apostate,  produced 
at  the  latter  theatre  on  3d  May  1817,  firmly  established 
his  reputation,  and  encouraged  him  to  continue  his 
dramatic  efforts  till  his  legal  and  political  duties  absorbed 
tho  greater  part  of  his  leisure.  His'principal  other  plays 
are  Bellamlra  (wTitten  in  1818),  Eiiadne  (1819),  Uuguenot] 
(1819),  and  il/on/mi  (1820).  In  1822  ho  began,  along  with 
W.  H.  Curran,  to  contribute  to  the  New  Monthlij  Magazine 
a  series  of  papers  entitled  SIcctehes  of  the  Irish  Bar,  which 
attracted  considerable  attention  by  their  raciness  and 
graphic  vigour.  Those  written  by  Sheil  were  published 
in  1855  in  two  volumes,  with  a  sketch  of  his  life.  Sheil 
was  one  of  the  principal  founders  of  the  Catholic  Associa- 
tion in  1823,  and  drew  up  tho  petition  for  inquiry  into 
the  mode  of  administering  tho  laws  in  Ireland,  which  was 
presented  in  tho  same  year  to  both  Houses  of  Parliament 
After  the  defeat  of  the  Catholic  Relief  Bill  in  1825  ho 
suggested  tho  formation  of  tlie  New  Catholic  Association, 
and,  along  with  O'Connell,  was  tho  principal  leader  of  the 
agitation  persistently  carried  on  till  Catholic  emancipation 
was  grunted  iti  1829.  In  the  same  year  he  was  returned 
to  parliament  for  Melbourne  Port,  and  in  1831  for  Louth. 
Ho  took  a  prominent  part  in  all  the  debates  relating  to 
Ireland,  and  his  brilliant  eloquence  gradually  captivated 
the  admiration  of  the  House.  In  August  1839  he  became 
vice-president  of  the  board  of  trade  in  Lord  ^iuloou^^.'s 


788 


S  H  E  — S  H  E 


ministry.  After  the  accession  of  Lord  John  Russell  to 
l«)wer  ia  1816  he  was  appointed  master  of  the  mint. 
13eing  desirous,  on  account  of  his  wife's  health,  to  obtain 
diplomatic  employment  abroad,  he  was  in  1850  appointed 
minister  at  the  court  of  Tuscany.  He  died  somewhat 
suddenly  of  gout  at  Florence  on  May  23,  1851. 

See  Memoirs  of  Richard  Lalor  Shcil,  by  W.  Torrens  Sl'Cullagli 
(2  vols.,  1855). 

SHEKEL.  In  the  system  of  Babylonian  and  Assyrian 
weights  the  talent  (called  in  Heb.  i??,  kikkar)  consisted  of 
60  mana  (Heb.  n.?^,  maneh)  or  minas,  and  the  latter  again 
of  sixty  shekels  (Heb.?S?;.').  For  the  values  of  these 
weights  see  Numismatics,  vol.  xvii.  p.  631,  where  it  is 
also  explained  that  the  Phoenicians  and  Hebrews  modified 
the  system  and  reckoned  only  50  shekels  to  the  maneh,  at 
all  events  in  applying  the  names  to  money,  i.e.,  to  the 
precious  metals,^  and  that  the  weight  of  their  silver  shekel 
was  also  probably  modified  for  convenience  of  interchange 
between  the  gold  and  silver  standard.  The  silver  shekels 
of  the  Maccabees  (N0mism.\tics,  p.  650)  have  a  maximum 
weight  of  about  224  grains,  and  correspond  to  the  Phoe- 
nician tetradrachm  (four  drams).  Hence  in  Matt.  xvii.  24 
the  temple  tax  of  half  a  shekel  is  called  the  didrachm  (2 
drams).  In  2  Sam.  xiv.  26  we  read  of  shekels  "  after  the 
king's  weight,"  i.e.,  according  to  the  Assyrian  standard, 
which  is  called  "royal"  on  weights  found  at  Nineveh. 
The  Hebrews  divided  the  shekel  into  twenty  parts,  each  of 
which  was  a  gerah  (i^?')- 

SHELBURNE,  Earl  of.  See  L.insdowite,  Maequis 
of. 

SHELD-DRAKE,  or,  as  commonly  spelt  in  its  con- 
tracted form,  Sheldrake,  a  word  whose  derivation  ^  has 
been  much  discussed,  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  birds  of 
the  Duck  tribe,  Ajiaiid^.,  called,  however,  in  many  parts  of 
England  the  "  Burrow-Duck  "  from  its  habits  presently 
to  be  mentioned,  and  in  some  districts  by  the  almost  obso- 
lete name  of  "  Bergander"  (Dutch,  Berg-eende,  Germ.  Berg- 
ente),  a  word  used  by  Turner  in  1544. 

The  Sheldrake  is  the  Aims  tocZorna' of  Linnoeus,  and  the 
Tadonia  cornuta  or  T.  vidpanser  of  modern  ornithology,  a  bird 
somewhat  larger  and  of  more  upright  stature  than  an  ordinary 
Duck,  having  its  bill,  with  a  basal  fleshy  protuberance  (whence  the 
specific  term  cornuta),  pale  red,  the  head  and  upper  neck  very  dark 
glossy  green,  and  beneath  that  a  broad  white  collar,  succeeded  by 
a  still  broader  belt  of  bright  bay  extouding  from  the  upper  back 
across  the  upper  breast.  The  outer  scapulars,  the  primaries,  a 
median  abdominal  stripe,  which  dilates  at  the  vent,  and  a  bar  at 
the  tip  of  the  middle  tail-quiUs  are  black  ;  the  inner  secondaries 
and  the  lower  tail-coverts  are  grey  ;  and  the  speculum  or  wing-spot 
is  a  rich  bronzed-green.  The  rest  of  the  plumage  is  pure  white, 
and  the  legs  are  flesh-coloured.  There  is  little  external  difTcrenco 
between  the  sexes,  the  female  being  only  somewhat  smaller  and 
less  brightly  coloured.  The  Sheldrake  frequents  the  sandy  coasts 
of  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe  and  North  Africa,  extending  across 
Asia  to  India,  China,  and  Japan,  generally  keeping  in  pairs  and 
sometimes  penetrating  to  favonrable  inland  localities.  The  nest 
is  always  made  under  cover,  usually  in  a  rabbit-hole  among  sand- 
hills, and  in  the  Frisian  Islands  the  people  supply  this  bird  with 
artificial  burrows,  taking  large  toll  of  it  iu  eggs  and  down.  Barbary, 
south-eastern  Europe,  and  Central  Asia  are  inhabited  by  an  allied 

'  See  Exod.  xxxviii.  25,  where  there  are  3000  shekels  iu  the  talent. 

'  Bay  in  1674  {Engl.  Words,  p.  76)  gave  it  from  the  local  "  sheld  " 
(  =  particoloured),  which,  applied  to  animals,  as  a  horse  or  a  cat,  still 
survives  in  East  Anglia.  This  opinion  is  not  only  suitable  but  is 
confirmed  by  the  bird's  Old  Norsk  name  Skjbldungr,  from  Skjoldr, 
primarily  a  patch,  and  now  commonly  bestowed  on  a  piebald  horse, 
just  as  Skjalda  (Cleasby's  Icel.  Diet.,  siib  voce),  from  the  same  source, 
is  a  particoloured  cow.  But  some  scholars  interpret  Skjbldungr  by 
the  secondary  meaning  of  Skjoldr,  a  shield,  asserting  that  it  refers 
to  "  the  shield-like  band  across  the  breast "  of  the  bird.  If  they  be 
right  the  proper  spelling  of  the  English  word  would  be  "  Shield-drake," 
as  some  indeed  have  it.  A  third  suggested  meaning,  from  the  Old  Norsk 
Skj6l,  shelter,  is  philologically  tobe  rejected,  but,  if  true,  would  refer 
to  the  bird's  habit,  described  in  the  text,  of  breeding  under  cover.. 

'  This  is  the  Latinized  form  of  the  French  Tadome,  first  published 
by  Belon  (1555),  a  word  on  which  Littri  throws  no  light  except  to 
stats  that  it  has  a  southern  variant  Tardone., 


species  of  more  inland  range  and  very  difi'ernit  coloration;' tin 
T.  casarca' or  C'usarca*  ridila  of  ornithologists,  tho  Ruddy 
Sheldrake  of  English  authors — for  it  has  several  times  strayed  to 
the  British  Islands, — and  the  "Brahminy  Duck"  of  Anglo. 
Indians,  who  find  it  resorting  in  winter,  whether  by  pairs  or  by 
thousands,  to  their  inland  waters.  This  species  is  of  an  almost 
uniform  bay  colour  all  over,  except  the  quill-feathers  of  the  wings 
and  tail,  and  (in  the  male)  a  ring  round  the  neck,  which  are  black, 
while  the  wing-coverts  are  white  and  the  speculum  shines  with 
green  and  purple  ;  the  bill  and  legs  are  dark-coloured.'  A  species 
closely  resembling  the  last,  but  with  a  grey  head,  T.  cana,  inhabits 
South  Africa,  while  in  some  of  the  islands  of  the  JIalay  Archi 
pelago,  and  in  tho  northern  parts  of  Australia,  there  is  a  fourth 
species,  T.  radjuh,  which  almost  equals  tlie  true  Sheldrake  in  its 
brightly  contrasted  plumage,  but  yet  wants  some  of  tho  lively 
colours  the  latter  displays— its  head,  for  instance,  being  wliit'< 
instead  of  dark  green.  Further  to  the  southward  in  Australia 
occurs  another  species  of  more  sombre  colours,  the  T.  tadvrnoidcs , 
and  New  Zealand  is  the  home  of  a  sixth  species,  T.  varicgaln. 
stQl  less  distinguished  by  bright  hues.  In  the  last  two  ihf 
plumage  of  the  sexes  dilTers  not  inconsiderably,  but  all  are  believei! 
to  have  essentially  the  same  habits  as  the  T.  cornuta.' 

It  is  not  without  a  purpose  that  these  different  species 
are  here  particularized.  Sheldrakes  will,  if  attention  be  paid 
to  their  wants,  breed  freely  in  captivity,  crossing  if  oppor- 
tunity be  given  them  with  other  species,  and  an  incident 
therewith  connected  possesses  an  importance  hardly  to  be 
overrated  by  the  philosophical  naturalist,  though  it  seems 
not  to  have  met  with  the  attention  it  deserves.  In  the 
Zoological  Society's  gardens  in  the  spring  of  1859  a  male  of 
T.  cornuta  mated  with  a  female  of  T.  ca7ia,  and,  as  will  have 
been  inferred  from  what  has  been  before  stated,  these  two 
species  differ  greatly  in  the  colouring  of  their  plumage. 
The  young  of  their  union,  however,  presented  an  appear- 
ance wholly  unlike  that  of  either  parent,  and  an  appearance 
which  can  hardly  be  said,  as  has  been  said  {P.  Z.  S.,  1859, 
p.  442),  to  be  "a  curious  combination  of  the  colours  of  the 
two."  Both  sexes  of  this  hybrid  have  been  admirably  por- 
trayed by  Mr  Wolf  (torn,  cit.,  Aves,  pi.  158) ;  and,  strange 
to  say,  when  these  figures  are  compared  with  equally  faith- 
ful portraits  by  the  same  master  {op.  cit.,  1864,  pis.  18,  19) 
of  the  Australian  and  New  Zealand  .species,  T.  tadomoidcs 
and  T.  variegata,  it  will  at  once  be  seen  that  the  hybrids 
present  an  appearance  almost  midway  between  the  two 
species  last  named — species  which  certainly  had  nothing 
to  do  with  their  production.  The  only  explanation  of  thif 
astounding  fact  seems  to  be  that  aflforded  by  the  principle 
of  "reversion,"  as  set  forth  by  Mr  Darwin,  and  illustrated 
by  him  from  examples  of  certain  breeds  of  Doves,  domes- 
tic Fowls,  and  Ducks  (A7mn.  and  PL  wider  Domestication, 
i.  pp.  197-200,  ii.  p.  40),  as  well  as,  in  the  matter  of 
domestic  Fowls,  by  Mr  Cambridge  Phillips  (Zoologist, 
1884,  p.  331).  It  is  a  perfectly  fair  hypothesis  that  the 
existing  animals  of  New  Zealand  and  Australia  retain 
more  of  their  ancestral  character  than  do  those  of  countries 
in  which  we  may  suppose  the  struggle  for  life  to  have 
been  fiercer  and  the  action  of  natural  selection  stronger. 
Why  it  is  so  we  cannot  say,  yet  experiment  proves  that 
the  most  widely  different  breeds  of  Pigeons  and  other 
poultry,  when  crossed,  produce  offspring  that  more  re- 
sembles the  ancestral  wild  species  from  which  the  domestic- 
ated forms  have  sprung  than  it  resembles  either  of  tho 
immediate  parents.     This  mysterious  agency  is  known  as 


*  Bonaparte  was  pleased  in  1838  to  separate  this  species  from  the 
genus  Tadonia,  but  neither  he  nor  any  of  his  successore  has  shewn 
any  good  reason  for  doing  so. 

°  Jerdon  (B.  India,  iii.  p.  793)  tells  of  a  Hindu  belief  that  once 
upon  a  time  two  lovers  were  transformed  into  birds  of  this  species, 
and  that  thS.  or  tlieir  descendants  are  condemned  to  pxss  the  nighl 
on  the  opposite  banks  of  a  river,  whence  they  unceasingly  call  to  one 
.another:  "Charkwa,  shall  I  come?"  "No,  Charkwi."  "Charkw;, 
shall  I  come?"  "No,  Charkwa."  As  to  how,  under  these  circum- 
stances, the  race  is  perpetuated  the  legend  is  silent. 

^  The  Anas  sculdlata  of  the  Imlo- JIalay  countries  is  by  .<-n-i;raI 
authorities  considered  to  be  a  Tudoma,  but  this  view  is  denieu  S/y 
others,  among  them  by  Mr  Hume  {Stray  t'eatkers,  viii,  j,  J  .18) 


S  H  E  — S  H  E 


789 


tho  principle  of  "  reversion,"  and  the  example  just  cited 
lifoves  that  tho  same  effect  is  produced  in  species  as  well 
as  in  "races," — indicating  the  essential  identity  of  both, 
— the  only  real  difference  being  that  "  species  "  arc  more 
differentiated  than  are  "races,"  or  that  tho  distinction 
between  them,  instead  of  being  (as  many  writers,  some 
of  the  first  repute,  have  maintained)  qualitative,  is  merely 
quantitative,  or  one  of  degree.^ 

Tho  genus  Tadorna,  as  shewn  by  its  tracheal  characters, 
seems  to  be  most  nearly  related  to  Chenalopex,  containing 
the  bird  so  well  known  as  the  Egyptian  Goose,  C.  ccr/j/ptiaca, 
and  an  allied  species,  C.  jubata,  from  South  America.  For 
the  same  reason  tho  genus  Plectropierus,  composed  of  tho 
Spur-winged  Geese  of  Africa,  and  perhaps  the  Australian 
Anseranas  and  the  Indian  and  Ethiopian  Sarcidiornis, 
also  appear  to  belong  to  tho  same  group,  which  should  be 
reckoned  rather  to  the  Anatine  than  to  tho  Anserine 
section  of  the  Anatidss.  (a.  N.) 

SHELLEY,  ]\rABy  Wollstonecraft  (1797-1851),  the 
second  wife  of  the  poet  Shelley  (q.v.),  born  in  London, 
August  30,  1797  (see  vol.  x.  p.  717),  deserves  some 
notice  on  her  own  account,  as  a  writer  of  romance,  chiefly 
imaginative.  When  she  was  in  Switzerland  with  Shelley 
and  Byron  in  1816  (see  below),  a  proposal  was  made 
that  various  members  of  the  party  should  write  a  romance 
or  tale  dealing  with  the  supernatural.  The  result  of  this 
project  was  that  Mrs  Shelley  wrote  Franlcemtein,  Byron 
tlie  beginning  of  a  narrative  about  a  vampyre,  and  Dr 
Polidori,  Byron's  physician,  a  tale  named  The  Vcmipp-e, 
the  authorship  of  which  used  frequently  in  past  year^ 
to  be  attributed  to  Byron  himself.  Frankenstein,  pub- 
lished in  1818,  when  Mrs  Shelley  was  at  tho  utmost 
twenty-one  years  old,  is  a  very  remarkable  performance 
for  so  young  and  inexperienced  a  wTiter ;  its  main  idea  is 
that  of  tlio  formation  and  vitalization,  by  a  deep  student 
of  the  secrets  of  nature,  of  an  adult  man,  who,  entering  the 
world  thus  under  unnatural  conditions,  becomes  the  terror 
of  Lis  species,  a  half-involuntary  criminal,  and  finally  an 
outcast  whoso  solo  resource  is  self-immolation.  This 
romance  was  followed  by  others :  Yalperga,  or  ike  Life  and 
Adventures  of  Castruccio,  Prince  of  Lucca  (1823),  an  his- 
torical tale  written  with  a  good  deal  ofspirit,  and  readable 
enough  even  now  ;  The  Last  Man  (182G),  a  fiction  of  the 
final  agonies  of  human  society  owing  to  the  universal 
spread  of  a  pestilence, — this  is  written  in  a  very  stilted  stylo, 
but  bears  some  traces  of  the  imagination  which  •fashioned 
Frankenstein;  The  Fortunes  of  Perkin  Warbeck  (1830); 
Lodore  (1835)  ;  and  Falkner  (1837).  Besides  these  novels 
there  was  the  Journal  of  a  Six  Weeks'  Tour  (the  tour 
of  1814  mentioned  below),  which  is  published  in  con- 
junction with  Shelley's  prose-writings ;  also  Rambla  in 
Oermany  and  Italy  in  1840-42—13  (which  shows  an 
observant  spirit,  capable  of  making  some  true  forecasts  of 
the  future),  and  various  nuBccllaneous  writings.  After 
tlie  death  of  Shelley,  for  whom  she  had  a  deep  and  even 
enthusiastic  affection,  marred  at  times  by  defects  of 
temper,  Mrs  Shelley  in  the  autumn  of  1823  returned  to 
London.  At  first  the  earning.s  of  her  pen  were  her  only 
eu'stenanco ;  but  after  a  while  Sir  Timothy  Shelley  made 
her  an  allowance,  which  would  have  been  withdrawn  if 
she  had  persisted  in  a  project  of  writing  a  full  biography 
of  her  husband.  She  was  a  loving  and  careful  mother, 
and  shared  tho  prosperous  fortunes  of  her  son,  when, 
upon  the  death  of  Sir  Timothy  in  1844,  ho  succeeded  to 
tho  baronetcy.     She  dicd'in  February  1851. 

SlIELLEV,  Percy  Bysshe  (1792-1822),  was  born  ou 


'  It  is  fiirtlier  worthy  of  remark  Hint  tho  ypuug  of  T.  varieijala 
wlicii  first  hatohwl  closely  resctiiblo  those  of  T.  casarca^  and  when 
till!  former  OfMniiic  their  first  pUiniago  they  resemble  their  father  luoro 
than  their  mother  (/>.  Z.  S.,  1868,  p.  160). 


4th  August  1792,  at  Field  Place,  near  Horsham,  Sussex, 
lie  was  the  eldest  child  of  Timothy  Shelley,  M.P.   for 
Shorebam,   by  his  wife   Elizabeth,  daughter  of   Charles 
Pilfold,  of  Effingham,  Surrey,     ilr  Timothy  Shelley  be- 
came in  1815  Sir  Timothy  Shelley,  Bart.,  upon  the  decease 
of   his   father   Bysshe,   who   was   created   a   baronet   in 
1806.     This  Bysshe  Shelley  was  born  in  Christ  Church, 
Newark,  North  America,  and  married  two  heiresses,  the 
former,   the  mother  of  Timothy,   being  Mary  Catherine, 
heiress  of  tho  Rev.  Theobald  ilichell,  of  Hsrsham.     He 
was  a   handsome   man   of  enterprising  and   remarkable 
character,  accumulated  a  vast  fortune,  built  Castle  Goring, 
and  lived  in  sullen  and  penurious  retirement  in  his  closing 
years.     None  of  his  talent  seems  to  have  descended  to 
Timothy,  who,  except  for  being  of  a  rather  oddly  self-asser- 
tive character,  was  undistinguishable  from   the  ordinary 
run  of  commonplace  country  squires.     The  mother  of  tho 
poet  is  described  as  beautiful,  and  a  Woman  of  good  abili- 
ties, but  not  with  any  literary  turn  ;  she  was  an  agreeable 
letter-writer.     The  branch  of  the  Shelley  family  to  which 
the   poet  Percy  Bysshe  belonged  traces  its  pedigree   to 
Henry  Shelley,   of  Worminghurst,   Sussex,  who  died  in 
1623.     Beyond  that  point  the  genealogical  record  is  not 
clear ;  yet  no  substantial  doubt  exists  that  these  Worm- 
inghurst or  Castle  Goring  Shelleys  are  of  the  same  stock 
as  the  Michelgi'ove  Shelleys,  who  trace  up  to  Sir  William 
Shelley,  judge  of  tho  common  pleas  under  Henry  VII., 
thence  to  a  member  of  parliament  in  1415,  and  to  tho 
reign  of  Edward  I.,  or  even  to  the  epoch  of  tho  Norman 
Conquest.     The  Worminghurst  branch   was   a  family  of 
credit,  but  not  of  distinction,  until  its  fortunes  culminated 
under  the  above-named  Sir  Bysshe. 

In  the  character  of  Percy  Bysshe  Shelley  three  qualities 
become  early  manifest,  and  may  bo  regarded  as  innate : 
impressionableness  or  extreme  susceptibility  to  external 
and  internal  impulses  of  feeling;  a  lively  imagination  or 
erratic  fancy,  blurring  a  sound  estimate  of  solid  facts ;  and 
a  resolute  repudiation  of  outer  authority  or  the  despotism 
of  custom.  These  qualities  were  highly  developed  in  his 
earliest  manhood,  were  active  in  his  boyhood,  and  no 
doubt  made  some  show  even  on  the  borderland  between 
childhood  and  infancy.  At  the  age  of  six  he  was  sent  to 
a  day  school  at  Warnham,  kept  by  the  Rev.  Mr  Edwards ; 
at  ten  to  Sion  House  School,  Brentford,  of  which  tho 
principal  was  Dr  Greenlaw,  while  the  pupils  were  mostly 
sons  of  local  tradesmen  ;  at  twelve  (or  immediately  before 
that  age,  29th  July  1804)  to  Eton.  Tho  headmaster  of 
Eton,  up  to  nearly  the  close  of  Shelley's  sojourn  in  tho 
school,  was  Dr  Goodall,  a  mild  disciplinarian ;  it  is  there- 
fore a  mistake  to  suppose  that  Percy  (unless  during  his 
very  brief  stay  in  the  lower  school)  was  frequently 
flagellated  by  tho  formidable  Dr  Keate,  who  only  became 
headmaster  after  Goodall.  Shelley  was  a  shy,  sensitive, 
mopish  sort  of  boy  from  one  point  of  view, — from  another 
a  very  unruly  one,  having  his  own  notions  of  justice,  inde- 
pendence, and  mental  freedom ;  by  nature  gentle,  kindly, 
and  retiring, — under  provocation  dangerously  violent. 
Ho  resisted  tho  odious  fagging  system,  exerted  himself 
little  in  the  routine  of  school-learning,  and  was  known 
both  as  "Mad  Shelley  "'and  as  "Shelley  tho  Atheist." 
Some  writers  try  to  shpw  that  an  Eton  boy  would  lie 
termed  atheist  without  exhibiting  any  propensity  to 
atheism,  but  solely  on  tho  ground  of  his  being  mutinous. 
However,  as  Shelley  was  a  declared  atheist  a  good  while 
before  attaining  his  majority,  a  shrewd  suspicion  arises 
that,  if  Etonians  dubbed  him.  atheist^thcy^had  soiuo 
relevant  reason  for  doing  so. 

Shelley  entered  University  OoUcgo,' Oxford,"  in  Ajiil 
1810,  returned  thcnoo  to  Eton,  and  finally  quitted  tho 
Bchool  at  midsunmier,  and  commenced  residence  Id  Oxford 


790 


S"  H  E  L  L  E  Y 


in  October.  Here  he  met  a  young  Durham  man,  Thomas 
Jefferson  Hogg,  who  had  prccdiJed  him  in  the  university 
by  a  couple  of  months  ;  the  two  youths  at  once  struck  up 
a  warm  and  intimate  friendship.  Shelley  Jiad  at  this 
time  a  love  for  chemical  experiment,  as  well  as  for  poetry, 
philosophy,  and  classical  study,  and  was  in  all  his  tastes 
and  bearing  an  enthusiast.  Hogg  was  not  in  the  least  an 
enthusiast,  rather  a  cynic,  but  he  also  was  a  steady  and 
well-read  classical  student.  In  religious  matters  botli 
Were  sceptics,  or  indeed  decided  anti-Christians ;  whether 
Hogg,  as  the  senior  and  more  informed  disputant, 
pioneered  Shelley  into  strict  atheism,  or  whether  Shelley, 
as  the  more  impassioned  and  unHiuching  speculator, 
outran  the  easy-going  jeering  Hogg,  is  a  moot  point;  we 
incline  to  the  latter  opinion.  Certain  it  is  that  each  egged 
on  the  other  by  perpetual  disquisition  on  abstruse  sub- 
jects, conducted  partly  for  the  sake  of  truth  and  partly 
for  tliat  of  mental  exercitation,  without  on  either  side  any 
disposition  to  bow  to  authority  or  stop  short  of  extreme 
conclusions.  The  upshot  of  tliis  habit  was  that  Shelley 
and  Hogg,  at  the  close  of  some  five  months  of  happy  and 
uneventful  academic  life,  got  expelled  from  the  university. 
Shelley — for  he  alone  figures  as  the  writer  of  the  "  little 
syllabus,"  although  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Hogg  was 
his  confidant  and  coadjutor  throughout — published  anony- 
mously a  pamphlet  or  flysheet  entitled  The  Necessity  of 
Atheism,  which  he  sent  round,  or  intended  to  send  round, 
to  all  sorts  of  people  as  an  invitation  or  challenge  to  dis- 
cussion. It  amounted  to  saying  that  neither  reason  nor 
testimony  is  adequate  to  establish  the  existence  of  a 
deity,  and  that  nothing  short  of  a  personal  individual  self- 
revelation  of  the  deity  would  be  sufficient.  The  college 
authorities  heard  of  the  pamphlet,  somehow  identified 
Shelley  as  its  author,  and  summoned  him  before  them — 
("our  master,  and  two  or  three  of  the  fellows."  The 
pamphlet  was  produced,  and  Shelley  was  required  to  say 
whether  he  had  written  it  or  not.  The  youth  declined  to 
answer  the  question,  and  was  expelled  by  a  written 
sentence,  ready  drawn  up.  Hogg  was  next  summoned, 
with  a  result  practically  the  same.  The  precise  details  of 
this  transaction  have  been  much  controv.erted ;  tlie  best 
evidence  is  that  which  appears  on  the  college  records, 
showing  that  both  Hogg  and  Shelley  (Hogg  is  there 
named  first)  were  expelled  for  "  contumaciously  refusing  to 
answer  questions,"  and  for  "repeatedly  declining  to  dis- 
avow "  the  authorship.  Thus  they  were  dismissed  as  being 
mutineers  against  academic  authority,  in  a  case  pregnant 
with  the  suspicion — not  the  proof — of  atheism;  but 
how  the  authorities  could  know  beforehand  that  the  two 
undergraduates  would  be  contumacious  and  stiff  against 
disavowal,  so  as  to  give  warrant  for  written  sentences 
ready  drawn  up,  is  nowhere  explained.  Possibly  the 
sentences  were  worded  without  ground  assigned,  and 
would  only  have  been  produced  in  terrorem  had  the 
young  men  proved  more  malleable.  The  date  of  this 
incident  was  25th  March  1811. 

Shelley  and  Hogg  came  up  to  London,  where  Shelley 
was  soon  left  alone,  as  his  friend  went  to  York  to  study 
conveyancing.  Percy  and  his  incensed  father  did  not  at 
once  come  to  terras,  and  for  a  while  he  had  no  resource 
beyond  pocket-money  saved  up  by  his  sisters  (four  in 
number  altogether)  and  sent  round  to  him,  sometimes  by 
the  hand  of  a  singularly  pretty  school-fellow,  Jliss  Harriet 
Westbrook,  daughter  of  a  retired  and  moderately  opulent 
hotel-keeper.  Shelley,  especially  in  early  youth,  had  a 
somewhat  "priggish"  turn  for  moralizing  and  argumenta- 
tion, and  a  decided  mania  for  proselytizing ;  his  school- 
girl sisters,  and  their  little  Methodist  friend  Miss  West- 
brook,  aged  between  fiftean  and  sixteen,  must  all  be 
enlightened  and  converted  to  anti-Christianity.     He  there- 


fore cultivated  the  society  of  Harriet,  calling  at  the  Iimiso 
of  her  father,  and  being  encouraged  in  his  assiduity  by 
her  much  older  sister  Eliza.  Harriet  not  unnptuially 
foil  in  love  with  him  ;  and  he,  though  not  it  would  scorn 
at  any  time  ardently  in  love  with  her,  dallied  along  the 
flowery  pathway  which  leads  to  sentiment  and  a  dcfinito 
courtship.  This  was  not  his  first  love-affair ;  for  he  had 
but  a  very  few  months  before  been  courting  his  cousin 
Miss  Harriet  Grove,  who,  alarmed  at  his  heterodoxies, 
finally  broke  off  with  him — to  his  no  small  grief  and  per- 
turbation at  the  time.  It  is  averred,  and  seemingly  with 
truth,  that  Shelley  never  indulged  in  any  sensual  or  dis- 
sipated amour;  and,  as  he  advances  in  life,  it  becomes 
apparent  that,  though  capable  of  the  passion  of  love,  and 
unusually  prone  to  legai-d  with  much  effusion  of  sentiment 
women  who  interested  his  mind  and  heart,  the  mere 
attraction  of  a  pretty  face  or  an  alluiing  figure  left  him 
unenthralled.  After  a  while  Percy  was  reconciled  to  Lis 
father,  revisited  his  family  in  Susse-x,  and  then  stayed  witli 
a  cousin  in  Wales.  -Hence  he  was  recalled  to  I;ondon  by 
Miss  Harriet  Westbrook,  ^>'ho  wrote  comjilaining  of  her 
father's  resolve  to  send  her  back  to  her  school,  in  which 
she  was  now  regarded  with  repulsion  as  having  become  too 
apt  a  pupil  of  the  atheist  Shelley.  Ha  replied  counselling 
resistance.  "  She  wrote  to  say  "  (these  are  the  words  of 
Shelley  in  a  letter  to  Hogg,  dating  towards  the  end  of 
July  1811)  "that  resistance  was  useless,  but  that  she 
would  fly  with  mc,  and  threw  herself  upon  my  protection." 
Shelley  therefore  returned  to  London,  where  he  found 
Harriet  agitated  and  wavering ;  finally  they  agreed  to 
elope,  travelled  in  haste  to  Edinburgh,  and  there,  according 
to  the  law  of  Scotland,  became  husband  and  wife  on  28th 
August.  Shelley,  it  should  be  understood,  had  by  this 
time  openly  broken,  not  only  with  the  dogmas  and  conven- 
tions of  Christian  religion,  but  with  many  of  the  institu- 
tions of  Christian  polity,  and  in  especial  with  such  as 
enforce  and  regulate  marriage ;  he  held — with  AVilliam 
Godwin  and  some  other  theorists — that  marriage  ought  to 
be  simply  a  voluntary  relation  between  a  man  and  a 
woman,  to  be  assumed  at  joint  option  and  terminated  at 
the  after-option  of  either  party.  If  therefore  he  had  acted 
upon  his  personal  c<jnviction  of  the  right,  he  would  never 
have  wedded  Harriet,  whether-  by  Scotch.  English,  or  any 
other  law ;  but  he  waived  his  own  theory  in  favour  of  the 
consideration  that  in  such  an  experiment  the  woman's 
stake,  and  the  disadvantages  accruing  to  her,  are  out  of 
all  comparison  w^ith  the  man's.  His  conduct  therefore 
was  so  far  entirely  honourable ;  and,  if  it  derogated  from 
a  principle  of  his  own  (a  principle  which,  however  con- 
trary to  the  morality  of  other  people,  was  and  always 
remained  matter  of  genuine  conviction  on  his  individual 
part),  this  was  only  in  deference  to'  a  higher  aud  more 
imperious  standard  of  right. 

Harriet  Shelley  was  not  only  beautiful ; '  she,  ,was 
amiable,  accommodating,  adequately  well  educated  and 
well  bred.  She  liked  reading,  and  her  reading  was  not 
strictly  frivolous.  But  she  could  not  (as  Shelley  said  at  a 
later  date)  "  feel  poetry  and  understand  philosophy."  II':r. 
attractions  were  all  on  the  surface ;  there  was  (to  use  a 
common  phrase)  "  nothing  particular  in  her."  For  nearly 
three  years  Shelley  and  she  led  a  shifting  sort  of  life  upon 
an  income  of  £100  a  year,  one-half  of  w-hich  was  allowed 
(after  his  first  severe  indignation  at  the  mesalliiuice  was 
past)  by  Mr  Timothy  Shelley,  and  the  other  half  by  Mr 
Westbrook.  The  spouses  left  Edinburgh  for  York  and 
the  society  of  Hogg ;  broke  with  him  upon  a  charge  ma<\i 
by  Harriot,  and  evidently  fully  believed  by  Shelley  at  tha 
time,  that,  during  a  temporary  absence  of  his  upon  business 
in  Sussex,  Hogg  had  tried  to  seduce  her.  (this  quarrel  wa^. 
entirely  made  up  at  the  end  of  about  a  year)  ;.  moved  oK 


S  H  E  L  .1   E  Y 


791 


to  Keswick  in  Cumberlana.  coupled  with  the  com])any  of 
Southey,  and  some  hospitality  from  tho  duke  of  Norfolk, 
who,  as  chief  magnate  in  the  Shorehaiu  region  of  Sussex, 
was  at  pains  to  reconcile  tho  father  and  his  too  unfilial 
heir ;  sailed  thence  to  Dublin,  where  Shelley  was  eager, 
and  in  some  degree  prominent,  in  the  good  cause  of 
Catholic  emancipation,  conjoined  with  repeal  of  the  union  ; 
crossed  to  Wales,  and  lived  at  Nant-Gwillt,  near  Rhayader, 
then  at  Lynmouth  in  Devonshire,  then  at  .Tanyrallt  in 
Carnarvonshire.  All  this  was  between  September  1811 
and  February  1813.  At  Lynmouth  an  Irish  servant  tf 
Shelley's  was  sentenced  to  sis  months'  imprisonment  for 
distributing  and  posting  up  printed  papers,  bearing  no 
printer's  name,  ■  of  an  inflammatory  or  seditious  tendency 
— being  a  Dodavatmi  of  Rights  composed  by  the  youthful 
reformer,  and  some  verses  of  his  named  The  Devil's  Walk. 
At  Tanyrallt  Shelley  was  (to  trust  his  own  and  Harriet's 
aecouut,  confirmed  by  the  evidence  of  Miss  Westbrook, 
the  elder  sister,  who  continued  an  inmate  in  most  of  their 
homes)  attacked  on  the  night  of  26th  February  by  an 
assr>"»sin  who  fired  three  pistol-shots.  The  motive  of  the 
attack  was  undefined  ;  the  fact  cf  its  occurrence  was 
generally  disbelieved,  both  at  the  time  and  by  subsequent 
inquirers.  .  To  analyse  ihc  possibilities  and  probabilities  of 
the  case"  would  lead  us  too  far ;  we  can  only  say  that  we 
rank  with  the  decided  sceptics.  Shelley  was  full  of  wild 
unpractical  notions ;;  he  dosed  himself  with  laudanum  as 
a  palliative  to  spasmodic  pains ;  he  was  given  to  strange 
assertions  and  romancing  narratives  (several  of  vhich 
might  25roperly  be  specified  here  but  for  want  of  space), 
and  was  not  incapable  of  conscious  fibbing.  His  mind  no 
doubt  oscillated  at  times  along  the  line  which  divides  sanity 
from  insane  delusion.  It  is  difficult  to  suppose  that  he 
timply  invented  such  a  mcnstrous  story  to  serve  a  purpose. 
The  very  enormity  of  the  story  tends  to  dissuade  us  from 
thinking  so,  and  the  purpose  alleged  seems  disproportion- 
ately small — that  of  decamping  from  Tanyrallt  ere  creditors 
should  become  too  pressing.  Indcf,d,  w^e  decisively  reject 
this  supposed  motive.  On  the.  other  hand,  nothing  could 
be  traced  to  corroborate  Shelley's  assertion.  This  was  at 
any  rate  the  breakup  of  the  residence  at  Tanyrallt ;  tho 
Shelleys  revisited  Ireland,  and  then  settled  for  a  while  in 
London.  Here,  in  June  1813,  Harriet  gave  birth  to  her 
daughter  lanthe  Eliza  (she  married  a  Jlr  Esdaile,  and  died 
in  1876).  Here  also  Shelley  brought  out  his  first  poem  of 
any  importance,  Queen  Mab;  it  was  privately  printed,  as 
its  exceedingly  aggressive  tone  in  matters  of  religion  and 
morals  would  not  allow  of  jmblication. 

The  speculative  sago  whom  Shelley  especially  reverenced 
was  William  Godwin,  the  author  of  Political  Justice  and 
of  the  romance  Caltb  Williams;  in  1796  he  had  married 
Mary  Wollstonccraft,  authoress  of  The  Jiir/hts  of  Wojnan, 
who  died  shortly  after  giving  birth,  on  30th  August  1797, 
to  a  daughter  Llary,  With  Godwin  Shelley  had  opened 
a  volunteered  correspondence  late  in  1811,  and  he  had 
known  him  personally  since  the  winter  which  closed  1812. 
Godwin  was  then  a  bookseller,  living  with  his  second  wife, 
who  had  been  a  Jlrs  Clairmont ;  there  were  four  other 
inmates  of  the  household,  two  of  whom  call  for  some 
mention  here — Fanny  Wollstonccraft,  tho  daughter  of  tho 
authoress  and  !Mr  Imlay,  and  Claire,  the  daughter  of  IMrs 
Clairmont.  Fanny  committed  suicide  in  October  1816, 
being,  according  to  some  accounts  which  remain  unverified, 
hopelessly  in  lovo  witli  Shelley ;  Clairo  was  closely 
associated  with  all  his  subsequent  career..  It  was  towards 
May  1811  that  SlicUcy  first  saw  Mary  Wollstonccraft 
Godwin  as  a  grown-up  girl  (she  was  well  on  towards 
woventeen) ;  he  instantly  fell  in  lovo  with  her,  and  sho  with, 
him.  Just  before  this,  21th  Slarch,  Shelley  had  remarnea 
Harriet   in   Loridon,  though   with   no   obviously   cogent 


motive  for  doing  so  ;  but,  on  becoming  enamoured  of  Mary, 
he  seems  to  have  rapidly  made  up  his  mind  that  Harriet 
should  not  stand  in  the  way.  She  was  at  Bath  while  he 
was  i.i  London,  and  for  a  while  she  heard  nothins  of  him. 
They  had,  however,  met  again  in  London  an(l'<-:ome  to 
some  sort  of  understanding  before  the  final  crisis  arrived, — 
Harriet  remonstrating  and  indignant,  but  incapable  of 
effective  resistance, — Shelley  sick  of  her  companionship, 
and  bent  upon  gratifying  his  own  wishes,  which  as  we 
have  already  seen  ,vere  not  at  odds  with  his  avowed 
principles  of  conduct.  For  some  months  past  there  had 
been  bickerings  and  misunderstandings  between  him  and 
Harriet,  aggravated  by  the  now  detested  presence  of  Miss 
Westbrook  in  the  house ;  more  than  this  cannot  be  said,  for 
no  more  is  at  present  known.  I'  is  certain,  however,  that 
evidence  exists  which,  while  not  plainly  proving  any 
grave  wrongdoing  on  Harriet's  part,  exculpates  Shelley 
from  the  charge  of  having  separated  from  her  without 
what  appeared  to  himself  sufficient  cause.  The  upshot 
came  on  28th  July,  when  Shelley  aided  Mary  to  elope  from 
her  fathers  house,  Claire  Clairmont  deciding  to  accompany 
them.  They  crossed  to  Calais,  and  proceeded  across 
France  into  Switzerland.  Godwin  and  his  wife  were 
greatly  incensed.  Though  he  and  IMary  Wollstonccraft 
had  entertained  and  avowed  bold  opinions  regarding  the 
marriage-bend,  similar  to  Shelley's  own,  and  had  in  their 
time  acted  upon  these  opinions,  it  is  not  clearly  mado  out 
that  !Mary  Godwin  had  ever  been  encouraged  by  paternal 
influence  to  think  or  do  the  like.  Shelley  and  she  chose 
to  act  upon  their  own  likings  and  responsibility,- — he 
di--'-egarding  any  claim  which  Harriet  had  upon  him,  ar;d 
Mary  setting  at  nought  her  father's  authority.  Both  were 
prepared  to  ignore .  the  law  of  the  land  and  the  rules  of 
society. 

The  three  young  people  returned  to  London  in 
September.  In  the  following  January  Sir  Bysshe  Shelley 
died,  and  Percy  became  the  immediate  heir  to  the  entailed 
property  inherited  by  his  father  Sir  Timothy.  This 
entailed  property  seems  to  have  boon  worth  £6000  per 
annum,  or  littlo  less.  There  ■  was  another  very  much 
larger  property  which  Percy  might  shortly  before  have 
secured  to  himself,  contingently  upon  his  father's  death,  if 
he  would  have  consented  to  put  it  upon  the  same  footing 
of  entail ;  but  this  he  resolutely  refused  to  do,  on  the  pro- 
fessed ground  of  his  being  opposed  upon  principle  to  the 
system  of  entail ;  therefore,  on  his  grandfather's  death 
the  larger  property  passed  wholly  away  from  any  interest 
which  Percy  might  have  had  in  it,  in  use  or  in  expectancy. 
He  now  came  to  an  understanding  with  his  father  as  to 
the  remaining  entailed  property ;  and,  giving  up  certain 
future  advantages,  he  received  henceforth  a  regular  income 
of  .£1000  a  year.  Out  of  this  he  a.«.signed  £200  a  year 
to  Harriet,  who  had  given  birth  in  November  to  a  son, 
Charles  Bysshe  (he  died  in  182G).  ,  Shelley,  and  Mary  as 
well,  were  on  moderately  good  terms  with  Harriet,  seeing 
her  from  time  to  time.  His  peculiar  views  as  to  the  rela- 
tions of  the  sexes  appear  markedly  again  in  his  having  (so 
it  is  alleged)  invited  Harriet  to  returii  to  his  and  Mary'.^ 
house  as  a  domicile ;  of  course  this  curious  arrangement 
did  not  take  effect.  Sliellcy  and  Jlary  (who  was  naturally 
always  called  Mrs  Shelley)  now  settled  at  Bi.-ihopgntc,  near 
Windsor  Forest ;  here  he  produced  his  first  excellent  poem, 
Alaslor,  or  the  Spirit  of  SulituJe,  which  was  published  scon 
afterwards  along  with  a  few  others.  In  May  1816  the  pair 
left  England  for  Switzerland,  together  with  Miss  Clairmout, 
and  their  own  infant  son  William.  They  went  straight  to 
Sucherort,  near  Geneva;  Lord  Byron,  whoso  .separation  from 
his  wife  ha4 just  then  taken  place,  arrived  there  immediately 
afterwards,'  "^\.  great  deal  of  controversy  has  lately  arisen 
as  to  the  motives  and  incidents  of  this  foreign  sojourft. 


792 


SHELLEY 


The  clear  fact  is  that  Mis3  Clalrmont,  who  had  a  fine  voice 
and  some  inclination  for  the  stage,  had  seen  Byron,  as 
connected  with  the  management  of  Drury  Lane  theatre, 
early  in  the  year,  and  an  amorous  intrigue  had  begun 
between  them  in  London.  Prima  facie  it  seems  quite 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  she  had  explained  the  facts  to 
Shelley  or  to  Mary,  or  to  both,  and  had  induced  them  to 
convoy  her  to  the  society  of  Byroil  abroad ;  were  this 
finally  established  as  the  fact,  it  would  show  no  incon- 
sistency of  conduct,  or  breach  of  his  own  code  of  sexual 
morals,  on  Shelley's  part.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  asserted 
that  documentary  evidence  of  an  irrefragable  kind  exists 
showing  that  Shelley  and  Mary  were  totally  ignorant  of 
the  amour  shortly  before  they  went  abroad.  Whether  or 
not  they  knew  of  it  while  they  and  Claire  were  in  daily 
intercourse  with  Byron,  and  housed  close  by  him  on  the 
shore  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  may  be  left  unargued.  The 
three  returned  to  London  in  September  1816,  Byron 
remaining  abroad;  and  in  January  1817  Miss  Clairmont 
gave  birth  to  his  daughter  named  Allegra.  The  return  of 
the  Shelleys  was  closely  followed  by  two  suicides, — first 
that  of  Fanny  Woiistonecraft  (already  referred  to),  and 
second  that  of  Harriet  Shelley,  who  on  9th  November 
drowned  herself  in  the  Serpentine.  The  latest  stages  of 
the  lovely  and  ill-starred  Harriet's  career  have  never  been 
very  explicitly  recorded.  It  seems  that  she  formed  a  con- 
nexion with  some  gentleman  from  whom  circumstances  or 
desertion  separated  her,  that  her  haliits  became  intemper- 
ate, and  that  she  was  treated  with  contumelious  harshness 
by  her  sister  during  an  illness  of  their  father.  She  had 
always  had  a  propensity  (often  laughed  at  in  earlier  and 
happier  days)  to  the  idea  of  suicide,  and  she  now  carried 
it  out  in  act-— possibly  without  anything  which  could  be 
regarded  as  an  extremely  cogent  predisposing  motive, 
although  the  total  weight  of  her  distresses,  accumulating 
within  the  past  two  years  and  a  half,  was  beyond  question 
heavy  to  bean  Shelley,  then  at  Bath,  hurried  up  to 
London  whea  he  heard  of  Harriet's  death,  giving  manifest 
eigns  of  the  shock  which  so  terrible  a  catastrophe  had  pro- 
duced on  him.  Some  self-reproach  must  no  doubt  have 
mingled  with  bis  afiliction  and  dismay ;  yet  he  does  not 
appear  to  ha'"?  considered  himself  gravely  in  the  wrong  at 
any  stage  in  the  transaction,  and  it  is  established  that  in 
the  train  of  ';;'iite  recent  events  which  immediately  led  up 
to  Harriet's  suicide  he  had  borne  no  part. 

This  was  the  time  when  Shelley  began  to  see  a  great 
deal  of  Leigh  Hunt,  the  poet  and  essayist,  editor  of  The 
Examiner ;  they  were  close  friends,  and  Hunt  did  some- 
thing (hardly  perhaps  so  much  as  might  have  been  antici- 
pated) to  uphold  the  reputation  of  Shelley  as  a  poet — 
which,  we  may  here  say  once  for  all,  scarcely  obtained  any 
public  acceptance  or  solidity  during  his  brief  lifetime. 
The  death  of  Harriet  having  removed  the  only  obstacle  to 
a  marriage  with  Mary  Godwin,  the  wedding  ensued  on 
3Dth  December  1816,  and  the  married  couple  settled' down 
at  Great  Marlow'in  Buckinghamshire.  Their  tranquillity 
was  shortly  disturbed  by  a  Chancery  suit  set  in  motion 
by  Mr  Westbrook,  who  asked  for  the  custody  of  his  two 
grandchildren,  on  the  ground  that  Shelley  had  deserted 
his  wife  and  intended  to  bring  up  his  offspring  in  his  own 
atheistic  and  anti-social  opinions.  Lord  Chancellor  Eldon 
delivered  judgment  towards  26th  March  1817.  He  held 
that  Shelley,  having  avowed  condemnable  principles  of 
conduct,  and  having  fashioned  his  own  conduct  to  corre- 
spond, and  being  likely  to  inculcate  the  same  principles 
upon  his  children,  was  unfit  to  have  the  charge  of  them. 
He  therefore  assigned  this  charge  to  Mr  and  Miss  West- 
jrook,  and  appointed  as  their  immediate  curator  Dr 
Hume,  an  orthodox  array-physician,  who  was  Shelley's 
own  nominee.     The  poet  had  to  pay  for  the  maintenance 


of  the  children  a  sum  which  stood  eventually  at  £120  per 
annum ;  if  it  was  at  first  (as  generally  stated)  £200,  that 
was  no  more  than  what  he  had  previously  allowed  to 
Harriet.  This  is  the  last  incident  of  marked  importance 
in  the  perturbed  career  of  Shelley ;  the  rest  relates  to  th& 
history  of  his  mind,  the  poems  which  he  produced  and 
published,  and  his  changes  of  locality  in  travelling.  In 
March  1818,  after  an  illness  which  he  regarded  (rightly  or 
wrongly)  as  a  dangerous  pulmonary  attack,  Shelley,  with  his 
wife,  their  two  infants  William  and  Clara,  and  Miss  Clair- 
mont and  her  baby  Allegra,  went  off  to  Italy,  in  which 
country  the  whole  short  remainder  of  his  life  was  passed. 
Allegra  was  soon  sent  on  to  Venice,  to  her  father  Byron, 
who,  ever  since  parting  from  Jliss  Clairmont  in  Switzer- 
land, showed  a  callous  and  unfeeling  determination  to  see 
and  know  no  more  about  her.  In  1818  the  Shelleys — 
mostly,  not  always,  with  Miss  Clairmont  in  their  company 
— were  in  Milan,  Leghorn,  the  Bagni  di  Lucca,  Venice  and 
its  neighbourhood,  Rome,  and  Naples;  in  1819  in  Rome, 
the  vicinity  of  Leghorn,  and  Florence  (both  their  infants 
were  now  dead,  but  a  third  was  born  late  in  1810,  the 
present  baronet,  Sir  Percy  Florence  Shelley);  in  1820  in 
Pisa,  the  Bagni  di  Pisa  (or  di  San  Giuliano),  and  Leghorn ; 
in  1821  in  Pisa  and  with  Byron  in  Kavenna;  in  1822  in 
Pisa  and  on  the  Bay  of  Spezia,  between  Lerici  and  San 
Terenzio.  The  incidents  of  this  period  are  but  few,  and 
of  no  great  importance  apart  from  their  bearing  upon 
the  poet's  writings.  In  Leghorn  he  knew  Jlr  and  Mrs 
Gisborne,  the  latter  a  once  intimate  friend  of  Godwin  ;  she 
taught  Shelley  Spanish,  and  he  was  eager  to  promote  a 
project  for  a  steamer  to  be  built  by  her  son  by  a  former 
marriage,  the  young  engineer  Henry  Keveley ;  it  would 
have  been  the  first  steamer  to  navigate  the  Gulf  of  Lyons. 
In  Pisa  he  formed  a  sentimental  intimacy  with  the 
Contessina  Emilia  Viviani,  a  girl  who  was  pining  in  a 
convent  pending  her  father's  choice  of  a  husband  for  her; 
this  impassioned  but  vague  and  fanciful  attachment — 
which  soon  came  to  an  end,  as  Emilia's  character  developed 
less  favourably  in  the  eyes  of  her  Platonic  adorer — 
produced  the  transcendental  love-poem  of  Epipsychidion 
in  1821.  In  Ravenna  the  scheme  of  the  quarterly 
magazine  The  Liberal  was  concerted  by  Byron  and  Shelley, 
the  latter  being  principally  interested  in  it  with  a  view  to 
benefiting  Leigh  Hunt  by  such  an  association  with  Byron. 
In  Pisa  Byron  and  Shelley  were  very  constantly  together, 
having  in  their  company  at  one  time  or  another  Captain 
Medwin  (cousin  and  schoolfellow  of  Shellej',  and  one  of 
his  biographers),  Lieutenant  and  Mrs  Williams,  to  both,  of 
whom  our  poet  was  very  warmly  attached,  and  Captain 
Trelawny,  the  adventurous  and  romantic-natured  seaman 
who  has  left  important  and  interesting  reminiscences  of 
this  period.  Byron  admired  very  highly  the  generous, 
unworldly,  and  enthusiastic  character  of  Shelley,  and  set 
some  value  on  his  writings;  Shelley  half-worsTiipped 
Byron  as  a  poet,  and  was  anxious,  but  in  some  conjunctures 
by  no  means  aisle,  to  respect  him  as  a,  man.  In  Pisa  he 
knew  also  Prince  Alexander  Mavrocordato,  one  of  the 
pioneers  of  Grecian  insurrection  and  freedom ;  the  glorious 
cause  fired  Shelley,  and  he  wrote  the  drama  of  Hellas 
(1821). 

The  last  residence  of  Shelley  was  the  Casa  Magni,  a 
bare  and  exposed  dwelling  on  the  Gulf  of  Spezia.  He  and 
his  wife,  with  the  Williamses,  went  there  at  the  end  of 
April  1822,  to  spend  the  summer,  which  proved  an  arid 
and  scorching  one.  Shelley  and  WilKams,  btHh  of  thenj 
insatiably  fond  of  boating,  had  a  small  schooner  named  the 
"  Don  Juan  "  built  at  Genoa  after  a  design  which  Williams 
had  procured  from  a  naval  friend,  and  which  was  the 
reverse  of  safe.  They  received  heron  12th  May,  found 
her  rapid  and  alert,  and  on  1st  July  started  in  her  te- 


SHELLEY 


793 


Xeghorn,  to  meet  Leigh  Hunt,  whose  arrival  in  Italy  had 
just  been  notified.  After  doing  his  best  to  set  things  going 
comfortably  between  Byron  and  Hunt,  Shelley  returned  on 
board  with  Williams  on  8th  July.  It  was  a  day  of  dark, 
louring,  stifling  heat.  Trelawny  took  leave  of  his  two 
friends,  and  about  half-past  si.x  in  the  evening  found  him- 
self startled  from  a  doze  by  a  frightful  turmoil  of  storm. 
The  "  Don  Juan  "  had  by  this  time  made  Via  Keggio  ;  she 
■was  not  to  be  seen,  though  other  vessels  which  had  sailed 
about  the  same  time  were  still  discernible.  Shelley, 
Williams,  and  their  only  companion,  a  sailor-boy,  perished 
in  the  squall.  The  exact  nature  of  the  catastrophe  was 
from  the  first  regarded  as  somewhat  disputable,  but  it  is 
only  of  late  years  (1875)  that  it  has  been  keenly  debated. 
The  condition  of  the  "  Don  Juan  "  when  recovered  did  not 
favour  any  assumption  that  she  had  capsized  in  a  heavy 
sea — rather  that  she  had  been  run  down  by  some  other 
vessel,  a  felucca  or  fishing-smack.  In  the  absence  of  any 
counter-evidence  this  would  be  supposed  to  have  occurred 
by  accident ;  but  a  rumour,  not  strictly  verified  and 
certainly  not  refuted,  exists  that  an  aged  Italian  seaman 
on  his  deathbed  confessed  that  he  had  been  one  of  the  crew 
of  the  fatal  felucca,  and  that  the  collision  was  intentional, 
as  the  men  had  plotted  to  steal  a  sum  of  money  supposed 
to  be  on  the  "  Don  Juan,"  in  charge  of  Lord  Byron.  In  fact 
there  was  a  moderate  sum  there,  but  Byron  had  neither 
embarked  nor  intended  to  embark.  This  may  perhaps  be 
the  true  account  of  the  tragedy ;  at  any  rate  Trelawny,  the 
best  possible  authority  on  the  subject,  accepted  it  as  true. 
He  it  was  who  laboriously  tracked  out  the  shore-washed 
corpses  of  Shelley  and  Williams,  and  who  undertook  the 
burning  of  them,  after  the  ancient  Greek  fashion,  on  the 
shore  near  Via  Reggio,  on  the  15th  and  IGth  of  August. 
The  great  poet's  ashes  were  then  collected,  and  buried  in 
the  new  Protestant  cemetery  in  Rome.  He  was,  at  the 
time  of  his  untimely  death,  within  a  month  of  completing 
the  thirtieth  year  of  his  age — a  surprising  example  of  rich 
poetic  achievement  for  so  young  a  man. 

The  character  of  Shelley  can  be  considered  according  to  two 
different  standards  of  estimation.  We  can  estimate  the  original 
motive  forces  in  his  character ;  or  wo  can  form  an  opinion  ot  iiis 
act'ons,  and  thence  put  a  certain  construction  upon  his  personal 
qualities.  We  will  first  try  the  latter  method.  It  cannot  be 
denied  hy  his  admirers  and  eulogists,  and  is  abundantly  clear  to 
his  censors,  that  his  actions  were  in  some  considerable  degree 
abnormal,  dangerous  to  the  settled  basis  of  society,  and  marked 
by  headstrong  and  undutiful  presumption.  But  it  is  remarkable 
that,  even  among  the  censors  of  his  conduct,  many  persons  are 
none  the  less  impressed  by  the  beauty  of  his  character;  and  this 
leads  us  back  to  our  first  point — the  original  motive  forces  in  thnt. 
Here  we  find  enthusiasm,  fervour,  courage  (moral  and  physical), 
an  unbounded  readiness  to  act  upon  what  he  -considered  right 
principle,  however  inconvenient  or  disastrous  the  cousetiuences  to 
himself,  sweetness  and  indulgence  towards  others,  extreme  gener- 
osity, and  the  principle  of  love  for  humankind  in  abundance  and 
superabundance.  Ho  respected  the  truth,  such  as  he  conceived  it 
to  be,  in  spiritual  or  speculative  matters,  and  respected  no  con- 
struction of  tlio  truth  Which  camo  to  him  recommended  by  human 
authority.  No  man  had  more  hatred  or  contempt  of  custom  and 
prescription  ;  no  one  bad  a  more  authentic  or  vivid  sense  of  uni- 
Tersal  charity.  The  same  radiant  enthusiasm  which  appeared  in 
his  poetry  as  idealism  stamped  his  speculation  with  the  conception 
of  perfectibility  and  his  character  with  loving  emotion. 

In  person  Shelley  was  attractive,  winning,  and  almost  beautiful, 
but  not  to  be  called  handsome.  His  height  was  nearly  5  feet  11  ; 
he  was  slim,  .agile,  and  strong,  with  something  of  a  stoop  ;  his 
complexion  brilliant,  his  hair  abundant  and  wavy,  dark-brown  but 
early  beginning  to  grizzle  ;  the  eyes,  deep-blue  in  tint,  have  been 
termed  "  stag-eyes  " — large,  fixed,  and  beaming.  His  voice  was 
wanting  in  richness  and  suavity — high-pitched,  and  tending  to  the 
screechy;  his  general  aspect,  though  extremely  variable  according 
as  his  mood  of  mind  anu  his  expression  shifted,  was  on  the  whole 
uncommonly  juvenile. 

From  tliis  necessarily  very  slight  account  of  the  life  of  Shelley 
■we_  pass  to  a  consideration — and  this  too  must  be  equally  slender 
— ^of  his  works  in  poetry.  If  we  except  Goethe  (and  for  couvenienco' 
«ako  leaving  out  of  count  any  living  wTiters,  whose  ultimate  value 

21— !ir"' 


cannot  at  present  be  assessed),  we  consider  Shelley  to  be  the 
supreme  poet  of  the  new  era  which,  beginning  with  the  French 
Revolution,  remains  continuous  into  our  own  day.  Lord  Byron 
and  Victor  Hugo  come  tlio  nearest  to  Shellu_  in  poetic  stature, 
and  each  of  thcni  might  for  certain  reasons  bo  even  preferred  to  him  ; 
Wordsworth  also  h;is  his  numerous  champions.  The  grounds  on 
which  wc  set  Shelley  highest  of  all  are  mainly  three.  He  excels 
all  his  competitors  in  ideality,  he  excels  them  in  music,  and  lie 
excels  them  in  importance.  By  importance  we  hero  mean  the 
direct  import  ot  the  work  performed,  its  controlling  power  over  the 
reader's  thought  and  feeling,  the  contagions  fire  of  its  white-hot 
intellectual  passion,  and  the  long  reverberation  of  its  appeal. 
Shelley  is  emphatically  the  poet  of  the  future.  In  his  own  day  an 
alien  in  the  world  of  mind  and  invention,  and  in  our  day  scarcely 
yet  a  denizen  of  it,  he  appears  destined  to  become,  in  the  long  visti 
of  years,  an  informing  presence  in  the  innermost  shrine  of  human 
thought.  Shelley  appeared  at  the  time  when  the  sublime  frenzle.'i 
of  the  French  revolutionary  movement  had  exhausted  the  elas- 
ticity of  men's  thought — at  least  in  England — and  hnd  left  tlicni 
flaccid  and  stolid  ;  but  that  movement  prepared  another  in  wliich 
revolution  was  to  assume  the  milder  guise  of  reform,  conr|uering 
and  to  conquer.  Shelley  was  its  prophet.  As  an  iconoclast  and 
an  idealist  he  took  the  only  position  in  which  a  poet  could 
advantageously  work  as  a  reformer.  To  outrage  his  contempor.iries 
was  the  condition  of  leading  his  successors  to  triumph  and  of 
person,ilIy  triumphing  in  their  victories.  Shelley  had  the  temper  of 
an  innovator  and  a  martyr  ;  and  in  an  intellect  wondrously  poetical 
he  united  speculative  keenness  and  humanitarian  zeal  in  a  degree 
for  which  wo  might  vainly  seek  his  precursor.  We  have  already 
named  ideality  as  one  of  his  leading  excellences.  This  Shellcian 
quality  combines,  as  its  constituents,  'sublimitj',  beauty,  and  the 
abstract  passion  for  good.  It  should  be  acknowledged  that,  while 
this  great  quality  forms,  the  chief  and  most  admirable  factor  in 
Shelley's  poetry,  the  defects  which  go  along  with  it  mar  his  work 
too  often — producing  at  times  vagueness,  unreality,  and  a  pomp 
of  glittering  indistinctness,  in  which  excess  of  sentiment  welters 
amid  excess  of  words.  This  blemish  affects  the  long  poems  much 
more  than  the  pure  lyrics  ;  in  the  latter  the  rapture,  the  music, 
and  the  emotion  are  in  exquisite  balance,  and  the  work  has 
often  as  much  of  delicate  simplicity  as  of  fragile  and  flower- 
like perfection. 

In  the  course  of  our  biographical  narrative  we  h.ave  men- 
tioned'a  few,  but  only  a  few,  of  Shelley's  writings;  we  must 
now  give  some  curt  account  of  others.  Of  his  early  work  prior 
to  Queen  Mab—sxxch.  romances  as  Zaslroizi  and  SI  Irvyne,  such 
verso  as  the  Fragments  of  Margaret  Nicholson — we  can  only 
hero  say  that  they  are  rubbish.  Alastor  was  succeeded  (1S17) 
by  The  Revolt  of  Islam,  a  poem  ot  no  common  length  in  the 
Spenserian  stanza,  preaching  bloodless  revolution  ;  it  is  amazingly 
fine  in  parts,  but  as  a  whole  somewhat  long-drawn  and  exhaust- 
ing. This  transcendental  epic  (for  such  it  may  bo  termed) 
was  at  first  named  Laon  and  Cythna,  or  the  Revohttion  of  the 
Golden  City,"  and  the  lovers  of  the  story  were  then  brother  and 
sister  as  well  as  lovers — an  experiment  upon  British  endurance 
which  the  publishers  would  not  connive  at.  The  year  1818 
produced  Rosalind  and  Helen,  a  comparatively  weak  poem,  and 
Julian  and  Maddalo,  a  very  strong  one — demonstrating  in  Shelley 
a  singular  power  of  seeing  ordinary  things  with  directness,  and  at 
once  figuring  them  as  reality  and  transfiguring,  them  into  poetry. 
The  next  year,  1819,  was  his  culmination,  proAucing  as  it  did  the 
grand  tragedy  of  The  Coici  and  the  sublime  ideal  drama  Prometheus 
Unbound,  which  we  have  no  hesitation  in  calling  his  masterpiece. 
It  embodies,  in  forms  -of  surpassing  imagination  and  beauty, 
Shelley's  deepest  and  most  daring  conceptions.  Prometheus,  the 
human  mind,  has  invested  with  the  powers  proper  to  himself 
Jupiter  the  god  of  heaven,  who  thereupon  chains  and  torments 
Prometheus  and  oppresses  mankind  ;  in  other  words,  the  anthropo- 
morphic god  of  religion  is  a  creation  of  the  liuman  mind,  and 
both  the  mind  of  man  and  man  himself  arc  enshivcdas  long  as  this 
god  exercises  his  delegated  but  now  absolute  power..  Prometheus, 
who  is  from  of  old  wedded  to  Asia,  or  Nature;  protests  against 
and  anathematizes  the  usurper  enthroned  by  himself.  At  last  the 
anathema  takes  effect.  Eternity,  Demogori;on,  dismisses  Jupiter 
to  unending  nothingness.  Prometheus  is  at  once  unbound, 
the  human  mind  is  free  ;  he  is  reunited  to  his  spouse  Nature, 
and  the  world  of  man  passes  from  thraldom  and  its  degradation 
into  limitless  progression,  or  (as  the  phrase  goes)  perfectibility, 
moral  and  material.  This  wo  regard  as  in  brief  the  argument  of 
Prometheus  Unbou)id.  It  is  closely  analogous  to  the  argument 
of  the  juvenile  poem  Qiucn  ilab,  but  so  raised  in  form  and  creative 
touch  that,  whereas  to  write  Queen  Mab  was  only  to  bo  an  ambitious 
and  ebullient  tyro,  to  invent  Prometheus  Unbound  was  to  be  the  poet 
of  the  future.  The  If^itch  of  Atlas  (1820)  appears  to  u»  the  most 
perfect  work  among  nil  Shelley's  longer  poems,  though  it  is  ncilhor 
the  deepest  nor  tho  most  inVrcstinp.  It  may  bo  rated  as  a  pure 
exorcise  of  roving  imagination — guided,  however,  by  an  iiil.nso 
sense  of  beauty,  and  by  its  author's  exceeding  fineness  of  nature. 


794 


S  H  E  —  S  H  E 


The  poem  has  often  been  decried  as  practically  unmeaning  ;  we  do 
not  subscribe  to  this  opinion.  The  "  witch  "  of  this  subtle  and 
mugical  invention  seems  to  represent  that  faculty  wliich  wo  term 
"the  fancy";  using  this  assumption  as  a  clue,  we  find  plenty  of 
meaning  in  the  poem,  but  necessarily  it  is  fauciful  or  volatile 
meaning.  The  elegy  on  Keats,'  Adonais,  followed  in  1821  ;  the 
Triumph  of  Life,  a  mystical  and  most  impressive  allegory,  con- 
sti'ueted'  upon  lines  marked  out  by  Dante  and  by  Petrarch,  was 
occupying  the  poet  up  to  the  time  of  his  deatn.  The  stately 
fragment  which  remains  is  probably  but  a  small  portion  of  the 
projected  whole.  The  translations— chiefly  from  Homer,  Eirripides, 
Calderon,  and  Goethe— date  from  1819  to  1822,  and  testify  to  the 
poetic  endowment  of  8hoUey  not  less  absolutely  than  his  own  original 
compositions.  From  this  list  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  Shelley 
was  not  only  a  prolific  but  also  a  versatile  ppet.  AVorks  so  various 
in  faculty  and  in  form  as  The  Revolt  of  Islam,  Julian  and  Maddalo, 
The  Ce-iici,  Promdheiis  Unbound,  Epipsijchidion,  and  the  grotesque 
clfusionsof  wliich  Peter  Bell  tlw  Third  is  the  prime  e.iamiile,  added 
to  the  consummate  array  of  lyrics,  have  seldom  to  bo  credited  to  a 
single  writer — one,  moreover,  who  diod  before  he  was  thirty  years 
of  age.  In  prose  Slielley  could  be  as  admirable  as  in  poetry  ; 
of  late  years  it  has  even  been  pretended — but  we  regard  this 
proposition  as  worthy  of  summary  rejection — that  his  best  and 
most  enduring  work  is  in  the  prose  form.  His  letters  to  Thomas 
Love  Peacock  and  others,  and  Iik  micompleted  Drfencc  of  Poclnj, 
are  the  chief  monuments  of  his  mastery  in  prose  ;  and  certainly  no 
more  beautiful  prose— liaving  much  of  tlie  spirit  and  tlie  aroma 
of  poetry,  yet  without  being  distorted  out  of  its  proper  essence— i.a 
to  bo  found  in  the  English  language. 

The  chief  origiiml  authoriiies  for  tJie  hfe  of  Shtllcy  (a^art  from  nls  own 
writiiiK5,  wliich  ccintaln  a  Eood  deal  of  oiUobiocraphy,  if  liceiifully  sifud  and 
collateil)  are — (1)  the  notice.-*  by  .Mis  bhcllcy  iiilcr>i»er.ied  in  her  edition  of  the 
J'oems  ;  (2)  Hoec's  amusing,  disecrnhiK,  and  authentic,  allhouKh  in  some 
respects  cxacgciatcd,  bi.ok  ;  (.•>)  Tielawny's  Records ;  (-1)  the  Life  by  Jlcdwin ; 
iind  (5)  the  articles  wiitten  by  Peacock.  S..me  other  writers,  especially  LdRh 
Hunt,  mlcht  be  mentioned,  but  they  eomc  less  close  to  the  facts.  Among 
Liographical  woiks  proiluccil  since  Shelley's  death,  by  authors  who  did  not  know 
liini  personally,  much  the  l..r(test  is  Tlie  Real  uliellei/,  by  i.  C.  Jcaffrcsoa  (1885)  ; 
It  is  controversial  in  method  and  decidedly  hostile  in  tendency,  and  tries  a  man 
of  Renins  ty  tests  far  from  well  adapted  (m  our  opinien)  io  brInR  out  a  right 
result;  it  contains,  however,  an  ample  share  of  solid  information  and  sharp 
disquisition.  The  memoir  by  W.  M.  Rossetti,  prefixed  to  an  cditiim  of  Shelley's 
J'oems  in  two  foims  of  publicition,  1870  and  IS78.  was  an  endeavour  ,0  fonnulate 
l:r  brief  space,  out  of  the  then  confused  and  conflicting  records,  an  accurate 
accon.it  of  Shelley— .admii  inc.  but  not  unc.andidly  one-bided.  There  is  valuable 
inatei-ial  in  Lady  Shelley's  Slielley  Memorials,  and  in  Dr  Gamett's  Relies  <tf 
Shelley  ;  and  the  memoir  written  by  Mr  S)  raonJs,  in  the  aeiies  English  Men  of 
Letters,  is  very  aRrceahly  and  skilfully  done.  While  we  -nrite  (Xovcmber  1S8J) 
Trof.  Dowden  is  engaged  upon  a  life  of  Shcllev,  which  may  be  expected  to 
distance  all  its  pt-edeeessors  in  authority  and  cotiipleteness.  (W.  M.  K.) 

SHELOMOH  IBN  GEBIROL.     See  Avicebeon. 

SHEM.     See  Noah.     Compare  Semitic  L.4.ngdages. 

SHEMAHA,  a  formerly  important  but  no'w  insignifi- 
cant town  in  Transcaucasia,  in  40°  38'  N.  lat.  and  66°  19' 
E.  long.,  on  the  Zagolovai,  an  affluent  of  the  Peerssagat, 
which  falls  into  the- Caspian.  It  is  situated  in  a  moun- 
tainous, very  picturesque  country,  covered  ■with  luxuriant 
vegetation,  at  about  2230  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Black  Sea.  In  1873  it  had  25,087  inhabitants,  of  ■whom 
18,680  were  Tartars  and  Shachsevans,  5177  Armenians, 
and  1 230  Russians.  Some  300  Armenian  families  now  pro- 
fess Lutheranism — the  result  of  a  mission  first  established 
at  Shemaha  about  twenty  years  ago.  Shemaha  was  the 
capital  of  the  khanate  of  ShirvAn,and  ■was  known  to  Ptolemy 
as  Kamachia,  Situated  as  it  was  on  the  high  road  from 
Europe  to  India,  this  old  town  must  at  one  time  have 
possessed  very  considerable  importance,  and  evidence  of  the 
fact  is  found  in  the  numerous  ruins  of  large  caravansarais, 
churches,  and  public  buildings.  About  the  middle  of  the 
16th  century  it  ■Nvas  the  seat  of  an  English  commercial 
factory,  under  the  ■well-known  traveller  Jenkinson  (com- 
pare Russia,  vol.  xxi.  p.  93),  afterwards  envoy  extrar 
ordinary  of  the  khan  of  Shirvdn  to  Ivan  the  Terrible.  In 
1742  Shemaha  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  Nadir  Shah, 
who,  to  punish  the  inhabitants  for  their  Sunnite  creed, 
built  a  new  town  under  the  same  name  about  16  miles  to 
the  west,  at  the  foot  of  the  main  chain  of  the  Caucasus. 
The  new  Shemaha  was  at  different  times  a  residence  of  the 
khan  of  Shirvdn,  but  it  was  finally  abandoned,  and  in  its 
place  there  stands  now  only  a  village  called  Akhsu,  whilst 
the  old  town  ■was  rebuilt,  and  under  the  Russians  became 
capital  of  the  government  of  Shemaha.  In  recent  times 
Shemaha  has  suffered  greigtly  from  earthquakes :  in  1859 


is  ■was  shaken  to  it's  foundations,  and  in  consequence  the 

seat  of  the  governor  ■was  removed  to  Baku  ;  in  1872  (16th 
January)  there  occurred  a  still  more  terribla  shock,  iron? 
v/hich  the  town  has  never  recovered.  Silk  manufacture 
Is  the  principal  industry  in  Shemaha.  In  1873  there 
were  one  hundred  and  thirty  silk-winding  establishments, 
owned  mostly  by  Armenians.  The  Industry  has,  however, 
since  1864  consirlerrbly  declined. 

The  district  of  .Shemaha  (4426  E([uaro  miles),  corresponding  to 
the  ancient  khanate  of  Shirvdn,  lies  along  the  southern  slope  of 
tlie  main  chain  of  the  Eastern  Caucasus.  It  contains  a  popula- 
tion of  97,801  iiihabit.nnts  (1S73),  of  whom  8-193  are  Russians, 
1-1,838  Armeuians,  73,12-1  Tartai-s,  638  Jats  (old  Pcisian  tii-be), 
and  70S  Jews.  As  everywliere  in  Transcaucasia,  the  iiumhcr  of 
males  is  considerably  in  excess  over  the  females  (100  to  81). 
The  district  occupies  a  sparsely-wooded  mountainous  region,  com- 
pletely shut  up  on  the  north,  anil  open  to  the  dry,  large,  and 
mostly  desolate  valley  of  Kura  on  the  south.  The  climHt*  ia 
generally  healthy,  rather  dry  and  moderately  warm  ;  in  the  lower 
parts  the  people  suller  from  malarious  fever.  The  annual  rain- 
fall in  Shemaha  is  l-t'52  inches,  the  mean  summer  temperature 
73°  Fahr.,  winter  37°.  The  soil,  mostly  of  the  Tertiary  forma- 
tion, is  very  lich  and  of  considerable  variety.  This  district  occu- 
pies in  Transcaucasia  a  foremost  place  in  vine-growing  and  in 
the  silk  industry.  The  vine  region,  in  the  south-west  of  tlie 
district,  is  a  long  strip  of  land  of  breadth  varying  from  4  to  20 
miles.  The  highest  level  of  the  vino  is  about  2500  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  plant  is  left  unprotected  in  winter,  and  owing 
to  the  abumlance  of  water  occasioned  by  the  molting  snows  and 
the  heavy  rains  in  spring,  there  is  no  need  of  irrigation.  Accord- 
ing to  a  general  survey  made  in  1875  there  are  in  the  district  309-9 
vineyards,  occupying  a  total  of  1754  acres.  The  other  products 
are  principally  wheat,  cotton,  and  rice.  In  1875  the  annual 
vintage  at  Shemaha  was  calculated  at  .about  62, 160  gallons.  The 
best  wLue  is  that  of  JIatrassy.  The  province  of  Shirv.in,  now  the 
district  of  Shi-niaha,  has  been  frequently  the  theatre  of  terrible 
struggles  and  bloodshed.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Persians  in 
1501  under  Shah  Ismail  I.,  and  it  continued  with  brief  interrup- 
tions to  be  a  part  of  the  Persian  dominions  until  the  fall  of  the 
Safawi  dynasty. 

Shemaha,  tlie  capital  of'SIiirvan,  was  sacked  in  1712  by  the 
Lesghians;  eight  years  later  the  town  and  the  whole  ]>iovince  wei'e 
devastated  by  a  certain  Daghestani,  Ala  ud-Da«lali,  Avho  was 
later  recognized  by  Persia  as  the  khan  of  Shirvan.  In  1724  the 
khanate  was  taken  by  Turkey,  but  ten  yeais  later  Kadir  Shah  of 
Persia  reconquered  it  after  terrible  ravages.  On  the  departure  of 
Nadir  Shah  .soon  afterwards  Shirvan  enjoyed  indepemlence  under 
the  rule  of  llahmud  Seyyid,  who  rebuilt  Shemaha.  The  Russians 
entered  Shirvan  first  in  1723,  but  soon  retired.  In  1795  they 
captured  Shemaha  as  well  as  Baku  ;  but  the  conquest  was  once  more 
abandoned,  and  Shirvan  was  not  finally  annexed  to  Russia  tmtll 
Xoveniber  1805  after  the  voluntary  submission  of  its  last  khan 
Mustapha. 

SHENANDO.AH,  a  borough  of  the  United  States,  in 
Schuylkill  county,  Pennsylvania,  12  miles  north  of  Potts- 
ville,  is  the  centre  of  a  great  coal  district,  more  than  half 
the  total  yield  of  the  Schuylkill  region  being  ]iroduced 
within  3  miles  of  the  town.  Among  its  buildings  ar^ 
fifteen  churches,  a  theatre,  and  two  public  halls.  It  was 
founded  in  1S63,  and  its  population  (partly  "Welsh  and 
German),  which  increased  from  2951  in  1870  to  10,148 
in  1880,  is  estimated  at  over  15,000  in  1886. 

Shenandoah  is  also  the  name  of  a  well-known  tributary 
of  the  Potomac. 

SHENDY,  a  town  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile,  about 
130  miles  south  of  Berber  and  100  north  of  Kharttim, 
which,  ■whUe  its  present  population  does  not  exceed  2500, 
was  previous  to  its  destruction  by  the  Egyptians  in  1822 
a  place  of  some  50,000  inhabitants  and  a  station  on  the 
great  caravan  route  between  SennS,r  and  Egypt  and 
Mecca.  The  terrible  massacre  perpetrated  by  the  Egyptians 
was  in  revenge  for  the  treacherous  assassination  by  the 
native  chiefs  at  Shendy  of  Ismail  Pasha -and  his  suite,  ■who 
•were  first  drugged  and  then  burned  to  ashes  with  their 
huts.  Shendy  was  the  capital  of  a  considerable  district, 
and  lies  only  20  miles  south  of  tlie  ruins  of  Meroe. 

SHENSTONE,  Willlui  (1714-1763),  is  one  of  the 
best-known  minor  poets  of  the  18th  century.     He  owes 


S  H  E  — S  H  E 


79 


o 


such  distinction  as  he  has  at  least  as  much  to  his  choice 
of  subjects  and  to  the  peculiarity  of  his  life  as  to  the 
felicity  of  his  verse.  Coming  after  a  generation  -whose 
leading  poets  wrote  for  fashionable  society,  ho  shut  him- 
self up  in  the  country,  tried  to  follow  the  life  Arcadian, 
and  ■nrote  in  the  spirjt  of  a  recluse.  He  inherited  the 
small  estate  of  Leasowes,  in  the  parish  of  Hales-Owen, 
Worcestershire.  He  was  born  at  Leasowes  in  1714,  and 
after  passing  through  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  retired 
there  to  realize  Pope's  ideal  in  the  Ode  to  Solitude,  turned 
his  paternal  estate  into  an  elaborate  landscape  garden,  and 
lived  there  tUl  his  death  in  17G3.  From  the  time  that 
the  management  of  the  estate  fell  into  his  own  hands, 
"he  began,"  Johnson  says,  "to  point  his  prospects,  to 
diversify  his  surface,  to  entangle  his  walks,  and  to  wind  his 
waters, — which  he  did  with  such  judgment  and  such  fancy 
as  to  make  his  little  domain  the  envy  of  the  great  and  the 
admiration  of  the  skilful."  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that 
ho  did  not  anticipate  late  sentiment  in  his  love  of  natural 
scenery ;  he  was  a  true  child  of  the  Queen  Anne  time  in 
his  liking  for  "Nature  to  advantage  dressed."  And  it 
would  appear  from  his  letters  that  he  was  not  a  contented 
recluse,  but  was  weakly  desirous  of  the  notice  of  the  world 
in  his  Arcadian  retreat.  Still  ■  there  is  a  certain  air  of 
sincerity  in  his  references  to  natural  beauty  and  giandeur. 
Burns  wrote  of  him  in  the  preface  to  his  first  issue  of 
poems  as  a  poet  "  whose  divine  elegies  do  honour  to  our 
language."  Shenstone  practised  the  elegiac  form  assidu- 
ously, and  some  of  his  elegies  are  not  without  -a  certain 
imposing  pomp  and  dignity  of  language,  but  we  may 
safely  suppose  that  it  was  the  sentiments  rather  than  the 
expression  that  captivated  the  peasant  poet.  His  Pastoral 
Ballads  in  Four  Parts,  one  of  his  earliest  compositions,  is 
also  one  of  his  best,  and  from  its  use  in  selections  of 
poetry  for  the  young  is  much  more  generally  known. 
The  triple  rhythm  and  the  simplicity  of  the  language  are 
happily  suited  to  the  pastoral  fancy,  and  there  is  not  too 
much  of  the  artiGcial  diction  and  imagery  of  such  poetry. 
Such  lines  as— 

Yet  time  may  diniiiiish  the  piiin  ; 

Tlio  flowei-,  and  the  shrub,  and  tlio  liee  , 
Which  I  rear'd  for  her  pleasure  iu  vain 

In  time  may  have  comfort  for  me — 

come  nearer  "Wordsworth's  ideal  of  poetic  diction  than  was 
common  in  the  serious  poetry  of  Shcnstone's  time.  But 
his  SchooliMstress,  in  the  Spenserian  stanza  (published  in 
1742,  and  so  relieved  from  any  suspicion  of  being  an 
imitation  of  Thomson),  is  the  poem  by  which  ho  keeps  a 
place  in  literature. 

SHEPTOISr  MALLET,  a  market-town  of  Somersetshire, 
England,  is  situated  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Mendip 
Hills,  on  the  Somerset  and  Devon  and  the  East  Somersef 
Railways,  5  miles  east  of  TVells  and  20  south  of  Bristol. 
Tbc  church  of  Sts  Peter  and  Paul,  consisting  of  chancel, 
clercstoriod  nave,  and  aisles,  is  specially  worthy  of  notice 
for  its  richly  carved  wooden  rrnf  and  the  fncient  monu- 
ments of  the  Mallets  and  Gournays,  formerly  possessors  of 
the  manor.  The  grammar  school  was  founded  in  1C77, 
and  there  are  also  a  science  and  art  school  in  connexion 
with  South  Kensington,  a  literary  institute,  and  a 
mechanics'  institute.  The  principal  public  buildings 
a;o  the  court-house  (1857),  the  masonic  hall  (18G1),  the 
pnson,  and  the  district  hospital  (1880).  The  market  cross, 
Olio  of  the  finest  in  the  county,  51  foot  in  height,  erected 
by  Agnes  and  Thomas  Buckland  in  1500,  was  restored  in 
liMl.  About  the  end  of  last  century  Shepton  Mallot  had 
important  cloth  •  manufactures,  and  stocking-knitting  was 
I  !ilso  largely  c'arricd  on.  Tho  brewing  of  ale  and  [lortor  is 
i<tiw  one  of  its  principal  industries,  and  it  has  also  rope- 
works  and  brick  and  tiln  works.     In  tho  vicinity  there  are 


granite  quarries  and  marble,  asphalt,  and  lime  works. 
The  population  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area,  3572 
acres)  iu  1871  was  5149,  and  in  1881  it  was  5322. 

Shepton,  previous  to  tho  Conquest  called  Sepeton,  was  in  the 
possession  ot  the  abbots  of  Glastonbury  for  four  hundred  years 
before  it  passed  to  Roger  do  Coarcelle.  Afterwards  it  came  into 
the  possession  of  the  barons  .Malet  or  Mallet,  one  of  whom  was 
fined  for  rebellion  in  tho  roign  of  King  John.  From  the  Malleta 
it  went  to  the  Gournays,  but  in  1536  it  revolted  to  the  crown,  and 
it  is  now  included  in  tlic  duchy  of  Co.iiwaU.  The  town  received 
tho  grant  of  a  market  from  Edward  II. 

SHERBORNE,  an  ancient  market-town  of  Dorsetshire, 
England,  on  the  borders  of  Somersetshire,  is  situated 
on  the  southern  slope  of  a  hill  overlooking  the  river  Yeo, 
on  the  South-Western  Railway,  6  miles  east  from  Yeovil 
and  118  south-west  from  London  by  rail.  In  705  Sher- 
borne was  made  by  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric,  which  in  1078  was  removed  to  Old 
Sarum  (Salisbury).  •  Previous  to  its  removal  a  great  Bene- 
dictine abbey  had  been  founded  by  Bishop  Roger.  The 
minster  or  abbey  church  of  St  JIary  possesses  a  Norman 
tower,  much  altered  by  later  additions,  and  transepts  also 
originally  Norman,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  building  is 
Perpendicular.  It  was  restored  in  1848-58  at  an  expense 
of  over  £32,000,  chiefly  contributed  by  Mr  W.  Digby  and 
Lord  Digby.  Ethelbald  and  Ethelbcrt,  elder  brothers  of 
Alfred,  were  buried  behind  the  high  altar  of  the  church, 
which  contains  a  nuihber  of  interesting  tombs  and  monu- 
ments. Near  the  minster  are  the  ruins  of  the  castle, 
originally  the .  palace  of  the  bishops.  It  was  besieged 
during  the  wars  between  Stephen  and  Maud,  and  also 
during  those  of  the  Commonwealth,  when  it  was  held  for 
the  king  in  1642  by  the  marquis  of  Hertford,  and  resisted 
a  five  days'  siege  by  the  carl  of  Bedford,  but  was  in  1645 
taken  by  Fairfax,  when  it  was  dismantled  and  reduced  to 
ruins.  The  older  portion  of  the  modern  mansion  was  built 
by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  Sherborne  grammar  school,  occupy- 
ing the  site  of  the  abbey,  was  founded  by  Edward  VI.  ia 
1550,  and  holds  a  high  rank  among  the  public  schools  of 
England.  Near  the  abbey  close  is  the  hospital  of  St  John, 
dating  from  the  15th  century.  A  literary  institution, 
now  called  the  Macready  Institution,  was  established  in 
1850.  The  manor  of  Sherborne  went  with  the  bishop's 
see,  till  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  it  was  conferred  on  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh.  After  his  attainder  it  was  bestowed  by 
James  I.  on  his  favourite  Carr,  after  which  it  passed  to 
the  Digbys,  the  present  owners.  The  population  of  the 
urban  sanitary  district  (area  411  acres)  in  1871  was 
5545,  and  in  1881  it  was  5053; 

SHERIDAN,  the  name  of  an  Anglo- Irish  family,  made 
illustrious  by  the  dramatist  Richard  Brinsley,  but  protni- 
nently  connected  with  literature  iu  more  than  one 
generation  before  and  after  his.  We  take  tho  familv  in 
chronological  order. 

1.  Thomas  Sheridan,  D.D.  (1684-1738),  grandfather 
of  the  dramatist,  was  tho  first  to  connect  the  family  with 
literature.  He  is  chiefly  ■  known  as  the  favourite  com- 
panion and  confidant  of  Swift  during  his  later  residence 
in  Ireland.  But  enough  is  left  of  his  writing  to  enable 
us  to  undor.stand  tho  secret  of  his  attraction  for  n  man 
not  easily  pleased.  His  correspondence  with  Swift  and 
his  whimsical  treatise  on  tho  Art  of  Punnin<j^  niaka 
perfectly  clear  from  whom  his  grandson  tie/ived  his  liigk 
spirits  and  delight  in  practical  joking.  Tho  Art  nj  Pnin- 
niiif/  might  have  been  written  by  tho  author  of  J7ie  Critic 
Swift  had  a  high  opinion  of  his  scholarship,  and  that  it 
was  not  contemptible  is  attested  by  an  edition  of  thq 
Satires  of  Pcrsius,  printed  at  Dublin  in  1728.  Whco 
Swift  came  to  Dublin  as  dean  of  St  Patrick's,  Sheridan 
was   established   there   as  a  schoolmaster  of  very  high 

>  Pubjiahed  'i  Nlohola's  Supplement  to  tho  worlu  of  Snift,  1779. 


790 


S  II  E  R  I  D  A  1^ 


repute, — a  fashionable  schoolmaster,  with  a  small  landed 
patrimony  in  Cavan,  and  a  bishop  in  the  fami'y  two 
generations  back.  He  so  won  upon  the  dean  with  h'S 
mirtUfulness,  wit,  scholarship,  good-nature,  and  hone-sty 
that  in  a  sho»'t  time  no  party  made  for  the  dean's  enter- 
tainment was  considered  complete  without  Sheridan. 
Sheridan  was  his  confidant  in  the  affair  of  Brapier's 
L'eliers;  it  was  at  Quilca^^  Sheridan's  country  cottage  in 
Cavan,  that  (lullivtr's  Trnrels  was  prepared  for  the  press ; 
and  this  favoured  friend  was  from  an  early  period  in  their 
acquaintance  one  of  his  modt  confidential  correspondents 
when  at  a  distance.  Through  Swift's  influence  he  obtained 
a  living  near  Cork,  but  damaged  his  prospects  of  further 
proferment  by  a  feat  of  unlucky  absence  of  mind.  Having 
to  preach  at  Cork  on  the  anniversary  of  Queen  Anne's 
death  he  hurriedly  chose, a  sermon  with  the  text,  "Suffi- 
cient unto  the  day  is  the  evil  thereof,"  and  was  at  once 
struck  off  the  list  of  chaplains  to  tho  lord-lieutenant  and 
forbidden  the  castle.  In  spite  of  this  mishap,  for  which 
tho  archdeacon  of  Cork  made  amends  by  the  present  of  a 
•  lease  worth  £250  per  annum,  he  "still  remained,"  accord- 
ing to  Lord  Orrery,  "  a  punster,  a  quibbler,  a  fiddler,  and 
a  wit,"  the  only  person  in  whose  genial  presence  Swift 
relaxed  his  habitual  gloom.  His  latter  days  were  not 
prosperous,  probably  owing  to  his  having  ''a  better  know- 
ledge of  books  than  of  men  or.  of  the  value  of  money," 
and  he  died  in  poverty  and  ill-health  in  173S.  The 
biographers  of  Brinsley  Sheridan  are  disposed  to  dwell 
chiefly  on  the  eccentricities  of  his  ancestors,  but  both  his 
grandfather  and  his  father  gave  ample  proof  of  more 
iiolid  qualities  than  improvidence  and  wit.  The  original 
source  of  information  about  the  schoolmaster  grandfather 
js  the  father's  Li/e  of  Swift  (pp.  3G9-395),  where  his 
scholarship  is  dwelt  upon  as  much  as  his  improvident 
jonviviality  and  simiile  kindliness  of  nature. 

2.  T)ioM.vs  SiiEiuDAN  (1721-178S),  son  of  the  above, 
born  at  Quilca  in  1721,  had  a  more  conspicuous  career 
than  his  father.  This  ambitious  father  ."^ent  him  to  an 
English  school,  Westminster  j  but  he  was  forced  by  stress 
of  circumstances  to  return  to  Dublin  and  complete  his 
education  at  Trinity  College.  Then  he  wer/t  on  the  stage, 
and  at  once  made  a  local  reputation.  There  is  a  tradition 
that  on  his  first  appearance  in  Lciidon  he  was  set  up  as  a 
rival  to  Garrick,  and  Moore  countenances  the  idea  that 
Garrick  remained  jealous  of  him  to  tho  end.  For  this 
tradition  there  is  little  foundation.  Sheridan's  first 
appearance  in  London  was  at  Covent  Garden  in  March 
1744,  when,  heralded  in  advance  as  the  brilliant  Irisl^ 
comedian,  he  acted  for  three  weeks  in  a  succession  of 
loading  parts,  llamlel  being  the  first.  He  did  not  appear 
in  London  again  till  ten  years  afterwards,  when  he  was 
the  leading  actor  for  a  season  at  the  same  theatre.  In 
the  interval  he  had  been  manager  of  a  theatre  in  Dublin, 
had  married  a  highly  accomplished  and  well-born  lady 
(sec  next  notice),  and  had  been  driven  from  Dublin  as  a 
result  of  taking  the  unpojjular  side  in  politics.  After  his 
sca.son"  in  London  he  tried  Dublin  again,  but  after  two 
years  more  of  unremuneiativc  managenient,  he  left  for 
England  finally  in  17.')S.  Ey  this  time  he  had  con- 
ceived his  scheme  of  Jiritish  education,  and  it  was  to 
push  this  rather  than  his  connexion  with  the  stage  that  he 
crossed  St  George's  Channel.  He  lectured  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  and  received  honorary  degrees  fi-om  both 
universities  in  175^  and  17.')9.  But  tho  scheme  did  not 
make  way,  and  we  find  him  in  17C0  acting  under  Garrick 
at  Drury  Lane.  His  merits  as  an  actor  may  be  judged 
from  the  description  of  him  in  the  Eusciad  (h  987)  at  this 
period. .  '.He  is  placed  in  the  second  rank,  next  to  Garrick, 

'  Spult  Quilci.  it  lu.iy  Lc  iiotcil,  in  lliu  sccouj  T.  Slieriiliiu's  Li/c  of 
SaiSL 


but  ttere'is  no'tint  of  possible  rivalry.  Churchill  de- 
scribes  him  as  an  actor  whose  conceptions  were  superioi 
to  his  powers  of  execution,  whose  action  was  always  forc- 
ible but  too  mechanically  calculated,  and  who  in  spite  ol 
all  his  defects  rose  to  greatness  in  occasional  scenes. 
Churchill  never  erred  on  the  side'  of  praising  too  much, 
and  his  description  may  be  accepted  as  correct,  supported 
as  it  is  by  the  fact  that  the  actor  eked  out  his  income 
by  giving  lessons  in  elocution.  Boswell  has  some  amus- 
ing remarks  on  his  success  with  a  distinguished  Scotch 
pupil,  who  used  his  influence  to  get  a  pension  for  him 
from  Lord  Bute.  Sheridan,  however,  attracted  attention 
chiefly  by  his  enthusiastic  advocacy,  in  public  lectures  and 
books,  of  his  scheme  of  education,  in  which  oratory  was 
to  play  a  principal  part.  It  is  generally  said  that  he 
traced  all  the  evils  and  perils  of  the  Commonwealth  to 
the  neglect  of  oratory.  But  this  is  a  caricature.  There 
was  more  serious  substance  in  his  indictment  of  the  estab- 
lished system  of  education.  His  main  count  was  that  it 
did  not  fit  the  higher  classes  for  their  duties  in  life,  that 
it  was  uniform  for  all  and  profitable  for  none ;  and  he 
urged  as  a  matter  of  vital  national  concern  that  special 
training  should  be  given  for  the  various  professions. 
Oratory  came  in  as  part  of  the  special  training  of  men 
intended  for  public  afi'airs,  but  his  main  contention  was 
one  very  familiar  now, — that  more  time  should  be  given  in 
schools  to  the  study  of  the  English  language.  He  rode 
his  hobby  with  great  enthusiasm,  published  an  elaborate 
and  eloquent  treatise  on  education,  and  lectured  on  the 
subject  in  London,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Edinburgh,  and 
other  towns.  In  1769,  after  a  residence  of  some  years  in 
France,  partly  for  economy,  partly  for  bis  wife's  health, 
partly  to  study  the  system  of  education  there,  he  published 
a  matured  PUni  of-  Education,  with  a  letter  to  the  king, 
in  which  he  offered  to  devote  the  rest  of  his  life  to  the 
execution  of  his  theories  on  condition  of  receiving  a 
jjension  equivalent  to  the  sacrifice  of  his  professional 
income.  His  offer  was  not  accepted ;  but  Sheridan,  still 
enthusiastic,  retii-ed  to  Bath,  and  prepared  a  jironouncing 
Diriiuiiary  of  the  Enc/lish  Language,  with  a  prosodial 
grammar.  After  his  sou's  brilliant  success^  he  assisted  in 
the  management  of  Drury  Lane,  and  occasionally  acted. 
His  Life  of  Swift,  a  very  entertaining  book  in  spite  of  its 
incompleteness  as  a  biography,  was  published  in  1784. 
He  died  at  Margate  in  17SS.  The  year  before  his  death 
he  had  a  prospect  of  realizing  his  scheme  of  education  in 
Ireland,  but  the  high  official  who  had  sought  his  advice 
died  just  as  the  old  man  eagerly  reached  Dublin,  and  his 
hopes  were  disappointed. 

3.  Frances  Sheridan  (1724-1766),  wife  of  the  above, 
and  mother  of  the  dramatist,  wrote  two  novels  of  high 
repute  in  their  day,  Sidney  Biddulph  and  Sonr/'ahad,  and 
two  plays.  The  Discovert/  and  77ie  Dtipe.  AVe  have  it  on 
the  authority  of  Moore  that,  when  The  Hiixds  and  The 
Duenna  were  running  at  Covent  Garden,  Garrick  revived 
The  Discovery  at  Drury  Lane,  as  a  counter-attraction,  "  to 
play  the  mother  off  against  the  sou,  taking  on  himself  to 
act  the  principal  part  in  it."  But  the  statement,  intrinsi- 
cally absurd,  is  inaccurate.  The  Discovery  was  not  an 
old  play  at  the  time,  but  one  of  Garrick's  stock  pieces, 
and  Anthony  Broinville  was  one  of  his  favourite  characters. 
It  was  first  piroduced  in  1763.  So  far  from  being  jealous 
of  the  elder  Sheridan,  Garrick  seems  to  have  been  a  most 
useful  friend  to  the  family,  accepting  his  wife's  play — 
which  he  declared  to  be  "  one  of  the  best  comedies  he 
ever  read  "- — and  giving  the  husband  several  engagements. 
JIrs  Sheridan's  novels  and  plays  were  all  written  in  the 
last  six  years  of  her  life.  She  died  at  Blois  in  ^1766. 
Her  maiden  name  was  Chau\berlainc.  Her  father  .was  a 
dignitary  iu  tho  .Irish  Church,  her  grandfather  an  English 


SHERIDAN 


797 


taronet.  '  Her  marriage  with  the  actor  was  the  result  of 
romantic  circumstances,  fully  detailed  in  the  Memoirs  of 
Urs  Frances  Sheridan,  mentioned  below. 

4.  Richard  Beinsley  Butler  Sheridan  (1751- 
1816),  sepond  son  of  Thomas  and  Frances  Sheridan,  was 
born  in  Dublin  in  September  1751.  Moore  records  for 
the  encouragement  of  slow  boys  that  the  future  drama- 
tist was  "by  common  consent  of  parent  and  preceptor 
pronounced  an  impenetrable  dunce."  The  plain  fact  is 
that  the  expression  occurs  in  a  smart  letter  about  him  and 
hi.s  sister,  written  by  his  mother  to  a  schoolmaster.  Mrs 
Sheridan  wrote  that  she  had  been  the  only  instructor  of 
her  children  hitherto,  and  that  they  would  exercise  the 
schoolmaster  in  the  quality  of  patience,  "for  two  such 
impenetrable  dunces  she  had  never  met  with."  One  of 
the  children  thus  humorously  described  was  Richard 
Brinsley.  and  the  age  of  the  "  impenetrable  dunce  "  at  the 
time  was  seven.  At  the  age  of  eleven  he  was  sent  to 
Harrow.  There,  to  please  orthodox  biographers,  he  gave 
no'  such  sign  of  future  eminence  as  is  implied  in  taking 
a  high  place  in  school.  Dr  Parr,  who  was  one  of  his 
masters,  "saw  in  him  vestiges  of  a  superior  intellect,"  but, 
thou'gh  he  "  did  not  fail  to  probe  and  tease  him,"  by  no 
harassing  or  tormenting  process  could  he  incite  the 
indolent  boy  to  greater  industry  than  was  "just  sufficient 
io  save  him  from  disgrace."  But  these  facts  about  young 
Sheridan's  determined  indolence  in  the  study  of  Latin  and 
Greek  should  be  taken  in  connexion  with  his  father's 
peculiar  theories  on  the  subject  of  English  education. 
The  father's  theories  possibly  did  not  -encourage  the  son 
to  learn  Latin  and  Greek.  Why,  with  his  views  on  the 
unprofitableness  of  those  studies,  he  sent  his  younger  son 
to  Harrow,  is  not  obvious ;  but  it  was  probably  as  much 
for  social  as  for  educational  reasons.  If  so,  the  purpose 
was  answered,  for  Sheridan  was  extremely  popular  at 
school,  winning  somehow,  Dr  Parr  confesses,  "  the  esteem 
and  even  admiration  of  all  his  schoolfellows,"  and  giving 
a  foretaste  of  his  mysterious  powers  of  getting  things 
done  for  him  by  making  the  younger  boys  steal  apples  for 
his  own  private  store  and  good-humouredly  defying  the 
masters  to  trace  the  theft  home  to  him. 

Sheridan  left,  Harrow  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  having 
impressed  bis  schoolfellows  at  least,  who  are  sometimes 
better  judges  than  their  masters,  with  a  vivid  sense  of  his 
powers.  It  was  probably  his  father's  design  to  send  him 
afterwards  to  Oxford,  but  the  family  circumstances  were 
too  straitened  to  permit  of  it,  and  the  educationist,  who 
Lad  just  then*  returned  from  France,  and  was  about  to 
launch  his  appeal  to  the  king  on  behalf  of  his  new  plan  of 
education,  took  his  son  home  and  himself  directed  and 
superintended  his  studies.  What  his  plans  were  for  his 
brilliant  son's  future  we  have  no  means  of  knowing, 
but  the  probability  is  that,  if  the  projected  academy  had 
become  an  accomplished  fact,  he  would  have  tried  to  make 
Richard  Brinsley  an  upper  master  in  some  one  of  its 
numerous  departments.  There  are  traces  of  method  in 
the  suptrficially  harum-scarum  Irishman's  courses,  and  it 
looks  as  if  he  had  intended  both  of  his  sons  to  help  him  in 
the  maguificent  project  from  which  his  sanguine  tempera- 
ment expected  such  great  things, — the  elder,  who  had  been 
with  him  in  France,  in  what  would  now  bo  called  the 
modern  side  and  the  classically  educated  younger  in  the 
ancient  Bide.  Meantime,  pending  His  Majesty's  resolution 
on  the  projector's  offer,  Brinsley,  besides  being  trained  by 
his  father  daily  in  elocution,  and  put  through  a  course  of 
English  reading  in  accordance  with  the  system,  received 
the  accomplishments  of  a  young  man  of  fashion,  had 
fencing  and  riding  lessons  at  Angelo's,  and  began  to  eat 
terms  at  the  Middle  Temple.  His  destination  apparently 
was  the  bar,  if  fortune  ehould  deny  him  the  more  glorious 


career  of  lieutenant  in  the  new  academy  through  which 
young  England  was  to  be  regenerated. 

As  to  how  young  Sheridan,  with  a  cooler  head  to 
regulate  his  hot  Irish  blood,  looked  at  his  father's  grand 
schemes,  we  have  no  record.  But  it  is  of  importance  to 
remember  those  schemes,  and  the  exact  stage  they  had 
now  reached,  in  connexion  with  the  accepted  view  of 
Sheridan's  behaviour  at  this  time,  which  represents  him  as 
a  mere  idler,  hanging  on  at  home  like  an  ordinary  ne'er- 
do-well,  too  indolent  to  work  for  any  profession,  simply 
enjoying  himself  and  trusting  recklessly  to  chance  for  some 
means  of  livelihood.  The  fact  would  seem  to  be  that  over 
and  above  whatever  he  did  in  the  way  of  qualifying  him- 
self for  a  regular  career — which  possibly  was  little  enough 
— he  began  from  this  time  with  fundamentally  steady 
purpose  to  follow  the  bent  of  his  genius.  After  leaving 
Harrow  he  kept  up  a  correspondence  with  a  school  friend 
who  had  gone  to  Oxford.  With  this  youth,  whoso  name 
was  Halhed,  he  had  not  competed  for  school  honours;  but 
both  had  dreams  of  higher  things ;  and  now  they  concocted 
together  various  literary  plans,  and  between  them  actually 
executed  and  published  metrical  translations  of  Arista:netu8 
— an  obscure  Greek  or  pseudo-Greek  author  brought  to 
light  or  invented  at  the  Renaissance,  a  writer  of  imaginary 
amorous  epistles.  The  two  literary  partners  translated 
his  prose  into  verse  which  has  the  qualities  of  hghtness, 
neatness,  and  wit,  and  is  in  no  respect  unworthy  of  being 
the  apprentice-work  of  Sheridan. 

In  conjunction  with  the  same  young  friend  he  began 
a  farce  entitled  Jupiter.  It  was  not  completed,  but  the 
fragment  is  of  interest  as  containing  the  same  device  of  a 
rehearsal  which  was  afterwards  worked  out  with  such 
brilliant  effect  in  The  Critic.  Some  of  the  dialogue  is  very 
much  in  Sheridan's  mature  manner.  It  would  seem  indeed 
that  at  this  time,  idle  as  he  appeared,  Sheridan  was 
deliberately  exercising  his  powers  and  preparing  himself 
for  future  triumphs.  Moore's  theory  is  that  his  seeming 
indolence  was  but  a  mask;  and  extracts  given  from  papers 
written  in  the  seven  years  between  his  leaving  Harrow 
and  the  appearance  of  The  Hivals — sketches  of  unfinished 
plays,  poems,  political  letters,  and  pamphlets — show  that 
he  was  far  from  idle.  He  was  never  much  of  a  reader ;  he 
preferred,  as  he  said,  to  sit  and  think — a  process  more 
favourable  to  originality  than  always  having  a  book  in  his 
hand  ;  but  we  may  well  believe  that  he  kept  his  eyes  open, 
and  his  father's  connexion  with  fashionable  society  gave 
him  abundant  opportunities.  The  removal  of  the  family 
to  Bath  in  177P  extended  his  field  of  observation. 
Anstoy's  J^ew  Bath  Guide  had  just  been  published  and  liad 
greatly  stimulated  interest  in  the  comedy  of  life  at  this 
fashionable  watering-place. 

Presently,  too,  already  a  favourite  in  Bath  society  from 
his  charming  manners  and  his  skill  aa  a  VTiter  of  graceful 
and  witty  verses,  the  youth  played  a  part  in  the  living 
comedy  which  at  once  made  him  a  marked  man.  There 
was  in  Bath  a  celebrated  musical  family — "a  nest  of 
nightingales," — the  daughters  of  the  composer  Llnlcy, 
the  head  of  his  profession  in  the  fashionable  town.  The 
eldest  daughter,  a  girl  of  sixtecii,  the  prima  donna  of  her 
father's  concerts,  was  exceedingly  beautiful,  and  very  much 
run  after  by  suitors,  young  and  old,  honourable  and  dis- 
honourable. In  the  latter  class  was  a  Captain  Mathews, 
a  married  man ;  iu  the  former,  y.oung  Sheridan.  Mathews 
had  artfully  wop  the  girl's  affections,  and  persecuted  her 
with  his  importunities,  threatening  to  destroy  himself  if 
she  refused  him.  To  protect  her  from  this  scoundrers 
designs  the  younger  lover,  who  seems  to  have  acted  at  first 

'  Miss  Lofanu  correct")  Mooro's  dale  of  1770,  consideriDg  tl' . 
cUfTereiico  important  oo  bvariiig  oa  Sboridon'a  c  JucAtion  {Menkoxn, 
p.  348). 


798 


SEERIDAN 


onty  as  a  confidential  friend,  conceived  the  romantic  plan 
of  escorting  Miss  Linle}'  to  a  nunnery  in  France.^  After 
performing  this  chivalrous  duty  he  returned  and  fought 
two  duels  with  ilathews,  •o-hich  made  a  considerable 
sensation  at  the  time.  The  youthful  pair  had  gone 
through  the  ceremony  of  marriage  in  the  course  of  their 
flight,  but  Sheridan  chivalrously  did  not  claim  his  wife, 
kept  the  marriage  secret,  and  was  sternly  denied  access 
to  Miss  Linley  by  her  father,  who  did  not  consider  the 
professionless  young  man  an  eligible  suitot  Ultimately, 
after  a  courtship  romantic  enough  to  have  satisfied  Lydia 
Languish,  they  were  openly  married  in  April  1773. 

Sheridan's  daring  start  in  life  after  this  happy  marriage 
showed  a  confidence  in  his  genius  which  was  justified  by 
its  success.  Although  he  had  no  income,  and  no  capital 
beyond  a  few  thousand  pounds  brought  by  his  wife,  he 
took  a  house  in  Orchard  Street,  Portman  Square,  furnished 
it  "  in  the  most  costly  style,"  and  proceeded  to  return  on 
something  like  an  equal  footing  the  hospitalities  of  the 
fashionable  world.  His  wife — "  the  celebrated  Miss 
Linley" — was  a  most  popular  singer,  but  he  would  not 
allow  her  to  appear  in  public.  She  was  to  be  heard  only 
at  private  concerts  in  their  own  house,  and  her  beauty  and 
accomplishments  combined  with  her  husband's  ynt  to  draw 
crowds  of  fashionable  people  to  their  entertainments. 
Sheridan's  conduct  may  have  been  youthful  pride  and 
recklessness,  the  thoughtless  magnificence  of  a  strong  and 
confident  nature ;  all  the  same,  it  answered  the  purpose  of 
deep-laid  and  daring  policy.  When  remonstrated  with  by 
a  friend,  and  asked  how  he  found  the  means  of  supporting 
such  a  costly  establishment,  he  is  said  to  have  answered — 
"  My  dear  friend,  it  is  my  means."  And  so  it  proved,  for 
his  social  standing  and  popularity  helped  to  get.  a  favour- 
able start  for  his  firet  comedy,  The  Eivcds,  produced  at 
Covent  Garden  on  the  17th  January  1775. 

The  Rivals  is  said  to  have  been  not  so  favourably 
received  on  its  first  night,  owing  to  its  length  and  to  the 
bad  playing  of  the  part  of  Sir  Lucius  O'Trigger.  But  the 
defects  were  remedied  before  the  second  performance,  and 
the  piece  at  once  took  that  place  on  the  stage  which  it  has 
never  lost.  It  was  the  last  season  but  one  of  Garriek's 
long  career,  and  the  current  story  presei-ved  by  Moore  is 
that  the  run  upon  Covent  Garden  was  such  as  to  alarm  the 
veteran  of  Drury  Lane  and  drive  him  to  extraordinary 
exertions  to  counterbalance  the  attractions  of  the  new 
play.  This  seems  to  be  a  myth,  natural  enough  in  the 
circumstances,  but  unfounded  ia  fact,  for  we  have  contem- 
porary testimony "  that  Drury  Lane  was  never  more  crowded 
than  during  the  last  years  of  Garriek's  management,  when 
it  was  known  that  he  intended  to  retire  from  the  stage. 
There  were  crowded  houses  at  both  theatres.  Sheridan, 
though  bearing  his  brilliant  success  lightly,  proceeded  at 
once  to  take  the  tide  at  the  flood.  St  Patrick's  Day,  or  the 
Sdieming  Lieutenant,  a  lively  farce,  written  it  is  taid  at  the 
request  of  Clinch,  in  gratitude  for  his  coming  to  the  rescue 
of  Sir  Lucius,  was  produced  in  Slay.  In  the  course  of  the 
year,  with  the  assistance  of  his  musical  father-in-law,  he 
wrote  the  comic  opera  of  The  Duenna ;  and  by  the  end  of 
the  year,  with  an  eye  to  the  profits  of  theatrical  manage- 
ment, he  was  in  negotiation  with  Garrick  for  the  purchase 
of  his  share  of  Drury  Lane.  The  Duenna  was  the  great 
theatrical  success  of  the  winter  of  1775-76;  it  ran  even 
longer  than  The  Beggar's  Opera  had  done — up  to  that  time 
the  longest  run  on  record.  The  bargain  with  Garrick  was 
completed  in  June  1776.  The  sum  paid  for  the  half-share 
was  £35,000;    of  this   Sheridan   contributed   £10,000. 

'  The  letter  from  Jliss  Linley  to  a  female  friend,  giving  a  minute 
account  of  her  persecution  by  Mathews  and  deliverance  by  Sheridan, 
Is  declared  by  Mrs  Norton  to  be  a  "  foolish  forgery. " — Macmillan's 
Magazine,  iii  178.         '  See  Blaclacood's  Magazine,  vol.  xi  p.  26. 


None  of  his  letters  show  where  the  money  came  from,  anil 
much  wonder  has  been  expressed  on  the  subject ,  but  after 
all  it  is  not  so  very  mysterious  that  the  most  brilliai.t 
dramatist  of  Ms  time,  in  all  the  credit  of  unparalleled 
success,  should  have  been  able  to  borrow  such  a  sum  \ia 
this  with  the  best  theatrical  property  to  offer  as  securitf. 
There  is  a  tradition  that  Garrick  advanced  the  money  <ir 
let  it  lie  at  interest ;  anyhow,  the  loan  could  not  have 
appeared  at  the  time  a  vsry  risky  speculation.  Two  yeais 
afterwards  Sheridan  and  his  friends  bought  the  other  half 
of  the  property  for  £45,000. 

From  the  first  the  direction  of  the  theatre  ■would  seem 
to  have  been  mainly  in  Sheridan's  hands.  It  was  opened 
under  the  new  management  in  Febmary  1777,  with  a 
purified  version  of  Vanbrugh's  Relapse,  under  the  title  of 
A  Trip  to  Scarborough.  This  is  printed  among  Sheridan's 
works,  but  he  has  no  more  title  to  the  authorship  than 
CoUey  Cibber  to  that  of  Richard  III,  His  chief  task 
was  to  remove  indecencies ;  he  added  very  little  to  the 
dialogue.  Astonishment  has  been  expressed  that  he  should 
have  fallen  back  on  an  old  play  instead  of  writing  a  new 
one.  The  fact  is  quoted  among  the  proofs  of  his  indolence. 
But  the  new  manager,  apart  from  the  engagements  of  a 
popular  man  of  fashion,  probably  found  work  and  worry  in 
his  novel  task  of  organization  suflicient  to  leave  him  little 
leisure  for  composition.  Vanbrugh's  play  was  probably 
chosen  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  suited  his  company. 
Possibly  also  he  wished  to  make  trial  of  their  power." 
before  entrusting  them  with  a  play  of  his  own.  The 
School  for  Scandal  was  produced  little  more  than  two 
months  afterwards.  Mrs  Abington,  who  had  played  Miss 
Hoyden  in  the  Trip,  played  Lady  Teazle,  who  may  be 
regarded  as  a  Miss  Hoyden  developed  by  sis  months' 
experience  of  marriage  and  town  life.  The  actors  who 
played  the  brothers  Surface  had  been  tried  in  the  Trip  in 
opposite  characters,  Charles  playing  Townley,  while  Joseph 
played  Tom  Fashion.  It  looks  as  if  shrewd  managerial 
caution  was  responsible  for  the  delay  quite  as  much  as 
indolence.  The  former  may  at  least  have  been  in 
Sheridan's  mind  the  plausible  excuse  for  the  latter.  There 
are  tales  of  the  haste  with  which  the  conclusion  of  The 
School  for  Scandal  was  written,  of  a  stratagem  by  which 
the  last  act  was  got  out  of  him  by  the  anxious  company, 
and  of  the  fervent  "  Amen  "  written  on  the  last  page  of 
the  copy  by  the  prompter,  in  response  to  the  author's 
"  Finished  at  last,  thank  God ! "  But,  although  the 
conception  was  thus  hurriedly  completed,  we  know  from 
Sheridan's  sister  that  the  idea  of  a  "  scandalous  college  " 
had  occurred  to  him  five  years  before  in  connexion  with 
his  own  experiences  at  Bath.  His  difficulty  was  to  find  a 
story  sufficiently  dramatic  in  its  incidents  to  form  a  subject 
for  the  machinations  of  the  character-slayers.  He  seems  to 
have  tried  more  than  one  plot,  and  in  the  end  to  have 
desperately  forced  two  separate  conceptions  together.  Tho 
dialogue  is  so  brilliant  throughout,  and  the  auction  sc«;io 
and  the  screen  scene  so  effective,  that  nobody  cares  lo 
examine  the  construction  of  the  comedy  except  as  a  mattitr 
of  critical  duty.  But  a  study  of  the  construction  brings 
to  light  the  difficulties  that  must  have  worried  the  author 
in  writing  the  play,  and  explains  why  he  was  so  thankful 
to  have  it  finished  and  done  with  at  last^  After  all,  ho 
worried  himself  in  vain,  for  The  School  for  Scandal,  though 
it  has  not  the  unity  of  The  Rivals,  nor  the  same  wealth  i,f 
broadly  humorous  incident,  is  universally  regarded  as 
Sheridan's  masterpiece.  He  might  have  settled  the  doubts 
and  worries  of  authorship  with  Puff's  reflexion  "  What  is 
the  use  of  a  good  plot  except  to  bring  in  good  things  1" 
The  vitality  of  a  play  depends  mainly  on  its  good  thing* 
in  the  way  of  character,  incident,  and  happy  saying,  and  to 
a  very  limited  extent  on  their  relevance  to  any  central  plaii. 


SHERIDAN 


799 


The  third  and  last  of  Sheridan's  great  oomedies,  The 
'Critic,  was  produced  in  1779,  TL  SchotA  for  Scindal 
meantime  continuing  to  dra.i-  larger  houses  than  any  other 
play  every  time  it  v/as  put  on  the  stage.  '■  The  Critic  is 
perhaps  the  highest  proof  of  Sheridan's  skill  as  a  dramatist, 
for  in  it  he  has  worked  out,  with  perfect  success  for  all 
time,  a  theme  which,  often  as  it  has  been  attempted,  no 
other  dramatist  has  ever  succeeded  in  redeeming  from 
tediouscircumstaatiality  and  ephemeral  personalities.  The 
laughable  infirmities  of  all  classes  connected  with  the  stage, 
— authors,  actors,  patrons,  and  audience, — are  touched  oS 
with  the  lightest  of  Lands;  the  fun  is  directed,  not  at 
individual.'^,  but  at  absurdities  that  grow  out  of  the  circum- 
stances of  the  stage  as  naturally  and  inevitably  as  weeds 
in  a  garden.  It  seems  that  he  had  accumulated  notes,,  as 
his  habit  was.  for  another  comedy  to  be  called  Affectation. 
But  apparently  he  failed  to  hit  upan  any  story  that  would 
enable  him  to  present  his  various  types  of  affectation  in 
dramatic  interaction.  The  similar  diffieaity  in  ids  satire 
against  scandal,  of  finding  sufliciently  interesting  materials 
for  the  scandal-mongers,  he  had  surmounted  with  a  violent 
effort.  This  other  difficulty  he  might  have  surmounted 
too,  if  he  had  had  leisure  to  "  sit  and  think  "  tUl  the  happy 
th'oucut  came.  But  his  energies  were  now  called  oflE  in  a 
different  direction.  His  only  dramatic  composition  during 
the'  remaining  thirty-six  years  of  his  life  was  Pizarro,  pro- 
duced in  1799 — a  tragedy  in  which  he  made  liberal  use  of 
some  of  the  arts  ridiculed  in  the  person  of  Mr  Puff.  He 
is  said  also  to  have  written  more  of  The  Stranger  than  he 
was  willing  to  acknowledge. 

He  entered  parliament  for  Stafford  in  1780.  ItTvas  not 
a  sudden  ambition  to  shine  on  a  ■wider  stage  after  having 
gained"  the  highest  honours  of  the  theatre.  Ever  since 
leaving  Harrow  he  had  dabbled  a  little  in  politics,  had 
sketched  letters  in  the  manner  of  Junius,  and  begun  an 
answer  to  Johnson's  Taxation  no  Tyranny.  But  lie  had 
not  made  any  public  appearance  as  a  politician  until  his 
acquamtance  with  Fox  led  to  his  appearing  on  a  West- 
minster platform  with  the  great  leader  of  opposition. 
Apparently  he  owed  his  election  for  Stafford  to  more 
substantial  persuasives  than  the  charms  of  his  eloquence. 
He  paid  the  burgesses  five  guineas  each  for  the  honour  of 
representing  them.  It  was  the  custom  of  tlie  time.  His 
first  speech  in  parliament,  like  the  "iirst  speech  of  a  great 
parliamentarian  of  this  century,  between  whose  career  and 
Sheridan's  there  are  many  striking  points  of  resemblance 
and  contrast,  was  a  failure.  But  he  persevered,  spoke 
Lttle  for  a  time  and  chiefly  on  financial  questions,  soon 
took  a  place  among  the  best  speakers  in  the  House,  and 
under  the  wing  of  Fox  filled  subordinate  offices  "in  the 
shortlived  ministries  of  1782  and  1783.  He  was  under- 
secretary for  foreign  affairs  in  the  Rockingham  ministry, 
and  a  secretary  of  the  treasury  in  the  Coalition  ministry. 
This  was  rapid  promotion  for  a  man  who  owed  everything 
to  his  own  talents,  and  yet  not  an  excessive  recognition  of 
the  services  of  such  a  speaker  as  bo  is  described  as  having 
proved  himself  at  this  exciting  period.  In  debate  he  had 
the  keenest  of  eyes  for  the  weak  places'  in  an  opponent's 
argument,  and  the  happy  art  of  putting  them  in  an 
irresistibly  ludicrous  light  'without  losing  his  good  temper 
or  his  presence  of  mind.  In  those  heated  days  of  parlia- 
mentary strife  ho  was  almost  the  only  man  of  mark  that 
V-as  never  called  out,  {ind  yet  ho  had  not  his  match  in  the 
'Weapon  of  ridicule. 

The  occasion  that  gave  Sheridan  a  chance  of  rising  above 
the  reputation  of  an  extremely  effective  and  brilliant 
debater  into  the  ranks  of  great  parliamentary  orators  was 
the  impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings.  His  speeches  in 
that  proceeding  wfre  by  the  unanimous  acknowledgment 
if  his  contemporaries  among  the  greatest  dcliveruJ  in  that 


generation  of"  great  orators.  The  first  was  in  1787,  on 
liurke's  proposal  that  Hastings  should  be  impeached. 
Sheridan  spoke  for  three  hours,  and  the  effect  of  his  oiatory 
was  such  that  it  was  unanimously  agreed  to  adjourn  and 
postpone  the  final  decision  till  the  House  should  be  in  a 
calmer  mood.  Of  this,  and  of  his  last  great  speech  on 
the  subject  in  1794,  only  brief  abstracts  have  been 
preserved :  but  with  the  second,  the  four  daj-s'  speech 
in  Westminster  Hall,  on  the  occasion  so  brilliantly  described 
by  JIacaulay,  posterity  has  been  more  fortunate.  The 
reader  should,  however,  be  cautioned  against  accepting 
the  version  given  in  a  collection  of  Sheridan's  speeches 
published  by  a  friend  after  his  death.  This  long  passed 
current  as  a  genuine  specimen  of  Sheridan's  eloquence  at 
its  best,  in  spite  of  Moore's  protest  that  he  had  in  his 
possession  a  copy  of  a  shorthand  writer's  report,  and  that 
the  two  did  not  correspond.  But  Gurney's  verbatim 
reports  of  the  speeches  on  both  sides  at  the  trial  were 
published  at  Sir  G.  Cornewall  Lewis's  instigation  in  1859, 
and  from  them  'we  are  able  to  form  an  idea  of  Sheridan's 
power  as  an  orator.  There  are  passages  here  a^d  there 
of  gaudily  figurative  rhetoric,  loose,  ornament,  and  decla- 
matory hyperbole  such  as  form  the  bulk  of  the  incorrect 
version;  but  the  strong  common  sense,  close  argumentative 
force,  and  masterly  presentation  of  telling  facts  enable  us 
to  understand  the  impression  produced  by  the  speech  at 
the  time.^ 

Sheridan's  long  parliamentary  career  terminated'in  1812.' 
He  could  not  help  being  to  the  last  a  conspicuous  figure 
both  in  society  and  in  parliament,  but  from  the  time  of 
the  break-up  of  the  Whig  party  on  the  secession  of  Burke 
he  was  more  or  less  an  *'  independent  member,"  and  his 
isolation  was  complete  after  the  death  of  Fox.  The  Begum 
speech  remained  his  highest  oratorical  achievement.  By 
it  he  is  fixed  in  the  tradition  of  the  House  as  one  of  its 
greatest  names.  But  his  opinions  on  other  great  questions 
were  given  with  a  force  and  eloquence  worthy  of  his 
position.  When  Burke  denounced  the  French  Revolution, 
Sheridan  joined  with  Fox  in  vindicating  the  principle  of 
non-intervention.  Hg  maintained  that  the  French  people 
should  be  allowed  to  settle  their  constitution  and  manage 
their  affairs  in  .their  own  way.  But  when  the  republiii 
was  succeeded  by  the  empire,  and  it  became  apparent  that 
France  under  Napoleon  would  interfere  with  the  affairs  ol 
its  neighbours,  he  employed  his  eloquence  in  denouncinj! 
Napoleon  and  urging  the  prosecution  of  the  'war.  One  ol 
his  most  celebrated  speeches  was  deliv.^red  in  support  of 
strong  measures  against  the  mutineers  at  the  Nore.  Whet 
the  Whigs  came  into  power  in  1806  Sheridan  wa; 
appointed  treasurer  of  the  navy,  but  'n-as  denied  the  hououi 
of  admission  to  the  cabinet.  After  Fox's  death  he  sue 
ceeded  his  chief  in  the  representation  of  V/estminster.  and 
aspired  to  succeed  him  as  leader  of  the  party,  but  this 
claim  was  not  allowed,  and  thenceforward  Sheridan  foughl 
for  his  own  hand.  When  the  prince  became  regent  in 
1811  Sheridan's  private  influence  with  him  helped  to 
exclude  the  Whigs  trom  power.  For  his  interference  on 
this  occasion  between  the  regent  and"  his  constitutional 
advisers  Sheridan  was  severely  blamed.  To  judge  fairlj 
as  to  how  far  he  was  justified  in  his  conduct  as  a  mattei 
of  private  ethics  wo  must  take  into  account  his  previou; 
relations  with  the  leaders  of  his  party,  a  point  on  whicTi 
Moore,  one  of  the  disappointed  placemen,  is  somewhal 
reticent.  Throughout  his  parliamentary  career  Sheridan 
was  one  of  the  boon  companions  of  the  prince,  and  hi.- 
champion  in  parliament  in  some  dubious  mattora  of  pay- 
ment of  debts.     But  he  always  resented  any  imputation 

'  For  .1  conipiirifion  of  tlio  two  versioiia  of  the  ."*pcp*'h  and  ftu  nbU 
exposition  cf  llie  qnnlitiis  of  Sboridnn's.  oratory  ce«  Mr  W.  Frusei 
lino's  Ifi/Aes.  Slundan,  and  Fox,  1874. 


800 


S  H  E  —  S  H  E 


that  he  was  t!ie  prince's  confidential  adviser  or  mouthpiece. 
A  certain  proud  and  sensitive  independence  was  one  of  the 
most  marked  features  in  Sheridan's  parliamentary  career. 
After  a  coolness  arose  betivccn  him  and  his  Whig  allies  he 
refused  a  place  for  his  son  from  the  Government,  lest  there 
should  be  any  suspicion  in  the  public  mind  that  his  support 
had  been  bought. 

His  last  years  were  harassed  by  debt  and  disappoint- 
ment. At  the  general  election  of  1812  he  stood  for 
Westminster  and  was  defeated,  and  turned  in  vain  to  his 
old  constituency  of  Stafford.  He  could  not  raise  money 
enough  to  win  back  their  confidence.  As  a  member  of 
jjariiament  he  had  been  safe  against  arrest  for  debt,  but 
now  tiiat  this  protection  was  lost  his  creditors  closed  in 
apon  him,  and  from  this  time  till  his  death  in  1816  the 
life  of  Sheridan,  broken  in  health  and  fortune,  discredited 
in  reputation,  slighted  by  old  associates,  so  enfeebled  and 
low-spirited  as  to  burst  into  tears  at  a  compliment,  yet  at 
times  vindicating  his  reputation  as  the  wittiest  of  boon 
companions,  is  one  of  the  most  painful  passages  in  the 
biography  of  great  men.  Doubtless,  in  any  attempt  to 
judge  of  Sheridan  as  he  was  apart  from  his  works,  we 
must  make  considerable  deductions  from  the  mass  of 
floating  anecdotes  that  have  gathered  round  his  name.  It 
was  not  without  reason  that  his  granddaughter  Mrs 
Norton  denounced  the  unfairness  of  judging  of  the  real 
man  from  unauthenticated  stories  about  his  indolent 
procrastination,  his  recklessness  in  money  matters,  his 
drunken  feats  and  sallies,  his  wild  gambling,  his  ingenious 
but  discreditable  shifts  in  evading  and  duping  creditors. 
The  real  Sheridan  was  not  a  pattern  of  decorous  respect- 
ability, but  we  may  fairly  believe  that  he  was  very  far 
from  being  as  disreputable  as  the  Sheridan  of  vulgar 
legend.  Against  the  stories  about  his  reckless  management 
of  his  affairs  we  must  set  the  broad  facts  that  he  had  no 
source  of  income  but  Drury  Lane  theatre,  that  he  bore 
from  it  for  thirty  years  all  the  expenses  of  a  fashionable 
life,  and  that  the  theatre  was  twice  burnt  to  the  ground 
during  his  proprietorship.  Enough  was  lost  in  those  fires 
to  account  ten  times  over  for  all  his  debts.  His  bio- 
graphers always  speak  of  his  means  of  living  as  a  mystery. 
Seeing  that  he  started  with  borrowed,  capital,  it  is  possible 
that  the  mystery  is  that  he  applied  much  more  of  his 
powers  to  plain  matters  of  business  than  he  affected  or  got 
credit  for.  The  records  of  his  wild  bets  in  the  betting 
book  of  Brook's  Club  date  in  the  years  after  the  loss  of 
his  first  wife,  to  whom  he  was  devotedly  attached.  The 
reminiscences  of  his  son's  tutor,  Mr  Smyth,  show  anxious 
and  fidgetty  family  habits,  curiously  at  variance  with  the 
accepted  tradition  of  his  imperturbable  recklessness.  Many 
of  the  tricks  which  are  made  to  appear  as  the  unscrupulous 
devices  of  a  hunted  and  reckless  debtor  get  a  softer  light 
upon  them  if  we  ascribe  them  to  a  whimsical,  boyish, 
ungovernable  love  of  fun,  which  is  a  well-attested  feature 
of  his  character.  But  the  real  Sheridan,  as  he  was  in 
private  life,  is  irrecoverably  gone.  Even  Moore,  writing 
so  soon  after  his  death,  had  to  lament  that  he  could  "  find 
out  nothing  about  him."  Moore  seems  to  have  made  an 
imperfect  use  of  the  family  papers,  and  it  is  on  record  that 
Lord  ilelbourne,  who  had  undertaken  to  write  Sheridan's 
life,  always  regretted  having  handed  over  his  materials  to 
the  professional  biographer.  He  died  on  the  7th  of  July 
1816,  and  was  buried  with  great  pomp  in  Westminster 
Abbey. 

There  is,  unfortunately,  no  complete  iuthoritative  biography 
of  Sheridan.  Mrs  Norton,  his  granddaughter,  questioned  tha 
accuracy  of  Moore's  Life  in  many  particulars,  and  announced  her 
intention  of  writing  a  history  of  the  Sheridans  from  the  family 
papers,  of  which  Moore  had  made  very  partial  use.  But  she  never 
carried  out  the  project.  The  current  statements  about  the  father 
and  grandfather  oi  the  dramatist  are  inaccurate  and  misleading  in 


several  important  respects.  The  best  account  of  thorn— tnaki;i* 
allowance  for  a  slight  bias  of  family  pride — is  to  be  found  ill  tlia 
jMenioirs  of  .l/cs  F/ynccs  .SAt'Cii  :>n.  hy  her  granddaughter,  th*^ 
dramatist's  iiicco.  .Miss  Lefmiu.  There  ia  an  excellent  sketeh  of 
Sheridan's  pnlitical  career  in  JlrW.  FraserRae's  Il'iik'fn,  Ulinuono, 
riiul  Fox.  and  Mrs  Oliphant's  Sheridan,  in  the  ''English  Men  ft 
Letters"  series,  interprets  his  character  with  the  luminous  breadth 
and  sympathy  always  to  he  expected  from  her.  (\V.  M. ) 

SHERIF,  or  Shereef.     See  Mecca,  vol.  xv.  p.  672. 

SHERIFF.  For  the  office  of  sheriff  in  England,  see 
County.  For  his  jurisdiction  in  the  revision  of  voter.*,  see 
Registration.  The  position  of  the  sheriff  as  an  executive 
officer  in  the  United  States  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
English  sheriff.  He  is  usually  appointed  by  popular 
election.  The  marshals  of  the  United  States  and  their 
deputies  have  in  each  State  the  same  powers  in  executing 
tiie  laws  of  the  United  States  as  the  sheriff's  and  their 
deputies  have  in  executing  the  laws  of  the  State. 

So  far  as  is  known  the  sheriff,  notwithstanding  the  Saxon 
etymology  of  his  name  (shire  grieve  or  reeve),  did  not  exist 
in  Scotland  before  the  beginning  of  the  Norman  period. 
In  the  feudal  system  he  became  the  centre  of  the  local 
administration  of  justice,  the  representative  of  the  crov.-n 
in  executive  as  well  as  judicial  business,  and  was  always  a 
royal  officer  appointed  by  and  directly  responsible  to  the 
king.  The  earliest  sheriffs  on  record  belong  to  the  reigns 
of  Alexander  I.  and  David  I.,  and  the  office  was  common 
before  the  death  of  Alexander  III.  In  many  cases  it  had 
become  hereditary,  the  most  remarkable  instance  being 
that  of  Selkirk,  where  a  De  Sinton  held  it  from  1265  to 
1305.  The  ordinance  of  Edward  I.  in  1305  recognized 
most  of  the  existing  officers,  but  rejected  the  hereditary 
character  of  the  office  by  a  declaration  that  the  sheriffs 
were  to  be  appointed  and  removable  at  the  discretion  of 
the  king's  lieutenant  and  the  chamberlain.  The  inveterate 
tendency  of  feudalism  reasserted  itself,  however,  notwith- 
standing various  attempts  to  check  it,  and  an  Act  of 
James  II.  shows  that  the  office  had  again  become  here- 
ditary. 

One  of  the  consequences  was  that  sheriffs  ignorant  of 
law  required  deputes  to  discharge  their  judicial  duties.  In 
the  course  of  succeeding  reigns,  down  to  that  of  James 
'VI.,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  sheriffs  came  to  be  much  limited  ■ 
by  grants  of  baronies  and  regalities  which  gave  the  grantett.s 
the  right  to  hold  both  civil  and  criminal  courts  of  less  or 
greater  jurisdiction  to  the  exclusion  of  the  sheriff. 

The  civil  jurisdiction  of  the  sheriff  was  originally  of 
very  wide  extent,  and  was  deemed  specially  applicable  to 
questions  relating  to  the  land  within  the  shire,  but  after 
the  institution  of  the  court  of  session  in  1532  it  became 
restricted,  and  all  causes  relating  to  property  in  land,  us 
well  as  those  requiring  the  action  called  declarator  for 
establishing  ultimate  right,  and  most  of  those  requiring 
equitable  remedies,  were  withdrawn  from  it.  Nor  did 
it  possess  any  consistorial  jurisdiction,  as  its  subjects 
(marriage,  legitimacy,  and  wills)  belonged  to  the  officials 
of  the  bishop  after  the  Reformation,  when  it  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  commissary  courts,  and  at  a  later  period 
to  the  court  of  session.  Practically,  therefore,  the  civil 
jurisdiction  of  the  sheriff  fell  lender  the  head  of  actit.n.s 
concluding  for  payment  of  money  and  actions  to  regulate 
the  possession  of  land.  The  criminal  jurisdiction  of  the 
sheriff  was  in  like  manner  in  its  origin  of  almost  universal 
extent.  But  this  was  first  limited  to  cases  where  the 
offenders  were  caught  in  or  shortly  after  the  act,  after- 
wards to  cases  in  which  the  trial  could  be  held  within 
forty  days,  and  subsequently  further  restricted  as^  the 
business  of  the  justiciary  court  became  moro  organized. 
The  punishment  of  death,  having  by  long  disuse  come 
to  be  held  b.yond  the  power  of  the  sheriff,  and  the  star 
tutory  punishments  of  transportation  or  penal  servitud 


S  H  E  —  S  H  E 


801 


never  having  been  entrusted  to  him,  his  jurisdiction  as 
regards  crimes  was  usually  said  to  be  limited  to  tlipse 
punishable  arbitrarily,  that  is,  by  imprisonment,  fine,  or 
admonition. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  suppression  of  the  Jacobite 
rising  of  1745,  after  1st  March  1748  all  heritable 
sheriffships  were  extinguished,  and  no  sheriffship  was  to  be 
thereafter  granted  either  heritably  or  for  life,  or  for  any 
certain  term  exceeding  one  year,  but  this  provision  was 
not  taken  advantage  of,  and  the  office  of  sheriff-principal 
practically  ceased,  though  that  name  is  sometimes  given 
to  the  sheriff-depute,  20  Geo.  II.  c.  43.  The  Act  declared 
that  there  should  be  but  one  sheriff-depute  or  stewart- 
depute  in  every  shire  or  stewartry,  ^vho  was  to  be  an 
advocate  of  three  years'  standing,  appointed  by  the  crown, 
with  such  continuance  as  His  ^Majesty  should  think  fit  for 
the  ne.xt  seven  years,  and  after  that  period  ad  vitam  avt 
nUpaiii.  This  period  was  e.\tended  by  28  Geo.  II.  c.  7 
for  fifteen  years,  and  thereafter  (since  17G9)  the  sheriff- 
depute  has  held  bis  office  nd  vilai/i  aitt  culpcua.  Power 
was  given  to  him  by  20  Geo.  II.  o.  43' to  appoint  one  or 
more  persons  as  substitutes  during  his  pleasure,  for  whom 
he  should  be  answerable.  At  first  no  legal  qualification 
v/as  necessary  and  no  salary  paid,  but  gradually  the 
sheriff-depute  delegated  more  legal  business  to  the  -sub- 
stitute, and  before  17  Gl  it  had  become  customary  for  the 
sheriff-depute  to  give  him  some  allowance.  In  1787  he 
was  placed  on  the  civil  establishment  and  paid  by  the 
crown  ;  in  1825  a  qualification  of  three  years'  standing 
(now  five  years  by  40  and  4 1  Vict.  c.  50)  as  an  advocate 
or  procurator  before  a  sheriff  court  was  required  (6  Geo.. 
IV.  c.  23) ;  in  1838  he  was  made  removable  by  the  sheriff- 
depute,  oijly  with  the  consent  of  the  lord  president  and 
lord  justice  clerk,  and  it  was  made  compulsory  that  he 
should  reside  in  the  sheriffdom,  the  provision  of  20  Geo. 
ir.  c.  43,'  which  required  the  sheriff-depute  so  to  reside 
for  four  months  of  each  year,  being  repealed  (1  and  2  Vict. 
c.  119);  and  in  1877  the  right  of  appointment  of  the. 
substitutes  was  transferred  from  the  sheriff-depute  to 
the  crown  (40  and  41  Vict.  c.  50). 

While  the  sheriff-depute  has  still  power  to  hear  cases  in 
the  first  instance,  and  is  required  to  hold  a  certain  number 
of  sittings  in  each  place  where  the  .sheriff-substitute  holds 
courts,  and  also  once  a  j'car  a  small-debt  court  in  every 
place  where  a  circuit  small-debt  court  is  appointed  to  be 
held,  the  ordinary  course  of  civil  procedure  is  that  the 
uhcritf-substitutc  acts  as  judge  of  first  instance,  with  an 
api>cal  under  certain  restrictions  from  his  decision. to  tlio 
shel-iff-depute,  and  from  him  to  the  court  of  session  in  all 
causes  exceeding  £25  invahio.  An  appeal  direct  from  the 
sheriff-substitute  to  the  court  of  session  is  c'oinpetent,  but 
is  not  often  resorted  to: 

As  regards  criminal  proceedings,  summary  trials  are 
usually  conducted  by  the  sheriff-substitute ;  trials  with  a 
jury  either  by  him  or,  in  important  cases,  by  the  sheriff- 
dciiute.  The  sheriff-substitute  also  has  charge  of  the  pre- 
liminary-investigation into  crime,  the  evidence  in  which, 
called  a  precognition,  is  laid  before  him,  and  if  necessary 
taken  before  him  on  oath  at  the  instance  of  his  procurator- 
fiscal,  the  local  crown  prosecutor. 

Tlio  ilutics  of  the  slici  ill-dcpiitc  are  iio\vcliviilcd  into  ministerial  or 
niliiiiiiistr,itivo  iiiul  jiiilicial.  The  iiiiiiistciiiil  ;ivo  the  8ni)eivisiou 
(if  the  aruoimta  of  tlio  infcvior  olIioT.'  of  the  BhoiillVlom  ;  the 
Kii|n;iiiiti.Miiluiico  of  iKii'liainciitaiy  eloi;tioii.s  ;  the  Imliliii;;  by  him- 
w\i  or  liis  suljstitutub  of  thu  epiuts  fiji-  lo^istrMtioii  of  elcctora  ; 
tho  iiH'|iaratioii  of  the  li.st  of  ]ior.soi]s 'liable  to  servo  both  oil 
ciiiniiiiil  ami  civil  juries  :  thu  ainioiiitiiieiit  of  slierilf  oniceva  niid 
sii|n'i  vision  of  the  execution  of  judicial  writs  by  tlieiu  ;  and  the 
striking  of  tho  "  fuirs."  llo  has  also  to  attend  the  jhJi.;os  of  justi- 
liary  at  the  circuit  courts  for  the  county  or  couutieJi  6ver  which  his 
jurisdiclfou  e.\leuds.  lie  is  geiieially  rcipoiisihle  for  tho  [icaco  of 
tiiocouuty,  and  supoi'viscs  thu  police  establishment.     Ho  iscx'  officio 


a  justice  of  the.  jicacc  and  commissioner  of  supply.  In  addition 
to  those  general  duties  of  sherifl's-depute,  particular  sheriffs  are 
attached  to  the  Board  of  Supervision  for  the  Kclief  of  the  Poor,  thf 
Prison  Board  of  Scotland,  the  Board  of  Northern  Lighthousi 
Commissioners,  and  the  Scottish  Fishery  Board. 

The  judicial  duties  of  tho  sheritf-depute  are,  as  regards  crimes, 
the  trial  of  all  causes  remitted  by  the  counsel  of  the  crown  for  the 
trial  by  sherilf  and  jury,  as  well  as  summary  trials  if  ho  chooses 
to  take  thein.  This  now  means  most  crimes  for  which  a  maximum 
of  two  years'  imprisonment  (in  practice  eighteen  months  is  the 
longest  sentence  imposed)  is  deemed  sufficient,  and  which  are  not  by 
statute  reserved  for  the  justiciary  court.  His  civil  jurisdiction 
is  regulated  by  several  statutes  too  technical  for  detail,  but  may  'oe 
said  generally  to  extend  to  all  suits  which  conclude  for  payment  of 
money,  whatever  may  be  the  cause  of  action,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  where  tho  payment  depends  on  status,  all  actions  with 
reference  to'  the'pos .cssion  of  land  or  right  in  land,  and  actions 
relative  to  the  right  of  succession  to  movable  property.  In 
bankruptcy  he  has  a  cumulative  and  alternative  junsdiction  with 
the  court  of  session,  and  in  the  service  of  heirs  with  the  sheriff  of 
chancery.  Formerly  the  jurisdiction  of  the  slicriff  was  absolutely 
excluded  after  the  institution  of  the  court  of  session  in  four 
important  classes  of  action— (1)  relative  to  property  in  lands  or 
rights  in  lands  ;  (2)  requiring  the  use  of  peculiar  forms  of  action, 
e.g.,  declarator,  reduction,  and  suspension ;  (3)  involving  the 
exercise  of  the  nohile  officium,  a  supreme  equitable  jurisdiction  of  the 
court  of  session  ;  and  (4)  for  the  determination  of  rights  of  status, 
as  vrell  as  in  many  cases  in  which  the  proceedings  rest  on  special 
statutes  which  gave  an  exclusive  'jurisdiction  to  the  court  of 
session.'  B.nt  large  exceptions  have  been  jiiade  by  recent  legisla- 
tion from  this  exclusion. .  By  another  series  of  statutes,  for  tho 
most  part  connected  with  local  administration,  as  the  Road,  Burial 
Grounds,  Lunacy,  Public-houses,  and  General  Police  and  Education 
Acts,  the  jurisdiction  of  the' court  of  session  is  excluded  either  as 
an  original  court  or  a  court  of  review,  and  the  sheriff  court  has 
exclusive  jurisdiction. 

The  courts  which  tho  sheriff  holds  are  (1)  the  criminal  court; 
.(2)  the  ordinary  civil  court ;  (3)  the  small-debt  court  for  cases 
under  £12  in  value  (6  Geo.  IV.  c.  48) ;  (4)  the  debts  recovery  c<5urt 
for  cases  above  £12  and  under  £'M  in  value  (30  and  31  Vict.  c.  96) ; 
and  (5)  the  registration  court.  His  judgment  in  the.criminal  court 
is  subject  to  review  by  the  court  of  justiciary,  arid  in  '.ho  ordinary 
civil  court  and  the  debts  recovery  court  by  the  court  of  session.  In 
the  small  debt  court  it  is  final,  except  in  certain  cases  where  an 
appeal  lies  to  the  next  circuit  court  of  justiciary.  The  sheriff- 
substitute  may  competently  exercise  all  the  judicial  jurisdiction  of 
the- sherilf,  subject  to  appeal  in  civil  cases  other  than  small-debt 
cases.  As  regards  his  administrative  functions  he  assists  the 
sheriff  generally,  and  may  act  for  him  in  the  registration  and  Cars 
court,  and  lie;  superintends  the  preliminary  stage  of  criminal 
inquiries,  consulting  with  the  sheriff  if  necessary  ;  but  tho  other 
administrative  duties  of  tho  oflice  arc  conducted  by  the  sheriff- 
dcputc  in  person.  The  salaries  of  sherifTs-deputo  vary  from  £2000 
to  £500  a  year,  those  of  sheiiffs-substituta  from  £1400  to. £500. 

There  is  aprincipal  shcrilf-elerk  appointed  by  the  crown  for  each 
county,  who  has  depute  clerks  under  him  in  the  principal  towns, 
and  a  procurator-fiscal  for  the  conduct  of  criminal  prosecutions  for 
each  county  and  district  of  a  county,  who  is  appointed  by  tho 
sheriff  with  tho  sanction  of  tho  homo  secretary. 

Besides  the  sheriffs  of  counties,  there  is  a  sheriff  of  chancery 
appointed  by  tho  crown,  whoso  duties  are  confined  to  tho  service  of 
heirs,  with  a  sahuy  of  £500.  (JE.  M.) 

SHERLOCK,  TiioM.\s  (1G78-17G1),  bishop  of  London, 
the  son  of  Dr  William  Sherlock,  noticed  below,  was  born 
at  London  in  1G78.  He  was  educated  at  Catherine  Hall, 
Cainbridge,  and  in  1704  succeeded  his  father  as  master  of 
the  Temple..  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Bangorinn 
controversy  against  Iloadly,  whom  ho  succeeded  fis  bishop 
of  Bangor  in  1728;  ho  was  afterwards  translated  to 
Salisbury  in  1734,  and  to  London  in  1738.  Ho  pub- 
lished against  Collins's  Grounds  and  Reasons  of  the  Chi-is- 
tian  Eclir/ioir  a  volume  of  sermons  entitled  The  Use  and 
Intent  of  Frop/uci/  in  the  Senral  Ages  of  the  World  (1725); 
and  in  reply  to  Woolston's  Disroiirses  on  the  Miracles  ho 
wrote  a  volume  entitled  The  Trial  of  the  Witnesses  <f  the 
HesHrrcel ion  of  Jesus  (\T20),  which  in  a  very  short  timo 
ran  through  fourteen  editions.  llis/''i4Yw(//  /..(7^)•(1750) 
on  "tho  lato  earthquakes"  had  a  circulation  of  many 
tliousand.s.  and  four  volumes  of  Sermons  which  ho  pub- 
lished in  his  later  years  (1754-58)  were  also  at  onetime 
highly  esteemed.  Ho  died  in  17C1.  A  collected  edition 
of  his  works  in  5  vols.  8vo,  by  Hughes,  appeared  in  1830 

XXI.  —  id 


802 


S  H  E  — S  H  1 


SHERLOCK,  William  (1641-1707),  dean  of  St  Paul's, 
was  boru  at  Southwark  in  1641,  and  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  Cambridge  (Peterhouse).  In  1669  he  became 
rector  of  St  George,  Botolph  Lane,  London,  and  in  1681 
he  was  appointed  a  prebendary  of  St  Paul's.  In  1684  he 
published  The  Case  of  Resistance  of  the  Svpreme  Powers 
stated  and  resolved  according  to  the  Doctrine  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  an  ably  written  treatise,  in  which  he  di'ew  the 
distinction  between  active  and  passive  obedience  which 
was  at  that  time  generally  accepted  by  the  high  church 
clergy ;  in  the  same  year  he  was  made  master  of  the 
Temple.  In  1686  he  was  reproved  for  preaching  against 
popery  and  his  pension  stopped.  After  the  Revolution  he 
was  suspended  for  refusing  the  oaths  to  William  and 
Mary,  but  before  his  final  deprivation  he  yielded,  justify- 
ing his  change  of  attitude  in  The  Case  of  the  Allegiance 
due  to  Sovereign  Powers  stated  and  resolved  according  to 
Scripture  and  Jieason  and  the  Principles  of  the  Church  of 
England  (1691).  During  the  period  of  his  suspension 
he  wrote  a  Practical  Discourse  concerning  Death,  which 
became  very  popular  and  has  passed  through  many 
editions.  In  1690  and  1693  he  published  volumes  on 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  which  involved  him  in  a  warm 
controversy  with  South  and  others.  He  became  dean  of 
St  Paul's  in  1691,  and  died  at  Hampstead  in  1707. 

SHERMAN,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  in  Grayson 
county,  Texas,  73  miles  north  of  Dallas,  is  a  substantially 
built  and  flourishing  place,  with  a  court-house  and  acoUege. 
Its  population,  only  1439  in  1870,  was  6093  in  1880  and 
has  since  increased  to  about  8000.  The  surrounding 
country  is  a  cotton  and  grain  district. 

SHERWIN,  John  Keyse  (1751-1790),  engraver  and 
history-painter,  was  born  in  1751  at  East  Dean  in  Sussex. 
His  father  was  a  wood-cutter  employed  in  shaping  bolts  for 
shipbuilders,  and  the  son  followed  the  same  occupation  till 
hrs  seventeenth  year,  when,  having  shown  an  aptitude  for 
art  by  copying  some  miniatures  with  exceptional  accuracy, 
he  was  befriended  by  Mr  William  Mitford,  uijon  whose 
estate  the  elder  Sherwin  worked,  and  was  sent  to  study  in 
London,  first  under  John  Astley,  and  then  for  three  years 
under  Bartolozzi — for  whom  he  is  believed  to  have 
executed  a  large  portion  of  the  plate  of  Clytie,  after 
Annibal  Caracci,  published  as  the  work  of  his  master.  He 
was  entered  as  a  student  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and 
gained  a  silver  medal,  and  in  1772  a  go'd  medal  for  his 
painting  of  Coriolanus  Taking  Leave  of  his  Family. 
From  1774  till  1780  he  was  an  exhibitor  of  chalk 
drawings  and  of  engravings  in  the  Royal  Academy. 
Establishing  himself  in  St  James's  Street  as  a  painter, 
designer,  and  engraver,  he  speedily  attained  popularity, 
and  began  to  mix  in  fashionable  society.  His  drawing  of 
the  Finding  of  Moses,  a  work  of  but  slight  artistic  merit, 
which  introduced  portraits  of  the  princess  royal  of  England 
and  other  leading  ladies  of  the  aristocracy,  hit  the  public 
taste,  and,  as  reproduced  by  his  burin,  sold  largely.  In 
1785  he  succeeded  WooUett  as  engraver  to  the  king,  and 
he  also  held  the  appointment  of  engraver  to  the  prince  of 
Wales.  His  professional  income  rose  to  about  XI  2,000  a 
year  ;  but  ho  was  constantly  in  pecuniary  difficulties,  for  he 
was  shiftless,  indolent,  and  without  method,  open-handed 
and  even  prodigal  in  his  benefactions, — and  prodigal,  too,  in 
less  reputable  directions,  for  he  became  a  reckless  gambler, 
and  habits  of  intemperance  grew  upon  him.  He  died  in 
extreme  penury  on  the  24th  of  September  1790, — accord- 
ing to  Steevens,  the  editor  of  Shakespeare,  at  "  The  Hog 
in  the  Pound,"  an  obscure  alehouse  in  Swallow  Street,  or. 
as  stated  by  his  pupil  J.  T.  Smith,  in  the  house  of  Robert 
Wilkinson,  a  printseller  in  Cornhill. 

It  is  as  an  enpraver  tli-.t  Rlierwin  is  raosfc  esteemed  ;  and  it  may 
be  noced  that  ho  was  ambidextpi-ous.  workiog  indifferently  witt 


either  hand  upon  his  plates.  His  drawing  is  correct,  his  line  ex- 
cellent, and  his  textures  are  varied  and  iutelligeut  in  expression. 
Such  of  his  plates  as  the  Holy  Familj'  after  Nicholas  Poussin,  Christ 
Bearing  the  Cross  after  JIurillo,  the  portrait  of  the  JIarquis  of 
Buckingham  after  Gainsborough,  and  that  of  Pitt  occupy  a  hi^i 
place  among  the  iiroductions  of  the  English  school  of  line-engravers;. 
He  also  worked  after  Pine,  Dance,  and  Kaufluiau. 

SHETLAND  ISLANDS.  See  Oekney  aot  Shetland 
SHIEILD.  See  Aems  akd  Arjioue,  and  Heealdry. 
.  SHIELD,  William  (1748-1829),  composer  of  English 
operas,  was  born  at  Swalwell,  near  Newcastle,  in  1748. 
His  father  began  to  teach  him  singing  before  he  had  com- 
pleted his  sixth  year,  but  died  three  years  later,  leaving 
him  iii  charge  of  guardians  who  made  no  provision  what- 
ever for  continuing  his  musical  education,  for  which  he  was 
thenceforward  dependent  entirely  upon  his  own  aptitude 
for  learning,  aided  by  a  few  lessons  in  thoroughbass  which 
he  received  from  Charles  Avison.  Notwithstanding  the 
difficulties  inseparable  from  this  imperfect  training,  ho 
obtained  admission  into  the  opera  band  in  1772,  at  first 
as  a  second  violin,  and  afterwards  as  principal  viola ;  and 
this  engagement  he  retained  for  eighteen  years.  In  the 
meantime  he  turned  his  serious  attention  to  composition, 
and  in  1778  produced  his  first  comic  opera,  llie  Flitch  of 
Bacon,  at  the  Little  Theatre  in  the  Haymarket,  with  so 
great  success,  that  he  was  immediately  engaged  as  com- 
poser to  Covent  Garden  theatre,  for  which  he  continued 
to  produce  English  operas  and  other  dramatic  pieces,  in 
quick  succession,  until  1797,  when  he  resigned  his  office, 
and  devoted  himself  to  compositions  of  a  different  class, 
producing  a  great  number  of  very  beautiful  glees,  soma 
instrumental  chamber  music,  and  other  miscellaneous  com- 
positions. He  died  in  London  January  25,  1629,  and  was 
buried  in  the  south  cloister  at_  Westminster  Abbey. 

Shield's  most  successful  dramatic  compositions  were  Hosina, 
The  Mysteries  of  the  Castle,  The  Loek  and  Key,  and  The  Castle  q/ 
Andalusia.  As  a  composer  of  songs  he  was  in  no  degree  inferior 
to  his  great  contemporary  Charles  Dibdin.  Indeed  The  Ardhusa, 
The  Heaving  of  the  Lead,  and  The  Post  Captain  are  as  little  likely 
to  be  forgotten  as  Dibdin's  Torn  Bouling  or  Saturday  Night  at  Sea, 
His  vein  of  melody  was  inexhaustible,  thoroughly  English  in 
character,  and  always  conceived  in  the  purest  and  most  delicate 
taste;  and  hence  it  is  that  many  of  his  airs  are  still  sung  at  con- 
certs, though  the  operas  for  which  they  were  written  have  long 
been  banished  froin  the  stage.  His  Introduction  to  Harmony  (1794 
and  1800)  contains  a  great  deal  of  valuable  information  ;  and  he  also 
published  a  useful  treatise.  The  Jiudiments  of  Thoroughhase. 

SHIELDS,  North.  See  Tynemouth,  within  which 
borough  the  port  is  included. 

SHIELDS,  SoCTH,  a  seaport,  markettown,  and  muni- 
cipal and  parliamentary  borough  of  Durham,  is  situated 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Tyne,  at  its  mouth,  immediately 
opposite  North  Shields  and  Tynemouth,  and  on  the  North- 
Eastern  Railway,  18  miles  north-east  of  Durham  and  9 
east  of  Newcastle-on-Tyne.  It  is  connected  with  North 
Shields  and  T3'nemouth  by  steam  ferries.  The  town 
possesses  a  spacious  market-place,  and  some  of  the  newer 
streets  are  wide  and  handsome,  but  the  old  street  running 
along  the  shore  is  narrow  and  mean.  Formerly  salt  was 
largely  manufactured,  but  the  principal  industries  now  are 
the  manufacture  of  glass  and  chemicals,  and  shipbuilding 
and  ship  refitting  and  repairing,  for  which  there  are  docks 
capable  of  receiving  the  largest  vessels.  The  North- 
Eastern  Railway  Company  possesses  extensive  docks,  and 
the  port  has  a  large  trade  in  coal ;  but,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  in  the  shipping  returns  of  the  United  Kingdom  it  is 
included  under  the  general  title  "  Tyne  Ports,"  it  is  impos- 
sible to  give  an  accurate  statement  regarding  the  number 
and  tonnage  ,of  vessels.  The  number  of  fishing  vessels 
connected  with  the  port  in  1884  was  15,  of  204  tons' and 
employing  98  men.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne  therf. 
is  a  pier  about  a  mile  in  length.  A  townsman  of  Soutl. 
Shields,  William  Wouldhave,  was  the  inventor  of  the  life- 


8  H  I  —  S  H  I 


803 


boat,  and  the  first  lifeboat  was  built  there  by  Ileiirj' 
GrcatUcad,  and  first  used  in  a  storm  in  1789.  The  prin- 
cipal jjublic  buildings_  are  the  church  of  St  Hilda,  with 
a  picturesque  old  tower;  tliu  town-hall  in  the  marlcot- 
place ;  the  exchange ;  -the  custom-house  ;  the  mercantile 
iiis.t'ine  offices;  the  public  library  and  museum,  which 
includes  a  largo  hall  for  public  meetings  and  a  school  of 
science  and  art  in  connexion  with  South  Kensington ;  the 
high  school,  the  grammar  school,  the  marine  school,  the 
master-mariners'  asylum^  tlm  Ingham  infirmary;  and  the 
union  workhouse. '  There  is  a  pleasant  marine  park  near 
the  pier.  On  elevated  ground  near  the  harbour  are  the 
remains  -of  a'  Roman  station,  where  numerous  coins, 
portions  of  an  altar,  and  several  sculptured  memorial 
stones  have  been  dug  up.  The  site  of  the  old  station 
was  afterwards  occupied  by  a  fort  of  considerable 
strength,  which  was  captured  by  the  Scots  under  Colonel 
Stewart  20th  Jlarch  1G44.  The  town  was  founded  by 
the  convent  of  Durham  about  the  middle  of  the  13th 
century,  but  on  account  of  the  complaints  of  the  bur- 
gesses of  Newcastle  an  order  was  made  in  the  43d 
yeqr  of  Henry  III.,  stipulating  that  no  ships  should  be 
laden  or  unladen  at  Shields,  and  that  no  "shoars"  or 
quays  should  be  built  there.  This  early  check  seems  to 
have  been  long  injurious  to  its  prosperity,  for  until  the 
present  century  it  was  little  more  than  a  fishing  station. 
It  received  a  charter  of  incorporation  in  1850,  and  is 
divided  into  tliree  wards,  governed  by  a  mayor,  eight 
aldermen,  and  twenty-four  councillors.  In  1832  it  received 
the  privilege  of  returning  a  member  to  parliament.  The 
corporation  act  as  the  urban  sanitary  authority,  and  the 
town  has  a  specia'.ljr  good  water  supply  from  reservoirs  at 
Cleadon.  The  population  of  the  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  (area  1839  acres)  was  45,336  in  1871, 
and  in  1881  it  was  56,875. 

SHIITES.     See  Sunnttes  and  Shi'ites. 

SHIKARPTJE,  a  British  district  in  the  province  of  Sind, 
Bombay  presidency,  Ihdia,  with  an  area  of  10,000  square 
mllesi.  lying  between  27°  and  29°  N.  lat.  and  between 
67°  and  70°  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Khelat, 
Upper  Sind  Frontier  district,  and  the  river  Indus  ;  on  the 
E.  by  the  native  states  of  Bahawalpur  and  Jaisalniir;  on 
the  S.  by  Khairpiu:  state ;  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Khirthar 
Mountains.  Shikdrpur  is  a  vast  alluvial  plain,  broken 
only  at  Sukkur  and  Rohri  by  limestone .  hills.  The 
Khirthar  range  attains  "an  elevation  -of  7000  feet,  and 
forms  a  natural  boundary  between  the  district  and  Baluch- 
istan. E.xtensive  patches  of  salt  land,  known  as  /calar, 
ore  frequently  met  •  with,  especially  in  the  upper  portion 
of  Shikiirpur,  and  towards  the  Jacobabad  frontier  barren 
tracts  of  clay  land  and  ridges  of  sand-hills,  covered  with 
caper  and  thorn  jungle,-form  a  poor  but  distinctive  feature 
in  the  landscape.  The  desert  portion  of  Rohri  subdivision, 
known  as  the  RogisthAn,  is  very  e.vtensive.  The  forests 
(207  square  miles)  are  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Indus, 
mostly  in  the  Rohri  and  ShikArpur  subdivisions.  The 
Indus  Valley  State  Railway  runs  through  the  district,  ana 
the  Kandahar  railway  also  goes  through  a  part  of  it. 

In  1881  the  population  numbered  852,980  (males  461,033,  fomate 
391,953),  of  whom  93,341  were  llimUis,  684,275  Mohammcilnns, 
and  736  Christians.  The  chief  towns  are  Sliikarpur,  Sukkur 
(population  27,389),  Lnrkhana  (13,188),  and  Rofiri  (10,224).-  Tlio 
cultivated  land  in  1882-83  amouutcd  to  764,488  acres,  of  wliieh 
108,636  wcro  twice  cropped.  Cereals — chiefly  rice,  jo;'ir  (millet), 
and  wheat — form  the  principal  crops  ;  but  a  considerable  area  is 
also  under  pulses  and  oil-seeds.  The  chief  manufactur"3  arc  carpets 
and  coarse  cotton  cloths.  The  total  revenue  raised  in  1882-83 
amounted  to  £234,792,  of  which  the  land  cnntiibuted  £189,869. 
PassinR  from  the  dominion' of  the  caliphs,  Sliikarpur  was  overrun 
by  Mahmud  of  Ghazni  in  1025,  and  a  little  Intcrwas  Roverntd  by 
the  Sumras,  the  Samraas,  and  tliu  Arghuns  in  succession.  The 
Kalhora  dynasty  canio  into  prominence  in  the  18th  century,  and  was 
followed  by  the  Tilpur  mirs,  who  annexed  n  part  of  tho  Uuraiii 


territory  and  incorporated  it  in  the  district.  In  1843  Shikarpur 
passed  to  the  DVitish,  and  In  1852  the  greater  part  of  the  Rohri 
subdivision  was  resumed  from  the  mir  of  Khairpur,  who  Iiad 
ac<iuireJ  it^by  fraud. 

SHIKARPUR,  the  chief  town  of  the  above  district, 
is  situated  18  miles  west  of  the  Indus,  in  a  tract  of  low- 
lying  countrj-  aniiually  flooded  by  the  canals  from  that 
river.  It  is  a  great  entrepot  for  transit  trade  between  the 
Bolau  Pass  and  Karachi.  The  population  in  1881  num- 
bered 42,496  (males  22,889,  females  19,607). 

SHILOH,  a  town  of  Ephraim,  where  the  sanctuary  of 
tlie  ark  was,  under  the  priesthood  of  the  house  of  Eli. 
According  to  1  Sam.  iii.  3,  15,  this  sanctuary  was  not  a 
tabsrnacle  but  a  temple,  with  doors.  But  the  priestly 
narrator  of  Josh,  xviii.  1  has  it  that  the  tabernacle  was 
set  up  there  by  Joshua  after  the  conquest.  In  Judges 
xxi.  19  sq.  the  yearly  feast  at  Shiloh  appears  as  of  merely 
local  character.  Shiloh  seems  to  have  been  destroyed  by 
the  Philistines  after  the  disastrous  battle  of  Ebenezer ;  (f. 
Jeremiah  vii.  12  fq.  The  position  described  in  Judges, 
loc.  cit,  (cf.  Onomaslica,  ed.  Lagarde,  p.  152),  gives  cer- 
tainty to  the  identification  with  the  modern  SerWn  lying 
some  2  miles  east-south-east  of  LubbAn  (Lebouah),  on 
the  -road  from  Bethel  to  Shechem.  Here  there  is  a  ruined 
village,  with  a  flat  double-topped  hill  behind  it,  offering  a 
strong  position,  which  suggests  that  the  place  was  a  strong- 
hold as  well  as  a  sanctuarj*.  )A  smiling  and  fertile  land- 
scape surrounds  the  hill.  .The  name  ^eilitn  corresponds  to 
SiXovv  in  Josephus.  LXX.  has  SvjXiu,  SryXwyu.  The  forms 
given  in  the  Hebrew  Bible  (n!?V,  1^'t,")  bave  dropped  the 
final  consonant,  which  reappears  in  the  adjective  'ji^'C- 
On  Shiloh  in  Gen.  xlix.  10  see  Judah.  ~'  ^ 

SHIilOGA,  or  Sheemoga,  a  district  in  the  north-west 
of  the  native  state  of  Mysore,  Southern  India.  It  forms 
a  part  of  the  Nagar  division,  and  is  situated  between 
13°  30'  and  14°  38'  N.  lat.  and  between  74°  44'  and 
.  76°  5'  E.  long.  It  has  an  area  of  3797  square  miles,  and 
is  bounded  on  tho  N.  and  W.  by  the  Bombay  district's  cf 
DhArwAr  and  N.  KAnara,  and  E.  and  S.  by  the  districts 
of  Chitaldroog  and  Kadur;  .  Its  river  system  is  twofold ; 
in' the  east  the  Tungra,  Eha'dra,  and  Varada  unite  to 
form  tho  Tungabhadra,  which  ultimately  falls  into  the 
Kistna  and  so  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  while  in  .the  west 
a  few  minor  streams  flow  to  the  ShirAvati,  which  near 
the  north-western  frontier  bursts  through  the  Western 
GhAts  by  the  celebrated  Falls  of  Gersoppa,  said  to  be 
the  grandest  cataract  in  India.  Flowing  over  a  rocky 
bed  250  yards  wide,  the  river  here  throws  itself  in  four 
distinct  falls  down  a  tremendous  chasm  960  feet  deep. 

Tho  western  half  of  the  district  is  very  mountainous  and  covered 
with  magnificent  forest,  and  is  known  aS  tho  ilalnild  or  hill 
country,  some  of  tho  peaks  being  4000  feet  above  sea-level.  Tho 
gcueial  elevation  of  Sliimoga  is  about  2000  feet;  and  towards  tlie 
east  it  opens  out  into  the  Maidan  or  plain  country,  which  f^irma 
part  of  the  general  plateau  of  My.sore.  Tho  llaln.iJ  region  is  very 
Ijicturesque,  its  scenery  abounding  with  every  charm  of  tropical 
forests  and  mountain  wilds  ;  on  tho  other  hand  tho  features  of  tho 
Waiddn  country  are  for  tho  most-part  comparatively  tamo.  Tho 
mineral  products  of  the  district  include  iron-ore  and  laterlte.  On 
the  summits  of  the  Ghats  stones  possessing  magnetic  qualities  arc 
occasionally  found.  Tho  soil  is  loose  and  sandy  in  the  valleys  of 
tho  JIuliii'id,  and  in  the  north-east  tho  black  cotton  soil  iirevails. 
l5ison  are  common  in  tho  lal&k  of  Sagar,  where  also  wild  elephants 
are  occasionally  seen ;  while  tigers,  leopards,  bears,  wild  hogs, 
siimhkar  and  cliitdl  deer,  and  jungle  sheep  nro  numerous  in  the 
wooded  tracts  of  tho  west  Shimoga  presents  much  variety  of 
climate.  The  south-west  monsoon  is  fell  in  full  force  for  al.out 
25  miles  from  the  Ghats,  buingin';  an  annual  rainfall  of  more. than 
160  inches,  but  tho  rainfall  giaduallv  diminishes  to  31  inclret«kt 
Shimoga  station  and  to  25  inches  or  less  nt  Chonnagiii.  There  is 
no  railroad  in  tho  district,  but  it  contains  225  mik-s  of  roads. 

Tho  ]iopulation  in  1881  was  4'.>0,72S  (males  259,296,  females 
2411,432);  Hindus  numbered  470,678,  Jlohanimcdans  27,574,  ond 
Christians  1476.  The  only  place  with  more  than  10,000  inhabit- 
ants is  Shimoga  town,  the  capital  ond  headipiartrrs,  -which  is 
dituatcd  on  the  Tungti  river,  with  a  population  of  12,040.     Kite 


804 


S  H  I  — S  H  1 


19  the  BtapTo  food-crop  of  the  ilistiict ;  the  next  in  importance  is 
sugar-cane ;  areca-nuts  are  also  extensively  grown  ;  antl  miscel- 
lai'i-ous  crops  inclmle  oil-seeds,  vegetables,  fruits,  pepper,  and 
cardamoms.  Of  the  total  area  of  3797  square  miles  only  699  are 
returnod  as  cultivated  and  702  as  cnltivable.  The  chief  manu- 
factures are  coarse  cotton  clotlis,  rough  country  blankets  or 
tauiblis,  iron  implements,  brass  and  copper  wares,  potteiy,  and 
jaggery.  The  district  is  also  noted  for  its  beautiful  sandal-wood 
carving. 
__During  the  Mohammedan  usurpation  of  Mysore  from  1761  to 
1799,  unceasing  warfare  kept  the  whole  country  in  constant  turmoil. 
After  the  restoration  of  the  Hindu  dynasty  Shimoga  district 
repeatedly  became  the  scene  'of  disturbances  caused  by  the  mal- 
administration of  the  Deshasta  Erahmans,  who  had  seized  upon 
every  office  and  made  themselves  thoroughly  obnoxious.  These 
disturbances  culminated  in  the  insurrection  of  1830,  which  led  to 
the  direct  assumption  of  the  entire  state  by  the  British. 

SHINTO.     See  Japan,  vol.  xiii.  p.  581. 

SHIP.  The  generic  name  (A.  S.  sap,  Ger.  Sc/iif,  Gr. 
o-Ka<^o5,  from  the  root  ship,  cf.  "  scoop  ")  for  the  invention 
by  which  man  has  contrived  to  convey  himself  and  his 
goods  upon  water  points  in  its  derivation  to  the  fun- 
damental conception  by  which,  when  realized,  a  means 
of  flotation  was  obtained  superior  to  the  raft,  wliich 
we  may  consider  the  earliest  and  most  elementary  form 
of  vessel.  The  trunk  of  a  tree  hollowed  out,  whether 
by  fire  or  by  such  primitive  tools  as  are  fashioned  and 
used  with  singular  patience  and  dexterity  by  savage 
races,  represents  the  first  effort  to  obtain  flotation  depend- 
ing on  something  other  than  the  mere  buoyancy  of 
the  material.  The  poets,  with  characteristic  insight, 
have  fastened  upon  these  points.  Homer's  hero  Ulysses 
is  instructed  to  make  a  raft  with  a  raised  platform  upon 
it,  and  selects  trees  "  withered  of  old,  exceeding  dry, 
that  might  float  lightly  for  him  "  (Od.,  v.  240).  Virgil, 
glorifying  the  dawn  and  early  progress  of  the  arts,  tells  us, 
"Rivers  then  first  the  hollowed  alders  felt"  {Georr;.,  i.  136, 
ii.  451).  Alder  is  a  heavy  wood  and  not  fit  for  rafts. 
But  to  make  for  the  first  time  a  dug-out  canoe  of  alder, 
and  so  to  secure  its  flotation,  would  be  a  triumph  of 
primitive  art,  and  thus  the  poet's  expression  represents  a 
great  step  in  the  history  of  the  invention  of  the  ship. 

Primitive  eiiorts  in  this  direction  may  be  classified  in 
the  fcUowing  order:  (1)  rafts — floating  logs,  or  bundles 
of  brushwood  or  reeds  or  rushes  tied  together ;  (2)  dug- 
outs— hollowed  trees ;  (3)  canoes  of  bark,  or  of  skin 
stretched  on  framework  or  inflated  skins  (balsas) ;  (4) 
canoes  or  boats  of  pieces  of  wood  stitched  or  fastened 
together  with  sinews  or  thongs  or  fibres  of  vegetable 
growth  ;  (5)  vessels  of  planks,  stitched  or  bolted  together 
with  inserted  ribs  and  decks  or  half  decks ;  (6)  vessels  of 
which  the  framework  is  first  set  up,  and  the  planking  of 
the  hull  nailed  on  to  them  subsequently.  AH  these  in 
their  primitive  forms  have  survived,  in  various  parts  of 
the  world,  with  diflferent  modifications  marking  progress 
in  civilization.  Climatic  influences  and  racial  peculiarities 
have  imparted  to  them  their  specific  characteristics,  and, 
combined  with  the  available  choice  ef  materials,  have 
determined  the  particular  type  in  use  in  each  locality. 
Thus  on  the  north-west  coast  of  Australia  is  found  the 
single  log  of  buoyant  wood,  not  hollowed  out  but  pointed 
at  the  ends.  -  Bafts  of  reeds  are  also  found  on  the 
Australian  coast.  In  New  Guinea  catamarans  of  three 
or  more  logs  lashed  together  with  rattan  are  the  com- 
monest vessel,  and  similar  forms  appear  ou  the  Madras 
coast  and  throughout  the  Asiatic  islands.  On  the  coast 
of  Peru  rafts  made  of  a  very  buoyant  wood  are  in  use, 
some  of  them  as  much  as  70  feet  long  and  20  feet  broad ; 
these  are  navigated  with  a  sail,  and,  by  an  ingenious 
system  of  centre  bo-^rds,  let  down  either  fore  or  aft 
between  the  lines  of  the  timbers,  can  be  made  to  tack. 
The  sea-going  raft  is  often  fitted  with  a  platform  so  as  to 
protect  the  goods  and  persons  carried  from  the  wash  of 


the  sea.  Upright  timbers  fixed  upon  the  logs  forming 
the  raft  support  a  kind  of  deck,  which  in  turn  is  itself 
fenced  in  and  covered  over.'  Thus  the  idea  of  a  deck,  and 
that  of  side  planking  to  raise  the  freight  above  the  level  of 
the  water  and  to  save  it  from  getting  wet,  are  among  the 
earliest  typical  expedients  which  have  found  their  develop- 
ment in  the  progress  of  the  art  of  shipbuilding. 

Whether  the  observation  of  shells  floating  on  the  water, 
or  of  split  reeds,  or,  as  some  have  fancied,  the  nautilus, 
first  suggested  the  idea  of  hollowing  out  the  trunk  of  a 
tree,  the  practice  ascends  to  a  very  remote  antiquity  in 
the  history  of  man.  Dug-out  canoes  of  a  single  tree  have 
been  found  associated  with  objects  of  the  Stone  Age 
among  the  ancient  Swiss  lake  dwellings ;  nor  are  specimens 
ot  the  same  class  wanting  from  the  bogs  of  Ireland  and 
the  estuaries  of  England  and  Scotland,  some  obtained 
from  the  depth  of  2.5  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
The  hollowed  trunk  itself  may  have  suggested  the  use  of 
the  bark  as  a  means  of  flotation.  But,  whatever  may 
have  been  the  origin  of  the  bark  canoe,  its  construction 
is  a  step  onwards  in  the  art  of  shipbuilding.  For  the 
lightness  and  pliabilitj'  of  the  material  necessitated  the 
invention  of  some  internal  framework,  so  as  to  keep  the 
sides  apart,  and  to  give  the  stiffness  required  both  for 
purposes  of  propulsion  and  the  carrying  of  its  freight. 
Similarly,  in  countries  where  suitable  timber  was  not  to 
be  found,  the  use  of  skins  or  other  water-tight  material, 
such  as  felt  or  canvas,  covered  with  pitch,  giving  flota- 
tion, demanded  also  a  framework  to  keep  them  distended 
and  to  bear  the  weight  they  had  to  carry.  In  the  frame- 
work we  have  the  rudimentary  ship,  with  longitudinal 
bottom  timbers,-  and  ribs,  and  cross-pieces,  imparting  the 
requisite  stiffness  to  the  covering  material.  Bark  canoes 
are  found  in  Australia,  but  the  American  continent  is  their 
true  home.  In  northern  regions  skin -or  woven  material 
made  water-tight  supplies  the  place  of  bark. 

The  next  step  in  the  construction  of  vessels  was  the 
building  up  of  canoes  or  boats  by  fastening  pieces  of  wood 
together  in  a  suitable  form.  Some  of  these  canoes,  and 
probably  the  earliest  in  type,  are  tied  or  stitched  together 
with  thongs  or  cords.  The  Madras  surf  boats  are  perhaps 
the  most  familiar  example  of  this  type,  which,  however,  is 
found  in  the  Straits  of  Magellan  and  in  Central  Africa 
(on  the  Victoria  Nyanza),  in  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  ir 
many  islands  of  the  Pacific.  Some  of  these  canoes  show  a 
great  ad\  ance  in  the  art  of  construction,  being  built  up 
of  pieces  fitted  together  with  ridges  on  their  inner  sides, 
through  which  the  fastenings  are  passed.^  These  canoes 
have  the  advantage  of  elasticity,  which  gives  them  ease  in 
a  seaway,  and  a  comparative  immunity  where  ordinary 
boats  would  not  hold  together.  In  these  cases  the  body 
of  the  canoe  is  constructed  first  and  built  to  the  shape 
intended,  the  ribs  being  inserted  afterwards,  and  attached 
to  the  sides,  and  having  for  their  main  function  ths 
uniting  of  the  deck  and  cross-pieces  with  the  body  of  tho 
canoe.  Vessels  thus  stitched  together,  and  with  an  inserted 
framework,  have  from  a  very  early  time  been  constructed 
in  the  Eastern  seas  far  exceeding  in  size  anything  that 
would  be  called  a  canoe,  and  in  some  cases  attaining  tc 
200  tons  burthen. 

From  the  stitched  form  the  next  step  onwards  is  to 
fasten  the  materials  out  of  which  the  hull  is  built  up 
by  pegs  or  treenails ;  and  of  this  system  early  types 
appear  among  the  Polynesian  islands  and  in  the  Nile  boats 
described  by  Herodotus  (ii.  96),  the  prototype  of  the 
modern   "nuggur."     The  raft   of   Ulysses  described   bj 


1  The  raft  of  Ulysses  described  in  Homer  (,0d.,  v.)  snst  have  bee; 
of  this  class. 

*  See  Capt.  Cook's  account  of  the  Friendly  Islands  ^  ££i\onsa,oi 
Easter  Island,  and  Williams  on  tha  Fiji  Islands. 


SHIP 


805 


Homer  presents  the  same  detail  of  construction.  It  is 
remarkable  that  some  of  the  early  types  of  boats  belong- 
ing to  tlie  North  Sea  present  an  intermediate  methqd,  in 
which  the  planks  arc  fastened  together  with  pins  or  trenails, 
but  are  attached  to  the  ribs  by  cords  passing  through 
holes  in  the  ribs  and  corresponding  holes  bored  through 
ledges  cut  on  the  inner  side  of  each  plank. 

We  thus  arrive,  in  tracing  primitive  efforts  in  the  art  of 
ship  construction,  at  a  stage  from  which  the  transition  to 
the  practice  of  setting  up  the  framework  of  ribs  fastened 
to  a  timber  keel  laid  lengthwise,  and  subsequently  attach- 
ing the  planking  of  the  hull,  was  comparatively  simple. 
The  keel  of  the  modern  vessel  may  be  said  to  have  its 
prototype  in  the  single  log  which  was  the  parent  of  the 
dug-out.  The  side  planking  of  the  vessel,  which  has  an 
earlier  parentage  than  the  ribs,  may  be  traced  to  the 
attempt  to  fence  in  the  platforms  upon  the  sea-going  rafts, 
and  to  the  planks  fastened  on  to  the  sides  of  dug-out 
canoes  so  as  to  give  them  a  raised  gunwale.'  The  ribs  of 
the  modern  vessel  are  the  development  of  the  framework 
originally  inserted  after  the  completion  of  the  hull  of  the 
canoe  or  built-up  boat,  but  with  the  difference  that  they 
are  now  prior  in  the  order  of  fabrication.  In  a  word,  the 
skeleton  of  the  hull  is  now  first  built  up,  and  the  skin, 
ifec,  adjusted  to  it;  whereas  in  the  earlier  types  of  wooden 
vessels  the  outside  hull  was  first  constructed,  and  the 
ribs,  &c.,  added  afterwards.  It  is  noticeable  that  the 
invention  of  the  outrigger  and  weather  platform,  the  use 
of  which  is  at  the  present  time  distributed  from  the 
Andaman  Islands  eastward  throughout  the  whole  of  the 
South  Pacific,  has  never  made  its  way  into  the  Western 
seas.  It  is  strange  that  Egyptian  enterprise,  which 
seems  at  a  very  early  period  to  have  penetrated  eastward 
down  the  Red  Sea  and  round  the  coasts  of  Arabia  towards 
India,  should  not  have  brought  it  to  the  Nile,  and  that 
the  Phoenicians,  who,  if  the  legend  of  their  migration  from 
the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  coast  of  Canaan 
be  accepted,  would  in  all  probability,  in  their  maritime 
expeditions,  have  had  opportunities  of  seeing  it,  did  not 
introduce  it  to  the  Mediterranean.  That  they  did  not 
do  so,  if  they  saw  it  at  all,  would  tend  to  prove  that  even 
in  that  remote  antiquity  both  nations  possessed  the  art 
of  constructing  vessels  of  a  type  superior  to  the  out- 
rigger canoes,  both  in  speed  and  in  carrying  power. 

The  earliest  representations  that  we  have  as  yet  of 
Egyptian  vessels  carry  us  back,  according  to  the  best 
authorities,  to  a  period  little  short  of  3000  years  before 
Christ.  Some  of  these  are  of  considerable  size,  as' is 
shown  by  the  number  of  rowers,  and  by  the  cargo  consist- 
ing in  many  cases  of  cattle,  'liie  earliest  of  all  presents 
us  with  the  peculiar  mast  of  two  pieces,  stepped  apart  but 
joined  at  the  top.  In  some  the  masts  are  shown  lowered 
and  laid  along  a  high  spar-deck.  The'  larger  vessels  show 
on  one  side  as  many  as  twenty-one  or  twenty-two  and 
in  one  case  twenty-six  oars,  besides  four  or  five  .steering. 
They  show  considerable  camber,  the  two  ends  rising  in  a 
curved  line  which  in  some  instances  ends  in  a  point,  and  in 
others  is  curved  back  and  over  at  the  stern  and  terminates 
in  an  ornamentation,  very  frequently  of  the  familiar  lotus 
pattern.  At  the  bow  the  stem  is  sometimes  seen  to  rise 
perpendicularly,  forming  a  kind  of  forecastle,  sometimes 
to  curve  backward  and  then  forward  again  like  a  neck, 
which  is  often  finished  into  a  figure-head  representing 
some  bird  or  beast  or  Egyptian  god.  On  the  war  galleys 
there  is  frequently  shown  a  projecting  bow  with  a  mclal 
head  attached,  but  well  above  the  water.  This,  though 
no  doubt  used  as  a  ram,  is  not  identical  with  the  beak  ci 
fieur  d'eitu,  which  we  shall  meet  with  in  Phoenician  and 

'  Coiuparo  tho  planks  upon  tlic  K^-yptinn  war  galleys,  added  so  as 
to  protect  tho  rowers  I'runi  the  missiles  of  tlie  enemy. 


Greek  galleys.     It  is  more  on  a  level  with   the  proem- 
bolion  of  the  latter. 

The  impression  as  regards  the  build  created  by  the 
drawings  of  the  larger  galleys  is  that  of  a  long  and  some- 
what wall-sided  vessel  with  the  stem  and  stern  highly 
raised.  The  tendencies  of  the  vessel  to  "  hog,"  or  rise 
amidships,  owing  to  the  great  weight  fore  and  aft  unsup- 
ported by  the  water,  is  corrected  by  a  strong  truss  passing 
from  stem  to  stern  over  crutches.  The  double  mast  of 
the  earlier  period  seems  in  time  to  have  given  place  to 
the  single  mast  furnished  with  bars  or  rollers  at  the 
upper  part,  for  the  purpose  apparently  of  raising  or  loiver- 
ing  the  yard  according  to  the  amount  of  sail  required. 
The  sail  in  some  of  the  galleys  is  shown  with  a  bottom  as 
well  as  a  top  yard.  In  the  war  galleys  during  action  it  is 
shown  rolled  up  like  a  curtain  with  loops  to  the  upper 
yard.  The  steering  was  effected  by  paddles,  sometimes 
four  or  five  in  number,  but  generally  one  or  two  fastened 
either  at  the  end  of  the  stern  or  at  the  side,  i(nd  above 
attached  to  an  upright  post  in  such  a  way  as  to  allow  the 
paddle  to  be  worked  by  a  tiller. 

There  are  many  remarkable  details  to  be  observed  in 
the  Egyptian  vessels  figured  in  Duemichen's  Fleet  of  an 
Egyptian  Queen,  and  in  Lepsius's  Denlcmiikr.  The  Egyptian 
ship,  as  represented  from  time  to  time  in  the 'period  be- 
tween 3000  and  1000  B.C.,  presents  to  us  a  ship  proper 
as  distinct  from  a  large  canoe  or  boat.  It  is  the  earliest 
ship  of  which  we  have  cognizance.  But  there  is  a  notice- 
able fact  in  Connexion  with  Egypt  which  we  gather  from 
the  tomb  paintings  to  w-hich  we  owe  our  knowledge  of 
the  Egyptian  ship.  It  is  evident  from  these  records  that 
there  were  at  that  same  early  period,  inhabiting  the 
littoral  of  the  Mediterranean,  nations  who  were  possessed 
of  sea-going  vessels  which  visited  the  coasts  of  Egypt 
for  plunder  as  well  as  for  commerce,  and  that  sea-fights 
were  even  then  not  uncommon.  Occasionally  the  com- 
bination of  these  peoples  for  the  purpose  of  attack  assumed 
serious  proportions,  and  we  find  the  Pharaohs  recording 
naval  victories  over  combined  Dardanians,  Teucrians,  and 
Jlysians,  and,  if  we  accept  the  explanations  of  Egypto- 
logists, over  Pelasgians,  Daunians,  Oscans,  and  Sicilians. 
The  Greeks,  as  they  became  familiar  with  the  sea,  followed 
in  the  same  track.  The  legend  of  Helen  ia  Egypt,  as 
well  as  the  numerous  references  in  the  Ocli/ssey,  point 
not  only  to  the  attraction  that  Egypt  had  for  the  mari- 
time peoples,  but  also  to  long-established  habits  of  n,avi- 
gation  and  the  possession  of  an  art  of  shipbuilding 
equal  to  the  construction  of  sea-going  craft  capable  of 
carrying  a  largo  number  of  men  and  a  considerable  cargo 
besides. 

But  the  development  of  tho  ship  and  of  the  art  of 
navigation  clearly  belongs  to  the  Phamicians.  It  is 
tantalizing  to  find  that  tho  earliest  and  almost  tho  only 
evidence  that  we  have  of  this  development  is  to  bo 
gathered  from  Assyrian  representations.  The  Assyrians 
■  wci-o  an  inland  people,  and  tho  navigation  with  which 
they  were  familiar  was  that  of  tho  two  great  rivers,  Tigrif 
and  Euphrates.  After  tho  conquest  of  Phwnicia  they 
had  knowledge  of  Phaniician  naval  enterprise,  and 
accordingly  wo  find  tho  war  galley  of  the  I'hiTnirians 
represented  on  the  walls  of  the  palaces  unearthed  by 
Layard  and  his  followers  in  A-ssyrian  di.'^covery.  But  tlio 
date  does  not  carry  us  to  on  earlier  period  than  900-800 
B.C.  Tiio  vessel  rei>resont«d  is  a  bircmo  war  galley  which 
is  "apiii?ct,"  that  is  to  say,  has  the  upper  tier  of  rowers 
unprotected  and  exposed  to  view.  Tho  apertures  for  the 
lower  oars  arc  of  tho  same  character  as  those  which  o])pcar 
in  Egyptian  Fhips  of  a  much  earlier  date,  but  without 
our.s  Tin  nrtist  lias  shown  tho  characteristic  details, 
though  Bornewhat  conventionally.     Tho  fish  like  snout  o( 


SOB 


SHIP 


the  'beak,  flie  line  of  the  parodus  Or  ontsidB  gangway,  tue 
tt-ickoru-ork  cancelli,^  tlie  shields  ranged  in  order  along  the 
side  of  the  bulwark,  and  the  heads  of  a  typical  crew  on 
deck  (the  Trpwpei's  looking  out  in  front  in  the  forecastle,  an 
i7rL^aTi]s,  two  chiefs  by  the  mast,  and,  aft,  the  Ke\ai(m'i's 
and  KvfSciJvij-nji).  The  supporting  timbers  'of  the  deck 
are  just  indicated.  The  mast  and  yard  and  fore  and 
back  stays,  with  the  double  steering  paddle,  complete  the 
picture. 

But,  although'*' there Tcaii^be'^  little  doubt  that  the 
rhojnirians,  after  the  Egyptians,  led  the  way  in  the 
development  of  the  shipwright's  art,  yet  the  informa- 
tion that  we  can  gather  concerning  them  is  so  meagre 
that  we  must  go  to  other  sources  for  the  description  of 
the  ancient  ship.  "''The  Phoenicians  at  an  early  date  oon- 
structed  merchant  vessels  capable  of  carrying  large  car- 
goes, and  of  traversing  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
Jlediterranean,  perhaps  even  of  trading  to  the  far  C'assi- 
terides  and  of  circumnavigating  Africa.  They  in  all 
probability  (if  not  the  Egyptians)  invented  the  bireme 
and  trireme,  solving  the  problem  by  which  increased  oar- 
power  and  consequently  speed  could  be  obtained  without 
any  great  increase  in  the  length  of  the  vesseL 

It  is,  however,  to  the  Greeks  that  we  must  turn  for  any 
detailed  account  of  th-ese  inventions.  The  Homeric  vessels 
were  aphract  and  not  even  decked  throughout  their  entire 
length.  They  carried  crews  averaging  from  fifty  to  a 
hundred  and  twenty  men,  who,  we  are  expressly  told  by 
Thucydides,  all  took  part  in  the  labour  of  rowing,  except 
perhaps  the  chiefs.  The  galleys  do  not  appear  to  have 
been  armed  as  yet  with  the  beak,  though  later  poets  attri- 
bute this  feature  to  the  Homeric  vessel.  But  they  had 
great  poles  used  in  fighting,  and  the  term  employed  to 
describe  these  (vavfjLaxa)  implies  a  knowledge  of  naval 
warfare.  >  The  general  characteristics  are  indicated  by  the 
epithets  in  use  throughout  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey. 
The  Homeric  ship  is  sharp  (Oorj)  and  swift  {wKila);  it  is 
hollow  (koiA-^,  yXa^vp-q,  /xtyaKjjrTjs),  black,  vermilion-cheeked 
(,«iAT07ra/)7;o?),  dark-prowed  (Kuavdn-jOMpos),  curved  (Kopton's, 
a/jujiiiXia-a-a),  well-timbered  (iucro-c/Vos),  with  many  thwarts 
(iroAv^vyos,  tKaro^vyos).  The  stems  and  sterns  are  high, 
upraised,  and  resemble  the  horns  of  oxen  {6p6oKpaipai.). 
They  present  a  type  parallel  in  the  history  of  the  shipping 
of  the  Mediterranean  with  that  of  the  vikings'  vessels  of 
the  North  Sea. 

On  the  vases,  the  earliest  of  ■which  may  date  between 
700  and  600  b.c.,  we  find  the  bireme  with  the  bows  finished 
off  into  a  beak  shaped  as  the  head  of  some  sea  monster, 
and  an  elevated  forecastle  with  a  bulwark  evidently  as  a 
means  of  defence.  The  craft  portrayed  in  some  instances 
are  evidently  pirate  vessels,  and  exhibit  a  striking  contrast 
to  the  trader,  the  broad  ship  of  burden  ((jboprt's  evpda), 
which  they  are  overhauling.  The  trireme,  which  was 
developed  from  the  bireme  and  became  the  Greek  ship 
of  war  (the  long  ship,  vals  fMKpd,  navis  longa,  par  excel- 
lence), dates,  so  far  as  Greek  use  is  concerned,  from  about 
700  B.C.  according  to  Thucydides,  having  been  first  built 
at  Corinth  by  Aminocles.  The  earliest  sea-fight  that  the 
same  author  knew  of  he  places  at  a  somewhat  later  date, 
— 664  B.C.,  more  than  ten  centuries  later  than  some  of 
those  portrayed  in  the  Egyptian  tomb  paintings. 

The  trireme  was  the  war  ship  of  Athens  during, her 
prime,  and,  though  succeeded  and  in  a  measure  superseded 
by  the  larger  rates, — quadrireme,  quinquereme,  and  so  on, 
up  to  vessels  of  sixteen  banks  of  oars  (inhahilis  prope 
magnitudinis), — yet,  as  containing  in  itself  the  principle  of 
which  the  larger  rates  merely  exhibited  an  expansion,  a 
difference  in  degree  and  not  in  kind,  has,  ever  since  the 
revival  of  letters,  coctieutrated  upon  itself  the  attention  of 
'  See  Kawliuson.  Anciciit  Monarchies,  vol.  ii.  j,_176,  - 


the  learned  who  were  interested  in  such  matters  'ihe 
literature  connected  with  the  (juestion  of  ancient  ships,  it 
collected,  would  fill  a  small  lilnary,  and  the  greater  part 
of  it  turns  upon  the  con-struction  of  the  trireme  and  the 
disposition  of  the  rowers  therein. 

l)uring  the  present  century  much  light  has  been  thrown 
upon  the  disputed  points  by  the  discovery  (IS.'U)  at  the 
riruius  of  some  records  of  the  Athenian  dockyard  super- 
intendents, which  have  been  published  and  admirably 
elucidated  by  ]!oeckh.  Eurther  researches  carried  out  by 
his  pupil  Dr  Graser,  who  united  a  ]iractical  knowledge 
of  ships  and  shipbuilding  with  all  the  scholarship  and 
industry  and  acumen  necessary  for  such  a  task,  have 
cleared  up  most  of  the  difficulties  which  beset  the  problem, 
and  enable  us  to  describe  with  tolerable  certainty  the 
details  of  consti-uction  and  the  disposition  of  the  roweis  in 
the  ancient  ship  of  war. 

One  jioint  it  is  necessary  to  insist  on  at  the  outset,  hccanso  upon 
it  depends  the  right  understanding  of  tlio  problem  to  be  solved. 
The  ancients  did  not  employ  more  than  one  man  to  an  oar.  The 
method  emidoycd  in  medieval  ^idleys  is  entirely  alien  to  the  ancient 
system.  J[.  Jal,  Admiral  Fincati,  Admiral  Jurieu  dc  la  Graviere, 
and  a  host  of  other  autlioiities  have  all  bueu  led  to  erroneous  views 
by  neglect  of  the  ancient  te.xts  which  overwhelmingly  establish  this 
as  an  axiom  of  the  ancient  marine — "one  oar  one  man." 

The  distinction  between  "aidiract"  and  "catajihract"  vessels 
must  not  be  overlooked  in  a  description  of  the  ancient  vessels. 
The  words,  meaning  "nnfenceil"  and  "fenced,"  refer  to  tho 
bulwarks  whicli  covered. the  upper  tier  of  rowers  from  attack.  •  In 
the  apliract  vessels  these  side  plankings  were  absent  and  the  upper 
tier  of  rowers  was  exposed  to  view  from  the  side.  Both  classes  of 
vessels  had  upper  and  lower  declfs,  but  the  aphract  class  carried 
their  decks  on  a  lower  level  than  the  cataphract.  The  system  of 
side  planking  with  a  view  to  the  protection  of  the  rowers  dates  from 
a  very  early  period,  as  may  be  seen  in  some  of  the  Egyptian  repro-^ 
sentations,  but  among  the  Greeks  it  does  not  seem  to  have  beeil 
adopted  till  long  after  the  Homeric  period.  The  Thasians- are 
credited  with  the  introduction  of  the  improvement.  ^ 

In  describing  the  trireme  it  will  be  convenient  to  deal  iirst  with 
the  disposition  of  the  rowers  and  subsequently  with  the  con-| 
struction  of  the  vessel  itself.  The  object  of  arranging  the  oars  in 
banks  was  to  economize  horizontal  space  and  to  obtain  an  increase 
in  the  number  of  oars  without  having  to  lengthen  the  vessel.] 
A\'e  know  from  Yitruvius  that  the  "interscalmium,"  or  space 
horizontally  measured  from  oar  to  oar,  was  2  cubits.  This  is 
exactly  borne  out  by  the  proportions  of  an  Attic  aphract  trireme, 
as  shown  on  a  fr.igment  of  a  bas-relief  found  in  the  Acropolis. 
The  rowers  in  all  classes  of  banked  vessels  sat  in  the  same  vertical 
plane,  the  seats  ascending  in  a  line  obliquely  towards  the  stern  of 
the  vessel.  Thus  in  a  trireme  the  thranite,  or  oarsman  of  the 
highest  bank,  was  nearest  the  stern  of  the  set  of  three  to  which 
he  belonged.  Next  behind  him  and  somewhat  below  him  sat  his 
zygite,  or  oarsman  of  the  second  bank;  and  next  below  and 
behind  the  zygite  sat  the  thalamite,  or  oarsman  of  the  lowest 
hank.  The  vertical  distance  between  these  seats  was  2  feet,  the 
horizontal  distance  about  1  foot.  The  horizontal  distance,  it  is 
well  to  repeat,  between  each  seat  in  the  same  bank  was  3  feet 
(the  seat  itself  about  9  inches  broad).  Each  man  had  a  resting 
place  for  his  feet,  somewhat  wide  apart,  fixed  to  the  bench  of  the 
man  on  the  row  next  below  and  in  front  of  him.  In  rowing,  the 
ujipcr  hand,  as  is  shown  in  most  of  the  representations  which 
remain,  was  held  with  the  palm  turned  inwards  towards  the  body. 
This  is  accounted  for  by  the  angle  at  which  the  oar  was  worked. 
Tho  lowest  rank  used  the  shortest  oars,  and  the  difference  of  the 
length  of  the  oars  on  board  was  caused  by  the  curvature  of  the 
ship's  side.  Thus,  looked  at  from  within,  the  rowers  amidship 
seemed  to  he  using  the  longest  oars,  but  outside  the  vessel,  as  W8 
are  expressly  told,  all  the  oar-blades  of  the  same  bank  took  the  water 
in  the  same  longitudinal  line.  The  lowest  or  thalamite  oar-ports 
were  3  feet,  the  zygite  4J  feet,  the  thrauite  5.^  feet  above  the  water. 
Each  oar-port  was  protected  by  an  asco7na  or  leather  bag,  which  fitted 
over  the  car,  closing  the  aperture  against  the  wash  of  the  sea  with- 
out impeding  the  action  of  the  oar.  The  oar  was  tied  by  a  thong,' 
against  which  it  was  probably  rowed,  which  itself  was  attached  to 
a  thowl  {a-KaXfios).  The  port-hole  was  probably  oval  in  shape  (the 
Egyptian  and  Assyrian  pictures  show  an  oblong).  AVe  know  that 
it  was  large  enough  for  a  man's  head  to  be  thrust  through  it. 

The  benches  on  which  the  rowers  sat  ran  from  tho  vessel's 
side  to  timbers  which,  inclined  at  an  angle  of  about  64°  toward* 
the  ship's  stern,  reached  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  deck. 
These  timbers  were,  according  to  Graser,  called  the  diaphragmata. 
In  the  trireme  each  diaphragma  supported  three,  in  the  quin- 
quereme five,  in  the  ootireme  eight,  and  in  the  famous  tesser«< 


SHIP 


807 


jonteres  forty  seats  of  rowers,  who  all  belonged  to  the  same 
"comp'.eicus,"  though  each  to  a  different  bank.  In  effect,  when 
onca  the  principle  of  construction  had  been  established  in  the 
trireme,  tlie  increase  to  larger  rates  was  eft'ectcd,  so  far  as  the 
motive  power  was  concerned,  by.  lengthening  the  diaphragmata 
apwarcLi,  while  f.ho  increase  in  the  length  of  the  vessel  gave  a 
greater  numbtr  of  rowers  to  each  bank.  The  upper  tiers  of  oars- 
mea  exceeded 'in  number  those  below,  as  the  contraction  of  the 
sides  of  the  vessel  left  less  available  space  towards  the  bows. 

Of  tha  length  of  the  cars  in  the  trireme  we  have  an  indication  in 
thi)  fact  tUat  the  ienjfth  of  supernumerary  oars  (irep/wty)  rowed  from 
thi)  gangway  above  the  thranites,  and  therefore  probably  slightly 
ei  ;ecdicg  the  thrauitic  oars  in  length,  is  given  in  the  Attic  tables 
as  14  feet  S  inciies.  The  thranites  were  probably  about  14  feet. 
The  zygite,  in  proportion  to  the  measurement,  must  have  been  1Q§, 
thj  thalamite  7  J  feet  long.  Comparing  modem  oars  with  these, 
wt  find  that  the  longest  oars  used  in  the  British  navy  are  18  feet. 
T/ie  university  race  is  rowed  with  oars  12  feet  9  inches.  The  pro- 
portion of  the  loom  inboard  was  about  one  third,  but  the  oars  of 
the  rowers  aniidship  must  have  been  somewhat  longer  inboard. 
TJie  size  of  the  loom  inboard  preserved  the  necessary  equilibrium. 
Tae  long  oars  of  the  larger  rates  were  weighted  inboard  with  lead. 
Tims  the  topmost  oars  of  the  tesseraconteres,  of  which  tho  length 
was  58  feet,  were  exactly  balanced  at  the  rowlock. 

Ifjet  us  now  consider  the  construction  of  the  vessel  itself.  In 
till)  cataphract  class  the  lower  deck  was  1  foot  above  tho  water- 
line.  Below  this  deck  was  the  hold,  which  contained  a  certain 
rf lount  of  ballast,  and  through  an  aperture  in  this  deck  the 
iiftckets  for  baling  were  worked,  entailing  a  labour  which  was 
onstant  and  severe  on  board  an  ancient  ship  at  sea.  The  keel 
( I (»<Ijri$)  appears  to  have  had  considerable  camber.  Under  it  was 
<  strong  false  keel  {x^Xvaixa),  very  -necessary  for  vessels  that  were 
constantly  drawn  up  on  the  shore.  Above  the  keel  was  the  kelson 
(Ispioxov),  under  w-liich  the  ribs  were  fastened.  These  were  so 
airanged  as  to  give  the  necessary  intervals  for  the  oar-ports  above. 
Above  thb  kelson  lay  the  upper  false  keel,  into  which  tho  mast 
was  stepped.  The  stem  (o-TcVpa)  rose  from  the  keel  at  an  angle  of 
about  70°  to  the  water.  Within  was  an  apron  (^bakis),  which 
was  a  strong  piece  of  timber  curved  and  fitting  to  the  end  of  the 
keel  and  beginning  of  the  stem-post  and  firmly  bolted  into  both, 
thus  giving  solidity  to  the  bows,  which  had  to  beaf  the  beak  and 
sustain  t^e  shock  of  ramming.  The  stem  was  carried  upwards 
and  curved  generally  backwards  towards  the  forecastle  and  rising 
above  it,  and  then  curving  forwards  again  terminated  in  an 
ornament  which  was  called  the  aorostolion.  The  stern-post  was 
carried  up  at  a  similar  angle  to  tho  bow,  and,  rising  high  over  lue 
poop,  was  curved  round  into  an  ornament  which  was  called 
"aplustre"  (S^Xoo-tov).  But,  inasmuch  as  the  steering  was 
effected  by  means  of  two  ruddei-s  (ttjSoAio),  one  on  either  side, 
there  was  no  need  to  carry  out  tho  stern  into  a  radder  post  as 
with  modern  ships,  and  tho  stem  was  left  therefore  much  more 
free,  an  advantage  in  re^eJt  of  the  manoeuvring  of  the  ancient 
Gi  eek  man-of-war,  the  weapon  being  the  beak  or  rostrum,  and  tho 
power  of  turning  quickly  being  of  the  highest  importance. 

Behind  the  "aplustre,"  and  curving  backwards,  was  the 
"  cheniscus "  (x7)fiir«<is),  or  goose-head,  symbolizing  the  floating 
powers  of  the  vessel.  After  tho  ribs  had  been  set  up  and  covered 
in  on  both  sides  with  plauking,  the  sides  of  tho  vessel  were  further 
Btreng;thened  by  walmg-pieces  carried  from  stern  to  stem  and 
m'seting  in  fron  t  of  the  stern-post.  These  wore  further  strengthened 
with  additional  balks  of  timber,  tho  lower  waling-pieoes  meeting 
about  the  water-level  and  prolonged  into  a  sharp  tluea-toothed  spur, 
of  which  the  middle  tootli  was  the  longest.  This  was  covered  with 
hard  metal  (generally  br5nze)  and  formed  tho  beak*  Tho  whole 
structure  of  tho  beak  projected  about  10  feet  beyond  the  etem- 
poat  Above  it,  but  projecting  much  less  beyond  the  stom-post, 
was  tho  "  proembolion  "  (xpo«/i/3i(A«)i/),  or  second  beak,  in  wnich 
the  prolongation  of  the  upper  set  of  waling-pioces  met  This  was 
gcncmlly  fashioned  into  the  figure  of  a  ram's  head,  also  covered 
with  metal ;  and  sometimes  again  between  this  and  tho  beak  the 
sucond  line  of  waling-pieces  met  in  another  metal  boss  called  the 
n po(ii$o\ls.  These  bosses,  when  a  vessel  was  rammed,  completed 
tUo  work  of  destruction  begun  by  the  sharp  beak  at  the  water-level, 
riving  a  racking  blow  which  caused  it  to  heel  over  and  po  eased  it 
off  tho  beak,  and  releasing  the  latter  before  tho  weight  of  tho 
sinking  vessel  could  come  upon  it.  At  tho  poiut  whciu  tho  pro- 
longatiou  of  the  second  and  third  waling-pioces  begim  to  convcr,';o 
inwards  towards  tho  stem  on  lither  sido  of  tho  vessel  stout  catheads 
{iiranlStt)  projected,  which  were  of  use,  not  fmly  os  suiiporta  for 
the  anchors,  but  also^s'a  means  of  inflicting  damn^'o  ou  tho  upper 

{)art  of  an  enemy's  vessel,  while  jjrotecting  tho  side  gangways  of 
ts  own  and  tho  banks  of  oars  that  worked  under  them.  The 
fatheads  were  strengtlioned  by  strong  balks  of  limber,  which  were 
Irmly  bolted  to  them  under  either  extremity  and  both  within  and 
without,  and  ran  to  the  ship's  side.  Above  the  curvature  of  tho 
ipper  waling-pieces  into  tho  Tpotfx06\toy  were  tho  checks  of  tho 
ressel,  generally  painted  rod,  and  in  the  upper  part  of  those  the 


eyes  (iipffaXnoi),  answering  to  our  hawse  holes,  through  which  ran 
the  cables  for  the  anchors.  On  either  side  the  trireme,  at  about 
the  level  of  the  thranitic  benches,  projected  a  gangway  (iripoSos) 
supported  by  brackets  {$taxa)  spriuging  from  the  upper  waling- 
piece,  and  resting  against  the  ribs  of  tl'.o  vessel.  This  projection 
was  of  about  18  to  24  inches,  which  gave  a  space,  increased  to 
about  3  feet  by  the  inward  curve  of  the  prolongation  of  tho  ribs  to 
form  supports  for  the  deck,  for  a  passage  on  either  side  of  tho 
vessel.  This  gangway  was  plonked  in  along  its  outer  side  so  as  to 
afford  protection  to  the  seamen  and  marines,  who  could  pass  along 
its  whole  length  without  impeding  the  rowers.  Here.,  in  action, 
the  sailors  were  posted  as  light-armed  troops,  and  when  needed 
could  use  the  long  supernumerary  oars  (irtplve^)  mentioned  above. 
The  ribs,  prolonged  upwards  upon  an  inward  curve,  supported  on 
their  upper  ends  tho  cross  beains  {iTTpiaTTJp(s)  which  tied  the  two 
sides  of  the  vessel  together  and  carried  the  aeck.  In  the  cataphract 
class  these  took  tho  place  of  the  thwarts  {(iya)  which  in  the  earlier 
vessels,  at  a  lower  level,  yoked  together  the  sides  of  the  vessel, 
and  formed  also  benches  for  the  rowers  to  sit  on,  from  which  tho 
latter  had  their  name  {(vyWat),  having  teen  the  uppermost  tier  of 
oarsmen  in  tho  bireme  ;  while  those  who  sat  behind  and  below 
them  in  the  hold  of  the  vessel  were  called  6a\aii7Tat  or  Ba\iixaKfs 
(from  flaXa/ios).  In  the  trireme  the  additional  upper  tier  was 
named  from  the  elevated  bench  (Opavos)  on  which  they  were  placed 
(Bpati'iTai).  On  tho  deck  were  stationed  the  marines  [iTt$irat), 
fighting  men  in  heavy  armour,  few  in  number  in  the  Attic  trireme 
in  its  palmy  days,  but  many  in  tho  Roman  quinquereme,  when  the 
ramming  tactics  were  antiquated,  and  wherever,  as  in  the  gieat 
battles  in  the  harbour  at  Syracuse,  land  tactics  took  tho  place  of 
the  maritime  skill  which  gave  victory  to  the  ram  in  the  open  sea. 
Tho  space  occupied  by  tho  rowers  was  termed  tyicunroi/.  Beyond 
this,  fore  and  aft,  were  the  iropffeiptViai,  or  parts  outside  tho 
rowers.  These  occupied  11  feet  of  the  bowB  and  14  feet  in  tho 
stern.  In  tho  fore  part  was  the  forecastle,  with  its  raised  deck,  on 
which  was  stationed  the  trpu-peii  with  his  men.  In  tho  stem  the 
decks  {txpta.)  rose  in  two  or  three  gradations,  upon  which  was  a 
kind  of  deck-house  for  the  captain  and  a  seat  for  the  steercr 
[KufitpviiTris),  who  steered  by  means  of  ropes  attached  to  the  tillera 
fixed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  paddles,  which,  in  later  times  at 
least,  ran  over  wheels  (rpox'^'"')'  g'^'^g  him  the  power  of  changing 
his- vessel's  course  ivith  great  rapidi^.  Eehiud  the  deck-house 
rose  tho  flagstaff,  on  which  was  hoisted  the  pennant,  ond  ftx)m 
which  probably  signals  wore  given  in  the  case  of  an  admiral's  ship. 
On  either  side  of  the  deck  ran  a  balustrade  {cancelli),  which  was 
covered  for  protection  during  action  ^vith  felt  [cilicium,  irapappiiiaTa 
Tpixtvi)  or  canvas  (x.  Aeu/cci).  Above  was  stretched  a  strong 
awning  of  hide  {KaTd$\rifj.a),  as  a  protection  against  grappling 
irons  and  missiles  of  all  kinds.  In  Roman  vessels  towers  were 
carried  up  fore  and  aft  from  which  darts  could  be  showered  on  tho 
enemy's  dock;  the  heavy  corvus  or  boarding  bridge  swung  sus- 
pended by  a  chain  near  the  bows  ;  and  the  ponderous  St'Ac^ij  hung 
at  the  ends  of  tho  yards  ready  to  fall  on  a  vessel  that  came  near 
enough  alongside.  But  these  were  later  inventions  and  for  larger 
ships.  The  Attic  trireraa  was  built  light  for  speed  and  for  ramming 
purposes.  Her  dimensions,  so  far  as  we  tin  gather  them  from  tho 
scattered  notices  of  antiquity,  wero  probably  approximately 'as 
follows  : — length  of  rowing  spaca  (^tkojitok)  93  feet ;  bows  1 1  feet ; 
stern  14  feet;  total  118  feet;  add  10  feet  for  the  beak.  Tho 
breadth  at  tho  water-line  is  calculated  at  14  feet,  and  above  at  tho 
broadest  part  18  feet,  exclusive  of  tlie  gangways ;  the  bpace  between 
the  (Uaphragmata  mentioned  above  was  7  ft!at.  The  deck  was  11 
feet  above  the  water-line  and  the  draught  about  8  to  9  feet.  All 
the  Attic  triremes  appear  to  have  been  built  upon  the  same  model, 
and  their  gear  was  interchangeable.  The  Atlieniuns  had  a  peculiar 
system  of  girding  tho  shijis  with  long  cables  (i-roiuixara),  each 
trircmo  having  two  or  more,  which,  passing  tlirough  eyeholes  in 
front  of  the  stom-post,  ran  all  round  the  vessel  lengthwise  immedi- 
ately under  the  waling-pieces.  They  wero  fastened  at  the  stern 
and  tightened  up  with  levers.  These  cables,  bv  shrinking  as  80t)n 
as  they  wero  wet,  tightened  tho  whole  fabric  of  tho  vessel,  and  in 
action,  in  all  probability,  relieved  the  hull  from  parfof  the  shock 
of  ramming,  tho  strain  of  which  would  be  sustained  by  tho  waling- 
pioces  convergent  in  the  beaks.  These  rope-girdles  are  not  to  bo 
confused  with  tho  process  of  undcrgirding  or  trapping,  such  as  is 
narrated  of  tho  vessel  in  which  St  Paul  was  being  carried  to  Italy. 
Tho  trireme  appears  to  have  had  three  masts.  Tho  mainmast  cfilricd 
eqnaro  sails,  probably  two  in  number.  Tlio  foremast  and  tho  niijen 
carried  lateen  saiU.  In  action  tlio  Gr\;cks  did  not  use  .•-.lil.s,  and 
every  tiling  that  could  be  lowered  was  stowed  below.  The  mainmasts 
and  larger  e.iils  wore  often  left  nslioro  if  a  conflict  was  expected. 

The  crew  of  the  Attic  trireme  consisted  of  from  200  to  226  men 
in  all.  Of  these  174  were  rwwers,— 64  oh  the  lower  bank 
(thalamitcs),  68  on  tho  middle  bank  (zygites),  and  62  on  the 
upper  bank  (thranites),— tho  upper  oars  being  more  numerous 
because  of  tho  contraction  of  tho  snaco  available  for  tho  lower  tiers 
near  tho  bow  and  stern.  Besides  the  rowers  wero  about  10  marines 
(^Ti^i^Tai)  and  20  seamen.     Tho  officers  wero  tho  trieiurcband  next 


808 


SHIP 


to  him  the  helmsman  {KvSfpfvTi]!),  who  was  the  navigating  ofTiccr 
of  the  trireme.  Each  tier  of  rowers  l>ail  its  captain  (crTo:xapx<is)- 
There  were  also  the  captain  of  tho  forecastle  [irpaptis),  the 
"keleustes"  who  gave  tho  time  to* the  rowers,  auJ  tho  ship's  piper 
(rpiripouA^s).  The  rowers  descended  into  clie  scTcn-font  space 
between  tlio  diaphragmata  and  took  their  iJi;ices  in  regular  order, 
beginning  with  the  thalamites.  Tho  economy  of  space  was  such 
that,  ab  Cicero  remarks,  there  was  not  room  for  one  man  more. 

The  improvement  made  in  the  build  of  theii  vessels  by 
the  Corinthian  and  Syracusan  shipwrights,  by  which  the 
bows  were  so  much  strengthened  that  they  were  able  to 
meet  the  Athenian  attack  stem  on  (Trpoo-^oXjJ),  caused 
a  change  of  tactics,  and  gave  an  impetus  to  the  building 
cf  larger  vessels — quadriremes  and  quinqueremes — in  which 
increased  oar-power  was  available  for  the  propulsion  of  the 
heavier  weights. 

In  principle  these  vessels  were  only  expansions  of  the 
trireme,  so  far  as  the  disposition  of  the  rowers  was 
concerned,  but  the  speed  could  not  have  increased  in  pro- 
portion to  the  weight,  and  hence  arose  the  variety  of 
contrivances  which  superseded  the  ramming  tactics  of  the 
days  of  Phormio.  In  the  century  that  succeeded  the 
close  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  the  fashion  of  building 
big  vessels  became  prevalent.  We  hear  of  various 
numbers  of  banks  of  oars  up  to  sixteen  (cKKaiSciojpjjs) 
— the  big  vessel  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes.  The  famous 
tesseraconteres  or  forty-banked  vessel  of  Ptolemy  Philo- 
pator  was  in  reality  nothing  more  than  a  costly  and 
ingenious  toy,  and  never  of  any  practical  use.  The  fact, 
however,  of  its  construction  shows  the  extent  to  which 
the  shipwright's  art  had  been  developed  among  the 
ancients. 

The  Komans,  who  developed  their  naval  power  during 
the  First  Punic  War,  were  deficient  in  naval  construction 
till  they  learnt  the  art  from  their  enemies  the  Cartha- 
ginians. They  copied  a  quinquereme  which  Lad  drifted 
on  to  the  coast,  and,  with  crews  taught  to  row  on  frames 
set  up  on  dry  land,  manned  a  fleet  which  we  are  told  was 
built  in  sixty  days  from  the  time  the  trees  were  cut  down. 
After  the  Punic  War,  in  which  the  use  of  boarding  tactics 
gave  the  Romans  command  of  the  sea;  the  larger  rates 
—quinqueremes,  hexiremes,  octiremes — continued  in  use 
until  at  Actium  the  fate  of  the  big  vessels  was  sealed  by 
the  victory  of  the  light  Liburnian  galleys.  The  larger 
classes,  though  still  employed  as  guardships  for  some  time, 
fell  into  disuse,  and  the  art  of  building  them  and  the 
knowledge  of  their  interior  arrangements  were  lost. 
Table  of  Mcasvrcments,  tkc. ,  after  Graser. 


Length,  exclusive  of  beak. 

Beam,  greatest 

Passage  between  Sta<ppdy- 

fiara 

Draught 

Tons  measurement 

Number  of  rowers , 

Crew,  total  complement ... 


"Mreme. 

Quinquereme. 

(?)  149  ft.» 
18  „, 

168  ft 
26  „ 

8i;: 

(?)232 

11,., 
lli.. 

534 

m 

310 

225 

375 

420  ft. 
76  „ 

49  „ 

20  „ 
11,320  (?) 
4,054 
7,500 


Medixval  Ships. —  It  is  not  at  present  possible  to  trace  in 
its  successive  stages  the  transition  from  the  ancient  ship 
of  war  to  the  mediiBval  galley.  The  sailing  vessels  of"  the 
time  of  the  early  Roman  empire,  such  as  that  in  which 
St  Paul  suffered  shipwreck  or  the  great  merchantman 
described  by  Lucian,  were  the  direct  precursors,  not  only 
of  the  mediajval  merchant  vessels,  but  also  of  the  large 
sailing  vessels  which,  after  the  invention  of  gunpowder, 
and  the  consequent  necessity  of  carrying  marine  artillery, 
superseded  the  long  low  galleys  p'-opelled  by  oars.  The 
battle  of  Actium  gave  the  death-blow  to  the  ancient 
type  of  vessel  with  its  many  banks  of  oars.     The  light 

1  Taking  the  interscolmUim  gt  4  feet ;  but  tbia  does  not  agi-ee  with  Vitruvius, 
w  JO  ipves  2  cubit;^ 


Liburnian  galleys  which,  though  'fully  decked,  wew 
aphract,  and,  according  to  Lucan's  testimony  (bk.  iii.), 

Ordine  contentas  gemino  crevisse  Libums, 

had  only  two  banks  of  oars,  were  biremes.  This  appar- 
ently became  the  type  of  Roman  war  galleys  ;  and,  though 
the  old  name  trireme  survived,  its  meaning  became  simpljj 
"  man  of  war,"  and  did  not  any  longer  imply  three  banks 
of  oars.  Light  vessels  were  in  "ogue,  and  galleys  witb 
single  banks  of  oars  are  common  in  the  representationt 
on  coins  and  in  such  frescos  as  survive,  but  trireme  and 
quinquereme,  itc,  have  vanished. 

A  cloud  of  obscurity  rests  on  these,  Ihe  dark  ages  of 
naval  history.  We  know  nothing  of  the  character  and 
compositiva  cf  the  fleet  in  which  Eicimer  defeated  tht 
Vandals  in  the  5th  century  of  our  era.  Nor  have  we  an} 
details  of  the  fleets  of  the  Byzantine  empire  until  the  end 
of  the  9th  century,  when  a  light  is  thrown  upon  tht 
subject  by  the  Tactica  of  the  emperor  Leo.  This  emperoi 
in  giving  his  directions  as  to  the  constitution  of  his  fleet 
prescribes  that  dromones  (Spo;uuves) — that  is,  triremes- 
are  to  be  got  ready  in  the  dockyards  with  a  view  to  fc 
naval  engagement.  The  vessels  are  not  to  be  too  light  oi 
too  heavy.  They  are  to  be  armed  with  siphons  for  tu. 
projection  of  Greek  fire.  They  are  to  have  two  banks  of 
oars,  with  twenty-five  rowers  a-piece,  on  each  side.  Somt 
of  the  vessels  are  to  be  large  enough  to  carry  two  hundred 
men ;  others  are  to  be  smaller,  like  those  called  galleys  ot 
one-banked  vessels,  swift  and  light  (tXarTovs  SpojxiKundTovi 
oidi'ci  •yaXat'as  *;  /xoi'^Jpfis  A.cyo/ieVov?  ra^'vovs  kox  iXa(j)povs:) 
Here  we  have  the  name  galleys  distinctively  attached  t« 
vessels  with  one  bank  of  oars.  This  passage  should  have 
saved  much  of  the  labour  that  has  been  thrown  away  in 
attempting  to  prove  that  the  distribution  of  rowers  in  the 
mediaeval  galleys  was  upon  the  same  principle  as  that 
observed  in  the  ancient  biremes  or  triremes. 

The  light  thrown  by  the.  philosophic  Byzantine  on  the 
naval  construction  and  equipment  of  his  time  is  but  a 
passing  flash.  After  the  9th  century  there  is  darkness 
again  until  the  11th  and  12th  centuries,  when  the  features 
of  the  medioeval  galley  first  begin  to  be  visible.  And  here 
perhaps  it  is  not  out  of  place  to  say  that  it  is  necessary 
to  distinguish  between  those  imaginary  representations 
of  the  antique  in  which  painters,  such  as  Tintoret,  give 
fanciful  arrangement  to  the  oars  of  their  galleys,  so  as  to 
meet  their  ideas  of  bireme  or  trireme,  from  those  that  are 
historically  faithful  and  figure,  perhaps  in  an  ungainly 
and  inartistic  manner,  the  galleys  of  Venice  and  Genoa  a$ 
they  appeared  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  would  exceed  the 
space  at  our  disposal  here  to  enter  into  details  which 
can  be  gathered  from  Jal's  Archeologie  Navale  and  the 
Glossaire  ^antique  of  the  same  author,  or  the  later  workf 
of  Admiral  Jurien  de  la  Gravifere  and  Admiral  Fincati 
It  must  suffice  to  indicate  here  a  few  of  the  main  charac- 
teristics in  which  the  medieval  galley  differs  from  the 
ancient,  and  exhibits  the  last  development  of  man-po.wei 
as  applied  to  motion  in  vessels  larger  than  the  boats  ot 
the  present  day. 

These  characteristics  may  be  sketched  briefly.  Upor 
tlie  mediaeval  galley,  which  was  essentially  a  one-banked 
galley  (fiovoKporov),  the  use  of  the  longer  oar  or  sweej 
took  the  place  of  the  small  paddling  oars  of  the  ancieni 
vessel.  The  increased  length  of  the  oar  requiring  for  it« 
efficiency  greater  power  than  one  man  could  employ  led  tc 
the  use  of  more  than  one  man  to  an  oar.  The  necessity 
therefore  arose  of  placing  the  weight  (or  point  at  which 
the  oar,  used  as  a  lever,  worked  against  the  thowl,  and  so 
pressed  against  the  water,  which  is  the  fulcrum)  at  a 
greater  distance  from  the  force  or  man  who  moved  the 
lever.     This  was  gained  by  the  invention  of  the  apostis. 


S  H  1  — S  H  1 


809 


Jpoc  the  hull  of  the  medieval  galley  was  laid  a  frame- 
work which  stood  out  on  either  side  from  it,  giving  on 
either  side  a  strong  external  timber,  running  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  vessel,  in  which  the  thowls  were  fixed 
against  which  the  oars  were  rowed.  It  will  be  readily 
understood  how  this  arrangement  gave  a  greater  length 
inboard  for  the  oar  as  compared  with  that  of  the  ancient 
vessels,  where  the  thowl  stood  in  the  aperture  of  the 
vessel's  side  or  port-hole.  On  the  inner  side,  rising  inwards 
towards  the  centre  lino  of  the  decks  and  inclining  upwards, 
were  the  banks  or  benches  for  the  rowers,  arranged  &  la 
scaloccw,  who  could  each  grasp  the  handle  of  the  oar, 
moving  forward  as  they  depressed  it  for  the  feather,  and 
backward  for  the  stroke  as  they  raised  their  hands  for  the 


immersion  of  the  blade.  The  stroke  no  doubt  was  slower 
than  that  of  the  ancient  galleys,  but  much  more  powerful. 
For  the  rest  we  must  refer  to  the  works  above  mentioned^ 
where  the  reader  will  find  minute  descriptions  of  the  build 
and  the  equipment  of  media:val  vessels,  such  as  those 
which  fought  at  Lepanto  or  carried  the  proud  ensign  of 
the  Genoese  republic. 

LUeraiure.—\.  For  Ancient  Ships :— Duemlchen,  Flat  of  an  Egyplian  Quern ; 
Cliab:t3,  Eludes  sur  I'AtitirjuUc  Jlistoriquf;  Riiwllnson,  Ancient  Monarchies; 
Schcffer,  De  Militia  Navali  Veterum-^  Docckh,  Vrkunden  iiber  das  Seetetten  des 
Atlisc/im  Slaales  ;  D.  Grascr,  De  Re  Navali  Velcrum;  Id.,  Das  Model  fines  Alhen- 
isc/ien  Fiinfreihenschiffes  (Pentere)  aus  der  Zeit  Alexanders  des  Orosien  i<n  Koniy- 
lichen  Museum  zu  Berlin  ;  Id.,  Pie  Gemmen  des  KOniglichen  Museums  tu  Berlin 
mil  Barstellungen  antiker  Schlfe;  Id.,  Die  attcslen  Schiffsdarstellungen  auf 
antilcen  Munzen;  A.  Curlauld,  La  Triere  At/ienicnne',  Breusinjr,  Die  yautik  der 
Allrn;  Smith,  Voiiaije  and  Shipicreck  of  St  Paul.  2,  For  Medieval  ShippinK:— 
A.  Jul,  Archcotogic  A'avale  and  Olossaire  yauttgue;  Jurl«n  dc  la  Graviferc,  Der- 
niers  Jours  de  la  Marine  a  Rames,  Paris,  1885  ;  FincatI,  i«  Triremi,    (E.  WA.) 


SHIPBUILDING 


B  art  TTTITHIN'  the  memory  of  the  present  generation  ship- 
ihip-  VY  building,  like  many  other  arts,  has  lost  dignity  by 
Jding.  the  extended  use  of  machinery  and  by  the  subdivision  of 
labour.  Forty  years  ago  it  was  still  a  "  mystery  "  and  a 
"craft."  The  well-instructed  shipbuilder  had  a  store  of 
experience  on  which  he  based  his  successful  practice. 
He  gained  such  advantages  in  the  form  and  trim  and  rig 
of  his  vessels  by  small  improvements,  suggested  by  his 
own  observation  or  by  the  traditions  of  his  teachers,  that 
men  endeavoured  to  imitate  him,  neither  he  nor  they 
knowing  the  natural  laws  on  which  success  depended.  He 
hod  also  a  good  eye  for  form,  and  knew  how  to  put  his 
materials  together  so  as  to  avoid  all  irregularity  of  shape 
on  the  outer  surfaces,  and  how  to  form  the  outlines  and 
bounding  curves  of  the  ship  so  that  the  eye  might  be  com- 
pelled to  rest  lovingly  upon  them.  He  was  skilled  aLso  in 
the  qualities  of  timber.  He  know  what  was  likely  to  be 
free  from  "rends"  and  "shakes"  and  "cups"  which 
would  cause  leakage,  and  which  would  be  liable  to  split 
when  the  .bolts  and  treenails  were  driven  through  it.  He 
knew  what  timber  would  bear  the  heat  of  tropical  suns 
without  undue  shrinking,  and  how  to  improve  its  qualities 
bj- seasoning.  Ho  could  foretell  where  and  under  what 
flircumstances  premature  decay  might  be  expected,  and  he 
could  choose  the  material  and  adjust  the  surroundings  so 
OS  to  prevent  it.  He  knew  what  wood  was  best  able  to 
endure  rubbing  and  tearing  on  hard  ground,  and  how  it 
ought  to  be  formed  so  that  the  ship  might  have  a  chance 
of  getting  off  securely  when  she  accidentally  took  the 
ground  or  got  on  shore.  Such  men  were  to  bo  found  on 
all  the  sea-coasts  of  Europe  and  on  the  shores  of  the 
Atlantic  in  America.. 

A  great  change  came  over  the  art  when  steam  was  intro- 
duced. The  old  proportions  and  forms  so  well  suited  for 
the  speeds  of  the  .ships  and  for  the  forces  impressed  upon 
them  were  ill  adapted  for  propulsion  by  the  paddle,  and 
still  less  so  for  propulsion  by  the  screw.  Experience  had 
to  bo  slowly  gained  afre.'ih,  for  the  lamp  of  science 
burned  dimly.  It  needed  to  bo  fed  by  results,  by  long 
records  of  successes  and  failures,  before  it  was  able  to 
direct  advancing  feet.  The  further  change  from  wood 
to  iron  and  then  to  steel  almost  displaced  the  shipwright. 
Ships  for  commercial  purposes  may  bo  said  to  bo  built 
now,  80  far  as  their  external  hulls  are  concerned,  by 
draftsmen  and  boilermakera.  The  centres  of  the  ship- 
building industry  Lave  changed.  The  ports  where  oaks 
(Italian,  Engli.'ih,  and  Dantzic),  pines  from  America  and 
the  north  of  Ein-ope,  teak  from  Moulmeln,  and  elm  from 
Canada  were  most  accessible, — these  marked  the  suitable 
places  for  shijibuilding.  The  Thames  was  alivo  with  the 
industry  fioiu  Northllect  to  tho  Pool.  It  still  lingers, 
but    it    is     slow.ii'    /r'vjnc    out.       Travellers    along    the 


Mediterranean  shores  from  Nice  to  Genoa  marS^tEe 
completeness  of  the  change  which  a  few  years  have  madg. 
The  Tyne  and  the  Clyde  and  the  Mersey  have  become  tho 
principal  centres  of  the  trade.  It  has  been  drawn  there 
because  the  iron  and  the  coal  are  near. 

But,  while  the  art  of  shipbuilding  has  lost  dignity,  the  The 
science  of  naval  construction  has  increased  in  importance.  scienr» 


It  is 


of  navai 


English  art  is  of  an  eminently  practical  character.  ^^  »..  constmc- 
shy  of  experiment,  as  being  .costly  in  itself  and  likely  to  tjon 
lead  to  delays  and  changes  of  system  and  of  plant.  ■  It 
loves  largo  orders  and  rapid  production.  It  practises 
great  subdivision  of  tho  details  in  order  to  cheapen  pro- 
duction, and  it  stereotypes  modes  of  work.  There  is  no 
lack  of  boldness  and  enterprise;  but  the'patient  continuous 
inquiry  and  the  slow  but  sure  building  up  of  theory  upon 
research, — this  is  the  exception.  Naval  construction  in 
England  has  had  the  good  fortune  during  the  last  quarter 
of  a  century  to  have  not  only  a  thriving  industry  but  a 
home  for  research.  Twenty-five  years  ago,  when  the  high- 
pressure  condensing  engine  was  in  its  infancy,  when  ship- 
building steel  was  not,  and  armour-plated  ships  had  not 
yet  displaced  tho  wooden  line-of -battle  ship,  this  home 
was  founded.  The  Institution  of  Naval  Architects  may  be 
fairly  called  the  home  for  research  in  naval  construction. 
It  owes  its  establishment  mainly  to  four  well-known  men — 
John  Scott  Russell,  Dr  Joseph  Woolley,  Lord  Hampton, 
for  many  years  its  honoured  president,  and  Sir  Edward 
Reed,  its  first  secretary.  It  has  published  every  year  a 
volume  of  Transactions  recording  the  experience  of  all  the 
shipbuilders  and  marine  engineers  in  England.  These 
Tranmctions  contain  also  valuable  contributions  from 
French,  Italian,  German,  and  other  eminent  constructors 
and  engineers. 

Shortly  after  tho  foundation  of  tho  Institution  ono  of  Its  mom- 
bors,  Mr  William  Froude,  sot  up  an  exporimcntal  establishment 
at  Torquay,  under  the  auspices  and  with  tho  as-sistanco  of  tho 
Admiralty.  Tho  object  was  to  submit  to  experiment  various 
proportions  and  forms  of  ships  in  modol-in  order  to  compare  the 
relative  resistances  in  tho  samo  model  at  various  speeds,  and  in 
dillerent  forms  and  proportions  at  ecjual  speeds.  Tlieru  was  some 
reason  to  doubt  tho  possibility  of  infcrrin"  from  a  model  on  a 
ecalo  of  J  of  an  inch  to  a  foot  what  would  happen  in  a  ship  of 
corresponding  form  and  proportions.  In  order  to  establish  satis- 
factorily tlio  relations  between  tho  real  and  tho  model  ship  a 
series  of  cxporinients  was  desirable  upon  a  real  ship  in  which  tho 
resistances  could  be  measured  by  a  dynamometer  at  various  speeds 
and  compared  with  tlioso  indicateil  by  tho  model.  Up  to  tbu  dnto 
of  this  trial  tho  "  scale  of  comparison  "  which  had  been  employed 
by  llr  Froudo  was  based  upon  prima  facie  theoretical  truth,  and  it 
had  some  experimental  justification.  It  may  bo  stited  us  follows, 
as  given  by  Mr  Kroude  in  tho  volume  for  1874  of  tho  Transactiont 
of  tho  Institution  of  Naval  Architects  : — 

If  a  ship  be  Dliritcn  the  "  dimension,"  a3  it  istermcd,  ofthemodtl, 
and  if  at  the  s]xeds  K„    V^    V^  .  .  .  tht  measiireil  rr.iistnnees  oj 

the  v,9dcl  are  Ji„   K,,  K, then  for  spcais  DW^,  DiV, 

D*F„    >   .    .    of  the  ship,  the   resistances  will  be  VHi,    I>>I;.j 

XXI.    —    102 


810 


SHIPBUILDING 


E^SgT^.  •  To  the  speeds  of  model  and  ship  tnus  related  it  is  conven- 
ient to  apply  the  term  "  corresponding  speeds. "  For  example,  sup- 
pose two  similar  ships,  the  length,  breadtli,  depth,  &c.,of  winch  were 
double  one  of  the  other.  Then,  if  at  a  given  speed  (say  10  inots) 
the  resistance  of  the  smaller  ship  were  ascertained,  we  may  infer 
thatata  speed  of  V2  xl0  =  li-14  knots  in  the  larger  ship  there 
would  be  a  resistance  8  times  as  great  as  in  the  smaller  vessel. 

This  law  is  in  accordance  with  the  old  rule  that  the  resistance 
varies  as  the  square  of  the  velocity,  and  also  as  the  area  of  the 
surface  exposed  to  resistance.  It  takes  into  account  both  the 
resistance  due  to  surface  friction  (subject  to  some  correction)  aiiu 
the  formation  of  deadwater  eddies.  The  passage  of  the  bi,ip 
through  the  water  creates  waves  which  are  dependent  for  their 
character  upon  the  proportions  and  form  of  the  ship.  These  con- 
stitute also  an  element  of  resistance.  They  are  duo  to  differences 
of  hydrodynamic  pressure  inherent  in  the  system  of  stream-lines 
which  the  passage  of  the  ship  creates.  These  wave-configurations 
should.be  precisely  similar  when  the  originating  forms  are  similar 
and  are  travelling  at  speeds  proportional  to  the  square  roots  of 
their  respective  dimensions,  because  the  resulting  forces  will  be 
in  that  case  as  the  square  of  the  speeds.  For  example,  if  the 
surface  of  the  water  surrounding  a  ship  160  feet  long,  travelling 
at  10  knots  an  hour,  were  modelled  together  with  the  ship,  on 
any  scale,  the  model  would  equally  represent,  on  half  that  scale, 
the  water  surface  surrounding  a  ship  of  similar  form  320  feet 
long,  travelling  at  14-14  knots  an  hour;  or  again,  on  16  times 
that  scale,  the  water  surface  surrounding  a  model  of  the  ship  10 
feet  long,  travelling  at  2i  knots.  Experiment  has  abundantly  con- 
firmed this  proportion  as  to  the  similarity  of  waves  caused  by 
similar  forms  travelling  at  corresponding  speeds.  The  resistance 
caused  to  these  forms  respectively  by  the  development  of_  the 
waves  would  therefore  also  be  proportionate  to  the  cubes  ot  the 
dimensions  of  the  forms  and  would  follow  the  law  of  comparison 
stated  aiiove.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  observe  that,  in  dealing 
with  surfaces  having  so  great  a  disparity  in  length  and  speed  as 
those  of  a  model  and  of  a  ship,  a  very  tangible  correction  is 
necessary  in  regard  to  surface  friction. 

The  vessel  tried  by  Mr  Fronde  for  confirming  the  law  of  com- 
parison was  H.  M.S.  "  Greyhound,"  of  1157  tons.  She  was  towed 
by  H.M.S.  "  Active,"  of  3078  tons,  from  the  end  of  a  boom  45  feet 
long,  so  as  to  avoid  interferences  of  "  wake."  It  was  found  to  be 
possible  to  tow  up  to  a  speed  of  nearly  13  knots.  The  actual 
amount  of  towing  strain  for  the  "Greyhound"  was  approximately 
as  follows:— at  4  knots,  0-6  ton  ;  at  6,  1-4  tons;  at  8,  2'5  tons; 
at  10,  4-7  tons;  and  at  12,  9'0  tons 

Comparing  the  indicated  horse-power  of  the  "  Greyhound  "  when 
6n  her  steam  trials  and  the  resistance  of  the  ship  as  determined 
by  the  dynamometer,  it  appears  that,  making  allowance  for  the 
slip  of  the  screw,  which  is  a  legitimate  expenditure  of  power, 
only  about  45  per  cent,  of  the  power  exerted  by  the  steam  is 
usefully  employed  in  propelling  the  ship,  and  that  the  remainder  is 
wasted  in  friction  of  engines  and  screw  and  in  the  detrimental 
reaction  of  the  propeller  on  the  stream  lines  of  the  water  closing 
in  around  the  stern  of  the  vessel. 

We  may  describe  in  Mr  Fronde's  own  words  the  system  of  ex- 
periment now  regularly  carried  out  for  the  Admiralty,  a  system 
wliich-has  been  successfully  copied  in  other  countries  and  also  by  a 
private  shipbuilding  firm,  llessrs  Denny  of  Dumbarton : — 

"That  system  of  experiments  in-  ilves  the  construction  of 
models  of  various  forms  (they  are  really  fair-sized  boats  of  from 
10  to  25  feet  in  length),  and  the  testing  by  a  dynamometer  of  the 
resistances  they  experienced  when  running  at  various  assigned 
appropriate  speeds.  The  system  may  be  described  as  that  of 
determining  the  scale  of  resistance  of  a  model  of  any  given  form, 
and  from  that  the  resistance  of  a  ship  of  any  given  form,  rather 
than  as  that  of  searching  for  the  best  form,  and  this  inethod  was 
preferred  as  the  more  general,  and  because  the  form  which  is  best 
adapted  to  any  given  circumstances  comes  out  incidentally  from  a 
comparison  of  the  various  results.  We  drive  each  model  through 
the  water  at  the  successive  assigned  appropriate  speeds  by  an 
extremely  sensitive  d}Tiamometrical  apparatus,  which  gives  us  in 
every  ease  an  accurate  automatic  record  of  the  model's  resistance, 
as  well  as  a  record  of  the  speed.  We  thus  obtain  for  each  model 
a  series  of  speeds  and  the  corresponding  resistances  ;  and,  to  render 
these  results  as  intelligible  as  possible,  we  represent  them  graphic- 
ally in  each  case  in  a  form  which  we  call  the  'curve  of  the 
resistance '  for  the  particular  model.  On  a  straight  base  line 
which  represents  speed  to  scale  we  mark  off  the  series  of  points 
denoting  the  several  speeds  employed  in  the  experiments,  and  at 
each  of  these  points  we  plant  an  ordinate  which  represents  to  scale 
the  corresponding  resistance.  Through  the  points  defined  by 
these  ordinates  we  draw  a  fair  curved  line,  and  this  curve  con- 
stitutes what  I  have  called  the  'curve  of  resistance.  This  curve, 
whatever  be  its  feat^ures,  expresses  for  the  model  of  that  particular 
form  what  is  in  fact  and  apart  from  all  theory  the  law  of  its 
resistance  in  terms  of  its  speed ;  and  what  we  have  to  do  is  if 
possible  <o  find  a  rational  interpretation  of  the  law.     Now  we  can 


at  once  carry  the  interpretation  a  consideraHe  way  ;  for  we  know 
that  tlie  model  has  so  many  square  feet  of  skin  in  its  surface,  and 
we  know  by  independent  experiments  how  much  force  it  takes  to 
draw  a  square  foot  of  such  skin  through  tlie  water  at  each  indi- 
vidual speed.     Tlie  law  is  very  nearly— and  for  present  convenience 
we  may  speak  as  if  it  were'  exactly— that  skin  resistance  is  as  the 
area  simply,  and  as  the  square  of  the  speed.     Now,  we  have  so 
many  square  feet  of  immerecd  skin  in  the  model,  and  the  total 
skin  resistance  is  a  certain  known  multiple  of  the  product  of  that 
number  of  square  feet  and   of  the   square  of  the  speed.     Now, 
when  we  lay  off  on  the  curve  of  resistance  a  second  curve  which 
represents  that  essential  and  primary  portion  of  the  resistance, 
then  we  find  this  to  be  the  result :  the  curve  of  skin  resistance 
when   drawn  is  found  to  be  almost  identical  with   the  curve   of 
total  resistance  at  the  lower  speeds  ;  bnt  as  the  speed  is  increased 
the  curve  of  total  resistance  is  found  to  ascend  more  or  less,  and  in  ' 
some  cases  to  ascend  very  much  above  the  curve  of  skin  resistance. 
The  identity  of  the  tv\>  curves  at  the  lower  speeds  is  the  practical 
representation  of  a  proposition  which  the  highest  niathematiciana 
have  long  been  aware  of,  and  which  I  have  lately  endeavoured  to 
draw  the  public  attention  to,  and  to  reiidoi'  popularly  intelligible, 
namely,  that  when  r  ship  of  tolerably  line  lines  is  moving  at  a 
modeiate  speed  the  whole  resistance  consists  of  surface  friction. 
The  old  idea  that  the  resistance  of  a  ship  consists  essentially  of 
the  force  employed  in  driving  the  water  out  of  her  way,   and 
closing  it  up  behind  her,  or,  as  it  has  sometimes  been  expressed, 
in  excavaUng  a  channel  through   the   track  of  water  which  she 
traverses,— this  old  idea  has  ceased  to  be  tenable  as  a  real  proposi- 
tion  thoufh  prima  facif  we  know  that  it  was  an  extremelv  natural 
one.     We  now  know  that,  at  small  speeds,  practically  the  whole 
resist'-.ee  consists  of  si-i'ace  friction,  and  some  derivative  efl^ects 
of  s-..vface  friction,   ii-iinely,  the   formation   of  frietional   eddies, 
which  is  due  to  the  thickness  of  the  stem  and  of  the  sternpost ; 
but  this  collateral  form  of  frietional  action  is  insignificant  in  its 
amount  unless  the  features  of  the  ship  in  which  it  originates  ^re 
so  abruptly  shaped  as  to  constitute  a  departure  from  that  necessary 
fineness  of  lines  which  I  have  described  ;  ami  i,-e  do  not  attempt  t^ 
take  an  exact  separate  account  of  it.     Thus  we  divide  the  forces 
represented  by  the  curve  of  resistance  into  two  elements,— one 
'skin  resistance,'  the  other  which  only  comes  into  existenceas 
the  speed  is  increased,  and  which  we  may  term  '  residuary  resist- 
ance."    And  we   have  next  to  seek  for  the  cause  and  governing 
laws  of  this  latter  element.     Now  when  the  passage  of  the  model 
along  the  surface  of  the  water  is  carefully  studied,  wo  observe  that 
the  special  additional  circumstance  which  becomes  apparent  as  the 
speed  is  increased  is  the  train  of  waves  which  she  puts  in  motion  ; 
and  indeed  it  has  long  been  known  that  this  circumstance  has 
important   hearings   on  the  growth  of  resistance.     It  is  in   fact 
certain  that  the  constant  formation  of  a  given  series  involves  the 
operation  of  a  constant  force,  and  the  expenditure  of  a  definite 
amount  of  power;  depending  on  the  magnitude  of  those  waves  and 
the  speed  of  the  model ;  and,  as  we  thus  naturally  condude  that 
the  excess  of  resistance  beyond  that  ine  to   the  surface   friction 
consists  of  the  force  employed  in  wave-making,  we  in  a  rough  way 
call  that  residuary  resistance  '  wave-making  resistance. 

"  Perhaps  I  had  better  say  a  few  words  more  about  the  nature 
and  character  of  these  waves.  The  inevitably  widening  form  of 
the  ship  at  her  'entrance'  throws  off' on  each  side  a  local  oblique 
-wave  of  greater  or  less  size  according  to  the  speed  and  to  the  obtuse- 
ne.ss  of  the  wedge,  and  these  waves  form  themselves  into  a  series  of 
diverging  crests,  such  as  we  are  all  familiar  with.  These  waves 
have  peculiar  properties.  They  retain  their  identical  size  for  a 
very  great  distance  with  but  little  reduction  in  magnitude.  But 
the  main  point  is  that  they  become  at  once  dissociated  from  the 
model,  and  after  becoming  fully  formed  at  the  bow,  they  pass 
clear  away  into  the  distant  water  and  produce  no  further  effect  on 
her  resistance.  But,  besides  those  diverging  waves,  there  is  pro- 
duced by  the  motion  of  the  model  another  notable  series  of  waves 
which  carry  their  crests  transversely  to  her  line  of  motion.  Those 
waves,  when  carefully  observed,  prove  to  have  the  form  shown  in 
detail  in  fig.  1.  In  the  figure  there  is  shown  the  form  of  a  model 
which  has  a  long  parallel  middle  body  accompanied  by  the  series 
of  these  transverse  waves  as  they  appear  at  some  one  particular 
speed  with  the  profile  of  the  series  defined  against  the  sido  of 
the  model ;  only  I  should  mention  that  for  the  sake  of  distinctness 
the  vertical  scale  of  the  waves  has  been  made  double  the  horizontal 
scale,  so  that  thev  appear  relatively  to  the  model  about  twice  as 
high  as  they  really  are.  The  profile  is  drawn  from  exact  and 
careful  measurements  of  the  actual  wave  features  as  seen  against 
the  side  of  the  model.  It  is  seen  that  the  wave  is  largest  where 
its  crest  first  appears  at  the  bow,  and  it  reappears  again  and  again 
as  we  proceed  sternwards  along  the  straight  side  of  the  model,  but 
with  successively  reduced  dimensions  at  each  reappearance.  That 
reduction  arises  thus  :— in  proportion  as  each  individual  wave  has 
been  longer  in  existence,  its  outer  end  has  spread  itself  farther  into 
the  undisturbed  water  on  either  side,  and,  as  the  total  energies  of 
the  wave  remain  the  same   the  local  energy  is  less  and  less,  and 


SHIPBUILDING 


81 


the  wave^crost,  as  viewed  aRsinst  the  ?iQO  of  tlie  ship,  is  constantly 
diminishing.  We  sec  the  wave-crest  is  almost  at  right  angles  to 
the  ship,  but  the  outer  end  is  slightly  JeiiecteJ  steruwarilfrom  the 


<^ 


Fig.  1. 

cjrcumstanc9"that  when  a  wave  is  entering  unaisturbed  water  its 
progress  is  a  little  retarded,  and  it  has  to  deflect  itself  into  an 
oblique  position,  so  that  its  oblique  progress  shall  enable  it  exactly 
to  keep  pace  with  the  ship.  The  whole  wave-making  resistance  is 
the  resistance  e.\pended  in  generating  first  the  diverging  bow  waves, 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  cease  to  act  on  the  ship  when  once  they 
have  rolled  clear  of  the  bow  ;  secondly,  these  transverse  waves,  the 
crests  of  which  remain  in  contact  with  the  ship's  side  ;  and  thirdly, 
the  terminal  wave,  which  appears  independently  at  the  stern  oftlio 
sliip.  This  latter  wave  arises  from  causes  similar  to  those  which 
create  the  bow  wave,  namely,  the  pressure  of  the  streams  which, 
forced  into  divergence  then,  here  converge  under  the  run  of  the 
vessel,  and  re-establish  an  excess  of  pressure  at  their  meeting. 
The  term  '  wave-making  resistance  '  represents,  then,  the  excess  of 
resistance  beyond  that  due  to  surface  friction,  and  that  excess  we 
know  to  be  chiefly  due  to  this  formation  of  waves  by  tlie  ship." 

Pursuing  these  experiments  it  was  found  that  not  only  was  there 
a  certain  length  of  form  necessary  in  a  ship  designed  to  attain  a 
certain  speed  economically,— a  fact  which  Mr  Scott  Kussell  did 
much  to  establish,— but  that  there  was  also  a  considerable  increase 
in  wave-making  resistance  dependent  upon  the  position  of  the  after- 
body or  run  of  the  ship  with  reference  to  the  wave-system  left  by 

the  bow.     Stating  this  again  in  Mr  Froude's  words  : 

"The  waves  generated  by  the  ship  in  passing  through  the 
.frater  originate  in  the  local  differences  of  pressure  caused  in  tlie 
surrounding  water  by  the  vessel  passing  tlirougli  it ;  let  us  suppose, 
then,  that  the  features  of  a  particular  form  are  sucli  that  these 
differences  of  pressure  tend  to  produce  a  variation  in  the  water 
level  shaped  just  like  a  natural  wave,  or  like  portions  of  a  natural 
wave  of  a  certain  length. 

"  Now  an  ocean  wave  of  a  certain  length  has  a  certain  appropriate 
speed  at  which  only  it  naturally  travels,  just  as  a  pendulum  of  a 
certain  length  has  a  certain  appropriate  period  of  swing  natural  to 
it.  And,  j,ust  as  a  small  force  recurring  at  intervals  corresponding 
to  the  natural  period  of  swing  of  a  pendulum  will  sustain  a  very 
large  oscillation,  so,  when  a  ship  is  travelling  at  the  speed  naturally 
appropriate  to  the  waves  which  its  features  tend  to  form,  the 
stream  line  forces  will  sustain  a  very  large  wave.  The  result  of 
tliis  phenomenon  is,  that  as  a  ship  apjiroaches  this  speed  the  waves 
become  of  exaggerated  size,  and  ran  away  with  a  proportionately 
exaggerated  amount  of  power,  causing  corresponding  resistance. 
This  is  the  cause  of  that  very  disproportionate  increase  of  resistance 
experienced  with  a  small  increase  of  BDced  when  once  a  certain 
speed  is  reached. 

"Wo  thus  see  that  the  speed  at  which  the  rapid  growth  of 
resistance  will  commence  is  a  speed  somewhat  less  than  that 
appropriate  to  the  length  of  the  wave  which  the  ship  tends  to  form. 
Now,  the  greater  the  len^'th  of  a  wave  is  the  higher  is  the  speed 
appropriate  to  it;  therefore  the  gi eater  the  Umglh  of  the  waves 
which  the  ship  tends  to  form  the  higher  will  bo  the  speed  at 
which  the  wave-making  resistance  begins  to  become  formidable. 
We  may  therefore  accept  it  as  an  approximate  principle  that  tho 
longer  are  the  features  of  a  sliip  which  tend  to  make  waves  tho 
higher  will  be  tho  speed  she  will  be  able  to  go  before  she  begins  to 
experience  great  wave-making  resistance,  and  the  less  will  bo  her 
wave-making  resistance  at  any  given  speed.  This  principle  is  tho 
explanation  of  the  extreme  importance  of  having  at  Ica.it  a  certain 
length  of  form  in  a  ahip  intended  to  attain  a  certain  speed  ;  for 
it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  avoid  great  wave-making  resistance, 
that  the  'ivavo  features,'  as  we  may  term  them,  should  be  long  iii 
comparison  with  tho  length  of  the  wave  which  would  naturally 
travel  at  tho  r>poed  intended  for  the  ship. 


"  This  view  of  the  matter,  thou,  recognizes  the  tendency  of  a 
ship,  when  tho  speed  bears  a  certain  relation  to  tho  length  of  her 
wave-making  (eaturcs.  to  make  large  waves  and  to  incur  correspond- 
ing wave-making  resistance.  But  it  does  not  tike  account  of  tho 
possibility  of  the  waves  made  by  one  feature  of  the  form  so  jilaciiig 
tliemsclves  with  reference  to  other  features  as,  by  the  dillerenccs 
of  pressure  essential  to  their  existence,  either  to  cause  an  additional 
resistance,  or  on  the  other  hand  to  cause  a  forward  force  which 
partly  counterbalances  the  resistance  originally  due  to  their 
creation.  The  way  in  which  this  may  occur  we  have  seen 
strikingly  exhibited  in  the  results  of  the  experiments  I  have  been 
describing.  We  see  that  in  the  very  long  paiallel-sided  form  the 
stcrnraost  of  the  train  of  waves  left  by  the  bow  has  become  so 
small  that  its  effect  on  the  stern  is  almost  insensible ;  and  hero 
we  find,  consequently,  the  united  resistance  due  simply  to  the 
generation  of  a  separate  wave-system  by  each  end  of  the  ship.  As 
we  gradually  reduce  the  length  of  middle-body,  the  stern  Ls  brought 
within  the  reach  of  waves  large  enough  to  produce  a  sensible  efi'ect, 
and  according  as  it  is  brought  into  conjunction  with  a  crest  or 
hollow,  the  total  wave-making  resistance  becoming  least  of  all 
(except  at  the  very  highest  speed)  when  the  middle-body  is  reduced 
to  nothing," 

The  variations  in  residuary  resistance  due  to  these  transverse 
wave-formations  are  variations  of  quasi-hydrostatic  prcssuie  against 
the  after-body,  corresponding  with  the  changes  in  its  position  with 
reference  to  the  phases  of  the  train  of  waves,  there  being  a  com- 
parative excess  of  pressure  (causing  a  forward  force  or  diminution 
of  resistance)  when  the  after-body  is  opposite  a  crest,  and  the 
reverse  when  it  is  opposite  a  trough. 

It  may  be  proper  to  introduce  here  some  remarks  as  to  the  stream 
lines  wliich  have  been  referred  to  in  the ,  foregoing  considerations. 
The  statement  of  the  case  as  given  by  Mr  Fronde,  and  derived 
by  him  mainlv  from  the  investigations  of  Prof.  Rankine,  is  as 
follows  : — 

'By  a  'perfect  fluid'  is  meant  one  the  displacements  of  wnich 
are  governed  solely  by  the  laws  expressed  in  the  equation  of  fluid 
motion,  the  particles  of  which  therefore  are  without  viscosity,  and 
are  capable  of  gliding  rectilinearly  along  a  perfectly  smooth  surface 
or  past  eacli  other  without  frictional  interference.  By  an  imperfect 
fluid  is  meant  one  in  which,  as  in  water,  as  well  as  those  with 
which  we  are  nractically  acquainted,  such  frictional  interference  is 
inevitable. 

"  Dealing  first,  then,  with  the  case  of  steady  rectilinear  motion 
in  a  perfect  incompressible  fluid,  infinitely  extended  in  all  directions, 
it  is  plain  that  the  motion  will  create  differences  of  pressure,  and 
therefore  changes  of  velocity,  in  the  particles  of  the  surrounding 
fluid,  which  thus  move  in  what  are  called  'stream  lines.'  At  the 
commencement  of  the  motion  of  the  body  the  particles  of  the  fluid 
undergo  acceleration  in  their  respective  stream-line  paths,  and 
these  accelerations  imply  a  resistance  experienced  by  the  body  ; 
but  after  the  motion  has  become  established  the  differences  of 
pressure  satisfy  themselves  by  keeping  up  the  stream-line  con- 
figuration ;  the  energy  which  the  particles  receive  from  tlie  body 
while  they  are  being  pushed  aside  by  it  along  their  stream-line 
paths  is  finally  redelivered  by  them  to  it  as  they  collapse  around 
it,  and  come  to  rest  after  its  passage,  and  the  integrals  of  tho  + 
and  -  pressures  on  the  body  are  exactly  equal  at  every  moment. 
The  manner  in  which  this  is  efl'ected  is  governed  by  the  general 
laws  of  fluid  motion,  as  expressed  by  the  well-known  equations : 
and,  since  these  equations  contain  no  term  which  inn^ilies  a  loss  of 
energy,  the  energy  existing  in  the  body,  as  well  as  in  the  stream- 
line system,  remains  unaltered  ;  so  that,  if  the  motion  is  steady, 
or  without  acceleration  or  retardation,  the  body  passes  through 
this  theoretically  perfect  fluid  absolutely  without  resistance.  Nor 
must  it  bo  thought  a  paradox  (for  it  is  unquestionable)  that  even 
a  plane  moving  steadily  at  right  angles  to  itself  through  a  perfect 
fluid  would  in  the  manner  described  experience  no  resistance.  But 
if  the  fluid,  instead  of  being  infinite  in  all  directions,  bo  bounded 
by  a  definite  free  surface  parallel  to  the  line  of  motion,  such  as  a 
water  level,  the  existence  of  this  surface  cuts  off  tho  reactions  of 
all  those  particles  whiih  would  have  existed  beyond  the  surf.acc 
had  tho  fluid  been  unlimited  alike  in  all  directions,  and  whii  h 
would  have  given  back  in  tho  manner  described  tho  energy  imported 
to  them.  By  the  absence  of  these  reactions  tho  streamline 
motions  which  would  have  existed  in  tho  infinite  fluid  are  modified, 
and  the  differences  of  pressure  involve  concspoudiiig  locjl  eleva- 
tions of  the  surface  of  tho  water  in  tlie  vicinity  of  the  moving  body. 
And  since,  in  con.sequeuce  of  the  action  of  gravitation  (the  fori-u 
which  controls  the  surface)',  a  water  protuberance  seeks  immediately 
to  disperse  itself  into  the  surrounding  fluid  in  aeeordame  with  tliu 
laws  of  wave  motion,  tho  locol  elevation  partly  discharges  itself 
along  the  surface  by  waves  which  carry  with  them  the  amount  of 
energy  einbo.iirrl  in  their  production.  Tliis  energy  is,  in  fact, 
part  of  the  ajgrogatc  energy  which  was  Impirted  to  the  |>articlca 
of  fluid  while  they  were  being  pushed  aside,  ond  which,  in  tho 
infinitely  extended  fluid,  would  have  been  wholly  restored  to  tho 
body  during  their  ccllapso  after  it«  passage,  but  ia  now,  in  fact, 


812 


SBIP BUILDING 


dissipated.  The  exact  equality  between  the  +  and  -  pressures  no 
longer  exists,  and  the  body  experiences  a  definite  resistance  which 
it  would  not  do  if  the  iluid  were  infinite  in  all  directions. 

It  is  clear,  moreover,  that  the  nearer  the  moving  body 
appiviiches  the  surface  the  greater  are  the  differences  of  pressure  to 
be  satisfied,  the  greater  will  be  the  waves  formed,  and  the  greater 
the  dissipation  of  energy.  Thus,  for  example,  a  fish  mil  experi- 
ence an  increase  of  resistance  as  its  path  lies  nearer  to  the  surface, 
the  train  of  waves  it  creates  becoming  then  a -visible  accompani- 
ment of  its  progress.  A  fortiori,  when  the  body  moves  along  the 
surface  as  a  ship  does  on  water,  those  differences  of  pressure  which 
would  exist  during  the  motion  if  the  fluid  were  infinite  in  all 
directions  satisfy  themselves  in  still  larger  waves,  which,  in  fact, 
are  the  waves  which  accompany  the  body  in  its  motion.  The 
wares  which  thus  visibly  accompany  a  vessel  in  transitu  form 
a  marked  phenomenon  in  river  steaming.  Thus  we  see  how, 
although  in  a  perfect  fluid  extended  infinitely  in  all  directions,  a 
body,  when  once  put  in  motion,  would  move  absolutely  without 
resistance,  yet,  when  the  fluid  is  bounded  by  a  gravitating  surface 
at  or  near  the  line  of  motion,  the  body  will  experience  resistance 
by  the  formation  of  waves,  notwithstanding  that  the  fluid  is  a 
perfect  one. 

"If  the  fluid  is  again  supposed  to  be  infinite  in  all  directions,  but 
imperfect,  the  phenomena  previously  described  undergo  appropriate 
modifications,  and  the  moving  body  will  also  suffer  a  specific 
resistance, — in  the  firat  place  by  its  having  to  overcome  the  friction 
and  viscosity  of  those  particles  of  the  fluid  with  which  it  is  in 
contact,  and  next  because  the  friction  of  the  surroimding  particles 
inter  se  destroys  that  orderly  arrangement  of  the  stream-line  con- 
figurxtion  which  allows  of  the  energy  imparted  to  the  particles 
being  returned  without  loss.  If  the  supposed  imperfect  fluid  is 
bounded  by  a  free  surface,  as  already  described,  and  the  body 
moves  at  or  near  this  surface,  it  will  experience  resistances  depend- 
ing on  fluid  friction,  almost  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  if  the 
fliud  were  infinite  in  all  directions.  It  will  also  experience  very 
nearly  the  same  resistance  in  virtue  of  the  wave-making  action  as 
in  the  perfect  fluid  ;  and  we  here  see  the  two  sources  of  resistance 
existing  independently  of  each  other,  and  due  to  totally  different 
causes. 
•ubllity.  Important  as  the  question  is  as  to  the  effect  of  form  upon  resist- 
ance, that  of  its  effect  upon  stability  or  steadiness  at  sea  is  even  more 
so.  Before  the  use  of  steam  for  the  propulsion  of  ships  the  speed 
which  could  be  attained  in  seagoing  ships  by  sail  power  was  largely 
a  question  of  stability  or  power  to  carry  a  large  spread  of  canvas 
without  inclining  or  "  heeling  "  too  greatly.  Small  differences  in  the 
form  of  the  transverse  sections  of  the  ship  in  the  region  of  the  load 
water-liue  and  und^r  water  were  influential  in  this  respect,  and 
naval  constructors  occupied  themselves  greatly  with  such  ques- 
tions. The  form  of  the  problem  completely  changes  when  the  pro- 
pelling power  is  no  longer  an  upsetting  force.  The  important 
questions  in  steam  ships  are  the  proportions  ofjength,  breadth,  and 
depth;  the  form  of  "entrance  and  "run";  the  construction  of 
propelling  machinery  within  the  ship  ;  and  the  proportions,  form, 
and  number  of  revolutions  of  the  propeller.  But,  while  this  is  so, 
the  effect  of  the  stability  of  the  steamship  upon  her  behaviour  at 
sea,  as  a  question  of  rolling  or  "labouring,"  remains  very  great. 
There  are,  moreover,  a  very  large  number  of  seagoing  ships  still 
dependent  upon  sails  for  their  propulsion,  and  the  question  of 
sailing  power  is  very  important  ia  vessels  employed  on  our  coasts 
for  commerce  and  for  pleasure.  The  latest  and  most  complete  in- 
vestigation of  questions  of  stability  is  to  be  found  in  Sir  Edward  J. 
Keed's  recently  published  work,  The  Stability  of  Ships.  There  is  a 
more  pdpular  exposition  of  the  subject  by  Mr  W.  H.  White,  director 
of  naval  construction,  in  his  Manual  of  Naval  Architecture  (1877, 
2d  ed.  1882),  of  which  use  has  been  made  tn  the  following  pages. 

A  ship  floating  freely  and  at  rest  in  still  water  displaces  a  volume 
of  water  exactly  equal  in  weight  to  her  own  weight.  The  circum- 
stances of  the  water  ia  which  she  floats  are  in  fact  the  same 
whether  the  cavity  made  in  the  water  by  the  ship  is  filled  by  the 
ship  as  in  fig.  2,  or  by  a  volume  of  water  having  the  same  weight 
as  the  ship  (fig.  3). 
When  the  ship  oc- 
cupies the  cavity 
the  whole  of  her 
weight  may  be  sup- 
posed to  be  con- 
centrated at  her 
centre  of  gravity, 
G,  fig.  2,  and  to  act  vertically  downwards. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


When  the  cavity  is 
filled  with  water  its  weight,  called  in  relation  to  the  ship  the 
"  displacement,"  may  be  supposed  to  be  concentrated  at  B,  fig.  3, 
which  is  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  "displacement"  or  of  the 
displaced  water.  This  centre  of  gravity  is  usually  known  in 
relation  to  the  ship  as  the  "centre  of  buoyancy."  The  weight  of 
this  water  may  be  supposed  to  be  concentrated  at  B,  and  to  act 
▼erticall^  downwards.  As  this  water  would  remain  in  the  cavity 
•A  rest,  Its  downward  nressure  must  bs  balanced  by  equal  upward 


Fig  4. 


pressures,  that  is  by  the  buoyancy  of  the  surrounding  water. 
Tliese  upward  pressures  must  act  in  the  same  way  as  if  there  were 
a  smgle  pressure  equal  and  opposite  to  the  weight  of  the  water, 
and  actiug  through  the  "  centre  of  buoyancy."  In  fig.  2  a  ship  i^ 
represented  floating  freely  and  at  rest  in  still  water.  Her  total 
weight  may  be  supposed  to  act  vertically  downwards  through  th* 
centre  of  gravity  G,  and  the  buoyancy  vertically  upwards  through 
tlie  centre  of  buoyancy.  The  second  condition  which  the  ship 
floating  freely  and  at  rest  in  still  water  will  always  satisfy  is  there- 
fore said  to  be  that  her  centre  of  gravity  will  lie  in  the  same 
vertical  line  with  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  volume  of  water 
which  she  displaces.  So  long  as  the  ship  rests  under  the  action  of 
these  opposing  and  balanced  forces  the  line  joining  the  centres  B 
and  G  is  vertical  and  represents  the  common  'line  of  action  of  the 
weight  and  buoyancy.  There  are  of  course  horizontal  fluid  pres- 
sm'es  acting  upon  her,  but  these  are  balanced  among  themselves. 

The  ship  may  be  floating  at  rest,  but  under  constraint,  and  not 
freely.  There  may  be  the  pressure  of  wind  on  the  sails,  or  the 
strain  of  a  rope  holding  her  in  a  position  of  rest  although  the 
centres  B  and  G  are  no  longer  in  the  same  vertical  line>  Fig.  4 
representssuch  a  case. 
The  vessel  is  at  rest, 
but  there  is  some  ex- 
ternal force  operating 
other  than  that  of 
buoyancy ;  and  the 
equal  and  opposite 
forces  of  the  weight 
and  buoyancy  act  iu 
different  vertical  lines, 
and  no  longer  balance 
each  other.  They 
form  a  mechanical 
"couple,"  tendihg  to 
move  the  ship  from 
the  position  of  con- 
strained rest  in  which 
she  is  shown.  If  W 
represents  the  total 
weight  of  the  ship  (iu 
tons),  and  d  the  per- 
pendicular distance  between  the  parallel  lines  of  action  of  tlie  weight 
and  buoyancy  (in  feet),  then  the  operative  moment  of  the  "couple  " 
is  represented  by  the  product  of  the  two  quantities  W  and  d,  mea- 
sured in  foot-tons.  If  the  constraint  is  removed,  and  the  vessel  is 
freed  from  all  external  forces  save  those  of  the  fluid  in  which  she 
floats,  she  will  move  under  the  operation  of  the  "  couple  "  towards 
the  upright  position  until  the  consequent  alteration  in  the  form  of 
the  cavity  of  the  displacement  brings  the  centre  of  buoyancy  into  the 
same  vertical  with  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  ship.  What  has  been 
illustrated  by  reference  to  transverse  inclination  of  the  ship  is 
equally  true  of  oblique  or  longitudinal  inclinations.  If  the  position 
of  the  weights  in  the  ship  remains  unaltered  under  such  changes  of 
inclination  the  centre  of  gravity  remains  unaltered.  In  all  calcula- 
tions it  has  to  be  assumed  that  the  centre  of  gravity  is  a  fixed  point 
in  the  ship,  and  that  movable  weights  will  be  secured  in  the  ship. 
With  this  assumption  the  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  a  ship 
can  be  correctly  assigned  by  calculation,  small  disturbances  caused 
by  movements  of  men,  &c.,  not  being  large  enough  to  be  appreciable. 

The  statical  stability  of  a  ship  may  be  defined  as  the  effort  whi«h 
she  makes  when  inclined  steadily  by  external  forces  to  overcome 
the  constraint  and  return  to  the  position  in  which  she  floats  freely, 
at  or  near  the  upright.  This  effort,  as  already  explained,  depends 
upon  the  position  Df  the  centre  of  buoyancy  B,  or  the  distance 
from  the  vertical  line  through  G  which  the  altered  form  of  the 
cavity  of  the  displacement  has  caused  it  to  assume.  It  may  always 
be  measured  by  the  product  of  the  two  quantities  W  (in  tons)  and 
d  (in  feet)  (see  fig.  i).  This  product  in  foot-ton.s  is  known  as  the 
"moment  of  statical  stability  for  the  particular  angle  of  inclina- 
tion and  corresponding  position  of  B  which  are  assumed.  A  little 
reflexion  will  show  that  when  large  angles  of  inclination  are  reached 
the  centre  B  ceases  to  recede  from  the  vertical  through  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  ship,  but  will,  as  the  inclination  increases,  approach 
this  vertical  line,  and  eventually  pass  to  the  other  side  of  it. 

The  moment  of  statical  stability  is  at  its  maximum  when  the 
distance  d  is  greatest.  The  angle  which  the  ship  has  reached 
when  the  centre  B  has  reached  this  pohit  is  called  the  "angle  of 
maximum  stability."  As  the  centre  B  travels  backwards  from 
this  position  with  the  increasing  inclination  of  the  ship  the  dis- 
tance d  decreases  and  the  righting  power  of  the  ship  decreases  pro- 
portionately. When  B  passes  the  vertical  line  through  G  the 
moment  of  stability  changes  its  character  and  becomes  an  upset- 
ting force,  which  will  continue  to  act  until  the  ship  reaches  a  new 
position  of  rest,  usually  bottom  upwards.  The  angle  which  the 
ship  reaches  before  this  change  takes  place,  i.e.,  when  B  passes  to 
the  other  side  of  the  vertical  line  through  G,  is  called  the  "angle 
of  vanishing  stability"   and  it  indicates  the  ship's    "range -of 


S  U  I  P  B  U  I  L  D  1  N  G 


813 


stability."  Tlie  dining  may  occur  at  vciy  small  angles  if  the  ship 
is  crank  and  her  siiles  aie  low  in  the  water.  It  may  not  ami 
sometimes  does  not  occur,  on  the  other  liaud.  until  the  ship  is 
Ijiug  on  her  beam  ends. 

If  a  curve  is  plotted  out  showing  these  positions  and  indicating 
also  Low  d  fii-st  increases  and  then  decreases  .ns  the  sliip  is  inclined 
iQOTO  and  more  from  the  upright,  the  curve  is  known  as  the  curve  of 
stability.  A  "stiff 
sliip"  is  one  which 
opposes  great  resist- 
ance to  inclination 
from  the  upright 
when  under  sail  or 
acted  ujion  by  e.\- 
ternal  forces.  A 
"crank  ship"  is  one 
very  easily  inclined, 
the  sea  being  sup- 
jiosed  to  be  smooth 
andstill.  A  "steady 
ship  "  is  one  which  when  exposed  to  the  action  of  waves  keeps  nearly 
upright.  Crank  ships  are  usually  the  steadiest  ships.  Changes  in 
the  neight  of  the  point  of  intersection  M  (fig.  4)  above  the  centre 
of  gravity  indicate  corresponding  changes  in  the  stillness  of  a  ship. 
Speaking  generally,  the  stillness  of  the  ship  may  be  considered  to 
vary  with  the  height  of  M  above  G.  The  lino  BJf  does  not  cut 
GM  in  the  same  point  at  considerable  inclinations  as  it  docs  at  a 
very  small  inclination.  The  point  of  intersection  at  the  smallest 
conceivable  inclination  receives  a  definite  name.  It  is  known  as 
tlio  metaeentre,  and  the  distanee  GJi  is  in  this  condition  called  the 
me.tacentric  height.     See  Hydromechanics. 

The  following  table  contains  particulars  of  the  metacentric 
heights  of  different  kinds  of  vessels  of  war,  and  the  corresponding 
time  of  an  oscillation  in  still  water  : — 


Fig.  5. —Curve  of  .>.tabUUy  of  a  hipli-sided  sliip.  Iiavin^' 
small  metacentric  iieifilit.  Tlie  verticjil  line  to  left 
shows  the  various  lengths  of  <t,  nnd  the  hoiizontal 
line  the  angles  of  inclination  (in  (leRrccs). 


Names  of  Ships. 

Metacentric 
Height. 

Period  of  a 
Double  Roll. 

Seconds. 
8-9 
8-0 
676 

27 

107 

H.M.S.  "Sultan," 

Feet. 
2  5 

11. M.S.  "Inconstant,"  

2-8 

H.M.S.  "  Devastation," 

37 
14-0 

7-65 

American  monitor  (shallow  draft) 

"Inflexible,"    when    rolled    in    still 
water  in  Suda  Bay 

Generally  speaking,  decrease  in  metacentric  height  is  accompanied 
by  a  lengthening  of  the  period  of  an  oscillation.  The  ship  swings 
more  slowly  as  she  loses  stiffness. 

There  is  no  sensible  difference  in  the  time  occupied  by  a  ship  in 
a  swing  or  roll  from  side  to  side,  whether  she  rolls  through  only 
three  or  four  degrees  on  cither  side  of  the  uptight  or  twelve  or 
fifteen  degrees.     For  larger  angles  there  would  be  small  differences. 

The  tables  which  have  been  given  show  some  remarkable 
changes  in  the  stability  conditions  in  ships  of  war  within  recent 
years.  Sailing  ships  were  formei-ly  made  with  so  little  deviation 
from  existing  types  that  it  was  not  found  to  be  necessary  to  ascertain 
their  exact  measure  of  stability  or  to  by  down  rules  for  regulating 
it.  The  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity  was  modified  by  ballast, 
and  OS  much  as  nine  or  ten  per  cent,  of  the  displacement  was 
allowed  for  this.  Heavy  rolling  and  great  unensincss  of  ship  from 
excessive  stability  had  often  to  be  enduied.  In  other  cases  crank- 
ness  or  inability  to  carry  sail  had  to  bo  accepted.  'When  armouied 
ships  were  first  introduced  they  had  about  the  same  metacentric 
height  (6  feet)  as  is  to  bo  fouml  in  the  earlier  sailing  frigates. 
Tho  "Normandio"  in  the  French  navy  and  the  "  I'rince  Consort" 
in  the  F.nglish  navy  had  from  3  to  7  feet,  nnd  they  were  exceed- 
ingly uneasy  and  deep-rolling  ships.  It  was  soon  discovered 
that  a  reduction  in  metacentric  height  would  enre  this  evil.  The 
later  ships  in  both  navies  were  accordingly  designed  to  liave  a 
hietacentric  height  of  .about  3  feet.  Tho  "Magenta"  had  3.]  feet 
and  tho  "Hercules"  3  feet.  This  change  nltereii  the  period 
during  which  tho  ship  made  a  double  oscillation,  i.e.,  from  star- 
board back  to  starboard,  to  14  to  10  seconds  instead  of  10  to  11 
8CCond.s,  as  it  had  boon  in  tho  "Norniandie"  and  "Prince  Con- 
sort." Tho  effect  on  tho  behaviour  of  the  ship  in  a  seaway  was 
most  remarkable.  These  ships  with  small  metacentric  height 
might  be  put  into  the  trough  of  a  sea,  and  as  tho  waves  crossed 
them  they  steadily  rose  and  fell,  hardly  inclining  their  masts.  Tho 
effect  on  gunnery  practice  was  also  valuable,  but  there  is  always  a 
peril  attending  steadiness  obtained  by  such  means  :  vessels  having 
smaU.  metacentric  height  rc([uiro  careful  handling  under  sail  or 
they  may  bo  overset  and  lost.  There  is  another  defect  in  this 
system,  viz.,  that  wounds  in  action  will  cause  tho  ship  to  incline 
6ooncr  and  more  consiilcrably,  and  they  become  Tnoro  dangerous 
tlian  they  would  bo  in  a  stiffcr  ship.  Rilgo-keels  and  water- 
chamlwrs  oro  now  employed  in  the  English  navy,  together  with, 
und  as  opposing  inHueacos  to,  much  groater  mctaceiitric  height. 


These  devices  were  introduced  into  the  "Inflexible"  in  o'.-.'»r  to 
counteract  the  intluenrc  of  a  metacentric  height  of  8  feet  which 
was  dfsigucilly  given  to  hei'.  They  have  provt^d  very  cfTective, 
but  there  is  another  feature  in  this  vessel  which  h.a.s  temliil  to 
prevent  uneasiness  and  heavy  rtdling.  The  time  of  an  oscillation, 
or  quickness  of  rolling,  depends  not  only  upon  the  metacentric 
height  but  upon  the  moment  of  inertia  aliout  a  longitudinal  axis. 
The  time  of  an   oscillatiou   from  starboard  to  starboard  m.ay  b« 

written  thus  : —  

2T  =  riVK-7»'.  ' 
where  T  is  the  ship's  period  in  seconds  for  a  single  roll,  yi  is  tho 
metacentiic  height,  or  height  of  metaeentre  above  the  centre  of 
gr.ivity  in  feet,  and  IC  is  tlio  r.adius  of  gyration  in  feet.  Tho 
moment  of  inertia  is  increased  by  widening  the  ship,  imlting 
heavy  armour  on  her  sides,  nnd  placing  the  turrets  and  guns 
out  towaids  the  siilcs  of  the  ship.  It  was  seen  that  these  features 
in  tho  "Inlle.\il)le,"  which  were  elements  in  her  design,  would 
favour  her  and  tend  to  counteract  the  gicat  metacentric  height. 
The  event  has  shown  that,  while  a  metacentiic  height  of  6  feet  in 
the  "  Normandie"  gave  10  seconds  to  11  secomls  period,  8  feet  in 
the  "  Inflexible"  only  gives  11  seconds  as  a  jieriod,  corresponding 
with  a  radius  of  gyration  of  28  feet.  The  feeling  expressed  that 
"in  order  to  provide  against  the  impossible  conlingcney  of  tho 
loss  of  stability  by  complete  waterlogging  of  tho  ends  we  had, 
made  an  intolerable  ship'  was  not  ju.stified.  The  ship  is  now  so 
stiff  that  when  the  ends  are  waterlogged  the  running  in  and  out 
of  all  her  guns  on  one  side  only  inclines  her  21  degrees,  while  ill 
the  "  Monarch"  when  iutact  and  light  the  same  operation  inclines 
the  ship  5  degrees. 

The  resistance  offered  by  the  water  to  the  rolling  of  tho  shijl 
consists  of  three  parts  : — (1)  that  due  to  the  rubbing  of  the  water 
against  the  bottom  of  the  shiji  as  she  rolls  ;  (2)  that  due  to  the 
flat  surfaces  which  are  carried  through  tho  water,  such  as  outside 
keels  and  deadwood  ;  (3)  the  creation  of  waves  by  the  rolling 
ship  to  replace  those  which  move  away  from  tho  ship.  Tho 
creation  of  these  surface  waves  expends  cncigy  and  checks  tho 
motion  of  the  ship  which  makes  the  creative  eilbrt. 

Mr  White,  giving  bricfiy  the  results  of  some  of  tho  c.\perinicnt3 
of  Jlr  Froude  made  for  the  Admiralty,  says  : — 

"  Experiments  have  been  made  by  Mr  Froude  to  show  how 
rapidly  the  rate  of  extinction  maybe  increasedby  deepening  bilge-  Btlgfr 
keels.  A  model  of  the  'Devastation'  was  used  for  this  purpose,  UeelS 
and  fitted  with  bilge-keels,  which,  on  the  full-sized  shii>s,  would 
represent  the  various  depths  given  in  the  following  tabic.  Tho 
model  was  one  thirty-sixth  of  the  full  size  of  the  sliiji,  and  wa:; 
weighted  so  as  to  float  at  the  proper  water-line,  to  have  its  centre 
of  gravity  in  the  same  relative  position  as  that  of  the  ship,  and  to 
oscillate  in  a  period  proportional  to  tho  period  of  the  ship.  In 
smooth  water  it  was  heeled  to  an  angle  of  84  degrees,  and  was  then 
set  free,  and  allowed  to  oscillate  until  it  came  )iractically  to  rest, 
the  number  of  oscillations  and  their  period  being  observed.  Tho 
following  results  were  obtained  : — 


Slodel  fitted  with 

Nunilirr  of  Double 

noils  before  Jlodcl 

was  iirrtcllcally 

ut  rest. 

rolled  of 

Doublu 

Kill. 

Xu  bil^c-pieces 

311 

12i 

u 

4 

SccuniN. 

177 

1-9 

1-9 

1-92 

1-99 

A  single  2J  -inch  bilgo-kecl  on  each  side 

,.      36-iucU          „                  ., 
Two  36-ineh                ,,                  ,, 
A  single  72-inch         ,,                  ,, 

"  Not  content  with  obtaining  tho  oggrcgato  valuo  of  tho  resistances 
for  ships,  Mr  Froude  has  separated  tliem  into  their  component 
)iarts,  assigning  values  to  frictional  and  keel  resistances  as  well  as 
to  surface  disturl)ance.  In  doing  so,  ho  has  been  led  to  the  con- 
clusion that  surface  ilisturbance  is  by  far  the  most  important  ['art 
of  the  resistance  offered  to  rolling,  as  the  following  figures  givci: 
by  him  for  a  few  ships  will  show  : — 


Stilps. 

Frictional. 

Keel.  Dlliicliccl. 
and  Dead  wood. 

Total 
ncal5lancc. 

Surface 
DUturUancc, 

Sultan 

354 

140 

9G 

120 

5,036 

4,060 

2,914 

700 

20,000 

21,500 

14,100 

4,700 

14,610 

17,300 

11,060 

3,880 

Inconstant 

Greyhound 

"  Frictional  and  bilgo-koel  rcsisLincca  in  this  table  have  bcou 
obtained  by  calculation  from  the  drawings  of  the  shij),  Mr  FrOud* 
making  use  of  data  as  lo  coclhcients  for  friction  and  for  head 
resistance  which  ho  had  previously  obtained  by  independent 
experiments,  and  which  mav  therefore  bo  regarded  as  leading  to 
thoroughly  trustworthy  results.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  no  cno" 
docs  tho  sum  of  tho  frictional  and  keel  rcsistaacoa  much  exceed 


814 


SHIPBUILDING 


one-fourth  of  the  total  resistance,  trhile  it  is  much  less  than  one- 
fourth  iu  other  cases.  The  consequence  is  that  surface  disturbance 
must  be  credited  with  the  contribution  of  three-fourths  or  there-  . 
abouts  of  the  total  resistance,  a  result  which  could  scarcely  have 
been  predicted.  Waves  are  constantly  being  created  as  the  vessel 
rolls,  and  as  constantly  moving  away,  and  the  mechanical  ivorlc 
done  iu  this  Vay  reacts  in  a  reduction  o£  the  amplitude  of  successive 
oscillations.  Very  low  waves,  so  low  as  to  be  almost  impercept- 
ible, owing  to  their  gieat  length  in  proportion  to  their  height, 
would  suffice  to  account  even  for  this  large  proportionate  effect. 
For  example,  Jlr  Froude  estimates  that  a  wave  S'20  feet  long  and 
only  IJ  inches  in  height  would  fully  account  for  all  the  work 
credited  to  soi'face  disturbance  in  the  fourth  case  of  the  preceding 
table. 

"  Another  important  deduction  &-om  the  figures  in  the  table  is 
the  large  proportionate  effect  of  '  keel '  resistitnce  as  compared 
with  frictioual  resistance,  thus  establishing  the  advantages  of  deep 
bilge-keels.  Ships  of  the  Koyal  Navy  recently  constructed  have 
been  furnished  wuh  much  deeper  bilge-keels  than  were  formerly 
in  use,  but  a  limit  to  the  depths  that  can  be  fitted  is  often 
reached,  because  of  the  necessity  for  compliance  with  certain  con- 
ditions and  extreme  dimensions,  in  order  that  the  vessels  may  be 
able  to  enter  existiug  docks." 

In  the  Royal  Navy  advantage  has  also  been  taken  of  the  power 
of  loose  water  within  a  ship  to  quell  motion.  It  was  first  employed 
iu  the  "  Inflexible  "  in  a  part  of  the  ship  lyi'.g  above  the  bomb- 
proof deck,  and  at  the  level  of  the  water-line.  Its  use  resulted  from 
a  discussion,  when  the  "  Inflexible  "  was  designed,  of  the  probable 
effect  of  water  entering  this  region  of  the  ship  through  shot  holes. 
The  matter  has  since  been  thoroughly  established  by  experiment, 
and  affords  a  new  and  valuable  means  of  preventing  heavy  rolling 
in  ships  having  large  initial  stability.  There  is  now  no  hesitation 
in  giving  a  metacentric  height  of  6  feet,  and  obtaining  all  the 
security  against  upsetting  which  this  ensures,  because  it  is  felt 
that  the  violent  rolling  formerly  inseparable  from  stiffness  can  be 
prevented.  The  investigation  into  this  matter  has  been  cosducted 
by  Mr  Philip  Watts,  Mr  R.  E.  Froude,  and  Mr  W.  E.  Smith, 
acting  for  the  Admiralty. 

The  accompanying  memorandum,  prepared  by  the  present  writer 
in  1884,  gives  tlie  general  results  : — 

'  In  investigating  the  phenomena  attending  the  use  of  water  as 
a  means  of  quelling  the  motion  of  ships,  Mr  Froude  has  not  only 
taken  advantage  of  the  experiments  made  in  the  '  Edinburgh '  by 
running  men  across  the  decks,  but  he  has  also  studied  similar 
phenomena  in  a  model  water-chamber,  mounted,  rot  on  a  model  of 
a,  ship,  but  on  a  large  pendulum  weighted  to  the  required  'period,' 
the  relative  level  of  the  model  chamber  and  the  axis  of  rotation 
being  made  to  correspond  approximately  to  scale  with  that  in  the 
ship. 

"  The  conclusious,  stated  in  the  form  of  a  comparison  between  the 
quelling  effects  of  bilge-keels  and  of  moving  water,  are  as  follows: — 
(1)  There  is  a  certain  depth  of  water  in  the  chamber  which  gives 
the  maximum  effect ;  this  is  dependent  upon  the  width  of  the 
chamber  and  the  period  of  the  ship.  (2)  With  this  depth  of  water 
the  growth  of  resistance  to  rolling  commences  almost  at  zero  of 
angle,  whereas  with  either  a  greater  or  less  depth  there  is  practically 
no  resistance  at  all  due  to  the  water  up  to  a  certain  angle,  which 
angle  increases  with  increase  of  departure  from  the  proper  depth. 
(3)  At  larger  angles  of  roll  the  disadvantage  of  departure  Irom 
the  proper  depth  of  water  is  not  marked.  (4)  The  resistance  of 
water  in  a  chamber  does  not  increase  at  all  uniformly  with  increase 
of  angle  of  roU,  but  increases  rapidly  at  first  and  at  the  larger 
angles  becomes  more  nearly  constant  for  all  angles.  (5)  The  best 
quantity  of  water  for  the  original  chamber  in  the  '  Edinburgh ' 
was  43  tons  ;  the  best  for  the  chamber  enlarged  by  removal  of  cork 
walls  was  79  tons  ;  and  the  best  for  the  chamber  extending  to  the 
sides  of  the  ship  would  be  100  tons.  The  first-named  extension 
improved  the  resistance  at  10°  by  21  per  cent.,  and  the  further 
extension  by  another  22  per  cent. 

"  As  compared  with  bilge-keels  the  matter  is  stated  as  follows  : — 
while  2  feet  addition  to  the  breadth  of  the  bilge-keels  adds  in 
round  numbers  two-thirds  to  the  existing  extinguishing  power  of 
hull  and  bilge-keels  on  the  '  Edinburgh '  at  all  angles  of  rolling, 
the  fully  extended  water-chamber  adds  at  3°  of  roll  about  six  rimes, 
and  at  5°  about  thfte  times  that  power  ;  at  12°  the  chamber  adds 
no  more  than  2  feet  of  bilge-keel,  whOe  at  18°  it  only  adds  half  as 
much.  It  is  therefore  e.'ident  that,  whUe  both  are  Taluable,  the 
water-chamber  is  for  most  kinds  of  service  much  the  more  >aiuable 
cf  the  two. 

"  Explaining  the  canse  of  the  phenomena,  Mr  Froude  says : — 

"  *The  extinguisTiiniT  or  quelling  effect  of  water  depends,  of  course,  cxteris 
paribus,  upon  the  value  of  the  moment  represented  by  the  transference 
of  water  from  side  to  side,  i.«.,  with  a  given  quantity  of  water,  upon  the 
distance  moved  by  its  centre  of  gravity.  This  distance  increases  with 
increase  of  angle  of  roll,  and  consequently  the  extinction  similarly  increases 
np  to  a  ctrtain  poii.t,  where  we  appear  to  have  approximately  reached  the 
maximum  possible  transference  of  water,  and  consequently  the  maximum 
extinction  of  which  the  (.uantity  of  water  is  capable  with  the  dimensions  of 
tbe  clumber.    Ihis  point  occurs  generally  at  a  moderate  angle,  and  above 


this  angle  the  extinction  becomes  practically  constant.  But  the  extinguish- 
ing effect  of  the  water  of  course  lar<:ely  depends  also  upon  the  tiniin;,'  of  it© 
motion  from  side  to  side, — the  extuictiou  being  greatest  when  tliut  inotion 
takes  place  most  nearly  at  the  time  of  extreme  angle  of  ship,  i.e.,  in  suclx  a 
manner  as  that  the  water  may  be  as  much  as  possible  running  downliill 
when  it  is  moving  across,  and  as  much  as  possible  upon  the  rising  side  of 
the  ship  when  it  is  stationary.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  tlie  motion  of  the 
water  across  were  to  take  place  when  the  ship  is  quite  upright,  tlie  extiuctiou 
would  be  nil.  It  is  tlierefore  conceivable  that  for  the  same  total  degree  of 
motion  or  tran5ferenc3  of  water  we  may  have  a  very  different  "degree 
of  extinction,  according  to  the  timing  of  that  motion.  In  the  motion  9t 
tile  water  energy  is  necessarily  wasted,  and  it  is  clear  that,  if  we  ore  dealing 
with  a^periiianent  condition  of  things,  i.e.,  if  the  ship  is  being  steadily 
maintained  at  a  constant  angle  of  roll,  this  waste  of  energy*  in  each  run  of 
water  from  side  to  side  must  be  exactly  equal  to  the  energy  taken  out  of  the 
ship  in  each  swing  by  the  extinction.  'The  motion  of  the  water  may  be  and 
generally  is  of  a  type  ver>'  wasteful  of  energy,  the  water  eitiier  rushing 
acrosB  in  a  mass,  and  consuming  its  energ>'  by  breaking  with  great  violence 
against  the  opposite  side,  as  it  does  at  tlie  larger  angles  of  rolling,  or,  at 
more  moderate  angles,  running  across  to  a  breaking  wave  or  bore,  which 
consumes  its  energy  as  it  goes  in  its  owu  uiternal  resistance ;  and  under 
these  circumstances  the  timing  of  the  motion  appears  invariably  to  approach 
pretty  nearly  to  that  giving  the  maximum  sxtinction  for  the  degree  of 
motion.  Cut  the  motion  of  the  water  sometimes  takes  the  form  of  a  mere 
alternating  slope  of  sui-face,'or  tidal  swing  from  side  to  side,  and  here  there 
is  very  little  waste  of  energy,  the  energy  of  motion  of  the  How  of  water  in 
one  direction  being  converted  into  potential  energy  in  the  shape  of  rise  of 
water  at  the  side,  and  then  given  out  again  to  the  water  flowing  back  to  tho 
other  side,  and  so  on.  The  waste  of  enei-gy  in  this  form  of  motion  being 
almost  uiL,  the  timing  is  almost  exactly  that  appropriate  to  no  extinction, 
the  water  being  in  tlie  middle  of  its  passage  across  and  the  surface  being 
level  when  the  ship  is  upright.' 

"  The  value  of  the  chamber  of  course  increases  as  its  length  in 
the  direction  of  the  keel  of  the  ship  increases.  The  actuil  size  of 
the  chamber  we  adopted  appears  to  give  valuable  results,  although 
its  extent  was  necessarily  limitejl. " 

Tabular  Statcnwnt  of  Results  of  the  Above  Experiments. 


Empty 

Chamber. 

Existing 

Bilge-keels. 

Fully 
Extended 
Chamber. 

Empty  Cliamber. 

Two  Feet  addj. 

tional  Width  of 

Bilge-keel. 

Wave' 
Slope. 

Steady  rolling   in   co-J 

•5 
10 
15 
20 

■5 

lo; 

15 
20 

e 

■9 

3-8 
10-5 
IG-C 

1-3 
4-5 
10-7 
10 -6 

S-8 
T-5 
111 
147 

if] 

n-2 

14  S 

■SO 
1-22 

2-C.-! 
4-59 

•47 
1-S2 
2-C7 
4-64 

Irregnl.ir  rolling  repre-'\ 
sented  by  angle  accu- 
mulated from  rest  in  > 
five     succeesive     co- 
peiiodic  waves J 

In  some  lectures  recently  delivered  Mr  Smith,  assistant  con- 
structor of  the  navy,  illustrated  the  uje  of  water  in  qucHing 
motion  by  models  as  shown  below. 


Fig.  6. 

"  The  models  represented  the  midship  sections'ot  the  *  Admiral  *  class,  and 
were  both  of  the  same  weight  and  size.  Each  model  was  mounted  on 
trunnions,  marked  T,  and  both  oscillated  freely  on  these  trunnions  in 
exactly  the  same  time.  The  models  were  placed  one  behind  the  other,  so 
that  the  parallelism  of  the  masts  was  evident  to  the  audience.  The  model 
in  fig.  7  was  provided  with  a  glass  tube  into  which  varying  quantities  of 
water  could  be  put.  An  amount  of  water  representing  ,U  of  the  total 
weight  of  the  model,  i.e  100  tons  in  a  10,000-ton  ship,  was  now  placed  in 
the  tube,  the  models  wer  started  from  the  same  angle  as  before,  and  the 
model  with  the  loose  water,  instead  of  keeping  up  exactly  with  the  other, 
or  rolling  more  violently,  came  almost  instantaneously  to  rest. 

"  The  tube  was  filled  with  varying  quantities  of  water,  and  the  effect  was 
always  to  stop  the  model  much  sooner  than  tiie  model  with  no  weights  free 
to  move.  The  two  models  were  always  started  from  the  same  angle,  so  that 
their  relative  behaviour  could  be  easily  seen.  When  the  tube  was  c|Uito 
full  there  »~  i  practically  no  effect.  The  two  models  rolled  almost  toL;ct!ier. 
The  same  effect  resulted  fr^m  the  motion  of  a  marble  representing  in 
weight  1 JO  tons  in  a  ship  of  10,000  tons.  The  same  reduction  must  always 
ocivu"  )«  a  rolling  ship  if  we  have  a  loose  weight  of  any  kind,  whether  tho 


SHIPBUILDING 


S\i 


s-elght  be  water  or  a  pun.  If  this  reduction  did  not  take  place  we  should 
have  soraethinK  to  explain  which  would  be  quite  inexplionhte.  For  suppose 
we  have  two  ships  alike  iti  al!  respects  as  rce;irtls  size,  shapejWvciplit,  time 
of  oscillation,  A:c.,  and.  sit»atc<i  on  precisely  the  same  sons.  l>ut  oue  having 
nil  her  \vci;:Ius  properly  secured,  and  the  otlu*r  with  a  weiglit  capablo  of 
trnversiUK  tlie  deck  every  time  the  ship  rolls.  If  the  two  vessels  were  to 
roll  to  exactly  tl;e  ?ame  extent  we  should  have  the  sea  not  only  rolling  the 
sliip  with  the  loose  weight  to  tho  same  extent  as  the  ship  with  All   licr 


A 


L 


vei^hta  flxen,  but  the  sea  would,  in  addition,  be  doing  all  the  worK  invoived 
In  the  traversing  of  the  heavy  weight  across  tiie  deck,  wliich  Is  quite 
Impossible  under  the  circumstances  of  perfect  similarity  we  hiive  supposed. 
The  sea  can  only  do  the  same  work  on  both.  In  tile  one  case  that  work 
consists  entirely  in  rolling  the  vessel,  in  the  other  it  consists  partly  of 
Hilling  the  ship  and  partly  in  dashing  the  weight  about.  The  rolling  in  the 
latter  must  therefore  inevitably  be  less  than  in  the  former  case." 

Dynamical  stability  is  the  "  work  "  clone  or  energy  expended  in 
heeiing  the  ship  from  the  upi-ight  to  any  inclined  position.  Tho 
unit  of  "  work  "  employed  in  measuring  dynamical  stability  is  a  foot- 
ton.  When  tho  vessel  is  gradually  inclined  the  forces  inclining 
her  must  do  work  depending  upon  the  amount  of  the  statical 
stability  at  the'successivo  instantaneous  inclinations  passed  througli, 
and  these  are  given  by  the  curve  of  stability  already  described. 
Dynamical  stability  is  of  value  as  a  means  of  comparing  tlie 
resistance  of  ships  to  upsetting  under  the  action  of  suddenly 
applied  forces,  such  as  squalls  of  wind.  Illustrating  this 
Mr  White  says  : — 

'  Koughly  speaking,  it  may  be  said  that  a  force  of  wind  which, 
steadily  and  continuously  applied,  will  heel  a  ship  of  ordinary  form 
to  a  certain  angle  will,  if  it  strikes  her  suddenly  when  slie  is 
upright,  drive  her  over  to  about  twice  that  inclination,  or  in  some 
cases  further  still.  A  parallel  case  is  that  of  a  spiral  spring  ;  if  a 
weight  be  suddenly  brought  to  bear  upon  it,  the  extension  will  be 
about  twice  as  great  as  that  to  which  the  same  weight  hanging 
steadily  will  stretch  the  spring.  The  explanation  is  simple. 
When  the  whole  weight  is  suddenly  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
spring,  tho  resistance  wliich  the  spring  can  offer  at  each  instant, 
up  to  the  time  when  its  extension  supplies  a  force  equal  to  the 
weight,  is  always  less  than  the  weight ;  and  this  unbalanced  force' 
stores  up  work  which  carries  the  weight  onwards,  and  about 
doubles  tho  extension  of  the  spring  corresponding  to  that  weight 
when  at  rest." 

Structure. 

Tho  changes  whicn  nave  come  about  in  materials  and  mooes  of 
construction  within  the  last  60  years  have  been  most  rcmaikablo. 
The  first  steamer  built  expressly  for  regular  voyages  between 
Europe  and  America  was  not  built  until  1837.  Dr  Lardner  stated 
at  about  this  date  :  "We  have  as  an  extreme  limit  of  a  steamer's 
practicable  voj-age,  without  receiving  a  relay  of  coals,  a  run  of  about 
2000  miles."  Tho  "  Great  Wcsteni,"  built  by  Patterson  of  liristol 
and  engined  by  Maudslay  of  London  under  the  superintendence  of 
Sir  I.  K.  Bruno!,  was  tho  first  such  ship,  and  .she  was  launched  July 
19,  1837.  She  was  212  feet  long  between  the  perpendiculars,  35 
feet  4  inches  broad,  and  had  a  displacement  of  2300  tons.  She  was 
propelled  by  paddles.  Iron  vessels  were  built  early  in  tho  present 
century  for  canal  service,  then  for  river  service,  and  later  for  packet 
service  on  tho  coasts.  In  about  tho  year  1838  iron  vessels  of  small 
dimensions  were  built  for  ocean  service.  The  largest  iron  vessol 
built  up  to  1811  was  less  than  200  feet  long.  In  1843  wo  got  for 
the  first  time  the  ocean-going  steamship  in  its  present  form,  built 
of  iron,  and  propelled  by  tho  screw.  TJiis  was  tho  "Creat 
Britain,"  286  feet  long,  projected  and  designed  by  Brunei.  Time 
has  abundantly  justified  these  bold  enternrises  on  tho  p.irt  of 
Brunei,  which  ho  had  to  carry  through  in  tlio  face  of  great  opposi- 
tion.  IJo  entered  with  equal  baldness  on  another  innovation  in 
1860,  viz.,  tho  use  of  very  large  dimcn.sions  on  tho  ground  of 
economy  of  power.     It  was  not  until  1862  tliat  he  had  the  oppor- 


Th( 


tunity  to  put  these  views  forward  in  a  way  to  satisfy  him. 
dill'crent  sizes  of  vessels  discussed  before   the  design  was   final]} 
settled  for  the  "Great  Eastern  "  were  as  follows  ; 


No. 

Length. 

Breadth. 

ilidshlp  Section. 

Draught. 

1 
2 
3 
4 

063 
634 
609 
730 

79-9 

76 

73 

87 

1,64C 
1,640 
1,639 
2,090 

24 
26 
26 
23 

The  dimensions  eventually  settled  were— length,  680  feet 
beam,  83  feet  ;  mean  draught,  about  25  feet  ;  screw  engine 
indicated  hor.sc-power,  4,000,  and  nominal  horse-power,  1600 
paddle,  indicated  horse-power,  2,600,  and  nominal  horse-power, 
1,000  ;  to  work  with  steam  15  lb  to  25  It)  ;  speed  of  screw,  45  to 
65  revolutions  ;  paddle,  10  to  12. 

Tho  "Great  liasteni,"  produced  by  tho  joint  skill  of  Brunei 
and  Scott  Russell,  rem.ains  in  adv.ance  of  present  practice,  .although 
she  has  served  as  a  model  for  the  best  of  it.  Her  great  size  rend- 
ered it  possible  to  give  to  lier  an  amount  of  security  against  fatal 
injury  to  her  hull  which  cannot  be  attained  in  smaller  shijis.  It 
is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  large  ships  are  less  secure  than  small 
ones.  The  large  ship  can  receive  without  inconvenience  a  wound 
which  would  bo  fatal  to  a  small  one,  and  the  possibilities  of 
obtaining  high  speed  increase  with  the  size.  Had  a  higher  speed 
been  aimed  at  in  the  "  Great  Eastern,"  it  might  have  altered  the 
whole  current  of  her  history,  and  changed  also  the  history  of  ship- 
building itself.  ^ 

The  question  of  bulkheads,  on  which  Brunei  insisted  so  much  in  Bul> 
this  ship,  is  one  which  underlies  all  questions  of  construction.  If  hca<> 
tho  number  of  bulkheads  in  ships  were  increased  as  they  ought  to 
be,  the  numbers  and  sizes  of  tho  ribs  or  frames  of  the  ship  would 
be  modified,  and  the  system  of  construction  generally  would  be 
changed,  and  become  more  like  that  of  the  "  Great  Eastern."  The 
question  is  therefore  one  which  justifies  some  further  consideration, 
so  that  it  may  be  popul.arly  understood. 

Iron  ships  are  commonly  made  with  less  than  half  their  bulk 
out  of  water.  If  water  enters  .such  a  ship,  and  the  amount  which 
enters  does  not  exceed  in  bulk  that  jiortion  of  the  bulk  of  the  ship 
which  is  out  of  the  water,  and  joliich  will,  when  immersed,  exclude 
the  water,  then  the  ship,  if  she  does  not  turn  over,  will  still  lloat. 
If,  however,  the  inflow  cannot  be  stopped,  but  continues,  the  ship 
soon  sinks. 

Let  us  supposo  the  case  of  a  ship  50  feet  long,  10  feet  wide,  and 
10  feet  deep,  divided  into  five  equal  parts  by  lour  watertight  par- 
titions, and  floating  in  water  with  half  its  bulk  immersed  (fig.  8). 
Suppose  now  that  a 
hole  is  made  in  the 
middle  of  this  ship 
under  the  water,  so 
that  water  can  flow 
freely  in,  then  the 
part  of  the  ship 
which     is     shaded 

ceases  to  have  floating  power.  The  water  in  this  snaded  phicc  is  no 
longer  displaced,  but  is  admitted,  and  if  the  ship  is  to  continue  afloat, 
the  other  parts  of  the  ship  must  displace  water  to  the  amount  by 
wliich  tliis  shaded  part  has  ceased  to  do  so.  As  it  is  one-fifth  of  the 
whole  immersed  bulk  which  is  lost,  the  remaining  four  corniiart- 
ments  must  sink,  so  as  each  to  support  one-fourth  of  the  whole, 
instead  of  one-fifth,  as  before  ;  i.e.,  the  draught  of  water,  or  im- 
mersion of  the  whole  ship,  will  bo  increased,  and  tho  .ship  will,  if 
she  has  stability  enough  to  keep  upright,  finally  float  at  rest  again 
at  this  deeper  immersion.  The  water  will  rise  in  (he  centre  com- 
partment to  the  level  of  the  water  outside,  and  will  then  cease  tc 
How  in.  The  additional  immersion  will  bo  only  one  and  a  quartci 
feet,  but  in  an  ordinary  ship,  divided  into  compartments  of  equal 
length,  there  would  be  a  greater  increase  of  immersion  by  the  injury 
of  a  centre  compartment,  because  the  end  conipnrtnienlsaro  narrow, 
and  must  sink  deeper  in  order  to  boar  their  share  of  the  burden 
imposed  by  the  loss  of  tho  buoyancy  of  tho  centre  division. 

Or  it  may  be  other  than  a  central  compartment  which  is 
damaged,  and  in  that  case  the  sliip  tips,  and  fimls  a  new  floating 
lino,  with  tho  end  towards  which  th"  daningcd  division  lies 
depressed  more  than  tho  other  end. 

If  it  should  happen  that  tho  divisional  p.irtitions.  or  bulkheads 
as  they  arc  called,  rise  only  a  fuw  inches  above  tlio  water  level 
which  the  ship  floats  at  when  undaniaged,  then,  on  the  occur- 
rence of  a  bad  leak  filling  one  conipartimnt,  tho  lops  of  the  bulk- 
heads are  brought,  by  tho  increased  immersion  of  the  ship,  beneath 
the  water-levi'l,  the  water  will  rise  through  tho  halches,  or  open- 
ings ill  the  deck,  in  the  dam.iged  coiiipartmrnt,  will  flow  over  llio 
entire  ileck,  and  the  ship  will  be  Inst,  either  by  the  (illing  of  other 
conniartmeiits  by  tho  wnler  passing  down  into  tliein,  or  by  tho 
capsizing  of  the  sliip.  This  latter  event  will  geiiorally  happen, 
although  opIv  one  compartment  is  full,  if  tho  sen  has  free  access  to- 


81G 


SHIPBUILDTN(i 


the  deck  from  end  to  end  of  the  nliip,  and  it  becomes  whoily 
immersed. 

In  1866  the  president  of  the  Institution  of  Naval  Architects 
said:  "The-  circumstances  of  the   sad  event    of  the   loss  of  the 

*  London/  accompanied  as  it  was  by  the  simultaneous  loss  of 
another  ship  of  still  larger  size,  and  ot  a  higher  reputed  character  " 
(the  "Amalia,"),  **was,  I  think,  an  event  so  remarkable  that  I 
should  be  very  sorry  indeed  if  this  annual  meeting  of  this  Institu- 
tion were  to  pass  by  without  some  notice  b^ing  taken  of  the  extra- 
ordinary circumstances  of  the  loss  of  that  ship,  and  without  some 
discussion  upon  what  we  suppose  to  be  the  causes  of  the  loss,  and 
the  faults,  if  any,  of  the  consti-nction  of  those  ships."  '*The 
passengers  who  pass  to  and  fro  are  not  judges  of  the  question  ; 
they  can  take  no  precaution  for  their  own  safety;  it  is  to  the  skill 
and  science  of  those  who  build  these  ships- -that  the  passenger 
trusts,  and  to  the  care  which  the  legislature  and  the  Government 
are  bound  to  tak^  of  their  fellow-subjects." 

Subsequently  the  council  of  the  Institution  arrived  at  the  follow- 
ing conclusions  and  offered  them  as  recommendations  to  ship- 
builders and  shipowners : — 

"  1.  No  general  rule  can  "be  spiely  laid  down  for  regTiIating  the  proportions 
of  length  and  depth  to  the  breadth  of  a  ship,  and  a  great  variety  of  propor- 
tions of  length  and  depth  to  breadth  may  be  safely  adopted,  and  the  ship 
made  soimd  and  seaworthy,  by  judicious  form,  construction,  and  lading. 

"2.  The  construction  load-water-line  of  every  ship,  and  her  scale  of  dis- 
placement from  light  to  load-water-line,  shou'.d  be  appended  to  every 
design  of  a  ship,  showing  the  extreme  draught  to  which  she  should  be  laden ; 
and  measures  should  be  taken  to  ensure  that  this  information  be  recorded 
on  the  ship's  papers.  It  is  desirable  also  that  along  with  a  ship's  papers,  in 
tho  possession  of  the  captain,  there  should  always  be  carried  a  scale  of 
displacement,  a  sail  draft,  and  a  set  of  outline  plans  of  the  ship,  comprising 
&  longitudinal  section,  and  at  least  four  cross  sections  of  the  ship.  On  these 
plans  should  be  marked  the  capacity,  in  tons  of  40  cubic  feet,  of  each  com- 
partment of  the  hold.  The  surplus  buoyancy  of  each  compartment  up  to 
the  load-water-line,  or  its  power  to  carry  deadweight,  should  be  given  in 
tons  deadweight.  These  papers  should  always  accompany  the  ship's 
register,  and  a  copy  of  them  should  be  lodged  in  the  custom  house  of  the 
port  from  which  the  ship  hails. 

"3.  There   is  a  minimum  height  of   freeboard  which  cannot  be  safely 
reduced  in  sea-going  ships  of  ordinary  fitment ;  and  it  is  desirable  to  fix  this 
minimum  height.    Freeboard  should  be  understood  to  be  the  vertical  height 
of  the  upper  surface  of  the  upper  deck(not  spar-deck)  at  the  side,  amidships, 
aljove  the  load-water-line.      The  proportion  of  freeboard  should  increase 
with  the  length.     One-eighth  of  the  beam   is  a   minimum  freeboard   for 
ordinary  sea-going  ships  of  not  more   than  five  breadths  to   the   length, 
and  ^  of  the  beam  should   further  be   added  to  the  freeboard  for  each 
additional  breadth  in  the  length  of  the  ship  ;  this  would  give — 
For  a  ship  of  3"2  foet  beam  and  leo  feet  long,  4  feet  freeboard  ; 
For  a  length  of  102  feet,  5  feet  freeboard  ; 
For  a  length  of  224  feet,  6  feet  freeboard ; 

For  a  length  of  256  feet,  7  feet  freeboard ;— the  beam  remaining  the  same. 
Cutj  OS  tho  addition  of  a  spar-dect  on  long  vessels  may  be  con'sidered  an 
equivalent  or  substitute  for  the  increased  freeboard  required  for  extra 
length,  a  complete  spar-deck  would  leave  the  freeboard  of  these  extra  lengths 
at  the  original  height  of  4  feet. 

"  4.  It  is  not  considered  desirable  to  offer  any  recommendations  with 
regsrd  to  poops  and  forecastles.  It  must  depend  entirely  upon  the  pro- 
fessional judgment  of  the  designer  of  a  ship,  whether,  looking  to  her  pro- 
portions, form,  and  purpose,  the  additions  of  poop  and  forecastle  are 
expedient  and  safe.  In  general,  where  poops  and  forecastles  are  adopted, 
they  should  be  closed,  ami  seaworthy,  but  their  weight  may  be  inexpedient 
In  long  fine  sUips ;  and  therS  are  cases  where  a  light  top-gallant  forecastle 
(i.^.,  an  open  forecastle  raised  above  the  level  of  the  upper  deck)  may  be 
useiul  in  keeping  heavy  seas  out  of  the  ship.  In  general,  spar-decks  in  long 
ships  ore  preferable  to  poop  and  forecastle,  and  no  diminution  of  freeboard 
should  be  allowed  for  a  poop  or  forecastle. 

**  6.  It  would  add  much  to  the  strength  and  SPcurity  of  steamships  if 
transverse  and  longitudinal  bulkheads,  coal  bunkers,  iron  lower  decks,  and 
Bcrew  alley  were  all  so  connected  with  the  hull  of  the  ship  and  with  each 
other  as  to  form  independent  cellular  compartments,  watertight,  and 
having  all  their  communications  with  the  decks  and  each  other  by  water- 
tight doors  worked  from  the  deck.  In  proportioning  the  compartments  of 
a  ship  (and  especially  of  ships  devoted  to  passengers)  it  is  very  desirable  so 
to  airauge  them  that  if  any  tico  adjacent  compartments  be  filled,  or  placed 
in  free  communication  with  the  sea,  the  remaining  compartments  will  float 
the  ship.  It  is  considered  that  no  iron  passenger  ship  is  well  constructed 
unless  her  compartments  be  so  proportioned  that  she  would  float  safely  were 
any  one  of  them  to  fill  with  water,  or  be  placed  in  free  communication  with 
the  sea.  Double  bottoms  are  to  be  regarded  as  a  great  element,  both  of 
safety  and  strength,  in  tho  structure  of  a  large  iron  ship. 

"  6.-  It  is  very  desirable  that  sufficient  ventilation  should  always  be  pro- 
vided in  passenger  ships  to  admit  of  closing:  all  side  scuttles  and  battening 
down,  or  otherwise  enclosing,  all  hatches  in  bad  weather. 

**  7.  In  regard  to  hatchways  and  openings  in  the  deck  no  limits  can  bo  set 
to  their  size  ;  but  it  is  desirable  to  carry  the  beams  of  the  ^hip  across  them 
without  interruption  wherever  practicable  ;  they  may  also  be  made  remov- 
able where  required,  being  replaced  on  going  to  sea.  Ail  coamings  over 
engine  and  boiler  rooms  in  passenger  ships  should  be  as  high  as  practicable, 
of  iron,  and  riveted  to  the  beams  and  carlings.  Openings  in  the  deck  may 
be  fitted  with  solid  coverings,  hinged  in  place  so  as  to  be  readily  closed. 

"  8.  It  being  considered  tSat  all  openings  in  the  sides  or  ends  of  vessels 
are  subject  to  accidents  that  endanger  the  safety  of  ships,  it  is  desirable  that 
the  side  and  stern  windows  should,  iu  addition  to  the  glass  lights,  have 
hinged  dead-lights,  with  a  view  to  their  being  always  in  place,  and  that  all 
cargo  ports  should  be  strongly  secured  by  iron  cross  bars. 

"  9.  It  is  believed  that  all  openings  from  and  communications  with  the 
sea  from  engine-room  and  pipes  should  be  protected  by  conical,  or  Kingston, 
or  sluice  valves,  and  similar  precautions  should  be  taken  for  all  openings 
through  the  bottom  of  the  ship,  where  damage  to  pipes  or  ship  would 
admit  water  into  the  holds. 

"  10.  It  is  considered  that  all  steam  vessels,  if  of  iron,  should  have  a  brass- 
barrelled  hand-pump  to  every  compartment  except  the  forward  and  after 
ones  (the  former  to  have  a  sluice  cock),  or  that,  as  a  substitute  for  these 
pumps,  there  should  be  patent  pumps  ha\'ing  independent  connexions  to 
this  extent.  They  should  also  have  a  donkey  engine  and  pump  capable  of 
pumping  from  the  bilge  and  from  the  sea,  of  feeding  the  boilers,  and  of 


throwing  water  on  deck.  All  vessels  should  have  one  or  more  bilge-pumps, 
worked  by  the  large  engines,  with  bilge  injection  pipes  if  the  engines  have 
condensers.  In  large  vessels  the  donkey  engines  should  have  a  Er>parat4 
boiler  high  above  the  water-line,  and  also  communication  with  the  main 
boilei-3.  All  vessels  should  have  a  set  of  bilge  pipes  connecting  everv  jiold 
and  the  engine  compartments  with  these  pumps.  As  a  security  against  fire 
there  should  be  pumps  on  the  upper  deck,  fitted  as  force  pumps,  and  pro- 
vided with  a  sufficient  length  of  hose  (with  tlie  necessary  copper  delivery 
jets)  to  reach  either  extremity  of  the  vessel,  and  also  prc-^Jdedwith  suction 
hose  or  pipes  from  the  sea.  The  cocks  by  which  the  working  of  the  pumps 
is  regulated  should  be  carefully  arranged  and  marked,  and  great  care  should 
be  taken  that  both  cocks  and  pipes  are  accessible.  A  plan  of  the  whole 
should  accompany  the  ships  papers,  and  the  crew  should  be  periodically 
exercised  in  tlicir  use. 

*'  11.  The  stowage  of  a  ship,  whether  done  by  contract  or  not,  should  be 
done  under  inspection  of  the  captain  of  the  ship,  and  should  be  conducted 
under  his  own  orders  only  ;  and  he  alone  should  be  held  responsible  for  the 
good  stowage  of  his  ship.  Ships  are  often  very  badly  stowed,  the  weights 
being  sometimes  too  low,  thus  causing  them  to  roll  with  such  rapid  and 
violent  motions  as  to  carry  away  the  spars,  and  otherwise  endanger  the 
safety  of  the  ship,  and  at  other  times  too  high,  thus  making  the  ships  crank, 
and  liable  to  turn  over.  A  ship  may,  however,  generally,  whatever  her 
form,  be  fo  stowed  as  to  avoid  both  dangers.  As  the  character  ot  the  ship 
in  these  lespects  varies,  so  does  the  number  of  oscillations  she  it^ould  make 
per  minute  if  she  were  set  rolling  in  still  water,  by  men  running  across  her 
deck,  or  other  means,  and  then  allowed  to  come  to  rest ;  that  is,  if  the  ship 
be  crank  the  number  of  oscillations  per  minute  will  be  few,  and  if  she  bo 
too  stiff  they  will  be  numerous  ;  but,  imder  the  same  conditions  of  stowage, 
the  nuraberwiU  always  be  very  nearly  the  same,  whatever  the  amountof  tho 
impulse  to  set  her  rolling  may  be.  Although  this  peculiarity  has  long  been 
known  to  scientific  men,  no  such  observations  have  been  made  in  merchant 
ships  as  would  justify  any  specific  rule  on  the  subject.  It  is,  however, 
most  desirable  that  information  should  be  collected  upon  it,  and  that  the 
attention  of  the  o\\'ners  and  captains  of  vessels  should  be  called  to  it. 

"  12.  It  is  believed  that  the  present  rules  of  the  Board  of  Trade  regarding 
boats,  life-boats,  and  their  tackle  are  good  in  principle.  The  responsibility 
for  keeping  all  boats  in  constant  readiness  and  efliciency  obviously  rests  on 
the  captain,  and  must  fix  on  him  the  blame  for  all  neglect  and  ita 
consequences.  Every  open  boat  built  of  iron  or  steel  should  be  fitted  with 
sufficient  watertight  spaces  to  float  her. 

"  13.  The  system  of  proportioning  anchors  and  cables  by  Lloyd's,  and  of 
proving  under  licence  of  the  Board  of  Trade  by  Act  of  Parliament  is  so  far 
satisfactory  ;  but,  as  the  proof-test  alone  cannot  establish  the  excellence  of 
the  cable,  the  reputation  of  the  makers  must  be  relied  upon. 

"  14.  In  order  to  provide  for  th£  rapid  clearance  of  the  upper  deck  from 
water  which  may  break  over  the  ship,  flap-boards  should  be  fitted  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  bulwarks,  sufficient  in  nmuber  and  in  area  to  admit  of  the 
rapid  escape  of  the  water. 

*'  15.  Water-closets  on  decks  below  or  near  the  water-line  may  be  the 
means  ot  gradually  and  imperceptibly  flooding  the  ship,  and  endangering 
her  safety,  unless  the  pipes  and  valves  are  strong  and  are  carefully  fitted." 

It  is  in  the  directions  indicated  in  these  recommendations  that 
the  honesty  and  skilfulness  of  the  modern  builder  of  steam  and 
sailing  ships  of  war  come  into  play,  and  some  judgment  may  be 
formed  by  the  general  public  of  the  characteij  of  the  ship  by 
inquiring  into  matters  upon  which  the  council  thought  it  neces- 
sary to  make  such  recommendations.  The  guarantee  which  the 
public  have  of  the  fitness  of  passenger  ships  for  service,  as  a 
question  of  prrfper  construction  and  state  of  efficiency,  is  the  sur- 
vey and  certificates  of  the  Board  of  Trade.     The  law  runs  thus  : — 

The  owner  of  every  steam  tessel  constructed  or  intended  to  carry  passengers  Boar*}  i 
(except  vessels  which  fall  within  the  definition  of  foreign-going  ships  con-  m^ 
tained  in  the  Mercantile  Marine  Act,  1S50,  and  are  employed  in  the  convey-  -^  *^'*^ 
ance  of  the  royal  public  mails  or  despatches  under  contract  with  and  under  Snrvwir* 
the  superintendence  of  the  lord  high  admiral  or  the  commissioners  for 
executing  the  office  of  loi'd  high  admiral)  shall  cause  such  steam  vessel  to 
be  surveyed  twice  at  least  in  every  year,  at  the  times  hereinafter  directed, 
by  a  shipwTight  surveyor  and  by  an  engineer  surveyor  appointed  for  the 
purposes  of  this  Act  by  the  lords  of  the  said  comndttce,  such  shipwri^iht 
surveyor  in  the  case  of  an  iron  steam  vessel  being  a  person  properly  qualified 
to  survey  iron  steam  vessels,  and  shall  obtain  a  declaration  of  the  sufficiency 
and  good  condition  of  the  hull  of  such  steamer,  and  of  the  boats,  and  other 
equipments  thereof,  required  by  this  Act ;  and  also,  if  the  lords  of  the  said 
committee  so  requL'e,  a  statement  of  the  number  of  passengers  (whether 
deck  passengers  or  other  passengers)  which  such  vessel  is  constructed  to 
carry,  under  the  hand  of  such  shipwright  surveyor,  and  a  declaration  of  the 
sufficiency  and  good  condition  of  the  machinery  of  such  steamer  under  the 
hand  of  such  engineer  surveyor;  and  in  such  declarations  it  shall  be  dis- 
tinguished whether  such  vessel  is  in  construction  and  equipments  adapted 
for  sea  service  as  well  as  for  river  or  lake  service,  or  for  river  or  lake  service 
only;  such  declaration  shall  state  the  local  limits  within  which  such  vessel 
is,  in  the  judgment  of  the  surveyor,  adapted  for  plying ;  and  in  the  case  of 
seagoing  vessels  the  declaration  of  one  of  the  surveyors  shall  contain  a 
statement  that  he  is  satisfied  that  the  compasses  have  been  properly  examined 
and  adjusted  ;  and  such  owner  shall  transmit  such  declarations  to  the  lords 
of  the  said  committee  within  fourteen  days  after  the  dates  thereof  respect- 
ively. 

As  to  the  fifth  recommendation  of  the  council  of  the  Institu- 
tion of  Naval  Architects,  it  must  be  observed  that  there  is  at 
present  no  law  relating  to  the  subdivision  of  steamships.  There 
was  a  clause  (No.  300)  in  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act  of  1S54, 
which  was  virtually  a  reproduction  of  clause  20  of  the  Steam 
Navigation  Act  of  1851,  and  which  read  as  follows  : — 

"1.  Every  steamship  built  of  iron  of  100  tons  or  upwards,  the  building  of 
which  commenced  after  the  2Sth  day  of  August  1S46,  and  every  steamship 
built  of  iron  of  less  burden  than  100  tons,  the  building  of  which  commenced 
after  the  7th  August  1S51  (except  ships  used  solely  as  steam  tugs),  shall  be 
divided  by  substantial  transverse  watertight  partitions,  so  that  the  fore  part 
of  the  ship  shall  be  separated  from  the  engine-room  by  one  of  such  partitions, 
and  so  that  the  after  part  of  such  ship  shall  be  separated  from  the  engine- 
room  by  another  of  such  partitions. 

"  2.  Every  steamship  built  of  iron,  the  b'Jflding  of  which  Commences  after 
the  passing  of  this  Act,  shall  be  diWded  bv  such  partition^  as  aforesaid  into 
not  less  than  three  equal  parts,  or  as  nearly  so  as  circumstances  permit. 

"  3.  In  such  last-mentioned  ships  each  such  partition  as  aforesaid  shall  be 
of  equal  strength  with  the  side  plates  of  the  ship  with  which  it  is  ir 
contact' 


SHIP]5IIILDINCt 


817 


t.  tvery  screw  steamsliip  built  of  iron,  the  hilildinf;  of  which  commences 
after  tlie  i)assiiig  of  tliis  Act.  shall,  in  ailditioii  to  the  ahove  partitions,  bo  llttcd 
with  a  small  wucertigllt  compartment  iuclosing  the  after  extremity  of  the 
■baft.' 

The  above  law  was  repealed  by  the  Act  Jated  29th  July  1862, 
and  on  the  28tli  August  l&ti3  the  Adinii-alty  appliej  to  the  Board 
of  Trade  to  know  whether  the  Board  of  Trade  olliccrs  were  em- 
|»owered  under  any  cirouinstanccs  to  insist  on  iron  vessels  having 
watertight  compartments  when  employed  in  conveyance  of  mails 
and  passengeis.  observing  that  the  Admiialty  were  still  of  o)>iiiion 
that  the  regulations  in  force  prior  to  the  Amendment  Act  of  ]8t)2 
ia  respect  of  contract  packets  should  not  have  been  relaxed. 
Thev  considered  such  vessels  should  have  compartments  so  arianged 
that  if  any  one  of  them  became  filled  with  water  the  loss  of 
buoyancy  thereby  occ.viioncd  should  not  endanger  the  safety  of 
the  ships,  as  recommended  by  them  in  their  rominunicalion  of  the 
ITth  December  1860.  To  this  the  Boaid  of  Trade  replied  (3d  Sep- 
tember 18C3)  that  their  surveyors  no  longer  had  any  power  to 
I'etiuire  giveu  watertight  partitioiis  to  be  fitted  in  passciigej"  steam- 
ships— though  they  agreed  with  the  Admiralty  in  tliinkiiig  that 
eteaiil  vessels  carrying  passengers  and  mails  should  be  provided 
with  a  sutficieut  number  of  watertight  partitions. — and  had  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  Admiralty  would  not  insist  on  such 
partitions  being  fitted  in  all  steamships  employed  in  conveyance  of 
mails.  They  further  say  that  the  enactments  in  the  Act  of  1854 
were  repealed,  not  because  of  any  doubts  as  to  the  necessity  of 
proper  and  sufficient  watertight  partitions,  but  because  tliose 
enactinents  which  required  only  two  of  such  partitions  for  all  sizes 
«ud  classes  of  ships  bad  beconie  piactically  useless  or  mischievous. 
It  was  found  that  in  large  vessels  more  partitions  than  the  Act 
required  were  necessary  to  secure  the  safety  of  the  ship,  and  it  was 
thought  better  to  leave  builders  aiid  designers  unfetteied  in  pi'o- 
viding  extra  strength  and  sccuiity  to  meet  the  various  forms, 
sizes,  and  desciiptions  of  ships  than  to  tie  them  down  by  general 
statutory  regidations  which  could  not  be  so  fiamed  as  to  meet  the 
varying  wants  and  circumstances  of  the  shipbuilding  trade. 

In  a  return  by  the  Board  of  Trade  to  the  House  of  Commons, 
dated  11th  August  1875,  setting  forth  the  instructions  issued  to 
their  surveyors  under  the  Merchant  Shipping  Acts,  1854  to  1873, 
clause  26  reads — 

*'  Surveyors  should  not  refuse  to  grant  ft  declaration  for  a  vessel  solely  on 
the  ground  that  bulkheads  are  not  tltted,  that  the  ordinary  bulkheads  are  not 
watertight,  or  that  tlie  Ijulkheads  fitted  are  otherwise  defective,  unless  they 
are  of  opinion  that  the  want  of,  or  the  defective  state  of,  the  bulkheads 
renders  the  ship  unseaworthy,  in  which  case  they  are  fully  justified  in 
refusing  ti»  grant  a  declaration.  They  should,  in  all  cases  in  which  they 
refuse  to  grant  a  declaration  for  a  vessel  in  consequence  of  defects  relative 
to  bulkheads,  forward  to  the  Jioard  of  Trade  a  full  statement  of  their  reasons 
for  thinking  that  those  defects  render  the  hull  of  the  vessel  unseaworthy. 
Collision  watertight  bulkheads,  at  least,  must  be  fitted  in  all  seagoing 
steamers.  Tlie  surveyors  are  also  to  see  that  an  after  watel'tight  compart- 
ment is  fitted  to  cover  the  stern-tiibo  of  the  screw-shaft,  both  in  old  and  in 
new  vessels." 
JR.  This  regulation  has  been  reissitcd  in  the  latest  instructions  to 

it        Board  of  Trade  surveyors,  dated  1884.     It  thus  comes  about  that 
divl.   the  number  of  bulkheads  forming  watertight  compartments,  the 
»  of     number  of  doois  in  them,  and  how  they  are  fastened,  are  made  the 
1  «i>4  subject  of  consideration  by  the  Board  of  Trade  at  their  inspections  ; 
b1         but  the  fact  is  that  the  great   majority  of  ocean-goiiig  steamers 
pa.       are  not   divided   into   watertight  compartments   in   any  efGcient 
in.inner,  and  many  losses  in  collision,  grounding,  and  swamping  are 
due  to  this.     Allliough  all  steamships  have  some  bulkheads,  and 
some  have  many  bulkhe.ads,  they  are  as  a  rule  distributed  in  such 
a  way,  or  are  so  stopped  below  the  water-level,  that  for  flotation 
purposes    after    perforation    those    lying   between    the    foremost 
collision  bulkhead  aiid  the  after  bulkhead  through  which  the  screw 
shaft  pa.sse3  are  practically  useless. 

With  the  exception  of  some  four  hundred  ships,  there  ai'o  no  iron 
stcaiuships  afloat  which  would  continue  to  float  were  a  hole  made 
in  the  bottom  plating  anywhere  abaft  tlio  collision  bulkhead  and 
outside  the  eugiuc-room,  or  which  would  not  founder  were  water 
adiiiittcd  through  bleaches  made  by  the  .sea  in  weak  superstructures 
and  deck  openings.  Of  the  four  hundred  ships  roferi'cd  to  as 
having  properly  designed  bulkheads  two  hundred  are  essentially 
car''0-cari-ici8.  They  are  generally  built  with  five  subdivisions, 
the  machinery  space  being  one.  Iron  saiJlvg  sJn'ps  are  without 
exception  undivuled  into  compartmnds.  They  have  by  law  a 
collision  bulkhead  nc.ir  the  bow,  and  that  is  all.  Between  Juno 
1881  and  February  1883  theio  were  about  one  hundred  and  twenty 
iron  steamships  lost,  of  speeds  of  nine  to  twelve  knots,  not  ono  of 
\rhich  was  well  constructed  according  to  the  opinion  of  the  council 
of  the  Institution  of  Naval  Architects. 

It  may  be  said  that  wooden  ships  wore  not  divided  into  water- 
tight compartments,  but  it  must  bo  remcmbereil  that  in  a  wooden 
ship  tbcie  is  far  more  local  resistance  to  a  blow  either  in  collision 
or  oy  giounding,  and  that  a  wooden  ship  takes  a  much  longer 
time  to  settle  down  in  the  water  and  sink.      Also,  when  wood  was 


employed  for  passenger  and  trading  ships  snceds  wore  much  lower 

au<{  traflie  am!  risks  of  collision  vciy  much  less.  _ 

The  shipbuilding  legislrics  prescribe  rules  for  the  govcrnmoDt  |  The  main  remedy  for  these  ovi 


of  the  builder  who  desires  to  liavo  their  certificate,  and  these  rule* 
have  been  so  carefully  framed  and  so  honestly  enfoiccil  that  i^iiglisli* 
built  ships  aie  as  a  rule  well  and  solidly  constructed.  The  recent 
{8th  .luiie  lbS2)  rule  of  the  London  Lloyd's  register  as  to  tli« 
important  subject  of  division  into  compartments  is  as  follon-s,  anil 
it  may  be  hoped  that  it  will  be  ellective  : — 

•*  Serew-propelled  vessels,  in  adilition  to  the  engine-room  bulkheads,  to  have' 
a  waterti;;ht  bulkhea'l  built  at  a  reasiiuahle  distance  from  each  end  of  the 
vessel.  In  steamers  2&0  feet  long  and  above  an  nddttionul  bulkhead  is  to 
he  luted  iu  the  mam  h>»Iu.  e\tendiiig  to  the  main  or  upper  deck,  about 
nddway  between  the  collision  and  cn'.:iue-ro(im  liulkheads;  ami  in  steamers 
of  a;ju  lett  long  and  above  an  additional  bulkhead  is  to  be  fitted  in  the  after 
Uohl.  extendim:  to  the  same  height." 

"'i'lie  foremost  or  collision  bulkhead  in  all  cases  to  extend  from  the  floor 
plates  to  the  upper  deck.  .  .  .  Xlie  enuine-rooni  bulkheads  U>  extvttd  fioni 
the  Hoor  plates  to  the  upper  deck  in  vessels  with  one.  two,  or  three  decks, 
and  to  the  main  deck  in  spar-  and  awuing-deeked  vessels.  The  ufteiniost 
bulkhead  will  be  reiiuired  to  extend  to  the  upper  deck  luiless  the  arrange- 
ment of  bulkheads  be  subnlitted  to  and  approved  by  the  committee.  .  ,  . 
In  sailing  vessels  the  foremo=t  or  cidlisiou  bulkliead  only  will  he  required." 

It  is  not  intended  by  the  foregoing  leniarks,  serious  as  they  are, 
to  blot  the  splendid  record  of  shipbuilding  achievciucnt  iu  Great 
Bi'itaiu  during  the  last  twenty  years.  The  shipowners,  ship- 
builders, marine  engineers,  Lloyd's  surveyors,  and  the  Boaid  of 
Trade  have  all  shared  in  a  development  of  shipping  which,  in 
amount  and  in  general  cthciency,  is  not  only  without  parallel  in 
the  history  of  the  world,  but,  as  it  still  a|ipeais  to  us  who  have 
witnessed  it,  almost  inciedible.  It  still  is  to  be  regretted  that 
expansion  has  been  thought  of  and  sought  more  aidently  than 
greater  security  and  elhciency.  The  men  who  have  studied  to 
improve  their  structural  arrangements  because  of  their  love  of 
true  and  good  work,  and  with  no  prospect  of  recognition  or  reward, 
have  been  comparatively  very  few. 

There  is.  perhaps,  no  structure  exposed  to  a  greater  variety  0( 
strains  than  a  ship,  and  none  in  which  greater  risks  of  life  anil 

Sroperty  are  incurred.  A  thorough  practical  knowledge  of  the 
isturbing  forces  in  action  either  to  injure  or  destroy  the  several 
combinations  ciubraced  in  its  structure  is  therefore  most  import- 
ant. Some  of  these  forces  always  act,  whether  the  ship  be  at  rest 
or  in  motion.  She  may  be  at  rest  floating  in  still  water,  and  will  bo 
at  rest  if  cast  on  shore  ;  and,  when  there,  she  may  be  resting  on  her 
keel  as  a  continuous  bearing,  with  a  support  from  a  portion  of  her 
side,  or  she  may  be  supported  in  the  middle  only,  with  both  ends  for 
a  gieater  or  less  length  of  her  body  left  wholly  unsupported,  or  she 
may  be  resting  on  the  ends  with  the  middle  unsupported,  or  under 
any  other  modification  of  these  circumstances  ;  and  under  all  these 
the  strains  will  vary  in  their  direction  and  in  their  intensity. 

If  the  ship  be  in  motion  the  same  disturbing  forces  may  still  be 
in  action,  with  others  in  addition  which  are  produced  by  a  state  of 
motion.  When  a  ship  is  at  rest  in  still  water,  although  the  upward' 
pressure  of  the  water  upon  its  body  is  equal  to  the  total  weight  of 
the  ship,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  weight  of  every 
portion  of  the  vessel  will  be  equal  to  the  U))ward  pressure  of  that 
portion  of  the  water  directly  beneath  it,  and  acting  upon  it ;  on 
the  contrary,  the  shape  of  the  body  is  such  that  their  weights  and 
pressures  are  very  unequal. 

If  the  vessel  be  supposed  to  bo  divided  into  a  number  of  lamino 
of  equal  thickness,  and  all  perpendicular  to  the  vertical  longi- 
tudinal section,  it  is  evident  that  the  after  lamime  compiised  in 
the  overhanging  stern  above  water,  and  the  fore  laniLn^c  comprised 
in  the  projecting  head  also  above  water,  cannot  be  supporti>d  by 
any  upward  pressure  from  the  fluid,  but  their  weight  must  be 
wholly  sustained  by  their  connexion  with  the  supported  parts  of 
the  ship.  The  lamina;  towards  each  extremity  immediately  con- 
tiguous to  these  can  evidently  derive  only  a  very  small  portion  of 
their  support  from  the  water,  whilst  towards  the  middle  of  the 
ship's  length  a  greater  proportion.ato  bulk  is  immersed,  and  thu 
upward  pressure  of  the  water  is  increased. 

A  ship  Moating  at  rest  under  tlio  view  just  taken  of  tho  relative 
displacement  of  dilTcrent  portions  of  the  body,  if  tho  weights  on 
board  are  not  distributed  so  that  tho  different  lamina;  may  bo 
supported  by  tho  upward  pressure  "oencath  them  as  equally  as 
possihie,  may  be  supposed  to  be  in  the  position  of  a  beam  supported 
at  two  points  in  its  length  at  some  distance  from  the  centre,  and 
with  an  excess  of  weight  at  each  extremity.  At  sea  it  would  be 
exposed  to  tho  same  strain  ;  and  if  supported  on  two  waves  whoso 
crests  were  so  far  apart  that  Ihoy  left  tho  centre  and  ends  com- 
paratively unsupported,  tho  degree  of  this  strain  would  bn  much 
increased.  The  more  those  two  points  of  support  approach  each 
other,  or  if  they  come  so  near  each  other  that  tho  vc*sol  may  be 
looked  upon  as  supported  on  ono  wave,  or  on  one  point  only  in 
the  middle  of  her  length,  tho  greater  will  be  the  tensile  strain  on 
tho  upper  portion,  and  the  crushing  strain  on  tho  lower  portion  of 
tho  fabric  of  tho  ship.  A  vessel  whoso  weights  and  disnlacemonls 
are  so  disposed  as  to  render  her  subject  to  a  strain  of  this  kind 
beyond  what  the  strength  of  her  upperworks  will  enable  her  to 
bear,  will  tend  to  assume  a  curved  form. 

The  centre  may  curve  upwards  by  the  excess  of  the  pressure 

beneath  it,  and  the  ends  drop,  producing  what  is  called  "  hogging." 

lis  is  in  tho  strength  of  the  deck  and 


21-2!> 


618 


SHIPBUILDING 


npperworks,  and  their  power  io  resist  a  tensile  strain.  There  is 
seldom  a  want  of  sufficient  strength  in  the  lower  parts  of  the 
pessel  to  resist  the  crushing  or  compressing  force  to  which  it  is 
subjected.  The  decks  of  vessels  should  not,  therefore,  be  too  much 
cut  up  by  broad  hatchways  ;  and  care  should  be  taken  to  preserve 
entire  as  many  strakes  of  the  deck  as  possible.  The  tensile  strength 
»f  iron  can  be  brought  to  bear  most  beneficially  in  this  respect. 

Though  these  are  the  strains  to  which  a  ship  is  most  likely  to 
be  exposed,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  there  are  no  circumstances 
ander  which  strains  of  the  directly  opposite  tendency,  when  pitch- 
ing, or  otherwise,  may  be  brought  by  recoil  to  act  upon  the  parts. 
The  weights  themselves  in  the  centre  of  the  ship  may  be  so  great 
;hat  they  may  have  a  tendency  to  give  a  hollow  curvature  to  the 
form,  and  it  is  therefore  equally  necessary  to  guard  against  this 
svU.  When  this  occurs,  the  vessel  is  technically  said  to  be 
"sagged,"  in  distinction  to  the  contrary  or  opposite  change  of 
'orm  by  being  hogged.  The  weight  of  machinery  in  a  wooden 
iteam-vessel,  or  the  weight  or  undue  setting  up  of  the  main-mast, 
ivill  sometimes  produce  sagging.  The  introduction  of  additional 
keelsons  temled  to  lessen  this  evil,  by  giving  great  additional 
strength  to  the  bottom,  enabling  it  to  resist  extension,  to  which, 
under  such  circumstances,  it  became  liable  ;  and,  as  the  strain  upon 
the  deck  and  upperworks  becomes  changed  at  the  same  time,  they 
are  then  called  upon  to  resist  compression. 

When  the  ship  is  on  a  wind,  the  lee-side  is  subjected  to  a  series 
of  shocks  from  the  waves,  the  violence  of  which  may  be  imagined 
from  the  effects  they  sometimes  produce  in  destroying  the  bul- 
warks, tearing  away  the  channels,  &c.  The  lee-sido  is  also  sub- 
jected to  an  excess  of  hydrostatic  pressure  over  that  upon  the 
weather  side,  resulting  from  the  accumulation  of  the  waves  as  they 
vise  against  the  obstruction  offered  to  their  free  passage.  These 
forces  tend  in  part  to  produce  lateral  curvature.  When  in  this 
inclined  position,  the  forces  which  tend  to  produce  hogging  when 
she  is  upriglit  also  contribute  to  produce  this  lateral  curvature. 

The  strain  from  the  tension  of  the  rigging  on  the  weather  side 
when  the  ship  is  much  inclined  is  so  great  as  frequently  to  cause 
working  in  the  topsides,  and  sometimes  even  to  break  the  timbers 
on  which  the  channels  are  placed.  Additional  strength  ought 
therefore  to  be  given  to  the  sides  of  the  sliip  at  this  place  ;  and,  in 
order  to  keep  them  apart,  the  beams  ought  to  be  increased  in 
strength  in  comparison  with  the  beams  at  other  parts  of  the  ship. 

The  foregoing  are  the  principal  disturbing  forces  to  which  the 
fabric  of  a  ship  is  subjected  ;  and  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
some  of  these  are  in  almost  constant  activity  to  destroy  the  con- 
nexion between  the  several  parts.  Whenever  any  motion  or 
•working  is  produced  by  their  operation  between  two  parts,  which 
ipught  to  be  united  in  a  fixed  or  firm  manner,  the  evil  will  soon 
increase,  because  the  disruption  of  the  close  connexion  between 
these  parts  admits  an  increased  momentum  in  their  action  on 
Bach  other,  and  the  destruction-  proceeds  with  an  accelerated  pro- 
gression. This  is  soon  followed  by  the  admission  of  damp,  and 
the  unavoidable  accumulation  of  dirt,  and  these  then  generate 
fermentation  and  decay.  To  make  a  ship  strong,  therefore,  is  at 
the  same  time  to  make  her  durable,  both  in  reference  to  the  wear 
and  tear  of  service  and  the  decay  of  materials.  It  is  evident  from 
the  foregoing  remarks  that  the  disturbing  influences  which  cause 
"hogging"  are  in  constant  operation  from  the  moment  of  launch- 
ing the  ship.  As  this  curvature  can  only  take  place  by  the  com- 
pression of  the  materials  composing  the  lower  parts  of  the  ship  and 
the  extension  of  those  composing  the  upper  parts,  the  importance 
of  preparing  these  separate  parts  with  an  especial  view  to  withstand 
the  forces  to  which  they  are  each  to  be  subjected  cannot  bo  over- ' 
rated  by  the  practical  builder. 

'■  liiXns  Manual  of  Naval  ArdUUclure.  Mr  W.  H.  White  gives  illus- 
trations -of  the 
still-water  str.ains 
upon  two  ar- 
moured ships  in 
the  British  navy 
the  "  Minotaur  " 
and  the  "Devas- 
tation." 

In  these  diaprraras  the  curves  B  represent  the  distribution  of  the 
buoyancy.,  Tiie  ordinatcs  of  the  curve  are  proportionate  to  the 
displacement  of  ad- 
jacent transverso 
sections  of  tho 
ships.  The  curves 
W  represent  the 
distribution  of  tho 
weight  of  tiio  ships 
And  their  lading. 
The  curves  \j  rcprc- 
Bont  tho  excesses 
and  dpfcctsof  buoy- 
nney  obtained  from 
U>e  two  curves   li  nnd  \V  and  set  off  from  a  new  l>.nso  line.      The 


Fig.  9. 


Fig-  11. 


Fig.  12. 


'Minotaur"  and 


Fig.  10. 


'  excess  of  buoyancy  above  the  line  is  exactly  eqnal  to  the  defect  of 
buoyancy  below  it.     Tho  curves  M  indicate  the  bending  moments. 
The  ordinates  of  the  curve  lying  above   the   base   ape   obtained 
by  summing  all  the  moments, 
whether  upwards  or  downwards, 
about  the  point  in  the  length  of 
the  ship  where  the  ordinate  is 
taken.     It   may  happen,  as  in 
tho  case  of  the  "  Devastation," 
that  the  moments  will  tend  to 
cause  hogging  for  a  portion  of 
tlie  length  and  will  then  change 
their  character,  and  at  other  por- 
tions of  the  length  will  tend  to 

cause  sagging.     Where  the  curve  M  crosses  the  hase  line  there  is 
no  strain  of  cither  hogging  or  sagging  tending  to  bend  the  ship 
there.      In  the  "  Minotaur 
there  is  a  hogging  tendency 
throughout.     The  amount  at 
the  midship  section  is  very 
great,   being  represented  by 
the  moment  4 '5  feet  x  10-690 
tons.    After  Sir  Edward  Reed 
left  the  Adm  ira]  ty  he  strongly 
expressed  his  fears  that  this 
strain  was  too  considerable  for  safety  in  the 
"  Agincourt." 

Di^igning. 

The  principal  plans  of  a  ship  are  the  "sheer "plan,  giving  in 
outline  the  longitudinal  elevation  of  the  ship;  the  "  body"  plan, 
giving  the  shape  of  the  vertical  transverse  sections  ;  and  the 
"half-breadth"  plan,  giving  the  projections  of  transverse  longi- 
tudinal  sections.  In  addition  to  these  the  builder  is  furnished  by 
the  designer  with  elevations,  plans,  and  sections  of  the  interior 
parts  of  the  ship,  and  of  the  framing  and  plating  or  planking. 
_  The  thicknesses  or  weights  of  all  the  component  parts  are  specified 
in  a  detailed  specification,  in  order  that  the  ship  when  completed 
may  have  the  precise  weight  and  position  of  centre  of  gra-vity  con- 
templated by  the  designer.  In  the  case  of  ships  built  for  the  Britisl 
navy  all  the  building  materials  are  carefully  weighed  by  an  a^ent 
of  the  designer  before  they  are  put  into  place  by  the  builder.  °  As 
each  section  ol  the  work  is  completed,  the  weight  is  compared  with 
the  designer's  estimate  in  the  designing  office.  As  soon  as  the 
incomplete  hull  is  floated  the  actual  displacement  is  measured,  and 
compared  with  the  weights  recorded  as  having  gone  into  the  ship. 
It  is  also  the  practice  in  the  Royal  Navy  to  calculate  the  position 
of  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  incomplete  hull,  and  its  draught  of 
water  before  it  is  floated,  in  order  to  avoid  all  risk  of  upsetting 
from  deficiency  in  stability  at  that  stage  of  construction.  The  ship 
is  usually  founa  to  float  in  precise  accordance  with  the  estimate. 
When  completed  ships  float  at  a  deeper  draught  than  was  intended, 
or  are  found  to  be  more  or  less  stable  than  was  wished,  this  is 
E5arly  always  due  to  additions  and  alterations  made  after  the  com 
pletiou  of  the  design.  Where  the  designer  is  at  liberty  to  complete 
the  ship  in  accordance  with  the  original  intention  there  ought  to 
be  precise  correspondence  between  the  design  and  the  ship. 

In  designing  a  ship  of  novel  type  the  designer  has  to  pass  aU 
the  building  details  through  his  mind  and  assign  them  their  just 
weights  and  proportions  and  positions.  Every  plate  and  angle  bai 
and  plank,  every  bar  and  rod  and  casting  and  forging,  and  every 
article  of  equipment  has  to  be  conceiv»d  in  detail  and  its  efifect 
estimated. 

Building. 

The  term  "  laying  off"  is  applied  to  the  operation  of  transferring  LaVftit 
to  the  mould  loft  floor  those  designs  and  general  proportions  of  a  off 
ship  which  have  been  drawn  on  paper,  and  from  which  all  the 
preliminary  calculations  have  been  made  and  the  form  decided. 
The  lines  of  the  ship,  and  exact  representations  of  many  of  the 
parts  of  which.it  is  to  be  composed,  are  to  be  delineated  there  to 
their  full  size,  or  the  actual  or  real  dimeusions,  in  order  that 
moulds  or  skeleton  outlines  may  be  made  from  them  for  the 
guidance  of  the  workmen. 

-A  ship  is  generally  spoken  of  as  divided  into  fore  and  after 
bodies,  and  these  combined  constitute  the  whole  of  the  ship  ;  they 
are  supposed  to  be  separated  by  an  imaginary  athwartship  section 
at  the  widest  part  of  the  ship,  called  the  midship  section  or  dead- 
flat.  The  midship  body  is  a  term  applied  to  an  indefinite  length  ol 
the  middle  part  of  a  ship  longitudinally,  including  a  portion  of 
the  fore-body  and  of  the  after-body.  It  is  not  necessarily  parallel 
or  of  the  same  form  for  its  whole  length. 

Those  portions  of  a  wooden  ship  "which  are  termed  the  square 
and  c.int  bodies  may  be  considered  as  subdivisions  of  the  fore-bodies 
and  after-bodies.  There  is  a  square  fore-body  and  a  square  after- 
body towards  the  middle  of  the  ship,  and  a  'cant  fore-body  and  ? 
cant  nfter-body  at  the  two  enils.  In  the  square  body  the  sides  o» 
tli:-  fiainos  are  siiuarc  to  the  line  of  the  kee'    and  are  nthwartshio 


SHIPBUILDING 


810 


vortical  planes.  In  tlie  cant  bodies  tlie  sides  of  the  frames  are  not 
square  to  the  Hue  of  the  keel,  but  are  inclined  aft  in  the  fore-boJy 
and  forward  in  the  after-body.  The  re.ison  for  the  fniines  in  those 
(Kjrtions  of  a  wooden  ship  being  canted  is  that,  in  these  parts  of 
the  ship,  the  timber  would  be  too  much  cut  away  on  account  of 
the  fineness  of  the  angle  formed  between  an  atliwartship  plane 
and  the  outline  or  water-liue  of  the  ship.  The  timber  is  there- 
fore turned  partially  round  till  the  outside  face  coincides  nearly 
with  the  desired  outline,  and  it  is  by  this  movement  that  the  side 
of  a  frame  in  tlie  cant  fore-body  is  made  to  point  aft,  and  in  the 
cant  after-body  to  point  forward. 

n  wooden  ships  the  term  "timbers"  is  sometimes  applied  to 
tne  frames  only,  but  more  generally  to  all  large  pieces  of  timber 
used  in  the  construction.  Timbers,  when  combined  together  to 
form  an  athwartship  outline  of  tlie  body  of  a  ship,  are  technically 
called  frames,  and  sometimes  ribs. 

Tlio  keel,  in  the  United  Kingdom  at  least,  is  geneniUy  nmde 
of  elm,  on  account  of  its  toughness,  and  from  its  not  being  liable 
to  split  if  the  ship  should  take  the  ground,  though  pierced  in  all 
directions  by  the  numerous  fastenings  passing  through  it.  It  is 
generally  composed  of  as  long  pieces  as  can  be  obtained,  united  to 
each  other  by  horizontal  scarphs.  The  rabbet  of  the  keel  is  an 
angular  recess  cut  into  the  side  to  receive  the  edge  of  the  planks 
on  each  side  of  it.  The  keel  is  connected  forward  to  the  stem  by  a 
scai-ph,  sometimes  called  the  boxing  scarph,  and  aft  to  the  stern- 
post  by  mortice  and  tenon.  The  apron  is  fayed  or  lilted  to  tlie 
after-side  of  the  stem,  and  is  intended  to  give  shift  to  its  scarphs, 
the  lower  end  scarphs  to  the  deadwood.  The  keelson  is  an  internal 
line  of  tiinbei-s  fayed  upon  the  inside  of  the  floors  directly  over  the 
keel,  the  floors  being  thus  confined  between  it  and  the  keel.  Its 
use  is  to  secure  the  frames  and  to  give  shift  to  the  scarphs  of  the 
keel,  and  thus  give  strength  to  the  ship  to  resist  extension  length- 
ways, and  to  prevent  her  hogging  or  sagging.  The  foremost  eiiil  of 
the  keelson  scarphs  to  the  stenison,  which  is  intended  to  give  shift 
to  the  scarphs  connecting  the  steni  and  keel.  The  frames  or  ribs 
are  composed  of  tlie  strongest  and  most  durable  timber  obtainable. 

The  floors  in  the  Government  service  were  carried  across  the  keel 


with  a  short  and  long  arm  ou  cither  side  alternately,  so  as  to  hnak 
joint,  an<l  between  the  frames  the  sjiaco  was  Idled  in  solid. 

Longitudinal  pieces  of  timber  arc  worked  roiiiul  the  interior  of  a 
ship  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the  cuds  of  the  beams  of  the  scvci-al 
decks  ;  they  are  called  shelves,  and  are  of  the  greatest  iiiii«rtancc, 
not  only  for  tliis  purpose,  but  also  as  longitudinal  tics  ami  struts. 

The  beams  of  a  ship  prevent  the  sides  from  coll.i|isi»g,  ami  al 
the  same  time  cany  the  decks.  The  beams  are  spaced,  and  thoii 
scantling  settled  upon,  according  to  the  strength  reijuircd  to  bj 
given  to  the  decks,  and  to  suit  the  positions  of  the  masts  aiw 
hatchways,  and  other  arrangements  connected  with  the  ecoiioriij 
of  the  ship.  All  beams  have  a  curve  upwards  towards  the  niiddlJ 
of  the  ship,  called  the  round-up.  This  is  for  the  purpose  of  strciigtlii 
and  for  the  conveiiicnco  of  the  run  of  the  water  to  the  scuppers 
Wooden  beams  are  single  piece,  two,  three,  or  four  piece  beainl 
according  to  the  number  of  pieces  of  timber  of  which  they  arl 
composed.  The  several  iiieces  arc  scarphcd  together,  and  dowclkJ 
and  bolted,  the  scai  plis  being  always  vertical. 

The  connexion  of  the  ends  of  the  beams  to  the  sides  of  the  ship  iiai 
been  made  in  various  ways.  The  points  to  be  considered,  with  re* 
fereuco  to  this  connexion,  .are — that  the  beam  is  requii-cd  to  act  as  a 
shore  or  strut,  to  prevent  tlie  sidcsof  the  ship  from  collapsing,  and 
also  as  a  tie  to  prevent  their  fulling  apart,  that  the  beam  shall  not  riso 
from  its  seat,  and  that  it  shall  not  work  in  a  fore-.ind-aft  direction. 

That  the  beam  may  be  an  cITcetivo  shore,  nothing  more  is  neces- 
sary than  that  the  abutment  of  the  end  against  the  ship's  side  may 
be  jierfect.  In  order  that  it  lu.iy  act  as  a  tie  bc'twecn  the  two  sides,* 
it  is  generally  dowelleJ  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  shelf  on  which 
it  rests  ;  and  the  under  surface  of  the  waterway  plank  which  lies 
upon  it  is  sometimes  dowellcd  into  it.  These  doivcls,  therefore, 
connect  it  with  the  shelf  and  the  waterway,  and  through  this 
means  it  is  thus  connected  with  the  sides  of  the  ship. 

From  the  short  outline  previously  given  of  the  (Usturning  forces 
acting  on  a  ship  it  will  be  seen  that  the  strain  on  the  ends  of  tlio 
beams  to  destroy  their  connexion  with  the  side  and  loosen  tho 
fastenings  must  be  very  great  when  tho  ship  is  under  sail,  cither 
on  a  wind  or  before  it — that  is,  cither  inclined  or  rolling.     Tho 


F^Ki^^'ir^lMHi^ 


Wi 


CJtJtiJHjyDi^^ 


Fii,'.  13. 


principal  action  of  these  forces  is  to  alter  the  vertical  angle  made 
by  tho  beam  and  the  ship's  side — that  is,  to  raise  or  depress  the 
beam,  and  so  alter  the  angle  between  it  and  the  side  of  the  ship 
above  or  below  it.  On  the  lee-side  tho  weight  of  the  weather 
side  of  the  ship  and  all  connected  with  it,  and  of  tho  decks  and 
everything  upon  them,  as  well  as  the  upward  pressure  of  tho  water, 
all  tend  to  diminish  the  angle  made  by  the  beam  and  the  ship's 
side  below  it,  and  consequently  increase  the  angle  made  between 
them  above  it.  The  contrary  effect  is  produced  on  the  weather 
side,  where  tho  tendency  is  to  close  the  angle  above  tho  beam  and 
open  that  below  it.  If  tho  beam,  when  subjected  to  tliesc  strains, 
be  considered  as  a  lever,  it  will  be  evident  that  the  fastenings  to 
prevent  its  rising  ought  to  be  as  far  from  the  side  as  is  consistent 
with  the  convenience  or  accommodation  of  the  ship,  and  that,  while 
the  support  should  also  be  extended  inwards,  the  fastening  to  keep 
down  the  beam-end  should  bo  as  close  to  tho  end  of  tho  beam.  Mid 
consequently  to  the  ship's  side,  as/it  can  bo  placed. 

The  plank,  or  skin,  or  sheathing  of  a  ship,  both  external  and 
internal,  is  of  variou.i  thicknesses.  A  strake  of  planking  is  a 
range  of  planks  abutting  against  each  other,  and  generally  extend- 
ing the  whole  length  of  tho  ship.  A  thick  strake,  or  a  combina- 
tion of  several  thick  strakes,  is  worked  wherever  it  is  supposed  that 
tho  frame  requires  particular  support — for  instance,  internally 
over  the  heads  and  lieels  of  the  timbers,  both  externally  and 
internally  in  men-of-war  vessels  between  tho  ranges  of  ports,  and 
internally  to  support  tho  connexion  of  jtho  beams  with  tho  sides 
and  at  the  same  time  form  a  longitudinal  tie.  The  uiipi'r  strakes 
of  plank,  or  aasembleges  of  external  plaaks,  are  called  the  shcor- 
•tralcea     Tho  strakes  botwceu  tho  several  ranges  of  ports,  begin- 


ning from  under  the  upper-deck  ports  of  a  tUreo-decked  ship  in  tha 
British  navy,  were  called  the  channel  wale,  the  middle  wale,  and 
the  main  wale.  The  strake  immediately  above  the  main  wale  was' 
called  tho  black  strake.  The  strakes  below  tho  main  walo 
diminished  from  tho  thickness  of  the  main  wale  to  tho  thickness  of 
the  plank  of  the  bottom,  and  were  therefore  called  the  diminisluns 
strakes.  Tlio  lowest  strake  of  tho  plank  of  the  bottom,  tlio  cdgoof 
which  fits  into  the  rabbet  of  tho  keel,  is  called  the  gnrboard  strako. 
Plank  is  either  worked  in  parallel  strakes,  when  it  is  called 
"straiglit-cdged,"or  ill  combination  of  two  strakes,  so  that  nltcrnnto 
seams  are  parallel.  There  are  two  methods  of  working  these  com- 
binations, one  of  which  is  called  "anchor  stock,"  and  tho  other 
"top  and  butt."  The  difl'eience  will  bo  best  shown  by  fig.  13. 
Tho  difleience  in  the  intention  is  that  iu  tho  method  of  working 
two  sti'ukcs  anchor-stock  fashion,  the  narrowest  part  of  one  stitk* 
always  occurs  opposito  to  the  widest  jwrt  of  the  other  strake,  and 
consequently  the  least  possible  sudden  interruption  of  longitudinal 
fibre,  arising  Irom  the  abutment,  is  obtained.  This  description, 
therefore,  of  planking  is  used  where  strength  is  especially  desirakla. 
In  top  and  butt  strakes  the  intention  is,  by  having  a  wide  end  tud  B 
narrow  end  in  each  plank,  to  approximate  to  tho  growth  of  the  tree, 
and  to  diminish  tho  dlllicnltv  of  procuring  tho  jilaiik.  When  the 
planking  is  looked  upon  as  a  longitudinal  tie,  tho  advantage  of  tbaae 
edges  being,  as  it  were,  imbedded  into  each  other  is  apparent,  tU 
elongation  DV  one  edge  sliding  ui>on  tho  other  being  thus  prevented 
Tho  shift  of  plank  is  tho  manner  of  arranging  tho  butts  of  the 
several  strakes.  In  tho  ships  of  tbo  British  navy  tho  butts  were  not 
allowed  to  occur  in  tho  same  vertical  line,  or  nn  tho  some  timbei^ 
without  the  iulervontion  of  three  whole  stinkrs  between  them- 


B20 


SHIPBUILDING 


y  Of  the  internal  planking  the  lowest  strake,  or  combination  of 
fatrakes,  in  the  liolJ,  is  called  the  limbcr-strake.  A  Umber  is  a 
ipassage  for  water,  of  which  there  is  one  throughout  the  length  of 
the  ship,  on  each  side  of  the  keelson,  in  order  that  any  leakage 
jnay  find  its  way  to  the  pumps. 

The  whole  of  the  plank  in  the  hold  is  called  the  ceiling.  Those 
Btrakes  which  come  over  the  heads  and  heels  of  the  timbers  are 
workfid  thicker  than  the  general  thickness  of  the  ceiling,  and  are 
distinguished  as  the  thick  strakes  over  the  several  heads.  The 
strakes  under  the  ends  of  the  beams  of  the  different  decks  in  a 
man-of-war,  and  down  to  the  ports  of  the  deck  below,  if  there  were 
any  ports,  were  called  the  clamps  of  the  particular  decks  to  the 
beams  of  which  they  are  the  support — as  the  gun-deck  clamps,  the 
middle-deck  clamps,  &c.  The  strakes  which  work  up  to  the  sills 
of  the  ports  of  the  several  decks  were  called  the  spirketting  of 
those  decks — as  gun-deck  spirketting,  ujiper-Jeck  spirketting,  &c. 

The  fastening  of  the  plank  is  either  "  single,"  by  which  is  meant 
one  fastening  only  in  each  strake  as  it  passes  each  timber  or 
frame  ;  or  it  nmy  be  "double,"  that  is,  with  two  fastenings  into 
each  frame  which  it  crosses  ;  or,  again,  the  fastenings  may  be 
"double  and  single,"  meaning  that  the  fastenings  are  double  and 
single  alternately  in  the  frames  as  they  cross  them.  The  fastenings 
of  planks  consist  generally  either  of  nails  oi"  treenails,  excepting 
at  the  butts,  which  are  secured  by  bolts.  Several  other  bolts 
ought  to  be  driven  in  each  shift  of  plank  as  additional  security. 
Bolts  which  are  required  to  pass  through  the  timbers  as  securities 
to  the  shelf,  waterway,  knees,  &c.,  should  be  taken  advantage  of 
to  supply  the  place  of  the  regular  fastening  of  the  plank,  not  only 
for  the  sake  of  economy,  but  also  for  the  sake  of  avoiding  unneces- 
sarily wounding  the  timbers. 
teokst  The  decks  of  a  wooden  ship  must  not  be  considered  merely  as 
platforms,  but  must  be  regarded  as  performing  an  important  part 
towards  the  general  strength  of  the  whole  fabric.  They  are 
generally  laid  in  a  longitudinal  direction  only,  and  are  then  use- 
ful as  a  tie  to  resist  extension,  or  as  a  strut  to  resist  compression. 
iThe  outer  strakes  of  decks  at  the  sides  of  the  ship  are  generally  of 
hard  wood,  and  of  greater  thickness  than  the  deck  itself  ;  they  are 
.called  the  waterway  planks,  and  are  sometimes  dowelled  to  the 
upper  surface  of  each  beam.  Their  rigidity  and  strength  is  of 
great  importance,  and  great  attention  should  be  paid  to  them,  and 
care  taken  that  their  scarphs  are  well  secured  by  through-bolts, 
and  that  there  is  a  proper  shift  between  their  scarphs  and  the 
Iscarphs  of  the  shelf. 

When  the  decks  are  considered  as  a  tie,  the  importance  of  keep- 
ing as  many  strakes  as  possible  entii-e  for  the  whole  length  of  the 
(ship  must  be  evident ;  and  a  continuous  strake  of  iron  or  steel 
IplateS  beneath  the  decks  is  of  great  value  in  this  respect.  The 
straighter  the  deck,  or  the  less  the  sheer  or  upward  curvature  at 
the  ends  that  may  be  given  to  it,  the  less  liable  will  it  be  to  any 
alteration  of  length,  and  the  stronger  will  it  be.  The  ends  of  the 
different  planks  forming  one  strake  were  made  to  butt  on  one  beam, 
and,  as  the  fastenings  are  driven  close  to  the  ends,  they  did  not 
possess  much  strength  to  resist  being  torn  out.  The  shifts  of  the 
putts,  therefore,  of  the  different  strakes  required  great  attention, 
because  the  transference  of  the  longitudinal  strength  of  the  deck 
from  one  plank  to  another  was  thus  made  by  means  of  the  fasten- 
ings to  the  beams,  the  strakes  not  being  united  to  each  other 
sideways.  The  introduction  of  iron  decks  or  partial  decks  under 
the  wood  has  modified  this. 

These  fastenings  have  also  to  withstand  the  strain  during  the 
■process  of  caulking,  which  has  a  tendency  to  force  the  planks 
sideways  from  the  seam  ;  and,  as  the  edges  of  planks  of  hard  wood 
will  be  less  crushed  or  compressed  than  those  of  soft  wood  when 
acted  on  by  the  caulking-iron,  the  strain  to  open  the  seam  between 
them  to  receive  the  caulking  will  be  greater  than  with  planks  of 
softer  wocd,  and  will  require  more  secure  fastenings  to  resist  it. 
It  m^  also  be  remarked  that  the  quantity  of  fastenings  should 
increase  with  the  thickness  of  the  plank  which  is  to  be  secured, 
for  the  set  of  the  oakum  in  caulking  will  have  the  greater  mechani- 
cal effect  the  thicker  the  edge. 

When  the  planks  are  fastened,  the  seams  or  the  intervals 
between  the  edges  of  the  strakes  are  filled  with  oakum,  and  this  is 
beaten  in  or  caulked  with  such  care  and  force  that  the  oakum, 
while  undisturbed,  is  almost  as  hard  as  the  plank  itself.  If  the 
openings  of  the  seam  were  of  equal  widths  throughout  their  depth 
between  the  planks,  it  would  be  impossible  to  make  the  caulking 
sufficiently  compact  to  resist  the  water.  At  the  bottom  edges  of 
the  seams  the  planks  should  be  in  contact  throughout  their  length, 
and-  from  this  contact  they  should  gradually  open  upwards,  so 
that,  at  the  outer  edge  of  a  plank  10  inches  thick,  the  space  should 
be  about  fj  of  an  inch,  that  is,  about  xV  of  an  inch  open  for  every 
inch  of  thickness.  It  will  hence  be  seen  that,  if  the  edges  of  the 
planks  are  so  prepared  that  when  laid  they  fit  closely  for  their 
whole  thickness,  the  fdrce  required  to  compress  the  outer  edge  by 
driving  the  caulking-iron  into  the  seams,  to  open  them  sufficiently, 
must  be  very  great,  and  the  fastenings  of  the  planks  must  be  such 
as  to  be  able  to  resist  it.     Bad  caulking  is  very  injurious  in  every 


way,  as  leading  to  leakage  and  to  the  rotting  of  the  planks  them- 
selves at  their  edges. 

Ships  are  generally  built  on  blocks  which  are  laid  at  a  declivity 
of  about  f  inch  to  a  foot.  This  is  for  the  facility  of  launching 
them.  The  inclined  plane  or  sliding  plank  on  which  they  ar« 
launched  has  rather  more  inclination,  or  about  ^  inch  to  the  foot 
for  large  ships,  and  a  slight  increase  for  smaller  vessels.  This 
inclination  will,  however,  in  some  measure,  depend  upon  the  depth 
of  writer  into  which  the  ship  is  to  be  launched. 

AVhile  a  ship  is  in  progress  of  being  built  her  weight  is  partly 
supported  by  her  keel  on  the  blocks  and  partly  by  shores.  In 
order  to  launch  her  the  weight  must  be  taken  off  these  supports 
and  transferred  to  a  movable  base  ;  and  a  platform  must  be  erected 
for  the  movable  base  to  slide  on.  This  platform  must  not  only  be 
laid  at  the  necessary  inclination,  but  must  be  of  sufficient  height 
to  enable  the  ship  to  be  water-borne  and  to  preserve  her  from 
striking  the  ground  when  she  arrives  at  the  end  of  the  ways. 
For  this  purpose  an  inclined  plane  a,  a  (fig.  14),  purposely  left 
unplaned  to  diminish  the  adhesion,  is  laid  on  each  side  the  keel, 
and  at  about  one-sixth  tlie  breadth  of  the  vessel  distant  from 
it,  and  firmly  secured  on  blocks  fastened  in  the  slipway.    Thit 


Fig.  14. 

inclined  plane  is  called  the  sliding-plank.  A  long  timber,  called  a 
bilgeway  b,  i,  with  a  smooth  under-surface,  is  laid  upon  thifl 
plane  ;  and  upon  this  timber,  as  a  base,  a  temporary  frame-work 
of  shores  e,  c,  called  "poppets,"  is  erected  to  reach  from  the  bilge- 
way  to  the  ship.  The  upper  part  of  this  frame- work  abuts  agaiast 
a  plank  d,  temporarily  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the  ship,  and 
firmly  cleated  by  cleats  e,  e,  also  temporarily  secured  to  tho 
bottom.  When  it  is  all  in  place,  and  the  sliding-plank  and  under 
side  of  the  bilgeway  finally  greased  with  tallow,  soft  soap,  and  oil, 
the  whole  framing  is  set  close  up  to  the  bottom,  and  down  on  the 
sliding  plank,  by  wedges  /,  /,  called  slivers  or  slices,  by  which 
means  the  ship's  weight  is  brought  upon  the  "  launch  "  or  cradle. 

When  the  launch  is  thus  fitted,  the  ship  may  be  said  to  hav» 
three  keels,  two  of  which  are  temporary,  and  are  secured  under  her 
bilge.  In  consequence  of  this  width  of  support,  all  the  shores  may 
be  safely  taken  away.  This  being  done,  the  blocks  on  which  the 
ship  was  buUt,  excepting  a  few,  according  to  the  size  of  the  ship, 
under  the  foremost  end  of  the  keel,  arc  gradually  taken  from  under 
her  as  the  tide  rises,  and  her  weight  is  then  transferred  to  the  two 
temporary  keels,  or  the  launch,  the  bottom  of  which  launch  is 
formed  by  the  bilgeways,  resting  on  the  well-greased  inclined 
planes.  The  only  preventive  now  to  the  launching  of  the  ship 
is  a  short  shore,  called  a  dog-shore  on  each  side,  with  its  hed 
firmly  cleated  on  the  immovable  platform  or  sliding-plank,  and  its 
head  abutting  against  a  cleat  secured  to  the  bilgeway,  or  base 
of  the  movable  part  of  the  launch.  Consequently,  when  this  shore 
is  removed,  the  ship  is  free  to  move,  and  her  weight  forces  her 
down  the  inclined  plane  to  the  waty.  To  prevent  her  running 
out  of  her  straight  course,  tn'o  ribands  are  secured  on  the  sliding- 
plank,  and  strongly  shored.  Should  tlie  ship  not  move  when  the 
dog-shore  is  knocked  down,  the  blocks  Remaining  under  the  fore 
part  of  her  keel  must  bo  consecutively  removed,  until  her  weight 
overcomes  the  adhesion,  or  until  the  action  of  a  screw  against  her 
fore-foot  forces  her  off. 

A  different  mode  of  launching  is  sometimes  practised  in  British 
merchant-yards,  and  has  beea  long  in  use  in  tho  French  dockyard* 


Fig.  U. 


allowing  the  keel  to  take  the  entire  weight  of  the  vessel     rhe 
two  pieces  a,  a,  wMch  a»e  shown  in  fig.  1&  as  being  secured  U)  thf 


SHIPBUILDING 


821 


Aip's  bottom,  are  the  ouly  pieces  which  need  be  prepared  according 
tx)  this  system  for  each  ship,  the  whole  of  the  remainder  being 
available  for  every  launch.  A  space  of  about  half  an  inch  is  left 
between  them  and  the  balk  timber  placed  beneath  then,  as  it 
is  not  intended  that  the  ship  should  bear  on  these  balk  timbers  m 
launching,  but  merely  be  supported  by  them  in  the  event  of  her 
heelinij  over.  The  ship,  therefore,  is  launched  wholly  oa  the 
sUding-plank  c,  fitted  under  the  keel.  .      ■       •  ^ 

If  a  sl]ip  is  coppered  before  launching,  so  that  putting  her  into 
a  dry-dock  for  that  purpose  becomes  unnecessary,  it  is  then  desir- 
able that  she  should  bo  launched  without  any  cleats  attached  to  her 
bottom  The  two  sides  of  the  cradle  are  prevented  from  being  forced 
apart  when  the  weight  of  the  ship  is  brought  upon  them  by  chains 
passin"  under  the  keel.  Each  portion  of  frame-work  composing 
tho  launch  has  two  of  tliese  chains  attached  to  it,  and  brought 
under  the  keel  to  a  bolt  which  passes  slackly  through  one  of  the 
poppets,  and  is  secured  by  a  long  forelock,  with  an  iron  handle, 
reachinc  above  the  water-line,  so  that  when  the  ship  is  afloat  it 
may  be°drawn  out  of  the  bolt.  The  chain  then  draws  the  bolt,  and 
in  falling  trips  tlie  cradle  from  under  the  bottom.  There  should 
be  at  least  two  chains  on  each  side  secured  to  the  fore-poppets, 
two  on  each  side  secured  to  the  after-poppets,  and  two  on  each  side 
to  the  stopping-up,  and  this  only  for  the  launch  of  a  small  ship  ; 
in  larger  ships  the  number  will  necessarily  be  increased  according 
to  the  weight  of  the  vessel  and  the  tendency  that  she  may  have, 
according  °to  her  form,  to  separate  the  bilgeways.  This  tendency 
on  the  part  of  a  sharp  ship  by  a  rising  floor,  or  by  her  wedge- 
shaped  form  in  the  fore  and  after  bodies,  is  great,  but  there  is  not 
much  probability  of  a  ship  heeling  over  to  one  side  or  tho  other. 

fhe  importance  of  tho  work  of  the  designer  cannot  be  too  highly 
estimated.  Unfortunately  there  is,  as  has  been  said,  "slop  work  ' 
in  designing  as  well  as  in  putting  the  structure  together.  There 
is  often  an  absence  of  any  attempt  at  precautions  where  multiplied 
accidents  have  shown  them  to  be  necessary,  as  well  as  inconceivable 
careles-sness  in  the  details  rendering  provisions  for  security,  where 
they  exist  in  principle,  useless  in  practice. 

In  tho  AVport  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Unseaworthy  Ships, 
dated  September  22,  1873,  we  read  as  follows  :— "Competent  wit- 
nesses state  that  many  merchant  ships  are  built  with  bad  iron,  that 
they  are  ill  put  together,  and  sent  to  sea  in  a  defective  condition. 
It  is  al^o  said  that  they  are  frequently  lengthened  without  addi- 
tional strength,  and  are  consequently  weak  ships.  The  number 
of  iron  steamers  which  have  been  lost  in  the  last  few  years, 
Unany  of  them  having  been  surveyed  and  classed  under  the  London 
or  Liverpool  registers,  raises  a  question  whether  tho  regulations 
bf  these  registers  are  sufficiently  stringent  to  insure  good  ship- 
building. The  directors  of  tlie  Bureau  Veritas  have  deemed  it 
necessary  to  revise  the  rules  of  their  register,  and  to  increase  the 
■scantling.  In  the  race  of  competition  among  shipbuilders  it  is 
jirobable  that  inferior  materials  and  bad  workraauship  are  ad- 
Snitted  into  ships." 

Tho  Commissioners  on  unseawortny  Ships,  referring  to  ine 
Jiroposal  that  the  Board  of  Trade  should  superintend  the  con- 
•truction,  tho  periodical  inspection,  the  repair,  and  the  loading 
nf  all  British  merchant  ships,  said  :  "We  consider  it  to  be  a 
question  worthy  of  serious  consideration,  whether,  in  the  case 
of  passenger  ships,  the  certificate  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  so  far 
as  regards  specific  approval,  should  not  bo  expressly  confined^  to 
the  number  of  passengers  to  be  allowed  and  to  the  accommodation 
for  their  health,  comfort,  and  general  security,— all  questions  of 
unseaworthiness  of  hull,  machinery,  and  equipment  being  left 
to  tho  owners,   subject  only  to  a  general  power  of  interference 


in  case  of  danger  sufficiently  apoarcnt  to  justify  special  inter- 
vention." 

Where  ships  have  to  meet  the  stress  of  battle  as  well  as  that  of  tha 
sea  faithfulness  of  work  is  even  more  imperative.  It  L^  not  only 
necessary  to  have  perfect  work,  but  there  must  also  be  multiplied 
safeguards  and  provisions  against  damage  by  shot,  shell,  ram,  and 
torpedo  as  well  as  against  the  enemies  which  are  common  to  all 
ships.  In  the  article  Navy  the  peculiarities  of  the  ship  of  war  are 
described.  Kegarding  them  here  simply  as  ships,  they  may  be  said 
to  be  distinguished  neither  by  size  nor  speed.  They  have  been  far 
outstripped  in  size,  the  longest  English  ship  of  war  built  within 
the  last  twenty  years  being  only  325  feet  in  length,  while  there 
are  Atlantic  passenger  ships  200  feet  longer.  They  have  also 
been  outstripped  in  speed.  The  highest  speed  ever  attained  in  a 
vessel  of  war  is  that  of  the  "  Iris  "  and  "  Jlercury ";  and  as  they, 
are  only  300  feet  long  it  is  easier  in  vessels  of  greater  length  to  get 
higher  speeds  with  less  engine  power,  and  easy  also  to  maintain  it 
in  a  seaway  both  as  a  question  of  form  and  power,  and  also  a.^  a 
matter  of  coal  endurance.  The  following  table  gives  the  relativ« 
dimensions  of  large  14-knot  ships  : — 


Ship's  Name. 


"Adriatfc," j 

(White  Star  Line)      j 

H.M.S.  "Dreadnought," 

H.M.S.  "Sultan," 

H.M.S.  "Inflexible," 


Lenpth  divided 

by  Breadth  (or 

Water  Line),  i 


ft.  In. 
435  7 

us' 

333  3 
61  6  ° 

330  0 
58  6  ° 

321  0 
75  0  ° 
I  '  304  0 


H.M.S.  "Neptune,"  

late  ."Independencia,"  (    CO  10 


10-45 
5-42 
5-64 
4-32 
5-01 


I.H.P. 

Dlspt.  in 
Tons. 

(DIspT.' 

3,600 

8,250 

408-8 

8,000 

10,886 

491-2 

8,600 

9,286 

441-8 

8,000 

11,500 

SCO'S 

8,500 

9,063 

434-7 

The  differences  between  the  amount  and  complexity  of  fitting' 
i:i  the  ship  of  war  and  the  merchant  ship  are  represented  by  tho 
greatly  increased  cost  per  ton  weight  of  hull.  It  must,  however,- 
be  premised  that  the  war  ship  has  the  weight  of  hull  kept  down 
to  a  very  low  standard  to  enable  her  to  carry  her  offensive  and 
defensive  equipment,— far  lower  than  is  usual  in  the  merchant 
ship.  The  first-class  merchant  ship  costs  £28  per  ton  weight  of 
hull  and  about  £13  per  indicated  horse-power  for  the  engines.' 
The  ship  of  war  built  by  the  same  builders  under  contract  with 
the  Government  costs  from  £60  to  £65  j^er  ton  weight  of  hull 
for  unarmoured  ships,  and  from  £70  to  £75  or  more  for  armoured 
ships.  In  the  case  of  an  unarmoured  vessel,  having  a  protecting 
deck  over  machinery  and  magazines,  recently  ordered,  the  prices 
were  as  follows  : — 

General  average  £60  10     0  per  ton  weight  of  huE 

Average  of  three  London  firms.     66     0     0  ,,  ,, 

Accepted  tender 67     6     0  ,,  ,, 

The  engines  for  the  same  vessel  were : — 

General  average ^15     8     0  per  I.H.P. 

Average  of  three  London  firms. 17     6     0        ,, 

Accepted  tender 11     8     0        „ 

In  tho  case  of  a  larger  armoured  ship  the  rates  were  : — 

Average  price  per  ton  weight  of  hull £81     2    0 

Accepted  tender ••■■•■ ii 

Average  price  per  I.H.P.  of  engines' 11 

Accepted  tender 


10 


DistrOnUion  of  HaUriaU  ancL  Cost  in  Various  Types  of  Ships. 


Longth  in  feet. 

Displacement  at  load  draft  (in  tons)  

Weight  (in  tons)  of  hull,  excluding  armour 

,,  ,,  armour 

,,  ,,  propelling  machinery 

,,  ,,  gun.s,maunting,andamniuuition 

,,  ,,  fuel,  at  usual  draft 

■Cost  of  hull  per  ton  of  its  weight 

,,      propelling  machinery,  per  ton  of  its  weight 


Flrst- 

Class 
Passenger 
Steamers. 


Cargo 
Steamers. 


460 
9550 
3800 

1310 

I'sbo 

£.■52 
£60 


390 
6800 
1960 

240 

'ebo 

£20 
£50-65 


Armoured 
Batllo 
Ships 

(Barbette). 


325 

10,000 

3,. 0-20 

3,100 

1,060 

840 

900 

£81  2 

£105 


Protected 
17-Kuot  Ships. 

Unarmoured, 
UnmQstcd,  and 

Unslicfitlicd. 


300 

3030 

2000 

218 

485 

285 

600 

£66 

£111 


Protected 
13-Knot  Ships. 
Unai-mourcd, 
Masted,  and 

Shcatiicd. 


226 
2420 
1270 

ir.2 

342 

154 

270 

£67-25  » 

£85  » 


Protected 

10  to  \'i  Knots. 

Unaruiourcd, 

Malted,  and 

Sheathed. 


170 

1153 

616 

i'35 
77 
130 
£60 
£90 


Torpedo 
Uoots, 

19  to  W 
Knots. 


86 

31-3 

11-6 

li-0 
2-76 
3 

£280 
£373 


Tho  use  of  heavy  ordnance  in  recent  times  as  tho  solo  weapon 
for  naval  warfare  brought  about  a  marked  distinction  between 
the  merchant  vessel  and  the  war  ship,  which  had  not  previously 
existed.  Tho  revival  of  the  ram  and  tho  adoption  of  tho  torpedo 
tend  to  abolish  this  distinction  and  to  bring  about  an  approxima- 
tion again. 

~ii  is  difficult  to  say  what,  in  tnc  very  near  future,  will  be  the 


distinguishing  chamctoristics  of  tho  ship  of  war.  Thev  will  no< 
bo  speed  or  size  or  coal  endurance,  or  the  power  of  striking  witli 
tho  ram,  the  torpedo,  or  tho  gun.  It  will  bo  quite  easy  to  arm 
merchant    ships   with   these  weapons,    and  some  of  those    eh 


■  The  indicated  hoi  lepowcr  .-efcrTed  to  hero  Is  th.l  obulncJ  by  natural  drof^ 
»  or  this  tho  vertical  armour  (cosUnd  betoro  It  Is  worked  up,  f  70  to  ADO  f 
ton,  is  nearly  2000  Ions.  •  Auriga  of  sla  vessels  built  by  Elder. 


lipdl 
3 


822 


SHIPBUILDING 


Already  outstrip  the  war  vessel  in  tko  important  advantages  of 
size  and  fleetness  and  carrying  power.  It  is  apparently  in  pro- 
tective advantages  that  the  essential  difference  will  lie. 

The  merchant  ship  is  hadly  provided  against  fatal  damage  by 
collision,  or  by  a  blow-delivered  in  any  manner  by  which  water  is 
admitted  into  the  ship.  The  propelling  machinery  of  these  ships 
and  their  steering  apparatus  are  also  dangerously  exposed  to 
artillery  fire.  Excepting  torpedo  boats,  the  ship  of  war  of  any 
size  has  its  propelling  macliiuery  either  under  water  or  under 
cover  of  armour,  and  in  a  great  number  of  cases  there  is  either 
proteciion  for  the  steering  apparatus  or  there  are  two  propellers. 
The  approximation  towards  war-ship  arrangements  which  is  needed 
in  the  merchant  ship  is  the  adoption  of  more  than  one  screw  and  of 
greater  breadth  of  ship,  so  that  defences  round  machinery  may  be 
created  in  time  of  war.  Both  these  changes  in  merchant-ship 
practice  are  demanded  also  by  mercantile  interests.  The  increase  in 
breadth  amidships  would  greatly  reduce  the  risk  of  foundering  in 
collisions  and  give  more  spacious  accommodation  amidships.  Such 
increase  when  accompanied  by  fine  ends  is  also  favourable  to  speed. 

The  use  of  two  screws  is  economical  of  power,  and  is  a  much- 
needed  security  against  the  evil  results  of  an  accident  to  an  engiue, 
a  shaft,  or  a  propeller.  The  time  will  doubtless  come  when  a 
single  propeller  in  a  large  passenger  ship  will  bo  regarded  as  an 
unpardonable  fault,  and  when  the  division  into  compartments  now 
common  will  be  held  to  be  no  better  than  a  delusion  and  a  snare. 

The  protection  given  to  the  regular  ships-of-war  by  side  armour, 
)r  by  a  protecting  deck,  at  or  near  tlie  water-line,  will  probably 
oecome  a  definite  and  Indispensable  feature  in  them,  and  may, 
perhaps,  be  tlieir  only  distinguishing  characteristic,  apart  from, 
their  outfit  and  equipment 

If  this  should  prove  to  be  the  issue  of  events,  their  course  will 
have  been  very  indirect  In  the  ships-of-war  of  the  last  century 
no  attempt  was  made  to  employ  armour  on  the  sides  or  to  prevent 
the  passage  of  projectiles  and  water  into  the  holds  by  means  of  a 
protecting  deck.  There  was  a  deck  just  below  the  water-line,  but 
It  had  no  protective  qualities.  It  served,  among  other  things,  to 
furnish  passage  ways  in  action  for  the  carpenter  and  his  crew  to 
get  at  the  inner  side  of  the  wooden  walls  of  the  ship  at  and  near 
the  water-line,  so  that  when  shot  entered  there  the  holes  might  be 
immediately  plugged.  When  screw  propulsion  was  introduced  into 
these  ships,  and  it  was  found  practicable  to  keep  the  engines  ■and 
boilers  under  water,  it  would  nave  been  possible  to  place  a  deck 
over  the  machinery  and  beneath  the  water,  which  would  have 
greatly  added  to  the  security  of  the  engines,  boilers,  and  magazines. 
The  space^bove  this  deck  might  also  have  been  so  subdivided  into 
compartments  as  to  have  protected  the  buoyancy  and  stability  of 
the  ship  against  the  immediately  fatal  results  of  the  invasion  of 
water.  The  protection  of  the  buoyancy  and  stability  by  these 
means  would  not  have  been  absolute,  in  the  sense  of  making  the 
ship  safe,  but  it  would  have  been  of  the  utmost  value  as  compared 
with  ships,  otherwise  similar,  but  having  no  such  protection. 
Com-  Thirty  years  passed  between  the  date  when  screw-propeller  engines 

mitteeon  were  placed  beneaflr  the  water-level  in  ships  of  war  and  that  at  which 
Resigns,  a  committee  on  designs,  under  the  presidency  of  Lord  Duff'erin,  pro- 
posed to  place  such  a  covering  deck  over  them,  or  to  construct  a 
water-line  raft-body.  The  proposal  of  the  main  body  of  the  com- 
mittee was  to  'associate  such. a  raft-deck  for  the  protection  of  the 
buoyancy  and  stability  of  the  ship  against  artillery  with  a  central 
armoured  citadel.  That  of  the  minority  was  to  suppress  ths  armour 
in  the  region  of  the  water-line  entirely,  and  to  protect  buoyancy, 
stability,  machinery,  and  magazines  by  a  raft-deck  alone.  In  1873 
the  plan  as  indicated  by  the  main  body  of  the  committee  was  put 
into  practice  nearly  simultaneously  in  the  "  Duilio"  and  "  Dandolo" 
in  Italy  and  in  the  "  Inflexible  "  in  England.  In  1878  the  system 
as  conceived  in  principle  by  the  minority  of  the  committee  of  1871, 
although  not  in  the  manner  they  recommended,  was  adopted  in 
much  smaller  yessels  in  the  British  navy.  A  raft-deck  was  intro- 
duced into  the  "Comns"  class  of  corvettes  of  2,380  tons  displace- 
ment, a  class  which  was  regarded  as  unarmoured.  Since  that  date 
the  raft-deck  has  been  adopted  in  a  more  or  less  complete  form  in 
nearly  all  classes  of  unarmoured  ships  in  the  English  navy.  So  it 
has  come  about  that,  out  of  some  850  unarmoured  ships  of  war  built 
and  building  in  Europe,  47  have  such  protecting  raft-decks.  Of 
these  32  are  English.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  all  unarmoured 
ships  of  war  will  eventually  be  protected  in  this  manner.  The  num- 
ber of  so-called  ironclads  built  and  building  in  Europe  is  270.  Of 
these,  34  are  based  on  the  recommendation  of  the  committee  on 
designs  ;  18  of  them  are  English.  There  are  six  other  English  ships-, 
witli  central  citadels  and  under-water  protecting  decks,  built  more 
than  twenty  yeai's  ago,  but  the  raft-body  principle  is  absent  in  them. 

If  the  passage  from  the  steam  line-of-battle  ship  of  1840-1860  to 
the  "Admiral "class  of  1884  had  been  made  under  the  guidance  of 
the  principles  of  ths  committee  of  1871,  European  nations  would 
not  find  themselves  possessed  of  large  fighting  ships  covered  from 
end  to  end,  or  over  large  areas  of  their  sides,  with  thin  armour, 
penetrable  to  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  guns  brought  against 
them.     But  the  sailors  oi  1854-1860  did  not  take  the  view  that 


buoyancy  and  stability,  and  machinery  and  magazines,  wore  tha 
vital  parts,  needing  defence  by  armour  or  by  a  raft-deck.  They 
dreaded  the  effects  of  shell  exploding  between  decks,  setting  fire 
to  the  ships,  aad  converting  the  decks,  crowded  with  men,  into 
slaughter-houses.  Their  demand  was,  "Keep  out  the  shells."  So 
it  came  about  that  iron  armour-plates,  thick  enough  to  keep  out  the 
most  powerful  shell  of  the  time,  were  worked  upon  the  sides  of  tho 
sliips,  and  the  guns  were  fought  through  ports  cut  in  this  armour. 
This  feeling  was  so  strong  that  the  English  Admiralty  built  the 
"Hector"  and  "Valiant"  with  armoured  batteries  overlapping  by 
many  feet  at  each  end  the  armour  beneath  them,  which  protected 
the  buoyancy,  stabilitj',  machinery,  and  m.igazines.  Guns  in- 
creased in  power,  and  the  armour  was  gradually  thickened  to  resist 
them,  until  from  4^  inches  of  armour,  through  which  broadside 
ports  were  cut,  9  inches  and  10  inches  were  reached.  But  this 
thickening  of  the  armour  had  so  reduced  tho  possible  number  of  the 
guns  in  a  ship  of  moderate  size  and  the  guns  required  for  breaching 
such  armour  had  so  increased  in  weight,  that  the  broadside  ship 
had  to  give  way  to  the  turret  or  barbette  ship,  in  which  about  four 
such  guns  were  all  that  could  be  carried,  and  these  had  to  be  viorked 
on  turn-tables  in  or  near  the  central  line  of  tho  ship. 

The  point  now  reached  in  all  navies  is  that  the  broadside  iron- 
clad with  ports  cut  through  an  armoured  side,  as  invented  in 
Franco  by  M.  Dupuy  de  Lome,  and  copied  by  every  power,  is 
obsolete.  Guns  must  be  worked  singly  or  in  pairs  on  revolving 
turn-tables,  each  turn-table  being  surrounded  by  an  armoured 
tower,  forming  the  loading  chamber  or  protecting  the  mechanism. 
The  side  armour  protecting  the  buoyancy,  stability,  machinery,  and 
magazines,  although  not  introduced  for  that  purpose  originally,  is 
retained  in  France  for  very  large  ships,  is  given  up  in  Italy  in 
favour  of  a  raft-body,  and  is  retained  partially  in  England  and 
Germany  in  conjunction  with  a  raft-body. 

The  use  of  armour  has  arrested  the  development  of  the  shell.  But 
it  is  not  inconceivable  that  its  abandonment  in  front  of  the  long 
batteries  of  guns  in  the  French  and  Italian  ships  will  invite  shell 
attack,  and  make  existence  in  such  batteries,  if  they  are  at  all 
crowded,  once  more  intolerable.  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  in 
that  case  exposure  will  be  accepted,  or  a  new  demand  made  for 
armour,  at  least  against  the  magazine  gun  and  the  quick-firing  gun. 
If  exposure  is  accepted,  it  will  be  on  the  ground  tliat  the  uuuibei 
of  men  at  the  guns  is  now  very  few,  that  the  gun  positions  are 
numerous  and  the  fire  rapid,  and  that,  if  the  guns  had  once  more 
to  be  fought  through  ports  in  armour,  the  number  of  gun  positions 
would  be  reduced,  and  the  fragments  of  their  own  walls,  when 
struck  by  heavy  projectiles,  would  be  more  damaging  than  the 
projectiles  of  the  enemy. 

Internal  armour  for  the  protection  of  the  heavy  armour- breach- 
ing guns  must  be  retained  so  long  as  such  gims  are  used,  and  if 
they  were  abandoned  an  enemy  could  cover  himself  with  armour 
invulnerable  to  light  artillery.  This  the  French  attempted  to  do 
in  inaugurating  the  system.  They  have  been  driven  from  it  by 
the  growth  of  the  gun.  Abandon  the  heavy  gun,  and  complete 
armour-plating  might  again  be  adopted. 

""e  must  conclude  that  the  buoyancy,  stability,  macninery,  and 
magaziui's  must  be  protected  as  far  as  possihle  against  fatal 
damage  from  a  single  blow  of  these  armour-breaching  guns.  The 
tendency  will  be  to  come  to  the  lightest  form  of  such  protection. 
That  lightest  form  appears  to  be  a  protecting  deck  a  little  above 
the  water-level  throughout  the  greatest  part  of  its  surface,  but 
sloping  down  at  the  sides  and  at  the  ends,  so  as  to  meet  the  side 
wails  of  the  ship  under  the  water-line.  However  the  armour  is 
arranged  (apart  from  a  complete  covering  with  invulnerable  plat- 
ing), —whether  as  a  belt  with  its  upper  edge  3  feet  out  of  the  water, 
as  in  the  French  ships  ;  as  a  central  armoured  citadel  and  a  raft- 
body  at  the  ends,  like  the  English  and  German  ships  ;  or  as  a  raft- 
boily  throughout,  like  the  Italian  ships, — shot  holes  iji  action  will 
admit  water  and  gradually  reduce  the  necessary  stability  of  the 
ship.  In  the  French  ships  the  assistance  of  the  unarmoured  upper 
parts  is  as  necessary  to  prevent  them  from  upsetting  in  anything 
but  smooth  water  as  is  the  assistance  of  .the  unarmoured  raft  ends 
in  tlie  English  and  German  ships.  In  the  intact  condition  the 
English  ships  have  far  greater  stability  than  those  of  France.  In  tho 
English  shi|is  a  reserve  of  stability  is  provided,  against  the  con- 
tingency of  loss  by  injuries  in  action.  In  the  French  ships  no  mora 
is  provided  than  is  required  for  the  intact  condition.  The  French 
have  not  accepted  the  position  taken  up  in  England  that  much 
greater  initial  stability  may  be  given  to  heavily-armoured  broad 
ships  than  is  usually  given,  without  causing  heavy  rolling.  Not 
have  they  accepted  the  further  incontrovertible  truth  that  the  free 
piissa^e  of  water  in  the  raft-body  from  side  to  side  of  the  ship  in 
rolling  is  rapidly  effective  in  quelling  the  motion  and  bringing  the 
ship  to  rest  in  the  unright  position. 

Propulsimi. 

The  propulsion  of  ships  by  sails  dillers  from  the  drifting  of 
bodies  in  the  air  before  the  wind  in  a  most  important  respect. 
Ships  may  drift  or  sail  in  the  direct  course  of  the  wind,  and  they 


SHIPBUILDING 


823 


will  then  differ  from  air-borne  bodies  only  in  the  comparative 
ilowness  imposed  by  the  resistance  of  the  water.  Ships  having 
the  same  length  as  breadth,  or  rather  opposing  the  same  form  and 
li'ea  to  side  progress  as  to  forward  progress  could  never  do  otlier 
than  sail  before  the  w-ind.  No  disposition  of  canvas  could  make 
them  deviate  to  the  right  or  left  of  their  course  to  leeward.  But 
by  an  alteration  of  form  giving  them  greater  length  than  breadth, 
and  greater  resistance  to  motion  sideways  than  to  motion  endwise, 
they  came  to  possess  the  power  of  being  able  not  only  to  sail  to  the 
right  or  left  of  the  course  of  the  wind,  before  the  wind,  but  also  to 
sail  towards  the  wind.  The  wind  can  bo  made  to  impel  them 
towards  the  point  from  which  it  is  blowing  by  means  of  the 
lengthened  form  acted  on  by  the  resistance  of  the  water. 

Motion  directly  towards  th?  wind  cannot  be  maintained,  but  by 
sailing  obliquely  towards  it  hi-st  to  one  side  and  then  to  the  other 
niogress  is  made  in  advance,  and  the  vessel  "beats  to  windward." 
The  action  is  like  that  which  would  be  required  to  blow  a  railway 
car  to  the  eastward  by  the  action  of  an  easterly  wind.  '  If  the  line 
of  rails  were  due  east  and  west,  and  the  wind  were  always  direct 
from  the  east,  the  thing  could  not  be  done.  But  with  a  wind  to 
the  south  or  north  of  cast,  by  setting  a  sail  in  the  car  so  that  its 
surface  lies  between  the  course  of  the  wind  and  the  direction  of  the 
rails,  it  would  then  receive  the  impulse  of  th&  wind  on  its  back  and 
would  drive  the  car  forwards.  There  would  be  a  large  part-of  the 
force  of  the  wind  ineffective  because  of  the  obliquity  of  tho  sail ; 
and  of  the  part  which  is  elfectivc  a  large  portion  would  be  tending 
to  force  the  car  aj;ainst  the  rails  sideways,  but  there  would  be 
progression  to  windward.  In  the  case  of  the  ship  the  resistance 
to  side  motion  is  due  to  the  unsuitability  of  the  proportions  and 
form  for  progress  in  that  direction  as  compared  with  progress 
ahead,  but  still  there  is  motion  transversely  to  the  line  of  keel. 
This  motion  is  called  leeway.  As  tlie  ship  moves  to  leeward  and 
flhead  timultaneously  there  is  a  point  of  balftnce  of  the  forces  of 
the  fluid  against  the  immersed  body — a  centre  of  fluid  pres.sure. 
The  object  of  the  consti-uctor  is  to  place  the  mosts  in  the  ship  in 
such  positions  that  the  centre  of  pressuie  of 'wind  upon  the  sails 
shall  fall  a  little  behind  or  astern  of  this  centre  of  resistance  of 
the  iluid.  In  that  case  there  is  a  tendency  in  the  ship  to  turn 
round  under  the  action  of  these  two  forces,  and  to  turn  with  her 
head  towards  the  wind.  This  tendency  is  corrected  by  the  action 
of  the  rudder.  If  the  tendency  to  turn  were  the  other  way, 
although  that  could  also  be  corrected  by  the  i-udder,  yet  there 
would  be  danger  of  the  wind  overcoming  the  rudder  action  in. 
squalls,  and  the  ship  would  then  come  broadside  to  the  wind. 
In  that  case,  while  she  might  have  been  quite  capable  cf  bearing 
the  pressure  of  the  wind  blowing  obliquely  upon  her  sails,  she 
might  have  her  sails  blown  away,  or  her  masts  broken,  or  bo  hcr- 
selr  capsized  by  the  direct  impulsion  of  the  winfl  upon  the  sail  and 
upon  the  hull  of  tho  ship. 

Many  examples  of  disposition  of  sails  might  be  given.  Their  dis- 
position is  always  made  to  satisfy  the  conditions  that  as  much  sail  as 
]>ossible  is  required,  but  if  the  vessel  is  small  it  must  be  capable  of 
being  instantly  let  go  in  a  squall,  or  when  the  wind  is  gusty. 
Otherwise,  where  it  cannot  be  re.adily  let  go,  its  area  should  be 
capable  of  reduction  in  squally  weather,  still  retaining  its  elliciency, 
so  that  no  pressure  of  the  wind  should  be  capable  of  upsetting  tho 
ship.  If  a  sudden  violent  squall  should  strike  the  ship  she  should 
find  relief,  not  by  a  largo  inclination,  but  by  the  blowing  away  of 
the  sails  out  of  the  bolt-ropee,  or  the  carrying  away  of  the  masts. 
One  or  otlier  of  these  must  of  course  happen  if  the  area  of  canvas  and 
tho  sl;rength  of  the  sails  and  of  the  spars  are  so  proportioned  at  the 
moment  the  squall  strikes  the  ship  as  to  bo  loss  than  the  resistance 
offered  by  tho  stability  of  tho  ship  to  a  large  inclination.  Ships 
are  sometimes,  when  struck  by  a  squall,  blown  over  on  to  their  sides, 
the  sails  being  in  the  water.  II  tho  sails  or  spars  are  then  cut 
away  or  otherwise  got  rid  of  the  ship  may  right  herself. 

In  the  Transactions  of  the  Institution  of  Naval  An 
1881,  Mr  W.  H.  White  says  :— 

"Any  Invcsllfsatlon  of  tho  beliavlour  of  ealllng  elilps  at  sea'  must  take 
account  of  the  conditions  bclnngInK  to  tho  discussion  of  tlieir  riillInK  when 
no  sail  Is  set,  nmi  must  suiicrposu  upon  thosa  conditions  tlio  otlicr  iind  no 
loss  dilllcult  conditions  rdtitliig  to  tlio  action  of  the  wind  upon  the  anils,  tlio 
in  luenco  of  heaving  motions  upun  tlic  stabUlty,  and  tho  steadying  clfccl  of 
Ball-spread. 

"U  may  f.ilrly  bo  assumed  that  Iho  lalmurs  of  tho  Into  Mr  W  Froudo 
Jiavo  made  it  possililo  to  predict,  with  close  oiiproxiniation  to  truth,  tho 
behaviour  of  a  ship  whoso  qu.ilitluH  are  Itnown  and  which  has  no  sails  set 
when  rolling  among  waves  of  any  assumed  dimensions.  By  a  hai.py  cora- 
lilnat  on  of  experimental  Investigation  and  mnth.mnllcal  pioce'inre  Mr 
Jrondc  succeeded  In  tracing  the  motion  from  Instiinl  to  instant,  and  checked 
tho  results  thus  obtained  by  comj.arison  witii  II' j  nelual  observations  niadu 
in  n  sc.a->vay  on  tho  behaviour  of  tlio  '  llcvastatlon.'  Tho  details  of  his 
mothod,  and  examples  of  Its  ai>pllcaHon,  will  ho  toumi  In  tho  Tiniisaniom 
for  lt.7.1,  and  In  tho  npnondix  to  the  report  of  tho  '  Inllcxiljlo'  comniilteo 

•  The  conclnslon  I  have  rcachcl,  altera  careful  study  of  tho  sulilect  Is 
that  wo  nccil  very  cousidcrablo  cxlonaioiis  of  our  knowlodgo  of  tho  laws  of 
wlnd-pressiue  before  more  exact  Investigations  will  bo  posslldo  so  as  to 
vnahlo  us  to  pronounce  upon  tho  safety  or  dnnger  of  a  sailing  ship  Nor 
luMst  it  be  overlooked  that  sailing  shliis  nro  not  to  ho  treatod  a«  machines 
worked  under  ccrtiiiu  lived  conditions.  Their  safety  deponds  at  least  as 
niueh  upon  scamanslii]!  and  slcilful  niaicigomcnt  as  upon  llio  iiualitics  with 
which  they  ore  ondowcd  by  the  ir  designers.    Moreover,  it  la  hllo  l.i  inelend 


Architects  for 


that,  In  determining  what  sall-sprcad  can  be  safely  given  to  a  ship,  the  naval 
architect  proceeds  in  accordance  with  exact  or  purely  scientific  methoda. 
He  is  largely  inttuenccd  by  tho  results  of  experience  with  other  ships,  and 
thus  proceeds  by  comparison  rather  than  by  direct  investigation  from  first 
principles.  Certain  scientific  methoda  are  cniployed,  of  course.  In  making 
these  comparisons.  For  example,  tho  riglitlng  moment  at  ditferent  angles 
of  inclination  is  usually  compared  with  tho  corresponding  'sail-moment': 
but  even  hero  certain  assumptions  have  to  be  made  as  to  the  amount  of  sail 
to  be  reckoned  in  the  calculation,  and  as  to  tho  effective  wind-pressure  pel 
unit  of  sail-ai'ea.  Between  ship  and  ship  tiicso  assumptions  are  unobjection- 
able, but  they  are  not  therefore  to  be  regarded  as  Etrlctly  true. 

"The  calculations  of  curves  Of  stability  and  the  determination  of  the 
ranges  of  stability  for  ships  form  important  extensions  of  earlier  practica. 
But,  even  when  possessed  of  this  additional  information,  the  naval  arcllitect 
must  resort  to  experience  in  order  to  appreciate  fairly  the  influence  of  aea- 
inanship  and  the  relative  manageability  of  ships  and  sails  of  different  sizes. 
There  can  be  no  question  but  that  a  good  range  and  largo  area  of  a  curve  of 
stability  denote  cunditions  very  favourable  to  the  safety  of  u  ship  against 
capsizing.  But,  in  practice,  it  frequently  happens  that  such  favourable 
couditioos  can  scarcely  be  secured  in  association  with  other  Important 
qualities,  and  a  comparatively  moderate  range  and  area  of  the  curve  of 
stability  have  to  be  considered  when  the  designer  attempts  to  decide  whether 
suiftcient  stability  has  been  provided.  Under  these  circumstances  experience 
is  of  tho  greatest  value ;  o  priori  reasoning  cannot  take  the  place  of  experi- 
ence, because  (as  remarked  above)  the  worst  combination  of  circumstances 
cannot  be  fixed,  and  because  some  important  conditions  in  tho  problem  are 
yet  uiiKettled.  Certain  arbitrary  standards  may  be  set  up,  and  ships  may 
be  pronounced  safe  or  unsafe ;  but  this  is  no  solution  of  the  problem.  There 
are  classes  of  ships  in  existence  which  liave  been  navigated  in  alt  weathers, 
under  sail,  and  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  which  might  be  pronounced  unsafe 
if  tested  by  some  of  the  standards  that-have  been  proposed ;  but  the  fact 
that  not  a  single  vessel  of  that  class  has  been  capsized  or  lost  at  sea  duringl 
ntany  years  will  probably  be  accepted,  in  most  quarters,  as  sufficient  evidenco 
01  the  seaworthiness  of  tliOse  classes,  and  as  an  indication  of  the  doubtful 
authority  of  the  proposed  standards." 

For  the  different  kinds  of  sails,  and  for  sailmaking,  see  SAlt. 
The  "Comet"  was  the  first  steam-vessel  built  in  Europe  thatSteaut. 
plied  with  success  in  any  river  or  open  sea.     She  was  built  in 
Scotland  in  1811-12  for  Mr  Henry  Bell,  of  Helensburgh,  having 
been   designed   as   well   as  built   by   Jlr  John   Wood,    at    Port- 
Glasgow.     The  little  vessel  was  42  feet  long  and   11  feet  wide. 
Her  engine  was  of  about  four  horse-powei-,  with  a  single  vertical 
cylinder.      She  made  her  first  voyage  in  January  1812,  and   plied 
regularly  between   Glasgow  and  ■  Greenock   at   about  5  miles   an 
hour.     There  had  been  an  earlier  commercial  success  than  this 
with  a  steam  vessel  in  the  tjnited  States,  for  a  steamer  called  the 
"  Clermont"  was  built  in  1807,  and  plied  successfully  on  the  Hud- 
son  River.     This  boat,    built  for  r'ulton,   was  engined  by  the 
English  firm  of  Boulton  &  Watt.     The  reason  fo"-  this  choice  ot 
engineers  by  Fulton  appears  to  have  been  that    Fulton  had  sees 
a  still  earlier  steamboat  for  towing  in  canals,  also  built  in    Scotland, 
in  1801,  for  Lord  Dundas,  and  having  an  engine  on  Watt's  double- 
acting  principle,  working  by  means  of  a  connecting  rod  and  cruik 
and  single  stern  wheel.     This  vessel,  the  "  Charlotte  Uundas,"  was 
successful  so  far  as  propulsion  was  concerned,  but  was  not  regularly 
employed  because  of  the  destructive  effects  of  the  propeller  upon 
tho  banks  of  the  canals.     The  engine  of  tho  canal  boat  was  made 
by  Mr  William  Symington,  and  lie  had  previously  made  a  marina 
engine  for  Mr  Patrick  Miller,  of  Dalswintou,  Dumfriesshire.     Tliis 
last-named  engine,  made  in  Edinburgh  in  1788,  marks,  it  is  said, 
the  first  really  satisfactory   attempt  at  steam  navigation  in  the 
world.     It  was  employed  to  drivo  two  central  paddle-wheels  in  a 
twin  pleasure-boat  (a  sort  of  "  Castalia")  on  Dalswinton  Loch. 
Tho  cylinders  were  only  4  inches  in  diameter,   but  a  ^pecd  of 
C   miles  an    hour   was    attained   in   a  boat  25    feet   long    and- 
7  feet  broad.     Tho  first  steam  vessel  built  in  a  royal  dockyard 
was  also  called   the  "Comet."     She  appears  to  have  been  built 
about   tho  year    1822,    and   was   engined   by   Boulton   &   Watt. 
This  ship  had  two  engines  of  forty  horse-power  each,  to  bo  worked 
in  pairs  on  the  plan  understood  to  have  been  introduced  by  tho 
same  firm  in  1814.     In  1838  the  "  Sirius  "  and  "  Great  Western  " 
commenced  tho  regular  Atlantic  passage  under  steam.     Tho  latter 
vessel,  proposed  by  1.  K.  Biunel,  and  engined  by  Maudslay  Sons 
&  Field,  made  tho  passage  at  about  8  or  &  knots  per  hour..    One 
year   earlier  .(1837)   Captain   Ericsson,    a   scientific   veteran   who 
IS  still  amon"  us  (1886),  towed   tho  Admiralty  barge  with   their 
lordships  on  Doard  from  Somerset  House  to  Blackwall  and  back 
at  tho  rato  of  10  mUes  an  hour  in  a  small  steam  vessel  driven  by 
U  screw. 

Tho  screw  did  not  come  rapidly  into  favour  with  the  Admiralty, 
and  it  was  not  until  1842  that  they  first  became  possessed  of'^a 
screw  vessel.  This  vessel,  first  called  the  "  Mermaid "  and 
afterwards  tho  "  Dwarf,"  was  designed  and  built  by  the  late  Mr 
Ditchljurn,  and  engined  by  Messrs  Kennie.  In  1841-S  the 
"  liattler,"  the  first  ship-of-war  propelled  by  a  screw,  was  built 
for  and  by  tho  Admiralty  under  tho  general  superintendence 
of  Brunei,  who  was  also  supLriiitendinc  at  tho  same  time  tho 
construction  of  tho  "Groat  Britain,"  built  of  iron.  The  engines 
of  tho  "Rattler,'  of  200  nominal  horse-power,  were  made  by 
Messrs  Maudslay.  They  wcro  constructed,  like  the  paddlo-wheel 
engines  of  that  day,  with  veiticnl  cylinders  and  overhead  crank- 
shaft, with  wheel  gearing  to  give  the  required  speed  to  tho  screw. 
The  next  screw  engines  madc'tor  the  Royal  Navy  were  those  of  th« 
"Amiililon,"  300  nominal  horse-power,  made  in  1844  by  Millet 
and    Kavonhill.     In    these    tho   cylinders    took    the    horizonto* 


\ 


824 


SHIPBUILDING 


iuioat 

ingioes. 


fiedic- 
tioii  ID 
weight 
•f 


position,  and  they  became  the  type  of  screw  engines  in  general  use. 
This  ship  had  a  screw-well  and  hoisting  gear  lor  the  screw.  In 
1845  the  importance  of  the  screw  propeller  for  ships  of  war 
became  fully  recognized,  and  designs  and  tenders  were  invited 
from  all  the  principal  marine  engineers  in  the  kingdom.  The 
Government  of  that  day  then  took  the  bold  step  of  ordering  at 
once  nineteen  sets  of  screw  engines.  Si.':  of  these  had  wheel 
gearing ;  in  all  the  rest  the  engines  were  direct-acting.  The  steam 
pressure  in  the  boilers  was  from  5  to  10  lb  only  above  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  it  the  engines  indicated  twice  the  nominal  power  it 
was  considered  a  good  performance.  The  most  successful  engines 
were  those  of  the  "Arrogant"  and  "  Encounter"  of  Messrs  Penn. 
They  had  a  higher  sjieed  of  piston  than  the  others,  and  the  air- 
pumps  were  worked  direct  from  the  pistons,  and  had  the  same 
length  of  stroke.  These  engines  developed  more  power  for  a  given 
amount  of  weight  than  other  engines  of  their  day,  and  were  the 
forerunners  of  the  many  excellent  engines  on  the  double  trunk 
plan  made  by  this  firm  for  the  navy.  The  engines  with  wheel- 
gearing  for  the  screws  were  heavier,  occupied  more  space,  and  were 
sot  so  successful  as  the  others,  aud  so  mora  of  that  description 
were  ordered  for  the  British  navy. 

Up  to  1860  neither  surface-condensers  nor  superheaters  were 
ased  in  the  navy.  The  consumption  of  fuel  was  about  4i  lb  per 
one  horse-power  per  hour.  In  that  year  (1860)  three  ships,  the 
"  Arethusa,"  "  Octavia,"  and  "  Constance,"  were  fitted  respectively 
by  Messrs  Penn,  Messrs  Maudslay,  and  Messrs  Elder,  with  engines 
of  largo  cylinder  capacity  to  admit  of  great  expansion,  with  sur- 
face-condensers and  superheaters  to  the  boilers.  Those  of  the 
"Arethusa  "  were' double-trunk,  with  two  cylinders  ;  those  of  the 
*  Octavia  "  were  three-cylinder  engines  ;  and  those'  of  the  "  Con- 
stance "  were  compound  engines  with  six  cylinders  ;  the  first  two 
were  worked  with  steam  of  25  lb  pressure  per  square  inch,  and  the 
last  with  steam  of  32  lb  pressure.  All  these  engines  gave  good 
results  as  to  economy  of  fuel,  but  those  of  the  "  Constance  "  were 
the  best,  giving -one  indicated  horse-power  with  2i  lb  of  fuel.  But 
t^e  engines  of  the  "  Constance  "  were  excessively  complicated  and 
heavy.  They  weighed,  including  water  in  boilers  and  fittings, 
about  54  cwts.  per  maximum  indicated  horse-power,  whereas  ordi- 
nary engines  varied  between  34  and  4f  cwts. 

For  the  next  ten  years  engines  with  low-pressure  steam,  surface- 
'COndensers,  and  largo  cylinder  capacity  were  employed  almost 
exclusively  in  the  ships  of  the  Royal  Navy.  A  few  compound 
engines,  with  steam  of  30  lb  pressure,  were  used  in  this  period 
■jrith  good  results  as  to  economy,  but  they  gave  trouble  in  some 
of  the  working  parts.  Compound  engines,  with  high-pressure 
steam  (55  lb),  were  first  used  in  the  Royal  Navy  in  1867,  on 
Kessrs  Maudslay's  plan,  in  the  "Sirius."  These  have  been  very 
successful.  In  the  Koyal  Navy  as  well  as  in  the  mercantile 
aiarine,  the  compound  engine  is  now  generally  adopted.  They 
have  been  made  rather  heavier  than  the  engines  which  immediately 
preceded  them,  but  they  are  about  25  per  cent,  more  economical 
in  fuel,  and,  taking  a  total  weight  of  machinery  and  fuel  together, 
there  is  from  15  to  20  per  cent,  gain  in  the  distance  run  with  a 
given  weight 

Wrought-iron  is  largely  used  in  the  framing  in  the  place  of  cast- 
iron,  and  hollow  propeller  shafts  made  of  Whitworth  steel.  By 
these  means  the  weight  is  being  reduced,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  a  still  further  reduction  may  yet  be  made  by  the  use  of  high- 
class  materials  in  the  engines  and  steel  in  the  boilers. 

Mr  Thornycroft,  of  Chiswick,  and  others,  by  means  of  high  rate  of 
revolution,  forced  combustion,  and  the  judicious  use  of  steel,  have 
obtained  as  much  as  455  indicated  horse-power  with  a  total  weight 
of  machinery  of  11 J  tons,  including  water  in  boilers.  The  ordinary 
weight  of  a,  seagoing  marine  engine  of  large  size,  with  economical 
consumption  of  fuel,  excepting  a  few  of  very  recent  construction, 
would  be  six  or  seven  times  as  great.  By  closing  in  the  stoke- 
holes and  employing  fans  to  create  a  pressure  of  air  in  them 
capable  of  sustaining  from  one  to- two  inches  of  water  in  the  gauges 
the  consumption  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  fire-grate  per  hour  may 
be  raised  to  130  lb  and  upwards.  The  indicated  horse-power 
which  can  be  obtained  in  ordinary  cases  with  the  steam-blast  in 
the  chimney  to  quicken  consumption  does  not  exceed  ten.  But 
by  the  forced  draft  above  described  it  can  be  raised  with  ordinary 
boilers  to  17  to  18  indicated  horse-power  per  square  foot  of  fire- 
grate. In  torpedo  boats  with  locomotive  boilers  over  .28  horse- 
power per  foot  of  fire-grate  is  attainable. 

The  following  observations  on  efficiency  are  taken  from  the  work 
of  Mr  Sennett  on  T?ie  itariw  Steam  Engine  : — 

"In  every  machine  there  are  always  certain  causes  acting  that 
produce  waste  of  work,  so  that  the  whole  work  done  by  the  machine 
IS  not  usefully  employed,  some  of  it  being  exerted  in  overcoming 
the  friction  of  the  mechanism,  and  some  wasted  in  various  other 
ways.  '  The  fraction  representing  the  ratio  that  the  useful  work 
done  bears  to  the  total  power  expended  by  the  machine  is  called  the 
efficiency  of  the  machine  ;  or — 

Efficiency  =  .."?^'-"'°^'"'°"''- 
Total  power  expended. 


In  the  marine  steam  engine,  in  which  the  useful  work  is  measareS 
by  its  propelling  effect  on  the  ship,  there  are  four  successive  stages,' 
in  each  of  which  a  portion  of  the  initial  energy  is  wasted,  and  these 
four  causes  all  tend  to  decrease  the  efficiency  of  the  enpine  as. a 
whole. 

"  In  the  first  place,  only  a  portion  of  the  heat  yielded  by  the 
combustion  of  the  coal  in  the  furnaces  is  communicated  to  the 
water  in  the  boiler,  the  remainder  being  wasted  in  various  ways. 
The  fraction  of  the  total  heat  evolved  by  the  combustion  of  the 
coal,  that  is,  transmitted  to  the  water  in  the  boiler,  is  in  ordinary 
cases  not  more  than  from  j\  to  Z,.  This  fraction  is  called  the 
efficiency  of  the  boiler. 

"  Secondly,  the  steam,  after  leaving  the  boiler,  has  to  perform' 
mechanical  work  on  the  piston  of  the  engine  ;  but  this  work,' 
in  consequence  of  the  narrow  limits  of  temperature  between  which 
the  engine  is  worked,  is  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  total  heat 
contained  in  the  steam — say  from  -^  to  ^Vi  according  to  the  kind 
of  engine  and  rate  of  expansion  employed.  This  fraction,  repre-] 
senting  the  ratio  of  the  mechanical  work  done  by  the  steam  to  the 
total  amount  of  heat  contained  in  it,  is  called  the  efficiency  of  the 
steam. 

"  Thirdly,  in  the  engine  itself  a  part  of  the  work  actually  per- 
formed by  the  steam  on  the  pistons  is  wasted  in  overcoming  the 
friction  of  tho  working  parts  of  the  machinery  and  in  working  the 
pumps,  &c.  The  remainder  is  turned  into  useful  work  in  driving 
the  propeller.  The  fraction  representing  the  ratio  that  this  useful 
work  bears  to  the  total  power  exerted  by  the  pistons  is  called  the 
efficiency  of  the  mechanism. 

"  Fourthly,  the  propeller,  in  addition  to  driving  the  ship  aheadj 
expends  some  of  the  power  transmitted  to  it  in  agitating  and 
churning  tlie  water  in  which  it  acts,  and  the  work  thus  performed 
is  wasted, — the  only,  useful  work  being  that  employed  in  overcoming 
the  resistance  of  the  ship  and  driving  her  ahead.  The  ratio  of  this 
useful  work  to  t'le  total  power  expended  by  the  propeller  is  called 
the  efnciency  of  the  propeller. 

"  The  resultant  efficiency  of  the  marine  steam  engine  is  made  np 
of  the  four  ePicienoies  just  stated,  and  is  given  by  the  product 
of  the  four  factors  representing  respectively  the  efliciencies  of 
the  boiler,  the  steam,  the  mechanism,  and  the  propeller.  Any 
improvem:nt  in  the  efficiency  of  tho  maiiue  steam  engine,  and, 
couse(juently,'in  the  economy  of  its  performance,  is  therefore  due 
to  an  increase  in  one  or  more. of  these  elements." 

Under  Steam  EfGiNE  wUl  be  found  a  discussion  of  the  first 
three  of  the  efficiencies  enumerated  above.  Propulsion  and  pro- 
pellers have  to  be  considered  here. 

"The  principle  upon  which  nearly  all  marine  propellers  work," 
says  ?.Ir  Sydney  Barnaby,  "  is  the  projection  of  a  mass  of  water  ia 
a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  required  motion  of  the  vessel. 
When  a  vessel  is  in  motion  at  a  regular  speed  the  reaction  of  the 
mass  of  water  projected  backwards  by  the  propeller  is  exactly  equal 
to  the  resistance  experienced  by  t"..e  vessel.  When  it  is  clearl) 
understood  that  propulsion  is  obtained  by  the  reaction  of  a  mass 
of  water  projected  sternwards  with  a  velocity  relative  to  smooth 
water,  the  absurdity  is  at  once  seen  of  attempting  to  get  a  pro- 
peller to  work  without  slip.  If  there  is  no  slip  there  is  no  resultant 
propelling  reaction  except  in  the  limiting  case  where  the  mass  of 
water  acted  upon  is  infinite.  The  whole  problem  therefore  resolves 
itself  into  this — What  is  the  best  proportion  between  the  mass  of 
water  thrown  astern  and  the  velocity  with  which  it  is  projected, 
that  is,  if  the  screw  propeller  is  under  consideration,  the  ratic 
between  its  diameter  and  its  pitch  ?" 

"  There  are  four  different  kinds  of  propellers  apart  from  sails— 
the  oar,  the  paddle-wheel,  the  screw,  and  the  water  jet. 

"The  first  and  oldest  of  them — the  oar — maybe  used  in  two 
ways.  The  action  may  be  intermittent,  as  in  rowing,  when 
water  is  driven  astern  during  half  the  stroke  and  the  instrument 
brought  back  above  the  water  ;  or  its  action  may  be  continuous,  as 
in  scuUing.  When  used  as  in  rowing  it  is  exactly  analogous  to  a 
paddle-wheel,  while  the  action  of  the  scull  closely  resembles  that 
of  tho  screw.  It  is  supposed  that  in  the  ancient  galleys,  which 
were  propelled  by  a  large  number  of  oars  in  several  tiers  or  banks, 
tlio  oars  hung  vertically  and  worked  inwards  and  outwards  with  a 
sculling  action.  They  were  not  removed  from  tho  water,  but 
served  as  props  when  the  vessel  was  aground.  The  oars  were 
always  propelling  the  vessel,  in  both  parts  of  the  stroke.  The 
rowers  generally  sat  with  their  faces  outwards  and  forwards.  There 
was  great  overhang  of  the  sides  to  allow  of  several  tiers  of  rowers 
one  above  another.  The  oar  as  used  for  rowing  is  a  very  efficient 
instrument.  To  obtain  the  maximum  efficiency  out  of  it  a  con- 
stant pressure  should  be  maintained  upon  the  oar,  so  that  the  water 
is  started  gradually  from  rest,  and  the  acceleration  uniformly  in- 
creased throughout  the  whole  of  the  stroke.  A  glance  at  a  univer- 
sity crew  will  show  that  the  stroke  is  kept  up  with  a  uniform 
pressure  and  without  any  jerk." 

Speaking  of  the  screw  propeller,  MrS.  Barnaby  says: — "The 
speed  with  which  water  can  follow  up  ("le  blades  of  a  screw  dependa 
upon  *\a  head  of  water  over  it,  but  when  the  immersion  is  sufii- 


ccnr  to  exclude  a.r  a  liead  of  wattr  equivalent  to  30  feet  is  „„, 
plied  by  the  atmosphere,  as  h,i5  >■,..„  ,,„intcd  out  liv  Prof  n^h^rt 
keynoMs.  Experiments  on  tl.e  model  of  the  Tl.ornixroft."  " 
Jiave  Bhown  that  the  efliciency,  which  is  as  much  as  70  per  cent 
^Then  properly  immersed,  falls  to  about  50  percent,  when  breil-lnt 
the  surface  of  the  water.  As  a  result  of  a  change  from  a  M;,!  .  ^ 
of  5  feet  10  inches  to  i  feet  C  inclie.s  the  spee°J  of  t  e  fl--.,  ?  "" 
torpedo  boat  was  raised  from  IS  to  20  knotsf  other  Condi  onarf 
maming  the  same.  """  "^- 

There  is  i»  doubt  that  the  stern  is  the  best  position  for  tlie 
screw.  Asavess-1  passes  throijh  the  water  the  friction  imparts 
motion  to  the  layer  of  water  nilJing  .n gainst  the  side      Tl,;=   , 

*     '  li«»  tt., — ji    .      „'     .^Jiia  13} er 


S  H  I  P  B  U  I  L  D  I  N.  G 


825 


increases  ic  thickness  towards 
has  passed  throujh,  a  conside, 
motion  in  the  fa';ie  direction  ; 
tliis  water  it  is  ible  to  recove 
expended  by  tie  ship  in  f;' 
water,  which  R.iikine  estinir 
the  speed  of  tl)  vessel,  do— 
the  nature  am'  extent  of 


he  stern   so  that,  after  the  vessel 
ile  quantity  of  water  is  left  with  a 

Cn7l  If  ""=  ^"-e"- vorks  n 
bme  of  the  energy  which  has  been 
ig  It  motion.     The  sj.eed  of  this 

nm- be  as  much  as  one-tenth  of 
the  na  uro  an,  extent  of  t/ surface      As  it  is  a  necessity  "rat 
there  should  b  such  awal/it  is  a  distinct  advantaee  tn%.lo 
the  propeller  i   it  and  aIloj5t  to  utilise  as  much  as^ssihfe':? 
the  energy  It  nd.  there.  /  is  miportant   not  to  confound  this 
water,  which  las  had  mofn  given  to  it  bv  the  si,Io  ,„j  i    J 
of  the  ship,  vth  the  wavi  ^;^lacement,tLt  is,  th    water  hlH? 
in  behind  thohip.     Itshlfd   be  the  nin.f^  .-..Vlr  _^.'':^",':  *'i''»g 


arSfa^rdr^^^^^^^^ 

cfteetive  horse-potver  (that  is   fh  '  /"'  '°  ""^  *''»'■  <^alling  th. 

100,  then  at  the^  highest  sVeedfthrhorV""  '"  ""=  '"'  '''''^'^'') 

come  the  induced  negative  prtsure  unTfr"'.  "'1"'^'=''  '<>  <>»"■ 

the  thrust  of  the  screw  is  40™     the  f     r"  '^fY^'^^^l'^ont  on 

^vater  is  10  more  ;  the  frictio^fn  the  ™!  I"""'  °',""=  '"""  i°  »»>• 

pump  resistance  perhaps  Js  more     tw^l.TVl  ""^^  '  ^-d  ^i" 

and  we  find  that,  in  addit  on  to  the  11    •*'"'  ?^  !°''  ^"P  "^  screw, 

.>et  resistance-ipO,  wo  n'eV^O  +  lSTeJ  +  lV -V"  "T"""^"  "'« 

25S;  i.f.,  at  maximum  speeds  thrindie,*.^  ^'  ^^^'^S  in  all 

needs  to  be  more  than  t  vo-and  fhl^f  *-"^  'i°'™''  °f  tl>o  engineg 

effective  in  propulsion    '"  °-='"'l-^-'"''f  times  that  which  is  dirlctly 

(N.  B.) 


.u  uviiiuu  lilt....!',     itsh^a   be  the  aim  to  interfere  as  iitti 
liossible  withhis  motion^  such  interference  aucm.cfo  tu         ■  *' 
r:;ce  of  the  hi,,  verv  /siderably,   even   iri^rmed'' ^pt 
be  kept  as  far  away  from  the  stem 


Slice  of  the  hip  very 
The  propelh  should  tli 


possible. 


•ed  stern  launches  the  propeller  has  been 
e:il'?.!^!,!l.'».^^I-d.      AVhati^ 


''in  the  nail  higl 
kept  outsid  the  rud 
required  iithat  bcf' 
given  out  'on  the  s 
bow.     If  icrew  ] 

supply  of  ater  is  ,, «----»  *^  .vm  ..uaw  in  w.-ifpv  -if  *u^ 
thrdrivi.  face,  anf  ow  it  off  round  tl  e  tT,"  of  thl  blade",    rv^ 
.  centrifal  pun,p/ius  producing  a  loss  of  pressure  u  no  A  Jb' 
stern  of  e  vessel.  />r  very  high  speed  vessels  severlf  ..'^     i, 
^ould  e^Ie  the  4n  of  the  macliLery  to'be  ke^rdoC^^The 


Kept  ouisui  liio  iuuui"»"t    ^„  snppn         ui,    »   • 

required  i.<hat  befo/eaehing  the  screw  the  wate?'slia  I  h,  " 
Civeu  out  >on  the  sJof  the  ship  the  ener-- -  •  •  •  ^^''"^ 
bow.     If  icrew  pro/er  13  placed  behind  a 

y  Of  ater  is  i.£';';et^  H  will  draw  in  water  aribVcenrr^  "f 


number  of  revolu  inn        "^   •'^  horse-powe 

vc.  ui  revolutions  per  minute  •  tlmf  ,•„ 

•er  of  revolutions   the   less  Te" wdg\lf  p'^; 


varies-  i  ersely 
the  grccr  the 
iudicat  horse-, 

"The  is  a  cf  quantity  of  work  which  must  be  lost  ,^-fi, 
any  pKeller,  anfs  equal  to  the  actual  enersv  of  tJ,   !)•   I  ^^^ 
[.ale?  loving  af  of  the  propeller  wUrr?el°ocHy  fehti^fto 
ttiU  vter.     As/energy  varies  as  the  weight  mu  tfnHe,i  >^    t,^ 
pquarof  the  ?.v,  H  we  double  the  quaut uTo    witer  Je  ^' 
t^on.-e  doub*  loss  from  this  c.-iu.se    but  i^  we  do,  m»  *' 
t^elocy  with  W  the  water  is  discharg;i  we  inc  e^Je  thl  ,„ 
fourfd.     Thifs.  bo  advantage  ^f  ^^fj       upon  a  w'e  Vnl, 

^^^^^fe^frthe:-&ipSEir 

obUn  tt.er«ciency.     This  del^t  i    VeXtroa''''of"t^ 
.crw   Wa^o-Ia^ge  «,e   en-ect  of  this  eienieif  rnVbe'l" 

»;h  18  ^^  or  velocity  of  advance  per  revolutTon    '  SI 

.nlst^owr^ll^:  lj^  knot^'w  X-anTx! 
,   l.o»i.r.       ino   blades   were   then    taken 


fit— 
jvih  18 
obaino 
ciditun 


pciuiiurii,  -iv,„vi.       iwo    Diades    worn    (lion    *„, 

^^™  «C:'ed"'  """«   *'"'   *°'^'   ""nibe     from   eight   to 
'-•-     tn;'o  tSi;/';-   -T>'-'1   for'the^'sinl: 


foir. 

fiieed 

lad  t'ef„f  Vr,VJ'V""  7".''  """"lonal  blades." 

j;ymn:ruVr'fo\'i:';:':"^\^>'r ''^"  of  different 
^Zk  feed  to  veloeitv  If  ;i~S^  Si'ddcnnesj  of  change 

Xf  cause  are  tMafpSSel  T^S"  '''^' 

of  centrifugal /u^lptd';':""^  ^.^  <"--''eeI, 

led  on  the  water.     Propellers  wl,?M^    <'^).  ^"nsverso 

are  ordinary  screw  nroneln™      .         •°  '"  '^'"'=iency 

T'-heels,   which  give  37'  '^''"^''/nTart  rotary 

:ingand  leavh^  1     ^^     .  tXr,"'   ?.''   "I-ar^ 

nward  motion  at  the  comm:.,  1  '  "''"•'''  '"Tart 

;ively.     This  loss    s  greatly  reZe  I  "'"'  <?''  "^  "•" 

be  guides  take  the  rotary  mo^io,„ut  If  Ih  '''"  e>'i<le. 

doing.      (3)  ^Va8teof  eno  gy  of  th    feed  t".;''''"n?,".'' 

m  t.e  jet  propeller  u  gen^eLnyappUei  ■•"'"•     ^^ 


on  it 

it 

Rut 

mo 

b' 

m 

m 

Cil 


bo^i/J:j^'"^::^ts^ri;&r  '^  -;  'r'  ---* "' 

not  0    a  marked  eharacteird  cannot  hi'"'  ""'    ''*'''''""''''"«  " 
for  all  practical  purposes  the  hniuil    f        ^''^'f'^'  ''"■■''ned.     But 
or  but  {.artially  SecCdrand  r    pe  fed  p^rtTv' b^  ""^"*  ?  '^^'='' 
by  oars,  or  wholly  by  oars   miv  iPe  d  fi  ^Y^  ''Z  '"'''  *'"'  Pai'tly 
The  boats  in  general  u4  .'?  J        ^"'  ^'  *  boatbuilder.  ^ 

boats,    pleasure  Cts     or   btt^s  "l"!  ?n/  ''  ^'"^'"f  "'  ^^^'"8 
Racing  boats  (compare  Eow.ng    are  in      i,""?"-f'""'   pnrposes^ 
and  are  the  most  perfect  speimens  of  the  ho^H^-M''  "^  "'ahogany. 
r-gger  sculling  boat  measuresfrom  30  tn%.f    <-",''''"' '  " ''     ^he  out- 
in  breadth,  and  9  inches  in  depth    ll°  ^■       '  1°°°'  ^^  '°  ^^  '"^hes 
and  the  eight-oared  outri^-"  b   '      r^'""-  <">'>•  from  35  to  45  lb 
fcet2  inclfes  to  2  feet  5  EhU       °J™7  ,^^  *"  ^^^  feet  long  by  2 
Pleasure  boats  va;y   n  fom  and  dimen''''"''  7"'^'''  ^''°"'   ^00  V 
ing  boat  used  on  the'sea  c™st  to  tt T.     °f '/™'"/''°  ^^-feet  row- 
on  the  canals  of  Venice  and  used   ^''"'n'^'P'^  '^™"''  I'nncipally 
for  ceremonial   pageints      Boa's    .■s'^Tf"'^  °"  "'^  Thames.'^&c.^ 
embrace  fishing,^ca°nal   and  Ihi;  ■  boat^   for   commercial   purposes 
Fisheries)   are  gradually  pa  JLfr.^     Fishing  boats  (compare 
bmlder  to  that  of  the  shfpbui  de -^    \Z ^       ^phere  of  the   boat- 
being  in  many  cases  replaced  by  la  i^sr'?;'!,^?'',  °^  '^™'^^  J'''^" 
to  withstand  the  gales  of  the  Rrftk^'       ?°'  ^"^"'^  "^^^  "">'■<'  able 
raly  long,  narrow^  and  shal Iw   from  50  to  .^^^  m'"'''!^"  ^ene- 
feet   m  breadth,   and  from  4  to  5  7ce7il         ll''  '°'.'f,  ^^  ^  '°  1" 
vessels  are  required  bv  ^Htnfl  *     u       ""  ''"P"'-      ^11   sea-going 
equipped  for  use    not  fewer  in  num^'  ^'"'"'['^  '^'^   boats  ^full,^ 
contents  than  what  is  spec  fid   for  m"  T  ''''  '°  "'"■■  ^""^'cal 
belongs.    Theboats  vary  eon  Merablvin?        ''  !V'^''^   "'«  ^^P 
as  .n  material  and  consCt  or^c  ordin'r^h  "™^"-°."^as  wefi 
The  number  of  hn-.t<,  .>  „  '  ''ccoramg  to  the  service  intended 

is  required  to  carry  ssf;:;"^:?:";?'"","'  ''''  '""=  and  Jj^ward, 
the  boats.  In  either  ca^  two  of  tbpr"''".^'"  "'°  dimensions  of 
lifebo;.ts.      If  the  smalW  17    u  '"'«'"''  '"'"ts  must  be  litted  as 

two  lifeboats    on    Iau^c,r  ^^"'cu'tte'rr''""''  ''"  "'  ^""  '""^^^ 

Lifeboats  are  built  bo  h  ends  alii  >  P'""»«'.  and  one  gig. 
midships  towards  s  em  and  stern  nf  !"'"!,".''  f?''  "'  "^^  f™" 
length.  They  have  a?r-c^es  of  ^  *  '""^  ',"  ^  '"'■''  per  foot  of 
the  ends  and  along  the  si^es  of  tliTC^t"  T'l^.^ctal  fitted  i„ 
give  each  person  carried  th„  l!„  »  '  °'  '""'"ent  capacity  to 
strong  enclosed  air-'paee  ommie  v  1°"'-'""^  "  ^'''^  "''^'c  feet  of 
similar  in  form  but  o"}  smaller^Zpn  '"  "Tl  ^-  ,"<>>■  Gutters  are 
are  about  the  same  d  n  ens  oi  s  ^  ciin^r!  '^" 'i'^^'^oat^  ;  pinnacea 
Gigs  are  of  lighter  construction  ,nd  f  '  ''".'  ^'"'°  'l""^^  ''"««• 
A  service  boat  called  rdinr'vt„I  "7  /"""  "''•'"   Pinnaces. 

light  stores  betwe  the  l^^rVand  tl.rj"''','  ^V^'  conveyance  of 
so  close  to  the  funnel  of  a  steamepl  ,  T''-'  •  ^"^'"'  ^'''cn  carried 
the  heat  therefrom  Lveofhrvo^rs".  "'^  •"J'>.';'""=>y  affected  by 
?teel.  Those  built'of  steel  Lvpatcs  riT,\  "i^""','  """'  "' 
ized,  the  keel,  stem  stern  and  d7,f  ^' .  T''  ""e''  and  galvan- 
to  which  the  p'latingislui'd,::;:^  '''""^"°°'^  ''""^  •'"-S  of^vood, 

designefl  yl'dtirr  pali'irthl'r  ""'""'."k"'"  ™-'™c.ion.  .  The 

which  are  .iftenva;ds°?raSmH'i":r.t'fll';-''V^"n°''!'°"'^'- 
loft.     From  these  full-si^ed  Jn.;l7„  >?     °°'   ""^  "">  drawing- 

and  stem  posts,  having  been  cut  out  to  .1'  "'."  "'"^t  '^'"=  "'»"' 
tenoned  into  mortices  in  th"  keel  tI„  I  '''"P"  ,'''^^'e"''-l,  a« 
the  stem  and  stern  posts  to  the  keel  111  "^"^fs  overlaj,,  and  bind 
boIt3  and  clenched  -.tshle  over  a  H  g"or  Jsl'r  '1  7\"r"R'> 
of  wood  IS  then  nailed  between  .!,„  of  ,         ^  '"''"''■  ^lattou 

connect  them  together  a  u  a  1  nn  .  .1  "  ?  1'""''°'^'  ''"'^''  ^ 
sternpost  to  repfc't'th  water  liie  Thf  w"' l'""  ''""^  ''"^  "" 
posts  being  in  position  on  tl  e  Btocks  th^  «.e™  '  f'V'  "'"'  '"'="' 
then  plumbed  and  secured  by  sUysVwoot    T^^^    t^u   f"'^  \" 

the  water-li„:;"L'r,rke';"tSn"  ;  i  ^^i;  C's't:,.?:'""^',,^'"?'"!^  '''^ 

Snki;[T^t;:;;'l^p^^^;[i-r^"^  "•'.'''-  ^'^^  ^ 

Ho  noor  c^tendV^crol     iTk  Jtd  rto'tL'?'""  r'^u  f""  '"• 
They  arc  fastened  throuch  the  Ve^l  J^^li      ""'  "^  "'  ^^°  ^^go- 


826 


S  H  I  -  S  H  I 


i 


T.eti.Wsgeneranya.a.ouUj^chby^ 
outof  a  clean  piece  of  Amencau  elm      ^^^  P        ^^  ^  ^^^^  ^^ 


After 


^=S^e,  a.  fitted  i.to  the 


•.-        0^,1  hpfnre  it  cools    it  is  nailed  fast  with  coprer 
-t^'^F'^:::^:^.^^t?:V-e  of  Arnencan  e..  about  2 


nails.    The  gunwale  is 
inches  square 


through  the  gunwale  and  top  Itrake  and  also  through  the  thwart 
and  knee.  The  boat  gcnerallyteceives  three  coats  of  paint  and  is 
then  ready  for  service.  i 

The  following  are  the  dimensitos  of  boats  in  the  British  merchant 


service : — 


a  breast-hook  is  fitted''forward,  binding  the  gunwale 
a  ureasi  no  ,       _  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^  gunwale  and  top 


rpstrake,ste™andai™ntog^^^^^^^ 
strake  are  secured  to  t^e  transom  oy  American  elm, 

A  waring  or^t"°g".  '"^^l  of  the  boat!  about  8  to  9  inches  below 
is  then  fitted  on  ^^"'^^^'^"^^ji^f  the  thwarts  or  seats  rest.     The 


Lifeboat 
CuUer... 
Pinnace. 

GiK 

Dingy... 


Lengi 


28  ft.  ( 

:6  ft. 
:4  ft. 
i<ift. 
istt. 


Breadth, 


8  ft.  6  in. 
7  ft. 

6  ft.  6  la. 
5  ft.  c  ia. 
5  ft.  6  In. 


Depth. 


3  ft.  6  in. 

3  ft. 

2  ft.  8  In. 
2  ft.  3  in. 
2  ft.  3  in. 


ciTTTPLEY  a  town  of  Englaod,  in  the  West  Riding  of 
YoSe  is'sttuard  on  the  south  bani  of  the  Aire,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  a  picturesque  pastoral  country  at 
the  iunction  of  the  Leeds  and  Bradford  Railway  with  the 
tadford  Skipton,  and  Colne  Une,  3  miles  aorth  of  Brad- 
ford TtechLch  of  St  Paul,  an  elegant  structure  m  the 
Gothic  style  erected  in  1820,  was  altered  and  improved 
S  1876  The  manufacture  of  worsted  is  the  principal 
industry,  and  there  are  large  stone  q^^-ies  m  the  neigh- 
bourhood. A  local  board  was  estabhshed  in  1853  ihe 
Satbn  of  the  urban  sanitary  district  (area  U06  acres) 
in  1871  was  11,757  and  in  1881  it  was  15,093. 

smPPmG  The  island  of  Britain  (to  the  shipping  of 
which  the  pres'ent  historical  notice  is  mainly  rest"cted  is 
well  fitted  to  serve  as  a  commercial  depot,  both  by  the 
Tumber  of  its  natural  harbours  and  the  variety  of  its  pro- 
du"s  There  is  evidence  that  PhcBnician  traders  visi  ed 
Lt  for  tin.  and  in  after  times  it  served  as  one  of  the 
'^nari  s  ;f  the  Roman  empire  On  the  other  hand  raw 
W,l  was  the  staple  article  of  commerce  m  tl^e/lif^ 
Zes  while  the  supremacy  of  English  manufactures  m 
Srn  days  has  contributed  to  the  development  of  Brit^t 
Spi°g  till  it  has  grown  out  of  aU  comparison  with  any- 
thina  in  ancient  or  mediaeval  times. 

Britain  must  have  been  one  of  the  most  distant  pomts 
that  was  visited  by   Phoenician   or  Carthaginian   ship. 
Adventurous  as  their  sailors  were  when  compared   with 
rholeof  other  races,  and  ready  as  they  were  to  carry  on 
trad'n?  on  behalf  of  neighbouring  states,  it  is  not  clear 
K  thejever   sailed  across  the  Indian  Ocean  or  ven- 
ded beyond  the  Persian  Gulf,  even  in  the  serv.ce  of    he 
T?,rvntians  (Bru<^sch).     Their  coasting  habits  led  to  the 
Sment  oTa  chaiii  of  colonies  along  the  Mediterranean 
BhoesTand  that  sea  was  wide  enough  to  form  a  convenient 
bar  L;  between   the  Greek  and  the  Carth^man  settle- 
ments     When  their  empire  was  at  fength  destroyed   the 
S^lns  became  the  heirs  of  their  enterprise,  but  do  no 
™  to  have  pushed  maritime  adventure  much  further 
or  onened  out  many  new  commercial  connexions. 

Though  the  Angle  and  Saxon  tribes  were  doubtless 
skilled  both  in  shipbuilding  and  in  the  management  of 
their  vessels  at  the  time  when  they  conquered  Britain, 
the^elrts  had  greatly  decayed  during  the  four  centuries 
h^  eCsed  bef'ore  tL  time  of  Alfred  -^o  endeavoured 
to  improve  on  existing  models  {Eng.  CAron.,  89  f ).  Hence 
Se  necessity  of  resisting  the  Danes,  with  the  subsequent 
W  Of  Danish  and  Sther  elements  in  our  nationality, 
:^V  be  taken  as  marking  the  period  when  English  shippiug 
Td  its  rise  Apart  from  incidental  notices  of  commum- 
Stlon  4^-  other  lands,  there  i^  clear  evidence,  from  the 


other  side   of  the  Channel, 


otner  siae  ui  mo  ^ii<-^"w.,  s  it  does  lAt  appear  that 
English  ships  penetrated  to  he  Mediterknean  till  the 
time  of  the  crusades.  \ 

The  steady  development  of  iiglish  shippkg  during  the 
Norman  and  early  Plantagene  reigns  mai  be  inferred 
from  the  more  frequent  inteommunicatii  with  the 
Continent  and  the  many  _  evi»nces  of  tn  increasing 
importance  of  the  commercial  cl;ses  and  trying  towns. 
In  the  time  of  Edward  III.  the   ipping  intAst  suffered 


a  temporary   check  from   the  reoval   of  tli  staple  to 
England,  a  step  which  was  taken  th  the  vieVpf  attract- 
ing  foreign  merchants   to   visit   ^gland    (l33).     This 
policy,  however,  was  soon  reverseimd  the  ren  of  that 
monarch  was  on  the  whole  favoura,  to  the  d&Jopment 
of  shipping.     He  was  himself  fondf  the  sea,  nd  com- 
manded in  person  in  naval  engageiQts,  and  I  taking 
possession   of  Calais  and  enforcing  3  sovereigy  over 
the  narrow  seas  he  rendered  the  ti^  more  f^urable 
for  the  development  of  commerce.     Jre  than  otof  the 
noble  families  of  Eugland  have  descet,d  from  t,  mer- 
chant princes  of  the  14th  century,     fehis  time  so  the 
compass,  which  had  been  introduced  a  rude  im  as 
early  as  the  12th  century,  had  been  proved  an  had 
come  into  common  use.     But  many  ^s  were  to  lapse 
before  the  enterprise  of  the  15th  and  <  centuriesaade 
the  most  of  the  new  facilities  for  unciking  lona-oy. 


tinned  to  vary  accoraing  10  i.iio  =v»..  poutical  bn- 

nexions  with  the  Continent-  and  the  .gs  of  En ish 

monarchs  in  "keeping  the  narrow  sefree  fromlhe 

ravages  of  pirates.     During  this  centur.,^  ^^  hearkr 

more  of  organizations  of  merchants  to  rn  p^i-jg^  U 

of  struggles  between   different  bodies' aders.      ^^ 

"  Merchants  of  the  Staple "  dealt  in  i-qoI  and  le 

other  staple  commodities  of  the  realm,  ^^eyexpcrid 

to  Calais  ;  the  "Merchant  Adventurers,  .j^grf„i     r_ 

elation  which  had  developed  out  of  a  relg^yj^  ^ Jj. 

chiefly  in  wooUen  cloths,  but  they  tra(l.|j  g^^y  ^J 

where  they  could  get  a  footing.     This  b  (.i^m  jj 

frequent  collision  with  the  "Merchanti^g  -q^^^^, 

who  had  had  a  footing  in  London  since  ^j^^  f^^^_ 

quest.     The  chief  attempt  at  accommoda  ^    j^^  j^ 

the  time  of  Edward  W.  (1474),  but  thei^  ^^^  ^^ 

prisals  continued  till  the  discovery  of  the^Toyj^  ^^^ 

revolutionized  trade,  and  the  Hanse  Lea,gj2g^  j^ 

Elizabeth;  were  unable  either  to  injure  or,^^^  ^^j^ 

EngUsh  shipping.    _  .     ,  ■  ■     ,,  fi,» 

Considering  the  interest  which  all  tne  ..onarchs 
showed  in  developing  shipping,*  and  the  ^j  ^^^ 
ness  and  enterprise  of  the  Cabots,  Re^e^.g^.  ^^ 
other  sailors,  it  is  remarkable  that  Englij^g^j  ^ 
Uttle  footing  at  first  ih  the  new  lands  v,^  ^^ 
covered  by  Columbus  (1492)  or  along  the^,.  ^^ 
I  The  estabUshment  of  Tiinity' House  by  Heniy,^^^ 
after  pUots.  buoys,  &c.,  in  1512,  Is  the  mort  impo.  ^  ^ | 
care  for  shipping. 


SHIPPING 


82^ 


opened  up  by  vasco  da  Gamn  (1496).  Eventually  she 
inherited  much  of  the  commercial  empires  of  Spain, 
Portugal,  Holland,  and  France,  but  there  was  still-  com- 
paratively little  permanent  acquisition,  or  establishment  of 
trading  factories,  at  the  close  of  the  16th  century.  The 
fact  was  that  such  undertakiu^'s  were  beyond  the  power  of 
private  traders,  and  that  Elizabeth  was  too  penurious  to 
make  an  attempt  on  such  a  scale  as  to  fOD->macd  Eucce.<!s 
It  was  by  the  formation  of  companies,  that  the  difficulty 
■was  at  length  overcome,  and  that  associated  traders,  or 
traders  working  on  a' joint  stock,  were  able  to  establish 
factories  in  foreign  parts,  and  thus  to  give  a  new  impetus 
to  English  shipping.  The  African  Company  and  others 
were  failures,  but  there  were  many  which  had  a  long  and 
successful  career.  The  Levant  Company  was  established  in 
1581,  and  had  factories  at  Smyrna.  The  Eastland  Com- 
pany traded  with  the  Baltic  ;  it  was  established  in  1579,  and 
had  factories  in  Prussia.  The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  is 
much  more  recent,  and  only  dates  from  1670.  But  by  far 
the  greatest  of  these  undertakings  was  the  East  India 
Company,  which  was  founded  in  1600,  and  which,  after  a 
long  struggle  with  commercial  rivals  at  home  and  Dutch 
competitors  abroad,  attained  at  length  to  the  sovereignty 
of  a  large  empire.  The  chief  cause  of  complaint  against 
this  company  in  the  early  stages  of  its  existence  lay  in  the 
fact  that  it  was  a  joint-stock  company,  and  that  therefore 
the  proprietors  had  a  monopoly  of  a  valuable  trade  ;  the 
greater  part  of  the  other  companies  were  regulated  com- 
panies, and  membership  was  open  to  any  British  subject 
who  liked  to  pay  the  entrance  fees  and  join  with  other 
merchants.  The  merchants  thus  associated  agreed  to 
abide  by  certain  specified  conditions,  so  as  not  to  spoil 
the  markets  for  one  another,  but  develop  the  trade  in 
which  all  were  interested  in  a  manner  which  should  be 
advantageous  toaU.  The  Levant  Company  and  Merchant 
Adventurers  were  regulated  companies,  and  they  led  the 
attack  on  the  East  India  Company  as  the  monopoly  of  a 
few  which  injured  the  trade  of  other  merehaots.  The 
controversy  raged  during  the  reigns  of  James  I.  and 
Charles  L,  and  many  of  the  leading  merchants  of  the 
time — Mun,  Mdynes,  Misselden,  as  well  as  Wheeler,  the 
secretary  of  the  Merchant  Adventurers — took  part  in  it. 
The  advocates  of  the  East  India  trade  argued  that,  owing 
to  the  immense  distance  of  their  factories  and  the  special 
difficulties  of  maintaining  their  position  abroad,  it  was 
impossible  to  carry  on  their  trade  except  on  the  joint- 
stock  principle,  and  their  plea  prevailed  in  the  long  run. 

The  Merchant  Adventurers  and  the  whole  system  of 
regulated  companies  is  less  familiar  to  ua  in  the  present 
day,  and  it  may  be  worth  while  to  indicate  the  sort  of 
regulations  which  were  imposed  on  the  members.  One 
series  of  rules  wis  directed  at  regulating  the  total  export 
trade  of  certain  classes  of  goods  to  the  chief  Continental 
ports,  80  that  the  markets  abroad  might  not  be  over- 
stocked, and  that  they  might  always  be  able  to  get 
remunerative  prices.  Other  regulations  allotted  the  pro- 
portion of  goods  which  each  member  of .  the  company 
should  export,  and  the  terms  as  to  credit  and  so  forth  on 
which  he  should  deal.  Each  factory  was  carefully  regu- 
lated 80  as  to  secure  a  respectable  and  orderly  life  among 
the  merchants  resident  abroad ;  none  of  them  were  to  do 
business  during  the  times  of  public  preaching  or  on  fast- 
days;  and  there  was  a  curious  administrative  system,  by 
which  the  compliance  of  the  members  with  these  regula- 
tions was  enforced.^ 

Those  English  merchants  who  traded  to  towns  where 

the  Adventurers  had  a  factory,  but  did  not-  comply  with 

their  regulations,  were  stigmatized  as  "interlopers,"  and 

they  w?re  greatly  disliked  by  the  regular  traders,  as  they 

»  Whwlor  in  BritTMtu.  Add.  MaTlSsTs! 


were  accused  of  spoiling  the  market  in  various  ways  and, 
generally  speaking,  trading  on  any  terms  for  an  immediate 
advantage  without  regard  to  the  steady  and  regular  devel- 
opment of  commerce.  At  a  later  time,  there  were  inter- 
lopers within  the  East  India  Company's  territories  also. 

The  formation  of  these  large  companies  for  the  purpose 
of  undertaking  long  voyages  marks  a  great  revolution  in 
the  shipping  of  the  country.  The  difiFcrentiation  of  the 
mercantile  and  defensive  navy  became  more  cuuipletA 
There  had  of  course  been  a  certain  number  of  royal  ships 
from  a  very  early  time  (see  Navy),  but  the  fleet  had  not 
been  regularly  maintained  in  the  15th  century,  and  the 
defence  of  the  realm  was  practically  left  to  individuals  ov 
associations.  As  late  as  the  time  of  Elizabeth  we  find 
that  the  same  thing  was  the  case,  and  that  the  fleet  which 
harassed  the  Armada  consisted  very  largely  of  merchant 
ships.  In  the  time  of  the  naval  wars  with  Holland,  how- 
ever, this  is  greatly  changed,  and  the  na-vy  was  much 
more  effectively  organized  and  regularly  maintained.  But 
even  when  the  royal  navy  was  thus  organized  it  was  felt 
that  its  continued  effectiveness  must  .  depend  on  the 
maintenance  of  merchant  shipping.  The  two  were  still 
interconnected,  and  just  because  special  importajace  wa? 
attached  to  this  arm  as  a  means  of  defence  there  was  a 
great  deal  of  legislation  for  the  purpose  of  indirectly 
promoting  shipping  and  providing  seamen.  This  was  one 
of  the  aspects  in  which  the  prosperity  of  British  fisheries 
was  specially  attended  to;  the  consumption  of  fish  was 
stimulated  by  insisting  on  the  observance  of  Lent  and 
of  weekly  fasts  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  when_  "the 
eating  of  fish  was  required  politically  and  not  spiritually  " 
5  EUz.  c.  6,  §  13,  1  Jas.  L  c.  29),  and  this  was  principally 
done  as  a  means  of  inducing  men  to  take  to  a*  seafaring 
life,  and  so  to  fit  themselves  for  the  defence  of  the 
country  and  for  the  manning  of  our  merchant  ships. 

Considerable  progress  had  also  been  made  both  in  the 
art  of  sailing  and  in  the  building  of  ships.  The  vessels 
which  composed  the  fleets  of  the  crusaders  appear  to  have 
been  for  the  most  part  galleys,  provided  with  a  double 
row  of  oars  ;  the  huge  prows  which  gave  a  superiority  in 
hand-to-hand  fighting  with  a  grappled  vessel  were  of  no 
advantage  when  the  use  of  cannon  had  revolutionized 
naval  warfare.  We  thus  find  that  the  ships  of  this  period 
were  built  on  a  different  model,  and  many  inducements 
were  held,  out  to  those  who  built  large  ships.  Both 
Elizabeth  and  Charles  offered  bounties  for  the  building 
of  larger  craft  (100  and  200  tons);  in  1597  800  tons 
was  the  largest  vessel  that  an  English  yard  turned  out. 
The  legislature  also  was  most  assiduous  in  endeavouring 
to  encourage  this  industry.  The  importation  of  naval 
stores  of  all  kinds,  the  growth  of  hemp  for  cordage  and 
of  timber,  were  matters  of  constant  care,  both  in  England 
itself  and  in  the  policy  which  was  dictated  to  her  colonies. 

It  13  easy  onouxli  to  see  thai  in  these  cases  the  encouragement 
of  aliipping  was  undertaken  as  an  Indirect  means  of  inprcasmg  the 
power  of  the  country,  and  the  same  thing  is  true  of  the  compli- 
cated arrangements  that  were  made  forgivine  special  induccmenta 
to  trade  in  particular  articles  or  with  particular  countries.  Everv 
one  is  of  course  familiar  with  the  fact  that  during  the  ITth  and 
18th  centuries  eflbrta  were  made  to  regulate  trade  so  that  gold  and 
silvermigbt  be  brought  into  England.  It  is  unnecessary  to  enume- 
rate the  expedients  Uist  were  adopted  at  different  times,  or  to  dis- 
cuss the  vexed  question  as  to  bow  far  those  who  adrocatnd  th» 
system  v.-cre  iu  error.  There  <^n  be  no  doubt  that  Uie  possession 
of  a  treasure  was  vastly  important  for  political  purposes,  aud  that 
trade  was  the  only  means  by  -ffl-.ich  a  state  wnict  possessid  no 
mincH  eould  procure  treasure ;  and  it  is  of  course  possible  that  some 
of  the  racrcantflists  laid  too  nincb  sfress  on  the  desirability  foi 
political  purjioscs  of  amassing  wealth  in  this  Yorm.  But  the 
fundamental  prinrinle  of  this  system  of  communlij  policy  lay  in 
the  connexion  which  was  fell  to  exist  between  trade  uid  industry. 
IVade,  it  was  said,  stimulated  industry  by  providing  a  new  market 
for  its  products.  If  two  countries  trade  together,  each,  will 
stimulate  the  trade  of  the  other  to  some  extent,  but,  if  £u,jUnj 


828 


SHIPPING 


buys  raw  products  from  Portugal  and  Portugal  buys  manufactured 
.'loth  from  England,  then  the  operation  of  trade  between  them  is 
•uch  that  Portugal  stimulates  English  industry  and  sets  EngUsli 
labour  in  motion  to  a  far  larger  extent  than  English  consumption 
stimulates  that  of  Portugal  ;  it  was  believed  that  this  relative 
stimulus  might  be  detected  by  examining  the  balance  of  trade, 
and  that,  if  by  an  ingenious  adjustment  of  duties  tlie  balance  could 
be  kept  in  her  favour,  the  trade  would  be  benefiting  England  more 
than  it  stimulated  tlie  progress  of  her  possible  rivals.  In  the 
present  day  we  look  at  the  volume  of  trade  and  trust  that  both  are 
giinei-s  ;  in  those  centuries  they  looked  at  the  kind  of  gain  that 
accrued  and  tried  to  ensure  that  England  gained  more  than  her 
possible  enemies.  Thus  it  was  generally  held  that  by  commercial 
intercourse  between  England  and  France  the  French  gained  rela- 
tively more  than  the  English;  to  the  legislators  of  the  time  it  seemed 
desirable  to  impose  such  conditions  as  should  alter  this  state  of 
affairs,  or,  if  no  agreement  could  be  come  to  on  the  terms  of  a 
treaty,  the  trade  should  be  stopped  altogether,  lest  by  continuing 
to  overbalance  England  in  trade  the  French  should  be  enabled  to 
overbalance  her  in  power.  These  ideas  of  commercial  policy 
dominated  the  whole  of  British  legislation  for  shipping'  from  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  century  till  after  the  Napoleonic  wars  ;  the 
preference  which  was  given  to  English  ships,  English  built  and 
English  manned,  was  enforced  in  a  manner  that  was  prejudicial  to 
the  development  of  the  colonies  by  the  Navigation  Act  of  1651, 
and  was  subsequently  embodied  in  the  orders  in  council.  But 
these  ideas  are  expressed  most  clearly  in  such  discussions  as  those 
regarding  the  Metliven  treaty  with  Portugal.  Without  attempting 
to  advocate  a  system  of  which  the  unwisdom  has  become  patent  in 
our  own  day,  it  may  yet  be  worth  while  to  note  that  it  was  during 
this  regime  that  England  acquired  her  position  as  the  great  ship- 
ping nation  of  the  world,  and  passed  the  Dutch  and  French  in  the 
struggle  for  naval  supremacy.  Napoleon  gave  unconscious  testi- 
mony to  the  etfectiveness  of  the  commercial  policy  for  building 
up  the  strength  of  the  nation  when  he  sought  to  humble  England, 
not  by  direct  attack,  bnt  by  destroying  the  trade  and  shipping  by 
means  of  which  she  had  raised  herself  to  power. 

This  policy  of  subordinating  the  interests  of  shipping  as  a  trade 
and  means  by  which  merchants  acquired  wealth  to  the  policy  and 
power  of  the  nation  as  a  whole  had  another  side.  Revenue  for 
war  expenses  was  furnished  almost  entirely  by  the  mother  country ; 
neither  Ireland  nor  the  colonies  contributed  at  all  largely  to  the 
burden  of  maintaining  the  national  struggle  with  Continental 
rivals.  Hence  it  was  undesirable  that  these  dependencies  should 
develop  at  the  expense  of  the  mother  country,  as  by  so  doing  they 
would  reduce  the  fund  from  which  parliament  drew  for  the 
expenses  of  the  realm.  Hence,  while  England  was  always  willing 
to  develop  resources  or  industries — like  the  linen  trade  in  Ireland 
— which  did  not  compete  with  and  could  not  undersell  existing 
English  manufactures,  her  politicians  were  unwilling  to  allow  her 
dependencies  to  become  her  competitors  in  trade  so  long  as  they 
did  not  co-operate  in  maintaining  power.  Hence  the  galling 
restrictions  to  which  the  Irish  and  the  colonists  were  subjected, 
both  with  regard  to  the  development  of  some  of  their  resources  and 
the  carrying  on  of  profitable  trade  with  other  colonies  or  foreign 
countries.  But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  English  merchants 
suffered  in  the  same  sort  of  way,  as  changes  of  political  reladons 
at  once  brought  about  changes  in  the  conditions  of  trade,  and  that 
in  at  least  one  case  the  interests  of  enterprising  farmers  at  home 
were  set  aside  in  favour  of  protecting  an  established  industry  in 
the  colonies.  The  subordination  of  the  craftsman  and  trader 
interest  to  the  public  policy  of  the  realm  brought  about  a  system 
of  galling  regulations  which  pressed  hardly  on  many  persons, 
though  they  were  most  obviously  baneful  to  Ireland  and  the 
colonists,  who  had  not  so  much  interest  in  the  political  objects  for 
which  their  wealth  was  sacrificed. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  attempt  to  illustrate  in  detail  tne  applica- 
tion of  these  principles ;  it  only  remains  to  add  that,  whether  in 
spite  of  these  regulations  or  because  of  them,  the  shipping  of 
England  increased  vastly  during  the  18th  century.  This  was 
partly  due  to  the  greater  facilities  which  wore  granted  for  procur- 
ing capital  for  trading  ventures.  In  mediseval  times  a  merchant 
could  hardly  obtain  the  command  of  additional  capital,  unless  by 
means  of  a  temporary  partnership,  or  loans  on  bottomry  ;  but  the 
oiyection  to  usury  was  fast  giving  way,  and  the  public  were  willing 
to  lend  capital  and  to  share  in  the  profits  of  trading.  The  practice 
of  trading  on  borrowed  capital,  and  of  obtaining  temporary  loans 
from  goldsmiths,  was  common  enough  aU  through  the  17th  century, 
but  the  development  of  the  banking  system  and  the  new  forms  of 
credit  which  thus  became  available  gave  still  greater  scope  to  the 
enterprising  shipper.  The  full  fruits  of  the  new  power  were  only 
shown,  however,  in  the  beginning  of  ihi  18th  century,  when  the 
r'valry  of  the  Old  and  New  East  India  Companies  and  the  story  of 

^  It  was  pursued,  but  less  systematically,  all  through  the  Tudor 
tjigua  or  even  earlier.  Compare  1  H.  VII.  o.  8,  32  H.  VIH.  c.  14, 
1  £1.  c.  IS,  also  the  Assize  of  Arms  in  1181. 


tho  Darien  expedition  and  the  South  Sea  Bubble  show  how  willing 

the  British  public  were  to  pour  their  capital  into  trading  under- 
takings. Among  the  companies  which  were  started  about  this 
period  there  were  two  which  have  exercised  a  most  salutary 
influence  on  British  shipping.  The  Royal  Exchange  Assurance 
(6  Geo.  I.  c.  18)  and  the  London  Assurance  revolutionized  the  whole 
system  of  marine  assurance,  and  did  so  much  to  relieve  skippers 
from  the  losses  they  suffered  through  the  risks  of  commerce  as  to 
give  considerable  encouragement  to  the  business.  The  plantations 
were  developing  into  important  settlements;  the  British  merchant 
had  outdone  his  Dutch  rivals ;  and  the  East  India  Company  was 
pursuing  its  ■  course  of  progress  in  the  East.  There  can  be  no 
wonder  that,  with  so  many  opportunities  for  trading,  and  such 
new  facilities  for  obtaining  capital  and  assuring  against  risk,  the 
sliipping  of  the  country  developed  during  the  18th  century.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  dwell  on  the  shocks  it  received  at  the  time  when 
tho  American  colonies  asserted  their  independence  (27  and  28  Geo. 
III.)  or  in  the  life  and  death  struggle  of  the  Napoleonic  wars. 
The  difficulty  of  recasting  the  restrictive  system  under  which 
English  merchants  plied  their  trade  was  very  great,  and  when  it 
broke  down  in  regard  to  America  and  Ireland  (20  Geo.  III.  cc.  6, 
10)  it  was  becoming  apparent  that  its  days  were  numbered.  The 
doctrines  preached  by  Adam  Smith  soon  began  to  bear  fruit ;  tho 
practical  difficulty  of  regulating  commerce  rendered  politicians 
more  willing  to  let  it  regulate  itself ;  and  the  controversy  between 
the  exclusive  companies  and  the  interlopers  or  independent  mer- 
chants once  more  came  to  the  front.  It  was  during  the  reign  of 
George  IV.  that  the  old  system  was  practically  abandoned  and  that 
the  greater  part  of  the  old  companies  were  dissolved,  and  trade  t» 
all  parts  of  Africa,  to  the  Levant,  and  to  China  became  open  to  all 
British  subjects.  The  East  India  Company  maintained  its  posi- 
tion in  part  despite  its  many  critics  for  another  half  century, 
and  the  peculiar  conditions  of  the  trade  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  have  made  it  desirable  to  maintain  that  privileged  cor- 
poration till  the  present  time. 

It  became  still  more  obvious  that  the  old  policy  of  regulating 
the  commerce  of  the  country  in  the  supposed  interests  of  ita 
power  was  being  abandoned  when  Huskisson  reformed  the  tariff 
in  1825.  The  measure  he  succeeded  in  carrying  was  not  so 
thoroughgoing  as  the  one  he  proposed,  but  its  principle  was  that 
the  customs  duties  should  bo  levied  for  revenue  objects  only,  and 
not  with  the  view  of  maintaining  British  merchants  in  one  parti- 
cular employment  of  their  capital.  Later  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws 
(1846)  and  navigation  laws  (1849)  removed  the  last  vestiges  of  the 
old  commercial  policy  which  had  ruled  over  the  development  of 
British  shipping  almost  from  the  earliest  times,  but  which  had  been 
steadily  and  systematically  pursued  for  three  hundred  years. 

It  was  thus  that  Adam  Smith's  criticisms  worked  so  effectively 
as  to  realize  his  dreams  at  no  great  interval  of  time.  His  deeper 
reasons  for  objecting  to  the  commercial  system  of  the  18th  century 
lay  in  the  fact  that  the  colonial  trade  and  shipping  altogether 
seemed  to  him  l;o  have  received  an  unhealthy  stimulus,  and  that 
the  country  would  be  in  a  sounder  economic  position  if  capital 
were  employed  at  home  in  developing  native  resources,  and  foreign 
trade  built  upon  a  foundation  of  highly  developed  native  industry. 
But  the  removal  of  the  stimulus  did  not  have  the  effect  he  antici- 
pated, or  restore  the  "balance"  between  industry  and  shipping. 
England  is  far  more  dependent  than  ever  before  on  her  relations 
with  foreign  countries,  and  therefore  on  her  shipping,  for  the 
materials  of  her  manufacture  and  her  food,  as  well  as  for  markets 
for  her  products.  She  is  further  removed  than  ever  from  that 
condition  of  "  opulence  "  which  has,  according  to  Adam  Smith, 
the  greatest  promise  of  stability  and  progress. 

This  has  undoubtedly  been  due  to  the  immense  developments  in 
manufacturing  in  which  England,  with  her  wealth  of  coal  and  iron, 
led  the  way.  This  reacted  on  shipping  in  many  ways.  England 
came  to  be  the  workshop  of  the  world,  and  her  shipping  was 
freighted  with  soft,  goods  from  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire,  and 
witli  hardware  and  machinery,  to  be  conveyed  to  the  most  distant 
parts  of  the  globe.  But  not  only  were  the  opportunities  for  trading 
immensely  increased ;  the  application  of  the  steam  engine  to 
transit  by  water  has  accelerated  communication,  and  rendered  it 
so  regular  arid  certain  as  to  give  an  extraordinary  stimulus  to 
foreign  trade.  The  first  steamboat  that  was  more  than  a  mere 
toy  made  its  trial  in  1807,  and  since  that  time  steam  shipping 
has  been  more  and  more  substituted  for  the  old  sailing  vessels. 
Still  more  recently  there  has  been  a  considerable  change  in  the 
construction  of  ships,  from  the  success  which  has  attended  iron 
shipbuilding.  The  first  experiment,  which  was  generally  deemed 
exceedingly  rash,  was  made  in  1851. 

It  is  impossible  to  get  satisfactory  data  for  a  comparison  of  the 
relative  importance  of  English  and  foreign  shipping  for  a  long 
period ;  but  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  shipping  of  the  Italian 
republics  and  of  the  Hanse  League  excelled  that  of  England  during 
the  Middle  Ages,  that  in  the  16th  centurj'  Spain  was  far  ahead  of 
her  when  she  could  send  such  fleets  to  the  West  and  fit  out  a 
Spanish  Armada,  and  that  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  respect- 


S  H  I  — S  H  I 


82a 


ively  England  was  much  in  the  sarao  position  as  the  great  rivals 
— Holland  and  France — with  which  she  had  to  compete  so  keenly. 
We  may  compare  the  present  position  and  the  relative  growth  of 
tonna;;e  during  the  last  centiuy,  so  far  as  figures  are  available  for 
the  purpose;  — 


1      1700.      1      18S0. 

1      1700..    1      1880.      1 

EngUuid J  1,511,411     0,r,li,Si3 

spuln .1       ...            i:,1,3-2n 

Italy 1.000,000 

Germany l.aOO.OOO 

France I        ...              989,128 

Holland 1         ...              :140,000 

UnlttU  Statts...:    i02,HC      4,000.000 
1                    1 

The  following  aggregates  show  the  growth  of  the  tonnage  of 
Riitish  shipjjiiig  : — in  1588,  12,500  tons  (excluding  fishing  boats) ; 
in  1770,  682,811  (England  and  Scotland)  ;  in  1791,  1,511,401  (in- 
cluding colonies);  in  1830,  2,199,959  (excluding  colonies);  in  1840, 
2,768,262;  in  1850,  3,565,133;  in  1860,  4,658,687;  in  1870, 
5,690,789;  in  1880,  6,574,513.   . 

*See  .Macph^rson,  AnnaU  of  Commevce\  Lindsay.  Ilifiory  of  iferchant  Shippinfj. 
For  tarllc-l- pclloJssce  Schanz,  Ewjlische  Ilandrls-Politii,  and  for  later  periods 
Leone  Levi,  //islort/  of  Brtiifh  Co'umerce.  (\V.  CU.) 

SHIRAZ,  a  celebrated  city  in  Persia,  capital  of  Fars, 
from  its  site  and  tlioroughly  Iranian  population  may  be 
aonsidered  the  central  point,  as  it  were,  of  Farsi  or  Parsi 
(otherwise  Persian)  nationality.  Owing  to  the  pasture  land 
in  its  vicinity  some  derive  the  name  from  the  native  word 
Mr,  "  milk ; "  others  again,  asserting  the  number  and 
physical  powers  of  its  inhabitants,  accept  the  same  word 
in  its  sense  of  "  lion,"  or  take  the  whole  dissyllable  as  an 
obsolete  word  meaning  the  "  lion's  paunch."  To  this 
effect  is  cited  a  local  saying  to  the  effect  that,  "  like  the 
lion,  it  devours  all  they  bring  into  it."  Shlrdz  is  situated 
in  29°  36.'  30"  N-  lat.  and  52°  32'  9"  E.  long.,  in  a  high 
plain  or  valley  more  than  20  miles  long  and  less  than  half 
as  broad,  and  is  approached  on  the  south  from  the  sea — a 
distance  of  170  miles^ — through  lofty  mountain  passes 
reaching  some  7000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  waters  of 
the  Persian  Gulf.  On  the  north  the  approach  is  also  through 
chains  of  mountains  separating  the  plains  of  Shirdz  from 
the  valley  of  the  Marv  Dasht,  intersecting  which  is  the 
'Band  Amir  river,  more  poetically  than  accurately  described 
in  Lalla  Rookh.  At  Kodiyan,  a  few  miles  to  the  north- 
west of  ShirAz,  is  the  source  of  another  river,  which, 
crossing  the  high  road  south  of  the  town  under  the  name  of 
the  "  KAra  Agatch,"  falls  into  the  fea  about  70  miles  below 
Bushahr  (Bushire),  after  a  tortuous  course  of  300  miles. 
The  city  has  a  handsome  bazaar  and  some  good  private 
residences ;  but  its  unattractive  streets  are  narrow,  and, 
though  not  so  crowded  with  beggars  as  Ispahan,  contain 
many  living  objects  distressing  to  the  eye.  The  mosques 
and  minarets,  albeit  of  local  repute,  look  more  picturesque 
to  the  stranger  in  the  distance  than  under  close  inspection. 
One  fine  view  of  the  town  is  that  on  the  north,  at  the  pass 
between  the  mountains  called  "Allah  Hu  Akbar" — so 
named,  it  is  conceived,  because  this  would  be  the  traveller's 
exclamation  of  delight  when  the  landscape  first  opened 
out  upon  him.  The  country  in  this  direction  is  studded 
with  pleasant  gardens.  Resides  these  there  are  the  tombs 
of  the  poets  Hafiz  and  Sa'di — both  within  easy  reach  of 
the  city.  "The  first— a  fine  marble  monument  with  a 
beautifully  inscribed  ode  and  other  writings  upon  it — is 
not  a  mile  from  the  gate,  and  is  situated  in  an  enclosure 
bearing  the  name  H.'lfiziya.  The  most  noted  product  of 
ShfrAz  is  its  wine,  on  the  merits  of  which,  however,  there 
is  much  difference  of  opinion  from  outside  judges.  Dr 
Wills  gives  an  original  account  of  an  experiment  of  his 
own  in  making  the  wine  of  ShfrAz.  Its  cost  in  the  pro- 
duction was  5Ad.  a  bottle,  and  it  sold  a  year  after  at  more 
than  three  times  that  amount.  Rjilrjiz  is  moreover  famous 
for  inlaid  work  (wood  and  metal)  called  hluitam  landi 
(from  klidtavi,  a  seal).  The  jiopulation  of  the  city  is 
estimated  under  30,000.  The  ordinary  di,sea.ses  are  inter- 
mittent fever,  diarrha-a,  dysentery,  typhoid,  guinea  worm, 
cholera,  diphlhcrig,  .small-po.'c,  and  ophthalmia. 

'  A«  tlie  ciow  lliwi,  it  IS  only  US  imloH  N.E.  by  E.  of  Bushahr. 


Although  the  praises  of  Shi'raz,  its  produce,  inhabitants,  climate, 
and  surroundings  of  every  kind,  have  been  sung  .by  poets 'for 
centuries,  and  are  never  disputed  by  Persians  who  are  not  Shirazis, 
yet  it  is  impossible  for  the  sober  European  traveller  to  deny  that 
the  reality  falls  far  below  the  picture.  We  may  feel  thankful  for 
the  wine  and  the  water,  the  gardens  and  the  monuments,  the  fruita 
and  the  flowers  (abundant  here  as  in  many  other  an  oasis  in  the 
Shah's  dominions)  ;  we  may  sympathize  with  the  national  pride 
in  the  possession  of  a  Hafiz  and  a  Sa'di  ;  we  may  believe  that  ths 
ladies  of  yore  had  "  eyes  brighter  than  the  antelope's,  hair  cluster- 
ing like  their  own  dark  grapes,  and  forms  fairer  and  sweeter  than 
the  vir"in"rose,"  and  that  those  of  the  present  day  would,  if 
unveiled,  strike  the  spectator  with  wonder  ;  but  one  fact  remains, 
— the  modern  town  of  Shiraz  is  not  a  paradise  for  those  whose 
personal  experience  enables  them  to  compare  it  with  the  ordinary 
citiss  of  Europe. 

According  to  Eastern  authorities,  Shiraz  was  founded  (or  rc- 
fonnded,  for  some  accounts  ascribe  to  it  a  fabulous  antiquity)  by 
a  brother  of  the  famous  Hajjaj  about  the  beginning  of  the  8th 
century,  or  rather  by  a  cousin  of  Hajjaj  called  Mohammed  b. 
Kasim  b.  Abu  'Okail.  Six  hundred  years  later  it  was  the  capital 
of  the  Muzaffar  dynasty  of  princes,  when  it  lell  to  the  arms  of 
Timur.  But  it  attained  its  greatest  reputation  in  the' reign  of 
Karim  Khan,  who  embellished  the  city  greatly  and  made  it  the 
special  object  of  his  care.  On  the  downfall  of  this  monarch  it  was 
sacked  and  laid  waste  by  the  cruel  Agha  Mohammed. 

Shiraz  has  been  often  described  by  native  geographers  and 
European  writers  of  travel.  Among  the  latter  may  be  mentioned 
Pietro  della  Valle,  Herbert,  Tavemifer,  Deslandes,  and  Cliardin,  in 
the  17tli  century,  and  in  the  present  century  Ouseley,  Porter,  Slorier, 
Scott- Waring,  i'orstcr,  Binning,  and  many  quite  recent  travellers. 
Neither  in  his  serious  history  nor  lighter  sketches  does  Sir  John 
Idalcolm  give  any  detailed  account  of  Shiraz  as  a  city,  but  his  notes 
'on  its  climate  may  be  cited.  On  one  of  the  hottest  days  of  Jund 
1800  the  thermometer  registered  94°  F.  in  the  house  and  100°  in  a 
tent.  In  Jlay  1810  it  never  rose  at  noon  above  88°  nor  fell  below 
74°.  In  the  morning,  at  eight  o'clock,  it  generally  stood  about  60°. 
In  autumn  the  heat  continued,  but  in  winter  it  was  seen  to  fall 
considerably  below  the  freezing  point.  As  late  as  March  there  ia 
•ften  a  hoar  frost  on  the  ground.  April,  he  adds,  is  a  delightful 
month,  the  thermometer  at  sunrise  being  generally  from  50°  to  65°, 
at  two  P.M.  80°  to  84°,  and  at  nine  p.m.  about  64°. 

SHIRE.     See  County. 

SHIRLEY,  a  town  of  Hampshire,  consists  chiefly  of 
comfortable  houses  occupied  by  persons  in  business  in 
Southampton  (2  miles  south-east),  of  which  it  is  practi- 
cally a  suburb.  Within  its  limits  are  the  Barlow  home 
(1840),  theEllyet  home  (1879),  and  the  children's  hos- 
pital and  dispensary  for  women  (1884).  The  urban 
sanitary  district  of  Shirley,  formed  in  1853,  was  extended 
by  an  Act  which  came  into  operation  29tU  September 
1881,  the  name  being  also  changed  to  Shirley  and  Free- 
mantle.  The  population  of  the  old  district  (area  1198 
acres)  in  1871  was  5339  and  in  1881  it  was  7856.  The 
population  of  the  new  district  (area  1392  acres)  in  1871 
was  9909  and  in  1881  it  was  12,939. 

SHIRLEY,  James  (1596-1666),  dramatist,  belonged  to 
tne  great  period  of  our  dramatic  literature,  but,  in  Lamb's 
words,  he  "claims  a  place  among  the  worthies  of  this 
period,  not  so  much  for  any  transcendent  genius  in  himself, 
as  that  he  was  the  last  of  a  great  race,  all  of  whom  spoke 
nearly  the  same  language  and  had  a  set  of  moral  feelings 
and  notions  in  common."  His  career  of  playwriting 
extended  from  1625  to  the  suppression  of  stage  plays 
by  parliament  in  1642.  Born  in  London  in  1596,  he  had 
been  educated  for  a  profession — at  Merchant  Taylors' 
school,  St  John's  College,  Oxford,  and  Catherine  Hall, 
Cambridge.  The  church  was  his  destination,  but  ha 
turned  Roman  Catholic,  and  made  a  living  for  two  years 
as  a  schoolmaster.  His  first  play,  Love  Tricks,  seems  to 
have  been  accepted  while  he  was  teaching  at  St  AlbaD/^ 
and  for  eighteen  years  from  that  time  ho  was  a  prolific 
writer  for  the  stage,  producing  more  than  thirty  regukf 
plays,  tragedies,  and  comedies,  and  showing-  no  sign  of 
exhaustion  when  a  stop  was  put  to  his  occupation  by  tho 
Puritan  edict.  He  turned  again  to  teaching  for  a  liveli-, 
hood  and  prospered,  publishing  some  education&l '  works 
under   tho  Commonwealth.      Besides  these  h«  published 


830 


S  H  O  — S  H  O 


(luring  the  period  of  dramatic  eclipse  three  small  volumes 
of  poems  and  masques,  in  1646,  1653,  and  1659.  He 
survived  into  the  reign  of  Charles  U.,  but,  though  some 
of  Lis  comedies  were  revived,  he  did  not  again  attempt 
to  write  for  the  stage.  It  is  said  that  he  and  his  second 
wife  died  of  the  fright  caused  by  the  great  fire  of  1666. 

There  is  little  original  force  but  much  stage-craft  and 
u'lanipuJative  dexterity  in  Shirley's  plays.  He  was  born 
lt>  great  dramatic  wealth,  and  he  handled  it  freely.  It 
Laa  been  remarked  that  he  did  not,  like  some  of  his  great 
predecessors,  take  his  plots  from  narrative  fiction  or  history, 
bat  constructed  them  for  himself.  This  is  true ;  but  he 
constructed  them  out  of  the  abundance  of  materials  that 
had  been  accumulated  by  more  originative  men  during 
thirty  years  of  uuexampjed  dramatic  activity.  He  did 
not  strain  after  novelty  of  situation  cr  character,  hut 
worked  with  confident  ease  and  buoyant  copiousness  on 
the  famDiar  lines,  contriving  situations  and  exhibiting 
characters  after  types  whose  efi'ectiveness  on  the  stage  had 
been  proved  by  ample  experience.  He  spoke  the  same 
knguage  with  the  great  dramatists,  it  is  true,  but  this 
grand  style  appears  in  him  as  the  mechanical  knack  of  an 
able  and  clever  workman.  It  is  often  employed  for  the 
artificial  elevation  of  commonplace  thought.  "  Clear  as 
day"  becomes  in  this  manner  "day  is  not  more  con- 
spicuous than  this  cunning";  while  the  proverb  "Still 
waters  run  deep  "  is  ennobled  into — 

The  shallow  rivers  glide  away  with  noise— 
The  deep  are  silent. 

But  it  caimot  be  denied  that  he  uses  the  poetic  diction  of 
his  predecessors  with  ease,  spirit,  and  judgment.  His 
scenes  are  ingeniously  conceived,  his  characters  boldly  and 
clearly  drawa ;  and  he  never  falls  beneath  a  high  level  ot 
stage  effect. 

His  chief  plays  were — Love  Tricks,  a  comedy,  1625 ;  The 
Maid's  Eeveiige,  a  tragedy,  1626  ;  The  Brothers,  a  comedy,  1626  ; 
The  ICitty  Fair  One,  a  comedy,  1628  ;  The  Wedding,  a  comedy, 
162S  ;  The  Grateful  Servant,  a  tragi-comedy,  1629  ;  The  Changes, 
or  Love  in  a  Maze,  1632  ;  The  Gamester,  a  comedy,  1633  ;  T)ie 
Sxanvple  (containing  an  imitation  of  Ben  Jonson's  Humours), 
1634;  The  Opportunity,  1634;  The  Traitor,  a  tragedy  (perhaps 
Sliirley's  best),  1635  ;  The  Lady  of  Pleasure  (perhaps  the  best  of 
his  comedies),  1635  ;  The  Cardinal,  a  tragedy  (an  attempt  to 
compete  with  Webster's  Duchess  of  Malfi),  1641.  An  edition  of 
his  works  in  six  volumes,  with  notes  by  Dyce  and  Gifford,  was 
published  in  1 833: 

SHODDY.     See  Woou 

SHOKMAKING.  The  simplest  foot-protector  is  the 
sandal,  which  consists  merely  of  a  sole  attached  to  the  foot, 
usually  by  leather  thongs.  The  use  of  this  the  archas- 
ologist  can  trace  back  to  a  very  early  period ;  and  the 
sandal  of  plaited  grass,  palm  fronds,  leather,  or  other 
material  still  continues  to  be  the  most  common  foot-cover- 
ing among  Oriental  races.  Where  climate  demanded  greater 
jirotection  for  the  foot,  the  primitive  races  shaped  a  rude 
shoe  out  of  a  single  piec  A  nntanned  hide ;  this  was  laced 
with  a  thong,  and  so  r;ade  a  complete  covering.  Out  of 
these  two  elements — sole  without  upper  and  upper  without 
Bole^ — arose  the  perfected  shoe  and  boot,  which  consist  of 
a  combination  of  both.  A  collection  illustrating  the  numer- 
ous forms  and  varieties  of  foot-covering,  formed  by  M. 
Jules  Jacqaemart,  is  uow  in  the  Cluny  Museum  in  Paris. 
It  embraces  upwards  of  300  specimens  of  ancient,  mediaeval, 
and  modern  times,  ^vith  a  special  series  iUnstrating  the 
artistic  and  historical  side  of  the  subject  in  France  from 
the  15th  century,  and  contains  exarnples  of  the  many  varie- 
tiea  of  foot-covering  in  use,  especially  in  the  East,  at  the 
jrt-esent  day.     (Compare  Costuste.) 

IVooden  Shoes. — The  sim])lest  foot-covering,  largely  used  tlirongb- 
•«1.  Europe.  )9  the  wooden  shoe,  made  from  a  single  piece  of  wood 
»oaghly  cut  iufo  slioe  form.  The  (o\s-us  of  Mende  and  Yillcfort 
(Jep.  Lozere)  ai«  the  head.|uarters  of  the  wooden  shoe  trade  in 
Frani  c,  ubout  1700  persona  there  tindiug  emploj-iueut  in  the  manu- 


facture. Analogous  to  this  industry  is  the  clog-making  trade  of 
the  midland  counties  of  England.  Clogs,  known  also  as  pattens, 
are  wooden  soles  to  which  shoe  or  boot  uppers  are  attached.  Sole 
and  heel  are  made  of  one  piece  from  a  block  of  maple  or  ash  two 
inches  thick,  and  a  little  longer  and  broader  than  the  desired  si^e 
of  shoe.  The  outer  side  of  the  sole  and  heel  is  fashioned  with  a 
long  chisel-edged  implement,  called  the  dogger's  knife  or  stock ; 
a  second  implement,  called  the  groover,  makes  a  groove  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  deep  and  wide  round  the  side  of  the  sole  ;  and  by 
means  of  a  hoDower  the  contour  of  the  inner  face  of  the  sole  is 
adapted  to  the  shape  of  the  foot.  The  uppers  of  heavy  leather, 
machine  sewed  or  riveted,  are  fitted  closely  to  the  groove  around  the 
sole,  and  a  thin  piece  ef  leather-binding  is  nailed  on  all  round  the 
edges,  the  nails  being  placed  very  close,  so  as  to  give  a  firm  durable 
fastening.  These  clogs  are  of  great  advantage  to  all  who  work  in 
damp  sloppy  places,  keeping  the  feet  dry  and  comfortable  in  a 
maimer  impossible  with  either  leather  or  india-rubber.  They  are 
consequently  largely  used  on  the  Continent  by  agi'icultural  and 
forest  labourers,  and  in  England  and  the  United  States  by  dyers, 
bleachers,  tanners,  workers  in  sugar  -  factories,  chemical  works, 
provision  packing  warehouses,  &c.  There  is  also  a  considerable 
demand  for  expensive  clogs,  with  finely  tijmmed  soles  and  fancy 
uppers,  for  use  oy  clog-dancers  and  others  on  the  stage. 

Manufacture  of  Leather  Shoes. — There  are  two  main  divisions  of 
work  comprised  in  ordinary  shoemaking.  The  minor  division — 
the  making  of  "turn  shoes" — embraces  all  work  in  which  there  is 
only  one  thin  flexible  sole,  which  is  sewed  to  the  upper  while  out- 
side in  and  turned  over  when  completed.  Slippers  and  ladies'  thin 
house  boots  are  examples  of  this  class  cf  work.  In  the  other  divi- 
sion the  upper  is  united  to  an  insole  and  at  least  one  oatsole,  with 
a  raised  heel.  In  this  are  comprised  all  classes,  shapes,  and 
qualities  of  goods,  from  shoes  up  to  long-top  or  riding  boots  which 
reach  to  the  knee,  with  all  their  variations  of  lacing,  buttoning, 
elastic-web  side  gussets,  &c.  The  accompanying  cuts  (figs.  1  and 
2)  show  the  parts  and  trade  names  of  a  riding  boot,  which  is  the 
supreme  product  of  the  craft. 

Till  mthin  recent  times  shoemaking  was  a  pure  handicraft ; 
but  now  machinery  effects  almost  every  operation  in  the  art.     On 

the  factory  system  all  human  feet 
are  treated  alike  ;  in  the  handi- 
craft, the  shoemaker  deals  with 
the  individual  foot,  and  he  should 
produce  a  boot  which  for  fit,  com- 
fort, flexibility,  and  strength  can- 
not be  approached  by  the  product 
of  machinery. 

The  shoemaker,  after  measuring 
the  feet,  cuts  out  upper  leatliers 
according  to  the  size  and  pattern. 
These  pairts  are  fitted  and  stitched 
together  by  the  "boot - closera " ; 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  2. 

Fto.  ]. — Parts  of  a  boot,  aa,  the  extension ;  a.  the  front ;  6,  the  side  seam  ; 
c.  the  back  :  d,  the  strap  ;  e.  the  Jnstep  ;  /,  the  vaiap  or  front ;  g,  the  qnartir 
or  counter  :  h,  the  rand  ;  i,  tlie  heel, — the  front  is  the  breast,  the  bottom  the 
face  ;  j,  the  lifts  of  the  heel ;  k,  the  shank  or  waist ;  I,  the  welt ;  m,  'he  sole. 

Fio,  2.--Secticn  of  boot,  a,  the  upper :  6,  the  insole  ;  c.  the  outs--  le ;  d,  the 
welt :  e,  the  stitching  of  the  sole  to  the  welt;  /,  the  stitching  of  the  upper  to 
the  welt. 

bnt  little  of  this  closing  is  now  done  by  hand.  The  sole  "stuff" 
is  next  cut  out  and  assembled,  consisting  of  a  pair  of  inner  soles 
of  soft  leatlie)'.  a  pair  of  outer  soles  of  firmer  texture,  a  pair  of  welts 
or  bands  about  one  inch  broad,  of  flexible  leather,  aud  hfts  and 
top-pieces  for  the  heels.  These  the  '"  maker  "  mellows  by  steeping 
in  water.  He  attaches  the  insoles  to  the  bottom  of  a  pair  of  wooden 
lasts,  which  are  blocks  the  form  and  size  of  the  boots  to  be  made, 
fastens  the  leather  dovm  with  lasting  tacks,  and,  when  dried,  draws 
it  out  with  pincers  till  it  takes  the  exact  form  of  the  last  bottom. 
Then  he  "rounds  the  soles,"  by  paring  down  the  edges  close  to  the 
last,  and  forms  round  these  edges  a  small  channel  or  feather  cut 
about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  the  leather.  Kext  he  pierces  the 
insoles  all  round  with  a  bent  awl.  which  bites  into,  but  )iot  through, 
tlie  leather,  and  comes  out  at  the  channel  or  feather.  The  boots 
ai-e  then  "  lasted."  by  placing  the  uppers  on  the  lasts,  drawing  their 
edges  tightlyTound  the  edge  of  the  insole.',  and  f.isteuing  them  in 
position  mth  lasting  tacks.  Lasting  is  a  ciaicial  opei'ation,  for,  tuiless 
the  upper  is  drawn  smoothly  and  equally  over  the  last  'caving 
ii£ither  ci'ease  nor  wrinkle,  the  forni  ot  the  boot  will  be  bad.  The 
welt,  bavin;;  one  edge  pared  or  chamfered,  is  put  in  position  round 


S  H  O  — S  H  O 


831 


the  sides,  up  to  the  heel  or  "  seat,"  and  the  maker  proceeds  to  "  in- 
aeain,"  by  passing  his  awl  through  the  holes  already  made  in  the 
insole,  catching  with  it  tlje  edge  of  the  upper  and  the  thin  edge  of 
the  welt,  and  sewing  all  three  together  in  one  flat  scam,  with  a 
waxed  thread.  He  then  pares  olf  inequalities  and  "levels  the 
Ijottonis,"  by  tilling  up  the  depressed  part  in  the  centre  with  a  piece 
of  tarred  felt ;  and,. that  done,  the  hoots  arc  ready  for  the  outsoles. 
After  the  leather  for  them  has  been  thoroughly  condensed  by  ham- 
mering on  the  "lap-stone,"  they  are  fastened  through  the  insole 
with  steel  tacks,  their  sides  are  pared,  and  a  narrow  channel  is  cut 
round  their  edges ;  and  through  this  channel  they  are  stitched  to 
the  welt,  .bout  twelve  stitches  of  strong  waxed  thread  being  made 
to  the  iiicli.  The  soles  are  now  hammered  into  shape ;  the  heel  lifts 
are  put  on  and  attached  with  wooden  pegs,  then  sewed  through  tlio 
stitches  of  the  insole  ;  and  the  top-pieces,  similar  to  the  ou'tsoles, 
arc  put  on  and  nailed  down  to  the  lifts.  The  finishing  operations 
embrace  pinning  up  the  edge  of  the  heel,  paring,  rasping,  scraping, 
smoothing,  blacking,  and  burnishing  the  edges  of  soles  and  heels, 
scraping,  sand-papering,  and  burnishing  the  soles,  withdrawing  the 
lasts,  and  cleaning  out  any  pegs  which  may  have  pierced  through 
the  inner  sole.  Of  course,  there  are  numerous  minor  opeiations 
connected  with  forwarding  and  finishing  in  various  materials,  such 
as  punching  lace-holes,  inserting  eyelets,  applying  heel  and  toe 
irons,  hob-nailing,  &c.  To  make  a  pair  of  common  stout  lacing 
boots  occupies  an  expert  workman  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  hours. 
The  principal  difficulties  to  overcome  in  applying  machinery  to 
shoemaking  were  encountered  in  the  operation  of  fastening  together 
the  soles  and  uppers.  The  first  success  in  this  important  ope'ration 
was  effected  when  means  other  than  sewing  were  devised.  In  1809 
David  Meade  Randolph  obtained  a  patent  for  fastening  the  soles 
and  heels  to  the  inner  soles  by  means  of  little  nails,"  &c.  The 
lasts  he  used  were  covered  at  the  bottom  with  plates  of  metal,  and 
the  nails,  when  driven  through  the  inner  soles,  were  turned  and 
clinched  by  coming  against  the  metal  plates.  To  fix  the  soles  to 
the  lasts  during  the  operation  tlie  metal  plates  were  each  perforated 
with  three  holes,  in  which  wooden  plugs  were  inserted,  and  to  these 
the  insoles  were  nailed.  This  invention  may  be  said  to  have  laid 
the  foundation  of  machine  boot-making.  In  the  following  year 
(1810)  the  inventor  M.  I.  Brunei  patented  a  range  of  machinery 
for  fastening  soles  to  uppers  by  means  of  metallic  pins  or  nails,  and 
the  use  of  screws  and  stoples  was  patented  by  lUchard  Woodman  in 
the  same  year; 

.  Apart  from  sewing  by  machine  or  hand,  three  principal  methods 
■of  attaching  soles  to  uppers  are  in  use  at  present.  The  first  is 
"pegging"  with  small  wooden  pins  or  pegs  driven  through  outsole 
and  Insole,  catching  between  them  the  edges  of  the  upper.     Tlie 

ay 


pomts  of  the  negs  which  project  through  the  insole  are  cut  aw; 
aud  smoothed  level  with  the  leather  either  by  hand  or  by  a  niachi,.„ 
peggi'Jg  rasp.  The  second  is  the  system  of  "  riveting  or  clinching  " 
with  iron  or  brass  nails,  the  points  of  the  nails  bein"  turned  or 
clinched  by  coming  in  contact  with  the  iron  last  used.  The  third 
method,  screwing,  has  come  into  extensive  use  since  the  standard 
screwing  machine  was  introduced  in  America  by  the  Mackay  Associa- 
tion of  Boston,  Massachusetts,  and  in  Europe  by  the  Blake  St,  Good- 
year Company  of  London.  The  standard  screw  machine,  which 
13  an  Arnencan  invention,  is  provided  with  a  reel  of  stout  screw- 
threaded  brass  wire,  which  by  the  revolution  of  the  reel  is  inserted 
into  and  screwed  through  outsole,  upper  edge,  and  insole.  Within 
the  upper  a  head  presses  against  the  insole  directly  opposite  the 
point  of  the  screw,  and  the  instant  screw  and  head  touch  the  wire 
13  cut  level  with  the  outsole.  The  screw,  making  its  own  liole  fits 
tightly  in  the  leather,  and  the  two  soles,  being  both  compressed 
and  screwed  firmly  together,  make  a  perfectly  water-tight  and  solid 
shoe.  The  surface  of  the  insole  is  quite  level  and  even,  and  as  the 
work  IS  really  screwed  the  screws  are  steady  in  their  position,  aud 
they  add  materially  to  the  durability  of  the  soles.  The  principal 
disadvantage  in  the  use  of  standard  screwed  soles  is  the  great  diffi- 
cuity  met  with  in  removing  and  levelling  down  tile  remains  of  an 
old  solo  when  repairs  are  necessary. 

The  various  forms  of  sewing-machine  by  which  uppers  are  closed, 
and  their  important  modifications  for  uniting  soles  and  uppers,  are 
also  pnncipally  of  American  origin.  But  the  first  suggestion  of 
machine  sewing  was  an  English  idea.  The  patent  secured  by 
Thomas  Saint  m  the  hnglish  Patent  Office  in  1?90,  while  it  fore- 
shadowed the  most  important  features  of  the  modern  sewin- 
machino,  indicated  more  particularly  the  devices  now  adopted  m 
the  sewing  of  Cather  After  the  introduction  of  the  sewing-machine 
for  cloth  work  Its  .ada[.tation  to  stitching  leather  both  with  plain 
thread  and  with  heated  waxed  thread  was  a  comparatively  simple 
task.  The  hrst  important  step  in.  the  more  difficult  problem  of 
sewinfj  togetlicr  soles  and  uimers  by  a  machine  was  tatcen  in  the 

ultimately  perfected  as  the  Mackay  sole-sewing  machine. -one  of  the 
most  successful  and  lucrative  inventions  of  modern  times.  Blake 
secured  his  irst  English  patent  in  1859,  his  invention  being  thus 
described  :  "This  machine  is  a  chain-stitch  sewingmachino  The 
booked  needle  works  through  a  rest  or  supporting  surface  of  the 


upper  part  of  a  long  curved  arm  which  projects  upwards  from  the 
table  ol  the  machine.     This  arm  should  have  such  a  form  as  to  bo 
capable  of  entering  a  shoe  so  as  to  carry  the  rest. into  the  toe  part 
as  well  as  any  other  part  of  the  interior  of  it ;  it  carries  at  its  front 
end  and  directly  under  the  rest  a  looper,  which  is  supported  within 
the  end  of  the  arm  so  as  to  be  capable  of  rotating  or  partially  rout- 
ing round  the  needle,  while  the  said  needle  may  extend  into  and 
through  the  eye  of  the  looper,  such  eye  being  placed  in  the  path 
of  the  needle.     The  thread  is  led  from  a  bobbin  by  suitable  guides 
along  in  the  curved  arm,  thence  through  a  tension  spring  applied  to 
the  arm,  and  thence  upwards  through  the  notch  of  the  looper.     Tho 
needle  carrier  extends  upwards  with  a  cylindrical  block  which  can 
be  turned  round  concentrically  with  it  by  means  of  a  handle.     Tho 
ieed  wheel  by  which  the  shoe  is  moved  along  the  curved  arm  during 
the  process  of  sewing  is  supported  by  a  slider  extending  downwards 
Irom  the  block,  and  applied  thereto  so  as  to  be  capable  of  sliding  up 
and  down  therein.     The  shoe  is  placed  on  the  arm  with  the  solo 
upwards.     The  Iced  wheel  is  made  to  rest  on  the  sole."     Blake'.s 
onginal  machine  was  very  imperfect  and  was  incapable  of  sewin- 
round  the  toe  of  a  shoe  ;  but  a  principal  interest  in  it  coming  into 
the  hands  of  Gordon  Mackay,  he  in  conjunction  with  Blake  effected 
most  important  improvements  in  the  mechanism,  and  they  jointly 
in  1860  procured  United  States  patents  which  secured  to  them  tho 
monopoly  of  wholly  machine-made  boots  and  shoes  for  twenty-one 
years.     On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  in  America  a  great  demand 
arose  for  boots,  and,  there  being  simultaneously  much  labour  with- 
draWii  from  the  market,  a  profitable  field  was  opened  for  the  use  of 
the  machine,  which  was  now  capable  of  sewing  a  sole  right  round 
Machines  were  leased  out  to  manufacturers  by  the  Ifackay  Company 
at  a  royalty  of  from  J  to  3  cents  on. every  pair  of  soles  sewed,  tho 
machines  themselves  registering  the  work  done.     The  income  of  the 
association  from  royalties  in  the  United  States  alone  increased  from 
$38,/46  in  1863  to  §589,973  in  1873,  and  continued  to  rise  till  tho 
main  patents  expired  iu  1881,  when  there  were  in  use  in  the  United 
States  about  1800  Blake-Mackay  machines  sewing  50,000,000  paira 
of  boots  and  shoes  yeariy.     The  monopoly  secured  by  the  Mackay 
Company  barred  for  the  time  the  progress  of  invention,  notwith- 
standing which  many  other  sole-sewiug  machines  were  patented. 
Among  the  most  important  of  these  is  the  Goodyear  &  Mackay 
machines  for  welted  shoes,— the  first  mechanism  adapted  for  sewiiio 
soles  on  lasted  boots  and  shoes.     These  machines  originated  in  a 
patent  obtained  in  1862  in  tha  United  States  by  August  Destory  for 
a  curved-needle  machine  for  sewing  outsoles  to  welts,  but  the  mechan- 
ism was  not  successful  till  taken  in  hand  by  Charles  Goodyear,  son 
of  the  well-known  inveutor  in  india-rubber  fabrics.     The  Goodyear 
&  Mackay  Company  make  two  machines  for  welted  goods,  one  for 
sewing  the  inseam  and  the  second  for  stitching  on  the  out.sole.     A 
large  number  of  the  latter  form  of  machine  are  in  use,  many  manu- 
facturers preferring  to  secure  the  welt  or  a  midsole  by  the  standard 
screw  machine,  sewing  to  that  the  outsole  with  the  Goodyear- Jlackay 
machine.     The  same  company  adapt  a  circular-needle  machine  to 
the  sewing  of  turn  shoes,  and  this,  with  other  similar  machines,  is 
in  extensive  use. 

The  range  of  machinery  used  in  a  well-equipped  shoe-factory  is 
very  extensive,  embracing  machines  for  cutting  leather,  pressing 
rollers  for  solo  leather,  and  presses  with  cutting-dies  for  stamping 
out  sole  and  heel  pieces.  There  are  also,  in  addition  to  many  kinds 
of  sewing-machine,  blocking  or  crimping  appliances  for  moulding 
uppers  or  vamps,  vamp-folding  machines,  eyeleting  machines, 
lasting  machines,  trimming  and  paring  machines  for  planing  aud 
smoothing  tho  edges  of  soles  and  heels.  For  finishing  there  ait) 
scouring,  sand-pancring,  and  burnishing  machines  for  tho  soles, 
and  stamping  machines  for  marks  and  monom-ams,  with  peg-cutting 
and  nail-rasping  machines  for  smoothing,  cleaning  out,  and  dress- 
ing tho  surface  of  the  insole.  In  short,  there  is  not  a  single  opera- 
tion necessary  in  shoemaking,  however  insignificant,  for  which 
machinery  has  not  been  devised. 

Tho  manufacture  of  india-rubber  goloshes,  shoes,  and  fishing-' 
boots,  kc,  forms  an  important  branch  of  tho  india-rubber  industry 
rather  than  a  department  of  shoemaking  (see  India-uiibber,  vol. 
xii.  p.  8-12).  A  very  considerable  trade  exists  in  boots  and  shoes 
with  outer  soles  of  gutta-percha  (see  vol.  xi.  p.  339)  in  place  of 
leather,  the  headquarters  of  that  trade  being  in  Glasgow.    (J.  I'A.) 

SHOES,  Horse.  Tho  horny  ca.sing  of  the  foot  of  the 
horse  and  other  Solidunguhites,  wliilo  quite  suflicient  to 
protect  the  extremity  of  tho  limb  under  natural  conditirtus, 
18  found  to  wenr  awny  and  break,  especially  in  moist 
climatc.%  when  the  animal  is  subjected  to  hard  work  of 
any  kind.  Thi.s,  however,  can  bo  obviated  by  attaching 
to  the  hoof  a  rim  of  iron — a  simple  device  which  ha.s  been 
probably  hot  8urpas.scd  in  its  beneficial  cffect-s  by  the  intro- 
duction of  steam-power  locomotion.  The  animal  it.self  has 
been  in  a  very  marked  manner  modified  by  shoeing,  for 
without  this  we  could  have  had  neither  the  fleet  racers  uor 


632 


S  H  0  — S  H  0 


the  heaVy  ai)d  powerful  cart-horsas  of  the  present  day. 
Shoeing  does  not  appear  to  have  been  practised  by  either 
Greeks  or  Romans ;  but  there  is  evidence  tha^  the  art  was 
known  to  the  Celts,  and  that  the  practice  became  common 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  Western  empire  towards  the  close 
of  the  5th  century.     It  is  only  recently  that  horse-shoeing 
was  introduced  in  Japan,  where  the  former  practice  was 
to  attach  to  the  horse's  feet  slippers  of  straw,  which  were 
renewed  when  necessary.     In  modern  times  Tiuch  attention 
has  been  devoted  to  horse-shoeing,  with  the  result  of  show- 
ing that  methods  formerly  adopted  caused  cruel  injury  to 
horses  and  serious  loss  to  their  o.wners.     The  evils  as  sum- 
marized by  Mr  George  Fleming,  army  (British)  veterinary 
inspector,  were  caused  by  (1)  paring  the  sole  and  frog; 
(2)  applying  shoes  too  heavy  and  of  faulty  shape  ;  (3)  em- 
ploying too  many  and  too  large  nails  ;  (4)  applying  shoes 
too  small  and  removing  the  wall  of  the  hoof  to  make  the 
feet  fit  the  shoes  ;  and  (5)  rasping  the  front  of  the  hoof. 
According  to  modern  principles  (1)  shoes  should  be  as  light 
as  compatible  with  the  wear  demanded  of  them ;  (2)  the 
ground  face  of  the  shoe  should  be  concave,  and  the  face 
applied  to  the  foot  plain  ;  (3)  heavy  draught  horses  alone 
should  have  toe  and  heel  calks  on  their  shoes  .to  increase 
foothold ;  (4)  the  excess  growth  of  the  wall  or  outer  por- 
tion of  horny  matter  should  only  be  removed  in  re-shoeing, 
care  being  taken  to  keep  both  sides  of  the  hoof  of  equal 
height ;  (5)  the  shoe  should  fit  accurately  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  hoof,  and  project  slightly  beyond  the  heel ; 
(6)  the  shoes  should  be  fixed  with  as  few  nails  as  possible, 
six  or  seven  in  fore-shoes  and  eight  in  hind-shoes  ;  and  (7) 
the  nails  should  take  a  short  thick  hold  of  the  wall,  so 
that  old  nail-holes  may  be  removed  with  the  natural  growth 
and  paring  of  the  horny  matter.     Horse  shoes  and  nails 
are  now  made  with  great  economy  by  machinery.    In  rural 
districts,  where  the  art  of  the  farrier  is  sometimes  combined 
with  blacksmith  work,  too  little  attention  is,  in  general, 
given  to  considerations  which  have  an  important  bearing 
on  the  .comfort,  usefulness,  and  life  of  the  horse. 

SHOLAPUR,  a  British  district  of  India,  in  the  Deccan 
division  of  the  Bombay  presidency,  with  an  area  of  4521 
square  miles,  lying  between  17°  13'  and  18°  35'  N.  lat. 
and  74°  39'  and  76°  11'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  Ahmadnagar  district,  on  the  E.  by  the  nizam's  territory 
and  Akalkot  state,  on  the  S.  by  Kalidgi  district  and  some 
of  the  Patvardhan  states,  and  on  the  W.  by  Sdtira  and 
Poona  districts  and  the  states  of  Phaltan  and  Panth 
Pratinidhi.  Except  in  Karmala  and  Barsi  subdivisions, 
situated  in  the  north  and  east,  where  there  is  a  good  deal 
of  hilly  ground,  the  district  is  generally  flat  or  undulating ; 
but  it  is  very  bare  of  vegetation,  and  presents  everywhere 
a  bleak  treeless  appearance.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Bhima  and  its  tributaries — the  MAn,  the  Nira,  and  the 
Sina — all  flowing  towards  the  south-east.  Besides  these 
there  are  several  smaller  streams.  Lying  in  a  tract  of  un- 
certain rainfall,  Sbolapur  is  peculiarly  liable  to  seasons  of 
scarcity  ;  much,  however,  has  been  done  by  the  opening 
of  canals  and  ponds,  such  as  the  Eknik  and  Ashti  tanks, 
to  secure  a  better  water-supply.  The  Great  Indian  Penin- 
sular Railway  enters  the  district  at  PomalvSdi  in  the  north- 
west comer  and  crosses  it  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  a 
distanoSjOf  nearly  150  miles.  Sholapur  has  recently  been 
connected  with  a  branch  of  the  Southern  Mahrjitta  Railway. 
The  population  of  Sholapur  district  in  1881  was  582,487  (594,814 
malMEud  287,673  females).  Hindus  numbered  530,121,  Moham- 
medins  48,967,  aud  Christians  625.     There  are  three  towns  with 

Sop«lationa  exceeding  10,000  each,  viz.,  SHOL.iPUK  (q.v.),  Pan- 
harpur  (16,910),  Barsi  (16,126).  In  1883-84  there  were  1,763,340 
acres  under  cultivation,  of  which  22,282  were  t\vjce  cropped,  besides 
325,987  acres  of  fallow  or  glass  land.  Joar,  which  forms  the  staple 
food  of  tie  peoj>le,  occupied  923,706  acres,  bajri  298,239,  jvheat 
65,604,  rice  25,027,  pulses  186,523,  and  oil-seeds  147,914  acres. 
Ihe  produce  of  the  district  finds  an  easy  outlet  by  the  railway  to 


Poona  and  Bombay.  The  chief  exports  are  cotton,  which  come* 
from  the  nizam's  dominions,  oil,  oil-seeds,  ghi,  turmeric,  and 
cotton  cloth ;  imports  include  salt,  piece-goods,  yam,  gunney  bags, 
and  iron  ware.  The  chief  industries  are  spinning,  weaving,  and 
dyeing.  The  silks  and  finer  sorts  of  cotton  cloth  ptepared  m 
Sholapur  bear  a  good  name  ;  blankets  are  also  woven  m  larg» 
numbers.  The  gioss  revenue  of  the  district  in  1883-84  amounted 
to  £129,429,  of  which  the  land-tax  yielded  £98,963. 

Sholapur  district  pa.ssed  from  the  Bahmani  to  the  Bijapur  kings 
and  from  them  to  the  Jlar.-ithas.  In  1818,  on  the  fall  of  the  Peshwa, 
it  was  ceded  to  the  British,  when  it  formed  part  of  the  Poona  col- 
lectorate,  but  in  1838  it  was  made  a  separate  coUectorate.  Sinco 
then  its  progress  has  been  rapid. 

SHOLAPUR,  chief  town  and  administrative  head- 
quarters of  the  above  district,  is  situated  in  17°  40'  18" 
N.  lat.  and  75°  56'  38"  E.  Jong.,  on  the  plain  of  the  Sina. 
Its  convenient  situation  between  Poona  and  HaidarAbid 
.(Hyderabad),  with  a  station  on  the  Great  Indian  Penin- 
sular Railway,  has  made  it  the  •:entre  for  the  collection 
and  distribution  of  goods  over  a  large  extent  of  country. 
The  town  contained  in  1881  a  population  of  59,890  (malea 
30  410,  females  29,480). 

SHOOTING  for  sporting  purposes  requires  in  the  .use 
of  firearms  two  fundamental  principles  on  which  rests  the 
attainment  of  dexterity.     These  are,  first,  that  the  weight 
of  the  weapon  be  such  that  the  sportsman  can  carry  and 
wield  it  with  ease  ;  and,  secondly — of  still  greater  import- 
ance— that  the  weapon  be  so  adapted  to  his  chest,  arm, 
and  eye  that  when  it  is  raised  and  levelled  in  the  act  of 
taking  aim  it  may.be  as  part  of  his  own  body.     An  over- 
heavy  gun  may  be  virtually  lightened  by  being  carried  by 
an  attendant  and  only  handed  to  the  sportsman  when  re- 
quired; but  a  gun  not  exactly  "fitting  the  shoulder,"  can-. 
not  possibly  serve  its  user  with  accuracy.     The  reason  is- 
plain.   -  The  slight  divergence  of  his  line  of  aim  from  the, 
axis  of  the  barrel,  due  to  the  shape  of  the  gun  not  permit- 
ting the  coincidence  of  the  two  when  the  weapon  is  used 
rapidly,  creates  a  far  from  slight  divergence  of  the  pellets 
at  any  range  beyond  a  few  yards,  and  the  object  fired  at,, 
if  struck  at  all,  is  only  struck  by  the  outer  and  weakerj 
pellets.     The  increasing  wildness  of  game-birds,  in  Great 
Britain   at   least,  especially  of  partridges,  through   the 
modern  system  of  cutting  grain  close  to  the  ground  and 
so  leaving  no  sheltering  stubble,  demands  rapid  aim  and 
discharge  of  the  gun,  and  in  consequence  the  efforts  of  gun- 
makers  have  been  directed  to  the  production  of  weapons 
of  great  lightness  combined  with  pgwer  and  precision., 
How  different  were  the  conceptions  of  our  immediate  pre- 
decessors is  exemplified  in  such  statements  as  "  a  few  addi- 
tional pounds  in  the  weight  of  a  gun  makes  a  deal  of  difier- 
ence,"  and  "the  most  approved  guns"  are  those  "weighing, 
according  to  the  fancy  of  the  shooter,  from  six  to  nine 
poimds."    The  most  approved  guns  now  vary  in  weight  bj 
a  few  .ounces  only,  and  their  configuration  not  by  inches, 
but  by  eighths  and  even  sixteenths  of  an  inch.     There 
are  also  fine  lines  in  their  modelling  which,  while  of  great 
consequence,  are  imperceptible  to  the  eye,  and  can  only 
be  demonstrated  by  the  application  of  exact  and  delicate 
instruments.     Yet  each  of  these  lines  has  an  important 
purpose,    and    their    combination    produces    the    perfect 
weapon.     An  experienced  gunsmith  who  has  studied  thL« 
branch  of  his  btisiness  can  catch  the  salient  lines  of  a 
sportsman's  figure  with  the  eye  of  an  artist,  and  by  the 
further  aid  of  tests  and  measurements  can  construct  for 
him  a  proper  gun,  and  thus  lay  the  foundation  of  a  correct 
style  of  shooting.     On  the  other  hand,  an  unsuitable  gun 
can  only  be  aimed  correctly  with  slowness,  and  by  some 
straining  of  the  muscles  of  the  neck.     Under  such  condi- 
tions correct  and  rapid  shooting  is  at  least  improbable  ; 
the  spread  of  the  shot  alone  prevents  a  complete  miss.     It 
is  the  correct  configuration  of  the  gun  which  brings  into 
full  efiect  the  elaborate  boring  of  the  barrel,  and  gives 


SHOOTING 


833 


those  long  shots  of  which  sportsmen  are  so  proud,  and 
which  are  due  to  the  central  pellets  flying  straight  to  a 
very  considerable  distance,  much  beyond  that  of  the  outer 
pellets. 

The  nexL  point  in  a  gun  is  balance ;  that  is,  the  metal 
in  the  barrels  must  be  so  apportioned  and  the  general  con- 
struction be  so  arranged  that  there  is  no  tendency  in  the 
hiuzzle  to  droop  at  the  moment  of  discharge,  just  when 
the  faculties  of  the  sportsman  are  absorbed  in  taking  aim 
and  his  muscular  energies  are  in  abeyance.  The  gun  should 
balance  at  a  point  a  little  in  front  of  the  trigger-guard. 
3'he  centre  of  gravity  should  also  be  low,  so  that  there 
may  be  nothing  of  what  may  be  called  "  top-hamper," — in 
other  words,  that  his  gun  may  not  roll  in  his  hand,  but  may 
keep  on  an  even  keel,  as  it  were,  while  he  is  taking  aim. 
If  we  weigh  in  the  scales  two  guns  of  nearly  the  same 
weight,  the  one  well  the  other  ill  balanced,  the  former, 
although  feeling  quite  light  in  the  hand,  will  generally  be 
found  to  be  really  heavier  than  the  latter, — a  fact  which 
is  frequently  the  cause  of  much  surprise  to  sportsmen. 
WTien  properly  balanced,  a  gun  can  be  carried  with  much 
loss  fatigue. 

The  calibre — a  much  disputed  point — is,  within  the 
bounds  commonly  used,  a  question  more  of  the  capability 
of  the  sportsman  to  carry  weight  than  one  touching  his 
eflFectiveness  in  the  field.  It  has  been  plausibly  argued 
that  it  matters  little  how  narrow  the  calibre  of  a  fowling- 
piece  is,  and  that  even  gauge  "35"  ('510  inch)  is  wide 
enough.  It  certainly  would  throw  a  few  pellets  of  swan- 
shot  effectively,  especially  if  the  barrel  was  not  less  than 
40  inches  long.  But  for  all  common  purposes  the  most 
useful  calibre  is  the  twelve-bore,  if  the  weight  is  not  under 
6^  E),  or  somewhat  less  for  hammerless  guns.  ^ATien  a 
less  weight  is  required,  "16"  gauge  (which  in  breech- 
loaders is  really  "15 ")  is  preferable.  Calibre  "20 "  belongs 
to  toy-weapons,  such  guns  being  also  uncertain  in  their 
delivery;  and,  as  strong  and  effective  "16"  double-ba: relied 
guns  can  now  be  made  weighing  only  6  tt),  a  smaller  calibre 
can  hardly  be  required,  except  under  peculiar  conditions. 
Against  the  advantage  of  less  weight  has  to  be  set  the 
important  matter  of  recoil,  and  one  cause  of  recoil  is  the 
elongation  of  the  body  of  the  shot  (and  especially  of  the 
small-sized  shot  used  in  such  guns)  when  placed  in  the 
barrel  or  cartridge.  The  longer  that  body,  and  the  smaller 
the  shot,  the  greater  the  difficulty  in  starting  it ;  hence, 
to  bring  a  "  20  "  as  regards  recoil  to  an  equality  with  a 
"12,"  the  weight  of  the  charge  of  shot  must  be  unduly 
reduced,  with  a  more  than  proportionate  reduction  of  the 
probability  of  killing,  save  in  the  e.\ccptional  cases  whore 
the  size  is  not  larger  than  snipe-shot.  The  shot  in  a  "12" 
has  no  part  at  any  appreciable  distance  from  the  wadding 
over  the  powder,  and  every  pellet  may  fairly  be  said  to 
receive  a  direct  impetus  from  the  explosion.  An  exceed- 
ingly light  gun  has  also  the  fault  of  causing  unsteadiness 
when  the  sportsman  takes  aim. 

The  length  of  the  barrels  neea  not  exceed  30  inches. 
If  a  sportsman  possesses  a  remarkably  correct  eye,  he  may 
safely  go  down  to  26  inches  or  even  less ;  but  it  must  bo 
borne  in  mind  that  the  shorter  the  barrel  the  greater  the 
necessity  for  a  perfectly  correct  aim.  Any  divergence  on 
a  barrel  under  26  inches  is  vastly  increased  at  30  or  40 
yards.  On  the  other  hand,  aim  is  more  quickly  taken 
with  short  barrels.     Thirty  inches  is  a  sound  mcdmm. 

Of  late  years  there  has  been  a  rmi  on  what  are  termed 
"choke-bores"  (see  Gunmaking,  vol.  xi.  p.  281).  But 
unless  the  choking  is  most  mathematically  true  the  flight 
of  the  shot  will  not  bo  coincident  with  the  axis  of  the 
barrel  or  the  line  of  aim,  but  will  "train  off"  in  some  oblique 
direction  ;  and  this  obliquity  will  also  bo  more  or  less 
affected  by  any  reaiiired  modifications  of  tho  charge.     A 


choke-bore,  therefore,  restricts  its  user  to  narrow  conditions 
in  loading  it.  The  velocity  of  the  shot  is  also  consider- 
ably reduced,  the  killing  power  depending  less  on  that 
than  on  the  object  aimed  at  being  struck  with  a  greater 
number  of  pellets.  Neither  do  all  the  pellets  fly  with 
equal  velocity,  so  that,  a»  wa5  proved  several  years  ago  by 
ingenious  expenmentaiion  (first  announced  by  the  present 
writer),  these  advance,  as  it  were,  in  a  narrow  and  pro- 
longed column,  whereas  a  properly  bored  "friction  and 
relief "  barrel  throws  its  shot  in  the  figure  of  a  broad  disk, 
with  all  the  pellets  travelling  practically  at  the  same  rate, — 
the  inner  or  central  ones  having,  however,  more  sustained 
killing  power,  their  "quality  of  motion"  being  of  a  higher 
degree  and  greatly  prolonging  the  range.  A  weapon 
bored  on  the  friction  and  relief  method  certainly  puts  the 
sportsman  in  a  better  position  for  all  kinds  of  common 
game  at  fair  sporting  ranges ;  but  since  the  introduction 
of  breech-loaders  barrels  so  bored  have  (undeservedly) 
fallen  so  greatly  into  disuse  that  the  delicate  art  of  friction 
and  relief  boring  has  nearly  been  lost.  A  purely  cylindrical 
barrel  only  shoots  well  when  perfectly  clean, — a  condition 
that  every  discharge  impairs. 

■\Vith  a  weapon  that  suits  him,  the  sportsman  will  find  that,  on  A%ln«3 
lifting  it  quickly  to  his  shoulder,  keeping  both  eyes  open,  and  fixing 
them  on  any  small  object  at  some  distance  off,  the  barrels  will  be 
directly  pointed  towards  that  object  without  his  having  taken  any 
slow  or  exact  aim.  To  verify  this,  let  him  keep  the  gun  in  position 
and  shut  his  left  eye,  when  he  will  find  still  more  plainly  that  his 
aim  is  true.  The  gun  has  been  so  constructed  as  to  bring  the  rib 
between  the  barrels  (for  double-barrelled  guns  are  always  under- 
stood) right  in  front  of  his  line  of  vision.  In  other  words,  the 
barrels  and  stock  have  been  so  constructed,  inclusive  of  the  fine 
lines  already  referred  to,  that,  so  far  as  the  required  purpose  is  con- 
cerned, the  whole  piece  may  be  said  to  form  an  integral  part  of  his 
own  body.  A  few  minutes'  daily  practice  in  so  pointing  a  gun  at 
any  small  object,  although  in  a  room,  will  give  the  sportsman 
dexterity  in  its  use  even  before  he  has  burned  powder  in  it.  How 
the  shutting  of  one  eye  (unknown  in  billiards  and  similar  games) 
in  taking  aim  came  to  be  practised  in  using  firearms  seems  inexpli- 
cable to  those  who  know  how  detrimental  it  is.  The  keeping  of 
both  eyes  open  was  formerly  not  quite  unknown,  but  was  so  little 
practised  that,  when  tho  present  writer  toolt  the  matter  up  soma 
thirty  years  ago  and  publicly  advocated  it,  he  was  looked  upon  as 
being  quite  in  error  ;  but  now  his  correctness  is  acknowledged, 
and  what  is  termed  the  "two-eye"  system  is  coming  more  and 
more  into  use.  There  are  still  many  uncertain  "shots"  who  are 
not  aware  that  their  frequently  unaccountable  misses  are  caused  by 
the  scientific  fact  that  shutting  one  eye  deprives  them  of  the  power 
of  measuring  distances,  and  also  of  watching  the  movement  of  a 
running  or  flying  object.  As  a  Vule,  whilst  the  right  eye  is  actually 
taking  aim,  the  left  is  acting  subsidiarily  and  showing  the  right 
whether  or  not  it  is  taking  it  correctly.  It  may  bo  noted  that 
almost  all  exceptionally  pood  shots  have  the  eyes  set  wide  apart, 
and  so  take  their  observation  from  a  broader  base. 

Tho  attitude  in  taking  aim  should  be  free  and  iijiriglit,  with  the 
left  foot  somewhat  advanced.  The  right  elbow  should  never  ba 
raised  to  a  horizontal  level  with  tho  shoulder, — a  common  but  bad 
practice.  Tho  gun  should  be  lifted  directly  upwards,  tho  but-cnd 
just  grazing  tho  right  front  of  the  chest  when  reaching  its  final 
position,  the  eyes  all  tho  while  looking  fixedly  upon  the  object. 
To  illustrate  this  by  way  of  contrast,  there  is  another  bad  style  of 
throwing  tho  gim  forward,  tho  shooter  all  tho  while  trying  to  look 
along  the  rib  (which  cranes  tho  neck),  and  then  bringing  it  back 
a"ainst  tho  shoulder  before  firing.  TWs,  however,  is  a  waste  of 
muscular  power  and  quite  throws  out  tho  adaptation  of  the  stock 
to  tho  shoulder,  because  it  is  impossible  to  bring  back  the  gun  quite 
correctly,  and  it  has  thereforo  to  bo  readjusted  (which  ran  hardly 
bo  accomplished)  before  firing.  Besides,  all  this  consumes  time,  for 
which  game  will  not  tarry.  In  military  phrase,  three  "motions" 
aro  required  ;  with  tho  proper  stylo  there  is  only  one. 

Tho  question  how  far  tho  left  hand  should  bo  cxtende.l  in  taking 
aim  is  much  disputed,  but  is  really  of  scrondary  consequence. 
Pigeon-shooters  extend  it  as  far  as  they  well  can,  Iwcauso  tbcir 
groat  object  is  to  prevent  the  muzzle  from  drooping  ot  tho  moment 
of  discharge  ;  but  from  this,  and  also  from  their  custom  of  plantin;{ 
their  feet  firmly  and  squarely  upon  the  ground,  so  ns  to  stand  willi 
their  full  front"to  their  probable  lino  of  aim,  no  lesson  in  shooting 
game  need  bo  taken.  Good  game  shots  are  not  unfrequcntly  poor 
shots  at  pigeons,  and  vice  versa  ;  to  bo  expert  at  tho  former  dcnend* 
uixm  the  .acquisition  of  n  certain  knack,  and  above  all  of  calculation 
iu  time,  -i.e.,  of  tho  power  of  estimating  the  average  time  from  Ui» 

XXL  —  105 


834 


SHOOT  J  N.  G 


shooter's  cry-  of  the  -n-ord  "  pull "  to  the  opening  of  the  trap  and 
flight  of  the  bird.  This  is  so  much  the  case  that  not  unfrequently 
the  "un  is  tired  solely  by  calculation  of  time,  and  before  a  sluggish 
bird'has  flown.  In  game-sliooting  the  bird  may  rise  in  front  or  at 
either  side  of  the  shooter,  or  even  behind  him.  Very  rapid  lateral 
movement  of  the  gun  may  therefore  be  required,  and  it  appears  not 
only  probable  in  itself  but  experimentally  true  that  this  can  best 
be  made  by  tlie  left  arm  when  it  lias  to  describe  a  circle  of  tlie 
shortest  diameter.  For  this  the  best  and  safest  position  is  when 
the  left  hand  grasps  the  gun  immediately  in  front  of  the  trigger- 
guard.  In  pulling  the  trigger  the  finger  should  be  well  crooked, 
so  that  the  pressure  may  be  directly  backwards,  and  no  lateral  dis- 
turbance may  interfere  witli  the  aim  at  the  most  critical  moment. 

If  tlie  eye  takes  in  all  the  rib  of  the  gun  when  raised  to  the 
slioulder  in  position  for  firing,  so  that  the  full  length  of  its  surface 
is  seen,  the  ."itock  is  too  straight.  If  the  rib  is  not  seen  at  all,  the 
stock  is  too  crooked.  When  a  stock  is  of  the  proper  curve,  the 
eye  will  catch  the  rib  about  one-third  of  its  length  from  the  muzzle, 
i.e.,  all  the  rib  in  front  of  that  point  will  be  visible,  and  all  behind 
it  out  of  siglit.  A  straight  stock  is,  however,  preferable  to  a 
crooked  one,  which  makes  the  gun  shoot  low, — a  bad  fault.  It  is 
of  first-rate  importance  that  the  delicate  lateral  setting  of  the  stock, 
as  distinguished  from  the  perpendicular  curve,  should  bring  the 
centre  of  the  rib  exactly  into  the  line  of  sight.  This  fine  desidera- 
tum may  bo  arrived  at  conjointly  by  the  sjiortsman  aud  the  maker 
of  the  gun ;  the  latter  can  be  guided  by  information  as  to  the  sports- 
man's height,  length  of  arm,  and  breadth  of  chest.  If  this  point 
is  satisfactory  it  is  immaterial  whether  a  bird  flies  to  the  right 
hand  or  to  the  left,  and  the  neglect  of  it  is  the  reason  why  some 
sportsmen  are  good  shots  in  one  only  of  these  directions. 

freat*  In  cleaning  breechloaders,  including  the  inside  of  the  barrels, 

oient  of   neither  oil  nor  water  should  be  used,  but  solely  spirits  of  turpentine. 

gnns.I  The  gun  should  never  be  laid  aside  on  full-cock,  as  this  weakens 
the  mainsprings.  As  hainmcrless  guns  are  necessarily  on  full-cock 
when  taken  down,  the  triggers  should  be  drawn,  but  with  the  care- 
ful proviso  that  the  points  of  the  liaramers  strike  upon  a  block  of 
hard  wood  held  firmly  in  front  of  them.  The  lock  should  never  be 
snapped  unless  there  is  a  discharged  or  a  "dummy"  cartridge  in 
the  barrel.  No  hammer  can  bo  made,  of  any  metal  or  form  of  con- 
stniction,  that  vdW  not  probably  crack  if  it  falls  without  something 
in  front  less  trying  than  the  hard  and  impassive  breech.  On  sea 
voyages  and  in  damp  climates  the  barrels  should  be  kept  from  th% 
atmosphere  by  inserting  into  tliem  wooden  rods  covered  with  woollen 
cloth,  and  in  such  cases  the  free  application  of  turpentine  will  be 
found  invaluable.  Failing  these  rods,  each  end  may  be  closed  with 
wailding  or  corks.  For  oiling  the  locks  the  finest  chronometer  oil 
should  be  used,  and  ouly  applied  in  minute  quantities  to  the  points 
of  friction,  not  over  all :  oil  dries  np  and  if  applied  copiously 
frustrates  the  desired  purpose.  Raw  linseed  oil,  frequently  rubbed 
into  a  stock,  hardens  and  preserves  it.  Explorers  and  travellers, 
whose  lives  may  depend  on  their  firearms,  may  usefully  strengthen 
the  weakest  part  of  every  gun,  the  handle  of  the  stock,  by  irrapping 
it  tightly  round  with  whip-cord. 

Shooting  Game. — Space  forbids  entering  at  length  on  the  modes 
of  shooting  the  several  varieties  of  game.  AH  that  is  here  possible 
is  briefly  to  touch  upon  some  of  tJic  salient  points  in  the  iinrsuit 
of  the  more  common  varieties. 

SaT)'ETte,  Rabbits,  on  which  young  sportsmen  generally  first  essay  their 
"'prentice  hand,"  dash  ofi'for  the  nearest  slielterwith  great  rapidity, 
aud  should  be  instantaneously  fired  at,  the  aim  being  taken  slightly 
in  advance.  If  a  rabbit  has  disappeared  among  brashwood,  it  may 
be  not  nuavailing  to  fire  right  in  front  of  the  line  it  was  seen  to 
take.  In  "ferreting"  the  sportsman  should  st.and  clear  of  the 
burrow  (over  which  he  should  never  tread),  and  never  fire  at  a 

Sbres.  rabbit  until  it  is  well  away  from  the  "bolt-hole."  Hares  are  less 
tenacious  of  life  than  rabbits,  and,  as  it  is  an  object  not  to  mangle 
tlie  body  and  so  cause  an  efl'usioii  of  blood,  the  eyes  of  the  sports- 
man should  be  fi.xed  solely  on  the  tips  of  the  eai-s  in  whatever 
direction  the  animal  is  going,  when  the  shot  is  instantaneously 
fatal.  A  hare  coming  straight  towards  a  sportsman  should  not  be 
fired  at ;  he  should  stand  quite  motionless  until  it  comes  within  30 
yards,  when  on  his  making  a  slight  sound  or  movement  it  wQl  turn 
aside  and  give  an  easy  shot.  Ko  other  direction  need  be  given  on 
this  head  (save  possibly  that  the  shot  is  more  easy  when  a  hare  is 
ascending  a  ridge  across  which  it  may  bo  running  than  when  it  is 
descending  from  the  crown  to  the  furrow),  seeing  that  the  one 
principle  of  firing  solely  at  the  ears  involves  everything.  Roedeer 
are  usually  killed  with  buckshot — although  a  small  rifle  is  pre- 
ferable— the  "guns"  being  posted  at  the  likely  passes.  The  neck 
or  shoulder  should  be  fired  at.  Tlic-y  are  easily  killed  when  within 
fair  distance,  but  are  exceedingly  clever  in  keeping  out  of  range 
and  in  detecting  the  presence  of  the  lurking  sportsman.  They  also 
liave  the  trick,  in  common  with  the  elephant,  of  doubling  back  and 
liassiiig  round  any  knoll,  coming  out  on  its  other  side  and  then 
eoutinuitig  their  intcndod  course.  Of  this  instinctive  habit  the 
sjiortsman  should  avail  himself. 

Success  in  grouse-shootuig,  probably  the  finest  of  all  sports  from 


every  point  of  view,  depends  mainly  on  vigilance  and  careful  atten- 
tion to  the  movements  of  the  dogs,  and  following  them  well  up  a? 
soon  as  there  are  indications  of  game  being  in  front.  Save  that  & 
cunning  old  cock  will  after  rising  immediately  dip  down  to  nearly 
the  level  of  the  heather  and  go  off  with  wondrously  baffling  speed, 
there  is  no  peculiarity  in  the  flight  of  grouse  calling  for  special 
remark.  Like  partridges,  they  generally  fly  straight  and  nearly 
horizontally.  As  the  season  advances,  their  wariness  and  tlw 
matured  strength  of  the  young  birds  make  their  pursuit  more 
diificult,  but  otherwise  they  ailord  fair  shots.  "Driving"  is  now 
quite  a  recognized  branch  of  grouse-shooting.  The  "guns"  being 
posted  in  artificial  places  of  concealment  in  the  line  of  flight  known 
to  be  usually  taken  by  the  birds  on  being  disturbed  by  beaters,  the 
shots  are  taken  as  the  birds  are  coming  overhead.  Their  speed  la 
so  great  that  it  is  needless  to  fire  if  they  have  once  passed  thai 
shooter,  seeing  that  the  aim  must  be  taken  some  feet  in  front.*' 
It  .lias  been  found  useful  for  the  sportsman  to  crouch  without 
motion  until  the  birds  are  coming  within  distance,  when,  suddenly 
showing  himself,  they  are  startled  and  throw  their  heads  up,  thus 
breaking  their  flight  and  giving  the  gun  a  fair  chance.  Perhaps 
the  easiest  and  most  fatal  shots  are  at  single  birds  coming  straight 
towards  the  sportsman,  taken  at  about  30  yards.  The  aim  should 
be  high,  and  it  is  aided  by  the  recoil  of  a  gun  when  fired,  which 
throws  the  muzzle  up  in  the  line  of  flight.  The  pellets  also  strike 
the  head  and  neck,  and  with  such  force  that,  when  meeting  the  bird. 
No.  7  shot  is  most  deadly  when  so  discharged.  The  recoil  of  a  gun 
when  fired  "high"  is  also  useful  in  shooting  with  a  rifle  any  large 
bird  passing  overhead  ;  the  shooter  should  face  the  bird.  Driving 
is  severe  work  if  thoroughly  carried  out,  as  the  sportsmen,  as  soon 
as  one  beat  is  over,  have  to  find  their  way  rapidly  to  the  next 
position.  It  is  therefore  not  an  efi"eminate  sport,  and  it  probably 
indirectly  maintains  the  number  of  the  stock-birds  by  killing  ofif 
the  old  leading  cocks  (which  virtually  are  vermin).  Setters  are 
the  proper  dogs  for  grouse-shooting,  their  hairy  feet  being  well 
protected  from  the  heather  ;  hence  to  maintain  vigour  they  require 
to  drink  water  frequently  and  even  to  squat  in  shallow  pools. 
Pointers  are  preferable  for  dry  moors,  particularly  in  hot  weather. 

Partridge-shooting  is  akin  to  grouse-shooting  in  respect  of  the  Par- 
mode  of  pursuit,  the  difference  lying  in  its  being  carried  on  mostly  tndgei 
upon  cultivated  or  enclosed  land.  Both  in  partridge-shooting  and 
ill  grouse-shooting  one  bird  only  ought  to  be  singled  out  and  shot 
at;  no  success  will  foUow  firing  into  the  "brown"  of  a  covey. 
Old  sportsmen  regret  that  shooting  over  dogs  (pointers  being  pre- 
ferable to  the  swifter  and  more  dashing  setters)  is  going  out  ol 
practice  ;  but  the  close  cutting  of  the  grain  crops  now  in  vogue 
leaves  so  little  stubble  that  the  approach  of  the  dogs  is  seen  by  the 
bu'ds,  which,  generally  rising  wild,  aflford  few  "shots  to  points." 
Hence  the  system  of  sportsmen  walking  in  line  (with  no  dogs  save 
retrievers)  and  taking  what  birds  rise  before  them,  and  so  driving 
them  into  turnips  or  other  covert,  or  of  having  them  "driven" 
by  beaters,  is  almost  enforced.  When  driven  into  such  coverts  the 
birds  are  apt  to  run  before  the  shooters  and  take  their  flight  from 
the  far  end  of  the  field.  This  may  be  prevented  by  the  sportsman 
not  advancing  directly,  but  in  a  series  of  circuits  ;  then  tne  birds, 
becoming  uncertain  as  to  which  way  they  should  run,  sit  close  and 
only  rise  on  his  very  near  approach.  Of  course  this  excellent  but 
almost  unknown  system  can  only  be  well  carried  out  by  a  single 
shooter,  or  by  two  at  the  most.  In  "driving"  the  "guns"  are 
posted  in  a  line  at  some  distance  from  each  other,  under  the  con- 
cealment of  a  hedge  some  20  j'ards  in  their  front.  Towards  this 
the  beaters  (irith  a  fugleman  on  horseback,  if  necessary)  drive  the 
birds.  The  shots  are  generally  very  difficult,  the  birds  flying  with 
remarkable  speed,  and  the  shooter  being  also  often  hewildered  by 
the  number  of  smaller  birds,  such  as  the  various  kinds  of  thrushes, 
which  precede  or  accompany  the  partridges  ;  their  sudden  appear- 
ance on  coming  over  the  hedge  is  also  trying,  whereas  the  approacli 
of  grouse  can  be  seen.  These  two  systems — "driving"  and  the 
circular  progression  in  covert — are  of  recent  introduction  The 
former  has  developed  greater  skill  in  shooting. 

The  art  of  shooting  pheasants  depends  upon  the  fact  that,  unlike 
partridges  or  grouse,  the  birds  generally  steadily  ascend  in  their 
flight ;  hence  the  tendency  is  to  shoot  under  them.  This  upward, 
flight  is  gi-eatest  in  coverts,  nntU  it  sometimes  becomes  almosS 
perpendicular,  birds  rising  in  this  way  being  called  "  rocketers.'| 
The  inexperienced  shooter  is  also  misled  by  the  manner  in  whicll 
the  tail  is  spread  out  like  a  fan,  .concealing  the  body,  and  thus 
diverting  the  aim  from  the  body  upon  the  tail  feathers.  To  aim 
.high,  therefore,  is  the  golden  rule.  The  shooter  should  lace  birds 
which  fly  rapidly  overhead,  in  the  way  described  above. 

To  kill  snipe  well  one  must  huut  down  the  wind — an  exceptional 
practice — and  on  the  bird  rising  fire  at  once,  or,  failing  that,  give  it 
time  to  change  its  few  preliminary  zigzag  motions  into  a  steady  flight. 


1  A  caiTier  pigeon  can  fly  a  little  over  4  miles  5  fUrlonj^s  in  four  niinutes,- 
an  rivcrni,'c  of  ncnily  102  feet  a  second.  Assuming  the  distance  to  be  40  yardi 
(a  lon^  shot),  the  aim  taken  at  a  bird  fljin;;  across  the  shooter  at  that  spee** 
shonlil  be  iiioro  than  5  feet  in  advance,  the  flight  of  .tlie  shot  to  a  distjuice  «1 
40  yards  requiriL^;  one-nineteeuOi  of  a  second. 


S  H  0  — S  H  O 


835 


noting. 


As  the  least  touch  of  sliot  brings  a  snipe  doxm,  it  Is  vciy  unlikely  to 
iave  passed  out  of  range  before  the  direct  line  of  flight  is  assumed. 
This  is  the  only  sport  followed  on  land  "down  wind."  Shot  No. 
9  or  10  should  be  used. 

Although  greatly  different  in  cnaractcr,  black-gamo  ana  wood- 
cock may  bo  well  coupled  together  as  being  eccentric  in  their  move- 
ments. The  former  are  most  easily  shot  very  early  in  the  season, 
especially  over  a  steady  old  pointer,  when  the  broods  are  yet  on 
the  more  open  ground,  under  tlie  maternal  charge,  like  so  many 
domestic  chickens  ;  but,  wliea  they  have  broken  up  the  family  ties, 
congregated,  and  betaken  themselves  to  the  coppices,  they  become 
so  irrcular  in  their  habits  and  uncertain  in  their  mode  of  taking 
flight  that  no  exact  rules  can  bo  laid  down  for  their  pursuit.  The 
sportsman,  using  one  steady  old  pointer  and  a  retriever,  had  best 
be  guided  by  an  experienced  attendant,  ■who  should  take  care  to 
beat  out  any  bird  lurking  in  a  thick  bush  from  the  opposite  side 
and  towards  the  gun.  A  few  shots  may  also  be  got  at  the  dawn 
of  day  on  the  edges  of  stubble-fields  ;  but  black-game  shooting  is 
generally  disappointing.  The  female  birds,  "grey  hens,"  are  not 
shot  at ;  the  young  males,  which  greatly  resemble  them,  are  dis- 
tinguished from  them  by  the  white  feathers  in  the  tail.  A  solitary 
blackcock  may  often  be  seen  to  take  up  a  prominent  position,  usu- 
ally in  the  centre  of  one  of  the  small  Jields  to-be  found  on  the  side 
of  hilly  ground,  where  he  maintains  a  vigilant  watch.  With  some 
experience  in  shooting  matters,  the  present  writer  knows  no  pursuit 
more  interesting  and  invigorating  than  stalking  such  a  bird  :  with- 
out causing  undue  fatigue,  it  exercises  one's  patience,  vigilance,  and 
coolness  of  nerve.  Shot  for  this  purpose  should  not  be  of  a  smaller 
size  -than  No.  4.  'Woodcock  newly  arrived  may  be  readily  killed, 
especially  near  the  sea-coast.  After  recruiting,  they  frequently 
betake  themselves  to  heathery  moors  if  there  are  such  near  at 
hand,  where  they  frequent  the  sides  of  rivulets  and  gorges.  There 
they  may  be  readily  brought  down  ;  but  in  woods  they  have  a  knack 
of  twisting,  as  it  were,  round  the  younger  trees,  in  the  branches  of 
which  they  are  mostly  found,'and  so  disconcert  the  aim.  Being  of 
nocturnal  habits,  their  eyes  are  weak  in  the  full  glare  of  day,  and 
they  are  fond  of  the  sheltering  shade  of  thickly  foliaged  trees,  such 
as  the  holly.  The  only  advice  that  can  be  given  on  this  sport  is 
to  risk  the  shot  at  the  merest  glimpse  of  the  bird  through  the 
branches,  and  trust  to  the  spread  of  the  pellets  to  kill,  for  the 
woodcock,  like  its  congener  the  snipe,  will  fall  with  a  touch,  and 
even  (apparently)  through  mere  fright  on  being  fired  at,  without 
being  touched  at  all.     The  best  shot  to  use  is  No.  8. 

Ammunition. — In  former  times  sportsmen  carefully  adjusted 
their  charges  of  powder  and  shot  to  suit  the  weather  (which  atfcctcd 
the  strength  of  the  former)  and  the  sport  in  hand.  Now,  almost 
everything  is  left  to  the  purveyor  of  cartridges,  which  are  usually 
charged  on  average  proportions.  The  sportsman  should  be  careful, 
therefore,  to  ascertain  the  charge  best  suited  to  his  weapon,  and  to 
have  his  cartridges  so  loaded.  When  a  gnn  recoils  the  charge  of 
shot — not  of  powder,  as  is  generally  supposed — should  be  reduced  ; 
and  it  is  always  safer  to  use  a  light  charge  of  shot.  Breechloaders 
require  large-grained  powder,  Messrs  Curtis  &;  Harvey's  No.  6  being 
the  typical  size.  Pyroxjdine  explosives,  of  which  Scliultze  powder^ 
is  the  normal  type,  are  now  largely  used,  especially  in  the  first 
barrel,  the  other  being  charged  with  black  powder.  For  almost 
all  regular  sport  No.  6  shot  is  the  best  size  ;  and  it  is  better  to  use 
No.  7  i^  smaller  quantity  than  No.  5  for  grouse  and  partridges. 
For  pheasants  and  black  .game  use  No.  5,  but  of  1\  oz.  in  weight, 
with  a  somewhat  reduced  charge  of  powder.  One  oz.  or  at  most 
IJ  oz.  of  No.  6  is  ample ;  the  former  will  travel  with  marvellous 
and  far-reaching  velocity.  Any  excess  of  shot  merely  falls  to  the 
ground,  as  may  be  seen  by  firing  over  a  sheet  of  smooth  water,  •  For 
duck -shooting  (for  which  the  barrels  should  be  of  "10"  gauge  and 
32  inches  long)  No.  4  shot  is  a  good  size;  and  for  this  sport  it  is 
well  to  reduce  the  weight  of  the  shot  and  increase  very  considerably 
.  that  of  the  jiowder,  velocity  being  everything. 

liiflc-shooling. — The  propriety  of  shooting  with  both  eyes  open 
is,  if  possible,  more  imiwrative  iii  rifle-shooting  than  in  shooting 
game,  if  rapidity  is  valued,  as  it  must  bo.  Firearms  immediately 
followed  the  long  bow  and  tho  cross-bow,  and  it  has  never  been 
supposed  that  the  archer  discharged  these  with  one  eye  closed.  With 
both  eyes  open  tho  "back  sight"  virtually  becomes  transparent, 
and  forms  no  obstacle  to  tho  aim,  while  with  one  eye  closed  it  cer- 
tainly does,  for,  as  tho  head  and  eyes  must  bo  kept  fairly  up  in 
firing  a  shot  gun,  they  must  bo  kept  well  down  in  firing  a  rifle. 
Tho  "express"  rifle  is  the  chef-d'aurrc  of  modern  weapons,  and 
when  pronerly  made  will  throw  its  bullet  up  to  200  yards  without 
perceptible  curve  from  one  sight.     This  result  is  attained  mostly  by 

'  Tliis  explosive  is  tlio  invention  of  Colonel  J.  F.  E.  Schultze,  of 
the  Prussi.an  artillery  service,  and  was  introduced  about  1860  into  tho 
United  Kingdom  by  Mr  J.  D.  Doufjall.  It  is  now  being  manufactured 
in  Great  Britain  as  well  as  on  the  Continent.  Tlio  adv.intages  claimed 
for  it  are  that  it  does  not  require  any  special  loading,  such  as  hard 
ramming,  there  is  a  smaller  recoil  than  with  black  gunpowder,  and 
it  has  great  propulsive  power,  with  little  or  no  fouling  of  kbo  firearm. 


an  inordinately  large  charge  of  powder  to  a  liglit  and  pnrtly  hollow 
bullet  (see  Gukmakinu,  voL  xi.  p.  282).  The  "pull"' on  the 
trigger  should  rather  be  a  pinch  than  a  direct  backward  pull,  i.e., 
the  trigger  should  be  pinched  between  the  forefinger  and  the  thumb 
which  grasps  the  haiKllo  of  the  stock.  If  the  ijwrtsman, has  the 
presence  of  mind  to  inflate  his  chest  with  a  long  inhalation  he  will 
shoot  all  the  better.  There  is  a  popular  opinion  that  a  single- 
barrelled  "  express  "  shoots  more  truly  than  a  double-barrelleil  one. 
This  is  quite  a  mistake,  uuless  the  barrel  of  the  former  is  made 
so  thick  and  heavy  at  the  muzzle  (to  prevent  the  metal  quivering 
when  the  bullet  leaves  it)  as  to  destroy  the  balance.  In  double- 
barrelled  rifles  the  one  barrel  braces  up  the  other,  ard  they  in 
also  so  adjusted  as  to  shoot  parallel.  This  common  error  has  prob- 
ably arisen  from  confounding  "express"  with  long-range  match 
rifles,  which  are  quite  another  thing.  The  "450  alibre  is  best 
adapted  for  deer  and  antelopes,  '500  for  mixed  shooting,  and  'hll 
for  dangerous  animals.  But  for  these  and  the  great  pachyderms  a 
"  12  "  gauge,  throwing  an  explosive  shell,  is  the  most  effective  ol 
all  firearms,  the  larger  "  area  "  of  the  wound  telling  at  once. 

All  really  useful  jnfonii.itinn  on  the  subject  of  shooting  is  cont-iUietl  in  J.  T). 
Douf^-all's  Shooting,  its  Apiytifinccs,  <Dc.  (London,  2d  ed.  ISSI);  0«neral  W.  X. 
Hutchinson's  Dog-hreaking  (Loadoa,  1S7G>;  and  W,  Scrope's  V'er-sfallitit 
(Lonrton,  1S46).  (J.  D.  D.)  ' 

SHORE,  Jane,  mistress  of  King  £d-n-ard  IV.,  would 
have  been  unknown  by  name  even  to  the  studious  antiquaiy 
but  for  the  events  \vhich  took  place  after  the  death  of  her 
royal  paramour.  She  was  the  first  of  three  concubines 
whom  he  described  respectively  as  the  merriest,  tho  wilj-est, 
and  the  holiest  liariot  in  his  realm.  A  handsome  woman 
of  moderate  stature,  round  face,  and  fair  complexion,  she 
was  more  captivating  by  her  wit  and  conversation  than  by 
her  beauty  ;  yet  Sir  'Thomas  More,  writing  when  she  was 
still  alive,  but  old,  lean;  and  withered,  declares  that  even 
then  an  attentive  observer  might;  have  discerned  in  her 
shrivelled  countenance  some  traces  of  its  lost  charms.  She 
was  born  in  London,  and  married  before  she  was  quite 
out  of  girlhood  to  a  citizen  named  William  Shore,  who, 
though  young,  handsome,  and  well-to-do,  never  really  won 
her  affections ;  and  thus  she  yielded  the  more  readily  to 
the  solicitations  of  King  Edward.  Her  husband  on  this 
abandoned  her,  and  after  Edward's  death  she  became  the 
mistress  of  Lord  Hastings,  whom  Ricliard  III.,  then  duke  of 
Gloucester,  as  protector  during  the  minority  of  Edward  V., 
suddenly  ordered  to  be  beheaded  on  13th  June  14S3. 
According  to  the  report  given  by  Jlore,  Eicliard  had 
accused  Hastings  at  the  council  table  of  conspiring  against 
him  along  with  the  queen-dowager  and  Shore's  wife,  who 
by  sorcery  and  witchcraft  had  given  him  a  withered  arm. 
So  having  got  rid  of  Hastings  he  caused  Jane  Shore  to  be 
committed  to  prison  and  spoiled  her  house,  containing 
property  to  the  value  of  2000  or  3000  marks,  equivalent 
to  a  sum  of  £20,000  or  £30,000  at  tho  present  day. 
But  having  sought  in  the  first  place  to  charge  her  with 
conspiracy — a  charge  wliich  apparently  he  could  not  sub- 
stantiate— he  thought  better  afterwards  to  get  the  bishop 
of  London  to  put  her  to  open  penanco  at  Paul's  Cross 
for  her  vicious  life.  She  accordingly  went  in  her  kirtlc 
through  the  streets  one  Sunday  with  a  tai^er  in  her  hand, 
her  beauty  really  enhanced  by  the  blush  which  her  humilia- 
tion called  up  in  her  usually  pale  checks ;  and  many  who 
detested  her  mode  of  life  could  not  but  pity  her  as  the 
victim  of  a  hypocritical  tjTanny.  The  penanco  certainly 
did  not  induce  her  to  reform,  for  sho  immediately  after- 
wards became  tho  mistress  of  tho  mar(]uis  of  Dorset ;  and, 
what  is  still  nioro  extraordinarj',  next  year,  having  been 
taken  again  into  custody,  and  her  liusband,  it  may  bo 
presumed,  being  by  that  time  dead,  sho  so  captivated  tho 
king's  solicitor,  Thomas  Lynom,  that  ho  actually  entered 
into  a  contract  of  marriage  with  her.  This  wo  know  from 
a  letter  of  King  Richard  to  his  chancellor  on  tho  occasion, 
desiring  him  to  dissuade  Lynom  from  the  match,  as  far  iih 
he  could,  by  argrmient,  but,  if  ho  found  him  deteriuined, 
then,  provided  it  was  not  against  the  laws  of  tho  church, 
ho  might  convey  tho  king's  consent  and  meanwhile  deliver 
Jano  out  of  prison  to  Lor  father's  custody.     Conduct  so 


836 


S  H  O  — S  H  0 


nnlike  his  previous  severity  shows  that  Richard  knew  how 
to  be  gracious  as  well  as  despotic.  Whether  the  marriage 
actuaOy.  took  place  is  not  known.  Jane  certainly  lived 
to  the  year  1513,  when  More  wrote  his  history  of  Richard 
III.,  but  how  much  later  we  cannot  tell. 

SHORTHAND,  or  Stenogkaphy,  Tachtgeaphy,  &c., 
is  a  term  applied  to  all  systems  of  brief  handwriting  which 
are  intended  to  enable  a  person  to  write  legibly  at  tlie  rate 
of  speech.  (For  the  ancient  Latin  and  Greek  tachygraphy, 
see  the  last  part  of  the  article  on  Paleography.)  In  the 
10th  century  all  practical  acquaintance  with  the  shorthand 
systems  of  Greece  and  Rome  faded  completely  away,  and 
not  tin  the  beginning  of  the  17th  can  the  art  be  said  to 
have  revived.  But  even  during  that  interval  systems  of 
\vTiting  seem  to  have  been  practised  which  for  speed  ap- 
proximated to  modern  shorthand.^ 

Shorthand  in  English-speaking  Countries. — ^England  was 
the  birthplace  of  modern  shorthand,  and  at  the  present 
time  there  is  no  country  in  Europe,  except  perhaps 
Germany  and  German  Switzerland,  where  the  art  is  so 
extensively  practised  as  in  England.  The  first  impulse  to 
its  cultivation  may  possibly  be  traced  to  the  Reformation. 
When  the  principles  of  that  movement  were  being  pro- 
mulgated from  the  pulpit,  a  desire  to  preserve  the  dis- 
courses of  the  preacher  naturally  suggested  the  idea  of 
accelerated  writing.  It  is  certainly  striking  that  in  the 
early  systems  so  many  brief  arbitrary  signs  are  provided  to 
denote  phrases  common  in  the  New  Testament  and  Pro- 
testant theology.  Up  to  the  present  time  (1886)  not  less 
than  483  professedly  distinct  systems  of  Enghsh  shorthand 
have  been  published,  and  doubtless  many  more  have  been 
invented  for  private  use.  It  is  impossible  here  to  notice 
even  by  name  more  than  a  very  few  of  them.  Indeed,  if 
■we  reject  all  those  systems  which  are  imitations  or  repro- 
ductions of  earlier  ones,  and  systems  which  are  so  unpracti- 
cal'as  to  be  little  better  than  elegant  toys,  and  a  multitude 
of  utterly  worthless  catchpenny  publications,  only  a  few 
remain.  In  Dr  Timothy  Bright's^  Characterie  (1588)  and 
Peter  Bales's'  Arte  of  Brachygraphie,  contained  in  his 
Writing  Schoolemaster  (1590),  almost  every  word  in  the 
language  is  provided  with  an  arbitrary  sign.  Only  with 
gigantic  memory  and  by  imremitting  labour  could  one 
acquire  a  practical  knowledge  of  such  methods.  The  first 
shorthand  system  worthy  of  .the  name  which,  so  far  as  is 
known,  appeared  in  England  is  that  of  John  Willis,  whose 
An  of  Stenographic  (London,  13  editions  *  from  1602  to 

'  ^  For  instances,  see  Zeibig'a  Geschichte  u.  Lit.  der  Geschvnndschreib- 
kunst  (Dresden,  1878),  pp.  67-79.  For  John  of  Tilbury's  system  (c 
1175),  see  especially  Shorthand,  No.  6,  and  Hermes,  viii.  p.  303. 

'  The  Bodleian  Library  contains  the  only  known  copy  of  Bright's 
book.  For  a  description  of  the  system,  see  Phonetic  Journal,  1884, 
p.  86  ;  Circulars  of  Information  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  (Wash- 
ington), No.  2,  1884,  p.  8  ;  and  Notes  and  Qiteries,  2d  ser.,  vol.  ii.  p. 
394.  A  is  represented  by  a  straight  line,  the  other  letters  of  the 
alphabet  by  a  straight  line  with  a  hook,  circle,  or  tick  added  at  the 
beginning.  Each  alphabetic  sign  placed  in  various  positionsT'  and 
hav_ag  some  additional  mark  at  the  end,  was  used  to  indicate  arbi- 
trarily chosen  words  beginning  with  a,  b,  c,  d,  &c.  There  were  four 
elopes  given  to  tach  letter  and  twelve^iyays  of  varying  the  base,  sd 
that  forty-eight  words  could  be  written  imder  each  letter  of  the  alpha- 
bet if  necessary.  Thus  the  sign  for  b  with  different  terminal  marks 
and  written  in  four  different  directions  signified  a  number  of  words 
commencing  with  b  ;  537  such  signs  had  to  be  learned  by  heart  By 
adding  certain  ertemal  marks  these  signs  were  applied  to  other  words  : 
thus  by  writing  a  dot  in  one  of  two  positions  with  respect  to  a  sign  the 
latter  was  made  to  represent  either  a  synonym  or  a  word  of  opposite 
meaning.  Under  air  are  given  as  synonyms  breath,  exhalation,  mist,  reek, 
tteam,  vapour.  The  best  account  of  Bright  is  given  in  the  Dictionary 
of  National  Biography,  voL  vi.  (1886). 

'  .Bales's  method  was  to  group  the  words  in  dozens,  each  dozen  headed 
by  a  Roman  letter,  with  certain  commas,  periods,  and  other  marks  to  be 
placed  about  each  letter  in  their  appropriate  situations,  so  as  to  distin- 
gnigh  the  words  from  each  other.  For  an  account  of  Bales,  see  Wood's 
Athen.  Oxon. ,  vol.  L  col.  655,  and  the  Diet,  of  Nat.  Bicg.,  vol.  iii.  (1885). 

*  The  first  edition,  pablished  anonymously,  is  entitled  Tkc  Art  of 


1644)  is  substantially  based  on  the  common  alphabet ;  bn* 
the  clumsiness  of  his  alphabetic  signs,  and  the  confused 
laborious  contrivances  by  which  he  denotes  prefixes  and 
terminations,  involving  the  continual  lifting,  of  the  pen, 
would  seem  to  render  his  method  almost  as  slow  as  long- 
hand. Of  the  201  systems  which  intervene  between  J. 
Willis's  and  Isaac  Pitman's  phonography  (1837)  nearly  all 
are  based,  like  Willis's,  on  the  alphabet,  and  may  be  called 
a,  b,  c  systems.  But  seven  are,  like  phi^DOgraphy,  strictly- 
phonetic,  viz.,  those  by  Tiffin  (1750),  Lyle  (1762),  Holds- 
worth  and  Aldridge  (1766),  Roe  (1802),  Phineas  Bailey 
(1819),  Towndrow  (1831),  and  De  Stains  (1839).  Of  tha 
281  systems  which  have  appeared  since  phonography  a. 
very  large  proportion  are  merely  imitations  of  that  system^ 
or  proceed  on  the  same  lines. 

A  few  general  remarks  appjy  largely  to  all  the  a,  b,  c 
systems.  Each  letter  is  designated  by  a  straight  line  oi 
curve  (vertical,  horizontal,  or  sloping),  sometimes  with  the 
addition  of  a  hook  or  loop.  C  and  q  are  rejected,  h  being 
substituted  for  hard  c  and  q,  s  for  soft  c.  Signs  are  pro- 
vided for  ch,  sh,  th.  G  and  j  are  classed  under  one  sign, 
because  in  some  words  g  is  pronounced  as  j,  as  in  giant^ 
gem.  Similarly  each  of  the  pairs  /,  v  and  s,  2  has  only  on» 
sign.  A  few  authors  make  the  signs  for  J,  v,  z  heavier  than 
those  for  g,  f,  s.  Some  class  p  and  b,  t  and  d,  each  under 
one  sign.  The  stenographic  alphabet  is  therefore — a,  b,  d, 
<"./  (^').  9  0').  ^>  '.  h  h  m,  n,  o,  p,  r,  s  (j),  t,  u,  w,  x,  y,  ch,  sh, 
th.  Letters  which  are  not  sounded  may  be  omitted.  Gh^ 
ph  may  be  counted  as/  in  such  words  as  cough,  Philip ;  but 
the  th  in  thing  is  never  distinguished  from  the  th  in  them^ 
Thus  the  a,  b,  c  systems  are  largely  phonetic  with  respect 
to  consonant-sounds;  it  is  rather  with  regard  to  the  vowebe 
that  they  disregard  the  phonetic  principle.  No  attempt  i» 
made  to  provide  adequately  for  the  many  vowel-sounds  of 
the  language.  Thus  the  signs  for  like  and  lick,  for  rate  and 
rat,  &c.,  are  the  same.  In  the  case  of  vowel-sounds  denoted 
by  two  letters,  that  vowel  is  to  be  written  which  best  repre- 
sents the  sound.  Thus  in  meat  the  e  is  selected,  but  int 
great  the  a.  In  some  a,  b,  c  systems,  including  the  best  of 
them  (Taylor's),  a  dot  placed  anywhere  does  duty  for  all 
the  vowels.  This  practice  is,  of  course,  a  fruitful  sourc* 
of  error,  for  pauper  and  paper,  gas  and  goose,  and  hundred* 
of  other  pairs  of  words  would  according  to  this  plan  b» 
written  alike.  In  the  early  systems  of  Willis  and  his  imi- 
tators the  vowels  are  mostly  written  either  by  joined  char- 
acters or  by  lifting  the  pen  and  writing  the  next  consonant 
in  a  certain  position  with  respect  to  the  preceding  one- 
Both  these  plans  are  bad  ;  for  lifting  the  pen  involves  ex- 
penditure of  time,  and  vowels  expressed  by  joined  signs  and 
not  by  marks  external  to  the  word  cannot  be  omitted,  as  is 
often  necessary  in  swift  writing,  without  changing  tha 
general  appearance  of  the  word  and  forcing  the  eye  and 
the  hand  to  accustom  themselves  to  two  sets  of  outlines^ 
vocalized  and  unvocalized.  In  the  better  a,  b,  c  system* 
the  alphabetic  signs,  besides  combining  to  denote  word^ 
may,  also  stand  alone  to  designate  certain  short  common 
words,  prefixes,  and  suffixes.  Thus  in  Harding's  edition  of 
Taylor's  system  the  sign  fc7  d,  when  v^ritten  alone,  denotes 
do,  did,  the  prefixes  de-,  des*,  and  the  terminations  -dom, 
-end,  -ened,  -ed.  This  is  a  good  practice  if  the  words  are 
well  chosen  and  precautions  taken  to  avoid  ambiguities. 
Numbers  of  symbolical  sighs  and  rough  word-pictures,  and 
even  wholly  arbitrary  marks,  are  employed  to  denote  words- 
and  entire  phrases.  Symbolical  or  pictorial  signs,  if  sufiB- 
ciently -suggestive  and  not  very  numerous,  may  beeflfectivej 
but  tie  use  of  "  arbitraries  "  is  objectionable  because  they 
are  bo  difficult  to  remember..    In  many  shorthand  books 


Stenographic  .  ,  .  wherevnto-  is  annexed  a  very  easiC'  Direction  /tf 
Steganographie,  or  Secret  Writing,  printed  at  London  in  1602  fcr 
Cuthbert  Bnibie.     The  only  known  copy  is  in  the  Bodleian  Libnij, 


SHORTHAND 


837 


the  student  is  recommended  to  form  additional  ones  for 
himself,  and  so  of  course  make  bis  writing  illegible  to  others. 
The  raison  dctre  of  sucli  signs  is  not  far  to  seek.  The 
proper  shorthand  signs  for  many  common  words  were  so 
clumsy  or  ambiguous  that  this  method  was  resorted  to  in 
crder  to  provide  them  with  clearer  and  easier  outlines.  For 
the  purpose  of  verbatim  reporting  the  student  is  recom- 
mended to  omit  as  a  rule  all  vowels,  and  decipher  his  writ- 
ing with  the  aid  of  the  context.  But,  when  vowels  are 
omitted,  hundreds  of  pairs  of  words  having  the  same  con- 
sonant skeleton  (such  as  minister  and  monaster!/,  frontier 
and  furniture,  libel  and  label)  are  written  exactly  alike. 
This  is  one  of  the  gravest  defects  of  the  a,  b,  c  systems. 

John  Willis's  system  was  largely  imitated  but  hardly 
miproved  by  Edmond  Willis  (1618),  T.  Shelton  (1620), 
Witt  (1630),  Dix  (1633),  Mawd  (1635),  and  Theophilus 
Metcalfe  (1635).  T.  Shelton's  system,  republished  a  great 
many  times  down  to  1687,  was  the  one  which  Samuel  Pepys 
Bsed  in  writing  his  diary.i  It  was  adapted  to  German, 
Dutch,  and  Latin.-  An  advertisement  of  Shelton's  work 
in  the  Mercuritis  Politiciis  of  3d  October  1650  is  one  of 
the  earliest  buciness  advertisements  known.  The  book  of 
Psalms  in  metre  (206  pages,  2|  x  1|  inches)  was  engraved 
According  to  Shelton's  system  by  Thomas  Cross.  Metcalfe's 
IRadio-Stenography,  or  Short-  Writing,  was  republished  again 
and  again  for  about  a  hundred  years.  The  35th  "  edition  " 
is  dated  1693,  and  a  55th  is  known  to  exist.  The  ineffi- 
ciency of  the  early  systems  seems  to  have  brought  the  art 
into  some  contempt.  Thus  Thomas  Hejrwood,  a  contem- 
porary of  Shakespeare,  says  in  a  prologue  ^  that  his  play  of 
^uee.n  Elizabeth 

"  Did  throng  the  seats,  the  boxes,  and  the  stage 
So  much  that  some  by  stenography  drew 
A  plot,  put  It  in  print,  scarce  one  word  true." 

Shakespeare  critics  would  in  this  manner  explain  the 
badness  of  the  t;xt  in  the  earliest  editions  of  Hamlet, 
Romeo  and  Juliet,  Taming  of  the  Shrew,  Mfrry  Wives  of 
Windsor,  and  Henry  V.  Perhaps  a  study  of  J.  Willis's 
system  and  of  E.  Willis's  (which,  though  not  published  till 
after  Shakespeare's  death,  was  practised  long  before)  may 
shed  light  on  corrupt  readings  of  the  text  of  these  plays.* 
Rich's  system  (1646,  20th  edition  1792)  was  reproduced 
■with  slight  alterations  by  many  other  persons,  including 
W,  Addy,  Stringer,  and  Dr  Philip  Doddridge  (1799  and 
three  times  since).  The  New  Testament  and  Psalms  were 
engraved  in  Rich's  characters  (1659,  596  pages,  2i  x  H 
inches,  2  vols.),  and  Addy  brought  out  the  whole'Bible 
engraved  in  shorthand  ^  (London,  1687,  396  pp.).  Locke, 
in  his  Treatise  on  Education,  recommends  Rich's  system ; 
but  it  is  encumbered  with  more  than  300  symbolical  and 
arbitrary  signs.  In  1847  it  was  still  used  by  Mr  Plowman, 
a  most  accomplished  Oxford  reporter. 

In  1672  William  Mason,  the  best  shorthand  author  of  the 
17th  century,  published  his  Fen  pluck'd  from  an  Eagle's 
Wing.  The  alphabet  was  largely  taken  from  Rich's.  But 
in  his  Art's  Advancement  (1682)  only  six  of  Rich's  letters 
arc  retained,  and  in  his  Plume  Volante  C1707)  further 
changes  are  made.  Initial  vowels  are  written  by  their 
alphabetic  signs,  final  vowels  by  dots  in  certain  positions 
(a,  e  at  the  beginning ;  i,  y  at  the  middle ;  o,  w  at  tlio 
end),  and  medial  vowels  by  lifting  the  pen  and  writing  the 
next  consonant  in  those  same  three  positions  with  respect 
to  the  preceding  one.     Mason  employed  423  symbols  and 

*  See  a  paper  by  J.  E.  Bailey,  "  Oq  the  Cijilicr  of  Pepys"  Diary,"  in 
Paptrs  of  the  Manchealtr  lAlcrary  Club,  vol.  ii.  (1876). 

*  See  Zcibig's  Gcsch.  u.  Lil.d.  Gcschmndschrdbkunsl,  p.  195. 
'  PUasanl  Dialogues  and  Drammas  (London,  1637),  p.  249. 

*  See  M.  Levy's  Sliakspcrc  and  Shorthand  (London),  and  Phonetic 
loumal,  1885,  p.  34. 

*  Tliis  curiosity  is  described  in  the  Phonetic  Journal,  J  885,  pp.  168, 
1S8.     The  Bodleian  Library  has  a  copy. 


aroitraries.  He  was  the  first  to  discover  the  value  of  a 
small  circle  for  s  in  addition  to  its  proi.er  alphabetic  sign. 
Mason's  system  was  republished  by  Thomas  Gurney  in 
1740,  a  circumstance  which  has  perpetuated  its  u.se  to  the 
present  day,  for  in  1737  Gurney  was  appointed  shorthand- 
writer  to  the  Old  Bailey,  and  early  in  the  19th  century 
W.  B.  Gurney  was  appointed  shorthand-writer  to  botli 
Houses  of  Parliament.  Gurney  reduced  Mason's  arbitrariea 
to  about  a  hundred,  inventing  a  few  specially  suitable  for 
parliamentary  reporting.  The  Gurneys  were  excellent 
writers  of  a  cumbrous  system.  Thomas"  Gurney  s  Brachy- 
graphy  passed  through  at  least  eighteen  editions,  but  the 
sale  of  the  book  has  now  almost  ceased. 

In  1767  was  published  at  Manchester  a  work  by  John 
Byrom,  sometime  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
entitled  The  Universal  English  Shorthand,  distinguished  for 
its  precision,  elegance,  and  systematic  construction.  Byrom 
had  died  in  1763.  Having  lost  his  fellowship  by  failing 
to  take  orders,  he  made  a  living  by  teaching  shorthand 
in  London  and  Manchester,  and  among  his  pupils  were 
Horace  Walpole,  Lord  Conway,  Charles  Wesley,  Lord 
Chesterfield,  the  duke  of  Devonshire,  and  Lord  Camden. 
Shorthand,  it  is  said,  procured  him  admission  to  the  Royal 
Society.  He  founded  a  stenographic  club,  to  the  proceed- 
ings of  which  his  journal,**  written  in  shorthand,  is  largely 
devoted.  In  the  strangers'  gallery  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons in  1728  Byrom  dared  to  write  shorthand  from  Sir 
R.  Walpole  and  others.  In  1731,  when  called  upon  to  give 
evidence  before  a  parliamentary  committee,  he  took  short- 
hand notes,  and,  complaints  being  made,  ho  said  that  if 
those  attacks  on  the  liberties  of  shorthand  men  went  on 
he  "  must  have  a  petition  from  all  counties  where  our  dis- 
ciples dwell,  and  Manchester  must  lead  the  way."  Thomas 
Molyneux  popularized  the  system  by  publishing  seven 
cheap  editions  between  1793  and  1825.  Modifications  of 
Byrom's  system  were  issued  by  Palmer  (1774),  Nightingale 
(181 1),  Adams  (1814),  Longmans  (1816),  Gawtress  (1819), 
Kelly  (1820),  Jones  (1832),  and  Roffe  (1833).  Byrom's 
method  received  the  distinction  of  a  special  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment for  its  protection  (15  Geo.  II.  c.  23,  for  twenty-one 
years  from  24th  June  1742).  To  secure  lineality  in  the 
writing  and  facility  in  consonantal  joinings  he  provided 
two  forms  for  b,  h,j,  w,  x,  sh,  th,  and  throe  for  /.  A,  e, 
i,  0,  u,  he  r^resented  by  a  dot  in  five  positions  with  respect 
to  a  consonant.  Practically  it  is  impossible  to  observe  more 
than  three  (beginning,  middle,  and  end).  With  all  its 
merits,  the  system  lacks  rapidity,  the  continual  recurrence 
of  the  loop  seriously  retarding  the  pen. 

In  1786  was  published  Aji  Essay  intended  to  establish  aTajIgft 
Standard  for  a  Universal  System  of  Stenography,  by  Samuel 
Taylor  (London).  This  system  did  more  than  any  of  its 
predecessors  to  establish  the  art  in  England  and  abroad. 
Equal  to  BjTom's  in  brevity,  it  is  simpler  in  construction. 
No  letter  has  more  than  one  sign,  except  w,  which  has 
two.  Considering  that  five  vowel  places  about  a  consonant 
were  too  many,  Taylor  went  to  the  other  extreme  and  ex- 
pressed all  the  vowels  alike  by  a  dot  placed  in  any  position. 
He  directs  that  vowels  are  not  to  be  expressed  except  wheix 
they  sound  strong  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  word. 
Arbitraries  he  discarded  altogether ;  but  Harding,  who  re- 
edited  his  system  in  1823,  introduced  a  few.  Each  letter 
when  standing  alone  represents  two  or  three  common  short 
words,  prefixes  and  suffixes.  But  the  list  was  badly  chosen : 
thus  m  represents  my  and  many,  both  of  them  adjectives, 
and  therefore  liable  to  bo  confounded  in  many  sentences. 
To  denote  in  and  on  by  the  same  sign  is  evidently  absurd. 
Taylor's  system  was  republished  again  and  again.     The 


"  Byrom's  ]^rivnto  journal  and  literary  remains  h.avo  been  publishe(( 
by  the  Chctham  Society  of  Manchester.  Sec,  too,  a  paper  by  J.  E. 
Bailey  in  the  Phonetic  journal,  1976,  pp.  109,  121. 


B3S, 


SHORTHAND 


latest  editions  are  those  of  J.  H.  Cooke  (London,  1865) 
and  A.  Janes  (London,  1882).  In  Harding's  edition  (1823 
and  at  least  twelve  times  since)  the  vowels  are  written  on 
an  improved  plan,  the  dot  in  three  positions  representing 
a,  e,  i,  and  a  tick  in  two  positions  o,  u.  Several  other 
persons  brought  out  Taylor's  system,  in  particular  G.  Odell, 
whose  book  was  re-edited  or  reprinted  not  less  than  sixty- 
four  times,  the  later  republications  appearing  at  New  York.  . 
The  excellence  of  Taylor's  method  was  recognized  on  the 
Continent  :  the  system  came  into  use  in  France,  Italy, 
Holland,  Sweden,  Germany,  Portugal,  Roumania,  Hungary, 
&c.  In  England  at  the  present  day  no  method  excepting 
Pitman's  phonography  is  more  popular  than  Taylor's, 
although  the  sj'stems  which  have  appeared  since  Taylor's 
are  far  more  numerous  than  those  which  preceded  it. 

The  Universal  Htenoyraphy  of  AVilliam  Mavor  (1780 
and  nine  times  since)  is  a  very  neat  system,  and  differs 
from  Taylor's  in  the  alphabet  and  in  a  more  definite 
method  of  marking  the  vowels.  A,  e,  i,  are  indicated  by 
commas,  o,  u,  y,  by  dots,  in  three  places  with  respect  to  a 
ietter,  namely  beginning,  middle,  and  end.  Other  systems 
by  J.  H.  Lewis  (1812)  and  Moat  (1833)  are  still  used  to 
a  small  extent. 

The  vast  mass  of  a,  b,  c  systems  are  strikingly  devoid 
of  originality,  and  are  mostly  imitations  of  the  few  that 
have  been  mentioned.  Nearly  all  may  be  briefly  described 
as  consisting  of  an  alphabet,  a  list  of  common  words,  pre- 
fixes and  suffixes  expressed  by  single  letters,  a  list  of  ar- 
bitrary and  symbolical  signs,  a  table  showing  the  best  way 
of  joining  any  two  letters,  a  few  general  rules  for  writing, 
and  a  specimen  plate.' 
Pitman's  Pitman's  phonography,  on  account  of  its  enormous  diffu- 
phono-  sJon  in  Great  Britain  and  the  colonics,  and  in  America, 
'^''1'  ^'-  its  highly  organized  and  original  construction,  and  its  many 
inherent  advantages,  merits  a  more  extended  notice  than 
has  been  given  to  the  systems  already  mentioned.  In  1837 
Isaac  Pitman,  then  teacher  of  a  British  school  at  Wotton- 
under-Edge  and  an  excellent  writer  of  Taylor's  system, 
composed  at  the  invitation  of  Samuel  Bagster  a  short 
stenographic  treatise  of  his  own,  which  Bagster  published 
under  the  title  of  Stenorjrapldc  Sound-lland.  The  price 
was  fixed  at  fourpence,  for  the  author  had  determined 
to  place  shorthand  within  the  reach  of  everybody.  He 
had  won  the  friendship  of  the  Bible  publisher  by  volun- 
tarily verifying  the  half  a  million  references  in  the  Com- 
prehensive Bible,  and  JMr  Bagster  for  nine  years  published 
Mr  Pitman's  shorthand  books.  In  1840  a  second  edition 
appeared  in  the  form  of  a  penny  plate  bearing  the  title 
Phonography,  the  principal  feature  of  the  system  being 
that  it  was  constructed  on  a  pui-ely  phonetic  basis.  The 
name  of  Bagster  helped  the  enterprise,  and  the  author  was 
indefatigable  in  spreading  the  knowledge  of  his  system 
by  lectures  and  gratuitous  teaching  through  the  penny 
post,  then  just  established.  In  December  1811  the  first 
number  of  what  is  now  known  as  the  Phonelic  Journal 
appeared  at  Jlanchester  in  a  lithographed  form.  It  was 
then  called  the  Phonograjihic  Journal,  and  subsequently 
in  turn  the  Phonotypic  Journal,  the  Phonetic.  Ifeios,  and  the 
Phonetic  Journal.  The  chief  instruction  books  issued  by 
the  author  at  the  present  time  from  his  press  at  the 
Phonetic  Institute,  Ikth,  are  the  Phonographic  Teacher, 
a  little  sixpeimy  book  for  beginners,  of  which  1,030,000 
copies  have  been  published  ;  the  Manual  of  Phonography 
(470th  thousand),  in  which  the  art  is  sufficiently  developed 
for  the  purpose  of  correspondence,  private  memoranda, 
and  easy  reporting ;  and  the  Phonographic  Reporter  (133d 
thousand).  The  weekly  circulation  of  the  Phonetic  Journal 
18  about  20,000  copies.  A  part  of  it  is  printed  in  the 
'  For  enrly  English  systems,  see  especially  some  careful  papers  by 
Mr  A.  r;itersou  iu  Phonelic  Journal  (1SS6). 


phonographic  character  from  movable  types.  The  sj-stem 
has  been  warmly  taken  up  in  America,  where  it  has  been 
republished  in  more  or  less  altered  forms,  especially  by 
the  author's  brother  Benn  Pitman,  and  by  Messrs  A.  J. 
Graham,  J.  E.  Munson,  E.  Longley,  and  Eliza  B.  Burns. 
A  large  number  of  periodicals  lithographed  in  phonography 
are  published  in  England  and  America.  The  Shorthand 
Magazine,  monthly,  has  existed  since  1864.  Of  standard 
English  books  printed  or  lithographed  in  phonography 
may  be  mentioned,  besides  tke  Bible,  New  Testament, 
and  Prayer  Book,  The  Pilgrim's  Progress,  TJie  Vicar  of 
Wakefield,  Pichwick  Papers,  Tom  Brown's  School-Days, 
Macaulay's  Essays  and  Biographies,  Gulliver's  Travels, 
Blackie's  Self-culture,  Bacon's  Essays,  and  a  long  list  of 
tales  and  selections.  Numerous  societies  have  been  formed 
in  all  English-speaking  countries  for  the  dissemination  of 
phonography.  The  largest  is  the  Phonetic  Society  with 
3350  members,  who  have  all  certificates  of  a  knowledge  of 
the  art  and  engage  to  teach  through  the  post  gratuitously. 
Most  important  towns  in  the  United  Kingdom  have  a 
phonographic  association.  London  has  three.  Phono- 
graphy has  been  adapted  to  several  foreign  languages,  but 
not  so  successfully  as  Gabelsberger's  German  system.  Mr 
T.  A.  Eeed's  French  Phonography  (1882)  is  intended  only 
for  English  phonographers  who  wish  to  report  French 
speeches.  Other  adaptations  to  French  are  by  A.  J^ 
Lawson  and  J.  R.  Bruce.  A  society  for  the  adaptation  of 
phonography  to  Italian  was  organized  at  Rome  in  1883 
by  G.  Francini,  who  has  published  his  results  (Rome, 
1883,  1886).  Phonography  adapted  to  Spanish  by  Parody 
(Buenos  Ayres,  1864)  is  practised  by  half  the  steno- 
graphers employed  in  the  senate  and  chamber  at  Buenos 
AjTes.  It  has  been  adapted  to  Welsh  by  R.  H.  Morgan 
(Wrexham,  1876),  and  to  German  by  C.  L.  Driesslein 
(Chicago,  1884).  Phonography  is  steadily  driving  all  other 
English  systems  out  of  the  field.  Mr  T.  A.  Reed  stated  in 
the  Phonetic  Journal,  1883,  p.  62,  that  of  the  61  writers 
employed  by  the  Times,  Standard,  Telegraph,  Morning  Post, 
and  the  Press  Association  31  were  using  phonography,  18 
Taylor's,  5  Gurney's  (i.e.,  Mason's),  4  Lewis's,  and  3  other 
systems;  of  the  67  members  composing  the  Institute  of 
Shorthand  Writers,  chiefly  practitioners  in  the  law  courts, 
26  were  using  phonography,  29  Taylor's,  7  Gurney's  (i.e.. 
Mason's),  3  Mavor's,  and  2  Lewis's  ;  while  of  the  80  mem- 
bers  of  the  London  Shorthand  Writers'  Association,  chiefly 
employed  in  business  ofiices,  at  least  five-sixths  were  phono- 
graphers. According  to  a  recent  (1882)  history  of  short- 
hand, of  291  professional  stenographers  in  London  134  used 
phonography,  89  Taylor's,  35  Gurney's,  8  Lewis's,  8  Mavor's, 
and  1 7  other  systems  (Byrom's,  Graham's,  Moat's,  &c.). 

The  main  features  of  Pitman's  system  must  now  be  described.  Piti 
The  alpliabet  of  consonant-sounds  is — p,  b;  t,  d;  ch  (as  in  cki}>),  syst 
j  ;  t,  g  (as  in  gay) ;  /,  »  ;  th  (as  in  thing),  dh  (as  in  tli^m) ;  s,z;  sh, 
:h  (as  in  vision) ;  m,  n,  ncj  (as  in  Hung) ;  I,  r  \  w,  y,  h.  The  sounds 
}},  t,  ch,  k  are  represented  respectively  by  the  four  sti-aight  strokes 
\  I  / —  ;  and  tlie  conesponding  voiced  sounds  h,  d,  j,  g  by,exactly 
the  same  signs  respectively  written  heavy.     F,  tk  (as  in  thing),  i 

sh  are  indicated  by  V  ()  ^  respectively  ;  the  same  signs  writtci. 
heavy  and  tapering  to  the  ends  are  used  for  v,  dh,  e,  zh  respect- 
ively. M,  n,  I,  r  are  denoted  by  ^-^^f  \  respectively.  S  is 
also  represented  by  . — -  written  upwards  and  in  a  more  sianting 
diiectiou  than  the  sign  for  ch.  The  signs  for  sh  and  I  may  bo  written 
up  or  down  when  in  combination,  but  standing  alone  sh  is  written 
do\mwards  and  I  upwards.     The  signs  for  w,  y,  h  &XQ  c^  a^  g^ , 

all  written  upwards.  H  has  also  /  dbwn.  Kg,  mp  l<ax  mh),  rch  (or 
7-j),  Ir,  are  represented  by  the  signs  for»i,  m,  r,  I  respectively  written 
\\es.\y.  Signs  are  provided  for  the  Scotch  guttural  ch  (as  in  loch), 
the  Welsh  II,  and  the  French  nasal  n.  S  is  generally  written  by  a 
small  circle.  The  long-vowel  sounds  are  thus  classified— d  (as  in 
balm),  e  (as  in  bail),  ee  (as  in  feet),  aw  (as  in  liuv),  6  (as  in  coal), 
00  (as  in  boot).  The  vowels  a,  e,  ec  are  marked  TDy  a  hoaiy  dot 
placed  respectively  at  the  beginning,  middle,  and  end  of  a  consonant 


SHORTHAND 


839 


sign  ;  aw,  5,  do  by  a  licavj'  dash  in  the  same  'hree  positions,  and 
generally  struck  at  right  angles  to  the  dircetion  of  the  consonant. 
The  short  vowels  are  a  (as  in  ]>at),  i  (as  in  pet),  I  (as  in  pil),  S  (as 
in  pot),  a  (as  in  but),  and  53  (as  in  put).  The  signs  for  these  are 
the  same  as  for  the  corresponding  long  vowels  just  enumerated, 
except  that  they  are  written  light.  Signs  similarly  placed  are 
provided  for  the  diphthongs  oi  (as  in  boil),  6d  or  oS,  61  (as  in  Boan- 
erges, pod,  coincide),  for  the  series  yd,  ye,  yce,  kc,  and  for  the 
series  wd,  we,  wee,  &c.  The  signs  for  ei  (as  in  bite)  and  ou  (as  in 
coio)  are  a,  and  may  be  placed  in  any  position  with  respSct  to  a 
consonant.  A  straight  line  may  receive  four  hooks,  one  at  each 
side  of  the  beginning  and  end,  but  a  curve  only  two,  one  at  each 
end  in  the  direction  of  the  curve.  Hooks  applied  to  a  straight 
line  indicate  the  addition  of  r,  /,  n,  and/ or  v  respectively,  thus — 
\i"".  \  y,\>P/or  /""i  and  \  j)}i. ;  c —  kr,  <^  kl,  -.j>kf, —r>kn; 
^  rf  or  TV,  ''^  rn.    Hooks  applied  to  a  curve  denote  the  addition 

ofr,)i respectively,  thus — ^  fr,  K^fn;  c~^  inr,  /—a  mn.  Vowel- 
signs  placed  after  (or,  in  the  case  of  horizontal  strokes,  uni'er)  a 
consonant  having  the  n  or/,  v  hook  are  read  between  the  consonant 
and  the  »  or/;  thus  i  'cough,  V^/iot,  but  "T"  crow,  \  pray. 
A  large  hook  at  the  commencement  of  a  curve  signifies  the  addi- 
tion of  I,  as  V-  fl.     The  hooks  combine  easily  with  tiie  circle  s, 

f hus— N  sp,  °\  spr  (where  the  hook  r  is  implied  or  included  in  the 

circle),  "^  spl,  a  pus  (the  hook  n  being  included),  \)  pfs,  &c.  The 
halving  principle  is  one  of  the  happiest  devices  in  the  whole  history 
of  shorthand.  The  halving  of  a  light  stroke— that  is,  writing  it 
half  length — implies  the  addition  ott ;  the  halving  of  a  heavy  stroke 
that  of  d,  the  vowel  placed  after  (or  under)  the  halved  stroke  being 

read  between  the  consonant  and  the  added  t  or  d,  thus —  )  saw, 
)~  sought,  I.  Bee,  I,  deed,  \pit,  ~  cat,  ''^ /at,  y  note,  &c.  By 
this  means  very  V  i  -ef  signs  are  provided  for  hosts  of  syllables  ending 
in  t  and  d,  and  for  a  number  of  verbal  forms  ending  in  ed,  thus  — 
-^  ended.  The  halving  of  a  heavy  stroke  may,  if  necessary,  add 
/,  and  that  of  a  light  stroke  d,  thus — ^beatUi/y.     By  combining 

the  hook,  the  circle,  and  the  halving  principle,  two  or  three 
together,  exceedingly  brief  signs  are  obtained  for  a  number  of  con- 
sonantal series  consisting  of  the  combination  of  a  consonant  with 

one  or  more  of  the  souuds  s,  r,  I,  n,f,  t,  thus — \  sp,  n  spr,  <\  sprt, 
"Nj  sprts  ;   \  ^Z,  \  spl, "?  spU,  %  spliU,  %  splnts  ;  Vo  fn,  Va  /)«, 

>o  fiU,  ^  fnts  ;  Vo  fra,  ^  frnd,  kc.  As  a  vowel-mark  cannot 
conveniently  be  placed  to  a  hook  or  circle,  we  are  easily  led  to  a 
way  of  distinguishing  in  outline  between  such  words  as  i~^  cough 

and  i  V.^  coffee,  \  pen  andXi^.  penny,  ^  race  and  ^'i  racy, 
kc.  This  distinction  limits  the  number  of  possible  readings  of  an 
uuvocalized  outline.  A  largo  hook  at  tlio  end  of  a  stroke  indicates 
the  addition  of  -slton  (as  iu/ashion,  action,  kc).     This  hook  easily 

combines  with  the  circle  s,  as  in  actions,  s"  positions.  The 
circle  s  made  largo  indicates  ss  or  sz,  as  in  \)'  pieces,  \^ losses. 
The  vowel  between  s  and  s  (:)  may  bo  marked  inside  the  circle,  as 

in  "T3  exercise,  ?f> subsistence.  The  ciicle  a  lengthened  to  a  loop 
signifies  st,  ^s  iu\  step,  Nj  post,  while  a  longer  loop  indicates  str,  as 

in  'T-^  muster,  ^-~.o  minster.  The  loop  may  be  continued  through 
the  consonantal  stroke  and  terminate  in  a  circle  to  denote  sis  and 

sirs,  as  in  V>  boasts,  /-^tci  minsters.  The  loop  written  on  the  left 
or  lower  aide  of  a  straight  stroke  implies  the  n  hook  and  so  signiligs 

nst,  as  in  =-0  against,  9  danced.  A  curve  (or  a  str.iiglit  stroke 
with  a  final  hook)  written  double  length  implies  the  addition  of  Ir, 

dr,  or  Ua;  as  in  \^^fatlu:r,  (^'      letlcr,  "^     ^  kinder,  \^^^/ender, 


render.  Tliis  practice  is  quite  safe  in  the  case  of  curves,  but 
a  straight  stroke  should  not  bo  lengthened  in  this  way  when  there 
is  danger  of  re.iding  it  as  a  double  letter.  The  lineal  consonant- 
signs  may  stand  alone  to  represent  certain  short  and  common 
words  as  in  many  of  Iho  old  a,  b,  c  systems,  with  this  dllference, 
that  in  the  old  systems  each  letter  rei)rcsents  several  words,  but  in 
phonography,  in  almost  every  ease,  only  one.  By  writing  the 
liorizontat  strokes  in  two  positions  with  respect  to  tho  line  (above 
and  on)  and  the  others  in  three  positions  (entirely  above,  resting 
on,  and  passing  throngli  the  lino)  tho  number  is  nearly  trebled,  and 
very  brief  signs  are  obtained  for  some  seventy  or  eighty  common 
short  words  (e.g.,  be,  by,  in,  if,  at,  it,  my,  me,  kc).  A  few  very 
common  nioiiosyllables  are  represented  by  their  vowel-marks,  as 

, •)<     §/■  (remnant  of    V),    o»  (rcniuaut  of  ^-^  ). 


A  certain  numoer  01  longer  words  which  occur  frequently  are 
contracted,   generally  by  omitting   the  latter  part,  sometimes  a 

middle  part  of  the  word,  as  in  \  {.ksp)  expect,  U  {djr)  danger, 
{Icrk  sk)  characteristic,  ^  {nd/t)  indefatigable.  The  con- 
nective phrase  of  the  is  intimated  by  wTiting  the  words  between 
which  it  occurs  near  to  each  other.  The  is  often  expressed  by  a 
short  slanting  stroke  or  tick  joined  to  tho  preceding  word  and 

generally  struck  downwards,  thus        in  IJic,  ^  for  the. 

Three  principles  which  remain  to  be  noticed  are  of  such  import- 
a'^jce  and  advantage  that  any  one  of  them  would  go  far.  to  place 
phonography  at  the  head  of  all  other  systems.  These  are  the 
principles  of  positional  writing,  similar  outlines,  and  phraseography. 
(1)  The  first  slanting  stroke  of  a  word  can  generally  be  written  so 
as  either  to  lie  entirely  above  the  line,  or  rest  on  the  line,  or  run 

through  the  line,  thus— _i.\  \  ,  Jlll_.'rl_'i::I..    In  the  case  of 

words  composed  wholly  of  horizontal  strokes  the  last  two  positions 

(on  and  through  the  line)  coincide,  as"^""*""  _^,^.  These  three 
positions  are  called  first,  second,  and  third  respectively.  The  first 
is  specially  connected  with  first-place  vowels  (a,  d ;  aw,  S;  i;  oi), 
the  second  with  second-place  vowels  (e,  e ;  0,  H),  and  the  third  with 
third-plate  vowels  {ee,l;  00,  SS;  ou).  In  a  fully  vocalized  style 
position  is  not  employed,  but  in  tho  reporting  style  it  is  of 
the  greatest  use.     Thus  the  outline  {Im)  written  above  the  line 

(L-^  )  must  be  read  either  time  or  Tom, ;  when  written  resting  on  tho 

line  (1--^)  tome  or  tame;  when  struck  through  the  line  (.l_.)  teem., 

team,  or  tomb.  By  this  method  the  number  of  possible  readings  of 
an  unvocalized  outline  is  greatly  reduced.  That  word  in  each  posi- 
tional group  which  occurs  the  most  frequently  need  not  be  vocalized, 
but  the  others  should.  In  the  case  of  dissyllables  it  is  the  accented 
vowel  which  decides  the  position ;  thus  methought  should  be  written 

first  position  {!Zl. ),  method  second  position('^") .  (2)  Another  way 
of  distinguishing  between  words  having  the  same  consonants  but 
different  vowels  is  to  vary  the  outline.  The  possibility  of  variety 
of  outline  arises  from  the  fact  that  many  consonant-sounds  have 
duplicate  or  even  triplicate  signs,  as  we  have  seen.  For  instance, 
r  has  two  lineal  signs  and  a  hook  sign,  and  so  each  of  tlie  words 
carter,  curator,  creature,  and  creator  obtainsa  distinct  outline.  A 
few  simple  rules  direct  the  student  to  a  proper  choice  of  outline, 
but  some  difference  of  practice,  obtains  among  phonographers  in 
this  respect.  Lists  of  outlines  for  w^ords  having  the  same  con- 
sonants are  given  in  the  instruction  books;  Ww  Reporter's  Assistant 
contains  the  outline  of  every  word  written  with  not  more  than  three 
strokes,  and  the  Phonographic  Dictionary  gives  the  vocalized  out- 
line of  every  word  in  tho  language.  Aided  by  a  true  phonetic 
representation  of  sounds,  by  occasional  vocalization,  variety  of 
outline,  and  the  context,  the  phonographic  verbatim  reporter 
should  never  misread  a  word.'  (3)  Lastly,  phraseography.  It  has 
been  found  that  in  numberless  cases  two  or  more  words  may  be 
written  without  lilting  the  pen.  A  judicious  use  of  this  practice 
promotes  logibilitj',  and  the  saving  of  time  is  very  considerable. 
Words  written  thus  should  bo  closely  connected  in  sense  and  awk- 
ward joinings  avoided.     Such  phrases  are        /  am,  \..  I  have, 

<v-^  you  are,  iv-v  yoxi,  may,  L  it  would,  ^  it  would  not,  <, —  we  are. 


o'V  «■«  Jiava, 


,  we  have  not, 


■■-^^ 


wc  luive  never  been, 


^l^  my  dear  friends,     ^  in  a  very  short  time^^^h^  as  fa\ 

possible f  V- ck   for  the  most  part,  aad  many  thouaauds  of  others. 

For  the  sake  of  obtaining  a  good  phrasoogram  for  a  common  pliraso, 
it  is  often  advisable  to, omit  some  part  of  tho  consonant  outline. 
Thustho  phiaso  yoii  must  recollect  that  may  very  well  bo  written 
'^^  ^  {yoic  mus  recollec  t/utt).  Lists  of  recommended  phrasco- 
granis  arc  given  in  tho  Phonographic  Phrase  Book,  tho  Legal  Phrase 
jbook,  and  the  liailway  Phrase  Book. 


1  Plioiiopmpliy  Is  80  legible  that  tho  experiment  of  handing  tho  Bhorthaud 
notes  to  plKinogriiphic  coinnosilors  has  often  hw.n  tiiod  with  coniplcto  success. 
A  Biiccch  of  Richard  Colxion,  ou  th*  Corn  Laws,  delivered  at  iJath  on  17th 
bcptcinber  1S15,  oud  occupying  ati  hour  and  a  quartor,  ivns  i-eported  aliuost 
vnlintlin,  and  tho  iiotcn,  with  a  fuw  vowels  tilled  hi,  h.iuilod  to  the  compositors 
of  tho  Bttth  Journal,  who  set  them  up  with  the  usual  accuracy.  A  notice  of 
the  occurrence  appeared  tho  next  day  In  tho  Bath  Journa!,  and  waa  iiuuiodi- 
nU'Iy  transferred  to  the  coUnnnaof  the  Thnes  anil  other  newspapers.  Sir.  Kecd 
h;ij  tried  tho  snino  ex^'crinaiit  with  C(]tii]  success,  the  notes  being  handed  tu 
Ml.'  compositors  In  their  oiiginnl  state  (Fhnm'tic  Joiirnnl,  1JSS4,  p.  38/).  In  Mr 
Pitman's  printiiuc-olllcu  at  Bntli  nioro  type-setting  is  done  from  Siiorthand 
copy  than  fioin  Ioiij;liiUid.  Of  course  it  is  genei-ally  un.idvisablo  to  print  n 
speech  vtrbatini,  but  mneh  time  wouhl  Iw  saved  If  the  rejKirter  could  write  hb 
copy  in  tlie  "corresponding"  or  leas  brief  and  more  vocalized  style  of  phonu- 
grapliy.  Comiwsitors  couid  acqulro  tho  Ciculty  of  reading  phouocraphy  in  » 
very  hhort  tune. 


840 


SHORTHAND 


Specimens  ef  Phonography. 
Corresponding  Style. 

^'  I N  -z-x  ^^  V^''  ^  -^  W''  "}' 
■  ^  -Fo  o  X  •  ^-^  "  -^  ^  ^  .^-  -^ 


Kev.— If  all  the  feelings  of  a  patriot  glow  in  our  "bosoms  on  a  perusal  of  those 
eloquent  speeches  which  are  delivered  in  the  senate,  or  in  those  public  assem- 
blies where  tlie  people  are  frequently  convened  to  exercise  the  birthright  of 
Britons— we  owe  it  to  shorthand.  If  new  fervour  be  added  to  our  devotion, 
and  an  additional  stimulus  be  imparted  to  our  exertions  as  Cliristians,  by  the 
eloquent  appeals  and  encouraging  statements  made  at  the  anniversaries  of  our 
various  religious  societies — we  owe  it  t :  shorthand.  If  we  have  an  opportunity 
in  interesting  judicial  cases,  of  examining  the  evidence,  and  learning  tho  pro- 
ceedings with  as  much  certainty,  and  nearly  as  much  minuteness,  as  if  we  Lad 
ttf-en  present  on  the  occasion— we  owe  it  to  shorthand. 

Reporting  Style. 

°  ^« 

Key  (the  phrasoograms  bein?  indicated  by  liyphens). — Characteristics  of 
TEE  Ace. — Tiie  peculiar  and  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  present-age 
ere- in  every  respect  remarkable.  Unquestionably  an  extraordinary  and  uni- 
versal-change has  commenced  in-the  internal  as-\vell-as-the  external-world  — 
in-the-raind-of-man  as-well-as  in-the  habits  of  society,  the  one  indeed  being-the 
necessary-consequence  of  the  other.  A  rational  consideration  of  the  circum- 
stances in-wlrich-mankind  are  at-present  placed  must-show-us  that  influences 
of  the  most-important  and  "wonderful  character  have-been  and  are  operating  in- 
such-a-manner-as-to  bring-about  if-not-a  reformation,  a  thorough  revolution  in- 
the-organization  of  society.  Never  in-the-history-of-the-world  havsi  benevolent 
and  philanthropic  institutions  for -the  relief  of  domestic  and  public  aflRiction  ; 
societies  for-the  promotion  of  manufacturing,  commercial,  and  agricultural 
Interests ;  associations  for-the  instruction  of  the  masses,  the  advancement  of 
literature  and  science,  the  development  of-true  political -principles,  for-the 
extension  in-short  of-every  description  of  knowledge  and-the-bringing-ahnut 
of-every  kind-of  reform, — been-so  numerous,  so  efficient,  and  so  indefatigable 
in-their  operation  as  at-the-prescnt-day. 

Of  the  numerous  systems  publislied  since  the  invention 
)f  phonogra^jhy  the  principal  are  A.  M.  Bell's  Steno- 
Xihonographi/  (Edinburgh,  1852),  Professor  J.  D.  Everett's 
(London,  1877),  Pocknell's  Legible  Shorthand  (London, 
1881),  and  J.  M.  Sloan's  adaptation  of  the  Frencli  system 
of  DuployS  (1882).  Of  these  Professor  Everett's  must 
be  pronounced  much  the  best.  The  author  claims  to  have 
adhered  to  the  phonetic  princijdc.  more  strictly  than  Sir 
Pitman.  Thus  he  distinguishes  the  6  in  home,  comb,  from 
that  in  so,  and  treats  m;  er  as  a  diphthong.  The  alphabet 
is  very  like  Mr  Pitman's  in  construction,  light  and -heavy 
sounds  being  represented  by  light  and  heavy  strokes. 
The  chief  feature  of  the  system  is  that  all  vowels  are 
marked  in.  This  is  done  by  joined  signs,  by  lengthening 
the  preceding  consonant,  by  separating  the  preceding  from 
the  following  consonant,  hy  lifting  the  pen  and  writing 
the  one  consonant  attached  to  the  other,  and  by  intersec- 
tion.    Mr  Pocknell,  in  his  somewhat  bewildering  system. 


%-t>^  \,  t-  ^ 


seeks  (like  Mr  Melville  Bell)  to  provide  a  method  of  indi^ 
eating  whether  a  consonant  is  preceded  or  followed  by  a 
vowel  or  vowels.  To  this  end  he  gives  to  each  consonant 
three  linear  signs  (two  curves  and  a  straight  line),  the 
requisite  number  of  signs  being  made  up  by  using  three 
lengths  of  stroke.  The  selection  of  the  right  sign  is  deter- 
mined by  the  length  and  class  of  the  words  represented. 
JIuch  energy  is  devoted  to  indicate  where  a  vowel  stands, 
but  not  to  what  it  is.  The  vowels,  when  expressed,  are 
disjoined,  as  in  phonography  and  most  systems.  Though 
Mr  Bell's  too  elaborate  classification  of  vowels  is  adopted, 
the  phonetic  method  of  representing  consonants  is  fre- 
quently discarded  in  favour  of  the  alphabetic.  Thus,  no 
sign  is  provided  for  zh  (as  in  visiori),  and  the  barbarous 
gh  (as  in  bright)  is  often  retained  "for  the  sake  of  legi- 
bility." Mr  Pocknell  goes  back  to  the  antiquated  device 
of  pictorial  and  arbitrary  signs.  The  Sloan-Duployan 
system  has  been  vigorously  propagated ;  but  it  does  not 
pro\'ide  alphabetic  characters  for  all  the  vowels  and  con- 
sonants in  the  language,  contents  itself  with  representing 
not  actual  but  "approximate"  sounds,  does  not  always 
indicate  the  order  in  which  the  characters  should  be  read, 
recommends  the  frequent  omission  of  consonants  and 
syllables  at  the  "discretion"  of  the  student,  avoids  angles, 
and  introduces  three  slopes,  instead  of  one,  between  the 
perpendicular  and  the  horizontal,  and  therefore  is  not 
likely  to  meet  with  general  acceptance. 

A  considerable  number  of  American  systems,  as  well  as  Ameri 
systems  based  on  Taylor's  and  Gurney's,  were  issued  dur-  systen 
ing  the  early  days  of  the  republic.  Since  the  introduction 
of  phonography  into  the  States  in  1845,  the  dissemination 
of  the  art  has  gone  steadily  forward,  and  its  use  since  1880 
has  been  greatly  on  the  increase,  shorthand  being  now 
taught  in  a  large  number  of  schools.  From  elaborate 
statistics  given  in  ilr  Rockwell's  Circular  of  Information 
it  appears  that  during  1882  10,197  persons  received  in- 
struction in  schools  and  classes  and  2273  by  correspond- 
ence. But  these  figures  probably  bear  no  proportion  to 
the  number  of  persons  studying  without  a  teacher.  In 
almost  every  case  phonography,  or  a  modification  of  it, 
was  selected  for  instruction.  American  shorthand  societies 
are  very  numerous,  most  of  them  having  been  formed 
since  1880.  Two  are  devoted  to  the  Stolzean  system 
Of  the  fourteen  shorthand  magazines  which  Mr  Rockwell 
enumerates  eleven  are  phonographic. 

In  nine  cases  out  of  ten  phonography  will  be  found 
admirably  adapted  to  the  purpo.<^es  of  verbatim  reporting. 
But  to  be  legible  it  must  be  vsritten  with  care.  This 
necessity  arises  from  its  brevity  and  its  use  of  light  and 
heavy,  halved  and  double-length  strokes.  Hence  a  clumsy 
scribe  may  find  a  longer  system,  such  as  Gurney's,  answef 
his  purpose  better.  A  theoretical  knowledge  of  most 
systems  may  be  gained  in  a  few  hours.  Pitman's  method 
is  not  so  easily  acquired,  but  an  intelligent  person  can 
master  its  details  in  a  few  weeks.  Shorthand  'STiting  is, 
however,  mainly  a  matter  of  practice.  Few  can  make  any 
considerable  use  of  it  with  less  than  six  months'  assiduous 
practice.  The  average  rate  of  public  speaking  is  very 
slightly  over  120  words  a  minute.  Some  speakers  average 
1 50.  The  slowest  utterance  is  now  and  then  exchanged 
for  a  rapid  flow  of  words,  and  180  or  200  words  a  minute 
is  no  uncommon  speed  in  certain  styles  of  speech  such  as 
the  conversational, — a  speed  which  many  persons  would 
never  acquire.^     Most  persons  of  average  intelligence  may 

'  Phenomenal  rates  of  speed  are  recorded  in  the  Phonetic  Journal 
for  1885,  p.  338.  MrT.  A.  Reed,  the  veteran  phonographer,  had  been 
engaged  to  report  a  well-known  American  divine  preaching  at  West- 
minster Abbey.  The  sermon  was  carefully  timed,  and  the  words  in 
the  printed  report  counted.  The  average  came  out  at  213  words  a 
minute.  A  photographed  specimen  page  of  Mr  Reed"s  notes  on  this 
occasion  is  given  in  the  Reporters'  Magazine,  September  1885. 


S  H,0  R  I  H  A  N  D 


B41 


l)y  perseverance  write  with  certainty  at  150  words  a 
minute.  The  best  method  of  practice  in  the  early  period 
is  to  -wTite  at  dictation  from  a  book ;  in  public  speaking 
the  frequent  pauses  help  the  writer  to  regain  lost  time. 
The  student  should  write  on  ruled  paper,  which  checks 
the  tendency  to  a  large  sprawling  hand  when  following  a 
rapid  speaker.  Taylor's,  Gurney's,  and  Lewis's  systems 
can  be  written  without  lines,  but  Pitman's  only  at  a  dis- 
advantage.    Ink  is  preferable  to  pencil. 

Shorthand  was  first  emplo}'ed  officially  in  the  service 
of  Parliament  in  1802,  when  a  resolution  was  passed  that 
"  the  evidence  given  before  all  committees  inquiring  into 
the  election  of  members  should  or  might  be  reported  by  a 
person  well  skilled  in  the  art  of  writing  shorthand.''  and 
ehortly  afterwards  W.  B.  Gurney  was  appointed  shorthand- 
writer  in  this  capacity  to  both  Houses  of  Parliament.  In 
1813  a  further  resolution  was  passed  by  both  Houses  that 
the  official  \mter  "should  attend  by  himself  or  sufficient 
deputy  when  called  upon  to  take  minutes  of  evidence  at  the 
bar  of  this  House  or  in  committees  of  the  same."  The 
lucrative  ofiice  of  shorthand-writer  to  both  Houses  of  Par- 
liament is  still  held  by  the  Gurney  family.  Of  course 
most  of  the  work  is  done  by  deputy.  Some  of  the  most 
efiScient  members  of  Messrs  Gurney's  staflT  are  phono- 
graphers ;  others  use  Taylor's  system.  The  amount  of 
evidence  given  in  the  course  of  a  tolerably  long  day's 
sitting  may  amount  to  400  or  500  folios  (72  words  make 
a  folio),  which  would  occupy  from  12  to  15  columns  of 
the  Times  in  small  type.  The  whole  must  often  be  tran- 
scribed and  delivered  to  the  printers  in  the  coui-se  of  the 
night,  and  copies,  damp  from  the  press,  are  in  the  hands 
of  the  members  and  "parties"  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sitting  on  the  following  day.  Since  parliament  abolished 
•election-committees  and  committed  to  judges  the  duty  of 
inquiring  into  petitions  against  the  return  of  a  member, 
an  official  shorthand  writer  has  to  be  in  attendance  upon 
the  judge  appointed  to  hear  any  particular  case.  He  has 
often  a  small  staff  of  assistants.  Messrs  Gurney  or  their 
representatives  are  also  required  to  attend  the  sittings  of 
the  House  of  Lords  as  a  court  of  appeal  to  take  the  judg- 
ments of  the  law  lords.  Finally,  Government  shorthand- 
writers  are  often  employed  in  taking  notes  of  important 
state-trials  and  inquiries  conducted  by  the  various  depart- 
ments of  Government,  as  well  as  of  the  proceedings  of  Royal 
Commissions,  whenever  the  evidence  of  witnesses  is  taken.' 
The  transcription  of  the  notes  may  be  accomplished  in 
several  ways,  as  by  dictating  from  different  parts  of  the 
notes  to  several  longhand -writers  simultaneously.^  Not 
all  the  newspaper  parliamentary  reporters  can  take  a 
perfect  note,  and  cases  occur  in  which  the  reporter  enters 
the  gallery  without  being  able  to  write  shorthand  at  all. 

f  OREIGN  SHORXnANB  SYSTEMS. 
German. — C.  A.  Ramsay's  Tacheographia  (Frankfort,  1679,  and 
neveral  times  afterwards  until  1743)  was  an  adaptation  of  T.  Shclton's 
English  system.    Moscngcil  (1 797)  first  practically  introduced  short- 

'  There  is  no  full  official  report  of  the  debates  iu  the  British  Parlia- 
ment (as  in  most  other  countries),  and  technically  no  person  has  a  right 
to  report  them.  The  House  may  be  cleared  at  an/  moment  of  all 
etrangers,  including  representatives  of  the  press,  by  an  order  of  the 
House  as  a  whole.  On  seven  occasions  of  note  resolutions  have  been 
passed  prohibiting  the  reporting  of  the  proceedings  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  the  last  on  25th  March  1771.  But  times  have  changed,  and 
members  now  frequently  complain  that  their  speeches  are  not  reported. 
To  supply  the  de6ciencies  of  the  newspapers  arrangements  have  been 
made  by  the  House  with  Jlr  Hansard  for  the  special  reporting  of 
debates  in  committee  and  those  occurring  at  an  early  hour  in  the 
bioming,  which  are  given  only  iu  the  most  summary  form  in  the  daily 
papers.  Formerly  all  Hansard's  reports  were  collected  from  those 
•ppearing  in  the  newspapers.  See  further  Mr  S.  Whitaker's  Parlia- 
menlary  Reporting  in  England,  Foreign  Countries,  and  the  Colonies, 
wit/i  notes  on  Parliamentary  Privilege  (Manchester,  1878). 

"  On  the  best  methods  of  transcribing  and  dictating,  sec  Mr  T.  A. 
Heed's  papers  In  the  Phonetic  Journal,  1886,  pp.  10,  33,  <5. 


hand  writing  into  Germany  in  an  adaptation  of  the  Taylor-Bertin 
method.  Reischl's  (1808)  is  a  modilication  of  Jlosengeil's.  On 
Horstig's  (1797)  are  based  those  of  an  anonymous  WTiter  (Nurem- 
berg, 1798),  Heira  (1820),  Thon  (1825),  an  anonymous  author 
(Tubingen,  1830),  Nowark  (1830),  Ineicheu  (1831),  an  anonymous 
autlior  (JIunich,  1831),  and  Binder  (1855).  Mosengeil  published 
a  second  system  (1819)  in  which  Horstig's  alphabet  is  used.  On 
the  Mosengeil- Horstig  system  are  based  Berthold's  (1819)  and 
Stark's  (1322).  On  Danzer's  (ISOO),  a  close  imitation  of  Taylor's, 
is  based  that  of  Ellison  v.  Kidlef  (182P).  Other  systems  are 
those  of  Leichtlen  (1819) ;  J.  Brede  (1827) ;  Kowack  (1834),  a 
system  in  which  the  ellipse  is  employed  as  well  as  the  circle; 
Billharz  (1838);  Cammerer  (1848),  a' modification  of  Sclwyn's 
phonography  (1847) ;  Schmitt  (1850) ;  Fischback  (1857),  a  reproduc- 
tion of  Taylor's:  and  that  of  an  anonj-nious  author  (1872),  based 
on  Horstig,  Mosengeil.  and  Heim.  Kowack,  in  his  later  method 
of  1834.  makes  a  new  departure  in  avoiding  right  or  obtuse  angles, 
and  in  endeavouring  to  approximate  to  ordinary  writing.  'This 
system  Gabelsherger  considered  to  be  the  best  wliich  had  appeared 
down  to  that  date.  F.  X.  Gabelsberger's  Anlcitintg  znr  deutsche 
Redczeichcnkunsl  (Munich,  1834)  is  the  most  important  of  the 
German  systems.  The  author,  an  official  attached  to  the  Bavarian 
ministry,  commenced  his  system  for  private  purposes,  but  was 
induced  to  perfect  it  on  account  of  the  summoning  of  a  parliament 
for  Bavaria  in  1819.  Submitted  to  public  examination  in  1829, 
it  was  pronounced  satisfactory,  the  report  stating  that  pupils 
taught  on  this  system  executed  their  trial  specimens  with  tho 
required  speed,  and  re.id  what  they  had  written,  and  even  what 
others  had  written,  with  ease  and  certainty.  The  method  is  based 
on  modifications  of  geometrical  forms,  designed  to  suit  the  position 
of  the  hand  in  ordinary  WTiting.  The  author  considered  that  a 
system  composed  of  simple  geometrical  strokes  forming  determi- 
nate angles  with  eacli  other  was  unadapted  to  rapid  writing.  He 
does  not  recognize  all  the  varieties  of  sound,  and  makes  some  dis- 
tinctions which  are  merely  orthographical.  Soft  sounds  have 
small,  light,  and  round  signs,  while  the  hard  sounds  have  large, 
heavy,  and  straight  signs.  The  signs  too  are  derived  from  tlie 
current  alphabet,  so  that  one  can  find  the  former  contained  in  the 
latter.  Vowels  standing  between  consonants  are  not  literally 
inserted,  but  symbolically  indicated  by  either  position  or  shape  of 
the  surrounding  consonants,  without  however  leaving  the  straight 
\vriting  line.  'The  proceedings  of  the  chambers  in  Austria,  Bavaria, 
Baden,  AViirtembcrg,  Saxony,  Saxe-Weimar,  Coburg-Gotha,  Silesia, 
and  the  Rhine  provinces  are  reported  solely  by  writers  of  this 
method,  and  half  the  stenographers  in  the  German  reichstag  use 
it.  There  are  in  Germany  and  Austria  more  than  540  societies 
containing  over  20,000  members  devoted  to  it.  It  is  officially 
taught  in  all  the  middle  class  schools  of  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and 
Austria.  It  has  been  adapted  to  foreign  languages  to  such  an 
extent  that  legislative  proceedings  are  reported  by  it  in  Prague, 
Agram,  Pesth,  Sophia,  Athens,  Copenhagen,  Chrisliauia,  Stock- 
holm, and  Helsingfors.  On  GaETelsberger's  system  is  based  that  of 
AV.  Stoize  (1840).  There  are  nearly  400  Stolzean  associations  with 
over  8000  members.  The  system  is  efficially  used  in  the  Prussian, 
German,  and  Hungarian  parliaments,  in  the  last  two  along  with 
Gabelsberger's.  Faulmann  (Vienna,  1875)  attempted  in  his 
Fhonographie  to  combine  the  two  methods.  While  Gabelsberger's 
system  has  remained  unchanged  in  principle,  Stolze'shas  split  into 
two  divisions,  the  old  and  the  new.  These  contain  many  smaller 
factions,  e.g.,  Velten's  (1876)  and  Adler's  (1877).  Arends's  (1860) 
is  copied  from  tho  French  system  of  Fayet.  Roller's  (1874)  and 
Lehmann's  (1875)  are  offshoots  of  Arends's.  Many  other  methods 
have  appeared  and  as  rapidly  been  forgotten.  Tho  schools  of 
Gabelsherger  and  Stoize  can  boast  of  a  very  extensive  shorthand 
literature.  Gabelsberger's  system  has  been  adapted  to  Enplish  by 
A.  Geigcr  (Dresden,  1860  and  1873),  who  adhered  too  closely  to  the 
German  original,  and  mortj-succcssfully  by  H.  Richter  (London, 
1886),  and  Stolze's  by  G.  Michaelis  (Berlin,  1863). 

French. — The  earliest  French  system  worthy  of  notice  is  that  of 
Coulon  do  Thevenot  (1777),  in  which  tho  vowels  are  disjoined  from 
the  consonants.  Tho  methods  practised  at  tho  present  day  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes,  those  derived  from  Taylor's  English  svstem, 
translated  in  1791  by  T.  P.  Ucrtin,  and  those  invented  in  iVanco. 
The  latter  are  (a)  Coulon  do  Thcvenot's  ;  (i)  systems  founded  on  the 
principle  of  the  inclination  of  tho  usual  WTiting, — tho  best  known 
being  thoso  of  Fayet  (1832)  and  Senocq  (1842);  and  (c)  systems 
derived  from  the  method  of  Concn  do  Prepean  (6  editions  from  181S 
to  1833).  Pr(!vost,  who  till  1870  directed  the  stenograpliic  service  of 
the  senate,  produced  tho  best  modification  of  Taylor,  ilany  authors 
have  copied  r.nd  spoilt  this  system  of  PriSvost  Tho  best  known  are 
Plantier  (1844)  and  Tondcur  (1849).  Zcibig  thinks  well  of  A. 
.Oelaunay's  improvements  on  Prevost's  sv^tein.  On  Concu's.are 
■based  thoso  of  Airnc-Par's  (1822),  Cadri's-Marmct  (1828),  Potol 
(18^2),  tho  Duployii  brothers  (1868),  Gucnin,  &c  Among  amateur 
writers  tho  Duplo/an  method  is  best  known,  owing  largely  to 
vigorous  pushing,  but  tho  profession  class  it  among  tho  h-ast  cITi- 
cient  of  all.     Of  tho  forty  wrters  iu  tbo  official  service  of  p»ril«men* 

XXL  —  loO 


842 


S  H  0"tS  H  0 


twenty-two  use  Provost's  and  those  foiinJed  on  it  (all  based  ulti- 
mately on  Taylor's),  while  ten  employ  methods  based  on  Conen's. 

Spanish. — The  father  of  Spanish  stenography  was  Don  Francisco 
<le  I'aula  ilarli,  whose  system,  first  published  in  1803,  still  holds 
its  ground  against  all  rivals.  Tlie  alphabet  is  a  combination  of 
Taylor's  and  Coulon's.  By  decree  of '21st  November  1802  a  public 
professorship  of  shorthand  was  founded  in  Madrid,  JIarti  being  the 
first  professor.  Founded  on  JIarti's  system  are  those  of  Serra  y 
Ginesta  (181 C)  and  Xamarillo  (1811).  Of  the  thiity-two  Spanish 
systems  enumerated  by  Zeibig  many  are  merely  imitations  or  re- 
productions of  Marti's,  and  adaptations  of  Gabelsberger's,  Stolze's, 
and  Pitman's  systems.  That  of  Garriga  y  Jlaril  (1863)  has  attained 
some  popularity  in  Spain. 

Porliirjucsc. — Marti's  son  carried  his  father's  system  to  Portugal, 
where  shorthand  is  still  entirely  unknown  e.>;cept  in  the  parliament 
and  the  courts.  Of  the  twenty  reporters  in  the  senate  and  chamber 
at  Buenos  Ayres  ten  use  Pitman's  phonography,  six  Marti's,  and 
the  rest  Garriga' s.  A  shorthand  society  was  organized  in  Buenos 
Ayres  in  ISSO.  The  systems  used  in  the  Brazilian  chambers  are 
those  of  Silva  Velho  {1S5!2)  and  Garriga.  The  reporters  in  tba 
assembly  of  Venezuela  use  JIarti's  method. 

Italian. — Italian  translations  and  adaptations  of  Taylor's  system 
succeeded  one  another  in  considerable  numbers  from  Amanti  (1S09) 
to  Bianchini  (1871).  Delpiuo's  (1819)  is  the  best.  The  Gabelsberger- 
Noe  system  (1 8  63 )  is  the  only  other  which  has  gained  many  followers. 
Since  1885  the  debates  of  the  senate  have  been  partly  reported  by 
the  Michela  stenographic  machine  with  fair  results. 

Dutch. — J.  Reijner's  Dutch  method  (1673)  was  an  adaptation  of 
Shelton's  and  Bussuijt's  (1814)  of  Conen's  system.  Sommerhausen 
and  Bossaert  (1829)  received  prizes  from  the  Government  for  their 
productions.  The  twelve  stenographers  employed  in  the  parliament 
use  the  system  of  Cornells  Steger  (1867),  president  of  the  bureau, 
who  translated  Taylor's  work  and  has  WTitten  a  history  of  short- 
hand. Gabelsberger's  system  was  transferred  to  Dutch  by  Eietstap 
(1869)  and  Stolze's  by  Reinbold  (1881). 

Adaptations  of  Gabelsberger's  method  have  come  into  use  in  the 
remaining  countries  of  Europe,  superseding  all  others. 

Numerous  mechanical  reporting  machines  have  been  invented. 
The  best  is  by  Jlichela  mentioned  above.  For  a  description  of  such 
machines  see  Phonetic  Journal  for  1881,  p.  274  ;  1884,  pp.  12,  34, 
35  ;  18S5,  pp.  52,  268,  278,  291,  447;  1886,  p.  22.  They  take  as 
long  to  learn  as  a  shorthand  system,  cannot  easily  be  carried  about, 
:ire  liable  to  get  out  of  order,  and  make  a  noise. 

Sources  of  Information. — J.  W.  Zeibig's  Geschicktc  u.  Literatur  der  Geschwhid. 
schreiblciuist  (Dresden,  187S)  contains  an  historical  sketch  of  the  use  of  short- 
hand in  ancient  and  modem  times  (especially  in  Germany),  a  full  bibliography 
of  shorthand  literature  in  all  languages,  a  number  of  litiiogi-aphed  specimens, 
and  a  useful  index.  Circulars  of  Information  of  the  Bureau  of  Education,  No.  2, 
ISS-i  (Washington,  1SS5),  by  J.  E.  Rockwell,  contains  a  very  complete  and 
accurate  bibliography  of  English  and  American  shorthand  publications,  a 
chronological  list  of  433  English  and  American  shorthand  authors,  notices  on 
shorthand  in  the  United  States,  on  the  employment  of  stenographers  in  the 
American  courts,  on  American  shorthand  societies  and  magazines,  and  a  beau- 
tifully engraved  sheet  of  112  shorthand  alphabets.  The  Phonetic  Journal, 
especially  the  recent  volumes,  contains  a  mass  of  information  on  shorthand 
subjects.  Isaac  Pitman's  History  of  Shorthand  (reprinted  in  the  Phonetic 
Journal  of  13S4)  reviews  the  principal  English  systems  previous  to  phono- 
graphy, and  a  few  foreign  ones.  The  author  draws  largely  on  J.  H.  Lewis's 
Historical  Account  of  the  Rise  and  Pro  jrcss  of  Stenography  (London,  1S16).  Other 
histories  of  shorthand  are  by  F.  X.  Gabelsberger  (prefixed  to  his  Ankitung 
mr  deutsclien  Redeseichenku  nst,  Munich,  1834),  A.  Fosse  (prefixed  to  his  Cours 
thiorique  et  pratique  de  Stcnajraphie,  Paris,  1S49),  Scott  de  Martinville  (Paris, 
1S49),  M.  Le\-y  (London,  1362),  and  T.  Anderson  (London,  1S82).  Here  too 
should  be  mentioned  J.  Heger's  Bemerkenswerthcs  iiber  die  Stenographic  (\'ienna, 
1341),  mainly  historical;  J.  Anders's  Entuiurf  einer  allgemeinen  Gesch.  u.  Lit. 
d.  Stenographie  (Coeslin,  1355);  R.  Fischer's  Die  Stenographic  imch  Geschichte, 
IVesen,  u.  Bedeutung  (Leipsic,  J3S0) ;  Krieg's  KaUchismus  der  Stenographic 
(Leipsic,  1876) ;  Dr  Westby-Gibson's  Early  Shorthand  Systems  (London,  1832)  ; 
T.  Anderson's  Shortha^id  Systems,  with  a  number  of  specimens  (London, 
18S4);  T.  A.  Reed's  Iteporter's  Guide  (London,  1835)  and  Leaves  from  the  Note- 
book of  T.  A.  Seed  (London,  1S35).  }lr  0.  Walford's  S(a(is(ica!  Jteview  of  the 
Literature  of  Shorthand  (London,  1885)  contains  valuable  information  on  the 
circulation  of  shorthand  books  and  on  shorthand  libraries.  The  largest 
stenographic  library  in  the  world  is  that  of  the  Royal  Stenographic  Institute 
at  Dresden.  (I.  G.  N.  K.-F.) 

SHORTSIGHT.     See  Ophthalmology. 

SHOSHONG,  a  town  in  the  British  protectorate  of 
Bechuanaland,  the  chief  settlement  of  the  Eastern  Bamang- 
watos,  is  situated  in  a  gleu  at  the  foot  of  a  range  of 
Primary  rocks  on  the  Shoshon,  a  periodically  flowing 
brook  -which  flows  eastwards  into  the  Limpopo  or  Uri 
river.  It  lies  about  400  miles  north  of  Kimberley,  -with 
which  it  was  connected  by  road  and  telegraph  under  Sir 
Charles  Warren's  admuiistration.  For  white  men  — 
traders,  hunters,  and  explorers — it  is  and  must  always 
be  a  place  of  primary  importance,  as  three  great  routes, 
from  Griqualand  West,  the  Orange  Free  State,  and  the 
Transvaal,  meet  at  this  point  and  again  branch  off  north  to 
the  Zambesi,  north-east  to  the  Matabele  and  Mashona 
countries,  and  north-west  to  the  Western   Bamangwato 


and  Damaraknd.  Shoshong  is  thus  a  main  gateway 
between  Southern  and  Central  Africa.  The  site  was  ori- 
ginally chosen  as  easily  defensible  against  the  !MatabeleJ 
Water  is  scarce,  and  the  present  king,  Khama,  has  taken 
over  a  well  dug  by  one  of  the  traders,  the  use  of  ■which 
he  permits  on  the  payment  of  a  water-rate  of  £1  per 
month  per  family.  Altogether  there  are  7000  to  8000 
native  huts  in  Shoshong,  and  the  population  is  estimated 
at  from  15,000  to  30,000.  The  white  inhabitants— mostly 
English  traders — number  about  20.  A  flourishing  mission 
station  of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  preceded  for 
many  years  by  a  station  of  Hermannsburg  Lutheran  MiaJ 
sionary  Society  was  founded  in  1862,  and  has  e.xercised  * 
great  influence  on  the  history  of  the  town  and  tribe.  There 
is  a  brick-built  church,  erected  in  1867. 

See  Mackenzie,  Ten,  Vcars  North  of  the  Orange  Sivcr,  1871  ; 
HMub,  Seven  Vcars  in  South  Africa,  1881  ;  Further  Government 
dorrespondencc  respecting  the  affairs  of  the  Transvaal,  1886. 

SHOVEL,  Sir  Cloudesley  {c  1650-1707),  English 
admiral,  was  according  to  some  accounts  a  native  of  York- 
shire, but  the  most  commonly  accepted  statement  is  that 
he  was  born  of  poor  parents  about  1650  in  Clay,  a  fishing- 
village  of  Norfolk,  where  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoe- 
maker. Having  run  away  to  sea,  he  became  cabin-boy  on 
board  a  ship  commanded  by  Sir  Christopher  Mynns.  He 
set  himself  to  study  navigation,  and,  owing  to  his  able  sea- 
manship and  brave  and  open-hearted  disposition,  became  a 
general  favourite  and  obtained  quick  promotion.  In  1674 
he  served  as  lieutenant  under  Sir  John  Narborough  in  the 
Mediterranean,  where  he  burned  four  men-of-war  under 
the  castles  and  walls  of  Tripoli,  belonging  to  the  pirates 
of  that  place.  He  was  present  as  captain  of  the  "  Edgar  " 
at  the  first  fight  at  Bantry  Bay,  and  shortly  afterwards  was 
knighted.  In  1690  he  convoyed  William  III.  across  St 
George's  Channel  to  Ireland ;  the  same  year  he  was  made 
rear-admiral  of  the  blue,  and  was  present  at  the  battle  of 
Beachy  Head  on  10th  July.  In  1692  he  was  appointed 
rear-admiral  of  the  red,  and  joined  Admiral  Russell,  under 
whom  he  greatly  distinguished  himself  at  La  Hogue,  having 
a  principal  share  in  burning  twenty  of  the  enemy'smcn-of- 
war.  Not  long  after,  when  Admiral  Russell  was  dismissed 
from  the  service,  Shovel  -R'as  put  in  joint  command  of  the 
fleet  with  Admiral  Killigrew  and  Sir  Ralph  Delaval.  In 
1702  he  was  sent  to  bring  home  the  spoils  of  the  French 
and  Spanish  fleets  from  Vigo,  after  their  capture  by  Sir 
George  Rooke,  and  in  1704  he  served  under  Sir  George 
Rooke  in  the  Mediterranean.  In  January  1705  he  was 
named  rear-admiral  of  England,  and  shortly  afterwards  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  British  fleets.  He  co-operated  in  the 
capture  of  Barcelona  along  -with  the  earl  of  Peterborough 
in  1705,  and  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  on  Toulon  in 
October  1707.  When  returning  with  the  fleet  to  England 
his  ship,  the  "Association,"  at  eight  o'clock  at  night  on  the 
22d  October,  struck  on  the  rocks  near  Scilly,  and  was  seen- 
by  those  on  board  the  "  St  George  "  to  go  down  in  three  or 
four  minutes'  time,  not  a  soul  being  saved  of  800  men  that 
were  on  board.  The  body  of  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  was  cast 
ashore  next  day,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

See  Life  and  Glorious  Actions  of  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel,  1707  ; 
Burnet's  Own  Tim^s  ;  and  various  discussions  in  A'oles  and  Queries, 
5th  series,  vols.  x.  and  xi. 

SHOVELER,  formerly  spelt  Shovelar,  and  more  an- 
ciently SH0VEL.4JID,  a  word  by  which  used  to  be  meant 
the  bird  now  almost  invariably  called  Spoonbill  (q.v.), 
but  in  the  latter  half  of  the  16th  century  transferred  to 
one  hitherto  generally,  and  in  these  days  locally,  known  as 
the  Spoon-bil'ed  Duck — the  Anas  ch/pea(a  of  Linnaeus  and 
Spatula  or  lihynchaspis  dypeala  of  modern  writers.  All 
these  narees  refer  to  the  shape  of  the  bird's  bJll,  which,' 
combined  with  the  remarkably  long  lamellx  (not  wholly 
incomparable    with    the    "  whalebone "    of    the   toothless 


S  H  R  — S  H  R 


843 


Cetaceans)  that  besot  both  maxilla  and  mandible,  has 
been  thought  sufficient  to  remove  the  species  from  the 
Linnasan  genus  Anas.  Except  for  the  extraordinary  for- 
mation of  this  feature,  which  carries  with  it  a  clumsy  look, 
the  male  Shoveler  would  pass  for  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
of  tills  generally  beautiful  group  of  birds.  As  it  is,  for 
bright  and  variegated  colouring,  there  are  few  of  his  kindred 
to  whom  ho  is  inferior.  Bis  golden  eye,  his  dark  green 
Lead,  surmounting  a  throat  of  pure  white  and  succeeded 
by  a  breast  and  flanks  of  rich  bay,  are  conspicuous ;  while 
bis  deep  brown  back,  white  scapulars,  lesser  wing-coverts 
(often  miscalled  shoulders)  of  a  glaucous  blue,  and  glossy 
green  speculum  bordered  with  white  present  a  wonderful 
contrast  of  the  richest  tints,  heightened  again  by  his  bright 
orange  feet.  On  the  other  hand,  the  female,  excepting  the 
blue  wing-coverts  she  has  in  common  with  her  mate,  is 
habited  very  like  the  ordinary  Wild-Duck,  A.  boscas  (see  vol. 
vii.  p.  505).  The  Shoveler  is  not  an  abundant  species,  and 
in  Great  Britain  its  distribution  is  local ;  but  its  numbers 
have  remarkably  increased  since  the  passing  of  the  Wild- 
Fowl  Protection  Act  in  1876,i  so  that  in  certain  districts  it 
has  regained  its  old  position  as  an  indigenous  member  of  the 
Fauna.  It  has  not  ordinarily  a  very  high  northern  range, 
but  inhabits  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America, 
passing  southwards,  like  most  of  the  .4  jja/iV/a;  towards  winter, 
constantly  reaching  India,  Ceylon,  Abyssinia,  the  Antilles, 
»nd  Central  America,  while  it  is  known  to  have  occurred 
at  that  season  in  New  Granada,  and,  according  to  Gould,  in 
Australia.  Generally  resembling  in  its  habits  the  other 
freshwater  Ducks,  the  Shoveler  has  one  peculiarity  that 
has  been  rarely,  if  ever,  mentioned,  and  one  that  is  perhaps 
correlated  with  the  structure  of  its  bill.  It  seems  to  be 
especially  given  to  feeding  on  the  surface  of  the  v/ater  im- 
mediately above  the  spot  where  Diving  Ducks  (Fvliffuliux) 
are  employing  themselves  beneath.  On  such  occasions  a 
pair  of  Shovelcrs  may  be  watched,  almost  for  the  hour 
together,  swimming  in  a  circle,  about  a  yard  in  diameter, 
their  heads  turned  inwards  towards  its  centre,  their  bills 
immersed  vertically  iu  the  water,  and  engaged  in  sifting, 
by  means  of  the  long  fame/te  before  mentioned,  the  floating 
matters  that  are  disturbed  by  their  submerged  allies  and  rise 
to  the  top.  These  gyrations  are  executed  with  the  greatest 
ease,  each  Shoveler  of  the  pair  merely  using  the  outer  leg 
to  impel  it  on  its  circular  course,  and  to  the  observer  the 
prettiest  part  of  the  performance  Is  the  precision  with  which 
each  preserves  its  relative  distance  from  its  comrade. 

Four  other  species  of  the  genus  Spatula,  all  possessing  the 
characteristic  light  bUio  "sliouldeis,"  havo  been  described: — one, 
S.  platalta,  from  tho  southein  parts  of  South  America,  liaving  tlie 
head,  neck,  aud  upper  back  of  a  pale  reddisli  biown,  freckled  or 
closely  spotted  with  dark  brown,  and. a  dull  bay  breast  with  in- 
terrupted bars ;  a  second,  S.  capcnsis,  from  South  Africa,  much 
lighter  in  colour  than  the  female  of  ,S'.  chipeata  ;  a  ihiiu  and  a  fourth, 
S.  rhyncholis  and  S.  varierjaUi,  from  Australia  and  New  Zealaud 
respectively,— these  last  much  darker  in  general  coloration,  and 
tho  males  possessing  a  white  crcscentic  mark  between  tho  bill  and 
tho  eye,  very  liko  that  which  is  found  in  tho  South -American 
Blue-winged  Teal  {Qucrqucdula  cyanoplcrd),  but  so  much  resem- 
bling each  other  that  tlieir  specific  distinctness  has  been  disputed 
by  good  authority.  In  theso  last  two  the  sexual  difference  is  well 
marked  by  tho  plumage  ;  but  in  tho  South-American  and  South- 
African  species  it  would  seem  that  both  male  and  female  have 
much  the  same  appcar.inco,  as  is  the  case  with  bo  many  species  of 
the  restricted  genus  Anas,  though  this  cannot  yet  bo  asserted  with 
certainty.  (^^   N.) 

SHREVEPORT,  a  city  of  the  United  States,  capital  of 
Caddo  parish,  Louisiana,  on  tho  west  bank  of  Red  River 
and  near  to  Sodo  Lake,  is  the  eastern  terminus  of  the 


Prior  to  that  year  there  was  perhaps  only  one  district  in  England 
whereia  the  Shoveler  could  bo  said  to  b.™ed  regularly,  and  thereto  only 
n  fow  pairs  resorted.  In  1 885  there  must  have  been  a  dozen  counties  in 
which  it  nested,  and  iu  some  of  them  tho  pairs  breeding  might  be 
reckoned  by  the  icire. 


Texas  Pacific  Railroad,  327  miles  by  rail  north-west  of 
New  Orleans,  with  which  it  has  regular  steamboat  com- 
munication. Situated  in  the  heart  of  a  very  fruitful 
cotton-growing  region,  it  is  one  of  tho  principal  cotton- 
markets  in  tho  south-west  of  tho  United  States,  and  is 
the  second  commercial  city  in  the  State.  It  exports 
annually  about  125,000  bales  of  cotton,  and  carries  on  a 
trade  likewise  in  hides,  wool,  and  tallow.  It  lias  factories 
for  carringes,  cotton  gins,  cotton-seed  oil,  soajt,  ice,  sashes 
and  blinds,  and  sjiokes  and  hubs,  al.so  foundries,  machine- 
shops,  a  planing  mill,  saw-mills,  and  breweries.  The  town 
possesses  among  public  buildings  a  handsome  court-house 
and  a  cotton  exchange.  Red  River  is  spanned  by  an  iron 
bridge  20  feet  wide  and  1200  long.  Shrovcport,  which 
was  incorporated  in  1839,  had  a  iiopulation  of  4C07  in 
1870  and  of  8009  in  1880;  in  1886  the  population  was 
estimated  at  15,000. 

SHREW,  a  general  terra  applied  to  the  sjiecics  of  tho 
l&n\i\y  Sorkida;  otder  Jnseclivora  (see  vol.  xv.  p.  403),  but 
in  the  British  Isles  more  particularly  to  tho  common  and  to 
the  lesser  shrew  (Sorex  vnlr/aria,  L.,  and  S.  pr/f/ina-us,  Pall.). 

The  common  shrew  is,  in  England  at  least,  by  far  the 
commoner  of  the  two.  It  is  a  small  animal  about  the  size 
of  the  common  mouse,  which  it  somewhat  resembles  in  the 
shape  of  its  body,  tail,  and  feet.  But  here  the  resemblance 
ends,  for,  unlike  the  mouse,  it  possesses  a  remarkably  long 
and  slender  muzzle,  with  prominent  nostrils,  which  project 
:ir  beyond  the  lower  lip  ;  the  eyes  are  very  small  and  al- 
•-..ost  concealed  by  the  fur;  the  ears  are  wide  and  short, 
£:arcely  rising  above  the  long  hairs  surrounding  them,  and 
are  provided  internally  with  a  pair  of  deep  folds,  capable, 
when  laid  forward,  of  closing  the  entrance  ;  the  tail,  which 
is  slightly  shorter  than  the  body  (without  the  head),  is  qua<l- 
rangular  in  shape  and  clothed  more  or  .less  densely  with 
moderately  long  hairs,  terminating  in  a  .short  pencil  (in 
old  individuals  these  hairs  become  worn  awa}-,  so  that  in 
some  specimens  the  tail  is  almost  quite  naked) ;  the  feet  are 
five-toed,  the  toes  terminating  in  slender,  acutely  pointed, 
non-retractilo  claws.     The  dentition ■i3  very  peculiar  and 


Coiiinion  Shrew  {Sorcx  vvVjuris,  L. ). 

characteristic  :  there  are  in  all  thirty- two  teeth,  tipped  wit'' 
deep  crimson  ;  of  thise  twelve  onlj'  (tho  number  is  charao* 
teristic,  with  one  exception  only,  of  the  family)  belong  to  tlifl 
lower  jaw;  of  f.ho  remaining  twenty  ten  occupy  each  sidij 
of  the  upper  ja^>^,  and  of  these  the  first  tlirce,  as  they  ari 
implanted  in  the  prcmaxillary  bone,  are  termed  incisors. 
The  first  incisor  is  a  large  tooth  with  a  long  anterior  canine^ 
like  cusp  and  a  small  posterior  one  ;  then  follow  two  small 
unicuspidate  teeth ;  these  aro  .succeeded  by  three  similar 
progressively  smaller  teeth,  whereof  tho  first  has  been  called 
a  canine  and  the  other  two  premolars  ;  tlio  next  tooth,  also 
a  premolar,  is  a  largo  multiciisjiidato  tooth  ;  and  this  is 
followed  by  three  molars,  of  which  tho  third  is  small  with 
a  triangular  crown.  In  the  lower  jaw  \vc  find  on  each  side 
anteriorly  three  teeth  corresponding  to  the  seven  anterior 
teeth  above,  of  which  the  first  is  almost  horizontal  in  direc- 
tion, its  upper  surface  being  marked  by  three  notches,  which 


844 


SHREW 


receive  the  points  of  the  three  upper  front  teeth  with  which 
they  come  in  contact  when  the  jaws  are  closed ;  then  follow 
two  small  teeth  and  three  molars.  The  body  is  clothed  with 
closely  set  uniformly  long  fur,  very  soft  and  dense,  varying 
in  colour  from  light  reddish  to  dark  brown  above,  rarely 
speckled  over  or  spotted  or  even  banded  with  white.  The 
under  surface  of  both  the  body  and  the  tail  is  greyish ;  the 
basal  four-fifths  of  all  the  hairs  above  and  beneath  are  dark 
bluish  grey ;  the  hairs  of  the  tail  are  less  densely  set  and 
poarser.  On  each  side  of  the  body,  at  a  point  about  one- 
third  of  the  distance  between  the  elbow  and  the  knee,  may 
be  found,  especially  in  the  rutting  season,  a  cutaneous  gland 
covered  by  two  rows  of  coarse  inbent  hairs.  This  gland 
^ecretes  a  peculiar  fluid,  on  which  the  unpleasant  cheesy 
odour  of  the  animal  depends,  and  which  is  evidently  also 
protective,  rendering  it  secure  against  the  attacks  of  many 
predaceous  animals. 

The  lesser  shrew  (S.  pygmecus)  is  much  less  abundant 
in  England  and  Scotland,  but  comparatively  common  in 
Ireland,  where  the  common  shrew  has  not  yet  been  found. 
It  appears  at  first  sight  to  be  a  diminutive  variant  of  that 
species,  which  it  closely  resembles  in  external  form.  It  was 
said  to  differ  in  having  the  tail  longer  than  the  body 
(without  the  head),  whereas  in  the  common  shrew  the  body 
(without  the  head)  is  longer  than  the  tail,  and  in  the  last 
unicuspidate  upper  molar  tooth  being  comparatively  larger 
and  more  external  than  in  the  other  species.  But  the 
present  writer  has  found  these  characters  so  exceedingly 
liable  to  variation  as  to  be  almost  worthless ;  he  has  there- 
fore discovered  reliable  points  of  distinction  as  foUows: — 
in  S.  pygmmus  thfe  third  upper  incisor  (when  the  teeth  are 
unworn)  is  shorter,  or  at  least  not  longer  than  the  next 
following  tooth,  whereas  in  S.  vulgaris  it  is  always  longer, 
and  the  length  of  the  forearm  and  hand  combined  is  very 
constantly  13  m.m.  in  the  former  SDecies,  while  in  the  latter 
it  is  17  m.m. 

The  habits  of  both  the  common  and  the  lesser  shrew 
correspond.  They  livne  generally  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
woods,  making  their  nests  under  the  roots  of  trees  or  in 
any  slight  depression,  occasionally  even  in  the  midst  of 
open  fields,  inhabiting  the  disused  burrows  of  field-mice. 
Owing  to  their  very  small  size,  dark  colour,  rapid  move- 
ments, and  chiefly  nocturnal  habits  they  easily  escape 
observation.  They  seek  their  food,  which  consists  of 
insects,  insect  larvse,  small  worms,  and  slugs,  under  dead 
leaves,  fallen  trees,  and  in  grassy  places.  Like  the  mole, 
they  are  very  pugnacious,  and  if  two  or  more  are  confined 
together  in  a  limited  space  they  invariably  fight  fiercely, 
the  fallen  becoming  the  food  of  the  victorious.  They  also, 
like  the  mole,  are  exceedingly  voracious,  and  soon  die  if 
deprived  of  food  ;  and  it  is  probably  to  insufficiency  of  food 
in  the  early  dry  autumnal  season  that  the  well-known  im- 
mense mortality  amongst  these  animals  at  that,  time  of 
the  year  is  due.  The  breeding  season  extends  from  the 
end  of  April  to  the  beginning  of  August,  and  five  to  seven, 
more  rarely  ten,  young  may  be  found  in  their  nests ;  they 
are  naked,  blind,  and  toothless  at  birth,  but  soon  run  about 
snapping  at  everything  within  reach,  the  anterior  pair  of 
incisors  in  both  jaws  quickly  piercing  the  gum,  followed 
by  the  last  pair  of  upper  premolars,  which  at  birth  form 
prominent  elevations  in  the  gum. 

The  alpine  shrew  (S.  alpinus,  Schinz;,  restricted  to  the 
alpine  region  of  Central  Europe,  is  slightly  longer  than  the 
common  shrew  and  differs  from  it  conspicuously  in  its  much 
longer  tail,  which  exceeds  the  length  of  the  head  and  body, 
in  the  colour  of  the  fur,  which  is  dark  on  both  surfaces,  and 
in  the  large  size  of  the  upper  antepenultimate  premolar. 

The  water-shrew  {Crossopus  fodieiis.  Pall.),  the  third  and 
last  species  inhabiting  England,  difi'ers  from  the  common 
shrew   in   being  considerably  larger  with   a  shorter  and 


mucn  broaaer  muzile,  comparatively  smaller  eyes,  an(f 
larger  feet  adapted  for  swimming, — the  sides  of  the  feet 
and  toes  being  provided  with  comb-like  fringes  of  stiff 
hairs.  The  tail  is  longer  than  the  body  (without  the  head^ 
and  possesses  a  well-developed  swimming  fringe  of  moder- 
ately long  regularly  ranged  hairs,  which  extend  along  the 
middle  of  its  flat  under  surface  from  the  end  of  its  basal 
third  to  its  extremity.  The  fur  of  the  body  is  long  and 
very  dense,  varying  much  in  colour  in  different  individuals, 
and  this  has  given  rise  to  descriptions  of  many  nominal 
species ;  the  prevailing  shades  are  dark,  almost  black, 
brown  above,  beneath  more  or  less  bright  ashy  tinged  with. 
yelloAvish;  occasionally,  sometimes  in  the  same  brood,  wra 
find  some  individuals  with  the  under  surface  more  or  less 
dark  coloured.  In  the  number  as  well  as  in  the  shape  o£ 
the  teeth  the  water-shrew  differs  from  the  common  shrew  r 
there  is  a  premolar  less  on  each  side  above  ;  the  bases  o£ 
the  teeth  are  much  more  prolonged  posteriorly ;  and  their 
cusps  are  much  less  stained  brown,  so  that  in  old  individuala 
with  worn  teeth  they  often  appear  altogether  white.  This 
species  resembles  the  otter  in  its  aquatic  habits,  swimming 
and  diving  with  great  agility.  It  frequents  rivers  and. 
lakes,  making  its  burrows  in  the  overhanging  banks,  from 
which  when  disturbed  it  escapes  into  the  water.  Its  food 
consists  of  the  different  species  of  water-insects  and  their 
larvEe,  small  crustaceans,  and  probably  the  fry  of  small 
fishes.  It  is  generally  distributed  throughout  England, 
is  less  common  in  Scotland,  but  as  yet  it  has  not  been 
recorded  in  Ireland. 

The  geographical  range  of  the  common  shrew  is  exceedingly  wide^ 
extending  eastwards  through  Europe  and  Asia  (north  of  tlie  Hima- 
layas) to  North  America.  The  lesser  shrew  extends  c^ucomitantly 
through  Europe  and  Asia  to  Saghaliu  Island  ;  and  specimens  of  tlie 
water-shrew  have  been  brought  from  different  parts  of  Europe  and 
from  Asia  as  far  east  as  the  Altai  range.  In  Siberia  the  comnion 
shrew  is  abundant  in  the  snow-clad  wastes  about  the  Olenet  river 
within  the  arctic  circle.  Indeed  the  hardiness  of  this  littls 
animal,  as  well  as  of  other  species  of  red-toothed  shrews,  is  veiy 
remarkable.  In  Dr  C.  H.  Merriam's  Mammals  of  iJie  Adirondadt 
Region  we  find  the  following  note  on  the  habits  of  a  common  NorUi 
American  species  (Blarina  brcvicauda)  of  an  allied  genus: — "ThB 
rigors  of  our  northern  winters  seem  to  have  no  effect  in  diminish- 
ing its  activity,  for  it  scampers  about  on  the  snow  during  tb« 
severest  weather,  and  I  have  known  it  to  be  out  when  the  ther- 
mometer indicated  a  temperature  of  -  20°  Fahr.  It  makes  long  jour- 
neys over  the  snow,  burrowing  down  whenever  it  comes  to  an  eleva^ 
tion  that  ''.onotes  the  presence  of  a  log  or  stump,  and  I  am  incline! 
to  believe  ^hat  at  this  season  it  must  feed  largely  upon  the  chry- 
salides and  larv»  of  insects  that  are  always  to  be  found  in  suck 
places."  Other  species  of  red-toothed  shrews  are  restricted  chiefly  ta 
Korth  America,  where  they  are  found  in  much  greater  variety  than 
in  the  Ol.d  World,  though  Crossopus  is  not  represented.  Its  plaos 
is  taken  by  two  species  of  the  genus  Sorcx  (S.  palustru,  Kichardsoi^ 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  S.  hydrodronms,  Dobson,  from. 
Unalaska  Island),  provided,  like  the  water-shrew,  with  pedal  swim- 
ming fringes,  but  with  the  unfringed  tail  and  dentition  of  th* 
common  shrew, — the  first-named  being  about  as  large  as  the  water- 
shrew,  while  tiie  Unalaska  species  scarcely  exceeds  the  size  of  th* 
lesser  shrew.  Of  the  American  forms  S.  icndiri,  llerriam,  is  hy 
far  the  largest  known  species  of  the  genus.  In  it,  as  in  many  others 
inhabiting  North  America,  the  canine  shows  a  tendency  to  diminish 
in  size,  which  is  more  pronounced  in  S.  richardsonii,  Bachm.,  and. 
in  S.  vagrans,  Cooper  ;  in  S.  hoyi,  Baird,  it  is  rudimentary,  and  ia. 
S.  craivfordi,  Baird,  altogether  absent.  The  diminutive  S.  person- 
atus,  Geoff.,  widely  distributed  throughout  temperate  Nortk 
America,  resembles  S.  pygmxus  in  its  small  size.  Other  red-tootbed. 
shrews  belonging  to  the  allied  genus  Blarina,  distinguished  fron*. 
Sorcx  by  their  dentition  and  by  the  remarkable  shortness  of  the  tafl^ 
are  very  common  on  and  characteristic  of  the  North  American  conti- 
nent. All  the  red-toothed  shrews  (except  the  aquatic  forms)  closely 
resemble  one  another  in  habits,  and  Dr  Jlerriam  has  made  th» 
liighly  interesting  discovery  that  the  common  short-tailed  North 
American  shrew  supplements  its  insectivorous  fare  by  feeding  on 
beech-nuts,  which  will  account  for  the  generally  very  worn  state  ot 
the  teeth  in  this  species.  In  destroying  great  numbers  of  slug^ 
insects,  and  insect  larvffi  they  greatly  aid  the  farmer  in  the  pre- 
servation of  his  crops  and  merit  protection.  Although  their  peno- 
trating  odour  renders  them  in  a  great  measure  safe  from  the  attack* 
of  rapacious  mammals,  they  are  destroyed  in  large  numbers  by  noc- 
turnal birds  of  prey.  (G.  E.  D-) 


S  H  R— S  H  R 


845 


SHEEWSBtmY,  an  old  market-town,  a  municipal  and 
jiarliamentary  borough,  and  the  county  and  assize  town 
«f  Shropshire,  England,  is  situated  on  a  slightly  elevated 
'peninsula  formed  by  a  bend  of  the  Severn,  and  on  various 
lailway  lines,  30  milei  south  of  Chester,  and  163  north- 
■west  of  London  by  the  London  and  North-Western  Railway, 
ite  distance  oy  the  Great  Western  being  171  miles.  The 
Severn  is  crossed  by  three  stone  bridges, — the  English 
bridge  (re-erected  1774),  on  the  east,  consisting  of  seven 
semicircular  arches ;  the  Welsh  bridge  (re-erected  1795), 
«f  five  arches,  on  the  west ;  and  the  Kingsland  bridge 
^opered  in  1SS2),  of  iron  on  the  bow  and  girder  principle. 
'xae  streets  are  hilly  and  irregular,  but  strikingly  pictur- 
«sque  from  their  «iumber  of  antique  timber  houses,  among 
•which  may  be  mentioned  that  in  Butcher  Row  formerly 
the  town  residence  of  the  abbot  of  Lilleshall,  and  the  old 
«onncil-house  overlooking  the  Severn,  erected  in  1502  for 
the  presidents  of  the  council  of  the  Welsh  marches.  Of 
the  town  ramparts  built  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IIL  the 
principal  remains  are  a  small  portion  on  the  north  side 
«alled  the  RoushUl  walls,  and  another  portion  on  the  south- 
■*rest,  used  as  sl  public  walk,  on  which  stands  a  square 
«mbattled  tower.  The  castle  built  by  Roger  de  Montgomery 
■was  dismantled  in  the  reign  of  James  II.,  but  there  still 
remain  the  archway  of  the  interior  gateway,  the  walls  of 
the  inner  court,  and  two  large  round  towers  ot  the  time 
«f  Edward  I.  Roger  de  Montgomery  also  founded  in 
1083  the  abbey  of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul,  which  was  of 
.great  extent  and  very  richly  endowed.  At  the  dissolution 
it  was  destroyed,  except  part  of  the  nave  and  the  western 
tower  of  the  church,  which  have  been  converted  into  a 
parish  church,  imder  the  name  of  the  church  of  the  Holy 
Cross.  The  other  churches  of  special  interest  are  St  Mary's, 
founded  in  the  10th  century,  a  fine  cruciform  structure 
with  a  tower  anu  o^/ire  222  feet  in  height,  displaying 
«iample3  of  various  styles  of  architecture  from  Early 
Norman  to  Perpendicular, — the  base  of  the  tower,  the 
nave,  and  the  doorways  being  Norman,  the  transept  Early 
English,  and  the  aisles  15th  century,  while  the  interior  is 
specially  worthy  of  notice  for  its  elaborate  details,  its 
stained  glass,  and  its  ancient  monuments ;  St  Julian's, 
criginally  built  before  the  Conquest,  but  rebuilt  in  1748, 
«icept  the  tower,  the  older  portion  of  which  is  Norman 
»nd  the  upper  part  15th  century;  St  Alkmond's,  also 
dating  from  tho  10th  century,  but  rebuilt  towards  the 
«Iose  of  the  18th  century,  with  the  exception  of  the  tower 
9ad  spire ;  and  St  Giles's,  dating  from  the  time  of  Henry 
1,  niuch  altered  at  various  periods,  but  still  retaining  its 
sncient  nave  and  chancel.  The  old  church  of  St  Chad, 
supposed  to  have  occupied  the  site  of  a  palace  of  the 
princes  of  Powis,  was  destroyed  by  the  fall  of  the  tower 
in  1788,  and  of  tho  ancient  building  the  bishop's  chancel 
slone  remains.  The  new  church  of  St  Chad  was  built  on 
another  site  in  1792.  There  are  still  slight  remains  of 
the  abbey  of  Greyfriars  founded  in  1291,  and  of  the  Augus- 
tine friary  founded  in  1255.  The  old  buildings  completed 
in  1630  for  tho  free  grammar-school  of  Edward  VI.,  founded 
in  1551,  are  now  occupied  by  the  county  museum  and  free 
library,  the  school  having  "joen  removed  in  1882  to  now 
landings  at  Kingsland.  Among  the  principal  secular 
buildings  of  tho  town  are  the  fine  market-house  in  the 
Elizabethan  style  (completed  according  to  an  inscription 
over  the  northern  arch  in  1595),  tho  shire  hall  (rebuilt  in 
1837,  and  again,  after  a  fire,  in  1883),  the  music-hall  build- 
ings (1840),  tho  general  market  and  corn  exchange  (1869), 
the  working-men's  hall  (1863),  tho  drapers'  hall  (an  old 
timbered  structure  dating  from  the  16th  century),  tho 
theatre  (1834),  and  the  post-office  (1877).  The  principal 
benevolent  institutions  are  tho  county  infirmary  (1747), 
IGllington's  hospital  (1734),  and  the  eye,  ear.  and  throat 


hospital  (1881).  A  monument  to  Lord  Olive  was  erected 
in  the  market-place  in  1860,  and  a  Doric  memorial  pillar 
to  General  Lord  Hill  in  1816  at  the  top  of  the  Abbey 
Foregate.  The  town  racecourse  occupies  a  portion  of  the 
"Soldiers'  Piece,"  where  Charles  I.  addressed  his  army  ia 
1642._  To  the  south-west  of  the  town  is  a  fine  park,  23 
acres  in  extent,  known  as  the  Quarry,  adorned  by  a  beauti- 
ful avenue  of  lime  trees.  Formerly  Shrewsbury  was  one 
of  the  principal  marts  for  Welsh  flannel,  but  this  trade  has 
now  in  great  part  ceased.  -Glass-staining,  the  spinning  of 
flax  and  linen  yarn,  iron-founding,  brewing,  malting,  the 
preparation  of  brawn,  and  the  manufacture  of  the  well- 
known  Shrewsbury  cakes  are  now  the  principal  industriea. 
The  population  of  the  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough 
(area,  3674  acres)  in  1871  was  23,406,  and  in  1881  it 
■was  26,478.  , 

Shrewsbury,  anciently  called  Pengwernc,  was  founded  in  the  5tli 
century  as  a  defence  against  tlie  inroads  of  the  Saxons,  and  bccam^ 
the  seat  of  the  princes  of  Powis.  After  its  conquest  by  the  Saxons 
its  name  was  changed  to  Scrobbesbyrig,  altered  gradually  into 
Sloppesbury,  Shrewsbury,  and  Salop.  It  became  one  of  the  princi-, 
pal  cities  of  (he  Saxon  kingdom,  and  a  mint  was  established  there 
by  Athelstan  about  925.  After  the  Norman  Conquest  it  was  in- 
cluded in  the  earldom  of  Shrewsbury  bestowed  by  William  I.  on 
Roger  de  Montgomery,  who  erected  a  strong  castle  on  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Saxon  fortress.  But  in  1067  it  was  besieged  by  Owea 
Gwynedd,  prince  of  Wales,  till  relieved  by  William,  who  marched 
specially  to  its  assistance  from  York.  On  the  rebellion  of  Robert 
de  Belesme,  son  of  the  first  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  the  castle  and  town 
were  attacked  by  Henry  I.  and  surrendered  in  1102.  During  tho 
wars  of  the  next  two  centuries  the  town  was  frequently  attacked 
and  plundered  by  the  Welsh,  being  captured  by  Llewelyn  in  1215, 
surrendered  to  the  English  in  1221,  plundered  by  the  earl  of  Pern- 
Broke  in  1223,  burnt  by  Llewelyn  ap  Jorwerth  in  January  1234, 
taken  by  Simon  de  Montfort  in  1264,  and  restored  to  tho  crown  in 
1265.  In  1267  Henry  III.  assembled  his  army  there,  to  threaten 
the  Welsh,  but  peace  was  restored  without  bloodshed,  after  which 
he  strengthened  its  fortifications.  Edward  I.  in  1277  made  it  th» 
soat  of  his  government,  and  removed  to  it  the  Courts  of  Exchequer 
and  King's  Bench.  In  1283  he  held  a  parliament  there  for  the  trial 
of  David,  th^  last  of  the  royal  princes  of  Wales,  who  was  dragged 
through  the  stJreets  of  the  town  and  aftenvards  hanged  and  quartered. 
At  a  parliament  held  in  Shrewsbury  in  January  1398  Richard  IL 
assumed  the  title  of  Earl  of  Chester.  Near  the  town  was  fought^ 
23d  July  1403,  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury,  described  in  Shakespeare's 
Henry  IV.,  when  the  king  defeated  the  earl  of  Northumberland 
with  great  slaughter.  Hotspur,  the  earl's  son,  being  among  the  slain. 
It  became  the  headquarters  of  Charles  L,  20th  September  1642,  but 
was  taken  by  the  Parliamentarians  in  February  1645.  The  town 
from  the  reign  of  William  I.  to  that  of  James  II.  received  no  leas 
than  thirty-two  charters,  its  first  governing  charter  being  obtained 
from  Richard  I.  It  returned  two  members  to  parliament  from  th« 
reign  of  Edward  I.  until  1885,  when  it  was  allowed  only  one. 

See  Phlllipa,  History  and  Antiquitits  of  i>hrtv>ibuTTJ,  1779  ;  Owen  and  Blak^ 
nay,  History  of  Shreu'sbury,  1825;  Pidgeon,  MmoriaJa  0/ Shrtvabury,  1S07. 

SHREWSBURY,  Eakls  of.  .  See  Talbot. 

SHRIKE,  a  bird's  namo  so  given  by  Turner  (1544),  but 
solely  on  the  authority  of  Sir  Francis  Lovell,  for  Turner 
had  seen  the  bird  but  twice  in  England,  though  in  Ger- 
many often,  and  could  not  find  any  one  else  who  so  called 
it.  However,  tho  word  ^  was  caught  up  by  succeeding 
■writers;  and,  though  hardly  used  except  in  books — for 
Butcher-bird  is  its  vernacular  synonym — it  not  only  retains 
its  first  position  in  literary  English,  but  has  been  largely 
extended  so  as  to  apply  in  general  to  all  birds  of  th« 
Family  Laniidx  and  others  besides.  The  namo  Lanim, 
in  this  sense,  originated  with  Gesncr  ^  (1555),  ■who  thought 
that  the  birds  to  which  ho  gave  it  bad  not  been  mentioned 
by  the  ancients.  Sundevall,  however,  considers  that  tbd 
Malacocraneus  of  Aristotle  was  one  of  them,  as  indeed 
Turner  had  before  suggested,  though  repelling  tho  latter's 

•  Few  birds  enjoy  such  n  wcaltb  oflocal  namca  as  the  Shrikes.  M. 
Rollnnd  {Faune  Pop.  de  la  franco,  ii.  pp.  146-161)  enumerates  up- 
wards of  ninety  applied  to  them  In  Franca  and  Savoy ;  but  not  oaf 
of  those  has  any  affinity  to  our  word  "Shrike." 

•  He  does  not  scorn,  however,  to  have  known  that  Bntchcr-blrd  *« 
an  English  name  ;  indeed  It  may  Dot  hare  bMO  n  st-tha  time,  bat 
subsequently  Introduced. ' 


846 


S  H  R  —  S  H.  R 


supposition   that   Aristotle's   Tyranmts  jvriiS   another,  as 
-well  as  Belon's  reference  of  CoUyrion. 

Tlie  species  designated  Shrike  by  Turner  is  the  Lanius  cxmhitor 
of  Linoaius  and  nearly  all  sueceeding  authors,  nowadays'  commonly 
known  as  the  Greater  Butcher-bird,  Ash-coloured  or  Great  Gre;- 
Shrike, — a  bird  which  visits  the  British  Islands  pretty  regularlj', 
though  not  numerously,  in  autumn  or  winter,  occasionally  prolong- 
ing its  stay  into  tho  next  summer ;  but  it  has  never  been  ascertained 
to  breed  there,  though  often  asserted  to  have  done  so.  This  is  the 
more  remarkable  since  it  breeds  more  or  less  commonly  on  the  Conti- 
nent from  the  north  of  France  to  within  the  Arctic  Circle.  Exceeding 
a  Song-Thrush  in  linear  measurements,  it  is  a  much  less  bulky  bird, 
of  a  pearly  grey  above  with  a  well-  defined  black  band  passing  from 
the  forehead  to  the  ear-coverts  ;  beneath  it  is  nearly  white,  or — 
and  this  is  particularly  observable  in  Eastern  examl>Ies — barred 
with  dusky.  The  quill-feathers  of  the  wings,  and  of  the  elongated 
taO,  are  variegated  with  black  and  white,  but  are  mostly  of  the 
former,  though  what  there  is  of  the  latter  shows  very  conspicuously, 
especially  at  the  base  of  the  remises,  where  it  forms  either  a  single 
or  a  double  patch.-  JIuch  smaller  than  this  is  the  Red-backed 
Shrike,  L.  cullurio.  the  best-known  species  in  Great  Britain,  where 
it  is  a  summer  visitor,  and,  thougli  its  distribution  is  rather  local, 
it  may  be  seen  in  many  parts  of  England  and  occasionally  reaches 
Scotland.  The  cook  is  a  sightly  bird  with  liis  grey  head  and  neck, 
black  cheek-band,  chestnut  bade,  and  pale  red  breast,  while  the  hen 
is  ordinarily  of  a  dull  brown,  barred  on  the  lower  plumage.  A  more 
highly  coloured  species  is  called  the  Woodchat.  L.  auriculatus  or 
rutiliis,  with  a  bright  bay  crou-n  and  nape,  and  the  rest  of  its  plum- 
age black,  grey,  and  white.  This  is  an  accidental  visitor  to  England, 
but  breeds  commonly  throughout  Europe.  All  these  birds,  with 
many  others  included  in  the  genus  Lanius,  which  there  is  no  room 
here  to  specify,  have,  according  to  their  respective  power,  the  very 
remarkable  habit  (whence  they  have  earned  their  opprobrious  name) 
of  catching  insects,  frogs,  lizards,  or  small  birds  and  mammals,  and 
of  spitting  them  on  a  thorn  or  of  fi.xing  them  in  a  forked  branch,  the 
more  conveniently  to  tear  them  in  pieces  and  eat  them. 

The  limits  of  the  Family  Laniklx  have  been  very 
variously  regarded,  and  agreement  between  almost  any 
two  systematists  on  tliis  point  seems  at  present  out  of  the 
question.  The  latest  synopsis  is  that  by  Dr  Gadow  {Cat 
B.  Brit.  Iluseum,  viii.  pp.  88-321),  who  frankly  states 
that  it  is  '.'  quite  impossible  to  give  a  concise  diagnosis  of 
what  we  are  to  understand  by"  the  Family.  For  his 
purpose  he  makes  it  to  include  about  250  species  and 
divides  it  into  five  sub-families  : — Gymnorhlninx,  Mala- 
conotinss,  Pachycephalinx,  Laniinx,  and  Vireoninx.  Of 
these  doubts  may  be  entertained  as  to  the  affinity  of  the 
first  and  especially  of  the  last.  He,  but  for  the  crude  plan 
to  which  he  was  compelled  to  conform,  would  not  have 
separated  Strepera  from  Gymnorhina  ;  but  the  former  had 

'  '  According  to  Willugliby,  Rae,  and  Charleton,  it  was  in  their  day 
called  iu  many  parts  of  England  "Wierangle"  (Germ.  Wiirgengel  and 
Wiirgcr,  the  Strangler);  but  it  is  hard  to  see  bow  a  bird  which  few  people 
in  England  could  know  by  sight  should  have  a  popular  name,  though 
Chaucer  had  used  it  in  his  Assemhiye  of  Foitks. 
'  2  On  this  character  great  store  has  been  laid  by  some  recent  writers, 
who  maintain  that  the  birds  presenting  only  a  single  patch,  with  some 
other  jniuor  distinctions,  as  the  barred  breast  above  mentioned,  come 
from  the  far- East  and  deserve  specific  recognition  as  the  Lanius  major 
of  Pallas.  But  it  is  admitted  that  every  intermediate  form  occurs,  and 
Prof.  Collett  has  now  shown  {Ibis,  18S6,  pp.  30-40)  that  the  typical 
L.  excubitor  and  t>'pical  L,  vmjor  may  be  found  in  one  and  the  same 
brood,  and  also  that  this  occasional  divergence  is  due  neither  to  age  nor 
Bex.  That  it  does  depend  to  some  extent  on  locality  is  allowed  ;  for, 
though  examples  with  the  single  patch  [i.e.,L.  major)  occasionally  reach 
Great  Britain,  it  is  asserted  that  nearlj'  all  the  specimens  from  Eastern 
Siberia  are  so  marked.  But  it  is  also  found  that  by  almost  insensible 
degrees  other  (and  sometimes  more  important)  distinctions  are  mani- 
fested, and  the  extreme  terms  of  the  several  series  have  been  exalted 
to  the  rank  of  "species" — or  at  least  local  races.  These  are  too  many 
to  be  here  enumerated,  but  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  Great  Grey 
Shrike  of  North  America,  wliioh  ordinarily  has  the  lower  plumage 
strongly  barred,  and  is  usually  known  .is  L.  borcalis,  seems  to  be  only 
one  of  these  divergent  forms,  though  perhaps  the  most  divergent,  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  wholly  distinct  area  it  occupies.  Yet 
occasionally  examples  occur  in  the  Old  World,  which  there  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  have  an  American  origin,  indistinguishable  from  the  typical 
L.  borcalis,  and  an  uninterrupted  series  from  one  extreme  to  the  other 
can  be  found.  The  differences  when  compared  with  those  observable 
in  other  animals  are,  as  a  whole,  too  slight  to  justify  ihp  epithet  "poly- 
morphic "  to  L.  excubitor  as  a  species ;  but  enough  has  been  said  to 
sh""  that  it  indicates  a  tendency  in  that  direction. 


been  already  included,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  latter,  among 
the  Corvidx,  and  even  placed  among  the  normal  Corvina:. 
The  need  of  exercising  reserve  on  this  matter  has  been  before 
stated  (Ceow,  vol.  vi.  p.  617);  but  the  number  «f  ornitho- 
logists who  think  that  these  two  genera  should  be  placed  in 
different  Families  must  be  small.  The  view  take*  by  Prof. 
Parker  seems  to  be  the  most  reasonable :  these  genera — with 
others  doubtless  and  most  of  them  Australian — are  morpho- 
logically inferior  to  the  Corvidx,  and  perhaps  deserve  some 
such  designation  as  that  of  " Xoto-Coracomorphx"  suggested 
by  him  {Trans.  Zool.  Society,  ix.  p.  327).  At  the  same  time 
their  relationship  to  the  Laniidx  appears  to  be  evident, 
and  they  may  perhaps  be  best  regarded  as  the  less-altered 
descendants  of  an  old  type,  whence  both  the  true  Crowa 
and  the  true  Shrikes  have  sprung,  each  to  develop  into 
higher  morphological  rank,  and  by  the  way  to  throw  out 
numerous  other  branches.  As  to  the  Yireos  it  would  seem 
almost  certain  that  they  have  little  or  no  connexion  with 
the  Laniidx.  (a.  x.) 

SHKIilP,  the  name  applied  to  two  species  of  Crus- 
taceans commonly  used  as  food  in  Great  Britain.  One 
kind  after  boiling  is  brown  in  colour,  the  other  bright 
red.  The  brown  kind  belongs  to  the  species  Crangon 
vulgaris,  the^red  to  the  species  Pandalus  annnHcoviiis. 
Both  these  species  belong  to  the  sub-order  Decapoda,  and 
to  that  division  of  it  which  is  distinguished  by  a  i/ell- 
developed  abdomen  or  tail,  and  called  Jfaa'oura.  Tha 
Crustaceans  placed  in  this  division  have  five  pairs  of  limbs 
adapted  for  crawling  on  the  sea-bottom ;  usually  the  an- 
terior one  or  more  pairs  of  these  five  are  chelate  or  pincer- 
fonned.  In  front  of  the  ambulatory  limbs  are  six  pairs 
of  limbs  whose  function  is  to  assist  in  the  conveyance  of 
food  to  the  mouth,  three  pairs  of  maxillipeds,  two  pairs 
of  maxiUcB,  and  a  pair  of  mandibles.  In  front  of  these, 
again,  are  two  pairs  of  antennas  and  a  pair  of  eyes.  The 
latter  are  held  by  some  naturalists  to  represent  a  pair  of 
limbs,  but  evidence  exists  which  is  in  opposition  to  this, 
view.  Behind  the  ambulatory  limbs  are  six  segments  of 
the  body,  each  bearing  a  pair  of  limbs  adapted  for  swim- 
ming. The  sixth  pair  of  these  abdominal  limbs  are  larger 
than  the  rest  and  expanded,  extending  backwards  in  the 
same  plane  as  the  flattened  terminal  segment  of  the  body 
or  telson,  and  the  three  together  form  a  powerful  organ 
of  locomotion  by  which  a  rapid  backward  movement  of 
the  whole  body  in  the  water  is  produced.  The  genirs 
Crangon  is  the  type  of  a  family,  the  Crangonidx.  The 
most  conspicuous  characteristic  of  the  genus  is  the  shape 
of  the  first  pair  of  ambulatory  limbs.  These  difler  less 
from  the  rest  than  is  usually  the  case,  and  the  terminal 
pincer  apparatus  is  but  slightly  developed.  The  terminal 
joint  is  small,  and  the  projection  of  the  second  joint  agaius) 
which  it  acts  is  still  smaller,  so  that  the  cutting  edges  of 
the  pincer  are  transverse  to  the  rest  of  the  limb.  The 
second  pair  of  Embs  have  also  a  terminal  pincer  apparatus, 
and  both  the  second  and  the  third  are  slender.  The 
fourth  and  fifth  pairs  are  short  and  thick.  The  rostrum, 
the  median  projection  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  carapace, 
is  rudimentary.  The  line  joining  the  attachments  of  the  two 
pairs  of  antennce  are  transverse  to  the  axis  of  the  body.  The 
abdomen  is  large.    There  are  seven  branchias  on  each  side. 

The  specific  characters  of  C  miJgaris,  Fabr.,  are  the  smoothness 
of  the  dorsal  surface,  the  carapace  presenting  only  three  small  spines, 
one  median  in  the  gastric  region  and  one  on  each  side  on  the  branchi- 
ostegite.  The  second  pair  of  ambulatory  limbs  are  nearly  as  long 
as  the  third.  The  size  of  the  adult  animal  is  about  2J  inches.  The 
species  is  Aundant  on  sandy  shores  at  nearly  all  parts  of  the  British 
and  Irish  coasts,  and  is  captured  by  nets  which  have  a  semicircular 
mouth,  and  are  attached  to  a  pole  wielded  by  a  fisherman  wading 
in  the  water  at  ebb-tide.  The  common  shrimp  is  an  exception  to 
the  general  rule  that  the  cuticle  of  Crustaceans  is  either  red  in  tho 
living  animal  or  becomes  so  on  boiling.  The  cuticle  of  C.  vulyarit 
in  the  living  state  is  light  brown  or  almost  white,  and  the  animal 


S  H  R  —  S  H  R 


847 


is  somewhat  translucent.  The  colour  closely  approximates  to  that 
of  the  sand  on  which  the  animal  is  found.  After  boiling  the  cuticle 
assumes  its  well-known  brown  colour.  Several  other  species  of 
Cmngo/i  are  known  on  the  British  shores,  hut  none  of  them  are  as 
abundant  as  C.  vulgaris,  and  they  are  not  captured  as  food.  C. 
vulgaris  is  common  on  the  east  coast  of  North  America  from  North 
CJaiolina  to  Labrador ;  in  the  neighbourhood  of  New  York  it  is 
used  as  food.  The  species  also  occurs  ou  the  west  coast  of  America 
from  San  Diego  to  Alaska,  and  is  commonly  eaten  at  San  Francisco, 
as  also  is  another  species,  Crangon  fraiiciscoricni,  Stimpson. 

The  geuus  Pandalus,  first  defined  by  Le^ch  in  his  Malacologia 
Brilaniiica,  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  great  length  of  the  second 
pair  of  antennte,  which  are  longer  tlian  the  whole  body,  the  presence 
of  a  long  spiny  rostrum  curved  upwards,  tlie  total  absence  of  pincers 
on  the  lirst  pair  of  ambulatory  limbs,  and  the  great  length  of  the 
second  of  these  limbs  on  the  left  side.  The  ambulatory  limbs  are 
all  long  and  slender,  and  the  first  pair  are  not  thicker  than  the 
rest.  Tlio  second  pair  are  provided  with  a  very  small  pincer  ap- 
paratus. The  third  somite  of  the  abdomen  is  large  and  projects 
upwards,  so  that  the  body  has  a  hump-backod  appearance.  The 
serrated  upper  edge  of  the  rostrum  extends  backwards  along  the 
median  line  of  the  carapace,  half  way  to  its  posterior  border.  The 
specific  characters  of  the  species  Annnlicornis  are  that  the  rostrum  is 
equal  ih  length  to  the  carapace,  and  that  its  anterior  half  is  destitute 
of  teeth  above,  witli  the  exception  of  one  small  tooth  near  the  apex. 
This  species  is  not  so  abundant  as  C.  vulgaris  and  is  an  inhabit- 
ant of  deeper  water.  It  is  taken  visually  for  the  market  on 
the  east  and  south  coasts  of  Britain,  but  is  widely  distributed, 
occurring  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  Shetland,  and  Iceland.  In  colour 
it  is  when  alive  of  a  reddish  grey  with  spots  of  deeper  red  ;  when 
boiled  it  is  of  a  uniform  deep  red.  Tliis  species  is  sometimes  con- 
founded with  the  common  prawn  ;  but  it  never  reaches  the  size  of 
the  prawn,  its  adult  length  being  2  to  SJ  inches.  P.  annulicornis 
is  the  only  species  of  tlie  genus  occurring  in  Great  Britain.  The 
common  prawu  when  adult  is  above  4  inches  in  length.  It  belongs 
to  the  species  Palxmon  serralus.  In  Palfsinon  the  second  pair  of 
antenna  are  long,  as  in  Pandalus,  but  the  first  pair  are  much  larger 
in  the  former  than  in  the  latter.  In  Palmmon  both  of  the  first  two 
pairs  of  ambulatory  limbs  are  didactj-le  or  pincer-formed ;  the  second 
pair  are  stronger  tlian  the  first,  and  the  left  not  longer  than  the 
right.  Some  of  the  smaller  species  of  Palmmon  are  nsed  as  food 
and  sometimes  called  shrimps.  At  Poole  in  Dorsetshire,  according 
to  Prof.  Bell's  British  Crustacea,  Palmmon  squilla,  Fabr.i  P.  variants, 
Leach,  and  P.  leachii,  Bell,  arc  all  taken,  and  sold  as  cup-shrimps. 

SHROPSHIRE,  or  Salop,  an  inland  county  of  England, 
on  the  borders  of  Wales,  lies  between  52°  20'  and  53°  4' 
N.  lat.  and  2°  17'  and  3°  14'  W.  long.,  and  is  bounded  N. 
bj'  Cheshire  and  an  interpolated  portion  of  Flint,  E.  by 
Stafford,  S.E.  by  Worcester,  S.  by  Hereford,  S.W.  by 
Radnor,  W.  by  Montgomery,  and  N.W.  by  Denbigh. 
The  total  area  in  1880  was  844,565  acres,  or  about  1319 
square' miles. 

Towards  the  west  Shropshire  partakes  of  the  hilly 
scenery  of  the  neighbouring  Wales,  from  which  several 
ranges  are  continued  into  it.  South  of  the  Severn  on  the 
borders  of  Montgomery  the  Breidden  Hills  of  Lower  Silurian 
formation  rise  abruptly  in  three  peaks,  of  which  Cefn-y- 
Castell,  about  1300  feet  high,  is  in  Shropshire;  and  in 
the  south-west  there  is  a  broad,  range  of  rough  rounded 
hills  known  as  Clun  Forest,  extending  from  Radnor.  South 
and  west  of  the  Severn  there  are  four  other  principal  chains 
of  hills  extending  from  south-west  to  north-east — the  Long 
Mynd  (1674  feet),  to  the  west  of  Church  Stretton,  of  Cam- 
brian formation ;  the  Caradoc  Hills,  a  littlo  to  the  north, 
which  cross  the  Severn,  terminating  in  the  isolated  sugar- 
loaf  peak  of  the  Wrckin  (1320  feet);  the  Wenlock  Edge, 
to  the  east  of  Church  Stretton,  a  sharp  ridge  extend- 
ing for  20  miles,  and  in  some  places  rising  above  1000 
feet ;  and  the  Clco  Hills,  near  the  south-eastern  border 
(Bro\vn  Clco  Hill,  1805  feet;  Titterstono  Cleo  Hill,  1750 
feet).  The  remainder  of  the  county  is  for  the  most  part 
pleasantly  undulating,  finely  cultivated,  and  watered  by 
numerous  rivulets  and  streams.  It  may  bo  said  to  lie  in 
the  basin  of  the  Severn,  which  enters  the  county  near  its 
centre  from  Montgomery,  and  flows  eastwards  to  Shrews- 
bory,  after  which  it  turns  south-eastwards  to  Ironbridgo, 
and  then  continues  in  a  more  southerly  direction  past 
Bridgnorth,  entering  Worcester  near  Bewdley.     It  is  na'vi- 


gable  to  Shrewsbury  and  has  connexion  with  the  Doning- 
ton,  the  Shropshire  Union,  the  Shrewsbury,  the  Birming- 
ham and  Liverpool,  and  the  Chester  and  EUesmere  Canals. 
Its  principal  tributaries  within  the  county  are — from  the 
right  the  Meol  (which  receives  the  Rea),  the  Cound,  the 
Mor,  and  the  Borle,  and  from  the  left  the  Vyrnwy  (dividing 
Shropshire  from  Montgomery),  the  Perry,  the  Tern  (which 
receives  the  Roden),  the  Bell,  and  the  Worf.  The  Dee 
touches  the  north-western  boundary  of  the  county  with 
Denbigh.  In  the  south  the  Teme,  which  receives  the  Clun, 
the  Onny,  and  the  Corve,  flows  near  the.  borders  of  Here- 
ford, which  it  occasionally  touches  and  intersects.  Of  the 
numerous  lakes  and  pools  the  largest  is  EUesmere  (116 
acres)  neai:  the  borders  of  Denbigh.  The  Severn  forms 
the  boundary  between  the  Old  and  the  New  Red  Sandstone 
formations,  which  constitute  the  principal  strata  of  the 
county.  The  Old  Red  Sandstone  rocks  lying  to  the  south 
and  west  of  the  river  are  bounded  and  deeply  interpene- 
trated by  Cambrian  and  'Silurian  strata.  There  are  five 
separate  coal-fields  within  the  county, — the  Forest  of  Wyre, 
Coalbrookdale,  Shrewsbury,  Clee  Hills,  and  Oswestry.  The 
Forest  of  Wyre  field  on  the  borders  of  Worcester  rests 
directly  on  the  Devonian  rocks,  and  has  a  great  thickness 
of  measures,  but  comparatively  few  workable  seams.  The 
Coalbrookdale  embraces  an  area  of  28  square  miles,  and 
is  triangular  in  form,  with  its  base  resting  ou  the  Severn 
and  its  northern  apex  at  Newport.  On  its  .vestern  side  it 
is  bounded  partly  by  a  great  fault,  which  brings  in  the 
New  Red  Sandstone,  and  partly  by  the  Silurian  strata ; 
on  its  eastern  side  it  passes  beneath  the  Permian  strata ; 
and  it  is  supposed  that  the  productive  measures  are  con- 
tinued towards  South  Staffordshire.  Its  general  dip  is 
eastwards,  and  the  strata  have  a  vertical  thickness  of  over 
1000  feet.  The  organic  remains  include  fishes,  crustaceans, 
and  molluscs.  Mingled  with  the  coal  strata  are  several 
valuable  courses  of  ironstone.  The  original  quantity  of  coal 
in  the  field  is  estimated  to  have  been  about  43  mUlion 
tons,  of  which  there  are  about  12'^million3  now  remain- 
bg.  Neither  the  Shrewsbury  nor  the  Clee  Hilb  fields  are 
of  much  value.  The  Oswestry  field  is  small,  but  has  some 
workable  seams  adjoining  the  extensive  field  of  Denbigh. 
In  1884  850,000  tons  of  coal,  valued  at  £286,000,  were 
raised  in  Shropshire  from  fifty-five  collieries,  while  198,700 
tons  of  iron  were  obtained  valued  at  "£109,285.  Iron- 
casting  forms  one  of  the  most  important  industries  of  the 
county.  Lead  mining  is  carried  on  with  some  success  on 
the  Stiperstones,  3783  tons  of  lead  ore  being  raised  in  1884. 
The  other  principal  minerals  are  iron  pyrites  (500  tons  in 
1884,  valued  at  £250),  barytcs  (4939  tons,  worth  £7395), 
and  fire-clay  (56,000  tons,  worth  £8475).  There  are  also 
a  large  number  of  stone  and  lime  quarries. 

Manufactures. — With  tho  exception  of  iron,  tho  manufactures  of 
the  county  are  comparatively  unimportant  Bricks  and  tiles, 
earthen  and  china  ware,  and  tobacco  pipes  are  largely  mado  in 
various  districts.  At  Shrewsbury  there  are  linen,  yarn,  and  thread 
mills,  and  in  several  districts  small  paper-mills. 

Agriculture. — There  is  much  fertile  land  suitable  for  all  kinds  of 
culture,  tho  richest  soil  being  that  in  tho  vicinity  of  the  Seyorn, 
including  tho  Valo  of  Shrewsbury.  Much  of  tho  hilly  ground, 
including  Wenlock  Edgo  and  tho  Cleo  Hills,  admits  of  tillago  ;  but 
a  portion  of  tho  western  mountainous  region  is  of  comparatively 
small  value  oven  for  tho  pasturage  of  sheep.  Out  of  a  total  area  of 
814,665  acres  there  were  711),  599  in  18S5  under  culture,  of  which 
150,035  were  under  corn  crops,  CI, 101  undir  green  crops,  420,859 
under  permanent  pasture,  71, 170  under  rotation  grasses,  and  6978 
faUow.  The  area  under  woods  in  1881  was  45,641  acres,  and  in  188S 
the  area  undtr  orchards  was  4015.  Of  corn  crops  tho  areas  under 
whoatand  birloy  were  in  1935  nearly  equal,  63,101  and  63,300  acres 
respectively,  while  that  under  oats  amounted  to  34,446  acros,  ryo 
to  848,  beans  4648,  aud  pcaso  3683.  Nearly  five  sixths  of  tho  area 
under  green  crops  wore  occupied  by  turnips  and  swedes,  which 
covered  47,119  acres,  the  area  under  potatoes  being  6874,  and  that 
under  mangold  wurzol  4355.  Horses  in  1S85  numbered  82,323,  of 
which  19,377  were  used  solely  for  piUT^oscs  of  agricuituro ;  cattle 


848 


S  H  R  — S  H  U 


(chiefly  Hcrcfords)  162,932,  of  which  60,976  were  eows  and  heifers 
in  millc  or  in  calf  and  69,865  animals  under  two  years  old  ;  sheep 
(mainly  Shropsliire)  438,664;  pigs  61,067;  and  poultry  369,890. 
In  tlie  northern  districts  Chesliire  cheese  is  larf;ely  made.  Accoi  J- 
ing  to  the  latest  Laiuloinirrs'  R'-lurii  for  Englntid  Shropshire  was 
divided  among  12,119  owners,  possessing  791,941  acres  at  an  annual 
value  of  £1,484,833,  or  an  average  value  of  about  £1,  16s.  8d.  per 
acre.  There  were  7281  proprietors  or  about  60  per  cent,  who  pos- 
sessed less  than  1  .acre,  and  19.675  acres  were  common  land.  The 
following  possessed  over  8000  acres  each — Earl  of  Powis,  26,986 ; 
Duke  of  Cleveland,  25,604  ;  E.arl  Brownlow,  20,233  ;  Duke  of 
Sutlierland,  17,495;  Lord  Hill,  16,290:  Lord  Forester,  14,891; 
Lord  Windsor,  10,845  :  Earl  of  Bradford,  10.515  ;  Sir  V.  R.  Corbet, 
9489  :  W.  O.  Foster,  S547 ;  W.  L.  Childe,  8430 ;  Lord  Boyne,  8424 ; 
L  D.  Corbet,  8118. 

Aifministralion  and  Population. — Shropshire  comprises  14  hun- 
dreds and  the  municipal  boroughs  of  Bridgnorth  (population,  5885 
in  1881),  Ludlow  (5035),  Oswestry  (7847),  Shrewsbury  (26,478),  and 
Venlock  (18,442).  For  parliamentary  purposes  the  county,  which 
T.'as  formerly  shared  between  North  and  South  Shropshire,  was 
in  1SS5  divided  into  four  separate  divisions, — Mid  (Wellington), 
North  (Newport),  South  (Ludlow),  and  AVest  (Oswestry),  each 
returning  one  member.  At  the  s.ame  time  the  boroughs  of  Bridg- 
north, AVenlock,  and  Ludlow  were  merged  in  the  county  divisions 
to  which  they  severally  belong  ;  but  Shrewsbury  continues  to  return 
one  member.  Shropshire  contains  also  the  following  urban  sanitary 
districts  :—Broseley  (popul.ition,  4458  in  1881),  Dawley  (9200), 
EUcsmero  (1875),  Madeley  (9212),  Much  Wenlock  (2321),  Newport 
(3044),  Wellington  (6217),  and  Whitchurch  and  Dodington  (3756). 
The  county  has  one  court  of  quarter  sessions,  and  is  divided  into 
nineteen  special  sessional  divisions.  All  the  boroughs  have  separate 
courts  of  quarter  sessions  and  commissions  of  the  peace.  The  county 
contains  252  civil  parishes  with  parts  of  six  others.  Ecclesiastically 
it  is  in  the  dioceses  of  Hereford,  Lichfield,  and  St  Asaph.  The 
population  (240,959  in  1861)  in  1881  was  248,014  (124,157  males 
and  123,857  females).  The  number  of  persons  to  an  acre  was  0'29 
and  of  acres  to  a  person  3'41. 

History  and  Antiquities. — The  British  tribes  inhabiting  Shrop- 
shire at  the  time  of  the  Romans  were  named  by  them  the  Ordovices 
and  the  Cornavii.  It  was  within  its  boundaries  that  Caractacus 
(Caradoc)  struggled  against  Vespasian  in  51  A.D.  A  connected 
chain  of  military  works  was  erected  by  him  over  the  southern  and 
western  districts  of  the  county,  the  most  important  fortresses  be- 
ing Caer  Caradoc  (where  lie  is  said  to  have  made  his  last  stand), 
occupying  a  commanding  position  in  the  forest  of  Clun,  and  the 
earthwork  of  Hen  Dinas  at  Old  Oswestry,  consisting  of  four  or  five 
concentric  circles,  still  well  marked.  The  Roman  Watling  Stieet 
entered  Shropshire  near  Weston-under-Lizard  in  Stafford  and  passed 
in  an  oblique  line  to  Leintwardine  in  Hereford.  Various  other 
Roman  roads  diverged  from  it  in  different  directions.  Wro.xeter, 
a  little  to  the  west  of  the  Wrekin,  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Roman  city  Uriconium,  of  which  a  portion  of  the  wall,  originally 
3  miles  in  circumference,  still  remains.  Explorations  made  on  the 
site  of  the  city  have  revealed  many  iuteresting  features  of  its  con- 
struction, ami  have  led  to  the  discovery  of  an  immense  variety  of 
remains.  By  some  authorities  the  Roman  Mediolanum  is  placed 
near  Drayton  and  Rutunium  near  Wem  ;  but  the  evidence  in  both 
cases  is  doubtful.  Throughout  Shropshire  there  are  many  remains 
of  Roman  camps.  Under  the  Romans  it  was  included  in  the  province 
of  Flavia  Ca^sariensis.  After  their  departure  it  was  annexed  to  the 
kingdom  of  the  Saxons  by  Offa,  who  about  765  caused  Watt's  dyke 
to  be  erected  to  guard  against  the  incursions  of  the  Welsh,  and 
later  erected  parallel  with  it,  2  miles  to  the  west,  the  entrenchment 
known  as  Offa's  dyke,  which,  extending  from  the  Wye  near  Hereford. 
to  the  parish  of  Mold  in  Flintshire,  forms  in  some  places  a 
well-defined  boundary  between  Shropshire  and  Montgomery.  The 
greater  part  of  the  history  of  Shropshire  is  included  under  that  of 
Shhewsbuky  {q.v.).  There  are  several  important  old  ecclesiastical 
ruins,  including  Wenlock  priory,  once  very  wealthy,  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  St  Milburg,  grand-daughter  of  Penda,  king  of  the 
Mercians,  as  a  college  for  secular  priests,  and  changed  into  a  priory 
for  Cluniac  monks  by  Roger  de  Montgomery  about  1080  ;  Lilleshall 
abbey,  for  Augustinian  canons,  founded  in  the  reign  of  Stephen  ; 
Shrewsbury  abbey,  founded  in  1083  in  honour  of  St  Peter  and  St 
Paul ;  Buildwas  abbey,  one  of  the  finest  ruins  in  the  county,  founded 
in  1135  for  Cistercians  by  Roger  de  Clinton,  bishop  of  Chester ;  and 
Haughmond  abbey,  for  Augustinian  canons,  founded  by  AVilliam 
Fitzalan  about  1138.  Other  remains  of  less  consequence  are  those 
of  the  convent  of  White  Ladies  or  St  Leonard's,  a  Norman  struc- 
ture, said  to  have  been  founded  iu  the  reign  of  Richard  I.  or  John  ; 
slight  traces  of  Wombridge  priory,  for  Augustinian  canons,  founded 
before  the  reign  of  Heniy  I. ;  Alberbury  priory,  for  Benedictines, 
founded  by  Fulk  Fitzwariu  between  1220  and  1230  ;  and  Chirbury 
priory,  founded  towards  the  close  of  the  12th  century.  The  castles 
of  Bridgnorth  (see  Br.lDCiENOr.Tll),  Ludlow,  and  Shrewsbury  are 
referred  to  in  the  notices  of  those  towns,  and  in  addition  to  these 
may  be  mentioned  Clun  Castle,  which  after  a  long  siege  was  taken 


and  burnt  by  the  Welsh  prince  Recs  about  1196,  and  Boscobel 
House,  near  which  Charles  II.  is  said  to  have  been  sheltered  iu  an  oik. 
See  Hartshome,  Salopia  Antiqua^  1S41  ;  Eyton,  Antiquities  0/ .^kropshire^ 
12  vols.,  1S54-00  ;  Anderson,  Jlislory  of  Shropslnre,  1809  ;  Blakcway,  hhcnffs  0* 
.Shropshire;  Duke,  Anliqutlies  o/^ylnopshire.  (T.  F.  H.) 

SHROVE  TUESDAY,  the  day  preceding  Asli  Wednes- 
day, or  the  fir.'it  day  of  Lent,  was  so  called  as  the  day  on 
which  "shriffor  confes.?ion-\vas  made.  Compare  Carnival. 

SHUMLA  (Bulg.  Shumen,  Turk.  Shnmna),  a  fortified 
town  of  Bulgaria,  '58  miles  south-south-west  of  Silistria  and 
in  that  pashalic  rfbd  50  west  of  Varna.  The  town  ia 
built  within  a  cluster  of  hills  which  curve  round  it  on 
the  west  and  north  in  the  shape  of  a  horse-shoe.  A  nigged 
ravine  intersects  the  ground  longitudinally  within  the  horse- 
shoe ridge.  From  Shumla  roads  radiate  northwards  to  the 
Dantibian  fortresses  of  Rustchuk  and  Silistria  and  those  in 
the  Dobrudja,  southwards  to  the  passes  of  the  Balkans,  and 
eastwards  to  Varna  and  Baltchik.  Shumla  is  therefore  one 
of  the  most  important  military  positions  to  the  north  of 
Turkey,  while  it  ranks  as  the  third  largest  town  in  Bulgaria. 
Spread  over  a  large  extent  of  ground,  each  house  mostly 
isolated  in  the  midst  of  its  own  stables  and  cow-houses, 
Shumla  has  the  appearance  of  a  vast  village.  A  broad 
street  and  rivulet  divide  the  military  or  upper  quarter, 
Gorni-Mahl6,  from  the  lower  quarter,  Dolni-ilahl^.  The 
latter,  dirty  and  unhealthy,  intersected  by  a  labyrinth  of 
lanes,  is  inhabited  mostly  by  Christians  and  Jews.  The 
Armenians  possess  a  small  church,  and  each  of  the  two 
Bulgarian  quarters  has  its  temple.  The  houses  of  the 
Gorni-Mahll,  occupied  chiefly  by  Turks,  stand  pleasantly 
embowered  each  in  its  flower  and  fruit  garden.  Gorni- 
Mahl^  has  preserved  the  old  church  of  the  Resurrection. 
In  the  Dolni-Mahl^  is  the  new  church  of  St  Cyril,  a  fine 
basilica  adorned  with  a  peristyle.  The  Bulgarian  com- 
munity possesses  two  boys'  and  two  girls'  schools,  giving 
instruction  superior  to  that  obtainable  at  the  primary 
Turkish  school.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  town  is  the 
magnificent  mausoleum  of  Jezairli  Hassan  Pasha,  who  in 
the  IStL  jentury  enlarged  the  fortifications  of  Shumla.  The 
principal  mosque,  with  a  cupola  of  very  interesting  archi- 
tecture, forms  the  centre  of  the  !Moslem  quarter.  At  the 
farther  end  of  the  town,  isolated  on  a  hill,  is  a  large 
military  hospital.  The  population  of  Shumla  in  1881  was 
23,093,  exclusive  of  the  garrison.  The  town  is  renowned 
for  its  manufacture  of  red  and  yellow  slippers,  ready-madg 
clothes,  richly  embroidered  dresses  for  females,  and  its 
copper  and  tin  wares.  It  also  rears  silk-worms,  spins  silt, 
and  carries  on  an  important  trade  in  grain  and  wine. 
The  branch  railway  from  Shumla  to  Kaspidjan,  9|  miles, 
to  connect  the  to^vn  with  the  Rustchuk- Varna  Railway, 
though  commenced  in  1870,  was  not  finished  in  1886. 

In  811  Shumla  was  burned  by  the  emperor  Nicephorus,  and  in 
1087  was  besieged  by  Alexius.  In  1388  the  sultan  Murad  I.  forced 
the  castle  to  surrender;  and  thence  till  the  17th  century  Shumla 
disappears  from  history.  In  the  18th  century  it  was  enlarged  and 
fort'fied.  Three  times— 1774, 1810,  and  1328— it  was  unsuccessfully 
attacked  by  Russian  armies.  The  Turks  consequently  gave  it  tho 
naroeofGazi  ("Victorious").  But  on  22d  June  1878  Shumla  capitu- 
lated to  the  Russians.  The  treaty  of  Berlin  stipulated  the  demoli- 
tion of  the  fortifications ;  but  this  article  has  not  been  executed,  and 
Bulgarian  troops  garrison  the  fort. 

See  F.  Kanitz,  La  Bulgane  Damibtenne  (1SS2) ;  H.  C.  Barkley,  Bvljaria  be/on 
the  Wnr(isn),  and  Between  the  Danube  and  Black  Sea  (1676);  S.  G.  B.  and  C 
A.  St  Clair,  Residence  in  Bulgaria  (1869);  J.  L.  Farley,  Hew  Bulgaria  (T.SSO); 
and  J.  G.  Jlinchin,  Bulgaria  since  the  }Var  (18S0). 

SHUSHA,  a  town,  formerly  a  fortress,  of  Russia,  in 
the  Caucasian  government  of  Elisabethpol,  lies  in  39°  46' 
N.  lat.  and  46"  25'  E.  long.,  230  miles  south-east  of 
Tiflis,  on  an  isolated  rocky  eminence,  3860  feet  higL 
The  town,  which  is  accessible  only  on  one  side,  occupies 
but  a  small  part  of  the  plateau,  whence  there  is  a  splendid 
view  over  the  surrounding  mountain  gorges  and  defiles. 
In  1873  the  population  was  24,552  (males  13,666,  females 
10,886),  of  whom  13,504  were  Armenians   and  10,80* 


o 


d 


S  H  U  —  S  H  W 


849 


■fatars.  Instead  of  flat  earthen  roofs,  as  in  most  other 
towns  of  Transcaucasia,  the  houses  have  very  high  steep 
roofs,  covered  with  shingle.  The  streets  arc  sinuous,  and 
are  intersected  by  ravines.  Shusha  was  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  khanate  of  Karabagh.  The  town  is  locally 
renowiied  for  its  carpet  manufactures,  and  the  district  for 
its  excellent  breed  of  Karabagh  horses. 

'  The  fortress,  formed  in  1789  by  Pana  Khan,  has  a  wall  on  one 
;ide,  and  is  defended  naturally  on  the  other  three  sides.  In  1795 
Shusha  successfully  withstood  a  siege  by  Aglia  Jlohammed  of  Persia, 
but  was  constrained  to  surrender  two  years  afterwards.  In  1805 
Ibrahim  Khan  of  Karabagh  invoked  the  protection  of  Russia, 
but  the  annexation  was  completed  only  in  1822.  The  present 
ilistrict  of  Sliusha  (2934  square  miles)  forms  only  a  part  of  the 
former  khanate  of  Karabagh.  In  1873  it  had  (exclusive  of  Shusha) 
a  population  of  80,913  (males  45,163,  females  35,750),  Armenians 
numbering  43,502  and  Tatars  37,351.  Agriculture  and  cattle- 
breeding  are  almost  the  sole  occupations  of  the  inliabitants.  Gen- 
eral culture  is  very  low  ;  thera  is  no  enterprise,  and  but  inadequate 
security  for  life  and  property. 

SHUSTAE,  or  SHiIsT.iE,  Shi5shtar  (Arab.  Tosiar),  once 
a  flourishing  provincial  capital  of  Persia,  is  now  a  compara- 
tively unimportant  town  of  6000  inhabitants, — exclusive, 
however,  of  the  Bakhtiaris,  who  during  the  winter  months 
encamp  with  their  flocks  and  herds  in  the  immediate 
vicinity.  It  is  situated  (32°  3'  30"  N.  lat.  and  48°  52'  E. 
long.)  at  the  foot  of  an  offshoot  of  the  BakhtiArl  Mountains 
in  the  north-west  of  KhuzistAn,  and  just  below  the  point 
in  the  KAriin  (Dojail  or  Little  Tigris)  where — the  main 
stream  running  westwards — a  cutting  of  70  feet  deep  has 
been  made  through  the  natui-al  rock  for  an  easterly  branch. 
Thence  the  two  streams,  enclosing  a  wide  alluvial  tract,  of 
which  Shustar  is  the  cro\vn,  follow  independent  courses 
until  they  reunite  some  40  miles  to  the  south.  According 
to  Lieutenant  Selby,  I.N.,  who  ascended  the  KArun  from 
Muhamrah  (Mohammera)  in  1842  by  the  Shutait  (or  main 
ptream  on  the  west)  to  within  6  miles,  and  further  tested 
the  navigation  of  the  Ab-i-Gargar  (or  eastern  channel)  to 
within  1  mile,  of  Shustar,  the  town  is  built  on  a  small 
hill  which  rises  gradually  from  the  south-west  and  increases 
in*  elevation  to  the  citadel,  which  presents  on  the  north- 
eastern side  an  abrupt  face  of  about  150  feet  in  length, 
having  the  river  immediately  beneath.  Mr  Loftus,  who 
visited  Shustar  some  eight  years  after  Lieutenant  Selby, 
gives  an  account  of  the  two  great  dams  thrown  across  the 
river, — the  "  Band-i-Miz4n  "  over  the  natural  course,  the 
"  Band-i-Kaisar"  over  the  artificially  diverted  branch. 
About  a  mile  below  the  latter  is  a  similar  work  of  more 
recent  and  more  solid  and  substantial  construction,  called 
the  "Piil,"  or  bridge  of  Bclaiti.  Leg«nd  ascribes  these 
ancient  works  to  ShApiir  I.  and  his  captive  the  emperor 
Valerian.  In  1875,  and  again  in  1878,  Mr  Mackenzie 
visited  Shustar ;  he  speaks  of  the  town  as  being  in  a 
wretchedly  decayed  and  filthy  condition.  The  houses  are 
of  stone,  some  few  good,  with  underground  rooms  [sarddhs 
or  sir  zamin)  excavated  to  a  depth  of  two  stories  below 
the  ground  level.  In  these  relief  is  obtained  from  the 
intense  summer  heat.  The  traffic  of  the  bazaar,  which  is 
a  poor  one,  seemed  to  depend  chiefly  on  the  Iliy.Us  or 
wandering  tribes.  The  inhabitants — for  the  most  part 
Arabs  and  Saiyids — have  a  reputation  for  hospitality. 

Some  writers  have  identified  Slmshar  with  Susa  (Shushan  of  tho 
Bible),  tho  capital  of  Susiana  and  a  residence  of  tho  Acha;menian 
kings.  The  tiuo  site  of  the  latter,  liowcver,  as  Loftus's  explora- 
tions showed,  is  at  Shush,  a  widily  spread  ruin  30  or  40  miles  to 
tho  north-west.  On  tho  other  side  of  Shustar  is  the  locally  classic 
ground  of  R.-im  Hormuz.  ■  In  fact,  of  tho  whole  neighbourhood  Sir 
H.  Rawlinson  writes  that  it  "  still  requires  elaborate  c.>:pIoration, 
and  would  well  repay  any  traveller  who  would  dovoto  six  months 
to  examining  tho  ruins  and  carefully  copying  the  inscriptions." 

Tho  river  Karun,  which  rises  in  the  Bakhtiari  Jlountains  and 
passes  down  the  broad  Shattu 'l-'Arab,  joins  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 
It  has  been  declared  by  many  and  trustworthy  autlioritica  to  bo 
well  adapted  for  steam  navigation— save  as  regards  ono  obstaelo 
at  Ahwaz,  removable  at  little  cost— from  its  mouth  to  tho  uoar 


neighbourhood  of  Shustar.  Thence  to  Ispahan  fho  land  journey 
would  be  shorter  th.in  from  Uushahr  (llushirc)  to  that  city  by 
200  miles. 

SHUYA,  one  of  the  chief  centres  of  tho  cotton  industiy 
in  middle  Russia,  is  a  district  town  in  the  government  of 
Vladimir,  G8  miles  north-cast  of  the  town  of  Vladimir.  A 
branch  railway  connects  it  with  the  Novki  station  of  the 
railway  from  Moscow  to  Nijiii- Novgorod.  The  toAvn  is 
built  on  the  high  left  bank  of  the  navigable  Teza,  a  tribu- 
tary of  tho  IClazma,  with  two  suburbs  on  the  right  bank. 
Annalists  mention  princes  of  Shuya  in  1403.  Its  first 
linen  manufactures  were  established  in  1755;  but  in  1800 
its  population  did  not  exceed  1500.  Its  growth  began 
only  with  the  development  of  the  cotton  industry  in  central 
Russia,  and  since  then  has  been  rapid;  in  1882  it  Iiad 
19,560  inhabitants,  as  against  10,440  in  1870.  Of  those 
about  10,000  live  by  the  manufactures,  and  only  a  few 
keep  to  agriculture  and  gardening.  In  1881  the  outjnit 
of  twelve  cotton-mills  was  valued  at  .£442,160  for 
various  cotton  stuff's  and  £48,000  for  cotton  3'arn.  Tan- 
neries, especially  for  the  preparation  of  sheep-skins — widely 
renownecl  throughout  Russia — still  maintain  their  im- 
portance, although  this  industry  has  migrated  to  a  great 
extent  to  the  country  districts.  The  products  of  its  manu- 
factories are  chiefly  sent  to  Moscow  and  Nijni-Novgorod. 
The  town  is  mainly  built  of  wood.  Its  cathedral  (1799) 
is  a  large  building,  with  five  gilt  cupolas.  Shuya  has  also 
two  gymnasia,  for  boys  and  girls,  besides  a  progymnasium 
for  girls,  and  Several  secondary  and  primary  schools. 

Tho  surrounding  district  is  also  important  for  its  manufactures. 
The  village  of  Ivanovo-Voznesensk,  north  of  Shuya,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  more  than  19,000  inhabitants,  employed  11,329  workmen 
in  its  39  manufactories  in  1881,  and  showed  a  return  of  £1,939,950 
(£1,700,000  for  cottons  and  the  remainder  for  chemicils  and  machi- 
nery). Teikovo  and  Kokhma  are  two  other  centres  of  manufacture, 
— the  whole  production  of  the  manufactories  within  the  district  (ex- 
clusive of  Shuya  and  Ivanovo)  being  estimated  at  £630,000.  These 
figures,  of  course,  do  not  include  any  statistics  of  the  petty  trades 
carried  on  side  by  side  with  agriculture.  Nearly  every  village  has 
a  specialty  of  its  own, — bricks,  pottery  (Jlenschikovo),  wheels,  toys 
packing-boxes,  looms  and  other  weaving  implements,  house  furni- 
ture, sieves,  combs,  boots,  gloves,  felt  goods,  candles,  and  so  on 
The  manufacture  of  linen  and  cotton  in  villnges,  as  well  as  the  pre- 
paration and  manufacture  of  sheepskins  and  rough  gloves,  occupies 
about  40,000  peasants.  The  Shuya  merchants  carry  on  an  active 
trade  in  these  products  all  over  Russia,  and  in  corn,  spirits,  salt, 
and  other  food  stuffs,  which  are  imported  to  a  great  extent.  In 
1880  tho  imported  goods  reached  1,613,000  cwts.  (1,208,000  by  rail), 
and  tho  exports  1,318,000  cwts.,  chiefly  by  the  Teza. 

SHWE-GYENG,  a  district  of  British  Burmah,  in  the 
Tenasserira  division,  containing  an  area  of  5567  square 
miles,  and  lying  in  the  valley  of  the  Tsit-toung  (Sitoung) 
river.  It  is  bounded  on  tho  N.  by  Toung-gnu  district,  on 
the  E.  by  the  Poung-loung  Hills  and  the  Sahvin  Hill  Tracts, 
on  the  S.  by  Amherst  district,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Pegu 
Yoma  Hills.  Tho  boundaries  have  more  than  once  been 
altered,  the  last  change  having  taken  place  in  J877.  Tho 
aspect  of  tho  country  is  mountainous,  especially  in  tho 
north.  Tho  Tsittoung  is  navigable  throughout  its  entire 
length  in  the  district  by  large  boats  and  steam-launches. 
Shwe-gyeng  has  never  be«n  accurately  surveyed  from  a 
geological  point  of  view,  but  it  is  su])posed  to  bo  rich  in 
minerals  Gold  is  found  in  most  of  the  affluents  of  the 
river  Shwe-gyeng ,  copper,  lead,  tin,  and  coal  also  exist, 
but  arc  not  worked.  Except  m  the  hills,  tho  climate  is 
generally  Iicalthy ;  tho  average  annual  rainfall  at  Shwe- 
gyeng  station  is  144  inches. 

In  1S81  the  population  of  the  district  was  171,144  (89,687  males 
and  81,457  females),  of  whom  Hindus  numbered  908,  Klohaninudans 
855,  Buddhists  158,149,  and  Christians  1250  Tho  only  town  with 
nioro  than  5000  inhabitants  is  Shwcgj'cng,  the  cnpital  and  head- 
quarters  of  tho  district,  wliK  h  was  founded  during  tlio  18lh  ccfttury, 
hcforo  the  Burmese  conquest,  by  Aloinpr,!.  It  is  situated  at  tho 
junction  of  tho  Sliwegyi  ng  with  tho  T.sit-toung,  nnd  had  a  popula- 
tion of  7519  in  1881.  Only  187  square  miles  of  the  district  were 
cultivated  in  1883-81 :  the  cultivated  area  U.  however,  gradually 

XXL  —  107 


850 


S  I  A  — S  I  A 


extending,  and  there  are  some  3474  square  miles  capable  of  cultiva- 
tion. The  principal  crop  is  rice,  of  which  tv.-enty-five  different 
Itinds  are  grown  ;  other  products  are  cotton,  betel-nuts,  tobacco, 
and  sugar-cane.  Tlie  only  industries  are  potteries,  salt-making, 
and  silk-spinning.  In  1883-84  the  total  revenue  amounted  to 
£36,476,  of  wliich  the  land-tax  contributed  £15,957. 

SIALKOT,  or  Se.4.lkote,  a  district  of  British  India,  in 
theAmritsar  division  of  the  lieutenant-governorship  of  the 
Punjab,  with  an  area  of  1959  square  miles.  It  lies  between 
31°  44'  and  32°  50'  N.  lat.  and  74°  12'  and  75°  3'  E.  long., 
and  is  bounded  on  the  N.E.  by  the  Jrimu  state  of  Kashmir, 
on  the  N.W.  by  the  Ch^nab,  on  the  E.  by  GurdAspur, 
on  the  S.E.  by  the  R4vi,  and  on  the  W.  by  Lahore  and 
GujrAnwdla.  SiAUiOt  is  an  oblong  tract  of  country  occupy- 
ing the  submontane  portion  of  the  Rechna  (Ravi-ChenAb) 
Doib,  and  is  fringed  on  either  side  by  a  line  of  fresh  alluvial 
soil,  above  which  rise  the  high  banks  that  form  the  limits 
of  the  river-beds.  The  Degh,  which  rises  in  the  Jdmu 
Hills,  traverses  the  district  parallel  to  the  EAvi,  and  is 
likewise  fringed  by  low  alluvial  soil.  The  north-eastern 
boundary  of  SiAlkot  is  20  miles  distant  from  the  outer 
line  of  the  HimAlayas;  but  about  midway  betvieen  the 
RAvi  and  the  Chendb  is  a  high  dorsal  tract,  extending 
from  beyond  the  border  and  stretching  far  into  the  district. 
SiAlkot  is  above  the  average  of  the  Punjab  in  fertility : 
three-fourths  of  its  area  have  already  been  brought  under 
the  plough,  and  a  third  of  the  remainder  is  reported  to  be 
capable  of  improvement.  The  upper  portion  of  the  district 
is  very  productive ;  but  the  southern  portion,  farther  re- 
moved from  the  influence  of  the  rains,  shows  a  marked 
decrease  of  fertility.  The  district  is  also  watered  by  numer- 
ous small  torrents  ;  and  several  swamps  or  jhits,  scattered 
over  the  face  of  the  country,  are  of  considerable  value 
as  reservoirs  of  surplus  water  for  purposes  of  irrigation. 
SiAlkot  is  reputed  to  be  healthy ;  it  is  free  from  excessive 
heat,  judged  by  the  common  standard  of  the  Punjab ;  and 
its  average  annual  rainfall  is  about  37  inches. 

The  district  possesses  a  total  length  of  790  miles  of  road  ;  ..nd  a 
branch  line  of  the  Punjab  Northern  State  Railway,  from  Wazird- 
bAd  in  the  north-west  corner  of  the  district  to  Si.alkot  town  (28 
miles),  was  opened  in  January  1884.  In  1881  the  population  was 
1,012,148  (males  539,661,  females  472,487),  of  whom  Moham- 
medans numbered  669,712,  Hindus  299,311,  Sikhs  40,195,  and 
Christians  1535.  The  only  town  of  any  importance  is  Sialkot 
( J.  V. ).  The  principal  agricultural  products  of  the  district  are  wheat, 
barley,  rice,  maize,  millets,  pulses,  oil-seeds,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  and 
vegetables.  The  local  commerce  centres  in  the  town  of  Sialkot, 
which  gathers  into  its  bazaars  more  than  half  the  raw  produce  of  the 
district.  Its  surplus  stock  finds  a  ready  outlet  in  the  markets  of 
Lahore  and  Amritsar,  v.-hile  the  great  rivers  on  either  side  form 
natural  channels  of  communication  with  the  lower  parts  of  the 
Punjab.  The  native  manufactures  comprise  silk,  saddlery,  shawi- 
edging,  ccarse  chintzes,  pottery,  brass  vessels,  country  cloth,  cutlery, 
and  paper.  The  gross  revenue  of  tlie  district  in  1883-84  amounted 
to  £145,531, of  which  the  land-tax  contributed  £111,713. 

The  early  history  of  Sialkot  is  closely  interwoven  with  that  of 
the  -est  of  the  Punjab.  It  was  annexed  by  the  British  after  the 
Second  Sikh  AVar  in  1849  ;  since  then  its  area  has  been  considerably 
reduced,  assuming  its  present  proportions  in  1867.  During  the 
mutiny  of  1857  the  native  troops  stationed  in  the  cantonments  of 
Sialkot  besieged  the  European  residents  in  the  fort,  and  remained 
masters  of  the  whole '  district ;  they  also  plundered  the  treasury 
and  destroyed  all  the  records. 

SIALKOT,  the  capital  and  administrative  headquarters 
of  the  above  district,  is  situated  in  32°  31'  N.  lat.  and  74° 
36'  E.  long.,  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Aik  torrent.  It 
is  an  extensive  city  with  handsome  and  weU-built  streets, 
and  contains  several  shrines  and  buildings  of  historical 
interest.  In  1881  its  population  was  39,613. 
!  SIAM.i  The  kingdom  of  Siam  embraces  the  greater 
part  of  the  Indo-Chinese  and  part  of  the  Malay  peninsula. 
On  the  north-west  the  river  Sal  win  separates  it  from 
Karen-nee,  southwards  thence  the  river  Toon-gyeen ;  then, 
from  the  Three  Pagodas  in  18°  15'  N.  lat.  down  to  the 
Pak-chan   river  in  10°  N.  lat.,  the  principal  watershed 

'  Compare  Malay  Peninsula,  air o  Shaks,  Laos,  and  Cambodia. 


separates  it  from  Pegu  and  Tenasserim.  Its  seabi,.iri.  oi» 
the  Bay  of  Bengal  extends  from  the  Pak-chan  river  to 
Wellesley  Province  in  5°  30'  K.  lat. ;  but  the  islands  along 
the  coast  are  British.  On  the  other  (east)  side  of  tho 
peninsula  the  territory  extends  to  4°  35'  N.  lat.,  or,  if  the 
vassal  state  of  Pahang  is  included,  to  Johore  in  about 
2°  30'  N.  lat.  On  the  cast  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam  the 
frontier  line  (according  to  the  Siamese  authorities;  cf. 
Plate  IX.)  starts  from  the  Bay  of  Compong  Som  in  103* 
20'  E.  long.,  and  runs  north  inland  to  Mount  Pang-chak, 
thence,  after  crossing  T.onle-sap  Lnke,  ea>t  across  the  Me- 
kong to  the  crests  of  the  range  whi  h  separates  the  Mekong 
va!!°y  from  Anam.  It  then  foilcw.s  this  range  north,  in- 
cluding the  country  north-cast  of  Luong  Prabang,  to  the 
frontiers  of  Tongking.  Thence  it  runs  west-south-west, 
s?parating  the  tributary  from  the  independent  or  Burmese 
SLan  states,  and  meets  the  Salwln  in  about  20°  N.  lat. 

The  great  natural  apd  economical  centre  of  Siam  is  thr 
delta  of  the  Me-nara  river,  which  is  annually  flooded  b'^ 
tween  June  and  November,  the  waters  attaining  thtir 
greatest  height  in  August.  The  inundation  covers  several 
thousand  square  miles,  so  that  the  capacity  for  production 
of  rice,  which  furnishes  two-thirds  of  the  entire  exports, 
ir,  almost  unlimited,  but  is  very  partially  developed  both 
from  scarcity  of  population  and  want  of  means  of  trans- 
port, mills,  and  better  cultivation.  Irriga*ion  channels  are, 
however,  cut  above  the  point  where  the  creeks  naturally 
cease  by  some  of  the  small  Chinese  settlers.  The  bar 
forme3  at  the  mouth  of  this  and  of  the  other  converging 
rivers — the  Tachim,  the  ^fe-klong,  and  the  Pechaburi  on 
the  west,  and  the  Kharayok  on  the  east — extends  right 
across  the  upper  end  of  the  gulf,  and  has  12  or  13  feet  of 
water  at  high  water.  The  yearly  encroachment  of  the  land 
on  the  sea  is  considerable,  and  the  entire  delta  from  Chein- 
nat  in  15°  20'  N.  lat.  downwards  has  probably  been  formed 
in  comparatively  recent  times.  At  Bangkok  sea-shells  are 
found  20  feet  below  the  surface.  The  Tachim,  the  first  great 
branch  of  the  Me-nam,  joins  its  right  bank  above  Chein- 
nat ;  below  this  the  main  stream  ana.tomoses  naturally  or 
by  canals  freely,  the  banks  of  the  different  channels  being 
densely  peopled.  Above  Chein-nat  the  Me-nam  continues 
deep  and  navigable  up  to  the  junction  of  the  Pak-nam  Pho, 
its  east  branch  being  formed  by  several  important  affluents 
from  the  north-east.  The  west  branch  of  the  Me-nam  is 
formed  mainly  by  two  afHuents,  the  !Me-wang  and  the  Jle- 
ping,  whi-'h  flow  down  through  the  west  Laos  states,  some 
of  whose  chief  t0'\\T!s  are  situated  on  their  banks.  In  this 
more  elevated  region  the  hill  ranges,  with  a  general  north- 
south  direction,  ramify  widely,  rising  in  places  to  from 
6000  to  8000  feet,  while  the  valleys  between  them  widen 
out  into  great  fertile  plains,  having  the  appearance  of 
former  lake-basins — a  view  which  coincides  with  ancient 
local  traditions.  On  the  west  frontier  the  rapid  and  broken 
stream  of  the  Toon-gyeen,  whose  tributary  valleys  on  the 
Siamese  side  produce  valuable  teak  and  cinnamon,  flows 
from  a  mass  of  laterite,  south  of  which  the  central  range 
consists  of  granite,  with  syenite  aad  quartzose  rocks.  Its 
spurs  (6000  feet  high)  extending  in  every  direction,  of 
sandstones,  Carboniferous  limestones,  and  other  Secondary 
formations,  are  clothed  with  sappan  and  other  forest  trees, 
and  contain  probably  gold,  besicles  argentiferous  lead,  tin, 
coal,  and  iron,  the  latter  in  nodules  of  clay  oxide  and  brown 
ha;m.atite.  On  the  west  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  as  fir  south 
as  11°  N.  lat.,  is  a  dry  barren  region,  enclosed  between 
two  ranges  which  intercept  the  rainfall  on  either  side,  but 
farther  south  are  luxuriant  damp  forests  containing  Uopea 
(wood-oil),  iron -wood,  <fec.,  with  occasional  clearings  for 
cultivation,  and  many  rivers  with  ivide  mouths,  but  be- 
coming  mere  streams  higher  up. 

In  about  10°  30'  N.  lat.  the  Malay  peninsula  is  narrowed^ 


S  I  A  M 


851 


by  a  river  at  either  side  to  a  ■w-idth  of  only  27  miles, 
and  there  a  survey  for  a  canal  has  been  made  ;  the  maxi- 
nmrn  height  of  the  section  is  250  feet,  the  mean  130; 
the  amount  of  escavation  is  estimated  at  84  million 
cubic  feet,  mostly  through  hard  rock,  and  the  cost  at 
£20,000,000.  But  the  approaches  by  the  river-mouths 
on  both  sides  are  intricate  and  bad.  This  has  latterly  been 
the  chief  route  across  the  peninsula;  but  there  are  other 
breaks  in  the  range  which  forms  the  backbone  of  the 
peninsula,  and  the  Buddhist  propaganda  is  said  to  have 
crossed  by  the  isthmus  of  Ligor.  Here,  however — 
perhaps,  properly  speaking,  in  Junk  Ceylon  Island — is 
the  real  termination  of  the  great  range  which  comes 
down  unbroken  from  Yun-nan,  separating  the  Sahvin  and 
the  Me-nam  valleys. 

Sistern       East  from  the  plain  of  the  Me-nam,  and  separating  it 

'■'"'•  from  the  Me-kong  valley,  a  plateau  rises  with  very  gradual 
ascent,  clothed  to  a  ■svidth  of  from  30  to  50  miles  with 
forest.  From  its  east  side  several  large  and  partly  navi- 
gable rivers  flow  towards  the  Jle-kong  through  a  sandy 
and  for  the  most  part  arid  plain,  with  stunted  growth  of 
resinous  trees  and  bamboos,  brushwood  and  grass ;  but 
on  the  lower  courses  of  some  of  these  streams  are  rich 
irrigated  tracts,  producing  rice,  bananas,  sugar,  maize,  and 
the  usual  tropical  vegetables.  The  whole  region  is  very 
unhealthy,  especially  in  the  wist  season.  Travelling 
would  hardly  be  possible  without  elephants,  of  which 
some  are  kept  in  every  village.  The  rocks  are  mostly 
calcareous  or  sandstone,  and  at  the  south  edge  of  the 
plateau  corals  and  recent  shells  at  a  slight  depth  show 
the  former  limits  of  the  land.  Farther  north  the  mountains 
of  Pechaboun  and  Lom  are  rich  in  magnetic  iron  ore, 
argentiferous  copper,  antimony,  and  tin.  Only  the  first- 
named  is  worked  to  any  extent ;  and,  though  by  very 
primitive  methods,  a  large  quantity  of  tools  and  weapons 
are  manufactured.  From  the  south  of  the  plateau  a  range 
sweeps  round  to  the  south-east  into  Cambodia,  outliers 
from  which  are  the  two  peaks  north  and  east  from  Chanta- 
boun,  the  latter  noted  for  its  emeralds,  .topazes,  and 
sapphires.  Isolated  hills,  apparently  volcanic,  occur,  as 
the  sacred  Mouut  Phrabat,  to  the  north-east  of  Ayuthia, 
where  there  are  hot  springs  and  a  famous  footprint  of  the 
Buddha,  and  the  conical  hills  at  Pechaburi  in  the  south- 
west, consisting  of  lavas,  scoriae,  and  trachytic  rocks, 
abounding  in  caverns  elaborately  fitted  as  temples. 

minerals.  Tin  is  3?-tcnsivcIy  distributed,  especially  througliout  tho  Malay 
peninsula,  where  it  is  worked  at  Bang-ta-phang  in  tlio  province  of 
Chumphon,  at  Cliaija  and  Chalianf;,  also  on  tho  Iile-klong,  at  Kan- 
buri,  and  at  Rapri.  Gold  is  found  pretty  extensively  in  Tringanu 
and  Pahang ;  there  are  mines  at  Bang-ta-phang ;  and  it  is  extracted 
in  the  Me-kong  valley  by  washing  or  with  mercury.  Most  of  it  is 
consumed  in  trinkets  and  jjresenta  given  by  tho  king, — gold  leaf 
being  imported  from  Cliina  for  gilding  pagodas,  &c.  Iron  abounds 
in  tho  east,  as  at  Lom  and  Mulu  Prey,,  antimony  at  Rapri,  lead  at 
Pak-phrek  and  Suphan,  s'ilver  in  tho  Jle-pik  valley.  Both  tho  lead 
and  copper  ores  are  often  argentiferous. 

JUmate.  Much  of  tho  natural  rainfall  in  Siara  is  intercepted  by  tho  high 
lands  of  the  Jlalacca  peninsula  and  by  the  mountains  on  tho  north- 
west and  north,  while  tho  proximity  of  tho  Gulf  of  Siam  tempers 
the  heat.  Tho  rainfall  at  Bangkok  on  an  average  of  ten  years  is 
67'04  inches,  of  which  60-53  inches  fall  from  May  to  October  in- 
clusive.' Tho  mean  annual  temperature  is  80°-l,  varying  from 
Ti'-S  in  December  to  83°'4  in  April ;  tho  lowest  recorded  absolute 
minimum  was  57°  in  December  1866,  the  highest  recorded  absolute 
maximum  97°-5  in  Jlay  1867.  Tho  north-east  monsoon  bepns  to 
Wow  early  in  November,  jirccedcd  by  a  month  of  variable  weather. 
.It  has  lost  half  its  force  in  January,  and  by  March  strong  south 
and  south-south-west  winds  have  sot  in,  tho  south-west  monsoon 
blowing  then  steadily  and  strongly  till  September.  Thus  there  are 
three  seasons  of  four  months  each, — tho  hot,  rainy,  and  cold. 

As  to  general  features,  the  fauna  of  Siam  is  identical  witl'i  that 
of  Burmah  and  of  southern  Cliina,  and  is  one  of  tho  riche3t  in  tho 
world.    Elephants  nro  very  numerous  in  tho  south  and  cast,  but 


'  But  on  the  neighbouring  ranges  tho  fall  is,  at  Mouhnaia  244  inches, 
dt  Tavoy  202,  at  Mcrgui  165. 


are  isot  found  so  far  north  as  in  India.  They  are  as  intelligent  as 
tie  Indian,  but  usually  less  highly  trained.  AVhite  (albino)  mon-' 
Leys  are  sacred,  as  are  the  elephant,  an  iguana  which  lives  in  the 
house  and  kills  rats  and  other  vermin,  and  the  crow  ;  white  ants' 
nests  are  respected  as  rc::mbling  pagodas,  so  tliat  libraries  are 
often  kept  in  tanks  to  escape  tho  ants'  ravages. 

The  flora  is  very  similar  in  character  to  that  of  Bunnah  and  has 
much  in  common  with  tho  Chinese,  the  transition  to  which  is 
almost  insensible.  The  coast  region  is  characterized  by  mangioves, 
pandanus,  rattans,  and  similar  palms  with  long  flexible  stems,  and 
tho  middle  legion  by  the  great  rice-fields,  the  cocoa-nut  and 
areoa  palms,  and  the  usual  tropical  plants  of  culture.  In  the 
temperate  uplands  of  the  interior,  as  about  Luang  Prabang,  Hima- 
layan and  Japanese  species  occur, — oaks,  pines,  chestnuts,  peach 
and  gi'eat  applo  trees,  raspberries,  honeysuckle,  vines,  saxifrages, 
Cichoracca:,  anemones,  and  Violaccx ;  there  are  many  valuable  tim- 
ber trees, — teak,  sappan,  eagle-wood,  wood-oil  (Uojica),  and  other 
Diptcrocarpctcex,  Ccdrclacex,  Plcrocarpaccx,  Xylia,  iron-wood,  and 
other  dye-woods  and  resinous  trees,  these  last  forming  in  many  dis- 
tricts a  large  proportion  of  the  more  onen  forests,  with  an  under, 
growth  of  bamboo. 

Numerous  caravans  of  cattle,  horses,  mules,  and  porters  pass  Trad*. 
annually  from  Yun-nan  (south-west  China)  to  the  northern  (Siamese) 
SUan  states,  whence  many  of  them  proceed  lia  Chieng-mai  to  Moul-. 
main  (Maulmain).  They  bring  from  China  silk  goods,  tea,  opium.and 
brass  wares,  and  take  back  raw  cotton,  deer  and  rhinoceros  horns, 
ivory,  and  saltpetre.  The  northern  states,  which  are  a  great  breed- 
ing-ground for  cattle  and  ponies — elephants  too  are  exported  into 
Burmah — send  down  teak  and  other  produce.  The  proposed  rail- 
way from  Jloulmain  riaMyawaddi  to  Raheng,  and  thence  to  Kiang- 
sen,  190  miles  from  the  Chinese  frontier,  is  intended  to  stimulate 
not  only  the  traffic  with  China  but  the  local  resources  (see  address 
by  Mr  Holt  Hallett,  C.E. ,  in  London  Chamber  of  Commerce  Journal, 
5th  May  1885).  The  eastern  states,  comprising  nearly  half  the  area 
and  a  considerable  part  of  tho  wealth  of  the  kingdom,  send  much 
produce  via  Korat  to  Bangkok.  They  produce  chiefly  China  grass 
{Bcelimcria  nivca),  sugar,  indigo,  silk,  cardamoms,  cotton,  tobacco, 
sisiet  (a  substitute  for  betel),  beeswax,  benzoin,  lac,  iron,  lime,  sul- 
phur, salt,  coarse  pottery,  mats,  hides,  tigers,  and  bones,  horns,  and 
tusks  of  elephants,  rhinoceroses,  and  boars.  European  cottons  and 
hardware  and  Chinese  goods  penetrate  everywhere,  the  chief  entre- 
pots being  Nangkoi  in  the  east  and  Chieng-mai  in  the  west.  The 
eastern  plains  produce  alternate  crops  of  rice  and  salt.  The  rains 
dissolve  the  salt  in  the  soil  and  wash  it  down,  making  cultivation 
possible.  In  the  dry  season  the  salt  comes  up  again  and  is  swept 
up  from  the  surface.  Much  alcohol  is  distilled  and  consumed.  Vast 
quantities  (6900  to  7900  tons)  of  dried  iish  are  prepared  at  Laka 
'ronle-sap,  and  at  fisheries  on  the  coast.'  Although  silk  has  been 
known  from  remote  antiquity,  it  is  produced  exclusively  by  the  Lao 
CDmmunities  settled  throughout  the  country, — the  chief  centres 
being  Korat  and  Battampong.  The  export  in  1884  was  325  cwts.,  Exports 
valued  at  £19,890;  but  the  best  quality  hardly  reaches  the  Bangkok  and  ilu« 
market,  its  natural  bright  yellow  colour  making  it  diflicult  to  dye.  port*. 
There  is,  however,  not  much  of  it,  the  demand  for  tho  better  kinds 
being  supplied  from  Cambodia.  But  for  the  apathy  and  indolence  of 
the  people  tho  production  might  bo  largely  increased  ;  the  spinning 
and  reeling  apparatus  too  are  very  primitive,  though  some  beautiful 
cloths  are  woven  at  Chieng-mai.  Much  of  tho  trade  in  teak  and  cattlo 
is  worked  by  Burmese ;  otherwise  almost  all  the  trade  of  the  country 
is  in  Chinese  hands.  In  some  of  tho  remoter  districts  barter  is 
resorted  to,  beeswax,  salt,  lac,  and  bars  of  iron  being  mediums  of  ex- 
change ;  but  generally  silver  is  used,  and  sometimes  Indian  rupees. 
Civilization  increases  in  the  eastern  districts  as  the  frontier  of 
China  is  approached.  In  1884  419  vessels  cleared  from  Bangkok 
with  cargoes  valued  at  £27,170;  of  these  240  (tonnage,  161,984) 
were  British.  In  addition,  there  were  143  jnnks  (tonnage,  3350). 
Tho  total  value  of  tho  exports  was  £2,262,240,  rice  being  the  prin- 
cipal item,  £1,444,200.  The  imports  were  valued  at  £1,044,255, 
the  chief  items  being — grey  and  white  shirtings,  £161,997  ;  opium 
(704  chests),  £81,410  ;  chowls,  i.e.,  shamls,  a  cotton  cloth  from 
Bombay,  £105,264.  In  1885  tlio  exports  were  v.aliud  at  £l,907,00f 
and  tho  imports  at  £1,380,233.  Tho  exports  being  in  excess 
of  tho  imports,  tho  difl'erence  is  paid  in  Jlexicnn  dollars,  which 
are  melted  down  and  re-coined, — tho  silver  coinage  being  the 
standard  of  weight. 

Tho  money  and  weights  seem  to  be  tho  same  as  tho  Old  Cam- 
bodian. A  copper  coinage  has  reiilaced  tho  cowries,  and  there  ie 
also  a  silver  coinage,  viz.,  the  fuanK  =  7i  cents,  thoE-ilungslS  contf, 
the  bat  or  tikal  =  60  cents  or  half  a  crown,  6  tikals  =  3  Mexican 
dollars.  From  tho  tikal  upwards  these  coins  aro  also  used  as 
measures  of  weight.  Thus  1  tikol  weighs  16  grammes  or  281 
grains,  4  tikals  =  l  lanilung,  20  tanilungarrl  chang  or  catty,  or 
two  Chinese  catties,  =  3'2  Jb.     There  aro  a  few  gold  coins,  but  not 

"  During  tho  floods  v.avt  quantities  of  Iish  swarm  into  the  rice- 
grounds  and  aro  caught  when  tho  water  recedes,  furnishing  a  valuabW 
and  abundant  food-supplv. 


852 


S  I  A  III 


in  general  circulation.    Their  value  is  sixteen  times  their  weight 
in  silver. 

The  land-tax  is  fixed  at  ten  per  cent.,  the  first  person  who  clears 
land  being  entitled  to  hold  it.    The  tax  on  garden  produce  and  on 
fruit  trees  is  higher,  but  is  fixed  at  intervals  of  some  fifteen  years, 
or  at  the  beginning  of  a  reign.    There  is  a  corvee.of  four  months  in 
the  year,  to  which  all  classes  except  the  nobles  and  the  priesthood 
are  theoretically  liable,  but  it  maybe  commuted  for  a  poll-tax  of 
from  6  to  18  tikals,  payable  either  directly  in  money  to  Government 
or  to  the  feudal  superior,  for  all  except  the  nobility  are  thus  de 
pendent  on  a  superior  -.in  the  provinces  it  is  payable  in  kind  through 
the  governor.    A  smaller  amount,  VA  tikals,  is  payable  by  masters 
for  their  slaves.    But  there  are  some  considerate  exceptions,  viz., 
persons  over  sixty  or  under  eighteen  years  of  age,  or  who  have  three 
sons  paying  the  tax,  and  cases  of  incurable  illness.    If  a  special 
demand  for  labour  be  made  there  is  exemption  from  poll-tax  for 
that  year.    The  Chinese  only  pay  4li  tikals  triennially,  and  Euro- 
peans are  exempted.    There  is  a  tax  on  houses,  on  amusements 
(theatricals,  dancers.  &c.),  and  on   fishing-boats,  nets,  and  other 
tackle.    There  is  a  royalty  on  tin,  and  the  sale  of  opium  and  of 
alcohol  is  aGovernment  monopoly,  farmed  to  Chinese.    Three  per 
cent,  is  levied  by  treaty  on  British  and  other  foreign  imports,  export 
duties  on  a  great  number  of  raw  articles,  and  inland  or  transit  dues 
on  certain  tropical  products.    The  revenue  from  all  these  sources 
Is  estimated  at  80,000  catties  (£800.000). 
Adminis-    Tht  uead  of  the  administration  is  the  ldng,with  five  ministers,— 
Utilion.  viz.,  of  war,  foreign  affairs,  northern  provinces,  agriculture,  justice, 
—and  some  thirty  councillors.    The  office  known  to  Europeans  as 
"second  king"  (Siamese  iraji^-jid,  lit.,  "  front  palace  ")  is  difficult 
to  define,  as  the  share  taken  in  government  by  him  depends  very 
much  on  his  individual  character.    He  has  a  palace  and  an  official 
establishment,  and  a  few  soldiers  at  his  orders.    The  country  is 
divided  into  forty-one  provinces,  excluding  the  Laos  and  Malay 
states,  and  the  Cambodian  provinces.  The  provinces  are  of  different 
grades.and  their  governors  have  very  different  degrees  of  authority. 
Speaking  generally,  they  have  cognizance  of  all  civil  cases,— though 
there  is  an  appeal  to  the  capital  ( which  generally  reaches  its  destina- 
tion, as  the  governor's  council  not  as  spies),  —and  of  minor  criminal 
cases.    The  graver  crimes,  as  murder  and   dacoity,  involving  a 
question  of  life  or  death  committed  InSiam  proper,  are  referred  to 
a  special  department  in  the  capital.    Villages  are  governed  by  a 
head-man  {kamnan,  amp'hon,  or  7in*/io«),  sometimes  with  a  small 
salary,  chosen  usually  in  accordance  with  the  popular  wish,  and 
dependent  on  the  provincial  capital.    The  Siamese  mandarins  in 
the  Lao  provinces  do  not  oppress  overmuch,  nor  do  the  native 
chiefs,  since  their  power  depends  on  their  popularity.    Besides  the 
lower  grades  there  are  always  four  principal  officials,  the  c/ino.lord 
or  king,  the  uparat.rnchavanqsa,  and  rncluibiitr  (the  first  title  of 
Chinese,  the  others  of  Indian  origin).    These  are  hereditary  in  one 
or  two  families,  any  disputed  succession  being  referred  to  Bangkok. 
The  Siamese  law  is  recognized,  but  the  national  "customs"  are 
much  regarded,  and  in  ordinary  cases  followed.    Civil  and  crim- 
inal processes  alike  end  usually  in  a  fine.    Besides  the  capitation 
tax,  there  is  a  duty  on  rice,  and  each  state  pays  tribute  to  Bangkok. 
The  tie  between  Bangkok  and  the  Malay  states  is  slighter,  being 
confined  usually  to  interference  in  cases  of  disputed  succession, 
and  to  a  triennial  tribute  of  a  gold  or  silver  tree  or  flower.    The 
rules  of  procedure  in  Siam  are  very  strict,  but  theoretically  there 
is  no  hereditary  rank. 

The  laws  of  Siam  are  ancient,  though  not  very  full  or  complete, 
B  great  part  having  been  lost  at  the  sack  of  Ayuthia  In  1753. 
Generally  speaking,  they  are  referable  to  an  Indian  origin,  especi- 
ally as  regards  religious,  moral,  and  ceremonial  ordinances;  the 
civil  and  criminal  codes  bear  the  impress  of  Chinese  influence. 
There  are  several  digests  of  the  law.  some  centuries  old.  under  sys- 
tematic headings,  f.  !;.,of  the  civil  law,  real  and  personal  property, 
inheritance,  ranks,  evidence  and  ordeal,  marriage,  education,  pa- 
rental authority,  slavery,  money,  weights  and  measures, contracts, 
and  of  the  penal  code,  crimes,  punishments,  police,  prisons.  The 
king  is  abo-"ute.  but  claims  no  absolute  rights  over  the  land.  Great 
'attention  i3  paid  to  precedents.  Among  the  peculiarities  of  the 
igystem  are  the  employment  of  ordeal-  by  diving  or  chewing  rice, 
&c.— 'n  the  absence  of  witnesses,  and  the  rejection  of  the  evidence 
of  certain  classes,  viz..  drnukards  gamblers,  virgins,  executioners, 
beggars,  T,or3ons  who  cannot  read,  and  bad  characters.  When  a 
crime^s  c?ramitted  the  family  and  even  neighbours  of  the  accused 
ran  be  held  responsible  for  liis  appearance.  The  property  of  in- 
testates goes  to  the  kiug.  of  aU'  intestate  priest  to  his  monastery; 
tut  the  neglect  of  the  heir  to  perform  funeral  rites  renders  his  claim 
to  property  invalid, -a  curious  relic  of  Hindu  feeling.  Another 
trace  of  this  may  be  found  in  the  hereditary  professions,  though 
their  doctrinal  significance  as  castes  has  disapi)eared.  The  laws 
have  many  curious  and  not  inequitable  provisions  about  slavery 
(see  below)  f.r;.. if  a  temporary  (debtor)  slave  has  undergone  punish- 
ment or  suffering  for  his  master,  his  debt  shall  be  remitted  wholly 
or  in  part ;  but,  if  he  is  a  slave  absolutely,  his  master  is  not  legally 
liable.    And  there  are  well-defined  rules  as  to  non-fulfilment  of 


ccn.act  with  a  slave,  his  maintenance  during  famine,  injury  by- 
accidents,  employment  as  a  substitute  in  war,  &c.  Slaves  who  are 
allowed  to  become  priests  or  nuns  are  free. 

All  men  are  liable  to  serve  in  war;  but  only  from  4,000  to  5,000,  Army 
taken  from  classes  specially  at  the  disposal  of  the  war  department,  and 
are  regularily  trained  under  European  officers.  The  capital  and  fur-  Marj 
rounding  forts  are    garrisoned,  and   there   is  a    body  of  palace 
guards.    The  fleet  consists  of  some  twenty  men-of-war  and  arms; 
steamers  and  .500  junks. 

The  population  is  estimated  by  the  Siamese  Government  at 
6,000,000  for  Siam  proper,  3,000,000  Siamese  Laos,  and  1,000,000 
Malays;  others  estimate  it  variously  at  from  6,000,000  to  8,000,000.jl 
There  are  besides  perhaps  from  1,500,000  to  2,000,000  Chinese;  In 
lower  Siam  the  population  is  clustered  along  the  rivers  and  canals; 
in  the  diversified  hill  and  plain  country  to  the  north  it  is  distrib- 
uted more  generally.  In  character  the  Siamese  are  mild,  patient, 
and  submissive  to  authority.  They  are  hospitable  to  strangers 
and  to  the  poor;  quarrels,  violent  crimes,  and  suicides  are  rare. 
But  they  are  idle  and  apathetic;  much  time  is  devoted  to  amuse- 
ments, as  festivals  and  processions,  boat  races,  games,  cock  and  dog 
fighting,  and  even  combats  between  fish.  The  position  of  women 
is  good,  although  girls  can  be  sold  as  wives.  The  Chinese  popula- 
tion are  energetic  and  industrious,  but  very  independent,  and 
sometimes  give  trouble,  so  that  their  increasing.numbers  and  organ- 
ization through  their  secret>ocieties  are  a  source  of  anxiety.  The 
Siamese  are  of  mediumheight,  well  formed,  with  olive  complexion, 
darker  than  Chinese,  but  fairer  and  handsomer  than  Malays,  eyes 
well  shaped,  nose  slightly  flattened,  lips  a  little  prominent,  the 
face  wide  across  the  cheek  bones,  top  of  forehead  pointed  and  chin 
short,  thus  giving  the  face  a  lozenge  shape,  beard  scanty  and  with 
hairs  pulled  out.hairof  head  coarse  and  black.  But  intermarriage 
during  many  ages  with  Peguans,  Laos,  and  Cambodians  (though 
in  many  cases  they  and  their  descendents  keep  themselves  apart), 
as  well  as  of  slaves  from  the  aboriginal  races,  has  produced  much 
variety  of  type.  Besides  the  Karens,  who  are  the  remnant  of  a 
more  widely  extended  people,  and  who  are  found  on  the  borders  ol 
Siam  and  Burmah  and  throughout  the  mountains  of  north  and  west 
Siam,  the  Lawas  in  the  same  region,  and  the  Khongs,  a  settled 
people  inland  from  the  north  eastern  angle  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam, 
many  other  tribes  of  the  earlier  inhabitants  are  found  occupying 
the  whole  of  the  forest  region  on  both  sides  of  ;the  Me-koug,  and 
known  to  their  different  neighbours  by  various  names, all  probably 
meaning  simply  "man,"  or  "savage,"  as  Kha,  Moi,  Pnom,Lolo. 
These  eastern  tribes  more  or  less  resemble  each  other.  They  are 
shy  and  timid,  some  having  no  chiefs  or  social  organization,  and 
these  are  preyed  on  or  hunted  down  as  slaves  by  their  more  civil- 
ized fellows  in  combination  with  the  Laos.  One  division  of  these 
tribes,  the  Kouis  (the  name  recalls  the  savage  "  Gueos  "  ui  the 
Portuguese),  amalgamates  readily  with  the  Laos  and  in  some  pro- 
vinces forms  the  bulk  of  the  populatiou.  They  live  by  cultivating 
rice,  by  collecting  honey,  beeswax,  and  resin,  or  by  the  chase. 
Their  women  are  absolutely  free  before  marriage,  but  adultery  if 
punished  with  death.  They  worship  ancestral  and  other  spiritt 
and  can  hardly  be  called  Buddhists.  Yet  with  a  few  exceptions 
these  earlier  peoples  are  by  no  means  inferior  in  appearance  to 
the  Thai  or  Siamese,  but  often  the  contrary;  some  ethnologists 
assign  them  a  Caucasian  origin,  and  identify  them  with  the  brown 
Polynesian  race. 

Slavery  is  general,  but  consists  mainly  of  bondage  for  debt,  a 
debtor  being  able  to  sell  himself,  wife,  or  children,  or  nephews  or 
nieces,— their  freedom  being  recoverable  on  payment  of  the  debt. 
But  the  present  enlightened  ruler  has  set  his  face  against  th« 
practice,  and  decreed  its  abolition,  except  in  the  Laos  provinces  and 
in  the  eastern  states.  The  market  is  further  recruited,  first  by  the 
sale  of  offenders,  who  have  the  option. between  death  and  slavery, 
and  secondly  by  slave-hunting  raids,  made  in  combination  with  the 
Anamites.  on  the  villages  of  the  wilder  aborigines.  These  are 
disposed  of  on  the  spot  or  else  to  dealers  from  Cambodia  or 
Siam  proper. 

Bangkok  (g.v.)vras  established  as  the  capital  in  1782  after  the 
sack  of  Ayuthia  by  the  Burmese.  Its  population  was  estimated  at 
about  300.000  in  1886.  Ayuthia,  now  called  Kruug-krao,  the  famous 
capital  founded  in  1.351  and  half  destroyed  by  the  Burmese  in  1767, 
was  a  generation  ago  the  second  city  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  still  im- 
portant as  the  entrepftt  of  the  trade  of  south  Laos.  Many  junks  and 
fishermen  ccrr.2  up  from  Bangkok.  The  modern  town  is  chiefly  on 
the  water.  In  its  most  prosperous  days  in  the  16th  century  it  was 
three  leagues  in  circumference,  and  contained  distinct  quarters  for 
foreigners  of  different  nationalities— Chinese,  Peguans,  Malays, 
Malabars,  Japanese,  and  Portuguese.  Prominent  among  its  great 
buildings  is  the  pyramidal  structure  called  the  Golden  Mount, 
some  400  feet  tjigh.  surmounted  by  a  dome  and  spire;  but  most  of 
them  are  now  crumbling  away  into  great  broken  masses  of  sculp- 
tured masonry,  statues,  and  spires,  half  buried  under  the  vegeta- 
tion of  the  tropics.  Chantaburi.  near  the  Cambodian  frontier,  the 
second  port  of  the  kingdom,  is  noted  for  its  shipbuilding  and  fisher- 
ies.and  has  an  active  export  trade  from  the  south-eastern  provinces. 
There  are  considerable  Chinese  and  Burmese  elements  m  thepopula- 


a 


r 


S  1  A  iM 


853 


Hon,  which  in  many  of  these  southern  towns  is  much  mixed. 
Faknam,  the  port  of  Bangkok,  3  miles  from  the  river's  mouth,  is 
fortified,  as  is  Paklat  Lang,  5  miles  higher  up,  which  is  inhabited 
chiefly  by  Peguans.  Various  canals  extend  hence  across  the  delta 
towards  the  Me-klong.  Near  its  mouth  is  the  town  of  Me-klong, 
peopi'^d  by  Chinese  merchants,  fishermen,  and  gardeners.  Higher 
up  the  river,at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  is  I'rapri,  peopled  by  descendants 
of  Cambodian  captives.  Pechaburi,alittle  to  the  south,  at  the  foot 
of  a  range  some  l.iOO  feet  high,  where  the  king  has  a  palace,  is  built 
after  English  designs;  its  inhabitants  are  Pegunns.  Petrin,  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam,on  the  Kharayok  river,  has  sugar 
plantations  cultivated  by  Chinese.  At  Baugplasoi,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  are  e-xtensive  fisheries.  Raheng,  some  ;;00  miles  up  the 
Me-nam,  possesses  docks, and  there  a  good  many  teak  ships  are  built. 
In  the  Lao  or  Shan  couutry  to  the  north  ChicuK-niai  (Zimmv)  is  the 
most  important  tributary  state.  Its  capital,  Chieug-mai,  the  Jan- 
gomai  of  early  European  travellers,  is  the  principal  town  of  that 
region,  with  broad  streets  of  good  teak-built  houses,  surrounded 
with  gardens,  numerous  pagodas,  markets,  and  a  large  population. 
It  lies  In  the  wide  fertile  valley  of  the  Xle-piug,  and  is  a  great 
entrep6t  of  trade  from  Bangkok  and  southwest  China  (Yun-nan 
>nd  Ssmao),  which  finds  its  natural  outlet  thence  to  the  Bay  of 
Bengal.  The  rice,  timber,  Ac,  of  the  districts  through  which 
this  route  passes  are  considerable.  Lapong,  in  the  same  valley, 
and  Lagong,  on  a  neighbouring  tributary,  are  Lao  towns  of 
less  importance  and  subordinate  to  Chieng-mai,  as  were  formerly 
Nan  and  Pre,  fertile  teak-producing  valleys  to  the  east.  Kiang- 
hal  and  Kiang-seu,  farther  north,  on  the  Mekong,  were  old  Lao 
capitals  of  note  (see  SHANS),as  was  Luang  Prabang,  with  its  charm- 
ing capital,  which,  like  Chieng-mai,  still  retains  some  administra- 
tive independence.  The  extensive  fertile  and  partly  wooded  plains 
to  the  north  and  east  support  great  herds  of  cattle.  With  Vien- 
chang,alittle  lower  down  the  river,  Luang  Prabang  held  its  own  for 
centuries  against  both  Siam  and  Burmah.  On  the  destruction  of 
Vien-chang  in  1828,  Naugkoi,  25  miles  lower  down,  increased  in  size 
and  Importance,  and  now  has  an  extensive  trade  iu  Kiiglish  and 
Chinese  goods.  This  district  might  perhaps  without  much  dillicuity 
be  opened  up  by  an  easy  route  starting  from  Lakhon,  only  130  miles 
distant  from  the  sea.  One  of  the  most  important  provincial  centres 
is  the  district  of  Korat,  on  the  eastern  plateau.  The  country  is  a 
series  of  fertile  oases  separated  by  tracts  of  waterless  fores  t, con  taiu- 
Ing  good  timber,  and  full  of  game.  The  town  is  fortified,  and  has 
about  thirty  pagodas  and  some  well-builthouses, belonging  chiefly 
to  the  Chinese  merchants.  Cart  roads  converge  hither  with  the 
traffic  both  of  north  Laos  and  of  the  Cambodian  provinces  south 
and  east,  the  latter  passing  up  the  fertile  Moun  valley  on  Its  way 
to  Bangkok.  The  whole  region  between  the  Daug-rck  Mountains 
and  the  Moun  river  is  full  of  splendid  ruins,  attesting  the  former 
Cambodian  influence  as  far  at  least  as  10'  north,  to  which  limit, 
therefore,  the  southward  movement  of  the  Laos  may  be  supposed 
to  have  reached  at  the  date  of  these  buildings.  The  principal 
ruins  of  the  district  are  found  at  Korat,  Bassac,  Phinial,  and  Ku- 
khan.  The  cluiracter  of  this  wonderful  series  of  buildings,  the 
greatest  of  which,  those  of  Angkor,  are  on  Siamese  territory,  have 
been  touched  on  under  Cambodia  (7.  !■.),  to  which  they  properly 
belong;  but  it  may  bo  mentioned  here  that  the  earliest  Inscription 
yet  found,  relating  to  the  erection  of  a  Sivalte  linga.Is  Interi)rctcd 
as  belonging  to  589  Baka=6il7  a.d.  though  auother,  undated,  refers 
to  three  generations  earlier.  The  earliest  references  Indisputably 
Buddhist  that  have  been  found  are  three  centuries  later  than  this. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  schools  iu  the  capital,  educatiou 
Is  entirely  In  the  hands  of  the  priests,  the  boysgolug  to  the  temples 
between  the  ago  of  eight  or  nine  and  thirteen.  The  teaching  Is 
elementary, and, by  the  precepts  of  Buddhism,  must  be  gratuitous, 
the  pupils  repaying  I  thy  menial  services  in  house  or  boat  or  garden, 
or  by  presents  of  food.  At  thirteen  the  boy  enters  on  a  novitiate, 
which  lasts  till  the  age  of  twenty-one;  but.  If  not  inclined  for 
study,  he  may  give  It  up  after  three  or  four  months,— this  tem- 
po^'ary  consecration  symboli/.lng  a  separation  from  the  world.  At 
twenty-one.  If  so  disposed,  he  may  enter  the  priesthood  ;  but  there 
are  no  perpetual  vows,  Ulrls  are  taught.  If  at  all,  only  ut  home, 
by  parents  or  brothers.  There  are  no  educational  endowments;  but 
a  certain  niimljer  of  persons  occupy  themselves  with  literary  stud- 
ies,a-s  liistory,  astrology, or  alcbemy,  with  which  medicine  is  more 
or  less  combined.  MetUcal  jiructice.  Indeed,  comprises  agood  deal 
of  magic;  but  there  Is  also  considerable  knowledge  of  me<llclual 
herbs,  and  ancient  medical  works  were  written  In  I'all.  Inoculn- 
tlon  was  long  ago  Introduced  by  the  Chinese,  and  vaccination 
lately  by  Euro[)ean  missionaries.  Women  after  childbirth  are 
exposed  for  some  time  to  the  heat  of  a  strong  fire,  the  result  being 
Boroetlmcs  fatal. 

Skill  Is  shc'vn  In  the  casting  of  large  metal  statues  BO  feet  high 
or  more.  In  riimKKrf  work  In  gold  and  sliver.  In  enamelling  on 
metals,  and  In  gold  ami  silver  tissue  w<irk.  Their  drawing  Is 
spirited,  but  strictly  conventloiuil.  The  syslem  of  music  Is  elabo- 
rate, but  with  no  written  notation.  There  Is  no  harniony,  but  all 
the  Instruments  of  the  orchestra  play  in  unison,  breaking  oft  luto 


variations  and  then  returnjng  to  the  air.  They  are  proud  of  their 
national  music,  and  both  men  and  women  play  and  sing  generally. 
Their  instruments  are— a  harmonicon  with  wooden  or  meta!  bare 
struck  with  a  hammer,  a  two-stringed  and  a  three-stringed  v'clln, 
flutes,  drums,  and  pipes,  also  the  Lao  "  organ,"  the  tones  of  wblch, 
produced  by  metal  tongues  in  the  pipes,  are  very  effective. 

The  Buddhism  of  Slara  Is  the  same  as  that  of  Ceylon,  w'th  slight 
doctrinal  differences,  much  insisted  on,  from  the  Burmese.  Il  is, 
however,  professed  in  its  purity  by  very  few.  The  religious  re- 
form initiated  by  King  Phra  Mongkut,  himself  for  many  years  a 
priest,  has  divided  the  people  of  the  capital  into  two  sects,— tha 
reformed,  known  as  Dhammayut,  and  the  older  or  unreformed, 
Phra  Maha  Xikai.  The  former  attach  more  weight  to  the  obser- 
vance of  the  canon  than  to  meditation.  The  other  sect  Is  again 
divided  luto  two  parties,  the  one  holding  more  to  meditation,  the 
other  to  the  study  of  the  scriptures.  The  only  Brahmanical 
temple  remaining  in  the  country  is  at  Bangkok,  and  its  priests  are 
said  to  be  of  Indian  descent.  Brahmans,  however,  are  constantly 
employed  in  divination,  in  fixing  the  fortunate  days  for  warlike 
expeditions,  business  transactions,  marriages,  and  the  like,  and  ia 
arranging  festivals.  Buddhism  is  corrupted  by  a  general  worship 
or  propitiation  of  nats  or  phees  (spirits  or  demons) ;  superstition 
iu  the  more  remote  districts  constitutes  practically  tae  only  reli- 
gion. The  belief  in  these  spirits  informs  and  affects  every  depart- 
ment of  life.  There  are  local  earth  divinities  to  whom  temples 
or  shrines  are  erected.  Others  with  human  or  animal  form  dwell 
in  the  water.  Others  cause  children  to  sicken  and  die.  Others 
wander  and  deceive  as  ignca  Jatui.  By  certain  spells  men  cai; 
become  tigers  or  were-wolves.  Bodies  of  the  dead  are  sometlmei; 
possessed,  and  they  are  carried  out  not  by  the  door  but  by  an 
extemporized  opening,  so  that  they  may  not  be  able  to  find  their 
way  back.  The  numerous  offerings  and  honours  paid  to  these 
spirits  lead  to  drunkenness  and  to  killing  of  animals  in  sacrifice. 
Phallic  worship  prevails  to  a  considerable  extent,  notwithstanding 
the  efforts  of  the  king  to  put  it  down.  A  female  incarnation  ol 
deity,  the  Nang  Tim,  is  found  In  one  or  two  villages  of  east  Laos. 
Pilgrimages  are  frequently  made  to  sacred  places  with  Indian 
names  (all  the  chief  towns,  indeed,  have  an  oflicial  Itidian  name). 
Many  of  the  figures  aud  designs  employed  In  the  ornamentation  ol 
houses  are  really  talismans  intended  to  avert  evil.  The  temples, 
with  their  surrounding  monastic  establishments,  form  a  conspicu- 
ous feature  everywhere.  Some  are  very  extensive,  covering  alto- 
gether an  area  of  100  orl50  acres.  New  temples  are  often  built,  01 
the  priests'  quarters  in  the  existing  buildings  repaired,  by  rich  men 
desirous  of  "acquiring  merit."  The  temples  {unts)  hold  very  little 
landed  or  house  property;  but,  where  they  have  been  built  or  re' 
paired  by  the  king, or  presented  to  him  by  some  high  official,  they 
enjoy  a  small  income  chargeable  on  the  revenues  of  the  district,  be- 
sides receiving  presents  from  the  king  when  he  visits  them  in 
state.  The  priests  of  such  temples  are  bound  in  return  to  give  their 
services  at  state  ceremonies,  and  their  secular  affairs.  Including 
repairs  of  tem[)les  and  discipliuary  ijiatters,  are  administered  by  a 
special  department  of  state.  There  remain  now  at  Bangkok  only 
two  communities  of  nuns,  who  are  employed  In  the  service  of  the 
temples,  aud  are  allowed  to  receive  voluntary  offerings. 

The  numerous  public  festivals  are  partly  connecte<i  with  religion, 
but  are  accompanied  with  much  rejoicing  and  amusement.  Among 
them  are  the  lunar  ami  the  fixed  New-Year's  Day,  and  the  festival 
of  agriculture,  when  the  plough  is  guided  by  the  minister,  the 
ladies  of  the  court  following  and  sowing  seeds,  which  are  picked 
up  by  the  people  to  add  to  their  usual  sowings.  At  the  ceremony 
at  which  tlie  king  aud  his  ministers  jdedge  themselves,  the  former 
to  administer  impartial  justice,  the  latter  to  be  faithful  and  loyal 
In  their  service,  the  oath  Is  taken  by  drinking  water,  and  the  meet 
lug  of  the  king  and  nobles,  with  all  the  attendant  paraphernalia, 
forms  a  gorgeous  siiectacle,  the  day  terminating  with  fireworks  and 
processions  of  boats.  On  the  king's  state  visits  to  the  unts  there 
are  festive  processions  of  boats  and  troops.  Other  festivals  are  at 
the  beginning  and  end  of  the  raluy  season,  \vhen  the  floods  begin 
10  subside  there  is  a  great  water  procession,  and  the  priests  com- 
mand the  waters  to  retire.  Even  the  cutting  of  the  king's  hair  Is 
made  an  occasion  tor  rejoicing.  In  every  family  the  culling  at  the 
age  of  twelve  or  thirteen,  of  the  tuft  left  on  the  top  ol  tlw  head  Is  a 
great  ceremony;  It  Is  not  practised,  except  by  way  of  Imitation, 
among  the  Laos.  The  head  Is  considered  very  sacred  ( this  Is  a  char- 
acteristic Papuan  notion);  no  one  must  touch  It,  nor  may  It  Iw 
raised  above  that  of  u  superior,  as  In  a  carriage  or  boat.  The  funeral 
ceremonies  of  a  jirince  orgrcat  man,  often  delayed  for  some  months 
after  death,  are  also  attendeil  by  elnborale  feaHtlng.  dancing,  and 
other  omusements  In  temporary  buildings  erected  for  the  ]utrp080. 
The  dead,  with  the  exception  of  the  poor,  wliose  bodies  are  given  to 
the  vultures  and  wild  beasts. and  women  who  die  In  childbirth,  are 
usually  burned  within  the  iiiif«.the  ashes  being  preserved.'-' mixed 
w  Ith  lime  to  plaster  the  sacred  walls.  A  rich  man  wlil  *'en  be- 
t|neath  a  limb  to  the  birds  and  beasts. 

The  Siamese  month  Is  lunar,  and,  us  a  lunar  month  contains  29!^ 
days,  they  give  the  odd  months  'W  and  the  even  30.    This  gives 


854 


S  I  A  M 


a  year  of  354  days,  and  to  make  up  tlie  deficiency  they  intercalate 
seven  or  eight  montlis  in  nineteen  years,  and  add  besides  an  occa- 
Bional  day  to  the  seventli  month.  The  years  are  denoted  by  a 
cycle  of  twelve  names  (of  animals)  taken  in  decades,  so  that  every 
sixtieth  year  the  year  of  a  given  name  returns  to  the  same  place 
in  the  decade.  The  system  resembles  the  Indian  cycle  of  si.xty 
years,  but  it  is  derived  from  China,  where  it  dates  from  2637  B.C. 
■Ttvo  eras  are  in  use,  the  Putta  Sakarat  or  Buddhist,  used  in  reli- 
gious matters,  Tvhich  commences  543  n.c,  and  the  civil  era  or 
Chula  Sakarat  {i.e.,  little  era),  said  to  commemorate  the  establish- 
ment of  Buddhism  in  63S  a.d.  The  ancient  Aryan  inscriptions 
usually  employ  the  Saka  (Salivahana)  era,  dating  from  79  a.d. 

History. — The  name  "Siam"  has  been  usually  derived  from  a 
Malay  word,  sajam,  "brown";  but  this  is  mere  conjecture.  They 
and  the  Shans  both  call  themselves  Thai  (Siian  Tai),  i.e.,  "free," 
and  the  Peguans  call  them  Shan  or  Shian,  which  seems  to  be  a 
translation  of  "Thai"  and  an  allied  word,  as  are  perhaps  Ahom  = 
Assam,  and  Sara  (Assamese  for  Shan).  The  obsolete  Siamese  word  is 
Siem  and.  the  Chinese  Sien-lo, — the  Sien  being,  according  to  thera,  a 
tribe  which  came  from  the  north  about  1341  and  united  with  the  Lo- 
hoh,  who  had  previously  occupied  the  shores  of  the  gulf,  and  were 
probably  Shans.  The  Siamese  call  the  Shans  Thai-nyai,  "Great 
Thai,"  perhaps  as  having  preceded  them,  and  themselves  Thai-noi  or 
"Little  Thai."  They  are  probably  therefore  closely  related,  though 
this  is  disputed  by  De  Rosny  and  others;  but  the  inferior  physique 
of  the  Siamese  may  be  explained  as  due  to  intercourse  with  Malays 
and  other  southern  races  and  to  their  more  enorvating  climate, 
lleanwhile  for  many  centuries  before  the  southward  move  above 
referred  to  the  entire  south  as  well  as  south-east  of  the  Indo-Chinese 
peninsula  was  Cambodian.  The  town  of  Lapong  is  said  to  have  been 
tounded  in  575,  and  the  half-mythical  kin^,  Phra  Ruang,  to  have 
freed  the  Siamese  from  the  Cambodian  yoke  and  founded  Sang- 
kalok,  on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Me-nam,  in  the  following  century. 
Buddhism  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  in  his  time,  but  Indian 
Influences  had  penetrated  the  country  both  from  the  north  and 
from  the  south  long  before  this.  Other  Lao  towns  were  built  about 
the  7th  century,  and  during  the  following  centuries  this  branch  of 
the  race  gradually  advanced  southwards,  driving  the  Karens,  Lawas, 
and  other  tribes  into  the  hills,  and  encroaching  on  what  had  hitherto 
been  Cambodian  territory.  Their  southward  progress  may  indeed 
almost  be  traced  by  their  successive  capitals,  several  of  which  are 
clustered  on  the  Me-nam  within  a  short  distance  of  each  other, 
viz.,  Phitsalok,  Sukkothai,  and  Sangkalok  on  the  eastern  branch, 
NaVhon  Savan  at  the  junction,  and  Kamphong-pet,  the  immediate 
precursor  of  Ayuthia,  on  the  western  branch.  A  Sukkothai  inscrip- 
tion of  aboutrl2S4  states  that  the  dominions  of  King  Rama  Kamheng 
extended  across  the  country  from  the  Me-kong  to  Pechaburi,  and 
thence  down  the  Gulf  of  Siam  to  Ligor  ;  and  the  Malay  annals  say 
that  the  Siamese  had  penetrated  to  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula 
before  the  first  Malay  colony  from  Menangkabu  founded  Singapore, 
i.e.,  about  1160.  The  ancestors  of  the  Siamese  were  then  on  the 
wiistern  branch  of  the  Me-nam,  and  in  1351,  under  the  famous 
Piiaya  Uthong  (afterwards  styled  Phra  Rama  Thibodi,  and  prob- 
!»bly  of  a  Shan  family)  moved  down  from  Kamphong-pet,  where 
they  had  been  for  five  generations,  to  Chaliang  ;  and,  being  driven 
thence,  it  is  said,  by  a  pestilence,  they  established  themselves 
at  Ayuthia.  This  king's  sway  extended  to  Moulmain,  Tavoy, 
Tenasserim,  and  the  whole  Malacca  peninsula  (where  among  the 
traders  from  the  West  Siam  was  known  as  Soman,  i.e.,  Shahr-i-nan 
or  Kewtown,  probably  in  allusion  to  Ayuthia, — Yule's  Marco  Polo, 
ii.  260),  and  was  felt  even  in  Java.  This  is  corroborated  by  Javan 
records,  which  describe  a  "  Cambodian  "  invasion  about  1340  ;  but 
Cambodia  was  itself  invaded  about  this  time  by  the  Siamese,  who 
took  Angkor  and  held  it  for  a  time,  carrying  off  90,000  captives. 
The  great  southward  expansion  here  recorded,  whether  of  one  or  of 
two  allied  Thai  tribes,  confirms  in  a  remarkable  way  the  Chinese 
statement  above  mentioned,  and  was  probably  a  consequence  or  a 
part  of  the  great  contemporaneous  activity  of  the_  more  northern 
Shan  kingdom  of  Man.  The  wars  with  Cambodia  continued  with 
varying  success  for  some  400  yeai-s,  but  Cambodia  gradually  lost 
ground  and  was  finally  shorn  of  several  provinces,  her  sovereign 
falling  entirely  under  Siamese  influence.  This,  however,  latterly 
became  displeasing  to  the  French,  now  in  Cochin  China,  and  Siam 
has  been  obliged  to  recognize  the  protectorate  forced  on  Cambodia 
by  that  power.  Vigorous  attacks  were  also  made  during  this  period 
on  the  Lao  states  to  the  north-west  and  north-east,  followed  by 
vast  deportation  of  the  people,  and  Siamese  supremacy  was  pretty 
firmly  established  in  Chieng-mai  and  its  dependencies  by  the  end 
of  the  ISth  centixry,  and  over  the  great  eastern  capitals,  Luang 
Prabang  and  Vien-cbang,  about  1828.  During  the  15th  and  16th 
•jenturies  Siam  was  frequently  invaded  by  the  Burmese  and  Peguans, 
who,  attracted  probably  by  the  great  wealth  of  Ayuthia,  besieged 
it  more  than  once  without  success,  the  defenders  being  aided  by 
Portuguese  mercenaries,  till  about  1555,  when  the  city  was  taken 
an<i  Siam  reduced  to  dependence.  From  this  condition,  however, 
it  Was  raised  a  few  years  later  by  the  great  conqueror  and  national 
hero  Phra  Naret,  who  after  subduing  Laos  and  Cambodia  invaded 


Pegu,  which  was  utterly  overthrown  in  the  next  century  by  his 
successors.  Eutafter  the  civil  wars  of  the  18th  century  the  Bm-mese, 
having  previously  taken  Chicng-mai,  which  appealed  to  Siam  for 
help,  entered  Tenasserim  and  took  Mcrgui  and  Tavoy  in  1764, 
and  then  advancing  simultaneously  from  the  north  and  the  west 
captured  and  destroyed  Ayuthia  after  a  two  years'  siege  (1767). 

The  intercourse  between  France  and  Siam  began  about  1580  under 
Phra  Narain,  who,  by  the  advice  of  his  minister,  the  Cephalonian 
adventurer  C'onstantine  Phaulcon,  sent  an  embassy  to  Louis  XIV. 
■\V!ien  the  return  mission  arrived,  thceagcrness  of  the  ambassador 
for  the  king's  conversion  to  Christianity,  added  to  the  intrigues  of 
Phaulcon  with  the  Jesuits  with  the  supposed  intention  of  establish- 
ing a  French  supremacy,  led  to  the  death  of  Phaulcon,  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Christians,  and  the  cessation  of  all  intercourse  with 
France.  An  interesting  episode  was  the  active  intercourse,  chiefly 
commercial,  between  the  Siamese  and  Japanese  Governments  from 
1592  to  1602.  Many  Japanese  settled  in  Siam,  where  they  were 
much  employed.  They  were  dreaded  as  soldiers,  and  as  individuals 
commanded  a  position  resembling  that  of  Europeans  in  most  Eastern 
countries.  The  jealousy  of  their  increasing  influence  at  last  led  to 
a  massacre,  and  to  the  expulsion  or  absorption  of  the  survivors. 
Japan  was  soon  after  this,  in  1636,  closed  to  foreigners  ;  but  trade 
with  Siam  was  carried  on  at  all  events  down  to  1745  through  Dutch 
and  Chinese  and  occasional  English  traders.  In  1752  an  embassy 
came  from  Ceylon,  desiring  to  renew  the  ancient  friendship  and  to 
discuss  religious  matters.  During  recent  agitations  of  the  Buddhist 
priests  against  Christianity  in  Ceylon  they  received  much  active 
sympathy  from  Siam. .  After  the  fall  of  Ayuthia  a  great  general, 
Phaya  Takh  Sin,  collected  the  remains  of  the  army  and  restored 
the  fortunes  of  the  kingdom,  establishing  his  capital  at  Bangkok  ; 
but,  becoming  insane,  he  was  put  to  death,  and  was  succeeded  by 
another  successful  general,  Phaya  Chakkri,  who  founded  the  present 
dynasty.  Under  him  Tenasserim  was  invaded  and  Tavoy  held  for 
the  last  time  by  the  Siamese  in  1792,  though  in  1S25,  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  Burmese  difficulty  with  England,  they  bombarded  some 
of  the  towns  on  that  coast.  The  supremacy  of  China  is  indicated 
by  occasional  missions  sent,  as  on  the  founding  of  a  new  dynasty, 
to  Peking,  to  bring  back  a  seal  and  a  calendar.  But  the  Siamese 
now  repudiate  this  supremacy,  and  have  sent  neither  mission 
nor  tribute  for  thirty  years,  and  yet  their  trading  vessels  are 
admitted  to  the  Chinese  free  ports,  like  those  of  any  other 
friendly  power.  The  late  sovereign,  Phra  Paramendr  Maha  Mong- 
kufc,  was  a  very  accomplished  man,  an  enlightened  reformer, 
and  devoted  to  science  ;  his  death  indeed  was  caused  by  fatigue 
and  exposure  while  observing  an  eclipse.  Many  of  his  prede- 
cessors, too,  were  men  of  difl"erent  fibre  from  the  ordinary  Oriental 
sovereign.  Chao  Dua,  the  adversary  of  Phaulcon,  went  about  seek- 
ing pugilistic  encounters.  He  is  reported  to  have  been  a  cruel 
tyrant  and  debauchee  and  a  keen  sportsman  ;  but  the  offence  given 
to  his  subjects  in  the  latter  character  and  the  evU  reports  of  the 
persecuted  French  missionaries  may  have  unduly  blackened  his 
reputation. 

Of  European  nations  the  Portuguese  first  established  intercourse 
ivith  Siam.  This  was  in  1511,  after  the  conquest  of  Malacca  by 
D' Albuquerque,  and  the  intimacy  lasted  over  a  century,  the  tra- 
dition of  their  greatness  having  hardiy  yet  died  out.  They  were 
supplanted  gradually  in  the  17th  century  by  the  Dutch,  whose 
intercourse  also  lasted  for  a  similar  period  ;  but  they  have  left  no 
traces  of  their  presence  as  the  Portuguese  always  did  in  these 
countries  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other  people.  English  ti'aders 
were  in  Siam  very  early  in  the  17th  century  ;  there  was  a  friendly 
interchange  of  letters  between  James  I.  and  the  king  of  Siam,  who 
had  some  Englishmen  in  his  service,  and,  when  the  ships  visited 
"Sia"  (which  was  "as  great  a  city  as  London")  or  the  queen  of 
Patani,  they  were  hospitably  received  and  accorded  privileges, — 
the  important  items  of  export  being,  as  now,  tin,  varnish,  deer- 
skins, and  "  precious  drugs."  Later  on,  the  East  India  Company's 
servants,  jealius  at  the  employment  of  Englishmen  not  in  their 
service,  attacked  the  Siamese,  which  led  to  a  massacre  of  the  English 
at  Mergui  in  1687  ;  and  the  factory  at  Ayuthia  was  abandoned  in 
1638.  A  similar  attack  is  said  to  have  been  made  in  1719  by  the 
governor  of  Madras.  After  this  the  trade  was  neglected.  Penang, 
a  dependency  of  Quedah,  was  occupied  in  1786,  and  in  the  19th 
century  the  stagnation  of  trade  led  to  the  missions  of  Crawford 
(1822),  Burney  (1826),  and  Sir  J.  Brooke  (1850);  but  they  were 
not  very  cordially  received,  and  effected  little.  Sir  J.  Bowring's 
treaty  in  1856,  however,  put  matters  on  a  difl'erent  footing,  and 
Europeans  can  now  reside  in  Siam,  buy  or  rent  houses,  and  lease 
land.  The  export  antl  import  duties  are  also  fixed,  and  there  is  a 
vice-consular  court  at  Chicng-mai,  with  appeal  to  the  consular  court 
at  Bangkok,  held  from  time  to  time  by  a  judge  from  Singapore, 
with  which  place  there  are  extradition  arrangements.  Of  late  years 
the  north-eastern  provinces  have  been  harassed  by  invasions  of  the 
Lu  and  Ho,  peoples  of  Chinese  extraction,  their  incursions  extend- 
ing down  the  Me-kong  as  far  as  Nong-kai. 

Besides  works  referred  to  at  the  end  of  article  Sbaks,  the  chief  anthoritiej 
are  La  LooKre,  Description  da  Eoyaume  de  Siam,  1714  (the  best  of  the  old 


S  I  A  M 


855 


writers);  Pallegoijc,  Rmjaume  Thai  <m  Siam,  Paris,  1S64  ;  Crawford,  Embassi/  to 
Siain;  Bowring,  The  K ingdom  and  Peopk  o/5tawi,  London,  lsi7  ;  Bastian,  DU 
Viiiker  des  ostlichen  AsienSy  vols,  i.,  iii.,  Leipsic,  18t}7 ;  Gamier,  Voyage  d'ErplorO' 
Hon  tn.  Indo-Chine,  Paris,  1873 ;  Mouhot,  Travels  in.  Indo-China,  Arc.  ;  Jovrn, 
c/Jnd.  Archip.,  vols,  i.,  v.  ;  GrShan,  Le  Ronaume  de  Siam,  Paris,  1870  :  Rectus, 
Xmntlle  Ciographie  UniverselU,  vol.  viii.  ;  Baggo,  JUport  on  llie  Selltement  of  the 
Boundary  bttivecn  Siam  and  British  Sunnah,  ISOS;  Satow,  liotes  of  thi  Intercourse 
iKlween  Japan  and  Siam  in  the  nth  Century ;  Aymonnier,  in  Excurtions  et  Recon- 
naUsances,  Kos.  20-22  (Saigon) ;  Consular  Seports,  1884-85.  (C.  T.) 

'Language  and  Litcraiure. 

The  Siamese  language  is  spoken  over  the  whole  of  Siam  proper. 
In  the  Malay  peninsula  the  boundary-line  conies  down  on  the  west 
coast  nearly  as  far  as  Quedah  and  Perlis,  and  includes  also  Junk 
Ceylon,  while  on  the  east  coast  the  population  is  mainly  Siamese 
as  far  as  Ligor  inclusive,  and  also  in  Singora  Siamese  appears  to 
be  the  ruling  language.  Its  boundary  towards  Burmah,  the  Shan 
and  Laos  states,  and  Anam  and  Cambodia  cannot  bo  defined  so 
precisely.  There  are  also  in  the  north-east  a  number  of  wild  tribes 
who  speak  Igpguages  of  their  own.  The  name  by  which  the  Siamese 
themselves  call  their  language  is  phdsd  thai,  or  "language  of  the 
freemen  " ;  and  it  probably  dates  from  the  period  when  the  Siamese 
made  themselves  independent  of  Cambodian  rule  iu  tlie  12th  century. 
The  Shan  tribes,  whose  language  (with  those  of  the  Almm,  Khamti, 
and  Laos)  is  closely  akin  to  Siamese,  also  use  tlie  term  tai  (only 
Tvith  the  unaspirated  Q  for  their  race  and  language. 

Both  in  Shan  and  Siamese  the  system  of  tones,  which  is  one  of 
the  main  features  of  all  the  languages  of  Indo-China,  has  attained 
its  greatest  development.  But,  while  in  Shan  the  tones  are  not 
marked  in  the  written  language,  in  Siamese  there  are  distinct  signs 
to  denote  at  least  four  of  the  five  simple  tones  (the  even  tone  not 
being  marked) ;  and  there  is  further  a  classification  of  the  con-' 
sonants  into  three  groups,  in  each  of  which  certain  tones  pre- 
dominate. It  is  always  the  initial  consonant  of  a  word  that  indi- 
cates, either  by  its  phonetic  power  or  by  the  tonic  accent  tuper- 
added  or  by  a  combination  of  the  two,  the  tone  in  which  the  word 
is  to  bo  uttered,  so  that,  e.g.,  a  word  beginning  with  a  letter  of  the 
second  class  in  which  the  even  tone  is  inherent,  and  which  has 
the  mark  of  the  ascending  tone  over  it,  is  to  be  pronounced 
with  the  descending  tone.'  The  difficulties  caused  to  a  European 
student  of  the  spoken  language  by  the  tones  are  increased  by  the 
greatly  expanded  vowel -system.  In  addition  to  the  short  and 
long,  there  arc  shortest  vowels,  sets  of  open  and  closed  vowels, 
&c.,  and  a-  large  number  of  vowel  combinations.  Owing  to  the 
introduction  of  the  Indian  consonantal  system  and  the  incorpora- 
tion in  it  of  many  letters  to  express  certain  sounds  peculiar  to 
Siamese,  the  number  of  consonants  has  been  swelled  to  forty-three  ; 
but,  while  many  of  these  are  only  used  iu  words  adopted  from 
the  Sanskrit  and  Pali,  Siamese  utterance  knows  no  more  than 
twenty  ;  kh,  g,  gk  are  all  pronounced  as  kh  ;  similarly  pit ,  b,  hh 
as  ph,  &c., — the  language  having  a  predilection  for  hard  letters, 
especially  aspirates.  The  only  compound  letters  at  the  beginning 
of  words  are  combinations  of  bard  letters  with  1,  r,  w,  y,  while  the 
finals  are  confined  in  pronunciation  to  k,  t,  p,  it  (ng),  n,  m.  This 
causes  a  considerable  discrepancy  between  the  spelling  of  words 
(especially  loan  words)  and  their  pronunciation.  ,  Thus  sampUrn  is 
pronounced  sombun,  bhdshd — phdsd,  iiagara — nalchon,  saddhrtrma — 
satham,  kuiala — kuson,  iesJia — set,  vdra — van,  Magadha — Makhot. 
Tho  foreign  ingredients  in  Siamese  arc  principally  Sanskrit,  mostly 
in  a  corrupted  form.  The  importation  of  Pali  words  dates  from 
about  the  12th  century,  when,  the  country  having  shaken  off  tho 
yoke  of  Cambodia,  a  religious  intercourse  was  established  between 
Siam  and  Ceylon.  Besides  these,  there  are  some  Khmer  (Cam- 
bodian) and  Malay  words.''  Exclusive  of  those  foreign  importa- 
tions, Siamese  is  a  monosyllabic  language  in  which  neither  the 
form  nor  tho  accent  or  tone  of  a  word  determines  the  part  of 
speech  to  which  it  belongs.  Homonymous  words  abound  and  are 
only  distinguished  from  one  anotlicr  by  tho  tones.  Compare  Ian, 
"white";  Ian,  "to  relate";  Iqn,  "to  Batter";  ldn,"to  smooth"; 
Idn,  "relation."  Words  are  unchangeable  and  incapable  of  inflexion. 
Tho  Siamese  aro  fond  of  joining  two  words  the  second  of  wliich  is 
either  purely  synonymous  to  or  modifies  the  seiise  of  the  first,  or  is 
only  a  jingling  addition.  There  is  no  article,  and  no  distinction  of 
gender,  number,  or  case.  These,  if  it  is  at  all  necessary  to  denote 
them,  are  expressed  by  explanatory  words  after  the  respective  nonns ; 
only  the  dative  and  ablative  aro  denoted  by  subsidiary  words,  which 
precede  the  nouns,  tho  nominative  being  marked  by  its  position 
before,  the  objective  by  its  position' after,  tho  verb,  and  the  genitive 
(and  also  the  adjective)  by  its  place  after  the  noun  it  qualifies. 
Occasionally,  however,  auxiliary  nouns  servo  that  purpose.  Words 
like  "mother,"  "son,"  "water"  are  often  employed  in  forming 
compounds  to  express  ideas  for  which  the  Siamese  have  no  single 
words;  e.g.,  ICk  edit,  "tho  son  of  hire,"  a  labourer;  mS  mil,  "tho 
mother  of  tho  hand,"  the  thumb.  Tho  use  of  class  wofds  with 
numerals  obtains  in  Siamese  as  it  docs  in  Chinese,  Burmese,  Anameso, 

*  See  A.  Baaiittn, "  Ucbcr  die  siampsisclion  Ijint-  und  Ton-Acccnto,"  iu  Moruits- 
ber.  d.  k.  AkiuL  il.  U'S^tensch.  rw  Berlin,  Juno  1807. 

2  Soo  ralli'noix,  c-amm.,  pp.  86-li6,and  Van  dcrTunk,Ba(<it«ALe«lod:.voI. 
Ir.  pp.  127-133,  208-214.  ' 


Malay,  and  many  other  Eastern  languages.  As  in  these,  so  ji 
Siamese  the  personal  pronouns  are  mostly  represented  by  nouns 
expressive  of  the  various  shades  of  superior  or  lower  rank  according 
to  Eastern  etiquette.  The  verb  is,  like  the  noun,  perfectly  colour- 
less,— person,  number,  tense,  and  mood  being  indicated  by  auxiliaiy 
words  only  when  they  cannot  be  inferred  from  the  context.  Such 
auxiliary  words  are  i/fl,  "to  be,"  "to  dwell"  (present) ;  dai,  "to 
hafe,"  leh,  "end"  (past);  c5,  "also"  (future);  the  first  and  third 
follow,  the  second  and  fourth  precede,  the  verb.  Ildi,  "to  give" 
(prefixed),  often  indicates  the  subjunctive.  As  there  arc  compound 
nouns,  so  there  are  compound  verbs;  thus,  e.g.,  pat,  "to  go,"  is 
joined  to  a  transitive  verb  to  convert  it  into  an  intransitive  or 
neuter  ;  and  IMk,  "to  touch,"  and  td7ig,  "to  be  obliged,"  serve  to 
form  a  sort  of  passive  voice.^  The  number  of  adverbs,  single  and 
compound,  is  very  large.  The  prepositions  mostly  consist  of  nouns. 
The  order  of  the  words  in  a  single  sentence  is  subject,  verb,  object. 
All  attributes  (adjectives,  genitive,  adverbs)  follow  the  word  to 
which  they  are  subordinated.  The  following  simple  sentence  may 
serve  as  an  example  of  Siamese  construction  and  diction ;  mtla 
(time)  an  (read)  Jiansii  (book)  nt  (this)  llo  (end,  done)  con  (should) 
fdk-vcfi  (entrust)  ki  (to)  pMenbUn  (neighbours)  hai  (give, cause) i-Aa» 
(they)  an  (read),  i.e.,  "  when  you  have  read  this  book,  please  give 
it  to  your  neighbours  that  they  may  read  it." 

The  current  Siamese  characters  are  derived  from  the  more  monu- 
mental Cambodian  alphabet,  which  again  owes  its  origin  to  the 
alphabet  of  the  inscriptions,  an  oDshoet  of  the  character  found  on 
the  stone  monuments  of  southern  India  in  the  6th  and  8th  cen- 
turies. The  sacred  books  of  Siam  are  still  written  in  the  Cambodian 
character,  and  some  have  occasionally  an  interlinear  translation  in 
the  current  Siamese  hand. 

The  study  of  the  Siamese  language  was  initiated  in  Europe  by  La  LouMra 
(1087),  from  whom  Dr  J.  Leyden  ("The  Languages  and  Literature  of  the  Indo- 
Chinese  Nations,"  in  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  x.  pp.  158-2S9,  reprinted  in  Mis- 
allaneous  Papers  on  Indo-China,  vol.  i.,  18S6,  pp.  84-171)  has  derived  much 
of  his  information.  Leyden's  Comparative  Vocabulary  of  the  Barma,  Malayu, 
and  Thai  Languages  appeared  in  1810.  The  first  grammar  of  the  language  we 
owe  to  Jamss  Low,  Calcutta,  182S.  Very  useful  Gramnuilical  Notices  of  the 
Siamese  Language,  by  the  Rev.  J.  Taylor  .Jones,  appeared  at  Bangkok  in  1842. 
The  Gramviatica  Lingum  Thai  of  J.  B.  Pallegoix,  liangkok,  ISOO,  was  followed 
in  1854  by  his  great  Diclionarium  in  Siamese,  Latin,  Krencli,  and  English.  An 
analytical  account  of  the  language  was  attempted  by  Ad.  Bastian  in  his  Sprach- 
vcrgleichende  Studien,  1870,  pp.  191-226.  In  ISSl  L.  Ewald  brought  out  at 
Leipsic  his  Orammatik  der  Tai-  oder  Siamcsischen  Sprache.  Lastly,  Prof.  Fr. 
MiiUer  gave  a  summary  of  Siamese  grammar  in  his  Gruiutriss  der  Sprachwiss- 
enschaft,  vol.  ii.  part  2,  Vienna,  18S2,  pp.  3G7-376.  A  new  grammar,  by  the 
Rev.  S.  George,  is  in  progress.  Compare  also  W.  Schott,  Veber  die  indo- 
chinesischen  Sprachen,  insonderhcit  das  Siamesische,  1S5G ;  and  E.  Kulin,  Veber 
Hcrkunftund  Sprache  der  transgangctisehcn  Votker,  1883.  An  English  grammar 
«Titten  in  Siamese,  and  designed  for  use  in  schools,  appeared  at  Bangkok  in 

There  are  no  records  in  Siamese  referring  to  the  time  antecedent  Liter* 
to  the  settlement  of  the  nation  in  their  present  localitv,  or,  in  the  ture 
words  of  Mr  Ney  Elias,  "  of  earlier  date  than  the  founding  of  their 
first  national  capital,  Ayiithia,  at  the  commencement  of  the  14th 
century."*  The  inscription  at  Sukkothai,  .said  to  be  of  tlie  year 
671  of  the  Siamese  era,  nine  years  after  the  invention  of  the  present 
Siamese  characters,''  cannot  be  put  in  evidence  as  an  historical  record 
till  a  facsimile  and  revised  translation  shall  have  been  obtained. 
The  few  manuscript  annals  mentioned  by  Bishop  Pallegoix  have  not 
yet  been  critically  examined  ;  but  metrical  compositions,  cont,ain- 
ing  legendary  t.Tles  and  romances,  abound  and  are  eagerly  studied. 
The  subjects  are  mostly  taken  from  the  Indian  epics,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  lldma-khm  or  Ramayana,  more  rarely  from  Jlalay  or  Javanese 
legend,  such  as  the  drama  Ihnao.  There  is  a  great  variety  of 
metres,  all  of  which  have  been  described  with  much  minuteness 
of  detail  by  Colonel  Low  in  his  article  on  Siamese  literature,  in 
Asiatie  Researches,  vol.  xx.  pp.  a.Ol-STS."  In  their  romantic  poetry 
the  Siamese  have  a  greater  tendency  to  describe  than  to  relate ; 
their  pictures  of  places  and  .scenery  aro  grand  and  striking  onil 
form  the  best  part  of  their  poetical  conceptions.  The  great  blemish 
of  their  poetry  consists  in  tedious  embellishments  and  a  hankering 
after  indecent  and  often  gross  allusions,  from  which  but  few  works, 
such  as  Sang  Sin  Chai  and  Samtit  Kit/ai  Si  Huang,  may  1)C  said  to 
be  free.  The  titles  of  the  piimripal  romances  are  Iloi  Sang,  Kang 
Pralhom,  San'j  Sin  Chai,  Thepha  Lin  Thong,  Suxcanna  Hong,  Thao 
Sawutthi  Racha,  Phia  Unarut,  Dura  Suriwong,  Khun  I'lian,  Kong 
Sip  Sang,  and  the  dramas  Ihnao  and  Phra  Simitang.  The  plots  of 
some  of  these  have  been  given  by  Colonel  Low.  Tho  most  pojiular 
of  the  religious  books,  all  of  which  aro  translatious  or  amplifications 
from  Pali  originals,  is  called  Somanakhodom  (f  ramana  Gautama), 
which  is  identical  with  the  Jl'essanlara  Jutaka.  In  miscellaneous 
li  .raturo  may  bo  mcntiimed  Suphd-tit,  consisting  of  222  elegant 
sayings  in  tho  accented  mitre  called  Klong,  and  Wttta  Chindamani 
(Vfitia  ChintAm.ani),  a  work  on  jirosody  like  tho  Pali  Vuttodaiia, 
but  treating  also  of  a  number  of  gramniatioiil  questions.  The  fabla 
literature  is  of  course  largely  represented  ;  tho  lists,  however,  aro 


a  See  "The  Pafinivo  Verb  of  tho  That  language,"  b>  F.  L.  W.  von  BeiVCD, 
Erung  Theph  Malia  Nakhnn,  1874. 

4  Sktteh  of  the  History  of  the  Shan.',  Calcutta,  1870,  p.  51. 

^  Danlinn,  in  Jour.  As.  Soc.  Bengal,  vol.  xxxiv.  p.  2(,  arid  SprachlKrgUichtnai 
Studien.  n.  227. 

'  See  also  Pallegoix,  Cramm,  Linguw  Thul,  pp.  130-129. 


856 


S   I  AM 


frequently  swelled  by  the  enumeration  of  angle  fables  which  are 
but  partd  of  larger  collections. 

The  number  of  works  on  law  is  considerable  ;  and  it  is  remark- 
able that,  while  in  Burmah  many  Pali  codes  have  currency,  not  a 
single  Pali  text-book  on  law  sliould  have  been  discovered  in  Siani ; 
all  that  we  meet  witli  iu  the  law  books  are  a  few  Pali  quotations 
here  and  there.  Laksana  Phra  Thammasal  Laksana  Plnia  Mia,  au 
introduction  to  the  code  of  Siamese  laws,  founded  on  the  Dharnia- 
fitstra  and  on  royal  edicts,  was  completed  in  ISOt.  It  contains 
thirty  books,  at  the  head  of  which  stands  the  Phra  Thammasat, 
attributed  to  Manosara  or  Manu.  a  treatise  on  the  classification  of 
laws.  Next  comes  the  IntJiaphat,  or  book  of 'Indra,  a  guide  or 
exhortation  to  councillors  and  jud!,'es,  and  then  the  Phra  Thamnun, 
or  ndcs  lor  the  general  conduct  of  judicial  business.  Then  follow 
in  order  the  undermentioned  sections— disputes,  plaints  and  allega- 
tions, oHicial  rank,  classification  of  people,  debt,  marriage,  criminal 
law,  abduction,  slavery,  disputes  connected  with  land,  evidence, 
inheritance,  examining  officers  appeal,  disputes  as  to  classification 
of  people,  radius  of  responsibility  for  burglaries,  &c. ,  the  thirty-six 
laws,  the  royal  edicts,  trial  by  ordeal  of  water  and  fire,  laws  of  the 
palace,  laws  of  the  priesthood,  offences  against  the  king,  offences 
against  the  people,  rebellion,  ancient  statutes,  recent  statutes. 
Only  one  of  these  sections,  the  one  on  slavery,  has  been  translated 
into  English,  by  Dr  Bradley  ;  it  aii]ieared  in  the  Bangkok  Calendar. 
Tlie  whole  work  has  been  piinted  at  Bangkok  in  two  volumes. 
The  Kalhii  Phra  Aiyakan,  another  compendium  of  laws,  contains 
edicts  principally  referring  to  assaults,  adultery,  and  the  appraise- 
ment of  fines.  Among  these  we  find  the  following:  "A  man  who 
strikes  another  with  a  blank  book  shall  be  fined  as  though  he  had 
struck  him  with  his  hand  ;  but  if  the  assault  is  committed  with  a 
book  of  the  classics  the  oflender  shall  be  fined  twice  as  much  as  he 
woidd  have  had  to  pay  for  assaulting  with  a  stick."    The  Laksana 


Tat  Fong,  or  law  of  plaints  and  allegations,  and  of  the  institution 
and  summary  dismissal  of  suits,  appears  to  be  identical  with  th) 
fifth  section  of  the  printed  code.  There  is  also  a  separate  work 
called  Phra  Thamnun,  which,  though  identical  in  name  with  the 
section  of  the  Laksana  PJna  Tliammasat  above  described,  covers 
much  more  ground.  A  compendium  of  law  entitled  Pulang  Ku 
Mai  Miiang  Thai,  or  Code  of  Laws  of  the  Kingdom  of  Siam,  in  two 
volumes,  was  printed  at  Bangkok  in  1879.  Culojul  Low,  who  did 
not  touch  on  jui  isprudcnce  in  his  essay  on  Siamese  literature,  made 
good  the  omission  in  a  sejarate  article  "On  tlie  Laws  of  Siam," 
in  the  first  volume  of  Logan's  Journal  of  t/ic  Indian  ArchiiKla'go 
(Singapore,  1847). 

Pallegoix,  in  his  "Catalogus  pra!cipuoruni  librorum  lingurc 
Thai  "  (Grammalica,  pp.  172-180),  gives  the  titles  of  a  good  many 
treatises  on  scientific  subjects,  medicine,  mathematics,  astrology  ; 
but  none  appear  to  have  been  critically  examined.  In  the  first 
volume  of  his  Dcscrljttion  da  royanmc  Thai  (1854)  are  inserted 
various  pieces  translated  from  Siamese  works.  See  aL^o  on  the 
Siamese  langu.age  and  literature  generally  tlie  "Remarks"  by  the 
Rev.  0.  Giitzlall',  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  ylsialic  Sucir.tii, 
vol.  iii.  (1835),  pp.  291-304  ;  and  on  the  litemture  Leyilcii's  "Ess.ny" 
above  referred  to  {Misccllaiuons  Papers,  vol.  i.  )ip.  143-147).  It  is 
only  in  quite  recent  times  that  an  Ananiese  influence  has  begun 
to  be  traceable  in  the  language  .and  literature  of  the  Siamese. 

In  1810  Dr  Leyden  tuidertook,  at  the  instance  of  the  Calcutta 
Auxiliary  Bible  Society,  to  superintend  a  translation  of  iho  fonr 
Gospels  into  Siamese  ;  but  he  died  before  the  piqjcct  was  carried 
into  efiect.  Subsequently  Jlcssrs  Giitzlaff  and  Tondin,  assisted  by 
learned  natives,  laboured  till  1S33  at  a  trustworthy  translation  of 
the  new  Testament  into  Siamese.  Their  task  was  confinucd  and 
completed  by  Messrs  Jones  and  Kobinson,  and  the  work  was  pub- 
lished iu  1846.  'K.  K.) 


EITD   OF   VOLUME  T^VE^"TY-FIKST. 


For  Reference 

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f  !!*.^ ' ,